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Sixth Series. No. 1 1
January 30, 1915
3fc arfjprs (Enlteg? lulblttt
AN OUTLINE
ON
THE HISTORY OF COOKERY
BY
ANNA BARROWS AND BERTHA E. SHAPLEIGH
ASSISTED BY
ANNE D. BLITZ
School of Practical Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University
Technical Education Bulletin, No. 28
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No. 7. Determination of Linen nnd Cotton. Dr. Herzog. Translated by
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Sixth Scrie., No. 1 1 January 30, 1915
lulbttn
AN OUTLINE
ON
THE HISTORY OF COOKERY
BY
ANNA BARROWS AND BERTHA E. SHAPLEIGH
i
ASSISTED BY
ANNE D. BLITZ
School of Practical Arts, Teachers College, Columbia University
Technical Education Bulletin. F!o. 28
PRICE, 28 CNT&
Published by
Sfearlpra QJullrgr, (Uulitmbta Hnmrreity
525 West 120th Street
New York City
4 TECHNICAL EOT/CATION BULLETIN
II. All of these processes are dependent on stage of advance in civil-
ization.
III. All pass through successive stages, as do all other processes, from
extremely simple to extremely complex.
IV. There is no possibility of hard-and-fast chronology, as we find
extremely complex stage of civilization existing side by side with,
and exerting strong influence upon, extremely simple stage, e.g.,
Rome and Britain at time of Caesars; America and Philippines.
V. Civilization proceeds in successive waves. The older cultures, each
in turn, pass through all periods of development from savagery
through barbarism to civilization ; from simplicity and frugality
to luxury, extravagance, then to decay, and to a merging with a
neighboring civilization in early stages of development, e.g.,
Egypt and Persia ; Greece and Rome ; Roman Empire and Franks.
VI. Question of food is inextricably bound with four other factors in
civilization :
1. Climate and geographic limitations.
2. Shelter.
3. Production and control of fire.
4. Utensils.
FIRE
I. DISCOVERY.
1. Legendary. India Vedas ; Phoenicia; Greece Prometheus,
Hephaestus, Zeus; Persia; Rome Vulcan, Vesta; Scandi-
navia; Aztecs; American Indians.
2. Natural sources.
a. Lightning setting fire to vegetation.
b. Sparks struck in working flints.
II. CONTROL.
Preservation of fire kindled naturally.
Artificial kindling.
Friction of two pieces of dry wood; fire-drill later develop-
ment of this process.
b. Striking of flints to produce spark; quartz and pyrites used
in certain localities.
c. Burning glass much later development.
III. FIRE-PLACES.
1. Open fire on ground.
2. Rude fire-place of stones piled together.
3. Dug-out pit lined with stones.
4. Fire-places in caves; near opening, with outlet for smoke and
draft.
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 5
5. Artificial containers, as early forms of braziers; examples in
Egyptian paintings, in Persian reliefs, descriptions in Homeric
poems ; used in China and Orient to-day.
6. Artificial structure, of stones fitted carefully together, with chim-
ney for draft. All architecture begins with shelter of fire
from wind and rain.
TOOLS AND UTENSILS
All tools imitations of forms found in nature as bowl, from hollow
stone; knife from flint splinter; spoon from shell; forked instrument
from forked stick, or human hand, or claw of bird ; hammer from human
fist.
I. CONTAINERS : Hollowed stone, natural or artificial ; hollowed wood,
stumps, ends of logs ; gourds for dippers ; shells for ladles or
spoons; skin bottles and jars; nets and baskets of fibre and reed;
baskets daubed with clay for fire-proofing; clay pottery; metal
bowls and vessels.
II. BREAKERS : Rude natural core of stone, fitting hand, used as mallet ;
grooved to fit handle of wood or stone; chipped on edge for
cutting and scraping; knife with handle; spear; arrow-head.
III. WEAPONS : Mallet ; knife ; adze ; spear and shield ; bow and arrow.
IV. DOMESTIC TOOLS : Knife ; scraper ; hand-plow ; mortar and pestle ;
rolling mill ; quern or rotary mill ; washboard and rubber ; spoons
of shell; forks. Bone and ivory needles and pins, combs, hair-
pins, files, small jars, ornaments of all kinds.
PREHISTORIC TIMES
I. PREHISTORIC MAN.
1. Remains of man found in "River-drift" period in England and on
continent indicate no use of tools, nor knowledge of fire.
Earlier stage of development than found in any known sav-
ages in historic times.
2. EARLY STONE- AGE MAN (Paleolithic). To this age belong
"kitchen-middens" of Denmark, Scandinavia, many cave-
remains of France, Spain, and England. Name derived from
rude stone implements.
a. Fire known and under partial control could be preserved
when naturally kindled.
b. Food. Mainly vegetable; animals occasionally slain included
shell-fish, insects, etc. Most food eaten raw. No domes-
ticated animals save dog; no cultivated plants. Food
supply wholly that of nature.
O TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
c. Industries. Fishing, some hunting, making of utensils of stone
and bone ; rude flaked flints chipped to shape, never ground
or polished ; some spirited drawings as decorations on
walls of cave-shelters and on implements.
3. LATE STONE- AGE MAN (Neolithic). To this period belong the
numerous burial monuments, houses, barrows, graves, mono-
liths, so common throughout the world. The remains of the
pile-dwellings, or lake-dwellings, of Switzerland, Ireland, etc.,
probably belong to this period.
a. Fire under pretty complete control. Can be artificially
kindled as well as controlled. Used not only for warmth,
but for cooking food.
b. Food, both vegetable and animal, prepared by cooking;
obtained by hunting, fishing, stock-breeding and tillage.
Nearly all food-animals domesticated, many grains, vege-
tables and fruits cultivated.
c. Industries : Spinning, weaving, mining, agriculture, stock-
raising, making of polished stone implements of many
types, making of pottery, stone-cutting on large scale.
4. BRONZE OR METAL-AGE MAN. This period grows out of the pre-
ceding so gradually that everywhere there is evidence of
overlapping. With the Iron-Age, which is the outgrowth of
the Bronze-Age, we come to historic times. This was the
period of development of the Homeric heroes.
II. STAGES OF CIVILIZATION.
There are three recognized steps in development from rudest sav-
agery to civilization ; these are :
1. SAVAGERY.
a. Lowest stage : food consists of fruit, roots, nuts ; since there
is no knowledge of fire or use of artificially produced
tools, it is all eaten raw.
b. Middle stage : in addition to above, food is shellfish, including
crabs, molluscs; sea slugs; fish; wild animals caught in
chase. Fire is known and used. Weapons are invented.
c. Higher stage : invention of bow and arrow makes animal food
staple ; hunting normal occupation. Control of food pro-
duction, storage of surplus in settled places, make supply
less uncertain. Industries are making of wooden and
stone vessels, hand-weaving of rough fibres for fishing
nets, reed baskets for cookery, but as yet no making of
pottery.
2. BARBARISM. Marked from preceding by invention of pottery.
Discovery at first probably accidental, through action of heat
on mud or clay daubed on outside of basket in cooking, or
through coating food with clay (as fish or bird) before
baking in ashes.
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 7
a. Early stage: use of pottery, domestication of animals and
first cultivation of cereals.
b. Middle stage : cultivation and irrigation of plants and cereals,
taming and breeding of animals for both flesh and milk;
life of herdsman the common one. Use of bronze metal
for tools and for ornament.
c. Higher stage : begins with melting of iron-ore. Iron plow,
drawn by animals, revolutionizes production of vegetable
foods ; ship-building widens intercourse and equalizes dis-
tribution of food. This is the stage reached by the
Egyptians at the time of their earliest records, by the
Greeks in the Homeric legends, by the Germans as recorded
by Tacitus, and by the Incas at the time of the conquest
of Peru. From this stage barbarism merges into civil-
ization.
III. FOOD. STAGF.S OF COOKERY.
1. Stages of preparation of cereals.
a. Eaten raw and whole.
b. Ground into meal, eaten raw or dried in sun.
c. Parched before open blaze.
d. Roasted or baked in pits with heated stones.
e. As mush or gruel.
f. As thin griddle cakes baked on hot surface.
g. Boiled in a pot (after invention of pottery), at first by
dropping red hot stones into the water, later by placing
pot itself directly over flame.
2. Stages of preparation of meats. Little meat eaten until use of
fire is well established.
a. Carcass thrown directly on fire.
b. Meat roasted on stick over flame of fire; from this spit was
developed.
c. Buried in leaves in embers.
d. Daubed in mud or clay, buried in embers.
e. Boiled in skin of animal made into rude vessel, or simply
used to line cavity in rock or earth. Cooking by means
of stones heated red-hot and dropped into water.
f. Pot of soapstone or steatite, which could be propped on
smaller stones and have fire directly beneath. From this,
legs of pots were developed.
g. Pottery vessels, set directly on fire.
3. Food supply of uncivilized man.
a. Vegetable: corn, rice, cereals, maize, acorns, nuts, dates, figs,
cocoanuts, lichens, wild celery, service berry, olive, grape,
apple, cherry, squash and potato in America, sunflower
seed, chili.
5 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
b. Animal: fish, both fresh and salt; all shellfish, oysters and
mussels especially; birds, both game and fowl; animals,
domesticated and wild. From these, milk products, espec-
ially cheese and butter.
IV. FOLKLORE.
1. Legends of fire in every mythology: Persian, Hindoo, Chinese,
Greek, Scandinavian, American Indian.
2. Taboos of foods and ways of preparation, usually embodied in
religious practices, i.e., Mosaic code; Code of Manu; Greek
rites.
3. Traditions of divine gifts of foods : Asia, rice ; Greece, olive ;
America, maize; etc.
REFERENCES : Aesop's Fables ; Apocrypha ; Arabian Nights Entertain-
ment; Confucius; Herodotus; Koran; Mythology of Greeks, Romans,
Scandinavians ; Talmud ; Vedas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ABBOTT, CHAS. C Primitive Industry, 1881
AVEBURY, LORD Prehistoric Times, 1913 (7th Ed.)
BARCLAY, ISABELLA The Way the World Went Then, 1898
BOAS, FRANZ The Mind of Primitive Man
DOPP, KATHERINE The Early Cave-Man, 1904
DOPP, KATHERINE Later Cave-Men, 1906
DOPP, KATHERINE The Tree-Dwellers, 1903
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ARTICLES Archeology, Cookery, Fire, Food
ENGELS, FREDERICK Origin of the Family, Chap I, 1902
JOLY, NICHOLAS Man Before Metals, 1883
KEANE, A. H Ethnology, 1896
KELLER, DR. FERDINAND. .The Lake Dwellers, 2 vols., plates in Vol. II, 1878
LINEHAN, RAY S Habitations of Man, 1894
MASON, O. T Origin of Inventions, 1895
MASON, O. T Woman's Share in Primitive Culture, 1894
MUNRO Ancient Scottish Lake-Dwellers
MUNRO Lake-Dwellings of Europe
REPORTS American Bureau of Ethnology, 1895
STARR, FREDERICK Some First Steps in Human Progress
TAYLOR, ISAAC Origin of the Aryans, 1829
TYLER, E. B Anthropology, 1904
TYLER, E. B Primitive Culture, Vol. I, 1888
WOOD-MARTIN Lake-Dwellers of Ireland
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IO TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
ANCIENT TIMES
5000 B.C. tO 476 A.D.
I. Knowledge of food sources and processes gained through :
1. Contemporary records, in literature, sculpture, and pictures.
2. Information as to climate, soil, and geographical conditions.
3. Observation of conditions in those localities to-day, especially in
oriental countries, where life has changed but little with the
passing centuries.
II. Part food plays in literature of past.
1. Casual references in poems, plays, histories.
2. Religious and legal restrictions and prescriptions of usages ; as in
Mosaic law.
3. Literature of food itself, as in Greek and Roman times, poems
celebrating rare foods or great feasts.
III. Records preserved in history almost wholly those of ruling or noble
class.
1. In pictorial representation, monuments, etc., because only the
wealthy could afford these.
2. In literature, because only the great were thought worthy of cele-
bration and representation.
3. Foods of common people known only by contemptuous reference,
or mentioned for sake of contrast, i.e., account of swine-herd's
fare in Odyssey.
EGYPT
I. NATURAL RESOURCES.
1. Vegetable.
a. Grain, especially wheat, barley, etc.
b. Lentils, onions, melons, hops, cabbage, leeks, cucumbers, garlic.
c. Fruits, especially grapes monkeys used to gather them ; date
palm, cocoanut palm.
2. Animal.
a. Fish of all kinds cats trained to catch and retrieve them.
b. Wild animals, antelope, deer, boar, crocodile.
c. Domesticated and milk-giving animals, beeves, goats, sheep,
pigs.
d. Birds and fowl; Egyptians were the first people to hatch
eggs artificially ; cats used to retrieve game birds.
II. IMPORTATION BY TRADE.
a. Fruits.
b. Gums and spices.
III. COOKERY.
T. Methods shown by wall paintings in tombs.
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY II
a. Process of bread making grinding grain, kneading dough in
trough with feet, forming into cakes or loaves, baking
before brazier, storing of finished product. Public
bakeries.
b. Brewing.
c. Plowing.
d. Harvesting.
e. Milking.
f. Salting and preserving game.
g. Preparing entire meal plucking geese, cutting and preparing
joints of veal and mutton, roasting goose on spit over
flame in fire-pot, stewing meat, carving,
h. Preparing banquet hall,
i. Serving banquet, while wrestlers, tumblers, fencers and
musicians entertain guests.
2. Utensils for preparation and cookery of food preserved to-day.
3. Elaborate accounts of Egyptian fare in Bible and in Greek writ-
ings Herodotus. *
a. Method of preparing veal.
b. Richness of country's food supply "flesh pots of Egypt."
c. Contrast with poor fare in desert.
4. Egyptian cookery to-day.
a. Food supply much the same.
b. Methods of preparation traditional.
JUDEA.
COOKERY OF BIBLK.
1. In the beginning, largely vegetable.
2. Abel's offering of lamb. Gen. IV : 4.
3. Leviticus clean and unclean foods laws.
4. Foods mentioned in Bible.
a. Abraham offers unleavened bread to the angel.
b. Esau mess of pottage lentils, very savory lentils partaken
of in time of mourning.
c. Isaac gives blessing to Jacob for kid dressed as venison
indicating that venison was highly regarded.
d. Milk and honey Land of Canaan delicacies "seethed milk,"
butter song of Deborah, "butter in a lordly dish."
e. Bread leavened and unleavened; leaven dates from earliest
use of meal, back to times of savagery found among
most primitive peoples.
f. Locusts.
g. Food of captivity in Egypt
(1) Corn (6) Garlic
(2) Melons (7) Fish
12 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
(3) Cucumbers (8) Pork
(4) Leeks (9) Veal (calf, tender and good)
(5) Onions (10) Cabbage
h. Wine grapes.
i. Olives fruit of trees,
j. Quail Exodus.
k. Pulse.
1. Manna lichen, still known as food in that locality.
5. Feasts of Bible:
a. Nebuchadnezzar.
b. Belshazzar.
c. Esther.
d. Solomon.
ASSYRIA AND BABYLONIA.
I. CHARACTER OF COUNTRVT.
1. Like Egypt, rich river valley, fertile soil, warm climate, great
natural resources.
2. Favored for commerce and intercourse with other nations, con-
stant exchange of commodities, including foodstuffs; con-
stant cultivation of new ways of using native materials.
II. NATURAL RESOURCES, and those gained by exchange.
1. Vegetable. Much the same as Egypt; grains staple product;
many fruits and vegetables.
2. Animal.
a. Fish and shell-fish.
b. Wild game.
c. Domesticated animals.
III. PREPARATION.
1. Very elaborate mention of great feasts of Ahasuerus, of Nebu-
chadnezzar, Daniel at Belshazzar's feast.
2. Great diversity of service, shown by utensils of gold and silver,
richly wrought and skillfully shaped spoons and forks found
in ruins.
3. Legal enactments no cooking on Sabbath, illegal to take medi-
cine on that day; renting of land for market gardening, rent
to be one-third of produce ; slave labor on farms, in vineyards.
4. Pictures of hunting of deer, goat, lion, boar, many wild birds;
of plowing and cultivating land; of care of vineyards and
making of wine; of kitchen processes; of banqueting; pre-
served in clay bricks and cylinders of Ninevah and Babylon.
PERSIA.
Rise of Persia contemporary with Greece. Conquered Babylonia,
reigned as mistress of East till conquered in 5th century B. c. by Greece.
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 13
I.\ Wonderfully fruitful country reputed seat of Garden of Eden.
N Climate semi-tropical, many fruit-trees native to soil.
II. Early history shows greatest moderation and simplicity of living.
1. Food largely vegetable, fruits abounding, rice a staple.
2. Flesh food of secondary importance in diet to milk and cheese,
which form a large part of food of people.
3. Preparation marked by simplicity, as shown both by records and
by simplicity of utensils. Little variety in kinds of dishes
and utensils, though there is elaborate ornamentation.
4. Contrast with food-habits of Egypt and Babylonia, and their
luxuries, shown in story of Ochus (Table Traits, p. 306).
III. Later, Persian living gradually becomes more luxurious, as shown by
1. Records of great feasts as feast of Ahasuerus in Book of Esther.
2. Remains of great banquet halls, as that of Darius at Persepolis,
Cyrus at Susa.
3. Sculptured records of table-scenes.
IV. Influence of foreign trade upon food of Persia,
r. Introduction of new foods.
a. Melon from India.
b. Plums and cherries from Africa.
c. Spices and condiments from Arabia.
2. More elaborate methods of cookery, by contact with highly
developed Egyptian and Babylonian cookery.
V. Persian luxury, unlike that of Greece, Rome, and barbarian Europe,
consisted in skill of preparation and delicacy of flavor rather
than in profusion of viands and magnificence of mere bulk.
VI. With conquest by Greece, Persian wealth declines, civilization decays.
Country to-day differs little in food-stuffs and food-preparation
from Persia of 600 B. c.
GREECE.
I. HOMERIC TIMES. Stage of civilization, higher barbarism life of
men, husbandry, cattle-raising, fighting; life of women, care of
household, spinning and weaving, care, storage and preparation of
food.
i. Flesh food.
a. Cattle, sheep, goats, swine.
b. Roasted on spits over flame of fire mention of spits large
enough to support carcass of an ox, turned by hand.
c. Fat of animals and marrow of bones esteemed delicacies.
d. Fish held in contempt, eaten only when nothing else was
obtainable ; fishing by nets, harpoons, hooks mentioned.
14 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
e. Homeric heroes did their own cooking skill of several in
special fields mentioned.
2. Vegetables and grains.
a. Bread stuffs barley, meal, and wheaten flour, baked into
loaves, without leaven.
b. Fruits grapes, figs.
3. Beverages.
a. Wine only drink, mixed with water.
b. Milk not esteemed Polyphemus, type of savage, only user.
c. Honey sometimes mixed with wine for sweetening.
4. Butter unknown, cheese used freely, esteemed highly.
5. Three meals in Homer :
a. Breakfast.
b. Dinner hot meal, served in middle of day.
c. Supper light, simple repast.
6. Feasts described at great length, with well-defined ceremonial
observances :
a. Feast at funeral of Patroclus.
b. Provisioning of boat for Telemachus.
c. Provisioning of raft by Calypso.
d. Feast at home of Nestor.
e. Feast at home of Menelaus.
f. Feast at home of Alcinous.
g. Feast at home of Odysseus,
h. Meal at swineherd's hut.
II. POST-HOMERIC PERIOD, three main centres:
1. Sparta, noted for frugality.
a. Public table for men ; common contributions to general
stock; levy of certain amount per diem.
b. Light meat diet ; staples, barley meal, cheese, black broth,
dried figs, and dates; moderate use of wine.
2. Athens, frugal also allowance of about fifty cents a day for
four adults considered extravagant.
a. Meat, usually obtained from sacrifices or public festivities.
Whole meat diet regarded as a hardship. Sausage and
fish esteemed.
b. Vegetables, cereals, fruits cultivated extensively beans and
peas, spinach, cabbage, lettuce, radishes, onions, leeks,
turnips ; pease porridge staple in diet. Figs, olives, raisin
and wine grapes, apples, pears, quinces, pomegranates;
nuts walnuts, chestnuts, almonds; grain wheat, millet,
barley, spelt; leavened bread used freely. Athenians
prided themselves on fancy baking, sesame and poppy
seeds used as flavor. Standard weights of loaves. Little
cake used. Eggs sparingly used. Honey for sweetening
entirely.
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 15
c. Wine only beverage, many varieties. Always mixed with
water, usually "half and half." Over-indulgence con-
demned.
d. Cheese and oil substitutes for butter in cooking; smoked and
dried fish used as relish; oysters considered delicacy.
Word "ostracise" derived from this.
3. Ionia, home of luxurious livers. Sybaris noted for its refine-
ments and love of dainty cookery. Sumptuary laws enacted
to check these extravagances. Indulgence in wine freer than
in Sparta and Athens.
III. LATER PERIOD height of Athenian supremacy. Marked by great
luxury and profusion of food.
1. Seven sages of kitchen, each famed for production of some one
dish or sauce.
2. 470 B.C. Cooking society awarded prize to one who produced
most excellent dish.
3. Serious study of dietetics as well as art of cookery.
4. Rarity of food and difficulty of securing it more considered than
flavor of article itself; period of importation from other and
distant countries.
5. Influence of Egypt and Babylonia. Song-birds, game-birds,
domestic fowl highly esteemed, also fish, especially deep-sea
fish.
6. Cultivation of fruit-trees study of horticulture, specialization in
grafting fruits. Many kinds of wine made; delicate flavor
and heady quality appreciated.
IV. GREEK SERVICE AT TABLE.
1. Homeric times.
a. Rude board on trestles.
b. Thronos, or chair with back and arms, for important persons,
stools for common people.
c. Many vessels, especially for drink, but no knives or forks at
table. Meat cooked so that it fell to pieces, or else cut
by steward as it was passed.
d. Ceremonial observances, as libation, honoring of guest, show-
ing appreciation of song or story by gift of choice morsels,
etc.
2. Later times.
a. Elaborate tables, marble, wood, bronze, inlay, etc.
b. Guests reclined on couches, piled with cushions; used right
hand only in eating.
c. No forks, fingers used entirely. Forks used only for kitchen
serving.
d. Cup-bearer and attendants kept wine cups filled. Tables
changed at end of courses.
l6 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
e. Women of family not present at feasts; music, juggling,
dancing by hired female entertainers.
f. Symposia at end of meal, learned or polite discussions calling
out wit and thought of company.
ROME.
I. EARLY HISTORY. Living frugal, like that of early Greeks ; food pro-
ducts and methods of preparation very similar. Imitated Greeks
in all culinary matters. National dish, porridge.
II. LATER TIMES Republic.
1. Fish, red mullet favorite; shellfish, oysters especially. Game of
all kinds, birds especially. Domesticated animals, pork highly
prized ; beef and mutton used ; fowl bred extensively. Romans
first to caponize cocks. Geese fattened and stuffed, livers
considered great delicacy.
2. Vegetables cabbage, lentils, beans, peas, carrots, sorrel, pars-
ley, truffles, mushrooms, asparagus; fruits apples favorite,
plums, cherries, pears, nuts of many kinds, olives, grapes
for raisins and for wine.
3. Beverages beer and malt liquors used among common people,
wine also common beverage ; honey used in certain fermented
drinks.
III. EMPIRE luxury and degeneracy. Feasts of this time marked by :
1. A profusion of viands, number of articles served rather than
excellence the criterion as Feasts of Heliogabalus, Nero,
Claudius, Vitellius.
2. Articles brought from great distances and noted for their rarity
and costliness. See Good Cheer, p. 57.
3. Gluttony rather than epicureanism the custom of the time.
IV. TABLE SERVICE like that of the Greeks reclined on couches around
table. Much the same manner of serving and eating as in later
Athenian days. Roman culture borrowed bodily from Greek.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLE.
TRANSLATIONS from Iliad, Odyssey, Vergil, Horace, Herodotus, Livy,
Tacitus, Plutarch, Plato, Apicius, Athenaeus, Martial, Petronius
Arbiter, Ovid.
BLUMNER, H Home Life of Ancient Greeks, 1893
BOTSFORD, G. W History of Ancient World, 1911
EBERS, GEORGE Egyptian Princess, 1883
ERMAN Life in Ancient Egypt, p. 188-193, 1894
FERRERO, G Women of the Caesars, 1911
GULICK, C. B Life of the Ancient Greeks, Ch. X-XI, 1902
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY
KA
HACKWOOD, F. W ...................................... Good Cheer, 1911
KUHL-ROMER ..................... Home Life of the Greeks and Romans
LINEHAN, RAY ................................ Habitations of Man, 1894
MAHAFFY, J. P ........................... .... Social Life of Greece, 1890
MASPERO, G. C,
Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, Ch. II, VI, XII, XIV, 1892
REICH, EMIL ......................... Woman Throughout the Ages, 1908
ST. JOHN, M. J. H ......... Manners and Customs of Ancient Greece, 1842
SEYMOUR, T. D.... Homeric Viands (In Proceedings of American Philo-
logical Ass'n, Vol. XXX, 1899).
WILKINSON, SIR JOHN G.,
Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, 1878
DATES IN MEDIEVAL HISTORY
EASTERN EMPIRE
A.D.
324
375
Constantino the
Great
Seat of empire re-
moved from .Rome
to Constantinople
Invasion of
Visigoths
Birth of Moham-
med
WESTERN EMPIRF
A.D.
410
47 6
Sack of Rome
Alaric
by
Fall of Rome be- i
fore Germanic in- I
vaders
622 Hejira
632
732
1050 Jerusalem in hands
of Mohammedans
Spread of Moham-
medan power
480-752 Merovingian
Kingdom of
Franks, begun
under Clovis, pre-
vails in west
Battle of Tours
Mohammedans
driven south of
Pyrenees
732
768
Son
Charles Martel de-
feats Mohamme-
dans
Charlemagne
Charlemagne
1096
1244
founds Holy
Roman Empire
First Crusade
End of Crusades
1453
Fall of Constanti-
nople
1347 The Black Death
1300-1400 Renaissance
M29-3 1 Joan of Arc
1461-1483 Louis XI
and unification of
France
1492 Voyage of
Columbus
B.C.
55
A.D.
500
ENGLAND
Caesar's conquest
of Brittain
England under
Saxon rule
871-901 Alfred the
Great
1066 Norman Conquest
1215 Magna Charta
I338-I4S3 Hundred
Years' War
1340-1400 Chaucer
1455-85 War of Roses
2O TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
2. Elaborated dishes and utensils; in Italy, table-fork invented.
3. Elaborated cookery itself, and rarity and costliness of viands
sought for.
ENGLAND TO 1500
I. SAXON ENGLAND.
1. Foods.
a. Meats and fish staple in diet, huge quantities being consumed.
Customary to roast beeves whole.
b. Fowl esteemed and raised for table; wild fowl considered
delicacies.
c. Few vegetables known; cereals (barley, corn, rarely wheat)
ground for bread ; acorns commonly used as meal by poor.
d. Liquor distilled from grain the common drink, even among
rulers. Mead, made from honey, favorite drink.
2. Table customs.
a. Huge feasts, to celebrate battles or as signs of good will,
frequent occurrences.
b. Men and women sat at table together, ranged according to
rank, all sitting at same board.
c. Dishes and utensils rude cups of horn, dishes of wood, meat
served on spits on which it was roasted; no forks, but
each guest brought his own knife. Table cloths used, but
not napkins.
d. Heavy drinking the rule. Singing and professional jesting
the entertainment. The bard improvised verses in honor
of giver of feast.
3. Architecture.
a. Dining hall largest room in the one-story structure. Table
simply boards laid on trestles, removable when not in use.
Guests sat on benches without backs.
b. Kitchen early separated from dining hall, built around chim-
ney, where all cooking was done before open fire.
^*- " *
II. NORMAN ENGLAND.
i. Foods.
a. Greater refinement at once came in with the more cultured
Normans. Cookery for first time in England regarded as
an art. Flavor and delicacy more esteemed than mere
quantity, as among Saxons. With this period comes
influence of Crusades, with its importation of Eastern
fruits, as citron, cloves, lemons, oranges, figs, and dates,
and its spices for preserving meats through winter.
Norman nobles brought their own stewards and cooks,
and these positions became posts of honor in household.
b. Drinks. Upper classes used wines almost entirely; despised
beer, ale and mead, which continued to be beverages of
f
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 21
common people. Heavy drinking still customary with)
both classes. Cider popular beverage.
c. Vegetable foods much more common than in Saxon period.
See Good Cheer, p. 8sc.
2. Architecture.
a. Dining hall. Gothic architecture, with high arched roof and
gallery at one end. Long ceremonial table, with raised
table on dais across end where master and distinguished
guests sat. Elaborate ceremony of service.
b. Divisions of kitchen, with pantry, buttery, etc.
3. Derivation of our words to-day from
a. Anglo-Saxon terms, i.e., Lord, Lady.
b. Norman terms for foods, i.e., beef, veal.
c. Monastic divisions of labor, i.e., butler, steward.
4. Sports and occupations.
a. Hunting. Wild deer, boar, hare, etc., hunted and kept in
preserves.
b. Hawking. Sport of nobility in Norman England. Hawks
used to bring down small birds, used as food and es-
teemed as delicacies.
c. Fishing. Occupation rather than sport; nobility seldom en-
gaged in it, though sea-food was staple of diet.
III. PICTURE OF ENGLISH IN CHAUCER'S DAY.
1. Monastic fare, Prologue to Canterbury Tales.
2. Traveller's fare, at inns.
3. Fare of gentlefolk, description of Merchant and of Cook.
4. Table manners, description of Prioress. l
IV. APPEARANCE OF BOOKS OF COOKERY.
1. Treatise on Cookery, 1375, by Guillerant, cook to Charles V.
2. Forme of Cury, 1390, in England, by cook to Richard II.
3. De Honesta Voluptate et Valitudine, 1474, in Venice.
4. De Re Culinaria, Collius Apicius, 1498.
5. The Noble Boke of Cookery, 1500, in England.
6. Boke of Kervynge, Wynkyn de Word, 1513, in England.
7. Kuchenmeistery, Strassburg, 1516.
8. Manual by Scappi, privy cook to Piux V, 1622.
9. Proper Newe Boke of Cookery, England, 1570.
10. The Good Housewife's Treasury, England, 1588.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ABRAMS, ANNIE English Life and Manners in Later Middle Ages, 1913
ABRAMS, ANNIE Social England in the 15th Century, 1909
ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENT
BABEE'S BOKE (Training at Table) 1868 (Reprint)
BAEDE Eccleciastical History, 600
BALCH, ELIZABETH Glimpses of Old English Homes, 1890
22 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
BEOWULF (J. H. Cox, editor) 1910. Time of poem, about 500 A. D.
BRAND, JOHN Antiquities, 10.05
CHAMBERS, R Book of Days, 1888
CHAUCER, GEOFFREY Canterbury Tales, Prologue, 1386-90
CoMPTON-RiCKETT, ARTHUR London Life of Yesterday, 1909
COULTON, G. G A Medieval Garner. 1910
CUTTS, E. L Scenes and Characters of the Middle Ages, 1872
CUTTS, E. L Domestic Life in England, 1835
EVANS, H-. E High History of the Holy Grail, 1908
FREYTAG, G Pictures of German Life, 1862
FRERE, FANNY A Proper Newe Booke of Cookery (reprint), 1913
GODFREY, ELIZABETH English Children in the Olden Time, 1907
GOSSON, STEPHEN Schoole of Abuse, 1579
GREEN, MRS. A. STOPPFORD Town Life in the isth Century, 1894
GUEST, GEORGE Mabinogion (Time of story, about 800), 1907
GUEST, GEORGE Social History of England, 1913
GUMMERE, F. B Old English Ballads, 1903
GUMMERE, F. B Germanic Origins, 1892
HACKWOOD, FRED., Inns, Ales, and Drinking Customs of Old England
(no date)
HAKLUYT Voyages, 1598-1600
HARRISON, WM England, 1577
HEATH, SIDNEY Pilgrim Life in the Middle Ages, 1912
Author unknown Land of Cockayne (Satire on Clergy), dr. noo
MALORY, THOMAS Morte d' Arthur, 1485
MARKHAM, GERVASE English Housewife, 1617
MARCO POLO Travels, 1116
MASKELL, H. P Old Country Inns of England (no date)
MORTON, J Ancren Riwle, 1225 (modernized)
McGovERN, J., Hospitality, Mine Host from the Time of Babylon to the
Age of the Aeroplane
NEEDHAM, MARY Folk Festivals, 1912
PLUMMER, C Life and Times of Alfred the Great
PRIVY PURSE ACCOUNTS of Elizabeth of York, 1502-3
PRIVY PURSE ACCOUNTS of Princess Mary, 1536-1544
SALZMAN, L. F Medieval Byways, 1913
SCOTT, WALTER Ivanhoe, 1825 ; Quentin Durward, 1823
SKEAT, WM. M The Past at Our Doors, 1911
STUBBES, PHILLIPE Anatomic of Abuse, 1583
SYNGE, M. B Short History of Social Life in England, 1906
TACITUS Germania, A. D. 99
THRUPP, JOHN Anglo-Saxon Homes, from 5th to nth Centuries, 1862
TRAILL, H. D Social England, 1901-4
WALMESLEY, J., Expenses of Judge of Assizes, 1596-1601. (Cooper Ed.,
1858)
WALSH, WM. S Curiosities of Popular Customs, 1897
WARNER, C. D The People for whom Shakespeare Wrote, 1897
WESTON, J. L Sir Gawain (modernized)
WRIGHT, J. C In the Good Old Times, 1905
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY
DATES IN MODERN HISTORY
EUROPE
1559 Katharine de
Medici in France
1588 Defeat of Armada
Break of Spain's
dominion
1572-1609 Rise of
Dutch Republic
1618-1648 Thirty Years'
War
1661-1715 Louis XIV of
France
1682-1725 Peter the
Great of Russia
1740-1786 Frederick the
Great of Prussia
1 789 French Revolution
1794 Reign of Terror
1795-1815 Napoleon I
1848 Napoleon III
1853-56 Crimean War
1870-71 Franco-Prussian
War
1870 Unification of Italy
1871 Unification of
Germany
ENGLAND
1536-39 Henry VIII
confiscated
monastic lands
1558-1603 Reign of
Elizabeth
1564-1616 Shakespeare
1649 Beheading of
Charles I
1649-1660 Common-
wealth and Crom-
well
1660-85 Charles II
1702-14 Queen Anne
1714 House of Hanover
on English throne
1757 English in India
1837-1901 Reign of
Victoria
1 839-42 English in
China
AMERICA
1519-36 Conquests of
Mexico and Peru
1607 Jamestown Colony
1619 Plymouth Colony
1755 French and Indian
War
1776-83 American
Revolution
1789 Adoption of
American
Constitution
1845-48 Mexican War
1860-65 Civil War
1898 Spanish- American
War
24 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
MODERN TIMES: 1500 to Present Day
I. Period opens with strong interest in
1. VOYAGES AND DISCOVERIES.
a. To New World, bringing back maize, squash, tobacco, potato,
chocolate (from Mexico), turkey.
b. To Indies and Eastern lands, bringing back coffee, tea, cucum-
ber.
c. Popularizing rarer vegetables, cabbage from Holland, etc.
2. COLONIZATION.
a. England in America, Indies, India, China, Africa.
b. France in America.
c. Spain in North America and South America.
d. Holland in America and Africa.
3. SCIENCE.
a. Gardening and horticulture; grafting, propagating, experi-
menting, carried to high stage of perfection. Hop-grow-
ing introduced into England.
b. Cattle raising and breeding; cattle successfully fattened for
market as had never before been done; scientific interest
in improving breeds.
c. Interest in preserving food. Sir Francis Bacon's experiment
with cold storage for fowl.
4. CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS.
a. Rise of merchant class to position of social importance;
demands on their part for best in market; rival nobility
in display and luxury.
b. Revolt of poor people against coarse fare, demand for more
adequate wages, more liberal food-supply.
c. Great wealth pouring into Europe changes conditions of
living of all classes.
II. CONTAST BETWEEN FARE OF UPPER AND LOWER CLASSES great cause of
discontent.
1. Magnificence of courts of
a. Catherine de Medici.
b. Louis XIV.
c. Elizabeth.
d. Peter the Great and Katherine of Russia.
e. Frederick the Great of Prussia.
2. Culmination in
a. French Revolution.
b. English Reforms of 1832.
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 25
FRANCE
I. FAMOUS MONARCHS WHO INFLUENCED FRENCH COOKERY.
T. Catherine de Medici.
a. Brought Italian elegance of food-preparation.
b. Set standard of magnificence.
2. Louis XIV.
a. Chefs.
b. Favorites.
c. Taste in dishes.
3. Marie Antoinette and French Revolution.
4. Napoleon, contrast between
a. Soldierly fare.
b. Imperial court.
II. NATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS.
1. Love of excellence in quality.
2. Sauces.
3. Delicacy of flavor.
4. Right proportioning of foods served together.
III. FAMOUS CHEFS.
Bechamel, Vatel, Vincent dela Chapelle, Robert, Mest, Very, Riche,
Hardy, Careme, Ude, Francatelli, Soyer.
IV. DEVELOPMENT OF RESTAURANTS
ENGLAND
I. ELIZABETHAN TIMES.
a. Passion for new things, aping of foreigners.
b. Prosperity made for magnificence among nobles, plenty
among commons.
c. Scientific interest in food products and in distilling, horti-
culture, etc.
II. COMMONWEALTH.
a. Time of repression ; excess of every kind forbidden.
b. Political turmoil, civil war, turned men's minds from all soft
living and luxury.
c. Religious severity did away with observance of feast days.
III. RESTORATION AND AGE OF QUEEN ANNE.
a. French influence felt strongly at court.
b. Steady commerce with colonies made new products staple in
diet.
c. Scientific agriculture increased production of food stuffs enor-
mously.
IV. PRESENT TIME.
a. Reform bills of 1832 lowered food prices.
b. Tendencies noted in III continue to operate more strongly,
especially importation and productivity.
26 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
AMERICA
I. COLONIAL COOKERY.
a. Marked by frugality and simplicity.
b. New food products, maize especially, staple.
c. Little imported save wine and condiments.
d. Effect of mingling of various national stocks seen in cookery,
i.e., New England and Dutch of New York.
II. REVOLUTIONARY COOKERY.
a. Provision liberal, but without European refinement.
b. Vigorous outdoor life of times called for heavy diet; meat
large part.
c. Contrast :
1. New England
2. Virginia and Maryland
3. Frontier, Kentucky, e{c.
III. PRESENT DAY INFLUENCES.
1. Wars and conquests.
2. Commerce and intercourse.
3. Developing of vast natural resources.
4. Immigration.
5. Scientific advances.
a. Cooking schools.
b. Literature of cookery.
c. Production of better varieties of foods.
d. Preservation of foods, cold storage, transportation, etc.
6. Famous hotels and restaurants.
CHINA
A vast country, shut off from rest of civilization both by natural
barriers and by temper of people themselves. Its civilization goes back to
3000 B. c. In itself and apparently independent of any surrounding civil-
ization, China passes through all the stages outlined from simple brute
existence to the most complex social organization and development. It
had, however, almost no influence on other peoples, because of its isolation.
Therefore its food customs are considered with those of modern times,
for it is only in our own day that they have become familiar.
FOOD PRODUCTS.
1. Animal. Fish of all kinds, shellfish, sea-snails, eels, shark-fins,
sea slugs. Beef not used as food, mutton esteemed, pork
used freely, deer and antelope used. Fowl or game birds
regarded as delicacy. Dogs, rats, moles, used for food.
Eggs staple of diet.
2. Vegetables. Many varieties of grain, rice staple article of diet,
celery, bamboo shoots; nuts, fruits, oranges, etc., fir cones.
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 2/
3. Beverages. Wine, distilled liquor from rice, tea ; Chinese an
abstemious race, drunkenness a disgrace.
4. Two meals per day, luncheon and dinner. Women never present
at formal dinner. Service always of four (or multiple of
four) covers. No knives, forks, or spoons used. Chop-sticks
of ebony or ivory instead. All food served in small portions
so that cutting is unnecessary. Ceremonial elaborate.
INDIA
Food habits comparatively unknown till modern times, though civil-
ization as ancient as Persia. Climate ranges from tropical to temperate.
No distinct botanical features. Much game of all kinds. Agriculture sole
industry of the people. Largely vegetarians, cookery very simple. Had
little influence on ancient world, more on England in igth century.
CHARACTERISTIC DISHES
I. GERMANY noted for
1. Sausage.
2. Sauerkraut-
3. Breads and cakes of all kinds.
4. Wines and beer.
II. NORWAY AND SWEDEN.
1. Plain, simple foods.
2. Fish, especially preserved by smoking.
3. Great variety of fancy breads.
III. SPAIN.
1. Olla podrida.
2. Peppers in cookery.
3. Wines.
4. Choice fruits.
IV. ITALY.
1. Oil in cookery.
2. Cheese.
3. Wines.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
GENERAL REFERENCES
ADDISON Sir Roger de Coverly, in Spectator, 1714
ANDREWS, WM Bygone England, 1892
ASHTON, JOHN Dawn of igth century in England, 1886
ASHTON, JOHN .Social Life in the Reign of Queen Anne, 1897
BESANT, WALTER London, 1903-1909
BLACKMORE, R. S Lorna Doone, 1869
28 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
BOAS, MRS. FREDERICK In Shakespeare's England, 1904
BOSWELL, JAMES Life of Samuel Johnson, 1791
BRADLEY, ROSA M.,
The English Housewife in I7th and i8th centuries, 1912
CARLYLE, THOMAS The French Revolution, 1837
CERVANTES Don Quixote, 1605-1615
CHENEY, E. P.,
Introduction to Industrial and Social History of England, 1901
CHRONICLES OF AN OLD CAMPAIGNER
COURT OF THE TUILLERIES
DEFOE. DANIEL Journal of the Plague Year, 1719
DICKENS, CHAS David Copperfield, 1850
DICKENS, CHAS Our Mutual Friend, 1865
DICKENS, CHAS Martin Chuzzlewit, 1844
DICKENS, CHAS.,
Christmas Carol, 1843; Cricket on the Hearth, The Chimes, 1844
DICKENS, CHAS Tale of Two Cities, 1859
DEAKE Shakespeare and His Times
DUMAS, A Culinary Dictionary
EARLE, ALICE MORSE Customs and Fashions in Old New England, 1894
EVELYN, JOHN Diary, 1641-1697
FISKE, JOHN Dutch and Quaker Colonies of America, 1899
GAY, JOHN Trivia, 1716
HALL, HUBERT Society in the Elizabethan Age, 1886
IRVING, WASHINGTON Knickerbocker History of New York, 1809
IRVING, WASHINGTON Sketch Book, 1818
LAMB, CHARLES Essay on Roast Pig, 1822
LANG, ANDREW Social England
NEWNHAM-DAVIS A Gourmet's Guide to Paris
PAYNE Voyages of English Seamen
PEPYS, SAMUEL Diary, 1660-1669
PRIOR Poems, 1687
POPE, ALEXANDER Poems, 1709-1737
ROBINSON, H. P Twentieth Century America
RYE. .England as Seen by Foreigners in the Days of Elizabeth and James I
SCOTT, WALTER , Waverly, 1814
SHELLEY Inns and Taverns of Old London, 1909
SIDNEY, W. C,
Social Life in England from the Restoration to the Revolution
SMOLLETT, TOBIAS Peregrine Pickle, 1751
STEPHENSON, H. J The Elizabethan People, 1910
THACKERAY, W. M Some Dinners in Paris, 1860
THACKERAY,W. M Poems
WALTON, ISAAC Compleat Angler, 1653
AUSTIN, THOMAS Two I5th Century Cookery Books, 1888
HAZLITT, W. CAREW Old Cookery Books, 1902
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 2Q
HOOKER, MARGARET H.,
Ye Gentlewoman's Housewifery, compiled from Old Sources, 1912
OXFORD, A. W.,
Notes from a Collector's Catalog, with a Bibliography of English
Cookery Books, 1909
SENN, H. C Ye Art of Cookery in Ye Olden Time (no date)
OLD COOKERY BOOKS
ACCUM, FRED Culinary Chemistry, 1821
ACTON, ELIZABETH English Bread Book, 1857
ADAM'S LUXURY AND EVE'S COOKERY, 1774
ARTACHTHOS OR THE ASSIZE OR WEIGHT OF BREAD, 1638
AUSTIN, THOMAS Two I5th Century Cookery Books, 1888
Book of Cookrye by J. W., 1591
Book of Receipts for Pastry Cookery and Pickling, 1680
BRIGGS, RICHARD English Art of Cookery, 1794
BRIGGS, RICHARD New Art of Cookery, 1798
BUTLER, CAROLINE London and Country Cook, cir. 1800
CARTER, CHARLES Compleat City and Country Cook, 1730
CARTER, CHARLES London and Country Cook, 1739
CARTER, CHARLES Noble Art and Mystery of Cookery, 1729
CARTER, SUSANNAH The Frugal Housewife, 1796
CLERMONT, B The Professed Cook, 1776
COLLINGWOOD and WOOLAMS Universal Cook, 1792
Compleat Cook, 1655
Complete Family Piece, 1737
Complete British Housewife, 1730
Cookery Reformed or the Lady's Assistant, 1755
COOK, ANN The Professed Cook, 1750
Cook's Vade Mecum, 1705
DIGBY, SIR KENELM Cookery, 1669
EVELYN, JOHN Discourse on Thirty-Five Sallets, 1699
FARLEY, JOHN London Art of Cookery, 1789
FRAZER, MRS Practice of Cookery, Pastry and Confectionery, 1804
Gastronomy, 1822
GLASSE, MRS. HANNAH Art of Cookery, 1746
GLASSE, MRS. HANNAH Complete Confectioner, 1800
GRAHAME, W The Art of Making Wines, 1783
HALL, T The Queen's Royal Cookery, 1713
HAZLEMORE, M Domestic Economy, 1794
HENDERSON, W. A Housekeeper's Instructor, 1809
HUNTER, A Culina Famulatrix Medicinae, 1806
KETTILBY, MARY Receipts in Cookery, 1724
KING, W The Art of Cookery, 1709
KITCHENER, W The Cook's Oracle, 1821
KITCHENER, W The Housekeepers' Oracle, 1829
Liber Cure Cocarum
32 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
EARLE, ALICE MORSE Stage Coach and Tavern Days, 1901
ESCOFFIER, A Guide to Modern Cookery, 1007
Experienced American Housekeeper, 1823
FELLOWES Culinary Handbook, 1904
FIELD, EDWARD The Colonial Tavern, 1897
GARRETT Encyclopedia of Cookery
GOUFFE, J Book of Preserves, 1871
GouFfE, j Royal Cookery Book, 1888
GRAHAM, S On Bread, 1837
HARLAND, MARION Some Colonial Homesteads, 1897
LESLIE, ELIZA Complete Cookery, 1841
LESLIE, ELIZA More Receipts, 1852
Pocumtuc Housewife Reprint Deerfield, Mass., 1907
RANDOLPH, MARY Virginia Housewife, 1838
RUNDELL, M. E American Domestic Cookery, 1823
SALA, G. A The Thorough Good Cook, 1896
SINGLETON, ESTHER Social New York Under the Georges, 1002
SMITH, J. H Famous Old Recipes, 1908
SMITH, PRUDENCE Modern American Cookery, 1831
SOYER, A Culinary Campaign, 1857
SOYER, A Gastronomic Regeneration, 1846
Statesmen's Dishes, 1887
WATERS, T. F. .Ipswich in the Massachusetts Bay Colony (1633-1700), 1905
WEBSTER, A. L The Improved Housewife, 1856
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 33
CHRISTMAS
In the celebration of the Christmas festival on the 25th of December,
Christian nations are in reality perpetuating the older pagan feasts which
marked the period of the winter solstice, the time when the sun begins his
upward climb in the heavens, the return to light and warmth. From
earliest times this has been the occasion of revelry, feasting and rejoicing
among all peoples. Among the Phoenicians it was the feast of Baal, or
Bel, the Sun God ; among the Romans, the feast of Saturn, or Saturnalia,
and it is from the customs of this celebration that the masking, mumming,
or pantomime, so characteristic a part of the Christmas festivities in the
Old World, is derived. Among our Teutonic ancestors, it was the Feast
of Odin, and our name of Yule-tide, and the ceremonial of the Yule-log,
are reminders of these older forms of Druid worship, to mark the turn
of the year, or the "wheeling" of the sun in the heavens. The canny fathers
of the church endeavored, in so far as was possible, to make the high-days
and holy-days of the Christian calendar coincide with the periods of
traditional celebration among the people, thus making a painless transition.
And in their successful carrying out of this policy, hosts of customs in no
way connected with the Christian character of the celebration were trans-
ferred bodily. Thus mince-pie, a characteristic Christmas dish, is the
lineal descendant of the old Teutonic "blood-pudding" or sausage, which
differed from common sausage by being sweetened and having plums
mixed with it. Not until a comparatively late date was it baked in a
crust; and indeed plum-pudding and mince pie are first cousins, both
springing from this famous dish. We may include here, too, the old
plum-porridge, or pottage, with which the Christmas feast always opened,
for it belongs with the other two in point of derivation.
In England, the main dish of the Christmas feast was the boar's head.
It was prepared by pickling, then roasted, and served on a platter of gold
or silver, its tusks gilded, a roast apple in its mouth, sprigs of rosemary
and bay to deck it, and the inevitable mustard to season it. So important
was its place in the feast that its entrance was preceded by heralds or
trumpeters, and it was borne in, held aloft by the chief steward himself.
None meaner in degree than a knight might carve it. The old Oxford
carol,
"Caput apri defero,"
was sung as it was borne around the board.
Another dish in high favor for this feast was the peacock. One can
only account for the esteem in which this bird was held by the fact of its
rarity and beauty, for even after all the elaborate preparation and the
lavish use of good materials to make it palatable (one old recipe calls for
the flesh of three wethers, tender and good, to make the gravy for a
single bird), the meat was dry, stringy, and tasteless. The bird was first
carefully skinned, then stuffed with minced flesh, savory herbs, and a
dressing of yolks of eggs, then roasted and dressed with the before-
mentioned gravy. The skin with the plumage was then sewn in place,
the tail spread to display its full beauty, the beak gilded, and a bit of
34 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
cotton soaked in brandy inserted therein. It was borne to the table with
this ablaze, and only the ladies might bring it in, or carve it and serve it.
Sometimes it was baked in a pie, and then in serving, the head protruded
from one end, the full-spread tail from the other. An oath taken upon this
pie was peculiarly sacred, and knights swore upon it their devotion to the
lady of their choice. Hence comes the old expression "by cock and pie."
Swans were sometimes given the place of honor when peacock could not
be obtained, and brawn and sirloin of beef were other Christmas favorites.
In France and Spain as well as in England, the oyster occupies a promi-
nent place at the feast, and a gift of a barrel of oysters is a delicate
attention from one friend to another. While we find frequent mention
of venison-pasties, this is not a distinctively Christmas dish in any
country.
The Christmas cake is an institution in every land. It is of the
richest composition the means of the household can afford ; old tradition
says it should be baked a month before it is to be eaten, and dipped in
spiced ale or brandy every day for a fortnight. It usually contains fruits
and nuts, and in the old days was sometimes so huge as to be baked in
sections, as a single oven could not accommodate it. It was iced and
built up with sugar devices, much as bride-cakes sometimes are. Some-
times it was called Twelfth-cake, and then in the baking, a bean, a pea,
and a clove were put in it. When it was cut, the person to whose portion
the bean fell was king, she who had the pea was queen, and the clove
designated the knave. These dignitaries were installed with revelry, and
ruled till Twelfth Night, being absolute in all commands for their little
reigns.
The wassail-bowl was another famous Christmas institution. The
derivation of the word signifies a health, and in the older days ; before
wines were common and easily obtainable, it was composed of spiced ale,
with roasted apples bobbing in it. In later days, mulled wine was its basis.
It was passed round the board, hot and spicy, and each took a deep draft
from the common cup. It is not until the sixteenth century that we find
individual cups used for this drink, for the ceremony of partaking of it
was in itself of a certain democratic significance.
Frumenty, a dish of wheat cakes seethed in milk, with pounded
almonds, was a great standby, served sometimes with venison, sometimes
as a dish by itself. Geese, capon, pheasant, and carp-tongue pie are all
mentioned as Christmas dishes. Hares, venison, a fine piece of brawn,
were all customary Christmas gifts from one householder to another.
Originally such gifts were made on New Year's Day, and this is still the
custom in some continental countries. New Year's day marked the
height of the Roman Saturnalia, and this is but another relic from that
time.
Certain games and folk-customs, which with us are associated with
Hallowe'en, really belong to the Yule celebration. Among these are
bobbing for apples, and jumping for the cake. This last was a rude sport,
where a cake, daubed with treacle, was suspended by a string from a
AN OUTLINE ON THE HISTORY OF COOKERY 35
beam in the ceiling, and the contestants, with arms bound behind them,
jumped and tried to bite the cake. Then there was the Christmas Eve
blessing of the orchards, where the whole company, after partaking of
offered the remnants of the cake to the largest apple tree, and sprinkled the
ground with the wine, thus assuring abundance for the coming year.
On Christmas morning all the children of the community could go
from house to house, asking for simnel cakes, and no one would refuse
them. Their elders made similar calls, but instead of the simnel cakes,
they were served with "egg-hot," a forerunner of our own "egg-nogg,"
made with cider, and with cakes of pounded almonds, our marzipan.
Everywhere extravagance of provision, hearty eating and deeper drinking
were the rule of the day.
With the Period of the Reformation, and especially with the rise of
the Puritans in England, all observation of Christmas and of Twelfth-
night as times of feast and revel was not only frowned on, but forbidden
both by law and by church authority. But the love of the festival was
too deeply implanted to be thus uprooted, and with the passing of Crom-
well, we see the old spirit breaking out again in even wilder rejoicing.
Our own Puritan ancestors came to America while Christmas was in
eclipse, and consequently New Englanders kept the day as a fast, till their
Knickerbocker neighbors had corrupted them. Much of the character of
the celebration in America to-day is borrowed from our German settlers,
and dates back only to the middle of the last century.
For excellent descriptions of Christmas celebrations, see
SCOTT Marmion, 1808
CHAMBERS Book of Days, 1888
HACKWOOD Good Cheer, 1911
IRVING Bracebridge Hall, 1818
DICKENS Pickwick Papers, 1837
DICKENS Christmas Carol, 1843
DICKENS Cricket on the Hearth, 1844
ASHTON, JOHN A Righte Merrie Christmasse, 1894
HERVEY, T. K Book of Christmas, 1888
SANDYS, WM Christmas Tide, 1852
SCH AUFFLER, R. H Christmas, 1907
SUGGESTED TOPICS FOR CLASS DEVELOPMENT
Food Taboos in Primitive Society.
Wars and Food.
The Effect of Climate upon Diet.
Religion and Food.
Dinner Throughout the Ages.
Development of Utensils.
Methods of Applying Heat to Food.
The Crusades.
Royal Tastes.
36 TECHNICAL EDUCATION BULLETIN
Feasts in History.
Feasts in Fiction.
The Literature of Cookery.
Folklore and Food.
Table Customs.
National Dishes.
Famous Chefs.
The Bread of All Nations.
Cooking Schools and Their Influence.
Commerce and Food Habits.
American Holidays.
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANDREWS, JULIA C Breakfast, Dinner and Tea, 1860,
BRILLAT-SAVARIN, J. A Gastronomy as a Fine Art. 1813 (pub. 1854)
BRILLAT-SAVARIN, J. A Physiology of Taste, 1825 (pub. 1854)
BUCKLAND, ANNE Our Viands, 1893
CHILD, THEODORE Delicate Feasting (no date)
DORAN, J Table Traits, 1859
ELLWANGER, G. H Pleasures of the Table, 1902
Encyclopedia Britannica
FILIPPINI, A \ . . . .The Table, 1889
FINK, HENRY T Food and Flavor, 1013
GONLEY, J. W. S Dining and Its Amenities, 1907
HACKWOOD, FREDERICK Good Cheer, 1911
HAYWOOD, A The Art of Dining
HUMELBERGIUS, SECUNous DICK Apician Morsels, 1829
JEFFERSON, CORDY Book About the Table
KETTNER Book of the Table
KIRWAN, A. V Host and Guest, 1864
REYNIERE, GRIMRODE DE Almanach des Gourmands, 1808
SHERWOOD, M. E. W The Art of Entertaining
SOYER, A. B Pantropheon (no date)
SOYER, A. B Spirit of Cookery, 1895
WALKER, T Aristology, or the Art of Dining
BARTLETT, JOHN Familiar Quotations, 1875-97
COREY, E. L Books and My Food, 1904
HONE Everyday Book, 1853 (pub. 1889)
SMITH, J. C Synonyms and Antonyms, 1867
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