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i
^
iPiAIitatioM of ^
%iid\xqt{k^id 3amii^ ai f mrlrmr.
HE ANTHROPOLOGICAL TREATISES OF
BLUMENBACH
AVD
HUNTER.
TaAMSLATtn A
FROM THE LATIN, GEHMAN, AKD FRENCH 0EIGINAL8,
THOMAS BENDYSHE, M.A., V.P.A.S.L.
LONDON:
THE ANTKROPOLOOICAL BOOICnf. BY
LONGMAN, GEEEN, LONGMAN, BOBERTS, & GEEEN.
1865.
u ^ ^ ^
256148
• V • • • •
• • t • •• ;
•• •• • • •
• • • • • • •
• • • • • •
» • •
• -•
• • •
• «
E Works of Bliimeubacli edited in this volume are the first
third or last edition of hia famoua Treatise On the JVo-
•al Variety of Mankind; which were published in 1775 aiid
5 respectively: the Contribvtions to Natural History, in two
; and a slight notice of three skullii which appeared in
Gottingi^che geleftrte Aiizeigen of Nov. 1833, only remark-
Bble for being the laat printed utterance of the author. Two
I of Blumeabach have been prefixed, which contain
r almost everything of interest concerning the circum-
inces of his life. 1 have also added an account of his once
tnous anthropological collection, written by his successor, now
himself lately deceased, Professor RudolpJi Wagner, one of
the original Honorary Fellows of the Anthropological Society,
iondon.
Blumenbach has related in the little autobiographical frag-
kent, which has been incorporated by Marx in his memoir,
) causes which led to his selection of an anthropological
ibject as the thesis for hia doctoral dissertation. It was
•livered in 1775, and reprinted word for word in 177(>- A
»nd edition, enlarged by as much as would make about
Till EDITOBS PREFACE.
fifteen prmted pagea unifonn with this translation, was iaaued
in 1781 ; and finally a third in 1795, which in arrangement,
and matter was almost a new work. I hesitated some tim)
as to which of tlie two first editions it would be most satis-
factory to give to the public; for, on the one hand, the first
is obviously most interesting for the history of the science,
and the additional matter contained in the second has scarce
any intrinsic value in the present day; but, on the other hand,
in the first mankind is divided into four races only, and the
now famous division of the Caucasian, Asiatic, American,
Ethiopian, and Malay races, occurs^ for the first time in the
edition of 1781.
To give them both in their entirety would have perhaps
been less troublesome to myself, but certainly tedious to the
reader, for not only are the Plates the same, but much the
greater part of the second edition is a mere repetition. At
last I determined to use the first as my text, and appended in
a note the important pentagenist arrangement. Accordingly
the translation haa been made from the reprint of 1776, which
differs in the title-page alone, and that I have taken from the
copy in the British Museum. The preface To the Readei' has
been omitted as of no value. But this is not the case with
the Letter to Sir Joseph Banks, which forma the preface to
the third edition of 1795, and contains a system of natural
history, with appendices giving an account of Blumenbach's
Collection as it then was.
The Contnhutions to Natural History consists of two parts;
the first of which went through two editions. The first in
1790, and the second, from which the translation is made, in
1806. The second part appeared in 1811. That part in the ori-
ginal is composed of two sections; the first upon Peter, the Wild
Boy. and wild boys io general: and the second on Egyptian
J
1
ED1T0H8 PEEFACE.
mumniiGs. This latter essay, as may be supposed, la considerably
behind the knowledge of the present day, and though in it.
as well as in that written by Blumenbach in English and
printed in the Philosophical Transactioiis of 179+. he Iiad
observed the varieties in the national character of the
Egyptian mumniiea and artistic representations, yet the whole
essay has been pronounced lately by a competent writer to
be "in some sort not worthy of that great authority'." The
fact that the incisors of the mummies resembled in shape the
molar teeth wha thought by Blumenbach to be a discovery
much greater importance than modem writers are willing
allow. I have therefore come to the concluaioa that it is
lot worth while to edit this part of the Contributions, especi-
ally as it is quite distinct by itself, and has no immediate bear-
ing on general anthropology.
The treatise On the Ifatural Variety of Mankind cannot be
idered obsolete even at the present day. All subsequent
writers, including Lawrence, Prichard, Waitz, &c., have ac-
knowledged their obligations and proved them, especially Law-
rence, by borrowing iai^ely from it. "Blumenbach may still
be considered a chief authority," says Waitz'. And his classi-
fication of mankind, though avowedly neither final nor rigidly
scientific, has survived a very considerable Dumber of preten-
tious improvements, and still holds its ground in the latest
elementary text-booka of ethnology'. "The illustrious natu-
;t, iu whom, after guffbn, we ought to acknowledge the
ler of anthropology, has made two important advances in
mc
I
Htaisi.
elem
1 Perier (J. A. N.l, Sur Tdhnogmie Egyptiennt. ii(m. de la Sm, dt rA»lhn>.
pUogic de Pari*, Tom. I. p. 443.
> p. 39. Eng. TrL bj J. F. CoffingwooJ. 8»o. Lond. 1863,
■ S« Page D. Jnlroduclory Tert Book of Pkytical Gtographi), p. i;8, Edinb.
ud Loud. 1863, iimo.
^H that sc
^V he con
^V derivei
Ifl classifi
EDITORS PREFACE.
that science, in his views on the classification of races. Although
he continued to place at the head of all the characterietica that
derived from colour, Bliimenbach is the first who founded his
classification in great part on those presented by the general
conformation of the head, so different in di£ferent races, as to
the proportion of the skull to the face, and of the encephalon
to the organs of sense and the jawa. This progress led also
to a second. It is because Blumenbach attributed a great
importance to that order of characteristicB ; it is because he was
the first who devoted himself to determine exactly, by the
assistance of a great number of observations, the essential
elements which distinguished the types of man that he was
also the first who made a very clear distinction of several
races in which it is impossible to fail of recognizing so many
natural groups. Thus it has happened that these races, after
having been once introduced into science by Blumenbach,
have been retained there; and we may assert that they will
always be retained, with some rectifications in their charac-
teristics and in their several boundaries. But are the five
nicea of Blumenbach ttie only ones possible to distinguish in
mankind ? And if all the five must be considered ns natural
^^ groups, is it proper to place them in the same rank, and allow
^H them all the same zoological value ? Blumenbach himself did
^H not think this.
^^M " In the first place his five races are not the only ones whose
^^1 existence he is disposed to admit; but what is very different,
^^1 the five principal ones. Varteiates quince priiuyipes, says BIu-
^^m meuboch in his treatise On the Varieties of Mankind. He uses
^H the same expression in his Repreaentations. The unequal im-
^H portance of these races in a zoological point of view, is also, at
^^L least by implication, admitted by Blumenbach. Of the five
^^^^^^^ races there are three which he considei's alcove all as the pniici-
i
pal races; and therefore he deals with those first. These are
the Caucofii^, whicli ia not ooly for Blumenbac h th e moa t
...beStUti f iil, a nd that to which the pre-eminence belongs, but the
C pri mitive ra ^g; then, the Mongolian and Ethiopian, in which
the author sees the extreme degenerations of the human species.
As to the other races, they arc only for Blumenbach, transitional :
that ia, the American is the passage from the Caucasian to
the Mongolian; and the Malay, from the Caucasian to the
Ethiopian. These two races are put off till the last, instead of
being treated of intermediately, as they ought to be, if they
Hgfere not considered as divisions of an inferior rank.
^|p "It is apparent that Blumenbach was more or less aware of
^Tliree truths whose importance no one can dispute in anthropo-
logical taxinomy, that is to aay. The plurality of races of man;
the importance of the characteristics deduced from the confor-
mation of the head; and the necessity of not placing in the
same rank all the divisions of mankind, which bear the common
title of races, in spite of the unequal importance of their anato-
mical, physiological, and let us also add, psychological charac-
teristics',"
^b This criticism taken from one of the latest essays of a most
HWstinguiahed modem naturalist and anthropologist will relieve
me from the arduous task of passing this work of Blumenbaoli
in review. The Contributions as is pointed out by M. Flourens
is altogether a production of a lighter kind. It contains many
curious observations, and though its geological theories are long
since obsolete, the chapters on anthropological collections and
on the Negro may still bo read with considerable interest.
I^awrence has largely borrowed from the last in bis lectures on
* b. Q«i]fio]r-Saiii(-Hilaire, Clauifiealvnt Anthmpotorpqai. Mim. dc la &je.
fAntkrvp, it Parit, Tom. i, p. tig.iq.
XU EDITOR 8 PREPACE.
the Naturai History of Man. The history of Peter the Wild Boy
has, so far as I know, never been translated into English in it-s
entirety, but all that has been said of him and the other wild
men there mentioned has heen borrowed from Elumenbach.
I had at one time intended to edit the Decades Craniorum, a
book now become somewhat scarce. Inquiries were made by the
President and Publishing Committee of the Anthropological
Society as to the probable expense which would be incurred in
reproducing the 65 plates of which that work is composed. The
results showed that such an undertaking would be beyond the
present means of the Society; and an opinion was also expressed
by some who are worthy of all attention in such a matter that
more typical, characteristic, and hitherto iindelineated skulls
scattered about in the different English Museums should have a
preference, in case such an outlay as the pubUcation of so many
crania with their descriptions should at any time be seriously
contemplated. Whilst I do not for a moment doubt the wisdom
of the decision, or deny the expediency of preferring hitherto
inedited materials, I still think that if the present possessors
of the Blumenbachian Collection could be induced to join not
only in furnishing entirely fresh drawings of the skulls contained
in it, but also in publishing the very minute and accurate
descriptions, certificates, and documents relating to each particu-
lar one, which form by no means the least instructive portion of
the inedited remains of Blumenbach, the result would not only
be a great stimulus to those international exertions without
which the science of Anthropology cannot hope to make the
progress so much to be desired for it. but would also confer the
greatest credit on the Societies which might be principally con-
cerned in carrying out such an undertaking. Witli respect to
the last utterance of Blumenbach, which has been extracted
from the GiJttingen Magazine, I am indebted to Professor
J
EDITOEB PBEFACE.
Marx for the following information. " The Spicilegium wm not
printed. It had been the intention of Blumenhach to work out
in greater detail the short lecture which was read at the session
of the 3rd August, 1833, but he did not fulfil it. Therefore the
short notice in the 177th number of the Odttingiscke Gelehrtf,
!eigen, for 1833, is the only conimimication on that point
t we have of his."
I The Memoir of Prof. Marx has been previously translated
V the Edinburgh iVew Philosophical Magazine, hut many in-
ssting details about the life and habits of Blumenbaeh were
[kitted. It was mode great use of by M. Flourens, as he acknow-
^es; but since his own memoir contains many original details
^id remarks from an independent point of view, I have thought
it would be equally accept^able.
A singular mistake has however been made by M. Flourens,
tb in this memoir, and in his larger book' on Buffon, which I
not help pointing out. The reader will probably observe
t he gives as the title of Blumenha^h's book The Unity of
the Human Gentis, which is obviously wrong. This would be of
no importance; but in the work above referred to we have this
reflexion: "Nothing promotes clearness of ideas so much as
precision in the use of words. Blunienbach wrote a book to
^■Rove the unity of the liuman species', and entitled it On the
^^Bnittf of die Hmnan Genvs; now, a genus is made up of specie^.
^^Hspeciee only of varieties. Buffon writing on the same subject,
^^■id pntting before himself the same oliject, said excellently,
^^Karitties in the Hvinan Species."
1^^ Blumenhach never once gave as a title, The Vvity, &c.; and
■ Uitt. da traraax tt dt$ idlet dt Suffbn, p. i6g, aecond eJ, Paris, i
• Df VnnUt du goiTt hnmain tl <U ta rarilUi, Trail, Fnmr. P»ria, tSo^.
EDITORS PREFACE.
Dotwitlistanding the elaborate ingenuity of M. Flourens as to the
word gentts, I have preferred to translatG the Latin worda
humanuvi genuB, by the ambiguous, and as I believe correct
expression, mankind,
I have thought the reader would prefer for many reasons to
find each of the several treatises in this volume with an exact
copy of its original title-page prefized. Those which had no titl^
page have still one made up of that of the porio<iica!, and the
heading prefixed to each in its original form of publication.
M. Flourens had appended to his Memoir a list of some of
Blumenbach's works. A much more perfect one, with notices of
many of their translations, and of the different portrait-s and en-
gravings taken of Blumenbach at various periods of his life, is
to be found in Callisen (A. C. P. von), Medidniaches SchnftateUer-
Lexieon, B. II. pp. 346 — 356, 1830. Copenhagen, 12mo. An
will be observed it occupies ten pages, and therefore is far too
long for insertion here, yet is still neither quite complete nor
quite correct.
The treatise of John Hunter, delivered in June 1775, hu
been added. It will be interesting to compare it with the
contemporaneous effort of Blumenbach. But to enter intoi
the question why the study of anthropology never bet
popular in Edinburgh, whilst it continued to be cultivated'
in GSttingen, would cany us beyond the limits of a Prel
the^
Knra'a Couasi, Caxbbidqb.
Jan. I, iSfis.
CONTENTS.
£DiTOB*a Pbupaoi
Mbmoib of J. F. Blumembaoh bt Pbof. Mabx
ft
»
»
M. Floubskb
On TEE Natubal Vabixtt of MAmmrD, ed. 1775
n
»»
»»
TEIBD ED. 1795
Ck>2rTBiBunovB to Natubal Hibtobt, Pabt I.
>>
II
II
II
Pabt II.
RmfAHTH OV AV HXPFOOBATIO MaOBOOKPHALUB
Ak Aoooubt OF THX Blumbhbaohian Mubbtjx bt Pbof. Buoolfb
Waovbb ......
paob
YU
I
47
65
145
34«
345
IvAUOUBAL Disputation ov thb Vabibtibs of Mav, bt Johv
Huhtbb, Jubb, 1775 - • • • • 357
IiTDEz OF Subjects
IxDEX of Authors
595
399
ERRATA.
For Jesus Stiftch, p. 35, read Jesus the son of Sinch.
... MoDgox Lemur, p. 90, twd Lemur Mongoz.
GOTTINGEN :
ftDCK UND VERLAG DER DIETERICHSCnEN EUCHEAMDLUNO. ~
1840.
LIFE OF BLUMENBACH
K. F. H. MARX.
UWBB hi
Though a very vivid and imeffaceable recollection of the man,
who has lately departed from our circle, can never cease to
dwell in us, still I may be permitted to sketch with a few
strokes a picture of his occupations and his personality, and in
that way to strew a flower upon the grave of him who in life
honoured by all of us, but was especially dear to myself.
It was bis happy lot to fulfil the office of iostructor far
id the limits of the ordinary age of man, and to direct
the afTatrs of our socjety for a longer time than any one of
those here present can remember. For more than half a cen-
tury the most important events of this Univereity are bound up
with his memory and his name ; and the development of one of
the greatest and most important branches of science is essen-
tially involved with his undertakings, his accomplishments, and
the efforts he made to advance it.
He stood at last like a solitary column from out the ranks
i.f those who had shared. his stnigglea and his enterprises, and
'lid tro<lden in the same path, or as an old-world pyramid, a
titnulating example to us juniors, how nature will sometimea
■ aiap her crowning seal on high mental powers, by adding to
I ln-ra the firmness and long continuance of the outer form.
John Frederick Blumenbach waa bom at Ootha on the 11th
May 1752. His father was a zealous admirer of geography and
natural history, and lost no time in arousing a love for them
in his aon. It will be convenient to insert here a note in his
1— a
4 LIFE OF -BLUHENBACH.
own handwriting, wliich I (jtfo to the kindness of the dej
npon the earl ipstriuci dents which happened to him while stS
under .the paterhal' roof, and his earliest promotion on his 1
en^cance into "the great world; for it will tell a clearer tale thl
.■"if J'-werti to turn it into an historical form.
■ '• " My father was bom at Leipdg, and died at Gotha in 17flfi
proctor and professor of the gymnasium '. He owed his scientifl
culture to two men especially, Menz and Christ, two heipdg
professors of philosophy, and so, indirectly throiigh him, they
contributed a great deal to my own. Amongst other things, he
owed to the first his love for the history of literature and for
the natural sciences, to the second hia antiquarian and artistic
tastes, And so in this way I also acquired a taste and a love
for these branches of knowledge, which I never found to sta
in the way of my medical studies, to which in very early (
I had addicted myself from natural inclination, and sometim
they were even in that way of great service.
" I began my academical career at Jena, and there I deriv(
nourishment for literature and book -lore from Baldinger, whi
my relation, J. E. I. Walch, the professor of rhetoric, perforr
the same office for me as to natural history and the s
arcbrcology. I wont from there to Gsttingen to fill up son
remaining gaps in my medical studies; and my old rector i
Gotha, the church-councillor Geisler, gave me a letter for Heyfl
As I was giving it to him, I showed him at the same time i
antique signet-ring, which I had bought when at school i
a goldsmith. Such a taste in a medical student attracted h
attention, and this little gem was the first step to the intimatl
acquaintance which I subsequently enjoyed in so many ways
witli that illustrious man.
" Tboro resided then at Gottingen professor Chr. W. BUttner,
^ Bwda the more conHderohle communi cation in tlie tc3ct Blumenbach has IcR
oolj > fiw •Ckltereil notices of hu life. So fur lU thne linve come to rov kooir-
Icilga, I bitve nude good nae of them. He bod &□ idea of conponug hi* own
tut^nphy, And two puas^, written b; him in hi* pocket-book, aeem to piHnt to
thia intcntiuD. "Manj bnvo written their own lives frmn feelings of sbumiM
ntthcr thuiof conctdl." — "Without f>vonr orunbitioD, bat inducad bj the rcwan
of \ good connciencc."
^H UAKX. 5
aa extraordinary man, of singularly extensive learning. He
had at one time been famous for the great number of lan-
guagea he was skilled in, but had for many years given up
delivering lectures, and was then quite unknown to the stu-
dents. Just, however, about the time I camo, the eldest son of
hia Mend and great admirer, our orientalist, Michaelis, had
then begun to study medicine ; and his father had enjoined him
to do his best and get EUttner to deliver a lecture upon natural
history, which in old days he could do very well, and for which
he had a celebrated collection. Immediately on my arrival I
also was invited to the course, and as the hour was one I had
at my disposal, I put my name down, and so came to know the
whimsical but remarkable BUttner. The so-called lecture
became a mere converaation, where for weeks together not a
.word was said of natural history. Still he had appointed as a
r:i-book the twelfth edition of the System of Nature; though
the whole six montlis we did not got beyond the mammalia,
■because of the hundred-and-one foreign matters he used to
introduce.
" He b^an with man, who had been passed over unnoticed
in his readings by Walch of Jena, and illustrated the subject
with a quantity of books of voyages and travels, and pictures
wf foreign nations, out of his extensive library, It was thus I
waa led to wiite as the dissertation for my doctorate. On the
natural vanety of mankind,; and the further jMroseoutiou of this
interesting subject laid the foundation of my anthropological
collection, which has in process of time become eveiywhere
quite famous for its completeness in its way.
" In that very first winter, through Heyne'a arrangement,
the University undertook the purchase of Biittner's collection
uf coins and natural history. But in consequence of the unex-
ampled disorder, in which the natural objects hod been let lie
utterly undistinguisliod from each other by this most unhandy
of men, he was first of all in want of an assistant to arrange
and get them ready for delivery. So Heyne said to him,
^ou give lectures on natural history? and haven't you
one among your pupils whom you can employ for thatH"
6 LIFE OF BLDUENBA.CU.
' Tliat I have/ said Biittner, and named rae. ' Ali, I know
too;' so the office of Etssiatant was offered to me, and I gli
undertook it without any fee, and found it most inatructive.
"Sometime after, when everything had been handed ov(
and the collection had found a temporary home in the former
medical lecture-room, the honourable minister and curator of
the University, von Lenthe, came to visit our institute, ao these
things too had to be shown him, and as the worthy Biittner
did not seem quite fit to do it, I waa hastily summoned, and
acquitted myself so well, that the minister directly he got
out took Heyne aside, and said, ' We must not let this young
man go.' I took my degree in the autumn of '75, on the anni-
versary day of the University, and directly afterwards in the
ensuing winter I commenced, as private tutor, my first readings
on natural history, and during the same term, in February '76,
was nominated extraordinary, and afterwards in November '78,
ordinary professor of medicine."
Such was Blumenbach'a very promising beginning. How
progressed onwards in his scientific and municipal career,
he became in 1784 member of this society, in 1788 aulic
cillor, in 1812 perpetual secretary of the physical and mai
matical class of this society, in 1815 member of the libi
committee, in 1S16 knight of the Order of the Guelpb, and in
the flame year chief medical councillor, and in 1822 commander of
the Order, all that is so well known and so fresh in everybody's
recollection, that I need make no further mention of any of those
particulars.
Much more appropriate will it be to describe here the
direction he followed himself and also imparted to the sciences,
hb activity as teacher, his relations to the exterior world, and,
in a few characteristic outlines, the principal features of his
personal appearance and character.
First of all it may fairly be asserted of Blumenbach, that he
it was especially, who in Germany drew the natural sciences
out of the narrow circle of booka and museums, into the wide
cheerful stream of life. He made the results of his own per-
severing researches intelligible and agreeable to every educated
"i
Reelect v
r tbe c
>ii who was anxious for instruction, and understood very
how to interest the upper classes of society in them, and
to excite them. Taking a comprehensive view over the
domain of the exertions of natural science, he knew how
whatever could arouse or sharpen observation, to give
lear prospect of what was in the distance, and to clothe the
ttical necessities in a pleasing dress. This feeling and tact
common interest, this inclination for popular exposition
easy comprehension was meantime no obstacle to his solid
He laboured away on the most diverse departments
science with single and earnest application, and arrived at
which threw light on the darkest corners.
Equipped with classical knowledge, perpetually sharpening
eniiching his intellect with continuous reading, and kept in
y intercourse with the first men of his day, he knew how
not only to look at the subjects of his attention from new points
of view, but also how to invest them with a worthy form of
iipression and representation.
loked upon every result either of his own
.rches, or those of other people, as secd-cora for better
id greater disclosures. He busied himself unceasingly by
writing, conversation, and instruction in disseminating them,
and endeavoiu'ing to fix them in a productive soil. Thus it
came to pass, that he soon came to be regarded as the supporter
and representative of natural science, and collected crowds of
young men about him, and by words as well as deeds continued
increasing influence upon the entire circle of
ly for many decades of years.
Blumenliacfa soon became known to the Society of Sciences
an industrious student of physic, and in the meeting of
the 15tb January, 1774. he communicated' the remarkable dis-
covery he had made (which had been already done by Braun in
U59 at St. Petersburg) of how to freeze quicksilver.
^fiipre
^Baea]
|H
' GSUing. gd. Antigen, T774, st. 13, f. roi;— 7. Blumentwali bimaeirset little
Men by thia experiment : Tor he «upe<!ted thst hu tneada might be too but? in
oenddering tlie Tact to bo proved.
UPE OF BLUHENBACH.
In 178i he became member of this Socioty, and immediatel]
afterwards read his firat paper On tlie eyes of (/« Leuccetliiopiat
and tlte nuyvement of the iria'.
It waa a happy chance, that hia first literary work waa
cemed with the races of roeo, and thus physical Anthrupoloj
became the centre of the crystallization of liis activity.
Few dissertations have passed through ho many editions, (a
procured their author such a wide recognition, as that On thf
natural variety of niankijuff. It operated as an introduction to
the subsequent intermittent publication of the Decades', on the
forms of the skull of different people and nations, as well i
the foundation of a private collection'. This was unique in ii
way ; and princes and the learned alike contributed to its formi
tion by giving everything which could characterize the corporei
formation and the shape of the skull in man. Bluinenbi
used to call it his "Golgotha," and though they do not often
to a place of skulls, still the curious and the inquisitive of both.
sexes came there to wonder and reflect.
Perhaps it is worth while remarking that the theme of
earliest work of his youth was likewise that of his last scienl
writing, for after the 3rd August, 1833, on the exhibitii
of an Hippocratic Macropephalus before the Society, when 1
communicated his remarks" thereon, he came no more befo
the public except to read a memoir upon Stroraeyer, and
say a few ncver-to-bc-forgotten words at the festival meeting
the centenarian foundation feast.
One of Blumenbach's great endeavours was to illustrate the
difference between man and beast; and ho insisted particular!
appeared ii
Nova PcKti
k
' De octdit LcucalMopam tl irldia mo(u. Commml. Sac. R. Gdll. Vol. vn.
' * Degmerii hnnani nativa rarittaie. lit ed. 177;.
Tbo Qist decado of his uollectiDD of skulls of di^rent DB,liana with iUutt
in Vol. X. of the Commtnt. Soc tc. Tbe lunt tmdvr the
tioni* mie craniorum divtrmrvm ircnfiiim tan/pmat atmplcmentiai
•rum dtcadum oAlbita in eonituit tadtlatii S Jat 1816. CVmincnt. rccmfiar.
Comp. OSIt. gti. Ata. 1816. it. lU, t. itoi— 6.
Comp. his paper On OMthropologicat cvUtrtiofit m the oeooud edition of tiia
Batrane zur ffolUTyrtrhkhle 1806. Th. 1. fl. iS—66.
* GUtt. 3d. An:. 1833, >t, 177, fl. 1761. [Eiiiu.-a in tLia volume. Ed.]
upon the importancQ of the upright walk of man, and tbe
vertical line. Hi! asserted the claims of human nature, as such,
to all the privileges and rights of humanity, for, without deny-
K altogether the inHueuce of climate, soil, and heredity, he
rded them in their progressive development, as the imme-
j conseqiieuces of civilization onii cultivation. Man was to
"the most perfect of all domesticated animals." What he
it becomo by himself in his natural condition, without the
tance of society, and what would be the condition of liis
innato conceptions, he showed ia his unsurpassable description
of the wild^ -or. savage Peter von Hamebi'. How the osseous
^^toucture of tho-skuU will approximate nearer and nearer to
^^■Bfor m of tbg beast, when unfortunate exterior circumstances
^^^^^fcrior relations have stood in the way of the development
^^P thcni^her facnlt icSj miff ht be seeuJnJiiacoUectioa-Jromtho
crwtin's skull, which, not without meaning, lay side by side
by that of the orang-utan; whilst, at a little distance off, the /"
[ly beautiful shape of that of a female Georgian ^
every one's attention.
At the time wlien the negroes and the aa\agEa were still
idered as Jialf animal$, and no one had yot conceived the
of tlie emancipation of the slaves, Blumenbach raised bis
and showed that their psychical qualities were not inferior
those of tho European, tliat even amongst the latter them-
the greatest possible differences existed, and that oppor-
,ty alone was wonting for the development of their higher
iltiea*.
Blumenbach had no objection to a joke, especially when it
no one, or when the subject in hand coidd be elucidated
jby, and with this view ho wrote a paper on Haman and
st, 6, B. <o9— 415, On (Ac caiiai
I IdCbtonberg »xtA Voigl, Magaan filr dot n
aia dcr PUyiik, B. '
;^wl!^/i.ywjA._^/ \^)_>t
LIFE OF BLUHENBACH.
\ Maat always was and coutiiiued to be bis c)uef subject, m
from a transcendental point of view, which be gave up to tl
p^ilosophersanrtbeologians, but man aa he stands in the
world. Not only did be contribute essentially to hia
comprehension and treatment, but it was not very easy for
one to surpass him iu practioal knowledge of men.
Natural history, not the description of nature, was the
he placed before him. Witli Bacon he considered that as tl
first subject of philosophy. He understood how to indicate
peculiarity of the subject with a few characteristic strokes ;
showed also how the inner* properties, relations, and attributes
of the individual were connected with each other, and t^eir
connexion and position to the whole. With this view he buaed
himself actively on organic and also on animal nature. Nc
was be a stranger to the study of geology and minerali^y,
is clear from De Luc's letters* to Blumenbacb, besides what
himself communicated about Button's theory of the earth,
bis paper on the impressions in the bituminous marl-slates
Eiegelsdorf.
The name of Blumenbach must certainly be recorded
amongst those who have signally contributed through the
research and discovery of the traces of the old world to the
history of the condition of our earth and of its earliest inhi
t&nts. He, too, it was who, long before any others, pre]
a collection of fossils for the illustration and systematic
ledge of the remains of the preadamite times*.
aed
to tbe public. Th&t he hiul reflected on llie posribilitjp of n PhUotopkf ty
Biitory uiay be ttfn, unongst other prooti, by > letter to Moll in " "
ti'oiM, Ablb. 1. iSiQ, ». 60.
' Uagaz. fOr dot mb. ant dcr Phyil:, B. TllL at, 4. 1753. Comp. OM, K
■.MB-
' In Eohlera AoymonnmA. Journ. Frajber^ '79'i Jahrg. IV. B. i. 1
Blumenbach proved tlut tbongli tfaej woe the marks of a miumuftl, Uwj t
DOt tbose oT ■ child, v>il Iberdbre no withropolitlu.
' The fcHsi] genus Oxvponu. wliich is fouod in unber. and vu repretieDted bi
GisTchoonit in MonOfrmpkia ColropterorHm MKniplrronm, Goltinn, 1S06, 8»o, p.
ijt, eiista *lao in Blumeabocb's colieclioD. Speaking of the Iwit, that su^ho^
aai^a, "1 wish BlurocBbach would gite us a deacription of the numei-Diiii niSMU
pnaerred iu amber, which hn poaaeaaea, and compare them with the aliicd uieeda
of tbe present Uaj. Eia weil-knoiTa genius for natanl history, so long and sa
I
HAItX. 1 1
In 1790 he wrote Contributioiis to Hie Natural History oftlie
mitive World'. He devoted two papers before the society
the remains with which he waa acquainted of that oldest
ich, principally from the neighbouring country*. He also
:d an opinion upon the connection of the knowledge of
itrifactioua with that of geology, thinking by that meaua a
ire accurate knowledge of the relative age of the different
ita of the earth's crust might be obtained', and he was the
it who set this branch of study going. On the occasion of a
twisa journey, he drew particular attention to those fossils,
hose living representatives are still to be found iu the same
luntry, to those whose representatives exist, but in very dis-
tant regions of the earth, and to those of which no true repre-
eentative has yet been found in the existing creation'. Later
he elucidated the so-called fossil human bones iu Guada-
ipe».
His views on opinions of that kind, aa also on more compre-
inaive considerations, such as On the gradation in iiature', or,
the 80-called proofs of de«iijn^, generally like to abide within
le limits of experience, and the conclusions which may fairly
jiutlj famonii, might funiiBh ua with some well<«eii;1icd and aound hjpothed
(be wi^n >nd rnriiiaLiaii of uuber."
' Mofjiat. ib., B- VI. «t. 4, 8, T — 17.
' j^wi'nwn arcliitnliigia Irllarii tefraramqiie imprlmit HannoTtranarum, I
im Ommteiit Vol. XV. p, 131—156. Spie. alttmtn 1813. Vol. 111. re
« 0/ tlie difcreut EarOi-eataitrophti. Btilr. 1
j— 14.
* Om At lucenaion r.
r». lodod. 1806, Th
■ject, nuaely, LiDk, in hia work Tht Primeral K'arld and Anti'ittilg tlitci-
ly fi'ataTOl- Sneaet, wbich hedodltalea to hit Uacher, aaya in tlia prefocs, tbnt
'>n of the priioHval wurld, aa ifuita iliifertiut Irom tli&t of the pra-
the sdeace of Blumeabuih and Cnvier, To the aamn effect Von
10 i> well enlitlud hi a mica iu thii mntter, expresaea himoelf {Thnuijhli on
'l Servifa to Geologii. Gothn, 1S61, *. 3.}: "Amongst uaiuniJista
B«h ii the firat who aMigntd to a knowledge of pelrirnatiooi ita true
n tbs foniidation of Geology. Ha considered [hem M tbe moat neceaaary
o thftt atudj. Ha aMtrted with determinfttion, that from a knowliidge of
'' — and eepeoiftUy from so mcqoiuutiuicu with the different position of
it important r«eulu for the cosmoj^eniual put uf minenlo^y might lie
* Lichtenbei^ and Voigt'a ifag, tc. 178S. B. \
* Gm.geLA«i. i8ij, at, 177. a. \^ii.
* Bdtr. RU- NMarg. sud ad. 1806, Tb. !. a. io<
T Ik . .«>
12
LIFE OF BLUHEITBACH.
be deduced therefrom. Brilliant hypotheses, subtle and imagi-
nary combinations, phautastic analogies, were not to his taste.
If it can be said of any scientific work of modem times,
. that its utility ha^been incalculable, such a sentence must be
pronounced oi (Blumenbach'B Handbook of N atwal History'.
Few cultivated circles or countries arc ignorant of it It con-
tains in a small space a marvellous quantity of well-arranged
material, and every fresh edition* aimounccd the progrejis of its
author. Still in spite of the effort after a certain grade of
perfection the skill is unmistakeablo, vrith which only the actual
is set forth ; and with which by a word, or a remark, attention
is directed to what is truly interesting, agreeable, and useful,
and an incentive given to further study.
Not only did Blumcnbach well know how to set out the
whole domain of this study in a simple, easily comprehensible
and transparent way, so as to utilize it for instruction; but he
also, by bringing to its assistance allied occupations, obtained
new points of view, and enlarged its boundaries.
H.t^VoiitributiaMjO-.^^^J:^ Histo ry*, f^d his ten numbers
of Refpresentatioits of Subjects of Natural History*, hava by
interesting translations, prudent selection, and accuracy in hand-
ling the subjects, done profitable service in the extension and
foundation of this science. He took special pains to throw
light on doubtful questions, and to clear up overshadowing and
difficult undertakings in natural history from old monuments
arf*, and the traditions of the poets'. He looked on the
* It apptiared first in i Tjg.
* The publiabura oIodi! iaiued it, the last in iSjo, not including the re
imd the tmualntiona [nto ilniuat all civilixud lon^UHgeB.
' The GcBt part appeaml in 1790, the second id iSi i. They contnineil t
lowing essajs: Part 1. On viunnljility in creation. A gUnoa al the primeval
worR On antbropologioal EolloctionB. On the diiisioii of mankind into five
ffidpal raoes. On the ^dalion in nature. On the Bo-called proors of deaign.
', u. On the komo lapitnt ftrut. On the Egyptian mummieB.
* 1796-1810.
* Speameu hut. not. antv/aa aiiit opcritiu illiulr, eaq. ciduim Ula^r.,
CammeM, Vol. xvi. p. iGi)^ — ig%.
' 9p. hitl. not. tx aiiclor. cUui, prattrilm pociit iUiuW. Cotq. vie. HiMttr.,
tSij. Comm. reoHil. VoL lu. p. 61—78. Comp. am. gel. Aia., iSij, it "
8. «03j— 2040.
HABX.
13
s of animals and their appearance at difTercnt times, and
r wide dispersion in enormous numbers as a great, but not
sessarily insoluble riddle ; and he contributed bia mite also to
B future solution of this weighty question'.
Blumenbach was blamed somewhat here and there for fol-
wing with little divergence th e ar tificial classific ation of
Linnreus, But this conservatism was not the consequence either
of convenience, or want of knowledge, but from the conviction
(that the time for a natural system was not yet come. That he
fblt the want of such a system is plain, because as early as
Wt75 he sketched out' an attempt at a natural arrangement of
Ihe mammalia, according to which attention is paid not to
single, or a few, but to every outward mark of distinction, and
the whole organization of the animals.
His communications. On the Lovea of Anitruds*. &nd_O n the _
Vaiural History of Serpents*, display not only the critical, but
J judicious observer. Manifold interest attaches to his re-
uks on the kangaroo', which he kept for a long time alive in
B house, on the pipa", and on the tape-worm'.
Blumenbach was thoroughly penetrated with the truth, that
B are only then in a proper position to understand the appear-
»8 of the present, when we attempt to clear up as far aa
isible their condition in the beginning, and from early times
aown to the present He considered archfeology and history
not only as the foundations of true knowledge, but also as the
sources of the purest pleasures. He was not afraid of being
reproached with encroaching upon foreign ground', for he knew
his own moderation : nor did he shiink from the trouble of
seeking and collecting, for he had too often had experience
, ^^^^ ^^ ^^
tpmlc mlnr., live caiu
M tindio ab hom. alion
trand..
Comm. itaM.' VoL v. p
fr* am gil. Ata. at, n
-ii6. Oomp. G6U. gzl
^Ant.,
i8m), be.
S7. s.
, ■-
»i7-"i9-
■ * (Kit. Mag-a, 1781,
-9S-
-107.
I ;*ofl«/*-^dc««.a«
..ferpfty-., B.V, >t. I,
.7S8, s
t-<i
■ • am.'^'. Am.^■l'S^
■t.
19-H.
JO, s. rss3— rsss.
■ »■ lb. 1774. "t. rs4, ».
'3'3
-1386.
■ • He ■pproveU of Sanee*
"I ofton pass in
to tlio
eiicmj
camp, D
Kwrt«r, but ru t, tpy."
14
LIFE OF BLUMENBACF.
that tliouyl] the roots of a solid undertoking may be bitter, the
firuit miiy be sweet. Busides ho knew well how, by keeping
at a distance from UHclei^a diBtroctions, and by intenml coUec-
tivunt-as art<l regulated arrangement of work, to bring together
in one much that lay widely separated.
Some yeant after he had written hia paper On the Teeth of
the Old Egyptiana, and on Atummies', he had an opportunity
during his stay in London on the 18th February, 1791, of
opening nix mummiea, and derived considerable reputation from
his communication' to Banks on the results he obtained there-
fVom. He took hia part also in the opinion' pronounced by the
Society of Sciences of that day on Sickter's new method of
unfolding the Herculaneum maniiscripts, which he had invented.
He showed that our granite answers to the syenite of Pliny*.
He possessed a collection of ancient kinds of stone to illustrate
the history of tiie art of antiqnity, on which account his opinioji
was often consulted on the determination of doubtful antique.s,
for example, those given out as such made of soap-stone'.
He had himself, principally with a view to natnral hist^iry
and the varieties of man, a collection of beautiful cngraviugB
Aiid piotnres, and set great store besides on the woodcuts in old
irorks which give representations of animals*, for in that way
tJie proper position of observing the art of that time is easily
Arrived at. And so also lie endeavoured to become better
Aoquainleil with "the first anatomical wood-cuts," and drew
Attention to them, when otherwise they would have remained
quite «nnotic«i'.
After a careful comparison of the objects of ancient art, v
7 of ft?
' OMt M<m. i;So, Jmlkr^. I. ■. 109—1.19.
* mim. iVaM. %Z0*. [Tbe iHiviniJ MS. of Ihi* Twper u in Lhe libnrj nf ft
Aathnfik Soc nf Ija(id«a. Ko,) Uis leller to Sr JiiHrph BiuikB vaa piinled is
U* lUnl adilioa i<r Om'tlf Crwru //■•>. r. ■ t;9;- Tim sabject ia tiiaRHij;hly
twtii o[ b; Um in Ih* ntitr. fur yalmry. Tb. U. t. 45—144.
* Ottt ill. Ata. 1814. M. too. ■. IV9.V
I * lb. iBiO, •. M08. BluiDOilNicb G>v«)iis Hem bcfora in tht ■woo'l put of
^'IW cdlliMi M ffttwrat Bittorj In 17S0, on tho proper dutinelion U the kinds
* GmL Mngm. 1781, rt. 4, «. i^tf— 15ft.
' IUiGa(c*, .Vfiiia Mag.ftr Afnft, i;8i.
15
wbu^ he woH acqaainted, his opioiou' was thatwe ought to be
chaiy m our praise of the anatomical knowledge of the artists
of antiquity, but that their aecurafy in the representation of
characteristic expression had not been sufficiently appreciated.
In the history of literature ^lumegbac h emulated h is origi-
nal and pattern. Albert Von Haller. whose acquaintance he had
maile when studying at Giittingen, by sending to him at Berne
a hook', on the suggestion of Heyne, which Haller had men-
tioned in one of his works as unknown to liim, and which he
bad picked up at an auction'. Later in the day he often fur-
nished him with many additions and supplements to the already
published volumes of the Practical Medical Library*.
Among the bibliographical labours of that great writer Elu-
meabach esteemed moat highly the Bihliotheca Anatomica. In
^^Us own pocket copy he wrote down especially all the volumes
^^bid editions of it which wem at that time to be found in the
^^^bal library, and to the first volume he added a supplement.
^^H He wrote a preface" to Haller's Journal of Medical Litera-
^^K^ in which bia services as critic received their due.
^^V However little vahie the l>o<ly of physicians generally attach
^To literary performances, still there is no doubt that most of
them are acquainted witliC Blumenhach's Intr oduct ion to t he.
JAterary History of Medicin^. ^'itli a prudent selection, pre-
i; and brevity the wHole fieT3 of medicine, quite up to the
1 of the preceding century, is there described in a compre-
lasire snrvev'.
' De rtterum arff^cum ana/oniieir ftritia landt Ifaotandit, ctiAranda rtro
B in diaraden gentititio ecprimatdo accvraliont. Tbe tre&tise itself mu never
ted, liotoniUcontinitHOORip. (Ultl. gd. Aia. 1813, at. 115, ■. 1341.
* Ohtrvationum atuitomicaram coUeyii privaii Amtdodamtmu Pari itttira.
AaM. tfi7j. iimo.
* Haller'a uunrer is dated iSth Marcli, 1775,
« BiUinger't .V. Magai. far AmK, lySo, B. 11. ■. 33.
' Braids this perhapa icBFCsly nay ons WM »> well ocqnuated tritb all tlie
writing* of thot moet famous of OottingeQ teachers aa Blumenbncli. He loamt
mocb troai the collectinn of letten to and from Hulier, for tliere he found, among
mmiij other remarkable obnerratiaBa for the bistary of mertiome, the iDode nf
curing deofnen hy piercing the tympuium. GBli. gd. Am. [S06, st. I47, >, ^JQ
* Tieili. Bern. 1790.
' IntnStuiie in hiitorian mediflia liitrariani, 1786.
16
LIFE OP BLDHENBACH.
On tlie occasion of the fifty-year Jubilee of our Univei
Rity he brought together all the literary performances of t
medical profoBsora of Gottingen in a catalogue', which 1
equally the effect of serving aa a memorial to them, and i
a cause of emulation to their successors.
He frequently celebrated the memorials of distinguished
men, especially in his Medical Library', that almost
passable journal, and then as secretary of our Society, id
which capacity he worthily fulfilled this painful duty over his
departed colleagues, in the memorial orations over Kichter
(1812), Crell {181G), Osiander (1822), Bouterwek (1828), MayeaJ
(1831), Mende (1832), and Stromeyer (1835).
His Honourable mention of RegimentaUSurgeon Joltann En
Wreden' is so far of importance for the history of the career a
medicine, as that long-forgotten surgeon was the first on I
continent, and that in Hanover, to introduce inoculation I
the small-pox.
The lover of literature should not pass unnoticed his iVbCiid
of Hie Meibomian Collection of Medical MS8. preserved in t
Gottingen Library*.
What has already been done goes sorao way to place Blumei
bach's merits and excellenco in a right light. But the moi
important of all have not been mentioned yet, and from thg
exposition it will be clear how many things were imited in o
man, of which each by itself would have gone far to coirf
reputation upon the possessor.
The branches of learning in which the name of Blumenbac
shines forth without ceasing arc physiology and comparati«(
anatomy. What he performed both by woi-d of mouth and 1
his writings in these departments, will all the less easily |
' Synopm ii/ilanalica uriplorata, gvibtit indl ab inav^mliatu Aeti
Oeorgia A itgutUe atque ad loUnmia iiUja inaagarationit tna ilaeularia ducipUnam
tuam a«ga^ d oriuat MadutrunI profoKtra midia GOltingetuti, 17S8.
' B. I— III. nSt—itas.
S9, Jftbrg. in. tt. t, B. 389—396.
^^^ot
MA EX. 17
■gotten by his fatherland, because foreign countries first took
a liking to these studies through hira, and expressed their grati-
tude not only to liim, but above all to Gorman erudition.
The obscure learning of generation, nutrition, and repro-
duction received light and critical elucidation from him. If
after the lapse of sixty years since he first strenuously employed
bis mind to sift the existing materials and make particular
investigations, more comprehensive results than he expected
have been obtained, still it is but just to observe, that his ideas
•yj uive certainly been expanded and here and there connected,
t have not in any way been controverted.
On the 9th of May, 1778, his observations upon green
, then in the act of reproduction, first led him to the
mprehension, and afterwards to the further investigation of
i incredible actisity of the powers of nature in the circle of
organized life. In 1780 appearcti his essay O n th' Formtfj^ve
Force and its Injluence on Oeneratdon and M eproduction' : and
the iifelt year the monograph, Q ii the ForTnative Force and- on
the Operation a o f Generat ion'. )At the same time he expressed
himaelf On an unconivionlr/ simple method of Propagation', —
namely, on that of the conferva in wells, whose mode qf propa-
gation he had discovered on the 18th of Febniary, 1781.
He sent in on the 2ath of May a short reply to the question
proposed by the Academy of St. Petersburg, On the Force of
Nutrition*, which he wrote on the preceding day, and obtained
half the prize. He wrote some remarks on Troja'a experi-
■stta on the production of new bone'. On the occasion of
^^K«ii
GtU. Mag. ,jSo, .. .47-i6(i. G-'oU.-*.-.. lVv«..^^
Tben in tbe Comment. T. viii. p. 4 r— 68 : Ik «uu formalini d gmera-
, i;8j. In all living- cre»tnre« there ie ft peoiiliar, inhorant, liTB-lonff
»«ti*e enotgy, whi^ first of all causes them to put on their definite apponmnce,
then to pmcrve it, anil if it should be diBturbed, u for u pouiblo to restore it.
The tlieorv of ilevetopment from Bpcrtniitio knimalcule, or hy means of Mnapermj,
lie ihowed is wilhont fuondatjoo. [A IratiaUtion of thi« treatJiB by Dr Crichton
wu pablubad in i;gi, London, iitno. ES.]
• Gun. Mag. ijSi, ei. T, s. 80—89.
' Ik n-Uriliooe ultra vaia. The prize was awarded Dec. 4, 1788, Tbe ess.ijt
•™t in were 14. AWa Acia Sn. Petmpol. T. VI. ijgo: Bittoirt. Cntnp. Zvei
attuaidl. merdk NiUntioTulrafl, K. F. Wolf, St, Peterab. I78y. (Tbe second i«
by C. F. Born.)
• Eiohtar'a Ckir. BOiiothfi; K v(. it. 1, i;Bi, s. 107.
^
18 LIFE OF BLUMENBACH.
The Oeneration of the Eye of a Water-Lizard, he cominunicatfldfl
in a sitting of this Society' the fact that he had amputata
four-fifths of the apple of the eye, and a new eye had 1
produced.
WitJi clear insight and unusual experience he distinguished
the anomalous' and morbid aberrations of the formative fore
and showed' how The Artificial or Accidental MutiUUions inM
Animals degenerate in Pi-ocess of Time into Hereditary Mark^M
His studies upon the formative force were taken up by greatl
thinkers, and were made use of, though with alterations <
expression and manner of representation, as foundations for
further developments, by Kant' in hia Critique of the Un^er'
etandin-g, Fichte in the System of Morality, Schelling in the
Sovl of the World, and Goethe in the Morphology. From thif I
he derived particular satisfaction, as it was a proof of th^M
solidity and productiveness. T
Hia Elements of FhysiologTf ia remarkable not less for tba
elegance of its language, than, like all his books, for a well-
selected display of reading, and the profusion of his own
observations.
He ijusied himself much' with the investigation, whethwj
a peculiar vital energy ought to he attributed to the bloc
or not And also with the origin of the black colour of then
negroes'. He confirmed the principal discovery of Qalvanl^ I
7oi.i
P-i—
in /ormatiri abmtitionibiu, 1811.
* MagazinfUr diu y. aiu ikr Pkyni. 1789, B. VI. at. 1, a. 13.
* Witb reftrence tu Kiuit's manner of eiprcBsion, he remarked (GSU. gtl. Awf
iSoo, at. 61, (. 611), "that tbs oroithorjnchiu KlTonla a Bpeikiag example of '
foimative foroe, u ahowing the connection of thoie two prindplea, the m *
Kid the teleolagical, in the oibibition of an end binng alio a product of Di
' /nitifulioRc* Pht/iiologiae, 1787. Amongst the many editions sni
UoiiB of thia work, Blutncnbach set the moat value upon the edition of Elliotaon^
tmulatioD, published by Btntley, London. 1874 ; beoause thia waa tba firat book
nhich waa ever printod euCiiely b; a moobiue. Comp. GSU. grl. Am. 1818, it
17a,.. 1713.
* De n rtiali ianguinit, 1787. CommtjU. Vol. tJL. p. 1 — 13. And >g«n on
the appearance of the poithumons work of John Hunter On the Blood, on On
oocaston of the degree of aeveti candidates in i;g5, tba ar^ment he gave was XM
vi ci<ali mnifvini dentganda, lita autttn propria $iilidia quHisidam eorp. Amm.
partiiui aditrenda cura iterala.
' Dt gen. hum. rar. nal. p. in. ed. 3.
reposing on hia own observations'. With respect to the eyes of
tlie LeucEetliiopians' and the movement of the iris, lie took
great pains to ascertain their probable reasons by collecting
and criticizing the experiences of others, and by personal
observation. On the 23rd Aug. 1782, he examined two Albinos
at Cham Dun L
In 178i he discovered', during the dissection of the eye of
the remarkable property by means of which these
lals are enabled to shorten or lengthen the axis of the eye-
ball at pleasure, eo that they can see clearly just as well under
the water as in the air, two mediums of very different density,
He was the first* who accurately distinguished the nature'and
destination of the frontal sinuses, as also their condition in
disesfie. He showed the intersection of the optic nerves to he
a settled fact". He would not adopt the belief in a muscular
coat of the gall-bladder". With regard to the protrusion of the
eyes in the case of persona beheaded, he drew attention to the
fact that the phenomenon was not, as in the case of those who
have been hanged, caused entirely by congestion'. On the
opportunity of a communication On a ram which given milk',
he expressed himself on the presence of t"ilk in the breasts of
men, and attempted an explanation.
His History and Description of tlie Bones of the Human
Body*, in Which this naturally dry subject is treated in the
mo-it interesting way and from fresh points of view, will always
n-'tain an enduring valne.
His Handbook of Comparative Anatomy^" was the first of
kind, not only in Germany but throughout the learned
> Oea. gtl. J«. 1703. It. 31, «. 310.
* A oevlii LeueittAiapain It iridu moEu, fjS^. Comn. Vol. vir. pp. ig — Ci.
>. 09tt, gtl. Am. i;84. It. 175. Mat. BibliotKei. B, u, a. 5j;— 47,
Oommtht. Vol TII. 17S4, p. 46. Haadlnieli der vtrgl. ^nal. Aufl, 3, ■. 40t.
* Ptvlm, anal, tfa timbia jrcmtal. 1779. Ui< tbeau on Lecoming onlinarj Pro-
Catap. G6U, gtl, Ans. l^^g, s. gij — gi6.
Btf. gtl. Am. J 793, at, 34, t 334.
■ lb. 1806, It. 1.15, a. 1351.
f JbhimtU. da-fki/: vud. toeUt. lu Erlangm. iSlo, Tb.,t. b. 471.
' Baimonr Mag. 1787, st. 4S, 9, 733—761,
> Pint .'n 178F, (hm in igo£.
■» Fint in 180:.
2—2
I
LIFE OF BLUMEKBACH.
world. Before his time there was no book ou the totality
this liranoh of learning; he was the first to find a place for it
the circle of Bubjects of instruction. One of his earliest com-
munications was upon AhyonelUe in the Gotttngen ponda'.i
Then he furnished a running comparison between the
and cold-blooded animals*, and afterwards between the w(
blooded viviparous ajid oviparous animals'. Nor can we
over in silence his remarks upon the structure of the
thorynchus*, on the bill' of the duck and toucan, and on
sack in the reindeer's neck*.
Inasmuch as Blumenbach regarded physiology as the true
foundation of the science of medicine, it is not difficult to per-
ceive from what point of view his contributions to practical
medicine are to be criticized: besides, he let slip no opportunity
of proving his sympathy in that particular direction. Thus he
gave his opinions on the frequency of ruptures in the Alps';
nostalgia* on melancholy' and suicide in Switzerland; on tbs
expulsion of a scolopendra electrica'" from the nose; and
a case of water in the head of seventeen yeais' standing". Hoi
also contributed to the extension of the science of medicine
by experiments" with gases on live animals, and by the commu-
nication" of a new sort of dragon's blood from Botany Bay on
1 am._Mag. i^8o,i. 117-117.^
• Spreim. jAgnU. romp, inter animantia calidi et frigidi langulnlt, 1 78
Vol, VUI. pp, 69—100.
' Spre. pkyt. eomp, int. a«im. eal. tang. riap. et orijj. 17B8. Comm.
pp. 108 — iig. Comp. Oea. gtl, Anz. i;Bq, Bt. 8, s. 7.1 — 77. In tbu t
also gKTe his riswa upon the sppeanncd nf yellow mrpuiclci in the uniinprei
ovam ; on the fonnaUoa of the double beart ; oo tba period when the riM »
dned in the embiyo.
• St OrHilhorynchi paredoxi fabrica lAttrv. gnadam anal. Man. dt la m
ntd. dEaiuialion,T. rv. PariB, 1779, pp. 310—313, OStL gd. Ant. iSao, «
' Spec. pAu. comp, iW. anin. eal. tang, timp, tt ovip. 1789.
• G6II. gd. Ant. 1783, rt. 7, a. 68.
' In bU Medic. BiUiotlut. B. 1. ». 715.
• lb. (. 731. Camp. SrhlSier'i Corrapondenft, Th. m. 1778, n. ill.
• Mfd. £ib. B. n. : 163-173.
>° Feoer-Mael. Comp. J. L. Welge, IHu. dt nuniU tinuum /romtoliw
OBtliog. 1 786, 4tA. g TV. p. 10.
" "Oin- dfn togennanl Wagler'trJien." Med. BUI. B. m. s. 616—630.
" Mrd-Bib. B. I.!. I7,v
Omlnhutiimt to Hu Materui Mediea frvm thi Uairmitg Muteum ^ A
lb.
I. 166—
■bid
east coast of New HoUoiid, and by a description of the
true Winter's bark,
BIumenbacli'B reputation as a learned man was so great,
'that every hint of his was considered and followed up, as that
the beat meihoda of putting together collectanta and eairacts';
id his works, especially his handbooks, stood in such esteem,
that authors and bookselicra' alike connidered a prefoce from
hini as the beat recommendation for their works. In this way
he introduced Cheselden's Anatomy", Neergard's' Comparative
Anatmny and Physiology of tite Digestive Onjans, and Gilbert
Blane's' Elements of Medical Logic.
I must take notice here of one branch of learning, in which
Blumenbach Lad scarce his like, I mean hia familiarity with
voyages and travels. All the books of the sort in the library
of this place he had read through over and over again, and
made extracts of, and prepared a triple analysis, namely, one
arranged geographically, a chronological and an alphabetical
To this occupation, as he frequently took occasion to
intion, he owed no small part of hia knowledge; and for his
forches in natural history and ethnography it was a most
id foundation.
He himself had made but few long journeys* in proportion,
ly through a part of Switzerland' and Holland to England,
rather to London', which afterwards he used to say was to
the sixth part of the world; and a diplomatical one to Paria,
ill order, during the time of the kingdom of Westphalia, to
» lb. B. HI. 8. 547.
■ He wrote k preface to QmeliD*B Gackiektc dtr Ihiti-iich, u. inincral. y'fie. Et-
, 1805.
» Ooniuw ly A. F. Wolf. Qiitling. fjSg.
* Berlin, lS«6. In Cha preface Blumenbach (peuka of the influenot of Com-
~*'~'e Atiktom; on tba pbiliiBD])liic study of nBturoJ liiatory in gcncml, and on
ymologj <d Iba human body and the mcdiual iLiiuwIed^e of beuts hi
pmrtiailar.
* aeitingen, 1819.
* When he wuited to take a journey for recrealioii, he likeJ going to iLo
widowed Prinoea Chriitjuio von Waldcck at Arolaea, who hod proved liarself very
nwftll to bjm ; or to Pynnont, or to Gotha, Hehbui^, Wciniar, and Dresden.
' Ib 1783.
* lo 1791—91.
22 LIFE OF BLrMEXBACII.
propitiate the good will of Napoleon for the Univemty, »
which occasion De Lacepede was his advocate and guide,
kept a journal on his travels, ui which he made short not«
of all that wa3 worth noticing. Up to this time very few <
these very multifarious remarks hffve been made public
He piiblisbed a translation of the medical observations i
the second part of Ives' Travels*; he wrote a Preface to the &n
part of the Collection of Rare Travels*, and a Pre&ce t
Remarks to Volkmann's translation of Bruce's Travels*.
It is not perhaps too much to assert, what 1 may be allowi
to say here, that the desire which was aroused in many idoi
distinguiHhed men to undertake great expeditions for the g
of natural history, and the results, which have accrued in c
sequence to the knowledge of the earth and of mankind, wei
particidarly prompted through the medium of BlumenbadL
Homemanu', Alex, von Humboldt, Laugsdoi-f, Seetzen, RSnt-
gen, Sibthorp, Prince Max von Neuwied, were and are hia
grateful pupils.
Amongst the unknown, or, at all events, the insuffitnent^
appreciated services of Blnmenbach to literature belong I
beyond measure numerous reviews, which he continued to writ^
for a long series of years, not only in the BiUiothek, whiol
ho edited himself, but also particularly in the Gotlinf.
ffelekrtf A ngeigt, on all the books in hia various provincea
first criticism was upon Xenocrates, On the Altvient in Aqiu
AntTtiala, in 17/3, in Walch's Philological Lihrarij*.
■ Bemulu on some trxveli in WalJettk oollwted in Sohlozer'g Brl^-tmi.
Til- UI. ij;P, it. i6, B. 359—137. Thon: Somr RemarU upoyi Xaivroi Hittory mM
lAe oenaioa 0/ a SuHiijoHnei/. In Slagai. /lir dot tuiiaU aui drr Phgtii, B. IV,, F
■t, 3, 'T87.»- '; B- v.it. 1, 1778. •- 13. I
* Tho rpnuuning part of (hii )'Djnj;t to India woa tranBUleii b; Bohm. Lttps, ■
1775- ■
* Mrniiningen, 1789.
' Ld|z'g, 1790, in Bre valumt*.
' Od Jul; 1, 1794 HDraemftnn Grst of all eipregseil a wish to bil U
to travel into the interior of ArHcn, Zadi'i Gai/r. Epktm, B. I. Weimar,
a. li6-~rio, R. 368—371, and in B. in. >. 193. BiDTniiiiWh gave a public i
of thi> aotive young nun and of the fortanate completion of his ptan.
* n. n. at. C, a. 533. Blararnbach corrected nud added to the edition or XqmhI
crati'S vtpi T^i arc Tbfr ervSpur rpo^s by Franz.
He himself bad in the beginning to experience how unfairly
aiid carelessly reviews are often scribbled off'. He always
iidbereii to the rule of separating the man from the thing, and
tried to make his judgment as objective as possible, and not
to pervert the scientific judgment -seat with which he was
entniated to gratifying his personal bkes or dislikes. His
reviews may be known by their convincing brevity, tljeir clear
exposition of the essential points, the witticisms scattered here
and there, and the instructive observations and remarks of
the writer.
One of hiB manuscript observatione is worthy of notice,
which I found in a pocket-book that he once allowed me to
examine, because it explains to some extent how the facility
and power of finishing off work of this kind became in &
certain sense habitual to him. It is as follows: 'In church,
which we continually attended, I was always obliged whilst at
school to write down an abstract of the sermon. This has beea
since of the greatest utility to me in my reading, extracting,
reviewing, and in many matters of business, &c., for it has
enabled me to detect the essential point with rapidity, to
exhibit it, and briefly to express it again.'
AlUiongb Blumenbach beyond all others was involved in few
litenuy feuds', and it did not ca.sily happen that any of his
reviews occasioned him any complaint' or enmity, still he could
not help frequently calling things by their right names, and
displ&ying false celebrities in their nakedness*,
And now we must turn our attention from Blumenbach the
author, to the Gottingen professor, to whose lecture-rooms youth
' Wten hi* Baadlook «/ Xalural HiiloTy hid been not only awkwardly but
in«innderKtel;r criticized, he «rol« bia On a litcraiy inddinl uvrCA notice, v:hich
ua/erlunattly it "O rariXt/ in Goll. Mag. 1780, B. 46; — 484.
■ On one with hu old ooUeagus Msioen, comp. Btitr. lar Nalurg, Aufl. I.
1790, Th. t. s. 6j.
> Bis crititann oil K^mpf's new method of curing the most obaUnate diaordera
of the kbdnmen {Med. Bibl. B. n. st. 1). wu however Ukea iU by him, hut kfter-
U wu the Bulgect of open tliuikB to Blumenbach, in the lecond edition of that
!, Lcjpx. 1786, ■. 36fi.
- ■ a the review of Sander's Trow/i. GliU. yd. Am. 1784, at. J7.
LIFE OF BLDUBHBACH.
and age alike pressed, in order to receive words of lasl
instruction from the wit and humour which overflowed
his mouth.
The undivided approval, which was paid to his discoui
undem'ent do diminution in hie extreme old age, and he gai
up teaching, not because either the wish or the power fail
him, or because he siiffered any diminution of audience
pathy, but solely in accordance with the entreaties of his friends."
He knew well how in a very singular and inimitable way to
unite the valuabla with the amusing, the relation of dry facta
and scientiJic dediictions with wit and humour, and to st
them with keen well-pMnted anecdotes. Every one enjoyed
lecture. Grave or gay, every one went away stimulated
the better for it.
As listeners came to him from all parts of the world
went home full of his praises, his name wa£ carried into coi
tries where previously German literati had been little thoi
of. With a letter of recommendation from Blumcnbacb, a
might have travelled in all the zones of the earth.
He had the art of never giving too much, of confining him-
self to the principal points, and of deeply impressing what was
essential by well-varied repetitions. He assisted the compre-
hension by appealing to the senses in every way; by outlines
which he drew with chalk on a board, by the e.^bibition of
copies and preparations, by happy quotations of wcU-kno'
sayings. He laid stress on the fact, that from him might
leamt the art of observing; but that it is necessary, accoi
to circumstances, to listen, smell, and taste.
Hg made it plain, that be held no propositions such as could
be written out prettily on law-paper; his subject was the entire
man, his whole inner activity in representation, comparison, and
connection.
The means he employed to obtain this result were indeed
manifold, but it is very di£Gcult to give a satisfactory account of
them; they are too much bound up with his peculiar personal
appearance. One must have heard him speak himself, with the
expressive play of countenance, the remarkable tone of voice,
;now^^
htlfl
MA Its. 25
wlitcb now fell upon the ear in sharp abrupt sentences, now
estried your senses along with him in overwhelming cadences,
and witJi the imposing eflect with which he knew how, to some
extent, to throw life into the natural objects before him and
bring them into unexpected relations,
I could give many examples' of his numerous clever and
' For Ihe silte of exampla I will giva an inkling o£ tbem. Ho wished people
would aocuatom Uiemxdvee to get a dear uid deliiiite uotioD of ButijacU, aiul lo
reproduce Ihn whole from a pai t, for, tuil he, " 1 ciuiDOt bring sTerytliitig into Lha
lecture, ■■ the eUphuit or rhinocerog,"
He tiled also to preveot peoplo from deriving false ideas from their impreasions
and Dbaervatioiu: vie. "IT yon wish Co fotm %n idea of tha loweaC liepth to which
men baie deaceoded in the interior of the earth, pile up jour lihnuy al honia, jour
Corpna Juris, your eccleaiaatical hiatucy, &nd medicnl books, until jou hava put
ti,cxM leaves, that is, 14,000 psgva ona apon the other. Aod how fur do you
tbink we have got into the heart o( the earth! just so for as the fiiM and ssoand
leaf in thickoesB. And yet people are not ashamed lo apeak of the kernel of the
ewtb. When the poet apeidiB of the bonoli of the earth, we ought to traoskto
•tha epidenoia of the earth.'"
Be knew his aodieuoe so well, that if he wanted to get anything, be folt no
neoeiaity for maldog long manieuvres, >tUl less for Gndini; fault. He appealed to
the ienae of wtiat wae right and proper, not with jiallielic demonalratioos, but
eimorily, as by an electric shock. If, for instnoce, be saw that his sabjiictB were
handled rudely a* thtj went romid, he called out with an intelligible gnture ;
■■ They an best laid on your oost'hippet or on cotton ; hut I know one word la
better than an hnndnid-weight of cotton."
Smuetimei he was fond of speakiog in aphorisms, leaving the connecting Unka
to be mada out by his attentive hearers, though he always stirred up and set in
motion the moat spathetia by his overflowing humour. Once, for instance, wht^n
lecturing on natural history, he told the alory how tbey ahavitd a bear, and gave
bim out ui a new sort of man. "A beast in Gottiiigen, In whom Buffon would
have diacovored a good deal that was human: — it showed ono particuhu- Irait of
Dindetty, beuuie it would nut allow Its atockbgs to be taken oS Behind the
■tore in the Golden Angpl was the areature in question to be found, elad in a Hus-
sar's coat with an over-cloak. The breast was visible — of a most inviting colour.
The mouth was nient ; large claws witli long ruEBes — a Bnasar with rufflu That
waa •umelhing to think of, — Now I'm the man who gives the lectures here ou
natural hintory, the lecture-room Is gone mad ; — you show me this avciiing the
beast as (iod created it, or rather as you hava shaved It, or I shall stand lor
oolhing, for it ia no laughing matter to play with the Profenor in his lectuiB-iooin.
The nuui'a hair stood up with tiig^t, like spikes : later in the day Blumenbaoh wua
prCHiit at ill evening kiilette. The waistcoat had been nailed to it."
Sometimes be did not disdain to Bay a word of fun to the students: viz.
" Haoy eiegetiats tbink that the whale cast out the prophet Jonah, because where
K hoiM can End a place, a prophet might do ao too. filumenbach however stands
rather by tbe opinion of Hermann vun der Hardt in Helmstadt, who has written
a Tcry nasty commentary on that man of God ; that he lodged in Nineveh at the
Whale; that his cash ran out; the landlord would give him no more credit— he
waa turned out of the club; or— the Whale cast him out."
Or; "John Hunter used to inquire whether it was not possible for men to be
thrown Into the cbrysalia state: — that would be good for the couserlplion, forced
loans, or when the aludent is summouadj 'No, no, says the chatnbennaid, our
master U became a cliry sails.* "
23
LIFE OF BLCHEXBACU.
humorous illustratioDs, but I sbooU be afraud, that deprived of
the spirit of his pantomimic nepresentatioQ. ami iinsupported
bj his cheerful but still higbtjr imposing deliTei;, they might
easily appear in a faise light.
It might sometimea have seemed that Blumenbach attached
too much value to the singnlar and the curious, but wben *»*■
one came to look into the matter more closely, he soon 1
conviuced, that though what was estraoniiuary attracted hii
above all things, still, it was principally because it had remaiiu
unnoticed by others, or because it served him as a means,
through which he could direct the attention to what was truly
worth knowing. His business was with knowledge sad eaqili^
nation; yet he knew too well that the majority of men mub
have miracles to make them believe.
In literature he sometimes mentioned long-forgotten and
obsolete works, and noticed with particular emphasis such aa
were not to be found in the royal library ; but all that was only
to excite the love of learning, and keep it at full stretch,
haps no teacher understood so well as he how to instil by I
way a lasting interest in literature, and to accompany the i
quaiutance with the best and most select with opport
remarks.
The extraordinary reputation which remained to the famw
teacher in full strength for more than half a century maji
partly be attributed to the influence of authority, which wa|
then of more weight than it is now ; partly perhaps to th^fl
more comprehensive view tliat though the University was ia
other ways crowded with teachers, he had no rival in hia par-
ticular proviuce ; partly that he in all his outward circnmstancM
and throTigh his continuous good health was in a position io
concentrate on his immediate objects alt the materials which
stood in his power ; stiU wo cannot help always admiring the
greatness of his personality, and the wonderful insight and c
flistency with which he know how to keep all this together. I
For a long period of time he continued to be the chief centre J
of instructioD at Oitttiugeu.
Not only did fathers send their sous, but grandfathers thei
gnndchildren, in order tbat tliese might hear Blumenbach as
they had done themselves, and so participate in that particuiar
kind of learning, which had remained eo Bingularly indelible in
their recollection. Many first heard of Gottingen through its
connection with Blumenbach, and lighted by his titar, journeyed
to the place of his operations.
In the summer of 1776 he arranged for the public vivisec-
tions and physiological experiments on living animals in the
great theatre. Also in 1777 he gave there public readings on
the natural history of mankind. In the same year he gave
lectures on the dissection of the domestic animals of the coun-
try. Though he began very early to treat upon comparative
osteology, it wa-s not till after 1785 that he gave lessons on
comparative anatomy in general. For a long time he delivered
lectures on pathology, after Gaub, on the history of authorities
on medicine and physiology, and at last in the winter term of
1836-37 on natural history, which he read 118 times.
The three Englbh princes, who had arrived here on the 6th
July 1785, attended the course on natural history in the winter
of 1786". Nor did the present king of Bavaria, then crown-
prince, disdain to take his seat on the allotted benches, and in
August, 1803, Blumenbach was his companion in theHarz as far
as Magdeburg. This same royal patron of the sciences never
forgot his student's time, or his teaclior individually, as he
proved not only by sending him valuable presents, especially
the skull of an ancient Greek and his order of merit, but par-
ticularly by this, that he despatched in 1829 the present Crown-
prince to be the alumnus of the Georgia Augusta and of Blu-
menbach. When our king, on the occasion of the hundred-
year jubilee feast of the University, honoured us with his
iUustrious presence, he did not omit to visit his old preceptor
in the house which he had so often entered as a student.
Blumenbach was a bom professor ; in this occupation he
sought and found bis satisfaction and his pride. What ho
' Wilh whiob agree* Ihe paatage of Hejns {Opuie. Vol. IV. p. 143), "tho
rojkl priDce* of Grrat Britun attended the lacturee ortoma of tli« Profeaaor^ Hid
~D the bcDchea of the nudipnce.''
23 LIFE OF BLUMEKBACH.
prompted and accomplished in that capacity is seen from
history of tho literati of later years ; innumerable are thoM
who prize him as their teacher, benefactor, and friend. Who
can enumerate the dedications in great and small books which
were offered to him from far and near, partly out of gratitude,
partly as expressiona of praise and recognition ? Out of all the
great number of dissertations which Lave appeared here, the
best have been accomplished with and through him. Kead
the words of affection and love in the elder Sbmmerring'a
inaugural dissertation on Bluraenbach', which has since become
80 famous, and you will want nothing more.
When his pupil Rudolphi, in conjunction with Stieglitz and
Lodejuann, who had eqii^illy been instructed by him in science,
canvassed the German physicians, in order to celebrate the doc-
tor's jubilee of their groat teacher in a worthy manner, all to
whom he had been a leader either by speech or writing rose
like one man, and perpetuated the recollection of the event wiA
a medal* and by the foundation of a travelling scholarship'.
Tho naturalists of bis day endeavoured to recognize the
vices of tho Nestor of their science by naming after him plants,
animals, and stones. It was for him a particular pleasure, that
on the morning of the day of his doctor's jubilee (Sept. 18,
1S25), his colleague Schrader showed him a drawing of tb^J
new kind of plant, Bliimenbackia itmjnis'. ^M
^ De t<ai SnetphaU, Giitt. 1778, 4to. And Bnldin^r'a title to it: rpieome ••»
rtjiogvx phgticiogico-patkoUjffiftt, Mid in the Cnrrurtdun rita SGnmfrringj p. 15:
" Etc. Blumenbkch wai not onl; mj most deairabls instructor in geneml xootog?,
niineralogy. phjaiolo^, pBlhola)jy, the pBrticuUr history of mftn, and in reUliug
the traditions of medicine, but aba a distinguished patiun, who deigned to tiCkt me
aa a frienil. Such was his kiadneet that be Dot only often look me u his oompanion
in hia zoological and miDeralogical eicuniong, but alio ia bis Tiviiectiooi and M'
periments, which be catried on at his own expense in order to illuilrale publickty
the physiological part of oatund history, ho permitted me tuodl kindly to pre Mm
ray persona] and manual uaistance."
' The dedication runs; Viro illustri GennaniK decori diem Bemis«culaRn>
Pbysiophili Gerinanici liele gratulanlur. On the medal are drawn aa Europoui.
EthiD|uan, and MooKoUan skull with the legend: Natune in(«rpn)ti. osaa knui
I iobenti PhyviophLli GennaDid. d. 19 Sepl. i8if. [Wood-cula JiDm thk medal
turn been giiva aa the title-page. ED.)
* The valne of the tnvelling aoliolanhip was 60D goU thaleis. Comp. GStL
ga.A,a. 1819, sL 73, s. 751.
k' Comp. Cvtmmmt. 1^. R. S-. GB>t. Vol. vi. 1818, p. 91— 138.— A HiOMH-
. J
Although the confidence of tlie world in the learning of the
aged veteran rested on firm foundations, still notwithstanding
that be never left off continually improving it, for he was
always putting fresh life into what he knew, and endeavouring
to add new matter to his acquisitions. In his pocket-book we
find the following 'remark made in later days. "Although I
have been many years now delivering lectures, still up to this
time I have never once been into the lecture-room without
having prepared myself afresh, and specially for every particu-
lar hour, because I know from experience how much injury
many teachers have done to themselves, by considering as
unnecessary these perpetual preparations for lectures, which
they have read already twenty times and more,"
Blumeobach never, above all, allowed himself to repose
upon his happy natural advantage-s, but was always endeavour-
ing without ceasing to procure for them the greatest possible
development. Only I may remark here, that his manner of
speaking and wilting never grew old, but on the contraiy
remained interesting and in many respects masterly, and was
such aji to fix the attention of hearer and reader in a remark-
able way.
It is worth while to bring into notice the following extract
from his note-book, which is intimately connected with the
solidity and repose of his delivery. "Amongst the rules on
which my father most strongly insisted in our education, was
one especially, that when we had once commenced a sentence
with a certain form of construction we must go on with it, and try
to carry it out completely, and we were never allowed to begin
over again, and join another construction on to the first. This was
afterwards of groat assistance to me towards an easy delivery."
Bluraenbach not only developed himself into a most superior
teacher by natural talent, refiection and experience, but he also
possessed both by practice and by natural advantages the gift,
in ordinary conversation, of bringing out the main points in his
^~' Bical Magazine, Vol. 64J
LIFE OF DLOHKITBACH.
nnawcra and Btories, partly by aliort terse" sentences, partly by
unexpected bints. He wtw always lucky enough to hit the nail
on thtf head, to bring the subject into a fresh position, and to
altiick it in now and interesting ways. He would sometimes
doscribo rottaon as " the desire of perfecting oneself, or the
determination to accommodate oneself to circumstances," and
his manner Iwth of address and of doing business was a standing
commentary on this definition.
Generally he preferred listening to speaking; frequently he
would only let fall isolated sentences, leaving people to guess
at tlio connection; ho avoided direct contiudictiou, and was
pleastnl when his meaning was understood, without his having
lieon obliged to express himself in ao many words. In this way
ho spared the personal foelings of others, gladly i
a.<tststanco from without, and was tender to human weaknef
i<specially the vanity of authorship*.
Ortunnior had sometimes to give way in his cursory dia-
oourso for his immediate objects. In other respects his talk,
just like at>ove all his style and delivery, was the result of con-
Et'ious detiheration. In his note-book I find written down the
f^illowiug remark : " In the delivery of my lectures, as in my
writings, 1 havo always endeavoured to follow Quintilian's
(mttem' This is it. 'I* tried to throw in some brilliancy, not
f.tr the sake of displaying my genius, but that in tlus way I
might ntoro reiadily attract yuuth to the acquaintance of those
ttiin^ which are considereil necessary for study. For it seemed
probable that if the lecture had anything [deasant in it they
ifM Ik MM fc a^M M I Mil— I bn^r- Han ke Med to nt^ «■ tb*
in inis way
' recogniz^^l
weaknesa^^l
■^ til a i liiM j itwy to W ifc. ■*» «f M» toM«. *--" ■«■■■ -
«fa* Mik ^««c> «'MBMil kfaton^ im.-3l7a ' -. . .
^MARX. 31
ould be more glad to learn; whereas a dry and barren modu
of teaching would probably turn their minds away, and grate
rudely against ears tender by nature.' "
After what has been said already about Blumenbach'e rela-
tions to the outer world, it seema almost superfluoua to go on
mentioning in detail how numerous and honourable liia con-
^^Bections with that world became,
^H It might be sufficient to mention, that 78 learned societies
^Tflected him aa a member. There was scarcely any scientific
body of reputation in the wide extent of cultivated nations
which did not send him its diploma by way of testifying their
respect.
One of the necessary consequences of this was a very exten-
sive correspondence, and thoiigli much of the correspondence
between him and distinguished persona has already been
printed', there must etill remain, on the other hand, a great
deal, which will one day be made pubUc, Blumenbach himself
laid the greatest stress upon bis correspondence with Haller,
Camper and Bonnet, and considered those as amongst the
fortnnate incidents of his life*.
He was made Secretary to the Ph3rsical and Mathematical
branches of our Society in 1812, and in 181i General Secretary.
In this capacity, it was his duty to keep up the connection
between it and allied institution.'!, as well as with the individuals
who belonged to it, both at home and abroad ; to prepare the
raemoriab of deceaaed members, and to compose the intro-
ductions to the printed volumes of our Society. We are all
witnesses of the zeal and devotion with which he fiilfilled these
1 Via. with Zncb, to whom particulvly he gave toformition about distant tm-
Tdlma. Allgem. Otogr. EiAtn. B. ll. a. 66, 158. B. 111. a. 101. With Cul Eren-
baR vwiHoll in his MilVttil. aa> iiui». liri<ficre\K>, iSiQ, AbthL I. ■- 56—6,;,
on nun*! stlbjeclB of natunJ histoc^. With Johann Heinrich Merk m h,U Britfen,
paUisboJ t^ K. Wagner, DomiBtaidt, 1835, Noa. 197, iiB, ijo, priaoipally □□
phmeTal bonei.
* 1/tdif. BiU. B. lit. ■. 734. Tbeae entriea &re to befoundiiihia jonrnal; " 1775,
Not. I, My first Mj-iiiaintaiicB mith De Luo ; 1777, Nov. 11, with G. Forater,
i;;8, m •nuuner, wilh Camper. In the ■ame year my oorraapondenee with Baron
AkA bpgan, I ;8i ■■ith R. Forster in Halle ; in Bern. 1 781, my aoquainfanoo and
lubactinent coi reapunjancu with Buniiut ; in 1 786 my cotTir3[H>ncli'noa witii BanltB."
32
UFE OF BLOtEXSACH.
boooonUe dtitie& He hatl kid down hinaelf tbe S4tb year'
at tbe tutanl temunatkn of bmaao hSa, ami so it mi^iit be
regBrded ai cne of hk mutj pecnlisiitiG^ that it wss ttot till
hia 8Sth year that he exp«sae<I s iri^ in a 1
to be teliered of tbat office^
There are still some of hta official relatiaos to be ao4
wbicb broogfat bim into mani&ld oonnecti<m with otbeis, ■
into business ttaosactiona icith coUeagnea and
namely, bis poeition towards the Faculty, the Library, and the
public Natuia] Histoir CollMrtioos. In all these different
orciee it may be s^d, that he oondocted himself to universal
satisTactioQ, and gave proo& in CTerr, detail of his knowledge^
his expeiience, his furbeaiance and good feeling.
As member of the Faculty <^ Honours*, be distinguished
himself tliroughoat by oonscientiousness in delivering the judg-
ments demanded of him, by giving out his individual sUt&
ment« of the prizes, by mtld and modenUe examinations. He
did neither too little nor too much. During his decanate in
1818 he created 76 d<}ctors, the greatest number since^the
foundation of the Univei^ty. He fulfilled that office with all
itfi obligations up to 1835. On the 20th Feb. 1826, his Pro-
fessor's jubilee was celebrated. Blumenbacb himself considered
it a remarkable occurrence, that he id his 60th year' should be
already not only the senior of the medical faculty, but also that
of the whole Senate. He showed that the case had now really
occurred which Micbaells' had declared was scarcely possible.
Ab member of the Library Committee he vbs always readjiJ
to give his advice and influence for the improvement of &!(■
institulioQ he held so dear. He arranged', as its Director, 1
1 Mtdk. BOt. B. m. B
but few put by."
- • 17836" "
" The goU which DUkoy old people airire ■
I he ahkred the post with Gmelin, and if
[tal"iie
'When BidiWr, July 53, iSii, hwl died, 71 yean old,
* In hi* flaitrnmement flier die protaC. Vnireriit. Th. n. B. 343: "The ■ ,
ol ft whola UoSTeriity ctn hardly be « mui of nity jean, but geaenJly Kimewbat.9
younger or older thwi 80."
» Gim.gtL Am. 1778, it. 111, », 9*5.
■Mil
(MARX. 33
niversity Museum, and continiiej to overlook it to extreme
old age, when he could no more attend to it personally. To
his name also it was owing that many preaents were sent to it
from far and near'.
Bluiaenbacli never undertook the office of Proctor of the
University, although he knew as well as anybody else how to
deal properly with the students, and to remain in the best
understanding possible with older persons and with his supe-
riors. Veiy early in the day he had asked it as a favour of the
Curator, that he might never be chosen for that office. His
iliarity with the older conditions of discipline, and the then
inavoidable disturbances which agitated the University, and hia
fear' of being withdrawn from pure scientific activity by this
official business determined him to come to this conclusion.
But this refusal did not prevent him from doing all the
services in hia power, both to the University and the town,
by deputations of all kinds. On the 10th June, 1803, he went
with Martens to Hanover, and on the 5th Nov, 1805, to
CaMcI, in the same company, to visit Mortier, On the part of
the higher authorities such a value was set upon these two
organs of the University, that it was mode its duty never to put
them aside on any important occasion*.
' Cotaj). SoBie Natica of the Univcriiig Mutrum in Annaim Atr Sntumfftiir.
Miif*. CAur/oBcfc. JaJ.iig. i, 1787, St. 3, a. 84— 99. Jiibrg. 11. 1788, Bt. », 8.35—35.
In hii skctchvfl of auljjecM of natural hwloiy, he alwiiyg mentioni where the
eiunplei quot«d were to be Found in oar MnaeuiD.
* In hu journal I find written with a lead pencil: "From the year when
Buhnkeii wai mode Koctor Magnificua. aaya hia biocfrspher WjtteubAch (Ludg.
B. 1799, Svo. p. 14.1), b« became loat to literor; pursuita."
• In a P.M. of the UniTBTBity and School dapartment at Hanover to the
Unirenily d. iiJao. 1S05: " Id reapect of (he boalneaa which under the present
didUDaUuice* are to be aeen to by tbe Privy Councillor von Martena, which do
not ordinarily belong to the duties of Proctor, it will continue to bo the ciue, and
10 long as the condition of Ihinga rendera It necenary, that all and every cominnni-
rstion with the French genersla, wbatever name they may have, aball be conducted
by Privj Cooncillor Martena, or, if he is unable, by Privy Councillor BlumonbacL,
nnee both are known to the French generahi through tbe Univenity deputatiaiiB
th»y have already been employed upon. In oonaequenoe, the rulea hitherto at-
tended to miuC be reiumed, according to which, in all cMiaea where it ia ueceaaary
M send a deputation oE honour, the Proctor of the day doea not go himaalr, but
mual send a deputation, and (hat mutt consist, when there ia no neceasity for its
l-ting more nnmeroDS, of Privy Councillora von Martena and Blumeubnch, and if a
e be aenl, then tbeae two must always be meuibera of it."
84 LIFE OF BLUMENBAtK.
On the 28tli Aug. 1800, Bhimenljach and Martens set o
for Paris : on the 28th Sept. tbey bad an audience of the Ei
peror. On the 30th Oct. 1812, Blumeubach went, as deputy
the University, with Sartoriiis to Heiligenstadt, to the heai£
quarters of Bernadotte, the subsequent King of Sweden.
In consequence of these important services, combined wi)
bis other academical exertions, the town-magistrates resolved 1
give him a most unusual proof of their recognition of then
namely, on tho 1st March, 182+, the magistracy of the tow
decreed him a twenty years' exemption from the municip
taxes imposed upon his house.
With respect to the outer appearance and personal effe
of the departed, they are undoubtedly still fresh in our m
mory. Still perhaps some outlines may be of use to preaer
them fresb, especially since in hi» last years he lived very mui
retired in his apartments, and so many had very little oppc
tunity of coming in contact with him.
No one who had once seen or conversed with Blumenba
could easily forget him; and he knew how to make bimse
valuable to every one who lived with him. Even in extreme
old oge, when the weight of years had bent even his resisting
l)ack, there be stood and sat, as if cast in bronze, in every look
a man. Any one who beard the stout voice with which
answered, "Come in," to a knock at his door; or saw
wonderfid play of muscles in his expressive face, and remarl
in any interview bis undisturbed equanimity and collectedn<
and the freshness and cheerfiilness of his spirit, soon knew wii
whom he had to do.
No one left his presence without receiving either an
structive narrative, a cheerfiil sttiry of old times, or sol
weighty bint. He understood a joke, and knew bow to returt-
one. If any one let slip in conversation an expression, or a
Huggestion, which was wanting in due consideration or respect,
or if any one appeared as if bo wanted to impose upon the
man, he must have been wonderfully put down, when
snatched at his cap, and bared his snow-white bead, with
MARX.
35
words, "Old Blumenbacli is obliged to you." I cannot leave
uutold how Astley Cooper, in 1839, said in a letter of recom-
mendatioo, tbat King George IV, Lad declared that he had
never seen ao imposing a man as Blumenhach.
Uis health suffered on an average little disturbance. Blu<
inenbach refused to be ill ; he had no time for it. In his youth
he waa delicate, and was liable to violent bleedings at the nose,
and even to spitting blood; but by taking the greatest care,
and by regularity in his mode of life, he arrived in the course
of years to a very sound state of health. He declared that the
occupying himself with natural history had done him this good
among others, that he could sleep hke a marmot, and had
acquired the digestion of an ostricli, Every now and then he
suffered from dry coughs, inflammation of the eyes, or lumbago,
which he called the thorn in the flesh If he found it impos-
sible to subdue or conceal the complaint, he went to a phy-
sician, and followed hia prescriptions most punctually. Glad
indeed was he when he found himself relieved of the incon-
venience, and thankfully did he exclaim with Jesus Sirach,
"A short madness is the best."
Extreme old age can scarcely avoid bringing with it some
unpleasant consequences, but altogether the still intellectual
old man enjoyed sound bodily health. After he bad got over
the cold days in the middle of the past January pretty well, he
was seized at the commencement of the mild but stormy
neather with his cough, which however left him again. Only
the old annoyance, of not being able conveniently to void his
phlegm, drew from him the remark, that in the pathology which
he possessed, this chapter had not beea satisfactorily accom-
pli^ed.
Oa Saturday the 18th Jan. I was summoned between eight
and nine o'clock in the morning from the lecture to visit him.
He bad chosen to get out of bed, hut had been unable to walk or
to stand. On the first seizure they had placed him in bis arm-
chair, close to the stove, and covered him with pillows. When
I came I saw what I had never before remarked in him, and
4iat imnaediately filled me with uneasiness; his body trembled
3—2
36 LIFE OF BLUHENBACH.
all over, and wna cold to the toucli; his expression was altei
his pulse was irregular in the highest degree; nothing coi
enable him to throw off his dtijection.
Still by good luck this threatening storm passed
The remedies which were applied might congratulate them-
selves on a happy result. When I saw liim again two hours
afterwards, he gave me hia hand, he had recovered hia usual
expression, and the natural motions seemed to have suffered
essential interference.
However tranquillizing this might appear, still there was
apprehension that so lamentable and powerful an accident,
which had proceeded from the central organ of the nervous sya-
tom, in an organism which had hitherto gone on working with
such regularity, might only too easily occur again, and at lajst
bring to a standstill the machine which was kept going by habit
alone. When I saw him again at 5 o'clock in the evening, he
stretched out his arras towards me, and spoke aloud; still
thought that he felt as if he must not consider the circumstaiu
as so trivial. About 8 o'clock I found him in a sound a)
which continued throughout the night.
Sunday and Monday passed off well enough, and he
them, with the exception of his siesta, in his arm-ohair.
I entered his room, he gave me so loud a " good day," that,
cording to his own expression, the angels in heaven might have
heard him. When I asked him how he was, I received fotj
answer, " Quite in the old way." He had books brought
him again, read them, had himself read to at intervals, and
particularly cheerful. But I could only share this happy
of mind by constraint, for his pulse became more and mi
irregular, and fainter, and when he spoke I missed the old toi
of voice.
On Tuesday one might still have been deceived as to his
condition on the first glance, because when I asked to feel his
pulse, he thrust out bis arm with energy, ia his usual way : and
he showed by all hia other motions that the power of the will
over the Ixxly was yet entire. Tliis was the first time that he
spent the whole day in bed. Still in the evening I conversed
iuai
[haM
tlj|
WitL liim upon subjects of natural history, and recounted to him
some bygoae passages of his life, at which the expression of hia
face, his cheerful humour, and many a subtle remark showed
^^^te clearness of his mind.
^^K Wednesday morning, the 22nd, about 8 o'clock, contrary to
^^n previous custom, be did not extend his hand to me ; &till he
^^Bockly recognized me, and was as friendly as usual. On my
^^■peated inquiry whether be felt anywhere any pain, any
^H^ression, or any anxiety, he answered straight and decided
with "No, nowhere at all." The only thing which annoyed him
was, that be could not expel the phlegm from the windpipe.
He began to doze, and spoke at intervals a few words to him-
self; but when a question was put to him he always gave an
answer. As I was going away he said, "Adieu, dear friend."
These were the last words which I heard him speak plainly and
connectedly. The t-one of his voice remained good till midday.
Dozing and feebleness increased; but his consciousness re-
mained undisturbed till evening, and when I asked him several
times if I should give him something stiniulatiug, he opened
hb eyes readily, and fixed them hard. At half-past 8 I coidd
feel no pulse, and the inspirations were numbered. I laid my
hand upon him and eaid, "Adieu;" but the dear well-known
voice, which had so often heartily responded to the greeting,
was silent for ever. Five minutes afterwards he was in another
world.
There still remain some isolated strokes to be given, which
may help to the better comprehension of this generous aud
unusual character, who retained his innate harmony even in
the very hour of departure.
Blumenbach never shed t.ears\ After a heavy domestic
misfortune I found h im collected, reading some travels of natu-
■ " Lnok for the kobiymd gluid after 1117 death," bo uid BometimH, "you will
find none," or "I musthiive nerves likeconie, ornon«at &11." Tliu diaaoctioo never
hiok pU<«, It woutd have heen moBt intarciting in nmnj reipecli for the mors
wKurate knowledge of the particular parts of the brain, and tliuir connection with
ekch otbur. the cooipariaon of the *kuU, the windpipe aud the lunus. with the well-
kouwn *7aipton» which were aeeo during the life of the old man, who wu
reinvkalile even in a pbyu<«l point ot *isw. Still, with reipect eren to the
LIFE OF BLUMENBACU.
ral history, and calling my attention to the pictures in tliem.J
He suffered through his whole organization, yet he made i
complaint, and shed no tear, but tried to occupy himself as fat
aa he possibly could.
He never used spectacles, and in his 88th year read with e
the smallest letters and type. His handwriting changed remark-^
ably according to the different epochs of his existence. In I
youth and active manhood he wrote beautifully. Tlien he i
afflicted with a difficulty of using his writing finger, and a
he had tried hard to conquer it without success, he
himself to write with the left hand, guiding the pen with i
right. For this purpose he used a swan's quill, and the thickei
lead-pencil. In his 87th year however he again attempted t
write with the right hand, and the strokes by their f
and clearness recalled the best performances of his earlier jet
If you ever got him to talk on the chapter of writing, he t __
care never to forget to recommend the art of writing handily in
your pocket, which had been of great service to hini on diplo-
matic missions, through the agency of a short thick lead-pencil
and strong parchment paper.
Blumenbach waa a man of the watch, which always 1
beside him No one could be more punctual than he was.
any one expected anything from him to no purpose, he might h
quite certain that it had not been forgotten, but that he ha^
let it go, because he considered that the proper thing to do.
Immediately after he had got up in the morning 1
frizzled and powdered, according to the old-fashioned style, j
then put on his boots and kept them on till he went to bed.
took a great deal of trouble to get him at last to use slip]
and a footstool. Even his physician scarcely ever saw him i
his night-shirti. Aa he 8j>ent the whole day entirely in I
dress, so also he scarcely in other ways indulged himself in thJ
slightest relaxation. He had a sofa for visitors in his studjM
peculiariliea m?iittanFd, it. munt be cooaidered thnt tile fantii binted at wei« euT
to b« teta, aaA u nomi^ u might bo ; but long-codtiaued doiign, iron will. Mid
cuitom. whioh had atmoat beooms Inw, bid made thdr influeaoo dittinoUf UU
J
MARX.
39
but be never made any use of.it himself. Only on one single
ficcasion, when he was ill and obliged to lay up, did I tind him
upon it. He pronounced against arm-chaira for a long time,
and 8aid tbere ought to be pricks in the. back of them ; and
it was only by degrees that this position was made agreeable
to him.
It was one of his principles never to sleep in the day-time ;
only in his very last years did he allow himself a siesta. It wa.t
liis opinion that a man ought always to be wakeful, active, and
cheerful, and on that account lie was slow to understand how
he sometimes in his 88th year went oS into a doze in the day-
tirae, in the abaeuce of any outward excitements.
He kept himself free from eveiy confining habit ; after
allowing himself to smoke for some time, he gave it up again,
and did the same by snufT-taking too, which had occupied the
place of the other. After his 86th year I saw his auuff-box no
more.
Moderation at table wat! his habit ; he always took exactly
the same quantity. He used to tell of himself that he had
never been drunk'.
With respect to this unusual self-reliance which Bluraen-
bach arrived at so early, and which he retained to the end, it
will bo interesting to hear bis own account, to what influence
he principally ascribed this important result. It stands written
in his joTimal. " My parents, among other wise and serviceable
principles of education, as I consider, never allowed us children
to know that they had any possessions. All we knew was this,
that everything which they had was entirely their own unen-
cumbered property, That fortunate ignorance was for me a
mainspring to more earnest exertion to help myself on alone,
and it is that priudpally which has made of me an useful man.
How many unhappy examples thert are, on the other hand, of
young people, who have neglected to cultivate their natural
capacities solely for the reason, that their parents have too
' He
R»j mtii Juhii
uc, tempernnc
' early let them become acquainted with tbe lucrative ioherit-
ance wliich was awaiting them."
Blumenbach was economical, but he understood also how
to give. He knew how to appreciate the value of money, with-
out at the name time Betting any higher consideration upon it.
There was once a passage in bia note-book which some time
later waB written down: "However singular it may appear to
many, stilJ it ia literally true, that up to the date at which I am
now writing, I have never onco solicited any emolument,
salary, or addition, or anything else of the kind concerning
myself, but have received everything throughout from the
Hanoverian government, from my first appointment up to the
last addition allotted to me in the summer of 1813, entirely
from free gifts, that is, without any exertion of my own; and so
also under the kingdom of Westphalia."
As Blumenbach himself wa« beyond all things discreet,
both in pubhc and in private affairs, so also he expected the
same from those he associated with. He had no objection to a
piece of newa, especially when it was of a pitfuant nature, but
beyond that, he troubled himself little about the concerns
of other people, Ee used to say, " De occultis aon judical
ecclesia."
If any one complainetl to him of his position, and solicited
his intercession, he would encourage hira with the saying,
" Lipeia vult expectari." K it appeared to hira that the peti-
tioner stepped beyond the proper bounds, he would exclaim,
"I shall remember you," and with these words the negotiation
would be closed.
Blumenbach was always hiraaelf, never distracted, never pre-
occupied. Had he been woke up in the middle of the night
and questioned upon the most important subjects, he would
certainly have given the same distinct answer && at midday.
Hi) acted according to definite inner determination. He acted
or declined to do so acconling to certain rules of the under-
8t«ndi»g, which became at last a sort of machiaery of hie
character.
Ho was never wanting in attention to othere, and he had
HABZ.
41
^
the faculty of attaching to himself in a subtJe way men of all
classes, but especially superior men. It was his plan to bring
up and, as it were, accidentally to allude to whatever must
necessarily have an agreeable effect, and to stir beforehand all
the strings in harmony; and in this way he won for himself
jaaay well-wishers, and knew how to keep them when they
won. Politeness he considered as a duty, aud he knew
well how to use it, both to attract people and to keep
tiiem at a distance.
Not only did be closely adhere to what was demanded by
custom, and all the observances of society and official relations,
but his attention to these things put many younger men to
the blush.
Blumenhacb was always anxious to leam, and was never
idle for a moment. He used to say, ho only knew ennui by
reputation. As he was reckoned the great curiosity of GOttin-
gen, and scarcely any traveller omitted to visit him, he was
kept continually on the stretch through the quantity of fresh
information. To this also contributed his imceasing reading —
in the evenings he preferred to be read to — and his unexampled
memory, which he was always trying to strengthen by taking
memoranda. He often used to laugh at the perverted mannora
of certain men who wanted to be taken for clever, and com-
plained about their bad memory, when that was the very thing
they could exercise a certain power over. One hears people
say, "I have a most wretched memory," but never "What a
miaerable judgment I have."
It will serve to show how attentive he still was in extreme
old age, that one Wednesday morning when the Literary
Notices had been published, and in one of the Reviews, without
naming him, I had hinted at something which concerned him,
he greeted me with the words, "To-day old Blumenbach has
out-jockeyed."
He was not in the habit of speaking his opinion or his ideas
hi out, but he left them to be seen through a hint, or only
jest; any one who knew his way of speaking wanted no
ler explanation
42
LIFE OF BLUMEHBACH.
He was not one of those wlio received everytlnug immfi
diately as true and certain'; but he guarded himself and alao
warned others against carrying their scepticism too far. He
sfiid it would be a subject for a very acute head to decide,
whether too much credulity or hyper-scepticism had done tb<
most harm to science, and he iDclined to the latter epinioi
He considered it as above all necessary, on every assertion i
keep in view the individual from whom it proceeded".
He always found fault when any one lost himself in comm(d
figures of speech, instead of seeing the way clearly to tlutS
foundation of appearances from the immediately COQQeotM^
facts. Thus he used to express himself: "The lament,
mankind is always growing weaker, is a miserable Jeremiad.
Lay upon one of our horses the horse-trappings of the middle
ages — it will be crushed under them as a pancake. Yet these
<lrink no tea or coffee, and do not suffer from the evil, whidi
Las been given us by America. Habit does it alL"
In his thought as iu his action all was considerate, c
Dccted and moderate.
In what has been done already, an attempt has been t
whi{^^^
* Tlii« lay ftt ths bottom of ■ playfully toUl story. "In Mnravin on ■ mm-
bright dny there Kiwatbundur-cbp, aud stones like pigeoni' eggs full from the aky.
The testJmany of those who heard it in romarluble, aa B ■paciin?n uf whU ofteo
ncoura Id courts of law. "DiJ yon hoar tbe noiset vrhat did you think it mu
like I' 'Likeplfttoon-firiog.' 'What areyoul' 'Muakoteor.' 'Did you bear id'
'Yea.' 'And what did you thick of itT' 'It wulike an old oarriage ndling^ong
the itreet.' ' What are you I ' 'Postilion.' 'Aadyou!' 'Yea.' 'Wbatdidnu
think it waa liket' 'Janiesuy musio.' 'Hare you ever heard JatuMM-y moiKir
'Never in my life, but I tliink it muit loujid loniething like thif"
He uned to take op[iartunitie« of slinwing boo people aoDietiniea propagate an,
error from a sdf-pleaaing delumon, vii. :— "The Hungarisns boaflt that 01 " "^
Tokay grapes you will often flad grains of pure goliL Alt a not gold,
gtiltcis. Looked at more closely it is no real gold, but glitti.'iing yellow ci
la"' "ggs-"
His oriticiam was intelligible, and yet wan
moit elaborate expoiition. Thus, "The SlotI
feet at the aams ume. When it goes it moves first one foot, stops ai
It could not bare bwii in the unirrrsal menagerie of Mount Ararat
lires in Branl only: if it had had to come from Ararat to Braxil, i
have been there yet."
1 thA,^
HARX. 43
to throw off a BilLouette of Blumenbach'a exertions and per-
sonal appearance; in conclusion, I may be allowed to give some
account of bis nearest external connections.
His father, Henrich Blumenbach, was first of all private tutor
in Leipzig, and in 1737 became tutor to the chancellor of Oppet
in Gotha, and in the same year waa made professor in tlie
school there. He had a very choice hbrary, and many ea-
graTing§ and maps. For Leipzig, the place of his birth, he bad
8nch a preference, that when his son went, against his wisliea,
to Gottingen, he alluded in a school prospectus to the new
University as the quasi modo genita; but however at last ho
changed, and later in the day ceased to refuse it the well-
merited honour of being the Optimo modo genita.
His mother, Charlotte Elenore Hedwig, was the daughter
ofBuddeuft, the Vice-Chancellor of Gotha, grand-daughter of the
Jena theologian; she died in 1793, sixty-eight years old. Tlie
departed left behind him, in bis journal, this remark upon her.
" A woman full of great and at the same time domestic virtues,
and perfectly faultless." He had a brother who died in the
prime of life, in an employment at Qotba, and his sister was the
wife of Professor Voigt, who afterwards came to Jena.
In 17-59 Blumenbach went to the school of Michaelis. In
[J768 he delivered an address on two occasions : on the Ditke's
rth-day, and the marriage of the then Crown-prince.
Amongst the iuterestiug men in Gotha, to whom he often
snt, and who were glad to see him, was the Vice-President
KiKlQppel, who took a great share in the Gotha Literary Journal,
, which began to appear in 1771-
On tbo 12th October, 1769, Blumenbach, then seventeen
years old. wont from school to Jena, where Baldinger was then
Proctor, principally to attend the lectures of the then famous
Kaltscbmidt; but on the very day when bis lectures commenced,
he dropped down dead, from a stroke of apoplexy, at the wed-
ding dance of one of bis friends. In his place at Easter, 1770r
Hhubauer came to Jena, to whom Blumenbach took prodirij
^E|]y, and to whom he was very grateful.
LIFE OF BLUHENBACH.
After he had studied there for three years, he felt
necessity of getting instruction from other teachers, and :
made his choice, in consequence of the renown Gottingen 1
enjoyed. On the 15th October, 1772, he arrived here; on
18th September, 1775, a Sunday, he took his degree'; and
the 3Ist October he began to read his first lecture.
For his learned career he considered it the greatest of gi
luck that he came to Gmtingcn. He shared, as ho ot
remarked, with regard to a learned life the saying of Schli
'■ To live out of Giittingen is not to Uve at all."
Nor did he conceal from himself that the fact of his career
coinciding with the necessities of that day, and his personal
position to influential men, had had an important influence on
the recognition of his labours'.
By his marriage (on the 19th Oct. 1778) he became
brother-in-law of Heyne, and as his father-in-law Gooi
Brandes, and afterwards his brother-in-law Ernst Erand<
managed the affairs of the University, we can see partly
least how Blumenhoch came to have so much influence in it.
: on
1
' Hia itponsOT wu hln old Jena tutor Baldingcr. who in tlie meantime hwl boeit
■ummoaeij here, BU<1 who od Chat occuioo hiid wriiteo bin theaia Dt ntaliffnilaU m
morbii tx meaU HippDcraiii, 1775, on vhich depended Blumeabftuh'i cuver in ]ite.
According to him Blum«nb>ch hui atteaded tha fallowiag lectnna. In Jcmi;
logic with Hennings; pure mathematic* and ph^aica with Succow; botanj, phju-
oloffy. pathology, and the history uf medicine with Baldinger; matomy, aui^eiT.
ana midwifery with Neubauer; practical msdiciBe and patbology with NiooUi;
natuni liiHtory and archnology with Walcb; Gennan antiijnities with MQUor ;
EngliBh tangunge with Tanner. In Qiittingen : on the power or medicine, on the
nature and cure of diseanea with Vogel; pharmaceutical chemistry and the prepar-
ation of roodiciQeg, the art of preauribing and clinical lecluree with Baldinger;
botany and materia modica with Murray; anatomy and midwifery with Wriaberg;
pathology and ooular diieaaea with Richter; mineralogy with Kiatner; hittory at
the mainiualia with Eriloben ; natural hietory wit^ Buttner ; on Che odea of Horace
with Heyne: the English litnguage with Dietz; tha Swediah with Schlozer.
On die occanion of that anQircraary, Heyne said (OjiMC. VoL n. p. 113);
" Blnmenbiieh, from whore geniua and luaming we expect Bomothitig very great."
■ In hia lil'e written by filumenbocb himself. Gutting. 1801, a. 197.
■ H? bad early made a mark agninat the two following pnaaagea: ''Itmskeea
great difference on what times a man'a peculiar Tirtuea fali" (Plin. Nat, Hilt, \ii.
19). "Nor can any one have ao splendid a genius tliaC he can come to light
without materiHl, opportunity, or even a patron and someone to recommend him'
(PUn. £p. VI. 33).
MARX.
45
What he was to this institution of learning in general^
and our society in particular, that the world knows well, and
history will not forget In our tablets of memory his name
will always endure, and his recollection will always renew in
us the picture of a great and beautiful activity.
He who like him has satisfied the best of his time, he has
lived for all time.
ELOGE HISTORIQUE
DE
^ ^
JEAN-FREDERIC BLUMENBACH,
UV DIB HUIT ASSOa^ ^BANQEBS DS L'aCAD^FB,
PAR M. FLOURENS,
BECB^AIRK PEBPETUEL.
LU DANS LA SEANCE PUBLIQUE DU i6 AVRIL 1847.
PARIS. 1847.
MEMOIR OF BLUMENBACH
M. FLOURENS'.
" tion
Some years since died at Osttingen a member of our Academy,
whose great works have rendered him famous, and whose par-
ticular works, applied to the new Htudy of man himself, have
rendered dear to huraaoity. It is to M. Blumenbach that our
age owes Anthropology. The history of mauktud had been
disfigured by errors of every kind, physical, social and moral.
sage appeared. He contended against the physical errors;
1, by 80 doing, destroyed in the surest manner the founda-
tioQ of all the othera.
John Frederick Blumenbach was bom at Gotha, in 1752.
From his very birth nature seemed to devote him to education.
His father was professor at Gotha ; his mother belonged to a
family at Jena, which was attached to the universities.
It was iu one of those German interiors, where the love
of retirement, the necessity of study, the habits of an honourable
independence reign with such a charm, that the httle Blumen-
bach lirst saw the light. A brother, a sister, a father studious
and grave, a mother tender and enlightened, formed at firet
all his world. It was soon observed that this child, surrounded
by such soft affections, was occupied by quite a dreamy
curiosity. It played but little, and began to observe very early.
It endeavoured, and sometimes with great ingenuity, to com-
prehend or to explain to itself the structure of a plant or an
insect.
Everything ia taken seriously in Germany, even the earliest
education of the infant. The father of M. Blumenbach, who
> Mtatoiru ik VlnHitvt ii Franct, Tom. xu. p. i. Piiri«. 1847.
LIFE OF BLUMEHBACH.
iateoiied liim for education, never permitted him, even from the
most tender age, to break short a sentenee badly commenced
in order to put something else in its place. The sentence
badly commenced had to be finished. The child had to get
itself out of the little difficulty it had got into. In this way it
leamt naturally, without effort, or rather by scarcely appreciable
efforta, to think clearly and express itself with precision.
Hia mother, a woman of elevated spirit and noble heart,
inspired him with ideas of glory. The aoul of the mother is the
deBtiny of her son. These tirst impressions have never ceased to
influence the whole life of M. Blumenbach. Of his numerous
writings there is only one which is foreign to the sciences, and
that ia the panegyric of his mother. He ends it by saying,
" She had all, and knew how to cherish all the family virtues."
To return to the child. At ten years old he already took
up the subject of comparative osteology, and this was the way.
There was then but one sohtary skeleton in the town of Goth&.
This skeleton belonged to a doctor, who was the friend of tho
family of our little scholar, who often told afterwards the story
of the many visits he used to make, during which be took
no notice of the doctor, but a great deal of the skeleton. Hia
visits became, by little and little, more assiduous and more
frequent. He came, on purpose, when his old friend was oat ;
and, under pretence of waiting for him, spent whole houn in
looking at the skeleton. After having well fixed in his memory
the form of the different bones and their relations, be conceived
the bold idea of composing a copy. For this purpose he mode
frequent journeys in tho night to the cemeteries. But, as he
was determined to owe nothing except to chance, he soon found
out that he would have to content himself with the bones of
our domestic animals. In consequence, he directed his private
researches in such a way as to provide himself with all sorts of
that kind of bones. Then he carried them all to his bed-room,
concealed them as well as he could, and shut himself too up
there, in order to give himself up at his leisure, and with on
enthusiasm beyond his age, to the studies he had marked out
for himself.
i
i
. FLOUREKS.
51
UnfoKunately, at last a servant discovered the child's
secret treasure ; she saw that ingenious commencemeDt of a
human- skeleton, and cried out sacrilege and scandal. Young
Btumenbach, all in tears, ran to his mother; and she, under the
advice of the good doctor, prudently decided that the precious
collection should be removed into one of the lofts. Such was the
modest beginning of the famous collection whose reputation
has become universal
At seventeen, young Blumeubach quitted hb family for the
University of Jena. There he found Siinimerring: the same
age, the same tastes, the same passion for study, which already
concealed another, that for fame. They soon became friends;
and for these two friends everytiiing was in common, library
and laboratory. Blumenbach lent his books; Sommerring lent
anatomical preparations, la their coutideatial intimacies
ley often allowed themselves to give way to their illusions,
Jcting for one another the first rank in the sciences they
titivated. Nor were they deceived; the one became the first
naturalist, the other the first anatomist of Qermany.
After spending three years at Jena, Blumenbach went to
i-^e university of Gottingen, then famous for the residence of
great man, the great Haller, one of the grandest geniuses
icnce has ever had; a first-rate author, poet, profound ana-
tomist, a botanist equal to LinufeuB in his way, a physiologist
without parallel, and of an erudition almost unlimited. Haller
indeed bad left the place ; but his reputation was everywhere.
UU the sight of reputation the cry of genius is always the same ;
ItHd Blumenbach said with Correggio, " I too am a painter."
r There lived then, at Qiittingen, an old professor, forgotten
Dy the students and very oblivions himself of delivering lec-
tures, but in other respects very learned, and, besides, the
possessor of an immense collection, remarkable for its books
of geography, philology, voy^es, and pictures of di.s-tant nations.
Young Blumenbach, who was already dreaming of a history
of man, was delighted at finding materials of this kind, so labori-
ously and diligently brought together. He foresaw with a
nngiilar clearness all the ailvantages that might be got from it.
4—2
and 1
^^-iiis ai
ttal
52 LIFE OP BLOMENBACH.
He li§tened to and atlmired the old profeaaor; and let him gi
on talking for a whole twelvemonth; then, rich with the*
treaaiires of erudition, of history, and continuous studies of th
physiognomy of peoples, he wrote his doctor's dissertation H
T/ie Unity of Mankhtd. '
This was quite a new way of opening the science which )|
was destined to found and to render attmctiye. He coiu
menced from that time his anthropological collection. He dil
more; he got the University to buy the collections of his cA
master, he became their conservator, he arranged them; aD
very soon brought them into notice by the great inatructioi
in natural history he added to them. His teaching in this w^
marks quite an epoch in the studies of Germany.
The peculiar genius of that nation is well known; th
genius of thought governed by imagination; devoted at OM
to tnith and to systems; brilliant, and rejoicing in elevate
combinations, bold, surprising, and, if I may use the expressio)
given up to the adventures of thought. M. Blumenbach was a
exception to this genius; but he developed, with a wondeif
good nature, all the wisest points of it.
The fifty years during which be was professor, and, if I nu
say so, a kind of sovereign, was, for natural history in Oerman]
the time of tho most positive and the soundest study. The
day of systems did not re-appear till he was gone ; and when
they did, although recalled to life by a man of astonishing
vigour of mind', they never could regain the empire they had
lost. They had to deal with an entirely new power. The
eTjKrimental method bad been established. The great revohl
tion which has made the modern human intellect what it i
had been effected,
iL Blumcnbach has published four works which give tu
pretty well the whole of his great course of instruction: the
first, on The Human Species'; the second, on Xalural Histort/;
"1
1, &•:., uid III* Dicadci cr
Hnd eflpeciatly of Uie phUovopbf
Auimal Eingdom.
nation, Dt GtnrrU hvvumi
\
tkiid, an PAymotogy; und the foarth, on Comparatin
To fona « Fnper (qiiiiioo ttf these wot^s, it Is Bec»ssar}r
to cwMJdcr the tine when they eppewed. Abuut th« miiUl«
of the ei^Ceenth oentarr, Buffbo, Lintueos and Haller had
foonded nwdeni BManl histoiT. Tovmrds tli« end of th«
oentniy, at the wrj moment when MieDcc lost these three
great men, M. Blam^ibacb wiete his first work'.
The gloTj of iL BimneDbacfa is that he preceded (I^Tirr.
There was indfed between these two famous men more than
ODe rdation; both introduced Compamtirt Anatomy into their
own countiT, both created a new 9eieiK?e; the ooe. Anthropo-
logy; the other, the science of Foe^ Anatomy: both cou-
G^ved the science of Animal Organization in its eotiralr; but
G. Cuner, impeited by a gnater bias towards abetraet combi-
nations, did more to display a method; whilst Blnnieubaefa,
gnided by a most delicate sensibility, did muie to elucidate
physiolodT.
Everything belonging lo method was neglected by Bhiuien-
bach; he confined himself t« following Lannsiis; he adopted
fix-m him almoet all his dirtMous with whatever advantages they
had, and oUu with all their defects, their narrowness of study,
and tbeir caprice.
In Germany, where they will not easily admit that M. Blu-
menliach was deficient in anything, this kind of forgetfulness
with which that great iuleUect treated method is explained
and excused by his deference for Linmbus, the master, in that
way, of a whole century. In France, where greater liberty of
speech is allowed, without going beyond the bounds of rospwl,
we say, plainly enough, that Bliimenbacb had not the genius
of method; a genius so rare, that Aristotle alone, of autiiiuity,
1 it; and only three or four men in modern times have
' BU duMVtatioD, Dt Grutrit kumani taritlalt ttatira, ie
d'BiMinrt XatvnlU u of 1779; hU Jtanurl dt I'Ayn'nlagir,
on the AnlmiHX i uittg eKaud ttAtangfroiJ. im the Jni
titiparet tt rrriyarct, m of 1786 and 1781^; biafint Dteaiero
iaattrnut eomfarit, cA tSoj.
54
LIFE OP BLUUEKBACH.
k a degree, LiimiEiis, the two Jussieu :
had it in t
G. Cuvier.
All the writings of M. Blumeiibach indicate the <
and, if I may say bo, the stamp of the physiologist. In
Comparative Anatomy he aiTanges his facta accordiog to I
organs, which is pre-eminently the physiological order. In t
Physiology, property bo called, he first of all considers I
forces of life, which is the point of view at once the mo*
elevated and the most essentially peculiar to that science
His works on the cold-blooded and hot-blooded animals, and o
the hot-blooded viviparous and oviparous animals aie a true
Comparative Physiology, and that too at an epoch when the
very name
of that science was unknown'. He has submitted
the great question of the formation of beings to the most j
found researches*, and always as a physiologist. Facts were Ii
study; and from facts he tried to mount up to the force whid
produced them. Nothing ia more famous than the formatil|
force of M. Blumenbach',
Three principal ideas about the formation of beings bav^
been successively in vogue; the idea of spontaneous ffeneratU
which was the idea, or rather the error, of all antiquity ; t
idea of the pre-existence of germs, conceived by Leibnitz, ;
popularized by Bonnet; and the idea of the formative force
M. Blumenbach. No doubt the new idea does not clear up tbl
difficulty any more than the two othera; but at least it d«
not add to it. It does not contradict the facts, like the idea fi
spontaneous generation; nor does it exact of the mind all that
mob of suppositions and concessions which is demanded I
the idea of the pre-existence of germs'.
The formative force of M. Blumenbach is only a mode t
expressing a fact, like irritability or senxihility; and whate
' 1 coDsiiler liiin
Ll£'oded"»nd "hot-b
* And dirongh them
be the Gnit who «mplo;sd in hi* wotIlb (he h
d«d uimials."
made tbe b«utiliit ducoveiy of the wuhilkal m
• Hi« Nina /ormativu:
* The Muleenla ortiani'jutt of Baffon are only ths pre-adMlng germ* tn lulDll
n. See my Uiit, dct traraux ct da idici dc B«ffvn, pp. 6f, 71.
^^a'
FLOURENS.
65
ly be said of it, ia not more obscure. Every origiiuil force is
obscure for the very reason that it is original. "The first
veil," says Fontenelle, " which covered the Isis of the li^yptians
has been lifted a long time; a second, if you please, has been so
in our time; a third never will be, if it ia really the last'."
Great studies absorb those who pursue them. Blumenbach
travelled little. His labours were only interrupted by some
journeys in the interior of bia country; and what was remark-
able, these very journeys were of ju,st as much use to natural
liistory as bis works. The old Oemiany, with its old chateaux,
seemed to pay no homage to science; still the lords of these
ancient and noblo mansions had long since mode it a business,
almost a point of honour, to form with care what were
Cabinets of Curiosities. Their successors, attracted by
warlike tastes of the great Frederick, had forgotten these
collections. Blumenbach cams and reclaimed these trea-sures
in the name of science, and everything was granted to him.
Natural history began everywhere to have its museums, and so
had civil history; and all this was due to what Blumeitbach
used to call, laughinglv, his Voyages of Ditcoverij.
Of all these collections, the most peculiar to Blumenbach,
most important, the most precious at least for its object,
his collection of human skulls; an admirable monument of
;ity, laliour and patience, and the best established and
surest foundation of the new science, which interests us all
to-day, of Anthropology. Anthropology sprung from a great
thought of Buffon. Up to his time man had never been
studied, except as an individual; Buffon was tlio first who,
in man, studied the species'.
After Buffon came Camper. Buffon bad only considered
the colour, the physiognomy, the exterior traits, the aiiperjicial
characteristica of peoples; Camper, more of an anatomist, con-
sidered the more real characteristics. With Camper began the
study of skulls. Camper had a quick apprehension, and was as
KOdOUL
^Bbd ain
^^^e wai
Ol
■jhe n
' PlMwyri<
da lra*a<U tt det idea dc liiifon, p.
56
LIFE OF BLUHEHBACH.
ready at seizing a happy view as prompt to abandon it. SS'^
compared the skull of the European with that of the negro;
the skull of the negro with that of the orang-utan; he atruok
out the idea of his facial angle, and very soon greatly exa^e-
rated its importance.
Blumenbaoh has pointed out what a veiy unsatisfacto
and incomplete characteristic the facial angle is-, he has shom
that we must compare all the skull and all the face; 1
laid down rules for that learned and perfect comparison, t
was the first to deduce that division which is almost everywhai
now adopted, of the human species into five races;
European, or white race; the Asiatic, or yellow; the African, a
black; the American, or red; and the Malay.
I confess at once, and without difficulty, that this diviHioa
of races is not perfect. Tbe division of races is the real diffi-
culty of the day, the obscure problem of Anthropology, and will
be so for a long time. The Malay race is not a simple or a
single race'. Precise characteristics have been sought, but not
yet found, by which to describe the American race. There are
three principal races, of which all the others are only varietitt,
or sub-races; I mean the three races of Europe, Asia and
Africa. But the idea, the grand idea, which reigns and rulss
and predominates throughout in the admirable studies of Blu-
menbach is the idea of the unity of the human species, or, as
it has also been expressed, of the human genus. Blumenba^
was the first who wrote a book undeix the express title of tliQ.:^
Unity of the Human Qentis*.
The Unity of Mankind is the great result of tbe Bdence c
Blumenbach, and the great result of all natural history. Antii
quity never had any hut the most confused ideas on thl
physical constitution of man. Pliny talks seriously of peopi
with only one leg, of others whose eyes were on their shoi
■ Bat a mixture of t<ro athen, the Caucuian uid the Mongol.
* BlnmenlMdi tvft Human Genus. We now ny, what u much prefenble,
the Humui Species. The use of then tvo words U no longer arbitnu;. Tin
chancterulic of geuus ia luoiled fecuodity ; the characteristic of ipeciei a ntilillllt-
ed fecuadity. See Hut. da. t. rl da i. d€ Bvfon, p. 177.
PLOUEESS. 57
or wbo had no liead, Ac In the sixteenth century, Roodelet,
an excellent naturalist, gravely describes sea-men, who live
in the water, and have scales and an oozy beard. In the
eighteenth century Maupertuis describes the Patagonians, as
giants whose ideas ought to correspond to their stature; but tts
a compensation, for the credit of the century, Voltaire laughed
at Maupertuis. Finally, what speaks volumes, Liniueus, the
great Liuoieus, puts into the same family man and the orang-
utan. The homo nocturnua, the fwmo U-oglodytes, the hovw
sylvestria of linnieus is, in fact, the orang-utan.
To raise the science out of this chaos, Blumenbach laid
down first of all three rules. The first is, to draw a distiuctiaa
everywhere between what belongs to the brute and what
belongs to man. A profound interval, without connexion,
without passage, separates the human species from all others.
No other species comes near the human species; no genus even,
or family. The human species stands alone. Guided by his
facial angle, Camper approximated the orang-utan to the negro.
He saw the shape of the skull', which gives an apparent
resemblance ; he failed to see the capacity of the skull, which
:e8 the real difference. In form nearly, the skull of the
is as the skull of the European ; the capacity of the two
akalls is the same. And what is much more essential, their
brain is absolutely the same. And, besides, what has the brain
to do with the matter? The human mind is one. The soul is
one. In spite of its misfortunes, the African race has liad
heroes of all kinds. Blumenbach, who has collected everything
in \ta favour, reckons among it the most humane and the bravest
men; authors, learned men and poets. He had a library
itirely composed of books written by negroes. Our age will
ibtless witness the end of an odious traffic. Philanthropy,
scneace, politics, that is true politics, all join in attacking it;
humanity will not be without its crusades. The second rule of
Blumenbach is, not to admit any fact except when supported
men
■Lpnti
■' scnei
* Or, more preciselj. tha [orm and promiaeuce o
Mt tfaa i. rfc Bitffim, p. i8j.
fig LIFE OV BLUMEKBACH.
by truatwortby documents; and in this way, everything whi
is puerile and cxaggerateif , everything which is legend, will (I
excluded from science. The third rule is the very baaia '
Bcience. Once nothing hut extremes were compared ; Blumet
bach laid down the rule not to paaa from one extreme to I
other, except by all the intermediate terms and all the shac
possible. The extreme cases seem to separate the hui
species into decided races; the grailuated shades, the contJouoi
intermediate terms make all men to form but one mankind.
There never waa a scholar, author or philosophei
seemed more adapted to endow us with the admirable science
of Anthropology. Blumenbach joined to vast knowledge a
power of criticism still rarer than the most unbounded eru-
dition, and much more precious; he had that art which dis-
criminates and judges ; he had a clear sweep of view, a sure
tact, and a good sense not easily deceived. He knew every-
thing, and had read everything; histories, chronicles, relations,
travels, &c. ; and he took pleasure in saying, that it was from
travels that he had received the moat instruction. ' The study of
man is founded on thro? science-s, besides anthropology propt
so called : geography, philology and history. Geography givf
us the relations of races to climates; history teaches us i
follow the migrations of peoples and their intermixtures; i
when once they have been mixed, it is philology which teai^
us how to separate them again. But whatever be the progi
which these three sciences have made in our days, none has J
arrived at the original and certain unity of man ; each fore
it and prophesies it; all tend in that direction; thanks j
Blumenbach, that unity, which these sciences still are in sea
of, has boon demonstrated by natural history. And here let D
speak out, without being afraid of esi^geration. Voltaire «
of Montesquieu, that he restored its lost rights to the hum
race. The human race had forgotten its original unity, i
Blumenbach restored it.
I have examined the principal works of Blumenbachfj
mean those works which have made him famous; but there |
another I cannot omit, a work veiy diflferent from those, 1
■ FLOtlRENS, 59
leitBt, in the fonn; a work full of ideas, and one of the most
intellectual, tlie nioet discriminating, or, to npeak like Descartes,
the moBt sensible that have ever been written oa the sciences.
That work is composed of two little volumes. The title is very
simple, that is, Contributions to N'atural History'. The true
title Bhoutd be. The Philosophy of Naturcd History. Tliere
Blumcnbach passes in review all the philosopliical questions
of his science; the question of the original unity of man, the
question of the scale of beings, that of innate ideas, that of the
so-caUed man of nature, and the others. The author's object
is to point out, in each instance, where the truth ends and
system commences. And to get to that point, there is no
apparatus of learning, no long ratiocination, no phrases; a word,
a witty sally, an anecdote are enough. As to the original unity
man, he sayg it was an honest German doctor, who not
able to reconcile the different colour of men with the fact
their single origin, imagined, in order to settle the ques-
that God had created two Adams, one white and the
ler black. As to the scale of beings, it was the opinion of
English naturalist, who proposed to establish two, in order
place in the second everything that could find no place
the first As to innate ideas and the man of nature, the
iwing are the facts. Towards the middle of the year 172+,
lere was found, in the north of Germany, near a village called
Hameln, a young boy quite naked, who could not speak, but
eagerly devoured all the fruits he could get hold of. At that
le the dispute about innate ideas was at its highest. Imme-
itely the imagination of the philosophers was excited. The
that had been found was no doubt the wild man, the man
of nature; and the man of nature would finally resolve the
problem of innate ideas. The Count de Zinzendoi-f, who was
afterwards the founder of the Moravian brothers, hastened to
ask him of the Elector of Hanover. The Elector of Hanover
sent him to England. In England the curiosity was as great
as in Germany. Peter de Hameln, as the young savage was
' [EJilcd ia Ibia Tolumo. Ec]
m.
60
LIFE OF BLUMENBACH.
life. AftS
lis usual eU^I
)st important^
called, became famous. Dr Arbuthnot wrote Lis life,
him Lord Monboddo wrote it again; and, with his i
thustasm, proclaimed the youDg savage as the most importanE^
discovery uf the ago. At last, M. Blumenbach wished in bis
turn to see what it all was ; be undertook the examination of
the facts as a philosopher, but as a calm and judicious one; and
he found that the wild man, the so-called man of nature, the
most important discover; of the age, was only a poor child, bora
dumb, and driven from the paternal roof by a step-mother.
It will be seen what sort of book it is I am speaking abc
The tone is that of learned and delicate raillery. The auth<
rallies, but so as to make you think. It is the ironical phi
aophy of Socrates, or at least what Socrates is said to have h
and what Voltaire really possessed. He who has read 1
book has the whole key to Blumenbach's character. He wiU
understand the charm of his conversations, the success of his
lessons, and his vast renown, so dear to all those who ap>
proached him. Above all, he will have the secret of his soul,
born essentially for that general virtue defined by Uontesquieu,
tlie love of all. Even in this book, where however raillery pre-
dominates, as soon as Blumunbach toudies on the great question
of the unity of men, he jokes no more; his language immedi-
ately alters, and takes naturally the tone of the truest sensibility.
He never speaks of men, or of any men, but with affection.
'According indeed to his doctrine, all men are born, or might
have been bom, from the same man. Ho calls the i
our black brothers. It is an admirable thing that science e
to add to Christiaji charity, or, at all events, to extend it, i
invent what may be called human charity. The word Hqj
manity has its whole effect in Blumenbach alone.
I have already said that Blumenbach, always wrapped up if
his great works, had seldom quitted Germany. Still he i
two journeys, one to England and one to Franco. In these tw
journeys he observed everything, but all as a naturalist Thi
man, who had passed so many years in meditating ou the n
important questions, on the highest problems of natural history,
had at last only one idea, one object, one all-powerful pre-
occupation; a pre-occupation so strong as to be sometimes
quite ludicrous, as we may judge from the two instances he
used to relate himself.
Being entertained in London by all the English professors,
they one evening took him to the theatre. The actor Kemble
played the part of the Moor of Venice. Some days after,
Kemble met Blumcnbach at a party, and said, " M. Blumen-
bach, bow did you think I succeeded in repre.senting the cha-
racter of a negro ^" " Well enough, as far as the moral character
goes," said our naturalist, and then added, " but all the illusion
was destroyed for me the moment you opened your hand ; for
you had on black gloves, and the negroes have the inside of the
hand of a flesh-colour." Every one laughed except Blumen-
bacb; he had spoken quite in earnest.
After the peace of Til-ut, the town of Gottingen was included
in the kingdom of Westphalia, and the University thought
it necessary to solicit the protection of the great Emperor.
Blumcnbach was chosen as a deputy. " I found," said he, " all
the French men of letters aa eager to support me as if the
question had been the preservation of a French institution;
I owed to that generous zeal the success of my mission."
Admitted, at last, to take leave in solemn audience, he attended
in an antechamber with many of the foreign ambassadora
Napoleon appeared ; all turned their attention to him except
Blumeubach ; for how could he? " I had," said he, "before me
the ambassadors of Persia and Marocco, of two nations whom
I bad never yet seen."
To his passion for natural history Blumenbach joined a
passion for all the great studies. Erudition, philosophy, letters
had a share of his attention, but did not exhaust it, He was a
good man of business. He had, in a high degree, that delicate
and calm judgment which business demands. More than once,
when charged with important missions, he brought them to an
end with singular good fortune. In fact, the town of Gottingen
decreed, in consideration of his sor\'ices, that hia property
should be exempted from taxes. G&ttingeii indeed ought to
have been grateful to him in every way. During sixty years
62 LIFE OF BLCHEITBACH.
the celebrity of the mau of leaniing and the profesao
cause of its prosperity. His name alone brought there a crowd
of pupils ; a population brilliant, moving, always being changeil,
always young and always learned. Nothing could equal the
veneration all that population had for liim. Almost all those
of his pupils who became famous dedicated their works to him ;
and these dedications were not the mere homage of admiration.
A touching and higher sentiment is found in them, and i
indeed is better still, an affection abnost filial. What more c
I say? M. do HimiboUlt was a pupil of his', and the highei
intellects of Germany, the Fichtea, the Kants, the Schel
have interpreted his ideas*.
In private bfe Blumenbach was a thorough German, g
naturcd, frank, open and mild in manner. In him an honest
character shone throughout. Essentially a man of good sense,
after more than forty years spent in education, he wrote t^ese
words: "I never enter the amphitheatre without having par-
ticularly prepared each lesson, for I know that many professors
have lost reputation by thinking that they know well enough ^
a course they have delivered twenty times." Ho worked up b
the end of his life. "I only know satiety by reputation,"
he. It is said also that he preferred listening to speaking,
was prudent in everything. As La Fontaine says,
"Tha wise know how to inaimge time and words."
He had a maxim which displays his character; "One mui
know how to attract and retain by indulgence."
All happiness was his; a great reputation, a quiet life,
a family tenderly beloved, illustrious pupils, a son worthy of
his name. His long and beautiful old age was surrounded
with the mast touching homages. Every anniversary, whicb
still preserved him to science, wan celebrated as a festival
Seventy-eight learned societies elected him an associate. Me-
dals were struck in his honour. Prizes were instituted in his
' In 1 786 he IimI llie honoor to see the Briliiih Prircej Jittetid his lecturM ; uiJ
. 1803, the King of Biiviiri»; anil in iHiq, hi* >on, the now Piinca nojil.
* ParticuUrlj Lis iilesi of ti formatite /oret.
^^P FL0UKCN3. 03
name; useful foundations atill exist which perpetuate his me-
mory by benefactions'. This universal cnthuBiaam made no
difference in him; he remained always good, simple, even
familiar; everything in him was natural; no pretension, no
affectation; nothing by which he tried to distinguish himself
from others. "Wlien one has a great deal of merit," says Fon-
relle, " it is the crown of all to be like the rest of the world."
Blumenbach died on the 22nd Jan. ISiO, being nearly a
M esntmy old ;■ a man of a high intellect, an almost universal
scholar, philosopher and sage; a naturalist, who had the glory,
or rather the good fortune, of making natural history the means
of proclaiming the noblest and, without doubt, the highest
truth that natural history ever had proclaimed, He Physical
Unity, and througli the physical unity tlic moral unity, of the
human race.
' Id 1S30, the friondi of BIumoDbocli, irben Ihey met to celebrate the Grtieth
AoniverKkry of hu doctonta, conceived tba idea of perpetuntitig the recollection ol
the d»y lo oiemorahla for ncienco, by mulling up a purse of 5,000 Jullnrfl, aliuuC
£Soo, of wMch the interest should he adj udgml every three yeiirs by way of pmo,
to a young doctor, to ba both phyeidnn and naturalist, oho must have taken hii
degree in a German univeraiCy, and be, aaya the deed, young, poor, bill fil, Blu-
menbach biinaelf gave out the priie twice, in 18^3 and in 183G; after hia death,
it ie to be adjudged altenmldy hy the faoulties of Tuedicloe at Qiittiagen and
Brrlin.
■I
DE GENERIS HUMANI VARIETATE
NATIVA
ILLUSTRIS FACULTATIS MEDIC-iE CONSENSU
PRO
GRADU DOCTORIS MEDICINE
DI8FUTAVIT
D. XVI SEPT. M.DCC.LXXV
H. L. Q. 8.
JOANN. FRIDER. BLUMENBACH,
GOTHANUS.
GOETTINGAE :
TYPIS FRID. ANDR. ROSENBUSCHII.
NATURJR SPECIES, EATIOQUE.
CONTENTS.
iDUfTios; generation ; climate; mode of life and uliment; hybrid
generatioD; fertile hybriils; sterile liyhrids ; copulation of auimals of
[liiTerent species, barren; on Jumai's; no human hybrids; difference
between man and other aniinalB ; mental endowments; inBtincts of
■n very few and very simple ; reason the property of man alone ;
'ch the same; properties of the human body; erect position; two
ids; the human body naked and defenceless; laughter and tears;
menstniation ; other difl'erences falsely supposed; internal
Btmcture of the human body ; the brain of the papio mandril; inter-
maxillary bone; niembrana nu^litaim; the suspensory ligament of the
neck i orang-utan and other anthropomorphouB apes; is there one or
more specie* of mankindl one species alone; the varieties very arbi-
trary; division of mankind intoytwtr varieties; [note from edition of
1781, containing the division into Jive]; observations on national
dtfierencea; vaiiety of the human stature; causes of this varietv,
.ie, food, 4c.; colour of man; caiwea of its variety; effi«:t of
■te; examples from other organic bodies; effect of mode of life;
colour of the reticulum in apes; black men become white;
ite men black; mulattoes, 4c.; spotrted skin; different shape of
.lis; examples of the first variety; the second, third, and fourth;
; physiognomy; examples of the 6rdt, second, third, and
)k variety; difference in hair, teeth, feet, breasts; singularities
pronunciation; artificial varieties; circumcision; castration; beard-
lesa Americans; other mutilations ; monstrous ears; other deformities;
jiaintiogs; conclusion; digression on n/6i'ni#m.y white rabbits; white
mice; diseased whiteness in other animals; human albinism; symp-
toms of the disease; unhenlthy whiteness; affection of the eyes; re-
maining conditions of body; mental condition; disease known to the
Uidente; recent examples from the world at large; stories of the
about men with tails; fictitious )'eii(ni/e of the Hottenfot
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATEa
Plato I. Fig. 1. Btixe o/tlie ihdl of a Papio mandrU.
A. Posterior lobea of the !>rain. E. Anterior lobes of thetl
brain. C. Fossa Sylvii. D. Cerebellum. E. Commeno*' J
ment of the Bpiual marrow. F. Region where in man the pynuni-r
dal and olivary bodies are inserted. G. Place where in the humiQ^
bniin the pons Varolii is divided by a fissure from the meduT
oblongata. H. Poos A'arolii.
1, 2, 3, i, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. Pairs of the nerves of the brain,
m&mmillary eminences, infundibulum, &a. cannot bo seen in c(
quence of the size, of the junction of the optic nerves.
Plate II. Fig. 1. TtrUbra of tJie neck nftht aami Papio.
bodies of the vcrtebrte descend by a kind of scaly processes in fi
downwards, and stand upon each other like tiles.
Fig. 2. Pi/di and sixth verlehret of the neck of an adult t
In these the liodies are parallel, smooth, and disciform.
Fig. 3. Skin froin, tJie Jbrehead of tlie Papio mandril.
varieties and diminution of the bhickness in the reticulum are fa
shown.
Fig. 4. TVifl diloria o/an Arabian girl, circumcised.
Fig. 5. A cailltrix, or tome otlier tailed ape copied from Brt
baeh'a Travels. This has been made more and more hunitin by s'
sive copyings till at last il has come out [in Martini's Buffon] a tt
ON THE NATURAL VARIETY
MANKIND.
^ I am going to write about the natural variety of mankind, I
ink it worth while to begin from the beginning, that is, with
the proceas of generation itself. I do not intend to put forth
ri system, or frame hypotheses, or enter into the intricacies of a
hibyrinth, out of which I should scarce find an exit; or, lastly,
Btir up cud already chewed a thousand times. Nor am I one to
write the Iliad after Homer, that is to say, the universal lustory
of generation after the immortal labours of the great Elaller; but
to spend only a few words upon a, matter, which may be c(»n-
sidercd as deraoustrated from the repeated observations and
profound judgment of the most learned men, and which will
^hrow BO me light on my subject.
^L The part which each sex takes in the generation of the
^bBttUi, and which of the two has the greatest influence has occu-
pied the principal philoaophei's and physicians for many thou-
-;ind years. It was reserved at last for the profound sagacity of
llaller, to be the first who was bold enough to break open the
li!»rs of nature's doors, and to unfold, from observing the iucu-
l>:ition of ^gs^, so often investigated before by eminent men,
tiiat great mystery, which it was thought could be explained
bv nature alone; aud in the fewest possible words I must here
give his account of the matter'. A close dissection of impreg-
GEKEXATIOr.
Dated eggs shows tlut the int^stiiie of the duck is so of a piec
with the envelopes of the yolk that the fiist eovelope forms the
ekin of the ftEtos; the second envelope forms the exterior lining
of the intestine jointly with the mesentery and the peHtonsum
of the tcetus; the third is the covering of the interior inteettne,
and is produced from the same membrane as the ventricle, the
(esophagus, the throat and the mouth, from what is in fact t
■ skin and the epidermis of the fietus : that the yolk takes i
the arteries from the mesenteries of the chicken itself. It folloi
from this, that the whole egg is part of the mother, in whi
the ovarium lies with all its t^s quite perfect, before any o
tact with the male has taken place. Then, that the fcetuB j
part of the egg, or at all events is joined to the egg by an ii
separable bond, for the yolk (and that alone) constitutes t]ie
^g, together with its envelope, whilst it is in the mother, but
that yoke is so united with the fiEtus by its duct, that it forms
but one continuous body. Hence it is proved, by direct demon-
stration, that the embryo is contained in the maternal egg, and
that the female supplies the true stamina of the future foetus.
That primeval germ would lie buried as it were in eternal slum-
ber, were it not aroused by the access and stimulus of the fertil-
izing seed of the male, and particularly by the subtle odour of
his parts, which are p&rticulariy adapted for causing irritation;
and then it breaks forth from the Graafian follicle in which it
was shut up, runs through the cansd, and in this way comes inlo
the womb; there again it is finally unfolded and developed, and
changed in some of its parts by the influence of the male, comes
out like its parents. It leaves a manifest trace of its formET
habitation in the ovarium, in the shape of an opaque body,
which takes its place'. The offspring at last brought to lighl,
and in the process of time become adult, can produce like with
the other sex of its species, whose posterity ought to go on fur
ever like their first parents. What then are the causes of the
> Ai to tbu little boilf , which wu njan iltiiatnited bj the Isbnurs of the snU
HsUcr, *« Bin. de rAead. da Se. dt ParU. 1753, No. vii.. ind Phenol. T. viii.
p. 30. Il a well delineited from cliaaeetod bodwa bj W. Hunter, Anatoniia f/in
livmixni Graiidi. Binn, 1774, Tab. IJ, 39, 31.
CLIMATE,
71
cODtmry event? What b it which changeB the course of gene-
ration, and now produces a worse and now a better progeny, at
all eventa widely different from its original progenitorst This
it will be our business to answer in the course of this disscrta-
tiun. But in order not to break the thread of the discussion, it
will be better to make a few preUminary observations.
First of all I will say a few words about the influence of
climate, whose effects seem so great that distinguished men
have thought that on this alone depended the different shapes,
colour, manners and institutions of men'. There are, however,
two ways, in wliich men may gather experience of a change of
climate, both of which are to our purpose. They may emigrate
and so change the climate, and also it may happen that the
climate of their native country may sensibly become more mild
er more severe, and so the inhabitants may degenerate. Several
^Bkumples of each kind will be given in the proper place. It
^^Hll be sufficient to say here that there is no diversity of habit,
which may not be produced by varieties of climate; which is
extremely apparent, even from the history of brute animals.
If European horses are transported towards the east, as to
Siberia, China, &c., in process of time they, as it were, dwindle,
and become much smaller in body, so that at last you would
acarcoly recognize them as being of the same species. Cattle,
on the contrary, whether they are sent to the Yakutan penin-
sula, or Kamtshatka, or Archangel, turn out taller and more
robust, and the same thing has been experienced with English
sheep in Sweden.
The squirrels on the river Obi are larger by one third than
those which are found at Obdorsk', &c., to say nothing of the
difference in colour, which observation shows to vary with still
greater facility. But that the climate of the same country may
' Polyb. T, I. p. 461, ed
iliiTer most from each other
in (li^ie, and culour, and In mont of our iniUtu
Uipp. Jh atr. aq. tt Uk. p. aiS, who goes it lea
ImmaD bodiet.
< Stellar, ron ymdrrb. MterAierta, p. 41 xtil-
ati : "for through this cause uid no other
sthuica! and uruveiBol diatitictiuDS. in uustot
of our iniUtutiona." Comp. beiiiles, Curdui
into the eSecti of alimale
72
■ODE OP UFE.
our
4
I
oiulergo a change, no oae can donlit, who will ottly oomi
this very GermaoT of to-day wiih ancient GenoasT. or our own
cuDlemporaries with oar aacestcm'. There was a lime when the
elk, now only an inhabitant of the extreme north, was common
on the banks of the Rhine, and when that very rivn- was go
often frazen that the Gauls tfaeioselves osed to offer sacrifices
to prerenl its affording a passage to our aitceston, their netgh-
bouTB; when the most [«odigioBS forest covered afanost the
whote countiy, and when there woe bo Tintagea, and other
very good reasons of the same kind, whidi will account lor ot^
being enable to find the hage bodies of «vir aaoestofa, powei
only for attack, their firm limbs, threatening conntenancea,
fierce eyes, in the GCTinans of onr age.
Besides the climate there are other causes, which have indeed
an influence in altering bodies: many of these yoo might say
depended, however, upon the climate themselves, but there are
others which it is very clear have nothing to do with it
Amongst these influences above all we most set down the
mode of Kfe and of bringing up. The examples of domestic
■ntmala are trite, which manifestly have diverged into astonish-
ing varietieB. and almost put off their original nature. I have
mentioned the effect climate has upon hoises, and we shall
now see how they are affected by mode of life. It is quite
astonishing how wild horses* difler from our geldings by their
small stature, their large heads, their muTrey colour, their
sha^;y coats, and by a ferocity of ditposition, which is almost
untameable, so that they seem to approach almost nearer to the
ass than to our domestic horses. Inde<ed, the fiunous Qmelin
had scarcely any hesitation in belienng that the tame horse,
the wild horse, and the ass. were all of the same species, and
that the latter had by circomstaQces alone degenerated from
the tame hoise; but this b going too far, because the ass ban
HXBBIDITT.
B toterior oi^ns irhich ore mmtisg in the horae*. and the
rere ra e also is tne. However, among horses certoinl; wild,
&od aba amotig our own, we may perceive a great diAi-'reuce in
Rtreogth between tbr^e which feed upon natural padtiire«', and
those wbkb ara kept tn stables. For example, it b kuown that
a colt, if it is bom in a feeding-ground uf the fi>mier kind,
witfaio half-aD-honr after its iurth will run after iXa dam
seeking food, but if it is bom in a stable, it will freqiieutlv
I br twenty-four hours and more on the grwund, before it
I to stand on its feet.
f As jet I have touched on two catuee wbieh change the
I of auimals. climate and mode of life. It remains to speak
I'the third, namely, the conjunction of different species, and
B hybrid animals ibenee produced. It is a difficult suViject,
iBougb after the labours of recent authors* I may treat it
briefly.
There are three cases in the discussion about hybridity
^^Aicb ought to be cleaily distinguished. First, the mere
^^ftinlation of different animals; secondly, the birth of offspring
^^En such copulation; and, thirdly, the fertility of such off-
^^■iDg and their capacity for propagation.
^H^ The tatter case, although rare, (and that by the providence
^^pthe Supreme Being, lest new s|>ecies should be multiplied
iodeiinitely,) I would admit of in beings closely alUud. At all
eventa there are many testimonies to the fertility of mules*.
l%ere is no reason for doubting that hybrids have sprtmg from
1 of the fox and the dog, and those t-oo capable of
I, as the Spartan dogs or alopckides of the ancients.
■ Od Uw Brgma of the voioc, Beniuut. Jfrat. tk FAtad. da Seitntn dt Parit,
* A> ttae LtppauKt. Ooinp. J. G. Prinliiu, Pom SntuT grttOtt. l^^%, 8<ro.
' Duffon frT^u«Titly but cuncid&lly on tbe deKenention of uiimftl*. Xiv. p. 148,
i.i,A Sappl. T. in. p. I. H. S. Retmiu-, Natitrt. HHi-jim. p. 4TT. Glmclien,
&ianatUima, p. 14; «nd nbove all Hallir, Ph^ol. VIII. pp. 8, loO.
• Aristot. be yrn. •>«. n. 8, says thuj cam only be mn-'oivml At » ourtain
time. V»fro. De re not. U. 1, 1;, Columella, 71. 3;, 3. Plin, VIII. 44, mil
HarduinuB. B«rt1iil Advmar. 41. Bochiirt, Il'irrot, I, I, v>. Itcocutly Rixirr,
Mn mr III phgt. 1 711. Cmnp. G1eiehi.-D, /. e. p. 15. tjuch thing! *n onto men-
Unwd »mDnf; Ui« ptodiguB reLited by Lirf uid ObaequsM.
HTBRIDITT.
There is stiil at Oiittingen the daughter of a fox (from wHci
many children have been bom) which was impregnated by I
domestic dog; and in it you may still recognize the smooUl
forehead and other marks of the ancestr^ form. The expei*
ments of Sprenger' prove the prolificacy of hybrid birda.
The number of infertile hybrids is so copious as to be tire*
some to count. Of all these, mules, bo far as we know, are th
most ancient. For although we may doubt their being ant«
diluviau*, nor dare ascribe their discovery to Anah', yet thei
extreme antiquity appears even from profane authors*, am
almost the first monuments of art'. To these rarer hybrids c
be added the one Linneeus saw from the copulation of t
Copra reveraa with the Capra depressa'. But I do not qui
trust Hesychiua, when he says that the jackal comes from
the union of the hycena and the common wolf. With respect t
the union of dogs and apes', and the hybrids eo bom, I *
remain in doubt. The animals seem too different; still I ban
known two instances, where bitches are said to have been ia
pregnated by male apes, to which I should think it wrong %
refuse credit. One took place in the territory of Schwartzburgj
and a picture of this hybrid, carefully drawn, is in the possessioi
of Biittner, who very kindly lent it to me. It represents a dog,
of smaller size than the domestic dog, and of a dirty yellow
colour; its eyes, ears, and hairy collar differed from the common
dog, but it is said were very like those parts in the father. The
other instance is related by an eye-witness, worthy of all belief,
to have occurred about three years ago at Frankfort-on-tho-
Maine; that a bitch brought forth offspring by the SimiaDiaM
of LinnsuB, in ferocity, disposition, and in its gibbous haln
1 Opute. Plii/tieoinatA. Hmnoi. 1753, p. 17,
■ Fareriui, on Gmau, T. tl. p. 1S5, disciuaes at leoglh Ibe quGStioa if
mule entered Noah'a ark or not)
■ Oene: c. 36, v. I4, Bocliiirt, I. c. at tengtii.
* Horn. n. B. %i%, wbo derives them from Enca.
' On the coffer of CjiiaeliB. Hoyne, fiier dm huitn da Cgpt. p. 58, 1
D. 0. fifio.
' In the Cliffonl menagerie. S<jit. A'al. od. XU. p. 96.
' Bochwt, Uieroi. 1. p. 831.
" Oabeck, Oilindiik Kaa. p. 99.
HYBKIDITY.
75
and long tail, exactly like its father. I leave this business to
be investigated by those who, perhaps, may have an opportunity
of more accurately observing it; for the difEcultieB are well
known which occur in experiments of this kind. It is very
hard to prevent the animals upon whom the esperiment is to
be made from consorting with others, and at the same time not
to destroy the desire of copulation; moreover, if offspring have
anything pecubar by accident, it is instantly attributed to a
ibversity of parentage. And what makes mo suspicious about
these things is this especially, that I have seen many apes of
both seses and different species constantly living for many
years in the midst of dogs, also of different sexes, and yet never
saw anytJiing of the kind. On the other hand, instances of
false reports are very common, as that of a cat, born together
with two puppies, the report of which reached this neighbour-
hood a few years ago; but when it was properly examined, the
little creature which they called a cat, was easily recognized by
the more sagacious as a puppy slightly deformed, and the whole
prodigy became a joke. Nor can I otherwise interpret
CTauder's account' of a cat being impregnated by a squirrel, of
whose Utt«r one is said to have been bke the father, and the
rest like the mother; and other stories of the same kind.
From all this we must carefully separate the plainly fruitless
unions of animals of different species. I will allow that male
brutes when burning with desire, and uuable to obtain females
of their own species, may sometimes be so excited by others,
whom they come in contact with, as perchance to copulate with
them; but I think that with very few, and those only very
nearly allied, is this actually successful, and in most cases the
attempt is ineffectual. There are, however, good reasons for
refusing to believe that from any incongruous attempt of this
kind, offspring can be bom or even conceived. Here let us
consider the unequal proportions of the genital oigans in many';
which parts are providently and carefully adapted for copulation
78
DOUBTFCL CASES.
in either sex of the same species; but in distant ;
render the whole thing impossible, or at all events very difficult,
and certainly unfit for tbe purposes of conception. Besides, I
do uot see according to what laws tlio offspring of this kind,
coming from diverse parents, is to be formed in the womb,
since in each species of animals there are certain and very
definite periods for the gestation and pregnancy of the mother, ^^
the formation and progressive development of the fietus.
will, however, be worth while to relate some instances of cod'
nesions of this kind which have been formed contrary to naturaj
Of aJl these the most paradoxical seems to be the union of
a rabbit with a hen, so celebrated by Reaumur'; but on
which doubt has been thrown by his own pupil Buffoo*, Haller*,
and others; indeed, BufPon could not even succeed in rajsing i
progeny from the hare and tbe rabbit, animals so nearly allie*
although he suspected copulation took place. That iUustrioui
philosopher seems, therefore, correct in supposing that if t
rabbit of Reaumur ever did tread the ben, it must have I
done from extreme lasciviousness, and had there been qo heo
the animal would have made use of something else for the b
purpose. Meanwhile there are other evidences to thia retnftrki<
able fact. Thus my revered tutor Buttner, himself, often &a<
rabbits treading hens, and they afterwards laid empty egg
Qiypoiiemia or zephijrea as the ancients called them).
I have often seen a rabbit ninuing about alone among!
broods of fowls, and playing with and imitating them, but J
never could observe that it attempted anything more, or rea]l|
had connexion with them. I have been told the same sto^
about a house dog of Matthew Geener, who they say also naed';
to tread hi'na. I am not much surpri.scd at this, since it b well
known that dogs, when in heat, make use of inanimate things
sometimes in order to effect their purpose. It is said that tJrt'
Gallits cakciUicus has been known to tread the duck, and in tba
fl rf( fain ttlorre let pouleti, T. n. p. 340,
itt. Nat. VI. p, no,1.
c. aud in Boon^t, Corpt Organ. 11. |i. ]ii.
JUUARS, 77
s way that the drake treads the ben, and that chickens of
wonderful forms are the result'. They have often been obsen'ed
to copulate. There ig still in the town a drake which treads
3 hens, but they are barren. But I will pass over many in-
loces of this sort of monstrous and fruitless copidation, since
K^ish to say a tittle about the jumars, those famous hybrids
1 two clearly difl'erent species, tlio bovine ami the equine.
I do not know whence Buffbn* took it, that Columella
I mentioned jumars, and that he had been quoted by Con-
I Gesner. I cannot find either the mention in the one,
fcthe quotation in the other. On the contrary, I think Gesner
I the first to mention jnraars*. For I cannot take notice
B of the 6lly born from a cow at Sinneaaa in Livy', since he
i of it as a most unheard-of prodigy. But Tigurinua
biybistor says "that he once heard that a particular kind of
owas to be found in Gaul, near Grenoble, which was Eprung
] an asa and a bull, and called in the vulgar tongue Jumar.
1 in the Swiss Alps near Coire, in the Splugen coimtry, he
1 heard on credible testimony, that a hoi-se had been bom
I bull and a mare'." Jerome Cardan, a contemporary of
psner, has also mentioned jumars, and says they have superior
Eth', and are very strong and bold'. After him Job. Baptist
a, reports that he himself had seen at Ferrara an auimal of
s kind, in shape like a mule, with a calf's head, two protu-
the place of horns, blnck in colour, and with the
res of a bull". Things of this kind are repeated down to the
time of John Leger, who discourses at great length' about
them, and also gives a iiriot of them'". He says "that jumars
I Piytir-. BdMliff. p. jgi. SpoJ'atiEHi'ii ia Mcmorit loj-ra 1 mali, p. iS.
« T. iiv. p. 1*8,
■ Milt, gnadrup. ntip. pp, 19, :o6, anil 799.
* Dee. 111. L 3.
* Cdiup. J*c. Bueff, Dt fonerpta, p. ^H n, in tbc bistoiy oE moneten.
* Ounlraiiir. Mtdu. I. II, tr. yi. Coatrad, 18, p. ^44.
' 11. p. 448.
* Mag. A'at. 1. i. c 9. He adit ihut they wcro common iu some porta nf
Mioa, BlthoDgli he (lid not see one when he pasied tlirough.
* P. Zoaluwi, Quizil. mtd. Itjiil, T. I. p. 5 j.i, from a man uid bull,
'" Zfut. generait dtt Egtitet tvave/tli^ia dt ratlla ilt PU/nonl ca Vauduua,
Lejdi!, 1669, p, 7, Mid in AlmanatK dt Gotha, 1767, p. 63,
7S
JUHABS.
are bom from tlie union either of a bull and a mare, or a b
and an ass: the former are taller, and called Baf; the latt
smaller, and Bif; that the former have the upper jaw evident
much shorter than the lower, like swine; that the upper te<
are placed fiirther back than the lower, to the distance o
thumb, or two fingers. In the latter, the Bif, the lower jai
shorter than the upper, as is the case in hares, and the i
teeth project beyond the lower. So that neither kind can ,
in the fields, unless the grass is so long, that they can crop il
with the tongue. These hybrids are exactly like an ox in the
head and tail, and the places for horns are marked by small
protuberances. As to the rest, they are exactly like an afis or
horse. Tlieir strengtli is wonderful, especially compared with
their small body; they are smaller than common mules; they
eat little and are swift; that he himself went in one day 18 J
miles among the mountains with a jumar of this kind, and thttfl
much more comfortably than he could have done with a horee." |
After this account more recent' authorities have received
others in good faith, and report that jumars are to be found
elsewhere besides in Piedmont; according to Shaw' at Tunis
and Algiers, according to Merolla" at Cape Verde, and by othei
in Languedoc*.
Naturalists gradually became more sceptical of the fact a
were disposed to dissect this kind of hybrid. Rearimur'
with a disappointment and so did Albinus, who had order
one from Africa, which perished on the way. Bourgelat,
veterinary surgeon, was afterwards fortunate enough to be abl
to dissect a jumar in the theatre of Lyons', but the resul
' Venctl*, p. 3)4, froln a horee and cow. It ww reported that the of&pring of
Wi ae* and b. cow b«d dovsn hoofs. Boiirguet, LiUra philotophifuti, IV. p. i6o, and
tmm a bull and an ms Manuel Laiqat, Faria, 1755. Encj/dop. Parii. T. tx. p.
57. B. S. Albinua in PraUc. phi/iiiol. Mipti>. Still more recently thu author ol
the book CouTi O'hitl. not. ou laUtau dt io nafiw*. T, I. Paru, ijjo, "
Gleicbeo, Ux. dt. ]>. 19.
' TrartU, p. ijg, ed. Oif., 1738, there called Kumrah.
' Vasagt to Congo in Uhurehill'a CoIIm. T. i. p. 655.
* Didton. LanjpiedocUn FrancoU, par M. niAt de S... k NiroM, 1;
p. ijfi.
' Mm, tepra 1 mu7i', p. 6.
* Aranl-awrrur, 1767, No. jo »],
r his labours are not satisractory, because he seems to have
trusted too much to report. " The ventricle was in shape like
that of the horse, but much larger. Tlie jumar had altogether
much more of the mare than of the bull both m to its external
form, and its interior constitution, especially as regards the
ventricle, whose singular structure in the bovine genus, on
account of their rumination, is well known. And thus the
observation of those physicians stands confirmed, who assert
that the mother has a larger share in the formation of the
foetus than the father." The consequence therefore of this
investigation was that the learned knew less what to think
than ever'. Afterwards Bufifon had two jumars dissected; one
from the Pyrenees, the other from DauphinA In neither of
them was any trace of a bull to be fomid'.
All this however was not enough for inquirers into natural
history. And at last, at the request of some men of great note,
Bonnet, namely, and Spallanzani, Cardinal deUe Lanze had two
jumars' dissected by a skilful hand, and ordered anatomical
plates of them to be engraved. It is very clear from these
efforts that the pretended jumar is nothing more than a
mere hinny* (bardeau). Tiie larynx, glottis, ventricle, biliary
(iiicta, are all specifically equine and not bovine.
Thus was finally proved what was suspected from the first
by the great Haller'. I myself have lately seen at Cassel quite
closely two hinnies, which report asserted to be Jumars. They
were of the size of a large ass, and very like one in shape,
^F^ Diaiotm. du ofHnmiia-, T. ii. p. 555. Uumare, Dirt. Mat. T. vi, p. 1 J4,
• Bunnet on 3pallanx. ep. Jfcm. K^tra i muli, p. 1 1. Emyclt^. par De Felice,
• Ftdhi the lUUion uid Bhe-ua. Vmto, De n rutt, 11. 8, i. Columella, vl,
37, 5. Plin. nn. c lUV. J, Heejch. "Uinn;, oF which tlie Father ia a hoiM,
uul the noUicr u tuu." Smaller than the nulv, very patient of labour, tail tilia
an aa, Ite. Liniiana eridentlj traD*]>i>sed the tenni of hinny and mule in J man,
A Old- VI. p. I f , y^ ambig,
• /. e. p. o. ' 'Thii seems to me too mtioh. nor {■ the™ any proportion between
the pinle of the ball and the vogiua of the mare." The game difhculty whieb I
with the Dndecimotnl of the m
nUHAH HTBBIDS.
no vestige j^H
black in colour, with hOTsea' teetb in each jaw';
nimioatioD, &c.
But to return trom this digresdon. TVhat has ab^ady
been said serves partly to show the difficulty of dealing
with the accounts of hybrids of species very different from
each other, and partly as some sort of proof of development;
and will afterwards be of use to ns when in varietJes alone
it will help to show that the greater part of the form in
animals is derived from the mother, and veiy little from the
father.
Let me say only a very few words about those human
hybrids which credulous antiquity so frequently declared to he
bom or generated from brutes', but to which not only physical
arguments but also moral ones of the greatest importattoa ^
forbid us to attach the slightest faith; so that it seetns i
tremely likely that the Supreme Being foresaw these disgustii
kind of unions and took care to render them futile.
ITiose points which ought to be carefully attended to in ■
discussion upon hybrids, and which I took notice of above',
not be neglected here.
That men have very wickedly had connexion with beasts
seems to be proved by several passages both in , ancient* and
modem writers^ That however such a monstrous connexiOD
' Camp, liie Bem«rk~ tinti ra'tend. dureh DniiieMand, Pranlr. Engl. h. HcU.
1 1%. p. 60 cq.
* Jul. Buct^ Paneiu, AldravBiidiu, Schenk, Licetiu, and other cmnpilenuf
prodigie*. On the Swcdisb girl rsTiihed \>y ■ beu-, mnd the hero iibe ^le birtli to,
■OS &LI. Grunm. uid Olsus Magniu. (The rags of beua agninit pregnsnt woniFn
mnd the mngnlar remedy for it perhaps occagionpd this f»hlB.) A giniilw •Imy
Dccun in Viae, le BUnc, Yagorin, p. \ 19 gq. Tbe inatADces in the writinei of llie
Bucient* have l>een atudinuily collated b; Kortun. Fidelia, Dt rdaL Mtdic p. 493
•q. Slorch, Kindcrkrankk. I. p. iG, reUtea aome more recent ones.
■ r ;j.
* Plutarch in ncTeral pU^ea !n tbe Sympana and the ParalMt. VirgO, Eeiey.
m. 8. Tbut Seminunia carried her paaaion for a horse to that point ia laaerted by
Juba, in Pliny, vin. 0. 4J.
' Oa the 3000 Italian atuilianea to the Due de Nfinnan, in 1563, who wert
KDt into Daaphinf, and who rarisbcd the ahe-g:oal^ aee Bayle, IHel., Art. Balkft-
int, T. I. p. 469. Th. Warton on TUeoer. Idylt. (Oiford. 1770. 4I0.), 1. 88. p, 19.
"I have beard from a learned friend, that when he wa« trareUing in Sioilj, and
<TU aceoralel; inveatigHting tbe ancient man u men ta and the manners of the propK
that one of the naual pointa of oonfeuion which the prieata war* La tiie hatal of
-tatioa ^
isti^fl
MENTAL ENDOWMENTS. 81
^any where ever been fruitful there is no well-established
nee to prove. Indeed those tilings which are related of
intercourse of Indian women vrith the larger apes and of
tneir aulhropotDorphoua oiftipring' seem dubious and fabulous
even to James Bonlius', who is in other respects sufficiently cre-
dulous. And even if it be granted that the lascivious male apes
^Btttack women, any idea of progeny resulting cannot lie enfer-
^^^uned for a moment, since those very travellers relate that
^Hae women perish miserably in the brutal embraces of their
ravishers*.
I now leave this disgusting theme, and all the more
willingly, because I must draw near our goal; but still a few
fords must be said upon the actual ways in which man differs
1 other animals, before we investigate the varieties of men
themselves. The theme ia indeed a most fruitful and
admirable one, but the narrow limits of this book do not
permit me to linger long over it, and it ia necessary in this
place to dismiss it in a few words ; although the slender matter
which I have got together on this interesting subject, I will
gladly promise to give elsewhere to the public.
^^ I think I shall here perform my duty best, if I first say
^^b little about the endowments of the mind, and then about
^^Bie bodily structure. Not indeed that these two points have
^^Bjqwrently the slightest relation to each other. For it would
clearly be impossible to draw any inference from compariDg
the organic stnicture of animals with the human body, as to
their respective mental faculties: which will easily appear to
any one who compares an elephant or a horse with an ape
(which Reines' calls the copy of a man, or even a man as
ex&miniiig the Sicilum Lenlflmon who flpent a solitftrj life upon tho moontaioa
ftboDt, vu wbethir tbej hul ui^lblng t'l do wilh tbeir bowb,"
II ia raid that the orguu of the Jlannlia are so like those of womtin that the
Arab* oopolate vith them. Comp. Michaelis, Fms. an die nach Arab, nutnden,
p. US-
> See Zncdiell;. RelaX. di Conga, p. I48.
» Hilt. JVa(. tt MtiL 'Ivid. V, c. 31. "Let boya believe who have not jot to
* Comp- Wiolantl's degatit diascrtatios on this point agauist RousBcau, Beylr,
rm- odLgaek. da M, V.u.U, 11. p. ja.
* Far. led. p. 69.
82 IMSTINCTS.
regards the stnicture of the fiice, the <f>opdii and the motions of
the limbs),
Ajs to the discussions, which in this age particularly, have
stirred up so many barren disputes about the mind, the
and the speech, &e. of brutes, they do not seem to me to be
really so difficult or confused, if a man have only a moderate
familiarity with the habits of animals, some knowledge of the
physiology of the human boily, and be sufficiently free from
prejudices,
Man then alone is destitute of what are called inatincts,
is, certain congenital faculties for protecting himself from e:
nal injury, and tor seeking nutritious food, &c. All his instil
are artificial (kuitetrtriebe), and of the others there are only
BmallfcBt traces to bo aeon. Mankind therefore would be v<
wretched were it not pre8or\-ed by the use of reaaon, of wl
other animals are plainly destitute, I am sure tbey are
endowed with innate or common and truly material sense (whk
is not wanting either to man), especially after comparing ei
thing which I have read ' upon the rational miud of animals
their mode of life and actions, and what perhaps is the
important speculation, and demands most attention, with
phenomena of death, which are very much like both in
and men'. Instinct always remains the same, and is not ad'
ed bj cultivation, nor is it smaller or weaker in the yoi
animal than in the adult Beason, on the contrary, may
compared to a developing germ, which in the process of time,
and by the accession of a social life and other external circum-
stances, is as it were developed, formed, and cultivated. The
bullock fecla its strength bo much as to threaten, though
weapons of otfence do not yet exist ;
Before bia bom adorn the calf, tbey're there,
AU wcuponlen be butti, and furioui beats the ur'
' Very recently in DtiilicA. Stfriur. 177J, Septeniher, October.
» Caniao, Dttubtil. 1. 11. p. 551, T. 111. Oper. "Mvi U no nii
than an auimal ii a (ilant, For if au animal, although it ia Dojruhed
livea, does not deserve Ibe naine of a plant, nor ii entirely a plant, bcciiue it liai _
life which feels over and above the plant, (inoe nuui bju a mLDd ever and above the
aniniat, be coaiea to be aa animal," k,a.
* Laeret. v, 1033. Comp. Beimar, IVifd. Ar (A.
<
I
haia
ethe
whence unless from some interior scnsatifm ? To man, on tho
contrary, nothing of the kind happens, He ia bom naked and
weaponless, furnished with no instinct, entirely dependent on
society and education. This excites the flamo of reason by de-
grees, which at last shows itself capable of happily supplyuig, by
_itBelf, all the defecta in which animals aeeni to have the advan-
ige over men. Man brought up amongst the beasts, destitute
pintorcourse with man, comea out a beast. Tho contrary how-
r never occurs to beasts which live with man. Neither the
savers, nor the sealfi, who live in company, nor the domestic
Lais who enjoy our familiar society, come out endowed with
From what has been said, the direct difference between the
and speech of animals is plain', since wc consider that man
le ought to be held to possess speech', or the voice of reason,
beaats only the language of tlie aflections. In process of
le, the mind becomes developed, and tindi; out how to express
ideas with the tongue. Young children give names to those
they love, which is the case with no animal, although they can
distinguish their master and those familiar to them welt enough.
Tliwse stories are utterly undeserving of attention which the old
travellers related about the language of certain distant nations,
who they said were endowed with nothing but an inarticulate
and, a/t it were, brutish voice. It is indeed beyond all doubt
that the fiercest nations, the Califomiana, the inhabitants of the
Cape of Good Hope, &c. have a pecuUar sort of speech, and
plenty of definite words, and that animals on the contrary,
whether they be like man in structure, as the famous orang-
utan is', or approach man in intelligence, to use the words of
ly about the elephant, are destitute of speech, and can only
R
Plan aetUTOl d-K mondt primilif, p. lo,
and of the ideu. Thu Brat U
inui;li mors perfsol iu tho former.
^„. , ... .. j»n only be idipled to bim, icM-
m%\oa» to which he alouo oE all the beings who inhabit
Ctmut de Gebelin «ajii ■
"Luigija^ IB twofold: that ..
comniUQ both to miiii and the animola, thuu^h
The BBcond in abeolutely peculiar to '■— ■' '
macb as it amwera to ibe opei
the c«rth can elerato himadf.'
» HencewnuaoftheEabbiiiBnotmaptly callniw»ii<ipeaiinpoHimai.
• Th. Bowrey, Jfa/ayo Diaionary, London, i jot, ^to. Ott. Fr. v. d. at&ten,
Qnintiiche rritfiKtchr. p. 51,
6—2
84
ERECT POSITION.
emit a few and thrae equivocal sounds. That speech is the vt
of reason alone, appeaj-s from this, that other animals, althoof^
they have neiirly the same organs of voice as man, are entire
destitute of it'.
K DOW any one casta an eye on the human body, it would c
tainly be more easy to distinguish man from every other animal
at the very first glance, than to lay down any fixed criterion' iij
which he differs from the rest. It would seem as if the Siiprem
Power had avoided giving any distinct and persistent cbara
to the human body, juat in exactly the same proportion s
its highest master-piece far excels all other animals in its noble
part, which is reason.
But it will be worth while to reckon up, one by one, a few d
those things which seem peculiar to onr bodies. First of all I
would speak of the erect position of man, which I cannot leai^
^^ untouched because of the recent paradoxes of P. Moscati"f
^L although it is very tedious to serve np, and as it were to chew
^H over again a matter which has been most thoroughly invesH-
^H gated, and is clearer than the noon-day sun. It is true, I can
^H believe that this elegant author, who is in other ways worthy of
^H all praise, composed this book as an attempt and not quite
^H seriously, partly because he has mode use of arguments which
^H you would scarcely expect to find from a man not only acquaint-
^H ed with human and comparative anatomy, but from one who
^H constantly appeals to both ; and partly because he leaves quite
^M unnoticed points of indisputably great importance as to the
^M bipedal structure of man, which have already been most dili-
^M gently handled by the great Galen*, and the immortal Barth.
^M EuBtachiue'. I could easily allow our author' that there is Uttle
I
' I h»VB iny»elf found tlio iivnla in aped, &tic] the other parte of ths I^rynr
eXMtl; like tloM In mini. Beoon Ihe Pygmy, Tjaon, p. si.
' LinuBius oonlil discover no point bv which man could bi diBtinirtiiiiheil trom
tbe apo. Prir/. atl Faun. Surcic. "
' Mir rarporet difcnnct enenardi, c/u pattano fra la ttrutlHTa da' bruti, e la
. It5sqq.,o. l6,
ed. Tenet. 1564, 4to.
• EinociiOly in hb procioas hooks Dt ntu partium, 1.
» Throughont tbe Ottiun examtn, pp. 175— 181, ed.
' P. 34
BIl-EDAL WALK. 85
weight in those common arguments for the erect position of
man, deduced from the position of the great occipital foramen',
the proportion of the feft to the hands, the mamniEe, the chest',
and the shape of the shoulder-blade ; although there remain the
greater difficulties of the parts which so wonderfully prove that
the walk should be bipedal, I say nothing of tlie apes of the
heart and its direction in the embryos of man and the brutes ;
this indeed our author' mentions, but yet eiplains in such a way
that he seems to give a handle to the opposite opinion. I aay
nothing of that powerful argument deduced from the movement
of the head and its connexion with the first cervical vertebrae,
and I omit it tlie more readily, because of that elaborate work
of Eustachiiis on the point*, which I should have to transcribe
almost in its integrity. The pelvis alone, and the construction
of the feet would easily bruig over to my view those in other
respects acquainted with anatomy, if thoy would compare even
cursorily the composition of the bones of the quadrupeds with
those of man. Let any one look at the broad flanks of the
human skeleton, ending below in a narrow hip, the short pelvis
largely dilated above but narrowed below so as to open an
escape for the foatus, yet carefully provide for the prolapsus of
the womb, and then compare these things with the oblong right-
angled and almost cylindrical pelvis of quadrupeds with their
wide hip, and their outwardly curved ischiatic prominences;
lastly, let him observe the construction of the glutei muscles,
and the connexion of the muscles of the leg in man and the
brutes, and then let him say if he thinks it probable that they
can have the same mode of locomotion. Let any one make the
ejcperiment on some freSh animal skeleton, or at least let him
look at Goiter's picture" of the erect skeleton of a fox, going along
in the moat ridiculous manner on its hind-feet, and then let him
imagine a human skeleton resting upon its arms and feet, and
' Dftubenton, S^ir ta diffirtn^r* de la titualion da grand trou ceeipilai dtmt
rkimiHt tt ilnni la animujix. Mlm. d* t'Aead.tkt Scda Ptru, 1764, p. 568.
■ S« Kustacb. I. c. p. 175.
• P. 16.
^U'
Norib. t57S. ful- mag- Tab. I
HAUDS.
he will not but see that a bipedal brute and a quadrupedal
would equally paas for prodigieB. Inseparable also from thai
general consideration of the pelvis is that other proof derived
from the acetabulum, and the head and neck of the thigh-bonsai
And that this neck is oblong in man. and goes downwards witkil
a sensible oblii^uity, hut is short in brutes, even in apea, aad<
nearly horizontal; and the head more obliquely articulated with-
the hip ; bo the whole structure of the bones of the feet, the thick
caJcaneum of man, the juncture of the ancle with the sole of the
foot, which in man too is oblong and broader, and many other
things of the kind which point in this direction, disagreeably
trite and too well known ta students of anatomy, but difficult to
be nnderstood by those unacquainted with medicina For whioh
reason I think it would be foolish to say much about thei
especially as I have indicated the sources to wliich those shot
go who want still more proofs of so easy a matter.
Another property of man comes directly from the foregoing,
namely, his two hands, which I consider belong to mankind
alone; whereas apes, on the contrary, must either have four or
none at all, of which the great toe being separated from the other
fingers of the feet serves the same purposes which the thumbs
do in the bauds. This is so certain, that on that account alone
the fcetus said by Kobinet' to be that of a pongo, must certainly
l»e considered a hnman embryo, even if no notice be taken of the
other proportions of the bodily parts, and the whole structure
which is entirely human. Hahn* besides Galen* has writi
expressly on the admirable formation of the human hand.
All these things therefore being duly weighed, I am induced
conader even that famous animal the orang-utan as a quadni]
I know indeed that several authors of voyages have esud a
deal about him. and given him out as a biped. The
which induce me to come to a different conclusion, be^des the
tendency of many travellers to exaggerate a little what is extra-
^of^M^ a
WILD MEN.
y, are the fullowiag; in the first place, some wlio hare
described these animals have saiil only that it /requfntlit' goes
on its binder feet, which at least excites a suspicion, that they
do go on all fours like other animals: moreover, many are de-
picted in the plates as leaaing upon a club, after the fashion of
dancing bears'. Tlie pahn of their bands is as deeply furrowed,
and marked with folds and slits as the soles of their foet*.
The depressed and receding becl-bonea prevent their walking
firmly. If you examine them more closely, the elongated pelvia,
and especially the muscle called eUvalor c/aricu^c*,mako it highly
probable that a quadrupedal gait is cntural to this animal. The
inotance of the long-armed ape is favourable to the same opinion*.
Man therefore is the only biped, unless any one likes to ])ut for-
ward the manati, birds, (especially penguins,) or the lizard
Siren, The example of those unfortunate creatures who,
according to accounts, have been here and there brought up
amongst wild bea:^, goes no way to sbow that the erect posi-
tion is not natural to man. Hard necessity, perhaps too imita-
tion, taught these wretches to go on their hands and feet at the
same time that they were obliged to creep through woods and
fruit-bearing copses, and even into the dens and receptacles of
wild beasts; nor is it quite certain that it was the case with all.
The Hessian boy' found amongst the wolves sometimes only
walked as a qnadniped; the girl of Zell', and the girl of
Champagne', and the boy of Hameln' went upright. And the
argument deduced from the first crawlinga of infants is much
weaker still, since it must be very well known to any one who
has observed them, that they scarcely ever crawl aa quadru-
peds, but rather squat upon their buttocks, rest upon their
' Leguat, T. u. n. gi—iouirnt — Tulp. 1. in. e. i6—miiltolia.
» TjsoD. EdwirdB, Buiibn. The orang-utan which I raw tovKilf alive At Jon*
in 1770 could not go od iu hinder feet wiiliout tlie osaist&nce of > stick, nor walk
•liont tmnlj at aU.
» L« Cat. TVai'W da rnouivnifnl tmuiculalre. Tab. I.
• Tjaoa, Anat. vfapt/gniff.Sga. ^, li, p.Sj. Ojiiic. London, ij5i,
• /f<mo lar. Una.
• Dilkh, Htmttht Chnmlck. P. n. p. 187.
' Brttl. Samml, January 1718, AugusI and October i;ii.
• JKil. d'liTuJflU lauvage, 4c. Parie, 1761, Mmo.
• Srtd. SampU. Dae«tDber, 1715.
HVUI DBFENCELEGS.
hands', and as it were row with their feot Pliny* therefore was
not quite correct when he said that the first promise of w
and the first gift of life was to make a man like a quadruped.
As to those who make out the erect position to be 1
fomenter of disurders, they must forget botli veterinary practil
and the disea^en' which we find afflict both wretched men e
fierce quadrupeds.
Besides his erect position and his two hands there are soi
other things to be considureii which also seem pecidiar to n
Of all animals he alone seems to be placed on the earth altO'
gether naked and defenceless, since ho has neither powerful
teeth, nor horns, nor talons, nor a shaggy hide, nor any other
protection. It is no use objecting that there are other animals
equally unprovided; something will always be found which
keeps them protected to some extent*. He is usually without
hair, whereas the quadiiipeds which expose their body to tiiB
heavens and the seasons are provided either with a shaggy hid*
or a thick skin, or shells, or scales, or spikes. Few parts of J
man's body can be called hairy^ and his back is nearly b
which is certainly another argument for the erect position t
man. His ti^eth all on a level, round, smooth,
regular, are in oue word so constructed, that it is clear from t
finit glance, they were given to man principally to chew bia foq
with, partly also for speech, and in no wise as weapons i
attack". Even tho teeth of apes difl'er greatly in form i
those of men. Their canines are longer, sharper, and more d
' Thus the lioj of Hiraeln. Breil. Samml. I. e. -■
* Til. 1. T. 1. p. 369, ed. Hard.
' &ee the liypouhoadrioa tumors of Ihe j'uiviiu hihtrnUB in Tulp. IV. to.
* Tbe polypua has saircolj any onfmiea, and whoa it is nccidenUUy w
fresh snimsls uf its own apeciia uv the nsulC of tbe excrasceace.
' The iiutuictB of bury men are no objection, and J lun incliaeil to OomiilM'
(hem a> prodigiea. Tlie haii^ family of tbe Canarr Iilauds, in Aldroraudni,
MontUr. hilt. p. 16 sqq , even a we cod trust a fcintirally oredulous autbor. are no
more to be nonJereit at than the six-fiugered fsmiliei. Comp. Zohn, Sptvd.
phyiico-malA, kill. T. ni. p. 70. I recollect mya^lf tbat thg baak of that maa-
oatiug sheplierd, who was executed io 1771, st Berck, near Jtma, wbcm he had
be.n fostcDed to the wheel fur Borne weeks anil exposed to the weather, and Ida
olotbea fell off, appeared conipletcly covered with shaggy hair.
* Man ia an animal mllil and soft, whosu strength and power conailt Hon It
wisdom than ia force of body. Euatach. Dt tUnlilnt, p. m. Sj.
it from their ne^boors : ihe molars deepiv incisive, brisUing
as it were with enonnoos tti^ks. Besides the teeth, man is
marked out as a gentle and unanned being, by the small bone
which is covered by the lipe. bj which also ho is distinguiabed
from tbe apes and the other beasts like him.
It has been disputed whether brutes have tbe same aflW-
tioQS* of tbe mind as man. This is a very difficult question, if
we examine tbe ways in which men express joy and sorrow, and
especially laughter and t^ara. That animals can cry is certain,
sinoe they have otgans* exactly like those in man for weeping;
but we must go deeper and enquire whether they do go in con-
sequence of feeling sonow. It is said to be so with some
animals, as tlie orang-utan*, tbe sloth*, seals', the horse*, the
stag", tbe turtle', the tortoise*, Ac, TTie nairatiTe of Steller,
amongst otheis, deserves certainly great credit; so that it is
probable that weeping from sadness is common to animals and
man. Altout lau^ter as the effect of juy there seems more
doubt. Some animals have peculiar ways of expressing" tran-
quillity or joy, but I do not think that a change in the muscles
o( the face", or the utterance of cacchination, has been observed
any other animal but man. The croaking of apes, or the
of the sloth, have no more to do with this than tbe barking
doge, or the songs of birds, as the indications of joy.
Women have sometbuig peculiar, which seems to be denied
to all other animals, even if they remain untouched; I mean the
hymen, which has been granted to woman-kind perhaps much
more for moral reasons", than because It has any physical uses.
< Be
r> etfiJMt iTiuMMaKE. Miwt. lie
On UiU poiDt, wo Hoacati, I. e. p. 38.
BerliD, Smr Ic foe natal im taerjmai dt ptar
: 1766, p. 181.
» Bonthn, L T. c. 3). 1* Oit, ^ e. p. 35.
-Bmoli to Ibe ape, in hia ctufeavoar to m&lu <
"U« tiaiuitioD from miui to the rest of tbe uiimaji.
An«di m dorr. Mnt. Sthrt, i. p. 53.
StcUer. V. maderb. narti. p. r40.
* Sehneiiler, dt CalarrKo, p. j^i.
T Soma kx^ OD ibeto i/oa aa ^irl, omeaus concretioo, Jtc.
* Qinquarui, Lavd.yrmint. p. 3,6.
* LigoD, Barbad. p. 36.
I* "Tbe mspag of the dog'a tail, the p«cnliar purring of cata, hs.
U Jamea PanoD, Hnnan Phfiioyttomj/ rT}>!iiiiit<l, p. 73.
" Bead the gnat Uallar, Pliptni. L utui, p. 9;.
90 HENSTSUiTION.
I am Iiiclmed to allow the meMtrual flux to th
human kind atone'. There are some who say thai
animals of that sex have also their menstrual excretions', and
Buffon' has particularly asserted this of many apes. The whole
point depends upon the notion of a periodic flux, which, if pro-
perly considered, will scarcely he allowed to apes. I have care-
fully observed many female apes of more than one species, and
that for many yeat^, in the menagerie of Biittuer, yet I cannokj
undertjike to say that they have menstrual excretions. M(
while it is certain that they arc afflicted with liwmorrhagea
the womb, which however do not occur at any fixed period,
sometimes after one week, and sometimes after three or mi
return in the same ape, which otherwise is enjoying good heall
in some however it never appears at alL
These two things then, the liymen and periot^cal meiul
ation, I consider as peculiar to mankind*. As to the diiaria
the nymphte', there is no doubt that other animals also hi
them too; and in some the clitoris appears very large
almost enormous. The hymen, the guardian of chastity,
adapted to man who is alone endowed with reason ; but
clitoris, the obscene organ of brute pleasure, is given to beaBi
also. A few examples are enough : in the papio mandril [Si
viaiinonides Linn.) which I dissected last winter, I observed
clitoris of half-an-ouQce in weight, swelling, wrapped in a li
prepuce, and so prominent that it might easily have
incautious observer think the animal was an hermaphrodite, and
all the more because a little fold, which was visible in the apex
of the member and impervious, increased the genemi
blance to the virile gland. The nymphcs seemed worn down,
had coalesced with the callous and gaping lips of the pudendi
And I have observed those as well as the cUtoris distinctly i
Mongos Lemur, which I myself saw alive last summer at Got!
' Thus Pliniua, vii. 15. p. e
> Bee in HJier, I. c. p. 13;
' T. ire, XT. frequently.
' A» to some of tlie old wiveB* atones nbout
I nut to meutnute, >t this timo oF daj thej
' It ia doubled by Linoaua, Si/it. Nat. ed, X
ipex
I, o r J
1
p. 381. SoliouB er Dmocrilo, I. p. m. 6,
.B natinng of Amerioa, wllO m
i
INTERNAL STRUCTUliE.
91
geo. Hie Didaciylus igname of the Rnyal Museum lias a, vei-y
round clitoris between the swelling lips of the pudendum. But
the great Haller has collected many instances', These therefore
are some of the points which are peculiar to mankind and which
can be easily distinguished without any very delicate anatomy.
I leave out others, as the immobility of the ears', or the hairs of
K^tber eye-brow', which were formerly attributed to man alone.
^ A very extensive and at the same time a very pleasant field
1 ivoiild be open to us, if we could now investigate the internal
Btracturo of the human i>ody, in so fiw as it differs plainly from
the Btructure of other animals. But the limits of this our book
do not allow us to wander so far. It is therefore the business
of those who want information on these points to go to the
authors of- comparative anatomy, and, aliove all, to those who
have dissected carefully the animals which are most like man ;
among^ whom it will be sufficient to mention Eustacliius*,
Goiter', Riolani*, and Tyson'. Let them study those who think
that perhaps the orang-utan and some other apes are not so
much unlike man, but that they may be considered as of the
same species, or, at al! events, as animals veiy closely allied to
man. It is now my present intention to select a few points
^om many, and reckon tliem up briefly.
As the brain, the most noble eutrail of the animal body, for
numberless reasons which everybody knows, demands particular
attention beyond all other parts, men of the greatest reputation
have laboured' on its comparative anatomy and have stirred up
others', when there was an opportunity, to similar labours.
' I^ e. p. 80. Besidei thou is the perfi
bUdder of tbe Cooeang Lemar (hmfijmuf Lini
to pire it the nwno of it* country) in DKulKOtoD, T. x
Cm) it be likely tliat thio w&b >n nbnonnal accident 1
> Aristot. IJt pari. aniiH. U. ii,
• Paualt, Jliil. da anim. P. iiT. p. 1 11. cd. PftriM, 173*. He Baw it in tli
elephiMt. thii oatrich, the vulture, 1 lutve eesn thiiiga very like tlm humikD giiea i
muiT' apn.
• Freqneotly. • Prindpal. mrp, h. part. lah. Norib. I ^7.^. (ol. inaj.
• Jo. RioL Jo. lil. Oilfoloyia timia, Par. ifir4, gvo. ' Op. o'l.
Sam. OoUin's CmnparafJw Analomy. Hullor, Physiol. T, tv. and Op. Minoi
T.
• lUler, PAynot. T. v. p. jig.
BRXES OF THZ APK.
Becollecting thia, as I have been fortooate ewn^ to dJaseot
upea, last winter, of more thaa one kiml, I have, above aO,
tnve>tig«(ed their Imbuis, and I exhibit as a specimeu the ba« |
of OM*. It is the hnin trf that very maDilnl I k&s just speak-
ii^ o£ Cut off at the great ucdpital fotaiueu, and takeo out )
of the skull, it weighed three ounces and one drachm, whilst
the rest of the body of the ape weighed eight common pounds
and a half. The principal points in which its base differs from
the human oi^au are these. The two aatenor lobes of the
bnun are almost eatirelr unified. The cerebellum is large iu
proportion to the braiu, more than is the case with the pygmy.
The pons varolii is separated Irom the meduBa oblongata by no
apparent fissure, but is joined mi, and down continuously with
iL Not a vestige of the pyramidal or olivary bodies, as is also
the case m the pygmy- The meduUa fiblot>gata much thicker
than in the man or the pygmy. The second pair of nervea
which were united iu one great mass and then again divided
at the very entrance of the orbits, was cut off before the sepa-
ration. No rtte miraltile. I omit other things of less import-
ance, which any one who i^ skilled in anatomy will easilv
recognize ; and I can assure such an one that the figure is
most accurately drawn*.
I have subjoineil to the brain the skull of the same p(q>io,
in which, besides thedeeperorbit5.ihethickuessof the zygomata,
the widely divergent teeth, the immense canines, and other
Uiings of smaller importance, that peculiar bone in which the
incisoiB are set deserves particular attention. This man is with-
out, although all the apes and most of the other mammals'
have it. I doubted whether it was to be found in the orang-utan;
since in the figures of Tyson* and Daubeuton' the skuUs were
not drawn in such a way that the sutures could be well distin-
> PL I. fig. I.
' CotDpikre irilh my Sgon tfaa bnun of Tyson's fyftaj, £g. i j, aoct thkt mat
■k^Uit cbikrt b; HaUer of the bus of tb« hmsBo LiniiC Fuc. vil. Tkb. L To tD^
ttw compuinBi nser, I hare preKrrcd the unw lettering, by which in Halln'i
cfaart the pute of the brain are marked.
' The Mfrieeapiaga diiiattfia, whom ikoll I hcTo, duca not poMcai it.
' i. e. fig- 5.
' Mtm. dt Par. ,^4, Tab. XXi. fig, t.
SSrLL OP THE APE.
P: nor did tbe Eo^ish author speak precisely about
: but Fr. Oabr. Sulzer has settled the point, for he kindly
writes me word that Camper, a great authority, has disserted
) of this kind, and fonnd this bone in them. An-rther
Ibrence flows from this singular structure, namely, in the
! of the nose, which is double in the human head, and
nearly of a rhomboidal figure, whereas it is seen to he single in
the apes, and also triangular, which however, like tbe other
things which may be observed in this figure, are very patent,
and will easily be seen by those who know anything of osteology,
and therefore do not want any further explanation.
Among^ other differences between the human bo<Iy and
that of the beasts there are some which are better known,
and may be briefly touched upon. As, for example, the niem-
hrana niclttans, periophthahnium, or third eyelid, which Haller'
eays is in man a very slight imitation of tbe organ in animals,
although in animals also according to their class and order,
^^^Mr mode of life, and their size, it differs much in position and
^^■Ktitution
^^B Besides this, tbe bulbous or suspensory muscle of tbe eye is
^^Smmon to nearly all' quadrupeds, and so is the suspensory liga-
ment of the neck, which is said to be wanting in man and tbe
apes alone'. This white and tendonoua part which is known to
> The Sgnre Of the skeleton of -the long-huuled ape in Buffan, T. Zlv. Tkb. Ti,
haathenm« fault; ui>1 even Ca'tter, wbo is Vinous in other thlti^ hu umitloil to
muk tbi* t»Qe in the skeletoD of tlie t*iled ape, the figure of which ia added to in
the book and plaoe already qnott^ fitill it is moiit diitinctlj vuiiUe in the skulla
of fire diSereiit kind* uf ape* nhieh I have before me.
' P. 65. "In ft moDkej I obaerred that pecnliar Butare Riolan mentionB, bat
did Dot find it in the P;gmie, onl; in the pabte of the Pjgade I obaerred a
nittrn. not from the dens canisua, as wu in the monkey, but from the eecond ot
tbe dmtca indsorea."
* PAyno/, T. T. p. 318, where there are a good many interesting thiogii about
this raeinbnne. Thpre is a ^ood deal about it alao in Peter Tarrarruii. Cok anaf»-
miVAfin Atti dt' fiiico-critin d% Siom, T. UL p. ii;. De Pauir. Rcdierch. philot.
nr la Americ. T. 11. p. ;oB.
* In BOTce I cenaiid; found a few tnea, m in the Xemur Mongol. It is email
too in the kpes.
* It is wanting' in l^eon'a oreng-iitan. p. 85. AnJr. Vtnaliaa had falnelr and
oMinatclj Mligned it to man. Camp. Ualler. I. e. p. 411. DougUu Schreibcri,
p. 40.
' Unnam, S/d. XaL cd. xn. T. t. p, ^%.
H
TBRTEBBA OF THE APE.
everybody, and is called by my countrymen, haarwachs; by i
English', pachwax, taxwcuc, jixfax and wkiteleather ; by 1
Belgians', vast, &c. is inserted fur the purpose of sustaining the
head and neck of quadrupeds'. But although man shares the
absence of this with the apes, yet it by no meaus follows that
apes are meant to walk upright, since in thorn the subtle
structure of tlie vertebra of the neck, and in man the peculiar
bipedal walk, supply the defect of this ligament The whole
point about the bodies of these vertebi's is host explained
by a comparison of these bones themselves, as they appear
in the skeleton of the man and the ape, and for this reaac B. *
I have had engraved the whole construction of the vertebne a^|
the neck in the same papio * (PI. il. fig. 1), the base of whostf^
brain and whose skull we have just seen, because in that it
may be seen as clearly as possible why he scarcely ever goes
on two feet. I have subjoined the fifth and sixth vertebns
of the human neck (PI. IL fig. 2). In these the bodies i
nearly parallel, aud almost disciform, whereas in the ape tfa^
descend by a sort of scaly process in front, and one is pla
upon and dove-tailed into the other. So it can easily be r
plain by experiment that the vertebtEe in these aoimalg son
port each other, and serve to sustain the bead, which could i
be done with man if placed in a quadrupedal position, on I
count of the smooth surfaces of the body of the vertebne, for f
it woidd be excessively difficult to sustain the mass of the ver
heavy human head, which would more and more collapse and
subside by its own weight.
I have selected a few out of many points in which man d
most clearly from the other animals. I have said that there a
many which go to demonstrate his natural position to be an e
one, and to separate him fairly from the apes, especially trom tl
orang-utan. I have been induced to do this because of t
■ Allen Mullen, Anatotitieal Aaouat of the EUph. p. 14. liny, Wiidom IffGoi,
pp. i6[, 338, sud Syaopi. gvadmptdum, p, 136. Dertuuu, Phyiico-tkeol. [1. J14.
' VeakL Jh eorp. ham fabr. p. 36 1 .
» L» Fomo, Conn iTlUppiatriqvt, Tib. 11 s.
* Il would hft'a IweQ tedious to trarscribe from Eiwtachius und Coi
□tber poiaU in which the vertebne of the »pea diverge from those of oia
OBAKQ-UTAN.
opinioBB lately expressed by some famous men', wlio however
are iil-inatructed in natural history and anatomy, but who are
not ashained to say that this ape is vary nearly alltod, and indeed
of the same Epecie^ with tliemsclvcs.
I do not tliink this opinion deserves any lengthened refutar-
tion for those who are adepts in the matter; but it will clearly
not be foreign to our purpose if I say a few words about the
orang-utan himself. Alter the labours of Euffon and othcra it is
not worth while to spend any time on his habits and mode of
life'. But it would be worth while if the species were a little
more accurately defined. For although this remarkable animal
has very seldom been seen in Europe, and few authentic repre-
sentations of it exist, still such as they are they differ so much
from each other that they can in no way be considered as belong-
ing to one and the same species. I shall pass by the delineations
which are manifestly fictitious, or carelessly drawn, such as those
of Bontius, Neuhof, Jiirgen Andersen, Jo. Jac. Saar, and Franc.
Leguat; and examine more closely the authentic ones alone,
These are those of Tulp, Tyson, Edwards, Scotin', Le Cat, and
Bufibn, which when they are compared together manifestly
difi'er very much both in form and size. Recent authors have
deduced from this a variety of species, and have called one the
larger, and the other the smaller oraug-utau. I do not however
place much trust in this distinction. Some of the specimens
which have been brought to Europe were very young, and there
were indications which, considering that they all died prema-
turely*, forbid us to come to any conclusion as to their size. Still
' Own d'hUt, not, T. i. That gnod oitiioii of Geneva Sur VinigaliU panai la
AijntBM* p. IJ7D, T** Orv/FH(;rtcii'rojr«j»i)/Zanjuoj<, VoLi, pp. 17J, 189. Mitt.
o/Jamait^ Vol. U, p. nftj. Lond. ij;<, 4to.
* 1 sb*!! out; remiirk oa tbe nuns oraag-utan, that it U inoorrtotly tnuulnted
"wiM imu)," honio tj/ltiatrii. Man in MiJa/ ia Mantma, but tbe word oran U
■f [iliwl nut only to nuui, bnt >Ibo to the alephaat, vhom the ludiuns think U
lenaible. Biiltner, to whom I am indebteiL for thii obaarvatioQ, tnaaUtea it
iHUlligtnt being.
' Soolln'i Miimal, Cluiiipansi, brought by H. Howe, mmter olihe akip Sptattr,
rrom Angola to Lomlon. in .^ug. 1738, wa* Sgured Heparatcly by Sloaiie, and
rrpeateil in Xnri acta erttd. Lipi. Sept. 1739, Tab. V. p. 564. Linn. AvlArop, Am.
at. Vol. »t. Hauber, Bibl. mafjica, a. 35, La Cat, above. The others are well
< Tbe one Bufibn law wae two yean old. Tyson's bad nol yet cut all its teoth.
, ana
96 OBASO-UTAlt.
the babit of their whole body »nd ibe caafonaaXion of its
seem to me much more justlr to constitiiie tbeta into specie
I maj be allowed therefore to admit at least two species, and
in order that names may not be onDecesearily multiplied, I shall
give them some which occur in Linnieiis. one which has been
improperly appended tu man by that ilhKtnoDs author, the other
to the firai spe«es of apes. Let then be then, —
L Simia troffhdt/tes or CUm^tamai; iepres«ited by
and Scotin, macrocephalous, sinewy, haiiy on the back of
body alone; the front, except the shooidefs, being bare.
2. ScUynU or OnuMf-utan of Tyson, Edwards, Le Cat,
BnBbn; rather slntder, with small head, clothed with thick bmr,
the hairs of the aim and for^anu being in oppueite directions.
Such was the male wbkh I mentioiied having seen olive at Jena
It came Tery near to the figniQ of lyson. and at the Bist glance
was roost unniistakeaUy difierent from the Simia vyfniniu, &c.
I made a drawing at that time of Urn rare animal, but I r«^l
that I neglected to measure its parts mors accuiately.
These are the obserrations made portly by myself, and partly
hy my first preceptor in natural history, I. K Im. Walch. The
stature was that of a boy about ten years old, colour brown,
face sufficiently human, the fingers of the hands and feet mther
long, the thumb widely separated, the calves more fleshy than
in other apes, the scrotum pendulous almost square, rather
white, the penis small like Tj-sou's figure. It was so much in
the habit of leanii^ on a stick, that though it could stand and
walk on two feet, most persons would attribute that way of
walking to the effect of education. The same might be said ef
his way of drinking and eating, in which actions he used spoon
and cnpi He showed a great desire for the other sex.
IJniwus doubted whether the animals which ve have
divided into two species, but which in his o|union were only
varieties, differed in anything more than in sex. It is quite true
that those represented by Tulp and Sootin were female and the
others males; but still the silence of travellers and eye-witnesses
like Bontiuaand Th. Bowrey, on any different form in the sexes,
convinces me that besides the difference of sex there must Bhi>
J
StVIA LOSOIMAXA.
a variety of ^lecies. I cannot dismiss these anjmab witiiout
nieDliotuDg two points, of which one is concerned with a eingu-
Ur character of them which has been generally neglected, and
the other regards their native country. I owe the knowledge of
the former character to my great &iend Sulzer, who repeated to
me the words of Camper, who, I just mentioned, dissected these
Satyri himself, "that in the front hands of these animals the
nails of the thumbs were wanting." There are indeed nails in the
plates of Tyson, Etlwards, and LeCat; but that singular and
paradoxical character might very easily have been unnoticed ; nor
did I pay any attention myself to the nails of the Jena satyr.
Was this a third species? that I cannot decide. The other
point that remains to be mentioned is as to the native country
of both species (chimpansi and orang-utan). By almost all zoo-
logical writers the torrid zone of the ancient world is given out
as theirnative country. Bancroft' however relates a report of the
inhabitants, that the orang-utan may also be found In the thick
froods of Guiana. This account deserves further attention, but
is this against it, that the author adds that the animal has
yet been seen by Europeans resident there.
There is another animal nearly allied to the Troglodyte and
the Satyr, which is the Simia longimana (Homo Lar, Linn., Gib-
bon, Buff.}, an animal exactly like man, if you look at its &ce:
but differing from almost all other animals if you consider the
enormona length of its anterior feet. They are indeed represented
as somewhat shorter in the figure of the Bengalese ape, which
ia inserted in the Philosophical Transactions', and taken for the
S. longtTnana, which however is clearly drawn by the hand of
no artist, as is shown by the unequal length of either fore arm,
and by other particulars.
Enough then has been said about the Troglodyte and Satyr.
And now we must come more closely to the principal argument
of our dissertation, which is concerned with this question; Ar«
' A'of. Silt of Gviaiut, p. 130.
■ VoL ui. P. I. for 1769, p. 71, TA. UL, of wther he. The Teiiule ia
rppettcd ia Gent. Mag, 1770, Svptnnber, p. 4M. Camp. Peuiuuit, Synoft. iff
(piadr. p. lOOi
PLDOALtTT OP SPECIES.
o/oJM
men, and have the ni«n of all times and of eeery race been
and die same, or clearly of nutre than one epeciesi A qm
much discuBBed in these days, but so far as I knov, seldooi
expressly treated o£
lU-feeliiig, negligence, and the love of novelty have induced
peraoDfl to take up the latter opinion. The idea of the plorali^
of human species has found particular favour' with those who
made it their buGJness to throw doubt on the accuracy of Scrip-
ture. For ou the 6ret discovery of the Ethiopians, or the beard-
less inhabitants of America, it was much ea-sier to pronounce
them different species' than to inquire into the structure of the
human body, to conHult the numerous anatomical authors and
travellers, and carefully to weigh their good faith or carelesaneas,
to compare parallel examples from the universal circuit of natiual
history, and then at last to come to an opinion, and investigate
the causes of the variety. For such ia the subtlety of the
human intellect, and such the rush for novelty, that many would
rather accept a new, though insuflSciently considered opinion,
than subscribe to ancient truths which have been commonly
accepted for thousands of years.
I have endeavoured to keep free of all these mistakes;
have written this book quite unprejudiced, and I have dt
nothing so much as that the arguments which I have broi
forward for the unity of the human species, and for its m<
varieties, may seem as satisfactory to my learned and
readers as they do to myself.
For although thera seems to be so great a dlfiFerence betwt
widely separate nations, that you might easily take the
tants of the Cape of Good Hope, the Greenlanders, and the
cassians for so many different species of man, yet when
matter is thoroughly considered, you see that all do so run inl
one another, and that one variety of mankind does so senFtibly
' Simon Tynot do P«tot, Voyagtt tt aTtnhaxt dt Jaqiia Maate, T. i. p. 36.
B»nn (VolUirel, Pkilonn/Au dt I'hittoirt, p. 45. IJem in Qaal. lur PEn^op.
T. IV. p. I la, T. VII. p. 98, 175, IB completely refuted by BaDer. Brirfm SArr
«'liii« SimiHrfi noA Irimd. Freii/a'iter vidtr dit Offenh. i. Th. pp. 101, 1 ^4. t^.
' Of this opjoion were Griffith Hughei, Nat. But. of Barbados, p. 14. Heorr
n<mt. SktUhf <^ Ihc HUtPry,/ Man, Vol I. p. IJ. ' -^ i-
CLASSIFICATIONS.
99
pass into the other, that you cannot caaik out the limita between
them.
Very arbitraxy indeed both in number and defimtioo have
been the varieties of mankind accepted by eminent men. Lin-
meua' allotted four classes of inhabitants to the four quarters of
the globe respectively. Oliver Goldsmith* reckons sis, I have
followed Linnieus in the number, but have defined my varieties
by other boundaries. Tlie first and most important to us (which
is also the primitive one) is that of Europe, Asia this side of the
Ganges, and all the country situated to the north of the Amoor,
together with that part of North America, which is nearest both
in position' and character of the inhabitants. Though the men of
theae countries seem to differ very much amongst each other in
form and colour, still when they are looked at as a whole they
seem to agree in many things with ourselves. The second in-
cludes that part of Asia beyond the Ganges, and below the river
Amoor, which looks towards the south, together with the islands,
and the greater part of those countries which are now called
Australian. Men of dark colour, snub noses, with winking eye-
lid? drawn outwards at the comers, scanty, and stiff hair. Africa
makes up the third. Tliere remains finally, for the fourth, the
rest of America, except so much of the North as was included
in the first vanety*.
It will easily appear from the progress of this dissertation in
> syit, iVal. p. 75. » ffiX. of the Rarth, Vol. n. p, an.
' Comp. beudt» the Engiuli terraqoeouB globtt, which by the liberalitj of nnr
qnevn the anivernty hbnuy poBaFSAea, antl the Swedish ODefl of AkenoAn, A copy
■if which i» due In the kiadoeu of J. Andr, Murmy, the maps of D'Ansille,
SUlitio, and Engel, and the more reoent labours of de Vnugondy, Sur Itt pai/t dc
CAtieeCdtrAnijiqintitattaaNarddrlania-duSud. Par. 1774, ^to,
' [33. Mankind divided into firt rariaita. Formerly jn the lint edition of
thia work I divideil all nuukiud into four varietiea ; but after I had nioro acon-
rately inTeitigated the different nattons of Eaatem Ana and Amerioa, and, ■□ to
■peak, looked M them mora closely, I was compelled to f\vv up that diriiiDn, sod
to place ID ill atcad tbe following five varietjee, ae more consauant to nature.
The fint of tbeae and the largest, which ia also tbe primifvat one, embraces tbe
■thole of Europe. iDcluding the X^ppa, whom I uannot in any way geparate from
the rest of tbe Baropeans, when their appearance and their language bear such
teslimony to tbeir FiDoish origin ; and that western part of Asia which lie*
towaMii ua, this fide of tbe Obi, the Caspian eea, mount Taurua and the Ganges ;
alan nortbeni Africa, and lastly, in America, the GreenlandecB and the Emuinuui,
for I see in these people ■ wonderful difierence from the otber inhabitanti of
AaiMDo; and, Doleaa I am altDgBlher deceived, 1 think they must be derived from
7—1
100
TOUR VAEIET1E8.
K
which of the four varieties most discrepancies arc still to 1
found, and on the contrary, that many in other varieties t
some points in common, or in some anomalous way differ fi
the rest of their neighbours. Still it will be found serviceal
to the memory to have constituted certain classes into which the
f our planet may be divided ; and this I hope I have not
;her failed in doing, since for the reason I have given
before I have tried this and that, but found them less satis
tory. Now I mean to go over one by one the points in whi
man seems to differ from man by the natural conformation of ll
body and in appearance, and I will investigate as far as I c
the causes which tend to produce that variety.
First of all I shall speak of the whole bodily constitution
stature, and colour, and then I shall go on to the particular
structure and proportion of individual parts. It will then be ne-
cessary carefully to distinguish those points which are due to art
alone, and finally, though with reluctance, I shall tguch upon
the Finns. All tlieae nfttions ncsrded u i. whole are vbite in colour, and, if
con^KTMt with tha rest, beautiful in form.
The second variety compriieB thst of tlie rest of Asia, which Ii«s bejotid tbs
Ganga, aniJ the port lying b«;oDd the Caipiui Soa and the river Obi tomud*
Nova Zembla. The inhabituiW of this oountrj &re cligtinguinhed by bdniE ot
btowniili colour, more or less verging to ths olive, straight face, narrow ejie-fidi,
and Hsaaty bur. Thii whole variety may be ■ub.divided into two races, northoni
and aautbem ; of which one may embrace China, the Corea, the kingdoms of
Tonkin, F«gD, Siam, and Ava, using rather mono*yl)abio language*, and diadn-
guUbed for deptarity and perfidiouanesB of tpiiit and of iiiaiinerai and the other
tJie nations of northern Aeia, Ihe Oitiaks, and the other Siberians, the TunguMB,
the Mantcboos, the Tartars, the Calmuoks, and the Japanese.
The third variety coinprisfs what rcouuus of Africa, beaides that nortbeni part
wbSch I have already mentioned. Bl^k men, muscular, with prominent upper
jaws, swellina lipa, turned up nose, very black curly hair.
The foorUl comprises the rest of America, whose Inhnbitants are dutinpushed
by their copper colour, their thin habit of body, and acuity luJr.
Finally, the new aoathem world makes up the fifth, with which, unless I am
miitaken, the Sunda, the Molucca, and tbe Philipjiinc Inlands should he nekODed;
the men throughout being ofa veiy deep brown colour, with broad nose, and thick
hair. Those who Inhabit the Padfio AnJiipelago are divided again by John Reinh.
Forster' into two tribes. One made up of the Otaheitans, the New Zealando^
and the inhabttanta of the Friendly Isles, iLe Sutiety, Easter Island, and tb*
Marquesoa, &c, men of elegant appearance and milii disposidon; whereas llkS
otbers who inhabit New Caledonia, Tanns, and the New Hebrides. &c., are
blacker, more cnrly, and in disposition more distrustful and ferocious. Edit.
tySi, pp. J I, 51. — This is the first sketch of the still famous division of mankind
by Blumenbach: tha well-known terms Caucasian, Ac. will be found in the third
•d. below.— Ed.]
OiwrrafioiH, p, 118.
EFFECT'pf CLiyATE.
nosology and practical metiiciue, bf>t^ wImcIi chapters recent
authors have tried to obtrude into natui-al hi-jtpry, but which
I shall endeavour to vindicate for and restore to pathology.
The firat three things I mean to discuss, the wholo bodily
constitution, the stature, and the colour, are owing almost ea-
tirely to climate alone. I must be brief on the first of these
points, since I have hod no opportunity of exercising my personal
observation on the matter, and but few and scanty traces are to
be gathered from authors. That in hot countries bodies become
drier and heavier; in cold and wet ones softer, more full of
juice and spongy, is easily noticed. It has long since been
noticed by W. Cavendish, Marquis of Newcastle, that the bones
of the wild horse have very small cavities, and those of the
Frisian horses much larger ones', &c Thia was confirmed by
the elegant experiments of Kersting, a physician of Cossel, and
a most skilled in the treatment of animals. He observed*,
amongst other things, that the bones of an Arab horse, of six
years old, when subjected to the same degree of heat, were dis-
solved with much more difficulty in the machine of Papinus than
those of a Frisian of the same age. It is very Ukcly that simitar
differences would be observed in the bones of men bom in
different countries, although observations are wanting, and con-
clusions drawn from a few facts are unsatisfactory. Here and
there indeed we find bones of Ethiopians' which are thick, com-
pact, and hard ; but I should be unwilling to attribute these
properties to every skeleton coming from hot countries, since
other instances occm* of skulls of Ethiopians, about which the
same remark has not been made*. The differences moroever are
very great between the skidls of Europeans of the same country
and the same a^, which seem to depend, amongst other things,
' Oen. Sy>t. of HortemantAip. [Tbe pusa^ alluited to atandB tlioB in the edi-
tion of 1743, VoL I, p. 11. " I have exporieDCed this differenca between tbe bona
of tbfl Irg of A Bftrbaiy bone, and oaa from FLanden, tbat the cjavitj of tbe booa
in the one shall hardly adniil of a atraw whilat jou maj thrust jour Eogar into
that of tbe other."— Ed.)
' Horaea' bona arc much more easily disaolved than those of mulea, and aasea'
(rith rtill greater difficulty.
' B. S. Albini, SuptiUx Rar. n. ixix. P. Paaw, Prim. A nnt. p. 59.
* In the Ltg. Ran. n. Xin. and □, iii, it is aaid that the boaea of the Malabar
women are wery thin. See also J. Eeni. de Fischer, Dt ntodo jiio oaa k vicla.
aeconm. part., L.B. 1743, Tab. in.
102
principally upon the ilii>Je of life '. Perhaps the same is tlu
case aa to the §iiturea,' which ArriaE* aaya the heada of thw
Ethiopians lire 'vrtthout, and Herodotus' says the same of thu
Persian, skulls after the battle of Plataea. The observatiott
aijmit the whole habit of the body, that the northern* nations
are'moie sinewy and square, and the aouthera* more elegant,
seems more reliable.
I go on to the human stature. It is an old opinion, that in J
very ancient times men were much larger and taller, and thal^
they degenerate and diminish in size even now, that childre
are now bom smaller than their parents, and all the things a
this kind which the old poets' and philosophers' have said t<
discredit their
But although this may he going too far, stUl we must alloi
something to climate, so far as that itself is altered by the lapc
of time. The soil itself becomes milder, so that it may at L
make its men less gigantic and less fierce. We have alreadw
spoken of an example of this change in our own Germanjj
But the idea that these differences of bodies in ancient i
modem times have been enormous, is refuted by the mumn
of Egypt, the fossil human skeletons ^ the sarcophagi, and I
thousand other proofa
Nor do a few skulls conspicuous for their age and size*,
I J.^.Coia.iiCovolo, l}tnut.ditor.oti.ped.inquad.aZiqmil,&maa. 1765, p. jl
■ ifipa^it ut^dXai, Amto.
» QeL Kbodig. L<cl. A-nt. \m. 18. p. 501. ed. Froben,
* For the Lappi and fiiini, Loom, Lulu, Uiigatrom, CaltnMcki, PtU
Grtmlandert, Crnntz, io.
» For N«w ZeiJand, New Holland, Ac. See a ParkinKin, Ilia iiihalntalil|
of tlie ulimd of Millicolo, lately visited by Forater, are renmrkable for their aleitda
armii and feet, aa I have been kindly told by G. C. LJcbteaberg sioce bin retuf
from England .
■ Homer says repeatedly that Tjdides, Hector, Ajai, Telamon, toj. (who
giganUc kuee-oaii Pauaaniaa deioribea ta being shown long afterwarJij went much
mora BtroDg and laige Iban the men of hu day, alsi vSy PfioTol ilai. And he liM
Ijean imitated in tliie by Virgil, who repreisnla Turaiu aa equally large, not to ba
EomiMired with ' Such hum.-ui forma tie earth produc" '
' PliD. VIL c, 16. Solin. V. C- - -- -
Anthrnpom. p. 31, ed. 1663.
■ There is iu the Museum of our UiiiTersity a (oaail skull tolrrablj oooiplete, ol
the greatest antiquity, the bones of the head very tbiok, but neither in magnituda
nor furm diSeHng from a cotnmon skulL
■ Fabridua Hildan. Ftirtreffi. nub and nethv. d. atvtt. Bern. 1614, p. 109. Hm
of Uarch. Dietzmano killed at Leipzig, 1307. Glafey, Saeehu. KtrtikM. Hw
9 upon this point J. S. EUholU,
TEMPERATDBE.
103
of th
kilo
^Rncre
tered about here atid tliei-c, prove anything more than those solid
ones destitute of suturos, about which 1 was lately speaking.
Some, it is clear, are diseased'. But as to the bones which cre-
dulous antiquity showed as those of giants, they have long
since been restored to elephants and whales'. The investigation
_ of the causes which in our days make the men of one country
11 and another short is more subtle. The principal one seems
I be the degree of cold or heat. The latter obstructs the
Lcrease of organic bodies, whilst the former odds to them
aod promotes their growth. It would be tedious even to touch
upon a thing so well known and so much confirmed in both king-
doms, were it not that in our time men have como forwai-d, and
with the greatest confidence have presumed to think otherwise*.
Experience teaches that both plants and animals are smaller in
northern countries than in southern; why should not the same
law hold good as to mankindt Linmeus long ago remarked in
hia Flora Lapponica*, that alpine plants commonly reached
twice as great an altitude out of the Alps. And tlie same thing
may be observed frequently in those plants, some specimens of
which are kept in a conservatory, while others stand out in a
Flen, of which the former come out much larger and taller
I the others.
I have before me the most splendid specimens in a collection
ot plants from Labrador and Greenland, chosen by Braaen',
which I owe to the liberality of my great friend, J. Sam. Lieber-
kiihn, in which the common ones are almost all smaller than
those which are obtained in Germany; and in some, as the
of Henry ot Austria iu the bnioua burjing-place of Kieoigsfeld. FaeBi, Erdb. der
' Fonil held of Blieuiu. Durgenville, Qri/et, T. i ;, f. 3, tno osieous heulB L^.
'. in Albiti. p. 4.
• J. WallM, Antiq. of North Koierland. Dnm. Gagliardi, An, On. p. 103.
•n Felix PUter, wbo wae the best lecturer of hia ilny in all Europe, sufiered him-
f to be led into error b; the booes dug U]i at Lucerne in i^T;, and after careful
■BpariaoQ jn^ve tbem out afl thOM of a human giant, O&jr. Mtd. L ill. Wflgner,
" !. ffal. adv. p. ly; but they have lately been provad to bo elephant's bones.
.. C. dir QemSld avfdie Sapel&r. m Lucent. Thu ia alio the case with the Hbs
ftf Ibe Hdd in the chnrcb ot QiitUngen.
■ Ai Uenr. Home, loc. eit. p. 1 1. Hit in vain to oKriht to the eliauiit the lota
tm eftkt Eiquimaux, ftc.
• PniUsem. ivi. 8. Coinp. Arwid Ehrenraalm, Aiehlt. p. 386.
• The NUDB obaervatloii haa been made by Uidler, UUl. Stirp. Htlt: U. p. 31 7.
104
EXAHPLEa
SJiodiola rosea, which are common to both those re^ons
America, although their native soil is so near, yet the
difference is observed that the specimens from Labrador
somewhat larger than those from Greenland.
The same is the case with animals. The Greenland
are smaller than those of the temperate zone'. The
and Scotch horses are low and small, and in the coldest
of North Wales so little as scarcely to exceed dogs in size*,
however useless to bring a long string of examples about a thi
so evident, when the difference of a few degi-ees
countries exhibits clearly the same difference. Thus, Heniy
EUia' observed in Hudson's Strait, on its southern coasts, trees
and men of fair size; at 61" shrubs only, and that the mea
became smaller by httle and little, and at last at 67° that not
vestige of either was to be seen. And likewise Murray, withil
the limits of a few degrees, and in Gotha alone., declared
could observe eo well, that whilst he was travelling, although he
took no notice of the mife-stones, yet he could easily distinguish
the different provinces by the difference of the inhabitants and
of the animals. In Scania* the men are tall of stature and bony,
the horses and cattle lai^c, &c. : in Smalaud they become sensi-
bly smaller, and the cattle are active but little, which at
in Ostrogotliia strikes the eye more and more.
The same thing may be observed in the opposite part of
world, almost under the same degrees, towards the antarctic
clo. One example will suffice, taken from the most southi
part of America, and compared with those European uations
have just been speaking of The bodies of the notorious Pata^
gonians answer to the lofty stature of the Scandinavians. A.
credulous antiquity indeed invented fabulous stories of their
enormous size'. But in the progress of time, after Pata^onis
□en
>t«S
' Cnox, Hill. v.Gr.p. 97. ' Th. Birch, HiM. 0/ At Unt/nl Soc. m. p. 171.
■ roy. Ig £lud*oit'» Sag, p. ij6. * Coiup. Linn. Pauna SuedeOt p. i.
■ Comp. da Brunei, 1, p. 193; n. be;;. Ac. Da Pftuw, I. c. I p. iSi, mi l/lA
gin. de VAi. Afr. tt AmiH. par M. L. A. R. VoL xiti. Pu-. us-;, p. 50. TIm.
Vtikaer, Detrr. of Patagonia, p. 116. " The PttK^omai)^ or Puelahei, >r« > Urge-
bodied people ; bat 1 never hennt of tliat gigantic nun, wbich nthn* ban mm-
tioned, though J havo aeea pomas of kU the difierent tribea oiaouthan Indiaoi."
COLOUR.
i often been visited by Europeans, the inhabitants, like that
famous dog of Gellert, became sensibly smaller, until at last in
our o»-n days they retained indeed a sufficiently large stature,
but were happily deprived of their gigantic form. If you go
down from them towards the south, you will find much smaller
men in the cold laud of Terra del Fuego',who must be compared
to the Smalands and the Ostrogoths, and by that example you
will ^^n see how nature is always like itself even in the most
widely separated regions.
But besides the climate, there are other causes which exercise
influence upon stature. Already, at first, I alluded to the mode
of life', and it would be easy to bring here copious examples
taken from the vegetable and animal kingdoms, in which the
difference of nutrition may be detected by the greater or smaller
stature. But these things are too well known ali-eady, and so
many experiments of the kind have been made on Swiss cows,
Frisian horses, &c., that I may easily pass over any proofe of this
point. I omit also the causes of smaller importance which
change the stature of organic bodies, which have been already
most diligently handled by Haller', and I hasten to the last of
^ptbose things which must be considered in the variety of mankind,
^■hat is, colour.
^P There seems to be so great a difference between the Kthiop-
lan, the whit«, and tho red American, that it is not wonderful,
if men even of great reputation have considered thom as forming
different species of mankind. But although the discussion of
this subject seems particularly to belong to our business, still so
many important things have been said about the seat and the
causes of this diversity of colour, by eminent men, that a good-
sized volume would scarcely contain them ; so that it is necessaiy
for me to be brief in this matter, and only to mention those
things which the industry of learned men has placed beyond
all doubt. The skin of man and of most animals consists of
> Svdney ParkinHiD, p. 7, PL I
inohe* Ujjb-"
"None of (hem s
» Fhyiint. 1, JUt:
id sbdve flvo UiA
I, 5 16.
]
106 C4C8E OF COLOUR.
three parts; tbe external epidermis, or cuticle; the reticuit
mjicomim, called from its discoverer the Malphigian ; and lastly,
the inoer, or corium. The middle of theae, which very mach
resembles the external, so that by many it ia considered as
another scale of it, is evidently more spongy, thick, and blaek
in the Ethiopians; an<I in them, as in the rest of men, is the
primary seat of the diversity of colour. For in all the corium is
white, excepting where, here and there, it is slightly coloured by
the adhering reticulum ; but the epidermis seems to shade off into
the same colour as the reticulum, yet still so, that being diaphaa-
Otis' like a plat« of horn, it appears even in black men, if pi
perly separated, to be scarcely grey; and therefore can ha»
little if any influence on the diversity of the colour of men.
The seat of colour is pretty clear, but for a very long
back there have been many and great disputes about the caui
of it, especially in the Ethiopians. Some think it to he a sign
tlie curse of Cain' or Cham', and their posterity; others* hai
brought forward other hypotheses, amongst which the bile plaj
the most prominent part, and this was particularly advocated by-
Peter Barrere', following I>. Santorini'. Although this view
has been opposed by many', I do not think it ought altogether
to be neglected. The instances of persona affected with jaundice,
or chlorosis, of the fish mullet', and moreover the black bile' of
the Ethiopians, are all the less open to doubt, since more recent
authors" have observed the blood to be black, and tbe brain and
the spinal nmrrow to be of an ashy colour; and the phlegm of
1 If ttiH apidsrmu wore leu thin and not bo trsnapiLrent, perb^pi it would aBem
juit a> duV »» tht reticuluoi ; Jo. Fnjiton, Dm. FJI. Anat. pr. renor. Tannnt,
1741. 8*n. p. »7.
• A rccFDt supporter of this opinion is the IcaroeU Sun. Engd in Em. »ttr ctOe
qiuititm ipiand el romm. PJ m^r. a. t tilt lU ptupiit, T. rv. p. 96.
• Mnn. dt TrrjvHx, T. lxxjv. p, 1155.
■ B. S. AlbiDiu bu collected many id Dt Hdt el eauta color. aOi. tl fet. Ikom.
L. B, 1737, with the benutifullfeolaured pUtes of that capital artiat, J, Lodmind.
• Dm. T la cauK phy. de la cualeurda nigra. Paris, I741, umo. Coiou.
Diet. Enq/tL by De Felico, T. xxx. p. 199.
' Oi*. Anat, p. 1. ' Le Cat, Da la coal, dt la peau, him. p. ;).
' Saolorioi, J. <;. ' Barrere, I. e.
>° Mocksl, Mim. dc Btrl. iTn, 1757. Th« lioe of the negroea are blwl^ Long.
IL p. 3SI.
1)
^H COLOUR. 107
tii« northern nattons and other things of this kind seem to add
wuight to this opinion. But amongst all other causes of their
blackness, climate, and the influence of the soil, and the tempe-
rature, ti^ether with the mode of life, have the greatest influ-
ence. This is the old opinion of Aristotle, Alexander, Strabo,
and others', and one which we will try and confirm by instances
and arguments brought forward separately.
In the first place, then, there is an almost insensible and in-
definable transition from the pure white skin of the German
lady through the yellow, the red, and the dark nations, to the
Ethiopian of the very deepest black, and wo may observe this,
as we said just now in the case of stature, in the space of a few
degrees of latitude. Spain offera some trite examples; it is well
known that the Biscayan women are a shining white, the inha-
bitants of Granada on the contrary dark, to such an extent that
in this region the pictures of the Blessed Virgin and other saints
are painted of the same colour'. Those who live upon the
northern hank of the river Senegal are of ashy colour and
small body ; but those beyond are black, of tall stature and
robust, as if in that part of the world one district was green, and
the other burnt up'. And the same thing was observed by some
learned Frenchmen on the Cordilleras, that those who live im-
mediately under the mountains towards the west, and exposed
to the Pacific Ocean, seem almost as white as Europeans,
whereas on the contrary, the inhabitants of the opposite side,
who are exposed to constant burning winds, are Ukc the rest of
the Americans, copper-coloured*.
It is an old observation of Vitmvius' and Plluy* that the
northern nations are white, and this is clearly enough shown by
many Instances of other animals and plants. For partly the
1 CkL Rbixlig. Ced. AnL ix. 15, p. 439, ed. Aid. Comp. Maorub. in Somn.
Sdp. ti. 118, ed. H. Steph. oiJM^ ux atStnit u^.
' Comp. K Kale of colour in Utin. dr Tnr. I, t. p. 1190.
* Hmet, Carduiiu, Lt ivbtilit. L. 11. T. ill. Oper. p. 555.
* Boagaer, Vogagt i Peroa, Mim, lie rA(^. da 8e. de Parit, ij44, p, ijt.
* In t£« north ore to be loimJ n&tiooB of white coloor. p. 104, ed. De L>ert.
* On tbo oppoaite and icj ude of Uie world am natioiu of white ikiii, T. I.
p. til. ed. Hvit.
108
OOLODS.
flowers' of planU, tike the .animals of the nortbem r^ons, a
white, though they produce other colours in more southern lati-
tudes; and partly in the more temperate zones animals only be-
come white in winter, and in spring put on again their own natural
colour. Of the former we have instances in the wolves*, dogs*,
hares*, cattle*, crows', the chaffinch', itc, of the latter in the er-
mines', the squirrels*, harea", the ptarmigan ", the Corsican dog".
All of us are bom nearly red, and at last in progress of time the
skin of the Ethiopian infants turns to black", and oun to white,
whereas in the American the primitive red colour remans, except-
ing so far as that by change of climat« and the effects of their mode
of life those colours sensibly change, and as it were d^enerata
It is scarce worth while to notice the well-known difference
which occurs in the inhabitants of one and the same country,
whose skin varies wonderfully in colour, according to the kind of
life that they lead. The lace of the working man or the artizan,
exposed to the force of the sim and the weather, differs as much
^m the cheeks of a delicate female, as the man himself does
from the dark American, and he again from the Ethiopian.
Anatomists not un frequently fall in with the corpeea of the lowest
sort of men, whose reticulum comes much nearer to the black-
ness of the Ethiopians than to the brilliancy of the higher class
of European. Such an European, blacker than an Ethiop, was
dissected by Chr. GottL Ludwig"; & very dark reUculum has
been obserrcd by Gilnz", and very frequently by many othecB''jt_
) Cooip. Vtanj, Prodr. SHrf. GttO. ^
na^ Ike ooioBoa {icannMi ftci.
■ C!n»^ OnmL p. 91- * lb. p. loo.
*TS?'.
Jo. Nkk. PkUb. Ik Uiiii «t colon J^Aium
EDoo. 1677, Svo. p. i4l>B
" lb. p. 10. Jaia, JfMHjr. Lab. 1749, Stol
II Cr^s, I. c. p. toi. ■* limn. 3nt. K
" AJaiiwm,Lr. p. 11. Oo^ Cuqiw, Am. AmaL i>ttdL. L p^ t.,{
>* J>. W ffaUn-. Stnpt. ToL L p. 39J. " <)■ Hirv«L A la
•* Fnoc da Ket, ill t*& ff. i» *»IL Balkr, T. rr. p. ra^ .
F^mL T. r. ^ iS.
and I recollect that I myself dissected at Jena a man's corpse of
this kind, whose whole skin was brown, and In some parts, as in
the scrotum, almost black ; for it is well known that some parts
of the human body become more black than others, as, for ex-
ample, the genilals of either Bex, the tips of the breasts, and
other parts which easily verge towards a dark colour. Haller ob-
served in the groin ofa woman the reticulum so black' that it did
not seem to differ much irom that of an Ethiopian ; one as dark
io the groin of a man was in the possession of B. S. Albinus ; and
it is so common an occurrence in a woman's breast, that I cannot
be enough astonished that eminent men have been found to
^^Kckon the dark teats of the Samoyeds as prodigies', and there-
^Hhn to consider that nation as a particular species of man'.
^^B Such a diversity of the reticulum is seen in other animals
^t3so, and especially in the face of the Papio mavdril, a part of
which I have therefore had engraved, (PI. n. fig. 3.) There ia
a repon of the upper part of the eyelids, of the root of the nose,
and of the eye-brows, in which you may observe almost eveiy
vaj'iety of reticulum; the nose is plainly black, and also the part
where the eye-brows are inserted ; but that part which i^ lower
and more on the outside is sensibly brown, and at length
towards the outer comers of the eyes becomes pale. Not indeed
that I have found this blackness of the nose equally intense in
all the specimens of this ape which I have seen, since in apes, as
in man and in other animals, the greatest variety of ci>lour
occurs in the reticulum. In two specimens of the Simla cyno-.
moUfua the tint of the face was not very different from that of an
Ethiopian or a dark European; and this difference is so well
known and so common throughout the animal kingdom, espe-
y in the domestic quadruped.s, but above all in the vegetable'
-.
^ I. e. Abr. EutT. Boerh. Ftripir. Hipp. p. 1 1 ; bo dark in tlio piidond», Uut
jtia wootd not believe the iikin to be tlmt t>{ an European.
» itevt. nir It* Savugtdet tt let lajiitum, 176], Hvo. ji. 44.
' Lonl KuDca, L c.
• Two liandreil yeare igo it waa only the yellow tulip wliicli wu koown
in Europe; bnt what ■ vftriely at different coloured one* horticulturutl kra 4
now wyjiuunted with I See Ualler, on the subject of tlie vorietiea of auM. £iU.
raitrrnnie, 174+.
kingdom, that I can scarcely take notice of it, but prefer to r
turn at once to man.
We see white men in a lower class rendered brown by a hai
life; and it is equally certain that men of eouthem regioi
become whiter when they are less exposed to the effects I
the weather and the sun. We have the moat copious accoui
by travellers of the inhabitants of Guzerat', of the Malal
coast*, of the Caffres", of the Canadians*, and the Otaheitans*.
But besides their mode of life, old age and the change of country
have an influence in making the Ethiopians more white. For
■when the Ethiopians begin to approach their seventieth 3
the reticulum sensibly loses its dark colour, so that at last t
bulbs come out yellow', and the hair and beard are grey li
other nations; and if the young Ethiopian infante are brou|
into colder climates, it is certain that they lose a sensible qua|
tity of their blackness', and their colour begins to vei^e moj
and more towards brown,
, On the other hand, it is apparent that when white men 1
side a considerable time in the torrid zones they become l
and sensibly vei^e towards black with much greater facilifl
^ . e thoy dwell towsrfi
the tiortb, snd the more KgreoabU tbe raoii ia, the more their bliuik colour cbaugn
into brown, red, Mid yellow. The people of Barer an for tbe moat pKrt vs^
bUck, and for the wliole dnj long tbuy work and an burnt up in Bwe.-it uid 4vtt
by tbe rrtya of the bud. The better cIodb oFpeojile d<i not go so much into the lun,
nnd coDneqaentl; they ore not ao black, &a. Comp, 30. ConisH. p. 660.
* MlUlcr. Linn. Syil. Nat. I. p, 95.
• Sir Francis Roberval in Hakluyt, Vol. in. p. 141. "Tbe e»T»ges ot Canlda
are very while, but tbey are all aakcd, and if they were apparelled u tbe French
are they would be white and as fayre. But tbey paint themselvaa for fearo of beat
and gunne burning." "Thow who are paint«d and who wear clothea, bee>ni>e w
delicate in colour that tbey would be more readily taken for Spaaiarda Uian for
'- '"' — " 'a Hontan, I. ep. 16,
* Hawkeaworth, n. p. 197.
" Wilh. J. Muller, Fetu, p. 170. Mich. Hemmersam, Watind. Rdnen, p. 38.
I of Herodotus ware still black and bail curly haif.
p. 115, ed. Gronuv. Leo AMo. P. I. B. 3. L. M. A, a moat competent judge, uM
ID bia Iiuiit. Phytiolng. Pntav. 1773, Sro. p. 194 : "A cobbler of this nation Uitill
Upse of y
le looks ai
tbia country) boa so aenailily diniiniehod that be k
J*Hindice." And I myself have seen a mulatto woman bom from an EtUopian
atber and a white mother near Uotha, who in her very earliest infancy was sulBd-
ently dark; but in progreaa of time baa so deBencrated from her native colour, thai
aho now only retains a aort of cherry or yellow tint of skin.
He Spaniards who dwell under the equator in the new world
have so much degenerated towards the native colour of the soil,
that it has seemed very probable to eminent men', that had they
not taken care to preser\'e their paternal constitution by inter-
marrying with Europeans, but had chosen to follow the same
kind of life as the Ameiican nations, in a short time tbey would
have fallen into almost the same coloration, which we see in the
natives of South America. An Englishman who had spent only
three years with the Virginians, became exactly like them in
colour, and Smith', his countryman, could only recognize him by
his language. A colony of Portuguese, who were carried to
^—Afiica' in the fifteenth century, can scarcely now be distinguished
^■nm the aborigines. The French, whether they emigrate to
^^Bfrica or America, are invariably tinged with the brown colour
^^ff those countries*. I do not adduce here the numerous exam-
ples of Europeans who have become unnaturally black in their
own country*, or have brought forth black children*, nor of
Ethiopians who have been, at ail events in some parts of their
bodies, suddenly turned white^, since all these cases seem to in-
clude something diseased or morbid.
As by the climate so also by the mode of life the colours of
the body are seen to be changed. And this appears most clearly
in the unions of people of different tint«, in which cases the
most distinct and contrary colours so degenerate, that white men
may sensibly pass and be changed into black, and the contrary.
The hybrid offspring (if we may use that word) are distin-
guished by particular names; in using which, however, the
authors of travels vary so much, that it seemed to me worth
while to collect as many of these synonyms as I could, to reduce
them into grades of descending affinity, and exhibit them in
a qrnoptic form.
* Mem. de Trevousc, I,
' Han; inataacea are Dollected bj Le Cat, Coul, de la pcaii, p. I to
• r._i i.i._j-_ T . _ — g Froben, Lb C»t, p. 109. A black prmi
M4m. lU TVeroujc, 1. e. p. 1 1
' CbL Rhod'tg. I. e. p. 77G. Frnben, Le Cat, p. log. A black nruioa
to tbe queeu of Louii XIV. M4in. lU TVenwz, I. e. p. I t6S. Abr. Ki
imptl. fiK. p. 354.
' Lt Cat, p. 100. Frank, Philii. Tr. VoL LI. Part i. p. (76.
122
HTBRJDS.
1. The offspring of a black man and a white woman, 6
the reverse, is called Mulatto^, Mollaka', Meltitta; by
Italians, Berlin, Creole and Criole'; by the Inhabitana of Ma-
labar, Meati^\ The offspring of an American man and an
European woman, Mameluck", and Metif*.
2. The ot!spring of an European male with a Mulatt
female is called Terceron^, Caati^-o'. The son of an Europe
female from a Metif is called a Qiiarteroon'. The ofispring i
two Mulattoes is called Casque"; and of blacks and Mulatto
Griffa".
3. A Terceron female and an European produce quaterons*
postifos". Biit the American qnarteroon (who is of the s&a
degree as the black Terceron) produces from an Europe!
DCtavooTis".
4. The offspring of a quateroon male and a white femal
a quinteroon"; the child of an European woman with an J
rican octavoon is called by the Spaniards Puchuela^*.
It is plain therefore that the traces of blackness are pro
pagated to great-grandchildren ; but they do not keep complete
' Hitt. of Jamaica, II, p. 360. Aublet, Planttt dt la Guiait Franfoite, T.
p. [M, App.
■ Hemmsmin, t. e. p. 30.
* Thomiu H^fde on Abr. Perisol. Cormograph. p. 99, eel. Oian. 1691, 4ta.
* Christ. TdogliMi'a Oitiitd. Rate. y. 116. TranijuAur Mm. Btr. Cont. 33,
gig. Mtiiifo Luiilan. that ia, of mixed nee.
* Hitt. deVAcdttSc. de ParU, 17J4, p. 18.
" Lftbat, Foy. ata MftdeFAmfr. 11, p. lyi. RtiOurch. tttr ta Amir. t. p. igj;
Kewly-born matirs are diutiDjfuislied by tha colour of tbe geniUla fntm true bl■ok!^
for it is well known that thoie pnrts are bloclc evaii in tbe Ethiopian fcstua. Phit,
Fennio, Sur Ceeeonomie animale, Port I. p. :8o. Tliia aathor oulla the offiipriDK
of the blnck male and tbe Indian fem^Le KahougU, and the offipring of these atA
the whites Midaltat. p, 179. "
' Hitt. of Jamaica, i. c,
< Langhnn's Traaqa. Btr. I. c. Caati^, de hoa cotla, of a ^ood stock.
■ De Pauw, I. c " Canmml. Pari*. I. e.
" lb. p. 17. It is plain thkt the offspring of » Meslijo snd a Malabw
are bUck. Rtlal. Traaqscb. I f. Those irma a Mulatto on culled Samba to Hi
of Jamaica, I. C. p. 161, and the offspring of tbeao and bluika become blacka
" SUtofJam.L r. p. i6o.
" iianghaa'a Jlel. Tfaiiq. I. C. Posti^ means ad^Ud: thus a^ello PMlifO, (>
'* De Pauw, I. e. p. laa.
" llitt. of Jam. I. c. Tha children of Foati^ and whites are olearty whilti
TVonTu. Bir. I. c. According ta the aiithnr at the Bill, of Jamaica the cl " '
of a quinteroon and a white man became white.
" Db Pauw, I. c.
w omi
K
SPOTTED SKIS. 113
ibe d^rees we have just noticed, for tnins tjometimes are bom of
different colours; eiich as Femiin' says came from au EtLii-ipian
woman, of which tbe male waa a mulatto, but the female, like
mother, au intcQso block. And from all these cases, this
Icle^y proved, which I have been endeavouring by what has
said to demonstrate, that colour, whatever be its cause, be
it bile, or the influence of the sun, the air, or the climate, is,
at all events, an adventitious and easily changeable thing, and
can never constitute a diversity of species.
A great deal of weight has attached tc this opinion in con-
sequence of the veil-known examples of those men, whose
reticulum has been conspicuously variegated and spotted with
different colours. Lamothe' has described very carefully a boy
of this kind from the Antilles. Labat' saw the wife of a
Grifole like this, a native of Cayenne, and in other respects
baudsome. Chr, D, Schreber* has collected many examples; and
I myself had lately an opportunity of seeing an instance of this
sort of variegated skin. One of my friends, a physician, has a
reticulum of almost a purple colour, and distinctly marked with
very white spots, of different sizes, but eijual in other rospecLs,
and similar to the most sliining skin. And on the bock of his
right hand there were five white spots of tlie same kind, of which
each was almost equal to a thumb's breadth in diameter, inter-
spersed with numerous smaller ones. This phenomenon very
seldom occurs in men; but is very common in animals, espe-
cially in the reticulum of qnodnipeds. The throats of rams, for
example, are frequently so variegated, that you may observe in
idem the greatest similarity, both to the black skin of the
Ethiop and the white skin of the European. I have examined
many flocks of sheep in their pastures witli this object, and
I think 1 have observed, that the greater or smaller number of
black spots in the jaws answer to the greater or smaller quan-
of black wool on the animals themselves,
I, e. p. 178. * Uantb. Mag. x
I will say uo more of colour ; and now, harii^ diaposed of bU
tbe general Tarieties of tlie vbole htmun bodr, I will go on to
the direraty of the eep&nte puts and members; and will make
a beginning with the head and its craifonuatioiL. In tbe same
way that it is always tbe case thai tbeT« is tbe greatest posuble
differeoce between tbe skeletcci of tb« embryo and the adolt,
so above all, tbe bones of the eknll differ to such an extent
in both, that you woald' scarcely recogniae them as part« of the
same body. For the boaea which, in the adalt. constitute a
very solid case, and the hardest possiUe receptacle of what
is at once the softest and noUest entrait, in the embryo appear
only as tbin but broad scales, " which,' to tise the words of
Goiter', "are just &stened together by soft, broad, loose and
flaccid bonds, sutures and commissures" Now tbe skull of the
inlant is wet and sofl clay, and fit to be moulded into many
forms before it b perfectly solidified, so that if you consider the
innnmerable and simultaneous external and adventitious causes
in operation, you will no longer be able to wonder that the
forms of skulls tn adults should be different. But since fw
a considerable period of time singnlar shapes of the head havai
belonged to particidar nations, and peculiar skulls have
shaped out, in some of tliera certainly by artificial means, i1
will be our business to look at these things a little more
fully, and to consider how far they constitute different varieties
of the human race. For, although I only intend to recki
up in a passing way tho.<;e differences of tbe buman body whii
are due to art alone, still I intend to treat now a little more
length upon that part of the argument which has to do witli'
skulls, since things very nearly allied may be conveniently
embraced and handled at the same tima Claudius Galen*, be-
sides the common and symmetrical skull*, had ali-eady described
other skulls, which in some of their porta manifestly diffe
L
ft/M. iu™.rt.B/. OM, p. jg.
J)c uiu part, 1. IX. p. m. 544 >nd Dt oa. T. 1,
ruionni, 1603, fol. p. 68, Bg. 1—4.
• See tlie dLmeiuiong aud liefinitioiu of tbcM ii
■port. Fol. P. and Q. ad, I ji8. ElitoU. I. c. p. li.
p. 61, ed. 1634.
Fh. iDgTuoc ia h. L C
115
1 the common structure; and Andrew Veealius' and Barth.
Eustachiua* endeavoured to draw figures of them. But the forma
of these skulls seem to be so arbitrary and so monstrous, tjiat
Ihey are of little or no use to us at present, and seem rather
to belong to some morbid constitutions of the bones than to
auy natui-al varieties of heads. Let us follow nature herself,
and we shall reckon up the various shapes of the head in the
various nations, according to the four varieties of mankind
which we constituted.
To be^n with Germany itself, Vesalius' says that its inhabit-
ants are generally remarkable for having the occiput compressed
and the head wide ; and gives as a reason that infants in their
cradles generally sleep on their backs, and besides being wrapped
in swaddling-clothes, generally have their hands tied to tbeir
sides. This author also saw in the cemeteries of Styria and
Carinthia wonderfully di£ferent skulls, which from their extraor-
dinary shape seemed to be sports of nature'. Lauremberg' says
the female inhabitants of Hamburg of his day were long-
beaded, because they by bgaments and a foolish practice were
accustomed to elongate the head from the birth. The Belgians
are said to have their skulls more oblong' than other nations,
because the mothers permit their infanta to sleep wrapped up in
swaddling-clothes very much on the side and the temples'; but
however the description of a Batavian skull by De Fischer does
not answer to this', who praises in it the bones of the skull for
being but httle depressed around the sides, and making there
almost an equal arch. Albinus' declares that the skulU of the
' lie Corp. hum. /al/r, p. II, eiL tm.
' Tab. XLVI. f. lo, 15, 17, n little less moDslioUB thui th« figUT«a o{ Yeatiiut
uid lugrMsuu. Tlie nurst of all are in Matth. Meriajii, Via. ic part, carp. Aunt.
iaC.Vvikm.TA.AaaC. L.m. T.i. Cump. Bertini, OMtrolog. at ths end of Put U.
. $. and JD ful. Ajiol. cxata. (G»br. Cunena), p. 838, Opervm. Insfeldt
the aii&in of ibe (.lermun akuU is h&lf-waj between the oblung ot the Delgiuu
tlie rounJ ikul) of tbs Tiuka. IM Im. nal. L. B. 1771, p. 10.
OUm. PaUoi.. nam. p. 71^8, ed. B. S. Allilni.
I. e. p. 63, ' Inafaldt, I. c. '' Vegalint, I. t.
J, B. da Fischer, Dttanda fpa> ouuu ricinitaccomnoda«l parubut. r..B. 174 J,
4tOL Tab. Ut. A ravened copy ii given by J. Cusp. Lavater, Fliytiagnom. Fragm.
i
Vol. I
i Uif. Sat, p. i
116
English, the SfMrnisfc, and lYeBcb. are witboDt aaj peculiarity d
structure at all; and be is in most resipecta a veiy accurate I
obeerrcr of varieties of that kiod. Christopher Pflag informed 1
Yeaaliua that the skulls of the inhabitants of the Styrian AlpV^
were of a nngiil*r shape. The same YesaUus is of opinion that
the heads of the Genoese, and still more of the Greeks and the
Turks, are nearly of the shape of a sphere, and that it is done
through the care of the midwiTes when they bring their assists
ance, and sometimes thnn^h the great eolicitade of the mothers'.
There is a passage in Hippixrates' about tho skulls of the
Scythians, which is most worthr of notice. He says that after
they had applied artificial means fur a very long period in
shaptug tlieir heads, at last a kind of natural degeneration had
taken place, so that in his day there was no more necessity f
manual pressure to arrive at the end in view, but that the skd
grew up to be elongated of their own accortL And this kind a
thing should be examined in other varieties of mankind, e
cially as to form and colour, and their various causes, climate,
&c, which in the progress of time become hereditary and con-
stant, although they may have owed their first origin to advei
titious causes. The nations towards our north have genera
flatter faces'. Ebcr, Rosen is, so far as I know, the onJy write
who says that the Lapps of Lulah can, for the most part by .the
face being broad above*, attenuated below, with the cheeks
tailing in, and terminated in a long chin, be distinguished froi
the other Scandinavians'. J. B. de Fischer* has published J
drawing of a Calmuck's skull, and it is ugly, and nearly i
1 bad
^4
ndoJS
espe-
uate,
„ con-^^
advtm^M
ler&ofl
writeS
r.the
leeks
ed^
' /. f. But I do not Ke how Winkelm.nn {Oaeh. der Ku^il da Aliertk. T. l.
p. n) cao UBB Ibie paeaage of VcBaliue to prove ths influenm of n more fKVaantbla
climale Mil sky, wLen tlic Brusaela luiftloinist sttributei it to art nlope. MoreoTCT
those ikulla of the Turks which are presersBl in tho Royal Mustiim are much 1cm
oval, and of much leu elegant shape than the oomnion bends i.f onr countrjmBu :
and tlioretore a man so loanied in his art ousht to have »uJ iesii alAtat their
' Dl «r, ojB. rt loc. 35.
• ' OoUmnith, I. e, p. 114.
I T?"".!"** °i ""' ■'"'I' ".''" M»Ubar woman are also narrow. Leg. Aw. p. ^M
Dt Mtdit. Cappon. LuUia. Lond. Goth. 1751. Engmvod
LeaR'
* I. f. p. ■.
, Tab. I.
Insteldt, I. c. al»a calk the head of the Calmuck Bqui
SKDLL8. 117
pnMcbee a sqn&re in shape, and in many ways testifies to barba-
rism. But tiiis single example shows bow unfair it is to drav ■
conclusions as to the conformation of a whole race from one or
two specimens. For Pallas' describes the Calmucks as men of a
symmetrical, beautiful, and even round appearance, so that he
says their girls would find admirers in cultivated Europe. Nor
do the said skulls answer to the two very accurate representa-
tions of that Calrauck, a boy of eleven years old, who lately
^jjfuno from Russia with the court of Darmstadt, drawings of
^H^m I received from Carlsruhe. They represent a young man
^Hthandaome shape, lofty forehead and eye-brows; and whose
^^■oe agrees in this respect with the description of Pallas, and
diverges from the skuU in question, that the mouth mokes nearly
an equilateral triangle with the eyes furthest from it, which brings
^^glt the bead round instead of square. Passing from the most
^■Mb-casterly part of Asia by the Anadirski Archipelago into
^^Bprth America, we come to the tribes whose name is derived
^^■^ the singular form of their heads*. Either I am very much
^^BjBtaken, or it is a skutl of this sort which has been de.scrihed
^Hp) Winslow', and engraved by him. With its very protracted
occiput, its somewhat fiat forehead, the shape of the orbits, and
other aberrations of that sort from tho common structure, it seems
to present some similarity to the skull of a dog. We know at
present too little of the history of that country and its inhabit-
anta to l)e able to add the cause of that singular conformation :
but whatever it be, it seems that it must rather be iu the mode
of life, since the same peculiarity is observed sometimes in the
skulls of Europeans. I myself have in my possession a skull,
very ancient, dug out last summer from the city cemetery, which
is as like that American in the points I have mentioned', and in
every thing else, as one egg is to another.
i
, Slit. I, pp. 307. 3"-
,•* Ttli^plattt, or plati eSia dt ehient. De Vaug;otidj', I. e. p. 17, Int. Gj", long.
^ Engel, Tab. Am. Bona!.
Jfem, dt I'Ae. da &. dt Par!', 171J, p. 313, Tub. 16. It is laid to have
Men found in Hond-Eylani), lit. 78". long. 310".
* It tneuuTst ail Phiii inches and mons from the tpex of tli» iiHil bone to tbe
eitreme bnlgiog put of the occipital bone ; but only four in diameter from tbe
118
ESQCIUADX.
Finally, as to tlie inhabitants of Greenland, and of Labrador,'^
the former we are told by Cranz\ and the latter by Henry Eliia',
are longheaded and have flat faces. But I am afraid that the
accounts of these most trustworthy men have beon badly under-
stood by many, who have thence come to the conclusion that J
these nations are ba^Uy formed and almost monstrous in shape'ifl
Craoz himself says that a great many Greenlanders are to b*l
found with faces so oblong that it is difficult to distinguish tljem
from Europeans'; but as to the Esquimaux, I am led to a contrary
opinion by some very accurate drawings of three inhabitants of
Labnulor, whicli have lately come intiO my possession, and arej
painted in colours with great care by that excellent artist J"
Swertner, from copies sent by the Hernnhut Brothers, who ha«
an ejitablishment there. One is a male; and the two femalei
according to the custom of their nation, are clad with immenf
greaves, nearly reaching to their hips, and one of them carries I
child in her right saudaP; all however are of a reasonably ayi
me'trical and well-proportioned form. The face of the male
rather flat, and the nose but little prominent, though by nd
means turned up, the body square, and the heail large, (
be equal to the sixth part of his whole height; but the womei
are taller, and are seven of their own heads in length"; and iQ
you except their colour', which verges towards brown, are i
other respects of good appearance.
Let us turn to Asia, and look at our second variety, whid
dwells beyond the Ganges, and on the Islands, &c. The firat
oondflaid &pophf aea of tlio foramrn magnum tti tin? top of tbe IiFad : the focBin«B
mogaum is plact^d rallier tnwinlB tli« fniiit, and so tba occiput is Innger, and the
bonea of tbs head dncend in a more acute nnglc towartia the bue of the ikntl tlun
in Winilow'ii exiimple ; and so in that it memblea tbe ukuU of Cowper'e nkeletoa. -
Myot. rtform. Rg. ivin. •
I But. ofGrrtia. p. ijg.
' Voy. to Budton't Bay. p. 131,
' Henr. Home. L c. Bnffon, T. m, p, 485.
* Thii It conGnncd by the pictures of ilie Oroenlandsn made after the Ufa b
Adam OlsariuB, liattorf. Kantk. Tab. III. F. .—3.
» Cnmz, FotUeti. p. 310. Elliii, p. \}fi.
' They are placed by Alb. Diircr in his tables between Al and Br.
' Which is caused by their mode of life. Cnmx, Furtte/i. L c, Cemp, t
Uil. p. 17S.
SECOND VAEIETr.
tiling -we Bee ai*e the Aracaiil on the Ganges, who flatten the
foreheads of the newly-born with shoete of lead.
After these, going up to the Amur (Sahalien ula), the
northern termination of this variety, come the Chinese, who,
unless I am wrong, are less content than any other of the inha-
bitants of this world, with the natural conformation of their
body, and therefore use so many artificial means to distort it,
and squeeze it, that they differ from almost all other men in
most parts of their bodies. Their heads are usually oval, their
&ceH fiat, their eyes narrow, drawn up towards the external
lere, their noses small, and all their other peculiarities of
this kind are well known from the numerous pictures of them,
and from their china and pottery figures. Those Chinese
whom Blittner saw at London were exactly of this kind, and so
also was the great botanist Whang-at-tong (the yellow vian of
the East), whose acquaintance was made there by LicJitenhsrg.
But these artificial ways of moulding the head seem to have
more to do with the soft parts of the face than the bony struc-
ture, for Daubenton' reckons up many skulls of the Chinese and
Tartars, and declares that they differ in no way from the ordi-
nary skulls of Europeans, ITie other nations of this variety
looked at as a whole answer to those characters which I laid
down above as belonging to them.
The New Hollanders make such a transition to the third
variety, that we perceive a sensible progress in going from the
New Zealanders through the Otaheitans to the fourth. The
inhabitants of the Island Mallicolo', whom I was just speaking
of. differ from their neighbours by the strange form of head, in
vhicb late travellers assure us they approach nearest to the
figure of apes'. I do not see anything remarkable in the skulls
JJraa-. d» Ca'j. d.i ro/, Vol. XIV. n. M.CCO.XX.tlX.
ll is utuatod with Tumi and Ns« Caladonia in ij" S. L., and ia nearlj u
Buny degrees rrom the east cout of Naw Hollajid,
* I hope it will b« agreeable tu mj readura if I nppend a sbort description of
tbeae men, takea (ram tbe account of the younger Fnratcr, uid anmmutiicBted to
ne by Liohtenbn'g. " Contnixy to all expectation, we found tlie inliabitanla dif-
ferine in everything from all the other people «e liad hillierto seen in the .Southern
Ocean. They were of imnll stature, mrely exceeding 5 ft. 4 in. Their limbs were
•lender, and ill-ihaped \ their colour biackuh. brown, which waa made mure intense
120 THIRD VARIETY.
of tbe remaining iuhabitanU of the Pacific Occjld ; and so we wilt
go on to the third variety of mankind, that is, the Aiiicaa
nations, about whom we may be brief, since what thei'e is 1« bo
said about their skulls is of small importance. Those skulls of
mummies which I have seen are of round and spherical, but still
of elegant and symmetrical form.
The head of an Ethiop from the southern part of Africa baft
been carefully described by J. Beni de Fischer, as 1 quoted
above^. Broader in the upper region, suddenly narrowed, sharp-
ened from the front towards the middle of the frontal bone and i
over the eyes, and widely stretched out below these, and very
globular behind, he says that in its whole periphery it comes
be nearly of a triangular shape. And yet this description iff
scarcely satisfactory when I compare it with the Ethiopians that
I have seen myself and carefully examined, or with that skuU d
Peter Pauw*; for this latter, if you except tbe large occiput an^
the narrow orbits, has very little resemblance to the descriptioa
and very accurate engraving of Fischer.
There rcinaius the fourth variety of the human race belong'*
ing to America', except that part we have just been speaking o£
The same thing may be said of the iuhabitanta of this quarter,
which I have just observed about tbe Chinese, that they taki
great pains, and employ artiScial means, to distort the natura
form of their bodies into some other. This is especially the ca»
with the head ; and the most numerous evidences of the wonder
ful ways in which they compress it are to be found in the storiei
of travellers; but stilt wo are deficient in any accurate ezamina
n the face, and the greater part of the br>dy, by a blRck piguient. Their haad w
~'~ 'y formed, for it receiled mare from thu root of the dobs tbiui other a
■ingalarly fo
and preBcDtc
d preBcDteJ audi a resemblance tn that of the ape, that with one acoord wa all
CTq^reafled our aritoniihrntfot at it. Their noaea and lipa did not aeem more v^-
ibiipeD than thoae of otber nations of tbe Southern Ocean. The hiur of ihmr hi*d
wu lihtck, curly, and wuollj ; their heard tbick and long, uid leas like wool.
~ ■•■••• tightly, that it leeini Hen
other covering, except iv
g what other nation! try ui i
tnade it only atill mora cDDa|ncuaQa."
' I. e. Tab. ttl. pp, 14, i6. Ib it the aaine in LtffOl. Rat. d. XIII.
The bead of the Ethiopiaiia approaches the tiiangular ahupe.
• Prlmit. Ama. p. 19. ' Rccherch. pliUui. tar fw A m
uf«UtJ.«.
FOUBTH VAEIETY.
121
skulls of this kiod, nor is it sufficiently clear in what
of the head the greatest change takes place. J. Cardan*
that the heads of the iohabitants of the old Portus Provin-
cise were square, and deficient in the occiput, Hunauld' has
exhibited the skull of a Carib, but it has been either so care-
lessly engraved, or is so misshapen, that 1 should prefer to con-
sider it a£ a monstrosity, than to believe such to be the osseous
conformation of a whole nation. The enormous bones of the
the little holes which give an exit to the nerves and
'ties of the same size as the external auditory canal, the
;ular and large-lobed zygoma, the upper jaw deeply incised
the;,matrices of the teeth, and other things of this sort, excite
suspicion that this di'awing was done in a hurry'. Finally, as
North America, Charlevoix describes the heads of one of the
ladiau nations as globular, and the other as flat*.
So much then about the shape of skulls. From what has
;d said I trust that it is more than euflUciently clear, that
Imoat all the diversity of the form of the head in different
nations is to lie attributed to the mode of life and to art:
although I should very willingly admit the position of Hippocra-
that with the progress of time art may degenerate into a
md nature, since it has a very considerable influence in all
other variations of mankind.
The physiognomy and the peculiar lineaments of the whole
countenance iu different nations opens up a very vast and agree-
able field. In many they are sufficiently settled, and are such
.thful exponents of the climate and the mode of life, that even
many generations spent in a foreign climate they can still
recognized. But, besides other reasons, the want of suffi-
ciently faithful and accurately delineated pictures forbids ine to
wander in that direction. 1 took a great deal of pains to com-
pare pictures drawn from the life of more remote and, at pre-
sent, little known nations; but 1 have been able to obtain very
» St rtr. rarifl. I. Vlll. c. XLlll. p. i6j. T. hi. Oprr. Cap. Mnrngnon, Brmil.
• Men. dt VA r. den &:. dr Pari; 1 7+0. p. 3; j. Tab. 16. fig. 1 .
• BUt. di la BOHwUe Frana, in. pp. 187, JJ4. Algonquirn. Tfllei in Boiilc.
' /i. p. 3*3. Fl«t biadi ; eoob r work of art.
I
■ 142
few; aad tbere ue not many amkocs td tisv^ whose pictare^
M Eu-M legmk tbe Kkenewe* of iftioiw, ata be tmsted. If
JOB exoqA tbe tmI wodt of tbs bntken De Bfjr, the 6nt
edHioas of the tnnjs of OoneGwB Le Bnm, tbe Tutaiy of Nic.
IViteen, tbe diazy of 3 y da^ BnkiiMoe, and tbe voyages of Oook
bimnel^ and except ■ome gc a mo e wpM e nto t ioM scattered about
here and tbere in Tarieaa faoi^ eapedalljr in tbe work of
S. R. Lavatei on phniognoaiy. then ate man; oaUo&s of whom
you cao find no tnistwoithy pMturafc
Heanwhile, it wiQ be eaoogb to bring fn-ward a few ex-
amples, of wbich the Jewish nice presents the most notorioos
and least deceptive, which can easily be rect^nized everywhere
by their eyes alone, which breathe of the East The Yallones,
thongh they have hved among the Swedes toi many yeara, still
preserve tbe lineaments of the &ce, wbSdi are peculiar to tbem,
and by which they can be distinguished at the first glance from
the aborigines'. The clear and open countenance of the Swiss,
tbe cheerful one of the young Savoyard^ the manly and serioua
Turks', the simple and guileless look of the nations of the
extreme north', can easily be distinguished, even by those
skilled in physiognomy.
The matter is a bttle more difficult in some nations of tfa»|
especially in the west of Europe, who, it has been ob-;
by some eminent men, from some reason or other, ars
•-^beerful and sanguine in youth, but, as manhood advances, be-
come more morose, and inclined to be of a melancholy tem-
perament*. In our other varieties the lineaments of the face
are very much more persistent To say nothing of the Chinese,
who I have mentioned make their heads so much out of shape
that it would be hazardous to say how much in them ia to
' Clu AtotrttnieT On dtn Jh-alti^ /Sr-avdn. Stock. 1770, iie. p. 76. I
* RoMtil, JUppo, Niebi^r, Bom. &o. I
* Samojcd. L« Bruii, Vog, Amit. 1716. f. n. 7. 8, and p. 9. He Txrlus o^
Hlb«riB, it. p. 104. Tha OMi»ki, p. 1 u. Tha Greenliindi!™ in Oittr. l.e, Tb« '
Enqiiiiakui ID our jiiutures ■pproicb very much lu the Swaojeil. Le Brun, a. 7
■mi 8,
* BoHThaftve, Pral, mpropr. intt. i. 879. "Tho luliktu, pDrtutmeie. uid Spaniih
too rividouf and pUjful up to the eighteenth year : after tha thirtieth year thqj
all bcuome ud, moroM, melancholy, uid lubject to bnmorrhjkgee." '
I
J
Ot
HDb€
tiai
tfaa
dep
AFRICANS.
referred to nature and how much to art, the inhabitants of
Pacific Ocean retain evident examples of persistent physio-
Ipiomy. Every one, for instance, will recognize the fierce and
aav^e countenance of the New- Hoi landers and New-Zealanders
by looking at the magnificent plates of Parkinson', whereas the
Otaheitans, on the contrary, looked at as a whole, seem to be
s milder disposition, aa also the many picturea* of them by
B same well-known author testify*.
Although almost all the nations of Africa are sufficiently dis-
tinguished by persistent and peculiar lineaments of face, still the
ancient Egyptians, and the inhabitants of the south of Africa,
differ very much by their singular physiognomy from the rest,
both of the Africans and of mankind. All the monuments of the
oldart of the ancient Egyptians, from the statue of Memnon down
to the pottery seals which are found with the mummies, show
likeDessea veiy similar, and all closely resembling each other.
The face ia somewhat long, but by no means emaciated, the nose
minent, broad towards the nostrils, and ending in a sharpish
ibe, and finally the mouth small, girdled with sweUing lips, all of
'hich are most positive and unmistakeable signs of the Egyp-
tian head. The appearance of the Ethiopians is so well known
that it would be superfluous to say much on that point. Their
depressed nose, which has been attributed by some to art*, most
.recent authors, and those eye-witnesses, have shown to be due
nat^re^ and the two Ethiopian fcetiises pre-served in the
lyal Museum are exactly like the figures of Buysch' and
Seba^. and answer to this description. For although the nose
in almost all human embryos is depressed, still the Ethiopians
> PLi
III. £c.
' PL V
I > Whui their facea arn secD in praflle, they are verj distinct from tfas (moutti
I »«H oqUAble couuten&nce of tho Chinefle, Ihrough thair distiactly prominent nose,
lip«, )uid chin, Ac. This vu often obierTetl in the men of both natioiu liy Lich-
tenberj, who knew the Chiuene i wmi spcuking of und tha OtoheiCui O-msi (whitj]
is commonlj, but wrongly made > triayUabla Omiu-a) at LoudoQ, und haa afteu
wondend at lh« divenity of Iheir facn.
* Henuoeraam, p. 37. ' Muller, Fria, p. jt.
■ TAet. Anat. lU. t. 1. The forehend ia more narrow than in any other (mtus,
■■ ia alieon by one of the ipecimeas in the Koyal Mnwum.
' IXw. T. L Tab. CM. f, 3.
F
■ of wk
at wham ve are ^lakiae hnc tkcsr wrTi. or iutefsticeB (
OK tfaa I i|MiMi« of ladom) ■> 1 i | i ■ ■ t i ! . tlut even a
wide Aa swdKag 1^ aay «ae ca«y tdl the Dftiioo from tbei
A few ndttkH of &■ hann hoij nmaui t
siiicii I think dnoU be rttTanM la art alone, wad w1
bare to do Titk Aa p"**"**— • t™«*»«" of memben and
The luur wiea verf mwh aaMipt mast men, both in colcwr
and fonn. bat in aone ■T**"Tt k oJT a eoBrtant character. And
ae it is said to be nniranl that whibt eoioats obtain more in
the DOTth, and brown in tbe aoatk, ao blaiA hair and black eyeii
se«m to be asaai in the lonid aooe^ and l^t hair with
ejes in tbe oolda- refions'. Bat, beyond all, the hair of
Ethiopians is oonspicDoos for its intense Uack ami its fdngolar
wooliiness, whidi bowevira' is 00 more coi^Enital with them than
the colour <^ their skin, bat both have berai contracted, as
we have seen, br the progress of time and the beat of the sun*.
For tbe Ethiopian foetus, 1 mentioned, is covered with hght
brown straight bair^ whkh scarcely differ from the down of the
Eunf>ean embryo; so that it is probable that the tint of
akin and the hair are changed sensibly at the same time;
have already, observed that the Ethiopians get paler in old
and that their hair aUo grows white; and it is a well-knoi
thing, tbat in other men, in proportion as their skin is broi
BO are tlie genitals covered with curly hair. We are also
in his last work, by D. Antonios de UUoa', that the Ethiopians
of Darien have hair, though black, still straight, Others too
have declared, and I myself have often observed, that the sti
tore of the Ethiopian liair is the same as that of other mi
and the bulb of it as white.
Many authors tell us that the feet of the Ethiopians
badly formed, in more than one way. The author of ti
eya^
bha^
the^
' Avlosrins, Canon, h. I. Pm. I. i. , _
■ CbI. KhoJigin, t. «, p. 440, ed. Aid. For drieil-n|
* IVolkiat Anurifoniu. Madrid, 1733, 4I0. £
u tumad b
1. xvn. p. 305.
SPLAT FEET.
Mordum (said to be Virgil) reckona up their many defects as
follows':
With leg* at) tbin, snd feet ao v'uleXy sptajed,
Tlie wrinkled becta peri^clanl slita betrajed.
And Hier, Mercurialis agrees with him, for he says that these
slita in the feet arc endemic to the Ethiopians*. Another
passage worthy of notice in to be foimd in Petroniua', which, as
Heyne* tella us, refers to the Ethiopian slaves, bke those we
call negroes. Csel. Rhodiginua' says that the Egyptians and
Ethiopians have splay feet, &c., which, however, do not seem
to be by any means common to entire nations; for Albert
Djirer', after speaking of these deformities in the feet of tlie
Ethiopians, adds that he has seen many well and symmetri-
cally formed; nor was I able to observe anything of this kind
^^H the Ethiopians I have seen myself.
^^h That the breasts of Uie Ethiopian' and other* southern
^PBimen are pendulous and contracted, from their mode of life
^Tijid habits of lactation, wants scarcely any testimony adduced.
To those mutations of tlie human body which are occasioned
by the mode of life, we may also add those which owe their
origin to the difference of langu^es, and which are sometimes
to be found in the very organs of speech. To attribute this
difference, with J. Senebier', to the influence of beat or cold,
is forbidden by a slight comparison of neighbouring languages.
Wlio could possibly attribute to the chmate the tact that the
Ephraimites said Sibolet instead of Schiboht; that the Chinese
cannot pronounce the letters R and D ; or the Spaniards the final
M, or the inhabitants of the Marquesas and the Greenlanders
of Kamtschadale Tech and ks. But the prodigious labours of
^K ' T. 3S, ' Dc deroral. p. roj.
^ * A lot. "Cui nre fill our lips with an I3g]j iwelliogt con we crisp our hair
with Ml iroDt mvI mark our foralje&d with Rcnra? and distend our abutLs into a
curvsl >nd draw oar heeb down to the earth! and change our beard into a foniifu
faahionl "
* Ad ifonti, I. e. ' (. t. ed. Aid.
■ I.e. FnLT. in. ' rermin, (Ecoa. Aniia. p. itj.
* Hottsntota. Kolben, Vorg^, dt g. H. p. 474. The inhabituita of Horn
Idkitd to Is. Mure, and Schonlen in DalrTmpls'i 6'o/fae(. T. n. p. 5S.
* '" -' ■"-' Gcnev. 1775, 8vo. T. Jl. p. iJ?.
I
1 26 MUTILATIONS.
BUttner on this point forbid me to be more prolix on the matttf.
for be bus coliecteil with incredible labour all that relat«B
the subject, and will very soon give it to the press.
I pass on to those things which, besides the shape of thai
head, are apt to be changed by the aid of art in tbfi other
of the body amongst various nations. Aud first of all I mean
speak of mutilations, where members and parts of the body aw"'
cut or torn out, &c. The Scriptures, and the stories of Hero-
dotus' about the Colcbians, the Egyptians and the Ethiopians,
and the wide extent of the practice", all prove that circumcision
is exceedingly ancient. Nor is it confined entirely to the<
stronger sex, for amongst many oriental people it is applied ii''
the weaker sex, and that part of their pudenda which answers*
to the prepuce of the virile member is cut off; of which cer«*
moiiy copious testimony both from ancient and modem writer*
has been collected by Mart, Schurigius' and Theod. TroncbinVi
It will be enough for us at present to give our readers a draw^'
ing (PI. II. fig. 4) of the genitals of a circumcised girl rfl
eighteen years old, which I owe to the kindness of Niebuhr,
who has also allowed me to give- it to the public. When that
famous company went to travel in Asia, one of the questions
proposed to them was about this circumcision of both seies'j
and this illustrious man', who was the sole survivor of the ex-
pedition, settlcii this, as well as almost all the others; so much
so as to bring back this drawing I am speaking of, which the
great artist, 0. W. Baureufeind, had taken from tlie life. In it
you can see the body itself of the clitoris, bare and deprived of
its prepuce, hanging from the upper commissure of the labia,
Fonter, l.c . -_,.
' So klio t*. B«Uon, 01:1. III. c l8; Althougb lia addi obicurel;, tb&t tbe put
irliich U in Greek csIIbiI Aysunfo U in Lftlin alat, TbeveooC lays thej do not
eptle even thcae dice or viogB. Vtn/. L n. c. 74, Howover the Greek worda for
these piula ve oflrii contouuded: see their genuine eipLuiKtioni in H. Slephani
Vietion. Mtd. pp. jjC, uiil 599, uid Joaeli. Camenrias, C'ontninl. utniu;. jtnywp,
* Mulithr. pp. 116, 141. ParOitml. p. 379,
' Diit. de Clitoridf, p. m. Jj.
• Miohnelia, Frnipn. p, IJJ. ' Bachr. r, Arji. p. 7;,
I
MCTIIJ.TIOSS.
nader the pubis, which is abraded, and below it lie the orifices
of the urethra, and the vagina: if percliance some may think
these things are not particularly well done, they must excuse
the baste of the draughtsman'.
£uQucb8 have not so much to do with the matter in hand, as
monorchides, one of whose testicles is extracted during infancy.
First, this custom prevails amongst the Hottentots, who gene-
rally in the eighth, and sometimes, if we can trust Kolben', in
the eighteenth year, are made monorchides. They suppose it
makes them run quicker; but travellers remark that at the
same time it affects their fertility*. The Swiss peasants not
unfrequeutly imdergo the like loss of a testicle, that being the
way in which the neiglibours used to cure ruptures'.
To mutilations I refer the custom of eradicating the hair in
different parts of the body practised by some nations. Thus
the Bursts keep only the hair below the chin, and pluck out
the rest'^ the Turks destroy' by various unguents the hair in
every part of the body except on the liead and the heard : the
Otaheitans eradicate' the hairs under the armpit; and almost
all the people of America extirpate the beard, which gave rise
to the old idea', that the Americans were naturally beardless.
But this story scarcely needs refutation. Lionel Wafer* ex-
pressly says about the inhabitants of Darien, that they would
have beards if they did not pluck them out : and there is still
a little beard in our picture of the male Esquimaux, though
the rest of his face is smooth'*. I say nothing of the artificial
keniDg of the teeth " amongst others, and other mutilations
^Biarpeni
^m ■ Bad
BaureufBUid desigued it after nature, bnt wlLb a
• L« BniD, Fbj. p. I
* Leonh. RaDwoir, Rata
' HawkesworUi, T. ii. p. 188.
■ Kepeated Utely in Siclitrch. lur la A mtricaini, T. I. p. 37. Quttt. tur I'En-
ryet. T. yn. p. of
/•(Am. of Afriea, p. io6.
' Tlie bearded raw of the Enqniniaui. Charlotoix, m. p. 179. A btarded
liUnt ofnemdelFuEe"* P^lciiooii, VoL I. Thui from kil pirla of America,
Elhiapiani. Henuneraam, p. J7.
so as
H>pu-
138 DISFIOUKEHENTS.
of equally little importance. First of all, I refer to deformitai
those OQOrraoua and pendulous ears, which from a very loo^
time have been so much in favour among many nations, so as
to give a foundation to the old story about the Scythian popu-
lations in Pontus, that they have such large ears that they c
cover tlieir whole bodies with them'. We have certain i
formation about the inhabitants of Malabar, of C. Comoria^
Benares, the Moluccas*, and MaUicolo*, that they use various
artifices to make their ears a^ large as possible, and truly mon-
strous. The picture of a man of the south in Com. Le Brun
represents them as disfigured in a wonderful way*. We are
told by some English travellers in southern countries how thfl
New Zealaudera studiously prolong the prepuce of the penis*.
The immense nails of the Chinese' are well knowiu The
custom of making women thin by a particular diet is very
ancient, and has prevailed amongst the most refined nations*,
so pohteness and respect forbid us to cla^ it, with Linnaeus'
amongst deformities. Though the use of pigments and dif-
ferent kinds of paint does not cliange the shapes of the mem-
bers themselves, yet it is so constant in some nations, that
it would clearly be wrong to leave it untouched. Some merely
smear their skin with pigments, whilst others first of all prick
it with a needle, and then rub the colours in, which in this
way adhore most tenaciously. Both customs have prevailed
amongst the most remote and different nations. The Eana-
gystie'", the Califomiaus", the Turks", the inhabitants of the
island of Santa Croce", and Mallicolo, of New Holland", and
Pompon. Mela, 1. m. dc Uitp. tt Sept. imidU.
Ziibn, Bptc. T. lit. p. fi
' SohrBjer, p. 1 1 7,
» MuimU. TnDsylv. in . ,
* They perfonte Uiem with reeil>. * n. iqy.
* Uawkeiirartb, VoL m. p. 50, ' 01. Toree, p. 69.
■ Chiena in TeTcDca, Bunueh. u. 3. 11.
* Sytt. Nat. xu. [. p, 39.
" In the Kul-jolc ibIiuuIs of the OlutorUn >rchi|ielAga. SUchlin, t. e p. Ji.
» Bogert, p. 109.
" RjHiwolt, IIiiwbI, Nitbuhr, in eitlier work.
»» Intensely bUck. Alvaro MenJana da Ni^yra in Dalrymplo, Vol. I. p. 78.
'* ParkiiuoD, PL XXTII. The abdomi^n iind the legi distinguiihed bj whits
Cupa Terde', paint themselves'. We know that tlie Tungus',
the Tschuktschi* the Arabians', the Esquiiaaux*, the New-Zear
landeis', the Otaheitaas', and many nations over all America'
draw designs in the skin with a needle, or what we call tattoo
themselves.
And thia is pretty well all that I have to tell about the
variations of the human body and its members, whether oc-
casioned by climate, or mode of life, or diverse miions, or finally,
by artificial means. Any one will easily see that our discussion
has been about the varieties of whole nations, and that we have
nothing to do with those peculiarities which happen acciden-
tally to one or two individuals; and therefore I am quite justi-
fied in making no mention here of those unfortunate children,
who have been now and then found amongst wild beasts ; and
all the more because everything which is known of those in-
stances has been diligently collected and dealt with in a regular
way by the industry of some famous men". Their more im-
portant, and more uoble part, that is reason, remains unculti-
vated; but hard necessity has so perverted their human nature,
that I should be inclined to refer these antluroporaorphous
creatures, who are so like beasts, to the Itominea nionatroai of
Liuuffua
* In blua. GrBbm, p. 19.
' On the WMjient PicW, see Martini OD Buff. AU/>. JVat Qrteh. vi. p. 158.
> La Sialic oucerlf, Petenb. 1774, fol. Foao, I. Tab. v. Coloured plates. La
Bmn, p. 1 16. J. G. Giaelin, Rtit. 1. p. 77, u. p. S47,
* Knachoilnikiif, EamlKkatta, Part II. p. 151-
' Niebnhr, Reia. i. Tab. 1.11. An irabUn woman of Tehima.
* Tba womHi in ray plat* are depicU'd witb a double raw of punctures on the
fronted aicb, and a single one under tbe lower lip.
' Parkinaon, PI. xvi. xu. sun. ' lb. PI. vn,
' At letigth, John de Laet. adti. Hug. Grot, dt Orig. Gnt, Anttrk, Aniat. 1G43,
Sto. p. 104. CoDfulluis in M«t. AVrdt. ed, BnttamE. Rom. 1773, fol. Pai-t L
Tab. L a. coL plalei. In IlcTra del Fuego, Parkins. PL I. Instuicei of anoieot
liibes are collected by Ph. Cluver, Oermaa. avtiipia, p. 119.
JO For ancient initaacea sea .Elian, r. i. L in. 0. ^■*. Aloi. ab Alex. Otnial.
dirr. L II. c. 31. Herudot. 1. I. hail doubts about Cfrus. Livj, 1. t. 0. 4, aliout
Homulus and Bemua. Plin; defends tlie utary, vilL 15, XV. 18, and Plutarch
tCotmi. c. II. On the child of Gargnris by his daughter see Justin. L XLIV. c 4.
Among raeent authon see for a well-vritten DoUectioD of hiBtories, Henr. Conr.
Ecpnig, ScAed. dt horn, inter ferm educai. ilatu not. aolilario, Haoover, 1730, ^to.
Ph. l^iii.Bo»:Ur,dtSlatii,Amniar. Uon.fer. Argent. 1756, 4to. iAtm. AnSuroptm.
T. TL Amanil. ac. p. 6j, and Syi, Nat. I. e. p. 18, at l^igth Martini, I. c. p. ifij.
130 Ai.Bi)n»f.
The diseases to which the human body is subject wouU
appear to be much less to our purpose than even the wild etaU
of those children ; and yet I am anwiUingly compelled to in-
trude here upon pathology, because of the recent mistaJces of
some famous men, who have not hesitated to consider the a
flicted perrons about whom I am going to speak, not only a
peculiar species of the human race, but even as the ss
the apes. There is a disorder affecting both the skin and t
eyes at the same time', which sometimes occurs amongst met
of the most different nations, and amongst some kinds of qui
rupedfl, and birds. Aa we saw above that the whiteness «
organized bodies was due to cold, so now we have to considi
another kind of diseased whiteness which does not depend upt
cold. It seems to be found in plants* also, but is more fre-
quently observed, and appears with stronger and more remark-
able symptoma in animals, whose skin and hair, or whose
feathers and quills, become of an unnaturally chalky, or milky
hair, and their eyes grey, or reddish. In some few genera this
singular condition seems to become a second nature, so th»t_
they produce offspring like themselves, and the same colour a
preserved to all generations ; in most however instances of t
sort seem scattered and anomalous ; they spring from parents d|
the usual colour, and very often have offspring like them a
or at all events the case is conBned within the limits of a fell
fain i ties.
Of the first sort the best known examples are white rabbU^
which are called, not inaptly, by Nic. le Cat', the leuccethiops ■
their kind. Their fur is always a constant snowy white, whin
their eyes are rosy or red, but in other rabbits grey or bla
They are deficient in that black pigment which Unes interoaUijI
' I un Buqiriacd to see ttiat soina eminp
this leuctethiapia to be a duease, and go bo
whitencBB which comea U> animiilB in the w'
paGtad from man aldUed io physiology, and
tauce of the bUck pigment vrhich is dniwn
u entirely defioient in thij duordor.
■ Hyuinthl, rosat, Ac. obnnge uioDi»IanBl; their native coloor into iriiit*.
len to ttx differ from ma ■■ to dtny
u to confound it with tlut nMonl
; wiiich I ahDald acuealy hnv ex-
must bo awarp of the great impor-
the internal ytxta of tbe ejrn, and
» Colli, dt i
pttt". p. JJ.
OF ANIMALS.
the ejes of all the mammalia, the birds, the acaphibious a
many of the fishes, and even insects, and whose seat is to be
foondin the cellular web which lines the choroidal membraue.aad
the uvea, &c That this blackness is of the greatest coDsefjucnce
towards sound and good rision is proved, besides other ways, by
tile iveak eye-sight of those animals in whom, as in the white
rabbit, that pigment is entirely wanting, or even in some consider-
able proportion'. For even, those animals in whom the tapetum
is blue or green are less able to bear a clear and noonday light,
in proportion as they have that part larger or more conspicuous;
OS may bo observed in the cat and other animals whosa habita
are nocturnal. But yet in them the external side of I
choroid, and whatever internal part there is besides the tape-
tum, is covered with the usual blackness, of wliich however not
a vestige appears in the rabbits we are speaking of Hence an
immense quantity of vessels, if they are turgid with blood, seem
to be transparent with a sort of rosy or auburn colour through
the pupil and in the iris; but this beautiful rosy hue perishes
if the bulb of the eye is taken away from the orbit and the
blood flows out; and it remains, if you first of all replenish the
same vessels with dull-red suot. The pupil is, as in all the
animals of which we shall speak, very large, even after death ;
the iris, if cut off from the vessels, white, and bai-ely fibrous;
which, if it is the case with the iiis of other animals, clearly
shows that the absence of circular fibres is connected with this
deficiency of extraneous pigment: its vessels are beautifully
curved; so also the folds of the ciliary processes, if the injection
lias b«en properly pcrfunued, &c. As this defect of the eyes
) common to this kind of rabbits, that their females, when
nbraced by black or grey males, produce ofispring with white
i red eyes, it is not to be wondered at if they become easily
iustomed to the light, and able to endure the glare of day,
I The nature of white mice is otherwise compounded, for
though they preserve for many generations the snowy colour
r fur, and the red colour of their eyes, ao far, lite rabbits.
' The eborotd growi pale in olU men.
I
rt ■!)> be iH«fa—iLi»iad» breed pecafiw
; far ^Aaa^ Amb b«« vkite hair, jtA tbeir
booA and ejes we bleek, ead, Mwdi ng to the ofaaenBtioos
of Kenting, tbej btve alio tbe nif Jfe ^ i»yU «MM i brara.
I mjri^ hftve ■een wUte de^ whb led eyes ; a *»»"*irtT of
the nine tott I owe to tbe libetalitj' of Snls; and eocfa ■
•qairrel wac kept living hy J. J. Wagner*.
Amongst binbt, wfatte varietieB are known to oocur in
Canaiy-birds, pwrota and oocks, and toj seldom, but oocfr-
aionallj', in ctowb.
Finally, as to men who sofler from this defect, the aceoants
of tbem have been by some recent anthora so deformed, and so
mixed up with fables, thai we may easily panlon those who
have allowed themselves to be deceived, and have not heatated
to make out of tbem a particular species of mankind. It wiU j
therefore be our busineas to separate tbe stones from the trutli
to show that the disease, so (ax from forming a species, does n
even form a peculiar variety of maukind ; to narrate
Hymptoms in detail; and to show that it was known to thaS
ancients, and has spread over almost all the world
The other immense merits of Linnieiis, and my own r
for so greai a man, forbid me to say much about his {
mintake, repeated in so many editions* of his magnificent woil
and wliicb other learned men declare was put forth in all {
■ PKytUal. l<liulit
' Edni. CliB)ini>n, di 'Lrudtth.
* Hill. AW. HrlTTl p. iSj.
♦3t»-
£utlt. espedaUy after the severe oensuroB of Buffon' aiul Puiw*.
It will be BuScient to sam it up tn a few words: that the
attnbates of apes are there mixed ap with those of men— for
a body UsM than oun ty Aa{^ <y«s deep in their orUt, joined
fo the membrana mctUaitat and a lateral vigion at the same time
on both sides', (&« Jatgtn of the hand touching the knees when
in on erect position, the wrinkled skin of the pubis', and finaUy,
the whispering tongue and those arrogant conceits, the hope
of future dominion, etc. have nothiog to do with the highest
work of the Supreme Being, but must be relegated to tho
r^on of fable.
There is a disease of the human body, for the most part
congenital, exactly like that which I have shown to attack
certain animals ; it is, however, different in this, that it plays
with the symptoms, and now attacks man lightly, and now
severely; in some countries it is rare, in others more frequent
and endemic; here it is propagated in families, there it seizes
people capriciously and individually. It affects the skiu and
the eyes at the same time, and therefore seems referable either
to tetter or to luscitio*: that it is relatt-d to both, will be plain
from an enumeration of the symptoms. A^ to the skin, or
rather the cuticle, which is the principal sest of disease, in
this disease it is affected in more than one way; it is indeed
always of a diseased whiteness, and the hair* or groin are co-
loured in the same way; but the nature of the epiderm itself
undergoes all sorts of mutations, though it is not always entirely
' T. XIV. * BeA. turUiAm.T. ii. p. 69.
» Dalin. J*>. And. T. vi. p. 74. * lb. i>. 73.
* Lutcitio: A coinphintof the ejee, when the ught is better iatheeTeuing thut
at nud-dii;. Fatna. In the suiiB leim HippocntsB usei the rvxraXnTlai.
Prorrh. u. Gden, Iiag. Plin. I. uviii. 0. 1 1, uid Thood. PrwcUn, L I. c. 10.
Vuro, on the oonlrmr;, ctUt thoee hucilum who cumot see ia the eveuing^ kod
.^tiiu, P>Tviu, Actiuriui, ftad Uriruiu* call thosu luiraXwirfi wbo «h during
Uii day. but not to well when the mn sets, and at nigbt not at all. See more
about Uua mafunon of tcrnu in H. Stephan. Dicl. Med. p. 4:8, Ann. Foea, (Earn.
Uiypotr. p. 163. Tr. Tannnann on PUul. Mil. m. jj, and Jo. Hanluin on Plin,
I, c p. 471. R. Aug. Vogel futlowa Hippocr. dt tagn. el ear. e, k, nff. p. 475,
where the nnctalopia of the andcnta U uid to be blindnam by day (Hemtmlopiti
of the iDodenu), and the hemeralopia of the andents {nactalopia of the modema)
U laid to be the periodical bhndneaa whicb cornea on at twilight,
' See Aotoar. I. a,, ». iiayr. niffiiiw, c. 13.
affected, bst, ia nra tmett A* pines an scuured over the
antaee of Um body. Tka^ busMU. ^o are ill in this way
man be eanfiBj Mfvatad friB Ask uaa vfao hare the re«
paiti-coloined. nd «f vfaoa I kne spok^ above'. la the
diBesM of vhkk I am ■iii niiaHiii. it haa been observed in
the Ettt Lidie^ by Bado^*, dat tba ipoCa an roogh and ckd
be dirtbigniAed by tbe toot^ fcn the net of the akin.
Strablenbezg' and Joba Bdl* ny a rt that parti-ooloared peiwmc
of tnia kind are feoDd ■mnagnl tiie Tartars; and tbe aocoonti
of Hall' deaoibe the Xalabara aa laaikcd hj large qiotfl of
the same kind, of a jeOowish white, and make the disorder
•otnethhig like leprosy. CSooely alUed to this sort of disease is
that in which the skin of the body becoiDee white, with spots of
another colonr, as yellow*, scattered over il', or where the colour
ia a mixture of red and white*, or where the &ce at least
retuns its natural redness*.
In most cases however, the whole skin, though not in the
same way, becomes n^te. For in many, little or nothing at
all in the epidermis is changed, except the colour, so that in
other respects there is no s^'mptom of any dbe-ase at all. Such
are many of the inhabitants of the isthmus of Darien, most
carefully described by Lionel Wafer", who are said t^i be covered
with a copious, though thin and snowy down. Like this also
was a beautiful woman from the neighbouring island of Temata,
whom Le Brun" says was a concubine of the king of Bantam;
and also a boy of five years old, shown to the Academy of Paris".
The English poet" speaks of another, lately shown in London,
' !>. 5. • Sohreb«r, SacuglA. p. ij.
' In Siberia. A'^rdoif/. Ear. u. Atta, p. 111.
• Zolims. See Ball's TraitU from Prtenb. toditerttporUof Aiia.GUug. 1763,
4to. T. I. p- Sg. He kttril>iite« ic to »currj,
> Tranqueb. Mia. Ber. Contin. ZXI. p. 741. So tiao horHa tun; ba wen
tpottsd black unci wbite.
• Like treoltlo*. ^ Trtaujutb. Str. Cmtin. cvi. p. ijji.
' lb. Conlia. ILVI. p. iljp-
' OUt. Goldamitb, i/^iiK. of ike Earth, T. It. p. 141. Wbethar tha OtaheiiMl ia
Parkinton, p. 17, wu of this kind I dare not decide.
" p. 107. " p. 3J3.
" JJitl. dt TAe. da Sri, 1 744, o. T. p. 1 3. Volt»ii^ Jttlmg. T. ra. p. 316.
Manpertuin, Vrmu phi/iiquc, p. 147.
■> Goldnnilh, I. e.
1 a skin like that of an European. In many, however, the
epidermia too is scabby. I read the same about a Tamiil
schooLm aster, whose skin as it were came oti' in scales, and be-
came almost of a red colour'. The disease is called the white
leprosy, in Malabar Wonkuschiam or WeHkuschtam'. Allied to
this also is the crusted leprosy of some inhabitanta of Paraguay,
recalling the scales of fish, painless, and in no ways affecting
the general health". The white Ethiopians too are made
lepers by Ludolph', and so are the inhabitants of Guinea by
Isaac Voss'. I myself have been acquainted for many years
with a Saxon youth, whose whole akin, not excepting even his
face and the palms of the hands, was rough with white, and
as it were calcareous scales, which appeared red through the
numerous interstices, and as it were fissures, of the crust.
Sometimes these scales peeled off, and then the limbs looked
redder; but new ones instantly grew up. The groin was white;
the hair and the eye-brows, if I recollect right, of a mouse
colour. For those hairs do not, like that on the groin, keep
the same colour in this disease, but vary in the most capricious
way. Most have white', soft hair, exactly like goats' wool'.
Nor in these is the colour constant, but as they grow older
is often changed into rosy', Voss" attributes red and yellow
hair to his LeuccBthiopians : the hair was yellow in the Malabar
Kiily", golden in the Manilla girl of G. Jos. Camelli".
So much about one phase of our disorder, which occurs
h tetter ; the other phase, as I have said, affects the eyes,
and belongs to lv«citio, yet it is wonderful how the symptoms
of it differ. In many the eyelids become turgid, winking"; the
ri GotU. Anut. Freylioghauwo, neuert MUtum* Otielikliie, 8 bL p. 107:.
* Traiu/urb. U. B. Cmt. cvi. p. 1133 not.
=■ LtUi'cM cdiSiinttt, Rec. xiv. ji. 111. * Iliit. jBlhiopiea, t. e. 14 g 33,
* De iVi/i cl alior. Jtut, origiai:, p. 68.
' See da Gruben, I. e. Wafer, p. ;o8. Tnin'imli. Mia. So: Conlin. M,n.
c. vt. ka.
' /A. Goldsmith, I, c. "The hur «■> white and woollj, uul veiy unlike *n;
thing I had ■ecu befors."
■ Trangwb. M. B. CmU. ovi. p. :i83 not. • (. e.
'" Mia. JSer. Cmt. ou. p. 6jj.
" PKitot. Tram. a. 307, p. 2568. " Lo Bnm, K c.
a of WiM f iq,', wfc^ A> B^ im too rtrong. It
■e ijw>lHiii» I latdy de-
tk faiK afcita height daring
L he coaU aoC nwlii] the hn E hti w i of the
L of ioa. 1m ao^tt the iris is in
, and the p^di «t mtgiiiet that they can
mrwte cljectat es kttci o'. The colours of
, but all rather pale, so that
Imb l^kk is absrabed, >nd the retina all the more affected.
Id some the cyee are rosy, as in the ftnimaU we meotioDed.
I have myself known soch, two sooe and the daughter of b
Freech peasant*. Maupertois and Voltaire difEer in their de-
ecriptioo of the eyes of 17M LeocfBthiopiaBs who weie seen at
Paris ; for one calls them rosy, the other akyHxloured, They
may however be reconciled if we follow Fontenelle*, who eap
that the iris, &c. appears red in a certain position of the eyes only.
The man that Goldsmith saw had red eyes. Sky-coloured eyes
are not however uncommon in this disease. For as this colour
always denotes weak vision, according to A\-icemia and Averroes,
aa quoted by Hermann Conring*. so espemlly it often occurs
in our nuttalopes. The young man I knew had sky-coloured
eyea And those Malabars who suffer from white leprosy com-
bined with luscitio, have eyes of a similar colour' ; and so also
tliose who are said to exist in the kingdom of Loango*. Dap-
per says they have grey eyes. I am not quite siue whether
this is the (Hseasc under which the family of Jerome Cardan
' Wnfer, p. 108. "Their eyelidi band >Dd op«n in an oblong fipire, pointing
downward at the comm, und forming an iircii or Ggnra of k orMcant with the
poinU downwards. From henne, and from their geeing bo dear as they do in >
nioon*hinr night, we uiied to cjill them moon^ejod." „ „ , „
* De vitafil. hum. rfijWic. in Nor. Conm. Sot S. 8c. Omting. T. m. p. 179.
■ Mif. Str. Coal. Xhvi. p. 1140.
* In the pw^h of Ch«npniei«, one-and-a-hftlf Icaguee from Civray, 1763, vara
• I. e. Hill. An. Par. ' Oe hob. Gtm.
' TVoM. JtfiM. fl«r, Oonl. OT. p. 637, and CVI. p. 1*83.
• VoB. I. c p. 68.
AUIHOB.
137
labonred. For he aaya, in his own life', "my father waa red,
aod had white eyes, and saw by night;" and again, ".my eldest
son had eyee exactly like bim;" and again, about the same
child', "like my father, with amall, white eyes, which were
never at rest;" and elsewhere about himself: "In my early
youth, immediately I awoke, though in extreme darkness, I
saw everything exactly as if it had been bright day-light : but
in a short time I lost this power. Even now I can see a little,
but not so as to discern anything."
Let 80 much suffice about external condition of the skin
and eyefl in those suffering under this disorder. There is still
a little to be aaid about the rest of the constitution of their
body. In the first place, it does nqt follow that they all are
either foul or dirty. We are told that many of them belong to
the court of the king of Loango'. Certainly another was the
mistress of the king of Bantam", and such a woman of Malabar*
married an European soldier. She is described as of square body
and round cheeks, And they seem at all events strong enough
to do their business by night, In fact, it ia said that they make
hostile incursions into the neighbouring countries by night', and
that the Portuguese have carried off others from Guinea to
Brazil, to make them work in the gold mines : this certainly
would be a kind of life in which nuctalopia would be of some use.
Others seem to be of weak and feeble constitution. So
Wafer speaks of the inhabitants of Darien'. The French of the
parish of Champniers can scarcely stand being in the open air.
The Malabars certainly cannot endure long journeyH* and are
speedily fatigued'" with the wind and the heat". The brightness
of the sun makes their eyes water", but they see pretty well in
cloudy weather".
» p. 70-
i6i, T, m, (W«.
' Ik rer. raritt, 1. Tin.
* VoamiM, t. c. ' Le Bnin, I.e.
' Miu. Ber. Cant, on, p. iiSi.
' De Gtoben, l. e. Georg, Agricola, de Anim. tulterr. They
by bumiiig ftuienkl pilei, backuas they ouinat benr (be lighta,
people in oompuiioa of the other."
Frnylingluasaii, I. e. '" Mill. Ber, CotU. ixvi. p. iji.
'■'"•■■' '" W»fer, " FreyUnghuiMn.
Frnylingluasaii, I. e.
' lb. Mid Freylingh. I. e.
< IWi>iin wUbi her Amnr
r iq> fivB iafaa^, nipliiM tke '■^oig BHUer to tbs
I too «M vfcot^' okjs bei, "wbon I trowgh i v^
) UfBa of tno a gi w widi tbe preaeat w^ of Um
1 ihe M niraoleeB j«>n M, vhich is jusi the ticM
» fiTpaiwI MocvOTcr. tke appeusDce of the f^st
it ; uai I reoognao that tbe wkole aspect of tbe
, and the beaatifBl figvra wltkh ~
with Alt iriuch I then saw*.' Peihafs also ibe attay of tha
tfhmalr child Aristotle* qnaks of nuT be thna eoplaiiia^
which wa* bam of the adi^tamn cenDerion of a SicUiat) wvaaa
with an .^thiop; and did not have the ooloor of her &tber.
bat in process of time gave Inrth to a son, vbo was entirely
black, like bU graDdEfttber. Tbe andentE knew this disorder
also as endemic, so tbat tbev gave names to whole nations and
regiotkB in conseqoence. It seeros probaMe thst Albania, on
tbe omfines of the Caucasian mountains and Anoenia', had
INSTANCES.
firom this, about which Isigonua of Nice' speaks thus:
" Some are bom there with grey eyes, white from early child-
hood, who see better by night than by day'. Another nation
of this kind acquired the name of LeuccEthiopes, hence trans-
ferred to all who suffer from this disease. They are mentioned
by Pomponius Mela', Pliny', Ptolemy', and Agathemerus*, but
are not noticed by Strabo, Julius Honorius', Lster jEthicua',
the amooyinous writer of Ravenna, &c They do not however
agree as to the country which the Leuocethiopes are said to
inhabit. Mela and Pliny place them with the libyco-Egyptians,
near the Libyan sea. Job. Reinhold, in the plates to his edition
,Qf Mela, about long. 50" N. lat. 15°,' But Ptolemy says the
" icoethiopea live under Mount Ryssa, which, according to
'Anville, is the name for Cape Verde. However that may be,
for our purpose, that this disease was not unknown
to the ancients.
We have seen that there are modem instances in the most
difiereut and widely separated parts of the earth ; and it will
worth our while to add a few more, and in a few words
reckon them up in the order of our four varieties. I have
carefully described a youth of our own Germany. Edm. Chap-
man relates that instances have been known in Spain and
France. Nic Le Cat saw some children bom at Batisbon.
I have already noticed the case of those in the parish of Champ-
niera, and what Cardan says of his Itahan family, G. Agricola
and Olaufi Magnus found men of this kind in Scandinavia.
The accounts from Tranquebar tell us of many Malabars. They
contemptuously called there kakerUicken^', from their resem-
Lce t-o the eastern moth, which is a parti-coloured and noc-
tnmaJ insect. And this disorder occurs in Labrador, if indeed
»PliQ.l.vm. 0. J,p. 37,.
■ Camp. Silmiu. ad Soliii. c, I1, and GeUina, Noa. All. I. IX. o. 4.
» L. I. c. 4, p. II, ed.L. B. ijia. Oq wliioh BBS John de Watt. Thna they call
tome Elhio|dan8, who in oomparuon nilh otliera may be wid to be whibiih, neither
aXteaeihtT while, nor altogether bUok, p. 15;, ed. Bna. 1543,
* L, V. c 8, p. ISI. Hard.
• Im. rv. c. 6, p. 77, ed. Mich. Scrveti, Lu([d. 1541.
' Oeor^. 1. I. 0. 5. ' Excirpt, eotmogr. > A> » thtw^t.
' HarduiD on Viiti. In the desert of Sahara.
" DUkalaken, Mitt. Btr. ami. an. p. 1183. KalkaUtton, eont. Olt. p. 637,
■ieu<
Ka.
Kftis
_iii£
HThei
^Bree
^Uan<
PATHOtOOT.
the Champagne girl, Le Blanc, belonged to the Esquimaux, u
is most likely'.
Lenccethiopians (if we may apply the old term to theM
also) of the second variety of mankind have been known 1
the islands of Java", Borneo*, Manila', and others
Ternata, and in New Guinea' and Otaheite'. Of the third
variety, are found instances to the south beyond the foun-
tains of the Nile', and towards the river Senegal', whoa
mouth lies under the Ryssadian promontory, and still furtht
south in Guinea* and its kingdom of Loaugo, and, tinally, in ti
interior of Kaflfraria" and the island of Madagascar". The foul
variety can produce its Blafarda on the isthmus of Darien, i
the kingdom of Mexico", in Tucuman, and Paraguay.
But our digressioD from the subject of natural history and
the varieties of mankind to pathology and diseases has been
already too long. Those must bear the blame who have con-_
founded men sufi'ering under disease with the beasts, which t!
dignity of mankind demanded should be separated, and (
referred to their own place.
It would be an immcDse and irrelevant labour, if I were
to give an account of all the disorders which, according to the
authors of medical observations, journals, &c.,
in the human body, in every quarter, contrary to nature,
transition from hence to monsters would be easy, and so on ti
general nosology; and thus the divine study of natural hist«
woidd nm up into a confused and formless mass. Let us leave
therefore unnoticed, for physiologists and pathologists, the black
and homy epidermis of the Italian boy", or the Englishman"!
and others, and similar peculiar aberrations from the natu)
condition. Nor have we anything to do with the dire disord
' Iliit. d'ane jeune JilU tauragf, ftc. Pur. 1761, ximo. H«r oountrymet
-fsre nucialopes, and did buiiDcu bj night, fto., uid »he had Uucilio, p, 36, &«.
' Lflgoat. T. u. p. 136. > Yon. • Camclli, I. e.
' VoM. • HnwtoBWOrtli, Vol. 11, p. 188. Parkinson, p. J7.
' Tom. « Cbapmui. ' Grolxin, VoFiiot. FortUK Atbiwit.
" Sim. t. d. 8tel in T»oluirt, Sion, p. 1 10.
" De CoMigny in HUt. <U CAc. da &i. I. e. " lb.
" SUlf. V. d. WiHl, Ob$. cent. u. p. 376, Tab. n. itub. 1 1, fig. i, j, 3. I
" The porcupine roan. G. Edwardj, OirontnjtD/jVaturalffiHory, Vo£ r, p,llM
the^
nen
thin]
'oun-
arthdl
intl^
FoiiriM
en. i^l
y and
been
J eon-
cbtbJ
leaM
were
to the
^urrei^
Thdfl
ontfl
istory^
leave
bhl£k
nan^iH
itutd^l
lordflflH
of cretinism, irliich is by no means peculiar to the inhabitants
of the Vallaia, but has been noticed elsewhere', though dis-
torted here and there by wonderful stories'.
It seems almost too much even to name in this place the
centaurs, sirens, cynocephali, satyrs, pigmies', giants, herma-
phrodites, and other idle creatures of that kind. Still, I con-
aider it necessary to spend a little time upon the men with
tails, since they have fallen in with some modern patrons.
There ia an old story about the islands of the Satyrs in Pliny*,
Ptolemy', and Pausaniaa', and often repeated afterwards by
Marco Polo, Munster and others, that men exist there with
■ha^y tails, like the pictures of the satyrs, who are of iucre-
Hble swiftness, Ac. When the passages in these writers have
ipared, it soems most likely that these islands of the
Satyrs answer to our Borneo, Celebes', &c., and that the tailed
apes have been taken for men. But a new story about men
with tails to be found here and there lias made much more
to do. For partly, it is said, that men having tails are found
lUt thecity of Turkestan*, in the island of Formosa*, Borneo",
icobar", &c.;partly the very pictures of tailed men of this kind
have been exhibited". But upon a full consideration of the
matter, there is much which leads to the behef that the whole
story is founded upon the fictions I have spoken of For, as to
the accounts about them, many of them manifestly depend upon
the narrations of others; and they who say they have themselves
seen tailed men of this kind bear no very good reputation.
_ shagg
Mble
Hbeen
■Saty
apes
with
Hi tod
Kbot
1 HalW, A rmW Ruptmi, Nor. Comm. GatU. T. i. p. ^3.
' See in Guiaduit, Yariat. dt la nat. daas Vapire kvin. Pam, 1771, 8vb, in
Bnrytt. dt Par. altered in ed. De Felice, T. XII, p. ,^11.
' Comp. the book of Tyaon on tbe«e Bloriea. Apes ware genenllj palmeiJ upon
tnidlen, »nd thii I auipect to h«vo been the cam with the Mftdagucar pijjmiaa of
Commenon, ia De la Lande. See Boxier, O61. Sept. 1775.
* 1. Ti. •m. c ». p.m. 374. » 1. Ti. c. II. • Id Ailtea.
' Baa after ll^aon. Jo. Caverhiil, On Ihi htoutedge of the uneimt* in At Eatt
IndUi. Phil. Trant. Vol. LVii. p. 1;].
• Pel. EytaohkoT. Orttiburg. Topogr. T. n, p. 34.
■ J. Ott. Helbig. EpK N. C. Peo. h. aan. ix. p. 4J6, Hane, Ow. ind. diar.
-, i\6.
" Will. Hanaj, de Gta. p. 194, ed. oper. Lend. ij66.
" Nila MatthnoD Kening, Rtta, ed. 4to. Waaterai, 1759, Svo, p. rji.
■* Martini on Buff. b%. not. Getrk.T. v[. p. 44, Ta.^). a. drr ga^wantU Maach.
DE
GENERIS HUMANI
VARIETATE NATIVA
BDITIO TERTIA.
PRiBMiaSA EST EPISTOLA
AD YIBUM PEBILLUSTREM
JOSEPHUM BANKS, BARONETUM,
UEOIS SOOUTATIS LONDINI PBiBSIDBM.
AUCTORB
JO. FRID. BLUMENBACH, M.D
■irSDIM eOCIRATIS BOOALI.
GOTTINGiE :
APUD YANDENHOEK ET BTJPRECHT.
1795.
10
Non hie Oentavrotj non Oorgonat, ffarpya$jue
Invenia; hominem pagina nodra aapit.
MabtiaLi Lib. X. Epigr. 4.
Letter to Sir Joaepli BatJta.
Index of the anthropological collection of the author, vhich ho
illustrating this new edition, viz.
Bkulta of different rucea.
I. Very characteristic ftetuacs of the middle and the two
extreme Tarictics.
III. Htiir and hatrs of diffurent races.
IV. Anatomical preparations.
V. Collection of pictures.
Explanation of the platea.
SECTION I.
J THE DIFFCltENCE BETWEEN MAN ASD OTHER ANIMALS.
^H DifBculty of the question ; order of discussion ; external conform -
HbJon; erect position; proved natural to man; broad and flat pelvis;
^Tdation of the soft jMirts to the human j)elvia; the hymen, nymphte,
snd clitoris; man a bimanous animid; apes ami kindred animals
quadnunanous; properties of the human teeth ; other peculiarities of
man; internal peculiarities; internal iHirts which man has not;
intermaxillary bone; difference of internal paiiis; functional pecu-
liarities of man; mental peculiarities, laugliter and teais; diseases
BCpliar to man; recapitulation of diffei-encea falaely ascribed to man.
SECTION II.
OK THE CAUSES AND WAYS BY WH[CH ANIMALS DEOBKERATE
Object of this undei-taking ; what is species; application to the
question of human species, or varieties; how the primitive species
degenerates Into varieties; phenomena of degeneration in animals;
10—2
COS TENTS.
coloDT, hair; BtstDre; proportion; form of tlie fltull; caases of de-
^eatniaoa; forautire force; climale; aliment; mode of life;
hybriiUty; diseased bereditary dispoMtions; mutilstione; tre tbo;
{■n^agftted? canttona to be observed in inTestigating degeueraticai.
SEXTTION ni.
OH TBI ouna Am vats ik iraicK icaiikikd hatz dbozssu
IS PABnCCI-AS.
Order of ducnsgion; seat of colonr; Tarietiea of racial colour;
canaes of this Tarietv; further illustration of cansee ; Creoles; mulat-
toes; diirlc nkin witli white spots; Eiugnlar niatations of colonrj
other propertic)! of racial akin; agreemeot of hair and akin; varietiei
of racial hair; agreement of the iris «dth the Lair; colonn of thfr
aye; racial face; varieties of racial face; caascs tliercof ; racial fbra.
of bIcuIIh; fiu:ial line of Camper; remarks; norma verlicalis; isciil
varieties of skulls; can-scs of the same; racial varieties of teetli, ai
causes; other racial varieties; eara; breoste; genitals; legs; feet and
hands; varieties of stature; Fabtgonians; Quimos; causes of r,
stature; fabulous varieties of mankiiid; story of tailed nations)
diseased variety; epili^e.
SECTION IV.
FIVE PEirrOIPAL VARIETIES OF MANKIND, ONE BPBC1E9.
Varieties of mankind run into one anotlier; five principal va
ties; cliftrftctori sties and limits; Caucasian; Mongolian; Ethiopi
American; Malay; divisions of other authors; remarks on the Oaa*-
cftsian, &c. ', conclusion.
SIR JOSEPH BANKS.
There are many reasons, illustrious Sir, why I ought to
I'Offer and dedicate to you this book, whatever it may be worth.
' besides my wish to express some time or other my
B of gratitiido for the innumerable favours you have con-
. upon me, from the time I came to have a nearer ac-
i^uaintauce witli you; this very edition of my book, which now
a out with fresh care bestowed uiion it. owes in great part
) your hberality the splendid additions and the very remark-
lable ornaments in which it excels the former ones. For many
Vyears pa.st you have spared neither pains nor expense to
VBiinch my collection of the skulls of diffcrt^nt nations with those
l^pecimens I was so anxious above all to obtain, Z mean of
T Americans, and the inhabitants of the inlands of the Southern
VOcean. And besides, when I visited London about three years
igo, with the same generous liberality with which you extended
3 uae of your nursery to our Gaertner, and other riches of your
' museum to others, you gave me in my turn the unrestricted
use of all the collections of treasures relating to the study of
Anthropology, in which your library abounds ; I mean the pic-
■ turea, and the drawings, &c. taken by the best artists from the
9 itself. So I have been able to get copies of them and to
^describe whatever I Uked, and at last, assisted by so many new
Hid important additions, to proceed to the recasting of my
x>ok, and am bold enough to say, now it has been amplified in
150 LINSXU?.
80 nuiDy ways, without incurring any suspicion of boasting, that
it has been poliabed and perfected as far as ita nature permita.
Accept then graciously this little work, which is so much in
fact your own; and I hope that in this way it will not be dis-
pleasing to you because it treats of a part of natural history,
which though second to no other in importance, slill hag most
surprisingly been above all others the longest neglected
uncultivated.
It is one of the merits of the immortal Linnaeus, that more
than sixty years ago, in the first edition of his Sijstcma Ifatunx,
ho was the first, as far as I know, of writers on natural history,
who attempted to arrange mankind in certain varieties according
to their external characters; and that with sufficient accuracy,
considering that then only four parts of the terraqueous globo
and its inhabitants were known.
But after your three-years' voyage round the world, illostri-
ous Sir, when a more accurate knowledge of the nations who
are dispersed far and wide over the islands of the SouthenL
Ocean had bcon obtained by the cultivators of natural history
and anthropology, it became very clear that the Linnsean di-
vision of mankind could no longer be adhered to; for which
reason I, in this little work, ceased like others t? follow UuA
illustrious man, and had no hesitation in arranging the varieties
of man according to the truth of nature, the knowledge of
which we owe principally to your industry and most carefiil
observation.
Indeed though the general method of Linnxus, of arranging
the mammalia according to their mode of dentition, was very
convenient at the time he founded it, yet now afler so many
and such important species of this class have been discovered,
I think that it will be useful and profitable to the students of
zoology, to give it up as very imperfect and liable to vast
exceptions, and to substitute for that artificial system one mora
natural, deduced from the universal characteristics of the mam-
malia.
I am indeed very much opposed to the opinions of those,
who, especially of late, have amused their ingenuity so much
DOStH
an4^|
I
_Jak<
Hfeiotj
L'ilAtH OF NATUBE.
witli what they call tlie continuity or gradation of nature; and
have aought for a proof of the wisdom of the Creator, and tbo
perfection of the creation in the idea, as they say, that oaturo
takea no leaps, and that the natural productions of the three
igdoma of nature, as far as regards their external confonnar
Bon, follow one upon another like the stops in a scale, or like
points and joinings in a chain. But those who examine the
matter without prejudice, and seriously, see clearly that even
in the animal kingdom there are whole clasaea on the one hand,
Rs that of birds, or genera, as that of cuttle-fish, which can only
be joined on to the neighbouring divisions in those kinds of
plans of the gradation of natural productions but indifferently
and by a kiud of violence. And on the other hand, that there
are genera of animaJs, as silkworms, in whicli there is so gi'eat
A difference in the appearance of either sex, that if you wanted
to refer them to a scale of that kind, it would be necessary to
aeparato the males as far as possible from their females, and to
place the different sexes of the same species in the moat diffe-
rent places possible.
And in this kind of systems, ao far from their being filled
up. there are large gaps where the natural kingdoms are very
plainly separated one from another. There are other things
of tliia kind; and so although after due conaideratlou of theao
things I cannot altogother recognize so much weiglit and im-
-tance in this doctriue of the gradation of nature, as ia com-
rnly ascribed to it by tbo physico-thcologians, still I will
iw this to belong to both these metaphorical and allegorical
usemeuta, that they do not throw any obstacle in facihtating
method of the study of natural history.
For they make as it were tho basia of every natural system,
way in which things rank according to their universal con-
ition, and the greatest number of external qualities in which
ley coincide with each other, whereas the artificial systems, on
e contrary, recognize single characters only as the foundation
their arrangement.
And when I found it was beyond all doubt that a natural
tm of that kind was preferable to an ai-tificial one, because
162
it is of meb we in A»y^Mg Ab ji\gMft *nd assisting tlw I
menKHT, I apffiod mjmM aB A* aan to bai^ the claas e'
Tnam"}*''* into Ife MO^ of s Batnl syitaa of I
especiaOj as that ailifiiiU <Be 4f liaavai^ dedaoeil from o
panscm of the UnA , ib caaaeqa^wB rf tk« aoDeBnoii of so n
recently detected ipeda ia Acaa tiiaia, tame evenr day to l
enciunbeied widi awn ti na Ma we ■wt—Bfii and exceptioni
So that, for t
we now are acqoaiated vnh tao ipeaea of
their habit as Hke as posnUe to oack other, hot ao
in their deatitioa, that if «e aeie amr obliged
linnsAii Bystem, «« Bhoald have to lefcr one
B^tue, and the other to tbe Otirtt. And ia
would be oeceesaij to Temore the Ethiopian boar, i^
destitute of the piimaiy teeth, froB the other B^Iucb and place
it among the Bnta of linnaeoB. I say nothing of that African
Myrmecophaga dnlata wfaidt, aocordiitg to the idea of Linna»i^
would have to be 8c|iaiated from the genus edtntaUi, or of
of the Lemoree (the t'wlri aiid laniger) which, on acoouni'
of the anomalies of their dentitioD, woold have to be eepi^
rated from the Linnaaan genus of Lemores No one will deny
that this confusion threw the greatest possible obstacles in
the way of the study of zooI<^y, and I have tried to remedy it
by constructing the following ten natural orders of mammalia,
a statement of which I may here subjoin, because I shall b^
quently make mention of them in the present work.
na»i^ ■
aonujS
oouni^
BimanuR.
IIL
Bradvpoda. i
1.
Homo.
6.
Bradypua. "
Quadnimana.
7.
Myrmecophaga.
2.
Stmui.
8.
Mania.
3.
Papio.
9.
Tabt\
4.
Cercopithecna.
IV.
Chi
iroptera.
5.
Lemur.
10.
Vespertilio.
1
■ I am leiy far indeed from tbat itch far innovation which kfilicti
t])« roodorus, *lin lake a wonderful dalight in giving new namea to
Epoduotioni which hnve already reoeired names very well known to i
Inil of plnjing at onomatojieia hu been m great miarortuiie to the study
ui; lor toil I
N.\TUML
ORDKns. 153
V. Clip
...
VII.
Solidungula.
11.
SciurvB.
32. Squm.
12.
Olii.
VIII.
Pecora.
13.
Mm.
33. Camelm.
14.
Marmota.
34. Capra.
15.
Cavia.
3.5. Antii^pe.
16.
Lepua.
36. Boa.
17.
Jacutua.
37. Cira/o.
18.
Caator.
38. Certm.
19.
Huatrix.
39. Moachua.
VL Fone.
IX.
BeUuK
20.
Eritmceiis.
10. «ur.
21.
Sor-a.
41. Tapir.
22.
TaljM.
42. Elephaa.
23.
Diddphia.
43. Rliimcmia
Hi.
Fiwrra.
44. Hippopatamm.
25.
Afuatda.
45. Trichecm.
26.
Lutnl.
X.
Cetacea.
27,
Pima.
46. Monodon.
28.
Melea.
4". Baltxna.
29.
Uraua.
48. Piyirfo-.
30.
CanU.
49. Dalphiima.
31.
Felia.
Uitoi;. So I luiTe rei; uldoin deserted the (enninology «f LinnBui in the
(;«tatiu:Ha tuttnes of the nummiOu, and then mmt unwillingly, snd only when the
Dune adopted bj th<it learned aau evidently involved «a eiToneoni and fnliio
notion. Bo, for eiample, I have restored to the armaililloea the native neneric
name of Tatit, for the Linniean Darsput h&d ootbiny to justify it. Wb all know
Uiia Dame i> Greek, vaA denotea lui ■nimnl remvknble for ite bairj Feet, and so
was fpyea by the anciecUi to the hars and the rabbit, becaU:ie in tbem above atl
Mhen the palms and mlei are moat hairy, whereas it is lorcely Decenary to men-
tion bow »ery diHerent in habit the airoour-bearing animali in the new world are
from the rabbit. And to in the geniix of bata, I think the name of vampyre should
be reitored Vi that specica of South America which Linnnui called eptdrMia, and
nte on the eontrary the title of vampyre to that bat of the East Indie* and of the
MaiidB of the Southern Ocean, which ia oommoDly Oalled tbe flying dog. But now
h a known that the word mmpyrt meana Uood-tudxr, and therefore la particularly
applicable to that American bat, whiob ia on thia account Very obnoxious to other
ftninuls and especially to man : but doca not apply at nil to the olher one I men-
tioned, namely, the canine, which is entirety frugivoroua, and oever, ai fur as I
know, sucks the blood of other onimala.
loi coscLcaos.
These with eremhing else, where in the woik of which
this is the pre&ce, I have on many points deputed in opinicm
from others, I sabmit to your judgment, illofltrioos Sir, witii
equal respect and confidence, to tou under whose moBt dignified
and worthy presidency the Royal Society ijf Sdenoe rejoices to
be, whose golden motto from its infiuicy has been, 'Nullius in
verba.'
Farewell, illustrious Sir, and be graoous to your most
devoted servant.
Dated from the University of the GecMgia Augusta^ April
11, 1795.
rSTOEX OF THE AUTHOR'S ANTHROPOLOGICAL
MATERIALS, WHICH HE MADE MOST USE
OF IN ILLUSTRATING THIS EDITION.
There are threa special reasona why I liave thought it worth
lile to insert here this index,
ilrst, that my loamed and candid readent may know the qnnn-
r and tho quality of the oaaistance taken from nature itttolf, with
1 I have succeeded at loet iu publishing this book.
Secondly, that a toatiiuony of my gratitmlo Uiity remain for tho
Boble munificence which my patrons and triendH tiave thus far abown
In enrichtug my materials for the extension of aathropological
studies.
lastly, that what I am still in want of may be known, which
g tiioae aamo friends may fiirther eni-ich me with, if they have a good
Mrtnnity and are still so disposed.
SKULLS OF DIFFERENT NATIONS.
Of thja collection, which in number and variety in, so far as I
mow, unique in its kind, since the similar colicctiona of Camper and
John Hunter cannot in these respecte be comjiared to it, I have pub-
lished a selection, which I hare described moat fiilly in three decades,
and illtistrated with the most accurate cngiaviDgs, and there I have
given an account of the time and the way iu which each skull came
into my possession. And I always keep together with these trea-
Bures a collection of autograph letters, by wliich documentary evi-
Kibnce the genuine history of each is preserved. Those which seem to
B in any way doubtful or ambiguous, I put in a separate place.
A. Five VBiy choice examples of the princiiml Tarieties of man-
(a) The middle, or Caucasian variety.
1. A Georgian woman, PI, in. Fig. 2, PI. rv. Fig. 3 (Dec
cranior. illustr. m. Tab. ixi.), a gift of de Asck
156 COLLECTION.
Tben the two extreme, or (b) Mongoliui and (c) Ethlopie v
2. A Reindeer Tungua, PL in. Fig. 1, PI. n. Kg. J
u. Tab. XVI.), a gift of de Ascb.
3. A female African of Guinea, PI ill. Fig. 3, PL n
Fig. 5 {Dei^ IL Tab. ux), a gift of SUjih. Jo. Vua Goun^
Professor at UtrecbL
Lastly, the two intermediate rarietiea.
(d) The American, (e) The Malay.
i. A Carib chief from the tsle of St Vincent, PL IT,
Fig. 2 (Deo. i. Tab. x.), a gia of Sir Joseph Bank^
Btirt
5. An Otiiheitan, PL iv. Fig. i (Dec. ul Tab. xxtl), t
the same.
R FItc other specimens selected in the same way.
(a) The Oaacasian rariety.
6. Natolian of Tocat, giftofdeAacb.
(b) Mongolian.
7. Chinese or D^iirtan Tougus (Dec. IIL Tab. Xltil.), fron
tliesame.
(c) Ethiopian.
8. Ethiop. (Dec I. PI. 8), from Michael., aulio-counselloc
of Hesse-Caswl, and Professor of Marburg.
(J) American.
9. Indian of North America (Dec l Tab. tx.), from the sai
(e) Malay.
10. Kew Hollander (Dea m. TaK uvil), from Banks.
For the demonstration of the norma vertiealu, & 61.
Caucaaian variety.
1 1. Tartar of Kaan (Dec. u. TaK Xii.), gift of de Asch.
Mongolian.
12. Yacutan (Dec. u. Tab. xv.), de Asch.
Ethiopian.
13. Ethiopian. Souunening, au lie-counsellor, and Prot
MogunL
COLLECnOK. 157
te other specimens by which, although they are partly deformed
on purpose and partly by disease, the iwrma verlicalu Btill is
well elucidated.
14. Catteatian. Turk, de Asch.
15. MongoluiTt. Cftlrauck {Dec. n. Tab. xiv.), de Asch.
16. Ethiopian. Ethiop. (Deo. n. Tab, xvii.), de Aftoh.
Bkulle nf infanta, okarly demonstrating the norma verticalit.
17. CaticasiaTi. Jewish girl (Dec. iii. Tab. xsvin.).
18. Mongolian. Burat girl (Deo. ili. Tub. xxix), de Asch.
19. Ethiopian. New-lmrn Ethiop. (Deo. lU. Tab. ixx.),
BillmaDn, Cassel surgeon.
amcns renuu-kable for the manifest transitions by wlich they
conned the different varieties of mankind. These hold a mid-
dle place between the Caucasian and Mongolian.
20. Sknll of a Cossaek of the Don (Doc. i. Tab. iv.), de Asch.
21. Kiips-CoBsack {Dec. ii. Tab. xm.), dc Asch,
22. Another of the same, de Asch.
These between the Caucasian and Ethiopian.
23. Egyptian mummy (Dec, I- Tab. i.).
24. Genuine Zingari (Dec. ii. Tab. u.), Pataki, physician of
Claudinupolis.
These between the Mongolian and American.
25. 26. Esquimaux (Dec. m. Tabb. x.tiv. xxv.), Jo. Loreti.
Skulls deformed by particular arts in infancy.
27. Macrocephalic, probably Tartar (Dec. i. Tab. iii.),
de Asch.
28. Carib female pea in. Tab. xi.). Banks,
Remaining cranial collection.
29. German.
30. Female German.
31. Toung Jew.
32. Old Jew.
33. Dutch. Wolff, Utrecht physician.
34. Frenchman. Siimmerring.
35. Italian, de Asch,
158"
COLLECTION. ■
3G.
Italian, Vonetian. Miclia«HB, oamp-pliysiciati of Han- I
over. fl
37.
Lombard. Jb. H
38.
Anoiont Roman pKetorian eoldicr. Coi-d. Stepb. Borgia, fl
39.
Litliuaninn of Sanuatiih. de Ascb. 1
40,
Culvaria of ancient Cimbrian. BoienLard, imperial H
consul genei-al iu Denmark. H
41,
4S. Finn, de AgcL J
43.
Female Finn. ^H
44,
Russian Zingari. ^^|
45.
Ruaaian youth'. ^^^^|
4C.
RuHsian old man. j^^^^^^f
47,
48, 49, 50, 51. KussianB of Mubcovj'. ^^^^H
52.
Fomalo of Muscovy. ^^^^^^|
fi3.
Ruaaian of Swonigorod. ^^^^^|
51.
Old Huaaian ^^^^H
53.
KusHian of Weuo\FBk). ^^^^^H
56.
Romanolf. '^^^^^|
57.
Ribno. ^^^^^1
68.
Ribnisoi. ^^^H
69.
Kostroman. -j^^^^^^l
CO.
Femalo of Enuno. de Ascb. ,^^^^^|
61.
Hus-'^ian of Kyscbenovogorod. ^^^^^|
C3.
Rai^k ^^^H
C3.
^^^^1
64.
Tartar of Orenburg. ^^^^^^H
G5.
Tartai- (probably of Eiuan). ^^^^^|
66,
^^^^H
CO.
^^^^H
70.
^^^^H
71.
Qeoi^Q. ^^^^^^H
T2,
73, 74. Female Tnrlc ^I^^H
Tfi,
76, 77, 78, 79, 80. Calmucka of Orenbni^ (76, Sec^H
Tab. v.). ■
81.
Creole Ethiopian from New York. Micbaelia, Marbut^^^
82.
Ethiopian of Congo (Dec, ii. Tab. xvrri,). in AbcH. ^|
■hews gre.t d
Slkiopian. Male Etlttopian, tiftli month, Mej'or, chief [>hf aiciau,
Hair and Haibs of different Nations.
Atthongh at first sight these things tna; Bocm too minute, still
Jt cannot be denied that a collectiou of thia kind, wlien very varied,
Ib of considerable use for accurate anthropological studies. I have
iere upecimona of all the five principal varieties of mankind; some
nf ihem are Bufficiently remarkable, about whicli I eLatl speak
below; as the piebald hair of the negress, variegat«d with white
whom I saw at London, tie.
FlETTSES REMARKABLY CHARACTERISTIC OF THE MIDDLE ASD THE TWO
EXTREME VAniETIES.
Cawxuian variety. German twins of either sex, remarkable for
'tiiMT extreme beauty, foiir months old.
Mongdian. Colinuck of Orenburg, female, third month. From
IV.
Anatomical FaKPAKATiona
The greater part of theae belong to the natural history of the
Ethiopians. 1 have made copious mention of them in various ports
the book.
Collection of Picttreb of different Natioks,
TAKEN FBOU THE LIFE HY TEE FIBST ARTI5TB.
It is clear that a collection of this kind, eepecinlly whenever it
!■ invariably compared with such a collection of sknlls as I have
Jen pving an account of, is one of the first, principal, and authen-
c sources of anthropological studies; and bo for the last twenty
years I have taken an immenae deal of trouble to collect a quantity
f such drawings, taken from life, and what is vary important, by
[Ood artists. There is indeed a large quantity of similar drawings
I the books of travels and voyages; but when they are critically
ifflMW at Cm. de Bnin n U> P«
cnfn
e MoMidnTaee ot tlw iaiHortal Oook, iOaitnln] b^ hia
, ntd pbtea drawn hf Hodga, ve i&all aoon £nd
tbrt in alaiMt aD tka odMn tk« platai, Itowsnr qdendid tb(7 ma;
b^ Then w« eyMMuw tlwai ilntly, and uapaic tfasn vjtli gennine
wywMi ti t io — , or vHli aatan, an mmioIj of anj om lor tb« natu-
ral hiftoTj of maakiBd. It » nuKwiiiy, tbereJon^ far this object
to bring together all tlt« extant w pi o w n titka n of fareigs races, aud
the engravingB, a« veil thcee edited aepaiatelj aa thaae scattered op
Mid down in booka, and alao the -verj drawings niade by the artist's
own hand I hare collected a conaidenible quantity of them, amongst
which are {nrticoUrly oon^icooiu the fignree of Wenc HotUr, a
great artiiit in this line, which are drawn ui aqiia f</Hi*, and also
the splendid plAtee of some modeni English engravera ; to mentiiHi
them singly would transgress the limita of an index. I will only
give a list of some of the most remarkable of those which are done
by the hand.
CaiLcaiian variety.
1. Turkish woman; drawn with red chalk from the life at I
Hd, by Diiu. Cliodowiecki, who gave it me with his autograph.
2. Hindostan woman; drawn by an Indian painter with ii
derful refinement and accuracy : given to me at London by E
Ly»m.
Mongolian variety.
3. CoBsim AH Khan, formerly nawab of Bengal, who aft^ "
wards became a Mohammedan faquir at Delhi. Prawn in coloun
by a Mohammedan painter, a Moor. It waa given to mo with the
following one by Braun, now deceased, formerly Biitish reeident ti m
Berne, and once a colonel in India. m
i. The wife of the last Mogul Emperor, Shah Alliim, vha
died 1790; also drawn by an artistic hand'. *
5. Portrait of Foodor Irvanowitsch, a Calmuck, by himself;
drawn in black uhalk by his own hand, with incomparable skill and
' Comp, k pMBOgo to this effect !□ Volney, Rainei, m medilalwn »ur Ui tHbIh-
timi liti fiapira, Ji. 349.
' I hsvB «»cnl)ed thosB to the Mongolian vmety, having rcgnni ia the otigm
of the prsBent rulora of India, although from obrioiw oauaat thoj «
the HindoBt*nee in »ppe»iiuicf.
COLLECTIOS. 161
lost exiiDt likeneai. Done &t Rome, wh«« be atndied
punting trith the gnatoKt eaootsK. This lumdaome present was sent
me from BtNae br Tatter, of the prirate British embassy.
6. Two Chinese ^lont. Painted at Tieona. A gift from Nic
Jo*. d« Jacqnin, oonneiUor of the imperial miot.
7- Ettoiack, ma Smpusaanx. magician; brought to London in
1773 from the cout of LAbndor. This, &a weU as the following
piclate, according to tbe auto^^mph of Kathui. Dance in Bank^'
mmieiun, was nioet carefuUy painted bj the funous London painter,
G. Hnnnemann.
8. Etqniioitnx woman, hy name Caubvic (which in the langnage
of tboM barbariaos means a blind b«ar) ; libe w«s brought wiib
^^Gtbaiadc to Loudon by Cartwright.
^^^ EtJtiopian.
^^r 9. Hottentot female of Amaqui. This, with the following one,
eomea from tlie collection of Banks.
10. Bosduuan, with wife and child.
11. Hottentot female. This portrait and the four sueceeding
ones were drawn from the life at the Cape of Good Hope, and sent to
the Kmperor Joseph II. at Vienna. Moat careful oopiea given me
bj de Jacquiu.
12. Karmup, Hottentot female of Namaqui
13. Eoejo, Hottentot female of Oonaga, oi
Ckfiiana.
114. Koha, Caffir chief.
Id. Fuaeica, his daughter.
Lfae borders of
17.
Ani^can.
An inhabitant of Tierra del Fiiego, from Magellai
Female of tlie same tribe.
Afaia'j.
Two New Zealanders.
New Zealand cliie£
20. Two yonthB of the same nation.
A ll theae, as well aa the Fuegians, are Uken from the collection
bj Sir Joseph Banks in his voyage.
11
EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES,
Plate in.
A synoptic armngcmeiit to illu«trat« tlie nomta verticali
Fig. 1 msvtn to fig. 1 of PI. lY.
nf.i fig.s
■fig. 3 fig. s
Plate IV.
Five very select skulls of my cotlectiou, to demonstrute tlie d
fiity of the fi^-o jirincipal huiuan races.
Fig. 1. A Tuugus, one of tliose commonly called the Beindc
Tungus. Hia naiue was Tscbewiu Amureew, of tbe family of Gilg
girsk. He lived nbout 350 versts from tbo city Bargus; and cut a
uwii throat in 1791. Schilliug, the head army-surgeoa, wassentthen
by Worchnolldiuski, to make a legal iBquiry as to the cause of 1
deAth ; be brought baok the skull with bis own hand, and gave it I
Bai-on de Atich.
Fit/. 2. The bctui of a Carib chief, who died at St Yincenfc el
yeiiffl ago, and whose bouee, at the request of Banks, were dug i
thoTO by Audoi-soii, the head of the royal garden in that island.
Fi>/. 3. A young Georgian female, made captive in the t
Turkiali war by the Bussiaos, anil brought to Mnseo»y. There i
■lied suddenly, and an examination was mnde of the cause of de*
by Hiltebrandt, the most learned anatomical professor in Bus
Ho carefully preserved the skull for the extreme elegance of i
iiliape, and sent it to St Petersburg to de Asch.
Fig. i. The skull of a Tahitian female, brought at the reqnol
of Banks by the brave and energetic Captain Bligh, on his return
from his famous voyage, during which he ti-ansported with the greatest
success stocks of the bre{id-fmit tree from the Society Isl&nds to the
East Indies.
Fig. 3. An Ethiopian female of Guinea; the concubine of j
Dutchman, who died at Amsterdam in her 2dth ye&r. She was i
sected by Steph. J". Van Geuns, the learned professor at Utrecht.
OF THE DIFFERENCE OF MAN FROM OTHER ANIMAL!
Diffimlty of the sfihject. He who means to write about
? variety of mankind, and to describe the pointB in which the
a of men differ from each other in bodily constitution, muKt
ret of ail investigate those differences wliich separate man him-
F from the rest of the animals. The same thing occurs here
1 we often sec happen in the study of natural history, ami
!cially of zoology, that it is much easier to distinguish any
s from its congeners at the first glance by a sort of divino-
i of the senses, than to give an account of, or express in
words those distinctive characters themselves. Thus we find it
very easy to distinguish the rat from the domestic mouse, or
|.tiie rabbit from the hare, but difficult to lay down the charac-
teristic marks on which that diversity, which we all feel, de-
lends. This difficulty of our present subject has been candidly
nd publicly confessed by the great authorities of the science ;
I much so that the immortal Linnseus, a man quite created
r investigating the characteristics of the works of nature, and
hQging them in systematic order, says, in the preface of hia
'fauna Sxtecica, " that it is a matter for the most arduous in-
Bstigation to enunciate in what t)ie peculiar and specific dif-
ference of man consists;" nay more, he confesses "that up to
the present lie has been unable to discover any character, by
which man can be distinguished from the ape;" and in hta
iyalema Natura, he gives it as his opinion, "that it is won-
lerful how little the most foolish ape differs from the wisest
U— 2
164
ERECT PosrrroN.
man, so that we have still to seek for that measurer nf nature,
who is to define their bDundaries;" fioally, he did not attribute
to man any generic or specific character, but, on the contrary,
ranked the long-handed ape as his congener,
2. Order of treatment. Meanwhile I may be allowed to
enumerate the points, in which, if I have any powers of obtwr^
vation, man differs from other auimals, and I mean to treat the
subject thus:
First, I shall onumerate those things which affect the es-
ternal conformation of the human body.
Secondly, those which affect the internal conformation.
Thirdly, the fiinctions of the animal economy.
Fourthly, the endowments of the mind.
Fifthly, I mean to add a few words about the diBordore
peculiar to man.
And sixthly, I shall reckon up those points, in whicU
man is commonly, but wrongly, thought to differ from the
brutes.
3. External conformation. Under this head I place soma
characters, which, although they are closely connected with tha-
structure of the skeleton, yet are shown by the external habit
of body, whicli depends upon it ; and then the subsequent cl
racters, especially if they are looked at collectively, seem
-suffice for a definition of mankind:
(A) The erect po.sition ;
(B) The broad, flat pelvis;
(C) The two hands;
(D) Tlie regular and close set rows of teeth.
To these heads all the other peculiarities which the hum
body exhibits, may be easily referred ; and now let us exi
them one hy one.
4. TIw erect positioTU Here it is necessary for us to jhovs J
two points: first, whether the erect position is natural to e
secondly, whether it iw peculiar to man (nf which below, s. 10),
WILD MEN. 165
The former is evident A priori, as tliey say, from tlie very
nicture of the human body; and d posteriori from the unani-
llaious concurrence of all the nations of all time that we are
acquainted with. It is no more necessary to spend any time on
this, than on the argument to the contrary, which some are in
tlie habit of bringing from the instances of infants wJio have
been brought up among wild beasts, and found to go on all-
fours. Those who look carefully at the matter will easily see
that no condition can be conceived more different to that which
nature has designed for man, than that of those wretched chil-
dren alluded to; for we might just as well take some monstrous
, birth as the normal idea of human conformation, as take ad-
otage of those wild children to demonstrate the natural
lethod of man's gait and life. Indeed, if we look a little more
closely into these st-ories of wihl children, it is more likely to
turn out in the instances which are the most authentic, and
placed beyond all doubt, as that of our famous Peter of Hamein'
(Peter the wild boy, Juvenis Hannoveraims Linn.), of the girl of
Champagne*, the Pyrentean wild man', and of others, that these
wretclies used to walk upright; but in the stories of the others
^Briio are commonly said to go on all-fours, as the Juvenis ovimis
^^Kiberniis Linn., there are many things which make the story
^^Bry doubtful, and of but inditi'erent credit*; so that the Homo
sapiens ferua of Linnasus {Syst Kat. ed. 12, Tom. L p. 28)
seems no more entitled to the epithet of four-footed than that
of shaggy.
K birth
Bsteth
I
Comn. particulorlj Voigt, Magaiin far Phynk und Natartjach. T. IT, P»rt ill
, ancfftlio Mnnbnddo, Anliaa \Setapl.yiia, Vol. It:. L " ~
much importance Ibe Scotch philrwaplier attocbes b_ _
proved amoD git otlior paisagm liy tba followin([: "thU phianoiL ,_._
ordinary, I think, than the new planet, or (ban if we were to discover 30,000 inoro
liied Htan, baidea tboM lately dUcoTcred."
■ (Do la CondamiiiB) Ilitloire d'aat jeane fille lauvagt. Pxria, 1761, nmn.
* Camp. Leroj, Sur raploitaHon de ia nalan dam Ui Pyrhiitt. Load. 1 77S,
4(c. p. 8.
* [Blumenbach'a note hero consisls of extract! from tbe account of this Jtiimit
Hibemur by Tulp : but at that author is rare, I give instead tbe wbole account nt
lengtli. "Tbo moat acute iiense of bearing would bave been deceived by tbat
(^uine bleating whicli «u heard by many others w well as uiyself to procecl
Inim that triab youth, who wan brou^t up fmin iufsncy auiinig nlievp, anil whom
tbcrBf'>re it will \m buro worth whila to duBUtibe oxuctly aa lis was, Thvro wns
166
5. Man't i J U'M U ll H '* JWVWa Vuit he was made t^mght by
nature. It is bfaoma and tedious to gtt a loDg way alwut to
demonstrate a thiag so manifest and evident of itself; but that
pair of learned men, P. Moecati the Italian, and A. Schrage'
the Belgian, who Lave patronized the opposite paradox, prevent
mv leav'mg it quite alone. Still it will be enough to touch on
a few points out of many.
The length of his legs, in proportion to his tnink and hia
arms, show, at the first glance, that man was intended to be
upright by nature. For, although I cannot agree with Dau-
benton, who thinks' that no animal besides man has such
large hind feet, which are equal in length to the breadth of
his trunk and head ; for this is negatived by the examples of
several mammals, as theiStrnta lar and the Jtrboa Capentia;
still it 13 plain to every one, that man ia so made that he can
in no wise go on all-foura; for even infants crawl by resting
on their knees, although at that tender age the legs are smaller
in tlie proportion we spoke of than in adults.
It is not however the length only, but the remarkable
bnnieht to Amttetdam, and ripowd to the eyes of idl, ■ joatli of nitaai jeua,
who, being liMt ptalmpa b)i hja pkrrnU anil bruaght ap from hia cndle amoDi^
the wild Bbwp in IreUnd, hj<l uquim] a aort of orine uttiire. He wu nnd id
bod;, nimble of foot, of fierce couatenaace, film flsh, coonshed (kin, rigid limba,
with retmting and deprawil forehead, but convei and knottj occiput, mde, E>^
ignoruit oT fenr. and dcelilDte of all loflnev. In otfaer ropeeti aaaad, amt in
KOud health. Being withont human rwoe he bleated like a ibf^i, aiid bung
aTcrse to the food and drink that we are accustomed to. he chewed gnn only and
faaj, and that with the aame choiDe a« the moat particular sheep. Turning in tha
■anie way ererj moulbful round, and taking account of each bLule >epiirat«ly, he
made bii teUctinn, and taat<d now only thii, and now only that, as they aeemcd
monjntefnt, and more agreeable to hia ieoae of cmell and taate.
"He had lived on rough niotmtMtu and in desert pbc«, himself eqmilly Genu
and untamed, dEligfating iu cans and patlil«u and inaccessible dens. He was as^
cnatomed to apend all his time in the open air. and to put up equally with winter
and summer. He kept as far as he oonid away from the Inrea of huntnren, bvt
at last fell into their neta, although he fled oTsr vneven nvkx, and p>«diHt«tu
cliSs. Bitd threw himaelf moat boldly into thomy brakes and aharp Jun^c% in
which being at last entangled he fell into the power of the huntniian. Iwi apfieai^
ance wai more that of a wild beast than a man ; and tboa^ kept in reatoaint and
compelled to live among men, moat unwilling];, and onl; after a long time did i»
put off hia wild character.
I
Hia throat waa Urge and broad, bia tongue aa it were fattened Ic
Tnip, 06.. Mfd. I I
■ See rttiamdtlinf
>, ,^th ed. p. ig6. LuJg. BaL i
£u]
T A longbfring in tlie journal called GtKtn ATo/iuir-ai- ]
laMomtiiadifif JaatfHKin, T. n
' MHunra dt FAcad. da Seiciuxt dt Pant, 1 7G4, p. 169.
MAN A BIPED. IG7
rtrongth of the legs compareil with Uic more delicate arnie,
which cleavly shows that the former are intended by nature for
the sole purpose of supporting the body. This is particularly
made manifest by a fact derived from osteogeny, namely, that
in the new-bom infant the tarsal bones, and especially the
heel -bone, ossify much quicker, and become perfect much
sooner than the carpal This is a natural provision, because
the little hands have no necessity for exercising any force in
the first years of life, whereas the feet have to be ready to sup-
[xnl the body, and provide for the erect gait towards the end
of the first year. I say nothing of the powerful muscles of the
f of the leg, especially of the gastrocnemii interni, though
are made so strong and so prominent by nature to keep
upright, that, on that account, Aristotle, with the old
ibropologift-ta, thought that true calves should be ascribed to
alone.
The whole construction of tlie chest shows that man cannot
any way walk like the quadrupeds. For in the long-legged
iiuasts the cheat adheres to tlie sides as if squeezed forwards in
a keel-like shape, and they have no collar-bone, so that the feet
can more easily converge towards one another from each side,
and in that way sustain the weight of the body more easily and
more firmly. Besides, quadrupeds are provided either with
a longer brea-st-bone, or with a larger number of ribs, descending
nearer to the cristie ilei, in order to sustain the viscera in the
horizontal line of the ti'unk. But all these things are dififerent
ifi man, the biped. His chest is more flattened throughout,
his sboidders are widely divaricateti by the insertions of the
shoulder-blades, his sternum is short, his abdomen more desti-
of bony supports than is the case with those animals we
ire speaking of; and there are things of the same kind which
inot escape any one who compares with the human skeleton
even a few of the quadrupeds, especially the long-legged ones.
All these considerations show how ill adapted the human
&ame is to a quadrupedal walk, and that it cannot be any-
elae to him but unsteady, trembJing, and very irksomo
fatiguing.
1
ilniBil I Ai <( Ik ntf if tke I
I I I III til. Mi. IW ki^
«ke Aire af tW km> pM> On ^ atbri
*«fc«o«.ll • 1 afl.BhMlkk>tlkiig
ikM Ike InaM. a< kbl Ikr cditt • n; gnllrl
! u> a bHia wUtfc «* spoke ef is weiy i
wUefa maoaomfiemma m ■■■•liai^ ta the iihwmimi of the
bonea of the ifioH over the Smtm imeoaHla, and in the
delicaiy of the syndinntbvn^ sad alto is the eumiore of the
oe mam from the pnNMOtafy and in the directioD of the
TrrtebtK of the ceoe;s towaida the front.
7. The rttatitm (/ As adjoimimff »Ji porta to tite Jhrm 9/
the human peUit. The hinder &k of the pelvis gives the
finnlatiMi to the glutei rooscles, of which the outennost or
larger exceed in thicknes all other muscles of the body, and
btbig CDDceoled by a remarkable stratum of firt from tbe
buttocka. Tbeir fleshy, useful, and semicircular amplitude, in
wbich the podex is hidden, fonn, not only in tbe opinion of tbe
claiMca] authoreof natural bistory,such as Aristotle' and Buffon*,
TAOIMA.
bot also of the best physiologists, as Galen' and Haller* the
principal character in which man especially differs from the
apes, wlio are manifestly destitute of fundament.
Moreover, in consequence of that curvature of the os sacrum
^^and the coccyx we mentioned, depends particularly the never-
to-be- forgotten direction of the interior genital members of the
^Lfemale, and of the vagina also, the axis of which declines much
^Ktnore in front than in other female mammals from what is
■ commonly called the ajtis of the pelvis. This makes, it is true,
parturition more difficult, but, on the other hand, admirably
guards against many other inconveniences, to which, especially
-during pregnancy, the woman, from her erect position, would
be exposed.
It is iu consequence of this same direction of the vagina,
tiiat in mankind the weaker sex is not, like the females- of
ibrutes, rctromingent. And also because in animals (as far as
we know at present) the opening of the m-ethra does not
inate as in woman, between the exact lips of the pudeu-
dam, but opens backwards into the v^ina itself, as I have
observed in these same anthropomorphous animals, the Pipio
ptaimon and the Simia cynomolgu8, which I have anatomically
ndisaected.
And, according to this same direction of the female vagina,
that question must be settled which has been often discussed
from the time of Lucretius, what position is most convenient
to man for copulation?
" How Xirai to prolongate the aoh delight t"
jFor although man may perform this ceremony in more ways
fhan one, and this variety of worship has been considered by
the low Latinista as one of the things in which he differs
> ^ uni parh'um, IV. 8. Spiget, Di h-ummti corpora fairiai, p. 9, I1M dovwlv
^bunted the phyaico-theological theory of thia prerogative. "Msd alone of nU
ammala cui ait convenient];, since be tuu larffe Knd floah; buttocliB, whicli tatye
' ' ■ " ' ie Btomaoh is full, in order that ha nuiy ait without
reflection on divine aubjectB,
^. 57. "Nor are the iipca distingDiehed
D b; an; mark eMier than bj thia."
•Dnojance, and euily applji bli mind ti
I ■ Dt Corp. hum. fundionibui, T, 1.
170
from brutes, still physical causes sometimes interfere to in-
duce bim to coptilate'
" Like beuU or qnadrupeda an naed ts do."
Still the proportion of the virile member to the vagina eeems
lietter adapted for the usual mode of venery'.
8. Remarks on the hymen, ni/niphte, and clitorit. In order
to finish at one and the same time all those delicat« matters
which belong to the female pJtrt of mankind, I must here throw
in something about the h^-men, which littfe membrane, so far as I
know, has hitherto been found in no other animal. Though I
have examined the females of apes and papios with that view, I
have never been able to find any vestige of it, or any remiuna
changed info the carunculoB myrtiformes; nor was I more
successful with the female elephant which was led about Ger-'
many many years ago, whose genitals I particularly examined,
because I had been told that Trendelnburg, a famous physician
of that day at Lubeck, had observed some kind of hymen in
that beast, This little appendage to the female body is all
the more remarkable, because I cannot imagine that any physi-
cal utility attaches to it. At the same time I am not much
satisfied with the conjectures the physiologists offer as to the
purpose of the hymen; and least of all with what Haller rather
weakly suggests, "since it is found in mankind alone, it must
be admitted that this sign of virginity was given for moral
' Oomp. C«rp" (Bprongariu"), Cimnnlaria mprr anat'-mm Hundini, p. 13,
''Han of all uniiDkli copalntes by embrnc«a »n<l cartatea in liitFcient pouUoni, mm
1 deteitalilo lor Uxh, hecttime be ia more wicked ami votuptuuus anil dialioliEal
than n
ioDlil."
* K«m]>r. Endiiriiiium Mtdiaim, p. t8i.
' When I was at London two ye»r» ngi
enffravings |ire»erved in the library of tlie King ■
Urij Btrnck with vtA muat carefully studini that famoi
lating both to human ami oomparatiTB anatomy, etched by tbe great painter Leon-
ardo da Vinci. Amonget them I ob*erved particalnrly ttutt remarkable and, in iU
way. unique representstinn of the copulation of a man with a woman, in which the
tronk oi each is iso FXpOBed to view, that the rslaUnn I hinted at, of the ganital
member when in a atate of tenirion In the direction of tiie Tsgina, U made quite
ninin. I am indebted for a moat accurate copy of this very cltver print to tiie
liindDCM or that mreit amiable man and oocUentartiat, John Chamber'"'"" •!•—"--
of that Itoyal collection.
I looked over tbe Tut treuuiy of
g of Great Britain ; and wai particu-
d
MAN BIMANOUS.
171
two
Lmoieus seems to have been in doubt whether the feina.lcs
other kinds besides women are endowed with the uymphse
id the clitoris. But I have proved myself that neither of
parts is peculiar to mankind. I have, following many
ler most competent witnesses, clearly observed the clitoris
many sorts of mammab of different orders, and frequently
found it very large as in the Papio maivum and the
tardigradus; but most prodigious of all, about the
a fiah, in a specimen of the Baltena boops about
fifty-two feet in length, which I carefully examined when it
was thrown on the shore in Dec, 1791, near Sandfurt in
Holland. As to the nymphse, I have found them exactly
like human ones in a Lemur Mongoz, which I kept alive
myself for many years.
9. Mam a bimanoua aniviaL From what has been so far
stud about the erect stature of man follows that highest pre-
rogative of his external conformation, namely, the freest use of
two moat perfect haiids. By this conformation he so much ex-
the rest of the animals, a& to liave given rise to that old
tying of Anaxagoras, which baa been cooked up again in our
le by Helvetius, " that he thought roan was the wisest ani-
mal, because he was furnished with hands." This is rather too
paradoxical : the assertion of Aristotle seems nearer the real
truth, "that man alone has hands, which are real hands."
For in the anthropomorphous apes themselves, the principal
feature of the bands, I mean the thumb, is short in pro-
portion, and almost nailless, and to use the expression of
Eustacliius, quite ridiculous: so that it is true
lat no other band, except the human hand, deserves the
ion of the organ of organs, with which the samo
'rite glorifies it.
Apes avd the allied animals are quadru/manoiis. Apes
the other animals, which are commonly called anthropo-
lious, of the genera of Papiones, Cercopithect and Lemures,
;ht not in reality to be called either bipeiis or quailrupeds,
Quadntmana. For their hind feet arc furnished with a
nd genuine tliumb, not with the great toe, which is given
AR (tOADUnUBOCS.
to the biped, nun, akiae*; ini ko d ibeirEBet iluMiv*
of bands more tfaao tbeir anterior extremitiea^ since H
that they are adapted for pmpoaes of prehenaoa ; and ooe kind
of cetcopithecns {C. pmucM) is eikdowed with a tbamb. which
is wanting in the anterior hands ; bat it has nerer been ob*
served of any quadmmajious Tri""*!, that it is destitute of tbK
thumb of the hind-baods.
Henoe too it will be easy to settle the dispute whid) baa
been raised about the iSi'mMi aatynu and other aDtbropomor-
pfaoua ^>es, namely, whether it is natural for them in their
own woods to go as bipeds, or as quadrupeds. Neither one
Dor the other. For since the hands are not meant for walking
upon, but for prehension, it is at once plain, that nature has
designed these animals to spend their lives principally in tieefl.
These they climb, on these they seek for their food, and b»|
they want one pair of bauds to snpport them, and the othet
pair to pluck fruits with, and other things of the kind; and
for the same end nature has provided many of the cercopitheci,
who are Jumisbed with but imperfect hands, with a preheunle
tail, in order that they may have a more secure hold upon,
trees.
It is scarcely necessary to point out that it is the result
art and discipline if any apes are ever seen to walk erect, and
plain from any drawings of the Sitnia eatipiie*, which have been
taken carefiilly from the life, how inconvenient and unnatural;
that affected position of theirs ts, in which they are made
lean with their fore-hands on a stick, their hind-hands meanwhi
being collected in an unmeaning way into a fist*. Nor ha'
I ever come across any example of an ape, or any other mi
mal except man, who can, like him, preserve an equilibriui
I Th*t cxtreonlinary lover of puMjoira, Rnlunet (T. v, De la natttrt. Tab, 9),
eshibita the drawing of nn embryo, whloh he giva out for tlst of the Simia ntyr-
•u; klthnugb it ill plain at the linrt glance from the feet alcme, which are fiinuihed
with a great toe. not a thumb, thai it it a human fcetua.
• See for example the monngraph of VoBmaer.
* Linnaua therefore wm miataken wheu he nud, "that there were apes whii
walked with body erect on two feet like man, anil whn reminded one uf tlie hnnit
■pvoiea by the uau they mnde of their fcit auJ liaiiilB,"
1
d
»
when standing erect on one leg at a lime. Hence it is clear
that the erect posture, as we find it to be naturally convenient
to man, so also is it peculiar to hira. Thus
"Mankind alnoe can lift the head on high
And stand with tronli erect."
Properties of the human teeth. The teeth of man are
more regular than those of any other mammals. The lower
inciaoTS are more erect, which I reckon amongst the distinctive
characters of the human body. The lauiarii are neither too
prominent, nor set too far back, but joined in the same line
with their neighbours. The molars have singularly round ob-
tuse crowns, by which they most clearly differ from the molar
teeth of the Simia satyrus and the 8. hngimana, and all the
other species of this genus whose skulls I have examined.
Finally, the mandibles of man are distinguished by three cha-
racters: by their excessive shortness; the prominence of the
chin, which corresponds with the erect incisors; but, above all,
by the singular shape, direction, and junction of the condyles
with the temporal bones, which certainly differ from the jaws
of all other animals I am acquainted with, and which clt-arly
prove that man is destined by nature for all kinds of food, or is
IU) animal truly omnivorous.
y 12. OtJiei- tilings which 8e.em. peculiar to the exterior of man,
tU his hairless body, &c. I shall say nothing about some points
pi less importance which are frequently classed among the dis-
^ctive characters of man, such as the lobe of the ear. the
Bwelling of the lips,- especially the under one, and other things
of that kind. But I must dispose in a few words of the glassy
Binoothness of the human body, and inquire how far it can be
P'- *' ided among the diagnostic signs by which man differs from
p mammals, who are in some way hke him. Linnteus in-
asserts, " that there are some regions where there arc apes
less hairy than man;" but I candidly confess that I have
hitherto made fruitless inquiries as to whereabouts these apes
may be. On the contrary, it is proved by the unanimous con-
lil travellers who are worthy of credit, and by the spe-
lena of those animals which have been seen frequently in
174
8HA0GT MEN,
Europe, that those anthropomorphous apes which are nenall^
inchided under the common MaUy name of Orang-utan, anil
which are indigenous to Angola as well as to Borneo, and also
the if, longimana, are naturally much more shaggy than
insomuch that those which are not even adult, and have deli-
cate health, still are more haiiy than man. Tliough this po-.
sition ia beyond all doubt, yet it is the fact that men have bees-
observed everywhere, and especially in some of the islands
the Pacific ocean, remarkable for their ehaggy bodies; but accu-
rate descriptions of them are still wanting.
The first mention of them occurs in the nautical expeditions
of the famous Spangberg', who, on his return to Katnschatka
from the coast of Japan, relates that he found a nation of this
kind on the most southern of the Kurile islands' (lat. +3*50').,
Anomalous individuals of the same kind were observed, but!
only hero and there, among the inhabitants of the islands ofj
Tanna, MaliieoUo, and New Caledonia, by J. R. Forster', Theiflj
is a report of a similar race in Sumatra', which is eaid to in-
habit the interior of the island, and is called Orang-gugu.
however, man ia in general conspicuous for his smooth and ev(
skin, so, on the other hand, some particular parts of the humi
body seem to he more hairy than in brute animals, bb the groi
and the arm-pit, which- characteristic has accordingly be(
ranked among those peculiar to man.
13. Remarkable properties of ike hmnan. body as to its irt*]
temal fabric. Having mentioned what was necessary about t!
absolute properties of the external human body, we are noi
brought to another point of the discussion, that Ls his internal
fabric; about which however our narrow limits compel us to
follow Neoptolemus, and philosophize in a very few worda It
will be necessary to divide this discussion into two heads; fire^
El
I
' MUller's Sammlunj Ruaiiehrr garhichU, T. ni. p. 174. 1
* Beyond <!oaht Nadigida iaUnd, tibout whois inbahitantt, though only \lj
heusay, the oorapaninn nf the grent Oxik, Jkme* King, rectiiTed tlie axfoa atorj.
Fai/agr In Iht Norlkmi Hrmitpherc, T. m, p. 377.
'* See his Brmerkanym mif lemrr niMvm die Well. p. iiS.
* MniKlen, the cliwaicBl author on Uutt iiUiiid, tells us whKt he bMrd abaci —
th™. nitl. of Sumatra. Y-Zio.
1
INTERNAL PARTS.
investigating those things which man alone, or only a few
other auimals with liim, has not got; secondly, those things
which are peculiar to him.
Internal parts which man is vnthmU. Those parts
lich are found in mammala, and especially in the domestic
were once, when the opportunities of dissecting human
rare or were entirely neglected with the taste
for dissection, generally almost all attributed to man. Thus,
for example, the pannicidua carnomia or subcutaneous muscle,
irhich was wrongly ascribed to him by Oalen and his followers,
pad even by the restorer of human anatomy himself, I mean
^esalius, who was an acute critic of the mistakes of Galen, was
properly denied to him by Nicolas of Steno, and ascribed to
bnite animals alone.
The rete mirabile arteriosum, which was also reckoned by
Oalen amongst the parts of the human body, was demonstrated
to be wanting in man by Veaaliua, following Berengaxiua of Carpi.
The mtisculus ociili suspensoriua s. bidbosas a. septi/tnus, with
Ftiich the four-footed mammals are furnished, was fii-st shown
be wanting in man according to the plan of nature by
lopius. It has lately been found out that the human fcetus
no allantoid membrane, which is common to almost every
I say nothing of other parts wliich though found in hut few
lera of brute animals, nevertheless have been sometimes
ily attributed to man, as the so-called pancreas a»elli, ductus
hepaticystid, corpus Higlvmorianum, &c. or those which are be-
stowed on some orders of mammala alone, bat are so manifestly
denied to man, that no one would readily attribute them to him;
among which I mean the membmtia nictitans (which for the
;e of the order of discussion I thought it better to mention
although it rather belongs to the external parts) and the
^ajnentum suapenaorium colli, and all other things of that kind.
Man shares the foramen, iiictsiviim behind the upper primary
teeth with the quadrupeds, but it is smaller in proportion and
nple, whereas in most of the other mammals it is double, and
many of vast size.
Kiunoi
Hoere,
hoatmat Ae v/
stikv, and keep aB a^ eaA of the vfiper teeA find a ti
plaocv in botn Me tpTalai horn aat waaAKrhj a
tliiiilliiii ^[11 il fill ■ rrTf nrrrlri Tiil iirii ihiM TIm
bone m called b; BaOertfae m iwwwiw, bnwue Oe ■ppw
tnciMa {where ttMie «c aaj) are fittad m iL As how L i — it ■
■faofbond m thaee miMiili ^a are deatitatB af ■
thonwUdt bdo^ to tbr Bdeatota, aa the i
ThWiMT. I think H had bettsbacaBed the at i
In BCMte thiB booe k one and indmnbl^ but in many biiMrtit^
&ad in all distb^tnabed br its ovn sotares froia the na^bonr'
tng bones of the dcoll ; one, tbe &cial, genoaDj' exten^ng in
botb lUrectioiu aloi^ tbe Dose to the extraae aodcete of the
iuciflon, the other, the pahtiae, rootling in a coired diieetion
from thoae ■odceta to the fiwamiiia pabrtina.
When, tbeieftwe, Cunper bongs fonnud tbe want of tbii
bone as one of tbe principal chsmcten hf which man difien
friom other matDmab, a double qtMBtion aiises ; First, Is man
really without it ? secondlr. Are all the rest of tbe mammab
provided with it ? It was aboat two centuries and a half ago
when this question first gave scope to a most bitter dispute
between anatomiMs. Galen indeed has reckoned the sntores
of wbat we have c^led tbe intAToaxtllary bone among the
others of the skuU, but Tesaliiis macle use of this aigument
besides many others, to show that Galen had compoeed his
cisteological hand-book, which bad so long been accepted as law,
not horn tbe skeleton of a man, but &om that of an ape. It
was thought after the vain attempts of Jac Sylvius to vindi-
cate' his Galen by the moat wretched excuses, that this whole
' It in called by the fuDoiu lontomiata Yilet anil Via). d'AifT M
in/iriuM; and b; Blair, in hii oaleographj uf the elephuit, otfolati.
' H< (o twiaU about in encUavounng to nve his divine Ga'.en, lliat at laat b*
dfnjM dovn to this eicnse, that altbnBgh men of the pi^Knt daj hare no iatar-
niMitnB>7 bone, jot at the time of Galen Ibev might have ' ' " "
md 10 tU>ii '^H
IHTEBHAXILLAUT BONE.
177
I oompletel3r put &ii end to, when beyond all
1 time, Vicq d'Azyr has attemptod
! an analogy betweea tlie human and animal
comstttutioii as far as the oa iniermaxitlare goes, as if it were
qttite a itew thing*. The only vestige of similitude on which
that analogy rests, namely, the semilunar fissure, which may
be seen in the maxillary bones of the human fcetus, and of
infants, in a transverse direction behind the sockets of the
incisors, and which sometimes remains even in adults, has long
been very well known'. It was, however, well pointed out more
than two hundred years ago accorxling to natural tnith by the
sagacious Fallopius', that the fissure in question was ill desig-
nated by the term suture. It is not necessary to mention that
the facial side of the maxillary bones in the human skull is
marked by no tissure, or even suture, of this kind, though it
is conspicuously so in apes '.
As to the other question, whether man is the only mammal
who is destitute of the intermasillary bone, I must equally
confess, that I have in vain sought for it in many skulls of the
Quadrumana. The sutures which would indicate this bone oro
wanting in the skeleton of the dead female Cercopithecus which
is preserved in the museum of the University, whose skull
in other ways shows the remaining sutures well enough. Nor
did I find them either in another skeleton of the same species,
belonging to BJUmann, the clever surgeon of Cassel, which how-
ever was old at the time of death and has many of the sutures
obliterated, so that from this single specimen it would have
been impossible t-o come to any conclusion.
I fnr attacking the prince ot HimtumiBta — "but there ue tame oatunl
iiu, which hsve taken pomKaaiun of our bodiei (tdiu intempennce in diet
kod venery. Mid from immodBnite vice."
' Mfmoirti dc FArtid. dtt Sritjini de Pari; 1 780.
• See tha figures of Vesoliug uicj Coitei'.
■ "I do not agree," »;b he, " with thoao who give out publicly thnt tboy linro
found out a luttirt uader the palate attached in a traniverac direction to oithor
nine, which ia plain in boji, but bo obliterated in ailulla, that no ve»tige of it
luiu. For I conrider this M be rather an indentation Iban a luture, bidos it
• not lepaiate one bone from another, nor ahow on the ontude."
• EuaUchiua, Tab. Ami. 46, fig. 9.
12
IXTEKICAXILLABT BOBE.
B<tt I am acqaaint^d with m third specimeD of Uie samo
CercopiAecHt, for the koowledge of which I am indebted to mj
friend Sdiacht, the wtnthr ProfesSK^' of Harderovicb, and in thiB
too that bone ia absent. So that it seems scarcely worth while
to inqaire about the presence or absence of this bone in any
other specimens of this nnimfil In the ugly skeleton of that
truly vast anthiv>pomorpbou9 ape from the island of Borneo,
vhich I have examined careftiHy over and over again in the
ooUectioD of Natural History belonging to the I^nce of Orange
at the He^e, I did not see the Gmallest vestige of thoM
sutures ; but that this ape was full grown is proved not only 1^
the general eonditiou of the skeleton, but also by the coalitioa
of most of the sutures of the skull'.
Such, however, is not the case wiih the skull of a younger
anthropomorphous animal of the same kind, the remains of
whose skeleton I dissected at London in the British Museum.
An old label yet attached to it informs us that it belongs to the
ape they call orang-utan, and was brought from the island of
Sumatra, by the captain of the ship ' Aprice.' In this skull not
a shadow of the sutures of the intermaxillary bone w
be found, although the remains of all the others are without
exception still apparent Neither did Tj-son find them in hii
Angolese Satyr, nor does the figure in Daubenton of the skuU
of ft similar animal, from the same locality, eshibit tbem. How-
ever then this may be, it is certain, what may also be held
character of man, that in the skulls of the apea I have Ijeen
speaking of, the jaws are very prominent aud projected forward
aa in the other mammals,
16. Differences between some internal parts of man and
those of other animals. It must be seen at once that we
only speak here of a few of these differences, and those the most
remarkable. To begin with the head, besides some things of
less moment, man had, as it seems, the smallest crydtalliue lens
' I wouJec Cmupsr tbouM be of the upposite upiaioD, for he uvs thkt lUi if
tbeakeletcmof BaaDlliropomorptiouapeiiotfDtMliilt. JVaMrycKilMU((ieid«P|
tUnnjf, p. 146, ^^^
(tlie eetacea excepted) in proportion, and it is less conves in the
adult than in other animals; the large occipital foramen ia placed
more forward than in quadi-upeds ', and there are other things of
the same kind. The mass of the brain is the largest of all,
not indeed (according to tho opinion which has prevailed from
the time of Aristotle) in proportion to the whole body, but,
according to the able observation of SSmmerring, when account
is taken of the slendemesa of the nerves which issue from it'.
For if the whole nervous system was divided from a physiolo-
gical point of view into two parts, one, the nervous part properly
so called, which embraces the nerves themselves and that por-
tion both of the brain and the spinal marrow which lies close to
■fceir commenuemL-nt; and the other, or sensorial part, which
Bbs nearer the knot where the functions begin to coincide with
the faculties of the mind, we should find that man has much
the largest share of that nobler sensorial part.
That too is equally remarkable, the knowledge of which we
also owe to the sagacity and acuteness of SSmmerring, that the
arenulie of the pineal gland so often already observed hy others,
are bo constantly and perpetually found iu human brains, from
tlie fourteeolh year of age upwards, that they also deserve to
reckoned amongst the peculiarities of man'. Once only, in
: pineal gland of a stag, did he Bud similar arenulie. And if
they are ever really aVisent in the encephalon of an adult man,
it certainly must be considered a very rare anomaly, One in-
stance of this absence I owe to the famous physiologist of
Padua, L. M. A. Caldani, who writ«s me word, that out of four
human brains which he examined in 1786 with that object,
there was only one, and that of an old man, in which no vestige
ta pineal arenula was to be found.
The position of the heart is peculiar to man, and is said to
in the chest, because that entrail does not rest as in quodm-
> DautMUton, Mfmoiif dt VAmd. da Se. dt Par!t, i/i^i*.
' Seehii Wu. lU baa Enerphaii. Geitin^. i7;8. lb. Uber die KSrptrlkht Ycr-
' dtHktit det Ntgen rom Earopaer, and Ebel (J. 0.), OlmrTaiiontt ntumtoff. et
ueoaiparata, Fnnkf. ad Viwl. 1788.
Utminerring, Dt tapUlii rel prope rtl intra glandulam pineaitm titU. Mogimt.
A Bpire ii given in Dim. dt dtcuuationc ntrrorvm ajiliearum, ib. 1786.
12—2
180
UCOOUS MEMBRASE.
pede upon the etcmum, but in accordaooe with the erect posi-
tion, on the diaphrsgiD. Its base too is not as ia them at right
angles to the bead, but to the vertebrae of the chest, like the
tip of the left breast, and hence in them the heart lies right and
left, whereas in man it rather has a front and back. Scarcely
any other mammals beside man have the pericardium adhering
to the diaphragm. The alimentatj canal is just as perfect as
it ought to be in an omnivorous animal. You might say man
resembled the carnivores in the structure of the ventricle, and
the shortness of the blind intestine; on the other hand, he is
different from the herbivores in the length of the thin intestine,
and it^ great diversity from the thick one; in the bulbous
colon; in the absence of the sebaceous glands which secrete
smell behind the anus. The muliebria too are different in,
man besides what has been already mentioned, in the singular]
parenchyma of the womb; and the early ft&tus is remarkable
for the texture of the placentum, the length of the umbilical
funnel and the singular umbilical vein. So far as I know, the
hitherto enigmatical vesicula umbiliadia is peculiar to the young
human embryo; and I have mentioned elsewhere', that it i|]
common and natural to every human ftstus about the fc
month after conception, where I also have said something aboi
the analogy it bears to the yolk-like bag of the chicken di
incubation.
17. Peculiaritiea of man, in respect of the funciMnt
animai economy. Here especial mention must be made of
peculiar tenderness and dehcat« softness of the human
mucosa, or cellulosa, a-s it is commonly called. It is well known
that there is a most remarkable difference in the different
genera and species of animals as reganls the substance of this
tissue; that of ecla being very tenacious, that of the herring
being very tender: and so it was long since observed by our
Zinn, a most eagle-eyed anatomist, that man, other things being
equal, had beyond all other mammals the most delicate
subtle cellular substance.
I
' Comment. Soc. Rtij. SelaU. GeiUay. T. u
It delicate ai^H
MAS COSMOPOLITE. 181
I am either very much mistaken, or the softness of tLat
ivelope 18 to be counted amongst the chief prerogatives by
which man excels the rest of the animals. For as this mem-
brane ia on the one side diffused over all parts of the body
from the corium to its inmost marrow, and is interwoven like a
cluun with all and every part of the whole machine, and on the
ler is the seat of that most universal of all vital forces, con-
ility, next to which the dynamic power called after Stahl
seems to come, I am thoroughly persuaded that to the flexible
softness of this mucous membrane in man ia owing his power
of accustoming himself more than every other mammal to every
climate, and being able to live in every region under the sun.
As then nature has made man onmlvorous in the matter of
food as we have seen, so in respect of habitation it has intended
him to dwell in every country and climate (■jravToSa-jrov) : and so
his body has been composed of a most delicate mucous compo-
sition, that he may adapt and accommodate himself more
easily to the multifarious effects of different climates.
To this aptitude for accommodation admirably answers that
other physiological property of man, namely, hia slow growth,
hng infancy and late puberty. In no other mammal docs the
ekull unite or the teeth appear so late; no other animal is
so long learning to stand upon its feet, or in arriving at its full
stature, or so late in coming to the exercise of the sexual
functions. In another point of view no other animal, consider-
ing the moderate size of his body, has allotted him by nature
so protracted a term of life'. This incidental mention of his
stature recalla to my mind that other singular property which,
as far as I know, has been observed in no other animal, and
pUch depends upon his erect position, namely, that his height
■ It U Ksroely posnble to define the lutiiral dura^OD of bunun life, though
•e ms; considut It to be the more common ajid, aa it were, ordioKry goal of pro-
tncted old aga. It 13 worthy of remtti-k, what I hsvo learnt from a careful com-
panion of maoj talilea, that a considenible Dumber m proportiao of European old
men attain the age of S4, wbilst fav gurvivB it. Account therefars being taken of
human longevity, and conipariag it with tbe diiraUan of the Uvea of othdr mom-
Dula, it ia at once leen what a prerogative ia bestowed upon man under that name,
or at kli eventi that hia loog ioftuicy ia compeneated for with iutereat.
» k eoneBded 1^ ptmgiiire of
I of tbe hedUqp,
t thM im mt^ h» tbcnbr freed from
mIm «f i^olBias KBCB wlken H is soitafab
t of ha toapm^MBk or ooostitntioit. TlM
neoMmil fiox, OS the atber kMad.il not ten pecoliar to women,
snd » moce muTeml aod *■■— ■>™' to all, so that I tliink FUny
mM ri^t in callii^ wom an the tmij matstonating animal
am indeed awaie that a flux of the mme kind baa been fn*
qoently attnbttted by aotbon to other female animals, egpeatSf
thoM of the qnadrnmaiioas order; thos, for example, the SumA
Diana ia aid to menstmate from the tip of its tail. Sec Bolt
for twenty years I hare had o^^rtnaities of seeing female ttpem
and papioa, Ilc in menageries, or in travellii^ caravana, and
have made inqoiries aboat this subject. I often found that one
or other of them sometiroea safiered from uterine hemorrhage^
but that they occurred at no regular period Such was the
aaaertion of the more honest keepers, who looked on it as a kind
of diseased affection contrary to nature, and moat of them can-
didly oonfuMned, that they generally gave it out for a menstruoiU
flux, in onlor to excite the astonishment of the mob. As to the
fabulous Btoriea of credulous antii]uity about whole nations
whoflO women are destitute of the menstruous flux, I sbfdl
briefly Bpeak of them in another place.
18, facuUies of (/« mind wkicit are peciiUar to man. AU.
with one voice declare that here is tbe highest and best pr&^
lflv» (whloji U dxllcjitivl to Joiin
"un on thn olhur
BEASOir. 1S3
TOgative of man, the use of reason. But when any one inquires
more particularly what these words mean, we must needs
wonder how many different reasons about the meaning of reason
are entertained by the most reasonable philosophers. Some
think it is altogether a quite unique and peculiar faculty of
man, others but the elevated and very superior grade of a
faculty, of which only slight vewtiges are to be found in the aoui
of brutes. Some look upon it aa the union of all and singular
^tho highest faculties of man; others a particular direction of
^■fce faculties of the human mind, &c.
^^P ' It ia not oan to settle Bach dUpatea.'
I trust to resolve the question more briefly and safely, h pos-
teriori aa thoy say, by consideriug it aa that prerogative of man
which makes him lord and master of the rest of the animals'-
That he has this kind of dominion ia obvious. It is also equally
plain that the cause of this dominion does not reside in his
bodily strength. It must therefore be referred exclusively to
the gifts of the mind and their superiority. And these gifts
in which man so far surpasses the rest of the animals, of what-
ever disposition and nature they may be, we will call reaaon.
Nature, as we have seen, has made man so as to be omnivorous
and an inhabitant of the whole world. But this unlimited
liberty of diet and locality, according to the almost infinite
variety of climate, soil and other circumstances, brings with it
also multifarious wants which cannot be met or remedied in
one way alone. His Creator has therefore fortified him with
the power of reaaon and invention, in order that he may accom-
modate himself to those conditions. Hence, even from the
most ancient times, by the wisest nations, this chief power of
man, that \a, the genius of invention, has been celebrated with
divine honours. Thoth, for example, by the Egyptians, Hermes
hI^ the Greeks. Thus, to compress a good deal in a few words,
I > " Whoever tbou art vho aojuBtl? depreoiats the lot of man, tUak wliat gifU
OUT pijent hu bntowod upon us, wtiat muoh mors powerTnl anini&li we put unJei
oar yoke, what much fleeter ftnimala we capture, and how there i* nothing mortal
which U not pat under our ntroke." — Seneca.
IM LUKCAOE.
man b&s raaile tocJs for faimaetf, atwl so Franklin has acutely
d^ned him as a toot-maUng anitnat; thus he has prepared for
himself aims aod we^ions; thus he ha£ found out ways of
eliciting fire; and thu^ in order that one man may use the
advaDtages and assistance of another, he has invented langaag«,
which agaia must be consideTed aa one of the things peculiar to
man', since it is not like the sounds of animals, coDventional,
hut, as the arbitrary variety of languages proves, has been
- invented and turned to use by him*.
19. Something about laughter and tears. Besides that other
manifestation uf the mind I have just spoken of, I mean lan-
guage, two others must be meutioned. about which there has
hitherto been less doubt, whether. like speech, they are the
property of man alone, since they have not been invented by,
but are as it were congenital to him, and do not so much be-
long to the use of reason, as to the passions of the mind; I
mean, laughter, the companion of cheerfulness, and tean,
'Ttie belter pan of ftU oui aenict.'
It is well known that many animals secrete tears, besides
man. But it is a question whether they weep from sorrow.
Competent witnesses assert it of some; as Stetler' of the Phoca
ursiita, and Pallas' of camels. It seems however more doubtful
whether brute animals display pleasure by laughter, although
many instances aie given in authors. Le Cat, for example,
asserts that he had seen the Satyma Angolensia both weeping
and laughing*.
' The aubtletieeor tho old and mors recent achoolmen od tbo Uugimgie of brute!
are inliiiit«. As a Bjiediiien it will be anough to cite Albertiu cilleU Mugniu, who
kUowa UDgua{[e to one knthropomorpliouH ape, I mciui the p^eoiieuB, b^dei man,
jrot not without a. memornble reatrioUon. "The pygmy Bpeaka although it is ui
knlnud destitate of reaion, haf cannot dUixurte, nor maka nie of abatnot lenni,
but its wordi are rather diracted to the cODCrete things aboat which it Bpe&bs."
* Hobbes loDj( (dncfl perceired that mao had hiniHelf invented langua^ (about
which the, in other respects, most accurate Susamiloh still doubts in our daji);
" Vbie most noble and profitable iaventiuD of all other waa that of speech, wberebj
mm declare their thougbls one to another for mutual utilit; and conTeraatJOD ;
without whiuh there hud been among>it men neither comnum wealth, nor society, do
.mnngsC UoDS, bears and wolm." — LtpiaOufn, p. ii, ed. i6ji.
' Nov, ComiMHt. Acad. Seienli. Peiropelit. T. tl. p. 353.
* iViic*ri>A(cn liber die Mon-jolitclitn Velicricliaflrn, T. I. ;
• TraiU lie VEriiteitct du Jluitle dtt nerft, p, 35.
J
185
20. The most iwte-wortky diseases peculiar to vian. Al-
^ough these pathological affections seem af first sight to have
rery little to do with tho natural history of man, still I may
i allowed to spend a few words ia borrowing a summary of
ihe principal diseases, which are also peculiar to man, especially
) these phenomena, which are against nature .tud peculiar to
him, depend on the temperament and constitution of his body,
and his animal economy ; and may with the same justice be
noticed here, as the diseases of some animals peculiar to them
are recounted in their natural history, as the Lues bovilla, the
Coryza maligna of horses, or the voluntary madness which seems
K.ao frequent in dogs, &c It will be understood that we shall
BjDcly speak here of the most reraarkahle disorders, and that
^Mren those few, chosen out of many others, are not yet placed
^lieyond all doubt, since the nosology of brutes, if we once leave
aside our few domestic animals, is almost entirely uncultivated
OB account of its grave and partly insuperable difficulties. Still
J we may enumerate the following disea-fes as being with great
■Jirobability some of those peculiar to mankind; —
Very nearly all the eruptive fevers; or at all events par-
icularly among them.
Variola', Miliaria,
Morbilli, Petechiie,
Scarlatina, Pestis,
Amongst the haemorrhages ;
Epistaxia (?),
Hsemorrhoides,
Menorrhagia.
AmoDgst the nervous affections;
Hypochondriasis,
Hysteria.
' Some yean Bgo I wu informed b; lett«r by tl
Liniterdaiu, that an apo tbere had cuulractad a loca
DDtagioD, but no fever of that kind.
Dttoiden oi tbe mind, proftedy mt esDed, M i
IFottalgia, Ac aad peiti^M Satyriama and yymphoMamc^
Of the cachectic disorders;
BhachitisO).
Scrofula (T),
Lnes Venerea,
Pellagra,
Lepra and Elepbantiasis.
Of the local disorders;
Amenorrhoea,
Cancer (f),
Clavns,
Hernia congenita (1).
The various sorts of iVoIopsus. ta that of the veHea u
inversa, of which we owe a very accurate notice to the sagacity I
of the famous Boon'.
Herpes (?),
Tinea capitis,
I am doubtful whether I ought to include here the intea- I
tinal wonns of man and two species of the genus pedicuta, ob- I
served in no other raammal, as far as I know, but him. I say ]
nothing of those disorders which, though not peculiar to man, |
are far more frequent in him than in other animals ; such i
tooth-acbc, miscarriage, abortions, difficult parturition, &C.
21. Short Iwt of- those ihinga, in which it is commonly, I
though wTonghj thought, that man differs from the brutes. Most I
of these points have been referred to above as opportunities j
occurred. Those which are lefl shall be briefly recounted. J
Such, for example, is the proximity of the eyes, whereas, in I
' I tbink tho reuon vrhj this rcmarknble defect ii
obaarved in huuutn iuFinU, but cot, u far aa I knoir, in ttie fii;tu« of knj otber
DiBiQinal, u to be sought fur in tbe lurrnwer proportjoaato BjaohnndroBia of tha
|iubifl in mftt], that atn^ular aoil, aa it were, bipartite Gssure, whicb alao baa been
80 accurately inveaUgated by Bonn. See Rooae, Diu, de B '
inrrria prolapiii, GOtting. 1793, 4U1, witb engniTinga.
FALSE DIFFERENCES.
187
Rpes, the eyes are much closer together than in man. The
in either eyo-hd, which have been furnished not only to
but to many other quadrumanous animals, and even to
the elephant. The Stmia rostrata has a more prominent nose
ihan man". The ears are not immoveable in all men, nor are
they moveable in all the rest of the mammab. For example,
the Myrvtecopliagfe must be excepted. The organ of touch is
common to most of the quadruraana with man ; and bo is the
uvula. I am aehamed to mention some things which are too
worthless, as emctation, which has been reckoned one of the
prerogatives of man'; and that man cannot, like brutes, bo
,bened', and other stuS* of the same kind.
finffoo, Eiit. da guadrupida. Suppl. T. vii. T>b. ii. ii.
» jjlmilianui, Ve ruminantilna, p. 50. "Aa man alone waJlis upright, bo 1i«
■lone, out of bo muiy ftnim>l», oan eruot ; for >■ tlie breath is light it loeki k
higher n^OD, uid, by > Bort of nutural impPtuB, is rarrinl to tbo top."
■ Lotrji in UiM. tic la BoeUtt dt Mldicine, k. 1779.
OF THE CAtTSES AND WAYS BY WHICH THE SPECIES OF
ANIMALS DEGENEHATE IN GENERAL.
I
22. Stibject proposed. Hitherto we hare mvestigated those
things ill which man differs &om the rust of the animals. Now
we come nearer to the primary object of the whole treatise, for
we are to inquire of what kind and how great is the natural
diversity which separates the races and the multifarious nations
of meu; and to consider whetlier the origin of this divereity
can be traced to degeneration, or whether it is not bo great aa
Qipel us rather to conclude that there is more than ona
original species of man. Before this can be done, there are
two questions which must be considered: First, what is apeciet
in zoology? StKondly, how in general a primordial species may
degenerate into varieties! and now of each separately.
23, What is speciest Wc say that animals belong to ona
and the same species, if they agree so well in form and consti-
tution, that those things in which they do differ may have'
arisen from degeneration. We say that those, on the other
hand, are of different species, whose essential difference ie such
OS cannot be explained by the known sources of degeneratioD^
if I may be allowed to use such a word. So far well in th«
abstract, as they say. Now we come to the real difficulty,.i
which is to set forth the characters by which, in the natural
world, we may distinguish mere varieties from genuine species.
The immortal Ray, in the last century, long before BuffoQ,
thought those animals should be referred to the same species,
1
which copulate t<^ther, and have a fertile progeny. But, as
in the domestic animals which man has subdued, this character
seemed ambiguous and uncertain, on account of the easlaved
life they lead; in the beginning of this century, the sagacious
Frisch restricted it to wild animals alone, and declared that
_ .tliose were of the same species, who copulate in a natural state'.
But it must be confessed that, even with this limitation, we
■■ but little progress. For, in the first place, what very
ittle chance is there of bringing so many wild animals, espe-
Jly the exotic ones, about which it is of the greatest possible
nterest for us to know whether they arc to be considered as
e varieties, or as different species, to that test of copulation ?
icially if their native countries are widely apart; as is the
B with the Saiyrus Angolensis (Chimpanzee) and that of the
island of Borneo (Orang-utan),
Then it is universally the case that the obscurity and doubt
is much smaller, and of much less importance, in the case of
■wild animals on the point in question, than of those very ani-
mals which are excluded by this argument, that is, the domestic.
Here, in truth, is the great difficulty. Hence the wonderful
;h of opinion about, for example, the common dog,
irhose races you see are by some referred to many primitive
; by others are considered as more degenerated varieties
rom that stock which is called the domestic dog {Chxen de
trger); again, there are others who think that all these varie-
mes are derived from the jackal; and, finally, others contend
tat the latter, together with all the domestic dogs and their
rieties, are descended from the wolf, and so forth.
As then the principle sought to be deduced from copulation
I not sufiBcient to define the idea of species and its difference
' "WhsQ beuta bf nuture copuUtp with e&ch other, it Is an anfulingaign thftt
thsj «» of the ume ffpeciea." Bcrtbout Tan Borchem HI. haii late); adnpted tbo
tune t«*t of speciea, "if animals mix whea in a natural state." But he miiluH xv>
meDtion of Fciich, or even of Ray, oa;, he eajs, "M. de BufToD, who nu the
fint to abandon the little- tO' be- depended -upon liiitiuctious of the nomonclatora.
wu also die fint to make it understood that uopulation wa« the best criterion f'lr
taecjtiining upeciet." See Mtm. dt h Sodilt drt Seirnai Phytiqvti de Lautaunc,
r. II. p. 49-
190 VABIBTIE8.
from variety, so neither are the other things which are adduced
with this object, for example, the constancy of any character,
Thus the anowy colour and the red pupils of the white vantty
of rabbit are as constant as any specific character could poo<
Bibly be. So that I almost despair of being able to deduce any
notion of species in the study of zoology, except from anatogj/
and resemblance. I see, for example, that the molar teeth rf
the African elejihant differ most wonderfully in their conforma-
tion from those of the Asiatic. I do not know whether thesa
elephants, which come from such different parts of the worid,
have ever copulated together; nor do I know any more how
constant this conformation of the teeth may be in each, Bu*
since, 80 far in all the specimens which I have seen, I have ob-
served the same difference; and since I have never known any
example of molar teeth so changed by mere degeneration, I
conjecture from analogy that those elephants are not to be
considered as mere varieties, but must be held to be different
species,
The ferret, on the contrary, does not seem to me a separate
Hpecies, but must be considered as a mere variety of the pold'
cat, not so much because I have known them copulate together,
as because the former has red pupils, and from all analogy I
consider that those mammals in whom the internal eye is desti*
tute of the dark pigment, must be lield to be mere varietiefl
which have degenerated from their original stocks.
2*. jipjitication of what lias been said to the question
whether we should divide ■mankiitd into varieties or sptciet.
It is easily manifest whither what we have hitherto said hai:
been tending. We have no other way, but that of analogy, by
which we are likely to arrive at a solution of the problem abovtt
proposed. But as we enter upon this path, we ought alwajfs to
have before our eyes ttie two golden rules which the great
Newton has laid down for philosophizing. First, 'iliat the tavi^
causes sfundd be assigned to account for natural effects of tht
same kind. We must therefore assign the same causes for the
bodily diversity of the races of mankind to which we a „
a similar diversity of body in the other du^nestic animals which.
m k
DEGESERATION.
are widely scattered over the world. Secondly, That tee o»(fhi
not to admit more causes of natural things than what aiv
auficient to explain the phenomena. If therefore it shall appear
tliat the causes of degeneration arc sufficient to ezplaiii the
phenomena of the corporeal diversity of mankind, we ought not
t admit anything else deduced from the idea of the plurality
liuman Bpecies.
25. Myw doea the primitive species degenerate into varietiest
we are now about to treat of the modes of degeneiution, I
Lope best to consult perspicuity in dealing with the subject if
I arrange it again under two Leads; of which the first will
H^«fly relate tlie principal phenomena of the degeneration of
^Bnite animals; and the second will inquire into the causes of
^||pis d^;eneration. This being done, it will be easier in the
^Tfaliowing section to compare the phenomena of variety in man-
kind as well with those phenomena of degeneration in brute
animals as with tLe causes of them.
26. Principal phenomena of the degeneration of brute ani-
mals. A few instaaces, and those taken from the warm-bloodod
animab alone, and also as far as possible from the mammals
which are most like man in their corporeal economy, will be
enough to show that there is no native variety in mankind
which may not be observed to arise amongst other animals
ra mere variety and by degeneration. But it ia better to go
cr these things in separate chapters.
27- Colour. Thus in the way of cohjur, tLe pigs in Nor-
mandy are all white; ia Savoy, black; in Bavaria', chesnut.
The Pecue buhulum in Hungary generally varies from white to
y; in Franeonia they are red, &c. In Corsica the dogs and
s are beautifully spotted. lu Normandy, the peacocks are
; ours, on the other hand, are generally white. On the
t coast, the birds, especially of the hen tribe', and the
, we black like the aborigines; and, what is particularly
markablo, the Guinea dog (which IJnnseus calls C. ^gyptiua,
I
US MAO.
I do not kMv wkj) i^ &B tke *« of th»( diinate, ilistin-
g gwh ed fcr Ae TBh w ^f mAbms «f Ins wmooth skin, and t
gnat aad a e Mly ifedfie ealiaMMi ptmiiiliiiii*.
S8L Toftm qT lb kmr. A* to the teztare of hair,
« J iftwmPB M tkera Mt. I aik. IB &B wooi alone of the s
of ifigiiiiil -* — *-rL bvm tka tader TlboUQ up to the t
•ad alatort Miff KtUopaa! Or ■■ the bristles of the i
whidi ue a» aoft ta than of Hcaamadj, that they ai« i
fit (or seooiiBg-bnuheat And vhai a dift i ence there i^ in ti
raapedt between the bear and the deatcalie aow, espedatlj' aa ■
the short Tool wlodh gnmu betwtau the briatlee'. Wjw r
at4e too is the eAsct of ereiy ngioa cf the ^be npoo the h
of more than one kind at the dnwertic mammiK ■
of the cbmate of QaUtia on the bearded cattle of Angora, a
on the raUuts and cat^ vfao an an eonsincaous for t
softness and the eitrawdinaiy length and geaenllj i
whiteness of their coats.
29. Statmrt. As to stature the difference between '
J^tagonian and the I^ptander is much smaller than what iu
observed eTerywhere in other domestic animals of different
parts of the world Thus iHgs. when tnuisported to Caba from
Earope, grow to double their natural size'. So also do oowb
when transported to Faraguaj*.
30. Fiffun amtproportioK t^ parts. Aa to the proportion of
parts, what a great difference there is between the horses of
Arabia or Syria and of northeni Germanv; between the thick-
footed cows of the Cape of Good Hope and the thiD-footed ones
of England' The hinder legs of the sows of Normandy are
much higher than the front legs, 3k. The cows in some parts
of England and Ireland hare no horns at all'; in Stdly, on the
other band, they have verj' large ones; but I must not say
anything of the vast horns of the Ahy^inian oxen, which Sir
Joseph Banks showed mc, for they, if vre are to trust Bruoa,
* Pacblin, Dt Babilit tt Cotort jftXiapmn, KHoa. 1677, Bro. p. 56.
' Vmgt, Magaan. L c
' F. 8>T«r. Clmtigcm, Strria Anliea dd Mtaica, T. W. p, I41.
* Comp. *Ua Hippocnte*, Dt aeriiiu, aqu'l, <t lutit, a. 44.
DEOENERATIOS.
^blather to be referred to some morbific disposition. Wo
may however meolion here the Ovis polycerata; and as to tJie
variety of hoofs, there are whole races of sows with sohd and
ith three-cloven hoofs'. As to some other parts, we have
jep with broad tails; the fringes of tho crested canary (what
r people call kapp. vdget) and other things of this kind-
31. Above all, the sitape of tJte skull. Tho shape has been
ired to differ everywhere in the varieties of mankind; but
I this difference is not a whit gruator, if indeed it can bo
compared to tliat which may be observed amongst tho differerit
races of other domestic animals. The skull of the Ethiopian
s not differ more from that of tho European than that of tho
mestic sow from the osseous head of the boar; or than the
1 of the Neapohtan horse, which is called from its shape
n-headed, from that of the Hungarian horse, which the
raed know well is conspicuous for iu singular lownesa and
B size of its inferior jaw. In the urns, the progenitor of our .
mestic race of bulls, according to the observations of Camper,
r large fovete lacrymales are visible; which, on the contrary,
) entirely obsoletti in our country cattle. I say nothing of
tat manifestly monstrous degeneration of skull in the variety
t hen they call the Paduan*.
32. Causes of degeneration. Animal Ufe supposes two faoul-
ties, depending upon the vital forces as primary conditions and
principles of all aud singular its functions; the one, namely, of so
receiving the force of the stimuli which act upon the body that
the parts are affected by it; the other of so reacting from this
affection that tho living motions of the body are in this way set
in action and perfected. So there is no motion in tho animal
lilne without a preliminary stimulus aud a consefiuent re-
^OD. These are the hinges ou which all the physiology of
s animal economy tunis. And these are th.e fountains from
Lich, just as tlio business itself of generation, so also the causea
' Voigt, Madiuin, I. a.
' PfJliu. tpiciltg, zoolnjpc. faac. IT. p. ii, and SainJtfort, Itfmlam Anatom, Acad,
L«gd. Batat. T, i. p. io6.
194
POEMATITE FORCE.
(if deffenerati'oii flow ; but in order to make this clear to thoa
even who know but little of physiology, it will be BS well t
premise with a fuw words from that science.
33. Formative force. I have in another plticc profes
and in a separate book devoted to this subject, endeavoured i
show that the vulgar system of evolution, as i
(according to which it is taught that no animal or plant i
generated, but that. all individual organic bodies were at t
very earliest dawn of creation already fonned in the shape i
undeveloped germs and are now being only successively evolved
answers neither to the phenomena themselves of nature, nor ^
sound philosophic reasoning. But on the contrary, by proper
joining together the two principles which explain the natm
of organic bodies, that is the phy si co-mechanical with
teleological, we are conducted both by the phenomena of g
ration, and by so\ind reasoning, to lay down this proposition p
That the genital hquid is only the shapeless material of organic
bodies, composed of the innate matter of the inorganic king-
dom, but differing in the force it shows, according to the ph&-^
nomena; by which its first business is under certain {
stances of maturation, mixture, place, &c. to put on the fiMi
destined and determined by them ; and afterwards through tU
perpetual function of nutrition to preserve it, and if by chai
it should be mutilated, as far as lies in its power to resta
it by reproduction.
Let me be allowed to distinguish this energy, so as to {I
vent its being confused witli the other kinds of vital for
or with the vague and undefined words of the ancients, 1
plastic force, &c. by the name of the formative force (ni
formativus) ; by which name I wish to designate not so mm
the cause as some kind of perpetual and invariably c
effect, deduced dposteriori, as they say, from the very cons
and universality of phenomena. Just in the same way i
use the name of attraction or gravity to denote certain foro
the causes of which however still remain hid, as they say, i
Cimmerian darkness.
As then other vital forces, when they are excited By t
even
ITS ACTION.
Rpp<»nted and proper stimuli, become active and ready for re-
action, so also the fonnative force is excited by the etirauli
which belong to it, that is, by the kindling of heat in the egg
ig the process of incubation. But as other vital forces, as
itractiiity, irritability, &c. put themselves out only by the
>|Bode of motion, this, on the other haiid^ of which we are talk-
ing, manifests itself by increase, and by giving a determinate
form to matter; by wluch it happens that every plant and
eveiy animal propagates its species in its offspring (either im-
iately, or gradually by the successive access and change of
ler stimuli, through metamorphosis).
Now the way in which the formative force may sometimes
turn aside from its determined direction and plan is principally
in three forms. First, by the production of monsters; then by
hybrid generation through the mixture of the genital liquid of
different species; finally, by degeneration into varieties, pro-
perly so called. The production of monsters, by which, whether
through some disturbance and as it were mistake of the forma-
tive force, or even through accidental or adventitious circum-
stances, as by external pressure, &c. a structure manifestly
faulty and unnaturally deformed is intruded upon organic
bodies, has nothing to do with our present purpose. Nor is
tills the place to consider hybrids sprung from the commingling
of the generation of different species, since by a most wise law
of nature (by which the infinite confusion of specific forms is
guarded against) hybrids of this kind, especially in the animal
kingdom, scarcely ever occur except through the interference of
man: and then they are almost invariably sterile, so as to be
unable to propagate any further their new ambiguous shape
sprung firom anomalous venery.
Still, meanwhile, this subject we are now discussing may
be illustrated by the history of hybrids sprung from different
species; partly on account of their analogy with those hybrids
which spring from different varieties, of which we shall speak
by and by; partly, because, like everything else, they go as
proofs to refute that theory about the evolution of pre-formed
germs, and to display clearly the power and efficacy of the for-
13—2
CUIUTE.
; force; & conaderatton, wlii<4 will escape no ooe who
ngfady appn.'cijit«s tfao^ Ttrll-kamvn anil very remarkable C
perimetits, id which, in tltc n^rr rare instiuicos q( prolific )if-
brida, whm their fecuodalioo k&s been &>?i|ueQt]y repeated i
many geaentions by the aid of the male seed of the same s
caes, th&t new appearance of hybrid poetesity has so i
deflected from the maternal fonn as more and more to ]
into the paternal form of the other species, and so, finally,
fbimer seems to become quite traosmut«d into the latter, by I
Bort of arbitruy metaniorpbosts'.
But the mixture of specifically different g^neratiou, al-
though it cauiiot overturn, or as it wore suffiL>cate, all ths
eicitabiiity of the formattre force, still can impart to it ik
singular and anomalous direction. And so it happens that tin
continuous action, carried on for several series of generati<aife
of some peculiar stimuli in organic bodies, again has great i
fluence in sensibly diverting the formative force from its accu
tomed path, which deflection is the most bountifril source ofi
degeneration, and the mother of varieties properly so oaUefti
So now let us go to work and examine one by one the (diief <l
these etimulL
31. Climate. That the power of climate must be almost
infinite, as on all organic bodies, so especially on warm-blooded
animals, will quickly appear to any one who considers first, hj.i
how intimate and how constant a bond these animals :
bound while alive to the action of the atmospheric air in whioi
they dwelL Besides, how wonderfully this air (which was ono(
held to he a simple element of itselt) is made up of what th^
call multifarious elements, such as gasiform constituents, 1"
accessories of light, heat, electricity, &c. Then of what diffee
ent proportions of these matters docs it not consist, and ifl
oonsefiuence of this variety how different must be the ataiti
liberie action on those we call auiniab! Especially when i
j pbtita, ft
ind of plut
CLIMATE. 197
F in the consideration of so mnoj other things, by whose
saion climates differ so much, as the poHition of countries
I respect of the zones of the globe, the elevation of the soil,
lOUDtains, the vicinity of the sea or lakes and rivers, the cus-
Y winds, and innumerable other things of this kind.
This air, then, which those we call animals suck in by
breathing from the time of birth, modified so greatly by the
variety of chmates, is dccompofied in their lunga as it were in a
living lalwratory. Part of what they inhale is distributed with
|he arterial blood over the whole body; but as a balance to
mother portion of this point, elements are liberated, which are
tly deposited on the peripheral integuments of tlie body, and
tly are carried back by the flow of venous blood to the re-
r»t<>ry organs; hence arise the various modifications of the
1 itself, and the remarkable influxes of these humours, es-
Jly of fat, bilo, &c. into the sGcretions. Hence finally the
ition of all these things as so many stimuli on a living solid,
nd hence the resulting reaction as well of this thus aflected
lolid, as what especially belongs to our disciission, the direction
tod detennination of tlie formative force. This great and per-
petual influence of climate on the animal economy and the
habit and conformation of the body, although there has been no
time when it has not attracted the attention of good olaervera,
has in our own time above all been illustrated and confirmed by
the great advance that has been made in chemistry, and by a
deeper study of physiology. Still it is always a difBcult aufl
jduous thing, in the discussion of these varieties, to settle
rhat is to be attributed exclusively to climate, what rather
a other causes of degeneration, and finally to the joint action
F both. Meanwhile I will bring forward one or two instances
i degeneration which seem moat clearly to be derived from the
rts of climate. For example, the white colour of many
aals in northern regions, whieh have other colours in the
inperate aones. Instances are, those of wolves, bares, cattle,
I, crows, blackbirds, thrushes, chaffinches, &c. Tliat this
prhitenesa must be attributed to cold, we learn from the analogy
f animals of the same kind who, under the same climate
198 DIET.
daring winter, change their summer colour into white or
grey; aa weasels and ermines, hares, squirrels, reindeer, i
ptarmigan, snow-bunting, and others'. So also I am nrn
inclined to attribute to climate that snowy fleece so w
spicuoue for it>; silhy softness of some of the animal'i of AngM
tlion to the kind of diet, because that is diared by those «
fi*ed on all sorts of difierent things, by the carnivorous, as I
cat fur example, equally with the herbivorous ruminanlt^
goats, &C.
Sudi too seems to be the explanation of the coally
which under some dislnds of the tomd iodc, as on the
of Guinea, animals of difierent orderH, mammalia as well
binJs, are seen to pat on with the colour of the
(9. 27). And it b aborc all worthy of remark that thk
blackn«sa, just like that Syrian whitef>i<ss, althongfa the
may he transported into regitms of a I'ery differrat 1^hn■tT^.
still (uvsvrred permanently fer many series of generstiona. i
is the power and influ^ice of climate 00 the stature of ocga
8 at all inferior ; sinee oM obstructs their increue, wU
tibe oontmy is manifestly ai^m^ted and promoted by be
B the boraee of ScoUand. or eokl North Wales, are smaD;
via the horses and Uw cattle, Eb the iodigenoiis tw
• of tall and stalwart stataie; n tTnwIaBil they are aeauil
pr> and in the aartb of B
»tle«t >tf all
&^ Aw. It se«n« extreowly prahahle, what has be
dmui^n^r:i!t^l prinHpaDy by tbe sagacity of G. Fordyee, th
th<- 1 < ^its, af they arv odled. of every kind
al^i wbv-lher il he taken bom the animal
th. ^ lu. are dM «ne. U«ttoe the ame sort
i4< vtbeswwkiBdafbkod. is ^bonlail 1
Kli ^ ^wtfhkooM anwftaK tmnavenaa as «i
a» i< I tbo masi dMLnit Unfa cf a
Vfint^- it h.v Kxii (wopifty Mbautted to tbe wgaasflfi
MODE OP LIFE. 199
' tion. Still, however much tliis may appear to be true, it cannot
be denied that the innumerable adventitious qualities of different
matters of food, have had great power in changing the natures
tsd properties of animals; to prove which a few instances will
i enough.
Singing birds show that thero in some specific power in some
Kinds of food to change the colour of animals ; sspecially some
fOrts of larks and finches, which it has been proved, if they
fed Upon hemp seed alone, sensibly grow black. The
fricaa sheep when transported to England is a proof how
ronderfuily, when the diet is changed, the texture of the hairs
II change also; for its wool which is common by nature, and
fltiff like the hair of a camel, after it has been fed one year upon
English pastures becomes of a most magnificent deUcacy'. The
influence food has towards changing the stature and the pro-
~ fortiooa, is plain from the comparison of domestic animals.
porses which in marshy countries (called in the vernacular
_Haachld7tder) live upon rich food, as the Fri-sian especially, grow
laige; whereas, on the contraiy, in rocky and stony countries,
such as those of tElaud, or on dry heathy soils, they remain
stunted. Thus it is surprising how fat and bellied horses be-
come on a fat soil, though their legs become shorter in propor-
tion. But when they are fed upon drier grass, as, for example,
^the Cape grass, they secrete less fat, but are remarkable for
^Ubeir strong and fleshy legs ; to say nothing of the multifarious
^^mversities of the taste and weight of fiesh, which again depend
^H^n the variety of diet.
^R 36. Mode of life. When I speak of the kind of life as
HL cause of degeneration, I include under that head all those
^^ointa besides climate and diet which so far have to do with the
natural economy of animals, that when they act long and con-
tinuously upon the same condition of body they are at length
jh to change it to some extent The principal of
3 are cultivation and the force of custom, whose power and
' Comp, JuD. Bktea On 1^ Literal Doctrine o/ Original Sin, Load, 1766, Sro.
^bort
200 nrBBiDiTT.
iofluence are again so manifestly conspicuous in our ilomesttc
animals.
Consider, for instance, tbo vast difference which separates
the conformation and the proportions of the parts of the
generous horse trained in the school, and the wHd horse, which
they call a wild beast. The latter, when it fights with others
bites rather than kicks; the fonner, on the other hand, when
bridled and armed with iron feet, prefers to attack his enemy
with them, and almost unlearns to bite. Many kinds of mam-
mala when subdued by man show by the hanging of their
tails and the lapping of their ears a spirit tamed and subdued
hy slavery, In many the very corporeal functions of secretion,
generation, &c. are changed in a wonderful way. In the do-
mestic pig, for example, the adipose membrane appears in r
vast mass, which is quite: wanting in the boar, wliose tender and
as it were woolly liairs, on the contrary, inserted between tha
bristles, sensibly disappear in that domestic variety. These
domestic animals are much more liable to monstrous births than
their wild aborigines; and also to troops of new diseases, and
especially to new kinds of worms of which no vestige is to be
found in their wild and original variety; the truth of which
assertion, though paradoxical, is not to be invalidated, as may
be proved by the instance of the Hydae intercutis, called, in tlie
vernacular, Finnen, Ital. LaiaroW. 1 place under this head
also stunted stature from premature and unseasonable venery,
and everything of that kind.
37. Hybrid generation. So much for the triple sources of
degeneration which only by long and daily action, continued
through many series of generations, arc sufficiently strong,
slowly, and by little and little, to change uie primeval character
of animals and produce varieties. But the case is different, and
a new character is imijartcd to the immediate offspring, when
different varieties of this kind, sprung at length from those
' MiJpighu Op<ra Puahuma, [>. 8+. eil. L.ind. 1697. fol.— «o J. A. E, Gorao,
DtttvKTg: thai the /lyilatiilt in mMajleih an no ^lander dtteaie, (uf trw hladdtr-
wurnu. Svu. Hal 17H4.
HYBBIDITY. 201
csaBee, come to copulate together, foo thus they ^ve rise to
a hybrid offspring, like neither parent altogether, but partici-
pating in the form of each, and being as it were a mean be-
1 the two. Hybrid is the name commonly given to the
ipring of parentis of manifestly different species, as mules
5>rung from the horse and ass, or birda from the union of the
rested canary with the linnet But this is not the place for
B to speak of these, for there is no account to be taken of them
\ varieties of the human race. Not indeed that horrid stories
3 wanting of the union of men with brutes, when either men
tove had to do with the females of beasts (whether carried
ray by unbridled lust", or from some mad idea of continence*,
t because they expected some medicinal aid from this sort of
le*), or when we are told that women have been made use
F by male brutes (whether that has happened through any
Violent rape', or because women have solicited them in the
Incas of lust', or have prostituted themselves from religious
iQperstition'), still we have never known any instance related
a good authority of any such connexion being fruitful, or that
' Camp. Th. Warton on Theocriti Idsll. i. 88, p. ig. " I have been told by a
Mrtain leuned biend, thnt wben he wns Imrelling in Sicil}' and invflBti)^Ung
olnwl; not only the ancient monuments but >Ihu tlie manners of the people, that
even their own prieita lued Id uk the shupberds, who spend a eolitary life in the
I HdKui mountama, im b m»tter of course among the articlM of oonfcfmon, whether
■■they bad had anything to do Bith the ahe-goati."
' See Mart, li Baumgarten Eriu. Qenn. Tranlt in Egypt, Arabia, ftc. p. 73,
. J we went out or Alkan, in Egypt, we came to a village called Belbes, where
^^.re join«<t a aaravui going to Damascus. There we saw a SuraceniD aaiut, sitting
Bbd Cat beapn uf lanJ. ai n&keJ ns he came out of Mb mother'a womb. We heard
■aintwbom we saw in that place publicly proiied above a3i thintci; that he
a holy man, divine and perfect beyond itll uieasuro, because he never hod any
leiion with women or bmrii, but only with mara and mutta."
* tVilh this object Pall^tMiya that when the Peraiana laffer from hip-gout they
ppulate with the otiagnt. A'ru« Nordufhc btyMtgt, P. 11, p. 38.
. * Baboons. Camp. Ph. Phillipg'a TrmitU in Guinta in Churchill's Cotleftiim of
WTof/aga, T. Tl. p. 111. " Here ore a vast number of overgrown large baboons,
F.Mmie M big as a large moiliff do^, which go in drovca of fo aod 100 [ogelhcr, nnci
■n TOly dongerout to be met with, oapecioUy by women, who, I have becu credi-
bly asnired, th^ have oden aiized upon, ravished, aad in that kind abused cue
alter anoUier, tiD they have i>illed them."
' Tlnu Steller aays that the women of Kamlwhatka formerly copulated with
di^, BmrArriAunff Ton JTim'^rAaM-n. p. 289.
* As the women of Mendee with the aafred goat; on which singular cuitoni nee
a coidauB disKTtatioii b; D'Uaacarville, Rtdur^uM wr CiD'y/int da jlrU dt la Orict,
T. 1. p. 310.
MS
■ay bjfarid 1im orer been prodoc^d from the bonid
bfn>t, and nuuu Bat we have ool; In do with
wiuth Wftiog from the iatereoiuve of different
iad tbe aame apcciea, aa wheD, fur ex&mple, the
bird H pwred with the white Tarietj, &c^ wLicfa coDnexioo
wonderful cRuct io changing the colour and conformation of the
n«w pro};eiijr which resiilu tberefircim ; so that this ia oftoi
ajiplicd with thft great«.4t adviuiUige in the impTegoatioa of
dorncwtic anitoab for the purpose of iraproTing and enaobling
tliu ofTNpring, oRpecinlly in the case of horses and sheep.
38. Ileredilan/ i>eculiarities of animals from dxMased tent*
periiment. An hun:ditiiry disj>ofiition to disease woald seem at
firnt Night ratlnir to belong to the pathology than to the natural,
hixtiiry of aiiimiilx. Gut when the matter is more careftdly
liiukcd into, it is plain that in more wa^ than one it has some-
thing to ilo with thoso cuuhos of degeneration we are concenuid
with. For. in the first place, some extemal qualities of animal^
iillliiiugh iu!Cording to common ideas they are never referred
tu u truly diN(tiu«!<l coimtitutioii, still seem to come very nearly
to I'liat, Miiicn t'hity are for the most part found in conjunctioD
with iin uiiniiturally weak affection. I include among these, for
ii»nmi)ln, that pomtliar whitontss of some animals, which the
wlnii Vonilani long ago callwl the colour of defect We learn
hy the osamplu of thf Hungarian oxen, whose woolly skin only
riiimm atU'r cjuitratioii. that wo may frequently recognize as
n CU1INK Die vioinuB constitution and defect of the corpore^
iiwHioniy, On tho other hand, it is proved by the instances of
tliH Aiigiu'H oatii and dogx, that morbid symptoms follow extra-
iinllhiiry wliiloniiiii of that kind, for it is a common observation
tllAt tli<Mn uttimatji aro almost always barj of hearing.
tl JH hIho thi> iMuw that some genuine diseases when the
Ullinal ntilim. hnn \m'n as it were used to them for a long
mn\fm iif Kounratioiw nooni to get sensibly milder and milder
UlA Iww iin^juvfiiitfut. no tlmt at last they can scarcely be con-
•Mvrvd inmi' than a diseawtl affi-etion. An example is afforded
hjl tltttl v'lvwM inioin»wt of whiteness which, when united to a
»l»uuy of thw lilftok pigment whioh lines the internal eye of
MUTILATIONS. 203
hot-blooded animals, U known by the name of leucjethiopia.
ibis when it seizes sporadically one or other of a family (for
is always a congenital atFection) exhibits plainly the symp-
totDS of cachexia, which everywhere comes very near to a
'leprous constitutioD. But in other cases when it has been esta-
Uished by a sort of hereditary right for many generations, it
becomes a second nature, so that in the white variety of rab-
ibits not a vestige remains of tho original morbific affection,
itiie existence of which however is determined by the analogy
of other animals which have anomalously white pupils and red
eyes. The ferret has been considered by some zoologists as a
peculiar species of the genus Mustela, whereas, unless I am
altogether deceived, it is as I have said above (s. 23) a mere
vsiiety of the pole-cat, and that of diseased origin through
leucEethiopia.
Problevi proposed. Can mutilations and other artijkes
'•give a oovimencement to native vaneties of animals? It is dis-
puted whether deformities or mutilations, effected upon animals
either by accident or advisedly, especially in those cases where
they have been repeated for many series of generations, can at
length in progress of time terminate in a sort of second nature,
that what before was done by art now degenerates into a
congenital conformation. Some' have asserted this, whilst
others* on the contrary have denied it. Those who are for the
affirmative point to the examples of the young of different
kinds of animals, dogs and cats for example, which are bom
vithout tails or ears after those parts have been cut off from
tiieir parents, as is proved by credible witnesses. And of boys
lunong circumcised nations who are frequently bom naturally
and of scars which parents bear from wounds, whose
(narks afterwards are congenital in the infanta. Buffon, indeed,
80 far as to derive from the same source the peculiar
tbaracters of some animals, as the callosities on the breast and
Hippoenlea uid Aristotle. And very recently KlUgel, in Tom. I. of the Enoy-
abpedia, n. 541, ed. ind.
* See Kaut. in Berliner Ifonitiaehrift, 1 7S5, T. VI. p. 400.
Voigt, Moffaan, T. VI. P, 1, p. ji, irad P. iv. p, +0.
204
DEOESERATIOX.
legs of camels, or ibe bald scurfy foreliead of tUe rook (fiorma
/ruffiUpm). Those who do not allow these last iDstances wJl
not unwi&ely reject this opinion of Butfon, as what is called |
petitio prtRcipii; but the other instances we spoke of thef
will think should rather be attributed to chance,
I have not at present adopted as my own either the affirms
tive or the negative of these opinioDs; I would willingly giw
my suffrage with those on the negative side, if they could ei
plaiu why peculiarities of the same sort of conformatioi
wldcb are first made intentionally or accidentally, cannot i
any way be handed down to descendants, when we see
other marks of race which have come into existence :
other causes which up to the present time are unknown, esp<
ally in the face, as nosoa, Upa. and eye-brows are onivers
propagated in families for few or many generations with lesB q
greater constancy, just in the same way tin organic^ disordeH
as deficiencies of speech and pronunciation, and such likfti
imless perhaps they prefer saying that all these occur also b
chance.
40. Some conmderations to he observed in the examinatia
of the cames of degeneration. Many of the causes of degcne
ration we have already spoken of are so very clear, and so plao
beyond all possibility of doubt, that most phenomena of deg
neration above enumerated may by an easy process be undoubl
edly referred to them, as effects to their causes. But on tlM
other hand even in that very way there is frequently such I
concurrence or such a conflicting opposition of many of them;
Bucli a diverse and multifarious proneness of organic bodies t{
degeneratiou, or reactiou from it; and besides, these causa
have such effects upon these bodies according as they act ink
mediately (so to speak) or otherwise ; and finally, such is tb(
difference of these effects by wlilch they are preserved ii
paired by a sort of tenacious constancy through long e
generations, or by some power of change withdi
in tl
IE'
CONCLUSION'S.
in a Bhort space of time, tliat in consequence of tliia diver-
sitied and various relation tliere is need of the greatest caution
the examination of varieties.
Let me then, if only for the benefit of the student, at the
of this discourse, before we pass to thu varieties of men
lemselves, lay down some maxims of caution at least, aa corol-
laries to be carefully borne in mind in the discussion we are
entering upon :
1. The more causes of degeneration which aet in conjnnc-
, and the longer they act upon the eame species of animals,
more palpably tiiat species may fall off from its primeval
iformation. Now no animal can be compared to man in this
respect, for he is omnivorous, and dwells in every climate, and
is far more domesticated and far more advanced from his first
innings thou any other animal ; and so on him the united
of climate, diet, and mode of life must have acted for a
long time.
2. On the other hand an otherwise suflSciently powerful
cause of degeneration may be changed and debiUtated by the
accession of other conditions, especially if they are as it were
iposed to it. Hence everywhere in various regions of the
ueous globe, even those which lie in the same geographi-
latitude, still a very different temperature of the air and
eqxially different and generally a contrary effecj on the con-
ation of animals may be observed, according as they differ in
le circumstances of a higher or lower position, proximity to
the sea, or marshes, or mountains, or woods, or of a cloudy or
serene sky, or some peculiar character of soil, or other circum-
stances of that kind.
t3. Sometimes a remarkable phenomenon of degeneration
ight to be referred not so much to the immediate, as to the
Bdiate, more remote, and at the first glance concealed in6u-
ence of some cause. Hence the darker colour of peoples is
not to be derived solely from the direct action of the sun upon
the skin, but also from its more remote, as its powerful iullu-
upon the functions of the liver.
. Mutations which spring from the mediate influence of
206
OONCLUBIOKB.
cnusea of this sort seem to strike root all the dci^per, and so tc
be ail the more tenaciously propagated to following generatiM
Hence, if I mistake not, we are to look for the reaaon why t
brown colour of skin contracted in tfie torrid zone will lu
longer in another climate than the white colour of northei
animals if they are transported towards the south.
5. Finally, the mediate influences of those sort of caus
may Ue hid and be at such a distance, that it may be impossible
even to conjecture what they are, and hence we ahaJl have to
refer the enigmatical phenoniena of degeneration to them, as to
their fountains. Thus, without doubt, we must refer to met
causes of this kind, which still escape our observation,
racial and constant forms of skulls, the racial colour of t
■ THE CAUSES ANB WAYS BY WHICH MANKIND HAS DEQENE-
RATED, AS A SPECIES.
41. Order of proceeding. Now let us come to the matter in
ind, and lot us apply what we have hitherto been demonstrat-
Dg about tlie ways in and the causes by which aniniids in
sneral degenerate, to the native variety of mankind, so as to
iBJiuinerate one by one the modes of degeneniting, and allot to
each the particular cause to wliiL'h it is to be referred. We
must bfgin with the colour of the skin, which although it
Sometimes deceives, still ia a much more constant character, and
bore generally transmitted than the others', and which most
clearly appears in hybrid progeny sprung from the union of
Tarietiea of different colour composed of the tint of either pa-
tent. Besides, it has a great connection with the colour of the
r and the iris, and a great relation to the temperament of
men: and, moreover, it especially strikes everywhere the eyes
jven of the most ignorant.
42. Seat of the colour of the shin. The mucous, commonly
called the cellular membrane, about whose most important
function in the economy of the human body we have spoken
above, affords as it were a foundation t^D the whole machine. It
8 interwoven with almost all parts alike, even to the marrow of
es, and is collected on the outermost surface of the body
' Kvit, ID Berliner MoniUachTi/t, t^%i, 1. VI. p. 391, and in TcuUclitn Ma-htr,
208
into a thick wliite universal integTiment, calleil the corivm.
this the rest of the body is surrounded and included;
above all it ia penetrated by a most enormous apparatus <
cutaneous nerves, lymphatic veins, and Baally with a most clos
and subtle net of sanguiferous vessels.
The nerves comumnicate sensation to the corium, so as to
make it the organ of touch, and aa it were the sentinel of thq
whole body. The lymphatic veins make this same corium the
instrument of absorption and inhalation. But the sanguiferou*'
vessels have most to do with the subject under discussion, aft
being the constituent parts of the common integuments of the
body, and equally wiDi the luug.4 and the alimentary canal maka
up the great purifier and chemical laboratory of the humaQ
machine; whose surfaces, as will soon he seen, have a good deal
to do with giving its colour to the skin. The corium is lined
with a veiy tender mucus, which from the erroneous descriptioa
of it-s discoverer, is called the reticubtm Malpighii: this afford
a sort of glutinous bond, by which the most external stratum o
the integuments, tlie epidermis, or cuticle, stretching over a
protecting the surface of the body, and which in the horn n
is exposed immediately to the atmospheric air, adheres to th«
corium. .The reticulum, just like the epidermis, is a mof
simple structure, entirely destitute of nerves and vessels, differ^
ing both of them as much as possible from tho nature of the
corium. They agree themselves in more than one way, so that
it seems most probable that these similar parts are allied, ot
that the exterior cuticle draws its origin in some way from its
substratum, the reticulum. Besides, each of these allied strata
of integuments so make up the seat of colour, that in clear-com-
plesioned men, where they are stained with no pigment, they
permit the natural roseate whiteness of the corium to be seeD
through: and in brown or coloured men, although the principal
cutaneous pigment may adhere to the Malpighian reticulum^.
although the epidermis may he paler, still it will manifestljr
partake of its tint, Tlie darker the reticulum the thicker it \a,
and the more it approaches the appearance of a membrane
peculiar to itself; the more transparent it is on the contrary
OOLona.
the more tentJer it becomee, and only appears to have the con-
stitution of a diffused mucus.
43. liaciul varieties of colour. AIthou«;h the colour of the
human fikin scciua to play in numberless ways between the
snowy whiteness of the European girl and the deepest black of
the Ethiopian woman of Senegambia' ; and though not one of
these phases is common either to all men of the same nation,
or iiO peculiar to any nation, but what it sometimes occurs in
^^^.hers, though greatly different in other respects; still, in geue-
^£■1,811 the varieties of national colour seem to be most referable
^Pb the live following classes.
~ - 1, The white colour holds the first place, such as b that of
most European peoples. The redness of the cheeks in this
variety is almost pecuhar to it : at all events it is but seldom to
be seen in the rest.
2. The second is the yellow, olive-tinge, a sort of colour
half-way between grains of wheat and cooked oranges, or the
^mdry and exsiccated rind of lemons: veiy usual in the Mongolian
^^fepUons.
^^f 3. The copper colour (Fr. hronse) or dark orange, or a sort
of iron, not uuhke the bruised bark of cinnamon or tanner's
bark: peculiar almost to the Americans.
4. Taiffnt/ (Fr. baaan^), midway between the colour of fresh
^Kpfthogany and dried pinks or chesnuts: common to the Malay
^^pce and the men of tlio Southern Arcliipelago.
^V' 5. Lastly, the tawvy-black, up to almost a pitchy blackness
^( jet-black), principally seen in some Ethiopian nations. Though
this tawny blackness is by no means pecuhar to the Ethiopians,
but is to be found added to the principal colour of the skin in
""Mbers of the most different and the most widely-separated
m
The indeRDite and nrbilrury eeriBe in nhicb mnst autbora uia the n&mes of
n hall caused vast iliSculty !□ all the Btui]}' of natural histoi7: and wiU cer-
Uiiuly 1« partiealarly traiibleBome in thU anthropologica! diaquisilion. That I may
not be accused of the samo fault, I must aive notice that I am fw from ccnaiduriiig
Buch wonJi for example aa tbe English ytllute onii oUvt tinge, ko. which I liave tab-
joined to each of the five principal colours which J ha^o distioguiahni, aa genuine
eynonynu. All 1 wanted to do wop to show that these words bad been used by
iliierciit authon, and Ihosa closuual ones, in dcuotiug tho naliootl colour of oos
oud the saiDe tux.
14
IniTi^, mai tk Mmm Urn «f the S iw riw i a Otaa. »
fcr ■iliiii. the K«i
&W Ae tMn^eoiovr of Uke(
the rhtmir-eehMeJ lafcafciUrwlK «f I
TcaglteN, to the immnjAitaA of Ae Xew I
**, OtmMf ef tUa warittf. The aeat «f the e
D0« beea pheed bejnnd an doobt 1^ ^
ofnlow.aBd their Atrihotki
phiB aad p el ■ p ie W W. B«k te dig eat the etmmi of tbts i
M the tadt ani the tnmUe. Anthcts h>v« hboored moet b
enJewooriag to explain the eolour of the EthiopianB, which
ahoreaD other national eoiaars bma the nkoet remote period
baa tUvek the eyea of Enropeana, and excited tbtdr tninds to
inquireL Nor it it nuprishig that with that object all sortB of
bypotbcace dwald be elaborated, vbkh, however, I peas bjr
VDDOticed, as being saffidentlr known', and altc^y explained
all together li3r others', and shall go into the details of that
Ofnnion alone, which, unless I am mach mlst^en, t
come nearest the troth. I think, myself, the proximate c
> On tha BnoIiaM tamp. (i. Farttur on Wibcni'i A'adndUca n
/bw/h. p. j6. On tb* Califoniiuu, Btgcrt, A'«AntAtn von Ciii/onto, ^ 8^ I
* Buffoa kttribula mnrt to climalc. Hijit. A'aUrtlU, T. m. p. 516. Zimd
niMUi, Gtojrrapll. Ofckicilr drt JtaueMen. T. I. p. 77. Abb. Katrton in JeMf
dt Wmivm, T, »»iii. Sept. I ;8i. P. Btmrt to hik. Din. tur la eaue j "
lU laCviUar drt Sryrtt, rcrng. 1741, l^mo. To Ute blood beltdea otben a,
"ni. Towa* ia PhiUt. Trmi*. X. 1. p. 398, who *l*a baa d^mbU kboot the unrer «f
tti* ran to life tlie ikin of tba EUuopuiu. To put of the globule* of Uie Uood
MtbariBg lo tlw •kin tbo ■Dtborof the rardiai qimtion of Piria, an opinioa ani-
purtad on mure than one ooeattoo, *m by De« Mole) in 1741. and by Moimi«t a
1775. Kant in Engd, Pliilot. fUr dit Wrtl, P. II. p. is'. to ~
Irun Id ths binod of the Ethiopian!, precipitated b; the traiupin
add on tba rrtt muTOtum. 1 lay nouiing of a aort of mii
Julo> and aome •ecnl lii]uid ia the nerroiu and arterial papa of ^ii
whleli Im Cat, who *aa a ffyttti phvainli'gut as lar aa dreaming 1
that h* hail aiplained tbe blailoiiiU of the Ethiopiaaa, in hii Tn * '
4l la Pm» llmvUite, Anut, 176;, 8vo , or tbe elongated fibre* in
ffuUa, tti* diMHilutlon of tlie red bluod, the eraporation of tbe •
flxwl lalliie particle* of tbe blood, remtioing (uly and fat in ^e
whioh Attumonelli, EltaimU lU PiKoiagia Mediea, Neap. 1787, T. 1. p. 14^ ■
to eiplata the —irat tiling.
' Thiu the "pinion* of the ancientd have been collected bj B. S. Albino*, Ik
lidc tt taata Colrfli iSthiopum, Lndg. BaUv. 1737, 4to. Those of the modenf
by QallMr, tCUnunt. Phymolog. T. T. p, 10. A heap of authorB are cited bj Krtt
ijiteh M'lS'ii'
t. P- 379-
B cited by Krtn^^
COLOUR.
211
of the adust or tawny colour of the external integuments of the
skin, is to be looked for in the abundance of the carbon in the
human body, which, when it is excreted with the hydrogen
through the corium, and precipitated by the contact of tho
atmospheric oxygen, becomes imbedded in the Malpighian
mucus. Hence it is well known that the national colour of
their skin is not congenital even to the Ethiopians themselves,
but is acquired by the access of the external air after birth
and after the intercourse with the mother, by which the fcetus
was nourished, has been taken away.
Besides this, the action of the sanguineous vessels of the
corium seems necessary as well for secreting as for storing up
the carbon. For if this is disturbed or comes to a stop, an
unnatural and diseased colour is everywhere brought upon the
skin in dark men just as much as in Ethiopians. But on
the other hand, although in a white skin that action of the
corium may be stimulated, cphelides and spots of tawny colour
occur, and sometimes it ia found that it puts on an Ethiopic
bhicknesa.
Generally carbon seems to be in greater quantity in the
atrabilious ; for the connexion of the manufactory of the bile with
the common integuments, and those which belong to them, aa the
hair, is plain : indeed both organs, that is, the liver and the
.•ikin, must be considered as by far the principal and mutually
lo-operating purifiers of the mass of the blood.
Then there ia the vast influence of climate upon the action
of the liver, which in tropical countries is wonderfully excited
and increased by the solar heat. Hence the various kinds of
bilioua and endemic disorders in the tropics. Hence also the
temperament of most inhabitants of tropical countries is cho-
leric and prone to anger. Hence also, what was first observed
by physicians', the bilious constitution and habit of Europeans
who dwell in India, and especially in the children which are
bom there. But there is no other climate, in the vehumence
and duration of the heat, or in the peculiar chemical constitu-
' Da Haen, pTaUctanm in ^iKi'Aan'i Intfilui, Paihalojira,
r. p, 155-
212 COLOUR.
ents that make up the atmosphere there, such as particula»n
winds, and rains, wliich can be compared to that burning and
scorching climate which is to be found on the wet and marshy
regions both of eastern and western Africa under the torrid zone
Now the aboriginal Ethiopians have been for a long time and
for many series of generations exposed to the action of that
climate, since they must without doubt be ranked amongKt the
most ancient nations of the world'. So we must not be sn
prised if they propagate unadulterated, even under anotb
climate to succeeding generations, the eame disposition whi
has spread such deep and perennial roots in their i
from the most distant auti<.]uity. But, on the other hand, fro
this tenacity and constancy of the constitution of the Eth
pians, this comes out all the clearer, that such a power (
only be contracted after a long series of generations, and ao D
must be considered as a miracle, and against all natural law, if
it be true, what we find frequently related that the present
descendants of some Portuguese colonists who emigrated I"
Guinea in the 15th century, have in so short an interval of
time, only through the influence of the climate', been able to
contract the Ethiopian habit of liody.
io. Finai exjfositton of the causes of the colour of the skin.
What I have summarily and succinctly already laid down about
the causes of the colour of the skin is strongly corroborated,
on more accurate inquiry, by all sorts of arguments answering
most accurately to each other, and taken from actual observa-
tion of human nature.
We have discovered from the antipldogistic chemistry ^i'
the French* that carbon belongs to the radical elements of lli;'
' Thow who like mtiy coinult tbreB very Je»med work*: Jnc. Bryant. .^.-■
Sgilem of Andenl Atj/thologSi Vol. I. ; Jit. Bruce, Jowntj/ to tKt Dacortrf of ihl
Soarca iff the Xile, Yul. l., am] Sir W. Jodm, Dm. in Aiiatic lUttardia, Vnb. IL
■ We alt know thM bUck men have been found kt the Gsiabik deacandtd fnnp
the oricin^ Portuguase. BuL it teeaa most probable that their blacknea turn b.-Ml
derived pritioipally from the union of men witi the indigenou* Ethiopiao WMM*,
for thii reason, thai European women when taken direc^ from thdr own nosstiT
to Guinea can vcr; leldoni preaerTe lire there ; for the effect of the clinoato to ndl
•a to produce very copious menatrunUon, which ahuost always in • abort apaee d
time dida in fatal luemorrbagea of the uterus.
■ Sao GaUJiaer, At\fanytgr<in<U dtr AnlipMoghtiiehen Chimie, p. loi.
animal Ixjtly, and is also the cause of dark colour, whether it l)e
jX'Uow, tawny, or hlackiah. In order that the animal economy
may not be disturbed and endangered by a redundancy of this
liubstance varinus emunctories have been provided, in which
the liver and the akin occupy by no means the lowest place.
Pathology, here as elsewhere so often the instructor of phy-
siology, shows together with the phenomena just mentioned,
the co-operation of the functions of the bile with the common
integuments. For although I do not wish to insist too much
on the analogy of jaundice with national tints of the skin, still
there are various peculiar phenomena which deserve attention,
common to those suffering under the regius morbus, anil the
uationa of colour (ao to speak) to which I refer, the fact of the
albuminous part of the eye being tinged with yellow, a thing
common to tawny nations and specially to the Indians', the
lericans*, and the Ethiopiana'. Besides it not unfrequently
ipens with jaimdiced persons, according to the varieties of the
tase, that the skin, even after the disorder has been re-
moved, remains always tinged with a different shade, very like
the skin of coloured natitms*. Nor are examples wanting of a
genuine sooty blackness being sometimes deposited in atra-
lious disorders by a sort of true metamorphosis of the skin',
d from the affinity of the bile with fat' it is clear that this
of cherry tint has been observed in tawny peoples'. Hence,
le^s I am mistaken, wo must look for the reason why nations
^cpmi
^■msee
* I wjatU luve often abaerved thia in tbose on Uiia aide Lha Gviges. On thoM
and the Gaiigea see De In Loubero iu Deiiripl. dn Soi/aunc de Siam, T. i.
Jr. On tbo Niooli&ra, Nia. Fonlann in AtmUi Hamrcha, VoL III. p. 15 r.
I On tlie Coribbeoa Ha Roslierort, llittoire NalurtUt da Antilla, p. 383,
' SSmmBirirjg, Vbcr dU Kirperikie rmehiedimitit dri Ntgm vom EarapiUr, p. 1 1 .
* See Stnck, Obtervationa dt Fcbribtit Intrrmittenlibat, I 11:. c. i, dt Ulen rx
VAre iHltnniUeHU. " I have teen," aaya he, p. 194, " from such a jaunitiue that
an olive cxiloiired akin, jaat lilco thut iif Asiutica, hau remuneJ in tlis childrsn.
a person lias l>Lcame aiiooat »a lilack a* an Iniliun from Faier. The wbola
V of another baa prtaetved a bUck oomiileiioD, u if he hiul been bom from an
MB father and an European mother ; but like luoh he bad the lolea of his fcst
d tbe ptitat of bia handa wbiln," &a.
» Lorry, Dt MtlanchUia, T. 1. p. j;j.
* Foupoioy, PkiloiofhU C/iimi^ut, p. nr.
* Obaerveit in the EthiopUns by J. Fr. Meckel, ffiitoin dt VAcadcmit drs
SeimUM dt Berlin, 17JJ, p. 91, and by aomniBirini;, (. C. p. 43'
COLOUR.
who feed coptouslj on animal oil not only smell of it, but ■
contract a dark colour of skia'; while tlie more elegant Ota-
heitans on the contrary, who try to be of a pale colour, live
every year for some montlia on the bread-fruit alone, to the use
of which they attribute great virtue in whitening the skin';
altbongh part of that effect mast be attributed to the fact that
during the same period they remain at home, covered with
clothes, and never go out. Uow great an influence abstinence
from the free and open air has in giving whiteness to the skio,
our own experience teaches us every year, when in spring very
elegant and delicate women ahow a most brilliant whiteness of
Hkiu, contracttHl by the indoor life of winter. Whilst those who
are less careful in this way, after they have exposed themselves
freely to the summer sun and air, lose that vernal beaut;
before the arrival of tbe next autumn, aud become sensibly
browner'.
If then under one and the same climate the mere difference
of the annual seasons has such influence in changing the colour
of the skin*, is there anything surprising in the lact that climates,
in the sense defined above (s. S^i), according to their diversi^
* Cruiz, Hitlorie ran Gr^itlaml. T. :, p. 178, kttribul« ths tawny ikin at ths
GrMnlmDderB to their particuUriy oily diet. Sloane declarea, Votfage to Jamaira,
Vol. L Intrud. p. 18, and Vul. il. p. 331, that the skin of Europeui* in the Eiut
Indiea becomta yiiUow from copiout meiilfl of duhea prepared from the alipaah
of turtles,
' See the account of the surgeon Andenon in Cook's VtH/ajt to lAt Ifprthtn
Hemiiphert, Vol. 11. p. 147.
' Prom the cloud of witneuM who hkve obnerved the gams weU-known oCfect
of the mode of life in other p»rtj of the world, 1 will quote only odp, Poiret, «bout
the Moors in Voyagt en Harbarir, p. 31. "The Moors »re by no meana naturally
black, apite of ths proverb, though many wrilen think ao; thay are bom whits
and remaJQ whit« all their live^ when their husiness doea not expoae them to the
boat of the ran. In the towni the women are of such a bnlliant white:ien that
they eolipae moat Europeans; but the Mauritaninn mountaineera, burnt ODceMingly
by the nun and always half-naked, booome, even from infancy, of a brown anlour,
which cornea very near to that of aoot."
• A few ejiamplea out of ninny will suffice. We know the Biaoayan wonm
are of a hrilliant white, those of Granada on the coutrat; brownleh. so that in this
Kouthum province the pictures of the Virgin Mary are painted of the same national
--' IS observed by 01. Toree, Rtae nocA Surale, p. 9. We are told expressly
>g$X aN Uwoy,
I
ciii:uLi:s. 215
fiboulii have the greatest and most permanent influence over
national colour : everywhere witbiD the limits of a few degrees
of geographical latitude, and still more when a m\iltifarious
eoncoiu^e of the caueeii' ahove-raentioned has occurred even
» luder the same latitude, a manifest difference in the colour of
I the inhabitants may be observtd'.
46, Creoles. The same power of affecting colour, about
which we are speaking, is showu very clearly in Creoles, under
which name {a<j frequently improperly confounded even by good
I authors' with the word Mulattos) in a narrower sense' we uu-
I'deratand those men bom indeed either In the East or the West'
riudioe. but of European }iarent». In tbetse the face and colour are
BO constant and impossible to be mistaken, breathing as it were
of the south, and particularly besides tiiL- hair and the almost
burning eyes, that the most brilhaut in other respects and most
beautiful women may easily be distinguished by those peculiar
characters from others, even their relatives, if these are bom in
Europe*. Nor docs this appear only in Europeans, but also in
Maradcn, I/iitory of Sumaln, p. 43, naUen the effect of na-iur upoTi the
■kin, ud to Wallia in HavkeBWortb't CoUrrtum 0/ VoyagtM, Vol. i. p. 16a Hartii-
ink, Hut td woodi, Buchryvitif mn Guinta, T. :. p. 9. Bouguer of mounUiu,
Plynn dt la Teire, iDtr. p. lot, da Pinto of Iha ftltiluik of the country, in Bobert-
■on'a Bit. of Amtriea, Vol. u. n. ^03.
* On Uiia point ZimmemiatiD fau Bome deep anit leameH remarks when diecui-
rins tlw probleni why we do not God Ktbio|>i*iu in America olao in eqnatoriol
regtOQI. Otogmpli. gackit-hlt da Mmirhtn, T. 1. p. 86.
* A* Tbomu Hyde in the note* to Abr. Prritaol, Itinera nHnrft, in I'golini,
7%aaitr¥*Jnii'/uilatumSarTarHtR,T.vii.p. u'.
* lliii word uriginated with the Ethiopian ilarn trannporlcd in the aiitorath
Oentuiy to the minm in America, who lint i>f all called their own cliildren who
We bom there, Vriolloiiaid Crinllat: Ibis nune was afterwards boTTowful fniiu the
%uiiBrdi, and iropoaed upoo their children bom in the new world, i^i Gurcilauo,
M Orijfnt dt lot iTViu, p. m. 155. Now this word hae been extemled in the Eoat
Indiea to tbe domestic aninml' which are not indieenoua in America, but have
liMD Inuisplanted there by Europeans. Oidtindorp, Ottchirkk dtr Miuion auf dm
Oanib. Itutln, T. I. p. 131.
* On theee Creoles of the Anlillea, see the ciirioue and ebtborato works of Gir-
tmntT, abrr dit Praiabi'afht Semlalion, T. 1. p. 60—71, and ed.
* H»wk*mrorth"B CalUction of Fogwja, T. ill. p. m. 374. •' If two native* of
England marry in their own country Mid afterwskrd* rrmove to our •ettlemeuta in
Ihe West Indiea, the children that an- oonceivtd and born there will have the com-
plexion and out of countrnanoe that diatinguiah the Creole ; if the)' return, the
children eoncnved and bom afterwards will have no such characteristics," &r.
4
MPUlTm*.
Aatatics who are bom in the East Indies from Persian or M<
golian parent* who have emigrated there '.
+7. Mulattos, (frc. Remarkable too is the constancy wil
which oti&pring bom from parents of different colours present
middle tint made up as it were from that of either parent. For
although we read everywhere of *ingle specimens of hybrid in-
fants bom from the union (s. 37) of different varieties of this sort,
who have been of the colour of one or other parent alone*; still,
generally speaking, the course of this mixture is so consijiteatly
hereditary, that we may suspect the accuracy of James Bruce
about the Ethiopians of some countries in the kingdi
Tigre, who keep their black colour unadulterated, altboi
some of the parents were of one colour and some of anothi
or about the Arabians, who beget white children with the female
Ethiopians like the father alone'. But as *ho hybrids of
lliis sort of origin from parents of various colours are diatia-
guishcd by particular names, it will bo worth while to exhihil
them here arranged in synoptical order.
A, The first generation. The offspring of Europeans
Ethiopians are called Mulattos'. Of Europeans and Indi
Mestizos'. Of Europeans and Americans abo Mestisos*
Mestinde^, or Meti/s', or Mamlncks*. Of Ethiopians
Americans Zambos"; by those called also Mulattos", Ldbos'
Curibocas and Kabuglos". All these present an appearance
colour compounded of either parent, and that more or h
■ S«e Hudgeo'a Trajtli in India, p. 3,
• Coiu]., J»o. Pbisum in PMot. hvni; Vol. LV. p. 47,
* Joumrg to ike Sourm af tit A'iie, VoL ur. p. 106, lUid Vol. IT. p. 470. i
the romwks of TyehmiQ nt T. v. p. 357.
* So« > Uw-auit wliicb tamed npon the habit ami character! of muUtlM 1|
Klein, Annatm der 0«t&s**HBy in lUa PreuainiJUH Slaalen, T. vii. p. ri6.
' See tbo %urB cl tbe Cingalese Mmtixo io da Bruin, JUIir* over M
p. m. 3SH, and of the Temntese though lets rvmarkitbhi lu Valeutyn, Oud tt
Oott-Inilie'i.T.i. H. i, p. 18.
' (.ikreiliweo, " Por dair jw lomiu matladiH, de ambat Nateimri."
' Twim' Tntvclt lArouffk Foft»!jat and Spain, p. jj), (rom piotatM asen 1^
him at Mnliigii.
' Labnt, Vojiage aux itltt de CAmeriqae, T. 11. p. 131.
• De Unulflriva, lliit. de I'Aead. daSt. dt Pant, 1794, p- t8-
" Oily, A'toria Amsrieatia, T. iv. p. 310. " GftrolUwo, J
■' Twlu, I. e. ■' MarrgrikV, Traf(atia liroiUia, p. 1
ruca
herJM
WL'LATTOS. S17
rownisTi or muddy, with scarcely any redness visible in the
Aiceka The hair of Mulattos is generally curly, that of the
st straight, of almost all black ; the iris of the eye is brown,
B. The second generation. Mulattos forming unions with
ich other produce Casquaa'; Europeans and Mulattos Ter-
, which othera call QUarterons', others Moriecos* and
feetitos'. The countenance and hajrof all is that of Europeans,
be «k.in very lightly stained with a brownish tint, and the
heeks ruddy. The lips of the female mouth and pudenda
k»Iet coloured; the scrotum of the male blackish. The Ethi-
pians with the Mulattos produce Gnffs*, called by others
> Midattoa^, and by others Cahros". The Europeans with
e Indian Mestizos, Castissi*. Those bom of Europeans and
merican Mestizos are called QuarferoKa'" or Quatralvi^^, and by
be Spaniards also C'aatissi". Those bom of the AmericanB
h^nselves and their Mestizos are called TresalvV*. Those of
■■ Americans and the Mulattos are also called Mestizos'*.
iliose of Europeans and Zambos ur Lobos of the first generation
e called indifferently Sfulattos". Those of the Americans and
ese same Zambos or Lobos Zambaigi". The progeny of the
unl>08 or Lobos tbemselves are called contemptuously by tlio
Ipaniards Ckoloa".
C, The third generation. Some call those who are bora of
Suropeans and Tercerons Quakrotis", others Ochawns", or
Octavons. and the Spaniards Ah-iiws*'. In these it ia asserted
' Da H&uteriTe, I. «. ' Long, Iliitorff of Jamaica, T. it. p. 160.
» Aublot, Hidoirt dt* PUnita dt la Ouiant, T. 11. Apn. p. 111. * Twi«.
* UoretOQ'a Mannert and Cattomi in-lht Wftt India li!aiidi, p, 113.
* De Hxularive, I. e. ' Uiit. of Jamaica, I. c.
» BoDUtre, IMctiannaire tTU'tloin Xalurdle. ed. 4, T, 11. Art m'jr*.
* Tranqudtarijche MMont-IStriditt, Cuntin. XXSin. p. 919.
" GumilU, OriarKa tlliiMmdn, T. I. ]>. B3,
" GiroiUuo, I, «., "to show Ant tht-y are one-foiirth Indian, RoJ three-fourllii
*' Qarcilssao, " to show that Ihej are three puts ludian imil ono part Spanish,"
'* Bitl. iff Jamaiai.
'• tenam. Sur rfEcon. Jni«t<ile, T. I. p. 179. '• Twiw,
^ Oareitaaao, " Cbolo U a wnrd »( tha iiilanils of Bttrlovento, meatiinj; Uiu gains
Doe; and the Spaniard! uw it by way of contempt or repruouh."
SIH
VAHIEOATION.
by tbe most aciile observers that no trace of their Etbiopiaa
origin can be found', Those of Mulattos and Tercerons Salta-
tnts'. Of Europeans and Castissi, Poatissi'. Of Europeans and
American Qiiarterons of tlie second generation Oclavons*. Of
Qiiarterons and American Mestizos of the 6rst generatioD,
Coyotaa". Of Griffs and Zambo Mulattos with Zambos of the]
first generation Gi«ei*o«°. Of Zambaigis and Mulattos Camr
bujoa''. There are those wlio extend even into the fourth gem
ration this kind of pedigree, and say that those bom from!
Europeans from Quarterona of tbe third generation are called,
Quinterons', in Spanish Puchuulas', but this name is alaocl
applied to those who are born of Europeans and American
Octavons". But that the slightest permanent vestige of their
mixed origin" is to be found in productions like these, after what
we have been told by most credible eye- witnesses about the
men of the third generation, that as to colour and constitutioQ
they are exactly like the aboriginal Europeans, is a thing
seems almost incredible.
■48. Brown skin variegated with white spots. What I
above (s. 44) about the action of the sanguiferous vessel
the corium in excreting tho carbon, which is afterwards
cipitated by the addition of oxygen, is singularly confirmed by
the instances of dark-coloured men, especially Ethiopians,
whose skin, and that too uot always from their firet tender
infancy ", is distinguished by spots of a snowy whiteness (Fr, vi'
ffreS'pies; Eug. piebald neijr^jea).
I saw an Ethiupian of this kind at London, by name John
Richardson, a servant of T. Clarke, who exhibited there (ini
Exeter Cliange), live exotic animals as shows and also for sale.
ad
Of
heH
">■
311- ■
(. of Jatuaiea, ' Tmnyatbariiiclit Miamnt-UeriAlt,
> Twin. ' Hutor}/ of Jamaiea.
' Hal, of Jantaiea.
dbk, p. 86. '" la. p. 83.
11 Tbui Ihow boru From the Cuyolea of tlir third generalion Mtd tba AmaritxBI
"" ' " — '" " from the Cumliujoa and MuImttoB, AlbaruitatUt.
> Aulilel.
* Utunilla. I
« TwiM.
a/n ocIleJ //ami
T«riu, vbant I havu no ofteo iiuotcd
Mut&ttoa, BaTtinot.
" W. Byrd, in PhUo,. Tmnt Vo
Ethiopian bo^ in whoin thi) tpola did i
u[ tiiue bi'(;sn to EQcrosas iu nm.
', c(dU Ihoae biin
from
t rtppear till hii fourtli fear, and in
1KSTAXCE8.
e young man vas perfectly black except in the umbilical and
epigastric region of the abdomen, and in the middle part of
either leg, that is the knees, with the adjoiniog regions of the
thigh and the tibia, which were remarkable for a most brilliant
and snowy whiteness, and were themselves again distinguished
hy black scattered spots, like those of a panther. His Lair was
I^Ubo parti-coloured. For the middle part of his sinciput de-
»nding in an acute angle &om the vertex towards the fore-
1 was white, not however like the regions of the skin we have
ten speaking of, but a tittle suowy with a tinge of yellow,
"fae rest of the liair was, as is usually the case with Ethiopians,
fcurly; and this cnrliness still continues unaltered up to this
time, in a Kpecimen of each kind of hair which I obtained from
the man himself more than two years ago. I had also a picture
taken of the man, which on comparison with three others
equally of Ethiopians, which 1 have by me, a boy and two girls,
ihows that in all, the regions of the abdomen and legs were
'. or less white, but that the hands and feet, that is, those
jparts which with the groin are the first to grow black in new-
born Ethiopians, were perfectly tawny, and that in all the
isposition of the white regions was thoroughly symmetrical
rhe gums, to go on to that also, in the man I saw, the tongue
1 all the jaws, were of an equable and beautiful red.
Both the parents of the man I am speaking of, as of all the
Ettber spotted Ethiopians' of whom I have found descriptions, were
|»erfectly black, bo that the conjecture of Buffon seems badly
founded when he attributes such offspring to the union of Etbio-
1 and LeucsEttbiopian women, when sufTering under a dis-
ased affection of the skin and the eyes, about which I shall
ike an opportunity of speaking more particularly below.
Care must always be taken that the spots we are speaking
d which can only be distinguished by a snowy white-
See ■ print of a girl ot IIiJh liind in Buffon, Sapj.!. T. iv. Tub. 1, p. jlf.
nil, unlm I un miaUlien, ia Chn uuuii wbicb bu bern deuribiHl &t length by
Gimull>, Orinoeo lUuitrado, T. I. p. log. Otber insUuces of tbia kinJ o! Elbio-
roMia are found in lj» Motbe, Bibtuifhigiie Impartlatt. Apr. 17^1. See D, Morgui
n TrantaOifit i/ tU PhUimiikical Samti/ at PkUadtlphia, Vol. Ii. p. 391.
f boa tiie rest of Ute tkin, the epulennis beng in othefl
if p frfi onaflactol. be nut improperif ooofoancled with t'
by whidi tbc wbote tDtegnnwot is covered, wbidi are to Ii
reeagmxed not to moch by a differrat cdoor aahy ^i
tion of tbe texture of the corinm ilselt «1im^ beooroes roii^
atx) M it were aealy or seurvjf. Writere hare obserred this
kiuil of cutaneoua duorder paiticnUrly amoi^st tbe Malaban*.
and the Tiichiilftnik Tartars*. Eul these snowy, equable and
noootb spot;! which only occur in a disordered action of tbfl
nnaUeat Tcmels of the coriuin, »« by no means confined to
tbe Ethiopianti, but sometimes occur amnngat our own peo-
ple. 1 hav<: tnyw.lf had the opportunity of observing two in-
■tanccit of thU kind in CJerraan men, one a young man, th©:
other more than iiixtyyear? ol<}. The skin of each was brown-
inh, ntudded here and there with very white spots of different
xizeK. In neither were these congenitaj, but had appeared sud-
denly and RpontaneouRly in one during infancy, in the other in
manhood.
49. Similar remarkable mutattonn of Oie colour of the tkin,
An the«c inxtances I have just been mentioning seem to demoo-
Htrato the power of the smaller vessels of the corium in modi-
fying the colour of the skin ; so there are other phenomena'
which often occur, and point in this direction, by which, unless
1 am much mistaken, those conjectures I made above (s. 44i, \Sj
about the abundance of carbon, and the impressions of tbe Md-
pighian mucus being as it were the proximate cause of that
Colour, nro woll illustrated.
Above all othera I shall consider in thU place tho singulai^
change of colour so often observed in European women", in somtf
'"".X
l"mBji«*ar«eA< MitiontStrickU, Cont, JUtl. p, 741, oompare tho d
H Strahlmlinv, Nord.ottUcK Enropa und Atirn, p. lAA, wbo siupecta UieS'
Id bo IhaauDuTnrtnrtianlo whicli went under Ui> Dune of Fii'jaja or Patraji orda,
J, O. Umolin nltribuWit il to iliiuus, Jlelw rfurrt Sibirltn. prof. T. 11. sad J. B^
tu wmo •oatbulio ftffoctiou, Traitlt /ram St Ptlrrtiurg lo dUtrie itarl* n/ Alio, Vo
' " In many wonwn th» nndsr part of tho body (Ihs abdomen) md tho ring
about tilt hniutu <t1mt )■ Ibo teati) when lliey uv ill, Iwcnmo 'iiiito black.
Campsp, SUm »Ari/K T. 1. P. 1. p. 47. '■ In our uwii lime u eim"
BLACK SRSS. 221
f wlioni, and those in other refipccts particularly wliite, at the
I time of pregnancy a larger or smaller numljer of the parts of
' Uie Iwdy are darkened with a cnaly blackness, which however
gradually disappears again after child-birth, when the original
deamess is restored to the body. The solutioa of tliis puz-
zling problem is to be found in tlie application of mo<lern che-
mistry to the physiology of pregnancy. ^Vhen the woman ia not
jregnant the moderate portion of carbon of her own body is
'«asily excreted by superfluous cutaneous perspiration ; but in a
|>regnaiit woman, l^sides her own share, another quantity
accrues from the foetus, which immersed in ammonia! liquid
■does not as yet breathe. Thus the blood of the mother be-
comes too much laden with the carbon arising from two human
1x>die8 joined as it were in one, so that all of it cannot as
usual be excreted with the perspiration of the mother : ao part
«f it is precipitated in the Malpighian mucus, and there re-
mains, tinging the skin, until the child being delivered, the
original equilibrium between the carbon of her own body and
tbe perspiring vessels of the skin is r&stored ; and the epider-
mis, which with the mucus lying under it ia constantly de-
jtroyed by degrees and again renewed at last, recovers its
natural whiteness.
In difierent circumstances the same reason seems to hold
good in BO many instances of Europeans, in whom the differ-
ent parts of the body are unnaturally affected by a smoky
Itlackness ; since here also it may be referred to a congestion of
carbon, Thus, for instance, a similar blackness is observable in
women who never menstruate'. So also in other atrabilious
phoais hoa been renewed Bitnuall; in the person oF > lulj of diatinotion, at » gocxl
flwroplolioo, uid a very w)dte sbiii. Aa soon an sbi> vmt pregnant, she heg^n la
fet brown, md towarda the and of her time abo ImeBino a Irue n^re«B. AFler lirr
Aelireria Itie black colour disnppearod little by little, her originut wMtenCHS re-
huned, uid ber proevn; bod no trace of blackuvaa. " Boiuare, Lc. Art. Nl(/rt. Le
fSati I.e. in mau; pbtcea ; for ex, p- ifl. "A peasant of the enviroua nf PirU, a
Jlone bj pnir««iioa, had ihe belly resularly quite bUck at every preguancy, and
Uiat oaloor diaappi^ared aller delivery." " Another always had the left leg blaok
- Quae oocosirauV' kc. Ho also Lorr;, De Sfelan^halia, T. i. p. lyS, ka.
) Oonp, Jm. Yongs in PhilotoiiK. Trant. Vol. xxvi. p. 4jj.
men', especially of the lowest sort, uul those who suffer from
cachexia caused by want and dirt. Thts is often the case too in
scurry', Ac. On the other hand we know by experieQco that
the btackneaa of the Ethiopians is not so oonstant but what it
Bometimes is rendered paler, or even changed quite into a whit«
colour. It has been recorded that Ethiopians, when they have
changed their climate in early infancy, and from that time
forward have inhabited a temperate zone, hare gone on getting
paler by degrees'. The same thing happens also somewhat
quicker to the same negroes when they suffer under severe
disorders*. Many instances also are to be found where, apart
from any particular Btat« of health, the natural blackness of
the Ethiopian skin has sensibly and spontaneously been changed
into a whiteness, such as that of Europeans'.
50. Some other national properties of skin. Besides colour,
other singular qualities are often attributed to the skin of
some nations, about which I must say a few words at all
events. Amongst these there is that smoothness and softness
of akin which has been compared to silk, and has been noUced
' I have in m; stiatomiol collectioa aipeoimen of the mtegmiieDta of (ha
abdomen oT ■ beggar wfao died hen Mine jeara ago, whioh does tiol jiold at all ia
blackncM to the «kin of the Ethiop. Otben too hare ahomi tDtaj inituuei of
that kind in Eiuopeani. See for ex. Halter, f/inmit. Phytiol. T. v. p. tS.
Ludwig, Bputola ad NaiUmn ttripia, T. I. p. 3QJ. De Riet, Di or^oiM
iatiai, p. 13, Albiniu, Dt teiU tl caum folorit Jilhiopum, p. g. Klinkoadi, J)t
futieula, p. 46. SouTnemng. Uker dir L&rpert. terKhitdenAett da Ntym ppA
Europder, p, 4S. Comp. Loivhga in A'otiir/or«fA*r, P. mil. p. 114. ib. P. IVI.
p. 170, for (ho dswription of noma brown {Dunkdiyraun) spoti of diffsrent UM,
■nme of the duuncter of a Kpan, obierYed in a man then sixty yean old, in wbom
t\ny appeared when joung during a quBrtan fever.
■ Comp. beudeB otben, Jo. Narborougb's Vogagt to tht Straili 0/ itagdlait,
p. m. 64. "Their legs and thighs are turned as black as a but," &c. So alao
Phillip** Voj/age U> Botiatg Bag, p. 119.
■ "Tliere is a cobbler of tbia nation st
after a great tnanj yein, (f>ir be came to this conntry a bo;) ha
diininiibed, tliat be aevaa like one Buffering From a slight jaundice." Caldan^
iHMtitst Pkyi'inl. p. Iff, ed. 1786. Comp, also Peehliu, Dt kalntn tt
^liioyum. p, 116, and Oldendorp, T. 1. p. 40G.
* " I hnvo soon thoni of so tiglit a colour that it was dISault U> i_. .
tbem fiom a vhite man of a bad complexion." Labat, Bdalion d'Afriqm i
lalt, T. II. p. i6d. And Klinkowih, I. c. p. 48.
* Comp. Ju. Bale in Pkilotoph, Trum. Vol.
kt Vonioe, whoae blackness.
» dialingaiah ^H
HAIR.
233
by writers in many nations, as the Caribs', the Ethiopian', the
Otaheitans' and even the Turks*, It is clear that in al! these
it depends either upon a more tender epidermis, or a thicker
stratum of the Malpighian mucus. The cause of the coldness
to the touch which has been observed in the akin of various
nations of Africa' and the East Indies' seems diffcrenl, and
must be referred rather to the chemical affinities of the body
and the atmospheric elements. Here also is to be considered
that insensible perspiration of Sanctorius, which is accompa-
nied in some nations with a peculiar smell, as in the Caribs',
Ethiopians', and others ; in the same way that in some varieties
of domestic animals, as among dogs, the I^ptian, among horses,
those of a reddish-white are well known to have a specific and
pcculiai- perspiration*.
51. Consensus of the hair and sf.'in. As the hair, especially
that of the head, is generated and nourished by the common
integuments, bo it has invariably a great and multifarious
agreement with them. Hence, those variegated Etliiopious we
spoke of have also hair of different colour. Men whose whito
skin is marked with ephelitic spots have red hair". Besides,
^ " TboT Besb ii vety dark and soft ; when jou tauub Iheir akin, it f«c[i like
n." Biet, Voyage dt la Pranei Equinon'ale, p, 351.
* Peohlin, I. e, p. 54. anil SiiiniDeiTing, 1. 1. p, 45.
.87.
■' Thai ikin u
It dglicattily Bmootb aud eofC." Hawkes. Coll. T. Ii. p. ra.
is (Turkfy) haM a akin su soft tlmt
m. 198.
T. JL p. jjj, T. lY. p. 471 nnd
"The irife of B»ei7 labourer or mutio in A
you teem to touch a fine velvet." Belon, (Hu, p.
* Bnice'i YofOfft lo the Stmrta of tht Niit,
489.
' On t^e Tnaiani we Knut in En(,->1, Pkilmophie fur die Well, P. II. p. 154.
On the inhahitanta of Iriuniatra, MamJen, p. 41.
' " Thsy all have ■ atrnni^ftncl (linagieealile nnell. I know notliii>B whiuh can
gira an h)w of it. When anything ainelli like it, thty my in the AiitilTga, ' a Hniell
of Carib,' which fhowa the difficulty of eipraiBing it." Tliibault de Charwaiou,
Voj/agt dt la Marlinifa/, p. 44.
* Comp. Sdhotta Chi tin tj/nochat alrabiiioia, p. 104. JTiit, ofjantaim, n. pp.
35'. *■'!■■
' So Faiuanias in his Phoeiea telU us that the OiolinnB. an indigenous people,
of Locri), smelt diHguatingly on account of Bumelhiug iii Uie air. Comp. Lavatcr,
PkyBOgHOm. Fragmenle, T. IV. p. i63.~ Add J. h\ Ackennan, De ditcrinine
MXtnrm prater gemtalia, p. i
there U a remarkable correspondence of tlie hair with 1
wliole constitution and temperament of the body. This, i
v-v lonrn from pathological phcDomeDa, such for example i
that those who have yellow hair {blondiJis), in consequence i
the tenderer and more impressible cellular texture, break out
more easily in raiihes and similar eruptions; whilst those who
have black hair are almost always of a costive and atrabitioua
temperament, so much bo that it has long since been obeerv
that far the greater number of men in mad hospitals and jai
have black hair.
52. Principal national varieties of hair. In general, i
national diversity of hair seems capable of being rednoed I
four principal varieties :
1. The first of a brownish or nutty colour {ceruire), sbadifl
off on the one side into yellow, on the other into black : f
long, and undulating. Common in the nations of temp<
Europe ; formerly particularly famous among the inhaluta
of ancient Germany '.
2. The second, black, stiff, straight, and scanty ; such i
common to the Mongolian and American nationa
3. The third, black, soft, in locks, thick and exuben
such as the inhabitants of most of the islands of tbe ]
Ocean exhibit
4. The fourth, black and curly, which is generally comp
to the wool of sheep ; common to the Ethiopians.
Thus, a general division of this kind may be made, whi
18 not without its use. That it ia no more a purely natui
dinsion than other divisions of the national varieties of bumad
races, is not necessary to dwell upon here. This I will show,
though it is quite uanecesaary, by one or two argumenta,
namely, that curliness is not peculiar to the Ethiopians,
blackness to the three varieties I put in the last place.
Timur »re uf a copper colonr with red bur : nee Van I
tiui Arf Batavia/Uih Oinoolirliap, T. I. p. m. 31Q.
iromitD with an undoubted red akin and rod hair, Trat
' Conring, Z>c Aaftitw carporum Cermanicuram nnli^i
of Ethiopians are found with long hair' ; other copper-
coloured cations again have curly hair', like that of the Ethio-
pian& There are others, the New Hollanders, whose hair, as I
see from the specimens I have in hand, holds so perfectly the
middle place between the curliness of tho Ethiopians and the
locks of the inhabitants of the islands in the Pacific Ocean, that
a wonderful difference of opinion is to be found in the ac-
counts of expeditions Iruui the tirst Dutch ones of the last
century to the very latest of the English, as to which variety of
hair it should be considered to belong. As to the various
colour of hairs, occurring amongst those nations also, who gene-
rally have black hair, it ia sufficient to cite good witnesses, who
say that red hair is frequently found in the three other varieties
I reckoned besides the first.
53. Hie iris of the eye conforms to the colour of the hair.
We have seen that the hair coincides with the common integu-
ments of the body. Aristotle' had, however, long ago taught
that the colour of the eyes followed that of the skin. Those
'hose colour was white had grey eyes ; black, black eyes.
lufl very often amongst ouiac-lves new-born infants have grey
and light hair, which afterwards in thoso who become dark
(bninet), is slowly and as it wore simultaneously darkened also.
In old men as the hair grows white the pigment of the internal
eye loses much of its usual dark colour. In the Leucjethiopians,
about whom I shall speak more particularly below, as the bair
passes from a yellowish tinge to white, so the pigment of the
eye is cleaily nothing, and hence a pale rosy kind of ins.
It is remarkable that in no case at all is there any variation
in the eyes of animals, except in tho^e who vary in the colour
^ their skin and hair, as we know to be the case not only in
and horses, which was the opinion of the ancients, but also
t:
18 inhabit.
' Coirp. Bruce on the GsIIah. Joumw, drr. Vol. n. p. 114.
lUiti of Ibe kingdom of Baroou. Procetdmi/t of >he Aitoeiatii/ti, y, m. lui.
> The inhabiUuita oi the Duks of York'* laUnd not in from the Nev Ireland
of the Sontheni Oo««n. See J . Hunter's Hinlarieal Journal of ike Tranmeiioaii at
For* Jadaon, Se. p. ijj : " they uro nf & lijhl copper colour, th« hulr is wooUy,"
• ProUemat. i. 10. p. 4:6, ed. Casaub.
15
\tgjtAmwim
drrided well dke pinaiy ealans ofUic kw rf iIm
into tluce; fini, Ubcj soooBd, daik vttagt, oAfld
(yeMT dc cUxro*} ; thiid. dsik brovB. AH
oecnr et wy n h ae in iodindink of cbb aad
also aie tlwj to be aotieed at mmn oanti
neial io diflfannt fanUies of the
limits of ■ few degrees ttgeegrmfhialht^tmAt.
sttribatee tluee amoog tbe Sndidi pepafatii
nee, wbo hare white kur, with tbe ins ef the ere of a daHc-
Mae colour; to the Finnic, those with jdlow hair and dark iiis^
to the lApp, finallj, thoee with Uaek hair and Uackish tria. Blae
eyea eqoally with tcUow hair were fonneriy conadered as nata-
ral cfaankctenstim of tbe ancient G^mans. Bat they are found
eretywhere amoi^st the meet widely separated nations*. The
very black irides of the Ethiopians are such that, especially in liv-
ing subjects, they cannot be tUstingutahed, excepting when very
doee, from the pupil itself*.
05. National /are. I now turn naturally enooj^ tcom Ihe
' Coinp. Holinelli in Comnirntnr. huIiVi
* ThoM B » middle cmloor betwBEn gn
1 H it wen grwa green. wMdi i> to » si
b ipoU"! with rrKklc*. Corap. tb>t ■
. fiwon. T. m. p *8i.
■nd mngv of K ilT&ngv grMoiih tinl.
-n in men wbo tuTe firty faur, and ilaa
igular book Poitiaa, Siia. Di cobnitBt
oeniofWBi, FlormiiL , _ .
' Pa«vi Suteica, p. >.
* I turn collMFted iho itiitaiice*
yu*. T. ». p. ..,9-
* Thui miiit ba und'tfiMrd the vordi of J. O. Waltf*. Dt
' Tti» EUiii'iiian ho* no irii." 4c.
J. Bruce, Stitriu dm yirffca Jw
««W{, p. ■>
evei
eyes to tEe rest of the faee, the diversities of which are all over
the world so great and ao remarkable in individuals that it is
little short of a miracle to find even two who cannot be distin-
gaished from each other, and are, aa they say. cast in the same
monld. Be^des it is certain that this difference of faces may be
obser%ed not only in Europeans but also among barbarous na-
tions'. Yet, however true all this may be, it ia not the less
undoubtedly a fact that every different variety of mankind {and
everywhere, even in the inhabitants of single provinces'^ all over
Id has a racial face peculiar to each of them by which it
ly be easily distinguished from the remaining varieties.
Racial varieties of the/ace. I have made an attempt,
aft«r assiduously comparing a quantity of prints of foreigner
made for me from the life by skilled artists, and after seeing
myself a great number of men in the markets which are prin-
cipally frequented by foreigners, to reduce these racial vaiielics
of the face into certain classes. And unless I am much mis-
taken, although open to particular exceptions, still they will
come close lo natural truth if they are reduced in the following
way to five, as modeb and principal forms of the other diversi-
ties of small moment:
1st. Face oval, straight, the parts moderately marked.
The forehead smooth. Nose narrow, slightly hooked, or at all
events somewhat high. The jugal bones in no way prominent.
Mouth small, hps {especially the lower) gently pronounced,
Chin full, round. In general that kind of face, which, accord-
' Tfaai OD the kboriginea of Ihs FrUndiy IsluidB th;it mmt (agwiious olwerriir,
W. Amlenwn: "their [eMuraa are yerf vftrioui, in to mueh that it ii w«ra«lT
poHible to &i on aoy genenl likeoeai by which to cbBractrriKe them, tiDteH it be
a fuliieH at the point of the nose, which ii very commini. But, on the other huid,
we met oilh bundretla of ti^l; Eurojiean faces, aad majij genuine Romnn nosa
amongBt tbem," Conk'a last vaynge, Vol. t, p. 3S0. Othw ioatnnces of this kind
Db«ar*ed amongit EthJopana and Americana will hn spoken nf bulnw. On the
olber hand the nmiiarit; of individuaJ Buropeane with the EthiopianB ot Mon-
golians IB ao common a« to liare passed into a proverb.
■ On Ihia point Libaviu.', an aulhor by no meaoi to be de«pi»ed, <ayl two
hundred yean ago: "The a«pe<:t of the Thuringiana ia one thing; that of tlie
Smom another ; and that of the SneTi another, and nearly every village has it*
own, Mthat it you chose tOBtudy the aubject, you could nearly teli a tniinV coontrj'
l>y hia appeantnce."
15—2
B of ijiiiiwlij. we tfcnk beeoMag a
e Imd of face opMitirtB^ M it 1
F I7 degiaaatka ■
, of «kM^ tkOMI&plMS«
nrifllaB^ vUeh en bert be i&CiagnAed bwii«adh«
For tkea otw of tbrae 1
aad like r ei Da h i ntg parto mmk wbit ind
her. la tbe other tbey ^ipwr deeper, «^
tm WKj. cot cNit, and, as it vcte, r« *y*«i"g ai^iilarij. llnK
! to lixm the fcnr reinanDiig Taoetiee betides that I
• type.
I A. Oa« pair wiA lie fate dm&petf m widA:—
SmL Face wide, at the same time flat and depressed; tbtf
pwt^ tbenfiffe, indistiiKi and numii^ into ooe another. In*
terqnoe between the eyes, or glabdla, nnootfa, veij wUqi
Nose fla tte aed- Qieeka osoaU j roonded, projecting oatwafds
Opening of the eyelids nanow, linear (yaue ftnAr). CXkU|
Mmewbat pnininenL This i« the ooUDtesiaBoe common to th
MtH^olian natirats (lis Fortor _^io0 from the common figure d
speedi which we shall toach on below, ooafaandiiig the Tartui
with the Hoi^olians).
3nl Face also wide and cheeks promiDeot, iboogfa not flah
or depressed, bat the parts when seen in profile more worked
and. as it were, deeply cut oat. Forehead low. Eyes deeplf
eoL Nose somewhat turned ap, bat promioeiit This is tba
Eace of most Americans.
R Pair of varUties 0/ the /ace donyaied bdow'. —
Ith. yarrow face,prominent below. Forehead dtort,vrinMej
Ej-es very promiDeut id Hevr-de-tfU). Nnee tfaidc 1
confused with ihe extended cheeks {U nei ipaif). Lips (Gsp6>
dally the upper) full and swelling. Jaw^ stretched out. Chin
falling back. This is the Guinea face.
6th. Face less narrow, somewhat prominent below, whes
seen in profile the parts more projecting and distinct from e
other. Nose full, somewhat broad, fis it were difiuse, end thidt
takndMil I iBMtfMe to^Mkkereof Ite <
r fa I
b tbi* aaj ft ■ rnfaabk tfat i» tkeir ««t
otherhi^rfthg— MtMsBotocwio'rfBWMl; mjtmma^
iMtMirr (d^pM Iij^ «fe uiBuipfei of &e piaw awl iwfeJ
IB KJBB ewBiKriw «f ■Mrtki* Eotope (m the iiiibibIii Mm-
dommafitcBi^i or caHtntiiMHd htxaij, in wUdl Ae aoAaad
pflpfi i ntBl e OtsbcitBitB » aweh exed tlw wmadj and poveiM
Bat oar ImwJim bi ii vtth the cBmes of the noBl ht». ^«
ii^ tif Uie eosBteBBBce Haeif Bad the pcoportiiM aad <fireetiaB of
tt> pBrt^ alflf which we kc to be pecolter aad dnnetaiHtK to
the di flefcn t vmiietieB of mankiDil Tike mere iam nma ik. bow-
erer, of theBS CBMei k orerwhelmed with sodi dtffiadtkB thai
we CBD onlj feUow pnfaBble eoajectates. I am penaaded,
mywe\t, that diniate ia the prindpal eaoBe of the lacial &oe, oa
three gnnrnda aiperially; lat, we see the rBctal Eace so uiuT«r-
aal in aasDe popolatiaiis under « particalar dunate, and alwars
exactly the ante in men of di^rent dasses and modes ivf lif«.
that H can acaredjr be referred to any other caase. Thece arc
the Chineee^ for example, amongst whom a sort of fiattcncd (aoe
iH jttstas dtaraicieristic a& a symmetric^ and particular heanly
ifl oommon antongst as Eoropeans to the English and inhabit-
ajitfi of Majorca'.
2nd. Uuless^I am mistaken there are instancee of peoples
who after they bare changed their localities and have migrated
of lliia nod fsedoa and aathropoptuigoiw n
b Cmmtn. and d' Andnds.
dm Cw^mI 4€ It^t, T. in. p. m-
Pottammt Btadaa^ di Cmman. and d' Andnds.
■ lr«HM ■--■■-- —
INSTANCES.
'here, in process of time have dtauged blso their origin^
of oounteoance for & new one, peculiar to the new climate.
Thus the Yakutes have be«ti referred to a Tartar ori^n by most
authors oa northem autiquities. Careful eye-witnesses assert
that DOW their face is Mongolian, and I myself see it plainly la ,
the skull of a Takute, with which the munificence of Baron Tond
A.sch has enriched my anthropological collection'. Something ]
of the same kind will be observed below about the Americans of J
either coldest zone (s. 88). I have already shown that the Creoles I
sprung from Engliiili parents and ancestors in the AntUlett, bavA J
finally exchanged to some extent the native British counbenancal
for one more like the aborigines of America, and have acquired J
their deep-set eyes and their more prominent cheeks'.
Egyptv however, and India this dde the Ganges afford ucl
the clearest exampUs of all. For as this peninsula has been,!
frequently subdued by the most diHerent nations, because thft'^
first conquerors becoming effeminated by living in fiucb a soft
climate were at last conquered by other and stronger northern
nations who came after them, so also their appearance seems as
it were to have accommodated iUelf to the new climate. In
fact, we only know the racial aspect of the old possessors of
India and their manifest characteristics from tlie most ancient
works of Indian art, I mean those stupendous statues, whiob J
are carved out in a wonderful way in the subterranean templeaJ
of the islands of Salsette and Elephanta, wonderful copies of"
which I saw at London, both in the British Museum, as amongst
the antiquarian treasures of the polished C. Townley'. The
more modem conquerors of India, that is, the Mongolians, have
lost much of their original features under a new climate, and J
approached nearer the Indian type, of which I have had ocular]
experience from the Indian pictures shown me by John Wal
a most learned man on Indian antiquity.
As to the racial face of the ancient Egyptians, I am i
surprised that some famous archaeologists, and those most lee
CHAHQES. 231
1 art, liave been able to attribute one and the same
mou countenance to all alike'; when a careful contempla-
i comparison of these monumenta has easily taught me
"^To distinguish three sorts of face amongst them. The first like
the Ethiopian ; the second the Indian ; and the third, into which
both of the others have by the progress of time and the effect of
the specific and peculiar climate of Egypt degenerated, spongy
and flaccid in apiiearance, with short chin, and somewhat pro-
minent eyes',
3rd. We see nations which ai'e reputed to be but colonies of
one and the same stock have contracted in different climates
different racial faces. Thus the Hungarians are couRidered to
be of the same primitive stock as the Lapps", The latter living
in the furthest North have acquired the face so peculiar to the
most northern nations, whereas the former living in the tempe-
rate zone, in the neighbourhood of Greece and Turkey, have
gained a more elegant form of face.
Every one knows that much in all these cases must be attri-
buted to the marriages between different nations, and I myself
intend soon to say something about their influence in changing
the racial face. Stilt it seoms most probable that the influence
of climate alone ia very great on this point, especially when wc
add what was noticed above about the causes and ways in which
^brute animals degenerate.
^^m To find out the reason why one climate turns out this and
^^^other that kind of racial face seems extremely difficult; yet
^^Bost sagacious men have made the attempt when endeavouring
to explain the face of different nations; as Kant upon the Mon-
golian* and Volney upon the Ethiopian'. That accessorj-
' WiDkeluium, Vacription da pierrel grarfa de SlofA. p. lo, and Blsewhate.
D'HanokTvilla, Rrclirrdiei »ur I'origint <Ut arit de la Grirr, T(>m. I. p. 300.
• I t&va uid more abnut thit triple character of tbe uicitnt ait of Ef^TptLui
maDuments >d Philmoph, TVqtu. 1794, P. II. p. 191.
• Cutnp. 01. Budbeck, Jun., Analogia lingua Pinnaniea «« Vvgarica, it the
nid of Sjitcin. luu* lingua Gmhica, Upiwl. 1717, 4to, p. 77 ; and nmongit ntiitr
nwnt Kriters, J. Usger, Ncvt Beueise dtr vcraandltc^mfl der i^UNj/nm nit dm
pplSiuUm, Wim, 1794, 8ra.
• In EngB\, PhiUmph. fBr dU WtU, T. 11. p. 146.
• Yeygt m Syrie tt en E^plt, T. I, p. 74. " In fact T a?e tkit the fncc nf the
I
caases sometimes endemical to peculiar climates, sucb ae
slant clouds of gnats, may do something towards contracting the
natural face of the inhabitants, may be gathered from the
obaer\'ation of Dampier about the inhabitants of the south of
New Holland'.
I am not sure whether the opinion of oiir Leibnitz about
similitude of nations to the indigenous animals of the cour
ia to be interpreted as referring to the inHuence of climate on
the conformation of man and brute animals alike ; as it seems
that the Lapps recall the face of the bear, the Negroes of the
ape, of which also the people of the extreme East likewiaa
partake'.
Besides the climate we find it stated that the kind of
sometimes contributes to the racial form of face, as in
instance of the Ethiopians, whose thick nose and swelling
are always attributed to the way in which, whilst in
infancy, they are generally carried on the backs of their moth)
who give them suck whilst they pound millet, or during
hard and heav)' tasks*.
thJ
Negruea indicBtM eiutlj that state of cootnctiaii wbich Ktiea o
luuoe, vbni it u struck bj the light &ad * strong reHectJou of btai.
brow frowna : tie cheek bonM become elevitted, the ejelid cloees, the moiiUi I
(unchod up. Cumot thU coatnution wluch ii perpctoKlly taking place in tb« I
uiU wifDi country of the Kegroea, become ih» peculiu ebancteiiatio of t!
' "Tbeir ejelida »re alwftfi }ukIf-olo«<l to pnTent the gn&ti getting into th^
ejea. Hence it hsppena, that being incommodal by these inaecta from tbdr
infuicy, tbej never open tbeir eyei like other people." T. ii. p. 169.
* Feller, Otiunt Ilanovtranum, p. ijo. 1 will add here, on aoconDl of Sl»
rcaembluice of the argument, ■ paraa^ from Mandeo, lliilorg 0/ Suwtatra, p. 173 :
" Some writer hiH remarked that a reBemblance is uaually (oond between Ute di*-
poiitioti and quiditje* of the lieiats propor to any country, and thoH of the in-
digenoni inhabitanta oE the hunum npeciea. wbere mi intereourae with foreignen
liaa not deatroyrd the genuineneaa of tbeir character. The Malay may ba eompMvJ
to the buffalo aod Che tiger. In his domeBtic stat^ he U indolent, stubboa, md
Tolnptnoua aa the fonaer. and in his adventuroiu life, be is iniidioua, tdnod-thintf
Bud rapacious aa the latter. Hiua the Arab ic aaid to resemble hi* eauel, and tha
phwid Genloo bii oow."
* Comp. besides many othera, Barbot in Cburehilli ColUclion of Foyagei, VoL ».
p, 36. "The wiiea of the better sort of men being put to no auoh bjird Uboor as
the meaner, it baa been observed that their children linve not i^nenUy such flat
Diisea u the othen ; vhenoe it may be inferred that the noiea of these poor infanta
-e flattened by Ik hig so long carried about on their mothcn' backs, becatise tbn
nually beating on them when the n
n uf their aima or bodka
INSTANCEa
233
In various barbarous nations also, such 6s the Etliiopians',
Brazilians', Caribs*, the Suniatrans*, and the inhabitants of
Soriety Islands in the Southern Ocean', it is placed beyond
doubt by the testimony of eye-witnesses most worthy of
lit that considerable force is used to depress and, as it were,
ibdue into shape the noses of the new-bom infants; although
irhaps it is going too far in what they say about the bones of
le noee being broken or dislocated in this way*.
It is however scarcely necessaiy to recollect that the natural
conformation of the nose can only be exa^erated by this
%-iolent and long continued compression of the nose when soft,
but can in no wise bo made thus originally, since it is well
town that the racial face may be recognized even in abor-
■blow
Knally, these hinds of racial face just like the colour of the
ekin, become mingleti, and as it were mn together in the off-
spring from the unions of different varieties of mankind, so that
the children present a countenance which ia a mean between
either parent. Hence the mixed appearance of the Mulattos;
hence the progeny of the Cossacks' and the Kirghis* becomes
^sensibly deformed by marriages with the Calmucks, whereas
H^ offspring of the Nogay Tartars is rendered more beautiful
^BliTOUgh unions with the Georgians*.
^B The ancient Germans" gave formerly instances of the un-
^Kdulterated countenance of nations unaffected by any union with
^Rd; other nation, and to-day the genuine Zingari, inhabitants
uijUiiog violent ; eapcdkll; vhed they ue beating or pnunding tboir millet every
moniiag, trfaicb Ib th« cotiaUut t»k of tbe wonaeo of infenar rank."
' Beiides > Tumt of other evidence see Report n/ tht LorrU of the Comnitttt <if
CinaicU for the Corttideralion 0/ the Slavt Trade, 1780, foL P. 1. fol. 0. ib.
' Lerr, Voyage en la lerre du Brftil, p. m, 98, 165.
* De 1& BiyrdB, lUiatian da CarafAci, in the nnaUer caUeoUao □[ M. TheTeoot,
Paru, 1674, 4to, p. 29.
* HMidm, Batary of Sumalnx, p, jS.
' J. R. Forator, flrawrtunjm auf finer riiie un dif WfU, pp. +81, S 16,
' Comp. Kolbe, BtMckrtibitHg da vorgibtirga rftr gvltn BtfffnMng. p, 567.
' J}ccat cranioram jinma, p. 18.
* Dtrai craRioruni allera, p. 8.
* PeyNiDnel, Svr U ammrrre dt lu. Mer Noirt, T. I. p, 177.
'* Tioitui, Di norHnu GtmanoTum., c. 4.
of TraDsylvani&' do the same ; and above all the nation of the
Jews, who, under every climate, remain the same as far as the
tundaroental configuration of face goes*, remarkable for a racial
character almost universal, which can be distinguiahed at the
first glance even by those little skilled in physiognomy, althoughi
it is difficult to limit and express by words', J
£8. Racial form of skulls. That there is an intimate rela^
tion between the external face and it^ osseous substratum is so
manifest*, that even a blind man, if he has any idea of the vast
difference by which the Mongolian face difiers from the Ethio-
pian, can undoubtedly, by the mere touch, at once distinguish
the skull of the Cahniick from that of the Negro. Kor would
you persuade even tlie most ignorant person to bend over the
head of one or other of them as he might over those after whose
models the divine wurks of ancient Greece were sculptured.
This, I say, is clear and evident so far as the general habit goes.
Eut it might have been expected that a more careful anato-
mical investigation of genuine skulls' of different nations would
throw a good deal of light upon the study of the variety of man-
kind; because when stripped of the soft and changeable parts
they exhibit the firm and stable foundation of the head, and can
be conveniently handled and examined, and considered under
dififerent aspects and compared together. It is clear &om
comparison of this kind that the forms of skuUa take all »ort«
' Dfeat minwram altrra, p. 3.
» Honce it i> gKnerally conaiJered u the highest proof of thn wt of th> Dnidi
(Engraver, Bemh. Picart, tint in hi» woll knpnti work, Cirfnumies t( coHMnNf
rtligiruia, bo hoe reprcKenteil an immense Dumber of Jown, atlat an tbe lineiuiientt
oT tbe fkce go, each dilFerin^ from one aaotber, yet ail bearing tbe nci&l chancier,
and most clearlj diatinguiahcd from the men intermingled with them of (ttjur
an
lerj
1
■ The gteai tftiat Beoj. Weit, Prendent o( the Royal Acndeioy of Arti, «
whom I conversed about tbe racial face ol the Jews, tbotigbt that it abine |i
othen had oomethlitg pin-tioDlaiiy eoot-lika about it. which be waa of npinkn 1)
Dot to much in thr hooked nose oa in the tnuuit and oonflax <rf tbe s ~
■eporates tbe noBtHIa Troui the middle of the u[iper lip.
* Comp. Sir ThoB. Brown'a Diftvurtr 0/ tht StJHl^^■Ar<^t irnufoWTui in KorftJH,
p.m. ij. TbieaagaoiouBauthnrwas the fint, oi far ae I know, who attended to As
moiol lofm of the Ethiopian akull: "tt is hard to be deceived in the diatincUon of
Nogro_ikuU»."
e for this obji
icUon of
ing on opiidoa upOB^i
A
CAHPEB. 235
: in uxlividuala, jtut as the colour of skins and other
rarieties of the same kind, one ruiuuDg aa it were into the other
by all sorts of shades, gradually and inseneiibly : but that still, in
general, there is in tfaem a constancy of characteristics which
cannot be denied, and is indeed remarkable, which has a great
deal to do with the racial habit, and which answers most accu-
rately to the nations and their peculiar physiognomy. That
constancy has induced some eminent anatomists from the time
of Andr. Spigel' to set up a certain rule of dimensions to which
as to a scale the varieties of skulls might be referred and
ranked; amongst which, above all others, the facial line of the
iDgenious Camper deserves special mention'.
59. Facial line of Camper. He imagined, on placing a
skull in prohle, two right lines intersecting each other. The
first was to be a horizontal line drawn through the estemal
auditory meatus and the bottom of the nostrils. The second
was to touch that part of the frontal bone above the nose, and
then to be produced to the extreme alveolar limbus of the upper
jaw. By the angle which the intersection of these two lines
would make, this distinguished man thought that he could
determine the difference of skulls as well in brute animals as in
the different nations of mankind.
60. Jiemark-i upon it But, if I am correct, this rule con-
tains more than one error. First; what indeed is plain from
those varieties of the racial face I was speaking of (s. 56), this
universal facial line at the best can only be adapted to those
varieties of mankind which differ from each other in the direc-
tion of the jawa, but by no means to those who, in exactly the
contrary way, are more remarkable for their lateral differences.
Secondly: it very often happens that the skulls of the most
different nations, who are separated as they say by the whole
heaven from one another, have still one and the same direction
of the facial line: and on the other hand many skulls of one and
the same race, agreeing entirely with a common disposition, have
' Dt corporU hitmani fatriea, ■D. vt. 17.
• See Klanert Kktiftet, T. 1, P. 1. p. I£, snd NatvrgrttkiekU da Orang Man,
pp. iSi, 1 1 1 ; lUid )ii> ■r|>*ratc book, UhtTdtnnaHrliehenitiiitnehitddrrjniehliillge.
> TUiAr. Ml a—By. fhiiwf 111 I ir m Ae jktm
to «Uik WkM A»Km thea, i^ apw vfckk
fc Miia tfat heh iwwlf ii w i ert«w, Mdha iilrtw m Ae ^pli»^
tkaflftkcB. ~
6L Fa-fiarf makjm- iftiifiij ftg mc»at<A»«ter« yd
The man my dufy expcnenoB and, as it were^ uy E
ntk arf «wHw*Mn of ikidi of AftraU i
wtaA Hm Bon iMiinMMB d»I&dit to radnoe time i
ttOCOCT wiwMi Mini flIWBT BttOBS OOCST ID UW fVOpOrtiOll I
I of tbe puts ot the inilj rasBT-fcnDed skoU, kll hav-
i cr le» to do with the twdal cfaancter — to the nm-
ti and aa^BB at aa; tn^te tale. That riew of the
went wena tobepnfembto lor the diigitoeia lAiA b
mta tog et h e r ai oae glanoe the most and
tbe principdd parts best adapted fer a eoinpanscn oT i
cfaarMtere. With this ol^ect I have found after manj e
mentB that poEation answer be^ in which skoUs are seea
ahore and from behind, placed in a row oq tbe same plane^ n
't>aai^mm,Tiiiy J.
: bones directed towards tlie same hoiizontal 'u
jointly with the ioferior maxillHries. Then all that most nin-
duces to the racial character of skulls, whether it he the direc-
tion of the jaws, or the cheekbraies, the breadth or narrowness
of the skull, the advancing or receding outline of the forehead,
&c strikes tie eye so distinctly at one glance, that it is not out
of the way to call that view the vertical scale {norma verti'calis).
The meaning and use of this will easily be seen by an exami-
nation of Plate III., which represents, by way of specimen, three
skulls disposed in the order mentioned. The middle one (fig. 2)
i& a very symmetrical and beautiful one of a Georgian female ;
on either aide are two skulls differing from it in the most
oppoMte way. The one (fig. 3) elongated in front, and as it
were keeled, is that of an Ethiopian female of Guinea ; the
other (fig. 4) dilated outwardly toward the sides, and as it were
flattened, is that of a Reindeer Tungus.
In the first, the margin of the orbits, the beautifully nar-
rowed malar bones, and the mandibles themselves under the '
bones, are concealed by the periphery of the moderately ex-
panded forehead; in the second, the maxillary bones are com-
pressed laterally, and project ; and in the third, the malar bones,
placed in nearly the same horizontal plane with the Ultle bones
of the nose and the glabella, project enormously, and rise on
each side.
62. Racial varieties of skulls. All the diversities in the
skidls of different nations, just like those of the racial face we
enumerated above, seem capable of reduction also to five prin-
cipal varieties ; of which specimens selected out of many are
exhibited in Plate rv.
^1. That in the middle is beautifully symmetrical, some-
kat globular; the forehead moderately expanded, the maleir
nefl somewhat narrow, nowhere projecting, sloping down
hind from the malar procep-s of the frontal bone ; the alveolar
ridge somewhat round; the primary teeth of each jaw perpen-
dicular. As a specimen (Plate iv. fig. 3) I have given a moat
lutiful skull of a Georgian female. This beautiful furm of
B between two extremes ; of which one hivs
HM t» Ac Sq^BMk M (PUte IV. % q
i fint and those two c
4i TlMtwidi hwJer «fc wfa bwt anre irAed Mid r
dm in Ibe MoogofiM noetT' ■»« •> in tin sbetdted out c
eacfandeMMlai^iibr; the orlitts geMnDrdwp; the form t
the fmebead sad Tertex fretiaentlr aitificxftDy distorted ;
»koll naoallyl^t- Thia is the Americwi Tarietr. PL rr, fig. !
is the bead of a Carib diief from the ishmd of St Viocent
&. The calraria moderately nurowed ; forehead slightl]^!
Bwellii^ ; cheek haaes by no meaiw psomineDt ; upper jawbon* '
somewhat prominent; the parietal booes exteuding laterally.
Common to the Malay race throughout the Southern Ocean.
A Hpeciraen in PL rv. fig. 4, the ekull of an Otaheitan. This
ldal form of the skull is ao universally constant that it ma/ J
i obiiorveil even in the BknlU of young in&nts. Thus I po»4
■ the fkull of a Bur&t infant' with very manifest Mongt^ia
chanvctprs ; and another of a newly-boni Negro' ae maaifiB
Ktliii'Itinn.
pr:-pn t.j th^ 'Xb^r *>lyi {nru ; sdll it is td-^-i'
jitii mini 111 ■■il|ihjiiiitin^ii il i ■[iiiiiiiiiili il
liable ti j perpetual mvtatioBS tkaa (be soA p&r
<'-- ':•=«, ■hfawi^ iMfwnwptiTiI:.
n ~i<d FGflnx ^ BBu nvsa tocrt '
-: an^ deponted in tbeir ;
^ thkooittm
La perprtaaOygoii .
_ ' .iiti, and are to no
1 — -. ^ —-:.- ^— ^^Iv erident tnm the ooafigontisa «f
tbe ikuU to adrsneed ags. iW them the intevnal bna «f tha
skaD gtrea; m h weie. a sort of cut of tbe lobw aad cobvoIb-
tioM of tbe favam to whicfa tt was IhtML Tbe extenor c bbo o —
face gives tmnuitakeable loarks ae veil of tbe actioa of tbe
isnadn as of tbe whole ooantenance. whose geoeral i4^>eanuioe
aad diazacter may very easily be divioed from tbe skaU when
stripped of flesh. So, if it ia trae, and it seems very true indeed,
that the iafloenee of eiimate oo the racial face is great, it is
at once dear that the same caoae must have a great thot^ an
indirect share in focmiiig the racial character of the skull,
cepeciaUy as regmnls tbe booes of the boe itsdf
Besidea this principal caose, it aeems to me very {^obable
that o^CTB alao are aooessory, as the rioleat and long-continued
preanire, to baring an effect apon these facial bones. My col-
lection rejoices, owing to the liberality of the illustrious Banks,
in the very rare skull of a New Hoilander' from the neighbour-
hood of Botany Bay, conspicuous beyond all others for the
singular smoothness of the upper jaw, where the upper teeth
and the canines are inserted But it is now known that those
bubarians have a paradoxical custom of perforating the septum
> Dtra* UHia, Tkb. 17.
Brt h« ■milwiii — Mm^ hmit to the Be^aiM.
Ham alnthe wild
as New Mexioa mw nmmkaiiB far b>vng dep
whkfa tfa« 'abmt* wrtwrt Inm thEv kw poaboa » ti
in -wixk llM*r Wad smJ tba weight at thor wfaofe ]
RpoBOi iiauM wMy b a aMall big illed wHli and'. As I
otLCT artificei^ nd> aa the pnaaore of dw hands, and iher
tian of the heMl of aew^-hofB ■■^'■^t br bands or other il
Mntments into some nasi fana, ther, it ia ««U known. 1
been in ase eqnsUj smoogst the a
to-day, unangst oiusetns as in the Esost renote j
k
ii«MSM kki^of o^fa, wha« ha
hooMtal padtHB;-kii bad Wwh Uck bite > bain,
it, >Wn be btara Ifa diicf part •( b inMA •> ik^
^d b^ of MBd. >illHiat Ui^ ■ )1« ta« >Ut
■n^ iMl Ikair tkM lilliM^ Ik* en
Ikdr baa* tUi^ wrf tUr (MM h«a4.'
■ "Tban^Bwtddi tbs Atbaro
■dta*; veHnMhsTe tboa BodcllBd f
br rtJ-T-rhiT- — •'^ Ckiiba MM Ban
Kaawii, £>a^ T. L p. m. 19.
DEFOEMATIONP. 241
find it stated that solemn rit<:3 of tins kind take
place even now, or at all events did recently among the inha-
Iiitants of some provinces of Germany', as well as amongst the
Belgians*, the Gauls', some of the Italians', the islanders of the
Grecian archipelago', the Turks', the ancient Sigynnea', and the
Macruoepitali on the Euxine sea°, the Sumatrans^ of to-day,
and the Nicobais"', but especially amongst di£ferent people of
America, such as the inhabitants of Nootka Sound", the Shac-
tas", an indigenous race of Georgia, the Waxsaws of Carolina",
the Caribs", the Peruvians", and the free Ethiopians of the
Antilles". Strange to say there have been lately some authors
who have dared to throw doubts upon the whole of this arti-
ficial habit of moulding the heads of infanta". Yet it is a
thing proved by the unanimous testimony of many eyc-wit-
frou which a name has been given to several nations
^^ « On
On the Varisoi of to-dny, mq J. C. G. AckTmimn in Riliiinger, iV"nin«
Magasiiifij' Arrstt. T. n. p. fo6. On the Eiunliu igbukoi) of liu <tsy, wa Lniirma-
ben, Piuioimiilt, p. fij.
' Kpipil, Oe Hmmiau Carporit PiJirim. p. 17.
* On Uie PMMiiiia, bm Audry, ikUiopfil'K, T. n. p. j.
* On the Genoese, nee Vemlius, Dr Carp. lima. PaMca, p. m, JJ. S|>i){el, I.e.
' My dear old pupil, Phititex, M, D. of Epiriu, an eje-wiUicss, told me pur-
Hnally about tbe Cbiiiilfl.
* B»ion da Asch infonncd me in n letter dated the loth July, 17SS, that tha
roidwiven nf ConHtaulJDople geacnMy uu(ulrH of the molber, after tbo biitii, what
fiirm (he would like to hare ^vcn to the head of tho nuwly-lHim inFarit i and tliat
the Asiaticfl prefer that, wbiob if* produeeil bj a bandage paaeed over the fortbuad
Bcrvmugi l&ey ui
no, PL J.
' SInbn, 1. n. p. 358, ed. Caaaub.
■ Bippocratea, Dt lurihut, aquii, et Ukim, ed. Charter. T. vi. p. 106.
* MATsden, HUt. of Sumatra, p, i».
'" Niu. Fontona in Aiiaiic RatanJiet, Vul. ni. p. tji.
'' Mekmi* Vin/affa, p. 149.
'* Ailair. I. e. pp. 8, 184. Comp. Dtem Oranionim /irivta, PI. 9.
■* Lawma'a Hitl'iry of Carolina, p. 33. .
^' Oriedo, Hitloria Ommd dt ha IwUia, Sovilla, ls3S, fnl. p. ij6. Raviuimd
■n, Dirtioamtirt Caraibe-Ftan^U, Auxerre, 1665, Bvo, pp. 5R. 91. i.|f. 1K9.
I. Decat Vfamiorvm jirima, PL 10, and the platui appended to Ibia worit, PL
.1. s. Iktat teeunda, PL 10.
' Torqaemadu, Manarehia lWia»o, SorilL r6i.^, fol. T. in. p. 6ij. De
a, R^adon del rittge para medir atf/unnt ffnuiia dt intriiUaiu), Madr. 1 74S, foL
r. p. S33.
" '^l^baull de Chanvalon, Voyiuir il In ifarlU'"i"r, p. fi).
" See Uallvr, Catiiper, Babativr, t:p,
IG
■ACBOCEPUU.
both of North' an>J Siiuth' Amerio. Two hu&dred re
ire know it was foiinddeo to tbe faarbariatui of the new world
by the coancila of the Spanish etewgw*. We have the particular
points of each method most aiccantelv described, and the
machines uid bands* br which tbej impress apon the flexible
io&nt calruia a form they like throogh a daily cootinuons
and imiform preflsttre kept op for many years. And Goally, the
heads of these very barbarians, tdiich have been broogfat (a
Europe and long dnce represented in jmnl^*. exactly bimI b$
every point answer to all these things. AJthongli however thd
&ict itself ia beyond all doubt, still there U some question aboi
what we read has ohea been asserted from tbe timea of Hi]
pocrates, that peodiar forms of the skull of this sort, thous
formed first on purpose and by artifice, when tliey have been kei
up and repeated for a long series of generations, become at
in process of time to t>e a sort of hereditary prerogative aod!
congenital, and finally a second nature. There is to be foun^'
in that golden little treatise of Hippocrates On Air, Water, and
Soil, a celebrated passage about the Macrocephali, a natjoit'
living near the Euxiae sea, alxiut whom he speaks first and
almost chiefly, because no other nation at all was known to
have heads like theirs. He says, that in the beginning custom
was the reason of their having such long heads, but thi
' " The un>« nf Omftgius io Uia Penivua Unguage, like tlut of C«mbcn%
wliich ia givra theiD bj ibe Portiignefie of Pua. in tbe BraiilUn, meiuia FUt>Le>d ;
in fKt, theae people tuie the ftrftnge custoia of ptesiing the heads of their diil-' —
M aooD u thej itrii botn between two planke, and of uusin); thetn to taki
■tnuigp shape which is the reiult, to make them more like the full tnoon, u
uy." Di-U Condiiinine in Mfin, dt CAnid. da Scitnca dt Farit, 17+5. p. 4*7,
' Eullet-hendi und Flal-howi», Comp. Charlevuii, HUtain r"- ' "
Fmna. T. lu, pp. 1B7, 313.
* Jo«, Ssanz tie Aguiire, Caltietio max. cimci!. omnium llapanii
■<]. 1, Rom. IJ5S, foL 'f-"- P- '04. "l""" in the historj of the hjiichI of tb*
third diooeso of Lima. July 17, IjSs, i» the deoree th&t tbe Indians am nal la
■bape UiB heads of their children io moulds. " Being deairous entirelj- to extirpala
tbe abuK and napentitioli uudec which the IdiHaii* everywhere impreaa oprtaJa
thapM on the heada of their children, nhlch they theinuilveB eall Catlo, C^a
Qfolla, wo order and enjuin," *o. various puniahmenti for the delinooenta. m
that a woman who hu done so "shall attend the instruction tor
days, momiiig and evening, for theGrst offince : for the second, twenty," Ac
* Comp. the carcrul pictures of the bands of tbis sort mads use of hj the Caribf
in Jnamaldf {'hpl'iii*, Aug. r;9i. p. 13a.
' [11 JVifiii. rfr I'Arnd. dri *- d' Pnrit. 1740, PI. 16, fig. 1.
!rwards nature had acted in concert with custom. It was
thought the most honourable thing among the Uacroccphali
to have the head as long as possible. This was the begianing
of the custom ; when an infant of theirs was just born, its
head being like wax, or wet and soft clay, they pinched it
as sooQ as possible with their hands, and modulated it so as to .
compel it to increase in length, and besides, confined it with
bands, and tied it round with proper contrivances, so as to
prevent the head becoming round and make it iucrease in
length. This custom had at length effected the production of
heads of this kind, and in process of time they had been pro-
duced naturally, so that it was no longer necessary to use this
custom for that purpose. The old man of Cos endeavours to ex-
plain the cause of this singrdar phenomenon by his celebrated
hypothesis of generation, which is not very different from that
nf Buffou : his idea was that the genital liquid proceeded and was
as it were elaborated from all the members of the body; and bo
the forms of the parts, of which moulds, so to speak, were thus
taken, conduced to the formation of the fojtus. Hence it hap-
pened that bald men produced bald children ; grey men, grey;
and macrocephali, long-headed. Something of the same kind
has been lately reported of other nations, the Peruvians' and
Genoese' for example. I leave this matter however in the
abstract just as it is, and shall only refer to what I said above
(s. 39) on the occasion of other similar phenomena.
64. Some racial varieties of dentition, and their causes.
varieties of teeth generally closely accompany the forms
skulls, as has been observed in some nations. Thus, as long
as 1779, I observed a singular anomaly of the primary
ith both in the fragment of & mammified Egj'ptlan, as in the
entire skull of a mummy'; for the coronse are not shaped for
incision, or fiimished with a delicate edge, but are thick and like
truncated cones, and the coronse of the canines cannot be dis-
' On Lhe iobkbiUTtti of the prnvinos of Pari
^ari'late, T. tiT. p. i6i, «d. Sponn,
' J. C. Sciliger, Commrul. in Thnphr. dt d
' Dtral Cranuyrtan prima, PI. i.
1 Vecohio see Cuduiai. De Reratn
tinguubed from their nd^boon exoqitiiig hf pontum.
flune Mfignk*- oonfimutkK haa been natjced alao in <
manLnuea ; as in a mommj at OuDbrid^*, cud OumI* ;
tbiiig of U>e same kind abo at Stottgard* : and 1 1117KIC *
1 was in London two yean agc^ foimd exaetlj tlw t
iae^an in a jsxmg mttmmr, wluc}i its poneasor, J. Sjnunotia^
▼eiy kindly allowed me tu unrol'. Altbongfa it n eauceij neeea-
aaiy to observe that doiii^ racfa a secies of ages as the cnsUm J
td preaenring ooqnee pi«Tailed in Egypt, and under the 1
sitodes of the lords of ha gcnI and its inhalntant^ a Teiy g
diversity rnnrt necesaanly be ftrand between 1
their skulls, and that no sane pereon oonld ever expeet to fiu
in ail mammies the same eztiaordinaiy fimn of teeth I 1
qiealdi^ of. The variety is however remarkable and pethafs
may sometimes be of utili^ as a distinctive chaiader, by which
the mummieB of ooe age oat nee may be distitigui&hed frvm
those of another. It would be difficult to discover the caiues of
this pecoliar cuofonnation : but it seems vety likely that it is iu
great part to be attributed to the ki»d of diet, which we am
expressly told by Diodoms Sicnlus, wa« of a rustic sort a
the ancieut Egyptians, and consisted of cabbages and 1
Heace the teeth became much worn ; and when teeth 1
worn or flattened purposely it has been obsened that t
increase in thickness, iu the case botli of mcu* and brutes^
Considerable weight is added to this coujecture &om the o
vatiou of Wioslow^ who noticed a similar remarkable thidtnei
of the iDcisorB, and the like similarity to the molars, in the a
of a Greenlander taken from the Island of Dogs*, and attributed '
> Middktnii, ifuBummla Antiquilatit. Open, T. IT. p. [;o.
arv itill round firmlj ufbermg to the nppcr jaw; whmt hovrevrr
Dtay be cntuiileml aliDOM » liotHgj, ■■ that tbe aDterinr inoiaofs ai
Mbwled (or cuttiiig, bm an Irroad and flat, jiut like the molaia."
* Comp. the aooonnt by BrickmaBii, tha head phjnmaa «f Brmmrick, «( H
mDmmf. BnuuniEk, 1781.1(0.
■ StoTT, Pndr. mtlKodi MammiUiawi. Tuldng. (780, 4to, p. 14-
* PhUi*>ph. Tnuu. (;9+, Part it. p. 184.
' Itircli* Jiubrry uf On RoyU Soattf, T. iv. il i.
* On tha tiiwy tuaks of el■;1lhBub^ wi
' Mtm. df TAaid- da Sc. <lf Pmn. 1711,
* /{uBill-sI«"<l ■• This !.l.in.l, lyiiig in Didio Steail od the WMt rf •<
ESQUIMAUX. 245
bto the fact that thoee barlmrians live on raw fleHh'. Tlim
servatton is also supported by t.be thick and wonderfully
1 teeth in two E8i|iiimaux ukulls which have lately cmne to
me from the colony of Nain in Labrador'. It is well known
that the Esquimaux and the Greenlanders belong to one and
the same stock, and their rarial name is commonly derived from
their habit of eating raw flesh. What several aiithors have
related about the teeth of the Calmiieks', that they are very
long and separated by large interetices, I find at hwt has been
taken originally, and then not quite accurately, from the ac-
count of Yvo, a priest of Narbonne, originally written in 1243,
and afterwards garbled by many, nor does it agree with the
modem Mongolian skulls which I now have in my collection.
Finally, other racial peculiarities of the teeth are due eicclu-
fiively to artifice, as in some groups of negroes who by filing their
teeth sharpen them like aaws* ; or, as in some Malay nations, who
remove a great part of the enamel of the teeth', or cut furrows
aH good geoijniphioiJ
of tbiil oouotrj from the Ume of ZorgJnifer, that 1 rauot oonfe»
Greenland, u bo well known, and «o clearlj laid doi
in(i|M of tbiil oouotrj froln the Un ' ~ '
UDilentaud what Cunper meiuit
far u to »ccuMe Wioekiw d
.^_ , _.. . ording to Hiibner'n j^ogmjiliy, in wbicli fucsooth
thn IbIuiiI of Dog! u relegated to tlie PaL-iDc Oceiui under the tropin of C&priconi.
Did be not know that this aoutliem inlaud was duscrilwd by itc dianivercr Schouten
in i6i6, ID bia well-known joutnej, aa being altogether uninhabited, and, to !sr ai
I know, fram that time forth ucTer Tinted again by any Europeanl Wborea*
that noTthem land from which Wiiisluw received bis ikull i» Ereiiuented by numbor.
tens Europettna engagrd in the whaie-Gebery,"
' "Tlia inciaon are ahort," Bays Wiiulow, "targe behind and flat, itiBtantl ot
being qotUnu, and are more Ukt raolara thai, iiidiora. M. lliuofco (the finder of
the «kull) tella me that the inhaliitanta of thM i«l>nd eat Snah cjaite raw. They
Baku many extrsardinarymoTenienti with the jaw, and auuty gnmacea in ohewmg
and FWallowin;,'. It was ofaiefly the sight of lliis whiah induced M. Biecke to look
for thocorparaof theie islanders to aee it their jawi and their teeth h d any peculiar
cuiiforniBtioD."
' Comp. Buffon, Erxleben, Ao.
* Van Llachoten, Sctipi-aert natr Oott, Part i. p. m. 6o. Von der GrJibmi,
OniiHifi-Jie JtanebatArrilmng.jip. .11, 94. Bnrbotin Ch(irchitr»Co//ec(uwiY Vos/aga,
VoL V. pp. 139, 143, jRj. Scbotte in PkHoiopk. Tram. Vol. LXXIU. Part I. p. yi.
Rrport 0} Ihi LonU of ike Committee of Cnncil for Ihe amtideratioa of tkt Start
Trade, fola. L and M.
' I am (U'priaed that some fampaa authors, as Bemer and Niehuhr, have taken
thie artificial Jefonnatiiin of the teeth for a natarsT diaposition. Sec ESnier,
Efterrrtimj am Kyttat Ouinea, p. jr. Xiubiihr, Diu. in Dealtdit Mmrum, 17S;,
Part L p. 415,
• On the Philippinn of Mnginda, Bee Fon'est, Y'lyni/t (o New llainta, p. 33;.
On the Sumatrana, Manden, p. 41^.
246 EAH3.
in it', &c. I have seeu soniethiug of tlie same kiuJ myself itt
some Chinese from Java, who had carefully and r^ularlj
destroyed with a wlietstone the same substance from the ex*
tremity of the primary teeth.
65. Some other racial varieties in respect to particular pa\
of Ote body. Thus far we have investigated the chief varieties
of different nations, which ai-e observable either in their colour
(as that of their skin, hair, or eyes) or in their countenance and
form of the skull. Some few things still remain to be observed
respecting other parts of the body, which although certainly
less importance can by no means be passed over unnoticed, ano
80 I may say a little of each of them in a few words. AnSi.
although it would he impossible to explain with equal cleami
the causes and reasons of them all, still there is nothing so sin*
gular or so enigmatical but what may be rendered more easy
comprehension by comparing with analogous phenomena su<
observations as we have compiled in the section above on tl
brute animals.
66. Ears. It is known to antiquarians that many of the ido^
of ancient Egypt, both of bronze and pottery, or those cut o
of different kinds of stones or sycamore wood, and finally tho
painted on the sarcophagi, are remarkable for having the ea
too high up. A recent author* has summarily been pleased
attribute this to the tault of the artists, unskilled in the art
drawing. But I cannot quite give my adhesion to this view,
because of the elaborate art and taste with which I see many i
them are executed, and also because I have observed it partici
larly in those which have an Indian cast of countenance"; and
similar collocation is to be found in genuine pictures of
which have been executed with the greatest care. Altogetbi
however this diversity is no greater than what we see everj
where in varieties of domestic animals, especially in horses at
pigs, in the position and coUocation of the ears, especially mat
much as, if we take ii^ consideration in these same Egyptiai
' Oil the Jnnnese, Hawkeaworth, Vo!. m. p. 349.
' JUrhirriia Fhiliaopkiqtut iur la Ei/yplirtit, T. I. p. »11.
' PhiloKij.li. Trant. i~^f, Part U. p. lyi, Plflte 16, fig. 3.
UEAST5. 347
of tbe i^Ktlure uf {be erelkls. from
flf the aon toviidB tbe can, we akaD find thu tbe
of Ae ens depeods np<m the way in wbiefa tbe bnd
earned, the oedpot beii^ elerat«d, and tbe dun defvessed.
We find abo, luyt onlr from pwaagee in tbe aacieot aatlkon. bat
also fitini andent represeotataoDS, that the ears of the aboiyginal
Batarians were remarkable tor their form and podtioti'. So
also tbe ears of tbe Bucajwis were remarkable for their dze*.
It is well koovB that ia baitiaroas nations the ears oAea
stand out a good deal from the head. And are moreable ; artd in
many raoei, eapectalljr of tbe East Indies and the Pacific Oceso,
the lobe of the ear is enlarged and prodigioosly elongated by
Tiirious srfifioes. This absurd cu^om baa no doubt given rise
to the exaggerated stories of ancient writers about the enormous
ean of certain races.
67- Bitaxtg. There is a cloud of witnesses to prove that the
breaats of the females in some nations, especially of Afrii'a' and
some Islands of the Pacific Ocean*, are very long and pendulous.
Meanwhile I most observe first, that their proportions have
been exaggerated beyond the truth ; and also that this conform-
is not common to all the women of tbe same race. Even
the Islands of the Southern Ocean* many women, and also
ly Ethiopians* every day in the European markets, are to be
■fettb
' Bmetiai bu tna» ilrairi:
Ckouegteter. Dr BriUmtutyii, ilatribiu BriU'i, kc' p. I . .
■ tiee CotiDttH d'Aunoy, Rr/alion da Vofoi/t tfEipagnt, T. I. p. m. IJ. DJela
ID hii DDtet to Paentc, itrii du-trK Spiuiiat, T. n. p. 171, liiulkate* the ■utboncy
o( ttda dewrving itork.
* Cinop. kboDt tbe Ethmpuuii, Fomia, Sitr FEcnttomU Anitaalt, T. t. p. 11;,
About the UotlentoU, KoUh, p. 474.
* Sm the idubiunta of Horn ItUiuI in Scboaten ia Dslrymple'a CoUtctxan,
VoL n. p. 58.
* See the xnertioD et Townon io HkVlujrt'a CoHtetion, T. n. p. 16. about tbe
mgroe* of the Iile of 8t Vincent, " DiTen of tbe women ha*e such eiconJb|;
long breuta, that vome of them will Uj the suoa upon the groand ud lie dovne
hj cbero." And of Bruce, about the breaetn of tbe Sbangalla, which in loma of
them hang down aLnoat to tbe knees. Rrwe nach dot QiK^frn da Sil*, T, II. p.
546. Kor have I any greater fiith in the elory oF Mentnl about tbe tobacco.
pouchea made out of the breaau of Hottentot women, and sold in great quantity at
the Cape of Good Hope. BtiehmbMng dn Verpbirge drr ffulm Hoffnung, T. It.
p. S64.
* J. R. Fonter. Btmriunjm, Jtc. p. 14:,
seen, who nre rem&i-kable for the extreme beauty of tbeil
breiists. Besi(lt;», this excessive siae is bj no means peculiar
barliarous nutions alune, bat bsa been observett frequently
Europeans, as amongst the Irisb', and up to this du; amoi
the Morlactiians*. It seems the ptincipal re^ou is to be looki
for in the way the mother gives suck to the mfaut attached
its back, and partly because lactation is kept up long, som
for yeara And we read too that the breasts are often
ctally elongated amongst nations, who reckon that feature
beauty*.
Other nations are conspicuous for the size and turgesc^ioei
the breastti, like tlie E^-yptians. Juvenal long ago siuJ,
"Or bruat* M Meroe big aa gouduEed babo*."
Bsifspeakingof atbingcommonand well known to all And ta
only the women, but also the men in Egypt, are said to be
large-breasted*. Amongst European nations the Portngni
women have very large breasts', whilst those of the Spanish
the contrary are thin and small; and in the last century es]
ally they took piuns to compress them and obstruct tbeil
growth*. That by taking pains the circumference of the bi
can be incr^sed is indubitable. How far, moreover, precocd(
vonery may operate in that direction is shown by the remark-
able instances amongst the immature and girlish prostitutes who
flock to London, especially from tlie neighbouring suburbs, and
offering themselves for hire, wander about the streets by
in great numbers.
nights
' Utligow'g Bare AdimlvTa and PaimfuU Pertgrnatiot*, p. ni. 433.
in IrcUnd'i North pitrtu womtQ tnvnyliug tho wsv, or toyMg at hom^ 1 iiij
thar infants about their ncckm, aniJ laying the (luggES Brer umir ■hoDlJsra, irouU
g!ve aucke to the babe« behitiile tLeir hackes. without takhig tbem in their arem;
■uch kind of breutg, me thinkath, wan vurjr Bt, lo be made moDej bag* for Eiai
or \T«1 Indiiui merchuitB, beiu); more thoD bnife a yftnj Inn^, iui<l « wsU wtquj^j
u uij luioBT. in the like obsi^, conM e«er molliSe Buob leather."
' Fortis, i'iagyio in Dalvaoa, T. 1. p. 8 1 .
' On the inhabitiuits of the oout of Western A.Mai, between the
r Bnd the river Sen^al, «a CBdiimeato in Ramiuio, T, I. p. m. too.
, i'4/"V™ '' f* pntplt Afrieaiu, Pari*, 1 J89, 8vo, p. 45. " In
the young girls study to nuJtn their hreula ilcpvnJ, in order dial the} tn
thought women, luul treated with mure respect."
* Alpinut HUluria A'ofurott* ^ijgpii, T. i. ji. 14.
' I huve thi" from Abililyiuml, jiwt returned from a inumev in PortiuriJ,
• CouiiU-ss J-Aouoy, (. t. T. XI. p. I18.
GEMITALa.
249
Genitals. Linnazua says in the prolegomena of his Sys-
I Xatiirw, "that a too minute inspection of the genitals is
wroinable and disagreeable," It is evident however by the
termlDology of his conchylla that in process of time he came to
think otherwifle, and above all we find it so from the Venm
Dione, depicted by him in a sufficiently licentious meta-
phorical style. The shade therefore of this illustrious raan
will no doubt pardon me if I enumerate here shortly what
seem to rae worthy of mention about some racial varieties of
the genitals.
It is generally said that the penis in the Negro is very large.
And this assertion is so far borne out by the remarkable geni-
tory apparatus of an jEthiopian which I have in my anatomical
collection. Whether this prerogative be constant and peculiar
to the nation I do not know'. It is aaid that women when
eager for venery prefer the embraces of Negroes to those of
other men'. On the other hand, that Ethiopian' and Mulatto'
women are particularly sought out by Europeans. The cause of
this preference may be various, but I do not know what it is.
Perhaps they resemble the Mongolian' women and those of
eome American tribes", about whom we are told that the muli-
ebria remain small, not only after marriage but even after child-
bearing. Stelier' attributes the contrary character to the
pudenda of the Kamtschadales. He also says that many of them
are remarkable for long and protruding nymphse; which some
say in Hottentot women come to be appendages like fingers'.
But this ainvs pudoiHi, as Linnaeus called it, seems rather to
' The ume «« aaid of the nnrtliern Bcntch, wlia do not wear Iriwarn, by
Fiiost, Wit de QathlrchMriiA dcT Maitrhat in Ordnng m brlngcn, p. 57. I biivo
■howD homner on tlie weightiest testimony tlint this aiuertiiin u incorrect, iu
MtdieiftUcit BiUiothic T. m. p. .413.
' Siw, Ottinditcht Krirgndiaulg, p. m. 45.
* Chiiiivaloii, Tnyn^ (i la Martiaiqut, p. 61, SparrmMin, Itciie natk dem Yor-
yt/wryr dfr ■i«U„ ll«gn-n-j, p. 71.
' Lit Wtrh'i r.ii: Vf. V. Fooquenbrsoh, T. it. p. 411.
' C.ori;i, Hirrliriilmnn oiler Nationm drt R'lulir&ai Reirht, Part IL p. ijo,
' V'eijjutel, Licltra a Lmtnta dt' Mtdiei, p. 1 to, «1. Baudiiu. RiolMii fiL An-
', wtiicb is aaiil
a faukdle for that rtoir
aBlhors have tboi^t
the podeDdaof
Xofs. Some dtfleteoee in the proportkiQ and ^»{Kar-
•Bee of the kgs is fcmntB to exist id eatain nati on* Thus the
Indiaiis are wmaitalih far the kagth at thetr legs*, the Mongo-
liaafi OB the other hand far kfaeir alHrtaeaB*. The Irish women
are said lo hare rery hcge thi^'. Ihe l^s of the Xew Zea-
hMfasare »o thiAaa to^ipeMarirMstoiis*. Others tell us that
Ibeae antipodes of onis hare those ante kgs cn^ked and de-
fonned, and that sach erfli are ooatneted from the pontion in
which tbej Bsoallf sit '. Bendj begs howero- are rery oomnioa
•nougat the (^faniicki^ and are ascribed as wdl to the kind <rf'
aadles their chiUreti haTc, as to the bet that they are aaei»-
tomed to be on hoiaeback from tnder Tonth". The feet of the
Tiena del Fu^ians", lAo are called by De BoogainTiUe" Ptt-
dteras, are described as being remarkahtr de&cmed.
That the popoUtioas of Africa, bowem. ace thijee in which
defotnuties of the legs and feet are lacial. has been noticed fay
the ancients, espeoally in the case of the Egyptians", the Elfai-
* Bnkanvtk'i CWfcrtiM, T. n). fL m. jS& I *^ la Ik lb«alitT rf Sr
Jm. BhakM oM^AMiMtar tka &n*rBriM« tdM boa wlB* M Ik 0*p* <r
GMd Bm«. la «m </ tk<B Ike bkw «• m> aliMMMal tkM tkn ■
iw^^ Ml ■ klf irtiai Imil mtumri
•SM*priui>^TnM. riPV "—«-«■ T
<rM«, M ivvn t^
nfianvcai. £MB
W nftfnd M the Ml
Ofcr. T. U.T. p. a. ii*.
• T*i> " iliii !■■! in iUttfcf FM*s JfoanB JTi^, al Wata. p. 53a.
' Twin' fWr m /nd aa J . p. w.
■ Mb— cwa ■ Je k B.«fe tfW« A h Ifa- rf- 5aJ; T. P. p. Iff.
• a Ttautt Tf^ fwW tk r<rW. TA iL p. ,8a.
■• Palh*^ Fdhr ^ Mwmmii^tm FiUhrMfti^Aa. T. L ^ 9S.
■* J. R Fanlv, WftriaMfTa. p. }!}. -"TV fcat tear so pntpottioB fe_ _
■ an Um, tbt tip cn>ak*< Ike kaav beat ottivu^ ri
I, p. 431, ed, C^aob,
, and the negro siaves*. lu the legs of bluck slaves of
our day tliree defects are to be seen, attributed to three differ-
ent causes; bandy legs' {fr. janibes caniir^ea); disagreeable thick-
ness*; and the chinks and fissures in which they are said fre-
quently to open '. The crookedness appears to be due principally
from the posture in which the infants whilst sucking are
obliged to hold tight by the knees to the mother's back*. Some
deformities of this kind may also ho traced to morbitic causes'.
The thickness of the feet (unless this too is to be referred to
pathological caiwes) is most probably brought about by severe
and continuous labour. Finally, there is scarcely any reason to
jJDubt but what the fissures into which the thick epiderrais of
le Ethiopiaus is liable to break out, especially in the sole of the
i are due to their sandy soil".
\ 70. Feet and hands. Lastly, good observers have remarked
i, the hands and fcot of some nations are of singularly small
lortions. This is said of the Indians*, the Chinese", the
aitschadales", the Esquimaux", the Peruvians", New Hol-
Uiuders'' and Hottentots". That artifice has a good deal to do
Comp. I
ii NoCa, T. IV. Op. VirgU.
' Virgil, Montan, 3J,
* Petronii Salnrieoa, c. loi.
' Saoiioeriing, Ueber dit Sarptrlkhe VerK\iidnJirit del Ntgtn, 4c. p. 40.
knnlcm, Voj/offt d la MarttniifXt, p. jS. "lluit (urm ul llie li'gi 11 (utEvieatly
imon sIni uaoiig ths Americana, but aoroetimH leu ubiervtblu tliiui uuuugut
* Alb. Dflrer, Von MmKhlicher ProporUon, hi T. m, td. ijjB.
OMiky. Oit Iht Trtatmtnt and Contmiun of African Slartt, p, 117.
* 1 received in Jon. 1789 tbe frimli right leg, perfectly snuncl in adier rrtpMtt,
of na Elbfupian who had jiut died sC QajisA, porC or which I still h«vo in my
uiiktonniuiJ collection ; the epiilermia of the >oIe uf the foot it wouJvrfully thick,
HiinkleJ, and gapiug in muuy divided Bakes.
' Chajiifaloti, l.e.
* Fr. AUftiuiiad in JV«>a Ada AauUmia Nalurm (7«ri'aionini, T. IV. p. »<}.
' See Hiw. Mereuriali*. De dteoraUont, p. m. loj.
> "It hu been ob«erced of the srmi of the Hindooa fre<|uontly brought le
EogUnd. that the grijie of the aabre i» too amkll for moat Europeui hiuiila."
Hodgea, Tranli in India, p. 3.
" DMiDpirr, Suite lie Yoyagt aviour dt Mondf, p. 100. De U Barhinail, Voyagt
avloar da Minde, T. U. p. 63. O.buct'a Oitmdwk Reta, p. 171.
'" Sleller. I. c.
" H. Elli*. Cmni, Ac. »nd Utoly the ramoug Mtronomer W»la«, in FKUoiijih.
Traai. Vol. lx. p. 100, «nd CurUa, lb. Vol. lxiv. p. 38J.
*' De DUo«, NaAncktrti, ftc. T. 11. p. gj.
'* WMJtiBTcn<i'».ifroiin(n/Mf ■W((mm<a( Pott Jadaon. p. ijg.
" Spsirmsnn, /. f. p, 171.
259 STATUEE.
wilb ttiifi we know from the ostrich feet of tlie CLinese woiuen.
Biit it seems very likely that the mode of life' aud poor sort
of diet' may also be to blame.
71. Racial varieties in respect of stature. Having now
despatched what seems most worthy of remark about the rela-
tive proportion and conformation of particular parts, it eeems
proper to inveatigat* briefly the vaiietiea of the entire stature.
This chapter uf anthropological discussion has been handed
down to us deformed almost entirely by fables, hyperbolical
over-layers, and raiainterpretation. These have, howcrer, in
our day been in a great part so refuted and esplajned, and re-
duced to their genuine sources, that it is scarcely necessaty to
mention them further, much less discuss them over agun with
fresh attention.
Thiia it has been shown that under the Ethiopian pigmies
of the anciente nothing else was intended hut a symbolioJ
signification of the degrees in the Nilometer. Thus the enor-
mous bones dug up everywhere in our own country, which pre-
judiced opinion formerly attributed to giants, have been restored
to the beasts by a more carefid osteological study*. On the
contrary, all the relics which have survived to our day, and the
ancient furniture from which we may estimate the stature
ancient races, as mummies, bones, and especially the hoi
4
re <4^m
' "An (Amerioui) ludiiin man u aiiuill in the hand uid wrist, for Ihe nnw
reuon fur which a anilor in largB one! atrong in the arnii; >n<1 ahonlden, Mtd •
porter in the leg* uiil IhighB." JeCTDraoD in Morse's Ameriean Uaifenat Gtogra-
phi/. Vol. 1. p. 87.
* Hee TeDoh, from tha obaervntiona of the Governor of the Cape: "CdIomI
Oonloa tflU lae thnt it indic&tal poverty and inadequiuiT of living. He Inituioed
to me the Hottentots and Cafirog; Che former fnre poorly, and hava nnall handi
iu>d feet; the Csffrec, tbair neighbours, live plenteoiuly, and have VBry large one*."
* It ia Btnuige tbM in tste times BufTon oould have attributed many fossil boM*
of this kind, du|j ap at difTerent timat and plao««, to ginnti, io the <>th ToL c^ Uw
supplement of hu claaaioal work: such m cliosa which in 1577 «er« dug np n
and prcse
That in
Luoeme and preserved up to the pres nt day in
myself, and rBon^ised tl
Dciurt-hiiiiso of tbat oitj, when
SictnTQ of a humao skvlet.
ouit's College at Luurnic
thp very evidence of the bl-
I of that magnitude, which is still to be
a memorable wxani pic of the power of prejndi
iciB, when oiicp it ha^ atnicli root in the oiind.
1.
J
PATAG0SIAS8.
teeth found in urns and sepulchres', armour, Ac, tend to the
conviction that those nations by no means aiirpaKsed men of tJie
present day in stature. Amongst these also there is an indis-
putable racial diversity. Amongst European races the Scandi-
navians and some of tho Swixs, an the Suitens, are tall : the
Lapps short In the nuw world the Abipones are large in size,
the Esquimaux shorter : but neither more than moderately bo.
Altogether there is no variety in respect of stature so great
amongst nations of the present day, but what may be easily
explained by the common modes of degeneration, and the
analogous pheuomena which may be observed in other mam-
mals. There are, however, two varieties of this kind which
must be treated separately, of which it is said that even in
these present times one differs greatly in excess, and the other
}n defect, from the common stature of mankind.
72, Paiagonians. There is at the extremity of the conti-
it of South America, towards the north-east, a nation, which
the time of Uageilan's voyage has been known to
Europeans, who invented for them the composite name of
Patagonians, because they thought ihem related to theu* ncigti-
buurs the Choni, and that their feet, which they used to wrap
in the skins of the guanaco, were like the shaggy feet of brutes,
called in Spanish patas. Their proper and indigenous name,
however, is TehueletE. Tliese people, (he% commonly called
Patagonians, Anton. Pigafetta, the companion of Magellan in
his voyage, was the first in his account to pretend were giants
double the size of Europeans'. From that time on for two
centuries and a half the stories about the expeditions under-
taken by the Europeans in that part of the new world are so
repugimnt to each other, and so contradictory and so wonder-
fully inconsistent as far a^ their notices of the Patagonians,
that, once for all, they may serve as a warning to us to be
■ I owe to the liber^itj nf Boienlwrd, iniiwrul ooniol •general in Denmark,
■ ealnria nnd other bones of a miui of adrMUwd >gefoun<l Dot Wt^aiT" in B very
It CimliriaD tomb, iu projiortumB Kud aie yieldiiti; nothing to the Ci)iiim<m
._.<B of our coantrjnien.
■ S«i! hia Viogf^o atorno U mondn, in Bamaain, T. i i"l. t. p if.i
■ tftom
I the BccottBts of traTelleTR
give in s note a daade of snUxm'. far tbe benefit of those «
I
I
I
■ and componng these diff««Dt
I, and tbe ofHiiian of anthrDpologistB about them. It
wiD be BoSdieot for na at preaent to pot Ibrth those resoll
whii^ seem nioet like the truth, after w«ighii^ aiu] duly ciita
ing eTeiTthuig.
It is then a race at men bj no means of gigantic height, but
conspicnoae for taD bodies and a rery moBcolar and knotty
habit*. To define their exact statare wnidst such a quantity of
amb^nom stories iroold be imposabte. From the evidence of
the best witnesses, howerer, it aeetaa ecarcely to exceed six feet
and a half of English meaaure; and this is the lees to be
thought prodigious, since it has long been known that oth*
indigenous races of America (especially in tbe South] are
tall. It is very probably the case with them what Tacitus tel
ufl about the ancient Germans, that they never mix with
other nation in marriage, and preserve their race peculii
unadulterated, and always like itself. They are Nomads, li!
the people of Tierra del Fuego, and the other wandering natinas
of South America; and thence it is not surprising if they have not
always appeared] to he men of the same lofty stature to thi
Europeans who have approached the same coasts indeed of tl
country, but at differeot times.
It is not difficult, on the other hand, to understand how t!
story of the Patagonian giants arose. First, that old traditi)
about the giants of the old world preoccupied all minds, and
those travellera in the new world who were on the look out
I Buffhn, HUloin Xalnrdlt, T. ill. ond Sujipl. T. T. Da BroM«, Hitbt^di
f/angatinai aax terrtt Avtlraltt, T. t. De Pauw, ArrAnvAu nr la Anitritah
T. 1. Ortegi, Viagi dtl Cemimd, Bj/nrn at ifd/ilor rltl muiuja. trodue. i
I. RubiTtinD'B Bifary of AiKtrita, Vol. I. Ziramemianii, OMgr^Mttit
GfteKiehtt dtt SI'iitrhm, T. I. J, B. Fo«ter, Brmrrl-ungf*. Comp. Oirii Hvbln,
itUrrt imtrieaM, T. L PeoDaiit, 0/ lit Palagoniant. Sdwion ibl wWwo i^y
al i'tlndo dt MagaUajiei ai 1 78.=, y 86.
■ Such tbe; are tmaDiuiousI; Jeacnlwd by Ihe moot creilibi* cye-witnMH*.
Such tno were thiwe whi> towirdi tha end of the aitUetith ceotuir ware brongh
to Spain ; Iho *o\t wid only PaUgonUni, M f H u I know, whmo Europe h** •»«
■" n Linachoten, ■ great and truly classical ' "— *-"' •'■— — ~ -•
s, and iay> of tliem : "tbey were of gnod el
h large imuiclea," lt^^|
QUIHOS.
255
proJigiea, reverted to that when they found men who were in
rtality tall and muscular, and tombs of wonderful length', and
every where in them bones of a large size'. The Spaniards too
might also have had the design of deterring the other nations
of Europe from navigating the Straits of Magellan by atories of
thiskind'. And in others blind fear, and the desire of boasting,
such a^ oven in the present century has induced the author of a
Dutch account of the voyage of Roggewein, to give out the
inhabitsLDts of Easter Island in the Pacific Ocean a^ giants of
twelve feet high*.
TS. Qwimos. There was an old story which even in the last
century was exposed by the classical writer Stephen Flacourt as
a fictitious invention, that there existed In the inner mountains
of the Island of Mad^ascar a nation, pigmy in stature, but of a
rf warlike spirit, and which afflicted the other inhabitants by
sudden invasions. They were called Quimos or Kinioa.
This story haa lately found defenders in our time, in the
pilot Modave, and the famous botanist Coramerson. But if you
take away all that is mere hearsay iu their accounts, and their
discrepancies, which are not few, all that remains wiU be that the
pilot bought a certain small servant maid, who was sold to him
• Conip. Ed. Brown'* Travdn, p.m. JO. "Mr Wood, whohM mnde veiyiooa-
mtc maps ol the StraiU of Magellao, k.c. told me, ihitt he hid neen dlvurs ((ravai
iu tha aoullKm porta of America dbbt four jaiAa long, which siirprined him tha
iiior*. beoauw he had never >e«a ^ay AnniHcan thitt hu two jordi liigh, uid
therefuiB he opened one of theoo long Bepulcliroa from one end to tha other, anrl
Ibund ID it ■ man *nd & womnn, so placed, that the woman's haail lay at the mui'g
feet, and bo might reMonahl; require a tomh of near that length."
* or b<ira« In fact, whoa? akeletona thuy plnce nciir the tombs of their nlationn.
Sfe Falknar, B^chttibang ton Palagonitn, p. m. i^q. A moat ancient cuatom
ev«rywh<.-re, and which hu prevailed amoagat the
the oldrsl sepulchrea of 3
the aaronphagi of Chrirtian
■ ' " ;e«, besides their c
othe
leria: aee J.^Gmelin, Arum. T. Ul. p. yj. Even in
□ighta, buried in churi^bea, during wbaC are oaUed the
ra arma and bones, thoae of hunes alio are found. See
Sir J. Nar-
bonragh'* I'o^ojk to Ike SlraiU of Magell'in. p. m- Qo.
* See Anon, Taeejaarigt Rej/i roiidom it VKreld. Dordr. 1718. 4to. Mueh
more tnutwortliv and accurate, on the other hand, is Behreno (by prufeanon a
ftoofecdoner), who waa in the aanifl vnjAge, in AetM durrh die Stid LAnder unci
un dui WeU, Francof. 1737, 8vo, where, p. S7, he oalla the inhabitanta of Easter
Island, then Grat diaoovered, only *' well-hiiilt, with strong Umba."
2fi6
CAUSES.
for a Quimo, pale iq colour, with pendulous brcaats, and remai
able for the leugth of her anna, which reachud nearly to 1
knees. Barou de Clugny, moreover, who spent nearly
whole month in the same ship with this identical pigmy, (
showed that she was only a dwarf of bail conformation i
diseased constitution, macrocephalous, stupid, and an uttercrd
confused sounds; from all which circunistanct^s I am persuadeil
that her malady should be referred to Cretinism, since the*
symptoms occur in Cretins; and the length of the arms has been
noticed in many of them, and particularly in those of Salzburg,
in express words, by observers. On the other hand Sonnent
has ingeniously explaintsi the whole tradition as if it was to b
understood about the Znphe-Racquimusi, that is, the sis chifll
of the race who inhabit Manatana, a province of that lalsi
which chiefs are dosceuded from an ancestor who was '
small; a fact expressed by that barbaious word'.
7-i. Cauaea of Racial Stature. We must allow then thi
there is no entire nation of gianbi or pigmies. But the rat
variety of stature which we touched upon above (s. 71) s
be confined within smaller limits in proportion than those wbich
have been everywhere observed in the case of other domestic
animals (a. 2il) ; and this will easily be understood by a consi-
deration of what has been said about the causes of degeneration.
That climate has something to do with it, besides many other
proofs, is seen from a comparison of the Laplan<lers with the
Hungarians, who are two colonies from one race, but have
reached a very different stature under a different climate.
Physiology also clearly shows the great influence of diet in
augmenting or diminishing the stature. Hence the tail bodi'.'^
of the nobles of Otabeite is ascribed to the more generous dici
they indulge in'.
' Pftllfl* loeniB to have ilorluoKl the origin of t
gunemtion. Sue liU Obtervalioiu tar la furwalion
on ths origin of ths Rthinpmna he ntysT— "Wo need not In
OMo to Kay iiapruper connection of the liuTrLKn HfuTcin, nhich
the cBiM in the productlim of the lim^anned mmiaiaiueim oi
k
Se« J. It. Fonlcr, Bmrrtmviten, p. m. ajG,
FABULOUS NATIONS. 257
On the other Lund we are told that the stature of some bar-
barous niitions has diminished sensibly for a series of generations
after they have accustomed themselves to the abuse of aqua-
vitas and ardent spirits'.
Here also mention ought to he made of the period of puberty,
which differs in different nations, and has a good deal to do with
the racial stature, since those who remain longest before arriving
at puberty, by this constancy {as Citsar long since observed of
the ancient Germans) increase their stature : whereas the best
authors have with oae voice observed that under every sort of
climate and place premature venery is injurious to procerity of
body'. Nations preserve their peculiar stature when they
mingle least with tlie immigrants and strangers of other races:
as on the other hand racial stature is altered after a series of
generations when they have been mingled in union with other
nations of a different size*. Lastly, we learn from indisputable
instances of families remarkable for height or shortness that the
influence of the ancestral constitution is great as to the stature
fi{f the offspring.
I 7^. Fabulous varieties of mankind. Infinite in number
Jwe the stories we have received firom the time of Herodotus
downwards, fix>m all sorts of sources, principally from Aristeus,
Ctesio«, and Megasthenes, and which the Cosmographists have
told us about nations of monstrous appearance, such as the
Arimaspi, with only one eye; the Cynamolgi, with dogs' heads;
the Monoscelea, with only one leg; the wild men of the Imaun,
with their feet fronting the back part of the legs, &c* It is not
my business to spend any time upon these things here ; though
the investigation of these matters brings both pleasure and
profit ; for that is equally true of anthropology which prevails in
* Comp. besides otbcn on the KMntaolihdales, Behm in Cook's Tcyagt lo I
NorAtrn BimitphtTr, Vol. in. p. ^71. On the OlaLntuu, Cook in EawkEBWOrtl
CtdUetion, Vol, 11. p.m. 187. On the Somntnins, Maraden, p. 41.
* MMipertais, Vrtnu Phytiqur, p.m. 131.
* Comp. J, A. Fftbriciua, Din. ilt hnmliiibui orbii noitri innU', &o, Hut
17
TULED MEK.
every otber department of natural bistory, that scarcely any
Btoiy, however abeurd and foolieh. has ever been told in it,
which does not contain some foundation of truth, but perverted
by hyperbohcal exaggeration or misinterpretation '. I mean W
touch here upon only one instance out of this crowd of prodigies,
that ia,4.he often repealed story of nations with Uiils, as being
one which we have been told of again and again by all sort^ rf
authors of all sorts of timee*.
76. Reports of natitms with tails. First Pliny, then
njas, make mention of the tailed men of India: then
middle ages their existence waB asserted by the Nubian GeogrSr-
pher, the Venetian Maroo Polo, and others; lastly, in mora
recent times many writers of travels Lave brought back similar
reports about the various tailed islandeis of the Indian Archipft-
lago*; others about people of the same kind in some province of
Russia*; and others other stories'.
Proper consideration however will easily show that very littla
weight ia to be attached to these assertions. Many authora
have derived their information entirely from hesrsay, Thea
again it cannot be denied that many of their witnesses who
boast of having seen the thing themselves are undoubtedly of
very dubious rcpxite'. Moreover the stories themselves on thi»
point differ very suspiciously from each other'. On the other:
■ Tho luo^t recent pAtron md B!iBerter of meo vitli tuli in Monboitdo, in bolk
hie worlu. The Ongin and Pragna of Lmgnogt, Vol, I, p. Ji^, ud Ai '
Mttaphy>ia, Vol. in. p. 150.
■ Ocsides the sutliora cited by and by, see Hftrve;ir, Dt QtnuTaLiaBt AnimaiUtmf
p. m. lo, about the inhabituits of Bomro.
* Rjiechtow, OrmbvrgiKhe Topntpvphlt, T. U. p, 34, Falk, Srpte>
Kcnnluiu da Ruttitchen Rtithi, T. HI. p. S^S-
> On the iaiand of Tiem Af\ Fuegu ks the geograpliical lablei in AIoDI.
il'OT»elie, Belatimc dd Regno di lilt, Bom. ;6^6, fol.
• On the Nioobura Bee, full of the most fuoliBh ttorie*, Btitr^nii^ om t%
anom Atia, Africa. <£-e. »f. N. Matlhm, Koping (Sktpt-LityU.), p.m. 131; ■ ,
liowever LinniHua c«lla a moit tnistworthy account in bis letlsn lo Monboddo, Q^
tilt Origin of Lan^arje, I. e. Da». Tappe, 1 i-Jdhrigt Mtindieche Rtittbrtdtrtiiuitpt
p. 44, on the Suuatnuia
' Comp obout tlie luled Pormottnns a trind of witneaaea wliu call thenuelTW'
rye-witD«»eii : J. Rtrauu, J. O. Helli^, and El. Huw. The flml h^.jh, Rtimt,
p. m, 33, " A Fotniuaim fruin thv suutb side of the Island K-ith a tiul a good fool
r,EUCtETHluriA.
259
hand the boldest and most careful explorers of those countries
are either silent about that monstrous prodigy; or relying on
the authority of the inhabitants plainly declare it a lying fiction'.
And finally, some expressly tell us what it is that has given rise
to this erroneous report ; viz. : either a pendulous addition to the
clothes of the back'; or some tailed anthropomorphous apes'.
So that not one single instance of a tailed race can be proved by
the couaeut of any number of trustworthy eye-witneasea, nay,
not even of a single family remarkable for such a monstrous
tmomaly; whilst instances of monstrosities in families, in which,
tea example, six fingers have been hereditary for generations, are
very well known. A3 to individuals, who are here and there to
ba seen amongst Europeans, remarkable for a monstrous excres-
cence of the OS coccygis, it is at once understood that we do not
jnean to say anything uf them here, any more than of number-
Jess other monstrous productions.
77. Racial variety fnrm. morbijic affection. I have spoken
ttbove on the subject of the morbific disorders which so change
the appearance and even the colour of animals, that when that is
propagated by hereditary causes for a long series of generations it
shades sensibly away into a sort of second natiu'e, and in some
.'Species uf animals gives rise to peculiar and constant varieties.
We have cited the well-known examples of the white variety of
the domestic mouse and the rabbit, whose snowy fur and rosy
pupils are most certainly due to a nnsrbific affection, in fact to
leuccBthiopia. Tlie same kind of affection is frequently seen in
maskind. Still only sporadically, certainly nowhere is it so
frequent and so constant as in the brute animals just spoken
for in them it degenerates into a particular and copious
iety. Still, even hinnan Icucopthiopia must >>e spoken of,
»Dghh
lir." ThB »eoond in Ephrm. Nafvra CuTumr.
Ii like thoaeof inga." Tlis thini, Oilindurh.
S: ''Among our other eUth Dt tlie raiDe we had t.h<>
to'uta lieul wu dbfigured behind with % ihort atuinp
long, md nil covered wil
Deo. t. »nn. II. p. 456,
Riinhitelire&viig, p. m.
a feiii»l* tUve wbe like
iir goat's lul."
I Thin»l)outtliBPhnipphi(«, LoGsntil, Toy. dumlammderindt. T. :i. p. j;
' Nic. Fontnna On the Nieohar Ida. in Aaalic Raearrlu; Vol ItT. p. I51.
* [I have omitted hrre ■ ]img note wliicli repeat* what was mid before ()i. 14
"m figore rcpnsrnted in ri. *. Ed ]
17—2
LKCOETmOPU.
tJiot^h briefly. Bncfiv, I Bay. Ixitb l>ecause iu man it csA
scarcely be said to constitute a particular variety, and aluO
because it vrould be te<lious to repeat those things which I haW
ID another place ftaid about this remaricable disonler'.
78. Human leucathiopia. The affection must be considered
cachectic, which ia plain from two pathokigic&l and constant
Bymptoms. One of these consbts in a singular colour of the
skin, a ^ckly white partly shading into an unnatural redness,
very often presenting the appearance of a sliglit leprosy'; and
also in an anomalous whiteness of the hair an<l groin, not silver
white as in old men, nor nicely yellowish, verging to dnericial^
as may be seen in many of our own countrymen, who are thei**
fore called yellow (fr. Mondins), bnt rather straw-coloured, or-
cream-coloured. The other affects the organs of sight, and
deprives them of their dark pigment which in sound eyes Unei
some of the internal membranes, and i» destined for the ahsorp^
tion of the excess of light, a thing of the utmost importance for,
good and clear vision. Hence the iris of the eye of a lcuccethi(^
is of a pale rose, and half transparent: the pupil is bright and
of a more intense red, like a sardonyx or carbuncle of a palA
colour.
These two symptoms occur united with a singular con-
Btancy, so that, as far as I know, that peculiar redness of ths
eye is never seen alone, or without that false whiteness of thei
hair on the head and elsewhere. It is not, however, to bt;
wondered at if the redness of the pupils has not always been
noticed by observers, since the other symptoms we have spokes
of strike the eye more, and the leuccethiopians not being able
endure the light have a habit of constantly winking the eye-
lids.
The di.sease is always congenital ; never, so far as I kno'
being contracted after birth. Always incurable; for there
no single known instance of the blaek pigment being evi
added to the eyes after birth. It is very often liereditary; f
' Comnunlal. Son, Reg, Seioillar. GottiivjeM. T. Vll. p. jg, and iitdicatil
Iwl/iet: T, n. p, S.17-
» Cum|i, Hftwk.-Bwortli'a ColltaUm, Vol. ir. |i. [n. i88.
LEUCtETUlOPIA. 201
it is him what has been said by some that leuccetliiupians are
sterile or incapable of generating or conceiving. Generally, all
the accounts we have of this remarkable disorder are wonder-
fully deformed with errors of all sorts. Tims some have doubted
whether leuctethiopia ought to be considered as a true morbific
affection; others have fooliahly confounded it with cretinism,
others with the history of the Stmia aatyrua; others have
rashly asserted that this affection is only to he seen within the
tropics. For although it was no doubt first observed amongst
the Ethiopians, for the reason that in a black nation this white-
ness of the skin and hair would necessarily strike most every
one's eye, and lience the name of leucoethiopians (fr. n^grea blanca)
was given to those suffering under that malady (who are called
in the East Indies contemptuously by the Batavians Kackerl-
aehen, after a light-ehunning insect, by the Spaniards Albinos,
the French Blafarda, &c) ; it is so far from being the case that
it occurs only amongst the negroes, or even only in the torrid
zone, that on the contrary nothing is more certain tlian that
there is no variety of mankind, no part of the world which is
uniit for the manifestation of that diseajie.
Sixteen examples of leucoethiopians have already come under
ray notice bom in different provinces of Germany', Then in
the rest of Europe some among the Danes*, the English*, the
Irish', the French*, the Swiss", the Italians', the islanders of the
Archipelago*, the Hungaiians', Then out of Europe araongat
' Aa iocoQnt of mwiy iigivm in Mtdidnitchc BibtioAel, T. in. p. 161,
• '1- p, ^70- ^
[.. ,ofi.
* C. Penwral io Tnuttofliont of tiie Irixk Academy, Vol, 17. p. 97.
* Le Cut, De ta CoHlnir de trt pean Ouiaaine, p. 103,
• MrdieJnitcie SiUiotAtt. T. 1, p. j ^s,
'' About tlw Sarajixili whflm I haro descriUdcl myself, Bea .Skaasore, Voj/ai/a
dam Itt Alpa, T. iv, p. m. 303. Bourgaet makm mention of ft VBDOtian in IMtra
PhiloiopM//aa hit la formattm da uU, p. 163. Burai diMeoted a Milanaae, sse
Ilia DiaerUaiinu topra una Varitla PaTtiaAare d'L'omini Bianthi Mw/obi, MedioL
t yS^, 4t«. Jo. Hawkins informed me that ho B»w a nmllar girl at Rome.
° From the aoconnt of the same Jobn Hawkins, my frii^nd whom 1 bhve just
quoted, who law two twln-brotbers, leucoetliiopiuwi about twelve yean old in his
" it journey to the Archipelugo and tbe Beaa in the ialand of Cyprua, Datives of
>, !'■ IS-
262 m ANIMALS.
the Arabians', tlje JJalabars', Mada^ascans', Caffres*, Negrwea'
{as well those burc in Airica itself as amongst the Ethiopi
Creoles of the new world). Then amongst the Americans of tbt
Isthmus of Darien", and Brazil'. Finally, amongst the bar?
barous islanders of the Indian and Pacific Oceana; as in
niatra', Bali', Amboyua'", Manilla", Now Guinea",
Friendly" ami Society Islands".
Moreover, this affection of which we are speaking is by
means peculiar to mankind, but has been observed in mi
other warm-blooded animals of both classes. Of the mammi
besides the common instauces of the rabbits, the mice, till
weasels and horses (in which four kinds of animals this atTectit
in process of time seems to have become a sort of second nature]
instances of apes" have been reported to mo, squirrels", rats";
hamsters", guinea-pigs* moles*", opossums", martins", we*
aels", and goats*". Amongst birds, crows", thrushes", canaii
birds, partridges*^, hens and peacocks. It is remarkable thi
' I^yard in Fracetdingt of lie African AiiodaiioB, p. 4J.
* TrartqitbaTiKkt MinioTU-brriekte, Contm. ILTI. p. 1139.
* CoHigDT in Hixtiiire dt FAcad. da Se. lU ParU, tt. 1I44, p. 13.
* Deln Nux, lb. >. 1760, p. 17.
' Out o( the crowd of e^ie-nitnenie* it will be enough to quote tliree
QoldBuiitli, Biilorg of the Earth, Vol. n. p, S^O. Buffnn. Sappltment A ' '
Natunlk. T. IV. Pi 5J.J, and Arthsnd in Journal A Phyt^ue. Oct. 1783.
' Wafer's Dticription of the Iilhmu4 of Anenca, eil. 1, p. toj.
' Db Pinto in KoberlBon, Hiitori/ of Amerita, Vol. II. p. ^05.
' Van Speren in Vtrhanddiagai van Act Balaeiameh Oaioultckap, T. I. p. 314.
" Id. Le. wiUi»pliito.
'° Vftlsntyn, Bachryving van AvAoina, T. n. p. I46.
>' Cuuslli in PKiloKifhiail Trantattioa; Vol. xxv. p. i]6B.
" Argeniolii, Cowiuuta dr. Uu islia Malueat, p. 71.
" Cook'fl Foyaffel (o thr flTortAem ffemi»phrt. Vol. 1. p. jSl.
" Hkwk«a worth'! CoUtelum, Vol. ji. p. m und i83.
" Sir It. CUyton in Mrnuiirt oftht Soe. <^ MancKattr, Vol. ID, p. 170.
" Wkgner, Uitlor. Natar, Utlntia, p. i8j. Gunntf on LoeiD, Dt
nSmt FiTimarekia, p. 107.
" Gaanm, Dr quadruprdi'iut, p. Sjg.
^' The author tSalur) of the Chuuieal Ponograph on the hunrter gkTS mo
of this kind.
" Boddaett, Natimrhtndige Btiehoutrliig dcf Diertn, T. I. p. 310.
«■ Jb. •> Jb.
*• Kruner, Elmek. AntJiialium Atulr. p. 3I]. " BoddMK, t c.
•* TbemeliQ ObeitJ'ZiitMrijUfha Jonmal, Freyberg, 17^8, 8»o, P. I. p. 47.
" From the account of mj friend Sulier.
" Jo. Hunter, (M ecrlain ParU of the Animal Ecowimy, p. 104.
" Buflbn, Hiitoirt NatarclU rffj OiitaMX, T. n. p, t^f..
EPILOGUE.
263
not a single example, so far as I know, of this affection has
been observed in any cold-blooded animal.
79. Epilogue to this section. Let so much suffice about the
causes and ways in which mankind degenerates into varieties
in respect of colour, structure, proportion, and stature. In this
enumeration I have left untouched no point that I know of
which can in any way help to unravel the famous question about
the unity or plurality of the species of man. We shall see in
the following section, after this general discussion, how that
species is in reality composed according to nature.
. Innumerable varieties of nuinlrind run into om atwther
bij iiisensible decrees. We have now completed a universal sui^
sey of tLe genuine varieties of mankind. And as, on the ona
hand, we have not found a single one wliich does not (as ia
shown in the last section but one) even among other warm-
blooded animals, especially the domestic ones, very plwnly, and
in a very remarkable way, take place as it were under our eyes,
and deduce its origin from manifest causefi of defeneration ;
so, on the other hand (as is shown in the last section),
variety exists, whether of colour, countenance, or stature, &<■,, so
singular as not to be connected with othera of the same kind
by such an imperceptible transition, that it is very clear the;.!
are all related, or only differ from each other in degree.
81. Five principal varieties of mankitid may be reckoned.
As, however, even among these arbitrary kinds of divisions, one
is said to be better and preferable to another ; after a long and
atteutivc cousidcration, all mankind, as far as it is at present
known to us, seems to me as if it may best, according to natural
tnith, be divided into the five following varieties ; which may
be designated and distinguished from each other by the nami
CaTicasian, Mongolian, Ethiopian, American, and Malay. I hai
allotted the first place to the Caucasian, for the reasons given
below, which make me esteem it the primeval one. This divergog.
ill both directions into two, most remote and very different from
each other ; on the one side, namely, into the Ethiopian, and on
the other into the Mongolian. The remaining two occupy the
intermediate positions between that primeval one and iht-ae
I
tnt
4
ii
me Twirtiw ; Utat is. tbe Amoicui bet«««) the Cvt-
1 ^ai H^igofiaa ; the Halaj between tbe samp Cuicmsua
b €lOTei»r» oiJ ttwitt tf&ae tarietim. In the £dUo>w-
• these fire varieties most be genenlly
\ To thb floiiinentiMi, however, I must prefix & double
, that oi acoooDt of the molti&rioas diveisity
!, according to their degrees, one or two alone
, but we iDost take Bereral joined together;
1 that thia anioo of cbaiacters is not so coastaiit but
a Gable to inmnnerable exoeptioos in all and dngnlar
StOl this enumeration is so coneeired «a to
' plain and perspicuous notion oS them in
Colour white, cheeks rosy (a. 43) ; hair
d (a. 5S) ; bead Eubglobular (s. 6S) ; face
;fat, tta parts moderately defined, forehead smooth,
r, di^ctlj hooked, mouth small (s. 56). The primary
!t phoed peipeDdicularly to each jaw (a €S) ; the lips (espe-
Ibe lower one) moderately open, the chin full and
tded (b. 56). In general, that kind of appearance lAucb,
»niing to our opinion of symmetry, wc consider most handsome
Imd becoming. To tLLi first v^ety belong the inhabitants of
Enrope (except tbe Lapps and the remaining descendants of
Itbe Finna) and those of Eastern Asia, as far as the river Obi,
■ the Caspian Sea and the Ganges; and lastly, those of Northeni
I. Africa. »
Mongolian variety. Colour yellow (s. 43) ; hair blaek, stiff,
Ifltraight a^d scanty (s. 52); head almost square (a, 62); fa<'e
i, at tbe same time flat and depressed, tbe parts therefore
s distinct, as it were runaiag into one another; glabella flat,
T broad; nose small, apish; cheeks usually globular, pronii-
Dent outwardly; tbe opening of tbe eyelids narrow, linear; chin
sli^tly prominent (s. 56). Thia variety comprehends tbe re-
maining inhabitants of Asia (except the Malays on tbe extre-
Imity of the tians-Gangetic pemnstda) and tbe Fiunisb popula-
tions of tbe ci^ld part of Europe, the Lapps, &c~ and the race of
266 OTHBB DIVISIONS.
Esquimaux, so widely diffused over Nortli America, from Beli-
ring's fltrftits to the inhabited extremity of Greenland.
Ethiopian variety. Colour black (s, 43); hair black and
curly (s. 62); head narrow, compressed at the aides (a. 62)
forehead knotty, uneven; malar bones protruding outwards;
eyes very prominent ; nose thick, mixed up as it were with the
wide jaws (s. 5ti) ; alveolar edge narrow, elongated in front; the
upper primaries obliquely prominent (s. 62); the Ups (espe-
cially the upper) verypufl'y; chin retreating (a, 36). Mauj
bandy-legged (s. 69). To this variety belong all the Africans,
except those of the north.
Avtei'ican variety. Copper-coloured (s. 43) ; hair black, eti^
straight and scanty (a. 52); forehead short; eyes set very deep;
nose somewhat apish, but prominent; the face invariably broad,
with cheeks prominent, but not flat or depressed ; its parts, if
aeen in profile, very distinct, and as it were deeply chiselled
(a. fi6) ; the shape of the forehead and head in many artificially
distorted. This variety comprehends the inhabitants of Ame-
rica except the Esquimaux.
Malay variety. Tawny-coloured (s. 43); hair black, soft,
curly, thick and plentiful (s. 52); head moderately narrowed
forehead slightly swelling {a, 62) ; nose full, rather wide, as i'
were diffuse, end thick; mouth large (a. 56), upper jaw some-
what prominent with the parts of the face when seen in profile,
sufficiently prominent and distinct from each other (s. 56).
This hist variety, includes the islanders of the Pacific Ocean,
together with the inhabitants of the Marianne, the PhiUppin^
the Molucca and the Sunda Islands, and of the Malayan pen-
insula.
83. DivieioHS of the varieties oftnankind by other authora.
It seems but fair to give briefly the opinions of other authoi
ulso, who have divided mankind into varieties, so that the
reader may compare them more easily together, and n
them, and choose which of them he likes best. The first per-
son, as far as I know, who made an attempt of this kind was a
certain anonymous writer who towards the end of the last
century divided mankind into four races; that is, first, one
K'
of all Europe, Laplaotl aloae excepted, and Southern Asia,
Northern Africa, and the whole of America; secondly, that
of the rest of Africa; thirdly, that of tlie rest of Asia with the
iglands towards the east; fourthly, the Lapps'. Leibnitz di-
vided the men of our continent into four classes. Two extremes,
the Laplanders and the £thiopians; and as many intermediates,
me eastern (MongfjHan), one western (as the European)*,
Linnseua, following common geography, divided men into
jl) the red American, (2) the white European, (3) the dark
Asiatic, and (■*) the black Negro*. Buffon distinguished six varie-
ties of man: (1) Lapp or polar, (2) Tartar (by which name ac-
cording to ordinary language he meant the Mongolian), (3) south
, (4) European, (5) Ethiopian, (G) American*.
Amongst those who reckoned three primitive nations of
nankind answering to the number of the sons of Noah, Governor
Pownali is first entitled to praise, who, as far as I know, was also
the first to pay attention to the racial form of skull as connected
wilh this subject He divided these stocks into white, red and
black. In the middle one he comprised both the Mongolians
and Americans, a^ agreeing, besides other characters, in the con-
figuration of their skulla and the appearance of their hair*.
Abb^ de la Croix divides man into white and black. The
former again into white, properly so called, brown {bruns),
^njiellow (jaundtres), and olive-coloured'.
^h Eant derives four varieties from dark-brown Autochthones:
^Bhe white one of northern Europe, the copper-coloured Amc-
^^bcan, the black one of Senegambia, the olive- colon red Indian*.
^^Bbhn Hunter reckons seven varieties: (I) of black men, that is,
' Jofirrud dtt SeavaM, %. :684, p. 133. Cooip. Bob. do Vitugoudy, Gl. Nouvel
AtUu portalif. Puis, 177S, ^to, PL 4.
' In Feller in Oliun ifanOFCTitnum, p. 1 59.
■ After the yew 1735, in aJl tiie ediUaas o( hia immortal wark. Gmelin hu
added to the hat odJtioD, brought out by himaelf, my division, T, I. p, aj.
* The«e six v»rietie« hsvu been besutifullj described, aad in tact painted m it
wen by the gloning brueh of Haller, in his clowical work, Idten tur iJiilotojAie
der gackichlt dtr mawckhrit, T. n. p, m. 4. — 68.
» Comp. A Nfw ColUction of Vogaga, Sx. Lond. 1 767. 8vo, Vol. h. p. 173.
• See BtagrapiM nodeme, T. 1. p. 61, od. 5, and Vaugondy. I. r, PL f.
T Both b Bagel, Pkilotopk. fOr dit Well. T. n. and in BtrUmr tnotiaHnrhn/t,
fcfSj, T. Ti,
I
uuieni
268
EthiofMaos, PaptuBs, Sec; (2) the blat^i^ inhabiuints of Maun-
lADta and the Cape of Good Hope; (3) the copper-coiuured of
eastern India; (4) the red Americans; (a) the tawnr, as Tartars,
Arabs, Pra:dians, Chinese. &&; (6) browniafa, as the southern
EuropeoDs, Spaniards, iui, Tntb, Abyesiniaiis, Samotedes and
lApps ; (7) white, as the renaaining Europeans, the Geoi
Mingrelians and KAbanHoski'.
Zinunermann is amongst those who place the aborigines of
mankind in the eleTat«d Scvthico-Asiatic plain, near the sources
of the Indus, Gaines and Obi rirets; and thence deduces the
varieties of Europe (1), noith^n Asia, and the great part of
North America (S), Arabia, India, and the Indiau Art^pe-
lago(31, Asia to the north-east, China, Corea, Ac (4). He is
of opinion that the Ethiopians deduce dieir origin from eitht
the first or the third of these varieties'.
Ueiners refers all nations to two stocks: (1) handsomt^l
(^) ugly; the Srst white, the latter dark. He iueludea in tbAj
handsome stock the Celts, Sarmatians, and oriental nationtt,^
The ugly stock embraces all the rest of mankind'
distinguishes four stocks: (}) the primitive, autochthones of tliati
vlevated Asiatic plaiu we were speaking of^ from which bAi
derives the inhabitants of all tho rest of Asia, the whole of
Europe^ the extreme north of America, and oorthem Ainca;
(2) the N^roes; (3) the Americans, except those of the extr^ne
north ; (4) the Islanders of the southern oceAu*. Metzger makes
two principal varieties as extremes: (1) the white man natiTe
of Europe, of the northern parts of Asia. America and Afrks;
(i) the black, or Ethiopian, of the rest of AMca. The transitimi
between the two is made bv the rest of (bo Asiatics, the in-
babitants of South America, and the Islaudvrs of the soutbera.
ocean'.
ft4. JVotef on tke fin vnrMltw of Mankind. But we mi
> Ditpal. di iammmm rmri l mi a mt, RUnh. >;7S p. 9.
■ In that nrj tofkm work GtefrapiixJkt faeAidttt 4m J
• tehi.£«|vivMsT. Lp.5i2.«L ».
■ See his Pkjmelapf ja A / Jktr i mit w , p. f .
CUUGA8U!! VARIETT. 2G9
rtnini to -.or j». aU^i . f ihe varieties of mankind I Iiavc indi-
cat-i ■• i..::i:- :■ r .. ii, i -.M-h of the cJuuaders which I attrilmte
to xu-.m 111 ;r]-; --■;: ti- ;.bove, Now, I will string together, «t
the end of mv little w. >rk, as a finish, some ecaUered notes which
heiaug to each of them in genenJ.
8S. CVnnwwiJi rariWy. I have taken the name of this rarietv
from Mcnmt CancaHis, both because its neighbourhood, and es-
peeiaiDj Hs Knutbem slope, produces the must beautiful race of
men, I mean the Georgian ' ; and because all physiological rea-
■OBS eoaTcige to this, that in that region, if anywhere, it seems
we oi^t with the greater probability to place the autochthones
of mankind. For in the first pla^e, that stock displays, as we
bareaeeo fs, 62), the most beautifdl form of the skull, from which,
M from a moat and primeval type, the others direrge by most
eai^ gndattons on both sides to the two ultimate eictremes (that
is, on the one side the Mongolian, on the other the Ethiopian).
Bemdea, it is white in colour, which we may fairly assume to
have been the primitive colour of mankind, since, as we have
shown above (s. 4o), it is very easy for that to degenerate into
brown, but very much more difficult for dark to become white,
when the secretion and precipitation of thia carbonaceom pig-
ment (s. 44) has once deeply struck root
8C, MwigcAian variety. This is the same as what was for-
merly caUed, though in a vague and ambiguous way. the Tartar
variety*; which denomination has given rise to wonderful mis-
takes in the study of the varieties of mankuid which we are now
baay abont. So that Bufibn and bis followers, seduced by that
title, have erroneously transferred to the genuine Tartars, who
> FmiD a cloniJ oT eje irilnenKa it u ennogh to qaola aae duaiaJ one,
Jo. Cbvitin, T. 1. p. m. 171. "Tlie tiluucl of Qeor^a ia the beBl of tlie Ekat, uid
pcriups in th« world, 1 tuve Dot ob«erT«d ■ ongle ugly Taco in thjiL couutrj, in
eilUcr Ki : but I hnic teen in^UoU ones. N&ture hu there lavisbed upon the
wnmien bekutica wfaich are not to be teva elaewhrre. I coniider it to be inipnoible
to loiA M tliem without loTing them. It would be iiupcnible to puint taan ohknn.
ing *ing««, or better fignr«fl, tbvi those of the Georgiuii."
On the origin of thii erroneoui confmion, by which the name of Tirtum
WEi
ta ba tnuinferred to the Mongnlijui natioiK, coDipare J. Eberti. I^Mjirr.
mtrdegemlr d lunfiw Tataronim in hia Quirttiima PttrapoUbuta, p. 46, uid
SiiiriKht OtMAifhtf, T. (. p. if, HI.
doobt bcloi^ to our fint vanetj', tke ndal tbmutHeu
of tbe Hoi^oli, boRowed fron mcient antban', «k» JotribaJ
tlMOt onder the make of Tartan.
But tbe T«nan ihade any thnx^ tbe Ki^gbis and tbe
nei^iboiniBg ncea iDto tbe Hoacob. in tbe aame way ms Aem
ma.j be umI to paa tbraogb tbe l%etaaa* to tbe lodiaaB,
ibimt^ tbe Eeqaimsiu to tbe Amerieans. and also in a son of
way tfaroagfa tbe PhUippine Islaodera' to tbe men of tbe Malay
variety.
87. Ethiopian variety. This Tahety, principally becaoae it
ia so different in colour firom oar own, has induced many to ooO'
■der it, with tbe winy, bat badly instructed in physiology, V(d-
taire, as a peculiar species of mankind. Bat it is not neceasarj
for me to ^pend any time here apoo refoting this opinion, whoi
it has to clearly been shown above that there is do single
cliaracter so peculiar and so uniTersal among the Ethiopians,
but what it may be obaerred on the one hmtd everywhere in other
vaneties of men'; and on the other that many Xegroes are seen
' Tiic crigii.al tonrce, frnm whicti tbe dtwiiptinu of tke Moognla whidi lua
bcfli wo ohai reputed, ttmi whitb bu bnv copied M if Uut of Tartan by n
IDUi; withon on nstanU hulory. I have fomid in the letter o/ a oertaio 7*4, S
eburcbmao of Nart»nn«, dated at Vienoa in [I43. and aent bi GinUn*, Biifr
Ukhop oT Bofdrani, and inaerted by hit caat.-fnponfy AIiMbev P«n^ Oa
EnKUsb mcmlc ot St Albans, in wbat i« called bii hutoria Major, p. jjo, ed. Lmd.
i6B6. fol. Tbi* letter of Vv<i ii about Ifae terrible dRvaiitation* of tbat ixiboiBUi
nation called the Tartan, ai>d he ipeaki ni them in the following vonla: "X
Tartan have haid and (trong hreuU. tbin and pde fac«. atiffaiid upright obatJ
bonaa, abort and twiited noan, chinB pmminent aiid aharp, the upper jaw *
and deep, tho teeth lung and few, tiie ejelunwa reaoLiDg from the hair of Uie F
to tbe noae, lbs eyei black and unaetlled, the coantenance one-iudod Uiil fli
tlia ettramiliM bony and nervous, tbf! legs also big, Intt the calf-honea aho
Mature liDXever tbe luuue an oiir own ; for what i* wanting in tba legs, u n
for in tbe nppep part of the body."
' Thai, at IcMt, 1 coinidor niy«lf entitW to cnncludB frnm ihr iH^tora ...
Tibvtaiu, pkioted from nature by the great artiit Kettle, and abowa ma bj Wui
' Tbe Indian from the Philippine lalanda, wbrma T antv ulivo in Londos S
Aim. Dalrjii4iln'i, van in appewftDoe fxattly Ihlx sort of middle man.
' Tliers in iinly niii^ tiling I ahuuld like to add to what boa bciai more cnpioiuty^
dincuued almut Mr, point in the lectiun above, lL« the sort of p..»'<ter-like • ■
which can be diatingiiiahed in the *iiin of black nen, can bv nn meaiu, aa ao
antban think, bs peculiar to the Mnlpigbian inucui of tbe Ethi<>[NanB, Ixcaun
hava perfi'ctly obarrved the name thing, although more •oattercl and leas aquallj
dintributcd, in «> many of tlioae Indian aailoi* who iro callnl Laacan. Id oaa _
Id, I ean »*^|
AMERICAN VARIETY. 271
be without each. And btsidea there is do character which
does not shade away by iitGensible gradation fi-om this variety of
mankind to its neighhoura, which is clear to every one who has
carefully considered the differimce between a few stocks of this
variety, such as the Foiilaha, the Wolufs, and Mandingoe, and
how by these shades of difference tliey pass away into the
Moors and Arabs.
The assertion that is made about the Ethiopians, that they
le nearer the apes than other men, I willingly allow so far as
this, that it is in the same way that the solid-hoofed (s. 30)
variety of the domestic sow may be said to come nearer to the
horse than other sows. But how little weight is for the most
part to be attached to this sort of comparison is clear from this,
that there is scarcely any other out of the principal varieties of
mankind, of which one nation or other, and that too by careful
observers, has not been compared, as far as the face goes, with
the apes; as we find said in express words of the Lapps', the
Esquimaux*, the Oaaiguas of South America', and the inhabit-
auta of the Island MallicoUo*.
88. Atiiencan varieti/. It is astonishing and humiliating
what quantities of fables were formerly spread about the racial
tractera of this variety. Some have denied beards to the men',
lera menstruation to the women'. Some have attributed
"Such
■ Tbui Regnard concludm h\a dsscripdoa of the Lnpfw in tbena «
is the dincripCion of tliat little mini the; cull the L&giUuiler, mnd I
tbrrv i« do uuubJ, after the ape, which ao nearlj ap|)roauheB the man." d'utn),
T. 1. i^;i-
* Wbca ihr &quiiii>ui Altuloch, Hhoae picture taken from the Ufa I owe to
Sir Joeeph Bnnki, aaw an ape in London for th« fint time, he aaked bia companiun
I'urtwrigbt in astoniiihnieDt, "Is that an Esquimaun t" and he adds in his
Hccount, " I mnat confeas, that hoth tlie colour and contoiir of the cotintu
bad conmderahle reeemblsoce to tlie people of their nutioo."
' " Aa like apes aa men," says Nic del Teobo of Chcni, Rrlaliam de Can
272
BEABDLE88 HAnONS.
one and tlic same colour' to each and all the Americai
others a perfectly simiiar coiinteDancc to all of them*. It hna
been so clearly demonstrated now by the unanimous consent of
accurate and truthful observers, that the Americans are not
naturally bear<lless, that I am almost ashamed of the unneoes-
Bary trouble I formerly took to get together a heap of testi-
mony', by which it is proved that not only throughout the
whole of America!, from the Esquimaux downwards to the inha-
bitants of Tierra del Fuego, are there groups of inhabitajits who
cherish a beard ; but also it is quite undeniable as to the other
beardless ones that they eradicate and pluck out their own by
artifice and on purpose, in the same way as has been customary
among so many other nations, the Mongolians * for example, and
the Malays". We all know that the beard of the Americans iq
thin and scanty, as is also the case with so many Mougolii
nations. They ought therefore no more to be called beardlei
than men with scanty hair to be called bald, Tliose therefqd
who thought the Americans were naturally beardless fell i
the same error as that which induced the ancients to suppi
and persuade others, that the birds of pai'adise, from '
corpses the feet are often cut ofif, wore naturally destitute I
foot.
The fabulous report that the American women have no men
struation, sc^ems to have had its origin in this, that the Eui
peans when they discovered the new world, although they i
numbers of the female inhabitants almost entirely naked, nei
seem to have observed in them the stains of that exoretii
For this it seems likely that there were two reasons; first, tbt
' Sea Home in Sirleiei of Iht HUlory of Man, Vol t. p.
' OoDip. Bubi^rtaoa'u Uittorg of A tntrka, Vol. n. p. ro. i.
' I ciU-d ft Sew out at muiy uthera some yaixt ogu in GoUingiirk. Magaam, id
jBar, P. \t. p. 4ig.
* See beaiHea many otliera J. G. Gmelin, JUUt durrA Sihlrien, T, II. p, U.S.
" It is very dllGcult tn Hril siDougaC the Tungua, or uny of thwe pivple, » beknt
For u Boon u one tip|iean, the; pull the hair out, and at lut bring U to thii that
there id nothing tnore spring up."
' Comp. on the Sumatnna, Iil&nden ; on the MagtnJiina, Forrest; oo th«
Pelaw laUndcni, Wilson; on the P»puuifl, Civn«ret; on the iohabitanti of tLi
'" "iviiiator'B uroup, BougiunviUo, Ac.
* Lory, Vttgnfff. f'ikt en U Irrre du Breiil. p. in, 170.
coLonL 273
amtmgAtkmB maiaBft «f AxMnea, tW wkmen during nMoatni-
MS fiiMwIiil frm Htcisl irtcfooajse, and fat wtoiig e^foy «
^T— ^'^ ic]K»e m the Bore Fecfaideil bats ftr from the view
of >i^*; ■eesnd^. bccwue, as La? beea aotioed', tkey are a»
OBMMBilaUf ckaa in tlkeir bodies, and the oamnusstne of their
Iqgl •» oondaoea to vaadtatr. that no Testiges of the catamema
flier ftrike the eje.
Jit to the eokiur of the skia of this TarietT, on the one haod
ikhaa faecB ahaerred above, that it is by do raeans ao oonstaat as
■St in tOMitj cases to ihade away into bladt (s. 43) ; aod oo the
Mfaer, that it it euily sifen, frum the nature of the Americao di-
■ate*. and the laws of degeneratioo when applied to the ex-
tnmdj proboUe origio of the Americaas from northeni A^*,
wlijr ther are not liaU^ to such great div^isities of ooLour, as the
other descendaats of Asiatic autocbtbooes, who peopled the
ancieat wocld. Tte aaine reason huliU good as to the appear-
aaee of the Ameiicaaa. Careful ere-v itoossoa long ago laired
at th« Ibulish, or possibly facetious h«-pcrboIc of some, who
asserted that the tohabitants of the new worM were so exactly
alike, that when a man had seen one, be oould say tliat be bad
seen all', Ac It is, on the contrary, proved by tbe finished
drawings of Americana by the best artists, and by the testimony
^^fl tl>e most txubtwortby eye-witnesses, that io this rariety of
Vu Bo^'* Sriten hvA H. <tt Btriia wad Siin'iuin, & 46.
Samttmaan, Gmyrai^ tde itttkifbt da mrrncbcm, T. 1. p. 87,
Kut. in TiMtKAm Mimr, ■. tjfS, T. t. p. 1 19.
Sec Uol'U. finUa itir.'a malnntlt drl Chili, p. 33^. " I laugh in mj iImtv
I mil ID octtain mnilern «-rit?n, •njip'iBeJ to be diligEiiI ctk-erven. tliat alJ
iiu^caoa liATe die vatnc ftpp«arau», and that vli< n a man hai teva am, Im
aT that he baa (kd tliem all. Kach autLon allow themoclTn to be loo
\\j jecetrnl by cvrtaio Tague appcaranca of aimilaritj wliich have bo do for th«
■t foit inUi colour, atul which vauUh it (ood aa evtt tbe iiiiliridu*!a of one
ion an coofrontrd with those uf another. A ChiliaQ doea not dilfur icn in
,«)t from a PeruTJan, than an Italian from a Gtrman. I have teea m;iwir
'uuoajaDfM, Cttlauoa, and Magellauoa, all cif whom haie Uieir pacnliar lintamsnla
hlcD are eaiil; diatinguitheil frum thow of the aUien."
' Thui, to bring a few eiamplei from South America aloor. Hie. dd Techo
doKTib^ the Caaigual with apiah Doatrili : Man. Dahriihotfai ajt that the n(ii){)f
* Kut. in
H * S<« Uci-'.
^^■pa AnicncBn*
^S flT faatrtd
274 rHTSIOONOMT.
in generai tJjat sort of racial conformatiun may be amsiJcTeil as
jnoperly belonging to them which we attributed to tliem above
(a, 56). It was justly observed by the first Europeans' who
visited the new continent, that the Americans camo very near to
the Itfongolians, which adds fresh weight to the very probable
opinion that the Americans came from northern Asia, and
derived their origin fram the MongoHan nation. It is probable
that raigrationa of that kind took place at di6Ferent times. aftCT
considerable intervals, according as various physical, geolc^eal,
or politioaJ catastrophes gave occasion to them ; and hence. If
any place is allowed for ooujecture in tliese investigations, the
reason may probably be derived, why the f^squimaiix have still
much more of the Mongolian appearance' about them than the
rest of the Americans: partly, because the catastrophe wl
drove them from northern Asia must be much more recent,
BO they are a much later arrival'; and partly because the climate
of the new countiy, which they now inhabit, is much more homo-
geneous with that of their original country, In fact, unless I :
much mistaken, we must attribute to the same influence I mi
tioned above (a, 67), which the climate has in preserving
restoring the racial appearance, the fact that the inhabitants of
the cold southern extremity of South America, as the barbarow
inhabitants of the Straits of Magellan, seem to come ni
and as it were fall back, to the original Mongolian countenanc6*
I the
:^
mate I
>aroiu m
bnuring AblponcB, on tlie contruy, &re often remarkable for wiuiliue noMs: Ulloi
Ktlributes a nurrnn' >nd booked hobo to tlie Fvruviaiia: Molina, one (nmewlul
brotd to the Cbiliuig ; G. Fonler, one verj deprtued to lbs iilauditn of Tierr* M
Kuegi).
' l.tlUrt ill A-mfr. I'Biyucn, p. 9, ed. Bandini. "Ther are not TCfy hmd-
(ome, tiecume tbeir Sac'b are widr, wliioli makca thtm like Tartars."
* TIWb I aee moat clearly Irath in two Erniuimaut skulls from Nain, a coIodt ef
L&lindor, wljit^h ndom my coUeotion. and in tbe pictures of thoae barltanuii
taken from the life b^ good artisti, which I owo to the libemlity of Sir J. Buka.
' The paradox ol Itnbertion, who derived the EH|uimaiu( trom the NDnnuni.
in bi> Hitlorji of Ameriea, Vol. u. p. 40, acorcely deaervei a rcfutstiun at tliin
* Thus that uliBsical Argonsut and papilal eye-witneaa and obaervar, Linsohot.
enmpari'B the iiiiialiitanta uf the stmit of Mogelian whom be aaw, in phyriogaomT,
appeanince, oiluur. hair and beaid, to tbe Samoirdei, with whom he wu lerj wdl
acquainted ihrnugh hii fiDiouB joumej to the itrut of NtwoTilch, in b'
io Aee^a. p. 46 A.
uoTiich, in U* n^^—
M
HO. The Malay variety. As tbc Americana in respect of
racial appearance hold as it were a place between the mediaJ
variety of maukiud, which we callud tlie Caucasian, and one of
the two extieraos, that is the Mongolian i so the Malay variety
makes the transition from tliat medial variety to the other ex-
treme, namely, the Ethiopian. I wiiih to call it the Malay,
because the majority of the men of this variety, especially those
vho inhabit the Indian inlands close to the Malacca peninsula,
as well as tbe Sandwich, the Society, and the Friendly Islanders,
uid also the Malambi of Madagascar down to the inhabitants of
Easter Island, use the Malay idiom'.
Meanwhile even these differ so much between themselves
through various degrees of beauty and other corporeal attributes,
th&t there are some who divide the Otaheitans themselves into
two distinct races'; the first paler in colour, of lofty stature,
with face which can scarcely be distinguished from that of the
European; the second, on the other hand, of moderate stature,
colour and face little different from that of Mulattos, curly
hair, &c.' This last race then comes very near those men who
inhabit the islands more to the south in the Pacific Ocean, of
whom the inhabitants of the New Hebrides in particular come
sensibly near the Papuans and New Hollanders, who finally on
their part graduate away so insensibly towards the Ethiopian
variety, that, if it was thought convenient, they might not
unfairly be classed with them, in that distribution of the varie-
ties we were talking about.
90. Conclusion. Thus too there is with this that insensible
transition by which as we saw the other varieties also run toge-
tlier, and which, compared with what was discussed in the earlier
^^P > Sir J. Bittiki fint of ikll ahownl thi> in Hawkenrnrtli'i ColUrtion, Vol. in.
^^^ J73, tben ifter liim Br;uit in Cook's Voyage to Ike Xvrlktm Uemliphtrt, Vol.
m. App. No. 1, p. Sl8, »nd Maiwieii in Arehaologia, Vol VI. p. Ij*.
' Kro BoogMnviile in Vegageautoir iIh Motulr,f. 113.
* Thiia laiij; *go tbe inimartal Do Quiros, who Gmt discovered the Society
Tdftlidi, occunttnly dialinguialiod th«ae TurieCieB unoug ths inliabitiuita of the
fA» in the Pncific Ocean. wLen ha called, aoma whito, and compared some to
Mulattin, uid some to Ibe E;hiupUns. Sm Dalrytnple, Celketkn of Voy-
(a Oil Sovth Patific (Man, Voi. 1. p. 164.
18—2
266
OTHEE DIVISIONS.
Kaquimaux, so widely diffused over North America, from Beln
ring's straits to the inhabited extremity of Greenlaud.
Ethiopian variety. Colour black (b. 43) ; Lair black (
curly (b. 52); head narrow, compressed at the aides (s. (
forehead knotty, uneven; malar bones protruding outwai
eyes very prominent; nose thick, mixed up as it were v ' '
wide jaws (a 56) ; alveolar edge narrow, elongated in front;
upper primaries obliquely promiueot (s. 62); the lips (ea
cially the upper) very puffy; chin retreating (s. 56).
bandy-legged (s. 69), To this variety belong all the Airicc
except those of the north.
American variety. Copper-coloured (s, 43); bair black, i
straight and scanty (s, 52); forehead short; eyes set very dee
nose somewhat apish, but prominent; the face invariably broad,
with cheeks prominent, but not flat or depressed ; its parts, if
Been in profile, very distinct, and aa it were deeply chiselled
(s. 56) ; the shape of the forehead and head in many artificially
distorted. This variety comprehends the inhabitants of Ame-
rica except the Esquimaux,
Malay vanety. Tawny-coloured (s. 43); hair black,
curly, thick and plentiful (a 52) ; head moderately narroweda
forehead slightly swelling (s. 62); nose full, rather wide,
were diffuse, end thick; mouth large (s. 56), upper jaw s
what prominent with the parts of the fece when seen i
sufficiently prominent and distinct from each other {s.
This last variety^ includes the islanders of the Pacific <
together with the inhabitants of the Marianne, the Fhilippi
the Molucca and the Sunda Islands, and of the Malayan pen-
insula.
83. Ditidons of tJie varieties of viankind by other authors.
It seems but fair to give briefly the opinions of other autbon
also, who have divided mankind into varieties, so that the
reader may compare them more easily together, and wei^
them, and choose which of them he likes best The firat peiv
son, as far as I know, who made an attempt of this kind was a
certain anonymous writer who towards the end of the last
century divided mankind into four races; that is, first, <
the
)
of aU Europe, Lapland alone excepted, and Southern Asia,
Northern Africa, and t"he whole of America; secondly, that
of the rest of Africa; thirdly, that of the rest of Asia with the
islands towards the east; fourthly, the Lapps'. Leibnitz di-
vided the men of our continent into four classes. Two extremes,
Laplanders and the Ethiopians; and as many intermediates,
eastern (Mongolian), one western (as the European)'.
linnsus, following common geography, divided men into
.) the red American, (2) the white European, (3) the dark
Asiatic, and (i) the black Negro^ BuEFon distinguished six varie-
ties of man: (!) Lapp or polar, (2) Tai-tsir (by which name ac-
cording to ordinary language he meant the Mongolian), (3) south
Asian, (4) European, (5) Ethiopian, (6) American*.
Amongst those who reckoned three primitive nations of
mankind answering to the number of the sons of Noah, Governor
Pownall is first entitled to praise, who, as far as I know, was also
the first to pay attention to the racial form of skull as connected
with this subject. He divided these stocks into white, red and
black. In the middle one he comprised both the Mongolians
and Americans, a^ agreeing, besides other characters, in the con-
figuration of their skulls and the appearance of their hair'.
Abb^ de la Croix divides man into white and black. The
former again into white, properly so called, brown (frntne),
yellow (jaundtres), and obve-coloured',
Kant derives four varieties from dark-brown Autochthones :
the white one of northern Europe, the copper-coloured Ame-
rican, the black one of Senegambia, the olive-coloured Indian'.
John Hunter reckons seven varieties: (1) of black men, that is,
' JrnLmal dti Saivaru, a. 1684, p. 133. Comp. Bob. de Vaugonily, Gl. Ifmnftl
Atlod poTtatif, Paris, 1778, 410, PL 4.
■ In Feller in Oliam J/anoivraaum, p. 1 59.
' After the year 1735, in &1I Ihe editiona ot hia immortkl work. Gmelin hai
ttddod to the lut edidon, bronglit out by bimself, mj divigioo, T. !. p. 33.
* Tbese tix variittive bsTe been beautifully described, aud in fact painted aa it
teere b}' tbe glowing bniih of Uallcr, in his clauical work, Idecn zur philaiophie
der guiJiichtt drr mmtchlidt, T. n. p. in. 4 — 68.
» Comp, A JVno Collettitm of Vogaga, &a. Lond. 1J67, 8vo, Vol. H. p. 173.
• See Qeo^rajikie modtrae, T. I. p. 61, ed. 5, uid Vaugondy, I. e, PI. 3.
' Both in Engel, PkHotopk. /fir dit Wdt. T. a. and in Btiiiatr moMUuAfifi,
i;85. T. Tl,
CONTENTS.
I. Ou Mutability in the Creation.
IL A Glance into the Primitive World.
III. A Preadamite Primitive World has already lived out its
existence.
IV. Hemodelling of the Primitive World.
V, Changes in the present Creation.
YI. Degeneration of Organized Bodies.
VII. Especially in the Domestic Animals.
VIII. Degeneration of the most perfect of all domestic animals —
Man,
IX. A very peculiar physiological singularity of the Human Body.
X. Something tranquillizing on a common family conceiiL
XI. On Anthropological Collections.
XII. Division of Mankind into^ve principal Kaces.
XI IL On the Negro in particular.
XIV. On the Kakerlacken.
Appendices.
1 On the Gradation in Nature.
2. On the Succession of different Earth-catastrophes.
3. On the so-called Objects of Design.
270
beyond a, doubt belong to our first variety, the racial charocteni
of the Mongols, borrowed from ancient authors', who describe ~
them under the nam« of Tartars,
But the Tartars shade away through the Kirjjhia and
neighbo\iring races into the Mongols, in the same way as thee
may be said to pans through the Tibetans* to the Indiana
through the Esquimaux to the Americans, and also in a sort e
way through the Phihppine Islanders' to the men of the Mal^
variety.
87- Ethiopian variety. This variety, principally because ic|
is BO different in colour from our own, has induced many to cour
aider it, with the witty, but badly instructed in physiology, Vol-
taire, as a peculiar species of mankind. But it is not neceasaiy
for me to spend any time here upon refuting this opinion, whe4 ^
it has so clearly been shown above that there is no singlel
character so peculiar and so universal among the Ethiopian^
but what it may be observed on the one hand everywhere in othm
varieties of men' ; and on the other that many Negroes are &
I Tile nrigii:itl source, frnm which tbo cltBciiptinii (if the Mongnls which hu
been so <irten rtpented, and which baa been cupiiic! aa if Uutt of Tiu1:>n hj M>
ronn; Kathara ou naturni histury, 1 have found in the leltar of a certain Tva, t
cliurchnian of Nsrbonne, dated at Vienna in 1143. and sent to Oirnldiu, arcb-
bUhop of Bordeaux, and inaerted b; his conb-'mporary Mattbew Pari*, the
Knclikh monk of Sc Albans, in what is ualled bis Hit^oria Major, p. jjo, tA. Load.
1G86, fnl. Tliis letter of Ytk is abflut tlie terrible ilevaitaticinn of that ii '
nation called the Tartars, and be epenki of thom in the foUawing- words:
TarUirs h.ive bard and itroag breaaLa. tliiii and pala fanes, stiff and upright obl
bonea. short and tviileil noaea, ohina |iri>mineut and ahurp, the upper jMW
and deep, the teetli lutig nnd few, the e^clirowa reacLiDg from the hsir of Um *"
to the noae, the eyea fihiclt and unaotUfd. the countenance one-aided am"
tliB extremitiea bony and nervnus, tlii.' le^ alao big, but the calf.boiies shnrt, tl«
alature however tlie same as our own ; far wliaC is wanting in tbn l^^a. Is nutdo n[i
for in the upper part of the liody."
■ Thua. at leaat, I consiili^r n<,viu4f entithid to cnnchide fmni the (lictum ol tU
Tibetans, punted from nature by the great artist Kettle, and ahowD me bf Wi
' The Indian from the Philippine Iilanda, whom I anw ivlive in London
Alex. Dalrymplea, was in appearance exactly Ihia »ort nl
* Tliero ia only oni tiling I ahuuld like to add lo wha
disouaaed abnut ihia |»int in llie aeclion above, that tbe aoit of pnwiler-lilie
wliioh can be distJnijiUHtied in the akiii of btack u-^n, can hr nei rneuu. M 1
authors think, be peeuliar to the Malpigbian mucua of the Kthi-ipiana, beoattM
hare perft'ctly observed the sbdib thing, although more aoatteroil and lew eqi "
diBtribiited, in ao many of tlj'iae Indian snilois who are calird lAflcan. '
Inc
■e of Bom
ay, wbo
n mj I
>UHhold, I a
AMEKICAK VARIETY.
271
lo Iks without each. And beaidea there is no character which
does not shade away by insensible gradation from this variety of
maakind to its neighbours, which ia clear to every one who has
carefully considered the difference between a few stocks of this
variety, such as the Foulahs, the Wolufs, and Mandingos, and
how by these shades of difference they pass away into the
Moors and Arabs.
The assertion that is made about the Ethiopians, that they
come nearer the apes than other men, I willingly allow so far as
this, that it is in the same way that the solid-hoofed (s. 30)
variety of the domestic sow may be said to come nearer to the
horse than other sows. But how little weiglit is for the most
part to be attached to this sort of comparison is clear from this,
that there is scarcely any other out of the principal varieties of
mankind, of which one nation or other, and that too by careful
observers, has not been compared, as far aa the face goes, with
the apes; as we find said in express words of the Lapps', the
ii^quimaui*, the Caaiguas of South America', and the inhabit-
auts of the Island UallicoUo'.
88. Ajiierican vanelif. It is astonishing and humiUating
what quantities of fables were formerly spread about the racial
characters of this variety. Some have denied beards to the men',
others menstruation to the women'. Some have attributed
M time goes on, tho tame blitckn^i in tho I
in other respects (he predpiMted cwbon n
eSiised unfJEr tbe eptderrniii.
^ ThuB Begniird concludea hia description of the Lappa in Ibsse words -. " Rneh
ii the description of that little nijin they call the Laplandor, •nd I may siy thnt
thpre ia do uiimnl, iSia the ape. which so nearly approaches the mui." Q^nvrtt,
T. I. p-;i.
* \Vhpn the E-quimMi Altuioch, whose picture Uken from the life 1 owe lo
Sir Joseph Bunks, saw ui ape in London for th« first time, he asked his companion
Curtwright in antonisbment, "Is that an Esqiilmaaii I" and he add* in liis
account, " I must confess, that liotb the colour and contour of the cauuttDanoe
hid considerahle resemblance to the people of their nHtion."
• "As like apes as men," says Nio. del Teeho of them, lirlaiioiie dt Cnaigua-
I- 3<-
"The inhabiUnU
282 EXTINCT BPBCTES.
a new plaut lias a[)peared, tlie Peloi'ia, that is uiidoubteJly i
sort of new creatioD." " Ah," they answer, " nature ia an old>
hen, which will certainly lay nothing more fresh at this time ofv
day." " Certainly not," decides Haller; "and such errors should*
be denoiinced, because they will be eagerly snapped up by the
atheists, who will be only too glad to demonstrate the instability
of nature as well by the appearance of new species, as by the
pretended esterminatton of old kinds. And this must notj
lie ; for if order in the physical world comes to an cod, so alw
will order ia the moral world, and at last it is all over with s
religion."
If I may presume to put in a word here myself, my opinioftl
is that on all sides too much has been made of the matter. Tin
niurex exists up to the present day just as much as in the timeil
of the old Phcenicians and Greeks;^the peloria ia a monstroiu
freak of nature, anil no new particular independent special
Nature is made common, but is not exactly an old hen, — and thi
creation is something more solid than that statue of Minei
— and it will not go to pieces even if one species of creatures ■
dies out, or another ia newly created, — and it is more than merely
probable, that both cases have happened before now, — and all
this without the slightest danger to order, either in the physical —
or in the moral world, or for religion in general. For my o
part it is exactly in these things that I find the guidance (
a higher hand most unmtstakeable; so that in spite of thi
recognized instability of nature, the creation continues going oili
its quiet way; and on that very account it is ray opinion that il
is well worth the trouble, after such an immea'je deal lias beein
written upon the pretended unchangeableness of the creation,
just once to recollect on the other hand the proofs of the g
alterations in it. To do this I shall be obliged to go some way J
about.
A Peep into the Primitive World.
Every paving-^one in Oottingpn ia a proof that species, or
r whole genera, of creatures must have disappeared. Oui-
limestone swarms likewiBe with uumerous kinds of lapidified
marine creatures, among which, aa far as I know, there is only
one single species that so much resembles any one of the pre-
sent kinds, that it may be considered as the original of it;
and this is that particular kind of the Terebratulae in the Medi-
terranean and Atlantic waters, which from their appearance
have received the name of the cock and hen'. Fur one of
the two delicate bellied shells rises behind over the other at the
junction, and so when it is seen in profile it has some resem-
blance to a cock which is treading a hen.
Amongst the quite countless host of other lapidified marine
creatures, who have found their grave in our soils, there are no
doubt many (as amongst the Mytilites, Chamite*, Pectinites,
&c.) to which most naturalists attribute as many distinct origi-
nals, but I have very often compared, in these instances, the
petrifaction* with the pretended original, and it is not my fault
if I have come to the conclusion that both are unmistakeably
npi-cifically diatinct from each other',
In a very great number of the remaining lapidiGcations of
this country the forms differ so very surprisingly from all
creatures now known, that I hope no one will in futui'e really
B^j
ra. Chen
■^■
» ConekgiifB-nUtiB
:. T»b. L»ivin. (ig.
1 rthr
r/oft, ,
'hree wordf are employer] gomewbnt loniuly by Blumenbikch ; rtnlvintrtmy,
/aet, foaii: I have IrBEaUted them, lapidifcation, parijaction, and /otiil
rmpecU vel V. — E». ]
' Nenrlj: tbe only, bat therefore nil Ihe more importADt, nw of tbe knowledge
of UjiidiGcationa, is die sotution vliich Ihe history of the chnngua nf the enrth'i
«urf»co deriTea from it; but unfortunately lo arrive at tbie remiirm the moiii ei-
^l«ne Homuscy of obsermtion, eBpeoiallj when wb come to the coniparinon of |if-
'~ ctiani with thnr pretended origintilB. Want of Accuracy in tbig has *lre:uly
lue«d Uw Diott eitnordinaT^ ccninogonical errom.
264 AHHOHITKS.
tiy to rt'ckou them amongst these last', I will mcntioii tw
genera only out of all, the Belemnites' and the Ammonite
of both of which I have before me all sorts of different spetuei
from moat of the countries of Europe, and even from Asia, aDffl
which will also most likely be found in the other parts of th<a
world, the islands of the fifth part cscopted*. At present thejj^
reckon about 200 different species of the Ammonite genus;!
and I do not think this is an exaggeration', although I have
never considered it worth while to count them up advisedly.
No true representative of any one of these 200 species haa
yet been found in the existing creation. It is plain also from
observing well-preserved Ammonites, that notwithstanding some
ai'e of quite colossal size, they must have been very slender-
shelled, light, and unattached conchylia, and could not bavaj
lived, as was at first suggested as an evasion, sunk in the depthi
of our seas. And as we now, by the great voyages through
which the king' has caused the larger portion of the fifth j
of the world to be discovered, and the boundaries of our e
to be ascertained, are coming to be better acquainted with the ■
> Superintendent SoLrEiter ooniidera it aa one of tho chief ubm which we d«rin
from the itudy of petrificatiana, tbat they help us to fill up the gape in the grM)»-
lion of luture, "Without them," »;■ he, id the jnl Vol! of hi« Einldlitiiy in di*
Gndiichtt dtr Sttine, ile., l. 94, " we should fiud the moat vandcrful g»pi in thii
gntdatiau uid chiin ol luture, wUch are tortunittfl^ filled up forusby meuu of tht
Mienoe of UpidiScklJona." If we found this remark iu uiy other writer, we ebonld
coDBider it u BiimethiDg witty upon the asserted gradstion of naturu with regard
to the generation of her creaturea; for all thia ton only mean that what the Creator
haa not given ua in nalnra, at leaat He baa had caat In eSgy for the asaiatance of
the physico-thetlogiuu and their allvgoiical imaeea of ofaaini and linka in Hii
creation. On this I will Bay a little more in the additiom, at the end of thia part.
• Belamnites are oven atill lonie of the cominoneat of tapidifioationi. Tie
Chevalier D' Hancarviile, Rtcherrha kit rorigiru du Arif de la Grift, B. La.!, — ao
unparalleled book — givea aa a reaaon why we do not find them in itjlt larger nomben
— that »o many of them were ihol away, if we can truat hia aaiertion, m tha cbild-
hood of mankind. For, aaya ho, " before they uaed copper or iron to arm tba
poinb of their darta with, they used to employ these Bdemnites. The Arundel
inarblea place the epoch of the diacorery of iroo in the year 87 after the arriral of
Cadmus in Greeoe. Before Oiat epoch the spean ol the Greeka were neftttarilf
armed with th»a Bclemnitea, the name of which boa been banded down to our
time, and abowi tho nao."
• J. K. Forstcr, BraeriuR^ira avf Kiiur rtitt unt rfiV Wtlt, a. ig.
* In the Btalaver SamtKhingrn of i;)':, it ia atated that the ai»Ioua and aaga-
cinua collootor of petrifacUuna, KouQua of Monden, bad alreadj' collected over 3M
aorta of Ammonitea.
* George III.
TREADAMITISM,
ocenD tb&n the firm land of our planet, we must consequently
give up the hope that the representatives of these widely scat-
tered animals, like tliousaads of other foseils, are still living,
BUnk in our oceans.
in.
An old Preadamite Creation has already lived out its existence.
Putting all these things together, in my opinion it becomes
more than merely probable that not only one or more species, but
a whole organized preadamite creation has disappeared from the
&ce of our planet. Out of all existing theories of the earth
vith which I am acquainted, there is no single one by which the
instantly apparent peculiarities of the petrifactions in our cal-
careous strata can be brought into any order. But they will be
at once easily explained, as soon aa it is understood, as I have
said, that our earth has already suffered a complete revolution,
and experienced one last day. It is plain that other so-called
cosmogonical phenomena, as, for instance, the quantity of fossil
bones of the elephant, rhinoceros, and other animals of the
present earth, which have been dug up in this country, and
more of the same kind, must unfortunately be accurately sepa-
rated and divided from that complete revolution. This it ia, if
I mistake not, which has till now always been the rock on which
even the most sagacious theories of the earth have foundered,
80 soon OS they have endeavoured to refer all these phenomena,
which are so different from one another, to one single common
revolution, and to explain all by one and the same catastrophe'.
A naturalist, who is aa sagacioua as amiable, has recently
attempted to connect the origin of those fossil bones found in
> Tn oppoiilion to this view, I hire in Cbe Specimen Ardnrolngia Tellurii, &c
Gotl. 'Sof, 4W, endcaTonred to explnin the old liiatory of our plsnul, and especially
tbe nature, and alio in geueial the lequenctB of the totally diHoreut aaCwtruphei it
hut gooe Ihrougli, by whicb the numerous foaail remains of former organic creabioni
have come into their present pDaitions. prlDcipnlly by a critical comparison oFtbeae
286 P0S9ItB.
iLlu couulry LiL-Iouging to foreigu land- animals and the actui
lapidilicatious of the marine creatures in our calcareous fitra
in this way with each other, by supposing that the pre
position of those land-animals is not their original home, bi^
that after their death they fell into rivers, and so by degre
were huddled together by the currents on the existing floor a
the 800. But those localities, at all eventn where I myself hav^f
examined the position of the large exotic bones, are very diffi-
cult to reconcile with that hypothesis. Thus, for instance, I have
myself examined at Burgtouna, in Ootha, the bed of both th«
elephants which were dug up there in 1695 and 1799, and foui '
that it was so completely made up of strong layers of c
which were so full of small, delicate, and for the most ]
uninjured land and river sheik and the like, that I con«deril
is quite impossible this bed could ever have been the floor <
the sea; but that most likely the elephants, rhinoceroses, i
tortoises, of all of which I have got together' instructive ape*
mens for my collection from the Tonua niarl-strato, muBt hav^
been naturalized at one time in that country, no one knows h<n
long after the supposed general revolution. This general rev(
lution, from which may he dated the countless extinct orgaaia
creatures in the calcareous Btrata, is ^ain quite different i
the subsequent later one, which must have occnrred when t
earth was remodelled'.
' C«np. Hofr. Vnigt, I'ehtr Einigt P^jinealiKhr mtrlnmrdiglitilen dir *^— ,
rim Buryiomut im Umoglhum, Gotka '\a Ua MagaziH fiir Phyaik und Nabufi
»tkidtlr. B. in. it. 4.
' Tliura wna it time wlien Uie origin of kll petrifacliona, ami th« gonenl rvdIi
tion uf thH eartb it«tf, wu ileiruoed from tliH Noacliiin deliiga. But, h Ob* i.
th* moat neuinui and aiao aertainlj ana a! tha miwt ortbod^'i UieologUai. Kfl
Wklsh, hu lusuml me, ve toe S*i tima doing the s%bteiit violenoe to the aulbnriW'*
at Boly Boriplnre, when ve druy the univatHality of tbo floixl of Noah; and nt
like manner, I cannot for mj own part rurm any aitiafactoiy idea, alter wfaal I
Stber from the hiaUir? of animals themieliei, about the uiiirenalitj of Oat
liigp. Thua, for initanc?, the pilgrtmag« which the doth (an aoioikl «)iieh takM
II whole hour in cnwling ux Sett) niuM in that caHi have perConned [ram Anral If
Boulh Ain«nca, i» alwaji a liUls iDoomprebemible. Wa ar " "*
Auiplntine, to call in the aoiatiuioe of ihs luigrita, who jian Dti
expnuta biiniuilf. firat of all oolleotcd iktl the animal kinploni in the ark, and IL.
dittributed them ag^i <x' '•Mvni inde, in the diataut iiUnda aiul quarior* »f tl
tflubc.
Remodellmj of the Pntnitive World.
After therefore that organic creation in the Preaiiamite
oitive epoch of our planet had fulfilled its purpose, it was
Jeatroyed by a general catastrophe of its surface or shell, which
probably lay in ruins some time, until it was put together again,
enlivened with a fresh vegetation, and vivified with a new
animal creation. In order that it might provide such a harvest,
the Creator took care to allow in general powers of nature to
bring forth the new organic kingdoms, similar to those which
had fulfilled that object in the primitive world. Only the for-
mative force having to deal with materials, which must of course
have been much changed by such a general revolution, was com-
pelicd to take a direction differing more or less from the old one
ia the production of new species'.
So that we naturally find very few creatures in the present
creation which are exactly like the lapidifi cations of the primi-
tive world, as, for instance, the shell-fish of the Atlantic aud the
Terebratula mentioned above of our calcareous rocks of the pre-
sent day. Outhe other hand, there are quantities of such petri-
factions which appear like the present organic bodies, and
therefore, as I have said already, on a mere hasty comparison
are often taken to be identical with them, but which upon
closer inspection present mostunmifttakeable differences in their
formation, and may serve as an example how the fonnative
force iTi these two creations has acted in a similar, but not
exactly in the same way. As to the possible objection, that this
difference might also have been occasioned solely by degenera-
tion acting for a long series of thousands of years, it can be very
^K ' So llMt the formative power nf nature In tlieee remodeliingi partly reproduceB
H^D cmtnm at a Jiiiuiliir tjpo to Ihoae of the old world, whioh howvver in b; far
^Ba Brenbeat number of initaaceB have pat on forma mors uppiicahle to otbero in
Iha new order of things, ao thnt in tl>e new creaturva the laws of tbs fonn&Livii
(aroe have been aoniewbat modiSod, u LucretiuB expreaaei himself:
' quoJ potujt, neqticnt ; poiixit.
288 MUTATIOSS.
easily refuted by those examples in which the difference hetwes
fosail and recent sheila, which are sufficiently hke each oth(
in general, ia still of that quality that it unfortunately coDtu
be considered either as a coDseqnence of degeneration, or aa a
accidental monstroBity, but can hardly be considered as anytliiag
else than an altered direction of the fonnative force. To give
one example out of many. In the North Sea there is a shell,
whose pretty house ia generally known under the oatne of
Murex despectua; and at Harwich on the coast of Essex there is
found a fossil shell, which in its general habit has ao strong a>
resemblance to that Murex, that at the lii-st glance one might fa
mistaken for the other. But, in the recent species, as usiu
happens, the twistings are to the right; whereas, on the contra
in the fossil species the twists are exactly the other way, to tJ
left' ; and it is just as contrary to expeiience to find the foaa
Murex marked to the right as the recent Murex to the lei
Such a thing is not a consequence of degeneration, but a
remodelling through an altered direction of the formative force.
r.
Mutations in the Existivj Creation.
) been su^^J
^ver to hj^M
According to all probability therefore a whole ores
organized bodies has already become extinct, and has been t
ceeded by a new one. So much variation is however t
observed, or, as Ualler called it, but falsely, inatabihty of nature^
eveu in this new one, that a person might easily, d priori as they
say, embrace the idea in this too of the extinction of whole spe-
cies, and the fresh appearance of others, even if both these
observations were not made more than merely probable hj
actual data.
. . il lioinil'U' fbrail, Sfurtx emlmrltit, fmm joj M
lection, in thewcoud tmitoftiie A blrildimgtH XittKrhutorlicAer Gfgrii4!dHitl. CM
1797, T»b, XX.
Tliua there was still to be found in the time of our fathers,
on the Isle of France and on some of the small neighbouring
islands, but in no other place in the world, so far as is known, a
species of large, phimp, lazy land-birds, whose flesh is repulsive,
the Dodos^; whose locality was circumscribed, because they
could fly no better than the Cassowary, But according to the
account of M. Morel, who instituted a search with that view
at the very place itself, this bird has ceased now to exist. It
has been exterminated out and out This is no more incompre-
hensible or improbable than that the last wolf in Scotland, as ia
known to have been the case, should have been shot in 1680,
although a hundred years before great wolf-hunts used to be
held. Just in the same way, but somewhat earlier in England,
and thirty years later in Ireland, these beasts of prey were
destroyed also. Thus plainly neith«r the fauna nor the flora
(as these lists of indigenous beasts and plants are called) of a
coimtry remain always the same. Creatures enough die away
in a locality, and fresh ones again become naturalized and spread
themselves. It may he by design, aa the CArp which has now
been artificially naturalized in many northern countries; or
accidentally, as the rats of the old world have managed to
engraft themselves on the new. So there is nothing contradic-
tory in the idea that also once in the universal flora or fauna of
the creation (but especially in the latter), as we have said, a
species may have become extinct; and on the other hand a
fresh one may likewise be sometimes very easily created sub-
sequently.
The pimple-worm' in pigs, which Malpighi was the first to
discover, is quite as real and perfect an animal in its kind as man
and the elephant in theirs. But, as is well known, this animal is
only found in tame swine, and never in any way in the wild pig,
from which however the former is descended. It would seem
therefore that this worm was no more created at the same time
' Didui intplia. See Ahbildungw yalurhittoritchiir G^^nUdruU Part IT.
Cittt. 1799, Tab. uxv.
* Byaatit Jmho, See Ahbltdnnstti S'alurhitloritfhtr GegtviUxniii *.. i,. O. Tilh.
290
DEOEKSBATIOK.
HS tbe origiiuil eUrck ot tLc iiog than, accordiog tu probabilil
the allied species of the bladder woniis, which have beea lately
discovered, just like those hydatids, ia the flesh and amoog the
uiitrails in human bodies, which must needs have been created
after the original parents of mankind. How indeed this subse-
quent creation took place, that I can no more say than bow in
early times the first Bpermatic animalcule came into being; that
however they were subsequently created seems to me UDdeniat
and 1 lay that to the account of the great mutability in nati
and this great mutabibty itself to the active and wise detci
nation of the Creator.
How very limited would be even the sphere of man's opera-
tions without this capacity for variation in nature through the
labour be may himself bestow upon it. Is it not precisely
through this attribute that he becomes really the lord and
ntaster of the rest of the creation ! To see how much may he
done in this way let a man only consider the astonishing all
tiona which since the discovery of the New World have
cally been caused and been experienced by it and the Old.
Umt
tidH
VI.
The degentration of organized bodies.
The degeneration of animals and plants from thcii
stocks into varieties also belongs to the astonishing experiences
of variability in creation, In the middle of the 16th centtuy
the only tulip known in Europe was the common yellow one
Two hundred years later no kind of flower bad a more pas-
sionate admirer than these, of which the then Margrave of
Baden- Durlach collected no less than three thousand specimens
of different varieties'. It is not much longer since the first
wild green canary bird was brought from its home to Europe,
yet tliese creatures liave long since branched oiit into every sort
of variety, not only of colour but also of appearance itselC
DOMESTIC ANIMALS,
291
The origin of this degeLeration Las been souglit principally ■,
B the influence of climate, aliraeiit, and mode of life; and cer-
inly many eflects of these three things in degeneration appear
unmistakeable. Thus, taken altogether, growth is retarded by i
cold, and the particular climate of this or that part of the world
will have certain manifest operations on the organized bodies
which are indigenous to it. As in Syria, many kindB of
raammals have astonjshiugly long and silken hair. Of course
very often some of the principal effects which are ascribed to
degeneration either run into and destroy one another, or one may
equally counteract the other and take away its effect ; so that
no decided opinion can be arrived at on many of the phenomena
of degeneration. Enough that the phenomena themselves must
be held as unmistakeable consequences of the variability of
TV
VII.
In domestic animals especiaUy.
The eflects of degeneration must naturally have operated in
the most profound and various way on those domestic animals
which man has for bo many generations kept in subjection to
himself, to such an extent that they propagate in that con-
dition, and with whom it is not, as in the case of elephants.
necessary to catch every individual in the wilderness ; and
which also can inhabit foreign climates, and are not, like the
reindeer, confined within a narrow fatherland.
The common domestic hog is the best example of all, and I
select it the more readily because the pedigree of this animal
is far less dubious than that of many others. The dog dege-
nerates in many ways, even under our very eyes, but it is not
completely made out, and would be very difficult completely to
make out, whether all dogs are only varieties of one and the
same species or not. Many great naturalists have avowedly
considered the shepherd's dog as the common original stock
of all the others. Others have put the wolf, the jackal, and the
19—2
dqgtogetkec Oikar*, agun, think it ttot inqwobable that m'
fN^^ to BHiaM mmt tbaa one original atock amangvt <k^
llMiiwIiia iBH^ofiBMB tkcRkagmtdeaTto be aaid for
the laak ide«. Koi only have we a gnat dUfae n c e of appear-
aaee in dogs in and of thenadrea; hot ihej most be xktj mach
changed dmn^ the laog thooHBd* cf jvaza aince man brooght
up tJiig — »i»— I ncre than any ether in doaer intimacy with
httMwH; and partlj trantplaated it aloag with htm iato foreign
dtmates, ao that peih^ia the oci^nal wild* d«)g can no more
be fimnd. And this seemc to me a gmtad for anDmii^ that
theie is nwre than mm o»igia»l face of dogs, because many,
aa the faadger-dog. hare a boild ao marked, and bo ^^pn^inate
for partJCTilar pnipooe^ that I Wioald find H Teij difficult to
peniiadft my e tf that tins aateoidnng figure was aa accident^
fnnwqnrTirr of degeoentMNi, and ninst not lather be ooosidered
as an original pmpoaed oooatroctiaa to meet a ddibentte olgect
of design*.
Iq the hog, again, the power of mere degeneraxioQ is mudt
more cleariy visible. So Ebt as I know, no naturalist baa earned
his Bcepdcism so far as to doubt that oar domestic b<^ is
desc^ided from the wild boar, aod beades ibis ia ooe of the
beasts which was utterly uoknawn in America before the
arrival of the Spaniards, and was first tnnsplanted there from
Europe. Meanwhile, Dotwithstandiiig the abort space of time
which is iucontroTertibly proved bv documentfi, some of these
Bwine which have been trans[4anted into that part of the world
have degenerated io the most astonishing way into the most
extraordinary varieties. Those which were brought from Spain
in 1509 to the West India islaod Cabagua, which was then
' Tbe diSeretee brt*eeii being wiM origtiullj aaJ beooming wikl mtut In mM
cmfaUj obaervMl daring inrcvIigKlion* of thukind. Hum in both worUi wctuin
imintDM Bimibm of honn wbicb b»T« bwame wild; but aa ooe m m^dubIhI
witb the original wild Itonw. Tbiu ersD m Um bcgrhminf of tbe past ocDtnrj wild
goUt mod tlao w3d coro were to be foand oa iii» tiule ieUnd (4 Joui Fenxadrl
<tbe ■olitar^ abode for four ynn of poor Selkiil, irfaaee true bictoij De Foa IM
workai op in bia RobiiiHxi CWioe) ; bnt ndtbcr of ibeae bBlonged originaltj to the
coantiT anj mon than the viJd monkej* whidi have pmpxgale) Ut^ivln* •KS
up In the pteecnt timr on tfa« rtidc of tiifanltar.
> S«e the adJiii^iiiA at the end of thU Pan.
%^
DKGESEKATION.
Teverywhere for its pearl BBheries, degenerated into an
extraordinary race, witli toes which were half a span long'.
Those in Cuba became more than twice as large again as their
^European progenitors'.
B This was not the way In which in the old world the tame
ptkog degenerated from the wild hog; but rather in its covering,
especially with respect to the woolly hair between the bristles;
in the strikingly different form of the skull; in the whole
growth, &c. How endless again is the difFerence in the varie-
ties of the domestic hog itself; that of Piedmont being almost
without exception black; that of Bavaria reddish brown; that
of Normandy white, &c. How different is the breed of the
English hog, with its curved back and pendent belly, from that
of the north of France, which is easily distinguished from the
former by its elevated croup and its down-hanging head, and
both again from the German hog. Hogs with undivided hoofs
are to be found gregarious both in Hungary and Sweden, and
were known long ago to Aristotle, to eay nothing of other more
urkable varieties.
VIIL
tegeneration of Man, the most perfect of all domestic Animals.
But what in the reason that the hog degenerates so particu-
Irly? why so much more than any other domestic animal?
riie solution of this problem flows directly from what has been
said above. For the very reason that it is just this animal which
is more exposed than any other to the causes of degeneration.
No other of our commonly called domestic animals has experi-
enced Kuch a manifold influence of climate as the hog; for no
other has been so widely scattered as this over the five parts of
the world. None has been subjected so much to the operation
' Herren, Htdun de lot CatUUanoi m lai Itla* <U Tierra Firmt del liar Oceano
1- I- p. 139. Midrid, 1601.
■ Ctavi^cro, Ston'o Aalica M MatKO, T. iv. p. l^j.
DOSnSTTCATIOS.
VVuiet; of aliment; for no animal is go omnivt
hog, &c. There is onij one domestic animal besides (At
in the erne sense, if not in the ordinary acceptadon of tltia
word') that alao snrpasses all others in these respects, and that
is man. The difference between him and other domestic ani-
mah ia only thin, that they are not so completely bom to
dmnest: cation as he is. having been created by nature inunedi-
^ ately a domestic anirnaL The exact original wild condition of
^j most of the domestic aoimaJs ia knovn. But no one knows
the exact original wild condition of man'. There a none, for
nature haa limitwl him in no wise, bat has created him for evenf
mode of life, for every climate, and every sort of aliment, and
has set before him the whole world as bis own and given him
both organic kingdoms for his aliment. Bat the consequence
of this ts that there ia no second animal besides him in the
ereation upon whoee aolidutn rivum so endless a quantity of
vanons rtimw/i', and therefore so endless a quantity of concur- 1
1/ ""8 causes of degeneration, must needs operate.
IX.
A very peculiar ph7/gictorfic<d siitgidanty of the huvian body.
In order to receive those stimuli the solidum vivwn has beeQ J
prepared by the forces 1^ hfe which reside within it, whoi
diverse although ntill concurring kinds I have in another pla
endeavoured to set out and distinguish more precisely*. Ajuoi
• Even horreret in the wjnunnn ncceptiitinn of the woni man hu been btfoH
now coDiidoivd ■ dumHttc sniin&I. Ve Lac asjs thiit & very profouii<t pi
of III* uiigaiuiitanDe could find m> tltthi conneclion betweeu Ilie limited power d
Rikn'a ooniprcLaniion >od tbe circumrerence and depth o[ Mit Actual knowW
thri there mnM likve been in the priiiiiliie world & cliui of Ligbcr exlsteliMi
earth, to wbrnn muiiicted u ■ tort uf domestio KDimal and bare so rccetvad a
bate&i from th* thf^ lord of the orBKtioii,
• Mure pktlicu'arljr an this in Part ii.
' 1 mnkc uiB «r both theao words of art which are univernalt; Hxepird is tli«
phyaiolngji of organiicd bodiei and hnve an univeTSally undentoJci meaning with-
out turning them inlo German, tince Ihey. m wbU ai tbe wonli orgmiited bocK*
botntelTC*, would certainly lo«u in clearncis by transLition.
• /Md'fUt. PAfliol:g. ». tV.
COSTRACTIUTr.
295
w, by for the most common, and wbicli preiluuiuates in both
kingdonu of organized creatures, is contractility, which is very
nearly the same thing that Stahl, one of the most profound
physiologists, spoke of under the not sulEciently distinct name
of tone, or, after the Leiden school, actxiositij.
The locality of this coraraonest of vitai forces is the mucous
itbrane, {commonly, but improperly called the cellular tissue.)
tch constitutes the foundation of almost the whole of an
led body. Thus iu a human body, except the enamel of
B teeth aud some of the outermost coveriugs of the skin, all
> remaining parts consist principally of the mucous mem-
aie, saturated, so to say, and incorporated with other sub-
stances. Besides, the mucous membrane is the first organic
substance which nature forms out of inorganic saps. Thus the
plastic lymph which is squeezed out by inflammations of the
ia first turned into loose mucous membrane, and this
into the so-called pseudo-membranes with true blood-
Bsels, &c. The greater or smaller compactness of the mucous
lembrane however itself differs exceedingly in the dififerent
riods of life, and also according to the specific diversity of the
a of organized bodies. In the eel, for instance, it is infinitely
r than in the trout It has been observed, aud that long
to, by sagacious zootomists, for instance, our own Zinn, that
, in comparison with other creatures, which are most nearly
Bied to him in respect of bodily economy, namely the rest of
I mammals, has, ceteris paribus, the finest and most com-
mucous membrane. Let it be well understood ceteris
ribaa, kv we must not compare an old gipsy with an unborn
Db.
^ This exceptional compactness of the mucous membrane and
B consequent superior quality of the commonest vital force is,
.0 me, one of the most distinctive and greatest pri-
(eges of man. It is exactly this privilege by which he is
l^bled to arrive at his greatest object, the habitation of the
tole earth, just in the same way as the various kinds of com,
rough their delicate and compact cellular texture, are better
Ubled to thrive in the most different climates than the stronger
296 OKANQ-UT&N.
cedars aad oaks. In proportion as this exceptionally
membrane is m man, bs I have Baid, the first and most impur-
tant factory of the formative force, it will be easily understood
from ail these things taken together, how in consequence man
is exposed in the formation of his body and its parts to all sorts
of degeneration into varieties. It ia not improbable moreover
that this is the reason why the hog exactly like man can live In
the most different climates, and also exactly like him degene-
rates in manifold ways. At all events there are many remarkable
singularities in both creatures with respect to their mucous
membrane, as appears most strikingly in the peculiar skin
(corium), which at bottom is nothing else than the mucous mem-
brane of the outer surface of the body indurated and penetrated,
with nerves and vessels. Perhaps here too may be found
reason of the similarity which has so often been asserted sii
the time of Galen between the taste of man's and hog's fleshk'
As to the reason why, on the other hand, both creatures differ
BO much from one another in a thousand other ways besides
their bodily structure, no one will ask, who knows anything from
phywology of the strikingly peculiar pri\nlege» by which man,
especially with respect to the other noble kind of vital powen,
the reaction of the sensorium, &c,, is elevated above all the reit
of the animal creation.
ited
eduV
e ail Lne ren ■
tly protesters
Lural systeq^H
■ntots. Aa^^
Somethinrj (ra7\qnilliiing on a common family
There have been persons who have most earnestly protesi
against their own noble selves being placed in a natural
in one common species with Negroes and Hottentots,
again, there have been other people who have hod no compunc-
tion in declaring themselves and the orang-utan to be creatures
of one and the same species. Thus the renowned philosopher
and downright caprice-monger Lord Monboddo says in blunt
words, "the orang-utans are proved to be of our species by
marks of humanity that I think are incontestable."
d
I
On the other hand, another, but nut quite bo straight fur warii
a cap rice- moDger, the world- renowned fire-philosopher Theo-
phrastua Paiaceisua Bombastus, cannot comprehend how all men
can belong to one and the same original stock, and contrived on
■sper for the solution of this difficulty his two Adams.
Perhaps, however, it will contribute something to the tran-
quillization of many upon this common family affair, if I name
three philosophers of quite a different kind, who however much
they may have differed otherwise in many of their ideas, still
were completely of accord with each other on this point; possi-
bly because it is a question which belongs to natural history,
and all three were the greatest naturalists whom the world has
itely lost — Hailer, Linnjeus, and Buffon — all these three consi-
man different by a whole world from the orang-utan, and
the other band all true men, Europeans, Negroes, &c., as
varieties of one and the same original species. It will
iwever be very likely of much more service to most of my
readers, if instead of these three names I give the three principal
rules which I have always followed, as I have reason to think,
with the greatest advantage in my investigations on this subject,
and through which T have fortunately escaped many an other-
wise sufficiently common, but false conclusion.
I. In these investigations we must have principally before
Oor eyes the physiology of organized bodies. We must not
■Tetnain attentive merely to man, and act as if he waa the only
Oi^anized body in nature ; and must expect to find some differ-
ences in his species which are strange and puzzling, without for-
getting that all these differences are not a whit more surprising
or unusual than those by which so many other species of organ-
ized bodies, equally degenerate under our eyes.
II. Neither must we take merely one pair of the races of
tnaa which stand strikingly in opposition to each other, and put
these one against the other, omitting all the intermediate races,
which make up the connection between them. We must never
forget that there is not a single one of the bodily differences in
one variety of man, which does not run into some of the
itbers by such endle-ss shades of all sorts, that the naturalist or
298
COLLECTIONS.
physiologist baa yet to be bora, wlio can with aoy pounds
certainty attempt to lay down any fixed bounds between these
Bhades, and consequently between their two extremes.
III. Inasmuch as no firm steps can be taken in the deter-
mination of the varieties in mankind, any more than in the
of natural history, without actual knowledge, I have laid do'
for myself as the third principal rule for a considerable numi
of years, since I busied myself with these investigations, to nii
use of everything, so as to provide myself always more and mi
supports in this behalf out of nature itself. For all the accousl
on that point which one adopts, even with the most critii
judgment possible, from others, are in reality, for the tru1
seeking investigator of nature, nothing more and nothing fi
ther than a kind of symbolical writing, which Le can only so far
subscribe to with a good conscience, as they actually coincide
with the open book of nature. And in order to pass an opinit
upon that, he must make himself as well read and through
gather as much experience as possible in this book; and this
what I have always endeavoured to do to the beat of my abi
in my studies on the natural history of mankind. The result of
this earnest labour has surpassed all my original expectations,
so that I now find myself in possession of a collection
natural history of mankind, which was the first regular
instructive, and complete one, and so far as I know remaina
the only one of its kind.
nioQ^—
iisHH
XI.
On Avthropological Collections.
It seems above everything else hard to understand fiowH
that considering the zeal with which natural history has
cultivated at all times amongst all scientifically civilized natit
the naturalist was so very late in finding out that maa also ia &
natural product, and consequently ought at least as much
any other to be handled from the point of natural bistoij
according to the difference of race, bodily and national pecul"
ilia^B
COLLECTIONS. 299
ittes, &0. Already in the last century the great collectors of
writings on natural history, — Gesner, Aldrovandus, Jonstou, and
Ray, — in their numerous, and also voluminous, and alwayn clas-
sical works, embraced the histoiy of all the three natural king-
doms; everything in fact, with the single and solitary exception
of the natural history of man himself. And, if I am not mis-
taken, it was no naturalist by profession, but a mathematician
in TJpsata, Harald Waller, who was the first that fiuaUy in the
beginning of the last century attempted to fill up this void
which had for such a wonderful length of time remained open in
a writing', which was a large one for those days, and which
forma quite an epoch in the history of natural history.
It is not, however, less astonishing that still for many decades
of years after this, the natural history collectors, though in
other matters their boundless acquisitiveness not only degene-
rated into luxury, but very often into folly, still, in order to fill
their cabinets, preferred making incursions all over the creation,
rather than into that department which could assist the natural
history of mankind and his varieties'. It is of course easily seen
that the construction of such a regular and instructive appara-
tus for this department is implicated with incomparably greater
difficulties than in most other departments of natural collections.
That, however, these are not insuperable when the collector
shows zeal and perseverance, and can obtain the active co-ope-
ration of men who have opportunities of helping him in his
object, is shown by the moat remarkable portion of my anthro-
pological collection, I mean the skulls of foreign nations.
De Varia HoBiinum Forma Externa, 1705, *to. Aftrr h[m cams in 1 jii the
to-be-foT^tten polybiBtor of Hamburg, J. A. FnliriaiuK, with hU IHti.
d« AonUaibiM oHiit noiiri ineolii, Iptdt tl orta aviU inlcr « bob differmtibia.
Wh«t perverted iind eitraordinary nolionii, even till latfly, (iiBtinguiahed
'■liiU bod of wh*t ought tu be comprised In sucb a natunil.hiatoricBl or
jntbropological collection, ma; be seen frnm the fnlloffing possHge in Boniare's
Dietion. T. V[. p, 6.13, 1791, whent he ia saying what a cabinet of natiuTil bistoty
Duglil W pgmesi. "The eupboard which conlaioB the history of man, cvDsiatB ol
na entire inyolo)|^, aMtpsrate heiul preserved, a brain, the parts of generaliioti el
nitlier MX, a ncuTOlogy, an oateolngy, embtyoa of evety ago with their after-birth,
monalroui producliona, and an Egyptian uiummy. There should alio be ironie
nioe piecca of anatomy represented in wax and wood, and lOme atony c-ncretioD*
taken from the hnman body."
300
DEDCcrroxs.
There are two questions wbicli have often been puL to
on the sight of these skulls, namely, what utility can be made
this collection? and then how can any one be certain of
genuineness of the foreign skulls? These questions are
natural and so reasonable, that the anawera to them may pi
perly find a place here.
1. This collection has amongst other things been useful
me in determining the principal corporeal characteristics
humanity, which it is my opinion I have found to consist in '
prominent chin and the consequently resulting upright positiM'
of the under front teeth. In the animals there is scarcely a par-
ticular chin which can be considered as comparable to that of
man: and in those men who, as is often said, seem to have
something apish in their countenance, this generally resides in
a deeply- retreating chin. The upper front teeth have indeed in
many nations of different races a more or less oblique directi<
whereas, on the other hand, the under ones in all that are km
to me stand up vertically.
2. Also for the determination of the really most beautiful
form of skull, which in my beautiful typical head of a young
Georgian female always erf itself attracts every eye, however
little obser\-ant
3. As a leading argument for the identity of mankind
general, since here also the boundless passages between the
extremes in the physical scale of nations, from the Calmuck
the Negro, join unobservedly into each other.
4. Then also as an evidence of the natural division of
whole species into the five principal races of which I shall
in the next section.
5. Of the mixture of these races with each other, which
as clearly expre.=ised in the skulls of the Cossacks, Kirghis, Sdc,
as anywhere in the Mulattos.
6. For the refutation of many erroneous conclusiooB as to
the pretended similarity of structure, and consequently of rel»-
tionship between distant nations, as between the old E^yptJani
and the Chinese, or between these and the Hottentots, &c.
7. On the other hand, for a nearer conclusion on the
ti<^_
lo^f^l
tiful*
rever
QdH
i
1
]
DEDUCTIONS.
301
bable parentage of puzzling populations, as of the old Guanches
of the Fortunate Islands from the Libyan stock of the old
Egyptians.
8. For this is learnt from a comparison of the mummy
skulls with the Egyptian works of art, that they distinguish
three aorta of national characters, which differ very decidedly
from one another, of which one is moat like the Ab^'ssinians,
another the Hindoos, and the third the Berbers, or ancient
. Libyans.
^^ 9. This collection also helps to explain many physiologi-
^Bkl and national peculiarities, as the extremely wide passages in
**"ihe nostrils of the keen-scented Negroes and North American
Indians.
10. And also, as an example of what has been lately dis-
puted in some quarters, of the constantly enduring shapeless-
ness which many savage tribes, as, for instance, the Caribs and
the Choctawa artificially infix upon the heads of their chil-
liren by continual pressing and binding. Of the various other
interesting ideas which the inspection of this collection of skulls
calls up, I can only think of the truly melancholy one — that it
contains so many relics of former respectable tribes, who have
been from time to time, and now are, almost entirely destroyed
liy their conquerors, just as the Caribs of the West India
Islands, the Guanches of the Canary Islands, &c. who have suf-
fered the same fate as some useful varieties of domestic
animals, such as the great Irish hound, and the St Bernard's
dog, which seem now to be exterminated from the creation.
As to the other of the two questions mentioned above, it will
1)6 most easily answered by this fact, that every skull is num-
!>ered, and has its own particular description in a special col-
lection of the incidents belonging thereto, which contains all the
certificates of them, and the original letters, notices, and a
' Of the rtlne of aucli really portrait- like and chnraoterUitii; rrprMtntaUonB
(wilh which nnfiirtuimtely their ranty etanJn in eiact projMirlio") for comparuon
with the altuUa, I can giva one einmple out of man;. Tn-elve yeus ngo I ro-
302 FIVE RACES.
collected a rare apparatus, and also with the characteristic d
scriptions of the most exact writers of natural history, and t
travellers: in short everything that makes up complete wai
ranties, as they have been used in the Decades which have ,
been composed from this collection. Besides this, care has
been taken in the mode of arrangement, that where it was
possible to obtain more than one skull of any savage nations,
these, at all events, should stand side by side together, in ordei^
to show at the firet glance the persistent resemblance with whicil
the heads of each one of those peoples who have mingled only I
with each other, so far as concerns their national character,
seem to be all cast in one mould. They are in this way so
easy and so securely distinguished and recognized, that it i
to be hoped no one at the sight of this collection will b
condition of the Cynic Menippus' after his suicide, who,
his arrival in the nether world, said of the skulls which ^
collected, that foraooth they all looked exactly alike, and i
was too obtuse to pick out even that of the beautiful Hel^
from the others.
Piviswn of Mankind into Five principal Racea.
To return again to the three rules laid down above, which
have given rise to this digression. After many a year's indus-
trious observance of them I have arrived at no new striking
nngalioal brntlicrhood. She had been
795, thmugh the iiiuBlonary rcportB or
en in Lonrjon in 1796, wlien Sir Jos. had I
RuM.'lL Th.
that skull Btiikea orery obgerviuit eye thnt ootngisrei th«ni tngetLer. Id oidtr
prove it to the UDobiei-vant, I have hiid the clrcamfereoee of that akiill, and alM
tbxt of the picture dniHn by mesns of a gliui pUt«, and then traced from that oD
two IcRves, and when tUeso two are beU exactly upon one another againat ita
light, the two drawing in nil thuir parla cover each otlier lite a pur ^ sqojJt;
1
FIVE KACE9,
303
discovery, but what must be just as satisfactory a conclusion to
me, the conviction of an old truth in natural historj', on which
doubt has been recently cast in some quarters. I have en-
deavoured particularly to depend upon sensible experience, and
■where I could not avail nijaelf of this, on the accounts of active
and trualworthy witnesses, and after all that I have thus learnt
about the bodily differences in mankind, and all the com-
parisoDB thus made with the bodily differences in other species
of organized beings.espccially in the case of the domestic animals,
1 have found no aingle difference in the former which may not
also be observed in many of the latter, and that too as an un-
mistakeable consequence of degeneration. Consequently I do
not see the slightest shadow of reason why I, looking at the
matter from a physiological and scientific point of view, should
have any doubt whatever that all nations, under all known
climates, belong to one and exactly the same common species.
Still, in the same way as we classify races and degenerations
of horses and poultry, of pinks and tulips, so also, in addition,
raust we class the varieties of mankind which exist within their
common original stock. Only this, that as all the differences in
mankind, however surprising they may be at the first glance,
seem, upon a nearer inspection, to run into one another by
unnoticed pa-^aages and intermediate shades; no other very
definite boundaries can be drawn between these varieties,
especially if, as is but fair, respect is had not only to one or the
other, but also to the pecuharities of a natiiral system, de-
pendent upon all bodily indications alike. Meanwhile, so far
as I have made myaelf acquainted with the nations of the
earth, according to my opinion, they may be moat naturally
divided into these five principal races:
1, The Caucasian' race. The Europeans, with the excep-
tion of the Lapps, and the rest of the true Finns, and the
weslem Asiatics this side the Obi, the Caspian Sea, and the
Ganges along with the people of North Africa. In one word.
304
FIVE SACE8.
the inhabitants nearly of the world known to the ancieD0
Greeks and Romans. They are more or less white in coloiir,
with red cheeks, and, according to the European conception of
beauty in the countenance and shape ot the skull, the most
handsome of men.
2. The Mongolian. The remaining Asiatics, except the
Malays, with the Lapps in Europe, and the Esquimaux in the
north of America, from Behring's Straits to Labrador and Green-
land. They are for the most part of a wheaten yellow, with
scanty, straight, black hair, and have fiat faces with laterally
projecting cheek-bones, and narrowly slit eyelids.
3. The Ethiopian. The rest of the Africans, more or lei
black, genei-ally with curly hair, jaw-bones projecting forwai
puffy lips, and snub noses.
4. Th^ American. The rest of the Americans; genei
tan-coloured, or like molten copper, with long straight huq
and broad, but not withal flat face, but with strongly dtstiiu
tive marks.
5. The Malay. The South-sea islanders, or the inhabiU
ants of the fifth part of the world, back again to the
Indies, including the Malays, properly so called. They i
generally of brownish colour (from clear mahogany to the vei
deepest chestnut), with thick black ringleted hair, broad noa
and large mouth.
Each of these five principal races contains besides one or
more nations which are distinguished by their more or less
striking structure from the rest of those of the same division.
Thus the Hindoos might be separated as particular sub-varieticH
from the Caucasian ; the Chinese and Japanese from the Mod>
gilian; the Hottentot-s from the Ethiopian; so also the Nortli
American Indians from those in the southern half of the new J
world; and the black Papuans in New Holland. &c. from thtfl
brown Otaheitang and other islanders of the Pacific Ocean.
Of the Negro in particular.
" God's image he too," as Fuller says, " although made out
of eljony." This has been doubted Boinetimes, and, on the
contrary, it has been asserted that the negroes are specifically
different in their bodily structure from other men, and must
also be placed considerably in the rear, from the condition of
their obtuse mental capacities. Personal observation, com-
bined with the accounts of trustworthy and unprejudiced wit-
nesses, has, however, long since convinced me of the want of
foundation in both these assertions. But I need not repeat
everything which I have elsewhere publicly expressed in oppo-
sition to those views; though there are one or two points I
cannot leave quite untouched'. I am acquainted with no single
distinctive bodily character which is at once peculiar to the
negro, and which cannot be found to exist in many other and
distant nations; none which ia in like way common to the
negro, and in which they do not again come into contact with
other nations through imperceptible passages, just as eveiy
other variety of man runs into the neighbouring populations.
The colourof the skin they share more or less with the inha-
bitants of Mad^ascar, New Guinea, and New Holland. And
there are imperceptible shades, up from the blackest negroes in
North Guinea to the Moors : amongst whom many, especially the
women, according to the assurance of Shaw, have the very whit-
est skin that it is possible to imagine. The curly woolly
hair is well known not to be common to all the negroes, for
Barbot says, even of those in Nigritia itself, that some have
curly and some have straight hair; and UUoa says just the
same of the negroes in Spanish America. Secondly, this 3o-
Itfdf, U
</ tkt NatitK ifr
it; of the moat instmctive retnarki on thia pomt, tAea from na
found in the pnuBeworthy Dr Th. Winterbotlom's Ciaancal Aca
in the S'tyhboarhaad of .Vima Leone, wboM thu »u
ent four ycvi KS pli}'«Icuui to the culonj.
20
called woolly hair is very far from being peculiar to the negrooB,
for it Ib found in many people of the fifth race, aa io the
Ygolotes in the Philippines, in the inhabitants of Cliai-lotto
Island and Van Diemen's Land, and also in many of the third
variety, who, however, are not reckoned as negroes. Many
Abyssiniau3 have it, as the famous Abba Gregorins, whose
handsome likeness, which Heiss engraved in 1691, after Von
Sand, I have before me'. Sparrmann also says of the Hotljin-
tots, that their hair is more like wool than that of the negroes
themselves; and this I find confirmed by the pictures of Hot-
tentots and KafBra, which many years ago were forwarded with
some transplanted plants from the Cape to Joseph 11., and of
which I have obtained exact copies, through the kindness of
Counsellor von Jacquin. As to the physiognomy of the negro,
the difference no doubt is astonishing if you put an ugly negro
(and there are ugly negroes as well as ugly Europeuis]^.
exactly opposite the Greek ideal. But this is precisely 1
offend against one of the rules given above. If, on the <
trary, one investigates the transitional forms in tliis case abo,
the striking contn-ist between the two very different extremes
vanishes away; and, of course, there must he extremes hero
as well as in the case of other cieatui-ea which degenerate i
all sorts of races and varieties.
I can, on the contrary, declare that amongst the negroes a
negressea whom I have been able to observe attentively, snil
I have seen no small number of tliem, as in the portrait-like
drawings and profiles of others, and in the seven skulls of adult
negroes which are in my collection, and in the others which
have come under my notice, or of which I have drawini^ and
engravings before rae, it is with difficulty that two can be found
who are completely like each other in form ; but all are i
or less difi'ereat from one another, and through all sorts i
gradations run imperceptibly into the appearance of men fl
other kinds up to the most pleasing conformation, Of thia t
leuisy _
3lyw|
'■ abo,*
remei
hero
eintfrv
THE KEORO.
" was & female cieole, with whom I conversed in Yverdun, at the
house of tlic Chevalier Treytotrens, who had brought her from
St Domingo, and both whose parents were of Congo, Such
a countenance — even in the nose and the somewhat thick lips —
was so far from being surprising, that if one couhi have set aside
the disagreeable skin, the same features witli a white skin must
have universally pleased, just as Le Maire says in his travels
through Senegal and Qamliia, that thei'e are negresses, who,
abstxactioti being made of the colour, are as well formed aa our
European ladies. So also Adanson, that accurate naturalist,
asserts the same of the Senegambia negresses ; " they have
beautiful eyea, small month and lips, and well-proportioned fea-
tm'es: some, too, are found of pert"ect beauty'; they arc full nf
vivacity, and have especially an easy, free and agreeable pre-
sence." Now this was exactly the case with the negress of
Yverdun, and with several other negresses and negroes, whose
closer acquaintance I have since that had the opportunity of
making, and who have cijualiy convinced me of the truth of
what so many unsuspected witnesses have assured me about
the good disposition and faculties of these our black brethren ;
namely, that in those respects as well as in natural tenderness of
heart', they can scarcely be considered inferior to any other race
of mankind taken altogether'. I say quite deliberately, taken
altogether, and natural tenderness of heart, which haa never
been benumbed or extirpated on board the transport vessels or
on the West India sugar plantations by the brutality of their
white executioners. For these last must be nearly as much
without head as without heart, if after such treatment they still
' ■' Of a perfect benuty."
* "The mildness of tbe Negro cbaraeter," anjs Lneu, the fiuuous Africui
tmveller, in tha Pracudiagt of the African Anoriation.
' LiMea to one guaruitee for ftll, our own iocompftrable Niabahr: "The
Erindpil charade ristic of the negro is, eapBciuillj when he is resaunaUy treiled,
onesty tonnrdii his tnOBteis and beaeractoTs. Mohammedan marchiuita in Cairo,
Jeddftb, Surat, and other cilies, are glad to buy boys of tbis kiod ; tbey have them
taught vnting and arithmetio, mrry ou thwr eitsiuive buiineas almost entirely
tbroagh negro slaves, and send them to establish buiiuosa placca in foreign
Gouutriea. I asked ooe of these mercbantB, How he could Iruat a slave with whole
cargow of goods t and was told in reply. ' My negto is true to me ; but If I were
to conduct my business eutirely by wliito men, I should have to take cue thut
they dill not run off wilh my jirnpcrtj.' "
20—2
303
THE NEGKO.
expect to find true attachment and love from these
managed slaves. That excellent observer of nature, Aublet, in
his true and masterly description of the natural gpodness of
the negro's character, rests upon the confessions of the Europeans
who have heen in captivity amongst the Algerines, and 1
openly admitted that in that position they felt just as ill (
posed and just as hostile to their then masters, as a negro i
like case could possibly feel towards his master in the colonia
On the other hand, I have daily for a long time had an boned
Degress before my eyes, of whom I often said in my mind, whij
Wieland's Democritus says of his good, soft-hearted, curly-lockS
black, and what has also been so frequently asserted by otm
unprejudiced observers of uncorrupted blacks, ajid amon]
others very recently with true and warm gratitude by the s
Mungo Park, that it is not worth while to scrape together h^
the proofs of these facts' ,
At the same time it will not be at all superfluous to poid
out here some not so well known thongh remarkable exampi
of the perfectibihly of the mental faculties and the talents q
the negro, which of course will not come unexpectedly up
any one who has perused the accounts of the most cret
travellers about the natural disposition of the negro. Thus the
classical Barbot, in his great work on Guinea, expresses himself
as follows; "Tlie blacks have for the most part head and under-
standing enough: they comprehend easily and correctly, and J
their memory is of a tenacity almost incomprehensible; for ev«i
when they can neither read nor write, they still remain in the(d|
place amidst the greatest bustle of business and traffic, ;
seldom go wrong." — " Since they have been so often deceived B
Europeans, they now stand carefiilly on their guard in tra£
and exchange with them, carefully examine all our wares, pioi
' Manjr Bpeaking exanipIeR of the real gr*(itude. anil ftbove iJI of tlic hni
ebaractiT. ann a'aoaf the eicellent capacltiusofour black brethren, are to be fmind
in the following thrte worka, whcwe merilorioua authora were lung in the W»l
Indies And are ainongit the moat capable anc! unprejudieed obaenrera of the Ktgm
Oldeiidorp'i Satliirhlt iter JUiaion rier rcanyiiliir/ieit Brildtr an/. S. Thamat, Ac
1777 i Ratniay's ffwny on tht Trratmml aid Cor.ifrf'nn 0/ Afiv-Jin fiara, ijS^j
Niibett's dintfily of Hrjroet for Rrliginut aad lloral /mjtrvrnnrt - -" '
J
TriK NBiiRO.
' piece, wLutlier tliey are of the samples bargniuud for iu
cjuality and quantity; wlietlier the cloths and stuffs are lasting,
wlietherthey were dyed in Haarlem orLeyden, &c."..," in short,
ihey try everything with as much prudence and cunning as any
European man of business whatever can do." Their aptitude
for learning all sorts of fine handy-work is well known. It is
estimated that nine-tenths of the ordinary craftsmen in the
West Indies are negroes '.
With respect to their talents for music, there ia no necessity
for me to call attention to the instances in which negroes have
earned so much by them in America, that they have been able
to purchase their freedom for large sums, since there is no want
of examples in Europe itself of blacks, who have shown them-
sulvea true virtuosos. The negro Freidig was well known in
Vienna aa a masterly concertist on the viol and the violin, and
also as a capital draughtsman, who had educated himself at the
academy there under Schrautzer, As examples of the capacity
of the negro for mathematical and physical sciences, I need only
meiitSbn the Russian colonel of artillery, Hannibal, and the
negro Lislet, of the Isle of France, who on account of his su-
perior meteorological observations and trigonometrical measure-
ments, was appointed their correspondent by the Paris Academy
of Sciences.
Dr Rush of Philadelphia is at work upon a history of the
negro. Fuller, in Maryland, who has lately become so famous
through his extraordinary capacity for calculation. In order to
teat him on this point, he was asked in company how many
seconds a man would have lived who was seventy years and so
many months, &c. old. In a minute and a half Fuller gave
the number. Othere then calculated it, but the result was not
the same. " Have you not forgotten," said the negro, " to bring
into account the days of the leap-years?" These were then
' On the Moepliunil ikill for art, "of tbo >ott and UneTolent " negrofS in
Hoiiwa or SouJm in Ibe interiur of Africa, lec our Hornemann'a Tagthach miner
rtitt von Cairo 6ri MHrzut, Tliia book tixvei us much iiii(iorWut iiifonuition upon
the condilion of tliB aail and population of tUii teiaiu-kable part of the eitrtli, wliiolt
nu EurojieaD before bin bad riaJtDd.
BoBJ. Bmmkcr, k^ nlL«tonii. «fa» bid Mqoired liia i
neniral k iwkjg e gi lh a l «al imIi im Ikih, entiidj 1
private ttmir «f FagwBBi mtb and ovr Toh. Mayn-'s taUes',
Ac riiiul .ill Hmb, SBil Dr BbA* have pren tbe aiort
pnfji'^ laoficia e- X^roea bare alK> been known to make
mj I mfli ill niij^uiii Aad dw l^ a nrifii l n egiiLan of YTcrfna.
wlioB I m m tioi J . ia kaown far and nfe in Fiencfa Switaer-
bncl as an excdlent uaA w ^ ^ aa^id Aill, and of a deficnte
and w«&-«zperie»eed kaad I enit the Wcaleran Xetbodut
pradMT, Vadoz. aad al» tke two aegtws wbo latdy died
is liondon, Ignaths Saneho and GastaTns Tasa, of wbc»n tbe
kmaer, a great Gnuorite bothof Ganick and Sterne, was known
to me by toneapooieaee*; and tbe latter, wbom I knew per-
aooaltf, baa laade himself a name by bis tateiiestti^ anlobio-
gi^iby* ; and abo many oUnt negroes and negiesses who hare
distn^itidied thesBelTes by their talents for poetry. I poanew
Ei^liah, Dntdi, and I^n poems hj serentl of these Latter,
amongst which bowerer abore all, those of Phillis Wbeatiey
of Boston, who is justly fiuaons fot them, deserve mentti
here'.
* J. WUaaj, «l BataiaMn, haa pmlwd l^agnfiUBl ■■
■ad, u he rifrtmtm Uaadt, icfisda "tliii BCgra *• s ac
fMotlia bear bo iililiiiii ts the lijIiiiu oT Ae iUn.~
* Thb i^ikwi^uB iibnicin vritn cf in •ledlail ■igi o vbo (a nrkDvwM^B
U (till IJTing, to Dt Dctssb in Xcv Orlaun: "J ban omTSaad viU Um opoa
iDort of Um koit* and tpiiiiwac diwaaca of tkc oonatrj vhcrc he li*«^ and waa
nieawd la find him jwrfectl; ■oqaainted mUh tbe DMiln uapl* mode of prweAm
n Unne £k«k*. I «»pe«««d lo ha™ •— ^-t — — - "'
b* MggMad BBO^ Bora to ma. Ha ia
aad Sm bamoitm to the amooal of 3000 di^lan a jvar."
■ ItOm t/t*4lala lyaatiia SatdM. a» Afri<m, tlmd ed. Loodoo, 1794, Bn^
with lL> baantifull; oagiavnl likcoea Vr BaniiJoai, afls Gunabttoagb'a pdnra.
* TV /iXfran'ajr .Varrafriv «/ »i< X</( r/ Wanda* SfBtmu. or G^Hmrm Faaa,
Eridn lifkauttf, tbjcd ed. LoadoD. 1791, Svn; la German. GdUinrcs, 1791, 8*»
* i>>>nu <m Varimt SabjtrU. Rdi^at hikI Moni, bf Pbillii Wbeatlej, ?f«n
Htrrani lo Mr J<An WhtalUg of BotUjn. 1773, 8to. A oollectian whkfa Marnly
atiir on* who hat anj taate for poetiy cmild ntA without plcaanre. Some paftico-
Un; bcMMtiriil nlectiMU from them are to be (band in the famo<iapriM«M^o(lli^_
worthy OaAMOn, On tht Slarrry and Commtme of At Samoa «-— '— ■
_v<<i'^
THE NEJRU. 311
There are still two negroes who Jiave got Bome reputation
K authors, and whose works I possess, whom I may nieutiou.
Our Hollniami, when he was still professor at Wittenberg;,
created in 1734 the negro. Ant. WilkAmo, Doctor of Philosophy.
He had shown great merit hoth in writing and teaching ; and I
have two treatises by him, of which one especially sliows a most
nnexpected and well-digested course of reading in the best
physiolo^cal works of that day'. In an nccount of Amo's life,
vbich on that occasion was printed in the name of the University
Senate, great praise is allotted to his exceptional uprightness,
his capacity, his industry, and his learning. It says of liis
]^ilosophicaI lectures: "he studied the opinions hoth of the
ancients and moderns ; he selected the best, and explained his
selections clearly and at full length." It was in his fortieth
^ear that the n^o Jac. EHsa Joh. Capitein studied theology
at Leyden ; he had been kidnapped when a hoy of eight years
old, and was bought by a slave-dealer at St Andrew's river, and
got to Holland in this way at third-hand, I have several ser-
mons' and poems by him, which I will leave to their own
merits; but more interesting and more famous is his Disseriatio
foUHco-iheohgica de sercituie Ubertati Cliristianai non cotUrana,
which he read publicly on the 10th March, 17i2, in Leyden,
iud of which I have a translation in Dutch", of which again
four editions were stmck off, one immediately after the other.
Upon this he was ordained preacher at Amsterdam in the church
'tfElmina, whither he soon afterwards departed. Professor Brug-
mans of Leyden, who procured for me the writings of this
> TLe title of the fint u, Ola. inavff. FMltmiphiea de hunana ntntit ira-
i (ca tutionii ae Jatullatii Kntieodi in mtntc Auwana ahtenUa, el tarum ia tor-
pen no*™ orj/aniflffl ae vixe pnaentia, uuffo^Ant. Guil. Amo, Gainta-A/ro. The
c4her U antitl^, Oitp. fiukiopkica emtittentaeam ditlmetam mnint qua! tomjKttml
vU (MHtf vtl eorpori noitn n're wl organin.
* UitgraragU Pndikalkn in* OnKmhage en t'Ovdcrierh nan rfm Amttel gnlaan
i (toor Jm. EUm Jo. Cajateiii, Afrieaamchc Moor, ttrot^x frcdiUant op D Sbnina
ft won hel Ktulitl St Gearje, Amst. i;4], 4(0.
I ' Slaaliuiidig-OodfftliXTd Onda-achelirift otvr de Sturemy, alt niet ilrydig ttgm
rdt CkrytUlgke VrgMd, Leiden, TT41, ^to, with tlif bi'ttutifiilly enfrtved Ukenen
I 6t the »uthor by F. von BUyswjck. AnnlLcr portrait of him, nfter P. Tan Dyok.
I liu been riven bj me in the first part o( the AbLildwgen NaliirkiiioritchtT Gtgan-
I tanie, Tkb. 5.
31S T
ordained negro, sends me wonl also that aooording to the cir-'
cumstances there are two slone& aboat his fate there; either
namely that he was mnrdered, or that he went back to his own
savage countrrnien, and exchanged their Eapeistlt ions and mode
of life for what he had l^amt in Europe. In this last case, bis
history forms a pendent to that of the Hottentot who was
brought up in Europe and civilized, whose Mmilar and thorough
patriotism has been immortalized hj Rousseau'. 14or is this
irresistible attraction to the ancestral penates at all events a bit
more strange than the fact, that, as is known, Europeans enoogh,
who have been made prisoners of war by the North American
Indians, or even by the Caribs of the West Indies, when these
still constitnted a respectable and warlike nation, and have
lived a long time with them and become used to them, have
found such a great delight in this wild state of nature as to lose
all desire of changing it, and coming back to their own country-
men ; nor are there wanting instances, especially among the
French Canadians, who of their own free-will have gone over
to the savages there, and taken up the same kind of life
they*.
Finally, I am of opinion that after all these numerotiB ii
stances I have brought together of negroes of capacity, it w<
not be difficult to mention entire well-known provinces of En-
rope, from out of which you would not easily expect to obtain
off-hand such good authors, poets, philosophers, and correspond-
■^ ents of the Paris Academy; and on the other hand, there is no
so-called savage nation known under the sun which has so much
, distinguiahed itself by such examples of perfectibility and origi-
nal capacity for scientific culture, and thereby attached itself
so closely to the most civilized nations of the earth, aa the JTijjjrro.
' See the Tignett« to hiB Dimvri mr VintaaliU parmi la kommei.
* Licat. PMenoa ipuki of ft Geimaa at the Cftp«, wbo bad complstelj a
over in thii way to the Holtentota, »nd b*d then already lived twenty youa in ||
midft of them, and waa entirsly naturalized and coniidarBd aa od ' ''
fe aa
toiol^B
The Kakerlacleen.
These poor sufferers have come off in the history of man
; a bit better than the honest negroes. There have been
sceptics who were as unwilling to recognize the Kakerlacken for
men of the same species with ourselves as the Moors. The lat-
ter were too black for them, and the former too white. In
reality the examination of the Kakerlacken has nothing what-
ever to attach it to the domain of natural history, for it holongs
to pathology. Meanwhile, as it has once been dragged into the
former, and so has given handle to many wonderful mistakes, I
think I may go so far as to say a few words about them ; and
^tfiey join on aJl the more easily to the former section, because
^Bfc^r history was originally confounded with that of the negroes.
^^M For at the very first of all a sort of men was remarked
^■Smongst these last, who were distinguished by an unusual
whiteness or even redness of skin, and by hair of a yellowish
white and pale red eyes; and of course these singularities would
strike people more in negroes than in white men; and for that
reason the Kakerlacken wore first of all known by the name of
Leuccethiopians. But just about the end of the last century
they were found amongst the Americans also, and very shortly
afterwards, besides these, amongst the East Indian populations.
Still later Cook saw some on Otaheite and the Friendly Islands ;
and now at last it is clear that they are also to be found in
Europe itself, and that too in greater numliers than we can alto-
gether desire. Since I laid before the Royal Society of Sciences
my observations on tha'ie two well-known Savoyards, whom I had
the opportunity of examining in 1783, on an excursion which I
made in company with the younger De Luc, from Geneva to
Faucigny. and who afterwards went for some years to London,
where they were described by the directors of the circus, I have
received accounts of a round dozen of other Kakerlacken who
e been found up and down in Germany alone, and have from
n specimens of their own quite peculiar hair. It
314 ALBINO-lf
seems to Iiave buea tLc casts with the KakerlaiAken as with Uii
otiier wonders of nature, that they liave been for a long time
overlooked in many countriea, because they wore considered too
great rarities to be expected. In one word, the Eakerlackeu
occur in all the five races of mankind.
Besides, this singularity is not peculiar to mankind aloi
but shows itself also just as much in other warm-bit
animals, as in mammals and in birds. Amongst the former,
have notoriously the white rabbits and the white mice
amongst the latter the white canary birds. On the other
in spite of all the researches I have mode iu that direction,
have not been able to find any single example of Kakerlack<
among the animals with red cold blood, cither amongst the ai
pliibia or fish. That above all I consider the Kakerlacken as
diseased, and consequently while canaries, &c. the same, will bo
strange to no one who is acquainted with their constitution.
Their chief symptom consists in the singular colour of their
eyes, the iris of which is a pale pink colour, and the pupils of the
colour of a dark carnation, or very much like blackberry juice,
whereas iu a sound eye these last, whatever the colour of the
iris may be, whether blue or brown, must always be entirely
black. The reason of that redne^ Ul-s in a total want of tl
part which is indispensable to clear sight, namely, the dark broi
mucus which is spread over a great part of the inner appli
the eye, in order to absorb the superfluous rays of light, Coi
quently, the Kakerlacken through this deficiency are generally
more or less shy of light. But this deficiency of the black pig-
ment seems always to be only a symptom of an univei
cachexia, which in human Kakerlacken finds its particular
pression through the peculiar aspoct of the skin and the yelh
ish-white colour of the hair ; at least so far as I know, no one
ever observed that disease of the eyes without this quality
skin and hair.
The disorder is invariably congenital, and frequently heredi-
tary in families. It seems to be incurable; at least I ^now of
no case in which the symptoms related have ever been got rid of
by any single Kakcrlack. On the causes of this remarkabl
tirely
>roin^|
pleM
JoBse-^^
irally
pig-
lt a^^l
Uoi^l
I
»
ALlilNOS. 315
i^ieease I do not know how at this moment to say auytliing satiii-
factory ; for as to the remark that au otherwise quick-seeing
traveller, Foucher d'Obsonville, has made, that Leucajthiopiana
•re begotten when the parents are taking mercury or cinna-
bar at the time, it is impossible to imt^ine it correct in many of
iiie cases of the nations mentioned, and in many of the animals
among whom Eakerlackea are found, even if the whole idea
were not to the last extent extremely improbable. So also the
old assertion, that no Leucoetbiopian of either sex was capable
of procreation, is completely untrue. De Brue has already
'fimnd an instance in which a Lencoethiopian became pregnant
'hj a negro, and a perfect young negro was bom, and the well-
known negro Vasa, in his above-mentioned interesting work,
has given a remarkable account of a Leucoetbiopian female, who
was lately married in England to au European, and has borne
him three genuine Mulattos with light hair.
APPENDIX I. To p. 284 n.
On the gradation in nature.
^^ Two scientific societies, the one at Rouen and the other at
B^arlem, have lately given out as the subject for a prize, Wlie-
r the asserted gradation in nature has any real fonndation or
not? I am acquainted with only one essay in answer to this
question which was sent in to the last-mentioned learned society,
vhose renowned author, our worthy Professor De Luc, has
handled the whole subject only from a metaphysical A priori
point of view, and even in this way comes to tbe'conclusion that
ibetB is neither continuity nor imperceptible gradation in the
weation, and that the harmony of the creation is rather sup-
:|K)rt«d by marked diifereuces, having sharply defined boundaries
"between them. On the other hand, I long ago' pointed out
considerations against the reality of the structural conceptions
6f the gradation of creatures according to their mere exterior
i
316 cnADATiox.
fiirm, ami agniust the very well-meant, but at the bottom vi
presumptuous tendency towards this idea, which ia found in
many physico-theologiaos; and these are entirely empirical,
taken from natural history itself, and from the visible constraint
which, in all the various essays on such gradations, is done to
nature. Who does not feel how constrained he is when Bradley
carries up his scale from the simplest fossils through the vegeta-
ble and animal kingdom up to man, but has to put off what he
cannot readily make fit into this scale into a second, by which he
descends on the other side again from that elevation ? or, when in
order to stand fast by particular passages and connecting links,
Vailisueri brings forward the analogy of grasshoppers with birds,
Oehme the analogy of birds with house-flies and other Dipterce,
and wlieii Bonnet chooses the shield-lice as creatures of the
transition from other insects to the tape-worm, &c. We should
find it much easier to excuse the older describers of naturer
when, deceived by the great resemblance of the exterior, they Im
cated the armadilloes of the genus Mania with the lizards, or Um
sertularia, and above all the corals, with the ciyptogamic plantlM
since with certainly quite as much reason, in consequence of uU
extremely superficial view of an outward structure very neadjfl
resembling them, many even phanogeramtc species of plants oat
of the genera Satri/ra^a, Androviedm, A retice, &c in spite of all
their remaining heterogeneity, have had a place found for them
on the ladder close to the large-leaved moss.
When that extraordinary wonder-animal of the fifth part of
the world, the OmithorhynckiLS paradoxus, was discovered, many
partisans of gradation looked upon it as a fresh support of
theory, whereas, it seems to me much rather to be a new
dence against its reality. It seems to me so very isolated
creature of its sort, that it can bo no more brought into the
natural arrangement of the animal kingdom without visible con-
straint, than the tortoises, cuttle-fish, &c., or than many genera
of plants, as the Viiis, Cissus, &c. in that of the vegetable king-
dom. Besides this, in the scale of Bonnet, and simple ones of
that kind, the transition department from the birds to the quad-
rupeds has been long since filled up by the bat ; and yet it
]
OKADATION.
be difficult to imagine two forma of mammals, which differ more
Burpriaingly from each other, and which must therefore in any
gradation stand further apart from each other, than those of the
bat and the omithorhynchus.
It muHt be understood that alt that has been said here, as well
as what was suggested above (p. 283), by the expressions quoted
from an otherwise meritorious writer on the use of petrifaetions,
is only to be regarded as a warning against the misuse of the
common conception of gradation, according to the outward form
of creatures under the favourite images of ladders and links :
since, on the other hand, the very greatest use may be made of
this very metaphorical image not only towards the exercise of
observation, but also with the greatest advantage towards the
regular use of a natural system In the description of nature, and
also for the most advantageous arrangement of natural collec-
tions. Only instead of the partisans of this gradation acknow-
ledging its value in dividing the productions of nature into
kingdoms, classes, &C, and as a means of methodizing study and
an assistance to the memory, but allowing that it has no real
existence in nature itself; exactly the opposite seems to have come
of those structural conceptions, whose unmistakeable value for
the science of method cannot be denied, but which are ao very
far from having any real ground in nature itself, that it has often
happened to well-meaning physico-theologians that " they have
attributed it to the Creator in the plan of His creation, and
have mode its completeness and connexion to be sought for in
fihe fact that nature, as the expression goes, mahes no leap,
viuae creatures with respect to their outward habit can he
inged so closely in gradation one with another."
APPENDIX IL To p. 285.
On the Succesmon of the different Eartk-catastrophes.
If petrifactions can be made of regular use for the archas-
logy and the physical geography of the earth, as the surest
318
PETSlFACnOXS.
documents ia the archives of nahire for tbe fruitAil histoiy
the catastrophes which have been connecteti with our pUnet
since its creation, the study of them, and its t^nd^icj, demands
as well a lliorougli critical comparison of them with the ot^aoiied
bodies of the present creation, as also au accurate inTestigatiun
of their different localities, and their geognostical relations.
The firet important and instructive result which is immediately
derived from Uiis two-fold consideration is, that tie lapidifica-
tions are of extremely unequal antiquity ; many, as the still fresh
Salmo arcticua of the west coast of Greenland, which is. so to
speak, merely mummified in the thin clayisb-marl beds, is only
of yesterday or the day before, in comparison with the thoroughly
itrange and puzzling impressions of unknown plants which are
found in the grau-wacke strata of the Harz on the borders of
the Gangberg in the depths of the earth, and which belong to
the very oldest evidences of an oi^nized creation on our planet
A wider examination of these differently made fossils, and of
their equally various sort of condition, brings us to a closer
conclusion as to the oldest history of the body of this earth, and
upon the sort and consequences of the numerous catastrophes
it has gone through, and through which its crust has acquired
its present appearance, which has been built out of such great
convulsions. It is therefore my opinion, that the petrifactions
may be arranged off-band, according to their different antiquity,
most easily in three principal divisions. First, those whose
complete similarity with still existing repreaentativea, as well
as the positions they are found in, prove that they must be
paratively the most recent; secondly, those far older, whiiAi
have not indeed similar but still more or less allied analogues
them in the present creation, although in climates very distant
from those which contain such fossil remains; finally, in the
third place, the very oldest of all, consisting for the most part of
creatures completely unknown, the records of a perfectly strange
creation which has been completely destroyed. These three
divisions may to a certain extent be compared to the three
epochs in the oldest profane writings of an historical, heroic, and
mythical porinil.
^
^
A
I'KTRiFACTlOSS.
313
The first of these divisions comprises, therefore, the rela-
tively most modern I up idi£ cations, those uamely which seeDi to
have been occasioned by partial local revolutions since the last
generai catastrophe which our planet suffered; and conse-
(luently, nothing but those whoae representatives are still in
existeDCo, and which are closcily allied to tlie fossil remains in
the same country. Amongst them I reckon the uncommonly
clear casts and remains from all six classes of the animal king-
dom, and the numerous kinds of plants which are to he found
in, and have made famous, the stinking slnte-quarries at Oen-
ingen on the Bodenscc. When I travelled in that country I
mode a collection of thtm, and I have seen still more in other
collections; but amongst all, which I have myself been able
to examine accuratt'ly, 1 have unfortunately found nothing ex-
^etic, nothing which miglit not be referred either unmistakeably,
^■pr at all events with the greatest probability, to the fauna ao<i
^■lora of that present country and its waters,
^ft To the second of these principal divisions belong fossils of
^B^uite another sort and far higher origin -, namely, the now innu-
Hwierable elephants, rhinoceroscH, and other now tropical crea-
* tares found in this country, which most probably must have
been once naturalized here, as is particularly demonstrated by
the enormously large dens of huge species of bears in the
summits of the Harz, the Fichtelbeig, in the Thuringian
irest and on the Cai-pathians. Evorything goes to show that
lose bears came alive into those caves, and fouud their graves
But there arc also foimd in these caves with them
ibones and t«eth of beasts of prey, like the lions and hyaenas
the present earth, of which I have specimens, from moat of
le dens mentioned, in my collection. Consequently, according
ail probability that species of bears was also a tropical one,
aa bears still live in many of the tropical zones of the
id world; and aa those bears and lions are found in positions
'here it would be difficult for them to have bfen floated in by
ly current after death, so this seems very unlikely to have
.ppened either to the elephants or rhinoceroses. Especially
when it is considered that quite little flocks of many of these
i
knebeoi fiaod lopaha, m Am
•D tk Utker &n, vhoK find
Md deaenbol with » I '» fca^ br «r ■
^um; aad AaC «f otWnt a* «f tke two ckfibnte from Tooim.
■iiliiiwii ilwii, llii iMiililii ifceletiMB have been dagoo^ Ac
Ami faally, all tkv demaa k new iaqMctutee frosn another
geolopcal fibaiaaeBM^ wbkh atxnuiitig to my connctiao be-
loagi to a KB&r dniHon, and BraM be joined ia idose connec-
tion with it; I ntean the reaaina of tra^neal mimalw in certain
iJHiial laa ■ Thaa in the iih iiimii ctntn of F^penheim there
have been fijand amOBgitMt tnaay other trofacalcreatares a kind
of MaUaaean'vstex'-^ei.aiKithe idH articolated ann bones of m
tfetiet at bat, -rtxj mach like tlie fijring-dog. and all these so well
preaeiTed, eren ap to the moat debcate Indian atar-fishes, w
dew and in aocfa perfection, that no notion can remain of uay
tianBport of them tfaroogh a genenl flood from the Boothem
btmi^here here. On the oontraij, it ia qoite clear that those
elephaou, riiinooerofies, and hjsna-Iike mimyb must once have
been just aa these waler-fieas, star-fishea, Sx., domesticated ia
oar latitudes, ontil throogh some cause which we cannot now
determine with any certainty, a total alteration of the climate
took place, which occasioned the destruction of the then living
generation of thoae tropical creatures, as of manv other genera
and species of organized bodies which existed along with tbem,
of which in the present creation no exactly similar, to say
nothing of specifically like, representatives are to be found : as
the unknown of Ohio among great land-animals, and amongst
the manne-animals in the Pappenheim slate-qu&rries,
altogether strange species of crabs, the singular hard-a
medusa bead, and many others.
This revolution, which seems to have been merely climatic
must be distinguished from those earlier and much more forci-
ble ones, from which we must date the petrifactions of the third
so matfH
"d-anm^H
1
OBJECTS OF DESIGN.
321
division, the oldest of alL In those the firm crust of the earth
itself suffered such powerful shocks, that the floors of tho pre-
i-iouB seas of the primeval world began to cover high mountains
with their still uninjured shells ; and on tlie other hand, the pre-
vious vegetation of the land was buried deep under the present
surface of the sea. It is at once observed that these destructive
catastrophes themselves were again of more tlian one sort, and
were very far from happening aU at the same time; although it
is scarcely possible at present to dtitermine with any certainty
the chronological arrangement of the succeaaive periods in which
they happened, to say nothing of the causes of them.
P
APPENDIX UL To p. 292.
On tlie so-called Objects of Design.
Few scientific theories have been supported and opposed
with such incredible prejudices on the one side and on the other,
as those about the objects of design of the Creator. With many
indeed, who contested this point, it was merely a question of
words, whether one ought to speak of design or utility. Others
considered the whole question of final causes as entirely useless;
and Bacon's bon-mot is well known, who compared it to a
prudent virgin, who weds heaven, and consequently produces
nothing for the world. The great thinker would however have
come to a diffcTent conclusion if he had been reminded out of
the literature of phyaic^ogy and natural history, what complete-
ness in these important sciences and what useful results to man-
kind the search into the final purposes of nature has produced.
But certainly the teleologists have laid themselves wonderfully
open by anxiously catching at those things, and have also used
great force to them, because they have thought themselves
obliged to demonstrate clearly the aim and object of every dis-
position of nature, especially in the organic creation. Thus the
otherwise praiseworthy anatomist Spigel declares that the reason
why in man that part on which he sits has been so visibly more
21
13^
mtm. ftim rf QbiiIImIihi^ ^* hM m evo^ mr «vn great
»dBB ia ■ilaril hirtMy. dNk W b* nfated thk tDHteke oat
d'MteiehcariC ndbw Ams Am the diAs on tbefeeitf
Abm HBeete a*e aot penetated; ^id en— igacn^ Una
fllfeet vUdb via vitk good iHialiiiii atmbuted fca
Onalor will aot itnd
Othei^ >am<>tmM, «b As oarizaiT, handodrted the raalh;
of «B7 anangemeBt ia aataie tor the vsiy reaaon tint tb«v can-
not find ia it any deagn ol the Oeat<K. When I pcooted oat to
m; aeTer-to-be4bfgatteii fiiend Cbmper, that, in nature, contmjr
to erery conaaanofi^tm, the tw^ioles of the ptpa of SariiuuD weie
regularly taikd, he wax dtspased at first to confer* the instance
I diowed him as an unnatural monstroatj. because he ooold not
ondentaiM] of what use this fin-tail coold be to these little crea-
torai who nt nestled on the back of their mothers Others,
again, have swqit the whole road quite clean, and completelf
denied all design in the creation. Not many years ago a distin-
goisbed member of the tlien Academy of Sciences of Pans
' " Man aloiu of tU sojnula lita comrorUbty, becuue he ha* Urg«r flcahj
bnttockl, U)d tlicas wen giTm btm m s nuppart ui J a cwluon, •■> that when hit
•Unuch wia Full, he could (it wi^out inroDiemciKw, md apply hii mind more
readllj' to reflectiun open dirina nmltcra."—" There nae howenx a re«peclabie
Baffliih e]rrgymiM of aoother oinnion, ivha amongit otb«- ■oggEHtiona a* to tbe
dilloata and particulai' propriet; of conduct which ihould be otuerred in chordi,
uincl to urge Tvrj lealaiuty that the psalmi ahonld he mng tUniUDg, becaiBt it
•nt Impuuibls the; could come right from the be*rt in a ■itting po*ture;" lee
Hnuirla m thi Public Sernet o/ lAt Church, wiA torn Dircakmi for our AnUnwiir
tirri, Ughiji proper to ie undenlood by FeopU of all Sank* and Ago, Lond. 1748,
• Commmt. .Soe. Ptg. Srlmt. Getting.. T, ix. p. tig.
^
OBJECTS OP DESIGN.
323
declared that it was as ridiculous to suppose that the aye was
made to see with ', as to assert that stones were appointed for the
purpose of breaking a man's head. This however, please God,
will scarcely be satisfactory to any one who has ever had the
opportunity of comparing the interior structure of any animal
which is remarkable for striking singularities in its mode of lifo
and functions, and can in this way persuade himself from nature
itself most incontrovertibly of this pre-established harmony, as it
may easily he called, between the purposed structure of crea-
tures and their mode of life. It would be difhcult for anyone
who is well acquainted with the natural histoty of the mole or
the seal, and will consider with some little reflection the skele-
ton and muscular system of the former, and the peculiarities of
the circulation and the organs of sense of the latter, to allow
himself seriously to utter such an expression as the one men-
tioned above. The hundredfold proofs which may be deduced
from comparative anatomy deprive the weak superficialities of
some ancient sophists, who supposed that the animal structure
was not ordained for its functions, but tliat the occupations of
animals were only the mere consequence of their organization,
of the last shadow of speciousneaa. Thus the production of so
many mere temporary organs which only exist in the animal
economy for transitory and extremely limited purposes, and
which all the same are as good as those which are most durable
in all the rest of the atructure of those animals in which they
are found, are wonderfully atlapted to their mode of life. Thus,
to produce only one instance of the kind, in the hedgehog, which
rolls itself up in defence with such great muscular power, even
the unborn ftetusee are completely funiimhed with one of these
powerful springs, most accurately arranged, but which is after-
wards in its way an after-birth' quite anomalously deformed,
thick, and solid, under which the tender immature creature re.^tB
' Hiiu lud Laeratiua long ago :
"Lumins ne rocLii ociilonini dnra creata
ProHpicere ut poaaimus," kc.
' I lu""* given repretentatipni of this Liglily remnrkable p»rt in my llamlhiieb
324 OBJECTS OF DESION.
as under a shield, in order to be as completely as possible pro-
tected, on any powerful constriction of the pr^fnant mother,
against the dangerous consequences of that strong grasp from
which its abdomen and entrails might thereby su£fer.
BEYTRAGE
ZUR
NATURGESCHICHTE,
VON
JOH. FR. BLUMENBACH,
PBor. in Gomiroiv.
ZWETTSR THBIU
GOTTINGEN:
^k
BET HEINRIOH DIETEBICH, 1811. "^
V
r * • •
*
- V.
J
L J i
4
:^ ^. - -
1
CONTENTS.
I.
On the ffamo Sapiens Fents Linn. : cmd particularly of Wild
.^ Feter o/Hameln.
How'KWild PetoT-was found and brought prisoner to Hameln ;
what happenSd'to Wild Peter in Hamehi ; Peter arrives in England,
and now becomes £Eunoas ; Peter*s origin ; Peter's life and conduct
in England; mistaken accounts by the biographers of Peter; genuine
sources for Peter's history ; Peter compared with other so-called wild
children; neither Peter, nor any other Homo sapiens ferus of Linneus,
can ser ve as a specimen of the or igin al man of n ature : no originally
wild condition of nature is to be attributed to Man, who is bom
a domesfic' i£5iL '
II.
On Egyptian Mummies,
[Inedited, see Pre/.]
CONTRIBUTIONS TO NATURAL HISTORY
J. F. BLUMENBACH.
PART THE SECOND.
I Moio Wild Peter was/ourtd and brought prisoner to Uavieln.
"'On Friday, July 27t.b, 172-t, at the time of hay-harvest, JUrgen
Meyer, a townsman of Hameln, met, by a stile in his field,
not far from Helpensen, with a naked, brownish, black-haired
creature, who was running up and down, and was about the size
of a boy of twelve years old. It uttered no human sound, but
was happily enticed, by its astonished discoverer showing it two
apples in his hand, into the town, and entrapped within the
Bridge-gate. There it was at first received by a mob of street
boys, but was very soon afterwards placed for safe custody in
the Hospital of the Holy Ghost, by order of the Burgomaster
Severin.
I What itappened to Wild Feter in Hameln.
Peter — that was the name given him on his first ap-
pearance in Hameln by the atreet-boys, and he retained it up
to quite old age — Peter showed himself rather brutish in the
first weeks of hia captivity; seeking to get out at doors and
wiodowi, lotmg now ami then opoa bts knees and elbows, i
rtAiBg hiwwwtf Eron side to nde oq his stzaw bed ontil he f
aalccfi He did not Hke bnad at fint, bat be eagerly peeled
gicen atido, and chewed tbe ped for the jnioe, as he aUo did
vegetables, grass, and beaa-sbeOa. By degrees be grew tam«r
and cleaner, so be was allowed to go about the town and pay
ynata. When aojAing was offered him to eat, he first smelt
■- it. and then either pot it in his moath, or laid it aside with a
•^ shake of the head. In the same way he woold-smell people's
V^ hands, and then stnke his breast if pleased, or if otherwise
shake his head. When be particularly liked anything, as
green beans, peas, tomips, mulberries, fmitt and particularly
onions and hazel-nuts, he indicated his Batisfaction by sinking
repeatedly on his chest. Just when he was found by Jiirgea
Ueyer be had caoght some birds, and ca^rly dismembered
them.
When his first shoes were pat on him he was unahle to
walk in them, but appeared glad when he could go about again
bare-footed. He was just as httle pleased with any c
on his head, and extremely enjoyed throwing his hat or cap ii
the water and seeing it swim. He first of all became uss
to go with clothes on, after they had tried him with a 1
kilt. In other respects he appeared of quite a sanguine t
perament, and liked hearing music; anil bis hearing and i
were particularly acute. Whenever he wanted to get axq
thing he kissed his hands, or even the ground
After some time Peter was put out to board with a cloth-
maker. He adhered to this man with true attachment, and
was accompanied by him when he went from thence, in
Oct, 1725, to Zell, into the hospital there, situated by the House
of Correction ; but about Advent in the same year Kin)
George I. sent for him to Hanover.
III.
Peter arnvea in England, and now becomes famous.
la Fwb.. 1726^ Peter, under the safeguard of a royal servant,
by name Rauteiiberg, was brought from Hanover to London ;
and with his arrival there began his since so widely-spread
celebrity. Tliis was the very time when the controversy about
the existe nce of itiTI"'" '■^p"'' was being carried on with the
greatest vivacity and warmth on both sides. Peter seemed the
rauch-wished-for subject for determining the question. A genial
fellow. Count Ziiizendorf, who afterwards became bo famous
as the restorer and Ordinary of the Evangelical Brotherhood, as
early as the beginning of 1726, made an application in London,
to the Countess of Schaumburg-Lippe, for her interest, that
Peter might be entrusted to his charge, in order that he might
watch the devclopement of his innate ideas ; but he received
for answer that the king had made a pre.sent of hira to the
then Fpa cesa of W ales, afterwards Queen Caroline, welt known
as one of the moet enlightened princesses of any age ; and that
she had cotifided him in trust to Dr Arbuthnot, the intimate
friend of Pope ^^anJ- Swift , and tEe Vinous collaborator of Gul-
liver's Travels, still for the purpose of iuvestigatiag the innate
ideas of Wild Peter.
owift himself has immortalized him, in his humorous pro-
duction, It cannot rain, but it pours', Linuseua gave him a
niche in the Systema Natura, under the title o{ Juvenis M<m-
nOTOrgnus; and Buffon, de Pauw, and J. J. Rousseau, have
extolled him as a specimen of the'- true .natural man;-, Still
more recently he has found an enthusiastic biographer in the
famous Monboddo, who declares his appearance to be more
remarkable than the discovery of Uranus, or than if astrono-
mers, to the catalogue of stars already known, had added thirty
thousand new ones*.
^ (Or, tsadon Hmctd irfrtflfw^r Ed.] '_■ "^
"I coTuider IiTb bistaty ns B^n^chKnicIe or abstntcl of tha faiitoiy of the
S9 of huTnuD nature. Trom the men) nnimol to the first itkge of eivitized Ur«."
it SfdapAytics, Vol. m. p. f 7.
WILD PETER.
IV.
Peter's Origin.
It 13 a pity, aftet all the importance which the f|
attached to Wild Peter, that two little circu
history of his discovery should be left out of sig
which I will here repeat, as far as possible, from the earliest
original documenta, which I have before me. First, when Peter
was, as I said, met with by the tovnisman of Hameln, the small
fragment of a torn shirt was still fastened with string about
his neck. Secondly, the singularly superior whiteness of his
thighs compared to his legs, at his first entry into the town,
occaBioued and confirmed the remark of a townswoman, that
the child must have worn breeches, but no stockings. Thirdly,
upon closer examination, the tongue was found unusually thick,
and little capable of motion, so that an army surgeon at Ha-
meln thought of attempting au operation to set it free, but
did not perform it. Fourthly, some boatmen related, that 1
they were descending in their boat from Poll, in the sum
they bad seen at difiWreut times a poor naked child on t
banks of the Wesor, and had given him a piece of brea
Fifthly, it was soon ascertained, that Kruger, a widower (
Liichtringen, between Holzmiuden and Hoxter, in Paderbom
had had a dumb child which had run away into the woods, ii
1723, and had been found again in the following year, quit« ii
a different place; but meanwhile his father had married i
second time, and so ho was shortly afterwards thn:iat out e
by his new step-mother.
Peters Life and Conduct in London.
Dr Arbuthnot soon found out that no instructive discoveriea
in psychology or anthropology were to be expected from t
imbecile boy; and so, after two mouths, at the request of thsl
WILD PETER.
philosophic physician, a sufficient pension was settled upon him,
anJ he was placed first with a chamber- woman ol' the Queen,
and then with a fanner in H ertfords hire, where at last he
ended hiaCvegetatoTxi^eJti a tence a s a kind of very old child,
in :Feb. 1';^.
Peter was of middle size, but when grown up of fresh
robust appearance, and strong muscular developement ; hia
physiognomy was by no means so stupid; he had a respectable
beard, and soon_ accustomed hitoafiI£to a mixed diet of flesh,
&c., but retained all his Ufe his early love for onions. As
he grew older he became more moderate in bis eating, since in
the first year of his captivity he took enough for two men.
He relished a glass of brandy, he liked the fire, but he showed
all his life the most perfect indifference for money, and what
proves, above all, the more than brutish and invincible stupidity
of Peter, just aa complete an indifference for tho other sex.
Whenever bad weather came on, he was always ill-tfmpered
and sad. He was never able to speak properly. Peter, ki
echo, and qui ca (by the two last wonls meaning to express
the names of his two benefactors. King George and Queen Caro-
line), were the plainest of the few articulate sounds he was
ever known to produce. He seemed to have a taste for music,
and would hum over with satisfaction tunes of all kinds which
he had often heard : and when an instrument was played, ho
would hop about with great delight until he was quite tired.
No one, however, ever saw him laugh — that cheerful prero-
gative of mankind. In other respects he conducted himself as
a good-natured, harmless, and obedient creature, so that ho
could be employed in all sorts of httle domestic offices in the
kitchen, or in the field. But they could not leave him alone to
hia own devices in these matters ; for once when he was luft
alone by a cart of dung, which he had just been helping to
Bioftd, he immediately on the same spot began diligently to un-
l it again.
! probably lost himself several times in the neighbour-
l during the first ten years of his residence in England ;
; at all events one day, in 17*6, he unwittingly strayed a
334
WILD PETER.
long way, and at last got as far as Norfolk, where lie i
brouglit before a justice of the peace aa the suspicioua Unknovi
— this was at the time when there was a look-oiit for th«
supposed emissaries of the Pretender. As he did not speak, he
was committed for the moment to the great prison-boiifle in
Norwich for safe custody. A groat fire broke out there (
that very night, so that the prison waa opened as i
as pOBsihle, and the detained were let out Wh
the first fright the prisoners were counted up, the most in
portant of them all was missing, the dumb Unknown,
warder rushed through the Barnes of the wide prison, and fow
Peter sitting quietly at the back in his corner ; he was enjtq
iiig the illumination and the agreeable warmth, and it was n
without difficulty that he could bo dragged forth : and bo«
afterwards, from the advertisements for lost things, he was p
cognized as the innocent Peter, and forwarded to his farmer
again. Briefly, as an end to the tale, this pretended ideal of—
pure human nature, to which later aopldsts have elevated t
wihl Pgter, waa altogether nothing more tha n a dum b imb<
T3iot.
VI,
Mistaken accounta by tJie hiograpliers of Peter.
Meanwhile the history of this idiot is always remarkable, d
a striking example of the uncertainty of human testimony <
historical credibility. For it is surprising how divergent a
partly contradictory are even the first contemporary accounted
the circumstances of his appearance in Hameln. No tflH
stories agree in the year, season, or place where and when \
was found by the townsman of Hameln, and brought into the ci
The later printed stories are utterly wrong ; how he was found
by King George I. when huntiug at Herrenhausen, or, accord-
ing to others, on the Harz ; how it was necessary to cut down
the tree, on the top of which he had taken refuge, in order to
get at him ; how his body waa covered with hair, and that he
ran upon all-fours ; how he jumped about trees like a squirr
WILD PETER.
IBS" was very clever in getting the baits out of wolves'
tmpe ; how he was carried over to England in an iron cage ;
how he learnt to speak in nine months at the Queen's court;
rhe was baptized by X)r Arbothnot, and soon after died, &c.
VII.
Genuine sources/or Peter's histonj.
I have critically examined everything that there is in print'
about Wild Peter, and collected besides other accounts of the
history of his discovery, The chief of these is a particular
manuscript account by Severin, the Burgomaster of Hamein
already mentioned, which he despatched in Feb. 172G to the
minister at Hanover, and for which I am indebted to the
kindness of the moat worthy master of the head school in
Hamcin, Avenarius. There are, besides, nunierous national
chronicles, and the unpriatod collections of the chamberlain
Redcker in the town-house of Hanover. With respect to his
later mode of life in England, besides what I found out there
myself, many of my friends there, such as the ambassadors of
Hanover, Dr Domford and M. C'raufurd, have communicated to
me accurate accounts, which they themselves got together in
Hertfordehire itself, and which I have made use o£
As to the likenesses of Peter which are in existence, I possess
two masterly engravings, which, I am asauretl, bear a close
resemblance to him. The one is a great sheet, in a dark style,
^ Leiiaigir Zrilimtjm mm jjel. Saehert, 1755, Nn, 104, 1716, Nob. 17, 61, 88.
Srttiaucr Sannlunytn, Vol Xixiv. Deo. 1715, p. 659, Vol. ilivi. Ap. 1716,
p. S06.
Zmtrlauigi nachrieU iioit dtm hei ffamrln gc/undrnen wildcra ki%abtn. ICuiri
<IlMai t^itanu figttT in Kupftr galocheu btfiadlidt, 1716, 4to.
SpknjfHiibers'a tebin da Gr. Ziiutndorff, tl. B. p. j8o.
Swift's Warla, Vol. m. P. i, p. tjj, ed. 1755, ^^a.
Ein irir/ ila Ham^trAen IlurytTotiKlfri Palm, v. 1741, in C. F. Fein'* Snllart-
tor Pattt von A Higanffr iter nSmtUckea Kindrr, HuioT. 1 749, 4ta, p. 36.
Ooilieman'* Ma-}. VoL JOli, 1751, p- S", Vol. lv. ijBj, P. i. pp. iiji »3*>
P.n. p, 851.
Monboddn, inrioii Uttaphyiia, Vol. m. Lend, 1784. 4I0, pp. S7i .1^7-
[Comp. PcUrr ItiC Wild Boy. An enrjuiry bow tLc Wild Yonth lal*ly Uken
inths woods DBarUanover, &c,&c. iimo. Lond.— A cop; in the Brit. Miia. En.]
336 WILD PETER.
l>y Val. Green, from the picture by P- Falconet ;
him as sitting, a full-length figure, in about bis fiftieth year,
and was painted at London in 1767, when he was presented to
the kin<'. The other is by Bartolozzi, after the three-quart«r
figvire painted by J, Alefounder three years before Peter's death,
quite a well-looking old man, whom any one who knew no
better, might suppose to be more cunning than he looked.
Peter Cc
vm.
ivith other so-called wild children.
It seems, perhaps, well worth the pains once for all to exa-
mine and settle critically the accounts of poor Peter, who has
been considered of so much importance by so many of our
greatest naturalists, sophists, &c.; principally, because this is
first story which can be set forth according to the real k
for all the other instances of so-called wild children, alini
without exception, are mixed up with so many beyond
sure extraordinary and astonishing untruths or contradictioi
that their credibility has become in consequence highly pi
blematical altogether.
Taking those instances only, which LinnsDUs has set out
his rubric on the Homo sapiens Ferus, and with wliich ho
introduced his Systema Naiurat; hia Juvenis ovinus Hibemva, who
when sixteen years old was carried about as a show in Holland,
where he was described by the elder Tulp', even entirely accord-
ing to that account was an imbecile, dumb, and also outwardly
deformed creature, but which could hardly have grown up from
the cradle among wild sheep in Ireland, because they exist no
more there than anywhere else. That he eat grass and hay
at Amsterdam in the presence of astonished beholders, is, I
.think, just as credible, as that the pretended South-seals)
from Tanna, who some years ago was carried round at tiarvi
' Obt. Med. lib. IV. c. X. p, 396, fifth ed, L,B. 1716.
1
r
f WILD MEN. 337
■time and fairs, used to muncli stonca. BL-sides the estraordi-
narj- descriptiou, which that otherwise eo worthy Burgomaster
of Amsterdam gives us of this boy, and also the fact, that so far
as I know, no contemporary or even more recent author upon
the natural history of Ireland, alludes to him even by a single
word, makes me extremely suspicious on the matter ; and at all
events, I do not think it worth the attention which haa been
bestowed upon it by our own SchlSzer and Herder.
As to the Juvenia bovinus Bamhergensis of Linnffius, so far
as I know, we have no other testimony, except what we are told
by the worthy Ph. Camerarius, who says', that this Bamberg
savage, who at that time had entered into the condition of holy
jaatrimony, informed bira that he had been brought up on the
igbbouring hills by the cows.
More precise, but still more suspicious, is the account of the
e^ht years old Juvenia lupinue Hessensis of 134i (not 1554, as
LinniEus' and all Lis copyists give out), who celebrated the good
reception which he had met with from the wolves when they
had carried him ofiF about five years before. They had made him
a sofl nest of leaves, laid all round him, and kept him warm,
brought him a share of their spoil', &c.
Much also must, at all events, be subtracted from tlie
Juvenis ursinva LWmanus ; aa, for instance, what we are
assured by the authority, the imaginative Connor, in his Medi-
cina Myatica aeu de Miraculia', that it is nothing uncommon
in Poland for a bear giving suck, if it happens to find a child,
to take it to its lair, and bring it up from its own breast.
Many instances indeed are given by the elder Joh. Dan. Geyer,
in his monograph On Vie LHhuanian Bear^ien; one Polaok
in particular of about eight or nine years old, whom
Oper. horar. inbieeirar. Cent, I. p. 343, ed. i6oj.
(In Iho tenlh ed. liniueUB wrote, 13(4; the 5 i« 'li
ft minpriat. BlumenbMh teemt to me n1w&;i in
Ed.J
* Additionft ad Laabtrt. Schafaabitrii. Apjiotitir ab Erphetfordtnil mom
tinoit. in Piatorii tcrip. rir. a Oerm. gatar. Frf. 16 1 3, fill. p. 164.
* P- "3,i. "d- 'Sp'J' Comp. lie Hulfn-y nf Pvlaa-I. Li.ii.l. iSgti, Rvo. Vn
p. J4j: whuTO & litlls Poloak in repnieitleil in 11 rmipattalilo copprplnle, ns
lUcked the old bear-ioother between two yoiirg hertrJ,
22
WILD MEIT.
King John III. met with, and had baptized ; and who i
made fife-player to the militia, notwithstanding that he ]
feired going on four feet iniitead of two".
It is said of the PueUa T'ran^mVana* that she was abc
eighteen years old, when, in the winter of 1717, she was caught
in a net on a search-hunt organized for tliat purpose by one
thousand Kraueuburg peasants. She was quite naked except
for a scanty straw apron, her skin had become hard and black,
but in a little time after her capture it fell off, and upon that
a bcautifid fresh skin came to light, &c (I have kept quite
close to the account of the witnesses.)
In other respects this wild girl waa very friendly, and of
good cheerful temper, and was stolen from her parents when
a little child in May, 1700.
The PiteUa Cawpanica, as she was called by Linnfcus, or
Mad"^' le Blanc, according to her French biographers*, wliu
considered her as an Esquimaux girl seat to Frauce, was first
of all oljserved in the water, where two girls about the siae
of children of ten years old, and armed with clubs, swam about
and ducked in and out like water-hens. They soon quarrelled
about a clmplet of rases, which they found ; one of them was
struck on the head by the other, but slie immediately bound
up the wound with a plaster made out of a frog's skin tieJ
with a strip of bark. Since then, however, she was seen no
more, but Mad"*" le Blanc, tlie victress, covered only with taga
and skins, and with a gourd-bottle instead of a bonnet oa b
head, was entrapped into a neighbouring &c.
Jo/iannea Leodicensis was, according to the account of i
credulous Digby* a peasant youth of Liege, who ran away I
' I"A man of credit wiauieJ m", that tbere was found in Dmmark, i
nun. of about fourteen or fifteen yi'im otiJ, nho lived In tbo woods with tbc m
and wbo ciuld not be dLetinguia)jt.iI from tbem but bj hia ahape. Thej took H
and lenrnel hiin to apeak; he mud then, he could remember nothing but oiiljd
tbe time the; took hiiD from Bmongat the bean." Life ijf Vanini, Aoim. 1714. SnJ
■ Sri)!, Kamml, lUI. a. 437.
' Hill, tfanejeanefillt mapar/t. Far. 17S5. 9vo.
* la Tim Teaaita, is the one o/uMcli tkc Hotire of BviUt m the orter lb
Pai
.64+. i
1. S47.
WILD MEN.
fear when the soliliurs plunJored hia village into the forest of
Arileiines, anil lodged there for many years, and lived upon
roots, wild pean, and acorns.
There still remain, what are called hy LinnEeus, Puen
Pyrenaici of 1719, on whose traces however I have not yet
been able to come again'. Meanwhile, what I have here set
down about the othtrs will, I hope, tend to give tlie proper
value to thoso wonderful and various stories about these pre-
mded m£i L of nat ure in a philoao phic natural hiator y of
dnd.
r
1^ se
WtAer Peter twt any otiier Hovio sapima ferus of Liniueus can
as a Speciinen of the original Man of Nature.
If we make a fair deduction from the really too tasteless
ficUoM in those stories, and let the rest pass muster ever so
indulgently, still it will be at once seen, that these were alto- \^
gether min atural deformed creat uresTjand yet, what also goes ^ ..
very much to show how ah no rmal they were, no two of them
were at all like each other, according to any critical com-
parison of the accounts we have of them. Taken altogether,
they were very unm anlike, but each in liis own way, a^ording
to the standard of his bwc individual wants, imperfections, and
unnatural properties. Only in this were they like each other,
that contrary to the instinct of nature, they lived alone, sepa-
rated from the society of men, wandering about here and
there ; a condition, whoso opposition to what is natural has
been already compared by Voltaire to that of a lost solitary
bee*.
>^
' [But see AntieiU MetapKytiet, Vol. IV. pp. i1, 3S, uid the Spaniah work,
Saatnario Srudilo, of i;88, there rofarroil to. Ec]
■ " If one nuxia with » waiidbriug bee, ought one to coaclude that the bee ia ia
' " '0, and that those who work in company in the hive havn
D. »l»o Fil»ngicri, Sck'ix iktia Usialazioiic, T. I. p. 64,
mded.
22-
MAN DOMESTIC^ ,>
f^X
Above alt n o orvfinalhf "Wild Cond iti rfu ( ( /' Haium i^ to U
dttn^ujeiiio Jfun^j#o is bom a domestic animoL
Bjaa^ifr a- jknoeati c an im al'.y But in order that other
animals might be made domestic about bim, individuals of
their species were first of all torn from their wild condition,
and made to live under cover, and become tame ; whereas be
on the contrary was bom and appointed by nature the most
completely domesticated animal Other domestic aoimala wc
first brought to that state of perfection through him. He
the only one wbo brought hintael/to perfection.
rBut whilst so many other domestic animals, as cats,
goats, &c. when they by accident return to the wilderness,
very soon degenerate into the natural condition of the wild
\ species ; so on the other hand, as I have said, all those so-
" calle j wild chi ldren in their other behaviour, and nature, &c,
strikingly differed one from another, for the very reason that
tlicy—had no originally wild species to degenerate into, for
such a race of mankind, which is the most- per&ct of al!
sorts of domestic animak that have been. created^_Dq where
exists, nor is there any position, any mode of life, or even
climate which would be suitable for it.
H
GOTTINGISCHE
GELEHRTE ANZEIGEN.
177 STUCK.
DEK 4 NOVEMBER, 1833.
GOTTINQEN.
REMARKS
HIPPOCRATIC MACROCEPHALHS,
J. F. BLUMENBACH'.
The lecture delivered by the Chief Physician-Royal, filumen-
bach, in the sitting of the Royal Society, of the 3rd August,
coDsiated of a Spicilegiitm observatiomim de generis kumani va-
rietate naiiva, a suliject, tliat since his ina^igural dissertation
which appeared under this title nearly sixty years ago, the author
baB always taken pleasure in working at. It was only some-
thing on the national characteristics of the three chief races
among the five, into which he had thought it most according
to nature to divide mankind. Therefore, first of the Caucasian
8tem, or middle race ; and of its two extremes, which are
iy, the Ethiopian, and thirdly, the Mongolian.
the first race we have but one skull, but that of the very
interest An old Hippocratic macrocephalus from the
iea, exactly answering to the description given by the
&ther of medicine in his golden treatise On air, water, and soil.
Blumenbach owed this present for his rich collection of national
eikuUs to the kindness of the excellent and much travelled
physician of Augsburg, Dr Stephan, who, at the very time when
the Russian Government had the ancient funeral mounds of the
kings of the Boaphonis opened, which exist on the water-shed
of the steppe hills in the vicinity of Kertch (the Panticapjpum
of the ancienta) happened to be there, and obtained the skull in
' GSlling. 'jdtlirU At\zriy. 177 at. B. 11, t
JM4
■ACKOCEPBALCS.
qnestion. Tliis caetlj resembles id shape the others w
were foatul there with it Od acccmnt of the great age of the
burial place it was vei; rotten aiul fragile; Thia was also the
case with the other skolls, which were laid by him previously
before the Royal Society, of old Greeks, Germaos, Cimbriaiis,
Tscfaadifl, &C. which have been described in their Transaction.
The striking characteristic of the Tauric Macrocephalus, of
which we are dot epeakiog, displays itself io a high, but not
much vatilted forehead : the parietal bones on the other hand
being exceedingly high, quite macrocephalic. The sagittiJ
suture, as well us the other two prinnpal sutures of the occipui
were quite obliterated.
Secondly, of the Ethiopian race, which indeed at the Rtux
glance contrasts so furcibl; with the others that one can easily
uaderstand the exclamation of the naturalist Pliny; "Who
would have beUeved in an Ethiopian before he bad seen him!"
Almost exactly at the same time as that ancient long-headed
skull Blumenbacb received bom bis old friend and pupil, Kauf-
mann, the court pbjsiciau of Hanover, something of just as
great importance to him for his collection, although of quite
another kind. It was the fresh clean head of a negro boy from
Congo, who had died unfortunately in his fifteenth year, and
who might be considered as the most perfect ideal of this race
of man. This gave the author of the lecture an opportunity
of passing a critical review upon many of the to a great extent
groundless assertions on the liodily pecullaritiea of the ne^o,
which he refuted by the exhibition of preparations. Amongst
tliese were some embryos, and this gave him an opportuni^
of saying something also on the third priucipal race.
The Mongolian : not, indeed, iipon the character of their sknlh^;
of which Blumenbacb, through the kindness of the never-to-be-
forgotten Baron von Asch, possesses a most instructive series;
but only to contrast with those uuboru n^roes the fiEtus of a
female Calmuck three months old, already possessed of the ex-
pressive national physiognomy, displaying, Damcly, that striking
oblique direction of the bifurcation of the eyelids towards the
root of the nose. Bl.
'i
I
NACHRICHTEN
VON DER G. A. UNIVERSITAT UND DER KONIGL.
GESELLSCHAFT DER WISSENSCHAFTEN
ZU GOTTINGEN.
OCTOBER 6.
NO. 14.
1856.
UNTVERSITAT.
DIB ANTHROPOLOGISCHE SAMMLUNG DES
PHYSIOLOGISCHEN INSTITUTS.
GOTTINGEN.
THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL COLLECTION OF THE
PHYSIOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF GOTTINGEN,
PROFESSOR RUDOLPH WAGNER.
d
Whek after the death of the respected Blumeubitch (Jan. 22,
18-10) the undersigned received his smnmons to this University,
and entered npon his present post in tlie autumn of 18tO, the
collection of the venerable naturalist ha<l preAnously by the care of
the Curatorium been purchased from the heira, and the ^eator
part of it had ah-eady Iwen incorporated in the Academical
Institute. The most valuable part of it was undeniably the
collection of skulls, which Bhiraenbach, supported by pupils
of his scattered over all parts of the world, and other numerous
donors, had been collecting zealously for his whole life, and
which it is well known had served him as the principal founda-
tion for his investigations on the natural histoiy of mankind.
Together with the Craniological Collection there was ranked a
more extensive body of materials for completing the knowledge
of the diflferent accompanying conditions of form and structure
in respect of Ethnology, and for illustrating the Lectures on the
General Natural History of Mankind.
Already, in 1795, Blumenbach had given a sketch of this, as
well of the Craniological Collection, which he incorporated with
the third edition of his famous treatise Be generis huTnani varte-
tate nativa, under the title Indea: suppeUecUlia aiiUiroiiologicas
S48
auctoris, qua in adomaiuia nova hacce editione maxivie usu^ a
He divided the appaa-atus into five parts. The first divi^M
comprised tho eighty-two race-skulls tlien existing in his <
lection, separately detailed, and of which he had alrea
represented thirty in the three first Decades of his Decades
cranioTum. Blumenbach here remarked that bis craniological
collection was unique of its kind, and that the richest museums
of that sort then in Europe, namely, the anatomical collections
of John Hunter and Peter Camper could not be compared with
it. The other divisions of the so-called anthropological collection
consisted of anatomical preparations, specimens of the skin and
hair of different nations, and some embryos; then, very good
drawings, especially some by the hand, paintings, also engrav-
ings, and besides excellent portraits of distinguished individuals
of difierent nations of our planet, executed in water-colours, oil,
and crayons.
All this material was handed over by the heirs to the Uni-
versity, and likewise most of the original manuscripts of Blu-
meuhach's works on general natural history, and upon the raceo,—
of man: they were first of all deposited in the rooms oft
academical museum allotted to me, until the erection of i
physiological institute in which the whole collection was i
ranged in the year 1842; wbere it remains in its entirety undfl^l
the name of the Elumenbachian Anthropological Museuni,-J
in lasting remembrance of that highly deserving man. Aim
present it fills two rooms. In the first room are the skulls, aryl
ranged in cabinets on the walls; outside which in like manners
stand a collection of plaster easts; and in the middle are some
mummies; whilst the other room contains the remaining objecta,
especially the portraits. From what Blumenbach himself l«ft
we hftve 245 whole skulls and fragments, and an Egyptian ami
Guanche mummy.
So far as my means and the great difficulty of making acqui-
sitions in an inland country, have permitted, I have endeavoured to
make the Collection still more complete But up to the present
time I have been only moderately successful. By purchase we
have obtained some interesting mummies and skulls from Pen!
Kvrliich Dr von Tschudi had collected; and I have lately received
fts a legacy from Professor de Fremcry in Utrecht some skulls
and the skeleton of a negro. H. M. King Louis of Bavaria,
liberal as he liad already shown himself in donations to Elu-
menbach, sent ua aome years ago seven in part very well pre-
served skulls from an old cemetery at Nordendorf on the Lech
(probably of the second and third century), which were found
on the occasion of making the raiboad. Hia Highness the Graf
von GSrtz Schlitz, who as a pupil of our high school had always
kept up a friendly recollection of it, sent us 6ye old Peruvian
skulls, which he had dug up himself on the spot, and in the
place, on bis voyage round the world. Professor Carl Schmidt
of Dorpat, likewise a pupil of the Georgia Augusta, presented us
■with two Lett skulls ; Professor Bidder, of Dorpat, added to tliem
au Esthonian skull. To my brother, Dr Moritz Wagner, we
owe two ekulla from the Crimea and a Greek skull. In this
way, and by some recently prepared skulls, some of them mur-
derers for example, the number of skulls and fragments of skuJls
B reached 310.
The want of skeletons has always been very great; the few
I; behind by Blumenbach were very defective and useleKs.
IT the Collection possesses several Europeans of different ages,
1 a well-prepared negro skeleton.
Besides the Egyptian and Guanche mummies we have three
fleruvian mummies. Some mummified beads, for example one
f a New Zealander, some negro heads in spirits of wine, &c.
As for the Craniological Collection, it can no longer pass
for the richest existing. That of Morton, which is now in
Philadelphia, is already much richer. Still it has much that
)8 interesting, as will be seen from the following sunmiary,
1 which, for the most part, I follow the old an'augcnieut of
fiumenbach.
■
'^^^^^^^1
350
UUBEUU. ^^^^^^H
A. Peoples
OF THE Old Woeld. ■
I. Caucasian Koces (Indo- Allan tic peoples). fl
2 Indiau.
1 Icelander.
1 Persiau.
1 Norwegian. ^
3 Georgiau,
8 Hollander.
1 LesgLi.
1 Wend.
1 Arraeuiaii.
1 Bohemian.
i Gipsy.
3 Hungarian.
5 Grtek.
1 Pole.
C Turk.
■i Lithuanian
7 Italian.
1 Eathouian.
1 Old Etruscan.
2 Slavonian.
5 Old Roman.
2 Galician.
6 French.
22 Russian.
1 Lothtiriugtan.
5 Cossack. ^^^H
I Burgundiaii.
3 ^^^H
1 Spaniard.
4 Lappa ^^^|
3 Engiieh.
2 01.1 Tschudi. ■
1 Irish.
1 Bulgarian. V
5 Scot.
i Jew. fl
1 Hebridean.
-I' Egyptian mummy akuU^I
IDane.
The remainder German. B
■
^" IL Mongolian
Races (Asiatic nations). ^|
w
1(1 Tartar.
1 ^^H
I
7 Calmuck.
Tungus. ^^^H
2 Baschkir.
1 Yakuta ^^^1
H
1 Saraoiede,
1 ^^^H
H
1 Kamtachatdaic.
2 Buruian. ^^^^^H
i
1 Tachuvas-ch.
^^^H
MUSEUM.
351
IIL Woolly-haired African Nations (Ethiopian race).
16 Negro skulls.
1 Mulatto.
1 Kafir.
1 Hottentot.
1 Bushman.
R Peoples of the New World.
IV. Americans.
3 Esquimaux.
4 Greenlander&
1 Komager from Eadjak.
1 Illinois.
4 From Missouri.
2 From Columbia River (ar-
tificially flatteued).
2 Carib (one artificially flat-
tened).
1 Huanca (Peru, artif. de-
formed).
1 Mexican.
3 Schitgaganen.
2 Algonquin.
1 Iroquois.
1 Modem Peruvian.
8 Chincha- Peruvian (some
artif. deformed).
1 Ature.
1 Botocudo.
6 Brazilian.
1 From Quiana.
V. Malays and South-Sea Islanders.
6 Javanese.
3 From Ball
2 From Celebes.
1 Mestizo from Celebes.
1 From Otaheite.
2 Nukuhiva.
2 From New HoUand.
1 Papuan.
2 From Madeira.
The remaining skulls have reference to congenital depar-
tures from the ordinary form, or pathological alterations, as
microcephaly, hydrocephalus, &c.
In the original collection the plastic representation of the
outward forms of races was limited to one bust of a negro and
one of a Botocudo, both moreover of indifferent workmanship.
as*
WtA ctedEt IB doe to Piofe«ar nm ''-"nifr of ]
bn taOBttieom in [HnmoEing this above aQ j
much ne^cteit means of forwanting the kiunvle
natural hiabvry of mankimj hj the aid of ph
hna execQbttl a ne^ though evea now :
aeries of nce-lxuts with great titielity to oaAire i
haodlii^, from indtvidiutla who came in his way at ]
I have obtained same beantifni esMs toe a
basts executed by Herr -ma T^nnit* They ira as i
Benjamin Gait^na, CtmataatiiiopolitaD J«k
I, Jew,
TItmnn, Vabian.
Abdallah, X«^ro.
Zeno Or^o, bearded negro from GoadaJMipe.
Native North-Amaicao.
Chioeae.
CmC tma the head of a Chinese.
A GipHy GirL
Model of the &ce of an HuDgari^a, by Fr. KOi
done by a yoong 9ca]pt<>r of Gottingen.
A Phrenolo^cal Collection, baaeii npm geonme 1
the life, ia now for the fiiat time in process of bong i
The above-named yoong artist, Ft. ESsthanlt, baa ;
got some materiaU together for it. There la no departmaiftl
8o mnch in want of critically selected materials as this, whk^fl
has been so seldom treated scientiBcally.
Another kind of collection, which ia now eqnalfy for' tbtl
6rBt time projected, would be that of the form of tbe I
beads in different individuals. A number of foreheads i
the form preserved as much as possible is ready collet
and it seems that a careful comparison of the foreheads (
difTerent tndividuaU might really lead to very intcrestini
results, on which perhaps I may say more at another oppof^ |
tiinity. Unfortunately no one in Europe appears as yet t« I
have thought of making ft collection of race-forehcada of any [
MISELH. 363
nnist be an iinportaiit bonaen lor the
e abo endeavoured to pnunote the ot^ecUoo of Kpn-
I of difiierent nations and tried to complete it, and
mtlj hare had the neceeeity of instroctum or educatioa
f before toy eyea.
With the interest, which reiy lately the natond histoi;
of EthnographjF has excited, in consequence of the noto-
rious disputes about the origin of mankind, I became par-
ticularly alJTe to the necessity of anthropological collections
of that aorl Much lies scattered in private cotleictions in
Holland and England, and a fresh youthful yigour which would
give itself up witb zeal and a spirit of investigation to this
task, and study the museums in Europe and Xorth America
with this object, might bring interesting results to light I
^k1 in eazlier yean piopoeed to myself the task at some time
^fr other of editing an anatomy of the races and nations of
Bpn, and lodted upon my natural history o! mankind, pub-
uihed twenty-six years ago, as a juveuile prelude. But the
difficulties, first of getting together suffident materials and
then of inspecting witb that object all the public and private
ctions in Europe were so great, that I have long since been
i to give up this plan, especially since my health has
r some years past b^un to fail me. The preservation and
I of the Blumenbachian Museum, and the utilization
' the same partly for the purposes of instruction and partly
' foreign inquirers, I have considered incumbent on me as
Kpoedtive duty. In general, however, the furtherance of anato-
, physiological and zoological investigation in the last
B years has been turned so much in other directions, that the
~ ^tioa has been used less than I could have wished both by
itive and foreign students, and in Cact has only been honoured
l an ordinary inspection. I have, however, pleasure in men-
ning these gentlemen : Ht-nle, Buschke, Van der Hoeven,
ziufl, Tourtual, Von Tscbudi, and Andr. Wagner, who, some-
mes in my company, and sometimes alone, have gone through
i
t have made public use of it for tbd
3M
OUT Collection, and i
own inquiries.
Tlie notice given of it now ia perhaps sufficient to attract
anew the attention of foreign inquirers to our little museum.
It seems scarcely necessary to remark that our material i.s much
too scanty for any extended questions upon the individuality
and affinity of the nations of our planet. We must have not
single, but hundreds of skulls of one and the same nation, to
settle certain questions. Blumenbach, with the eye of genius,
though from very slender materials, early drew the ground
lines, and accurately recognized the typical differences. We
have only got beyond Blumenbach's investigations and results
in some particulars, and on the whole not much and not essen-
tially. The longer we busy ourselves about the subject, the
more again and i^ain we shall have to come back to the
ground-plan and the divisions of Blumenbach. Still here I
must mention above all as to the present time the works a
the famous Retzius' in Stockholm, who has himself got to(
ther a great apparatus, and must be considered at pre
as by far the greatest proficient in scientific ethnology.
With respect to our Collection I may remark, that i
greatest wealth and value consists in the skulls of Asiatien
(Mongolian) nations, which — perhaps with the exception of
that of St Petersburgh — are still probably very uncommon
in all collections. Nearly all these skulls came from a grateful
pupil of Blumenbach, whom he often mentions, the imperial
physician, Dr von Asch, in St Petersburgh. Notwithstanding
my narrow means and small opportunity for acquisition, I have
especially laboured to enlarge the series of particular nationa
From this point of view the Negro, the Peruvian, and the
Chinese skulls present a particular interest With a special
view to that object, viz, the bringing together large numbers
of skulls of one and the same people, I am anxious for assistance
MUSEUM.
355
from foreign inquirers as well as from naturalists^ and grateful
should I be in this respect for such support as has lately been
given me by Herr Professor Schrdder van der Kolk, of XTtrecht
Especially, however, should I be thankful for the acquisition
of information about well-formed foreheads of known individuals
amongst the nations of Europe, or the foreign races of man.
B. WAGNER
Q&mMQMK,
8tpi, i6, 1856.
28—2
nSPUTATIO INAUGURALIS
QU^EDAM DE HOMINUM VARIETATIBUS.
ET HARUM CAUSIS ESPONENS,
QUAM ANNUENTE SOMMO NUMINE BX AUCTORITATB
HEVERRNDI ADMODUM VIRI
GULIELMI ROBERTSON, S.S.T.P.
:0N AMPLISSIMI SENATUS ACADEMICI CONSENSU ET
KOBILISSIM^ FACULTAT13 MEDICO DECRETO
PRO GRADU D0CT0RI8,
BUMMIsqUE IN MEDICINA H0N0RIBU3 ET PRIVILEGII3
BITE ET LEGITIME C0N8EQUENDIS; ERUDITORUM
EXAMINI SUBJICIT
JOANNES HUNTER.
scOTO-BBiTAmnia, sooiet. mkd. soo. ho
" The Bpacioiw We«,
And mil Ibg teeming legioaB or the Soutiv
Hold not K (gokiTy, to tlie curioos fliglit
Uf knowlolge, ludf to tumpCing or «o Sail
EDINBURGI :
APUD BALFOUR ET 8MELLIE,
ACADEUIjE typooraphos.
m.dcclxxv.
AN INAUGURAL DISSERTATION,
JOHN HUNTER, M.D. F.E,S.i
It is not necessary for me when going to write about the
v^etiea of man, and the causes of thein, to try and prove the
importance of the subject. Much has been written by many
about animated beings, nature, and the gods; and there are
and have been those, who havt; attempted to gauge the strength
and faculties of the human mind. But nothing has yet been
written clearly by any writer upon the matters which regard the
' Mbdj pencMUi, amongat otliflra. J. A. M»g« of PhilBdelpbia, iwvs been under
the ida» (•eu Nott and fjliddon, Indtgcnnut Rata of Man, p. 7 16), deceived by the
■imiJarity of UKnie, that tLts creatisti u the production of tbe celetmted sDrgean
Jobn Hunter, A considerBlion of the dnte 177s, would bare lienn quite enougb to
prove the cMutraiy, rior does Ike Hunter appear at any time to have taken the
d^ree uf M.D. Not much is known about tha author. He waa a phyHictan to
tbe amy, and wrote some pnpen on tbe bealth of tbe service, which are to be
fuund in the medical journal*. The principal interest attaching to this trentiae
anses from the fact that it appeared in the very aamo year, and a month or two
before the more famoua work of Blumenbach on the same subject. It is very
inferior in its mode of treating the subject to the effort of the German naturalist ;
nor does the author seem to have prosecuted his researches further in this i^j-ectioDl
Still anthropology has progresse<l so very little, that some uarts of it are quite on t.
level with the science of the present day, and it may still be read with interest.
The original has become very rare, though four copies are to be found in the British
Museum ; but it has been thoaght that a translation would be aCMptable to many
who tnight not caie to wade through the Latin at a modern physician.
eaBn^bnc Ihwighl than too gnat to beaaciibed lo utonl
iiiiH bat Art Act^mU be idUml to Ute wiU of tbe
QoTCtaor of an tteigi^ tbe MfnBD Iav of nktoxe, as if He bad
IB Ibe beginaing maiked oat awn bj m mui; diverae distiaiD>
Nov if ve take up tbis mode of phitnanjAmitg^ and
ettrilnite erefytbiBg fcr vbicfa we am gire do ressoo lo tha
ItiTiue interference, ve tbot tbe door and Btop op all the soune*
frocD which all tboae tbiagi ifini^ which adorn life, pcomote
tbe arts, bimI finally inoease the force and the CMmldes of tbe
hamao mind. And therefore it b worth while first of all to
ijviuire what amount of proof there may be for tbe opimoD of
tboee who impute all diremtiee to tbe DeHj, and tberefore
imagine man to coiaist of different speciea.
Tlioae who belieie in the diversity of species contend that
the direnatiea are such that they cannot be explained in any
other wiiy, whether by climate or other external causca. What.
thtj oxk, ia tbe cause of the copper colour and the beardless
chin of ibe Americansi or of tbe black teats of the Samoidc
• VttltUa of Ike Ilinofg ,./ Man, VoL i. Si. I.
i
»pt
HEA30K3. 361
women ? of the black colour and thick lips of the Africans ? of
the swelling pudenda of the female inhabitants of the Cape of
Good Hope? What man has ever eiplained these and similar
things? So they affirm these things cannot be explained, but
must be attributed to God'.
How much this superstition, which refers everything that
Beems to us inexphcabic, to the Divine hand and the will of
God, stands in the way of science, has been said above.
Beaidea these diversities which it is true we cannot explain,
tiiere occur others equally inexplicable, where the notion of
a diversity of species cannot be entertained. Who has ever
explained the high cheek-bones of the Scotch? No one ; but is
that a reason for considering them a difl'erent species! Nor
has any explanation ever yet been given for the blue eyes of
the Goths'. And are they then of a different species? By this
lode of reasoning, it would follow that there are different
in the same family.
In order to prove diversity of species, writers have had
lurse even to the mental faculties'. This one is brave; that
timid. How then can they be of the same species? This
receives strangers with pleasure ; that one keeps them
much as ever he can. Are they therefore of tie same
_ii
this were so, and discrepancies of this kind were accepted
signs and certain proofs of diversities of species, would not
ferent species be produced in almost every single family?
uld it not be said of the same man at different times that ho
like way was of a different species from himself?
Those who defend this opinion of the diversity of species,
hot content with these arguments, seek out others from the
Final Cause. For inasmuch i^ the regions inhabited by man
are excessively different in climate, soil, heat, and innumerable
pther points, therefore they believe that different species of
to different regions', J
agreeable to perfect v
kind of Qatui
date themselves to whj
Bui who en aa; tkat H k not i
dcm to ban ptva to <
hj wiaA ihej cmid eadj'
erer m^t k^ipes. than to ItaTecreatod a ftedi species adapted
to eadi change of external areanutaBeeat
This question has with JBstioe been most fiercely agitated.
Ibr it is by BO means one of mere cariosity. For if it be
allowed that men are of different species, tben they must be
ao eonsideied in medical, natural, civil, and theological di»-
qniations, and lastly, in all works which treat of man ;
whatever m^ht be said of one species, might possibly be i
emmeoosly predicated of another.
For if it were so. it wotild be incredible that the Wisdom
which &amed the univeise should have created different spedes,
distinguished only by colour, or thick lips, or a depressed nose,
and not of a different nature, and intended for some particula
end. So, whatever learned men have written about one specie^V
which has been applied to another, falls to the ground ; and 1
the sources of reasoning, &om which it has often been thought
that truth is derived, that is the comparisons made between
various nation^, are altogether sealed up. But what are wa^
to think of those, who, although they consider men to rajr*
in species, nevenheless persist in discoursing of man, a£ if heV
were always in all regions and in every place the same ?
There is another error which must be noticed here. Whil*
authors dispute in this way with each other about speeieg, thejj
do not explain what sense they attach to that word. The defi-j
nition given by Ray, and adopted by Buffon, they reject i
refuted, but they give no other in its place. And yet, without!
in any way defining species, tliey go on to pronounce thfti
species of men to be different But this is surely quite un-«r
justifiable, unless the meaning of the word species is first of aHM
explained.
Afl this is the case, in order that others may not make thi
. aw-
■■:^
dottt
Knee,
lose,
«ie^H
aod^l
' Shlchu n/Uu Hatori/ of Mait, Vol. I. p. i
SPECIES. 363
3Jection to us, pray aecept our defmition of the word
species, and our idea of the way ia which these uotioiui are con-
ceived in the mind.
As all our ideas of everything arise from nature, and its
contemplation, so from the same source, and nut &om tho
dogmas of the schools, or the disquisitions of logic, is the mean-
ing of the word species to be deduced. Whoever looks round
the earth, will find it full of animals, everywhere offering them-
selves to his eyes, and will iind amongst aome of them an
almost perfect resemblance, and a very strong affinity, but
amongst more, the greatest possible difference. He who ex-
amines this diversity or congruity, will quickly come to distri-
bute animals into various classes, according to their various
likenesses or uulikenesses. And since nature, as they say,
makes no leaps, it frequently happens, that auimals are at the
same time so like and so unlike each other, that it is sometimes
doubtful to which class any particular one should be referred.
What is to be the rule, or criterion for deciding this ! If
any two animals, whose likeness to each other is not quite per-
fect enough to compel one to assign them to the same species,
produce an offspring which is either at once like, or afterwards
becomes like either parent ; then however they may differ from
each other in many points, yet they must be considered to bo
of the same species. And with these preliminary obaervations,
this is the way in which I think species should be defined.
A class of animals, of which the members procreate with
each other, and the offspring of whicli also procreate other
animals, which are either like their class, or afterwards he-
come 80.
This definition of species may be conveniently illustrated by
taking an instance from man, about whom our business now is.
Take, of all who bear the name of man, a man and a woman
most widely different from each other ; let the one be a most beau-
tiful Circassian woman and tlio other an African bom in Guinea,
as black and ugly as possible. Take, moreover, as you certainly
te males and females sprung from this pair, and Join
i children of the latter in marriage with their maternal race.
HTBBJDITY.
and the children of the fonner ^th the paternal, and thi
if after several generations the ofepring of the female becomi
in all things to resemble the muther, and the of&priag of the
male the father, we mar come to the delinite conclusion that
the parents were of the same speciea That this is a fact, is
proved every day by the unions of the black and the whita
And if any one denies the truth of this deBuilion, what order,
what certainty does he leave in the animal kingdom? One
species may change into another. The ox may become a hoi«e,
the ape a man. And if reason and common sense did not
revolt from such absurd and monstrous positions, some woi
eagerly declare that such things might take place. Let a
look round the world, and contemplate nature. What doea
find '. Does the varied appearance of things supply any proofs
by which such a notion can be confirmed? Have not the
classes of animals always remained distinct up to this time I
and why Bhould they not remain so for ever? A lawless and
blind wish has often desired the existence of such mutations,
and even of new genera, if it were possible. And many have tried
very hard to bring about something of the kind, but no one
yot succeeded in making a new species, or turning one inl
another. From all which wc may conclude that each
every species of animals has been circumscribed within fix)
boundaries from the beginning by Divine Wisdom ; and
desire, Uke those which are contrary to the laws of nature,
strong enough to cause nature's divisions, that is, her ani
to be commingled, or disordered. And in truth, about mc
animals there is no doubt, because they are distinguished
the first glance, by external appearance, and manifest token*;
and the sole contention is about man, and a few other specif
principally of the domestic animals. As to these there aro ti
reasons, why writers have had doubts about them. First,
cause every variety and aberration from the general order taki
place before our eyes, and is moat easily oljservod. The
second and more pijwerful reason is, because animals, placed
under our care, entirely contrary to their instincts, and sub-
jected to duties and modes of life which do not at all suit
oaUH
i.
tt all sUlt^H
for this reason especially, and all the more, the more
care we take of them, become altered'.
The varieties of dogs seem almost infinite ; for they pass
their lives with men, suffer like them, and share their sports
and their hearths. If any one should say that the varieties
of do^ indicate a diversity of species, would it not be the
same thing as to affirm that the dog can carry different species
at the same time in its womb t For it is common enough
for a bitch to bring forth in tho same litter v^eties of
whelps, which varieties such persons would call speciea And to
those who think what they call the different and permanent
orders of dogs are of great weight in proving them to be of
different species, we may answer that no such orders are per-
manent and constant without the careful interference of man.
Who does not know how difficult it is to produce the Cants
GaUicus (Grai'is Linn.) or the Cants Odorus {Sagax Linn')?
For these reasons, my opinion is that men must be held to
be of the same species. And as in the vegetable kingdom, the
tiame species sometimes comprehends many varieties, which all
depend upon the climate, the soil, and cultivation, so to use the
language of botanists, the diversities of men are to be con-
sidered as varieties of the same species, and, in the same way,
to be deduced from natural causes.
No one can be ignorant how much influence events have in
affecting and changing men. On these depend almost all dis-
orders, and the numerous changes in the human body. To ex-
plain properly their effects and the varieties of the human spe-
cies, and to show clearly how they take place, not only is an
intimate knowledge of human nature required, as far as regards
its motions and mutations, and its increase and decrease, but
also a deep knowledge is necessary of all things which can affect
man, so far as regards their qualities, and mode of action. For
to give an explanation of how two bodies act upon each other,
the natiire of each must be imderstood. Who possesses this
gcienceT Who ha« explained the nature of the human body?
»
Who has investigated the powers of nature? No one. Many^
things are obscure, which can oiily be brought to light by great
labour, and the united powers of many men in a long space of
time. Thus it will easily be understood how difficult is the task
I have imposed upon myself. I approach it, however, not froW J
any love of writing, but from a sort of necessity. And bo t
from b«ing sorry, I shall be glad, if, as I may hope, these i
endeavours will call away able men, especially at this tlm
when natural history is so Bourishing, from shells and bittter>fl
flies, to studies worthy of man.
In order that I may conduct my work on some plan, I have
thought it best to divide it into four parts; in the first of which
I shall treat of the colour of men; in the second, of stature and _
form; in the third, of the excess or defect, of parts, or other d
ferences; and in the fourth, of the mental faculties, TheBs]
chapters will comprise almost everything which all the curioni
investigators of this planet have seen and told.
^^^^
Chapteh I.
0/ Colour.
The varieties of colour are wonderful Thus in men we moet
with white, black, brown, copper -colour ; lastly, all shades be-
tween white and black, some having one, and others another.
And in order to show this more clearly, I have subjoined a tab!
of the colours of man, as they difler according to race, which ^
put forward, not as an absolutely correct history of colours, I
only as an example and specimen of varieties.
Table of Colours.
Black. Africans under the direct rays of the Son. ]
Inhabitants of New Guinea, and of New ]
Bafavia,
TABLE OF COLOURS. 3G7
The Moora of Nortbem Africa.
The Hottentots, dwelling towards the south
of the Continent.
Dopper-coloured. The East-Indians ',
Americans',
Tartars.
Persians.
Arabs.
Africans dwelling on the Mediterranean Sea.
Chinese'.
Southern Europeans.
Sicilians.
Abyasiuians.
Spiinish.
Turks and others.
Samoeides and Laplanders.
Almost ail the remaining Europeans, aa
Swedes.
Danes.
English.
Germans.
Poles and others.
Kabardin&ki'.
f "Georgians.
lIingrelian8^
What is the cause of such diflerent colours? To this the
answer is difficult. Yet many philosophera have attempted to
discover it. Those who boiTow their philosophy from Scripture,
' Ttme altboDgh the; twj in culaar, u b^ng > little duker or lighter, >1I more
or l«a «pproBch s copper colour,
* Thia colour scarcely diflerB from copper. Those who inhabit the Northern part
of America are eo much whiter, that they nearly lose the rod colour altogether.
* The Chinese are of aU coloon belweeu brown anduAii*; in the aouth, brown;
towards tbe north, white.
* Buffon, Tom. v. p. lo.
■ Ferhapa we ought to put here the inhabitiuits of soma oE the iilanda in the
gT«»t Pacific Ocean.
>%ita
w^ 4b fMB «Me ^a^ MK voy ftaatir far &m',
U^^* kai !■ i^panea. Sine take rrfoee m
1^ M Ac ho* ^ the sh, d^ik npnM*, and tbe
trite tfaoK «fiwM% tirt liAs to deAwe Bj OMi-
ntfaMto
bat o^y coenfMB*
I
tkityMt vfeiA kqJhilhaialiili. vUA m made op «f die
tfiittmim tmd Ae MlkdiBi and «f tbeae two, nodes pcmci-
pdjr m Ae httaL h Ac UmIs Ae caticle ia thkker aad
kailii Iha ntfe wUtalo tki> extent, tbattn the latter tbe
liliiriaB ii a nrt of tUa bwm^ nd i> tbe htter a tlu^
iimbIihim* The tiwuMiral fy id fmw «f the white* ha« the
tppiaamoB at a voy thia dice of hoan: tl
vflfj ASeseait fma ooagalated Bneag.aiid the ejndennis aeenc
to coB^t of the ame; hafdeoed. And aone teac^' that this ii
ita real baa aad laatcnaL Bnt ahhoi^k anatomistB are by no
meaM agieed en ttat point, and it it not fi» me to settle t
matter, I ant obliged, from the natttre of my sabject. to ssjg
few words about it.
In the whites, the parts under the dun, or rather the c
de, which change colonr, cause the coloar of the body to t
cbaoged. on accoinit of the transparency of the cuticle,
jsaodice the skin beeomes yellow, because the blood is 1
with bile; and the nish of more blood tKan usual into the ^
scis of the Uux causes btoshing. And a kind of t^Tihus, nei
peculiar to the West Indies, is called the yellow ferer, I
from ttie congestion of yellow senira in Ute vessels of the skin
< £mai tar la Fnp^iiat, lU fAmtrvjut, Tom. [t. lir. 7. c i<>.
' Id. Mn. I ,|. ■ Sprtlaeh dt la Satmre.
• La mUioAiqVf impartiaU, Tom. T. Uui et Avril, p. iij.
* AIUdiu. dt Colon jSthtopuK, p. 6. * aiUlcr. />AyMa'°7. T. *
' lb. p. 13,
BLACKNESS.
.%9
mea yellow. Moreover, if pigments are applied inside
the epidennU, they stamp on it 8o permanent a colour, that it
remaioB to the end of life. If gunpowder is burnt into the
skin, who does not know how long it remains there? And in
some such fashion many barbarous nations', like our ancestors*,
used to paint and mark their skin with various figures, for the
sake of ornament.
Hence we may draw these conclusions. First, the cuticle
must have no vessels, or at all events extremely few. For, if
it were furnished with only a few more vessels, it would admit
bile mixed with blood to its innermost parts and furthest re-
cesses, and then what would stand in the way of yellowness
remaining in it a long time, like any other colour caused by
pigments! Moreover, the fact of the condition of the pig-
ment when coloured being fixed, shows that it consists of parts
which are very permanent, and therefore are furnished with
very few, if any, vessels. Writers do not attribute bones to
those parts of the body which abound in vessels; yet these
parts, when stained with any colour, do not cease to change all
their particles, until they have recovered their original tint
Hence we may conclude for certain that the cuticle is furnished
with very few, if any, vessels, and that its component parts
scarcely ever change.
So much being premised about colour, and the structure of
its seat, we must investigate the causes of it, and, first of all, of
blackness. And perhaps it will be worth while to begin by in-
quiring into the causes of the change of colour in the regions of
the epidermis and the reticulum; and this all the more, because
nature, in its simplicity, generally uses the same means to eflfect
the same ends.
Air, dirt, and the heat of the sun, the transparency of the
cuticle being destroyed, give it a brown colour, and at the same
time make it harder.
He who wishes to have his hands shining and white will
not find it enough to protect them from the sun and the heat.
I ' H»wkc«wortL'a Vogaga, VoL li. p. 191. ' Caesar, Comnml. Lib. v. £»p. I
hm mmm. aim haep tk^ fi^ the av, m h weB kaoKa t<
■MiB. «W MB g ^ w at ■■ twcK Beaded tfae colour of
tke fan ■ anw «• finr m ii ■Ao- jmHb of Ife body whidi
•re ahrmn tmoed, ahka^Bh it W aevcr expcaed to Uke nuL
naae «k« h«>« to wfc hiid ak naadal bbonr, never bar>
■wfcite haadL OaqiMpdn; m has been Bid, when introdact-
Mav the qw l wit . »fcn tke coloar fabck. Dirt and pii-
Beats eiB d» the nma tUn^ Iboogli ia a annor degree. A'\ :
ddi aeeaM to be Baagnweil b;^ tbe use of waives, wHb wfaiJ
Ae blaiAi btiaaw t hu ae el r ai , ao u to make tbenuelvi;-
Tlie beat of the son ii the oioet pownfol canse. Its force
ii abcnni if yoa expose to it tbe wbiteM ponble lace, for it will
kjae all tta vbtteneas in one dar, mad come oat brown or red.
ll is particniarij efSaaaoa in tbe summer od red-haired pa-
■ooa witb light skin ; and eao afliscl the whole fikin wiUi brovn
•poti^ but espenally tbe hands and lao^ because tbejr are most
exposed to it, which linnKiu' makes a disorder, and calb
Ephfiida. Nor is there any deobt, that if the heat wen; kept
up long enough, tbe whole skin would become of the same
brown colmir.
If then these causes, the air, namely, and the heat of the
mm. can cause such changes in theee regions where, by means of
houses and dothe», we are ao mncb protected from them, at all
«rvent« we need not be surprised that greater blackDeea if
thereby effected in much hotter regions where men are ex]
naked to a burning sun at alnjoiit all time&
But besides the heat of the sun, and tbe effects of t!ie sit,
where any one is exposed to it, other causes bring on greater
blackness like that of tbe Africans.
Tlie parts of the cuticle are very rarely changed, as was said
before, and all the more rarely the thicker it is. And, there-
fore, when the same particles are expo§ed for a long time to
l^roat heat, the effect is great, that ia, much blackness is oeces-
sarily sub-introduced. And, moreover, it ia certain that pig-
ess Ml
poMiH
SUN AND AIR.
ments tan do nrncli to increase thia, by wLicli, as has been
said, their bodios arc rendered blacker, or, as they think, more
, ' beautiful
^■k ' The cuticle of the blacks is said to be thicker and less
^■tensparont than that of the whitei), and therefore, when the
■ ' causes of blackness are induced, will also be blacker ; if ludeed
iJiat want of transparency has the effect of putting more par-
ticles in the way of the influences which produce blackness.
For all, who are skilled in optics, know well, that transparent
and coloured plates make colour more vivid and more intense,
the more of them there are which are put one above the other :
because the rays of light transmitted by the one are reflected
by the other, and the brightness of colour is always in propor-
tion to the number of reflected rays. But when the colour of
the plates is that of blackness, which consists of the absence of
light, the rays which are not suffocated by one are effaced by
the other, and so, the light being neither transmitted nor
reflected, black colour is produced. If, indeed, it bo askcA how
it is that the cuticle of the blacks is less transparent than that
of the whites, although I cannot perfectly explain it, I will try
and illustrate it in a few words.
The action of the sun and the air is a sort of stimulus to
our bodies, and therefore acts according to those laws which
regulate stimulants, The effect of this stimulant, burning and
irritating the skin, is to render it harder and thicker, as is the
case with the hands of labourers, and with the use of all parts
of the body which are affected by stimulants. In the same
way the air and the rays of the sun, by their stimulating action,
render the skin less transparent The eflicient cause, why the
skin becomes thicker, is clear, and the way in which it is made
thick, whether by the sun or by other irritating subjects, is
I jxetty much the aaane. The irritation of the parts brings with
^Ht a lai;ger influx of humours, and increases the action of the
^^vesaels, which are used in their increment or reparation. And
as the continuous action of the sun, and other influences which
stimulate the skin, diHplay a great resemblance of action, so
the progress of the acting power is the same in either case.
24—2
372 PEOors.
Stimulants and irritantB, wben lirst applied to a yet tender si
cause the appearance of many pimples; but after a certain
lapse of time, it becomes harder, thicker, and at last callous,
and can nerer afterwards be inflated into pimples by tlie same
causes. And in like manner, although the rays of a southem
sun bum our bodies, and cause many pimples (o rise on the
skin, still bodies accustomed to those regions, or those wIio_
have always been in the way of it, are not affected in the &
manner.
The &ct therefore of the ^in being made thicker by t]
intemperance of the climate and the heat of the sun, )
blacker by the direct rays of the sun and by pigments,
our whole theory of colour.
We must next inquire how far the explanation we I
given is supported by fact^ and how iar it goes towards t
plaining fitcts.
Since all blacks are bom white', and remain so for sold
little time, it is clear from this that the sun and the air i
necessary agents in turning the skin to a black colour. AnJ'
this is proved besides by the (act, that when blisteriogs and
burnings are applied to the bodies of the blacks, they change
such parts so into white, that the black colour is not brought
back to the body for some days'. Those parts of the body too
which are most protected, and defended from the sun and the
air, do not lose their original white colour, as is observed in
those blaeks who have the gland covered with the prepuce'.
All the nations wbich dwell within the torrid zone have their
colour more and more verging towards black. This almost
universal fact doubtless tends to support the opinion given
above. But that such is not the fact is objected by some,
because there are no small number of white people in the
torrid zoue*. And although I cannot deny this, still it is quite
plain that the inhabitants of the torrid zone are blacker than
> MiiL afttiralt 3n Vofaga, pu M. I'Abbd Prevost, Tom.
lb. ToiD. m. p. 1163.
* //iV. dt VAratUatic da ScUnea, An. 170], p. 31,
* Anti tur hx Fopaialiim dt CAintnqnt, Tom. IT. liv. 7. e.
1 iiiat almost all are of a dark colour approaching
Ici black.
However, since ihe cause of blackness, as we give it, is by no
means simple, and does not entirely depend upon a nearer
or greater distance from the Equator, and since when one or
other of the eflicient causes is absent, the whole effect ceases,
it will not be foreign to our purpose, if we inquire whether the
fact of the whiter peculations of the torrid zone goes to refute
or confirm what we have advanced.
To render our labours lighter, some general obeervations
maj be premised.
The beat is not always found less or greater in exact
proportion to the distance of the respective regions from the
Equator,
Islands are not so hot as contlnenta, on account of the
vapours which rise from the sea, and of the winds which are
constantly blowing from it, both oi which tend to refrigerate
the soil
^^ Mountainous countries, or countries in the neighbourhood of
H^'O^^^''^- gi'^^tty temper the heat. The reason of this will be
■ ^ven immediately.
Besides, the wind, sometimes by increasing, sometimes by
diminishing them, variously affects heat and cold : coming from
Kliot coimtriea burnt up by the sun it bringS' heat ; blowing from
^■ipowy and cold mountains, cold.
■( Finally, in places where the heat is the same, the same
colour is not always tlie result; for the different mode of life
has a great influence in changing it,
I will illustrate these observations by a few examples. As
to the first point : many islands enjoy a veiy temperate clinwite,
and particularly those which are situate furthest from conti-
nents', H»w faj- their inhabitants preserve their whiteness
may he learnt from the instance of those who inhabit the
islands of the Southern, or great Pacific ocean'. Almost all the
East Indies, as tliey verge towards the south, split up into
^ Uiwkeiwoitli'B Toj/aga, Vol. ii. p^nS.
» lb. Vol. II. p. tSj,
374 HEAT.
islaiids or peninsulaa ; whicli partly explaius why the
found there is copper or brown, aaii not black.
As to the other observation : the Abyssinians, althot
placed under the Eiiuator, still are white. In that count
the mercury never stands above twenty finger-breadths high in
the barometer ; whence it appears that Abyssinia is perhi^
the highest part of the world iuh.abited by man, at least two
miles above the level of the sea. No one, who has ever
up a mountain, is unaware how much such an altitude
lessen the heat. Thus some mountains of America, thoi
placed exactly under the Equator, are covered the whole
with deep snow and ice. Even the highest point of Etna
covered with perpetual snow'. That altitude therefore
derates heat is a fact, and is proved by these examples,
is the explanation difficult. And although I cannot go into
matter at full length, yet I will say a few words about it.
Heat is caused by the rays of the sun, when they fall eitl
directly or by refraction upon anything. But it is not foi
to be the same in every substance, on which the raya
to fall : as when they fall on a transparent body, they do not
cause the same heat as when they fall on an opaque one.
This is most clearly shown by the fact, that when the focua
of a concave metal mirror, opposed to the sun's rays, is thrown
upon water, it does not boil, or show any sense of heat
although if copper, or any other mf^tal, is opposed to the mil
it liquefies, or evaporates, in a moment. And since in
passage of light through a transparent body, a smaller quanl
of heat is thrown out, in proportion to the thinness or trans-
parency of the body, but the air is more rarefied as it is higher
above the earth ; so it on that account transmits light more
easily, and almost without any obstacle. Fur hght seen
cause the more heat in proportion to the obstacles to itd
grcBu. But enough has been said oo this point.
How much iufiuence the wind has in altering heat, may
seen from the instance of America, where, when the north wi
MODE OF LIFE. 375
blows, the cold becomes so great tbat in one night the rivers
become frozen and unnavigable. The same thing is shown in
Africa, where the winds, sweeping over and rolling about burn-
ing sands for many miles, stir up an almost intolerable heat.
I will now point out the effects of the mode of life. Those
who are always clothed, and generally live in-doors, are seldom
exposed to the causes which produce a change of colour, and ho
retain their whiteness, Tliis happens to Europeans who in-
habit hot countries, who retain their original mode of life, and
continue to wear their clothes; whereas the aborigines' are
always naked, and exposed to the force of the sun and the
winds. But if any of them never do expose themselves to the
air and the sun, as often happens to the women', they come off
better in the way of colour than the rest.
As to the objection, that white men are to be -found in
hot regions, where the observations above collected do not
explain their whiteness in any way, and that it is a fact,
tliat in Abyssinia, and in the islands of Java and Madagascar',
whitd and black men are found together, that must be
explained otherwise. For it must be observed that these black
and white men are of different origin, and diffiir not only in
colour but in mode of living, and in many other external
circumstances. For it is certain, and has been discovered, that
those differences have not crept in among those who have
always inhabited those countries from the beginning, but have
come from elsewhere out of countries whose temperature was
more favourable to wliiteness or blackne.ss, with the original
inhabitants of such regions. And let no one suppose this can
be contradicted. For so far their similarity is of importance,
because you can easily in consequence of it trace the origin
of individuals to some neighbouring nation ; and thus you may
gather tbat the black inhabitants of Abyssinia came thither
1 other neighbouring parts of Africa. And in the same way
» I/iit. Gen. da Voga-jei, [).ir M- I'AbW Prei
■ Buflbn, HiU. Naiartllt, Tom, v, pp. 40, 41;
' lb. n>. 41, 160.
te &3 tbe Europeatt^l
37G DIl'FEEENT HABITS.
people as blade as the Africans and as wliHe t _
iohabit tbe islands of the great Pacific ocean': of whom the
tornier have without doubt emigrated from the countries called
New Guinea ; and the latter, as is likel.y, from those ttacU
ef Asia which trend more towards the north.
It may still be objected to my view, that two natiai
differing at the outset, when they come to inhabit the «
r^ona, although they are exposed to the same external cauM
still remain different. But on this point two things are to (
considered, namely, that different nations by no means liM
in the same, but, on the contrary, in very different ways.
it is by no means necessary to have causes so strong, or t
ences so energetic, to preserve an effect when it is once doi
as to produce the same originally. In this way, altbou^ J
the i^ands of the Pacific ocean above mentioned, the 1
of the sun cannot change the colour from white to blade ;
when that is once done, it can keep it so.
Brown colour, diverging from white, is by no meaoB c
fined to tlie torrid zone; for the men of northern Eum
Eund Asia, where cold and frost and snow reign in perpetu
junction, are of a brown colour*. 'ITiey lead a most wret
life; their food consists of fish and wild beasts. For bread, 1
dig up roots out of the earth. In winter they hide in hovel
except when compelled to go out by hunger. Thoy conf
their hovels under the earth, which is necessary, on account e
the intolerable cold. This mode of life is no doubt very unfavour-
able towards causing or preserving whiteness. And whilst they
are catching fish, or bunting wild beasts, they must needs %
a great deal exposed to the intemperance of the air. And t
inclemency of the air and constant fish-diet have the (^
possible influence in making the skin harder and thicker ;
living in dwellings always filled with smoke is- certainly j
remedy. This is an example of how far the severity oCl
climate may of itself go to change the colour.
STATUHE AND FORM.
377
So much, then I have to say aboiit colour, in general terms,
it is true, because the limits of this little treatise did not
permit me to speak more fully or copiously : still, I hope there
is enough to tend somewhat towards the explanation of colour
in all instances.
^ Chap. II.
Of Stature and Form.
The differences of human stature are far from being small.
The inhabitants of some part of Soutli America grow to a height
of seven feet'; whilst the inhabitants of the frigid zone scarcely
attain the height of four or five feet'. The islands called
Huaheine and Marianne produce men of six or even seven feet
high'; on the other hand, the inhabitants of the promontory
of South America, called Cape Horn, are of small stature*.
But why should I say more, when one sees almost always
one and the same country producing mea of all kinds of
heights! What is the reason of this?
ITie way in which aliment is taken up into our bodies
has scarcely yet been thoroughly investigated) nor are the laws
found out by which they grow. But although such is the case,
stiil, until some greater light is thrown on the matter, I may be
allowed to say what I think is true, or at least probable.
Growth seems to be due to the action of the heai-t, by whose
renewed pulsations our fibres are rendered longer, and are am-
plified, and directed to all parts. This is illustrated by the un-
folding of the whole human body, and especially of the womb.
But the action of the heart is not a cause of itself; nor do men
and plants share the same nature. The latter have no power
f locomotion, and merely increase and grow to a certain height ;
' IT»wkMWO.-th'a Toy. Vol. I. p. 31.
' HUL Gin. da Voij. par I'AbW PrevoBt, Tom. lix. p. 65.
* Hawkeiworth, Vol. u. p. 154. BuS»i, Tom. v. p. 51,
* Hkwkea. Vol. 1. p. 391.
a, tne
con-
lause
it oV
378 CAU8E3.
but it is different with man, who can scarcely come to perfett
tion without movement and action. The action aud movemei
of the body must therefore be conjoined with tiie reitem
pulaations of the heart, which increase, by a sort of dtstentiM
all our parts, both in length and size. How extremely impor-
tant thia cause is will be clear to every one, who has obacired
the Bingular increase of every part when much csercised, the
very unnatural size which comes, as in many tumoura,
distracting causes, and that well-known increase of the i
which is caused by earrings of great weight'; increase, therefor
will be in proportion to the actions of the heart aud the mo
tions of the body. But though these may be perpetually con-
tinued, the body does not go on for ever increasing, because
the great rigidity which is the effect of the action of the mu)
cular fibres puts an end sometimes not only to increase, but ^
life itself. That this rigidity depends upon the amount <
action is proved by this, that if any one, when young, uses
immoderate exercise, he scarcely ever attains the full size of a
man ; and those who are obliged always to labour, and to lead
a hard life, do not arrive at old age, or even the confines of it,
but perish before their time; and though early in years, still
with the appearance and constitution of old men. In this «
the causes of growth come at last to neutralize themselves.
This, then, being the immediate cause of man's growth, t
is to say, the action of the heart and the movement c
body, and the rigidity of the parts the cause of the stoppage q
that effect, we must now find out what are the remote exit
causes which affect the prosimate one, aud explain the varieti^
of human stature.
Of these the principal arc climate, food, exercise, and labota
Climate acts either by heat or cold.
Heat, which is almost the origin of many animals,
sary to all growing bodies; and in ourselves, if it is not I
cause of motion and sense, at all events these faculties to son
extent, and our other actions, cannot be deprived of it for J
' BuBuD, Tom. Tl, p. 34, Dumpier, Vol. T. p. 31. Hawkeswurtb, Vol. I. p. jlJ
HEAT AND COLD.
379
t without injury. By stimulating the heart, it greatly
iDcreaseB the sharpness of all our senses, and the motrility of the
human body. Hence the iuhabitanta of warm regions very
soon reach their full size, and those who are unrestrained in
every way arrive at maturity much later than those who live in
warm regions. In the eighth, ninth, or tenth year, women be-
come menstruous, in the twelfth ihe men are fit for venery';
whereas in cold regions, the menses do not appear before the
fourteenth, sixteenth, and somelimes the twentieth year: nor
are they fit for marriage before the eighteenth or sometimes the
twentieth year. Heat too does not seem able to increase the
human body, or diminish it much; for both in hot and in tem-
perate countries, small and large men are equally produced.
And if it has anything to do with growth, it would seem as if it
would be more likely to diminish it, because that violent action
of the heart, and great movement of the body, on one side
make the increase rapid, and on the other, at the same time,
accelerate the rigidity, or rather the firmness of the fibres. And
in fact, the inhabitants of hot countries generally yield in sta-
ture to those of the temperate zone,
Cold, the exact opposite of heat, or to speak more accurate-
ly, the absence of heat', the force in which it consists abating,
by diminishing all motions and all irritability, and blunting
every stimulus, tends to lessen the size of the body. In all
very cold regions, torpor is induced; the action of the body,
especially in infants, is small: and therefore little adapted to
estend or increase it. So that almost all the increase of the
body is carried on by the action of the heart. For which reason,
since the effect of action and exercise is to make the body beau-
tiful and elegant, it is not to be wondered at, if the men in very
cold countries are neither tall nor elegant And this b con-
firmed by the observations of writers about the inhabitants of
Greenland, and other parts of Northern Europe and Asia'.
Cold, as it confines all other things in nature, so it does our
' FraUel., Dr. Black, Truf, CLum.
390 BDDILT EXEHCTSE.
bodies, but not in the same way, that la, not b^* taking aw
the heat For its principal action is on the fibres Vfbich serve
for sense a^d motion, which atb in conyecjiience coii^>el]ed to
contract themselves more ; for the heat of the human body is
almost exactly tlje same in all countries, however different the
climate may be : tbat conatrictiou, therefore, will stand in the
way of every force which tends to increase the parts of our
bodies in length or breadth. The contrary relaxation, which
comes from heat, and about which I meant to speak, when I
was speaking about heat as a cause of rapid growth, produces
also this effect, by acting on the fibres of motion
Exercise aud labour must both be treated of under the ti
of corporeal motion; for they both consist in the action of ll
body, and only differ in this, that volition can command I
former, but the latter demands the use of reason.
Bodily motion may be violent, moderate, ov slight
Violent action, by the stiffness which follows too freqtu
exertion, and the exhaustion of the vital force, retards and t
pedes the growth. Slight motion, or rest, does not impart sn
ficient streugth to the organs to enable them to fulfil 1
fitnctions; nor can it endow the body with that firmness or tL
Umbs with that solidity, which action alone con produce. But
it is worthy of remark, that those results of motion and rest
take place most in tender years before use and custom have
formed the body, which is then still unchanged by the powers
of nature. For labour is a good thing for adult bodies, or rarely
docs thom harm, and in them rest may ci-eate or increase plethora.
The condition of artisans as far as their stature is cencemedtj
confirms, unless I am mistaken, what I have just said.
being obliged to exercise their respective occupations from i:
fancy, pass their lives in work-shopa Bowed down to the
ground, and cru.shed with toil, they turn out deformed, almost
dwarfs, hunchbacked, aud uever arrive at the full stature or
size of a man; so that those lines of Martial may wcU be a
plied to them :
JuHgeil bj his head, the maa a Ht.'(iti>t i'.
But ui Astjaoai judgtj bj bu jiliii; —
1
I
in feet they generally have large heads. Those who inhabit
countries very much to the north or to the south', are like
them, and partly from the same cause, because, in tender years,
Iwth have too much repose.
Between these extremes a mean, or moderate exercise,
vhich is the principal means of increasing the Iwdy. should
without doubt he chosen. But what is moderate, is difficult to
define: its latitude, to use the words of those who lay down
rules of health, may be so great.
I now pass on to that cause which has the gi-eatest influence
augmenting or diminishing the stature and magnitude of
I mean diet. Food, although the first necessaiy for
kuman life, still varies much in the quantity which ia con-
sent for souod health, being one amount for one, another
>T another. When it is scanty, it is clear small stature will be
le result ; for the body cannot grow and be enlarged, if part
the material necessary for supporting it be taken away,
the other hand, the first effect of frequent and ample diet
to increase the body. Every herdsman knows of h«w much
iportanee food is towards improving cattle and other beasts.
Oxen brought forth on the barren mountains and plains of
Scotland, and afterwards brought up in the more fertile fields
of England, grow to double the size.
But there are diversities not only in the quantity, but the
quality of food. Thus flesh and vegetables are by no means of
the same importance in nourishing the human body. Some-
les when spices are added to some aliments, as flesh, wine,
lb, there is more stimulus in them. This makes the increase
rapid, but, in such a way, that the body much sooner
lys, worn out as it were by continual stimulus. Food pre-
:d partly from flesh, partly from farinaceous matters, as it
be digested more easily than any other, so does it accelerate
growth more than any other.
So much for the causes of growth treated separately ; now
i would seem that I ought to speak about them in conjunction,
' Buflbn, Tom. v. p. 3. HawlteBwoHh, Voi-aga, Vol. 1, pp. jgi.;
383
DKFECT ASP EXCESS.
a totbfl
i aspe^H
end thmX «0 the moie, beeaoae m dmost eveiy case they act H
fimjitiwtk" Bat sinoe the limits of my papn* forbid me to
apnk at that sabject, and to af^y the conclusioiia to the
varioos oatioDs of mem. therefore I omit them, and go on to the
next point
I roii*t now speak of the varieties of furm. They are in E
as nam^Doa as men. For who has not a &ce, form, and a
of countenance pecuhar to himfelf, and which can be distio-
goished from all other? ! And besides these which every one
has of his oim, signs and marks peculiar to each race and
nation are not wanting; thus a depressed nose, thick hps,
small or large eyes, and other marks common to thousands of
individuals, distinguish one race from another. What are t
causes of this ? That these diver^ties have nothing to do ii
diversity of species is clear from this, that this same de]
don of the nose, or thickness of the Upe is frequently to he s
amoDgst ourselves. Many' attribute the depressed nose of I
Negroes not to nature, hut to art ; and, allow it to be the n
of art, difficulties, not easy to be overcome, still remain,
k-ast, as far as I am concerned, I confess that I cannot and€|
stand how the forms of men and the lineaments of the i
come to be so diverge from each other as they are. But when
such effects have once been produced. I shall have an occadon
of showing, when I come to treat of generation, how they may
be retained.
Chap. III.
On iJte defect or excess of parts of the Human Bod^.
If any one is ready to trust the reports of writers, he i
find ample material on this subject to deal with. Thus we r
FABULOUS STORIES. 383
of the Arimaspi, who arc remarltable for liaving but one eye,
and that in the forehead; of the Androgyni, who are male and
female joined In one ; of men with dogs' heads, and men who
have no neck and carry their heads on their shoulders'. The
stature of the Patagonians, which a few years ago, as we used to
hear, was scarcely set SO low as twelve feet, haa now been
reduced to seven. But everybody will easily see that all these
things are beyond all behef
And even those who tell more probable stories differ in
their testimony so from one another, one denying that which
another saya he has seen, ever was or could be seen, that it
becomes quite uncertain which we ought to believe most, and
which not at all. And since I found it at first so very difficult
to decide which were true or the contrary, I selected some
of the more reliable and better examined varieties to deal with
for my present purpose, I am not therefore going to inquire
whether there are any men fumiahed with legs mucli thicker
than others, or with one leg much thicker than the other", or
tails as some still beheve"; because these stories are not con-
firmed by any facts or observations worthy of credit, by which
we might find a way to explain, or propose some theory about
them.
So the defects or excesses about which our business is, are
of this kind ; namely, the beardless chin, hanging breasts, or
prominent pudenda.
The beard among our.'!elves, though sometimes more scanty
and sometimes thicker, ia scarcely ever wanting altogether. So,
as to those nations, to whom almost all the writers had de-
clared that no beard was given by nature, in most cases more
recent testimonies show tliat the beard had not been denied by
nature, but was plucked out by the people themselves*. This
' C. Plin. JVaf. mn. Lib. YU. Oap. 1.
« Buffnu, Vol. V. p. 64.
' Oriyinavd Proi/rtii of Lam/«afff, Vol. IV. p. ifg, ind ed. Erlin. IJ74.
* Dampier, Vol. i. p. 407. Iliit. Gin. da Yoy. pv M. I'Abbd Prsvott, Tom.
ivrij, p. go3. BankeflwoTUk'i Vegaga, Vol. i. p. 608. BuSbo, Turn. ,V. p. 104.
CharlcVfux, m. p. 179.
Vm^K iMf^dftMto the ■■■■■. l»t«b>«t
hi^ Mi jiilJi«lj'«— gw» HboH ndiie to i
fnJwwf ■• wtiA A* «nHB o&r Buft to tbdr t
F«r if » part kBoacs ^ser Aaa aS itheii bj- dmLeamoa or
i«B, M it viMdeifnl tfakt tbe
■twl, wbcn flm^ orer the
(T by '*■*■»*» desirous of
Thve kw beea andk i^pj fiManna >b<Mt the pndeoda of
the ««nea of the extraiK mi^k at JUbnm; •ome dccUie tlwt
they are fT'^-'^f^ wkh m ^^^^et etz«<ehed mder the nato-
nfi^ whiht othen oontcaid that thej bsve notluDg bej and the
lailiaaj aakOR of aoww. Theee mindee, or rather tDOD-
atrailae^ if Aej cut at all, seem by the most recent teati-
Batiea ta be radaeed to thia, that in tb&t eoantiy the nympluf
we a bde Boie tmgid and prosuaeDt, a defect tbe less to be
MtoniAed at in that ooontzr, because it is certain t
tiff f^ ocean in tbiaV
Differtnea of the hair. Hair differs, especially ia f
between which too aiwl the Ain there seems to be aome f
neiion. In all ooontnes blade hair always accompuues a
ooloar of skiD, or one which dJTerges from white. And. c
other hand, red or white hair is joioett with white skin. And
tbe colour of both, that ia of the skin and the bur, seems to
dapetul upon the same causes, that is, the exposure to air and
heat. A proof of which is that the more or less Imr is exposed
to these causes, the more or less black its colour is. Thus the
hair which ia not exposed is always less dark than what is.
Aa to the texture of hair, there seems to be a great difl
CDce, for that of some is soft and curly like wool, and that (
othem harsh and dense. What the cause of this may be, since
pliyMiologists are as yet by no means agreed as to the nature
' Buff.,11, Tom. V. pp. 4, j5. ■ H»wk. roy, VoL in. p. 791
diffiaS
liat ^1
nee
ure
J
niFFERESCRS.
Phair, I dare not give any decided opinion, and must be con-
tent with one or two conjectures.
Since the haira are situated on the surface of the body,
therefore wliatcvcr affects the body, affects them; besides per-
haps other influences, bo especially does the conflux thither of
humours; and in this way, in proportion as the conflux is
greater or smaller, so is their increase greater or less. Hence,
as is known to all hair-cutters, the hairs grow more in sumtoer
than iti winter. And this may be observed more frequently in
the case of the beard. Therefore the hair grows more luxu-
riously in hot countries than in cold, and on that account will
be thicker and stronger; which, in fact, happens in almost all
countries, as in the West and East Indies,
Still, exceptions to this are not wanting. Thus in Africa,
the hottest of all countries, and where therefore the hair ought
to be thickest, on the contrary, it is scanty, and something like
wool. This, although I cannot explain, still I may illustrate
by a comparison. In many cutaneous disorders, little ulcere
throw out a great deal of matter, which shows that there is a
rush of humours to some of the vessels of the skin. And tliese
sorts of disorders are often cured by remedies which cause per-
spiration. How is this! When a quantity of humour is ex-
creted in the shape of sweat tlirough healthy vessels, thus the
excess is averted from the diseased vessels. And thus the little
ulcers, which before were moist, become dried up, and crusts
are formed, which afterwards fall off, and tlien show the sound
skin underneath. In this way, a rush towards the skin being
made in the first instance, the hairs increase in growth; and
when this becomes greater and greater, and the humours are
more easily eliminated through the vessels of perspiration from
the body, the quantity which serves to make the hair increase
is diminished, and the attenuated hairs come out like wool.
What seems to confirm this opinion is, that in the negroes,
whose hair is like wool, the bulbs or roots of the hair are at-
tenuated and smalP, as if through deficiency of nourishment:
' H«llw, SI. PhyMog. 1
'■ r- 33-
SSG
GBHESATION.
anil it is only in the case of tliose who inhabit the hottest r
gions, or who are liom olsewhi,-re from the natives of such, tbl
the hoir becomes almost a kind of wool.
OlAP. IV.
On Generation.
Thus the causes are esptaincd which change the colour, in-
duce a large or small stature, and nffuct the hair and other
parts. It may be objected that they are in no respect oflEcieut
causes, and that men are to Ite distinguished by tho marks and
varieties just mentioned, as soon as they arL- bom, or at all
events that such appear, long before they can be attributf-d to
cictenial causes. And this also, no doubt, is true. And how
tlicn is it to be explained J For either our ezplanatious are
idle and futile, or many properties which have been acquired b
the parent are transferred to the offspring. Are they then 4
transferred^ It would certainly seem so. Thus the father b
gets a son like himself in eveiy way in form of body, exprc
of countenance, colour of Lair, and sound of voice. The t
perument too descends from the father to tho son. So t
peculiar marks loug continue to disLinguish the siune familyfl
men. But this ia particularly shown by the history of d
ders; of which there are instances known to all in tho c
gout, scrofula, and maduess. Again, diarrhoja and unnatural
dilatations of the arch of the aorta long infest the s.'une
family. These diseased conditions muet be lookeil on in
same light as other mutaticms of the corporeal condition.
to speak of both from the same point of view, surely 1
chaugo which is the origin of the production of black akin r
just as easily be communicated by the parent to its ofEspi
and is no more difficult to explain, than that by which gouti
handed down in the same way. Nor is it at all more diffici
I
HEREDITY. 387
understand, why the skin begins to grow black a certain
time after birth, than why some yeara aftenvards the oflspring
of Bcrufulous parents ia infested with ulcera.
Still oil the same it is a fact which we cannot explain; and
yet there is no manner of doubt that peculiarities acquired by
men do descend to their posterity.
Thua the fact being once established, it will be no longer
obscure why men undergo, from the causes induced, such great
changes of colour, Htature, and the other matters we have men-
tioned. Tho black colour of the parent may become blacker in
the son, if bo ia exposed to the same external influences, and
80 in the course of i^a may approacli more and more to actual
blackness ; and in that way at last great effects may How from
cauBOH ao small as to escape our notice, if each generation con-
tributes something to increase them.
Why one form of appearance and coimtenauce becomes per-
manent in one nation, and one in another, ia explained by this,
that parents always produce offspring like themselves.
It would however be difficult to say, how mnny centnriea it
takes to change the Bkiu from white to black, or in any other
way. But if wo may conjecture at all from the sudden effect of
the Biin and the air iu changing the skin, a long time is not
necessary. But that Europeans who inhabit hot regions do not
acquire even after a very long time a brown or black colour,
and that negriDes after being a long time in Europe do not grow
white, may be for this reason; that the former never try those
modes and ways of life, and other external circumstances, which
we have said are ao powerful in effecting change ; and if they
do suffer from necessity or adverse fortune, then they do change
coloiU''; and that the latter wretched mortals never are able to
enjoy that easy kind of life, by which whiteneaa is ao greatly
brought about.
Moreover, the way in which the remote cauaes of whiteness
and ljla<;kne3s act ia somewhat different ; and dark colour is
much more easily impressed, and much longer retained, than
388 OBHEIUTIOff.
clear colour. Thus the fierceness of one day of sun will i
a greater amount of hrownness than can be effaced by fit j
cautions taken for a long time to got rid of its effects. And this
observation, in the way that those who after having acquired
peculiar marks in any region retain them, when removed to
another, may lio applied ao as tp make it easy to understand
how blackness may still remain in permanence even when its
causes are taken away.
Thus tlien the question, how those marks which distinguish
individuals may be transferred by parents to their ctdldren,
is answered. And now recurs the other, how those markii
differ from the ones which are not ao transferred, and what
is the reason why some marks peculiar to the parent are
transferred, and others are not. I must confess this is one
I cannot answer. For the Creator has hidden the business
of generation ic the deepest recesses of nature, and has kepi
all its processes sunk and overwhelmed in the deepest dark-
ness, never perhaps to be brought to light. And therefore
lo explain things depending upon such a cause would be a
vain and idle imdertaking.
But, although this may be so, still I cannot help mal
mention of some things relating to generation, which, tliot
wonderful, are nevertheless true,
White men are sometimes bom amongst the negroes', fl
I have no doubt that other whites are propagated from them. ^
We only know of one instance of a black being bom
amongst the whites*; and according to the account of James
Lind, & clover man, a physician, and an investigator of fan
who says he saw it with his own eyes, this man begot a ^
like himself
I indeed am unwilling to appear to compel all nature fl
ray opinion ; but these observations, as they show that difl
sity of species is not necessary for causing blackness of o
a be B
makiniB
:1
hem, ^B
' SM. Otn. dt Voy. pv M. TAbbe FreTort, Tom. i
iBS. Maiipertnia, Tarn. u. p. ilfi.
' Phit. TraH,. No. 414.
. V- 590- Hftwki. Vdj
■ MENTAL VARIETIES. 389
and that this property, ]ike others, may be acquired through
external cm;umstancea, aad ao descend from father to son,
BO also do they in some way confirm the doctrine about colour
I have laid down.
The skin of those white men amongst the negroes is, as
it were, scurfy'; that is, the cuticle peels off in scales, and does
not remain long enough to become quite black. The skin
of the black man among the whites, as also that of his son,
was thick and hard', which fact shows that thickneaa has a
great deal to do with causing colour, and is in favour of my
opinion.
^^W
Chap. V.
Oil the Varietiea of Mind.
HE mental varieties seem equal to and sometimes greater
than the bodily varieties of man. And on this point I meant
to say little, as it seems to be part of our subject.
This chapter seems as if it ought properly to be divided
into two parts : in one of which reason and prudence, and in
the other manners, should be dealt with. And, in order that
ray notion may be more easily understood, I will illustrate
both by an example before I begin to deal with either. If
one man is sharp, and of an acute and docile genius, and
another heavy, stupid, and averse to all discipline, that must
be referred to the difference of reason and prudence. But if
one is sanguine, vivacious, alert and happy, and his opposite
is sad, sorrowful and wretched, we call that an affair of man-
ners.
In the former division, the question instantly occurs to
the mind. What is the cause of difference? Is it to be referred
to God? and is it credible that a Deity who is just and equi-
anfljrl Ceitanly sot, in mjr opiniiNi; and i
I etjnttaUc to ftttiibiite to ttatiiTal e»i
of mind which wu k&
To mveKtigate the mattor brieA;: bgd'a nhida do not
Mem to tne t<i tliOvr to macb by the fortune of biitli as hj
tb* tm Mtd exercise of reaeon, mad the Cumltiea of tite mtiul
conw oat imaller or greater hy xae, almoel in tbe same war
u tboae of the body. And as there are Bereral reasoas for
diis cxcTciae, I will consider them ooder three heads ; poatwD,
eJucnlion, and affections of tbe mind.
As to the first ; If one be in a place where insuperaUe
tntp<''Jiniciitd, or none at all, are ]daced in the way of action,
ill tlie first case be gives himself ap to despair, in tbe other
to idtencsi, and equally in either case doea nothing. And, b
fact, the Samocides and tho negroes seem placed in similat
drcumstfincca. If, on the contrary, all the nocesssries of life
arc uncertain to any one on account of the climate, tbe eoil,
or some other reason, what diiea be do? Instantly he straggles
to make tbem more secure by art and industr}-. He looks out
for ctittle. Hence plenty, and with that offspring increase.
I'loldn have to bo cultivated to provide food, and now abuud-
iiiico ODSues. And as you will say the desires of the human
mind arc not satisfied with this, be adds comfort to necessaries;
then Books elegance, and lastly luxury. With an increasing
cultivation of life, arts always, and often sciences, increase.
Observe tlie man, first wild, and tben carried to tbe highest
pitcii of cultivation and polisli, how much the same man differs
from himself? Look back upon tbe steps by which he has
prfigresHOil. In no two successive steps can a greater exercise
of reason and prudence be observed tlian in the Samoeide
constructing bis hut below the earth against the cold, or in
the nogro fabricating an umbrella to protect himself from
the built.
Besides, sometimes a groat difference is seen l>etwcen men
placed under tlie same circumstaDoes. What au interval
1
tween Isaac Newton and Bacon, and almost all their cmitcin-
porariea ! And yet tliey never coneidered that they were poa-
seased of any particular faculty, which others had not, by which
they could comprehend sciGUce, They observed nature more
accurately, and reasoned better on their obficrvationa than
others. That was not a natural power, but acquired only by
use and custom. What however contributed to form that fortu-
nate habit, no one but themselves could easily say, nor is it
necessary to do so ; and the matter is so subtle a one, that it
might easily escape themselves ; since we see every day that
many small things create a habit, without tliose being con-
Bcioua who ara affected by it. In fact, many who have hajjpijy
promoted the sciences by their labour, confess that thoy were
ltd by mere accident to give their minds up to it. Since then
the force of circumstances is ao powerful to excite and amplify
the reason, ao also the afioctions of the mind, and especially the
desires, are of great influence towards the same end.
What haa not been done for science and knowledge, espe-
cially in the government and administration of public affairs,
through benevolence, or emulation, or envy, ambition, and glory J
No one doubts the important part that education and dis-
cipline play in forming and stimulating the mind. But that
discipline is by far the best, which not only delivers precepts,
but also exercises the faculties of the mind, and compels it as it
were to anticipate commands'. So also the teachers of youth
stimulate the mind to learn by emulation, curiosity, blandisli-
ments, and very often by fear. Which influence is the more
powerful, let others decide.
Has conformation any thing to do with the increase or dimi-
nution of the mental faculties 1 If the operations of the mind
do not altogether depend upon the nervous system, especially
the brain, as those think who deny that the mind is any-
thing without matter, still there is no doubt they are most
intimately connected with it, and vary with its variations.
This is proved by the variations of the mind of the same man.
Sm BKAIN.
according as he is in health, or sickness; sanguine, or depressei).
When the skull is broken, or the brain Buffers compre^on, he
who previously gave utterance to the most shrewd obsemt*
tions, now seems almost destitute of reason and sense. A
who ever doubted, from these instances, that when the com
tion of the braiu is changed, the mind changes abo 1
It is a question also whether any peculiar condition of tl
brain, affecting the mind, can be handed down from parent
son ? It has been said above that temperament at all evra
is so communicated. But different temperaments are so et
necteJ with different tones and conditions of mind, that,
common parlance, they are referred to mind alone. Therefo
if certain conditions of the bruin, from which some opentif
of the mind proceed, are transmitted by the accident of bir
what is to prevent the peculiar condition of that part of U
brain, which is appropriated to reason, being transmitted in
similar way ? And this will appear much more probable to oi
who considers that a diseased conditioD, like that of madne
ia propagated from father to son in the same family for gei
rations.
What has been said goes then to show that something mt
be attributed to congenital conformation and stamina, h
more to exertion, so far as calls are made for it by positu
mental affections, and education, in the matter of reason s
prudence.
Travellers have exaggerated the mental varieties £ar beya
the truth, who have denied good qualities to the inhabitants
other countries, because their mode of life, manners, and ci
toma have heen excessively different from their own. For th
have never considered, that when the Tartar tames his
and the Indian erects bis wig-wam, he exhibits the same
nuity which an European general does in manoeuTTing
army, or Inigo Jones in building a palace.
There is nothing in which men differ so much as in
customs. They are of innumerable origins. Climate',
1
■ Eipril da Loi4, Liv. 14, 15, 10, 17.
CUBTOHfl. 393
;t', occupations, laws, religion, individual men, governratnt,
the institution of monarchy, or & republic', witli a thousand
other things, create and alter their customs in a, marvellous
way.
As for climate, let me quote the words of a distinguished
man. " Under the extremes of heat or of cold, the active range
of the human soul appears to be limited, and men are of
inferior importance, either as friends or as enemies. In the
one extreme, they are dull and slow, moderate in their desires,
regular and pacific in their manner of life ; in the other, they
are feverish in their passions, weak in their judgments, and
addicted by temperament to animal pleasure',"
Many instances of the effects which come from the causes
mentioned are palpable, but my time does not allow me to
mention all. And therefore I shall be content with one or
two examples, which clearly show how much influence one man
may have. The laws and customs of Lycurgus, the former
being taken into exile along with him, which were not insti-
ited for pleasure, but for the sake of public and private
lUiity, and to produce an austere virtue, lasted for the space
of seven hundred years. So also Peter, justly called the Great,
Emperor of the Russians, who bestowed politeness and culti-
vation on a nation barbarous, rude, and unheard of, or neg-
lected, and, in the teeth of their most deep-seated prejudices,
adorned them with customs, amended their laws, and handed
down to posterity an empire which is an object of fear to
te nation long very powerful, and of suspicion to other
>les and nations, is another splendid instance of the same
Lng.
However various the causes may be, which create and alter
the customs of men, there is but one which can make them
lasting, stable and, as it were, eternal. This is imitation, the
most powerful principle in man. By this we acquire customs,
manners, and almost everything. Sometimes indeed its power
aitiorn ofCivU Soeitty, P. l
be
—one
■jr»p>
8M
tumrmn.
in such Uial s^alost our will ve are compelled to imitate oUiei
Prom this soane depends the rceemblADoe of ctutonw id tlid
fatnilj. the city, or in tbe whole nstioo. This was well known
to the poet, who had seen through the whole noge of the
hamaa mind. "Falstaf. It is « wooderfol thing to see the
scmhlable coh^reoce of his men's sjnrits and bis: %hey, hj
ol^erving of him, do hear themselves like foolish justices : he.
by coDTersing with them, b turned into a jostioe-tike serving
man. Tbeir spirits Bxe so named in conjnDCtion, with tUti
putidpation of eodety, that they fiock together in consent,
like so many wild geese. It is certain, that ehber wise bearing
or ignorant carriage is csngbt, aa men take diaeaaes, one of
anodier.* Shakespeare, K. Htmry TV.
They are tnly few, who judge for tbanselrefl what enatoDU
are right or wrong, and they are still fewer who, whilst tber
think for themselves, and didei from tbe moh, go oa to ac-
commodate and alter their i
ofoidoas.
^^^^^H
■^^■■■■^^ 1
INDEX OF
SUBJECTS. ^^M
AFWCiM, 123,861,363
Calmncks, 116 "^^^B
AlbiiioH, LIS
Canis, varieties of, 365 ■
Capo of Good Hippo, 93, i)8, 361 ■
Americana. 98, 120, ISG, 161, 240,
266, 271, 307, 361
Carib, 131 ■
Cnrinthia. 116 ■
Amour,sku]Uanthe,1I0
Cunilina, 240 fl
Antbropological Collections, 29S, 347
Casque. 112 ■
Cat, 75 ■
Arctic animals, 101
Cattle acclimatisation of, 71 ■
ArenulM, 173
Cancasian. 155 ^
AriniMpi, 2.^7
Ash, 7^, 101
CcrcopithecuB, 177
Aatyaims, 380
Cliain of nature, 151
Cliampagno, S7
Baf,7S
Chest, 167
Banks, Sir JoBepli, M7
Chimpansi, 96, 97
Bardeaii,79
Chin. 383
Batavians, 115
Cliinese. 367
Beleninites, 28*
CirtMsMans, 98. 363
Circnmcisiim of fomnlo. 126
Benin, 112
Clnssificntinn of man, 90
Bir, 78
Climate, Inflnonee of, 73, 1U6
fiimaua, 17)
aitoris, 90, 126, 170
Bii>gra)ihf of Blumenb icli, 1
Biscavan wr>mon, 1 07
CoccTX, 142
Colchian, 110
Cnid, 378
Blacks, 371
Colour. 509
Borneo, 14l
Colour in mon, 106, 367
Brain, 303
Colt, modifications in tlio, 73
Brain of ape. 92
BrenaU. 12fl, 24T
Cordilloras, 107
Bulbs of the liiur, 38a
Corium, 106
Ball, 77
Cow, 77
Buttocks in man, 169
Creation, mutability in, SSO
Creole, 112,215
Caffires, 110
Oriole. 1)2
Cain, 1468
Customs. 392
California, 83
Cutnneous disorders, 3S5
OaUitricbus, 142
1
Cuticle, 368, 369, 371
396 INDEX OF SOBJECTB. ^^^^^^B
Cynamolgi, 267
Griff*, 112
Gonpowder, 370
Darien, iohabitanU of, 136
Guzerat, 110
Dauphin^, SO
Degeneration of bnito animals, 191,
Hiiir on man, 124, 127, 159, 173, 1«
290
224, 384
Dentition. 243
Hairy men, S8
Design, 321, 324
Ham, 363
Diana monkey, 74
Ilanieln, 87
Didiictflua iguavui, 91
Hands of man, 86, 1S9, 251
Diet, 198
Heart of man, 179, 377
Diseases in man, 130, 135
Jlcatofsun, 370, 374
Dadoe, 289
Hector, 3S0
Hog. 73, 74
HcmeriUopia, 133
Domestic aninutla, 72, 291
}lon, 76
Duck, 7Q
Hereditary peculiarities, 203, 367
Hessian boy, 87
Ears, 12P, 24S
Hinuy, 79
Klevator claTiculie, 87
Hog, 292
Kuibryo, developaiout of, 70
Homines monstrosi, 120
Epholis. 373
Homo Bupions ferns, 166, 336
Erect position of man, 84, 1G4
Horn, Cape, 377
Eaquimaui, 99
Horses, 71, 72, 80, 101, 132, 193
Ethiopians, 98, 101, 120, IGI, 267,
Himgnrians, 231
270, 304
Hnuhaine,377
Europcnns, 101
HjbriJity, 73, 80, 112
Eiercise, 391
HrbridB,i96,2oi
Eyeofmbbit, 131
Hymen, 89, 170
Eyes of man, 223
Hya;ua. 74
Hjponemia, 76
Fabulona yarietios of man, 257
Pace, varietioB of, 227
^^^^H
Facial line, 235
Imitation, 394 ^^^^H
Feet, 126, 253
Instincts of man, 83 ^^^^^M
FiHy,birtiofa,77
Final cauaoB, 361
Intelligent negroes, 309 f^^^^H
Intermaxilliary boac, 17S4^^^H
Fish diet, 37G
Ishmael, ^^^^^M
FcBtiia, 09, 139
Formative force, 194
74 ^^^^H
Fox, tbe, 73
^^^^^^H
^^^^H
Gallus caiecuticas, 76
Juvenis bovinuB, 337 ^^^^^^H
Generation, 386, 368
lupiuus, 337 ^^^^^^H
Generis hmnaui variolate nativa,65
ovuius, 336 ^^^^H
Genital liqaiJ, 243
ursiuuB, 337 ^^^^^^H
Genital organs, 73, 109, 247
Genoese, UG
Kakcriaelien, 139, 313 {^^^^H
Gianta, 104
Goata, 80
Lubrodor, lia ^^^^H
Gottingen, 348
Lapps, !>9, 116,231 ^H
Graafian follicle, 70
Granada, 107
Laughter, 89, 184 ^H
Grconlander, 98
Legs, 250, 363 ^M
Greenlanders,9i), 118
L>:prosy, 130 ^H
IXDEX OF SUBJECTS,
Macrocepliitli, 241, 243
Malabar, 110, I3<!. 137
Miilav, 156, lei, Qfiii, 2TS, 304
Mdlpliigian reto, 106
Manieluck, 112
Man, deceneration of, 293
Mandril, 92, 109
Mnnual laboar, 370
Mare, 77
Marianne, 377
Melatta, 112
Memlirana nictitans, 93
Menstrual flui, 90, 192
Mental affoctionH of bruU», 69, 389
Mestizo, 1 12
Mctif. 112
Mice, 132
Mollaba. 112
Mongolian variety, SGS, 2G9
MoDgoliiins. 156, 304
Monorchides, 12?
Monoscoles, 257
Morbific affection, 259
MulnttoB, 112,216
MnleB, lUI
Morej!, 2S1, 288
Musculua oculi mispensorius, 173
Museum, 155
Kails, 128
Naked condition of man, SS
A'atnral canscB, 390
Katural sciences in Gcnnaiij, 6
Natural varietiea. 224
Naitnre, ctiain of, 151
Negroes, 9, 305
Kew Hollanders. 1 19, 239
Nocturnal poDutioDH, 1S2
Norma vertical is, 237
tivimAemit, 1.33
Kymphse, 90, 170
Obi river, sqnirrels on. 71
Octaroon, 112
I OmasuflH, 242
"^ B uton, 83, 91, 94, 96, 97
Pacific Ocean, inhaliitanls of, 123,
367
Packwax, 94
Panniculixg oamoeus, 173
Papio, 92, 94
Patngonians, 253
Patliologncol variation, 140
Pcloriii, 282
Pelvis ui quadrupeds, 85
— — in man, 168
in negro, 249
Pontagcnist elaasiflcation of luan,
99,302
Poriophtholmiam, 93
Pomiaus, 101
Peter von llameln, 9
Pictures, 1 59
Pigments, 123
Pimple worm, 289
Pimples, 372
Pineal gland, 179
Plates, ox planation oT, 68, 162
Pluralitjr of species, 98
Pollutions, nocturnal, 182
PoBJlJon for copulation, 169
PoBtifOK, 112
Pre -Adamite creation, 285
Promaiillarj bone, 92
Primitive world, 283
Pulwrty, 181
PucUa Coinpanica, 338
Pueri Pjrenaici, 339
Puppy, a deformed, 7S
Quadnimana, 171
Quarteroon, U2
Quimos, 255
Babbit, 76
Jlabbita, white, 130
Racial varieties of the face, 227
Ratna, throats of, 113
Reason, 1S2
Reto mirabile nrtoriosum, 175
Reticulum, 113
Retromingency, 169
Sacrum, 142
Salniu arcticus, 318
Samoetdes, 361
Satyr, 97, 141
INDEX OF SUBJECTS.
ScjiliiauB, 113
SemiraaiiH, 60
Benegal, 107
ftoiicgambia ncgreMOfi, ilOT
Bexe», port tiikoii by in tlie gencia-
tion of the ftstuB, 69
BlcUiEm womou, 13H
Biinia cyuomolguB, 109
diaoa, 7*
loDgitoann, 97
SiUjTua, 96
troglmljtes, 96 -
Siiigiiig birds, 1U9
Sinuoasa, 77
Biren, lizU'd, 87
Bkin, 20H, 3({4
Skin diseases of ninn, 134
Bkulls, 101, 114,234
Spiirtiui (logs, 73
Buecies, l^S, 3t)0
Si>eoc-b, 83
Spotted skiu, 113
Squirrel*, 71, 7 J
Btaturo. 102, 232, SSS
Btrriii,113
Bun and air, 371
Supreme Bciiig, iirovidcnce of tlic, 73
SvreUisii girl and bear, SO
Tailed me
I'ails, 383
TarsiU bones, 1G7
Tattooing, 129
142, 2G3
Tears, 184
Tootli of man, 88, 173, 213
Tehnolcta), 2S3
TelaiQucoaa, IHO
Temperature, 1U3
Tercel on, 112
Tcrebratulo, 283
Tetea do Boulc. 121
TliroaUof ramsilin
Tierra dol Fuego, 105
Trails raiauou, 3SS
Vagina, its direction, 169
Vttriegiatod skin, 218
Varieties and Hpecie§, 190, 2G4, !
Vertiual at^o, 837
Veotrale, 143
VirginiunB, iio
VitniviuB, 107
White, 371
Wild children, ISiS
Womb, 377
Yellow fever, 368
INDEX OF AUTHOES.
Abilmuaii, 24S
Ackennaiui, 223, 341
ActnarioB, 133
Adair, 240, 241
Adaiuoii, 307
Adelong, 30
.£lian, 129
.fmiluDoi, 187
A'AlM*, 133
Ag:itljuiui.'nu. 139
A^L'ulii, l:l7, 139
Aji'iuu*,' :s 101, lOa, 113, 143, 210,
222, 359
AliIroTaodus, 80, 143, 299
AM'/findcr, .13)>
Alc'Aaudcr. 107
AUimuuid, 251
Alpiniu, 248
AIatr6mcr, 122
AufLxugoraR. 171
AmlcrB^-n, -227
Anderson, J Grgen, 90
Andr;,2U
ArbnUmot, 60, 335
AtvonBola, 262
AmtoUe, 03, 73, »1, 106, 139, 178,
179, 2U3,2S0
Arriiui, 102
Arlodi, 19
Artband, 262
Ascfa, de, I56,1S7, 108,230,241, 349,
AUnkicb, 271
Attumocdli, 210
ATomM;«, 136
ATJcetma, 124, 13B
Anblet, 112,217, C07
Anguitine, B. 386
Annoy, 248
Bwwn,321
Baldingcr, 4, 14, IS, 38, 43, 44
Bancroft, 97
BankoEi, 250, 270
Banks, 14,31,140,149,156,161,192,
271,274,275,302
narl.iii!ii«,-2.-,I
Itarbot, 214, 2^-2, 240, 303
" " , lud, 2HJ
Barth,
Bartoh
73
Bartolozzi, 310, 336
Bat4),222
Bates, 199
Bauliin, 115,142
Baungartiier, 2)1
Buorcnfiend, 126, 127
Baylc, SO
Bohrefu,2S5
Bell, 134
BolIoD, 126
Belon, 223
Borchcm, 188
Berencariiis, 170
BcrkoL 273
BernaduUi, 34
Bertin, &S, 115,175
Biddor, 349
Biet, 223
Billmann, 157, 177
Birch, 104, 244
Blair, 17fl
Blanc, Vincent le, to
Blancluu-d, 142
Blano, 21
filerswrct,
B]igfa,l62
311
^ ^^Rvf^^^^C
B^^^l
400 IKDSZ OF
AUTHOiU^^^^^^^^^^^I
Blumenbach, 3S9
Carpi, 170 ^^^^^|
Bochart, 73
Boddacrl, 262
Cartwright, ^^^^^|
Boeder, 1S9
Bocrbiwre, 108, 123, 308
Caverhill.Ml ^^^^H
Bomare, 217. 221,299
Chamberlaine, 170 ^^^H
BonQet,31,S4, 69, 7S,3I6
Chanvalon, 249, 251 ^^^M
BontiuB, 81,69
CfaapmEui, 139 ^M
Borilc, 233
Chardin, S69 ■
Borgia, 158
Charlevoix, 121, 127, 242, 383 H
Bom, 17
ChemoitE, 283 ^M
BougMirille, 250, 272, 283
Chewldeu, 21 ^M
Bouguor, 107, 216
Cfaodowiocki, 160 ■
Bouliaj-le-Goui, 250
Clirist, 4 ^H
Boiirguct,78,2(il
Bouterwek, 16
Churchill, 78, S4S __^^
Clarbion, 310 ^^^^H
BOWTBT, 83
Clauder, 76 ^^^^H
Bouenhard, 253
Clavigero, 192, 293 ^^^^H
Bnuides, 46
Clapton, 262 ^^^^H
Braaeo, 103
Clugny, 256 ^^^^^|
Bntun, IGO
129 ^^^H
Breton, 241
Cotter, 91,114,177 ^^^^H
Breydcnbftch, 148
91 ^^^^1
BroaseB,Des, 104,254
Columella. 73, 77 ^^^^M
Brown, 234
Coninierson, 2SS ^^^^^^1
Bruce,212,223, 225, 226
Brue, 310
Connor, 337 ^^^^^1
Bruin, 192
Conring, 224 ^^^^H
Bruin, Dc, ICO, 21S
Cook, 122, 160, 214, SG7, hS^S^H
Bran, Le, 122, 127, 128, 129, I3S
Bry, De, 122
Correggio, 61 ^H
Couwn;. 140, 263 ^M
Corora,102 ^M
Br7Mt,212,276
Br7don,374
Cranz, 102, 104, 103, 118, SlfH
Butknan, 2«
^1
Craiifurd, 335 ^M
Buffou, 63, 03, 78, 78, 67,90, 133,
CroU, IG ■
187, 189, 210, 218, 243, 252,
Croii, de]a,267 ^M
254, 2fi2, 277, 331, 362, 365,
Ciinotu. lie ^H
367, 375, 378, 361, 382, 389,
Curtis, 28 ^M
384
CuTier, 11,53 ^M
BOttner, 4, 44, 73, 76, 119.
Biioi,281
DaliTinple, 125, 247, 260, 2?S ^M
Byrd,218
Danipier, 232, 251, 378. 383 ^M
D'Anvilte, 99 H
CiidfunoBtiO, 248
Dawer, 136 -H
IVArgeDvillo, 103 ^M
Ciesar. 3G9
Caldoni, 179,222
DanbeDlon, 85, 91,178 ^M
Camelli, 135, 140, 262
Bcfuc, 292 ^M
Camerarius, 126
Deluc, 233 ,^1
Camper, 31,63, 57. 97. 108,176,220,
berhani, 98 ^^^^M
230,241,245,322,348
Dc8Cftrt«B, 59 J^^^^l
Cfinnegieter, 247
D'Hancarvillo, S84 ^^^^M
Capet«in,3ll
Cflrdan, 7l, 77, 81, 107, 121, 136,
44 ^^^^1
Pietimann, IDS ^^^^^M
138.130,243
247 ^^^^H
Dfgfcy. 338
ViMi, 87
DiodonuSicnloB, 244
liobrixholTer. ST3
Ducreron, 143
I'oniford, 339
Dorville, 235
I>iiddd],261
liQror, 114,11S, 12fl,25l
llyok, Vqu,3II
EbeL !79
Edwards, 87, 97, 140
Khrumnaltn, 103, 108
Ellioteiin, 18
Eliig, UH, 118,201,257
Elsboltz, 1U2. 114,142
Eiigol. U9, 106, 117, 210, 230, SCT
Eiiieiiti, 71
Enlcben, 44, 245
Eufltacliius, 85, ill, 115, 177
Fabricius, 257,299
Falconet, 33e
Falk, ass
Falkner, 104. 255
Ftdlopift, 142,113, 175
FoDton, 106
FeiD, 33fi
Feller, 232, 267
ForguBOD, 31(3
Fennin, 113,125,217,247
Fcatoa, 133
Fithte, 18, 62
Fidelia, 80
Filangieri, 339
Fiacber,101, 115, 116, 120,269
Flonrens, 47
Focqnenbrach, 249
Foee. 133
KoDtainci, 62
Fimtaiia,2l3, 24l,2.-.s
Fonteuello, 65, 62, 13(i
Fordyce, 199
Forrest, 245, 272
For»ter.G.,31, 100,119. 174.210,223,
2)3, 247, 24», 2i0, 2i4, 2j6, 271,
273, 2»4
Forater, H., 31
Foucher d'Obsonville, 315
Fonrcrov. 213,
Franklin, 184
Freniery, 319
Frcyliiighaiuen, 137
FriKb, 1D8, 180
Fuller, 305
Gacrlner, 149
Gogli^di, 103
Ooiuaborough, 310
Gt>lon,86, 114,133,174, 170
GurcUoiMO, 215, 216, 217
Gelielia, 83
Gentil, 257
George 1., 330, 334
G corgi, 249
Gesner, 76, 77, 143, 262, 299
Gouns, 156, 162
Geyer, 337
Gioalur, 4
Gilj, 210
Girtaunor, 212
Glafe^, lu2
GleichoD, 73
GineUn,21. 71, 139, 220, 25.1, 272
Goethe, IS
Goldmiith, 99, 116, 134, 135, 136,
262
Ggra SchliU, 349
OnrdoD. 252
Goze, 322
Ori>beii,83, 129, 135,137,
Grotias, 129
Guindaut, 141
Gtimilla, 218, 219,220
Hager,
Ilalm, I
231
Hnklujt, 247
U.JI, 134
Hallor, 15, 31, 51, 53, 69, 73, 75, 78,
7», 69, 91, 98, 103, 105, 108, 109,
124, 127, 141, 170, 176, 210, 222,
241,267,282,297.368,380
IlanoarriJle, 201, 231
Hiird, 107
Il4U-dt, 25
Ilurduin, 133, 139
IJiirtsink, 213
lUrrej, 141,258
Ilaabor, 95
IJautenvc, 210, 217
Hnwkea, 223
Uuwkcsivorth, 127, 126, 140, 143,215,
246, 250, 2S9, 202, 275, 369, 373,
377, 381, 383, 384, 388
2G
402 ISDEX OF ACTHOKS. ^^^^|
aMMiam.tS9
JohlMOV. 39 ^^^H
HaiTm
JOM^ SIS ^^^^1
Bdhk,14I,Z5S
Jonston,39» i^^^H
Ja>ne(i,S4 ^^^H
Htfratna^ 171
Eiemprer, 170 ^^^^H
Hale, 353
Kaime«,I09 ^H
Herder, 337
Heriwrt,73
K*mpf;23 H
K»nt, IS, 62, 203, 907. 410. SS^^H
HeiTiera,293
250, 267, 273 H
HmmlSSS
B^am»,79
KMbKT, 44 ^1
Kemb^eo ■
H*jne, 4, 27, 44, 73, 125, iSl. 25S
Kemins, 101, 132 H
HiM>n,IOZ
Ketde, 270 ^M
King, 174 ^M
HiggiM,354
KIdD, 216,261 ■
Bippocntes, 108, lie, 133, 192, 203,
Klinkosdi, 222 ^_^B
241^242
KIoger.SGs _^^H
Bobbes, IM
Klui»el, 43 ^^^H
Hodgca, IGO, 21S
Ko^m, 142 ^^^H
HoeTeo, 3JS3
Kdhler, 10 ^^^H
■ Htqccndorp, 224
KolbcD. 125, 127, 223, 24?^^^H
L Hogg. 11
Kolreuter, 196 V
1 aS'*^
Kaoig, 143 ■
K5iMug, 141, 25S M
■ HuUinann, 310, 320
Kramer, 262 M
Home, 88, 103, 118, 272
Kraschcniiiikof; 129 H
Honoriua, 13D
Kriigcr, 332 ■
nonce, 30
KrGuiz, 210 ■
IloniemiuiD, 22
Eu^lhanlt, 352 ^H
■ Howo, 93
■ Hughes. 98, 126
Labat, 112, 113,216, 222 ■
■ Uumboldt, 22
■ HoDttuId, 121
Lac^pedc, 22 ■
L'Adiuini], lits M
Lacrt, 107 fl
■. Hunter, 2C, 259, 261, 262, 348
Lact,I29 fl
■ Hunter, Jo., 357
La FosM, 94 ^M
■ Hunter, Jo. (Got.), 225
Lamolbe, 113 ^H
■ Hnnter, W, 70
Lankan, 112 ^^^^H
■ Hutton, 10
Laogsdorff, 22 ^^^H
■ IIoBchke, 533
Launitz, 352 ^^^^H
■ Hyde, 112,215
w
Laratcr, 1 1 5, 122, 323 ^^^H
Lftwson, 241 ^H
Ingnssiati, 114, IIS
Lo Bnin, 134 ^M
luBfeldt, 116
Isidore, 124
liter Atiucaa, 139
he Cat, 89, 96, 97, lofl, 130, l39,sS
LodjaH 262 H
Ives, 22
Locni, 102 ■
Jacquin, 161
Jnnien, 18S
Jefforeon, 2,'i2
hcger, 77 ■
1.(4)^1:11,87,140,250 ^M
LeibnitE, 64 ^^^^M
LunUie, Von, 6 ,^^^H
Jctie, 1
» L
Leonardo da Viad. I7»J^^^H
INDEX OF AUTHOKS.
403
Lmoj, 165
Lefj, 232, -272
Liliaviua, 2-27
Licetus, SO
Lichtenberg and Voigt, 9, 119
Lieberkuhii, 1U3
LigoD, 89
Lintl, 3SS
Link, 11
LiiiDseiis, 13, 61, 54, 57, 73, S4, SO,
93, yS, 9a, 138, 129, 142, 100, lr,2,
IC3, 165, 172, 173, 191, 1U8, 226,
249, 258, 267, 2S1, 297, 331, 337,
338,361,370
LinKbot, 274
Umtchoten, 254
Liscboten, Vaa, 245
Lithgow, 248
Livy. 73, 129
LodcmcLDn, 2S
Long, 106, 217
Lorry, 187,213,221
Lonbert, 213
Lonis of BaTaria, 349
Lnc, de, 10, 31, 313
Ladnig, 108,222
Lucas, 3117
Lnciait, 302
Liicretiiis,8l, 297, 323
Ludolpb, 135, 306
Ljeons, 160
MacrobiuB, 107
Mngellan, 233
Mtur£, Le, 307
MaJpighi, 200, 289
MaitffiraT, 216, 224
Marsden, 174, 215, 223, 232, 241,
240, 257, 272
Martene, 33
Martial, 146
Martini, 129, 141, 142
Man, 3
Manpertids, 134, 13G, 257, 38S
ManmtUaD, 128
Majcr, 16
Mearea, 241
MoHenry, 310
Meckel, 213
Maige, 309
Mela, 139
Meiiiie, 16
__Meiiippua, 302
Mentiel, 247
Mens, 4
Morcuriolis, 12I>, 251
Meriani, 115, 142, 143
Merk, 31
Merolla, 78
MetKger, 268
Hey or, Jurgen, 329
MichaaliB, 32, 43, 80, 156, 158
MiddletoD, 244
Modavc, 255
MoIm, 210
Molina. 273, 274
Molinclli, 226
Moll, 10, 31
Monboddo, 60, 165, 258, 290, 331,
335
MoRneron, 250
Montesquieu, 07, 60
Moreton, 217
Morel, 289 —
Morgan, 219
Morse, 252
Morton, 349
Moscati, 88, 166
Motlo, 219
Mullen, 94
Muller, 44, 123, 174
Murray, 99, 104, 108
MjootV, 302
Napoleon, 21, 60
Karborough, 222, 252
Naudin, 210
Neergard, 21
Neoptolemns, 174
Neubauer, 43, 44
Nouwild, 22
Nicolni, 44
Niebuhr, 122, 126, 129, 129, 245, 307
Kipho, 182
Kisbett, 308
Nott and Gliddon, 359
Nux, de la, 262
Obacqaens, 73
Oehme, 316
Oken,fi2
Olaus Magnus, 80, 138
Oldondorp, 2lfl, 222, 30S
Oleariiis, 118
Oribaains, 133
Ortega, 204
Osbeck, 17, 25
Osiauder, 16
B^^^^^^l ^^1
^H INDEX OP
AUTHORS. 405 H
"Bchrage, 166
Thctne!, 262 ^M
Bchrcber, 113, 13<
ThoYCDot, 127 ^1
Schreibor, 93
Tliibault, 223 H
Schrcjer, 127, 128
Thibanlt de Chanvalon, 241 ^H
Bdiroclor vau der Kolk, 3J5
Tignrinus FolThutor, 77 ^^^^M
Schroter, 284
Toree, 214 ^^^^H
StJinrigiiis, 126,271
Torqtiemadft, 241 ^^^^^M
Scotin, 96
Tourtool, 3.^3 ^^^^H
Seba, 123
TowdIc;. 230 ^^^^^H
Seetzen, 2-2
Hawaii, 210 ^^^^^H
Senecft, 13
Severio, 335
Tritbemios, 14:3 ^^^^^H
Sbaw, 78, 305
^^^^H
Sibtlwrp, 2-2
Truncbin, 126 ^^^^H
Bidder, 14
Tschudi, 349, 353 ^^^^^H
Sloaue, -214
Tulp,96, 165, 336 ^^^^^H
TwiM, 216, 217, 250 ^^^^H
Sinetina, 247
Socrates, (10
TKbsen, 216 ^^^^|
Solinua, aO
T;8on, 84, 87, 91, 92, 93, 96, 07, 141, ■
179 V
213,222,223,251
SpnllaDxani, 79
nioft, 124,251, 273, 303 _■
Spaugeaberg, 335
UmfroviUe, 257 ^M
eparrmann, 249, 251, 30G
Vtiillaiit. 250 ^1
Spcren, 2G2
VulcDtTD, 216, 262 ^H
8j)igcl, Hi9, 235, 241,331
V>Jli>uicri, 316 ^^^H
Sprt'liger, 73
Tarn,, 73, 73 ^^^M
Stahliu. SS
Vaea, 315 ^^^^^|
8te1, 140
Vaugouajr, 99, 117, 267 ^^^^|
StelJer, 89, 184,201,2-,!
Venette, 78 ^B
Steno, NicolM of, 175
Venilam, 203 '
Stepban, 133, 343
VeBalm,93, 115, 116, 142, 175, 176,
Stit^liti, 28
177.240,241
Storcb,80
Vesling, 143
Storr, 244
Veapncci, 249
Strabo, 107, 139,241
Vicq d'Aiyr, 176
Strack, 213
Virgil, 125,251
Vitrf, 176
StrauBB, 25M
VitniTiua, 107
Stromeyor, 16
Vogel, 133
Sula, 132
Voigt, 0,43,165,181,203,286
SuUer, 93, 87. 262
Swift, 331, 3;i5
Volney, 231
Syiuinons, 244
Voltttire, 56, 57,60, 134. 136, 250, 270,
281,339
Yoamaor, 172
Tiibciranni, 143
Vossius, 135, 137, 140
T.ic\tm, 233
Tanner, 44
Wafer, 127, 134, 135, 136, 137. 262
Tarpo, 258
Wagner, K,, 31, 108, 108, 132, 262,
Tatter, 161
•Ml, 349
Tiitinuanii, 133
Walcb, 4, 22, 44, 96
Tecbo, 271, 273
Wa!.leck,2l
Tench, 251,253
WalkT, 2911
27
406
INDEX OF AUTHORS.
Wallia, 103, 215
Walsh, 230, 286
Walter, 226
Warton, 201
Wasso, 182
Wasteras, 141
West, 234
Whanff-at-toDg, 119
Wheatley, 310
Wieland, 81, 308
Wilson, 210, 272
Winckelmann, 116, 231
Winslow, 117, 244, 245
Winter, 265
Winterfoottom, 305
Witsen, 122
Wolff, 157
Wreden, 16
WriBberg, 136
W jttenbach^ 33
Xenocratesy 22
Tonge, 221
Yvo, 246, 250, 270
Zach, 31
Zachias, 77
Zahn, 88
Zain, 180
Zimmermaim, 210, 215, 254, 268^
273
Zingendorf, 59, 331
Zucchelli, 81
THE END.
CAMBRIDGB : PKINTED AT THE UN1VEB8ITT PRESS.
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TWELFTH LIST
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FOUNDATION FELLOWS
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(Oorrected to Jcmuary 17 th^ 1865.)
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of Paris, District Lunatic Asylum, Inverness.
Airslon, Willinm Baird, Esq., M.D. S. Andrew's, Fife.
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• Babington, C. Cardale, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.L S., F.G.S., Sec.
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BaiT, Joseph Henry, Esq., M.R.C.S. Ardwick Green, Manchester.
Bartlett, Edw., Esq. 8 King William Street, E.C.
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Liverpool.
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*tl| Bendyshe, ThoB., Esq., M,A, Vice-Pbbsident. 88 Cam
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the Anthropological Society of Paris, Member of the Coroite
d'ArcheoIogie Amcricdiae de France. Cub&tob, Libbabian, and
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Christ Church, Oxford, Prof. Anglo-Saxon, Dr.Phil. of Leyden.
F.R.S., F.S.A., F.E.S.L., Corresponding Member of the RoyJ
Institute of theNetheilandH, etc , etc. 20 .Sea union f Square, Oxford;
and Water Stratford, Buckingham.
Boulton, George, Esq. I Gordon Square, W.C.
1 1] Bouverie-Puaey, S. E. B., Esq., F.E.S. 7 Green Street, W.
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Braddon, Henry, Esq. 5 Dane's I„ti, W.C.
Brady, Antonio, Esq., F.G.S. Man/land Point, Stratford, Etstx. '
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and Co., 10 Austin Friars.)
Brainsford, C„ Esq., M.D. Hatierhill, Suffolk.
Brinton, John, Esq. The Shrubbery, Kidderminster.
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Brickwood, J, S., Esq. Claremont House, Timbridge Wells.
Brodhurst, Bernard Edward, Esq., F.R.C.S. 20 Grosvenor St., W.
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tH Burton, CaptE
Santos, firaitil.
Montagu Squnr>
Burton, Samuel, £
Butler, Henry, Es.
*Buston, Charles, Esq.,
Bjerley, J., Esq.
Richard Fenwick, F.R.Q.S., H.M. Consul,
iCK-PfiEsiDENT. 34 Upper Montagu Street,
^ ; and Santos, Braul.
Chnrchill House, Davmtry.
Admiralty, Somemet House, W.C,
7 Grosvenar Crescent, S.W,
Cheshire.
^Can
Byham, Oeorge, Esq. War Qffiee, Pall Mall, S.W. ; and Ealing.
•Cabbell, Benj. Bond, Esq., F.R.S., F.S.A. 62 Portland Place, W.
Cameron, Captain, H.M. Consul, MasMouah, Abyssinia.
Campbell, Henry, Esq. 6 Claremont Gardens, Glasgow.
•Campbell, J. Bangkok, Siam. (Care of Messrs. Smith and Elder,
Pall Mali.)
Campbell, Montgomery, Esq, 39* WigmoreStreet,CavendiskSqiiare,''ff .
Cannon, Thomas, Esq. 13 Paternoster Row, E.C.
Caplin, Dr. J. F. 9 Vork Place, Porlman Square, W.
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Carlwright, Samuel, Professor. 32 Old Burlington Street, W.
^Camlla, Facundo, Esq., Honorary Member Manchester Scientific
Sludent's Association. (Care of) Messrs. J. Daglieh and Co., Har-
rington Street, Liverpool; and 91 Paieo de Julio, Buenos Ayrea.
ill, John, Esq. La Belle Sauvage Yard, Ludgale Hill, E.C.
+ Chambers, Charles Harcourt, Esq., M.A. 2 Chesham Place, S.W.
Chambers, William, Eaq. Aberystunlh.
Charlton, Henry, Esq. Birmingham.
Chamberlin, William, Esq. 4 Hervey Terrace, Brighton.
Chance, F., Esq., M.D. 48 Ecersjield Place, S. Leonard's on Sea.
I^Chamock, Richard Stephen, Esq., Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.G.S.,
F.R.S.S.A., Foreign Afiaociate of the Anthropological Society
m of Paris, Foundation Member of the Royal Society of Northern
I Antiquaries, Corresponding Member of the New England Historic-
F tienealogical Society, Trbabueee. 4 5. Martin's Place, W.C;
8 Gray's Inn Square, W.C; and 30 The Grove, Hammersmith.
ChigneU, Hendrick Agnis, Esq. 47 York Road, Brighton.
Clare, Rev. Henry, M.A., F.R.S.L. Crossens, North Meats, Ormshirk.
aarendon. The Right Honourable The Earl of, K.O., G.C.B., F.R.8.
Grosfenor Crescent, W.
Clement, William James,Esq.,F-E.S. The Council House, Shrewsbury.
Clerk, Lieutenant- Colon el H., R.A. Royal Arsenal, Woolwich.
nek, John, E
, F.R.H.S.,
I.S.A. South J
olton.
S.W.
CoekingB, W. Spencer, Elaq,, F.E.S.
Colea, Henry, Esq, Science and Art Department, Kensingli
Collier, J. Payne, Esq., F.S.A. Maidenhead.
t Collingwood, J. Frederick, Esq., F.E.S.L., F.G 8., Foreign Aasociatf
of the Anthropological Society of Paris. Vick-Prbsident, 4 8.
Martin's Place, W.C; and 54 Gloucester Street, Belgrate Road, S.W.
t Collingwood, S. Edwin, Esq., F.Z.S. 2&Buckingkam Place, BrisfttML.
Cooke, \V. Folhergill, Esq. Electric Telegraph OJice, Loudon
Cooper, Sir Daniel, Bart. 20 Prince's Terrace, W.
Cory, W., Esq. 4 Gordon Place, W.C.
CoBsham, Handel, Esq., F.O.S. Shortteood Lodge, Bristol.
Courtauld, Samuel, Esq. Gosfield Mall, Essex.
Cowell, J. Jermyn, Esq. 41 Gloucester Terrace, Hgde Park, W.
Cos, J. W. Conrad, Esq., B.A. 32 Westboume Place, Eaton
aftd 4 Grove Hill, IVoodford, N.E.
Cos, W. T., Esq. The Hall, Spornton, Derby.
• Cozens, J. F. W., Esq. Larkbcrt Lodge, Clapham Park, S.
CrasBweller, Henry Valentine, Esq, 133 Leighton Road, Ktntiih
Town, N.W.
Critchett, George, Esq. 75 RarUg Street, Cavendish Square, W.
CroUy. The Rev. J. M., Ph.D. Trimdon.
Crowley, Henry, Esq. Corporation Street, Manchester.
Croxford, George Bayner, Esq. Forest Gate, Essex, E.
* Culhbert, J. R., Esq. Chapel Street, Liverpool.
Daniell, Hurst, Esq. 4 Highbury Park West, Highbury Hill, N.
Davey, J. G., Esq., M.D. Northwoods, near Bristol.
Davies, F. Drwmmond, Esq. Hare Court. Temple.
H Davis, J. Barnard, Esq., M.D., F.S.A., FoTcign Associate of ti
Anthropological Society of Paris. Shellon, Staffordshire
Dawson, George, Esq., M.A., F.O.S. 40 Belgrave Road, BirmingAoi
De Home, John, Esq. 137 Offord Road, Barnsburg Park, Lond<m,i
Dibley, G., Esq. 72 Maiden Road, N.W.
Dickinson, Henry, Esq., Colonial Surgeon. Ceglon.
*Dingle, Itev. John, M.A. Lanchesler, near Durham.
Dobson, Thomas J., Esq. Kingston upon Hull.
Donaldson, Prof. John, Advocate. Marchjield House, near Edinlurg
Dowie, James, Esq. Strand
Drake, Francis, Esq., F.G.S. Leicester.
Driver, H., Esq. Windsor.
Drummond, John, Esq. The Bogle Court, Gloucester.
t Du Cliflillu, M. Paul Belloni, F.R.G.S., (care of) 129 Mount Slrnt,Vf.
Duncan, Peter Martin, M.U., P.G.S., Secretary of the Gcologicat
Society of London. 8 Belmont, Lee, 8.E, ^
Du Val, C. A., Esq. Carlton Grove, Greenhags, Manchester.
Duggan, J. R., Esq. 42 Walling Street, E.C.
g
Easaie, William, Esq., F.L.S., P.G.S. 11 Park Road, Reanifs
Park, N.W.
Charles WiUmm, Esq., R.N. HM.S Victoria.
Evans, E. Dickertoo, £h(]. WMibourne Hall, Doddenham, near
Worcester.
■ans, John, Esq., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.S.A., Secretary to the Numis-
matic Society of London, Nash Mills, Hemel Henipilead.
Ewart, William, Esq. United Univenil'j Club, S.W.
Eyre, Sir Edward John. Governor of Jamaica, King' s House, Jamaica.
JKFairbank, Frederick RoystoQ, Esq., M.D,, F.E.S. S. Mary's
Terrace, Hulme, Manchester.
Farmer, Edmund, Esq, 80 C/ieapsidt, E.G.
fFarrar, Rev. Frederic W., M.A., F.E.S. Barrow, N.W.
Fearon, Frederick, Esq. 13 Pall Mall, 8.W.; and Maidenhead.
Ferguson, William, Esq., F.L.S., F.Q.S. (Of Kinnendy, Ellon,
Aberdeen.) 2 S. Aidan's Terrace, Birkenhead,
Firhy, Edwin Foxton, Esq Gravelthorpe, near Ripon, Yorkihire.
Firebrace, Frederick, Esq., Lieufenant Royal Engineers. Shorncliffe.
Fleming, Captain, 3rd HuBSara. Cavalry Barracks, Manchester.
Flight, Walter, Esq. Queenwood College, near Stockbridge, Hants.
Forrester, Joseph James, Esq. 6 S. Helen's Place, E.G.
Foster, Balthazar W., Esq., M.D., Professor of Anatomy at Queen's
College, Birmingham. 55 Caltkorpe Street, Edybaston, Birmingham.
Foster, M., Esq., M.D. Huntingdon.
Fiaser, Adolphua Alexander, Esq. War Office, Pall Mall.
Freeman, Henry Stanhope, Esq., Governor of Lagos. 27 Bury Street,
S. James's.
Freme, Major. Army and Navy Clnb, St. James's Square, S.W.
Freuler, H. Albert, Esq,. M.D. North Street, S. Andrew's.
Fuller, Stephen D,, Esq. 1 Eaton Place, S.W,
Furnell, M. C, Esq., M.D. Cochin, Madras Presidency.
Garrett, William H., Esq, 98 Guildford Street^ W.C,
Gardner, Charles Henry, Esq. 5 Clarcnilon Villas, Loughhoro Park, S.
Georgei, Professor. 18 Wimpole Street, Cavendish Square, W.
tUGibb, George Puacan, Esq., M.D., LL.D., M.A., F.G.S.
19a Portman Street, Portman Square, W.
Gibson, G. S., Esq. Sufron Waldeti.
Glaucopidea, Spyridon, Esq. 7 Maitland Park Crescent, Saverstoet
Hill, N.
Glennie, J. Stuart, Esq. 6 Stone Buildings, Lincoln's Inn, E.G.
Goadby, Edwin, Esq. Loughborough, Leicestershire.
Gooch, Thomas, Esq. 03 London Wall, Oitg.
nOore,R!chardThos.,Eaq., F.R.C.S.,F.E.S, 6 Queen's Square, Bath.
Gay, David, Esq, 74 Cheapaiiie, K.C.
Green, Sidney Faithhom, Esq. Montagu House, Eltham, Kent.
Gregor, Rev, Walter, M.A, Pitsliyo Manse, Rosehearty, Aberdeenshire.
rercgory. J, R., Esq. 25 Golden Square, W.
J tr^ tr- rf^^
Gri&U. June* OUtt, E«i. 3 MiJJU TemyU Lmmt. KC.
^ Gnppj, H. F. i^ E^. Porto/Sptum, Trimdad.
HaU, Hugh F., Ewi. 17 Oi/c Strttt, iMtrpocl.
HammoDd, C. D., Ew].. M.D. II CkarlatU Sirtrt, BtJford Sy^W.if
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Hwdman, William, Ewj. Norbiton Uali, KiByilon-on-Thamtt. 5.W.
Harcourt, CUrencc, £«{. 2 King'* Armt Yard, E.C.;
Fii22a, ZiodyweU, LeieUhant.
Harland, Cbsrlel J., Esq. Madeira Place, Tortfuay.
HsiUn, Thonua, Esq. Brook S/reel, Kingilon on Tiamf,
Hairii, Oeorge, E«q., F.8.A., Regutxar of the Coort of
MiUicheRter. Cornbrook Park, Uvime, Manchetttr.
Haughton, Richard, Esq. Ramtgate.
Hawkint, A. O., Esq. 88 B!*hopigalt Street Wilhoul, EC.
Haj, Major W. E. 16 Queen Street, Ma'jfair, S.W.
Healej, Edward C, Esq. Joldicgnds, near Doling, Surrey.
Heath, the Rev. Dunbar 1., F.R.S.L. EiAer, Surrey.
Hepworlh, John Mason, Eaq., J. P. Aekteorth, Tork*hire.
Hewlett, Alfred, Esq. The Grange, Copputt, near Wigam,
Higgin, James, Esq. Hopaood Avenue, Manchttter.
t Higgins, Alfred, Esq., Foreign Associate of the Anthropological
Society of Paris. HoKORt^sy Forbiojc Secrbiaby. ^S. itartm't
Place, W.C.; and 26 Mancheiter Street, W.
Hillier, J., Esq. Sandwich.
Hobbs, W. 0. E., Esq. The Grammar School, Wareeide, Ware, Rerlt.
Hobler, F. H., Esq. Chemical Department, Royal Arsenal, JFoolwicL
Hodge, Thomas, Esq. South Street, S. Andrew't,
Hodgson, B. H., E*q. The liangers, Durtley.
Holland, Colonel James. 24 Princes Square, Hyde Pari.
Horton, W. I. S., Esq., F.R.A.8., F.E.S. Talbot Villa, Rugeky.
Hotze, Henry, Esq., C.S.A. 17 Savile Row, W.
Hudson, Professor F., F.C.B. 69 Corporation Street. Maneketltr,
Hudson, Henry, Esq.. M.D. ' Olenville, Fermoy, Co. Cork.
Hunt, Augustus H., Esq. Birlley House, Chester-le- Street.
Hunt, O. S. Lennox, Esq., F.E.S., H.B.M. Consul. Rio de Jan,
t^ Hunt, James, Esq., Ph.D., F.S.A., F.R.S.L., Honorary Forei^
Secretary of the Koyal Society of Literature of Great Britain,
Foreign Associate of the Anthropological Society of Paris, Corr.
Mem, of Upper Hesse Society for Natural and Medical Science,
Honorary Fellow of the Ethnological] Society of London. F
BiDENi. 4 S. Martin's Place, W.C.; 35 Jermyn Street, S.W .;
Ore House, near Ilattinys.
Hunt, John, Esq. 42 North Parade, Grantham.
Hutchinson, Jonathan, Esq., F.R.C.S. 4 Finsbury Circus, KC.
Huldiinson, T. J,, Esq., F.R.G S,, F.R.S.L., F.E.S., Membre Titu-
Inirc de Ilnslitut d'Afrique i Ports, Corresponding Member of iho
Lilcriiry and Philosophic Society of Liverpool. H.B.il. Cotttui '
Rusario, Argentine VonJ'ederation.
I
oreig^H
\ain,
)an.
nee,
%
loannideSy A., Esq., M.D. 8 Chepstow Place, Bayswater, W.
Izardy Frederick R., Esq. 141 High Holbom.
Jackson, Henry, Esq., F.E.S. S. James' Row, Sheffield.
Jackson, H. W., Esq., M.R.C.S. Surrey County Asylum, Tooting.
Jack^n, J. Hughlings, Esq., M.D., M.R.C.P., Professor of Physiology
at tne London Hospital Medical College. 5 Queen Square, Russell
Square, W.C.
^Jackson, J. W., Esq. 39 S, George's Road, Glasgow,
Jacob, Major-General Le Grand, C.B. Bonchurch, Isle of Wight.
Jardine, Sir William, Bart., F.R.S., F.L.S. Jardine Hall, Lockerhy.
Jarratt, The Rev. John, M.A. North Cave, Brough, Yorkshire.
Jeffery, William S., Esq. 5 Regent Street, Pall Mall, S.W.
Jellicoe, Charles, Esq. 23 Chester Terrace, Regent's Park, N.W.
♦Jennings, William, Esq., F.R.G.S. la Victoria Street, S.W.
Jenyns, The Rev. Leonard, M.A., F.L.S., F.G.S. Darlington Place,
Bathwick, Bath.
Jessopp, The Rev. J., M.A., Head Master King Edward the Sixth's
School. The School House, Norwich.
Johnson, Henry, Esq. 39 Grutched Friars.
Johnson, Henry James, Esq. 8 Suffolk Place, S.W.
Johnson, Richard, Esq. Langton Oaks, Fallowfield.
Jones, J. Pryce, Esq. Grove Park School, Wrexham.
Jones, C. Treasure, Esq., H.M. Consul, Shanghae. British Consulate,
Shanghae.
Jones, W. T., Esq. 1 Montague Place, Kentish Town, N.W.
Kelly, William, Esq. 28 Rue Neuve Chaussie, Boulogne-sur-Mer.
Kemm, the Rev. William Henry, B.A. Swanswick, near Bath.
Kendall, T. M., Esq. St. Margaret's Place, King's Lynn, Norfolk.
Killick, Joshua Edward, Esq. 137 Strand, W.C.
JKing, Kelburne, Esq., M.D., Lecturer on Anatomy, Hull; Presi-
sident of the Hull Literary and Philosophical Society. 27 George
Street, Hull.
Kinlay, W. R. H., Esq., F.R.S.E. 2 New Smithills, Paisley.
La Barte, Rev. W. W., M.A. St, John's College, Newbury f Berks),
*lf Laing, Samuel, Esq., F.G.S. 6 Kensington Gardens Terrace,
Hyde Park, W.
Lampray, Thomas, Esq. Warrior Lodge, The Grore, Hammersmith.
Lancaster, John, Esq., F.G.S. Hindley Hall, near Wigan,
Land, T. A. Augustus, Esq. Bryanston Street, Bryanston Square.
Langley, J. N., Esq. Mowbray Park, Wolverhampton.
Lawrence, Edward, Esq. Brachmount, Aigburth, Liverpool.
Lawrence, Frederick, Esq. Essex Court, Temple, E.C.
% ^ Lee, Rd'i Esq. Wilmot House, Leeds Road, Bradford, Yorkshire.
A3
10
Leea, Samubl, Esq. Portland Plaee, Athlon-tmJer-Lyne.
Leitner, O. W., Esq., M,A.. Ph.D., F.B.A.S., F.E.8., F.P.S., P«
fesaor of Arabic and Mohammedan Law, and Dean of the Oiionu^
Section, King's College, Loodon ; Hon. Member and Master of Ihe
Free Ocrraan Hochslift; Rs a miner in Oriental Langua^s at the
College of Preceptors. Gotemtnenl College, Lnhort, India.
Levy, W. Hanlct, Esq., Director of the ABSocistion for Promatuig tlft—
Oencral Welfare of the Blind ; 127 Euaton Road, W.C. J
Lister, John, Esq., F.O S. 28 Porchttler Terrace, Baynealtr ; a»fl
Shebdon Rail, near IhiU/ax, Yarhhirt. ^
Lockyer, J. Norman, E«q., F.R.A.8., M.R.I. War Office, PaU
Malt, 8.W. ; and 24 t'ictoria Rood, Fmchley Road, N.W.
Longman, William, Esq., F.G.8., F.R.8.L., F.R.G.S. 86 flyJe Pari
Square, W.
Lonsdale, Henry, Esq., M.D. Carlisle.
Lord, Edward, Esq. Canal Street Workt, Todmorden.
Lucas, Thomas, Esq. Belvedere Road, Lambeth, S.; and 10 JJy^
Park Gardens, W. ^
Lucy, W. C, Esq., F.G.S. Claremont Home, GloHctster.
Lukia, Rev. W. C. Walk Rectory, Rtpon.
Luxmoore, Coryndon H., Esq., F.S.A. 18 S. John's Wood Park. N.\V^
Lybbe, Philip Powya Lybbe, Esq., M.P. 88 S. Jamet'e Street.
M'Arthur, Alexander Mc, Esq. Raleigh Hall, Brirton Rite.
Macelellnnd, James, Esq. 73 Keiiiington Gardens Square, Baytti
\ M'Donald, William, I'>q., M.D., P.L.S., F.G.S., Professor of Ciri
and Nat. Hisl. in the University of St. Andrew's. Si, Andrew's.
McCallum, Arthur E., Esq , 39th Madras Native Infantry. (Car* of)
Messrs. Smith, Eltkr, ami Co., Pall Mall, S.W.
McDoiLiell, John, Esq., F.C.S.L. Clare Villa, Rathminee. Dublin.
McHenry, George, Esq. (Care of) 17 Savile Row, W.
Mackenzie, Kenneth Robert Henderson, Esq., F.S.A. Or/ord Uou
CAisirick Mull, W.
Maekinder, Draper, Esq,, M.D, Gainsborough.
Mackintosh, Charles E., Esq. New Cross, S.E.
Mftcleay, George, Esq., F.L.8. If^de Pari GarJnis.
McLood, Waller. Esq. Alilitary Hospital, CAelsea, S.W.
Marsden, Robert C, Esq. 14 Hanover Terrace, Regmfs Part, N.\
Marshall. George W,, Esq., L.L.B. 116 Jermtjn Street. 8.W.;
Neie Univtrnly Club, S. James's Street, S.W.
Marshall, RobeTt, Esq. Haverstoet Villa, Hnceratock Hilt, N.
Mnrtin, Sir J. Ranald. F.R.8. 24 Upper Brook Street, W.;
Keydell, near Hortulean, Hants.
Martin, John, Esq., F.L S., F.G.S. Cambridge House, PortsnontA.^
Marlindalo, N., Esq. The Lodge, Clapham Common, 8.
Mathieson, James, Esq. U Tele'/raph Street, Bank, E.C. ; onrf i
Beliiha Villas, Barnsbunj Park, N.
k
11
Matthews, Henry, Esq. 30 Gower Street, W.C.
Mayall, J. E., Esq. The Grove, Pinner.
May son, John S., Esq. Oak Hill, near Fallotcfield, Manchester,
Medd, William H., Esq. TJie Mansion House, Stockport,
Messenger, Samuel, Esq. Birmingham,
Michie, Alexander, Esq., F.R.G.S. 26 Austin Friars, E.G.; and
Sha?ighae, China. (Care of) Messrs. Smith, Elder, and Co.
Mill, John, Esq. 1 Foundling Terrace, W.C. ; and Gresham House
City, E.C.
Milligan, Joseph, Esq., M.D., F.G.S., F.L.S. 15 Northumberland
Street, Strand, W.C; and Royal Society of Tasmania, Hobart Town,
Milner, W. R., Esq. Wakefield.
t* Milton, The Right Honourable the Lord Viscount, F.R.G.S.
4 Grosvenor Square, W.C.
Mirrlees, J. B., Esq. Sauchiehall, Glasgow.
Mitchell, Wm. Hen., Esq. Junior Carlton Club; and Hamps lead, N.W.
Mitchell, William Stephen, Esq. Gonville and Caius College,
Cambridge; New Univeraitg Club, S. James's Street; and S.
George's Lodge, Bath.
Mivart, St. George J., Esq., F.L.S. , M.R.I. (Care of) Royal Institu-
tion, Albemarle Street, and Abrth Bank, N.W.
Modeliar, C. Poorooshottum, Esq. 33 Western Villas, Blomfield
Road, Paddington, W.
Monk, Frederick William, Esq. Faversham.
Montgomerie, F. B., Esq. 2 Cleveland Row, S. Jameses, S.W. ; and
Conservative Club, St. Jameses Street, S.W.
Moon, the Rev. M. A. Cleator, Whitehaven,
Moore, J. Daniel, Esq., M.D., F.L.S. County Lunatic Asylum,
Lancaster.
Moore, John, Esq. 104 Bishopsgate Street, E.C.
Moore, George, Esq., M.D. Hartlepool,
Morgan, Fortescue J., Esq. High Street, Stamford.
JMorris, David, Esq., F.S.A. Market Place, Manchester.
Morris, J. P., Esq. Ulverstone.
Morison, J. Cotter, Esq., F.R.S.L. 7 Porchester Square, Bayswater, W.
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HONORARY FELLOWS.
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Paris. 1 Rue dee Saintspires, Paris.
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Society of Paris. SI. Petersburg.
Boucher de Crevecceur de Perthes, M., Honorary Fellow of tbw
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Geological Society of London. Abbeville.
^Carus, Professor C. G., Comes Palalinus, President of the Imperial
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Paris. Rue de P Abbaye, Paris.
Darwin, Charles, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., F.L.8., F.G.S. Oomt,
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Eckhard, M,, Professor of Physiology at the University of Qiewen*;
Giessen. t
Gratiolet, M. Pierre, D. M. P., President de la Soci^t^ d'Anthropolo^i
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Kenan, M., Membre Honoraire de la Society d'Anthropologie. ^5
Rue Madame, Parts.
Van der Hoeven, Professor. Leyden.
Vogt, Professor Carl, Professor of Natural History, Gettera.
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Burmeister, Hermann. Buenos Ayres.
Buschmann, Professor. Berlin.
Castelnau, M. de. Paris.
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Desnoyers, M. Jules, For. Corr. G.S. Paris.
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Gerraifl, M. Dr., For. Corr. G,8. Montpellier.
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OoBse, M. A. L. (pere). Geneva.
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SpAiif Oibralcar Captain Brome.
United Stateb Nev> York Captain W. Parker Snow.
SanFraKciKO ...R. Beverlej Colo, Esq., M.A., M.D.,
Pb.D,, Professor of Obstetrics and
the Diseases of Women in tho
Univcrsitj of the Pacific
SwEDBH Stoctholm Dr. Retziua.
Gotland .Dr. Qustaf Lindstrora.
Tancoctbh's Island Edward B. Bogge, Esq., R.N.
3 tios DOS ma isi
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