THIRTY-FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT
SECRETARY
T
iSSiCHUSETTS IWM OF iGUICllLTUH
RETURNS OF THE FINANCES OF THE
AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES,
1887.
BOSTON :
WRIGHT & POTTER PRINTING CO., STATE PRINTERS,
18 Post Office Square.
1888.
STATE BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, 1888.
Members ex oflacils.
His Excellency OLIVER AMES.
His Honor J. Q. A. BRACKETT.
Hon. henry B. PEIRCE, Secretary of the Commonwealth.
CHARLES A. GOESSMANN, State Agricultural Chemist.
H. H. GOODELL, President 3Iassachusetts Agricultural College.
Appointed by tlie Governor and Council.
Term expires.
JAMES S. GRINNELL of Greeufiekl, 1890
GEORGE B. LORING of Salem, 1891
JAMES W. STOCKWELL of Sutton, 1889
Chosen by the County Societies.
Amesburij and Snlisbm-y, . . WM. H. B. CURRIER of Amesbury,
Bay Slate EDWARD BURNETT of Southborough,
Barnstable, NATHAN EDSON of Barnstable, .
Berkshire, . . . . . . ALONZO BRADLEY of Lee, .
Blackstone ralle:/, .... VELOROUS TAFT of West Upton,
Bristol, AVERY P. SLADE of Somerset, .
Deerfieia Valley, . . . . F. G. HOWES of Ashfield, ,
Essex, BENJAMIN P. WARE of Beach Bluff
Franklin ZERI SMITH of Deerfield,
Uampden, . GEO. S. TAYLOR of Chicopeo Falls,
Uampden East, WM. HOLBROOK of Palmer, .
Hampshire, WM. W. SMITH of Amherst, .
Ilampshire, Franklin .6 ITanipden, F. K. SHELDON of Southampton, .
Highland, W. H. SNOW of Becket, .
ningham EDMUxN'D HERSEY of Hingham, .
Uoosac Valley, S. A. HICKOX of Williamstown, .
Housatonic, J. H. ROWLEY of Egremont, .
Hillside, S. W. CLARK of Plalnfield,
Marshfield GEO. J. PETERSON of Marshlield,
Afartha's Vineyard, .... HENRY L. WHITING of West Tisbur
Massachusetts, E. F. BOWDITCH of Framingham,
Massachusetts Ho7-ti cultural, . . E. W. WOOD of Newton, .
Middlesex AV. W. RAWSON of Arlington,
Middlesex North A. C. VARNUM of Lowell,
Middlesex South, . . 8. B. BIRD of Framingham,
Xantucket, GEO. W. GARDNER of Nantucket, '
Plymouth, ELBRIDGE CUSHMAN of Lakeville,
Union S. A. BARTHOLOMEW of North Blandford
Worcester C. L. HARTSHORN of Worcester, .
Worcester Korth, .... GEO. CRUICKSHANKS of Fitchburg,
Worcester North- West, . . . J. P. LYNDE of Athol,
Worcester South, .... BAINBRIDGE DOUTY of Charlton,
Worcester West, J. HENRY (rODDARD of Barre, .
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WILLIAM R. SESSIONS,
Secretary.
THE
THIRTY-FIFTH A]^:N^UAL REPORT
or THE
SECRETARY
OF THB
BOAKD OF AGlilCULTURE.
To the Senate and House of Representatives of the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts.
The year 1887 has been, in many respects, a prosperous
one for the a«rriculturists of the State. The corn crop was a
good one. Potatoes were a failure. The hay crop was
large in quantity, but was much damaged by unfavorable
weather in the harvest season. The rowen crop was boun-
tiful. Our market gardeners have generally been successful.
The season has been a peculiar one. The month of May
and the early part of June were very hot and dry. Only
1.13 inches of rain fell in May; in June, 5.09 inches of
water were precipitated. The rainfall of July was 8.93
inches, a larger amount than fell in any July since 1839.
The wet weather continued through most of the month of
August, giving us 7.75 inches for the month. In September
the other extreme was reached, only 1.22 inches falling.
No doubt the early drought shortened the early crop of po-
tatoes, especially on dry land ; while the excessive amount
of rain, together with the unusual heat of July and August,
were the cause of the rot that so generally destroyed the
crop on land so situated that it could withstand the early
drought The continuous rains of July and August also
caused the serious damage to the hay crop.
It has been, on the whole, a favorable year for fruit.
This product of the State is one of the most important.
By the Census of 1875 we find that our sales of fruit brought
to the producers an aggregate of about $3,000,000, while
the market-garden crops, other than potatoes, were worth
only $2,500,000. The butter production was valued at about
viii BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
$2,700,000, the corn crop at $1,000,000, and potatoes at
less than $2,500,000. In the last ten years the fruit prod-
uct of the State has very largely increased. This increase
has been particularly marked iu the smaller fruits. By
comparing the Census of 1875 with that of 1885, we find
that the crop of grapes for 1885 was more than four times
that of 1875. The strawberry and cranlierry crops have
trebled, and the currant crop doubled, in ten years The
suj)ply has become so abundant that prices have been re-
duced, and these healthful and most agreeable luxuries are
now sold at prices within the reach of all classes. The
future promises more abundant supplies and perhaps still
lower prices. The capabilities of our State, in this' direc-
tion, are almost unlimited. Should the demand increase
and prices be remunerative, we n3ay expect a still more
wonderful increase in the amount of these products.
The business of dairying seems to be the favorite industry
of the stock-growing portions of the State. While cheese-
making proves unprofitable and is declining, butter-making
and the })roduction of milk for market have been receiving
increased attention.
The system of co-operative cream-gathering creame'ries
has commended itself to many farming communities that
have no facilities for marketing milk. In most cases, vent-
ures in this direction have proved successful, and are giving
new impetus to agriculture in neighborhoods where they are
located. By this plan, a market at the door is assured for
all the cream the farm can produce. The price received is
dependent upon the economy and business tact displayed in
the management of the creamery. By making the butter
from the cream of several hundred cows, at one place, the
services of a skilled butter-maker can be afforded, and advan-
tage can be taken of the best l)usiness talent of the neigh-
borhood in making purchases and sales. The skim-milk all
remains at home, to be fed to calves and pigs, thus retaining
upon the farm very nearly all the elements of fertility that
our products afford. Oleomargarine has not been al)le to
crowd fine butter to the wall. Prices have been well sus-
tained, and the demand for fine butter seems to keep pace
with the supply.
ANNUAL REPORT.
IX
The milk producers of the State appear to prefer to
dispose of their milk to contractors at a low price, rather
than to risk the slight uncertainty attending the financial
returns from co-operative creameries ; but, as the business
increases and time brings experience and skill in the
management, we believe that these establishments will
furnish the needed competition with the milk contractors,
and the milk problem will thus be solved.
I am enabled, by the favor of Mr. Carroll D. Wright,
Superintendent of the State Census, to give the agricultural
products of the State for 1885 in comparison with those of
1875, and the United States Censuses for 1870 and 1880.
When we take into consideration the very large increase
in the fruit crop in connection with these statistics, we
cannot but be encouraged at the substantial increase in the
products of our soil.
1870.
1875.
1880.
IS'ia.
Horses,
41,039
53,218
59,629
61,004
Working oxen, .
24,430
16,308
14,571
10,433
Milch cows.
114,771
126,034
150,435
162,847
Other cattle.
79,851
81,916
96,045
-
Bulls, . . .
-
-
_
6,284
Calves,
_
-
-
38,226
Heifers,
-
-
36,150
Steers,
-
-
-
8,246
Sheep,
78,560
58,773
67,979
55,140
Lambs,
-
-
-
18,384
Swine,
49,178
42,255
80,123
-
Hogs,
-
-
~
65,749
Pigs
-
-
69,680
Bai'ley (bu.), .
123,071
46,884
80,128
68,997
Buckwheat (bu.).
58,049
52,127
67,117
61,0211
Oats (bu.),
797,664
457,710
645,159
619,6671
Wheat (bu.), .
84,644
13,749
15,768
7,1601
Rye (bu.),
239,227
250,113
213,716
232,1071
Eggs (dozen), .
-
3,446,530
6,754,179
7,072,1871
Tob.n,eco (lbs,), .
7,312,885
5,993,666
5,369,436
4,210,903
Hay (tons).
597,455
671,130
684,679
647,414|
Milk (gals.), .
15,284,057
35,698,150*
29,662,953
72,528,628*
Butter (lbs.), .
6,559,161
7,922,431
9,655,587
9,685,539
Cheese (lbs.), .
2,245,873
1,280,234
829,528
359,124
Cream (lbs.), .
-
-
-
263,158f
Corn (bu.).
1,397,807
1,040,290
1,797,768
2,147,390
Potatoes (bu)., .
3,025,446
3,630,546
3,070,389
3,584,505
* These figures show the total production of milk, not only what was sold, but
the quantity used in the manufacture of butter and cheese. The figures in the other
columns indicate only the number of gallons actually sent to market.
X BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Our flocks and herds have suffered very little during the
year from dreaded contagious diseases. Tuberculosis is
said to be prevalent in some sections of the State, and is
causing some uneasiness in the minds of cattle owners.
The Cattle Commissioners, in their late report, say of this
subject : " The facts of a year ago are in the main the facts
of to-day. The disease continues with no ap[)arent abate-
ment or increase, though, as the veterinary profession in-
creases in number, and attention is called to it more and more,
there is a call for more active work. The disease could,
doubtless, be eradicated by placing it in the same category
with pleuro-pneumonia, and applying to it the same provi-
sions of law ; but it would, doubtless, necessitate the
destruction of twenty animals to save one, and require the
payment of many hundreds of thousands of dollars." The
Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, with
its accustomed liberality and promptness, has arranged for a
thorough investigation of the disease by an accomplished
veterinarian and microscopist. The plan includes the
purchase of milch cows infected with the disease, and experi-
ments by feeding their milk to calves, rabbits and other
animals, to ascertain the danger to the human family by the
use of such milk. It will also investifjate the dano^er from
contagion, by confining healthy animals with those that are
diseased. For these purposes the society has secured a
farm of sixty or seventy acres near the city, but sufficiently
isolated from other farms where stock is kept.
The cattle-shows and fairs of the several societies have
been held, and, in most cases, were successful exhibitions.
In many instances a larger attendance than usual was
reported. Each of the societies has held the required
number of institutes, with interest and profit.
There is a growing interest in the progress of agriculture
among the agricultural population of the State. They are
learning to honor their calling, and to demand recognition
and respect for those who follow it. This advance is
largely due to the influence of the Grange. More than
twenty new Granges have been organized during the past
year, and more than fifteen hundred new members have been
added to the organization.
ANNUAL REPORT. xi
The Board of Agriculture voted at its annual meeting
that it was desirable to have the inspection of fertilizers
transferred from the Board of Agriculture to the Board of
Control of the Experiment Station, and a committee was
appointed to ask the Legislature to make the necessary
changes.
The country meeting at Springfield was attended by a
large audience of interested farmers. The able papers pi-e-
sented at that time will be bound with this report.
The Agricultural College, of which the Board of Agricult-
ure are by statute made overseers, and the secretary a trus-
tee, ex officio, seems to have entered upon a career of
prosperity. The farming community of the State is now in
sympathy with its management. The college was founded
" to promote the liberal and practical education of the indus-
trial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life."
The income of these classes, as a rule, is not large enough to
enable their young men to bear the necessary exjjense of a
college course. These young men have been brought up to
useful labor, and would be ghid to work their way through
college. Student labor, sporadic as it must necessarily be,
can be profitably employed for only a small part of the reg-
ular farm work. But there is an abundant field for the em-
ployment of such labor in the improvement of the farm and
buildings, the making of walks and the cultivation of trees
and shrubs, for the illustration of arboriculture and the
adornment of the college grounds. These improvements
would do honor to the State. There are no funds that can
be expended for these purposes. The report of the trustees
of the college suggests the annual appropriation by the Leg-
islature of a moderate sum, to be known as a •' labor fund,"
the same to be expended for these purposes. I l)elieve the
agricultural population of the State are heartily in favor of
such an arrangement.
WILLIAM R. SESSIONS,
Secretary of the State Board of Agriculture.
Boston, February, 1888.
SPECIAL MEETING
OF THE
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE
AT BOSTON.
SPEOIAL MEETING
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE,
The Board met at the office of the Secretary in Boston,
Aug. 23, 1887, at eleven o'clock, having been called together
by order of the executive committee for the purpose of
choosing a secretary to fill the vacancy caused by the with-
drawal of Mr. Francis H. Appleton's acceptance of the
office of secretary.
Present : Messrs. Bartholomew, Bird, Bowditch, Brackett,
Brooks, Clark, Cruickshank, Cushman, Damon, Douty,
Edson, Goddard, Goessmann, Goodell, Grinnell, Hartshorn,
Hill, Howes, Lynde, Nichols, Owen, Peirce, Porter, Ses-
sions, Slade, Smith of Amherst, Smith of Deei*field, Snow,
Stock well, Taft, Upton, Varnum, Ware, Wlieeler, Wood.
Hon. James S. Grinnell was elected chairman. On taking
the chair Mr. Grinnell spoke of the death of Captain John
B. Moore of Concord, and ofiered the following resolu-
tions : —
Whereas^ we have heai-d with feelings of more than ordinary
sorrow of the death of John B. Moore :
Resolved, That in his death we have lost one who, as a member
of the Board, was most valuable, upright and faithful ; as a friend,
most positive and unswerving ; as a practical and theoretical teacher
in the science of agriculture, unsurpassed by any.
Resolved, That in his death, the farmers, the gardenera and the
people, not only of this State, but of the whole country, will miss
one whose long experience in his profession, and whose happy and
[3]
4 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
intelligent manner of imparting its results, have been recognized
and appreciated wherever he has spoken and wherever he has
written.
Resolved, That a conunittee of five be appointed to attend his
funeral to represent the sympathy felt by this Board.
Resolved, That a copy of these resolutions be sent to the family
and also printed in the papers.
These resolutions were ably seconded by several members
of the Board, in paying high tributes to the memory of the
deceased.
The Board then voted unanimously to adopt the resolu-
tions. The Chah" appointed the following persons to attend
the funeral : — Messrs. Bird, Brooks, Hartshorn, Slade,
Ware.
The Chainuan was also added to the committee.
It was then voted to proceed to ballot for a secretary, and
on the twelfth formal ballot Mr. William R. Sessions of
Hampden, having received a majority of the thirty-five votes
cast, it was voted that his election be declared unanimous.
The Board then adjourned.
PUBLIC MEETING OF THE BOARD
AT SPRINUFIELD.
[5]
PUBLIC MEETING OF THE BOAED
AT SPEINGFIELD.
The Country Meeting of the Board was held at Spring-
field, at City Guard Hall, on December 6, 7 and 8. The
meeting was called to order at ten o'clock, on Tuesday,
December 6, by Secretary Sessions, a good audience being
in attendance.
Secretary Sessions. The hour has arrived for calling this
meeting to order, and as we are here at the invitation of the
Hampden County Agricultural Society, allow me to intro-
duce to you the President of that Society, Hon. George
S. Taylor.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS BY MR. GEORGE S. TAYLOR.
Gentlemen of the Massachusetts Board of Agr^icultia'e, —
It gives me pleasure, representing our society, to welcome
you here to-day, and although it may be out of the usual
course, still, as we all recognize a Supreme Being, the
Author and Giver of all our blessinsjs and comforts, I will
ask the Rev. Dr. Burnham to lead us in prayer.
A fervent and appropriate prayer was offered by Rev.
Michael Burnham, D. D.
Mr. Taylor. Your secretary has introduced me, but as
it will be impossible for me to be present at all your meet-
ings, and as our local society is represented on your Board
by a gentleman eminently litted to perform the duties of
presiding officer, I desire to give place to him. If there is
no objection, he will preside at these meetings. He is well
[7]
8 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
known to you all and needs no introduction, — Mr. Ethan
Brooks of West Springfield.
Mr. BiiooKS then took the chair and addressed the meet-
ing as follows : —
OPENING ADDRESS.
BY ETHAN BROOKS OF WEST SPRrNGFIELD.
Mr. President and Gentlemen of the Board of Agriculture^
— In behalf of the Hampden Agricultural Society, at whose
invitation we are here to-day, and in behalf of the citizens
of Springfield and vicinity, I welcome you most heartily.
First, because we feel honored by your presence ; and second,
because we confidently hope to be benefited by your stay
with us and by the lectures and discussions to which we
shall listen. We welcome you to this Connecticut Valley
of historic fame, fragrant with the memory of Pynchon
and his associates, who braved dangers and endured hard-
ships that they might establish a settlement here. We
welcome you to this city, which many here will remember as
a thrifty town, the home of the late William B. Calhoun,
time-honored secretary of our Commonwealth and one of the
leaders in the organization of our Hampden Agricultural
Society.
Since our meeting at Barre a year ago, two of our oldest
and most honored members have passed away. Hon. Mar-
shall P. Wilder, — of world-wide reputation as an hoiliculturist
and agriculturist ; active in brino-insj this Board into bein<j
and in sustaining it, and (with the exception of one term,
from 1864 to 1868) a member from its organization till his
death ; the father of our Agricultural College ; a man whose
memory Massachusetts will ever delight to honor, — died soon
after our last public meeting.
Capt. John B. INIoorc of Concord, — who had sensed this
Board most faithfully a greater number of consecutive years
than any other man, having been a member continuously
since 1860, who was with us a year ago at Barre and again
at our annual meeting in February, — died last August. He
will be remembered by his associates as possessing rare
qualities for the place so ably filled and his positive presence
will long be missed. The counsels of these men are largely
COUNTRY MEETING. 9
on record in the annual reports of this Board and through
these they will continue to speak.
A year and a half ago we celebrated the 250th anniversary
of the settlement of Springfield, which for a long time in-
cluded every town now adjoining with some more distant.
Holyoke, Agawam and Hampden are the grandchildren of
Springfield, the two former having been set off from West
Springfield and the latter from Wilbraham. Westfield was
for a long time the west field of this settlement and Chicopee
was a part of Springfield within the memory of this gener-
ation.
We shall be happy to show you, as far as opportunity on
your part will permit, the many interesting features of this
city.
In Court Square we have a statue to the memory of
Miles Morgan, — one of Springfield's earliest settlers, — with
blunderbus at shoulder and hoe in hand, showing the
Puritan as he engaged in the every-day aflfairs of life. It
was erected by a descendant who has just passed away. And
also a monument by a generous citizen to the memory of
those from this locality, who within our time oflered their
lives that " Government of the people, by the people and
for the people, might not perish from the earth."
In Stearns Park, almost overlooked from the windows of
this hall, has just been erected by the Chapin family a
statue to the memory of Dea. Samuel Chapin, one of the
first deacons of the first church of Springfield, designed to
show the Puritan on his way to the Sunday meeting, with
his back turned on all worldly things, with face firmly set
and with Bible in hand, suggestive of kingly resolutions
guided by truth.
Our churches, our schools, our free public library and our
newspapers are all in line with those ennobling thoughts
which made the Puritan the man for his time. We have
those Government works which during the war turned out a
thousand rifled muskets a day, of which the old Quaker said
to his nephew, who had just enlisted for the war, " I under-
stand they are the best." We have many and varied manu-
facturing industries, from the common sewing needle to the
railway car and locomotive. We have, what perhaps may
10 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
interest agriculturists as much as anything, an organized
milk association, through which many of our hard-working
farmers supply the varied products of their herds directly to
the consumers.
We welcome you, not to an agricultural town, but to the
centre of a large agricultural community, — a community in
condition to be greatly benefited by this meeting, because
realizinoj its need of all the knowledsre to be gained throusrh
the scientific investigations and the practical experience of
those who shall address us and who shall engage in discus-
sion.
We shall bring as listeners an audience whose experience
is as varied as the well-ordered programme which we are to
follow, — who will come here hoping to gain that inspiration
which shall enable us to do more and better thinking, and to
put to practical use the conclusions of such thinking. This
in all matters of business is the great demand of the day, —
not to gain a few things desirable in an easy way, but so to
direct our energies that constantly doing our best we shall
constantly develojo our best faculties and gain increasing
results.
When we were at Barre, a year ago, we were told that
dairying in some form had been the chief business of the
farmers there for fifty years. The only one line of farming
that ever held dominant sAvay in this Connecticut Valley was
the culture of tobacco.
This Board held the first of these annual public meetings,
— in compliance with a vote passed in January, 1863, — in
this city, December 8 to 11 of the same year. There was
a feeling then that the farmers of these neighboring towns
did themselves injustice by neglecting that meeting.
May it not be that we were so enveloped in the smoke of
tobacco that we could not see the importance of the topics
then under consideration? It is now conceded by careful
observers that for a series of years, up and down this valley,
it has cost the tobacco-grower a dollar and a half to get a
dollar. Farms have been sold and homes sacrificed to pay
obligations assumed to buy fertilizers, build barns, and hire
labor in the interest of tobacco.
We have learned a little wisdom at considerable cost, and
COUNTRY MEETING. 11
now we arc ready to listen to lectures on any subject of
general interest. Not that individual farmers are likely to
adopt the cultivation of a greater variety than at present, for
the tendency (which seems a necessity of the times) is toward
some specialties to be decided upon according to circum-
stances,— but that the undecided may gain light which shall
enable them to decide wisely, and that those who may now
have chosen a particular course may be able more perfectly
to follow on.
It has sometimes been said, this or that can be raised at
the West and brought here cheaper than we can raise the
same on our farms, and therefore it does not pay to raise it
here. While this may sometimes be true, it need not always
be so ; and it will not be, if we are time to our opportunities.
Besides, these farms are to be occupied, — considerations
aside from dollars and cents enter into our estimate of life.
Our climate, though sometimes severe, is generally health-
ful. We have an abundance of the purest water; our
scenery is a constant delight ; and, thanks to the wisdom
and the sacrifices of those who have gone before us, our
social, educational and religious privileges are nowhere sur-
passed and rarely equalled.
We have a great variety of soils, enabling one to make one
branch of agriculture a specialty, and another some other
branch, while very few, if any of us, are entirely dependent
on any one crop. Herein our New England farmers hold a
decided advantage over those where the entire energy of
large sections is devoted to one product, so that when this
one fails the loss brings suffering. Our potato crop this
year has been largely a failure, j^et no community will suffer
from this loss, and but few individuals will be put to incon-
venience thereby.
The question then is not shall we cultivate these limited
acres, but how shall we best cultivate them? Not how to
get along with as little thought and labor as possible, but
how, by more earnest thought guiding more energetic labor,
can we secure greater results ?
Since competition with the wide world brings down the
market price of many of our products, we must seek by all
just and fair means to reduce the cost. And this is oftenest
12 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
clone by increasing the amount of production. It has been-
said that none are so far from market as those who have
nothing to sell, and it is coming to be more and more a
necessity to increase the sales from our farms.
It is a favorite theory with certain agitators that no one
can gain the good things of this life without in some way
robbing some fellow man ; but the former who adds to his
estate by making land more productive, and by increasing
and improving his flocks and herds, robs no one.
The original reads, "In the sweat of thy face" (not thy
neighbor's faee, as too many seem in these days to read it)
" shalt thou eat bread." The patriarch Jacob, in contend-
ing with his father Laban, who had become rich under
his stewardship, explains it all when he says, " In the
day the drought consumes me and the frost by night, and
my sleep departed from mine eyes." And later on, declining
the invitation of his brother to leave his flocks with others
and go with him for a little vacation, he says, "If men
should over-drive them one day, all the flock will die."
As farmers we do well to meet as we do to-day. We
need all the stimulus and all the encoura2:;ement we can ""ct.
We do not risk as much as our neighbors in other business.
Our opportunities do not come and go as quickly as theirs,
and we are not pressed as they are to be constantly on the
alert. Herein lies a danger we need to guard against. Wa
must wait for results, therefore the more need of care and
foresight.
We arc not likely to do many great things in life, but wo
shall not lack opportunity to do numberless little things
which will o-o to swell the aij2;rc£::ate of 2;ood accomi:)lishcd
in the world. We shall not make money like the most
prosperous in other callings, and we shall not be subject to
those ci*ushing losses by which so many are overwhelmed.
We meet to consider the interests of Massachusetts
agriculture, but the interests of our sister New England
States are so nearly identical with our own, that we wel-
come to this mcctino; and to these discussions our brethren
from neighboring States, and shall try to lead them to
forget that any dividing lines exist between us. The inter-
COUNTEY MEETING. 13
-ests of (ill industries arc so intertwined and so mutually
dependent that wc welcome any and ;dl to the full benefits
in store for us. It has been said that in the old world the
more necessary the work the more the producer of it was
enslaved and ignored. INIany winters ago, Avhen the roads
in our mountain towns were almost impassable, the young
men of one of these towns forced their way every Sunday
to church and were well repaid in a series of sermons ex-
pressly for them. In one of these, the Rev. J. H. Bisbee,
then of Worthingon, said, " Every occupation that is nec-
essary and usefid is an honorable calling and ought so to bo
considered. Situation and circumstances may be favorable
or unfavorable for the development of one's energies, still
it is true worth that makes the man and secures our hom-
age."
Our late lamented Sumner, in the days of his vigor and
his power, standing on the platform of old Hampden Hall,
in this city, gave utterance to this glorious prediction, which
happily he lived to see fulfilled: "There arc no political
Joshuas who can bid the sun of progress stand still, and
it will go on till its rays have reached the farthest plan
tation and melted the chains from the most dcOTaded
slave."
So let us, though we may not live to see all our prophetic
hopes fulfilled, lift our standard so high that not only we
shall be benefited but that those around us and those who
shall come after us shall recognize more surely the first
principles of our existence. Let us believe that there is in
store for those in our calling a greater freedom than we
have yet known, which shall come of greater knowlediie to
be gained of the needs of soils and animals and plants ; of
the nature and habits of destructive insects ; of the many
conditions with which we need to comply, and of skill to
use this knowledge aright. May we not thus hope that
much now waste may be made valuable, that materials noAV
locked within our hills may be set free and turned to wise
account, so that while we rest in the promise, " Seed time
and harvest shall never fail," we may see our harvests in-
crease from year to year ?
14 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The hour has come for the lecture which is on our pro-
gramme for this morning. I am happy to introduce to you
Prof. S. T. Maynard, of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College, who will speak to us on fruit culture in Massa-
chusetts.
FRUIT CULTURE IN MASSACHUSETTS.
BY PROF. S. T. MAYNARD OF AMHERST.
One of the most important productions of the soil of
Massachusetts is its fruit crop. With a rough soil, not easily
cultivated, it produces fruit of the finest color and best
quality. Upon her high hills the peach and apple thrive, — on
high southern slopes the grape reaches its greatest perfection.
The pear, plum and quince grow well in its valleys, while
upon the smooth plain, land easily cultivated, the small
fruits are successfully grown. An abundant supply of fruit
should be found upon the table of every farmer. It
quickens the appetite and gives zest to other kinds of food.
There is much pleasure to be derived from its cultivation
and it is especially attractive to the young. Give the boys a
hand in its cultivation, let them have a part of the income
from its sale, and fewer young men will leave the farm.
The importance of the fruit crop in our State can be best
understood by a comparison with that of other branches of
agricultural industry.
We find, by consulting the census of 1875, that the total
income derived from the sale of fruit for that year amounted
to nearly $3,000,000. For the same year the value of the
market garden crop, including all vegetables grown upon
the farm, except the potato, was only $2,500,000. The
butter product was valued at $2,747,878 ; the corn crop,
$1,000,000 ; the potato crop, $2,349,205.
Since 1875 the production of fruit has increased very
rapidly, but prices have diminished to such an extent that
the profits derived from the crop have largely been reduced.
This is shown by the following figures, which I have obtained,
in part, from the advanced sheets of the census of 1885,
through the kindness of the chief of the Labor Bureau^
Carroll D. Wright: —
FRUIT CULTURE.
15
1875.
188S.
Yield.
Value.
Yield.
Value.
Apple,
3,254,957 bush.
$1,450,252
4,545,550 bush.
fl,174.452
Pear, .
59,259 "
118,302
153,374 "
147,013
Peach,
15,945 "
44,833
-
1,839
Plum, .
1,769 "
3,481
5,984 «'
12,381
Grape,
672,590 lbs.
67,259
2,975,824 lbs.
117,022
Strawberry,
1,156,801 qts.
214,940
3,929,497 qts.
400,859
Currant,
146,558 "
10,605
318,588 "
28,631
Raspberry, .
Blackberry,
:
i 28,000
176,168 "
382,163 "
34,8,54
38,624
Cranberry, .
110,184 bush.
288,113
315,387 bush.
788,467
It will thus be seen that in the apple and peach crop there
was a decrease in income, though we shall find that the
number of trees have increased, and in favorable seasons the
crop may be much larger even than that of 1875. The
largest increase is found, however, in the small fruits.
The prices obtained I have only been able to show from
the census of a few of our large fruit growing towns and
cities. Thus, in the city of Worcester the prices obtained by
the grower are as shown in the following table : —
16
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
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5
FRUIT CULTUEE. 17
The price of apples is given for both years as not far
from 50 cents per bushel. For the past few years it can-
not have averaged much over 30 cents per bushel.
In the city of Springfield the average prices were as fol-
lows : — Apples, 1875, 58 cents per bushel ; apples, 1885, 20
cents per bushel; pears, 1875, $3.00 per bushel; pears,
1885, $1.00 per bushel; grapes, 1875, 10 cents per pound;
grapes, 1885, 5 cents per pound; strawberries, 1875, 17
cents per quart; strawberries, 1885, 9 cents per quart.
In order to make this paper as practical as possible, and
afford more material for discussion, I will outline the most
important points to be considered in the successful cultiva-
tion of each fruit.
The Apple.
1875. No. of ti-ees, 1,801,244; yield, 3,254,957 bush.; value, $1,450,256.
1885. ■' " 2,507,468; " 4,545,550 " " 1,174,452.
The apple stands at the head of the fruit list, not only
from the fact that it yields the largest income and produces
the greatest amount of food material, but that it will grow
upon a greater variety of soil, and thrive better under con-
ditions of neglect than any other fruit.
There is no locality in the world where fruit of such
color, flavor and long-keeping qualities are produced as in
the so-called "apple belt," which extends from Connecti-
cut to Southern Canada. It requires for its best develop-
ment a deep, moist soil, with an abundance of plant food.
It cannot be expected, however, that such a soil will con-
tinue to produce crops of large fine fruit unless we return to
it annually an equivalent in plant food of those elements
removed by the crop which are not supplied in abundance
by the soil
Whether this want can best be supplied by cultivation
with some other manured crop, whether by cultivation with-
out other crops, or whether the land be kept in turf and all
other vegetable production of the land be allowed to decay
upon it, and such fertilizing materials be added as are neces-
sary to keep up a vigorous growth, are questions which are
difficult to answer. Each system has its warm supporters
among orchardists. For myself, I believe in turf culture,
18 BO.AJID OF AGRICULTURE.
generally, for the apple, for the reason that kmcl that can-
not be cultivated, — and wc have hundreds of thousands of
acres in Massachusetts, — may be made to produce paying
crops of fruit ; that the trees, when properly treated under
such conditions, live longer than those that have their roots
cut and torn by the plow ; that the fruit is of more brilliant
color and will keep longer. Under no conditions can we
expect, however, to grow good npplcs or other fruit without
suppljdng an abundance of plant food. The crop in its
present condition is large enough, as we all know from
the prices obtained ; but if we can increase the size and
quality of our fruit, both the demand and price will also
increase.
Insects.
One of the great causes of inferior fruit is due to tho
ravages of injurious insects, but, as Professor Fernald is to
talk to you upon the subject this afternoon, I will only
touch upon the matter to urge more vigilant fight against
them. We should depend more upon the use of swine,
poultry, and other animals, and the cider press, for the de-
struction of the codling moth, the tar or ink band upon the
trunk, and pyrethrum powder for spraying the trees for tho
destruction of the canker worm, rather than tho dangerous
method of spraying with paris green. The borers can be
easily destroyed by the use of the knife and wire. The
holes made by the escaped insects or by cutting out tho
larvte should be filled up at once with grafting wax, putty
or plaster of paris, to prevent decay.
Pruning should only be done to give the trees good form,
to enable the pickers to gather the fruit easily, to remove
such branches as are being injured by rubbing against
each other and those that are decaying or dead. If largo
branches be removed they should be cut clean and close to
the trunk, and tho wound be covered with tar, linseed oil
paint or grafting wax.
Varieties,
In giving a list of the best varieties it is impossible to
name one which will be entirely suited to all locations or
popular in all markets. The list that will perhaps give
FRUIT CULTURE. 19
the best general satisfaction for market is as follows : — Red
Astrachan, Williams Favorite, Alexander, Gravenstein, Fall
Pippin, Famcuse, Ilubbardston, R. I. Greening, Baldwin
and Roxbury Russet.
The Peak.
1875. No. of trees, 203,229 ; yield, 59,259 bush. ; value, $118,302.
1885. " » 356,991; " 153,374 " " 147,0.13.
The pear will not succeed upon such a variety of soils as
the apple ; it grows best upon a deep, rather moist, rich
soil. Like the apple, for the best results, it must have an
abundance of plant food.
For this and all other kinds of fruit, if well decomposed
stable manure is not to be had, nothing will give better
results than from five hundred pounds to one ton of bono
and potash (five parts of bone to one of liigh-grade muriate
of potash) to the acre.
One of the greatest obstacles to overcome in the cultiva-
tion of the pear is the liability of the tree and foliage to bo
attacked by blight. The pear blight is more destructive in
wet, warm seasons, especially when the trees have become
weakened from any cause. Among the causes that may
render trees liable to the disease are over-bearing, late culti-
vation or the application of fertilizer or manure late in the
spring.
If the trees do not mature their wood in the fall, the
destruction of many of the cells is almost certain by tho
cold ; and during the warm, close weather of spring or
early summer rapid fermentation will set in, and destroy tho
tree or a part of it. Sudden changes of temperature during
the summer, or excessively moist weather, may also bring
on both the leaf and fire blight, as it is called.
To avoid this disease we must cultivate and manure so as
to keep the trees in a healthy condition. To this end, all
manures or fertilizers used must be applied late in the fall
or very early in the spring, and cultivation should cease
early in August.
It is claimed by some investigators that this disease is
contagious, and that it may be transmitted to healthy trees.
This may be the case, but we generally find it confined in
20 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
many orchards to a few varieties, or only to a few branches
of the trees attacked. While it is admitted that it may be
transmitted, — that the spores or germs of the disease may
be found everywhere, — I am confident that if the trees are
kept in a healthy, vigorous condition, few cases of blight
will occur. The atmospheric changes we cannot control,
but healthy, vigorous trees Mall be more certain to resist the
attack of disease than weak ones. I have never seen a case
of pear blight where there were not some conditions that
might have resulted in a weakeninsf of the tree.
Varieties.
Clapp's, Bartlett, Bosc, Sheldon, Seckle, Clairgeau, An-
jou and Hovey are among the best.
The Peach.
1875. No. of trees, 82,844 ; yield, 15,945 bush. ; value, $44,893.
1885. " " 276,846; " - - " 1,839.
Although a native of Asia and China, where the climate
is much less severe than ours, the peach with us is perfectly
hardy as to growth of tree, when the wood is vigorous, and
ripens perfectly.
The land best suited to its growth is a strong, sandy or
gravelly soil, on the tops or western exposure of high hills.
In such locations and on such soils the trees are more hardy,
live longer and produce more fruit.
One of the great causes of the short life of the peach tree
is the want of a sufficient supply of plant food, or its appli-
cation at an improper time. If manure, or chemicals that
are not readily soluble, be applied late in the spring or early
summer, the trees will not get the benefit of it until late in
the summer, and grow late in the fall. Such a growth is
very liable to be injured during the winter.
The disease known as the yellows, probably, only attacks
the trees when they are in a weakened condition from various
causes, such as exhaustion of the soil, over-bearing, injury
from cold and from borers. This disease is not incurable,
for by the liberal application of such fertilizers as bone and
potash and some additional nitrogenous manure, — if the
FRUIT CULTURE. 21
soil be very poor, — trees that were thoroughly diseased
have been made to start into vigorous growth again, and
lived many years, — bearing two crops of fine peaches.
It may be more profitable, however, if such natural con-
ditions as are beyond our control should bring on the
disease, to dig up the trees and plant new ones. If the
proper amount and kind oi fertilizer be used, new trees
may be planted where others have died, yet following an
economical system of rotation, it would probably be more
profitable to plant upon new land.
Perhaps the most important cause of weakening next to
improper location, cultivation and fertilization, is the injury
caused by the peach borer (segeria exitiosa).
While the only perfectly reliable remedy is probably the
knife, the use of washes, like linseed oil and paris green paint,
lime, glue and paris green, or lime and gas tar, which are
applied to the trunk for protection of the trees against mice,
may also destroy many of the larvae as they eat through the
outer bark of the tree.
To insure a peach crop in New England every year, some
method must be devised to protect the fruit buds from
winter killing. Since 1882 we have had no crop north of
Connecticut. Theories are numerous as to the cause of this
destruction of fruit buds. Generally, they are destroyed if
the temperature falls lower than fifteen degrees below zero
and remains for a considerable time at that point, but not
always. In the fall of 1885, many of the buds were de-
stroyed when the temperature had not fallen below eighteen
degrees above zero. Last season many buds were destroyed
before December 1.
Among the plans proposed for the protection of the fruit
buds, are bending over the trees by loosening the roots on
the north sid^; and covering with soil, corn-stover or some
other protecting material, tying the branches close together,
and also tying them up in mats, straw or pine boughs.
In the experiments made at the College last fall, it was
found that those trees protected produced no more blossoms
than those that were unprotected, except, possibly, one or
two branches that were covered with soil. The theory
advanced by some parties, that the injury is caused by the
22 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
washing off of the varnish or protecting substance of the
bud scales, and the drying out of the moisture of the bud in
very severe windy weather, led to the suggestion that this
might be prevented by applying some solution which would
harden over the buds, thus protecting them, and to the
application last fall of a thin solution of paste made of
wheat flour and a thin solution of common glue. This was
applied early in December, but with the same results as the
other experiments.
This fall, to make a more thorough test of the matter, we
have used other materials. First, the thin glue solution ;
second, turpentine; third, linseed oil; fouilh, turpentine
and linseed oil ; fifth, turpentine and hard oil finish ; sixth,
benzine and rosin ; seventh, benzine and oil ; eighth, shellac,
a thin solution. These were applied with a hand-pump
with a fine spray nozzle. It was found that one quart of
the mixture was sufficient to cover trees with trunks four
inches in diameter.
The past year or two has developed the fact that the
white-ficshed varieties are more hai-dy and Avithstand our
cold winters better than the yellow-fleshed kinds ; l)ut it has
also developed the fact, that except upon very favorable soil
and location, they are much more liable to rot upon the
tree. They are also clingstones, which is a great objection.
It is very difficult to decide from our own limited experi-
ence what are the best varieties to grow. Alexander,
Amsden, Waterloo and Early Canada are so nearly alike
that it matters little which we plant. Coolidge Favorite,
Mountain Rose and Old Mixon I would add to the list of
white peaches. Of the yellow-fleshed peaches the early
and late Crawford are perhaps among the best, and the
self-perpetuating kinds, like the Pratt, Excelsior and A^^ager
should be tlioroughly tested.
The Plum.
1875. No. of trees, 3,950 ; yield, 1,769 bush. ; value, $3,481.
1885. " " 67,590; " 5,940 " " 12,381.
The rapid increase in the importance of this crop is evi-
dence that its fine qualities and ease of production are
appreciated. It i.s perfectly hardy and only under condi-
FRUIT CULTURE. 23
tions of neglect does it fail to produce an abundance of fruit.
It will not be injured by extreme high cultivation and
manuring, not making that late and immature growth that
the peach and pear does under similar conditions.
The principal obstacles to be overcome in the cultivation
of this fruit are the plum weevil or curculio, rotting of the
fruit, and the black wart. The first is easily overcome by
planting the trees in poultry yards, or by jarring them and
catching the insects upon screens. Rotting of the fruit is-
perhaps remedied by thinning when not over one-half inch
in diameter, by planting Avhere there is a free circulation of
air and by stirring the soil once a week during the summer
until the fruit is nearly ri})e. The l>lack wart jnii«t he cut
away with the knife and a vigorous growth encouraged.
Very early and very late varieties of large size are found
to bring the highest prices. We have had so little expe-
rience with the varieties of plums in this State for the past
few years that it is impossible to say which will be the best.
We would name, in order of ripening, the following : Brad-
shaw, AYashington, Lombard, Yellow Lgg, Pond's Seedling,
Coe's Golden, German Prune, and Victoria.
TiiE Quince.
1875. No. of trees, 3,000 ; yield, 3,011 bush. ; value, $9,334.
1885. " " 51,913; » 5,406 " " 11,770.
The quince is not a fruit that will probably ever be very
extensively called for in our markets. Used for cooking
only, but a limited quantity can be sold, and should the
large number of trees planted the past few years all over the
country come to maturity they will yield such a crop that
very low prices will rule. The past season, New York
quinces have been quoted in our markets at $2.50 and $3.00
per barrel.
It requires a deep, rich, moist soil for its best develop-
ment. It is slow in growth and upon light land does not
bear much until it is six or eight years old.
It is very much injured by the flat-headed apple borer
(chrysobothris femorata). This borer does not work very
deep into the wood and is easily destroyed with the knife.
24 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
A blight called twig blight, similar to that of the pear, is
often injurious in wet seasons, but seldom destroys more
than the end branches. The past season, which has been
unequalled in the past forty-eight years for moisture and
heat during July and August, has done great injury. A
well-drained soil and good cultivation are the best preven-
tatives.
Of the varieties, the Old Orange still retains its place at
the head, Reas Mammoth is doing well in some localities, and
the Champion and Meeches Prolilic are promising, but re-
quire further test to prove their value.
The Cherry.
1875. No. of trees, 12,040 ; yield, 5,441 bush. ; value, $15,124.
1885. " " 36,643; " 5,030 " " 12,048.
Although the number of trees has increased three-fold in
the past decade, the product has fallen off. There is no
fruit that is more delicious and healthful or more generally
liked ; but, unfortunately, our birds are as fond of them as
we are, and the difficulty we experience in securing our crop
from them, and the many insects that attack the tree and
fruit, have greatly discouraged their planting in large num-
bers in the orchard.
The cherry succeeds best in a light, deep loam, and is
less liable to injury from cold if the roots are covered by
turf. The best trees we find now are those growing along
roadways, where brush and decaying leaves supply the
needed protection and plant food. In a rich, cultivated
soil the trunks are often split open by frosts in winter. The
plum curculio lays its eggs in the fruit, but may be destroyed
as recommended for the plum. Of the best varieties, I
would recommend Early Richmond, Yellow Spanish, Black
Tartarian, Gov. Wood and Downer's Late
The Grape.
1875. No. of vines, 224,352 ; yield, 672,590 lbs. ; value, $67,259.
1885. " " 356,553; " 2,975,824 " " 117,022.
While grapes are being planted in this country by the
thousands of acres, there is little danger of an over-supply
FRUIT CULTURE. 25
of choice, home-grown fruit in our local markets. While
grapes were being shipped from the South and West to our
local markets by the ton the past season, and sold at
wholesale for from three to five cents per pound, choice
native Concords, brought into market in a fresh condi-
tion, sold for from five to ten cents per pound, whole-
sale.
High, light, gravelly or sandy soil, with a southern
exposure (upon which little else will grow) , can be made to
produce paying crops of the best quality. Thorough and
constant cultivation, liberal manuring, careful pruning and
training and a rigid system of thinning of the fruit are the
secrets of success. Few insects are seriously injurious ;
disease seldom attacks vines in a vigorous, healthy
condition, and the crop ripens four years in five.
Enough manure or fertilizer must be used to produce a
vigorous growth, for upon the vigor of vine and leaf depend
the size and quality of the fruit.
Pruning.
In all of the many methods of training and systems of
pruning, one thing must be kept in mind, — that the growth
of a small number of strong, vigorous canes and leaves will
give better results than if a large number be allowed to
grow.
The system known as that of renewal, — where fruit is
grown upon one part of the vine, and upon another part new
canes are being developed without fruit, which will bear
fruit the folio wina^ season, while that bearin<? fruit this
season will be cut away, — gives the best results. Pruning
may be done at any time after the leaves fall until the first
of March. After that time vines will bleed more or less,
which may or may not injure them, but certainly can do
them no oood.
Varieties.
Worden, Moore's, Concord, Brighton, Delaware, Lady,
Empire State and Niagara are among the best.
26 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Straavberry.
1875. Yield, 1,156,801 qts. ; value, $214,940.
1885. " 3,929,497 " " 400,859.
The strawberry is pre-eminently a home fruit. Propa-
gating itself as it docs very rapidly, and yielding a return
Tvithin one year from planting, there is no possible reason
why every farmer's table should not be supplied with an
abundance of fruit during its season.
For the past few years the crop has not been a very pay-
ing one, but I fear the growers are more to blame than the
purchasers. The tendency of the markets has been to call
for large, shov/y fruit, while grovrcrs in general have been
adopting a sort of cheap method of cultivation, which could
only produce small, inferior fruit, especially with such varie-
ties as the Crescent.
What seems to be needed is better cultivation, better fer-
tilization and more care in the preparation of the fruit for
market. Of the two systems of cultivation, — the liill and
matted i"0W sj^slem, — it is unquestionably the fact that the for-
mer will produce the largest and best fruit, and if by econ-
omy of labor in the use of the horse cultivator more and the
hand hoe less, we can reduce the cost of production a little,
it will be the most profitable, for large, fine fruit will always
sell at good prices, while small and inferior fruit will often
not sell at any price, and only injures the market for that
which is better.
Few insects injure the strawberry in this section, and
under good cultivation most varieties are free from leaf
blight. The white grub or larvtc of the June bug or May
beetle is sometimes injurious when the plants are set on
newly turned turf land, and are to be avoided by cultivating
the land, for two years previous to planting with straw-
berries, with some clean hoed crop.
The varieties which have given the best results with us
are the May King, Miners Prolific, Sharpless and Golden
Queen. All of the new candidates for public favor have
been planted, but require further trial to prove if they are
any better for general cultivation than those mentioned.
FRUIT CULTURE. 27
The Currant.
1875. Yield, 140,588 qts. ; value, $10,605.
1885. Yield, 318,588 " " 28,631.
The rcfreshinsr acid contained in this fruit makes it durinjr
the hot summer weather one of the most healthful and ac-
ceptable fruits. Its increase in cultivation in the past ten
years has not been as rapid as its importance deserves.
For the production of large, fine fruit, and none other
will readily sell, it must be planted in a moist, rich soil and
given the best of cultivation. An abundance of manure
must bo used and all wood over four years old cut out, to
cncourao^e the o^rowth of youns: vijjorous canes. The best
fruit is borne on wood two and three years old.
The Cherry and La VcrsailLiise arc both good varieties,
and both will produce largo fruit, if properly treated.
Blackberries.
1885. Yield, 382,103 qts. ; value, $38,02-1.
This is the most easily grown of the small fruits and yet
one that is grown more under neglect than any other. For
the best results a rather high, strong, gravelly soil is best.
It requires good cultivation and a liberal supply of plant
food. This especially during the ripening of the fruit. If
the land is very light, some mulching material must be used
■during summer, while the berries are ripening. It is best
grown in low hedges or hills and is kept low by pinching
or cutting off the new canes when they are about two feet
high. A second pinching or cutting back may be required
durino: the summer if the canes grow so as to interfere with
cultivation, but it is best not to prune after August 1st,
until the leav^es have fallen.
Of the varieties which are perfectly hardy and give gen-
eral satisfaction, I mention the following in order of merit ;
Agawam, Snyder, Wachusett. Early Harvest, Early Cluster,
Wilson and Wilson, Jr., are not hardy.
28 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE.
Red Raspberry.
1885. Yield, 335,694 qts. ; value, $32,841.
This requires almost the same treatment as the black-
berry. The fruit is rather more perishable and ships best in
pint or third boxes, but some of our markets prefer them
in quart boxes.
The varieties that may be said to be hardy, or nearly so,,
are Cuthbert, Turner, Marlborough, Hansel, Caroline and
Golden Queen. Of these, the Cuthbert is the most vigorous
and more largely planted. The Turner succeeds best upon,
a rather heavy soil. The Marlborough and Hansel are very
early and promise to be valuable, although not as vigorous or
productive as the Cuthbert. The Caroline is yellow, per-
fectly hardy, but too soft for market.
Black-Caps.
1885. Yield, 22,794 qts. ; value $2,583.
This is the best of the so-called briers to grow on account
of its not throwing up suckers from the roots, but remaining
in permanent hills. If properly planted and pruned, the
cultivation may be almost wholly done with the horse, cul-
tivating two ways between the hills in the fall, and again
during the spring, but letting the plants come together in
rows during the sunnuer.
The demand for large berries is large and increasing, and
it will prove a protitaljle crop. It is more subject to the
attack of insects and diseases than the red raspberry, but
under good cultivation a plantation ought to remain in good
condition for from eight to ten years. It is the practice of
many growers to plant new lields every five or six years.
Of the standard varieties the Doolittle or Souhegan, Cen-
tennial and Gregor >xyq amoni>- the best.
New Fruits.
In any list of varieties of fruits that we iiiay make we
find that few, if any, of them, are just what we would have
them. We have no perfect varieties ; there are always
some points wherein they might be improved, and great
interest has been awakened in the production of new varieties.
FRUIT CULTURE. 29
We want an early apple of large size, good color and
fine quality, and a late one of as large size and fine quality
as the Gravenstein, with the color and productiveness of the
Baldwin. We want a pear that will keep as late as the
Easter, of large size, good color and quality, equal to or
better than Dana's Hovey. We want an early peach of large
size, a freestone, of good quality and more hardy than any
we now have ; a plum, yery early, of large size, good color,
and of as good quality as the Green Gage. We want a
grape as early, vigorous and hardy as the Moore, of better
quality, and one that will adhere to the stem as well as the
lona, and that can be kept until the holiday trade. In the
lilackberry, we want a fruit as large as the Kittattiny or Wil-
son, perfectly hardy and of better quality than the Agawam
or Snj^der ; in the raspberr}^, a berry as large as the Cuth-
bert, as vigorous and productive, but of better quality and
ripening as early as the Hansel and Marlborough. We
want a strawberry of the quality and form of the Hervey
Davis or Henderson, with the size of the Sharpless or
Jewell and the productiveness of the Crescent or Wilson.
There is a great deal of pleasure in testing new varieties,
but more disappointment, as nineteen out of twenty prove
of less value than the old standard sorts. New varieties
should be tested at the public expense. For the past two or
three years all promising, new varieties of fruits have been
obtained at the College in hopes of learning their real value ;
but limited funds, which make it necessary for us to pay
expenses l)y the income derived from the crops, must pre-
vent our doing the work as thoroughly as otherwise we
might.
Equipped with established plantations of all of the old,
standard varieties of fruits, with a great variety of soil,
as to quality, location and exposure, few places can offer
such promise for success in this work. If a part of the
fund to be derived from the Government, under the Hatch
Experimental Station law, can be devoted to this work at
the College, we can promise results very valuable to the
people many years Ijefore any results whatever can be obtained
from the Experiment Station, where there is hardly an apple
tree even upon the ground, for comparison.
30 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
Cold Storage.
In the business of fruit growing we meet everywhere the
necessity for some method of preserving a crop, or part of
it, for a greater or less length of time, — to carry it through
a glut or beyond its season, in order to realize paying prices.
Upon every fruit farm there should be a cold-storago
house or cellar of some sort. It may be only a deep cellar,
kept moist, if the crop is only to be carried over for a few
days ; but if to be preserved for a considerable length of
time, some artificial means must be employed to lower the
temperature. If ice is used for this purpose, air spaces
must be arranged betAvecn the body of ice and the walls of
the fruit room ; and the inner wall must be made from six
to ten inches thick, and filled with some non-conducting
material, as sawdust, shavings or spent tan bark. If above
ground, it must be made of two filled walls, with an air
space between.
An underground fruit room has some advantages and
some disadvantages over that above ground, but for economy
of labor and cost it will probably prove more satisfactory.
After a careful study of the subject (in which I find few
small fruit cellars that have proved entirely satisfactory), I
would recommend a modified form of the fruit house suc-
cessfully used by some of the Ohio grape growers. It can
be easily constructed in any cellar where there is a room
overhead for storing ice.
Fig. 1 shows a cross section, which exptains itself. Should
it be found that there was need of ventilation, windows or
ventilators might be arranged in the double brick wall at
«, Fig. 7, and if there should be too much moisture con-
densed upon the stone wall it Avill be readily carried olT
in the tile at h. The floor should be concreted.
Fig. 2 shows the ground plan. It is divided into a pack-
ing-room, a tempering room and the permanent storage
room. One end should open on a level with the road, for
convenience in loadinij and unloadinir. Such a fruit room
could be easily and cheaply constructed, and I see no reason
why it should not work as satisfactorily as if built above
ground.
FRUIT CULTUEB.
31
M
^^^^^^^^^^^^^;:
. <
:«/J
sH5
FIG. I.
'>>
^
PACKING ROOSVl
Fl G. 2
32 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The Chairman. The Professor has given us tibuiidant
food for discussion. It is understood that discussions are
to follow these lectures, and any questions or any remarks
will now be in order. If gentlemen in the audience have
any questions they would like to ask the Professor, they
will never have a better opportunity to ask them than
now.
Mr. Williams of Sunderland. What shall we do with
the rose bug, that eats our grapes in the blossom? I have
lost my crop entirely by the insect.
Prof. Maynard, In the vineyard there are very few
cases where they cause serious injury. Where the vines
are single a few are destroyed. Perhaps the best means of
overcoming the rose bug Avould be to lay the vines down
upon the ground, which would cause earlier blossoming,
and in that way they ought to escape. Upon warm hill-
sides they generally bloom before the rose bug appears in
any great numbers.
Mr. Graves of Sunderland. I would like to inquire as to
the best fertilizer to be applied to the apple and the quince?
Prof. Maynard. The best fertilizer for the apple I
should sa}^ is wood ashes, but there are few orchards
that would not be benefited by stable manure.
Mr. Graves. When should it be applied ?
Prof. Maynard. Late in the fall, or very early in the
spring. The apple is not a tree that is injured by winter
killing very often.
Mr. Graves. Do you apply the same fertilizers to a
bearing tree as to a young tree ?
Prof. Maynard. Yes, sir. I do not know of any rea-
son for not applying the same.
Mr. O. B. Hadwen of Worcester. I would like to in-
quire of the Professor if pyrethrum in solution will destroy
the canker worm?
Prof. Maynard. It will do so. In the experiment made
at the College two years ago pyrethrum was used at the
rate of a pound to a hundred gallons of water, and within
half an hour the younger and smaller insects that were
not over half an inch in length were all destroyed ; the
larger ones were only paralyzed, and after a time began to
FRUIT CULTURE. 33
crawl back. Jarring the tree will prevent that. If applied
•early it will certainly destroy them all.
Mr. Myrick of Springfield. What is the comparative
■cost of paris green and pyrethrum?
Prof. Maynard. I believe we figured the cost of the
paris green at about ten cents a tree. Pyrethrum costs
sixty cents a pound and paris green about twenty-five
cents.
Mr. Hadwex. I would also like to inquire if it has
proved destructive to the codling moth?
Prof. Maynard. No, sir ; we have not been able to af-
fect them at all. But perhaps we were not as thorough and
as careful in our experiments as we might have been.
Mr. Upton of North Adams. One gentleman has made
a very practical inquiry : What shall we do with the rose
bugs ? I have had that question to meet from year to year
by the destruction of a certain portion of the blossoms upon
my vines by the rose bugs. I got rather desperate one
year. I did not know exactly what to do, but I said to
myself, "I will apply the same remedy to the rose bug
that I apply to the potato bug. I don't know what the
result will be and I don't care ; I only know this : it will
either prevent the rose bugs from eating up the blossoms or
it will kill my vines." So I applied paris green to my
grape vines the same as I would apply it to the potato vines
to destroy the potato bug. I gave them a thorough sprink-
ling with paris green, and the result was most satisfactory.
The vines were covered with the insects, but I destroyed
them entirely, did not injure my vines at all, and got a
large and abundant crop that year. I am satisfied that
paris green will do the work which nothing else will do.
Mr. Briggs of Springfield. You will often find small
peaches covered with rose bugs. For the last six years I
have used this means to get rid of them : I take an old
rubber boot or shoe and put it on a bed of coals in an old
pan or kettle, and in the early morning carry it around
among my peach trees and grape vines, as close as I can
get to them. The smoke is so ofifensive to the insects, that
after two or three experiments you will not find a rose bug
on a peach tree or grape vine.
34 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Mr. Brooks. I want to say a word about the apple.
I have an apple orchard of about an acre and a half and I
have applied three tons and a half of ashes to those trees.
The result has been that I have got a good crop of nice
apples the off year.
Mr. Briggs. The rubber smoke has the same effect on
apple trees. I have never found an apple that was worm-
eaten after using it in the way I have described. I have
smoked the trees once a week for three weeks. The leaves
seem to retain the smoke, so that the insects go away from
them. I apply it as soon as the apple, grape or peach sets.
Mr. Slade. Do you use rul)ber chips or whole pieces?
Mr. Briggs. I take pieces of rubber boots or shoes, put
some coals in a pan, and set the rubber on tire. One pan-
ful will do the work on forty trees, walking just as fast as
you can.
Question. What time in the day?
Mr. Briggs. In the morning, when the dew is on.
Prof. Maynard. I do not understand what insects the
gentleman destroys by the rubber smoke.
Mr. Briggs. It seems to destroy all insects that infest
the apple, and particularly the rose bug on grapes and
peaches. After two or tliree applications a rose bug will
not touch a peach tree or grape vine.
]\Ir. Slade. Does it actually kill them? Do they fall
down dead?
Mr. Briggs. No, sir.
Mr. Slade. What becomes of them?
Mr. Briggs. It leaves a stench on the leaf so that they
do not go near it after that application.
Mr. Slade. Do they go over to your neighbor's orchard
and leave yours ?
Mr. Briggs. Yes, sir. [Laughter.] Within six rods of
my grape vines there are vines which are all eaten up by the
rose bug.
The Chairman. We have with us a gentleman who
makes fruit a life study, and who is always ready to speak
on this matter. We ought not to allow him to be silent
through this meeting. I am happy to introduce to you, Mr.
P. M. Augur, the State Pomologist of Connecticut.
FRUIT CULTURE. 35
Mr. Augur. I came here rather to hear and learn than to
communicate, and before I say anything I have a question
which I would like to ask Prof. Maynard, which interests
us very much, and it is this: "Will the Professor please
state whether he has found any way of preventing the black
knot on the plum, aside from cutting off and burning?"
Prof. Maynard. I do not know of any other remedy.
Mr. Augur. The black knot has been a very serious
trouble with us. We have cut otT the infected part and
burned it, but the disease has still insisted upon staying with
us.
Mr. Chairman, — I have been greatly interested in Prof.
Maynard's remarks. I think there have been many excel-
lent points brought out. He has gone over a great deal of
ground, and it is hardly necessary that I should touch on
anything where we agree. I will allude' more, perhaps, to
the results of my own observation and experience than aught
else, — letting theories go. In regard to the apple, I will
say that I have had very serious doubts whether it is best to
plant it on hillsides, or in rocky, inaccessible places. We
have not tried it, so I cannot say it is not, from my own
experience ; but I have an idea that in planting an apple
orchard we should, in the first place, get the best trees we
can obtain. I would avoid root grafts, unless they are crown
grafts, where a single stalk is allowed to make the tree. A
nurseryman at the West, who has had long experience,
assured me that it was bad policy for nurserymen to grow
anything else, because they had so many culls in the nursery.
I feel very sure that it is a bad thing for the planter to take
anything else, because the young trees are likely to be im-
perfect, and to lean as they grow up. Having got the^ best
trees which we can obtain, large enough to have good heads,
we plant the orchard on land which we can cultivate for
three or four years, at least. ^That has seemed to me the
best policy. I think we ought to avoid anything which
seems like neglect in our orchards, and it is very satisfac-
tory to me to see, three, four or five years after planting, an
orchard which is beautiful and promising. I have seen
orchards that have been planted in neglected places, where
they have not been cultivated, and I know they sometimes
36 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
do make good bearing trees, but I think such orchards are
rather the exception than the rule.
Another point that I was thinking of in connection with
orchard management is the matter of pruning, to which the
Professor alluded, and in regard to which I agree with him.
I think that sometimes trees are over-pruned and sometimes
neglected in pruning. But I think, from my own experi-
ence, that the true way of treating an apple orchard is to
prune the trees just as we want them when we plant them,
leaving but very few leading branches, and no branches that
we shall have to saw off afterwards. It is seldom that we
do that, but I think we ought to do it ; then we shall have
beautiful, symmetrical trees. Of course, we must do a little
pruning every year, as may be needed. In that way we
shall get a very satisfactory orchard, and have no scars to
heal over, and shall not have to resort to the various mixtures
for covering large wounds.
In regard to the peach, I should feel disposed to make
rather more of the disease often denominated " the yellows."
I would not say that it is incurable, but I have had a consid-
erable number of trees that I have not been able to cure. I
have watched with a great deal of interest the investigations
at the Massachusetts Agricultural College, an institution to
which the whole country is indebted — [applause] — and I
have hoped that Professor Penhallow's, Dr. Goessmann's and
Professor Maynard's theories would prove to be correct.
At the meeting of the American Pomological Society in
Boston, knowing that the matter of the peach yellows was
coming up for discussion, I took along some samples of
diseased wood. President Lyon of Michigan said there
was jao question but what that was the specific disease, so
we did not have any controversy about that. But what I
was going to say was this : We have been believers in the
use of potash. We have sometimes used eight or ten tons
a year, largely in our peach orchard ; and we have also
used the nmriates and different grades of potash salts. I
have been hoping, — in fact, I have believed, — that a liberal
use of potash would remedy the difficulty. But I am sorry
to say we have not been able to report complete exemption
from the disease. I sometimes think that a tree may have
FRUIT CULTURE. 37
yellow blotches simply from neglect or from lack of culti-
vation, and not be seriously diseased. That is not what we
call " the yellows." But when a tree throws out those wiry
shoots, even if its foliage be a deep green, then we know
that we have something to contend with. The first indica-
tion of the yellows we notice is that every small branch
will have a few peaches that ripen prematurely, and instead
of the color being shaded very evenly, we find it in spots,
flecked, instead of being nicely shaded over. When trees
have that disease we have not been able, — to any great ex-
tent, at least, — to cure them, and we have had to resort to
pulling out. I would be very glad to believe that there is
a specific, an absolute cure, for the yellows, but I certainly
am skeptical about it.
In regard to the grape, we have an experimental vineyard
which we have watched with a great deal of interest for
quite a number of years, and as Professor Maynard, if I
recollect right, did not say a great deal about varieties, with
your permission I will say just a word in regard to them.
Of course, the Concord is the standard for the grape as the
Baldwin is for the apple, and among the newer varieties the
Worden has given us very great satisfaction. I do not
think it is quite as good a shipping grape as the Concord,
but I think it is better for home use. The berries are
larger, it is a little earlier, and for the million, for the little
homesteads all over the country I think the Worden grape
is one that should never be overlooked. Among the red
varieties we find the Brighton, a most excellent grape. It
is, perhaps, taking it all in all, as good a red grape as we
have ; at least, we think so. We have great hopes of the
Ulster, a new grape, which we hope will make itself known.
The worst thino; which we find about it is that it seems to
lack vitality. That may be from its propagation, as these
new vines are often propagated from weak buds.
The Lindley (Rogers' No. 9), if it could escape mildew
(we sufiered badly from it this year), is a grape that we
esteem very highly indeed. The Hurlburt (Rogers' No. 44)
gives us very great satisfaction, and it is less subject to
mildew than the Lindley. I consider it a very excellent
grape and one that should be more widely known. The
38 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Ives is a grape that produces well, but the quality is
poor.
I do not know but I might differ with Professor Maynard
in regard to manuring the grape. We have come to the
belief that it is not best to manure the grape very heavily
with nitrogenous manures, on account of the danger of
giving a too succulent growth and of being troubled with
anthrax, mildew, and the various trouliles that come in con-
sequence of a too rapid growth ; so that we have resorted
to the use of ashes, bones, and potash salts, with perhaps
sulphate of ammonia or something of that sort, to give a
moderate amount of nitrogen. But in manuring the grape
I think that green, unfermented manures should be avoided.
I agree most heartily with Professor Maynard in what he
has said in regard to applying manure in the autumn. I
think that is certainly the l)est time to make the application
of manure to any kind of fruit.
With regard to the quince, Prof. Maynard spoke of the
probability that there would not be a very extensive demand
for this fruit. I think that is so, but I think the demand
should be greater, for of all fruits for canning the quince,
properly canned, is one of the very best, and I think it is
exceedingly healthful. If families would use ten quinces
where they do one, I think they W'Ould enjoy it and be the
better for it. A few years since I was in Newark, N. J.,
and had an opportunity of calling on a gentleman there,
Mr. C F. Jones, who is an expert cultivator of the quince
and very successful. He has raised quinces very much
larger than any apples I see here, — so large that he has sold
them by count at six dollars a hundred. I asked him what
the variety was. He said, " The Orange Quince ; " but they
are different from any orange quinces that I ever saw.
There comes the point. Mr. Jones has been heroic, if I
may use that word, in the management of his quince trees.
In the first place, he prunes them very carefully, taking out
all dead and superfluous wood, and then in the fall of the
year he takes well-rotted manure and spreads it around his
trees, covering the "round a little farther than the l)ranches
extend. He puts on two inches deep of clear manure to lie
during the winter and then to be forked in in the spring. I
FRUIT CULTURE. 39
have tried that method. I have been so liberal with the use
of manure that many would call it extravagant, Ijut I will
assure you that it tells. When you get quinces, fifteen of
which will make a peck, and well colored up, people will
buy them. I think we can afford to manure quince trees
pretty heavily and take good care of them when we can
raise quinces that will sell for six dollars a hundred ; and
when of that size they are not only good, but they are
profitable. [Applause.]
Prof. J. W. Clark. I would like to ask Mr. Augur if
he cuts his peach trees back when he applies potash?
Mr. Augur. In some instances we have ; but we have
not been able to eradicate the disease. AYhen we cut a tree
back, of course we get a stronger growth of young wood.
So far, that is favorable. Now, since Prof. Clark has called
my attention to that matter, I want to relate a little colloquy
that I had with one of our fertilizer manufacturers, Mr.
Hubbard, of the firm of Rogers & Hubbard, in Middletown.
He wrote me last fall and said, " Come and see me ; I have
something that w^ill interest you very much." Then he went
on to say that he had completely cured a peach tree of the
yellows ; that the fruit was very large and fine, and that
unless he had resorted to the use of manure the tree would
probably have been dead. I called and looked at the tree.
It had a beautiful, vigorous growth, the leaves were of a
dark color, and the fruit was just as large as he said it was.
As we went to the tree he said, " There, Mr. Augur, is not
that a triumph?" I felt disposed to look a little critically at
the tree and I saw that the fruit had those unnatural spots of
red, and on a closer examination I found there were some
of those wiry twi^s comino: out low down towards the trunk
of the tree. I did not want to combat his views very seri-
ously, but I said, " Mr. Hubbard, you have some large fruit
there, but that tree is going to give out by and by. You
may keep it along one year or two years, but you have got
the disease in it and it will show itself. If it does not, just
let me know." The greenness of the foliage is not always
an indication of health. But I think the best possil>le treat-
ment that can be given to a diseased tree, if you let it
remain, is to cut it back and then apply your manures
40 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
freely. Another thing in regard to a peach orchard is this r
We have found that when an orchard reaches its maturity
and begins to fail, then it is best to apply manure very freely
indeed, and, as Prof. Maynard says, either in the fall or
very early in the spring.
Prof. Clark. The reason why I asked the question was
this, that I have seen trees where fertilizers had been ap-
plied that did not seem to improve under the treatment, but
when they were cut back severely then there was a strong
growth, with good, thrifty-looking leaves. I do not under-
take to contradict Mr. Augur and say there was no disease
there ; but still the trees made a good, strong, thrifty growth
and were brouo;ht back to a condition of some value.
Mr. Augur. I think there is no way of rejuvenating a
tree more thoroughly than by cutting back and getting a
new growth.
Prof. Clark. In regard to the quince, I found this year
that the flat-headed borer was doing more damage than I
expected. In looking for this insect, you need to look only
on the south or southwest side of the tree. Where you
see a spot which perhaps looks a little moist, as if the dew
had stayed there longer than it ordinarily would, if you dig
there you will be likely to find a very small flat-headed
borer, and it is sure death to the tree if you do not get it
out. In regard to applying manure to an orchard in the
fall, I think it makes a difference where that orchard is. If
it is on a hillside I should say, wait until spring ; if on level
land, where it does not wash, apply it in the fall.
Mr. Augur. A single word more in regard to paris
green. I do not apprehend the least danger from its use if
it is mixed in the right proportions. If you get paris green
that is strictly pure and in good condition, use a teaspoon-
ful to a pail of water, and make three applications with a
hand-pump to the tree, one early and two later, I think you
will secure perfect innnunity from the codling moth, the
canker worm, and even from the apple maggot.
Mr. Bkiggs. In regard to the black knot on the plum,
I have tried for the three last years linseed oil. I take a
paint brush and daub over those knots, and I find they stop
growing and the tree keeps on as usual. I have tried it on
FRUIT CULTURE. 41
forty trees where the black knot appeared and have had no
trouble.
Prof. Maynard, Several questions have been handed
in : —
First, " Peaches were formerly abundant in Massachusetts
and all from home-grown trees, while there are very few
grown now : what is the reason ? " I think in the early
growth of the peach the trees were not budded at all, and I
find in many sections of New England the old stock of peach
still existing. I found last summer trees forty years old
near which were numerous younger trees that had come
from the pits. They were of very good quality, — prob-
ably similar to the Pratt and the Excelsior, which are rec-
ommended as reproducing themselves from seed. It is prob-
able that such trees would be more hardy and live longer
than those that are budded. The fact that peach trees do
not live longer is perhaps to be accounted for from the in-
jury produced by borers. Whether the borers were abun-
dant in the earlier growth of the peach we do not know ;
we have no proof, but it is possible that disease has increased
more rapidly of late years and the trees have suffered in
consequence. It may be that they have been increased
by budding upon Southern stock, or any stock the wood of
which is readily susceptible to injury. The fact that they
have been budded would perhaps tend to produce weakness
throughout the entire tree.
Second, " Can progress be made by importing seeds or
stocks from colder regions?" That has been suggested, but
I do not know of any experiments that have been made in
the use of such stocks. If we can get varieties like the
Pratt and Excelsior, which reproduce themselves from seed,
it is desirable to grow them, from the fact that they are so
easily grown that any one can produce his own trees.
Third, " The almond is said to be very free from the yel-
lows. Would it make good stock to bud peaches upon?"
I do not know that that has been tried at all. It is a mat-
ter worthy of experiment, and yet the yellows is not a thing
which we need seriously to fear, if we plant upon high land,
carefully cultivate, watch our trees and do not let them get
weakened. The peach is not a long-lived tree. We can
42 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
hardly expect to keep them a great many years, — not more
than eight or ten on an average.
Fourth, " Is there any sure and available method of pre-
venting the attacks of borers upon peach trees in gardens ? "
I know of no certain way except by careful examination.
An examination in June and again in August, if thoroughly
made, will prevent injury by the borer.
Sixth, " Are there any varieties of peaches that are
hardy and bear every year?" Probably not. The buds of
all varieties that we know of are injured by severe cold.
Seventh, " Which are the best three varieties for this
State?" It is very difficult to say. We have grown so few
peaches that we do not know which would be the most prof-
ital)le. One year one variety perhaps produces more than
another ; the next year another variety is more prolific.
Among the early varieties the Amsden, Alexander, Waterloo,
and Early Canada, are hardy trees and they produce as much
as any. The Early and Late Crawford are valuable, but all
trees of the yellow varieties are tender. The Old Mixon,
a white-flesh peach, is one of the oldest varieties and very
hardy and productive. The Mountain Rose is also desirable.
Eighth, " My winter pears do not ripen well ; how can I
ripen them? They shrivel and are woody." There are
very few winter pears which ripen well under ordinary treat-
ment. Perhaps the best way is to keep them in a cool,
moist atmosphere, and at the time of ripening bring them
into a warm, dry atmosphere.
Mr. Cruikspiank. I Avould like to inquire of Prof. ^lay-
nard if he knows any remedy for a disease in the apple tree
known, in the northern part of Worcester County, as the
canker. It will appear on a liml) here and there throughout
a tree. The bark will crack and turn black, and eventually
the tree will die back to the stump. It is very seriously
aflecting a great many trees in the northern i)art of the
county. I will say that it comes upon otherwise healthy
trees. There will be a healthy growth of the rest of the
tree, but these infected limbs will be found here and there,
throughout the tree.
Prof. Maynard. I have noticed in connection with this
disease, which attacks trees generally where they are per-
FRUIT CULTURE. 43
haps wanting in plant food, that there are insects upon those
spots. The mealy aphis is almost always found upon those
spots. If Professor Fernald is here, he can probably
give us the history of that insect and tell us of the
remedy.
Mr. Ckuikshank. I would say that we have l)een in-
formed that an insect is the cause of it, ))ut we have not
been able as yet to find anything of an insect nature to
which to attribute it. The only remedy we could find was
to amputate the limb. The question is, what is the cause
and what the remedy, otherwise than that?
Prof. Fernald. I do not know the insect at all. It
does not hail from where I came from. There are many
varieties of the aphis. I do not know the one to which
reference is made. That must be a Massachusetts insect.
Mr. A. W. Cheever of Dedham. I would like to ask
Prof. ]Maynard if this mealy aphis cannot be properly called
the cotton aphis?
Prof. INIaynard. Yes, sir. It has a white cottony sub-
stance on its body.
Prof. Ferxald. We have a long list of names which
might be applied to them, because their number is legion.
I do not think I would harbor plant lice of any kind.
Whether they are able to carry contagious diseases from one
place to another is an open question. This raises the whole
question of what is the cause of the yellows, pear blight, and
so on. If they are contagious diseases, the question is
whether these plant lice may not transport the disease to
other trees ? That is a queston of great interest. So I would
not harbor plant lice at all.
Question. Whether or not, over-bearing is one of the
prominent causes of pear blight ?
Prof. Maynard. Not necessarily ; and j^et anything that
weakens the growth of the tree renders it liable to the at-
tacks of these fungoid growths. It is undoubtedly a growth
similar to those. Fermentation sets in and the plant is not
vigorous enough to overcome it. The spores are every-
where present ; but pear blight always, or almost always,
implies some weakness in the tree.
Mr. Myrick. What do you do for the apple maggot ?
44 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Prof. Maynard. Feed the apples to the hogs and cattle,
or make cider of them.
Mr. Myrick. Mr. Augur spoke about paris green as a
remedy for the apple maggot. This insect is becoming a
most serious pest in a great many parts of the country. I
believe last year in Vermont it was exceedingly injurious.
Some experiments up there with paris green have been very
successful this year in protecting grape vines and orchards.
The vines and trees were sprayed, and the trees were not
only protected from the codling moth and the canker worm,
but were also rendered more secure from the attacks of the
apple maggot. Perhaps Mr. Augur might speak a little
more in detail upon that particular point.
]\Ir. Augur. We have been very much troubled and not
a little alarmed about the depredations of the apple maggot.
Our tender-flesh varieties of early apples and some of our
fall and winter apples, like the Hurlburt, the Hubbardston
and the Fameuse, have been so badly infested that we hardly
dared to sell them, because the internal damage was so great ;
they appeared to be almost worthless. We have never
used, perhaps, insecticides so freely as this year, and not for
ten years have we been so exempt from the apple maggot.
I cannot prove that it is the efi'ect of the insecticides, but I
am strongly inclined to think so. Not one apple in fifty,
even of our tender-flesh varieties, has been troubled. I
cannot say that we have not found evidences of the ravages
of this insect occasionally, l)ut it has been very seldom,
whereas some years we have found it almost universal
among the tender-flesh apples.
Mr. Myrick. Was it prevalent in neighboring orchards
or in other parts of the town?
Mr. AuGUU. There are no orchards in our immediate
vicinity of much account, but it has prevailed among other
orchards in our town this year.
Mr. CiiEEVER. I wish to ask about another trouble that
fruit growers are having, which is what is called, I think,
the apple scab. It is a disease that comes in blotches on
the skin of the apple and the pear and also on the leaf of
both of those trees. It increases after the fruit is harvested
and put into the cellar. It hurts the looks of apples and
FRUIT CULTURE. 45
pears very much and hurts their sale in Boston. If the
Professor or any one in the audience knows of a reniedy
I should be glad to hear of it.
Prof. jSIaynard. I know of no remedy. It is cei-tainly
a fungus growth and it is caused by the wetness of the sea-
son, brought on by moist, close weather. For many years
the Northern Spy has been almost wholly destroyed in our
section by the same thing. It appears first on the outside and
then works through, forming black and brownish spots
through the tissue. Perhaps by improving the vigor of the
tree we may overcome the difficulty, — to some extent, at
least.
Mr. Cheever. It has been recommended to rake up the
leaves in our orchards and burn them in order to kill this
fungus. I do not like to burn leaves, I want to turn them
in as a fertilizer ; but if any one knows that burning the
leaves will destroy this fungus and prevent its attacks in the
future, I will burn my leaves and buy fertilizers.
Prof. Maynard. It is possible that the application of a
solution of salts of potash might destroy the apple scab.
We use this to destroy rust and mildew, and it is possible
that a spraying of this kind might destroy the fungus. We
have found this year that apples are much less aifected by
the maggot than they are usually. The Fameuse is very
much less affected than last year, when it was totally
destroyed. The Seek-No-Further was almost completely
destroyed two years ago ; there was hardly a specimen which
was not riddled by the maggots. This year they are very
few, and yet we have used no paris green. I doubt
very much whether paris green can be used so as to destroy
the apple maggot. It is possible it may be.
Mr. MYEicK. I see a gentleman here of whom I want to
ask a question. He has always refused to answer the ques-
tion I am about to ask, and perhaps his experience when I
have asked him before has been such that it will be no use
to ask him now. I remember three or four years ago visit-
ing one of the best farms in the State of Connecticut and
one of the best peach orchards of that State, and brother
Van Deusen had drenched all those trees with a certain
solution, evidently of sulphur and some other materials,
46 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
which I believe he then claimed was a perfect protection
ao-ainst the borer. Whether that is a secret compound or
not I do not know, but Mr. Van Deusen has had a little
experience there which ought to be brought out, if it is
possible to get it out of him.
The Chairman. Will Mr. Van Deusen favor us with his
experience. If he has any valuable secrets he is not under
any obligation to divulge them, but if there is anything
which he can afford to tell us we shall be glad to hear from
him.
Mr. Van Deusen of Shaker Station, Conn. I will say
that it is no secret, because we have sold it, and anything
that has been sold is no secret. The orchard which my
friend speaks of I remember very well. I have left it for
four years and I do not think it has been kept in perfect
order since ; but for eight years, when it was under my
immediate charge, I think it was a success. I will not say
that the application which was made to the trees was so
entirely successful that the orchard was absolutely free from
the borer, but it was almost so. It would be an impossible
thing to find a person in any profession or trade Avho was
without fault and without failure. But the remedy is very
simple and effective when properly applied. The orchard
referred to has borne good crops the past flA^e years, and
probably it is as old an orchard and as good an orchard as
there is in the country.
As regards fruit culture, we have heard quite a good deal
which is interesting, comprehensive and covering a great
deal of ground, and a great deal of truth has been said;
but, in my opinion, it wiM become more and more apparent
as we go on that every man cannot be a master in more than
one department. If a man undertakes to be an architect, a
horticulturist, and all those other things combined, it is an
impossible thing for him to be |)erfect, I was going to say,
in anyone of them. If a man makes up his mind to become
a horticulturist and loves his profession well enough to spend
years and money to j)erfect himself in it, he will undoubt-
edly make a success. There is no question about that ; but
if a man does not have that feeling, he had better let it alone.
It is a pet scheme with most of our friends to set out a few
FRUIT CULTUEE. 47
fruit trees, because the nurseryman comes round and shows
them his line pictures and induces them to buy his trees.
They think it will be a very nice thing to have fruit in their
gardens, and it will be ; but when they have set out the trees
they know no more about taking care of them than they do
about tending a steam-engine, — and very few know any-
thing about that. But when the time comes that a man will
make it a business, and set out an orchard and take care of
it, he can get somebody from Boston or somebody from New
York who will be ready to buy his fruit. Why ? Because
they seek the best. When a man goes on to some mountain
and sets out an orchard, and then lets his yoked-up oxen
into it, to push his trees over and scrape off the bark, if a
man comes from Boston to buy his fruit, although he may
have forty or fifty acres of apple orchard, the man will look
it over and say, " Those apples will not sell in the market ;
they are not what I want." A man came to our place from
Boston this past season and wanted to buy our apples. He
went into an orchard of about ten acres, looked the trees
over, and said, "Well, Richard, what is the price of those
apples done up in barrels and delivered at your station?"
I gave him my price. He said no more until about the time
of his departure and then said, " I will give you within five
cents a barrel of what you ask. You ask |1.80 and I will
give you $1.75." Now, my friends and neighbors have
been glad to get $1.50 or even $1.25 a barrel for apples.
That orchard had been well taken care of and this was the
result.
One thing that has been spoken of to-day, and a very
important thing, is in regard to marketing fruit. This man
to whom I refer has had our apples once befoi e and when I
sent them to him I said, "I will never hear another word
from those apples after they are delivered at the depot ; "
and sure enough I never did, except that he sent a check to
pay for them. I said this year, " I am going to put those
apples up so that there will be no fault found with them,"
and th(!re never was until the man found that somebody
would let him have apples for $1.15, $1.20 or $1.25 a bar-
rel, — a little less than I offered them for ; but he said, " The
apples are very good and I am going to stand it."
48 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The secret is, always grow a good article and you will
find enough people ready to buy it. My raethod is to have
the apples picked and handled carefully. I have said to the
hired man, "Handle them just as carefully as you would
eggs ; don't dump them as you would stones." I have for
three years kept Greening apples into May. I think that
one of the most important things is to be honest. When a
buyer sees that you put all your best apples near the head of
the barrel, perhaps two or three rows deep, he will be suspi-
cious of you. I have been taught by my Shaker religion to
be about as good one day in the week as another — [ap-
plause] ; — but a good many people want to put their best
garments on the outside. When a woman goes to catch you
she puts on her finest dress and finest bonnet. [Laughter.]
But I sa}^ when the buyer finds your apples just the same
throughout the whole barrel he believes in you and in your
apples, too. A man in Hartford the past year, my friend
Hale, put an advertisement in the paper saying, " Any
basket of peaches that I offer for sale, if it is not just as
good all through as it is on top, I will take them back and
refund the money." I went into his shop and said, "You
have made a great assertion, with as many thousand baskets
as you have got." Said he, " Richard, I hold to it to-day."
If he did that he has done something for which he is entitled
to the gratitude of the community and set an example which
every one should follow. If you sell a man second quality
fruit he is never satisfied afterwards, he is always complain-
ing ; but if you sell him a good article, one that is just what
you recommend it to be, he always comes back to you again.
And so it is with all the products of the farm. A man who
never expects to sell but one barrel of apples or one crop
to the same man will not care so much about his reputation ;
but when a man cares about his reputation, and is careful to
see that his products are what they should be, his customers
will come to him a second time.
Mr. . Mr. Van Deusen has told us how to dispose
of our apples after we have got them, but he has not told
us the secret of how to get them. He seemed to avoid the
point that he was called upon to answer. He has ap-
FRUIT CULTURE. 49
proached it, but has worked right round it. Now let us
know how to produce the good apples.
Mr. Van Deusex. I said there was no secret. I will
sell it to jou if you want it. [Laughter.] To be honest
about it, 1 don't know as I can tell here what it is. It is
really nothing that I need keep from the public. It was
made from linseed oil, whale oil soap and sulphur. I be-
lieve there was one other ingredient. I have not used it
for the i)ast three years ; I have been growing Durham
steers. I have got into another line of business and my
mind has rather left it. [Laughter.]
Ml*. Myrick. You have foro-otten what the other ingre-
dient is?
Mr. Van Deusen. Yes, sir. If anybody is very de-
sirous to have it, I can forward it to him. [Renewed laugh-
ter. I
Mr. Beiggs. The gentleman last up spoke of the price he
received for his apples. For the last two years I have been
selling apples in the city, and this year I obtained from
$3 to §3.25 a barrel.
Question. What varieties?
Mr. BiiiGGS. They arc Baldwins. I have sold in this
town to quite a number of men whose word is probably as
good as their bond, and they say they have kept until the
last day of August.
Mr. Myeick. Those were sold to families for consump-
tion, not to dealers?
Mr. Beiggs. No, not to dealers.
Mr. Van Deusen. I want to say that selling yOO bar-
rels at once, and putting them all in at our station, is a very
ditierent thing from selling them in town, carrying them up
two or three flights of stairs, and delivering them a bushel
at a time.
Mr. Beiggs. I had 150 barrels of apples from a young
orchard this year. I have not sold a barrel for less than
$2. There is no secret about raising them. [Laughter.]
Every apple is packed stem down from bottom to top. If it
takes a small apple to fill a space when I am going round the
circle I take a small one and put it in.
50 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Mr. Thompson of Thompsonville, Conn. Yv'Iiat time of
the year do you commence picking your apples? This
year the Baldwins dropped unusually early. If there is any
remedy for early dropping i would like to know it.
Mr. Van Deusen. I think that is an important thing.
Where a man has a good many apples he will have to pick
some of them a little before the proper time for doing it.
About the first of October a party came to me and said, " I
don't want you to pick those apples until about the middle
of October." I said, " Some of them must take harm ; some
must be picked a little bit too quick, and others a little bit
too late. If you will leave this to me I will do just as I am
a mind to. I am not going to leave them so ; they will drop
on the ground, and you don't want dropped apples, you
want picked ones." So I went to work and picked them,
put them into barrels, left one head out and put them into
the barn. This party found that I was picking the apples,
and he wrote me, " Methinks you are picking your apples
too early." I sat dowm and wrote back, "Methinks I ain't ;
methinks I know my business." I went on picking and
after a time there came a gale, and a good many of the
apples of our neighbors, and some of ours, went to the
ground. \Yc ought to be careful not to delay picking our
fruit too long. When an apple is ripe it has reached its
best ; from that time forward it goes the other way. If you
w^ant it to keep well, pick it a little before it is ripe. It is
a great deal better than to wait until it begins to decay.
Prof. Clakk. I have found that apples this year have
ripened a good deal earlier than usual. It is a great deal
better to pick them a little earl)^ rather than to i)ick them a
little late. I think this is a good rule that any of you can
follow. Take an apple from the ground, cut it open, and
if you do not find a worm inside, it is time to pick your
apples.
Adjourned to two o'clock.
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE. 51
Afternoon Session.
The meeting was called to order at two o'clock, Mr.
Brooks in the Chair.
The Chairman. We are to have first this afternoon a
lecture on Forestry and Arboriculture in Massachusetts,
by Prof. John Robinson, of the Peabody xVcademy of
Science, Salem. I have the pleasure of introducing Prof.
Robinson.
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE IN MASSACHUSETTS.
BY PROP. JOHN ROBESrSON OF SALEM.
Ladies and Gentleynen, — It has been concisely stated in
the report of a forest commission of a neighboring State
that ' ' a wise economy in the use of the natural resources of
a country should recognize the fact that certain regions of
the earth's surface are adapted by nature to remain covered
with forests, and that any attempt to devote such regions
to other purposes can only be followed by failure and
disaster." *
Through the work on the forests of the United States,
published in connection with the census of 1880, -f it is now
possible to form' a correct estimate of the immense economic
value of our forests. In this volume full accounts are given
of the four hundred trees which make up our forest flora,
and nearly every one is shown to possess some special value
or adaptation to special surroundings.
A knowledge, too, of the physical importance of the
forests, as shown by a careful study of the effect produced
by their removal, both in this country and in Europe, is
becoming widely disseminated.
With the destruction of the forests the springs disappear
and the flow of water in the rivers is often so much reduced
in summer that navigation is suspended and macliincry
stopped, while in the spring the rains and melted snows
pour down in destructive torrents the waters which the for-
» Report For. Commis. State N. Y 1885, p. 5.
t Forest Trees of N. A., Rep. U. S. Census, 1880, Vol. IX.
52 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
mer forests in a great measure held back for gradual distri-
bution throughout the season. Storms of wind and pelting
hail sweep resistlessly over the bared lands, the fury of
which was checked, or entirely abated, l>y the tall forests of
the past. Our seasons are considered hotter in summer
and colder in winter than formerly, and the frosts reach
deeper into the soil and remain tKere longer in the
spring.*
It would be difficult to determine just what percentage of
the land should remain covered with forest growth in order
to meet all the requirements of man, and at the same time
preserve a proper climatic balance. According to the soil
and atmospheric conditions of the locality, its distance
from the ocean and the direction of prevailing winds, a
variation of from ten to thirty-five per cent, of forest
cover may be given as some indication of the proportion
required, f
Here in Massachusetts, one of the most important services
which can be rendered by the forest trees is that of binding
together and retaining in place the shifting sands which
cover such large areas of our sea coast. In many cases a
thoughtless destruction of the trees Avhich formerly grew
near the shore has allowed the encroaching sands to over-
whelm territory once under cultivation. In one familiar
instance an apple orchard at Ipswich lies buried to
the upper branches of the trees in a mass of fine white
sand.
It is gratifying to know, however, although we have suf-
fered by this destruction of trees on our exposed coast, that
one of the very few examples of the ability to successfully
replant these waste shore lands, and at a comparatively
small cost, is to be found in the planttition of pitch pine in
the south-eastern portion of our State. Of these it has
justly been said: — "The real progress in sylviculture in
Massachusetts has been made by the faiTners of Barnstable
and Plymouth counties, who have taught us how to plant
and raise forests successfully and profitably, under the most
* " The Earth as Modified by Human Action." G. P. Marsh, chap. III., pp. 148
to 397.
f Ibid., also Femow, Report Forestry Biu'cau. 1886, p. 153, note.
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE. 53
unfavorable conditions."* The cause of their success is that
they took their lessons from nature and not from foreign
books, and used for their plantations the trees natural to the
soil.
Owing to the natui'e of our American institutions we have
in this country a much more difficult problem to solve, in
determining the methods by which to preserve existing for-
ests and to replant those already destroyed, than is encoun-
tered in Europe, where public opinion is already educated to
comprehend the necessity of stringent forest laws. To quote
again the report first referred to:| — "A forest law to
effect its purpose must rest on a broad and solid basis
of public interest. The only real safety for the forest will
be found in the appreciation of its value by the com-
munity."
The terrible destruction of the forests in this country,
pursued of late years in the most wickedly wasteful manner,
c()inl)ined with the forest fires, but little restricted as yet
(and which annually destroy more timber than is used for
all mechanical purposes together), if continued, will trans-
form into deserts some of the most beautiful and valuable
territory in the United States, and convert lands which
might be perpetually covered with timber into woodless,
uninhabitable barrens.
It has been estimated that the immense consumption of
white pine, together with the wasteful methods practised in
cutting it, will entirely exhaust the marketable supply in the
three great pine-producing states of Michigan, Wisconsin
and Minnesota in " a comparatively short time."| And
even if the vast resources of the South be added, and all the
woods capable of being used interchangeably with pine be
summed together, it will take but fifty years, § at even the
present rate of consumption, to produce a similar effect in
the whole United States. This has led speculators to pur-
chase large areas of Western and Southern forests.
* Some additional notes on tree planting. C. S. Sargent, Rep. State Bd. Ag.
Mass. 1885, p. 377.
t Report Forest Commis. State N. Y., 1885, p. 28.
J Report U. S. Census 1880, Vol. IX., p. 490. " Twelve or fifteen years " is givcu
as an estimate of the time by the N. Y. Nation, Feb. 16, 1882.
^ See Rep. U. S. Ag. Div. Forestry, B. E. Fernow, 1886, p. 157.
54 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
It is stated in the last report of the forestry division at
Washington, by Mr. B. E. Fernow,* that the Bavarian
government roccatly sent an expert to this country to
examine into our forest resources and the demands made
upon them, with the view of profiting by our miserable
plight. Upon being questioned as to his mission this agent
answered: — " In fifty -yenrs you will have to import your
timber, and as you will proba]>ly have a preference for
Amoricaa kinds, wc shall now begin to grow them in order
to be ready to send them to you at the proper time."
It may not bo possible for a German State to grow timber
for the American marliot in fifty years, bat the statement
shows, however, the superiority of German over American
methods in forest management. It also shows that an ex-
pert from a country where forest questions are fully under-
stood ac^rees with American writers in estimating the time
we shall take to destroy the lumber-producing forests of the
West.
Our special interest is of course centered in the effects of
the removal of the forests in our own State and the neces-
sities for reforestation and the extent to which it should be
carried on here. We are, according to the way we look at
the matter, in a fortunate or an unfortunate position in
Massachusetts.
The geographical position of New England, coming as it
does within the influence of the moisture-laden, ocean
breezes, assures for us a sufficient and evenly distributed
rainfall, and makes the forest of less climatic importance than
in the interior of the continent.
Therefore, although the data and the startling conclusions
to be drawn from them, in relation to the calamities which
must inevitably follow the destruction of the forests, are
all important, and as patriotic citizens we should seek to avert
those dangers which threaten, through forest destruction,
our national prosperity, still, here in Massachusetts, the
destruction of the forests outside of New Enjjland, however
improvidently it may be pursued, will never in any proba-
bility injuriously affect our climate, water supply, or gen-
* See Rep. U. S. Ag. Div. Forestiy, B. E. Fernow, 1886, p. 155, note.
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE. 55
eral health. In fact, it is quite possible, if the present
methods of lumbering are persisted in, that the price of tim-
ber will advance sufficiently to enable our people to engage
in forest culture on quite a large scale.
Our original forests were long ago cut, but owing to the
decline of some other agricultural pursuits and the growing
interest in forest culture, the woods throughout the State are
likely to increase rather than diminish in quantity and to
occupy many of our pastures and present bare and rocky
hillsides. It therefore becomes important for us to care for
our growing forests, and by judiciously selecting species and
properly planting now oiios, be prepared to have what tim-
ber we can to sell to our friends and noifjhbors when the
fifty years' supply now standing in the American forests is
exhausted. In the position we hold in this respect wa may
be considered as fortunate, or, at least, thare need be no
danger of meeting with misfortune.
Taken by itself, however, Massachusetts is in one way
unfortunately situated, for the reason that the two great'
rivers of iniporiancu in connection Avlth our maaufacturins:
interests, the Connecticut and Merrimac, both take their
rise a long distance to the north of us in New Hampshire.
Any attempt, therefore, to control the iiow of their waters
by systems looking to a retention of a forest growth on the
mountain slopes at their sources is absolutely impossible, as
far as the power of Massachusetts to do so is concerned.
The same may be said of some of the smaller rivers
which furnish water power to mills in other portions of the
State. In fact, the only streams at whose sources the State
could by any means within itself regulate the cutting of
the forests or replant denuded hillsides are some of the
smaller tributaries of the Connecticut and the Housatonic.
As this state of things has long existed here, many manu-
facturing corporations have supplemented their water power
with steam, or have provided themselves with reservoirs
which control m a more or less satisfactory degree the flow
of the water in the streams upon which their business de-
pends. Thus, at great expense, provisions have been made
to take thfe place of the forests, the natural regulators of the
rivers, although, even with these safeguards, a system of
56 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
protective forest management is of the utmost imporiance
at the sources of our two great rivers in New Hampshire.
In 1883 a commission Avas appointed in New Hampshire
to incjuire into the condition of the forests of that State and
report what action might l)c advisable for their protection.
The report, which was i)rinted in 1885, is of much inter-
est to us in Massachusetts, for it is encouraging to know
that, aside from the effects- of forest destruction in New
Hampshire alone, it considers the effect of such destruction
on the rivers upon which so many manufacturing towns in
Massachusetts are situated. There is also much information
of practical value to be gathered from this report in relation
to methods of re-forestation and the selection of species to
use, which, owing to the similarity of soil and climate, are as
applical^le to the Massachusetts as the New Hampshire
plantations.
These suggestions naturally point to the importance of
co-operation in matters of forestry. We are as a country
admirably situated to control our forest affairs for the pro-
tection of our rivers, and to prevent, as far as it is possible
to do so, undesirable changes of climate and injurious me-
chanical influences.
Except, however, in a few instances like that of New
York, which contains within its own borders the sources of
its most important stream, the individual States, cut out
regardless of natural divisions, are without power to estab-
lish any system of forest management which will bo of the
slightest benefit to themselves or protective of the industries
carried on by their citizens. On the other hand, it may be
possible for a single State, by a bad forest policy, or by no
policy at all, to injure or even ruin the property in a neigh-
boring State, while having no vital interests of its own to
suffer.
It is hardly to be expected that legislatures will be so
bound by the golden rule as to enact laws for the protection
of their neighbors when they are as yet too often indifferent
to the importance of such action to protect the interests of
their own citizens, and hence we are forced to the conclu-
sion, that to be effective and just for all, our forest policy
must be a national one. Such a policy should be pat'ivnal
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE. 57
in its nature, and yet leave in the bands of the individual
States the power to regulate forest matters not inconsistent
with the welfare of the country as a whole.
We Americans do not like to be hedged about with legal
restrictions. The land in a great measure, especially in the
older States, is in the hands of the farmers. Outside of New
York but very little of it is in the hands of the State govern-
ments. It therefore becomes evident that the people must
be educated to their necessity, before sufficient and satisfac-
tory laws can be enacted and carried out to protect and
preserve our existing forests, or to reforest regions already
stripped of their cover.
The forests of this country are its most valuable property.
They are perhaps the most important as they are the most
accessible forests in the world. They are of the utmost
value physically and commercially, and their destruction is
imminent. We have no forest policy, no school of forestry,
and but few educated forest experts to look to for advice or
to direct a forest policy, provided one is ever adopted.
What then is to be done ? We must have a national forest
policy and establish a national forest school.
Much has been said and written of late in relation to
forest schools and instruction in forestry in our colleges and
agricultural institutes. As far as this may serve to give the
student a general knowledge of the underlying principles of
the subject, and through him diffuse a sense of the impor-
tance of governmental action and the reasons therefor, it is
well and good that such instruction should be given. With
a majority of students, however, the time devoted to their
college work is so short, and their desire for other courses of
study is so great, that any attempt to produce skilled
foresters by the system now in vogue, or with the present
available corps of instructors in any of our colleges, or in
connection with other courses of study, must inevitably
result in miserable failure.
One very important factor in connection with the study of
forestry is too often overlooked. Taking it for granted that
it is possible to produce an expert forester in this country
by a course of study in any of our institutions of learning,
or that a fully equipped forest school should be established,
58 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
the man who desires to become a forester will naturally ask
the question, " What employment can I obtain when my
education is completed to warrant this great outlay of time
and money?" And under the present condition of things
the answer must be, " There is none."
A nurseryman may find employment, or a landscape
gardener, even, to take charge of some public park or pri-
vate plantation ; but there is not now in this country a single
opening for a trained forester. Therefore, until some occu-
pation is guaranteed, there can be no students of forestry,
for the demand must first come iu this case to create the
supply.
It is aljsolutely necessary that the estalilishment of a forest
school should be preceded by the adoption of a national
policy of forest protection and by the appointment of forest
commissioners, forest inspectors or a forest guard ; for, until
it has been irrevocably determined to preserve and maintain
public forests, the forest school would be useless and no
student would join it on account of the uncertainty of future
legislation.
The policy being determined upon, it would have to be
carried out for the first ten or fifteen years by comparatively
inexperienced persons, but, eventually, students trained in
the school would be available for administrative positions.
Private forest schools, however munificently endowed,
would bear the same relation to a national school that the
private military academies, which have spning up through-
out the United States, do to the West Point Academy.
Their graduates would not be sure of Government emplo}^-
ment and there is no one but the Government, now at least,
to employ foresters.
The forest school should be conducted on precisely the
same principles as the United States Military Academy.
Students should be accepted on a competitive examination
and receive pay or allowance from the Government as pro-
vided for the West Point cadets at the present time. The
course of study should extend for a term of five to eight
years and the students be given, when graduated, a per-
manent appointment in the forest service, with opportunity
for promotion. In this way and in no other may we expect
FORESTKY AND AEBORICULTURE. 59
students to attend a school of forestry, if one should be
established, or can we ever have a forest policy or a system
of forest protection and preservation worthy of the name.
If the first work of the Government was merely the estab-
lishment of a forest guard, and nothing more be accom-
plished than to partially restrict the forest fires which are
now so destructive, it is certain that an amount of timber
would annually be saved much exceeding in value the cost
of such service.
Even here in Massachusetts, notwithstanding the compar-
atively small size of the treos and the isolation of the forests
themselves, and in the face of the penalties affixed for set-
ting forest fires, there was destroyed in 1880 alone wood
to the vakie of upwards of one hundred thousand dollars, —
■covering fourteen thousand acres of land.* This fear of
fire discourages investments in woodlands and sends capital,
which naturally would be used for this purpose, in other
directions in search of greater security.
The injury done to woodlands by browsing animals, by
exterminating seedling trees, and barking those of larger
growth, is, on the whole, as great, and in many cases greater,
than that done by fires. Browsing domestic animals not
only injure the woodlands directly, but they j^revent a future
growth by eating the seeds as well as the young trees.
The preference shown by hogs for the sweet fruit of the
white oak, beech and chestnut is causing these species to
become replaced in our forests by less valuable but bitter
fruited trees. In California, too, the sheep are endangering
the life and perpetuation of some of the finest forests in the
world, f The unscientific methods of farming which permit
this practice are to be condemned and should be corrected at
once.
It would be a wiser economy for us in Massachusetts to
provide pasturage for browsing animals by a higher cultiva-
tion of the land, so that the largest number could be pastured
on the fewest acres. It is certainly a bad policy which
obliges cattle to travel all day for a miserable subsistence.
• Forests of N. A. Rep. U. S. Census, 1880, Vol. IX., p. 500.
t Ibid., p. 492. See also " The Earth as Modified by Human Action," G. P. Marsh,
p. 382.
60 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The land which is naturally adapted for a forest growth is
not suitable for pasturage ; and inversely, the land which is
suitable for pasturage is too valuable to be given up to
forests.
The economic value of the forests of Massachusetts may
be summed up in a few words, — enough, however, to show
the importance of fostering care to preserve our present
forest growth and of encouraging its increase. The value
of the wood used for fuel in Massachusetts reached, in 1880, a
sum of upwards of four million six hundred thousand dollars ;
and, aside from this, capital to the amount of two and on.e-
half millions of dollars is invested in lumber manufacturing
in this State, in which business thirty-one hundred hands arc
at times engaged, to whom nearly half a million dollars are
annually paid for wages.*
This is in a State which is hardly considered in making up
the lumber statistics of the country ; and yet Ave have at
Winchendon some of the most important wooden-ware man-
ufacturing establishments in the world. f We must feel,
therefore (small as we appear on the map, and insignificant
as is our position in the list of lumber-producing States),
that we have industries in wood by no means to be despised,
and which, owing to the favorable condition of the climate
and soil for the production of certain useful woods, and the
changes taking place in the uses of land for agricultural
purposes, may be profitably encouraged and greatly devel-
oped .
The only forest planting, however, likely to become
general here must be upon a small scale. For such planta-
tions no tree is so well adapted both to soil and climate, or
so free from destruction by drought, disease or the attack of
insects, as the white pine. It is readily obtained, easily
cultivated, and is more certain to bring profitable returns, —
and that too in a shorter time, — than almost any other
species. For drier soil and upon the sandy coast the red
pine or the pitch pine may, of course, be substituted, with a
success proved by actual experiment.
Profitable plantations of European larch have also been
* Forests of N. A. Rep. U. S. Census, 1880, Vol. IX., p. 486.
t Ibid., p. 501. " The most important point in the United States."
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE. 61
made here ; and the Douglas fir, to which attention was
called in a previous paper* (in a small plantation in the
eastern part of the Statef), has shown promise of rivalling
some of the native conifers by its strong growth ; but the
seeds and young plants of this species must of course be of
Colorado stock to succeed in this climate.
Of the deciduous trees, the hickory, ash, -chestnut and
rock maple are the most desirable for us. They furnish a
sufficient variety of this class and are sure to produce timber
of marketable value. To reduce this list still further, the
farmers of Massachusetts arc safe if they centre all their
effi:)rts on the white pine, ash, hickory and chestnut.
The ash thrives here in perfection, and as its wood must
always be in demand for tool handles, for which purpose
alone immense quantities are annually used, it is a most
important and valuable tree for our plantations.
The hickory, also used for tool handles and wagon wheels,
is no less important, and as good hickory wood, like ash, is
growing scarcer every year, it should be planted whenever
possible.
The chestnut is a tree of rapid growth and is, for various
reasons, the most desirable species to plant here for the pro-
duction of fence posts and railroad ties. To be sure, these
trees require good soil, but they could be planted by the
roadsides and along division walls and fences much more
than at present.
Too much cannot be said to urge our farmers to plant
each year some hickory nuts or chestnuts, or to care for the
natural seedlings of these trees. This is the simplest form
of forest tree culture, the easiest and the least expensive.
It would occupy but little time, and if generally pursued the
value of the farms of Massachusetts would be immensely
increased.
By enclosing any young natural plantations, protecting
them from fire and from browsing animals, and weeding out
worthless over-topping trees, a sure profit may l)e obtained
from thousands of acres of land in Massachusetts now prac-
tically of no value.
* Ornamental Trees for Mass. Plant. Rep. St. Bd. Ag. 1880, p. 23.
t Estate of Mrs. John C. Phillips, N. Beverly, near W^enhare Lake.
62 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Many accounts have been published, substantiated by fig-
ures, of the profits of tree planting in New England, and
even if we allow an enormous margin for accident and occa-
sional failure, an average result of fair profit is most cer-
tainly assured, larger in proportion than can be shown for
most agricultural crops where the original outlay is no
greater.
A recent editorial in one of our leading daily journals* on
"abandoned farms" in Massachusetts, gives a gloomy pic-
ture of the deserted fields and rapidly decaying houses of
the once well-kept and profitable farms, and asks the ques-
tion. Why is this so? The answer given, is: first, because
the expense of fertilizing is so great ; second, that less labor
in other directions will bring larger profits ; and third, man's
instinctive dislike to isolation.
The ease, cheapness and rapidity with which all produce
can now be delivered at our doors, even from places as far
ofi* as California and the tropical islands to the south of us,
have brought the fruit and vegetables from these distant re-
gions in direct competition with the earliest forced products
of the farm and market garden. This, toirether with other
causes, has made a great change in farm practice in New
England, and renders it imperative that means should be
devised to meet this competition, and also to find the best
ways of utilizing these deserted farm lands ; although it
should have been stated that no really good farming lands
have ever been deserted.
The article referred to suggests one remedy in the theory
of '"ten acres enough," and says: "If would-be farmers
would content themselves with ground which they and their
children could cultivate unaided, and devote themselves to
selected products, there would be less disappointment and
fewer failures among the farmers of New England." But
strangely enough, nothing is said in relation to plantinji;
these worn-out and deserted farms to forests, although a
hint is thrown out in this direction when reference is made
to "trees which have grown up in the fields formerly
plowed and sowed, so that the owner is already counting
their value at some lone saw mill."
• Boston Daily Advertiser, Nov. 2, 1887.
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE. 63
These very lands, however, which nature never intended
should be farmed, might be wisely and profitably planted
with white pine, and as the taxes in that case would be
remitted under our laws, and hence be no further burdon in
that respect for ten years, the owner, while following the
advice previously given as to small farms and selected prod-
ucts, could at the same time be making an investment which
would at least insure profit to his children.
So many sources are available for obtaining infin'mation in
regard to tree planting, the proper varieties to select for
certain soils, methods of cultivation, thinning and pruning,
it is not necessary to speak of these matters here in a merely
general way. It is certain, however, that a studious man of
ordinary intelligence and tact will bring about better results
for himself than any hard and fast rules, laid down in books,
can do for him. It is to the practical application of lessons
taught us by observing our natural forests, and the results
of patiently conducted experiments, that we may look for
the exact rules which will govern the work of the future
planter, and which, inasmuch as this subject is for us a new
one, we must find out for ourselves. To use the words of
a recent writer :* — " As in the medicine the charlatan will
prescribe without diagnosis, so in forestry ho must be called
a charlatan who would attempt to give rules applicable to all
conditions and under all circumstances. A diagnosis not
only of the local conditions as to soil, climate and flora, but
also of the objects and financial capacity of the would-be
forester, must precede special advice."
Aside from the question of forests and their relation to
commerce in forest products, which pertain comparatively
to a few, there is very much to be gained here by the
encouragement of roadside and ornamental tree planting.
This should not be lost sight of for a moment, as in this
nearly every one of us may participate.
Any observing person, during the last twenty-five years,
must have noticed the rapid and gratifying increase in yard
and window gardening in almost every village and town.
Not only in quantity but in their quality, too, a marked
improvement is to be seen in the plants grown. This prac-
* Rep. Forestry Div. Dep. Ag. Washington, 1886, B. E. Fernow, p. 223.
64 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
tice is already being extended to the cultivation of attractive
trees and shrul)s, and it only requires the encouragement of
good examples to develop it to a far greater degree.
Good opportunity, too, is offered in our rural cemeteries
for planting a great variety of ornamental trees. There is
no place where they could l)e grown more appropriately ;
and yet there are but few^ cemeteries in our country towns
wdicrc much if any attention is paid to this matter, and in
some cases they are positively repulsive in appearance.
Vast improvements have l)een made in the cemeteries in
the vicinity of cities during the last fifty years, but most of
the others are as j^et nothing more than modern graveyards,
which do not even possess the quiet attractiveness of those
of the earlier colonial period where, without the preten-
tiousness of modern " monuments," the inconspicuous slate
head stones, scattered among the trees, harmonize with the
scene. Tliere is room for much good work in this direction
by the village improvement associations,
*' The new industry," as the increase of summer visitors
to the shore and country is now called, has a considerable
influence on the cultivation of ornamental trees throughout
the State. Those who establish summer homes on the sea
shore, or in the rural districts, are favorably disposed to the
trees ; and indeed, the vahie of many estates for this pur-
pose is in a great measure dependent on the condition and
position of the trees upon them.
It is to this class of residents and their influence that we
are indebted for the greater beauty and liealthfulness of
many towns. This work of lieautifying country homes is
being so far extended, that some of our older villages in the
w(»stern part of the State are being transformed into charm-
ing parks and will in time vie with the much praised countr}'-
side of Old Eniiland.
In a })aper read before this board in 18^0,* the subject of
suitable trees for ornamental plantations was fully considered
as based upon the study of the climatic conditions under
M'hich the trees best thrive. The conclusions dra^vn were
that, for Xew England (with few exceptions). New England
trees are the best ; that many additional species may be
« Oniatuental Trees for Mass. Plant. Rep. St. Bd. Ag. 1880, p. 23.
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE. 65
taken from the forests of the middle States and Alleghany
Mountains and a few from the Rocky Mountain region, and
also that the exotic species used should come from eastern
Asia rather than western Europe.
There are many matters to be especially considered in
making an ornamental plantation, and still others in selecting
trees for the streets and roadsides. Trees naturally grow
massed together, and, therefore, w^hen one is planted in an
isolated position it will be exposed to very different influences
than when surrounded by its fellows in the forest. The
additional exposure to the wind and to the sunlight, which
reaches even to its lower branches, has the effect of encour-
aging a more spreading growth with a decrease in height.
Single trees, too, are inclined to fruit more freely, especially
the conifers which, under certain conditions, over-bear to
such an extent as to check their development, thus exhaust-
ing the trees and shortening their period of growth and
beauty.
For these reasons it may be found that certain native trees
which attain perfection here in a forest will not withstand
the exposure if planted in the field or by the roadside, while
others (including some foreign species which are not to be
recommended for ornamental purposes) , may prove suitable
for forest planting.
The evergreens should, if possible, be grown in a light
soil, with a richer upper soil, for a tree will flourish in such a
situation, while in a cold, heavy soil it will make a late start
and a slow growth that will be overtaken by the autumn
frosts l)efore opportunity has been given for the ripening of
the new wood. The trouble arising from such soil, however,
may sometimes be overcome by under draining.
For our city streets there are comparatively few suitable
trees from which to make selection, for many species which
are desirable for plantations and ornamental purposes in
parks and lawns, and for roadsides in the rural districts, do
not meet the requirements of the city.
The tree most frequently planted now is the rock maple,
which is well enough when used in reasonable numbers and
when planted in suitable places, but it should not, as is too
often the case, be used to the exclusion of all other species.
66 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
For a wide street there is no tree that can equal the
American elm in producing the arched effect so much admired
in many of our older towns, but the elm requires a good soil
and is impatient of drought, and should not, therefore, be
planted in dry, poor land. The desire for immediate effect
ought not to cause this tree to be cast aside in places where
it is possible for it to flourish, of which there appears to be
a great danger, for the beautiful streets of arching elms
which have made the towns of the Connecticut Valley sa
famous should never be allowed to become merely tradi-
tional, for here this tree grows in its utmost luxuriance.
In the more crowded streets of the cities, however, the
European elm, a tree of naturall}^ wide range, has proved more
satisfactory. For more than one hundred years this tree
has been grown in New England. Its habit is more dense
and it retains its foliage much longer in the autumn than the
American tree. It better endures the poorer atmosphere of
the city, and it is free from the attacks of the canker-worm,
which so often disfigure the American elm. It is, therefore,
a much better tree for our city streets than the native elm,
and one which may be considered as fairly tested here by
actual experiment.
In the vicinity of the sea shore the Norway maple is a
most desirable tree, but in the interior its leaves often
become rusty as the season advances, making it less suitable
for such situations than the native rock maple. The white
maple, too, is a tree of most graceful habit, but it is best
seen when planted in parks or lawns, although it answers
well for the less frequented streets. The white ash may
also be used in some cases with good effect, and the bass
wood, red maple and Dutch elm, are of value in proper
situations. The red oak has proved in many places a fine
street tree, growing in one instance faster than the rock
ma|)le, and for many streets in the country towns the
hickory, birch, chestnut, necklace pophir and some other
species may be used which would not be suitable for city
streets.
The selection and planting of trees for our streets should
always be placed in the hands of some general committee
or permanent board. If left to the abutter, a scattered.
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE. 67
irregular collection of all sorts of trees — good, bad and indif-
ferent — will be the result ; whereas, in the hands of a properly
constituted body, the streets can be planted uniformly with
the sort of trees best adapted to the particular situation
and desirably varied as the work proceeds in different local-
ities.
Tearing up trees from the swamp or hillsides, stripping
them to bare poles and squarely cutting of their tops, so
commonly practised in planting the maple and some other
species, cannot be too severely condemned. The trees tlius
treated may at first put out luxuriant heads, and for a time
appear to do well, but, as the branches fork at the place
where the top was cut off, a large exposed space is left in
which water collects, rotting the centre of the tree and
sooner or later causing deformity or death. This is the
principal reason why so many maple trees of a certain age
are failing all over New England.
It would be much better to plant nursery grown trees in
our streets. We are far behind the rest of the world in this
respect. In Germany and France, and even in Japan,
trees are selected and planted with the utmost care. There
is no reason why our cities and towns and perhaps the local
improvement associations should not establish nurseries for
the special purpose of producing suitable trees for streets
and roadside planting.
In the streets of many of the cities and larger towns the
old trees, which in many cases seem to have been planted
with great care and good judgment, are now disappearing
through loss by old age, the march of improvement and the
demands of commerce. In such streets as are devoted to
business purposes, often too narrow already, it is not to be
expected that trees will ever be planted. There are, how-
ever, entire streets, with either decrepit and miserable apolo-
gies for shade trees, or often none at all, where there is
abundant room to plant them, and where they would greatly
improve the appearance of the street, as well as add comfort
to all persons frequenting it. But even if the abutter or the
local improvement society, or even the town or city authori-
ties themselves, plant street trees, there are many vexing
obstacles to the accomplishment of the best results.
68 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Those in charge of the layins; of drains or the setting of
edsestones do not think for a moment of arrano::ing their
work to avoid a tree, but instead, roots and buttresses are
cut and slashed without mercy. Horses are tied to young
trees and old by the hour together, and many a succulent
luncheon is made from the bark and nascent wood. Trees
are often seen in city streets where a few feet from the
ground only a small portion of the circumference of the
bark is left, and many fine shade trees are annually de-
stroyed from this cause.
Another source of great loss of trees in cities arises from
the leaks into the earth in which they live from poorly and
improperly laid gas mains. In some cities, to avoid inter-
ference with the systems of sewer and water pipes, the gas
mains are placed so near the surface that every winter they
are thrown and broken by the frost. In one instance, twenty
distinct gas leaks were found in the mains of a single street,
not one quarter of a mile in length, in one of the cities of
our eastern seaboard. When thoroughly permeated with
the gas, the earth retains it for years, and tree after tree
may be planted ; and even if a large amount of fresh earth
be added each time, the trees will fail to live. Trees in
streets and parks, it is stated, have been killed by having
the land about their trunks filled to a depth of two or three
feet, thus showing that trees, no more than animals, will en-
dure being buried alive.
In roadside tree planting, even in the rural districts where
many of the obstacles met with in the cities are avoided, it
is impossible to produce the best results unless the roads
are properly laid out, and, together with the roadsides, are
well cared for.
Many country roads are made unnecessaril}'^ wide at the
outset. It is not uncommon to see a poorly built, poorly
kept, broad expanse of gravel, wider than many of the
most crowded thorougfares of the city, where the travel is
confined to one or two cart tracks meandering through its
weary length.
A narrower roadway could be maintained in better con-
dition at less cost, and, if it was desirable to retain a greater
width for future use, by allowing the grass and bushes to
FORESTEY AND ARBORICULTUEE. 69
grow at the sides, a minimum of gravelly surface would be
exposed to the winds, and much of the nuisance arising from
the great clouds of dust be avoided through the dry season.
The desirability of good and attractive roads for ordinary
travel, as well as for pleasure driving, must be admitted.
Here, too, the formal effect of regularly planted street trees
should give place to a more natural grouping, with a greater
variety of species, and a judicious growth of bushes, herbs
and climbing plants should be encouraged at the roadside
and along the walls and fences.
Where such already exist, the shrubs and other plants are
frequently cut down and left in rough piles, thus transform-
ing into a rubbish heap that which was before an interesting
garden bed. For what reason this is done, or why, as is
too often the case, the little gullies at the roadside are al-
lowed to be filled up with refuse from the shoemaker's shop
or with tin cans and other discarded household effects, it is
difficult to imagine.
Another pernicious custom, in vogue in the vicinity of Bos-
ton, is to burn at the roadside the leaves and brush collected
during the spring and autumn clearings of the road. These
fires, of course, disfigure a certain space each time and in
many instances spread into the surrounding bushes, injuring
the appearance of the roadside and endangering the life of
any trees which may be growing there by burning the bark
about their trunks.
As the care of the country roads is usually subdivided
among the farmers of the town, no special system is
adopted, and a variety of treatment is given the roadside
as well as the roads themselves. A systematic management
in the hands of one competent man has been shown, where it
has been tried,* to give much better results, without addi-
tional expense.
To quote a little vokime recently published as a law
book : t " Good roads have a tendency to make the country
a desirable dwelling-place, and a town which is noted for its
good roads becomes the abode of people of taste, wealth
and intelligence." There is law enough to protect the road-
• Town of Chelmsford, Mass., 66. " The Road and the Roadside," Potter, p. 25.
t Ibid., p. 10.
70 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
side and shade trees, but the lack is in the public sentiment
to enforce it.
These matters are of interest to the roadside tree planter,
for the condition of the roads, the shrubs at their margins,
and the neatness of the walls and fences, all contribute to
the general effect, and must receive the attention they
deserve, if we are to take the trouble to plant trees at all, or
desire to make our country-side what it should be.
There is no royal road to success in tree planting, and the
ultimate accomplishment of good results must often l)e
reached through many disappointments and discouragements.
The trees are frequently attacked by mysterious fungi on
their leaves and at their roots and insect enemies innumer-
able arc to be encountered, to a far greater extent in orna-
mental i}lantations than in the thicker growth of the forest.
Every locality has its peculiar surroundings, — currents of
wind, conditions and quality of the soil, and, in ornamental
plantations, associated scenery and buildings. These must
all be carefully considered before accepting the advice of the
essayist, who can only lay down general • rules and give
general lists of trees from which the planter must make
selection for special cases.
A great mistake is often made, in attempting to get quick
results, by phmting trees of too great size. Smaller nursery-
grown trees, if well chosen and properly planted, will always
prove the best and soon outstrip the larger ones set out at
the same time. It is well in tree planting to " make haste
slowly."
The observation of Arbor Day, w'hich originated in
Nebraska in 1874, has gradually extended to other States,
until it has now l)ecome a generally established institution.
To be sure, the lists of exercises which arc pul)lished for use
on the occasions of its celebration are poetic and sentimental
rather than i)ractical, yet if, as suggested in the last rei)ort
of the United States Forestry Bureau, Arbor Day and its
observation really offers a means " for getting the facts
relating to tree growth and the practical uses of trees before
the minds of the old and young alike, and for creating and
diffusing throughout the community a sentiment which
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE. 71
promises much good to the cause of forestry," it is an inven-
tion not without some vakie.
It may possibly be necessary, in order to call the atten-
tion of busy people to this subject, to set apart a special day
for tree planting and to make it a pul)lic holiday ; but it
would be much better if these matters could be kept in mind
every day, and the children in our schools, and the older
people as well, could become more generally informed as to
the necessity for forests and their importance in political and
domestic economy, and more familiar with the trees met
with in every day life, rather than by condensing all their
efforts into one day of poetical effusion and song.
That such knowledge is sadly needed is evidenced by
daily illustrations. To give one example: — A class in an
advanced school desiring to celebrate the centennial anniver-
sary of our independence of British authority, planted a tree
on the school grounds ; but, not being familiar with these
matters, they took without question what a dealer sent
them, and celebrated the event by planting an English oak,
an emblem of royalty, and naturally a poor tree in this
climate, which may now l)e seen starved and puny, and
looking as if it fully appreciated the inappropriateness of its
selection.
Although there seems to be a very general interest shown
in the forests and in the cultivation of ornamental trees,
there are, however, but few persons who are sufficiently
familiar with our native trees to call them by name. There
are of course many wdio can tell an elm from an oak, or a
willow from a pine, but there are not many who can name
the different species of oak or pine, or even distinguish the
pines from the spruces, — who can see the difference between
birches and hornbeams, or separate the many foreign trees
in cultivation from the native species. In fact, the native
trees and the grasses and sedges, l)y far the most conspicu-
ous plants in our flora and forming its greater bulk, are the
ones least known and the least studied by the people.
The trees are neither numerous in species, nor is there any
difficultv whatever in distinijuishinsi; one from another among
those of native growth, and it certainly seems that the
jDleasure and satisfaction of their intimate acquaintance
72 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
would be a sufficient inducement to reward any one for the
time expended in studying them.
For the purpose of aiding a class which met last spring
at the rooms of the Peabody Academy of Science for botan-
ical study, a list of trees and tree-like shrubs was prepared,
including such species, native and introduced, of which
good growing specimens could be seen in the immediate
vicinity of Salem, and to show how few species it was
necessary to know in order to become familiar with the trees
in one's neighborhood.
This list included but 113 species, of which 64 were
natives of eastern Massachusetts, 17 were introduced from
other portions of the United States, and 32 came from for-
eign countries.
If to this list a dozen less common trees be added, making
the total number 125, it will cover all the species that are
required to be known in order to name, at sight, every tree
met with in our walks in the woods, along country roads or
in the city streets and parks of this State, outside of a botan-
ical garden or the collection of some enthusiastic arbori-
culturist. It does not seem, therefore, that the task of
becoming acquainted with them presents great difficulties or
is likely to exhaust much time to master it.
Classes or clubs for the study of native trees and so much
of structural botany as might be applicable to them, or the
introduction of such study into clubs and classes already
formed, would be the means of bringing a knowledge of
these matters to our young people in a very pleasant way.
It would at the same time offer a rational excuse for social
meetings in many places where public exhibitions and lec-
tures are infrequent.
There is, without doubt, in every town, some one suffi-
ciently familiar with the sul)ject to act as a leader for a class
in tree study ; and a small assessment in a class of twenty
persons would purchase all the available books required for
reference. Of course, it would be desirable that as much of
the work as possible should be done during the summer
months ; but as it would probably be more convenient to
meet on winter evenings, specimens could be collected the
previous summer for winter use.
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE. 73
The knowledge acquired in this way, practically applied
afterward in going about the country in ordinary pursuits,
would soon familiarize the student with the trees and add
much pleasure to daily walks and drives.
The interest which would undoubtedly be developed could
not fail to lead, in many cases, to further study and a more
general diffusion of practical information in regard to trees
and kindred subjects. The formation of such classes is to
be commended in every way and might profitaljly supplant
the clubs, now so fashionable, formed to struggle with the
intricacies of Browning and Shelley. For however desirable
it may be to become acquinted with profound writers, there
is a morbid tendency just now in these literary matters not
well to encourage. Any study, therefore, which takes one
out of doors, and with all things fresh and healthful, can be
cheerfully recommended. To study the trees is as good for
the l)ody as the mind. Through walks and drives our sys-
tem is invigorated and the blood is sent coursing more freshly
through our veins, while a fund of valuable and practical
information is beinsj o-ained at the same time.
The study of trees, both in their botanical and economic
aspects, — the establishment of ornamental plantations, or
tree planting in the street or by the roadside, as well as the
care or the creation of more extensive forest reserves, — all
tend to the good of the Commonwealth and the prosperity of
its citizens. It is fitting, therefore, to close this essay with
the words of one who unceasingly felt the deepest interest in
these subjects ; and although only remembered personally
by the passing generation has left us, in his volume on the
" Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts," a work which will
ever cause him to be held in grateful esteem.
In the closing paragraph of a chapter on the physical and
economic importance of the forests to our State, and which
wears well the forty years it has been written, Mr. Emerson
says* : —
But why should it be thought important to reclaim or render
valuable the waste or worthless lands of Massachusetts ?
There are millions of acres in the western States far richer than
• Emerson. " Trees and Shrubs of Mass.," 1846, p. 36. 2d. ed, 1875, p. 43.
74 BOAED OF AGEICULTURE.
any in our State. Why not go thither and occupy the rich, wild
lauds? There are various reasons. Every improvement in agi'i-
culture, in the management of the forests, and in the use of the
other natural resources of our State, makes it capable of sustain-
ing a larger population and thus enabling more of our young men
and women to remain with us. The advantages of our life in the
long-settled parts of the Bay State are greater than can be expected,
for more than a generation at least, in newly settled regions.
We live in a climate and on a soil best adapted, from their very
severity and sterility, to bring out the energies of mind and body,
and to form a race of hardy and resolute men. We have our
churches, our schools, our lyceums, our libraries, our intelligent
and vh'tuous neighbors, and we wish our children should [';/()•■,• up
under the influence of the institutions which our forei'atliors liavo
formed and left to us, and which we have been entleavoring to
improve.
Mr. Taft. I have been very much intcrostecl in the
learned and instructive essay just read, but from some of
the conclusions I should beg most respectfully to differ. Is
it a fact that the forests of this State are being denuded ?
In my judgment, in the county of Worcester there is to-day
a quarter more acreage of wood growing than there was
forty-five years ago : not so heavy wood, but the land is
covered. And when the essayist advises the farmers of
Worcester County to set forests with a view to profit, it
seems to me I would rather he would do it than do it
myself, if I were a young man. Forty years ago in South
Worcester good hard wood was worth eight dollars a cord ;
to-day it is a drug at five or six dollars. There is no
call for it ; we are burning something else ; and the
great question Avith many people is. What are we to do to
keep these hill farms from growing up to wood? AVhy,
within rifle-shot of my house is the site of a saw-mill that
has sawn logs ever since 1712. Forty or fifty years ago
my father owned it and he used to saw thirty, forty and fifty
thousand feet a year ; but last year four hundred thousand
feet were sawed at the saw-mill standing on that site, and
there is more wood growing in that neighborhood, I think,
than there was forty years ago. I agree with the idea of
setting out trees l)y the roadside, certainly, but if the essay-
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE. 75
ist had spent his life in a town with fifty or eighty miles of
road, if he happened to be one of the fathers of the town
and was called upon to keep the brush from the carriages
that travel on the roads, he would find that there were too
many trees by the roadside, — not in the villages. That is
the great complaint to which the highway surveyors and
county commissioners have to listen: "Why don't you
keep the roads clear of trees?" My friends come down
from Worcester in their nice carriages and they say, " AYe
can't drive in these roads ; they are all trees and brush."
There is no need of setting out trees there.
Another thing. He says we want to set out trees in
cemeteries. In 1848, when I was a young man, I helped to
lay out, with my friends, a cemetery in my town, and spent
a good deal of money, a good deal of time and a good deal
of labor in setting out trees, and there has not been a year
for the last twenty years that the selectmen have not been
petitioned and begged and entreated to have those trees
taken down. Why ? Because they were injuring the tomb-
stones ; it was unfashionable. That has a good deal to do
ivith it. This very year a cemetery is l^eing laid out in my
neighborhood by a corporation where I am told thirty thou-
sand dollars are to be expended, and one of the provisions
of the deeds is that no trees are to be set out. It is not
fashionable. Green grass, fountains and flowers inside, trees
on the outside. It is all right, I suppose. I have always
ol)jected to cutting down the trees in this cemetery that I
assisted in laying out, but I have always been beaten. This
very last year two trees that I helped set out in 1848, more
than a foot and a half through, were cut down and carried
off because the owners of the lots near them said they could
not have any tombstones or any monuments if the trees
were allowed to remain. In waste places, I agree, sir, and
in some cases, along the roadsides, and through the villages,
trees may be planted ; but my friends in the city of Wor-
cester have been cutting down the elms on Main street that
I have looked at for sixty years. Some people opposed it,
and went to the Supreme Court to prevent it, but the city
cut them down and everybody says, " How much better it
76 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
looks ! " Trade comes in, and trade does not want any trees
in the streets of a city.
Now as to fires : I agree with the essayist that anything
that can be done to prevent the burning of the woods should
be done. I would agree to a law providing no man should
go into a wood lot with a gun or with a dog. [Applause.]
They are perfect nuisances. Every Sunday, not only from
the villages, but from the cities, men go up and down over
our fields with their dogs and guns, and the first you know
almost every Sunday in the summer there is a fire in the
woods. I would do anything to stop that. Then the rail-
roads. There are gentlemen here who know the damage
that is done by fires started by sparks from locomotives on the
New England road all the way down from Woonsocket Falls to
Putnam. Almost every year one, two, three or four hundred
acres of heavy chestnut wood are burned. This very last
year I was called upon as a referee to appraise the damage
to sixty acres of chestnut wood that was destroyed in this way.
Again, 1 would prevent the village hoodlums from going to
our chestnut trees in the fall and pounding them, as they
do about six feet from the ground, with sledge-hammers and
axes to bring the chestnuts down. When those trees come
to maturity and are cut down we have to throw away about
six feet of the trunk of almost every tree. I will agree to
anything to keep those hoodlums out of the fields.
I do not want to be misunderstood. There has been a
good deal said about planting forests, having foresters, and
all that. I tell you that in my judgment the forests of New
England will take care of themselves, if you will take care
of the fires and dogs and guns. When my friends talk about
setting out trees near school-houses and along roadsides, I
agree ; but when they talk about setting out pine trees for
profit, I say I can get as much pine in Worcester for nine
dollars a thousand, five-inch stock, as there is money to pay
for. AYhen you count the cost of cutting it and getting it
to market you will see there is more profit in lecturing than
in raising pines. [Laughter and applause.] If I lived near
Maiden, where they are going to set out a lot of trees, I
should not object to that. When I was down there they
FORESTRY AND ARBORICULTURE. 77
told me I was only six miles from the State House, and I
was just as much in the wilderness as if I had lieen in the
Adirondack woods ; I could not see out. But when you
come into this county and talk about setting out trees, I say
they will grow faster than j^ou can take care of them.
Mr. Robinson. I rather think the gentleman agrees with
me more than he thinks he does. I said that the national
forests were lieing destroyed, but the forests in Massachusetts
are rather increasing. But no essayist can lay down rules
for everybody in every locality ; the people of each region
must act in these matters according to their circumstances.
In Essex County there are many places where we could grow
trees and the wood would find a market at home ; but in
Worcester County it may be that there is no such market
for wood as fuel. With reference to cemeteries, there are
practical reasons, as the sextons will tell you, why it is not
desirable to have the roots of trees running through the
ground, but it is proper to have them planted in groups
and around the borders.
Question. I would like to inquire how much colder our
winters are now than they were a hundred years ago ?
Mr. Robinson. It is impossible to say. It is probable
that the average is about the same ; the frost does not pene-
trate so deeply in the forests as in the open country, and the
removal of the forests. has probably had a tendency to make
the spring later in coming, and the sun of summer pouring
down with greater heat upon the ground, it continues longer
into the fall. The radiation is greater from the bare land
than from the woods, and the temperature of the woods, on
the average, is more nearly equable than in the open country.
Experiments have not been carried on long enough, even
in Europe, to determine the question.
The Chairman. It would be pleasant and instructive to
continue this discussion, but time forbids and we must pro-
ceed with the programme. I am happy to introduce to you
Prof. Fernald, of the Agricultural College, who will deliver
a lecture on the subject of injurious insects.
-^ BOARD OF AGRICrLTUPvE.
tSJUEIOUS DfSECTS-
BT PROF. C H- FERXJXD OF AMHERST.
The insects of Massachusetts £ar exceed in number, both
of species and individuals, anything we can ever realize till
we make a careful and prolonged study of the group. In
fiict, the inse<:;ts of the world comprise four-fifths of all the
animals in existence.
So rapidly are new species of insects discovered, that a
lai^e corps of scientists are compelled to work very industri-
ously in classifying, naming, describing and publishing their
researches, to dispose of the material as fast as it is dis-
covered and brought in. These newly discovered sj^ecies
are not only from the more remote and little known reirioas
of the globe, but here in our own Commonwealth are thou-
sands still unknown to science as well as to our farmers Of
all the vast hordes of insects in existence, not more than four
or five are directly l>eneficial to mankind. The honey l>ee,
the silk worm, the cochineal insect and the insect which pro-
duces shellac, comprise nearly the entire list. A compara-
tively small number are neither beneficial nor injurious,
while a larger number are indirectly beneficial, since they
destroy the injurious kinds ; but by far the largest numl»er
are directly injurious, as they feed, in one stage of their ex-
istence or another, on the crops of our fields, on our forests.
our orchards, our gardens, or infest our stock : while others
invade the sanctity of our homes and even devour our gar-
ments, and still others, more blood-thirsty, lie in wait for
our i^ersons. Although a vast number of insects have
already l>een deseril)ed and named, yet nothing whatever is
known of the early stages of the great majority of them : in
fact, the entire round of life is known of only a comparatively
small number. An immense field here presents itself for
investigation, the- results of which will be of direct advan-
tage to our farmers. What more legitimate work than this
can be undertaken by the exi^eriment stations of the country?
The first question which arises in the mind of a farmer when
he meets an unknown insect which attracts his attention is,
what is its name? The next question is, what does it do,
or what does it feed on? and next, how can it be destroved
IXJUPJOUS INSECTS. 79
or held in check? The first is a question in systematic ento-
moloiry, while the other two belouiTr to economic entomologv,
yet investigations on tliese latter must alwa^'s follow the for-
mer. We can never learn from the books what has already
been pul)lished about an insect till we recognize its name.
The losses caused by the devastations of the insect tribes
on our productions are vastly greater than are generally sup-
posed. A few years ago, I estimated the loss on a single
crop caused by one species alone, in '^ne field during the
summer, to be not less than twenty-five per cent, of the
whole, and yet the owner was entirely ignorant of his loss.
Farmers consider it pretty hard times when they know
that they are getting only three-fourths of a crop, but if
they are unconscious of their loss they are comparatively
happy.
" If ignorance were bliss
'Twere folly to be wise."
If a careful examination of any given surface, as one square
rod of grass field, be made as often as once a week through
the entire summer, one will find such a series of insects aris-
ing and disappearing in succession that, when he bears in
mind that they feed on the plants growing there, he will
wonder that an\'thing is left to be harvested. While careful
study is being made on the food of plants and the most
economical methods of obtaining and applying it, little, com-
paratively speaking, has thus far been done on the study of
those insects and parasitic plants which destroy so large a
percentage of our cultivated crops. While I would not have
the researches in other lines in any way abated, I would have
extensive researches made into the life, history and habits of
our insects and critical investigations on insecticides. I have
selected for consideration at this time a few of the insects
that have come under my notice in this State, and will first
direct your attention to the
Ca nJcer-worms .
There are two diSerent species of insects known under
this name, one of which is the spring canker-worm and the
other is the fall canker-worm. The females of both species
are entirely destitute of wings, and so closely do they re-
80
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Fig. 1.
^^
"'to*'
a, male; 6, female; c, a portion of one of the an-
tennae; d, an enlarged joint of the abdomen;
e, ovipositor.
semble each other, that unless a careful examination be
made, one might suppose them to be the same. The spring
canker-worm {^Anisopteryx vernata. Peck), Fig. 1, is by
far the more common of
Early in the
spring, as soon as the
snow is clear from the
ground, or even before,
the perfect moths emerge
from under the ground
where they passed the
winter in the pupa state, and the wingless females crawl up
the trunks of the trees, while the males fly aliout and pair
with them on the trunks or branches, after which the eggs
are laid in clusters in the crevices of the bark, without any
regularity or order in their arrangement, sometimes to the
number of a hundred. These eggs. Fig. 2, h, are oval in
outline, about one-thirtieth of an
inch long, and of a delicate pearly
yellowish color, and hatch about the
time the leaves burst forth from the
buds. The larvae have three pairs of
true legs, situated on the three seg-
ments following the head, and two a, lai-va; 6, eggs, natural size and
. /»ii •!! 1x1 enlarged ; c, side view of a
pairs ot abdommal legs, and there- segment; </, top view of a eeg-
fore they move by alternately loop-
ing and extending their bodies, and are known as loop-
worms, inch-worms or measuring-worms. When fully
grown they are from seven-tenths to eight-tenths of an inch
long, of a dark brown color, with five broken lines of a
lighter color running lengthwise (Fig. 2, a). At this time
they often let themselves down from the trees by a silken
thread and hang suspended in the air, much to the annoy-
ance of persons passing under the trees, and they are often
caught by passing vehicles and carried to places more or less
remote, and thus their distribution greatly facilitated.
They now descend to the ground and burrow to the depth
of three inches or more, where they spin a fragile cocoon of
dull yellowish silk, within which they transform to pupre,
and remain in this state till the following spring, when the
Fio. 2.
INJUKIOUS INSECTS.
81
Fig. 3.
a, male; b, female; c, a portion of her antennae;
d, abdominal segment enlarged.
moths emerge, ascend the trees and lay their eggs for
another generation. Some of the individuals, however,
emerge in the fall and lay then- eggs, but these do not hatch
till the following spring. The wingless female is of a pale
ash color, and the male is of the same color, with a pale
broken band across the fore wings, near the outer margin,
and three interrupted brownish lines between that and the
base. The hind wings are of a very pale ash color or very
light gray, with a darker dot near the middle.
The fall canker-worm (^Anisopteryx autumnata, Peck),
Fig. 3, emerges from the
ground late in the fall,
after the leaves have fal-
len from the trees and
the frosts have destroyed
all the tender plants. The
females climb the trees
attended by the males,
who hover around on the wing. After the mating of the
moths the females lay their eggs side by side, in regular
masses. Fig. 4, often as many as a hundred together, in an
exposed situation on the
twigs or branches of the
trees. Sometimes the fe-
males, through mistake,
crawl up on the side of a
building and deposit their
clusters of eixsfs on the ex-
posed surface.
The eggs are cylindri-
cal, but somewhat smaller
at the basal end ; while the
other end is flattened and has a dark rim with a depressed
centre (Fig. 4, a and b). These hatch in the spring, at
about the same time as the other species, and the larvae have
habits similar to those of the spring species.
The full-grown larvae are nearly an inch long, varying in
color from greenish yellow to dark brown, with pale stripes
running lengthwise; and they differ still further from the
other species in having three pairs of abdominal legs (Fig.
Fig. 4.
a and 6, egge, enlarged ; c and d, enlarged seg-
ments of the larva; e, cluster of eggs; /",
larva; g, pupa; h, end of the pupa.
82 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
4,/"). After they are done feeding they descend from the
trees and burrow into the ground, where they pass their
transformations, and the moths emerge late in the fall. The
female of this species is wingless, about three-tenths of an
inch long, and of a pale gray or ash color (Fig. o, b). The
males have well developed wings, which expand nearly an
inch and a half, and are of the same color as the female.
The fore wings have two rather irregular whitish bands
across them, and the hind wings have a faint blackish dot
on the middle, and a more or less distinct whitish band
outside of it (Fig. 3, a). Canker-worms feed on the leaves
of the apple, plum, cherry, elm, linden and many other
trees.
Remedies for Canl-er-wornis.
As the females are wingless and pass their transformations
under the ground, and are obliged to crawl up the trunks of
the trees to deposit their eggs, one method is to prevent
their ascent by putting bands of heavy paper around the
trunks, and painting them with some sticky preparation, as
printers' ink, or tar softened with oil.
Another method is to put a trap of tin or zinc around the
tiimks of the trees, over which they cannot pass. Care
must be taken that the trap or paper fits so tightly to the
tree that neither the female moth nor the newly-hatched
larvee can find a passage beneath. Some make the mistake
of putting on the traps in the spring only,^ overlooking the
fact that there is a species which emerges late in the fall,
and also that some individuals of the spring species emerge
at the same time. The trees, therefore, need protection
from the canker-Avorms both in the fall and spring. Still
another remedy is to shower the trees with paris gi'een in
water about the time the eggs have hatched in the spring.
77ie WJiite-marked Tussock-moth.
This species was first described by Abbott and Smith in
their great work on the natural history of the rarer lepidop-
terous insects of Georgia in 1797, under the name of Orrjyia
leucostigma. This moth has received so many common
INJURIOUS INSECTS.
83
names as to cause no end of confusion, and it would be far
better to use only the scientific name, and then there would
be no doubt about the species. Abbott and Smith called it
the pale vaporer-moth, Harris called it the white-marked
orgyia or tussock-moth, Fitch called it the American vaporer-
moth, Packard called it the tussock-moth, and so on.
The male moth. Fig. 5, has an expanse of wings of about
one inch and a quarter, and is of a dull grayish color, lighter
along the front edge of the fore wings, which also have
several wavy cross-lines of a blackish color
and a small white spot near the lower outer
(anal) angle. The hind wings are with-
out marks. The females are of a light ash
gray color, oval in outline and about three-
fourths of an inch long. They are without
wings, but have minute scales in their
place.
Soon after emerging from their cocoons,
and while resting on them. Fig. 6, a, the males appear, and,
after pairing, the females deposit their eggs on the outside
of the cocoon. Professor Saunders states that each female
lays from 375 to 500 eggs in a cluster, — the smallest number
counted being 375,
and the largest 500.
The eggs are white,
globular, slightly
flattened above, and
with a slight depres-
sion in the centre,
which is yellowish,
and there is also a
yellowish ring sur-
Fis. 6.
a, female resting on an empty cocoon; b, j-oung larva sus-
pended ; c, pupa of the female ; d, pupa of the male.
roundiug the egg just below the flattened portion. To the
eye these eggs appear smooth, but under the microscope the
surface appears to be roughened. The diameter is about
one twenty-fifth of an inch.
The eggs laid in the fall hatch the next spring, giving rise
to very small, dark-colored and very hairy caterpillars, which
drop themselves down from the leaves by a thread at the
84 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
least disturbance ; but when they have become assured that
there is no danger, they ascend again, very much as a sailor
climbs a rope, "hand over fist," Fig. G, b. The youno-
caterpillars feed on the pulp of the leaves, skeletonizing
them ; but when larger, they eat from the edge of the leaf,
taking all clean to the midrib. As they grow their skins
become too tight, so that it becomes necessary to cast them
off, or molt.
The full-grown caterpillars, Fig. 7, measure about an inch
and a half in length, and are the most showy and beautiful
caterpillars known to me. They are of a bright yellow
color, sparingly
clothed with long,
fine, yellow hairs on
their sides, and have
four short and thick
brush-like yellowish
tufts on the top of
^"'' ''' the fourth and three
following segments, two long black plumes or pencils of
hair extending forward from behind the head, and a single
plume on the segment before the last. The head and two
warts on the ninth and tenth segments are coral red. There
is a narrow black or brownish stripe along the back, and a
wider dusky stripe along the side. They spin their cocoons
on the branches or trunks of the trees, often with a leaf
attached, and by this they can be the more readily
detected.
Gentry, in his " Life Histories of Birds," mentions quite a
number of our species which feed on the larvEe of this moth,
among which are the Baltimore oriole, cedar bird, swallows,
warblers, etc. Fitch and others describe several parasites
which prey on it, and were it not for these pigmy parasites
and our little feathered friends we should be entirely overrun
by this very prolific insect. I have found it feeding on the
leaves of apple, pear, plum, rose, hop-vine, elm, alder ; and
it has been reported as feeding on oak, maple and horse-
chestnut.
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 85
As the females are unable to fly, their distribution cannot
be very rapid ; and if our fruit-growers will carefully search
their trees during the fall, winter and spring, and remove all
the clusters of eggs and burn them, they will prevent the
depredations which would otherwise occur.
Some have thought that because the female is wingless,
they could be kept in check by the traps or bands of printers'
ink around the trunks of the trees ; but these, of course, are
no protection whatever, since this species never descends to
the ground, but passes all its transformations in the tree.
This insect has two broods in a season. The ego's which
have remained over winter hatch about the middle of May,
and the eggs of the second brood hatch in the latter part of
July. If, therefore, the trees be showered with paris green
in water about the middle of May, the first brood would
be destroyed along with the canker-worms, and there would
be few, if any, left for the second brood.
The Eye-sjpotted Bud-moth.
This insect [Tmetocera ocellana, S. V.) was first described
in 177G, in Europe, its native country, by Schifiermuller, in
his catalogue of the Vienna Collection, and was afterwards
redescribed as a distinct species under different names by
Fabricius, Huebner and others. In 1841, the insect was
described for the first time in this country by Dr. Harris,
in his report on the " Insects of Massachusetts Injurious to
Vegetation," but this author was not able to refer his insect
to the European species, and therefore gave it a new name,
— the eye-spotted penthina (^Penthina oculana) . In 1860,
Dr. Clemens of Easton, Pa., discovered this insect destroy-
ing the buds of pear and plum, and failing to recognize that
it was already named, he described it anew and gave it still
another name. An examination of the types a few years
ago, both in this country and in Europe, revealed the fact
that this one insect had received no less than fifteen difier-
ent names, a fact which it was necessary to learn in order
to discover what had already been published about its
habits.
86 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
This moth appears on the wing in Massachusetts during
tho latter part of June, flying only in the night. Its wings
expand about half an inch and are of an ashy gray color,
with a broad lighter band across the middle of the fore
wings. This band is very much lighter in some specimens
than in others, Fig. 8. The sexes pair at this time, and the
females deposit their eggs singly near the ends
R*nrt*{jji;^ of the twigs, where the}^ remain during the
^^WJlPiP' winter. These eggs hatch in the following
spring, about the time the buds swell and the
young leaves begin to appear. The young
larva burrows at once into the bud and en-
tirely destroys it, so that the onward growth of the twig is
prevented and the lateral buds which have escaped develop,
and thus an irregular, scraggy appearance is given to the
tree.
These larvfe are especially fond of the flower buds, and
by destroying them, reduce the amount of fruit to a very
great extent. Not unfrequently they attack the buds of
newly-grafted scions, eating out the whole inside, so that
nothing is left but the outer covering of scales, and of
course the scion dies. The full grown larva is about three-
fourths of an inch long, cylindrical, naked and of a pale
brown color, with the head and top of the segment following
it of a jet black color. The surface of the body has minute
warts over it, from each of which arises a very fine short
hair.
A few years ago I found a most curious parasite ( Phyto-
dictus vulgaris) attacking this caterpillar It was the young
of a hymnopterous insect, but, unlike all I had ever seen or
heard of before, which feed inside of the victim, this one
placed itself across the back of the neck of its prey, on the
outside and out of harm's way, and there grew fat at the
expense of its host, which died a lingering death. There are
no remedies, prol)ably, which will prove more satisfactory
than showering the trees with paris green when the buds first
begin to swell in the spring.
INJURIOUS INSECTS.
87
The Codling Moth.
This well known insect (^Carpocapsa pomonella, Linn.),
Fig. 9, has a world-wide reputation and is now found wherever
apples are raised. It is
one of those ubiquitous
pests which holds its own
wherever it finds an apple
to devour, notwithstanding
the great varieties of cli-
mate and all attempts of
man for its extermination.
The females are on the
wing about the time the
young apples are begin-
ning to set, and lay a sin-
gle egg in the blossom
end of each apple, and
very successful are they
in searching out the young
f r u i t , however hidden
among the leaves. Each female lays al>oiit fifty eggs, which
are minute, flattened, scale-like bodies of a yellowish color.
They hatch in about a week, and the young larva bores at
once into the interior of the fruit. The habits and appear-
ance of the larva are too well known to require description.
After reaching maturity they escape from the apple and seek
for some sheltered place in which to pass their transformations.
In Maine there is only one generation in a year, while
farther south there are two. I am not sure how it is in this
State, but I have as yet seen no evidence of a second genera-
tion. Some of the worms escape before the apples fall from
the trees, while others remain in the apples till after they
fall, when they escape and seek some place of shelter, as in
the crevices of the bark or corners of the boxes or barrels in
which the fruit is stored, where they spin a tough whitish
cocoon, in which they remain unchanged all winter and trans-
form to pupse the next spring, and the perfect moths emerge
in time to lay their eggs in the new crop of apples.
It has been recommended to put bands of cloth or hay
burrowings of the larva; b, the point of en-
trance; e, the full-grown larva; h, the ante-
rior part of the body; d, the pupa; i, the
cocoon; ./', the moth with the wings closed;
ff, the same with the wings expanded.
88 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
around the trunks of the trees for the worms to spin their
cocoons under, and to remove them at the proper time and
put them into scalding water to destroy the worms. It has
also been suggested that swine be kept in the orchard to eat
the infested fruit as soon as it falls and Ijcfore the worms
escape. No doul)t in this way many of the worms will l)o
destroyed, and if this plan should be carefully followed up
by all the fruit growers, without exception, in any given
region, great good would, undoubtedly, follow ; but there is
generally one shiftless farmer in every region who will neglect
his trees, and thus furnish a supply of worms for all of his
neighbors. Experiments that have been made with paris
green by Professor Forbes, State entomologist of Illinois,
and also at the New York Experiment Station, give every
promise that this insecticide will prove of far greater value
than anything hitherto recommended.
Professor Forbes found that the spraying of the trees with
paris green in water once or twice in the spring resulted in
the saving of seventy-five per cent, of the apples exposed to
injury by the codling moth, and he further estimated the cost
of the application at ten cents per tree. The proportions
that he used were three ounces of paris green to ten gallons
of water, while at the New York Experiment Station, one
ounce of paris green was used to ten gallons of water.
The Grape-bei^ry Moth.
This insect {Eudemis hotrana, S. V.), Fig. 10, has been
known in Europe for more than a hundred years, but first
appeared in this country about 1860, in which year it was
described by Dr.
Clemens, and in
1869 it was re-
described by Dr.
Packard, in his
excellent "Guide
to the Study of
Insects," at which
time it had
reached as far
west as Missouri,
Fig. 10.
c, moth; b, larva; c, a grape with a discolored spot; d, a grape
destroyed by the larva.
m.TURIOUS INSECTS. 89
At the present time it is distributed from Canada to the Gulf
of Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. There are
two generations in a year ; and when abundant, as sometimes
happens, it is very destructive, causing, in some instances, a
loss of nearly half the crop. The first brood feeds on the leaves
not only of the grape, but has also been found feeding on the
leaves of the tulip, vernonia, wild raspberry, sassafras, and in
the swollen stems of amorpha. The second generation feeds
on the fruit of the wild raspberry as well as on that of the grape.
The young larva bores into the interior of the grape, mak-
ing a discolored spot where it enters, Fig. 10, c, and feeds
not only on the pulp but also on the seeds. If a single grape is
not sufficient, the larva attacks a second, or even a third, draw-
ing them together into a cluster by means of its silken threads.
The mature larva. Fig. 10, h, is dull green, with a reddish
tinge, and has the head and top of the following segment
dark yellowish green. They cut out a flap on the leaves,
which they fold over, or fold the edge of the leaf, and within
these places they transform to pupae.
The perfect moth, which expands about four-tenths of an
inch, has the fore wings of a dark purplish brown color from
the base to the middle, beyond which they are marked with
spots and stripes of light and dark brown. Fig. 10, a. The
second generation spends the winter in the pupa state, at-
tached to the leaves which fall to the ground ; and, therefore,
if all infected fruit and the fallen leaves be burned, the most
of these insects would be destroyed.
The American Bean-weevil.
This native American insect {Bruclnis ohsoJetus, Say.),
Fig. 11, causes a great amount of damage to the beans in
certain parts of this State, and my attention has often been
called to the injury they are doing.
The female lays her eggs on the
outside of the young bean pods,
and as soon as they hatch the
young larvfB bore through the pods
and into the beans, sometimes as
many as a dozen entering a single
bean. These larvte rarely injure Bean-weevii, natural ' size and e,
the embrvo or germ, and when i^rged at «,- 6, an mfeBted bean.
90 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE.
only a few occur in a bean it will doubtless grow ; but when
the substance of the bean is destroyed, even though the
"embryo remain intact, the bean either will not grow, or will
produce only a feeble plant.
While the larvae are growing in the beans they are quite
liable to be overlooked, and are, undoubtedly, cooked and
eaten with them without our knowledge ; but before they
complete their transformations, they cut a circular hole out
to the shell of the bean, and after the final changes they are
easily seen in white or light-colored beans. Some of these
beetles emerge in the fall, and the remainder in the spring ;
therefore, the beans intended for seed should be tightly tied
up in stout paper bags, so that the beetles cannot escape,
and kept over till the second year, when all the beetles will
be dead. If the beans are badly infested, they should not
be used for seed.
The Pea-weevil.
This species {Brachus pisi, L.), Fig. 12, is also a native
of this country, and is now widely distributed over the
world. The beetles begin to appear as soon as the peas are
in blossom, and when the young
pods form the female beetle de-
posits her eggs upon the outside
of them, without any attempt to
pierce the pod. These eggs are
of a deep yellow color, about
three-hundredths of an inch long,
one-third as thick and somewhat
ovoid in form. They are fastened
a, pea-weevil, enlarged and natural size ;
t, an infested pea. to the pod by a fluid, which is
white when dry, and glistens like silk. The work of deposit-
ing the eggs is accomplished mostly by night. The newly-
hatched larva is deep yellow and has a black head. It makes
a direct cut through the pod into the nearest pea, the hole
soon filhng up, leaving only a mere speck. The larva feeds
until it reaches its full growth, generally avoiding the embrj'^o
or germ ; then, with an apparent knowledge of its future
needs, eats out a circular hole on one side of the pea, leaving
only the thin shell covering the hole.
As only a single weevil infests a pea, and this one does
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 91
not destroy the germ, a large proportion of the peas will
grow if planted ; but we can never get so vigorous plants
as from seed which is not infested, other things being
equal.
These insects are more common than is generally sup-
posed, and are often overlooked while in the larva state in
our green peas ; but it is authoritatively stated that in this
state they are perfectly harmless in our food ; nevertheless,
it is not very appetizing if we know that we are eating large
numbers of luscious worms in our green peas. The remedies
for this species are the same as those for the bean-weevil.
Insecticides.
I desire to call your attention to some of the substances
used for the destruction of insects and the methods of using
them.
Paris green is well known, and has long been in use
among the farmers all over the country, for the destruction
of the Colorado potato beetle, but there seems to be a pre-
judice against using it for other insects because of its poison-
ous properties. That it is a rank poison every one knows,
yet all are familiar with its use on potatoes, and since it has
been proven to be quite as destructive to all the leaf-eating
insects of our fruit and shade trees, I can see no reason why
it may not be as carefully and successfully us^d on these as
on potatoes. It is of course unnecessary for me to give any
directions how to apply it to the potato crop, but when it is
desirable to apply the poison to tall shrubs or trees, it is
necessary to use a forcing pump, of which many kinds have
been prepared and put on the market. The main point is
to be able to send the water in a fine mist high enough to
drench every part of the tree, and this should be continued
till the water begins to drip from the leaves. If a stream of
water be thrown through the ordinary nozzle above the tree,
and allowed to break into drops in its fall, the momentum
will allow but a small portion of the poison to adhere to the
leaves. The water with the paris green in suspension may
be taken by the barrel on a cart, and hauled around in the
orchard when a large quantity is to be used, or when a small
quantity is required it can be carried around in a paiil.
92 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Different experimenters have recommended different pro-
portions of paris green in water, but it is necessary to use
a mixture strong enough to kill the insects and at the same
time not strong enough to injure the foliage of the plants.
When used dry, it should be thoroughly mixed with flour
or plaster of paris, in the proportion of one part of the poison
to fifty by measure of the flour or plaster of paris, and
dusted on to the plants when they are wet. When the sub-
stance is to be used in water the proportion should not be
over one pound to fifty gallons of water if the paris green
has not been adulterated in any way, and even this propor-
tion may prove too strong for the foliage of the more tender
plants. I have no doubt, however, that a proportion of one
pound to a hundred gallons of water will prove quite suffi-
cient for all practical purposes.
London purple may be used in the same manner as the paris
green, and the proportions which have been recommended
are one-half a pound of the London purple to forty gallons
of water. This substance has the advantage of being cheaper
than paris green. If one or the other of these substances
be showered on to our fruit trees when the leaves first begin
to l3urst from the buds, it will destroy both species of
canker-worms, the bud-moth, tent caterpillar, forest tent
caterpillar and a host of other leaf devouring insects, and if,
when the fruit is first set, the apple tree be again showered,
a large percentage of the apple-worms will be destroyed, as
has already been shown.
Hellebore, when it can be obtained pure and has not lost
its strength, is an infiiUible remedy for the imported currant-
worm (Nematus ventricosus^lQiig). An equally destructive
substance may be made by soaking the roots of our common
poke-weed in water and sprinkling the currant bushes with
it. Hellebore or poke-weed may be used for the destruction
of all our troublesome saw-flies, as the slugs on the rose
bushes, pear trees and raspberries.
Pyrethrum or insect powder is now grown and prepared
in this countr}' and sold under the name of Buhach. It is
composed of the finely pulverized flowers of different species
of pyrethrum and may be used as a dry powder, as a fume,
as an alcoholic extract diluted, as a tea decoction, or in solu-
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 93
tion in water. This last method is believed to be the most
efficient. The greater part of the powder is dissolved in the
water, to which it at once imparts the insecticide principle.
Experiments have shown that half an ounce stirred in two
gallons of water will destroy all but the most hardy caterpil-
lars and such as are protected by long dense hairs. For
these a stronger solution is necessary. A tablespoonful of
the powder mixed with a gallon of water and sprinkled on
cabbages will destroy the cabbage- worms, though it may be
necessary to repeat the application. When the dry powder
has been used the success does not seem to have been as
good as when applied in water.
Kerosene Emulsions. — Kerosene oil seems to be particu-
larly destructive to insects when brought in contact with
them, but it is also injurious to the plants if applied without
beino; diluted. It has sometimes been mixed with water and
strongly agitated while it was being applied, in order to keep
them well mixed. It has now been found that an emulsion
of kerosene may be made with soap or milk, which may be
diluted with water to such an extent that the mixture Avill
not injure the foliage. The most satisfactory formula for
the soap emulsion is, kerosene two gallons, water one gallon
and common soap one-half a pound, " Heat the solution of
soap and add it boiling hot to the kerosene. Churn the mix-
ture by means of a force pump and spray nozzle for five or
ten minutes. The emulsion, if perfect, forms a cream, which
thickens on cooling, and should adhere without oiliness to
the surface of glass. Dilute before using, — one part of the
emulsion with nine parts of cold water. The above formula
gives three gallons of emulsion, and makes, when diluted,
thirty gallons of wash. The kerosene and soap mixture,
especially when the latter is warmed, forms, upon very
moderate agitation, an apparent union ; but the mixture is
not stable, and separates on standing or when cooled or di-
luted by the addition of water. A proper emulsion of kero-
sene is obtained only upon violent agitation. It is formed
Dot gradually, but suddenly. The temperature should not
be much above blood heat."
The milk emulsion is made by churning two parts of kero-
sene and one part of sour milk with a force pump, keeping
94 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
the liquids at about blood heat. This emulsion may be
mixed with twelve times its amount of water and applied
with a force pump, spray nozzle, or even with a strong gar-
den syringe.
Kerosene is a safe insecticide only when it is properly
prepared, and it is claimed that all failures in its use have
resulted from carelessness in making the emulsion. Kero-
sene emulsion is undoubtedly the best remedy for plant lice
of all kinds, and also for the squash bug, provided it be so
applied as to fall on the under side of the bugs. It is also
valuable for the destruction of lice on our domestic animals,
and is an exceedingly useful substance with which to shower
an infested hennery.
Finally, let me urge you to use all these insecticides, es-
pecially the poisonous ones, with great care, both with re-
gard to the danger to human life, and also the injury which
may be done to the plants by using an excessive quantity.
I would recommend that you experiment with them till you
personally understand just how to use them, and then I have
no doubt they will prove as useful for the destruction of the
insects described above, as paris green is on the Colorado
potato beetle.
The Chairman. We have a little time now for the dis-
cussion of this most interesting subject, and if gentlemen
wish to ask the Professor questions, I have no doubt he will
be ready to answer them.
Mr. Williams of Sunderland. The lecturer has not said
anything about the worm which causes the club-foot in
cabbages. I want to ask two questions : First, what is
the cause of club-foot in cabbages? and, second, how shall
we get rid of it ? I have lost my crop the past season in
consequence of it and I would like to know how to act
another year.
Prof. Fernald. Did you see the worm? Are you sure
that a worm was the cause ?
Mr. Williams. I argued from cause to effect. The
worms were there and there was no cabbage, and I argued
that the worms were the cause.
Prof. Fernald. I have had no experience with the club-
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 95
foot in cabbage. I have an idea that it may be caused by a
fly, which deposits its eggs at the root and gives rise to mag-
gots which eat there. It may be that I am not familiar
enough with them. I think my colleague, Prof. Maynaed,
could give some information on this subject, because he has
been so many years right here in Massachusetts and is
familiar with the insects of this State, while I came from
a more northern region, where the insects are many of
them very different from what they are here. I have not
happened to see what you call the club-foot.
Mr. Edson. I will state that I have always been success-
ful in raising cabbage plants by applying salt. When I
transplant my cabbages I drop a pinch of salt into the holes
and have never failed to raise a good crop.
Mr. Williams. I have tried salt and I would not recom-
mend any one to try it.
Mr. Smith. What amount of salt did you apply per
acre ?
Mr. Edson. I never applied it to an acre, but to a hun-
dred or two hundred plants. I have never found any
trouble from putting a pinch of salt, as much as can be held
between the thumb and finger, into the hole when trans-
planting. I have always been successful in growing
cabbage in that way.
Mr. Smith. You can raise successive crops of cabbages
by the application of salt as you recommend ?
Mr. Edsox. I have raised them for twenty-five years in
the garden, year after year.
Prof. Maynard. There are two difiiculties in o-rowinof
cabbages. There is a fungus on the root, which is the club-
foot, and there is the maggot that destroys early cabbages.
The maggot, I believe to be the larva of a fly. The egg is
laid near the root and the larva destroys the entire root.
The remedy which we have applied has been salt put around
the root, close up to it ; but this is not efiectual unless we
have rain soon after its application. Lime may be used and
will destroy these larvte. Last season a gentleman called to
know what he should do with his cabbage. He said that he
had a large quantity of beef brine that he could use, and
this was poured around the plants, several tablespoonfuls to
96 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
each plant, and saved the crop. This season the brine was
applied after the plants were attacked and the plants all
recovered. Hilling up around the plants will be a benefit ;
new roots will be formed if the old roots are destroyed, as
they often are.
Question. What strength would you advise making the
brine ?
Prof. Maynard. The brine is a saturated solution.
QuESTiOisr. "VYould not water have done it ? One of my
neighbors told me that when he set out his cabbage plants
he made a hole around the root and filled it with water and
saved his crop in that w^ay.
Prof. Maynard. The maggot goes into its pupa form,
and if new roots can be formed, which would be facilitated
by water, the crop may be saved in that way. I do not
know of any remedy excepting to plant upon new land, or
perhaps the use of abundance of lime. It is stated that lime
will prevent the ravages of this insect. But it is very
rarely that we can grow a crop of cabbage on land that has
been planted with cabbage or turnip more than one year.
Mr. . I have used barrels of brine made of fine
damaged salt, which I have bought by the ton and mixed
with water, but it did not have the efiect upon my cabbage
that Prof. Maynard says it had upon his. They were in all
stages ; some were wilted, some partly wilted, some very
fresh ; but they all died. I got no crop.
Prof. Maynard. You probably had both club-foot and
maggot.
Mr. Williams. The raising of cabbage has become a
pretty serious matter in my section, thirty miles above here.
We could not raise any this year because of club-foot, and I
have come down to this meeting more to learn how to raise
cabbages, perhaps, than any other one thing. I would like
to find out. I have studied on it for the last twenty years
and confess myself beaten. If there is any one here who
will help me out he will render a service, not only to me,
but to all the farmers in this valley who raise cabbages.
Mr. Vaughn of Middleborough. What kind of dressing
did you use on your cabbages ?
Mr. Williams. I have used nearly every kind. One
INJURIOUS INSECTS. 97
year a gentleman recommended the use of ashes, and I
i;urned over a piece of turf, after mowing a crop of ha}^, and
sowed ashes in the drill, thinking that perhaps the ashes
would trouble these w^orms. I had no cabbages. I then
turned the furrows and scattered in fertilizers, but the club-
foot has beaten me every time. If you pull up one you will
find a bunch as big as your fist, full of worms. I have
never used green manure ; I certainly would not recommend
that. When I have used manure I have used fine compost.
]Mr. Vaughx. I use night soil and green manure from
my barn cellar, and have raised good crops of cabbages.
Question. Was that on land that had grown a variety
of crops or was it new land ?
Mr. Vaughn. Part of it was old land and part of it was
new. It had never had a crop of cabbages on it before.
Mr. Perry of Worcester. I have raised cabbages for the
last thirty years, varying from one to ten acres. Some
years my cabbages have been considerably afiected with
club-foot and some years very little. My opinion is this.
You take, for instance, an old pasture that has been laid
down for a great many years, plough that up and manure it,
— I don't care what manure you put on it, — put your
phosphate on it, and you will have a splendid crop of
cabbages and will not have club-foot. But take a field
where you have had cabbages or turnips, and there will be
spots in that field where you will have club-foot. If there
is any little depression in the field you will see the club-
foot come in. I do not think it is the result of any maggot,
but I think that it is because something has been withdrawn
from the soil. I remember that some few years ago my
father had a very fine field of cabbages and the next year he
said he was going to have them again. I said, " I would
not do that, father." Said he, "I am going to try the ex-
periment and see whether I can raise a crop of cabbages
where they were raised before." I said, "All right; go
ahead." He set out his plants on a three-acre lot and they
lapped over on new ground about ten rows. Where he had
the cabbages the year before they were all club-foot, and
beyond that point they were as nice cabbages as you ever
need to look at. That is my experience. I have tried hard
98 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
to ascertain the cause, but have never been able to satisfac-
torily explain the reason why.
Dr. Cragin of Athol. I would like to tell the experience
I have had in raising cabbages. We oftentimes can learn
as much from our failures as from our successes. I have
frequently lost my crop by planting my cabbages on the
same ground in successive years. I then tried corn land
with a similar result, although not as bad. Two years ago
I employed a young man who had been in the employ of a
market gardener in my neighborhood, and when I spoke to
him about cabbages he says, '*I want a new piece of land
for cabbages." I told him he could have a piece of a corn
field. He says, "If you want to raise cabbages on such
land as that you can do it; I don't want to." "Well," I
said, " take such a piece as you please." He went into a
pasture that I suppose had not been ploughed for fifty years,
ploughed up a piece for ensilage corn, selected the poorest
of it and put out from two to three hundred cabbage plants.
I never saw a handsomer growth of cabbages in my life. I
had so many that I did not know what to do with them.
I believe he lost but one plant in the whole. He said in
explanation of it that the cabbage invarial)ly demands new
land. I have tried the same experiment since in raising
cabbage in my garden, which is shifted from one locality to
another, but on old land, and I have been very successful.
I am never troubled with the club-foot or the maggot there.
I occasionally have a man who insists upon using the old
garden for cabbages, and when that occurs we seldom get
enough for our own use, and are obliged to buy from our
neighbors.
Mr. Smith of West Springfield. I have been raising
cabbages to the extent of several acres for a number of
years, and each year it has beome more and more difiicult
to raise early cabbages ; but with late cabbages I think we
have never had a failure. We always put our late cabbages
on old land, taking care, however, that neither turnips nor
cabbages have been grown on that land for three or four
years. That is, every three or four years we think we can
reasonably expect a good crop of cabbage from a piece of
land. We plough in horse manure early (I don't want hog
OUR HOMES. 99
manure) and expect to set out the plants about the 4th of
July. I do not know that we have ever had a failure.
Mr. Williams. I understand you to mean by "new
land," land that has lain in grass ?
Mr. Smith. Yes, lain in grass ; new to field crops.
Adjourned to evening.
Evening Session.
The meeting was called to order at 7.30 by Mr. Brooks,
who introduced as the lecturer Mr. W. L. Warner of Sun-
derland.
OUR HOMES.
BY W. L. WAKNER OF SUNDERLAND.
Man's daily necessity is food, and in a state of civilization
it is largely drawn from the earth. We may conceive of a
time when men subsisted upon the fruits and vegetables
obtained with little exertion in the pleasant regions where
the human race is supposed to have originated. But, pre-
vious to the first record in which Cain appears as a "tiller
of the ground," all must be largely left to conjecture.
Egypt was undoubtedly the cradle of our civilization, and
was in a comparatively civilized state when Europe was in a
state of barbarism. From Egypt a knowledge of agricul-
ture extended to Greece, and we find it in a flourishing con-
dition a thousand years before the Christian Era. But the
Greeks took a deeper interest in other arts, and looked
contemptuously upon the tillers of the soil. They cared
much more for building up their cities than for cultivating
the land. Rome at this period was interested somewhat in
agriculture, and it is said that no greater praise could be
bestowed upon an ancient Roman than to call him a ' ' good
husbandman." From the downfall of the Roman Empire in
the fifth century to the sixteenth, we have no authentic
record of the progress of agriculture. We may look upon
the sixteenth century as the time when Europe awoke
from its long slumber. The invention of printing and the
100 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
discovery of the New World excited activity and aroused a
spirit of enterprise. The art of agriculture is older than
history, while the science of agriculture is modern. As
agriculture is the most essential of our productive industries,
so it has been the most conservative. For a period of
nearly four thousand years, during which population in-
creased enormously and the race advanced in general cul-
ture, there was little advance in the art of agriculture. If
it made any progress at all, it was so small that it appeared
as nothing when compared with the progress in other arts.
To possess a farm or landed estate, in those times, gave the
owner dignity and conveyed with it special privileges and
social honor ; but the laborers and actual tillers of the soil
were held in social inferiority. The degradation that has
been associated with labor in general, and with held laljor in
particular, has been a very great hindrance to the develop-
ment of agriculture. Perseverance, intelligence and edu-
cation are necessary to the sure success of agriculture.
Wherever we find the laborer ignorant we are almost sure
to find the farming tools heavy and unsuitable for rapid
work. We see this on the large cotton and sugar planta-
tions, where we often find the most improved machines
for the preparation of the crop used alongside of the most
clumsy tools and implements in the field. Lal)or-saving
machines are constantly coming into use, and the inventions
come from places where the workmen are bright and intel-
ligent. Competition in America is not merely a competi-
tion of land, soil and climate, it is a competition of methods
and of men. People are beginning to learn that it requires
a bright intelligent man to become a successful farmer. He
must study his business closely, if he expects to succeed and
make the farm pay. The competition of our farmers with
the farmers of the West is sharp and he needs to know what
to produce and how to produce it, and whether to be a gen-
eral or a special farmer. In some j^laces hay may l)e the
special crop, in others apples or cranberries, while in the
South cotton and rice are the principal crops. In our Com-
monwealth, mixed farming may l)e preferable, as it must
constitute the occupation of most of our farmers. The
more dense the population the greater the necessity of
OUR HOMES. 101
mixed farming. By rotation of crops in mixed farming the
land will produce a greater aggregate product and the qual-
ity of the crops will be better. The waste of one crop may
be used as a fertilizer in the production of another. There
is a better distribution of lal)or when mixed farming is fol-
lowed, as the various crops are planted and harvested at
different seasons. In a locality where only one crop is
grown, labor is very scarce and dear during the busy season,
as harvesting comes all at once and lasts but a short time.
A good year for one crop is not always a good year for
another. All ci'ops sometimes fail, but by a proper com-
bination the success of one helps out the losses in the other.
The declaration of Holy Writ is : " In the morning sow thy
seed, and in the evening withhold not thy hand, for thou
knowest not which Avill prosper, whether this or that."
One great trouble with the farmer is, he occupies and tills
too nuich land. Tlie number of farms in Massachusetts is
38,40fi, and the average of the State is sixty-four acres to
each farm. A small farm well tilled is the kind of a farm to
possess. Upon a small farm greater care is taken in the
selection of seed, and this has much to do with the success
of the crop. The intelligent farmer (and no one should
engage in the [)ursait without intelligence) should be free to
produce what he will and by such methods as seem to him
best, only guided by the demands of the market. Whether
a man tills the soil, practices law, preaches the Gospel,
works in a factory, teaches in a college, or is a merchant, it
is only a matter of choice, and whatever that choice may be
he should follow it closely, with a desire and determination
to succeed, and the chances are that he will succeed. One
vocation is as honorable as the other. The tillers of the
soil should own the land they till and receive the benefits of
the improvements they make and the wealth they create.
If the farmer owns the land he tills it can be bought and
sold like other pro[)erty.
In a report of the Massachusetts Board of Health, the
statement is made that the value of the farm products in
Massachusetts is greater, both per farm and per acre, than
in any other State in the Union, outside of New England.
The same report says in regard to life and health : ' ' The
102 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
farmer of Massachusetts lives on an average about sixty-five
years, or nearly fourteen years beyond the average human
life." When it becomes necessary for the farmer to run
into debt in obtaining a farm, let him purchase a good one,
containing buildings suitable for occupancy and land in good
condition to produce good crops. A man Avithout capital
cannot often succeed when placed upon a poor, worn-out
farm.
The valuable or important crop for the farmers of j^.lassa-
chusetts to prepare for the market is one that brings the
quickest and most substantial returns. If vegetables, milk,
butter, poultry and eggs Avill do this, they become the im-
portant crops. Fancy farming will not always pay ; earn-
est, intelligent farming will. There are many farmers in
our State who are at the present time sending large amounts
of money into the Western States, to be placed at interest or
invested with associations, in expectation of obtaining large
returns for their money. Such investments may prove
beneficial to some, while others are robbing their own farms
to benefit the cities and lands of the West. If this money
were invested in repairing their buildings,. in obtaining the
best farm implements, and in enriching their own land, it
would be a safe investment, bring in sure returns, and give
healthy satisfaction as well as lasting benefits. When the
land is in a high state of cultivation it can be made remuner-
ative, and when the farms are made to pay you will experi-
ence no more trouble in keeping the boys on the farm.
When the young men and boys of New England are ready
and willing to engage in the healthful occupation of cultivat-
ing the soil, they will find that the inducements held out at
the present time in our own State are greater and more cer-
tain of bringing in safe returns than those of the prairies of
the West or in the gold and silver mines of Colorado.
Here, in the homes of our own State, one is not obliged to
endure the privations and hardships that generally have to
be experienced in the newer sections of the West, where it
often requires many years of hard, discouraging labor to
obtain the pleasures and receive the benefits of home life.
There are many pleasantly located houses in all parts of
New England that are rapidly going to decay, and yet they
OUE HOMES. 103
are more suitable for occupancy than many buildings that
are called homes in the West. My advice to the young
men would be, " Go West"; not, however, for permanent
abode, but only to visit the country and associate with the
people, then return and make for themselves homes on the
hillsides or in the valleys of their own New England. Let
us have home comforts and social life in the country, leav-
ing the dazzling elegancies, showy pretences and imposing
wealth to the cities where they belong. Life in the country
is not given wholly up to style and excitement. Home in
the country signifies comfort with abundance.
One ffreat trouble with those enf>:aged in cultivating the
soil is want of confidence. They do not work together.
There is not that hearty fellowship that is pleasant and de-
sirable. Those of other callings meet together and agree
upon scales of prices for their services or products, while
the farmer will not even tell his neighbor what he obtained
for his apples or his last crop of wool. There are not as
many farmers elected to the Legislature as there should be.
They do not claim all their rights and are too easily discour-
aged. The weather is objectionable, the temperature is not
satisfactory. It is too hot or too cold, too wet or too dry ;
nothing appears to be right.
The elements have very much to do with the success of
those engaged in agriculture, for they need and must have
both sunshine and rain. There is really no reason for com-
plaining, since we have the sure promise of " seed time and
harvest." There are those born and reared upon the farm
who look upon the shovel and the hoe as tools fit only for
the day laI)orer. They consider the occupation of cultivat-
ing the land as beneath them, — not honorable or genteel.
They would have white, delicate hands, like the clerks and
counter-jumpers of city stores, who handle the pen, the tape-
measure or the yard-stick. They believe that if they follow
these occupations money will flow into their pockets like a
river. But, alas ! how easy it is to be disappointed !
Farming at the present time is a more popular pursuit than
it was twenty-five years ago ; the laws of progress appear to
be that the returns for labor shall increase.
In all business pursuits there are pleasures to enjoy, diffi-
104 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
culties to be overcome, and hardships to be endured. The
merchant talks of his bad debts and constant confinement ;
the mechanic will tell you there is no demand for his labor
on account of dull times. Men receiving large salaries are
not contented, but fear another day will find them out of
employment. Of all occupations farming appears to be the
safest. Farmers do not always become wealthy, l)ut most
of them own a good home and can obtain a comfortable liv-
ing for themselves and their families, and this is more than
can be said of many that are engaged in other pursuits.
There are successes and failures in any calling. No l)usi-
ness occupation or employment is as sure as farming, pro-
viding the necessary conditions of success are complied with.
At the present time farming affords better opportunities to
laboring men of moderate means than any other business, if
they possess the necessary knowledge of the business. To-
day the life of the agriculturist is as honorable and pure as
that of any class of men. Men have a natural love for
mother earth, and the young man who makes his home in
the busy city looks back with longing eyes to the old coun-
trj'^ homestead, in some rural spot beneath the shady trees,
and as he turns back to visit it after many years what mem-
ories cro\vd upon him in his anticipations of seeing his old
home once more !
Ah ! here it is, that clear old place,
Unchanged through all these years !
How like to some familiar face
My childhood home appears !
The grand old trees beside the door
Still spread their branches wide ;
The river wanders as of yore.
With sweetly murmring tide.
The birds are singing in the lea.
The flowers are blooming wild ;
And things appear the same to me
As wlien T was a child.
Home may l)e the largest as well as the most pleasant
l>art of tliis earth, if we will make it such. There is no one
who possesses as many opportunities for making home
pleasant and delightful as the man who lives in the country.
Sunlight, pure air, trees and flowers can be enjoyed almost
OUR HOMES. 105
without money or price. No home can be made more
pleasant than the farmer's. Notwithstanding all that, there
are many wasting their lives in fretfulness and discontent
because their lines are not cast in pleasanter places. The
ownership of a home is something which neither the Irish
peasant nor the German laborer has any conception of
The desire to own a home is distinctly an American char-
acteristic. The country home can and should be made
pleasant and attractive, and it is the duty of the farmer to
study his home as well as the soil and embrace every op-
portunity to improve and beautify it.
There are no words that can describe the influence the
W'ife and mother exerts upon the home, and the home con-
tains no member that can soothe and relieve the pain and
sorrow like her gentle hand. Yet with all her kindness and
tender sympathy, she is too often left alone, tired and
weary, and sometimes in sorrow, amid her perplexing cares,
which are often more trying and harder to endure than the
cares of the husband. Then why should they not be in
possession of our secrets as well as our joys and sorrows?
It is not always what we give, but what we share, that
afibrds us happiness and sweetens home.
There are men and boys among the feirmers, who, when
their day's work is done and their evening meal taken, start
immediately for the hotel or the country store, where they
are free to converse upon any topic of the day exce])t home.
Most men are obliged to provide for their families and many
have to obtain food and necessary articles for the home at
the close of the day's work. It is hardly necessary, how-
ever, to spend every evening away from home. When the
father and the boys are willing to pass their unemployed
evenings at their own firesides, the home will be greatly
improved. Our homes are what we make them. They
should be more than stopping places. They should be the
abodes of contentment and happiness. Some travellers
have said that America is the country in which there is less
happiness and less enjoyment than in any other in the
world. Certainly we have not cultivated the art of enjoy-
ing ourselves as we should. We are always in a hurry. It
is work, work, — toil, toil, — from early morn to dewy eve,
106 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
giving ourselves no recreation or rest. We are so eager to
accumulate wealth that we give ourselves very little time
for recreation or enjoyment. We have not yet learned an
art the Germans might teach us, — that of enjoying a little
simple pleasure every day.
We must make our children happy if we would make
them good. We should show them the bright side of life,
for there is a bright side to be enjoyed in every home. We
should provide them with entertainment, or they will provide
their own. Surround them with an atmosphere of affection
and enjoyment, if you would teach them to love their homes.
Improve and beautify your homes, fill them with good in-
fluences, let the members be refined and cultured. The
children in a home where politeness reigns will grow up
polite men and women. Habits formed in childhood are
permanent. The chief end of life with many is to gather
gold, and that gold is counted lost which hangs a picture
upon the wall or purchases a toy or a book for the eager
hand of childhood.
We need money to make pleasant homes, but the worship
of the dollar does much to desfrade them and to cause dis-
content among the children. It is not necessary to adopt a
luxurious style of living, — it is not well to run into del)t for
that which you cannot pay for, — for every man and wife,
blessed with good health and who are of industrious habits,
there is enough to be won to afibrd them a generous and
comfortable living. Social intercourse and meetings of
neighbors and friends for mutual improvement should be
encouraged by every member of the famil3^ The years of
our life will be few at most. Then why should we not enjoy
"ihem as we pavss along, and take and use the blessings which
Heaven confers. We strive to accumulate beyond our needs
and beyond the needs of our families. In doing this, we
deny ourselves leisure, recreation and culture. When wealth
has been won the power to enjoy has often gone, and it soon
passes into the hands of our children, who do not appreciate
its value and to whom it is an injury, for it removes all in-
centive to enterprise and industry, and often leads to tempta-
tion and crime.
OUR HOMES. 107
Society accords to wealth, no matter how it is obtained,
a more influential place than to honesty or to education. If
our homes are pleasant and cheerful, our sons and daughters
will not desire to leave them for the overcrowded cities, but
will remain upon the farm, where more perfect health and
pure enjoyment can be obtained. Furnish the home with
good books and papers ; let every home, if possible, be
supplied with a daily and at least one good agricultural
paper, and let them be read by every member of the family.
A farmer's home without papers and books is like a farm
without the sunshine. Pleasant rooms and comfortable fur-
niture are desirable. Expensive furniture will not make
rooms pleasant and cheerful.
The charm of a cheerful home depends much upon the
housekeeper. The bright sunshine and a pleasing prospect
from the window make some rooms cheerful and very desira-
ble. In others, recourse should be had to other things, to
in part make up for this want. Such rooms should be fur-
nished in bright and joyous colors ; the walls should be hung
with simple ornaments, made by the skilful hands of the
wife and daughters. The comforts and pleasures of some
homes are sacrificed to a mania for neatness, while in others
domesticdisorder banishes contentment. In some homes the
parlor or best room, furnished expensively, is thought too
good for use except on special occasions, such as the minis-
ter's annual visit or the meeting of the Dorcas Society, and
at all other times kept closed for fear the sun will fade- the
carpets or the children soil the furniture. No home should
have rooms too good for the use of the whole family ; a
room may be attractive without being excessively orderly.
A singing bird, and plants growing and blossoming in the
window, will help make home pleasant. Pictures and books
people a room. Good humor should always be encouraged.
A good hearty laugh is always music. We must have bright
and cheerful fathers and mothers, if our homes are to have
happy, loving children.
While the house should be neat and social inside, the out-
side should not be neglected. Every farmer's home should
have a well-kept garden ; fruit trees should be grown in
-abundance. The question is often asked by people that are
108 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
unaljle to obtain fresh vegetables and well-ripened fruit, why
it is that the farmer's table is so poorly supplied with these
luxuries, so easily grown, and which afford such a large
amount of health-giving food. No country home can be
complete without flowers. They help the weary to rest,
they are company for the sick and lonely, and help to cheer
the downcast and afHicted. Flowers in a room will do what
nothing else can accomplish, — a single rose lights up a room.
The cultivation of flowers may not add to the Ijank account,
yet the happiness and good which they aflbrd will well re-
pay their cultivation, and their little blossoms contain a
passport that gives them entrance into all hearts.
" In palace and in hovel, in science and in art,
They speak of love and beauty, they cheer the lonely heart ;
They work their mission, given by their creator God,
Who planted them in beauty on many a velvet sod.
They never grow weary of the work they have to do,
But bud and bloom, in beauty so faithful and so true ;
And in the coming ages, as knowledge holdeth sway,
Will be added laurels to the flowers of to-day."
Music shoukl not be forgotten or neglected. It should
occupy its place and form one of the principal entertainments
of the home circle. A piano, organ, violin or other musical
instrument adds greatly to the pleasures of the home. Then
give the children singing-books and teach them their use.
It cannot be expected or desired that all the boys and girls
will j'emain upon the farm. The men and women that were
born and l)rought up on the farm give to the city its health
and life. More than one-half of our presidents, statesmen,
clergymen, professors and merchants, received their early
education upon the farm. They grew upon the hills and in
the valleys, surrounded with the noble work of nature ; they
there gained the power to accomplish what they have in life.
The city and country are bound closely together by ties that
can never be broken. Our country homes will grow and
educate for the nation, its presidents, statesmen, clergymen,
etc. ; they may give to the western cities and prairies a part,
but retain the best upon the farms of New England.
There is one evil that is bcins^ felt in New England to-
OUR HOMES. 109
day, an evil that is giving our houses and land into foreign
hands. It is the childlessness of our homes. The home in
which there are no children is often a lonely one. They may
have no children to disturl) or soil their costly furniture ; no
little finger-marks on the window-panes or mirrors. They
may not be obliged to read or sing for their amusement, nor
be confined at home on their account ; but can have })erfect
order and neatness in the house, — enjoy amusements, money,
and, indeed, everything but happiness. With all their bless-
ings the greatest of all is missing. We may live without
children, but the best part of home is gone. Home is a
word that has a definite meaning in New Ens^land. It can-
not be defined in the dictionary, yet there is no word the
meaning of which is better understood ; but how often its
true meaning is i2;nored and forgotten. How often does the
boy leave his home and the farm, simply because it is in no
way made pleasant and attractive to him. In this, the
parents are at fault. When the country home is made the
dearest place on earth to its inmates, then we may hope to
keep some of the boys on the form. Home ! — the name, the
word, is very dear to all. There is something in the word
wiiich carries us back to our childhood, to the good old home
we left many years ago ; and while many of us have pleas-
ant and happy homes in cities and villages, still we cannot
help turning back to the good old farmer's home in the
country where we first breathed the pure air and drank from
the cooling spring that flowed down the mountain side, or
from the " old oaken bucket that hung in the well." In a
word, there is no home so pleasant, attractive and healthy as
the country home of the farmer.
The Chairman. There is only one side to this question
and therefore there is no room for discussion. We are not
very often favored with the presence of ex officiis members
of our Board, — they have so many other duties to occupy
their time, — but this evening we have Lieutenant-Governor
Brackett with us, and of course we expect to see him on
the platform and to hear from him.
110 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
ADDRESS OF HON. J. Q. A. BRACKETT.
Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, — The subject of
the address which we have heard is a familiar one, but it is
one which never fails to interest. It has been a pleasure to
me to listen to its treatment by our fiiend who has just
spoken. I notice that some of the newspapers have stated
that I was to lecture before the Board this evening. This is
a mistake. They have done me an unmerited honor. I
came here for no such purpose, but simply as a member of
the Board, without any intention of doing more than to take
part in an informal and ofF-hand way in its discussions. One
of the honors enjoyed by the person who happens to hold
the position of Lieutenant-Governor of the Commonwealth
is that he becomes, by virtue of his office, a member of the
Board of Agriculture. The statutes, in establishing this
Board, have provided that the Governor, Lieutenant-Gover-
nor and Secretary of the Commonwealth shall be members,
and in my view it was not the intention of the Legislature
that this membership should be simply nominal, but that the
occupants of these positions, as far as they can consistently
with their other duties, should take an active interest in the
work of the Board. I have come here this evening because
entertaining that view, and should be glad to stay through
the remaining sessions in Springfield ; but an engagement
with the Governor and Council in another part of the Com-
monwealth to-morrow will prevent.
I do not know that I can contribute anything of practical
value to the consideration of the subject which is before us.
Although I live in one of the most thriving and productive
of the agricultural towns of the Commonwealth, the town of
Arlington, yet my vocation is not that of a farmer, and I
therefore do not live in a farmer's home. I can, neverthe-
less, appreciate, and do appreciate, the importance of this
subject, not only to farmers themselves as a class, but to the
whole community. The Commonwealth needs the influences
which spring from the farmers' homes of Massachusetts. In
the struggle which is constantly going on in behalf of good
government, for the maintenance of public order, and for
the protection of the public morals, these influences are
ADDKlLSS OF HON. J. Q. A. BRACKETT. Ill
demanded to offset the forces Avhich are adverse to these
great objects and which unhappily are too prevalent in our
great centres of population. Jefferson once said, speaking
of the growth of cities, that " when we get piled upon one
another in large cities, as in Europe, we shall become
corrupt, as in Europe." The history of municipal govern-
ment in our large cities, their business and social character-
istics, the fierce struggles for wealth and power, the pursuit
of these objects regardless of the means resorted to or of
their eflect upon the public, the vanities, frivolities and
shams which take all the heart out of social intercourse, the
corruption and chicanery in politics, — these afford startling
proofs of the truth of Jefferson's prediction. To aid in
counteracting the effect of these conditions upon our national
life and character we need the saving influences which
emanate from the farmers' homes of the country. John
Fiske, in his " American Political Ideas," puts this matter
pointedly when he says : "It will be long, I trust, before
the simple, earnest and independent type of character that has
been nurtured on the Blue Hills of Massachusetts and the
White Hills of New Hampshire shall cease to operate like a
powerful leaven upon the whole of American society."
[Applause. ] I see that you all endorse that sentiment. To
multiply the examples and extend the influence of that type
of character is one of the nation's needs to-day. The greater
the number of happy, thrifty farmers' homes Ave have in
Massachusetts the better it will be for Massachusetts.
Whatever can be done to increase their attractions and their
comforts, to make them more desirable, to prevent their
being abandoned, to cause them to be occupied not by a less
but by a greater number of people, ought to be done.
Every effort in that direction and for this purpose is deserv-
ing of the support and the encouragement of all public-
spirited men and women, of all who are concerned for the
welfare, the progress and the happiness of themselves and
their fellow-men. There is, unhappily, a tendency on the
part of the people, especially on the part of young people,
to desert these rural homes. This fact is often adverted to
and the cause and cure are common subjects for discussion.
The greater facilities aflTorded in our cities for the acquisition
112 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
of wealth and power, their social attractions, their activities
and their excitements, allure the fancies of the young and
they become wearied with the quiet and retired life of the
country home. Their ambitions are enkindled. They long
to mingle in the busy tiirong, and to take their chances at
■winning the great prizes which excite their boyish dreams.
The deserted homesteads passed in journeying over our
country roads tell the story of the depopulating effects of
these aspirations and desires. Standing silent and tenant-
less, with its doors closed and its windows boarded up or
broken in, its shingles and clapboards dropping otf, its front
yard tilled with grass and weeds, no smoke curling up from
its chimney, no light or warmth within, — one of these de-
serted homesteads forms a suggestive and at the same time a
pathetic spectacle. It tills the mind of the passer-by with
dreamy fancies as to the persons who may have occupied it
and the scenes of which it has been the theatre in the past.
He pictures in his imagination the young couple who there
may have begun their married life, the joy and love which
centered about their early home, the children who enlivened
it with the music of their merry voices, the joyous festivals,
the paring bees, the huskings, the quiltings, and other like
ffatherino;s, when neiirhbors came to render their friendly
services and to have a good time ; the Thanksgiving dinners,
with their heavily-laden tables, when the meml)ers of the
family, after separation, were united again ; the bright wed-
ding days, when relatives and friends came to bring their
irifts and their oreetini;s to bride and brideiiroom ; and those
darker days, when the family circle was broken, and the
house was filled again with friends and neighbors tendering
their sympathy and condolence to those who mourned.
The old home is now forsaken. Its charms, its joys, its
sorrows, have all departed. Its original occupants are in
their graves in the little village church-yard, and their chil-
dren have gone to seek their fortunes elsewhere.
These scenes are far too common in the rural districts of
Massachusetts, New Hampshire and the other New England
States. These districts are being drained of their popula-
tion to swell the current of city life. As a great river,
whose water power has built up the cities which line its
ADDRESS OF HON. J. Q. A. BRACKETT. 113
banks, and which, after ministering to their industries,
finally pours its wealth of waters into the sea, is fed by
numberless rivulets which issue from the country hillsides,
so the population of those cities is largely made up by con-
tributions from these same country regions. They are
contributions which are of great value to the cities. As
our friend has said, they give strength and vigor to city life.
But what is the cities' gain is the towns' loss, and it is a loss
which, in so large a measure, they ought not to bear. Their
growth should be proportionate to that of the cities, that
both may share alike in the national prosperity and pro-
gress.
The influence of these farmers' homes is a conservative
one. By this I do not mean that it is an old-fogy influence,
that it is adverse to progress, but that it is conservative in
the sense that it is a safesruard a2:ainst these dangerous ten-
dencies to which I have alluded and which are so rife in the
cities. This influence derives its character largely from the
fact that the homes of the farmers are usually owned by the
persons who occupy them. They are, therefore, more per-
manent than city homes. A great portion of the residents
in cities live in hired dwellings. They are constantly
changing their residences. AVhat is a residential quarter of
the city at one time becomes a business section at another ;
the homestead of this year becomes a place of business next
year. A friend of mine the other day was telling me about
taking his boy to see his old home in Charlestown, and
when they arrived there they found that what was once his
mother's parlor was now a cheap bar-room. The boy
thought that that was a pretty poor place for his father to
be brought up in. That is the way homes change in the
cities. It is difi*erent in the country. What is once a home-
stead usually remains so, and the fact that these homesteads
are generally owuegl by their occupants is one of the reasons
why they retain their character as such. Home ownership
is an important element in civilization. It not only con-
tributes to the material welfare of the people, but its influ-
ence,— morally, politically and socially, — is salutary. It
promotes love of country. When a man has a proprietary
interest in the soil, he naturally feels an attachment for the
114 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
whole land of which his little plot constitutes a part. Under
the fuedal system, as you know, the homes of the people
were owned by a comparatively few feudal lords. They
constituted the governing class, and the landless many were
dependent upon them. The effect of any such system
always is, that while the few are blessed with abundance,
the great majority of the people are poor and dependent.
We have an illustration of the effect of the absence of home
ownership in Ireland, that land to which the attention of this
country has been largely attracted for so many years. The
homes of Ireland are, as a rule, owned by men who do not
live in them. They are owned by absentee landlords. The
tenant farmers have no vested interest in the farms they
occupy. The landlords have no interest in the tenants,
except to squeeze out of them the greatest possible amount
of money in the shape of rent. The tenant has no induce-
ment to improve the farm he occupies, for the moment he
increases its value, that moment up goes his rent. The
wealth of the country is constantly drained to support a
class of people who spend their incomes elsewhere. The
hard earnings of the industrious many go to support in
luxury the idle and useless few. Prosperity can never
exist under such conditions. A state of things lil^e that is
not calculated to promote the growth of patriotism or to
develop a respect for law. Roman history, to which our
friend alluded, also furnishes an illustration upon this point.
When the Roman farms were many in number and small in
extent, and were cultivated by their owners, the Roman
republic was prosperous and powerful, and its people were
patriotic. But there came a change, and with it the decline
of Rome began. The homes of the people were monopo-
lized by the nobles, and the farmers, no longer interested in
the ownership of the soil, lost their love of country and
became unpatriotic, indifferent and degraded. Gibbon says
that the lands of Italy, which had been originally divided
among the families of free and indigent proprietors, were
insensibly purchased or usurped by the avarice of the nobles ;
that in the age which preceded the fall of the republic there
were not more than two thousand citizens of Rome who pos-
sessed any independent subsistence ; and he adds, that when
ADDRESS OF HON. J. Q. A. BRACKETT. 115
the prodigal and thoughtless commons had imprudently
alienated, not only the use but inheritance of power, to wit,
their own homesteads and free life, they sank into a vile and
wretched populace.
The man who owns his homestead not only enjoys a
higher social position and has a greater opportunity for
sharing in the good things of life, but he has an additional
incentive for being a good citizen. He realizes more clearly
that he has an interest in the country, that he is a more impor-
tant factor in the body politic. His position as a tax-payer,
while it imposes a burden, adds to his sense of dignity and
self-respect. He feels more keenly the necessity for good
government, for economy in public expenditures, for the
preservation of law and order. " Only those who have
nothing to lose ever revolt," says Holyoke. A man who
has something to lose through disorder and tumult is
under the strongest of bonds to keep the peace. There-
fore, to promote home ownership on the part of the
people, especially on the part of the agricultural people of
the State, is in every way an object which those who have
the welfare of the State at heart ought to seek to promote in
every possible way. Our laws provide that a homestead
shall be exempt, to a certain amount, from attachment or
levy on execution. I believe it would be well if they also
provided for their exemption, to a certain amount, from tax-
ation— [applause] — in order thereby to encourage more of
the citizens of Massachusetts to become owners of the soil
of Massachusetts, and in that way to promote the stability of
the government and the good order of society. Whatever
the Legislature can do in that direction, and whatever this
Board of Agriculture can do towards promoting the owner-
ship of homes in Maassachusetts, will in the his'hest desrree
contribute to the material, the moral, the social, the intellec-
tual and political development and welfare of the Common-
wealth which we all love so much, and the well-beino: and
happiness of all the people whose good fortune it is to dwell
within its borders. [Loud applause.]
116 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Prof. Stockbridge was called for by a number of gen-
tlemen in the audience, and in response to the call spoke as
follows : —
Mr. Qhairman^ Ladies and Gentlemen^ — Of course, as
you all know, I did not come here to make a speech, and I
know that I am not going to make one. I have been de-
lighted with the words and the sentiments of the lecturer
and of his Honor the Lieutenant-Governor ; but as I stand
here and look over this audience, it seems to me that every
thought that has been uttered upon this platform to-night
has been driven from my head. I remember to have at-
tended a meeting of this Board of Agriculture in Springfield
once before. The lecturer to-night has spoken of the
changes which have taken place in the agriculture and in
the agricultural community of Massachusetts within the last
few years, and what more perfect and astounding proof do
we find of the changes which have taken place than the con-
trast of this audience with the one which assembled in Spring-
field something like twenty years ago, at the first country
meeting of the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture ? When
we met here twenty or twenty-five years ago, to get up a
boom and to wake up the lethargic farmers of Hampden
County, we came here with Prof. Agassiz, Prof. Johnson
of New Haven, Dr. Loring of Salem, and with all the
boom, with all the advertising and with all the noise we
could make, with these men as the speakers, we hardly got
more than three citizens of Springfield to hear them ; and
when we had Prof. Agassiz deliver a lecture in the hall
across the way, there was scarcely anybody there to hear
even him on a most interesting subject and one which was
then attracting the attention of the whole scientific world.
The farmers were not here and the citizens of Springfield
were not here. Here you are, brother farmers, to-night.
Has not a change come over the spirit of your dream?
Prof. Johnson was here and delivered a valuable lecture,
but a baker's dozen was all that he drew that afternoon.
It is natural that I should think of these things. I do not
see a man here to-night who was here then. [Two gentle-
men, Mr. Stedman and Mr. Brooks, said they were here.]
"Well, you were here, but where were the rest of the crowd
ADDRESS OF PROF. STOCKBRIDGE. 117
then? The truth of the remark of the lecturer that there
has been a great change in the agricultural community within
the last twenty or twenty-five years in this immediate section
is shown by the audience that has been drawn here to-night,
as well as in a great many other directions. You will find
it, as has already been said, in the implements on the farm,
the style of farming, the crops we grow, the general manage-
ment of land and the whole round of agricultural industry.
We find that there has been a great change, and a change,
in my judgment, for the better. We do not grow the same
crops and our mode of farming is not the same ; there has
been almost an entire change in these respects. While on
this point a statement comes to my mind that I saw in a book
to-day, accidentally, that away back in 1662, when the whole
Connecticut Valley consisted of the towns of Springfield,
Northampton and Hadley, the Great and General Court of
Massachusetts passed a law that the people of Springfield,
Northampton and Hadley might pay all their county rates
in fat cattle and other cattle fit for market, and in corn.
They did not have any money. In 1 662 fat cattle and other
cattle fit for market, and corn, were the great market crops
of this valley, and they remained so down until within about
twenty-five years, did they not? You remember that the
"river gods" were fattening cattle here for two hundred
years for the markets in the eastern part of the State. What
are they doing to-day ? The ' ' river gods " are not making
cattle nor fat cattle — what are they making ?
A Voice. Tobacco.
Prof. Stockbridge. Oh, no, that has gone up. The
filling up of this valley and of the whole of New England
with a difi'erent class of population, engaged in a difierent
business from that which was followed by our fathers, has
created a demand in Massachusetts and all over New Eno;-
land for a difierent class of crops. Cattle cannot be grown
profitably here in competition with the West ; we cannot
aficnxl to grow them ; but we make milk, we make butter,
we make cheese, we make poultry, we make vegetables, and
we shall continue to make men and women as of old, and we
shall find in this New England an open market for all the
crops of this kind that we can make. [Applause.]
118 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Now, these changes of which the lecturer has been speak-
ing lie right along on this line, — changes which have been
absolutelj^ necessary ; and I am proud to see that the farmers
of New England have had the wit to recoo^uize the demands
and requirements as they have arisen and to fit themselves
to the circumstances of the case. It is a great deal better
than it would have been for us to try to grow cattle on our
hills or to make fat cattle, as the " river gods" of the valley
used to do, when my friend Taft and the rest of them were
driving fat cattle on the hoof from here to Brighton. They
cannot afford to do that thing now.
There is one subject on which Brother Warner touched
where I do not agree with him. He said we ought to culti-
vate small farms. Now, from the way that he said it and
from the way we very often hear it said, it seems to me that
the acres are supposed to be at fault. I say no. I do not
care how many acres of land a man cultivates, whether one,
or a hundred, or a thousand, provided he cultivates each and
every acre as it should be cultivated. The point is just
here. The more land a man cultivates the more crops he
grows, the more he has to sell of any crop that he can grow
upon his farm the more profit there is per bushel or per
acre in what he grows, provided that that cultivation is as it
should be, provided the land is manured as it should be,
provided he gives the care to the crop that he should give.
If a man cultivates a thousand acres of land he should give
the same care to manuring the soil, the same care to the
crops, the same care to economically harvesting them in
order to save them all, that he would give if he did not cul-
tivate but one acre. Then he can make more money per
pound, or per bushel, or per acre, and for a great many
reasons. I want to know if a man in Sunderland who makes
five thousand bushels of onions does not have a greater
influence on the market, a greater control over it, does not
bring more purchasers to him from all over the country
where there are onion dealers, than a man who grows but
a hundred bushels? The latter is utterly unknown in
the market, has no influence on it, and must sell his hun-
dred bushels of onions as best he can and where he can.
This principle runs through every branch of agriculture.
ADDRESS OF PROF. STOCKBRIDGE. 119
Do your work well, cultivate every acre of your thousand
acres as you would cultivate a single acre, and your profit
will be proportioned to the number of acres you so culti-
vate.
Then there is another thing I will mention in that connec-
tion. The man who cultivates two, three or four hundred
acres can afford to keep all the machinery and appliances
that have been produced in these modern times for the eco-
nomical cultivation of crops, while the man who has but
twenty-five acres cannot afford to do it. A man in these
days, in order to cultivate a farm economically, must have all
sorts of implements of tillage. Compare the implements of
tillage on the farm to-day with the implements that were
on the farm when I was a boy ! Think of the old plough,
with its wooden mould-board ; of the old three-cornered
harrow, with teeth three inches long and as large as your
arm, and always blunt; then go into the tool shed of any
one of these successful farmers and look at the implements
of tillage. What do they have there ? Look at the culti-
vating tools, the harvesting tools, and the multitude of im-
plements of husbandry there that a man who is the owner of
a hundred-acre farm can afford to have and must have !
How can a man who is cultivating a twenty-five acre farm
afford to have such implements? Of course they cost a
great deal of money. It costs him more to cultivate his
land per acre, it costs him more to harvest his crop per
acre, it costs him more to market his crop per acre, per
bushel or per hundred bushels. The more a man has to
sell, the more land he cultivates, the more tools and imple-
ments he can use, the cheaper is all this work done.
A Voice. He can hire.
Prof. Stockbridge. I know he can, but he cannot pay.
[Laughter.] I want to lay great emphasis upon thorough
manuring, thorough cultivation, the management of the farm
on strictly business principles, and the selling of the crops
on strictly the same principles. If you will do that, you
can go ahead and make your farm just as large as you
please ; or, in other words, up to the measure of your indi-
vidual capacity as business men ; the larger the farm the
greater is the per cent, of profit. [Applause.]
120 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The Chairman. There are others here from whom we
should be glad to hear to-night, but we have spent a very
profitable evening, and we want you to go away with a very
strong desire to come here early in the morning, for we are
to come again at half after nine. Our programme for to-
morrow is a full one, as you will notice.
Adjourned to Wednesday, at 9.30.
SECOND DAY.
The meeting was called to order at 9.30 by Mr. Brooks,^
a fine audience being in attendance. Prof. Henry E. Al-
VORD, of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, was intro-
duced as the first lecturer of the morninij.
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS IN NEW ENGLAND?
BY HENRY E. AI.VOUD OF AMIIEUST.
Is ensilage a success in New England ? This question has-
been submitted to me for consideration and reply on this oc-
casion. Meeting the question directly, I answer; Where
silos have been properly and economically made, well filled
with suitable material, resulting in a good product, and the
ensilage fed out with judgment, — this system of preparing
and preserving succulent food for the live stock of the farm
has proved a success hi New England and in numerous other
parts of the world.
While this reply is and is intended to be decidedly in the
afiirmative, several conditions are stated which give rise to
further questions. How can silos be properly and economi-
cally built? How and with what should they be filled to
make good ensilage? And in what quantity and manner
should ensilage be used as forage for domestic animals, to
obtain the best results ?
These questions in turn require even longer replies. They
open the whole subject of silos and ensilage as viewed with
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 121
our present knowledge. This is quite a task, but as it was
probably the intention of the committee of the Board in pro-
pounding the original question, I will endeavor to go over
the entire field as far as is possible within reasonable limits.
Based upon practical and considerate experience for six
years in England, twelve years in America, and more than
twice as long in France and Germany, this statement is fully
justified and lays the foundation of our subject : Any plant
or vegetable product or refuse, good for cattle food when
green or fresh, may be preserved as ensilage in an edible
and succulent condition throughout the year, or for several
years.
Before proceeding to describe the best methods for accom-
plishing this result, a brief historical sketch may be permit-
ted, to show more in detail the experience which is relied
upon to substantiate the statement already made.
The words silo and ensilage have come into use, adopted
from the French, in connection with a system of providing
green forage for domestic animals throughout the year.
The plain terms pit, pitting and pitted would better suit our
languajie and serve the purpose, but it seems too late to
make the change. We must therefore accept the term silo
for the receptacle, ensilo, ensiloing or ensiling for the verb,
and ensilage for the product or pitted material. As different
plants are preserved by this method, the word ensilage alone
is incomplete, and "ensilage of corn," "ensilage of clover,"
etc., is necessary to a clear understanding of the article re-
ferred to. Yet custom already allows " ensilage " to be inter-
preted as pitted corn plants, maize being the crop used in
this connection so much more than all others. Silo means a
pit, and this word in different forms can be traced back
across Europe, through Rome, Greece and Egypt, into
Persia, in very ancient times. In the earliest agricultural
writings, the silo or siro is described as an underground ex-
cavation used for the storage of grain and of green crops
also. The requirements of the ancient siro were those
deemed essential to the modern silo, — protection of the
contents from contact with the sides of the pit (if of earth) ,
dryness and perfect exclusion of air. A knowledge of this
method of preserving green forage came to the present agri-
122 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
culture of Europe in a manner that cannot be traced, but is
known to have been in practice in Hungary at the beginning
of the present century and probably as long in Germany.
An account of what was called ' ' Sauer-kraut for Cattle " can
be found in Arthur Young's "Annals of Agriculture," in the
form of a letter from Berlin, dated August 25, 1804. The
process in vogue in East Prussia was well described by
Grieswold in 1842, and other similar accounts exist of its
application in Spain, France and Mexico to the preservation
of diflereut vegetable products, including the leaves of trees
and vines. In Germany it was especially useful in keeping
beet leaves and beet pulp in sugar-making districts. Its ap-
plication to corn seems to have been accidental about thirty
years ago. It passed from Germany into France, and
August Goffart is to be mainly credited with bringing the
system to a state of greater perfection and economy than ex-
ists elsewhere in Europe. It was also mainly through the
efforts of M. Goffart, and the attention his work attracted,
that the silo was introduced into the United States.
In the year 1873, and again in August, 1874, a description
of the Hunfyarian method of making " sour-fodder" in the
crude, trench form, appeared in the "American Agricultur-
ist." The same journal published in June, 1875, an illus-
trated account of the European experiments with ensilage
based upon reports in the Journal d* Agriculture Practique^
of Paris. It is worthy of note that the much-abused United
States Agricultural Department Report contained, in the
volume for 1875 (pp. 39G-408), the first full description of
silos and ensilage published in this country, if not the first
in the English language. So our ignorance of this subject
ten or twelve years ago was due to a want of appreciation
of that freely-distributed public document. This article is
entitled, "The French Mode of Curing Forage," and deals
with its origin, the silos, the usual methods of cultivating
and manipulating crops for ensilage, the effects of fermenta-
tion and the value of ensilaire in stock feeding:. The oreneral
principles of ensilage were applied to the preservation of
different products in numerous places in America between
1870 and 1880. Prof. Manly Miles, at the Illinois Indus-
trial University, kept broom-corn seed and the green-corn
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 123
plant, whole, in this way for months. In dairying districts
brewers' grains were similarly preserved in pits. In Sep-
tember, 1877, the "American Agriculturist," under the title
of "An American Silo," described and illustrated a dairy
barn at Katonah, Westchester Co., N. Y., which contained
a cellar or pit, specially constructed for storing brewers'
grains and preventing their fermentation and decay, by pres-
sure and exclusion of air.
Mr. GofTart published his book on ensilage in 1877.
This work was noticed in a paper read by ex-Governor E,.
M. Price, of New Jersey, on Friday, Dec. 6, 1878, at the
International Dairy Fair in New York City, and subse-
quently published in the Fair "Proceedings." I remember
the attention given to the subject by the farmers and dairy-
men present on that occasion, and believe it was then dis-
cussed for the first time in a public meeting in America.
A translation of GofFart's book was published in New York
in 1879, and since that time, half a dozen books on the
subject have appeared, besides the numberless articles in
the agricultural press, with which we are all more or less
familiar.
The first person who built silos and made ensilage of corn
for cattle food in the United States was Francis Morris, a
large Maryland farmer. Ho saw an account of Gofiart's
operations in a French newspaper, early in 1876 ; at once
opened a correspondence ; that same year raised five acres
of corn in drills and preserved it in silos, and relocated the
trial in the following year. It was the experience of Mr.
Morris that was given at the New York meeting above
mentioned. From this beginninoj, the system has rapidly
spread in America, and there are now hundreds of silos in
use in difiereut parts of the country. They are chiefly in
the Eastern and Middle States ; over one hundred in Ver-
mont, for example ; but they are also as far south as the
Gulf States, and as far west as Nebraska.
So general has been the discussion of this subject for
several years, that it is useless at this time to enter upon
a minute description of the process, or the forage thus pro-
duced, or to make an argument upon the practical success
of this mode of preservation. But we may well consider
124 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
the leading points on which there remain differences of
opinion, and the best lessons derived from practical expe-
rience.
I. Silos — Location, Construction and Cost.
Local circumstances will largely govern all three points.
The silo may be a new building, an annex, an old cellar, or
a hay " bay" refitted. The location should be such as to
prevent unnecessary expense in construction, and economize
labor in filling it and in removing the contents. As a rule,
these conditions are best secured by placing the silo within,,
or adjacent to, a hill-side barn. Thorough drainage is essen-
tial, and the general requirements for a good ice-house
apply very well to a silo. It may, therefore, be wholly
underground, or wholly above ground-level. It is prefer-
able to have the silo excavated, or partly so, to secure and
maintain fairly an even temperature at all seasons. For ma-
terials, stone, brick, concrete, wood and paper may be used^
and a simple trench, or hole in the ground, will serve the
purpose. Excavations in an impervious soil, or a well-
drained gravel-bed, which may or may not be lined with
boards, to prevent caving or ensure cleanliness, make good
silos. Such were the first made in this country, by Mr.
Morris, — the first, if I am not mistaken, in this State and
in this valley. I know such trenches in Illinois, simply
dug in the open field, through a tenacious soil and a hard-
pan sub-soil, to a stratum of gravel below, filled with
uncut corn, grown in the field, and covered with the earth
thrown out of the pit, which have made good ensilage,
and proved unquestionably profitable for several years.
Yet I believe a substantial masonry silo is true economy in
the end. It should be water-tight, and preferably, but not
necessarily, air-tight and frost-proof. Oval or rectangular
is the best shape — if the latter, the corners maybe filled
and rounded or concave. The walls should be smooth and
vertical, although some prefer them to flare or slope out-
ward a little near ihe top. Make the silo small and deep,
rather than large and shallow, the depth considerably greater
than the length, width or diameter. Several small silos are
greatly to be preferred to one large one ; they may, of
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 125
course, be built adjoining, and if desired, communicating
by doors at bottom of the partitions. But the silo should
not be too small in surface. While I have preserved ensilage
pretty v^ell in boxes and barrels, with and without pressure,
well housed and exposed to all temperatures of the year,
I am convinced that, for best results, a silo should not be
less than ten feet in its least dimensions, and prefer twelve
feet, or even fifteen. Still, a good rule is to have the silo
so suited in size to the quantity of ensilage to be used from
it, that at least three inches in depth over its entire surface
shall be removed daily, or every other day, at any rate,
while the pit is open. Although more labor is involved in
the method, unless hoisting apparatus is provided, the best
plan seems to be to have no openings in the bottom or
walls, and to remove all the ensilage by lifting out. Side
doors will often be found convenient, however, and may be
used, although a certain cause of more or less loss of ma-
terial ; if used, make these doors as small as possible, and
take every precaution for their being made air-tight. If
circumstances make the use of a door advisable, and thus
empty the silo from the bottom, let the silo be built deep
and narrow, but long, with the door at the end, instead of
deep, narrow and short, where the ensilage is removed
from the top. The idea is, to have the least possible sur-
face of the packed ensilage exposed to the air, while the
silo is open and its contents being daily removed. A
curb, apron, or upward extension of the walls should be
made, equal to one-third of the depth of the permanent
structure, to allow for the settling, and this may be of wood
in all cases. In planning the size of a silo, allow twenty
cubic feet for every month's feeding of one thousand pounds
live-weight of animals to be fed. This is to be for the
■space occupied by the ensilage when fully settled, and
makes due allowance for loss and waste, sure to occur to
some extent. (For example : A silo ten feet wide, twelve
feet long and twenty feet deep, in full, the contents settled
to fifteen feet deep, would hold 1,800 cubic feet of packed
ensilage, or about forty tons, enough to feed ten cows
thirty pounds of ensilage daily, including waste, for nine
months.) The silo should be built strong enough to bear
126 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
all strains of holding its entire cubic capacity, rated at fifty
pounds to the cubic foot. In converting a hay bay into a
silo, it must be recollected that there is no loss of storage
room. The cubic space required for one ton of hay will
hold eight tons of ensilage, although the latter contains but
little more than twice as much dry food material as a ton of
hay. As to the cost of a silo, the range is from fifty cents,
or even less, to five dollars, for every ton of capacity ; from
two dollars to two and a half dollars per ton is a fair esti-
mate. A forty-ton masonry silo can be built under an
existing shelter for $100. One of 80 tons capacity, of
wood, has been built in the corner of a barn, at a total cost
of $50. I have in mind an excellent concrete silo, built
some years ago, and as solid to-day as a single block of
stone, which holds 165 tons, and cost |500, or about $3
per ton. The cost of labor and materials and other local
conditions vary so as to make closer estimates impossible.
But enough has been said to show that any person who
wishes to try making ensilage for a year or two, to satisfy
himself in regard to it, need not be prevented by the
first cost of a temporary but efficient silo of moderate
size.
Brief but sufficient directions are added for making cheap
silos : —
Tlie Earthen Silo. — If the location is high enough to
prevent water rising in the bottom, and the soil is stiff
enough to prevent caving of the walls, this form of silo is
the simplest and cheapest. It is nothing more than a pit
dug in the earth, with smooth, vertical or inclined sides and
preferably with a shelter over it. As ensilage when filled
in rapidly shrinks about one-third, it is well to extend the
walls above ground by means of plank, so as to use the
entire depth of the pit. This can be done by nailing rough
inch-plank edge to edge on the inside of 4 in. by 4 in. posts,
set four to six feet apart, the lower ends being let into
the bottom six to eight inches, and the posts themselves
counter-sunk in the walls one inch below their surface —
this inch being filled out with plank nailed over the post.
In this way the plank and clay portions of the walls are
made flush with each other.
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 127
The Wooden Stlo above Ground. — A very common form
of wooden silo is made by covering 2 in. by 6 in. or 2 in.
by 8 in. studs, inside and out, with rough plank and filling
in between with dirt. This answers the purpose, but one
made as follow^s is neater, stronger and fully as cheap. Lay
four 8 in. by 8 in. sills level on the ground and fasten their
ends together securely, notch them across their upper sur-
face every two feet, — notches two inches wide and one inch
deep. Rest on the sills the lower ends of 2 in. by 10 in.
studs set in the notches. Toe-nail these to the sill and
drive a forty-penny nail into it just at the outer edge of the
studs to help hold them against the outward pressure of the
ensilage. Saw off the tops of the studs on a level. Place
on their level tops a 2 in. by 10 in. plate. Set on this plate
supports for a roof. Cover this with clapboard or shingles.
Put in braces wherever thought desirable, but not to inter-
fere with the interior space. Line the inside with narrow
tongued-and-grooved flooring, put on horizontally. If a
door is wanted, make it four feet wide, in one end, by put-
ting battens on the outside of the flooring and sawing it out,
together with a section of one stud. The door must open
outward. If the wall should be covered with tarred paper
and another thickness of flooring laid on inside of that,
running up and down, it would be better, and enough better
to pay for the extra expense. Washing the inside thor-
oughly with crude petroleum, applied with a whitewash
brash, is of advantage, as aiding in the prevention of rotting
— the weak point in wooden silos. In New England this
form of silo ignores the action of frost upon the contents ;
but, if weighted, this is not serious.
II. — The Crops for Ensilage — Cost of Cultivation and
Harvesting.
At different times I have made ensilage (relished by stock)
from eight or ten different plants or crops, although never
more than seven kinds in one year. For excellence of food
produced, I should place them in this order : Hungarian
grass, sorghum (Early Amber Cane), Soja or Japanese
bean, Indian corn, peas and oats, Southern cow peas,
meadow grasses, rye and clover. I never saw better en-
128 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
silage than that made from Hungarian grass, or millet, cut
when just beginning to show the heads. Yet, all consid-
ered, the one favorite, most successful and almost universal
crop for ensilage, is maize or Indian corn, — the great agri-
cultural plant of America. Corn, as a crop for ensilage, has
conspicuous and unrivalled merits, — adaptation to a variety
of soils, ease of cultivation, rapid and luxuriant growth
resulting in a product per acre far exceeding any other
plant, ease of handling and quality in preservation. For
quantity I would recommend the tall Southern, or Virginia
" horse-tooth" corn, white and semi-flint. The best quality
of ensilage is claimed for the larger kinds of sweet corn, but
unless great care is taken, the product resulting will be
very acid. For general economy, the common field corn of
the neighborhood is, perhaps, as good as any. If one
wishes to make a crop of corn (grain) and also a crop of en-
silage, and does not care to have the ears go to the silo, there
can be little doubt about it. The crop can be raised in the
usual ways, in hills or drills, the ears plucked from the
stalks while " in the milk," and of course, without husking,
and thrown in small piles, or spread a foot deep under a
shed, to cure, and the stalks then cut and ensiloed. In this
way, the usual crop of ear corn can be obtained and from
six to eight and sometimes ten tons of ensilage to the acre,
and the ensilage thus made usually comes as near to being
" sweet" as any I have ever seen.
Ordinarily, however, a special kind of corn will be spe-
cially grown for ensilage, to secure the greatest possible
tonnage per acre. For this purpose select a strong soil, in
good heart, and manure heavily with stable manure, broad-
cast or in the drill. I prefer manure broadcasted, plowed
in lightly if green, and if well composted harrowed in after
plowing. Get suitable seed, and plant in drills from '2\ ft.
to 3^ ft. apart, according to size of corn, condition of soil
and mode or facilities of cultivation. Hand labor must be
avoided as much as possible, and maybe entirely superseded
on good land, until the cutting. The plant should grow
from three to five or six inches apart in the row. The aim
is to have every plant receive light and air enough to grow
rapidly and reach maturity, if allowed time. The quantity
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 129
of seed corn will vary from one-half bushel to a bushel for
an acre.
It is economy to stimulate the young plant and crowd the
growth by feeding generously. Super-phosphate or any
good commercial fertilizer may be applied in the drill. But
I have never succeeded in growing a large crop of ensilage
corn without plenty of ammonia, and that, too, in the form
of animal manure. Commercial fertilizers alone, even when
largely used, have not, in my experience, produced satisfac-
tory results with corn grown for the greatest possible weight
per acre. The plant should approach maturity before being
cut for the silo ; this rule should be applied to any crop
grown for ensilage. For the best effects in feeding, we want
plants that are just about to perfect their seed. In corn,
wait till the ears are fully formed, or till the kernel is glazed,
before cutting. Thus treated, a crop of twenty to thirty
tons of green fodder, and an almost equal quantity of ensi-
lage, may be obtained fi'om an acre. Crops of thirty tons
per acre are rare, however, and the average is rather below
twenty tons than above it. There are publishers who do
not hesitate to sell books professing to j)reach the true gospel
of ensilage, which books tell you it is easy to raise not only
thirty, but forty, fifty and even sixty tons of ensilage corn
per acre. And every year I meet reputable citizens who
assure me, with every appearance of good faith, that they
have actually raised forty tons or more to the acre. Now,
I do not wish to directly deny such statements ; but I do
say, that while I have seen many acres of good ensilage
corn, I know I never yet saw thirty-two tons of green corn
growing on an acre, — have yet to be convinced that thirty-
two tons ever did grow on an acre, — and at present I never
expect to believe that one acre in New England ever pro-
duced forty tons. John Gould of Ohio, a man of accuracy
in writing, reports twenty-three tons of ensilage corn per
acre from eleven acres, and that this, with the product of five
acres of field corn and one ton of wheat «* shorts," kept
fifty-four head of cattle and three horses through the winter ;
the field corn was fed as cob-meal and its stalks dry.* He
• If the winter comprised six months, the fifty-seven animals thus kept that period
on the crops from sixteen acres, each received daily fifty pounds of dry corn fodder,
two and one-half pounds of cob-meal and about two ounces of bran. This seems
130 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
further states that he has a neighbor, who has produced on
twelve acres, corn which made into ensilage proved equiva-
lent in feeding to the usual hay crop from two hundred acres
of the same farm, being average Ohio meadow land. The
best crop of ensilage corn I ever saw weighed was raised
under my supervision, at Houghton farm, in 1883, and I have
seen few crops growing that appeared to me to be heavier.
We used in the same field some special ensilage seed corn,
common white Southern corn and early amber cane, — the
latter alone, and scattered thinly in the drills of corn to
grow with it. The weights obtained from accurately
measured acres, the material weighed while passing fresh-
cut fi'om the field to the silo, were as follows : Special
ensilage corn, 271 tons ; common white Southern corn, 21
tons (showing the value of good seed) ; the latter mixed
with cane, 29| tons, and the sorghum alone, 20| tons.
Although, unfortunately, no cane was tried with the best
corn. I was satisfied that there was room for enough to have
grown to make up thirty tons.
Xext to corn, all considered, I would place sorghum and
Hungarian grass, although, if I had the experience of others
with clover as ensilage, that might be preferred. Rye is
largely grown for the silo, and well liked by some. I have
examined pretty fair ensilage made from rye, but have never
been fortunate to so preserve this crop as to make what was
to me a satisfactory article of food. It yields far less ton-
nage to the acre, but is more substantial than corn ; an ani-
mal which will eat up thirty pounds of corn ensilage, clean,
will hardl}' dispose of twenty pounds made of rye. The
advantage of using rye for this purpose lies in the fact that
where land is scarce and high, and manure plenty, the fields
can be kept constantly at work. After a crop of ensilage
corn has been secured, rye can be sown, which will be ready
for the silo before it is time to plant corn again ; then another
crop of corn, to be followed with rye. This means much
manure ; but that is necessary for all these great crops of
green herbage, whether they are dried or pitted. Plants
pretty light feeding, although bulky. Yet it is said this herd was milked all winter,
and exceeded in milk produced any other herd contributing to the neighboring
butter factory, and that the milk was regarded as excellent in quality.
IS EXSILAGE A SUCCESS? 131
don't grow without food, and the more food the greater the
growth ; that is the first lesson in raising an}^ crops for ensi-
lage.
All the leguminous plants that have been tried make good
ensilage : but they are so highly nitrogenous as to make
too rich a food to use alone in any quantity, and ensilage
made from nearly all of them is very disagi*eeable lo handle,
because of its pasty character and strong odor. The Japan-
ese soja beau makes a reasonably dry and pleasant article,
but it is uncommon and the seed hard to obtain ; it deserves
more attention. The cow pea is one of the best plants in
the South for ensilage, being easily grown on poor soil, and
now quite extensively used in the silo, — alone and mixed
with corn. This plant will not ripen its seed in Xew Eng-
land, but will make a profitable gro^vth of green forage
almost anywhere in ^Massachusetts. Oats and peas mixed
give a heavy crop and make berter ensilage than either
alone. The clovers are largely used in some sections for
ensilage, and although usually extremely unpleasant, I have
never seen clover ensilage so black, slimy and altogether
nasty, or with so " loud'"' a smell, as to prevent cattle from
eating it with avidit}'. The most satisfactory way to Ub^'
clover, or any similar growth, for ensilage, is to cut it and
put it into the silo in alternate layers, six or eight inches
thick, with dry straw or swale, or other coarse haj" or fodder,
also cut. The result is a mass much more comfortable than
clover alone, safer to feed and of almost equal feeding value,
judged by actual results. In England, any grass suitable
for hay is cured in the silo, instead of drying, if the season
is unfavorable for haying.
In storage, I have found by careful trials that plants stand
in this order, as regards compactness in the silo, when cut in
equal lengths : clover, cow peas, rye, corn, soja bean, early
amber cane and Hungarian grass. In other words, a cubic
foot of clover ensilage weighs more than one of cow peas,
and so on. The order of shrinkage or settling of the same
list is therefore exactly the reverse, — Hungarian grass and
sorghum settled very little, and the soja bean not much
more; Indian corn, cut short and levelled off" in the silo,
132 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
without packing, usually settled from one-fourth to one-
third its bulk.*
The average cost, all items included, of raising corn and
converting it into ensilage ready to feed is not far from two
dollars per ton. The harvesting expense alone, which is the
main item, has been variously reported at 10 cents, 15, 33,
50, 87^ cents and $1 per ton, but the low figures are found
not to include allowance for labor of the farmer, his teams
and regular help, and therefore it is really the extra outlay
and not the total cost of the work that is thus stated.
The Messrs. Smiths & Powell of Syracuse, as the result of
a very careful acpount with a crop of 18 tons per acre, re-
port the cost of cultivation at 50 cents a ton and of harvest-
ing, 87 cents a ton, — a total of $1.37, to which being added
the use of land and other proper charges, would bring the
amount to about |2 per ton. In a good many instances
I have known of ensilage sold in the silo at $2 to $2.50
per ton, and this indicates that its market value, so far as it
yet has any, is just about the same as its average cost.
III. — Filling tlie Silo.
In connection with this part of the work the greatest
opportunity occurs for system and economy. The location
of the growing crops, with reference to the silo, and the
arrangements for cutting, loading, hauling, chaffing, storing
and pressing, require good judgment and close supervision.
It is useless to discuss details, so much will depend upon
the circumstances peculiar to every case. But it is certain
that, with like conditions, one man will make the operation
of harvesting a job costing a dollar a ton, and another man
will so order and manage the same work as to do it with
comparative ease and at half the cost.
Rainy weather and wet material need not interrupt the
* Several trials have been conducted by me with a view to determining with some
exactness the rehitive feeding value of different forage plants in the form of ensilage,
but thus far without satisfactoiy results. I find the consumption of the different
articles depends upon the tastes of the animals to which they are fed, rather than
any law relating to their nutritious properties. So I have as yet only found that
generally more ensilage of corn will be eaten than of rye or clover, less of cow peas
than the others named, and of Himgarlan more than all other kinds; but this Hun-
garian grass ensilage was the best silo product I ever saw, — apparently the true
" ])rown hay " of Germany and Austria, at its best.
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 133
harvest and storage of an ensilage crop, unless so serious as
to drive teams and workmen to cover. An addition of
water causes little loss ; but it does* increase the acidity
developed, and hence is to be avoided. To secure the best
ensilage, I would not only have the plant so mature as to
show that it is beginning to naturally dry, but would cut
and wilt for half a day, or over night, in the case of corn,
for the purpose of reducing the proportion of water con-
tained in the stored materials. Luxuriant fodder corn at
time of tasselling contains 85 per cent, of water, and often
more ; at the time the kernels of the ear are glazing the
water is usually about 80 per cent., sometimes only 75.
This material, or any other green forage, may be dried to
advantage till it contains not to exceed 70 per cent, of water
before being pitted. It may be stated, as a rule, that the
less water in the material, down to half its weight, the better
the ensilage. I have seen a very good article of ensilage
made from rye straw and corn stalks, dry and poor, cut
up, mixed, thoroughly wet and then put into a silo under
pressure.
The question of cutting the fodder in short pieces as it
goes into the silo, or putting it in whole, has been much
discussed and radical difference of opinion prevails. If pitted
whole, time, labor, and the cost of the cutting machinery
may be saved, — all large items. It is not difficult to pack
whole clover, cut with a mower and soon raked and hauled
in ; other of the small plants are also easily bandied. Corn
twelve to fifteen feet high presents greater difficulties. In a
small silo, it is next to impossible to pack it evenly ; in a
large one, it should be placed all one way, in lap layers and
closely packed. Long ensilage, as such may be called, is cut
out with an axe, a strong hay knife, or a special tool like a
pointed and sharpened spade ; all these operations are hard
work and a deal of it. The stalks may be taken out in
lengths of four or five feet and run through a fodder cutter.
For my own part, I much prefer cutting short, into about
half-inch lenijths, at time of storinsf, and I believe the labor
involved is not much greater, although concentrated and
necessitating extra help for a few days in September.
There is certainly some waste of butts and joints in feeding
134 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
long corn ensilage, as in long dry fodder, and there is next
to none in ensilage cut short. Of course, the ease of hand-
ling to feed, in the' case of short ensilage, is infinitely
greater. In a comparative trial, carefully made by ]\Ir.
Hazen of New Hampshire, all expenses being exactly deter-
mined, it was found to actually cost more per ton to put a
large quantity of corn ensilage into a silo uncut, in proper
shape, than to cut it short while storing ; the figures were
furnished to me to verify this statement.
There is almost equal dispute as to the advisability of
filling the silo slowly, with intentional delays, and settling
to the work as one would for threshing several hundred
bushels of grain, pushing the job till done and getting all
the extra help needed. From its first introduction the
chief fault found with ensilage has been the acid character of
the material at the time it is fed to animals. This acidity
results from fermentation in the silo, caused by living organ-
isms, known as bacteria. Enthusiastic friends of this process
of preserving forage claimed, a few years ago, that they had
discovered a method of making " sweet ensilage." " Sweet
ensilage," it was claimed, was made in numerous places. The
way to do it was to fill the silo slowly, letting every lot of
chopped stuff put in heat up well before putting in more. For
example, our estimable friend. Captain Morton of Vermont,
in 1884, filled only a foot in depth at a time ; got the lowest
layer, by active fermentation, up to 140° F., and then kept
the heat moving up to the top. He maintained a teiuperature
of 122° F. or over, in certain parts of his silo, and he said,
'< often up to 150° F." When the top layer had reached 130°
F. he covered with tar paper and earth. The temperature held
at 130° F. for two weeks and then cooled down to 90° F.
within a month. The good captain adds that when he
opened the silo "the ensilage was honey-like." (Sweet
pickles?) The theory u})on which this method is based is
that the bacteria of the ensilage fermentation are destroyed
and the fermentation thus arrested by a certain degree of
temperature, placed variously at 120° to 140° F. The
little creatures are induced, as it were, by favorable condi-
tions, to work themselves into such a state of excitement as
to die of apoplexy from their own fervent heat. It is a very
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 135
pretty theory, — or was, as long as it lasted, but that was
not long. As well try to fan a fire to such intensity that it
would extinguish itself and without injury to the fuel.
Careful students soon discovered that the bacteria of the
silo were particularly hapi)y and active at the very temper-
atures which it was claimed would destroy them. Temper-
atures from 120 to IGO^ F. are most favorable to their
development and activity, and it requires at least 185° to
destroy them, while fermenting ensilage does not often
exceed 140°, and no authentic record of 150° F. can be
found. How men could so deceive themselves, — and some of
scientific reputation have been among them, — it is hard to
understand ; but the evidence is conclusive that they were
wrong. I have never yet been so fortunate as to see any
ensilage which I could call " sweet." Of course, the mate-
rial differs greatly in the degree of its apparent acidity, and
as comparative terms, sour and sweet may be convenient as
applied to ensilage, although deceptive. I see no evidence
that any relation exists between the method of filling the
silo — the slow process or the quick process — and the
acidity of the product. On the whole, I prefer the straight-
ahead way, — no undue haste, but pushing the job of harvest-
ing and filling to completion without unnecessary delay. It is
most economical of labor, especially if the task is a large
one, and gives ensilage of full as good quality. Yet, if cir-
cumstances make slower work desirable, or if an accidental
detention occurs, there need be no fear of serious loss. On
this sul)ject of quick and slow filling, I may refer, for excel-
lent experiments and discussions, to the annual reports of
the Agricultural Experiment Stations of Massachusetts and
New York.
Evening and tramping cut fodder as it goes into the silo,
is not essential ; but both seem desirable, for several
reasons, if carefully done. The evening process, especially,
tends to uniformity in quality throughout the pit. This is a
valuable property and seldom true of the whole contents of
a silo. Let the even spreading be continual as the chopped
forage falls into the pit; assign a man of judgment to this
task, and if tramping is done also, let it be particularly
around the edges, next to the walls and in the corners.
136 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
M. Goffart, after more than thirty years' experience, —
which means constant experiment, — with silos and ensilage,
and always with a keen business eye to the useful and
economical results, relies chiefly upon the Indian corn plant.
He claims to secure nearly forty tons per acre, in drills,
with flat culture, and his plan is to let the plant mature well,
cut in one-inch lengths, fill the silo quickly, evenly and
thoroughly pack the contents, cover at once and weight with
two hundred pounds or more to the square foot. He says
one cannot press too hard or too tight. He mixes a little
dry straw or coarse hay, finely cut, with the corn ensilage.
My own experience and studies lead to the conclusion
that, so fiir as sour and sweet ensilage is concerned, the rela-
tive maturity of the plant and consequent dryness of the
material is the governino; factor. The more mature the
plant, if still in a succulent condition, the freer the ensilage
will be from sharp acidity.
IV. — Covering and Weighting.
Covers and pressure on top of the ensilage, after the silo
has been filled, are not essential, but are usually economical.
If desired, the upper part of the material can be left to de-
compose, settle and itself form cover and weight for what is
below ; it is simply a question whether about two feet in
depth of the fodder, which will be lost in such case, is worth
more or less than some further labor and provision to be
used instead. For covering, boards or plank, single or
double, may be laid directly upon the ensilage, or, to better
exclude the air, a well lapped cover of tarred building paper
may be laid under the boards. Or tarred paper or canvas
may be used, with sand or earth above, for weight. In any
case, the cover must be so arranged or fitted as not to touch
the side-walls of the pit, that it may move freely with the
ensilage, as it settles. There is usually more or less mate-
rial lost by decay just under the cover. Rather less perhaps
with tarred paper than with boards only. Elder Evans has
stated that if hemlock boards are used, the ensilage next to
them will not spoil.
There is undoubted advantage in pressure, by weights or
otherwise, in keeping a nearly air-tight cover and reducing
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 137
the opportunity for fermeDtation. If the side-walls of the
silo are not air-tight, heavy weighting becomes a necessity.
Yet it must be remembered, that your weights added to
cover are simply for use on the upper five feet in depth of
the ensilage. That part of the contents of the silo — at
40 pounds to the cubic foot, which is a low estimate for
corn — exerts a pressure of 200 pounds to the square foot upon
all that is below, and this increases toward the bottom.
Where the forage itself is worth two or three dollars per ton,
I advise weighting the cover with from 50 to 200 pounds to
the square foot. Fry of England says 100 pounds. Goifart
has been already quoted as in favor of 200 pounds or more ;
he has written, — " the greater pressure, the surer the suc-
cess." Screws, levers and mechanical devices have been
tried, but none have succeeded very well. A dead weight
or following pressure is needed. Hence stones, loose or in
barrels or boxes, concrete blocks, sand bags, earth and sand,
and barrels of water (where protected from freezing) have
been successfully used. Water barrels have been arranged
so as to fill and empty with pipes and syphons. Where
grain is purchased in quantity, sacks of bran and like mate-
rial may be piled on the cover, and storage is thus provided
as well as pressure.
If a silo is very deep, the pressure upon the material near
the bottom may become so great as to express the liquid
fi'om the mass. All below twenty-two feet depth sustains a
pressure of over a thousand pounds to the surface foot.
V. — What are the Changing Processes in the Silo?
To tell exactly what goes on in the silo after it has been
filled, closed and weighted is impossible. There are cer-
tainly chemical changes, some of which are known. I ven-
ture the opinion, that with all the careful investigation that
has been made, the chemist cannot yet explain all the pro-
cesses of the silo, and I do not venture in this presence to
describe technically the chemical conversions that are known
to occur.
Fermentation there is, commencing soon, rapidly increas-
ing unless arrested. And with fermentation heat is pro-
duced. Fermentation is but another name for combustion.
138 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
And wherever there is combustion or fermentation, there
must be consumption of fuel or destruction of material. Fer-
mentation is not a preservative, but is always a step towards
putrid decomposition and actual destruction. If allowed to
run its full course with any food product, fermentation pro-
duces disastrous results. How absurd, then, for our " sweet
ensilage" friends to advocate inducing an advanced stage of
fermentation, raising temperature to 130 or 150^ F. before
attempting to check the process. When the grain of green
corn is canned to preserve it, who thinks of starting an active
fermentation before shutting it up? On the contrary, the
air is expelled as thoroughly as possible and the can then im-
mediately closed and sealed. When we pit the green corn
fodder, we should follow the same course, as nearly as we can.
Ensilage is simply an addition to the long list of modern
" canned stuff!" The way to avoid bad fermentati(ms is to
endeavor to prevent any fermentation at all. But a silo of
size cannot be filled fast enough to avoid fermentation com-
mencing before it is closed. The fermentation, like the
combustion, must have the oxygen of the air to sustain it.
The looser the material lies in the silo, the more abundant
the supply of oxygen and the more active is fermentation.
Rapid filling and good packing alike tend to expel the air
and arrest fermentation. Stop the draught and the fire will
languish and die out, — live coals may be quickh' smothered.
Here we have additional reasons for quick filling and imme-
diate covering, with almndant pressure. I would endeavor to
prevent the temperature of the silo contents from rising
above 110° F. at any stage.
But, with ever}^ precaution, some air remains in the silo and
more or less fermentation takes place. It is to the degree
of fermentation and the results, that great differences are
found in different silos and in ensilage of the same silo in
different seasons, where the operations and conditions seem
to be alike. This fermentation is at first of the simple
alcoholic character, involving the starch and sugar, and it
unquestionably results in a greater or less loss of the carbo-
hydrate elements of the material ensiloed. A table of
authentic analyses of ensilage material, fresh, of ensilage as
fed, and of standard roots, for comparison, is appended : —
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS?
139
Table of Chemical Composition of Corn Ensilage and other
Forage Crops.
No.
MATERIALS.
(100 lbs.)
o
^3
u
o
j2
fe
i' it>
d
fe
r 3
■a
5
J3
<
1
Hay, average mixed,
10.80
7.30
2.20
45.50
28.50
5.70
2
Corn fodder, field, .
32.65
4.29
1.24
35.96
22.14
4.32
3
Corn fodder, cured, .
8.83
7.87
1.88
50.51
26.48
4.43
4
Green fodder, corn, average, .
81.08
1.48
0.38
10.74
5.24
1.08
o
Green fodder for ensilage,
70.77
2.49
1.00
17.40
7.28
1.56
6
Corn ensilage, cut, .
71.60
2.21
1.72
18.27
5.26
0.94
7
Corn ensilage, whole.
83.18
1.52
0.62
9.62
4.95
0.71
8
Corn ensilage, cut, .
84.90
1.10
0.40
7.80
4.90
0.90
9
Corn ensilage, average, .
80.69
1.49
0.68
10.15
5.72
1.27
10
Roots, average of 5 below,
88.26
1.44
0.20
8.12
1.04
0.94
11
Sugar beets, . ...
84.00
2.10
0.10
11.70
1.10
1.00
12
]\Iangolds, ....
91.60
1.80
0.40
4.40
0.80
1.00
13
Carrots,
87.20
1.00
0.20
9.30
1.40
0.90
U
Swedes,
87.00
1.30
0.10
9.50
1.10
1.00
15
Turnips, .....
91.50
1.00
0.20
5.70
0.80
0.80
General Notes.
No. 1. Average of many analyses.
2. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station tables.
3. Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, 2d report ; corn
in tassel, cured after being badly frost bitten, Sept., 1883.
4. Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station tables.
5. Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, bulletin No. 26 ;
corn of Clark variety, grown on well-fed land ; cut Sept. 4,
1886 ; kernels glazed, yet soft.
6. Massachusetts Agricultural Station, bulletin No. 26 ; best sam-
ples ensilage recorded. Same corn as No. 5 ; cut short and
pit quickly filled and closed Sept. 4, 1886 ; opened Jan. 4,
1887.
7. Massachusetts Agricultural Exjjeriment Station ; 3d rei^ort ;
whole corn, kernels in the milk, pitted and covered at once,
Sept. 1, 1884; opened Feb. 23, 1885.
8. Very poor quality.
9. Average of a large number of analyses.
Roots : Analyses taken from average of standard tables.
When quickly filled and at once weighted, the highest
temperature of the contents of a silo, ordinarily ranging
from 95° to 120° F. in the case of corn, is reached between
140 BOARD 015 AGRICULTURE.
the third and sixth day after closing ; then a gradual cooling
ojff occurs, occupying three or four months. Even when silos
are opened at the end of five or six months, the contents are
often found somewhat warmer than the atmospheric air
outside.
VI. — Removing Ensilage from the Silo and Feeding it.
If a silo is of the approved form, with a comparatively
small surface, the whole cover is removed at once and the
ensilage taken out from the top, going over the entire surface
every day or two. This frequently exposes fresh material
to the air and prevents excessive fermentation and moulding,
which would otherwise occur.
With a silo of difl'erent form and a door at the bottom
from which the ensilage is removed, it is usual to first tunnel
or mine the material around the door, and then secure a
vertical surface or wall of ensilage, the face of which is cut
from daily, as often done on a mow of hay. Although
moulding is somewhat greater in this way, there is compen-
sation in not beinoj obliged to remove wei2:hts and covers all
at once. There need be but a small top surface uncovered
at a time, and the weights and cover constantly moved back,
so as to keep all that has not been exposed, under constant
pressure.
More or less loss from spoiling in the silo must be expected
whenever the air which enters from outside is above 60° F.
If the silo is to be used in warm weather, or its contents
carried over a season, it is much better to have it under-
ground, to keep at a low and even temperature. Ensilage
unused, or left over at the end of a feeding season, need not
be rejected or removed. It may be again re-covered and
weighted till wanted. Or, to lefill the silo, remove the
surface ensilage of the old lot until it is bright and fresh,
and refill on top of this. Ensilage has been preserved per-
fectly good at Fairview Farm, Brewsters, N. Y., for three
years, and other examples might be given to show that
ensilage undisturbed may be kept for years uninjured.
The pungent odor and more or less acid taste usual to
corn ensilage fresh from the pit may be greatly modified by
loosening the material and exposing to the air, from six to
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 141
twenty hours before feeding, the time varied according to
ensilage and weather. A good plan is to remove from the
silo in the afternoon the ensilage for the next day ; spread
it on a floor and thoroughly mix in the grain food to be used
with it, leaving it in an even layer about a foot thick till
time for feeding. It will usually be found quite warm in a
few hours and remain so for a day, If the ensilage has been
put up uncut, cut it up as short as convenient, with hay-knife
or spade, or run it through a cutting box when taken from
the silo, and then prepare with the grain.
Bio- baskets or wheeled trucks are the most convenient
means for carrying ensilage to the animals. But it must be
remembered that ensilage at its best is about three-fourths
water and too heavy a material to make it pleasant or
profitable to be carried far from the silo for feeding. Locate
the silo with reference to convenience both in filling it and
in feeding out its contents.
VII. — Ensilage as Food for Farm Stock.
Nearly all farm animals eat ensilage with a relish the first
time it is offered to them. Horses, mules, cattle of all
kinds, sheep, swine and poultry, show a decided fondness
for ensilage as a general rule. It is only now and then that
an animal of any one of these classes persistently refuses to
eat it. (I have known a few men to whom potatoes were
not only distasteful, but an active poison.) The acidity of
ensilage seems no objection to the animals. Although they
generally prefer its sharpness removed and its color bright-
ened by a few hours exposure to the air, I have seen ensilage
in its most acid stage eaten by cattle with avidity. AVhen
we think that fermentation is but an early stage of decompo-
sition, it certainly seems as if this liking for fermented food
showed an unnatural and perverted taste. But examples are
so numerous of bipeds of the genus homo evincing an extreme
fondness for food and drink in a fermented state, that we
ought not to be surprised at similar peculiarities on the part
of other and lower orders of the animal kingdom.
That ensilage is very palatable to cattle is shown by the
fact that they will eat as great a weight of ensilage per day
as of the same plant in its growing state. Among the
142 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
records of feeding experiments, tliere is abundant evidence
of the advantages of succulent food when forming a large
part of the daily ration at all seasons for fatting animals and
those giving milk. Ensilage will furnish succulent and pal-
atable food on the farm every day in the 3^ear. From the
many practical results, however, it is plain that corn ensi-
lage cannot be fed alone with profit, unless it be simply as a
maintenance ration for store stock. The best results have
been those where ensilage has been fed in limited quantities,
- — forty, fifty and certainly not exceeding sixty pounds per
day to 1,000 pounds live weight, and accompanied with lib-
eral grain feeding to secure the proper nutritive ratio.
Many careful feeders prefer that ensilage should not consti-
tute the only coarse forage, and so use forty or thirty pounds
only, with five to ten pounds of hay, or its equivalent, ad-
ded, and also grain. Some well-conducted trials show most
satisfactory results from using ensilage chiefly as a condi-
ment, or addition to the usual dry, winter diet, and as a sub-
stitute for roots. In nearly all cases where ensilage is used
as a considerable portion of the daily ration for horses and
cattle, but not exclusively, its excellent hygienic effect is
apparent. Ensilage tends to increase and maintain the flow
of milk like any other succulent food, but no more. Milch
cows on an ordinary winter diet show a marked gain in
quantity of milk and some in quality, if ensilage be added to
their daily ration, but no more than if an equal quantity of
good roots were used.
In comparing ensilage with other kinds of food the pri-
mary question is as to the effect of this process upon any
forage plant thus preserved. What is the feeding value of
rye or clover as ensilage, eompared with the same plant in
its growing state, or cured as hay? Likewise, corn ensilage
must be compared with green maize, cured corn (fodder or
stover) and grain. Some very careful chemical and practi-
cal comparisons tend to show that the nutritive value, digesti-
bility, waste in feeding and the result at the pail, are
substantially alike in equal quantities of corn, whether
cured as fodder or as ensilage. The same of other forage
plants. There is some margin in favor of ensilage, but no
more than its succulent form may account for. These re-
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 143
suits being verified, reduces tlie problem almost wholly to one
of convenience and economy in the method of curing, stor-
ing and feedinii; out the forage crops. With the exception
of the lalwr in feeding, the advantages are on the side of en-
silage when managed judiciously, under favorable circum-
stances. With well-cured corn stalks, about one and a third
tons must be handled to give animals a ton of solid food ;
with corn ensilage, at least four tons are needed to accom-
plish the same result. The larger proportion of water in
ensilage is not a direct loss, however, for animals fed largely
upon it drink very little, and the effect is doubtless better
when the water is thus combined with the food, than when
taken separately.
Feeding trials with ensilage of the same kind, but differ-
ing considerably in condition or quality, give results much
alike. Where ensilage is decidedly sour, the quantity eaten
is generally somewhat greater than of the kind which some
call sweet, to produce like results. At the State Farm at
Tewksbury, cows remained healthy, thrifty and productive,
averaging over 3,100 quarts of milk per year, after four sea-
sons of ensilage feeding, sometimes quite sour. The stom-
achs of a number slaughtered were found to be in a normal
condition. Hon. Rufus Prince of Maine states that when
he substituted ensilage for dry fodder and hay, in two daily
feeds out of five, his cows increased 12 to 15 per cent, in
milk and 15 to 18, per cent, in butter yield.
There are two ways in which the feeding value of ensilage
of any kind can be compared with any dry forage. One is
upon a purely chemical basis, considering the total dry mat-
ter in each and its component parts or nutritive elements.
The other notes the results of practical feeding, and deter-
mines how far a ton of ensilage will go towards supporting
an animal and how much other forage it will take the place
of and yet give equally good results. At the present time
many of the conclusions reached by these two methods of
comparison differ radically, and one cannot see how they will
ever be reconciled.
The chemist insists that it requires at least four and a half
tons of average corn ensilage to furnish the dry substance
and nutritive elements of one ton of hay of average quality.
144 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
According to the foregoing table, three tons of the very
best ensilage (No. 6.) do not equal a ton of hay, chemically,
as food. But farmers, as the result of practical feeding
tests, generally agree in considering two and a half or three
tons of corn ensilage equal in its effects to a ton of hay, and
some observant feeders say that two tons is nearer right.
An eminent English author says, on this point (Smith's
"Veterinary Hygiene," p. 224), that men competent to
judge, " estimate the value of green forage, well preserved
in a silo, at somewhat more than one-third, weight for
weight, of the value of the same material made into hay under
favorable conditions." On this basis, — the ratio three to one
being, in my opinion, a perfectly safe one to depend upon, —
when hay can be sold at $12 to $18 per ton and replaced
with ensilage, the latter becomes worth from $4 to $6 per
ton, which is two or three times its necessary cost. The
immediate profit is thus at least one hundred per cent. ; but
the increased production per acre of ensilage over hay is
another source of profit. John Gould of Ohio reports
fields in his neighborhood producing twenty-five tons of
corn ensilage per acre, which proved equivalent in feeding
value to eight tons of hay per acre, or three times as much
as the land ever produced. In actual practice, it has been
proved that when ten acres of good land are in mowing and
yielding twenty-five tons of hay, two acres of this land can
be devoted to corn ensilage, and the same number of ani-
mals being supported, fed half ensilage and half hay, there
will be at least ten tons of surplus hay, which can be sold
for enough to pay all the expenses of the change, including
a permanent silo, to hold fifty tons, built out of the first
year's profits.
According to the most approved feeding tables, a cow of
900 pounds weight should have at least 25 pounds of
average hay for a day's ration, and this will furnish some-
thing over 22 pounds of dry substance. But the same cow,
fed corn ensilage of average quality, will need only 65 or
75 pounds per day, and this usually contains but 14 pounds
of dry substance, and never as much as 20 pounds. Chem-
istry and animal physiology say that this is insuflficient feed-
ing. But the cow says it is enough. There is certainly
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 145
something in these practical results of ensilage feeding
which chemistry has yet failed to explain and reconcile with
well-accepted theory. It has long been contended that in
making hay or fodder we simply evaporate w^ater from the
material, w^ithout otherwise changing it. But notwithstand-
ing the apparent correctness of this theory, practical feeding
trials, comparing dry forage with succulent materials and
especially with ensilage, shows that it is untrue. According
to this theory, dry forage should give the same feeding re-
sults per acre as green forage ; but every practical farmer
recognizes the difference, and it is especially noticeable in
the case of dairy stock fed largely upon ensilage.
Reference to the foregoing table shows that, as compared
with roots, sugar beets, mangolds, carrots, swedes and com-
mon turnips, average corn ensilage gives more dry sub-
stance to the ton than any of them, and is in all respects,
chemically considered, a better food than the average of
the five roots named, while the sugar beets alone are better,
in some respects, ton for ton.
There has been comparatively little hesitation about feed-
ing store stock of all kinds upon ensilage, but many have
thought that it might be objectionable in the case of milch
cows, and opinions still differ as to the effect of ensilage feed-
ing upon milk and the quality of milk products. There are
large quantities of milk and milk products now going into
the best markets of the country, and subjected first to the
close scrutiny of dealers, and then to the final judgment of
consumers, and all highly approved, which are produced upon
farms where ensilage is regularly fed. Yet there are con-
spicuous cases where the use of this food with dairy stock
has been reported as resulting in loss. A few years ago, the
Borden milk-condensing factory at Brewster's Station, N. Y. ,
refused to take milk from any farms where ensilage was
fed, asserting that its use had caused a heavy loss by spoiling
a large quantity of the condensed milk. Several silos which
had been in use in Putnam and Dutchess counties have been
necessarily abandoned in consequence, but a careful investi-
gation, by an outsider, proved that not one of their owners
had discovered any unpleasant effect upon milk, or believed
from his own practice that any evil resulted from the use of
146 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
ensilage with daiiy stock. One of these men wrote : "It
has always seemed to me that the milk would have been
satisfactory to the company under a fair test ; but several
customers who used ensilage were feeding indiscriminately
and juSt before milking, some just after, and some almost
exclusively. As this was the case at the time the company
experimented with ensilage milk, I was not surprised that it
proved unsatisfactory. It is not surprising that a feed with
the flavor and nature of ensilage should have produced such
a result under the above conditions. Fed in reasonable
quantities, and immediately after milking, I have no doubt
it would produce the best of milk, and as a food for milch
cows or dry stock give the best results obtainable from maize
in any shape whatever, and fully one-third cheaper than any
other." A letter to me from Mr. Borden admits that the
factory managers never demonstrated to their own satisfac-
tion that ensilage caused their trouble ; all they really knew
was, that trouble occurred while ensilage-fed milk was re-
ceived, and the same had not recurred since reception of such
milk had been discontinued. Prof. Roberts, of Cornell Uni-
versity, gave up the use of ensilage, because his customers
for milk, most of them the families of professors in the imme-
diate vicinity of the l)arn, complained of the odor and taste
of the ensilaije. But the farm barn at Cornell is a very close
one, the silo was in it, the ensilage made was very poor, and
its strong and extremely unpleasant smell not only permeated
the whole premises, but was perceptible at the neighboring
houses. Specially unfavorable circumstances caused the first
trouble in this case, and a prejudice was created which a
change in the conditions could not overcome. One of the
choicest dairies in Massachusetts, selling its butter at a price
near the very top, had a complaint of impaired quality come
from its Boston agents, a couple of years ago, accompanied
by an inquiry whether ensilage was fed. Replying frankly
that it was used in small quantity, the agents at once sent
back word that that was the trouble and all ensilage feeding
must be stopped or the butter could not be sold. This was
done, but the next season ensilage feeding was again begun,
and care being exercised in the methods more ensilage was
fed than before. The proprietor was satisfied as to the good
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS?
147
results in his own mind, but wanted endorsement, so wrote
to his agents to enquire their opinion of the winter's product.
The reply came promptly, that the butter had never been
better and the improvement caused by discontinuing ensilage
was very marked ! Having given this matter long and care-
ful examination, I have satisfied myself fully, that where good
ensilage is fed with discretion to cows which would other-
wise have no succulent food, or instead of a small allowance
of roots, there is an improvement in the quality of the milk
and butter made from it which will be noticed and approved
by the consumers, unless unreasonable prejudice intervenes.
I have yet to be convinced that, unless carelessness prevails,
any unpleasant odor or taste is given to dairy products by
feeding ensilage. And when such results do occur, my
belief is that thf-y are due to lack of judgment or care in the
stable, and that the milk gets its objectionable odor from
the air and not through the cow. Whenever feeding ensilaije
to dairy cows, the same precautions should be taken as in
using turnips and cabbage. With proper care I never
experience any difficulty from such feeding.
In response to a call for facts in regard to the effect of
ensilage upon milk among English dairymen, replies were
sent as indicated in the following table, published by the
Agricultural Department of Great Britain : —
No change, 22
Imjjroved in quantity and quality, .
Decreased quantity- and deteriorated quality,
Increased quantity,
Decreased quantity,
Improved quality,
Deteriorated quality,
Imin-oved quality and decreased quantity,
Increased quantity and deteriorated quality, .
Favorable results (whether in quantity or quality not stated),
Unfavorable results,
Total opinions.
I!lk.
Butter.
22
1
95
18
1
-
93
13
5
2
34
26
5
3
4
-
5
-
30
15
_
1
294 79
Upon this important branch of the subject, — the food
value and effect of ensilage, I offer the following condensed
record of a number of careful experiments and practical
tests, most of them made under my own supervision : —
148 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
(A.) A herd of the choicest dairy cows, numbering over
one hundred, received for eight months nothing but grass,
ensilage (of diiferent plants) and grain ; al)solutely no dry
forage. The health and general condition of the herd was
of the best, strong calves were produced, and the milk
yield, although not remarkable in quality, produced butter
which under the market test won the very highest repu-
tation. But after a few additional months of similar feed-
ing, this herd showed unmistakable signs of having been
under too high pressure. Cows broke down, the best
young animals looked two or three years older than they
were, abortion appeared, and the herd actually went to
pieces and 1)ecame unprofitable for dairy and breeding pur-
poses.
(B. ) An evenly matched pair of beef cattle, steers, 5
years old, were fed on dry food only, fattening rations, 70
days. No. 1 weighed 1,270 pounds at start, 1,390 at close ;
gain, 120 pounds. No. 2, 1,220 pounds, and 1,320 pounds;
gain, 100 pounds. For next 35 days, 50 pounds corn ensi-
lage was substituted for the coarse dry forage, in ration for
No. 2, that for No. 1 remaining unchanged ; the grain the
/ same as before in both cases. Result: No. 1 gained 10
pounds, and No. 2 gained 92 pounds. For the next 35
days the rations of the two were reversed, and No. 1 gained
75 pounds, while No. 2 lost 20 pounds.
(C.) A five-year-old common cow weighed 847 pounds,
which had with the last calf given 10 quarts of milk per
day, wdien at her best ; was fed hay alone from time of dry-
ing until she calved, and then corn ensilage alone for 65
days; average consumption, 64 pounds per day; milk yiekl
averaged 13 pounds 8 ounces. For the next 30 days a
ration of grain was added, consisting of 2 pounds corn meal,
1 pound cotton-seed meal and 2 pounds wheat bran ; ave-
rage milk product, 17 pounds 3 ounces per day (a daily
gain of two quarts of milk, at an added cost of seven cents).
For the next 30 days the same grain was continued and dry
forage substituted for the ensilage, 12 pounds corn stover
and 5 pounds hay, cut; average milk product, 18 pounds
per day; last day, 18 pounds 4 ounces. (The dry fodder
cost about nine cents and the ensilage seven cents.) While
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 149
fed ensilage alone, this cow rarely drank more than once in
two days, and for a month drank an average of only 19
pounds of water daily, but took 48 pounds more in her food ;
she maintained a very even weight through the trial. Her
milk averaged 12.67 per cent, solids, 3,85 per cent, fat and
showed 14.5 per cent, cream in test tube.
(D.) Ninety three-year-old steers were divided into three
lots, as even as possible. Lot No. 1 fed 20 pounds hay and
3 pounds grain daily ; allowed to run in yard with sheds
for shelter. No. 2 kept in warm stable and stanchions, and
fed 17^ pounds hay, 15 pounds mangolds and 3 pounds
grain. No. .3 fed 85 pounds corn ensilage and 3 pounds
grain, in stanchions. Lot No. 3 gained one-quarter pound
per head and day more than No. 2, and one-half pound
more than No. 1. The cost of food was 5 per cent, in favor
of No. 3.
(E.) Two lots with six milch cows in each, carefully
selected as mates, two and two, with reference to age, con-
dition, period of calving and milk yield, were fed and
treated alike for twelv^e weeks, except that one lot had its
long forage dry, and the other had corn ensilage instead.
The grain ration was 4 pounds corn meal, 4 pounds wheat
bran and 1^ pounds cotton-seed meal. The Lot A received
12 pounds cut stover and 5 pounds hay per head daily ;
and Lot B, 60 pounds ensilage per day. The milk products
were as follows: at the beginning, Lot A, 816 pounds 6
ounces per week ; Lot B, 825 pounds 2 ounces. At the close
Lot A, 722 pounds 14 ounces ; Lot B, 731 pounds 12
ounces. Average for 12 weeks, Lot A, 781 pounds 8 ounces
per week, or 18 pounds 10 ounces per day per cow, and Lot
B, 774 pounds 10 ounces per week, or 18 pounds 7 ounces
per day per cow. The weights of the different animals
varied from time to time, but there was no material differ-
ence in the two lots. The ensilage was then discontinued
and Lot B changed to same rations as Lot A, and after one
week's intermission the two were compared for four weeks
more : Lot A gave 702 pounds 2 ounces per week, or 16
pounds 11 ounces per da}^ and cow, and Lot B, 687 pounds
per Aveek, or 16 pounds 6 ounces per day and cow. The
quality of the milk of the two lots, tested several times,
150 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
varied very little. The averages were : Lot A, spec, grav.,
1029 ; solids, 13.81 ; fat, 3.G3 per cent. Lot B, spec, grav.,
1033; solids, 14.1() ; fat, 3.75 per cent. The cream from
Lot B was, however, much easier to churn, and made de-
cidedly better butter. Lot B, while ensilage fed, drank an
average of 25 pounds of water per day and head, often
drinking but once in three days and rarely twice in a day.
Lot A, during the same period, seldom failed to drink twice
a day, and averaged 76 pounds 6 ounces water daily per
head. The ensilage in this trial was very acid and poor in
quality.
(F.) Two pens of lambs, ten or eleven months old, three
in each, were selected from a large number for evenness of
weight and feeding capacity. They were treated alike for
two weeks, then weighed. Pen No. 1, 213 pounds; Pen
No. 2, 21G pounds. They were then fed for 42 days as
follows : To each pen, 2 pounds corn meal and 1 pound
cotton-seed meal per day; to Pen No. 1, 1 pound cut hay
and 1 pound cut oat straw ; to Pen No. 2,12 pounds corn
ensilage (fodder corn in tassels, without ears). Gain in
weight, 6 weeks: Pen No. 1, 32 pounds; Pen No. 2, 281
pounds. No. 1, dry fed, drank an average of 10 pounds
water per day ; No. 2, ensilage fed, 1| pounds per day.
The gain of Pen No. 1 was worth $3.20, and cost $2.98;
the gain of Pen No. 2 was worth $2.85, cost $2.48 (manure
and labor reckoned as offsetting one another).
(G.) A young Jersey bull was fed on ensilage alone, but
of ditl'erent kinds, for the months of April and May, 1884.
After he became accustomed to this diet his weight, at the
beginning of the test, was 712 pounds; at its close, 710
pounds; meanwhile the range was 707 to 718 pounds. Of
corn ensilage, he ate an average of 59 pounds per day, 75
pounds being the most in one day. Of amber cane he con-
sumed 7G pounds a day. Of mixed amber cane and rye he ate
75 pounds a day. Of winter rye ensihige alone, 47 pounds.
Of clover ensihige, 51 pounds a day, and of ensilage of the
Japanese or Soja bean. Go pounds. For days at a time he
drank no water, and averaged but 9^ pounds per da^^ while
fed on ensihige alone. His best drink was on a very rainy
day, while fed rye ensilage ; he then drank 26 pounds at one
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS?
151
time and 7 pounds at another, or 33 pounds during the day ;
but none the day before or the day after.
(H.) In English publications there are records of trials
with breedinof ewes, both before and after lambins;, where
some of the most noted flock-masters of Great Britain sub-
stituted ensilage for roots with most satisfactory results.
This has led to the extensive adoption of ensilage for breed-
ing ewes in that country. I made a trial with a breeding
flock of Southdowns at Houghton Farm, and while exceed-
ingly i)leased with the effect of ensilage feeding upon the
ewes, I found it difficult to prevent lambs from eating it
also, while very young, and the ensilage being sour and
poor certainly injured the lambs ; some died.
The following are more accurate experiments with other
classes of sheep : —
1. 8tore Sheep. — To ascertain the efficiency of maintain-
ing " store sheep" on ensilage, two wethers, 2^ years old,
were selected in December, separated and fed separately
until January 5. Then, having become accustomed to the
changes and their new rations, the record was begun and
continued 80 days. During the period the sheep No. 1 was
fed daily, 1 pound each of wheat bran, whole oats and cut
hay, 3 pounds dry forage ; sheep No. 2 was fed 7 pounds 3
ounces of corn ensilage daily.
Periodical wei<2:hinoi;s gave this record : —
Sheep, Jan
. 5, 1SS3.
Jan. 17.
Feb. 3.
Feb. 17.
Mar. 3
Mar. 17.
Mar. 28.
80 Days.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
No. 1,
122 lbs.
(dry fed) ,
122
119
121
117
lU
113
Loss, 9
No. 2,
135 lbs.
(ensilage),
134
13G
136
130
131
132
Loss, 8
During the trial. No. 1 drank an average of 4 pounds 2
ounces of water daily ; No. 2 drank none during the 80
days.
The eff'ort was to maintain the sheep at a fixed weight ;
but the one on ensilage alone would not eat enough to pre-
vent loss. It was fed, in the 80 days, 674 pounds of corn
ensilage, — nearly 8^ pounds a day, — but of this it refused
152
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
to eat 107 pounds, or about 1^ pounds per day. The other
sheep would have eaten more grain, but it was kept as
closely to its mate as possible. During the trial the food of
the hay and grain fed sheep (No. 1) cost $2.80; and that
of the ensilage fed sheep (No. 2) cost 70 cents ; or at the
rate of $1.05 and 28 cents per month respectively.
Another Sheep Trial. — Two wethers were selected and
prepared as before. Fed just four weeks, — March 30 to
April 26, 1883, inclusive, — with the following record : —
Food Consumed in 23 Days.
Cost of
March 30.
April 27.
Hay.
Grain.
Ensilage.
Water.
Feed,
4 Weeks.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs. oz.
lbs. oz.
lbs. oz.
lbs.
Blackface,* .
12\\
121
15 2
43 5
-
133
80 cents.
Greyface,t .
128
131
-
-
143 4
28
59 cents.
During the next twelve days the following record was
made by the same sheep : —
Weight,
April 27.
Weight,
May 9.
Loss,
12 days,
Food Conscjikd in
12 DATS.
Cost of
Hay.
Grain.
Water.
Food, 12
Days.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs.
lbs. oz.
lbs. oz.
lbs.
Blackface, .
Ill
113
8
9 1
12 12
52
28 cents.
Greyface, .
131
123
8
11 2
12 0
63
29 cents.
Note. — Apparently, in this trial, 135 pounds of ensilage was equiv-
alent to 45 pounds of hay, or to 15 pounds of liay and 15 pounds of
gi'ain.
(J.) A trial was made at Houghton Farm to answer this
question : Can young animals be maintained and grow on
corn ensilage alone ?
We did not care to try this experiment with valuable
heifers, but selected two thrifty young bullocks, viz., a
Swiss, born in April, 1882, and a Jersey, born in November,
• Dry fed.
t Ensilage and grain.
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS?
153
1881. So when the trial began, Feb. 1, 1883, they were
respectively 9 months (Swiss) and 14 months (Jersey) old.
They had been fed previously during the winter rather a
poor quality of hay, and to each 1^ pounds wheat bran and
I pound cotton-seed meal daily, 2 pounds grain food and hay
ad lib. They weighed Nov. 1, 1882, the Swiss 372 pounds,
the Jersey 540 pounds. They weighed Feb. 1, 1883, Swiss
415 pounds, Jersey 600 pounds. It required over two
weeks to change their diet to ensilage alone and get them to
regularly eating it. This was accomplished so they began
recorded ensilage rations on Feb. 17. They then weighed,
the Swiss 412 pounds, the Jersey 575 pounds. Forty days
feeding of ensilage alone then followed, the rations being,
for the Swiss 36 pounds per day, for the Jersey 46 pounds.
They sometimes rejected a portion, which was also weighed
and removed. The next result shows an average consump-
tion of 34 pounds 3 ounces for the Swiss, and 43 pounds 8
ounces for the Jersey.
Periodical Weighing
s.
ASSniALS.
Feb. 17.
Feb. 24.
Mar. 3.
Mar. 10,
Mar. 17.
Mar. 28.
40 Days.
Swiss,
Jersey,
lbs.
412
575
lbs.
415
555
lbs.
420
572i
lbs.
410
575
lbs.
410
5721
lbs.
410
580
Loss, 2 lbs.
Gain, 5 lbs.
We have substantially maintenance rations for these ani-
mals fixed, but not growing rations, say 34| and 43^ pounds
respectively, and costing less than ten cents per day for the
two. Although offered water twice daily, neither animal
tasted it for forty days and more.
( K.) No records are at hand giving definite results of
feeding ensila2;c to horses and mules. I have in mind some
cases of injury to horses from injudicious use of this class of
food. The small stomach of the horse is well known, and
he is so sensitive to flatulency that bulky and fermented food
must plainly be used with the greatest care. Ensilage has
been so used for work horses, without injurious eflects, and
reports have been puljlished of its more liberal use with
brood mares and colts. Mules have been kept almost
154
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
exclusively on ensilage, usually of the richer, more con-
centrated kinds, with excellent results. In one case in
North Carolina a large farmer and vineyardist has for sev-
eral years made ensilage of cow peas the chief forage for a
number of mules constantly at work, and has found it very
economical and in no way objectionable.
(L.) Swine are proverbially fond of fermented food. I
have known several cases where breeding stock and store
pigs have been carried through a winter in good condition
upon absolutely nothing but ensilage. In one instance all
that three large hogs received was the refuse from ensilage
fed to a dozen or fifteen cows. The material being of
inferior quality, the cows did not eat it clean, and what they
left the hogs received. Such practice can hardly be ap-
proved, but the owner in this case was satisfied and said he
wintered his three hogs well, virtually without expense.
(M.) To compare the feeding qualities of ensilage ex-
posed to freezing and thawing and that kept from frost, a
trial was made at Houghton Farm, in the winter of 1884-85.
Duplicate miniature silos were filled during the summer and
autumn of 1884 with clover, Hungarian grass and corn, cut
while the ears were forming. One set of these was stored
in a l)arn basement, kept free from frost, and the contents
fed out in December, 1884. The other set was exposed all
winter, but under a roof, and the contents used after slow
thawing in April, 1885. Young cattle of the same class
Avere fed in both cases all they would eat. Tiie average
consumption per day and per head was as follows : —
December, 1884,
April, 1885,
36 lbs.
32 J lbs.
42J lbs.
4Si lbs.
21} lbs.
37» lbs.
This was a very imperfect trial, but api)arently the last
lots of ensilage were as palatable as the first, although per-
haps less nutritious.
The evidence is overwhelming of the safety and economy
of feedins: ensila2;e to the extent of at least one-third of the
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 155
total loug forage of nearly all classes of domestic animals,
daring the season when they would ordinarily be kept on
dry food, as well as its usefulness in supplementing short
pasturage. But if there be any lingering doubts as to the
expediency of feeding ensilage to even this moderate extent,
none can exist as to its admirable effect when used simply as
a condiment or appetizer, in addition to the usual ration.
Treating the fatting steer or the milch cow as a machine, it
is often desirable to increase the appetite or give tone to
the system by a gentle laxative. In such case a good article
of ensilage can be positively asserted to answer as well as
the same weig-ht of the best roots. Fed as little as ten or
fifteen pounds a day to an animal of 800 to 1,000 pounds
weight, which would be equivalent to a peck of roots, its
efiects are soon seen in the improved condition of the bowels,
increased appetite, brightened coat and generally thrifty
appearance of the creature.
Examined with care and an effort to view the subject as
an impartial student of the facts, I have found in the silo
system of storing and preserving forage no royal road to
fortune, and no such "magical results" as were announced
by the enthusiastic friends of the system eight or ten years
ago. We surely do not take any more food out of the silo
than we put in, and generally a good deal less. But I am
led to believe that the material is preserved in a form more
acceptable to animals and productive of better results than
when dried and fed dry. There is no evidence that ensilage
is soon to "revolutionize farming in New England," yet it
is surely an important and valuable auxiliary to the succ(;ss-
ful farm practice in this region, and is gradually, healthfully,
growing in popular favor. The number of silos in New
England is steadily increasing, together with the acreage
devoted to ensilage crops. The work is yearly being sys-
tematized and performed with greater economy, and the
average product is yearly improving in quality. Here and
there one hears of an abandoned silo ; but when such a case
is investigated, the true facts are found to furnish a full
explanation of the occurrence without prejudice to the
system itself.
The general economy of the system depends mainly upon
156 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
the local conditions where applied. The circumstances at-
tending numerous points of detail, which I have already indi-
cated, will largely determine the question of economy. The
system is certainly better adapted to intensive than extensive
farming. Where land is dear, labor fairly abundant and
strong reasons existing for an increase of live stock kept
upon a limited acreage, the silo can in most cases be profit-
ably adopted. Yet I know instances of the use of ensilage
on a large scale by dairy farmers on the broad prairies of
Illinois and Nebraska, where hay can be put up for two or
three dollars a ton, and those who thus practice the system
prove its profit to them, literally " by the book." I do not
expect to see many acres of our best meadow land in the
Connecticut Valley converted into fields of ensilage crops,
although this can be certainly done, within reasonable limits,
at a greater i)rofit than is yet generally believed. But there
are many farms and larger areas, in New England, where
grass has never been grown at a profit ; but which, properly
treated, produce abundant crops of fodder corn and other
ensilage plants. On such lands the most conspicuous exam-
ples of the good effects of the silo system may already be
seen in this section of the country. Similarly, ensilage is
proving a boon to cattle raisers on the old, abandoned
cotton-fields of the South, where permanent pasturage and
good hay are almost unknown.
Two things, which are often overlooked, should be kept
prominently in view when considering the production and
use of ensilage. Plants, like animals, must be fed Avell, to
grow well. Where large crops of forage are to be raised, —
and the larger the crop to the acre the greater the profit, —
the land must be heavily manured. The more manure, the
more ensilage. And ensilage, in most forms, is not in itself
a complete and well-balanced food for animals. Where it is
largely fed, it should be supplemented with liberal grain
feeding. The more ensilage and grain, the more and
belter the farm manure.
Speaking without enthusiasm, — moderately, but posi-
tively,— I say ensilage is a success in New England to-
day, and is daily becoming better appreciated. In my
opinion, the time is not far distant when, if the silo system
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 157
is not largoly incorporated in the farm practice, every farm
of medium size or larger will count a silo of moderate size
a part of its regular equipment, as useful and economical as
an ice-house or a manure-spreader. Even if ensilage crops
are not regularly raised to fill it, a silo may be found a
handy and profitable thing to have on the farm. There are
always waste products, green or half-dry, with coarse mate-
rials like swale hay, that are generally used for compost or
bedding, which may be made into palatable ensilage. A
mixture, in equal parts, of rag- weed (Ambrosia artemisiae-
folia), swamp grass or swale hay, old corn stalks or straw
and second crop green clover, nearly three-fourths of which
would otherwise be almost useless, will make, as ensilage,
an article of forage surprising to those who have never tried
it.
As an example for using a silo as a sort of catch-all, I
may quote the described contents of one filled by Mr. Crom-
well, at Rye, New York: " (1) 18 inches deep of green
oats; (2) 6 inches of red clover; (3) 6 inches of Canada
field peas ; (4) 3 inches of brewers' grain ; (5) 2 feet of
whole corn plants, sowed l)roadcast and more rag-weed than
maize ; (6)5 inches of second crop grass ; (7) 12 inches of
sorghum ; (8) lot of immature corn, cut in short lengths.
The ensilage came out pretty acid, but good forage, all
eaten up clean." And for one, I have not yet abandoned all
hope of seeing the pulp of the beet root coming back to the
farms in large quantity from the neighboring sugar factory,
in various parts of New England.
There are seasons, too, when a crop of clover, or a few
loads of half-made hay, are certain to be lost if field curing
is depended upon ; at such times an empty silo may be used
to save the whole. Sprouted oat-sheaves and rye "grown"
in the straw can likewise be preserved by the silo and
transformed into a valuable article of forage. It is to the
vicissitudes of haying and harvesting in Great Britain, with-
in recent years, that the great British interest in this subject
is mainly due.
Although individuals and experiment stations have done
good work in the United States, in the study of ensilage and
the practical value of the system, there has been here noth-
158 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
ing like the systematic and comprehensive investigation of
the subject, which has taken place in Great Britain. Public
interest in England was first aroused in 1882, and soon a
Royal Commission was established, and pursued its elaborate
enquiry, — the Royal Agricultural Society of England, and
Sir John Lawes at Rothamsted, conducted correlative
experiments, and exceedingly interesting and valuable re-
ports resulted. While the British have used silos but half
as long as the Americans, the English literature of the sub-
ject is already more voluminous, more exhaustive and more
reliable. I thought of quoting at some length from the final
report of the British Ensilage Commission, but find that the
conclusions agree substantially with the views of the subject
already presented in this paper, and will therefore only give
two corroborating paragraphs : —
The experience of dairy farmers in England and Scotland
does not appear to justify the assertion which has been more or
less circulated, that dairy produce is in any way injuriously
affected by ensilage food. On the contrary, much reliable evi-
dence has been received to show that feeding with well-made en-
silage distinctly improves the yield of milk and cream and the
quality of butter.
The commissioners have already had sufficient evidence to
justify them in encouraging the development of the system of
storing undried, green fodder crops, as a valuable auxiliary to
farm practice. In addition to other advantages, losses occurring
through weather unfavorable for hay-making may be avoided, and
some crops not hitherto grown in this country, on account of the
impossibility of ripening their seed, may be successfully cultiva-
ted for ensilage, to increase and diversify our present means of
feeding various kinds of live stock on arable or partly arable
farms. If carried out with a reasonable amount of care and
efficiency, this system should enable the farmer to largely increase
the number of live stock that can be profitably kept upon any
given acreage, and proportionately, the quality of manure availa-
ble to improve its fertility.
As this paper has proved unexpectedly voluminous, and
presented parts of the subject in much detail, I conclude by
adding, for convenience, a condensed summary of the most
prominent of the facts regarding silos and ensilage now so
well established as to need no further proof : —
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? 159
1. Silos may be made with any of the various building
materials, and some very crudely and cheaply constructed
have been found to do good service.
2. Silos may be above ground, or under ground, or partly
both ; they should be water-tight and preferably air-tight
and frost-proof, although these two points are not essential.
3. The situation and construction of the silo, and the
arrangements for filling, covering and emptying, should be
largely governed by local conditions.
4. Several small silos, independent or connecting, are
better than one large one, and the depth should be consid-
erably greater than the length, width or diameter.
5. A silo that will prove efficient may, therefore, be built
at a cost varying from twenty-five cents to five dollars for
every ton of ensilage it will hold. But, like an ice-house,
a substantial, well-built structure, costing about two dollars
per ton capacity, will probably prove in the end the most
economical.
G. Silos may be filled slowly or quickly, in all weathers,
the forage plants cut or pitted whole, and the cover may be
heavily weighted or not weighted at all ; the ensilage pro-
duced will vary in condition and quality, but these varia-
tions of management do not materially affect the result. If
the silo is not air-tight on the sides, however, it must be
well-covered and heavily weighted.
7. Any plant or vegetable product, good for cattle food
when green or fresh, may be preserved as ensilage, in an
edible and succulent condition, throughout the year, or for
several years.
8. As a rule, all horses, mules, neat cattle, sheep, swine
and poultry, are fond of ensilage, if its material is ever
such as eaten by them. Most farm animals prefer it to the
best dry forage.
9. The best time at which to cut any growing plant to
make good ensilage, is when the plant approaches maturity
and has begun to decrease in the percentage of its water
contents.
10. The cost of preserving a given crop as ensilage
does not materially differ from curing the same crop by
drying, in a suitable season ; but crops can be ensiloed and
IGO BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
preserved in seasons when they would be lost if drying was
attempted.
11. All considered, Indian corn makes the most econom-
ical and satisfactory ensilage in most parts of the United
States, and with a crop of twenty to twenty-five tons to
the acre, when cut, which is a good average, the ensilage
may be made, ready for use, at a total cost of two dollars
per ton, and for less, under favorable circumstances.
12. An acre of corn as ensilage will weigh four times
as much as the same crop dried as fodder.
13. An acre of corn, field cured, stored in the most
compact manner possible, will occupy a space eight or ten
times as g-reat as if in the form of ensilao-e.
14. The chemistry of the silo is still somewhat in the
dark. The contents of any one silo filled with crops from
the same land, apparently managed in the same way, year
after year, will difier in condition and quality in different
years. Knowledge of the subject is not yet accurate enough
to prescribe with certainty the procedure which will ensure
the best ensilage. Yet any forage crop can be preserved
in a moist, fresh form, substantially unimpaired as food,
although there is generally a considerable loss in the carb-
hydrate elements, and with sometimes a partially compen-
sating gain in the percentage of protein, and an increase in
the digestibility of the material.
15. Correct theory, reasoning on scientific principles,
and the great preponderance of testimony resulting from the
longest practical experience, agree in recommending this
process to get the best ensilage : Cultivate corn so every
plant may have abundant air and sunshine to perfect itself
and bear ears of grain ; harvest when the kernels of the
ear begin to glaze, or even a little later, when the plant
leaves show some signs of drying ; harvest preferably in
good drying weather ; run the corn through a machine that
will cut it into lengths less than one inch ; carry on the
work as rapidly as possible ; keep the cut fodder leveled in
the silo, and when full, level the top, cover at once and
weight with at least 150 pounds to the square foot of sur-
face.
IS ENSILAGE A SUCCESS? IGl
16. As food for cuttle, us well us other kinds of farm
stock, ensiluge forms a good and very cheap substitute for
roots, and its condimental cfFec?ts are especially apparent.
But the usual ensilage crops fail to till the place of the root
crop in a judicious farm rotation.
17. In feeding, the best results follow a moderate ration
of ensilage, rather than its entire substitution for dry, coarse
fodder. Except in the case of animals fed to maintain their
weight, ensilage cannot be recommended as a substitute for
more than half the Ions; fora2:e consumed.
18. Ensilage, and especially good corn ensilage, when
compared with dry corn fodder, or with other feeding stuffs,
produces results so satisfactory as to surprise the chemist
and which chemistry cannot explain. As the result of prac-
tical feeding tests, it is very generally agreed that three tons
of corn ensilage will equal in its effects as food a ton of
average hay. This means that a farmer is as well off, if not
better, with thirty tons of good corn ensilage and twenty
tons of hay, as with thirty tons of hay. But it does not
mean that a man can winter stock as well with ninety tons
of ensilage and no dry forage, as with thirty tons of hay and
no ensilage.
19. A silo or two, well built but not too large or too
expensive, will be convenient and economical on most farms,
to convei-t w^aste products into edible forage and to save
crops which at other times might be lost, if not to preserve
some crop specially grown for ensilage.
20. The silo system is best adapted to high-priced lands
and so-called high-farming, and to farms not suited to profit-
able grass m'owinir.
O o c
21. The extensive use of ensilage upon any farm is
chiefly a question of convenience and economy which local
conditions must decide.
The Chairman. I want to call before you a gentleman
whom we shall not have the pleasure of hearing unless I call
him at this time. lie is a gentleman Ions: tried in the service
of agriculture and we shall all be glad to listen to him —
Secretary Gold of the State Board of Agriculture of Con-
necticut. [Applause.]
162 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
ADDRESS OE MR. THEODORE S. GOLD.
Mr. President, Ladies and Gentlemen, — It gives me
great pleasure to be here with you on this occasion, and
allow me to congratulate you upon the success of the work
in which you are engaged. I was here last evening, and
when Prof. Stockbridge gave his account of the first meeting
of the Massachusetts Board here in Springfield, and of the
earlier meetings of this organization, my heart was deeply
stirred. I felt those thinijs most forcibly, for I have been
through that kind of work in my own State. I have been
familiar with your work in this State, and, instead of waiting
until the close of the meeting (for I am called away at this
time necessarily) to offer my word of congratulation upon
the success of your meeting which would properly come
then, allow me to give it now.
I am happy to endorse the very careful and considerate
presentation of the subject of ensilage that has been brought
before you. I believe that that cause has been injured and
the introduction of ensilage hindered by the extreme claims
that have been made by many of its advocates. They have
made statements that threw discredit upon the whole process,
because they were so ftir beyond what we knew could be
possible.
There is one thing about your Massachusetts meetings
that I think is subject to criticism. You had here last even-
ing an essay upon the subject of the Home, of its influences ;
and that class most interested in it, most relied upon to
make the home what it should be, where were they? One
or two solitary examples only were present. I have in my
.pocket a little text or sentiment that I propose to read now
and not detain you, because you are anxious to proceed with
the more practical work of the session ; but you must allow
me the privilege of calling your attention to your dereliction
in that matter. I think when I have read this you will know
the class to whom I refer.
A man can build a mansion and furnish it throughout ;
A man can build a palace with lofty walls and stout ;
A man can build a temple with high and spacious dome ;
But no man in the world can build that precious thing called Home.
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 163
So it is the liappy faculty of Avoman far and wide
To turn a cot or palace into something else beside,
Where brothers, sons and husband, tired, with willing footsteps come ;
A place of rest where love abounds, a perfect kingdom — Home.
[Loud applause.]
The Chairman. We are now to have a lecture from Dr.
GoESSMAXN, of the Agricultural Collesfe.
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY.
BY DR. C. A. GOESSMANN OF AMHERST.
Mr. Chairman and Members of the State Board of Agri-
cidture, — Your committee on "Country Meeting," has as-
signed to me the task of opening a discussion on "The
Hay-field and English Hay." I have been instructed in this
connection to speak in particular of the best methods of
keeping up the annual yield of the hay-field, and to state
also the views at present entertained by progessive agricul-
turists regarding the economical value of English hay, as
compared with other fodder articles, for the support of farm
stock.
Every one familiar with our current systems of farm man-
agement will concede that it would be ill-advised to at-
tempt, on an occasion like the present, an exhaustive pre-
sentation of the varied and numerous actual observations
relating to the topics proposed for your consideration. It
is for this reason that I take the liberty to invite your atten-
tion, first, to a brief statement of a few important lessons,
which more recent systematic investigation into the laws
which promote a successful production and growth of plants
and animals have taught to practical agriculture. This
course, I believe, will enable me to define in the outset the
position I take in regard to the subject under discussion.
A careful study of the history of agriculture down to the
middle of the present century cannot fail to show, as a
rule, that the general decline in the productiveness of farm
lands in all civilized countries, even in the most favored
localities, can be traced back, in the main, to two circum-
stances,— namely, to a gradual reduction in the area occupied
164 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
by pastures and meadows, and to a steady decline in the
annual yield of fodder upon large tracts of land but little
suited for an economical production of fjrasses ; in the ma-
jority of instances, to the influence of both circumstances.
This statement applies with particular force to those times
and systems of farm industry where pastures and meadows
were still considered the almost exclusively reliable re-
sources of fodder for the support of horses, cattle and
sheep. A serious falling-off in the yield of the grass crop
under the described circumstances necessitated a reduction
in the farm live-stock, which in turn caused a decrease in
the production of manure. Adding to this result the cur-
rent practice of using the manure obtained from the feed-
ing of the crops secured from the grass lands for the
improvement of the ploughed lands, with scarcely any ma-
terial assistance from outside sources of manurial substances,
it is but natural that the productiveness of the former be-
came in the course of time seriously impaired. A scanty
supply of suitable manurial matter for the production of the
crops raised is to-day universally considered the most fatal
circumstance in any system of farming for profit. The
recognition of this fact belongs to our time. Three circum-
stances in particular may be charged with having delayed
the recognition of what is deservedly the true cause of
a gradual decline of remunerative farming in preceding
periods : first, the existence of large areas of cheap grass
lands; second, the exceptional recuperative quality of good
grass lands, i. e., their superior fitness for securing a liberal
share of plant food from the air and the soil by the aid of
natural agencies ; and third, the almost entire absence of
efficient means to obtain an intelligent insight into the
relations of the air, the water, and the soil to plant growth,
as well as into the mutual dependency of a remunerative
production of plants and of animals in a mixed farm man-
agement of the present day.
The grass farm management in its more primitive form,
as described above, is to-day almost exclusively confined to
localities, which for some cause or other arc less advanced
in general improvements. It proves, to-daj'-, remunerative
only in cases where the lands are in an exceptional degree
THE HA Y~ FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 165
well qualified for the production of grasses, so called natural
meadows, or where still larger areas of natural pastures at
low cost compensate for an indifierent yield.
The change from the older system to a more rational one
of to-day has been gradual, and more or less thorough
under different conditions. The introduction of modern
improvements in means of communication and transporta-
tion, accompanied by an increase in population, has been
invariably followed by an increase in the cost of farm lands.
The increase in population necessitated a corresponding
increase in the area of lands required for the production of
food for man.
A steady growth in this direction soon furnished ready
markets and secured frequently a higher pecuniary compen-
sation for money invested and labor spent than the crops
obtained on indifferently managed grass lands. Remunera-
tive returns, from a large proportion of original pastures
and meadows became, under these circumstances, in the
same degree, a matter of doubt and uncertainty as these
lands proved to bo better adapted to the raising of garden
and field crops. None but the better class of grass land in
populated districts could stand the competition.
This history of changes in the current system of farming
has repeated itself in every country, ours not excepted, when
passing from a more primitive condition of society to that
of a dense population.
The fact, that the serious influence of a rapid and material
decrease in the original grass lands on the supply of fodder
for farm stock, is less striking with us to-day than at an
earlier period in other countries, is mainly due to the three
following circumstances : —
1. The requirements for a successful management of
grass lands are to-day much better known than in preceding
periods ; we are for this reason better prepared to secure
larger and better crops, and to maintain at the same time a
high state of fertility of the lands engaged in the raising of
grasses. A more intensive system of cultivation replaces,
every day more and more, the extensive one of former times.
Comparatively recent investigations into the life of plants
in general have taught us, that all of them need not only the
166 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
same kind of constituents of the soil for their useful growth,
but also in different relative proportions in case of different
plants. This fact imposes upon us the task of regulating the
supply of the essential plant constituents. The successful
introduction of the trade in commercial fertilizers is a prac-
tical illustration of the relations of scientific methods of
inquiry to practical agriculture. In the light of our present
information, it appears but natural that a system of farming
which docs not provide in an economical way for a return in
an available form of the soil constituents carried off by the
crop raised, cannot otherwise but prove ultimately a finan-
cial fixilure. The less the variety of crops raised in succes-
sion upon the same lands, the more one-sided is usually the
exhaustion of the soil, and the sooner, as a rule, will be
noticed a decrease in the annual yield.
A change from the beaten path of the older systems of
farm management only can reveal to us the extent of this
condition in the case of many of our so-called exhausted
grass lands.
From a practical point of view, not less important than
the previously stated results of scientific methods of inquiry,
are the observations made regarding the botanical and phys-
iological characteristics of grasses.
The more prominent species of grasses have been of late
more closely studied in that direction ; and some valuable
foreign varieties have been added to our home supply.
The special adaptation of different species as well as of
difierent varieties of the same species to different kinds and
difterent conditions of soil has been investigated.
The duration of their life ; their time of blooming ; the
special character of their root system, whether compact and
short, or loose and extensive ; their natural tendency of pro-
ducing mainly tall, blooming stems, with a limited leaf de-
velopment, or a liberal leaf growth with but a few blooming
stems ; and last, but not least, their chemical composition
and nutritive value in different stages of growth and in case
of different systems of cultivation and of manuring, have
been made more or less special subjects of scientific research.
The additional information gained in consequence of these
and similar labors cannot well be over estimated, as far as
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 167
its influence on a. more juLliciul management of grass lands
is concerned.
The causes of unsatisfactory returns of meadows and
pastures are at present fairly understood ; it remains our
work to benefit by the lessons of the past, and make our-
selves, as far as possible, familiar with the result of more
recent experiments.
The of late increasing practice of cultivating upon
ploughed lands for a short period some varieties of grasses,
single or mixed, or as an admixture to other fodder plants,
is evidently a movement in the right direction.
The grasses are in many instances well qualified to serve
advantageously as a link in a rational system of a rotation of
crops.
2. Our supply of suitable fodder articles for farm live-
stock in general has been of late materially increased from
two directions : a greater variety of fodder plants is oflfered
for our choice, and large quantities of by-products and
refuse materials of various branches of industry have proved
efficient helpmates in the compounding of healthy fodder
rations.
The introduction of a greater variety of fodder plants
enables us to meet better the difierences in local conditions
of climate and of soil, as well as the special w^ants of diflPer-
ent branches of farm industry.
The merits of some comparatively new fodder plants, as
several varieties of clover, of vetch and of millet, are already
well recognized in New England, whilst others, as the horse
bean, the Southern cow pea, the serradella, the prickly c^m-
frey, the lupines, the alfalfa and others invite our attention.
On the other hand, we notice a steady increase in the valu-
able refuse materials from various industries in consequence
of an increase in the existinsj ones and addition of new ones.
The by-products of flour mills and vegetable oil works,
as the brans, middlings arid oil-cakes, are already highly
appreciated ; the refuse products from starch works, glucose
works, breweries and others, the starch feed, gluten meal,
spent brewers' grain, etc., deserve a more general trial.
The steady increase of suitable fodder materials from
these new sources tends to revolutionize our system of feed-
168 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
insf farm stock, and it cannot otherwise but exert a con-
trolling influence on the market price of our home-raised
fodder crops, the hay croj) included, rendering a remunera-
tive production of it more difficult.
3. Inquiries into the circumstances which control animal
nutrition have given us a more rational basis for the recog-
nition of what constitutes a com[)lctc food for various kinds
of farm stock, as well as under dificrcnt conditions.
The former practice of ascribing to each of our fodder
articles one definite numerical nutritive value, taking the
hay as the standard crop, has been proved to rest on a
misconception of what constitutes a complete nutritious
food under various circumstances.
We have learned from actual trials, that a complete ani-
mal diet ought to contain a certain propoition of three
distinctly different groups of compounds, namel^s certain
orofanic nitroirenous and non-nitrogenous constituents, and
certain saline or mineral substances.
The entire absence of one or the other of these groups in
a food renders it unfit for the support of any of our farm
animals ; the latter die in a short time, with the symptoms of
starvation, if exclusively fed with a food of that kind.
An excess of one or the other groups of essential food
constituents in a daily diet is ejected as worthless for the
support of the life of the animal; and it may, if consumed
in exceptionally large quantities, endanger life. Considera-
tions of health and good economy advise us to feed our ani-
mals with reference to their special wants under different
circumstances and for different purposes.
Good economy in stock feeding requires that the daily
diet in every case should contain the largest amount of each
of the three above stated groups of food constituents, which
the animal under treatment is capable of assimilating ; and
that this circumstance should be complied with at the lowest
attainable cost.
As no single fodder article has been found to meet these
requirements equally satisfactorily under varying circum-
stances, as far as different kinds of animals, their age and
functions are concerned, it becomes, as a rule, necessary to
supplement every one of our fodder plants with one or more
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 169
diflerent suitable fodder substances to secure a diet most
efficient at the time. The hay crop furnishes no exception
to this rule ; our every-day practice confirms that statement.
Whenever a high nutritive character of the feed is con-
sidered essential for success, — as, for instance, in the dairy
business or in case of growing dairy stock, — we add shorts,
corn meal, oil cakes, etc., to the hay ration, to secure tjie best
results. We have succeeded in making of the hay by these
additions a more complete food for some special purpose.
Taking into consideration, in this connection, that our
success in the dairy industry is largely due to the peculiar
character and composition of the commercial fodder sub-
stances which we have added to the daily hay rations, it
seems but a step in the right direction, to attempt, in the
interest of economy, a substitution of the hay, in part or in
the whole, as circumstances may advise, by some other
fodder crop of a similar coarse mechanical condition and a
similar chemical composition.
The cuiTent high market price of a good meadow hay
strongly advises that course, in the interest of a desirable
increase of our fodder resources and of a lower cost of
production of milk and beef.
In estimating at present the agricultural value of a fodder
substance, we consider, — first, its degree of adaptation as a
fodder article for special or general purposes ; second, its cur-
rent market price ; third, the manurial value of the residue
it leaves behind after having served as food.
Applying this standard of valuation to the meadow hay,
and to the growth upon the better class of natural pastures
in particular, we have to concede to them a well-earned
reputation of a superior degree of adaptation as a suitable
fodder for young sind old of our most important kinds of
farm live-stock, as cattle, horses and sheep.
On the other hand, it cannot be denied that the current
market price of a good meadow hay seriously affects the
cost of production of milk and of beef, when compared
with other coarse fodder articles recommended for our trial.
The comparative moderate pecuniary value of the manurial
residue left when feeding hay does not materially alter the
financial results.
170 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Under these circumstances, we cannot otherwise but no-
tice with satisfaction the daily increasing interest manifested
in our farming community regarding feeding experiments
to determine the economy of introducing, in particular, corn
stover, corn fodder and corn ensilage as substitutes in part,
or in the whole, for meadow hay in our farm industry.
The Indian corn, or maize, is pre-eminently the most val-
uable grass we cultivate. Judging from personal experi-
ence in this direction, I am persuaded to believe that the
solution of this problem is much advanced, and I feel con-
fident that the pecuniary advantage derived from its con-
summation will be marked. With these prospects in view,
it seems but proper that the discussion of a fodder article
ought to assume a more comprehensive character, consider-
ing not only its individual inherent merits, but also its
relation to other fodder substances of a similar character,
and with reference to a complete diet under given circum-
stances.
To stake the financial success in any branch of farm in-
dustry on the successful production of one single crop is,
to say the least, very risky. The experience of the past
does not endorse that course, nor do we know at present of
any mode of operation which promises better results in the
future.
We have learned of late to raise, under certain circum-
stances, all kinds of farm crops successfully without the
material assistance of the standard fertilizer of the past,
the barnyard manure ; and we will know better, before many
years have passed by, what particular place to assign to the
hay-field in a more extensive and intensiv^e system of raising
remunerative fodder crops. A due consideration of the
preceding remarks requires apparently no farther argument
to recognize the fact that local advantages, supported by a
systematic management of the work involved, are more
needed than ever before to secure remunerative returns
from grass lands.
Within a few subsequent pages I propose to give a short
description of the course recommended for the successful
production of a good English hay, and also relate our own
experience at the Experiment Station, of comparing the feed-
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 171
ing value of a good average meadow hay with other fodder
articles at our disposal at the tiuie of the experiment.
The successful production of most of our important
meadow and pasture grasses depends in a less degree on the
particular kind of soil than on a well-regulated supply of
moisture.
Light sandy soils furnish good meadows and pastures
whenever the necessary amount of moisture and of plant
food is provided for during the entire growing season. A
deep loam, or clayish loam, is looked upon as the typical
grass land. Our best meadows are found located upon lands
containing either a liberal admixture of a fine clayish silt,
or are receiving periodically additions of that kind by over-
flow or otherwise.
Deep plowing, and a good mechanical preparation of the
soil before seeding down, are most efficient treatments to
economize natural sources of moisture. The ground should,
however, be well settled before the seeds are imparted, —
the roots are better protected in that case than in a newly
stirred up soil ; rolling the ground after seeding does not
work as well upon a heavy moist soil. An excess of water,
as well as a high degree of dryness, changes the general
character of the growth upon grass lands. A wet condition
of lands favors the appearance of an inferior class of grasses,
and an exceptional state of dryness of the soil that of an
inferior class of herbaceous plants common to dry pastures.
These results become in the same degree more marked as
the undesirable conditions continue.
Under-draining and irrigation are efficient means for the
protection against these serious influences, if practicable
under existing local conditions.
In case neither of these remedies prove available on
account of unfavorable local circumstances, the adoption of
one or the other of the following modes of operation suggests
itself. Wet lands are quite frequently decidedly im-
proved for the production of grasses by an extensive system
of ditching, and in raising the level of the lands by cover-
ing them with a layer of light sandy soil. A periodical
serious dryness of the soil is ruinous to the majority of our
better grasses ; its serious influence can be somewhat mod-
172 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
ificd by the introduction of some valuable broad-leaved
herbaceous fodder plant, — for instance, certain varieties of
clover, as red clover (^Trifolium pratense) and white clover
{Trifolium repens), for the purpose of shading the surface,
and thereby economizing existing sources of moisture.
After having accomplished all the good results that an
efficient use of these means is capable of securing, much
benefit may still be derived from a study of the character
and the comparative fodder value of the plants which pros-
per under existing circumstances. To favor an increase of
the best of them, by seeding and otherwise, tends to improve,
materially, the chances for more satisfactory crops. The
same rule works well in the case of somewhat dry grass
lands.
Dry grass lands, which are in an exceptional degree in-
clined to a spontaneous overgrowing by an inferior class of
fodder plants and weeds, if at all fit for a more thorough
system of cultivation, ought to be turned by the plough and
subsequently planted with some hoed crop, to kill off the
foul growth and to improve the physical and chemical con-
dition of the soil. These lands prove, in many instances,
ultimately a far better investment when used for the raising
of other farm crops than grasses.
Next in importance to a certain degree of natural adapta-
tion of the soil for a successful and remunerative production
of grasses, is the presence of a sufficient amount of available,
suitable plant food.
No one definite rule of manuring grass lands can be laid
down in siijht of the diverse conditions of existing meadoAVS
and pastures, as well as of the special requirements in that
direction of lands designed for the cultivation of grasses, be-
yond the general advice, to provide for those soil constitu-
ents in particular which the grasses in exceptionally large
proportions abstract, and of w^hich the soil of the locality
contains, comparatively speaking, but a limited amount.
We have learned how to ascertain pretty closely the char-
acter and the approximate amount of the soil plant food
which a given amount of a crop abstracts, — the larger the
crop, the heavier the loss to the soil. A few numerical
statements regarding the grass crop may show in what direc-
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 173
tion and in what varying quantities the same weight of the
crop may consume the different articles of plant food.
Green grass at time of forming seeds (per ton), con-
taining 75 per cent, moisture and 25 per cent, vegetable
matter : —
Moisture,
Vegetable matter, .
Mineral constituents,
Nitrogen,
Phosphoric acid, .
Potassium oxide, .
Calcium oxide.
Magnesium oxide,
Sodium oxide.
Sulphuric acid,
Chlorine,
Manurial value, .
1,500.00 lbs.
500.00 lbs.
36.00 to 44.00 lbs.
8.00 to 14.00 lbs. (17 cts.)
2.40 to 4.40 lbs. (6 cts.)
9.00 to 16.00 lbs. (4^ cts.)
2.00 to 5.60 lbs.
.80 to 2.40 lbs.
.60 to 1.60 lbs.
1.60 to 2.00 lbs.
2.20 to 4.20 lbs.
Meadow hay (per ton), containing from 14 to 15 per cent,
of moisture : —
Moisture,
Vegetable matter.
Mineral constituents
Nitrogen,
Phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide.
Calcium oxide,
Magnesiimi oxide,
Sodium oxide.
Sulphuric acid.
Chlorine,
Manm'ial value,
Experience tells us that a liberal manuring pays better
than a scant one; yet, if we should try to restore to the soil
from outside sources a corresponding amount of all the fer-
tilizing constituents which the grass crop abstracts, it would
make, in most instances, there munerativc production of the
hay crop rather an exception than the rule.
Good economy advises us to manure our lands with a par-
ticular reference to special wants. To do this intelligently
requires a fair knowledge regarding the following points : —
1. The general character of the soil, the location of the
lands, the history of their former treatment, as far as the
28X)0 to
30.00 lbs.
1,972.00 to 1,970.00 lbs.
100.00 to
160.00 lbs.
30.00 to
50.00 lbs.
7.00 to
14.00 lbs.
32.00 to
64.00 lbs.
6.00 to
20.00 lbs.
3.00 to
10.00 lbs.
2.60 to
6.00 lbs.
6.50 to
9.00 lbs.
7.50 to
16.00 lbs.
S6.88
$12.06
174 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
system of manuring is concerned, as well as the kind of
crops which have been previously raised upon them.
2. The quality and relative quantity of the various essen-
tial articles of plant food which a satisfactory yield of the
contemplated crop requires.
3. The degree of natural fitness of the plant to be raised,
to avail itself not only of the atmospheric plant food, but
also of the existing inherent amount of plant food in the soil
to be used for its production. The development of their
root and leaf system, as well as the shorter or longer period
of time required for their growth, deserves a most serious
consideration in this connection.
Perennial plants are as a rule better qualified to benefit by
existing and inherent resources of plant food of the air and
the soil ; our best meadow grasses are perennials.
A general system of high manuring pays, not infrequently,
for this reason in a less degree if applied to naturally good
grass lands, than if applied to other farm crops. The advice
quite frequently ooticed in the publications of writers on
agricultural topics, " Do not put your manure on your
grass lands as long as your ploughed lands are benefited
by it," is based on that observation. It ought to be acted
upon with an intelligent discrimination to avoid serious mis-
takes ; for, however applicable the stated advice may have
proven in the past, in case of meadows and farms in favored
localities, it is not safe to carry it out as a general rule. A
superior natural fitness of the soil for the production of
remunerative grass crops, without the temporary assistance
of some kind of manurial matter, is more an exception than
a common occurrence.
The low average yield of a large proportion of our grass
lands proves the correctness of the previous statement.
Under thfese circumstances it seems advisable to discrim-
inate between the better class of permanent grass lands
and the periodical grass lands, when discussing modes of
manuring, for they represent different conditions.
The cultivation of one and the same crop year after year
upon the same land, without some system of a periodical
manuring, changes, gradually but surel}^ the composition of
the soil, and renders it sooner or later practically unfit for
THE HAY- FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 175
that purpose. The slowness of that process, in case of
naturally good grass lands, has concealed that result to such
an extent, apparently, that we cannot point out to-day the ex-
istence of a generally recognized more comprehensive sys-
tem of manuring permanent grass lands. We treat them
still quite largely without any well defined idea in regard
to the particular way of action of the substance we supply
for manurial purposes. A short discussion of some of the
more prominently mentioned manurial substances recom-
mended for use upon grass lands may illustrate that point.
Common salt is known quite frequently to act beneficially
on grass lands ; it acts, however, more decidedly on the physi-
cal qualities of the soil than as a direct plant feeder ; it
assists in the absorption of moisture from the air and econo-
mizes inherent resources of moisture, and is thus apt to act
better on dry lands than on moist ones ; it assists in the dif-
fusion of potash and phosphoric acid, but does not materially
benefit the supply of the most essential article of plant food.
The beneficial effect usually ceases after a few applications
of from 400 to 500 pounds per acre ; the lands are more ex-
hausted after its exclusive use as manure than before.
Gypsum, or plaster, has the reputation of assisting in
the absorption of the ammonium compounds of the air ; it
counteracts the tendency of a clayish soil to become hard
and impervious in dry weather ; it assists, like the salt, in the
general diff"usion of potash and phosporic acid present by
causing favorable transformations of existing compounds ; a
few repeated applications of from 600 to 700 pounds per
acre usually terminate its good services, which are fre-
quently marked rather by a more liberal growth of clover
and of leguminous plants in general than by that of grasses.
Aside from lime and sulphuric acid, nothing is added to the
future fitness of the soil, as far as essential articles of soil
plant food are concerned. Gypsum, as the sole manurial
matter used on grass lands, assists in bringing nearer the
time of their failure as a remunerative fodder source.
Air-slaked lime, lime-kiln ashes and various other kinds
of lime refuse, are noted for their frequent good influence
on grass lands ; they assist in producing a favorable compo-
sition of organic matter and aid in the disintegration of
176 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
potash-containing silicieus soil constituents ; tliey render
thereby inherent sources of plant food move availalile and
improve the general physical conditions of the soil by
rendering it more mellow and permeable. As a direct
addition of plant food, they are .only in exceptional cases
of real importance, on account of a more general distribu-
tion of lime containing minerals in the soil.
Marls and clayish marls, free from any perceptible
amount of potash and phosporic acid, act in the main sim-
ilar to the previously mentioned lime refuse.
Earthy composts of various descriptions, if applied in
large quantities, frequently act very beneficially on exposed
portions of the upper part of grass roots, by protecting
them against an undesirable exposure to light and atmos-
phere, and thereby favoring the formation of new and more
numerous shoots. They benefit the inherent stock of plant
food only as much as they contain one or more of them
in an available condition, which is usually an unknown
quantity. Other substances, quite frequently of a mere
local interest, might be added to the previous list, if time
permitted.
Most of these raanurial substances, it will be noticed,
are only temporary remedies, if any. They assist more or
less in economizing existing local resources of plant food ;
their general tendency of action defers the time of failures
and makes it more ruinous in the end. They may, however,
if used intelligently, quite frequently serve as valuable
helpmates in a more rational and more comprehensive
economical system of manuring grass lands capable of a
remunerative improvement.
No system of manuring any of our farm plants can be
pronounced, to-day, efficient, which does not recognize the
necessity of compounding our manures with reference to the
special wants of the plant under consideration, as far as the
different kinds of plant food arc concerned, and at the same
time carefully considers its particular botanical and struc-
tural characteristics, as far as the duration of growth and
the development of leaf and root systems are concerned.
Grasses are, comparatively speaking, large consumers of
plant food. Their long period of growth, supported by a
THE HAY- FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 177
liberal development of leaves and roots, enables tbem to
benefit in an exceptionally high degree by existing natural
and local resources of plant food of air and soil. They are
for this reason less exacting, as far as an additional supply
of plant food is concerned ; and they can be raised upon a
naturally good soil, fit for grass production, at a less ex-
pense for manure than the majority of general farm crops.
Good grass lands pay well, yet they are to-day more the
exception in many localities than the rule.
A safe general fertilizer for grass lands has to be com-
pounded by the same rules which guide us in making provi-
sions of that kind for other crops upon ploughed lands.
Wood ashes, l)arnyard manure, if necessary supplemented
by commercial manurial chemicals,* or a suitable combina-
tion of commercial manurial substances, may be used in that
connection with more or less advantage under diiferent
local circumstances.
The grass crop contains, on an average, one part of phos-
phoric acid to three parts of nitrogen and four parts of potas-
sium oxide. In case of new grass land it is well to adhere
to that proportion of these constituents in the manure to be
used. In case of old grass land, with an abundance of veg-
etable refuse matter, the amount of nitrogen may be safely
reduced to smaller proportions ; whilst an extra occasional
application of some potash compounds alone, as muriate of
potash (150 to 200 pounds per acre), or kainite (500 to 600
pounds per acre) , judging in this matter from personal obser-
vations, secures quite frequently satisfactory crops. It is
difiicult to state collectively the exact amount of nitrogen,
potash, and phosphoric acid for a given area, which will
secure the best results, on account of the widely varying
conditions of grass lands, as far as locality and their state of
fertility is concerned. To apply about one-half of the
fertilizing constituents contained in an average crop seems to
be a good rule, under otherwise fair conditions. Taking
two tons of hay as an average yield per acre, the fertilizer t©
• 2,000 lbs. of barnyard manure contains, of —
Nitrogen 8 to 10 lbs.
Phosphoric acid, 4 to 5 lbs.
Potassium oxide, 9 to 12 lbs.
Value, $1 94 to $252
178 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
be used ought to contain from thirty to thirty-five pounds of
avaihil)le nitrogen, from eleven to twelve pounds of available
phosphoric acid, and from forty-five to fifty pounds of
soluble potassium oxide, — such fertilizer, made of the best
ingredients, would cost from eight to nine dollars. It is not
advisable to reduce the nitrogen in our grass manures to too
small quantities, for the best grass crops contain the largest
amount of valuable nitrogen compounds.
No single article of plant food acts independently of the
rest ; a liberal amount of nitrogen assists in the liberal
assimilation of phosphoric acid and potash ; these elements
have a close relation to each other 'u\ many of our fodder
crops.
As a phosphoric acid source for grass lands, ground bones
may obtain the preference, although all kinds of phosphoric
acid-containing materials may be used, provided they furnish
in duo time the desirable amount of available acid.
Our main commercial sources of potash for plant growth
are unleached vegetable ashes, as hard- wood ash and of late
cotton-seed hull ash, and so called German potash com-
pounds.
Wood ashes are a valuable fertilizer for grass lands if
applied in sufficient quantity ; our average unleached Canada
wood-ash contains from 5 to 6 per cent, of potassium oxide,
1.5 to 2.5 per cent, of phosphoric acid, from 30 to 35 per
cent, of calcium oxide (lime), besides small quantities of
every other essential mineral element required for a success-
ful growth of plants.
This circumstance imparts to it a special fitness for a
general fertilizer. The absence of nitrogen is somewhat
compensated for by the presence of a liberal amount of lime,
which favors a rapid decomposition of the vegetable matter,
contained in the soil. The nitrogen of the vegetable refuse
matter becomes thereby in a high degree available.
The good effects of wood-ash is for this reason more strik-
ing upon moist grass lands, rich in vegetable refuse matter
than upon dry lands, which as a rule contain less of the
latter.
Dry grass lands benefit usually more by an application of
some suitable German potash salt, muriate of potash or
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 179
kainite, with some available phosphoric acid (four potassium
oxide to one phosphoric acid) , for these salines absorb in a
high degree moisture from the air, and economize the inherent
moisture of the soil by making the latter more retentive in
that direction.
A liberal state of fertility of the soil is an indispensable
requirement for a successful production and propagation of
our most valuable grasses.
Quite frequently the entire character of the growth upon
grass lands has been improved by changing from a scanty
to a liberal manuring, without any assistance from new
seeds. Those grasses which are best adapted to the altered
conditions of the soil take the lead.
Some of our most reputed grasses differ widely in regard
to their preference for one or the other condition of soil and
of cHmate. Careful local observations furnish, therefore,
most valuable information reojardino: a selection of o-rasses
for cultivation which promises satisfactory results under ex-
isting local circumstances.
A higher degree of local adaptation, under otherwise cor-
responding circumstances, often changes materially the com-
parative economical value of different species and varieties
of grasses.
The nutritive value of one and the same species or variety
of grasses is liable to differ in a more serious degree, when
raised under more or less advantageous circumstances, than
many of our more reputed meadow grasses are represented
to differ among themselves, when raised under conditions
which favor their successful growth.
The same relation has been noticed as far as quantity is
concerned.
The comparative nutritive value of one grass as compared
with another can only then be considered fairly established
when each has been raised under circumstances which best
promote their complete development.
The well-known great diversity of special wants of many
of our prominent grasses renders the existence of equally
favorable local conditions, for even a limited number of dif-
ferent grasses, rather an exception, than the rule.
Many of our current reports on experiments with grasses
180 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE.
give us but little information regarding the circumstances
under which the trial has been made.
The majority of the results reported have fm* this reason
only a local value, and are to be accepted with a due allow-
ance for special local conditions. The fact that many of our
foremost practical agriculturists, on both sides of the Atlan-
tic, differ widely in regard to the relative and absolute merits
of many of our reputed grasses even, can only be reconciled
by assuming different local conditions of the experimenters.
Under these circumstances it seems, for these and various
other reasons, advisable to point out on the present occa-
sion merely some general considerations which ought to
guide us in selecting suitable grasses for meadows and for
temporary grass lands, and to close subsequently this chap-
ter by relating some of our own results of experiments with
single grasses upon the fields of the State Experiment Sta-
tion.
It is a well-established fact in practical farming that the
yield of fodder upon a given area of land is frequently
much larger when raising a mixture of several fodder plants
than when raising but one of them at a time, provided the
selection of the mixture is made judiciously.
The grasses are no exception to that rule. A good
meadow furnishes the best illustration in this direction. In
studying the botanical characteristics of the grasses, with
reference 'to their mode of growth, we notice a more or
less marked difference among different species and varieties.
Some show decided tendency to send out, soon, numerous
upright shoots, bearing liberally flowers, whilst others show
this tendency more sparingly, and spend their vital energy
in the production of numerous low, knotty shoots, clinging
more or less closely to the ground.
This class of grasses requires frequently from two to three
years after seeding before it contributes liberally to the hay
crop ; it furnishes meanwhile valuable pastures. As the
selection of suitable grasses for permanent meadows ought
to be made with a view of forming, within a limited number
of years, a close and compact sod, the last-named class of
grasses ought to take the lead in grass mixtures for that
purpose.
I
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 181
To secure upon recently seeded grass lands, designed for
permanent meadows, during the earlier years a liberal sup-
ply of hay, requires a fair addition of seeds of tall-growing
grasses and other fodder crops, as clover and other legumin-
ous plants. These fodder plants ought to be selected largely
from short-lived species and varieties, to make, in due time,
room for the formation of a close sod.
Incase of temporary grass lands, it becomes necessary, for
a good and early annual yield, to choose mainly the seeds
from those grasses, otherwise suited for existing local con-
ditions, which send out, at once, many tall blooming shoots.
The shorter the period designed for keeping the lands cov-
ered with grasses, the more ought low-growing perennial
grasses to be excluded, — except the lands shall serve sub-
sequently for pastures.
The degree of success upon permanent meadows, as far as
the quality and the quantity of the annual yield is con-
cerned, depends largely on the care taken to ascertain the
most advantageous relative proportion of both mentioned
classes of grasses under existino- local circumstances. To
secure the highest attainable yield requires careful local
observations.
Grasses raised upon one and the same lands should be
selected as far as practicable with reference to a correspond-
ing period of blooming ; they should be cut for hay when
the majority of them are fairly advanced in blooming. The
adoption of this course imparts to the crop the highest
attainable nutritive value.
182
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
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THE IIAY-FIELD AXD ENGLISH HAY. 183
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184 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
LIST OF REPUTED GRASSES (PERENNIALS).
I. For Dry or Moderately Moist Soils.
(a) First Class {tall growing grasses.)
Meadov/ Fox-tail (Alopecui'us pratensis), . . May to June.
Meadow Fescue (Festuca pratensis), .... June to July.
Red Fescue (Festuca rubra), eTune to July.
Timothy (Herd's Grass) (Phleum pratense) , . . . June to July.
(6) Second Class (low growifig grasses).
English Bent (Agrostis alba), June to July.
Sweet Scented Vernal Grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum,) May to June.
Yellow Oat Grass (Avena flavescens), .... May to June.
Sheep's Fescue (Festuca ovina), ..... June to July.
Downy Oat Grass (Avena pubescens) , .... July.
French Rye Grass (Tall Oat Grass) (Arrhenatherum ave-
naceum), May to July.
English Rye Grass (Lolium perenne) .... June.
Italian Rye Grass (Lolium Italicum) .... Jime.
Kentucky Blue Grass (Poa pratensis) .... May to June.
II. For Moist and Wet Soils.
(a) First Class {tall growing grasses).
Timothy (Herd's Grass) (Phleum pratense,) . . . June to July.
Fowl Meadow (Poa serotina) , July to Aug.
Rough-stalked Meadow Grass (Poa trivialis) , . . . June.
Meadow Soft Grass (Hoi cus lanatus), .... Jim e to Aug.
Orchard Grass (Dactylis glomerata), .... May to June.
Soft Brome Grass (Bromus mollis), June.
Italian Rye Grass (Lolium Italicum), .... June.
Tufted Hair Grass (Aira ccespitosa), .... June.
(6) Second Class {low grotving grasses) .
Red-Top (Rhode Island Bent) (Agrostis vulgaris), . July.
English Rye Grass (Lolium perenne), .... June.
Crested Dog's Tail (Bynosurus cristatus), . . . June to July.
Common Manna Grass (Glyceria fluitans) , . . . Jime to July.
Much more miofht be said here in regard to other circum-
stances which exert an influence on the quality and the
quantity of the hay crop, if time permitted.
Sufiicient has been mentioned to recognize the fact tliat
hay-fields and hay crops are apt to difier widely under difier-
ent managements.
The great variations in the nutritive value of the hay
renders its services as a fodder for a specified purpose more
or less uncertain ; it lessens its claim as a standard for fodder.
THE HAY-FIELD AXD ENGLISH HAY. 185
We have learned to improve its good services by supple-
menting it in various ways and for different purposes, and
we are now engaged, on account of its high market price, to
substitute it in part or in the whole by some other cheaper,
suitable, coarse fodder article. A short description of a
series of personal observations in that direction forms the
closing chapter of this paper.
A rational attempt of compounding fodder rations for
different kinds and different conditions of farm live-stock
has to begin with a due consideration of the general adapta-
tion of the various fodder articles for the designed purpose.
We have to discriminate in this connection in our choice
with reference to the particular kind, age and function of the
animal concerned.
My experiments, below related, were carried on with
milch cows. The special fitness of an animal diet de})ends
on certain physical characteristics of the feed, whether
liquid or dry, coarse and bulky or fine, and on its nutritive
effect ; the more adapted in both directions the more satis-
factory are the results as fiir as health and function of the
animal are concerned.
To meet the craving of the animal for food, and to support
a vigorous manifestation of life, are two distinctly ditlerent
requirements of a food. The bulky condition of the feed
tends to satisfy the craving or the hunger of the animal ;
the amount and relative proportion of digestible essential
food constituents required for a healthy and normal perform-
ance of all animal functions decides the nutritive value of
the feed, — its feeding effect.
A judicious selection from among the various suitable
fodder articles with reference to net cost controls the degree
of financial success of the operation.
Our observations at the Experiment Station have been
thus far confined to a trial with English hay, as compared
with corn fodder, corn ensilage, stover, and root crops
(Lane's sugar beet and carrots), and a second trial, as com-
pared with some green crops, as vetch and oats, Southern
cow pea, and serradella.
These coarse and bulky fodder substances were supplemented
by corn meal, wheat bran, rye middlings and gluten meal.
186 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
The standard diet consisted of three and one-quarter
pounds* each of corn meal and wheat l)ran, besides all the
hay the animal would consume (from 20 to 25 pounds).
Two cows of corresponding milking periods served in the
first two series of observations, and three cows on each side
in the experiment with green crops.
Our results may be summed up in the following state-
ments : —
1. Dry corn fodder compares with English hay, pound for
pound of dry matter.
2. Corn ensilage compares well with English hay, when
substituting the latter from one-half to two-thirds, pound for
pound, dry matter.
3. Cora stover compares well with both corn ensilage,
fodder corn and English hay, pound for pound, dry
matter.
4. Root crops (used pound for pound of dry matter) ex-
ceed in nutritive value that of corn ensilage ; they raised the
yield of milk about one-sixth, when fed in place of one-half
of the hay.
5. Vetch and oats, serradella, and Southern cow-pea,
when fed as green crops, in place of three-fourths of the hay
(counting pound for pound of dry matter), had a similar
effect on the increase of milk as the root crops, — one-sixth
increase.
6. The influence of the various diets used on the quality
of the milk has been more controlled by the constitutiontd
characteristics of the animals than by the particular composi-
tion of the feed ; the effect produced in one animal has been
not infrequently the reverse in case of the other.
7. The manurial value left behind in case of the various
fodder rations used has amounted in most instances to more
than one-third of the cost of the feed, after allow-
ing a deduction of twenty per cent, lost in the .sale of
milk.
A few subsequent tabular statements may serve as illustra-
tions of our results as above reported.
* Three and one-quarter pounds of shorts are equal to four quarts; and three and
one-quurter pounds of corn meal are equal to two quarts.
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 187
Some of the Fodder Rations adopted in Feeding Experiments at
Experiment Station during the past few Years.
Table I.
KATIONS PER DAY.
S.5
1^
;>a
English hay,
Corn meal,
Shorts (wheat bran),
English hay.
Corn fodder,
Corn meal.
Shorts,
English hay.
Ensilage, .
Corn meal.
Shorts,
English hay.
Roots (sugar beet) ,
Corn meal,
Shorts,
20 lbs.
3.25 "
3.25 "
5
12
3.25
3.25
10
30
3.25
3.25
15
27
3.25
3.25
lbs.
lbs."
lbs.-
lbs.
24.0G
20.44
21.57
23.91
cents.
22
13.8
18.4
25
cents.
9.4
8.1
9.1
9.4
1:8.2
1 : 7.72
1:8.15
1:7.1
Prices of the Articles of Feed (per ton).
English hay,
. $15 00
Roots (carrots), .
. $7 00
Corn fodder.
5 00
Corn meal, .
. 23 00
Ensilage, .
2 75
Shorts,
. 20 00
Roots (sugar beet) , .
5 00
Gluten meal,
. 23 00
188
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Table II.
RATIONS PER DAY.
English hay,
Corn meal,
Shorts (wheat bran) ,
English hay.
Corn meal,
Shorts,
Gluten meal.
Corn fodder,
Corn meal,
Shorts,
English hay,
Ensilage, .
Corn meal.
Shorts,
Gluten meal,
English hay.
Roots (carrots)
Corn meal,
Shorts,
Gluten meal,
25 lbs.-
3.25 "
3.25 "
20 lbs. ■
3.25 »
3.25 "
3.25 "
20 lbs."
3.25 "
3.25 "
5
30
3.25
3.25
3.25
10
35
3.25
3.25
3.25
lbs.
lbs.
3S. "I
o
si
Q
hi
o,
c
o
Hi
■35 a
lbs.
cents.
cents.
28.66
25.7
10.9
26.21
25
12.3
22.51
12
8.7
21.76
18.4
10.2
21.36
30.5
11
1:7.9
1:6.1
1:7.7
1:6.2
1:5.9
Prices of the articles of feed same as in Table I.
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 189
Table III.
RATIONS PER DAY.
o
C 5
II
o,
s
2
«
|a
o
P
PI
E-i
lbs.
cents.
cents.
23.45
21.70
9.75
26.34
26.20
10.34
26.42
26.00
11.57
18.39
19.43
9.93
30.80
25.86
11.49
29.03
25.91
13.58
English hay.
Corn meal,
Shorts (wheat brun),
English hay,
Corn meal,
Rye middlings.
English hay.
Corn meal.
Rye middlings,
Gluten meal,
English hay.
Vetch and oats
Corn meal.
Shorts,
English hay,
Cow pea, .
Corn meal,
Shorts,
English hay,
SeiTadella,
Corn meal.
Shorts,
19.88 lbs.)
3.25 " S
3.25 " )
20 lbs.")
3.25 " }
6.50 " )
20 lbs. ^
3.25 " I
8.25 " f
3.25 " J
5 lbs. ^
64.23 " 1
3.25 " f
3.25 " J
5 lbs. ^
97.37 " I
3.25 " f
3.25 " J
5 lbs. ^
97.12 " i
3.25 " f
3.25 "
1 : 8.54
1 : 9.39
1 : 6.96
1 : 5.60
1 : 5.38
1 : 9.06
Yield per Acre.
Green Material. — With 15 per cent. Moisture.
Valuation per Ton
with Hay at $15
as the Basis.
Cow pea,
Vetch and oats,
Serradella, .
Hay, . .
9.6 tons,
10.9 "
9.5 "
6.8 "
4,777 lbs.
3,553 "
4,342 "
4,000 "
$12 60
16 80
13 80
15 00
190
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
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192 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Mr. Myrick. I think Major Alvord did not cover in his
address the experiments where no weight was applied to
ensilage. Mr. Brooks, who is here, has made some exper-
iments in that line very successfully, and perhaps Major
Alvord has some data on that point which would be of
interest here. It is a great inconvenience to many farmers
to haul a load of rocks or something else with which to
weight their ensilage.
Prof. Alvokd. I thought that was alluded to in the
paper, though perhaps not very explicitly. If the ensilage
is left without any cover the upper portion of the material
will decay. The thickness of this decomposed layer will
differ under cliflferent conditions of weather and other cir-
cumstances. I remember going into a silo at Geneva,
N. Y.,with my friend Dr. Sturtevant (who is fortunately
here now and can verify what I have to say on that point),
in December or January. This silo had been undisturbed
from the time the tilling was completed. The ensilage was
not even levelled off. I recollect we poked through about
five inches of poor material for any feeding purpose, and
then came to what seemed to be a pretty fair quality of
ensilage. My recollection is that about eight inches from
the top we found good eatable material. The upper layer,
that was spoiled, became a cover for the rest. So that it
becomes simply a question of the value of the material
itself. I have seen it spoil for a foot and a half or two feet
in depth over a surface of considerable extent. The larger
your silo the greater the extent of surface and the more ex-
pensive the cover. It seems to me it is simply a question of
comparative values ; whether your corn, or whatever you
put in for your ensilage, is more valuable than the straw and
boards that you use on top to cover it and for weight.
The Chairman. We have with us one of our Massachu-
setts men, — always a Massachusetts man, although he has
of late been laboring in a neighboring State, — Dr. Sturte-
vant. I am sure you all want to hear from him. [Applause.]
Dr. Sturtevant. I certainly did not expect when I
came here to speak, but this question of ensilage is a very
interesting one to me, because I want to get a thorougli
understanding of the practical methods of its preservation
THE HAY- FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 193
For two years we have tried the experiment of filling a
silo without any weights, and the result has been a marked
success in both years, and yet there has been enough differ-
ence in the degree of success to give us a clew to some of the
conditions which have produced the results. When a silo is
filled slowly, and each layer allowed to become very solid
before the next layer is applied, the loss from decay is very
slight indeed ; but when it is filled more rapidly, in thicker
layers, so that the fermentation has not reached its extreme
point before the next layer is put in, then the loss, as Major
Alvord says, may be from a foot to a foot and a half; but
we think that the average loss need not necessarily exceed
four to six inches, when filled in this way.
But this is not the most interesting thing in regard to the
silo. There is yet another method to be developed which is
as yet in the experimental stage. I refer to the stacking of
it in the open air. In England a process has been devised
of making an open-air stack of ensilage, and by means of
levers compressing it into about one-half in bulk, and then
leaving it, and the claim is that the loss from decay is very
slight. This last summer we had some of the apparatus sent
us and we put up a stack of ensilage, and, not having made
any preparation for it, we simply filled it with what we
could get; some corn, some Hungarian grass, some clover,
and anything that we could pick up. We put on a layer
about a foot deep and the next day that would be so hot that
we could not bear our fingers in it ; then we put on another
laj^er, and so built it up day after day. That ensilage is well
preserved and is the only absolutely sweet ensilage I have
ever yet seen. Now, " one swallow does not make a sum-
mer." This is simply one experiment, not enough to draw
any conclusion from, and we can simply say that if next
month the ensilas-e turns out as we think it is o;oinsr to from
the partial examination we have made of it (we took off
about four feet and examined it), it will solve the ensilage
question as to cheapness, because we can make a compact
stack in the open air and not apply any weight to it. It is
just like a stack of hay, and the loss will be far less than
inside of the silo. I think it is a promising field for future
work.
194 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Mr. Myrick. You compressed it ?
Dr. Sturtevant. We compressed it, but that operation
is entirely unnecessary.
Prof. Alvord. What was the shape of the stack?
Dr. Sturtevant. Perfectly level on the top, with per-
pendicular sides. The weight of the upper foot is sufficient
to give all necessary compression. We placed a sloping
roof over it of common boards to keep the rain from striking
in. At the present date the ensilage is in perfect condition.
Question. It is open on the sides?
Dr. Sturtevant. The sides are open. I think ten by
fourteen feet on the ground and is built up about eight feet
high.
Question. Is there any decomposition on the sides ?
Dr. Sturtevant. Yes, sir ; but it is irregular.
Question. How far?
Dr. Sturtevant. It had gotten in about three inches
in some places and in a few spots running in a foot. But
we have not yet opened the whole stack, so that we cannot
speak conclusively. We know that in some places the
decomposition extends in only about three inches. But the
curious thing is, that the great solid mass inside is appar-
ently in as perfect condition as hay would be.
Question. Was the material cut?
Dr Sturtevant. The Hungarian grass and hay were not
cut ; the coarser materials were. The apparatus came so
late that we could not prepare for it, and hence put on
whatever we could get. We simply laid down boards to
keep the material from the earth and to get a bearing for the
compressing apparatus, which we do not consider necessary
now.
Question AVould you make the stack right up as soon
as you could, or would you rather wait?
Dr. Sturtevant. In putting in ensilage our experience
is that it wants to be put in slowly, so as to allow each layer
to get its maximum heat before the next layer is applied.
Question. Was this Hungarian grass and the other grass
cut before the dew was off?
Dr. Sturtevant. It was cut accordinor to convenience.
In experiments of this kind we want to do as the average
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 195
farmer would do, so as to obtain a result under similar con-
ditions to those of practical farming. "We do not want to
have everything perfect.
Question. Why not put it right into the barn at once ?
Dr. Sturtevant. I should want the barn insured.
Question. I would like to inquire what this apparatus
was?
Dr. Sturtevant. Some patented English apparatus.
It amounted simply to putting some beams across the stack,
attaching chains to them, and then by levers bringing the
beams in contact with the material. We do not attach any
importance to the compression at all.
Prof. Alvord. How hot have you found it?
Dr. Sturtevant. I have never put a thermometer in,
but it was so hot I could not bear my fingers in it.
Question. If it was in a barn, would it set the barn on
fire?
Dr. Sturtevant. No, I really do not think it would;
still, I should be a little afraid of it.
Question. Was the ensilage dried at all ?
Dr. Sturtevant. No, sir. We cut it and carried it
right to the spot.
Mr. . I once saw a mow of hay in which a spot
of five or six inches in the centre had burnt to charcoal ; it
would black the cattle's noses. I suppose if air could have
gotten in there the barn would have been burned. The cat-
tle would eat the hay that was burnt to charcoal as readily
as any part of it.
Question. I would like to ask Dr. Sturtevant if he
does not believe that those crops are better preserved by the
most perfect exclusion of air from them that can be obtained?
Dr. Sturtevant. The whole principle seems to be the
exclusion of air.
Question. Packed outside in that way is the air so
thoroughly excluded as it would be from the same material
in a silo?
Dr. Sturtevant. That is a question I will not answer.
As I said, I have not seen that silo opened ; but I think the
air is excluded in all essential particulars most thoroughly.
Question. Is not the air more thoroughly excluded by
196 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
rapid filling of the silo and putting on the cover than by any
other process ?
Dr. Sturtevant. No, sir. I think the best conditions
are obtained by slow filling and allowing each .layer to
settle.
Question. After all this work did you save any time or
money as compared with putting it into the barn?
Dr. Sturtevant. I must answer that entirely from
belief, based upon experiment. I believe that ensilage has
great value when fed properly ; when fed improperly I do
not think it is any better than the material of which it is
composed would be if fed dry. The first effect of feeding
acid ensilage is to increase the appetite of the animals, and
they will eat more food. If milch cows, they will give more
milk on account of the more nutriment that they take ; and
if fatting animals they will take on more fat. I believe in
ensilage, and I believe, if fed judiciously, it can be used to
great advantage by any farmer.
Mr. . At one of the farmers' meetings held in
Boston one of the advocates of ensilage claimed that all food
turned acid before being digested, and that by feeding ensil-
age to our animals we saved their digestive organs a great
amount of work. I have tried feeding ensilage without any-
thing else, but sooner or later it has been a detriment to the
animals. I find, according to my own experience, that its
greatest value is in judiciously feeding it with other mater-
ials. I do not want to feed too much of it.
Question. I would like to ask Dr. Sturtevant how
much ensilage he would feed ?
Dr. Sturtevant. My own experience is that about four-
teen pounds to a cow weighing seven hundred pounds does
very well indeed.
Mr. . My experience is that we can use forty
pounds a day.
Dr. Sturtevant. I have known even more than that to
be used for some time without ill effects on large animals ;
but toward the latter part of the season, the ill effects are
developed.
QuESTion. What will be the ill effects then?
Dr. Sturtevant. You will find that the hair will be a
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 197
a little staring and there will be a tendency in the animal to
become tender in the fore feet. The same ill eifects which
follow from feeding excessively of cottoa seed meal, gluten
meal, and the like.
Question. What will be the result on a milch cow?
Dr. Sturtevant. The result of over-feeding is detri-
mental if long enough continued, but there are some individ-
ual cows that can stand it without showing any ill effects.
In speaking of these thino-s, we must speak of the average
herd. We recognize the fact that there are some people
who can eat almost anything without injury, and there are
some cows that have such good appetites that they can eat
anything without injury. But my remarks apply to the
average herd and to the average feeder, and, so far as
ensilage is concerned, to the average quantity which, in
ray own experience, I have found to be safe.
Question. What kind of green feed is best combined
with ensilage to produce a whole cattle feed?
Dr. Sturtevant. You are out of my line now, sir.
Mr. Myrick. Apple pomace is fed in the Eastern part of
the State, and I would like to inquire if there is any one
here who has fed it.
Mr. Shepard of Westfield. Have you ever experimented
with sprinkling air-slaked lime on your hay? There is a
farmer in our vicinity who cuts his grass in the morning,
when the dew is off, and his men cart it directly to the barn,
when it is in a very green state, and he sprinkles a small
amount of air-slaked lime on it. He says that his hay does
not heat and comes out very green in the winter and is very
palatable. I would like to know if anybody in the hall has
ever practised that and can tell us what the result has been.
Mr. Fitch. If you will call upon Mr. N. B. Douglas of
Sherborn you will probably have the best authority in
Massachusetts upon the use of apple pomace.
Mr. Douglas. I did not expect to be called upon to say
a word upon this or any any other subject, although I am
frequently asked in regard to this matter of apple pomace as
cattle food. It has been considered a bi-product of cider
making. I have been using it in my own herd for four
years and I find that, taken in connection with other feed.
198 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
it makes a very good animal food. I do not consider it a
perfect ration at all, any more than I do any other food;
but feeding it as one feed during the day, Avhen I would feed
three other kinds, I consider it can be used to advantage.
My ration is apple pomace in the morning, ensilage at noon,
dry hay just before milking time, and dry grain after milk-
ing at night. I find that by feeding in that way the cattle
eat the pomace well, relish it, they keep in good flesh, and
their appetites remain good through the winter. The re-
sults in butter are good. By feeding in that way I find that
I can feed a considerable quantity of it and get no l^ad taste
or smell in the milk or in the butter. I know from my
experience that if pomace is fed injudiciously evil will
result, and you see bad efiects in the milk ; but feeding it in
this wav I get nothins^ but ffood results from it. The
storing and keeping this pomace is a very easy matter, — at
least, it has been with me. I have kept it now for four
months. I simply put it into my silo, on top of the corn.
The cider season comes directly after the corn is cut, so,
instead of weighting my corn ensilage with rocks or sand, I
simply put boards over it, to keep the pomace from working
in among the corn. I have never covered my ensilage with
anything but this pomace, and it packs it so thoroughly that
it excludes the air and keeps it perfectly. There will be,
perhaps, from one to three inches on top, towards the centre
of this apple pomace, that is damaged.
I am reminded by ray friend Cheever that I should say
that in the pomace which I use there is no straw used ; it is
made in mills where they use press-cloth instead of straw.
I do not believe it would be possible to keep pomace made
in the old-fashioned mills, pressed with straw, because the
straw would prevent the pomace from packing so but what
the air would get in and cause fermentation and decay in a
very short time. Then there is another thing. Those old-
fashioned mills do not remove a sufficient portion of the
cider. This pomace apparently has not as much acid in it
after standing three or four months as it had in the begin-
ning. It smells and looks in March or the first of April
almost exactly as it does when it goes in, with the exception
that it has settled and is very compact.
THE HAY-FIELD AND ENGLISH HAY. 199
Mr. Hartshorn of AVorcester. Will you tell us how-
much you give at a feed ?
Mr. Douglas. I am one of those people who are very
apt to guess at some of these things, as farmers usually do.
I should say twenty pounds to a large cow. Some cows
want thirty pounds, others do not want more than twelve or
lifteen. You have to be governed by circumstances.
Mr. Smith of West Springfield. About how much pom-
ace by measurement ?
Mr. Douglas. A little more than a peck, I should say, as
it comes out. After having been in the silo a month or two
it becomes very compact and we have to break it up, and
then we take a scoop-shovel and take up as much as we can
conveniently for each cow.
Question. Do we understand that that constitutes the
whole morning feed of the cow ?
Mr. Douglas. Yes, sir.
Question. How much ensilage would you feed at noon?
Mr. Douglas. As much as the cow would eat.
Mr. Waterhouse of New Hampshire. Relative to the
time of milking, do you feed just before or just after?
Mr. Douglas. Just after milking. I would never feed
anything of that nature before milking.
Mr. Waterhouse. Are they where they can smell it?
Mr. Douglas. Part of the cows are within fourteen feet
of the silo.
Mr. Waterhouse. You have never had any bad effect
in the milk?
Mr. Douglas. No, sir. To satisfy myself I have fed
before milking and have been able to detect a smell and taste
in the milk.
Question. Will you state whether you have made any
experiment to ascertain what value there is in feeding pom-
ace? Whether your cows give any more milk or butter from
feeding the pomace over any other feed ?
Mr. Douglas. I am not prepared to state as to that.
We consider the value of the pomace the same as that of any
other food of which it takes the place. If the pomace takes
the place of five pounds of hay in the morning, it is worth
just as much as five pounds of hay is worth ; if it fills the bill
200 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
of five pounds of hay, it is worth just as much as five pounds
of hay.
Question. Suppose the same amount of sawdust would
fill the bill, would it be worth as much?
Mr. Douglas. Yes, sir. If it filled the bill it would be
worth just as much.
Mr. A. A. Fitch. With regard to straw in pomace, in
my journeys over the State in connection with the milk ques-
tion, I have had occasion to examine a good many silos in that
particular, and I have found several persons who are using
the common pomace with the straw in it, and I have tried it
myself this fall with success. It makes no difference. The
ensilage is good.
Adjourned to two o'clock p. m.
Afternoon Session.
The afternoon session was called to order at two o'clock
by Mr. Brooks and Dr. Austin Peters, M. R. C. V. S.,
read the following paper : —
THE VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE TO THE STATE.
BY AUSTIN PKTEBS, V. S. , OF BOSTON.
Mr. Chairman^ Ladies and Gentlemen, — I have been
requested to address you at this meeting of the State Board
of Agriculture upon " The Value of Veterinary Science to
the State." By the term State is meant the [)eople of the
State, for the State would be nothing without its people,
and the value of a profession or of a man to the State
means the usefulness of that profession or man to the peo-
ple in the community.
It cannot be denied that it is a benefit to a locality to have
a man residing therein who is conversant with the nature
and treatment of the diseases of the domesticated animals,
and able to render surgical interference in case of injury, or
when, for any other reason, his services are required. This is
the popular idea among many people, that a veterinary sur-
geon is simply a horse and cow doctor, useful to be called on
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 201
in case of a horse having colic or lung fever, or a cow having
garget or getting choked, and that his usefulness ends there.
This opinion is correct as far as it goes ; but such an estima-
tion of the value of an educated veterinary surgeon would
be very limited if it did not comprehend more. Besides
being useful as a general practitioner, his opinion should be
sought, and his advice followed, in outbreaks of contagious
disease among animals, and in matters relating to the pub-
lic health, as far as it is influenced by the diseases of animals.
Admitting, then, that the educated veterinarian is a useful
member of the community in the generally accepted sense
of horse and cattle doctor, let us look at him from the
broader point of view, and see what he has done at home
and abroad to protect the farmer from animal plagues, and
of what benefit he may be to them in the future.
Let us, also, look at the veterinarian as a sanitarian in
protecting the public health by his knowledge of diseases
common to animals and man, the inspection of slaughter-
houses, dairy cattle, etc.
Disease among animals has been known since the earliest
antiquity. We read of it as one of the Plagues of Egypt,
attacking various creatures, and, in this case, it was very
likely some form of anthrax. Glanders was mentioned in
the fourth century, and probably existed prior to that time.
The earliest writers upon medicine devoted some of their
energy to describing diseases of animals, among them being
Aristotle, Hippocrates, Celsus (the Father of Medicine),
and many others of the ancient Greek and Roman period.
While the diseases, especially the contagious diseases
of animals, have been recognized as of the utmost impor-
tance from a very early period, yet there was no effort to
give men systematic education as veterinarians until the
last century. Previous to that time veterinary education
was acquired by those who had a taste for it, by reading
the works of others on the subject, and by observation.
Of course, the earliest observers had no books to consult,
but they recorded what they saw, and their successors had
the benefit of these works, and added to them the results
of their own experience, and thus veterinary knowledge accu-
mulates century after century, until the establishment of the
202 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
veterinary schools of Europe by the various European gov-
ernments.
The vaUie of veterinarians was early recognized. Those
in the days of ancient Rome came from the same ranks
which supplied the philsophers and the doctors. They
were employed to attend the animals used in the gladiatorial
arena, and most of them were both human and animal
practitioners combined. They attended to the surgical needs
of ♦the gladiators at the same time. The cavalry of the
Roman armies was also supplied with veterinary surgeons.
During the feudal period the masters of the horse to the vari-
ous princes and barons acted in the capacity of veterinarians,
and some of them wrote upon the diseases and management
of the horse. To France belongs the credit of being the
first nation to recognize the value of veterinary science to
the State to the extent of founding institutions for the educa-
tion of veterinarians, and affording them government support.
The first veterinary school was founded by Claude
Bourgelat, m the city of Lyons. He, through the influence
of a friend, received permission from the government,
August 5, 1761, to found a school for the study of diseases
of the domesticated animals. The government assisted him
by giving the school 50,000 livres, payable in equal portions
in six consecutive years. It was opened for students Jan.
2, 1762, and soon acquired a continental celebrity.
The first year there were three Danes, three Swedes,
three Austrians, three Prussians, three Sardinians and ten
Swiss among the students, sent there by their respective
governments, to study the elements of the new medicine.
Louis XV. thought so highly of the Lyons college, that
he named it the " Royal Veterinary School," in 1764.
In 1765, the veterinary school at Alfort, a suburb of
Paris, was founded by the French government, and Bourge-
lat was called from Lyons to assume the directorship of
the new institution.
We have not time to refer at length to the history of the
continental veterinary schools. What information I have
on the subject has been gleaned from Dr. Billings' "Rela-
tion of Animal Diseases to the Public Health," and I shall
refer to them as briefly as possible.
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 203
France, as I have said, was first to found veterinary
schools They were under control of the government from
the start, and remain so up to the present day. In 1777,
the French government published strict rules for the man-
agement of its veterinary schools, and they have since
undergone but few modifications. The other veterinary
schools of Europe were founded by the various governments
(except Great Britain) , because they recognized the impor-
tance of having educated veterinarians to call upon in case
of an outbreak of any of the contagious animal plagues.
To France we must credit two more veterinary schools,
— one at Turin, Italy, founded by Napoleon L, during the
extension of his empire, and another founded at Toulouse,
in 1825.
The early directors and professors of the other similar
institutions on the Continent were educated in France at
the expense of their governments, and upon returning home,
after completing their education, took charge of new schools
for the instruction of their fellow countrymen.
The Veterinary Institute at Vienna, Austria, was one of
the earliest schools founded after the one at Lyons. It
dates from 1767. Its first two teachers studied at Lyons,
one being an Italian. Later two Austrians visited Alfort as
students, and on their return in 1777, the school was im-
proved and modified by them, and is still in existence.
A royal Danish veterinary college was founded at Copen-
hagen in 1773, and reorganized in 1858. Belgium organ-
ized a veterinary school at Brussels in 1835. The Russian
government supports three schools for the study of vet-
erinary medicine. Sweden founded a veterinary institution
in 1774, its first director having been educated in France,
chiefly at the Lyons school.
During the latter part of the last century veterinary
schools were established by the various principalities and
kingdoms which now constitute the German Empire. The
German veterinary schools are located at Stuttgart, Han-
over, Munich, Dresden and Berlin.
The course at the leading schools on the Continent, I be-
lieve, is four years, with a preliminary examination suflS-
cient to prove that the applicant has a good common school
204 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
education. England, I am sorry to say, with the best
horses, cattle, sheep and swine in the world, did not follow
the example set by her neighbors across the Channel.
The Royal Veterinary College was established in London
in 1702, by a Frenchman named Saint Bell. It had no
governmental encouragement and support, but has always
existed on the receipts of its hospital and the fees of the
students.
The other veterinary schools of Great Britain are in Scot-
land, — one in Glasgow, the other two in Edinburgh.
One of the Edinburgh colleges was founded by the late
Prof. Dick, who left it money when he died. The other,
known as the New Veterinary College, is managed by Prof.
W. Williams, who founded it a few years ago.
The graduates of this profession in Great Britain are
practitioners of veterinary medicine, but not veterinarians in
the broader sense, as they are on the Continent. Many of
them have large practices, and some have even made for-
tunes in private practice, but I do think that their field of
usefulness is restricted by their not occupying more impor-
tant positions as guardians of the public health.
The course of study at the Continental schools is four years,
and instruction is given both in the general practice of
veterinary medicine and inspection of slaughter-houses, and
other veterinary sanitary regulations as well, besides train-
ing the students to original scientific research.
In the English schools the course of study occupies three
years, and is almost entirely practical.
In the United States and Canada we have a number of
colleges for the study of veterinary medicine. They have
no uniform standard of education. Like our medical schools,
they range from diploma mills — striving to turn out as many
graduates as possible regardless of fitness and education — to
institutions that are endeavoring to raise the standard of the
profession and accomplish useful, honest results.
Our American veterinary colleges, like those of Great
Britain, are the results of private enterprise, and depend on
the tuition fees of their students and the proceeds of their
hospitals for the means of carrying on their good work, or,
possibly, in a few instances, evil.
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 205
The veterinary department of the University of Pennsyl-
vania is an exception to the rule, and has an endowment
fund, I think, of about $20,000. As it has the confidence of
the public, I have no doul)t this fund will be increased in
course of time.
I will refrain from giving a detailed account of our veteri-
nary institutions, as I confess to having prejudices in favor
of some and against others, that might lead me to say more
than I care to, concerning them.
In this country it has not been customary for the General
Government to aid or manage educational institutions of
the higher order, excepting our agricultural and industrial
colleges, but our universities and classical colleges have been
richly endowed by wealthy friends. It is to be hoped that
at no distant day individuals with large means may recog-
nize the fact that the sciences are no less important than
Latin and Greek, and that before long our agricultural
colleges and veterinary schools will receive a liberal share of
the donations and bequests which now fall to the lot of our
classical institutions. Let us also hope that our General
and State Governments will give veterinary subjects that
encouragement and recognition they deserve.
As I have already remarked, the course of study at the
Continental veterinary schools is four years ; at those in
Great Britain three years (it was but two years until quite
recently), and here two or three years. Two years is too
short a time for the study of veterinary medicine. Much of
the knowledge acquired during a short term is obtained by
what students call "cramming"; that is, hard, continuous
study, whereas we know that the mind assimilates what it
gets better if more time is taken to digest its food.
Three years is a better course than two, and four years is
preferable to either ; still, a student's success depends largely
on himself, and he should always bear in mind that his
college training is only a preliminary education, and that an
enthusiast in any profession or field of research is in reality
a life-long student.
Our American veterinary schools educate their pupils with
a view to making their livelihood as private practitioners after
graduating ; but Yankees are always ready to grasp an idea,
206 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
and emergencies develop men for new situations. Conse-
quently, we find graduates of our veterinary colleges occupy-
ing positions on the National Bureau of Animal Industry, as
State veterinarians and members of boards of health, filling
them as credital)ly as in any other country. When I say
that they fill these positions as creditably as in any other
country, I do not mean that they do as good work in all
cases as veterinarians in Germany and France ; but if they
do not, it is because of the inadequacy of proper legislation
and the insufficiency of funds placed at their disposal, to
always carry out the most eifective work.
Germany has probably the most thoroughly organized
veterinary sanitary police system of any nation in the
world, both for the suppression of contagious disease among
animals and the protection of the health of the people, by a
system of meat inspection, all supervised by competent
veterinarians, aided by the police and, if the emergency
requires it, by the military. For the suppression of con-
tagious animal diseases, the Minister of Agriculture — (not
commissioner ; they recognize the importance of agricul-
ture, both in Germany and France, sufficiently to make the
position a cabinet one, and do not make it a " Secretary of
Agriculture and Labor" either) — is at the head of afiairs,
assisted by able veterinary and legal counsel. The country
is divided into departments, each having a department vet-
erinarian, and each department is divided into districts,
each having a district veterinarian. In the event of an out-
break of contagious animal disease, the police, or other local
officials, are to report it at once to the district veterinarian,
and he reports at headquarters.
In local outbreaks, the police carry out the orders of the
veterinary officials in regard to slaughtering and quarantin-
ing infected herds and animals. In more extended out-
breaks the military may be called on for similar duty. This
quarantine not only applies to diseased and susceptible ani-
mals, but in outbreaks of rinderpest, for example, may
include men, raw animal products and, as far as possible,
every living thing. A dog or cat trying to cross the line is
instantly shot. Railroad trains even arc not allowed to
stop at stations in infected districts. Such iron-bound regu-
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 207
lation.s as these might clash with our ideas of personal
liberty ; but when we view them at a safe distance, we can-
not deny their wisdom. Department and district veterina-
rians are appointed from general practitioners, and they
practice their profession when governmental duties do not
call upon them. Besides the officials, there are a number
known as " frontier veterinarians," whose duty it is to pro-
tect the country from the invasion of animal plagues. This
is their sole employment. For this they get a salary, and
in case of need carry out any regulations necessary to pro-
tect animals of the Empire from attacks from abroad. As a
protection to the public health, veterinarians are employed
at all the large abattoirs to examine the meat of animals
killed for food, the flesh of pigs with trichinae, measley
beef and pork, and the meat of animals badly diseased with
tuberculosis is all condemned, and sent to the renderers as
unfit for human consumption. Beef which is slightly tuber-
culous is marked in such a way that it is sold as an inferior
article at a low price, to be thoroughly cooked before eaten.
These regulations governing the inspection of meat are
more important in Germany than among ourselves, because
the people there consume large quantities of ham and
sausage without any cooking whatever ; while we, on the
contrary, generally subject our meat to the influence of suf-
ficient heat to destroy disease germs and parasites.
Careful records are kept at these slaughter-houses of the
number of animals destroyed, the number diseased, what
the disease was, and the age of the diseased beast, making a
valuable addition to the statistics of the country. In Ger-
many, no one can practice veterinary medicine unless a
graduate of one of the German schools, under a severe
penalty. In France, as in Germany, the veterinary schools
and veterinary sanitary regulations are in charge of the
Minister of Agriculture, and are in many respects similar.
In the former country much has been accomplished in
preventing many of the contagious animal diseases by pro-
tective inoculation. The credit of this work belongs to M.
Louis Pasteur, the greatest scientist in this particular line
that the world has as 3'et seen. Although a chemist by
education, his work is so closely connected with the value
208 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
of the veterinarian and the medical man to the people, that
it would, 1 think, be interesting to review, briefly, bis
career and some of his methods, before proceeding.
Pasteur and his work is a subject on which a small volume
might easily be written, but we have time to devote only a
few words to him and to what he has done.
Louis Pasteur was born about sixty-five years ago, and
was educated as a chemist ; in 1854 he was appointed pro-
fessor of chemistry at Strasburg, and soon after was made
"Dean of the Faculty of Sciences," at Lille. During his
investigations and experiments, his attention was called to
microscopic forms of life seen in connection with certain
chemical changes. Some of these fungi had been observed
before, but they had been supposed to retard the chemical
changes rather than to assist them, and it was thought that
these changes were due to the action of oxygen. Pasteur
was the first to find out that very many of these chemical
changes were due to the presence of these organisms, and
could not take place without them. He demonstrated that
the formation of alcohol was due to the presence of the yeast
plant. Soon after he discovered the bacterium of the lactic
acid ferment, and the acetic acid ferment ; the acetic acid
ferment beino; what we know as the " mother of vinegar."
He also investigated other similar ferments, which we have
not time to mention. Pasteur thus gradually became a
biologist, instead of a chemist, and his time was henceforth
to be devoted to the study of the lower forms of vegetable
life, especially those which are now believed to be the
causes of various contao'ious diseases of animals and man,
and popularly known as " disease germs."
Pasteur's first w^ork in the field of animal plagues, if you
will allow me to speak of a worm as an animal, was his
investigation of the silk-worm disease, which had almost
destroyed the silk industry of France. He occupied himself
with these researches from 1865 to 1869, when he brought
his labors to a successful termination, and restored to his
country what might be called a lost industry. He found
that the moths sufiered fi'om a disease due to a microscopic
organism, and that this disorder was transmitted from the
female moths to the eggs, being both hereditary and con-
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 209
tagious. If the female moth was pounded up in a mortar
after death, and the debris examined microscopically, it
could be ascertained whether she was diseased or not. By
keeping each female with the eggs which she laid, he could
tell from the health of the moths whether her eggs were
healthy or not. If the moth was diseased, her eggs were
burned ; if she was healthy the eggs were allowed to hatch,
and thus a healthy supply of worms was assured.
After completing his investigations of the silk-worm
trouble, he turned his attention to contagious animal dis-
eases, experimenting, at first, with anthrax and fowl cholera.
He found that these maladies were due to germs, which, in
certaia media, could be cultivated outside the animal body,
and when a creature was inoculated with a small quantity of
the artificially cultivated bacteria, the disease was reproduced.
He discovered, also, that in some instances the virility of
the bacteria was increased, and that, under other conditions,
it was decreased, and thus the disease could be induced in
a severer or milder form at will, and these experiments
finally led to one of the discoveries of the age, viz. : The
protective inoculation of animals or man against contagious
disorders, by means of the use of an attenuated virus. Bac-
teria, in order to live, require a certain amount of heat and
moisture, a suitable food, and either the presence or absence
of oxygen, and Pasteur discovered that, by growing them
at a greater heat than that of the temperature of the animals
they attacked, or by allowing them an abundance of air, or
by drying them, that their virulency might be decreased.
He has, also, found that the intensity of the virus of some
diseases can be increased by inoculating them upon certain
species of animals, and diminished by carrying a series of
inoculations through other species. For example, the viru-
lence of rabies is increased by inoculating rabbits from mad
dogs, and carrying the disease through a series of rabbits,
while by inoculating apes in the same way it was lessened.
The idea occurred to Pasteur, that if an animal having
recovered from a contagious disease acquires immunity from
it, why should it not be possible to inoculate an animal with
an attenuated virus, which would not give the disorder, but
at the same time confer immunity upon it? His first attenu-
210 BOAED OF AGRICULTUEE. !
I
ated virus was that of chicken cholera. The vitality of the
germs of this plague he found could be lessened by simply j
cultivating artificially and allowing them plenty of oxygen.
The fowls were first inoculated with a very mild virus, and !
in a few days a stronger one was used, and these two inocu-
lations were sufficient to protect poultry from the ravages
of chicken cholera. He then undertook to attenuate the
bacilli of anthrax, and found that this could be done by cul-
tivating them at a higher temperature than that of the
animal body, and in 1881 astonished the scientific world by
proving the efficacy of his vaccine for anthrax.
Pasteur has also prepared a vaccine for rouget, a disease
of the pig, resembling our hog cholera, but not identical with
it. About two years ago he announced the discovery, which
has interested the world more than any of his previous ones
(although it is not as important to agriculturists as much of j
his fomier work), that he could protect persons from '
rabies, aftei- they had been bitten by a rabid animal, by
means of a series of inoculations, beginning with a very
mild virus and ending with a strong one.
This virus was made by hanging the medulla and part of
the spinal cord of a rabbit just dead of rabies in a perfectly
dry jar for a certain number of days, and then beating it up
in a mortar with a little distilled water and a little veal
broth, and inoculating with a hypodermic syringe. A
cord dried for fourteen or fifteen days was first used, fol-
lowed by a fresher one for ten days, until a perfectly fresh
one was used, and the patient's life was thus saved, — pro-
vided the inoculations were commenced soon after receiving
the oriscinal wound.
A man like Pasteur is of incalculable benefit to his day
and generation. Few have done more to advance the physi-
cal well-being of the world than this man, that our great
nineteenth century has shown. We cannot all be geniuses,
out we can all aim to do our best work for the improvement
of our fellow-man and of the lower creation.
Inoculation is not altogether a new idea, for it was used
to produce a mild form of small-pox before Jenner intro-
duced vaccination, and has been known to the Chinese for
Qundreds of years.
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 211
There is a disease of young cattle, formerly supposed to
be ao anthrax, — now knoun as symptomatic anthrax scientifi-
cally, and commonly as "black leg" and "black quarter,"
— in which French veterinarians have successfully employed
inoculation to protect the young creatures which are sus-
ceptible to its attacks. Inoculation has been tried with
contagious pleuro-pneuraonia and rinderpest; but the wis-
dom of resorting to it in these diseases is questionable, as it
seems wiser to stamp them out than to perpetuate them.
In Euirland the resjulation of contasrious animal diseases
has been left to the Privy Council by Act of Parliament.
They can issue the necessary orders for suppression in case
of outbreak among the live stock of the kingdom, and these
orders are carried out by their ofiicers and the police. The
veterinary department of the Privy Council was not or-
ganized until 1865, when rinderpest threatened the cattle
of Great Britain with destruction. It was decided that
" stamping out" was the most effectnal way of dealing with
the pest. By stamping out a contagious disease is meant
the slaughter of infected and exposed animals, and is the
most eflectual way of dealing with rinderpest and contagious
pleuro-pneumouia. AVhen this means is resorted to the
work should be thorough, and the owners should be reim-
bursed by the government for the loss they sustain.
Rinderpest was brought to England in 1865 (there had
been outbreaks in the last century, but the disease had dis-
appeared) and raged for two years. It was eradicated in
1867. Since that time there have been a few outbreaks, the
result of importing diseased cattle, but they were speedily
suppressed, as the regulations bearing on the disease are
very efficient. The afi'ected and exposed animals are killed
and buried in an out-of-the-way place, — or, better still,
burned, — stables disinfected and kept empty for awhile, and
this ends the trouble.
Dr. Fleming, in his " Veterinary'' Science and Police," es-
timates the loss from rinderpest in Great Britain between
18()5 and 1867, at eight million pounds sterling.
Contagious pleuro-pneumonia and foot-and-mouth disease
have both existed in England since 1839, and have occa-
sioned almost incalculable losses. If the ffoverument would
212 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE. .
awake to the importance of checking these disorders, as
they did rinderpest, they might have been free from them
years ago.
In England they have veterinary inspectors at the ports
to examine cattle from abroad upon arrival. Cattle from
certain countries can be landed only for immediate slaughter.
I believe the United States is on the proscribed list now, on
account of contagious pleuro-pneumonia.
In England but little has been done by veterinarians
towards advancing the scientific side of their profession.
Their education and ideas seem to be entirely practical, and
scientific research into contagious animal diseases has been
delegated to medical men, such as Klein and Burden Sander-
son.
The value of veterinary science is certainly appreciated in
one way in Great Britain. That is, in the recognition of
the usefulness of the veterinarian by the large agricultural
societies. At the Royal Agricultural Society's Show, Smith-
field Fat Cattle Fair and the Cart Horse Exhibition, the
veterinary officer is an important individual. All animals,
even pigs, are examined for their ages. An animal whose
mouth indicates it to be older than the class for which it is
entered, is disqualified. The veterinarian does not say that
it is such and such an age, but simply that its mouth in-
dicates a certain age. That is enough ; the creature cannot
compete for a prize. Horses are examined for soundness by
the veterinarian, and, if unsound, cannot compete for pre-
miums. Cattle, sheep and swine are examined before en-
tering the grounds, and if found to have foot-and-mouth
disease, or any other contagious disorder, they are not
admitted. This is quite a contrast to most of the "cattle
shows" in this country, where unsound horses obtain prizes
over sound ones, and animals may be entered in a class with
younger ones as of the same age, and receive premiums on
account of their superior size, and no one any the wiser.
Fortunately, we have as yet little to fear at our animal
fairs from contagion, but the day is not far distant when
greater precautions must be taken. Besides these duties, the
veterinarian of an agricultural society, when at an exhibi-
tion, should prescribe for any sick creature, if the owner
VALUE OF VETERINAEY SCIENCE. 213
wishes it, free of expense to him, the veterinarian receiving
his remuneration from the treasury of the society.
The Fat Stock Show at Chicago has employed a veterina-
rian for several years during the exhibition; as has also the
New York State Agricultural Society. Aside from these
two, I do not know that agricultural societies have employed
veterinarians ; certainly not in New England, until last year,
whoii I was elected veterinary surgeon to the Bay State
Society. At the show this society held in Boston a year
ago last October, I found plenty of work in attending to the
health of the animals, although no critical examination of
age and soundness was required as abroad.
Last spring there was a show in New York City of
dairy cattle and dairy products, of which President Burnett,
of the State Agricultural Society, was president. Dr.
Coates of New York acted as chief veterinarian, and I was
in the capacity of assistant ; besides, Dr. Rose, of the Bureau
of Animal Industry, was present. There we were obliged
to inspect all the cattle carefully as they arrived, in order to
guard against contagious pleuro-pneumonia, and take every
precaution for their health during the exhibition, and their
removal afterwards ; but this was in the neighborhood of
contagious pleuro-pneumonia, and cattle came also from
localities where the disease existed ; consequently, we sur-
rounded our valuable charges with every possible safeguard.
On the Continent many veterinarians rank with the medi-
cal men as scientists. Prof. Bouley, a French veterinary
surgeon, was president of the Academy of Sciences in Paris,
at the time of his death, two years ago. When the French
government appointed a commission of scientists to investi-
gate Asiatic cholera, Prof. Nocard, of the Alfort Veterinary
School, was among the number. Last year a commission of
medical men was sent to Paris by the English government
to investigate Pasteur's method of inoculation to prevent
hydrophobia. Among them was Dr. Fleming, chief veteri-
narian of the English army.
In Germany, veterinarians oftentimes rank with the lead-
ing medical men as scientists. On the Continent they are
always among the delegates to the international medical
congresses, but I am unaware of a veterinary surgeon in
214 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
England or this country being elected to serve in such a
capacity. This, however, may be largely due to the fact
that English and American veterinarians do not receive as
thorough an education in comparative and sanitary medicine
as their Continental brethren, but doubtless they will receive
such recognition when they desei*ve it.
Having glanced at the value of veterinary science to the
State on the Continent and in England, and noted the
appreciation it there receives, it remains to be considered
what work the veterinary profession has done in this
country, and how it has developed within a very few years.
The first successful work of importance in America was
the stamping out of contagious pleuro-pneumonia in Massa-
chusetts, by the Massachusetts Cattle Commission, — the first
cattle commission being appointed by Gov. Banks, in 1860;
all other cattle commissions, State veterinarians, and the
Bureau of Animal Industry, being later creations.
The value of veterinary knowledge and the propriety of
prompt action were well exemplified in the outbreak of con-
tagious pleuro-pneumonia in this State in 1859, the malady
landing May 23 of that year, in Boston, with three cows and
a heifer imported from Holland by Mr. W. W. Chenery of
Belmont. Two died soon after lauding, and a third was
taken sick soon after arriving at Belmont. Before the dis-
ease was recognized, three calves were sold from Mr.
Chenery's farm, to go to North Bookfield, and thus the dis-
ease spread. In the spring of 1860 it had assumed such
alarming proportions that legislative interference was called
for, and after some delay Gov. Banks appointed the first
Massachusetts Cattle Commission, consisting of Paoli Lath-
rop, Amasa Walker and Dr. G. B. Loring, and an appropri-
ation of $10,000 was granted for wiping out the disease.
The plague still continued to spread to such an extent that
an extra session of the Legislature was called for May 30,
1860, and the commission was enlarged to five members,
and a medical board established to co-operate with the com-
mission and investigate more fully the nature of the disorder.
The additional members of the Cattle Commission were
Cyrus Knox of Palmer and E. G. Morton of Fairhaveu.
The Medical Board consisted of two medical men, Drs-
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 215
Oramel Martin and Calvin Ellis, and one veterinarian, Dr.
J. 11. Stickney, then a young man recently returned from
his studies abroad. This Medical Board wrote a report on
the nature of the disease, and in it recommended that the
United States Government establish quarantine stations for
imported cattle at the principal Eastern ports. This sugges-
tion was carried out about twenty years later, and the cattle
quarantine stations, now under the charge of the Bureau of
Animal Industry, established.
To Dr. Thayer belongs largely the credit of eradicating
pleuro-pneumonia in Massachusetts. He was one gf the old-
time veterinary practitioners ; not a graduate of a veterinary
school, but self-educated, — a man who had read and observed
a great deal, and had read and heard of the contagious lung
plague of cattle, and recognized it when he saw it, and urged
the importance of exterminating it as the only effectual
means of getting rid of it.
In 1861 little was done towards the extirpation of con-
tagious pleuro-pneumonia. In 1862, James Ritchie, E. F.
Thayer and Henry L. Sabin constituted the Board of Cattle
Commissioners, and Dr. Thayer was prominently identified
with it for a number of years thereafter. The Cattle Com-
missioners, in their annual report for 1865, the commission
then being Dr. Thayer and Mr. C. P. Preston of Danvers,
conofratulate the State on the " eradication of one of the
Avorst forms of contagious disease which has been found
among cattle."
Stamping out contagious pleuro-pneumonia cost the State
about $67,500, besides which various towns where it ap-
peared expended about $10,000, making a total of $77,500.
If it had been allowed to run on unchecked until the present
time, there is no estimating what the loss to this State might
have been, to say nothing of the damage that it might have
inflicted upon sister States.
We have all read of the Pharisee and ptiblican who went
up into the Temple to pray, and know that a man should not
take too much sanctity to himself, yet I cannot help feeling
that if the States of New York and New Jersey had done
their duty as nobly and bravely as the Old Bay State, and
put their hands in their pockets to pay for the slaughter ot
216 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
diseased and exposed cattle, there would not be a case of
contagious pleuro-pneumonia in the United States to-day.
The outbreak of lung plague in Massachusetts was not by
any means the date of its first importation into the United
States. It was first (according to the most reliable informa-
tion to be obtained) introduced into the country in 1848
from a cow purchased by Peter Dunn, a Brooklyn milkman,
from the captain of the English ship, Washington. This
cow soon sickened and died. Other cattle became diseased,
and the malady spread until it assumed its present vast
dimensions. It was not at first recognized as contajjious
pleuro-pneumonia, but was called " milk sickness," and was
supposed to be due to feeding cows on distillery slops, and
keeping them under the worst hygienic surroundings. The
disease spread through the distillery stables of Brooklyn,
over Long Island to Staten Island, to New Jersey, down the
coast into Maryland, the District of Columbia, and part of
Virginia near Norfolk ; it has also appeared in the neighbor-
hood of Philadelphia. It remained in these localities for
many years, because the traffic in cattle was always towards,
and never away from, these centres. Veterinarians have
constantly prophesied that it would some day get west of
the Alleghanies, and that means should be taken to extirpate
the disease before it was too late, and in return have been
ridiculed and derided by the New York dailies as " horse
doctors trying to create tat salaries for themselves by alarm-
ing the public."
The prediction of the "horse doctors " was finally ful-
filled, and in 1884, contagious pleuro-pneumonia crossed the
Alleghanies with a lot of grade Jersey cows picked up
around Baltimore, and taken to Ohio to improve the butter
industry of that State. These cows were taken to Troy,
Ohio; thence the disease was carried to Dayton, Ohio,
where it was checked, and to Virginia, Illinois. From Vir-
ginia it was carried to a number of towns in the State,
among them Geneva. From Geneva it was conveyed to
three more towns in Illinois, and also to Cynthiana, Ken-
tucky. Later it spread also to Missouri. The Bureau of
Animal Industry, with the co-operation of the authorities in
the various States where it occurred, finally annihilated, — or,
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 217
at least, imagined they had, until it was found to exist last
year among the swill-fed cattle in the distilleiy stables of
Chicago, having been brought there, probably, from some of
the towns outside of the city, where it had ravaged a year or
two before.
The last Congress appropriated $500,000 to help exter-
minate contagious pleuro-pneumonia by paying for diseased
and exposed animals, which was to be expended under the
direction of the Department of Agriculture, the work being
carried out by the veterinarians connected with the Bureau
of Animal Industry.
This appropriation was secured by the pressure of West-
ern cattle owners, who realized the danger to their business,
if contagious lung plague ever appeared among the cattle on
the great ranges beyond the Mississippi. One of the great
New York dailies called it a "steal of the horse doctors,"
when, in reality, the influence that secured the money came
from another source ; although I do not think it would have
been any disgrace to the " horse doctors" if they had been
the ones to procure the necessary legislation. The various
States where contagious pleuro-pneumonia existed were
invited to pass*the necessary laws for the State authorities
to co-operate with the Federal officials, and it was amusing,
and at the same time melancholy, to see with what alacrity
they complied, in comparison with their apathy and dilatori-
ness when they had no choice but putting their hands in
their own pockets and paying the bills, as Massachusetts did
twenty-five years ago.
The United States Department of Agriculture this year
secured the services of Prof. James Law, of Cornell Univer-
sity, to go to Chicago and take charge of stamping out con-
tagious pleuro-pneumonia there. He has recently reported
that he has completed this work, and it is to be hoped that
the disease is once more confined to the Atlantic seaboard.
There are reasons why the States should do this work
without the help of the Federal Government, and also rea-
sons why they should receive the assistance of the United
States Government, but a discussion of the matter at this
time would be a depaiture into the field of politics, and has
no place here. Right or wrong, it is to be hoped that the
218 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
next Congress may grant another appropriation to continue
the good work (for $500,000 will not suffice), and that be-
fore many years contagious pleuro-pneumonia may be a thing
of the past. If the United States Government does not do
the work, I have little faith that the individual States ever will.
It is an ill wind, however, that blows nobody good, and
if this plague ever reaches the range cattle, it will make
beef raising profitable in New England once more.
The Bureau of Animal Industry, of which mention has
been made, belongs to the United States Department of
Agriculture, and, in speaking of the value of veterinary
science to the State, this paper would be incomplete with-
out some account of it.
This Bureau was established by act of Congress, May
29, 1884, and was organized the same year, with Dr. D. E.
Salmon as chief, and a number of veterinarians as his assist-
ants. He has since remained in charge, and the nation
would be fully repaid for all the Bureau has cost in the
work it has done in connection with contagious pleuro-pneu-
monia alone, even if it had done nothing more. But it has
investigated other diseases as well, and the annual report of
the chief makes a fair-sized volume, which is issued sep-
arately from the report of the Department of Agriculture.
This Bureau also has charge of the quarantine stations for
neat stock at our various seaport cities, where all neat cat-
tle imported into the United States must remain for ninety
days after landing, before being allowed to proceed to their
destinations. In case of any disease lurking among them,
it has ample time to develop before the cattle can carry it
into a healthy locality.
These quarantine stations were established at the sugges-
tion of the Treasury Cattle Commission, appointed to in-
vestigate contagious pleuro-pneumonia, under the Secretary
of the Treasury, in 1881 ; but the Secretary concluded that
they should properly be in charge of the Department of
Agriculture, and they were transfeiTed to it in 1884, and
the Bureau of Animal Industry placed in charge, because it
consisted of veterinarians.
These quarantine stations are of great value, although
they are not all that could be desired. They are quite a
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 219
distance from the place of landing, and the cattle being taken
to them might convey disease to other animals en route;
still, in case of an outbreak of a contagious disorder, it could
be limited to a circumscribed area. This was well illus-
trated in 1882, when some cattle landed at Portland, Maine,
were attacked with foot and mouth disease, after reaching the
quarantine station. They were driven there over the public
highway, a distance of about three miles. A yoke of oxen
soon after passing over the same road contracted the ailment,
and conveyed it to several farmers' herds in the vicinity ;
but the trouble was soon ended by the Maine authorities
quarantining the infected herds and disinfecting the prem-
ises after the cattle recovered.
The Treasury Cattle Commission issued a very good
report on contagious pleuro-pneumonia in 1882. This com-
mission consisted of Dr. E. F. Thayer, Prof. James Law and
Mr. J. H. Sanders of Chicago, and accomplished some very
good work.
Before the establishment of the Bureau of Animal Indus-
try, the Department of Agriculture had employed veterina-
rians from time to time to investigate and report on contagious
animal diseases.
Having spoken of the value placed upon veterinary science
by the General Government, let us see how different States
and Territories have recognized its usefulness. The appoint-
ment of State veterinarians by various States and Territories
dates back but a few years, the continual increase of their
herds in numbers and value, and the greater danger from con-
tagious animal disorders each year, demanding it.
Wyoming was the first to have its governor appoint a
Territorial veterinarian. Dr. J. D. Hopkins of New York
was given the position in 1882, and has occupied it ever
since. That his services have been appreciated by the
people is amply proved by the fact that his salary, at first
$2,500 a year, was doubled two or three years later. That
is, he is worth as much to the State out there as a governor
is to Massachusetts.
Wyoming's example has been followed by a number of
her sister States and Territories, until many of them have
veterinarians, and some employ two or three.
220 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Nebraska has a regular State veterinarian, Dr. Julius
Gerth, and also enjoys the services of Dr. F. S. Billings, as
an investigator of hog cholera and Texas fever, assisted by
Dr. Thomas Bowhill.
Illinois is armed and equipped with a cattle commission,
consisting of three of the laity, as well as a chief, and an
assistant State veterinarian. The balance of New England
has followed the example of Massachusetts, in having cattle
commissions, with the exception, I think, of Rhode Island.
Maine has five cattle commissioners, one of whom. Dr.
Bailey, is a veterinary surgeon. New Hampshire has a
Board of three ; Vermont of three ; Massachusetts of three ;
one, Dr. "Winchester, being a veterinarian; Connecticut has
also three. These Boards can employ veterinarians, how-
ever, if the public service require.
Massachusetts allows the Cattle Commissioners five dollars
a day each and expenses when on duty, but they are not on
duty continually, some years doing much work, and other
years but little, as the exigencies require. Five dollars a
day is a small amount to pay men who are liable to be called
upon at any time, no matter how inconvenient for them to
leave their business. This is especially true in the veteri-
narian's case, who may be summoned at a busy time, when
he may have valuable patients to attend. The propriety of
havinsc a State veterinarian to investigate outbreaks of real
or supposed contagious disease among the live stock of the
Commonwealth has often occurred to me.. One who should
be continually on duty, with headquarters in Boston, and a
clerk in attendance when he is not there, to inform enquirers
as to his whereabouts and time of return. The Board of
Cattle Commissioners might be retained to co-operate with
him in case it became necessary to stamp out an extensive
outbreak of any contagious malady. B}^ keeping careful
records of what he did he might compile a very useful and
valuable mass of information relating to animal diseases and
the public health, and devise means for the better protection
of our live stock from infectious disorders ; besides increas-
ing our knowledge of some diseases not yet thoroughly
understood. Our Cattle Commissioners have extraordinary
powers, surpassed only by such men as the Czar of Russia
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 221
and Emperor of Germany. They should not have the
slightest regard for public opinion when it conflicts with
their knowledge, and must carry out their duties, no matter
how unpleasant, in the most conscientious manner. Other
States and Territories to employ State veterinarians are
New York, Kansas, Missouri, Pennsylvania, New Jersey,
Minnesota, Iowa, South Carolina, Montana, Arizona, and
possibly others which I have not on my list.
Although we have not all the animal plagues of the old
world to contend with, yet we have plenty of work in this
country to-day for the educated veterinarian ; contagious
pleuro-pneumonia, glanders, rabies, hog cholera, contagious
abortion among cows, Texas cattle fever, sheep scab, some
forms of anthrax, dourine and tuberculosis are some of the
diseases that form an ample field in which he can demon-
strate his usefulness to the State, if the State will only give
him an opportunity to do so. Of these diseases, the two
last named require a special word of mention.
" El Dourine," as it is called by the Arabs, or "Maladie
du Coit," as the French call it, is an equine venereal disease
found in France and among Arabian horses. It was im-
ported to this country from France a couple of years ago, in
an importation of Percherons, taken to Illinois, and now
several stallions and quite a number of mares are sufiering
with this malady. The State authorities have quarantined
the animals diseased, and it is to be hoped that prompt
measures may be taken for its eradication. This outbreak
is only the fulfilment of a prophecy made years ago by vet-
erinarians, that dourine would be imported into the United
States unless means were taken to prevent it, by a proper
inspection, and, if necessary, quarantine of horses from in-
fected countries by the Federal authorities. This inspec-
tion should be made by a competent veterinarian at the
place of landing.
Tuberculosis, the second one of the two last mentioned
diseases, is the same malady as is commonly known as con-
sumption. It is identical in animals and man, is due to a
germ, the bacillus tuberculosis, and is both hereditary and
infectious. It is only within a few years that its infectious-
ness has been accepted by medical men and veterinarians.
222 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
and many of the older doctors will not yet acknowledge that
this is the case. Whether the milk and flesh of tuberculous
cows are dangerous as articles of food is a grave question ;
very rare heei from tuberculous animals is probably injuri-
ous ; if thoroughly cooked, I do not think it is. How much
the milk from tuberculous cows has to do with many infan-
tile disorders is another subject to be investigated.
This disease is one of vital interest to us all, as it causes
10 per cent., at least, of the human deaths. It is frequent
among the milch cows of Eastern Massachusetts, and is
scattered more or less all over the State. Furthermore, it
is gradually increasing. Although there are no statistics
regarding it, I am satisfied, from all I can learn, that it is
more common now than it was twenty-five years ago. A
farmer may own a perfectly healthy herd, and introduce a
tuberculous cow without suspecting that she is diseased ; she
will communicate the trouble to other cattle, and the owner
some day discovers that he has a tuberculous herd ; it may
not be until two or three years after the purchase of the cow
which introduced the ailment, so subtle and insidious is it in
making its appearance. More than this, he may sell dis-
eased animals (often not knowing that they are affected)
into healthy herds and thus disseminate it far and wide.
I wish that our farmers would raise more stock, where
they are sure that they have perfectly healthy animals, for I
know of nothing that spreads disease more than constantly
buying and selling cows. Breed from sound, healthy
parents on the side of both sire and dam.
In speaking of the unrestricted traffic in live stock, I wish
to say a word about cars. Animals are carried from one
end of the country to another, the empty cars go back for
more, and are seldom, if ever, cleaned beyond scraping the
floors a little ; these trains sometimes carry diseased animals,
and oftentimes outbreaks of hog cholera, Texas cattle fever,
strangles and glanders in horses, and similar diseases, might
be traced to them. There should be a State law, and it
should be enforced, requiring the thorough cleansing and
disinfection of stock cars and boats, after conveying crea-
tures to their destination, before allowing them to depart.
Some of our contagious animal distempers, such as hog
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 223
cholera, and anthrax especially, might be better controlled
if some veterinary scientist could prepare an attenuated
virus, such as Pasteur has so successfully used in France.
I have no doubt of the discovery and application of such
viruses at some future day.
Before concluding, I wish to speak of three other spheres
of usefulness for the veterinarian. The first is the appoint-
ment of veterinary surgeons to boards of health. There
are so many diseases common to animals and man that come
under the jurisdiction of these boards, that it seems as if a
properly educated veterinarian's services would be most
valuable. New York, Brooklyn, and Jersey City, each
have a veterinarian on its board of health, and it is to be
hoped that other large cities will soon follow their ex-
ample .
Another field for veterinary science is the inspection of
meat. This is done upon the Continent, but has not been
attempted, to any extent scientifically, either in this country
or in England.
The third field of usefulness is one which is of little im-
portance to farmers, but I see no harm in mentioning it
here. That is, the recognition the veterinarian receives in
the army, both abroad and. in the United States. In all the
European countries of importance the army veterinary sur-
geon ranks as a commissioned officer ; he must be an edu-
cated man in order to be in the army, and enters on much
the same footing as young medical men, and associates with
other officers on an equality with them ; he is promoted
from time to time, as age or merit demands, and retires
with a suitable pension when old age approaches. The chief
veterinary surgeon in the English Army ranks as colonel,
and those under him descend through the various grades to
the second lieutenant. The United States is the only civil-
ized country of its size where the army veterinarian does not
rank as a commissioned officer. He is a sort of nondes-
cript, neither an officer or a soldier ; but it is to be hoped
that this state of aflairs may be changed ere many years,
and that the veterinarians of our army may rank with those
of other civilized countries in education, position and
pay.
224 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The Chairman. There is a little time for the discussion
of this very important subject. If gentlemen have questions
to ask the doctor, now is their best opportunity.
Mr. Hazen. I would like to ask the speaker if it is not
only possible, but very probable, that we have many cases
of tubercular disease that are pleuro-pueumonia?
Dr. Peters. Tuberculosis is of the nature of consump-
tion. Tuberculous consumption is the same as tuberculosis.
We call it " consumption " because the person wastes away.
But the contagious pleuro-pneumonia is a distinct disease
from tuberculosis.
Mr. Hazen. Is not contagious tuberculosis often taken
for the contagious pleuro-pneumonia?
Dr. Peters. It is, sometimes.
Mr. Hazen. Has it not been so taken in Vermont the
past year, to a great extent?
Dr. Peters. Up in Vermont they had a sort of an epi-
demic of pneumonia among the young stock this last summer.
That was not the contagious pleuro-pneumonia ; it was not
tuberculosis ; it was just like ordinary lung fever, only it
existed among quite a number of young cattle. I know they
had it in Vermont and in New Hampshire. At the request
of the Vermont and New Hampshire Cattle Commissioners I
visited those States last summer to investigate the outbreaks
of this disease, which they were afraid might be the conta-
gious pleuro-pneumonia, though it was not. It was this
epidemic pneumonia among young cattle.
Question. What would be the symptoms of that disease ?
Dr. Peters. The animals are feverish, breathe fast, are
dull and stupid, and generally isolate themselves from the
well cattle, — go off in one corner of the pasture by them-
selves and remain there. I do not know that any treatment
was adopted last summer. They only noticed that the cattle
were sick and they either died or got well. Some got well
and some died.
Question. The trouble was in the lungs ?
Dr. Peters. The trouble was in the lungs.
Question. What would be the condition of the lungs?
Dr. Peters. The lungs were congested. If you opened
an animal the lungs, if they were not firm and normal, would
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 225
not sink to the bottom of a pail of water, as a solid lung
would, and they would draw more water than a healthy
lung. They looked redder and the little tubes were filled
with mucus, showing that there was some inflammation
there.
Question. Would not the symptoms be, to an unprac-
tised e3e, identical with the symptoms of pleuro-pneumonia ?
Dr. Peters. Yes, sir, they might be, to the unpractised
eye. The symptoms of a cow in the last stages of tubercu-
losis might be the same.
Question. The pneumonia would not be contagious, as
I understand it ?
Dr. Peters. I think that the form of pneumonia which
prevailed las^ summer was contagious from the way it acted.
If it was not contagious, it was all due to the same cause.
It prevailed among a good many cattle over certain sections
of country up in southwest New Hampshire, and across the
river, up through Rutland, Vermont. I believe the Vermont
Commissioners took action up there and killed and paid for
some of the animals ; but there was no need of it.
Question. Can you give us any light upon abortion in
cows ? I have been troubled with it this season myself and
in some seasons previously.
Dr. Peters. I have not a great deal of light to shed on
it, yet I am in hopes to be able some day to prepare a special
paper upon it.
Question. Is that contagious?
Dr. Peters. Yes, I think it is.
Question. What would j^ou do if you had thirty cows
and one aborted?
Dr. Peters. I w^ould isolate her just as quick as I could ;
put her in another barn and disinfect the place where she
stood.
Question. How long would you keep her isolated?
Dr. Peters. Oh, four to six months.
Question. Is a cow that has aborted likely to do so
another year ?
Dr. Peters. They seem to vary in different herds. In
some herds you will find that they only abort once and then
recover and you do not have any more trouble with them.
226 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
In fact, I think cows in certain barns where they have that
sort of abortion are worth a little more after they have
aborted and gotten over it than they were before, because
we feel a little surer of them. But in some cases they are
apt to abort a second time and sometimes a third ; in other
cases they become sterile. It varies considerably. I have
seen it act differently on different farms.
Question. After a cow aborts a second time and then
bears a calf, do you feel assured that she will never abort
again?
Dr. Peters. I do not think it is always so, but it is apt
to be so. In a majority of cases it is so, but we cannot lay
down any hard-and-fast rule for it.
Question. What are the symptoms of abortion in cows?
Dr. Peters. Generally you do not get very many
symptoms. They generally abort the first thing you know.
They may show some slight symptoms beforehand. I have
heard of people checking it in some cases. I met a farmer
from Vermont last summer, who had used the fluid extract
of buckthorn, and he said he had had a good deal of suc-
cess. If the calf is going to be born prematurely you can
sometimes stop the cow from aborting by giving her some
such medicine, but generally you cannot.
Mr. ITazen. Excuse me for suggesting the idea, but I
think there are always premonitory symptoms, if you watch
the cows closely enough.
Dr. Peters. I think there are for a day or two. I have
heard farmers say that they could tell from a week to a
fortnight beforehand.
Mr. HaZ'EN. Those symptoms are the same that a cow
manifests in calving naturally.
Mr. Douglas. I would like to ask the speaker, or any
other gentleman present, if he can give me any information
in regard to calves that come into the world apparently all
right and seem to be smart and bright for two or three days,
and then for some reason or other droop and die, in spite of
all that we have been able to do for them.
Dr. Peters. I have heard complaints of that kind, but
I have not had a chance to see many cases of that sort.
"What are the symptoms generally ?
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 227
Mr. Douglas. They seem to take no interest in life
and then get sick of it altogether.
Dr. Peters. I think in such cases a stimulant is as sfood
as anything.
Mr. John M. Smith of Sunderland. Perhaps I can give
the gentleman a little light from my own experience. The
only remedy which I can suggest is one that I have tried
over and over again and always do where calves are born in
the barn ; I never knew such an instance where a calf is
dropped in the field. Where a calf is dropped in the barn it
is almost immediately tied up and allowed to have but very
little milk. Overloading the stomach is, in my opinion, the
cause of their drooping and dying. I have had a good
many calves that were apparently very healthy at first, that
in twenty-four or forty-eight hours appeared to be sick,
their eyes glazed over, they grew worse for forty-eight
hours, and finally died. I cannot give the cause, but the
remed}'' is what I have stated, — not to let them have access
to the cow's udder. That is the course which I adopt. I
tie them up almost immediately after they are dropped and
they only suck at my pleasure.
Mr. Douglas. The gentleman does not hit the case at
all. My calves have been treated in all ways. They have
been taken immediately from the cow and have been fed the
milk of other cows in the same dairy, and cows of other
dairies ; they have also been allowed to run with the mother,
and in some cases I have known almost every calf in a herd
of cows to be affected in this way.
Dr. Peters. I have had no experience in such cases, but
I see Dr. Winchester and Dr. Osgood in the audience and
they have both had more or less country practice, and per-
haps one of them can enlighten the gentleman.
Mr. . I would like to ask the gentleman if he thinks
apple pomace has anything to do with it ?
Mr. Douglas. The question is very well put, but it does
not happen to apply to a herd where apple pomace is fed.
Mr. BoYCE of Sheffield. I have had a little experience
with this disease, and it seemed to me that there was some-
thing contagious about it. Whenever it has attacked one
calf more have been attacked. In two instances we have
228 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
lost several calves each year. We have had them taken
sick after they had been taken from the cows nearly a week.
Question. Is there any special breed of those cows or
are they native or grade cows?
Mr. BoYOE. Mine are grade Durhams.
Mr. Smith. Mine are grade cattle of all sorts. It may
be possible that there may be contagion in that matter,
because we have in some years lost a good many calves ; but
it is rarely that we lose one if we adopt the method I have
described.
Question. When those calves are born, don't they have
the diarrhoea?
Mr. BoYCE. No, sir, they do not have it when they are
born, but they have it afterwards, if they arc allowed to
suck all thoy want to. Some individuals have said it was
because I fed cotton-seed meal, — everything is laid to cot-
ton-seed meal ; but it does not make any difference. Calves
that come from cows which never had any cotton-seed meal
have sickened and died in the same way.
Mr. Winchester. I have seen a little of this trouble
and oftentimes it is associated with tuberculosis. That has
been my experience with it.
Dr. Lynde. I would like to ask Dr. Winchester if he
has ever made a post-mortem examination of any of these
creatures that have died in this manner?
Dr. Winchester. Yes, sir, I have, quite frequently, —
more than I wish I had ; and we usually find some tubercles
on the covering of the bowels. Then, again, we find some
ulceration of the womb passages.
Dr. Lynde. How are the lungs?
Dr. Winchester. The lungs are usually right ; but you
will sometimes find tubercles in the young animals.
Mr. Myrick. Can you do anything for it ?
Dr. Winchester. Yes, sir, a great deal. They gen-
erally die, though. [Laughter.]
Mr. Williams, of Sunderland. I had a case of that kind
last spring. I bought a cow and a calf when the calf was
about a month old, and it acted as if it didn't care whether
it lived or died, and it did die. On opening the calf its lungs
were found to be almost entirely gone. I turned the cow
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 229
out to pasture. She did not do anything all summer, and I
was as well satisfied that she had lung difficulty as I was
that the calf had after I had seen the lungs.
Dr. Lynde. I believe that this subject of tuberculosis
is one that ought to enlist the attention of all breeders of
cattle, and, indeed, of every person in the community. If
it is a fact that our domestic animals are suffering from tuber-
culosis, that we are eating the bodies of those animals, and
are in danger of becoming infected with tuberculosis from
eating such food, it is high time that the people should
know it and that we should take care of this matter.
Then, again, it is well known that milk is the natural food
of the young mammalia, and if we are feeding to our young
children the milk from tuberculosed animals and our young
children are liable to get tuberculosis from this milk, it is
a fact pregnant with importance and should command the
attention of every man in the community. I believe, sir, that
it is a fact that tuberculosis may be conveyed through the
milk of a diseased animal to a healthy child. I think it was
found at one of the public institutions in the State of New
York that almost an entire herd of cattle was affected with
tuberculosis. The cattle, as soon as they became diseased,
were isolated, and when they died they were examined, and
it was found that the disease affectins; those cattle was tuber-
culosis. I understand that it is the opinion of some men in
this State that there is not a herd of ten cattle in the eastern
part of the State in which more or less of the animals are
not affected with tuberculosis. If this is a fact it is one of
significant importance to the people of this State. And it
is further found that the cattle which we call thoroughbred,
which are brought in here from abroad and are bred here, —
cattle that are pampered and delicately treated and kindly
cared for, — are more apt to be affected with tuberculosis than
other cattle. If that is a fact, it is one to be considered by
every thoughtful man who breeds cattle. One day I asked
my butcher at home, who brings my meat daily, if he found
any diseased cattle among those that he slaughtered, and
what was his answer? He said that he found over one-
fourth of the old cattle diseased in their internal viscera.
On inquiring what the appearances were, he described to me
230 BOAKD OF AGEICULTURE.
the appearances on the liver, in the mesentery and in the
lungs. He described to me the appearance of tuberculosis.
I have no doubt that he told me the truth, for he did not
know the object of my inquiry ; and when he told me that
one-fourth of the old cattle that he slaughtered, the meat
of which he brought to our homes for our food, were affected
by a disease of this kind, which undoubtedly was tubercu-
losis, if that is a fact, it is a serious matter to every one
who consumes the meat he brings. And if this was his
experience as a butcher, can it be possible that his experience
is exceptional and that the other butchers of the State do
not meet with a like experience ? Now, it is a fact in relation
to this disease that it affects old cattle, that young cattle are
apparently exempt from it ; but, as Dr. Winchester has told
us, this fatality among young stock is due probably to tuber-
culosis, and I have no sort of doubt that when this subject
is investigated the result will be that the cattle that are
slaughtered for food will be inspected before or after being
slaughtered, as they are to-day in Germany.
Mr. Myrick. Dr. Winchester said he could do a good
deal for those calves ; will he please tell us what he can do
and what he cannot do for them ? That is the point I want
to bring out.
Dr. Winchester. Young calves are seldom affected
with tuberculosis ; but speaking, as Dr. Lynde did, of
tuberculosis, I will guarantee that at least twenty-five per
cent, of the herds in Eastern Massachusetts are diseased
with tuberculosis.
Mr. Smith. I am unwilling to have the statement go out
to the public that one-fourth of our cattle in any portion of
our State have this disease. I have been conferring with
our Franklin County butcher, Mr. Felton, of Greenfield,
who kills 1,200 head of cattle a year, and I would like to
have him state what has been his experience in regard to
this disease and any other disease which beef cattle may
have .
Mr. Felton. I shall need but a few moments to give
you all the experience I have had. For eleven years a part
of my business has been that of butchering cattle, and I have,
also, as a fanner, had experience in fattening in summer a
VALUE OF VETERINARY SCIENCE. 231
good many cattle and a few in winter. We have killed, for
the last seven or eight years, an average of about twenty-
five cattle a week. I have thus far confined mj'^self almost
entirely to home-dressed beef, and largely to cattle that have
been fattened on the hills of Franklin County. Until within
about six or seven years it had not occurred to me that there
was any danger from disease, but some six or seven j^ears
ago we killed a creature which, although we did not know
what the disease was at the time, I suppose was probably in
an advanced stage of tuberculosis, for we found these little
tubercles €!ven on the shoulder-blade, on the fore quarters
and flank, on the hind quarters, and also largely on the
vitals. I went immediately to the man we bought the crea-
ture of. He came and examined the carcass. "Now," I
said, " if you can do anything Avith that, do what you please
with it ; I don't propose to use it, although the loin and the
leg are apparently as free from any disease as any creature."
He said at once : " I don't propose to do anything with it;
I don't want you should pay anything for it. If you like to
boil it up for the hogs, do so ; I certainly should not dare to
feed it to them without boiling it." I did not boil it, but I
fed it to my hogs. I do not know that I ever saw any harm
from it. Since that time I have been very particular to say
to my butchers, if they found anything that looked like
disease or unhealthiness about the liver or the lungs, to
report to me before they destroyed the liver or the lungs,
that I might examine them, and sometimes, if I have any
suspicion that we have a creature that may be troubled with
any disease, I have made it a point to be there and see the
animal dressed myself. During the last seven or eight
years, we have not found more than five or six animals a
year that we had any suspicion, before killing, or any proof
after killing, that they were in any way afiected with this
disease ; but occasionally we do have one. Sometimes the
disease is in quite an advanced stage, sometimes only just
making its appearance. It has been confined usually, as
has been stated, to the older cattle ; but one year ago we
killed a two-year old steer that had the disease in quite an
advanced stage.
That is about all that I can say. I do not know, of
232 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
course, am'thing about the prevalence of this disease in other
sections ; but I can say that, in my judgment, not one
creature in a hundred of those killed in Franklin County has
been anything but perfectly healthy.
The CnAmMAX. Xo doubt this is a wide and interesting
field for dicussion, and inquiries would doubtless draw out
remarks which would be of great interest, but we are under
the necessity of proceeding. "We have another lecture this
afternoon and it is full time. I have the pleasure of intro-
ducing to you Dr. George A. Bowen, of Woodstock, Ct.
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FARMING AND THE VALUE OF
ORGAyiZATIO^^
BY DR. GEO. AUSTIN' BOWEX, WOODSTOCK, CT.
Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen, — I am very glad
to meet with the people of Massachusetts on this occasion.
I was very glad when your Secretary invited me to speak
on this subject, — "The Business Side of Farming." I
only regretted that he had not asked some one with more
eloquence than I possess to present the subject to you ; but
when I reflected that Shakespeare, in the play of King
Richard III, puts in the mouth of Elizabeth the words, " An
honest tale speaks best being plainly told," I thought I
might venture to come here, because this is "an honest
tale" I bring you, and I trust that, " being plainly told," it
will speak well. [Applau.se.]
The primitive agriculture of Xew England, rude and un-
scientific as it was, filled well its mission, and was fully on a
level with the other great industries of the world, and in
accord with the advanced thought of those times. The Old
"World, or that section which we so denominate, was tram-
meled with the traditions and bigotry of the past, which by
their very nature utterly checked all civilizing influences, or
greatly retarded their growth. The settlement of Xew Eng-
land was the outgrowth of the most progressive idea of the
century, and brought to these shores progressive men and
women, who little dreamed that they were founding a
minhty nation, the equal whereof history had no knowl-
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FAR^^nXG. 233
edsre, and whose ultimate conditions are now in our hands
for developing.
AU national prosperity depends upon agriculture. This
is a truism that none can deny ; history has proved it times
without number. Nations which have encouraged it have
progressed in civilization, while those who have given it but
little thought or attention have either lost position or exis-
tence. Our considerations to-day. infinitesimal as they will
be in our ultimate agricultural history, will still have a
bearing upon that magnificent future.
To fiilly understand the business side of farming, we must
have a full knowledge of the basis of agriculture, — that is,
the amount of land available, and its capacity for produc-
tion : and that other equally important question, the con-
sumption of the output. Pardon me, then, for giving you a
few statistics ; dry morsels to masticate, I know, but call all
your national pride to your help, — it may aid in their diges-
tion, and thereby strengthen your belief in that comprehen-
sive word. — business.
A little party of men, who went out to explore the country
around the Massachusetts Bay Colony, penetrated the wil-
derness some fifteen miles west of the present town of Lynn,
but returned and settled that towTi, believing that beyond it
the country was worthless. And the good old fathers of
that day decided that there could never be a large popula-
tion west of Boston's subiu'b, — Xewton. "What have we
to-day? An area of 2,970,000 square miles, according to
the census of 1880, with over 1,500.000 square miles of
arable territory, not including Alaska ; and a population of
50.000,000. A seaboard of 12,000 miles, giving us inter-
course with foreign nations. The river flow east of the
RoL'ky Mountains is about 40,000 miles, exclusive of all
rivers under 100 miles in length, ofi'ering 80,000 miles of
river bank to commerce, against the 17,000 of Eui'ope. —
the Mississippi and its affluents alone giving 35.000 miles.
The navigable waters of the Mississippi and Missom'i rivers
aggregate 3,900 miles. Add to these the great lakes, which
are said to contain one-half of the fresh water of the globe,
and the system of canals which connect them with rivers,
and we have an immense power aiding us in the develop-
ment of our enormous acreage.
234 BOAED OF AGRICULTUEE.
This subject of area, can we comprehend it? A difficult
task, but let us endeavor to. At the first glance we see a
vast country, stretching from the North where the snow never
melts, to the far South where it never falls ; its area, includ-
ing Alaska, almost equalling the whole of Europe, with its
twenty-two different nationalities. It is eighteen times
larger than Spain ; forty-one times larger than Great Britain
and Ireland. Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria,
Italy, Spain, Portugal, Switzerland, Scandinavia and Greece
could be placed within its limits once, twice, thrice. This
is simply the size of Uncle Sam's farm.
To give some idea of the capabilities of this vast farm, I
quote Dr. Josiah Strong's figures as found in his volume,
"Our Country." "The crops of 1879, after feeding our
50,000,000 of inhabitants, furnished more than 283,000,000
bushels of grain for export. The corn, wheat, oats, barley,
rye, buckwheat and potatoes, — that is, the food crops, —
were that year produced on 105,097,750 acres, or 164,215
square miles. But this is less than one-ninth of the smallest
estimate of our arable lands. If, therefore, it were all brought
under the plough, it would feed 450,000,000 and afford
2,554,000,000 bushels of grain for export." But this is not
all. So excellent an authority as Mr. Edward Atkinson
says, that where we now support 50,000,000 people, "one
hundred millions could be sustained without increasing the
area of a single farm or adding one to their number, by
merely bringing our product up to our average standard of
reasonably good agriculture; and then there might remain
for export twice the quantity we now send abroad to feed
the hungry in foreign lands." If this be true (and it will
hardly be questioned by any one widely acquainted with our
wasteful American farming), 1,500,000 square miles of cul-
tivated land, less than one-half of our entire area this side of
Alaska, are capable of feeding a population of 900,000,000,
and of producing an excess of 5,100,000,000 bushels of
grain for exportation ; or, if the crops were all consumed at
home, it would feed a population one-eighth larger, viz.,
1,012,000,000. This corresponds very nearly with results
obtained by an entirely different process from data afforded
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FARMING. 235
by the best scientific authority.* It need not, therefore,
make a very severe draught on our credulity to say that our
agricultural resources, if fully developed, would sustain a
thousand million souls.
Why are these statistics at the beginning of this paper?
Simply that we may have a comprehensive idea of our " stock
in trade," for it is easier for us to develop the business side
of agriculture by way of the nation than by the way of local-
ities. The subject given me is a broad one. It is not how
the farmer in Massachusetts can realize a higher price for his
butter and eggs, his veal in the spring, and his apples in the
fall. It relates to the American farmer, whatever section he
may dwell in. Why should he and how can he enhance his
whole condition by the application of business rules? A
system must be developed whereby the cranberry grower of
Cape Cod, the fruit and wheat raisers of California, the small
farmer of the North, and the extensive planter of the South,
may be alike benefited.
Havino; seen our laud, our farm as it were, and studied its
capability, let us glance at our farmer. In New England he
is a descendant of the English Puritans, with a few from
the Scotch and Welsh. The Dutch peopled New York.
Pennsylvania was settled by Quakers and Germans, Mary-
land by English Roman Catholics, Delaware by Dutch and
Swedes, Virginia by English cavaliers, the Carolinas in part
by French Huguenots, Louisiana by French, Florida, Texas
and California by Spanish, Utah by Mormons, chiefly from
England, Wales and Denmark. Immigration from Ireland,
Germany, England and Scotland, France, Switzerland and
Sweden, has been large and progressive, and now Italy is
sending heavy consignments. To this conglomeration of
humanity we may add a large percentage of Africans
throughout the South, and a few Chinese in the West. By
reason of the social and political situations in Europe, this
immigration will continue with increasing proportions for at
least the next few decades. This, then, is our land, and from
these nationalities come our seven millions of farmers, — men
inheriting difierent modes and methods of farming and
marketing, — bringing with them from the old country many
• See Encyclopaedia Britannica, vol. 1, p. 717.
236 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
national dislikes and prejudices, — many of them ignorant of
the ways of business as it is carried on in commercial circles,
and all living comparatively isolated lives. These are the
discordant elements that must be united. The kindred ties
of agriculture will not do it, any more than the tie of mer-
cantile life will unite the trader and dealer. Business, or
the organized effort to secure the almighty dollar, blends
them into one body ; unites and harmonizes the varied
interests, and whatsoever the nationality or calling, it alike
receives and gives support.
Possibly the American farmer has heretofore had but little
need of business aids. The country merchant took the few
articles raised for market, and gave him in return articles
which his farm or household could not supply. His wants
were few, and home industries mostly supplied them. But
times have greatly changed and are to change yet more.
Wants multiply ; what were once luxuries of life are now
necessities. The spirit of the times is progressive. Rapid
changes are beiuo- made in all our domestic surroundinijs.
Steam, electricity and printing have wrought a social revolu-
tion ; levelling all class distinction, giving equal opportunities
to all who are keen enough to grasp them. Town and
country are becoming more intimately blended. The or-
dinary farm home of to-day is more luxurious than the
dwelling of the man of wealth of a few decades ago. The
farmer is no longer known by his dress. His sons and
daughters acquire the same accomplishments as do those of
business and professional men. The great peculiarity of
these changes is, that they have all come so suddenly.
With them has come a great change in the methods of busi-
ness, fully as great as steam has wrought in the system of
transportation, or electricity in the art of conveying intelli-
gence. The time when the country trader was the recog-
nized exponent of all business requirements is within the
memory of us all. To-day he represents the lowest place.
All the great and confusing whirl of business excitement
that we witness abroad has been developed and is controlled
by the expression of one word, co-operation; it is the life of
business, — the vitality of the nation depends upon it. It is
revolutionizing the world. Modes and systems heretofore
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FARMING. 237
considered as all sufficient have been overturned by it.
Trades, manufacturing interests, transportation companies,
banking and commercial circles, land improvement com-
panies, fire and life insurance companies, and the hosts of
interests that constitute the business of the country have
been quick to see its advantages, and to secure them by
adopting it. All but agriculture. Individuality, both of
purpose and resources still characterize it. Co-operation is
now the progressive idea of the times. Farmers of Massachu-
setts, — descendants of the Pilgrim Fathers, who were the
leading representatives of the progressive idea of their day, —
are you ready to accept of it, and prove the purity of your
lineage; or have you lost the keenness and acumen that
charactized them, and feel content to take a low position in
the social scale reserved for the unsuccessful business man?
The successful business man is always the one who is in the
channels of business, and thereby gets his share of it. The
one who is without these channels receives but a stray posi-
tion now and then, insufficient for his maintenance.
Should I ask any intelligent farmer in this audience, — or in
New England, for that matter, — to state the greatest draw-
back to Eastern agriculture, his reply would be the want of
capital. Granted that I am right in this, let me ask, how do
you, — an ambitious man and desiring to succeed in the world
and give a respectable maintenance to your family, — expect
to acquire it? To my mind there are only two ways, — wait-
ing lor an aged father or aunt to die and leave it to you, or
to get it through the business of the farm. Unfortunately
for us of the present generation, aged and wealthy parents
are not numerous enough to make a class of, and the aunties
who own dividend-paying stocks and bonds all have more
desen'ing nephews elsewhere ; leaving us to look to our
farms as our only hope. The questions, then, that are pertin-
ent are : Is the business of our farms brinoiug us in capital
to-day ? are we receiving gold, silver, or Uncle Sam's prom-
issory notes for our crops, or are we trading them away at
ruinously Ioav rates for "jack boots," overalls, treacle, kero-
sene oil, codfish, baking soda, and the prominent soap of the
day? Useful articles in themselves, but like the Chinaman's
" too muchee samee alle time, but no will buy circus ticket."
238 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
As you are at present situated, will your farm enable you to
become a progressive member of this progressive generation,
and thus contribute your share towards keeping up New
England's reputation for mental superiority? I will answer
the question for you, and save you the humiliating acknowl-
edgment. No. It is now your turn to question, and
your interrogation will be; Is there a way out? Is there
brightness ahead ? Can the gloom that comes from financial
depression be dispelled? Can the New England farmer
maintain himself and his family, keeping abreast with the
times, developing his material resources, and leave the farm
the better for his occupancy? Unhesitatingly, I answer yes.
But not by the old system of farm business ; but by co-opera-
tion. In other words, by following the modern system of
business. I believe in New England agriculture, and
beyond that I believe in the people her soil has developed ;
in their perception, keenness, and good judgment, which
prompts me to say that I have faith in their future actions.
Can I offer you any help by indicating how the individual
farmer can enhance his prosperity by co-operation with his
neighbor? Possibly. I will endeavor to ; not, however, by
any device or scheme of my own, new and untried. I have
not the vanity or egotism to sustain me in that ; but by relat-
ing to you the action that is going on in other sections, — the
same as the traveller in foreign lands will describe to you
the scenes he has witnessed or perhaps participated in, — for
here and there co-operation has reached the farm at last, and
we are not wanting in many successful examples.
Before the general farmer can begin to co-operate with
his neighbor, he has a few things to learn. The old divines
used to recommend an occasional self-examination as being
of great good to the individual, taken from a theological
standpoint. If we shift the point of observation from the
theological one, with its futurity of the soul, to the material
one of present business (which is not a violent action, as a
person's religion depends much upon his financial relations) ,
we shall find an examination to be equally beneficial. All
farmers cannot co-operate, " they are not built that way;"
but the man that cannot must drop out of existence, — there is
no place for him. The world does not want him, farewell !
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FARMING. 239
Itequiescat in pace. But the farmer who has mingled enough
with his townspeople to know that there are others in the
world who know at least as much as he does, has a sufficient
foundation for his business salvation. There are as good
men in your town as you are ; possibly better, brighter,
keener, and better educated, and withal fully as honest.
Therefore put away mistrust, which should only belong to
the savage, in whose mind it is always a leading character-
istic, and receive and nurture in its place confidence, which
is the woof that holds together the web of business. He
must learn the value of integrity of character, — that those
who are engaged in business with him may have a confi-
dence in return. And this little point also, — that none but
honest goods should receive honest prices. He must learn
that breeding has at last told upon the human race and that
brain power is now more potent than brawn, and has taken
the lead of it, for the successful farmers of every section, as
well as those of other callings, are the brain workers. Hav-
ing learned these fundamental facts, cultivate energy and
activity, and learn to value time. These are the grand
essentials, which, if closely followed up, will give a positive-
ness to a man's character that brings him to success by its
own inherent force.
Two neighbors, having learned these points, can easily
co-operate. The old-fashioned system of " changing work"
was a good one, and can to-day be carried to other things.
Expensive farm machinery can be owned in common. Stock
for breeding purposes on neighboring farms need not be
duplicated, but made a subject of joint ownership, thereby
securing a far better animal, and lessening the expense, both
of purchase and of keeping. A one-hundred dollar bull
will do far more towards improving the stock of a neighbor-
hood than two fifty dollar ones will, not to speak of the
time spent in the care of an extra beast, which is consider-
able in the course of a year. This is practical co-operation,
and here and there we find it carried out successfully. Go
a step higher, — form partnerships. Some of the most suc-
cessful farmers of my acquaintance have made their money
in this way. Extend the system further ; let it embrace the
dairies of all the farms of a section ; for if two can work
240 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
together to an advantage, greater numbers can secure greater
advantages. Carry your thoughts back to your own neigh-
borhoods. IIow many churns have dashed the cream to-day ?
How many children have been kept at home from school to
supply the motive power for them, learning to hate the farm,
and at the same time are losing their education? How
much of that butter made is a first-class article? The milk
set at all temperatures and by many methods, creamed at
all lengths of time, salted and finally marketed in all manner
of ways, — the latter operation requiring many hours' time of
fifty men and as many horses That butter has been pro-
duced at a great cost to each individual, and is, perhaps,
worth, on an average, twenty-five cents a pound, store pay.
(Oh, how it makes the boys and girls love the farm when
they make a requisition on the paternal pocket-book and find
only store pay !) Glance at the co-operative system. A
regular method of proceeding is carried out by all in the
feeding of the cows, setting the milk and creaming it. It
only requires the labor of three men and a pair of horses to
collect the cream, make the butter, salt, work and market it,
and cleanse the utensils, — great!}'" lessening the cost, with a
far better result in the butter yield, giving a uniform quality,
that brings from three to five cents per pound more than
dairy butter, which, although a strong point, is backed up
by a stronger one yet, in the fact that it brings cash, a
medium that we are each year forced to use more and more
of. It does not require the aid of figures to prove the
advantage of organization here. Then why have we not a
creamery organization in every town in New England?
Many of them have endeavored to establish them, but failed
simply for lack of confidence ; mistrust and suspicion of
neighbors have been allowed to keep dollars out of the
pocket. The sweet hill pastures and pure streams of New
England should place her at the head of the dairy interests
of the world. She will take that position yet, but not till
her farmers have christianized their moral natures, as well as
reformed their business habits. Iler ministers can aid them
more in the former by preaching good-will, fellowship and
toleration while in the life, rather than Andover's scare-crow
of no probation after death.
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FARMING. 241
Carry this system into other branches of farm production
and money will accrue in the same manner. Neighboring
farmers can raise pork, beef, or special crops, or unite in the
marketing of them. The apple crop of New England, which
is now about one-third wasted, should be sold by organiza-
tion through a fruit exchange, — as the cotton of the South is
sold, or the peach crop of Delaware, — or held in cold storage
at convenient points on the railroads. Farmers raise enough
on their farms to all grow rich, but how few of them do it ;
mainly because they act as individuals in their sales, and not
as organizations, as do those of other callings. Is this a
showing of business management?
To look at the purchase side of the question. Every item
brought to the farm is bought at the extreme retail price, —
fertilizers, grain, implements, dry goods and groceries, all re-
quire it. Again, it requires no arithmetical calculation to show
that could these articles be purchased in quantity they could
be had at wholesale figures, as the merchant secures his. Co-
operative purchasing and distributing is largely carried on
in many sections by means of organization, to the great
advantage of the farmer, and is a strong evidence of his
business sagacity. The business of organization, if we may
so term it, has been brought to a finer point yet. The
wholesale dealer has not only expressed a willingness to sell
to co-operative organizations at wholesale rates, but actually
agrees to sell to the individual member of the association
small lots at regular wholesale rates ; articles need not be
ordered in quantity, the trade of the organization being
concentrated to this dealer brings laro;e sales in the airsre-
gate.
Organization not only aids the farmer to sell and purchase
to more advantage, but is able to open up new outlets for
farm production. The cranberry* grower of Cape Cod could
not afford to visit Europe to develop the market there, but
the American Cranberry Growers' Association can well
afford to send out one of its members and open up an
immense business, and add a handsome percentage to the
price now received. This course is often adopted by manu-
facturing associations, to their mutual advantage, by creating
a demand for their goods in new sections.
242 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
But it is not in the purchase and sale of goods alone that
the farmer sees the benefit of an organization. A far
stronger point is in the help it gives him in maintaining his
business in its integrity, and not allowing the organized efforts
of others to despoil him. How can this be ; can the busi-
ness be wrested from his hands ? Perhaps not ; but it can
be so crowded down by customs, by unjust legislation, by
the avarice and greed of those who have no sympathy with
it, by the unjust extortion of those who live by handling its
productions (middle men, so called), as to render it unre-
munerative as a calling ; and unremunerative agriculture is
a national disaster. Our American farm homes, as we look
at them, are perfect pictures of peace and tranquillity. They
are the preservers of the ideas that have built up this repub-
lic. They have been the homes of the strong men who have
guided and controlled it. They have produced the educa-
tors of the people, and to them we look for the highest
examples of purity, honesty and uprightness. They are
essentially American. The cities are more than one-half
European. The future greatness of America will come from
her farms; depress them, curtail the income, reduce the
farmer in the social scale, as is his European brother, and it
will in corresponding ratio reduce the country's greatness.
But, on the other hand, enhance the condition of the farmer,
give him comforts and the means of education, and it will
show in the greatness, goodness and power of the nation.
Is there a need of investigating this feature of guarding the
business of farming? I answer, yes. The business of farm-
ing ought to be the best paying one in the country to-day,
but it is not, and if left without guidance, it will be worse in
the future. The individual farmer can do nothing to avert
this ; he may see the threatened danger, and exclaim against
it, but will be powerless to act. Let us enumerate some of
the threatened dangers, and then examine them a moment in
detail. The dairy interests are threatened by the evil of
oleomargarine. Unjust extortions by railroad corporations.
The injudicious clearing of forest lands. The organized
efibrts of speculators to depress prices. Changes in the
tariff rates. Foreign landlordism. The eflects of immigra-
tion, and many like questions we find in the list, giving the
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FARMING. 243
idea at the start that the farmer needs to be a statesman as
well.
If there is a farmer present who thinks that it is not
necessary to secure the help of his brother farmer by organ-
ization, I hope that he will give attention while we glance
at the dairy problem. According to a carefully prepared
statement in the New York Herald, the capital invested in
the dairy business is almost five times larger than the
aggregate banking capital of the country, the latter being
nearly $071,000,000, while the dairy employs above $3,000,-
000,000. There are estimated to be 21,000,000 milch cows,
with an aggregate milk production of 7,350,000,000 gallons.
Of this ocean of milk 4,000,000,000 gallons are used for
butter, 700,000,000 for cheese, 2,480,000,000 are consumed
in a pure state. The output of butter is about 1,350,000,-
000 pounds annually, and of cheese 6,500,000 pounds. The
annual value of our dairy products is stated to be nearly
500,000,000, or twenty millions more than the value of the
wheat crop, and closely approximating that of the corn crop.
To support this immense dairy herd 100,000,000 acres of
pasture land, having a value of $2,500,000,000, are required.
A gigantic business, truly. Cheating, greed and avarice
could easily creep in here at the many unguarded doors, and
it silently did. Artificial or bogus butter became known,
60,000,000 pounds being placed on the market in one year,
manufactured in thirty-seven factories known to the internal
revenue department, with probably much more from factor-
ies unknown. The output was distributed through two-
hundred and sixty-six wholesale dealers. Shoddy butter
can be manufactured at a cost of three cents per pound, but
a real good creamery article costs a trifle more. Sixty dif-
ferent articles entering into its composition are mentioned in
the letters patent which protect it to seventeen patentees.
Many of these articles are very questionable, to say the least,
and others highly injurious. The immense dairy interests
of the country, producing a healthy, nutritious and necessary
article for human consumption, and maintaining thousands
upon thousands of families throughout the land, was threat-
ened Avith almost total extinction by a handful of unprin-
cipled men, who, through avarice, sold unjust and unwholo-
244 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
some goods as pure butter. The price of butter was materi-
ally lowered. The fraud was growing fast, and threatened
still greater injury. Individual farmers throughout the land
raved and protested, with about the same effect as would
have been produced had their ire been directed against the
keen blasts of winter. It was taken up, however, by an
organized body of farmers, who were trained to think and
act in harmony, who, after many trials and defeats in both
State and National legislatures, saw the entire trade placed
under the control of the law, with the effect of restoring the
price of butter, and restricting its imitation. Did not that
organization attend to the business side of farming? That
battle has been fought and the enemy routed ; but they are
gathering again, and another trial of strength will take place.
Organization must be made now to meet it.
Mr. Chairman, it would take too long to tell the history
of. the railroad interests of this country. How, originally
constructed by the will of the people, to be the servant of
the people, they gained strength, and finally declared them-
selves to be the masters of the people, and in many ways
robbed and burdened the very ones whose vote created
them. The fraud and trickery and disgraceful acts of the
majority of these corporations should lodge each director in
the penitentiary. A large part of the burden fell upon the
farmers ; and repeatedly have I heard them cry out against
it, but without avail. They acted as individuals without or-
ganization. But the same body of farmers that fought bogus
butter, fought the railroads, and placed over them the power
of the Inter-State Commerce Commission, the best act that
Congress has done in many years. But here again the battle,,
though fought and won, still requires organization to main-
tain it. Individual farmer ! who think organization un-
necessary, how do you propose to do your share?
The influence of forests upon agriculture is well known.
To a certain extent they must be preserved, or agriculture
suffers or perhaps perishes. This is especially true in our
hot, dry climate. Organized effort of the farmers of the
whole country is needed to check the waste and destruction
that is going on. Who else beside farmers are interested in
this vital question ? Statesmen who love their country and
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FAKMING. 245
protect its interests because of that love? Alas, I know of
none. Farmers, that question is in your keeping, — you must
organize and protect yourselves. All you can do alone and
unaided is to spare the old button ball tree in the side yard,
and perhaps neglect your alder swamp ; but that is not the
question of forestry. There are large tracts of forest lands
in all sections that the wanton spirit of destruction is ruhi-
ing ; drouth and barrenness will surely follow. It is our
business to protect ourselves in this matter.
As one of the threatened dangers to agriculture against
which we must guard by organization, I have mentioned
speculation. Humanity has always been prone to indulge in
it, but I think that the genus homo as produced on Ameri-
can soil is more of an adept at it than the European variety.
Abroad gambling is not looked upon with much disfavor.
Here all good society discountenances it. The would-be
gambler turns speculator, and is honored by all classes,
except the farmer ; he has learned that the prices of the great
staple crops are not regulated by the law of supply and
demand, but by " corners," " puts," " calls," " futures," etc.,
and every one of these acting as a depressor to his interests.
At the first glance we should say that it could not l)e
checked, but upon investigation we find that it has been
very efiectually restrained by farmers who have by organiza-
tion learned of the true state of the market, have built their
own elevators, stored their grain, organized their own banks,
from which they could obtain loans upon their crops so
stored if necessary, and thus defy these deliberate acts of
systematized robbery. Repeatedly have these co-operating
farmers saved their crops by so doing. I am of the opinion
that they understood the business side of farming.
Tariff rates. A bone of contention, producers desiring
that it shall be one way, and manufacturers insisting upon
another, and neither just agreeing with the consumer. The
merits of this subtle question we will not pause to discuss at
present, but content ourselves with the statement that a
protective tariff benefits the farmer, and in order to secure
and maintain it, organization and co-operation of labor are
necessary. Sheep husbandry in the United States offers us
a suitable example. Why is the industry declining? Simply
246 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
because the wool it produces does not bring a high enough
price in market. Unfortunately, Americans are not mutton
eaters, and we cannot value the carcass of a sheep very
highly, — its whole merits must rest upon the wool clip.
This is a national question, affecting alike the farmers of all
sections, and it is to our business interests to investigate it
and see it righted. For sixteen years of our history Con-
gress imposed a fair protective tariff on wool, with the effect
of increasing the wool industries more than all the preced-
ing one hundred years. In 1883 Congress reduced the wool
tariff, since which a steady decline has taken place in the
wool-growing interests of the country, — the decrease from
July, 1886, to July, 1887, being three and a half million
head ; while the wool we imported in 1886 cost $13,794,213,
besides $40,536,509 worth of manufactured woollens. Farm-
ers, this should not be. It was not disease that carried off
the three and a half million of sheep last year ; neither was
it dogs. American dogs, like their masters, only indulge in
a mutton diet on special occasions ; they were killed by the
tariff. Had this amount of imported wool, and that required
for the imported manufactured goods, been grown in this
country, and manufactured by American working men and
women, in turn fed by American farmers, the business of
farming would not show the depression it does to-day.
France protects her farmers by fixing the tariff so high on
beef, pork and grain, as to make them prohibitory. And
while our Congress was discussing the advisability of making
raw sugars free, Spain increased her tariff on cereals twenty-
five per cent. Ttiere are a host of other minor industries,
that, were they protected, would materially help the farmer.
We learn that there were over sixteen million dozens of eggs
imported last year, mostly from France, free of all duty ;
surely a discouraging prospect for all ambitious Yankee
hens. The British Provinces send us large quantities of
potatoes every year, and I noticed in a recent newspaper an
announcement that a cargo of them had just arrived from
Scotland, the small import duty being no hindrance.
Whether I am right or wrong in my deductions, this is an
important question for farmers to consider. Tariff tinkers
are busy now, and during the coming session of Congress
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FARmNG. 247
the free admission of raw materials of all kinds — and all farm
productions are raw materials — will be agitated by men"
whose sympathies are not with the producer. Here again
the farmer can only help himself by organization.
If I am right in my position, that the farmer has to-day a
need to protect his business by a concert of action, I must
not pass by a threatened peril to American agriculture,
which farmers should be the first to perceive, to warn
against, and to oppose, — actuated thereto by a love for their
calling as well as a love for their country. I allude to the
growing evil of foreign landlordism. It certainly is not
desirable that any considerable tract of land should be owned
by persons more interested in another country and form of
government than our own, that owe allegiance elsewhere
and will never aid in advancing the progress of our country.
As Americans, we should oppose them, because we love our
country and desire its development. As farmers, we should
oppose them, because we believe in the right of every farmer
to own the soil he tills. It makes him a better farmer, a
better citizen and a more patriotic one. We do not wish
the tenant farming system, with all its attendant evils, intro-
duced here. But it has been, and only last spring I read of
evictions in Iowa for non-payment of rent to a foreign land-
lord. Of late years, the ownership of land in Great Britain
has not been as profitable as formerly, which has prompted
capitalists to look elsewhere for investments. The cheap
lands of America were tempting baits and have drawn them
hither, many of them presumably for speculative purposes ;
but not in all cases, by any means, as their Jarge tracts are
being divided into farms and let to tenant farmers, and in
some instances the tenant farmers of Ens-land brought here
and placed upon them. So silently has this evil grown that
few are aware of its proportions, and when I tell you that
more than twenty millions of acres of land in the United
States are thus owned by aliens, you will be surprised by the
statement. Amons^ the laro:est of these foreiajn landowners
are the Duke of Sutherland, Duke of Hamilton, Earl
Dunraven and Marquis of Tweedale, the last of whom owns
a tract of 2,300 square miles, while his English holdings are
only G7 square miles. These four men own 23,000 square
248 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
miles of our territory, — equal to the area of Massachusetts,
'Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, and Delaware, —
nearly one-half of the original thirteen colonies. The State
of Texas is largely attracting this foreign capital. Land
agents and surveyors are busy locating and securing lands
for them. What the future developments will be are
watched for with interest. But this certainly is a question
demanding concerted action by farmers to have such laws
enacted as to prevent large holdings by aliens. This is not
the only land question before the public to-day. There are
others of equal interest and import, but this is sufficient for
our subject.
Following these questions we see that the farmer requires
to co-operate with others, his immediate neighbors, for small
items of personal business. With his neighborhood or
section for the sale of staple crops and large purchases ; and
for State legislation, and beyond that, he should in some
manner co-operate with the farmers of the entire nation to
secure just and equitable laws whereby he may be protected.
Thus the foundation of the business is secured and made
permanent.
I am aware that thus far I have talked at the su])ject in a
general way, and have not offered any plans by which co-
operation can be carried on in the complete manner it should
be. My duty on this occasion is to present practical plans
to your knowledge, and I should fail in that duty were I to
leave my subject here, — as many do who insist upon re-
form,— but offer no plans by which to carry it out.
Some twenty.years ago, an order was devised and syste-
matized for this very purpose of aiding the farmer to aid
himself, by educating him in business and general informa-
tion, by promoting his social welfare, and assisting him in
the necessary purchases and sales incidental to his condition.
Its projectors named it the Grange, or in other words, the
farm. In the short period of its history it has proved itself
to be the most practical of the beneficial orders in existence.
Simply stated, it consists of subordinate granges, which are
local in their action. These by representatives form a State
Grange ; and all State granges by representatives form the
National Grange. A number of subordinate granges may
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FARMING. 249
also unite and form a county or district grange. It is the
strongest order, numerically speaking, in the United States.
It was created for the benefit of the farmer and his family,
and receives into its membership the farmer's wife and his
children who have attained the age of fourteen years. It is
the most practical example of organization and co-operation
that I know of; therefore I introduce it here, and commend
it to your consideration. In fact, I could not do otherwise
and develop the subject, for it is the only means thus far
devised by which farmers unknown to each other can co-
operate in the three ways named : locally, by sections, and
nationally ; and co-operation in agriculture, to be perfect,
must embrace them all. It is a grand order, comprehensive
in its conception, lofty in its aims, noble in its perceptions
and wonderfully successful in its achievements. Wherever
it locates it brings the aid of organization to its members,
and offers them its own distinctive business helpj It pos-
sesses its own banks, fruit exchanges, fire and life insurance
companies, grain elevators and warehouses, co-operative
stores, purchasing agents, and systematized trading arrange-
ments, and thus exemplifies the idea of a farmer minding
his own business, by giving him the facilities for so doing.
The incumbent of the chair of as^riculture of the Storrs
Agricultural School of Connecticut, Professor Chamberlain,
writes me under a recent date, and speaks of the Grange
as having but " one purpose, of lifting agriculturists, and
throu2:h them asTriculture, out of their and its des^radation,
and up to a level with other industries, honored as they are
by the name of profession." This earnest man and careful
thinker concludes his letter with these words: "You will
think, perhaps, that I am too radical. Let me tell you that
I believe in the Grange as the only hope of our New Eng-
land agriculture. Hence my radicalism." If my friend is
right, if that is true, would I be justified in omitting to
present the Grange to you as the strongest business consid-
eration of the day, the light in which I regard it?
To m}'' mind, the strongest point in favor of organization
is the effect upon the individual. It develops the mind,
sharpens the perceptions and quickens the intellect, and to
a certain extent makes the person a disciplined one. We
250 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
know the value of disciplined men in war ; they are equally
so in business. A few months ago I met a gentleman on
the train. He proved to be a New York business man. In
conversation he gave me an incident illustrating this point.
Desiring to obtain situations for two nephews of his, who
were cousins of about equal ages and qualifications, he called
upon a neighboring merchant and asked if he could give
them positions in his store. He could make room for one.
The question came which one. In discussing their merits
the fact was developed that one of them was a member of
one of the finest regiments of the State militia. At once
the merchant said : " I will take him ; he is the man I want."
My acquaintance was rather in favor of the choice being
given to the other, and asked why he chose the military
man. The answer was : " Because he is a disciplined man.
He can receive commands and execute them, and when re-
quired, give them. He will be worth more money to me."
Here is an instance where discipline brought dollars. Is it
not wise for us to look at it in that lio;ht also ? The Granije
gives a uniform discipline to its membership. The various
peoples who are represented by our farmers, whatever their
section or nation, are thus brought to a unity, as were the
members of our regiments in the late war.
However much organization may benefit an individual, he
will find that he cannot rest there ; he must seek the good
results that come from the ordinary forms of business in
use, and apply them to his farming business. As a class,
farmers are sadly deficient in business detail. Should a
manufacturer conduct his operations in such a loose, unsys-
tematized way, he would be sure to fail, and receive the
verdict of "served him right." There is too much guess-
work about farm business. The bookkeeping is not syste-
matic enough. I have seen much of farmers' bookkeeping,
and while admiring its simplicity, I have been impressed
with its want of completeness. The day book, journal and
ledger frequently consist of one book, — generally, a patent
medicine almanac kept hanging from a nail under the clock
shelf in the kitchen. Here and there, on the margin of the
leaves against certain dates, are entries made of farm events.
The sale of the brindle heifer, the weight of the fat hogs,
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FAllMING. 251
the payment of the last instalment of pew rent, and the
number of loads of apples delivered at Deacon Hansom's
cider mill. I venture the statement, that not one farmer in
five hundred keeps a regular set of books, and yet they are
ready to contend that farming does not pay. That will be
a more happy question for discussion when they have re-
formed their business system and can prove their state-
' ments by actual figures.
The great lack of the present system of farming in the
Eastern States is the cash income. Goods enouirh are sold,
but not for cash. They are traded away on the store pay
system, which is an utter disgrace to any man's business
history; the merchant fixing the price both ways, and the
farmer oftentimes taking goods he does not want. The
custom is behind the times, and the quicker it is changed
the sooner prosperity will follow.
Specialties of farming can be followed to advantage. The
drift of the times is tbot way. They can be made leading
features of general farming. When the special branch is
decided upon, push it, as business men. Talk upon it when
occasion ofiers. Advertise it on your letter-heads, a thing
that fiirmers seldom do, and occasionally in the papers. Let
the public know what you are doing, and you will find some
of them ready to help you by their purchases. Trying to
do business without advertisius: is said to be like throwins:
a kiss to a pretty girl in the dark, — you may know what
you are doing, but no one else does.
Politically speaking, farmers are a strong power, and in
these severely practical days business must seek the aid of
every power. By their concentrated vote they can do much
towards the election of men who are either directly con-
nected with agriculture, or in sympathy with it. They can
introduce bills into legislative bodies, and thus secure laws
that will regulate the sale of milk, butter and cheese and
punish for their adulterations, fix standards for weights and
measures and size of packages. Make quarantine rules and
regulations for animals, pass laws which will prevent con-
tagious diseases from entering their flocks and herds, guard
against fraudulent predigrees in stock. Direct congressional
and other appropriations of money for agricultural purposes
252 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
to their proper uses, like the moneys of the Hatch Fund, so
called. Who will interest themselves in these matters if
farmers do not? Trained together in an organization like
the Grange, where these questions are discussed, they make
a power that the politician would fear to oppose, but seek
to conciliate. Farmers are ;ipt to fear the political strength
of others and underrate their own. To such we can com-
mend Shakespeare's words, —
" Take thy fortunes up :
Be that thou knowest thou art, and then thou art
As great as that thou fcarest."
Is not this attention to business? Yes, the very founda-
tion of it, for without proper laws the business would soon
be overthrown.
The business of farming is a good one, and for the amount
of money invested yields a larger percentage of profit than
most others. It gives a home for the family, produces most
of the food consumed and fuel used, affords a horse and
carriaire for occasional outino-s, all of which make the farmer
the most independent of all classes. It is not conducted on
the borrowed capital plan that we find so much the case in
callings carried on in towns. It oftentimes has a part of its
capital borrowed, which is generally put in one shape, a
mortgage on the farm, which is handled only at stated times.
It is not conducted by a system of notes given at bank,
causing a perpetual worry of mind and necessitating a
speedy turning of goods into cash. Neither has it the
system of long credits, that cause the failures of so many.
Its hours are long in summer, but the average working
hours of the year are no more than those of the mechanic
and tradesman. The heavier labor of those hours is fully
oflset by its being carried on out-of-doors, in the pure air
and stimulating sunshine, and the cood health it brings.
I would speak of education as a business point, but surely
in these days of enlightenment it is not necessary to enlarge
\ipon it. Knowledge is power wherever it is exerted. The
farm needs it, and responds to it as quickly as in any profes-
sion or calling. Ignorance and superstition are incompa-
tible with progress, and it is for progressive modes and
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FARMING. 253
conditions that we are living, and not the conservative ideas
of the past. Those vrho would win the golden prize of a
successful life must rely upon a strong intellect that can
only come from mental exercise.
It is for ourselves that we should seek for business suc-
cess, for the manhood thvat is within us, which feels the
stimulation that comes as a reward for honest labor ; for
those who are dependent upon us, and can thus enjoy the
comforts success affords them, and for others that they
may be stimulated by our success and be encouraged to
emulate it. To this end let us all take to heart Dickens'
comment, that " To be thoroughly in earnest is everything,
to be anything short of it is nothing."
Mr. Taft. I want to ask the essayist if he is in favor of
a law limiting the number of acres that one individual may
own, and, if so, how does he propose to bring it about?
Dr. BowEN. The old Eoman law, I believe, limited the
number to seven acres, and it was a very good law for the
Roman Empire ; but I hardly think that any average Yankee
would be contented with any such limit as that. Neither
would I, at this time in our national history, limit the posses-
sion of homesteads to any number of acres ; but I would limit
the holding of American land by foreigners. They have no
business here. I believe that America was created for
Americans and not for English capitalists [applause] ; — and
I would be in favor of a law saying that an Englishman can
come here and buy our land, live upon it and derive his
living from it ; but he shall not come here to bring the feudal
systems of the old world and impose them upon Americans.
[Applause.] Our ancestors had the English yoke on their
necks once ; they threw it off, and it is not for us to allow
Englishmen to put it upon us again. [Renewed applause.]
Mr. Tatt. I rather agree with that kind of talk, but I
am somewhat of a practical man, and the question is, how
are you going to do it? In this matter of emigration, I am
about of the opinion of Josh Billings, when he was asked if
he believed in universal salvation. He said, " I do ; let me
pick the men." I presume the essayist may be in that frame
of mind. He is willing that foreigners should own land in
254 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
this country ; but, as I understand him, he believes that they
must come here and become American citizens.
Mr. BowEN. That is the idea. America is open. We
welcome all immic^rants who come here with "rood feelings
towards our country and will adopt the country as their
own ; but we do not wish them to come here for speculative
purposes.
Mr. Taft. There is another question I would like to
ask. I understood the essayist to say that he was in favor
of a higher tariff on wool. About two years ago the Board
heard a very eloquent essay at Boston, at one of their meet-
ings, on this question: "What does the tariff do for the
farmer ? " and the essayist in the course of his address said :
" I have on a suit of clothes for which I paid seventy-five
dollars in Boston ; repeal the tariff laws and I will buy them
for twenty-five dollars, and you can get your clothes for
thirty-two per cent, less than you have to pay now." He
was applauded by the members of this Board. I believe I
was the only member of this Board — no, the present Secre-
tary was with me — who did not echo the sentiment. There
was a motion made by a good doctor down here in Fitchburg
to thank the essayist for his essay. I said : " That is very
well, gentlemen, if you thank him for its literary character;
but as a matter of business, I question whether it is right for
this Board to adopt the views presented by the gentleman."
I think the essayist was Mr. Joseph S. Fay of Boston. I
got the idea there that the members of the Board of Agricul-
ture believed, contrary to my judgment, that the tariff was
too high.
Dr. Bo^VEiS^. I will say that that is substantially the
opinion expressed by our worthy President in his message.
He took up the subject of the tariff and illustrated it in
the same way to which the gentleman has referred. He did
not go a little deeper and see that the American manufac-
turer, when obliged to compete with the foreign manufac-
turer, would say to his operatives; "I cannot go out of
business ; I must sustain m3'self and m}^ family ; therefore, I
must reduce your wages. Where I have paid you two dollars
a da}', I will pay you one ; " and the operatives would turn
round to the farmer and say : " Mr. Farmer, we have been
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FARMING. 255
paying you forty, fifty, and sixty cents a bushel, from year
to year, as the case may be, for your corn ; now that we are
receiving only one dollar a day where we had two, we shall
pay you twenty or twenty-five cents a bushel for your corn,
and everything else in proportion." That would bring the
thing back again on the farmer. You would curtail his
income, you would lower his condition, and, as I said in my
paper, suppress the American farmer and you suppress the
underlying power of the nation. [Applause.]
Mr. Taft. I have succeeded in bringing out just what I
wanted to ; but as you know, sir, and as many of those hero
know, that is not the sentiment of Massachusetts, if we can
gather it from the votes of the people, but rather the con-
trary. We have just elected in the old ninth district, of
which the city of Worcester forms a part, a man who
believes in free trade, or, at any rate, in materially reducing
the present tariff". I am very glad that we have got the
opinion of the gentleman ; it agrees with my own. I asked
the essayist to whom I have referred, after he got through,
this question: "Suppose you bought that suit of clothes
for twenty-five dollars instead of seventy-five, would the
men who spun and wove that cloth get as many dollars per
day as they do now?" " That has nothing to do Avilh the
question," the essayist said. But it seems to me that what
the operatives of that valley receive for their daily wages
has a good deal to do with the income of those who sell
potatoes and cabbages and a great many other things.
Dr. BowEX. I hope the operatives are wise enough to
put that question to themselves, and if they do, I think they
will say that it makes a difference to them whether they
receive one dollar a day or fifty cents.
Mr. Sedgwick of AVcst Cornwall, Conn. The gentleman
said in his paper that France and other countries had put an
inport duty on cereals and breadstuff's. That is a fact ; but
he did not state that those countries named are not countries
that have those articles to export. He did not state the
fact that America has a large amount of agricultural pro-
ductions the only market for which is abroad, and the price
that we are receiving to-day in this country for beef and
pork, is the price that is made in Liverpool, or in those
256 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
countries abroad to Avhich those products go ; and the fact
that our manufacturer here is paying two dollars a day as
wages to his workmen has nothing whatever to do with that
price. If the tariff was reduced and the workmen in New
England only got one dollar a day, the price of wheat, of
pork and of beef would be just as great, because the demand
would be just as great, and that is the only thing that con-
trols and regulates the price. [Applause.] I say, — and
I know whereof I speak, because for nine years I have
been travelling among farmers in the eastern States, — I say
that farmers are suffering more injustice from the present
tariff, they are feeling the effects of it more seriously,
than any other class of people in this country. It is an
unjust thing from which in great mercy they ought to be
delivered. [Applause.]
Mr. Myeick. It is about twenty minutes past five, a
little too late in the day to open the question of the tariff.
Can we not take up one or two other subjects which were
brought out in the very excellent address to which we have
listened? The essayist referred to the matter of co-opera-
tive fire insurance. I have made some study of that ques-
tion. I knoAV that in some States, notably in the State of
New York, the farmers are saving an immense amount of
money by insuring their property themselves in their own
companies, limiting their risks to their own property, so
that the expense is limited to the actual loss by fires on
farms, and they do not have to pay the losses by fires in
cities, as they have to do when they insure in the ordinary''
stock companies. I would like to hear from any gentleman
who has had experience in this particular. I believe a
co-operative insurance company has been started in this
State, the president of which is here, Mr. Douglas.
Mr. Douglas. It is pretty late in the day for me to
attempt to say anything that will enlighten this audience.
It is so late that they are rapidly going out, and I believe
if I should talk here for ten minutes I would clear the hall
entirely.
We farmers of Massachusetts, belonging to the Order of
Pati'ons of Husbandry, have been looking up this matter of
fire insurance for years ; it is part of our farming business
THE BUSINESS SIDE OF FARMING. 257
that we have been giving some attention to. We thought it
was costing our people here too much to do this work, — that
the expense was too great. Then, too, we thought the class
of risks which represented our property was not insured as
it ought to be. We found that it was costing more in the
State of Massachusetts every year to do the business, to
move the machinery of fire insurance, than to pay the
losses. We found that it was costing the people of Massa-
chusetts more than a million dollars a year to pay the big
and little agents. We put these things together and said,
" We can do this business for ourselves ; we can save this
money." About a year ago we commenced really talking
this matter up in earnest, and at our annual meeting in the
city of Worcester in December, we appointed a committee
and instructed them, if in their judgment they thought it
advisal)le, to go on and organize a company. After can-
vassing our membership throughout the State, and looking
up the laws of the Commonwealth relating to insurance, it
became apparent to the committee that it was worth while
for us to make the attempt. We were under very great
obligations in the beginning to the pioneers in this line, as it
were. Co-operative fire insurance companies have been in
existence in several States for a number of years. We
found that there were in New York some seventy co-opera-
tive fire insurance companies who met every year and whose
secretaries reported to the general organization. We were
able to get from those reports figures and facts which were
just what we wanted. We then found that it was necessary,
of course, to comply with the laws of this Commonwealth.
We had to go before the Insurance Commissioner, get out
our papers, and go to work business-like. Some of us
learned considerable about business before we got this thing
going. On the 23d of May last A\^e applied for and secured
our charter. We had at that time no agents, no printing-
done, nothing to begin with except the bare charter, which
authorized us, when we should have received and placed on
our books bona fide applications for $500,000 of insurance, to
go before the commissioner and apply for authority to issue
policies. About the middle of June we commenced putting
out our circulars and applications for insurance and appoint-
258 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
ing our agents, and on the first day of August we were able
to commence issuing policies. A little before that time
our secretary was able to take five hundred and some odd
thousand dollars of applications under his arm and go down
to the insurance commissioner, show them to him, and say,
" Mr. Commissioner, we want authority to issue policies on
this property." After lookmg them over the commissioner
granted the authority, and on the first day of August
we commenced issuing policies covering something over
$500,000 worth of farm property, no one policy exceeding
$2,500. I tell you it took some hard work. It was a
thorough organization that we mapped out.
Mr. Taft. I want to get my barn and house insured for
$1,200 ; what will you insure them for?
Mr. Douglas. Are you a member of the order?
Mr. Taft. No, sir ; but I am a farmer.
Mr. Douglas. We will not insure your property unless
you are a member. We are doing this thing for our own
benefit.
Mr. Taft. Supposing I was a member, what would you
insure me for?
Mr. Douglas. If you have a good risk, one-half of
one per cent, for five years on your house, with a contin-
gent liability for three times the amount of the cash pre-
miums.
Mr. Taft. I got it insured for seven dollars.
Mr. Douglas. We are learning to do our own business for
our own benefit, as long as we hurt nobody else. We have
been going on quite rapidly since we commenced to issue pol-
icies on the first of August. I think we have this matter of
fire insurance so arranged that it is ooinsr to be a benefit to
C DO
us, at least, and will injure no one else.
Mr. Taft. Of course the gentleman would not go into
it unless he thought it would be a benefit to himself and his
friends, but I wanted to know whether it would benefit any-
body else.
Adjourned to 7.30, p. m.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 259
Evening Session.
The evening session was held in the Opera House, where
a lecture was delivered by Surgeon-General Alfred F.
Holt of Cambridge, on Contagious Diseases in our Homes,
and how to prevent them. The lecture was illustrated with
stereopticon pictures, and was attentively listened to by a
large audience.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES:
HOW THEY ARE CAUSED AND HOW TO PREVENT THEM IN
OUR HOMES.
During the long history of medicine, reaching far back
into the older civilization, there have been many theories
entertained by the medical profession as to the cause or
causes of disease ; but all of these theories, except the one
generally accepted by the scientific world to-day, have been
purely speculative and theoretical. Some of these were
evolved by a subtle reasoning from false premises, some
from an ignorance of physiological laws, while still others
were based wholly upon a blind and ignorant superstition.
Each of these medical theories has had its day. Each,
for a time, has been bolstered up and sustained, as all false
hypotheses have been, by the addition of new propositions
and new guesses, until it has fallen by its own weight, or
perhaps has been dispelled by an advance in knowledge ;
when another, possibly equally as absurd and false as its
predecessor, has arisen to take its turn. But all of these
speculative theories as to the cause of disease are matters
of history, and to-day they only serve to show us the
methods of reasoning of our predecessors and the darkness
and ignorance in which they were groping.
The present theory of the cause of the diseases with
which sanitary science has to deal, — the so-called conta-
gious or preventable diseases, — and the one almost univer-
sally accepted by the medical profession, rests upon no such
insecure basis as a speculative supposition, but has for its
foundation the firm, strong groundwork of careful and
extended experimental research. In fact, it is rather an in-
evitable conclusion, that has been forced upon us by the
260 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
teachings of the microscope and the laboratory, than a theory
at all. This is known as the germ theory of disease, and it is
that the contagious or infectious diseases — or, in other
words, diseases that may be communicated from one person
to another — are caused by minute vegetable germs finding
lodgment in some of the tissues, or some of the cavities of
the body, and there growing or reproducing themselves.
For example, one kind of germ or germs fixing themselves
in the mouth or throat, and by their growth producing diph-
theria ; another kind finding their way to the lower part of
the bowels, and by their growth producing typhoid fever ;
another, entering the stomach and the upper part of the
intestinal canal, and by their growth producing cholera, etc.
Now, as I have said, it is with these contagious diseases
that sanitary science has to deal, and how to prevent these
diseases in our homes, and how we can best manage them to
protect our families, as well as the families of our neighbors,
is the subject that is to engage our attention this evening.
As every one acts more intelligently Avhen they know the
why and wherefore of a thing, — or, in other words, when
they know just what they are doing, and why they are doing
it, — I have thought best to try and explain to you, in a plain,
conversational wa}^ some of the experiments that have led
to the adoption of this germ theory of disease, believing
that even such a slight knowledge of this theory as can be
got in a single evening, and the researches that have led to
it, will not only add greatly to the interest of this occasion,
but it will enable 3^ou to act much more intelligently in the
way of protecting yourselves and families from these terrible
maladies. After a half hour spent in this direction, we shall
then consider how these contagious diseases may be com-
municated from one to another, how best to guard acrainst
them in our homes and elsewhere, and finally, how best to
protect our families and others when one of these diseases
has entered a household.
Every housewife is familiar with the fact that, in damp
places, and particulaj'ly in damp weather, many articles,
if left undisturbed for a few days, become covered with
a fino bluish mou'd. This is particularly liable to happen
to bread, cheese, vegetables, leather, and often to articles of
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 261
clothing and iuruiturc. Now, let us take a little of this
mould and place it under the microscope, when we shall see
what is pictured here on the screen. (Picture of one of the
common forms of mould shown.) This mould, like every
other form of vegetable life, grows from a germ or seed,
and to grow and develop so extensively in our houses and
elsewhere as we know it does, under proper conditions of
moisture and warmth, the germs or seed must first be sown.
Now, let us see if we can learn, by investigation, how these
germs of this little plant are so universally distributed.
As this plant, like all others, requires some form of mat-
ter to feed and grow upon, we will select for our experiment
a small piece of blackened leather, as everyone knows how
readily mould grows upon this material, — in fact, we can
hardly keep our shoes from becoming mouldy in damp, sum-
mer weather, if they arc put away for a day or two, — we
will take three small glass tubes, such as you see repre-
sented on the screen (illustration shown) , into each one we
will put a little water and also a small piece of the leather,
fixing the latter so that it will rest just above or on the
surface of the water. Into the mouths of two of the tubes
we will put plugs of cotton wool. Then we will place these
three tubes, with their contents, in an oven and heat them
until the temperature is at or near the boiling point. This
will destroy any kind of germ life that may bo in the water
or air in the tubes. Then we will put these tubes away in a
warm, damp place. In three or four days we examine them,
Avhen we find the piece of leather in the tube without the
cotton plug covered with a fine mould or mildew, while the
pieces of leather in the other tubes remain unchanged. We
will put them away for a few days more and then examine
them again, when we find a vigorous growth of mould in the
open tube, but none in the tubes with the cotton plugs.
Now, these tubes were all prepared alike, and they have
been under the same influence of warmth, moisture and air,
— for the air passes into the tubes through the meshes of the
cotton almost as readily as it would if they were removed, —
still, there has been no growth in the tubes with the cotton
plugs. Now, we will remove the plug of cotton from one of
these tubes, and allow it to remain open for an hour or two,
262 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
and then replace it, and in a few days examine the tubes
again, when we find a growth of mould in the tube from
which we removed the cotton and allowed it to remain open
for an hour, but there is no growth in the tube in which the
cotton has not been disturbed. Experiments like this have
been repeated over and over again, and always with the
same result. What is the explanation of the fact that the
mould grows in the unplugged tube, and also in the one
from which we removed the cotton for a short time and then
replaced it, and not in the other? Simply this : The air, in
getting into the latter tul^e, must pass through the fine
meshes of the cotton, and in doing so it is throughly filtered ;
every particle of dust and every germ is caught and retained
by the fine fibres of the cotton plug, and only pure air is
admitted to the tubes with these cotton plugs ; while in the
other, the air — carrying many particles of matter, among
them the germs of this mould plant — entered without filter-
ing, and these germs being so carried and falling upon the
piece of moist leather at once begin to grow ; and in the
tube from which we removed the cotton for a short time,
no growth appeared so long as the cotton remained undis-
turbed, because no germs could get into it, as they were
arrested by the meshes of the cotton, and we had destroyed
by heating any that may have been in the tube when we
commenced the experiment ; but, when we removed for a
short time the cotton, we allowed the impure air to enter
the tube, carrying the seeds of our plant, and so in a few
days we find it growing as in the open tube. As I have
already said, such experiments as this have been repeated
over and over again, and with uniform results, until it is a
fact as well established as any in science, that this mould, as
well as all other low forms of vegetable life, do not grow
spontaneously, — if they grew spontaneously we should
have found a growth of mould in the tube in which the cot-
ton plug remained as well as in the others in our experi-
ments, — but that their seeds or germs are carried from
place to place by the air, and when falling on a proper soil,
and under proper conditions for their development, they
grow and multiply.
Now, another example of germs being distributed through
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 263
the medium of the air. Everyone knows that when cider is
first made that it is sweet, but that soon after it begins to
work, as it is called, and in a little while it becomes sour.
This process of working goes on not only in apple juice, but
in the juices of all other fruits after they have been expressed
and left to themselves, as well as in many artificial mixtures,
and it is called fernaentation. Let us take a drop of one of
these fermenting liquids and place it under the microscope.
Here we have the picture presented by such a preparation.
(Yeast plant shown.) These oval bodies, some of them
sinsrle while others are linked together, some havino; knobs
or buds on them, are specimens of the yeast plant. This
plant is always present where fermentation is going on, for
it is the growth of this that causes the fermentation, and
without its presence and growth the cider and all other
fruit juices would remain sweet. Everyone knows how
very difficult it is to prevent this process of fermentation in
these liquids. The reason of this is, that the germs of this
little plant, like those of the mould, are so generally in the
air and are so universally distributed by it, that some of
them are sure to find their way into these liquids, as well as
elsewhere, and as these fruit juices afford the proper soil for
their growth they multiply with great rapidity. That the
germs of this yeast plant are carried from place to place
through the medium of the air we might readily prove by
experiment, had we the time.
One other example of germs floating in the air and then
we will pass to something else. If we take a piece of meat,
and put it in a fairly warm place, it soon begins to undergo
a marked change. It becomes darker in color, ofiensive to
the sense of smell, grows soft, and if left undisturbed it is
reduced in time to a liquid mass, dries up, is reduced to dust
and disappears. Let us take a drop of the juice of this meat
after this process of decomposition is well under way and
examine it under the microscope, and we shall have such
a picture as is shown here. (Photograph shown.) Count-
less millions in a single drop of these minute bodies rep-
resented in this photograph of them, moving and dodging
about in ceaseless, tireless motion. These minute bodies
represent another form of vegetable life much smaller and
264 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
of simpler organization than the mould or yeast plant we
have described before. In fact, they are so very, very
minute they require the very best microscope that can be
made to study them at all. They are so small that 200,000,-
000 of them could move about (with a little crowding) in
a square inch surface. Let us see if we can determine
where these minute bodies came from. We will take the
three glass tubes again, and into them put a little water, and
also into each a small piece of meat. (Illustration.) Into
the mouths of two of the tubes we will put the cotton plugs,
and place all three in a hot oven until we have destroyed
any kind of life 'that may be in the tubes, and then set them
away in a warm room,
In a few days we examine them, when we find the meat in
the open tube has commenced to undergo a change. AVe put
a little of it under the microscope, when we see millions of
those minute bodies in active motion, while the meat in the
other tubes has remained unchanged, Xow we will remove
the cotton plug from one of the tubes for a single moment,
and then replace it, and in a few days we find the meat in
this tube decomposing, for when we removed the cotton we
allowed some of the unfiltered air to enter the tube, carr3'ing
with it some of the germs of this fonu of life we have just
seen on the screen ; frilling upon the meat they at once begin
to groAv, reproducing themselves with astonishing rapidity.
These little bodies are called bacteria. As we have seen
that the growth of the 3'east plant is the cause of fermenta-
tion, and that it grows in solutions containing sugar, decom-
posing the sugar by taking away certain of its chemical consti-
tuents required for its growth, and producing among other
products, alcohol, so these l)actcria, growing in animal and
vcgetal)le sul)stances, bring about by such growth their
decomposition, and were it not for this minute form of
vegetable life there would be no such thing as decomposi-
tion after death, except by the slow process of chemical
changes,' which would require ages to bring about the de-
struction of the bodies of even the smallest animals.
You w^ill begin to ask, I presume, " What has all this to
do with contagious diseases and the protection of our liomes
from their ravages?" That I am about to try and tell you,.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 265
and I hope that I have not tried the patience of the audience
too much in considering matters that perhaps may seem
unconnected with the subject before us. But, as I have
already said, everyone acts so much more intelligently when
the}' understand why they are doing a thing, I have
thought it best to risk the trying of your patience with the
matters that have so far eniragcd our attention, the bearina:
of which I am sure you will see later. There are many
different forms of this minute vegetable life, the bacteria,
notwithstanding they are so very small and simple in struc-
ture ; they grow, many of them, under different circumstances
and conditions ; they differ in size and shape, so that by
studying their different life histories the expert is readily
able to recognize and classify them. Xow, it is the gi'owth
of some of these germs, the bacteria, in some part of the
human body that produces the contagious diseases ; one kind
of germs fixing themselves in the throat or nostrils and by
their development producing diphtheria, another kind find-
ing their way into the intestinal canal and by their gi'owth
producing typhoid fever, another scarlet fever, another
cholera, etc.
That these bacteria are the real factors in the causino^ of
contagious disease is believed by nearly all who are familiar
with the teachings of sanitary science. As has already i)een
said, this conclusion has not been drawn from theorj^ and
guesswork, but it has been the result of careful, patient
work and study in the chemical laboratory and the workshop
of the microscopist. These careful and exact observations
and experiments have been carried on, not by a single ob-
server, but by investigators in all countries, and all have
arrived at the same general conclusion. In fact, the trutli
that these bacteria, developing in' some part of the human
body, produce disease has been proven over and over again
by exact and painstaking experiments.
Many of these experiments are ingenious and interesting,
but we have only time to briefly allude to some of them,
and to show on the screen some of the different forms of
bacteria that are believed to cause by their growth in some
part of the human body the different forms of contagious
diseases, as we must pass on to the important part of our
266 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
subject, namely, how to protect ourselves from these potent
enemies.
Among the many diseases men and animals are subject to
there is one known as anthrax, one of the most terrible and
rapidly fiital of diseases. For example, a little pimple
appears on some part of the face or neck, caused by the
bill of an insect that has been feeding on the body of an
animal dead of the disease ; in a very short time it begins
to swell and becomes painful ; in a few hours the vicinity of
this pimple becomes hard and of a bluish black color and
perhaps the whole head and neck are swollen, blackish spots
appear on other parts of the body, the pulse becomes quick and
feeble, the breathing labored, the vital powers fail rapidly
and at the end of forty-eight or sixty hours death closes
the scene. It was known more than thirty years ago that
the blood of one suffering from this disease was filled with
these minute bodies, such as you see upon the screen (pho-
tograph shown) ; but it was supposed that these were rather
the result of the disease than the cause of it, until a few
years ago an observer introduced some of these germs from
a body dead of this disease into the body of a healthy
animal, and in a few hours this animal sickened and died of
this disease. This experiment was tried a great many times
and always with the same result. "While such experiments
indicated perhaps that these bacteria were the cause of the
disease, they by no means proved it, for, in taking some of
these germs from the blood of a body dead of the disease
with which to inoculate the animal, some of the blood itself
must have been taken, and that, or some other poison it
might contain, may have produced the disease in the animals
experimented upon.
Later a great discovery was made, and one that has
enabled us to solve the question of the relations of these bac-
teria to contagious disease ; that discovery was, that these
germs could be cultivated and grow outside the body, some
requiring one set of conditions, and some another, for their
development. For example, nearly all of them will grow
in solutions of meat juice, others will only grow in blood
serum, while still others require vegetable substances for
their development.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 267
One of the first of these disease-producing germs to be
experimented with was the one we see here. (Photograph
of bacillus anthrax.) A little beef tea, or other meat solu-
tion properly prepared, was put in one of the little glass
tubes, boiled, to destroy any form of life it might contain,
and then some of these germs from a case of this disease were
introduced by means of a fine wire into the meat juice, and
the cotton plug placed in the mouth of the tube to prevent
the ingress of any other germs. After a few days the meat
juice in the tube was found swarming with these deadly
bacteria. Then the experiment was carried a step further
by taking some of the germs from this meat juice and intro-
ducing them into another tube containing meat juice, pre-
pared in the same manner that the first tube was, and in a
few days this was found swarming with the same form of
bacteria. Then some of this second generation was intro-
duced into another tube, and so on, until these germs were
removed some six or seven or more generations from the
original germs taken from the diseased person or animal.
Then some of these, by means of a proper instrument, were
thrown under the skin of a healthy animal, when it was
found these cultivated germs were as potent to produce the
disease as were the original ones taken directly from the
body of the person or animal suffering or dead with the dis-
ease. These experiments were repeated and always with the
same result.
A few years ago Dr. Koch, a German physician, whose
name has since become famous, commenced the study of these
bacteria and their relation to disease, and one of the first
diseases he studied was the one so common all over the
world, — consumption.
By a careful examination of the matter expectorated by
patients suffering from this disease, by means of the best
microscopes, — and I might say here it is only by the great
improvement in microscopic lenses that has been made in
the last few years that we are enabled to study these minute
bodies with any degree of accuracy at all, — this observer
found these expectorations from the lungs filled with the bac-
teria or germs seen here on the screen. (Photograph of
bacillus tuberculosis.) These are very minute, and appear
268 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
like short blunted rods. It was found by further experi-
ment that these germs could also be cultivated, in a proper
medium, outside of the animal body, and that after carrying
them through a number of generations, in a way similar to
the one used to reproduce the bacteria of anthrax, that we
have just described, they were still as potent to produce
consumption, when injected into the bodies of rabbits, as those
taken directly from the body of the person or animal suffering
with the disease. It was also demonstrated that these culti-
vated germs could 1)c communicated to animals through the
medium of the air by the following experiment. After con-
fining a numlier of animals in a convenient room, it was
arrans^ed so that all of the air these animals breathed must
first pass over material filled with these germs. In a few
weeks all of these animals sickened and died, while other
animals confined and fed in the same way, except that they
were supplied with uncontaminated air, remained healthy.
Now, experiments like those just described, and sipiilar
ones, have been made, — not only in the study of anthrax and
consumption, but also in the study of nearly, if not all, of
the contagious diseases, such as cholera, typhoid fever, the
pleuro-pneumonia of cattle, the swine plague, etc., — not
by a single observer, but by Pasteur, Koch, Sternberg,
and hundreds of others, who have either carried on original
experiments, or else have imitated those of these three great
masters I have named, and all have come to the same general
conclusion, namely, that the contagious diseases are pro-
duced by a minute form of vegetable life, called bacteria,
finding lodgment in some part of the human body, and there
reproducing themselves, or in other words, growing, — dif-
ferent species of these bacteria [)roducing difi'erent forms of
contagious diseases. Further, thtit contagious diseases are
communicated from the sick to the well by the germs
causing the disease being conveyed' in one way or another
from the sick to the well, eacli person infected and develop-
ing the disease making a new focus or starting point from
which it may be communicated to others.
I will now show you upon the screen a few of the difi'erent
species of these disease-producing bacteria that have been
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 269
thoroughly identified and studied, Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
13 and 14. (Photographs of different forms of bacteria.)
How may these disease-producing germs be conveyed
from the sick to the well, or in other words, how may a
person sick with a contagious disease communicate such
disease to another. Take for example, diphtheria, and I
select this disease because it is one with which we arc all
more or less familiar. How may a child sick with diphthe-
ria give it to other children ? I say children because we all
know they arc much more liable to this disease than adults,
although the latter do have it. In this disease the germs
producing it, as I have already said, fix themselves usually
in the throat or nostrils, and there reproduce themselves.
Because the seat of the disease is in the throat or nostrils,
the secretions that come from the parts are tlie most danger-
ous, for they are swarming with the germs of the disease.
In a child suffering with diphtheria these secretions are
generally very profuse, and in spite of the greatest care
some of them will fall on the dress of the attendant, the
bedding, the floor and the furniture, and where no care is
used, as is often the case in the homes where the disease is
the most rife, these articles soon become covered with these
secretions, every drop of which contains millions upon mil-
lions of these disease-producing germs.
These secretions are soon dried in the warm room, and by
the handling of the bedding and furniture, and the move-
ments about the room, thoy are worked up into a fine dust
that readily floats about in the air. Therefore, contact or
approximate contact as you would suppose between the sick
and the well, oflers the greatest danger of infection, so con-
tact with the clothing of the patient or attendant that has
been worn in the sick room is of the greatest danger.
Another very great danger of conveying these contagious
diseases is by means of the knives, forks, spoons and dishes
that have been used in the sick room. So the towels, cloths,
etc., that have been in the sick chamber, whether they have
been used or not, may be a fruitful source of contagion.
AVe saw in the early part of the evening how readily these
minute forms of life float about in the air, and diphtheria
may be conveyed from one person to another in this way,
270 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
although practical experience teaches us that the danger
from this source is not very great.
I have selected diphtheria to illustrate the dangers of con-
tagions simply because it is so common and well-known ;
but what I have said of it is true of scarlet fever, measles,
small-pox, whooping-cough, cholera, etc., so far as danger
of contagion is concerned, although there is a difference
in degree of the contagion of some of them ; for in-
stance, whooping-cough and measles appear to be carried
from one to another through the medium of the air much
more readily than some of the others.
There is another broad highway from the sick to the well
through which contagious disease may travel, and one that
has the most important bearing on all sanitary work, — in fact
it is the chief corner-stone of sanitary science, — and that is
by means of filth and decomposing animal and vegetable
matter. We have repeatedly referred to the fact that these
little germs are transported from place to place through the
air. We have also learned that many of these disease-produc-
ing germs grow outside the body, that they require for their
growth a certain degree of warmth, moisture and some kind
of vegetable or animal matter. Now, suppose that near one
of your houses there is a pool of dirty, stagnant water in
which there is decomposing grass and other vegetable and
perhaps animal matter. Here are all the conditions for the
growth of some of these germs, and such a pool would
make an admirable garden for their cultivation ; or, suppose
a waste-pipe or spout from the sink is discharging its filthy
water directly on the ground at the side or back of the
house (and there are many such in the county districts
and small villages), and there creating a little pool, and
running from this there is a small stream extending perhaps
a number of rods. Such a pool and stream of dirty slop
water is another and a most excellent place for the growth
of these germs, the sowing of the seed being the only
necessity to ensure their development. And how readily
this may be done. For, suppose a neighbor a half mile or
more away has been unfortunate enough to have a case of
one of these contagious diseases in his house, and after re-
covery the housewife thinks it necessary to clean the room
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 271
where the person has been sick. She takes the carpets,
mats, bed-clothing, etc., covered as they must be with these
disease germs, and hangs them upon a line or perhaps throws
them upon the grass. The winds of heaven blowing over
and through these articles catch up some of these germs,
— and I repeat, we have seen how readily these microscopic
bodies are transported by the air — and carry them hither
and thither we know not where ; but at last some of them
find their way into the stagnant pool, or the sink-water at
the side of the house, and thus all of the conditions neces-
sary for the growth of these disease-producing germs are
completed ; and so we have a new focus for the spread of
contagious disease. The children playing about the stagnant
pool may become infected with the germs of disease there,
or perhaps some of these germs have been sucked up the
sink-pipe or spout from the pool of sink-water, where they
find lodgment in some decomposing animal or vegetable
matter that has been caught in the joints or other irregulari-
ties of the pipe, or the sink itself, and from such a place
they may readily find their way to the dishes used on the
table, and so to the members of the household. I have no
hesitation in saying that I believe that offensive smelling,
untrapped sink-pipes have been one of the most common
causes of the spread of diphtheria, and that often cases of
other contagious diseases can be traced to this source.
So these diseases may be communicated by means of
defective and improperly constructed sewer and house-
drains. This danger applies particularly to cities and towns
having sewers. For example, there is an odor of sewer-gas
that comes from a defective drain-pipe, or untrapped sink or
other connection. Now the danger under such circum-
stances, of contracting contagious diseases, is, not from the
sewer-gas itself, although this may produce headache,
nausea and vomiting, and a general depression of the vital
powers that probably renders one more liable to take such
diseases, and if the exposure to these offensive gases is long
continued, the result to health may be serious, but the real
danger from contagion is the presence of sewer-gas in a
house. It is a positive evidence that the inmates of such a
house are in direct communication with the interior of the
272 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE
sewer or drain-pipes where these disease-causing germs may
abound, and that may be readily carried up with the sewer-
gas directly into the house, and so find ready access to its
inmates.
There is another means by which contagion may be com-
municated from one to others, and that is through the
m.edium of a water or food supply. This danger seems
greater in cases of typhoid fever than in any of the other
diseases we are considerinsf that are common to New Eng-
land. In typhoid fever the disease is in the lower part of
the bowels, and is an ulceration of some of the small glands
that are situated there, and for this reason excretions from
the bowels are the great source of danger in this disease.
How water and food supplies may become contaminated,
and be the means of most serious attacks of this disease is
well illustrated by the following well authenticated cases.
Dr. Budd in his work on typhoid fever, relates the follow^
iug. In one of the public houses of one of the country
villages in England, there was held a ball, attended by one
hundred and forty people, many of them coming from the
adjoining counties and fi'om ditferent directions. During
the evening many of the party partook freely of lemonade,
and other light drinks prepared with water drawn from a
well, the water supply of the house where the ball was held.
AVithin the next ten or fifteen days, over eighty of these
people were attacked with typhoid fever. Such an outbreak
of course caused great excitement, and an investigation was
had but with no satisfactory results. Later, Dr. Budd visited
the house for the purpose of investigation himself, when he
found that a short time before the ball there had been a
case of typhoid fever in this very inn, and that the excre-
tions of the bowels had been thrown in a vault a few feet
away from the well, supplying the water for the cool drinks
used by the people attending the ball. Further examination
showed that the water was contaminated with sewaire. The
connection between this contaminated well and this epidemic
seemed to be clear and conclusive.
Four or five years ago there was reported in the daily
papers in New York, Boston and other cities, the outbreak
of a terrible pestilence in one of the larger towns of Pennsyl-
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 273
vania of eight or nine thousand inhabitants. A physician
was sent from Philadelphia to investigate the cause of these
reports. This physician found by post-mortem examina-
tions that the disease in question was typhoid fever. He
also found that this town obtained its water supply from two
sources. One, a public supply furnished by a small moun-
tain stream, the water being stored in basins and carried to
the consumers in the usual way by under-ground pipes, the
other, from individual wells. The epidemic was confined
almost wholly to the people using this public water supply.
Continuing his inquiries, this physician found that a part of
the 3^ear this mountain stream did not supply a sufficient
quantity of water for the part of the town using it, and at
such times it was pumped directly from the Susquehanna
River into the water mains. Up to the 30th day of March,
and some time before, the public water supply was from this
source, but on that day the water was let on from one of the
basins supplied by the mountain stream. On the 9th of
April, or ten days after, the first case of typhoid fever
occurred. On the 10th, two or three more, and from that
time they increased with such frightful rapidity that in a
few days over 900 cases were reported, and subsequently
over 100 deaths occurred. Further investigation revealed
the fact that some time before this outbreak there had
been a case of typhoid fever in a house near this mountain
stream, supplying water to the stricken part of the town,
and that the stools from this patient had been thrown on the
snow near the bank of this stream, and in a sudden freshet
caused by the melting of the snow and rain, these excre-
tions from the bowels, loaded with the germs of the disease,
had been swept into the current and carried to the basin
below, causing the terrible results we have seen, and the
reports to which I have alluded, that some new and fatal
pestilence had appeared.
Another case is reported where a water supply was the
cause of an outbreak of typhoid fever, A little English
village of about 800 people was supplied with water from a
small stream running through the town. Although this
stream was known to be polluted with sewage, and had been
for years, no cases of this fever occurred until a case was
274 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
brought there from a neighboring village. The excreta
from this patient was washed into this stream, and between
the months of June and October over seventy-five cases
occurred, and the experience here was that those who were
supplied with water from a source other than the polluted
stream escaped. I relate this case to show that pollution of
a water supply alone cannot cause this or other contagious
disease, but that something else must be added, and that
something else is the disease germ
Outbreaks of this disease have been traced to milk sup-
plies. A few years ago there occurred in a certain district
of the city of London an experience of this kind in Avhich
nearly three hundred cases of typhoid fever occurred. On
investigation it was discovered that nearly all of the people
sick with this disease were taking milk from the same milk-
man. This milk was traced back to the form where it was
produced, when it was learned that there had been a fatal
case of typhoid fever in that farm-house a few weeks before
this outbreak in the city, and that the excretions from the
bowels had been thrown into a vault that was located thirty
feet from the well, from which the water was procured to
wash the milk cans. This well was found foul with the
leakings from this vault.
We had an experience much like this in Cambridge only
last year. In the last half of November the cases of typhoid
reported to the Board of Health began suddenly to increase,
and in the next four weeks eighty cases above the usual
number occurring in the corresponding time of previous
years were reported. Inquiry was made as to the cause of
this sudden and alarming increase in the number of cases
of this disease, when we found that seventy-four of these
cases were in families taking milk from one milkman, and
further, that the persons attacked were mostly those who
were in the habit of drinking more or less milk daily. As
this milk came from a town in New Hampshire, the State
Board of Health were informed of the facts, and one of
their officers was sent there to make further inquiry. This
officer learned that the milk supplied to this milkman was
raised on three or four different farms, and that on one of
them a mild case of typhoid fever had occurred a few weeks
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 275
before, and the excreta from this person had been thrown
into a vault about twenty feet from the well used as a water
supply for the house.
Many other cases might be related where communities
have suffered from an epidemic of this disease caused by the
infection of a water or food supply had we the time, but I
am sure those already cited are sufficient to show the danger
from this source. There can be no question that very many
cases of these contagious diseases have been caused, par-
ticularly in the country, by the direct pollution of wells
from existing cases of these diseases, either from the germs
finding their way into them through some underground water
passage, or in some other way. The more impure our water
supplies the greater the danger from these disease-producing
bacteria, for, as we have already seen, they must have some
form of organic matter for their support and growth, and
they cannot live for any length of time in pure water.
How can we best protect ourselves against these conta-
gious diseases? First of all, avoid all unnecessary contact
with those sick with any of these diseases. See that there
is no festering pool of stagnant water near your dwellings,
and particularly see that there is no filthy sink-drain dis-
charging its contents directly under your windows. Replace
such a dangerous fixture with a tight metal pipe, with a
good trap immediately under the sink connection, and con-
duct the water from this by a proper drain some distance
from the house, or into the public sewer if you are living
where there is such a thing. See that there is no rotting
wood or decaying vegetables in your cellars, and that the
cellar bottom is dry and its walls are neatly whitewashed.
Any and all of these precautions require but a brief expense
of either time or money, and they may be the means of
saving your children from sickness and perhaps death. In
houses having bath-rooms and closets, all of the piping
should be of iron with leaded joints. While clay pipes with
cemented joints may with great care be kept tight, still
they are never safe, and the inmates of a house with such
a drain are living over a volcano that sooner or later is
pretty sure to break forth and do its deadly work. If there
is an odor of sewer gas in your house, don't rest until you
276 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
find the cause of it and have it remedied. The plumbing of
every new house should be planned and constructed with
the greatest care ; there should be as little piping as possible ;
it should all be on one line, laid with a good and regular
pitch, exposed to view as much as possible, and where
boxed in, it should be done with screws so that the pipe
can at any time be examined. The soil pipe should extend
through the roof and should be of suflBcient size to prevent
clogging by snow or ice, all connections should be trapped
and in such a way as to ensure the prevention of the escape
of sewer gas. Every water-closet should have a good flush
so arranged that the water will reach every part of the bowl
liable to be .soiled. Such a system of drainage is not ex-
pensive out of proportion to the cost of other parts of the
house, neither does it require the highest kind of mechanical
ingenuity and training to construct it, and any plumber of
fair experience with an average amount of skill ought to be
able to plan and construct a house drain that will in every
way comply with the demands of sanitary science. I do
not mean by this statement to underrate in the least the great
good that has resulted from the application of the highest
skill and ability to some of the sanitary problems that have
presented themselves in the past in relation to house drain-
age, nor do I desire in any way to detract from the well-
earned reputation of some of our sanitary plumbers. I only
wish to protest against the idea that now these problems are
solved, that it still requires the same great ability to do good
sanitary plumbing. I refer more particularly to houses of
moderate cost, of from two thousand to six or seven thousand
dollars. Houses of higher cost are usually planned by pro-
fessional architects who provide for the drainage.
For the protection of our public water supplies we must
rely upon the State and municipal authorities ; still, every
householder living near a stream or pond used for such a
purpose should, as a public duty, see that such water is not
in any way, even to the smallest degree, polluted by any
act of his either by carelessness or otherwise. We have
seen what terrible results have followed the pollution and
infection of public water supplies by excreta from persons
suffering from typhoid fever, and every precaution should
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 277
be taken to prevent such pollution, not only in cases of this
disease, but in all others. Physicians attending cases of
contagious disease near our public water supplies should
especially instruct those having the care of the sick in this
matter.
How can we best protect our families and others when a
case of contagious disease occurs in one of our homes? We
have seen that the real source from which these diseases
emanate is the bodies of those suffering from them ; that in
the bodies of such persons, these germs of disease are being-
multiplied in enormous numbers and that through the secre-
tions they are constantly being thrown off, contaminating
everything in the immediate vicinity; therefore, the first
and most important step in the way of protecting others is,
to place the patient in such surroundings as to exclude con-
tact with others, except so far as is necessary for proper
care. In other words, isolation is of the first importance.
This isolation of the infected person should be as complete
as possible, for no half-way measures will insure protection
to the other members of the family. In fact, I might say
generally, that half-way or imperfect sanitary precautions
are always dangerous, and often may prove worse than no
precautions at all, for they lull us into a feeling of security
that does not exist and so lead us to neglect precautions that
we should otherwise take.
The patient should of course be placed in a room by him-
self, and kept there until all danger of his communicating
the disease has passed. When possible, an adjoining room
should be set apart in which the nurse and attendants may
change their clothing before visiting other parts of the house.
The sick room, after the removal of all unnecessary articles,
should be supplied with two or more wash-basins, a large
slop jar, a generous supply of small cloths, and a large
bottle or jug containing a solution for disinfection. This
disinfecting solution is an all-important matter in preventing
the spread of contagious disease, for on its potency to
destroy all forms of germ life depends the safety of the
household, the safety of the community. This solution
should always be prepared under the directions of the physi-
cian. I beg of you to remember this, never to rely on the
278 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
patent mixtures that are hawked about the country, and
with which every drug-store, and some of the groceries are
filled under the name of germicides, deoderizers, etc., no
matter what miracles their proprietors may claim they have
accomplished ; for, in caring for one of these contagious
diseases, you are dealing with the most important and
weighty concerns of the community, for upon you they
must rely for protection against this common enemy, and
the principal weapon with which you are to defend them is
this disinfecting solution. Let me say to you again, be
sure of its potency before you rely upon it. The best disin-
fectant where solutions can be used, is the bi-chloride of
mercury, one part to a thousand of water. You may say
this is a deadly poison and its use is dangerous, but all dis-
infections are poisonous, and so are the germs with which
we arc dealing, and where the chemical has destroyed one
life, contagious disoaso has destroj^ed millions. This l)ottle
of disinfecting fluid should be plainly marked.
All of the soiled linen or clothing that is to be washed
should be kept by itself. It should be thoroughly soaked in
the disinfecting fluid, or else placed in a kettle and thor-
oughly boiled before any other than the nurse is allowed to
handle them. All of the dishes, knives, spoons, etc., used
by the patient should be scalded in boiling water, or else
washed with the disinfecting solution before, or as soon as
they leave the room. No pieces of food should ever be
carried from the sick room, they should at once be burned.
In cases of diphtheria we have seen the great source of
danger is from the secretions of the mouth and throat. These
should receive especial attention. They should be received on
small pieces of old cloth, and these should be burned, or if
a spit-cup is used it should contain a quantity of the disin-
fectant, more of which should be added from time to time.
In cases of typhoid fever, as the great danger is from the
excretions from the bowels, these should be carefully disin-
fected before they arc carried from the nick chamber. The
nurse or attendant before visiting other parts of the house,
should wash her hands in the disinfecting fluid, step outside
the door of the sick-room, exchange her wrapper for another
and remove her cap.
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 279
When a patient has recovered from one of these contagious
diseases, before he is allowed to leave the sick-room, he
should be thoroughly bathed, and then dressed in an adjoin-
ing room if possible. All of the clothing, bed-linen, etc.,
that has been used about the patient, should be thoroughly
boiled. Articles that cannot be so treated should be hung
about the room, and the room, after being made as tight
as possible by stuffing the cracks of the windows and doors
with sheet wadding, should be fumigated. This should be
done by burning at least two pounds of sulphur to every
thousand cubic feet of space. For instance, a room twelve
feet square and ten feet high would require nearly three
pounds. It is far better to use a little more than is required
than not quite enough. This fumigation is easily done by
using an old iron kettle, coal-hod or any other convenient
receptacle that will stand fire. The bottom of this should
be covered two or three inches deep with earth or ashes, and
on this the sulphur is placed. This can be readily lighted by
a cloth or piece of paper saturated with kerosene. This
kettle or other receptacle should of course be so placed as to
preclude any danger from fire, and left to burn out. The
room should remain closed at least twelve hours. At the
end of this time, if the fumigation has been properly done,
all germ life w^ill be destroyed. It is also well to fumigate
the rooms adjoining the sick chamber ; at least the one
throuo-h which the communication with the household has
been had should be thoroughly fumigated. Such precau-
tions as these agaiuvst the spread of contagious diseases are
not difficult or expensive, they only require care and thought
on the part of nurses and attendants, although it is all im-
portant that those precautionary measures may be carried
out intelligently ; that they know something of the cause of
contagion, and wherein the greatest danger lies, and it is for
this reason that I have spent so much of the evening in
trying to explain the generally accepted theory of the con-
tagious or preventable diseases. One can hardly expect to
teach in a single evening, in anything like a clear and con-
nected way, the whole of this theory and what we know of
these diseases with which sanitary .science has to contend,
for the subject is altogether too long for that ; neither is it
280 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
essential to ensure the protection of yourselves and families
that you should all be sanitarians, but it is, I believe, very
necessary for you to know what is dangerous and what is
not, to know how these diseases are communicated from the
sick to the well, and above all, to know just what part filth
and bad drainage plays in propagating and spreading them.
Certainly you cannot know these things without some knowl-
edofe of the real cause of contagion. If these terrible mala-
dies that destroy the lives of such a large number of children
every year are ever to be eradicated, as I believe they may
be, it will be through the intelligent and hearty co-operation
of all the people, and such co-operation will only come
through the knowledge of the facts I have tried to explain
to-night ; for I repeat, it is only through such knowledge
that they will act intelligently.
We have boards of health in all of the cities and towns of
the Commonwealth who have been given great powers by
the Legislature, such as are given to no other board or
department of the government, for the purpose of preveut-
ino; and controllinG: contasrious diseases. But that is not all
that is necessary to protect the people in this direction, — no
matter how able and energetic such boards may be, or how
arbitrary their powers, for if they are to be successful in their
efibrts, they must have the hearty and intelligent co-opera-
tion of all the people, and more can be done to destroy and
prevent contagion by the individual efibrts of those having
immediate charge of patients sick with these diseases by
careful and considerate work, than any or all of these boards
with their great powers. Yes, if sanitary reform is to come
at all, it must, like all other reforms, come through the
active, energetic and intelligent action of the people them-
selves, and if I have said anything to-night that has given
you a better understanding of these contagious diseases, and
that will lead even one of you to a more careful considera-
tion of the safety of your families and neighbors from these
diseases, I shall feel that I have done something for my
fellow-men, something for my State, and that I have added
something to the sum total of human happiness.
Adjourned to Thursday, December 8.
MILK FARMING. 281
TfflRD DAY.
The last session of the meeting was held on Thursday
morning, beginning at 9.30, Mr. Brooks in the chair.
The Chaieman. We are to have this morning, for our
opening lecture, a paper on milk farming by a gentleman
who keeps a large dairy and furnishes milk to the city of
Holyoke and to the village of South Hadley Falls, making
it his business — Mr. Newton Smith of South Hadley
Falls.
MILK FARMING.
BY NEWTON SMITH OF SOUTH HADLEY FALLS.
Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen of the Board of Agricul-
ture: — I am very far from coming before you as a volun-
teer. I appear rather as a drafted man ; inasmuch as it is
at the unexpected and urgent solicitation of our worthy
Secretary that I have written a short article. Those who
remember our Civil War will recall the fact that the drafted
man was either obliged to pay his commutation, furnish a
substitute, or go himself. I cannot get excused by paying
commutation, the Secretary will not accept a substitute, and
there seems no way but for me to do my best, leaving you
and the Secretary to sufier the consequences.
Milk is one of the prime necessities of life. While the
luxuries of life are generally costly, its necessaries are often
otherwise. No doubt the milk producer would sometimes
reverse the order of things to his own good fortune and to
the misfortune of the consumer. I imagine that if our milk
would always command a generous price most milk farm-
ers would consider themselves equal to its production with-
out further discussion of the subject. But milk does not
command a generous price. It would seem, then, that a
part, at least, of the task in hand is to ascertain, if pos-
sible, how, in the present condition of things, we can make
milk producing profitable ; or, in other words, to show how
282 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
to be successful in milk farming. Very likely some of you
would like to find a way to make it easy also. I assure you
that the former is all I care to undertake. But if there are
any persons present who think they can show us an easy way
to run a milk farm we shall be glad to listen.
The world calls the man successful who amasses wealth.
While some through the "illusions of hope" may be san-
guine enough to expect to become millionaires, most of us
have had the experience of hope deferred so long that we
do not expect to be over-burdened with this world's goods.
Still, it is well for us to cling to the desire for success, for
only by stimulating our ambition can we accomplish sufficient
to enable us to claim a position among those who have served
their day and generation. We, as farmers, ought to at least
be able to leave to our successors a farm free from incum-
brance and provided with all the equipments essential for
its successful cultivation, with buildings in good repair, the
dwelling furnished with all that can make home pleasant,
a barn filled with thrifty stock, and fields so fertile that they
will be a fountain of income to those who may come after
us, and will attest to the success of him who went before.
We need not ask the advice of our relatives about the pro-
priety of leaving an investment, larger or smaller, in the
bank.
Within the memory of many of us the agriculture of New
England has greatly changed. The ready means of trans-
portation from remote sections have brought the crops of
the fertile West into competition with our products, reduc-
ing the prices of many of our crops below the cost of
production. But, with the growth of our manufacturing
interests, milk, fruit and vegetables have assumed a nmch
greater prominence. We find farmers successfully making
a specialty of the production of each of these, or producing
all of them on the same farm, if the soil and location are
favorable. The demands of an accessible market will influ-
ence a far-sighted farmer to the choice of crops to raise.
But we have to consider successful milk production. A
very successful farmer has declared that the maintenance of
an ever increasing fertility of the soil is essential to success-
ful agriculture.
MILK FARMING. 283
If this be true of farming in general it must be of prime
importance to the milk producer. We should never content
ourselves with cutting one ton of hay or hai'vesting twenty
bushels of corn per acre, but rather endeavor to make our
acres produce three to five tons of hay, fifty to seventy-five
bushels of corn each, and other crops in proportion.
Such an accomplishment would give the ambitious farmer
much pleasure, as well as most surely enlarge the margin of
profit. When we can gather as much from fifty acres as we
formerly did from one hundred we may safely dispose of one
half our land. This would enable us to reduce our debts
and give us a working capital, or we might invest the pro-
ceeds for a rainy day. If we desire to enlarge our farms
instead of selling our land we might enlarge our barns,
increase our stock, and add to our income by the sale of
coarse or over-ripe hay, replacing it with bran purchased of
the dealer, for bran is a much better milk-producing food.
It may seem to many a visionary or impracticable plan to
dispose of part of the farm, but it still remains a pertinent
question whether, under the changed condition of things, the
farms of the State are not generally too large. If we are to
double our crops we should learn how to fertilize them.
First, we should save all our stable manure, liquid as well as
solid. It may be necessary to cement the cellar bottom to
accomplish this, or perhaps it may be done by the use of
absorbents. Dry horse manure is excellent for use as an
absorbent in the cow stable. If it can be procured at a
reasonable price, it is one of tUe best fertilizing materials in
which the farmer can invest money. The solid and liquid
excrement of the cows mixed with horse manure makes a
better fertilizer than either would be alone. We may safely
invest in good wood ashes, also in ground bone and potash,
as they are particularly adapted to the production of grass.
There may be prepared fertilizers that are equally as good,
but so far my experience has not been as favorable to them
as I could wish. I have some reason to believe that thus
far they have brought more farmers into debt than they have
helped out. It is a familiar saying that " out of nothing
comes nothing." But when I have seen farmers applying
three or four hundred pounds of some highly advertised
284 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
fertilizer to the acre, 1 have thought their rendering of it
must be " out of nothing comes something." We often read
testimonials which say that " in such a year I plowed up an
old pasture that produced no grass, and by applying a few
hundred pounds of such and such a fertilizer I harvested so
many bushels of corn or potatoes." No doubt the statement
was correct, but I think the fine crop was due to the years
of rest that the old pasture had enjoyed, and improved in
accumulating plant food, which, with a little stimulating
influence from the fertilizer, caused the grand success.
Were I to recommend the use of prepared fertilizers I would
say use a generous quantity. Give them a fair show. '
Carefully observe the result. If permanent benefit be the
result I would continue their use. If the contrary, then I
would be very cautious about future investments in that line.
The proper method of applying stable manure is more easily
ascertained than the way to obtain a sufficient supply at a
pi'ice that we can afford. We have plowed it in and wheel
harrowed it in both on sod and on old land. The results in
each case have been equally satisfactory. We have top-
dressed mowings, not run-out, with good results, while we
have felt that our manure was thrown away when applied to
mowings that were run-out. We think plowing, cultivating
hoed crops, and re-seeding to be the part of true economy
for such fields.
Success in milk production depends largely upon the class
of cows kept. We may find desirable animals in almost any
breed. As a rule the Durham, Dutch, and the Ayrshire are
preferable. We have been most successful with medium
sized cows. I have no doubt that large cows do 1)ettGr in
small herds. Some of the best cows we ever owned were
Ayrshire grades. It is not generally believed to be economy
for the milk farmer to raise his own cows, but some of the
best cows we find among our milkmen were raised by them,
though at the expense of considerable extra tiouble. Those
who have bought many cows know that a large percentage
are undesirable and are sold because their owners desired to
weed them out. We know that some milk producers are
better situated to rear calves than others, and, while I would
not advocate it to any great extent, I regret we did not com-
MILK FARMING. 285
mence a good many years ago by raising a few each year
from the best milking stock to be obtained. Some of the
essentials for success in milk production are an abundance of
proper food, comfortable stables, regularity in feeding,
watering and milking. I think there is no doubt about the
economy of warming the water in winter. Milking stock
should have access to it twice a day. Plenty of good water
is very desirable in the milk business. We should not fail
to impress upon our help the importance of gentleness,
which should be taught by example as well as by precept.
I suppose there is no better food for cows giving milk than
good pasturing. In a poor pasture they are obliged to work
harder than they ought in order to gain their subsistence.
Where the feed is poor and the land hilly a small or medium
sized cow will do better than a large one. Some meet with
good success by keeping cows confined summer and winter,
thereby making a largely increased supply of manure. Our •
cows have some pasturing, but are largely fed at the barn. I
think this plan, all things considered, may be best for most
of us. I hope the day is dawning when the margin of profit
may be further enlarged by feeding a well balanced ration at
less cost, and while making milk fully up to the standard,
we may do it without sacrificing so many cows. The losses
we have met with in our own experience compels me to
believe it worthy of our attention. Next we should consider
how large an item of saving we can efiect by purchasing
feed in quantities. By purchasing in car loads at certain
seasons of the year a saving of from fifteen to twenty-five
per cent, on the winter retail price can be made.
Perhaps a word or two about the care of milk would not
be out of place at this point. Every reasonable precaution
should be exercised to keep stock and stables tidy. All
articles to contain milk should be thoroughly cleansed.
Milk should be carefully strained, and that for market would
be of a more uniform character if a large can were used for its
reception, drawing or turning from that into smaller cans
after mixing. These cans should be put into cold water,
that should come as high as the milk in the can, so that the
animal heat may be removed as soon as possible. Spring
water at a low temperature is most desirable and reliable.
286 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
If running water is not convenient, greater care should be
used in cooling to prevent it from becoming tainted. Cold
milk that has been well cared for will give better satisfiction
to customers than warm, even to those near at hand, while
with those at a distance cold milk is a necessity.
We come now to the disposal of the milk. I have some-
times thought that persons patronizing well-managed cream-
eries, if they did not have to furnish a stated supply and
had their skim-milk to raise choice stock with, were better
off than those who sell their milk at the low price they are
obliged to accept. Those living near a good market for
milk, and engaged exclusively in its production, will find it
the safest course to dispose of it themselves, especially if
dependent upon it for a living. If one can secure a trust-
worthy man to peddle the milk it will greatly relieve the
producer from the strain that comes from carrying on a farm
at the same time. It will also give him an opportunity to
look more carefully after things at home. This is not
always an easy thing to do. Those selling milk at their
doors would naturally produce other things and look to the
milk as only a partial source of income. Each person must
decide for himself after considering his situation in life, the
character of his farm, its location, and his willingness to be
confined. Perhaps it may be well to glance at some of the
things in the business that are obstacles to success. Though
we usually have good seasons, with an abundance of forage,
we sometimes have dry ones, with a scarcity. If we buy a
few superior cows that please us, we also purchase many
inferior ones that disappoint us. If we pay high prices for
new milch cows, we afterwards trade them off or sell them
at an exceedingly low price. Sometimes they become new
milch when we expect them to ; at others, they surprise us
by calving too soon, to their own injury and our consequent
loss.
Sometimes sudden death overtakes them, while at other
times they linger along with obscure ailments until we are
quite ready to welcome their removal. I might speak of
our trials as milk pedlers, telling how kind but unappre-
ciated friends come on to our milk route with skim-milk
added to new, and with a lower price for a fraudulent article
MILK FARMING. 287
crowd down prices and thus deplete our profits. If we sell
milk at our doors there are the irresponsible pedlers who
fail to take our product according to contract, or with sadly
deficient memory forget to pay for that which they have
taken. But I forbear. I feel that I need not allude to the
pleasures of milk farming, but will pass on to say that so far
as I comprehend the situation, the things essential to success
in mill?: production may be very briefly enumerated. A
naturally good farm, well located, is a great consideration.
To have it highly cultivated is more than desirable. Let it
be stocked with carefully selected cows, well cared for ; and
let their food be ample and suitable. And to these we may
add the need of wise supervision ; while all that is lacking
should be made up by close application.
As our farm is devoted to milk production, it may be of
some interest, and not entirely out of place in closing, to
give some account of it together with crops and feeding of
stock. There are in the farm ten acres of pasturage,
seventy acres of mowing and tillage land and twenty-five
acres of light land in a fair state of cultivation. The re-
mainder is unsuitable for cultivation, being covered with
wood and brush. It is all together and the interior fences
have been removed, leaving only those around the
pasture.
The building of a silo two years ago last spring created
somethinsc of a revolution in our methods. Not that we
intended this, so much as that we could not find time to do
anything else than to produce material to fill it. Whereas
we formerly grew strawberries, potatoes, cabbages, melons,
with a little other garden truck, we now grow only corn and
hay. We look for an income from the sale of new milk,
with a little skim-milk, cream and butter, all sold to con-
sumers. We also sell some hay, and hope to be able to
dispose of more when the farm gets in better condition.
Our corn for filling the silo is raised on light land and run-
out mowinofs. The ffrass land is re-seeded as soon as the
corn is removed. We use the common kind of corn, that
grows eight to ten feet high, for the silo. It is planted in
hills seventeen inches apart, it ears out heavily, and is cut
when just beginning to glaze. We use Canada ashes, and
288 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
nitrate of soda to some extent, for top-dressing mowings.
So far they have proven quite satisfactory.
We rarely put anything except plaster on pastures. We
depend upon our cows being well fed at the barn. Although
the pastures have been grazed quite close, there seems to be
a gradual improvement. We feed in summer about one-
half the grain and ensilage that we do in winter. We are
feeding now to each cow, giving milk daily, on an average
from ten to twelve pounds of hay and thirty of ensilage,
with a grain ration of five pounds of wheat bran, three of
linseed meal, and one and a half of gluten meal. The grain
is well stirred in with the ensilage at the time of feeding.
This ration is proving quite satisfactory, considering its
cost.
With reference to warming the water for cows to drink, I
will say that when the cold weather set in this fall our cows
fell off from forty to fifty quarts a day, but as soon as we
began warming the water the yield of milk increased and the
percentage of cream also increased about one-half a space,
so that we are now getting about ten and a half spaces of
cream where we were getting from nine and a half to ten a
short time ago. Our cows are neither bought nor fed with
any reference to butter-making ; they are sort of ' ' go-as-you-
please" cows, and the skim-milk seems to have a very good
body indeed after the cream is taken off.
Question. How many cows do you keep?
Mr. Smith. We have 74 in all. We have been getting
from 62 cows, for the last few days, 650 quarts of milk a
day. We were down as low as 560 quarts at one time
before we commenced warming the water. As soon as we
commenced warming the water they went up to a little over
600 quarts.
Question. How warm is the water?
Mr. Smith. About eighty degrees, though we do not
always get the same temperature.
Question. How do you warm the water ?
Mr. Smith. We have a steam boiler standing in a build-
ing near the trough the cattle drink from and the water runs
through a pipe to the trough. Sometimes we merely let the
hot water run through the boiler, and at other times we get
MILK FARMING. 289
up a little more steam and heat the water to a higher
temperature.
Mr. Edson of Barnstable. I understood the gentleman
to say that he planted his corn only seventeen inches apart
and it eared out well. Does he mean both ways? *
Mr. S311TH. No, sir, I mean in the rows.
Mr. Edson. Do you plant it about three feet the other
way ?
Mr. Smith. Three and a half feet. If you put on
manure enough it will ear out well, but if you put it on
light land, without any dressing, the corn will run up a
single stalk without foliasfe or ears.
Mr. Edson. I must say I have been very much pleased
with the paper and I hope it has opened a discussion of the
silo question so that we will all learn something from the
experience of one another. I think these experience meet-
ings are worth a great deal to every farmer. I believe the
silo has come to stay. I have been in favor of the silo for
the last ten years, but the expense and trouble of getting
steam works and a cutter to cut the ensilaije I)efore it g-oes
into the silo has always held me back. I did not want to
go to the expense of getting a steam engine and cutter to cut
what little ensilage I wanted ; I knew it would not pay.
But when they began to put it in whole and found it kept
well, I built a silo, and I think, as far as my experience
goes, that the ensilage that comes out of my silo is better
than that which comes out of silos where it is cut up tine,
and I think it keeps better. My mode of packing is to
begin at one end, put the butts out in the silo and then lap
them over, just the same as you would shingle a building,
being very careful in packing them and tramping them
down. Then I commence at the other end, go back, pack
them very close, and tramp them down in the same manner.
I think the ensilage keeps better and there is less air in it.
If we cut it up into inch pieces the juice is apt to run out
and the ends of the pieces are filled with air, so that we get
a good deal more air into the silo with cut ensilage than we
do when we put it in whole. After hearing Prof. Goess-
mann some years ago state that the proper time to cut the
corn fodder for the silo was when the corn was just glazed,
290 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
I adopted the plan of going through the field and gathering
the corn when it was just glazed over, throwing it upon the
ground, and cutting my fodder right up and putting it into
the silo. I found that in that way I got very good ensilage.
This year I took an acre for an experiment. I have kept an
accurate account of the cost of everything, — plowing,
harrowing, tilling, and the dressing put on the field. I
planted my corn three feet apart one way and eighteen
inches the other, with four grains in the hill. The variety
was what they call the cap^ped Qanada. I got eight tons of
ensilage from that acre, which, according to the professor's
statement, is worth $4 a ton, making $32. The whole cost of
that acre, including the interest on the value of the land and
the taxes, amounted to $32.10. I got forty-five bushels of
corn, which cost me just ten cents. I think I can do it
again right along every year, and if we can raise corn in
New England for less than a cent a bushel I think we can
do a o;ood thinof. According to the statements that have
been made of the value of ensilage, we can raise corn so that
the ensilage will pay the whole expense of raising it and we
get our corn for nothing. We can get from forty-five to
seventy bushels to the acre in that way. I do not know
thiit any other corn than that small Canada would ear out
and perfect itself planted so close together. INlind you,
that is about three times as close as we generally plant corn.
You get a large amount of ensilage and that corn will perfect -
itself just as well planted close in that way as it will planted
further apart.
Question. How much forage are you able to sell from
that small farm besides supporting those seventy or seventy-
five cows?
]\Ir. Smith. Last year we sold about sixty tons of hay,
but the year previous we did not sell any, so that to state
it fairly, inasmuch as we sold some hay that we had left
over the previous year, I should say we sold between forty
and fifty tons, as we had twelve or fifteen tons left over.
;Mr. Myrick. How much ashes do you put on your
mowing land?
Mr. Smith. We put on from twenty-five to thirty-five
bushels of unleached ashes and about a hundred pounds of
MILK FARMING. 291
nitrate of soda. Last year, where we used Canada ashes
and nitrate of soda, it was on ground which had been mov/cd
the previous year. I should say that the previous year was
the first year of mowing after we had had ensilage on the
field. We planted Southern white corn, which grew enor-
mously, but the grass crop the succeeding year disappointed
us ; we did not get as good returns as we "expected. We
supposed it was because of the heavy draft the corn made
upon the soil. Bat this last year we applied, after our
manure was exhausted, about thirty-five bushels of Canada
ashes and a hundred pounds of nitrate of soda to the acre,
and the first crop, I think, was as much as three tons to the
acre and two tons the second. I do not know but it was
equally good as where we put on fifteen heavy loads of
manure to the acre. I think it was.
Question. What will be your chance for the next crop?
Mr. Smith. I think it will be first-rate, because we top-
dressed it this fall with manure.
jNIr. Fitch. I was exceedingly glad when I saw the sub-
ject that was announced for yesterday afternoon's lecture,
and, lest I mistake, I will just read it, — " Business Side of
Farmino; and Value of Ors-anization." It seemed to me that
the lecturer handled the business side of farming very well,
in general. Now, the question comes, what about the
business side of farming? Plow much does it mean? How
much did he make it mean? He made it moan, I think, a
little more than this Board, that I am now addressing, has
made it mean for the last fifteen or twenty years. If you
will take the reports of this Board for the last fifteen or
twenty years and read them through, you will find this
statement to be true in respect to every one of them, with-
out a single exception. You will find that they are occupied
with telling how to feed hens ; with telling how to feed
cattle ; with telling how to improve the breeds of cattle ;
with telling how to build a silo ; how much corn to feed ;
how much cotton-seed meal to feed ; exactly how many
ounces of ensilage and how many ounces of this, that and
the other ; how much manurial value there is in different
articles of food, and so on. You have not said one single
word about the business matter of disposing of the products
292 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
of the farm. Now, to-day the milk which was forty cents a
can twenty years ago is from twenty to twenty-five cents,
and all this while you have been telling farmers how milk
could be made a great deal cheaper than they have been
making it ; but who has got the benefit of making that milk
cheaper? Is it business-like to tell a farmer how he can
make milk much cheaper and not say one word about the
disposal of it? It seems to me it would have been better if
you had adopted the sentiment that was expressed by the
lecturer yesterday afternoon, that the business side of farm-
ing covers both the production and the sale.
As secretary of the Milk Producers' Union I have had
this subject under consideration for some time, and I will
tell you what has been the result of one business operation
of that sort. A few years ago some milk producers got
together and formed an association. They wanted to know
about this great milk question. Boston consumes between
four and five million dollars' worth of milk every year, and
has in the past six years increased its consumption fifty per
cent. I have it from Mr. Babcock within three days. But
during that time something has happened. The JNlilk Pro-
ducers' ^Association succeeded in getting a law passed to
prevent the adulteration of milk. Just before that law went
into operation in 1884, it was ascertained, as nearly as could
be, that about sixty per cent, of the milk that was sold in
Boston was more or less adulterated. In 1885, under the
operation of the law, the percentage of adulteration went
down to some thirty per cent. ; in 1886 it was only from
twenty to twenty-five per cent. ; and so far in 1887 it is
only about twelve per cent. These figures are from news-
paper reports and arc not, perhaps, exact, but they will be
accurately presented in the official report of the inspector in
the course of another month.
Now we will come to business. In 1884 Boston was
paying one hundred thousand dollars, at least, a year for
water that was put into the milk which it consumed. During
the past year the probability is that the city has not paid
over twenty-five or thirty thousand dollars for water put into
milk. The milk association has saved that amount of money
to the city of Boston alone.
]\nLK FARMING. 293
I say we mean business, and now wc ask yon, the State
Board of Agriculture, the State Board of Health, and any
other public officials who have anything to do with this
matter, that they shall do for the farmers of Massachusetts
just exactly what the Boston Milk Inspector does for the
consumers of milk in that city. If the producer takes a
quart of milk to him and asks him to inspect it he will not
do it ; he told me so. He cannot do it ; he cannot protect
the producer at all. But the State Board of Health can take
3'our milk and tell you whether it is fit to go to Boston or
not. We ask that the State Board of Health may be mem-
orialized by this Board for such action by them as shall put
the producers of milk in Massachusetts on an equal footing
with consumers in this respect.
Now in regard to the law. We want it changed so that a
contractor can be prosecuted for having bad milk in his
possession just as much as a pedler or a farmer. If you
will find me a case where a contractor has been punished by
a fine of fifty dollars within two years I will agree to pay
you ten dollars, unless it was a case where the contractor
pedled milk also.
The Chairman then called upon Mr. Z. A. Gilbert,
Secretary of the Maine State Board of Agriculture.
Mr. Gilbert. Mr. Chairman and Gentlemen, — I am
here only to acknowledge your call at this time and to
express thanks for the compliment tendered to me. I am
here primarily for the purpose of gaining something of
inspiration from meeting with you farmers here assembled,
and also to gain something in the way of information which
may aid me in carrying on a similar work in my own State.
I wish to congratulate you at this time, and especially your
Secretary, on the excellent programme which he has suc-
ceeded in bringing out and on the hio;h character of the
papers which have been presented. They certainly are a
compliment to his good judgment and a high compliment to
those who have presented them. It would be interesting if
I had the time to refer to some of the salient points, and I
will venture to do so in one direction, and that onl}'.
I have been especially interested in the matter of business
principles applied to agriculture. I feel that this is a feature
294 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
of the agriculture of the present day which has been over-
looliecl in our eflbrts before the pubhc. Tliere is business in
agriculture ; there is a call at the present time for the appli-
cation of business principles in agriculture. We have been
teaching our boys as we have brought them up on the farm
and engaged them in the work of the farm, that " to dig and
to hoe, to cat and to grow" was the business of New Eng-
land agriculture. This is all wrong. There is something
more to it than simply to dig and eat. We want to incul-
cate in them and to realize ourselves that there is something
of ambition connected with agricultural affairs, that there is
some chance for the rising generation and for ourselves to
gratify this ambition. There are ample opportunities for
doing this. Modern methods are opening to view that
which we have not heretofore been able to see, and many of
us old fellows, whi> are engaged in the work of the farm,
are carrying on that work in accordance with the ideas that
we gained in our early days instead of in accordance with
the developments which have recently been made. These
developments in the way of farm implements, farm appH-
ances and methods of work are presenting New England
agriculture in a different light from that in which we have
heretofore been accustomed to look at it, and opening up a
more hopeful view than we have heretofore entertained in
regard to it. There are opportunities, let me repeat, for the
gratification of ambition here in New England, and we want
to hold that fact out as an inducement to our young men to
remain on the farm. You have some worthy examples of
this application of business principles and the application of
capital to agriculture here in your own State ; we have them
in Maine, every New England State has them, and the
extent to which this capital can be applied, and profitably
applied, has not been measured. I was gratified by the
statement of the speaker yesterday when he said, — and he
might have put it much stronger, — that the capital invested
in New England agriculture was paying a handsome per-
centage of profit to-day. I would put it even stronger than
that. I would say that there is no business carried on in
New England at the present time that on the average yields
so large a percentage of profit to the investor as the business
MILK FARMING. 295
of New England agriculture does to-day. [Applause.]
And, gentlemen, as a single illustration which occurs to me
at this point, let me say to you that in the most productive
sections of Massachusetts, or on your good land here in this
State, are opportunities for carrying on the business of
butter making, through the creamery system, which afford
to capitalists a chanoe for investment that is worthy of
their attention, and I am confident that it can be carried on
to a large extent. You may see in Berkshire County in this
State, you may see in my own County of Androscoggin in
the State of Maine, and in Kennebec County, creameries
carried on where every pound of fodder fed to the animals is
purchased and where experts are employed in every depart-
ment of the work, that are realizing a handsomer profit from
the investment than is now realized from the manufacturing
establishments in Lawrence, Lowell or Lewiston. [Ap-
plause.]
Mr. IMyrick. I should like to ask Mr. Smith what he
calculates it costs to peddle milk ?
Mr. Smith. If a person's time is not worth much of
anything, if he would not do anything else, it would not
cost much. That is what I think of my time sometimes, so
I keep on peddling. I cannot tell you exactly what it costs.
There is this much about it. If you are engaged in a large
milk business it would be hardly safe for you to entrust the
sale of your milk to others, for they might leave you at any
time and you would have all your milk on your hands and
no sale for it. It would be an unsafe business.
Mr. Myrick. What do you get for your milk at retail?
Mr. Smith. Six cents a quart.
Mr. Myrick. Would you sell it on your farm at four
cents ?
Mr. Smith. In the winter season we cannot do anything
else.
Mr. Fitch. I can answer that question as far as Syra-
cuse, N. Y., and Lowell are concerned, for I have investi-
gated that thing in both places. It costs a very small
fraction of a mill over three-quarters of a cent a quart to
handle the milk of the city of Syracuse. In Lowell it is
just about one cent a quart, and a fraction over one cent in
296 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Boston. We have allowed in our calculations a cent and a
half, but it does not cost that according to the figures.
Mr. Brooks of Springfield. It costs the Springfield
Association a good deal more than three-quarters of a cent a
quart. It costs about three-quarters of a cent to send our
wagons into the country, bring the milk in here, and then it
costs us to hire men, carts and horses to distribute it, two
cents a quart. We sell milk at six cents a quart ; we sell
buttermilk at a good price sometimes ; we sell what skimmed
milk we can. We do not buy any milk ; we bring our
stockholders' milk in here, we pay our expenses and what is
left we divide among the producers j^ro rata.
Question. I would like to ask Mr. Smith if he can tell
us how many quarts of milk his cows average per day
throughout the year.
Mr. Smith. I could not. We change our cows more or
less. It is more profitable to change them than to keep on
with the same animals. We rarely run below nine quarts a
cow, and we are milking from that up to eleven quarts.
Then Ave have a certain percentage of dry ones. We think
it is better to sell some cows pretty cheap and replace them
with others, in order to keep up our yield of milk.
Question. How many pounds of feed do you give your
cows per day ?
Mr. Smith. I think I stated that in the paper. Twenty-
five pounds of ensilage, five pounds of wheat bran, three
pounds of linseed meal, one-half pound of gluten meal.
But you must bear in mind that all our corn goes into the
silo. Instead of harvesting our corn, as the gentleman spoke
of over there and saving it, wc prefer to let it go into the
silo.
Mr. Burgess. Can you give us an estimate of about
what it costs to produce the milk at your farm ?
Mr. Smith. I could not. It has been our intention
always to keep our bills paid as we went along, and if we
got out of money we knew that the business was not paying.
(Laughter.)
Mr. Fitch. I will answer two of the questions. From
as careful calculations as can be made it is found that not far
from seven quarts a day, taking the average through the
CREAIVIEEIES. 297
year, is the production of the cows of Massachusetts.
There are certain farmers that get considerably more, but
those cases are where the herds are small ones and the
animals are taken excellent care of.
Now as to the question of cost. That we have figured
very carefully. We find that, reckoning simply the cost, no
profit whatever, and taking the year together, the average
cost is not far from two cents and six mills a quart.
The Chaieman. We arc now to have a paper on Cream-
eries from Mr. L. T. Hazen of Hazen's Mills, N. H.
CREAMERIES.
L. T. HAZEN OF HAZEN'S MILLS, N. II.
Mr. President, Ladi-s. and Gentlemen: — When your
honored Secretary wrote asking me to read a paper at this
time upon the subject of creameries, I felt I could not ;
that there would be so many present who knew so much
more than I did and were so much better able to express
themselves that I would appear insignificant beside them.
After considering the matter for a time, the old saying, that
the strong often gained strength from the w^ak, came to my
mind, and gave me courage to feel that I might be able to
throw out at least one idea that would be of value in the
discussion of the subject. Your Secretary suggested an
outline for me to follow, as far as I might be able, and the
first topic sugg'sted was the building. We may have dif-
ferent ideas as to what would be a suitable building. One
says get everything into as compact form as possible, while
others, and I am one of them, say give us room enough so
that we may have space for everything and then sec that
everything is in its place. To best illustrate my views I
will describe my own creamery, which I do not know how I
could improve according to my own ideas, although, to save
work perhaps, my men would like to change some things
which I will mention later. My building is 24x48. The
basement is used for creamery work, and overhead is a
tenement for my butter maker. The basement is four feet
under ground and six above. As you go into the end of
the building you enter a room 12x16 that is used as a
298 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
wash-room for the cans, bowls and all other articles used in
the creamery and also for steaming tubs, boxes, etc. In this
room are running water and steam works for heating water,
steaming tubs and boxes. The next room is 16x24 with
an 8x12 from the end of the first room. This room is
used for churning, working, printing and tubbing the 1)utter.
The next room is divided into one 10x22, in which are an
ice-water tank for shot-gun cans, so called, and a Cooley
creamer of the largest size. The other part is fitted for a
first class refrigerator. On the back side of this building is
a lean-to 12 feet wide, in the basement of which is my
engine. Above is my separator, the miliv of Avhich is car-
ried out in a movable iron pipe into liarrels, from there to
the hogs and calves. I put the engine and boiler out here
so as not to heat up the rooms where we do our work. The
upper floor is just the right height to handily take milk cans
from Avagons for the separator. I have a ten-horse power
boiler in which I make the steam to carry in pipes to my
barn and silo, where I have another engine to do my thrash-
ino- and cuttini? of ensilage. The cost of this building was
about $1,200. Where stone are less plenty and lumber
higher, of course the cost would be correspondingly in-
creased. The expense for machinery would be, — for the
separator, if you used one, $350 ; two churns $80 (I like
two that will churn about 100 pounds better than one larger
one) ; butter w^orker $20, and about $300 for boxes, cans,
etc. With this outfit you are prepared for the product of
from 600 to 1,000 cows. I have all of the buttermilk car-
ried outside in cans and emptied into barrels. The men
think this unnecessary work and that we could carry it out
in a pipe. My idea is that there would be an odor from
such a pipe, and it would be hard to convince me to the con-
trary. The universal testimony of all that visit my works,
is to the sweetness of the creamery. A Boston dealer was
there last summer, and the first remark he made was, " How
sweet it smells ! " He afterwards said he had been in a good
many creameries, but was never in one that smelled so
sweet, and, as I afterward learned, he told his men that they
could tell their customers from him that they could depend
upon the butter being clean.
CREAMERIES. 299
We will now enter upon dangerous o-round, viz., tho
manner of conducting the creamery. I call this dangerous
ground as I am aware that there are advocates of both
systems present, — the whole-milk and the gathered-cream
system. Notwithstanding the contrary opinion of many
present,! must advocate the whole-milk system. Where the
patrons live near enough to make it practicable, I can do it
with good grace, as I honestly believe, and my experience
backs me up in that belief, that better butter can be made
where the whole milk is brought. It brings the whole work
under the control of the butter-maker, who knows that he is
alone responsible if the quality is not up, and knowing that
his reputation is at stake, he will be more watchful to have
ev^ery thing just right. If the business is run by the gathered-
cream system, and any of the butter is a little off, the butter-
maker can say, " I noticed that such a lot of cream was not
just right, but I did not think it was quite as bad till I had
it churned;" or, "it was the cream of the president or
superintendent and I did not dare speak of it," and knowing
that he can thus excuse his failures he would be more than
human if he did not sometimes get careless. Again, the
creamers should be emptied and thoroughly scalded every
other day. I mean by this the tank. Methinks I hear some
one say, " That is all bosh. I don't scald mine once a month,
and my cream is all right." Allow me to say to such a
one that 3^ou are the very man that your butter-maker has
been scolding about all summer. I have cream raised by
the Cooley process and in large open pans. The milk in the
open pans always sours a little so they know that they must
always scald their pans, but the Cooley cans are so sweet
that they say they are all right and put the milk in day after
day. Some use ice and are more particular to empty and
scald the cans, while others use running water and think
their cans cannot require cleansing. We soon detect a very
little off in their cream. Next time a little more. So we
give them a blowing up and the quality is up again. I said
blowing up, as we have found that mild persuasion did not
always answer, any more than grass did for the boy in the
apple tree we read of in our old spelling books. Again,
many of our farmers have not suitable milk-rooms, and some
300 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
have them so near their kitchens that the cream becomes
impregnated with the mingled odors of onions, cabbage,
turnips, fried ham and doughnuts from the cook stove. All
of these are good in their place, but combined in the butter
I do not think them any improvement. Now if the whole
milk comes to the creamery, all of these troubles and many
more not enumerated, will be obviated. Now if it comes to
the creamery as whole milk, how will you get the cream?
I should say by the separator process. First, because I
believe you can get more butter ; second, that properly
handled, it will be as good ; third, it is much less work ;
fourth, the skim-milk is fresh and much nicer to feed,
particularly to calves. Cleanliness is absolutely necessary
in making good butter. In creameries it is always ob-
served. The butter-maker knows this fact. He also knows
that the eyes of all of the patrons are upon him, and to hold
his position, he must at all times have everything in shape
for inspection. In the home dairies some are very particular
to have everything perfect, some do very well, others would
if they had suitable arrangements, while still another class
have not the faculty aud could not do well if they would. I
have now described my idea of a creamery, — what it should
be and how, according to my views, it should be managed.
We will now consider a few of the needs and benefits of the
system. First, if you have thirty or tifty patrons you would
have as many different kinds of butter, if it were made in
farm dairies, while in the creamery it is all brought to one
uniform quality.
Perhaps it is not as good as some of the dairy butter, but
much better than the average. Next, who are the ones most
benefited by the creamery system? First, those that cannot,
for various reasons, make a good article at home, and they
are many. Some of the reasons are perhaps beyond their
control. One, for instance, may be the health of the wife.
She is not al)le to put the necessary work into it, and if they
do not feel able to hire, she, day by day, vvorks along, doing
each day more than "she is able, making an inferior article of
butter. Another reason, and one we often meet with, is the
want of suitable rooms and machinery. To illustrate that, I
will give one item of my experience when I was a butter
CREAMERIES. 301
buyer in Vermont. I called at one house, examined their
butter, found it nice and bought it for forty cents a pound.
I then drove to the next house, examined theirs and offered
them thirty. They asked if I had bought Mr. C.'s and
what I paid. I told them, and said that Mr. C.'s ])utter
was very much nicer than theirs. The man then commenced
abusing his wife for the poor quality. I stopped him and
told him that there were many things required to make good
butter. First, it required good cows. He said, " I have as
good cows us Mr. C." Then I told him it required good feed
and care. lie said, "My cows are as well fed and cared for as
his." I then said it required a good butter-maker, calculat-
ins that I w^ould next come to what I considered the main
cause. He again commenced abusing his wife, making her
feel badly, and, being an excellent, hard-working woman, I
could but feel for her, and I again stopped him and told him
that there was one more very important thing to have, and
that was a suitable place to keep the milk and butter in.
He said, " I know that Mr. C. has a much better milk-room
than I have, but I had thought mine would do until I was
able to build better." I proposed looking at his milk-room.
We did so, and I saw that there w^as not a single conveni-
ence, nor was there a proper place for doing any part of the
work. I gave him a Scotch blessing for abusing his wife, and
he took it kindly. I then showed him how he could easily
and cheaply make suitable changes, bought his butter for
the thirty cents and left. The next year I was over the
same ground again, called first on Mr. C, then went to this
house and found some fine butter and everything nice and
convenient. I told him that I had bought Mr. C.'s butter
and would give him the same price on one condition, and
that was that he should first ask his wife's pardon for the
way he treated her the year before. He said he thought
that was pretty tough, but he guessed he ought to do it, and
he did.
He then said he would not have believed that a good place in
which to make it could make so much difi*erence wath the qual-
ity of the butter, if he had not tried it. He said it had also
made as much difierence in the work of his wife. I have occu-
pied your time telling this, believing that in this way I could
302 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
better and more plainly show you the importance of having
everything just right.
Another class have good cows, feed them well, take excel-
lent care of them, have perfect arrangements in the house,
and make a first-rate article of butter, which sells for a
good price. They will not perhaps get quite as much money
out of it at the creamery, but they will be more than paid in
seeing the restful look in the countenances of their wives and
daughters, which will ten times pay them for the small de-
ficiency in their receipts. One of the greatest benefits of the
creamery system is its influence as an educator. It intro-
duces nevv associations, new practices, new ideas and pro-
vokes new trains of thought.
The example of the creamery with its improved methods,
turning out improved goods, that bring improved prices, is
a powerful stimulus to thought and progress. With it not
only come new methods, but they are fully discussed and,
as the different patrons meet and discuss the success of the
enterprise, they bring the thoughts home to themselves and
find that some with an equal number of cows are producing
much more than others. Why is that? is asked, and they
find such a one has improved cows that he feeds well, has
good warm stables, weighs the milk of each cow, keeps
a record of each one, and when he finds one that does not
pay he sells her and buys another ; therefore he concludes he
will get a bag of meal, a little bran, batten his barn a little
and see if it makes any difference. He finds the difference
so great that he begins to test his cows and finds that, while
he has some good ones, he has others that are almost worth-
less. The result is a continued improvement in his stock,
and the improvement does not stop here. He improves his
barns and sees the benefits in increased receipts. He begins
to look over his fiirm to see where he can increase his prod-
ucts so as to enable him to keep more stock. You will soon
see an improvement in his whole place, and a general degree
of thrift is manifest in his whole surroundings. The cream-
ery thus becomes a stepping-stone in the path of progress,
leading to a higher condition both agriculturally and socially.
It is a good missionary station introduced into any neighbor-
hood where there are cows enousfh to sustain it. Show me
CREAMERIES. 303
a section where there is a successful creamery and I will
show you good farms under a high state of cultivation, good
buildings, and better yet, happy households tilled with choice
reading, both agricultural and literary.
It may be a little off the subject to speak of breeds and
feed, but they are so important to the success of the cream-
ery that I shall ask you to bear with me while I briefly touch
upon them. The patrons, as well as the creamery men,
have duties to perform. It is not enough that they milk what
their cows give, strain into the cans and wait for the wagon.
It is important that the most perfect cleanliness is observed
in every department. It is their duty to feed and care for
their stock in such a manner that the milk will be of good
quality, for on the quality of the milk depends the quality of
the cream and butter. The best butter-maker in the world
cannot make gilt-edged butter from poor milk. Many
things may aflect the quality, but good feed and care are
fundamental requisites, without which the best quality can-
not possibly be secured. The quality depends, also, to some
extent, upon the breed of the cow as well as upon her indi-
vidual peculiarities. I would reiterate that, whatever the
breed, feed and care are important factors in the quality of
the butter obtained.
How shall sve dispose of our butter? This is a question
that causes all butter-makers much thought, and it is one
I do not as yet feel competent to answer. All of the difter-
ent ways have their advantages and disadvantages. By
making a strictlv first-class article, advertisini? it well and
sending about ten pounds at a time, so that it will always be
fresh, we can work up a good retail trade at good prices,
but there is lots of work in it. It also requires a superior
force of book-keepers to keep the run of it all, especially if
you are doing a large business. Again, with less effort
you can work up a retail grocers' trade ; and, if he is in a
good locality for first-class trade, you can work up good
prices from him. But the difficulty here is that so many of
that class are not responsible, you must needs know your
man to be safe. Taking all things into consideration, as
things now are, I am of the opinion that we will be as well
off to put our butter up in the best possible style. If in
304 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
tubs, get the best. If in small boxes, have the different
styles so that you can give each customer what he wants.
I find that some want the square five and ten pound boxes,
while others won't have them, l)ut want the round. Then
have good stjde of print and good packing-boxes to send
your prints in and you are ready to send at any time just
what is ordered. I find that at different seasons of the year
it is wanted in different styles. Now select a good reliable
commission house and send it to them every week, or twice a
week, and let them work up a trade and I think you will be
as well off" in the end as in any other way. Another plan
has been talked of by creamery men, and that is to form an
association of creameries, rent a store in the city and put
competent men into it, and let the association of creameries
send their butter there. I am not prepared to decide to my
own satisfaction as to the advisability of this plan, but am ot
the opinion that, properly managed, it could be made to pay.
There are objections to the plan, the greatest of which I
think is, we should have the coml^ined forces of the commis-
sion houses to fight. But with proper care in putting our
butter up, with salesmen that are honest, and that would take
pains to court good trade, I think this objection could be
overcome and in time a good business could be worked up
and good prices obtained.
Mr. Fitch. Is not the difference between cream-collect-
ing and milk-collecting the question of the purchase by the
farmer of a creamery and the other things necessary ? He
can ship his milk immediately in the one case, in the other
he has the trouble of collecting the cream.
Question. I would like to ask if it is anything more
than theory that the milk-gathering system produces better
butter than the cream-gathering system ?
Mr. IIazex. It is the actual fact in my own experience.
Question. May I ask what it is based upon ?
Mr. Hazen. It is based upon fact. As I stated, there
is greater care exercised over the product from milk or
cream in a creamery than can be exercised in the very best
farm-house.
Question. What is the test of good butter?
Mr. Hazen. The mouth and the sense of smell.
CREAMERIES. 305
Question. I am speaking of the sale of the product. Is
it the amount that it brings, or what is it?
Mr. Hazen. The amount that it brings and the satisfac-
tion it gives the consumers.
Question. Is it a fact that butter produced under the
milk-gathering system brings more in the commission houses
of New York and Boston than butter produced under the
cream-gathering system ?
Mr. Hazen. The best answer that one can give to that
is his own experience. We have patrons who have for the
last three or four years, previous to this year, brought us
cream ; this year they have brought milk, and the butter
from the milk brought by those patrons has been at least
five cents a pound higher than it was the years before.
Mr. . Mr. Hazen states that he uses a separator
to separate the cream from the milk, that he gets more but-
ter from the milk with the separator than by any other pro-
cess, and that the skim-milk is better for feeding purposes.
The question I would like to ask is, does the separator add
anything to the value of the milk for feeding?
Mr. Hazen. In regard to that I will briefly say that I
raise from fifty to seventy-five calves per year, and I have
never been able to shift from separator milk to whole milk
as food for calves without making sick calves.
Question. Do you lay the sick calves to yourself or
the milk?
Mr. Hazen. I lay it to the milk. I do not consider
that it is because the milk was so much richer, but because
the condition of the milk rendered it more easily digestible
by the calves.
Mr. Fitch. I can furnish to any community that wishes
to make a trial of this thing, machinery which will enable
them to do it for $500, provided they have a room 24x30
and two sheds in addition, 12x8. If they have a room as
large as that, well situated, and can get ice, I will show
them the figures which will satisfy them that for $500 they
can put in sufficient machinery and every appliance neces-
sary to handle the milk from 100 to 300 cows. Then if they
choose to sell their milk they can sell it ; if they choose to
churn it right away they can do that. They can try it both
306 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
ways. The other way is to go and ask somebody who has
creamery apparatus to sell, and he will tell you you must
have $2,000 for a building and $3,000 for your machinery
and appliances.
Mr. Parsons of Northampton. I would like to inquire
of the writer of this interesting paper what cows he keeps ;
and I would also like to inquire the price he gets for the
article he makes, so that we can judge for ourselves in re-
gard to the value of the separator.
Mr. Hazen. The breed of cows which I keep myself are
pure Jerseys. The price of the butter varies materially. I
have a certain class of customers. I look them over before
setting the price and see how much they will stand, and my
price varies all the way from thirty-two cents on commission
to seventy-five cents retail.
Prof. Alvord. I want to ask Mr. Hazen one question
before he leaves the platform. Has he made any compari-
son between the keeping qualities of the butter made from
what I may call sweet milk and from milk separated?
Mr. Hazen. When I first commenced running my sepa-
rator I had not quite learned how to handle the cream, and I
shipped to I^^ew York some butter made in three ways, —
one by the " shot-gun can," so called, — that is, an open can
set in a tank of ice- water ; one by the Cooley process, and
one by the separator. It was shipped in open cars, without
any protection against the heat, and before it got to New
York it struck a temperature of 95 degrees, and the butter
melted down a good deal. It was all very much damaged,
but the separator butter was more damaged than either of
the other kinds, the " shot-gun can" butter the least. But I
think I have since learned how to handle the separator but-
ter so that it will stand shipping better.
Mr. Wilkinson of Ilolyoke. I would like to know the
difference between the keeping qualities of skira-milk by the
ice system and the separator system.
Mr. Hazen. I have not had very much experience in
that. During the season of summer travel we do ship, to
some extent, skim-milk to the mountain hotels, and make
no charge for it. We sell them our butter at good prices,
.and give them the skim-milk. We run the milk directly
CEEAMERIES. 307
through the separator and ship it at once. But there are
two processes of preparing that milk which will enable us to
keep it. One is to put it. into ice-water and chill it down at
once. Another is to heat it up to a temperature of 130 or
140 degrees. I will say that one of the Greenfield, N. H.,
creameries is the only one I know of Avhere the skim-milk is
all carried back to the farms from which the new whole milk
comes. They found a great deal of trouble there, and they
tried the experiment of heating the separator milk up to 140
degrees, or about there, and then cooling it down, and they
claim that it will keep perfectly sweet for three or four days
when treated in that way.
Mr. Clakk of Wilbraham. I would like to ask Mr.
Hazen how much he pays per pound to his patrons for their
butter? In our co-operative plan, all through here, we pub-
lish every month just how much our patrons get. I do not
understand from him what his patrons get. Will he please
state, for instance, what his patrons realized in October for
their butter per pound ?
Mr. Hazex. For the milk that is delivered to me I pay
one dollar a hundred the year round. They are to furnish
me, on an average, through the winter months, one-quarter
what they do through the summer months. They deliver it
at the factory.
Mr. Clark. How much butter will that hundred pounds
of milk make in the separator system of making butter ?
Mr. Hazen. That is a very broad question. In my own
herd the largest amount that I have ever found in the month
of June was eighteen pounds of milk for one pound of but-
ter. The average for the year is between sixteen and seven-
teen. We have one patron whose milk has averaged for
this summer about nineteen pounds ; another about twenty-
one pounds. The food has more to do with the quantity of
milk that it takes to make butter than the separator, the so-
called "shot-gun can," the Cooley system, the churning of
the milk, or anything else.
Mr. . It seems to me that there are two or three
points, or features, which have not been brought out in this
discussion. I would like to refer to them very briefly. Ono
of them is the matter of delivering the milk to the creamery,
308 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
which results in depriving the farm of the skim-milk. There
are some of us who believe that that system has gone by
years ago, and that this cream-gathering system is the most
successful ; that the old method of hitching up our teams
and delivering milk once or twice a day is entirely out of the
question. I do not think that many in these days would be
willing to go into any such arrangement.
Mr. Hazen. In regard to that I would say that all of my
patrons who deliver milk have the privilege of taking the
skim-milk at one-fourth of a cent a pound or twenty-five
cents a hundred, or such a proportion of it as they want.
On the question whether it pays or not, I will say that we
have one patron who lives about two miles from me and
keeps twenty cows. He made a test of one week each way
with the Moseley, a standard creamery, and with the sepa-
rator process, to see whether it would pay him best to keep
his milk at home or bring his milk to us, and he became
satisfied, after one week's test each way, that it paid him
better to bring his milk to the factory than it did to be at
the expense of getting the ice and making his butter at
home. Then I had a breakage of my separator, and had to
send it away to be repaired, and during that time he made
another test of eight days. That was in the month of June,
when milk was supposed to be the richest of any part of the
season. He was more thoroughly convinced by that test
than he was before that it paid him to bring that milk every
morning.
Mr. Stockbridge. I want to know Mr. Hazen's opinion
in relation to the policy of managing a farm in that way, by
carrying the milk all off".
Mr. Hazen. I say they have the privilege of taking the
skim-milk back if they see fit.
Mr. Stockbridge. I do not ask what the farmers think
about it. I want Mr. Hazen's opinion.
Mr. Hazen. That method would apply just as well to
them as it would to the milk-seller. Where you carry the
milk from the farm you take ofi" from 20 to 22 per cent, of
the material that would otherwise go to increase the fertility
of your farm. Where you carry off nothing biit cream, you
only take about three per cent.
CREAIVIERIES. 309
Question. You think, then, that they better keep the
milk at home ?
Mr. Hazen. It is possible that they can make more by
selling the milk and buying fertilizers to bring the farm
up.
Mr. F. H. Williams of Sunderland. Let me ask this
question : Did the man who brought this milk raise any pigs
or calves ?
Mr. Hazen. Yes, sir ; he raises his calves and a pig or
two to furnish him with what pork he wants to eat. It may
pay him better to feed it out.
Mr. Myrick. I understand that you pay one dollar a
hundred pounds for milk delivered at your factory, and that
the patrons of the factory can have the skim-milk back for
twenty-five cents a hundred pounds. In other words, the
patron who returns the skim-milk to his farm gets seventy-
five cents a hundred for the milk furnished, and carries the
hundred pounds of milk both ways, to and from the factory.
Is that the size of it ?
Mr. Hazen. That is the size of it.
Prof. Alvord. In the first place, let me remark that I
should advise that man who tried the creamery against the
separator to try again before he came to a final conclusion.
In the second place, I want to ask Mr. Hazen whether his
patrons who bring their whole milk to the factory bring it
once or twice a day ?
Mr. Hazen. Once a day.
Prof. Alvord. At what time ?
Mr. Hazen. In the morning.
Prof. Alvord. How do they take care of the night's
milk?
Mr. Hazen. They strain it and set it in a tank with the
covers on over night.
Question. Do you allow them to bring the cream, or
must all your patrons bring milk ?
Mr. Hazen. I allow them to bring it in any way they
choose ?
Question. Do you consider butter made from the sepa-
rator equal to that made from the open setting ?
Mr. Hazen. I do, sir.
310 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
Question. Do you consider butter-milk of much value
as a food for calves or pigs ?
Mr. Hazen. It helps to fill up the pigs. I have not tried
it on calves.
Question. What separator do you use ?
Mr. Hazen. The Da vol.
Question. I would like to ask whether it is as advan-
tageous to the patrons to be paid by the pound for their milk
as it would be to be paid for their cream under the Cooley
cream-gathering system? We have dairies in our town
which will vary from five to ten per cent, in the amount of
cream from a given quantity of milk. I should hate to put
my milk into a separator creamery where I was to be paid
for it by the pound.
Mr. Hazen. I would state in answer to that, that I am
doing the creamery business simply for the accommodation
of my neighbors, (Laughter.) I told my neighbors last
year if they would build a co-operative creamery in the part
of the town where most of them lived I would give them the
benefit of whatever knowledge I have of the business and
give them $200 out of my own pocket rather than take their
cream or milk. I should run my creamery for my own herd
to the best of my capacity. I do not ask any man to bring
his milk in and sell it by the hundred pounds. You cannot
make the milk of all farmers equal, but there is a test churn
manufactured whereby the milk can be churned and each
patron day by day given the exact percentage of butter
realized from the amount of milk delivered by him, so that,
with the assistance of this test churn, you can judge very
nearly whether or not you are getting your exact dues.
Mr. CusHMAN. We have heard from the manufacturers'
side of this milk question, but the question which interests a
large proportion of the milk producers before me is, how
they are to get out from under the control of the milk con-
tractors of whom we have heard this morning. We have
heard how little we can make when selling our milk at three
cents a quart, w^hile our brothers in New York and else-
where are selling their milk at two cents a quart during the
year. Nevertheless, many of us have been engaged for a
score of years in furnishing milk to the Boston market. I
CREAMERIES. 311
believe that it is best for every milk seller to work up his
surplus milk on his farm. I suifered myself to be kept for
many years under the iron heel of the Boston contractors,
but finally I made up my mind to be independent, so far as
the production of milk was concerned. You can, any of
you, if you have the Cooley system of raising cream, pur-
chase a butter-worker, a swing churn and all the apparatus
for making butter on your own farm, for a sum not exceeding
$60 or $70, and then when the Boston contractors or the
New York contractors say to you that they will not take
your milk, you will have a system on your own farm by
which you can manufacture your own butter. I believe we
cannot afford to have our milk taken from our doors, much
more harness our teams and carry it to a butter factory, even
at one cent a quart more than our friend is paying. Any
farmer can put milk into the Cooley creamery any day he
pleases ; he can churn the cream with his churn and work it
with his butter-worker ; he can keep a detailed and accurate
account of every hour's labor, and when he gets through he
will know something about what his milk is worth to work
up at home and whether he can afford to sell it to a Boston
or New York contractor or not. He can make some simple
experiments with his skim-milk that will satisfy him whether
it is worth half a cent a quart, or one cent or two cents.
The point I want to make is, if you are keeping anywhere
from ten to twenty cows, if you cannot get capital in any
way to buy this system, sell one or two of those cows and
invest the money in apparatus for butter-making, and you do
not know how much better you will feel, knowing that you
can control your own business and are not in the iron grip
of any man.
Mr. FiTcn. I want to say Amen !
Mr. Williams. I would like to ask the gentleman last
up, one question. He says we want to be thinking men.
He seems to be a man who has experimented with the Cooley
creamery. I want to ask him how many spaces of cream it
takes to make a pound of butter ?
Mr. CusHMAN. I was fortunate enough to find a market
for my cream in the city of Boston. I have made very little
butter for the last three years. But I will say that I have
312 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
never been able, when I have experimented, to get as good
results from milk that has been carried two or three miles
as I get from milk directly from the cow, I put the tem-
perature right down from 90 degrees to 45 as quickly as
possible, and under the most favorable circumstances I
have been able to get a fine yield of cream.
On motion of Mr. EUrtshorn of Worcester, the meeting
then adjourned .sme die.
SPECIAL MEETING. 313
SPECIAL MEETING.
A special meeting of tlie Board was held in Springfield,
Thursday, Dec. 8, 1887, at nine o'clock a. m.
Members present : Messrs. Brooks, Burgess, Clark, Cush-
man, Edson, Goddard, Goessmann, Hartshorn, Hersey,
Howes, Porter, Slade, Smith of Amherst, Smith of Deer-
field, Stockwell, Taft, Upton, Ware, Wheeler and Wood.
Mr. Velorous Taft was elected chairman.
In conformity to the vote passed at the last Annual Meet-
ing concerning the holding of Farmers' Institutes, Mr. Her-
sey, as chairman of the committee then appointed, reported
the following : —
While your committee do not recommend the adoption of
rigid rules, they would suggest that the Board recommend
that societies decide as early in the season as possible the
number of Institutes, if more than three, they will hold dur-
ing the year, the subjects they wish to have discussed, and
also the speakers desired, and send their decisions to the
Secretary of the Board, whose duty it shall be to arrange
the meetings and assign the speakers in such a manner as
shall be most convenient.
Your committee would recommend that where societies
are favorably located for holding a union meeting, that two
or more unite and hold a Unions Farmers' Institute ; and it is
recommended that it shall count as one Institute to each of
the societies thus united.
Your committee would recommend that the Secretary of
the Board be requested to be present at such Union Insti-
314 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
tutes and take part in the exercises, providing it does not
interfere with his other duties.
Your committee would recommend that the Secretary of
the Board be requested to ask of the State an appropriation of
one thousand dollars, to be expended under chapter 20, sec-
tion 10, of the Public Statutes, for lectures before the
Farmers' Institutes.
In conclusion your committee would suggest the employ-
ment of home talent. The local farmers should be encour-
aged to take part in the discussions, and speakers from abroad
be the exception rather than the rule.
After some discussion by Messrs. Ware and Hersey the
report was accepted and adopted.
The Board then adjourned.
Am^AL MEETING. 315
AN^]S"UAL meeti:n'g.
The Board met at the office of the Secretary, in Boston,
on Tuesday, January 31, 1888, at 12 o'clock, it being the
Tuesday preceding the first Wednesday in Febmary. In
absence of the Governor, on motion of Mr. Bowditch, Mr.
Grinnell was called to the chair.
Present: Messrs. Brackett, Brooks, Bowditch, Bird,
Clark, Cushman, Cruickshanks, Damon, Douty, Edson,
Grinnell, Goddard, Goessmann, Ilill, Howes, Hersey, Harts-
horn, Porter, Smith of Deerfield, Snow, Stockwell, Taft,
Upton, Wood and Wheeler.
Voted, To dispense with the reading of the minutes of the
last Annual Meeting. The records of the special meetings
were read and accepted.
Voted, To appoint a committee of three to examine and
report upon the credentials of newly elected members :
Messrs. Hartshorn, Bird and Cushman.
Voted, To adopt the order of business of 1885, with an
amendment so that the hours of meeting for the second and
succeeding days be from 9.30 to 12.30, and from 2 to 4.30
o'clock.
Reports of delegates being in order, Mr. Sessions reported
on the Amesbury and Salisbury ; Mr. Edson reported on the
Berkshire ; Mr. Upton reported on the Blackstone Valley ;
Mr. Brooks reported on the Deerfield Valley ; Mr. Damon
reported on the Hampden.
The Board then adjourned until 2.30 p. m.
316
BOAKD OF AGRICIILTUEE.
The Board was called to order at 2.30 p. m., Mr.
Grixxell in the chair.
The Committee on Credentials, to which was referred the
credentials of newly elected members, reported the following
members duly elected : —
At large, appointed by the Governor, Dr. George B.
Lorins.
Massachusetts Horticultural Society,
Massachusetts,
Amesbury and Salisbury,
Blackstone Yalley,
Berkshire,
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden,
Hampden,
Hous atonic,
Middlesex, .
Marshfield, .
Hingham,
Hampden East,
Hoosac Valley,
Nantucket, .
E. W. Wood.
E. F. BowDrrcH.
Wii. H. B. Currier.
YeLOROUS T4.FT.
Aloxzo Bradley.
F. K. Sheldox.
Geo. S. Tatlor.
j. h. roweey.
W. W. Rawsox.
Geo. J. Peterson.
EDiTuxD Heesey.
Wm. Holbrook.
S. A. HicKOX. •
Chas. W. Gardnee.
It was voted that the report of the Committee on Creden-
tials be laid upon the table.
On motion of Mr. Hersey, a committee of three was
appointed to prepare resolutions on the death of Dr. James
R. Nichols of Haverhill : Messrs. Grinnell, Hersey and
Vamum.
Mr. Hartshorn reported on the Barnstable ; ]Mr. Clark
reported on the Hampden East ; Mr. Snow reported on the
Hampshire ; Mr. Douty reported on the Highland ; Mr.
Goddard reported on the Hoosac Valley ; Mr. Howes
reported on the Hillside.
Mr. Gedojell, being called away, asked Mr. Upton to
take the chair.
ANXUAL ^^lEETIXG. 317
Mr. Cruickshanks reported on the Marshfield ; ^Ir. Taft
reported on the Martha's Vineyard ; the Secretaiy read the
report of Mr. Bartholomew on the ^kliddlesex ; ^Ir. Stock-
well reported on the Housatonic ; Mr. Hersev reported on
the Middlesex South.
The Governor, coming in, took the chair.
Mr. Stockwell reported on the Plymouth ; ]SIr. Zeri Smith
reported on the Union ; Mr. TVTieeler reported on the
Worcester ; Mr. Porter reported on the Worcester Xorth ;
Mr. Cushman reported on the Worcester West.
On motion of Mr. Hersey, a committee of fire was ap-
pointed to consider and report what changes should be made
in the Law for the Inspection of Fertilizers : Messrs. Hersey,
Hartshorn, Goessmann, Cushman and Taft.
The Board then adjourned.
SECOXD DAY.
The Board met at 9.30 a. m., Mr. Grin>t:ll in the chair.
Present : Messrs. Bird, Bowditch, Bradley, Brooks,
Clark, Cruickshanks, Currier, Cushman, Damon, Douty,
Edson, Goddard, Goessmann, Goodell, Grinnell, Harts-
horn, Hersey, Hickox, Holbrook, Howes, Loring, Lynde,
Peterson, Porter, Eawson, Rowley, Sheldon, Smith of Am-
herst, Smith of Deerfield, Snow, Stockwell, Taft, Taylor,
Upton, Varnum, Ware, Wheeler, Whiting and Wood.
Minutes of the previous day read and approved,
]Mr. Hersey, for the Committee on Changes in the Fer-
tDizer Law, reported that the committee were unanimously
of the opinion that several changes should be made in the
law.
The report of the committee was accepted.
318 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
Vbfed, That a committee of three be appointed to bring
the matter to the attention of the Legislature : Messrs.
Goessmann, Hersey and Cushman.
Mr. Varnum reported on the Bristol ; Mr. Wood re-
ported on the Essex ; Mr. Goodcll reported on the Massa-
chusetts Horticultural ; Mr. AV. W. Smith reported on the
Middlesex North.
The several reports of the delegates were taken up, read
by their titles and accepted.
Voted, That the time for the election of Secretary be
fixed at 11 o'clock, Thursday, and that the election of a
member of the Board of Control take place immediately
afterwards.
Voled, To appoint a committee of three on assignment of
delegates : Messrs. Stockwell, Lynde and Bradley.
Mr. Damon read the report of the Committee upon the
Agricultural College, which was accepted and adopted as
the report of the Board to the Legislature.
Report of the Committee on Credentials was taken from
the table and adopted.
Voted, To appoint a committee on time and place for
holding the Country Meeting : Messrs. Cushman, Hartshorn
and Ilickox.
Voted, To appoint a committee of three on the changes of
time for holding fairs : Messrs. Bird, Ilolbrook and Snow.
Voted, To appoint a committee of three on Essays :
Messrs. Wood, Taylor and Cruickshanks.
Dr. Lynde read an essay on "The Chemistry of the
Kitchen," which was accepted, adopted and ordered to be
printed in the Secretary's report.
The Board then adjourned until 2 r. m.
ANNUAL MEETING. 319
The Board was called to order at 2.15 p. m., Mr. Grin-
NELL in the chair.
Mr. Grinnell, from the committee, then submitted resolu-
tions of respect to the memory of James R. Nichols : —
Resolved^ That by the death of Dr. James R. Nichols of
Haverhill, long a member of this Board of Agriculture, those
of us who enjoyed the pleasure of his personal acquaintance have
lost a friend endeared to us by the loveliest traits of humanity ;
this Board one who up to the limit of his health and strength
was an earnest, devoted co-laborer ; and the people of this State
one foremost in the development of scientific agriculture, who
united the theories of science with the practical operations on the
farm in a manner, and in language, clear, forcible, attractive and
intelligible to all.
Resolved, That this action of the Board be sent to the family
of Dr. Nichols, and printed in the papers of the day.
Dr. Lynde moved 'the adoption of the resolutions, and
made a feeling and eloquent address upon the life and
accomplishments of Dr. Nichols.
Mr. Ware seconded the motion of Dr. Lynde, and ad-
dressed the Board in eulogy of his deceased friend.
Mr. Hersey advocated the resolutions in well-chosen
words, expressing his affection and respect for Dr. Nichols ;
also alluding to the long and faithful services of Captain
Moore.
Mr. Grinnell also paid an eloquent tribute to the memory
of his friend and lon2:-timc associate on the Board.
The resolves were unanimously adopted.
Mr. Stockwell moved that a committee of three be ap-
pointed to consider the subject of Tuberculosis among Cattle,
and report to the Board at some future time. Laid on the
table.
Mr. Stockwell read an essay on "Our Homes, their
Power and Influence," which was accepted, adopted and
placed on file for printing.
320 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
President Goodell read an essay on "Agricultural Edu-
cation," which was accepted, adopted and ordered to be
printed.
Voted, That a committee of three be appointed to nomi-
nate members of the Examining Committee of the Agricul-
tural College : Messrs. Varnum, Taylor and Zeri Smith.
The Board then adjourned.
THIRD DAY.
The Board met at 9.30 a.m., Mr. Grennell in the chair.
Present : Messrs. Bowditch, Brackett, Bradley, Clark,
Cruickshanks, Currier, Cushman, Douty, Edson, Goddard,
Goessmann, Goodell, Grinnell, Hartshorn, Hersey, Hickox,
Howes, Loring, Peterson, Rowley, Sheldon, Snow, Smith of
Amherst, Smith of Deeiiield, Stockw'ell, Taft, Taylor, Var-
num, Ware and Wood.
Minutes of the previous day were read and approved.
Voted, That a committee of three be appointed to nomi-
nate members of the Executive Committee : Messrs. God-
dard, CiTiickshanks and Snow.
Mr. Ware reported on the Franklin ; Mr. Bird reported
on the Hingham.
Accepted and adopted.
The Committee on Time and Place for holding the Country
Meeting reported by their chairman, Mr. Cushman, that the
meeting should be held at Easthampton, on Tuesday, Wed-
nesday and Thursday, December 4th, 5th and 6th. The
report was accepted and adopted.
Voted, That a committee of five be appointed on Country
Meeting : Messrs. Sheldon, Zeri Smith, W. W. Smith, Tay-
lor and Clark.
ANNUAL MEETING.
321
The Committee to report names for the Executive Com-
mittee reported as follows : Messrs. Slade, Bowditch, Her-
sey, Hartshorn and Rawson, — who were elected.
Voted, That they l)e made a Committee on Printing.
The Committee on Chani^es of Time for holding Fairs,
reiDorled that the time for holding the Massachusetts Horti-
cultural Society Fair be September 18th, 19th, 20th and
21st. The report was accepted and adopted.
The Committee on Essays reported as follows : —
ESSAYS.
Market Gardening,
Massachusetts Agriculture,
A Hundred Acres, or More,
W. W. Rawson.
G. B. LOKING.
J. S. Grinnell.
E. CUSHMAN.
The Committee to report names for the Examining Com-
mittee of the Agricultural College reported as follows :
Messrs. Taft and Taylor, — who were elected.
Dr. C. A. Goessmann, State Inspector of Fertilizers, pre-
sented his report, which was accepted and adopted.
Mr. Stockwell made a report on the assignment of dele-
gates as follows : —
Amesbury and Salisbury,
Bay State, .
Barnstable,
Berkshire, .
Blackstone Valley,
Bristol,
Deerfield Valley,
Essex,
Frankliu,
Hampden, .
Hampden East, .
Hampshire,
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden,
Zeri Smith.
J. S. Grinnell.
A. Bradley.
E. Cushman.
S. A. Bartholomew.
B. DOUTY.
G. S. Taylor.
W. H. Snow.
E. F. Bowditch.
F. G. Howes.
V. Taft.
J. H. Rowley.
N. Edson.
122
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Highland, .
Hingham, .
Housatonic,
Hoosac Valley,
Hillside,
Massachusetts Horticultural
Marshfield, .
Martha's Vineyard,
Middlesex,
Middlesex North,
Middlesex South,
Nantucket, .
Plymouth, .
Union, . .
Worcester, .
Worcester North,
Worcester North-west,
Worcester South,
Worcester West,
S. A. HicKox.
C. W. Gardner.
W. W. Smith.
S. W. Clark.
F. K. SnELDON.
G. Cruickshanks.
S. B. Bird.
C. L. Hartshorn.
W. H. B. CURKIER.
E. W. Wood.
B. P. Ware.
J. n. GODDARD.
W. W. Rawson.
H. L. Whiting.
A. C. Varnum.
G. J. Peterson.
Wm. Holbrook.
E. Hersev.
G. B. LORING.
It being 11 o'clock, the special assignment was called up,
and Messrs. Taft, Hartshorn and Rowley were appointed a
committee to receive, sort and count the ballots for Secre-
tary. The committee reported the unanimous re-election of
William R. Sessions. W. W. Rawson was elected a mem-
ber of the Board of Control, also by ballot.
The motion to appoint a committee to consider whether
any action on the subject of Tuberculosis in Cattle is neces-
sary was taken from the table, discussed and carried.
Messrs, Loring, Taft and Lynde were appointed a com-
mittee.
Voted, That all unfinished business, and any new busi-
ness that may arise before another meeting of the Board, be
referred to the Executive Committee, with full power to
act for the Board.
The Board then adjourned to 2 r. m.
The Board met at 2.30 p. m., Mr. Grinnelx. in the chair.
ANNUAL MEETING. 323
Voted, That the time for holding the fairs of the several
societies in the future be the same as recorded on page 415
of the Secretary's Report of 1885.
Voted, That the Executive Committee, with the Secretary,
compile the laws regulating the action of the Board of Agri-
culture and the several agricultural societies of the State,
together with the rules of the Board regulating the action of
the societies, and cause them to be printed in pamphlet form
and also in the Secretary's Report.
Voted, That the Secretary be instructed to examine the
historical sketches of the several societies now on file in the
office, and that he request the delegates from those societies
of which no sketch appears, to cause one to be prepared and
forwarded to the Secretary. Also to instruct the Secretary
to report at the next annual meeting on the propriety of
printing the same in the next annual report.
Voted, That the Executive Committee and Secretary con-
sider the propriety of holding a public meeting in Boston on
the fourth day of the next annual meeting, and report at the
Country Meeting in Easthampton.
The minutes of the last day were then read and accepted.
Adjourned.
WILLIAM R. SESSIONS,
Secretary.
THE FINANCES OF THE SOCIETIES.
[325]
326
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330
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Analysis of Premiums and Gratuities Awarded. — Concluded.
SOCIETIES.
'a
u
3 .
a a
<^
si*
!>0
_q
o o
o
1
1^ a
©•"
Amount awarded
for Objects strict-
ly Agricultural,
not already speci-
lied.
Amount awarded
and paid out for
Trotting Horses.
For Objects not
strictly Agricul-
tural: iJomestic
Manufactures.
Number of Persons
who received
I'remiums and
Gratuities.
Amesbury and Salis-
bury,
$9 50
$10 00
$15 00
_
_
$107 00
185
Barnstable, .
-
30 00
-
-
$230 00
199 25
446
Berkshire, .
27 00
-
$52 00
750 00
378 75
430
Bristol,
150 00
23 00
60 00
_
2,223 00
662 00
450
BlackBtone Valley, .
-
-
-
-
-
80 45
172
Deerfield Valley,
-
-
-
4 00
50 00
119 30
310
Essex, ....
27 00
30 00
25 00
88 00
-
180 75
367
Franklin,
-
10 00
-
-
450 00
118 00
274
Hampden, .
50 00
30 00
15 00
13 00
400 00
133 05
125
Hampden East, .
-
25 00
-
-
405 00
-
112
Hampshire,
12 00
16 00
-
23 00
15 00
94 70
159
Hampshire, Franklin
and Hampden,
16 00
20 00
_
333 05
87 76
184
Highland, .
-
-
37 00
106 45
185
Hingham, .
-
03 75
-
-
-
99 60
325
Hoosac Valley, .
10 00
-
10 00
33 00
950 00
218 50
275
Ilousatonic,
-
_
-
31 00
665 00
375 00
492
Hillside,
11 00
-
-
-
-
97 60
387
Marshfield, .
1 50
go 00
-
-
414 00
147 12
408
Martha's Vineyard, .
-
5 00
9 00
-
-
171 79
182
Middlesex, .
5 00
50 00
-
-
100 00
-
-
Middlesex North,
~
-
-
-
-
-
282
Middlesex South,
-
45 00
-
1 35
3)0 00
88 45
182
Nantucket, .
-
21 00
15 00
-
132 55
250
Plymouth, .
5 00
60 00
-.
-
975 00
208 40
370
Union
3 00
-
~
-
312 00
135 40
224
Worcester, .
-
-
-
2,355 00
198 00
298
AVorcester North,
13 00
25 00
-
25 00
480 00
297 46
283
Worcester North-west,
7 25
30 00
-
-
595 00
78 99
156
Worcester South,
13 50
35 00
-
-
575 00
108 25
202
Worcester West,
2 00
30 00
10 00
-
488 00
63 15
192
Mass. Horticultural, .
-
10 00
-
-
-
-
213
$362 75
$618 75
$159 00
$275 35
$13,152 05
$4,687 71
8,120
OFFICERS OF THE AGEICULTUEAL SOCIETIES, 1888.
AMESBURT AND SALISBURY.
President — F. W. SARGENT of Amesbury.
Secretary — J011l!J Q. EVANS of Salisbury.
BARNSTABLE.
President — AZARI All ELDRIDGE of Yarmouthport.
Secretary — FRED C. SWIFT of Yarmouthport.
BAY STATE.
President — FT>W ART) BURNETT of Southborough.
Secretary — W. S. LINCOLN of Worcester.
BERKSHIRE.
President — HEISRY A. BARTON, Jr., of Dalton.
Secretary — WM. H. MURRAY of Pittsfield.
BLACKSTONE VALLEY.
President — T>ANIFL W. TAFT of Uxbridge.
Secretary — WM. L. JOHNSON of Uxbridge.
BRISTOL.
President — PHILANDER WILLIAMS of Taunton.
Secretary — B. L. MITCHELL of Taunton.
DEERFIELD VALLEY.
President — Br. JOSIAH TROW of Buckland.
Secretary — M. M. MANTON of Charlemont.
ESSEX.
President — B. P. WARE of Beach Bluff.
Secretary — BAYIB W. LOW of Gloucester.
[331]
332 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
FRANKLIN.
President — JOH'N S. ANDERSON of Shelburne.
Secretary — FREDFAUCK L. GREENE of Greenfield.
HAMPDEN.
President — CHARLES F. FOWLER of AVestfield.
Secretary — ETHAN BROOKS of West Springfield.
HAMPDEN EAST.
President — Br. WILLIAM HOLBROOK of Palmer.
Secretary — 0. P. ALLEN of Palmer.
HAMPSHIRE.
Presideyit—D. A. HORTON of Iladley.
/S'ecretony — FRANK E. PAIGE of Amherst.
HA3IPSHIRE, FRANKLIN AND HAMPDEN.
President — EDGAR M. SMITH of Deerfield.
Secretary — L. C FERRY of Northampton.
HIGHLAND.
President — A^J^Tm STOWELL of Peru.
/Secreto?-?/ — JONATHAN McELWAIN of Middlefield.
HILLSIDE.
President — A'LYA'N BARRUS of Goshen.
Secretary — ^YM. G. ATKINS of West Cummington.
IIINGHAM.
President — YjEED L. RIPLEY of Hingham Centre.
Secretary — WM. H. THOMAS of Hingham.
IIOOSAC VALLEV.
President — ;i. M. WATERMAN of Williamstown.
Secretary — B.. CLAY' BLISS of North Adams.
nous ATONIC.
Presic7ew« — JOHN B. WALKER of New Mariborough.
Secretary — ILE'NRY T. ROBBINS of Great Barrington.
OFFICERS OF THE SOCIETIES. 333
MARSHFIELD.
President — JOJIN H. PARKS of Duxbury.
Secretary — FRA'^CIS COLLAMORE of Pembroke.
maktha's vineyard.
President — WM. J. ROTCII of Tisbury.
Secretary — B. T. HILLMAN of Chilmark.
MASSACHUSETTS.
President — THOS. MOTLEY of .Jamaica Plain.
Secretary — E. F. BOWDITCH of Framingham.
MASSACHUSETTS HORTICULTURAL SOCIETr.
President — Dii. HENRY P. WALCOTT of Cambridge.
Secretary — ROBERT MANNING of Boston.
MIDDLESEX.
President — JORl^i CUMMINGS of Woburn.
Secretary — WM. H. HUNT of Concord.
MIDDLESEX NORTH.
President — '^. B. CASE of North Reading.
Secretary — E. T. RO WELL of Lowell.
MIDDLESEX SOUTH.
President — S. B. BIRD of Framingham.
Secretary — F. M. EST Y of Framingham.
NANTUCKET.
President — GEORGE H. GARDNER of Nantucket.
>S'ecretor2/ — ALBERT EASTON of Nantucket.
PLYMOUTH.
President — JAMES C. SWAN of West Bridgewater.
^Secretor?/— GEORGE W. R. HILL of Brockton.
UNION.
President — HENRY K. HERRICK of Blandford.
Secretary — E'^OS W. BOISE of Blandford.
334 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
WORCESTER.
President— J. JjEWIS ELLSWORTH of Worcester.
Secretary — Ij. F. HERRICK of Worcester.
WORCESTER NORTH.
President — F. C. CURRIER of Fitchburg.
Secretary — S. W. HUNTLEY of Fitchburg.
WORCESTER NORTH-WEST.
President — W. H. BO WKER of Boston.
Secretary — J. F. WHITCOMB of Athol.
WORCESTER WEST.
Preside^it-F. M. HARWOOD of Barre.
/Secretor?/ — SYLVESTER BOTHWELL of Barre.
WORCESTER SOUTH.
President — WALDO JOHNSON of Webster.
Secretary — C. V. COREY of Sturbridge.
AGRICULTUEAL EXHIBITIONS. 1888.
Amesbury and Salisbury at Ameshury, October 2 and 3.
Bay State (date not given) .
Barnstable at Barnstable, September 25 and 26.
Berkshire at Pittsfield, September 11 and 12.
Blackstone Valley at Uxbridge, September- 25 and 26.
Bristol at Tatmton, September 25, 26 and 27.
Deerfield Valley at Charlemont, September 13 and l-l.
Essex at Peabody, September 25 and 26.
Franklin at Oreenjield, September 27 and 28.
Hampden at West Springfield, September 19 and 20.
Hampden East at Palmer, September 11 and 12.
Hampshire at Amherst, September 20 and 21.
Hampshire, Franklin and Hampden at Northampton, October 3 and 4.
Highland at Middlefield, September 5 and 6.
HiNGHAM at Hingham, September 25 and 26.
HoosAC Valley at North Adams, September 18, 19 and 20.
Hous atonic at Great Barrington, September 26 and 27.
Hillside at Cummington, Sejitember 25 and 26.
Massachusetts Horticultural, September 18, 19, 20 and 21.
Marshfield at Marshfield, September 12, 13 and 14.
Martha's Vineyard at West Tisbury, October 2 and 3.
Middlesex at Concord, September 25 and 26.
Middlesex North at Lowell, September 19 and 20.
Middlesex South at Framingham, September 18 and 19.
Nantucket at Nantucket, September 5 and 6.
Plymouth at Bridgewater, September 19 and 20.
Union at Blandford, September 12 and 13.
Worcester at Worcester, September 20 and 21.
Worcester North at Fitchbtirg, September 25 and 26.
Worcester North-avest at Athol, September 18 and 19.
Worcester South at Sturbridge, September 13 and 14.
Worcester West at Barre, September 27 and 28.
[335]
APPENDIX.
[337]
AGHICULTURAL EDUCATION.
BY HENRY H. GOODELL.
" How CAN HE GET WISDOM THAT HOLDETH THE PLOW, AND THAT GLORIETH
IN THE GOAD, THAT DRIVETH OXEN, AND IS OCCUPIED IX THEIH LABORS, AND
WHOSE TALK IS OF BULLOCKS."
An answer to the pertinent inquiry contained in the above
quotation will form the subject-matter of the paper to-day.
But Agricultural Education, the topic assigned me, is one
so general in its nature that it has seemed necessary to limit
its consideration to a discussion of the methods pursued in
those three countries, France, Germany and Great Britain,
where it has received the most careful attention. Each with
a system of its own, — each differing widely from the others,
yet each tending towards the same end, and so successful in
its results, that the face of nature itself has been changed,
and the barren lands and sodden wastes have been trans-
formed into the very gardens of the world.
In looking at the system in Germany, we are stmck in the
first place with its completeness, — a Central Bureau presid-
ing over the whole, — three or perhaps four intermediate
stages, leading up to the rounded whole in the University, —
each a link in the chain, complete in itself, and yet abso-
lutely necessary to advance to a higher grade. It shows a
persistent effort on the part of the various State governments
to take advantage of every period in the development of
the mind of those destined to agricultural pursuits.
For every stage of intellectual development, a school with
open doors awaits the seeker after higher knowledge. But it
is not merely to the seeker that these advantages are offered ;
for, by requirement of law, the children of the poorer classes
[339]
340 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
are gathered into schools, conducted at night, at unusual
hours or seasons of the year, at whatever times or under
whatever circumstances may be best adapted to their peculiar
needs.
It is to be particularly noted that while instruction in
agriculture is oifered at small expense to pupils of little or
no preliminary discipline, the government always insists
upon the longest possible drill in disciplinary studies of a
general nature — consequently we find in the kindergarten
an agricultural school for him who has had absolutely no
previous training, and again in the agricultural institute,
one for him who has mastered every stage in the long rou-
tine of classical and scientific training, up through the higher
university study. At whatever grade in this system a per-
son may close his training, he always finds himself fitted for
his special work, by a schooling which has been acquired in
logical sequence. No gaps have been left unbridged. No
intermediate field left unexplored. He leaves school fitted
for work.
There are, thus, essentially different schools of five difier-
ent grades (in Bavaria seven) , in which practical and scien-
tific agriculture are taught, the method pursued in each
having special reference to the mental maturity of the pupil.
The more advanced the school, the more technical and scien-
tific become the studies taught. The teacher in the kinder-
garten seeks to fix in memory the simplest generic name and a
few general qualities of the plant which accidentally arrests the
child's attention, while in the highest grade at the university,
the latest developments in plant physiology are presented.
More or less parallel with this graded system, is a system of
special schools of a still more practical nature, which do not
have in their courses purely disciplinary studies, but which
turn their entire energy to practical work in some particular
direction. Of these special schools, we would instance
those of domestic economy, fruit culture, fish culture, the
dairy, forest and veterinary academies, etc.
A second noteworthy fact in the German system of agri-
cultural education, is the strong belief that except in the low-
est class of schools, theory should not be united with practice,
and that it can best be taught in colleges and universities.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 341
It is true that in some few places the opposite view has been
held, and either farms have been added by purchase or ren-
tiil, or arrangements have been made with neighboring farm-
ers to allow their estates to be used for illustrating the
course of instruction. Still the fact remains, that as a class,
the German system rests on the separation of theory and
practice.
A third point worthy of observation is that while the
lower agricultural education is obligatory, the higher is volun-
tary, and attendance is left to the option of the student.
This, however, is secured through the great inducements
offered by government to those taking courses in the two
highest grades. A compulsory term of three years' service
in the army is required of every citizen, but those students
passing the examinations required in the institutes and higher
agricultural schools, are allowed to take a one year's volun-
tary service. To young men just starting out in life, having to
make their own way, this escape from two years of drudgery,
while they are at. the same time fitting themselves for the
active duties of their profession, must be a strong induce-
ment. Again, instead of serving as privates for three years,
these one year volunteers serve as sub-officers at their own
expense, and in time of war the additional officers are drawn
from their ranks.
One more point should be noted, that with the exception
of the institutes connected with the universities, none of these
schools are purely agricultural. Leaving out the dead
languages and the higher mathematics, their aim is to give a
liberal education. Object teaching is especially resorted to,
and even the schools of the lowest class are generously sup-
plied with diagrams, charts, implements and the like.
Havino^ now sketched the salient features of as-ricultural
education in Germany, let us first endeavor to take a bird's-
eye view of the whole, and then consider in detail separate
grades or links in the common chain. Presiding over the
whole is the Minister of Agriculture and Central Bureau,
located at Berlin, with an Advisory Board, composed of
those graduates from the universities who have studied to
be overseers, renters, foresters, or who have paid particular
attention to the relations of taxation to property. These
342 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
lay out and prescribe the courses of study to be pursued in
the government schools. Co-operating with these are the
agricultural societies, whose ramifications spread into every
part of the State. In Prussia alone they number seventeen
hundred and ten. A parent society in each of its four
Provinces, these subdividing into thirty-seven central ones,
and these in turn branching into twelve hundred and seventy-
one rural ones, all subordinated to the parent organization,
all acknowledging its authority and obedient to its laws. In
addition to these are three hundred and seventy-eight inde-
pendent ones. These societies are of great practical value
— encouraging fairs, granting premiums (the prize bull
or stallion being required to stand for a certain length of
time for the benefit of the district) , and also turning the money
of the State or Province, or their own money, to the support
of schools or control stations. The government schools
may be divided into four classes, to which a fifth may be
added, supported by the agricultural societies, in which
instruction is given by lecturers, who travel about from place
to place, giving special local information on just such topics
as would be of practical benefit to the farmer ; namely, the
character of the soil of that particular district, the crops best
adapted to it, and the most efiectual methods of securing them.
The first and highest of these schools are the Agricultural
Institutes, twenty-one in number, all, with the exception of
three or four, being departments of the universities. Here
the highest instruction is given, the course varying from
two to three years, according to the object of the pupil,
whether to become a farmer, or fit himself to be a teacher.
These are designed for gentlemen farmers, their sons or
stewards.
Second. The agricultural schools for the sons of the more
wealthy farmers. There are twentij-six of these schools,
and they cover a four years' course, their object being, to
quote the words of the privy councillor Dlinkelberg, ' ' to
educate youth up to seventeen or eighteen years of age, in
mathematics, natural sciences and two foreign languages, to
such an extent that they can obtain the right to perform
their military duties in one year. As these schools are pref-
erentially established to procure this right for the sons of
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 343
agriculturists, the pupils are at the same time also in-
structed in agriculture."
Third. The farming schools, over forty in number, de-
signed for the sons of small farmers and peasant proprietors, in
which the instruction is partly theoretical and partly practical.
Fourth. The supplemental schools, held in the evening
during the winter months and covering two winter courses,
their object being to enable young men who have left the
primary schools to still further educate themselves in mat-
ters of science bearing upon agriculture, and in agriculture
itself. These four classes form the graded links in the
chain of agricultural education in Germany ; but in addition
to these are the large numbers of special schools, and ex-
periment or control stations, to which a more extended
reference will be made later on. In all, "the Gemian
empire contains not less than one hundred and eighty-four
agricultural colleges and experiment stations, whose duty it
is, not only to learn all that can be learned of the capacity of
the soil and the methods of renewing and enriching it, but
to bring the results of these experiments to the table of
every farmer in the land." *
The two best examples of Agricultural Institutes f are the
Agricultural High School at Berlin and the Royal Academy
at Hohenheim, the former being purely theoretical, the latter
combining theory with practice. To give some idea of the
completeness of their equipment a few statistics respect-
ing the school at Berlin may not be out of place. It forms
simply a department of the university, having its own sepa-
rate faculty, lecture rooms, apparatus, etc. Its staff consists
of ten professors, twenty instructors and six assistants, be-
sides clerks, modelers, and others. Thirteen rooms are
devoted to the investigation and study of morphology and
physiological botany alone. Animal physiology and histology
receive a like generous treatment. The laboratories are sup-
plied with the finest appliances and apparatus devised by
science, and provision is made for the accommodation of
* Adams — " Plea for Scientific Agriculture."
t For tlie schedules of study and flgui'es I am largely indebted to :
Jenkins — "Report of Royal Commission on Technical Instruction";
Royer — " L' agriculture allemande, ses ecoles, son organization," etc.;
"Compte Rendu de 1' execution du ddcret du 3 Oct., 1848,relatif ^I'en-
seignement professionnel de 1' agriculture."
344
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
sixty students, simply in chemical studies. The collections
are unsurpassed. A large hall is filled with agricultural
implements, placed there by their makers, who replace them
from time to time by later improvements. Steam-power
and shafting admit of practical illustrations of power-driven
machinery. The botanical collection embraces some two
thousand specimens of wood, and over eighteen thousand
of different kinds of corn, seeds and fibres, together with a
valuable exhibit of artificial feeding stufis, both in the raw
and manufactured condition. The zoological collection,
illustrating in the most complete manner the history of
domestic animals, contains about three thousand specimens.
The zootechnical, particularly that pertaining to wool, is of
the highest interest and value ; for not only does it furnish
examples of fibre of the dififerent breeds, but of difierent
flocks of the same breed, and the gradual improvement in
fibre by careful selection in breeding. The instruction, it
is needless to say, is of the very highest order, and embraces
every phase of technical, applied and economic agriculture.
The fees for instruction, considering the advantages ofiered,
are very moderate, being about $50 per annum.
Having spoken of the appliances for education at Berlin,
let me briefly speak of the management of the farm at the
famous Royal Agricultural Academy at Hohenheim. It
consists of 760 acres. Of this, 480 is arable land, cropped
under the three followincr rotations : —
ROUGH-FIELD.
Vetxjhes for fodder,
Rape for seed,
Wheat,
Green crops,
Barley with clover,
Clover,
Spelt.
SMOOTH-FIELD.
Rape for seed.
Rye with red clover.
Clover, mowed,
Clover, fed,
Oats,
Green crops and pota-
toes.
Rye with hybrid and
white clover and
gi-ass seeds.
Grass, mown,
Grass, fed,
St. John's rye and fal-
low, manured and
folded.
DAIRY-FIELD.
Beans and green maize,
manured,
Winter wheat.
Green crops.
Spring corn and clorer.
Clover,
Clover,
Spelt,
Lucerne,
Lucerne.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 345
The operations are carried on by twelve working horses
and eight draft oxen ; and it supports one hundred cattle
(fifty being milch), and five hundred sheep, part natives,
part Merinos and Southdowns, or crosses. On this farm,
for practical in,struction, are established sugar, vinegar and
liqueur factories, and a distillery. The annual expense to
the State is $25,600. The fees are only $45 for natives, and
$125 for foreigners the first year and $85 the succeeding.
The Agricultural Schools, representing higher education,
are distril)uted, one in each province of the Pinissian em-
pire, while in a few cases there are more than one. The
course is a three years' one, and embraces the following
studies, taken from the official schedule : Religion, languages
(German and two foreign ones, either Latin, French or
English), mathematics, natural sciences (embracing zoology
and botany, physics, chemistry and mineralogy), agricul-
ture (embracing production of crops, breeding of stock,
farm management) , book-keeping, drawing, gymnastics and
singinsf. The greatest amount of time is devoted to the
study of languages, and, next to that, to mathematics.
The Farm Schools are of two kinds, — those purely theo-
retical, where the students are prepared for the schools of
the next higher grade, and those witJi a farm attached. In
many of the latter class the director is a tenant farmer, run-
ning the school and the farm at his own risk, the students
paying something, and the provincial government aiding in
its support by a bounty of thirty to eighty dollars per
annum for each student. The pupils do not assist in the cul-
tivation of the farm, but the second year boys are taken in
sets of fours and taught to perform every operation. In
some of these schools plots of ground are given to the pupils
to cultivate as they choose for their own profit. The course
ranges from one and one-half to two years. There are some
forty of these schools, supported partly by the State and
partly by the provincial authorities at an annual expense of
$85,000. The graduates obtain places as foremen of farm-
yards, or go out as apprentices on large farms, paying a
bonus of from twenty-five to seventy-five dollars the first
year, besides throwing in their services for the privilege.
In these schools no instruction in the languages is given,
346
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
and the greatest amount of time seems to be devoted to the
study of German, and to a consideration of the phenomena
of plant growth. Two points are especially worthy of no-
tice. One is the greater amount of time spent in the school-
room than in this country, thirty-six hours per week being
about the average ; and the other, the great attention paid
to book-keeping and the care with which the students are
taught to balance their accounts and compare the results of
each crop with the amount of capital and labor expended.
The Supplemental, or Winter Schools, embrace two winter
courses, from November to March. This winter instruction
is followed up in the summer by the travelling lecturer, who
is frequently the director of one of these schools. The
course embraces the followinsr studies : —
FIRST WINTER.
Elementary chemistry (inor-
ganic) ,
Mineralogy and soils,
Zoology,
Cattle breeding,
Dairying,
Physics, — mechanics, electri-
city.
Farm management,
Book-keeping.
SECOND WINTER.
Elementary chemistry (organ-
ic),
Botany and vegetable physiol-
ogy,
Agricultural botany ; plant
diseases,
IiTigation,
Physics and meteorology,
Farm management, — capital,
labor, oraranization.
GENERAL CULTURE.
German language, arithmetic, surveying, drawing.
The special schools of Germany are worthy of particular
notice, for they cover ground briefly touched in the graded
courses, and furnish a practical special education to be
acquired in no other way. There were, in 1886, nine techni-
cal high schools and 994 industrial and trade schools.
Among others there were eighteen dairy schools ; six royal
academies of forestry, besides many of lower grade ; three
veterinary schools ; three shoeing schools, in connection
with the veterinary ; two drainage and irrigation ; three
bee-keeping ; several of gardening and political economy,
sugar making, brewery and distillery, fish culture ; and a
host of smaller farrier schools. In these last the instruction
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 347
is given by lectures, and in one at least, on Sundays, after
church, when the young men are at liberty.
The most celebrated of the dairy schools is at Raden. The
course lasts six months. Only six pupils are received at a
time and the fee is fifteen dollars per month. Instruction is
given not merely in the different systems of cheese-making,
as that of Tilsit, Gruyere and others, but also particular
attention is paid to book-keeping and the principles of breed-
ing and feeding. One of the best of the dairy schools for
girls is at Heinrichtsthal in Saxony. It seems to be a sort
of finishing-off school, where farmers' daughters, about to set
up households of their own, can receive practical instruction
in the daily duties of life. The fee is forty-five dollars for
three months' lodging and instruction, and from ten to twelve
pupils are received at a time. The course embraces : The
technical management of a dairy, including book-keeping ;
feeding and management of cows ; fattening calves and pigs ;
instruction in cooking ; house-keeping in general ; the man-
agement of poultry and of a kitchen-garden.
The subject of forestry is one to which great attention has
been paid from the earliest times in Germany. As far back
as 1795 we find a department of forestry in the university at
Giessen, and schools devoted to its study, established in the
early part of the century. Of the thoroughness and complete-
ness of the instruction, we can form no idea till we have
examined the course of study. At the royal Saxony Forest
Academy the course is two and one-half years, and embraces
the following studies, classified under the three heads of
Fundamental Sciences, Professional and Complemental : —
Fundamental Sciences. — Chemistry, mineralogy, geognosy
(with special reference to study of soils), botany (structural
and physiological) and forest botany, zoology (with particu-
lar reference to animals injurious or the contrary to forest
economy), entomology, physics and natural philosophy,
meteorology, mathematics (commencing with arithmetic and
leading up through geometry, plane and analytical, to integral
and differential calculus), mensuration, mechanics, architect-
ure, hydraulic engineering, road-making, general economy.
Professional Sciences. — History and literature of forestry,
forest culture and conservation, forest mathematics, measure-
348 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
ment of felled trees and standing timber, cubic increase
of wood by annual growth, forest financial reckoning,
forest economy and technology, forest management and
administration, police, game laws.
Complemenial Sciences. — Science of finance, law and juris-
prudence, rural economy, meadow culture, fruit culture.*
Last in the system, but not least, come the control stations,
of which there are, in Germany alone, seventy-two. The im-
mediate outcome of the teachings of Liebig was to awaken a
demand for the investigation of nature, and in 1852 the first
experiment station was established at Mockern. The im-
portance of its work was quickly recognized, and the estab-
lishment of others followed in such rapid succession that
there are to-day in Europe one hundred and forty-eight in
successful operation. In them, nature is carefully observed
and studied in all the fields of agricultural inquiry. They
are, then, in reality, the crowning schools of the German agri-
cultural education. But there is another phase of their work,
of the utmost importance to the farming community. They
furnish the purchaser of artificial manures with a guarantee
of their composition at the expense of the seller. Hence
some of these stations are supported by associations of
dealers, while others are under the direction of the agri-
cultural societies.
The French system of agricultural education is, like the
German, a graded one, and in like manner offers as a premium
to the student in the higher departments a short voluntary
service in the army instead of the usual compulsory five
years. But it difiers from the German in several important
particulars. In the first place, it is based upon the union
of theory with practice. In the second place, attendance in
all grades is compulsory, while in the German, as we have
seen, it is voluntary in the higher; and in the third place, it
directly encourages its system of instruction by oflering
prizes, not to the pupils, but to those teachers whose schol-
ars have passed the best examinations. In addition to this,
the pupils themselves are stimulated to work by the offering
of scholarships and rewards to those who successfully com-
plete their course. Thus, at the Institut National Agronom-
* Brown — " Schools of Forestry in Germany."
AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION. 349
ique at Paris, the two graduating with the highest honors
hold for three years a scholarship enabling them to prosecute
their studies at home or travel abroad. They are required,
however, to send home to the director, at stated intervals,
reports of what they have observed, and these reports are
printed. At the great horticultural school at Versailles, we
find, in like manner, scholarships worth $250, and held for a
year, given as rewards to those passing the best examinations.
At one of the farm or primary schools, $60 is given to
every pupil receiving a certificate of having faithfully per-
formed his duty and profited by the instruction. And no
less than $34,000 a year is ofiered by the government in
prizes for the best-managed farms in those departments
where fairs are held. Again, the government recommends
that, in the selection of teachers, preference should be given
to those able to impart instruction in agricultural subjects,
and in some of the departments it is made a requisite of the
first importance. Can we wonder that with incentives such
as these, appealing to instructor and pupil, and to the tiller
of the soil himself, that agriculture and agricultural educa-
tion in France should have received an impetus that has made
it second to none in the whole world ?
The difierent grades in the French system of agricultural
education are four : First, the Institut National Agronora-
ique at Paris, representing the highest form of education ;
second, the Eegional schools, three in number (the 86 de-
partments of France are divided according to location into
three regions, and in each of these a school of higher educa-
tion is established) ; third, the Practical Schools of Agricul-
ture, nine in number, designed for the sons of those in
moderate circumstances, who can afibrd to pay something for
their education; fourth, the Farm Schools in the difierent
departments, twenty in number, furnishing an education free
to the sons of laborers and small farmers. In addition to this
graded system are forty or more evening schools, the special
schools, and the Departmental Professors of Agriculture,
fifty five in number, whose duty it is to deliver lectures on
agriculture to the teachers and agriculturists of their district.
A noticeable fact in the higher schools is the generous pro-
vision made for instruction. In the Institut National there
350 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
is a teaching force oi forty-two., while in each of the Regional
schools the instructors number from twenty to thirty. Even
in the elementary schools great care is taken to make the in-
struction as thorough and practical as possible. The fol-
lowing is the text of the ordinance of the 10th of October,
1887, decreeing the teaching of agriculture in the higher
primary schools of Dourdan. The scholars, be it under-
stood, are from ten to fourteen years of age. After first de-
claring that there shall be a special course in agriculture, it
goes on : —
Aet. II. This instruction shall include a course in agriculture
and a course in the hygiene of domestic animals, embracing the
following subjects : General agriculture, special crops, rural
economy, horticulture and arboriculture, zootechny (general and
special), diseases of plants, insects injurious and beneficial.
Art. III. The course in agriculture shall consist of about a
hundred lectures, that of hygiene of twenty. The whole shall be
supplemented by agricultural excursions and practical exercises in
a garden or experimental plot.
Art. IV. The professor of agriculture shall give an adult
course in the evening, in winter, but on Sunday afternoons in
summer. *
A pleasant and very profitable feature of the Institut is
the sending out of the students during vacation, for practical
work and observation, to farms of known reputation, either
in France or in foreign countries, the pupil paying from $15
to $20 a month to the proprietor for this privilege, and being
required to make a carefully written report to the director
of the result of his observations. Five thousand dollars are
annually spent in this way. The amount of money ex-
pended by the government each year, over and above re-
ceipts, in aid of these schools, is something surprising, even
in this State, noted for its generosity in educational matters.
The sums are distributed as follows : —
Institut National $50,000 00
Regional schools, 80,7G0 00
Agi-icultural and Farm schools, 114,800 00
Evening schools, 30,000 00
Departmental professors, 35,000 00
*Minist6re de 1' agriculture. Bulletiu, Vol. G, No. 7, 1887.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 351
Twenty-three Agronomic stations, $17,000 00
Agricultural shows, 190,000 00
Fat-cattle shows, 40,000 00
Regional shows, 150,000 00
A total of $707,660 00
But in addition to this are the special schools, all supported
liberally, — as those of forestry, for example, at an annual ex-
pense of $43,000, or the three great veterinary academies at
$87,760. In brief, if we should add to the sums appropri-
ated by the general government, the help given by the
departments, we should find the yearly amount expended in
agricultural education to be considerably over a million
dollars.
In Great Britain, agricultural education maybe considered
under the three heads of government aid, private enterprise and
the agricultural societies. Government aid is very unevenly
distriliuted. In England it is confined to the maintenance
of a chair of agriculture at the Normal School of South
Kensington, and to the payment to the masters of four shil-
lings for every pupil passing in certain specified subjects ;
in Scotland, to the payment of $750 a year for the support
of a chair of agriculture at the University of Edinburgh ;
while in Ireland it has established an institute for the train-
ing up of schoolmasters, and has organized and put in oper-
ation over a hundred schools in which as^riculture is tausfht,
besides some twenty model farm schools. Where, however,
government aid seems to be deficient or withheld, there pub-
lic societies and private enterprise have not been wanting to
forward agricultural education. That there is a distinct call
for education of this kind is evidenced by the numerous
advertisements of private schools in which agricultural in-
struction is made the chief feature. The Albert Institute at
Glasnevin furnishes the higher education in Ireland, and to
it are brought yearly, at the expense of the government, the
schoolmasters of the lower schools, fifty at a time, for a six
weeks' course. A novel feature of agricultural education in
Ireland is the " Travelling Educational Dairy," owned by the
Royal Agricultural Society of Ireland, and let out by them
at the rate of $35 per week and expenses. It consists of a
352 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
huge box on wheels, the sides of which, parting in the centre,
lift up and let down, forming the roof and flooring to a room
some ten feet square. This is fitted up with the latest and best
appliances for dairy use. It is surrounded by a gallery hav-
ing accommodations for seventy or eighty spectators. A
lecturer, dairy-maid and assistant constitute the working
force. While the churning is going on, the lecturer explains
the apparatus and the methods employed, or answers the
questions put to him.
Higher agricultural education in England, as represented
by the Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester, and the
Downton College of Agriculture, owes its origin to the
persistent efforts of private individuals. I have chosen the
former as a type of this class. Its object* is to give a
training suited to the needs of the following classes : —
land owners, land occupiers, agents, stewards, factors,
surveyors, intending colonists, employees in Indian agri-
culture, forestry, etc. It has a stafi" of eleven professors,
five assistants and a manager of the farm. Its course
extends over two years and one term, the last term
being taken up with examinations for the diploma of
the college. No entrance examination is required. The
fees are $675 per annum for in-students, and $375 for out-
students, furnished private rooms in the college being at an
extra charge of $150 a year. These fees include board,
and, in fact, all college charges, except laundry, books, fines
and damage. It is evident from the charges that only the
sons of those in easy circumstances can avail themselves of
the benefits of this education. The farm, containing about
four hundred and fifty acres of arable land, is divided into
twenty fields, and the rotation followed is that known as the
Norfolk four-course. Sheep are the chief stock (Cotswolds,
of which a breeding flock of some five hundred is main-
tained), but special attention is also paid to Berkshire pigs.
The following studies are pursued : —
Sessions 1 and 2. Practical Agriculture (soils, manures,
implements, labor, buildings). Chemistry (inorganic). Book-
keeping, Mensuration, Physics, Geology or Botany or
* Propectns Royal Agricultural College, Cirencester, 1885.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 353
Zoology, Veterinary Anatomy and Physiology, Drawing
(plans of farm buildings).
Sessions 3 and 4. Practical Agriculture (tillage, crops,
etc.), Chemistry (organic). Book-keeping, Surveying,
Physics, Geology or Botany or Zoology, Veterinary Pathol-
ogy, Drawing (farm machinerj^).
Sessions 5 and 6. Practical Agriculture (stock, dairy,
economics). Chemistry (agricultural), Book-keeping, Engi-
neering, Mechanics, Geology or Botany or Zoology, Veter-
inary Therapeutics, Drawing (designs for farm buildings).
Agricultural law in the winter session ; building materials
and construction in the spring, and general estate manage-
ment, with the principles of forestry, in the summer. Let it
be observed here, that there are in Great Britain no schools
of forestry for advanced pupils, and that candidates for gov-
ernment positions are sent by the government and the agri-
cultural societies to acquire an education at the great forestry
school of Nancv, in France. Connected with the college,
for practical illustration, are forges, blacksmith and carpen-
ter's workshops, a botanical garden and veterinary hospital.
Established in 1845, the first class was graduated in 1847,
and while some three thousand have enjoyed its benefits, only
two hundred and eighty-six have received its diploma.
Of the agricultural societies, the most influential is the
Royal Agricultural Society of England. With a member-
ship of nearly ten thousand, it cannot but make itself felt
most widely. One of its leading objects is declared to be
' ' to take measures for the improvement of the education of
those who depend upon the cultivation of the soil for their
support."
This it has endeavored to do by establishing scholarships
at the universities and colleges ; by oflfering ten scholar-
ships of $100 each and ten of $50 each to such students as
would take a year's course of study at an agricultural col-
lege, or spend a year with some approved agriculturist ;
by oftering prizes in certain of the veterinary colleges, and
to tenant farmers for the best-managed farms. For eleven
years it has conducted experiments at Woburn on the effects
of difterent manures, and published the results in its jour-
nal. Through the same organ, the names of those dealers
354 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
furnishing inferior articles of feeding stuffs or artificial
manures have been given to the public ; and it has even gone
so far as to furnish an indemnity against prosecution for
libel to those journals publishing literally their reports.
But its greatest influence has been through its large consult-
ing corps of experts, Avhom members may consult on a fixed
scale of prices. * Thus, in chemistry, there are twenty-three
different kinds of analyses, ranging in price from $1.50 for
an estimate of value of sulphate and muriate of ammonia and
of the nitrates of soda and potash, to $27 for an examination
of the viscera complete for metals and alkaloids. For the
eradication and prevention of diseases among the domestic
animals, 54 veterinary surgeons are appointed, in as many
agricultural centres, to whom members may go, at prices
ranging from $1.50 for consultation by letter to $8 for
attendance during an entire day ; while sick cattle may be
boarded and treated at the Infirmary of the Royal Veteri-
nary College at Camden Town for about $3 a week, sheep
and pigs being received for half that sum. So, too, in bot-
any, a report can be obtained on the purity and germinating
power of seeds sent for examination for $1.50, or the deter-
mination of a collection of grasses growing on the same
kind of soil, and their pasture value, for $3. The consulting
entomologist is a lady, and her annual reports have for ten
years been a valuable feature of the journal. Insects are sent
to her for determination, and questions are answered respect-
ing their beneficial or injurious character. In short, in
evcr-y question bearing upon the improvement of agriculture
and agricultural education, we find the Royal Agricultural
Society of England taking a prominent paii; and leading the
way. Its 9,200 meml)ers, whether consciously or uncon-
sciously, are a leaven, silently but powerfully leavening the
whole lump.
The essential features of the English system we find, then,
to be these : That until very recently this education has
been confined exclusively to the upper and wealthy middle
classes, no attempt having been made to improve the con-
dition of the lower. Indeed, one of their ablest writers
takes the ground ''that elementary, general and so-called
* Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, 1886.
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 355
middle-class education is scarcely an agricultural subject
at all, and that it still is true, and probably
always will be true, that the bulk of farmers have been bred
by farmers, and that it is a fortunate thing
that the education of farmers from their childhood upwards is
almost entirely in the hands of farmers — that is, under their
direction." * Second, that the purchaser pays for the
analysis of his goods, while in France and Germany it is
distinctly the reverse. Third, that the great agricultural
societies are the pivots on which the whole system rests.
To their generous encouragement is largely due the advance
that has been made in British agriculture and agricultural
education. It is true, it may be said
" We 've fallen on better times ; men read and think.
Our good forefathers used to fight and drink."
But the societies have furnished facts to read and think
about. The investigations undertaken by them, the im-
proved methods introduced by them, have been just so
many object-lessons in the education of every farmer in the
neighborhood.
We have now completed our survey of the system of agri-
cultural education in the three leadinsr countries of the
world, and we find the following features especially worthy
of consideration : —
First. The greatest improvement has been made in those
countries w'here the graded sj^stem is most complete, — each
step complete in itself, yet absolutely necessary in passing
to the next higher. We are told that we have failed in our
efforts to civilize the Indian simply from neglect of the in-
tennediatc steps, — that " man in passing from a savage to a
civilized state passes through three stages : first, he is a
hunter, living by the chase ; second, he is a herdsman, living
by pasturage of goats, sheep, camels and kine ; third, he is a
husbandman, living by cultivation of corn and maize and
fmit and herbs," f and that it is utterly impossible for him
to pass from the condition of the huntsman to that of a hus-
bandman till he has first fulfilled the conditions of a nomadic
* Morton — " Agricultural Education."
t llepworth-Dixon — " New America."
356 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
life, and learned a more peaceful existence in tending his
flocks and herds. And, in like manner, this is perhaps one
reason why the agricultural colleges of our own country
have failed to accomplish all that was expected of them.
They have aimed at a higher education when no provision
had been made for the lower. They have tried to turn out
men fitted to take the lead in agricultural pursuits, when
these same men were incapable, from lack of previous train-
ing, to adequately profit by the instruction ofiered them.
Second. The weight of testimony seems, on the whole,
to be in favor of divorcing theory from practice. Germany
has maintained that idea, gradually giving up its farms, or
retaining them simply for the sake of illustration. France,
on the other hand, has held the opposite opinion strongly,
and certainly its success would seem to warrant its belief.
Perhaps a few quotations from leading educators will best
show the grounds for this separation. Royer, in his " Ger-
man Agriculture," says : " The laborer, worn out by fatigue
and the stern demands of toil, cannot study, while the pupil
has too many things to learn to be able to practice."
Mons. Risler, director of the Institut, defends its loca-
tion at Paris, and consequent separation from practice, in
these words: "In no other branch of industry, engineer-
ing, etc., have the schools the two-fold function of practice
and theory. The schools are theoretical, and the practice
is studied in the manufactories, the workshops, etc. Why
do otherwise in agriculture? If you pursue both practice
and theory, you will make bad practical men and bad
scientific men."
Mons. de Miral, director of one of the Farm Schools,
says : "It is difficult for the director to obtain any profit
from the farm school as such, because the work done by the
apprentices is so frequently defective. They break the im-
plements, they lame the animals, they do so much damage
that their labor costs more than that of paid workmen. The
State ought, therefore, in justice, to augment its subvention
for the maintenance of the apprentices." And, in this coun-
try, Hilgard utters the following golden truths : " It is not
for the purpose of how to plow and hoe, but why they plow
and hoe at all, and when and where to do it to the best
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. 357
advantage, that parents are willing to send their sons to the
colleges. . . . And it follows that the time spent in
merely mechanical and uninstructive labor in the agricul-
tural colleges, detracts to that extent from the opportunities
of the student and stints his education." *
Third. Numbers are not looked upon as the measure of
success. It is the quality of the education and the standard
of the men turned out. In Bavaria, for example, 1,096
supplemental schools are supported, with an average attend-
ance of only 18 pupils ; and in 7 winter schools we find only
157 pupils, but a teaching force of 53. At the practical
school of agriculture at the Chateau of Tomblaine, in 1882,
there were 18 students and 15 instructors. At Les Mer-
chines, 20 pupils and 8 teachers. The little kingdom of
Wtirtemberg, with an area of 7,675 square miles (a little
less than Massachusetts), and a population of 1,971,118 (a
little larger than Massachusetts), supports, at an annual ex-
pense of $51,370, the following schools : —
The Agricultural Institute at Hohenheim, with 21 teachers and 72
students.
The Veterinary School at Stuttgart, with 13 teachers and 60
students.
The Farm Schools at Ellwangen, Ochsenhausen, Kirchberg, each
with 12 students.
The Viticultural School at Weinsberg, with 15 students.
Five Higher Agricultural Schools, with 89 students.
■883 Evening and Winter Schools, with 20,100 students.
These statistics bring us to our last point ; namely, the
dependence of these schools upon government aid. Left to
their own resources they would soon be given up ; and
it is only by the subsidy of the general government, by
the appropriations of the provincial governments, and the
support of the societies that they are enabled to carry on
their work.
Perhaps now it may be asked, what are the results of this
lavish outlay of money on the part of the government and
individuals? What the direct results? France, with 37,-
400,000 inhabitants, supports a population of 184 to the
* Hilgard — " Progress in Agriculture" (Atlantic Monthly, 1882).
358 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
square mile, and has 18,200,000 engaged in agricultural
pursuits. Germany, with 45,200,000, supports a population
of 213 to the square mile, and has 18,800,000 engaged in
agricultural pursuits. Great Britain, with 35,200,000, sup-
ports a population of 291 to the square mile. In Germany
the almost universal testimony of those in charge of the
schools, is of the beneficial effects upon the peasants. Bet-
ter rotations have been put in practice, hand-labor has given
place to improved machinery, the number of acres under
cultivation has been multiplied, the product per acre has
increased two-fold, a great variety has been added to the
list of products, and the adaptation of crops to soil has been
more carefully studied.
France has become a vast garden, — " the best cultivated
country," according to the Banker's Magazine of New York,
" in the world ; whose revenue from its land alone is esti-
mated at $550,000,000," and whose exports in 1884, of articles
of food and cereals, footed up to $165,302,200, and its wines
to $47,450,000 more. Its agriculture certainly pays, for one-
half of its population are engaged in its pursuit. Next to the
United States and Russia it has become the greatest wheat-
producing country in the world. Its forests, carefully super-
intended by pupils from the great school of Nancy, yield it
an annual revenue of $50,000,000. The denuded slopes of
the Alps and the Pyrenees, down which poured the mountain
torrents, filling up and covering over the fertile plains with
coarse debris, have been covered with smiling verdure to
their very summits, and the waters have been led captive
into the channels prepared for them. The sand dunes on
the west coast, advancing at the rate of 14 feet per annum,
and transplanting inland 90 cubic yards of sand per yard of
coast line, annually, have been arrested in their course, and
224,154 acres have been reclaimed and covered with trees
and shrubs.* The cultivation of the sugar beet, carried to
the highest perfection, has twice saved the country from
national bankruptcy.
In England, fifty ^ears ago, the normal yield of wheat per
acre was thirteen bushels, the latest returns make it 31.24
per acre. So, too, the hay crop. By a judicious use of
♦Consular Report. Forestry of Europe, 1887.
AGRICULTUEAL EDUCATION. 359
fertilizers, Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert have raised the yield
per acre from 2,300 pounds to 6,400. The barren plains of
Norfolk, stretching for miles their sandy wastes, with here
and there a stunted growth to mark the effort of nature to
reckim them, have been transformed into broad fields of life-
sustaining crops ; and the fens of Lincolnshire, reeking with
malaria, have been changed into the granary of England.
Thirty years ago and the Whitworth guns were the terror
of the world, but the canny Scotchman, loading them with
canister filled with seeds, aimed them at the beetling crags,
which, lifting their towering heads far into the empyrean,
defied ascent by man, and lo ! the shells, bursting amid the
clouds, scattered the seeds far and wide, and to-day his
grace the duke of Athol looks with pride upon the wooded
heights of Craigybarnes.
360 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
THE CHEMISTEY OF THE KITCHEN.
By James P. Ltnde of Athol.
Besides . . . chemical elements, tliere is in the physical world one agent
only, and this is called energy. It may appear, according to circum-
stances, as motion [heatj, chemical affinity, cohesion, electricity, light,
magnetism ; and from any one of these forms it can be transformed into
any of the others. — Dr. Mohr.
I have here a bundle of cotton, which I ignite; it burns and yields a
definite amount of heat. Precisely that amount of heat was abstracted
from the sun, in order to form that bit of cotton ; . . . every tree, plant
and flower grows and flourishes by the grace and bounty of the sun.
But we cannot stop at vegetable life, for this is the source of all animal
life. In the animal body vegetable substances are brought again into cou-
tact with their beloved oxj'gen, and they burn within us as a fire l)urns in
a grate. This is the source of all animal power, ... all terrestrial power
is drawn from the sun. — Prof. Tyndall.
These quotations present a clear statement of the modern
idea of the conservation of energy.
Scientists explain how the energy derived from the sun is
stored in fuel and transformed by oxidation or combustion
into light and heat, and mechanical power by steam or hot
air ; or into electricity, which may be again transmuted into
light and heat and power. The physiologist teaches us how
the same latent energy stored in foods serves to Avarm our
bodies and give us strength for every effort of body or
mind. Many abstruse problems connected with llieso mani-
festations of energy remain to be solved through experimental
investisration and research. We know but little about the
brain and the generation of nervous energy.
Air and food are the two most important essentials of life.
Animals speedily die when deprived of air, while a total
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE KITCHEN. 361
deprivation of food is not fatal for a considerable time,
varying Avith internal and external conditions and influences.
Man requires food to build up his organism, repair its
waste, maintain its nutrition, generate heat and evolve its
dynamic energies. The necessity or demand for food is
manifested by sensations of hunger, discomfort and debility.
Its supply is influenced and very largely controlled by the
inexorable demands of the palate, an organ of sense, —
the endowment of nerves distributed upon the tongue.
Placed at the very gateway of life, it refuses to pass sub-
stances irritating, acrid and injurious without its protest,
and impels the individual to select such food materials as are
acceptable to its requirements, which, fortunately, are usually
those essential to the necessities and intes-ritv of the orffan-
izatiou.
" Now good digestion wait on appetite and health on both." —
Macbeth.
Man selects his food from animal and vegetable sources,
influenced in his choice by peculiarities of race, climatic
conditions and the refinements of civilization. The source
of all our foods is in the veo-etable kingdora. Vegetable
products have the power of selecting and incorporating into
their tissues such inorganic mineral elements as are needed
for the growth and nutrition of animals, thus lurnishing a
complete food. Therefore animal tissues are but another
form of vegetable tissues ; and as vegetation is impossible
without the influence of the light, heat and energy of the
sun, therefore the sun is the source of the force or energy
which we call life ; and as matter is indestructible, so also is
the life-force indestructible, however produced or mani-
fested.
Food in its relation to the animal system, as a source of
power, is the same as that of coal to the steam engine. The
food must pass through the process of oxidation in the
animal economy to be converted into actual energy, such as
muscular and nervous power and animal heat ; so likewise the
coal must be oxidized in the locomotive, and converted or
reconverted into potential energy through the expansive
property of steam.
362 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
All species of animals, birds, fishes, reptiles, insects,,
worms and infusorial earths, together with the seeds of the
grasses and many varieties of vegetables, fruits, roots and
nuts, are used by mankind as food ; and some tribes are
cannibals, as were our English ancestors only a few hundred
years ago.
Climatic influences modify food requirements. Hundreds
of millions of people living in tropical countries subsist
chiefly on rice and tropical fruits ; those living in arctic
regions consume enormous quantities of fats and fat meats,
without fruits or starch foods. The diet of one region would
be fatal to people living in the other. The food required in
infancy, middle life, old age and disease, varies very widely,
and its selection is influenced by many considerations.
The constituent elements of foods are the same as those of
the tissues they are to nourish, — carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium and
iron are the essentials. We do not use these elements di-
rectly as foods, but in selecting our aliment we deal with
their combinations as found in living organisms, plants and
animals, or in organic products produced by the agency of
life, having chemical combinations of inorganic materials in
their substance, such as water, and the salts of lime, potash
and iron. The organic structure of many foods contains
compounds of which nitrogen is an important part, and such
arc called nitrogenous ; others, composed of carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen, variously combined, arc non-nitrogenous. The
nitrogenous foods are chiefly used in tissue building, and the
non-nitroo:enous in the 2i;encration of heat, — both are used
in tissue building and the production of heat and force, but
to an unequal degree. Physiologically considered, ali-
mentary substances may be classed under four divisions of
alimentary principles : —
I. Nitrogenized principles. Albumen, fibrine, casein
and gluten. The proteids.
II. Fats and oils.
III. Carbo-hydrates. Starch and sugar.
IV. Inorganic materials. Minci-al salts and water.
Nitrogen is an essential clement in the structure of animal
tissues, so that without it animal life in any form would be
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE KITCHEN. 363
impossible ; yet we do not receive and appropriate it directly
from the atmosphere, the great storehouse of nitrogen, but
from organic compounds containing it under various chemi-
cal relations, as found in the substance of our foods.
Milk and eggs present the most perfect type of all our
alimentary materials. They contain all the elements nec-
essary for the growth and nutrition of the body. Milk is
essential to the young of all mammalia, including man, and
should be administered to the human infant in a pure state,
without sophistication of any kind, except a little salt.
Of foods rich in nitrogen, are meats of all kinds, — except
fats, — fish, milk, eggs, cheese, beans, pease, cereal grains and
nuts. These must be subjected to the digestive processes of
the stomach and bowels, disintegi"ated and changed into a
highly soluble material called albuminose or peptone, which,
acted upon by chemical forces in contact with living tissues,
and absorbed into the circulation, metabolized, and in some
mysterious way, by many changes, made to contribute to
the maintenance of life and energy.
The fats and oils are non-nitrogenous, composed of carbon,
hydrogen and a small per cent, of oxygen ; they are obtained
from animal and vegetable sources.
Fats are not digested in the stomach. The pancreatic
secretion converts them without chemical change in the
intestine into a fine emulsion, which is absorbed into the
circulation through the lactcals, and is parti}-" saponified in
the alkaline blood and partly oxidized in respiration, being
one of the chief sources of animal heat, holding in this rela-
tion the highest place over all other alimentary materials.
It is also by selective cell action stored in the cellular tis-
sues that envelop the body under the skin and surround the
muscles, giving — when not in excess — a shapely form and
rotundity to the person, and, as a non-conductor of heat,
promoting warmth and comfort; and in diseased conditions
aftbrding a store of material to be absorbed for purposes of
nutrition, when the consumption and digestion of food is in-
sufficient for the needs of the body. It is found in brain,
muscle, blood and bone, and is a very important — yes, indis-
pensable — element in the animal economy.
The carbo-hydrates, starch and sugar, form another most
364 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
interesting group of alimentary principles. Starch is the
chief constituent of many of our most valuable foods, such
as the seeds of the cereal grasses, tubers, roots, stems and
fruits.
In the process of digestion starch is converted by the
ptyalin (the diastase of the saliva) and trypsin (the diastase
of the pancreatic secretion) into dextrine and grape sugar,
which, absorbed into the blood, is arrested in the liver,
where it is changed into animal starch — glycogen — and
further transformed into fat, either in the liver or by the
cells of the tissues ; just how we do not certainly know.
The sweet taste of liver is due to the glycogen and sugar.
Starch is not digested in the stomach, and is not found in
the blood.
Sugar is a luxury and a necessity much used and highly
prized by all civilized races. Its consumption is enormous.
Fifty pounds per head in the United States, with 60,000,000
of people, amounts to 1 ,500,000 tons. Sugar was first made
in Bengal, and its use was widely established in eastern
countries as early as 766 ; but it was not until 1700 or 1750
that it came into general use. The sweet of ancient nations
was honey gathered by the busy bee from flowers. Sugar is
derived chiefly from vegetable sources, — from the sap and
juices of the cane, grape, beet, maple, and several other trees
and plants.
A sweet substance derived from coal tar has lately l)een
discovered by Dr. Fahlburg, a German chemist residing in
this country, called saccharine. It is the king of sweets,
beins: 250 times sweeter than our best susrars. It is not a
carbo-hydrate, is not decomposed in the body, and is not
therefore a food. Its uses and value are yet to be determined.
Susrar is found in various combinations in brain, inlands
and nmscles. It does not pass through any process of
digestion, but is split up — metabolized — by chemical ac-
tion into new compounds. A part is converted into grape
sugar, is reconverted into animal starch or glycogen, and
finally into fat, t!ie uses of which have been considered.
The carbo-hydrates, therefore, are to the physical system
the same as coal to the locomotive, — by oxidation, genera-
tors of heat and force.
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE KITCHEN. 365
The inorganic alimentary principles, water and saline
compounds, are an indispensable part of the animal system.
Water is everywhere abundant. It constitutes three-fourths
of the weight of man and animals, and a much larger part of
many articles of food. It undergoes no digestion or chemi-
cal change within the body, but is absolutely essential to
every chemical and vital change, every manifestation of the
life-force in any form. Its union with tissues is mechanical,
not chemical. It is the great diluent in Nature's laboratory.
The skeleton must be built up from mineral matter, and
this is supplied, in animal and vegetable foods, in the form
of salts of lime, soda, potash, phosphorus, sulphur and iron.
A part of these salts are found in the bones, others in the
brain, muscles, blood, and other tissues.
Certain organic vegetable salts, such as the citric, tartaric,
malic and peptic acids, with their compounds, are needed in
healthy blood. Just how they act we do not certainly
know ; but when withheld for any considerable period, and a
diet of salted food is used, scurvy with all its woes is the
sure result.
Other accessory foods are condiments, such as mustard,
radish, the peppers and spices. When prudently used, they
are acceptable to the palate, cordial and stimulating to the
digestive organs. These four classes of alimentary princi-
ples,— the nitrogenous, hydro-carbons, carbo-hydrates and
inorganic, — are variously combined in the structure of our
vegetable and animal foods. They come to us in forms that
require important changes in texture to prepare them for
comfortable use, and next in importance to their abundant
supply comes the art of the cook, as exercised in the chemis-
ti"y of the kitchen.
The art of cooking, as now developed, is a growth that
has come down to us from most ancient times. It has
attained its highest perfection among the French. The
chief cook in large hotels can command a salary equal to
those paid in other departments of skilled labor. He is a
true artist, a real benefactor of mankind.
The kitchen is a very important department of the house
and home. It should be a laro^e room, well liijhted and ven-
tilated, supplied with a good range or stove, with all neces-
366 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
sary furniture for the use of heat. Fuel and water must not
be forgotten. The closets and pantry must be supplied
with animal and vegetable foods, sugar, salt, soda, bitartrate
of potassa, soap and condiments. Cooking cannot be skil-
fully performed without suitable materials and conveniences.
The cook should be a cheerful, happy person, of quick
perception and good common-sense, active, patient, econom-
ical, very neat, and fairly good-looking.
Meats are cooked by boiling, baking, roasting, broiling
or frying. Corned beef is boiled, salt pork is boiled or
fried. Boiling of meat coagulates the albumen, dissolves
the salts and extractives, softens and loosens the fibres, and
prepares it for easy mastication and digestion.
If the object is to secure rich soups and broths, the meat
should be cut into small pieces, put into cold water, soaked
a short time, and cooked slowly — simmered, not boiled.
By this process the meat loses about thirty per cent, of its
weight, which is retained in the broth, the remaining meat
is rich in albuminoids. Meats long boiled become shriv-
elled, shrunken, hard and indigestible. When tho object of
cooking is to retain in the meat all the flavo" an<l nutritive
properties, the piece should be large and the water boiling
hot when the meat is put in, which immediately coagulates
the surface albumen and prevents the escape of the internal
juices. After boiling a few minutes the temperature should
be reduced to 160^ or 170°, and the cooking continued until
the meat is tender. It is a wrong practice to give meat a
long boiling ; it should have a long stewinir.
Roasting should commence with a high temperature, to
quickly coagulate the surface albumen and retain the rich
juices and soluble extractives. By this process the fats arc
cooked, fatty acids set free, and the meat rendered savory
and palatable. Broiling over hot coals is similar in effect to
roasting. Baking in a close oven retains in the meat the
empyreumatic products arising from the cooked fats, ren-
dering it richer and stronger for the stomach than by any
other process of cooking. ])ut it is not so digestible.
The frying-pan, the terror of the dyspeptic, but the dear,
good friend of a lazy, incompetent cook, must be noticed.
In the frying-pan the meat is cooked in boiling fat or oil,
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE KITCHEN. 367
which penetrates its substance and is changed in its proper-
ties, making the meat more difficult to digest than by any
other process of cooking. But the much abused frying-pan
has its legitimate uses and must not l)e wholly condemned.
Fresh fish, pork, bacon, veal and lamb can be well cooked
in the frying-pan when the process is carefully conducted.
It is of great use in warming food and preparing hashed
meats for the table. The solid, indigestible doughnut and
griddle-cake ai e among its contributions to the causes and
miseries of dyspepsia. Fresh fish — except salmon, which
is "the beef of the sea" — should be either fried, broiled
or baked. Salmon may be boiled or baked ; when boiled it
should be put into the water when it is boiling hot, the same
as beef,^ and for the same reason.
Other varieties of fish when boiled lose their nutritive
soluble elements, leaving a soft, pasty mass, very indigestible
and of little nutritive value. The popular notion that fish is
a brain food, rich in phosphorus, is a myth, — a pleasant con-
ception Avith no physiological basis to rest upon. There is
less phosphorus in fish than in beef or wheat, and that food
which is best for the body is best for the brain. The origin
of the conception is attributed to a German scientist. Prof.
Moleschott, who thirty years ago wrote this epigrammatic
expression: "Without phosphorus, no thought." The
great Agassiz, in an address in favor of a fish commission,
with other considerations used the same idea, and urged
that because of the intellectual activity of our people fish
culture was demanded. When asked what gave him this idea,
he replied: " Dumas, the French chemist, once suggested
to me that fish contained considerable phosphorus, and
might on that account be especially good for food ; and you
know the old saying — 'Without phosphorus, no thought'
— I simply put the two together." Afterwards, Mark Twain,
by his famous joke in the Galaxy, advised a method of its
practical application that travelled around the world and
burst the empty bubble : —
" Young Author. ' Yes, Agassiz does recommend authors
to eat fish, because the phosphorus in it makes l)rains. So
far you are correct. But I cannot help you to a decision
about the amount you need to eat, at least with certainty.
368 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
If the specimen composition you send is about your fair,
usual average, I should judge that perhaps a couple of
whales would be all you would want for the present. Not
the largest kind, but simply good middling-sized whales.' "
By far the largest part of our vegetable foods are obtained
from farinaceous seeds of a tribe of the grasses, — the cerealia,
— wheat, oats, barley, rye, corn and rice. Next in importance
are the leguminosse, — beans and pease ; these are of very
high nutritive value, but hard to digest. An old Scotch
maxim — "Beans stick to the ribs" — expresses their stay-
ing qualities. Beans and pease are nearly alike in chemical
composition. They contain, of nitrogenous matter, about
twenty-five per cent., and this is chiefly legumine, or vege-
table casein ; of starch, fifty-five per cent. ; of cellulose, fatty
and mineral matter, from two to three per cent, of each ;
and water, ten per cent. ; besides an important ferment
called diastase. There are many varieties cultivated. They
are eaten in a green, unripe state, cooked by boiling, and are
highly prized for their succulent qualities. Baked beans
and bean porridge are old English forms of cooking that will
hold their high place in the chemistry of the kitchen so long-
as the old rhyme,
" Bean jjorridge hot, bean porridge cold,
Bean porridge best when nine days old,"
is remembered among men. By the action of the diastase
on the starch, converting it into sugar, the porridge becomes
sweeter and better just as expressed in the rhyme.
The cereals agree in their general character, but they
differ widely in the relative amount of alimentary principles
they contain. They all have nitrogenized protein com-
pounds, — albumen, caseine and fibrine ; and non-nitrogenized
elements, — starch, dextrine, sugar, fatty material, mineral
phosphates of lime and magnesia, and salts of potash, soda,
and silica, and the ferment diastase ; and several of them have
gluten.
They have, of nitrogenous matter, from 7 per cent, in rice
to 23 per cent, in wheat; from 61 per cent, of starch in oats
to 89 in rice; from 1 per cent, of dextrine in rice to 15 in
rye ; from .80 per cent, of fat in rice to 6 in corn ; from .90
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE KITCHEN. 369
per cent, of mineral matter in rice to 3 in corn. They are
all rich in starch, but they vary widely in nitrogenous, dex-
trine, fatty and mineral matter. Starch is therefore the
chief element aflected by the process of cooking.
Starch is found in vegetable substances only. In grain it
consists of minute granules, made up of concentric layers,
insoluble at ordinary temperatures, and of no use as food
until converted into dextrine and grape sugar. By cooking,
the starch is prepared for the action of the digestive fer-
ments, the ptyalln and mucin of the saliva, and the trypsin
of the pancreatic secretion, by which this change is effected.
The residue not acted upon, digested by these ferments,
leaves the body in the feces.*
Of the cereal grains used for food, wheat is the most val-
uable and most extensively cultivated. It is rarely con-
sumed whole, but is subjected to processes of milling and
grinding, and is furnished for use in the form of flour. Be-
sides sixty-six per cent, of starch, wheat flour contains, as a
part of its nitrogenous material, a substance, composed of
vegetable fibrine, mucine and glutine, called gluten, — about
eleven per cent. , — which gives to the moistened flour peculiar
tenacious adhesive qualities. These two bodies, starch and
gluten, undergo important changes in the chemistry of the
kitchen. The presence of both is necessary in the prepara-
tion of one of the most valuable and most highly prized of
all foods, — good bread.
Yeast is an agent capable of exciting alcoholic fermenta-
tion in mixtures when exposed to air and warmth, contain-
ing starch, sugar and nitrogenous matter. It will act at a
temperature varying between 40° and 140°, but is most
active at a temperature between 60° and 100°.
* It may be well in this connection to consider the action of a ferment. Ferments
are substances, either organized, like the cells of yeast, — when living and functional,
fermentation takes place ; when they die, it ceases, — or tlie ferment may be unorgan-
ized, a substance like the ptyalin of the saliva and other digestive ferments. Fer-
ments are known by their effects ; they have never been completely isolated. The
action of a ferment is not chemical ; it has no chemical reactions or combinations,
and is not consumed by its action, but will continue to exert its power while con-
ditions remain favorable. Ferments act on the molecules of matter, splitting them
up, disturbing their peace. They are formed in the bodies of man and animals, and
are found in seeds. The venom of serpents, the poison of the tarantula and centi-
pede, are ferments.
370 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE.
Bread is called unleavened when the flour is mixed with
water, thoroughly kneaded and baked at a high temperature ;
of which corn bread is a sample, and, from wheat flour, bis-
cuit, and hard-tack or sea-biscuit. Leavened bread is raised
bread, — a moist, light, porous, spongy substance, easy to
masticate and digest. A little butter or lard and salt (with
sugar, if desired) is carefully mixed with the flour, and either
milk or water, — lukewarm, — with yeast, is added, and
made, by careful stirring, into a paste or dough, which is ex-
posed to a temperature of from 50° to 80° until fermentation
is fully established. Carbonic acid gas and alcohol is gen-
erated ; the gas is absorbed or retained by the gluten, causing
the dough to swell up into an elastic, spongy mass, when it
is thoroughly kneaded with more flour, made into loaves and
put in a warm place until fermentation is again actively es-
tablished, Avhen it is placed in an oven heated to a tempera-
ture of from 350° to 500°, where it remains until cooked.
The alcohol and some gaseous products are driven oft' by
the high heat of the oven. The gluten and starch v/hich is
partially soluble is mixed with the fluids, which surround
the particles with a thin film of moisture. The fine, invisi-
ble bubbles of carbonic acid gas generated in every part of
the loaf overcome the adhesiveness of the gluten, and sepa-
rate the myriads of particles from each other. The high
temperature converts the moisture into steam, ruptures the
starch granules, softens and renders the starch and gluten
soluble and well prepared for the free action of the digestive
ferments. Other interesting changes occur in the cooking
of bread. Wheat, in common with all cereal grains, contains
a ferment called diastase, which is chiefly found in the corti-
cal part, but is diffused through all parts of the seed. Aided
by warmth and moisture, this agent is the active principle in
the process of germination. The seed, buried in the moist
earth and warmed by the sun, absorbs water. The germinal
cells are quickened from dormant into active life. The
diastase changes the starch into dextrine and grape sugar,
the food of the germinal cells ; the tiny leaf shoots upward
to the sunlight, the rootlets strike into the earth, and when
the stored starch of the seed is consumed the plant can de-
rive its nutriment from earth and air.
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE KITCHEN. 371
In the process of rising and baking of bread, the moisture
and heat enable the diastase of the flour to convert a part of
the starch into dextrine and sugar. The sugar, by the fer-
mentation, is converted into alcohol and carbonic acid.
When the temperature of the bread reaches 140° the yeast
cells cease to act, and the high temperature of the oven con-
verts the surface of the loaf into a dense crust, which pre-^
vents it from shrinking when the formation of the gas is
checked, and this is long before the cooking is completed.
The starch on the surface is changed by the high heat into
dextrine and caramel, and is richer in nutriment and more
easy to digest than the white part of the loaf.
Other materials beside yeast are used to generate carbonic
acid gas in the cookery of flour, — such as bicarbonate of soda
and potassa, carbonate of ammonia, reacting upon the lactic
acid of sour milk, hydrochloric acid, tartaric acid, bitartrate
of potassa and the acid phosphate of lime. The baking
powders in the market are made from these chemicals.
They are quick in their action and convenient for the house-
keeper, but the yeast process makes the nicest bread. The
cereals may be cooked by baking, steaming, boiling and
frying. Oats, barley, rice and corn have no gluten and can-
not be made into raised bread. Rye has gluten and can be
raised in cooking. Other forms of starch foods are sago,
tapioca, arrowi'oot, corn starch, and the familiar potato.
We must pay our respects to our friend, the potato.
There are many varieties of this tuber, difiering chiefly in
color, form and the percentage of sugar and starch they con-
tain.
A potato uncooked is a hard, disagreeable customer for
the palate. The substance of the potato is made up of cellu^
lar tissue, penetrated and surrounded by a watery, albumi-
nous juice, and filled with starch granules. The object of
cookino; is the rupture and softenino; of the starch granules
and the albuminous cellular tissues. When well done, we
have a changed potato, soft, floury, mealy, inviting to the
eye, acceptable to the palate, and, next to the cereals, the
most valuable of all our vegetable foods. They may be
baked, boiled, steamed or fried. Except when fried, they
should be cooked in their "jackets," to retain their potash
372 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
salts. From 70 to 83 per cent, of the bulk of the potato is
water ; of starch, from 12 to 18 per cent. ; sugar, from 3 to
10 per cent. ; of mineral salts, chiefly potash, from 1 to 3
per cent.
Cellular tissue is the framework of plant growth, and
forms, in many vegetables, very valuable food material.
" Cellular tissue," says Miller, " constitutes the ground-
work of every plant, and when obtained in a pure state its
composition is the same, whatever may have been the nature
of the plants which furnished it, though it may vary greatly
in appearance and physical character. Thus, it is loose and
spongy in succulent shoots of germinating seeds, and in the
roots of plants, such as the turnip and the potato ; it is
porous and elastic in the pith of the rush and the elder ; it
is flexible and tenacious in the fibres of hemp and flax ; it is
compact in the branches and wood of growing trees ; and
becomes very hard and dense in the shells of the filbert, the
peach, the cocoanut, and the phytelephas or vegetable ivory."
Roots furnish valuable foods, such as the carrot, parsnip,
turnip and beet. They all have nitrogenous matter, cellular
tissue, starch, sugar and mineral salts. They are cooked
by boiling or steaming to soften the cellular tissue and cook
the starch. They have about 83 per cent, of water and a
varying amount of starch, sugar and salts.
The herbaceous foods, like the cabbage, spinach, rhubarb,
onion, asparagus, lettuce and celery, are valued for their
succulent character and the vegetable salts they contain.
Some are eaten raw, like the lettuce and celery ; others are
boiled.
Fruits and berries are of great value as accessory foods.
Our markets are supplied, in their season, with the common
varieties gi'own in our climate, and those from warmer lati-
tudes and the tropics. Green, unripe and over-ripe fruits
are unhealthy, but when ripe and eaten in moderation they
promote health and comfort and are a luxury. Fruit has
in its composition from 87 per cent, of water in the straw-
berry to 74 per cent, in bananas ; of vegetable acids, .07 per
cent, in ripe pears to 2.5 per cent, in currants. They also
contain tannin and insoluble pectose. As ripening proceeds
the acids are oxidized or changed by physiological chemical
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE KITCHEN. 373
action and partly disappear ; the pectose is resolved into
soluble pectin and other fruit products of the nature of
gelatine, which, by the chemistry of the kitchen, in cooking,
is converted into the many forms of fruit jellies ; the starch is
changed into glucose or grape sugar by the action of the
nitrogenized diastase which they contain. Fruit is tender
and perishable. The process of ripening, unless arrested, is
soon followed by loss of flavor, deterioration, fermentation
and decay, when it becomes very unhealthy and dangerous
to eat. It would be in accordance with sound dietetic wis-
dom if ripe, wholesome fruit formed a part of every meal.
Izaak Walton said, " Doubtless God could have made a
better berry than the strawberry, but doubtless God never
did," an opinion most people would assent to ; others might
prefer an apple, a pear, an orange or a banana. Most vari-
eties of fruit are eaten without being cooked ; others are
made into sauces, jellies, pies and pickles. Some are pre-
served by drying ; others by the modern process of canning,
which has been developed into a great industry, and applied,
in the chemistry of the kitchen and in large establishments,
for the preservation of fruits, milk and meat of all kinds.
The demand for drink is manifested by sensations of
thirst, and is more imperative than our desire for food. A
man will live longer and suffer far less without food, than
he will when deprived of drink. In relieving our thirst we
are guided largely by the inexorable demand for gratification
of the imperious palate, which has led to the use of infusions
of vegetable substances, fermented and alcoholic drinks in
many forms, and aerated waters combined with a great va-
riety of fruit and vegetable syrups.
In the chemistry of the kitchen, water used for drink is
partially purified by boiling, which drives off* the gases and
changes the organic matter it may contain, destroying its
poisonous properties, and eflfectually kills the germs of
specific diseases that may be present, like those of cholera,
typhoid fever and intestinal entozoa.
The almost universall}'- used infusions of tea and coffee are
prepared in the kitchen. Their consumption is enormous.
The active principle of tea — .48 per cent. — is called theine.
It also contains tannin, — 18 per cent., — and an essential oil
374 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
which gives it its aroma. It is cooked by infusion in a close
vessel, and should not be boiled. It was introduced into
Europe about the year 1600, but had been used by the
Chinese from the earliest times.
Coffee is the berry of a small tropical tree. It was intro-
duced into England in 1650, and its use has become common
among almost all races and tribes of men who have commer-
cial intercourse with each other. Its active principle, caffein,
is identical in chemical composition with the theine of tea,
but it differs in its physical properties and physiological
action. It also contains tannin, legumine, a volatile oil on
which its aroma depends, and other principles. To prepare
the berry for use it must be roasted to a dark-brown color, —
not charred, — which sets free the volatile oil and develops
the aroma. It should then be ground and cooked in a close
vessel by infusion, steaming or percolation, and not boiled,
which saves the aroma and volatile principles. An excellent
method and e-oonomical is to boil the grounds from which a
previous supply has been made, and pour this, Avhen hot,
upon a fresh portion of coffee, which saves the aroma and all
the principles that are of value.
Tea and coffee are innocent, pleasant beverages when used
temperately, but if abused they are poisons. They are pow-
erful nerve stimulants, producing, when used in moderation,
a cheering sense of warmth, exhilaration, mental activity and
wakefulness. They relieve hunger and fatigue, and are a
protection from heat and cold. They dispel care, and con-
tribute to the comfort and happiness of mankind ; but if
abused they wreck the nervous system, causing tremor,
anxiety, palpitation, impairment of sight, disturbance of the
brain, feverishness, indigestion and general weakness of body
and mind.
Cocoa, from Avhich chocolate is prepared, is derived from
the seeds of a tree growing in tropical regions. It is rich in
fat, starch and nitrogenous matter, and yields an active prin-
ciple, theobromine, similar to caflein, and a volatile oil which
gives it its delicate aroma. It is closely allied to tea and
coffee in its effects, but is less stimulating and far more nu-
tritious, and has been widely used for several hundred years.
THE CHEMISTRY OF THE KITCHEN. 375
It is prepared for use by infusion, and is a valuable, refresh-
ins: beverage in sickness and health.
The so-called domestic wines and small beers, containing a
small per cent, of alcohol, are a product of the chemistry of
the kitchen, prepared by fermentation of materials contain-
ing starch and sugar. They are agreeable drinks when well
made, and the small beers are much used in the hot months
of summer.
Milk, the most valuable and sensitive of all animal foods,
is changed, by the chemistry of the kitchen, into sour milk,
and, by fermentation, into koumiss, — a most valuable and
refreshing drink for the sick. It is also separated into
cream, butter, cheese, skim-milk, and buttermilk, and by
incorporation with eggs in other food materials it furnishes
many of our choicest and most delicate luxuries for the grat-
ification of the palate and the pleasures of the table,
il*;' Another important department of kitchen chemistry is the
preservation of food for future consumption by the use of
ice in the refrigerator, by drying, by exclusion of air in can-
ning, and the use of antiseptic and chemical agents, such as
sugar, alcohol, vinegar, nitre and salt.
The importance of a wise choice of suitable food materials
and their careful preparation for the table is so apparent as
to need no discussion. "With us the waste in the kitchen is
enormous. With the French, everything is saved. They
understand the art of cooking better than any other people.
Our meats are liable to contain the germs of trichinae, tape-
worm, tuberculosis and other diseases, and common pru-
dence requires their careful and thorough cooking to destroy
their power to harm. There is no physiological reason for
eating animal food in a raw, half-cooked condition, and
it is a very unsafe practice. Who can estimate the discom-
fort and ill-health caused by a daily diet of heavy, sour bread
and badly cooked food? The legion of dyspeptic miseries
so common among our people are a pestilent brood too
often hatched from a monotonous sameness of diet and
wretched cooking.
This discourse has discussed the nature and uses of foods,
and the changes eifected in their substance by processes of
cooking. If our consideration of this subject may help any
376 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
person to a more intelligent application of its well-ascer-
tained facts and principles, it will not be in vain that we
have considered the chemistry of the kitchen.
I have come to the conclusion that more than half the disease
which embitters the middle and latter part of life is due to avoid-
able errors in diet, . . . and that more mischief, in the form of
actual disease, of impaired vigor, and of shortened life, accrues
to civilized man ... in England aud throughout central Europe
from erroneous habits of eating than from the habitual use of
alcoholic drink, considerable as I know that evil to be. — Sir
Hekry Thompson.
If we will care for men's souls most effectively, we must care
for their bodies also. — Bishop R. S. Foster.
OUR HOMES. 377
OTJR HOMES: THEIE POWER AND INFLUENCE.
By J. W. Stockwell.
On June ninth of the year 1791, was born, in the city of
New York, a poet known to fame by only one little poem;
but that gem is known and loved in every country and every
home.
In palace and cottage it is alike dear ; in the abode of the
rich or the humble dwelling of the poor it is alike cherished.
Written in the loneliness of the hunger of the heart for the
reality of the song he sings ; written from remembrance of
the past never to be regained, — a cherished memory, — he
sings the song of " Home, Sweet Home."
Every one knows how swiftly it was wafted over the world.
Prima donnas have sung it, to the delight of thousands and
thousands ; homesick wanderers have poured out their souls
in its plaintive strains ; mothers have crooned it over the
cradle, until now it is the home melody of all nations.
Says one, " It is a jewel cut and set with perfect art, and
on the forefinger of Time it sparkles forever."
Others strive and toil a lifetime for fame and an immortal
name ; he sings his little song, and the name of J. Howard
Payne is green with everlasting fame.
A sentiment so dear in every country, — a sentiment
touching so tenderly every heart, under any and every cir-
cumstance,— must have a potent influence, must exert a
controlling power on the life and character of the individual,
and on the moral, intellectual and Christian character of the
world. Therefore, the question " What shall constitute
the home, and what shall be its teaching?" is a deep, under-
lying question, on which the foundation of our institutions
378 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
and the permanence of our moral and Christian virtues must
depend ; for, in the circle of life, the influence of the early-
home is ever a safeguard and a refuge, — an incitement and
a power.
Welcome, — for a fine nature is always going back to its
youth, won toward the innocence and simple life of those
early days ; thus assuring us that they are an eternal pos-
session as well as a formative influence.
How suggestive the experience of the Shepherd King,
when, shut in a hold near his birthplace by the Philistines,
and held in weary inactivity, he yearns for the water of the
well by the gate, where he had watered his flocks, and he
himself had drank, in the sight of the Hebrew maidens.
Who has not felt the same? — longed, in a weary mom.ent
of heavy labor or anxious foreboding, for the quiet of his
childhood's home ; for the old quests for the arbutus,
spring's earliest harbinger ; for the shady nooks ; for the
rippling water-falls ; for the many, many happy reminis-
cences that clothe with regretful pleasure these thoughts
that hold us in willing bondage.
Do not call this ' ' sentiment " ; it is a part of the forma-
tive work in our minds, enlarging the heart, strengthening
the character, and holding the nervous forces in control for
the daily toil. Neither be afraid of sentiment about the
home or in the home. Sentiment is nothing but thought
blended with feeling, thought made sympathetic and kind.
There can be be no true home without these. Here, surely,
the head and heart should go together, — every work blended
with love.
No mother counts the labor "^ot7" that is done for the
child. Instead, the loving heart of the mother counts it all
joy that she may do for love's sweet sake, the numberless
acts of maternal care that make up the brightness of her
day.
Therefore, with no undue sentiment, I desire to direct
your thought to the rural home, and our duty to make it a
power for good to us and to our children, holding them by
all best thoughts to it, by making it what it should be, —
loving, beautiful, bright and happy, — an inspiration to noble
thought, a love of all things beautiful, and a pure life.
OUR HOMES. 379
Ah I It was with deep intent " He set the solitary in fam-
ilies," and instituted the Christian home. Life centres there,
and flows from it to every one who comes within the circle
of its influence. Every task is ennobled, every duty glori-
fied, in the mutual love and happiness that are found there.
Families are the unity of which society is composed, — they
are the deep roots from which all our social, moral and
Christian life is developed. Before true society can come,
true homes must come ; for these are the foundation on which
it must rest. As the family is, so is the State.
Longfellow says : —
*' Each man's cliimney is Ms golden mile-stone ;
Is the central point from which he measures every distance."
And Wordsworth, in one of the most beautiful, as well as
suggestive, of all poems, draws his inspiration from his
childhood's home : —
" There was a time when meadow, grove and stream,
The earth and every common sight did seem
Apparelled in celestial light,
The glory and the fi'eshness of a dream.
It is not now as it hath been of yore :
Turn wheresoever I may,
By night or day.
The things which I have seen I now can see no more."
Then follows the power of its influence : —
" The thought of our past years in me doth breed
Perpetual benediction.
I love the brooks that down their channels fret,
Even more than when I tripped lightly as they ;
The innocent brightness of a new-born day
Is lovely yet.
Thanks to the human heart by which we live,
Thanks to its tenderness, its joys and fears.
To me the meanest flower that blows can give
Thouglits that do often lie too deep for tears."
A distinguished speaker at one of our fixirs last fall, sug-
gested a sad thought, I fear too true, that the typical Ameri-
can home is now found, not in the rural districts, or on the
old homestead of the country farm, but more nearly and
380 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
more truly in the city home with its refinements and ameni-
ties. More sad to me, because I had chosen to speak on this
subject that I might instil the lesson of the value of the
country home, and the glorious inspiration caught from its
surroundino;s.
In the same strain you remember Whittier's lines : —
" I call to mind old homesteads where no flower
Told that spring had come, but evil weeds,
Nightshade and rough-leaved burdock, in the place
Of the sweet door-way gi-eeting of the rose
And honeysuckle ; where the house wall seemed
Blistering in the sun, withovxt a tree or vine
To cast the tremulous shadow of its leaves
Across the curtainless windows —
Blind to the beauty evei'ywhere revealed :
Treading the mayflowers with regardless feet.
In daily life
Showing as little actual comprehension
Of Christian charity and love and duty
As if the Sermon on the Mount had been
Out-dated like a last year's almanac.
Eich in bi'oad woodlands and half-tilled fields,
And yet so bare and pinched and comfortless.
Not such should be the homesteads of a land
Where whoso wisely wills and acts may dwell
As king and law-giver in broad-acred state,
With beauty, art, taste, culture, books to make
His hour of leisure rich.
Our yeoman should be equal to his home
Set in the fair, green valleys purple-walled.
A man to match his mountains, not to creep.
I would fain in\'ite the eye to see and heart to feel
The beauty and the joy within their reach,
Home and home loves and the beatitudes
Of nature free to all."
Again, in an editorial in a leading Boston daily, only a few
days since, criticising a book recently published, we have
the idea of that editor on the country home, and you will
note the delicate compliment of its title, " The New Heathen-
dom " : —
" There is one fact that comes out plain in every discussion
and must be removed before the country can be reclaimed.
That is, that the very thing for which it is praised, the quiet,
the freedom from worldly care, the promotion of meditation,
OUR HOMES. 381
is defeated by such a residence. The mere struggle for ex-
istence, getting food, keeping warm, for housing and trans-
portation, is so great and exacting, thai it is a dreadful dwarf-
ing of powers. The burden of life falls directly on human
shoulders, since the comforts of life and the machinery of the
arts do not intervene to save the rough wear and tear. The
escape from the world is impossible, when the bare material
existence demands all one's energy. To bring this fact to
light is the great service of this opportune book."
Of this same book a religious weekly, also of this city, says :
' ' This book is a faithful and powerful study of life on the
farm. It is possible for those only who have summered and
wintered in the country to sufficiently appreciate the service
Mr. Frederic has rendered in showing country life as it is."
This is not the time or place to criticise the sentiments
that we are assured are so opportune in this American book
that is dealing with country life, not in some secluded settle-
ment, not among the ranchmen or the cow-boys, but in one
of the most fertile, productive and enlightened States in our
land, and one of the most populous, — the State of New
York, — only to suggest its demoralizing teachings, by say-
ing that the only prominent character in the book worthy of
study or imitation, viewed from any decent standpoint of
Christian morality, is jeered at by the author and is unno-
ticed by the critics.
In the kindly interest of the statesman, for it was such ;
in the lament of the poet ; in the ill-concealed contempt of
this writer ; in the acceptance of these sentiments by a lead-
ing daily in this city, as also in this cultured religious
weekly, we have before us a phase of this question very dif-
ferent from my intent or thought when, one year ago, I pro-
posed, at your request, to write on this subject ; and therefore
it is the more unexpected and startling, when we find the
rural home, — so long honored and esteemed for strength and
nobility of character, purity of heart, equipoise of mind ; the
stronghold of virtue, enterprise and thrift ; its young life
sought after, and stepping to the front rank of success in all
the varied growth of our cities, — now looked at askance, and
the farmer's home as wanting in kindnesses, nobility and
thrift. Nevertheless, we cannot ignore these criticisms, com-
382 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
ing from such sources and from such varied motives. Is
there truth in them? Is this the trend of the farm life of
to-da}'^? Let us seriously consider if there be any founda-
tion for these criticisms. If so, where is its cause?
Is it in the political economy of our country ?
The thriving industries and varied interests of the manu-
facturing village, — or yet more of tlie larger city, — stand out
more prominently and demand more strongly recognition of
their claims ; but let us not forget that the strength of the
hills has been our sure support in every emergency. In
the late war the country towns were the first to defend
the nation's life. And let the politician remember that the
country home is the germinating power of a nation's pros-
perity ; its decay is an infinite loss to the Commonwealth.
" 111 fares the land, to hastening ills a prey,
When wealth accumulates and men decay."
If it be in our educational and religious teachings, let the
teacher and the preacher both remember that any teaching
that leads to false standards of life is destructive to the
national weal ; that any teaching that takes from the unity
of our life, in its work for Grod, is barren in producing
character, — that plant of eternal growth. A divided life-
service is a complete loss.
If it be in our callinsi; — but that cannot be. In God's
sweet sunshine, in the song of the birds, in the loveliness of
Nature, in her ever-varying hues, in the promise of the har-
vest and its fruitions, is everything to enlarge the heart, and
refine the instincts that teach the amenities of life and lead
to them. No ! No ! Give God the praise ; it was never
intended that the first employment given to man should be a
bondage or should dwarf and enslave his noblest faculties.
In all past history its success has been the foundation of the
nation's prosperity ; its decadence the sure precursor of a
nation's downfall.
Is it in our homes — our rural homes? Before the
preacher or the teacher, and far above them in its formative
power, is the early moulding influence of the home. The
common school is a little thing compared with the influ-
ence, to the young, from the home life. Here must
OUR HOMES. 383
grow up the habits that form character. In it, kindliness,
sjmipathy and love must be fostered, — from it, aspiration
and desire must mount upward. We tallv of the progress
of the age, and are proud of it; but let us not forget its
source, in those little springs dotted all over our country, in
which it takes its rise. This is my subject ; all I)efore, both
affirmative and negative, but impress more deeply its power
and our responsibility.
And first we should make our home and its surroundings
happy and pleasant to the young.
There was, at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia,
a beautiful statue called " Sunshine," so wondrously true,
so wonderfully expressive, that you took in the artist's idea
at a glance. It could not be mistaken for the more jolly
"Mirth," nor for the coarser joys of "Bacchus." As
plainly as words could speak, stood out, in every line and
lineament of the solid marble, the idea — " Sunshine."
Time and again I was drawn to that statue, taking in its
lesson of hope, of courage, of cheerfulness and of joy, to
enrich the heart with its vital force. We should carry sun-
shine to our home and into our work. There is a bright
side, a beautiful side, to our callina:. Let us dwell in that.
Our surroundings are the most pleasant and beautiful.
It is the most healthy, ennobling and independent employ-
ment on earth. We are brought into intimate communion
with the God of Nature, and are daily in her temple.
Abounding wealth is not ours, but that happier posses-
sion, contentment, should be. And this will be found only
in the pleasant home and attractive surroundings. There-
fore make it such that this truth shall grow into our lives
and hearts, "Be it ever so humble, there's no place like
home. "
Make sunshine a part of your daily life, and your religious
life. There are, even now, too many Christian lives that are
like the old-fashioned spare room that has been so merci-
lessly and justly satirized, — the sunshine is never allowed
to enter there. Every cobweb of vanity is carefully swept
down, every article of furniture is set rigidly by the cate-
chism and the creed, but the sunshine is never allowed to
come in. Not such should be the ideas of those who " Go
384 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
forth under the open sky and list to Nature's teaching," with
every bush aflame with God.
" There is an animal," said Charles Reade, " with an eye
of a hawk to detect shams ; it is called a boy." There is no
use in telling this boy that farming is the pleasantest occu-
pation in life, while he is at work twelve hours each day,
with no books, no papers, no anything to meet his idea of
pleasure or play. It is of no use to tell him that it is the
easiest, the most delightful, the most independent calling,
while he is at work before the mechanic's bell in the morning
and after it at night, with no Saturday afternoon in which to
straighten up and recreate somewhat for Sunday's chores and
Church, which are carefully calculated to fill its hours and
get the most out of it. You cannot make farmers of your
sons in this way, but there is a way in which you can im-
plant in their hearts a love of Nature that shall be so abound-
m<r that it shall hold them as with hooks of steel.
You can so intertwine your hearts with theirs in the ap-
preciating of beautiful things in your occupation as shall
bind them to your homes so strongly that no temptation can
allure them from you or from purity. You can so enter
into the healthy flow of their exuberant life as shall add
grace and beauty to their characters, and longer and happier
life to yourselves. You can so direct that their plays and
their recreations, natural and right, and God-ordained, shall
be educating, elevating and refining to their sensibilities,
and a grace to their lives.
Throw out the sunshine and it shall bind your sons and
daughters there, safe from temptation, to grow up to revere
your memory. Have your cheeriest smile and kindest greet-
ing for the home circle ; the amenities of life cost nothing,
but they are a storehouse of sunshine. Make your home
attractive as you approach it ; set out shade trees for beauty,
and fruit trees to enjoy. Let the beauty of shrubs and the
fragrance of flowers greet your coming.
Says Northrop, " The central duty of life is the creation
of happy homes." And again, " The home should be illumi-
nated b}'- Nature's brightest hues without, and still more by
winning smiles within, — cordial greetings, gentle words,
sweet laughter, and nameless little kindnesses.
OUR HOMES. 385
' ' If parents combine to make the circle of home life beau-
tiful without and within, they will sow the seeds of truth,
kindness, honesty and fidelity in the hearts of their children.
The memory of a beautiful and happy home is one of the
richest legacies parents can leave their children."
If taste and culture adorn our homes, and music adds its
charm, our children will find the pleasures of rural homes
more attractive than the glamour and whirl of city life.
Again, make the home the centre of a happy, social life,
not entirely given up to the serious work or to the equally
wearing mental toil.
Says Rev. James Q. Corning, " There is a law established
by our Creator. It is the law of recreation — if you please,
the law of play. It would be a physical error to regard
either sleep or play as unworthy of our care, since God has
ordained both. Those parents who restrain the recreative
propensities of their children by forcing their intellects to
precocious development do so in violation of God's laws,
and it is devoutly to be wished that parents would regard it
as a religious duty to care vastly more than they now do for
the physical education of their children. And let me add
that the chief way to do this is to obey the divine law which
has made play and pastime the grand preliminaries to a long,
active and useful life."
We cannot chan<2re the fact that underlies the old adajze
that "All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy"; and
all play and no work makes Jack a wild boy.
The joy of living, the exuberance of animal life, the need
and necessity of an overflow, in the good healthy boy, is as
natural as breathing and just as right ; but they belong
largely to that period. We rise above them ; the earnest
work of life comes in and supplants them, and the physical
nature is prepared to take it up with joyous strength.
Zachariah, in prophetic vision of the restored Jerusalem,
gives us a pleasing picture of natural life when he says,
"And the city shall be full of boys and girls playing in the
streets thereof" ; and the old prophet is dearer to us for
the simile.
If mirthful recreation is essential to physical health, as it
surely is, then it cannot conflict in any way with the health
386 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
of the soul. It not only does not conflict with religion, but
it is one of its great demands. I cannot help thinking that
many Christian people have a wrong standard of judgment
in reference to this great subject, else we should not see
such egregious mistakes in moral measurement.
Dr. Hill aptly said, in a recent poem : —
" The body is the servant of the soul ;
We want it strong, Ave want it in control :
To both which ends these healthful plays will tend,
What gi'eater reason need their use defend."
Dr. Bellows said : " For my part (I say it with all solem-
nity) , I have become sincerely suspicious of the piety of
those who do not love pleasure in any form. I cannot trust
the man who does not laugh." Let us who are older en-
courage the 3'oung to meet for social joys and mental
growth, — combining pleasure with improvement, joy with
groAvth ; and to guide them, and to help them too, let us
join them in their enjoyments, to give them right direction, a
healthful impetus and an elevating result. All this not for
amusement sake, but for recreation and strength, as sec-
ondary to some noble purpose in life, worthy of their best
thought ; they arc free, but in a wise way, for we have other
business on hand. "Life is real, life is earnest" ; and
only the earnest ones secure its prizes. Therefore, never
allow them to dominate the life.
Again, the materialism of the age is drawing away from
the quiet yet strong influence of home. Too many homes
nre now demoralized in their teachings ; the lesson taught
is that it is the main thing to get money, to improve our
condition, and to get on in the world. This is called suc-
cess— to be rich, to wear fine clothing, and to fare sumptu-
ously ever^' da}^, without manual labor and without toil.
But parents who are educating their children in this way are
leading them by a perilous path. Some few succeed, but
the way is beset and full of pitfalls ; and with so many it
all ends in failure. To them, life loses its zest; enervating
disappointment unmans them, and they plod along the re-
mainder of the way with weary feet to the end.
Not such the object and end of life. What we call success
OUR HOMES. 387
in life (with too many the only conception of it), getting of
money, may be an element of content and a source of happi-
ness in life, but only when vitalized by true principles of
life. The guiding star must not be money or material suc-
cess ; it must be something higher and nobler. The guiding
star must not be reputation even, which is of to-day, but
character^ which is eternal ; not from without, but ever from
within, are the issues of life. Plant there peace and order,
an honest conscience, a clear mind, a correct judgment, and
a profound faith, and that life will be beyond the power of
disappointment to disrobe of its beauty or discontentment to
discharm ; "So making life, death and the vast forever one
gi'and, sweet song."
Ah ! There is one lesson more essential for every young
farmer to learn in these days, than how to be rich. It is
how to do without riches and yet fill life with the joys of
sweet and lasting content; how to stand in the lot of toil,
happy in its law of compensations. Mind for mind's sake ;
learnins: for its reflective food ; the nobler ideals of faith for
their strength and support and joy ; labor for labor's sake,
and for the Divine ideal, " My Father worketh hitherto, and
I work"; these, these are the elements of strength, content-
ment, personal peace, national prosperity, for they indicate
the character of the individual and the character of the
nation.
Plymouth Rock itself is insignificant to look upon, and
yet it stands, and must ever stand, for all that is noblest and
best in life ; all that is truest and most permanent ; for it is
the synonym for all the independence, the strength, the vir-
tues, and the faith, of the Pilgrim character, and who can
portray its influence on the character of our people and the
institutions of our land.
And now, in conclusion, let us not forget the dignity of
our calling, and that it deserves our best work in the home
circle and the farm life. No man can measure success who
does not realize that his vocation is above his avocation, no
matter what that may l)e. The man who works for God in
his avocation and considers only self in his vocation, is not,
and cannot be, a success, for he has not taken in the dignity
of his work, and the continuity of the service. Especially
388 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
is this true of the farmer, so near is he to the heart of
Nature, and obedient to her laws and in unison with her
work ; her solitudes are vocal with a richness that is an in-
spiration ; the varied forms of beauty and fragrance and
utility minister benisons to their lives.
Ah ! The old country home (now so flippantly named
" The New Heathendom " ), who can calculate its influence,
or its power for good? Distinct, indeed, it is from the city
home, yet its history is there written in living characters
drawn from every hillside home in New England, and their
withdrawal would mean weakness, decadence and loss in
every department , of its varied life. In every city how
many pictures are lovingly drawn of the early home. It
may have been a wood-colored, old farm-house with the well
near the door, over which the well-sweep stands guard, and
from which the bucket descends to bring the liquid nectar so
grateful to the thirsty family, father and sons, at the noon-
tide hour ; or it may have been the large, square, white
house with the green blinds, surrounded by the old and
graceful elms, wherein the oriole builds her nest, and from
whoso pendant branches ho swings and sings his welcome
notes ; or it may have been the one-story cottage, poor and
bare in all its appointments but in children, who are in suffi-
cient number to supply all deficiency in the other furnishings
of its rooms, — bright and happy and rich as kings, — its
belongings are no part of its happiness to the chiklish mind ;
and yet there has gone out from these homes an influence,
the power of which is beyond all calculation, and it is never
lost, hardly diminished by the on-rolling years, till in the
quiet of old age the mind goes back with relief and delight
to those early, formative days with their blessed associa-
tions, and we fully realize all that is sweet, restful and sacred
in home love. The sterling character, the loving thoughts,
the pure aspirations, all that man loves on earth or hopes
for in Heaven, rise with reflective vision of the old home,
for they were born there.
REPOET OF CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 389
an:ntjal report
CATTLE COMMISSIONERS,
To the Honorable Senate and House of Representatives of the Common-
wealth of Massachusetts.
The undersigned Cattle Commissioners, as the statute
requires, present their Annual Report.
Neat Stock
The neat-stock interest of the State, especially in the
department of the dairy and fine thoroughbred cattle, grows
more important year by year, and the protection of the
herds from contagious diseases, both on account of the value
of the animals and the influence of their products on the
public health, is a matter of great concern. The action of
the general government during the last two years, through
the Bureau of Animal Industry, has materially lessened the
prevalence of contagious pleuro-pneumonia, and perhaps
"stamped it out" in certain sections of the country from
which no inconsiderable proportion of our cattle supply is
received. Since August last, the condition of New York,
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and other States west has been such,
in this respect, that it has been considered safe for cattle
from those States to mingle freely or be domiciled with ours,
and we trust that this safety will continue. We have had
occasion during the year to fear that the disease had made
a lodgment with us, and that it might be disseminated far
390 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
and wide. On the 26th of last January a car load of twenty
milch cows were received by a commission dealer in Brigh-
ton from Smith Brothers of Buffalo, N. Y., were sold by
him to difierent persons, and distributed to many towns in
the eastern part of the State. One of the animals was
bought by a Mr. Ford of South Boston, and taken to his
premises, but was found to be quite sick on her arrival. She
had veterinary attendance, and was treated for lung fever
and pneumonia, but died on the 15th of Feliruary. A post-
mortem was made at the veterinary hospital of Harvard
University by Drs. Lyman and Harrison, and a microscopical
examination by Professor Whitney ; and, to their astonish-
ment, it, in their opinion, revealed a case of contagious
pleuro-pneumonia. Searching examinations were made of
the lungs of the animal by veterinarians familiar with the
disease, and this opinion fully confirmed. The Bureau of
Animal Industry and this Board were informed of the case,
and, our investigations leading to the same conchision, prompt
action was decided upon to hold the disease within the limits
it might have reached. It was properly assumed that if one
of the twenty animals, in the car load received the 26th of
January, had died with this plague, the remaining nineteen
must be infected with it, and effort wus made to find and
isolate or slaughter them, as circumstances might require.
Twelve of them were found within three days, and they,
together with the cattle with which they had been in contact,
were placed in quarantine. Circulars were printed, and sent
to the different towns, warning stock owners and town
officers against the remaining seven cows, and offering a
reward for their delivery to the commissioners. But they
were so carefully secreted that we got no trace of them until
late in the month of April, when three of them were found
in health ; and it was ascertained that four had died, but of
what disease could not be learned. In the month of January
many cows from Buffalo were received at Brighton, and Ihey
continued to arrive at intervals afterwards ; and, as we had
reason to fear the place of shipment was a centre of infec-
tion, an agent was sent there to ascertain the facts, as a guide
to our action in relation to future importations from thence,
as well as to give a history of the case already in hand.
REPORT OF CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 391
His report gave us good reason to believe that the disease
had been there during the winter; and that fact, with the
added one of the seven hidden animals, led us to send a
circular to the officers of all our towns and cities, directing
them to forbid the movement of all cattle from place to
place, except those on their way to market for immediate
slaughter. So far as we know this order was universally
obeyed except in the city of Boston. The circular was
received by the Mayor and transmitted to the board of
aldermen, where, by Brighton influence, it was laid on the
table, and where it remains to this date. But Brighton, one
of the wards of Boston, was the centre of infection, if there
was one in the State. The disease, doubtless in an active
form, had been there. Infected cattle had been driven about
the lanes and yards, and sheltered in the sheds of its cattle
markets, and had passed back and forth through the streets
of the town. Under the circumstances the public safety
appeared to make it the duty of this Board to do that which
the law under severe penalties required the municipal officers
of the city to perform. Therefore, on the 8th of March, an
order was issued and posted, forbidding the driving about
the streets and lanes, or to and from that market, of any
milch cows, store cattle or working oxen. This order,
though generally obeyed, was resisted in two or three in-
stances. This resistance led to prosecutions, during the
trial of which the constitutionality of our contagious cattle
disease law was severely attacked at many points, but it
was sustained by the courts in every instance, and convic-
tions followed. It was soon found that objectionable cattle
had been driven from Brighton to the Watertown market,
which caused the closino; of that also to this class of stock.
March 30 information, was received from the agents of the
Bureau of Animal Industry that a herd of twenty-eight
young cattle, sent from western New York to New York
market, had been shipped thence to AYashington County in
that State, and by sale had been scattered through that and
the adjoining county of Bennington, Vt. Also, that several
of the animals had died of contagious pleuro-pneumonia,
and others were sick. As cattle had been shipped from this
vicinity to our State during the winter, and more were
392 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
expected, our safety seemed to require that Massachusetts
should be quarantined against ])oth New York and Vermont,
which was accordingly done, with the exception of beef
cattle for slaughter. Quarantine stations were established
at points where the different railroads crossed our State line.
The officers of the railroads were directed to unload all such
store cattle found on their trains at the quarantine stations,
and the town officers at the localities were directed to detain
and care for them at their owner's expense for ninety days,
unless previously released or slaughtered by order of the
Commissioners. On the 20th of April a cow, owned by
Patrick McMorrow of Jamaica Plain, and which had been
sick and treated by a veterinarian two months for lung fever,
was killed, and found by post-mortem to have had this
disease. This animal, also, was found to have come from the
West to Brighton, but further history of the animal, or the
origin of her disease, could not be obtained. It should,
perhaps, be stated in this connection that an animal affected
by common lung fever, consumption or pneumonia presents
appearances so nearly identical with those of the contagious
form that it is impossible to distinguish them as different
while the animal is living ; but by post-mortem it at once
becomes apparent. The history of an animal or herd, its
travels and associations, therefore, becomes an important
factor to aid in the intelligent control of the disease. From
Feb. 24 to April 26 we had very frequent notices of
supposed cases of the contagion, but examination and
slaughter failed to reveal its presence ; and it did not make
its appearance in any of the herds with which the twenty
cows received on the 26th of January came in contact. The
extent of its period of incubation is assumed to be ninety
days ; therefore, at the expiration of that period from the
time the twenty cows from Buffalo arrived, or on the 25th of
April, all restrictions against the movement of the cattle of
the State were removed. Early in August the proclamation
of the Governor of Illinois was received, assuring us that
the disease had been "stamped out" in that State; and,
about the same time, word was received from the officers of
the Bureau of Animal Industry that they had secured such
control of it in New York that we were no longer endauijered
EEPORT OF CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 393
from that quarter; therefore, on the 15th of that month, all
restrictions were removed from the transportation of cattle
from any points west or north to Massachusetts.
In May, 1884, Congress passed an act establishing the
Bureau of Animal Industry ' ' to prevent the exportation of
diseased cattle, and to provide means for the suppression
and extirpation of pleuro-pneumonia and other contagious
diseases among domestic animals," and to co-operate with
any State which would, by its constituted authorities, engage
in the same work for itself, and give the officers of the
Bureau the same power and protection, when in the State
and in the discharge of their duty, as it gives to its own
sheriffs, constables and peace officers. Subsequently it made
an appropriation of $500,000, to be used by the Bureau in the
prosecution of the work. Knowing of this act of Congress,
on the appearance of the disease at South Boston, Governor
Ames at once notified Commissioner Coleman, the head of the
Bureau, of its existence in the State, and asked for assistance
in its extirpation. He then sent a message to the Legisla-
ture on the subject, which resulted in the passage of an act
(chapter 250 of the Acts of 1887) complying with the act of
Congress of 1884. Thus Massachusetts was one of the first,
if not the first State in the Union, to accept, by legislative
enactment, of the proffer of the United Slates to co-operate
in this important enterprise. Immediately upon the notifica-
tion of the governor. Dr. W. H. Rose and Dr. R. A. McLean,
two of the most intelligent aud experienced members of the
Bureau, were dispatched to Boston and engaged in the work
of investigation. They went from town to town and exam-
ined the suspected herds and animals, bought and paid for
many afiected cases as if in the ordinary course of trade, and
caused their slaughter for post-mortem purposes. They made
extensive journeys beyond our limits to trace out the history
of the animals causing the trouble here, and to apprize us of
those sources of cattle drift which were a danger to us ; and
in every way aided in the work to be performed as if it had
been personal to themselves. Their skill and efficiency
demonstrated the wisdom of our co-operation with the
Bureau. The measures of the Board caused great disturb-
ance in the general cattle trade, and, doubtless, some indi-
394 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
vidual hardship. But the disease was here, and it was
considered better to use the most vigorous and stringent
measures immediately, than l:)y delay and hesitation to repeat
the cosily and disastrous experience of 1860.
Hog Cholera.
Though not so prevalent as in 1886, this disease is not
extinct in the State, and it will not be so long as our swine
feeders continue to feed the refuse of Western pork, whether
that refuse comes from their own kitchens, or from the mar-
kets of our laroje towns, or the kitchens of their boardins;-
houses and hotels. There were only occasional cases the
first nine months of the year, but quite frequent the last
three. Owing to the fact that our swine stock is compara-
tively small, and almost universally kept enclosed, there is
little danger that it will be depleted hy this disease as it is
at the South and West where the animals run at large, even
if the attacks are of the most virulent type. We rarely or
never find a case of it among animals which have never been
from the farm on which they were reared, and have been fed
only on the prtjducts of the farm. It appears hardly equitable
for an individual to engage in the business of gathering city
swill to fatten swine, and when his feed has caused disease,
to receive relief from his loss by having his stock killed and
paid for, to protect his neighbors from the result of his busi-
ness. And it will be our duty, if this practice continues, to
compel strict quarantine, and, perhaps, slaughter without
appraisal or payment for the animals.
Glanders.
In our last annual report it was stated that this disease
has been more prevalent than in any previous year, and the
same remark may now be repeated. We are quite frequently
notified of supposed cases of it requiring our attention ; and
correspondence with similar Boards in adjoining States indi-
cate that it is more than usually rife in their localities.
Complaint is also made that it is more than usually preva-
lent in the horse-breeding sections of the West, from whence,
doubtless, it comes to us, to some extent, in our large impor-
tation of their stock. In September, information was received
REPORT OF CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 395
of its supposed existence among the horses of the Cambridge
Horse-railroad Company, and one or two positive cases were
shown us. The company employed about 1 ,800 animals, and
an examination disclosed the somewhat surprising fact of
only one case of acute glanders or farcy, and 192, which,
from some abnormal condition of the nasal epithelium or the
submaxillary or lymphatic glands, were thought to have the
disease in latent or chronic form, and capable of communicat-
ing it in the acute ; they were, therefore, looked upon with
suspicion, and taken from the road. On re-examination, as
soon as was possible, 103 of them were put backto their work
and 89 isolated. These were examined from time to time,
but as there was no development of the disease in its acute
form, as the stock generally, including the isolated animals,
remained in most excellent condition, and as a most search-
ing inquiry into the history of the horses of the stables and
the stock of the vicinity failed to prove that acute, palpably
apparent glanders, was other than a rare occurrence consider-
ing the large number of animals there congregated, they were
gradually returned to their work, until the last were liberated
on the 28th of December. All the animals which had been
under suspicion were, however, stabled and worked by them-
selves, that they might be easily kept under watch and guard.
On the 10th of December acute glanders was found to be
prevalent among the horses of the South Boston division of
the West End Land and Horse-railroad Company. The
Commissioners were immediately informed of the fact, and an
efficient and intelligent corps of veteriffiarians employed ta
eradicate the evil. When we arrived at the stables, we
found that these gentlemen had already destroyed thirty-five
animals, and were actively engaged in selecting and remov-
ing all suspicious cases, and disinfecting and renovating the
stalls. Subsequent visits and examinations of the stables,
of the horses, and the course of management in all its de-
tails, satisfied us that the officers of the company and their
employees were thoroughly in earnest to eradicate the con-
tagion and guard the public. The active work was, there-
fore, left in their hands, with only such supervision from us
as might be necessary to keep informed of the success or
failure of their operations. To the present time about 60
396 BOAED OF AGRICULTUKE.
animals have been destroyed, and the trouble appears to be
on the wane, though it will probably be many months before
all danger will be passed.
TUBERCUXrOSIS.
In our report for 188(3, particular attention was called to
the prevalence of this disease, its peculiarities described, and
the difficulty of eradicating it by the force of our present
statutes, or any appropriation the Legislature would make.
The facts of a year ago are in the main the facts of to-day.
The disease continues with no apparent abatement or in-
crease, though, as the veterinary profession increases in
number, and attention is called to it more and more, there
is call for more active work. The disease could, doubtless,
be eradicated by placing it in the same category with
pleuro-pneumonia, and applying to it the same provisions
of law ; but it would, doubtless, necessitate the destruction
of twenty animals to save one, and require the payment of
many hundreds of thousands of dollars.
There are other diseases of our domestic animals recog-
nized as contagious to a slight degree, — like footrot and
scab in sheep, and fouls in cattle, — and we are occasionally
notified of cases of the kind. But they occur so rarely, the
public safety is so little endangered by them, that we have
declined to consider them as within the intent of the law.
As we understand the statute, its object is not to relieve
individuals from their misfortunes and losses, but to protect
the public from the dissemination of a contagion which
might prove a great calamity ; and payments should only
be made when animals are destroyed which have been ex-
posed to such contagion, and may develop and communicate
it through the community, though there is uncertainty in
each case. The changes and modifications made in the
contagious-disease law by the Legislature of 1887, brought
to our aid a class of intelligent officers for such duty,
enabling us to act with more precision, and simplifying the
work of the department through which the detailed opera-
tions and expenses of the commission are required to pass.
REPORT OF CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 397
At present we know of no new disease, or new development
of an old disease, to combat which, in its changed condi-
tions, modifications of the law are necessary.
LEVI STOCKBRIDGE,
A. W. CHEEVER,
J. F. WINCHESTER, D. V. S.,
Catlle Commissioners of Massachusetts.
Boston, Jan. 6, 1888.
By assent of the majority of the Board, Dr. J. F. Win-
chester, its veterinarian, believing the portion of the above
report in relation to glanders in the horses of the Cambridge
Horse-railroad Company is not presented in that fulness of
detail which the circumstances of the case and its importance
demands, and having objected to the release of the isolated
animals, hereby appends a review of the same.
LEVI STOCKBRIDGE.
A. W. CHEEVER.
398 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
DR. WINCHESTER'S REPORT.
Complaints Avere made to me by numerous veterinary surgeons
of Boston, about the 1st of August, that they were finding numer-
ous cases of glanders.
Knowing that glanders had existed amongst the horses of the
Cambridge Railroad in April, 1886, the Board desired that 1
should write to the Board of Health of Cambridge, asking them to
inspect the horses of the road.
The following letter was received in reply to my request : —
City of Cambridge, Office of Board of Health,
City Hall, Aug. 17, 1887.
J. F. Winchester, D. V. S., Lawrence, Mass.
Dear Sir : — Your letter of the 9th inst., requesting us to have exam-
ined the horses of the Cambridge Railroad Company, for the purpose of
determining whether any of them are suffering from glanders, was duly
received. In answer I have to say I have personally examined the
horses in the River Street stables, where some cases of glanders occurred
a year or more ago, and can find no evidence or even susj^icion that this
disease exists there now, or that there have been any cases of it since
that time.
This Board was notified about three weeks ago, by Col. Currier of the
Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, that he had reason to
believe that glanders existed among the horses of the Cambridge Rail-
road Company in the River Street stables. Since that information was
received, I have examined this stable and tlie horses three times. At no
time have I found any sick horses, although there are a number of very
lame ones in an open lot at the rear of tlie stable. I have also seen the
president, superintendent and veterinary surgeon of the company, and,
after telling the object of my visit, asked each of them if any of their
horses were suffering from glanders, and the answer by all of them was
" No."
Respectfully yours,
Alfred F. Holt, M. D.,
Eeallh Officer.
Sept. 13. Full Board visited stables of Cambridge Horse-rail-
road. First examined horses in Riverside stable, where about 70
are kept ; next, the Brookline Street stable, containing about 45 ;
EEPORT OF CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 399
and lastly, the Harvard Square stable, where we found over 150
animals. Glanders was found in each, and, by vote of Board, the
following letter was written by the Secretary and forwarded by
maU to the superintendent of the road : —
Boston, Mass., Sept. 13, 1887.
To the Stiperintendent of the Cambridge Horse-railroad.
Sir : — The undersigned Cattle Commissioners of Massachusetts, hav-
ing this day examined a i^ortion of the horses in the service of your
railroad, and having found a contagious disease known as glanders
existing among them, do hereby order and direct that the animals dis-
tinguished by the following numbers be sti'ictly quarantined and kept
from off the public streets, until further notice from this Board.
In the Riverside stable, Xos. 1292, 1268, 1250, 1271, 1155, 1121, 1256,
401, 1191, 257, 259, 2332, 492, 1652, 853, 1278, and a black geldmg with
his number lost, — 17 animals. In the Brookline Street stable one
horse, No. 2250. In the Harvard Square stable, Nos. 2396, 325, 747,
2552, 2337, 1530, 133, and a black mare with her number lost, — 8 ani-
mals ; and in the three stables, 26.
Levi Stockbridge,
A. AV. Cheever,
J. F. Winchester, D. V. S.,
Cattle Commissioners of Massachusetts.
By A. W. Cheever, Secretary.
Voted.1 to visit other stables, and to goon Friday next, Sept. 16,
and continue examination of horses therein.
Sept. 16. Board visited the Port stable of the Cambridge
Horse-railroad Company, and found 27 animals needing isolation
or destruction.
Voted., that the Secretary send the following communication to
the superintendent : —
Boston, Mass., Sept. 16, 1887.
To the Superintendent of the Cambridge Horse-railroad.
Sir : — The undersigned Cattle Commissioners of Massachusetts have
this day examined 220 horses in the service of your railroad found in
the so-called Port stables, and having found glanders existing among
said horses, you are hereby ordered and directed to strictly quarantine
and keep from off the public streets, until further notice from this
Board, all the horses known by the following numbers, namely : 2525,
322, 263, 334, 2513, 1162, 1135, 460, 1845, 1225, 1846, 1186, 1817, 1185,
1187, 2540, 2405, 1356, 366, 1743, 1204, 278, 1884, 24, 25,497 and 1581,—
27 animals.
Levi Stockbridge,
A. W. Cheever,
J. F. Winchester, D. V. S.,
Cattle Commissioners of Massachusetts.
By A. W. Cheever, Secretary,
400 BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
Sept. 22. Board visited Murray Street stable of railroad com-
pany, Cambridge, and examined 169 of the 184 horses kept there,
the others being on the road.
Voted, to instruct the Secretary to send the following letter to
the superintendent of the railroad : —
Boston, Mass, Sept. 22, 1887.
To the Superintendent of the Cambridge Horse-railroad.
Sir : — The undersigned Cattle Commissioners of Massachusetts have
this day examined 169 of the horses in the service of your railroad,
found in the so-called Murray Street stable, and having found glanders
existing among said horses, you are hereby ordered and directed to
strictly quarantine and keep off from the public streets, until further
notice from this Board, all the horses known by the following numbers,
namely: 2260, 1647, 271, 290, 1758,1648, 269, 2275, 2271, 2255, 2279,
2535, 2273, 2308, 2510, 2312, 2300, 2261, 2297, 2307, 2284, 1764, 2271,
2267, 2255 and 1918, — 26 animals.
Levi Stockbridge,
A. W. Cheever,
J. F. Winchester, D. V. S.,
Cattle Commissioners of Massachusetts.
By A. W. Cheever, Secretary.
It was also voted to send the following letter to the superintend-
ent by the Secretary : —
Dedham, Mass., Sept. 22, 1887.
Col. Wm. A. Bancroft.
Dear Sir : — According to my promise in reply to yours of the 19th
inst., I report the decision of the Board of Cattle Commissioners regard-
ing your request for permission to remove a part or all of the horses
recently ordered to quarantine to a vacant stable owned by the railroad
company, where better facilities for exercising them will bo afforded.
The decision is that such removal is permitted, provided the vacant
stable named is within the limits of the city of Cambridge, and that the
animals shall be removed at such times and in such manner as shall in
no way expose other horses to contagion, and that this Board shall
receive notice forthwith of the location of said stable.
I am truly yours,
A. W. Cheever,
Secretary of the Massachusetts Cattle Commissioners.
Sept. 23. Board examined Cambridge Railroad horses in the
Beacon Street and Spring Street stables in Somervalle, Mass., and
voted to send the following letter to the superintendent : —
Boston, Mass., Sept. 23, 1887.
To the Superintendent of the Cambridge Railroad, Cambridge, Mass.
Sir: — The Cattle Commissioners have this day examined seventy-
one of the seventy-five horses kept in your horae-car stable on Beacon'
REPORT OF CATTLE COIMIMISSIONERS. 401
Street, Somerville, and fif ly-two of the fifty-eight kept in the Spring
Street stable in the same city, and found glanders existing in both. You
are tlierefore hereby ordered and directed to strictly quarantine and
keep off from the public streets, until further notice from this Board, ail
the horses in the Beacon Street stable bearing the following numbers :
2167, 2151, 2192, 2139 ; and in Spring Street stable the following: 1795,
1070, 823, 844, 825, 1483, 1547, 804, 851, — four in the Beacon Street
stable and nine in the Spring Street stable.
Levi STOCKDiuDaE,
A. W. Cheever,
J. F. WiNCHESTEU, D. V. S.,
Cattle Commissioners of Mtssachusetls.
By A. W. Cheever, Secretary.
The Secretary was also instructed by vote of the Board to
notify as follows : —
Dedham, Mass., Sept 23, 1887.
^Ir. J. R. Tatlor, Somerville, Mass.
Dear Sir : — As Secretary of the Massachusetts Cattle Commission I
am instructed to notify you that a horse kept at the Beacon Street
horse-car stable in Somerville and said to belong to you has this day
been examined by the Commissioners, together with others kept in the
same stable, and having found glanders existing therein you are hereby
directed to quarantine and keep from off the public streets the horse
owned by you and kept in said stable, imtil further notice from the
Cattle Commissioners.
A. TV. Cheever,
Secretanj oj the Board of Cattle Commissioners.
Sept. 26. The Board met and examined more horses of the
Cambridge Railroad Company, and voted to instruct the Secretary
to send the following letter to the superintendent : —
BosTox, Mass., Sept. 27, 18S7.
To the Superintendent of the Cambridge liailroad.
Sir : — The Cattle Commissioners having made further examination
of the horses in the service of your railroad, and finding glanders exist-
ing among them, hereby order and direct that the horses known by the
following numbers be strictly quarantined and kept from off' the public
streets, namely : at the Brighton stable, Xos. 1669, 1329, 1686, 1358, 863,
1379 and 1405 ; at Oak Square stable, Nos. 1956, 1817, 2336 and 1412,—
eleven animals.
Levi Stockbridge,
A. W. Cheever,
J. F. WiNCnESTER, D. V. S.,
Cattle Commissioners of Massachusetts.
By A. W. Cheevek, Secretary
402 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
Sept. 28. Board examined horses in two stables of Cambi'idge
Railroad in West Somerville, and voted to send the superintend-
ent the following communication : —
Boston, Mass., Sept. 28, 1887.
2b the Super inte7i(lent of the Cambridge Railroad.
Sir : — The undersigned Cattle Commissioners of Massachusetts, hav-
ing made further examination of horses in the service of your railroad,
and finding contagious glanders existing among them, hereby order and
direct that the horses known by the following numbers be strictly quar-
antined and kept from off the public streets, namely : at the West Som-
erville stables, Nos. 17G3, 2416, 1110, 702, 1899, 757, 841's mate, — a
black horse with white star in the forehead, white off-hind fetlock and
white saddle mark (number lost), — 2590, 1856, 1996, 766, 743, 388,
1990, 736, 737, 775, 1912, 1397, 1697, 2613, 758, 1834 and 772,-24 ani-
mals. In North Avenue stables, Nos. 789, 1673, 518, 205, 48, 601, 651,
704, 665, 1857, 2413, 698, 2601, 1658 and 1908,-15 animals; and in
both stables, 39 animals.
J. F. Winchester, D. V. S.,
A. W. Cheever,
Caitle Commissioners of Massachusetts.
By A. W. Cheever, Secretary.
Oct. 3. Board met at Port stable, Cambridge, to review
examination of the quarantined horses, and voted to write the
superintendent of the road the following letter : —
Boston, Mass., Oct. 3, 1887.
To the Superintendent of the Cambridge Railroad.
Sir : — At a meeting of the Cattle Commissioners held this afternoon
in this city, to consider the case of the horses now in quarantine in your
stables, it was voted that the secretary notify you that the two horses
bearing the numbers 2525 and 1185, respectively, and now kept in the
Port stable, are hereby ordered to be destroyed at your earliest conven-
ience, and when they may be examined by the Commissioners.
The Commissioners cannot be present at a post-mortem earlier than
Wednesday afternoon of this week. All other quarantined horses,
except Nos. 1857, 1356 and 1187, to be held in quarantine until further
notice from this Board. These three last named are relieved from all
resti'ictions.
For the Cattle Commissioners,
A. W. Cheever, Secretary.
Oct. 5. Board met to re-examine Cambridge quarantined car
horses, and released two from quarantine.
Oct. 6. Commissioners reviewed their work at the West Som-
erville and North Avenue stables, and relieved from quarantine
four horses, namely : 737 and 2416 at the West Somerville stable,
and Nos. 1673 and 651 at North Avenue stable.
EEPORT OF CATTLE COMIVHSSIONERS. 403
Oct. 7. Full Board examined horses in three car stables, and
released four in Murray Street, one in Beacon Street and three in
Spring Street.
Oct. 10. Full Board re-examined horses in the Brighton and
Oak Square stables of the Cambridge Railroad, released No. 1405,
and then went to the Mt. Auburn stable and examined 130 of the
135 kept there. Found 21 suspicious cases.
Voted, To postpone sending order for quarantine until the
remaining horses of the company have been examined.
Oct. 12. Board re-examined suspected horses in Eighth Street
stable, Stiles's stable and Baldwin Street stable, and voted to
instruct the Secretary to write the following letter : —
Boston, Mass., Oct. 12, 1887.
To the Superintendent of the Cambridge Railroad, Cambridge.
Sir : — The imdersigned Cattle Commissioners of Massachusetts,
having made further examination of horses in the service of your road,
and finding glanders exi.sting among them, hereby order and direct that
the horses known by the following numbers be strictly quarantined and
kept from off the public streets, namely : at Mt. Auburn stable, Nos.
465, 1.576, 1889, 673, 479, 340, 2579, 585, 2460, 460, 489, 1938, 1600, 540,
and 539. At the Summer Street stable, Nos. 2071, 2087, 2380, 2028,
2038, 2064, 2097, 2107, 2099, 2031, 2062. At Eighth Street stable, Nos.
924, 41, 256, 1G32, 982, 2656 and 1877. At Stiles's stable, Nos. 981, 1910,
119, 966, 2470, 867, 903, 929, 969, 2047 and 1643. At the Baldwin Street
stable, Nos. 1095, 1073, 2010, 1807 and 1832,-50 animals.
Levi Stockbkidge,
A. AV. Cheever,
J. F. Winchester, D. V. S.,
Cattle Commissioners of Massachusetts.
By A. W. Cheever, Secretary.
Oct. 20. Board met at Commonwealth Building at half-past
nine, and remained in session until half -past five, discussing the
question what to do with the quarantined horses. Dr. Winchester
moved that a certain number of them be selected by him for
immediate slaughter. Ayes, one ; nays, two ; motion lost. Dr.
Winchester then moved that all the quarantined horses be gath^
ered by themselves for more strict quarantine or thorough isola-
tion. Motion lost. Dr. Winchester then moved that all the quarr
antined horses be held where they now are. Vote taken and
motion not carried. It was then moved by A. W. Cheever that a
certain number of the quarantined horses be selected by the com-
mission to be relieved from quarantine. The motion was carried
by a unanimous vote. Ex-President Stockbridge presented a list of
95 horses, which, from records kept of the examinations, he was
404 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
ready to relieve from quarantine. A. "W. Clieever moved that the
list be accepted, and that the horses therein named be relieved
from further restrictions. The vote was carried, Dr. Winchester
voting in the negative. Dr. Winchester next moved that the
quarantine be removed from all the other quarantined horses.
The motion was lost, Ex-Presidcnt Stockbridge and A. W. Cheever
voting in the negative. A. W. Cheever moved that the Secretary
be instructed to notify the railroad that the following list of quar-
antined horses are relieved from further restrictions, and the other
quarantined horses must be held for further examination, which
will be made forthwith. Motion carried, Dr. Winchester voting
in the negative.
List of horses to be relieved from quarantine : at Baldwin
Street stable, 1070, 2010, 1095, 1807, 18.32; Summer Street,
2107, 2097, 2099, 2038, 2034, 20G2, 23G0, 2029, 2064, 2071, 2087 ;
Mt. Auburn, 539, 340, 585, 157G, 1600, 489 ; Eighth Street, 2656,
41, 256, 1632, 982; Brighton, 1379, 1329, 1686; Oak Square,
1956, 1817, 1412; Stiles's, 1643, 149, 966, 903, 929, 969, 2074,
981 ; Beacon Street, 2157, 2167, 2192 ; Spring Street, 825, 854,
823, 1070; Harvard Square, 325, 2337; Murray Street, 1648,
1918, 2312, 2275, 2273, 2300, 2261, 2297, 2307, 1764; North
Avenue, 2601, 665, 398, 704; West Somervilie, 1899, 1996, 1990,
736, 775, 2613, 758, 1834, 772 ; Port stable, 322-, 334, 1162, 1846 ;
1186, 499, 1581, 263, 1743, 366, 278, 1204, 2413, 1884; River-
side, 1292, 1250, 1271, 1155, 1121, 1191, 259. The meeting of
the Board was then adjourned to to-morrow morning, at half-past
nine, in the Commonwealth Building.
The following letter is the form of notice sent to the superin-
tendent of the railroad : —
Dedham, Oct. 20, 1887.
At a meeting of the Cattle Comraissioners held this day to take action
concei'ning the disposition of horses in the service of your road, and
recently quarantined by order of the Board because it was judged that
a contagious disease known as glandci's or farcy existed among them, it
was voted tliat tlio Secretary notifj- you that the horses known by the
above recorded numbers are relieved from quai'antine restrictions.
Quarantined horses not in this list you will hold subject to further ex-
amination by the Board, which examination will be made forthwith.
I am truly yours, A. W. Cheever,
Secretary of Massachusetts Cattle Commissioners.
A letter was also sent to J. R. Taylor, Somervilie, notifying
him that the Board had voted to remove quarantine restrictions
from his horse kept at the Beacon Street stable.
Oct. 21. Board met at the Boston office at 9.30 a. m. On
motion of Dr. Winchester, the Secretary was instructed to commu-
REPORT OF CATTLE COIVIiVnSSIONERS. 405
iiicate with the superintendent of the Cambridge Railroad, notify-
ing him that the said horses not relieved by yesterday's communi-
cation be collected and quarantined in a stable by themselves, and
notification be sent to the Board where such horses can be seen
by the Board on Monday next.
Oct. 25. Board met, and it was voted unanimously to remove
the restrictions from Nos. 1268 and 540, and keep the remainder
(67) where they now are. It was voted that Dr. Winchester be
instructed to purchase two horses, to be inoculated from one or
more quarantined horses, to be selected for the purpose from the
Bay Street stable. The Secretary was instructed to communicate
with the company as follows : —
Mr. Prentiss Cujimings, President of the Cambridge Railroad Company.
Dear Sir : — I am instructed by the Cattle Commission to ask that
no horses owned by your company, and which have been quarantined
by order of the Commissioners and afterwards had the quarantine
removed, be disposed of by trade or otherwise, without giving notice to
the Commissioners. It is very desirable that the future liistory of these
horses be Imown, how many, if any, it is found necessary to dispose of,
on suspicion of glanders or for other ailments. Trasting this request
will not be unkindly received, but will be fully granted,
I am vei-y truly yours, A. W. Cheever,
Secretary Massachusetts Cattle Commissioners.
Oct. 27. Received reply to the above from Mr. Cummings,
who writes that so long as the matter is within his control, the
wishes of the Commission as expressed shall be complied with.
Oct. 30. With Mr. Cheever visited Bay Street stable, where
we met Drs. Liautard and Iluidekoper and several Boston veteri-
narians. The doctors examined the horses, and will report later.
Oct. 31. Board met in Boston office, to determine what should
be done with the quarantined horses. A. W. Cheever moved that
ten more horses be released, namely, the ten which President
Stockbridge had selected on Tuesday last as being in his judg-
ment not dangerous to the public welfare. The motion was lost.
Nov. 7. Board met in Boston office, to dispose of Cambridge
horses. Dr. AVinchester presented reports of Drs. Liautard and
Iluidekoper upon the horses examined on Oct. 30. President
Stockbridge moved that the Board accept the reports and place
them on file, and withhold from publication or public use. The
motion was carried, Mr. Cheever voting against its passage.
President Stockbridge moved that the horses be divided into two
classes: those known by Nos. 1135, 1225, 867, 924, 1483, 133,
743, 757, 762, 460, 2260, 1658, 227, 789, 205, 518, 1938, 290,
2552 and 1185 to be in one class, and to be kept where they are
406 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
until further examination can be made by the Boai'd ; all the
others to be placed in another class, and permission given to work
them as before the quarantine, except that they must be worked
in pairs by themselves, and not with horses which have not been
held in quarantine. The motion was carried, Dr. Winchester
voting against it.
Nov. 10. Board met at Bay Street stable, and re-examined the
quarantined horses, 19 in number. Mr. Cheever moved that the
seven, namely, Nos. 518, 789, 1658, 867, 757, 762 and 1185, be
relieved on same conditions as those liberated on INIonday, Nov.
7. The motion was carried, and the Secretary directed to no-
tify the railroad accordingly. Dr. Winchester voting in the neg-
ative. It was moved by Dr. Winchester that all the horses
set at liberty which were in quarantine Oct. 20 be ordered col-
lected in stables by themselves, and not to be worked or kept with
other horses. Mr. Cheever moved to lay the motion on the table
till the next meeting of the Board. Motion carried to lay on
table.
Nov. 17. Board met at Bay Street stable. Dr. Winchester
moved that seven of the twelve remaining in quarantine be
ordered destroyed. Motion lost, Dr. Winchester only voting in
favor. IMr. Stockbridge then moved that the owners be advised
to destroy seven, but be permitted to keep them, instead, in close
quarantine, at the expense of the company, if deemed desirable.
Motion carried, Dr. Winchester voting against it. Dr. Win-
chester then moved to strictly isolate the remaining five horses.
Motion lost. Mr. Cheever moved to release the five on the same
conditions on w^hich the others had been released. Motion carried.
Dr. Winchester voting in the negative.
Dec. 7. Board met in Springfield. Dr. AYinchester moved
that the Board buy some horses and inoculate the same from
some of the horses that have been in quarantine. Motion carried.
Dec. 28. Board went to Cambridge, and Mr. Stockbridge
moved that the seven now in quarantine be released. Carried,
Dr. Winchester voting against it, and the following letter was sent
to the president of the road : —
Dedii.vm, Mass., Dec. 28, 1887.
Mr. 11. M. WniTNEY, President West End Street Railway Company.
Dear Sin : — At a meeting of tho Cattle Commissioners held this day
I was instructed to notify you that the seven horses numbered 400, 1483,
1225, 924, 743, 1938 and 133, noAV in quarantine, may he released on
same conditions as previous horses were released.
I am yours truly,
A. W. Cheever, Secretary.
REPORT OF CATTLE COIVIMISSIONERS. 407
The first official notice was received from Alfred F. Holt, M. D.,
health officer of Cambridge, who said, "I have personally exam-
ined the horses in the River Street stable, where some cases of
glanders occurred a year or more ago, and can find no evidence or
even suspicion that this disease exists there now," It is not to be
expected that Dr. Holt should recognize the disease in its chronic
form, and he fully appreciated his position, when he asked
the president, superintendent and veterinary surgeon of the road
if any of their horses were suffering from glanders. The answer
to his question was " No," which was, undoubtedly, honest so far
as their knowledge went ; but when the veterinary surgeon employed
is a student in his second year, and, as I am told, " being educated
by the corporation," what more could be expected?
Knowing these facts, and that it was an improbability, where
such a large number of horses were owned, and that glanders had
existed among them, it was decided to inspect the horses.
After the Board had made a partial examination of the horses,
and found glanders among them, the railroad employed a number
of veterinary surgeons of Boston to review the work of the Com-
mission, at the same time apparently ignoring the opinion of the
student.
The first interview with any of the officials of the road took
place in Boston, September 29, when President Cummings and
M. F. Dickinson, Jr., counsel for the road, were present.
Mr. Cummings stated that since last year, when the Commis-
sion ordered eight horses killed, the company had had very few
cases of glanders in their stables. Some half-dozen had been
killed on suspicion rather than knowledge of the disease. He also
said that the road had employed C. P. Lyman, F. R. C. V. S.,
W. Brj'den, V. S., and R. H. Harrison, D. V. S.-, to review the
work of the Commission ; and their report, according to Mr, Cum-
mings, in relation to the first fifty-six horses examined, was,
fifteen suspicious, four disagreed on, and the other thirty-seven
— agreed that they had not, in their opinions, the disease, although
they would not declare positively.
Mr. Cummings failed to mention that Austin Peters, D. V. S.,
M. R. C. V. S., was called to the Harvard Square stable as the
first veterinarian to review the work of the Commission ; also,
that he stopped where he began, for his report was not, in the
opinion of the officials, as their future movements proved, favor-
able to the road, but sustained the opinion of the Cattle Commis-
sioners.
The first consultation of the Board with the veterinarians cm-
ployed by the railroad took place October 3, at the Port stable.
408 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The first question that presented itself was, " "What will produce
a scar or cicatrix on the septum of a horse's nose, other than acci-
dents, purpura haBmorrhagica and glanders?" Dr. Bryden said
they were frequently the result of horse ail, or the feeding of cut
feed might cause them, while Drs. Lyman and Harrison did not
mention any other cause. Of the horses quarantined at this stable
Dr. Bryden saw two or three he would order off the street, while
Dr. Lyman said he would not condemn to death any of the quar-
antined horses without close observation for at least one year,
and he farther stated it was with that understanding he was
induced to review the work of the Commissioners.
The next day the consultation was continued at the River Street
stable with about the same result, excepting that the veterina-
rians employed by the railroad acknowledged that they never
heard of or saw pin-7ioIe ulceration in connection with glanders.
Duprey, who has well described this species of glanders, charac-
terizes these "little ulcerations" as the result of the degeneration
of miliary tubercles, and represents them truly as having " thin
edges unevenly excavated, like pin holes, with this difference,
however : that the hole made by the pin would be deep and
pointed, whereas these ulcerations are shallow and have thin
edges."
On the 17th of October the Board met the directors of the road
at then" office in Cambridge. Mr. Cummings gave an abstract of
Dr. Lyman's letter, containing conclusions he had arrived at by
the examination of the quarantined horses. He found different
shaped scars, — long, T-shaped, V-shaped and star-shaped, the
latter very suggestive of glanders, the others not so. The classi-
fication of the shape of scars as indicative of glanders is self-
assuvied and loitlioat precedent.
Dr. Lyman stated that the officials did not deny the existence
of glanders in their stables. Dr. Lyman further stated that he
would require three lesions — gland, ulcer and discharge — to
satisfy him that a horse was diseased with glanders. He also
said that the chancre could not exist without swollen glands, and
in chronic glanders the sub-maxillary glands must show an abnor-
mal condition.
Bouley says : " In fact, in some horses which were at work, and
which had neither glandage nor discliarge, glander pustules were
found in the nostrils. Generally few in number and isolated,
these pustules had not given rise to any notable irritation of the
raucous membrane supporting them, nor to increased secretion, no
abnormal amount of discharge issuing from the nostrils. There
was no apparent derangement of health or condition. Though
KEPOKT OF CATTLE COM]\nSSIONERS. 409
benignant in the subjects it affected, it was yet sometimes power-
fully malignant when transmitted, giving rise to the fully devel-
oped disease with regard to the intensity of all the symptoms and
the gravity of the nasal and visceral lesions."
On the 18th of October an agreement was made to select four
horses to be killed, in order that there might be an agreement at
post-mortem as to what evidence would be accepted as glanders
before death. The first horse chosen. No. 2634, was one that
had developed the disease in the acute form since the examinations
had been begun, the horse having been, for the last four months,
at the Harvard Square stable, where glanders was said to be
" never known." The second, No. 239G, accepted as a very sus-
picious case by the veterinarians and the Commission. The third,
No. 2332, one in which the veterinarians of the road could detect
no evidence of disease, but was selected by the Commission. The
fourth, No. 2405, a suspicious one to the Commission, and was
selected by the veterinarians of the road.
The post-mortem examination of the horses chosen took place
on the 19th of October, and there were present, besides the offi-
cials directly interested, Drs. Peters, Very, Howard, Blackwood
and Marshall.
No. 2634, which was accepted by all as being diseased, pre-
sented satisfactory lesions of acute glanders and farcy.
No. 2396, which both agreed was very suspicious, presented
chronic glander cicatrices on both sides of the septum, an active
ulcer on the superior part of the septum about half way its length,
and pin-hole ulcerations and tubercles on both sides of the septum.
No. 2332, the case in which the veterinarians employed by the
road failed to find any evidence of disease. Pock-marked inden-
tations very numerous on both sides of the septum. As Boulcy
says, " The pituitary of these animals was grelee, as it were like
the skin of pock-marked man."
No. 2405, one chronic glander cicatrix on the right with
epithelial erosions.
The veterinarians employed by the road would not admit that
any, except No. 2634, showed any lesion of glanders, neither
would they state the cause of the pathological changes seen on
the septum.
On the 20th of October the Board released ninety-five horses
from further quarantine restrictions, without regard to the facts
that they had been quarantined as diseased and suspicious of
glanders, and that an acute case had made its appearance.
The next day Mr. L. Stockbridge gave me the following com-
munication as the reason of his action in the matter : —
410 BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
Boston, Oct 21, 1S87.
I am decidedly of the opinion that Dr. Winchester has, both by ante-
mortem a:id post-mortem examination, demonstrated the correctness of
his opinion that the disease with wliich the isolated horses of the Cam-
bridge Horse-railroad are infected, has, in most of its essential particu-
lars, lesions like those described by standard veterinary authors on the
subject as chronic glanders ; but that by neither of these foi'ms of ex-
amination has he demonstrated that the disease, as developed in this
case, or at this stage of its exhibit, is as destructive to the membranes
and tissues of the nasal passages, the bronchial tubes and the lungs of
the infected animal, or that, in consequence of its contagiousness is
as dangsrous to the equine stock of the commvmity as is claimed by him
and them. So I believe,
Levi Stockbridge.
Mr. Stockbridge does not appreciate this form of glanders, as
his experience has been entirely confined to other forms, more
acute than the dry form of the disease.
The remaining sixty-nine were collected and quarantined at the
Bay Street stable, permission having been given the officials
Sept. 22, to collect the quarantined animals together, provided
they should do so at such a time and in such a manner as should
in no way expose other horses to the contagion. They were
examined on the 24th inst., and on the 2oth two were released by
a unanimous vote, their condition being such as to warrant their
release. It was then suggested by me that Drs. A. F. Liautard of
New York, a graduate at Alfort, France, and the Dean of the Amer-
ican Veterinary College, University of New York, and Rush S.
Huidekoper of Philadelphia, a graduate at Alfort, France, and
Dean of Veterinary Department of University of Pennsylvania,
be called to examine the remaining sixty-seven, the examination
to take place the following Sunday. Mr. Stockbridge presented a
list of ten horses that he was willing should be released the Mon-
day following the examination by Liautard and Huidekoper, while
Mr. Cheever wanted to wait until he had heard their reports, as
he might change his mind as to what course to pursue.
The order of the 20th was modified in that all horses that had
been quarantined be not disposed of without notice to the Commis-
sioners ; but on the 10th of 'November information was gained
that one of the quarantined horses had been sold to go to Keio
Hampshire.
Sunday, the 30th, Drs. Liautard and Huidekoper examined the
sixty-seven horses in quarantine at Bay Street stable, and some of
the officials of the road, numerous veterinary surgeons and Mr.
Cheever, with myself, were present.
EEPOET OF CATTLE COIVBnSSIONEES. 411
The next clay, at a meeting of the Board, Mr. Cheever was will-
ing that the ten horses Mr. Stockbridge had proposed on the 25th
to release on this day should be relieved ; but now Mr. Stock-
bridge is willing to wait until after the reports of Drs. Liautard
and Huidekoper are at hand ; and the meeting was adjourned
subject to the call of the veterinarian. ,
The reports of Drs. Liautard and Huidekoper were presented
to the Board Nov. 7, and they were accepted and placed on
file, Mr. Cheever voting against it that day, but subsequently
approving Dr. Liautard's bill, thereby making it a unanimous
vote.
New York, Oct. 31, 1887.
To the Cattle Commissioners of Massachusetts.
Gentlemen : — Having been requested by you, through Dr. J. F. Win-
chester, to visit in Cambridge, Mass., a nvunber of horses belonging to
the Cambridge and Boston Railroad Comi^any, and give my oi^inion as
to the prevalence of glanders among them, and to what extent the dis-
ease, if any, prevailed, I went to Boston on Oct. 30, and in com-
pany with Dr. R. Huidekoper of Philadelphia, was brought by Dr.
Winchester to the stables of the company, where we met a number of
gentlemen, officers of the road, ]\Ir. Cheever of your Board, with several
veterinarians of Boston, and there I successfully examined the sixty-
seA'en animals v^hich Avere quarantined by your order, and carefully
noted tlicir condition as they were brought to my consideration, one
after the other.
Though the history of this outbreak is not very familiar to me, I must
say that I have been given to understand that the stables of the Cam-
bridge and Boston Railroad 'Company have not been free from that
disease for some years back, — according to one of the gentlemen
present at the time of the examination, an officer of the road, I believe,
for some two years, according t6 Dr. Winchester, for some twenty, —
and that recently several cases of chronic and acute glanders hac'
been detected amongst the liorses, and they were destroyed on that
account. I was, besides, informed that most all of the quarantined ani-
mals belong to various stables of the companj^ and that, if I remember
right, with one or two exceptions, in which horses were mates, all the
others were single horses taken out of teams, in which the mate was
left apparently free from disease, and now at work.
The first fact, establishing the existence of the disease for some time
back, is not without importance ; and, though I have been principally
guided in my decision by the symptoms observed, the weight brought to
bear by this liistory cannot be entirely ovei'looked, when deciding the
question of the suspicious condition of a number of the horses.
I now beg to present you with my report of the condition in which I
fomid the horses, and the conclusions the same has brought me.
Before doing this, however, I hope you will allow me to make a few
remarks on the disease known as glanders, and its symptomatology, as
412 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
then a better appreciation will be obtained of the various reasons that
have suggested my conclusions.
There are such differences in the manifestations of the two forms of
disease known as acute and chronic glanders, the symptoms are so
easily recognized, the duration of the disease so different, that a dis-
tinction between them is an easy and simple task for the veterinarian,
and on that accoimt, and as far as these horses, now in dispute, were
concerned, there was no doubt. The question was not. Have they acute
or chronic glanders ? it is the chronic form.
In chronic glanders, sub-division is commonly admitted, of an ordi-
nary or confirmed, of a dry and of a late7it fonn.
In the ordinary form, the three essential symptoms, with their peculi-
arities of gland, discharge, and ulcers or chancres, arc met Avith.
In the dry form the symptoms given by the glands and by the dis-
charge are missing, and the surgeon is left to decide only on the char-
acters presented by the septum nasi and its covering.
In the lateyit form there is, so to speak, nothing positively indicative
of the existence of the disease, so far as given by the gland, the dis-
charge, or the septum nasi.
These two last forms are very insidious, and may exist for a number
of years in stables, remain undiscovered, and yet keep on spreading until
a large outbreak takes place, and careful examination reveals the extent
of the ravages committed. Bouley, in his article on glanders, in the
" Dictionnaires des Sciences Medicales," reports a case veiy interesting,
and wliich I may ask to present, as having much importance and bearing
much weight with the horses of the Cambridge road.
He says, speaking of dry glanders : '• It is one of the insidious forms
of glanders, and so much so that nothing api:;arently abnormal calls
the attention of the surgeon, when condition of the glands and pres-
ence and chai'actcr of the discharge cnly are taken into consideration.
An outbreak had taken place in a large horse establishment in Paris, the
horses had been submitted to the ordinary examination for condition
of glands and the discharge, and every other ordinary sanitary precau-
tion being taken, the disease Avas thought to be under control ; but,
instead of that, it seemed to continue in spreading more and more.
Then a careful examination of the septum nasi was made on every
horse, and then ulcerations, recent or old cicatrices, tubercles, cpilhelial
abrasions, etc., etc., were discovered, diseased animals were destroyed,
and for two years after the establishment was free from the disease.'"
Into this form of glanders (dry form) the condition of the horses at
Cambridge can be classified; for, out of the sixty-seven animals
brought to my examination, I can almost say that in none of them did
I find a diseased condition of the glands, or a sufficient amount of dis-
charge to assist me in the diagnosis. A few of them (^.'jTD, 479, 400,
1938, 4G5, 24G0, 1110, 1185, 202.>) presented a slight soreness and
fulness of the glands of the intermaxillary space, or a slight discharge
of one or both nostrils, but scarcely sufficient to bo taken then into con-
sideration, except as what little value they might have in relation to the
suspected presence of the disease and the history alluded to.
REPORT OF CATTLE COMIVnSSIONERS. 413
Without, therefore, going into the eonsitleration of the charaeteristic
condition of glanderous glands of the maxillary sjjace, or the si^ecific
appearance of this discharge, we must stop a moment as to the symp-
toms to be obtained by examination of the septum nasi.
Chronic glanders has for characteristic lesions of the nasal caTities
three forms of ulceration, — chancre consecutive to the granular pus-
tule, the tubercular chancre j^roper, or the simple epithelial erosion.
They probably have not the same diagnostic value, and while the
epithelial erosions alone may only suggest the presumption of the dis-
ease, the others, according to some authors, have such special significa-
tion that their presence is j^ositive evidence of the disease, no matter to
what extent they may exist, should it be but the smallest tubercle or
the largest radiated cicati-ix.
According to the extent and dimensions that some of the ulcers may
assume, and also, according to their agglomeration at the time of their
ulcerating process, variations may take jjlaee in the appearance of the
septum, while at times it may be but one or several little tubercular
pustules (the tuberculous chancre of Bouley) which may ulcerate and
give rise to the formation of those peculiar \Aw ulcers of the false nos-
trils, or the ordinary chancre of the septum, or of the turbinated bones ;
then again, we may find large, irregular radiated cicatrix in various
parts of the septum cord, more or less prominent over the mucous
membrane, and not uncommonly sun'ounded by an inflammatory ring
on its edges. With those also, or without them, are often seen nothing
but simjile epthelial abrasions, which arc but simjily a disappearance
of the ei^itheliiun, upon a more or less extensive surface, and varying
in their depth.
Besides these, the peculiar appearance of the septum and of the
mucous membrane is very suggestive. The coloration has assumed a
leaden or slate hue, due to the venous congestion, the lymphatics have
become more or less prominent, and the whole mucous membrane
seems to be thicker on account of the infiltrated condition that it
assumes ; while again, the finger passed over the surface of the septum
will get a feeling of I'oughness, due to the granular changes which take
place in the inucous structure.
There is one point to be taken in consideration with the existence of
this form of disease of solipeds, and specially so in the dry or latent
form. It is the fact that apparently a perfect condition of health exists,
and that, different from what we meet in almost all other contagious
diseases, it may last for years, with the absence of almo.st any indication
of sickness. For many, all the functions of the body do remain at
their normal standard, the pulse is normal, the respiration but slightly
altered, except in its rhythm (if the lungs be extensively diseased),
and the temiierature remains at the normal degree, varying from 99°
to 101°.
In conclusion, and after careful consideration, not only of the
symptoms observed, but also of the general history of this outbreak,
of the condition of the animals examined, and the various general
414 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
public and private interests engaged, and taking into consideration the
acknowledged symptoms and characteristics of dry glanders, as we find
them recognized as such by veterinary authorities, I have seen proper
to divide the sixty-seven horses that I have examined into four
classes : —
1st. Those which presented characters positive in their nature, as far
as ulcers, cicati-ices, granular tubercles, epithelial lesions, and which,
in consequence, I would pi'onounce as aifected with chronic glanders
(dry form) .
2d. Those which I consider Suspicious, as having presented to me,
principally, lesions of the mucous membrane in the shai>e of epithelial
erosions, or perhaps now and then a cicatrix, or other character of a
suspicious natm-e. In this class, Nos. 479, 2284, 2G9 and 7GG have not
been classified amongst those of the first, only on account of the diminu-
tive size of the lesions they iiresented.
3d. Those which I named Doubtful, as having presented lesions
whose nature might be interpreted differently.
4th. Those in which I have failed to detect any signs of disease
which would justify me in placing them in either of the two preceding
classes.
601. Left side two small tubcrcvilar cic. granular septum, leady
septum.
518. Right side radiated cic. tubercular granular septum, slate.
205. Epithelial erosions over the whole right side, ulcerations on the
left, lead color septum.
789. Epithelial erosions over the whole left side, cic. on the left, lead
septum, lymphatic swelling on groin.
1658. Small ulcei'ations and tubei'cles on both sides.
2250. Granular cic. on right. Large epithelial erosions.
2260. Old and recent cic. on the right side. Small epithelial idcer on
left.
2579. Slight epithelial erosions and ulcerations on both sides, more
marked on left. Slight discharge, sticky on left.
573. Small ulcer on left. Epithelial on right, slate.
1758. Large radiated cic. on right. Small epithelial erosion, septum
inflated.
2252. Ulceration on turbinated bone on left side.
1358. Cic. on right, lead color. Lymphingitis off hind leg. Temp.
100 o.
1110. Max. glands swollen. Slight discharge on the left; extensive
epithelial and ulceration on same side.
853. Small ulcer and granular tubercles on left side.
1483. Well developed chancre on left side.
924. Radiated chronic cic. on both sides, slate color.
2470. Cic. on left side. Tubercles and abrasions on the mucous mem-
brane.
867. Cic. and ulcerations on right side near the turbinated bone.
EEPORT OF CATTLE COMTHISSIONERS. 415
4G0. Max. glands tender and swollen. Injection and ulceration of the
septum on right side ; left side lead.
17G3. Slight discharge on right. Cic. on both, granular, that of right
side under false nostril.
2535. Cic. on left, also small ulcer. Infiltrated septum.
762. Characteristic tubercle on right side.
290. Same as above.
743. Cic. on both sides septum, ulceration on left.
133. Cic. radiated on right side. Epithelial abrasions, lead septum.
1GG9. Gland swollen and painful. Several cic. on left side, lead
septum.
Black gelding. River Street stable. Elongated, radiated cic. on right
side ; dark-colored septum.
1185. Glands swollen and painful. Slight discharge on left, ulcerations
on same ; lead.
2525. Pale granular cic. on right side. Epithelial abrasions ; glands.
1225. Cic. on right side. Granular septum both sides.
1135. Characteristic ulcer on left side.
Suspicious.
1908. Slight leaden colorations of septum on both sides. Epithelial
abrasions, excessive tenderness on cervical vertebrae.
479. Cic. on left side, very small ; slight discharge.
2284. Cic. at bottom of left side, oedematous septum.
1938. Lymph, glands and max. sjiace somewhat swollen and painful.
Small epithelial erosions on left side.
4G5. Glands painful, septum dark and leady, mucous membrane
rough.
2G9. Small cic. on left side, some abrasions on septum.
24G0. Slight discharge on right side, some epithelial abrasions.
1G47. Cic. on left ; doubtful.
2255. Epithelial abrasions all over septum.
1256. Glands sore and swollen, peculiar growth on near side.
1912. Staring coat, glands, epithelial erosions.
766. Small abrasions and cic. of doubtful appearance. Swelling of
both hind legs.
388. Small cic. on left, marked slate color, perhaps granular.
2590. On left side a small granular or ulcerated spot.
1530. Very small cic. on left side, slight slate color.
401. Infiltrated and lead color.
8G3. Slight swollen glands. Epithelial on left.
1278. Radiated cic. on the right side.
1795. Same condition, somev.^hat slate color of septum.
2336. Cic. on left, eroded on right side.
1877. Suspicious swelling of sinuses ; slate septum.
2540. Grajaular cic. Some abrasions on mucous membrane, right
side.
185G. Same condition.
41G BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Doubtful.
48. Straight cic. on riglit.
2279. Small cic. on riglit, perhaps infiltrated septum.
757. Cic. on right, well forward.
1910. Small cic. in front, suspicious mucous membrane.
24. Large granuloma on right.
Free.
1839, 1397, 1697, 2510, 1652, 804, 25 and 1845.
A. LlAUTARD, M. D., V. S.
New York, Nov. 15, 1837.
My Dear Doctor : — When I sent you the report to the Cattle Com-
mission I did not make any suggestions as to the sanitary measures that
presented themselves, as I thought they were sufficiently exj^lained by
the conclusions of the rejiort.
You will, however, excuse me, if, on second consideration, I take this
opportunity to specify what line of conduct I believe the proper to follow.
Relating to the animals that are recognized as diseased, there is
but one indication, — that is, to desti'oy them. Those which are called
suspicious ought to be submitted to a daily observation and inspection
by a veterinarian in good standing and competent, for several months,
and to be treated accordingly. The others, doubtful and healthy, ought
to return to woi'k, though careful watching of those called doubtful
would certainly not be improper.
And last, but certainly not least, I would suggest and strongly rec-
ommend a weekly inspection of all the horses of the company until
sufficient time had elapsed to satisfy a competent veterinarian that
there is no more danger of another outbreak.
In the experience I had of a large horse establishment in (his city
some years ago, in Avhich no less than 250 horses were killed, it took
over six months of weekly, semi-monthly and monthly inspection, before
the stock was considered out of danger.
Yours truly,
A. LlAUTARD, M. D., V. S.
PllILADELPUIA, PeNN.
Dr. J. F. Winchester.
Dear Sir: — Therewith append an itemized report of my examina-
tion of the sixty-seven horses in the stables at Cambridge, Mass., on
Oct. 30, as reqviested by you.
I fomid tAventy horses, as numbered in repoi't, with tubercles, indu-
rated cicatrices and glands sufficient to establish the diagnosis of
glanders. Twenty-eight animals (column 2) presented the same sjTnp-
toms in a less marked degree. These cases are extremely suspicious,
but, as individuals, I am not warranted in pronouncing them glandered.
The I'emaining nineteen cases in their general appearance and condition
are not in the shape that they should be, but in them I find no lesion to
make a diasrnosis.
REPOET OF CATTLE COMlVnSSIONERS. 417
Considered collectively, and taking into account that these horses
have done no work for several weeks, during which time they have had
good care and feed, there are, in both those horses which I find diseased
and suspicious, and also in those in which I find no specific lesion, many
evidences of constitutional disturbances, — dry, rough coats, glairy
mucous membranes, dullness not accounted for by the lymphatism of
the subjects, — which add greatly to confirming the suspicion of those
which are not distinctly glandered. This recent rest of the animals also
explains the absence of any more acute cases.
I consider the twenty diseased cases and the twenty-eight suspicious
cases as absolutely unsafe to handle by the attendants, and dangerous
to horses that may come in contact with them, or their belongings. The
remaining nineteen, if worked, should be placed in teams by them-
selves, allowed no communication with other horses, and should be
examined at least once a week, by a veterinarian competent to detect the
first symptom of the disease. Rush S. PIuidekopeb.
Notes
601.
48.
518.
205.
789.
227.
1938.
1839.
1658.
2256.
2260.
2579.
573.
479.
2284.
1758.
460.
1938.
1763.
465.
2535.
269.
2460.
762.
290.
1647.
2255.
1256.
1397.
1697.
1912.
on Examination of Cambridge Horse Car Stables, Oct.
Indurated cords, max. space.
Varnished mucous membrane, .
Tubercles right side,
Ulcer and indurated glands.
Cicatrices and indurated cords, cic. hind legs.
Tubercles and indurated inguinal glands,
Nothing, ....
Nothing, ....
Tubercles, ....
Nothing, ....
Cicatrices and indurated cords.
Glands, indurated oily discharge,
Indurated glands.
Nothing,
and se]3tirm, glands
Ulcers,
Nothing,
Cicatrices off nostril.
Tubercle near nostril
Nothing,
Indurated glands.
Glands,
Indurated cords off side, .
Varnished mucous membrane,
Tubercle off side.
Tubercles off side, varnished membrane.
Tubercles, prolonged expiration,
Nothing,
Indurated glands off side, .
Cicatrix near side, ....
Nothing,
Nothing, epithelioma, greasy heels, .
30, 18S7.
Suspicious.
Suspicious
Diseased.
Diseased.
Diseased.
Diseased.
None.
None.
Diseased.
None.
Diseased.
Suspicious.
Suspicious.
None.
Susiiicious.
None.
Diseased.
Diseased.
None.
Susijicious.
Suspicious.
Suspicious.
Suspicious.
Diseased.
Diseased.
Suspicious.
None.
Suspicious.
Suspicious.
None.
None.
418
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
766.
757.
743.
388.
2590.
133.
1669.
Black
2552.
1358.
1110.
1530.
401.
863.
1278.
853.
2510.
1652.
1795.
804.
1483.
2336.
924.
2470.
867.
1910.
1877.
25.
2546.
1185.
1845.
2525.
1225.
1135.
24.
1856.
Nothing,
Cicatrices, tubercles, ....
Tubercles and glands,
Indux-ated glands, discharge.
Ulcer near nostril, ....
Cicatrices and glands.
Cicatrix near nostril, glands,
gelding. River Street stable. Tubercles,
Cicatrix left nostrils, glands.
Cicatrices,
Glands indurated, ....
Tubercles, glands ; cic. hind legs,
Tubercles off nostril.
Tubercles near nostril,
Tubercles off nostril, ....
Nothing,
Nothing,
Nothing,
Cicati'ices, prolonged exjiiration.
Cicatrices off nostril.
Tubercle near side, glands.
Varnished membrane, glands indurated,
Tubercles, indurated glands,
Nothing,
Tubercles, indurated glands of,
Nothing,
Nothing,
Glands, indurated varnished mucous membrane
Nothing
Discharge and glands indurated near side
Discharge, nothing, ...
Cicatrices, indurated glands.
Tubercles, cicatrices.
Cicatrices, glands indurated,
Nothing,
Cicatrices,
Rush S.
. None.
. Diseased.
. Diseased.
. Suspicious.
. Suspicious.
. Diseased.
. Suspicious.
. Suspicious.
. Diseased.
. Suspicious.
. Suspicious.
. Suspicious.
. Suspicious.
. Suspicious.
. Suspicious.
. None.
. None.
. Doubtful.
. Suspicious.
. Suspicious.
. Diseased.
. Suspicious.
. Diseased.
. None.
. Diseased.
. None.
. None.
. Suspicious
. None.
. Diseased.
. None.
. Suspicious.
. Diseased.
. Diseased.
. None.
. Suspicious.
HUIDEKOPER.
Diseased, 518, 205, 789, 227, 1658, 2260, 460, 1938, 762, 290, 757, 743, 133
2552, 1483, 924, 867, 1185, 1225, 1135 = 20.
Suspicious, 601, 48, 2579, 573, 2284, 465, 2535, 269, 2460, 1674, 1256, 1397,
338, 2590, 1669, Black Gelding, River Street, 1358, 1110, 1530, 401,
863, 1278, 1795, 804, 2336, 25, 2525, 1856 = 28.
No Lesion, 1938, 1839, 2256, 479, 1758, 1763, 2255, 1697, 1912, 766, 853,
2510, 1652, 2470, 1910, 1877, 2546, 1845, 24 = 19.
Without regard to the opinions of the experts employed, forty-
seven more horses were released that day, and subsequently all
the rest, including the two that had been ordered killed Oct. 3,
J
EEPORT OF CATTLE COMMISSIONERS. 419
and tlie seven that the road were advised to kill Nov. 17, with the
order that they be worked in pairs by themselves.
Mr. Cheever said that the reports had not worked a change in
his mind. His opinion was that all the horses quarantined ought
to be returned to work, and he would not vote to have one killed
or kept any longer in quarantine. IMr. Stockbridge argued that
the horses released were not dangerous to the public.
A motion made to have all the horses that were in quarantine
Oct. 20, and afterwards released, collected together, was laid
on the table, by request of Mr. Cheever, until the next meeting,
for the reason that was afterwards made known, by his acknowl-
edgement, that he wanted to consult with the officials of the road,
to see if it would inconvenience them to have such an order passed.
On the 17th of November, a motion made that the horses in
quarantine and released on Nov. 7 be collected together, was
carried. When the road changed hands, all the horses that had
at any time been in quarantine were ordered by the West End
Railroad Company to a stable by themselves.
Desiring a copy of the records of and reports to the Cattle Com-
mission, I asked Mr. Cheever on the 12th of November to bring
the same to Boston. His reply follows : —
Saturday, Nov. 12, 1887.
Dear Doctor: — The more I think of your request the more I dis-
like it. My records are much in the nature of running narrative, the
oflBcial mixed with the personal ; have always been in doubt as to
whether they were sufficiently official. You know what the law re-
quires, — that the Board keeji records, — and you know that very little
of the work of the other members is incorporated in my record. I have
aimed to record all important acts of the Board, and it has been in the
same book with my record of my personal work. I consider my book
is open to inspection by any authority having right to demand it. It is
open to the Board at any and all times when requested. At the next
meeting! will bring it, and, if the Board sanctions your request for copy,
I will give it in full, or so much as you may wish. I do not see why I
should give you a copy now in personal request and to use as 3'ou may
personally desire, without assuring me that it will not be misused, than
I should give you a copy of those reports for you to use without restric-
tion which the Board has voted to keep from public use till after our
annual report has been prejjared. I cannot see it right for me to grant
your request, so do not come to Boston for that purjjose.
I am truly yours,
A. W. Cheever.
At the meeting held on the 1 7th of November, the motion made
by me that each member have access to the records, was carried,
but at the appointed time Mr. Cheever failed to bring the reports
420 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
of Liautard and Huidekoper, and it required another vote of the
Commission before I got them.
In accordance with the vote of the Board, three horses were
inoculated on the 10th of December, from three that had been
released from quarantine by the Commission ; and in all of the
animals inoculated, glanders was produced.
J!^'umber of horses examined, about, 1,700
Number of horses quarantined by vote of full Board after first
examination, 192
Number of horses released by vote of full Board on second
examination, 20
Number of horses released by Board, Winchester against, . 162
Number killed, . . 4
Number of horses released after being condemned, Winchester
against, 2
Number released after leaving them to the option of the road
to Idll or to keep, Winchester against, .... 7
Number of horses examined by experts, ..... 67
Liautard's report condemns, 31 diseased, 23 suspicious, 5 doubt-
ful, 8 free.
Huidekoper's report condemns, 20 diseased, 28 suspicious, 19
no evidence.
J. F. WINCHESTER, D. V. S.
THE
ORTHOPTEEA OF JN^EW E^GLAKD.
Designed for the use of the Students in the Massachusetts AgricuUurat
College, and the Farmers of tlie State.
c. H. fp:enald, a.m., Ph.D.
THE
ORTHOPTERA OF :N"EW ENGLAND.
INTRODUCTION.
The insects belonging to the order Orthoptera are almost with-
out exception injurious to our cultivated crops, our forest and
shade trees, or become a nuisance in our houses, and therefore
demand the careful attention of the student of agriculture and the
practical farmer.
It has been our aim to present the subject in as simple a manner
as possible, and as free from difficult terms as is consistent with
scientific accuracy, so that any intelligent farmer may be able to
determine any orthopterous insects he may find destroying his crops,
and learn what means have been suggested for their destruction or
for holding them in check. To give completeness to the work, all
the New England species are here described, the greater part of
them having already been found witliin the limits of the State of
Massachusetts.
In the preparation of this work I have made free use of the
writings of others, especially the works of Stal, Saussure and
Scudder. In fact, any work on the North American Orthoptera
must be based more or less on the writings of Mr. Scudder, our
highest authority on this order, whether recent or fossil, and to
this gentleman I am indebted more than I can well express for
personal assistance in this work. All errors and erroneous con-
clusions must be laid to my charge, and not to any advice from
him. I am also under obligations to Profs. A. S. Packard and C.
V. Riley for illustrations, as well as to Mrs. Tenney for illustra-
tions from Tenney 's Natural History.
CHARACTERS OF THE ORDER.
If we omit the Earwigs (Forficulidoi) , as has been urged by Dr.
Packard and some others, the Orthoptera form quite a compact
and natural order, which may be briefly defined as follows. The
fore wings are somewhat thickened (not as much as in the beetles),
and are not used in flight, but as wing covers. The hind wings
are thin and membranous, and are the true organs of flight.
424 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
They are folded up lengthwise like a fan, and concealed beneath
the wing covers when at rest. A few of the species have the
wings or wing covers, one or both, much shortened or entirely
wanting. The mouth has jaws which move laterally against each
other, and they are used for biting or chewing.
The Orthoptera have an incomplete transformation from the egg
to the adult state ; that is, they have no period of inactivity, but
closely resemble the adult from the time they leave the egg, except
in size and the absence of wings and wing covers.
This order is represented in New England by the following
families : —
Gryllid^,
locustid^e,
ACRIDID^,
PHASMIDiE,
Blattid^,
whicli include the Crickets,
which include the Katydids,
which include the Grasshoppers,
which include the Walking-sticks,
which include the Cockroaches.
EXTERNAL ANATOMY.
To enable one to determine the species of the Orthoptera, it is
necessary to gain some acquaintance with the external parts and
their names. For this purpose we have introduced a brief descrip-
tion of the anatomy of a grasshopper, with illustrations, which will
serve for the Avhole order.
An insect may be divided into three parts : Jiead, thorax and
abdomen. The thorax may be subdivided into prothorax, meso-
thorax and metatJiorax. See Fig. 1 . The head bears a pair of
jointetl antenna?, two large compound e^/es, three ocelU or simple
eyes (sometimes wanting) and the mouth parts. Fig. 1. The
mouth parts consist of an upper lip or labrnm, a broad flap which
closes over the mouth in front, a pair of jaws or mandibles, one on
each side, which move laterally, and by means of which they chew
their food. Behind the mandibles are a pair of smaller jaws, called
the maxUlce, which also move laterally, and to these are attached
a pair of small jointed appendages, called the maxillary palpi.
The maxillae are accessor}' jaws, used to hold and arrange the food
while it is being ground by t^ie mandibles. Behind the maxillte
is the lower lip or labium, which forms tlie lower side of the month,
and attached to this are a pair of jointed appendages, called the
labial palpi. See Fig. 2, where the mouth parts are shown sepa-
rated from each other.
The prothorax has the fore legs attached to its under side, and
the part between the base of these legs is the prosternum, which is
sometimes a smooth piece extending from one leg to the otlier, and
OETHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND.
125
sometimes it has a promlaeat spine arising from the middle. In
some families more tlian one spine arises from the prosternum.
The top and sides of the prothorax are covered by one continuous
saddle-shaped piece, called the pronotum. The ridge along the
426
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
middle of the pronotum is called the median carina. The form
and structure of this piece are of great importance in classifica-
tion.
The mesothorax, or middle thorax, has the second pair of legs
attached to its under side, and the first pair of wings, or fore wings,
XaSaxum {jUXj'
^a.xs\ji^
^? /
Fig. 2.
attached to its upper side. These fore wings are of a denser text-
ure than the hind wings, and are often called wing covers^ elytra
or tegmina.
The metathorax has the hind legs attached to its under side, and
the hind wings, or true organs of flight, attached to its upper side.
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 427
These wings fold lengthwise like a fan, and are concealed beneath
the fore wings when the insect is at rest.
The abdomen consists of a series of rings, or segments, more
or less movable on each other, and has the external organs of re-
production at the end. On each side of the first segment is a large
auditory sac, and near it a spiracle, and there is a row of similar
spu-acles along each side of the abdomen, as shown in Fig. 1.
These spiracles are holes which allow the air to pass into the
respiratory system within the body. A cross section of the abdo-
men is shown in Fig. 2, A.
The legs are attached to the body by three pieces, called trochan-
ter, trochantin and coxa. Each leg consists of three parts : the
femur, the tibia and the tarsus, but the tarsus has several joints,
the last one ending with a pair of diverging claws. There is some-
times a small cushion, or pad, between these claws, called the
pulvillus. See Fig. 2.
In the female. Fig. 2, B, the abdomen tapers somewhat towards
the end, to which are appended the two pairs of stout, somewhat
curved spines, called valves, which form the ovipositor. Fig. 2, B,
r, r'. The anus is situated above the larger and upper pah*, the
external opening of the oviduct being between the lower pair of
spines, and bounded beneath by a triangular, acute flap, which
serves as an egg guide. Fig. 2, B, e-g, and Fig. 3. At the time
of egg-laying, the abdomen may be lengthened to nearly twice its
usual proportions. The ovipositor varies considerably from the
above description, in some families.
The end of the male abdomen is usually blunt and more or less
turned up, the space above being more or less covered with the
supra-anal plate, Fig. 1, s, upon which rest the marginal apophyses,
Figs. 1 and 2,/, which arise from the middle of the hinder edge of
the last dorsal segment. On each side of the supra-anal plate is a
more or less flattened and pointed appendage ; these are tlie anal
cerci. Figs. 1 and 2. In some families they are developed into
long, tapering, jointed appendages.
INTERNAL ANATOMY.
The internal anatomy of a grasshopper {Melanoplus femur-
ruirum) is shown in pai't in Fig. 3, where the oesophagus arises
from the mouth m, and curves backward into the crop, which ia
very large, and occupies a central position in the thorax. It is in
the crop that the " molasses," thi-own out by the insect when cap-
tured, is produced, and which consists of partially digested food.
The stomach is much smaller in diameter than the crop, and lie*
428
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
below the middle line in the forward half of the abdomen. From
the forward end of the stomach arise six large appendages, called
gastric coeca; and from the hinder end, where the stomach connects
with the ileum, arise a large number of fine tubes, much convoluted,
and wound around the intestine. These are called the urinary
OETHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 429
tubes, Fig. 3, wr., and are supposed to correspond to the kidneys
of higher animals. The ileum is much smaller than the stomach,
and has numerous longitudinal ridges on its surface. The next
division of the digestive system is the colon., which is smaller than
the ileum, has a smooth surface, is somewhat twisted, and ends in
the much enlarged rectum, which ends in the anus, at the extremity
of the abdomen. The rectum has six large rectal glands on the
outside, the nature of which is unknown. The salivary glands are
shown in Fig. 3, sal.., extending from beneath the gastric coeca
forward to the mouth, where they empty their secretions.
The ovaries, Fig. 3, ov., form a large mass before the eggs are
laid, and crowd the intestine somewhat out of place. The heart,
Figs. 3 and 4., consists of a long tube lying along the abdomen
just beneath the upper side, and has six enlarged places along its
course, probably where valves are situated within. The blood
flows through this tubular heart toward the head, and flows back
again among the viscera, bathing the surface of all the organs of
the body.
All insects breathe by means of a complicated system of air
tubes distributed throughout the body, the air entering through
the spiracles or breathing holes which are arranged in a row along
each side of the body. From these spiracles air tubes pass in, a
short distance, connecting with tubes on each side which extend
through the abdomen into the thorax. Fig. 4, S.
Branches extend from these tubes to a similar pair near the
back, Fig. 4, D, and another pair along the under side, Fig. 4, V.
The tubes send out numerous branches which divide and sub-
divide, the ultimate ends of which are closed. The blood, as it
flows from the head, bathes these tubes (called trachece) , and is
purified, as in the human lungs. In addition to the above system
of air tubes, those species which take long flights have a series of
air sacs connected with the air tubes. See Fig. 4, 1-7, and I,
II, III.
The nervous system consists of a series of nerve centers
(ganglia), which are double, though quite fully fused together.
These are connected by two cords, which are united in some parts
of the body, but distinct in others.
The first ganglion, Figs. 3, sp., and 5, is situated near the
central part of the head, and sends nerves to the ocelli, antennae
and eyes ; and the nervous cord which connects this ganglion with
the second separates, allowing the oesophagus to pass through the
opening. The second ganglion sends nerves to the mouth parts,
the third to the fore legs, the fourth to the middle legs and fore
430
BOAED OF AGRICULTUEE.
Fio. 4.
wings, the fifth to the hind legs and hind wings, and the remain-
ing ganglia send nerves to the various parts of the abdomen.
The sense of sight is undoubtedly well developed in those
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 431
Orthoptera wHch have eyes. The sense of feeling probably exists
over the surface of the body to a slight degree, but to a very great
degree in the palpi and antennae.
432 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
The sense of hearing is possessed by nearly if not all the
Orthoptera. The ears or auditory sacs in grasshoppers are situ-
ated on the sides of the first segment of the abdomen. Fig. 1.
SYNOPSIS OF THE FAMILIES.
The New England Orthoptera may be separated into families by
means of the following table, in which each figure on the right
leads to the same one on the left : —
, /Hind legs longest; hind femora thickened; (jumpers) . . .4.
I Legs of nearly equal lengtli ; hind femora not thickened (runners), 2.
2 / Abdomen with a forceps-like appendage at the end, FoRFicuLiDiE.
I Abdomen without a forceps at the end 3.
„ / Body oval and flattened Blattid^.
I Body long and slender PhasmidzE.
. j Antennge shorter than the body Acridid^e.
I Antennae longer than the body 5.
- f Wing covers flat above, but bent abruptly down at the sides, Gryllid^.
* I Wing covers sloping down on the sides .... Locustid^.
Family GRYLLID^.
Crickets.
Body somewhat cylindrical. Head large and free. Antennae
long, slender, tapering and many jointed. Eyes elliptical, and
ocelli present. Labrum nearly circular, and maxillary palpi with the
last joint enlarged at the end (except in Nemohius). Wing covers
in the male with a stridulating organ. Wings folded lengthwise,
their pointed ends sometimes extending beyond the wing covers.
Wings and wing covers often shortened, or wholly wanting. Or-
gans of hearing, when present, situated on the fore tibise. Tarsi
three-jointed, without pads between the claws. They stridulate or
make their chirping noise by rubbing the wing covers together.
The Genera of the Gryllidae may be separated by the following
table : —
J / Fore tibise broad 2.
I Fore tibiaj slender 3.
2 / Length more than one-third of an inch . . . Oryllotalpa.
I Length less than one-third of an inch .... Tridactylus.
g r Hind thighs slender CEcanthus.
\ Hind thighs stout 4.
'Last joint of maxillary palpi nearly the same length as the
one preceding Chryllus.
Last joint of maxillary palpi twice as long as the one pre-
ceding Nemobius.
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 433
Genus Tridacttlus. Olivier (1789).
Body somewhat depressed, the surface punctured and glassy.
Head and pronotum convex and slightly depressed. Antennae in-
serted beneath the eyes, and in a very lateral position. Eyes oval,
very distant from each other, and slightly projecting. Ocelli
placed in a line between the eyes, the two lateral ones against the
eyes, and the third (sometimes obsolete) between them. Second
joint of labial palpi and third joint of maxillary palpi not dilated.
Elytra horny and opaque, not reaching to the end of the abdo-
men. Wings much longer, and folded lengthwise like a fan. In
the colder latitudes the wings are sometimes imperfect. Anterior
tibiae dilated, and armed at the end with four slightly curved
spurs ; the inside of the tibiae with a groove in which the tarsus
may be lodged. Middle tibiae with their edges ciliated, and their
four apical spurs very short. Fore and middle tarsi with the first
joint much shorter than the thu-d, and the second joint very short.
End of hind tibiae with four spurs finely hooked at the end. Hind
edges of these tibiae often dentate. There are four pairs of mova-
ble paddle-shaped organs near the outer end. Upper cerci (anal
appendages) composed of two joints, the lower ones entire and
blunt.
Tridacttlus terminalis. Scudder.
Length, from one-third to one-fourth of an inch.
Head and thorax pitchy black, sometimes with reddish-brown
spots. Hind femora with two broad transverse white bands, and
a white spot near the end. The wings reach to the end of the
abdomen. — Cambridge^ Mass., Harris Collection.
Genus Grtllotalpa. Latreille (1807).
Mole- Crickets.
Posterior margin of the sternum of the eighth abdominal seg-
ment, in the males, entire. Fore tibiae broad and flattened, with
four spurs at the end, the upper two movable, the lower two
immovable. Hind femora shorter than the prothorax. First joint
of hind tarsi unarmed or obscurely spiued at the tip. The fore
legs, being very stout and strong, are admirably adapted for dig-
ging. Wing covers seldom reach beyond the middle of the abdo-
men. Anal cerci longer thau pronotum.
434
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Gryllotalpa borealis. Burmeister.
The Common Mole-Cricket. (Fig. 6.)
Length, one inch and one-fourth.
Color, dark cinnamon brown, and covered
with very fine short hairs. Wing covers less
than half the length of the abdomen, the
wings, when folded, extending only about an
eighth of an inch beyond them.
"Sides of ponds, burrowing in moist earth."
This species occurs very generally east of the
Rocky Mountains.
Gryllotalpa COLUMBIA. Scudder.
This species does not differ in any respect
from Q. borealis, as stated by Mr. Scudder,
save in the larger size, and comparatively
greater breadth of the wing covers, which
cover rather more than half of the abdomen, and in the much
gi'eater length of the wings, which extend considerably beyond
the extremity of the abdomen.
This species has been taken in Massachusetts, Maryland and
Washington, D. C.
The mole-crickets have often done great damage in Eiu'ope,
where they burrow under the turf in moist gardens and meadows,
and feed on the tender roots of many kinds of plants. They are
also said to feed on other insects and worms, so that they are
undoubtedly omnivorous in their habits.
Genus Gryllus. Linneus (1758).
Crickets.
Stout-bodied insects. Head large and globose ; eyes large and
rounded ; three ocelli present, the middle one between the anten-
n;e, and elongated transversely. Antennae as long or longer than
the body, and gradually tapering towards the end. Last joint of
maxillary palpi but little, if any, longer than the one before it.
Pronotura of the same width as the head.
Feet stout, and slightly lengthened. Femora compressed ; hind
femora much enlarged, even to the end. Fore tibiae with a large
oval drum on the outside, and a smaller, round drum on the oppo-
site side (auditory sacs). Hind tibiaa with a double row of
from four to seven spines. Tarsi slender and elongated ; a
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 435
groove aloug the middle of the upper side of hind tarsi, with a
row of short spines along each side of it. Anal cerci tapering,
jointed, nearly as long as the abdomen, and present in both sexes.
Ovipositor often longer than the abdomen.
Wing covers usually well developed, flattened above and strongly
bent down at the sides. In the females they are generally reticu-
lated in the dorsal field by more or less regular, lozenge-shaped
spaces. "Wing covers of the males provided with a well-devel-
oped stridulating organ, with two to six quite transverse undulated
or arched veins. "Mirror" rounded behind, and divided by a
broken or arcuate vein. The wings vary much in length, and are
sometimes wanting.
The New England species may be separated as follows : —
. / Ovipositor as long as the body abbreviatus.
l Ovipositor as long as the femur and half tlie tibia . . luctuosus.
Gryllus abbreviatus. Serville.
Black ; elytra f usco-testaceous ; veins testaceous ; wings want-
ing ; ovipositor as long as the body.
Gryllus luctuosus. Serville.
The Common Black Cricket.
Black or brownish ; elytra fusco-testaceous or black ; wings ex-
tending to the end of the abdomen, or wanting. Ovipositor as
long as the femur and half of the tibia.
Saussure considers G. pennsylvanicus^ Burm., a wingless vai'iety
of this species; and he also considers nigei', Har., and neglectus^
Scudd , varieties of the same species.
The species are so variable that it is exceedingly difficult to sep-
arate them ; and it is niecessary to have a long series for exami-
nation.
Packard states that crickets lay in the fall three hundred eggs
glued together in a common mass. In July the larvas appear, and
by the last of August the grass is alive with them. They are
quite omnivorous in their habits, feeding on grass, garden vegeta-
bles and fruit, to which thej' do much injury.
Genus Nemobius. Serville (1839).
The insects which belong to this genus are rather small, their
bodies and legs covered more or less with hairs. Head orbicular,
and scarcely wider than the pronotum ; front of head obliquely
flattened. Ocelli present, but the one in the middle of the face ia
436 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
often obliterated. Last joint of maxillary palpi twice as long as
the one before it, and enlarged at the outer end, which is obliquely
truncate.
Pronotum square, somewhat narrowed in front, the forward and
hinder edges parallel.
Elytra with but few veins ; wings present or absent in variations
of the same species.
Feet nearly as stout as in Gryllus. Anterior tibiae with a small
oval drum (auditory sac) on the outside, near the upper end.
Hind femora short and stout. Hind tibiae somewhat compressed,
and aiTned with spines, and elongated, movable, pubescent spurs.
Three or four pairs of spines inserted near the middle line of the
tibiae. All the tarsi elongated, but the hind tarsi without a longi-
tudinal groove above, and the first joint with two spurs at the end,
the inner one twice as long as the outer, and reaching nearly to the
claws. Anal cerci of medium length, and very hairy.
Nemobids fasciatus. De Geer.
The Striped Cricket.
Brown, with the head fuscous, and with four dull, yellowish-
brown lines on the vertex. Palpi reddish brown, lighter at the
end. A dull, yellowish-brown, longitudinal stripe, more or less
distinct, on each side of pronotum. Elytra pale brown, a little
shorter than the abdomen, with the humeral bands pale, and the
lateral ones fuscous.
Legs dark brownish yellow ; hind femora as long as tlie tibiae
and two-thirds of the tarsi. Hind tibiae with four pairs of spines
before the terminal spines.
Ovipositor as long as the femur ; valves crenulated on the upper
side near the end.
Saussure makes three varieties under this species, as follows : —
a. Elytra but little shorter than the abdomen, wings long
and caudate N. fasciatus.
b. Wings wanting; elytra covering about half of the
abdomen N. vittatus.
c. Smaller than the last, otherwise the same . . N. exiguus.
Very common in the fall, in company with the larger species.
Genus CEcanthus. Serville (1831).
Body very slender, smooth or slightly pubescent, and, when
alive, of a whitish or greenish-white color.
Head elongated and directed forward ; the vertex horizontally
flattened ; eyes ovoid, slightly projecting ; ocelli wanting.
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND.
437
Palpi filiform, slightly elongated, the last joint not dilated.
AntenntB very long and tapering. Pronotum elongated, very
narrow, contracted in front, with the hinder border nearly straight.
Wing covers large, reaching beyond the end of the abdomen.
Wings often prolonged. Legs slender, and moderately long.
Tibiae all longer than the femora, those of the first two pairs with-
out spurs at the end ; the first pair somewhat dilated above the
middle, where they are provided with a little " drum" or auditory
sac on each side. Hind femora slightly swollen ; tibiae more or
less spiny ; tarsi with a pair of unequal spurs at the end of the
first joint.
Abdomen comparatively slim, armed at the end with a pair of
tapering, jointed, and hairy cerci, which are of about the same
length as the abdomen.
CEcANTHDS NivEus. Serville.
Tree Cricket. (Fig. 7, male; Fig. 8, female.)
Length, about three-fourths of an inch to the ends of the closed
wings. Color, pale whitish green, often changing to a lighter or
darker brown, frequently with brownish stripes
on the head. Two short black lines, one beyond
the other, on the under side of the base of the
antennae.
These insects arrive at maturity in the autumn,
when the singing or shrilling of the males may
be heard. After pairing, the female forces her
ovipositor into the tender canes or branches of
the raspberry, grape, plum, peach and other
trees, depositing her eggs in a series, as shown in
Fig. 9. The canes are weakened in this way, and break down
easily. The eggs hatch in the early part of the next summer, and
the young feed at first on plant
lice, and later in the season on
the ripe fruits.
The infested canes may be cut (Ecanfhus niveus.
off and burned late in the fall or Female, side view.
early in the spring ; and the mature insects ma}' be killed in the
fall by jaiTing the bushes on which they collect, causing them to
fall to the ground, where they may be crushed under the feet.
Fig. 7.
(Ecantbiis niveus.
Male.
438
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Fig. it.
Eggs of CEcanthiis.
(I. Irregular row of i)unc-
tures.
b. The same laid open.
c. An egg enlarged.
d. The end of the same.
Family LOCUSTIDiE.
Katydids.
Head placed perpendicularly ; antennae
longer tban the body, slim, tapering and
many jointed. Eyes hemispherical, ellipti-
cal or ovoid ; ocelli nearly always wanting ;
labrum circular.
Wings and wing covers generally well
developed, though sometimes shortened or
wholly wanting. The chirping or stridula-
ting organs consist of a transparent mem-
brane, in a more or less rounded, thick ring,
situated in the anal field of the wing covers
of the male. The stridulation is made by
rubbing the bases of the wing covers to-
gether. Near the upper end of the fore
tibijE there is an oval cavity covered with
a membrane (auditory sac). Tarsi four-
jointed, without pulvilli or pads between the
claws.
The New England Genera may be sepa-
rated by means of the following table : —
'•{
the whole top of the thorax
Willi? covers expanded in the middle .
Winji covers not expanded in the middle
f Wingless, or with rudimentary wings and wing covers . . 2.
^ Winged 3.
Wingless ; pronotum not covering the whole top of the
thorax Ceuthophilus.
Pronotum covering the whole top of the thorax . . Thyreonotus.
4.
6.
Wing covers much broader in the middle, concave . Cyrtophyllus.
Wing covers somewhat broadened in the middle, not concave . 5.
/ Ovipositor very small Microcentmm.
I Ovipositor of medium size Amblycorypha.
j Vertex of the head with a conical projection forward . Conocephalus.
\ Vertex of the head without a conical projection .... 7.
r Ovipositor straight, or nearly so ; insect small . . Xiphidium.
\ Ovipositor curved ; insect large Scudderia.
Genus Ceuthophilus. Scudder (1862).
"Head rather large, oval; antennae loug, slender, cylindrical;
first joint as broad as long, larger and stouter than the rest, which
are about equal in thickness, gradually tapering to the extremity ;
second, quite short; third, longest; the remainder unequal. Eyes
sub-pyriform, sub-globose, crowded against the first swollen joint
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 439
of antennae. Maxillary palpi long and slender ; first two joints
equal ; third fully equal in length to first and second together ;
fourth, thi-ee-fourths as long as the third ; fifth, nearly as long as
third and fourth together, somewhat curved, swollen towards
extremity, split on the under side almost its entire length. Sides
of the thoracic nota broad, mostly concealing the epimera ; wings
wanting ; legs rather long ; coxae carinated externally, the third
pair but slightly, the first pair having the carina elevated into a
sharp, the second into a dull, point at the middle ; first two pairs
of femora mostly wanting spines ; hind femora thick and heavy,
turned inward at the base, channelled beneath. Ovipositor gener-
ally rather long, nearly straight, but a little concave above, rounded
off somewhat abruptly at the extremity to the sharp upturned
point."
Ceuthophilus maculatds. Harris.
The Spotted^ Wingless Grassliopper .
Length, when mature, nearly three-fourths of an inch ; entirely
without wings and wing covers. Pale yellowish brown, somewhat
darker above, and covered with light-colored spots. Hind femora
marked on the outside with short, parallel, oblique lines. Hind
tibias in the mature male curved at the base.
Everywhere common under stones, old logs, etc.
Ceuthophilus brevipes. Scudder.
"A species very closely allied to the preceding, but of a smaller
size, and differing from it in its markings and proportions. It
is of a pale, dull, brown color, very profusely spotted with dirty
white spots, not so large or so frequently confluent as in G. macu-
latus^ except near the extremity of the hind femora, where they
nearly form an annulation. The mottling of the pronotum is
somewhat different than in C. maculatus; the hind legs are pro-
portionably shorter, as is also the ovipositor, the spines of whose
inner valves ai'e duller.
" Length scarcely more than half an inch ; average length of hind
femora, .44 inch ; average length of ovipositor, .25 inch. "
— Scudder.
Genus Ctrtophyllus. Burmeister (1838).
Antennae very long and slim, eyes small, globular and promi-
nent, vertex with a small spine projecting forward between the
antennae. Pronotum truncate in front, rounded behind, with two
transverse grooves. Presternum with two spines ; fore coxae with
one spine on the outside. Middle tibiae spinose on the outer and
inner sides. Wing covers much wider in the middle, concave,
obtuse and rounded at the end.
440
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Ctrtophyllus concavus. Harris.
Broad-ivinged Katydid. (Fig. 10.)
Length about one inch and a half
to the end of closed wing covers ;
body, one inch. Color of body,
pale green, wings and wing covers
somewhat darker green. The
wing covers curve around the body
so that their edges touch above
and beneath, enclosing the body.
Wing covers with a prominent vein
running thi'ough the middle, and
on each side of this the veins form
a network, so that the wing cover
strongly resembles a leaf.
Their eggs are of a dark slate-
color, about one-eighth of an inch
in length, and one thu'd as wide.
They are laid in two rows along a
twig, the eggs overlapping each other a little. They hatch the
next spring, and the young feed on the tender leaves of almost
any plant.
These insects have never been reported as injurious, but, where
abundant, their noise may become an intolerable nuisance. I
cannot imagine what ingenious person first discovered that their
song resembled the words " katy did," instead of some other
words ; for many persons besides myself fail, upon hearing them
for the first time, to recognize them by theu- sound.
Fig 10.
CyrtophylluB concavus.
Genus Amblycorypha. Stal (1873).
Vertex smooth, without spines or projections of any kind, but
with a slight groove along the middle, between the antennae ; eyes
elliptical ; pronotum rounded behind, narrower in front. Proster-
num without spines. Fore coxae with a spine on the outside.
Wing covers as long or but little longer than the hind femora.
Hind tibioe with a row of spines on each edge behind, and a row,
more remote, on the opposite side. Wings longer than the wing
covers.
The species may be separated as follows : —
f Wing covers extending beyond the end of the hind femora, ohlongifolia.
\ Wing covers reaching only to the end of the hind femora . rottmdifoUa.
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 441
Ajibltcorypha oblongifolia. De Geer.
Ohlong Leaf-winged Katydid.
Length, one inch and three- fourths to the end of the wing
covers, the wings extending one-fourth of an inch beyond.
Wings and wing covers, grass green ; body, dull clay yellow,
tinged with gi'een in places.
Amblycorypha rotundifolia. Scudder.
Round-winged Katydid.
Length, one inch and one-fourth to the end of the wing covers,
the wings extending about one-eighth of an inch beyond. Color,
grass green, sometimes tinged more or less with clay yellow.
Genus Microcentrum. Scudder (1862).
" Head oval, broader and stouter than in Amblycorypha ; tuber-
cle of the vertex somewhat prominent, scarcely broader than first
joint of antenna, slightly furrowed ; eyes broadly oval, very
prominent ; first joint of antennae as broad as long ; second, one-
thii-d as large, but also stout ; remainder long and slender, cylindri-
cal. Prothorax flat or very slightly concave, posterior quite convex ;
the sides nearly parallel, the length but little surpassing the
breadth ; lateral carinas quite sharp ; lobes of the side straight in
front, well rounded nnd curving forward behind, rounded beneath,
deeper than broad ; wing covers with the triangular superior sur-
face extending backward farther than in Amblycorypha, and the
wing covers themselves not regularly rounded as there, but with
the inner border straighter till near the tip, the outer border
sloped off towards the tip, and the tip itself more pointed ; legs
slender, much shorter than in Amblycorypha, especially the hind
legs ; ovipositor very short, strongly curved, and bluntly pointed.
"This genus differs from Amblycorypha, to which it is most
nearly allied, especially by the cut of the wing covers and the short-
ness of the hind legs and ovipositor." — Scudder.
Microcentrum laukifolium. Linneus.
Length of wing covers, one inch and three-fourths ; of hind
femora, nine-tenths of an inch. Wings and wing covers, grass
green ; body, yellowish green, lighter beneath. Front of protho-
rax with a very small central tooth.
Scudder described this species under the name of Microcentrum
affUiatum, but Stal pronounces it identical with the Linnean
442 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
species, after a compai-ison with the type. Is it distinct from M.
retinervis, Burm.?
Genus Scudderia. Stal (1873).
Top of the head, between the antennae, compressed into a short,
blunt spine, which curves upward sharply. Eyes nearly hemi-
spherical. Pronotum slightly narrowed in front, rounded behind,
deeply notched on the side behind, the sides of the notch fonning
a right angle. Fore coxae with a sharp spine on the outside.
Ovipositor large, curving upward. Supra-anal plate of the male
sending out a stout spine, which curves down, and is widened and
notched at the end. Sub-anal plate sends out a much longer
spine, notched at the end, and curving upward.
Scudderia ourvicauda. De Geer.
Narrow-winged Katydid.
Length of body, about one inch ; from the face to the end of
the wing covers, an inch and a half ; the wings extending about
one-fourth of an inch farther. Body and wings, grass green ;
face and under side of the body, sometimes lighter, and sometimes
tinged with dull yellow. It feeds principally on oak leaves.
The male does not make as loud a " shrill " as the broad-winged
katydid, and the sound he makes at night and in cloudy weather
is different from the one he makes in the sunshine.
Genus Conocephalus. Thunberg (1815).
Face, very oblique ; vertex, prolonged forwards into a cone.
Eyes, elliptical ; pronotum, truncate in front, rounded behind,
narrowed in front, obtusely notched on the side behind. Pro-
sternum, with two long, slim spines. Fore coxae with a spine on
the outside.
Conocephalus ensiger. Harris.
Cone-headed Katydid.
Length of body, one inch ; to the end of the wing covers, two
inches and one-fourth ; length of ovipositor, one inch. Color,
pale green, lighter in the face and beneath. A small tooth is situ-
ated on the under side of the conical part of the head, between the
antennae ; and a U-shaped black mark on the under side ^ji the
cone near the end.
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 443
CoNOCEPHALUS ROBUSTUs. Scudder.
" Either pea-green or dirty brown ; tubercle of the vertex tipped
with black, not extending, or but very faintly and narrowly,
down the sides ; lateral carinse of prothorax, pale yellowish ; wing
covers dotted with irregularly distributed black dots, most con-
spicuous in the brownish individuals. In form, as in coloration,
this species is much like C. ensiger. The shape of the conical
projection of the vertex is the same, or a little stouter ; it is a
larger species, much broader and stouter than it, the wings
broader, and, when compared with the hind femora, a little longer
than they are in C. ensiger ; the spines upon the under side of the
hind femora are larger than there, being noticed easily with the
unassisted eye ; the ovipositor of the female is much shorter than
in C. ensiger ; and, finally, the insect is much broader across the
mesothorax, with a heavier sonorous apparatus in the male ; wing
covers fully as long as the wings, in the male ; slightly longer
than the wings, in the female. The only difference between this
species and 0. ensiger in coloration is the usual lacking of the
spots on the wing covers in the latter, and in the same the pres-
ence of a broad black band on either side of the tubercle of the
vertex, which exists in the former but seldom, and then it is very
narrow.
" Male, length of wings, 1.7 inch ; breadth in middle, .32 inch ;
of hind femora, .9 inch. Female, length of wing covers, 1.9
inch; extent of wing covers beyond wings, .1 inch; breadth of
wing covers in middle, .22 inch; length of hind femora, 1 inch;
of ovipositor, 1 inch." — Scudder.
Genus Xiphidium. Serville (1831).
Face, rounded, somewhat oblique ; a blunt projection between
the antennae, somewhat excavated on the sides, for the reception of
the protuberance on the inner side of the first joint of the anten-
nae. Eyes, hemispherical ; pronotum ti'uncate in front, rounded
behind, lateral edges rounded, slightly excavated on the side, be-
hind. Prosternum, with two spines ; front coxae, with a spine on
the outside. Anterior tibiae armed beneath with a row of six
spines on each side.
This genus includes those small and medium-sized green grass-
hoppers, with long, tapering antennae, which are so common dur-
ing the summer in grass fields.
The species may be sepai-ated by the following table : —
444 » BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
, f Wing covers abi'uptly narrowed in the middle . . . S.
I Wing covers not narrowed in the middle .... 8.
j Wings a little longer than the wing covers . . . fasciatum.
\ Wings a little shorter than the wing covers . . brevipenne.
Brown stripe on the pronotum, bordered with black, gldberrimum.
own stripe not bordered with black 4.
Wing covers as long as the wings vulgare.
Wing covers a little shorter than the wings . . concinnum.
f Bn
iBn
{
XiPHiDiuM FASCIATUM. De Geer.
TJie Slender Meadow Grasshopper.
Length of body, about half an inch ; to the end of wing covers,
about four-fifths of an inch. "Wings a little longer than the wing
covers. Upper side of abdomen, brown. A brown stripe extends
from the projection between the antennas, back across the middle
of the pronotum, being widest behind. Legs, sprinkled with
brown. Ovipositor, as long as the abdomen.
XiPHIDIUM BREVIPENNE. Scuddcr.
" Size of X. fasciatum, with which it agrees in coloration
throughout, except that the wings are a little darker. The dorsal
band is a little broader, and the ovipositor is reddish brown
throughout, while in X. fasciatum it is green at the base ; wings,
.08 inch shorter than the wing covers ; both shorter than the body ;
ovipositor nearly equalling the hind femora in length. In these
respects it differs very much from X. fasciatum.
" Length of body, .5 inch ; of wing covers, .33 inch; of hind
femora, .43 inch ; of ovipositor, .4 inch."
XiPHIDIUM VULGARE. Harris.
The Common Meadow Grasshopper.
Length of body, three-fourths of an inch ; to the end of the
wing covers, about one inch. Wing covers abruptly narrowed in
the middle ; green, faintly tinged with brown. The males have
two black dashes, one behind the other, on each wing, on the out-
side of the transparent spot. Body green, or greenish brown,
with a dorsal brown stripe extending from the tubercle of the ver-
tex across the prothorax, being widest behind. Ovipositor gradu-
ally curved, and pointed at the end ; about three-tenths of an inch
in length.
ORTHOPTEEA OF NEW ENGLAND. 445
XiPHiDiuM coNCiNNUM. Scudder.
" Male, brownish green ; a dark reddish-brown dorsal streak
upon the head and prothorax, becoming faint towards the hind
border of the prothoi-ax, and narrowing anteriorly to the width of
the tubercle of the vertex, passing over this down the front to the
labrum, expanding broadly in the middle of the face ; legs brown-
ish green, tarsi dark brown, spines of tibiae tipped with black ;
abdominal appendages reddish brown ; wing covers pellucid, veins
grass green, except the heavy transverse vein of the sonorous
apparatus, which is brown ; wings pale brownish green, extending
a little beyond wing covers ; female having the same markings as
the male, except that all the nervures of the wing covers are
brown, and the wings are more dusky and are shorter than the
wing covers ; ovipositor reddish brown, a little curved, and very
pointed ; a much slenderer and more graceful form than X. vul-
gar e.
" Length of body, .7 inch ; of wing covers, .84 inch ; of wings
beyond wing covers, .08 inch ; of hind femora, .6 inch ; of ovipos-
itor, .32 inch."
XiPHiDiuM GLABERRiMUM. Burmcister.
"The dorsal band here is bordered with black, as is also the
outer edge of the sonorous apparatus of the male ; antennae very
long; ovipositor slightly expanded in the middle." — Scudder.
Genus Thtreonotus. Serville.
Face rounded, slightly oblique. Eyes small and nearly globose.
Vertex with a blunt projection between the antennae, somewhat
excavated on the sides, and grooved above. Basal joint of the
antennae flattened. Pronotum truncate in front, more or less
rounded behind, and extending back over the first joint of the
abdomen, concealing the rudimentary wings and wing covers ;
flattened above and bent sharply down on the sides, forming an
abrupt, curved edge on each side of the back. Prosternum with
two short spines ; fore coxa with a long sharp spine on the out-
side.
The fore and middle tibiae have two rows of six spines each on
the inside, and a row of three or four equidistant spines along the
outside. Hind femora and tibiae very long, and of equal length.
Ovipositor as long as the body, and straight.
446 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Thtreonotus dorsalis. Burmeister.
Length of body, nearly one inch ; of ovipositor, one inch. Color,
yellowish brown, more or less mottled, darker above.
Thyreonotus pachymerus. Burmeister.
" Among other distinctions between these two species, it may
be seen that this species has the pronotum well rounded behind,
while the hind margin of the other is nearly square ; and the ovi-
positor is longer in T. dorsalis than in T. pachymerus.^ as are also
the hind legs." — Scudder.
Family ACRIDID^.
Grasshoppers.
Anterior and middle legs equal, or nearly equal, in length, much
shorter than the posterior pair ; posterior legs elongate, fitted
for leaping ; the femora enlarged near the base. The tarsi three-
jointed ; the first joint, which is usually the longest of the three,
and much longer than the second, has the under side marked by
two cross-impressions, which give it the appearance, when seen on
this side, of being composed of three pieces ; the terminal or
third joint is furnished with two strong claws. Wing covers and
wings, when in repose, rest partly horizontal on the back of the
abdomen, and partly deflexed against the sides. The antennae
are shorter than the body, seldom exceeding half its length, and
composed of from six to twenty-four joints ; they are either fili-
form, flattened, or ensiform, rarely clavate. Most of the species
possess wings, but in a few these organs are wanting.
This family contains a much larger number of species than
either of the other families of the Orthoptera, and includes those
which have proved the most destructive to our cultivated crops.
The entire life-history of but few of our species has been carefully
studied ; yet, in a general way, they are so nearly alike that the
history of one will answer for that of all.
When the female is ready to deposit her eggs, she digs a hole in
the ground, with the valves of her ovipositor, as deep as the length
of her abdomen will permit, and at this time she is able to lengthen
the abdomen to nearly twice its ordinary length. She then deposits
her eggs in this hole, one at a time, placing them in regular order,
so as to form an elongated oval mass. During the process a glairy
fluid is deposited about the mass, which hardens and binds them
together somewhat in the form of a bean. The hole is then filled
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND.
447
with dirt mixed with this fluid, which forms a mass nearly im-
pervious to water, after it hardens. See Fig. 11. The number
of eggs deposited
by the different
species varies con-
siderably, some
laying only twenty-
five or thirty in one
mass, but deposit-
ing several masses,
while others, as the
red-winged grass-
hopper (Hipjnscus
tuberculatus ) , de-
posit all, to the
number of 125 or
130, in one mass.
The different
species vary also
in the selection of
places for depositing their eggs ; some species may frequently
be seen, in the fall, digging holes and laying their eggs in the
3aard gravel of a well-travelled road.
The young grasshoppers are very large eaters ; and, in the proc-
ess of growth, they molt or shed their skins from thi-ee to five
times. At the second or third molt, rudimentary wing covers ap-
pear, and the insect is called a pupa ; but previous to this time it
is called a larva. At the last molt the wings and wing covers
appear fully developed, and then the insect is called an imago,
— perfect or mature insect. See Fig. 12.
Fig. 11.
Grasshoppers laying eggs.
a, a, a, female in different positions.
b, egg pod.
c, separate eggs.
d, e, earth removed to expose the pods.
Fig. 12.
Grasshopper molting its skin, a to e, showing the successive stages.
448 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
A pupa may be distinguished from a short-winged imago, by
having the wing covers twisted around so that the faces and mar-
gins are the reverse of what they are in the perfect insect.
Warm, di-y weather is favorable to the increase of grasshoppers,
and it is in excessively dry seasons that they are most injurious.
Dampness is undoubtedly the most efficient natural agent for keep-
ing them in check. Although they may hatch in great numbers,
yet, if a rainy season follow soon after, they will to a large extent
be destroyed. Extreme changes during the winter appear to de-
stroy the vitality of the eggs.
Grasshoppers are preyed upon in their various stages by quite a
number of different species of insects, and especially by a reddish-
colored mite, which adheres to them in large numbers, and, by
sucking their blood, weakens and finally destroys them. Very
many of our native birds feed on them, and domestic fowls are
great aids in their destruction. It is doubtful if any artificial
remedies can be used profitably, except when a great invasion is
threatened, as sometimes occurs ; and then it may prove safe and
profitable to sprinkle the crops, ahead of the invading hosts, with
Paris green or other poisonous insecticides.
The sub-families represented in New England may be separated
by the following table : —
/ Pronotum extending back to the tip of the abdomen . Tettigince.
\ Pronotnm not extending back to the tip of the abdomen . . 2.
Prostemum with a prominent spine .... Acridince.
Prostemum not spined, or with only an obhque tubercle . . 3.
„ r Face very oblique TrrtxaUncB.
\ Face not oblique, or but slightly so .... CEdipodince.
.{
Synopsis of the AcridincB.
. f Wings abortive or wanting Pezotettix.
\ Wings well developed 2.
a ( Median carina of the pronotum somewhat prominent . Acridium.
I Median carina of the pronotum not prominent . . . -3.
f Hind femora not reaching the end of the wing covers . Melanoplus.
S. \ Hind femora reaching or surpassing the end of the wing covers,
Paroxya.
Genus Pezotettix. Burmeister (1840).
Body medium size ; female narrow posteriorly. Head large ;
face perpendicular, or nearly so ; vertex between the eyes narrow,
in front of these, short, somewhat deflexed, concave, no foveolae ;
frontal costa, lateral carinae, and cheek carinas, distinct ; frontal
costa generally convex above the ocellus ; eyes sub-ovate or sub-
globose ; antennae cylindrical, reaching the tip of the pronotum ;
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 449
joints somewhat distinct. Pronotum sub-cylindrical ; disk sub-
convex ; median carina generally obliterated on the anterior lobes,
more or less distinct on the posterior lobe, sub- truncate in front,
truncate or rounded behind, sometimes obtusely angled, but in the
latter instances the posterior lateral margin ascends from the lateral
angle to the apex without any entering angle at the humerus ;
the three transverse impressions distinct, cutting the median
carina ; the intermediate one sub-bisinuate ; posterior lobe punct-
ured. Prosternal spine rather short, obtuse ; pectus broad as the
head. Elytra and wings wanting or abbreviated. Four anterior
legs short ; in the male the middle femora much swollen ; posterior
femora moderately dilated at the base. Exti-emity of the male
abdomen somewhat swollen and turned up ; cerci generally slender.
The species may be separated by the following table : —
, / Without wings or wing covers ..... glacialis.
\ Wing covers present 2.
„ / Wing covers more than half tlie length of the abdomen, borealis.
I Wing covers not more than half the length of the abdomen, manca.
Pezotettix glacialis. Scudder.
The Wingless Mountain Grasshopper.
Head not large ; vertex furrowed ; frontal costa with a deep
furrow and depression at the ocellus ; eyes not prominent, not
elongate, docked anteriorly, and very slightly above. Pronotum
a little widest posteriorly ; anterior and posterior margins trun-
cate ; lateral carinas almost obliterated, obtusely rounded ; median
very slight. Prosternal spine rather short and blunt, compressed
laterally. With neither wings nor elytra. Color, female : ver-
tex, disk of the pronotum, and abdomen, olivaceous green ; a
broad black band behind the eye, crossing the sides of the prono-
tum to the tip, extending upon the abdomen in the form of trans-
verse streaks ; pronotum below this, greenish yellow, with a medial
black spot. Vertex and pectus, greenish yellow ; prosternum,
dusky. Front and sides of the head yellowish green, with a
greenish stripe down the middle of the frontal ridge. Furrow and
interior carina of the under side of the hind femora, coral red ; re-
mainder yellowish green, with two broad bands of dai'k green
across the outside ; apex, black ; tibiae, green.
Male differs as follows : mesonotum and metanotum, bright
green ; whole dorsal surface black, with a dorsal row of yellowish
green spots, and a triangular spot of the same color between the
middle and posterior coxae ; a lateral row of greenish-yellow spots
on the first eight abdominal segments.
450 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Length, about three-fourths of an inch.
Mr. Scudder states that this species frequents the branches of
the small birch trees among the White Mountains of New Hamp-
shire. It has also been taken on Speckled Mountain in Maine,
and on Gray lock in Massachusetts.
Pezotettix manga. Smith.
Top of the head, disk of pronotum, and elytra, brown. Sides of
the pronotum smooth and shining in front of the last transverse
impression ; behind it thickly punctate ; a broad black band ex-
tending from the eyes over the upper half of the pronotum, and
continued upon the other thoracic segments and along the side of
the abdomen, inclosing on the thorax an oblique whitish spot,
which extends from the base of the elytra to the posterior coxae.
Hind femora brown, yellow below, banded with black above ;
tibiae, bright red.
Length, about three-fourths of an inch ; length of elytra, from
one-sixth to one-seventh of an inch ; posterior femora, about four-
tenths of an inch.
Pezotettix borealis. Scudder.
Dark brown, darkest above ; a broad black band behind the
eye, extending over the upper portion of the sides of pronotum to
the hind border ; front, dark yellowish brown ; mouth parts, dirty
yellowish ; legs, yellowish brown ; hind femora streaked with
black, with the tip black ; hind tibiae reddish, with a faint, paler
annulation near the base, the spines tipped with black ; wing-
covers, dirty, yellowish brown, spotted irregularly with darker
brown ; wings colorless, a little dusky on costal border.
Length of body, about two-thirds of an inch ; of wing covers,
nearly half an inch ; of hind femora, nearly half an inch.
This northern species has been taken on Speckled Mountain in
Maine, and on the White Mountains, New Hampshu-e. It is
thought by some to be identical with P. frigida of Northern
Europe.
Genus Acridium. Burmeister (1838).
Prosternum armed with a prominent, blunt spine ; median carina
of the pronotum somewhat prominent ; wings and wing covers
well developed, as long or longer than the abdomen ; abdomen of
the male not swollen at the tip ; eyes, elongate, oval.
The species may be separated as follows : —
r Wing covers longer than the abdomen .... alutaceum.
\ Wing covers about as long as the abdomen . . . rubiginosum.
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 451
ACRIDIUM ALUTACEUM. Haixis.
Leather-colored GrassJiopper.
Dirty brownish yellow, a paler yellow stripe on the top of the
head and thorax ; a slightly elevated, longitudinal line on the top
of the thorax ; wing covers semi-transparent, with irregular brown-
ish spots ; wings transparent, uncolored, netted with dirty yellow ;
abdomen, with transverse rows of minute blackish dots; hind
femora, whitish within and without, the white portion bounded by
a row of minute distinct black dots, and crossed, herring-bone
fashion, by numerous brown lines ; hind tibiae reddish, with yellow-
ish-white spines, which are tipped with black.
Length to the end of abdomen, one and three-fourths inches.
AcRiDroM KUBiGiNosuM. Harris.
Light rust red, somewhat uniform. Wing covers opaque, rather
paler on the overlapping position, without spots, or sprinkled over
with dim, small, dusky spots. Wings transparent, slightly red-
dish towards the tip ; veins blackish ; posterior femora reddish ;
the flat disk whitish, with a row of black dots above and below ;
apex with a lunate black spot on the side. Spines of the tibiae
whitish, tipped with black.
Length of female about one inch and a half, — male much
smaller.
Genus Mel ANOPLus. Stal (1873).
Eyes nearly equal in the sexes, never broader than the length of
the cheek ; no distinct lateral carinas ; mesosternum and metaster-
num together longer than wide ; upper margin of the hind femora
smooth ; first joint of hind tarsi of the same length as the last
joint, and a little stouter ; pulviUi between the claws, large ; last
joint of the abdomen of the male much swollen.
The species may be separated as follows : —
, / "Wing covers shorter than the abdomen, or of the same length . 2.
I Wing covers much longer than the abdomen .... 5.
2 f Median carina distinct on the front lobe of the pronotum . . 3.
I Median carina indistinct or wanting on front lobe of the pronotum, i.
- f With a yellow stripe along the sides .... femoratus.
\ With no yellow stripe along the sides .... punctulatus.
, j Wing covers as long as the abdomen collinus.
\ Wing covers much shorter than the abdomen . . . rectus.
g f Anal cerci pointed at the tip femur-rubrum.
I Anal cerci broadly rounded at the tip atlanis.
452 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Melanoplus femoratus. Burmeister.
The Yellow- striped Grasshopper. (Fig. 13.)
Dull or olive green, with a yellowish line on each side, extend-
ing from the front of the head to the tips of the wing covers ; hind
tibiae and tarsi blood red,
the spines tipped with
black ; wings transparent,
faintly tinged with pale
green, and netted with
greenish-brown lines. Ab-
Fig. 13. '^ ** domen of the male very
Melanoplus femoratus. obtuse. Curving Upward at
the end ; anal cerci expanded at the base ; female with the upper
valves of the ovipositor tapering, finely pointed.
Length to tip of the abdomen, from one to one and one-fourth
inches.
Melanoplus punctulatus. Uhler.
"Antennae dark colored; eyes prominent; no lateral stripe.
Wing covers spotted irregularly with dusky blotches ; posterior
lobe of pronotum rather coai'sely punctate ; hind tibias parti-col-
ored. Male with the basal half of the anal cerci equal. Female
with the upper valves of the ovipositor scarcely tapering, finely
pointed." — Scudder.
Length, one inch. This species is very rare, but has been taken
in Maine and Massachusetts.
Melanoplus collinus. Scudder.
"Transverse fun-ows of anterior lobe of pronotum, distinct;
upper half of divergent lobes but little darker than the lower half ;
wing covers as long as the abdomen. Male with the anal cerci
forked at the tip. Female, stout." — Scudder.
Melanoplus rectus. Scudder.
"Transverse furrows of anterior lobe of pronotum indistinct ;
upper half of divergent lobes strikingly darker than the pale lower
half ; wing covers much shorter than the abdomen. Male with
the anal cerci equal or nearly equal throughout ; long, slender, and
nearly straight. Female rather slender." — Scudder.
This species is quite rare. It has been taken in Massachusetts,
in the valleys of the White Mountains, New Hampshire, and at
Norway, Maine.
OETHOPTEEA OF NEW ENGLAND. 453
Melanoplus femtjr-rubrum. De Geer.
The Red-legged Grasshopper.
Dull olive-green, with a black spot extending from the eyes
along the side of the pronotum ; an oblique yellow line on each
side of the body, beneath the wings ; a row of dusky brown spots
along the middle of the wing covers ; hind tibiae and tarsi red, with
black spines. Marginal apophyses of the last dorsal segment in
the male, stout and parallel, reaching half-way over the supra-anal
plate. Anal cerci tapering, pointed at the tip, and not half as
broad on the apical as on the basal half. Apex of the last ab-
dominal segment entire. Median carina of the pronotum of the
female generally distinct on the anterior lobe ; prosternal spine
nearly cylindrical, scarcely tapering, except at the extreme tip,
which is generally bluntly rounded.
Length, about one inch.
The eggs are deposited in the ground in the fall, and hatch the
following May or June ; but the insects do not reach maturity
until July or August.
This is one of the most common grasshoppers in New England,
and at times becomes so abundant as to destroy not only garden
and field crops, but even attack shrubs and small trees. Prof.
S. I. Smith states that he has seen small hackmatack trees, in
Maine, almost covered with them, and entirely stripped of their
leaves. When they are so abundant, they rise in the air and are
carried long distances by the wind, when it is blowing strongly.
Melanoplus atlanis. Riley.
Length, about one inch.
This species strongly resembles M. femur-rubrum, but may be
distinguished by the following characters given by Mr. Scudder : —
3fale, with the marginal apophyses of the last dorsal segment
slender, divergent, reaching scarcely one-third way over the
supra-anal plate ; anal cerci broad, equal, broadly rounded at tip,
scarcely twice as long as broad ; apex of last abdominal segment
notched. Female, with the median carina of the pronotum gener-
ally indistinct or wholly wanting on the anterior lobe ; prosternal
spine tapering, generally bluntly pointed at tip.
This is a common species throughout New England.
Genus Paroxta. Scudder (1876).
Body straight, sub-cylindrical. Head moderately large; eyes
large, prominent, separated from each other above by fully (male)
454 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
or very much more than (female) the width of the basal joint of
antennae ; antennae long, equal, of similar length in both sexes.
Pronotum simple, smooth (the posterior lobe punctulate) ; the
median carina slight, equal ; the anterior scarcely longer than the
posterior lobe, the hind border of latter obtusely and bluntly
angled ; lower border of deflected lobes very obtusely angled in
the middle ; tubercle of prosternum prominent, sub-cylindrical,
bluntly pointed, at the base laterally compressed, at least in the
male. Wings and wing covers about reaching the tip of the abdo-
men, slender. Hind femora reaching (male) or surpassing (fe-
male) the tip of the wing covers, moderately stout, but tapering
very regularly, unarmed above. Edges of inferior valve of ovi-
positor smooth ; anal cerci of male having the general structure
of those of Melanoplus.
Paroxta atlantica. Scudder.
Dull, olivaceous, excepting the top of the head, thorax and
wing covers, which vary from light to dark brown. Head oliva-
ceous, yellow on face and sides, in the female more or less infus-
cated ; above the antennae brownish, fuscous, more or less tinged
with chestnut color ; behind the eye a broad, straight, horizontal
black band, edged more or less distinctly, above and below, with
yellowish ; antennae not half so long as the body, in the male ;
pale yellow at base, at least in male ; beyond, testaceous, deepen-
ing into fuscous toward the tip. Upper surface of pronotum of
the color of the top of the head, the upper half of the deflected
lobes with avery broad black band, in continuation of that on the
head, anteriorly edged more or less distinctly, both above and
below, with yellowish, and fading out before, or abruptly terminat-
ing at, the posterior lobe. Wing covers nearly uniform brownish
fuscous, with a faint line of small fleckings down the middle, in
the female. Legs of the color of the bod}^ the middle and hind
femora generally more or less infuscated on their outer face ; hind
tibiae glaucous, with black or blackish spines.
Length, one inch.
Synopsis of the Truxalince.
, f Prosternum obtusely tuberculated 2.
1 Prosternum not tuberculated 3.
„ f Antennae somewhat enlarged towards the base . . Opomala.
\ Antennae not enlarged towards the base . . Stetheophyma.
o f Posterior margin of the pronotum truncate . . . Chlo'ealtia.
\ Posterior margin of the pronotum rounded or angular Stenobothrus.
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 455
Genus Opomala. Serville (1831).
Head pyramidal ; face very oblique. Antennje reaching the
apex of the pronotum, more or less enlarged near the base ; the
joints prismatic. Eyes somewhat prominent, oblique, placed
near the front and close to the antennae. Pronotum usually
tricarinate, sometimes sub- cylindrical, and the carinje sub-
obliterated ; sides straight, parallel or nearly so, truncate in front,
truncate or obtusely rounded behind ; transverse impressions gen-
erally indistinct. Wing covers straight, lanceolate, sometimes
reaching to the tip of the abdomen, sometimes abbreviated. Pres-
ternum with a short, blunt protuberance. Anterior and middle
legs short ; posterior generally long and slender.
Opomala brachtptera. Scudder.
Brown, dotted faintly above with black. A faint, dark stripe
extending from the lower border of each eye along the side of the
pronotum. Hind femora with a row of black dots on the upper
edge ; terminal lobe dark. Spines tipped with black. The female
is more uniformly brown than the male, with numerous minute
dusky dots ; wings and wing covers shorter than the male.
Length, a little more than an inch.
Genus Chloea.ltis. Harris (1841).
Eyes rather short, somewhat acuminate at the apex, placed near
the vertex, oblique, and rather distant from each other. Back of
the pronotum and head in one plane, horizontal. Head produced
in front between the antennae, in the form of a short, blunt pyra-
mid. Antennae short, filiform, sub-depressed, and joints sub-
distinct. Face oblique and straight. Pronotum short, compressed
at the sides, which are flat, straight and parallel, or very nearly so ;
tricarinate, the three carinas distinct but not elevated ; transverse
incisions slight ; truncate in front, and truncate or sub-truncate
behind. Wing covers abbreviated, shorter than the abdomen, ex-
cept in Ch. punctulata, when they are about equal to it in length ;
ovate-lanceolate. Prosternum unarmed, but slightly swollen.
The species may be separated as follows : —
, f Female, green, or pale brown; male, green above . . viridis.
\ Brown, without anj^ green 2.
2 ( Wing covers about as long as the abdomen . . punctulata.
\ Wing covers shorter than the abdomen . . . conspersa.
456 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Chloealtis viridis. Scudder,
Wing covers shorter than the body, a little longer than the
wings. Top of head and prothorax, green ; sides of head and
prothorax, dirty brown, with a horizontal black band behind the
eye, extending over the prothorax ; front of head, yellowish brown ;
fore and hind legs, reddish brown ; mesothoracic legs, green ;
spines of tibiae tipped with black ; wing covers above, green ; upon
the sides, brown ; body beneath, yellowish. The female varies
from olivaceous green to dark brown, with a dark band behind the
eye, as in the male ; upon the top of the head a dark band extends
from either side of the vertex, curving inwards and then outwards
to midway between the median and lateral carinas ; hind tibiae,
reddish brown.
Length, about three-fourths of an inch.
Chloealtis punctulata. Scudder.
Wings and wing covers extending to tip of abdomen. Vertex
edged with reddish brown ; a narrow, reddish-brown band extends
along the lateral carinse of pronotum to the eye, edged below
with black ; it extends also slightly upon the base of the wing
covers ; abdomen, sternum, fore legs and mouth parts (except the
black mandibles) , reddish brown ; hind tibiae, yellowish brown, the
spines tipped with black ; all the tarsi darker ; wing covers green,
with scattered, small, brownish spots.
Length of body, about one inch.
Chloealtis conspersa. Harris.
Tlie Sprinkled GrassJiopper.
Light reddish brown, sprinkled with black spots ; a black line
running behind each eye, on the head, and extending on each side
of the thorax on the elevated lateral line ; wing covers oblong-
oval, pale yellowish brown, with many small, darker brown spots ;
wings about one-seventh of an inch long, transparent, with dusky
lines at the tip ; hind .tibiae pale red, the spines at the end, black.
Length, nearly nine-tenths of an inch.
Genus Stenobothrus. Fischer (1853).
Body medium size or small, elongate. Face more or less sloped
obliquely backward and under toward the breast ; vertex in front
of the eyes, somewhat prominent, horizontal ; eyes sub-rotund
or sub-angulate. The antennae generally exceed the head and
pronotum in length, and are sub-compressed or sub-cylindi'ical.
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 457
Pronotum with a more or less flattened disk, the sides somewhat
compressed, the front margin truncate, the hind margin obtuse
angled or obtusely rounded ; the three carinas usually distinct, but
not elevated ; the median straight, entire ; the lateral straight or
curved inward at or in advance of the middle. "Wings and wing
covers sometimes abbreviated, sometimes as long or longer than the
abdomen, generally narrow. Prosternum unarmed, narrow.
The species may be separated as follows : —
f Wing covers imspotted curtipennis.
l Wing covers spotted maculipennis.
Stenobothrus curtipennis. Harris.
The Short-winged Grasshopper.
Olive gray above, variegated with dark gray and black ; legs
and body beneath, yellow ; a broad black line extending from
behind each eye on the sides of the thorax ; wing covers, in the
male, as long as the abdomen ; in the female, covering two-thii'ds
of the abdomen ; wings rather shorter than the wing covers, trans-
parent, faintly tinged with yellow ; spines on hind tibiae tipped
with black. Length, about seven-eighths of an inch.
Stenobothrus maculipennis. Scudder.
TJie Spotted-winged Grasshopper. (Fig. 14.)
Head and top of pronotum, green (in some individuals, brown) ;
a broad, reddish-brown band extending from the eyes to the
hinder side of the pronotum, limited
above by the lateral carinse, which
are white. Sides of the pronotum
below the band, brownish or dull
yellowish. Wing covers extending
beyond the end of the abdomen, .^^^
green, with a row of square, black ^^^^^^^^ ^pfS^
spots along the middle, and a few ^ •
Fig. 14.
irregularly scattered, smaller black stenobothrus macuJipennis.
spots. Length, three-fourths of an a. Mature insect.
t^ <=> 1 j,_ Pupa.
inch. c. Larva.
This is a very variable species, and contains several well-
marked varieties.
Genus Stetheophyma. Fischer (1854).
Head large ; face somewhat oblique ; eyes sub-depressed ; an-
tennae filiform, of medium length. Pronotum flattened above,
458 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
tricarinate ; the median carina somewhat acute, and the lateral
rather obtuse, sub-parallel, or slightly divergent posteriorly ; the
three transverse furrows undulate, the posterior only cutting the
median carina ; the sides marked more or less with impressed
lines. Prosternum Avitli an obtuse tubercle. Wings and wing
covers perfect in both sexes, or slightly abbreviated in the female.
Stetheophyma line ATA. Scuddcr.
Dark brown. A narrow, curved, dark line extends from the
upper border of the eyes to the lateral carinas of the pronotum,
and is the upper limit of a broad, brownish-yellow band extending
from the eye to the lateral carinse, whence it continues backward
along the carinje ; below this, upon the upper border of the side,
extends another broad black band from the eye to the hind edge
of the pronotum ; median carina, black. Costal edge of wing
covers dark, with a yellow streak beneath extending from the base
to the costal border at about two-thirds the distance to the apex ;
beneath this is a band, narrow and black at the base, broadening
till it occupies the whole width of the wing covers, becoming
brown toward the tip, while the inner border is yellowish brown.
Wings dusky, the internal half with a yellowish tinge. Legs
dark brown ; hind femora black on the outer and inner surfaces,
reddish brown above, coral red below, with a white spot near the
apex ; tip black. Hind tibiae yellow, with black spines ; the base
and tips black, and a dusky aunulation below the knee. Length,
from one inch to one and one-fourth.
Mr. Scudder has described two other species, — gracilis and pla-
typtera; but they ai'e thought to be varieties of lineata.
Synopsis of the CEdipodince.
, f Median carina of the pronotum with a single notch ... 2.
I Median carina of the pronotum witli two notches ... 7.
' Mesosternal lobes of the female twice as distant as the meta^
sternal lobes .......... 3.
Mesosternal lobes of the female not more distant than the
metasternal lobes 5.
"Wings brightly colored Aiphia.
transparent, faintly colored 4.
. / Pronotum wrinkled Encoptolophus.
2.-!
g r Wmgs bri
\ "Wings tra
f Pronotum
I Head and pronotum smooth or granulated . . . Chortophaga.
- f Median carina of the pronotum even throughout . Camnula.
\ Median carina of the pronotum iri'egular <5.
„ / Median carina of pronotum nearly obsolete on hind lobe, Hippiscus.
I Median carina of pronotum higli and arched on hind lobe, Dissosteira.
'■]
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 459
r The two ianer longitudinal veins of the wing covers mn sepa-
rately to the inner border 8.
. The two inner longitudinal veins of the wing covers unite before
[ reaching the inner border Psinidia.
„ / Veins of the hind part of the hind Avings thickened . Circotettix.
\ Veins of the hind part of the hind wings not thickened, Trimerotropis.
Genus Arphia. Still (1873).
Body compressed ; pronotum granulated ; median carina either
notched or entire. Wing covers of one color, but sprinkled with
minute black dots ; wings margined externally with black.
The species may be separated as follows : —
/ Pronotum right angled behind sulphurea.
\ Pronotum acute angled behind xanthoptera.
Arphia sulphurea. Fabricius.
Dusky brown, varying from an ashen to a dark hue. Wing
covers paler than the head and thorax, more or less distinctly
spotted with brown. Wings deep yellow at the base and on the
basal half of the front margin, bounded externally by a dusky
brown band beyond the middle, which curves and is prolonged on
the hind margin, but does not reach the anal angle ; a sub-mar-
ginal ray of the dark, extending two-thirds the distance to the
base, separates the yellow of the margin from that of the disk ;
apex translucent, dusky. Posterior femora black inside, with two
white bands ; posterior tibiae dusky, with a pale ring near the
base ; middle sometimes bluish. Length, a little over an inch.
Arphia xanthoptera. Burmeister.
Thorax generally, though not always, darker than in the former
species ; sometimes with two yellow dots on the middle of the sides
of the pronotum, one above the other, and the front and hind mar-
gins dotted with olive ; but these markings are not uniform. The
dark ray of the wings near the front margin, not more than half
as long as in the former species, extending but one-third the
distance to the base ; this is remarkably uniform. Posterior
femora generally with two oblique dull yellowish bauds on the
exterior face, and also a paler and more distinct ring near the
apex.
Length, from one to one and one-fourth inches.
Genus Chortophaga. Saussure (1884).
Body compressed, somewhat slim, punctate or fine wrinkled,
green, sub-glabrous, slightly pubescent. Legs remote, with scat-
460
BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
tered hairs on their surface. Antennae rather short, and slightly
flattened. Pronotum acute angled behind. "Wing covers narrow ;
costal half, green ; the sutural half, brownish.
Chortophaga viridifasciata. De Geer.
The Goat-Headed Grasshopper.
Fig. 15.
Chortophaga viridifasciata.
a. Larva.
b. Mature insect.
(Fig. 15.)
This exceed-
ingly variable in-
sect has received
numerous names,
but all the differ-
ent shades of va-
riation may be
reduced to two
forms, which are
the green form ;
known by the names virginiana, Fabricius,
and infuscata, Harris, the brown form.
The form virginiana is described as follows : —
Green ; wing covers with a broad green stripe on the outer mar-
gin, extending from the base beyond the middle, and including
two small dusky spots on the edge, the remainder dusky, but
semi-transparent at the end ; wings transparent, very pale green-
ish yellow next to the body, with a large dusky cloud near the
middle of the hind margin, and a black line on the front margin ;
antennae, fore and middle legs reddish ; hind femora green, with
two black spots in the furrow beneath. Length, about one inch.
Form Infuscata. Harris.
Dusky brown ; wing covers faintly spotted with brown ; wings
transparent, pale greenish yellow next to the body, with a large
dusky cloud near the middle of the hind margin , and a black line
on the front margin ; hind femora pale, with two large black spots
on the inside ; hind tibiae brown, with darker spines, and a broad
whitish ring below the knees.
Genus Encoptolophus. Scudder (1875).
Head but little swollen above, front vertical above, roundly
sloping below, a little constricted above the antennae ; eyes sepa-
rated by about their own width, moderately large, somewhat ellip-
tical ; antennae rather short and flattened ; top of the pronotum
nearly flat, the median carina abrupt, but not greatly elevated, cut
into halves by a distinct though slight notch ; lateral carinas dis-
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND.
461
tinct but broken, very slightly curved ; hind margin of pronotum
forming a right angle ; wing covers reaching but little beyond the
end of tlie abdomen.
Encoptolophus sordidus. Burmeister.
The Clouded Grasshopper. (Fig. 16.)
Dusky brown ; wing covers pale, clouded, and spotted with
brown ; wings transparent,
dusky at tip, with a dark
brown line on the front
margin ; hind tibiae brown,
with darker spines, and a
broad whitish ring below
the knees. Length, about
one inch.
Genus Camnula. Stal (1873).
Head compressed ; antennae medium, a little stouter in the male ;
hind femora with an acute margin slightly crested ; eyes small,
rather prominent, rounded kidney-shaped. Pronotum nearly level
above with median and lateral carinas.
Fig. 16.
Encoptolophus sordidus.
Camnula pellucida. Scudder.
Ash brown ; face reddish brown ; antennae yellowish at base,
dark brown toward tip ; a triangular black spot behind the eye,
the apex touching it ; a quad-
rate transverse black spot on
the anterior upper portion of
the sides of the pronotum ;
pronotum above sometimes
with a dark band down the
middle ; wing covers with the
basal half darli brown, with
small yellowish spots and
transverse streaks, especially
on front border ; apical half
clear, with dark brown round-
Camnuil^peiincida. ed spots prevalent along the
middle, decreasing in size toward the tip ; when closed, the upper
surface is dark brown, with a rather broad yellowish line along
each angle on the upper surface ; wings pellucid, with black nerv-
ules ; legs dark brown, the hind femora yellowish or reddish brown,
with two or three rather broad, diagonal, dark brown streaks, dark
462 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE.
brown at the apex ; hind tibire yellowish brown, reddish toward
the tip, with a very narrow, generally faint, annulation of dark
brown at the base ; spines tipped with black. Length of body,
three-foui'ths of an inch.
Genus Hippiscus. Saussure (1861).
Large, or medium-sized, glabrous. Top of the head with a
small central ridge. Pronotum with a granular surface, truncate
in front, acute angled behind, compressed centrally on the sides,
and above on each side of median carina ; this last with one notch ;
lateral carinae prominent only in the middle. Wing covers extend-
ing considerably beyond the end of the abdomen.
The species may be separated as follows : —
C Base of the wings, pale yellowish rugosus.
\ Base of the wings, red tuberculatus.
Hippiscus kdgosus. Scudder.
Head arid thorax, dark brown ; two yellowish bands run from
behind the eye backwards and inwards, nearly or quite meeting
one another a little in advance of the middle of the pronotum,
where they diverge and strike the hinder edge of the pronotum at
the outer angles ; there are two yellowish spots, one below the
other, on the sides of the pronotum ; wing covers marked with
large dark blotches, generally occupying the larger portion of the
wing ; the tip of the wing cover pellucid, nearly free from spots ;
wings with the basal color, pale yellowish, and the apical portion
dusky. Length of bod^', from one inch to one and one-fourth.
Hippiscus tuberculatus. Palisot de Beauvois.
The Red-winged Grasshopper.
Antennas of female rather short and stout ; pronotum granu-
lated, scarcely spotted, plain above ; median carina of uniform
height throughout. "Wing covers spotted with brown ; base of
wings red, costa and outer margin fuscous.
This species has been generally cviWeCi phcenicopterus ; but Saus-
sure has shown that they are distinct species.
Genus Dissosteira. Scudder (1876).
Head prominent, vertex elevated and tumid ; antennae of the
male not thickened before, nor tapering at, the tip ; posterior lobe
of the pronotum somewhat enlarged, median carina much elevated,
OKTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 463
deeply notched near the middle, the posterior lobe much arched.
Insects of large size.
Saussure unites the genus SpJiaragemon, Scudder, established
in 1875, with Dissosteira., and adopts the latter name because of
the gender of the former !
The species may be separated as follows : —
. f Base of the wings black Carolina.
I Base of the wings light yellow 2.
a / Apex of the wings with dusky spots at the tip . . marmorata.
I Apex of the wings without dusky spots at the tip . . . 3.
„ ( Body pale, sparingly punctured boUii.
1 Body deeply punctured, and irrorate with black . oequalis.
Dissosteira Carolina. Linneus.
Pale yellowish brown, with small dusky spots ; wings black,
with a broad yellow hind margin, which is covered with dusky
spots at the tip. Length, from one to one and one-half inches.
Dissosteira ^qualis. Say.
Ashy gray, mottled with dusky brown and white ; wing covers
semi-transparent at tip, with numerous dusky spots, so run together
as to form three tranverse bands ; basal half of wings light yellow,
transparent, with dusky veins and a few spots at the tip, and an
intermediate broad black band, which reaches the inner angle of
wing, curving and growing narrower on the hind margin ; hind
tibiae coral red, spines tipped with black, and a wide white annul-
ation below the knees. Length, one and one-fourth inches.
Dissosteira bollii. Scudder.
Brownish fuscous, the face with a grayish cinereous (in the male)
or yellowish cinereous (in the female) tinge, distinctly punctate,
the pits dusky or blackish ; antennae brownish yellow on the basal
half, infuscated beyond, the whole more or less annulate with
dusky yellow and blackish in the male. Wing covers flecked
throughout with minute blackish spots. Wings light greenish yel-
low at the base, with a broad median arcuate band, blackish in
color, sending out a broad short shoot toward the base next the
upper border. Beyond, the wing is at first hyaline, with broad
blackish, fuliginous veins, while the extreme tip is black, as the
median band. Hind femora dull brownish ; the basal two-fifths of
the hind tibiae blackish, with a broad whitish annulus beyond,
coral red. Crest of ]Dronotum very high, that of the posterior lobe
464 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
independently arched, much more elevated in front than behind.
Length of body, about one and one-fourth inches.
Mr. Scudder has described a species under the name of D. haltea-
tum; but Saussure considers it only a variety of the above species.
DissosTEiRA MARMORATA. Harris.
The Marbled Grasshopper.
Ash-colored, variegated with pale yellow and black ; thorax sud-
denly narrowed before the middle, the slightly raised longitudinal
line on the top cut through in the middle by a transverse fissure ;
wing covers marbled with large whitish and black spots, and semi-
transparent at the end ; wings light yellow on the half next the
body, transparent near the end, with two black spots on the tip,
and a broad intermediate black band, which, narrowed and cui'v-
ing inwards on the hind margin, nearly reaches the inner angle ;
hind femora pale yellow, black at the extremity, and nearly sur-
rounded by two broad black bands ; hind tibiae coral red, with a
black ring below the knee, and followed by a white ring, black at
the lower extremity also, with tips of the spines black. In some
individuals, an additional black ring below the white one on the
tibiae. Length, from three-fourths to one inch.
Genus PsiNiDiA. Stal (1873).
Antennae of the male elongated, somewhat stout and flattened ;
pronotum with a granulated or tuberculated surface, rounded in
front, acute angled behind ; median carina with two notches,
lateral carinae distinct on the posterior lobe.
PSINIDIA FENISTRALIS. Scrville.
The Long-horned Grasshopper.
Ash-colored, variegated with gray and dark brown ; antennae
nearly as long as the body, and with flattened joints ; thorax very
much compressed laterally befoi'e the middle ; wing covers and
wings long and narrow ; the former variegated with dusky spots,
and semi-transparent at the tip ; wings next to the body Ver-
million red, yellow, sometimes pale, sometimes deep and almost
orange-colored, at other times uncolored and semi-transparent ;
with a broad black band across the middle, which is narrowed and
prolonged on the hinder margin, and extends quite to the inner
angle ; beyond the band, the wings are transparent, with the tips
black or covered with blackish spots ; hind tibiae whitish, with a
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 465
black ring at each end, a broad one of the same color just above
the middle, and the spines tipped with black. Length, three-
fourths of an inch. The wings of this species are very variable
in color at the base.
Genus Triiherotropis. StJil (1873).
Body slightly wrinkled, and covered with fine hairs ; pronotum
slightly angled in front and acutely angled behind, and slightly
wrinkled ; median carina broken by two wide notches ; wing covers
long and narrow.
Trimerotropis makitima. Harris.
Ash gray ; face variegated with white ; wing covers sprinlded
with minute brownish spots, and semi-transparent at tip ; wings
transparent, faintly tinged with yellow next the body, uncolored
at tip, with a scries of irregular blackish spots forming a curved
band across the middle ; hind tibiae and feet pale yellow, with the
extreme points of the spines black. Length, from three-foiu-ths
to one and one-fourth inches.
Genus Circotettix. Scudder (1876).
Body pubescent and punctured. Eyes somewhat prominent,
separated above by a space about equal to their width ; antennae
but little longer than the head and prothorax combined ; pronotum
with the front lobe slightly narrower than the head ; median carina
on the anterior portion of the front lobe, obsolete on the posterior
portion, and inconspicuous on the hind lobe ; front margin scarcely
angulated, hind margin rectangular ; lateral carinre distinct on
posterior lobe, but not prominent ; surface slightly wrinkled.
Wings and wing covers much longer than the body.
Circotettix verruculatus. Kirby.
Ash-colored, mottled with black and gray ; wing covers semi-
transparent beyond the middle, with numerous blackish spots
which run together at the base, and form a band across the
middle ; wings broad, light yellow on the basal half, the remainder
dusky but transparent, with black net-work, and deep black at tip,
and an intermediate, irregular band, formed by a contiguous series
of black spots, i-eaching only to the hind margin, but not contin-
ued toward the inner angle ; hind tibiiie pale yellow, with a black
ring below the knees, a broader one at the extremity, and a black-
ish spot behind the upper part of the tibia. Length, nearly one
inch.
466
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Synopsis of the Tettiginoe.
, f Pronotum arched roundly Batrachidea.
\ Pronotum nearly or quite horizontal 2.
„ / Antenna3 with thirteen or fourteen joints . . . Tettix.
\ Antennae with twenty-two joints .... Tettigidea.
Genus Tettix. Fischer (1853).
Head generally small ; eyes globular, somewhat prominent ;
antennoe composed of thirteen or fourteen joints, filiform ; prono-
tum extending back over the abdomen to or beyond its extremity ;
the lower anterior angle of the sides angulated and bent inward ;
the lateral carinae somewhat prominent, convergent near the front
border. Wing covers short, in the form of oval scales. Wings
well developed, usually as long or longer than the abdomen, and
slightly curving upward at the end. Pronotum without any spine
or tubercle. Species small.
The species may be separated as follows : —
r Length about half an inch . . . .
\ Length about one-fifth of an inch
r Length to tip of wings, .55 to .GO of an inch
I Length to tip of wings half an inch or less .
/ Pronotum advanced to the eyes
I Pronotum not advanced to the eyes
triangularis.
granulatus.
3.
cucullatus.
ornatus.
Tettix granulatus. Kirby.
Cinereous, obscurely clouded with black, the whole body granu-
lated with very minute, elevated, whitish points. Pronotum longer
than the abdomen, tricarinate. Tibiae reddish, ob-
scurely banded with white. Body black, sprinkled
with numberless very minute elevated points or gran-
ules. Pronotum cinereous, clouded obscurely with
black ; the middle carina straight, and the lateral ones
curved at the base. The rudiments of wing covers
cinereous, ridged, with excavated punctures ; nerves of
the wings black, those of the costal area white. The
fore anterior tibiie reddish, obscurely anuulatcd with
white. Length, nearly half an inch.
Tettix ornatus. Say.
Smaller than T. r/ramdatas; vertex but little in advance of the
eyes, and front border nearly straight, instead of angulated. Pro-
notum shorter than in the preceding ; wings smaller. Both this
and the preceding species have almost every conceivable variation
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 467
of ornamentation ; but, as has been remarked, color and ornamen-
tation have but little value in separating the species of Tettix.
Tettix cucullatus. Scudder.
Vertex at the front border smaller than across the middle of the
prominent eyes. Testaceous-fuscous, granulose. Pronotum dilated
in front, advanced upon the head to the eyes. Length, nearly
half an inch.
It differs from T. gramdatus, which it most resembles, in having
the vertex very narrow, slightly less than the diameter of the
much-inflated eyes, the front cut off square, and slightly hollowed,
not projecting outward so far as the eyes. The pronotum is
broader and more compact over the thorax, more suddenly sloped
off behind, and extending backward nearly twice the length of the
abdomen, the wings overreaching slightly. The punctures on the
wing covers not so deep.
Tettix triangularis. Scudder.
Allied to T. ornatus, and agreeing with it in ornamentation, in
the character of the vertex and prominence of the eyes, but dif-
fering in the length of the pronotum and wings. As in both of
the preceding species, the pronotum and wings are of equal length,
but in this species the pronotum is scarcely longer than the body,
and is not produced backward into such a slender point, the sides
being straighter. Length, three times the breadth ; length of pro-
notum, .17 of an inch.
Genus Tettigidea. Scudder (18G2).
More robust and clumsy than Tettix, head larger, more swollen
upon the top, and less sloping down the front ; antennjB consisting
of twenty-two joints, which are cylindrical and not flattened. The
lower anterior angle of the sides of the pronotum, which is angu-
lated and bent inwards in Tettix, is here rounded and straighter ;
the lateral carinas are not so prominent as there, or so strongly
bent inwards in advance of the broader portion ; the front border
is thrust forward at an angle partially concealing the head.
Wing covers considerably longer and narrower than in Tettix.
This genus further differs from Tettix, in having a small circular
space, without facets, set off from the upper, inner border of the
eye.
The species may be separated as follows : —
< Pronotum extending beyond the end of the abdomen . . lateralis.
I Pronotum not extenduig beyond the end of the abdomen . pohjmorpha.
468 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Tettigidea lateralis. Say.
Pale brownish-testaceous, with a lateral, broad fuscous line.
Pronotura shorter than the wings. Antennte reddish brown,
blackish at tip. Pronotura flattened, with small longitudinal lines
or wrinkles, and a more obvious, continuous, elevated central line
extending the whole length. AVings brown on the anterior margin
toward the tip, and extending at least one-twentieth of an inch
beyond the prouotum ; sides with a dilated blackish-brown line or
vitta, beginning at the eye, and including the abdomen above, and
each side. Legs brown, more or less annulated with pale ; under
side of abdomen pale yellowish or testaceous. Length, to tips of
wings, nearly half an inch.
Tettigidea polymorpha. Burmeister.
Dark brown ; sides blackish ; pronotum clay-colored or pale
brown, and about as long as the body. Wing covers with a small
white spot at the tips ; wings much shorter than the pronotum.
Male with the face and edges of the lateral margins of the pro-
notum yellow. This species is much shorter and thicker than
T. lateralis.
Length, two-fifths of an inch.
Genus Batrachidea. Serville (1839).
Head lai'ger than in Tettix; eyes more distant; front less
sloping ; antennae with twelve joints ; median carina very high
and arched ; lateral carinoe indicated only in front.
The species may be separated as follows : —
/ Pronotum reaching to the end of the abdomen . . . cristata.
\ Pi'ouotum not reaching to the end of the abdomen . . . carinata.
Batrachidea cristata. Harris.
Vertex projecting beyond the ej'es, front border well rounded, a
little angulated, the median carina sharp, prominent, sloping down-
wards posteriorly, the front deeply notched immediately in front
of the eyes ; eyes rather prominent, scarcely more than half as
broad as the vertex ; the pronotum with sides neither swollen nor
liollowcd, of the length of the body ; the median carina high,
regularly arched ; the lateral border with two shallow grooves,
one anterior, the other posterior, overlapping one anotiier in the
middle ; the Avhole pronotum is minutely scabrous, and there is
generally a dark quadrate or triangular spot on either side, above
the terminal half of the wing covers ; wings reaching the tip of
the pronotum. Length of pronotum, one-third of an inch.
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND.
469
Batrachidea cauinata. Scudder.
The head much as in B. cristata, with the eyes slightly larger
and more prominent ; the median carina of the pronotum sharp,
regularly arched, the pronotum extending backward quite a dis-
tance behind the tip of the abdomen, a little upturned towards the
tip, with slightly longer wings ; the lateral grooves are narrower
and less distinct than in B. cristata, and the upper surface is
more coarsely scabrous than in that species ; markings the same
as in B. cristata. Length of body, one-third of an inch ; of
pronotum, .43 of an inch.
FAmLY PHASMID^.
The WaUdng-sticJcs.
But a single member of this family is known to occur in New
England, and it has been placed in the genus Diapheroynera.
Genus Diapheromera. Gray (1835).
Body long, slender and cylindrical. Head oval and slightly
inclined. AntennsB long, slender, and composed of numerous
joints, and are inserted in frout of the eyes. Palpi short, cylin-
drical. Legs simple, the anterior pair similar to the others.
Tarsi five- jointed. Elytra very short, or wanting.
Diapheromera femorata. Say.
The Common Walking-stick.
Length of body, from two and one-half
to three inches. Color, green or greenish
brown, but varying much, becoming quite
brown towards the eud of the season.
Head of the male with three brown
stripes, the female with only two, one on
each side, extending backward from the
base of the antennae.
Fore and middle femora armed with a
short acute spine on the under side, near
the outer end. Elytra entirely wanting.
This insect feeds on the foliage of oak,
hickory, locust, and has been known to
attack the peach and rose bushes.
The eggs, which are black, and oval in
outline, are dropped loosely on the ground
in the fall, and do not hatch till the suc-
ceeding year, and sometimes not till the
second year. They change but little ex-
cept in size and color during theii* early
life, and molt but twice.
(Fig. 19.)
Fig. 19.
Diapheroiaera femorata.
470 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Family BLATTID^.
Cockroaches.
Body usually depressed and oval. Pronotum shield-like. Legs
adapted for runuing only. Wing covers usually leathery, opaque,
ovcrlappuig (if well developed) when at rest. Head bent down,
face sloping backwards. Eyes large ; ocelli rudimentary, usually
two. Antennae long and slender.
Synopsis of the Genera,
r Sub-anal styles wanting in the males ; last joint of the
. J abdomen of the female not divided beneatli . . Blatta.
I Sub-anal styles present in the males; last joint of the
^ abdomen of the female divided ...... 2.
2 f Sui)ra-anal plate fissured ..... Periplaneta.
I Supra-anal plate not fissured Platamodes.
Genus Blatta. Linneus (1758).
The insects placed in this genus have a pad (pulvillus) between
the claws of the feet ; the seventh sternum of the abdomen entire
in both sexes ; and the sub-anal styles rudimentary in the males.
Blatta geumanica. Fabricius.
Water Bug. Croton Bug. (Fig. 20.)
Length, about half an inch. Color,
dull yellowish, with a yellowish-brown
head and yellowish antennae. Pro-
notum with a reddish-brown longi-
tudinal band on each side. Wing
covers and wings somewhat longer
than the abdomen.
The eggs, thirty-six in number, are
laid in two rows in a capsule which
Blatta gcrm.ni.;; Male and thc female carrics arouud attached to-
^'-■'"■''<^- the end of her abdomen ; and, when the
young hatch, she assists them in escaping from the capsule. The
young molt or shed their skins six times before they reach
maturity, which takes from four to five months. They do not
avoid the light as much as the other species af this family, but
still are nocturnal to a certain degree.
This species is common in houses in and about all the large
cities in New England, where it is called the " croton bug." It
feeds on almost everything, but prefers wheat bread to all other
articles of diet. It sometimes injures libraries by gnawing the-
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 471
bindings of books bound in cloth. The use of Ryrethrum powder
on the shelves is the best remedy. It has been recommended to
mix a teaspoonful of powdered arsenic with a tablespoonful of
mashed potato, and scatter about their lurking-places ; but, when
poison is used, the greatest caution is necessary to prevent acci-
dents.
Borax is also said to be useful in destroying the croton bug.
Blatta? flavocincta. Scudder.
" Prothoracic shield rather dark brown, slightly paler along the
median line, bordered throughout with a pale yellowish band,
forming only a very narrow edge posteriorly ; broader in front,
and quite broad at the sides, covering all the deflexed border ; the
edge at the sides and front is slightly raised ; wing covers scarcely
reaching the tip of the abdomen, reddish brown, with the anterior
half of the outer margin paler, with a yellowish tinge ; wings not
half the length of the wing covers ; abdomen above very dark
brown ; below, dark brown, the terminal segment being darkest ;
legs yellowish brown, with spines as in B? lithophila; head reddish
brown ; sides below antennae yellowish ; eyes black ; antennae dark
brown, paler toward tip ; third joint rather larger than the two
succeeding joints, and equal in size to the second. Length of
body, fifty-six hundredths of an inch."
Mr. Scudder placed this species and germanica under the genus
Ectobia, and it may not be i)roperly placed here. He also
described a species under Ectobia as lithophila (a manuscript name
of Harris) ; but he informs me that it is very likely to be the larva
of Platamodes pennsylvanica.
Genus Periplaneta. Burmeister (1838).
Last abdominal sternum of the female divided ; sub-anal styles
of the male well developed. Antennae slim and tapering, longer
than the body. Legs long and very spiny.
r Wine; covers and wings extending beyond tlie end of the
J abdomen in both sexes ainericana.
1 Wing covers and Avings not reacliing to the end of tlie
"■ abdomen in tlie males, rudimentary in the females. . onentalis.
Periplaneta Americana. Fabricius.
Length, one inch and one-fourth. Color, reddish brown, with
paler indistinct bands on the pronotum. AVings and wing covers
well developed in both sexes, and extending beyond the end of
the abdomen. Legs much lighter in color than the body.
472 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Periplaneta orientalis. Liuneus.
Length, about four-fifths of an inch. Color, dark brown. Pro-
notum not banded ; legs of a lighter color than the body. Wings
and wing covers of the male well developed,
reaching nearly to the end of the abdomen.
Wings wanting in the female, and wing covers
very small, not more than one-fifth of an inch
long.
The female lays sixteen eggs in two rows in a
large horny capsule, which she carries with her
for seven or eight days, when she drops it in a
warm and sheltered place. When the young
hatch, they discharge a fluid which softens the
cement along the edge of the capsule, and ena-
bles them to escape without assistance. The
young larvae are white at first, differing from
Peripiaivefa oVieutaiis. the adult Only iu sizc, color and the absence of
wings. They run about with great activity, feeding upon any
starchy food they can find.
This species is nocturnal in its habits, and flees at the first
appearance of light. It is a great pest, for it devours almost any-
thing that comes iu its way, as flour, bread, meat, cheese, woolen
clothes, and even old leather. Various methods have been sug-
gested for their destruction, but one of the best is to use a small
wooden box, having a circular hole at the top, with a glass rim, out
of which they cannot escape. It should be baited at night, and
the contents thrown into hot water in the morning.
Genus Platamodes. Scudder (1862).
" A genus more closely allied to Periplaneta than to any other,
but readily distinguishable from it by its much narrower and more
elongated body, — the sides being sub-parallel to one another
throughout their whole extent, while in Periplanefxi the abdomen
is much swollen. The wings and wiug covers extend beyond the
abdomen, the latter being well rounded at the tip. The supra-anal
plate is regularly rounded, but lacks altogether the fissuration seen
in Periplaneta ; but at the same time it is not squarely docked, as
in Stylopyga. The anal cerci are somewhat shorter and not so
flattened as in Periplaneta, while the anal styles are very short, and
turned abruptly downwards. In Periplaneta the sub-genital plate
does not extend so far backward as the supra-anal. In Platamodes
it extends backward farther. A further distinction between the
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 473
two genera may be seen at the inner borders of the eyes, which
in Platamodes are nearly parallel, while in Periplaneia they
approach one another anteriorly. I have only seen males."
Platamodes unicolor. Scudder.
" Wings and wing covers, uniform pale, shining reddish brown ;
head and prothoracic shield nearly the same, but slightly darker,
particularly in the middle of the latter ; abdomen a little darker
above, especially on the borders ; cerci dark brown ; legs,
especially the tibia, darker than the body ; eyes black ; antennae
and palpi brown ; antennae reaching backward to tip of wing
covers. Length of body, .25 inch ; length to tip of wings, .35."
Family FORFICULID^. Stephens (1829).
Earwigs. (Fig. 22.)
Dr. Packard has followed Leach and some others in separating
the earwigs from the Orthoptera, and has
established the Order Dermatoptera for their
reception.
We have but a single species in New
England, common also in Europe, and Fig. 22.
placed in the genus Labia. ^^'"^'s- Forncuia.
Genus Labia. Leach (1817).
Body small and convex ; head moderately large ; antennae com-
posed of from ten to fifteen joints. Pronotum somewhat smaller
than the head ; wing covers always present, though the wings are
sometimes wanting. Abdomen somewhat widened in the middle,
the last segment much larger than the others, and armed with a
pair of forceps separated at the base in the males, but not separated
in the females. Legs comparatively short ; the first joint of the
tarsi as long as the other two, and the second is the shortest.
Labia minor. Linneus.
The Little Earwig.
Length of body, including forceps, one-fourth of an inch. Head
and sides of abdomen nearly black. Mouth parts, auteniux!,
thorax, wing covers, exposed portion of the wings, and the middle
of the upper side of the abdomen, yellowish brown ; the last seg-
ment of the abdomen and the forceps reddish brown. Legs and
474 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
last two joints of antennae honey yellow. Entire surface of the
body covered with fine, short hairs.
This species remains concealed during the day, but flies about
at night, and is sometimes attracted into houses by the light. It
was taken in this way at Amherst, Mass., at 8 p. m., Aug. 25,
1887. It is probably not abundant enough to do any considerable
damage, but in Europe they are at times very injurious to flowers
and fruits ; and they are caught in traps, consisting of hollow
tubes closed at one end, which are set up in the gardens, and in
which they conceal themselves. The hollow stems of the sun-
flowers are used for this purpose, as the earwigs are fond of the
remains of the sweet pith.
Curtis states that the female earwig lays her cluster of little
oval, opaque, yellowish eggs under a fallen leaf or other sheltered
place, then nestles upon them as a hen does on her eggs, and then
probably protects and feeds her young.
The term earwigs, which has been applied to these insects in
Em-ope, and very generally in this country, has sometimes been
incorrectly given to one of the Myriopods.
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND. 475
DEFINITION OF TERMS.
AntennoR. Two jointed, thread-like appendages on the front of the head.
Carina (plural Carince) . A keel or ridge.
Cerci. The small appendages issuing from the sides of the last abdom-
inal segment.
Cinereous. An ash-gray color.
Clavate. Having a thickened, club-like extremity.
Costa. It is usually applied to the median carina of the face ; but is
also. api)lied to the front margin of the wings and elytra.
Dentate. Furnished with a tooth.
Disk. The middle surface.
Dorsum. The upper surface or back of the thorax, abdomen, etc.
Dorsal. Pertaining to the upper surface.
Elongate. Signifies that the part is longer than it is wide.
Elytra. The wing covers. The anterior or upper wings.
Fer)iora. The thighs.
Filiform. Slender, or thread-like.
Fovcola. A cavity or cellular depression.
Fulvous. Tawny, or light yellowish brown.
Fuscous. Dark brown, or sooty color.
Ganglion (plural Ganglia) . A nervous mass or enlargement.
Glabrous. Smooth or polished.
Hyaline. Transparent, with a gi'eenish tinge.
Lateral lobes of the pronotum. The deflexed portions that cover the
sides of the thorax.
Medial or Median. Occupying the middle.
Mesonotum. The upper or dorsal sm'face of the mesothorax.
Mesostcr7ium. The imder sm-face of the mesothorax.
Mesothorax. The middle part of the thorax, to Avhich the wing covers
and middle pair of legs are attached.
Metanottim. The upper or dorsal surface of the metathorax.
Mctasternum. The imder surface of the metathorax.
Metathorax. The posterior part of the thorax, to which the wings and
hind pair of legs are attached.
Nerves. The larger ribs or veins of the wings and wing covers, extend-
ing from the base toward the apex.
Nervules. Tlie smaller connecting veins of the wings and wing covers.
Ocelli (singular Ocellus). The three simple or little eyes.
Pectus. The breast or under surface of the thorax.
Pronotum. The shield which covers the front part of the thorax.
476 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Prosternum. The imder surface of tlie prothorax.
Prothorax. The anterior division of the thorax, to which the head is
joined.
Pulvilli (singular Pulvillus). The little pads between the claws.
Punctate or Punctured. Containing numerous small, point-like depres-
sions or pvmctures.
Reticulated. Furnished with veining or markings like net-work.
Scabrous. Covered with small, slight elevations.
Spurs. The strong spines at the apex of the tibias.
Sulcus. A linear groove or channel.
Suture. A seam or impressed line; generally used in reference to
the junction of two pieces or plates.
Tarsus (plural Tarsi). The jointed foot.
Tibia (plural Tibiae). The part of the leg between the thigh and the
foot.
Tricarinate. Having three keels or carinas,.
Tuberculale. Covered with tubercles.
Unarmed. Without a spine ; unspined.
Vertex. The front portion of the upper surface of the head, between
and in front of the eyes.
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND.
477
A LIST OF THE NEW ENGLAND ORTHOPTERA,
With the Principal Synonyms.
GRYLLID^.
Tridaotylus terminalis, Ilhler, Mss.
(Scudder.)
Oryllotalpa borealis, Burmeister,
Gr. brevipennis, Sei'ville.
GrylMalpa Columbia, Scudder.
G. lon^pennis, Scudd.
Gryllus abbreviatus, Serv.
Gr. angustus, Scudd.
Qryllus ludiiosus, Serv.
Gr. pennsylvanicus, Burm.
Gr. neglectus, Scudd.
Gr. niger, Harris.
Nemobius fasciaius, De Geer.
N. vittatus, Ilarr.
(Ecanthus niveus, Serv.
(E. fasciatus, Fitch.
LOCUSTID^.
Ceuthophilus maculatus, Harr.
Phal. lapidicola, Burm.
Ceuthophilus brevipes, Scudd.
Cyrtophyllus concavus, HaiT.
Platy. perspicillatum, Serv.
Am,blycorypha oblongifolia, De
Geer.
Amblycorypha rotundifolia, Scudd.
Microcentrum laurifolium,, Liimeus.
Micro, affiliatum, Scudd.
Scudderia curvicauda, De Geer.
Gryl. myrtifolius, Drury.
Phan. angustifolia, Harr.
Conocephalus ensiger, Harr.
Conocephalus robustus, Scudd.
XiphidiJim fasciatum, De Geer.
Orch. gracile, Harr.
Xiphidium brevipenne, Scudd.
Xiphidium vulgare, Harr.
Xiphidium, concinnum, Scudd.
Xiphidium, glaberrimum, Burm.
Thyreonotus dorsalis, Burm.
Tliyreonolus pachym.erus, Burm.
ACK[DK)iE.
Pczotettix glacialis, Scudd.
Pezotettix manca, Smitli.
Pczotettix borealis, Scudd.
Acridium alutaceum, HaiT.
Acridiurn rubiginosum,, Harr.
Mda?ioplus fcmoratus, Burm.
C. bivittatus, Uhl.
L. leucostoma, Kirby.
A. flavivittatum, Harr.
Mdanoplus punctulatus, Scudd.
Mclanoplus collinus, Scudd.
Mdanoplus rectus, Scudd.
Mdanoplus femur-rubrum, De
Geer.
Melanopliis atlanis, Riley.
M. atlantis, Scudd.
Paroxya allantica, Scudd.
Opomala brachyptera, Scudd.
478
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Chloealtis viridis, Scudd.
Chloeallis punctulata, Scudd.
Chloealtis conspcrsa, Harr.
Stenobothrus curtipennu, Ilarr.
Sten. longipennis, Scudd.
Stenobothrus niaculipennis, Scudd.
Sten. jequalis, Scudd.
Sten. bilineatus, Scudd.
Stctheophyma lineata, Scudd.
Arphia sulphurca. Fab.
Arphia xanthoptcra, Burm.
Chortophaga viridifasciaia, De
Geer.
T. infuscata, Harr.
T. radiata, Harr.
Encoptolophus sordidus, Burm.
GE. nebulosa, Harr.
Camnula pellucida, Scudd.
ffi. atrax, Scudd.
Hippiscus rugosus, Scudd.
Eippiscus tuber culatus. Pal. de
Beau.
CEd. obliterata, Bui-m.
CEd. phconicoptera, Thos.
Dissosteira Carolina, Linn.
Dissosteira oiqualis. Say.
Dissosteira bollii, Scudd.
Dissosteira niarmorata, Harr.
Psinidia fenistralis, S erv .
CE. eucerata, HaiT.
Trinierotropis maritima, Harr.
Circotettix verruculatus, Kirby.
Log. latipennis, Harr.
Tettix grayiulatus, Kirby.
T. ornata, HaiT.
Tettix ornatus. Say.
. T. arenosa, Burm.
T. dorsalis, Harr.
T. quadi'imaculata, Harr.
T. bilineata, Harr.
T. sordida, Harr.
Tettix cucullatus, Scudd.
Tettix triangularis, Scudd.
Tettigidea lateralis, Say.
Tettigidea polymorpha, Burm.
T. parvij^enuis, Harr.
Batrachidea cristata, Harr.
Batrachidea carifiata, Scudd.
PHASMHDiE.
Diapheromera femorata. Say.
BLATTH)^.
Blatta germanica, Fab.
Blatta? Jlavocincta, Scudd.
Periplancta americana. Fab.
Periplaneta orientalis, Linn.
Platamodes imicolor, Scudd.
FORFICULH)^.
Labia minor, Linn.
L. minuta, Scudd.
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND.
479
INDEX OF FAMILIES AND GENERA.
Page
Pagft
Acrididae, .... 26
Labia, 55
Acridium,
30
LocustidJB,
18
Amblycorypha,
20
Melanoplus, .
31
Arphia, .
39
Microcentrum,
21
Batracliidca, .
48
Nemobius,
15
Blatta, .
50
O^canthus,
16
Blattidfe,
50
Opomala,
35
Camnula,
41
Paroxya,
33
Ceuthophilus,
18
Periplaneta, .
51
ChlotJaltis,
35
Pezotettix,
28
Chortophaga,
39
Phasmidse,
49
Circotettix, •
45
Platamodes, .
52
Conoceplialus,
22
Psiuidia,
44
Cyitophyllus,
19
Scudderia,
22
Diaplieromera,
49
Stenobotlmis,
36
Dissosteira, .
42
Stetheophyma,
37
Encoptolophus,
40
Tettigidea,
47
Forflculidae, .
53
Tettix, .
46
Gryllidai,
12
Thyreonotus,
25
Gryllotalpa, .
13
Tridactylus, .
13
Gryllus,
14
Trimerotropis,
45
Ilippiscus,
42
XipMdium, .
23
480
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
INDEX OF SPECIES.
Page
Page-
abbreviatus, .... 15
fasciatum, .... 24
aequalis,
43, 58
fasciatus,
16, 57
affiliatum,
57
femoi-ata,
49
alntaceura,
31
femoratus,
32
amcricaiia,
51
feraur-nibrum,
33
augustifolia,
57
fenistralis.
44
angustus,
57
flavivittatum.
57
arenosa,
58
flavocincta,
51
atlanis,
33
gei-raauica,
50
atlantica,
34
glabcrrimum,
25
atlantis,
57
glacialis.
29
atrax,
58
gracile,
57
bilincata,
58
grannlatus,
46-
bilineatus,
58
infuscata,
40, 58
bivittatus,
67
lapidicola,
57
bollii, .
43
lateralis,
48
borealis,
14,30
latipounis,
58-
brachyptera,
35
lavu'ifolium, .
21
brevipennc,
24
Icucostoma, .
57
brevipcnuis,
57
lincata,
38
brevipes,
19
longipcnnis, .
57, 58
carinata,
49
luctuosus,
15
Carolina,
43
maculatns,
19
colliiuis,
32
maculipennis,
87
coliiinbia,
14
manca, .
30
concavus,
20
maritima,
45
concinimm,
25
mariBorata, .
44
conspcrsa,
30
minor, .
53
cristata,
48
rainnta, .
58
cucullatus,
47
myrtifolius, .
57
curtipcnnis,
37
nebulosa.
58
curvicaucla,
22
ucgloctus,
57
dorsalis,
26, 58
nigcr, .
57
dorsatus,
57
nivcns, .
17
ensigcr,
22
obliterata.
68-
eucerata,
68
oblongirolia,
21
ORTHOPTERA OF NEW ENGLAND.
481
Page
Page
orientalis, .... 52
rotundifolia, . . . 21
oinata, .
58
rubiginosum,
31
ornatus,
46
rugosus,
42
pachymerus, .
26
sordida,
58
parvipennis, .
58
sordidus,'
41
pcUncida,
41
sulphurea,
39
pennsylvanicus,
57
terminalis,
13
perspicillatum,
57
triangularis, .
47
phoenicoptera,
58
tuberculatus,
42
polymorpha, .
48
unicolor,
53
punctAilata,
36
verruculatus,
45
puuctulatus, .
32
viridifasciata.
40
quadrimaculata,
58
viridis,
36
radiata,
rectus, .
58
32
vittatus,
vulgare,
57
24
robustus,
23
xantboptera, .
39
FIFTEE^^TH AIS^NUAL REPORT
ON
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
By C. A. GOESSiiANN, State Inspector.
[4S3]
BEPOPvT
The demand for Commercial Fertilizers has been, as usual,
quite active during the past year. About the same number
of manufacturers as in the preceding year (33 to 34) , have
sent their goods into our market. Some dealers from more
remote localities have not renewed their licenses on account
of changes in the charges of freight ; new parties have taken
their places.
The general character of the articles offered for sale has
been, on the whole, fairly within the guaranty stated.
The cost of the different brands of fertilizer has varied
but little from that of the previous year, whenever the com-
position has been the same. The lower cost of nitrogen in
form of ammoniates and nitrates, as compared with that of
the preceding jear, has been more than equalized by the
hiofher valuation of nitrogen in first-class organic nitrogen-
ous matter.
Judging from present indications, no material changes can
be expected in the cost of fertilizers at the opening of the
coming season.
A few subsequent pages contain a tabulated statement of
the market prices of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash
in their various commercial forms, which have been adopted
during the past year (1887), in the commercial valuation of
compound fertilizers collected within the State, as prescribed
by our laws for the regulation of the trade in fertilizers, and
described farther on in this report.
Some explanations concerning the rules which guide agri-
cultural chemists in the valuation of compound commer-
486 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
cial fertilizers have been added for the purpose of assisting
those not yet fixmiliar with the current mode of ascertaining
the commercial value of the essential articles of plant-food
as specified by chemical analysis.
One hundred and eight analyses are reported within the
subsequent pages.
The valuation which accompanies the analysis of a fertil-
izer should inform the consumer, as far as practicable, re-
garding the cash retail price at which the several specified
elements of plant-food, in an efficient form, have been
oflfered for sale in our principal markets at the beginning of
the season.
The market value of manurial substances, as bones, salt,
ashes, various compounds of lime, barnyard manure, factory
refuse and waste materials of different description, quite
frequently does not stand in a close relation to their chemi-
cal composition. Their cost varies in different localities.
Local facilities for cheap transportation, and more or less
advantageous mechanical condition for a speedy action, ex-
ert, as a rule, a decided influence on their selling price.
The market reports of centres of trade in New England,
New York and New Jersej'^, aside from consultations with
leading manufacturers of fertilizers, have furnished us the
necessary information regarding the current trade value of
fertilizino- in2;redients.
The subsequent statement of cash values in the retail trade
is obtained by taking the average of the wholesale quotations
in New York and Boston during the six months preceding
March 1, 1887, and increasing them 20 per cent., to cover
expenses for sales, credits, etc.
These trade values, except those for phosphoric acid
soluble in ammonium citrate, were agreed upon by the Ex-
periment Stations of Massachusetts, Connecticut and New
Jersey, for use in their several States for the last season.
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. 487
Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials and
Chemicals.
1887.
CtB. per ponnd.
Nitrogen in nitrates, 16
Nitrogen in ammoniates, 17^
Organic nitrogen in dried and fine ground fish, .... 17^
Organic nitrogen in Peruvian guano, blood, meat, azotin ammo-
nite and castor pomace, 17^
Organic niti'ogen in fine ground bone and tankage, ... 16
Organic niti'ogen in fine medium bone and tankage, . . .14
Organic nitrogen in medium bone and tankage, .... 12
Organic nitrogen in coarse medium bone and tankage, ... 10
Organic nitrogen in coarse bone, horn shavings, hair and fish
scraps, 8
Phosphoric acid, soluble in water, 8
Phosphoric acid, soluble in ammonium citrate,* .... 7^
Phosphoric acid, insoluble in dry fine ground fish, in fine bone,
tankage, 7
Phosphoric acid, insoluble in fine medium bone and tankage, . 6
Phosphoric acid, insoluble in medium bone, 6
Phosphoric acid, insoluble in coarse medium bone, ... 4
Phosphoric acid, insoluble in coarse bone, 3
Phosphoric acid, insoluble in fine ground rock phosphate, . * . 2
Potash as sulphate in compounds free from chlorine, . . . 5|
Potash as kainite, A\
Potash as muriate, 4^
The above trade values are the figures at which, on INIarch
1st, the respective ingi*edients could be bought at retail for
cash per pound in our leading markets in the raw materials,
which are the regular source of s'upply.
They also correspond to the average wholesale prices for
the six months ending March 1st, plus 20 per cent, in case
of goods for which we have wholesale quotations.
The calculated values obtained by the use of the above
figures will be found to agree fairly with the reasonable
retail price in case of standard raw material such as, —
Sulphate of Ammonia,
Nitrate of Soda,
Muriate of Potash,
Sulphate of Potash,
Dried Blood,
Dried Ground Meat,
Dry Ground Fish,
Azotin,
Ammonite,
Castor Pomace,
Bone,
Plain Superphosphates.
♦Dissolved from two grams of Phosphate, nnground, by 100 C. C. Eeutr.il solu-
tion of ammonium citrate, sp. gr. 1.09, in 30 minutes at 65 deg. C, with agitation
488 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Trade Values in Superpliosphates^ Special Manures and Mixed
Fertilizers of High Grade.
The organic nitrogen in these classes of goods will be
valued at the highest figures laid down in the Trade Values
of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials, namely, 17.5
cents per pound ; it being assumed that the organic nitrogen
is derived from the best sources, viz., animal matter, as
meat, blood, bones or other equally good forms, and not
from leather, shoddy, hair, or any low-priced inferior form
of vegetable matter, unless the contrary is ascertained.
Insoluble phosphoric acid will be valued at three cents, it
being assumed, unless found otherwise, that it is from bone
or similar source and not from rock phosphate. In this latter
form the insoluble phosphoric acid is worth but two cents
per pound. Potash is rated at four and one-fourth cents, if
sufficient chlorine is present in the fertilizer to combine with
it and make muriate. If there is more potash present than
will combine with the chlorine, then this excess of potash
will be* counted as sulphate.
To introduce large quantities of chlorides, common salt,
etc., into a fertilizer, claiming sulphate of potash as a con-
stituent, is a practice which in our present state of informa-
tion will be considered of doubtful merit. The use of the
highest trade values is based on the opinion that these
articles ous^ht to contain the most efficient forms of fertilizing
inijredients.
In most cases the valuation of the ingredients in Super-
phosphates and Specials falls below the retail price of these
goods. The difference between the figures represents the
manufacturer's charges for converting raw materials into
manufactured articles. These charges are for grinding and
mixing, bagging or barrelling, storage and transportation,
commission to agents and dealers, long credits, interest on
investment, bad debts, and finally profits.
Local disadvantages for transportation exert not unfre-
quently a serious influence on the cost of one and the same
brand of fertilizers. Binding rules cannot be laid down
regarding these points. Farmers must judge for themselves
once in five minutes; commonly called "reverted" or "backgone" phosphoric
acid.
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. 489
whether the difference between our valuation and the prices
asked for is a fair one, considering local conditions of supply.
The prices stated in these bulletins in connection with
analyses of commercial fertilizers refer to their cost per ton
of 2,000 pounds, on board of car or boat near the factory or
place of general distribution. To obtain the valuation of a
fertilizer (i. e., the money worth of its fertilizing ingre-
dients), we multiply the pounds per ton of nitrogen, etc.,
by the trade value per pound. We thus get the values per
ton of the several ingredients, and adding them together we
obtain the total valuation per ton.
The mechanical condition of any fertilizing material,
simple or compound, deserves the most serious consideration
of farmers, when articles of a similar chemical character are
offered for their choice. The degree of pulverization con-
trols, almost without exception, under similar conditions,
the rate of solubility, and the more or less rapid diffusion
of the different articles of plant-food throughout the soil.
The state of moisture exerts a no less important influence
on the pecuniary value, in case of one and the same kind of
substance. Two samples of fish fertilizer, although equally
pure, may differ from fifty to one hundred per cent, in com-
mercial value, on account of mere difference in moisture.
Crude stock for the manufacture of fertilizers, and refuse
material of various descriptions, sent to the Station for ex-
amination, are valued with reference to the market prices of
their principal constituents, taking into consideration at the
same time their general fitness for speedy action.
A large percentage of commercial fertilizing material
consists of refuse matter from various industries. The com-
position of these substances depends on the mode of manu-
facture carried on. The rapid progress in our manufacturing
industry is liable to affect at any time, more or less seriously,
the composition of the refuse. A constant inquiry into the
character of the agricultural chemicals, and of commercial
manurial refuse substances offered for sale, cannot fail to
secure confidence in their composition, and to diminish
financial disappointment in consequence of their application.
This work is carried on for tho purpose of aiding the farming
490 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
community in a clear and intelligent appreciation of the
substances for manurial purposes.
Consumers of commercial manurial substances do well to
buy, whenever practicable, on guaranty of composition with
reference to their essential constituents ; and to see to it that
the ])ill of sale recognizes that point of the bargain. Any
mistake or misunderstanding in the transaction may be
readily adjusted, in that case, between the contending parties.
The responsibility of the dealer ends with furnishing an
article corresponding in its composition with the lowest
stated quantity of each specified essential constituent.
BrigJitman's Dry Fish.
(Collected of F. G. Arnold, Swansea, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 7 to 9
per cent, (bone phosphate of lime, 15 to 20 per cent.) ;
ammonia, 10 to 12 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 8.2 to
9.9 per cent.).
rer cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 9.17
Total phosphoric acid, 7.92
Soluble phosphoric acid, .64
Keverted phosphoric acid, 4.36
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 2.92
Nitrogen, 8.73
Insoluble matter, 2.69
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
12.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid, . . . f 1 02
87.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid, . . . 6 64
58.4 pounds of insoluble lihosphoric acid, . . . 1 75
174.6 pounds of nitrogen, 30 56
?39 87
Cleveland's Superphosphate.
(Cleveland Dryer Company, Cleveland. O. ; collected of E. W. Foster, Tewksbury,
Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 10 to 13
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 6 to 7 per cent. ; re-
verted phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ; insoluble phos-
phoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 3 to 4 per
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
491
cent, (equivalent to potassium sulphate, 5.55 to 7.40 per
cent.) ; nitrogen, 2.05 to 2.85 per cent, (equivalent to
ammonia, 2| to 3^ per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
14.15
13.09
7.00
4.83
1.86
2.96
2.40
6.52
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
140. pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
9G.6 i^ounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
37.2 pounds of insoluble i:>hosphoric acid,
69.2 pounds of potassium oxide, .
48. pounds of nitrogen.
Sll
20
7
25
1
12
3
26
8
40
?31 23
Economic Fertilizer, No. l,for Grass.
(Economic Fertilizer Company, Butler, Breed & Co., Agents, Boston, Mass. ; col-
lected of H. P. Rogers, AUston, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 41 per
cent. ; alkalies, 14^ per cent. ; nitrogen, 2 per cent.
IMoisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insf)luble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
1.27
8.37
none.
2.12
6.25
none.
1.86
5.16
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
42.4 poimds of reverted phosphoric acid, .
125. pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, .
37.2 pounds of nitrogen (in niti'ates), .
492
BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
StocTcbridge's Manure : Potatoes and Vegetables.
(Collected of Wilder & Puffer, Springfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition ; Soluble and reverted phos-
phoric acid, 8 to 10 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 5 to 6 per
cent. ; nitrogen, 3^ to 4| per cent, (equivalent to ammonia,
4 to 5 per cent.).
Per cent
Moisture at 100° C, 12.84
Total phosphoric acid, .
10.49
Soluble phosphoric acid,
7.60
Reverted phosphoric acid.
1.87
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
1.02
Potassium oxide, .
3.82
Nitrogen,
3.82
Insoluble matter, .
3.02
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
152. pounds of soluble phosphoi'ic acid,
37.4 jjounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
20.4 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
76.4 pounds of potassium oxide, .
76.4 pounds of nitrogen.
$12 16
2 81
61
3 25
13 37
832 20
StocTcbridge's Manure : Corn and Grain.
(Collected of Wilder & Puffer, Springfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 7 to 9
per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 6 to 7 per cent. ; po-
tassium oxide, 4 to 5 per cent. ; ammonia, 4 to 5 per cent,
(equivalent to nitrogen, 3.25 to 4.25 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Lisoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
14.66
11.34
6.72
3.08
1.54
4.18
2.83
2.57
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
134.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
61.6 pounds of reverted iDhosplioric acid,
30.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
83.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
56.6 pounds of nitrogen,
Church's " Fish and Potash."
493
|10
4
3
9
62
92
55
91
$29 75
(Collected of Wilder & Puffer, Springfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 5 to 6
per cent. ; potassium sulphate, 5 to 6 per cent. ; ammonia,
4 to 5 per ceut. (equivalent to nitrogen, 3.3 to 4.1 per
cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
49. pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
54.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
28.4 i)Ounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
66.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
84.6 pounds of nitrogen,
Per cent.
26.76
6.58
2.45
2.71
1.42
3.33
4.23
3.02
$3
92
4
07
85
3
66
14 81
$27 31
II L. Phelps' " Complete Manure for Grass."
(Collected of Prentiss, Brooks & Co., Holyoke, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 4 to
6 per cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 8 to 10 per cent. ; ammonia, 5 to 6 per
cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 4.1 to 5 per cent.).
494
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C 11.63
Total phosphoric acid, .
8.60
Soluble phosphoric acid,
3.29
Reverted phosphoric acid.
3.59
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
1.77
Potassium oxide, .
8.10
Nitrogen,
4.02
Insoluble matter, .
.92
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
65.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
71.8 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
35.4 i^ounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
162. pounds of potassimn oxide, .
80.4 pounds of nitrogen,
$5 26
5 39
1 06
6 88
14 07
$32 66
H. L. Phelps' Complete Manure for Potatoes.
(Collected of Prentiss, Brooks & Co., Holyoke, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 5 to
6 per cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 8 to 10 per cent. ; ammonia, 5 to 6 per
cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 4.1 to 5 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosiDhoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoi'ic acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
7.89
8.29
2.19
3.43
2.07
9.33
3.85
1.18
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
43.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
68.6 jjounds of reverted phosphoi'ic acid,
63.4 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
186.0 pounds of potassium oxide,
77. pounds of nitrogen,
$3 50
6 15
1 CO
7 93
3 48
f31 66
I
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
495
Quinnipiac Phosphate.
(Quinnipiac Company, New Haven, Conn.; collected of B. L. Bragg & Co., Spring-
field, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 9 to
12 per cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 3 per cent. ;
potassium sulphate, 3| to b\ per cent, (equivalent to
potassium oxide, 2 to 3 per cent.) ; nitrogen, 2| to 3| per
cent, (equivalent to ammonia, 3| to 4^ per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Sohable phosphoric acid,
Reverted ijhosphorio acid,
Insoluble j^hosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Kitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
94. pomido of soluble phosphoric acid,
122.8 pounds of reveited phosphoric acid,
78.8 pomids of insoluble phosphoric acid,
48.8 pounds of potassium oxide, .
G1.8 jDOunds of nitrogen,
Per cent.
11.33
14.78
4.70
6.14
8.94
2.44
8.09
6.33
$7 52
9 21
2 36
2 68
10 82
$32 59
H. J. Baker & Bro.'s '•^A. A. Ammoniated Superphosphate."
(Collected of Wilder & Puffer, Springfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, 9| to
11^ per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 10 to 12 percent. ;
insoluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 3 per cent. ; potassium
oxide, 2 to 3 per cent. ; ammonia, 3 to 4 per cent, (equiva-
lent to nitrogen, 2.5 to 3.3 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent,
13.43
12.19
11.39
.61
.19
2.57
8.45
61
496
BOARD OF AGKICULTURE.
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
227.8 poiinds of soluble phosphoric acid,
12.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
3.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
51.1 pounds of potassium oxide, .
69. pounds of nitrogen.
fl8 22
92
11
2 18
12 08
$33 61
H. J. Baker & Bro.'s " Complete Potato Manure."
(Collected of Wilder & PufiFer, Springfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 5|
per cent. ; potassium oxide, 10 per cent. ; ammonia, 4 per
cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 3.3 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, . . . ... . . 10.15
Total phosphoric acid, 7.82
Soluble phosphoric acid, 5.49
Reverted phosphoric acid, 1.65
Insoluble ijhosijhoric acid, .68
Potassium oxide, 9.40
Nitrogen, 6.04
Insoluble matter, 1.17
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
109.8 pounds of soluble iDhosj)horic acid,
33. pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
13.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
188. pounds of potassium oxide, .
100.8 jjounds of nitrogen.
Quinnipiac Company's *' Fish and I
Brand.)
(Collected of B. L. Bragg & Co., Springfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 5 to 7
per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 3 to 5 per cent. ;
potassium sulphate, 6 to 10 per cent, (equivalent to nitro-
gen, 3 to 5 per cent.) ; nitrogen, 3^ to 4| per cent, (equiv-
alent to ammonia, 4 to 5 per cent.).
^8 78
2 48
41
7 99
17 64
m7 30
7t." (" (
7j
OSS Fish '
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
497
Moisture at 100° C,
Total ijhosplioric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted jihosphoric acid,
Insoluble i^hosjihoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
10.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
98.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
73.2 poiinds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
115.8 pounds of potassium oxide,
90.4 pounds of nitrogen,
Per cent.
19.17
9.08
.51
4.91
3.66
5.79
4.52
6.34
$0 82
7 37
2 20
6 37
15 82
$32 58
Quinnipiac Potato Manure.
(Collected of B. L. Bragg & Co., Springfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 5 to
7 per cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 3 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 6 to 8 per cent, (equivalent to potassium
sulphate, 11 to 15 per cent.) ; nitrogen, 3,25 to 4.25 pei
cent, (equivalent to ammonia, 4 to 5 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 9.39
Total phosphoric acid, 9.82
Soluble phosphoric acid, 2.90
Reverted jihosphoric acid, 4.61
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 2.31
Potassium oxide, 6.38
Nitrogen, 3.62
Insoluble matter, 5.01
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
68. pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
92.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
46.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
107.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
72.4 pounds of nitrogen,
$4 64
6 92
1 39
6 92
12 67
$31 64
498
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
'■'■ Americus" Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.
(Williams, Clark & Co., New York; collected of B. L. Bragg & Co., Springfield
Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 11 to 16
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 7 to 8 per cent. ; re-
verted phosphoric acid, 3 to 4 per cent. ; potassium sul-
phate, 4 to 6 per cent, ; nitrogen, 2| to 3| per cent. ;
(equivalent to ammonia, 3 to 4 per cent.).
Moisture at lOO^ C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Ter cent.
11.90
11.16
8.48
2.41
.27
2.48
2.73
6.00
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
169.6 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
48.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
6.4 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
49.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
64.6 pounds of nitrogen,
fl3 57
3 62
16
2 73
9 66
$29 64
II. L. Phelps' Guano and Potash.
(Collected of Prentiss, Brooks & Co., Ilolyoke, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 4 to
5 per cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 6 to 7 per cent. ; ammonia, 4 to 5 per
cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 3.3 to 4.1 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 13.33
Total i^hosphoric acid, . 11.03
Soluble phosphoric acid, 3.04
Heverted ])hos2)lioric acid, 6.43
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 1.56
Potassium oxide, 7.76
Nitrogen, 3.79
Insoluble matter, .86
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
499
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
60.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
128.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
31.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
155.2 pounds of potassium oxide, .
75.8 pounds of nitrogen,
H
86
9
65
94
6
60
13
27
$35 32
Bradley's XL SuperphospJiate of Lime.
(Collected of B. L. Bragg & Co., Springfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition: Total phosphoric acid, 11 to Li
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 7 to 8 per cent. ; re-
verted phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ; insoluble phos-
phoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ; potassium oxide (sulphate),
2 to 3 per cent. ; nitrogen, 2| to 3| per cent, (equivalent
to ammonia, 3 to 4 per cent.).
Per cent.
15.89
12.42
8.21
1.97
2.24
2.26
2.85
1.12
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
164.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
39.4 i^ounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
44.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
45.2 pounds of potassium oxide, .
67. pounds of nitrogen.
f 13 14
2 96
1 34
2 49
9 98
m 91
Crocker's Potato, Tobacco and Hop Phosphate.
(L. L. Crocker's Buffalo Fertilizer Company, Buffalo, N. Y.; collected of E. N,
Smith, Sunderland, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, 6 to 8
per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ; in-
soluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ; potassium sul-
phate, 6 to 8 per cent. ; ammonia, 2| to 3| per cent,
(equivalent to nitrogen, 2 to 2.9 per cent.).
500
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
13.25
11.98
8.18
2.47
1.33
3.91
2.65
4.48
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
163.6 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
49.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
26.6 pounds of insoluble i^hosphoric acid,
78.2 pounds of potassium oxide, .
63. jjounds of nitrogen,
$13 09
3 91
80
4 30
9 28
$31 38
Crochefs Ammoniated Bone SuperpJiospJiate.
(Crocker's BufiFalo Fertilizer Company, Buffalo, N. Y ; collected of E. N. Smith,
Sunderland, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, 6 to 8
per cent. ; precipitated phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ;
insoluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ; potassium sul-
phate, 1 to 3 per cent. ; ammonia, S^ to 4| per cent,
(equivalent to nitrogen, 2.9 to 3.7 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 12.07
Total phosphoric acid, 11.61
Soluble phosphoric acid, 7.80
Reverted phosphoric acid, 2.24
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 1.57
Potassium oxide, 1.58
Nitrogen, 3.60
Insoluble matter, 4.61
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
156. pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
44.8 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
31.4 poimds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
31.6 poimds of potassium oxide, .
72. poimds of nitrogen,
$31 12
COI^IMERCIAL FERTILIZERS. 501
Chittenden's " Complete Fertilizer for Potatoes^ Roots and Vege-
tables."
(National Fertilizer Company, Bridseport, Conn.; collected of L. W. Fairchild
Sunderland, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 8 to 10
per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 6 to 8 per cent. ; po-
tassium oxide, 6 to 8 per cent. ; ammonia, 4 to 5 per cent,
(equivalent to nitrogen, 3.3 to 4.1 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 9.81
Total i:)liosphoric acid, 14.74
Soluble phosphoric acid, 6.40
Reverted phosphoric acid, 4.47
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 3.87
Potassium oxide 6.05
Nitrogen, 4.53
Insoluble matter, 2.24
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
128. povmds of soluble phosphoric acid,
89.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
77.4 poimds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
121. pounds of potassium oxide, .
90.6 pounds of nitrogen,
$10 24
6 71
2 .32
5 14
15 86
$40 27
Chittenden's Complete Fertilizer for Grass.
(Collected of L. W. Fairchild, Sunderland, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 6 to 8
per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 4 to 6 per cent. ; po-
tassium oxide, 5 to 7 per cent. ; ammonia, 5 to 6 per cent,
(equivalent to nitrogen, 4 to 5 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100^ C, 12.47
Total phosphoric acid, 13.72
Soluble phosphoric acid, 4.86
Reverted phosphoric acid, 4.16
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 4.70
Potassiiun oxide, 6.12
Nitrogen, 3.60
Insoluble matter, 3.05
502
BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
97.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
83.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
94. pounds of insoluble phosjihoric acid,
102.4 pounds of potassium oxide, .
72. pounds of nitrogen.
$7 78
6 24
2 82
4 35
12 60
133 79
Cumberland Superphosphate.
(Cumberland Bone Company, Portland, Me.; collected of B- F. Bridges Jr., South
Deerlield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition: Total phosphoric acid, 11 to 14
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 5 to 7 per cent. ; re-
verted phosphoric acid, 1 to 3 per cent. ; insoluble phos-
phoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 2 to 3 per
cent. ; ammonia, 2.42 to 3.63 per cent, (equivalent to nitro-
gen, 2 to 3 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moistiire at 100° C, 18.22
Total phosphoric acid, 13.06
Soluble phosphoric acid, 6.76
Reverted phosphoric acid, 3.39
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 2.91
Potassium oxide, 3.54
Nitrogen, 2.86
Insoluble matter, 4.40
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
135.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
67.8 povmds of i-e verted phosj^horic acid,
68.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
70.8 pounds of potassium oxide, .
67.2 pounds of nitrogen,
$10 82
5 09
1 75
3 01
10 01
$30 68
Dole's " Special Fertilizer for Onions and Root Croj^s."
(Dole Fertilizer Company, Boston, Mass.; collected of B. F. Brid{,'es, Jr., South
Deerfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 6 to 8
percent.; potassium sulphate, 6 to 8 percent.; ammonia,
4 to 6 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 3.3 to 5 per cent.).
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
503
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Niti'ogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
lO.GO
8.55
3.53
2.88
2.14
4.61
4.06
4.58
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
70.6 potmds of soluble phosphoric acid, .
57.6 poimds of reverted phosphoric acid,
42.8 poimds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
92.2 pounds of potassium oxide,
81.2 pounds of nitrogen, ....
$5
65
4
32
1
28
5
07
14
21
$30 53
George W. Miles' Fish and Potash.
(Collected of B. F. Bridges, South Deerfleld, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble and reverted phosphoric
acid, 5 to 8 per cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 3 per
cent. ; potassium sulphate, 4 to 6 per cent. ; ammonia, 3 to
6 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 2.5 to 5 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassimn oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
14.80
9.60
5.73
1.78
1.99
3.03
3.31
5.60
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
114.6 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
35.6 poimds of reverted phosphoric acid,
39.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
60.6 pounds of potassium oxide, . .
66.2 pounds of nitrogen, . . .
$9 17
2 67
1 19
3 33
11 59
$27 95
504
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Soluble Pacific Quano.
(Glidden & Curtis, Boston ; collected of Peckham & Ross, Worcester, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, 6^ to
8 per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 1| to 3 per cent. ;
insoluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ; potassium oxide,
2 to 3| per cent. ; nitrogen, 2 to 3 per cent, (equivalent to
ammonia, 2| to 3^ percent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 15.14
Total phosphoric acid, 11.93
Soluble phosphoric acid, 6.30
Reverted phosphoric acid, 1.79
Insoluble i^hosiihoric acid, 3.84:
Potassium oxide, 2.76
Nitrogen, 2.69
Insoluble matter, 6.54
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
126. pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
35.8 pounds of reverted phosi^horic acid,
76.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
65.2 pounds of potassium oxide, .
53.8 pounds of nitrogen.
$10 08
2 69
2 30
2 35
9 42
$26 84
Bowker^s Lawn Dressing.
(Collected of Peckham & Ross, "Worcester, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble and reverted phosphoric
acid, 5 to 6 per cent. ; potassium sulphate, 5 to 6 per cent. ;
ammonia, 5 to 6 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 4.1 to 5
per cent.).
Per cent.
9.06
8.34
5.60
1.64
1.10
2.59
6.18
3.01
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
COISIMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
505
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
112. pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
32.8 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
22. pounds of insoluble phosjihoric acid,
51.8 pounds of potassium oxide,.
123.6 poimds of nitrogen.
$8
96
2 46
66
2
85
21
63
$36 56
Stoclcbridge's Manure : Seeding Down.
(Collected of Peckham & Ross, Worcester, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition: Soluble phosphoric acid, 2.5 to
3 per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 14 to 15 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 4 to 5 per cent. ; ammonia, 3 to 4 per
cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 2.5 to 3.3 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moistm-e at 100° C, 13.52
Total phosijhoric acid, 12.74
Soluble phosphoric acid, 5.31
Eeverted phosphoric acid, 4.32
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 3.11
Potassium oxide, 3.97
Nitrogen, 4.02
Insoluble matter, 1.87
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
106.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
86.4 povmds of reverted phosphoric acid,
62.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
79.4 pounds of potassium oxide, .
80.4 pounds of nitrogen,
$8 50
6 48
1 87
3 36
14 07
$34 28
George E. Holmes^ Bones.
(Collected of Peckham & Ross, Worcester, Mass.)
No guaranty obtained.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
4.78
21.19
.38
4.96
15.85
4.22
.23
506 BOAED OF AGRICULTUEE.
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
7.6 pounds of soluble phosphioric acid,
99.2 pounds of reverted j^hosphoric acid, .
317. povmds of insoluble phospboric acid, .
84.4 pounds of nitrogen, ....
fO
61
7
4-4
12
68
11
82
$32 57
Bradley's Complete Fertilizer for Top-Dressing Grass and Orain.
(Collected of Peckham & Ross, Worcester, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosplioric acid, 7 to 9
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 5 to 6 per cent. ; re-
verted phosphoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent; insoluble phos-
phoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 5 to 6 per
cent, (equivalent to potassium sulphate, 9.25 to 11.1 per
cent.) ; nitrogen, 4.11 to 5 per cent, (equivalent to am-
monia, 5 to 6 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C. 11.96
Total phospboric acid, 9.21
Soluble phospboric acid, 4. 30
Reverted pbospboric acid, 2.64
Insoluble pbospboric acid, 2.27
Potassium oxide, 7.99
Nitrogen, 4.00
Insoluble matter, 3.15
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
86. jjounds of soluble phosphoric acid, .
62.8 pounds of reverted pbospboric acid, .
45.4 pounds of insoluble pbosplioi'ic acid,
159.8 pounds of potassium oxide,
80. pounds of nitrogen, ....
f6
88
3
96
1
36
8 79
14
00
$34 99
Mapes' Potato Manure.
(Collected of Peckham & Ross, Worcester, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 8 to 10
per cent. ; potassium oxide (sulphate) , 6 to 8 per cent. ;
ammonia, 4^ to 5 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 3.7 to
4.1 per cent.).
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
507
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
10.45
13.38
5.67
3.47
4.34
7.07
3.77
.95
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
111.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
69.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
86.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
141.4 pounds of jjotassium oxide, .
75.4 pounds of nitrogen,
$8
91
6
21
2
60
7
78
13
20
$37 70
Mapes' Corn Manure.
(Collected of Peckham & Ross, Worcester, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 10 to 12
per cent, (nearly all soluble and available) ; potassium oxide
(sulphate), 6 to 8 per cent.; ammonia, 4.5 to 5 percent,
(equivalent to nitrogen, 3.7 to 4.1 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
11.05
12.47
2.98
5.73
3.76
6.92
3.83
1.10
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
59.6 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
114.6 poimds of reverted phosphoric acid,
75.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
138.4 pounds of j^otassium oxide, .
76.6 pounds of nitrogen,
$4 77
8 60
2 26
7 61
13 41
$36 65
508
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
3fapes' Complete Manure, "^ Brand."
(Collected of Peckham & Ross, Worcester, Mass.)
Guaramteed composition ; Available phosphoric acid, 10
to 12 per cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 2.5 to 3.5 per cent, (equivalent to potas-
sium sulphate, 4.62 to 6.47 per cent.) ; ammonia, 3 to 4
per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 2.5 to 3.3 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 18.40
Total phosphoric acid, 12.79
Soluble phosphoric acid, 4.77
Reverted i^hosphoric acid, , . - . . . . 5.08
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 2.94
Potassium oxide, 3.09
Nitrogen, 2.66
Insoluble matter, 2.44
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
95.4 jjounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
101.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
58.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
61.8 pounds of potassium oxide, .
53.2 pounds of nitrogen,
$7
63
7
62
1
76
3 40
9
31
129 72
E. Frank Coe's Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.
(Collected of J. Clark & Son, Worcester, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 11 to 13
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 7 to 9 per cent. ; avail-
able phosphoric acid, 10 to 12 per cent. ; insoluble phos-
phoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ; potassium sulphate, 3 to 4
per cent. ; nitrogen, 2 to 2^ per cent, (equivalent to am-
monia, 2^ to 3 1 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 9.06
Total phosphoric acid, 12.06
Soluble phosphoric acid, 7.93
Reverted phosphoric acid, 1.59
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 2.54
Potassium oxide, 1-83
Nitrogen, 2.32
Insoluble matter, 6.60
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
509
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
158.6 pounds of soluble lAosphoric acid,
31.8 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
50.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
86.6 pounds of iiotassium oxide, .
46.4 pounds of nitrogen,
$12 69
2 39
1 52
2 01
8 12
$26 73
Darling's Ground Bone.
(Collected of J. H. Fairbanks, Fitchburg, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 22 to 25
per cent. ; nitrogen, 3.5 to 4.5 per cent, (equivalent to
ammonia, 4 to 5 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, . . ' 7.61
Total phosphoric acid, 21.50
Soluble phosphoric acid, .37
Reverted phosphoric acid, 7.25
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 13.88
Nitrogen, 3.64
Insoluble matter, 1.60
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
7.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
145.0 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
277.6 pounds of insoluble j)hosphoric acid,
72.8 poiinds of nitrogen,
fO 59
10 88
13 88
11 65
$37 00
N. Ward & Co.'s High Grade Animal Fertilizer.
(Collected of N. Ward & Co., Boston, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition ; Available phosphoric acid, 12
to 14 per cent. ; nitrogen, 2.88 to 3.70 per cent, (equiva-
lent to ammonia, 3.5 to 4.5 per cent.) ; potassium oxide, 4
to 5 per cent.
Moistiu-e at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen, . . ,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
15.43
12.63
5.82
6.60
1.21
4.46
3.58
.89
510
BOAED OF AGRICULTUEE.
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
116.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
112.0 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
24.2 poirnds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
89.2 pounds of potassiiuu oxide, .
71.6 pounds of nitrogen,
$9 31
8 40
73
3 79
12 53
$34 76
BrecJc's Lawn Dressing.
(Collected of Joseph Breck & Sons, Boston, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluljle and reverted phos-
phoric acid, 8 to 9 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 4 to 6 per
cent. ; ammonia, 5 to 6 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen,
4.1 to 5 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 9.20
Total phosphoric acid, 10.62
Soluble phosphoric acid, ...... 7.38
Reverted jihosphoric acid, 1.39
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 1.85
Potassium oxide, 5.38
Nitrogen, . . . . . . . . . 5.31
Insoluble matter, 2.98
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
147.6 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
27.8 pounds of reverted jihosphoric acid,
37.0 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
107.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
106.2 pounds of nitrogen.
$11 81
2 09
1 11
4 57
18 59
?38 17
Cumberland SuperpJiospJiate.
(Cumberland Bone Company, Portland, Me. ; collected of Joseph Breck & Sons,
Boston, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition: Total phosphoric acid, 11 to 14
per cent. : soluble phosphoric acid, 5 to 7 per cent. ; re-
verted phosphoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ; insoluble phos-
phoric acid, 3 to 4 per cent. ; potassium sulphate, 2 to 3
per cent. ; nitrogen, 2 to 3 per cent, (equivalent to am-
monia, 2.43 to 3.08 per cent.).
COINOIERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
511
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble i^hosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
123.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
61.8 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
69.8 poimds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
61.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
41.6 pounds of nitrogen.
Per cent.
17.93
12.75
6.17
3.09
3.49
3.08
2.08
4.08
f9 87
4 64
2 09
3 39
7 28
$27 27
Standard Superphosphate.
(Collected of Joseph Breck & Sons, Boston, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 11 to 16
per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 9 to 13 per cent. ; in-
soluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ; potassium oxide,
2 to 4 per cent. ; nitrogen, 2| to 3^ per cent, (equivalent
to ammonia, 3 to 4 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 11.82
Total ishosi^horic acid, 12.41
Soluble phosj^horic acid, 7.32
Reverted phosphoric acid, 2.81
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 2.28
Potassium oxide, 1.55
Nitrogen, 3.04
Insoluble matter, 1.88
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
146.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
56.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
45.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
31.0 jjoirnds of potassium oxide, .
60.8 pounds of nitrogen,
$11
71
4
22
1
37
1
32
10
64
$29 26
512
BOAED OF AGEICULTUEE.
Church's '■'■Fish jind Potash."
(Collected of Gould & Co., Medfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 5 to 6
per cent. ; potassium sulphate, 5 to 6 per cent. ; ammonia,
4 to 5 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 3.3 to 4.1 per
cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total j)hosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosiihoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, ,
Per cent.
26.75
5.44
2.00
2.57
1.08
2.95
3.90
1.69
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
40.0 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
51.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
21.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
69.0 pounds of potassium oxide, .
78.0 pounds of nitrogen,
f3
20
3
86
65
3
25
13
65
$24 61
Cleveland Superphosphate.
(Cleveland Dryer Co., Cleveland, 0. ; collected of Sheldon & Newcomb, Greenfield,
Mass )
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, 6 to 7
per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ; in-
soluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ; potassium oxide,
3 to 4 per cent, (equivalent to potassium sulphate, 5.55 to
7.40 percent.); nitrogen, 2.05 to 2.85 percent, (equiva-
lent to ammonia, 2.5 to 3.5 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 14.29
Total phosphoric acid, 11.96
Soluble phosphoric acid, 7.32
Reverted phosphoric acid, 1-63
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 3.01
Potassium oxide, 3.23
Nitrogen, 3.04
Insoluble matter, 6-44
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
513
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
146.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
32.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
60.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
64.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
60.8 pounds of niti'ogen.
$11
71
2 45
1
81
3
55
10
64
130 16
Quinnipiac Potato Manure.
(Collected of D. A. Horton, Northampton, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available pliosphoric acid, 5 to
7 per cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 3 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 6 to 8 per cent, (equivalent to potassium
sulphate, 11 to 15 per cent.) ; nitrogen, 3.25 to 4.25 per
cent, (equivalent to ammonia, 4 to 5 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosi^horic acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble j^hosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
14.55
10.53
1.28
5.41
3.84
5.82
4.55
5.44
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
25.6 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
108.2 poimds of reverted phosphoric acid,
76.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
116.4 pounds of potassium oxide, .
91.0 pounds of nitrogen.
f2
05
8
12
2 30
6
40
15
93
$34 80
Quinnipiac Dry Cfround Fish.
(Collected of D. A. Horton, Northampton, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 4 to
6 per cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ;
nitrogen, 7.5 to 10 per cent, (equivalent to ammonia, 9 to
12 per cent.).
514
BOAED OF AGRICULTUEE.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Niti'ogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
7.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
73.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid, .
76.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, .
171.2 pounds of nitrogen, ....
Per cent.
10.42
7.86
.37
3.66
3.83
8.56
1.13
$0 59
5 49
2 30
29 96
$38 34
The '■'•Lawrence Fertilizer "
(Lee, Blackburn & Co., Lawrence, Mass.; collected of F. M. Victor, Lawrence,
Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 12 to 14
per cent. ; potassium oxide, 2 to 3 per cent. ; nitrogen, 2 to
3 per cent.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoi'ic acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Niti'Ogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
195.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
45.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
4.40 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
33.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
60.0 pounds of nitrogen.
Por cent.
16.12
12.24
9.76
2.26
.22
1.68
3.00
1.05
$15 62
3 39
13
1 43
10 50
$31 07
Chround Bone.
(Lee, Blackburn & Co., Lawrence, Mass. ; collected of F. M. Victor, Lawrence,
Mass.)
No guaranty obtained.
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZEES.
515
Moisture at 100° C,
Total jjhosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
8.22
24.31
.47
7.41
16.90
3.13
1.95
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
9.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
148.2 pounds of revei'ted phosphoric acid,
338.0 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
62.6 pounds of nitrogen.
$0 75
11 12
16 90
10 02
$38 79
Baugh's Double Eagle Phosphate.
(Collected of J. C. Stanley, Newbnryport, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 7 to
8 per cent. ; ammonia, 2;^ to 3 per cent, (equivalent to ni-
trogen, 2 to 2|^ per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosi^horic acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
13.82
12.55
5.80
1.76
4.99
none.
. 2.22
5.34
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
116.0 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
35.2 poimds of reverted phosphoric acid,
99.8 pounds of insoluble jihosphoric acid,
44.4 pounds of nitrogen.
$9 28
2 64
2 99
7 77
$22 68
Dow's Nitrogenous Superphosphate.
(Collected of J. Stackpole & Sons, Ipswich, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 8
to 10 per cent. ; potassium chloride, 3 to 4 per cent. ;
516
BOAED OF AGRICULTUKE.
^
to 3|
ammonia
2 to 2.9 per cent.)
per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen,
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds
83.8 pounds of
75.6 pounds of
40.4 pounds of
52.4 i^ounds of
CO.O i^ounds of
soluble phosphoric acid,
reverted phosphoric acid,
insoluble phosphoric acid,
potassium oxide,
nitrogen.
Per cent.
15.97
9.99
4.19
3.78
2.02
2.62
3.00
.63
f6
70
5
67
1
21
2
23
10 50
?26 31
Maynard's Perfect Mineral Fertilizer.
(Maynard Fertilizer Company, Lawrence, Mass. ; collected at works.)
Guaranteed composition : Moisture, 19.4 percent.; total
phosphoric acid, 1.37 per cent. ; potassium oxide, .44 per
cent. ; insoluble matter, 5.15 per cent. ; chlorine, 7.69 per
cent. ; sulphuric acid, 2.61 per cent. ; carbonic acid, 22.25
per cent. ; sodium oxide, 7.55 per cent. ; calcium oxide,
33.39 per cent. ; ferric oxide, 1.03 per cent.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Calcium oxide.
Sodium oxide.
Ferric oxide, .
Magnesium oxide, .
Chlorine,
Sulphuric acid.
Carbonic acid.
Insoluble matter. .
Per cent.
16.76
1.10
1.12
29.82
8.25
.82
3.33
7.20
5.19
15.51
Consists of a mixture of common salt, wood ashes and
gypsum ; valuation depends on local conditions.
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZEES.
517
Sparroio's High Grade Grass Fertilizer.
(Collected of G. W. Atkinson, Reading, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 8 to 10
per cent. ; soluble and reverted phosphoric acid, 4 to 6 per
cent. ; potassium oxide, 4 to 5 per cent. ; ammonia, 4^ to
5^ per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 3.70 to 4.52 per
cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Solubl-e phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble jjhosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
15.65
11.46
2.91
4.12
4.43
4.31
5.02
2.52
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
58.2 poimds of soluble phosphoric acid,
82.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
88.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
86.2 pounds of potassium oxide, .
100.4 pounds of nitrogen.
H
66
6
18
2
66
3
66
17
57
$34 73
Dole's Perfect Lawn Dressing.
(Collected of M. A. Stone, Reading, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 10 to 12
per cent. ; soluble and reverted phosphoric acid, 8 to 10 per
cent. ; potassium oxide, 4 to 5 per cent. ; nitrogen, 4 to 5
per cent.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
11.85
9.06
2.64
3.04
3.38
3.60
3.81
3.57
518 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
52.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid, .
60.8 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
67.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
72.0 pounds of potassium oxide,
76.2 pounds of nitrogen, ....
$4 22
4 66
2 03
3 06
13 34
$27 21
J. A. Tucker & Co.'s Original Hay State Bone Superphosphate.
(Collected of Hanscom Bros., Haverhill, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition ; Total phosphoric acid, 10 to 12
per cent. ; soluble and reverted phosphoric acid, 9 to 9^
per cent. ; potassium oxide, 2 to 3 per cent. ; ammonia, 3
to 3^ per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 2^ to 2.9 percent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
21.17
11.51
8.41
.42
2.68
2.10
3.40
.47
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
168.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
8.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
53.6 poiuids of insoluble phosphoric acid,
42.0 pounds of potassium oxide, .
68.0 pounds of nitrogen.
$13 46
63
1 61
1 79
11 90
$29 39
Pure Raw Bone Fertilizer.
(Manufactured by A.
L. Ames, Peabody, Mass.
Ipswich, Mass.)
collected of J. M. Caldwell^
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 8
to 11 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 2 to 3 per cent, (equiva-
lent to potassium chloride, 4 to 6 per cent.) ; ammonia, 2^
to 3j^ per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 2 to 2.9 per cent.).
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
519
Moisture at 100=" C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
144.G pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
37.0 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
5.6 jjounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
2.0 poimds of potassium oxide, .
72.0 pounds of nitrogen,
Per cent.
10.34
9.36
7.23
1.85
.28
.10
3.60
1.60
$11 57
2 78
17
09
12 60
$27 21
Randall's Field and Farm.
(Collected of W. E. Livingston, Lowell, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 10 to 11
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 7 to 9 per cent. ; re-
verted phosphoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ; potassium oxide,
2 to 4 per cent. ; ammonia, 2 to 3 per cent, (equivalent to
nitrogen, 1.7 to 2.5 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
76.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
39.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
101.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
54.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
60.6 pounds of nitrogen, . . ' .
Per cent.
18.48
10.88
3.82
1.97
5.09
2.73
3.03
2.39
f6
11
2
96
3 04
2
32
10
61
$25 04
520
BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
Soluble Pacific Guano.
(Glidden & Curtis, Boston, Mass.; collected of Hanscom Bros., Haverhill, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, 6| to
8 per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 1|^ to 3 per cent. ;
insoluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ; potassium
oxide, 2 to 3^ per cent. ; nitrogen, 2|^ to 3^ per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 13.38
Total phosphoric acid, 12.86
Soluble phosphoric acid, 6.02
Reverted phosphoric acid, 1.80
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 5.04
Potassium oxide, 2.99
Nitrogen, 2.81
Insoluble matter, . 8.00
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
120.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
36.0 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
100.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
59.8 poimds of potassium oxide, .
56.2 pounds of nitrogen.
P 63
2 70
3 02
2 53
9 84
$27 72
Sparrow's B. B. High Grade SuperpJiosphate.
(Collected of G. W. Atkinson, Reading, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 10 to 12
per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 8 to 10 per cent. ; po-
tassium oxide, 2 to 3 per cent. ; nitrogen, 2^ to 3^- per
cent. ; (equivalent to ammonia, 3 to 4 per cent.).
Moistm-e at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cptit.
14.59
10.81
9.24
1.32
.25
2.08
4.00
3.24
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
521
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
184.8 pounds of soluble i^hosphoric acid,
26.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
5.0 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
41.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
80.0 pounds of nitrogen,
$14 78
1 98
15
1 78
14 00
|32 69
Bradley's Potato Manure.
(Collected of G. W. Atkinson, Reading, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, 5 to 6
per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ; in-
soluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ; potassium oxide,
6 to 8 per cent, (equivalent to potassium sulphate, 11 to
13 per cent.) ; nitrogen, 2.68 to 3.50 per cent, (equivalent
to ammonia, 3^ to 4^ per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble i^hosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
110.6 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
27.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
61.6 povmds of insoluble jjhosphoric acid,
126.0 ijounds of potassium oxide, .
65.2 pounds of nitrogen,
Per cent.
12.25
9.99
5.53
1.38
3.08
6.30
3.26
4.60
$8 85
2 07
1 85
6 93
11 41
f31 11
Dole's Fertilizer, No. 203.
(Collected of M. A. Stone, Reading, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 10 to 12
per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 8 to 10 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 3 to 4 per cent. ; nitrogen, 3 to 4 per
cent, (equivalent to ammonia, 3.5 to 4.5 per cent.).
522
BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Niti'ogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
17.61
9.00
4.96
2.56
1.48
2.84
2.87
7.00
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
99.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
51.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
29.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
56.8 pounds of potassium oxide, .
57.4 pounds of nitrogen.
f7
94
3
84
89
2 41
10
05
$25 13
Bay State Fertilizer.
(Clark's Cove Guano Company, New Bedford, Mass.; collected of M. A. Stone,
Reading, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 9| to 14
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 7 to 8^ per cent. ; re-
verted phosphoric acid, 1 to 2| per cent. ; insoluble phos-
phoric acid, 1^ to 3 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 2 to 3 per
cent. ; nitrogen, 2.1 to 2.8 per cent, (equivalent to am-
monia, 2| to 3^ per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassiima oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
12.18
12.56
8.12
1.70
2.74
2.72
3.24
5.29
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
162.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
34.0 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
54.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
64.4 pounds of potassiima oxide, .
64.8 pounds of niti-ogen.
$12
99
2
55
1
64
2
31
11
34
$30 83
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
523
Lowell Bone Fertilizer.
(Collected of O. G. Cobnrn, Lowell, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition ; Total phosphoric acid, 10 to 12
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 8 to 10 per cent. ; in-
soluble phosphoric acid, 3 to 5 per cent. ; nitrogen, 2.5 to
4 per cent.
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 16.59
Total phosphoric acid, 12.57
Soluble phosphoric acid, 5.42
Reverted phosphoric acid, 6.33
Insoluble j)hosphoric acid, .82
Potassium oxide, 3.57
Nitrogen, 2.30
Insoluble matter, .73
Valuation per two thousand pounds : - —
108.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
126.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
16.4 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
71.4 pounds of potassium oxide, .
46.0 pounds of nitrogen.
|8 67
9 50
49
3 03
8 05
S29 74
Dow, Davis & Co.'s Pure Ground Bone.
(Collected of J. Stackpole & Sons, Ipswich, Mass.)
No guaranty obtained.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen,
[nsoluble matter, .
Per cent.
9.03
26.59
none.
6.63
19.96
2.88
.19
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
132.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid, .
399.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, .
67.6 pounds of nitrogen, ....
$9 95
19 96
9 22
$39 13
524
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Dole's Perfect Food for Fruit Trbes and Vines.
(Collected of M. A. Stone, Reading, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 9 to 12
per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 8 to 10 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 8 to 10 per cent. ; nitrogen, 3 to 5 per
cent, (equivalent to ammonia, 4 to 6.5 per cent.).
Vex cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 9.04
Total iDhosphoric acid, 9.74
Soluble phosphoric acid, 2.37
Reverted phosphoric acid, 2.81
Insoluble iDhosphoric acid, 4.56
Potassium oxide 5.24
Nitrogen, 2.44
Insoluble matter, . . . . . . . . 6.66
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
47.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
66.2 pounds of reverted j^hosphoric acid,
912. pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
104.8 poimds of potassium oxide, .
48.8 pounds of nitrogen,
$3 79
4 22
2 74
4 45
8 54
$23 74
Bowker's Dissolved Bonehlack.
(Collected at Amherst, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 15 to 18
per cent.
Moisture at lOO'' C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble i)hosphorie acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
1G.05
17.47
14.77
2.00
,71
4.82
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
295.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
40.0 i^ounds of reverted i)hosphoric acid,
14.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid.
$23 63
3 00
43
f27 06
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
525
Adams' Fine Ground Bone.
(Adams & Thomas, Springfield, Mass.; collected of C. "W. Shaw, Springfield,
Mass.)
No guaranty obtained.
Moisture at 100= C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosiDhoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
5.09
16.10
none.
3.51
12.59
4.45
2.16
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
70.2 i^ounds of reverted phosphoric acid, .
251.8 ijomids of insoluble phosphoric acid, .
89.0 jiounds of nitrogen, ....
$5 27
12 59
12 46
$30 32
Williams, Clark & Co.'s '■^Americus" Pure Bone Meal.
(Collected of Benjamin Mercer, Stockbrldge, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition ; Total phosphoric acid, 18 to 24
per cent. ; nitrogen, 3 to 4 per cent, (equivalent to am-
monia, 4 to 5 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosj^horic acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Kitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
rer cent.
3.66
19.02
none.
6.85
12.17
4.22
.50
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
137.0 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
243.4 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
84.4 pounds of nitrogen.
$10 28
12 17
11 82
$34 27
$26 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
H. J. Baker & Bro.'s Pelican Bone Fertilizer.
(Collected of T. E. Hall & Co., Pittsfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, 7^ to
9^ per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 8 to 10 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 2.25 to 3 per cent. ; ammonia, 2.25 to
3.75 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 1.85 to 3.09 per
cent.).
Per ceut.
Moisture at 100° C, 17.40
Total phosphoric acid, 10.62
Soluble phosphoric acid, . " 9.47
Reverted phosphoric acid, . . . . , . 1.15
Insoluble phosphoric acid, none.
Potassium oxide, 2.45
Nitrogen, 3.06
Insoluble matter, 1.08
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
149.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid, . . $11 95
23.0 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid, . . . 1 73
49.0 pounds of potassium oxide, 2 08
61.2 pounds of nitrogen, 10 71
S26 47
Chittenden's Universal Phosphate.
(Collected of T. E. Hall & Co., Pittsfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 11 to 12
per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 0 to 11 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 2 to 3 per cent. ; ammonia, 2.5 to 3.5 per
cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 2.1 to 2.9 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 12.46
Total phosphoric acid, 13.82
Soluble phosphoric acid, 5.79
Reverted phosphoric acid, 3.65
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 4.38
Potassium oxide, 2.34
Nitrogen, 3.35
Insoluble matter, 6.20
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
527
Valuation per two thousand pounds ; —
115.8 jiounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
73.0 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
87.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
4G.8 pounds of potassium oxide, .
67.0 pounds of nitrogen,
$9 26
5
48
2
63
1
99
11
73
$31 09
Farmers' Fertilizer : '•'- Reaper Brand."
(Farmers' Fertilizer Company, Syracuse, N. Y. ; collected of H. P. Lucas, Pitts-
field, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition: Available phosphoric acid, 5.5
to 7 per cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ;
potassium oxide (sulphate), 8 to 10 per cent. ; ammonia, 2
to 3 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 1.7 to 2.5 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosjihoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen, .
Insoluble matter, .
Per ceut.
14.35
7.51
5.25
2.08
0.18
3.60
2.60
4.53
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
105.0 poimds of soluble phosphoric acid,
41.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
3.6 poimds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
72.0 pounds of potassium oxide, .
50.0 pounds of nitrogen.
$8 40
3 12
11
3 96
8 75
$24 34
Great Eastern Potato Phosphate.
(Great Eastern Fertilizer Company, New York ; collected of F. "W. Bechtel, Glen-
dale, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition ; Soluble phosphoric acid, 6 to 8
per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ; in-
soluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 3 per cent. ; potassium oxide,
6 to 8 per cent. ; ammonia,. 2.5 to 3.5 per cent, (equivalent
to nitrogen, 2.1 to 2.9 per cent.).
528
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
129.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
40.4 pounds of reverted lihosphoric acid,
22.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
100.8 pounds of potassium oxide, .
43.6 pounds of nitrogen.
Per cent.
14.38
9.C2
6.46
2.02
1.14
5.04
2.18
6.62
UO 34
3 03
68
4 28
7 63
$25 96
Bowker's Hill and Drill Phosphate.
(Collected of H. P. Lucas, Pittsfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 11 to
14 per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 8 to 9 per cent. ; re-
verted phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ; insoluble phos-
phoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 2 to 3 per
cent, (equivalent to potassium sulphate, 3.7 to 5.5 per
cent.) ; nitrogen, 2.5 to 3.25 per cent, (equivalent to am-
monia, o to 4 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, . . • 14.36
Total phosphoric acid, 10.87
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
138.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
51.0 jiounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
27.6 povmds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
30.2 pounds of potassium oxide, .
66.8 pounds of nitrogen,
6.94
2.55
1.38
1.51
3.34
3.50
$11 10
3 83
83
1 66
11 69
$20 n
COM]VIERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
529
Great Eastern General Fertilizer.
(Great Eastern Fertilizer Company, New York; collected of S. H. Prindle, Wil-
liamstown, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, G to 8
per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ; in-
soluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 3 per cent. ; potassium oxide,
2 to 4 per cent. ; ammonia, 3.5 to 4.5 per cent, (equivalent
to nitrogen, 2.9 to 3.7 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moistui-e at 100° C, 12.53
Total phosi3horie acid, 9.G6
Soluble phosphoric acid, 6.62
Reverted phosphoric acid, 1.65
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 1.39
Potassium oxide, ....,,.. 2.17
Nitrogen, 3.33
Insoluble matter, 6.25
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
132.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
33.0 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
27.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
43.4 pounds of potassium oxide, .
66.6 pounds of nitrogen,
$10
59
2
48
83
1
84
11
66
$27 40
Adams' Market Bone Fertilizer.
(Collected of C. W. Shaw, Springfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition: Total phosphoric acid, 9 to 11
per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 8 to 10 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 3 to 5 per cent. ; nitrogen, 3.15 to 4 per
cent, (equivalent to ammonia, 4 to 5 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 13.78
Total phosphoric acid, 9.33
Soluble phosphoric acid, 3.14
Reverted phosphoric acid, 3.62
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 2.57
Potassium oxide, 6.30
Nitrogen, 2.54
Insoluble matter 2.93
530
BOAED OF AGRICULTUEE.
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
62.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
72.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
51.4 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
106.0 pounds of potassium oxide, .
60.8 pounds of nitrogen.
f5 02
6 43
1 54
4 51
8 89
$25 39
Chittenden's Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.
(Collected of T. E. Hall & Co., Pittsfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition: Total phosphoric acid, 9 to 11
per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 7 to 9 per cent. ; po-
tassium oxide, 2 to 4 per cent. ; ammonia, 2 to 3 per cent,
(equivalent to nitrogen, 1.65 to 2.5 per cent ).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble j^hosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
rer cent.
13.48
12.73
6.79
2.39
3.55
4.79
3.40
3.73
Valuation per two t^iousand pounds : —
135.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
47.8 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
71.0 poimds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
95.8 pounds of potassium oxide, .
68.0 jiounds of nitrogen.
$10 86
3 59
2 13
4 07
11 90
$32 55
Standard Ammoniated Bone Phosphate.
(Manufactured by Farmers' Fertilizer Company, Syracuse, N. Y. ; collected of H.
P. Lucas, Pittsfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition: Total phosphoric acid, 11 to 15
percent. ; available phosphoric acid, 9 to 11 per cent. ; in-
soluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ; potassium sul-
phate, 8 to 9 per cent. ; ammonia, 1 to 2 per cent, (equiva-
lent to nitrogen, .82 to 1.65 per cent.).
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
531
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 11.70
Total phosi^horic acid, 9.62
Soluble phosphoric acid, 6.02
Reverted phosphoric acid, 3.22
Insoluble phosphoric acid, .38
Potassium oxide, 3.56
Nitrogen, 2.08
Insoluble matter, 5.69
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
120.4 poimds of soluble phosphoric acid,
64.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
7.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
71.2 pounds of potassium oxide, .
41.6 ijounds of nitrogen,
$9 63
4 83
23
3 92
7 28
$25 89
Adams' Market Bone Fertilizer for Potatoes.
(Collected of C. W. Shaw, Springfield, Mass )
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 9 to 11
per cent, ; available phosphoric acid, 8 to 10 per cent.^; po-
tassium oxide, 4 to 5 per cent. ; nitrogen, 3 to 4 per
cent.
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 11.16
Total phosphoric acid, 8.48
Soluble phosphoric acid, 2.23
Reverted phosphoric acid, 2.43
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 3.82
Potassium oxide, 4.09
Niti'ogen, 3.78
Insoluble matter, 1.56
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
44.6 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
48.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
76.4 poimds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
81.8 pounds of potassium oxide, .
75.6 pounds of nitrogen,
$3
57
3
65
2
29
3
48
13
23
$26 22
532 BOAED OF AGEICULTURE.
Williams, Clark & Co.'s ^^Amencus" Ammoniated Bone Super-
phosphate.
(Collected of J. A. Brewer, Great Barrlngton, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 11 to 16
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 8 to 9 per cent. ; re-
verted phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ; potassium oxide,
2 to 3 per cent, (equivalent to potassium sulphate, 4 to 6
per cent.) ; nitrogen, 2 to 3 per cent, (equivalent to am-
monia, 3 to 4 per cent.) ; magnesium sulphate, 3 to 4 per
cent.
Per cent.
Moisture at 100^ C, 14.11
Total phosphoric acid, 10.60
Soluble phosphoric acid, 8.60
Reverted phosphoric acid, 2.00
Insoluble phosphoric acid, none.
Potassium oxide, 2.32
Nitrogen, 3.20
Insoluble matter, 3.48
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
172.0 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid, . . . $13 76
40.0 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid, . . . 3 00
46.4 pounds of potassium oxide, 2 55
64.0 pounds of nitrogen, 11 20
$30 51
H. Preston & Son's Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.
(Collected of W. M. Wood, Pittsfield, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition: Available phosphoric acid, 9 to
10 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 2 to 3 per cent. ; ammonia,
3 to 4 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 2.5 to 3.3 pet
cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 14.28
Total phosphoric acid, . 10.88
Soluble phosj^horic acid, 6.86
Reverted phosphoric acid, 1.75
Insoluble phosphoric acid, . . . . . . 2.27
Potassiiim oxide, 3.31
Nitrogen, 2.62
Insoluble matter, 3.26
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
533
Valuation per two thousand pounds : ■
137.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
36.0 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
45.4 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
66.2 pounds of potassium oxide, .
62.4 pounds of nitrogen,
$10 98
2 63
1 36
2 81
9 17
$26 95
Adams & Thomas' New England Lawn Dressing.
(Collected of C. W. Shaw, Springfield, Mass.)
No guaranty obtained.
rer cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 9.20
Total phosphoric acid, 9.99
Soluble phosphoric acid, .40
Reverted phosphoric acid, . . . *. . . 4.36
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 5.24
Potassium oxide, 6.92
Nitrogen, 2.44
Insoluble matter, 2.13
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
8.0 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
87.0 pounds of reverted phosi^horic acid,
104.8 poimds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
138.4 pounds of potassium oxide, .
48.8 pounds of nitrogen.
fO 64
6 53
3 14
5 88
8 54
$24 73
Great Eastern General Fertilizer.
(Manufactured by Great Eastern Fertilizer Company, New York ; collected of F.
W. Bechtel, Glendale, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, 6 to 8
per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ; in-
soluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 3 per cent. ; potassium oxide,
2 to 4 per cent. ; ammonia, 2.5 to 3.5 per cent, (equivalent
to nitrogen, 2 to 2.9 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, ...*... . 12.77
Total phosphoric acid, 10.39
Soluble phosphoric acid, 5.70
Reverted phosphoric acid, 2.43
534
BOAED OF AGRICULTUEE.
Per cent.
Insoluble phosi^horic acid, . . . . . . 2.26
Potassium oxide, 2.69
Nitrogen, 2.91
Insoluble matter, 6.99
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
114.0 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid, . . . $9 12
48.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid, . . . 8 65
45.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, . . . 1 36
53.8 pounds of potassium oxide, 2 29
58.2 pounds of nitrogen, 10 19
$26 61
Cotton Seed Hull Ashes.
(American Oil Company, New York ; collected of George D. Howe, North Hadley,
Mass.)
No guaranty obtained.
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, . . . .
8.08
Total phosphoric acid, .
11.50
Potassium oxide, ....
26.62
Magnesium oxide, ....
17.15
Calcium oxide, ....
11.37
Insoluble matter, ....
5.38
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
230.0 pounds of phosphoric acid (6c.), .
532.4 pounds of potassium oxide (5|c.),
$13 80
29 28
$43 08
Cotton Seed Hull Ashes.
(American Oil Company, New York ; collected of D. A. Horton, Northampton,
Mass.)
No guaranty obtained.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
^Magnesium oxide, .
Calcium oxide.
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
7.30
9.59
19.15
14.81
12.23
8.86
COIVIMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
191.8 pounds of phosphoric acid (Go.), .
383.0 pounds of potassium oxide (5^c.),
535
$11 51
21 07
$32 58
Lister Bro.'s Ground Bone.
(Collected of Cyrus Hamlin, Westford, Mass.)
No guaranty obtained.
Per cent
Moisture at 100'' C, 9.74
Total phosphoric acid, ....... 12.85
Soluble phosphoric acid, none.
Reverted phosphoric acid, 4.72
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 8.13
Nitrogen, 2.93
Insoluble matter, 2.63
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
94.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
162.6 pounds of insoluble j)hosphoric acid,
58.6 pounds of nitrogen,
$7 08
8 13
8 79
$24 00
Bowker's Dissolved Bonehlack.
(Collected of Pearse and Easterbrook, Fall River, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, 16 to
18 per cent. ; total bone phosphate, 33 to 38 per cent.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
17.60
15.20
14.75
.28
.17
2.17
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
295.0 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
5.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid, .
3.4 poimds of insoluble phosphoric acid, .
f23 60
42
10
$24 12
536
BO.iRD OF AGRICULTURE.
Economic Fertilizer, No. 1, for Grass.
(Collected of W. S. Butler & Co., BostoD, Mass.)
Label lost ; no guaranty obtained.
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 11.66
Total phosphoric acid, 6.64
Soluble i^hosphoric acid, .15
Reverted phosphoric acid, ... . . 1.06
Insoluble ijhosphoric acid, 5.4:3
Potassium oxide 33
Nitrogen, 1.34
Insoluble matter, 6.38
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
3.0 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
21.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
108.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
6.6 pounds of j)otassium oxide, .
26.8 jjounds of nitrogen (in nitrates), .
$0 24
1 59
3 26
28
4 29
$9 66
Economic Fertilizer, No. 7, for General Purposes.
(Butler, Breed & Co., Boston ; collected of Butler & Co., Boston, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 8 to 12.5
per cent. ; nitrogen, 2.5 per cent. ; alkalies, 8 to 12.5 per
cent.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosi^horic add, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Pep cent.
7.00
13.37
none.
.27
13.10
none.
1.84
8.20
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
5.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
262.0 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
36.8 pounds of nitrogen.
$0 41
7 86
6 44
$14 71
COIVOIERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
537
BHghtman & Co.'s Ground Bone.
(Collected of Pearse & Easterbrook, Fall River, Mass.)
No guaranty obtained.
Per ceut.
Moisture at 100° C, 6.34
Total phosphoric acid, 23.21
Soluble phosphoric acid, none.
Reverted phosphoric acid, 2.77
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 20.44
Nitrogen, 8.69
Insoluble matter, 1.33
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
55.4 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid, . . . f 4 16
408.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, . . . 22 48
73.8 pounds of nitrogen, 11 07
$37 71
Sargrave's Ground Bone.
(Hargrave's Manufacturing Company, Fall River, Mass. ; collected at mill.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 18.80
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, .51 per cent. ; reverted
phosphoric acid, 3.61 per cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid,
14.67 per cent. ; nitrogen, 3.93 per cent, (equivalent to
ammonia, 4.77 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
1.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
98.8 pounds of reverted jihosphoric acid, .
367.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, .
55.2 pounds of nitrogen, ....
Per cent.
20.71
23.39
.09
4.94
18.36
2.76
1.11
$0 14
7 41
18 36
8 28
$34 19
538
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Lister's Celebrated Ground Bone.
(Collected of W. P. Wilson, New Bedford, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition: Total phosphoric acid, 11 to. 13
per cent. ; ammonia, 3 to 3.1 per cent, (equivalent to nitro-
gen, 2.5 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 11.04
Total phosphoric acid, 12.06
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
2.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
86.0 pounds of reverted i^hosphoric acid, .
172.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, .
61.0 pounds of nitrogen, ....
$24 43
.12
4.30
8.64
3.05
2.80
$0 19
6 45
8 64
9 15
Church's Menhaden Fish and Potash, D.
(Collected of S. S. Paine & Bros., New Bedford, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 6 to 7
per cent. ; potassium oxide, 3 to 4 per cent, (equivalent to
potassium sulphate, 6 to 7 per cent.) ; nitrogen, 4 to 5 per
cent, (equivalent to ammonia, 5 to 6 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, ,
Soluble i^hosphoric acid,
Reveited phosphoric acid,
Insoluble iihosphoi'ic acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
33.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
62.4 jjounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
19.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
65.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
85.6 pounds of nitrog^i,
Per cent.
26.25
5.80
1.69
3.12
.99
3.28
4.28
1.62
$2 70
4 68
69
8 61
14 98
$26 56
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
539
BHgMman & Co.'s Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.
(Collected of P E.. Atwood, Plymouth, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 8 to
10 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 3 to 5 per cent. ; ammonia,
3 to 5 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 2.5 to 4 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 16.17
Total phosphoric acid, 9.72
Soluble phosphoric acid, 5.21
Eeverted phosj^horic acid, 2.78
Insoluble lihosjihoric acid, 1,72
Potassium oxide, 3.31
Nitrogen, .- . . . 2.60
Insoluble matter, . 6.81
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
104.2 poimds of soluble phosphoric acid,
55.6 pounds of reverted j^hosphoric acid,
34.4 pounds of insoluble iihosphoric acid,
66.2 pounds of jDotassium oxide, .
52.0 pounds of nitrogen,
$8 34
4 17
1 03
2 81
9 10
f25 45
Bay State Fertilizer.
(Clark's Cove Guano Company, New Bedford, Mass. ; collected of P. R. Atwood,
Plymouth, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 9.5 to
14 per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 7 to 8.5 per cent. ;
reverted phosphoric acid, 1 to 2.5 per cent. ; insoluble
phosphoric acid, 1 to 3 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 2 to 3
per cent. ; nitrogen, 2.1 to 2.8 per cent, (equivalent to am-
monia, 2.5 to 3.5 per cent.) ; moisture, 8 to 10 per cent.
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 14.32
Total phosphoric acid, 11.78
Soluble phosphoric acid, 8.43
Reverted iihosphoric acid, 2.77
Insoluble phosphoric acid, .58
Potassium oxide, 1.83
Nitrogen, 2.72
Insoluble matter, 6.04
540 BOAED OF AGEICULTUEE.
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
] 68.6 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
55.4 pounds of reverted i^hosphoric acid,
11.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
36.6 pounds of potassiuni oxide, .
54.4 pounds of nitrogen,
$13 49
4 16
35
1 56
9 52
$29 08
Alle7i Fertilizer.
(American Manufacturing Company, Boston, Mass.; collected of Parker & Wood,
Boston, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 6 to 10
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 4 to 6 per cent. ; re-
verted phosphoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ; insoluble phos-
phoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 4 to 6 per
cent. ; ammonia, 2.25 to 3 per cent, (equivalent to nitro-
gen, 1.85 to 2.5 per cent.).
Per cent.
22.89
8.73
5.11
2.08
1.54
5.07
2.34
4.53
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
E.evei'ted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
102.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
41.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
30.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
101.4 pounds of potassium oxide, .
47.8 pounds of nitrogen,
?8 18
3 12
92
4 81
8 37
?24 90
Baker's A. A. Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.
(Collected of TV. V. "Wilson, New Bedford, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 10
to 12 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 2 to 3 per cent. ; am-
monia, 3 to 4 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 2.5 to 3.3
per cent.).
COMIMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
541
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
218.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
33.8 pounds of rereriied phosphoric acid,
2.4 pounds of insoluble phosjihoric acid,
57.4 poimds of potassium oxide, .
63.0 pounds of nitrogen,
Per cent.
16. 3G
12.72
10.91
1.69
.12
2.87
3.15
1.09
?17 46
2 54
07
2 44
11 03
?33 54
Brightman & Co.'s Dry Ground Menhaden Fish Guano.
(Collected of Pearse & Easterbrook, Fall River, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total bone phosphate of lime,
15 to 20 per cent. ; ammonia, 10 to 12 per cent, (equiva-
lent to nitrogen, 7.88 to 8.24 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 10.72
Total phosphoric acid, 7.95
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
9.2 poimds of soluble phosphoric acid,
70.6 poimds of reverted johosphoric acid, .
79.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, .
168.2 pounds of nitrogen, ....
.46
3.53
3.96
8.41
2.72
$0 74
5 30
3 96
29 44
$39 44
Maya's Superphosphate.
(Collected of P. Williams & Co., Taunton, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, 9 to
11 per cent. ; available phosphoric acid, 10.5 to 11.5 per
cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ; potas-
542
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
sium oxide, 2 to 4 per cent. ; nitrogen, 2.5 to 3 per cent.
Cequivalent to ammonia, 3 to 3.5 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted i^hosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
174.2 pounds of soluble phosj^horic acid,
46.0 poiands of reverted phosphoric acid,
12.0 jDounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
74.0 pounds of potassimn oxide, .
66.0 j)Ounds of nitrogen,
Per cent.
19.27
11.61
8.71
2.30
.60
3.70
2.80
5.02
$13 94
3 45
36
3 15
9 80
$30 70
Adams' Bone SuperpJiospJiafe.
(Steams Fertilizer Co., New Yorli; collected of Wilson & Holden, Worcester,
Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Available phosphoric acid, 8 to
11 per cent. ; insoluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 3 per cent. ;
potassium oxide, 2 to 3 per cent, (equivalent to potassium
sulphate, 4 to 8 per cent.) ; ammonia, 2.5 to 3.5 per cent.
(equivalent to nitrogen, 2.1 to 2.9 per cent.).
Per cent.
19.69
10.93
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
131.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
66.8 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
20.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
84.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
70.8 pounds of nitrogen,
6.56
3.34
1.03
4.23
8.54
3.74
$10 50
5 01
62
4 65
12 39
$33 17
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
543
Crocker's Ammomated Bone Superphosphate.
(Collected of S. P. Bliss, Taunton, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : 'Soluble phosphoric acid, 6 to 8
per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ; in-
soluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ; potassium sul-
phate, 1 to 3 per cent. ; ammonia, 2.5 to 4.5 per cent,
(equivalent to nitrogen, 2.9 to 3.7 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosjjhoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
11.04
11.22
7.69
2.13
1.40
1.77
2.92
4.66
Valuation per two thousand pounds ; —
153.8 pounds of soluble j^hosphoric acid,
42.6 potmds of reverted phosphoric acid,
28.0 povmds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
35.4 pounds of potassiima oxide, .
68.4 pounds of nitrogen.
$28 51
Brightman & Co.'s Fish and Potash.
(Collected of P. R. Atwood, Plymouth, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total bone phosphate of lime,
15 to 18 per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 per cent. ;
insoluble phosphoric acid, .40 per cent. ; potassium oxide,
2 to 3 per cent. ; ammonia, 3 to 5 per cent, (equivalent to
nitrogen, 2.5 to 4.1 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 25.84
Total phosphoric acid, 6.33
Soluble i^hosphoric acid, 1.34
Reverted phosphoric acid, 2.13
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 1-86
Potassium oxide, ■ 8.13
Nitrogen, 2.88
Insoluble matter, 10.60
544 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
26.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
42.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
87.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
62.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
57.6 pounds of nitrogen,
$2 14
3 20
1 12
2 66
10 08
^19 20
Standard Peruvian Guano, 1. — Guaranteed.
(Collected of P. Williams & Co., Taunton, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 13 to 17
per cent. ; potassium oxide, 2 to 3 per cent. ;
to 10 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 7.4
cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosijhoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
18.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
152.6 pounds of reverted phosjihoric acid,
121.6 povmds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
58.6 pounds of potassium oxide, .
158.6 poimds of nitrogen.
•ammonia, 9
to 8.2 per
Per cent.
10.43
14.65
.94
7.63
6.08
2.93
7.93
8.42
$1 50
11 45
3
2
27
65
49
76
$46 85
Bed Beach Bone SuperpJiospJiate.
(Collected of S. S. Paine & Bros., New Bedford, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 10 to
15 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 2.26 per cent. ; ammonia,
3.11 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 2.56 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C 17.29
Total phosphoric acid, 9.83
Soluble phosphoric acid, 8.33
COMMEECIAL FERTILIZERS.
545
rer cent
Reverted phosphoric acid,
1.30
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
.20
Potassium oxide,
1.05
Kitrogen, ......
1.G9
Insoluble matter,
2.42
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
1G6.G pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
2G.0 pounds of reverted ];hosp]ioric acid,
4.0 i)ounds of insoluble phosjihoric acid,
39.0 pounds of ])otassiura oxide, .
33.8 pounds of nitrogen, . .
fl3
33
1
95
12
1
G6
5
02
$22 98
Seecling-Doivn Fertilizer.
(Manufactured by Cumberland Bone Company, Portland, Mo. ; collected of J. Q.
Evans, Salisbury, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 23.40
per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, 3.20 per cent. ; re-
volted phosphoric acid, 4.43 per cent. ; insoluble phos-
phoric acid, 15.77 per cent. ; potassium oxide, .97 per
cent. ; nitrogen, 1.45 per cent, (equivalent to ammonia,
1.7G per cent.).
:^roisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted pliosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
I'otassium o.xide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
rcr cent.
12.17
22.38
2.72
3.04
1G.G2
1.13
1.G9
5.80
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
54.4 jiounds of soluble pliosphoric acid,
GO.S pounds of reverted phosjihoric acid,
332.4 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
22.G jjounds of potassium o.xide, .
33.8 pounds of nitrogen.
?4 35
4 5G
9 97
9G
5 92
§25 7G
546
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Darling's Animal Fertilizer.
(Collected of C. H. Thompson & Co., Boston, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition: Total phosphoric acid, 10 to 12
per cent. ; potassium oxide, 4 to 6 per cent. ; nitrogen, 3.3
to 5 per cent, (equivalent to ammonia, 4 to 6 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total pliosiihoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
rer cent.
13.47
13.51
2.02
5.23
8.28
4.97
3.29
3.53
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
40.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
104.6 pounds of reverted jshosphoric acid,
165.6 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
99.4 pounds of potassium oxide, .
65.8 pounds of nitrogen,
$3 23
7
85
4
97
4
22
11
52
$31 79
C A. BartleWs Bone.
(Collected of C. A. Bartlett, at works, Worcester, Mass.)
No guaranty obtained.
rer cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 5.13
Total phosphoric acid, 24.67
Soluble phosphoric acid, .28
Reverted phosphoric acid, 5.48
Insoluble phosi^horic acid, 18.91
Nitrogen, 3.43
Insoluble matter, .56
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
5.6 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
109.6 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
378. 2 poimds of insoluble phosphoric acid, .
68.6 pounds of nitrogen, ....
$0 45
8 22
18 91
10 29
$37 87
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
547
Jefferds' Fine Ground Bone.
(Collected of J. G. JclTcrds, at works, Worcester, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 25 to
30 per cent. ; ammonia, 3 to 4 per cent, (equivalent to
nitrogen, 2.5 to 3.3 per cent.).
Per cent.
Moisture at 100^ C, 4.60
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
!f\itrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
7.2 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
150.8 pounds of revei'ted phosi^horic acid, .
418.G pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, .
40.2 poimds of nitrogen, ....
28.83
.36
7.54
20.93
2.01
.36
§0 68
11 31
20 93
6 03
$38 85
Soluble Pacific Guano.
(Collected of Heart & Akin, New Bedford, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, (]\ to
8 per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 1.5 to 3 per cent. ;
insoluble phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ; potassium oxide,
2.5 to 3.5 per cent. ; nitrogen, 2 to 3 per cent, (equivalent
to ammonia, 2.5 to 3.5 per cent.).
Ter cent.
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Niti'ogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
131.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
48.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
62.2 pounds of insoluble phosjihoric acid,
36.0 pounds of potassium oxide, .
43.2 pounds of nitrogen.
24.49
12.11
6.59
2.41
3.11
1.80
2.16
6.45
?10 54
3 62
1 87
1 53
7 56
$25 12
548
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Darling's Animal Fertilizer.
(Collected of Parker & Wood, Boston, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 10 to 12
per cent. ; potassium oxide, 4 to 6 per cent. ; ammonia,
4 to G per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 3.3 to 5 percent.).
Moisture at 100" C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosi:)horic acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
91.4 pounds of soluble phosphoi'ic acid,
4G.0 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
70. G pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
82.8 pounds of potassium oxide, .
72.8 pounds of nitrogen,
Per cont.
14.92
10.70
4..'')7
2.30
3.83
4.14
3.G4
1.36
$7 31
3 45
2 30
3 52
12 74
$29 32
Darling's Laion Dressing.
(Collected of Parker & Wood, Boston, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 10 to 12
per cent. ; potassium oxide, 5 to G per cent. ; ammonia,
5 to 7 per cent, (equivalent to nitrogen, 4.1 to 5. G per cent.).
Moi.sturo at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosjihoric acid,
Revcrtcil phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, ,
Nitrogen, ....
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
70.8 pounds of soluble phosplioric acid, .
G9.1 pounds of reverted phosplioric acid, .
1IG.2 pounds of insoluble phosplioric acid,
102.2 pounds of iiotassium oxide,
89.2 i^ounds of nitrogen, ....
Per cent.
12.G0
12.82
3.54
3.47
5.81
5.11
4. 40
2.12
?5 C6
5 21
3 49
4 34
!.■> CI
$34 31
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
549
Williams & Clark Co.'s Americus Ammoniated Bone SuperpJios-
2)liate.
(Collected of C. A. Bartlctt, Worcester, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 11 to 16
per cent. ; sohiblo phosphoric acid, 8 to 9 per cent. ; re-
verted phosphoric acid, 2 to 3 percent; potassium oxide,
2 to 3 per cent, (equivalent to potassium sulphate, 4 to 6
per cent.) ; nitrogen, 2 to 3 per cent, (equivalent to am-
monia, 3 to 4 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosi^horic acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
182.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
27.G pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
8.4 pounds of insoluble j^hosphoric acid,
4.0.0 pounds of potassium oxide, .
6G.G pounds of nitrogen,
Per cent.
15.04
10.94
9.14
1.38
.42
2.25
2.83
3.43
$14 62
2 07
25
2 48
9 91
$29 33
Bay State Fertilizer.
(Manufactured by Clark's Cove Gnano Company, New Bedford, Mass, ; collected of
Heart & Aliiii, New Bedford, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric 'acid, 10 to
13 per cent. ; soluble phosphoric acid, G to 9 per cent. ;
reverted phosphoric acid, 2 to 2i per cent. ; available phos-
phoric acid, 8 to 11 per cent.; potassium oxide, 2 to 3.5
per cent. ; nitrogen, 2.1 to 2.8 per cent, (equivalent to am-
monia, 2.55 to 3.5 per cent.).
Per cent.
^loisture at 100" C, 13-10
Total phosphoric acid, 13. IG
Soluble pIios])horic acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid, .
Potassium oxide, .
Kitrogen, ....
Insoluble matter, .
7.84
2.33
2.89
1.80
2.93
4.82
550
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
156.8 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
46. G pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
57.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
36.0 pounds of potassium oxide, .
58.6 pounds of nitrogen,
$12
54
3
50
1
73
1
53
10 26
J29 56
Randall's Flour of Bone.
(Collected of Benjamin Randall, at works, Boston, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 20 to 25
per cent. ; ammonia, 3 to 4 per cent, (equivalent to nitro-
gen, 2.5 to 3.3 per cent.) ; sodium chloride (common salt),
5 to 8 per cent.
I'er cent.
9.82
13.49
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosplioric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, ,
Valuation per two thousand pounds : —
9.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
84.G i:)Ounds of reverted phosphoric acid, .
175.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid, .
132.8 pounds of nitrogen, ....
.47
4.23
8.79
6.64
.84
80 75
6 35
8 79
19 92
535 81
Jefferds' Animal Fertilizer.
(Collected of J. G. Jefferds, at works, Worcester, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Total phosphoric acid, 14 to
16 per cent. ; potassium oxide, 5 to 7 per cent. ; ammonia,
5 to 7 per cent, (cqidvalent to nitrogen, 4.1 to 5. 70 per
cent.).
I'cr cent.
6.15
15.09
.37
Moisture at 100° C,
Total pliosplioric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid.
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
5.71
9.01
5.36
5.53
1.32
COMMERCIAL FERTILIZERS.
551
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
7.4 pounds of soluble jjliosphoric acid,
114.2 pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
180.2 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
107.2 pounds of potassium oxide, .
110.6 pounds of nitrogen, . .
$0 59
8 57
5 41
4 56
19 36
$38 49
Crocker's Ammoniated Bone Superphosphate.
(Collected of C. "VV, Sears, Worcester, Mass.)
Guaranteed composition : Soluble phosphoric acid, 6 to 8
per cent. ; reverted phosphoric acid, 2 to 4 per cent. ; in-
soluble phosphoric acid, 1 to 2 per cent. ; potassium sul-
phate, 1 to 3 per cent. ; ammonia, 3.5 to 4.5 per cent,
(equivalent to nitrogen, 2.9 to 3.7 per cent.).
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, .
Soluble phosphoric acid,
Reverted phosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation per two thousand pounds :
167.4 pounds of soluble phosphoric acid,
44.G pounds of reverted phosphoric acid,
27.8 pounds of insoluble phosphoric acid,
27.8 pounds of potassium oxide, .
68.3 j)Ounds of nitrogen,
Per cent.
11.66
11.99
8.37
2.23
1.39
1.39
3.43
4.70
fl3 99
3 35
83
1 53
12 01
f31 11
C. A. GOESSMANN,
State Inspector.
FIFTH ANNUAL REPORT
DIRECTOR OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL EXPERI-
MENT STATION AT AMHERST. MASS.
FIFTH AITETJAL REPORT
DIRECTOR OF THE STATE AGRICULTURAL EXPERI-
MENT STATION AT AMHERST, MASS.
To the Eonordble Board of Control.
Gentlemen : — The advantages expected from a better
outfit in the chemical hiboratory, the feeding department
and the field have been fairly realized during the past year.
The examinations carried on in the laboratory have been
more varied and more numerous ; the feeding experiments
have received deservedly an increased attention ; and the
assio^nment of fields for definite lines of investisration has
been advanced wherever circumstances have advised that
course.
The laboratory building is in a good state of repair. The
supply of new apparatus has been regulated by the means
at our disposal for that purpose. Much has been accom-
plished in that way ; more still remains to be done to meet
the constant demands, arising partly from an unavoidable
destruction of apparatus and partly from new inquiries into
more intricate subjects of animal and vegetable economy.
The stalls latelj^ built for a better accommodation of
horses, cattle and swine have been completed according to
designs. Ample provisions have been made to supply them
with hot and cold water when needed. A new milk-setting
room and an ice-house have just been finished to complete
the outfit for observations concerning the products of the
dairy. Some additional plain structures will be needed be-
fore long, to provide rooms for experiments with sheep and
growing cattle.
556 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The barn and adjoining sheds are well preserved. Some
parts of them have been transformed into a balance room, a
feed room, a seed room, a tool room and workshop, and an
office, aside from some root pits and silos.
The dwelling-house of the farmer is, as far as circum-
stances permit, in a satisfactory condition. The building will
soon need, however, in common with some of the older farm
buildings, a new coat of paint.
The work in the field has been greatly increased, in conse-
quence of the recent addition of an area of thirty acres of
land. These lands are located on the east side of the high-
way, and consist of ten acres of wood land and of twenty
acres of worn-out grass land. Twelve acres of the latter,
which had been underdrained, graded and ploughed during
the preceding year, were utilized during the past season for
the raising of potatoes, corn, horse bean, squashes, o:its and
barley. Most of the crops succeeded fairly, while others
suffered seriously from frequent and heavy rainfalls during
the months of July and August. The lower part of this
portion of the lands, about four acres in size, has been
seeded down into a permanent meadow. The up{)cr part
will be again planted with some general farm crop, to reno-
vate it, by drill cultivation, for future experiments. The
remaining eight acres of old grass land have been extensively
underdrained during the latter part of the autumn and sub-
sequently ploughed. These lands are designed to serve
ultimately in part for the cultivation of general farm crops
and for a fruit orchard for experimental purposes.
The lands located on the west side of the high road have
been rcsurveyed, and the outlines of each experimental field
marked !)y painted gas pipes ; the latter are buried four feet
ni the soil, to prevent the shifting of the markers and to servo
the farmer as future guides in ploughing, etc. The entire
area of ploughed land is divided into four distinct fields,
named A, B, C, D, of which there is a complete record of
their past history.
The experimental work carried on in the barn, the fields
and the laboratory of the Station during the past years is
described in the subsequent pages under the following
headiuirs ; —
EXPERIMENT STATION. 557
1. Experiments with milch cows ; English hay, corn fodder, fodder
com, ensilage, roots, etc.
2. Experiments with milch cows ; with green fodder, vetch and
oats, Southern cow pea, scrradella, etc.
3. Experiments with pigs ; with skim-milk, corn meal, gluten meal,
and wheat bran.
4. On fodder suppl^'^ and analyses of fodder articles.
5. Fodder corn raised with single articles of plant food.
G. Fodder crops raised witli and witliout complete manure.
7. Experiments with Avheat, vetch and oats, scrradella, and Southern
cow pea.
8. Experiments with potatoes, roots, and miscellaneous crojis.
9. Suggestions upon planting trees and small fruits, by Prof. S. T
Maynard.
10. Fei'tilizer and fertilizer analyses; miscellaneous analj-ses.
11. Well-w;iter analyses.
12. Comi^ilation of analj'ses of fodder articles with refei'cnce to food
value.
13. Compilation of analyses of fodder aiticles Avith reference to
fertilizing ingredients.
14. Compilation of analyses of agi'icultural chemicals and refuse
materials used for fertilizing purposes.
15. Meteorological observations.
From the previous cnumeriition of subjects reported on,
it will be noticed thtit some of them arc reports of progress,
regarding questions for one or two years already under in-
ve;?ligation ; while others are new additions to the work
assigned.
This feature in the communications on experimental work
is but natural when remembering that one year's observation
in Held work does only in exceptional cases entitle to a linal
conclusion.
Some compilations of our previous analyses of fodder
articles, aijricaltural chemicals and refuse material from
various branches of industry have been added for the pur-
pose of ]>lacing permtuiently on record for reference certain
i'acts concerning these materials. These abstracts cannot
othci-wise l)ut jirovc accc[)tai)le to the farmers of the State.
The tabular .statement of the extremes of tempcratinc at
Amherst, Mass., from the year 183i) to 1888, has been pre-
pared at the special request of the U. S. Forestry dei)art-
ment.
The periodical publications of the Stition have been as
numerous as in previous years. 1 he interest in the l)ulletins
558 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
and annual reports has been steadily growing during the
past year. The number of bulletins printed has been raised
from 5,000 in 1886 to 6,000 in 1887, and will be increased to
7,000 early in the coming season.
It gives rac particular pleasure to bear testimony to the
satisfactory support I have had from all parties engaged with
me in the work of the Station.
In conclusion permit me to thank you very sincerely for
the liberal support I have enjoyed in performing the duties
assigned to me.
Yours very respectfully,
C. A. GOESSMANN,
Director of tlie State Agricultural ExpeiHment Station.
EXPERIMENT STATION. 559
ON FEEDING EXPERIMENTS.
I. Feeding Experiments with IMileh Cows ; English Hay, Corn Fod-
der, Fodder Com, Ensilage, Roots, etc.
II. Feeding Experiments with IVIilch Cows; with Green Fodder,
Vetch and Oats, Southern Cow Pea, Serradella, etc.
in. Feeding Experiments with Pigs ; Skim-milk, Com Meal, Gluten
Meal and Wheat Bran.
I. Feeding Experbients with Mh^ch Cows.
The feeding experiments with milch cows reported within
a few subsequent pages are essentially a continuation of
those described in the fourth annual report of the Station
{ 1886-1887). To compare the feeding effect of dried fod-
der corn, corn fodder (stover), and corn ensilage as a sub-
stitute, in whole or in part, for English hay, and that of corn
ensilage as compared with that of roots, under otherwise
corresponding circumstances, has been the principal object
of our work on both occasions.
The same fodder articles have been used in both trials,
with the exception that in the experiments discussed below
carrots have been taken instead of sugar beets, which were
used in the preceding year. Aside from this temporary
modification in the diet, a comparatively new fodder article,
the gluten meal, has been added as a temporary ingredient
of the daily fodder ration. This particular change in the
composition of the feed used was made for the purpose of
securing, whenever desired, a closer numerical relation be-
tween the digestible nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous or-
ganic constituents of the food consumed as compared with
that which served in our previous experiments. The gluten
meal was chosen from amonsr the various concentrated com-
560 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
mercial feed-stufi's on account of its close relation to corn,
of which it constitutes a part, and its higher nitrogenous
character when compared with that of the corn meal and the
wheat bran (shorts).
Three cows, mixed breed, from five to six years old, were
selected for our work. They were practically in the same
milking period, from three to six weeks alter calving, at the
befjinnin": of the trial. The observation extended over a
period of seven months, — October 1, 188G, to April 24,
1887.
The temporary changes in the diet, wherever decided
upon, were carried out gradually, as it is customary in all
carefully conducted feeding experiments. At least five days
are allowed in every instance to pass by, in case of a change
in the character of the feed, before the daily observations of
the results appear in our published records. The d:ites
which accompany all detailed reports of our feeding experi-
ments, past and present, furnish exact figures in that direc-
tion. This is, in particular, the case whenever such state-
ments are of a special interest, for an intelligent appreciation
of the final conclusions presented.
As our feeding experiments with milch cows were origi-
nally undertaken with the intention of carrying out a sys-
tematic course of inquiry into the economical relations of
the production of milk with reference to the dairy industry,
as well as to a practical general farm management, it was
thought best, for various reasons, to begin our work with
cows of moderate milking qualities. The efiect of diflereut
diets on the quantity and quality of the milk produced, as
well as their bearing on the net cost of production, i)r()mised
to be of particular interest under the stated circuni.-jtances.
A bcffiiminGf of our work at the lower end of the scale of the
production of milk oflercd besides, the particular advantage
that the results obtained, by a careful mode of observation,
might find a direct application to a still quite numerous class
of cows on our farms, which are not infrequently assumed
to be of but little merit from an economical stand[)oint. It is
our intention to publish, as soon as practicable, a .statement
concerning the annual yield of milk of some of our cows at
present on trial, and also the net cost of its production, as
EXPERIMENT STATION. 5G1
far as the feed is concerned, to show more plainly the annual
profits of keeping cows of moderate milking qualities.
The daily diet of the cows consisted, at the beginning of
the experiments, of three and one-quarter pounds of corn
meal, an equal weight of wheat bran, and all the hay they
could cat. The actual amount of hay consumed in each case
was ascertained by daily weighing out a liberal supply of it,
and deducting subsequently the hay left over.
The statement in our records below refers to the average
consumption of hay per day during the feeding period.
The above stated combination of fodder articles was
adopted as the basis of our investigation mainly for the
reason that it had been used with satisfactory results in
some of our earlier feeding experiments, and not on the
assumption of its being the best possible combination of
fodder articles for milch cows. The weights of the animals
were taken on the same day of each week before milking
and feeding.
The valuation of the various fodder articles consumed is
based on the local market price per ton in Amherst when used.
Good English hay, . $15.00. Rye middlings, . . $24.00.
Corn meal, . . . 23.00. Diy corn fodder (stover), 5.00.
Wheat bran, . . . 20.00. Corn ensilage, . . 2.75.
Gluten meal, . . . 23.00. Carrots, .... 7.00.
The vahie of a fodder for dairy purposes ma}^ be stated
from two didincthj different standpoints; namely, with ref-
erence to its influence on the temporary yield of milk and
the general condition of the animals which consume it, and
in regard to its first cost, — i.e., its physiological and com-
mercial va^ue.
The market value and the actual feeding effect of one and
the same article do not necessarily correspond with each
other; in fact, they rarely coincide.
The market value may be stated for each locality by one
definite number. The feeding effect of one and the same
substance, simple or compound, varies under diffei^ent cir-
cumstances, and depends in a controlling degree on its judi-
cious use in compounding diets.
As no single plant or part of plant has been found to sup-
ply economically and efEciently, to any considerable extent,
562 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
the wants of our various kinds of farm stock, it becomes a
matter of first importance to learn how to supplement our
leading farm crops to meet the divers wants of each kind.
To secure the highest feeding value of each article of fodder
is most desirable in the interest of good economy. The judi-
cious selection of ingredients for a suitable and remunerative
diet for our dairy stock obliges us, therefore, to study the
value of the fodder articles at our disposal from both stand-
points-.
The chemical analyses of the various articles used in the
combination of fodder in our case are stated in some suc-
ceeding pages to show their character and their respective
quality. To ascertain the chemical composition of a fodder
ration, in connection with an otherwise carefully managed
feeding experiment, enables us to recognize with more cer-
tainty the causes of the varying feeding effects of one and
the same fodder article when fed in difTorent combinations.
It furnishes, also, a most valuable guide in the selection of
suitable commercial feed stuffs from fyiown sources to supple-
ment economically our home-raised fodder crops. Practical
experience in feeding stock has so far advanced that it seems
to need no further argument to accept it as a matter of fact
that the efficiency of a fodder ration in the dairy does not
depend, aside from its general or special adaptation, on the
,mere presence of more or less of certain prominent fodder
articles, but on the presence of a proper quantity and a
certain relative proportion of certain prominent constituents
of plants, which are known to be essential for a successful
support of life and of the special functions of the dairy cow.
Investigations into the relations which the various promi-
nent constituents of plants bear to the support of animal
life have rendered it advisable to classify them, in this con-
nection, into three groups, — mineral constituents, and nitrog-
enous and non-nitrogenous organic constituents. For details
regarding this matter I have to refer to previous publications
of the Station. (See Fourth Annual Report, pages 31-37.)
Numerous and extensive practical feeding experiments with
most of our prominent fodder articles in various conditions,
and with all kinds of farm live stock, have introduced the
practice of reporting, in connection with the analysis of the
EXPERIMENT STATION. 563
chemist, also, the result of careful feeding experiments, as
far as the various fodder articles have proved digestible, and
were thus qualified for the support of the life and the func-
tions of the particular kind of animal on trial. In stating
the amount of the digestible portion of the fodder consumed
in a feeding experiment, it has proved useful, for comparing
different fodder rations, etc., to make known by a distinct
record the relative proportion which has been noticed to
exist between the amount of its digestible nitro2renous and
non-nitrogenous organic constituents. This relation is ex-
pressed by the name of " Nutritive Ratio." An examination
of the subsequent short description of our feeding experi-
ments will show, for instance, that the corn meal fed con-
tained one part of digestible nitrogenous to 8.76 parts of
digestible non-nitrogenous organic matter, making the cus-
tomary allowance for the higher physiological value of the
fat as compared with that of starch, sugar, etc. (2.5 times
higher). The "Nutritive Ratios" of the articles of feed
consumed are subsequently stated, as follows : —
Com meal, .
Wheat bran.
Gluten meal,
Rye middlings, .
The results of our own analyses of these fodder articles
are here turned to account for the calculation of the above
stated " Nutritive Ratios."
It has been noticed that, as a general rule, growing ani-
mals and milch cows require a richer food, i. e., a closer
relation of digestible nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous
organic constituents in their feed, to do their best, than full-
grown animals and moderately worked horses or oxen.
German investigators recommend a combination of fodder
articles, in other respects suitable, which contains one part
of digestible nitrogenous organic constituents to 5.4 parts of
digestible non-nitrogenous constituents.
From the description of our earlier feeding experiments
with milch cows (see Fourth Annual Report, page II), it
may be observed, that the relations of the digestible nitroge-
nous and non-nitroorenous organic constituents in the different
combinations of fodder articles which constituted, during the
1:
: 8.76.
English hay.
1 : 9.5.
1;
; 3.47.
Dry com fodder, .
1 : 9.3.
1;
; 2.67.
Com ensilage,
. 1:11.9.
1;
: 7.28.
Carrots,
. 1 : 9.24.
564
BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
various feeding periods, the daily diet of the cows, varied on
that occasion from 1 : G.7 to 1 : 10.17. The closer relation
was obtained by feeding on an average, daily, —
S\ lbs. of wheat bran, ")
15 lbs. of hay, > Nutritive ratio, 1 : G.7.
40 lbs. of Lane's sugar beet, j
And the wider ratio by feeding daily on an average, —
3|^ lbs. of corn meal, ")
5 lbs. of hay, [■ Nutritive ratio, 1 : 10.17.
41 1 lbs. of corn ensilage, )
(See Daisy.) Daring our more recent feeding experi-
ments described below, on the whole, closer relations are
adopted than before. The relations between the two above
stated important groups of fodder constituents vary from
1 : 5.9 to 1 : 7.9 ; they are also more uniform during the
various feeding periods. The closer relation is obtained by
feeding daily on an average, —
3|- lbs. of corn meal,*
o\ lbs. of wheat bran,*
3^ lbs. of gluten meal,
10 lbs. of hay,
35 lbs. of carrots.
» Nuti-itive ratio, 1 : 5.9.
and the wider ratio hy feeding daily on an average, —
3^ lbs. of corn meal,
31 lbs. of wheat bran,
25 lbs. of hay,
Nutritive ratio, 1 : 7.9.
(See Dora.) The entire recent feeding oxperiracnl (I.) is
subdivided into eight di.stinctly dilferent feeding periods ; the
same number as on the preceding occasion, for the same
length of time, — seven months.
The dry corn fodder, the ensilage and the roots were cut,
before being ofiorod as feed. The exact amount consumed
of each fodder article was ascertained by taking their weights
before feeding and deducting the amount left, if any. Grain
and roots were usually fed during milking, and the coarse
fodder between times.
* 3 \ ll)s. of wheat bran is equal to four quarts ; and 3.1 \])s. of corn meal is equal
to two quarts.
EXPERIIMENT STATION. 565
A careful examinntion of our subsequently tabulated feed-
ing records of each cow (Susie, Meg and Dora), leads appar-
ently with much propriety, among others, to the following
conclusions : —
The nutritive value of our dry corn fodder compares well
with that of an average quality of English hay ; the same
may be said of good corn ensilage in place of from one-half
to two-thirds of the customary amount of hay.
The nutritive value of our dry corn fodder (stover) and of
a good corn ensilage, taking into consideration pound for
pound of the dry vegetable matter they contain, has proved
in our case fully equal, if not superior, to that of the average
English hay.
The nutritive feedinaf value of carrots, taking into consid-
eration pound for pound of the dry matter they contain, ex-
ceeds that of the corn ensilage as an ingredient of the daily
diet, in place of a part (one-half) of the hay fed. The
conclusions thus far stated are in full ac^rcement with those
pointed out in our earlier experiments.
The influence of the variout> diets used, on the quality of
the milk, seems to depend in a controlling degree on the
constitutional characteristics of the animal on trial. The
effect is not unfrequently in our case the reverse in different
animals depending on the same diet.
The yield of the milk decreased, although at a different
rate, in the case of different animals as time advanced.
The shrinkage in the daily yield of milk amounted, at the
end of the entire experiment, to from 3.2 quarts to 4.9 quarts
in case of different cows. The gradual decline in the entire
milk record of every cow is only once broken ; namely, dur-
ing the sixth feeding. period, Feb. 7th to Feb. 21st, when
the yield of milk shows an increase of from .7 to 1.9 quarts
per day, as compared with that of the preceding period.
This change for the better was noticed when ten pounds of
hay and thirty-four pounds of carrots were used, under other-
wise corresponding circumstances, as a substitute for five
pounds of hay and twenty-nine pounds of corn ensilage ; the
amount of dry vegetable matter contained in the hay fed
with roots and in the hay fed with corn ensilage was prac-
tically the same in both instances. The feed of the sixth
566 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
feeding period, containing carrots as an ingredient, is thus the
most nutritive and also the most expensive.
The total cost of the feed consumed for the production of
milk is lowest wherever corn fodder or corn ensilage have
replaced, in the whole or in part, English hay, under other-
wise corresponding circumstances.
The net cost of feed consumed for the production of one
quart of milk, during the various feeding periods, varies as
widely as from .34 cents to 1.6 cents in case of the same
cow. The net cost of the feed is obtained by deducting 80
per cent, of the value of the fertilizing constituents it
contains.
The manurial value of the feed consumed during the en-
tire feeding experiment, deducting 20 per cent, for the
amount of fertilizing constituents lost in the production of
milk, is, atcurrent market rates, in every instance, more than
equal to one-third of the original cost of the feed.
Two cows gained from 60 to 6Q pounds in live weight
during the trial; and one — the best milker, Dora — held prac-
tically her own from beginning to end.
For further details sec the following pages. To avoid
misconstruction regarding the statement of net cost of milk
used in our description, I state once more that it does not
include expenses for labor, housing, interest on investment,
etc., but means merely net cost of feed after deducting 80
per cent, of its manurial value.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
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BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
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EXPEEIMENT STATION.
573
Summary of Net Cost of Feed for each Coiv during succeeding
Periods.
PERIODS.
•3 ^0
111
O "-I
i x^
III
(u d a
•lis
3 "^ '5 - ^
y<
|||
■SS 3
a
ll
"s-s
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Cents.
Lbs,
1. Susie,
$G 41
$2 72
$2 18
U 23
1.24
861
Meg,
6 43
2 72
2 18
4 25
1.22
1,030
Dora,
6 05
2 58
2 03
3 99
.98
8G0
2. Susie,
4 00
1 92
1 54
2 4G
I.IG
896
Meg,
4 04
1 92
1 54
2 50
1.18
1,055
Dora,
3 84
1 85
1 48
2 36
.94
876
3. Susie,
2 18
92
74
1 44
1.53
883
Meg,
2 18
92
74
1 44
1.40
1,056
Dora,
2 18
92
74
1 44
1.24
884
4. Susie,
1 3G
1 00
80
56
.43
876
Meg,
1 25
89
71
54
.41
1,020
Dora,
1 31
96
78
53
.34
844
5. Susie,
2 G6
1 48
1 18
1 48
.97
905
Meg,
2 51
1 39
1 11
1 41
.98
1,070
Dora,
2 58
1 43
1 14
1 44
.80
860
6. Susie,
4 58
1 G7
1 34
3 24
1.67
921
^leg,
4 58
1 G7
1 34
3 24
1.96
1,096
Dora,
4 58
1 67
1 34
3 24
1.60
852
7. Susie,
4 38
2 09
1 C7
2 71
1.43
967
Meg,
4 38
2 09
1 G7
2 71
1.17
1,101
Dora,
4 38
2 09
1 67
2 71
1.30
831
8. Susie,
3 84
2 27
l'82
2 02
1.13
1,060
Meg,
3 84
2 27
1 82
2 02
.99
1,170
Dora,
3 84
2 27
1 82
2 02
.91
885
574 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Summary.
Susie.
Total amount of milk produced during above records,
Total cost of feed per quart of milk produced,
IManurial value left behind per quart of milk produced,
Net cost per quart of milk produced, ....
Meg.
Total amount of milk produced during above records, .
Total cost of feed per quart of milk produced,
Manurial value left behind per quart of milk produced.
Net cost per quart of milk produced, ....
Dora.
Total amount of milk produced during above records, .
Total cost of feed per quart of milk produced,
Manurial value left behind j^er quart of milk produced,
Net cost per quart of milk produced, ....
1,490 qts.
1.97 cts.
.75 cts.
1.22 cts.
1,491.1 qts.
1.96 cts.
.75 cts.
1 .21 cts.
1,742.3 qts.
1.65 cts.
.64 cts.
1.01 cts.
Manurial Value of Feed.
Susie.
FEEDINa PERIODS.
Value of Fertilizing
Conatitueiits con-
tained In the Feed.
Manurial Value of
the Feed ufter de-
ducting the 20 per
cent, taken by the
Milk.
1=^
■a c'C
■sea
Si. ■a
-A ^
c - o
'S
11
<^
Co
0* y
18S6.
1. Oct. 1 to 25, .
2. Nov. 1 to 16,
3. Dec. 6 to 13, .
4. Dec. 21 to 31, .
1887.
5. Jan. 18 to 31,
6. Feb. 7 to 21, .
7. Mar. 9 to 25, .
8. Apr. 6 to 24,
$6 41
4 00
2 18
1 36
2 66
4 58
4 38
3 84
$2 72
1 92
92
1 00
1 48
1 67
2 09
2 27
$2 18
1 54
74
80
1 18
1 34
1 67
1 82
$4 23
2 46
1 44
56
1 48
3 24
2 71
2 02
Cents.
1.24
1.16
1.53
.43
.97
1.67
1.43
1.13
Lbs.
861
896
883
876
905
921
967
1,060
Total,
$29 41
$14 07
$11 27
$18 14
-
-
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Meg.
575
FEEDING PERIODS.
to be
"=•0
Iji
III
>
Jlaiiuiinl Value of
till' Koed after dc-
diicfini: thu 20 per
criit. taken by the
Milk.
1=1
"0 = 2
i'zi
1-^
e=^
^ 5 r*
S.2
1886.
Cents.
Lbs.
1. Oct. 1 to 25, .
$6 43
$2 72
$2 18
$4 25
1.22
1,030
2. Nov. 1 to 16, .
4 04
1 92
1 54
2 50
1.18
1,055
3. Dec. 6 to 13, .
2 18
92
74
1 44
1.40
1,056
4. Dec. 21 to 31, .
1 25
89
71
54
.41
1,020
1887.
5. Jan. 18 to 31, .
2 51
1 39
1 11
1 41
.98
1,070
6. Feb. 7 to 21, .
4 58
1 67
1 34
3 24
1.96
1,096
7. Mar. 9 to 25, .
4 38
2 09
1 67
2 71
1.47
1,101
8. Apr. 6 to 24,
3 84
2 27
1 82
2 02
.99
1,170
Total,
$29 21
$13 87
$11 11
118 11
-
-
Dora.
1886.
Cents.
Lbs.
1. Oct. 1 to 25, .
$6 05
$2 58
$2 06
$3
99
.98
860
2. Nov. 1 to 16, .
3 84
1 85
1 48
2
36
.94
876
3. Dec. 6 to 13, .
2 18
92
74
1
44
1.24
884
4. Dec. 21 to 31, .
1 31
96
78
53
.34
844
1887.
5. Jan. 18 to 31,
2 58
1 43
1 14
1
44
.80
860
6. Feb. 7 to 21, .
4 58
1 67
1 34
3
24
1.60
852
7. Mar. 9 to 25, .
4 38
2 09
1 67
2
71
1.30
831
8. Apr. 6 to 24,
3 84
2 27
1 82
2
02
.91
885
Total,
$28 76
$13 77
$11 03
$17
73
-
-
576
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Valuation of Essential Fertilizing Constituents contained in the
various Articles of Fodder Used.
Nitrogen, 17 cents per pound ; Phosphoric acid, G cents ; Potassium
oxide, 4| cents.
(Per cent.)
a
"3
s
o
o
3 .
>>
a
n
a
o
•a
6^
J
la
Nitrogen,
2.S0
LOG
5.03
1.81
1.21
0.3S
1.17
0.14
Phosphoric acid, .
2.30
0.77
0.30
1.26
0.36
0.14
0.37
0.10
Potassium oxide, .
l.CC
0.45
0.03
0.81
1.G3
0.33
1.02
0.54
Valuation per 2,000 lbs..
$13 51
$7 97
$17 49
$8 4G
$3 93
$1 68
$5 26
$1 08
Analyses
of Milk.
Susie.
(Per cent.)
CO <J
'"' o
CO
>
o
>
o
a
CO
. ci
^ a
C3
0
3
CI
'C
P.
<
Water
88.10
87.63
87.21
87.16
88.23
87.75
87.27
87.50
87.68
88.26
Solids
11.90
12.34
12.79
12.83
11.77
12.21
12.72
12.50
12.32
11.74
Fat (in solids), .
3.79
3.47
4.29
3.92
3.34
3.47
4.08
3.63
3.6G
3.45
Meg.
Water
87.71
87.80
87.80
87.62
88.37
88.29
83.43
87.84
S7.49
87.83
Solids
12.29
12.20
12.20
12. .33
11. (.3
11.71
ll.f>7
12.10
12.51
12.12
Fat (in solids), .
3.69
3.36
3.30
3.64
3.16
2.93
3.11
3.45
3.55
3.64
Doha.
Water
87.75
87.14
87.18
87.45
87.00
86.84
87.10
87.47
86.63
80.70
eolids, ....
12.25
12.86
12.82
12. .55
13.00
13.10
12.90
12.53
13.32
13.30
Fat (in solids) , .
3.69
3.96
3.89
3.73
3.77
3.77
3.27
3.71
3.91
3.S5
EXPEEIMENT STATION.
577
HAY.
[From Experiment Station.]
•'
B
o
a o
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
1 ^
" o °
6
S
'A
Moisture at 100° C, .
8.30
166.00
Dry Matter, ....
91.70
1,834.00
_
_
100.00
2,000.00
Analf/Hs of Dry Matter.
Crude i\sh, ....
6.12
122.40
lO
" Cellulose, .
30.19
603.80
350.20
58
LC
" Fat, ....
2.55
51.00
23.46
46
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),
9.75
195.00
111.15
57
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
51.39
102.78
647.51
63
100.00
2,000.00
1,132.32
-
)
DRY CORN FODDER (Stover).
[From Experiment Station.]
a
o
O
1 =
5 o
c 5
b o.
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
1 V-
111
S sou -
6
>
3
!5
Moisture at 100° C, .
15.40
308.00
Dry Matter, ....
84.60
1,692.00
_
_
100.00
2,000.00
Anahjsis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
4.22
84.40
cc
" Cellulose, .
20.93
418.60
301. .39
72
lo
" Fat, ....
2.63
52.60
39.45
75
^
" Pi'otein (Nitrogenous
Matter) ,
9.17
183.40
133.88
73
Non-niti-ogeuous Extract
Matter, ....
63.05
1,261.00
844S7
67
100.00
2,000.00
1,319.59
-
578
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CORN ENSILAGE.
[From the Silos of the Experiment Station.]
1 — %^ — r
a
5°»
o
a o
uents
in a to
lbs.
5 . i
K
I o
onsti
lbs.)
2,000
ound
ble i
2,000
"1 §
5
Ch
u
^
Ch
^
JMoisture at 100° C, .
71.G0
1,432.00
Dry Matter, ....
28.40
568.00
_
100.00
2,000.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
3.32
66.40
-
-
o
" Cellulose, .
18.52
370.40
266.69
72
r^
" Fat, ....
6.07
121.40
91.05
75
" Protein (Nitrogenous
IMatter) ,
7.78
155.60
113.59
73
Non-nitrogenous Extract
jSIatter, ....
64.31
1,286.20
861.75
67
100.00
2,000.00
1,333.08
-
CARROTS.
[Raised at the Experiment Station, 1886.]
i
1 "
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
1 "^
6
a
>
Moisture at 100° C, .
90.02
1,800.40
Dry Matter, ....
9.98
199.60
_
100.00
2,000.00
Anal;/ sis of Dnj Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
11.21
2-24.20
" Cellulose, .
10.76
215.20
215.20
\^
Ci
" Fat, ....
1.89
37.80
37.80
7-1
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),
8.90
178.00
178.00
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
67.24
1,344.80
1,344.80
)
100.00
2,000.00
1,775.80
EXPERIMENT STATION
579
The average amount of dry matter in well gi'own carrots
is usually stated (E. Wolif ) to be 15 per cent, of the weight
of the fresh root ; in our case it varied from 9 to 12 per
cent,, according to the size of the root tested. Large speci-
mens of roots contain frequently a smaller amount of dry
vegetable matter than smaller ones equally matured. Cul-
tivation, manuring, season and time of seeding, aside from
fitness of the soil, affect seriously the general character of
the root crops. In our case, soil rand state of fertilization
were favorable, — frequent rains towards the close of the
summer season had favored apparently in an exceptional
degree the growth of the leaves at the expense of a timely
maturing of the roots.
Analysis of Carrots with reference to Fertilizing Constituents.
Moisture at 100° C, .
Ferric oxide,
Phosphoric acid (6 cents ^ev pound), .
Magnesium oxide, ....
Calcium oxide,
Potassium oxide (4| cents per povmd),
Sodium oxide,
Niti'ogen (17 cents per pound), .
Insoluble matter,
Per cent.
90.02
0.01
0.10
0.02
0.07
0.54
0.11
0.14
0.01
Valuation per 2,000 pounds,
|1 06
580
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CORN MEAL.
[Amherst, Mass.]
a
o
O
2 .2
it
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a tonof
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a. ton of
2,000 lbs.
Per cent, of Di-
gestibility of
Constituents.
6
1
Moisture at 100° C, .
12.62
252.40
•■
Diy Matter, ....
87.38
1,747.60
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
1.5C
31.20
CO
" Cellulose, .
2.G6
53.20
18.09
34
[.GO
" Fat, ....
4.27
85.40
64.90
76
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter, .
11.43
228.60
194.31
85
Non-niti'ogenous Extract
Matter, ....
80.08
1,601.60
1,505.50
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,782.80
_ I
^
WHEAT BRAN.
[Amherst, Mass.]
a
o
O
0 .
in s
<a o
1 1
&4
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a tonof
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
5°i
o to ^
6
a
a
o
>
3
'■A
Moisture at 100° C, .
10.87
217.40
Dry Matter, . • .
89.13
1,782.60
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
5.90
118.00
" Cellulose, .
8.27
165.40
33.08
20
Ico
" Fat, ....
4.40
88.00
70.40
80
J-<
" Protein (Nitrogenous
]\ latter, .
19.63
392.60
345.53
88
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
61.80
1,236.00
988.80
80
100.00
2,000.00
1,437.81
-
'
EXPERIMENT STATION.
581
RYE BRAN (Middlings).
[Amherst Mills.]
74.63 per cent, passed through Mesh 144 to square inch.
,
- v.,
s
o
.s o
•- o
o°s
O
O
I'l o
■S >.3
Sh
to J.
a a o
« « s
^ 12 C
I'l
onsti
lbs.)
2,000
ound
bleii
2,000
Hi
£
(S
<^
^
^
Moisture at 100° C, .
12.54
250.80
Dry Matter, ....
87.46
1,749.20
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
4.02
80.40
-
-
00
" Cellulose, .
3.70
74.00
6.66
9.0
> r>l
" Fat, ....
5.61
112.20
64.52
57.5
" Protein (Nitrogenous
INIatter),
13.15
263.00
173.58
66.0
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
73.52
1,470.40
1,095.45
74.5
100.00
2,000.00
1,340.21
-
Analysis of Rye Bran with Reference to Fertilizing Constituents.
One hundred pails of air-dried Bran contained : —
Moisture at 100° C, .
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound) ,
Magnesium oxide,
Calcium oxide, ....
Feri'ic oxide, ....
Potassium oxide, (4|^ cents per pound),
Sodium oxide, ....
Niti-ogen (17 cents per pound), .
Insoluble matter,
Per cent.
12..54
1.26
0.32
0.09
0.02
0.81
0.03
1.84
0.17
Valuation per 2,000 pounds.
$8 46
582
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CHICAGO GLUTEN MEAL.
96.81 per cent, passed through Mesh 144 to square inch.
a
6
s s
1 1
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
rounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
1 ^
. S 5
3 §)0
6
>
Moisture at 100° C, .
8.83
176.60
i
X
Dry Matter, ....
91.17
1,823,40
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
0.73
14.60
t-
" Cellulose, .
0.79
15.80
5.37
34
[>(>i
" Fat, ....
8.46
169.20
128.59
76
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Mattel-),
.SI. 43
628.60
634.31
85
Non-niti-ogenous Extract
Matter, ....
58.59
1,171.80
1,101.49
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,769.76
-
The material is sold at Springtield, Mass., at $23.20 per
ton.
Analysis of Oluten Meal with reference to Fertilizing Constituents.
I'cr cent.
Moistui-e at lOO"" C, .
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound),
Ferric oxide.
Magnesium oxide,
Calcium oxide.
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per poimd),
Sodium oxide,
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .
0.30
0.05
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.02
4.62
Valuation per 2,000 pounds,
16 16
EXPERIMENT STATION. 583
2. Feeding Experiments with Milch Cows.
The experiments were chiefly instituted for the purpose
of comparing the feeding eflfect of a good English hay with
that of some reputed green fodders. The green crops used
in this connection consisted of a mixed crop of oats and
vetch, of soutliern cow-pea and of serradella. Some details
regarding the mode of cultivation and the general character
of these fodder plants will be found farther on in this report,
under the heading " Field Experiments."
The feeding of the various green fodders began at the time
of their blooming ; they were fed in succession as stated
above, for they began to bloom in the order mentioned.
The feeding of vetch and oats ceased when the oats turned
yellow ; that of the cow-pea and serradella terminated with
the exhaustion of the supply from the first cut.
The customary rules for the management of feeding
experiments, regarding the changes in feed, etc., were fol-
lowed in the same manner as pointed out on previous occa-
sions.
Five cows served in the experiment. Two cows, Ida and
Lizzie, were fed during the entire trial with a daily ration,
consisting of
Com jNIeal, 3^ pounds (2 quarts.)
Wheat Bran, .... 3^ pounds (4 quarts.)
English Hay, .... from 20 to 25 pounds.
The amount of hay left over was each day weighed back ;
the printed detailed record below gives the average daily
consumption for each feeding period. Three cows, Eva,
]\Iinnie and May, received periodically the same diet as the
first mentioned two. This daily diet was however replaced
at stated times by the following one :
Corn Meal, S\ pounds.
Wheat Bran, 3] pounds.
English Hay, 5 pounds.
and as much of either green vetch and oats or green south-
ern cow-pea or green serradella as the animals on trial
would consume.
584 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The average of the daily consumption in each feeding
period is stated in the subsequent record of the experiment.
One-fourth ( five pounds ) of the adopted full daily hay
ration has been retained in our green fodder diet for the
purpose of preventing disorders in the digestion of a liberal
quantity of green fodder.
The green fodder diet has produced in two cases, cow pea
and serradella, a decided temporary increase in the quantity
of milk w^lien compared with the English hay diet. The
substitution of three-fourths of the full hay ration by cow
pea and serradella has given also satisfactory results as far
as the quality of the milk, the n6t cost of feed and the gen-
eral condition of the animals on trial are concerned. The
serradella leads as a rule.
The substitution of hay by the mixed crop of vetch and
oats has not shown in some directions as decisive advan-
tages. This circumstance may find its explanation in the
future by the fact that our mixed crop, vetch and oats, con-
sisted of one-tenth in dry weight of vetch to nine-tenths of
that of oats ; it ought to contain from one to two or equal
weights. The vetches rank among the better class of fodder
crops furnished by the great and important family of legu-
minous plants. Green vetch when fed with green oats is
more relished by cattle than when fed alone.
The cost of green fodder is based on that of hay, $15.00
per ton, allowing two tons of hay, with 15 per cent, of
moisture, as the average produce of English hay per acre.
This mode of valuation has been adopted on account of the
entire absence of market prices as far as green vetch, cow
pea and serradella are concerned. These crops, as a rule,
rank higher in the scale of an agricultural valuation than
the meadow grass.
Produce Per Acre of Green Crops raised on the Station Grounds.
6.80 tons of grass at 75 per cent, moisture, equals 2 tons at 15 i)er cent-
moisture.
10.89 tons of vetch and oats at 7:).."G per cent, moisture, equals 1.8 tons
at 15 per cent, moisture. •
9.5G tons of cow pea at 80.62 per cent, moisture, equals 2.4 tons at 15
per cent, moisture.
9.50 tons of serradella at 80.14 per cent, moisture, equals 2.2 tons at 15
per cent, moisture.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
585
Valuation Per Ton of the Articles of Fodder used.
Wheat Bran, .
?21.00
Green Cow Pea,
. ?3.14
Com Meal,
21.00
Green Serradella,
3.16
Hay,- . . . .
15.00
Green Grass,
4.41
Green Veteh and Oats, .
2.75
A few subsequent pages contain a more detailed statement
of our actual observations.
586
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
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EXPERIMENT STATION.
587
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588
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
'53
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1.80
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1
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1887.
1. June 2 to Aug. 23,
2. Sept. 1 to Oct. 25,
3
o
EXPERIMENT STATION.
589
5?
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BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
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EXPERIMENT STATION,
591
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BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
ft.
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EXPERIIMENT STATION.
593
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BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
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EXPERIMENT STATION,
595
Valuation of Essential Fertilizing Constituents contained in the
various Articles of Fodder Used.
Nitrogen, 17 cents i>er pound; Phosphoric acid, 6 cents; Potassium
oxide, 4J cents.
(Per cent.)
a
1
1
"a
B
o
O
J3
O
> 1
O
g ■^
o
o
o
a
« a
Z (2
o
o
Nitrogen, ....
2.80
1.66
1.41
0.451
0.274
0.379
Phosphoric acid, .
2.36
0.77
O.ll
0.100
0.098
0.124
Potassium oxide, .
1.36
0.45
1.84
0.838
0.306
0.398
Valuation per 2,000 pounds,
?13 51
f6 94
f6 84
f2 36
n 31
$1 77
Manurial Value of Feed.
(Eva.)
FEEniNC. PERIODS.
o .2
O 3
"3 g
o ">
to 1
c s
a, '-S •a
sec
a O 2
Manurial Value of the
Feed after deducting
20 per cent, taken by
the Milk.
Net Cost of Feed for the
production of Milk
during I'criod.
Net Cost of Feed for the
production of one
Quart of Milk.
Weight of animal at
close of Period.
1887.
1. June 2 to July 7,
2. July 12 to 26,
3. Aug. 1 to 7,
4. Aug. 14 to Sept. 1,
5. Sept. 6 to 27,
6. Oct. 3 to 25,
?7 83
2 81
1 52
4 91
5 74
5 46
?3 64
1 80
71
2 16
3 03
2 55
$2 91
1 44
57
1 73
2 42
2 04
?4 92
1 37
95
3 18
3 32
3 42
Cents.
1.17
0.89
1.49
1.56
1.57
1.91
Lbs.
956.00
922.50
917.50
887.50
995.00
957.50
Total,
$28 27
fl3 89
111 11
$17 16
-
596
BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
Manurial Value of Feed — Continued.
(MiNKIE.)
FEEDING PERIODS.
II
c ^ .
"3 " a;
o a .2
e; '-5 "3
>
Manurial Value of the
Feed after deducting
20 per cent, taken by
the Milk.
Net Cost cf Feed for the
production of Milk
during Period.
U 01
2.
"2 °
V C JL
o a "
ifi
a
"3 .
1887.
1. June 2 to July 7,
2. July 12 to 26,
3. Aug. lto7,
4. Aug. 14 to Sept. 1,
5. Sept. 6 to 27,
6. Oct. 3 to 25,
$7 85
2 99
1 54
4 91
5 78
5 77
f3 65
1 96
71
2 16
3 05
2 68
f2 92
1 57
57
1 73
2 44
2 15
f4 93
1 42
97
3 18
3 34
3 62
Cents.
0.87
0.66
1.09
1.19
1.02
1.35
Lbs.
935.00
930.00
990.00
915.00
965.00
992.50
Total, .
$28 84
$14 21
fU 38
fl7 46
-
-
(May.)
1887.
Cents.
Lbs.
1. June 19 to July 7,
$4 12
U 92
$1 54
$2 58
0.98
831.50
2. July 12 to 26, .
2 92
1 89
1 51
1 41
0.73
822.50
3. Aug. 1 to 7,
1 54
71
57
97
1.24
795.00
4. Aug. 14 to Sept. 1,
4 91
2 16
1 73
3 18
1.38
800.00
5. Sept. 6 to 27, .
5 76
3 05
2 44
3 32
1.28
857.50
6. Oct. 3 to 25, .
5 73
2 66
2 13
3 60
1.34
832.50
Total,
$23 98
$12 39
$9 92
$14 06
-
-
EXPERIMENT STATION.
597
Analyses of 3Iilk.
Lizzie.
(Per cent.)
•a
c
3
1-5
to
"3
>->
3
•-5
00
3
<
o
o
Water,
-
87.38
-
-
86.84
-
85.91
Solids,
-
12.62
-
-
13.16
-
14.09
Fat (in solids), .
_
4.12
-
-
4.20
-
5.25
Ida.
Water,
-
86.87
-
86.82
-
87.18
Solids,
-
13.13
-
-
13.18
-
12.82
Fat (in solids), .
-
4.75
-
-
4.25
-
4.70
Eva.
Water,
-
85.05
85.59
85.50
85.77
84.73
83.99
Solids,
-
14.95
14.41
14.50
14.23
15.27
16.01
Fat (in solids), .
-
5.53
5.39
5.08
4.76
5.46
5.93
Minnie.
Water,
-
87.25
89.06
87.97
87.23
87.40
87.15
Solids,
-
12.75
10.94
12.03
12.77
12.60
12.85
Fat (in solids), .
-
4.09
2.75
3.35
4.09
3.74
4.04
Mat.
Water,
86.46
87.00
87.30
88.23
87.13
87.35
86.52
Solids,
13.54
13.00
12.70
11.77
12.87
12.65
13.48
Fat (in solitls), .
3.82
3.76
3.46
3.13
3.76
3.71
4.34
598
BOxlRD OF AGRICULTURE.
Analyses of Fodder Articles used in Experiment 2.
VETCH AND OATS.
<.,
1 ^
i
.5 o
o
!J
to 2
-B >.S
7i
1 9
-2 2
uen
in a
lbs.
« !l
•- ^
>
0 .tJ
onsti
lbs.)
2,000
"3 "" o
g 3 eJ
3
Pi
O
iS
5^
^
Moisture at 100° C, .
73.36
1,467.20
_
Dry Matter, ...
20.04
532.80
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Anahpu oj Drij Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
12.37
247.40
-
-
1^
ir.
" Cellulose, .
34.20
684.00
-
-
r -
» Fat, ....
2.74
54.80
27.40
50
^
" Protein (NitrogeDous
Matter),
10.59
211.80
127.08
60
Non-nitrogenous E x t r a c t
Matter, ....
40.10
802.00
802.00
100
100.00
2,000.00
950.48
-
>
cow PEA.
a)
t §
8 §
S3 p.
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
I'ounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
I. £ =
Nutritive Katio.
i
Moisture at 100^ C, .
Dry ]\lattcr, ....
80.62
19.38
1,612.40
387.60
-
_
\
Anahisis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
" Cellulose, .
" Fat, ....
" Protein (Niti-ogenous
]\I:itter),
Non-nitrogenous E x t r a e t
Matter, ....
100.00
5.97
23.02
1.81
8.58
60.62
2,000.00
119.10
60.10
30.20
171.60
1,212.40
216..")9
21.36
102.96
936..56
47
59
60
69
t^
i-H
100.00
2,000.00
1,277.27 -
J
EXPERIMENT STATION.
599
SERRADELLA.
a
1 2
1 ^
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble In a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Per cent, of Di-
gestibility of
Constituents.
6
53
%
■a
S
Moisture, at 100° C, .
Dry Matter, ....
80.14
19.86
1,602.80
397.20
-
_
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Ci'ude Ash, ....
" Cellulose, .
" Fat
" Protein (Xitrogcnous
JNIatter),
Non-nih'ogenous Extract
Matter, ....
100.00
11.53
38.76
2.09
12.17
35.45
2,000.00
230.60
775.20
41.80
243.40
709.00
25.08
153.34
709.00
60
63
100
CO
O
100.00
2,000.00
887.42
-
Analyses of Oreen Crops with reference to Fertilizing Constituents.
Per Cent.
Vetch
and Oats.
Cow Pea.
Serradella.
Moisture at 100° C, .
73.36
80.62
80.140
Phosphoric acid,
.100
.098
.124
Potassium oxide, ....
.838
.306
.398
Sodium oxide,
.033
.063
.098
Calcium oxide,
.092
.300
.472
Magnesium oxide, ....
.031
.099
.067
Ferric oxide,
.012
.016
.021
Nitrogen, ......
.451
.274
.379
Insoluble matter, ....
.352
.077
.157
600
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
WHEAT BRAN.
73.36 per cent, passed through Mesh 144 to square inch.
i
o
a
in a
S .2
c a
« o
1 -
Constituents (in
lbs.1 in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
1 <»
• S B
I ll
6
>
%
a
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry Matter, ....
11.14
88.86
222.80
1,777.20
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
" Cellulose, .
« Fat
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
100.00
6.59
12.80
6.00
17.72
66.89
2,000.00
131.80
256.00
120.00
354.40
1,137.80
51.20
96.00
311.87
910.24
20
80
88
80
00
.CO
rH
100.00
2,000.00
1,369.31
-
CORN IklEAL.
a
6
B 1
1 "
Constituents (In
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble In a ton of
2,000 lbs.
6
a)
>
3
Moistiu-e at 100° C, .
13.08
261.60
\
Dry Matter, .
86.92
1,738.40
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry flatter.
Crude Ash, ....
1.66
33.20
CO
CO
" Cellulose, .
3.49
69.80
23.73
34
>oi
" Fat, ....
4.97
99.40
75.54
76
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),
10.39
207.80
176.63
85
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
79.49
1,589.80
1,494.41
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,770.41
-
EXPERIMENT STATION.
601
HAY.
[From Experiment Station, 1887.]
a
5
2 .2
o a
1^
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
S MO
6
1
S
Moisture at 100° C, .
10.78
215.60
>>
Diy Matter, ....
89.22
1,784.40
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
7.11
142.20
" Cellulose, .
35.55
711.00
412.38
58
f '"'
" Fat
2.63
62.60
24.19
46
i-H
" Protein (Niti-ogenous
Matter),
8.75
175.00
99.75
57
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
45.96
919.20
579.10
63
100.00
2,000.00
1,115.42
-
Milk and Creamery Record from November 1, 1886, to October 31,
1887.
Quarts of
Spaces of
Amount
Milk
Cream
Price allowed
Received from
Produced.
from Milk.
per Space.
Creamery.
1886.
November 1 to 30, .
l,178i
380
4 cents.
$15 20
December 1 to 31, .
1,153^
414
4
16 56
1887.
January 1 to 31,
1,002
416
3J "
16 12
February 1 to 28,
2,191
1,007
3f "
37 76
March 1 to 31,.
2,525 J
1,044
3| "
39 15
April 1 to 30, .
2,2961-
834
3f "
30 23
May 1 to 31, .
l,735f
928
3| "
31 32
June 1 to 30, .
1,931
968
3
29 04
July 1 to 31, .
l,852f
855
3J "
26 72
August 1 to 31,
1,869
990
3i "
34 65
September 1 to 30,
1,920^
1,002
31 «
35 07
October 1 to 31,
1,6621
930
3| "
34 87
21,317^
9,768
-
f346 69
602
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
November, 188G. O.GO spaces of cream make 1 lb. butter, equal to 26.40
cents per pound.
December, 1887. 6.G0 spaces of cream make 1 lb. butter, equal to 26.40
cents per pound.
Januaiy, " 6. GO simces of cream make 1 lb. butter, equal to 25.57
cents per pound.
February, " 6.55 sjmces of cream make 1 lb. butter, equal to 24.56
cents per pound.
March, " 6.33 spaces of cream make 1 lb. butter, equal to 23.76
cents per pound.
April, " 6.37 spaces of cream make 1 lb. butter, equal to 23.09
cents per pound.
May, " 6.30 sjiaces of cream make 1 lb. butter, equal to 21.30
cents per pound.
June, " 6.47 spaces of cream make 1 lb. butter, equal to 19.47
cents Iter pound.
July, " 6.31 S2)aces of cream make 1 lb. butter, equal to 19.73
cents per pound.
August, " 6.44 spaces of cream make 1 lb butter, equal to 22.55
cents per pound.
September, " 6.55 spaces of cream make 1 lb butter, equal to 22.98
cents per pound.
October, " 6.55 spaces of cream make 1 lb. butter, equal to 24.58
cents per j)ound.
During the first three months — November, December
and January — the milk was furnished by three cows ; and
during the remainder of the time by six cows.
The total amount of milk set was 21,317^ quarts; the
total receipts for cream produced were $346.69, or, on an
average, 1.63 cents per quart of milk produced.
EXPERIMENT STATION. 603
3. Feeding Experiments with Pigs.
The obsei'vations recorded below are a continuation of
feeding experiments with pigs, described in our Second and
Third Annual Reports. The first of these experiments (see,
for details. Second Annual Report, page 68) was instituted
for the purpose of comparing the feeding effects of equal
measures of creamery buttermilk — Amherst creamery —
and of skim-milk from the Station, adding in both instances
to the daily diet a corresponding amount of corn meal.
The daily ration of corn meal was from time to time in-
creased, independent of the amount of milk fed at the time,
during the progress of the growth of the animals on trial.
The results of this experiment showed practically no differ-
ence in regard to the amount of dressed pork produced in
either case.
Repeated examinations of the two kinds of milk used in
the trial had proved that the skim-milk contained on an
average one-fifth, or twenty per cent., more solid matter
of a similar character than the creamery buttermilk at our
disposal.
This excess of solids in the skim-milk, judging from our
results, seemed to be wasted in our mode of feeding ; for
714 pounds of corn meal and 982 gallons of skim-mik (with
10 per cent, of solids) had produced 510 pounds of dressed
pork, whilst 718 pounds of corn meal and 985 gallons of
creamery buttermilk (with 8 per cent, of solids) had yielded,
under otherwise corresponding circumstances, 515 pounds
of dressed pork, as the total amount from three pigs on each
side.
To account, if possible, for the less satisfactory returns of
the skim-milk diet, as compared with that of the creamery
buttermilk, the second feeding experiment was planned
(see, for details, Third Annual Report, page 23) . It was de-
cided to calculate the amount of corn meal to be fed in the
new experiment with reference to an equal amount of solids
in both kinds of milk and not with reference to any equal
measuro of Ijoth kinds.
The average result of this trial seemed to account quite
satisfactorily for the above-stated difference in solids of both
604 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
kinds of milk ; for 2,250 pounds of corn meal fed with 1,533
gallons of skim-milk had produced 990| pounds of dressed
pork, whilst 2,211 pounds of corn meal fed with 1,899 gal-
lons of creamery buttermilk had yielded, under otherwise
corresponding circumstances, 889| pounds of dressed pork,
as the total returns from six pigs on each side. It was
stated on that occasion, that, in our opinion, a more judi-
cious distribution of an increased proportion of corn meal, in
case of the skim-milk diet had evidently rendered the latter,
pound for pound, more efficient during the second experi-
ment, as compared with the first.
Having adopted the same local market prices of the three
articles, which served in the daily diet during both experi-
ments,— corn meal per ton, $22.50; skim-milk, 1.8 cents
per gallon ; buttermilk, 1.37 cents per gallon, — it was found
that the cost of feed consumed, per pound of dressed pork
produced, in the first experiment, amounted in case of the
creamery buttermilk diet to 4.6 cents, in case of the skim-
milk diet to 5.8 cents ; whilst in the second experiment it
amounted, in case of the former to 4.2 cents, and in case
of the latter to 4.85 cents. In calculating the cost of the
food consumed in each case on the above-stated market prices ^
the creamery buttermilk had proved the cheaper article ; the
higher nutritive value of the more concentrated shim-milk
from our dairy had been more than offset by the lower mar-
ket price of the creainery buttermilk. The adoption of an
equal market price per gallon of skim-milk and of creamery
buttermilk, 1.37 cents per gallon, would have caused a reduc-
tion in the above-stated cost of feed, per pound of dressed
pork, of from .65 to .75 cents in favor of the skim-milk.
Before proceeding with the description of the five suc-
ceeding experiments, it seems advisable to offer a few
explanatory remarks regarding the standpoint assumed in
the planning and management of the work here under
discussion. In the published detailed record of the second
feeding experiment (see Third Annual Report), it may
be noticed that the character of the daily diet was
changed from time to time by adding a larger propor-
tion of corn meal to a given amount of skim-milk, or
buttermilk. The quantity of feed offered daily to the ani-
EXPERIISIENT STATION. 605
mals on trial was controlled by their individual appetite, —
beginning with eight and twelve ounces of meal to four
quarts of milk and closing with a daily ration consisting,
in case of one lot of animals, of ninety-one ounces of corn
meal and twelve quarts of buttermilk per head, and in case
of tho other, of one hundred and eight ounces of corn meal
to seven quarts of skim-milk. The changes regarding the
quantity of the daily supply of feed were, for obvious rea-
sons, gradual and depending on the appetite of each animal.
The alterations regarding the character of the daily feed —
i. e., the changes in the relative proportion of meal and
milk — were made with reference to the stao^e of growth of
the animals on trial. The proportions between meal and
milk were changed from four to five times. These changes
consisted in a periodical increase of meal for a given amount
of milk ; they were made for the purpose of increasing the
amount of non-nitrogenous fodder constituents in the daily
diet during the later stages of growth. This course of pre-
paring the daily feed was adopted to secure, whenever de-
sired, a definite change in the relative proportion of its
disrestible nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous food constituents.
As both kinds of milk used in the experiment contained the
nitrogenous food constituents in a much larger proportion
(1 :1.8, — 1 :1.9) than the corn meal (1 :8.76), an increase in
the quantity of the latter rendered it possible to regulate,
within certain limits, the character (nutritive ratio) of the
daily diet, with reference to a desired proportion of both
groups of essential food constituents. The experiment ( II. )
began with a daily diet, consisting of skim-milk and corn
meal, which contained one part of digestible nitrogenous food
constituents to 2 :7 parts of digestible non-nitrogenous food
constituents ; this proportion was subsequently altered by an
increase in corn meal to 1 :3.1, later on to 1 ;3.9, and closed
with 1 :5. The animals which sei-ved in this particular case
varied in weight from 17 to 19 pounds at the beginning of the
experiment. The first stated ration was fed until the animals
had reached a weight of from 45 to 50 pounds ; the second
until they had reached from 90 to 100 pounds, the third until
135 to 145 pounds, and the fourth subsequently to the end of
the trial. The final summing up of the results of that expert-
606 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
ment showed, when including the entire number of pigs on
trial (twelve), that 3.39 pounds of dry matter contained in
the feed consumed had yielded one pound of dressed pork.
In two instances (of the buttermilk diet) from 3.47 to 3.48
pounds of dry matter of the feed had been consumed for
one pound of dressed pork obtained ; while in two other
instances (of the skim-milk diet) from 2.97 to 3.27 pounds
of dry matter of the feed had sufficed for the production of
the same weight of dressed pork (one pound) .
As it seemed of interest to learn whether the particular
course pursued in the previously described experiments of
feeding skim-milk from the home dairy with corn meal could
be improved on, and, if so, in what direction, the three sub-
sequently described new feeding experiments were insti-
tuted. The principal aim of these new experiments was
to ascertain whether a daily diet for pigs, of which skim-
milk and corn meal formed a material portion, would
secure dftter pecuniary returns, in case an exceptionally large
proportion of digestible nitrogenous food constituents was fed
during the entire experiment. Gluten meal and wheat bran
were chosen for various reasons to serve in making up the
feed to meet this requirement as soon as our milk supply
became exhausted. A short abstract of the results obtained
in this connection may be found upon a few succeeding
pages. Although not less than four animals have served in
each of these five new experiments, our present communica-
tion will be confined to a detailed record of but two animals
in each case, with the exception of the last experiment (VII.) .
Third Feeding Experiment (A, B).
Four animals of a mixed breed were selected for the work ;
their respective weights varied from 40 to 59 pounds. The
daily diet during the first three months consisted exclusively
of skim-milk from the Station and of corn meal ; during the
remainder of the time (three and a half months) a mixture
of equal weights of wheat 1)ran and gluten meal was added,
to assist in maintaining the desired close relation between
the proportion of digestible nitrogenous and non-nitrogen-
ous food constituents in the daily food. The relation
between these two important groups of food constituents
EXPERIMENT STATION.
607
was materially the same during the entire experiment. It
consisted of one part of nitrogenous food constituents to
from 3.27 to 3.76 parts of non-nitrogenous constituents.
From four and one-half to five ounces of corn meal were
added to every quart of skim-milk needed, to meet the
wants of the animal. This composition of the feed was re-
tained until the quantity called for per head had reached
eight quarts of skim-milk arul forty ounces of corn meal per
day. At this stage of the experiment the mixture of equal
weights of wheat bran and gluten meal was added to the
daily fodder ration ; beginning with sixteen ounces per head,
and closing up with twenty-five ounces. The exact amount
required per day was governed by the appetite of the ani-
mal ; the mixture served to meet the increasing demand of
the various animals on trial. It is a good rule to increase
the daily fodder rations only when called for, and always
gradually.
The subsequent detailed record of our results shows that
the cost of feed consumed per pound of dressed weight pro-
duced varied from 6.2 cents to Q.6 cents, while from 4.10
to 4.18 pounds of dry matter contained in the feed con-
sumed had yielded one pound of dressed pork. The live
weights gained during the experiment amounted to 246.5
and 206.5 pounds.
[A.]
•« 1 Cfi
"" 1 to
■s
—.v.
^j
o a „
o a -
o a „
= §a^
-Q-zi
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S^Ss
'a
<%
•=S
o 2'° c
Sc-aa
oH"^ a
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^1
.£•3
.5^
PERIODS.
aa ^
al am
kim-mi
imcd
eriod (i
a« -
e^ c
o'ti
's't;
al a
orn
imed
eriod
^111
al a
luten
tmed
eriod
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ZO'^f->
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-«^
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H
H
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O
1885.
lb. oz.
April t to May 11,
73.5
257.0
-
-
1:3.29
40.0
84.8
1 1
May 12 to June 3,
57.5
184.0
-
-
1:3.39
84.8
110.5
1 2
June 4 to June 29,
49.0
208.0
8.0
8.0
1:3.04
110.5
150.5
1 9
June 30 to Aug. 12,
121.0
352.0
25.0
25.0
1:3.35
150.5
212.0
1 6
Aug. 13 to Sept. 16,
105.0
210.0
22.0
22.0
1:3.67
212.0
246.5
1 0
608
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from April 1 to Sept. 16.
406 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter,
1,211 qts. Skim-Milk, equal to dry matter,
55 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry mattei-,
55 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter,
Total amount of dry matter, .
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment.
Live weight at time of killing,
Live weight gained during experiment,
Dressed weight at time of killing,
Loss in weight by dressing, .
Dressed weight gained during experiment.
357.4 lbs
.
274.7 "
48.3 "
•
50.3 "
730.7 lbs
Tient
40.0 lbs
,
246.5 "
.
206.5 "
210.0 "
36.5
lbs.
or
14.8 per cent
174.9 lbs
Cost of Feed Consum,ed during Experiment.
406 lbs. of Corn Meal, at $24.00 per ton, $4 87
303 gals. Skim-Milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon, . . . . 5 46
55 lbs. Wheat Bran, at $22.50 per ton, 0 62
55 lbs. Gluten Meal, at f 22.50 per ton, 0 62
$11 57
3.54 lbs. of dry matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight; and 4.18 lbs. of
dry matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 6.6 cents.
[B.]
int of
1 Con-
u r i 11 g
bs.).
o
o
1 =
^1
PERIODS.
= ^■3
\^-%
«
^ 5
> .
r. 3
atal
Corn
sume
Perio
otal i
Skim
sume
Perio
otal .
Glutc
sume
Perio
11
2 S
a-9
^
^
H
6-1
'A
O
188.-}.
lb. oz.
April 1 to May 11,
73.5
257.0
-
-
1:3.29
59.5
109.3
1 3
May 12 to June 3,
57.5
184.0
-
-
1:3.39
109.3
133.3
1 1
June 4 to June 29,
65.0
208.0
13.0
13.0
1:3.27
133.3
188.5
2 2
June 30 to July 22,
69.0
184.0
17.0
17.0
1:3. .39
188.5
223.0
1 8
July 23 to Sept. 16,
210.0
378.0
44.0
44.0
1:3.76
223.0
306.0
1 8
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from April 1 to Sept. 16.
475 lbs. Com Meal, equal to dry matter, .... 418.2 lbs.
1,211 qts. Skim-Milk, equal to dry matter, .... 274.7 "
74 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry matter, .... 65.1 "
74 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to diy matter, .... 67.8 "
Total amount of dry matter,
825.8 lbs.
EXPERIMENT STATION. 609
Live weight of anirnal at beginning of experiment, . . 59.5 lbs.
Live weight at time of killing, 30G.0 "
." 24G.5 "
258.0 "
48 lbs., or 12.4 per cent.
205.9 lbs.
Live weight gained during experiment,
Dressed weight at time of killing.
Loss in weight by dressing, .
Dressed weight gained dui-ing experiment.
Cost of Feed Consumed during Experiment.
^Ib lbs. Corn Meal, at $24.00 per ton, f 5 70
303 gals. Skim-]Milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon, ... 5 45
74 lbs. Wheat Bran at f 22.50 per ton, 0 83
74 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton 0 83
$12 81
3.35 lbs. of dry matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 4.01 lbs. of
dry matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 6.2 cents.
Fourth Feeding Experiment (C, D).
Five animals served in the experiment ; their live weights
varied from 30 to 38 pounds when entering upon the trial ;
they were of a similar mixed breed as those selected for the
third experiment. The daily diet of the entire lot consisted,
from December 8 to February 15, of four quarts of skim-
milk and eight ounces of corn meal, besides a mixture con-
sisting of two weight parts of gluten meal and one weight
part of wheat bran ; the increase demand for feed was sup-
plied by this mixture, which was moistened with water
before being fed. The daily quantity needed per head
amounted in the besinnina^ of the trial to three ounces and
rose towards the close of that period to 12 ounces. Subse-
quently— until the 11th of May — another mixture, consist-
ing of equal weights of corn meal, gluten meal and wheat
bran, was substituted in its place. After May 11 until
the close of the experiment, May 31, a larger proportion
of corn meal was fed. The daily diet consisted, during that
period, of four quarts of skim-milk and a mixture of dry
feed, consisting of seven parts of corn meal, one part of
gluten meal and one part of wheat In-an. On the 12th of
May the daily diet consisted, on an average per head, of
four quarts of skim-milk, twenty-eight ounces of corn meal,
four ounces of gluten meal and four ounces of wheat bran.
The consumption of the solid constituents of the daily fod-
610
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
der ration had reached, at the close of the experiment, in
some instances, fifty-six ounces of corn meal, eight ounces
of gluten meal and eight ounces of wheat bran. The daily
quantity of milk fed remained the same during the entire
experiment, — four quarts per head. "VYater was used to
assist in moistening the dry portion of the feed.
A comparison of the subsequent statement of our results
with those in the preceding experiment (HI.) shows no
marked differences; the results are, if anything, inferior, —
considerino; the weiijht of the animals in both cases when
killed. The cost of the feed consumed, per pound of
dressed weight produced, varied from 6.1 to 6.6 cents;
while from 3.77 to 4.08 pounds of dry matter contained in
the feed consumed had yielded one pound of dressed pork.
The live weights gained during the experiment amounted
to 128 and 111 pounds. The cost of feed consumed for the
production of a given quantity of dressed pork increases
materially with the advancing growth of the animal. For
details concerning this important point see statement in our
Third Annual Report. The financial success of feeding pigs
for home market depends^ in a controlling degree, on a timely
closing up of the operation. To go beyond 160 — 175 pounds
of live weight is only, in exceptional cases, a remunerative
practice with our average market prices for dressed pork.
The beneficial effects of a more liberal supply of non-ni- '/ \
trogenous feed constituents, as starch and fats (in corn meal)
during the last period of this feeding experiment, deserves
particular attention.
[C]
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otal
Skim
sume
I'erio
— x: E -^
t: 3 S'g
3^
1"
H
H
H
H
!a
o
lSS.>an(l I8S6.
lb. oz.
Dec. 8 to Jan. 25,
24.5
196.0
6.6
11.2
1:2.G3
31.8
66.5
0 11
Jan. 26 to Feb. 15,
10.5
84.0
4.8
9.6
1:2.81
63.5
82.0
0 12
Feb. 16 to Mar. 23,
26.8
144.0
8.8
8.8
1:3.01
82.0
92.5
0 5
Mar. 24 to May 10,
2S.6
232.0
5.6
5.6
1:2.66
92.5
119.0
0 9
May 11 to May 31,
55.4
84.0
8.2
8.2
1:4.33
119.0
142.8
1 2
EXPERIMENT STATION.
611
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from Dec. 8 to May 31.
145.8 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, .
740.0 qts. Skim-Milk, equal to diy matter, .
33.0 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to diy matter, .
43.4 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter, .
Total amount of dry matter, ....
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment,
Live weight at time of killing,
Live weight gained during experiment.
Dressed weight at time of killing.
Loss in weight by dressing, .
Dressed weight gained during experiment.
127.4 lbs.
1G7.8 "
28.6 "
40.5 "
364.3 lbs.
31.8 lbs.
142.8 "
111.0 "
115.0 "
27.8 lbs., or 19.3 per cent.
89.3 lbs.
Cost of Feed Consum,ed during Experiment.
145.8 lbs. Com Meal, at $24.00 per ton, .... %\ 1^
185.0 gals. Skim-Milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon, ... 3 30
33.1 lbs. ^Vheat Bran at $22.50 per ton, .... 037
43.4 lbs. Gluten Meal at $22.50 per ton, .... 0 49
$5 91
3.28 lbs. of diy matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 4.08 lbs. of
dry matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for jDroduction of 1 lb. of di'essed pork, 6.6 cents.
[D.]
PERIODS.
mount of
Meal Con-
during
(in lbs.).
mount of
ojilli Con-
during
(in qts.).
mount of
liran Con-
during
(in lbs.).
mount of
Mial Con-
during
(in lbs.).
o
o
1
« o
a
O U) .
It
r:
^^tl>
-bII
_-;t3'0
c8 r'O'a
^ .
0.3
x:t3
.£•3
otal
Cot
sun
Per
otal
Ski
sun
Pel
5|
1^
II
^
H
H
H
!?;
0
188.J and 1886.
lb. oz.
Dec. 8 to Jan. 25,
24.5
196.0
4.4
8.8
1:2.64
34.0
70.0
0 12
Jan. 26 to Feb. 15,
10.5
84.0
5.2
104
1:2.78
70.0
90.5
1 0
Feb. 16 to April 3,
38.7
188.0
15.2
15.2
1:3.06
90.5
118.0
0 9
April 4 to May 10,
25.8
188.0
7.3
7.3
1:2.86
118.0
137.5
0 8
May 11 to May 31,
60.0
81.0
8.4
8.4
1:4.48
137.5
162.0
1 2
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from Dec. 8 to May 31.
159.5 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, .... 138.4 lbs.
737.0 qts. Skim-Milk, equal to diy matter, .... 167.2 "
40.5 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry matter, .... 35.7 "
50.1 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter, .... 46.0 "
Total amount of dry matter, ,
387.3 lbs.
612 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, . . 34.0 lbs.
Live weight at time of killing, 162.0 "
Live weight gained during experiment, .... 128.0 "
Dressed weight at time of killing, 130.0 "
Loss in weight by dressing, . . 32 lbs., or 19.7 per cent.
Dressed weight gained during experiment, .... 102.7 lbs.
Cost of Feed Consumed during Experiment.
159.5 lbs. Corn Meal, at $24.00 per ton, .... $1 91
184.0 gals. Skim Milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon, ... 3 31
40.5 lbs. AVheat Bran, at |22.50 per ton, .... 0 46
60.1 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton, .... 0 56
$6 24
3.02 lbs. of diy matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 3.77 lbs. of
dry matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 6.1 cents.
Fifth Feeding Experiment (E, F, G, II).
Six pigs of a mixed breed were secured for the observa-
tion ; their live weights varied at the beginning of the ex-
periment from 25 to 30 pounds. The course of feeding was
similar to that adopted in the two previous experiments.
Skiin-milk and corn meal furnished, as in the previous trials,
a liberal proportion of the daily diet ; gluten meal and wheat
bran were used in a somewhat different proportion than
before as food ingredients to compound the desired tem-
porary fodder ration. The feeding began with four quarts
of skim-milk and eight ounces of corn meal ; the increas-
ing daily demand for feed was supplied by a mixture of
equal weights of gluten meal and wheat bran until October
31, when a mixture of equal weights of gluten meal, corn
meal and wheat bran took its place in providing the desired
daily fodder ration, until the close of the experiment, Jan-
uary 15, 1887. At that time from forty-two to forty-eight
ounces of this mixture were required per head.
The results of this experiment, judging from subsequent
more detailed statements, are in some instances more favor-
al)lc than those previously described ; yet they f\ill behind
those obtained in our earlier experiments (I. and II.).
The cost of feed consumed per pound of dressed pork varied,
m three cases, from 5.2 to 5.8 cents, and reached in one
case G.32 cents. The amount of dry matter in the food
EXPERIMENT STATION.
613
consumed for the production of one pound of dressed pork
varied, in three cases, from 3.56 to 3.99 pounds, and rose,
in one case, to 4.31 pounds. The live weight gained during
the entire experiment varied from 132 to 158 pounds. Two
animals were sick for some weeks and appear not in the
record below.
[E.]
oi?
ci!P
■Si?
^i^
o
■33
a
li
Il
- - Zjs
a
el .
5i
^ u
PERIODS.
sa ^
E S ■■^
£=* -
g-, -ci
0
c-5) .
^M
£■0
=^=11
"f^o
c|5l
= 3^1
^^
t^-1
S°
•X ■- c ■-
•52 = 5
~r S 5
"r— S 3
•E §
■if^p
•a-l
B^
n^-
^
SOS-
!^1
^«-
.«
0
1M85 and 1887.
lb. 02.
Sept. 15 to Oct. 4,
10.0
80.0
6.3
6.3
1:2.75
30.8
51.5
1 1
Oct. 5 to Oct. 31,
13.5
108.0
35.3
35.3
1;2.90
51.5
89.0
1 a
Nov. 1 to Dec. 10,
66.0
100.0
46.0
46.0
1:3.52
89.0
133.0
1 2
Dec. 11 to Jan. 15,
47.8
144.0
29.8
29.8
1:3.39
133.0
164.3
0 14
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from Sej)t. 15 to Jan. 15.
137.3 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, .... 119.58 lbs.
492.0 qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, .... 111.58 "
117.4 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry matter, . . . 102.99 "
117.4 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter, . . . 10G.89 "
Total amount of dry matter.
441.04 lbs.
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, . 30.8 lbs.
Live weight at the time of killing, 1G4.3 "
Live weight gained during experiment, .... 133.5 "
Dressed weight at time of killing, 136.0 "
Loss in weight by dressing, . . . , 28.5 lbs., or 17.3 per cent.
Dressed weight gained during experiment, . . . 110.5 lbs.
Cost of Feed Consumed during Experiment.
137.3 lbs. Com Meal, at $24.00 per ton f 1 64
123.0 gals, of Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon, ... 2 21
117.4 lbs. Wheat Bran, at l?22.50 per ton, . . . . . 1 32
117.4 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton, 1 32
$6.49
3.30 lbs. of di-y matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 3.99 lbs. of
diy matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 5.8 cents.
614
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[F.]
*^ 1 to
o = "
V. 1 60
-*-» ^ •" •
og?
•s
a o
a
"■s
PERIODS.
o - -I
o g-o c
63 ~
o
1
■3 .
11
it
oj "ca
«°S1
S --a-a
S ?'0'3
> .
^ ;<■«
c w
r- 3
■gOSix,
£-°.2
£°
.= •0
p^
II
H
H
H
B
(z;
O
1886 and 1887.
lb. oz.
Sept. 15 to Oct. 4,
10.0
80.0
6.3
6.3
1:2.75
34.5
66.3
1 1
Oct. 5 to Oct. 31,
13.5
108.0
35.0
35.0
1:2.90
66.3
99.5
1 10
Nov. 1 to Dec. 10,
69.3
100.0
49.3
49.3
1:3.57
99.5
156.3
1 7
Dec. 11 to Jan. 19,
58.0
160.0
38.0
33.0
1:3.45
156.3
193.3
0 15
Total Amomit of Feed Consumed from Sejit. 15 to Jan. 19.
150.8 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, . . . ,
508.0 qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, ...
128.6 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry matter,
128.6 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter,
Total amount of dry matter, ....
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, .
Live weight at time of killing,
Live weight gained during experiment, ....
Dressed weight at time of killing, ....
131.77 lbs.
115.21 "
113.10 "
117.10 "
477.18 lbs
34.5 lbs
193.3 »
158.8 "
163.0 "
Loss in weight by dressing.
Dressed weight gained during experiment,
30.3 lbs., or 15.7 per cent,
133.9 lbs!
Cost of Feed Consumed during Experiment.
150.8 lbs. Corn Meal, at $24.00 per ton, ....
127.0 gals. Skim-milk at 1.8 cents per gallon, .
128.6 lbs. Wheat Bran, at f 22.50 per ton, ....
128.6 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton, ....
$1 81
2 29
1 45
1 45
$7 00
3.04 lbs. of dry matter fed jaelded 1 lb. of live weight, and 3.56 lbs. of
dry matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressQ,d pork, 5.2 cents.
[G.]
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from Sept. 15 to Jan. 19.
150.0 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, .... 131.07 lbs.
508.0 qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, .... 115.21 "
128.0 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry naatter, . . . 112.58 "
128.0 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter, . . . 116.54 "
Total amount of dry matter, 475.40 lbs.
EXPERIMENT STATION. 615
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, . 32.0 lbs.
Live weight at time of killing, 1G4.0 "
Live weight gained during experiment, .... 132.0 "
Dressed weight at time of killing, 137.0 "
Loss in Aveight by dressing, . . . 27.0 lbs., or 1G.4 per cent.
Dressed weight gained during experiment?, ... 1 10.2 lbs.
Cost of Feed Consumed during ExpcrimcuL.
150.0 lbs. Corn ]\Ieal, at $24.00 per ton, $1 80
127.0 gals. Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon, .... 2 29
128.0 lbs. WTieat Bran, at $22.50 per ton 1 44
128.0 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton, 1 44
$6 97
3.C0 lbs, of dry matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 4.31 lbs. of
dry matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 6.3 cents.
[H.]
Total Amount of Feed Consumed, from Sept. 15 to Jan. 19.
149.5 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, .... 130.63 lbs
508.0 qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, . . . . 115.21 "
127.4 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry matter, . . . 112.05 "
127.4 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter, . . . 116.00 "
• Total amoimt of dry matter, . ... 473.89 lbs.
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, . . 33.0 lbs.
Live weight at time of killing, 178.3 "
Live weight gained during experiment, .... 145.3 "
Dressed weight at time of killing, 153.0 "
Loss in weight by dressing, . . . 25.3 lbs., or 14.2 per cent.
Dressed weight gained during experiment, . . . 124.7 lbs.
Cost of Feed Consumed duriiig Experiment.
149.5 lbs. Corn meal, at $24.00 per ton, $1 79
127.0 gals. Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon, .... 229
127.4 lbs. Wheat Bran, at ^2.50 per ton, 1 43
127.4 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton, 1 43
fG 94
3.26 lbs. of dry matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 3.80 lbs. of
dry matter jielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 5.6 cents.
616
BOARD OY AGRICULTURE.
SUMMAllY OF EXPEUIMENTS III., IV., V.
a-
c
si
c
c
£
Olnten Meal (in
lbs.).
-4
P - 1
|ua
(A
406.0
303.0
65.0
55.0
206.5
174.9
6.6
III.
(B, . .
475.0
303.0
74.0
74.0
246.5
205.9
6.2
(C, .
14-).S
1S5.0
33.0
43.4
111.0
89.3
6.6
IV. \
Id, . .
159.5
184.0
40 5
50.1
128.0
102.7
6.1
E, .
137.3
123.0
117.4
117.4
133.5
110.5
5.8
F, .
150.8
127 0
12S.6
128.6
1.5S8
133.9
5.2
V,
G, .
150.0
127.0
12S.0
128.0
132.0
110.2
6.3
LH, . .
149.5
127.0
127.4
127.4
145.3
153.0
5.6
1,773.9
1,479.0
703 9
703 9
1,261.6
1,080.4
-
Tolnl Cost of Feed Consumed during the above-stated Experiments.
1,773.9 11)S. Corn INIeal, $21 28
1,479.0 gals. Skim-milk, 2G G2
703.9 lbs. Whout Bran, 7 92
723.9 lbs. Gluten Me.al, 8 14
$()3 90
Average cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 5.92 cents.
Mamirial Value of the Feed Consumed during the above Experiments.
Com .Ale.-il. Skim Milk. Wheat Hran. Glnten Me.il. Total.
$7 07 $13 31 $4 75 f6 33 $31 46
Total manurial value of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork
2.91 cents.
Sixth Feedixg Experiment (T, J, K, L, M).
Seven animals of a mixed breed were selected for the
trial ; their live weight varied from 40 to 60 pounds ; five of
them remained well ; two became sick and dropped out of
the experiment.
The feeding besfan Feb. 17th, Avith a daily ration of
seven quarts of milk, twenty-one ounces of corn meal and
seven ounces each of wheat bran and irliitcn meal. The
amount of skim-milk and corn meal remained the same dur-
ing the entire trial, and a mixture of equal weight parts of
gluten meal and wheat bran supplied subsequently the in-
creasing demand for feed. Seven quarts of skim-milk,
twenty-one ounces of corn meal and twenty-one ounces of
EXPERIMENT STATION.
617
the stated mixture were fed daily to each animal, at the
close of the trial, May 2, 1887. The cost of feed con-
sumed, per pound of dressed pork produced, varied from
6.72 to 4.32 cents. Taking the entire amount of dressed
pork produced, during the experiment, into consideration,
the cost of feed per pound of dressed pork amounts to 5.69
cents. The amount of dry matter contained in the feed re-
quired to produce one pound of dressed pork varied from
2.70 to 4.15 pounds.
— —
— ir^;
p-^—
C3
■" ^ ■-" ^
*j^ — o
.w;j— ~
o
B
a .
-— =S
~ — -3 -
" ^ -.a
S - =5
<%
ll
PERIODS.
c'^ ■~'
£3 -'
E=> -
£'*' •-=•
= ■31 .
w<2
!SS
«.£l
= i|l
= |si
= 5 2 5
■S 3
a^
^x5;i;
S>=P
Otal
OIn
sun
I'er
M 0
b'
^
^
a
1887.
lb. oz.
Feb. 17 to Mar.
3,
19.7
105.0
6.6
6.6
1:2.99
42.0
62.5
1 6
Mar. 4 to Mar.
28,
32.8
175.0
16.4
16.4
1:3.13
62.5
98.5
1 7
Mar. 29 to May
2,
61.3
245.0
16.6
16.6
1:3.23
98.5
126.5
0 13
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from Feb. 17 to May 2.
113.8 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, .
525.0 qts. Skim-niilk, equal to dry matter, . . - .
39.C lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry matter, .
39.6 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter,
Total amount of dry matter, ....
Live Aveight of animal at beginning of exjieriment, .
Live weight of animal at time of killing, .
Live weight gained during experiment, .
Dressed weight at time of killing, ....
Loss in weight by dressing, . . . 22.1 lbs.
Dressed weight gained during experiment,
Cost of Feed Consumed during Experiment
113.8 lbs. Corn Meal, at $24.00 per ton,
131.0 gals. Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon, .
39.6 lbs. Wheat Bran, at $22.50 per ton, .
39.6 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton, .
H 63
3.42 lbs. of dry matter fed jielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 4.15 lbs. of
dry matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for j^roduction of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 6.6 cents.
99.43 lbs
119.07 "
34.83 "
36.05 "
289.38 lbs.
42.0 lbs.
126.5 "
84.5 "
104.4 "
or 17.5 per cent.
69.7 lbs.
t.
fl 37
2 36
45
45
618
BOAKD OF AGRICULTUKE.
[J.]
,
W 1 to
o c _
<i- 1 to
o c ™
o c _
^
a-S
cS
s-g
PERIODS.
mount
Meal Co
durii
(in lbs.)
mount
Bran Co
duri 1
(in lbs.).
0i
o
a
"3 .
11
otal a
Corn
sumed
Period
otal a
Skim-
sumed
Period
otal a
Wheat
sumed
Period
otal a
Gluten
sumed
Period
.h5
H
H
^
fn
"A
O
1887.
lb. oz.
Feb. 17 to Mar. 3,
19.7
105.0
6.6
66
1:2.99
63.5
87.0
1 9
Mar. 4 to Mar. 28,
32.8
175.0
16.4
16.4
1:3.13
87.0
123.0
1 7
Mar. 29 to May 2,
61.3
245.0
16 6
16.6
1:3.23
123.0
173.0
1 7
TbiaZ Amount of Feed Consumed from Feb. 17 to May 2.
113.8 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, .
525.0 qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, .
39.6 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry matter,
39.G lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter,
Total amount of dry matter,
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, .
Live weight of animal at time of killing, .
Live weight gained during experiment,
Dressed weight at time of killing, ....
Loss in weight by dressing, . . . 30.3 lbs..
Dressed weight gained during experiment,
Cost of Feed Consumed during Experiment
113.8 lbs. Corn Meal, at $24.00 per ton, .
131.0 gals. Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon,
39.6 lbs. Wheat Bran at $22.50 per ton, .
39.6 lbs. Gluten Meal at $22.50 per ton, .
$4 63
2.G4 lbs. of dry matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 3.20 lbs. of
dry matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 5.1 cents.
99.43 lbs
119.07 "
34.83 «
36.05 "
289.38 lbs.
63.5 lbs.
173.0 "
109.5 "
142.7 "
or 17.5 percent.
90.3 lbs.
t.
$1 37
2 36
45
45
[K.]
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from Feb. 17 to May 2.
113.8 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, .
525.0 qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, .
39.6 lbs. ^Vlieat Bran, equal to dry matter,
39.6 lbs. Gluten INIeal, equal to dry matter,
Total amount of dry matter,
99.43 lbs.
119.07 "
34.83 "
36.05 "
289.38 lbs.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
619
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, . . 61.5 lbs.
Live weight of animal at time of killing, .... 145.0 "
Live weight gained during exj^eriment, .... 83.5 "
Dressed weiglit at time of killing, 119.6 "
Loss in weight by dressing .... 2.54 lbs., or 17.5 per cent.
Dressed weight gained during experiment, . . . 68.9 lbs.
Cost of Feed Consumed during Experiment.
113.8 lbs. Corn Meal, at $24.00 per ton,
131.0 gals. Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon, ....
39.6 lbs. Wheat Bran, at $22.50 per ton
39.6 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 i^er ton,
$4 63
3.47 lbs. of dry matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 4.20 lbs. of
dry matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for pi-oduction of 1 lb. of di-essed pork, 6.72 cents.
[L.]
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from Feb. 1 7 io May 2.
113.8 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, .
525.0 qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, .
39.6 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry matter,
39.6 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter,
Total amount of dry matter, ....
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment,
Live weight of animal at time of killing, .
Live weight gained during experiment,
Dressed weight at time of killing, ....
Loss in weight by dressing, .... 25.1,
Dressed weight gained during experiment,
Cost of Feed Consumed during Experiment
113.8 lbs. Corn Meal, at |24.00 per ton, .
131.0 gals, of Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon,
39.6 lbs. Wheat Bran, at $22.50 per ton, .
39.6 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton, .
$4 63
3.42 lbs. of dry matter fed jielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 4.15 lbs. of
diy matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 6.64 cents.
[M.]
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from Feb. 17 to May 2.
113.8 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, .... 99.43 lbs.
525.0 qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, .... 119.07 "
89.6 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry matter, . . . 84.83 "
39.6 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to diy matter, . . . 86.05 "
. VV.'±x} 1U9.
119.07 "
34.83 «
36.05 "
289.36 lbs.
59.0 lbs.
143.5 "
84.5 "
118.4 "
3r 17.5 per cent.
69.7 lbs.
t.
$1 37
2 36
45
45
Total amount of diy matter.
289.38 lbs.
G20
BOx^D OF AGRICULTURE.
Live weiglit of animal at beginning of expei'iment, . . 46.0 lbs.
Live weight of animal at time of killing, .... 176.0 "
Live weight gained dnring experiment, ... 130.0 "
Dressed weight at time of killing, . . . 145.2 "
Loss in weight by dressing, . . . 30.8 lbs., or 17.5 per cent.
Dressed weight gained during experiment, . . . 107.2 lbs.
Cost of Feed Consumed during Experiment.
113.8 lbs. Corn Meal, at $24.00 per ton, . . . .
131.0 gals. Skim-milk, 1.8 cents per gallon,
39.G lbs. \\nieat Bran, at $22.50 per ton, ....
39.6 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton, ....
$4 63
2.23 lbs. of dry matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 2.70 lbs. of
dry mattei" 3'ielded 1 lb. of dressed woiglit.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed jjork, 4.32 cents.
Summary of Experiment VI.
fl
37
2
36
45
45
-
c
-
c
■" to
•; y)
•OJ^
^^
•^
^
^
U - J
5P
«
a
a
s
l^l
'' 3
^1 •
C-3
S3
11
= 2
o - -'
Hi
191
O
02
^
5
^
Q
o
I
113.8
131.0
39.6
39.6
84.5
69.7
6.6
J,
113.8
131.0
33.6
39.6
109.5
90.3
6.1
K
113.8
131.0
39.6
39.6
83.5
68.9
6.72
L
113.8
131.0
39.6
39.6
84.5
69.7
6.64
M,
113.8
131.0
39.6
39.6
130.0
107.2
4.32
569.0
655.0
198.0
198.0
492.0
405.8
-
Total Cost of Feed Consumed during the above-stated Experiment.
569.0 ll)s. Corn Meal, f6 83
655.0 g.ils. Skim-milk, . . 1179
198.0 11 >s. Wheat Bran, 2 23
198.0 lbs. Gluten Meal, .2 23
$23.08
Average cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 5.69 cents.
Manurial Value of the Feed Consumed during the above Experiment.
Corn Mi'al. Skim-railk. Wheat Bran. Gluten MeaU Total.
$2 27 f5 94 $1 33 fl 73 ?11 27
Manurial value of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork,
2.78 cents.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
621
Seventh Feeding Experiment.
Seven animals, crosses between AVhite Chester and Black
Berkshire, served in this experiment. Their live weights
were from twenty-two to twenty-six pounds in case of dif-
ferent animals. The same fodder articles were used as in
the third, fourth, fifth and sixth experiments ; they were,
liowever, fed in diflerent proportions. The daily ration of
corn meal was gradually increased during the progress of
the experiment, for the purpose of altering the rchilive pro-
portion between the nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous matter
in the feed. The relative proportion of one part of digesti-
ble nitrogenous matter to two and nine-tenth parts of non-
nitrogenous matter was changed at stated periods until it
reached 1:4.28.
AvKRACE OF Daily Rations.
Corn Meal
Skim-milk
Wheat Bran
Oliiten Meal
« (ounces).
(quarts).
(ounces).
(ounces).
June 28 to July 11, .
8.00
4
-
-
July 12 to July 25, .
12.00
6
-
-
July 26 to July 28, .
12.00
6
1.34
2.66
July 29 10 Aug. 8, .
12.00
6
2.00
4.00
Aug. 9 to Aug. 15, .
14.67
6
2.66
2.66
Aug. 16 to Aug. 23, .
17.34
6
5..33
5.33
Aug. 24 to Aug. 29, .
20.00
6
8.00
8.00
Aug. 30 to Sept. 12, .
23.34
6
11.35
11.35
Sept. 13 to Sept. 26, .
29.00
6
17.00
17.00
Sept. 27 to Oct. 11, .
47.00
6
12.00
12.00
Oct. 12 to Oct. 27, .
62.66
6
15.66
15.66
The cost of feed consumed varied, ii'i case of different
animals, from 4.80 to 5.49 cents per pound of dressed pork
produced.
Taking the entire lot of animals into consideration it
amounts to 5.15 cents per pound of dressed pork obtained.
The amount of dry matter contained in the feed required for
the production of one pound of dressed pork varied from
2.83 to 3.24 lbs.
622
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[N.]
ount of
eal Con-
during
u lbs.).
ount of
Ik Con-
during
n qts.).
ount of
ran Oon-
during
n lbs.).
ount of
leal Con-
during
n lbs.).
o
o
a o
a
n
V- a
11
'1
It
^1
PERIODS.
sS ^
S S "-'
S=^ -
B'l ^
°-3 .
"s""
otal a
Corn
sumed
Period
- V-o-a
S'S'O'^
r- e«T3
>■ .
^■a
c a
otal £
Skim
sume
Perio
otal
Glute
sume
Perio
H
H
H
^
^
O
1887.
lb. oz.
June 28 to July 25,
17.50
140.0
-
-
1:2.91
25.75
47.00
0 12
July 20 to Aug. 8,
10 50
84.0
1.63
3.25
1 : 2.85
47.00
63.50
1 1
Aug. 9 to Sept. 26,
68.59
294.0
31.83
31.83
1:3.39
63.50
130.50
1 6
Sept. 27 to Oct. 27,
106.34
186.0
26.58
28.58
1:4.30
130.50
189.50
1 14
Total Amount of Feed Cotisurned from June 28 to Oct. 27.
2:t2.93 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter,
70 i qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter,
no.O^: lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to diy matter,
01.66 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matte;-.
Total amoimt of dry matter,
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment.
Live weight at time of killing, .
Live weight gained during experiment,
Dressed weight at time of killing.
Loss in weight by dressing,
Dressed weight gained during expei'iment
176.39 lbs.
126.72 "
63.35 "
55.46 "
441.92 lbs.
It, . . 25.75 lbs
189.50 "
163.75 "
148.00 "
41 lbs., or 21 per cent
129.36 lbs
Cost of Feed Consumed duri7ig Experiment.
202.93 lbs. Corn Meal, at $24.00 per ton, ....
176 gals. Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon,
60.04 lbs. 'Wlieat Bran, at $22.50 per ton, ....
61.66 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton, ....
$6 98
2.51 lbs. of dry matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 3.18 lbs. of
dry matter pclded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 5.39 cents.
$2
44
3
17
68
69
EXPERIMEXT STATION.
623
[O.]
V. , tL
■a
— .<«
;;
-— —
a
PERIODS.
mount
Meal Co
. d u r i r
(in lbs.).
mount
milk Co
d u r i 1
(in qts.).
mount
Bran Co
d u r i r
(in lbs.).
mount
Meal Co
d 11 r i I
(in lbs.).
o
a
<" 5
o to .
;2s
If
ca 1 "a-a
-r'OTj
s r'3'a
o<«
5"o
otal
Skim
sume
I'erio
otal .
Whet
sume
I'erio
— s S"C
i:i
s
H
H
H
tzi
O
1887.
lb. oz.
June 28 to July 25,
17.50
140.0
-
-
1:2.91
23.50
44.00
0 11
July 26 to Aug. 8,
10..50
84.0
1.63
3.25
1:2.85
44.00
61.00
1 3
Aug. 9 to Sept. 26,
68.75
294.0
32.00
32.00
1:3.34
61.00
125.00
1 5
Sept. 27 to Oct. 27,
106.34
186.0
26.58
26.58
1 :,4.30
125.00
184.50
1 14
Total Amomit of Feed Consumed from June 2S to Oct. 27.
203.09 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to cliy matter,
704 qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, .
GO. 21 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry matter,
G1.83 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter,
Total amount of dry matter.
170.53 lbs.
120.72 "
53.51 "
55.62 "
412.38 lbs.
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, . . 23.50 lbs.
Live weight at time of killing, 184.50 "
Live Aveight gamed during experiment, . . . . 161.00 "
Dressed weight at time of killing, 144.00 "
Loss in weight by dressing, . . . 40.5 lbs., or 21 per cent.
Dressed weight gained during experiment, . . . 127.19 lbs.
Cost of Feed Consume during Experiment.
203.09 lbs. Corn Meal, at §24.00 per ton, ....
176 gals. Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon,
00.21 lbs. Wheat Bran, at f 22.50 per ton, ....
61.83 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton, ....
n
44
3
17
68
70
fO 99
2.56 lbs. of di-y matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 3.24 lbs. of
diy matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 5.49 cents.
G24
boaud of agriculture.
[r.]
v. , 50 -
•- 1 to
"- 1 to
V- 1 tt
V.
— V-
»j
■__^
■*•* w T" ■
c £•=: s
p -^
p -_;
p - _:,
o
K
S
PERions.
S3 —
E S -^
g- -.,
°'5 •
<- —
b-S
c5 '3'3
c- r'O'O
.- 3
■=§Ei
^111
« = ii
^i
^■2
^^E^
•Sy:,.t,
s^
^ Kr-(
a; S
s-c
Ui
H
H
J^
^
I8H7.
lb. oz.
June 28 to July 25,
17.50
140.0
-
-
1:2.91
23.00
45.00
0 12
July 26 to Aug. 8,
10.50
84.0
1.63
3.25
1:2.85
45.00
61.50
1 2
Aug. 9 to Sept. 26,
68.75
294.0
32.00
32.00
1:3.34
61.50
138.50
1 9
Sept. 27 to Oct. 27,
106.34
186.0
26.58
26.58
1:4.30
138.50
197.00
1 14
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from June 2S to Oct. 27.
203.09 lbs. Corn ]\Ieal, equal to dry matter,
704 qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, .
G0.21 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to diy matter,
G1.83 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter.
Total amount of dry matter, ....
176.53 lbs
12G.72 "
53.51 "
55.62 "
412.38 lbs
]>ive weight of animal at beginning of cxiierimcnt, . 23.00 lbs.
Live weight at time of killing, 197.00 "
Live weight gained during exi^erimcnt, .... 174.00 "
Dressed weight at time of killing, 156.00 "
Loss in weight by dressing, . . . .41 lbs., or 20 per cent.
Dressed weight gained during exiieriment, . . . 139.20 lbs.
Cost of Feed Conswmed during Experiment.
203.9 lbs. Corn Meal, at f 24.00 per ton, ....
176 gals. Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon,
00.21 lbs. Wheat Bran, at $22.50 per ton, ....
01.83 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton, ....
$2 44
3 17
68
70
$6 99
2.37 lbs. of dry matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 2.96 lbs. of
dry matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of I lb. of dressed pork, 5.02 cents.
EXPERL\IENT STATION.
625
[Q-]
■" 1 to
"" ■ ts
"~ 1 to
<M 1 to
V.
»<M
—
cj
'ti
■"5— "7
■" --'"'^
*jU — "^
o
S
"3 .
c ^~.
5 = =3
S" =2
a
•<-S
.§1
f.S.
O CJ'^.S
O^'S =
«
a
<;^
'S so
PEKIODS.
H^ ~^
S3 ^
^:^ o
g-^ -c
°'Eii •
^•c
S '°'S
cS 1 "=-3
Jill
r r-a-a
S'ts
„ 3
Si.a
2 S 2
--3
S-=.2
.= •3
otal
Coi
sin
Pel
otal
Ski
sun
Pel
|55ii
^S
to 1;
5a
s-o
^
H
H
'A
^
fe
O
1887.
lb. oz.
June 28 to July 25,
17.50
140.0
-
-
1:2.91
28.50
54.75
0 15
July 26 to Aug. 8,
10.50
84.0
1.63
3.25
1-2.85
54.75
70.75
1 2
Aug. 9 to Sept. 26,
68.41
294.0
31.67
31.67
1:3.34
70.75
143.00
1 8
Sept. 27 to Oct. 25,
97.68
174.00
24.41
24.41
1:4.28
143.00
193.00
1 9
Total Ainiount of Feed Consumed from Jtine 28 to Oct. 25.
194.09 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, ■. . . 168.70 11 is.
G92 qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, .... 124.56 "
57.71 lbs. AVheat Bran, equal to dry matter, ... 51.28 ''
59.83 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to diy matter, . . . 53.37 "
Total amount of dry matter,
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment.
Live weig-ht at time of killing, .
Live weight gained during experiment,
Dressed weight at time of killing,
Loss in weight by dressing.
Dressed weight gained during experiment.
397.91 lbs
t, .
28.50 lbs
193.00 "
164.50 "
158.00 "
35 lbs.
or 22 per cent
128.31 lbs
Cost of Feed Consumed during Experiment.
194.09 lbs. Corn Meal, at $24.00 per ton, ....
173 gals. Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon,
57.71 lbs. "Wheat Bran, at $22.50 per ton, ....
59.93 lbs. Gluten Meal at $22.50 per ton, ....
^2 32
3 11
65
68
$6 76
2.41 lbs. of dry matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 3.10 lbs. of
dry matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 5.27 cents.
G26
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
[R.]
;;:;
-^z^
— ;:
o s _
o =: „
o = - .
o c _ .
"■3
o -^
o -^
c -^
a
^.B
" "' 'Z -n
■" '-> '~ 'A
--'':_ «i
E — ^s
c if
E"^
*- ^
^ — z — .
z — — '
r: " — ■"*
=3
"^ .3
ti,-<
o i;~ s
C = -3 =
o ^ "^ —
c « "^ —
..4
—
^ o
■o2'
PEEIODS.
^
* i o o
«<?
^=-^
^■3
-!i
— r3
c: 3 = 3
isils
Isiii
i: o
5„u
5-2
0 3
H
H
E-i
H
!?^
^
p:
C
1887.
lb. 07..
June 28 to July 25,
17.50
140.0
-
-
1:2.91
23.50
60.00
0 15
July 26 to Aug. S,
10.50
8-4.0
1.63
3.25
1:2.85
50.00
C5.25
1 1
Aug. 9 to Sept. 26,
63.75
294.0
32.00
32.00
1:3.34
65.25
144.25
1 9
Sept. 27 to Oct. 25,
97.68
174.0
24.41
24.41
1:4.28
144.25
201.00
1 13
Total Amomit of Feed Consumed from June 28 to Oct. 25.
194.43 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, . . . 169.00 lbs.
092 qt3. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, .... 124.66 "
,58.01 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry matter, . . . 51.58 "
59. GO lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter, . . . 53.07 "
Total amount of dry matter.
398.81 lbs.
Live weight of animal at lieginning of experiment
Live weight at time of killing, .
Live weight gained during experiment.
Dressed weight at time of killing,
Loss in weight by drcsshig,
Dressed weight gained during experiment,
23.50 lbs.
201.00 "
177.50 "
150.00 "
45 lbs., or 22 j)cr cen4;.
138.45 lbs.
Cost of Feed Consumed during Experiment.
194.43 lbs. Corn ]\Ical, at ^24.00 per ton, ....
173 gals. Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per g;illon,
58.04 lbs. Wheat Bnui, at $22.50 per ton, ....
59.00 lbs. Gluten Meal, at §22.50 per., ton, .
$2
33
3
11
05
07
$0 70
2.24 lbs. of dry matter fed j-ieldod 1 lb. of live weight, and 2.88 lbs. of
dry matter yieldtMl 1 lb. of dre.ssed weigiit.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 4.89 cents.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
627
[S.]
"- 1 to
<- . 'r.
-^
_>-
_
.
- " ^
il=l
i" -^
- ~ Zs
=^E5
o
s y
.il
3 P
o o "^ —
c^~ =
c ~ "^ "
Q ^ — —
P4
o xf
PERIODS.
s.-I'S
C 3 ^-'
El -
Kg": S
^ - o o
S"3
°'t£ •
c ._
~-3
Z^.z^
5> =j?^
c: -^ - 3
i O
Tc ^
P 3
II"
H
^
H
!?
^
^
o
1887.
lb. oz.
June 28 to July 25,
17.50
140.0
-
-
1:2.91
21.50
43.00
0 15
July 26 to Aug. 8,
10.50
84.0
1.63
3.25
1:2.85
48.00
63.00
1 1
Aug. 9 to Sept. 26,
CS.75
294.0
32.00
32.00
1:3.34
63.00
135.00
1 7
Sept.27toOct. 25,
97.63
174.0
24.41
24.41
1:4.28
135.00
184.00
1 9
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from June 2S to Oct. 25.
194.43 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, . . . 1G9.00 lbs.
692 qts. Skim-milk equal to dry matter, .... 124.5G "
58.04 lbs. AVlieat Bran, equal to dry matter, , . . 61.58 "
59.G6 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter, . . . 53.07 "
Total amount of dry matter,
398.81 lbs.
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment, . . 21.50 lbs.
Live weiglit at time of killing, 184.00 "
Live weight gaineil during experiment, .... 102.50 "
Dressed weight at time of killing, 145.00 "
Loss in weiglit liy dressing,
Dressed weight gained during experiment,
39 lbs. or 21 per eent.
128.38 lbs.
Cost of Feed Corisumed during Experiment.
194.43 lbs. Corn ]\Ie:il, at i?24.00 per ton, ....
173 g:d.s. Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon,
58.04 lbs. Wheat Bran, at §22. 50 per ton, ....
69.GG lbs. Gluten Meal, at f 22.50 per ton,
3 11
05
07
eO 70
2.45 lbs. of dry matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight, and 3.10 lbs. of
dry matter yielded 1 lb. of dressed Avciglit.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 5.2G cents.
628
r>()AUL) OF AGRICULTURE.
[T.]
■- 1 M
V- 1 te
;;;
_,^
;;,
oc „
i'?
o -^
S
C-.2
lilt
1 c
iir
lbs.
^^•-■^
= = -i
^^ ■- m
a
'5 bo
■5.5
.5^
tctl
PERIODS.
c 2"= -
S?-a^
S^"£
^ra
^S
^ •S'^
^ ti-s'O
2 =-3-3
"•c
<=<«
_ a
•sgs'g
ill i
dm
line
erio
■3hS|
•r o
i o
5^i
u-a
-•a
■g -y:^ ». s.
^OSPh
3i<
t- "
«■§
H
E-,
c-
H
>5
^
1887.
lb. oz.
June 28 to July 25,
17.50
uo.o
-
-
1:2.91
25.75
63.50
0 16
July 26 to Aug. 8,
10.50
84.0
1.63
3.25
1 :2.85
53.50
70.00
1 2
Aug. 9 to Sept. 26,
6S.75
294.0
32.00
32.00
1:3.34
70.00
147.00
1 9
Sept. 27 to Oct. 2.0,
97.63
174.0
24.41
24.41
1:4.28
147.00
204.00
1 13
Total Amount of Feed Consumed from June 28 to Oct. 25.
194.43 lbs. Corn Meal, equal to dry matter, . . . 169.0i) lbs.
692 qts. Skim-milk, equal to dry matter, .... 124.66 "
68 04 lbs. Wheat Bran, equal to dry matter, . . . 51.58 "
69.66 lbs. Gluten Meal, equal to dry matter, . . . 53.67 "
Total amount of di'y matter,
398.81 lbs.
Live weight of animal at beginning of experiment,
Live weight at time of killing, .
Live weight gained during experiment,
Dressed weight at time of killing.
Loss in weight by di'essing,
Dressed weight gained during experiment.
25.75 lbs.
204.00 "
178.25 "
162.00 "
42 lbs., or 21 jDer cent.
140.85 lbs.
Cost oj Feed Consumed during Experiment
194.43 lbs. Corn Meal, at |24.00 per ton, .
173 gals. Skim-milk, at 1.8 cents per gallon,
58.04 lbs. Wheat Bran, at $22.50 per ton, .
59.66 lbs. Gluten Meal, at $22.50 per ton, ...
$2 33
3 11
65
67
$6 76
2.23 lbs. of dry matter fed yielded 1 lb. of live weight; and 2.83 lbs. of
dry matter jielded 1 lb. of dressed weight.
Cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 4.80 cents.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
029
Summary of Experiment Vn.
s
c
s
c:
■" to
■S "1
©•^
"-'
^
-'
^-'
.£r-H-
■a o
i
3 .
2
1
1^1
E£
So
33
O
CO
3
►^
Q
a
N
202.93
176.0
60.04
61.66
163.75
129.36
5.39
O
203.09
176.0
60.21
61.83
161.00
127.19
5.49
P
203.00
176.0
60.21
61.83
174.00
139.20
5.02
Q
194.09
173.0
57.71
59.93
164.50
128.31
5.27
R
194.43
173.0
5S.04
59.60
177.50
138.45
4.89
S
194.43
173.0
58.04
59.66
162.50
128.38
5.26
T
194.43
173.0
58.04
59 66
178.25
140.85
4.80
1,386 40
1,220.0
412.29
424.23
1,181.50
931.74
-
Total Cost of Feed consumed during the above-stated Experiment.
1,386.40 lbs. Corn Meal, $16 64
1,220.0 gals. Skim-milk, 21 96
412.29 lbs. Wheat Bran, 4 64
424.23 lbs. Gluten Meal 4 77
$48 01
Average cost of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 5.15 cents.
Manurial Value of the Feed consumed during the above Experiment.
•Corn Meal.
$5 52
Skim-milk.
Ill 32
Wheat Bran.
$2 97
Gluten Meal.
$3 71
Total.
$23 52
Manurial value of feed for production of 1 lb. of dressed pork, 2.52
cents.
Taking for granted that in raisinsr one and the same kind
of animals to corresponding weights, practically the same
amount of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potassa, etc., will be
retained in the animal system, it follows that the excess of
-any one of these constituents of one diet as compared with
-another one must count in favor of the higher commercial
value of the manurial residue of that particular diet.
Accepting this view regarding the final determination of
net cost of feed as correct, it will be noticed, in the subse-
630
BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
qiicnt summary of our previously described six feedinix ex-
periments, that an addition of gluten meal and wheat bran to
a diet consisting of skim-milk and corn meal, reduces the
cost of dressed pork, in consequence of the higher value of
the manurial refuse obtained. As we sold our dressed pork
for from 5i to 7^ cents per pound, we received from 1.5 to
3.5 cents for labor, housing, etc.
Our seventh feeding experiment has given us the most
satisfactory pecuniary results ; for the net cost of feed con-
sumed amounted to 3.39 cents per pound of dressed pork
produced, after allowing a loss of thirty per cent, of the
manurial value of the feed, in consequence of the growth of
the animal.
SuMMAUY OF Experiments II., III., IV., V., VI., VII.
— 3
S. 3"
c- A if;;
EXPERIMESTS.
=: ^ ~ c ^
^-0%
> =-"3
t- ^
= =c 7" i
E i; C c p
°15
<
U
rt
y^
u.,
3.31
5.51
2.30
3.90
III.,
IV., v., . . . .
3.86
5.92
2.91
3.S3
VI.,
3.00
5.09
2.7S
3.74
VII
3.07
5.15
2.52
3.39
Valuation of Essential Fertilizing Constituents contained in the
Various Articles of Fodder used.
Pek
Cknt.
Corn
Skim-
Wheat
Cllutcu
ile.il.
milk.
r.r.in.
Meal.
Moisture,
10.00
90.00
10.80
8.80
Nilrogcn (17 cents per pound), .
1.9G
0.55
2.80
5.03
riir).';j)lioric acitl (G cents per pound), .
0.77
0.17
2.nG
0.30
Potassium o.xitle (ij cents per pound).
0.45
0.20
1.3G
0.03
Valuation per 2,000 poumls,
$7 97
f2 25
$13 51
$17 4»
EXPERIMENT STATION. G31
Average Analysis of Skim-milk.
rer cent.
Moisture at 100^ C, 89.78
Dry Matter, 10.22
Anabjsis of Dry Matter.
Ash (iMineral Matter),
Fat,
Protein (Nitrogenous Matter), .
Non-nitrogenous Exti-aet Matter,
100.00
7.82
3.23
34.54
54.40
100.00
Nutritive Ratio, 1 : 1.8.
The skim-milk contained 10.22 per cent, of solids; one
quart of it weighed 35.5 ounces, and contained 3.G3 ounces
of solids ; one gallon contained 14.52 ounces of dry organic
matter.
Used in the second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth experi-
ments.
SKBI-IMILK.
[Average of two Analyses.]
Per cent.
^roistiu-c at 100° C, 91.00
DryMaUer, 9.00
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Ash (Mineral :Matter), C.G7
Fat, 2.78
Pnilciii (Xilrngenoijs ]\Iatlor), 34.00
Non-nitrogonous Extract Matter, 56.55
100.00
Nuti-itive Ratio, 1:1.86.
Used in the seventh feeding experiment.
632
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
GLUTEN MEAL.
99-82 per cent, passed ihroucjli Mesh 144 to square inch.
o
s =
% 1
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs. •
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
. 2 S
6
a
K
3
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry Matter, . .
8.45
91.55
169.00
1,831.00
-
-
^
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
" Cellulose, .
" Fat, ....
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
100.00
0.76
1.73
9.34
35.31
52.86
2,000.00
15.20
84.60
186.80
700.20
1,057.20
11.76
141.97
600.27
993.76
34
76
85
94
t^
100.00
2,000.00
1,747.76
-
J
Used in the third experiment.
GLUTEN MEAL.
Percentage Com-
position.
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
'A ° ■
g S ■■§
6
>
y.
Moisture at 100° C, .
8.95
179.00
Dry Matter, .
91.05
1,821.00
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
0.76
15.20
o
o
" Cellulose, .
1.58
31.60
10.74
34
>co
" Fat
7.51
150.20
114.15
76
^
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),
30.81
616.20
523.77
85
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
59.34
1,186.80
1,115.59
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,764.25
-
Used in the fourth, fifth and sixth experiments.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
633
GLUTEN MEAL.
91-44 per cent, passed through Mesh 144 to square inch.
i
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
o ^. S
c 3 -z
.^ a o
6
a
'A
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry Matter, ....
10.04
89.96
200.80
1,799.20
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, .
" Cellulose, .
" Fat, ....
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
100.00
0.78
4.45
9.34
34.67
60.76
2,000.00
15.60
89.00
186.80
693.40
1,015.20
30.26
141.96
589.69
954.29
1
i
34
76
85 1
94 ,
1
CM
1— 1
100.00
2,000.00 1,716.10
-
Used in the seventh feeding experiment.
CORN MEAL.
Percentage Com-
position.
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
c 3 '-g
6
'*^
a
K
>
'u
3
55
Moisture at 100° C, .
Di-y Matter, ....
12.62
87.38
252.40
1,747.60
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Asli, ....
" Cellulose, .
" Fat, ....
" Protein (Nitrogenous
JNIatter),
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
100.00
1.56
2.66
4.27
11.43
80.08
2,000.00
31.20
63.20
85.40
228.60
1,601.60
18.09
64.90
194.31
1,505.50
- t
34
76
85
94
CO
' CO
l-H
100.00
2,000.00
1,782.80
-
Used in the second, fourth, fifth and sixth experiments.
634
BOARD OF AGlilCULTURE.
CORN MEAL.
93.2S 2^^^ cent, passed through Mesh 144 to square mcJi.
%
o
to c
S .2
I §•
Constituents (in
lbs ) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
■ S ^
S 3
6
3
'A
Moi.sture at 100° C, .
11.95
239.00
Dry Matter, ....
88.05
1,7G1.00
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Anali/sis of Dry Matter.
Crude A.sh, ....
1..59
31.80
" Cellulose, .
2.59
51.80
17.G1
34
» 1--I
" Fat
4.43
88.G0
G7.34
76
" Protein (Nitrogenous
iMatter),
13.13
2G2.G0
223.21
85
Non-niti'ogenous Extract
Matter, . .
78.2G
1,5G5.20
1,471.29
-
100.00
2,000.00
1,779.45
- J
1
Used in the third feeding experiment.
CORN MEAL.
[Average of two Analyses.]
o
O
« .2
ll
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Per cent, of Di-
gestibility of
Constituents.
d
K
u
3
*A
IMoisturc at 100° C, .
13.08
261.G0
Dry Matter, ....
8G.92
1,738.40
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Anah/sis of Dry Matter.
CriuleAsli
l.GG
33.20
" C'el lulo.se, .
3.49
C9.80
23.73
34
}.o
" Fat
4.97
99.40
75.54
7G
^
" rrotcin (Nitrogenous
Matter),.
10.39
207.80
17G.G3
85
Non-nitrogenous Extract
flatter, ....
79.49
1,589.80
1,494.41
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,770.41
-
Used in the seventh feeding experiment.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
635
WHEAT BRAN.
81.93 per ce}it. jmssed Ihrotigh Mesh 144 to Square inch.
6
5
to a
0 o
1 1.
Constituents (in
lbs.) ill a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble ill a ton of
2,000 lbs.
"' £ o
2
o
'A
Moisture at 100° C, ,
12.05
241.00
Dry I^ latter
87.95
1,729.00
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Anahjsis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
6.6-1
132.80
t~
1-
" Cellulose, .
11.49
229.80
45.96
20
}'■■
" Fat, ....
4.75
95.00
76.00
80
r-t
" rroteiii (Nitrogenous
Matter),
17.86
357.20
314.34
88
Non-niti'ogenous Extract
Matter, ....
59.26
1,185.20
948.16
80
100.00
2,000.00
1,384.46
-
Used in the third, fourth, fifth and .sixth experiments.
WHEAT BV^KE.
73.3G jyer cent, passed through Mesh 144 to square inch.
Percentage Com-
position.
Constituents (In
Ibs.^ ill 11 ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
3 ti o
2
a
Moistiu-e at 100° C, .
11.14
222.80
\
Diy Matter, .
88.86
1,777.20
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
Anahisis of Dry Matter.
Crude Asli
6.59
131.80
" Cellulose, .
12.80
256.00
51.20
20
f '"^
" Fat, ....
6.00
120.00
96.00
80
^
" rrotcin (Nitrogenous
Matter),
17.72
354.40
311.87
88
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
56.89
1,1.37.80
910.04
SO
100.00
2,000.00
1,369.11
-
/
Used in the seventh feeding experiment.
636 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
ON FODDER SUPPLY, AND AJ^ALYSES
OF FODDER ARTICLES.
On Fodder Supply.
The practice of raising a greater variety of valuable crops
for green fodder deserves the serious consideration of farm-
ers engaged in the dairy business, for it secures a liberal
supply of healthy, nutritious fodder, at a time when hay
becomes scarce and costly, and when it would be still a
wasteful practice to feed an imperfectly matured green fod-
der corn. The frequently limited area of land fit for a
remunerative production of grasses, and the not less recog-
nized exhausted condition of a large proportion of natural
pastures, makes it but judicious to consider seriously the
means which promise, not only to increase, but also to
cheapen, the products of the dairy.
. A liberal introduction of reputed forage crops into farm
operations has, ever^'-where in various directions, promoted
the success of agricultural industry. The desirability of in-
troducing a greater variety of fodder plants into our farm
management is generally conceded. In choosing plants for
that purpose, it seems advisable to select crops which would
advantageously supplement our leading fodder crop (aside
from the products of pastures and meadows), — the fodder
corn and corn stover.
Taking this view of the question, the great and valuable
family of leguminous plants, as clovers, vetches, lucerne,
serradella, peas, beans, lupines, etc., is, in a particular de-
gree, well qualified for that purpose. They deserve also a
decided recommendation in the interest of a wider range
for the introduction of economical systems of rotations,
under various conditions of soil, and different requirements
EXPERIMENT STATION. (337
of markets. Most of these fodder plants have an extensive
root system, and, for this reason, largely draw their plant-
food from the lower portion of the soil. The amount of
stubble and roots they leave behind after the crop has been
harvested is exceptionally large, and decidedly improves
both the physical and chemical condition of the soil. The
lands are consequently better fitted for the production of
shallow-growing crops, as grains, etc. Large productions
of fodder crops assivst in the economical raising of general
farm crops ; although the area devoted to the cultivation of
the latter is reduced, the total yield of the land is usually
more satisfactory. '
One of the foremost experts in stock-feeding, Julius
Kiihn of Halle, Germany, expressed the whole question
in the following terse manner; "Much fodder, — ^much
manure, large crops and more money in the end."
Each farmer ought to make his selection, from among the
various fodder plants, to suit his individual resources and
wants ; yet, adopting this rule as his guide, he ought to make
his selection on the basis that the crop which is capal)le of
producing, for the same area, the largest quantity of nitro-
iren — containins: food constituents, at the least cost, is, as
a rule,- the most valuable one for him.
Our prominent fodder plants may l)e classified, in regard
to the relative proportion of their nitrogenous organic food
constituents to their non-nitrogenouH organic f(M)d con-
stituents (nutritive ratio), in the following order : —
1. Leguminous plants, clover, vetch, etc., . . . 1 :2.2 to 1:4.5
2. Grasses, 1 :5.0 to 1:8.0
3. Green coini, roots and tubers, 1 :6.0 to 1 :lo.O
The value of an article of fodder may be stated from two
diff*ercnt stand-points, — that is, with reference to its cost in
the local market, and with reference to its nutritive feeding
value.* The market price may be expressed by a definite
sum for each locality ; it depends on demand and supply in
the market, and it is beyond the control of the individual
farmer. The nutritive value, or, commonly called, food
• For details regarding estimation of nutritive ratio, see article on " Fodder and
Fodder Analysis," Page 31-37, Fourtli Annual Report.
638 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
value, of tlic article cannot be expressed by a definite sum ;
it varies with a more or less judicious application, and de-
pends also, to a considerable degree, on its adaptation under
varying circumstances.
To secure the most satisfactory returns from feeding our
home-raised fodder crops, is as important a question as that
of raising them in an economical manner. The question
whether one or the other fodder mixture will prove, ulti-
mately, under otherwise corresponding circumstances, the
cheapest one, can only be answered intelligently when both
the original cost of the feed consumed, and the value of the
manurial residue subsequently obtained, are duly considered.
The composition of the various articles of food used in
farai practice exerts a decided influence on the manurial
value of the animal excretions, resulting from their use in
the diet of diftcrent kinds of farm live-stock. The more
potash, phosphoric acid, and, in particular, nitrogen, a fod-
der contains, the more valuable will be, under otherwise
corresponding circumstances, the manurial residue left
behind, after it has served its purpose as a constituent of the
food consumed.
As the financial success in most fiirm management depends,
in a considerable degree, on the amount, the character and
the cost of the manurial refuse material secured in connec-
tion with the special fami industry carried on, it needs no
further argument to prove that the relations which exist
between the composition of the fodder and the value of the
manure resulting deserves the careful consideration of the
farmer, when devising an efficient and at the same time an
economical diet for his live-stock.
Fodder Corn and Corn Ensilage.
In the foui-th annual report on the work of the Experiment
Station, it was stated th;it a series of tests carried out with
plants taken from our iiclds had demonstrated the i;ict that
the vcgctal)le matter in the variety of corn on trial (Clark)
had increased from fifty to one hundred per cent, in actual
weight between the time of the first appearance of the tassel
and the beginning of the kernels to glaze. It was found
EXPERIMENT STATION. 639
that the same variety of corn, raised under fairly corre-
sponding circumstances, as far as the general character of the
soil and the mode of cultivation are concerned, contained, in
one hundred weight parts, at the time of the j^rs^ appearance
of the tassel, from tiuelve to fifteen weight parts of dry vege-
table matter, and from eiglity-five to eighty-eight parts of
water ; while at the time of the beginning of the glazing of
the kernels y the former was noticed to vary from twenty-three
to twenty -eight weight parts, and the water from s-^venty-
seven to seventy-tivo . These results of our investigation left
no doubt concerning the fact that our green fodder corn, at
the time of the beginning of the glazing of the kernels,
contained nearly twice as much vegetable matter per ton
weight of corn as at the time of the appearance of the
tassels.
This feature in the change of the composition of the
fodder corn during its gro^vth is not an exceptional one ;
similar changes are noticed in all our farm plants. Our ob-
servations in this direction were reported for the purpose
of furnishinir some more definite numerical values for the
consideration of our practical farmers. As long as the vital
energy of an annual plant is still essentially spent in the
increase of its size, as a rule, but a comparatively small
amount of valuable organic compounds, as starch, sugar,
etc., accumulate within its cellular tissue. The comparative
feeding value of the same kind of fodder plants, or any par-
ticular part of such plants, is not to be measured by its size,
but by the quantity of valuable organic nitrogenous and
non-nitrogenous constituents stored up in its cellular system.
The larger or smaller amount of dry vegetable matter left
behind from a irivcn wciirht of samples of the same kind, of
a fodder plant of a corresponding stage of growth, indicates,
in the majority of cases, their respective higher or lower
economical value for feeding purposes. Agricultural chem-
ists, for this reason, usually begin their examination of a
fodder plant with a test for the determination of the amount
of dry vegetable matter left l)chind when carefully brought
to a constant weight at a temperature not exceeding 110^ C.
The amount of vegetable matter in a given weight of green
fodder corn, cut at the beginning of the glazing of the kernels.
640 BOARD OF AOinCULTURE.
is known to be not only nearly twice as large, as compared
with that contained in an equal weight of green fodder corn
when just showing the tassels, but it is also known to be,
pound for pound, more nutritious ; for it contains more
starch, more sugar, more of valuable nitrogenous matter, etc.
Accepting these views as correct, our silos have been filled,
for several years past, with fodder corn w^hich had just
reached the stas^e of growth when the kernels be2:in to jjlaze
over. The condition of the plants along the outside of the
corn-field served as guides. These plants are, as a rule, more
advanced in growth than those in the more protected parts
of the field.
The fodder corn, when cut for the silo, Sept. 9, began
to acquire a slightly yellowish tint along the outside of
the field, yet was still green and succulent in the interior
parts ; the kernels were soft, their contents somewhat milky,
and their outside just beginning to glaze.
A silo, five by fourteen feet, inside measure, and eleven
feet deep, was filled to a depth of from eight to nine feet,
as fast as the cut corn, 1| to 1.^ inches long, could be
supplied and tramped down. As soon as the amount of
corn assigned for that silo (9 tons) was filled in, the surface
was carefully covered with tarred paper and tight-fitting
boards, in the same manner as in the case of the first silo,
and at once pressed down with twenty-five barrels of sand.
A maximum registering thermometer was safely buried at a
depth of about three feet in the mass, to record the highest
temperature which the latter would reach during the time of
keeping the silo closed.
The silo was re-opened for feeding, Jan. 4, 1887. The
record of the maximum thermometer buried in the cen-
tre of the silo showed 97° F., indicating but a slight in-
crease in temperature, as compared with the temperature on
the day when filled. The ensilage was of a good quality.
A comparison with the composition of the green fodder corn
which served for its manufacture, shows the usual changes
noticed in a silo which has been filled at once and closed
carefully without any material delay, to prevent a more
serious heating up of its contents ; namely, a decrease in
nitrogenous matter and crude cellulose, and an increase in
EXPERIMENT STATION.
641
fatty acids and soluble non-nitrogenous extract matter. The
nutritive ratio of the fodder corn was but slightly altered.
A sample of the corn ensilage, taken from two feet below
the surface, near the centre of the silo, contained 32.46 parts
of dry mai^ter, 0.0185 parts of actual ammonia, and required
0.659 milligrams of sodkim oxide for the neutralization of
its acids (acetic and lactic acids). An average sample of
the ensilage sensed for the analysis below reported.
I. Green Fodder Corn, used for Ensilage in 18SG (Clark variety).
II. Corn Ensilage, obtained from the above-described Fodder Corn.
TOUNDS PEB IICNDRED.
I.
ir.
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry Matter,
70.27
29.73
71.60
28.40
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash,
" Cellulose, .
" Fat,
" Protein (Niti-ogenou.s Matter). .
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter,
100.00
5.24
24.50
3.38
8.30
58.52
100.00
3.32
18.52
6.07
7.78
64.31
100.00
100.00
Analysis of Green Fodder Corn and Corn Ensilage, with Reference
to Fertilizing Constituents.
Pounds per Hundred.
Moisture at 100° C, .
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound),
Ferric oxide, ....
Magnesium oxide.
Calcium oxide, ....
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound)
Sodium oxide, ....
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .
Insoluble matter, ....
Valuation per 2,000 pounds,
71.60
0.14
0.02
0.09
0.10
0.33
0.05
0.36
0.04
642
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The corn was raised upon land which had been for
several years fertilized with ground bone and muriate of
potash, 600 pounds of ground bone and 200 pounds of
muriate of potash being applied.
The ensilage has been used with satisfactory results in the
feeding experiments with milch cows, I., which are described
in the beginning of this report.
The silo was filled as^ain with fodder corn for ensilao-e,
Sept. 5, 1887. The same rules were carried out on that
occasion as in the preceding year. A maximum and a
minimum recording thermometer has been buried several
feet below the surface of the cut corn, to study changes
in temperature, etc. The ensilage will be used for a
repetition of our feeding experiments, under some modified
circumstances.
1. FODDER OATS.
[Grown at the Experiment Station on well-manured land. Collected July 5, 1886
(in bloom).]
;;;;
i
^ a
£ a
■k° i
o
C c3 ^
3 a ^
o >^ 1
1 1
onsti
lbs.)
2,000
■a ■= g
§ 1 i
^11
s
3
^
"
Ch
fH
^
]\Ioistui'e when collected,
78.61
1,572.00
Dry ]\Iatter when collected,
21.39
427.80
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
7.38
147.60
-
-
o
" Cellulose, .
33.12
662.40
-
-
p
" Fat, ....
2.02
40.40
18.58
46
" Protein (Niti'ogenous
Matter),
7.10
142.00
80.94
57
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
50.38
1,007.60
1,007.60
100
100.00
2,000.00
1,107.12
-
J
EXPERIMENT STATION.
G43
2. FODDER OATS.
[Grown at the Experiment Station on well-manured land. Collected July 13, 1886.]
Percentage Com-
position.
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of!
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of |
2,000 lbs.
1 >«
• S 3
c 3 3
S O
6
a
V
>
1
Moisture when collected, .
71.18
1,423.60
Dry IMatter when collected,
28.82
576.40
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Annb/sis of Dry Mailer.
Crude Ash, ....
G.99
139.80
_
_
" Cellulose, .
32.83
656.60
_
_
("^
" Fat, ....
2.44
48.80
22.45
46
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),
7.05
141.00
80.38
57
Non-niti'ogenous Extract
Matter, ....
50.69
1,013.80
1,013.80
100
100.00
2,000.00
1,116.63
-
EOWEN (Hat).
[Raised on Station Grounds, 1887. Contained a liberal admixture of Red
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry Matter, .
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash,
" Cellulose, ....
" Fat,
" Protein (Nitrogenous Matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter,
Fertilizing Ingredients of Rowen.
Moisture at 100° C,
Phosphoi'ic acid, .
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Sodium oxide.
Calcium oxide.
Magnesium oxide,
Fen-ic oxide.
Insoluble Matter, .
Clover.]
Per cent.
8.84
91.16
100.00
10.50
29.46
3.05
13.20
43.79
100.00
Per cent.
8.840
.364
2.860
1.930
.122
.853
.197
.057
2.178
644
BOARD OF AGRICULTUKE.
SERRADELLA.
[Grown at the Experiment Station. Collected when in bloom, Aug. 4, 1886.]
i
a) .
5 .2
I I
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
*i •— *-*
)3 u>6
d
>
3
Moisture when collected, .
84.G0
1,692.00
>,
Diy Matter when collected,
15.40
308.00
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
11.85
237.00
N.
Cellulose, .
26.21
524.20
_
-
P
" Fat, ....
2.65
53.00
81.80
60
rH
" Protein (Niti'ogenous
]\ latter).
17.75
355.00
223.65
63
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter,
41.5-1
830.80
830.80
100
100.00
2,000.00
1,086.25
-
Analysis of Serradella, with Reference to Fertilizing Constituents.
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 10.54
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound) , .90
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound), 2.60
Magnesium oxide, • .39
Calcium oxide, . . 2.63
Sodium oxide, .55
Niti'ogen (17 cents per pound), 2.54
Insoluble ISIatter, . . • .21
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, $11 93
This plant has been described in previous reports as a
vahiable fodder plant, adapted to moist, sandy lands. Its
feeding value has been tested at the Station during the past
year.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
C)45
WHITE DAISY (Leucantiiemum vulgare).
(Dried.)
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry JNIatter,
A7ialysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash,
" Cellulose,
" Fat,
" Protein (Xitrogenous Matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter,
Fertilizing Ingredients of White Daisy.
Moisture at 100° C,
Phosphoric acid.
Potassium oxide.
Nitrogen,
Sodium oxide.
Calcium oxide.
Magnesium oxide,
Lisoluble Matter,
Per cent.
9.65
90.35
100.00
7.05
36.09
2.32
7.68
46.86
100.00
9.65
.435
1.253
1.110
1.636
1.302
.198
.279
Valuation per 2,000 lbs., $5 36
" PRIDE OF THE NORTH " CORN.
[Raised at the Experiment Station, 1886.]
Average length of ear, seven inches, containing fourteen
rows of kernels. The ear was well filled-out at the butt.
Avera":e weiijht of the corn and cob was six ounces, consist-
ing of 84 per cent, of kernels and 16 per cent, of cob.
Average weight of kernels, .24 gramme.
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 8.75
Dry Matter, 91.25
Analysis of Dry Matter
Grade Ash,
" Cellulose, ....
" Fat, . . . . •
" Protein (Nitrogenous Matter),
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter,
100.00
1.59
2.54
4.34
12.05
79.48
100.00
646
BOARD OF AGPJCULTUEE.
The seed corn came from the Department of Agriculture
at Washington, D. C. ; it had been obtained from Minnesota.
The corn was raised at the Station lands in good cultivation,
with 600 pounds of ground bones and 200 pounds of muriate
of potash per acre, as fertilizer. The plant belongs to the
*' Dent" variety, and deserves recommendation for trial in
our section of the State. The composition of the kernels
is above the average. The stalks are, however, somewhat
harder than many of our local varieties.
"WESTERN DENT" CORN.
[Sent on from Sunderland, Mass.]
Peb Cent
Ears.
Stover.
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry Matter,
10.20
89.80
6.67
93.33
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash,
" Cellulose,
". Fat, * .
" Protein (Nin-ogenous Matter), .
Non-nitrogenous Exti-act flatter,
100.00
1.47
1.86
4.72
9.31
82.64
100.00
4.17
3.-).14
1.71
6.63
52.05
100.00
100.00
The above-stated corn was raised, according to reports
received, on excellent soil m " Sunderland Meadows ; " four
cords of barnyard manure and 150 pounds of a phosphatic
fertilizer per acre had been applied.
6 stalks, well air-dried, weighed
6 ears, well air-dried, weighed ,
2 lbs., 0 oz.
2 " 8 "
The avera<re lenirth of the ear was seven and one-half
inches. It contained twelve rows of kernels, and its average
weight amounted to six and one-half ounces ; 85.6 per cent,
kernels, and 14.4 per cent. cob.
EXPERIMENT STATION. G47
"C AX ADA" CORN (Kernels).
[Sent on from North Amherst, Mass.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 9.76
Dry Matter, 90.24
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, .... 1.77
" Cellulose, 2.18
"Fat, . . 6.39
" Protein (Nitrogenous Matter) , 11.50
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter, ... . 78.16
100.00
The above-stated corn was grown on heavy, dry loam,
fertilized with nine cords of barnyard manure and hog
manure to the acre.
8 ears, well air-dried, weighed .... 1 lb., 13 oz.
5 stalks, well air-dried, weighed . . . . 1 " 4 "
The average length of the ear was six and one-third inches.
It contained eight rows of kernels, and its average weight
amounted to three and three-fourths ounces ; 85.07 per
cent, kernels, and 14.93 percent, cob. The average weight
of a kernel was .34 gramme. The yield per acre at harvest
time was 5,063.5 pounds of ears.
ADAM^S WfflTE CORN.
[Sent on from North Amherst, Mass.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 10.96
Dry Matter, 89.04
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, 1.56
» Cellulose, 2.22
« Fat, 5.37
" Protein (Nitrogenous Matter), 8.88
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter, 81.97
100.00
648 BOARD OF AGEICULTURE.
The above-stated corn was grown on light, sandy loam,
fertilized with four cords of barnyard manure and thirty-five
bushels of unleached ashes per acre.
6 ears, well air-driecl, weighed .... 2 lbs., 2 oz.
6 stalks, well air-dried, Aveighed . . . . 1 " 6 "
The average length of ear was eight and one-quarter
inches. It contained twelve rows of kernels, and its average
weight amounted to six ounces ; 72.2 per cent, kernels, and
27.8 per cent. cob. The average weight of a kernel was .25
gramme. The yield per acre at harvest time was 4,050
pounds of ears.
BROOM-CORN SEED (Ungkound).
[Sent on from North Hadley, Mass.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 14.10
Dry Matter, . . 85.90
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, 2.35
" Cellulose, 8.34
" Fat, . 4.05
" Protein (Nitrogenous Matter) , 11.21
Non-nitrogenous Exti'aet Matter, ' . 74.05
100.00
BROOM-CORN SEED MEAL.
70.26 per cent. passed screen 144 mesh to square inch.
[Sent on from Noi'th Hadley, Mass.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 13.54
Dry Matter, 86.46
Crude Ash,
" Cellulose,
" Fat,
" Protein (Nitrogenous Matter),
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter,
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
2.43
8.00
4.13
11.14
74.30
100.00
EXPERIMENT STATION.
649
BROOM-CORN WASTE (Stalks)
[Sent on from North Hadley, Mass.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Dr}'- Matter,
Per cent.
8.70
91.30
Atialysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash,
" Cellulose,
" Fat,
" Protein (Nitrogenous INIatter),
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter,
Fertilizing Ingredients of Broom-Corn Waste.
Moisture at 100° C,
Phosphoric acid (G cents),
Potissium oxide (4^ cents),
Nitrogen (12 cents), . . . . .
Calcium oxide,
^lagnesiuin oxide,
Insoluble Matter,
100.00
4.88
39.25
1.00
6.78
48.09
100.00
10.374
.460
1.858
.870
.242
.170
.997
Valuation per ton of 2,000 pounds, |4 13
PEA MEAL.
[Sent on from Springfield, Mass.]
63.88 per cent, passed through Mesh 144 to square inch.
.
o
o
1 §
1 1
Constituents (in
lbs.) in i\ ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
"S3
S Sou
o
•a
>
3
'A
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry Matter, ....
8.85
91.15
177.00
1,823.00
-
-
^^
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
" Cellulose, .
" Fat
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),
Non-nitrogenous Extract
JNIatter, ....
100.00
2.94
19.42
1.67
20.95
55.02
2,000.00
58.80
388.40
33.40
419.00
1,100.40
26.72
368.72
1,034.38
80
88
94
CO
i-H
100.00
2,000.00
1,429.82
-
650
BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
The above material comes from parties engaged in the
manufacture of split peas. It is evidently a mixture of
ground peas with a liberal admixture of ground skins of
peas. The article is offered in Springfield at twenty dollars
per ton. The well-known highly nutritious quality of the
peas renders a trial advisable.
Analysis of Pea 3feal, loitli Reference to Us Fertilizing Constituents.
Moisture at 100° C, .
Ferric oxide, ....
Pliosphoric acid (6 cents \)qv pound),
Magnesivun oxide,
Calcium oxide, ....
Potassium oxide (4| cents per pound)
Sodium oxide, ....
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .
Insoluble matter, ....
Valuation per 2,000 pounds,
8.85
0.03
0.82
0.30
0.30
0.99
0.62
3.08
0.12
$12 31
GLUTEN IklEAL (Chicago).
[Bought at Springfield, Mass.]
a
a
2 .2
1 ^
Constituents (in
lbs.) in .1 ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in u ton of
2,000 lbs.
1 ^
^3 3
ill
d
a
a
>
a
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry Matter, ....
10.04
89.96
200.80
1,799.20
-
_
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude A.sli, ....
" Cellulose, .
" Fat, ....
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),
Non-niti'ogenous Extract
jNIatter, ....
100.00
.78
4.45
9.34
34.67
50.76
2,000.00
15.60
89.00
186.80
693.40
1,015.20
30.26
141.97
589.39
954.29
34
76
85
94
1^
100.00
2,000.00
1,715.91
-
EXPERIMENT STATION.
651
WHEAT BRAN.
[Amherst Mill.]
6
rt o
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
5°2
o >, g
3
'A
Moisture at 100° C, .
Dry Matter, ....
10.38
89.02
207.60
1,792.40
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
" Cellulose, .
" Fat, . . .
" Protein (Nitrogenous
jMattei"),
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Mattter, ....
100.00
6.92
14.26
4.81
16.25
57.76
2,000.00
138.40
285.20
96.20
325.00
1,155.20
57.04
76.96
286.00
924.16
20
80
88
80
t^
rH
100.00
2,000.00
1,344.16
J
WHEAT BRAN (1886).
[Fine Ground.]
94.95 per cent, passed through Mesh 144 to square inch.
6
5 2
i 1
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
ill
1
«
1
S
3
^Moisture at 100= C, . .
Dry Matter, ....
12.20
87.80
244.00
1,756.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
Cellulose, .
" Fat, ....
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
100.00
7.33
10.92
2.80
19.79
59.16
2,000.00
146.60
218 40
56.00
395.80
1,183.20
43.68
44.80
348.30
946.56
20
80
88
80
CO
T—l
.CO
100.00
2,000.00
1,383.34
-
652
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Analysis of Wheat Bran, with reference to Fertilizing Constituents.
Moisture at 100° C, .
Phosjihoric acid (0 cents per ijoiuul).
Magnesium oxide,
Calcium oxide, ....
Potassium oxide, (4^ cents per pound) ,
Sodium oxide, ....
Nitrogen (17 cents jier jiound), .
Insoluble matter, ....
Valuation per 2,000 pounds.
rer cent.
9.54
1.89
0.54
0.14
1.09
0.06
2.83
0.64
$12 82
WHEAT MIDDLINGS.
[Amherst Mill.]
99-51 j)er cent, i^assed through Mesh 144 to square inch.
5
to a
= s
Constituents (in
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
■ s ^
iff
6
>
'u
3
'A
Moisture at 100^ C, .
Dry Matter, ....
9.54
90.46
190.80
1,809.20
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
" Cellulose, .
" Fat, ....
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
100.00
4.47
5.G4
G.OO
19.45
64.44
2,000.00
89.40
112.80
120.00
389.00
1,288.80
22.56
96.00
342.32
1,031.04
20
80
88
80
O
100.00
2,000.00
1,491.92
-
Analysis of Wheat Middlings, loith reference to Fertilizing
Constituents.
■ Percent.
Moisture at 100° C, ". 12.20
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound), 2.84
Ferric oxide, • -02
Magnesium oxide, •91
Calcium oxide, -l^.
Potassium oxide (4| cents per pound), 1.62
Sodium oxide, -09
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), 2.78
Insoluble matter, -13
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, ?14 24
EXPERIMENT STATION.
653
CORN MEAL.
92.93 per cent. 2^a.ssed thro7igh Mesh 144 to square inch.
i
1:1
g a
Constituents (In
lbs.) in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
Pounds Digesti-
ble in a ton of
2,000 lbs.
5 = .
• S °
'^ 3 '-g
"1 §
S; sou
0
•s
at
»
0
>
3
"A
Moisture at 100° C, .
11.68
2.33.60
Dry ]\Iatter, ....
88.32
1,766.40
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
1.56
31.20
-
-
0
" Cellulose, .
2.44
48.8<)
16.59
34
w
" Fat, ....
4.73
94.60
71.89
76
" Protein (Niti-ogenous
]\I utter).
10.34
206.80
175.78
85
Non-niti-ogenous Extract
Matter, ....
80.93
1,618.60
1,121.48
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,385.74
-
CORN MEAL.
[Amherst Mill.]
a
.5 0
•43 0
5*^
d
u.
Z 2
w I
"5 >.g
M
to a
2 .2
uen
in a
lbs.
« ^ i
" ■^ w
<i>
>
0 0
fe p.
onsti
lbs.)
2,000
ound
blei
2,000
S 5 c
5
3
d.
U
Ph
'A
Moisture at 100° C, .
12.98
259.60
_
>
Dry Matter, ....
87.02
1,740.40
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
1.75
35.00
—
—
0
" Cellulose, .
3.42
68.40
23.26
34
[s
" Eat
5.08
101.60
77.22
76
" Protein (Niti'ogenous
Matter),
10.07
201.40
171.19
85
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
79.68
1,593.60
1,497.98
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,769.65
-
654
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
CORN MEAL.
[Amherst Mill.]
(fc-
t^
a
o z
i °
a° ^
o
a
„ o
£|
o >> S
C3
1 B
1 1
onstituen
lbs.) in a
2,000 lbs.
ounds T>
ble in a
2,000 lbs.
3
c
U
e-
"
i^
Moisture at 100° C, .
13.18
263.60
_
Diy Matter, ....
8G.82
1,736.40
-
-
100.00
2,000.00
-
-
AnalyHs of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ....
1.57
31.40
-
CO
cci
" Cellulose, .
3.56
71.20
24.21
34
}ci
" Fat
4.86
97.20
73.87
76
1-1
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),.
10.72
214.40
182.24
85
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
79.29
1,585.80
1,490.65
94
100.00
2,000.00
1,770.97
-
/
CRACKED CORN (Chits Removed).
[Sent on from North Hadley, Mass.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, . . . 13.58
Dry Matter, 86.42
100.00
Analysis of Dry flatter.
Crude Ash, 2.64
« Cellulose, 3.15
"Fat 4.06
" Protein (Nitrogenous Matter), 10.99
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter, 79.16
100.00
CHIT CORN MEAL.
80.65 per cent, passed screen 144 Mesh to square inch.
[Sent on from North Hadley, Mass.]
Per ccnt_
Moisture at 100° C, 12.32
Dry Matter, . 87.68
100.00
EXPERIMENT STATION.
655
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Per cent.
Crude Ash, 2.08
" Cellulose, 3.92
" Fat, 5.74
" Protein (Nitrogenous Matter), 10.26
Non-nitrogenous Exti-act Matter, 78.00
ENSILAGE OF SWEET CORN.
[Sent on from Marblehead, Mass.]
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, ^
" Cellulose,. . . , ,
" Fat,
" Protein (Niti'ogenous Matter) ,
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter,
100.00
Per cent.
5.66
24.21
5.19
10.10
54.84
100.00
The general appearance of the ensilage was good. The
small amount of solul)le non-nitrogenous matter, in presence
of a comparatively large amount of crude nitrogenous matter
and of crude cellulose, seems to indicate a considerable de-
struction of non-nitrogenous matter (sugar, starch, etc.)
during the keeping of the corn in the silo. The composition
of this sample of ensilage of sweet corn resembles that ob-
tained from corn in the tassel. A comparison of the above
analysis with some of the analyses of the dry vegetable
matter of corn ensilage, produced at the Experiment Station
during previous years, suggests that conclusion.
ANALYSES OF FINE SALT.
[I. and II. sent on from Florida, Berkshire County, Mass.
III. sent
on from
Springfield, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
IVIoisture at 100" C,
3.280
4.591
4.616
Sodium chloride,
95.091
94.012
94.236
Calcium sulphate,
1.487
1.177
0.999
Calcium chloride,
0.032
0.143
0.071
Magnesium chloride,
0.075
0.049
0.026
Matter insoluble in water (largely carbon-
ates of lime and magnesia) , . .
0.035
0.028
0.052
Salicylic acid,
0.
0.
trace.
100.000
100.000
100.000
656 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The above-described samples of salt have been offered of
late in our markets as " dairy salt," judging from communi-
cations received. As the recent introduction into our mar-
kets of various brands of salt from new salt works in western
New York imparts a particular interest to the question of
what constitutes a good dairy salt, a short discussion of that
question may not be without interest in connection with the
above analyses.
There are three sources of supplj^ for the manufacture of
salt ; namely, sea water, brines and rock salts. None of
them yield by any current mode of manufacture a chemically
pure article of sodium chloride ; all three may be success-
fully turned to account for the manufacture of the various
brands of salt in our market.
Local circumstances control the selection of the particular
source of supply ; and, as the particular fitness of salt for
different domestic applications, as meat-packing, family use
and dairy, depends not only on a fairly good chemical com-
position, but also to a considerable degree on a suitable
mechanical condition, it is quite obvious that the selection of
the mode of manufacture has to be made with reference to
the general character and the quality of the source on hand,
and to the kind of salt desired.
Our home-manufactured salt — "coarse," "fine" and
" dairy salt" — has been produced, until of late, almost en-
tirely from natural brines, sea-water excluded. All natural
brines contain more or less of foreign saline admixtures.
Most prominent among these are the sulphates of lime and
magnesia, and the chlorides of calcium and magnesium.
The general character and the industrial value of different
brines, considering concentration equally favorable, depend
as a rule not so much on the total amount of foreign saline
substances present, as on the relative proportion of the above-
stated foreign admixtures.
The same circumstances apply with equal force to the salt
produced. The less chlorides of calcium and magnesium a
salt contains, the better will be considered its quality, from a
commercial stand-point. The presence of sulphate of lime,
within certain limits, is far less objectionable.
A salt which contains but one-fourth of one per cent, of
EXPERIMENT STATION. 657
the chlorides of magnesium and of calcium, miglit prove
highly objectionable to the dairyman, on account of its un-
pleasantly bitter saline taste ; while the sulphate of lime
rarely amounts to less than one and one-quarter per cent, in
the best-reputed brands of dairy salts, home and foreign.
A detailed statement of the exact amount of each of the
abov'c-mentioncd foreign saline admixtures is for this reason
needed, to render a decision possible regarding the relative
merits of the various brands of salt offered for sale, as far as
a desirable composition is concerned.
The most common cause of injuring the composition of
salt, for dairy purposes in particular, is a too liberal use of
lime during its manufacture, to secure a desirable white color
and a fine granulation of the salt produced.
The natural consequence of that course of operation is an
alkaline reaction of the salt, — a most objectionable quality of
a dairy salt, for it hastens on the decomposition of the
butter.
The peculiar nature of the products of the dairy, — butter
and cheese, — as well as the unusual pecuniary risks involved
in their successful manufacture, renders it necessary that
only first-class articles of salt should be applied for dairy
purposes. The fitness of any of the various brands of salt
in our markets, for dairy use is not restricted to those ob-
tained from any particular natural source or locality, l)ut de-
pends entirely upon a suitable good chemical composition,
and a suital)le mechanical condition.
A good dairy salt ought to be of a neutral reaction, and of
a pure saline taste ; free from offensive odor, and without
any stain of color; of a properly reduced size to favor a
speedy solution ; and, what is scarcely of less importance,
free from colored specks. As the application of dairy salt
in form of saturated solutions enables, with but little trouble,
the removal of insoluble foreign admixtures, this mode of
using salt in the dairy industries, whenever admissable, de-
serv^es commendation.
To produce an article of the above description requires an
extra exertion on the part of the manufacturer, and necessi-
tates thus additional expenses, as compared with the average
brands of <' common fine" and the ordinary <' coarse or
658 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
solar salts," neither of which, as a general rule, answers to
the previous description.
A dairy salt, originally good, may become objectionable in
consequence of a subsequent careless storing amidst strong-
smelling articles of merchandise, etc., or in barns.
Judging the above samples of * ' dairy salt " by the cus-
tomary commercial standard of composition previously ex-
plained, it will be noticed that sample I. is preferable to
sample II., although its total amount of foreign saline admix-
ture is larger than in samples II. and III. The last-named
sample would rank next, if it did not contain some salicylic
acid.
None of the above three samples can claim to rank with
the better brands of " dairy salt" in our markets.
The presence of an exceptional amount of carbonate of
lime in all of them impairs greatly their fitness for dairy
purposes A good salt may not improve materially an
otherwise carelessly manufactured butter or cheese, yet a
lower grade of fine salt will invariably destroy the keeping
quality of a good butter and cheese.
The addition of salicylic acid as a preservative is strongly
condemned by good authorities in sanitary matters.
DAIRY SALT.
[Sent on from Amherst, Mass.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C .145
Sorlium chloride, . 98.520
Calcium sulphate, 1.009
Calcium chloride, .189
Magnesium chloride, .065
Insoluble matter (chiefly carbonate of magnesia and sand), . .072
ROCK SALT.
[From the Retsof Salt Mines at PiflToid, Livingston County, New York. Sent on
from Springfield, Mass.]
rer cent.
Moisture at 100° C 2.60
Calcium sulphate, 0.42
Calcium chloride, 0.33
Magnesium chloride, 0.01
Sodium chloride, 95.94
Insoluble matter, 0.70
100.00
EXPERIIVIENT STATION. 659
This article has been, of late, introduced into our market
in lump form, to take the place of the English lump salt for
stock feeding. The sam[)lc sent on for examination was of
a very fair quality, and compared very favorably with the
former. Its selling price at Springfield, Mass., is stated:
from 5 to 10 pounds, at 1| cents per pound ; 100 pounds, at
75 cents ; wholesale, per ton of 2,000 pounds, at $8,50 ; and
in car-loads, one dollar less per ton.
h
660
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
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FIELD EXPERIMENTS.
I. Field A. Fodder Com Raised with Single Articles of Plant Food.
n. Field B. Fodder Crops Raised with and without Complete
Slanure.
in. Field C. Experiments with Wheat, Vetch and Oats, Serradella
and Southern Cow Pea.
rV. Field D. Experiments with Potatoes, Roots and Miscellaneous
Crops.
GG2 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
FIELD EXPEREVIEKTS.
[Field A.]
1. Fodder Corn raised upon Underdrained Lands,
TARTLY FERTILIZED WITH SiNGLE ARTICLES OF PlANT
Food, partly without the use of any Maxurial
Matter.
The field utilized for this experiment consists of ten ad-
joining plats, one-tenth of one acre each in size. The pi its
are live feet apart ; the grounds between them are kept free
from any growth, and receive no fertilizing ingredients of
any description.
The entire field is surrounded by a tile drain, and each plat
lias a separate one through its centre. This terminates at
its east end in a avcII which is connected with the surround-
ing drain.
The land was used, for several years previous to the estal>-
lishment of the Experiment Station, in 1882, as a meadow
for the production of hay. During the spring of 1883 it
was planted with corn, for fodder corn, without the use of
any fertilizer.
The same course of planting and cultivation was carried
out during 1884, for the purpose of exhausting the soil, as
far as practicable, for a remunerative cultivation of corn.
The crop raised in 1884 upon these plats of unmanured
land left no doubt concerning their exhausted condition, as
far as further successful cultivation of corn was concerned ;
for the entire yield of corn fodder imounted to 5,040 pounds,
with a moisture of thirty per cent.
This condition of the soil encouras^ed the beginning of a
special inquiry into the chemical and physical condition of
our soil, as far as its relation to the production of the corn
crop is concerned. With that end in view, the following
EXPERIMENT STATION.
663
course was decided upon and carried out during the succeed-
ing season (1885).
The entire field (A) was prepared, May 12, in a similar
manner as in preceding years for the planting of corn (see
Second Annual Kepoi-t, page 81). All except Plat 6 were
(Clark) corn.
planted with
Plat No. 0,
riat No. 1,
riat No. 2,
riat No. 3,
Plat No. 4,
Plat No. 5,
Plat No. 6,
Plat No. 7,
Plat No. 8,
Plat No. 9,
Plat No. 10,
Thrown out of the experiment.
^ Twenty-five pounds of sodium nitrate ( =
) to 4 lbs. of nitrogen).
Nothing'.
^ Tliirty pounds of dried blood (=. to 4 lbs.
( of nitrogen).
Nothing.
Twenty-five i:)ounds of ammonium sul-
l)hate (=: to 5 lbs. of nitrogen).
Nothing. (Black Fallow.)
^ Fifty pounds of dissolved bone-black (=
I to 85 lbs. of available phosiihoric acid).
Nothing.
^ Twenty-five pounds of muriate of potash
< (rr to from 12 to 13 lbs. of i^otassium
(^ oxide).
48^ pounds of potash-magnesia sulphate
{zz: to from 12 to 13 lbs. of potassium
oxide) .
The growth on the entire field was cut Sept. 5, and the
product of each plat stookcd by itself in the field for drying ;
it was housed Oct. 10, with the folio wins: results : —
Amount "f Dry
Com I'odilcr
ob.ained.
Fertilizer Applied.
No. 1,
2,
3,
4,
5,
6,
7,
8,
9,
10,
480
310
350
300
3G0
280
250
945
845
lbs.
25 lbs. of sodium nitrate (=: to 4 lbs. of
nitrogen).
Nothing.
30 lbs. of dried blood (z= to 4 lbs. of ni-
trogen).
Nothing.
25 lbs. of ammonium sulphate (rz: to 5
ll)s. of nitrogen).
Fallow.
50 lbs. of dissolved bone-black (z=z to 8.5
lbs. of available phosphoric acid).
Nothing.
25 ll)s. of mun'ate of potash (i:: to from
12 to 13 lbs. of potassium oxiile).
48| Ills, of j)()tash-magnesia sulpliate (=z
to from 12 to 13 lbs. of potassium oxide).
G64 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Comparing these results with those obtained in the pre-
vious year, where the products of the various plats were prac-
tically of a corresponding weight (458 lbs. each), it was
noticed that the apj^Ucation of potash compounds alone ^ mu-
riate of potash leading (see Plats No. 9 and 10), had exerted
a marked effect on the quantity and the quality of the corn
fodder raised, increasing the previous annual yield not less
than one hundred per cent, above that of the preceding
year (1884).
The amount of com fodder raised on Plat No. 1, which
received nitrate of soda, had exceeded but slightly (22 lbs.)
tliat of the previous season ; while the application of blood,
ammonium sulphate and phosphoric acid, had not prevented
a considerable falling off. The yield of corn fodder of fer-
tilized and unfertilized plats was practically the same in
Plats 1 to 8.
In sight of these facts, it seemed but justifiable to conclude
that a deficiency of the soil in available potasJi had controlled,
in our case, more than that of any other essential article of
plant foody the final yield of the crop.
As the cultivation of grasses and fodder corn affects the
manurial resources of the soil in a similar direction, by ab-
stracting approximately one part of phosphoric acitl to four
parts of potash, it is but a natural result that a soil which
originally did not contain much more of available potash
than of available phosphoric acid, must become unproduc-
tive before the latter is exhausted. In case circumstances
necessittite a direct succession of these two crops, it is well
to remember that fact, and to provide against a failure by
applying to the soil liberally, in particular, potash com-
pounds in some form or other. Muriate of potash deseiTes
recommendation.
To verify the above conclusion, the experiment was con-
tinued during the year 1886, with the sole modification
of increasing on each fertilized plat the particular fertiliz-
ing ingredients to twice the amount used in the preceding
year.
The plats were thoroughly ploughed and haiTowed IMay
15, 188G. The fertilizers were sown broadcast in each case,
EXPERIMENT STATION.
665
and slightly harrowed in before planting the corn, in rows,
May 21 and 22 (Clark's variety). The rows were three
feet three inches apart. The seeds were dropped from
twelve to fourteen inches apart, and six to eight kernels in a
place. The mode of planting and the subsequent treatment
of the crop was in every way corresponding to the course
adopted in the two preceding years. The young plants ap-
peared uniform and healthy looldng, in all plats, June 1.
They turned, however, to a pale green color by June 28,
with the exception of those on Plats 9 and 10. The latter
were still of a dark green color Sept. 11, when the entire
crop was cut and stooked in the field. The corn growing
on Plats 1 to 8, inclusive, had reached, at the end of the
season, a height of from two to four feet, and showed only
here and there a partially filled ear ; it was badly dried up
and unhealthy looking when cut. The plants grown upon
Plats 9 and 10 had reached a heiijht of from five to eiirht
feet ; the stalks and leaves were still succulent when cut,
and the ears pretty well formed throughout the plats, but
small, and the kernels scarcely beginning to glaze.
The weight of the corn fodder raised upon each plat was
ascertained Oct. 23, when the crop was housed. The subse-
quent statement contains the results of the experiment.
The weights of the corn fodder are stated with reference to
the same state of moisture (from 45 to 50 per cent.) as in
the preceding year, to allow a comparison of the results.
PLAT.
Amount <>f Dry
Com Koiider
ol>taincd.
Fertilizer Applied.
No. 1,
2
3,
4,
430 lbs.
250 "
310 "
250 "
< 50 lbs. of sodium nitrate (:= to 7 to 8 lbs.
I of nitrogen).
Nothing.
( GO lbs. of dried blood (= to 7 to 8 lbs. of
} nitrogen) .
Nothinjr.
6G6
BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
1886.
Amniint of Dry
Corn Fodder
obtained.
Fertilizer Applied.
No. 5, .
280
G, . .
-
7, . .
255
8, .
195
9, . .
840
10, . .
895
50 lbs. of ammonium sulphate (=z to 10
lbs. of nitrogen).
Fallow.
100 lbs. of dissolved bone-black (= to 17
lbs. available phosphoric acid).
Nothing.
50 lbs. of muriate of potash (zr to 25 lbs.
of potassium oxide).
97 lbs. of potash-magnesia sulphate (=rto
25 lbs. of potassium oxide).
These results, compared with those of the previous year,
show still a falling off in yield in all plats, notwithstanding
a decided increase in the various single manurial substances
applied on Plats 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 10. The yield of the fer-
tilized Plats 1, 3, 5 and 7 during 1886 was less than that of
the unfertilized plats in 1885. The good service of potash
compounds as the sole fertilizer was still as striking as in the
two pri ceding years.
1887.
The examination into the condition of " Field A," as far
as its store of available plant food is concerned, was con-
tinued during the past year, with a view to showing, if pos-
sible, still more decidedly, that a serious exhaustion of the
soil in available potassa, in particidar, was the leading cause
of a reduced production of corn fodder. To secure that
end the following course has been pursued : —
The various plats were ploughed and harrowed during
the second week of May. Plats 2, 4 and 8, which in pre-
vious years litid been planted with corn without receiving
any fertilizing ingredients, were used again for the raising
of corn fodder, and left "unfertilized as before. Plats 1, 3,
5,7,9 and 10 were fertilized broadcast before planting the
corn. The mode of planting and the subsequent treatment
of the crop was the same as in preceding ^''cars. No. 1,
which for several years in succession had received as a fer-
tilizer but from 4 to 8 pounds of nitrogen in f(;iTn of
nitrate of soda, was fertilized with a mixture of 50 pounds
EXPERBIENT STATION. 667
of nitrate of soda (==7 to 8 pounds of nitrogen) and 50
pounds of muriate of potash (=25 pounds of potassium
oxide) .
No. 3, for several years in succession fertilized with from
4 to 8 pounds of nitrogen in form of dried blood, was
treated with a mixture of GO pounds of dried blood (=:7 to
8 pounds of nitrogen) and 100 pounds of dissolved bone-
black (z= IG to 17 pounds of available phosphoric acid).
No. 5, for several years in succession fertilized with 4 to
10 pounds of nitrogen in form of sulphate of ammonia, re-
ceived as fertilizer a mixture of 50 pounds of ammonium
sulphate (=: 10 pounds of nitrogen) and 97 pounds of
potash-magnesia sulphate (=: 25 pounds of potassium oxide).
No. 7, for two succeeding years fertilized with from 8 to
16 pounds of available phosphoric acid, was treated with a
mixture of 100 pounds of dissolved bone-black (= 16 to 17
pounds available phosphoric acid) and 50 pounds of muriate
of potash (=25 pounds potassium oxide).
No. 9 was fertilized, as in preceding years, with nothing
but muriate of potash, of which 50 pounds were applied
(z=25 pounds potassium oxide), the same quantity pre-
viously used (188G).
No. 10, in preceding years fertilized with from 12 to 25
pounds of potassium oxide in form of potash-magnesia sul-
phate, received a mixture of 97 pounds of potash-magnesia
sulphate (=25 pounds potassium oxide) and 60 pounds of
drietl blood (= 7 to 8 pounds nitrogen).
The corn (Clark) was planted, in the same manner as in
the preceding years. May 23. The crop upon the entire
field looked uniform and healthy until the middle of July.
Sul)sequently a gradual change in appearance became notice-
able. The growth upon the plats which had either received
no fertilizer, or one which did not contain potash, turned
yellowish, ceased to grow, and produced a few imperfect
ears ; while, upon those plats which had been fertilized with
a material containing potash, it retained its healthy appear- .
ance, reached its normal height and produced a liberal num-
ber of perfect ears. The entire crop was cut and stooked in
the field Sept. 15 ; it was housed, after being weighed,
Oct. 17.
668 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The following tabular statement of our field results for
three succeeding years needs scarcely any further explana-
tion. The beneficial influence of a potash supply on the
yield of fodder, upon our experimental plats, is in every
instance unmistakable ; while the application of a liberal
supply of phosphoric acid and nitrogen, either separately or
combined, on the whole, does not materially aflcct the an-
nual yield, when compared with the unfertilized plats.
The investigation will be continued, with some modifica-
tions, to serve as an illustration concerning the cifect of a
one-sided exhaustion of farm lands, and to assist in pointing
out some practical lessons for an economical management of
the latter.
EXPEEIMENT STATION".
669
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EXPERIMENT STATION. 671
2. Influence of Fertilizers on the Quantity and the
Quality of some Prominent Fodder Crops.
(Field B.)
The land selected for the experiment had been used for
several years for the production of hay. At the beginning
of the season of 1883 it had been ploughed and planted with
corn, without tli'i addition of any fertiliz>r. The soil con-
sisted of a good, sandy loam, and was, in consequence of its
previous treatment, in a suitahhj impovtrished condition to
respond to the application of fertilizers.
The entire field, consisting at that time of one and one-
tenth acres, was sub-divided into plats, each one-tenth of an
acre in size. Every alternate plat was fertilized at the rate
of six hundred pounds of ground, rendered bones, and two
hundred pounds of muriate of potash, per acre. The fertil-
izer was applied a few days before seeding, and slightly har-
rowed under.
18S4. — The experiment in this year comprised four stand-
ard grasses; i.e.. Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata),
Meadow Fescue (^Festuca pratense), Timothy (^PJdeum
pratense) and Redtop (Agrostis vulgaris), besides two Mil-
lets, Hungarian grass (^Panicum Germanicum) and Pearl
Millet (^Penicillaria spicata) , and one variety of corn,
Clark.
Plats No. 11, 13, 15, 19 and 21 were fertilized; and Nos.
12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 received no manurial matter of any
description. In the case of the grasses and millets, each
plat was again sub-divided into two, and each half seeded
down with one distinct kind of grass seed, as follows : —
m , ,-r ,, ,» ,.,. jx S Orchai'd Grass (north side).
Plat No. 11 (fertilized), . . • s ,. , ,^ , , ./.
( Meadow lescue (south side).
m i. TVT io ^ £ 4^^• A\ ^ Orchai-d Grass (north side) .
Plat No. 12 (unfertilized), . • S ,, , ^ ^, .i • i n
i Meadow Fe cue (south side).
Plat No 1^ rfertilized^ \ Hungarian Grass (north side).
Plat No. 13 (tertUized), . . . ^ ^,^^^^ ^.^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^.^^^^
Plat No. 14 (unfertilized),
Hungarian Grass (north side).
Pearl Millet (south side).
Plat No 15 rfei-tilized^ \ Timothy (north side).
Plat ^ o. 15 (teitilized) , . . . j ^^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ ^. ^^^
672 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Plat No. 16 (unfertilized), . . \ ^^^i^^^^y ("^^h side).
( Redtop (south side).
Plats No. 17, 18, 19, 20 and 21 were planted with corn (Clark).
2555. — During the year 1885, Plats No. 17, 18, 19, 20
and 21 served again, as in previous years, for the cultivation
of corn. The entire crop upon all plats was cut Sept. 4,
1885. The dry corn fodder secured from the fertilized plats
averaged 5^ tons per acre, and that from the unfertilized
plats yielded 3J^ tons for the same area. The fertilized
Plat No. 13 produced 1,870 pounds of dried millet, or
18,700 pounds (9^ tons) per acre; and the unfertilized Plat
No. 14 (for three succeeding years without manure) pro-
duced 1,050 pounds of air-dried crops, or 10,500 pounds
(5\ tons) for a corresponding area.
The Plats 11, 12, 15 and 16 (Field B), which had been
seeded down broadcast during the month of September,
1884, with several varieties of grasses, for the purpose of
studying their individual nutritive character at different suc-
cessive stages of growth, soon became infested with all kinds
of plants. As this circumstance could not otherwise than
quite seriously interfere with our object, it was thought best
to re-plough these plats, and to seed doivn again each variety
of grass, in drills. The cultivation of grasses in drills, two
feet apart, was adopted with much success, June 22, 1885.
A frequent use of the cultivator, aided by the hoe and hand-
weeding, has enabled us to secure, as far as practicable, a
clean growth.
1886. — No material change was made in the general ar-
rangement and mode of treatment of the plats in Field B,
beyond the addition, on the west end of each plat, of an
area forty-three feet in length, and a width corresponding to
that of the existing plats. This addition makes the present
length of these plats 175 feet ;' they are each 33 feet wide.
The same varieties of grasses and of corn (Clark) were
cultivated. The latter was also planted, in place of two
varieties of millets, cultivated during the preceding year, in
Plats 13 and 14. The corn was planted, as in previous
years, in drills three feet three inches apart ; the seed was
dropped, from six to eight in a place, at a distance of from
EXPERIMENT STATION.
673
twelve to fourteen inches apart, May 17, 1886. Plats 13,
17, 19 and 21 were fertilized with ground bone and potash,
as in preceding years ; while Plats 14, 18 and 20 received
no manurial matter of any description. The growth of the
corn on fertilized and unfertilized plats presented throughout
the season a similar appearance, as has been noticed and
described on previous occasions, with the exception of the
fertilized Plat 13 and the unfertilized Plat 14, which yielded
a larger return than any other of the plats under a corre-
sponding treatment. These two plats had been changed
from the cultivation of corn, in 1883, to that of millet, in
1884 and 1885.
For furtiier details regarding ^''ield, etc., we have to refer
to pages 71 and 72 of our fourth annual report.
The entire field was ploughed during fall, to prepare it for
experiments with other crops in the succeeding year. The
samples of the various grasses on trial had been collected at
successive stages of growth, to ascertain their composition.
The results of these analyses are contained in the following
tabular statement.
ORCHiVRD GRASS (Hay).
COLI.KCTKD
JUN-F. 7, ISSC,
Collected Juxk 30, ISSC,
WIIILK 1>
Blooji.
i.v Seed.
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Moisture :it 100'^ C, .
9.09
9.1 G
8..38
8.72
Dry Matter, . . ...
90.91
90.84
91.G2
91.28
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
Annli/.'^if! of Dry Matter.
Cnule AsJi, .
7.90
8.G7
G.17
5.40
" Cellulose, .
34.12
34.1.5
35.48
35.79
" Fat, ....
2.41
2.40
3.;5G
3.26
" Protein (Xitrogenous
Matter),
8.94
11.24
t .bt
8.15
Non-nitrogenous Extract
Matter, ....
4r,.r,:i
4:5.;>0
47.22
47.34
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
674
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
REDTOP (Hay).
Collected .
WHILE I>
IcxT 6, 1S8G,
• Bloom.
Collected .Tclt 22, 1886,
IN' Seed.
FcrtlUzed.
Unfertilized.
FcrtiUzcd.
Unfertilized.
Molstnro at 100° C, .
Diy ]\Iattcr, ....
6.81
93.19
7.75
92.25
8.24
9176
8.02
91.98
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Ci'ude Ash, ....
" Cellulose, .
" Fat, ....
" Protein (Nitrogenous
Matter),
Non-nitvogenous Extract
Matter, ....
100.00
5.69
34.11
1.56
8.32
50.32
100.00
5.17
32.95
1.64
8.40
51.84
100.00
4.84
33.49
1.50
6.41
53.76
100.00
4.17
31.12
1.69
8.28
54.74
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
MEADOW FESCUE (Hay).
Collected Jcnb 2S, 18SG,
IS Seed.
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Moisture at 100= C
Dry Matter,
7.40
92.00
8.03
91.97
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Cnide Asli,
" Cellulose,
" Fat
" Protein (Nitrogenous flatter), .
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter, ....
100.00
7.17
34.46
2.17
7.02
49.18
100.00
8.18
34.61
1.78
7.27
48.16
100.00 \ 100.00
i
EXPERIMENT STATION.
675
TBIOTHY (Herds' Gkass).
Cox-i-ECTED JtrxB 28, 1886,
WHILE IX ISLOOU.
Fertilized.
UnfertlUzcd.
ISIoistiirc at 100^ C,
Dry Matter,
G5.74
84.26
65.00
85.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Cnicle Ash, .
" Cellulose,
" Fat, ........
" Protein (Niti-ogenous Matter), .
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter,
100.00
5.29
33.23
1.95
8.20
51.33
100.00
5.37
82.50
2.07
8.83
51.23
100.00
100.00
Fertilizinrj Ingredients of Timothy.
Fertilized.
Uiifertilizea,
Moisture at 100° C,
7.80
7.24
Phosphoric acid (G cents per pound),
0.36
0.56
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound), .
1.63
1.44
Niti-ogen, (17 cents per pound), ....
1.21
1.31
Sodium oxide,
0.08
0.37
Calcium oxide, .
0.44
0.99
Magnesium oxide,
0.12
0.09
Insoluble matter,
1.01
1.33
Valuation per 2,000 pounds
%b 93
$6 35
676
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Fertilizing Ingredients of Orchard Grass.
[I. Fertilized. Collected in bloom, Juno 7, 18S6. II. Unfertilized. Collected in
bloom, June 7, 18SG. III. Fertilized. Collected in seed, June 30, 1886.
IV. Unfertilized. Collected in seed, June 30, 1886.]
Teu Cent.
I.
11.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C
9.09
9.1G
8.38
8.72
Phosphoric acid,
0.483
0.399
0.329
0.444
Potassium oxide,
2.339
2.114
1.758
1.303
Nitrogen,
1.300
1.G40
1.109
1.190
Sodium oxide, .
0.211
0.233
0.24G
0.211
Calcium oxide.
0.401
0.457
0.49G
0.470
Magnesium oxide.
0.255
0.23G
0.192
O.;:05
Ferric oxide, .
0.014
0.021
0.0G3
0 034
Insoluble matter,
1.8G7
1.97G
2.280
2.11G
Valuation per 2,000 pounds.
$6 99
$7 80
$5 GG
?5 G9
Fertilizing Ingredients of . Bedtop Hay.
[I. Fertilized. Collected in bloom, July 5, 1886. II. Unfertilized. Collected in
bloom, July 5, 1886. III. Fertilized. Collected in seed, July 22, 1886. IV.
Unfertilized. Collected in seed, July 22, 1886.]
Pkr C
liNT.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100= C, . . . .
G.81
7.75
8.24
8.02
Phosplioric acid.
0.377
0.391
0.352
0.32G
Potassium oxide, .
1.20G
1.054
I.IGO
0.059
Nitrogen .
1.240
1.248
0.940
1.219
Sodium oxide.
0.180
0.425
0.829
0.317
Calcium oxide.
0.G14
0.G45
0.451
0.575
Magnesium oxide, .
0.125
0.149
0.149
0.111
Ferric oxide, .
0.024
0.033
0.038
0.000
Insoluble matter, .
1.71G
1.G83
1.710
1.836
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, .
$5 53
?5 59
$4 01
$5 07
EXPERIMENT STATION.
fi77
Fertilizing Ingredients of Meadow Fescue.
p. Fertilized. Collected in
seed, June 28, 188G. II. Unfertilized,
seed, June 28, 1SS6.1
IJollected in
Pkr Cext.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100° C,
7.40
8.03
Phosphoric acid,
0.230
0.229
Potassium oxide,
1.815
2.183
Niti-ogen, .
1.04
1.07
Sodium oxide, .
0.080
0.139
Calcium oxide, .
0.540
0 4G6
Magnesium oxide,
0.140
0.136
Fen-ic oxide, .
0.027
0.025
Insoluble matter,
1.403
1.961
Valuation per 2,000 pounds.
$5 3G
^5 87
The biijher pei
•cent
asre
of'
litroqenous n
latter in i
the croD
from the unfertilized plats, over that from the fertilized
phits, finds its exphmation in the fact that, owing to the
scanty supply of plant-food in the former, the plants matured
at an earlier date. The advantages of fertilization are,
therefore, not shown in the percentage of nitrogenous matter,
but in an increased total yield of a healthy, vigorous growth.
1S87. — The lands were ploughed and harrowed during
the second week of May. The original lines of sub-division
were retained. Plats 12, 14, 16, 18 and 20 remained unfer-
tilized, as in previous years. Plats 11, 13, 15, 17, 19 and
21 were fertilized, as before, with a mixture of 600 pounds
of fine-ground bones, and 200 pounds of muriate of potash,
per acre. The fertilizer was applied broadcast, and slightly
harrowed under before seeding. The different plats were
planted May 18, and the seeds, in every case, laid in drills,
from two feet to three feet three inches apart, as circum-
stances advised, — grasses and clovers, two feet, and corn
and peas, three feet three inches, apart.
678
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Plat No.
11
(fertilized),
Plat No.
12
(unfertilized),
Plat No.
13
(feitilized),
Plat No.
14
(unfertilized), .
Plat No.
15
(fertilized),
Plat No.
IG
(unfertilized), .
Plat No.
17
(fertilized) ,
Plat No.
18
(unfertilized), .
Plat No.
19
(fertilized).
Plat No.
20
(unfertilized), .
Plat No.
21
(fertilized) ,
Com (Clark varietj-).
Corn (Clai'k A'ariet}').
Italian Rj-e Grass (Lolium Italieum).
Englisli Uye Grass (Lolimii pevenne).
i Italian Rj'e Grass (Lolium).
! Englisli 113-e Grass (Lolium).
5 varieties Soutliern Cow Pea.
6 varieties Southern Cow Pea.
IMcadow Fescue (Festuca pratcnsis).
\ Als3'ke Clover.
! jMedium lied Clover.
1 Alsyke Clover.
! Medium Red Clover.
') IMammotli Red Clover.
! Alfalfa (Luzerne).
) Mammotli Red Clover.
! Alfalfa C Luzerne).
The re.sults regarding the yield of the annual plants —
corn and cow peas — are stated below ; while the record of
the comparative yield of the perennial plants — grasses and
clovers — are reserved for another year. The majority of
these plants show their respective values as fodder plants
better in the second year, when seeded somewhat late in the
spring. Our present communication is, for this reason, con-
fined to some analyses of the first cut of Alfalfa, and Alsyke
clover.
Plat 11 (fertilized) yielded 3,910 pounds of green fodder
corn; Plat 12 (unfertilized) yielded 2,890 pounds of green
fodder corn, — a diflerence of thirty per cent, in favor of
the fertilized plat. The plant-food coming from the disin-
tegration of the sod of the preceding grass crop has evidently
favored an increased production upon the unfertilized plat.
Plats 15 and IG were each planted May 18, with five
different varieties of Southern peas, the seeds of which were
secured of J. J. Wolfenden, provision dealer in Newberne,
N. C.
1. Sug.ar Crowdcr.
2. Plack (I'allack).
3. '\\'liip2^oor\vill Cow Pea.
4. Clay Cow Pea.
5. Crowder.
The entire lot grew slowly at first until the season turned
warmer. The vines of No. 5 became disea.sed, and dried up
prematurely. Nos. 2, 3 and 4 produced a voluminous
J
EXPERIMENT STATION.
679
growth, from 28 to 30 inches high. None but No. 2 pro-
duced, to any extent, matured pods.
The entire yield on Plat 15 (fertilized) amounted to 2,400
pounds of green crop, containing from 18 to 19 per cent, of
dry vegetable matter.
Plat IG (unfertilized) produced 1,300 pounds of green
fodder, — a difference of 54 per cent, in favor of the fertil-
ized plat. An analysis of No. 4, Clay variety of Southern
cow pea (DoUchos) will be found in a later chapter, on new
fodder crops. The crop was cut for fodder, Aug. 29 to
Sept. 3.
ALFALFA (Luzerne; Hay).
[Collected from Experiment Station Plats, Aug. 16, 1887, while in bloom. First
Cut.]
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry Matter,
8.33
91.G7
8.41
91.59
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash,
" Cellulose,
" Fat,
" riotein (Nitrogenous Matter), ,
Non-nitrogenous Extraet Matter,
100.00
7.18
28.54
1.54
11.12
51.G2
100.00
7.83
27.8G
2.04
12.96
49.31
100.00
100.1.^0
ALSYKE CLOVER (Hay; TraroLiuM Hybkidum).
[Collected from the Experiment Station Plats, Aug. 16, 18S7, while in bloom.]
Fertilized.
Unfertilized.
Moisture at 100° C,
Dry Matter,
8.G4
91.3G
8.30
91.70
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash,
" Cellulose,
" Fat,
" Protein (Nitrogenous IMatter), .
Non-nitrogenous Extraet Matter,
100.00
10.92
2G.28
2.89
14.97
44.94
100.00
13.35
21.44
3.2G
17.32
44.03
100.00
100.00
680
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Fertilizing Ingredients of (1) Alfalfa, {2) Alsyke Clover.
[I. Alfalfa. Fertilized. II. Alfalfa. Unfertilized. III. Alsyke Clover. Fertilized.
IV. Alsvke Clover. Unfertilized.
Teu CESt.
I.
11.
in.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C,
8.33
8.41
8.G4
8.30
Phosphoric axjid,
0.444
0.458
1.016
0.584
Potassium oxide,
2.043
0.872
2.740
1.605
Nitrogen,
1.G30
1.900
2.190
2.540
Sodium oxide, .
O.GGS
1.354
0.236
0.570
Calcium oxide.
1.4SC
2.558
1.644
1.836
Magnesium oxide, .
0.249
0.582
0.735
0.610
Fen-ic oxide, .
0.105
0.085
0.417
0.246
Insoluble matter, .
0.716
0.G87
3.226
3.241
Valuation per 2,000 pounds.
%1 81
$7 65
$11 00
$10 70
The higher per cent, of nitrogenous matter in the crop
from the unfertilized plats, over that from the fertilized pUits,
finds its explanation in the fact that, owing to the scanty
supply of plant-food in the former, the plants matured at an
earlier date. The advantages of fertilization are, therefore,
not shown in the percentage of nitrogenous matter, but in
an increase of total yield of a healthy, vigorous growth.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
681
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682 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
3. Experiments with Wheat.
(TouRTEEX Varieties.)
[Field C ]
Fourteen varieties of winter wheat were sown on the
south half of Field C, in drills, eighty feet in length and
three feet three inches apart, during the first week of Octo-
ber, 1886. The rows, eight in number, ran north and south.
The soil consisted of a good loam ; the fertilizers used
were 600 pounds of ground bone, and 200 pounds of muriate
of potash, per acre. Eight rows of the following fourteen
varieties were sown: (1) Genoese, (2) Egyptian, (3)
Indian, (4) White Crimean, (5) Fulcaster, (6) Genoese^
(7) German Emperor, (8) Raub's Black Prolific, (9)
McGchee (white), (10) Diehl — Mediterranean, (11) Four-
rowed Sheriff', (12) Martin's Amber, (13) Extra Early
Oakley, (14) /^mber (Mass.). The seed for the first
thirteen varieties named was sent on by the U. S. Depart-
ment of Agriculture ; that of the fourteenth was ol)tained
from Joseph Breck & Sons, Boston, Mass., for the purpose
of comparing one of our reputed home varieties with those
sent on.
The first four varieties (Genoese, Egyptian, Indian and
White Crimean) were on the eastern portion of the field,
which was low and moist; they were entirely winter-killed,
and serradella was planted in their places. Numbers 6 and
11 (Genoese and Four-rowed Sheriff) were also largely
winter-killed, — so much so, that at time of haiwest they
were left as worthless on the field. The Extra Early Oak-
ley (13) was the first variety to head, — the 3d of June.
On June 7 it was followed by number 14, — our native
Amber AVhcat. June 13, all save number 11 (Four-rowed
Sheriff') had headed. July 19, each variety was stooked
by itself, with the exception of Genoese (6) and Four-
rowed Sheriff" (11), which were not far enough advanced,
and of poor growth. July 29, they were taken to the barn
and threshed. Every variety was more or less aff'ected
by the rust.
The foHowing table shows growth, height, color and yield
of the eiuht rows of the diff'erent varieties that matured : —
EXPERIMENT STATION.
683
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684
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
None of the imported varieties exceeded our home Amber
wheat in any essential point.
Vetch ( Vicia sativa) and Oats. — An area of a small frac-
tion over one-fifth of an acre was sown broadcast, May 16,
with vetch and oat seed, — one part of vetch to three parts
of oats.
The soil was prepared for the crop in the same way as in
the case of wheat.
On the 2r)th of May the young plants appeared above
ground. The first cutting was made July 8, the crop then
standinsT three and one-half feet hisrh, and the vetch beins:
in bloom ; the cutting was stopped July 26. Two hundred
pounds per day were cut, on the average, to serve in our
second feeding experiment with milch cows. It was relished
by them much more than during the previous year, when
the vetch was sown alone.
The yield of the area was fully two tons of green crop,
which would give an estimated yield of 10.89 tons of green
fodder per acre.
Composition of Green Vetch and Oats.
Julj- 7.
July 20.
July 2C.
Average.
Moisture at 100^ C,
Dry Matter, ....
86.11
13.89
73.GG
23.31
73.05
23.95
7G.61
23.39
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
The feeding ceased when the oats turned yellow.
Analysis of Green Vetch and Oats.
[Collected from Experiment Station Field, July 8, 18S7.J
Moisture at 100= C,
Dry Matter,
Ajiahjsis of Dry Matter.
Crude Asli,
" Cellulose,
" Fat,
" Protein (\Xiti'ogenous Matter),
Non-nitro<^cnous Extract Matter,
Tcr cent.
8G.11
13.89
i
100.00
12.37
34.20
2.74
10.59
40.10
100.00
EXPERIMENT STATION. 685
The vetch has already received considerable attention in
various sections of our country; reports, thus far, speak
with much satisfaction of the results. The plant resembles,
in many respects, the common garden pea ; there are early
and late varieties in cultivation. Its period of vegetation is
from 18 to 22 weeks, and the time of seeding corresponds
to that of the pea. The common vetch is a hardier plant
than the latter, and grows well upon an inferior soil. Its
reputation as a valuable green fodder, cither single or when
grown in common with rye, oats or barley, is well established.
An equal number of both plants gives a richer green
fodder than the proportion wo tried.
Serradella (Ornithopus sativus, Brot.). — The area occu-
pied by this plant w'as 20G feet long by 80 feet wide, and
belonged to a piece of land prepared in common with that
used for the cultivation of the varieties of wheat.
The seed was sown in drills, three feet three inches apart.
May 25. The plants began to bloom July 12. The cutting
of the crop for green fodder commenced Sept. 2 ; from 200
to 300 pounds were used per day, as part of the feed for
three cows. The supply lasted until Sept. 26. The yield
on our tield amounted to 7,300 pounds of green fodder, or
9^ tons per acre, with an average of from 18 to 20 per
cent, of dry vegetable matter.
The serradella, like the vetch, is an annual leguminous
plant, w^hich found its way from Portugal into Central
Europe some fifty years ago. It grows from one to one and
one-half feet high, and prefers a moist, deep, sandy soil.
Time of seeding and mode of cultivation correspond with
that customary in the cultivation of peas. The growth of
the plant is slow until the time of blooming, Avhen it rapidly
increases in size and nutritive constituents.
The close of the blooming pariod, at the end of August or
bogiiuiing of September, is with us the best time for cutting
the crop. Leading agriculturists speak very highly of this
fodder [)lant. »
Our results in the field and in our feeding experiments
(see "Feeding Experiment with Milch Cows, II.," in this
report) have been for several years very satisfactory. The
cows relish the serradella hiijhlv.
686 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Analysis of Green Serradella.
[Collected from the Experiment St.ntion Fields, Sept. 20, 1887.]
Tor cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 80.58
Dry Matter, 19.42
Analysis of Dry Matter
Cinide Ash,
" Cellulose, . . . .
" Fat,
" Protein (Nitrogenous Matter), .
Non-nitrogenous Extract Matter,
100.00
11. .03
38.76
2.09
12.01
35.G1
100.00
Southern Cow Pea (Dolichos ?) ; variety, Clay. — This
valuable variety of Southern cow pea has been raised for
several years past, with very satisfactory results, upon the
grounds of the Experiment Station. Its exceptionally high
value for green manuring and for renovating the soil, has
been pointed out in previous annual reports. During the
past summer season w^e have studied its comparative value
as green fodder for milch cows. The results of these ex-
periments are stated in this report under the head of ' ' Feed-
ing Experiments with Milch Cows, II." The cow pea is
much liked by cows and horses, find its effect as an essential
part of the daily diet for milch cows is very satisfactory,
judging from our own results.
The fact that the seeds of the. Clay or Whippoorwill varie-
ties cannot be matured in our section of the country, cannot
be considered a serious impediment to its more general use,
for the seeds may be had in unlimited quantity at -a very
reasonable cost. J. J. Wolfenden, provision dealer in
Newbeme, N. C , among others, has offered his services for
the purchase of genuine seeds, at reasonal)]c terms.
Tlie ground which served during the past summer season
for the cultivation of Southern cow pea for feeding, adjoined
that used for the raising of serradella and of wheat. The
soil was prepared, as far as ploughing and fertilizing were
concerned, in the same manner as that upon which wheat
was raised. The seeds were planted May 25, in drills three
feet three inches apart. The entire area occupied by the
EXPERIMENT STATION. 687
crop, in this part of our experimental field, was 101.5 feet
long and 80 feet wide ; it yielded 3,705 pounds of green fod-
der, with an average of from 12 to 18 per cent, of dry vege-
table matter. The rate of production per acre, calculated
on the basis of our own observation, would be 91 tons of
green fodder. A few weeks more of growth would have
materially increased the yield. The course adopted in our
feeding experiment obliged us to use the Southern cow pea,
as the serradella was not yet far enough advanced in growth.
Southern observers obtain from 20 to 25 tons of green crop
per acre. The cutting of the pea vines for fodder began as
early as Aug. 1, and lasted until Aug. 23. A new growth
had started from the roots again Aug. 25 ; it proved, how-
ever, of but little value for feeding purposes, on account of
the lateness of the season.
Analysis of Southern Cow Pea.
[Collected from Experiment Station Fields, Sept. 2, 1887.]
Per cent
Moisture at 100*^ C, 78.81
Dry Matter, 21.19
100.00
Analysis of Dry Matter.
Crude Ash, 5.97
" Cellulose, 23.02
" Fat, 1.81
" rvotcin, 8.28
Non-nitrogenous Exti-act Matter, G1.92
100.00
688
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
PltLP
o
t
^
r
Y'^
X
cy flJ 0
.__ _jU
ar
KJ
--\---
:::;^:
SCALE ^ KPP5 To TH& inCttl
EXPERIMENT STATION. 689
4. Experiments with Potatoes.
(Yau. : Beauty of Hebron.)
[Field D.]
A. — Experiments with High-grade German Potash Salts
and Ground Bones, as Fertilizers.
The experiments were originally instituted (1884) for the
purpose of studying the effects of muriate of potash and
sulphate of potash on the yield of potatoes, as far as quantity
and quality are concerned.
Three plats, each one-fifth of an acre in size, were chosen
for the experiment. The land had been for several years in
grass, and contained quite a number of old apple-trees. The
majority of the latter were removed, and the turf thoroughly
broken up before manuring.
Plat 1 (west end) received 120 pounds of ground ren-
dered bones, and 30 pounds of muriate of potash (equal
to from 26 to 27 pounds of phosphoric acid, 4 to 41 pounds
of nitrogen, and 15 to 16 pounds of potassium oxide).
Plat 2 received no manure.
Plat 3 (east end) received 120 pounds of ground rendered
bones, and 58 pounds of double sulphate of potash and
magnesia (equal to from 26 to 27 pounds of phosphoric
acid, 4 to 4|^ pounds of nitrogen, 15 to 16 pounds of potas-
sium oxide, and 5 to 6 pounds of magnesium oxide).
The fertilizers were applied broadcast, and harrowed under
before planting. The potatoes were planted in rows three
feet apart, and fourteen inches distant in the rows, during
the tirst week in May, 1884. The crop was kept clean from
weeds by a timely use of the cultivator.
As an additional feature of the experiment, one-half of
each plant was planted with medium-sized whole potatoes,
the other with half potatoes obtained from similar sized
tubers.
The crop obtained from Plats 2 and 3 were seriously dis-
figured by scab, while that from Plat 1 had suffered less.
1885. — The arrangement of the field, the mode of ma-
nuring, and the variety of potatoes raised, were the same as
690 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
in the preceding season. The seed potatoes used had been
carefully selected from our own crop, raised during the pre-
ceding season, on the same plats.
The young crop was hoed June 9. The difference in the
plats was quite marked July 24 : Plat No. 1, fertilized with
muriate of potash, had the largest foliage and looked darker
green than the remainder; No. 3, fertilized with sulphate of
potash, looked next best. A blight on the leaves, which
showed itself during the first week of August, prematurely
terminated the experiment ; the vines upon all plats died
soon after. The crop was harvested Aug. 26. The potatoes
from all the plats suffered severely from scab.
The exceptionally large proportion of small potatoes ob-
tained, in particular, from Plats No. 2 and 3, as well as the
low percentage of solids in the potatoes tested, proved the
premature termination of a healthful condition of the entire
crop. The normal growth of the tubers came apparently to
a standstill soon after the first examination for solids had
been made '(July 24). The results seemed to indicate a
connection between " blight" and " scab," and left scarcely
any doubt about the circumstance, that either the one or the
other, or both jointly, had contributed directly or indirectly
towards the partial failure of the crop for the two succeed-
ing seasons.
It was decided, in sight of these facts, to continue the ex-
perimentsjn 1886 upon the same field, with some modifica-
tions, to ascertain, if possible, whether the main influence
regarding the results in our past observation had to be
ascribed to atmospheric agencies, or to the condition of the
soil and the fertilizer applied, or to the quality of the seed
potato used.
1886. —The same field was used as in 1885. The land
was well prepared by ploughing and harrowing, April 27,
and subsequently fertilized, the same as in previous years.
The change regarding the character of the fertilizf-r appli'd,
consisted in using nearly twice the amount of potash salts,
muriate and, sxdphate of potash, for the same area, in case of
Plats 1 and 3. A second important change from our pre-
vious practice consisted in securing first quality seed pota-
toes.— in particular, ^/y-ee from scab. The same variety —
EXPERIMENT STATION. (591
Beauty of Hebron — was obtained for that purpose from
Vermont ; it was as fair an article as could be desired The
system of planting and cultivating was the same as in pre-
vious years. The potatoes were planted upon all plats May
5, 188(). x\ll the vines were in full blossom July 6 ; they
began to turn yellowish and dry up July 30. The crop on
the entire tield was dried up Aug. 8. This change seemed
to appear most marked, and first, on the vines raised from
whole potatoes. The crop was harvested Aug. 28.
Neither a liberal use of our own mixture of coinmercial
manurial substances, rich in potash compounds, nor the selec-
tion of a fair quality of seed potatoes from another locality,
had affected our results, as compared with those of the pre-
vious season; for the entire crop, with scarcely any exception,
was badly disfigured by scab. The potatoes were unfit for
family use, and had to be sold at a low price for stock-feeding.
For further details in regard to our observations in 1884,
1885 and 1886, see annual reports.
A due consideration of all the circumstances which ac-
companied our course of observation thus far, induced us to
draw the following conclusions : —
1. Medium-sized whole potatoes give better results than
half potatoes obtained from tubers of a corresponding size.
2. Disregarding the results of the first year, when pre-
viously existing resources of plant food in liberal quantities
must have rendered the influences of an additional supply of
manurial substances less marked, it appears that sulphate of
potash produced better results in our case than muriate of
potash.
3. T\iQ premature dying out of the vines, accompanied by
blight or scab, or both, must be considered a controlling
cause of the exceptionally large proportion of small potatoes.
4. Some peculiar condition of the soil upon the lands
used for this experiment is to be considered the real seat of
our trouble.
To test the correctness of conclusion 4 still further, the
experiment has been continued for another year.
1887. — The same plats as in previous years were utilized
for the experiment. The subdivision remained unchanged.
The fertilizers applied were the same as in 1886.
692 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The lands were ploughed and harrowed during the first
week of May, and the potatoes planted in all the plats May
11. First quality potatoes, " Beauty of Hebron," raised in
Vermont, were used as seed. The growth looked well upon
all the plats until July 28, when the vines on Plats 2 and
3 began to turn yellow. They commenced drying up Aug.
9, and by Aug. 12 were dry on all plats. An examination
of the little potatoes, July 1, showed already, in every case,
the marks of scab.
The entire crop, when harvested, wa^ so seriously/ affected
by scab that it proved worthless in the general market.
The months of July and August were exceptionally wet
and warm in our part of the State, — a circumstance which
has, most likely, aggravated our trouble. The potato crop
this year has been extensively a failure, in our vicinity,
wherever low lands have been used for its cultivation.
B. — Observations ivitJi Scabby Potatoes.
These experiments were inaugurated in 1886, for the pur-
pose of inquiring into the circumstances which control the
development and the propagation of the scab on potatoes.
1886. — The first year's work in this connection has been
confined to the task of observing the behavior of scabby
potatoes as seed potatoes, under some definite previous
treatment. To prevent a possible propagation of scab in
the new crop by infected seed potatoes, the following course
was adopted : Thoroughly scabby potatoes, obtained from
the previously described experimental plats, were treated
with some substances known to be destructive to various
forms of parasitic growth. This operation was carried out
with the intention of destroying the propagating power of
adherent germs of an objectionable character, before plant-
ing the seed.
The fichl for the observation was distinctly separate from
other experimental plats for the cultivation of potatoes. It
had been used for many years previous for the raising of
grass, and had since been planted but once, — the preceding
year (1885), with corn. The land was prepared by plough-
ing and harrowing in the same way as other potato fields.
EXPERIMENT STATION. 693
It was fertilized broadcast, at the rate of 600 pounds of
ground rendered bones and 290 pounds of potash magnesia
sulphate.
The field was subdivided into five plats of equal size,
eighty feet long and fifty feet wide, and the potatoes subse-
quently planted in rows, three feet three inches apart, with
hills three feet from each other in the rows. Three feet of
space was left between the plats unoccupied. The scabby
seed potatoes selected for the trial were, as far as practicable,
of a uniformly medium size. Each lot was immersed in the
particular solution prepared for the difierent plats ; after
being kept there for twenty-four hours they were removed
and directly planted.
Plat 1 was planted with healthy and smooth potatoes, with-
out any previous treatment. This course was adopted to
learn whether soil, fertilizer, or atmospheric agencies of the
season would favor the appearance of the scab in the crop.
Plat 2. The scabby seed potatoes were allowed to remain
for twenty-four hours in a saturated solution of muriate of
potash before being planted.
Plat 3. A strong solution of hypochlorite of lime
(bleaching lime) was applied in a similar way, for the prep-
aration of the scabby seed, as in the case of Plat 2.
Plat 4. A saturated solution of carbolic acid in water,
served, in this instance, for the treatment of the scabby
potatoes.
The potatoes were planted in all plats on the same day,
May 7. The vines did not appear evenly, at first; they
were, however, equally vigorous upon all plats at the close
of June.
The tops on all plats were pretty generally dried up
Aug. 18. The potatoes were harvested on the entire field
Aug. 30. The yield on all the plats was fair, and the
quality of the potatoes, almost without exception, excel-
lent ; this seemed to be more striking in regard to those on
Plats 2, 3 and 4, which had been, in the beginning of the
season, somewhat behind in growth. Here and there could
be seen a potato with a small mark of scab ; a large propor-
tion were perfectly smooth and without any sign of it.
The results were recorded as those of a first experiment.
694 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The fact that a scabby potato may produce, under certain
circumstances, a smooth and otherwise excellent potato, was
confirmed. Good potatoes have been raised before from
seed potatoes suffering from scab, without any previous
treatment similar to ours. Without any intention of antici-
pating the results of future observations, or to point out
with certainty the exact cause of our results, we expressed
the opinion that a difference in the condition of the soil in
our old and ne^v expeinmental potato plats might have proved
to be the principal cause of our trouble : for the former
yielded, from healthy potatoes, most inferior scabby pota-
toes ; whilst the latter produced, from scabby potatoes, a
most superior, smooth potato, under otherwise almost identi-
cal conditions, as far as soil, mode of cultivation and kind
of fertilizer were concerned, upon land in close proximity,
during the same season.
1887. — The experiment has been repeated during the
past season upon the same lands, with but a slight modifica-
tion. The soil was ploughed and fertilized as jn the preced-
ing year. Ten plats, each fifty feet long, were planted with
four rows of potatoes, three feet three inches apart, and with
nineteen hills in the row. Medium-sized, whole scabby
potatoes (Beauty of Hebron), selected from the crop raised
upon our own fields during the previous year, and which is
described in some preceding pages, under the heading
" Potato Experiment," "A," served as seed potatoes. One-
half the plats were planted with scabby potatoes, all from
the same lot, after being immersed for eighteen hours in
some solution prepared for that purpose ; and the other half
were planted without any previous treatment of the seed, —
Plats 2, 6 and 10 with our scabby potatoes, Beauty of
Hebron, and Plats 4 and 8 with healthy, smooth tubers, of
the same variety.
p, . ^ Scabby potatoes, soaked in a solution of
( potassium sulphide
p, „ < Scabby potatoes, without any particular
c treatment,
p, „ J Scabby potatoes, treated with a solution of
' \ hypochlorite of lime (bleaching lime),
p, , J Smooth, healthy potatoes, without previous
' treatment.
EXPERBIENT STATION.
695
Plat
5,
Plat
c,
Plat
Plat
7,
8,
Plat
9,
Plat 10,
^ Scabby potatoes, treated with a solution of
( potassium- chloride (muriate of potash).
Scabby jjotatoes, without jji-evious treatment.
^ Scabby potatoes, treated with a solution of
( carbolic acid.
Smooth, healthy potatoes, not treated.
^ Scabby potatoes, treated with copper sul-
c lahate (blue cojDperas).
Scabby potatoes, not treated.
The young plants made their appearance on all the plats,
except No. 9, June 1 ; those on No. 9 appeared eight or ten
days later. The entire crop looked uniformly well. The
vines dried up on all plats at about the same time. The
crop was harvested with the following results : -
Beauty of Hebron.
l-LVT.
c
"" 3
o
a
O
•6
s m
O t«
■5
c
o
o
Solutions Used.
Results.
(Sept. 12, 1887.)
No. 1,
Scabby.
Potassium sulphide.
Good ; not scabby.
2,
Scabby.
None.
Good ; not scabby.
3,
Scabby.
Hypochlorite of lime (bleaching lime).
Especially good.
4,
f-H
Good.
None.
Somewhat scabby.
5,
•*
Scabby.
Potassium chloride (muriate of potash) .
Especially good.
6,
i
Scabby.
None.
Good ; not scabby.
7,
1^
Scabby.
Carbolic acid.
Especially good.
8,
Good.
None.
Especially good.
9,
10,
Scabby.
Scabby.
Copper sulphide (blue copperas) .
None.
Only 7 hills left. Mor«.
or less scabby.
Somewhat scabby.
A careful consideration of these results seems to show
that a certain condition of the soil has been the leading
cause for the origin and propagation of the scab ; for scabby
seed potatoes have produced healthy, smooth tubers, both
with and without any special previous treatment, — see
Plats 1, 2, 7 and 8, On the other hand, it is not without
interest to notice that Plats 1, 3 and 7 have furnished us
with some of the best potatoes we have raised during the
past season.
69() BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The investigation will be continued, with some modifica-
tions, another year,
P. S- — One of the best results with the cultivation of
various kinds of potatoes during the past season was noticed
with some seed potatoes sent on by the United States De-
partment of Agriculture, called "Polaris," and stated as
being imported directly from Ireland.
Roots. — The seeds used in this trial were sent on by the
United States Department of Agriculture, with the excep-
tion of No. 7, Saxony sugar beet, which was taken from
our own collection of seeds. The supply of seeds was small.
The land consisted of a good loam in a fair condition of
fertilization. It had been manured for several years past,
annually, with a mixture consisting of 600 pounds of fine-
ground bone, and 200 pounds of muriate of potash, per
acre. The seeds, ten varieties in all, were sown May 25.
Each variety occupied two rows across the field, of equal
length (80 feet).
No. 1,.
2, .
8,.
4,.
5,.
6,.
7,.
8,.
9,.
10,.
Beet, Mangel Wurzel, " Giant Long Red.''
Beet, Mangel Wurzel, " Yellow Ovoid."
Beet, " Eclipse."
Beet, " Red Globe."
Beet, " Egyptian Turnip."
Beet, " Long Smooth Red."
Beet, Sugar Beet, '• Saxony."
Turnip, Ruta Baga, " White Sweet German."
Turnip, " Early Yellow " or " Golden Stone."
Turnip, Ruta Baga," Skirving's Purple Top."
The rows were three feet three inches apart. The young
plants were, in every case, thinned out or transplanted, as
circumstances advised, to about eight inches distant from
each other in the rows.
The transplanting and thinning out took place between
July 5 and 11 ; the weather during this time was favorable
for transplanting. The seeds of Nos. 6 and 9 did not prove
as good as the others ; the young plants of Nos. 5 and 9, in
particular, did not do as well after transplanting as the re-
mainder.
The crop was harvested partly Oct. 31 and partly Nov.
2. The fir,st lot of roots, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, after being
removed from the ground, was topped at once, and three
EXPERIMENT STATION.
697
of eacli kind were taken to the laboratory for a chemical ex-
amination ; three of an approximately con-esponding size
were photographed.
The second lot, Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10, was treated in a
similar manner. The three sample roots selected in each
case, represent, as far as practicable, the smallest, medium
and largest of each variety raised.
The photographs were taken with all the roots at an equal
distance from the camera.
Statement of Results.
NAME OF VARIETY.
o
1
3
t5
§
«
o
%>
.a
B
s
o
o
K
o
1
1
Weight of thi-eo
Samples I'hoto-
graphed.
Iba.
IbB.
1. Mangel Wurzel, "Giant Long Red,"
2
150
365
11.75
2. Mangel Wurzel, " "^^ellow Ovoid," .
177
350
9.75
3. Beet, " Eclipse,"
2
163
2S5
4.
4. Beet, "Red Globe," • ....
2
173
335
7.5
0. Beet, " Egyptian Turnip,". . . .
2
146
170
8.75
6. Beet, " Long Smooth Red,"
2
145
1S5
5.
7. Sugar Beet, " Saxony," . . . •
3
216
470
8.75
8. Ruta Baga, " White Sweet German," .
2
176
445
4.
9. Turnip, " Early Yellow " or " Golden Stone,"
2
43
50
5.5
10. Ruta Baga, " Skln-ing's Purple Top," .
2
140
295
12.75
The analyses of the different varieties of roots will be
reported as soon as finished.
Miscellaneous Field Experiments with Farm and
Garden Crops.
The field notes under the above heading are made for no
other purpose than to enter on record a series of experi-
ments, for various reasons, not yet fit for a general report.
In some instances the supply of seeds was too small to
entitle us to draw any particular conclusion ; in others, the
selections of seeds were made merely for the purpose of
preparing the lands for a future special field experiment.
698 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
>
The small supply of seeds was furnished, in the majority of
cases, by the U. S. Department of Agriculture.
The work carried on in this connection has had, for
obvious reasons, no other aim than to study the adapta-
tion of some new field crop to our climate, or to com-
pare some new variety of a prominent garden crop with
those frequently raised in our section of the State. The
field set aside for these experiments was in a good state of
cultivation. Barnyard manure, supplemented by commer-
cial phosphates and potash compounds, had been used in the
past as manure ; no alteration was made in this respect dur-
ing the past season.
The list of seeds sown embraces, aside from those already
mentioned in previous pages, one variety of mustard,
"Southern Giant Curled;" three of pepper, "Cayenne,"
" Sweet Mountain," and " Golden Dawn ; " two of tomato,
"Paragon "and " Improved Mayflower ;" one of cabbage,
" Early Summer ; " two of cauliflower, " Early Snow Ball "
and "Giant Cauliflower," " Pyrethrum roseum " ; and one
variety of potato, " Polaris," in the form of seeds and seed
potatoes (two tubers) .
The seeds were, in every instance, sown in a hot-bed and
subsequently transplanted in the field. All matured well,
with the exception of Pyrethrum roseum, which is a peren-
nial plant.
Aside from these plants, there have also been cultivated,
on a small scale, Asiatic Rhubarb, Sago Bean (Sago Jiispida),
wild potato from Colorado, and several reputed new varieties
of potatoes, to secure material for future experiments.
The recently ploughed old grass lands, on the east side of
the highway, were planted with potatoes, corn and horse
beans, squashes, several varieties of oats, and barley. The
lower portion, from five to six acres, has been laid down
during the fall into a permanent meadow ; while the re-
mainder of worn-out grass land in that locality — from six
to eight acres — has been underdrained and ploughed at
the close of the season.
The details of the past year's work upon this part of the
land of the Station will be related hereafter, in connection
with a description of a more matured system of cultivation.
Plate
No, 1, Beet, Mangel Wurzel, '^aiant Iioncr Red'
No. L' Beet, Mangel Wurzel, "Yellow Ovoid'
Plato 2.
No. 3 Beet, "Eclipse'
No. 4 Beet. "Red Globe
No. 5. Beet. "Egyptian Turnip'
Plate o.
No. 6. Bee I. "Long Smooth Ked".
I'/'iiS''-' a ^'^'-T'J Pfl/^7"(6 C&.S-'An .'^ft/f
No. « Turnip, Rnta I5aga, "White Sweet German".
naie 4.
No. y, I'lirnip. --hiai'ly YeiLow" or "(loicleii Stone,"
IVfl'Str i f OTE/i PKiHVns C^>..STArc f^nnms
No. 10. Turnip. Rula Baga, "Skirvings Purple 'J'op".
EXPERIMENT STATION. 699
SUGGESTIONS UPON PLANTING TREES AND SMALL
FRUITS.
[By S. T. Mayxard, Professor of Botany and Horticulture, Massachusetts
Agricultural College.]
The most important points to be considered in successful
planting of trees and small fruits are : —
1. Selection of trees and plants.
2. Preparation of the trees and plants.
3. Soil and its preparation.
4. Methods of planting.
5. After-care and cultivation.
Selection of Trees and Planting.
Successful planting depends very largely upon the condi-
tion of the trees or plants at the time of planting The
best results are generally obtained, other things being equal,
when the trees or plants are obtained from local nurseries,
and planted with little or no exposure to the dr^dng influence
of the sun and air. The merits of the Massachusetts-grown
trees, as compared with those grown in the extensive nurse-
ries of distant States, arc often discussed, and the latter
condemned for New England planting. While, in many of
the above-mentioned nurseries, owing to long experience,
especial skill and a soil naturally suited to the best growth,
very fine trees are grown, perhaps better than are generally
grown in small local nurseries, yet the danger from injury in
transporting, should they go a great distance, and the length
of time from digging to transplanting, will make it gener-
ally safer to depend upon home-grown trees where they can
be obtained.
Great care must be exercised in digging, and, if large
quantities are to be dug at once, as soon as a few are dug
the roots should be protected by mats or blankets, or have
soil thrown over them until all are to be packed for trans-
porting or taken to the field for planting. In packing for
shipping, no material is so good to keep the roots moist and
prevent their heating as clean sphagnum moss ; for short
distances, moist straw or hay may answer very well for this
purpose.
700 BOARD OF AGllICULTURE.
Vigorous young plants are much better than those that
have been a very long time in growing to suitable size. The
average age for Iruit trees and plants in the best condition
for transplanting is about as follows : Apple, three j^ears
from bud ; pear, 3 years from bud ; peach, 1 year from bud ;
plum, 2 years from bud ; cherry, 2 years from bud ; quince,
3 years from cutting or root graft; grape, 1 year No. 1, or
2 years No. 2, from cuttings or layers; currant, 2 years
from cuttings ; gooseberries, 2 years from cuttings ; rasp-
berries and blackberries, 1 year from suckers or root cut-
tings ; strawberries, only new runners of last season's
growth should be used, the old plants having black roots,
with the feeding surfaces so far from the crown that when
they are dug nearly all of them are destroyed.
Preparation of Trees and Plants for Planting.
It is impossible to remove a tree from the nursery to the
orchard without injuring some of the larger roots, while
nearly all the rootlets and all the root hairs will be destroyed
by only a slight exposure to the air. As there are no feed-
ing roots on the newly transplanted trees until new ones are
formed, if none of the buds or shoots are removed, the
supply of moisture being insufficient, all make a very feeble
growth, or fail to develop at all, especially if a drought
comes on early in the summer. To prevent *this injury and
ensure a vigorous starting of a few buds, the top should be
cut back in proportion to the amount of injury to the roots,
which will generally be from one-half to two-thirds of the
entire top. In this pruning all shoots should be cut entirely
away that are not needed for the formation of a perfect head,
and the others cut back one-half or two-thirds of their
length.
If the head is not formed high enough upon the trunk, it
may often be carried higher by cutting off all lateral shoots,
leaving the most central one for a leader, upon which will be
formed the new head, several inches higher than the first.
This may be still carried up by pinching the ends of the low-
est laterals, to force the growth into the higher ones. Thus,
in a single season, the head may be carried from one to two
feet higher than it was when received from the nursery. All
EXPERIMENT STATION. 701
injured roots should have the ends cut smooth with a sharp
knife ; and with small fruits, like the grape, currant and
strawberry, it is often desirable to cut back some of the
longer ones.
Soil and its Preparation.
Unless suitable soil is selected, very poor results will often
be obtained. The apple thrives upon a greater variety of*
soils than any other fruit, but that best suited to its growth
is a rich, moist, well-drained loam. The pear, plum and
quince require a heavier soil, but it should be free from stand-
ing water. The cherry delights in a light, sandy loam.
The peach can only be successfully grown in New England
upon high and well-drained land. Upon the tops of our
hioh hills the trees are hardier, live Ioniser and bear more
fruit, although, even here, they are not safe from injury,
and annual crops cannot be expected until some method of
protection has been discovered that can be easily and cheaply
applied. Grape vines give the best fruit in quality when
planted upon hi ^h, gravelly soil ; but, to insure a vigorous
growth of vine to enable a large crop of fruit to mature,
some nitrogenous manure must be used, but only early in
the season, as a late application would induce a late growth
of wood, that is very liable to injury by severe cold.
The raspberry and blackberry mature their wood much
better upon light land than upon heavy, moist soil, but, like
the grape, require an addition of nitrogenous manure to
secure a growth of canes sufficient to mature a large crop of
fruit. Spreading mulch upon the surface, or constant culti-
vation, will generally prevent the escape of moisture at the
time of the ripening of the fruit, when it is most needed.
The currant and gooseberry require a moist, heavy soil for
the best results, but are liable to be thrown out by frosts if
the soil is not well underdrained.
The best soil for the strawberry is a moist, sandy loam.
Upon light, sandy soils there is a tendency to a large num-
ber of berries, but, there not being moisture enough in the
soil, very few will mature.
Before planting it is necessary that the soil be made rich
enough to ensure a good gro^vth, if it is not already in that
702 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
condition. For small fruits it is generally l>est to apply the
Dianure or fertili^iers broadcast and harrow in, as it may also
be done for the large fruits, if the land is to be cultivated
with some other crop for a, few years.
If the trees are to be planted in land not cultivated for
other crops, the manure or fertilizer would be more econom-
ically applied only about the trees, increasing the area cov-
ered as they increase in size. Unfermented manure should
never be placed in contact with the roots of any tree or
plant, but if decomposed and well mixed with the soil, no
injury will result from the use of a limited quantity. The
best way to use coarse manure is to apply it to the surface
about the trees slightly covered with soil. The quantity to
be used must be varied with the condition of the soil, but
should be used sparingl}^ upon the peach until they begin
bearing.
Perhaps the best material to use, where the soil is not
sufficiently rich for the i)roduction of fruit, is fine-ground
bone and potash, four })arts of the former to one part of
muriate of potash. This, at the rate of one pound to a
tree, mixed in the fine soil used around the roots, and one
pound applied near the surface, will insure a good gro\\i;h,
unless the soil is unusually poor. The holes should be dug
a little larger than the roots will extend, and loosened a little
deeper than they are to be planted. For convenience and
beauty, trees should be set at regular distances.
Methods of Planting.
Generally the best time for planting is in the early spring,
although it may be successfully done in the fall, when the
leaves drop early and the shoots mature hy Nov. 1.
In the spring, trees should not be planted until the ground
will work up fine, and not compact when pressed about the
roots. If the soil is light, the roots should be planted a
little deeper than they grew in the nursery, but if moist, the
same depth as they stood in the nursery is sufiicient. Grape
vines should be i)lanted with the croAvn, or collar, within
a few inches of the surface, and the roots extending six to
ten inches deep, according to the soil. Raspberry, black-
berry and strawberry plants should be planted as early in
EXPERIMENT STATION. 703
the spring as the land will work. Black-cap raspberries
must be planted with the large central bud near the surface,
as deep covering often destroys i't ; the roots, ho>vever,
must be put, obliquely, as deep as they will go. It is im-
portant that the soil be pressed very finely about the roots
before all is filled in, and that upon the surface be left light.
It often happens that trees are received from the nursery
in a dry, shrivelled condition, which, if planted in that state,
would certainl}^ fail to grow. They may be improved, and
sometimes saved, by burying top and root in moist soil for
a few days or a week ; then, by severe pruning at planting,
they will l)e much more certain to grow.
After Care.
It often happens that trees received in good condition,
and very carefully planted, fail to grow from want of after
care. This, for the first season, consists in seeing that a
sufiicient supply of moisture is present about the roots.
In time, of drought, watering may be avoided by covering
the ground, for several feet about the tree, with mulch, five
or six inches deep, or by stirring the surface soil once or
twice each week. Trees planted in turf are especially lial)le
from the moisture being taken up by the surrounding grass
roots. This can only be prevented by covering the ground
with a mulch of any waste material, like corn stover, old
hay, straw, shavings, sawdust, fine brush, cider pomace,
meadow mud or peat.
The same result may be obtained by packing the loose
stones often found about the trees. Mulching material of
an\' kind should not be in contact with the trunk of the
trees from Nov. 1 to May 1, unless they are protected by
banking up, or by a tin or tar-paper band about them to pro-
tect from injury by mice.
704 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
VALUATION OF FERTILIZERS, AND
FERTILIZER AN^ALYSES.
To assist the farmers, not yet familiar with the current
mode of determining the commercial value of manurial sub-
stances offered for sale in our markets, some of the essen-
tial considerations, which serve as a basis for our valua-
tion, are once more stated within a few subsequent pages.
The valuation of a fertilizer is based on the average trade
value of fertilizing elements, specified by analysis. The
money value of the higher grades of agricultural chemicals,
and of the higher-priced compound fertilizers, depends, in
the majority of cases, on the amount and the particular form
of two or three essential articles of plant food; i. e., phos-
phoric acid, nitrogen and potash, which they contain. The
valuation which usually accompanies the analyses of these
goods shall inform the consumer, as far as practicable, re-
garding the cash retail price at which the several specified
essential elements of plant food, in an efficient form, have
been offered of late for sale, in our large markets.
The market value of low-priced materials used for ma-
nurial purposes, as salt, wood ashes, various kinds of lime,
barnyard manure, factory refuse and waste materials of dif-
ferent descriptions, does not, quite frequently, stand in a
close relation to their chemical composition. Their cost
varies in different localities. Local facilities for cheap trans-
portation, and more or less advantageous mechanical condi-
tion for speedy action, exert, as a rule, a decided influence
on their selling price.
The wholesale market price of manurial substances is
liable to serious fluctuations ; for supply and demand exert
here, as well as in other branches of conmiercial industry, a
controlling influence on their temporary money value. As
farmers have only in exceptional instances n desirable chance
to inform themselves reocardino; conditions which control the
market price, the assistance rendered in this connection by
EXPERIMENT STATION. 705
agricultural chemists charged with the examination of com-
mercial fertilizers, cannot otherwise but benefit, ultimately,
both farmers and manufacturers.
The market reports of centres of trade in New England,
New York and New Jersey, aside from consultations with
leading manufacturers of fertilizers, furnish the necessary
information regarding the current trade value of fertilizing
ingredients. The subsequent statement of cash values in
the retail trade is obtained by taking the average of the
wholesale quotations in New York and Boston, during the
six months preceding March 1, 1887, and increasing them
by twenty per cent., to cover expense for sales, credits, etc.
These trade values, except those for phosphoric acid,
soluble in ammonium-citrate, were agreed upon by the Ex-
periment Stations of Massachusetts, Connecticut and New
Jersey, for use in their several States for the present season.
Teade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw
Materials and Chemicals.
1887.
Cents per round.
Nitrogen in nitrates, 16
Nitrogen in ammoniates, 17^
Organic niti'ogen in dried and fine-ground fish, .... 17^
Organic nitrogen in Peruvian guano, blood, meat, azotin, ammo-
nite, and castor jjomace, 17J
Organic niti'ogen in fine-ground bone and tankage, ... 10
Organic nitrogen in fine medium bone and tanlvage, ... 14
Organic nitrogen in medium bone and tankage, .... 12
Organic nitrogen in coarse medium bone and tankage, . . 10
Organic matter in coarse bone, horn shavings, hair and fish scrajDs, 8
Phosphoi'ic acid, soluble in water, 8
Phosphoric acid, soluble in ammonia citrate,* .... 7^
Phosphoric acid, insoluble, in dry, fine-groimd fish, in fish bone
and tankage, 7
Phosphoric acid, insoluble, in fine, medium bone and tankage, . 6
Phosphoric acid in medium bone and tankage, .... 5
Phosphoric acid in coarse medium bone and tankage, ... 4
Phosphoric acid in coarse bone and tankage, .... 3
Phosphoi-ic acid in fine-ground rock phosphate, .... 2
Potash as sulphate, in compounds free from chlorine, ... 5^
Potash as kainite, 4J
Potash as muriate, 4J
♦Dissolved from two grams of phosphate, ungroimd, by 100 c.c. neutral solution
of ammonium citrate, sp gr. 1.09, in 30 minutes, at 65 deg. C, with agitation once in
five minutes, commonly called "reverted " or " backgone " phosphoric acid.
706 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
The above trade values are the figures at which, on March
1, the respective ingredients could be bought at retail ybr
cash per pound in our leading markets in the raw materials,
which are the regular source of supply.
They also correspond to the average wholesale prices for
the six months, ending March 1, plus 20 per cent, in case of
goods for which we have wholesale quotations. The calcu-
lated values obtained by the use of the above figures will be
found to agree fairly with the reasonable retail price in case
of standard raw materials, such as : —
Sulphate of Ammonia,
Kiti-ate of Soda,
MmMate of Potash,
Sulphate of Potash,
Dried Blood,
Dried Ground Meat,
Dried Ground Fish,
Azotin,
Ammonite,
Castor Pomace,
Bone,
Plain Superphosphates.
Trade Values in Superphosphates, Special Manures
AND Mixed Fertilizers of High Grade.
The or'janic nitroo-en in these classes of c:oods will be
valued at the hiii:hest fiijures laid down in the ' ' Trade Values
of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials;" namely, 17.5
cents per pound, it being assumed that the organic nitrogen
is derived from the best sources, namely, animal matter, as
meat, blood, bones or other equally good forms, and not
from leather, shoddy, hair, or any low-priced inferior form
of vegetable matter, unless the contrary is ascertained.
Insoluble phosphoric acid will be valued at three cents, it
being assumed, unless found otherwise, that it is from bone
or similar sources, and not from rock phosphate. In this
latter form the insoluble phosphoric acid is worth but two
cents per pound. Potash is rated at 4| cents, if sufficient
, chlorine is present in the fertilizer to combine with it to
make muriate. If there is no more potash present than will
combine with the chlorine, then the excess of potash will be
counted as sulphate. To introduce large quantities of
chlorides, common salt, etc., into a fertilizer, claiming sul-
phate of potash as a constituent, is a practice which, in our
present state of information, will be considered of doubtful
EXPERIMENT STATION. 707
merit. The use of the highest trade vahies is leased on the
opinion that tliese articles ought to contain the most efficient
forms of fertilizing ingredients. In most cases the vahiation
of the ingredients in superpliosphates and specials falls be-
low the retail price of these goods. The difference between
the two figures represents the manufacturers' charges for
converting raw materials into manufactured articles. These
charijes are for g-rindino- and mixino;, baijo-incr or barrelinof,
storage and transportation, commission to agents and dealers,
long credits, interest on investment, bad debts, and, finally,
profits.
Local disadvantages for transportation exert, not infre-
quently, a serious influence on the cost of one and the same
brand of fertilizers. Binding rules cannot be laid down re-
garding these points. Farmers must judge for themselves
whether the difference between our valuation and the prices
asked for is a fair one, considering local conditions of
supply.
The prices stated in these bulletins, in connection with
analyses of commercial fertilizers, refer to their cost per ton
of 2,000 pounds on board of car or boat near the factory,
or place of general distribution. To obtain the valuation of
a fertilizer (^. e., the money worth of its fertilizing constit-
uents), we multiply the pounds per ton of nitrogen, etc.,
by the trade value per pound. We thus get the values per
ton of the several ingredients, and, adding them together, we
get the total valuation per ton.
The mechanical condition of any fertilizing material,
simple or compound, deserves the most serious consideration
of fanners, when articles of a similar chemical character are
offered for their choice. The degree of pulverization con-
trols, almost w^ithout exception, under similar conditions,
the rate of solubility, and the more or less rapid diffusion of
the different articles of plant food throughout the soil.
The state of moisture exerts a no less important influence
on the pecuniary value, in case of one and the same kind of
substance. Two samples of fish fertilizer, although equally
pure, may differ from fifty to one hundred per cent, in com-
mercial value, on account of mere difference in moisture.
Crude stock for the manufacture of fertilizers, and refuse
708
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
material of various descriptions, sent to the Station for ex-
amination, are valued with reference to the market prices of
their principal constituents, taking into consideration, at the
same time, their general fitness for speedy action.
A large percentage of commercial fertilizing material con-
sists of refuse matter from various industries. The compo-
sition of these substances depends on the mode of manufact-
ure carried on. The rapid progress in our manufacturing
industry is liable to affect, at any time, more or less seriously,
the composition of the refuse. A constant inquiry into the
character of the agricultural chemicals, and of commercial
manurial refuse substances offered for sale, cannot fail to
secure confidence in their composition, and to diminish finan-
cial disappointment in consequence of tlieu application.
This Avork is carried on for the purpose of aiding the farm-
ing community in a clear and intelligent appreciation of the
substances for manurial purposes.
Consumers of commercial manurial substances do well to
buy, whenever practical, on guaranty of composition with
reference to their essential constituents, and see to it that
the bill of sale recognizes that part of the bargain. Any
mistake or misunderstanding in the transaction may be
readily adjusted, in that case, between the contending
parties. Tne responsibility of the dealer ends with furnish-
ing an article corresponding in its composition with the
lowest-stated quantity of each specified essential constituent.
Sulphate of Ammonia.
[Sent on from Amherst, Mass. Two samples.]
Per Ce:jt.
I.
n.
Moisture at 100° C,
Nitrogen {11 \ cents per pound), ....
Sulphuric acid,
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, ....
1.63
21.68
69.64
$75 88
.29
20.97
59.20
$73 43
EXPERIMENT STATION.
709
Nitrate of Soda.
[Sent on from Asliliy, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100° C
.96
1.35
Nitrogen (16 cents jjer pound) , .
14.66
16.14
Sulphuric acid,
Trace.
-
Chlorine,
Trace.
-
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, ....
$47 01
$51 65
Sulphate of Magnesia.
[Sent on from Amlierst, Mass.]
rer cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 29.01
Magnesium oxide, 15.87
Sulphuric acid, 30.35
Insoluble matter, 6.29
A.mmonite.
[Sent on from Soutbampton, Mass.]
Moisture at 100° C, .
Ash,
Nitrogen (171 cents jser pound).
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound),
Lisoluble matter, ....
Per cent.
6.17
9.56
12.20
3.40
0.22
$47 50
Valuation per 2,000 i^ounds.
The matcritil was in a fine meclianical condition, and thus
in a favorable form for speedy disintegration.
Saltpetre Waste.
[Sent on from South Acton, Mass.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 2.71
Sodium oxide,
Potassium oxide (4^ cents per pound),
Calcium oxide,
Sulphuric acid,
Nitrogen in nitric acid (16 cents per pound),
Chlorine,
45.92
6.11
0.71
0.84
0.80
66.00
Valuation per 2,000 poimds,
$7 75
710
BOAKD OF AGRICULTURE.
The sample contained less nitric acid and more potash
than previous samples.
Felt Factory Waste.
[Sent on from Lowell, Mass.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 39.24
Organic and volatile matter, 66.47
Ash 33.53
Nitrogen (eight cents jjcr i^ound), 5.26
Insoluble matter, 8.44
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, $8 42
The principal part of the ash consisted of carbonate of
lime. The material ought to be composted before being
incorporated into the soil. For use in stables as an absorb-
ent it deserves commendation.
Ootton-seed Meal.
[I. Sent on from Boston, Mass. II. Sent on from Ashby, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100° C, ,
10.200
7.71
Ash
5.480
7.29
Phosf)horic acid (6 cents per jsound), .
2.278
2.01
Magnesium oxide, ....
.478
1.13
Potassium oxide (4 J cents per i^ound),
1.G20
2.09
Sodium oxide,
.170
-
Ferric oxide,
.019
-
Calcium oxide,
.403
0.27
Nitrogen (17 cents per pound), .
4.193
4.02
Insoluble matter,
.240
0.06
Valuation per 2,000 pounds,
fl8 37
$17 86
EXPERIMENT STATION.
711
Sea-weed Ashes.
[Sent on from Duxbury, Mass.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, , . 1.47
Calcium oxide, 6.06
Magnesium oxide, 4.37
Potassium oxide, 0.92
Sodium oxide, 8.72
Phosphoric acid, 0.30
Sulphuric acid, 2.98
Chlorine, 6.60
Sulphur, 0.14
Insoluble matter (before calcination), 63.65
Insoluble matter (after calcination) , 56.28
The analysis of the above ash showed it to contain .14
per cent, of magnesium chloride.
Mussel and Mud.
[Sent on from EastLam, Mass.]
Moistiire at 100° C, .
Phosphoric acid (5 cents per poimd),
Calcium oxide,
Iron and alumina,
Niti'ogen (15 cents per pound).
Insoluble matter, .
Valuation jser 2,000 lbs.,
Per cent.
2.24
0.35
23.39
8.26
0.72
37.60
$2 50
8ea-weed.
[Sent on from Eastham, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
ri.
Moisture at 100° C,
12.05
14.96
Ferric oxide, .
0.25
0.09
Calcium oxide,
2.73
3.86
Phosphoric acid, .
0.44
0.17
Magnesium oxide,
1.48
1.30
Sodium oxide,
11.75
8.40
Potassium oxide, .
3.81
0.36
Chlorine,
6.40
5.28
Nitrogen,
1.66
1.28
Insoluble matter, .
7.73
0.78
712 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Much.
[Sent on from Peabody, Mass.]
rer cent.
Moisture at 100° C, . 89.89
Dry matter, 10.11
Ash in fresh muck, 3.05
Nitrogen in fresh muck, ........ .26
The ash contained a considerable portion of lime and
magnesia compounds. The material is a fair specimen of its
kind.
German Peat.
[Sent on from Millbury, Mass.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 11.29
Nitrogen in organic matter (8 cents per i)ound), . . . 1.23
Ash constituents, 1.23
Insoluble matter (in ash), 0.38
Valuation per 2,000 poimds, f 1 97
The material was well dried, and evidently designed to
serve as an absorbent in some branch of manufacture.
Muriate of Potash.
[Sent on from Ashby, Mass. Four samples.]
Per Cknt.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C, . . . .
0.15
I.IG
0.75
0.57
Potassium oxide (\\ cents per pound), .
51.87
53.33
52.11
52.11
Sodium oxide,
-
-
-
10.13
Chlorine,
-
-
-
54.00
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, .
$44 09
|45 33
144 30
$44 30
EXPERI^IENT STATION.
713
Muriate of Potash.
ri. Sent on from Fitcbburir, Mass. II. Sent on from North Hadley, Mass.
III. Sent on from Amherst, Mass.]
Per Cest.
I.
II.
m.
Moisture at 100= C,
Potassium oxide (4| cents per pound),
Sodium oxide,
Clilorine,
Valuation per 2,000 pounds,
0.15
51.87
144 09
1.05
48.G0
5.70
43.20
$41 31
1.86
49.98
f42 48
Suljphate of Potash and Magnesia.
[I. Sent on from Amherst, Mass. II. Sent on from Ashby, Mass. III. Sent on
from Ashby, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
Moisture at 100° C,
3.85
7.73
0.34
Magnesium oxide,
13.G6
12.90
-
Potassium oxide (b\ cents per j)omid),
22.63
22.70
51.28
Sodium oxide,
6 34
4.22
-
Sulpliuric acid,
47.28
45.61
46.41
Chlorine,
2.64
1.46
-
Insoluble matter,
0.80
0.46
0.93
Valuation per 2,000 pounds.
$24 89
$24 97
^56 41
714
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Wood Ashes.
[I. and II. Sent on from Sunderland, Mass. III. Sent on from Northampton, Mass.
IV. Sent on from Boston, Mass. V. Sent on from Amesbury, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
rv.
V.
Moisture at 100° C, .
11.39
10.97
9.70
17.38
7.47
Phosphoric acid, ....
1.71
1.19
0.89
1.17
1.86
Magnesium oxide, ....
3.32
3.20
3.64
3.77
3.98
Calcimn oxide,
37.25
36.46
37.23
31.50
39.05
Potassium oxide, ....
G.U
6.28
7.55
6.24
4.69
Insoluble matter (before calcination).
10.83
17.45
23.80
18.05
15.68
Insoluble matter (after calcination) ,
7.71
12.01
12.62
13.49
13.98
These samples are of good quality, with the exception of
No. Y. Unleached wood ash sells in our vicinity at from
24 to 25 cents per bushel of from 42 to 44 pounds.
Wood Ashes.
[I. Sent on from New York City, N. Y. II. Sent on from North Ilatfield, Mass.
III. Sent on from Methuen, Mass. IV. Sent on from Eastbam, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C,
4.73
14.19
17.33
13.59
Phosphoric acid,
-
0.81
-
1.46
Calcium oxide,
-
36.86
-
35.90
Magnesium oxide,
-
2.64
-
3.16
Potassium oxide,
3.40
7.23
7.22
5.74
Insoluble matter (before calcination), .
22.49
. 6.48
7.05
10.64
Insoluble matter (after calcination) ,
15.42
5.81
-
7.55
EXPEEIMENT STATION.
Wood Ashes.
[Sent on from South Deerfield. Four samples.]
715
Per Cent.
I.
II.
in.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C, . . . .
14.09
13.31
14.71
12.37
Pliosphoi'ie acid,
1.38
1.38
1.17
.98
Magnesium oxide, .....
3.35
3.48
3.57
3.58
Calcium oxide,
36.90
37.74
36.32
36.26
Potassiimi oxide,
6.72
4.86
6.85
6.77
Insoluble matter (bef oi-e calcination) , .
8.20
7.46
14.65
17.78
Insoluble matter (after calcination),
6.42
5.80
9.14
10.45
Canada Wood Ashes.
[I. Hard-wood ashes. Sent on from Stockbridge, Mass. II. Sent on from Granby,
Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
n.
Moisture at 100° C, . ' . . ^ .
19.16
13.53
Phosphoric acid,
1.32
1.31
Calcium oxide,
34.80
36.63
Magnesium oxide,
8.04
3.12
Potassium oxide,
5.65
6.22
Insoluble matter (before calcination).
7.48
9.22
Insoluble matter (after calcination), .
5.64
6.95
716
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Wood Ashes.
[Sent on from Amherst, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
III.
Moisture at 100° C,
17.22
10.87
9.52
Calcium oxide,
34.28
3G.28
54.48
Magnesium oxide,
3.96
3.94
4.35
Potassium oxide,
4.42
5.37
5.23
Phosphoric acid,
1.54
1.14
1.65
Insoluble matter (before calcination) ,
16.82
11.76
11.14
Insoluble matter (after calcination), .
12.46
10.11
9.97
Lime-kiln Ashes.
[Sent on from South Deerfield, Mass.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Phosphoric acid, .
Calcium oxide.
Magnesium oxide.
Potassium oxide, .
Insoluble matter (befor
e calcination)
Insoluble matter (after calcination).
Wood Ashes (Canada).
Per cent.
18.90
.36
44.89
1.26
.99
7.19
2.58
[I. and II. Sent on from Boston, Mass. III. Sent on from Sunderland, Mass.
IV. Sent on from Concord, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
lU.
IV.
Moisture at 100^ C, . . . .
11.12
8.67
1.10
15.98
Phosphoric acid,
2.05
1.59
1.08
1.34
Magnesium oxide,
3.30
3.18
2.93
4.45
Calcium oxide, . . . .
39.15
39.75
50.09
30.49
Potassium oxide,
5.30
5.58
2.93
4.76
Insoluble matter (before calcination) , .
9.80
10.10
9.59
16.91
Insoluble matter (after calcination) ,
8.67
9.17
7.38
14.14
EXPERIMENT STATION.
717
Nos. 1, 2 and 4 are unleached Canada ashes; the large
amount of moisture and of insohible matter in No. 4 ex-
plains its lower percentage of potash. Sample No. 3 is a
partially leached ash.
Cotton-seed Hull AsJies.
[Sent on from North Hadley, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
]\Ioisture at 100° C,
7.40
8.08
Potassium oxide {b\ cents per pound).
28.55
26.62
Magnesium oxide,
16.14
17.15
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per poimd), .
8.97
11.50
Calcium oxide,
10.58
11.37
Insoluble matter,
11.71
5.38
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, ....
$42 17
$43 08
'Plioao comnloa nr>r>foin on ovnot-i+ir^riQll
ir n 1 (T n ti
ovooD+nrro
of potassium oxide and of phosphoric acid.
Cottonseed Hidl AsJies.
[Sent on from North Hadley, Mass.]
Per Cbnt.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100° C,
12.34
22.80
Potassium oxide (5^ cents per pound).
22.08
31.72
Magnesium oxide,
10.78
4.67
Phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound) , .
10.32
2.89
Calcium oxide,
6.64
3.35
Insoluble matter (before calcination).
20.08
7.59
Insoluble matter (after calcination), .
17.06
7.30
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, ....
$36 67
$38 36
718 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
Soap-grease Hesidue.
[Sent on from South Lincoln, Mass.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 38 79
Total phcsphoric acid (5 cents per potiiid) , . . . . 11.04
Insoluble phosphoric acid, 8.93
Reverted phosjihoric acid, 2.11
Potassium oxide (4| cents per pound), 0.14:
Xitrogen (12 cents per ijound), 2.21
Insoluble matter, ' 1.20
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, $16 24
Soup from Horse-rendering Estahlishment.
[Sent on from Arlington, Mass.]
Ter cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 92.14
Total phosphoric acid (6 cents per pound), .... 0.14
Nitrogen (15 cents per pound), 1.12
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, ?3 53
Fish.
[I. Dried Fish ; sent on by Swanzey Farmers' Club, Swanzcy, Mass. II. Fish and
Potash ; sent on from Medfield, Mass. III. Fish Bone and Potash ; sent on from
Concord, Mass.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
in.
Moisture at 100° C, .
9.17
26.75
16.93
Total phosphoric acid, .
7.92
5.44
4.19
Soluble phosphoric acid.
0.G4
2.00
0.39
Reverted phosphoric acid, .
4.36
2.57
2.00
Insoluble phosphoric acid, .
2.92
1.08
1.82
Potassium oxide, .
None.
2.95
1.24
Nitrogen, ....
8.73
3.90
1.66
Insoluble matter, .
2.69
1.59
30.80
Valuation per 2,000 pounds,
$39 87
$23 87
$11 54
EXPERIMENT STATION.
719
Ground Bones.
[Sent on from "Westford, Mass.]
]\roistiire at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid,
Soluble and reverted phosphoric acid (7^ cents
per pound) ,
Insoluble phosphoric acid (5 cents per pound), .
Nitrogen (15 cents per pound), ....
Insoluble matter,
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, ....
$23 90
The mechanical condition of botli samples was much the
same ; the valuation above given has been for this reason
the same. The desirability of having ground bones sold
only by a guaranteed composition finds an additional strong
illustration in this case.
Ground Bone.
[Sent on from Concord, Mass.]
Per cent.
]\Ioisture at 100^ C, 3.05
Total phosphoric acid, 17.72
Reverted phosphoric acid (7 J cents per pound), . . . 5.55
Insoluble phosphoric acid (4 cents per pound), . . . 12.17
Xitrogen (15 cents iier poimd), 5.15
Insoluble matter, 1.19
Valuation per 2,000 pounds, $33 52
Steamed Bone and Meat.
[Sent on from Fitchburg, Mass.]
INIoisture at 100^ C, .
Total phosphoric acid (5 cents per pound
Soluble phosphoric acid, .
Reverted phosphoric acid, .
Insoluble jDhosphoric acid, .
Nitrogen (15 cents per pound),
Insoluble matter, ....
Valuation per 2,000 poiuids.
Per cent.
4.71
20.28
0.56
4.54
14.18
6.37
1.19
$35 25
720
BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
Ground Itock Phosphate.
[Sent on from West Springfield, Mass.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C, 0.10
Total phosiihoi-ic acid, 80.51
Soluble phosiilioric acid, None.
Revei'ted ijhosphoric acid, 0.19
Insoluble phosphovic acid (2 cents per pound), . . . 30.31
Magnesium oxide, 3.03
Calcium oxide, 41.87
Ferric and aluminum oxides, 4.26
Lisoluble siliceous matter, 13.74
The material is of but little value for manurial pui-poses,
without a previous treatment with sulphuric acid, to render
its phosphoric acid available.
South Carolina Roch Phosphate.
[Sent on from Ashby, Mass.]
Moistin-e at 100° C, .
Total pliosphoric acid.
Soluble iihosphoric acid.
Reverted iihosphoric acid.
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
1.68
25.81
0.27
0.47
25.07
11.64
The material is of fair composition, and ought to be manu-
factured into su]ierphosphate before used.
Natural Phosphate.
[Sent on from New York.]
Per cent.
Moisture at 100° C,
3.26
Total phosplioric acid, ....
28.95
Reverted phosplioric acid, ....
1.50
Insoluble phosphoric acid, ....
27.45
Alumina and ferric oxides, ....
11.76
Calcium oxide,
35.40
The article is characterized by the presence of a liberd
amount of sesquioxide of iron and alumina. Actual field ex-
periments have to decide its agricultural value.
EXPERIIVIEXT STATION.
721
Carib Guano.
[Sent on from Baltimore, Md. I. Rock ; coarse. II. Fine-ground. III. Soil.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
in.
INIoisture at 100° C, .
2.12
2.16
15.80
Total phosphoric acid, .
35.43
33.09
21.72
Soluble phosphoric acid,
-
-
0.12
Reverted phosphoric acid,
3.78
3.49
0.44
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
31.65
29.60
21.16
Total nitrogen.
-
_
0.66
Nitrogen as ammoniates.
-
-
0.28
Nitrogen as nitrates, .
-
-
0.26
Calcium oxide.
44.74
43.26
-
Insoluble matter, .
0.60
1.59
7.15
The valuation of this material depends in a controlling
degree on its mechanical condition.
SuperpJiosjphates.
[Sent on from Ashby, Mass. I. and II. Dissolved Bone-black. III. and IV. Acid
Phosphate.]
Per Cent.
I.
n.
in.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C, . . . .
13.83
13.86
16.39
13.93
Total phosphoric acid, ....
18.21
16.37
14.68
13.84
Soluble phosphoric acid (8 cents per
poimd),
14.59
14.60
10.50
10.91
Reverted phosj^horic acid (1\ cents per
pound),
3.41
1.53
3.82
0.69
Insoluble phosphoric acid (3 cents per
pound), .
0.21
0.24
0.36
2.24
Insoluble matter,
3.52
2.09
7.89
9.54
Valuation per 2,000 poimds, .
$28 59
$25 80
$22 75
|19 84
These articles are of fair quality.
722
BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
MaH.
[I. and II. Sent on from Baltimore, Md. III. Sent on from South Framingham,
Mass.]
Per Cest.
I.
II.
III.
Moisture at 100° C
16.70
15.26
12.12
Phosi^lioric acid,
0.09
0.08
0.35
Sulphuric acid,
1.00
0..31
Trace.
Carbonic acid,
4.23
1.76
-
Calcium oxide,
9.21
6.29
47.11
Magnesium oxide,
0.25
0.16
0.65
Potassium oxide, .
O.Gl
0.37
-
Insoluble matter (before calcination),
59.59
68.86
7.73
Insoluble matter (after calcination), .
-
-
7.51
I. and II. Are samples of "green marl;" they belong
to a valuable class of marls.
III. Tills material, sent on " as a sample of marl," is
essentially a carbonate of lime of fine aggregation and of a
soft texture ; and for this reason it deserves recommenda-
tion for agricultural purposes, wherever an addition of lime
will benefit the soil in the interest of the crops raised upon it.
Peruvian Guano.
[Sent on from Taunton, Mass.]
Moisture at 100° C,
Total phosphoric acid, ....
Solul^lc phosphoric acid (8 cents per pound),
Reverted phosphoric acid (7| cents per pound)
Insoluble pliosphoric acid (3 cents per pound),
Totassium oxide (4^ cents per pound).
Total nitrogen,
Actual ammonia (17^ cents per poimd),
Organic nitrogen (17^ cents per pound), .
Nitrogen as nitric acid (16 cents per pound).
Insoluble matter,
Valuation per 2,000 pounds,
Per pent.
12.17
18.45
1.54
5.92
10.99
3.46
5.13
3.94
0.86
0.33
13.64
$38 74
EXPERIMENT STATION.
723
Compound Fertilizers.
[I. Sent on from Millbury, Mass. II. Sent on by Swanzey Farmers' Club, Swanzcy,
Mass.]
Pek Cent.
I.
II.
Moisture at 100° C,
11.83
7.69
Total phosphoric acid, .
13.95
9.91
Soluble phosjihoric acid,*
6.62
2.81
Reverted pliosphoric acid,
2.69
3.57 .
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
4.64
3.53
Potassium oxide, .
3.28
10.64
Niti-ogen,
2.88
4.62
Insoluble matter, .
3.82
1.81
Valuation per 2,000 pounds,
$30 28
$.37 19
Compound Fertilizers.
[I. .\nira.il fertilizer; sent on from Boston. II. Sent on from Eastham, Mass. III.
Sent on from Tewksbury, Mass. IV. Peruvian guano; sent on from Taunton,
^lass.]
Per Cent.
I.
n.
III.
IV.
Moisture at 100° C, . . . .
7.20
8.81
14.15
12.17
Total phosphoric acid, .
14.51
3.97
13.69
18.45
Soluble phosphoric acid.
6.34
0.25
7.00
1.54
Reverted phosphoric acid.
6.74
2.96
4.83
5.92
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
1.43
0.76
1.86
10.99
Potassium oxide, .
5.11
2.97
2.96
3.46
Calcium oxide,
-
-
16.65
-
Total nitrogen.
3.44
1.39
2.40
5.13
Niti-ogen in ammoniates.
-
-
-
3.94
Nitrogen in nitrates.
-
-
-
0.33
Niti'ogen in organic matter.
-
-
-
0.86
Insoluble matter, .
1.23
65.16
5.52
13.64
Valuation per 2,000 pounds,
$37 49
fl2 69
$30 49
$38 73
724 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Miscellaneous Analyses.
Vinegars.
[Sent on from Prescott, Mass. I. Made Oct. 5, ISSo, from unripo Baldwin apples ;
Bhrinkage, 1| gals, on 10, or 12.;| per cent. 11. Made Oct. 23, 1885, from ripe
Baldwin apples ; shrinkage not determined. III. Made Oct. 23, 1885, from
sweet apples ; shrinkage, 1 gal. on 7, or 14 2-7 per cent.]
Per Cent.
I.
II.
ni.
Temperature, C, . . . .
11.1
11.1
11.1
Specific gravity,
1.016
1.019
1.024
Acetic acid,
6.67
8.41
8.66
Sulpliuric acid and chlorine,
Trace.
Trace.
Trace.
Solids at 100° C,
1.44
1.94
3.02
The tests were made Jan. 24, 1887.
[Two samples, sent on from Montague, Mass.]
I. II.
Total acids, 4.90 per cent. 4.55 per cent.
[Seven samples ; sent on from Hardwick, Mass.]
Per Cent.
Specific
Tempera-
Gravity.
ture, C.
Solids.
Fat.
Solids
not Fat.
No. 1
1.0338
17°
10.27
1.47
8.80
2, .
1.0329
17°
10.02
1.44
8.58
3
1.0323
17°
9.67
1.31
8.36
4, .
1.0323
17°
13.74
4.68
9.06
5
1.0335
17°
9.19
0.74
8.45
6
1.0320
17°
11.47
3.01
8.46
7
1.0311
17°
15.62
7.27
8.35
EXPERIMENT STATION.
725
Analysis of Water sent on for Examination.
[Parts per Million.]
S
a
■e g
1^
Locality.
14.80
0.03
2.460
ContaiD
0.10
0.03
0.05
0.69
0.15
0.18
0.04
0.34
BO3-
0.05
0.10
0.03
4.75
4.72
0.07
0.08
1.225
0.07
0.02
0.22
3.45
0.14
3.50
0.26
0.48
0.044
0.12
0.13
0.14
1.620
ed free
0.18
0.09
0.16
0.09
0.11
0.36
0.02
0.47
42.20
0.10
0.09
0 08
0.20
0.28
0.04
0.04
0.15
0.70
0.32
0.21
0.18
0.90
0.08
0.50
0.26
0.13
0.098
0.15
0.20
148.00
16.00
5.00
acid, la
23.30
6.00
92.80
55.60
10.00
72.50
21.00
18.00
7.20
9.10
6.00
48.00
74.00
56.00
18.00
2.00
8.00
11.00
9.00
3.50
9.00
5.40
150.00
73.00
36.00
13.50
6.00
None.
18.00
0.682
130.00
0.0396
rge amou
178.00
56.00
462.00
392.00
36.00
584.00
194.00
139.00
90.00
164.00
120 00
1S6.00
706.00
386.00
214.00
52.00
132.00
202.00
258.00
79.00
66.00
110.00
652.00
692.00
344 00
64.00
50.00
22.00
150.00
0.258
19.76
73.2
26.70
0.0220
-
ntsofSOj.
Traces
112.80
31.20
45.60
13.50
300.00
8.86
216.00
7.43
18.80
1.27
231.00
_
-
3.66
91.00
3.77
38.00
CaO-
86.00
6.57
66.00
6.00
84.00
6.29
252.00
5.43
234.00
5.14
48.00
2.S8
20.00
0.48
104.00
-
140.00
-
194.00
-
37.00
-
40.00
1.11
70.00
3.90
126.00
11.05
258.00
11.20
130.00
7.43
44.00
-
32.00
1.11
20.00
1.27
86.00
1.95
None.
of Fe.
None.
Present.
Present.
Present.
None.
None.
None.
None.
None.
Millia.
No. Amherst.
Westford.
Millia.
Amherst.
Athol.
So. Amherst.
Rutland.
Amherst.
Westford.
Amherst.
Marblehead.
Amherst.
Amherst.
Bellows Falls.
No. Iladley.
No. Iladley.
No. Iladley.
Amherst.
Hadley.
So. Amherst.
80. Amherst.
Pawtucket.R.I.
Amherst.
Amherst.
Amherst.
Amherst.
Attleboro'.
No. Amherst.
Amherst.
East Amherst.
Amherst.
East Amherst.
Amherst.
Amherst.
Springfield.
So. Amherst.
Amherst.
Westhampton.
Athol.
726 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE.
The above-stated results of analyses of drinking waters
were obtained from samples sent on, for that purpose, from
various parts of the State. In most instances these requests
are accompanied by a specified instruction, regarding the
object of the party interested, — a circumstance which ren-
ders the task of the chemist, comparatively speaking, an
easy one.
The analyses have been made according to "VVancklyn's
process, familiar to chemists ; and are directed towards the
indications of the presence of chlorine, free and albuminoid
ammonia, and the poisonous metals, lead in particular.
(For a more detailed description of this method, see
" Water Analyses," by J. A. Wancldyn and E. T. Chap-
man.)
My. Wancklyn's interpretation of the results of his mode
of investi2:ation is as follows : —
1. Chlorine alone does not necessarily indicate the pres-
ence of filthy water.
2. Free and all)uminoid ammonia in water, without chlor-
ine, indicates a vegetable source of contamination.
3. More than five grains per gallon* of chlorine (:=: 71.4
parts per million), accompanied by more than .08 parts per
million of free ammonia and more than .10 parts per
milli'in of albuminoid ammonia, is a clear indication that
the water is contaminated with sewage, decaying animal
matter, urine, etc., and should be condemned.
4. Eight-hundredths parts per million of free ammonia and
one-tenth part per million of albuminoid ammonia render a
water very suspicious, even without much chlorine.
5. Albuminoid ammonia over .15 parts per million ought
to absolutely condemn the water which contains it.
0. The total solids found in the water should not exceed
forty grains per gallon (571.4 parts per million).
An examination of the alcove results of analyses shows
that Nos. 3, 7, 8, 16, 17, 21, 23 and 25 are of a suspicious
character, and that Nos. 1, 4, 6, 9, 10, 12, 14, 19, 20, 24,
28, 30, 35 and 36 ought to be condemned, on account of a
large amount of free and albuminoid ammonia, due most
likely to access of sewage waters. Of eight samples of
• One gallon equals 70,000 grains.
EXPERIMENT STATION. 727
water tested for lead, three were found to be poisoned by
that metal, in consequence of the use of lead pipes.
A satisfactory supply of good drinking water on a farm,
depends, in a controlling degree, on a judicious selection of
the location of the well designed for the use of the family
and for the live-stock, and on the personal attention be-
stowed, from time to time, on the condition of the well and
its surroundings. Good wells are liable to change for the
worse at any time, on account of circumstances too numerous
to state in this connection. To ascertain, from time to time,
the exact condition of the well which supplies the wants of
the family and of the live-stock, is a task which no farmer
can, for any length of time, discard, without incurring a
serious risk to health and prosperity.
The subject receives, quite frequently, but little attention,
on account of the fact that the harmful qualities which an
apparently good water may contain, are disguised beyond
recognition by the unaided senses. Certain delicate chemi-
cal tests, aided at times by microscopic obseiwations, are, in
the majority of cases, the only reliable means, in our pres-
ent state of scientific inquiry, by which desirable informa-
tion reijardins; the true character of a drinldns: water can be
obtained.
Parties sending on water for an analysis ought to be very
careful to use clean vessels, clean stoppers, etc. The sam-
ple should be sent on without delay after collecting. One
gallon is desirable for the analysis.
COMPILATION OF ANALYSES,
MADE AT THE
AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS AT AMHERST, MASS.,
OF FODDER ARTICLES.
1868-1888.
A. Analyses of Fodder Ai'ticles.
B. Analyses of Fodder Articles, with Reference to Fertilizing In-
gredients.
730
BOARD OF AGRICULTUEE.
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BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Compilation of Analyses made at Ajmherst, Mass.,
OF Agricultural Chemicals and Refuse Materials
used for Fertilizing Purposes.*
As the basis of Valuation changes from year to year, no Valuation is stated.
1868 to 1888.
Muriate of Potash (43 Analyses
0-
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Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
Potassium oxide,
Sodium oxide, .
Magnesium oxide, .
Chlorine, ....
Insoluble matter,
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0.05
45.94
2.13
0.30
43.20
0.15
2.05
52.46
6.69
0.55
48.60
0.75
Sulphate of Potash (14 Analyses).
Moisture at 100° C,
5.00
0.19
1.00
Potassium oxide,
51.28
20.44
35.86
Sodium oxide, .
8.59
0.34
4.46
Magnesium oxide, .
2.63
0.24
1.50
Sulphuric acid.
59.30
10.86
45.00
Insoluble matter.
31.55
0.14
0.75
• This compilation does not include the analyses made of licensed fertilizers.
They are to be found in the Reports of the State Inspector of Fertilizers from 1873
to 1888, contamed in the Reports of the Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board
of Agriculture for those years. C. A. G.
EXPERIMENT STATION. 753
Sulphate of Potash and Magnesia (12 Analyses).
Feb Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C.,.
11.58
1.95
5.5(1
Potassium oxide.
27.77
11.70
22.50
Sodium oxide, .
18.97
2.09
6.50
Magnesiirai oxide, .
13.66
10.86
12.25
Calcium oxide,
3.38
0.82
2.50
Sulphuric acid.
47.90
31.91
43.00
Chlorine, ....
7.80
0.14
2.50
Insoluble matter,
2.36
0.26
1.41
German Potash Salts (11 Analyses)
Moisture at 100° C,
Potassium oxide.
Sodium oxide, .
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide,
Sulphuric acid.
Chlorine, .
Insoluble matter,
-
25.83
.45
13.14
50.40
7.56
21.63
26.23
1.30
13.76
1.26
0.06
.85
9.83
Trace.
9.25
21.53
.17
10.85
49.11
22.27
35.63
3.76
.90
2.08
Kamite (3 Analyses).
Moisture at 100° C,
13.57
2.15
9.26
Potassium oxide.
16.48
12.51
14.04
Sodium oxide, .
Calcium oxide, .
1.41
.82
*21.38
1.12
* The only esti-
mation made.
Magnesium oxide.
11.30
6.65
8.97
Sulphuric acid,
23.71
17.53
21.05
Chlorine, .
Insoluble matter,
1.56
.17
*32.38
.86
* The only esti-
mation made.
754
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Carnallite (1 Analysis).
Per cent.
Potassium oxide,
13.68
Sodium oxide,
7.66
Magnesium oxide,
13.19
Sulphuric acid,
.56
Chlorine,
41.56
Krugite (1 Analysis).
Moisture at 100° C
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide
Potassium oxide.
Sodium oxide.
Sulphuric acid,
Chlorine,
Insoluble matter,
I'er cent.
4.82
12.45
8.79
8.42
5.57
31.94
6.63
14.96
Sulphate of Magnesia (9 Analyses),
Per Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Kemarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
Calcium oxide.
Magnesium oxide, .
Sulphuric acid.
Insoluble matter.
31.90
3.89
*25.29
*52.23
11.06
7.50
1.15
13.50
31.91
.40
22.50
2.52
18.25
37.00
5.73
* Kieserite, nat-
ural and cal-
cined.
N'ova Scotia Plaster (9 Analyses),
Moisture at 100° C.
Calcium oxide, .
Magnesium oxide.
Sulphuric acid.
Carbonic acid, .
Insoluble matter.
15.79
.52
6.50
37.59
30.60
33.50
1.40
.36
.75
54.10
33.56
44.00
7.95
.45
2.00
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Onondaga Plaster (7 Analyses),
755
Per Cent.
Highest.
Lswest.
Average.
Uemarks.
Moisture at 100^ C,
Calcium oxide, .
Magnesium oxide, .
Sulphuric acid,
Carbonic acid, .
Insoluble matter,
22.25
31.46
G.OO
36.00
8.80
12.00
8.95
29.15
3.89
31.58
7.20
8.28
13.27
30.00
4.66
33.00
8.20
9.83
Contains 1 sam-
ple of Cayuga
Plaster.
Gypseous Shale (1 Analysis).
Calcium sulphate.
Calcium carbonate.
Magnesium carbonate,
Insoluble matter,
Per coat.
38.55
11.05
2.65
37.15
Gas-house Lime (4 Analyses)
Per Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C,
Calcium oxide, .
Magnesium oxide, .
Sulphuric acid.
Insoluble matter,
33.56
45.80
8.30
20.73
15.00
11.01
40.00
8.30
20.73
0.40
22.28
42.66
8.30
20.73
6.05
Sulphuric acid
includes all
forms of sul-
Ijhur present.
75(5
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Lime Waste.
Per Cent.
Liquid from
Llme-vats
(Evaporated).
Mass from bot-
tom of Lime-
vats.
1 &
$ 2
a.«
Remark!.
Moisture at 100° C, .
11.50
17.54
36.30
Ash,
41.00
65.24
-
•
Calcium oxide, .
23.40
47.80
27.51
MagnesimM oxide, .
-
-
Trace.
Potassium oxide,
-
-
.22
Phosphoric acid.
.77
.81
2.25
Nitrogen,
6.87
1.06
-
Insoluble matter.
.10
5.50
.32
Lime-kiln Ashes (7 Analyses)
•
Per Ckkt.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
Calcium oxide, .
Magnesimn oxide, .
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid.
Carbonic acid, .
Insoluble matter.
30.70
50.16
4.-15
1.70
3.16
39.36
53.77
.20
36.00
1.26
.02
Trace.
9.66
3.30
15.45
43.08
2.60
.86
1.18
16.66
14.54
•
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Marls (4 Analyses).
757
Pee Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
55.80
0.60
18.18
Calcium oxide, :
50.61
20.72
40.07
Magnesium oxide, .
1.03
0.22
0.64
Massachusetts.
Iron and alumina, .
1.00
0.36
0.69
Phosphoric acid.
2.72
0.07
1.05
Carbonic acid, .
40.38
16.63
28.51
Insoluble matter.
3.44
3.44
3.44
Virginia Marl.
Per Cent.
2 feet below
Surface.
4 feet below
Surface.
Kemarks.
Moisture at 100° C,
16.70
15.26
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide, .
9.21
0.25
5.29
0.16
No. 1 contained
a large amount
of shells.
Potassium oxide.
0.61
0.37
Phosphoric acid,
0.09
0.08
No. 2 was large-
ly sand.
Sulphuric acid.
1.00
0.31
Carbonic acid, ....
4.23
1.76
Insoluble matter,
59.59
68.86
758 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Wood Ashes. (Canada.) (71 Analyses.)
Pee Cbwt.
Remarks.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Moisture at 100° C, .
28.67
0.70
12.00
Calcium oxide, .
60.89
18.00
34.44
Magnesium oxide, .
7.47
2.28
3.60
Iron oxide,
-
-
0.83
Potassium oxide.
8.61
2.49
6.50
Phosphoric acid.
3.34
0.29
1.81
Insoluble matter,
24.10
2.10
12.60
Cotton-seed Hull Ashes (16 Analyses).
Moisture at 100° C,
Calcium oxide, .
Magnesium oxid(i.
Iron oxide,
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid.
Insoluble matter.
26.81
2.30
7.33
39.75
3.35
10.00
17.15
2.02
9.60
-
-
1.50
42.12
5.00
20.95
13.67
0.76
752
32.48
5.38
11.79
Ashes
of Spent Tan-bark (3 Analy
ses).
Moisture at 100° C.
7.46
4.87
6.31
Calcium oxide, .
37.26
31.35
33.46
Magnesium oxide.
5.10
2.67
3.65
Potassium oxide.
2.87
1.14
2.04
Phosphoric acid,
2.77
0.13
1.61
Insoluble matter.
24.33
24.33
24.33
EXPERIMENT STATION.
759
Ashes of Waste Product.^.
Per Cent.
Chestnut
E. K. Ties.
Logwood.
Mill.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C.,.
G.15
1.50
0.53
Calciiim oxide, .
4.71
3.90
34.93
Magnesium oxide, .
1.80
Trace.
1.35
Potassium oxide.
0.19
0.08
1.60
Phosphoric acid.
1.54
2.30
0.46
Insoluble matter.
77.83
9.70
36.36
Hard Pine Wood Ashe,'-
Moisture at 100° C.
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide,
Potassium oxide, .
Phosphoric acid, .
Insoluble matter. .
Per cent.
0.75
24.95
8.39
10.16
2 24
29.90
Xifrate of Potash (1 Analysis).
Moisture at 100° C,
Potassium oxide, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
1.75
45.62
14.58
Trace.
Nitrate
of Soda (12 Analyses)
•
Pee Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
2.00
0.85
1.25
Sodium oxide.
70.97
35.00
35.50
Calcium oxide, .
0.41
Trace.
Trace.
Magnesium oxide.
0.04
Trace.
Trace.
Nitrogen, .
16.26
14.44
15.75
Sulphuric acid,
0.20
Trace.
Trace.
Chlorine, .
2 52
0.20
0.50
Insoluble matter.
0.90
0.24
0.50
7«0 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Saltpetre Waste from Gunpowder Works (6 Analyses),
Pbe Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Komarks.
Moisture at 100° C,
4.24
0.50
2.75
Potassium oxide.
30.94
4.65
18.00
Sodium oxide, .
45.92
22.08
34.00
Calcium oxide,
*0.83
*0.71
0.75
*Only estima-
Magnesium oxide,
*0.28
*0.09
0.19
tions.
Nitrogen, .
3.30
0.80
2.43
Sulphuric acid, .
Chlorine, .
*4.85
56.00
*0.84
37.66
2.85
48.30
* Only estima-
tions.
Insoluble matter,
t
-
-
t Not reported.
Nitre Salt-cake (2 Analyses).
Moisture at 100" C, .
6.71
5.34
6.03
Potassium oxide,
0.87
Trace.
0.87
Sodium oxide, .
32.72
26.40
29.56
Nitrogen, ....
2.29
-
2.29
Sulphuric acid,
48.85
46.69
47.77
Insoluble matter,
4.12
3.73
3.92
Sulphate of Ammonia (21
Analyses) .
Moisture at 100° C, .
2.40
0.13
1.00
Nitrogen, ....
22.23
19.70
20.50
Sulphuric acid,
70.70
57.68
60.00
Insoluble matter,
-
-
Trace.
Ammonite.
Moisture at 100° C,
Phosphoric acid, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
5.88
3.43
11.33
1.38
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Dried Blood (11 Analyses).
7G1
Per Cent.
Kemarks.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Moisture at 100° C, .
21.52
7.65
12.50
Ash,
10.04
3.56
6.37
Phosphoric acid,
6.23
1.53
1.91
Nitrogen, ....
13.55
7.80
10.52
Refuse Materials (Animal)
Oleomarga-
rine
IJefuse.
Felt
Keflise.
Sponge
Refuse.
Moisture at 100° C,
Ash. .
Calcium oxide, .
Magnesium oxide,
Phosphoric ixcid.
Nitrogen, .
Insoluble matter,
8.54
39.24
14.42
33.53
0.88
-
12.12
5.26
0.96
8.44
7.25
3.94
1.27
3.19
2.43
39.05
Horn and Hoof Waste (3 Analyses),
Per Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
10.27
10.08
10.17
Ash
14.62
1.05
7.63
Phosphoric acid,
2.30
2.30
2.30
Nitrogen, ....
16.10
11.84
14.47
Insoluble matter,
0.24
0.24
0.24
762
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Wool Waste (3 Analyses).
Feb Cent.
Higbest.
Lowest.
Average.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
Nitrogen, ....
10.12
*6.25
8.43
5.00
9.27
5.62
* Saturated with
oil.
Raw Wool and
Wool Washings.
Feb Cent.
Rema
Raw Wool.
Water
Washings.
Acid
Washings.
rks.
Moisture at 100° C,
6.95
-
-
Ash, .
7.54
-
-
Fat, .
3.92
-
-
Calcium oxide, .
-
0 28
0.61
Magnesium oxide.
-
None.
0.20
Potassium oxide,
-
3.92
4.20
Sodium oxide, .
-
0.49
0.40
Nitrogen, .
.
12.88
~
-
Insoluble matter.
3.63
-
-
Meat Mass (6 Analyses),
Per Cent.
Remarks.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Moisture at 100° C,
18.75
8.16
12.09
Ash,
14.66
2.90
13.60
Total phosphoric acid,
3.58
0.56
2.07
Nitrogen, ....
11.50
9.69
10.44
Insoluble matter,
0.77
0.40
0.68
EXPERIMENT STATION. 763
Refuse from Rendering Establishments,
Per Cent.
Bone Soup.
Dried
Soup from
Meat
and Bone.
Dried Soup
from
Rendering
Cattle Feet.
Soup ft-om
Horse
Rendering
Factory.
Soap-
Greiise
Refuse.
Moisture at 100° C,
Ash,
Phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen, ....
Insoluble matter,
82.92
7.07
1.26
1.14
14.80
8.40
0.53
9.97
0.64
10.80
7.50
0.46
14.47
0.26
92.14
0.14
1.12
38.79
43.13
11.04
2.21
1.20
Bones (95 Analyses).
Per Cent.
Remarks.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Moisture at 100° C, .
11.90
3.05
7.47
Ash,
74.90
37.25
56.07
Total phosphoric acid,
29.83
12.06
22.50
Soluble phosphoric acid, .
0.76
0.10
0.43
Reverted phosphoric acid,
16.78
2.24
6.50
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
23.37
8.13
15.70
Nitrogen, ....
6.75
1.50
4.12
Insoluble matter.
6.00
0.04
2.00
Tankage (12 Analyses),
Moisture at 100 C, .
28.09
5.46
14.61
Ash,
37.06
19.40
23.23
Total phosphoric acid.
14.60
8.00
10.67
Soluble phosphoric acid, .
0.27
0.27
0.27
Reverted phos^jhoric acid.
3.25
3.25
3.25
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
8.79
8.79
8.79
Nitrogen, ....
8.07
5.82
7.08
Insoluble matter,
2.00
0.56
1.23
764
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
FisJi containinf/ 20 per cent, or lesti of Moisture (42
Analyses ) .
ruR CKNT.
Uemarks.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Moisture at 100° C, .
19.88
6.61
13.24
Ash,
72.23
15.99
20.00
Total phosphoric acid,
16.64
4.33
8.25
Soluble phosphoric acid, .
1.70
.37
.55
Reverted jahosphoric acid.
4.,57
1.78
2.17
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
7.16
2.11
3.80
Potassium oxide,
.45
.45
.46
Nitrogen, ....
10.24
3.87
7.05
Insoluble matter.
4.99
.74
2.50
I^ish containing between 20 per cent, and 40 p>er cent, oj
Moisture (8 Analyses).
Per Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Renarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
38.11
20.58
29.34
^
Ash,
36.50
16.87
24.14
Total phosphoric acid.
8.90
5.60
7.25
Soluble phosphoric acid, .
*.82
.82
.82
* Fish Pomace.
Reverted i^hosphoric acid,
*2.87
2.87
2.87
* Fish Pomace.
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
*3.99
3.99
3.99
* Fish Pomace.
Potassium oxide,
Nitrogen, ....
tO.85
7.41
0.85
4.22
0.85
5.81
t Dry ground
fish.
Insoluble matter.
2.89
0.82
1.85
EXPERIMENT STATION.
765
Fish containing 40 per cent, and more of Moisture (10
Analyses).
Per Cent.
Remarks.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Moisture at 100 C, .
50.58
40.35
45.46
Ash
20.78
1.92*
12.50
* Fish-liver
ref-
Total phosj^horic acid,
8.56
1.02*
5.08
use.
Soluble phosphoric acid, ,
1.51
0.83
1.17
Reverted phosphoric acid.
2.02
0.64
1.33
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
B.62
1.88
2.75
Potassium oxide.
-
-
-
Nitrogen, ....
7.60
2.43
4.97
Insoluble matter,
2.44
0.16
1.35
Whale Flesh.
Pee Cent.
Eaw.
Dry (with
Fat).
Dry (with-
out Fat).
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
44.50
-
-
Ash,
1.04
1.86
3.20
Fat, . . .
22.81
40.70
-
Flesh, ....
32.10
57.44
96.80
Nitrogen, ....
4.86
8.68
14.60
Lobster Shells.
Moisture at 100^ C.
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide,
Phosphoric acid, .
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
7.27
22.24
1.30
3.52
4.50
0.2^7
TOP) BOARD
Peruvian
OF AGRICULTURE.
Guano (26 Analyses).
Per Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Kpmarka
Moisture at 100° C, .
22.61
7.02
14.81
Ash
G1.65
13.58
37.61
Total phosphoric acid,
2.3.10
3.43
13.26
Soluble phosphoric acid, .
8.80
0.35
4.57
Reverted phosphoric acid.
6.20
1.38.
3.79
Insoluble phosphoric acid.
16.50
4.67
10.58
Potassium oxide,
4.08
1.14
2.61
Nitrogen, ....
11.26
4.44
7.85
Insoluble matter.
11.91
1.30
6.60
Bat Guano (9 Analyses).
Moisture at 100° C, .
72.38
7.80
40.09
Ash
Phosphoric acid.
Nitrogen as nitrates,
72.14
6.53
1.80
4.34
1.00
0.24
38.24
3.76
1.02
One sample con-
tamed 1.31 per
cent, potas-
sium oxide.
Niti'ogen as ammoniates,
3.42
1.49
2.45
Nitrogen in organic matter,
5.66
0.34
3.00
Insoluble matter.
54.15
0.20
2.00
Cuba Guano (5 Analyses).
Moisture at 100° C, .
36.85
12.10
24.27
Potassium oxide,
1.20
0.14
0.67
Phosphoric acid.
24.35
11.54
17.94
Nitrogen as nitrates,
1.00
0.24
0.62
Niti'ogen as ammoniates, .
0.26
0.14
0.20
Niti'ogen in organic matter,
1.48
0.23
0.85
Insoluble matter.
3.40
2.95
3.17
EXPERIMENT STATION. 767
Caribbean Guano (OrchiUa) (10 Analyses).
Per Cent.
Uemarks.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Moisture at 100*^ C,
12.50
2.12
7.31
Calcium oxide,
45.00
34.91
39.95
Magnesium oxide, .
4.13
2.46
3.29
Phosphoric acid,
35.43
18.11
36.77
Sulphuric acid,
2.36
1.80
2.08
Insoluble matter,
2.40
0.17
1.27
South America?! Bone Ash.
Moi.sture at lOO^ C,
Calcium oxide,
Phosphoric acid, .
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
7.00
44.89
35.89
4.50
South Carolina Rock Phosphate (4 Analyses).
Pee Cent.
Uighest.
Lowest.
Average.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100- C, .
1.90
0.10
1.50
Calcium oxide, .
-
-
*41.87
\ * Only estimate.
Magnesium oxide, .
~
-
*3.03
Iron and alumina oxide, .
-
-
*4.26
J
Total phosphoric acid,
30.51
25.81
28.03
Soluble phosphoric acid, .
-
-
*0.27
* Only estimate.
Reverted i^hosphoric acid.
0.47
0.19
0.33
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
30.31
25.07
27.69
Insoluble matter,
13.74
9.18
11.61
768
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
JSfavassa Phosphate (2 Analyses).
Per Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
-
-
*5.60
* Only one test.
Calcium oxide, .
37.67
37.22
37.44
Iron oxide,
11.79
8.75
10.27
Alumina oxide,
-
-
*4.24
* Only one test.
Phosphoric acid,
34.45
34.09
34.27
Insoluble matter.
-
-
*2.70
* Only one test.
Brochville Phosphate (1 Analysis),
Moisture at 100° C, .
Phosphoric acid, .
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent.
2.50
35.21
6.46
Bone-black (5 Analyses).
Tku Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
Phosphoric acid.
Insoluble matter,
10.65
30.54
6.60
1.55
23.47
1.53
4.60
28.28
3.64
Phosphatic Slag
S.
Per Cent.
Remarks.
L
n.
Moisture at 100° C, . . .
0.10
0.37
Calcium oxide.
41.87
49.82
Magnesium oxide, .
3.03
-
Iron and alumina oxides.
Total phosphoric acid, .
4.26
30.51
18.91
I. German phos-
phatic slag.
Soluble phosphoi'ic acid,
-
-
II. Englisli slag.
Reverted phosphoric acid,
0.19
5.93
Insoluble phosphoric acid,
30.32
12.98
Insoluble matter, .
13.74
5.06
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Castor Bean Pomace (3 Analyses),
769
I'EE Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
liemarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
10.18
9.25
9.98
Calcium oxide,
0.96
0.77
0.87
Magnesium oxide, .
0.37
0.20
0.29
Potassium oxide,
1.70
0.G4
1.12
Phosphoric acid,
2.22
2.03
2.16
Nitrogen, ....
5.C9
5.33
5.56
Insoluble matter,
2.38
1.12
1.75
Cotton Refuse.
Pee Cent.
Cotton
Dust.
Cotton
Waste
(Dry).
Cotton
Waste
(Wet).
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C, .
34.46
5.53
34.69
Ash,
50.93
-
-
Calcium oxide, .
0.90
1.45
2.45
Magnesiimi oxide, .
0.90
0.87
1.13
Potassium oxide,
0.19
0.89
0.80
Phosphoric acid,
0.21
0.84
1.54
Nitrogen, ....
0.50
1.32
1.30
Insoluble matter.
47.46
49.68
41.33
770
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Cottonseed Meal (5 Analyses).
Peh Cent.
I.
II.
Remarks.
Moisture at 100° C„ . . .
Ash,
Calcium oxide, ....
Magnesium oxide, ....
Potassium oxide, ....
Phosphoric acid, ....
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter, ....
6.80
5.77
0.39
0.99
0.89
1.45
6.10
0.60
9.90
0.22
0.56
1.21
1.26
3.73
0.20
I. Average of
four Analyses.
II. Damaged.
Rotten Brewer's Grain.
Moisture at 100° C
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter.
Tobacco Stems (5 Analyses),
Per cent.
78.77
.26
.15
.04
.43
.72
.59
Per Cent.
Remarks.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Moisture at 100° C,
12.18
8.95
10.61
Ash,
15.00
13.30
14.07
Calcium oxide,
4.76
3.39
3.89
Magnesium oxide,
1.4C
1.11
1.23
Potassium oxide,
8.82
3.34
6.44
Sodium oxide, .
0.68
0.16
0.34
Phosphoric acid.
0.87
0.44
0.60
Nitrogen,
2.69
0.90
2.29
Insoluble matter,
1.35
0.29
0.82
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Refuse Materials (Vegetable) .
71
Per Cent.
Glucose
Hop
Sumac
Remarks.
Refuse.
Eefuse.
Waste.
Moisture at 100 C, .
8.10
80.98
63.06
Ash,
-
-
6.80
Potassium oxide.
Calcium oxide, .
0.18
0.27
l.U
I. .15 i3er cent
Magnesium oxide, .
0.02
0.10
3.25
II. .11 per cent
Phosphoric acid.
0.29
0.20
-
III. .17 i^er cent.
Nitrogen, ....
2.62
0.98
1.19
Insoluble matter.
0.07
0.63
2.25
\
8ea-weeds,
PER CENT.
Eel-Grass.
ROCKWEED.
Wet
Kelp.
Remarts.
I.
11.
Green.
Dry.
Moisture at 100° C, .
45.61
25.17
68.50
10.68
88.04
Ash, ....
20.39
10.81
23.70
55.75
2.2G
Calcium oxide,
1.56
2.70
-
7.66
-
Magnesium oxide.
0.09
0.12
-
0.21
-
Potassium oxide, .
1.61
0.21
-
4.89
_
Sodiiun oxide.
2.51
0.74
-
7.90
-
Phosphoric acid, .
0.41
0.22
-
2.75
-
Nitrogen,
0.70
0.96
0.62
1.45
0.26
Insoluble matter, .
0.46
1.66
-
10.40
-
772
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Sea-weed Ashes.
Moisture at 100° C,
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide,
Potassium oxide, .
Sodium oxide,
Phosphoric acid, .
Suli)hunc acid,
Sulphur,
Chlorine,
Magnesium chloride,
Insoluble matter, .
Per cent
1.47
6.06
4.37
.92
8.76
.30
2.98
.14
6.60
.14
63.65
Hockweed.
[I. Collected in May. II. Collected in December
Per Cent.
I.
II.
Fresh wet rockweed lost, in air, of water, .
78.700
65.920
Fresh wet rockweed lost, at 100° C, of water, ,
90.400
76.920
Air-dried rockweed contained, of vegetable matter, .
88.220
89.000
Air-dried rockweed contained, of water.
11.780
11.000
The lilled i:)ods loft, at 100° C, of solid organic matter.
7.360
-
The fresh stems left, at 100*^ C, of solid organic
matter,
30.650
-
The slime of the pods, dried at 100° C, contained, of
nitrogen,
2.920
-
Kockweed, entire plant with filled pods, dried at 100°
C, contained, of nitrogen,
2.286
1.721
Rockweed, air-dried, contained, of nitrogen.
2.017
1.432
" fresh (wet), contained, of nitrogen, .
.487
.397
" dried at 100° C, contained, ashes, .
28.930
24.890
" air-dried, contained, ashes.
6.220
22.150
" fresh (wet), contained, ashes, .
3.770
5.825
The slime of the jiods contained, ashes,
49.356
-
EXPERIMENT STATION. 773
One hundred parts of the ash contained (I.) : —
Per cent.
Potassium oxide, 4.8-i2
Sodium oxide, 12.050
Calcium oxide, 2.G91
Magnesium oxide, 2.753
Ferrie oxide, .338
Sulphuric acid, 7.986
Phosphoric acid, 6.240
Mud.
Pen Cent.
Mussel
Mussel
Salt
Salt
Black
Fresh-
Water
Remarks.
Mud.
Mud.
Mud.
Mud.
Mud.
Mud.
Moisture at 100° C,
GO.Ol
2.24
46.36
60.37
56.55
40.37
Ash,
27.29
72.02
49.28
33.09
39.60
-
Calcium oxide.
0.93
23.39
0.90
0.91
0.91
1.27
Magnesium oxide, .
O.U
-
0.31
0.43
0.66
0.29
Potassium oxide,
6.17
-
0.33
0.32
0.38
0.22
Sodium oxide, .
0.70
-
0.94
0.94
0.86
-
Ferric oxide, .
3.48
8.26
4.55
3.70
4.26
1.80
Phosphoric acid.
0.10
0.35
Trace.
Trace.
Trace.
0.26
Nitrogen,
0.21
0.72
0.39
0.40
1.64
1.37
Insoluble matter, .
-
37.60
43.55
26.20
31.84
18.26
Soil from a Diked Marsh.
]\Ioisture at 100° C,
Ash,
Calcium oxide.
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter,
Per cent.
33.40
7.85
1.24
.26
.13
1.64
3.65
774
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Much (5 Analyses).
Pee Cent.
Kemarks.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Moisture at 100° C, .
89.89
12.03
55.13
Ash,
26.12
3.05
13.75
Kitrogen, ....
1.47
0.26
0.91
Peat (8 Analyses).
Per Cent.
Highest.
Lowest.
Average.
Kemarks.
Moisture at 100" C,
Ash
85.38
33.72
*11.29
1.20
61.50
7.71
* German Peat
Mass.
Calcium oxide,
0.50
0.50
0.50
Nitrogen, ....
1.40
0.41
0.71
Insoluble matter,
0.38
0.38
0.38
Turf (2 Analyses).
Per Cent.
I.
II.
Reroarks.'
Moisture at 100 C, ...
Ash,
Nitrogen,
25.58
3.28
1.91
13.00
9.43
1.97
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Hen Manure.
llh
Per Cent.
Dried.
Fresh.
8.35
45.73
2.22
0.97
0.C2
-
9.94
0.18
2.02
0.47
1.85
)
> 0.79
0.2S
5
34.65
39.32
Moisture at 100 C,
Calcium oxide,
Magnesium oxide,
Potassium oxide.
Phosphoric acid,
Nitrogen m organic mattei",
Nitrogen as ammoniates.
Insoluble matter.
Poudrette.
Moistm-e at 100° C,
Ash, .
Potassium oxide,
Phosphoi'ic acid.
Nitrogen,
Insoluble matter.
Per cent.
5.25
35.45
0.49
5.74
3.58
4.65
Miscellaneous,
Pek Cent.
Soot.
Ashes from
Blue Works.
Moisture at 100 C,
Organic and volatile matter, ....
Magnesium oxide,
Potassium oxide,
Cyanogen compounds,
iHsoluble matter,
5.54
22.90
1.83
35.34
12.74
36.22
Trace.
9.02
Trace.
12.30
776 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
METEOROLOGY,
The past year's meteorological observations have been a
continuation of those of the two previous seasons, being on
the same general plan as recommended to voluntary ob-
servers of the U. S. Signal Service, and described in the
Third Annual Report. As soon as possible after the close
of each month, a copy of our monthly records of observa-
tions is forwarded to the chief signal officer at Washington,
D. C, and also to the officer stationed at Boston, Mass. A
summary of each month's observations are published in our
bulletins and annual reports, and are thus made accessible
to the farmers throughout the State.
January opened with 3.50 inches of snow, and good sleigh-
ing. Between the 5th and 17th, 29 inches of snow fell, but
during the thaw of the last eight days the snow nearly all
disappeared, and at the end of the month only a little here
and there was to be seen. The mean temperature of the
month was 3.9° below that of any month of January for the
last fifty years. Storms were frequent, and 22.50 inches of
snow fell during February. During the evening of Feb.
18 there was a sharp shower, accompanied by thunder and
lightning, and at 8 p. m. a slight earthquake shock was felt.
Bluebirds were seen on the 13th, and robins on the 20th, of
March. The temperature for the month of April was lower
than for any previous April since 1875, and on the 18th
there was a fall of 6.50 inches of snow. On April 8 the first
frost occurred ; the last, on May 14. Abundance of moist-
ure characterized the growing months — June, July and
August. The total rainfall for June was 5.09 inches; for
July, 8.93 inches; and for August, 7.75 inches. The mean
EXPERIMENT STATION. 777
temperature for July (73.70°) was the highest for the same
month since 1839, when it was 74.40° ; July, 1863, it was
70.87°, the nearest approach to it. Similar relations are
true of the total rainfall. Durins; the month there fell 8.93
inches, the largest amount during any month of Jul;^ since
1839, when it was 9.5() inches; in 1863 it was 8.63 inches,
the next highest amount. Between 4.30 p. m. on the 23d of
July, and 6 a. m. on the 24th, 3.50 inches of rain fell ; and
from 1 p. M. on the 24th, to 4.25 p. m. of the same day, 1.50
inches fell, making a total rainfall of 5.00 inches inside of
24 hours. It was the heaviest rainfall of the season, and did
a large amount of damage, not only to the growing crops,
but by the washing of roads and hillsides. Very heavy fogs
characterized both August and September. The first frost
occurred on the 17tii of September. Nov. 11 there were
several snow-squalls during the day, but the first snow of the
season of any amount was on the 18th of Deceml)er. The
year closes with about four inches of snow, and good sleigh-
ing.
During the summer there have been sixteen thunder-
storms, some of which were very severe, and did considera-
ble damage. The first occurred on the 18th of February, and
the last on the 2d of October. During those storms which
occurred in the months of July and August, observations
were taken every half-hour, and forwarded to the signal ser-
vice ofiicer at Boston, Mass.
Weekly crop reports were forwarded during the months
of July, August and September, to the Boston Signal Service
Station, giving the rainfall, temperature, amount of sunshine,
and the condition of the diff'erent crops. Farmers had good
weather for securing their hay crop, but, on account of the
excessive moisture of July and August, they were seriously
hindered with their rowen, some of it being spoiled before
an opportunity came to secure it. Potatoes suffered from
the continued wet spell, but a good crop of corn was ob-
tained. The open fall was favorable for farm work.
The prevailing direction of the wind for the year was
N.W. It was northwest in January, February, March,
April, August, September, October, November and Decem-
ber; southwest in May and June, and south in July.
778 BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
The number of days when the sky was less than four-
tenths covered by clouds (" clear" days), was seventy-one;
the greatest number, twelve, being in May, and the fewest,
two, in October.
There were ninety-five " cloudy" days, or those when the
sky was more than seven-tenths covered by clouds. De-
cember had the greatest number, sixteen ; while April and
May had the fewest, four each.
Of the remaining 199 days, only two of them appear as
" fair" days, that is, between four-tenths and seven-tenths
cloudy ; the others were variable, being fair or cloudy one
portion, and clear or fair another.
The highest temperature of the year was 93. G°, occurring
on July 2 ; the lowest was on the 19th of January, — 22.2°.
The maximum is 2° lower than that of last season (1886),
which was 95° on the 6th of July ; while the minimum is
practically the same, last year (1886) being — 22.° on the
13th and 14th of January. The absolute range of tempera-
ture for 1887 is 115.2° ; 1.8° lower than that of the season
of 1886.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
770
K
00
00
5Q
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0-i
o
u
i3
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P.
a
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ja
XI
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jd
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ja
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00
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00
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c^
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(M
<N
(N
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c^
t^
ire
ire
CO
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CO
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ire
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CO
CO
lO
o
o
CI
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•— *
■*
tn
■*
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^
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t--
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CO
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00
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54
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780
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
Miscellaneous Phenomena. — Dates.
Frost.
Snow.
liain.
Tluinder-
storms.
Solar
Halos.
Lunar
Halos.
JaniKiry, .
4.
5, 6, 9, 10,
13, 14, 15,
17. 19, 23,
24, 26, 30,
31.
1, 23, 24, 29,
30, 31.
7,8.
4, 6, 7,
8, 11.
February,
2, 3, 6, 7, S,
9, 14, 15,
18, 22, 24,
26, 27.
8, 10. 11, 14,
15, 18, 24.
18.
1,4.
March,
-
5, 14, 15, 17,
22.
6,9,10,18,19,
22, 28, 29.
-
5.
2.
April,
8, 9, 15, 21.
18.
5, 16, 23, 25,
26, 28, 29.
29.
-
1,2.
May,
14.
-
6, 25, 26. 28.
6, 25, 27.
-
2,3.
June,
-
-
1,2,4, 17,21,
22, 24.
22, 23.
-
-
July,
-
-
5,6,10,16,17,
18,21,23,24,
26, 29.
23, 24,
29.
-
-
August, .
-
-
1,2,3, 11,18,
20, 22, 23, 24,
28, 30.
U, IS,
20, 24.
-
-
September,
17, 18, 27.
-
7, 12, 22, 29,
30._
7.
-
October, .
12, 14, 15,
16, 17, 20,
23, 26, 29.
1,2,4, 11,21.
2.
Novcml)cr,
2, 3-5, 6, 9,
10, 11, 18,
19, 22, 29.
11.
10,11, 15,19,
20, 23, 25, 26,
28.
-
~
December,
1,2,4,6,7.
9, 14.
3, 15, 17, 18,
21, 26, 31.
5, 10, 11, 12,
15.
-
-
-
EXPERIMENT STATION
781
Eecord
Of the Average Temperature taken from Weather Records at
Amherst, Mass., for three consecutive months, during the summer
and loiyiter, beginning ivith the year 1836.
December, January, February.
June, July, August.
183G-37,
25.396° F.
1837, .
69.130° F
1837-38,
26.386°
1838, .
69.550°
1838-39,
25.950°
1839,
70.180°
1839-40,
20.626°
1840,
68.770°
1840-41,
23.146°
1841,
69.230°
1841-42,
28.516°
1842,
68.210°
1842-43,
23.460°
1843,
67.950°
1843-44,
21.320°
1844,
67.260°
1844-45,
25.550°
1845,
70.120°
1845-46,
22.140°
1846,
68.406°
1846-47,
25.176°
1847,
68.806°
1847-48,
28.966°
1848,
69.210°
1848-49,
23.026°
1849,
69.210°
1849-50,
27.570°
1850,
68.820°
1850-51,
25.040°
1851,
66.640°
1851-52,
21.620°
1852,
66.830°
1852-53,
27.940°
1853,
67.846°
1853-54,
23.670°
1854,
69.856°
1854-55,
23.126°
1855,
67.146°
1855-56,
20.820°
1856,
69.225°
1856-57,
22.720°
1857,
67.240°
1857-58,
26.956°
1858,
67.930°
1858-59,
24.746°
1859,
65.650°
1859-60,
24.790°
1860,
66.540°
1860-61,
24.510°
1861,
66.870°
1861-62,
24.470°
1862,
66.490°
1862-63,
27.640°
1863,
66.656°
1863-64,
26.060°
1864,
69.336°
1864-65,
21.310°
1865,
68.946°
1865-66,
25.676°
1866,
67.400°
1866-67,
25.276°
1867,
67.920°
1
782 BOAED OF AGRICULTURE,
Record of Temperature, etc. — Concluded.
December, January, February.
June, July, August.
1867-68,
20.350° F.
1868, .
69.700° F
1868-69,
26.290°
1869,
66.890°
1869-70,
27.866°
1870,
71.700°
1870-71,
26.666°
1871,
67.810°
1871-72,
24.630°
1872,
70.790°
1872-73,
21.350°
1873,
68.596°
1873-74,
27.286°
1874,
66.306°
1874-75,
21.180°
1875,
68.026°
1875-76,
28.156°
1876,
71.780°
1876-77,
23.510°
1877,
70.080°
1877-78,
28.506°
1878,
68.896°
1878-79,
24.290°
1879,
68.150°
1879-80,
30.506°
1880,
69.286°
1880-81,
21.856°
1881,
67.966°
1881-82,
29.266°
1882,
69.866°
1882-83,
24.220°
1883,
68.840°
1883-84,
26.506°
1884,
68.960°
1884-85,
22.630°
24.846°
1885,
66.740°
1885-86,
1886,
66.100°
1886-87,
22.146°
1887,
68.100°
Summary
Of Average Temperature from 1836 to 1862 (25 years).
December, January, February.
24.53 F.
June, July, August.
68.26° F.
StnVOIARY
Of Average Temperature from 1862 to 1887 (25 years).
December, January, February
25.21° F.
June, July, August.
68.58° F
EECORD
OF THE
MAXIMUM AND MINIMUM TEMPEEATURE, AND
OF THE RAIN-FALL,
From 1836 to 1887, inclusive.
[The abstract, previous to the year 1SS3, has been obtained, through the courtesy
of Miss S. C. Snell, from the observations of the late Prof. E. S. Snell of Amherst
College. The remainder has been taken from those at the Experiment Station.]
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EXPERIMENT STATION.
801
1887.
MONTHS.
Temperature.
m
o
Mean.
Maxi-
mum.
Date.
Mini-
mum.
Date.
3
January,
19.39
47.20
24th
—22.20
19th
4.57
February, .
24.15
43.80
9th
—3.80
5th
5.05
March,
26.41
46.00
2lBt
—2.40
5th
4.05
April, .
41.61
74.40
10th
17.10
8th
2.98
May, .
60.91
86.50
20th
S3. 20
14th
1.13
June, .
65.67
91.00
30th
38.50
nth
5.09
July, .
73.71
93.60
2d
56.00
15th
8.93
August,
64.92
88.00
iBt
42.50
14th, 28th
7.75
September,
55.94
80.00
7th
29.50
27th
1.22
October,
47.00
74.40
8th
17.00
31st
2.10
November,
36.49
64.80
7th
11.00
30th
3.35
December,
26.65
51.00
12th
—6.00
3l8t
4.11
Means and £
ums
45.23
-
- i -
-
60.33
C. A. GOESSMANN,
Director.
802
BOARD OF AGRICULTURE.
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Map of Land Leased to thb
MASSACHUSETTS EXPERIMENT STATION,
FROM THB
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE FARM,
West of thb Highway.
Area taken, 17.72 Acres.
Map op Land Leased to the
MASSACHUSETTS EXPERIMENT STATION,
FROM THE
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE FARM,
East or the Highwat.
Area taken, 30.52 Acres.
INDEX TO SECEETARY'S EEPOET.
Address of Lieut.-Gk)v. J. Q. A. Brackett before the State Board of
Agriculture at Springfield, 110.
Address of Levi Stockbridge before the State Board of Agriculture at
Springfield, 116.
Address of T. S. Gold before the State Board of Agriculture at Spring-
field, 162.
Agricultural exhibitions, 335.
Agricultural societies, officers of, 331.
Agricultural societies, finances of, 325.
Agricultural education, paper on, by H. H. Goodell, 336.
Alvord, Prof. H. E., on ensilage in New England, 120.
Annual meeting of the State Board of Agriculture, 315.
Annual report of the Cattle Commissioners, 389.
Annual report on commercial fertilizers, 483.
Apple, the, 17.
Apple pomace as cattle food, 197.
Assignment of delegates, 321.
Bean-weevil, the American. 89.
Blackberries, 27.
Board of Agriculture, special meeting of, at Boston, 8.
Board of Agriculture, public meeting of, at Springfield, 7.
Board of Agi-iculture, special meeting of, at Springfield, 313.
Board of Agriculture, annual meeting of, at Boston, 315.
Bowen, Dr. G. A., lecture by, on business side of farming and value of
organization, 232.
Brackett, J. Q. A., address of, before the State Board of Agriculture, 110.
Brooks, Ethan, opening address of, at Springfield, 8.
Canker-worms, 78.
Cattle Commissioners, annual report of, 389.
Chemistry of the kitchen, paper on, by Dr. J. P. Lynde, 356.
Cherry, the, 24.
[805]
806 INDEX TO SECRETARY'S REPORT.
Codling moth, the, 87.
Cold storage, 30.
Commercial fertilizers, report on, 483.
Contagious diseases in our homes and how to prevent them, lecture on,
by Dr. A. F. Holt, 259.
Co-operative fire insurance, 256.
Country meeting of the State Board of Agriculture at Springfield, 7.
Creameries, lecture on, by L. T. Hazen, 297.
Currant, the, 27.
Delegates, assignment of, 321.
Ensilage, a success in New England, is ? lecture by Prof. H. E. Alvord,
120.
Exhibitions, agricultural, 335.
Experiment Station, annual report of, 553.
Eye-spotted bud moth, the, 85.
Fairs to be held in 1888, 335.
Farming, business side of, and value of organization, lecture on, by
Dr. G. A. Bowen, 232.
Fernald, Prof. C. H., lectm'e by, on injurious insects, 78.
Fernald, Prof. C. H., paper by, on the Orthoptera of New England, 421.
Finances of the societies, 325.
Fodder rations, 187.
Forestry and arboricultm'e in Massachusetts, lecture on, by Prof. John
Robinson, 51.
Fruit cultm-e in Massachusetts, lectm'e on, by Prof. S. T. Maynard, 14.
Goessmann, Dr. C. A., lecture by, on the hay-field and English hay, 168.
Gold, T. S., address of, before the State Board of Agriculture, 162.
Goodell, H. H., paper by, on agricultural education, 336.
Grape, the, 24.
Grape-berry moth, the, 88.
Hay-field and English hay, the, lecture on, by Dr. C. A. Goessmarm, 16.^.
Holt, Dr. A. F., lecture by, on contagious diseases, 259.
Homes, our, lecture on, by W. L. Warner, 99.
Homes, our ; their power and influence, paper on, by J. W. Stockwell,
377.
Injurious insects, lecture on, by Prof. C. H. Fernald, 78.
Insecticides, 91.
Lynde, Dr. J. P., paper by, on the chemistry of the kitchen, 356.
Maynard, Prof. S. T., lecture by, on fruit culture in Massachusetts, 14.
Milk farming, lecture on, by Newton Smith, 281.
Moore, John B., resolutions of respect to the memory of, 3.
INDEX TO SECRETARY'S REPORT. 807
Nichols, James Tl., resolutions of respect to the memory of, 319.
Officers of the agricultural societies, ."31.
Oldening address, country meeting at Springfield, 8.
Orthoptera of New England, paper on, by Prof. C. II. Fernald, 421.
Pea-weevil, the, 90.
Peach, the, 20.
Pear, the, 19.
Peters, Dr. Austin, lecture by, on the value of veterinary science to the
State, 200.
Plum, the, 22.
Quince, the, 23.
Raspberry, the, 28.
Report of Cattle Commissioners, 389.
Report on commercial fertilizers, 483.
Report of Experiment Station, 553.
Resolutions of respect to the memory of John B. Moore, 3.
Resolutions of respect to the memory of James R. Nichols, 319.
Robinson, Prof. John, lecture by, on forestry and arboriculture in Massa-
chusetts, 51.
Smith, Newton, lecture by, on milk farming, 281.
Special meeting of the Board of Agriculture in Boston, 3.
Special meeting of the Board of Agricultm'e in Springfield, 313.
Stockbridge, Levi, addi-ess of, before the State Board of Agriculture, 116.
Stockwell, J. W., paper by, on our homes, 377.
Strawberry, the, 26.
Trade values of fertilizing ingredients in raw materials and chemicals,
487.
Veterinary science, value of, to the State, lecture on, by Dr. Austin
Peters, 200.
Warner, W. L., lecture by, on our homes, 99.
White marked tussock moth, the, 82.
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