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r
Section and, Rounthwaite^s Pocket Book.
PATENT ASH DISCHARCIMC*"'^'*""'
SEE'S Patent Hydro- Pneumatic ASH EJECTOR
DIRECT-ACTING ASH HOIST ,
SELF-TIPPING ASH BUCKETS
No Noise.
No Dirt.
No Waste
of Steam.
Adopted by all the leading SteamBhlp Owners of the World.
Fitted on every type of Steamer, including Passenger and
Cargo Steamers, Warships, Yachts, Tugs, Trawlers, &c., <&a
GREAT SAVING OF LABOUR.
Ashes mixed with Sea-water discharged well clear of Ship's side.
Sole Proprietors and Patentees—
F. J. TR
Naval Arch
43 Bllllte
Telegraphic Address **
OR, L™
neers,
Section and RounthwaUe^s Pocket Bock.
I
THE YOBKSHIBE COPPEB
WORKS, LIMITED,
LEEDS.
CONTRACTORS TO THE ADMIRALTY
AND ALL GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
SOLID DRAWN
TUBES
COPPER & BBASS
LONDON ^ ^
" 30 Gt. St Helen's, E^C 3
LIVERPOOL
" Royal Liver Building
GLASGOW ' '
" 78 McAlpine Street
NEWCASTLE ^
" Milburn House
CARDIFF ' '
" Asbestos House, Harrowby St,
''BEMAL" Brass Condenser Tubes
"LEESPEC
Copper Boiler Tubes
(Registered Trade Names)
Seaton and SourUkwaiie'a Pocket Booh.
COCHRAN
DONKEY
BOILERS
COAL OR OIL PIRBD
FOR BTMM OP MOTOR SHIM
■UILT IN 32 BIZEB UP TO
1000 8q. Pt. HUTINO lURFME
WRITK POR OATALOQUE
^k
urn
^
SEATON & ROUNTHWAITE'S
MARINE ENGINEERING POCKET-BOOK
ENGINEERING
^n illiuitrateir Witthin lotrmal
PRIOE 1/-; post ftBOf 1/2^
FOR THE ENOINEERINQ TRADE AND
PROFESSION AT HOME AND ABROAD
THE LEADING TECHNICAL JOURNAL
AND THE
BEST MEDIUM FOR ADVERTISEMENTS
A copy of our Directory of Current Adver-
tisements (first issued in 1885), together
with our Scale of Charges, will be sent post
free on application. Over 100,000 are dis-
tributed of each edition throughout the
world to buyers of machinery.
SOLE ADDRESS —
35-36 BEDFORD STREET, STRAND,
LONDON, W.C.2
A POCKET-BOOK OF
MARINE ENGINEERING
RULES AND TABLES.
FOR THE USE OP
MARINE ENGINEERS, NAVAL ARCHITECTS,
DESIGNERS, DRAUGHTSMEN,
SUPERINTENDENTS,
AND ALL ENGAGED IN THE DESIGN, CON€TRUCTION, AND CARE OF
MARINE MACHINERY, NAVAL & MERCANTILE
BY
A. E. §EATON,
M.lNST.C.E., M.Inst.Mech.E., Vice-President, Inst N.A.,
M.Inst.MarineE., and Mem Cncl. Inst. Metals, &c. ;
AND
H. M. ROUNTHWAITE,
M.Inst.Mech.E., M.Inst.N.A.
Fifteenth Edition, Revised.
WITH DIAGRAMS.
LONDON:
CHARLES GRIFFIN & COMPANY, LIMITED.
NEW YORK: D. VAN NOSTRAND CO.
1922.
\^All Rights Reserved.]
31 91 82 jun 22 mi ttf
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION. ;|^^
-»♦■
QuuiG
A special Pocket-book of Memoranda, Tables, &c., has long been
a desideratum with Marine Engineers. In the existing pocket-
books, Marine Engineering matters are only dealt with generally,
and such information as is given is in some cases very restricted,
in others obsolete, and in all too scattered to be useful. We,
ourselves, have experienced this want, and have heard on all
hands the desire expressed for a Pocket-book in which Marine
Engineering questions are dealt with thoroughly, are easy to find,
and not "mixed up" with general information in such a way as
to render the seeking of them difficult and tedious.
We therefore trust that in presenting this book to the public
we have not only fulfilled the task we set ourselves, but have
supplied this long-felt want in a manner that will prove satis-
factory to all engaged in Marine Engineering affairs. While we
have been careful to make the book of special value to Marine
^ Engineers, we have omitted nothing, so far as we know, that
is^ would be of use and importance to others having to do with Ships
•* and their machinery ; at the same time, we nave avoided tne
^ introduction of extraneous matter of only general interest, which
* would make the volume so bulky, and the arrangement of it so
complex, as to very materially detract from its usefulness. Hence,
we nave, while not altogether neglecting past experience, but
omitting information now almost only historic, devoted our
attention generally to the most modem and approved practice.
We have dealt with steel as the material in general use, and
not, as heretofore, an exceptional thing to be found only in high-
class structures ; the Tables of Weights, &c., are, therefore, given
fully for this material.
Inasmuch as the practice in a considerable part of the Mer-
cantile Marine is now more nearly approaching that followed in
Naval ships, as to speed and economy of weight, than was
formerly tne case, the information and formulae pertaining to
light fast-running machinery have been elaborated and based on
the most recent practice of the leading firms of Manufacturing
Engineers.
In conclusion, we trust that the book may be received favour-
ably, and found of use by practical men, and that any short-
comings may be overlooked on the score that it is the production
of the spare moments of busy men, rather than of those having
ample leisure.
A. E S.
H. M. R.
October 1893.
V
^
PREFACE TO THE FIFTEENTH EDITION.
-M-
This is the Fifteenth Edition of the Pocket-book which was
projected just thirty years ago, so that on the average a new
edition has been published at intervals of two years. Each of
these editions, by amendments and additions, has been brought
thereby up to date, so as to accord with the best practice of the
day as quickly as possible. This process is always a somewhat
troublesome task for the Author and a more or less costly one for
the Publishers ; it would have been at one time much easier for
both to merely reprint some more copies as the others were sold out.
It has been, however, a satisfaction and reward to both Publisher
and Author to find their enterprise and efforts rewarded by such
a continued demand as to necessitate so many editions.
This new edition, however, has required a more drastic and
extensive treatment than usual, inasmuch as so many of the old
rules of the Board of Trade, of Lloyd's Register, of the British
Corporation, and of the Bureau Veritas have been superseded
by the new unified rules based on the recommendations of the
British Marine Engineering Design and Construction Committee,
and now adopted by these four authorities. This change has
also necessitated a recasting of the tables and schedules based on
the^e new arrangements.
The rules formerly in force in Government shipping circles
in Germany have been expunged from this edition, as apparently
they are no longer in general use there. Moreover, there is
reason to anticipate that the recommendations of the British
Marine Engineering Design and Construction Committee will be
taken as the basis for those to be formulated there shortly.
The rules and regulations laid down for the guidance of the
responsible marine surveyors in the United States of America are
now given in a somewhat condensed form in the Appendix.
They differ considerably from those obtaining in this country
by giving more permissive terms, and leaving much to the
judgment of the designer and manufacturer. In passing it may
be perhaps not out of place to note that much is likewise thereby
added to their responsibilities.
vii ^
Till PREFACE.
Additions to the text in various parts have been made as a
consequence of the extended experience with modem boilers, as
also with machinery of every kind. It may be noted that while
geared turbines and internal combustion engines of various
sorts and designs are very much to the front now and continue
in considerable demand, the triple and quadruple compound
reciprocators continue, notwithstanding, to be held in high
esteem by those who are of opinion that rate of consumption of
fuel is not the only criterion of value. For the ordinar}' tramp
cargo ship these steam engines are considered to be the most
appropriate, as with them any fuel that will raise steam can be
used, and besides their auxiliary machinery is such as to require
small space and not much attention when at work. For the
passenger ship oil fuel is, of course, the best in every way, and
lor steam raising it may be of a quality and cost very different
from what the internal combustion engine requires for continued
good working.
The saving in space occupied by the machinery, and the reduc-
tion in the engineers' crew make the internal combustion engine
so attractive a proposition that most builders of marine machinery
have now placed themselves in a position to supply them. It is
to be regretted, however, that they mostly seem unable or unwill-
ing to do so without making use of the patents and designs of
foreign inventors. It is to be hoped, therefore, that those who
have been content to develop those of British origin will meet
with the success that their enterprise deserves.
The opposed piston oil engines and the double-acting oil engines
are now being experimented with, and it will be interesting
to follow their course, as it has been in the past to follow that
of the various types of steam engine from the time when the
S.S. Comet made a start over a hundred years ago.
A- E. S.
January 1922;
GENERAL TABLE OF CONTENTS.
-♦♦-
PAQBS
Prime Movers on Shipboard.— Steam-driyen Reciproca-
tors, Internal Combustion Reciprocators : Turbines:
Combinations : Geared Turbines : Multiple Screws, , 1-2
Engine Power Measurements. — Nominal Horse-power,
various Rules for : Estimated Horse-power : Normal
I.H.P. : Standard sizes of Cylinders of N.E. Coast
Makers : Board of Trade and Lloyd's Rules for N.H.P. :
Indicated Horse-power, Shaft Horse-power, Nett Horse-
power, Thrust Horse-power, ka, : Mean Pressure in
Cylinder and Effective Pressure on Piston as shown by
Indicators: Torsion Meters and Application of for
Shaft Horse-power, ..... 3-17
Efficiency of Marine Machinery. — Boiler, Steam, an4
Thermal Efficiencies : Mechanical and General Efficiency :
Propulsive Efficiency : Froude's Curves : Friction : Ex-
periments on Friction by various Scientists : Maximum
output of Energy from a pound of Steam : Effect of
Jacketing on Efficiency, ..... 17-27
Propulsion of Ships and Resistance. — General Resistance,
Residual Resistance : Admiralty Formulae, derivation of
them : Sir William White's Observations on Speed and
Power : Cruiser and Destroyer Tests at varying Speeds :
Results of Steamship Trials at ordinary and at very
high Speeds by Reciprocators and Turbines: Eirk*s
Method of Analysis of Form: Table of Appropriate
Angles of Entrance : Wetted Skin, Mumfora's, Kirk's,
and Seaton's Rules for : Seatou's Rules for Co-efficients of
Form and Speed Factors : Curves of Power, &c. : Model
Experiments : Co-efficients of Fineness : Friction of Im-
mersed Surfaces: John's Co-efficients for computing
Horse-power : True Mean Speed : Relation of Speeds and
Powers: Tables of Times and Speeds: Table of Two-
thirds Powers of Numbers from 100 to 56,000, . 27-56
Compound Engines. — Multiple and Simple : Advantages
of Triple over Simple Compound in Loads and Consump-
tion of Steam : Cylinder Ratios in various Compound
Engines : Mercantile and Normal Cylinder arrangements, 66-66
ix
X
CONTENTS.
Steam Expanding and doin^ Work.— Mean Pressure,
equivalent in Compound Engines : Mean Pressure, Rules
for : Steam Expansion, Isothermic and Adiabatic : Maxi-
mum Work : Table of Steam used Expansively : Effect of
Clearance, Compression : Tables of Mean Pressure, taking
account of Clearance ; Mean Pressure expanded Adiabatic-
ally : Ratio of Mean Pressure in Practice to the Theoretical :
Trials of Marine Engines, showing Mean Pressures,
Piston Speeds and Revolutions of Engines. — As in Prac-
tice m the Navy and Mercantile Marine with various
kinds of Engines : Rules for rate of Revolutions, Stroke
of Piston, ko. , .
Cylinders.— Diameter of: Sizes of Ports, &c. : Flow of
Steam : Ratios of Pipes and Passages : Strengths of :
Thickness of Barrels and Liners, Steel and Cast Iron:
Cylinder Ends and Covers : Cylinder Valve Boxes, kc :
Safety and Escape Valves : Drain Cocks : Starting and
Auxiliary Valves : Column Feet and Bolts : Horizontal
Engines : Oscillating Cylinders : Clearance of Pistons :
Stuffing-boxes and GKands : Studs and Bolts,
Pistons. — Cast Iron and Cast Steel : Proportions and Scant-
lings : Forged Steel : Fittings and Details : Junk Rings
and Packings, ......
Piston Rods. — Loads and Stresses: Proportions: Naval and
Mercantile Practice: Fitting to nstons: Guides and
Guide Blocks : Fittings, &c. , .
Connecting^- Rods. — Loads and Stresses: Proportions: Gud-
geons : Brasses : Caps and Bolts : Scantlings of Bearings
and Brasses, ......
Shafting^. — Loads and Stresses: Bendine and Twisting
Moments : Torsional Stiffness : Solid and Hollow Shafts :
Shafts of Screw Engines and Paddle Engines: Crank-
shafts: Equivalent Twisting Moments: Curves of Inertia
Forces, Effect of on Shafts: Crank-pins and Main
Bearings, Surfaces: Multiple Cranks, Effect of: Crank-
arms: Shaft-coupling Bolts: Built-up Crankshafts:
Crankshafts of Paddle Engines : Keys on Shafts : Board
of Trade Rules for Shafts : Lloyd's Rules,
Thrust Shafts and Blocks.— Loads and Stresses : Indicated
Thrust : Effective Horse-power producing Thrust : Pres-
sure on Collars*: Scantlings : Types of Blocks, .
Stem-Tubes.— How Made and Fitted: Proportions and
Scantlings : Stern-bushes : Length of Bearing : Stuffing-
DOX , &C. ,. . . . . . •
Main Bearingfs of Crankshafts. — Arrangements of: Caps
and Bolts: Loads and Stresses: Brasses, Types and
Fitting: Materials: Engine Frames, Design, &c.: Columns,
Loads and Stresses, « . . • .
PA0E8
66-76
76-78
78-105
106-113
118-116
116-122
122-189
189-142
142-145
145-149
CONTENTS. Zi
PAaiS
Condensers. — ^Gapacity of Jet Condensers : Injection Water :
Low-pressure Steam, Properties of: Surface Condensers :
Effect of Vacuum on Consumption : Forms and Arrange-
ments, Weir's, Morison's : Cooling Surface : Tempera-
ture of Sea-water in yarious purts of the World : Cooling
Water, Quantity and Application: Condenser Tubes,
Sizes and Fitting of: Tube-plates : Number Tubes per
square foot : Devils and Fittmgs, . . 149-158
Air Pumps.— TVpes of: Method of Working: Size of:
Weir's Dual Pumps : Vacuum Augmenters : Bods, Bolts,
&c : Loads and Stresses : Pump Barrels, &c. : Scantlings
of : Valves, ko. : Speed of Buckets : Suction and Dis-
charge Pipes : Air Escapes, .... 158-168
Cooling water Pumps. — Types of: Methods of Working:
Capacity: Reciprocating Pumps, Details of: Valves,
Beds, Pipes, ko. : Centrifugal Pumps : Sizes of Cylinders,
Impellers, Pipes &c., . . . . . 163-168
Feed and other Pomps— Gross and Nett Feed-water:
Capacity of Pumps : Valves, Rods, &c. : Suction and
Delivery Pipes : Feed Tanks : Reserve Tanks : Feed
Heaters : Board of Trade Rules : Lloyd's Rules for Feed
Pumps, ....... 168-172
Bilge Pumps, Pipes, and Fittings. — Capacity of: Boxes,
Strainers, &c. : Directing Boxes : Board of Irade Regula-
tions: Lloyd's Rules, ..... 172-175
Pump Levers and Gear. — Arrangements: Sixes: Loads
and Stresses : Links, Pins, and Urossheads, Surfaces and
Sizes of: Details and Fitthigs, .... 175-177
Slide Valves for Steam Distribution, &c. — Travel : Single
and Double Ports : Surface for Rubbing : Relief Rin^ :
Port Openings and Leads : Valve Proportions : Tnck
Valves : Piston Path Diagram : Zeuner's Dia^m for
Common Valve Motion: Diagram showing Effect of
** Notching up " (a) " Open " Rods, (6) " Crossed " Rods :
Obliquity of Eccentric Rods: Diagram of Oscillating
Cylinder Valve Motion, ..... 177-186
Valve Gears. — Loads and Stresses : Valve Rods, Rules for :
Guides : Links of various Kinds, and their Scantlings :
Position of Suspension Pins : Proportions of Double-bar
Links : Eccentrics, Construction and Scantlings : Straps
and Rods : Joy's Valve Gear, Diagram of, . . 186-198
Reversing Gears for Valve Motions. — Types compared :
Direct and All-round Gears : Weigh Shafts, sizes of:
Steam Cylinders for : Worm Wheels of All-round Gears : 198-200
Steam Turning Gears.— Speed of: Steam Cylinders for:
Worms and Wheels : Construction and Scantlings, . 200-202
Screw Propellers.— Numbers of Screws : Numbers of Blades
to each : Shape of Blades : Section of Blades : Materials
Xii CONTENTS.
PAGBS
of Screws : DimensionB of Screws : Diameter : Pitch
Ratio: Surface of Blade: Ratio of: Thrust: Slip, Real
and Apparent : Rules for Diameter Pitch, Surface, &c. :
Acting Surface: Scantlings: Materials: Attachment of
Blades : Weight : Bosses, Studs, &c. : Particulars of
various kinds of Screws, ..... 200-214
Paddle- Wheel Propellers.— Common Radial: Effective
Diameter : Thrust : Area of Floats : Slip, Apparent and
Real : Numher of Floats : Scantlings of Floats : Design
of Wheel : Wheel Frames, Scantlings of : Shaft Bearings
and Feathering Gear, ..... 214-222
Sea Valves for V^ter Supply, &c. — Naval and Mercantile :
Fittings and Materials, . . . . 222
Steam Turbines. — Types used for Propulsion of Ships : Re-
versing : Efficiency : Arrangements : Simple : Com-
gmnd, Division over two or more Shafts : Geared :
vdraulicTi'ansmission : Electric Transmission : Methods
followed in Naval and Mercantile Ships : Combination
with Reciprocators, R.M.S. Olympic, S.S. Otakii
Geared Turbines in S.S. Vespasian, S.S. Nor-
mania I Comparison of two Twin- Screw Reciprocating
Engine Ships with S.S. Sarnia, ordinary Turbine, and
S.S. Normania, Geared Turbine driven : Proportions of
Screw Propellers for Turbine-driven Ships : Pressures on
Journal of Turbine Shafts : Diameter of Shafting, Board
of Trade and Bureau Veritas Rules for : Rotor Drums :
Bate of Revolution : Blades of Turbines : Area through
Blades : Diameter of Rotors : Exhaust Passages : Leak-
ages : Water Tests, Admiralty, Board of Trade, &c. :
Weight of Installations : Steam Consumption, Power de-
veloped, how measured: Torsion Meters: Shaft Horse-
power : Consumption of S.S. LusiUiniaBX various Speeds,
also of S.S. Otaki, H.M.S. Amethyst \ Trials of Samia,
Normania, H.M. Cruisers **City" Class, S.S. Beina
Victoria Eugenia : Caimcross and Caimgowan com-
pared, ....... 222-238
Internal Combustion Eng^es.— Various kinds: Gas,
Petrol, Paraffin, and Heavy Oils : Oil Fuels used in such
Engines: Values: Oil Engines Classified: Diesel and
Semi-Diesel Engines: Two- and Four-stroke Cycles:
Double-acting Oil Engine : Number of Cylinders : Re-
versing of Propeller : General Design : Cylinders :
Pistons : Guides : Size of Shafting : Lloyd's and Bureau
Veritas Rules for Shafts: Auxiliaries necessary for Oil
Engines : Fuel Consumption of Diesels : Consumption at
various Powers : Trials of various Oil Fuels : Efficiency,
Mechanical, Thermal, and General : Mean Pressure : Rate
of Revolution : Burmcister & Wuin*s Practice : Augsburg-
OONTBNTS. xiil
PAGX8
Niimberg Ga's Practice: Salzer's Practice: British
Practice: Weights of Oil Engines, Space occupied
by: Advantages of Diesel's: Indicated Horse-power
Formulse: Cylinder, Thickness of: Trials of Diesel
Engine at Full and Slow Speed : Trials of S.S. Eavesione,
Selandia, &c., &c., . . . . . 238-262
Motor Boats, &c., usingf Petrol. ~6oard of Trade Rules
for: Lloyd's Rules for Petrol and other Oils on Ship-
board, ....... 262-258
Superheated Steam. — Modem Practice: Economy: Maxi-
mum safe Temperature: Specific Heat of Superheated
Steam : Total Heat of : Transmission of Superheated
Steam: Maximum Work of: Heating Surface required
for Superheating, ...... 268-262
Skin Fitting and valves.— Blow-otf Valves : Method At-
tachment to Skin, Naval and Mercantile : Discharge
Valves : Board of Trade Regulations : Lloyd's Rules :
Details and Fittings, ..... 262-266
Results of Trials of Eng^ines.— Three-crank Triples : Four-
crank Triples : Four-crank Quadruples, . . . 266-268
Wire Gauges.— Various and their Equivalents, . . 270-271
Copper Pipes.— Suitable to various Conditions, . . 272-273
Wrought- Iron Pipes.— Suitable to various Conditions, . 274
Copper Pipe Flanges and Fittings.— Scantlings and Pro-
portions, ....... 276-276
Bronze and Cast-Steel Pipes. — ^Theoretical and Practical, . 277
Pipes in General — Board of Trade Rules: Lloyd's Rules:
Expansion by Temperature : Safety Devices : Steel Steam
Pipes: Thickness of Steel Pipes in Practice: Solid-
drawn Feed and Steam Pipes : Welded Pipes : Exhaust
Pipes : Bendine of Solid-drawn Pipes : Flanges : Admir-
alty Tests of Solid-drawn Steel Pipes, also of Welded
Pipes, ....... 278-286
Stop and Regulating Valves.— Construction : Details and
Fittings, ....... 286-287
Balancing Engines. — Various Forces: Methods of Static
Balance : Dynamite Balancing : Inertia Forces : Yarrow
Schlick • Tweedy System of Balancing four Crank
Engines, ....... 287-^96
Geometry of Balancing Engines, .... 296-298
Boilers. — Fuels, various Solid and Liquid, their Characteristics
and Values : British Thermal Unit : Mechanical Equiva-
lent of Heat : Specific Heat : Total Heat of Combustion :
Air required for Combustion : Composition of Fuels,
Liquid and Solid: Oil Fuels used in U.S.A. Navy:
Viscosity of Oil Fuels : Lloyd's Rules for Stowing and
Using Oil Fuels : Admiralty Conditions of Contract for
Oil Fuels : Rates of Combustion in Practice, . . 298-30©
xiv CONTENTS.
PAOBS
Boilers and their Fittingfs.— Efficiency of Grates : Gbimney
Draught: Flow in Funnels: '*Head" required for
Draught : Fuel Consumed : Size and Height of Funnels :
Table of Funnel Capacities: Scantlings of Funnels and
Riveting : Forced Draught : Naval : Howden*s System :
Results of Forced Draught: Air Pressure in Boiler
Booms : Rates of Combustion and Evaporation, Practical
Examples of: Express Boilers: Water Consumption of
H.M.S. Diana, R.M.S. LusUaniaf and various other
Ships : Domestic Uses, ko,, . . . . 309-321
Boilers.— Various Types and Designs of: Tank and Water-
Tube Boilers : Cylindrical, various Sorts : Gunboat, Loco-
motive, Double-ended' Water-Tube Boilers, {a) Large
Tube, {b) Small Tube: Yarrow, Babcock, Niclausse,
Hohenstein, Miyabara, Mumford, White-Forster, Thorny-
croft, &c., &c. : Total Heating Surface and Weight of
Boilers, ....... 821-325
Boilers. — Efficiency of various Types : Examples of, . . 326
Boilers. — Evaporation, Heating Surface, &c. : Efficiency of:
Materials of Construction : Condition of Heating Sur-
faces : Circulation of Water : Tubes, sizes of : Water per
pound of Fuel: Equivalent Evaporation from and at
212* F. : Examples of various Tank Boilers, . . 827-332
Boilers, Proportions of. — Furnaces, Size and Number of:
Total Heating Surface Required for Various Services:
Examples of Latest Practice: Water Consumption for
Several Departments on Various Services : Auxiliary
Machinery and Domestic Demands : Steam Room Allow-
ance : Water Spaces : Pitch of Tubes: Multipliers to find
Equivalent Evaporation : Weights of Various Installa-
tions : Various Designs Compared for Weight, . . 832-339
Boilers of Steel, Construction of. — Admiralty Tests of
Steel : Board of Trade Tests and Conditions for Steel
Materials, Plates, Forgings, Angle and Plain Bars, Rivets,
Forgings, Castings, Tubes, Solid and Lap-welded, &c. :
Board of Trade Conditions for Construction : Cylin-
drical Shells: Riveting of Various Kinds: Differing
Thickness for Varying Tensile Strengths : New Board of
Trade and Lloyd's Rules for Shells, and Quality of Steel :
Tests for Boiler Material required by Lloyd's : Working
Pressures : Riveting : Flat Surfaces and Stays, Board of
Trade Rules for, with Tables: Dished Receiver Ends,
ko. : Flat Surfaces and Stays, Lloyd's Rules for : Plates
in Compression, Board of Trade and other Rules for:
Girders and Stays : Stays and Tubes, Admiralty, Board
of Trade; and other Rules for : Tables of Surfaces :
Furnaces of all Kinds, Board of Trade and other Rules
for : Testing by Water, ..... 840-376
OONTBNTS. XT
PAOBS
Evaporators. — Board of Trade Roles and Regalations, . 876
Boilers, Construction. — Lloyd's General Rules for, . . 879
Boilers, Construction. — Board of Trade Rules for Shell
Joints : Examples of Various Kinds of Riveting, . . 380-889
Boiler Work. — Supervision of, as required by British
Admiralty, and the I^ocedure in Manufacture: Treat-
ment of Mild Steel by Heat : Pickling Processes, . 389-892
Boiler Mounting's and Fittings. —Stop Valves: Steam
passed through pipes of vanous sizes : Safety Valves,
Rules of Board of Trade and B.M.E.D. & C. Committee,
kc. &c. : Spiral Springs, Rules for : Feed Valves and
Pipes: Blow-off and Scum Valves: Water Gauges:
Weight of Water at Varying Temperatures : Circulating
Apparatus : Board of Trade Regulations for Mountings,
&C. : Lloyd's Rules for same, .... 392-408
Furnace Fittings. — Doors, Size and Construction : Fire-bars :
Bridges, ....... 408-409
Ladders and Platforms. — Proportions and Scantlings, . 410
Eng^e and Boiler Seatings.— Arrangement and Scant-
lings, Screw Engines, Paddle Engines and Thrust Blocks :
Holding-down Bolts : Stavs : Boiler Seatings : Methods
of Securing Boilers : Lloyd's Rules for Seatings, Bearers,
Beams, Bulkheads, Shaft Tunnels, . . . 411-414
Lloyd's Rules. — For Valves in Bulkheads^ Openings in
Decks, Coamings to Hatchways : Deck Casings, . . 414-417
Steam Trawlers.— Lloyd's Rules for Engine and Boiler
Rooms, .....•• 416
Pumps for Bilges, &c.— Lloj^d's Rules for Sluice Valves,
Sounding Pipes, Suction Pipes, Bilge Injection, &c., . 417-419
Surveys of Machinery. — Lloyd's Regulations for, . . 419-421
Spare Gear.— Lloyd's Requirements, . . . 421-422
Board of Trade General Rules and Regulations for
Machinery Department. — Auxiliary Engine Suctions :
Bilge Injections: Spare Tiller: Rudder Chains, &c. :
Steering Engine Pipes : Steam Steering Engine Gearing :
Fire-hoses and Fittings : Stand-pipes and C^ks : Chock-
ing Boilers, ...... 422-426
Spare Gear desired by Board of Trade.— Main Engines:
for Distillers : Survey of Distillers, . . . 426-428
Chains and Ropes. — Admiralty Tests: Lloyd's Tests:
Weight of Breaking Strengths : Special Flexible Wire
Ropes: Hemp Ropes: Bullivant's Special Products:
Admiralty Tarred Cordage, .... 429-436
Strength of Materials. — Cast Iron of various kinds : Iron
Mixtures: Admiralty Requirements of Cast Iron:
Wrought Iron of various Kinds and Qualities : Cast Steel :
Admiralty and Lloyd's Tests for Steel Castings : Board
of Trade Tests for Steel and Malleable Cast Iron : Steel
xvi CONTENTS.
PAGES
Bars and Plates: Admiralty, Lloyd's, and British Cor-
poration Tests for Wrought Steel, . . . 436-447
Materials. —Copper, Admiralty Specification: Common
Bronze or Gun-metal ; Admiralty Bronze : Phosphor and
other Special Bronzes : Brass and Various Yellow Metals :
Aluminium and its Alloys, &c. , .... 447-452
Composition, Properties, and Costs of Various Metals, . 453-457
Plates, Bars, Rolled Shafts, &c.— As manufactured in
Great Britain, and the £xtras chargeable and other
Conditions, ...... 458-461
Beams and Girders. — Effects of various Loads, . .463-470
Test Pressures on Flat Surfaces (Maximum Fluid), . . 471-473
Effect of Temperature on Metals, .... 474-477
Weights of Materials, &c., ..... 479-495
Weights, &c., of Machinery, .... 496-497
Water, Fresh and Salt. — Information on, . . . 498-502
Oils and Lubricants. — Viscosity: Specific Gravity: Flash-
points of, • . . . . . . 502-504
Friction.— Co-efficients of, &c., . . . . 504-505
Conductivity of Metals. — Thermal, Electric, and Acoustic, . 606
Fuel Consumptions. — Solid and Liquid, . . . 508-509
Thermometers. — Fahrenheit, Celsius, and Reaumur com-
pared, ....... 510-516
Steam, Saturated.— Properties of, .... 517-525
Knots, Miles, and Kilometres compared, . . 527-530
Metrical and British Standard Measures compared, . 530-546
Circles. —Properties : Tables,. .... 547-564
Spheres and Cones. —Properties : Tables, . . . 565-566
Square Cubes and Roots of Numbers, . . 567-611
Fourth Powers of Numbers, ..... 612-613
Hyperbolic Logarithms, ..... 614-616
Nomenclature and Definitions, .... 617-618
British Corporation.— Rules and Regulations for Machinery, 621-640
Bureau Veritas. — Rules and Regulations for Machinery, . 641-666
U. S. A. Government— Rules and Regulations for Machinery, 667-675
Electric Lighting, &c. — Lloyd's Rules and Regulations
for, ■ . . . . . . . 672-677
Refrigerating Machinery.— Lloyd's Rules and Regulations
for, ...... . 678-686
Steering Gear.— Lloyd's Rules and Regulations for, . 686-687
Lloyd's Instructions to Surveyors re Tests, &c. , . . 688-694
Lloyd's Rules for Diesel and other Oil Engines :—
(a) Nominal Horse Power ; (6) Rules for the Construction
and Survey of Diesel Engines^ and Auxiliaries, 695-704
Lloyd's Rules for Screw Shafts and Stern Tubes, . 705
Distances of Various Principal Ports, &c. . 706-718
Standard Specification of North -East Coast Engineers for
Triple Compound Engines, . • • . 719-721
CONTENTS. XVU
PAQIS
Russian Weights and Measures compared with British
and Metrical, ...... 725-726
Hydraulic and Steam Tests of the Admiralty and Register
Societies, &c. , . . • . . . 727-729
Melting-points of Various Metals, 780
Lloyd's New Unified Rules for the Survey and Con-
struction of Engines and Boilers of Steam Vessels, . 731-756
Weight of Metal Plates per Square Foot, 757 «
Index, . * . . . . . . 758-770
XX
LIST OF TABLES.
No.
LXXXIII.
LXXXIV.
LXXXV.
LXXXVI.
LXXXVIL
LXXXVIIA.
LXXXVIIB. .
LXXXVIIO.
LXXXVIlD.
LXXXVIIB.
LXXXVIIL
LXXXVIIIA.
LXXXIX.
xc.
XCI.
XCII. and
XCIIA.
XCIII.
XCIV.
xcv.
XCVI.
xcvn.
xcvin.
xcix.
xcixa.
c.
CI.
CI A.
CII.
CIIL
CIV.
cv.
CVL
CVIL
CVIIL
CIX.
CIXa.
ex.
CXI.
CXII.
Subject Matter.
Thickness of bronze and cast-steel pipes, T pieces, Ac.
„ of cold solid -drawn steel st«am and feed
pipes in 64ths of an inch, ....
„ of welded or riveted steam pipes in 64th8 of
an inch,
„ of solid-drawn or riveted exhaust pipes in
64ths of an inch,
Composition and value of fuels,
„ „ of liquid fuels, ....
Consumption of various liquid fuels per 24 hours, .
Composition, Ac. of certain liquid fuels as in practice, .
Oil fuels as used in U.S.A. Navy boilers
„ „ viscosity of,
Capacity of funnels for quantities of fuel burnt per
hour
Pitch, ^c, of riveting for funnels, casings, Ac
(Admiralty)
Results of trials of certain boilers at full powers, .
Rates of combustion and evaporation (tank boilers), .
Express boilers, particulars of surface, weight, Ac,
Water-consumption trials of H.M.S. Diana and S.S.
Lugitania^
Consumption of water and fuel on trials of various
ships,
Thermal efficiency of various boilers, . . . .
Particulars of destroyers built by Messrs Tarrow A Co.,
Comparison of water tube boilers with others in various
ships,
Leading jiarticulars of some boilers madfe in recent
years
Particulars of laige modem cylindrical boilers, scant-
Am^By • • • flr ••••••
Total heating surface per I.H.P. of various ships, .
Allowance of steam room in boilers, ....
Multipliers for converting weight of water evaporated
to the equivalent from and at 212* F., . . . .
Relative weights of various boiler installations, .
Ck>mparison of steel boilers of various designs. Board of
Trado rules for 160 lbs.
Admiralty tensile tests for steel boiler materials, .
Board of Trade tensile tests for steel boiler materials. .
Relative thickness of boiler plates for different tensile
strengths,
Board of Trade constants for flat surfaces,
Pitch of stays and area of flat surfaces of combustion
chambers (B.M.E.D. A C. Committee), .
Pitch of stays supporting flat plates not exposed to
flame (B.M.E.D. & C. Committee rule),
Pitch uf stays supporting flat plates when fitted with
washers (B.M.E.D. & C. Committee rule), .
Working pressure, boiler shells of 28 tons tensile steel, .
»» •» »» »» •** It i» •
Lloyd's old rules for flat surfaces,
Corrugated furnaces, working pressure in lbs. per
BCJ« I Is CXly ••••••••••
Surface of plate supported by one screwed stay
(B M.E.D. & C. Committee rule)
LIST OF TABLES.
XXI
Ko.
CXIIL
CXIV.
CXV.
CXVI. and
CXVII.
CXVIII.
GXIX.
CXX.
CXXI.
CXXII.
CXXIIL
CXXIIIA.
CXXIV.
cxxv.
CXXVL
CXX VIA.
CXXVII.
CXX VIII.
CXXIX.
CXXX.
ex XXL
CXXXII.
CXXXIIL
CXXXIV.
cxxxv.
CXXXVI.
CXXXVII.
CXXX VIII.
CXXXIX.
CXL.
CXLI.
CXLH.
cxLin.
CXLIV.
CXLIVA.
cxlivb.
CXLIVo.
CXLIVd.
CXLV.
CXLVI.
CXLVIL
CXLVIIA.
CXLVIIB.
CXLVIII.
CXUX.
CXLIXA.
CL.
CU.
CLII.
CLIII.
CLIV.
CLV.
Subject matter.
Surface of plate supported by one Btav of 28 tons tensile
steel, B.M.E.D. & C. Committee rule, ....
Tests (mechanical) of boiler materials, ....
Joints of plates, their seTeral kinds and strengths.
Quantity of steam passed through pipes
Safety-valve springs, sizes of, by Board of Trade rules, .
Weight of pure water at different temperatures, .
Safety- valve areas for different pressures, Board of
Trade
Ladders and gratings, scantlings of , . . . .
Sizes of bilge suction pipes ^Lloyd's rules).
Admiralty tests, Ac., of stud-link chain cables,
.. „ „ short-link chains, •
Lloya's ,. „ stud-link chain cables,
Admiralty flexible steel wire ropes,
Breaking strength of steel wire hawsers (Lloyd's), .
Special flexible steel wire ropes, . .
BuUivant's steel wire ropes, galvanised, ....
Mild plough steel wire crane ropes (Black), .
Admiralty tarred hemp cordage,
Composition and qualities of cast iron, ....
Comparative requirements for steel castings, .
Composition of white (bearing) metals, ....
Properties of various metals,
Prices of materials
Safe working stresses on various metals, ....
Bending moments, <fec., of beams,
Moments of inertia, modulus, &;c., of some sections.
Forms of beams of uniform strength, ....
Greatest fluid test pressure on flat surfaces of cast iron,
Greatest fluid test pressure on flat surfaces of steel and
bronzes,
Greatest nuid test pressure on flat surfaces of bronze
castings,
Expansion of metals, &c., for rises in temperature.
Effect of temperature on certain metals,
Melting-points of various metals,
Melting-points of various alloys,
Specific heat of various materials,
Thermal conductivity of metals,
Electrical resistance of metals,
Weights of various materials,
>¥eight of round and square bars of wrought iron,
,. „ „ mild steel,
„ round steel shafts,
„ „ hollow steel shafts, . . . .
„ flat bars of wrought iron,
„ „ mild steel,
„ large rectangular section steel bars,
,, angle bars of wrought iron, ....
„ „ mild steel,
,, boiler tubes of wrought iron, ....
Standard list of sizes and prices, &c., of welded boiler
tubes
Weight of large steel tubes
„ seamless copper tubes,
I
87S
886
880
898
897
400
404
410
419
429
429
480
431
482
438
484
435
436
437
446
468
454
456
462
468
467
469
471
472
478
474
475
476
476
477
477
478
479
480
481
482
482
483
484
485
486
487
488
490
491
492
Y
XXll
LIST OP TABLES.
No.
CLVL
CLVII.
CLVHL
CLIX.
CLX,
CLXI.
CLXII.
CLXIII.
CLXIV.
CLXV.
CLX VI.
CLX VII.
CLXVITI.
CLXIX.
CLXX.
CLXXI.
CLXXII.
CLXXIII.
CLXXIV.
CLXXV.
CLXXVI.
CLXxvn.
CLXXVIII.
CLXXIX.
CLXXIXa.
CLXXX.
CLXXXL
cLxxxn.
CLXXXIIA.
CLXXXIII.
CLXXXIV.
CLXXXV.
CLXXXVI.
CLXXXVII.
CLXXX VIIA.
CLxxxvin.
CLXXXIX.
cxc.
CXCL
CXCII.
CXCIII.
CXCIV.
cxcv.
CXCVI.
CXCVII.
CXCVIIA.
CXOVIIB.
CXCVIII.
CXCIX.
cxcixa.
CC.
CCI.
COIL
Subject Matter.
Whitworth's standard gas threads,
Weight of brass condenser tubes,
„ lead pipes
,1 sheet metals,
„ engines and boiler installations of all kinds,
Surface of tubes in square feet,
Weight of fresh- water per volume,
„ salt ,, „
Composition of solid matter in feed waters, .
Quantity of solid matter in sea-waters and various seas.
Composition of solid matter in sea-waters.
Weight of cubic foot of sea-water at various ports, <ftc..
Boiling-points of sea- waters of different densities,
Viscosity of oils at various temperatures,
Characteristics ol various lubricating oils of good
quality,
Boiling, setting, and flash points of various oils, &c., .
Co-efficients of friction of various substances.
Conductivity, acoustic, electrical, thermal, of metals, .
Various gases, properties of,
Pressure of water due to various " heads,"
Coal consumed per day at various rates of consumption,
Oil fuels ., ., „ „
Comparison of thermometers,
Properties of saturated steam, temperature, density,
heat, <frc
Total heat of evaporation from and at differing tempera-
tures,
Knots, miles, kilometres, ftc, ......
Elilometres and Admiralty knots,
Millimetres and inches.
English feet and French metres
Decimal equivalents of fractions of an inch, .
Metrical „ „ „ • . .
Square feet and square metres,
Square metres and squure feet,
English pounds avoirdupois and kilogrammea,
Kilogrammes and pounds avoirdupois ....
Lbs. per sq. in. and kilogrammes per sq. centimetre, .
Kilogrammes per sq. centimetre and lbs. per sq. in., .
Kilogrammes per square millimetre and tons per eq. in.
Areas of segments of circles,
„ of circles,
Circumferences of circles,
Areas and circumferences of small circles.
Spheres, volume and surface of, also that of cones.
Squares, cubes, square roots, cube roots, and reciprocals.
Fourth power of numbers,
Fourth root of numbers,
Fourth power of shaft diameters,
Tons of water delivered through pipes with loss of head
=6 lbs.,
Hyperbolic logarithms
Power transmitted per revolution of shafts, .
Horse power transmissible by shafts, ....
Insulating materials for boilers
Refractory materials for furnaces . . . .
Weight of metal plates per square foot ....
t
494
494
496
496
496
498
498
490
499
600
600
601
602
602
603
604
604
606
606
507
608
609
610
617
626
627
630
531
536
530
580
540
541
542
548
544
545
546
547
650
557
564
565
567
612
612
613
614
614
616
619
620
620
757
MARINE ENGINEERING RULES
AND TABLES.
MARINE ENGINES-VARIOUS KINDS OR
The prime movers employed on shipboard for driying the
propellers are to-day: —
(1) Reciprocating Engines ; (2) Turbines ; (3) Combinations of both.
1. Reciprocating Eng^es are worked by means of steam or the com-
bustion within their cylinders of gas or spray from liquid fuels, or the
gas from solid fuel.
Steam-drivm reciproeators are direct acting, inverted in the case of
screw ships and inclined for paddle ships. They are invariably of one
of the compound types — that is, the steam is expanded and acts in a
series of cylinders, instead of in one only. Marine engines of all steamers,
except very special ones, such as tags, where economy of fuel is not of
prime importance, are of the triple or quadruple expansion principle,
so that there are three or more cylinders to each. Fast- running
engines in express steamers and naval ships, whether triple or quad-
ruple, have usually four cylinders operating on four cranks.
Oil-driven reciproeators. — There are two kinds, known generally as
the Diesel and the Semi- Diesel ; they both consume heavy oil, but
differ fundamentally as to the degree of compression of the air-charge
before the liquid fuel is injected. In the case of the Diesel, the air
compression (usually 35 atmospheres at least) results in a temperature
high enough to ignite the incoming oil spray. In the Semi- Diesel the
compression is considerably less, and the temperature is insuflBcient for
the purpose of ignition ; in it hot bulb or plate igniters are fitted.
The Semi- Diesel engine works on the two- stroke cycle whereby an
explosion occurs at each revolution.
The Diesel engine is sometimes worked on this cycle and sometimes
on the four-stroke cycle, with an explosion only at each alternate
revolution, that is, at one in four strokes.
In small craft, paraflSn is sometimes used as fuel with engines work-
ing on the four-stroke cycle. Generally all these oil engines are single-
acting, as double-acting ones have not so far proved to be satisfactory
ill continuous running.
1
i BNOINB POWfiB — MEAStJRBMBNT Of.
2. The Turbine is a rotatory engine and essentially a velocit}^
machine, as against the previous kind, which are all actuated, by pressure.
It derives its motion and power entirely from the kinetic energy of the
steam particles, to which great velocity is imparted by the expansion
during the loweiing of pressure from the initial to that at exit to the
condenser.
The expansion may take place in one stage, as in the De Laval
turbine, or it may be in a series of stages, just as in compound
reciprocators.
Other rotatory machines whose motion and power are due to steam
pressure acting on pistons or their equivalents nave been tried, but in
small units only have they been successful.
3. The combination of a turbine with a reciprocator has been car-
ried out on a very large scale in R.M.S. Olympic^ and on other ocean-
going steamships of various sizes, all with satisfactory results. By
means of the low-pressure turbine the energy remaining in the exhaust
steam from a tiiple compound reciprocator is fully utilised, and the
very high vacuum so easily and cheaply maintained in a marine con-
denser thus made full use of effectively. The saving in fuel by this
combination is generally about 15 per cent, over that of the triple or
quadruple engine, or there is an increase in power developed to a
corresponding extent from the same expenditure of fuel in each case.
Beeiprocators are nearly always connected direct to the propeller shaft-
ing, as their rate of revolution is not unsuitable to that of the propellers.
All Turbines are now geared by pinion and wheels to the propeller
shaft, so that they may not have so low a rate of revolution as that
required for the high eflSciency of a satisfactory screw. The ejQBicienoy
of the turbine to be good requires high peripheral velocity or a large
number of stages for expansion, the former being desirable.
Ungeared Turbines used to be divided so that small ships had three
screws and large full-powered ones four screws. Just before gearing was
adopted the twin scrow arrangement, with a complete turbine combina-
tion to each, was preferred for ** Destroyers" and ** Flotilla Leaders."
Geared Turbifies may be each divided into two parts, the high pressure
and the low pressure. For cargo ships of low power one screw is usual,
for higher powers multiple screws obtain, so that Naval ships of very high
speed have as many as four screws. The gearing may be single for small
powera, but now is usually double for larger powers, and is preferable.
Large ships vnth high power, even when driven by reciprocators, were
sometimes designed with three screws both in the Naval and mercantile
services, especially in some foreign ones.
ENGINE POWER— MEASUREMENT OF.
Nominal Horse-power, as understood by Watt, was a measure of
the commercial value of an engine, being the power it might be expected
to develop in ordinary work. Gradually, however, as it became possible
to construct boilers to supply steam at higher than atmospheric pressure,
the powers developed by engines exceeded the nominal horse-powers.
SNOIN& ^OWBR — ^MBAStmBHBKT OF. 3
until Watt's rule ceased to have this meaning and value, and the general
use of the indicator and other means of ascertaining the actual power
developed by the engine when working have caused the decline in
the use of the expression. But there remains the need for some means
of expressing in simple figures the size of a reciprocating engine for
purposes of comparison and commerce. There are also other and
technical demands for such a denomination, as will be shown.
Thus, for many years, a marine engine was expected to indicate
about five times its nominal horse-power. The rule then in use was as
follows : —
•»- ^ p __ Sum of squares of piston diameters
* ' ~" 30 to 38 (according to district) *
boiler pressure, piston speed, &c., being left entirely out of considera-
tion. It is, of course, hardly necessary to say that such a rule was
quite useless for any scientific purpose ; whilst, even for commercial
purposes, it gave only a very imperfect idea of the relative values of
different engines. Its use, however, still survives in some districts,
the divisor being 80, the normal stroke '618 of diameter of L.P.
cylinder, and the normal heating surface 16 square feet per N.H.P.
The matter was still in this chaotic condition when, in 1888, Mr
Seaton, in his "Manual of Marine Engineering," suggested the use
of E.H.P., or Estimated Horse-power, which is now calculated in the
following way: —
Rule I. Seatm's. E. H. P. = D^xV^xS^R
D is the diameter of L. P. cylinder and S the stroke of piston, both
in inches ; P is the absolute boiler pressure ; R, the revolutions per
minute.
For naval ships with overloads, Z= 85,000.
„ short passage express steamers, Z = 91,000.
,, long „ ,, Z= 94,500.
,, passenger cargo steamers, Z= 97,000.
cargo steamers, Z = 1 05, 000.
y*
Rule la. Seaton' 8, K H. P. = D^xWPxSxR
(r + 2)x 140,000
WP is the working or boiler pressure,
r is the ratio of the L.P. to the H.P. cylinder capacity.
These formulse give a very close approximation to the horse- power
actually indicated when working at full speed.
In 1888, the North-East Coast Institution of Engineers and Ship-
builders proposed the following very complete formulae : —
(D2>ys+3H\/P)"
Rule 2. N.E.C. Institution, N.I.H.P. =
100
4 fiNGmB POWftft — MftASUtlBMBNt Off.
Where N. I. H. P. = Maximum normal indicated horse-power, on loaded
trial trip, of surface-condensing screw engines,
working at any pressure between 60 and 250 lbs. ,
under ** normal" conditions.
D = Diameter of L. P. cylinder, in inches (if more than
one, D^ must equal sum of squares).
S = Stroke, in inches.
P= Working pressure, in lbs., above atmosphere,
H = Heating surface of boilers in sq. feet.
Pm = Mean pressure, in lbs., referred to L.P. cylinder.
Tlie conditions assumed as "normal " are as follows : —That
(1) Steam of all pressures is expanded down to the same terminal
pressure ;
(2) Expansion is effected with same degree of efficiency for all
pressures ;
(3) Piston speeds are proportional to cube roots of strokes, and,
further, actual loaded trial-trip piston speed may be taken
as 144>yS ;
(4) In all cases where relative proportions of engine and boiler
prevent (1) being fulfilled without violating (3), the coal
consumption will not be i^ected, but will be constant for the
same boiler pressure ;
(5) Boilers are of usual proportions and construction, and the
horse-power proportional to heating surface (H), and to cube
root of pressure (^yP) ; and further, actual loaded trial-trip
horse-power may be taken as — ^^ ?
(6) Efficiency of engine mechanism is constant, and the propeller
such that engines will utilize boiler power, referred to in (5),
in the manner prescribed in (3) and (4).
As a result of (1) and (2), it follows that mean pressure referred to
L.P. cylinder (Pm) may be assumed as proportional to cube root of
boiler pressure (^^P), and further, that its actual loaded trial-trip
value may be taken, without sensible error, as 5 "6 ^5/P.
The normal relation between engines and boilers is expressed by
the equation.
H = 5^. ^
3-25
The results obtained by the Rule 2 for N.J.H.P., if divided by 6,
give quantities very near those found by the old nominal horse-power
rule.
It is also claimed that, — for machinery of the same type and design,
proportions and arrangement, built of similar materials, under similar
circumstances, to similar factors of safety, and not differing very widely
in size, — the weights and costs will vary almost exactly as N.I.H.P.
For paddle engines the same rule may be used, with the co-cfficieuta
ENGINE POWER — MEASUREMENT OF.
altered to suit the piston speeds usnal for these engines. Assuming
that jinder (4), piston speed of paddle engines may be taken at
90 Ays, the rule may, without sensible error, be written, —
Rules. Paddle Engine, N.I.H.P.=^^'^^^^^^^^^
and the normal relation between engines and boilers will be expressed
by-
H=
Da-e/S
6-2
The " Standard practice ** formerly obtaining on the North- East Coast
of England for triple compound engines working with steam of 160 lbs.
pressure was as in Table I. To-day N.H.P. is not used there; in its
place an estimated I.H.P. is taken for cargo steamer engines designed
on Standard Rules {vide Appendix L) for a working pressure of 180 lbs.
ThisLH.P. is =D«xSxN-^700.
Where D is the diameter of the L.P. cylinder in inches, S is the stroke
in feet, and N the revolutions per minute, which by rule = 32(S 4- 4) -r S.
Taking the stroke in inches as S, and combining these, then estimated
I.H.P.-D2(Si-|-4)-r262-6.
Table I.— Sizes of Cylinders, &c., and corresponding N.H.P.
I
N.H.P.
Diara. of cyls. in inches.
Stroke
in ins.
N.H.P.
Diars. of cyla. in inches.
oo
^o
CO —
36
36
39
39
39
39
42
42
45
46
48
.. •
H.P.
M.P.
L.P.
H.P.
M.P.
L.P.
514
53
54
56
57
59
60
63
66
69
71
• • •
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
8
94
11
124
134
14
154
16
164
17
18
184
13
154
18
20
22
23
25
26
27 •
28
29
30
22
26
30
33
36
38
40
43
45
46
48
50
18
21
21
24
24
27
27
30
30
33
33
33
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
225
250
275
300
• « •
19
20
20
204
21
214
22
23
244
25
26
•• •
314
324
33
34
35
36
364
38
40
414
43
• • ■
Rule 5. Board of Trade Rule for registration purposes : —
^ „ p (3H-hD'4/S)4/F
j.^.xi.ir. - ^QQ
where H= heating surface of main boilers in square feet.
D^= square of diameter of low-pressure cylinder, or sum of
squares of diameters of cylinders in non-compound engines,
measured in inches.
8= length of stroke of engines in inches.
P s pressure of main boilers.
ENGINE POWER — MEASUREMENT OP.
Rule 6. Lloyd's Rule for determining amount of survey fees, &c. ,
is as follows : —
p+c/pys H\
K V 100 isy
N.H.P.
where D is diameter of L.P. cylinder in inches; S, stroke in inches ;
H, heating surface in* sq. feet ; P, working pressure in lbs. per sq.
inch ; and
fi_ / 340 where boiler pressure is below 160 lbs.
^~\690 ,, ,, 160 lbs. or above.
jr_ ( 1000 „ ,, below 160 lbs.
\1500 ,, „ 160 lbs. or above.
H
If the boilers are fitted for other than natural draught, ^ is to be
•a
substituted for — H includes surfaces of tubes, of back tube-plates,
15
and of furnaces and combustion chambers down to level of fire bars.
Since the capacity of the L.P. cylinder is the true measure of the
size of the engine, and as the other cylinders have a relation to the L.P.
which does not vary largely in any but naval engines ; and, further,
as the standard stroke in general practice varies with the diameter of
cylinders, the following gives a good criterion of the size of the
engine, which may be usefully employed for various purposes : —
Rule 7. Se€Uon*8(2). N.H.P.=DxS-5-X,
where D and S are as before the diameter of L.P. cylinder and
stroke in inches, and X a factor which for compound engines is 15, for
triples 12 '5, and for quadruples 10*5, and extension of this is —
Rule 8. Seaton's (3). N. H. P. = ^ ^ ^Kf^^ ^^^ *^^ engines
where P is the absolute boiler pressure.
ENOINB FOWBtt — UEASURBMBNT OP. 7
Table II.— Nomiiui HorsMkower of Triple Compound
Engines (DxS-!-i2-fi).
a
ENGINB POWBB — MEASUREMENT OP.
Table III.— Nominal Horse-power of Quadruple
Compound Engines.
^S
Strokes
•
meter
Cyliad
•
oa
»
•
•
at
09
S
en
•
•
oa
•
IB
00
•
a*
a
a
a
d
fl
Q
a
a
a
C
a
S
p
s
•8 .
•^
•rt
•r*
«^
M«
•»H
•v4
•<M
•■-«
XM
v4
•a
•■>«
5«^
^
t^
o
CO
to
o
04
lO
$
fH
'^
f«
g
C4
04
eo
m
M
M
^
■^
kO
to
«o
^
ins.
86
82
92
103
113
123
133
144
154
• •
• ■
• •
88
86
97
108
119
130
141
152
163
• ■
• •
• •
40
91
102
114
125
137
148
160
171
• •
■ •
42
96
108
1^0
132
144
156
168
180
192
•
• •
44
113
125
138
150
163
176
188
201
• •
• •
46
118
181
144
157
170
184
197
210
• •
• •
48
123
137
150
164
178
192
206
219
233
• •
« ■
50
142
157
171
186
200
214
228
242
257
• •
52
148
163
178
193
208
223
237
262
267
• •
• •
54
154
169
185
200
216
231
247
262
277
293
308
56
160
176
192
208
224
240
266
272
288
304
320
• •
53
182
198
215
232
248
265
281
298
315
331
• •
60
188
205
223
240
257
274
291
308
326
343
62
194
212
230
248
265
283
301
318
337
354
64
201
219
238
256
274
293
311
329
348
366
• •
66
207
226
245
264
283
302
321
339
358
377
390
68
213
232
252
272
291
811
330
349
869
388
408
70
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
360
380
403
420
72
247
267
288
308
329
349
370
391
411
432
74
254
276
296
317
338
369
380
402
423
444
76
260
282
304
325
347
369
390
412
434
456
78
267
290
312
334
356
879
401
423
446
468
80
274
297
320
342
365
388
411
434
457
480
82
281
304
328
351
374
398
421
445
468
492
84
287
311
336
359
883
407
431
456
479 504
1
Summary Rules for Estimating Horsepower.
1. Estimated I.H.P.=5VP+il^xl(Seatou, v, - Manual,"
p. 197). _ _
2. Nominal I.H.P. (Screw Engines) = ^^^^^'^^^^ n/P(N.E. Coast
Inst. E. andS.).
8. Nominal I.H.P. (Paddle Engine) = ^^'^^^ + ^^^ ^"^(N.E. Coast
Inst. E. and S.).
4. Estimated I.H.P.=D2(Sj + 4)-r262-5 (N.E, Coast Engineers,
X917).
ENGINE POWER — MEASUREMENT OP.
5. Nominal H. P. (3 H + D^ ^S) x 4/P-T-700 ( Board of Trade).
6. Nominal H. P. = ^('^^^ + ^\ (Lloyd's).
7. Nominal H.P. =D x S-i-X (Seaton, v, ** Manual," p. 196).
8. Nominal H.P. = D x S x VP+T5 -f 150 (Seaton).
d is the diameter of the H.P. cylinder, dj that of the first inter-
mediate, etc. , and D that of the low pressure ; S the stroke of
piston ; all in inches. P the load pressure on safety valves in lbs.
per sq. inch ; H the heating surface of the boilers in sq. feet ; 0 and
K are 340 and 1000 respectively when the boiler pressure is under
160 lbs., and 590 and 1500 when above 160. R the revolutions per
minute ; and X is 15 for. compound engines, 12'6 for triple, and 10*5
for quadruple. Z varies from 86-000 to 105*000 («. ante).
Table Ilia.— Horse-power in ft. -lbs. of Foreig^n Countries.
Oonntry.
British ft. -lbs.
per minute.
Ratio of
foreign to
British.
Eilogrammetres
per second.
France ....
Prussia
Austria
Saxony
Hanover
German Empire .
32,552
32,689
33,034
32,668
32,705
33,000
0-9865
0-9900
1-0010
0-9869
0-9906
1-000
76-000
75-325
76-119
75-045
75-361
76-041
Indicated Horse-power. — The indicated horse-power of an engine
may be defined as the measure of work done in the steam cylinder, as
deduced from the indicator diagrams, and is equal to (area of piston in
square inches x mean pressure in lbs. per square inch x number df
feet travelled through by piston, per minute) -r 33,000 ; or, —
Rule 9.
I.H.P.=
AxPxS
33,000
Piston speed, S,=: stroke in feet x2x number of revolutions per min.
In the case of engines having more than one 8ted.m cylinder, the
I.H.P. of each cylinder is determined separately, and the sum of
these is the I.H.P. of the engine.
Where accuracy is required, the sectional area- of piston rod should
be deducted from the areas of piston.
Shaft Horse-power is that transmitted by the shaft and is
measured by the torque on it. If Tq is the torque in lbs. , 0 the angle
of torsion on a length of shaft I inches, whose diameter is d inches, then
10 BNQINE POWER — HBASURBMBNT OF.
6^xd^x revB.
Rule 10. S.H.P.
3-27 xZ
Nett Horse-power is that required to overcome the resistance of
the ship only, then if R is the resistance in lbs., S the speed in knots
per hour, we get
Rule IX. NettH.P/=.^iS^i580^RxS^
38,000 X 60 325
Tow-rope Horse-power is that required to tow the ship without
a propeller, T is the tension on tow-rope in lbs.
Rule 12. TrH.P.=^^.
Propeller Horse-power is that received by the propeller.
Thrust Horse-power is that delivered by the propeller for the pro-
pulsion of the ship, so that T« is the thrust in lbs.
Rule 13. T,H.P.=?^.
Summarising^.
(1) I.H.P. is the gross power generated.
(2) S.H.P. is the nett power delivered by the engine to the shafting.
(3) PrH.P. is that received by the propeller, being S.H.P. minus
the loss at the thrust and other bearings and in the stern tubes.
(4) T»H.P. is that delivered to drive the ship, being PrH.P. less
that lost by friction, eddies, etc. , iu its working.
(5) TrH.P. is the thrust H.P. less that lost by the augmented
resistance set up by the screw, and is practically nett H.P.
To determine the mean pressure from an indicator diagram the follow-
ing is general practice : —
Let fig. 1 represent a pair of diagrams from the L.P. cylinder of a
compound engine. Draw two perpendiculars to the atmospheric line
AB, one at each end of and touching the diagrams ; divide the space
between them into ten equal parts, placing the division marks so that
there shall be half a space at each end, and draw a vertical ordinate
through each mark ; measure off the breadths of the diagrams at each
ordinate to the scale corresponding to the indicator spring and figure
them on ends of ordinates as shown, keeping the figures referring to
each diagram in a separate column.
The sum of each divided by ten gives two mean pressures, — one of
which refers to each side of the piston, — and the mean of these two is
the mean pressure required.
Planimeter. — Where there are many diagrams to be calculated, it
is quicker to use a planimeter in place of the method ffiven above.
The method is as follows : — Measure the area of the figure oy means of
the instrument, and divide it by the length AB, when the quotient
will be the mean breadth in inches; and this, multiplied by the
BNOINB POWER — MEASUREMENT OF.
11
'* acale" of the spring used (the number of pounds required to compress
it one inch) will give the mean pressure required.
The Coffin averaging instrument is a form of planimeter specially
designed for dealine with indicator diagrams. It leaves on tne card
t^o needle pricks, the distance between which is the mean breadth of
^ •? !& ^
>% «? ^ Ss
^ g $ ^
S S S S fc ^
^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
Fio. 1.
S3^
^
I
I
I
11
the figure, — and thus performs mechanically the process of dividing
area of figure by length.
The following equivalents may be useful in calculations connected
with the above : —
{Pounds per sq. inch x '07 = Kilogrammes per sq. centimetre.
Kilogrammes per sq. centimetre x 14 '22 = Pounds per sq. inch.
{Foot-pounds x 7 '233 = Kilogrammetres.
Kilogrammetres x *138 = Foot-pounds.
/ Horse-power x 1*0139 = Chevaux.
\ Chevaux x *9863= Horse-power.
See also " Tables of Pounds per square inch and Kilogrammes per
square centimetre," Table CLXXXVIII.
The Continental ''Cheval'* is equal to 4500 kilogrammetres, or
82,549 foot-pounds per minute, as against 83,000 foot-pounds per
minute, --the value of the English horse-power."
The following Table will considerably facilitate the computation of
indicated horse-power :—
12
ENOINB POWER — MEASUREMENT OF.
Table IV.— Constant Multipliers for I.H.P.
area of cylinder
■
OoDstants
diameter
^000 ; &nd I. H.P s constant X mean preen. X piston speed.
Diameter
Diameter
,
DUuneter
of
Constant
of
Constant
of
Constant
of
Constant
Cylinder.
Cylinder.
Cylinder.
Qylinder.
6
•00086
1634
•00648
84
•02761
60
•08569
34
•00092
%
•00668
34
•02833
61
•08866
Vl
•00100
17
•00688
36
•02916
62
•09149
%
•00108
34
•00708
34
•02999
63
•09447
7
•00116
34
•00728
36
•03084
64
•09748
34
•00126
%
•00749
34
•03171
66
•10065
K
•00134
18
•00771
37
•03268
66
•10368
%
•00143
34
•00792
34
•03347
67
•10684
8
•00162
34
•00814
38
•03437
68
•11006
34
•00162
%
•00836
34
•03628
69
•11332
3i
•00172
19
•00869
39
•03620
70
•11663
%
•00182
34
•00882
34
•03713
71
•11998
9
•00192
34
•00905
40
•03808
72
•12339
34
•00203
%
•00928
34
•03904
73
•12688
3i
•00214
20
•00952
41
•04001
74
•13088
94
•00226
34
•01000
34
•04099
76
•13388
10
•00238
21
•01049
42
•04198
76
•13748
34
•00260
34
•01100
34
•04299
77
•14112
3i
•00262
22
•01162
43
•04401
n
•14481
%
•00276
34
•01205
34
•04604
79
•14854
11
•00288
23
•01269
44
•04608
80
•16232
34
•00801
34
•01314
34
•04718
81
•16615
H
•00314
24
•01371
45
•04820
82
•16003
%
•00328
34
•01428
34
•04927
83
•16898
12
•00842
26
•01487
46
•06036
84
•16796
34
•00867'
34
•01647
34
•06146
86
•17198
1
3i
•00372
26
•01609
47
•06267
86
•17604
%
•00387
34
•01671
34
•06370
87
•18016
13
•00402
27
•01736
48
•06483
88
•18432
34
•00417
34
•01800
34
•05698
89
•18853
3i
•00433
28
•01866
49
•06714
90
•19280
'
%
•00449
34
-01933
34
•05832
91
•19710
1
14
•00466
29
•02001
60
•05960
92
•20146
34
•00483
34
•02071
61
•06191
93
•20687
34
•00500
30
•02142
52
•06436
94
•21030
%
•00517
34
•02214
53
•06685
96
•21480
15
•00535
31
•02287
54
•06940
96
•21937
34
•00653
34
•02362
56
•07200
97
•22394
3i
•00671
32
•02437
66
07464
98
•22869
%
•00690
34
•02513
67
•07733
99
•28328
16
•P0609
83
•02692
58
•08006
100
•23799
H
/00628
}i
•02671
69
•08286
101
•24280
MatNie powktt — HEASURiaiEKt o^.
13
When the effective pressure on the piston at each point in the stroke
is required, — as for instance, to calculate the twisting moment on the
crankshaft, — diagiams should he constructed from the indicator
diagi-ams, as follows : —
First, draw the line of no pressure, CD. Then, dealing with one
stroke at a time, the curve EFG represents the varying pressures on
one side of the piston, whilst the opposing T>ressures are represented by
the curve J KB, which forms a part of the diagram from the other side
of the piston.
Draw any ordinate FH, and set off HL=HF - HK ; then L is a point
in the required resultant diagram in which any number of other points
Fig. 2.
may be found in a similar way ; at the point H, in the stroke CD, the
effective pressure is HL. When the quantity corresponding to HF - HK
is minus, it must be set off below the line of no pressui'e.
The pipes leading from the ends of the cylinder to the indicator
should DC large, short, of equal length, and as free from bends as
possible ; otherwise, there will be loss of area in the diagram, and the
apparent I.H.P. less than that really developed.
These pipes vary, in common practice, from |-inch to 1-inch
diameter, according to their length and the piston speed, but are still,
beyond doubt, the cause of very perceptible loss of area.
To make accurate tests of engines, to determine water consumption
per I.H.P., &c., a separate indicator should be fitted direct to each end
of each cylinder. This practice should always be adopted where any-
thing like accuracy is required.
u
BNOINS POWER — ^HBAStJRBMBNT Of.
N.B. — ^The indicator shows only differences between the pressures of
the steam and of the atmosphere, and not absolute pressures.
To ascertain the weig^nt of steam accounted for by ainr diagram,
take a point A in the expansion curve of the diagi'am (fig. 8), just
before release, and measure the absolute pressure there ; then take
another point B in the compression curve, and measure the absolute
pressure here also ; from Table CLXXIX. ascertain the weight of a cubic
foot of steam at each of the pressures AZ and BZ.
Now calculate the volume, in cubic feet, swept by the piston while
Fig. 8.
travelling through the distance X, and multiply it by the weight per
cubic foot at pressure AZ ; also calculate the volume corresponding to
the travel Y, and multiply it by the weight per cubic foot at pressure
BZ ; subtract the second product from the first, the remainder will be
the number of pounds of steam accounted for by the diagram daring
the stroke.
A similar calculation from the other diagram of the pair YfiM give the
amount of steam accounted for during the return stroke, and the sum
of the two — multiplied by the number of revolutions — the amount per
minute or per hour.
The clearances need not be considered in these calculations if the
ENGINE POWER — ^MBAStTRBMBNT OF. 16
points A and B be taken at the same distance above the zero line of
pressure.
This method is mainly usefal in determining condensation and re-
evaporation that occur during passage of steam through a series of
cylinders. No conclusion as to economy can be derived from
diagrams only. They tell nothing about water that may be present
in cylinders. Feed water must be measured to determine real economy
of engine.
Shaft Horse-power is that transmitted by a shaft, and can be
calculated from the torque as follows : —
T is the twisting moment or torque in inch-pounds.
- R, the revolutions made per minute by the shaft.
2ir X T
The work performed per revolutions — -— or 0 6236 T.
Rule 14. 8.H.P. =2i2|«TxR^ TxE
^ 33,000 63,000
The torque on any shaft can be calculated from the angle of twist or
torsion by means of the following formulae : —
a is the arc at a radius r of the angle of torsion 0, - =/3 ; 2 is the
r
length and d the diameter of shaft under observation.
^ 10-2xTxZ ,D T \
360 2irr ^^ 2ir*
That IS i8= ^^^ = -;— -.
Then
360 57-3
$ ^10-2xTxg
57-3" Mrxrf* *
or (i) e = ^-t^'^^^J for solid shafts,
Mr X d*
/••x ^__ 684 T X Z for hollow shafts when dj is the
"" M.r{d^ - di^) diameter of the bore.
Thatis rj^^exd^xJJLr
684 x;
Mr is the modulus of stiffness or rigidity of the material, which for
steel generally is 10 to 12 millions. With steel shafts of best make,
experiments have shown the value of Mr to be 11,750,000 for solid, and
16 feNGINiB POWER — MBASUftBMEi^t OP.
12,150,000 for hollow. In everyday practice, 11,250,000 is taken fof
solid steel shafts : —
then r^ J xd*x 11,250,000 ^^ej<d^^
584 z ;
Substituting this value of T in the formula for S.H.P.
Rule IS S. H. P. = 1 9, 264 ?^ x ^ -^ = ^l^ solid shafts.
^ I 63,000 3-27 x;
Rule isa. S. H. P. = ^(^* -/i*)R for hollow shafts.
^ 3-27 X I
Torsion Meters are the instruments employed to indicate the
angular displacement of a definite length of shaft (usually 40 inches),
when the shaft is receiving and transmitting power. They are all
designed on the same fundamental principle, and consist of two cast-
iron sleeves made in halves so as to go on the shaft, and be keyed to it
a definite distance apart ; one is short and the other long ; each has a
disc of considerable diameter at the ends adjoining, so that as the shaft
twists the discs' edges are displaced with respect to one another by the
amount a, which may be used instead of 0**, if desired, for calculating
S.H.P. thus :—
RuleiSb. S.H.P.=2Il2iillRiii!.
rxl
There are many forms of torsion meter which may be classed by the
methods adopted for indicating 0 or 3 : —
(i) Those having differential levers whereby the distortion is
magnified, such as Professor Fottinger's.
(ii) Those which accomplish the same end by wheel and pinion
gearing, as in the Denny- Edgecombe machine.
(ill) Those without sleeves, but with counter shafts coupled at
their extreme ends to the shaft by driving gear and to one
another by screw and nut, which cause longitudinal
displacement, which is magnified by a lever ; as in the
Collie meter.
(iv) Those which magnify the arc of the angle of torque by means of
a beam of light reflected from a mirror, which is twisted
through angle 9 ; as in the Hopkinson-Thring instrument,
which entails the use of the least amount of gearing.
(v) Others, as the Bevis-Gibson, where a beam of light is made to
pass through slits in discs at a considerable distance apart ;
which becomes blinded on angular distortion taking place,
and visible again after an angular movement of the sighting
hole corresponding to 6,
The registering is made mechanically and automatically by the
Fiittinyer on a sheet of paper secured on a fixed drum surrounding the
BFFICIBNOY OF MAHIKIB MAOHINBBT. 17
shaft, so thai the magnitude of the angle or arc can be measured at any
point by the distance from the base line made when the shaft is trans-
mitting no power.
The Denny- Edgecombe machine shows the distortion on a dial which,
however, is in motion on the shaft, but by a most ingenious electrical
arrangement its indications are given on another dial fixed in any
convenient part of the ship. It can be and often is made to auto-
matically register its indications on a diagram, which show us the
vagaries in torque of a reciprocator, or the mean torque of it or of a
turbine.
The BxfpHrison'Thring wxnoxB throw a point or line of light on a
fixed scale, from which at any time the angle may be read off ; it also
registers its own zero line continuously, and by an arrangement can
indicate the variations in torque of a reciprocator.
The Bevw- Gibson measures the torque by the amount of displace-
ment required in the registering apparatus to bring the light holes in
line.
A simple formula for each ship can be made and used for S.H.P. by
simply multiplying it by 6 and revolutions ; in fact, a table may be
made by including the revolutions, so that from it a co- efficient may bo
taken and multiplied by 6 only. Thus if I is 40 and the diameter of
the shaft 12 ins., then
Rulei6. S.H.P. =168-5 dxR.
And if at 400 revolutions e is 0-166', S.H.P. =10,461.
EFFICIENCY OF MARINE MACHINERY.
Efflciency is expressed by the fraction of the whole work or energy
generated or supplied that is usefully employed for the purpose for
which it was designed. Hence,
Efficiency of the boiler is the available heat transmitted to the engine
as a fraction of that given out by the fuel.
Effijdency of the steam is the fraction of the total heat of evaporation
that is capable of being converted into work.
The thermal efficiericy of an engine is expressed by the fraction of
the work capable of being done by the steam or gas that actually is
done by it.
The m^hanical efficiency is the fraction of the work developed in
the generator that is actually passed on from it for external con-
sumption.
The general effi/deney of a steam or gas engine is the fraction that
the output of energy is of that available from the fuel.
Propeller efficiency is the fraction of the power delivered to it that
is devoted to thrust power.
Propulsive effi^-iency is the relation of the nett or tow-rope H.P. to
the gross H.P. developed in the propelling engines ; strictly speaking,
it should be taken to the H.P. delivered to the propeller shafting, which
can now be ascertained by torsion meters.
18
BFFIOIBNOT OF MABIKB MAOHINBBT.
BoUer efficiency is measured by taking the number of pounds of steam
actually evaporated as the numerator and the thermal value of the fuel
divided by the total heat of evaporation under the same conditions as
denominator. For example, the average thermal value of the ordinary
good Welsh steam coal is 15,600 B. T.Xf. The total heat of evaporation
from 110** and at 841° (120 lbs. pressure abs.) is 1108 B.T.U.; then
greatest possible evaporation = ^^^ = 14 lbs.
A boiler using this fuel evaporates 10*8 lbs. of steam per lb. of fuel.
The efficiency =iiLr or 0-736.
14
Efficiency of steam by Rankine's formula is as follows : —
•n effective mean pressure in cylinders
mean pressure + rate of expansion x pr"^^/^ ,'
Themval efficiency is expressed, then, where Ti is the absolute tempera-
ture at entry and T^ that at exit or exhaust.
Rule 17.
T — T
Then thermal efficiency =—1= — ?.
Ti
For example, an engine works with steam at 180 lbs. pressure abs.
at the H. P. valve and rejects into a condenser with a vacuum of 28 ins.
Here Tj = 373° + 461° = 834°.
T,= 90° + 461° = 651°.
Thermal efficiency = ^^^ " ^^^ =0-816.
834
The Maximuth Thermal EfEciency of any Condensing^ Steam
Engine with a Temperature of 60° F. m the Condenser.
Working press. \
abB. /
40
0-284
80
0*326
100
0-839
120
0 850
140
0360
160
0368
180
0-876
200
0-381
220
0-887
240
0-893
260
0-898
280
0-404
Effloiency .
Ths mechanical efficiency of engines generally is ascertained by
comparing the output H.P. as measured by a brake or other mechanical
means. This is not possible with engines of great power. Since the
introduction of the turbine as a marine motor, the torsion meter has
been invented and used to indicate S.H.P. in reciprocators. Before
this experiments had been made to ascertain the friction H.P. by
running engines without their propellers at various rates of revolution
and deducting it from the I. H.P. at the corresponding revolutions
coupled up. The following has been ascertained by one or other of
these methods : —
BFFIOIBNGY OF MARINE MAGHINEBT. 19
Rule i8. Mechanical efficiency = -^ — ' ' ' — '—^ .
1. H . r .
S H P
Large qnadruple engines by Denny Bros., efficiency f~^~p' =92 to
94 per cent.
Triple compound engines 900 I. H. P. by Central Marine Eng. Co.,
1*H.P» — F.H.P. fvr «« ^^^4.
== 96 per cent.
1. H. P.
Several large engines (triples) made in Germany showed an efficiency
from 88-5 per cent, to 93*5 in the largest (4500 I.H.P.).
Triple compound engines, 300 I.H.P., by Earles S. & E. Co. showed
84 '9 per cent., and similar engines 480 I.H.P. 90*2.
Compound engines of a torpedo boat by Mr A. F. Yarrow, 265 I.H.P.,
showed by dynamometric trials 92*3 per cent., and as much as 76 '6
per cent, when developing only 38*6 I.H.P.
Triple compound engines with /ore^ Ivbricaiion by Belliss k Morcom
gave by electric output and brake trials 93*16 per cent, at 429
I.H.P., and as much as 98*8 per cent at 218 I H. P.
Marine engine losses vary very nearly with the revolutions but the
power as the cube, the efficiency at low speeds is then less than at high
ones with the same engine ; further, the efficiency of small engines,
running on similar conditions as to pressure, rates of expansion, etc. , as
large ones, is lower. On the other hand, the smaller the engine is for
the power to be developed the higher will be its efficiency mechanically.
Qmeral efficiency of steam engines is gauged by the water or steam
consumption per I.H.P. The following schedule gives the greatest
possible output of work by a pound of steam under various conditions,
and the corresponding horse-power: —
If a steam engine consumes x lbs. of steam per H.P. hour, or — per
H.P. minute, then a; =60 1.H.P., or, 1 lb. produces — I.H.P.
X
If X is the greatest possible output under similar conditions.
AO AO
Rule 19. General efficiency of engines = -— -^ X or ^=-.
X Xx
C^eneral efficiency of <dl engines must, however, be commercially
dealt with differently, as fuel is the serious factor in any installation
and must form the basis of comparison of a steam with an internal
combustion engine. In this case the thermal value of a H.P. is
88,000-f 778 or 42*4 B.T.U. The value per hour is 2544 B.T.TJ. The
Welsh coal, with its calorific value of 16,500 B.T.U., is equal to 1M22
2644
or 6*10 H.P.
If an engine uses 1*3 lbs. per I.H.P. hour,
its efficiency will be i-— = 0*126 or only 12*6 per cent.
^ 6*1x1*3
20
BFFIOIBNOT OF MARINE MACHINKRT.
The oil engine using 0*45 lb. of fuel, whose calorific value is 18,800
B.T.U., will have an efficiency as ascertained in the same way —
l4.^A?22 X 0-46 = 0-30 or 30 per cent.
Rule 20. General efficiency of machinery installations
= 2544-rB.T.U. value of fuel x weight consumed per H.P. hour.
From observations made at the tests of electric generating engines
it is found that at constant revolutions the power required to overcome
the friction of the engine itself is the same whatever the load may be ;
and with varying revolutions and varying loads the friction per
revolution is nearly constant ; it is therefore probable that with marine
engines total friction varies nearly directly as the revolutions.
Now, as the total L H. P. varies as the cube of the revolutions, it
will be seen that the mechanical efficiency of a particular marine
engine is at a maximum at full speed.
rroude's Method.— As there is considerable difficulty in experi-
mentally determining the power absorbed in overcoming the friction of
a marine engine, the following graphic method is of interest : —
Knots
Fig. 4.
A series of progressive trials having been carried out, and the resultb
BFFIOIBNGY OF MARINE MACHINBRT. 21
carefully recorded — calculate the indicated thrasts (from the formula —
Indicated thrust =LMi^J^^i^, where P is pitch of propeller in feet,
and R revolutions per minute) for each speed, and set them up as<
ordinates from a base line on which the speeds are set off — as shown
in fig. 4. Then, supposing A to be the lowest known point on the
curve, draw the tangent KA ; divide BC at D so that BO =1*87 DC,
and through D draw the vertical line D£, cutting the tangent in F ;
and through F draw HG parallel to the base line. The neight OH
then represents the constant friction of the engine, and the point H is
the vertex of the thrust curve which may now be completed.
The lengths of the ordinates intercepted between HG and the
thrust curve represent power expended in overcoming ship's nett
resistance, augment of resistance due to propeller, and friction of
propeller blades, and are proportional to the ship's resistance,
It is also very difficult to aetermine the frictional resistance of any
pair of parts of an engine, owing to the difficulty of reproducing exact
conditions of actual work in an experimental apparatus, so here again
values can only be estimated from those obtained by experiments
made under conditions approximating to those of an actual engine.
The experiments of Tower (made for the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, 1883-91) and of Dewrance (1896) are instructive, as the
results obtained were most important ; but their tests were all made
on journals under constant load, and therefore under very different
conditions to those prevailing in the crank bearings of recipiocating
engines, and experience has shown the latter to be capable of carrying
much greater pressures than bearings subject to constant load.
Tower and I)ewrance's experiments may be summarised as follows : —
1. When a bearing is running satisfactorily the surfaces are not in
metallic contact, but are separated by a film of oil.
2. Actual measurement by pressure gauges showed that near centre
of brass oil was under a pressure somewhat greater than mean pressure
per square inch (i,e, total load-rdia. x length of journal) carried by
bearing at the time, and that pressure decreased as ends and sides of
bearing surface were approached, and became zero at edges.
3. The drilling of an oil hole at centre of crown of brass allowed oil
to be forced out, caused pressure to fall, and diminished load that
bearing could carry. These results made it clear that oil should be
introduced to bearings of this type where pressure is least, and that no
openings should be made near centre of bearing surface, where pressure
is greatest. It was found necessary to lubricate experimental journal
by means of an oil bath, because, when oil holes in top of brass
were used, results were very irregular and frictional resistance was
about four times that registered when oil bath was in use.
4. So long as lubrication remained efficient the frictional resistance
under varying loads remained constant^ i e. was unaffected by pressure
per square inch to which bearing was loaded.
6. The frictional resistance varied very nearly as the square root o*
the nibbing velocity.
22 ■FFICIKNCT OF MARINS MAGHINSRT.
6. The temperature at which the bearing was nm was found to be
most important, one expenment, made with lad oU under a proesure
of 100 lbs. per square inch, showing that the frictional resistance was
three times greater at 60* than at 120^ Apparently there is a most
suitable temperatore for each lubricant at each pressure.
For a temperature of 90* the aboTe results are yeiy accurately
expressed by the formula —
F=20Cx\^
^^
where F= friction factor or co-efficient, y= rubbing Telocity in ft.
permin., P=nominal pressure in lbs. per sq. in., C=*0014 for sperm
oil, '0015 for rape, '0018 for mineral, and '0019 for olive oiL P had a
range of about 100 to 500 lbs. per square inch.
Frictional resistance depenas on — (a) Velocity of rubbing ; (b) in-
tensity of pressure ; (c) temperature ; {d) lubricant ; («) nature of
rubbing, i,e. continuous or constantly reversed ; (/) form of surface,
i.e. curved, like a bearing, or flat ; {g) material and condition of sur-
face ; {h) extent of contact, i.e, all over a surface, or only on a line ;
(j) method of application of lubricant.
As regards Q), Dewrance*s experiments appear to show that the
composition of the alloys used had, other tlungs being. equal, little
or no effect on results obtained, — a result difficult to reconcile with
common experience to the contrary with ordinary engine bearings.
As regards (h), reduction in surface appears to reduce frictional
resistance (as in the case of a railway carriage wheel when *' skidded "),
so that surfaces should not greatly exceed those found to give reason-
able length of life under usual conditions.
Dewrance found {j) most important, and by carefhl arrangements
succeeded in caiTying loads of well over one ton per square inch, whereas
with defective (but very usual) arrangements Uie same bearing would
not carry one-tenth of that load. He found it necessary to ease away
the brasses at the sides in a very gradual manner and to admit the oil
at the 8id&s, or points of least pressure, whence it was carried forward
by the revolving journal into the gradually narrowing clearance spaces
and towards the points of greatest pressure.
Any sudden contraction of this clearance space, or any ridge tending
to scrape the oil from the surface of the journal, was found to lower
seriously the load-carrying power of the bearing.
The fact that a crosshead shoe will not usually work satisfactorily
with a load of more than about 50 lbs. per square inch, whilst a bear-
ing can easily be made to carry ten times as much, still waits- an
explanation. Difficulty of lubrication, and the continual reversal of
the motion, will no doubt partly explain the anomaly ; but, even
if all the rubbing surfaces about an engine were of equal smoothness,
worked at same temperature, with same lubricant, and at same speed
of rubbing, it would still be almost impossible to fix the various
values of the friction factor. And as to frictional losses caused by
BFFIGISNCY OF MARINE MAGHINERT. 23
tightness of piston rings, and of gland packings, and by screwine up
of bearings, — they may be anything, and cannot even be estimated.
The ^ciency of the same engine may therefore vary greatly at
different times, and the frictional resistance of a bearing (say) may be
almost anything between that due to the friction of solid on solid
and that due to liquid friction. The laws governing the Mction of
solids are as follows : —
(a) The frictional resistance varies directly as the load.
{b) It is independent of the extent of surface in contact.
(c) It tends to diminish with an increase of velocity above a certain
limit.
THE THERMAL AND POWER VALUE OF A POUND
OF STEAM.
Maximnm Output from i lb. of Steam in B.T.U.
^ and Horse-power.
The following Tables — V., VI., and VII.— give the amount of work that
is theoretically possible under the different conditious stated. Table
VII. is a general one giving the output when steam is expanded from
an actual pressure Piio & pressure P2, at which it discharges ; this is the
case of a turbine during its various stages and throughout Table V.
gives the output when steam is expanded from a pressure Pi^ expands
to a pressure p^t and then exhausts to a condenser in which the pressure
is one pound — that is, the vacuum is 28 inches, which is the case of the
ordinary reciprocating condensing engine. Table VI. eives the output
when exhausting to the atmosphere, as in the case of locomotiyes and
other engines which have no condenser. It will be seen that a turbine
supplied with steam at 100 lbs. pressure (absolute) can do the same work
as a triple compound reciprocator expanding steam of 160 lbs. to 5 lbs. ,
or one of 200 lbs. expanding to 7 lbs. And a locomotive would require
55 per cent, more steam at 200 lbs. pressure to do the same work,
supposing the efficiency of the means is the same in each case. It will
also be seen that steam at 100 lbs. has a 19 per cent higher potential
than that of 50 lbs ; that 150 is 8*44 per cent, higher than 100 ;
that 200 is 5*77 per cent, higher than 150 ; and 250 is 4*82 percent,
higher than 200. Also that the 260 lbs. of the new quadruple has a
potential 7*41 per cent greater than the 176 lbs. of the older triples.
24
BFFICIBNCY OP MARINE MAOHINBRT.
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EFFICIENCY OP MARINE MACHINERY.
25
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RESISTANCE AND PROPULSION OP SHIPS. 27
EfiSciency as afifected by Jacketing^.
Car^fal investigations show that all types of steam engines are
rendered more efficient by the addition of steam jackets, and that the
more completely the hot surfaces of cylinders, receivers, ko., are
jacketed, the greater is the saving effected.
This amounts to saying, that for every pound of steam condensed in
the jackets, some greater quantity is saved in the cylinders. The
ratio of steam saved in the cylinders to steam expended in the jackets,
varies from a little under 2 to 1 in some types of engine, to over 5 to 1
in other types.
The gain that may be expected to result firom jacketing an engine
depends on such a multitude of considerations — relating not only to
the design of the engine and of the boiler, but also to the management
of the machinery under steam — that it can only be very generally
stated as lying between 5 and 25 per cent, of the total feed-water
evaporated ; but in the case of moaem marine machinery, of good
construction, it is not probable that the gain is over 10 per cent.
The limit of usefulness of jacketing is reached when the exhaust is
just free from particles of water in suspension.
Small cylinders are more benefited by jacketing than large ones, in
consequence of the ratio of area of hot surface to cubic contents being
greater than in large ones ; and slow moving engines benefit more than
quick.
It is important that there should be a thorough circulation of steam
in the jackets, but the plan of passing the steam through the jackets
on its way to the H. P. cylinder should be avoided.
THE RESISTANCE AND PROPULSION OF SHIPS.
In dealing with cubes, or with parallelepipeds of similar form,
immersed in water until the uppermost face is just fiush with the
surface, it ia found, on making the necessary calculations, that the
wetted surface is exactly proportional to the §rd power (or the square
of the cube root) of the displacement. Taking the case of cubes, —
Let L = length of edge,
D = displacement,
W = wetted surface ;
thenD = L», orL=^D,
and W = 5 X La= 6 X (->yD)».
That is, W varies as D§.
It may also be noted that U={*^Dff—th&t is, L^ (jvhich corresponds
to mid-ship section) also varies as DJ ; and therefore W varies as L^, or,
in other words, wetted surface varies as area of mid-ship section.
These results are not quite accurate for parallelepipeds which are not
similar in form (that is, whose lengths, breadths, and depths are not
of the same relative proportions), but the inaccuracy is only slight
within practicable limits ; so that, if ships of ordinary proportions ar*-
28 RESISTANCE AND PROPULSION OF SHIPS.
substituted for cubes or parallelepipeds, it is practically correct to say
that wetted surface varies as area of mid-ship section, and also us |rd
power of displacement
For similar vessels displacement is also a measure of the fineness of
the lines, since, when length and mid-ship section are the same, it
varies directly as the prismatic co-efficient of fineness.
Now the resistances of ships depend almost entirely upon these two
elements, — wetted surface, and form, or fineness of lines, and may be
classed under the four heads —
(1) Resistance due to skin friction ;
(2) Resistance due to eddy making ;
(8) Resistance due to wave making ;
(4) Resistance (augmented) due to the action of the propeller on
the ship.
The first of these depends on' the extent and nature of the wetted
surface, and the depth of immersion ; the third, on the lines of the
ship, and on her degree of fineness ; and the second, on all of these
combined. The fourth arises from the displacement of the water and
the consequent reduction of "head" and pressure on the stern.
Propellers of large diameter and fine pitch produce much augmented
resistance as well as negative slip due to the big toake atrrettts.
Residual Resistance— that is, the resistance from all other causes
than skin friction can be estimated with a fair degree of accuracy by
the following formula of Mr. D. W. Taylor, U.S.A. :—
Rule 21. Residual resistance in lbs. = ^-
h is the hhck co-efficient ; D, the displacement in tons ; Y, the speed
in knots ; L, the length on waterline in feet.
This formula is applicable only to speeds for which -=~ is less than 1 '2.
For merchant ships, with block co-efficients 0*6 to 0*6.5, this is a
ya
good formula for speeds, such that -=7- = 0*85 ; when co-efficients are 0'5
to 0*55, then — = \,
Li
It is therefore evident, from the above considerations, that the old
s{)eed and power formulae rest on a sound basis, and are capable,
in careful hands, of giving fairly accurate results. These formuls
are : —
Rule 22. I.H.P.=?il®!
d I H P _ftr^ Q^ immersed mid-ship section x S^
Ix.
where D, is displacement in tons ; S, speed in knots ; and 0 and K
co-efficients.
The peculiar value of these formulse lies in the fact that they cnn be
applied at a very early stage of the work, before such data as angles of
RI8I8TANGS AND PROPULSION OF SHIPS. 29
•
obliquity of stream lines can be obtained with any degree of accuracy :
and thus the power, approximate weight, and an outline drawing of
the machinery can be got out simultaneously with the design of the
vessel, — a great adrantage where time is limited, as is usually the case
in preparing tenders.
It is important to notice, in connection with the above formulae, that
— although the resistance of a ship, moving uniformly at any speed,
may vary as the square of that speed, — the power required to over-
come the resistance, and propel it at any speed, varies as the cube of
that speed. For, —
Let S= speed in feet per minute ;
R= resistance in pounds at that speed ;
Then R=S^ x C,— where C is a co-efficient ;
and, multiplying both sides by S
RxS = S»xO.
But R X S is the work done, in foot-pounds per minute, in overcoming
the resistance R through the space S, and, divided by 83,000, is equal
to the nett horse-power required to drive the ship. This law only
holds for similar ships driven at corresponding speeds (speeds pro-
portional to the square roots of the linear dimensions), since it is evident
that the resistance due to wave making can only be proportional under
these conditions.
The second formula is useful as a check, or corrective to the first,
where the vessels under consideration are not absolutely similar, but
have same ratio of length to breadth and draught, with a variation in
the rise of floor.
Table VIII. (given by Sir W. H. White) shows the values of 0 for
some typical ships of very different classes, at various speeds, and
whilst indicating generally the range of tho variations that occur, serves
also to show the difficulties that the naval architect has to encounter in
obtaining high speeds in vessels of small dimensions.
It is, perhaps, scarcely necessary to add that these co-efficients of
performance represent the combined efficiency of ships and machinery,
and that they are therefore just as liable to be effected by an un-
suitable propeller as by a foul bottom or unsuitable lines ; and also
that for every model there is, as a rule, only one speed of maximum
efficiency, though it is evident from the type of curve usually obtained,
that there may be two speeds at which the efficiency is equal and
slightly below the maximum.
It should also be borne in mind that accurately determined co-
efficients of performance, &c. , generally apply to more or less smooth-
water conditions, and that a form of vessel which gives highest speed
with least power, on such trials, may be far from the best for an ocean-
going steamer.
As a rule, length assists speed especially in a sea-way.
The gain vA economy of propulsion resulting from increase in dinaen-
sions is made very clear by the following figures, which are derived
from the trials of certain cruisers : —
30
BBSISTANOB AND PROFULSION OF 8HIFB.
1
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RESISTANCE AND PROPULSION O* SHIPS.
31
Table Villa.— Relation of Powers and Dtsplacements.*
Length in ft. . '
Bi-efiulth in ft.
Mean draught in ft
Displacement in tons
l.H.P. for 20 knots
I.H.P. per ton of dis
placement .
No.1.
No.«.
NaS.
No. 4.
No. 6.
280
800
860
435
500
85
43
60
69
71
13
16^
28i
24i
26i
1800
3400
7400
11000
14200
6000
9000
11000
14000
15500
8-8
2-65
148
1-27
109
The following horse -powers were required to drive cruisers Nos. 4
and 6 in the atNOve Table at the speeds named :—
No. 4.
No. 6.
10 knots
1500 I.H.P.
1800 I.H.P.
12 „
2500 „
8100 „
14 „
4000 „
5000 „
16 „
6000 „
7500 „
18 „
9000 „
11000 „
20 „
14000 „
15600 „
22 „
23000 M
23000 „
The frictional resistance of clean painted surfaces varies about as
the 1*83 power of the speed (compare Table XVI.), but resistance due
to wave making may vary very widely, since it is dependent on
form. The total resistance of " Destroyers " has been found to vary
as follows * :— ^
Up to 11 knots,
. • . nearly as speed '
At 16 „
• . . , , speed •
,,18-20 „
„ speed «;»
„ 22 „
,, speed
,s 2o „ •
,, speed •
,, 26-80 ,,
practically as speed '*'»
aud the resistances other than frictional vary as follows : —
Up to 11 knots as speed '
At 12^ to 13 knots ,, speed '
f, 14 J knots ,, speed *
18 „ , , speed ^^^ ^*^^ ^^ vowv^.
24
,9
,1
f I
and at higher speeds as still lower powers of the speeds.
• Sir Wm. White, British AMOciatlon Address. 18M.
32
RHSISTANCIB AND PROPULSION OF SHIPS.
The relation of the frictional resistance to the total resistanoe at
Tarious speeds is computed to be as follows* : —
"Destroyer." • Cruiser.
At 12 knots 80 per cent. 90 per cent
„ 16 ,, 70 „ 85
„ 20 ,, noarly 50 ,, nearly 80
>i 23 ,, ... over 70
M 30 ., 45
*>
And it may be remarked that, if the coefficient of friction be doubled
(as Table XVI. shows it might easily be with a foul bottom) the
maximum speed of the *' Destroyer" would fall fully 5 knots, and that
of the cruiser would be reduced from 23 knots to 19.
Recent * * Destroyers " for ahe British Navy have been of following
dimensions, etc. : —
Ft. long.
Tons displ.
I.H.P.
Knots.
1898
180
240
4000
26-27
1896
200-210
280- 300
5500-6000
80
1899
230
360- 380
8000-10,000
32-33
1903
225-230
550- 590
7000
25-5
1907
250-270
860- 960
14,000
33
1910
270-280
900-1000
12,000-16,000
27-33-5
The propelling apparatus of these boats has given, on an average,
46 I.H.P. per ton of weight. In the 30 knot boats nearly 50 per cent
of the displacement has been allotted to the propelling apparatus, and
the load of fuel and equipment has taken 12 to 14 per cent. more.
* Sir Wm. White, British AssociatioD Address, 1899.
RBSISTANCB AND PROPULSION OF SUlPS.
33
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34
RESISTANCE AND PROPULSION OF SHIPS.
Table X.— Results of Trials of
Particulars.
Length, perpdlra, ft,
Breadth, extreme, ft.,
Drft water, mean, ft. ,
DUplacement (tons),
Imrsd mid sectn, sq.ft.
Wetted skin, sq. ft..
Prism co-efficient, .
0-4VL-S-V8., .
Speed (knots), .
Number of screws, .
Engines, .
I.H.P. or S.H.P.,
H.P. per 100 sq. ft.
wetted skin.
Do. reded to 10 kns.
D|xS8+H.P. . .
H.P.-i-DlBpmt} .
Service of ship, .
QS3
LCNA
TSS
KWO
760
678
87-6
72-0
32-5
29-6
86,440
26,500
2,600
1,960
82,850
65,160
0-671
0-713
0-714
0-712
25*40
23-50
4
2
Turbs
Recip
64,600
39,000
78-4
59-90
4-7
4-62
278
297
68-7
48-7
Atl
Ex
Atl
Ex
TSS
OCNC
TSS
DLD
I'ss ;
CPA
686
668
600
68-0
67-0
66-2
29-9
29-0
29-0
25,910
23,620
21,600
1,922
1,768
1,720
67,209
62,110
54,780
0*690
0-716
0-729
0-725
0701
0-704
20-80
28 60
22*09
2
2
2
Recip
Recip
Recip
26,600
36,000
29,936
89-4
57-9
64*8
4-88
4*47
5-08
297
297
278
80*2
44*9
88-8
Atl
Ex
Atl
Ex
Atl
Ex
TSS
678
72-4
80-0
27,500
2,064
68,700
0-679
0-748
20-19
8
Turbs
24,000
86-00
4-26
312
26*8
Atl
Ex
HMS
INBL
580
78*5
26-0
17,250
1,868
47,340
0660
0-687
27-36
4
HMS HMS
DNT GLS
490
82-0
26*6
17,900
1,912
44,630
0-669
0*680
21-25
4
Turbs Turbs
47,800
100-0
4*88
289
70-8
Cruiser
24,712
56*4
6-78
264
86-1
Bttlsp
430
47-0
16-25
4,800
624
22,250
0 625
0*613
26*80
4
TurbB
26,417
114
6-27
203
89*2
Cruiser
RKSI8TAN0B AND PROPULSION OP SHIPS.
35
Various Ships of High Speed.
HMS
BLN
886
41- 5
13-6
8,860
476
18,100
0-640
0*586
27-8
4
Turbs
18,000
99*4
4-63
267
80-4
CrniBer
HMS
SFT
846
34*2
10-6
1,800
301
12,000
0-609
0*624
36-00
4
Turbs
80,000
260
6*36
230
203
TSS
BMC
876
46-0
18*4
8,863
690
18,830
0 630
0-617
28-27
8
Turba
14,700
78-1
6-17
192
66 6
HMS
SKR
Scoat Home
360
40 0
14*26
2,946
600
16,360
0*572
0-694
25-20
2
Hecip
16,899
103-4
6-46
202
82-2
Scout
PSS
EMQ
PSS
LMG
TSS
QN
TSS
PG
360
330
310
290
42-3
40-0
40-0
88-0
130
8-75
10*5
11-92
2,940
1,868
2,080
2,100
466
322
375
416
16,190
13,082
12,200
13,170
0-623
0-615
0-625
0-609
0*620
0-604
0-602
0-605
21-71
22-8
21-73
20-34
Paddle
Paddle
3
2
3Cyl
Oomp
Diag
Oomp
Turbs
4 Ok
Trpl
11,442
7,500
8,000
5,820
70-6
57-3
65-6
44-2
6*96
5-16
6-19
6-27
183
223
210
236
55-8
49-3
49*1
■ ■
Home
Ex
Home
Ex
Home
Ex
Open
SEx
TSS
SNA
TSS
NRMA
284
290
39-0
36-0
12-0
12-0
1,990
1,875
420
390
11,960
11,700
0*554
0-680
PSS
LND
PSS
RS
0-608
20-00
8
Turbs
6,670
56-8
6*97
190
42-2
Home
Ex
9-612
19-70
2
Geared
Turbs
5,000
42-8
5-60
232
32-9
Home
Ex
838
34*75
9-00
1,700
292
11,800
0-607
0-617
21-50
Paddle
Oomp
7,000
50-3
6*97
202
49-3
Ch'nn'l
310
330
6-0
1,063
188
9,920
0-635
0-623
19-6
Pdle
Diag
Oomp
3,500
35-3
4-60
223
33-6
Home
Ex
36
RBSISTANCE AIH) PROPULSION OP SHIPS.
Kirk's Analysis.
The following very simple and useful method of estimating. wetted
skin and comparing forms of ships is generally known as ** Kirk's
analysis *' : —
A diagram, resembling fig. 6, called the "block model" is first
made, the dimensions being determined as follows : —
Length AB = length of ship (from forward side of stem to after side
of stern-post, at mean trial draught).
Depth KL = depth of ship from mean trial draught to top of keel
(if any).
Fia. 6.
Breadth EK — -^^ea of immersed mid -ship section
IvLi
. TT _ n p _ Displacement in tons x 35*
• Area of immersed mid-ship section '
Length of A D = VAG^ + GD^.
Then, the wetted surface of the ** block model " is, —
(EK X AH)-|-(2KL x FK) + (4KL x AD).
The angle of entrance is EBK ; EBH is half that angle ; and tan.
EH
EBH = =5^ ; or, the tangent of half the angle of entrance is equal to
HB
Half breadth of model^ ^^^ ^^^^ ^j^.^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^ ^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^j
Length of fore-body
tangents, the angle of entrance may be obtained.
* 35 cubic feet of salt water weigh one toD, and are therefore equal to one ton
displacement.
RBSI8TANCE AND PROPULSION OP SHIPS.
37
Table XI.— Angles of Entrance, given in degrees, suitable for
various Speeds and Lengths.
t - ■
«'2
Speeds of Ship in Knots.
1®
10
11
12
18
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
28
24
26
feet
200
26-3
23-9
21-9
201
18-8
17-6
16-5
15-5
14*6
13*9
18*2
12*5
12*0
11*4
11*0
10*6
250
27-8
26-3
23-2
21-4
19-9
18-6
17-4
16-4
16 -6
14*6
13*9
13*3
12*7
121
11*6
111
800
291
26-6
24-3
22-4
20-8
19-4
18-2
171
16*2
16*8
14*6
13-9
13-2
12*7
12-1
11-7
Z50
30-3
27-5
25-2
23-3
21-6
20-2
18 9
17-8
16*8
15*9
161
14*4
13*8
13-2
12*6
12-1
400
81-3
28-5
26-1
241
22-4
20-9
19-6
18-4
17*4
16*5
16*7
15 0
14-2
13-6
13-1
12*5
450
82-2
29-3
26-9
24-8
28-2
21-6
20-2
190
17*9
170
16*1
16-4
14*7
14*0
13-4
12-9
600
331
301
27-6
25-5
23-7
22-1
20-7
19-5
18*4
17*4
16*6
16*8
15*1
14*4
13-8
13*8
650
33-9
80-8
28-2
26-1
24-2
22-6
21-2
19-9
18*8
17*8
17*0
16*1
15*4
14*7
141
13*6
600
34-7
31-5
28-9
26-7
24*8
231
21-7
20*4
19*3
18*3
17-3
16*5
16*8
161
14*4
13*9
660
36*4
321
29-4
27-2
25-2
23-6
22-1
20*8
19*6
18-6
17*7
16*8
16*1
16-4
14*7
14*1
700
36-0
32-7
30-0
27-7
25-7
24-0
22-5
21*2
200
19 0
18*0
17*1
16*4
16*7
16*0
14-4
760
36-6
83-3
30-5
28-2
26-2
24-4
22-9
21-6
20-4
19*3
18*3
17*6
16*7
16-9
15*3
14*7
800
37*2
83-8
810
28*6
26-6
24-8
23-2
21-9
20*7
19*6
18*6
177
16-9
16*2
16*5
14*9
If ships are of very fine form for the speed required, and assuming
that I.H.P. varies at S^ the power per 100 feet of wetted skin at 10 knots
should be 4*0 I.H. P. ; on the other hand, if the ship is not sufficiently
fine for her maximum speed, the efficiency will be much less and the
power at 10 knots may be then 6*0, That i^, the power required to
drive a ship of fairly good lines at a speed S knots is, —
Rule 22a. I.H.P. per 100 square feet W.S. _S»x4'6^g3 ^ Q.QQ^g
10*
Example : — ^To find the I.H.P. necessary to drive a ship at 16 knots,
the wetted skin of ** block-model " being 16,200 square feet, the lines
rather full.
The I.H.P. per 100 square feet = 15» x 0*005 = 16-875
and I.H.P. required =16 '87 5 x 162=2744.
In ordinary practice the wetted surface of the *' block model" is
found to exceed that of the actual ship by 2 per cent, (in the case of
full ships), by 8 to 5 per cent, for ordinary steamers, and as much as
8 per cent, in the case of very fine steamers.
The following Table gives, on inspection, the horse-powers required
per 100 feet of wetted surface at various speeds and rates, aua will
facilitate calculations by the above method : —
38
RESISTANCE AND PROPULSION OP SHIPS.
Table XII.— I. H. P. per loo feet of wetted surface at
different speeds.
Speeds
In
Knott.
9
9-
10
lo-
ll
Il-
ia
13
18
18-
14
U-
15
is-
le
16-
17
17-
18
18-
19
19-
I.H.P. per 100 sq. feet of wetted nirfaee at 10 knoti.
4-3
10-9811 26
12 19 12-60
18-60:i8-84
14-89 15 -27
16-38 16-79
17-9718-42
19-65120-14
21-44 21-97
23-83123 '91
25-33 25-96
27-44 -28-12
29-66 80-40
806
8-60
4-30
4-86
6-69
6-89
7-26
8-20
9-28
10-88
11 62
13-80
14-17
15-64
17-20
18-87
4-8
814
8-68
4-80
4-98
6-72
6-64
7-43
8-40
9-45
10-58
11-80
18-11
14-61
16-01
17-61
19-81
20-63'21 12 31-62
22-61123-04 28-58
24-49 25-08 25-66
26-69'27 -22 27-86
28-8l'29-49 80-18
81-14 81-88 83-63
4-4
8-31
8-77
4-40
609
6-86
6-69
7-60
8-69
9-67
10-83
1307
18-41
14-86
16-88
18-03
19-76
4-6
8-38
8-86
4-60
6-31
6-99
6-84
7-78
8-79
9-89
1107
13-85
18-73
16-18
16-76
18-48
20-21
4-6
8-86
8-94
4-60
6-83
613
6-99
7-95
8-98
10-10
11-33
12-62
1402
15-62
17-18
18-84
20-66
2311 22-60
24-12i24-65
26-24126-88
38-49 29 12
4-7
8-43
4-03
4-70
6-44
6-36
7-16
8-12
9-18
10-83
4-8
8-49
4-11
4-80
6-66
6-89
7-80
8-39
9-87
10-64
11-5611-81
12-9013-17
14-8314-68
15-86
17-60
19-36
31-11
38 09
35-19
16-19
17-87
19-66
21-66
28-68
26-72
80*86
88-87
81-55
84-11
27-4127-99
29-76 80-89
82-92
'32-24
84-86
86-69
4-9
8-67
4-19
4-90
6-79
6-63
7-46
8-47
9'67
10-76
1306
18-44
14-94
16-68
18-25
20-07
22 01
24-07
26-26
28-68
8102
88-61
86-88
ft-0
• 1
8-64
4-38
600
6-79
6-66
7-t
8-64
9-76
10-98
12-30
18-75
16-34
16-87
18-63
30-48
32-46
34-56
26-80
2916
31-66
84-29
87-07
8-71
4-86
6-10
6-90
6-79
7-76
8-81
9-96
11-20
12-66
18-99
16-66
17 21
18-99
30-89
33-91
36-06
27-33
29-74
83-29
84-98
87-81
••S
'47S
446
6 30
6-03
6-93
7-91
899
10 16
1142
13-79
14-37
16*86
17-64
19-86
31-80
33-86
35-56
27-87
30-88
83-93
86*67
88*66
There are several simpler methods of estimating approximately the
wetted skin, such as : —
Mumford Rule, which is more accurate than Kirk's, is as follows :—
Rule 23. —Wetted skin = (L x D x 1 -7) + (L x B x C)
or L(1-7D + B.C).
L is the length between perpendiculars ; D is mean draught ; and B
the beam, all in feet ; G is a factor which is the block co-efficient ;
that is,
p__ displacement in cubic feet
" LxBxD
Seaton*s Rules are, —
(a) Rule 24. Wetted skin = {exdxL) +
Dx35
d
c= 2 area of immersed mid section -f B x (2.
For shallow draught ships c=2.
For ships with high rise of floor c= 1*6.
For ordinary ships whose draught of water is not less than
J the beam c=l'8.
D is the dispUcement in tons, d the mean moulded draught of water.
RBSISTANCB AND PROPULSION OF SHIPS. 39
(b) Rule 25. Wetted skin = i2\/K x D^
42VK = F; K=L-^(0•66B+d)
Where K is 4 the value of F is 69 '4.
5 ,, 62*9.
6 ,, 657.
8 „ 70-6.
It ^ »» 72'8,
10 ,, 74-7.
11 „ 76-4.
(c) Rule 26. — Suitable prism co-efiQcient for speed S, —
Pc=0-4Vl^-J-\/S.
{d) Rule 27. — Maximum economic speed for ship L feet long and
prism co-efficient, F,—
S = (0-4VL-^Pc)«.
(0) Rule 28.— Minimum length L for a speed S with a co-efflcient
prism F, —
H^f
Speed and Power Curves, etc.
The most reliable method of determining the I.H.P. required to drive
any proposed vessel at a given speed is to base the calculations upon
the results obtained from the trials of '^similar*' vessels; the basis of
which is the fact that "similar" vessels, driven at ''corresponding"
speeds, have the same co-efficient of performance, when the efficiency of
the machinery is the same.
"Similar" vessels are those having the same ratio of length to
breadth, and to draught, and the same degree of fineness ; and
"corresponding" speeds are those which are proportional to the square
roots of the linear dimensions of the respective vessels {e.g. proportional
to the square root of the lengths).
Froude found that the resistance of such vessels varied almost exactly
as wetted surface x (speed)^.
But to render the results of former trials readily accessible for such
a purpose it is very desirable to have them plotted down as a series of
curves, somewhat in the following maimer : —
40
RBSISTANCB AND PROPULSION OP SHIPS.
Speed in knots.
Fig. 6.
B X C
Let Pi, Pg, Pg be the indicated horse-powers developed in obtaining
the speeds S,, Sg, S3 knots, with Ri, R^, l^s revolutions per minute.
Take a line AN (Fig. 6) as a base line, and on it take points
B, C, D, so that AB, AC, AD are proportional to S,, Sj, 83 ; at the
points B, C, D erect ordinates B6, Cc, Dd proportional to Pj, P^, P3,
and through the points 6, c, and d draw the curve d eb a, which is
called the "curve of power" or "curve of I.H. P." The nature of
this curve is then such that if an ordinate be drawn through any other
point X in the line AN, Xx will represent the power necessary to
obtain the speed AX from the same vessel, or another vessel of the same
form and dimensions.
If the curve be accurately drawn, it will be found that it does not
pass through A, but at a distance Aa above that point, thus signifying
that a certain amount of power is developed even at zero speed ; Aa
thus represents the power required to overcome the constant friction
of the engines. (See also page 17, under "Efficiency of Marine
Machinery ")
Similarly a curve of revolutions may be constructed by taking
points Tit rg, r^ in the ordinates so that Br, O, Dr are proportional to
Ri. Rjj 1^8-
The slip may also be shown by a curve whose ordinates are propor-
tional to the slips at the speeds S^, S^, S3.
Examination of the curves will show ;—
RESISTANCE AND PROPUI^ION OP SHIPS.
41
(1) The I.H.P., revolutions, and slip corresponding to any speed
intermediate to those observed ;
(2) The constant friction, and therefore general efficiency of the
engines ;
(3) The suitability of the lines of the ship for the speeds,— a
sudden rise of the curve towards the higher part, showing an
undue increase of resistance at the higher speeds ;
(4) The power of the speed with which the I.H.P. increases for the
particular type of ship ;
(5) The suitability of the propeller to the ship, — any sudden rise
in the slip curve showing that the propeller is defective,
either as regards diameter or surface, or both.
Perhaps the most useful curve, however, for the purpose of deter-
mining the power required to propel some "similar" ship, of different
size, at any given speed, is one constructed as shown in fig. 7, where
the abscissae represent speeds in knots, and the ordinates numerical
co-efficients of performance, derived either from the Admiralty formula
( I.H.P, = — Y^ — ) ^^ other similar expression.
Rule 28a. — Suppose fig. 7 to represent the curve given by a vessel
250 feet long and 2400 tens displacement, and that it is required to
determine the power necessary to drive a ** similar " vessel of 360 feet
long and 7200 tons displacement at, say, 13 knots. The question then
is, — what co-efficient of performance must be assumed? — ^and it is
answered as follows : —
270
260
260
24-0
230
'Z20
2tO
42 BBSISTANCB AND PROPULSION OF SHIPS.
V360 : V260 : : 13 : aj
or a:— V^SO x 18 _ - Q.g _, J * * corresponding '* speed of
V360 " ' first, or type ship,
and running up the ordinate for 10*8 knots until it cuts the curve, and
then along the abscissa from this point of intersection the figure 253
is found, and this, when used in connection with the formula, gives
8250 as the required I.H.P.
In cases where there are no records of exactly " similar ** ships, the
value of the estimate made will of course depend very largely on the
experience of the estimator.
Determination by Model Experiments.
Another method, employed by the Admiralty, and many of our
leading firms of shipbuilders, for determining the power required to
propel any new type of vessel is, to ascertain the resistance of a model
of the new vessel in the experimental tank, and to calculate the power
from the results obtained ; and, where widely divergent types have to
be dealt with, the method is no doubt of great value, but the expense
is necessarily great.
The models arc usually made of paraffin wax, from 12 feet to 20
feet long, and from |-inch to 1^-inch thick ; they are cast nearly to
shape, and trimmed to the exact form on a shaping machine. The
speeds and tension on the tow-rope are automatically recorded on pa))er
drums driven by clock-work. The height and position of the waves
created, — which are of special importance in the case of paddle vessels,
— can also be noted and recorded.
The horse-power required is calculated from the resistance of the
model, by the same principle of ** corresponding*' speeds referred to
above, as follows : —
Let I and L= lengths of model and vessel, respectively ;
V and V= corresponding speeds ;
r and R= corresponding resistances ;
Then- =
-= /-
and ^*' '
Example. — Suppose the E.H.P. nett or efi'ective horse- power
necessary to drive a ship 800 feet long at 15 knots is required. Let
the length of the model oe 12 feet, then the "corresponding" speed for
it will be given by, —
= 16 >.. /J^ = 3 knots.
V 300
RB8ISTANCB AND PROPULSION OP SHIPS. 43
Assume the resistance of the model at this speed to be 4 lbs., then
resistance of ship at 15 knots will be, —
R=4x^^y=62,6001b8. ;
^62,500 X 16 x6080^ggy
60x88,000
or E.H.P. required is approximately 2879, — a slight con-ection having
to be made for skin friction.
Co-efiBcients of Fineness.
The block eo efficient expresses the ratio borne by the displacement
volume to that of the parallelepiped circumscribing the immersed
body.
Let V= displacement in cubic feet ;
L= length on water line ;
B = OTeatest immersed breadth ;
D = draught of water of body {ex keel) ;
K = displacement co-efficient.
Then K=— -^-— .
LxBxD
Th>e prisnuUic eo-efficient; — which gives a truer measure of fineness
of Unes iSian the above, — expresses the ratio borne by the displacement
volume to that of the prism swept by moving the immersed mid -ship
section through the length at load water-line.
Generally speaking, the finer the water lines are, the easier is the
ship driven at any speed, and consequently the speed co-efficients or
multipliers vary inversely with the co-efficient of displacement. But
as there is a limit to the speed at which a certain ship may be driven,
any increase in power produces little or no increase in speed ; there is
a limit to the fineness for the lower speeds also, so that any decrease in
the co-efficient of displacement causes little or no increase in the speed
co-efficients — in other words, just as the form of a ship may be
inefficient for high speeds, so it may be for low.
Table XIII. gives the prismatic co-efficients appropriate to all
steamers from 100 ft. to 1000 ft. long, and from 10 knots to 28 knots
speed, when of the usual ship form and style.
Table XIY. shows the values of the co-efficient G in the Admiralty
speed formula I.H.P.s— 1~ — , when the ship is in agreement with
Rules 26, 27, 28.
If a ship is finer than given by Rule 26, the value of 0 may be
increased, as it may be also when the machinery has a higher efficiency
than 92 per cent.
Table XY. gives the co-efficient for computing effective {neU) horse-
power necessary to overcome skin friction based on Dr. Fr3ude*s
COUBtautB.
44
RESISTANCE AND PROPULSION OP SHIPS.
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46
BBSIBTANOE AND PROPULSION OF SHIPS.
Immersed Surface Friction.
Table XYI. (page 47) gives a general statement of the results of
Fronde's experiments on this subject; they were made on boards
'/4c iu. thick and 19 in. deep, which were coated with the substances
to be experimented on, and towed edgeways through the water. The
resistances are given in lbs. per square foot at the standard speed of
600 feet per minute, and, as the power of the speed to which the
friction is proportional is also given, the resistance at other speeds is
easily calculated. *
Columns A give the power of the speed to which the resistance is
approximately proportional ; columns B give the mean resistance per
square foot of the whole surface of a board of the lengths stated in the
table ; columns 0 give the resistance of a square foot of surface at the
distance sternward from the cut- water stated in the heading.
Table XV.— Co-efficients for Computing: Effective Horse-power
required to overcome Skin Friction based on Mr Froude's
Constants, as given by Mr A. W. Johns.
If S is the wetted surface in square feet, then
E.H.P. =/. S, where/ has the values given below.
Speed in
Knots.
Length of Ship in Feet.
100
160
200
•2468
•2190-
•1942
•1718
•1502
•1308
•1132
•0972
•0827
•0697
•0680
•0478
•0387
•0809
250
800
850
400
460
600
26, .
24,
23,
22,
21,
20, .
19.
18,
17,
16,
16, ,
u,
18,
12.
•2616
•2242
•1988
•1763
•1637
•1340
•1159
•0996
•0846
•0718
•0694
•0489
•0397
•0315
•2477
•2207
•1957
•1726
•1614
•1319
•1141
•0979
•0833
•0702
•0585
•0481
•0390
•0812
•2444
•2178
•1931
•1703
•1494
•1301
•1126
•0966
•0822
•0693
•0577
•0476
•0885
•0308
•2434
•2169
•1923
•1696
•1487
•1296
•1121
•0962
•0819
•0690
•0576
•0473
•0384
•0307
•2415
•2160
•1916
•1690
•1481
•1291
•1171
•0968
•0816
•0687
•0673
•0471
•0382
•0306
•2416
•2162
•1908
•1683
•1476
•1286
•1112
•0956
•0812
•0685
•0570
•0469
•0381
•0304
•2407
•2146
•1902
•1677
•1471
•1281
•1108
•0951
•0810
•0682
•0568
•0468
•0379
•0308
•2399
•2188
•1896
•1672
•1466
•1277
•1106
•0948
•0807
•0680
•0567
•0466
•0878
•0802
In the ahove table skin friction is taken as varying as V^'SaB.'
* NOTB.~See Bule 80.
RBSISTANOB AND PROPULSION OF SHIPS.
47
Table XVI.— Resistances of Surfaces.
Natnre
Length of surface, or diatanoe from cntwatwr, in ftoet
of
2 Feet
8 Feet
80 Feet
fiOFeet
Sorfice.
A
B
C
•890
A
1-86
B
•825
C
•264
A
1'85
B
•278
C
A
1
B G
i
•250 -226
YamiBh, .
2-00 -41
•240
1^88
Paraffin,
1^96 -88
•870
1-94
•814
•260
1-93
•271
•237
• • •
1
■ • • • • •
Tinfoil, .
2-16 -80
•295
1-99
•278
•263 1 -90
•262
•244
1-88
•246 282
Calice, . .
1-98J -87
•725
1^92
•626
•504 1^89
•581
•447
1^87
•474 -428
Fine sand,
2^00 -81
•690
2^00
•688
•450 2^00
•480
•384
2^06
•405 -887
Medium ,,
2 •00, -90
•780
2-00
•625
•488
2-00
•584
•465
2-00
•488 -456
Coarse „
2-00 MO
•880
2^00
•714
'520
2 00
•588
•490
• •
» • • ' • • •
i
True Mean Speed.
To determine the true mean speed of a yess^l when the runs are
taken on the measured mile, half with the tide, and half against : —
Example.
Rimf.
Obsenred
Speeds.
l8t Means.
2nd Bieans.
8rd Means.
4th Means.
Mean of
Means.
Ist 18 5
15 52500 ^
\ 15^478125
15*43125'' True mean
speed.
6)94 2
15-70
Ordinary mean
speed.
15*48125
Ordinaiy mean of
second means.
The ordinary mean of second means is generally taken, — as unaroid-
able errors of obsenration render the third and following decimal
places of rery doubtful yalua.
48 RBSISTANCB AND PROPULSION OP SHIPS.
Find the means of consecutiye speeds continually found until only
one remains.
If a, b, c, d, e, and f are the speeds as given of six runs on the
measured mile, the ultimate mean of means may be found by the
following rule.
Rule 29. Mean speed =(i±fi±Mk+e) + li(c + d)_
Taking the above example by this rule, the mean speed is 15*478
knots. It is, however, usual now when taking the speed as the
ultimate mean of means to have an odd number of runs on the mile
for greater accuracy in a tideway ; then if five runs are made :—
Mean Speed =l±i^±^^±M±£
^ 16
Taking the first five runs in the above example, the mean speed is
then 15*525.
Relation of Speeds and Powers.
Oiven two speeds of a vessel, and the corresponding horse-poweiB,
to find what power of the speed the horse-power varies as : —
Let 8 and S— the two speeds.
„ p and P— the corresponding powers.
,, SB— power of s and S that p and P rtaj m
a» p
or X (Log S - Log «)— Log P - Log p
Rule 30. And «- LogP-LogJP.
3". ^ ^' liOgS-Logf
Depth of Water for Speed Trials.
Dr D. W. Taylor's formula :
D is the draught of water of ship in feet.
L is her length in feet.
S the maximum speed in knots.
Rule 30a. Minimum depth = — ^ fathoms.
TABLB XVtI. — tiMKS AKD 8l»EEl)8.
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52
RBSISTANOS AND PROPULSION OF SHIPS.
The following Table of the % powers of numbers will be of service
in all calculations for which displacement is taken as a basis.
Table XVI 1 1. — Two-thirds powers of numbers.
Number.
|rd
Number.
Ird
Number.
|rd
Number.
ltd 1
power.
power.
power.
power. 1
100
21-54
480
61-80
860
90*43
1240
115-42 1
110
22-96
490
62-15
870
91*18
60
116-04 1
120
24-38
500
62-99
880
91*88
60
116-66
180
25-66
510
68*88
890
92*62
70
117-27
HO
26-96
620
64-66
900
93-22
80
117-89
150
28-28
530
65-49
910
98-91
90
118-50
160
29-47
540
66-31
920
94*69
1300
119*11
170
80-69
550
67*18
930
95*28
io
119-72
180
81-88
660
67*94
940
95*96
20
120*33
190
88-05
570
68*74
960
96*64
80
120*94
200
84-21
580
69*54
960
97-82
40
121*55
210
85-88
590
70-34
970
97-99
60
122*16
220
86-44
600
71*18
980
98-66
60
122*76
280
87-54
610
71*92
990
99*83
70
123*35
240
88*62
620
72-71
1000
100*00
80
123-96
250
89-68
630
78-49
10
100*66
90
124-65
260
40-74
640
74-26
20
101*88
1400
125-14
270
41-78
650
76-03
80
101*99
10
125-74
280
42*80
660
76-80
40
102-65
20
126-33
290
48-81
670
76-67
60
108*30
30
126-92
800
44-81
680
77-88
60
108-96
40
127-51
810
45-80
690
78*08
70
104-61
60
128*10
820
46-78
700
78-84
80
105*26
60
128-69
880
47-75
710
79-59
90
105-91
70
129-28
840
48-71
720
80-83
1100
106-56
80
129*87
850
49-66
730
81-07
10
107-20
90
180-45
860
50-61
740
81*81
20
107*86
1600
131-03
870
51-64
760
82-55
80
108-49
10
181-61
880
52-46
760
83-28
40
109*13
20
182*19
890
53-88
770
84-01
60
109-76
30
182*77
400
54-29
780
84-73
60
110*40
40
183*36
410
65-19
790
86-46
70
111*03
60
133*98
420
56-08
800
86-18
80
111-67
60
134-60
430
56-97
810
86-89
90
112-30
70
185-08
440
67-85
820
87-61
1200
112-92
80
185-65
450
58-72
880
88-82
10
118-55
90
136*28
460
59-59
840
89-03
20
114-17
1600
186-80
470
60-46
860
89*78
80
114-80
10
187-87
TABLE XVIII. — TWO-THIRDS POWERS OF NUMBERS.
63
Table XVIII.
—Two-thirds powers of numhers^amtinued.
Nnmbtt.
}id
Namber.
fid
Nmnber.
Ud
Number.
|rd
power.
power.
power.
power.
1620
187-93
2080
162-94
2920
204-28
8700
241 -80
80
138-60
2100
163*99
40
205-22
80
242-65
40
139*06
20
166-02
60
206*16
3800
248*51
50
139*63
40
166 05
80
207-08
20
244-86
60
140*19
60
167-09
8000
208-01
40
246 22
70
140-75
80
168-12
20
208-93
60
246-07
80
141-32
2200
169*15
40
209-85
80
246-91
90
141-88
20
170-17
60
210-76
3900
247-76
1700
142-44
40
171*19
80
211-68
20
248-61
10
143-00
60
172*20
8100
212*69
40
249*46
20
143-55
80
173*22
20
213*51
60
260*29
30
144-11
2300
174-24
40
214*42
80
251 -14
40
144*66
20
175-24
60
215-33
4000
261 *98
50
146-22
40
176*26
80
216-24
20
252-82
60
145-77
60
177-25
3200
217-15
40
263-65
70
146-32
80
178*26
20
218-06
60
254*49
80
146-87
2400
179*26
40
218-96
80
265*83
90
147-42
20
180-25
60
219*85
4100
256*16
1800
147-97
40
181 *24
80 ■
220*76
20
257-00
10
148-52
60
182*28
8800
221-65
40
257*88
20
149-06
80
188*22
20
222-64
60
258*67
80
149-61
2500
184*20
40
223*44
80
269-49
40
150*15
20
186-18
60
224-34
4200
260*81
50
150-70
40
186-16
80
225-22
20
261*14
60
151*24
60
187-14
3400
226-11
40
261*96
70
151*78
80
188*11
20
226*99
60
262*78
80
152-82
2600
189-08
40
227*88
80
268-60
90
152-86
20
190*05
60
228*76
4800
264-42
1900
153*40
40
191-02
80
229-64
20
266*24
10
153*94
60
191*98
3500
280*62
40
266-06
20
154-47
80
192-98
20
231 -40
60
266-87
80
156*01
2700
198*89
40
282-27
80
267*69
40
166-54
20
194*86
60
238-14
4400
268*51
50
156-08
40
196*80
80
234-02
20
269-82
60
156-61
60
196*75
8600
234-89
40
270-18
70
157-14
80
197-71
20
286-76
60
270-95
80
157-68
2800
198-66
40
236-62
80
271*76
90
158-21
20
199-60
60
237*49
4600
272-66
2000
158-74
40
200*64
80
288*86
20
278*87
20
159*79
60
201 -48
8700
239-22
40
274*17
40
160-84
80
202*42
20
240*08
60
274-08
60
161-89
2900
208*86
40
240-94
80
275*78
54
REST8TANGB AND PROPULSION OP SHIPS.
Table XVIII.— Two-thirds powers of numbers-— eon^muMf.
Nnmber.
ird
Number.
}rd
Number.
frd
Nnmber
|rd
power.
power.
power.
power.
4600
276-68
6150
335*67
8300
409*93
10,900
491 '61
20
277-89
6200
337*49
60
411*57
11,000
494-61
40
278-19
60
889*30
8400
418-22
100
497*60
60
278-99
6300
341*11
60
414-86
200
600-68
80
279-78
50
342*91
8600
416*49
300
603*66
4700
280-68
6400
344-71
60
418*12
4C0
606*68
20
281*88
60
346-50
8600
419*76
600
609*48
40
282-17
6600
348-29
50
421 *37
600
612-48
60
282-96
50
850-07
8700
423 -00
700
616-38
80
283-76
6600
861 -86
50
424*62
800
618-31
4800
284*66
60
353-62
8800
426*24
900
621 23
20
286-83
6700
356-39
50
427*86
12,000
624-16
40
286-11
60
857*16
8900
429-46
100
627*06
60
286-90
6800
868*98
50
481-06
200
629*95
80
287-68
60
860-68
9000
432*67
800
532-88
4900
288-47
6900
862 48
60
434*27
400
585-72
20
289-26
60
864-18
9100
435-86
600
588-60
40
290 06
7000
866-98
60
437-46
600
541-48
60
290*84
60
867*67
9200
489*04
700
544-84
80
291*62
7100
869*41
60
440*64
800
547*20
6000
292*40
60
871*18
9800
442-23
900
560-04
60
294-34
7200
872*86
60
443*82
18,000
662*88
6100
296-27
60
874*68
9400
446-40
100
655*70
60
298-21
7300
876*31
60
446*97
200
668*68
6200
800-16
50
378*02
9600
448*64
300
561*85
60
802-06
7400
379*74
60
450*11
400
564 16
6800
808-98
60
381*44
9600
461*68
600
566*96
60
806-89
7600
383*16
60
463*26
600
569-76
6400
807-80
60
384-85
9700
464*82
700
572-54
50
309-68
7600
886*55
50
456*39
800
575-88
6600
811-68
60
888*24
9800
467-96
900
578-10
60
313-46
7700
389*93
60
469*60
14,000
580-88
6600
816-34
60
391*62
9900
461*06
100
683-63
60
817-21
7800
393-30
50
462*61
200
686-38
6700
819-09
50
394*98
10,000
464*16
300
689*13
60
320-95
7900
396-66
100
467-25
400
691 -88
6800
822-81
50
398-33
200
470*33
600
694*61
60
824-66
8000
400-00
800
473-39
600
597-84
6900
326-61
50
401 -66
400
476-44
700
600*07
60
328-85
8100
403-32
500
479-49
800
602*80
6000
330-19
60
404*97
600
482*54
900
605-51
60
832*02
8200
406-68
700
486*67
16,000
608-22
6100
883-86
60
408*28
800
488-60
15,100
610*92
TABLE XVIII. ^TWO-THIRDS POWERS OP NUMBERS.
55
Table XVIII.— Two-thirds powers of numbers— continued.
Number.
ird
power.
Nnmber.
ird
power.
Number.
ird
power.
Number.
ird
power.
16,200
613-61
19,600
724-5
23, 800
827-4
28,100
924-3
300
616-30
600
726-9
,900
829-7
200
926-5
400
618*98
700
729-4
24,000
832-0
300
928-7
600
621-66
800
731-9
100
834-4
400
930-9
600
624-33
900
734-4
200
836-7
500
933-0
700
627-00
20,000
736-8
300
839-0
600
935-2
800
629*66
100
739-2
400
841-8
700
937-4
900
632-32
200
741-7
- 500
843-6
800
939-6
16,000
634-97
300
744-2
600
846-9
900
941-7
100
637-61
400
746-6
700
848-1
29,000
943*9
200
640-24
600
749-0
800
860-4
100
946-1
300
642-87
600
751-5
900
852-7
200
948-3
400
645-50
700
753-9
26,000
855-0
300
950-4
500
648-12
800
756-3
100
867-3
400
952-6
600
650-74
900
758-8
200
859-5
600
954-7
700
653*35
21,000
761 2
800
861-8
600
956-9
800
656-96
100
763-0
400
864-1
700
959-1
900
658-66
200
766-0
600
866 4
800
961-2
17,000
661-16
300
768-4
600
868-6
900
963-4
100
663-74
400
770-8
700
870-9
80,000
966
200
666-83
500
773-2
800
873-1
250
970
800
668-91
600
775-6
900
875-4
600
976
400
671-48
700
778-0
26,000
877-6
760
981
500
674-05
800
780-6
100
879-9
81,000
987
600
676-62
900
782-8
200
882*1
250
992
700
679 18
22,000
785-1
800
884-4
500
997
800
681 -74
100
787-5
400
886-6
760
1002
900
684-29
200
789-9
500
888-9
32,000
1008
18,000
686-83
300
792-3
600
891-1
250
1013
100
689-37
400
794-6
700
893-3
500
1018
200
691-91
500
797-0
800
895-6
750
1023
300
694-44
600
799-4
900
897-8
33,000
1029
400
696-97
700
801-7
27,000
900-0
250
1034
600
699 49
800
804-1
100
902-2
600
1039
600
70201
900
806-4
200
904-4
750
1046
700
704-52
23,000
808-8
300
906-7
34,000
1060
800
707-03
100
811-1
400
908-8
260
1066
900
709-54
200
813-4
500
911-1
600
1060
19,000
712-0
300
815-8
600
913-3
750
1065
100
714-6
400
818-1
700
915-5
36,000
1070
200
717-0
500
820-4
800
917-7
500
1080
300
719-6
600
822-8
900
919-9
36,000
1090
400
722-0
700
8-25-1
28,000
922-1
600
1100
56
TRIPLE VERSUS COMPOUND ENGINES.
Table XVIII.-
-Two-thirds powers of numbers— contiiiiLed.
Number.
frd
Number.
frd
Number.
frd
Number.
{rd
power.
puwer.
power.
1179
power.
37,000
1110
40,500
44,000
1246
50,000
1357
500
1120
41,000
1189
500
1256
51,000
1375
38,('00
1130
500
1199
45,000
1266
52,000
1393
500
1140
42,000
1208
46,000
1284
53,000
1411
39,000
1150
500
1218
47,000
1302
54,000
1428
500
1160
43,000
1227
48,000
1321
55-000
1446
40,000
1170
600
1237
49,000
1339
66-000
1463
TRIPLE VERSUS COMPOUND ENGINES.
The great economy resulting from the use of high-pressure steam is
due to the fact that the increased pressure is obtained by the expendi-
ture of an amount of heat quite insignificant compared with the
additional amount of energy it renders available. The following
tabular statement will make this clear at a glance : —
Table XIX.— Steam Pressures and Efficiencies.
aa
«
09 •
ht ca
bog,
M n
o
2
^
30
75
125
175
225
0 a
GQ "^
F.
F. 320"
353**
377*
397V
Total effective
external work by
one pound of steam
in ft. -lbs.
Heat used per 1000
ft. -lbs. of work done.
Thermal units.
Theoretical saving
of fuel at each
step per cent.
126,256
8-696
• • *
174,472 6-373
26-7
206,994
5-420
14-9
231,200
4-833
10-8
255,000
4-425
8-4
Note, — The release pressure is taken to be 10 lbs. per square inch,
absolute, in each case, and a back pressure of 4 lbs. per square inch,
absolute, is assumed.
That is to say, — an engine using steam of 125 lbs. pressure should,
other things being equal, consume nearly 15 per cent, less fuel than
one using steam of 76 lbs. pressure; and one using steam of 175 lbs.
pressure should effect a further saving of nearly 11 per cent., — so that,
by using 175 lbs. steam in place of 75 lbs., a saving of over 23 per
cent, should be effected.
RATIOS OF OTLIlTDBBa.
67
In practice, however, a two-stage compound engine, using ^team of
140 lbs. pressure, shows very little economy over a simple engine using
90 lbs. steam ; whilst a triple -stage engine using 140 lbs. steam shows
even a greater economy than is theoretically due to the increased
pressure. This is due chiefly to the diminished range of temperature
in each cylinder, and the low pressure on pins, guides, and bearings.
The actual amount of fuel saved by using a triple engine, working at 1 60
lbs. pressure, in place of a compound engine using, say, 76 lbs. steam, is
nearly 25 per cent. ; and a quadruple engine with 200 lbs. saves more still,
due to the higher pressure and greater number of stages of expansion.
When the average magnitudes of the stresses set up in the two types of
engine are compared, the result is again greatly in favour of the triple.
Compare a three- crank triple engine with an ordinary compound,
having same size of L.P. cylinder, same length of stroke, and develop-
ing the same power, — the one using steam at 150 lbs., and the other
at 75 lbs. ; also let the referred mean pressure be 24 lbs. in each
case, and the efficiency of the expansion be the same in the two cases.
Then, further, let the L.P. piston area be represented in each case by
the number 14 ; the H.P. area of triple by 2, and the H.P. area of
compDund by 4, and the M.P. area of triple by 5. Then, if the equiva-
lent, or referred, mean pressure is equally obtained from the cylindera
in each case, the relative work done will be as follows : —
Triple Engine.
/24 14\
H.P. cylinder, 2 x I -^ x -g- )or 112.
/24 14
M.P. ., 5x[^-g-x-^
L.P.
»>
it
UX3^
jorll2.
or 112.
Compound Engine.
r^ ^ ,. ^ /24 14\
H. P. cyhnder, 4 x I y x -7- 1 or 1 68.
24
L.P. „ 14X-0- or 168.
That is, — the average stress on the rods, columns, guides, &c., is
60 per cent, more with the compound than with the triple engine.
The triple engine is cdso better balanced than the compound, works
with less vibration, gives a more equable turning moment, and con-
sequently a higher efficiency of propeller.
It is not surprising, therefore, that the triple compares so favourably
with the compound as regards wear and tear.
RATIOS OF CYLINDERS.
Two- Stage or Compound Engines.— Engines of this type are
still commonly fitted in paddle vessels, and in small screw steamers ;
as also for many auxiliary purposes, such as for driving independent
air and circulatingpumps, feed pumps, dynamos, &c.
When fitted in Paddle vessels, the boiler pressure is usually from
70 to 100 lbs. for oscillating engines, and from 90 to 120 lbs. for other
types, — the latter pressure mostly with diagonal engines.
But considerations of weight and bulk preclude the adoption of high
ratios, and experience has shown that a ratio of about 1 : 3*25 for
58
RATIOS OF CYLINDERS.
pressures up to 110 lbs., and for 140 lbs. 1 : 3*8 is quite satisfactory.
The extra quantity of coal to be carried is of little consequence where
the voyage is only three or four hours' duration.
The ratios of cylinders for auxiliary engines are also determined
more from considerations of weight and bulk than of economy, and
with little regard to boiler pressures, — with the result that they are
rarely made so great as in the case of the propelling engines, even
when the auxiliary engine must run hour for hour with the main
engines ; in practice this ratio is generally about 1 : 2'5 to 1 : 3 for
cylinders side by side, and 1 : 8*5 to 1 : 4 for tandem engines. In
Naval practice, when the boiler pressure used was 300 lbs., the
cylinders of compound auxiliary engines were only made 4 to 1.
Three-sta^^e or Triple eng^ines, and Four-Stage or Quadruple
eng^es. — In the case of main or propelling engines for merchant or
mail steamer^, space and weight are, within ominary limits, of very
little consequence, whilst coal consumption is of the utmost import-
ance ; L. P. cylinders are therefore usually large enough to expand the
steam to the full economical limit, — of say, 6 lbs. absolute.
The ratios of cylinders depend largely on the rate of expansion at full
speed. The following holds good in practice : —
Rate of expansion = >Mute pressure^
For Naval engines, Q = 21.
In express steamers short voyage, Q = 19.
„ „ long „ Q = 18.
Passenger cargo steamers, Q = 17.
Tramp cargo steamers, Q :^ 16.
The following Table shows the ratios of cylinders necessary to effect
this, with a cut-off in the H.P. of "6 of the stroke : —
Table XX.— Ratios of Cylinders in multiple Stage
Reciprocators.
Absolute
preasare.
126
186
146
2-19
61
130
166
2-26
165
176
2*40
613
160
186
196
2-64
1
205 216 1 225
E.t.0^;
2-04
2-11
2-33
5-8
160
2-47
66
2-61
2*68
2-75
7-9
Ratio ^5
4-4
110
4-76
120
6-43
140
6-8
180
718
7-63
Working pres-
sure (above
atmosphere)
170
190
200
210
RATIOS OP CYLINDERS. 59
L P
The values given in the above table for the ratio ' ' are such that
xl. P.
the nominal rate of expansion is, in each case, ^ ; and
M P
those for ratio ' ' are calculated by the formula, —
Ij.P.
Rule 31. M.P. area= ^•^' ^''^
1-1 X VRatio of H.P. to L.P.
When the working pressure exceeds 195 lbs. absolute for economy in
consumption, the steam should be expanded in four stages, the engine
should be a Quadruple.
For Quadruple engines, working at 200 lbs. to 215 lbs. pressiu-e, the
relative areas of cylinders may be about 1 : 1*8 : 3 6 : 7 9;
or 1^ = 1-8.
2ndM.P.^g
IstM.P. "" '
L.P.
*^^2lidMT.=2-2.
It is possible to arrange the cylinders of large engines in many
different ways, but the designer must always keep in view equality of
stresses, ranges of temperature in the various cylinders, and also the
best disposition of the reciprocating weights for reducing vibration.
Figs. 8, 8a, 8b, and 8g show some of these arrangements.
If possible, three cranks should be employed in preference to two,
and tne tandem arrangement only be resorted to in cases where there
would otherwise be a low-pressure cylinder of very large size, — say over
100 inches diameter, and where four cranks are inadmissible.
Naval Eng^es. — In war-vessels economy at full power is only a
secondary consideration, whilst weight of machinery and space
occupied by it are of the first importance, and the ratio of L.P.
piston to H.P. is therefore seldom so great as in the merchant
service. While the boiler pressure used in the Navy stood at 156 lbs.,
the piston areas were usually made of the proportions 1 : 2 to 2*25 :
4*7 to 5. With a working pressure of 250 lbs. at the engines the pro-
portions used have been about 1 : 2*65 : 7. In passenger steamers
and war-vessels with relatively high revolution speeds, the necessity
of balancing the inertia forces to reduce vibration to a minimum hac
led to the use of four-crank triple and four-crank quadruple engines.
RATIOS OF CTL1NDBR8,
&h
...^^
~^-M
RrfT^riA -^
a:
a:
.■
H
r^
pj %,
""^
-^i^^
T
a..
^3>-
IM. t Triple Bipaiiilon Bntlaw
FIG. 8a. TRIPI4B EXPANSION ENOINBS.
61
62
RATIOS OF CTLINDEB8.
i
I
6
i
. qUADRUPLK XXPAN8ION KNGINBI. 63
RATIOS OF CTUNDBttS.
3
11
3
szz-
Fio. Sd. — Fonr-criLDb Triple EspBiiuon Engfineh
FIG. 8e. FOUR-C
21
Fib. Sx.— Foui-onnk Qnadinpls Eiputsion Eaginu.
66 AQt/lVALBNT MISAN fBfiSSUBSS, STO.
EQUIVALENT MEAN PRESSURES, ETC.
In estimating the mean pressure in any multiple -stage engine, it
is usual to rtfer it to the L.F, cylinder, i,e. to calculate the pressure
that would be required if the work were all done in the L.P. cylinder
only.
The value of this equivalent — or, as it is called, referred — mean
pressure for a triple engine is therefore, —
Rule 32.
p^ T T> «»«-« ^««— , M. P. mean press. , H. P. mean press.
Kpm = L. P. mean press. + =r— , — rr r> i ^i p + pI] — e r x^ \. tt t>
Ratio of L.P. to M.P. Ratio of L.P. to H.P.
Records of the Rp^ obtained with each engine should be kept, —
together with notes of the various conditions under which the trials
were made, — such as pressure of steam at H.P. valve casing, degree of
opening of throttle or regulator valve, amount gear is 'Minked-up,"
vacuum in condenser, &c., — as they supply a ready means of checking
calculations for sizes of cylinders, cuts off, &c., of proposed engines of
the same type, and of determining the exact values of the factors,
approximate values of which are given in Table XXIY. page 73.
Expansion of Steam : to determine Mean Pressures.
The mean pressure obtained, and consequently the work done, in
any steam cylinder, or series of steam cylinders, depends mainly on
the absolute pressure and the condition of the steam at admission, also
the rate of expansion at release.
The general formula for pressure and volume of steam expanding
under conditions obtaining in practice is
|w'= constant.
When the cylinders are jacketed so as to render heat to the steam
rather than abstract it during expansion, —
(i ) Steam as supplied from the ordinary boiler without superheater
or other means of drying, c = 1 *00.
(iL) When the steam is supplied to such cylinders " dry '* and there
is no condensation during expansion, c = 1*0625 or ^Vie^^^*
(iii.) When the steam to these cylinders is superheated and the
temperature is kept constant during expansion i^thermic\ then
€=1-00.
When the cylinders are not jacketed but well clothed, as in general
marine practice, —
(iv. ) Steam supplied simply as produced saturated c = 1 '11 1 , ( ^ ^/tths).
(v.) If superheated steam supplied 6=1 *180.
EQUIVALENT MEAN PRESSURES, ETC. 67
Mean Pressure of Steam Expanding; Isothermally, as in a
Steam Cylinder when Jacketed?
Let y be the volume, P the pressure, and T the temperature of steam
as supplied.
,, v be the volume, p the pressure, t the temperature at the end of
expansion.
,, Vo be the volume, p^ the pressure, and ^ the temperature of back
pressure.
p
R is the ratio of expansion =:~ ; and PY = constant.
P
A. (1) Mean pressure due to a pressure P, and a rate of expansion R.
Rule 33. Pm=i^ti^^ X P -p^ 0)o=<>, vide Table XXI. )
If the back pressure in a modern condenser be taken as 1 lb., then for
a full expansion, as in the case of a turbine, R=P.
(2) P„,=:1±]^lJ?xR-1 ; or Pm = loge Rorlog.P.
(3) The work done by a pound of steam during admission and expan-
sion from pressure P to 1 lb. will be found as follows : —
Maximum work of 1 lb. of st^am of pressure P=loge P x 144 x v ; in
this case v — 332. Then
maximum work =47, 808 loge P.
(4) If steam expands to a pressure^ and then drops to po, which is
the usual condition of working in a reciprocating engine.
Mean pressure == i±I^ X P - l±i2il£ XI? + (;> -j7o),
R T
assuming the final pressure of the curve of expansion if continued to
be lib.,
iiJ^i^ X P=(H.loge P) or (1 +l0ge R)
A
1 + log r ^^ ^^j likewise be equal to (1 +log« p).
Then Pm = (1 + loge P) - (1 + log* p) + (» -po)
= loge P- logs ^+i?-Po,
since Pq = 1. Here again Pm = lege P - log* p+p»
68 EQUIVALBNT MEAN PBBSSUBES, ETC.
The maximum work possible from 1 lb. of steam under these
conditions,
=(Loge 'P-\ognp+p) 47,808 foot-lbs.
(5) If steam expands to a pressure p, and exhausts into a receiver
in which the pressure is pi, then
Pi» = l0geP-l0g,|?.
The maximum work done externally under these circumstances by
1 lb. of steam of a pressure P=(loge P-log«^) 47,808 foot-lbs.
B. If the steam is dry and expands adiabatically then
pt;"/i« = constant (69,000 foot-lbs. Hankine).
Rule 33a. ThenPn>=^^"^^^"'^xP . . . . (1)
If the steam expands to pressure^ and drops to the pressure j^g,
p„=(i1z^)xp-(i1:iMl::^),+(p-i,.) . (2)
If Po=l, and steam expands top, then B=P-rl and r=p-rl.
Then Pm=(l7 - 16R" A) _ (17 - if5r"^) + {p- 1)
= 16(r"A_R-A') + (p-.i) .... (8)
When steam expands adiabatically from pressure P to 1 lb., and it
condenses at pressure p, then
Maximum work done by 1 lb. of steam externally,
= 144i;{(l7-16P'^)-l}
= 2304i;(l-P-A)
and since v=333 cubic feet.
Maximum work obtainable from 1 lb. steam,
= 767,222 (l-P-'^)foot.lbs. . . . (4)
Maximum work obtainable in B thermal units,
=(Ti-Ta)x(l-^)-T,log.^ . . (6)
This (Sir J. Ewing, p. 100) Tj is the absolute temperature, and Lj
the latent heat of steam at P. Tg the absolute temperature to which
steam expands and condenses. Table VII. is calculated by (5).
EQUIVALENT MEAN PRESSURES, ETC.
69
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70
EQUIVALENT MEAN PRBSST7BES, ETa
Table XXII.— Factors for Finding the Theoretical Mean
Pressures when Clearance Volumes are taken into Account.
Bate of
Sxpan-
sion.
1
B
Cutoff.
Clearance Volume per cent, of Cylinder.
4-0
6-0
8-0
10-0
12-0
14-0
160
20-0
0-05
0-28
0-30
0-32
0-35
0-37
0-39
0-41
16-67
0-06
0-30
0-32
0-34
0-37
0-39
0-41
0-42
14-29
0-07
0-32
0-34
0-36
0-39
0-41
0-43
0-44
12-50
0-08
0-34
0-36
0-38
0-40
0-42
0-44
0-46
11-11
0-09
0-36
0-38
0-40
0-42
0-44
0-46
0-48
10-00
0-10
0-38
0-40
0-42
0-44
0-46
0-47
0-50
8-33
0-12
0-42
0-44
0-45
0-47
0-49
0 60
0-62
7-14
0-14
0-45
0-47
0-49
0-50
0-52
0-53
0-54
6-25
0-16
0-48
0-50
0-52
0-53
0-66
0-56
0-57
6-56
0-18
0-51
0-53
0-55
0-56
0-57
0-59
0-60
5-00
0-20
0-66
0-57
0-58
0-69
0-60
0-61
0-62
4-00
0-25
0-62
0-63
0-64
0-65
0-66
0-67
0-68
8-83
0-30
0-68
0-69
0-70
070
0-71
0-72
0-73
2-86
0-35
0-73
0-74
0-75
0-76
0-76
0-76
0-77
2-50
0-40
0-77
0-78
0-79
0-80
0-80
0-80
0-81
2-22
0-45
0-81
0-82
0-83
0-84
0-84
0-84
0-85
2-00
0-50
0-85
0-86
0-86
0-87
0-87
0-87
0-88
1-75
0-56
0-89
0-89
0-89
0-90
0-90
0-90
0-90
1-67
0-60
0-91
0-91
0-91
0-92
0-92
1
0-92
0-92
1
The above table is for saturated steam ezpandiog with^=C
If it is required to ascertain the theoretical mean pressure on a
cylinder having 10 per cent, clearance with steam of 120 lbs. absolute
pressure cut off at 0'12 of the stroke, then
Mean pressure =120 x 0-47 or 66*4 lbs.
If exhausting to a condenser, with a vacuum of 28 ins., then
Mean pressure =56 -4 - 1 or 55*4 lbs.
EQUIVALENT MEAN PRESSURES, ETC.
71
II
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72 EQUIVALENT MEAN PRESSURES, ETC.
Column 4, Table XXL, gives the multipliers for dry saturated
steam, calculated by Rankine's formula ^= ^ ^~^, which is
Pi r
based on the assumption that ^H= constant, and this expansion is
called adiabatic as it takes place without any added heat as in the
ordinary marine engine cylinder. At very high rates of expansion
only is there very great difference between column 3 and colunm 4.
Absolute initial pressure should be taken at 3 to 5 lbs. below the
absolute boiler pressure, and back pressure at not less than 3 lbs. ; also,
number of expansions is to be understood as the nominal number,
or—-— — • • ^*P^^ y without regard to clearances, or to the
H.P. capacity at cut-off
occurrence of release in final cylinder before end of stroke.
Then, to determine the effective pm, when the boiler pressure is
fixed, and the best number of exf»ansions agreed upon, — ^multiply the
Pi .by the quantity found in column 3 of Table XXI. opposite the
proper number of expansions, and subtract back pressure from the
product. •
As values of effective mean pressures, found by aid of Table XXL, are
determined without taking into consideration such disturbing elements
as clearance, compression, radiation, friction of ports and passages,
receiver **drop," initial condensation and subsequent re-evaporation,
&c., it is necessary to allow for these in some way; but, the
calculations for their values being laborious, and involving so many
assumptions as to be of doubtful accuracy when finished, it is best to
allow for them by multiplying by a single factor, the value of which is
derived from experience.
Then;7m x factor =Rpw, or referred mean pressure — (q,v, page 78).
Table XXIY. gives the average value of this factor for the various
types of engine, and under the various conditions named : —
EQUIVALENT MEAN PRESSURES, ETC.
73
Table XXIV.— Ratios of Mean Pressures as in Practice
to Theoretical.
Dswariptloii of Bnglne.
(1) Bzpanslon taking place all in one^
cylinder : ports of average size ;
and ordinary slide valve driven
by ordinary eccentric ;— as in
various audliary engines, .
Jaeketed.
Unjacketed.
{
•76 to -80
■78
(8) Expansion taking place all in one'
<grlinder; ports of average size:
and ordinary slide valves driven
by ordinary eccen(a4c gear;— as in
low-pressure paddle engines,
(8) Expansion taking place in twov
cylinders with receiver between; \
ports of average size ; ordinary I
slide valves (H.P. single-ported, f
and L.F. double-ported) ; and >
ordinary eccentric gear ; — as in 1
paddle engines, small screw I
engines, and some auxiliary I
engines, . /
(4) Expansion taking place in two
cylinders, placed in same line,
and exhausting direct from one
to the other ; ports, slide valves,
and gear as in (8);— as occasion-
ally used, J
(5) Expansion taking place in three>
cylinders, placed side by side,
. with receivers between them;
ports of average size ; ordinary
slide valves (say piston valve for
H.P.and double-ported flat slides ,
for M.P. and L.P.); and ordinary
eccentric gear;— as used in most {
merchant steamers, .
{
■«8to -75
MIAM -71
Screw
Paddle
Auxly.
{
•67 to -78
M BAjr -70
■6^ to -68
MBAH -68
•66 to
MBAN
'46 to
MBAN
•66
•60
■60
■47
•n to -78
MBAN -72
•64 to -68
MBAN *66
•60 to
MBAN
•66
■68
(6) Engines same as (6) : but ratio of"
H.P. to L.P. not exceeding 1:6;
and running at 00 to 140 revolu-
tions;—as in ironclads and
cruisers, ....
(7) Engines same as (6) ; ImiI ratio of ^
£LP. to L.P. not exceeding 1:6;
and runnhig at 800 to 860 revolu-
tions ;—4Ui in torpedo gunboats,
4o.,
{
•66 to -66
MBAN ^60
{
•60to^67
MBAH "68
III the cam of any multiple-stage engine, where the power ia divided
equally amongst the cylinders, whose number is N, and where tb
Hnmlul Rale
ot BipiDiion.
t ■ i :"|S:S :S ;ES
ToUl.
l|EIIISISI!«l!
s 1 "■
11 :,,:::::: :S :
11 L,P.
1 1 1 1 1 1 ! !■ ! = 5 8 s 5
° 1 "*
i 1 1 1 5 !• 1 =. 1 8 S 8 B. 1
H.P.
^p.'a
III i 1 11 J i g 3 S i J
i U S S S i S S S i s s s
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S2 S'
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3SSA2 333
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KsssassS'
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KQUIVALBNT MEAN PRESSURES, ETC.
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PA
76 PISTON 8PBBD.
referred mean pressure is Rpmj the mean pressures in the yarious
cylinders are as follows : —
L. P. mean pressure = -^.
N
Uf P _Rpm y L.P. area
-IT M.P.area-
TT p __ Rpf» ^ L.P. area
n.i. „ -■ N" H.P.area-
PISTON SPEED.
Usually reckoned in feet per minute.
Mean value = 2 x stroke in feet x revolutions per minute.
Experience with Naval machinery has shown that the largest
pistons {i.e. up to 100 inches diameter) may be safely run at speeds
up to 850 and 1000 feet per minute.
With the lighter machinery of torpedo boats and destroyers speeds
of 1000 to 1200 feet per minute are quite satisfactory.
The standard practice_in cargo steamers is very fairly represented
by the expression 144 V^, where S is the stroke in inches. (North-
East Coast rule — see page 5).
In large passenger and mail steamers the speed is now commonly
700 to 960 feet per minute on service, or, 220 \/Sl
In the case of paddle engines, and especiallj^ of oscillating paddle
engines, the available range of piston speeds is very closely limited
by the other conditions of the case, and has not often in practice
been exceeded, —
For vertical oscillating engines, . . 450 feet per min. or 110 V8.
inclined ,, . . 620 „ or 118 VS^
diagonal engines with connecting rods, 650 to 700 „ or 130 V^*
As the powers obtained from a given weight and bulk of engine
vary almost directly as the revolutions, the eiforts of engineers are
constantly directed to obtain higher rates, without undue increase
of wear and tear, and there is therefore every probability of advance
in this direction.
By increasing piston speed a perceptible reduction can also be made
in the percentage of heat lost by radiation.
There are two ways of getting increased piston speed, viz. : —
(1) Increase length of stroke and let revolutions remain same ;
(2) Increase revolutions and let length of stroke remain same ;
but there is this important difference in the result obtained, —
In the first case, the cost, bulk, and weight of engines all increase
with the piston speed ; whilst in the second case there is practically
no increase under any of these heads ; and it is therefore in this
second direction that the designer must go when limited as regards
space and weight.
It must not be forgotten, however, that, for a given cylinder
capacity, the long stroke and small diameter cylinder has a distinct
^vantage over its rival, in its smaller piston area, and consequently
luced loads and stresses, besides smaller volume clearances.
fi
RRVOLUTIONS.
77
The chief limits to increase of piston speed (and of revolutions) are,
— the size of ports and consequent size and weight of valves, and the
inertia of reciprocating parts.
REVOLUTIONS.
In the case of paddle engines, the revolutions are, of course, strictly
governed by the diameter of wheel and speed of vessel ; increased
power must therefore be obtained either by increased stroke, pressure,
or diameter of cylinders.
Rate of Revolution at full speed of reciprocating engines varies
roughly as the n/N. H. P. v, Kule 7.
Rule 34. Revs, per min. =Q-r n/N.H.P.
For the ordinary merchant steamers, Q = 1200.
For express steamships, Q= 1800.
Rule 34a. For paddle wheelers. Revs, per min. = 280 -f aJ'N.H.P.
Rule 34b. For turbine-driven screws their rate of revolution = speed
in knots x F.
For single-geared, Naval, and cross-channel ships, F=ll.
For double-geared ships, F = 6 '6. .
The following Table gives some examples of various ships' rates of
revolutions when at full speed : —
Table XXVI.— Revolutions, Rates of, in Practice.
Class of Ship.
Battleships and Cruisers
Do. do.
Cruisers, First Class
Do. do.
Do. Light
Do. do.
T.B.D. Squadron Leaders
Do. do. do.
Ocean Express
Do. do.
\ Do. do.
Do. do.
Passenger Cargo
Do. do.
Do. do.
Do. do.
Cross-Channel Express
Do. do. do.
Do. do. Large
Cargo Single Screw
Do. do. do.
Do. do. do.
Propelling Machinery.
Turbines, Direct Drive
Do. Single Reduction
Do. Direct Drive
Do. Single deduction
Do. Direct Drive
Do. Single Reduction
Do. Direct Drive
Do. Single Reduction
Steam Reclprocators
Turbines, Direct Drive
Do. Single Reduction
Do. Double Reduction
Steam Reclprocators
Oil do.
Turbines, Single Reduction
Do. Double Reduction
Do. Direct Drive
Do. Single Reduction
Do. do. do.
Steam Reclprocators
OU do.
Turbines Geared
Horse-
Revolutions P.M.
Power !
per 1
Screw.
Engines.
Screws.
19,000
806
305
87,600
1470
206
12,000
260
260
26,000
2680
830
6,260
600
600
18,000
8200
420
16,000
690
690
22,000
3000
360
22,600
82
82
28,000
188
T88
6,600
1700
187
6,260
8200
80
4,600
96
96
2,260
126
126
4,160
1000
96
8,760
3600
95
4,600
670
670
8,000
2800
400
7,700
1084
287
1,260
78
78
i.eoo
116
115
1,260
8600
H.P.
80
78
TO OALOULATK DIAMETER OP CYLINDER, ETC.
Table XXVII.— Relation between Stroke and Revolutions,
V^»X|^U w
stroke in
Bevolntions
Stroke in
ReTolntions
Stroke in
Sevolutions
inches.
per minute.
inches.
per minnte.
inches.
per minute.
IS
125
38
84
48
65
21
118
86
79
51
68
24
103
39
75
54
61
27
96
42
71
57
58
SO
89
45
68
60
56
STROKE OF PISTON
The following are the lengths of stroke usual in the rarious classes
of vessels namea : —
Table XXVIII.— Stroke of Piston,
Battle Ships and First Class Cruisers, . . 45 to 51 inches.
Second Class Cruisers, 86 to 42 ,,
Scouts and Third Class Cruisers, . . . 24 to 30 „
TorpedoGunboatsand Destroyers,. . 18 to 21 ,,
Torpedo Boats 9 to 18 ,,
Large Mail Steamers, 60 to 78 ,,
Fast Passenger Steamers, . . 80 to 48 „
Ordinary Merchant Steamers, . 18 to 60 ,,
Paddle Steamers, 80 to 102 „
Engines of the overhead beam type, used in paddle vessels, have
sometimes had strokes of 10 feet and even 12 feet.
In ordinary cargo steamers the length of stroke is usually about
•65 X diameter of L.P. cylinder. {See Table I., page 6).
TO CALCULATE DIAMETER OF CYLINDER FOR
A GIVEN POWER.
The following rules apply to L.P. cylinders only, — the sizes of M.P.
and H.P. cylinders being supposed to be fixed from those of the
L.P. by the rules given in section on '* Ratios of Cylinders,'* pages
57-65.
For rapid calculations, use the formula for Estimated Horse Power,
Rule 1 ; the result will usually be within 5 per cent.
CYLINDER PORTS, PIPES, AND PASSAGES. 79
Rule I. E.H.P.=?!2i^^^iMS
where D= diameter of L.P. cylinder in inches.
j9= absolute boiler pressure.
R= revolutions per minute.
S= stroke in feet.
Z a factor {v, page 8).
If the size of cylinder for a given Indicated Horse-power is
required, let S stand for piston speed in feet per minute, and Rj>m for
the referred mean pressure in pounds per square inch (calculated by
rules given on pages 67, 68) ; then, —
Rule 35. Area of L.P. piston =t5^iiL?^^ ;
or, if piston speed is required,—
Rule 36. Piston speed=I^^^^g?;
Imz, area x jxpm
or, again, if referred mean pressure is required, —
I H P X 33 000
Rule 37. Referred mean pressure Rpm= ' ' ' ^-q- ;
1j. Jl . area x o
and lastly, if I.H.P. is required, —
Rule 38. iH.P.=?ii£i.5I^:2^SxB^
^^ 33,000
CYLINDER PORTS, PIPES, AND PASSAGES.
In fixing the sizes of cylinder ports, &c., it is necessary — as in so
many other cases — to discover the best compromise. By increasing
the port areas, for instance, ''wire-drawing" is diminished, a freer
exhaust is obtained, and the resulting indicator diagram is fuller ;
but, at the same time, the size and weight of cylinder, of slide-valve,
and of valve-gear, as also the clearance volume, are increased, the loss
from which may possibly balance the gain.
The following figures give speeds of steam usual in good triple and
quadruple engines ; but it must be understood that in dealing with
very high piston speeds (say over 900 feet per minute), it is not always
either possible or advisable to give such large areas : —
80
CYUNDBB PORTS, PIPES, AND PASSAGES.
Table XXIX.— Speeds of Steam-flow through Ports, &c.
Main steam pipe, 8100 ft per minute ; then —
Diameter - ^^^' ^^^'^' ^^^' ^ VMean piston speed.
Mean of man
mum valve open
ings.
H.P. — 7,500 ft. per min.
,000
.000
Ports (during ex
haust),
i- fH.P. — 7,
1-4 M.P. — 9,<
tL.P.— 12,(
fH.P. — 5,
4m.P. — 7,
tL.P. —8,
800
200
600
Exhaust pipe or r^ p g^^
passage from one 1 ^^ p g ^ ^
cyhnder to next or | j p ^nnn
to condenser.
Ports (during fH.P. — 6,800
exhaust) in light, 4 M. P. —8,600
high-speed engines, l,L.P. — 11,500
»
If
it
it
' Nearly equivalent
to 40, 50, and 60 c.
" ft. of cylinder per
sq. inch of port per
^minute.
{Nearly equivalent
to 40, 60, and 80 c.
ft. of cylinder per
sq. inch of port per
minute.
For Two-stage Compound engines use the above figures, only
omitting those referring to M. P. cylinders, and for quadruples the mean
speeds between H.P. and M.P. and M.P. and L.P.
The following Table is based on the above figures, and gives the
proportions at a glance, — where A is the area of the cylinder : —
OTUNDIR PORtS, PIPBB, AND PASaAOlB.
81
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OOCMQ<«04r-lrHr-lr-tr-lr-lr-l
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U
0)
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u
d^
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Wi
0)
o
U3
fli
H
Pi
lOOe0b»b»e4OOr-C^00C0a»WdrHQ0Wa
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ipOO00C^OOG4M»Ck
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82 GENERAL REMARKS ON STRENGTHS, ETO.
To determine the area of any port, pipe, passage, &c., for any given
speed of piston, —Divide the area of the cylinder by the number found
in the proper column opposite the given piston speed, and quotient will
be area required.
GENERAL REMARKS ON STRENGTHS, &c
The dimensions and proportions given for the various details of
engines, in this and succeeding secBons, are in all cases such as
experience has shown to give satisfactory results, both as regards
stinness, strength, and durability. Where weight is not an important
consideration the various parts may be made heavier, but with good
material this is unnecessary ; on the other hand, they may be, and are
sometimes, made lighter, — as in very high-speed Naval vessels,— but
in such cases the increased risk of breakdown, and wear and tear when
working at full power, are understood, and accepted as the price paid
for reduction in weight. Such ships, however, do not run often or for
long periods at full power.
CYLINDER BARRELS.
Cylinder barrels should be made of good sound cast-iron, at least
twice melted, and of the thicknesses given by the following rules : —
Rule 39. T = -^ (;? + 50) + '2 ; for cylinders fitted with liners.
Rule 39a. T = — — (p + 50) + '4 ; for cylinders without liners.
Where T is thickness of barrel, and D diameter of cylinder, both in
inches; and |7 is maximum pressure in cylinder, — the values of which
are assumed to be as follows : —
For H.P. cylinders of Triple and Quadruple
engines, ^= boiler pressure.
H.P. ,, Compound ,, j9= boiler pressure +20.
, Triple ,, p=*6 boiler pressure.
, Quadruple ,, jo-7x
M.P.
M.P.I
M.P.2
L.P.
L.P.
LP.
► ='45x
M n l?=-45x „
Compound , , p='5x (boiler pressure + 20).
Triple ,, p='Z7 x boiler pressure.
Quadruple ,, p='3x „
It is also assumed, as previously stated, that compound engines work
at pressure between 70 lbs. and 120 lbs. ; Triple engines between 120
lbs. and 180 lbs. ; and Quadruple engines between 180 lbs. and 240 lbs.
For working pressure of 160 lbs. the formula may be reduced to the
forms given at tne heads of the columns in the following Table, which
is calculated in accordance with them, for 180 lbs. : —
OTLIHDBB SABRBU. 83
Table XXXI.— CfUnder Barrels of Triple Engines (i8o lbs.).
iw*,-..^,,.,,, x;3-,,{:j5p«„.
!SS!.
VslDMOIr. 1
B.P.
I.P.
Irlpla.
111 LP.
<)n»drupl«.
oS5;
uv.
100 lb>.
IflO „
200 .,
1
X
)
1
2-2
2-B
2-! 5
i-7
1-76
a"
3'«
2-B
t
6-66
7-5
OTLINDBR BAROBLS.
*l
Thick. Id iDohx, wiTBonr u
79
^
05
I't'
ID
as
fii
{^
m
U4
S'/i.
For the vsTj liaht nuehinaiy of Torpedo boats and Destroyera, the
thicknegses of oylioderB for triple eDKiafB woiking Rt pressursa of 220
to 260 lbs. may be as ahowD in tbo following Table : —
Table XXXIII.-Cylinder Barrels of Torpedo Boats
and Destroyers.
Uamaler
H.F.
U.P.
LP. 1
Thkkneu In Inohei.
Thickoe.! in luchu
!!.+■*■
.»+■«-
■G0
'A*
15
•71
■fiS
20
■84
■64
-68
I-
2G
■96
•71
■62
SO
1-09
\'^*
■77
■6fl
"A.
85
1'31
■88
•71
(0
■SO
a
45
1 -86
•79
EO
96
1
■84
I?"
OILINDBR LINEKB, 85
Ths miitaTa of iron for cjlindora of this typ« must, of conrse, ba of «
very apwiftl character, aod should cantain a good proportion of beat
oold-blut iron.
For thicknesses of cylinder bairela for oscillating engine! BM page SB.
The barrels of all cjHnders, but eapeciallj the L.P., are improved by
the addition of external eliffening ribs or rings ; these may hare *
thiokQesa of 1*6 x tbickoess of barrel, and may gland '7G x thickness of
barrel above the surface, whilst they may be pitched about 12 x thick-
ness of barrel apart
CYLINDER LINERS.
Cast-iron cylinder liners should be of thickness given by the rale, —
where T is thickness, and D diameter, both in inches, and p has the
nine values as given in section on cylinder barrels, above.
The following Table is calculated by means of the above formula,
for liners of triple engines working at 160 Iba. pressure i —
Table XXXIV.— Cast-iron Cylinder Liners
(iBo lbs.)
u
Thlckne^lnlncbea
1^
[lilckneM In Inches.
S3
10
H.P.
H.F.
M.P. 1
LP 1
,
r(i2
IS
■20
re
1G
70
1-71
■H'
20
Vfll
"4,
1-81
1"^;
■U
26 !l-06
i'/,.
)
80
i"^.
■M
iMf
80 I-IE
)
R5
■fit
35 rSE
40 l'<7
L-ia IK
'S.
Hfi
■7;
IK
IG !l-61
11)1)
■HI
l"y4.
GO 17B
\m
■n>
GG 1-St
i«
'H
iin
1"^.
60 2-OS
1-G2] 114
IJi
B should ba of thickness given by
When of forged steal, cylinder lini
Rid.,.. T-..|jj»5(,+50)|f.
where all symbols have same meanings as above.
Table XXXV. is calculated by means of this formula, for Uners of
ttlpl« engines working at ISO lb*, presmra.
86
OYLINDBR ENDS AND COVERS.
Table XXXV.— Forged steel Cylinder Liners (i8o lbs.).
Diam. of
cylinder
Thickness in inches.
in inches.
H.P.
M.P.
L.P.
20
•75
%
25
•87
%
30
•98
1
•77
*Vis
35
MO
1%
•86
%
■
40
121
IYa
•93
''A.
45
188
iVi.
1^01
1
•88
K
50
1^44
iVi.
1-09
1%
•89
'K.
55
1-55
IM.
1-17
i»X.
•95
1
60
1-66
l'V4s
1^25
134
1-01
IVI.
65
1-83
1%.
1-07
IM.
70
1^41
VA.
1-12
75
149
1%
1-18
I'X.
80
1-67
IM.
1-24
IH
85
1-30
i'A,
90
1*36
iH
95
1^42
VA,
100
1-48
105
1-54
1%.
110
1^60
For liners of horizontal cylinders the above thicknesses may be
increased by ^/ig-inch.
For steel liners the piston packing rings should be of hard bron ze, as it has
been found to work more satisfactorily than cast iron with the forged steel.
For cylinder liners of engines working at pressures oyer 200 Iba per
D , ... 1 . D
for
6500
(jp+50) in Roles
square inch, substitute tqaqIp + ®^) ^ Ta
41 and 42.
CYLINDER ENDS AND COVERa
In most engines the cylinder end has, in addition to supporting the
uniformly distributed load due to the steam pressure, to take the more
or less locally applied pull of the frames or columns, and distribute it
to the barrel ; and the yarious ribs or webs must therefore be carefidly
arranged to effect this.
When tiie L.P. diameter is over 70 inches, it is desirable to make
the end double, and this must of course be done for any die when
steam jackets are required.
The double bottom adds considerably to the weight of a cylinder,
as the inner metal must still be made stirong enough to stand all local
shock and strain ; and it increases the risk of unsoundness in the
casting.
In Jnaval work the double bottom is frequently dispensed with, on
account of its weight ; but owing to the use of the eonical or " diihed "
CYLINDER BNDS AND COVBRS. 87
steel piston, the cylinder end can also be dished, and is thus given
such additional structural strength that L.P. cylinders are commonly
made with single ends up to 90 inches diameter.
Table XXXYI. gives the thicknesses of single and double cylinder
ends for triple engines working at 180 lbs. pressure, the following con-
ditions being assumed : —
(a) The over-all depth or thickness of a double end is not leas
than five times that of the metal given in the table.
(b) In a single end, the total depth of the central ring (forming
the hole for boring-bar) is not less than 5^ times the thick-
ness of end given in the table.
(<;) The nnmber, strengths, and positions of webs, &c., are as
customary in "average" practice for two, three, or four
columns or frame attachments.
As much depends on (c) the Table and rules from which it is calculated
must be used with judgment, and checked by tibe rule for flat surfaces
given on page 90.
The rules from which Table XXXYI. is calculated are, —
Rule 43. Thickness of single cylinder end= *85 x/.
Rule 45a. Thickness of double cylinder end = 7 =/,
where /is thickness of barrel (columns 8, 10, and 12, Table XXXI.)
+ -25 in.
88
TABLB XXXVl. — GTLINDBR ENDS AND COVERS.
I
a
o
I
o
U
S
"a
•c
•3
a
u
0)
.g
u
o
^
I
h4
I
I
I
1^
I
a
a
i
I
1
i
1
I
Q
1
i
I
, ^^ ^^ ^^ ^^ T** rH F^ ^^ ^^ ^^
rHr-ti-HrHr-ifHrHi-Hi-Hr-trHi-HvH04C4C4O9
fH fH ^4 IH Al |1h 1^ Al A^ Ai Ah 1^ |1| C4 04 G4 C4
• • • vr'NT*
OOr-lOOOtDIOOO(NrHOOO^O«Oe4
«p r<» 00 00 Oft O rH Ci 00 ^ <<« U3 «p ^ 00
_ • •
vHrHr-li-HrHfHr-<iHfHiH(N04<N
t>»000kOr-l(Ne0-^>O<D^00Op-iM
• •••••••••• T^ • m »
IH 1^ fH l-« »-l ,-1 l-l •"! rH W « «
• • •
• • • •Nr4Nf4NP«
t»000)Or-(eO-^kOtOOOa»
•d
DQ
5« ;;^:;^;:<;;^s^j^::<i:^i<
r^f-HiHf-HrHf-HiHO>ie9e9
qoorH(N'^ior«>aoOr-iOO
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s
C3
53
o
CO
a
OQ
B
CO
t3
OQ
.9
a
■
l^lal
OiOOkOO^OtOOlOOlOOkOOiOOiOOiOO
r-4t-IO4O4eOM<4«'^tOkO«0«Ot<«&>.OOOOa»OftOOiH
1-1 i-l 1-i I
CYLINDER VALVE BOXES, PORTS, BTO. 89
The practice of making the inner metal of double bottoms and covers
a little heavier than the outer in large cylinders is reasonable, the
inner metal may be made ^Xe'^i^ch thicker than shown in TablOi and the
outer Vie -inch lighter than table.
Covers are now often made single and well ribbed both in cast iron
and steel ; the ribs of the larger covers have bulb or T edges. Single
covers should be of thickness given by, —
Rule 44. Thickness of single cylinder cover= *77 x/;
and for double covers, ^-
Rule 44a. Thickness of double cylinder cover = '65 x/;
similar general conditions beivg assumed, as in the case of cylinder
ends.
A sufficiently close approximation to these thicknesses, for triple
engines working at 180 lbs. pressure, may be obtained by multiplying
the thicknesses given in Table XXXVI. for cylinder ends by *95.
In large covers and bottoms there should be no lack of strength in
the central ring which surrounds the stuffing-box or manhole in the
one case, and the boring hole in the other ; it should have the same
thickness as the metal of the cover or end, and good round corners
formed by its junction with the metals of the bottom or cover, and of
the various webs.
Very light cylinders, of the type referred to in Table XXXIII., are
better made with loose covers for both ends, the thicknesses of which
should be as follows : —
Rule 45. Thickness of end covers = '5 x/j ;
where /i is the thickness of cylinder barrel (from Table XXXIII.)
+ '25 inch.
They should be made of the same special iron as the barrels, and
should each have from 6 to 12 deep stiffening ribs, the mean thickness
of which (they should have ^le-^ich taper for moulding) may be
^Xe'inch less than that of the cover.
CYLINDER VALVE BOXES, PORTS, &c.
0
The casings, ports, passages, &c., for piston slide-valves should be
made of thicknesses given by, —
Rule 46. Thickness of piston valve casing = *8 x/ ;
and when flat slide-valves are used the thicknesses of casings may
be, —
90 OTLTNDBR VALVE BOXES, PORTS, ETC.
Rule 47. Thickness of valve casing ='7x/;
/ having, in both cases, the same value as above.
It will be noted that the latter value ( *7 x/) is the same as for metal
of double ends, the thicknesses of which (for triple engines working at
180 lbs. pressure) are given in Table XXXVI.
It must be remembered that in the case of valve casings, as in that
of cylinder ends, a very great deal depends on the number, size, and
arrangement of stiffening webs, and the following rule should therefore
be used in conjunction with the Table : —
Rule for flat surfaces. — All flat surfaces should be stiffened by webs
or stays of some form, whose distance apart should not exceed, —
Rule 48. Pitch in inches = /^>^0 ;
V p
where t is the thickness in 16ths of an inch, p the pressure in pounds
per square inch on the surface, and 0 equals 54 for cast iron, and 120
for cast steel. S&e also Table CXXXIX.
These webs should be of the same thickness as the flat surface, and
their depth at least 2*5 times the thickness.
When flat slide-valves are used the thickness of the metal which
separates the steam ports from the steam chest or receiver, and from
the exhaust port, should be in accordance with the following rule, —
it being understood that the ports of large cylinders are so divided by
webs that no section or compartment exceeds 20 inches in width : —
Rule 49. Thickness of steam passage metal = '65 xf,
where/ has the same value as before.
These thicknesses (for triple engines working at 180 lbs. pressure)
may be obtained with sufficient accuracy by multiplying the figures
found in columns 8 and 12 of Table XXXVI. by '95.
The slide-valve faces of cylinders, when a false face is fitted, should
be made of thickness given by the rule, —
Rule 5a Thickness of cylinder valve-face (when a false face
is fitted) = -8 x/,
and when no false face is used the rule becomes, —
Rule 50a. Thickness of cylinder valve-face (when no false face
is used)='9x/.
False faces of hard cast iron may have a thickness, —
Rule 51. Thickness of cast-iron false face= *75 x/.
0A8T-STBBL CYLINDER COVERS.
91
CAST-STEEL CYLINDER COVERS.
For a flat plate secured round the edge after the manner of a cylinder
cover, but yet not quite encastr^, the formula may be written, —
'J
3r^
4/
(a)
where t is the thickness in inches ; r the radius of the cylinder, — also
in inches ; p the maximum pressure on cover in lbs. per square inch
above atmosphere ; and/ the greatest permissible stress per square inch
on the material. When a suitable value of / has been inserted, and
a small constant quantity (necessary for practical reasons) added, this
becomes, —
Rule 52.
i
-J
8r^
160,000
+ •25,
which gives the thickness (very nearly) of steel cylinder covers of the
single type, ribbed as directed below, and coned to suit steel pistons,
made in accordance with formulae and Table given on pages 106, 108.
For steel covers of triple engines, working at 180 lbs. pressure, this
formula (after reduction and further slight adjustment of constant)
takes the forms given at heads of columns in following Table : —
Table XXXVIL— Cast-Steel Cylinder Covers.
DU. of
cylfnder
H.P.
M.P.
L.P.
Thick, in inches
No. Of
ribs
Thick, in Inches
No. of
rib%
Thick, in inchefl
No. of
ribs
inindMS,
^-
D+20
6
5
i+-
D+20
J5 + -42.
100^
D+20
0
7-6
10
•52
M.
•52
*A*
4
•52
!<•
4
20
•79
^t
7
•70
%
6
•62
5
80
1-07
9
•87
%
7
•72
%
6
40
1-85
\%
10
1-05
iM.
8
•82
%
7
50
1-63
i«
12
1-23
ly*
10
•92
"/«•
8
60
1*91
i"X.
14
1-41
l'^
11
1-02
IM.
9
70
•••
...
1^59
194
12
112 '
IVs
10
80
••«
•••
1-77
l"^
14
1-22
1%
12
90
••*
•••
#••
•«.
...
1^32
i»/«
13
100
••.
•••
>• •
•••
•«.
142
iVi*
14
110
•••
•••
• • •
«••
...
1-52
1%.
16
For higher pressures multiply the thickness given by a/ T?n' ^ ^^i'^g
thepressnre.
like thickness of the ribs may be ^9 x thickness of cover.
92 OAST-IRON VALYB BOX OOVBBS.
The steeper cone of the H.P. cover undonbtedly gives it considerable
additional strenjzth, but its greater liability to shock and strain from
the presence of water may be considered as almost balancing the
account.
CASTIRON VALVE BOX COVERS.
Where these are circular, as in the case of covers for piston- valve
boxes, a modification of the formula (a) given above may be again
employed ; the nature of the material renders the addition of a larger
constant quantity necessary, and provision must be made for stiffness
in L. P. covers by adding a constant to the pressure also. The formula
may then be written, —
Rule 53. ^-V 4x45,000 "^ ^'
This will be found to give practically the same results as Rule 44a
and Table XXXVI., and may be used in their place for cylinder covers,
if preferred.
These covers should be stiffened by radial ribs which may have
a thickness of *9 x thickness of cover, and a depth at centre of
8*5 X thickness of cover, — the outer edge of rib being a curve of the
parabolic type when the cover is flat
It will often happen that a cover can be made more or less curved,
or dished one way or the other, and this should always be done
where possible, — as the whole cover may then be made lighter.
The number of ribs may be the same as for cast-iron pistons (see
Table XLVII.).
When weight-shaft brackets, or slide-rod guides, are attached
to these covers, they must, of course, be made proportionately
stronger.
For rectangular doors consisting of a single flat plate of metal of
thickness (0, stiffened by ribs, the greatest section of which is not less
than (8 X 0 X (*00) and which are spaced in accordance with Rule 48
(page 90), the formula is,—
Rule 54. . t=^^EEEMM+-6 ... (6)
where ^= thickness in inches.
d= breadth within flanges of valve-boxes, in inches.
j^ Length*
"~ Length* -h breadth*
^=max. pressure in lbs. per sq. inch to which door is subject.
c= 70,000 for single doors.
c= 450,000 for double doors (see next paragraph).
When the door is rectangular and of the double type — consistiue of
two equal thicknesses of metal tied together and locally stiffenea by
JOINTS OF OYLINDBR OOVEBS, BTO. 93
ribs, in conformity with Rule 48 — the over-all thickness of the door at
centre should not be less than — or es span^ ^^^ ^^^ outer surface
5
may be curved in both directions, like a "hog-back" girder. When
these conditions are complied with, the formula (b), given above, will
give the thickness of either the outer or inner metal if the value
c = 450, 000 be employed.
Large doors of this type, when fitted to Naval engines, are commonly
made in cast steel. When this material is used the over-all thickness
of door at centre may be — 2L_?^?[E?5, and the following variant of
the above formula (b) may be used to determine thickness of metal : —
Rule 54a. t^JEEEIS2m^-25.
^ V 250,000
A convenient method of saving some space and weight, in con-
nection vnth doors of this type, is to slightly increase the thickness of
the inner metal, and make sufficient openings at the ends, to allow of
the door itself being utilised as a passage for the steam from one end
of the valve-box to the other.
JOINTS OF CYLINDER COVERS, ETC.
As the widths and thicknesses of flanges should vary directly as the
diameter of the stud employed, it is best when designing a joint ta fix
this diameter first.
In fixing the diameter of stud the three following conditions must
be satisfied : —
,, V Total load on cover , .
(1) must not
Efiective area of I stud x No. of studs
exceed value given in Table XLIII.
Rule 55. — (2) The diameter of stud should not exceed '8 x thick-
ness of flange ; and the thickness of flange should not
exceed 1 '5 x thickness of metal to which it is attached.
Rule 56.— (3) The pitch of the studs should not be less than
diameter X 3*6 (to give room for spanner).
When no water test is required a pitch of 6 diameters is often used
for L.P. doors, &c.
The diameter is usually arrived at by a rough process of trial and
error, as studs and bolts must be of standard size.
94 OTLINDBR RBLIBF OR B80APB YALVBS.
Rule 57. — The width of joint may be from diameter x 2*3 to 8,
but — unless weight is of the greatest importance — it should not be
less than diameter x 2 '8.
The thickness of cover flange may be from 1 to 1 '3 x diameter.
The limit which the pitch should in no case exceed is given by the
rule, —
Rule 58. Maximum pitch in inchesB ./-^
100
where t is the thickness of cover or door flange in sixteenths of an inch,
SLudp the pressure in pounds per square inch, on the cover.
For covers of cast steel the co-efficient in the above rule may be 1 20
in place of 100.
It is not necessary that studs should always carry the full load
allowed by Table XL!., and it is sometimes convenient to load them
much more lightly when it is desired to use the same size of stud for
all the covers in connection with a set of cylinders.
Where bolts are used, as in the case of a steam joint between two
cylinders, the thickness of the flanges should be about diameter of
bolt X 1 '25, and not exceed 1 '5 x (thickness of metal to which flange
is attached) ; the width of the joint is, of course, also increased by an
amount equal to about *6 of the thickness of that metal.
CYLINDER RELIEF OR ESCAPE VALVES.
Rule 59« — For the L.P. cylinder these should have a diameter of
about one-fifteenth the diameter of the cylinder ; for the H. P.
cylinder, where priming water may have to be dealt with, the pro-
portion may be one-eleventh ; and for the M.P. cylinder, an inter-
mediate proportion of say one-thirteenth.
In horizontal engines there should be at least one valve at each end
of each cylinder — (the Admiralty requirement was two valves at each
end of each cylinder)— and in vertical engines there should be one at
each end of the H.P. cylinders, and one at the bottom of each of the
others.
The following Table of sizes of Relief- valves is calculated to give
about the above-named proportions, but the nearest half-inch is given
in most cases — as it is neither usual nor necessary to make patterns for
every quarter of an inch.
BBOBIYBR SAFETY VALYBS.
95
Table XXXVI 1 1. -Cylinder ReUef Valves.
Dia. of
cylinder.
IMa. of Belief ViUve in Idb.
IHa. of
cylinder.
l>ia. of AeUef Tali
-einloa.
H.P.
M.P.
LP.
H.P.
M.P.
L.P.
15
1%
• • •
• ••
65
6
5
4^
20
2
1%
• ••
70
• • •
6%
4^
25
2^
2
1%
75
• • •
6
5
30
2%
254
2
80
«• •
6
6K
35
3
2K
2%
85
6V,
6
40
3%
8
2%
90
For valves over
45
4
3H
3
95
5 ins. dia.
6;/a
7
50
4ya
4
3K
100
fit two valves
55
5
«K
8i4
105
of equivalent
60
6%
4%
4
110
area.
7Va
The H.P. and L.P. oolnmns are equally applicable to the cylioden
of Componnd, Triple, and Qnadmple engines.
It is very desirable that all relief-valves should be fitted with gnard
rings, or other suitable appliances, to prevent thoughtless screwing up
of uie springs whenever a slight leakage occurs.
In confined engine-rooms it is also desirable to have light pipes
iitted io convey any water that may escape down to the crank-pits or
bilge.
For methods of calculating strengths and proportions of springs see
Board of Trade Rules for Springs.
RECEIVER SAFETY VALVES.
For small and medium sized cylinders (up to 60 inches diameter
Bay), these may be of the same size and pattern as the cylinder relief-
vaives, — i.e.f L.P. receiver valve same as L.P. cylinder valve, and so
on ; but this rule makes the mlves unnecessarily laree for larger
eylinders, and more appropriate sizes are giv^en by the rule, —
Rule 6o.
Di^neter f Recei^r safety Va.^ . V^-H-^t^ae.
DRAIN VALVES, OR COCKS, FOR CYLINDERS,
RECEIVERS, ETC.
These should be of the proportions given by the following Table : —
96
STARTING, PASS, OR AUXILIARY VALYB8.
Table XXXIX.- Drain Valves.
Diameter of Cylinder
or L.P. Cylinder, If
Oompoond, Triple, ^ka
Diameter
of yalve
or cock.
Diameter of Cylinder
or L.P. Cylinder, if
Compound, Triple, <fcc.
Diameter
of valve
or cock.
Up to 10*
11 to 15*
16 to 80*
81 to 46'
ffm
1*
46 to 60*
61 to 76"
76 to 90*
Above 90*
In Gompoand, Triple, and Quadruple engines, the valyes or cocka
in connection with the H.P. and M.P. cylinders, should be of the same
size as those for L. P. cylinder.
All pipes from H.P. and M.P. drain valves should be led to hot- well
or feed tank, and should be fitted with self-acting non-return valves to
prevent water getting back into cylinders. The pipes from L.P. drain
valves should oe led to the condenser, and also be fitted with non-
return valves.
The drainage from the steam jackets should be collected in suitable
vessels (each fitted with a gauge glass), and then led away to the hot-
well or feed tank. The pipes should be fitted with adjustable screw-
down valves, placed in sight of the gauge glasses, and within easy
reach of the attendants.
Reversing engine drains should be led to the condenser, and fitted
with non-return valves ; but the drainage from other auxiliary engines
is better led into the bilges, as it always contains a large percentage
of oil.
Bach steam jacket must have its own separate adjustable drain-
valve, but the cylinder and receiver drains may be, to a certain extent,
grouped, or led into common pipes so as to reduce the number of valves
on hot-well or feed tank, and condenser.
Drain cocks of suitable sizes should be fitted to every pipe, passage,
or place where water can lodge, so that, when engines are ootd, they
may be quite free from water.
STARTING, PASS, OR AUXILIARY VALVE&
In small Paddle engines it is usual to arrange the slide-valves to be
worked by hand, and starting valves are therefore unnecessary.
In larger low-pressure Paddle engines, where the valves are driven
by double eccentrics and links, the cuts-off are so late that starting-
valves are not rec^uired.
Compound engines, with cuts-off at about six- tenths of the stroke,
would occasionallv be unhandv without some means of admitting
steam to one of the cylinders utter than the main slide allowa, and
COLUMN FBBT AND BOLTS.
97
starting valves should therefore be fitted to the L.P. cylinders so that
steam may be admitted into either side of piston.
Triple engines, with three cranks, require only a small valve to
admit steam to each receiver ; the valves should be raised from their
seats by means of levers acting on the spindles, and should be held
shut by small spiral springs in addition to the pressure of the steam.
The steam supply should be taken from the boiler side of the
regulator value, and may be about one- fifth the diameter of the main
steam pipe.
COLUMN FEET AND BOLTS.
Great care should be exercised in designing these feet, for through
them the load due to the steam pressure on the cover is transmitted ;
as the load is always applied suddenly, very ample section of metal
should be provided to sustain it
Rule 6i. — The area of section through these feet should be such that
the stress does not exceed 600 lbs. per square inch.
The webs from the flanges of the feet should be well spread over the
cylinder bottom and towards Uie sides, so as to distribute the strain.
Rule 62. The bolts connecting the cylinder to the columns or
frames should be such that the stress on them does not exceed 4000
lbs. per square inch of area at the bottom of the thread, and when
there are a large number, of comparatively small size, it should not
exceed 3000 lbs. per square inch.
See also Table XLIII., page 103, for loads that bolts may carry.
The maximum or initial pressure should be used in calculating these
stresses.
The feet should always be formed so as to permit of bolts being
used (not studs), and two at least, in each foot, should be a driving
fit
GENERAL REMARKS ON CYLINDERS.
Where weight is of great importance, as in Naval machinery, it is a
common practice to shorten the cylinder, and form the port in the
Fio. 9a.
d8 OfiKtiRAL RSliARKS ON CYLINDERS.
oover, as shown in Fig. 9, — the more ordinary plan being shown by
Fig. 9a.
Another method of saving weight, sometimes practised in connection
with very light machinery, is to lead the exhaust steam through
the relief-ring on the back of the L.P. valve, thus doing away with
the exhaust port in the cylinder face, and shortening the slide valve
and casing to that extent.
The comers of ports, both in false faces and in cylinder faces,
should be well rounded, as the castings are very apt to crack if they
are made quite square.
Steel screw-stays may be used with advantage to strengthen tho
various ports and passages in cylinder castings.
Where a false face is secured by the usual * ' cheese-headed ** screws,
a certain measure of relief may be given to the slide-valve, and the
lubrication improved, by connecting the recesses by small grooves cut
in the face.
Horizontal Cylinders.
Horizontal cylinder barrels should always be stiffened by rings, and
when the valve-box is on top — two strong ribs running up from each
foot to the flange of the valve-box door, to prevent deformation of
those portions of the barrel lying between the foot brackets and the
valve-box, each of a thickness of *8 x thickness of barrel, and stand
out 2 X thickness of barrel. Similar ribs should also be carried round
under the bottom of the cylinder from foot to foot.
In bolting horizontal cylinders down to the seatings, fitted bolts
should be used at the front ends only — sufficient clearance being
allowed in the other bolt holes to permit the expansion of the
cylinder.
Oscillating Cylinders.
In oscillating engines, weicht is generally of great importance ; the
cylinder barrels are common^ made rather lighter than if the thick-
ness were determined bv the rules given (page 82). This reduction
is rendered possible bv the absence of any strains communicated from
the framing to the cylinder, and by the great stiffness imparted to the
barrel by the steam and exhaust belts, &o., and their accompanying
ribs. The H.P. cylinders of compound oscillating engines should be
of the thickness given by the following formula : —
Rule 63, Thickness of H.P. cylinder barrel=-^ (p+50)-*-*46
*^ "^ 6760
inch, where D is diameter of cylinder in inches, and p boiler
pressure.
The formula also gives the thickness of barrel for the L.P. cylinders
of compound engines, and for the cylinders of simple engines working
at 30 to 85 lbs. per square inch, if ^ be taken as 25. The above
thicknesses are for cylindei-s without liners.
The trunnions should be all of the same diameter throughout,
whether engines are simple or compound, and must, of course, be large
enough to allow proper area for exhaust This plan allows of an
OLBABANCB OF PISTON.
99
annular air space between the steam pipe and the outer or working
surface of the trunnion, and so gives a comparatively cool bearing.
The area of section where the trunnion joins the cylinder barrel
should be such that the value of the expression, —
Rule 64.
Max. effective pressure x area of piston + weight of cylinder in lbs.
2 X area of section
does not exceed 500 ; i,e. the shearing stress should not exceed 500
lbs. per square inch.
A length of trunnion of about *4 of the diameter will usually give
a satisfactory amount of surface, but the area should be such that the
pressure per square inch (excluding pressure due to weight of
cylinder) does not exceed 850 lbs. A safe proportion, which should
always be obtained where possible, is given by, —
Rule 61: Max. effective pressure x area of piston __ „qq
2 X diameter of trunnion x length of same ""
A very strong attachment of trunnion is obtained by making the
outer cylinder of barrel form, and arranging the steam and exhaust
belts between it and the inner cylinder or liner.
The valve faces should not be at right angles to the line joining
valve-spindle and piston-rod centres, but angled so that the side
next the steam entrance is nearer to the cylinder barrel than the
opposite or exhaust side ; this will bring the centre of valve-spindle
as close in to the cylinder as possible, whilst allowing free way for
the exhaust,
The receivers of compound oscillating engines are commonly
formed around the H. P. cylinder, between the inner cylinder or liner
and the outer shell to which the trunnions are attached. This
method has the accompanying advantage of making the outer
cylinders more nearly of a size.
CLEARANCE OF PISTON.
The following Table shows the axial clearances required in cylinders
of the various £ameters mentioned.
Table XL. — Piston Clearances (axial).
Diameter
of Cylinder.
Clearances.
Diameter
of Cylinder.
Clearances.
Crank
end.
Cover
end.
Crank
end.
Cover
•od.
Up to 14"
15 to 20"
21 to 40"
41 to 60"
%"
%"
34"
%"
61 to 80"
81 to 100"
Above 100"
%"
"X."
1"
%"
%"
100
STUFFING BOXES, BTO.
STUFFING BOXES, ETC.
Table XLI.— Stu£Bng-boxes for elastic packing. (Fig. lo.)
STUFFING BOXKB, BTO.
The iridtl) of paakjng apace (B) K>Ten in atioTe Table aaannifa thet
all glands are of ^u-mebtl, bb is uenal in naTal practice ; if it ii
acaat
iioD gland mar be DWd up to 1 U^ dia. of iDd
» " * " »
:; :: 5": ;;
WK" „
Tlie siieB of atuds for rods of G^ Inches diameter and upvarda an
fixed on the aaramptioo tbat pinion nnta and toothed linp will
ilwa^ bowed.
102
STRENGTH, ETC., OF STUDS AND BOLTS.
Table XLIL— Stuffing:-boxes for Metallic Packing. (Fig:, ii.)
k.
B.
c.
D.
h.
a.
d
DlAineter
Width of
Diameter
of
box,
l-IA+l-2e
Depth of
metallic
packing.
2VA+-S.
Width of
Diameter
Depth of
elastic
of
rod.
pmcUng
qwce.
packing
space.
of
boi.
paddng,
1 +>•«•
8
1
5
4
%
454
254
8%
1
654
454
%
*%
254
8^
1
6%
4/4
%
6
254
8%
1
6%
4%
%
654
2%
4
1
6
454
%
654
2X
4%
1
654
4?4
%
6%
254
4H
IH
6%
454
%
6
2$4
5
IH
754
5
K
654
2%
6%
i}6
7%
554
%
7
2%
6
1%
8H
S54
%
754
8
6%
154
9
5%
%
8
S54
7
1%
954
5%
%
854
854
7%
l«
1054
6
%
954
854
8
1%
10%
6%
X
9%
8X
8K
IX
1154
6X
%
1054
8%
9
1%
12
6M
1
11
3»
dH
IH
1254
6%
1
1154
4
10
IH
18
7
1
12
454
For the sake of uniformity the H.P., M.P., and L.P. stuffing-boxes
of triple engines are commonly made all of the same depth.
STRENGTH, &c., OF STUDS AND BOLTS.
As small bolts and studs are subject to severe wrenching, especially
by careless hands, the nominal tensile working stress on them must be
much less than with larger ones and may increase as the bolts are
bigger.
The Table is based on the relation, — and the loads given should not
be exceeded.
Working stress per sq. in. = (Area at bottom of thread) " x C ;
where C = 5000 for iron or mild steel, and 1000 for strong bronzes.
For iron or steel bolts above 2 inches in diameter, and gun-metal or
bronze ones above 3^4 inches diameter, the moment of the twisting
stress is so small, proportionately, that it may be neglected.
104
BTBBNGTH, ETO., OF STUDS AND BOLTS.
When iron or steel stnds are used in connection with gun-metal
steam or water valves, ko, , they must not be allowed to penetrate into
the steam or water space, or they will rapidly corrode ana come loose.
The part of a stud that is screwed into the work should be : —
Rule 66, Not less than IJ diameters long when screwed into cast-
iron, and 1^ diameters when not inconvenient.
Not less than 1 diameter long when screwed into gun-metal,
wrought-iron, or cast-steel.
The general dimensions, numbers of threads, &c., for bolts and nuts
given in Table XLIV. are in accordance with the Whitworth Standard,
and the sizes over flats and angles are the nearest sixteenth to the
same.
The proportions of the Whitworth Standard thread are shown by
Fig. 12.
T
J...
Fig. 12.
STRENGTH, ETC., OP STUDS AND BOLTS.
105
Table XLIV.— Dimensions of Nuts, Bolts, &c.
Height
Bead
Head
of head
No. of
Area at
Thick.
Sin Of
DU.of
Bod nut
and not
Height
lor
threads
bottom of
of
spUt-
Bolt.
over
over
of nut.
•orewf
per
thread in
check.
pin
lUto.
aDglei.
and
boltc
inch.
sq. inches.
nnt.
L.S.O.
}4
H
%
%
•X.
20
•027
•X.
No. 14
%
"X.
•M.
%
•x.
16
•068
)4
„ 18
H
••/..
iM.
%
'X.
12
•121
X
» 12
%
IK
154
•X.
11
•208
'X.
n 11
%
!•/..
1%
%
"X.
10
'808
•X.
>, 10
%
IH
i"/i.
%
%
9
•421
X
n 9
1
i"X.
i"/4.
1
h
8
•554
X
» 8
IH
i»
2%
1)4
1
7
•697
"X.
>. 7
W*
2M.
2«
1)4
1*X.
7
•894
"X.
» 6
IX
2'X.
2M.
IX
I'X.
6
1^059
I'X.
»i 6
IH
2'/4.
2"/4,
1^
I'X.
6
1-800
IX
i> ^
1%
2»/4,
3
*1X
I'X.
5
1-471
l.i
M 8
1%
2%
8M,
1%
1*X.
5
1^752
» 2
IK
8
8H
IX
4%
1-986
IX
» 1
2
8H
89i
2
1^
*i4
2-811
1)4
M 1
2%
8»X.
4M.
2)4
2
4
2-925
•X.
«H
8%
*%
2)4
2Me
4
8-782
•X.
2%
*'X.
*"X.
2%
2^X.
8%
4-468
X
8
«K
6)4
8
2X
3%
5-449
8)4
4%
6X
8)4
2^ Me
8%
6-406
%
l^
6'X.
6
8)4
8)4
7-672
'X.
8%
6*/4.
0%
8X
8%
8
8-656
'X.
4
B"X.
«»
4
8^
8
10-026
X
*)4
6X
7H
4)4
8%
2»
11-370
4^
«"X.
7»
4)4
8^*X.
2^
12-913
•X.
i%
7%
8'X.
4%
4%
2%
14-418
•X.
6
7>M.
9
6
4X
2%
16-145
X
The heads of all ordinary screws and bolts should be made hexagonal,
and of the same size over flats as the corresponding nuts.
Ail check-nuts should be chamfered on both sides.
^ Set-screws that are frequently handled, such as those in the lock-
ings on the yarious larse nuts, should haye s^fuare heads, and should
either be of hard steel or should haye theur heads properly case-
hardened.
Whereyer a square nut is used about the engines in place of a hexa-
gon, care should be taken that it is made of the same size as some nut
over flats, as otherwise much trouble and annoyance are often caused
106 PISTONS.
PISTONS.
For the case of a circular flat plate, supported at centre, and nni-
formly loaded, the formula may be written, —
^=OxDvF;
where <= thickness, and D diameter, — both in inches; p=effeciiYe
pressure (or greatest difference of pressures on the two sides) ; and C
a co-efficient.
Cast-steel Pistons.— These are made of a single thickness of metal,
and should be coned, or ** dished,'' to get the necessary rigidity. The
three pistons of an ordinary triple engine may all be made of the
same total depth, which should be such that the slope of the face of
L. P. piston next crankshaft is about 1 in 3 ; this will give a perfectly
rigid piston, and will also give room for a properly proportioned
piston-rod stuffing-box.
The thickness near boss, for a piston of this type, is given very
nearly by the above formula, when 0= '0046 ; that is, —
Rule 67. «=-0046DV^ . . . (a).
For practical reasons, however, the addition of a small constant
quantity, and other slight modifications, are necessary, and the
formulae for the pistons of triple engines working at about 180 lbs.
pressure, and of compound engines working at about 100 lbs. pressure
(since p will have practically the same values in both cases) will be, —
For H.P. pistons, t==^+'2i (value ofp about 90) ;
23
For M.P. pistons, t= -- + '40 (value of ^ about 60) ;
L.P. do., <=^+ -48 (value of|? about 30).
For triple engines working at 250 lbs. pressure use Rule 67, or
equivalent formulee with constant additions similar to the above,
and put values ofp at 150, 80, and SO.
The thicknesses near the edge, or rim, should be, —
Rule 68. For H.P. pistons, '65 x thickness near boss ;
M.P. do., '60 X do. do.
L.P. do., *65x do. do.
PISTONS. 107
For the pistons of quadraple, or other engines, similar modifications of
the general formula (a) above may be employed.*
Table XLV. is calculated by means of the above formuliB, and
may be used for compound engines by simply omitting the M.P.
columns.
Forged-steel pistons for the lighter machinery of Torpedo boats and
Destroyers ^ve perfectly satisfactory results, when made of thickness,
near boss, given by, —
Rule 69. <= -0035 l)\/p-h%
where the symbols have the same values as above.
The slope of the underside of L.P. piston should not be less than 1
in 6 '5. The thickness near edge should be '6 of that near boss ; and
the depth of rim may be L-P- Diameter ,j,^^y ^^^ sometimes fitted
with Kamsbottom rings of cast-iron or hard bronze, and sometimes
with ordinary cast-iron packing rings.
They are, as a matter of course, machined over on both sides.
Table XLYI. is calculated by means of the above formula for boiler
pressures of 220 to 250 lbs.
* NoU—See Trans. Intt. C.E., vol. czxvii., pp. 248 et teq.
108
PISTONS.
Wi
g
CA
a.
I
1
0)
s
In
.O
(0
d
o
a,
%
4)
CO
3
u
I
>
X
J*
h
1
h4
1
1
• • • •
•
1
• • • • •
N^Njt • • • _ vr<vr< • • • •NT'
• • • • • ^ •••••••■••••••
iH»HrH»-lrHfHrHiH»Hr-IC^G^C5IO^MOI<N
1
Pi
1
1
• • • V
O 0» 00 t<« CO -^ CO C4 tH Oft 00 b* «D lO
u3 tf) «p^«oo a» p rH c9 C4 00 ^ o «p :::::•
1
1
fHrHi-l»HtHi-lTH««««Oi«
<<<« a» -^ 00 eo t<» 04 1<» C9 «o i-i «o fh lo
00 a» ri C4 ^ ko t>» 00 o i-i CO ^ «o bo : : : t s :
r-lr-liHiHr-lr-lOI04<N©l««
•
Ai
•
1
i-l r-l fH iH r-i rH r-l
oo G^ «D o ««« a» 00 r^ f-t »o
^ r^ 00 p iH 04 •«i4 ^ b. 00 ::::::::::
1
•
r-lfHr-ifHC4 01O«C404
» 1-1 CO "^ to 00 O T-H eo lO
00 i-H CO to t>. a» 04 <<4< «o 00 ::::::::::
■ ••••••••• ••••••••••
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PISTONS.
109
Table XLVI.— Forged Steel Pistons of Torpedo Boats and
Destroyers (220 to 250 lbs.).
Diameter
H.F. Thick, in inches.
M.P. Thick, in inches.
L.P. Thick, in inches.
0/ piflton
In inches.
NearboM.
Near edge.
Near bow.
Near edge.
Near boss.
Near edge.
10
•63
%
•88
%
• • •
• • •
•*•
...
• • •
• • •
• • •
*••
15
•84
"A.
•60
%
•67
"X.
•40
%
• ••
• • •
• • •
*••
20
1-06
iM.
•63
%
•88
"A,
•60
%
•68
M.
•36
%
25
1^27
1)4
•76
%
•98
1
•69
•/4.
•67
'%.
•40
%
80
1-48
IH
•89
%
1-14
1%
•68
"X.
•77
•46
'At
35
• • •
• • •
• ••
• »«
1-29
1)4
•77
%
•87
%
•62
40
• • •
• • t
• • •
• • •
1-45
i'/4.
•87
%
•96
"A,
•68
'A*
45
• ••
• • •
• ••
• • •
• • •
• • •
...
• • •
1-06
IM.
•64
%
50
• • •
• • •
• • •
• ••
• ••
• • •
a*.
• • •
1^16
IH
•69
•M.
55
• ••
• ••
• • •
• • f
• • •
• « •
...
• • •
1-26
1)4 -76
%
Cast-iron Pistons. — ^These mnst be made of thoroughly Bound and
good material, — at least twice melted.
A convenient unit on which to base the proportions of cast-iron box
(or hollow) pistons is the thickness requisite, in a circular plate of
cast-iron, to carry safely a giyen pressure per square inch when sup-
ported at centre and loaded uniformly.
Using again the general formula given above for such a case, viz. :—
^ssCxDVp
and inserting a value of e that will limit the stress on the material to
8000 lbs. per square inch it becomes, —
^-•008DV?
If the necessary constant quantity be then added, the units {x) for
pistons of triple engines working at about 160 lbs., and of compound
engines working at about 100 lbs., will be given by, —
Rnle 70. For H.P. pistons, a;- -008 D VF+ '^
HP. „ «- -008 D V>+ '46
L.P. „ aj- •OOS D V^^ -6
Other proportions are then as follows : —
Rule 71. Depths at centre, 8'2xas.
71a. Thickness of metal of faces }"•*'' ^ V ''/*'*"J?)-
71b. Thickness of webs, ... 'S2x{x+'6),
71C. Thickness of boss round rod, ... ^7 x ar.
7id. Depth of packing-ring, 76 x (L. P.a; + 1 •S).
7ie. Thickness do. •22x(L.P.a;-Hl'5).
7if. Diameter of junk-ring bolts, .*. (•2xL.P.a;)+ 6
ft
tf
ft
ii
*i
110
PISTONS.
Table XLVI I. - Proportions
r
f^ 0
15
20
26
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
106
110
YaluM of X.
_ ( -8 H.P.
H.P.
M.P.
1-44
1-37
1-82
1-68
2-20
1-99
2-58
2-80
2-96
2-61
3-34
2-91
8-72
3-22
4-10
3-53
4*48
3*84
4*86
4*14
• • •
4-45
•• •
4-76
■ • •
5*07
• • •
5*38
••«
• ••
t»«
• ••
••«
• •«
•••
• ••
••■
• »•
•fr*
• • •
L.P.
1*25
1-46
1-68
1-89
211
2*88
2*55
2*76
2*98
8*19
8*41
3-62
3*84
4*05
4*27
4-49
4*71
4*92
5*14
6*86
Depths at centre.
H.P.
4*60
5-82
7 04
8-25
9*47
10*69
11-91
13*12
14-34
16*55
M.P.
4*38
5-37
6-87
7*85
8-33
9*31
10-30
11-29
12-27
13-25
14*24
15-23
16*22
17-21
• • • •
L.P.
4-00
4*67
5-36
6 05
6*75
7*45
8*14
8*83
9*52
10*21
10*90
11-58
12-27
12*96
18*66
14-87
15*06
15-74
16-48
17 12
Thiokneu of Metal
-88x(s+*5) at centre and
H.P.
Centre.
64
76
89
01
14
27
40
52
65
77
Edge.
58
69
81
92
04
15
27
88
49
60
MJP.
Centre.
62
72
82
92
02
12
23
33
43
58
63
78
84
94
Bdge.
66
65
76
84
98
02
11
20
30
89
48
57
67
76
PISTONS.
Ill
of Cast-iron Pistons.
of Faces.
'Sx(s+'5)atedge.
ThickneBs of
boss round rod
•7XX.
Number of Webs.
Packing BJng.
^1
L.P.
H.P.
D+20
M.P.
D+20
10
• • •
L.P.
D+20
id
Centre.
ICdge.
H.P.
L.P.
0
11
•68
•62
1^01
•87
4
• ••
2*06
•60
*76
•66
•69
1*27
r02
6
4
4
2*22
•66
•79
•72
•66
1*64
117
6
6
6
2*38
•70
•84
•79
•72
1*81
182
6
6
6
2-64
•75
•88
•86
•79
2*07
1*48
6
6
6
2-71
•80
•92
•98
•86
2-84
1*68
7
6
6
2*87
•84
•96
1-01
•92
2*60
1-78
8
7
6
8 08
•89
101
1*08
•98
2-87
1-98
8
7
7
8 19
•94
1^06
1-16
1^06
8 18
2-08
9
8
7
8^36
•99
1-10
1-22
1*11
8-40
2-23
9
8
8
8*62
1*08
1-14
1*80
1-17
• ••
2*88
9
8
8*68
1*08
1*18
1-87
1*28
• • •
2-63
9
9
8*84
1-18
1*22
1*44
1*80
• • V
2*68
10
9
4-00
1*18
1*27
1-60
1-86
• • •
2 88
10
9
4*16
1*22
1*81
1-68
1-48
• • •
2*99
10
4*83
1-27
1*36
1-66
1^60
• • •
814
10
4*49
1*32
1*40
1*78
1^66
• • •
8 29
11
4*66
1*37
1*44
1*80
1-62
• •«
8*44
11
4*81
1-41
1-48
1-87
1-69
• • •
8*69
12
4-97
1*46
1-63
1^98
1*76
• ••
8*74
12
6 18
1*61
167
112 PISTONS.
diftmoiiors
Rule 72. Pitch of junk-ringbolts, -[ M.P.— 8j do. .'
fH.P.-.7i
■{ M.P.-8J
iL.P.— 10
do.
Rule 73* Spring pressures per square inch of C H. P. — 3^ lbs.
packing-ring in contact with-! M. P. — 3 lbs.
cylinder (L. P. — 2i lbs.
Rule 74* Number of webs in piston,
9
D + 20
M.P.
L.P.—
10
D + 20
11
This spacing of webs will ensure that Rule 48, page 90, is not
violated. In calculating local strength of piston face, care must be
taken to use the gauge pressure acting on it, and not the effective
pressure on piston as in above rules. A good method of increasing local
strength, and at the same time assisting the moulder, is to cast a solid
bar as a tie at the centre of gravity of each sector of the piston ; the
diameter of these ties may be '6 x L.P.a; All holes proviaed for the
removal of core material should be strengthened by, an internal ring,
unless through the circular rim.
Pistons of all Compound engines are usually, for practical reasons,
made all of the same depth (except in the case of Undem engines) ;
but, if a piston is made of less depth than that given in Table XLY II.,
the metal of the faces must be increased in proportion.
The proportions given for packing-rings and junk-ring bolts are
equally applicable to cast-steel pistons.
All junk-ring bolts (or nuts, if studs are used) should be locked
by means of a light wrought-iron ring, secured to junk-ring by studs
having square bodies, which stand up through guard-ring, and
through which stout split-pins are fitted : |-inch studs and No. 1
L.S.G. split-pins are commonly used for large pistons.
When the ordinary packing-ring is used an excellent piston is pro-
duced by placing behind it, — one between every pair of junk- ring bolts, —
a number of short spiral springs acting radially, and adjusted to give
the pressures named above. For the pistons of auxiliary engines the
Cameron spring (a corrugated steel ribbon) is most useful, and is also
often employed for L.P. pistons of large size. The old-fashioned
coach spring should never be employed.
In horizontal engines solid packings should be used in lieu of
springs for the lower one- third circumference of piston ; diagonal and
oscillating pistons are also better for some solid packings.
Table XLVII. is calculated by means of the above formule, and
shows at a glance the various proportions of H.P., M. P., k L.P.
pistons, from 15 inches to 110 inches diameter, for Triple engines
working at about 160 lbs., and Compound engines working at about
100 lbs. pressure.
PISTON-RODS.
113
When using Table XLVII. for Oomponnd engines simply omit
M.P. columns. The dimensions are giv^en in inches and decimals
only, as the proportions for pistons of intermediate diameter are more
readily seen with this notation.
PISTON-RODS.
These should be made of steel of 38 tons tensile ; softer steels do not
wear satisfactorily. (Rule 75) The maximum permissible stress per
square inch at bottom of thread should not exceed one-eighth the
ultimate tensile strength of the steel employed.
For small rods (under 2 inches diameter in the body) the following
should not be exceeded, viz. : —
Working Stress per sq. in. =diam. in ins, at bottom thread x C.
For high tensile steel, C = 4500. For ordinary mild steel (28/32
tons tensile), C=8500.
Table XLVII I.— Strengths of Piston-Rods.
Diameter of
piston-rod
88-Ton Steel.
Mild Steel («%, Tons Tensile).
Working
Effective
Working
Effective
Bcrew
stress in lbs.
strength of
stress in lbs.
strength of
UI AllUllCo*
per sq. inch.
rod in lbs.
per sq. inch.
rod in lbs.
Vs
3,700'
1,560
2800
1,180
1
4,100
2,270
3100
1,720
1%
4,400
3,070
3800
2,270
1%
4,800
4,290
3600
3,220
1%
6,100
6,400
3900
4,130
IH
6,400
7,020
4100
6,330
1%
6,700
8,380
4300
6,320
1%
6,000
10,500
4600
8,060
1%
6,800
12,600
4800
9,530
2
6,600
16,200
6000
11,600
2%
7,000
20,400
6800
16,600
2%
7,400
27,600
6600
20,900
2%
7,800
34,800
6900
26,300
8
8,200
44,700
6100
33,200
8%
8,600
66,000
6400
41,000
3%
9,000
68,000
6800
51,600
3«>4
9,260
80,000
7200
62,300
4
9,600
96,200
7600
76,100
4%
10,000
180,000
8000
103,300
5 &c.
10,600
• • «
8400
...
A convenient form of the formula for the body of rod is then, —
Rule 76. Diameter of pUAoa-roA^^SB^^LfSS^^ , ^-
8
91
»»
11
114 PISTON-RODS.
where |7 3 greatest effective pressure on the piston; F a co-efficient
whose values are, —
Naval type engines, — direct-acting, , . .' 50
Mercantile, — ordinary stroke, direct-acting, . . 45
long „ „ . • ^2
very long „ ,, . . 41
medium stroke, oscillating, . . 40
long „ ,, . . 38
The stroke of Naval type engines rarely exceeds dia. of L.P. cylinder
X '6 and is usually between '6 and '6 x L.P. diameter,
** Ordinary'* stroke, for the engines of a merchant steamer, is, —
diameter of L.P. cylinder x '60 to '66; whilst 7 to '8 would be
*' long," and -8 to 1 •• very long."
A ** medium" stroke for an oscillating engine is, — diameter of
cylinder X '96 ; or, if a compound engine, —diameter of L.P.
cylinder X '8.
Compound diagonal engines would come under the heading " long,"
since they are usually given a stroke of L.P. diameter x 75, though
the practice of different makers varies between 7 and I'S x L. P.
diameter.
Rule 76a. Area of section of piston-rod =-^''^ "^ ^nderxy
where F^ will then be the stress in lbs. per square inch, — in each oase
the square of the numerical co-efficient given above, viz. : —
Naval engines, direct-acting, .... 2500
Mercantile, ordinary stroke, direct- acting,
II long II »
„ very long „ ,,
,, medium stroke, oscillating,
II long „ „
2000
1800
1700
1600
1450
Attachment of Piston to Rod. — In small auxiliary engines it
is a common practice simply to reduce the diameter of the piston-rod
about ^ inch, and fit the piston up against the shoulder ; but above
15 inches diameter of piston it is better to leave only as much
shoulder as may be desired for " trueing-up '* the rod at some future
time, and then give a taper of 1 in 4 on the diameters (Rule 77) {i,e,
if taper is 4 inches long, the smaller diameter will be 1 inch less than
the larger), and continue it until it dies away into the parallel part
near screw, the diameter of which has been determined as directed
above.
Where a piston-rod is fitted into a crosshead, the same shoulder,
taper, &c., should be used as for a piston.
The depth of piston-rod nut need not exceed the diameter of the
screw ; and it may be recessed as far into the piston as desired, as the
strength of the piston is not materially effected thereby.
PISTON-ROD GUIDES AND GTTIDB BLOCKS. 115
The piston-rods of oscillating engines are commonly made with a
sort of cylindrical ** bolt-head," which is recessed into the lower face of
the piston, whilst the nut is similarly recessed (to its full depth) into
the upper face.
The cast-steel pistons of large Naval engines are sometimes made
without any central boss, and attached to a circular flange (resembling
a shaft coupling) on the piston-rod by means of a number of compara-
tively small bolts. This method, which was first used by the late
Dr Kirk, has msLuj good points, but the chief is perhaps the ease with
which the connection can be made and broken again.
Rule 78. The diameter of this flange is about diameter of piston-
rod X 2*25, and its thickness about diameter of piston-rod x '33.
The attaching bolts (usually between 2% inches and 3% inches
diameter) should be of mild steel, but should not carry more than
6000 lbs. per square inch.
PISTON-ROD GUIDES AND GUIDE BLOCKS.
Piston-rod guides should, wherever possible, be made of hard
close-grained cast-iron, and the guide blocks, or crosshead shoes,
should be made of the same material, since no combination of metals
gives better results when in good working condition than cast-iron
rubbing on cast-iron.
White metal is often used for the faces of the shoes (either fitted or
cast into recesses in the cast-iron, or gun -metal shoes), and gives results
little or no better than those obtained with cast-iron on cast-iron, when
the surfaces, etc., are pari passu, but with white metal there is no
danger of abrasion, or from sparking in an enclosed engine.
Let r be the radius of crank and I the length of the connecting-rod ;
a the angle made by the rod with the axial line of cylinder. When P
is the effective pressure on the piston ; Q the pressure on guide ;
Then Q=P tan o.
When the cut-off" is later than half stroke, the maximum pressure will
be when the crank is at right angles to the axial line.
r
ThatisQ=PVZ2r75'
as the connecting-rods in marine engines are generally twice the stroke,
and l=Ar.
p
Then, maximum pressure on guide Q = 5^.
The common method of fixing the sizes of crosshead shoes is to
assume that the pistons, when at half stroke, have still the maximum
effective pressures acting on them ; to calculate the pressures on the
guides from these loads in the manner described above ; and then tr
116 OONNBOTINO-BODe.
fix the areas of the shoes so that the pressure per square inch may not
exceed 80 lbs. (Rule 79.) Pressure persquare inch— (1760 -f VS + 100)
lbs., S being the speed of piston in feet per minute. Of course, where
the indicator diagrams from similar engines are available, the actual
effective pressures at half stroke may be ascertained and used, but the
pressures per square inch may then be more than given by Rule 79.
It may also be 30 to 50 per cent, more with efficient forced lubrication.
It is very desirable to keep the crossheads and guides of compound
and triple engines all of the same dimensions, and to effect this, the
mean of the piston loads may be used to calculate from. The surfaces
of the astern shoes may be from *5 to '7 of those of the ahead
ones.
For gudgeons, and bolts and caps, see under Connecting'- Rods.
Where the gudgeon brasses are recessed into the piston-rod head, the
inner or half-round brass may have a thickness, —
Rule 80. Thickness of inner half brass = Diam. of gudgeon ^ .^^
8
whilst for the outer or flat half the thickness may be, —
Rule 80a. Thickness of outer half brass==5i^5L^tgH^i^ + . 2.
See note with reference to white metal under ** Connecting-rod
gudgeons," page 118, also Table XLIX., page 121.
CONNECTING-RODS.
The length of the connecting-rod, measured from centre of gudgeon
to centre of crank pin, should not be less than twice the stroke of the
piston.
So far as tensile stress alone is concerned, a rod of the same diameter
as the piston-rod at the bottom of the thread would suffice, but there
are also to be considered compressive stress, bending stress due to the
inertia of the rod itself, and bending stress due to the friction of the
gudgeon and crank pin.
As marine connecting-rods are usually between 10 and 16 diameters
(measured at mid-length) long, they must, when compressive stresses
are under consideration, be treated as struts jointed at the ends.
Hodgkinson k Gordon's formula for the hreaJdng strength of such a
strut, of circular section, is, —
where P is breaking load in lbs. ; I length from centre to centre, and
d diameter, both in inches ; s area of section in square inches ; and
/ and a co-efficients, whose values for wrought-iron or mild steel are
36,000 and ,^ respectively.
^
OONKOOTING-BODS. 117
It should be noted that the ratio of greatest thrust on the connecting-
rod is to the effective load on the piston is 1 '034.
As the ratio of length to diameter rarely exceeds 16, however, it is
probable that the following empirical rule (suggested hy Grashof) will
give more accurate results, —
RnleSz. ^=-^^
e
where P is greatest safe load in lbs. ; A sectional area of rod in sq. ins. ;
I moment of inertia (equal to *Obd^ for circular section) ; I length in
inches from centre to centre ; and E and e constants whose values are
respectively 12,000 and 5000 for steel, and 10,000 and 6600 for wrought-
iron. The maximum working load on a connecting-rod should not
exceed 'TSP, and is commonly about '6?.
The bending stress, due to the inertia, may be found from the
formnla, —
Rule 82. /= -187 ^
grUi
where v is velocity of crank-pin in feet per second ; I length of rod
from centre to centre, and d diameter of rod, both in inches : R radius
of crank in feet ; and g=S2.
The value off will be found to lie between 800 and 1800 lbs. per
square inch for the various types of engine and numbers of revolutions
met with in ordinary practice, and this value must be added to
the compressive stress in estimating the total stress on the material of
the rod.
In a three-crank engine, when one of the crank-pins heats, the
bending stress set up in the connecting-rod by the continued action of
all the pistons may be very great (if a '* seize" could really occur the
rod would be destroyed instantly), but its magnitude cannot be even
approximately calculated, and the case is, therefore, one that can only
be met by an empirical formula. The above formulse may, therefore,
be used as checks^ but the following empirical rule will be more readily
applied, and the results given by it will be found to agree very closely
with good modern practice : —
where D is diameter of rod at middle, and L length from centre to
centre, both in inches ; and
K= *028VEffective load on piston in lbs. — for Mercantile engines.
E= '022\/Etl'ective load on piston in lbs. — for Naval engines.
Connecting-rods are usually made tapered from the gudgeon end to
the middle, and parallel from the middle to the crank end.
118 OONNBCTTING-RODS.
Rule 84. — D is the diameter of piston-rod by rule ;
Diameter of gudgeon fixed in rod = 1 '125 x D ;
Diameter of each gudgeon in cro88head«-0*76 x D ;
The length of gudgeon such that : —
Rule 85. — The loads on gudgeon bearings, from maximum effective
pressures on pistons, should never exceed (12,500 ■fVR+ 100) ^^^* P®r
square inch, R being the revolutions per minute.
Rule 85a. — The diameter of the gudgeon (when shrunk into the
connecting-rod) may be 1 *25 x Diameter of piston-rod, and the length is
then given by, —
Length of Gudcf ?n - ^^^- ^^^^""^ ^"^^ ^^ P^"^^" ^ ^/^ "^ ^^^
* * Diameter X 12,600
Connecting;- Rod Gudgeons. — ^The rods of small engines may have
the gudgeon shruuk into the jaws or sides of the double-eye, and
working in brasses fitted into a recess in the piston-rod head, and
secured bv a cap and bolts ; but larger engines should have the
gudgeon shrunk into or formed with the piston-rod head or crosshead,
and both jaws of the connecting-rod fitted with brasses, caps, and
bolts, &c. The great advantages of the latter plan are, — the ease
with which the brasses can be overhauled and adjusted, and the fact
that it does not require the piston-rod crosshead to be forged solid with
the rod. It also braces or "trusses " the joint between the two rods,
and, in a measure, compensates for the absence of side guides, which
experience has shown are better omitted ; and, further, should unequal
wear of the brasses take place, it occurs at a distance from the axis, and
is therefore of less relative importance.
AVhere gudgeons cannot conveniently be made of hard steel (say 40
tons tensile), they must be case-hardened, and then carefully ground
true. Simple mild steel is not suitable for gudgeons or other similar
parts on which pressure is great, angular movement small, and
direction of motion frequently reversed ; and, similarly, hard
gun -metal makes a better gudgeon bearing than any ordinary white
metal.
Connecting- Rod Caps and Bolts. — The stresses on bolts of piston-
rods and connecting-rods, per square inch area at bottom of thread,
may be those given in Table XLIII. , page 103, the bolts being in all
cases of mild steel ; but, where the load is carried by four bolts in
place of two, the stress per square inch should be one-eighth less, — to
allow for possible inequality in screwing up.
The bodies of the bolts should be turned down to the same diameter
as the bottom of the thread, except where necessary for steadying the
caps and brasses, and these remaining plain portions should be of
slightly larger diameter than the screw thread, — say y^% inch up to
2^ inch diameter, and Vie ii^^h for larger sizes.
The nuts should be of wrought-iron or hard steel — as mild steel nuts
CONNECTING-RODS. 119
on steel bolts have a great tendency to ''seize" and tear unless well
greased.
The necessary section of cap is most readily determined by means of
the ordinary formula for a beam supported at the ends, and uniformly
loaded, viz. : —
Rule 86. w=^
where w is the working load per inch of length for any given value of
f", lis the length in inches, from centre of bolt to centre of bolt ; and
z the modulus of the section, -equal to B^^th x Depth' ^^^ ^
rectangular section. For wrought-iron, or mild steel, the values of /
may be, —
Flat-backed brasses and caps, — load carried by one cap,— /= 9,000.
Half-round „ „ „ /= 10,000.
Flat-backed ,, „ two caps, —/= 8,000.
Half-round „ „ „ /= 9,000.
In estimating the breadths of caps, care should be taken to deduct
the diameters, or breadths, of all oil holes.
The caps of connecting-rods of large mercantile engines are often
made of tough cast-iron or cast-steel lined with white metal instead of
half a loose shell and an ordinary cap. The shells of large rods are
generally of tough cast-iron, which is really better than bronze for the
carrier of white metal.
Connecting- Rod Brasses. — The over-all thickness of these (i.e.
the thickness including any white metal) should be as follows : —
Rule 87. Flat-backed brasses for gudgeon end, —
Thickness = ^ -h *2.
Rule 87a. Flat-backed brasses for crank end,—
Thickness =5 + -2.
Rule 87b. Round brasses for gudgeon end,—
Thicknes8=5+-2.
Rule 87c. Round brasses for crank end,—
Thickness =5 +-2.
Rule 87d.— Thickness of white metal = -020 -h '125.
120
OONNBOTINGhRODS.
Rule Sye. — When no white metal is
used at crank end the thicknesses may be
„ round „
See Table XLIX., page 121, for proportions given by these rules.
D
--.+ '15 when flat backed.
10
Rule 88. — The width of the crank end of the connecting-rod should
not be less than '7 x length of crank-pin, — as otherwise the brasses
will not be properly supported.
The proportions of the double-eye at gudgeon end (fig. 13) should
be as follows : —
Fig. 13.
Rules 89 and 89a. ^=1 82, and ^ = -476.
Rules 89b and 89c. ^ = 1 '2, and =- = '46.
The sectional area at D, or F, is then about *62 of that at Q ; and
area C x J about '39 of that at G.
Rule 89d.
Also 1= -276.
11
CONNBCTINQ-RODS.
121
Table XLIX.— Thickness of Brasses.
•
J>^l^otB.uing^Bnum. \
Conneetliig
rod gadsaon
wnenm
idsion rod
head.
Conneeting
rod gudgeon
when on
forked end
of connect.
rod.
Grank-pini.
Mala Bearinga
Inner
half.
Outer
half.
Bomi4
FUt
iMCked
brM»V.
Bound
brasses.
Flat
backed
brasses.
1^
Sonnd
brasses.
flat
backed
brusos.
Is
5^5
^G
D
5..
•45
-?..
-?..
^+-
■ • •
^^-^
^+-
1'
2
'45
•48
•48
r82
(•87
(•80
(•85
S V40
olS(-50
• • •
2^
•51
•56
•51
•56
a>37
sUs
• • •
9>34
• ••
8
•67
•63
•57
•63
t.r42
+ V48
• • •
+ Vw
• • •
^%
•64
•70
-64
•70
fi|S(.47
«,«(-54
•• •
Qm-Ab
• ••
4
•70
•77
•70
•77
•64
•70
•20
•65
•74
•20
^Vi
•76
•84
•76
•84
•70
•76
•21
•70
•80
•21
6
•82
•91
•82
•91
•75
•82
•22
•75
•85
•22
6%
•89
•99
•89
•99
•81
•89
•23
•80
•91
•28
6
•95
1-06
•95
1-06
•87
•95
•24
•85
•97
•24
0%
1-01
1^18
1^01
1^18
•93
1-01
•25
•90
1^08
•25
7
1-07
1^20
1-07
1-20
•98
1-07
•26
•95
1-08
•26
7%
1-14
1*27
1^14
1-27
1^04
114
•27
1-00
I'U
•27
8
1^20
1^84
1-20
l'B4
1-09
1^20
•28
1^05
1^19
•28
8K
• • •
• • «
Vie
Vil
1-15
1-26
•29
110
1-25
•29
9
• * •
• • •
182
r48
1^20
1-82
•80
1-15
1^30
•80
9^
• • •
• • •
1'89
1-56
1-26
1-89
•81
1^20
1-86
•81
10
• • •
■ • •
1-45
1-63
1-81
1^45
•82
1*25
1^41
•82
lOK
»• •
• •
1-51
1^70
1-87
1-51
•88
1^30
1-47
•88
11
• • •
• • •
1-57
1^77
1^42
1^57
•34
1^85
1-52
•34
12
• • •
• • •
1^70
1^91
1-58
1^70
•36
1^45
168
•86
18
• ••
• • •
1*82
2 06
1-64
l^82
•88
1^55
1'74
•88
U
• • •
• ••
• • •
• • •
1-75
1-95
•40
1-65
1^85
•40
15
• ••
• ••
• ••
• • ■
1*87
2-08
•42
r75
r97
•42
16
• ••
• »•
• • ■
• • •
1-98
2-20
•44
1^85
2^08
•44
17
• • •
• ••
• ••
• • •
2-09
2*83
•46
1^95
2 19
•46
18
• ••
• ••
• • •
• • 1
2-20
2-45
•48
2^05
2-80
•48
19
• ••
• • •
■ • •
• • •
2-81
2*58
•50
215
2-41
•50
20
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • «
2*42
2-70
•52
2^25
2^52
•52
iVMtf.— Thiokneflses gpyen in aboye Table are total tihiokneaMs,
inelnHifig white-metal, if any.
122 SHArriNO.
When double brasses are used the proportions differ slightly from
the aboYO, and are approximately, —
Rule Sge, 89f, an4 Sgg:. ^=1*25; ^=1-5 ; and £='47.
But of course, in this latter case, much depends on the type of
crosshead employed, and the side of the jaw should be considerea as a
cantilever, and the section at S made sucn that the moment of P does
not impose a load of more than 9000 lbs. per square inch, when P is
taken as five-eighths of the total effective load on the piston.
SHAFTING.
The resistance of a plain cylindrical shaft to simple twisting is given
by,-
Rule 90. T=-196D»x/,
where T is the twisting moment in inch-lbs. ; D the diameter of
the shaft in inches ; and / the greatest shearing stress on the
material, — in lbs. per square inch.
When the shaft is hollow, the formula becomes, —
Rule 90a. T= -196 ^-^ xf,
where D and d are respectively the external and internal diameters.
The values of/ should not exceed the following : —
/ .
Shafts below 10'' dia. Shafts above 10" dia.
Wrought-iron forging, . 9,000 8,000
Mild steel forging, . . 12,000 11,000
For steel of greater strength allow 0*88 x elastic limit in lbs. as the
working maximum stress.
The torsional stififness of shafts may be estimated by the fol-
lowing formulae (Rankine) : —
10*2 TZ
Rule 91. For solid shafts $r= ^j^ nearly.
10*2 Tl
Rule 9za. For hollow shafts gr= nearly.
0f, being the measure of angular displacement in radiants.
The actual angular movement in degrees taken as 6"^ then
For solid shafts e''=^M^,
CD*
SHAFTING.
123
For hollow shafts e°=
684 T^
C(D* - d^y
Fig. 14.
9r 18 the length of arc moved through at radius r ; I length of shaft
in inches; G constant, values of which are given helow; and other
symbols, as defined above.
For cast-iron,
„ wrought- iron,
,, steel,
. 0= about 2,860,000.
. 0 = 8,500,000, to 10,000,000.
. 0 = 10,000,000 to 12,000,000.
Where a shaft is revolving uniformly , and transmitting power, the
relation between the twisting moment and the horse- power applied
is given by, —
Rule 92.
T=Ii^-x 63,000.
The great number of shafts, however, are turned by steam engines
acting through cranks, and do not revolve uniformly, — because the
tangential pressure on the crank-pin is constantly varying, — and must
therefore be designed to resist the maxiimim twisting moment,
instead of the mean given by the above equation.
The rule therefore takes the form, —
Rule 93.
D3,or5!^*.=LH:Z-xF.
D
R
Where F is a co-efl5cient, the values of which depend on the number
and relative positions of cranks, distribution of steam in the
cylinders, &c., and are given in Tables L. and La.
In Table L. the cranks marked f are at angles of 120° ; those
marked X at angles of 90*.
124
SHAFTING.
Table L.— Shafts for Screw Eng^ines.
Description of Screw Engines.
Values of F for
Thrust,
etc.,
Crank-
shafts.
Inter-
mediate
shaft.
TaU-
end
shaft.
Single crank out ofif in cylinders not less than 0*5,
Two cranks at 90", cut oflf in cylinders not lees
than 0*6
Three cranks at 120*, cut off in cylinders not
less than 0'5
Four cranks, balanced triples and quadruples .
„ 90* quadruples ....
, , naval and other high-speed balanced
Turbines, direct drive
„ geared generally . . . ,
„ naval, in high-speed light craft
150
96
88
84
86
74
70
70
87
180
84
72
74
76
63
60
60
82
176
lie
96
96
98
85
80
78
43
1
Table La.— Shafts for Paddle Engines.
Description of Paddle Engines.
Values of F for
Inter-
mediate
shaft.
Paddle
shaft
inner
journal.
Paddle
shaft
outer
Journal.
100
65
65
60
Single crank cut off in cylinder not less than 0*5,
Two cranks connected by link and equivalent
to 90*.
Two cranks at 90* with an intermediate shaft .
Three cranks at 120*, solid or built up .
• ••
• • •
58
• • •
80
58
60
45
For ships working in rivers, estuaries, lochs, etc., habitually in smooth
water, the value of F may be taken as 80 per cent, of the above.
Hollow Shafting. — Shafting for naval ships is now made through-
out hollow in order to get the maximum strength and stiffness with
minimum weight.
The internal diameter is usually half the external, so that the
saving in weight is 25 per cent., whilst the reduction of strength is
only about 6 ^ per cent.
* * Tail ** shafts are usuallv " set in," at the after end, after boring, so
as to reduce the diameter of the hole within and near the propeller boss.
CRANKSHAFTS IN GENERAL.
126
CRANKSHAFTS IN GENERAL.
CTAnkfihafts must be strong enough to bear, together with the
maximum torque, the bending and shearing stresses, the magnitudes
of which depend on the positions of the bearings. The conditions
of loading and support are rather difficult to determine exactly, —
depending as they do on the rigidity of the surrounding parts, — but
it suffices for most purposes to assume that, in a simple case of
overhang, they are represented by the formula, —
Rule 94*
w4
where W is maximum load on pin, in lbs. ; / the greatest permissible
stress on the material in lbs. per square inch (for which see page 118) ;
I length in inches from mid-length of crank-pin to mid-length of
bearing ; and «, for a circular section, is '0982 D^
Where the crank has two arms, and is supported by a bearing on
each side, the formula may be taken as,—
Rule 94a.
I being the distance, in inches, between the centres of the two
bearings.
Equivalent Twisting Moment — When a shaft is subject to
simultaneous twisting and bending, the combined stress on any
section of it may be measured by calculating what is called the
Fig. 16.
126
0RANK8HAFT8 IN QBNBRAL.
eqiiivalent twisting moment; that is, the two stresses may be so
combined as to be treated as one twisting stress only, and the size
of the shaft calculated accordingly. The formula for combining the
stresses is, —
Rule 95.
Ti = M4-VM^rT*
where T is the twisting moment ; M the bending moment at any
section ; and Tj the equivalent twisting moment.
The shearing stresses on crankshafts, exclusive of those due to
torque, are relatively small, and usually allowed for in the value
assumed for/ or F.
Curve of Twisting Moments. — ^The twisting moment, at any
position of the crank, may be determined graphically as on Fig. 15.
Let AB (Fig. 15) be the centre line of the engine, through the
cylinder and shaft centres, AC the position of the crank, BC the
connecting-rod, and AD a line at right angles to AB. Produce BO
(if necessary) to cut the line AD. Then, if P be the effective pressure
on the piston, when the crank is in position AG, the twisting moment
is P X AD.
Let the twisting moment be determined at intervals of say 10° of
angular movement of the crank, so that there will be 18 values
obtained for the half revolutions. Draw a line AB (Fig. 16), and
^i'^Z^
Fig. 16.
divide it into 18 equal parts, Aa^j OiOj* ^^* * erect perpendiculars
at these points, and cut off parts Oi&i, Ogfta, &c., representing to
scale the 18 values obtained; and through the points bi, h^, &c.,
draw a curve, .which will be the curve of twisting stress on the shaft
during one stroke of the piston. By prolonging AB, and going
through a similar operation for the second half of the revoldtion, the
curve of stress during the return stroke may be obtained.
0BANK8HAFTS IN GENERAL. 127
If the area enclosed by the curve and the line AB be divided by the
length of AB, the quotient (AM in Fig. 16) is the mean twisting
moment. The value of AM may be calculated by taking a mean of
the values of Oibi, Os&j) ^c. Where there are two or more pistons
acting on the same shaft, the curve of combined twisting moments
is obtained by laying off the ordinates of the second piston, or crank,
above or beyond the first curve, which is used as the base line, and
so* on, care being taken to step, or displace, the various curves in
the direction AB, by an amount due to the angles between the
cranks.
The polar form of this diagram, which is preferred by some
engineers, is obtained by laying off the ordinates of the various curves
radially from a circle which represents the crank -path, instead of from
a straight line representing the half crank-path unrolled.
The effective pressures on the pistons at each point are obtained
from the indicator diagrams in the manner explained on page 18.
The bending moment on a section of the shaft will vary exactly
with the pressure on the crank-pin, and to find the maximum
equivalent twisting moment on a section, it is only necessary to
construct a secondary curve from the formula T, = M + VM^TT^,
between the point of maximum twisting and that at which the pressure
on the piston is greatest.
When steam is not cut off in the cylinder before '4 of the stroke,
the maximum load on the piston may be used to calculate the bending
moment which is to be combined with the maximum twisting
moment.
Effect of Inertia of Reciprocating Parts. — The attention of
pi-actical engineers was first drawn to this very interesting subject by
Mr Arthur Rigg, in his ** Treatise on the Steam Engine," and it has
since been treated by various other writers. So far as ordinary
marine machineiy is concerned, the general effect of this inertia is to
equalise the action of the crank in the same manner Bia a fly-wheel, —
the energy expended in accelerating the reciprocating parts during the
early part of the stroke being given out again during the latter part,
when the steam pressure is lower. When a curve of twisting moments
is constructed as described above, and corrected for the effects of inertia,
it will generally show that by far the greater part of the steam pressure
at the commencement of the stroke is absorbed in producing accelera-
tion, and that the remaining effective pressure is but a very small
fraction of the whole.
It is not necessary, however, to take these effects into consideration
when proportioning the various parts of an ordinary engine, since
calculations based on the statical stresses will quite cover all that is
necessary to provide for dynamical stresses, except in very extreme
cases. For engines of high revolution inertia forces and stresses are
not negligible.
Surfaces of Crank-pins and Main Bearings.— If the effective
bearing surfaces of pins and journals be considered as equal t(
128 CRANKSHAFTS IN GBNBRAL.
diameter multiplied by length, then the pressures per square inch
should not exceed those given in the following Table : —
Table LI.— Maximum Working Pressures on Crank-
pins, Main Bearings, &c.
n 1 • 18,000
Crank-pins may carry ~"/-dj" ^"^' P®^ ^^' ^^
^ , 22,600
Gudgeons „ „ —■ ,, „
Main bearings of cranks - '— - ,,
fi
Intermediate shaft bearings
10.500
a ft
R being the revolutions per minute, d the diameters in inches.
N.B. With crank pins and main bearings when fitted with Michell
pads, the above allowances may be doubled.
The pressures referred to in the above Table are those resulting from
the maximum effective loads on the pistons.
Crankshafts of Screw Engines.
Where a shaft has two, three, or more cranks in it, the after crank
has not only to resist the stresses imposed by its own cylinder, but
also to transmit the torques produced by all cylinders forward of it,
so that, — were it not for practical reasons, — the sizes of crank-arms,
journals, and pins, might be progressively reduced from after to
forward end of shaft.
On the forward journal and forward arm of forward crank, there is
little more torque than is necessary to drive the forward eccentrics (if
any), and the bending stresses due to half the load on the pin ; whilst
the after arm of the same crank, and the journal adjoining it, are
subject to similar bending stress, and to nearly the whole of the torque
due to the load.
M
If the bending moment in either journal be expressed by •>-, then,
the equivalent twisting moment in after Journal will be, — according
to formula given by Rule 95.
■'.-I jm*^-
Coming now to the aftermost crank, — if Tq be the maximum total
torque produced by all cylinders forward of it ; T^ the maximum
CRANKSHAFTS IN GENBBAL. 129
torque from its own cylinder ; and Ms the corresponding bending
moment; then, for the forward journal, the twisting moment is T^,
M
and the bending moment —3, so that the equivalent twisting moment
is.—
T-i*^ n/(t')'-^^=''
whilst, on the after journal, the twisting moment is Tj + Ts, and the
M
bending moment — ?,sSo that the equivalent twisting moment is, —
T,=i^+ ^{^J+i'^^+'^if
The maximum bending moment, acting in a plane at right angles to
the axis of the shaft, at any section of the aftermost crank-arm,
distant x from the crank-pin centre, is, —
Ju
and for the forward arm of the same crank, —
where L is the length of the crank in inches.
The bending moment at the mid -length of the pin of a solid or
rigidly built-up shaft is, —
Rule 96. Me=^.
where R is the load on pin, and L the distance between the centres of
the main bearings on either side, — the shaft being considered as a
continuous girder supported at the centres of the bearings.
In marine crankshafts, where the crank-arms are not less than *7
of the diameter in thickness, and where the bearings are close to
the crank-arms, there is really little or no bending action at the
.lournals.
At and near the ends of the stroke the crank-arms are subjected to
a bending moment acting in the plane of the axis of the shaft and has
a magnitude, —
8
where Lt is the distance from the mid-length of pin to the fore-and-
9
130
CKAKKSHAFTS IK GENERAL.
aft centre of the arm (Fig. 17). Hence the thickness {a) of the forward
arm of forward crank must never be less than, —
•V
3RxLi
4bf
In ordinary practice, however, to secure interchangeability, the
crankshafts of merchant steamers are made with all journals of the
same diameter, and all crank-arms of the same dimensions ; but in
Fig. 17.
light machinery for Naval purposes the forward crank-arms are some-
times reduced in fore-and-aft thickness.
Crank-arms, when forged solid with the shaft, will be found to
satisfactorily resist all stresses to which they are subject, if made of
the following proportions : —
Rule 97.
Rule 98.
Breadth of arm = 1 '1 x Diameter of shaft.
Thickness of arm= *75 x Diameter of shaft.
When for any reason it is not possible to make the arms so thick as
'75 X diameter of shaft, they may be made as thin as '7, or even, in
special cases, '65 ; but when this is done, care must be taken to make
the breadth such that, —
6
= '196D»x'77='151D».
The most destructive of all stresses to crankshafts are, however,
those resulting from the main bearings getting out of line, and the
levels of these should therefore be verified every few months, and the
shaft lifted and re-bedded whenever any unequal wear is apparent.
CRANKSHAFTS IN GENERAL. 131
The crank-pins of screw engines are nearly always of the same
diameter as the shaft journals, and dow never less in length than the
diameter. The length of the pins, however, will depend on the load
per square inch on {d x I) as allowed by soale in Table LI.
The length of shaft journals cannot, as a loile, be less than the
diameter, from practical considerations, and should be such as to comply
with scale in Table LI.
To ensure equal wear in the main bearings, they should, theoreti-
cally, increase in length from forward aft, in proportion to the
twisting moment at each journal, — as the turning force at the crank-
pin tends to cause the shaft to move round eccentrically within the
bearing and so cause the wear ; the after bearing is found, in practice, to
wear more rapidly than the others, and should not be cut away at the
sides, as it has to take the reaction due to the torque of the other
cranks as well as that of its own.
Shaft Coupling's and Coupling Bolts. — (Rule 99.) When couplings
are forged solid with the shaft they should have a thickness of *28 x
diameter of shaft.
Coupling bolts should have little beyond a shearing stress to resist,
and their size i» therefore given by, —
'= -__ nr ^ 11 £
Rule 100. Area of one bolt= --kt-z^ or —
JN xr Nxr
if the material of the bolts and that of the shaft offer the same resist-
ance to shearing ; D being diameter of shaft, N number of coupling
bolts, and r radius at which they are placed.
By way of making some allowance for screwing-up stresses on small
bolts, coupling bolts below lX"ii^ch diameter may be made 20 per
cent, larger than given by above rule.
Where the bolts in any coupling may require to be removed at times,
they should be made with a taper of about Ji-i^ich per foot on the
diameters, and be made of harder steel than the shaft.
It is by no means necessary, in large coupling bolts, to make the
screwed part equal in diameter to the body of the bolt ; bolts between
2% and 3% inches diameter may be reduced ^-inch, and those above
314 inches, ^-inch in diameter. The nuts may have a thickness of
•75 to '8 X diameter of screw.
In two, three, and four throw crankshafts, above 10 inch of diameter,
each crank, with its adjacent journals, should be made as a separate
forging, and the number and position of coupling bolts should be such
that the shafts can be interchanged or reversed as may be desired.
♦ Nots,—i)T to obtain diameter at once, —
"'Vif?"^'*^'*"-
132 CRANKSHAFTS IN GENERAL.
When cranks are coapled together in this way, a spigot on each,
fitting into a recess in its neighbour, materially reduces the strain
on the bolts, assists adjustment, and ensures the ''truth" of the
shafts when bolted together ; Buch spigots may have a diameter of *5 to
'7 X diameter of shaft, and a length of say ^-inch for the projection,
and Vis-inch for the recess.
Built Crankshafts. — With a view of obtaining sounder and more
reliable work, crankshafts are usually built up of separate pieces. Such
shafts are generally cheaper than solid ones, out somewhat heavier.
The thickness of the arms or webs are usually somewhat less than those
of solid shafts. They should, however, not be less than 0*625 the
diameter of the adjacent journal. If t is thickness of the metal around
the shank hole, and A the thickness of the web, and d the shank oj
journal, ^xh should not be less than 0*12 x(2^ These webs are
shrunk on to the shanks and crank- pins ; there . should be a key oi
keys on the shaft which are generally cylindrical and sometimes
screwed into their holes to prevent end play in case the web gets loose.
The diameter of such key should be not less than 0*23 x (2 +0*2 inch.
Crankshafts of Paddle Engines. *
These may usually be classed under one of the following three heads : —
(a) Intermediate shaft type, — in which the outer crank-arms are
keyed upon the paddle-shafts, where the inner ones are
similarly fixed to an intermediate shaft, the crank- pins
being fixed in the inner crank-arms, and, to a certain
extent, free in the outer ones {v. fig. 18).
{b) The type in which the intermediate shaft and its crank-arms
are absent, and the crank-pins are fixed in the paddle-shaft
crank-arms, and left long enough to allow of the attachment
of a link, or sling, which holds the crank-arms at the
required angle with one another.
(c) The solid shaft, — in which the cranks are forged in one with
the shaft — as in the case of a screw engine, — and the
paddle-shafts connected with it by solid flange couplings, a
little elasticity being obtained sometimes by the interposition
of a thickness of leather, by helical springs on the coupling
bolts, or by other similar devices. Paddle-engine shafts
are now generally built up like those of screw engines with
the pins of the same diameter as the journals.
The effect of the first arrangement is to communicate very equable
stresses to the paddle-shafts, as the pressures from the crank-pins are
always at right angles to the cranks on the paddle-shafts; and, in
smooth water, the power of each cylinder is very nearly equally divided
between the two wheels, and the bending action on each paddle-shaft
never exceeds half that due to its own cylinder, for, when near the
dead-points, the bending moment is at its maximum, and is wholly
taken by the inner crank-arm, to which the pin is secured. For these
CRANKSHAFTS IN GENERAL. 133
reasons tlie intermediate shaft must be stronger than the paddle-shafts, .
when the ship is intended to work in rough water, as it may have
to transmit tne whole twisting force from one cylinder, and always
takes, during certain parts of the revolution, the whole of the
bending forces.
Hence, if T be the maximum twisting moment from one piston of a
double cylinder paddle engine, and M the maximum bending moment
from the same piston, then, — as in the general case (page 126), — the
maximum equivalent twisting moment T^ will be, —
Ti (on intermediate shaft) = M + VM^+Ta
and Ti (on paddle-shafts) =^+ \/(f)' + '^-
With the second type of shaft (6), the axes of the cylinders are
necessarily at an angle with one another, but the cranks are usually
so placed that the arrangement is equivalent to one in which the axes
are in the same plane and the cranks at right angles.
Each shaft takes the whole of the bending moment from its own
cylinder ; and, — while usually transmitting half the combined twisting
moment — may, in rough water, have to transmit the whole of the
twisting moment from one cylinder. The inner journals of these shafts
are therefore subject to precisely the same stresses as the intermediate
shaft journals in type (a), and should be made of the same size, as
indicated in Table L.a, page 124.
The maximum pull in the coupling link may be taken as being
equal to that in one connecting-rod, but its ordinary value will only
be one half of this.
In the third case (that of the solid crankshaft), the cranks will
generally be at right angles, and the twisting stresses will be similar
to those in the previous cases ; the central part transmitting ordinarily
half the stress from one piston, but occasionally the whole. The
bending stresses in each crank -arm and journal will be those due to
half the load on one 'piston, and may be determined by means of the
formulse previously given.
Paddle-shafts.-— The outer end of each paddle-shaft is subjected to
a bending moment, which is the resultant of those due to the weight
of the wheel, and to the reaction of the water on the floats, and the
moment of which (Mj) may be taken as, —
Rule lOi. M, = \/(M of weight)* + (M of reaction)^.
The torque at the outer journal of a paddle-shaft is the same as at
the inner journaL The outer bearing may have a length of from
1'5 to 2 X diameter of journal, according to service for which the boat
is intended, and to weight of wheels.
Overhung cranks. ^Fig. 18 shows a pair of overhung cranks as
formerly fitted in paddle-wheel engines. The crank-pin is subjer
134
CRANKSHAFTS IN GENERAL.
to bending and shearing stresses due to the thrust on the connecting-
rod. The maximum bending stress in the pin is close to the face of
the crank and is, —
where R is the thrust on the connecting-rod, and I the length of pin
from centre of connecting-rod to face of crank.
The diameter of the pin is given by» —
Rule 102. Diameter of Crank-pin =
-pin= »y
f
X 10.2,
where /is the greatest permissible stress on the material, in lbs. per
square inch. This rule gives the diameter requisite for strength, but
it may be necessary to make the pin larger in order to get sufficient
surface to comply with Table LI., page 128.
The crank-arm is to be treated as a lever, so that, — if a is thickness
measured parallel to axis of shaft, and b breadth, at a section x inches
from the crank-pin, — the bending moment at that section is, —
and,
M = Rxa;
ax^_M
« ~/
6M
or a=
b^xf'
The bending moment decreases with the distance from the crank-pin,
while the shearing force is the same throughout the crank-arm;
consequently the section near the crank-pin should have an extra
square inch for each 10,000 lbs. of thrust on the connecting-rod, beyond
the area necessary to resist the bending moment.
Fio. 18.
CRANKSHAFTS IN GBNKRAL.
135
The dimensions of the boss to receive the shaft may be detennined
from, —
Rule 103. T=2R-i-,
where T is the total stress on the section A x «, and the other letters
have the meanings shown in Fig. 18. The length h is usually 75 to
1 X diameter of shaft (Rule 103a), and,— when crank and shaft are of
the same' material, — h and e may have the following relative values:—
When A = D then e = -350.
A='9D ,, «=-38D.
^=-8D ,, «=-40D.
A- -70 ,, «=-41D.
The crank-eye, or boss into which the crank-pin is fitted, should bear
the same relation to the pin that the shaft boss does to the shaft.
The diameter of the shaft end, on which the crank is fitted, should
be 1*1 X diameter of journal.
Keys for cranks, &c. — These should be made of steel several
grades harder than the shaft and crank, and should be of the following
proportions : —
t)
»)
M
Rule 104.
Breadth of Key=5+ -125.
4
Rule 104a. Thickness of Key = *5 x Breadth.
Depth of key- way in shaft, at edge,
8houl(f be '17 X Breadth. Some en-
gineers use two (smaller) keys placed
90" apart, in order to obtain at least
three bearing points on shaft, and so
avoid all risk of "rocking" ; and large
shafts are sometimes fitted with three
keys. Where a lever is placed at some
distance from the end of a shaft, so that
the key cannot be fitted and driven from
the end, it is a good plan to fit a small
driving key alongside of the sunk key,
as shown in Fig. 19.
Fro. 19.
Tail Shafts of Screw Engfines.
These must resist the bending action arising from the weight and
inertia of the propeller, and from the blades when partially immersed,
in addition to the torque. The static stresses can of course be readily
determined b^ the rules already given, but the calculation of the
stresses resultmg from ** racing" of the propeller and pitching of ship
is too complex a subject to enter on nere. Experience has shown,
however, that the tail shaft should have a diameter greater than that
of the crankshaft ; and it is in practice the rule now to make them
considerably larger than the crankshaft, since breakage of one ma
136 CRANKaHAFTS IN GENERAL.
involvs Eeriona conaequencss. Much also depends oq the manner iii
which the tail-shaft is supjiorted.
Rule 105. — The taper o( the end that fits into the propeller boss
should not be less than )i-inch per ft., and la generally 1 inch
The thread of the large nut that holda the propeller on the shaft
is cammont; mode 4 threads per inch, regardlesa of the diameter ;
it ahoiild he left-handed when the propeller ia right-handed; and viet
vcTid. The nut should be securely locked, preferably by a plate fixed
to the aftor-snd of the boss by tap screws.
The propeller should be secured by a feather key of such a size that
the pressure per square inch on its beating sides does not exceed 1 1,000
per square inch. It generally extends the full length of the boss, but
sometimes it is only about half the length, being limited to the bearing
part before the recess. When the pressure exceed* 11,000 lbs. fier
square inch with one there should he tw^ keys, as is common prscuce
with Naval ships of high power.
The breadth of the key should be 2 x thickness.
The thickness within the boas when it is of bronze shonld be 12%
per cent, more than given when the boss is of cast steel or iron.
The proTieller boss should have a recess at the fore-end, into which
an indiamtiber ring of somewhat smaller extemal diameter is fitted,
and against which the shaft liner end ia butted and so made water-
tight.
Rule 106. — Breadth of key ^'22 x largest diameter of shaft 4- '2E.
Rule 106a. — Thickness of key ^ -6G x breadth.
The diameter of the screwed end of the abaft should be sulBciently
reduced to allow of the key being fitted in, from the after-end, clear of
the thread.
CRANKSHAFTS IN GENERAL. 137
The diameters over the brass casings at the bearings should differ
by }i inch, to enable the shaft to be got in and out of the stern-
tube more easily. The thickness of brass casing should not be less
than, —
Rule 107. — ^Thickness of brass casings at bearings should be not
less than 13 VD^ in 64ths of an inch ; and between the bearings and
the propeller boss 10 VD^, where Dj is the diameter in inches of the
shaft at the after stem bush. The liners should bear on the full length
and be shrunk on or pressed on tight.
See Table LV., p. 144.
Board of Trade ftule for Paddle Shafts.
Paddle shafts must not be less in diameter than given by this
formula, and in practice are generally larger, especially in oversea
ships and tugs.
For compound condensing engines having two or more cylinders
and the cranks not "overhung" : —
RulexoS. B.f.^ and P=Z-'(...,
where S is the diameter of shaft at journal in inches.
D is the diameter of low-pressure cylinder in inches.
0 is the length of crank or half the piston stroke in inches.
P is the pressure load on safety valve + 16 lbs.
/is a factor being 1466 when there are two cranks at an angle
of 90", and 1554 when three cranks at 120**.
Rules for the Shafting of Screw Ships (as established by the
British Marine Engineering D. & C. Committee, 1920).
(i.) For the shafts with turbine motors.
Rule 108a. Diameter of intermediate shafts = ^S.H.P. x F
S.H.P. is the maximum shaft horse -power (at full speed) when
running at R revolutions.
For ocean-going steamers F = 64.
For steamers on service in smooth waters F=58.
(ii.) For reciprocating steam engines the diameter of the low-
pressure cylinder of which is D, and the piston stroke is S, both
in inches.
138
CRANKSHAFTS IN GENERAL.
r is the ratio of the L.P. cylinder capacity to that of the H.P.
P is the working boiler pressure.
Fi is a factor the value of which is as under.
Rule io8b.— Diameter of intermediate shaft =j/^l^^^
V Fi(r +
Table LI I. Values of Fi for Various Reciprocating Engines.
2)
No.
a
b
c
d
e
General Description of Engines.
Service of Ship.
Ocean.
Smooth
Water.
•
2 Cranks at 90" Cylinders Compound, Triple, or Quadruple
^ >i >> ^o" »» l> »» l> »l
" »i f» 120 ,, ,, ,, ,, ,,
4 „ Balanced „ „ „ „
4 „ at 90° Cylinders Quadruple..
1,800
1,260
2,000
2,000
1,900
2,000
1,400
2,260
2,260
2,160
T?ie Crank Shafts the Thrust Shaft (in the way of the thrust
collars), and the (inner end of the) Tube Shaft shall be not less
than, —
Rule io8c. — Diameter =1 05 x diameter of intermediate shaft.
The shaft carrying the main spur wheel of a gearing arranged drive
shall be not less than this at the wheel end between bearings.
Rule io8d. — Diameter =G x diameter of intermediate shaft.
When there are two pinions geared to the spur wheel and the angle
between the planes passing through the axes of their spindles is not
less than 120^ the value of G is 1 -05.
When that angle is less than 120°, or only one, G = l*l.
Tail Shafts within the stem hushy whether it is in the stern
tube or in the brackets of multiple «crew ships, shall be not less
than, —
P
Rule io8f. — Diameter of tail shaft end =d + — ,
K.
where d is the diameter of the intermediate shaft as given by Rule
108a or 108b.
P is the diameter of the circle through the screw blade tips.
K is a factor as follows.
N.B. — The above Rules have been approved by the Board of Trade,
Lloyd's, and the other Register Societies, and generally taken as sub-
--titutes of their older Rules.
THRUST BLOCKS.
139
Table LIII.— Values of K for Tail Shafts.
Service of Ship.
Values of K when
Description of Engines.
The Liner is
Continuous.
Liners are Non-
Continuous.
Turbines or Electric
Motors.
Reciprocators generally.
Reciprocators, Turbines,
and Motors.
Ocean and Cross
Channel.
Ocean and Cross Chan-
nel (B.T. Nos. land 2).
Smooth water (B.T.
Nos. 3, 4, or 5).
144
120
144
120
100
120
'»
THRUST BLOCKS.
To find the thrust along the shaft of a screw engine, it is necessary
to know the speed of the ship, and the effective horse-power delivered
by the screw, that is, S.H.P. minus the power lost by friction, etc., of
the screw itself^
The effective horse-power is the power actually employed in propel-
ling the ship, and its relation tu the indicated horse-power depends
therefore on the combined ejfficiency of the engines and propeller.
For the purpose of calculating the purface of thrust-collars it is
sufficient to assume the E. H.P. -r I. H. P. = K when
For turbine engines of best make, KsO'80
best fast-running vertical reciprocators with no pnmps, . E=0'77
such engines with air pumps, E=0'76
good engines of medium speed having air, feed, and bilge pumps, E=0*71
,, ordinary mercantile engines with such pumps, . . E=0'68
Then,—
Rule 109. Indicated Thrust in lbs. = ^^^- "" 1^' ^^ = ^'^- P; J<A2«
^ Sx 101-3 S *
where S is the speed of the ship in knots ; and, —
Rule no. Mean Normal Thrust in lbs. = I-H.P. x 326 x K
S
As the thrust varies with the I.H.P., and inversely with the speed
{see Table LIV.), it may rise considerably above the **mean normal"
value, if, from any cause, the speed is reduced without a corresponding
decrease in the power, as, for instance, when '' thrashing *' against a
head wind and sea, or when towing.
Rule III. The pressure per square inch, due to the mean normal
thrust, should be about (2700 t-VR^ + 1^^) ^^s., R being revolutions
per min. and d diameter of thrust-shaft in inches ; for tug boats, it
should not exceed 50 lbs.
In practice the pressure is about 60 lbs. in Naval work, and about
60 lbs. in mercantile steamers ; with the Michel block (fig. 21) it may
be as high as 500 lbs. with a coefficient of friction 0'0015 only. In
practice 250 for Naval, 300 lbs. mercantile is general with this.
140
THRUST BLOCKS.
The relation between depth and thickness of collars on shaft is
given by, —
f -25 (D-d) + -4 inch (with small
collars^
•17 (D - d) + -4 inch (with large
collars),
Rule 112. Thickness <
where D is diameter over collars, and d diameter between collars, —
both in inches.
The spaces between collars on shafts should be as follows : —
'*"'•"* S?d"gS^So^'"''"'}Space=-4(D-^
Rule 113a. When block is fitted with'
cast-iron or cast-steel
' 'horse-shoes" faced with
brass or white metal, as
shown in fig. 22.
Cast-iron, —
Space=l-8V(D-d)-l-5.
Cast-SteeJ,—
Space = l-6v'(D-d)-l-6.
Rule 113b. When rings are cut out\
of solid metal of block
and cap, and entire cor- Cnace— *A CD — d\+ '6 in
rugatea surface is covered r ™ \ " )
with uniform layer of I
white metal. /
The number of collars employed is, to some extent, optional. With
the Michel thrust block one is sufficient and usual, but for very large
power a second can be added to get the necessary surface with a reason-
able diameter. With the ordinary horse-shoe thrust it is usual to have
one collar for shafts up to 6 inches diameter, and over that an
additional collar for each 2 inches of diameter, or such a number as
will give the necessary surface with a moderate diameter.
The shaft should be supported and ''steadied" in its place so as to
bear properly on the horse-shoe collars without any tendency to oscillate
and cause unfairness in contact. To attain this there should be a bear-
ing on each side of the block when it is a large and long one, and for
small shafts with a short block one will serve the purpose, and it may
be in one with the block.
The lubriccction must, of course, be certain and plentiful and applied
at the right places for efficiency ; the collars should really run in an oil-
bath so as to be self-lubricative. In the case of the Michel thrust the
lubrication is perfect, and consequently with this system the pressure
necessary to squeeze out the oil-film interposed between the rubbing
surfaces is very high. Large collars of type fig. 22 may be made
hollow with advantage and then fitted with water circulation to carry
awav the heat generated. To facilitate examination and refit the thrust
shaft should be a short one.
Fia. 21,— Uioliel Block.
Fia. 22,— Thrust Block.
142
STBRN-TUBBS.
Thrust-blocks of all types should be carefully scraped and bedded
to a perfect bearing on the shaft collars before leaving the workshops.
Rule 114. The number and diameter of holding-Sown bolts should
be such that the shearing stress per square inch, at the bottom of thread
due to the mean normal thrust, may be between 1800 and 2200 lbs. , when
the bolts are unassisted by stops or angle iJkrs riveted to the top plate
of the seating, and between 3200 and 3800 lbs. when such stops are
fitted. Stops should always be fitted where possible, as, when they
are absent, the stress on the bolts is largely a bending stress, owing to
the unavoidable presence of a certain thickness of packing.
The sizes of bolts usually employed vary from % inch to 1 % inch.
Packing should be of cast-iron, not of wood.
Table LIV.— Thrust Surfaces per I.H.P. for Various
Speeds of Vessels.*
Speed
in
knots.
Surface
necessary
to keep
pressure
60 lbs. per
sq. inch.
Speed
in
knots.
Surface
necessary
to keep
pressure
60 lbs. per
sq. incn.
Speed
in
knots.
Surface
necessary
to keep
pressure
60 lbs. per
sq. inch.
Speed
in
knots.
Surface
necessary
to keep
pressure
60 lbs. per
sq. inch.
8
9
10
11
12
18
U
Sq. inch.
•640
•486
•436
•896
•361
•335
•312
16
16
17
18
19
20
21
Sq. inch.
•288
•270
•256
•240
•227
•216
•207
22
23
24
26
26
27
28
Sq. inch.
•198
•190
•182
•176
•168
•161
•165
29
80
31
32
33
34
36
Sq. inch.
•160
•146
•141
•137
•133
•129
•125
STERNTUBES.
In merchant vessels the stern-tube is almost invariably of cast-iron,
fitted with a brass bush, or bushes, to carry the lignum- vitse strips
which form the actual bearing surface for the shaft.
In Naval vessels, on the contrary, the stern-tube is almost always
of gun-metal, and the bushes are not always fitted, as the lignum-
vit® strips may be fitted into grooves in the tube itself.
In multiple-screw Naval vessels the shaft brackets are fitted with gun-
metal bushes, carrying strips of lignum-vitse, — very similar to those
used for the after ends of stern -tubes in merchant vessels ; and the
forward ends of the stern-tubes are also fitted with long lignum-vit»
bearings, for the purpose of reducing vibration in the unsupported
outboard shafts.
The stern-tubes of merchant vessels should be secured in place by a
ring nut on the after end, made to screw up against the after face of
* With Michel thrust block allow one-seventh of these surfaces.
STERN-TUBBS. 143
the stern-post and draw the tube aft until a collar, formed on it, is
close up to forward side of post ; the forward end of tube being, of
course, jointed to the collision bulkhead in the usual manner.
Naval stern-tubes do not require any fixing at the after end, as they
are always surrounded by steel tubes, %- to 5^ -inch thick, which tie
the collision bulkhead to the post, or, in the case of twin-screw ships,
to the special stern -tube brackets ; they are simply drawn tightly into
the post, or brackets, and bolted to the bulkhead at the forward end.
When, as occasionally happens, they are put in from the after end, the
flange at the stuffing-box end is made separately and screwed on.
Cast-iron stem-tubes should be of the thickness given by, —
Rule 115. T=^-i--5in.,
and gun-metal tubes and bushes for shaft-brackets by, —
Rule iisa. T=~+-35 in.,
22
where D is the greatest diameter of shaft, over casings. {See Table
LV., page 144).
The stern-bush, for either shaft-bracket or stern-tube, should be of
such length that the pressure per square inch (taking surface as
length X diameter) does not exceed 35 lbs.
Length of bush is now at least 4 x diameter of shaft, over casings.
This rule will be found to limit the pressure to under 80 lbs. per
square inch, but it shbuld be in accordance with, —
Rule 116. Pressure per sq. inch = — =,
The bush at forward end of stern -tube should not be shorter than
one diameter for single screw vessels, and, for twin-screw vessels, where
there is a length of unsupported shaft outside the stern-tube, the
length of this bush should not be less than 1*5 to t*75 x diameter of
shaft.
These bushes in stern-tubes shoidd have a thickness of metal at the
back of the lignum- vitsB not less than, —
Rule I i6a. Ti = ^ -f '25 in. ,
where D is diameter of shaft over casing.
The ribs between the lignum-vit» strips may have a thickness of
%-inch for a shaft 6 to 8 inches in diameter, increasing to %-inch for
a shaft of 18 inches diameter.
The lignum-vitae strips themselves may vary from %-inch x 2 inches
to 1 or 1^ inch x 4 inches, for shafts of the diameters just mentioned.
The stuffing-box and gland at the inner end of stern-tube may have
the following proportions : —
144
Role 117.
Depth of atuffing-boz
Rule 117a.
Amount gland cui enter .
BTBRN-TUBBB.
D^
Rule it7b.
Diameter of stuffing-box = {11 x D)+l-6ins. for bushed glands.
Rule 117c.
Diameter of stufBng-bcx= (106 xD)+l-6 ii;
The gland studa may vaty from four, 1 incb
of a toSinchesdianieter, upt<ieight, 1% inch diameter, for a 16- one-
inch aliaft. If pillion nuts and kiotbeii iing9 are used, the gluid studs
must, of course, be made stouter to stand the bending atrcsses, and
ahould then vary from 1 ii inch to 1 JJ inch.
Ths following Table showa at a glance the thicknesses of shaft casings,
sterntubes, and stern - bushes, and the dimensions of at«rD-tub«
atuffing-boxes, as calculated bj Rules 107, IIS, 116b, 117 :—
Table LV.— Stem-Tubes and Bushes, etc.
%
Depth
h
Dla. at
Dta.oI
ss
Muffliw
fltuSng
ii
boifot
boilor
solid gun-
<
cMt-lrou
meUl
g-H-6
,.Ki..
gland.
u
i»
I-MD-l-l-E
6
2%
SH
5%
2H
10)4
6
i%
12?*
8K
3
12K
3!4
3%
u
i.
m
16)4
m
SH
laii
s%
4
17%
B%
IS
19
18S
10
20)4
it>H
I0J4
i%
21^
20H
11
4K
22%
21 K
n%
B 1 23%
23
12K
5% 25
?;!S
'
12%
BM 26)4
MAIN BEARINGS. 146
In designing gun-metal stern-tubes, shaft casinss, &c., great care
must be taken to avoid, as far as possible, all shoulders or steps in the
longitudinal section, as the castings set so rapidly, and consequently
grip the core so quickly, that everything tending to hinder the longi-
tudinal contraction is a source of danger ; want of attention to this
will probably cause a long tube to be torn into two or three separate
pieces in cooling. The middle portions of Naval ; tern-tubes are
commonly made about 30 per cent, thinner than the ends or portions
containing the bearings. In torpedo boats, &c., the tube-shafts
seldom have any casings, and run in white metal bearings.
MAIN BEARINGS.
The surfaces and lengths of main bearings have already been dealt
with.
Main Bearing^ Bolts.— These should ja of ''mild'* steel, with iron
nuts, and, to alloW for variations in adjustment, &c., should be pro-
portioned as follows : —
Rule Ii8. When there are two main beatings to each crank, and
twt) bolts to each cap, — assume that each bolt must carry one-third of
maximum effective load on piston, and select the proper diameter from
Table XLIIL, page 103.
Rule ii8a. — When there are two bearings on each crank, but four
bolts to each cap, — assume that each bolt must carry one fifth of maxi-
mum effective load on piston, and select diameter from same Table.
Rule Ii8b. — Where there is only one long bearing with four cap
bolts, between two cranks of a triple engine (cranks at 120"), — assume
that each bolt must carry one -fourth of maximum effective load on
piston and select diameter as befoi'e.
Rule iiSc. — When the crank is overhung, as in various types of
paddle-engine, and the whole thrust of the piston-rod, at the ends of
the stroke, is resisted by two cap bolts, — call the thrust P ; the
distance from centre of piston-rod to centre of main bearing bolts pw ;
and the distance from centre of piston-rod to centre of outer bearing
(in case of paddle-shaft) ^ or of bearing at other end (in case of inter-
mediate shaft) pf. Then (fig. 23), —
Stress on main bearing: bolts=P x^
and each bolt must carry one-half of this.
Rule iiSd. When the conditions are similar to (c), but there are
four bolts in each cap,-i^a8sume that each bolt must carry one-third of
total load on cap, and select suitable diameter from Table XLIII.,
page 103.
In cases (c) and (d) the stresses on the main bearing bolts due to the
weight and reaction of the wheels should be calculated on the
principle indicated above, and allowed for if necessary ; their magni-
tude of course depends very greatly on the length of the paddle-shaft.
Main Bearing Caps or Keeps. — In order to allow for variations
10
146
MAIN BEARtKGS.
in adjustmeut, either unnoticed or such as occur when a bearing
warms up and has to be slacked, the loads on main bearing caps may
be assumed to be as follows : —
Rule Z19.
Two bearing^s to each crank (cases 118 and 118a) .
%x max. effect, load on piston.
Fig. 23.
Rule 119a.
One long bearing between two cranks (case 118b) . . . •
% X max. effect, load on piston.
Rule 119b.
One bearing to each crank (cases 118c and 11 8d) . . . .
^^x max. effect, load on piston.
The load on a main bearing cap is neither a single central load, nor
Is it a uniformly distributed load, though probably nearer the latter
than the former. If suitable values for the working stresses are
employed, the most generally convenient formula is that for a beam
supported at ends, and uniformly loaded, viz. : —
Rule 120.
w=
_Sfz
where w=\oakd in lbs. per inch of span {I) ;
Z=span, or distance from centre of cap bolt to centre of
cap bolt ;
«= Modulus of section /^^^readthx depth' ^^^ ^ rectangular
section; for other sections see Table CXXXVIL);
and f has the following values : —
MAIN BEARINGS. 147
Flat-backed brasses and caps
Half-round brasses and caps -
f Cast-iron . . . .2,500
Wrought-ironor •*mild"8teel 9,000
Cast-steel .... 10,000
f Cast-iron .... 3,000
Wrought-iron or * 'mild" steel 10,000
I Cast-steel .... 11,000
When the caps are made of cast-steel the section at the centre may,
with advantage, be made to approximate to that of a * ' channel " bar
by employing two deep external ribs ; but in this case the value of/
must not exceed 6000. The values given above for cast-steel are no
doubt rather low, but there is, — in the present state of the manu-
facture,— always some risk of unsoundness, blow-holes, &c.
In estimating the breadths of caps care should be taken to deduct
the breadths, or diameters, of all hand holes, oil holes, &c.
Main Bearing: Brasses. — For small engines, auxiliary engines, &c.,
the inner or under brass may be of a semi-octagonal form, and the
outer or upper one flat on the back ; but in larger engines the under
brass at least should be of the '* half-round" type, and, when the
framing can be arranged to allow of it, it is both cheaper and better to
make the upper one * ' half-round " also. Some engineers, however,
prefer the square recess with the flat bottom brass which can be packed
up to keep the shaft bearings in true line when required.
The over-all thickness of the brasses {i.e, the thickness including
white metal) should be as follows : —
Rule 121^ Flat-backed brasses Thickness= — + '3-inch.
Rule I2ia. Round brasses . . Thickness — -7; + '25-inch.
Rule I2ib. White metal . . . Thickness='02 D-i-'125 inch,
where D is diameter of journal in inches. -
The recesses in the brasses should bo carefully tinned before the
white metal is run in, and the practice of hammering the white metal
to consolidate it should be avoided.
In large engines of the mercantile marine the shells for white metal
are commonly and are better made of strong cast-iron, and sometimes
the caps and shell upper half are cast in one.
When no white metal is used the thickness of brass at crown
sliould be, —
Rule 122.
Thickness of brass (when no white metal ) =
15 when flat-
backed.
•12 when
round.
Brasses should never overhang the frames or caps, by more than
** thickness of brass," as given by above rules, at each end.
148 FRAMINGS CX)LnMNS.
See Table XLIX. for the proportions given by the above rules.
The tendency of brasses to close, after being warm, and grip the
shaft, should be provided against either by securing them to the
frames by screws or bolts, or, a simpler and better way, by H section
liner strips.
In large main bearinirs it is very useful to have the lock-rings of the
nuts graduated, in order that, after being slacked back, the nuts may
be returned exactly to the old positions.
FRAMINGS.
The section of the girder that carries the main bearing is usually
either of the '* H " or "box*' type. For small engines either the
H or open bottom box is the best type, and for large engines the box,
— if the frame is of cast-iron, — or the H, — if cast-steel is used.
In the case of vertical screw engines for Naval purposes this girder
is sometimes cut down to the very slenderest proportions, so far as the
engine builder is concerned, and is built of steel plates and angles as a
part of the engine seating. In oscillating paddle-engines, on tne other
hand, the girder receives no support from any seating, and must be
strong enough to deal with all stresses communicated to it from the
bearing. Between these two extremes almost every possible inter-
mediate case is found in practice, and the designer must meet them by
using one or other of the general formulae for girders, and must use his
judgment in deciding what co-efficients best express the conditions of
loading, supporting or fixing, &c., — not forgetting that the material is
subject to alternate tensile and compressive stresses.
In the worst case (that of the oscillating paddle-engine) the girder
should be taken as supported only, and the load considered as a
single central one, and the values of / may be 3000 for cast-iron
and 8000 for cast-steel. In this particular example there are
frequently other stresses, — due to the unsymmetrical positions of the
colunms or pillars with regard to the bearings, — which must also be
allowed for.
In vertical screw engines there are stresses on these girders com-
municated from the columns, and due to the thrusts on the guides, and
also to the weight of the cylinders, &c., when the ship is rolling.
In paddle-wheel vessels there are also (as previously mentioned)
stresses due to the weights and reactions of the wheels, &c.
Very valuable additional strength and stiffness may sometimes be
obtained by using a forged or cast-steel cap with lips at the ends
which prevent the springing open of the gap containing the brasses,
or, spigote or projections may be used which will prevent it either
opening or closing.
COLUMNS.
The tensile stresses on the material of columns, and also on the
bolts connecting them to the cylinders have been dealt with under the
^'^'^ding "Column feet and Bolts," page 97 ; but in vertical engines
CONDBNSBRS. 149
there are also bending stresses due to the thrusts on the guides, and
to the weight of the cylinders, pistons, valves, rods, &c., when the
ship is rolling. These may all be dealt with by means of the formula
for a beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other, viz. : —
w4
and need not therefore be considered in detail here.
The bolts attaching the column feet to the bed-plate or frame must
of course be strong enough to carry the direct tensile stress, plus the
stress caused by the tendency of the column to cant over on one edge
of its base ; and it must be noticed that only about one-fourth of the
bolts in each column foot are, on an average, able to offer resistance to
the latter stress.
When weight is of great importance, as in Naval work, and framings
are made of the lightest possible sections, special stresses, — such as
those resulting from the action of the reversing engine, &c., — must
be carefully considered and allowed for.
CONDENSERS.
I. Jet Condensers.
The Capacity of a jet condenser should not be less than one-fourth
that of the cylinder, or cylinders, exhausting into it, and need not be
more than one-half, — unless the engine is a very quick-running one :
one- third the capacity of cylinder is generally sufficient.
The Form of a jet condenser is not a matter of much consequence,
and depends, to some extent, on the type and design of engine to
which it is fitted, ^he inlet for steam should be high enough to pre-
vent water getting into the cylinders, and the lower portion should be
so shaped that the water will all drain to the air-pump.
The Position of the Jet Pipe or nozzle, and the form of the
deliveiy openings in it depend so much on the form of the condenser
that mo definite rule can be given ; the nozzle pipe may have a
number of small holes drilled in it, or the water may issue from
transverse or longitudinal saw-cuts or slots, or may all issue in a sheet,
from the end of the pipe, through a nozzle resembling a section of pipe
which has been flattened and nearly closed.
The Quantity of Injection Water depends on the weight of steam
to be condensed, and on its heat, and, — to ascertain the exact
quantity, — the temperature of the injection water, and the required
temperature of hot-well must be known.
The vacuum with this type of condenser rarely exceeds 25 inches,
and is more commonly 24 inches, — which corresponds to a tempera-
ture of about 140* ; the temperature of the hot-well varies, in practice,
fr(Hn 110* to 130\
150
OONDBNSBRS.
The number of pounds of injection water (Q) necessary to condense
one pound of steam is given by, —
Rule 125.
^_1114 + (-3xT8)-Th
^" Th-Tw
where Ts= temperature of steam at exhaust.*
Th= ,, of hot- well.
Tw= ,, of cooling water.
Rule 124. It is usual to make an allowance of injection water of
from 27 to 30 times the weight of steam to be condensed, for vessels
in temperate climates, to 30 to 85 times for the tropics.
The relation of weight of steam to volume, to temperature, and to
release pressure is given in the following Table : —
Table L VI.— Weight, Pressure, and Temperature of
Steam of Low Pressure.
Pressure in
Pressure in
1
Temper-
ature
Latent
Heat
Volume
of one
Pound
of
Steam.
Temper-
ature.
Latent
Heat
Volume
of one
Pound
of
Steam.
Pounds, Vacu-
Pounds
Vacu-
Abso-
lute.
um
Ins.
r.
r.
Abso-
lute.
um
Ins.
F*.
F*.
cub. ft.
cub. ft
0-3
29-4
67'6
1070
1067
1-7
26*6
120-8
1029
200
0-4
29-2
74-0
1063
800
1-8
26-4
122-4
1028
190
0-6
29-0
80-0
1058
640
1-9
26-2
124-6
1026
181
0-6
28-8
85-5
1054
535
2-0
26-0
126-7
1025
172
0-7
28-6
90-4
1051
461
2-1
25-8
128-6
1024
165
0-8
28-4
94-5
1048
410
2-2
25-6
130-4
1022
158
0-9
28 '2
98-6
1045
367
2-3
25-4
132-2
1021
152
10
28-0
102 0
1042
333
2-4
25-2
134-0
10-20
145
1-1
27-8
105 0
1040
306
2-5
25-0
135-6
1019
140
1-2
27-6
108-0
1038
282
2-6
24-8
136-9
1018
185
1-3
27-4
111-0
1036
260
2-7
24 '6
138-2
1017
130
1-4
27-2
113-7
1034
240
2-8
24-4
1396
1016
125
1-5
27-0
1160
1033
225
2-9
24-2
141-0
1015
121
1-6
26-8
118-2
1031
212
3-0
240
142-2
1014
118
The Area of Injection Orifice, and size of pipes, is governed by
the head of water, the vacuum, and the length of piping and number
* Strictly, absolute temperatures (Fahrenheit temperatures+461*) should be
used in this and all similar calculations.
CONDENSERS. 151
of bends, &c., or, in other words, by the equivalent head at the
condenser.
Neglecting the resistance to flow at the orifice, and in the pipes and
passages, the velocity at the condenser may be found as follows : —
Let h be the head, in feet, above the valve on the condenser ; j9, the
pressure in the condenser in lbs. per sq. inch; h^ the equivalent
head ; and g^ gravity. Then,-^
Ai=A+(16-i»)2-3,
and velocity in feet per second is sJ2 gh^ or S^/Aj.
Rule 125. In practice, owing to the loss of head resulting from resist-
ances at valves, and in pipes, &c., the actual velocity is only about
half that given by the above rule ; hence, in designing, it is usual
to calculate on a velocity of only 25 feet per second for shallow draught
steamers, and 30 feet per secona for deeper ones.
The following more concise expressions are derived from the
above rules, —
Rule 126.
Area of orifice \ __ No. of c ft. of injection water per minute
in sq. ins. ./'~ 10*4tol2'5 according to circumstances '
Rule 126a.
or Area of ori- \ _ Weight of injection water in lbs. per min.
Vrea of ori- \ _ Wei
in sq. ins. ) 65
fice in sq. ins. j 650 to 780 according to circumstances
A snifting or overflow valve, held on its seat by atmospheric
pressure only, should be provided, to prevent pressure or an undue
accumulation of water in the condenser : its diameter should be the
same as that of the injection valve.
2. Surface Condensers.
These are now supplied to all classes of vessels both for economy
in working and to obtain the high vacuum so desirable when the
maximum power is required from an engine, and so necessary to the
turbine for high eflBciency as well as maximum output. The saving
in fuel alone as against tne common condenser averages 15 per cent.,
and may be as much as 20.
The benefit of high vacuum is shown by the relative steam con-
sumptions per horse-power, both with turbines and reciprocators,
determined by the experiments of Sir 0. Parsons and Professor
Weighton.
152
OONDBNSBRS.
Table LVI I.— Effect of Vacuum on Steam Consumption in lbs.
per I.H.P. in a Turbine of looo H.P., and in a Quadruple
and a Triple Expansion Experimental Reciprocator of
200 I.H.P.
Vacuum . . Ids.
20
19-2
16-7
14-8
22
24
16-9
15-5
14-05
26
15-6
15-0
13-90
27
14-8
14-7
13-8
28
20
A turbine
A quadruple reciprocator
A triple ,,
18-1
16-1
14-35
13-9
14-5
18-77
18-0
14-3
13-76
The surface condenser is itself more costly than a common one,
and requires a separate air pump and water pump against the single
pump combiuing the services with a jet condenser. The extra co.st,
however, is quite trilling compared with the advantages.
The form of a Surface Condenser is not of great consequence, but
it is necessary that it shall be such that the economy of cost of con-
struction does not reduce its efficiency, nor should it be that to
gain a small increase in efficiency the cost is greatly increased. In a
general way the cylindrical body is convenient, cheap to manufacture,
and capable of an arrangement of tubes and baffles, whereby a high
efficiency is attained in practical working. It is very light, requires
no stays to stiffen it, and can be fixed in any convenient place.
Mr Weir's condenser, known as the Unaflow, is heart-shaped or
approximating to a spherical triangle in cross- section, generally placed
vertically with the apex at the bottom, so that the steam expands over
a large surface on entering the upper part and is caused to pass over
the whole of the tubes below so that every square foot is active. The
condensed water drops to the sides and drains to the bottom.
Mr Morison's contraflow system effects the same end in a body of
different shape ; in his condenser there is the same tapering of the
body of tubes, and the steam is forced to pass over the whole, the
water, however, is collected and led away to the air pump by special
means provided. Mr Morison adopts a similar foim of barrel, but
more like the section of an egg than that of Mr Weir.
Cooling Surface is now entirely of brass tube, and the quantitv
depends on the requirements of each particular case. If high
vacuum is desired the surface must be somewhat more than if a
lower amount will do ; but the temperature of the cooling water is
the most serious factor, especially for high vacuum. Sea-water in
several parts of the tropics is 85° F. in summer time, and 80' F. is
common. In the Nortn Atlantic generally and about the British
coasts 60° F. is the usual summer temperature, and 65** F. a maximum.
The temperature of steam or vapour at a pressure of 1 lb. is no more
than 102 F., so that with a good supply of cooling water 28 inches of
vacuum can be maintained, but 29 inches is impossible in the tropics,
because the temperature of vapour is then only 80** F.
CONDBNSEBS.
153
Table L VI 1 1.— Summer Temperature of Sea- Water at
Various Parts of the World.
Locality.
Tempera-
ture.
Locality.
p*.
F*.
North Sea, off Drontheim, .
60
Indian Ocean, Eurrachi,
85
,, „ Bergen,
63
„ near Colombo,
86
,, ,, Gothenburg, .
61
,, „ Bombay,
84
Baltic Sea, ,, Stettin,
64
„ Singapore,
86
,, ,, Stockholm, .
50
,, Penang, .
87
,, ,, Kronstadt, .
66
China Seas, near Hong Kong,
83
Thames, Gravesend,
64
„ „ Woosung, .
69
Scheldt, Antwerp,
66
„ ,, Shanghai, .
64
English Channel,
62
„ „ Kobe,
67
Portuguese Coast,
72
Atlantic Ocean, off Lisbon, .
72
Mediterranean, Gibraltar, .
72
,, „ Madeira,
76
,, Marseilles, .
70
,, ,, Azores, . 76
,, Malta,
76
,, „ Cape Verde
81
,, Port Said, .
76
,, North, in places,
73
Black Sea, near Bosphorus, .
74
,, off Ireland,
66
Red Sea, ,, Suez, .
87
,, „ Boston, U.S.A.
65
,, ,, Middle,
90
Gulf of Mexico, W. Indies, .
83 ,
,, ,, Aden, .
87
S. America, Buenos Aires, .
71
Indian Ocean, West, .
85
The Cooling Surface should in a general way be in proportion to the
weight of steam to be condensed. Professor Weighton with a contraflow
condenser deposited 33 lbs. per sq. ft. per hour, and under very
favourable conditions as much as 40 lbs. has been got. In Destroyers
on trial, when new and the surface quite clean, 28 to 30 lbs. can be
condensed. Mr Weir has been able to get 35 lbs. with a vacuum of
27*8 ins. Allowing for the surface losing efficiency after service, it
may be taken that a square foot can be relied on to condense 20 lbs.
with a liberal amount of cooling water. If the steam consumption of
a triple engine be taken at 16 lbs. per I.H.P., then : (Rule 126) surface
per I.H.P. = — = 0'8 sq. ft. In the same way for a turbine with a
13
consumption of 13 lbs. the allowance should be : (Rule 126a) — or
0*65 sq. ft. The following table may be taken as good practice under
the conditions named. It may be said, however, that the ordinary
cargo steamer with reciprocators, going to all pai-ts of the world, has
1 sq. ft of cooling surface per I.H.P., and this is sufficient for a good
vacuum anywhere.
154
CX)NDENSEfiS.
Table LIX.— Cooling Surface. Allowance per I.H.P.
Description of Engines.
Home Waters.
Tropics.
Triple Compound, Express Steamers, .
,, ,, Economic Type,
Quadraple Compound, Economic Type,
Turbine driven, Ordinary Type, .
„ ,, Express Type, .
0-80 sq. ft.
0-70 „
0-65 „
0-65 „
0-80 „
l-23sq. ft.
1-06 „
095 „
110 „
1-25 „
In Naval ships ; where full speed is only attained at intervals for a
short time and the condensers of which are always clean, an allowance
of half a square foot suffices for Destroyers and other very light high-
speed craft, and for the ordinary cruiser and battleship with turbines
075 sq. ft. S.H.P. at full power. There is, however, a limitation to
the condensing capacity of cooling surface if the supply of water is
restricted. The total length of tube through which the water flows
should not exceed 400 diameters in the temperate zone for high surface
efficiency : 20 lbs. can then be relied on as the rate of condensation,
but with so long a flow there will be a serious reduction in the tropics.
If, therefore, high vacuum and good rate of condensation is required,
with the cooling water 75* to 80 F., the traverse should not be more
than is given by the following rule : —
Rule 127. Traverse of cooling water = 400 x pr x — 1
Q is the quantity of water required to be condensed per square foot
of surface per hour, d is the external diameter of tube in inches.
The traverse should not be more than 330 diameters of tube for
ships visiting the tropics and requiring high vacuum.
It was usual for the cooling water to travel three times through the
tubes ; now, with tubes of considerable length, twice through suffices.
The flow over the cooling surface should be rapid for good results, and
is often at the rate of 300 ft. per minute, this, however, is high for
small tubes and requires large power to force it through ; 200 ft. per
minute is a good rate. The coldest water must bo applied to the
coolest part of the condenser, so as to maintain the efficiency of the
surface as uniform as possible and to get the best results from the
whole ; hence the cooling water should be admitted at the bottom of
the condenser and discharged from the top, where the difference in
temperature from the incoming steam is not great but still sufficient
to condense a portion. The difference in temperature at discharge
for economic working will be about 5° F., and in the tropics even less.
The quantity of cooling water can be estimated by the following
formula : —
OONDENSERS.
155
Rule 128. Q=(T, + L)>T3^(Ta-To) = ^^^^l;Q'V^"'^»,
Tj is the temperature of the steam entering the condenser, and
L its latent heat ;
Tq the temperature of the cooling water at entry, and
Q the quantity of the cooling water at entry ;
T2 the temperature of cooling water on leaving the condenser,
T3 the temperature of the hot well.
The following table gives the ratio of least cooling water to the
steam condensed at different temperatures of the sea.
Table LX.— Ratio of Cooling Water to Steam Condensed.
Vacuum . Ins.
25 0
13-9
26-5
147
26-0
15-4
26-5
16-4
27-0
18-2
27-5
20*1
28-0
28-5
29-0
40-4
29-3
650
Sea water, 50° F.
22-8, 28-0
„ 60** F. 16-0
17-1
18-1
19-5 22-l!24-8'29-0
38-0
64-3
168
„ yo'^F.is-g
20-6
21*8
24 0:27 -9 82-3 40-0
66-3
156
• • •
„ SO'^F. 23-1
25-5
27-6
31 •037-9 46*3
63-0133
#••
• ••
„ 85'*F.26-0
i
29-1
32-8
40 -0 50 -5 61-5
153
• • •
• • •
• • •
This shows what in practice is the least weight of cooling water
required when the pressure at exhaust is 12 lbs. absolute.
Modern air-pumps can maintain a vacuum of 29 inches, but by the
above the quantity of water at 70" F. is enormous, and at 80" F. is
impossible ; the highest vacuum at that temperature being 28*8, and
theii the ratio is no less than 270. The highest vacuum with water
at 70* will be 29 '1 inches, with a »tio of 220. In temperate zones with
sea-water at 60° F., 29*4 inches can be maintained by passing 280 lbs.
for each pound of condensate. In everyday practice, and the con-
denser not too clean, 10 to 20 per cent, more water may be required
than given in the table.
Condenser tubes are made of brass formerly consisting of 70 per cent,
of best selected copper and 30 of best Silesian zinc. The Admiralty
composition consists of 29 of zinc and 1 of tin. The British Engineer-
ing Standards Association specifics the following : —
Standard condenser tubes to be f or f in external diameter and
18 L.S.G. thick, made of an alloy of copper and zinc, as follows : —
For tiibes to contain not less than 70 per cent, of metallic copper,
and not more than a total of 0-75 per cent, of materials other than
copper and zinc, except if so specified, 1 per cent of tin and IJ to 2
of lead.
For screioed glands 60 of copper, 075 impurities and 1 of tin and IJ
to 2 of lead if so specified, the remainder being zinc.
Lengfth unsupported. — (Rule 129) When tubes are secured at the
tube-plates by screw ferrules and packing, the unsupported length
1 56 CONDKHaBRS.
should not elce«d 100 diameters ; or, when thej are held bj
tightly fitting ferroles, 120 diameters. Ir the tubes are longer than
this, they sliould be supported bj intermediate diaphragms of rolled
brass, from !^-inoh to liweh in thioknesa, according to aize ; but care
must be taken, in amuigiDg the deaign, that these diaphragm plates
do not interfere with the free flow of the steam to all parts of the
condenser.
Tube plates. — These should be of rolled brass of the following
thicknesses : —
Rule 130.
When wood ferrules are used . . ' i '5 x diameter of tube.
,, screw slandB „ . . I'l x „ „
" Diameter of tube " siguifies, in all cases, external diameter.
Fig. 24 shows the method of securing a tube by a wood ferrule, and
fig. 2G by means of a aorew gland and parking ; the dimensions on
the Bguroa give the proportions adoptsd by B.E.S.A. foi- %-iuch tubes.
I
Fio. 24. Fio. 25,
Spacing of Tubes. — The tubes should be spaced zigzag, and
equilaterally (i.e. the cetitre of any tube should be at the same
distance from the centie of each of the immediately surrounding tubes).
The pitch may be as follows 1 —
Rule 131.
When wood ferrules are used— Dia. of bole for ferrule + ^ in.
When screw glands are used— Extreme dia. of gland -i- 14 to'Xiin-
The following Table will be of aJuiistance in making rough calcnla-
tiona for size of condenser : —
C0NDBN8ERS.
157
Table LXI.— Size of Surface Condenser.
External diameter of tube— % inch.
Pitch of tubes, . ,
lys"
1%»"
P/ie"
17/ »
^ /32
1^4"
Number of tubes
per sq. ft. of tube
plate,
136
128
25'1
sq. ft.
122
116
110
Cooling surface per
cubic ft. of tubes'
SpaCC] . • • •
26-7
sq. ft.
23-9
sq. ft.
22-7
sq. ft.
21-5
sq. ft.
The surface of 1 foot of %-inch tube is '1963 sq. ft, and of %-inch
is -1637 sq. ft.
See also Table of.Surfaces of Tubes, Table CLXI.
Application of Cooling Water.— The simplest method of applying
the cooling water is to allow it to run direct from the sea into the
condenser, and then to pump it overboard from the condenser ;
where this cannot be conveniently arranged, and the water is
forced through the condenser by a reciprocating pump, a large air-
vessel should be provided as near to the pump as possible, to guard
against shock from ** racing" or sudden starting.
The centrifugal pumps, invariably employed for circulating purposes
on ships of war and in passenger steamers and in all ships of large
power, suck from the sea and drive the water through the condensers,
but they are of course incapable of communicating any shock to the
structure.
In order to reduce the shock from reciprocating circulating pumps,
some engineers fit a screw- down by- pass valve which admits air when
opened more or less, whenever "racing" occurs.
In merchant steamers the condenser was commonly a part of the
framing, and made of cast iron ; its strength of course depended
largely on its form and position, and had little relation to the stresses
resulting from its action as condenser.
In war vessels, on the other hand, the condenser never forms any
part of the framing ; it was commonly cylindrical in form, made of
naval brass or gun-metal, and strong enough to bear an internal test
pressure of 30 lbs. per sq. inch. It is now in ships generally of sheet
steel, heart-shaped in transverse section and having cast-iron wnter-
ways and covers at the ends.
Condensers for Destroyers, &c. , up to about 5 feet diameter, usually
had the barrels made of sheet brass (8 to 6 L.S.G.), with flanges and
stiffening rings riveted and soldered on.
158 AIR-PUMPS.
Manholes, sight-holes, mud-holes, and air-cocks should always be
provided ; in Naval condensers fittings for introducing soda, and for
boiling out, are always fitted in addition.
AIR-PUMPS.
Wherever practicable these should be vertical, and single-acting,
since this lype is in every way the most efficient and satisfactory.
Centrifugal pumps are now specially designed and act well as air-pumps
in conjunction with ejectors for producing vacuum. The Kiiietic Air-
Pump System is now taking the place of reciprocating pumps for
independent condensers for auxiliary machinery.
In vertical screw engines the air-pump should be driven by levers
and links from the L.P. crosshead or gudgeon ; when driven direct
from the piston or crosshead the speed is objectionably high, and the
pump is not usually convenient of access. On the other hand, the
clearance space is relatively small and it has no gear or parts requiring
to be lubricated.
In twin-screw engine installations when the screws turn outwards
the air-pump is in front of the engine, worked by levers in the usual
way, the condenser being near the ship's side. When the screws turn
inwards the pump is at the back, as with single-screw engines. With
turbines the condensers are often beside the L.P. member, and the
air-pumps being driven by independent motors are placed in any
suitable place contiguous.
In paddle- engines the air-pumps are placed in different positions;
and driven in different ways according to the type of engine. In
oscillating engines they are usually inclined, and driven by connecting-
rods from a crank formed in the middle of the intermediate shaft,
or by an eccentric fixed in the same position ; but are sometimes
placed vertically, and driven through a lever or beam. In almost
all other types of paddle engine they can be placed vertically without
difficulty, and may be driven as found most convenient.
Size of Air-Pump. — Whether for jet or surface condenser, the
quantity of water to be removed by the air-pump can be easily
determined by the rules given under "Condenser,** but the quantity
of air is variable and cannot be calculated ; and it is therefore necessary,
especially in the case of surface condensing engines, to rely more on
experience than on theoretical considerations.
The Capacity of Air-Pump depends on the amount of water
passing through it from the condenser, inasmuch as the air to be
abstracted will vary with the amount of feed water. If a condenser is
absolutely tight, the engine glands leak no air, and the circuit of the
feed water is closed so that no fresh air comes in contact with it, a very
small air-pump suffices to maintain a good vacuum when once formed.
But these are conditions not to be counted on in practice ; moreover,
it is necessary, especially in some services, to have a good vacuum very
quickly after the pump starts. The height of the vacuum, or the
rarefaction of tlie condenser, does not depend on the size of the air^
AIR-PUMPB. 159
pump, but on its fitness ; for an ill-designed pump, however large,
cannot produce high vacuum, and most pumps act efficaciously from
all clearance spaces being filled and air leaks stopped by the water
passing through them ; without water they would fail to make or
maintain a good vacuum. Under fair working conditions, such as
obtain on shipboard, a vacuum of 26 ins. can be maintained with an
air-pump having a capacity of 0*3 cubic foot for each pound of
condensed water passing through it. Hence for a triple engine using
16 lbs. of steam per H.P. hour at R revolutions,
• 16 X I H P
tbe ancLount passing through the pump each stroke = — ; — ' ' •
Then capacity of pump=^'^^^^^ x ^ H.P. ^^.^g I.H.P. ^^^ ^^
60 R R
This, however, would be too small for quick formation of vacuum, and
with leaky L.P. glands insufficient to keep the 26 ins. To maintain
as well as form a vacuum of 28 to 29 ins. the allowance should be
0*8 cubic foot per pound of feed water. Then
0'8 X f I H P
Rule 132. Capacity of air-pump = ^q ^ r ' when worked
I H P
by the engine =0 0133/x ' ^ '■
For triple compound engines/ may be taken at 16.
,, quadruple ,, ,, 14.5.
Taking 15 as the average amount, the general rule becomes
Capacity of air-pump = 0 2 x tl|^.
R
It is, however, often convenient in designing and common practice
to make the air-pump in proportion to the L.P. cylinder. Hence : —
Rule 132a. Capacity of Single Acting Air-Pump=0'04 that of
the L.P. cylinder.
For ferry steamers or those calling at piera, and so often stopping
and required to get away at full speed rapidly, the multiplier may
be 0 '047 with advantage.
The common air-pump with foot, bucket, and head valves is not
often used now, the Edwards pump with only head valves having
superseded them, as being quite as efficient in every-day practice, and
less costly both to make and to work by the omission of two -thirds of
the valves, and less likely to get out of order also.
Weir's dual Air-Pumps when worked by an independent motor are
also much in favour, especially for turbines. Here the work is done in
stages, the one pump delivering semi-compressed air into the other and
keeping all its air leaks sealed and its temperature low by drawing anc
160 AIR-PUMPS.
using some specially cooled water. The delivering pump may be
warmer and not so carefully sealed.
Parsons' Vacuum Augfmenter is an ingenious and simple method
of getting high vacuum. In this the air-pump is placed well below
the condenser and permits of a column of water to seal the air, which
is drawn away by a steam ejector from the condenser bottom, and keeps
the condenser itself free from air or any other gaseous matter, which
would otherwise seriously reduce its efficiency.
Air- Pump Rods. — These are made of one of the rolled strong
bronzes. Where a guide is fitted, and the stroke of the pump does not
exceed 2^ times its diameter, the rod (without regard to its material)
may have a diameter given by, —
Rule 133. Diameter of rod = Di«"'«te^^°f P"-"? + 6 inch.
See Table LXII. (page 163) for sizes given by this rule.
The Size of the Screw on the air-pump rod, by which it is
attached to the air-pump crosshead, is given by, —
Rule 133a. Area at bottom of thread = reao
20 X >ydiameter of bucket
See Table LXII. (page 163) for sizes given by this rule.
This allows a stress of about 2000 lbs. per sq. inch of material in the
rod for a 12-inch pump, increasing to 3800 lbs. per sq. inch in the rod
for a 40 -inch pump, the load on the bucket being taken as 30 lbs.
per sq. inch.
When the number of reciprocations is high (say 200 to 350 per
minute) the rods should be made 10 per cent, larger in diameter than
given by the rule, although the stroke may be short, or even very
short, since there is always a liability to sudden strain, owing to
irregular or intermittent action of the pump, and the intensity of
these strains will vary as the squares of the bucket speeds, — other
things being equal.
Connecting-Rods for Trunk Air- Pumps.— When of the type
commonly employed for driving the pumps of oscillating paddle-engines
these may have the following proportions : —
Rule 134. Area of section of rod=: *oi x area of bucket ;
or, in case of a round rod, —
Rule 134a. Diameter of rod= *i x diameter of bucket ;
when two bolts are used to connect the brasses at the end, —
Rule 134b.
Diameter of each bolt (in body) = '056 x diameter of bucket
Air-pump valves are usually of metal, and made as light as possible
with little lift. Simple discs of sheet brass answer very well ; if fitted
as tongues it is necessary to employ a metal with some spring and
AtR-PUMPS. 161
c&pable of withstanding continuous vibratory stresses. Sheet phosphor-
bronze is good.
When the air-pump valves are of india-rubber care should be taken
to fit a quality that is capable of resisting the heat, &c. ; the Admiralty
specification is as follows : —
"To be made of the best Para caoutchouc, with no other materials
whatever than sulphur and white oxide of zinc ; the sulphur is not to
exceed 1% per cent., and the oxide of zinc not to exceed 70 per cent
The india-rubber is to be made of the best materials, not re- manufac-
tured, and to be of a homogeneous character throughout, thoroughly
compressed, free from air-holes, pores, and all other imperfections.
"Samples of the india-rubber will be tested, and must be capable
of enduring a dry heat test of 270" Fahrenheit for one hour, and
a moist heat of 320° Fahrenheit for three hours, without impairing its
quality."
Air- Pump Barrels. — In the mercantile marine the pump barrel is
of bronze, secured to its seat and supporting the delivery chamber and
hot- well by flanges. It is usual in Naval work to make barrel, head
and foot boxes all one bronze casting. Whichever type of construction
is used, the working barrel should be of thickness given by, —
Rule 135,
Thickness of air-pump barrel =5^^H!t?L2!>5^+ .26-inch.
*^ *^ 60
See Table LXII. (page 163) for thicknesses given by this rule.
When the pump is of the Naval type the portions above and below
the working barrel may be from Vic to ^ inch thinner than the
barrel, accoiding to size and design.
When the bronze barrel is not enclosed in an outer casting, and
there are foot valves and bucket valves fitted, it is very desirable to
have a manhole in the side, through which access may be had to them
without disturbing the cover or guides. Similarly, when the size of
the pump renders it possible, hand or sight holes should be provided
in the sides of the head box, for getting at the head valves.
The Areas through the Valve Gratings of foot, bucket, and head
valves should be kept as large as possible ; on an average, those of the
foot and bucket valves run about one-third of the gross area of bucket,
and those of the head valve a little larger ; they can of course be
increased by increasing the diameter of the pump, and decreasing
the stroke.
Edwards' pumps having only " head" valves are now almost always
used for air-pumps, and give every satisfaction, as they can maintain
high vacuum without foot or bucket valves to trouble one, and with an
unpacked bucket working with the minimum amount of friction.
Speeds of Bucket. — In ordinary mercantile engines the speed of
bucket employed varies from 200 feet to 350 feet per minute ; but in
Naval engines it commonly ranges from 300 feet to 450 feet, and with
11
162 AIR-PUMPS.
pumps driven direct from the pistons is of course higher still. When
the pump works in connection with a jet condenser the speed should
not much exceed 200 feet per minute.
Sizes of Suction and Discharge Pipes.— For the pumps of
surface condensing engines (where no jet apparatus is fitted) the
diameter of suction pipe from condenser, in inches, is given by, —
Rule 136. Diamr. of air-pump suction pipe in ins. =To V3 x R,
or, Equivalent mean speed in pipe must not exceed 3500 ft. per min.,
where D is diameter of bucket in inches, and S its stroke in feet, R the
revolutions per minute.
If there is a supplementary hot-well or feed-tank the pipe connecting
it with the air-pump should be of diameter given by, —
Rule 136a. Diamr. of air-pump delivery pipe in ins. = go \/SxK.
In addition, an air-pipe should be fitted as close to the pump as
possible ; its diameter may be, —
Rule 137. Diameter of air-pipe in ins. = jqq VS x R, *
or, Equivalent mean speed in pipe must not exceed 6400 feet per
minute.
If the pipe to feed-tank is long, or has many sharp bends in it,
these points must, of course, be considered and allowed for in fixing
the size.
When the pump works in connection with a jet condenser, the
diameter of suction and delivery pipes may be, —
Rule 138. Diamr. of suction and delivery pipes in ins. = gg VS x R,
or, Equivalent mean speed in pipe must not exceed 625 feet per
minute.
The delivery pipes from air-pumps of jet- condensing engines should
have good large air-vessels (say capacity not less than capacity of
pump) placed as near to the pumps as possible.
* ^^of«.— Where there ia only one delivery pipe from pump head, its diameter
D ,
mu8t be 7g v S x R ins.
RECIPROCATING CIRCULATING PUMPS.
10.3
Table LXII.— Air and Circulating Pump
s.
Diameter
Thickness
of double-
Diameter
Thickness
of barrel
Diameter
acting pump
of pump
of barrel
+10 per
Diameter
of screw on
of same
(single-
(single-
cent.
of rod.
outer end of
capacity
actiugX
acting).
(double-
acting).
rod.
(circulating
onlyX
1
2
inch.
8
4
6
6
inches.
inch.
inches.
inchea.
inches.
8
%
■ • •
ii4
iy4
• • •
10
Vi.
• • •
iy4
1%
• ••
12
Vi.
• • •
2
1%
• • ■
14
H
• • •
2}4
2
■ • •
16
^
H
i%
2^4
11%
18
•Xs
%
2%
2/4
13
20
•X.
Vi»
2%
2H
14
22
%
'A*
8
2%
15%
24
%
•/..
8%
2%
17
26
'Vi.
%
8^
3
18%
28
'Vi.
%
8%
8
20
30
%
"A»
4
8%
21
32
%
"A,
4^4
8%
22%
84
''A.
"A,
4%
8^
24
36
%
%
i%
8%
25%
38
»
%
i%
4
27
40
'/i
"/..
5
4
28%
RECIPROCATING CIRCULATING PUMPS.
These may be donble-acting, except in small ships when they are
single-acting, and, as their efficiency is practically unaffected by posi-
tion, they may be either vertical, horizontal, or inclined. In general
design the various parts may resemble the corresponding parts of the
air-pump (in practice the same patterns are sometimes used for both
pumps), but circulating pumps require, in addition, large air vessels,
non-return air or pet cocks, and, in the case of large double-acting
pumps, a by-pass valve.
The air-vessel for a single-acting pump should have a capacity equal
to twice that of the pump, when possible, but never less than one
and a half.
The by-pass valve may have an area of about one-tenth the area of
the bucket.
When the size of pump required would, if made single acting,
exceed 20 inches in diameter, it is better to fit a double-acting pump
of half the bucket area, and thus obtain a steadier delivery, whilst at
the same time reducing the magnitude of the stresses and the sizes of
the various parts.
164 BBCIPROOATING CIRC5ULATING PUMPS.
Size of Circulating Pump. — This depends on quantity of cooling
water required, and number of strokes per minute.
Let Q = cubic feet of cooling water required per minute.
n= number of strokes per minute.
S= length of stroke in feet.
Then,—
Rule 139. Capacity of Circulating Pump = f cubic feet,
and, —
71
Rule 139a. Diameter of Circulating Pump = 13 -55 a,/ -^ inches.
V nxa
In determining Q, the temperature of cooling water should be taken
at the highest ordinary temperature encountered on the routes the
vessel is intended to steam over, v. Table LVIIL, page 153.
Q is the quantity of cooling water in cubic feet, n the number of
strokes per minute, S the stroke in feet.
If the allowance is 42 "^mes the feed, and feed is taken at 15 lbs. per
H.P., then, —
Q= J^/ ^L X I.H.P. =0-17 X I.H.P. cubic feet.
62-6x60
Rule 140. Then Capacity of Pump=^'^^^^-^-^' cubic feet,
n
if the pump is single-acting, w=Revs. per min.
Circulatmg Pump Rods. — For single-acting pumps, these should
be of the same materials as the air-pump rods, and the same formula
may be used to obtain size. See Table LXII.
Wherever possible the air and circulating pump rods should be
made of exactly the same dimensions, in order that one spare rod may
serve for either pump.
The rule for rods of double-acting circulating pumps will then
be, —
Rule 141. Diameter of Rod= — + '6 inch (see Table LXIL).
6*4
Although packing is occasionally used, the buckets of circulating
pumps really do not require any, and are better without it, since the
serious friction is thereby saved.
The thicknesses of gun-metal barrels or liners for circulating pumps
may be determined by the rule previously given for air-pump barrels
(Rule 135), when the barrels are of similar type and similarly
supported. When the barrel is fixed in place by means of a single
flange placed at mid-length (a common method for double-acting
circulating pumps), the thickness should be 10 per cent, above that
given by the rule (see Table LXII. ).
The areas through the foot, bucket, and delivery valves should be
CENTRIFUGAL CIRCULATING PUMPS. 165
kept as large as possible, but, as in the case of air-pumps, they will
usually average one-third of the gross bucket area.
The bucket speeds in common use are from 200 to 400 feet per
minute.
The sizes of suction and delivery valves may be as follows : —
Rule 142. Diameter of Pipe = ^r x VS. uis.
Where D is the diameter of bucket in inches, S its mean speed in
feet per minute, and F a co-efficient, the values of which are as
follows : —
Double-acting / Suction — F=25 (mean speed in pipe, 625 feet).
pumps \ Delivery —F= 24 ( „ „ 576 „ ).
Single-acting /Suction —F = 27 ( „ „ 729 ,, ).
pumps \ Delivery —F= 24 ( „ „ 676 „ ).
When any pipe is under 10 inches in diameter the velocity of flow
through it should be kept 10 per cent, below that allowed by the
above rule. Specially long or specially tortuous pipes must also have
special consideration, — the velocity of flow being reduced in accord-
ance with the circumstances of the case.
Lloyd's rules require that a bilse injection or a bilge suction to the
circulating pump shall be fitted, the diameter of which shall be at
least two-thirds that of the sea-inlet.
CENTRIFUGAL CIRCULATING PUMPS.
In Naval and express work this type of pump is almost invariably
used, and not infrequently fitted in other classes of mercantile steamers.
It IB, no doubt, preferable to the reciprocating type where large
bodies of water are to be moved against a merely nominal head, and
especially where the main engines run at a high number of revolutions
Ser minute, since there is an entire absence of shock, and the work is
one with a less expenditure of power. On the other hand, the
centrifugal pump is more costly than the reciprocating, occupies more
space, requires more attention.
Size of Pipes. — The size of pipes should be such that the speed
of water does not exceed 500 feet per minute, even when the sea
temperature is 75** ; or, in other vords, when the sea temperature is 60'
the speed should be about 330 feet per minute. When the pipes are
large, say over 15 inches, the velocity of flow at full speed may be
higher, so that in ships of very large power it is from 600 to 700 feet.
If the pipes are not short and direct, with easy bends, the efficiency
of the pump will be improved by keeping the speeds 10 to 15 per cent,
per min. lower.
A convenient foiiu of the rule for size of pipe will then be as
follows :—
166 OENTRIFUGAL CIRCULATING PUMPS.
When the cooling water is not more than 8 lbs. per H.P. minute or
about 32 times the feed, the suction and delivery pipes may be as
follows : —
Rule 145.
/I H P
Diameter of cooling: water pipes in ins. = a/ \l + % in.
For ships going to the tropics and requiring a vacuum not less than
28 inches, then
Diameter of cooling water pipes in ins. = 0 '28 ^I.H.P. + % in.
Rule Z43a. Diameter of pipe in inches = '6VQ^+ % in.,
where Q is the maximum number of cubic feet of cooling water per
minute.
Size of Impeller or Wheel. — A good proportion for the diameter
ofpumpwheelis,—
Rule 144.
Diameter of Pump wheel in inches =2 '8 x Diameter of pipes,
or,— ^
Rule 144a. Diameter of pump wheel in inches = 1 '8\/Qi
where Q is maximum number of cubic feet of cooling water per minute
or, reversing the equation, —
1)2
Rule 144b. Q = ^^ cubic feet
Width of Wheel at Periphery.— The width of wheel at the
periphery, or width of vane at the tip may be, —
Rule 145.
Width of Wheel at Periphery =?i^E?terofPipes^
4
Stroke of Piston. — The stroke of the centrifugal pump engine
may be conveniently fixed as follows : —
Rule 146. Stroke of piston = *3 x Diameter of impeller.
Size of Steam Cylinder. — As centrifugal circulating pumps are
invariably fitted with bilge suctions so as to be available as bilge
pumps in case of need, ana as the work done when pumping from the
bilge is far in excess of that done when merely circulating water
through the condenser, the size of steam cylinder must evidently be
fixed with regard to the former duty.
The efficiency of the pump depends very greatly on the pipe
arrangement ; with direct pipes of good size, and easy bends, it may,
when pumping from the bilge, approach 30 per cent., but a bad
"augement, with sharp bends, will very seriously affect it, and may
CENTRIFUGAL CIRCULATING PUMPS. 167
easily reduce it below 20 per cent. ; in ordinary practice, where
reasonable care is exercised in scheming the pipes, it may be assumed
to be 25 per cent. The efficiency also tends to diminish as the lift
increases, so that a rather lower efficiency should be assumed in the
case of large deep ships, and vice versd.
Then l^^^Q^^ed Horse-power _ ,
Water Horse-poWer ""
where - water horse-power" is ^^' ^^^^" P^"^P^^ P^","^^"' ^ ^'^^ ^^ ^^'
^ 33,000
or, putting it into another shape, —
Rule 147.
Tons water pumped per hour x lift in feet x 150 = Pm x A x S,
where PTn=mean pressure in steam cylinder ;
A = area of piston in square inches ;
S= piston speed in feet per minute.
Speed of Periphery of Pump Wheel. — The speed of periphery
of pump wheel necessary to discharge water at the velocities mentioned
above against a head (A), under average conditions, is given by, —
Rule 148. V=ll \/A,
where V is velocity of periphery in feet per second, and h the actual
lift in feet. With a very good arrangement of pipes the co-efficient
may be as low as 9, in place of 11, but a bad arrangement will send it
up to 13 or over.
In ordinary circulating work when inlet and outlet are both sub-
merged, as is usual in Navy, V requires to be about 24 feet per second
(1440 feet per minute), and the resistances may therefore be assumed
to be equivalent to a head of nearly 5 feet.
When pumping from the bilge, V varies from 80 feet to 50 feet per
second (1800 feet to 3000 feet per minute) in ordinary Naval work,
but, as shown by the above equation, it increases as the square root
of the head.
Size of Bilge Suction Pipe.— A convenient rule for area of this
pipe is, —
Rule 149.
One square inch area for each 7 tons per hour to be pumped.
This limits the speed of water in the suction pipe to 580 feet per
minute.
It is not desirable to have the area of bilge suction more than about
•6 of the area of the circulating pipes, as the size of steam cylinder
required soon becomes cumbersome for the ordinary circulatirr-
work.
168 FEED PUMPS, KTO.
The pump should be capable of perfonning the specified bilge duty
with a steam pressure not exceeding two-thirds of the ordinary boiler
pressure.
FEED PUMPS, &c.
Capacity of Feed Pumps in Jet-Condensing* Eng^es.— This
depends mainly on the de^ee of saltness at which the water in the
boilers is to be maintained ; or, in other words, on the proportion of
the gross feed -water that is ** blown oflf."
Let Q represent the neU feed-water, or the quantity required as
steam by the engines, and say water in boilers is to be kept down to n
times the density (or saltness) of sea-water, then the amount of sea-
water that must be pumped into boilers is, —
Gross feed- water = -^ x Q.
To reduce the time required to bring the water in the boilers
up to the working level again after "blowing off," it is usual to
make e(ick feed pump capable of pumping twice this quantity ;
therefore, —
Rule 150. Each pump should supply — - x Q.
?i — 1
The nett feed- water (Q) required by a jet-condensing engine, working
with steam of about 30 lbs. pressure, was 26 lbs. per I.H.P. per hour.
The amount of scale or salt deposited in the boilers does not depend
on the density at which the water is kept, but only on the quantity
of sea- water evaporated by the boilers.
The Hydrometer, or Salinometer, by means of which the density of
the water is ascertained, is, in the Navy, graduated in degrees, so
that, when floating in pure water, the zero point is at the surface, and
when in clean sea- water it marks 10®, when in water of twice the
density of sea-water, 20*, and so on. In the Merchant Service,
engineers either express the density in ounces per gallon (sea-water
containing about 5 oz. per gallon), or in " thirty-twos," — sea-water
containing about %8 01 its weight of solid matter.
Capacity of Feed Pumps for Surface-condensing Engines.—
It will be sufficient if the total capacity of each pump be made equal to
twice the nett feed-water required ; this allowance also covering any
want of efficiency in the pumps.
If Q be the nett feed-water required in lbs. per hour, I length of
stroke of feed pump in inches, and n number of strokes per minute ;
then, —
Rule 151.
/I *15 X 0
Diameter of each feed-pump plunger, in inches = / — ^.
FEED PUMPS, ETC. 169
For ordinary compound engines the nett feed-water (Q) required
may be taken at 18 lbs. per I. H. P. per hour, for triple engines 16*0 lbs.
per I.H.P. per hour, and for quadruple engines 14*5 lbs. per I.H.P.
per hour.
Or, if the formula be written, —
I H P
Rule 152. Capacity of feed pump, in cubic inches = ' ' ' x C,
K
the values of C will be as follows for the nett feed : —
For Compound engfines, 0 = 8*3.
„ Triple engines, 0 = 7 '4.
„ Quadruple engfines, 0=6^7.
For actual size of pump when worked from the main engine 0 should
be, in each case, taken at double the value to allow for wastage and
sudden demands for a larger than normal supply.
Where the feed pumps are driven by the main engines, there should
be, except in very small engines, two pumps, each capable of supplying
the boilers at full power, and so arranged that either may be worked
independently of the other, and be easily put out of gear when not
required.
Relief Valves. — When the pumps are driven by the main engines,
each pump should be fitted with a relief valve, of a diameter equal
to two-thirds that of the delivery pipe from that pump, and loaded to
1% times the boiler pressure. All water from relief valves should
go back into suctions. Independently driven feed pumps without fly
wheels need no relief valves, as they simply stop automatically and go
on again when the check valves on the boilers permit.
Feed-pump valve-boxes and valves.— These should be of best
bronze ; and since the seats, as well as the valves, wear out rapidly,
loose ones should be fitted. The faces of the valve seats should be
made flat, and the seating area, or area of faces in contact, should not
be less than 20 per cent, of the gross area through valve ; that
IS,—
Rule 153.
Width of faces in contact = '0475 x Diameter of valve.
The diameter of valve, measured inside the seat, should be equal
to that of the delivery pipe.
The noise made by the valves on their seats may be much reduced
by loading them with light spiral springs, made of plated steel or of
hard brass wire, and very large ones may have a cataract buffer.
Feed pipes. — The pipes leading to and from the feed pumps
should be of such size that the velocity of flow, when working
ftteadily at full power, does not exceed 500 feet per minute. Th
170
FEBD PUMPS, ETC.
velocity should also be less as the pipes got smaller, to allow for the
increased percentage of friction; and, if 400 feet be adopted as the
limit in a 4-inch pipe, the limit in a l}-inch pipe should be 250 feet ;
or, more briefly, velocity for any diameter of pipe should not exceed
that given by, —
Rule 154.
V = 200\/I^iAmeter,
where Y is in feet per minute and diameter is in inches.
The maximum deliveries of pipes, on ordinary service, may be shown
in tabular form as follows : —
Table LXI 1 1.— Delivery of Feed Pipes at Service Speeds.
1
Diameter
Delivery in
cubic feet
Delivery
in lbs.
per hoar.
Diameter
Delivery in
cubic feet
Delivery
in lbs.
per hoar.
of pipe.
per minute.
(C)
of pipe.
per minute.
(C)
IH
2-45
9,260
8%
20-48
77,200
1%
8-60
13,600
8%
24-30
91,800
2
6-04
19,060
4
28-68
108,200
2)4
6-79
25,660
^Ya
83-30
125,800
2H
8-81
33,800
i%
38-42
146,200
2%
11-22
42,400
6
60-00
189,000
3
18-94
62,700
5%
63-86
239,600
8)4
17-00
64,200
6
78-92
298,800
Then, to find^ diameter of feed pipe, determine value of C in
equation, —
RulexsS. ^=0,
where D is diameter of plunger in inches, and S its mean speed in
feet per minute ; look for the corresponding figure in column 2 or 6
of Table ; and opposite, in column 1 or 4, wSl be found the appropriate
diameter of pipe. If the exact figure does not appear in column 2 or
6, take the next higher. Of course, if the pump is single-acting, the
deliveries will be one-half those given in above Table.
The following is a useful rule for determining the size of feed pipes
of triple and quadruple engines :—
Rule 156. Diameter feed pipe = ^^•^•^' -1- 0 -6 inch.
Ix
For engines having their own feed pumps K=18; when fed by
independently worked pumps K may be 22.
Feed-Pump Plung^ers. — These should be of good bronze, and when
f the single-acting ram type may be of thickness given by,—
PEED PUMPS, ETC. 171
Rule 157.
Thickness of metal of plunder = ^ / +'15 inch,
*^ ^ V 4660
where P is working pressure in lbs. per square inch, and D is diameter
of ram in inches.
Feed-Tanks. — To avoid waste of water through the occasional
overflow of the hot-well, it is the rule in the Navy to fit a feed-tank,
or supplementary hot- well, into which the air pumps deliver, and from
which the feed pumps draw ; and, where fresh water only is used,
such an arrangement is quite necessary.
The capacity of the tank is usually about 1 cubic foot for every
20 I.H.P. The tanks are conmionly of ^/xt-inx^ steel plates, flanged
over and single riveted, stayed for a pressure of 10 to 15 lbs. per
square inch, and galvanised after completion. Each tank should
have a manhole, an air-pipe, an overflow pipe, three or four zinc
blocks to prevent corrosion, and a water-gauge giving a visible range
of at least 8 feet; and where there are two or more engine-rooms,
with a tank in each, the various tanks should be connected one with
another. These tanks are frequently built into the structure of the
ship. The feed-tanks should be placed as close to the air-pumps and
as low down as possible ; where they are under the platforms a float .
and index is more convenient than a water-gauge.
Reserve Tanks, &c. —Where the boilers are fed with fresh water
only, a sufficient reserve supply should be carried to provide about
21 cubic feet, or say 1300 lbs. ** make-up," or auxiliary feed, per
100 I.H.P. per 24 hours.* This supply may either be carried in
reserve tanks, in the double bottom or elsewhere ; or may be pro-
duced as required by evaporators delivering into the L.P. valve-casing,
or into the condenser ; or, a combination of these two methods may be
employed. In recent Naval practice the tanks have a capacity of
about 1 c. ft for every 6 I.H.P.
Feed Heaters. — Various types of feed heater are now in common
use ; and, where space and weight allow of their adoption, they are,
without doubt, a very desirable adjunct, since they keep a great deal
of deposit out of the boilers, and, — when the exhaust steam from the
auxiliary engines can be used in them, — save a considerable amount
of heat that would otherwise be wasted.
Board of Trade Rules relating to Feed Pumps, Pipes, &c.
Paragraph 156. — Each boiler of a passenger vessel, whether
old or new, should be fitted with suitable check valves between it and
the feed pipes, and the boilers of all new passenger vessels, should be
* With, care the average consumption may be kept down to about one-half th'-
quantity.*
172 BILGE PUMPS.
fitted with separate feeding arrangements in addition to, but un-
connected with, the main feed pipes and valves. It is desirable that
the main feed check valve chest on each boiler should be separate and
distinct from that of the auxiliary feed, and that a stop cock or stop
valve should be fitted in each chest or between each chest and the
boiler, so that the latter may be shut off, and either of the check valves
examined while the other feed is at work. In very small vessels an
efficient hand-pump, instead of the usual donkey pump, may be passed
if the Surveyor has satisfied himself as to its efficiency when steam is
up, and provided that there are separate feed pipes and valves as
directed above.
The Surveyor should discourage the practice of using the same
pump for the bilges and feeding boilers.
Lloyd's Rules relating to Feed Pumps, Pipes, &c.
See, 7. The engines are to be fitted with two feed pumps, each
capable of supplying the boilers ; the pumps, &c. , to be so arranged
that either can be overhauled whilst the other is at work.
3. The main feed pumps may be worked by independent engines,
provided they are fitted with automatic regulators for controlling
their speed. If only one such pump is fitted for the main feed, the
auxiliary feed pump required by paragraph 25 should also be fitted
with an automatic speed regulator.
6. A steam pump is to be provided capable of supplying the boilers
with water, this pump to be provided with suctions from hot- well and
from sea. A steam pump is to be so fitted as to pump from each com-
partment, to deliver water on deck, and, if no hand pump is fitted in
engine-room, it must be fitted to be worked by hand. In small
vessels in which only one steam pump is fitted, it must comply with
all these requirements.
BILGE PUMPS.
There is no definite basis of calculation for the size of these pumps,
and no generally recognised rule. For jet-condensing engines they
were generally of the same size as the feed pumps, but for surface-
condensing engines the following rule may be used : —
Rule 158. Capacity of Bilge Pamp = '^P^ity ofL.P. Cylinder
The following rule is, however, more appropriate to the requirements,
D being the displacement of the ship in tons ; there may be from one
to four pumps.
Rule 158a. —Total Bilge Pumps capacity in cubic inches should
be not less than 3*6 x D%.
Where the pumps are driven by the main engines there should be, —
«Tcept in the case of very small ships, — two pumps of the size given
BILGB PUMPS. 173
by these rules, arranged so that either may be worked independently
of the other, and readily put out of action when not required.
Covers of valve-boxes and mud-boxes should be secured by hinged
bolts and wing nuts, in order that they may be easily and quickly
removed, and replaced whenever necessary.
All strainer, or mud, boxes should be placed in easily accessible
positions above the floor plates, as terminal rose-boxes are always
troublesome, and may be a cause of serious danger.
The "directing" or "distribution" valve-boxes should also be
above the floor plates, and easily accessible ; and each cover or hand>
wheel should bear a name plate indicating the compartment with
which it opens communication ; a very good, and also very cheap,
plan is to cast the required letters or words on the upper face of the
hand-wheel rim.
Where one bilge pump must also act as wash-deck or fire pump (to
comply with Board of Trade regulations), a three-way open-bottom
cock, with one port in plug, should be fitted, to prevent the possibility
of sea-water entering the ship; when the pipes are over three
inches in diameter, however, it is not always convenient to fit a
cock, and non-return valves may be fitted, — though they are less
safe than the cock.
Board of Trade Regulation referring to Bilge Pipes, &c.
82. Sounding Pipes.— Sounding pipes should be fitted from the
upper deck for ascertaining the depth of water in each compartment.
The sounding pipes for the ballast tanks under the engine and boiler
room and under the tunnel floor may, however, be short, provided
that they are fitted with screwed caps at the upper ends, or with cocks
having the handles secured to the plugs.
83. Engine-room Pump Fittings.— Suction pipes connected with
pumps worked by the main and donkey engines should be carried
through the bulkheads' into all the compartments fore and aft of the
engine-room except the compartment in front of the collision bulkhead,
so that each compartment can be pumped out separately by the engines.
When a double bottom is fitted extending the full length of a compart-
ment, with waterways on each side, a bilge suction should be fitted to
each waterway. This requirement need not, however, be enforced in
small compartments near the ends of the vessel. The pipes should be
well secured where they pass through the bulkheads. In all new
steamships, the cocks or valves which are fitted for the purpose of
shutting off or controUmg the flow of water through these pipes should,
unless situated in the compartment occupied by the pump to which the
pipes are connected, be provided with means by which they may be
manipulated from a height well above the deep load line, preferably
the upper deck.
The arrangetnent of bilge suction pipes should be such that water
cannot pass through them from one compartment to another. Valves
174 BILGK PUMPS.
in bilge distribution boxes should be of the non-return type, and if
cocks are used instead of valves, suitable non-return valves should be
fitted in the pipes to prevent water passing from one compartment to
another in the event of the cocks being left open.
The free end of each hold suction pipe should be fitted with a suitable
rose-box or strum, and the tunnel- well suction pipe should be similarly
fitted, unless it is provided with a mud-box of the form required for
the pipes in connection with the engine-room and stokehold bilges.
Eacn main and donkey-en^ne suction pipe in connection with the
engine-room and stokehold bilges should be provided with an efficient
mud-box, or other similar appliance, placed above the platform, or in
any other position in which it will be accessible at all times. The
pipe leading from each mud-box to the bilge should, when practicable,
be straight, and the cover of the mud-box should be secured in such a
manner as to permit of it being expeditiously opened or closed.
The connection from the donkey engine to the bilge main should be
by means of a switch cock or non-return valve.
An efficient bilge injection should be fitted to each main circulating
pump.
Lloyd's Rules relating to Bilg^e Pumps, Pipes, 8ic
2. The engines are to be fitted with two bilge pumps, which are to be
so arranged that either can be overhauled whilst the other is at work.
4. A bilge injection, or bilge suction to the circulating pump, is
is be fitted.
5. The engine bilge pumps are to be fitted capable of pumping from
each compartment of the vessel, the peaks excepted. All bilge suction
pipes are to be fitted with strum -boxes or strainers, so constructed
that they can be cleared without breaking the joints of the suction
pipes. The total area of the perforations in the strainers should be
not less than double that of the cross section of suction pipe. The
mud-boxes and roses in engine-room are to be placed where they are
easily accessible, and to the satisfaction of the Surveyor.
6. A steam pump is to be provided capable of supplying the boilers
with water, and is to have suctions from hot-well and sea. A steam
pump is to be so fitted as to pump from each compartment, to
deliver water on deck, and, if no hand pump is fitted in engine-room,
it must be fitted to be worked by hand. In small vessels in which
only one steam pump is fitted, it must comply with all these
requirements.
10. Bilge suction pipes to be arranged to pump direct from each
compartment, — the roses to be fixed in easily accessible places;
for numbers and sizes of suctions required, see Lloyd's Rules relating to
holds of ships, p. 308.
Sec. 2. — 5. Cocks and valves connecting all suction pipes to be fixed
above the stokehole and engine-room platforms.
6. The arrangement of pumps, bilge injections, suction and delivery
PUMP LB VERS AND LINKS, ETC. 175
pipes is to be such as will not permit of water being run from the sea
into the vessel by an act of carelessness or neglect. Any defective
arrangement to be reported to the Committee.
See also Lloyd's Requirements for sea connections, page 265.
PUMP LEVERS AND LINKS, &c.
In order to obtain quantitative results for guidance in proportioning
pump gear, it is necessary to assume some maximum load per square
inch of bucket, and the load here assumed is 30 lbs. for both air and
circulating pumps.
Pump levers. — The strength of these may be determined by means
of the ordinary rule for beams, —
Rule 159. W=-^,
V
and, — when the central hole cut in the plate to admit the gudgeon
boss does not exceed *4 x depth of beam, and the attachment of the
central boss or gudgeon flange is made with rivets in the usual way, —
the values of/ may be as follows : —
For thin plates, /=4500 for screw engines, and 5500 for paddle
engines.
For solid levers (forged) /= 5500 for screw engines, and 6500 for
paddle engines.
In determining 21 g I, J is four times the thickness of the
plate, for ordinary plate beams, and d is the total depth or width of
the plate at the gudgeon.
A lower value of/ is adopted for screw engines because, by their
higher speeds, there is the liability to severe strains from sudden
reversals and loads of the air-pump. When air and circulating pump
are both driven by the same pair of levers, the values of/ should be
reduced 15 per cent, — as one lever of the pair may have to carry con-
siderably more than half the load at times.
Pump links. — For the various reasons stated above, the bolts in
pump links require to be made very heavy.
Rule 160. — The link bolts of paddle engines, when two in number,
may carry loads equal to those given in Table XLIII. ; and when four
in number, 10 per cent, less, or 20 per cent, less according as air-
pump only, or both air and cirgulating pump, are driven by one pair
of levers. The link bolts of screw engines (usually four in number)
may, in similar circumstances, carry loads 30 per cent., and 40 per
cent below those given in Table XLIII.
The loads that link bolts may carry under the various conditions
mentioned will then be as follows: —
176
PUMP LEVBRS AND LINKS, BTO.
Table LXIV.-— Strengfths of Pump Links,
Diameter
of
link bolt
Total load in Iba. on one bolt
Paddle Engine
.
Screw Engine.
in
Four bolts
Four boiti
inohet.
Two
Four bolts
(air and
Four bolts
(air and
boltik
(air-pump).
circulating
pumps).
(air-pnmpX
circulating
pumpsX
1
2,160
1,930
1,720
1,600
1,800
1%
8,000
2,700
2,400
2,100
1,800
1J4
4,200
8,800
8,400
2,900
2,600
1%
6,400
4,800
4,800
3,800
3,200
1%
7,100
6,400
6,700
6,000
4,200
1%
8,600
7,600
6,800
6,000
6,100
1%
11,000
10,900
9,800
7,700
6,600
1%
13,100
11,800
10,600
9,100
7,800
2
16,100
14,600
12,800
11,200
9,600
234
20,400
18,300
16,200
14,200
12,200
When the links are composed of pairs of parallel bolts, on to the
ends of which the brasses are threaded, it will generally suffice to
make the diameters of the middle portions of the bolts, between the
brasses, the same as those of the end or bolt portions, — since the
compressive stresses are usually much less than the tensile.
When the length of the plain or middle portion of the bolt reaches
26 diameters, however, it is advisable to substitute one central rod
with T ends for the two parallel ones.
If, in any case, the links are so placed that the compressive
stresses exceed the tensile, and if the length of link be more than
10 diameters of bolt or pillar, their size had better be determined by
the rules for struts fixed at both ends.
As the stroke of the pumps is commonly less than the stroke of the
piston, the load on the links at the piston-rod end of the levers
is less than the load on those at the pump end in inverse proportion
to their distances from the fulcrum of the lever.
Surfaces of pins. — Rule i6oa. — The surfaces of the various pins
(diameter x length) to which the pump links are attached, should be
18,000
such that the load does not exceed — —^ lbs. per square inch, R being
the revolutions and d the diameter of pin ; generally the working load
should be 70 per cent, of this maximum.
Pump crossheads.— These should be calculated as beams loaded in
accordance with the circumstances of the case.
Considering the sections usually employed, and the nature of the
PUMP LBVERS AND LINKS, BTC. 177
load, the value of/ for mild steel may be taken at 8600. For further
guidance see general formulae for beams.
Pump lever gudgeons. — The load on the pump lever gudgeon,
and on its bearings, cap bolts, &c., is the sum of the loads on the
two ends. The cap bolts should not carry greater loads than link
bolts of corresponding diameters. {See Table LXIV., page 176.)
The bearings may carry a load not exceeding — 7==. lbs. per square
inch. The diameter of gudgeon will be most conveniently determined
by considering the stresses to which it is subject as shearing stresses
simply ; then, —
Rule z6x. Diameter of Gudgeon
V ^
where S=the sum of the total loads on the two ends of the pair of
levers ;
E = 1200, — when there are two bearings, one close to each lever,
as is usual in screw engines ;
E=s*1600, — when there is only one lever in place of a pair, with
very short gudgeon and bearing at each side close to
lever, as frequently fitted in paddle engines.
SLIDE VALVES.
Travel of Valve. — Rule 162.— The travel of a slide-valve should
be proportional to the length of the steam-port in cylinder face,
measured parallel to axis of slide-rod, and not less than twice the
amount.
As the work done in moving the valve is nearly proportional to
the length of travel, it is important to keep this latter as short as
possible, and the best way of etfecting this is to use double- or
triple-ported valves.
Single- ported valves should not be used for cylinders of more than
25 inches diameter; whilst triple-ported valves can only be con-
veniently employed for large engines of fairly long stroke, and are
therefore only applicable in Naval work when the piston speed is very
high and the cylinders large.
Since the introduction of the triple engine, piston valves have been
reintroduced, and are always used for H.P. cylinders, and generally
for the M.P. also ; their worst feature is their liability to stick when
any dirt or grit is deposited on them, and the consequent severe strains
that may be thrown on the valve-gear ; also, as ordinarily fitted, they
are not so steam-tight as flat valves.
Surface of Valve. — Flat slide-valves sometimes give unsatisfactory
results from want of sufficient bearing surface, — so that the pressure
per square inch of rubbing surface is so great that undue wear, cutting,
&C., result.
12
178 SLIDE-VALVES.
Relief-rings. — Flat slide-yalves should be fitted with some arrange-
ment for relieving the pressure on the back, to reduce wear and tear,
and save the driving power ; they also require a spring of some sort to
replace them against the face, after they have been forced from it by
the presence of water in the cylinder, or by other causes.
Rule 163.— The pressure per square inch of rubbing surface,
imposed by the springs, should not exceed 2% lbs.
Small valves have one relief-ring, and very wide ones two rings
side by side ; the areas may be made as la^e as can be got on the
valve backs, when the relief pipe from M.r. valve is lea to L. P.
receiver, and that from L.P. valve to condenser in the usual manner ;
a greater difference of pressure than given by this arrangement is
not desirable, and any leakage will be a serious loss.
Port openings. — With given leads and cuts-off, both reckoned
as percentages of the stroke of piston, the openings to steam are
proportional to the travels, and may therefore be increased or
diminished by increasing or diminishing the travel.
Lead of valve. — The lead given to the valve is generally decided
arbitrarily, and varies from a bare ^4, inch in small auxiliary engines
to 1^ inch in large L.P. valves ; but the piston speed and momentum
of moving parts should be taken into consideration, as in M.P. and
L. P. cylinders the compression is rarely sufficient in itself to absorb
all the momentum, and a certain amount of lead is necessary to
prevent shock.
The extent to which the engine will probably be run ** notched ** or
'* linked " up should also be considered.
Ordinarily, when the valves are properly set, the lead at the back
or top end will be about half that at the front or bottom end, and
the cut-off at the crank end will be eailier than at the other,
but the cut-off may be the same at each end if the leads are different.
With a valve cutting off late, inside lap is necessary to give the
compression sufficient for quiet working ; but it is a means of
throttling, as well as delaying the period of exhaust. With an
early cut-off sufficient compression can be obtained and a freer exhaust
enjoyed if there is negative lap.
For a quick-running compound or triple engine, exhaust from
H.P. cylinder should commence at '85 of the stroke, and for a slow-
working paddle engine, not later* than "95 of the stroke.
Proportions of slide-valves. — Figures 26 and 27 show some ot
the elementary proportions of the common and of the Trick valve.
Let X be the otUside lap of the valve at the front end, and y that
at the back end. Then (Fig. 26),—
n=9. + x; andK = ?4y.
Also, let z be the inside lap at the front, and w that at the back.
Then (Fig. 26),—
B = --z; andC = --w;.
2 2
SlilDB-YALYBS.
179
Fig. 26. — Proportions of a Common Valve,
k- A ->pc D J
U M >h ^ J
,- K. — ->U— // J
fi~Q.*^- --G-l n<-P-*i
< ,..f .^
Fig. 27. —Proportions of a Trick Valve.
180
DIAGRAM OF PISTON LOCUS.
Referring now to Fig. 27,— let sc, y, «, and w be the
Then,—
as before.
Also,—
H=| + »; andK=| + y.
B=--»; andC=--w.
2 2
G
G
A=- + % inch ; and D=^+ % inch.
2 2
Fig. 28. — Diagram of the Piston Paih«
zeuner's valyb diagrams.
181
The openings through the ralve laps or covers must be as large as
possible, but need not exceed the ordinary opening of the valve to
steam at the outer edge ; then, —
G + P=K + N; andG + Q=H + M.
Valve diagrams. — Figures 28 and 29, when combined and used as
described below, show at a glance the complete cycle of the operation
of any proposed valve, and also the effect of varying any one of the
elements, — travel, laps, leads, or openings.
or Crank end
A Back
Fio. 29.— Zeuner's Diagram for the Common Valve Motion.
In constructing the diagram for a proposed valve, the diagram
Fig. 29, the extreme diameter of which is equal to the travel of the
valve, should be placed in the centre of the diagram Fi^. 28, — the
former being drawn full size, and the latter % in(m or 1 inch to the
foot, as found most convenient.
Referring to Fig. 28, the outer circle TT'F represents the top or
back end of the cylinder ; the inner circle BB'E represents the
bottom, front, or crank end ; and the eccentric circle gives the
position of the piston corresponding to any angular position of crank.
The diagram is drawn by setting off CD equal to crank, and DT equal
to connecting-rod, and then swinging DT round on D as a cent:
182 zeunbr's valve diagrams.
T is the position of piston on top or back centre, and £ its position
on bottom or front centre ; and the position corresponding to any
other position of crank, — such as CR, — is found by producing
CR to cut the circles, when PT' is the distance of the piston from one
end of cylinder, and PB' its distance from the other.
Referring now to Fig. 29, the problem most frequently met with is,
— Given the travel, leads, and cuts-off, to deteimine the laps and
position of eccentric, — and it is solved as follows : —
Draw CE so that, when produced, it will cut the eccentric circle at
a point corresponding to the given point of cut-oflf (».«., if cut-off is
to be at a; incnes from the back end of the stroke, the point in the
eccentric circle must be x inches from the outer circle) ; then ACE is
the angle through which the crank must move to arrive at the
position of cut-off. With A as centre, and radius AF equal to the
lead, draw part of a circle, and then draw EK. Next, draw CD
perpendicular to, and bisecting EK in L. Then CL is the lap
required, and BOD is the angle between the crank and eccentric ;
and since CD is the half-travel, LD is the maximum opening of port.
To extend the usefulness of the diagram, — on CD as diameter,
describe a circle ; and from centre C with radius CL, strike the arc
GLM, which is called the lap circle. The part GH is then equal to
AF, and represents the lead, or opening of valve when the crank is
"on the centre," or in the position CA. XT likewise represents the
port opening when the crank is in position CY.
To determine the operation of the valve at the other end, produce
DC to D', and describe a circle on CD'. Then let H'G' be the lead at
this end ; from C, with radius CG', draw the lap circle G'L'M', and
through 0 and M' draw CE'. Then CE' is the position of the crank
at cut-off, and CG' is the lap.
The positions of the crank, when the port commences to open, are
CK and CK'.
If the valve has no inside lap {i.e. if the ports are both just closed
to exhaust when the valve is in mid- position), release at one end and
compression at the other will commence simultaneously when the crank
reaches the positions CR and CR', which are at right angles to DD'.
If, however, the valve has positive inside lap at the front end, and
negative inside lap of equal amount at the back end, the positions of
release and commencement of compression will be altered as indicated,
back release and front compression occurring at S, and front release
and back compression at S' ; or, if laps be reversed, at V and V.
The points S, S' and V, V' are obtained by striking the small arcs
indicated with the inside lap as radius ; of course, if the lap is
positive, the valve will open for exhaust later and close earlier ; but
if the lap is negative, the exhaust will be earlier and the compression
commence later.
To obtain the position of piston corresponding with the various
crank positions, each radial line indicating a crank position must be
continued until it meets the outer circle TT'F, and the position of
piston can then be scaled ofi.
VALVK DIAQRAM — ^NOTCHING UP.
183
Effect of linking: up.— The effect of '* linking up " on the operation
of the valve is most readily exhibited by the application to the above
diagrams of the following very closely approximate construction,
suggested by the late Mr Macfarlane Gray :—
Fig. 80.— Diagram showing the effect of ** Notching upj
Suppose the link (Fig. 81) to be notched up so that the link block
M is distant MT from the point at which the eccentric rod is attached
to the link.
Fig. 31.— Link Motion *' Notched up."
184 BPPKCT OP LINK MOTIONS.
Draw the valve diagram (Fig. 80) due to the position and throw of
the eccentrics in Fig. 31, and through D and D' draw the arc of a circle
with a radius found as follows : —
Rule 164. Radius = ^^Z2^' (see Fig. 81).
Then divide this arc at Z so that DZ is to DD' as TM is to TN ;
join CZ, and on it as diameter describe a circle cutting the lap circle
in L and E ; and draw the lines CL and CE, the former indicating
position of crank when valve opens, and the latter the position when
valve closes.
It will thus be seen that the effect on the valve of notching the link
up to the point M is the same as though it were driven by an
eccentric having the angular position and eccentricity CZ ; the lead
is earlier, the opening is reduced to KZ, the cut-off is earlier, and
a further exammation would show that release occurs earlier, and
compression commences earlier than when in full gear.
Open and crossed rods. — When the eccentric rods are arranged
as shown in Fig. 31, they are said to be *^ open," but when the gear
is so arranged that D is joined to N, and D' to T, whilst the crank
remains turned away from the link TN, the rods are said to be
''crossed"; in the diagram for this latter case the arc DD' must be
drawn convex towards G, or its centre must be on side A.
When it is intended to work the engines linked up to any con-
siderable extent, the rods should be of the ''open" type, as a greater
range of expansion can be obtained with less reduction of port openings
than is possible with " crossed " rods.
Overhung gear. -Where the valve gear is of the "overhung"
type {i.e, the type in which T is always outside of M, even in full
gear), the diagrams are constructed on the same principle as Fig. 30,
and the position and eccentricity of the eccentrics are determined by
producing the arc DD', and taking a point Z' beyond D, so that Z'D
is to (DD' + 2Z'D) as TM is to TN, and joining CZ'. CZ' is the
required eccentricity of the sheaves, and BCZ' is the angle between
them and the crank.
Obliquity of eccentric rods. — The valve diagram, as above
described, takes no account of the effect produced by the obliquity of
the eccentric rods; when the rods are so short as to make this dis-
turbing effect noticeable, the diagram may be corrected as follows : —
From A and B (Fig. 32) drop perpendiculars AN and BN' upon
RR', and through N and N', with length of eccentric rod as radius,
strike an arc ; also, with same radius, strike similar arcs through
0 and P and O' and P'. Then, if the points where these arcs cut the
travel circle be joined with C, the corrected crank positions, at which
the various events of the cycle occur, will be obtained ; the radial
lines indicating these new crank positions may then be produced
DIAGRAM OP BFFBOT OF OBLIQUITY OF BODS.
185
outwards so as to cut the eccentric circle and indicate the piston
positions as before. The correcting arcs for the exhaust laps have
been omitted as tending to complicate the diagram, but they wUl be
drawn on either side of the arc NN', at distances from it equal to
the laps, and will give new points on the travel circle in a precisely
similar way.
When the eccentric rods are very short, and the locomotive or
' ' slot " link is used, as in some types of horizontal en^ne, no diagram
Ot
trdithend I
Badi
FiO. 32.
will give more than approximately accurate results, and the final
adjustments should be made on a model : one that will serve every
purpose may be rigged up on a drawing-board with a few pieces of lath
and some stout pins, in little more than half an hour.
For the solutions of other problems connected with the diagram for
the ordinary slide-valve, and for the methods of constructing diagrams
for various types of expansion valve, see Mr Seaton's " Manual of
Marino Engineering."
Diagram for oscillating engine. — When the diagram Fig. 28
is applied to the case of an oscillating engine, the eccentric circle
deviates slightly from a true circle, owing to the fact that there
186
VALVE OBAR.
virtually a connecting-rod of varying length. The necessary correction
in the eccentric circle may be made as follows : —
Let A be the trunnion centre, and BLE the crank path ; divide the
half-crank path into any number of equal parts (say six), at E, H, G,
&c. ; join each point with A ; and from A, with raaius AB, strike the
arc BDC. Then, referring to Fig. 34, set off the corresponding points
E, F, G, Ac, and transfer the lengths ED, FD, GD, &c, from Fig. 33
to the positions indicated by the corresponding letters on Fig. 34,
and through the points D, D, D, &c., draw a curve ; this curve will
then be the true curve of successive positions of piston corresponding
to the crank positions indicated by any radial lines.
GL in Fig. 34 (p. 187) must, of course, represent GL in Fig. 83,
either to the same or some other convenient scale.
VALVE GEAR.
It must be understood that the various proportions given in the
following sections on "Valve Gear** and "Eccentrics" are such as
are suitable for ordinary speeds of engines of the two categories. Naval
and Mercantile, and that both increased strengths and increased
surfaces will be required if the engines are to run at exceptionally
high numbers of revolutions.
VALVE GBAR.
187
Valve or slide rods. — ^The power requisite to move a slide-valve
on its face is a constantly varying quantity, and care must be taken
to use its maximum value in all calculations for dimensions of valve
gear.
To obtain this, the reduction due to any relief arrangement, or to
the pressures on some portions being in equilibrium, should be neglected,
Fig. 34.
and the total pressure on the valve taken as the measure of load, acting
on its gross area, — these pressures being those of the steam-chest
or receiver on one side, and those of receiver or condenser on the
other.
If L be the length and B the breadth of a valve, both in inches ;
p the maximum pressure per square inch, obtained as described above,
and '2 the co- efficient of friction for metallic surfaces rubbing together
dry ; then, —
188 VALVE GEAR.
Rule 165. Load on valve-rod = '2 (L x B x p) lbs. ;
and, — Rule 166, —
Smallest diameter of valve-rod = A^^^xp .^^
V 12500 '
and,— Rule 167,—
Diameter of valve rod in gland = /^^^^^+-25.
* V 6500
The value ofp should be taken as 30 lbs. for L.P. valves, and, as
it is desirable to have the rods all of the same dimensions, the highest
value of the above expression for any one cylinder should be used
for all.
When piston-valves are used for the H.P. cylinders, the valve-rod
is usually made of the same size as those for the flat slides of the M. P.
and L.P. cylinders.
Theoretically, the power required to move a piston-valve should be
little more than is necessary to overcome the inertia and friction at
the stuflSng-box, but practically, — as mentioned under *' Slide-valves,"
— the power required is in excess of this, and may be largely so.
The diameter of rods for piston-valves may be determined by the
following : —
Rule 168. Diameter rod= P"""*'" 1'^''^ "" V^+ -6 in.
F
p for H.P, cylinders is the boiler-pressure.
p „ M.P. „ „ half ,,
p ,, L.P. ,, ,, 30 lbs. ,,
For very light engines, as in destroyers, F=100,
For express steamers, short service, and Naval ships generally,
F=90.
For merchant ships generally, F=84.
In practice the rod of the H.P. valve is about %th the diameter of the
valve ; that of the M.P. about %th ; and that of L.P. cylinder Vio^^»
For convenience the valve-rods are of one size throughout.
Rule 169. The cap-bolts for valve-rod end or eye must each carry a
load equal to — ^ — ^ — ^s and the size suitable for this load will be
found from Table XLIII., page 108. Their diameter will be found to
very closely approach '50 -f- '2 inch, where D is diameter of valve-rod
found by Rule 166 above.
Valve-rod guides.— All valve-rods should be fitted with guides,
placed as close to the link as possible, and, if not fitted with balance
pistons, they should have guides at the tail ends as well.
The most satisfactory form of guide is one resembling a piston-rod
•clipper guide of the "single" type (i.«. one shoe and one guide for
^h ahead and astern) in miniatuie, — the shoe being cast with a
VALVB GEAR AND LINK MOTION.
189
cylindrical crosshead which is bored to fit the valve-rod, and secured
on it by a through cotter.
When this type is not adopted, and the guide is made to embrace
the valve -rod just below, or outside of, the gland, a square or two flats
should (whenever space is available) be formed on the rod to take the
guide.
Reversing^ quadrants, or "links." — The old slot-link still retains
its place, as the most convenient of application in oscillating paddle
engines, and in some types of screw engines. For small fast-running
engines it is quite the safest link and still retained by locomotive
engineers.
Its principal proportions should be as follows — the unit D being the
diameter of valve-rod as found by Rule 166.
-F^
Fio 35,
Rule 170, a to k.
(a) Centres of eccentric-rod pins (E) 2*75 to 3 x throw of eccentrics.
(6) Breadth of link (F)
(c) ^U.Vn.^ of h^. (0) {^J^}^^^^'
(d)
it
»>
(e) Length of block (H)
(/) Width of slot (K)
\ without ,,
^^' (without,,
(g) Diam. of eccentric-rod pin (A) { ^^^^^^^^ brasses
' 'a
W
U)
(*)
II
tt
drag-rod pin (B) | ^^^^^^^ ^^dge
n -V : /n\ ( wheu overhung .
^1°^^-P'^^^)i both ends secured
drag-rod at ends{iJj^« ; '
l-lD-f4 inch.
D-f-25
11 D-f--25
•9D-t--25
D-f-25
2-5D-I-1
l-4G-f -36
D-f--25
I'l D-h-26
•55D-f 25
•8 D-f25
1-4D-I--25
l-3D-f.*25
•7D-t.'26
•48 D + -25
»»
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a
If
a
if
If
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Theoretically, surfaces may be a little smaller tor paddle engines,
but it is better to give the extra surface and make them same as for
screw engines.
f}
190 VALVB GEAR AND LINK MOTION.
For all vertical engines, and in all other cases where possible,
excepting where KP. cylinder is below, say, 30 inches in diameter,
the double-bar link is preferable, as large working surfaces and pins
are readily obtained, and they are more accessible and easier to adjust.
The principal proportions of the double- bar link should be as follows,
— the unit being again D, or diameter of valve-rod as found by
Rule 166.
Rule 171, a to n.
(a) Centres of eccentric-rod pins , . , 3 x throw of eccentrics,
or roughly 7 '8 D.
(6) Depth of bars • 1*4 D-{- 75 inch.
(c) Thickness of bars '5 D -f- '15
(d) Width between bars and thickness of valve- \ 1 .0 t\ j^ ok
rod eye when gun-metal or bronze block / l ^ ^+ 25
(«) Width between bars when cast-steel block 1 , .gg n j. .05
and gun-metal liners . . . . J
(/) Dia. of valve-rod eye (G.M. or bronze block) 1 '55 x depth of link-bar.
{g) ,, ,, (steel block and G.M, liners) 1 X ,, ,,
(h) Length of sliding block . . , . 3 D to 3*76 D.
(j) Diameter of eccentric-rod pins . . '85 D -f '5 inch.
(^) Length ,, ,, . . •7D-f4 ,,
(I) Diameter of drag-rod pins . . . *7 x diameter of eccen-
tric-rod pin.
(m) Length ,, ,, , . . Ix length of eccentric-
rod pin.
{n) Diameter of bolt through ends of link \ '36 x depth of link
bars J bar.
For proportions given by above rules, see Table LXV.
The links and all the pins and working surfaces should be thoroughly
case-hardened before completion if not made of hard steel.
Position of suspension pins. — It is convenient to place the
suspension, or drag-rod pins at the end, in the case of the slot link,
but, when the engine has to work equally ahead or astern, they are
better placed at mid-length of the link, — so as to coincide in position
with the block- pin when the link is in mid-gear, — so as to give the
least "slotting" motion.
The reversing lever when in mid-position was commonly parallel
to the valve-rod, but it is better to incline it slightly away from the
valve- rod, and so reduce the ** slotting" when in ahead gear, whilst
increasing it a little when in astern gear. The amount of inclination,
measured on the arc, may be about one-eighth the length of the lever.
The drag-rods should, of course, be as long as tbey can conveniently
be made, and care should be taken that the angle they make with the
reversing lever is not too obtuse when at its maximum.
The position of the pin of reversing lever for the least amount of
slotting can be found by placing the link in "ahead'* gear and
TALTS OKAR PBOPOBTIONS.
191
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192
ECCENTRICS.
tracing the locus of the centre of the suspension pin when there is no
slotting motion whatever. With the length of drag-rod as radius, draw
an arc through the figure so traced so as to divide it thereby as uniformly
as possible. The centre of this arc is the position of the lever pin. Carry
out the same operation for the link in "astern" gear ana the other
extreme position of the lever end is found. From these two positions
the centre of weigh-shaft can be located.
ECCENTRICS.
Eccentric Sheaves. — These should be made of hard and tough
cast-iron, and, when made in two pieces, the small piece should be of
specially strong iron or steel. The line of division should always be at
right angles to the line through centres of shaft and of eccentric, and
the key-way should be placed in the centre of the large piece. The
■4t
1
^^^^^^/
1
Bronze Strap lined toith WhUe-
metal.
Fig. 36.
Cast-steel Strap wUh Bronze
liner.
Fig. 37.
joint separating the two portions should also have a small step in it, on
each side of the shaft, to prevent their shifting.
The bolts holding the two portions together may either have suitable
nuts fitted into recesses in the large portion, or cotters placed where
the sheave is perforated.
Eccentric straps. — These may be of good bronze for sheaves on
shafts up to 10 inches in diameter, but for larger eccentrics they
should be of cast-steel, with white-metal or bronze liners. In the
mercantile marine good cast-iron, with or without white-metal linings,
works quite satisfactorily.
The straps should always have side lips, as shown in Figs. 36 and
37, and when bronze liners are used they should have external pro-
jecting rings fitting into grooves in the cast- steel straps, as shown
in Fig. 37.
When bronze straps are used, each half should be made thicker
at the middle, to allow for wear ; and whether bronze or steel is used,
the strap should be stiffened by ribs as indicated in Figs. 36, 37, and
38, — one central rib being used for steel, and two side ones for guu-
metal.
ecx:;bntric8.
193
The general proportions of sheave and strap should be as follows : —
the unit D being still the diameter of valve-rod, as found by
Rule 166:—
Rule 172, a to m.
(a) External diameter of sheave
(() Breadth of sheave at strap
(c) Thickness of metal round shaft
(d) ,, ,, at circumference
(«) Breadth of key .
1 '2 X diameter of (shaft -f throw
of eccentric), or roughly 7*8 D.
Mercantile
Naval
pierced sheave
lightened ,,
{)ierced ,, .
^ ightened ,, .
(/) Thickness ,,
(g) Diameter of bolt connecting portions of sheave .
(X) Thickness of bronze straps at middle (ex. lips) {t)
U) M »» I. sides „
{k) „ cast-steel straps {w)
(Q , , bronze li ners for cast- \ Dia. of sheave
steel straps. J 70 '
(m) Diameter of bolts connecting parts of strap
For proportions given by above rules, see Table LXVI.
Df
•6 in.
D + 1-25 .,
•6 D +
•6 »
•45D +
•26 „
•4D +
•5 „
•4D +
•25 „
•55D-I-
•4 „
•27D +
•8 „
•451)-f-
•25 „
•4D-»-
•5 „
•83D +
•6 „
•3D-»-
•5 „
+ •
125 „
•6D +
•2 „
FiQ. 88.
13
194
PROPORTIONS OF BGOENTRIOS.
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jot's valvb obab. 195
As a check on the diameter of holts in strap, it should he seen that
the loads on them are not in excess of those given in Tahle XLIII.
Eccentric Rods. — These should be sound forgings of mild steel, —
the double-eye at the link end being cut out of the solid forging. The
diameter at the link end should be that given by, —
Rule 173.
Diametef of eccentric rod at link end = -8 D 4* '2 inch'.
The diameter at mid-length of rod may be calculated in the same
manner as a connecting-rod (Rule 81), but for direct-acting engiues of
ordinary construction, — (where the length of connecting-rod is not
more than 2 x stroke for Naval engines, and 2^ x stroke foi
Mercantile engines), — the rods may be made with a straight taper from
end to end, and may have the following diameters at the ends next
eccentrics : —
Rule 173a.
Diameter of eccentric rod at eccentric ) Naval D
end ( Mercantile... D + '4 inch,
where D has the same value as before.
The studs by which the T end of the eccentric rod is secured to the
strap should be of the same strength as the bolts for valve-rod ca()8
(Rule 169), and for connecting the two parts of the strap (Rule 172m),
and their diameter may be calculated in the same manner.
The cap-bolts at link end of rod should also, collectively, have the
same strength as the valve-rod cap- bolts; but, as they will be con-
siderably smaller, they must not carry so great a load per square inch
of section at bottom of thread, and their diameter will be easily f^xed
by reference to Table XLIII.
JOY'S VALVE GEAR.
The general arrangement of one form of this gear is shown in Fig. 39.
The method of laying down the centre lines is as follows : —
Take a point d (Fig. 40, page 197) on or near the axis of the con-
necting-rod, such that its extreme transverse vibration is about twice
the full stroke of the valve (better rather more than less) ; and through
its extreme positions di d^ draw zz. Then mark off e and ^, — the
extreme longitudinal positions of the point d^ — and from these points
draw two lines to meet in a point/ on 2», the position of which is such
that the angle rfei is not more than 90*" (if there is room a less angle is
better).
The point / should be controlled so as to move as nearly as possible
on the line zz\ this may be effected either by an ** anchor"
link 2, — which may be placed on either side of as?, — or by a sliding
guide.
Next, on the valve*rod centre 5, mark off* ^^ and g^^ so that ggi >°
196
JOT S VALVB OBAR.
equal to lap + lead for the top or back end of cylinder, and gg^ equal
to same for crank end of cylinder. Then take a point j on the link
0] / 80 that eij is about 3 x d^j, and draw jg-^^ cutting sss in m ;
m will be the fulcrum of the lever 3, and will also be the centre of
the curved reversing block in which the fulcrum slides. When
swing links are used (as in Fig. 39), in lieu of a curved block, the arcs
I X
1 r
Fio. 89.
described by the link ends, when in ahead and astern positions, must
intersect in if.
The position assumed for j in the first instance is approximate
only, and may not be quite correct ; its position must be such that
the point m in the lever jingi moves to an equal distance on either
side of the centre of the reveraing block, — also marked m. If not
at first quite correct, it will generally be obtained on a second
trial.
JOY S VALVE GEAR.
197
When the gear is correctly set out, the act of moving it from ahead
to astern gear, or to any intermediate position, should leave the lead
unaltered.
The valve-rod link, which is attached at g^ may have any convenient
Fig. 40.
length, but the length fixed on determines the radius of the curved
guides in the reversing block, or the length of the swing links, which-
ever construction is adopted.
It will be noticed that the lap and lead depend on the ratio of jm
to mg-it whilst the port openings (over and alwve the leads), deper
198 RBVERSING OBAR.
only on the angle to which the reversing block is canted, and will be
about *lit\i8 of the distances ssi and 882 respectively.
Considerable deviations from the above-described positions and
proportions may be made without materially afifecting the nature of
the results.
Where the distance from centre of piston-rod to centre of valve-
rod is different for the diff<^rent cylinders (H.P., M.P., L.P.)i the
valve-rod link may be inclined as much as 1 in 12, but beyond
that the point m should be moved, and the lengths jm and mgi
altered.
For complete investigation of Bremme's or Marshall's gear see Mr
Seaton's '^Manual of Marine Engineering."
REVERSING GEAR.
For all ordinary types of engine, when size renders hand -gear too
slow in its action, the simplest and most efficient form of reversing
engine is the direct-acting steam cylinder, controlled by a cataract
brake. A very perfect form of this gear has long been associated with
the name of Messrs Brown of Edinburgh ; by ine adoption of valve-
gear of the ** hunting" type they have produced a machine which is
handled with the greatest ease and certainty, and which is, at the
same time, quite automatic in its movements. The action of the gear
is as follows : — On moving the hand-lever through any fraction of its
travel, the steam valve is displaced, or opened, a corresponding
amount causing the piston to move ; likewise as the gear begins to
move, the steam valve begins to return to its central or closed position ;
consequently when the piston has travelled through the fraction of its
stroke correspondinsr with the original movement of the hand-lever, the
valve is again central, and the gear at rest.
Direct steam gears should never be fitted without the brake
cylinder, as, in careless hands, the steam-gear is apt to "take
charge," overpower the controlling hand -gear, and "carry away"
some of the brackets, ko.
Another very excellent prime mover, which is adaptable to almost
any type of engine, is that known as the *' all-round *' gear. In this
arrangement a connecting-rod from the main lever on the weigh -shaft
takes hold of a crank-pin on the side of a worm-wheel, whose worm is
revolved by a small reciprocating steam engine.
The great advantage of this gear is that it has no "stops," but can
travel round continuously, without risk of carrying anything away,
and is therefore perfectly safe in even the most careless hands. It has
also the further advantage, —resulting from the crank and connecting-
rod principle embodied,— of exerting its greatest power at the extreme
positions of links, so that it readily starts to reverse when required and
is easily controlled when notching- up is desired. The small engine is
sometimes made with two cylinders and cranks to be automatic, and
is also sometimes made reversible ; but these are both very doubtfiil
improvements.
RBYBRSING GEAR. 199
In ftll steam reversing gears, arrangements should be made to prevent
the accumalation of water in the cylinders of the small engine, in
order that they may be in condition to start instantly when the hand-
lever is moved.
Reversing gear weigh-shafts. — ^These shafts must be not only
strong enough for their work, but also fairly rigid under it, and
capable of standing any bending stresses that may come upon them.
The following formula gives diameters in accordance with the best
modem practice : —
Rule 174.
D= ^ 1^ ^ ^°' ^^ g^^^ ^ 1^ ^ ^ 4- »QK
where D = diameter of weigh-shaft in inches ;
d= effective diameter of valve- rod in inches ;
Z= length of drag-rod lever in inches ;
L= length of weigh-shaft in feet.
For triple engines of ordinary proportions the above formula gives a
diameter of weigh-shaft about equal to twice the effective diameter of
the valve-rods,— slightly larger if both forward and after valve- boxes
are ** outside," and slightly smaller if both are " inside."
Another, a simple and reliable rule for weigh-shafts, is as follows : —
Rule X74a. Diameter= J^.:^:^^^
N.H.P. is that given by Rule 7.
F is for two-crank engines, 1000.
F „ three- „ 900.
F „ four- „ 800.
The designer must, of course, use his discretion and make suitable
modifications where the weigh-shaft bearings cannot be placed close to
the various levers, or the steam gear lever close to the middle valve-
gear in a three- crank engine, or between the two middle gears in a
four-crank one.
In some cases the weigh-shaft may be made tapering to the ends,
but, as a rule, it is better to use a practically parallel shaft, and, if
weight is of great importance, make it hollow, as is commonly the
case of large Naval engines ; the necessary stiffness is then maintained
without difficultv, and there is no fear of the bending.
Large weigh-shafts should be made in two pieces connected by solid
flange couplings, and the main lever may be placed between the
coupling flanges and secured by passing the coupling bolts through it.
"Enlargements" should bo provided on the shafts for such other
levers as must be fixed at any distance from the ends.
Size of reversing engine cylinders. — For ordinary triple
engines as described above, this may be obtained from the general
relation, —
200 STEAM TURNING GB>ilS.
The steam cylinder of the direct * ' push and pull " geai-s should be
sufficiently large to act freely with steam at a pressure considerably
lower than " boiler pressure."
Rule 175. — Capacity of cylinder should be the capacity of L.P.
cylinder -f 96.
For all-round gearing with the usual proportion of worm and wheel
and length of levers.
Rule 176. — Capacity of a single cylinder should be practically that
of the L. P. cylinder -j- 600.
In their fear of giving too little power in steam reversing gears,
there is little^ doubt that engineers often run to the other extreme,
and give much more than necessary, even *v^hen two-thirds boiler
pressure is assumed. The values assumed for the constants in the
above formulse give ample size.
With "all-round" gears the small engine should not make less
than 15 revolutions in moving the gear over, and where possible 20
should be allowed, and up to 25 in large engines.
The pitch of the worm-wheel teeth should never be less than 1%
inches, and for large engines 2% inches is usual; they should be
machine-cut, and should have no more clearance than is absolutely
necessary.
The worm is usually forged solid with its spindle, and may have a
diameter at pitch given by, —
Rule 177.
Diameter of worm at pitch circle naay be . 8 x pitch of teeth.
Rule 177a.
Width of face of worm-wheel „ . 2x „
Rule 177b.
Length of worm (actual thread) „ . 3x ,,
STEAM TURNING GEARS.
The turning gear now universal is the double worm arrangement, —
in which the second, or auxiliary, worm shaft is coupled direct to the
crank-shaft of the small turning engine, which makes from 1200 to
2000 revolutions for one turn of the main engines, according to size.
The size of cylinder, or cylinders, of turning engine should be such
that, with say 50 lbs. of steam, the main engine can be turned one
revolution in from 5 to 8 minutes, according to size, which gives, —
with the above-mentioned ratios of gearing, — a speed of 250 revolutions
per minute for the turning engine.
In the Navy the turning endues have usually two cranks, and are
made reversible by means of links or a reversing valve, but one is
quite sufficient, and a loose eccentric is all that is required for reversing.
In small vessels, where a special turning engine is not considerSi
STEAM TURNING GBAR8. 201
necessary, the auxiliary wonn-shaft may be driven from a donkey
pump or other auxiliary engine, by means of a pitch chain and
wheels.
For ordinary three-crank triple and quadruple engines, the sizes of
cylinder for turning engine should be such as will satisfy the following
relation, — the boiler pressure being assumed as 50 lbs. in all cases: —
Rule 178. ^^"^'
where A = area of piston or pistons of turning engine, in sq. inches;
T= travel of piston or pistons, in feet, while turning main
engines through one revolution ;
D = diameter of crank-shaft of main engines :
K=14.
Rule 179. — In general practice the capacity of the cylinder of a
turning engine is = the capacity of the L.P. cylinder of the main
engine -r 700.
In Naval work the main wheels are commonly of cast-steel with
gun-metal rims, but a plain cast-iron wheel, gearing with a hard
bronze worm, gives quite as good results and is much cheaper to
fit.
However carefully a worm-wheel may be moulded there is sure
to be more or less distortion in cooling, and it is therefore the
cheapest in the long run to machine-cut the teeth.
The teeth should not be made too fine a fit ; there is no objection to
a good clearance.
The usual pitch for the teeth of the main wheel is as follows : —
For 6-iuch to 8-inch crankshaft . . 2-inch pitch.
SVa „ 11
LUV/Ul V
>»
11% „ 14
»»
If
. . 2%
)l
14% „ 18
))
M
. 8
if
above 18
»'
J»
• • 8%
it
When calculating the strength of the teeth, the number in gear at
one time should not be taken at more than two.
Rule 180. — The length of tooth should not exceed '6 x pitch, viz.
•26 X pitch outside the pitch circle, and '34 x pitch within.
It is scarcely necessary to say that the pitch should be an even
quarter or half inch, and that the diameter of the wheel must then
be made such as will give the required number of teeth ; also when
the wheel is made in halves the number of teeth should be even.
The pitch of the auxiliary worm-wheel is usually 1% inches to
2^ inches.
Rule 181. — ^The width of face of the wheels may be 1 '76 x pitch
of teeth when a solid worm is used, and 2*1 x pitch when the worm
is loose on the spindle.
The diameter of the pitch cylinder of the worm may be, —
When worm is loose on spindle { ^°^^ '***' ;
3-3 X
202 SCREW PROPELLBRS.
Rule 182.
When worm is forged with spindle . . 2*4 x pitch of teeth.
Rule 182a.
3x
»i
Length of worm (actual thread) may be 3 x pitch of teeth.
Wheels up to 3 feet diameter are best made with a continuous
plate, or disc, in lieu of arms ; larger wheels may have six radial
ribs on each side of the disc (the flanges counting as two, when the
wheel is in halves), and the disc may then be lightened by cutting
six circular, or nearly circular, holes in it.
The thickness of rim, of disc plate, and of ribs, may be same as
thickness of tooth at pitch line.
Where possible the main wheel should be placed on a coupling.
When cast-steel brackets or bearings are used for the worm-shafts they
should be bushed with bronze or white metal.
SCREW PROPELLERS.
Ships may have any number of screw propellers, and in the past
some have had as many as six. In practice the following holds good : —
(i) Single screw at the stern for all small ships of sufficient draught
of water — all cargo steamers of moderate speed.
(ii) Two screws, generally side by side, and called twin^ for all
fast steamers. Naval ships, and for cargo steamers of light draught or
high speed.
Two screws, one at the bow and one at the stem, have been tried
with success in tugs and other high-powered, small, short craft which
are required to maintain full power in a sea-way, inasmuch as when
pitching one screw is always fairly immersed.
(iii) Three screws have been employed with reciprocating engines
in ships of large power and moderate draught — chiefly in Naval ships
of foreign powers. Since the introduction of the turbine three screws
have been common in ships of all sizes as convenient to the turbine
installations and conditions of high revolution with direct drive.
(iv) Four screws were originally tried on light-draught ferry-
steamers required to move with either end first. In the Navy and
Atlantic Service ships of very large size and high speed propelled by
turbines have four screws. In the latter case the screws are in pairs,
the inner pair being just forward of the rudder, as in twin-screw ships ;
the outer pair are one on each side, well forward and clear of the feed
to the others, and near enough to the skin of the ship to permit of a
short outer fin to carry the screw shaft.
T?ie single icrew is of course the least expensive, but it is not so
safe as the twin screws, one of which will propel the ship when the
other is out of action, and with both in action she can be steered in
case of disablement of the rudder or its gear.
It is better to have a small screw well immersed than a large one
SCREW PROPBLLEBS. 203
with its tips near the sea surfacOi consequently when the draught
of water of a ship is limited and not much mpre than the diameter of
the single screw, two smaller screws will give a higher propulsive
efficiency ; and in the case of very high power three well-immersed
screws will be better than two larger ones insufficiently submerged.
When the draught of water is so light that no screw of reasonable
diameter can be fitted submerged, then for good efficiency the screw
race must be covered in so that when under way the screw submerges
itself. This has been done most successfully by Sir J. Thoruycroft
and Mr Yarrow, the latter using a hinged flap' which can be lowered
and come into action when the ship is light aft ; and when loaded deep
enough not to require it the flap is raised out of water.
Screw propellers may have any number of blades ; from one to six
have been experimented with in actual practice. One blade is theo-
retically highly efficient; in practice, it is objectionable for obvious
reasons, chiefly for being out of balance, and its centre of effort revolves
and causes complications.
Two blades balance, but their centre of effort has an orbit due to
the difference of immersion of the blades during revolution, with the
usual consequence of considerable vibration. With deep immersion
the evil is not so great, and in smooth water the Iwo-bladed screw
has a high efficiency. Such screws are now only fitted to small craft,
to boats driven by irreversible engines, and to sea-going ships which
have to do a considerable amount of sailing. In the latter case the
screw is either raised out of water or its blades moved into a fore and
aft position, so as to offer little ** head" resistance, by such mechanical
means as employed to alter the pitch or reverse the blades' angles.
Three blades is the commonest for twin- and multiple-screw ships,
and when well immersed is the most efficient for all sea-going ships.
With the small diameter permissible with direct-diiven turbines, there
was difficulty in designing a screw blade with sufficient surface with
only three, consequently four had to be resorted to for large-powered
ships. With geared turbines there is no difficulty.
r our blades is the common practice for all single-screw ships, for
large merchant ships of full power engaged in Atlantic service, and for
twin-screw warships of large power and comparatively high draught,
as well as for those other warships and express steamers with three and
four screws of small diameter and large surface.
The shape of the screw blade is now generally an approximation
to an ellipse, but in the mercantile marine there is still a tendency to
what was called pear-shape — really an ellipse with truncated end — that
is, square tipped. With the small diameter large surface screw it is
much broader at the tip and shaped like a Japanese fan ; and often
the blade is circular, or circular with the tips cut square. Experience
has led engineers into the fashion of having the maximum breadth of
blade in the middle of small diameter screws, and at about two-thirds
of the length from the tip with ordinary ones. In a general way the
maximum breadth may be at a distance equal to a quarter ot th^*
diameter from the axis.
204 80RBW PROPELLBR8.
The section of the blade was generally such that the acting face
is a true helical surface and the back curved so that any section flattened
would be a segment of a circle. Experiments on model screws of a
most exhaustive characl;er by Professor D. W. Taylor and Capt. Dyson,
U.S. Navy, have proved that while these are good sections they are by
no means the best ; that on the whole a more ship shape (horizontal
or water-line) section is the best, so that the maximum thickness is
much nearer the leading than the following edge, and the entering
angle more obtuse than was formerly thought good.
The material of propellers is a much more important matter now
than formerly, as the nigh rate of revolution obtaining, especially with
turbines, sets up centrifugal forces of great magnitude, and the erosion
due to the action of sea-water on the surface is severe. Hence it is
now necessary in express steamers to have the screw blades made of
material which has a very high tensile resistance and a surface which
will not easily corrode and permit of erosion.
Cast-iron is still used largely in the mercantile marine, and for cargo
ships and those working at a moderate rate of revolution is quite satis-
factory inasmuch as it is cheap, is strong enough, and will, bar accidents,
last six years with common care. If it receives a heavy blow a portion
of the blade is broken clean off, leaving the screw to revolve freely, so
that when back in port the propeller may be removed and havB a new
piece * ' burnt " on ; or, in case of a loose-bladed screw, a new blade can
be shipped.
Bronze of kindSt mostly high tensile zinc and copper alloys with
some ^'doctor" metal added, are in general use for express steamers,
Naval ships, and other craft where cost is not so important a factor as
high efficiency. The bronze screw is always thinner than cast-iron,
has a smoother surface, and is cast truer to pitch, and wastes very
little under the action of sea-water ; moreover, it is much lighter to
handle and carry. Phosphor bronze has also been used for blades, and
from its high elastic limit and smoother surface has advantages, but
it is not so tough.
Naval bronze or gun-metal is now seldom, if at all, used, as it is more
costly and has a much lower elastic limit.
Steel eastings were at one time used for large ocean-going express
steamers ; blades of this material were generally cast separate and had
a very rough surface, which was not improved by the action of sea-
water ; they were seldom tme to pitch and often very badly out from
tip to root. Corrosion was rapid, so that their working life under
favourable circumstances was only four years, and all attempts to pre-
vent destruction proved failures.
The dimensions of a screw propeller depend on the circumstances
of each case. Sometimes they have to conform to the requirements
of the engines, and sometimes the engines must be designed to suit the
screws. Oftener still they are the result of compromise between the
demands of both.
T?ie diameter of a screw is governed by the draught of water of the
ship and tibe form of the stern lines, the exceptions to the latter have
SORBW PROPBLLBBS. 205
been already cited. The screw should have its top blade immersed to
the extent of 15 per cent, of its diameter to be efficient on ocean service,
and 10 per cent, for smooth water work. A ship having fine water-
lines in the "rua" will permit of a better "feed" to- the screw and
have wake currents less extensive than one with a full "run," conse-
quently she may have a screw of smaller diameter. In the same way
a twin-screw ship may have smaller screws pari passu than a single-
screw ship of the same form. All other things being equal, the power
I H P
delivered to the screw per revolution, that is g : is the criterion
R
of dimensions. The screw has with that power to project a column of
water, so that by its reaction an adequate thrust on the ship is produced ;
within reasonable limits it may be taken that if D be the diameter of
the column, and L its length, then
irD2
X L= constant ; that is D' x L is constant.
In other words, that D' varies inversely as L, so that if the screw's
diameter increases the pitch may be less and vice versa. Consequently
for a given power there may be a great Variety of dimensions for the
screw. There may be one with small diameter and big pitch, or one
of large diameter and smaller pitch.
Pitch ratio is the expression for the relation of pitch to diameter, and
p
may be anything the designer chooses, but practice has shown that —
should not be much less than 1*0, and propulsive results are better
when it is greater than 1, and the best are attained with ordinary ships
when the pitch ratio is from 1 '2 to 1 '6.
The slip of a screw is of course a real thing as well as an apparent
one. That is, the speed of the ship through the water is less than the
multiple of the revolutions and acting pitch, and the difference between
them is the apparent slip. The real slip is the movement of the water
imparted to it by the propeller through the surrounding water, and what
that is cannot be measured ; in any and every case it is more than the
apparent, and with a bluff ship with enormous wake currents it is much
more, and of course is always positive. Negative apparent slip is often
observed with such ships when they have screws of large diameter and
surface.
Surface of Screw (acting) is that of the blades from the boss to
the tip acting on the water as the screw turns ; and its area is that
actually measured on the blade.
Projected surface is the area projected on a plane transverse to the
screw's axis from the acting surface, and is often taken by preference as
the criterion of the screw capability.
Thrust. — If Vis the velocity of the stream of water issuing from the
ship, whose own velocity is v in feet per second ; then velocity of the
stream with respect to still water past which the ship is moving will
be (V - v). This is the real slip. Then : —
206 80RBW FROPBLLBRS.
Rule 183. Real slip per cent, of velocity of flow= —^^ 100.
Rule 184. The mass of sea-water will be
""^xY X ^^ = 1-671 D'xV.
4 82
The momentum of the stream = 1 '571 D2V(V-t;) = thrust in lbs.
The work done = 1-571 D2V(V-«)t; in foot-lbs.
Rule I8S. Ho^se-Power=l•"±D'J(y-^'-jil''=P'^ly-^)^
^ 33,000 350
The diameter of the screw may be determined by this formula as
Y-v
follows : — P is the pitch, R the revolutions per minute ; =/, a
fraction of V ; E is the efficiency of the screw and engine, that is the
ratio of actual work of propulsion to the I.H.P. developed by the
engine ; or in the case of turbines is the ratio to the S.H.P., and
therefore the efficiency of the screw only. Then the following holds
good,
^'^'^' 3601
Rule 186. Diameter of Screw in feet= . /.Ji^^ii^?^ .
^(PxR)8x (/-/«)
If the real slip be taken as a; = 0 '2Pc +/ for twin screws and 0 ' 18 Pc +/
for single and centre screws of three-screw ships, where / is as before
and Pe is the prismatic co-efficient of the ship s submerged hull, then
Rule i86a. Diameter of Screw in feet= a /i^^iZi x (^^X .
A good practical method of determining the diameter of a screw
suitable for a particular ship is by means of
Rule i86b. Diameter of Screw in feet=zxPe
8/I.H.P.
V R
For single screws ordinary, «= 7 '25. Ocean-going express, 7 '61.
,, twin ,, 2 = 6*55. ,, ,, 6*88.
,, quadruple ,, 2 = 6*25. ,, ,, 6 "51.
,, turbine driven centre, 2 = 6*55. ,, ,, 6*88.
„ ,, wing, 2 = 5-75. „ ,, 6*04.
A rough and ready method suitable to cargo steamers of good draught.
Rule i86c. Diameter of Screw in {eet=z\/DxS
D is the diameter and S the stroke of L. P. piston in feet.
2= (2*4 + Pc) for twin screws and (27 -I- Pc) for single screws.
SOBEW PBOPELLBBS. 207
Pitch of screw is now generally uniform throughout, so that the
propeller is said to be a true screw. If the screw is of small diameter
for the power delivered to it, there is of necessity a larger slip ratio
than one with larger diameter. Slip ratio is a variable factor, and may
be chosen by the designer to suit the other conditions. It is now
known, as the result of the very many and carefully made experiments,
what the efficiency is of any particular screw at different slip factors ;
or with the same slip factor the efficiency with dilferent pitch ratios.
Curves of efficiency, with these variables, may be set out and a choice
made to suit the revolutions of the engines. In the mercantile marine,
with reciprocating engines an apparent slip of 10 per cent., and with
turbines 16 per cent, is considered satisfactory. Bluff cargo boats
seldom show so high a ratio, 5 per cent, being usual, and negative slip
not unusual with large screws.
If S is the speed of the ship in knots per hour, R the revolutions
per Bunute, ana s the slip in knots,
Pitch=(S+^)x6080_
60 R
If aj is the slip per cent, of Speed of screw, that is of — — — - — ,
oOoO
then S= speed of screw f 1 - -— j.
Rule 187. Then Pitch =| x ]^^ feet.
R 100 — aj
By referring to Rule 186 the slip for any set of conditions can be
estimated and the pitch of screw calculated accordingly, or the pitch
may be assumed from engine conditions and the diameter calculated
by that rule with the assumed apparent slip as /.
The surface of the screw is after all the most difficult to determine,
that the very highest propulsive efficiency possible may be obtained
with given diameter and pitch. The tendency of any increase in blade
area is to add to the resistance to turning, as the decrease is to an
augmentation of apparent slip without gain in propulsive efficiency — in
other words, the actual column of water is not thereby increased with
increase in revolutions. To go to extremes, a propeller of suitable
diameter and pitch may fail to propel efficiently, inasmuch as the blade
surface is insufficient to hold against the water, the blades being
simply whirled through it. Starting with such a screw, any addition
to blade surface tends to avoid this plunging through the water, so
that the efficiency is improved ; each addition makes a further improve-
ment, but not at so great a rate ; finally, the further increases produce
no improvement, and the last addition detracts from efficiency.
Breadth of blade, too, has considerable influence on efficiency of
surface, so that with the minimum surface on the fewest blades there
is the maximum breadth of blade and the greatest efficiency. The
following is in accordance with good practice : —
208 SGRBW FROPBLLEBS.
Rule i88. Area of Acting surface in sq. ft = Q . /^^'^^^^-•—
V Revs. p. m.
Q — Pc X M where
For four-bladed screws, single, M = 20'0. For twin screws, 15*0.
„ three ,, ,, M-19-0. ,, „ 14-3.
„ two „ „ M-17'5. ,, „ 18-1.
Maximum breadth of blade.
Rule 189. Maximum Breadth in inches = E . /-
I.H.P.
Revs, per min.
where K = 14 in four-bladed screws; K = 17 in three-bladed ; and
K = 22 in two bladed. For turbines E is much higher when the
diameter is so limited.
Thickness of blades in cases of very high rate of revolution and
large power should be calculated most carefully by estimating the tension
due to centrifugal force and the tension on the metal near the face dTie to
the bending moment on that section from the reaction producing thrust.
In designing a screw it is not unusual to estimate a certain hypo-
thetical thickness at the axis and get the longitudinal section by
drawing a line from the tip to the points on the axis; then taking
the thickness at the tip from practical considerations, draw a line
parallel to the face line at a distance equal to this thickness till it meets
the former line. This hypothetical thickness may be calculated by
' the following : —
Rule zoo. Thickness of blade at axis= / — rxX.
The value of X for cast-iron is 6'3 ; for gun -metal (Admiralty bronze)
3 '2 ; for strong bronzes 2*35 ; and for steel 2*5.
d is the diameter of the tunnel shafting or that required to resist
torsion, and may be taken as y ' ' ' x H.
The value ofH for triple and quadruple compound engines may be
taken as 5'8\/^, and for turbines 65. Substituting
Rule 191. Thickness of blade at axis = X ^ 7^^: ?^- x -^,
where n is the number of blades and b the breadth at the root in
inches near the boss, and p the boiler pressure.
But it may be ])referre(i .to esttn^te the thickness of blade at a
Soint where it actually exists and lUs a definite breadth, say at 1}
iameters of shaft from the axi& In this case the same rule applies,
but the value of X is different.
Rule Z9ia, when thickness is estimated at I'bxd from the axis,
then for cast-iron X = 4; 2 for Admiralty bronze; 1'6 for cast-steel ;
and 1*5 for forged steel and strong bronzes.
The thickness of blades at the tip should be as follows : —
SCREW PROPELLERS.
209
Thickness of blade at tip— Cast-iron, . . '040+ -4 inch.
„ ,, Cast-steel, . , . '030+ '4 ,,
,, „ Gun-metal, . . '030+ '2 ,,
,, ,, High -class bronze, . •02D-|-'3 „
where D is diameter of propeller in feet.
The thickness of blade for loose-bladed NUval propellers may be
taken roughly by : —
Rule 191b. t= ^ /V^r + '25,
where ^= thickness of blade in inches at surface of boss sphere ;
T= indicated thrust per blade= . , I-H.P. x3a,000
Pitch X revs, x No. of blades
L= -6* X total length of blade (flange joint to tip) ;
rf= diameter of blade flange ;
K=oo.efficient= { f^ J!""' admiralty bronze ;
(^ 950 for strong bronze.
Table LXVI I.— Thickness of Propeller Blades.
I>ia.of
■haft in
Indies.
Solid cast-iron,
4 blades.
Breadth
of blade
slens^th
of b088=
27xdia.
of shaft.
Thick-
ness of
blade (at
centre
of shaft.)
Loose'bladed propellers.
Breadth
of blade
s'Sxdia.
of flange
«l-8x
dia. of
shaft.
Thickness of blade at centre of shaft.
4 blades 4 blades 8 blades 4 blades 8 blades
cast-
iron.
steel or steel or
bronze. I bronze.
gun-
metaL
inches.
inches.
inches.
6
16
4^4
7
19
4%
8
21%
6H
9
24
6
10
27
««
11
30
7M
12
82%
1%
13
85
8H
14
38
9
15
40%
95^
16
43
10)4
17
46
10%
18
...
...
19
.*•
• ••
.20
•••
• ••
gun-
metal.
inches.
10%
12%
14%
16/4
18
19%
21%
23%
25%
27
28%
30%
32%
34%
86
inches.
5
5%
6%
7%
8
8%
9%
10/4
11
11%
12%
13%
14
inches.
3
3%
3%
4%
4%
5%
6%
6%
^%
7%
1%
8
8%
8%
9%
inches.
inches.
inches.
3%
3%
^%
^%
3/8
4%
4%
4%
5%
5
5
5%
5%
6%
6%
6%
6%
7
6%
6%
756
7%
7%
8%
7%
1%
8%
8/4
8/4
9%
8%
8%
10
9/4
9/4
io«
9%
9%
11%
10/4
10/4
11%
10%
10%
12%
* For ordinary Griffiths form of blade ; if blades are broad at tip this quantity
should be inpreased, and vice versa.
14
210
SOREW PROPBLLBRB.
If cast-iron of lower than Admiralty quality (tensile strength 9 tous
per square inch) be used, suitable increase in thickness of blade must
be made.
If breadth of blade be made less than length of boss, thickness must
of course be so increased that value of hxt^ shall always agree with
that found from above Table.
A good method of setting out the longi-
tudinal section of the blade is as follows : —
Q.
— i — ^
r<*5
Pm
Determine AB (Fig. 41) from Table LXVIL, or by Rule 191 ; draw
AC so as to give no thickness at tip ; set oft' thickness at tip (from
Table LXVIIL), and draw DE parallel to CB (at right angles to shaft
axis), and then fill in the back of the blade near F so as to make DF
die gradually into AC.
Table LXVI 1 1.— Thickness of Propeller Blades at Tip.
Diameter
of
Propeller
in feet.
Thickness at tip, in inches.
Cast-iron
•04D+-4
Cut-steel,
•03D+'«
Bronze
•03D+-2
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
H
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
^Vi.
%
%
%
16/
16/
/le
1
iVi.
iVie
1^
iVi.
iVie
1^4
1^4
iVi.
1%
%
%
"X.
"X.
%
%
'=X.
"X.
%
%
1 6/
/l6
16/
1
1
iVi.
lyi.
lys
lys
'X.
'X.
'X.
%
•x.
•X.
%
%
"X,
"X.
%
%
"X.
"X.
%
"X.
SCREW PBOPBLLBRS. 211
Studs or screws for attaching^ blades to boss. — These are usually
of one of the sti'onger bronzes, for bronze propellers, and of mild steel
for cast-iron or cast-steel propellers. They should be of size given by
following formula ; —
Rule 192. axNxr=2^
where a = area of one stud or screw at bottom of thread (sq. inches) ;
N= number of studs or screws for one blade (usually 7 to 11) ;
r= radius of studs or screws (in inches) ;
T= indicated thrust per blade=^.^ , I.H.P.x 33,000
Pitch X revs, x No. of blades
1^= *6 X total length of blade (flange joint to tip) in inches ;
K= -f ^^^^ ^°^ studs, steel and strong bronzes ;
\ 1400 for Naval bronze bolts.
For ships constantly running in rough waters or in crossing the
Atlantic, these factors should be 20 to 25 per cent, larger. With
cargo steamers, which have often to steam when light at good power,
and all of it taken by one blade, there is need of the same modification.
On the other hand, ships in smooth water service, or only occasionally
exerting full power, may have much lighter blades, so that K in that
case may be 10 per cent, less without risk.
The weight of propellers may be estimated with a good approxi-
mation to the actual by the following : —
Rule Z92a.
Weiff'ht in cwt _Sm'^ftce in sq. ft. x thickness of root in inches
The value of Y for solid cast-iron screws is 4*6.
,, ,, ,, bronze ,, 3*8.
), ,, ,, steel ,, 4*0.
The value of Y for loose-bladed cast-iron screws is 3 0.
,, ,, ,, cast-steel ,, 2*8.
,, ,, ,, bronze ,, 2'5.
Propeller Bosses when cast separately from the blades are often of
the same material, but as the stresses when fitting on the shaft and by
the action of the blades when at work are often severe, they are better of
a somewhat tougher metal. Thus cast-iron bosses should be of a
tough mixture, of which hematite or even steel is a component part ;
when weight is not of great moment such tough cast-iron bosses of ample
thickness can be used with bronze and steel blades, and steel bosses,
which can be made now quite cheaply, do very well with bronze blades,
and are of course much cheaper than bronze ones.
The bosses of solid propellers are usually egg-shaped ; those for loose
blades are spherical, and sometimes with a tapering tail to avoid cavity
at their rear at high speed of ship.
Rule 193.
The diameter of boss for loose blades =0 '9 „ydiameter of screw
212 SORBW PR0PBLLBR8.
The length of boss for three and four blades is usually 0*76 its
diameter.
The bosses of solid propellers are usually in diameter about % to }^
the diameter of the screw and 2*5 to 2*75 diameter of shaft in length.
The bolts or studs for securing blades are usually of strong
bronze, but sometimes studs are of steel with bronze cap nuts.
WT 2
The tension on them due to centrifugal force = — -,
827'
W is the weight of a blade in lbs. , v the velocity in ft. per sec. at
centre of gravity of blade, whose distance from the axis is r feet.
If R be the revolutions per min. and the pitch P, then
The diameter of blade bolts whose number is n may be calculated
from these rules and found as in practice by the following : —
dxz
Rule 194. Diameter of blade bolts =
n
where 2= 1 '6 for a three-bladed screw and 1 '3 for a four-bladed, d being
as before the equivalent diameter of shaft for torque.
Blade flanges. —These should be of the following proportions : —
Rule 195. Diameter of flange = 2*25 x diameter of tail shaft.
Rule 195a.
Thickness of flange= ( l^.^ ^ ^*°^- ^^ '^^ ^°^ .^J J;d'°°''' °' '^^'
^a4/s ,, If cas u'lron •
Proportions of propeller boss. — ^The bosses of solid cast-iron pro-
pellers may also be of the following proportions : —
Rule 196. Length of boss = 2 7 x diameter of tail shaft?
Rule X96a. Diameter of boss =27 x „ „
Rule 196b. The fore and aft section of the boss should be oval, —
the principal radius being '8 x diameter of boss.
The length of the tapered bore may be divided into three approxi-
mately equal parts, of which the two end ones will bear on the shaft,
while the central one will be cored back.
The thickness of ** shell " of the central, or cored out, portion of the
boss should be, —
Rule Z96C Thickness of boss = '65 x thickness of blade at
shaft axis.
Where the blade flanges are all within the sphere of the boss, — as is
usual in Naval propellers, — the extreme diameter of boss is about
0'9\/<li<^™6^6^ of propeller ; the length of such a boss should be the
same as that of a cast-iron boss (Rule 196).
As previously mentioned under *'Tail shafts," the taper to which
the boss is bored out should be about 1 inch on the diameter for each
foot of length, but never less than % inch.
SGRBW PROPBLLBRS.
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Reference.
^si^i&^iiU&i^^&^^^^^'^i
214
SORBW PROPELLERS.
Slip.
per
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No. of
Screws.
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Description of Ship
and Machinery.
1st Class Cruiser Recipro.
Battleship Direct Turbs.
„ Recipros.
Light Cruiser S-Grd. Turbs.
Squadm. Ldr. ,, ,, .
T. B. Destroyer Direct
Turbs ....
T. B. Destroyer Recipro.
„ „ Direct Turbs.
Ocean Express Direct
Turbs
Ocean Express Recipros.
„ „ S.-Grd. Turbs.
Passenger Cargo. Dbl. Grd.
Turbs
Passenger Cargo Recipros.
,, Mail S. G. Turbs.
Cross Chnl.'s. -Grd. Turbs!
II II »» , »i
„ „ Recipros. .
ii n n • •
Yacht S.-Grd. Turbs.
Re
ference.
THE PADDLE-WHEEL PROPELLER. 215
THE PADDLE-WHEEL PROPELLER.
The common radial wheel with fixed floats is now seldom seen,
inasmuch as it is far less efficient especially with limited diameter than
one with feathering- floats. It is, however, a much simpler structure
and easy of repair with simple means, and can he constructed largely of
timber, as it is indeed on the large tug steamers still employed on the
big American rivers, with repair shops few and far between.
There are two positions for this propeller, viz. one wheel on each
side, or a single one or pair of wheels at the stern of the ship. The
latter position is preferred for river service and in narrow channels.
The siae wheel is still a favourite propeller for tugs in harbour duties,
where manoeuvring ability and short, smart service is highly desirable
and much backing and filling has to be done.
The effective diameter of a radial wheel is somewhat difficult to
determine, — as it depends very much on the form of float, the amount
of immersion, the waves set up by the wheel, &o., — but it is usually
measured between the centres of the opposite floats.
Taking the feathering wheel as the one in general use, of diameter
D to float centres, moving at R revolutions (at full speed) per min.
A is the area of one float in square feet.
V is its velocity in feet per second and therefore = irD x —.
S the speed of the ship in knots.
V the velocity of the ship in feet per second = 1 *689 x S.
f the fraction that the slip is of V = .
• Y
t is the efficiency of the engines.
E the efficiency of engines and wheels.
Tk the tow rope resistance of the ship in lbs. at speed S.
The power transmitted to the wheels is then = I.H.P. x e.
The power delivered by the wheels = I.H.P. x E.
The stream projected by each wheel is measured by A x V x 64 lbs.
The mass of such stream is — — — — or 2 A x V.
32
The acceleration given is V - «. Hence
The pressure of float =2A x V{V - 1;) which is equal the thrust.
The work done=2A x V(V - v)v or 120 A x V(V - t;)v per min , which
will equal Tr x 60V and also I.H.P. x E.
Rule 197. The diameter of the wheel = 19 x I.
Taking the acceleration as/V=/ x !^5Ji5.
Rule 198. Then the thrust = -^(irD x Rf. Hence
^ 1800
216 THE PADDLE-WHEEL PROPELLER.
Rule 190. Area of float A^^ln-ust x 1800 Thrust xm
Modifying this rale in accordance with good modern practice, the
following rule holds good : —
Rule 199a. Area of one feathering float =i~-^* x ( fp- p ) •
If I.H.P. is the gross amount developed and E is =0*6, then —
Value of 0 is "83 '2 for a pair of wheels.
Value of C is 109 for a single stern wheel.
In some modern high -class swift steamers E is sometimes as high as
0*66 when clean and in smooth water, in such cases C may be 85*6.
On the other hand, for tugs and small ocean-going craft it will be less
than 83-2.
The apparent slip of a paddle wheel is larger with a radial than a
feathering wheel, and the amount will depend on the circumstances of
each case ; where a small ** race" only is possible its velocity— that is,
its slip — must be greater than if the section were larger. In shallow
draught steamers, and on side wheelers for narrow passages through locks
or dock entrances, the area of float is necessarily circumscribe — con-
sequently for high power the acceleration must be great. In practice
the rate of slip is jfrom 15 to 80 per cent, with radial floats, and 15 to
20 with feathering ; in some cases, due to circumstances above-named,
it is even with the latter 25 per cent, at full speed. Generally with a
reduction in power and speed of the ship there is a reduction in the
rate of slip.
The wheel race of a paddle steamer is not effected nearly so
much by hull currents as is the screw, except of course with stern
wheels, when wake currents and augmented resistance play a prominent
part in propulsive eflBciency.
The number of floats on a paddle wheel varies with the diameter.
Rule 200. Radial fixed floats, one for each foot of diameter.
Rule 20oa. Number of feathering: floats = —— or ^—,
Proportion of Paddle Floats.— A the area, B the breadth ; r the
ratio of length to breadth, so that A=B x rB=rB^ ; then
Rule 201. Breadth of float
Rule 20ia. Length of float =r a/-.
In practice r is 4 to 6 with radial wheels and 2*6 to 8'0 with feather-
ing wheels.
TAB PADDLB-WHBBL PROPELLER. 217
Thickness of floats, when of elm or other equally strong wood, is
about -- . Radial floats of common wood, •- is the thickness. Steel
floats stiffened by curvature or angle bars are now often used instead
of wood, as having less edge resistance and being cheaper. Their
thickness should be 0*16 inch per foot of breadth + 0*16 inch.
N.B, — The edges, both of entry and emergence, should be chamfered
at back, and the corners are better rounded.
Formerly wheels were made with two sets of rims, one paii* being at
the extremity of the arms outside the floalts and the other pair just
within the floats ; in a modem wheel, with the big pitch of float possible
with high rate of revolution and to reduce weight, the outer rims are
omitted and the arms made as shown in Fig. 43.
Immersion of floats should not be less than one- eighth their breadth,
and for general service should be one-half. If the voyage is so long
that the fuel consumption materially aflects the draught of water, or
there is large variation due to other weight carried, the immersion at
light draught should be not less than 0*1 x B, and when fully loaded
not more than 0*7 x B. That is, for good running the variation in
draught ought not to be more than 0'66, which would mean 2*5 feet
for a large ship and one foot for a small one.
To design a feathering wheel so that the floats shall enter edge-
ways wh€n going at full speed, take P (Fig. 42, page 218), a point on
the face of the float just entering the water, draw r A parallel to the
water line, and cut off PA to represent the speed of the ship through
the water, to some convenient scale ; draw PB tangent to the circle
through P, whose centre is the centre of the wheel, and cut off* PB
to represent the speed of the wheel on that circle ; complete the
parallelogram, and" the resultant PR is the direction in which the
float enters the water.
^ Produce RP, and draw parallel to it, at a distance from it equal to
distance from gudgeon centre to face of float, a line cutting the circle
of gudgeon centres in G.
Draw GH at right angles to PF, set off the breadth of the float, and
mark off GL equal to the length of lever required.
Now draw another float whose face is vertical and immediately under
the centre of the wheel, and the end of whose lever is M ; and with
centres M and L, and radius GO, draw two arcs of circles intersecting
in E. Then E is the centre of the eccentric pin, and LE the length of
the radius rods ; and the ends of all the other float levers will lie in a
circle struck from E as centre, with radius LE.
Paddle-wheel frames. — These must be strong enough, in every
case, to transmit the power of the engines to the water, and must
also be stiff enough to work without undue springing or vibration.
As the power of the engines is approximately proportional to the cube
of the diameter of the shaft, the strength of the wheel frames should
be in the same proportion, and the section of the arm would be given
by the equation, —
Fig. 42.
THB PADDLB-ffHEEI. FROPHLLBR.
220 THE FADDLE-WHBEL FBOFELLBR.
Rule 202. t X J*= - X d»,
n
where t and b are respectively thickness and breadth of arm, n total
number of arms in one wheel, d diameter of inner, or engine, journal
of paddle-shaft, and E a co-efficient.
But when the diameter of shaft is small, this gives a section of
arm which would not be stiff enough for practical purposes without
more cross-bracing than is usual in small wheels ; in practice, small
wheels are commonly made without any diagonal bracing at all, —
the arms being made proportionately stronger,— as experience has
shown that it is not advisable to use sections below a certain degree
of lightness.
The formula, therefore, requires the addition of a constant quantity,
and, if written as follows, gives very satisfactory results : —
Rule 202a. t X 62=5 X (c?3 + 600).
n
The value of K, for section of arm near boss, is 0*32,— and the other
symbols are as defined above.
The formula may be used exactly as it stands for ordinary
oscillating engines with sectional crank-shafts (Class 8, Table
L.a), but the shafts of the other types are made larger, on account
of the greater bending stresses to which they are subject, and what
may be called the "equivalent cube of diameter" must be obtained
before Rule. 201 can be applied. The equivalent (P is found by
taking the cube of the actual diameter of the journal, and, if
50
for example the engine be of Glass 2 (Table L.a), taking rrths
58
of it.
Theoretically, the arms may be made lighter as they recede from
the boss, but in practice it was usual to make them parallel, chiefly for
convenience of manufacture, and to use rolled bar.
When there is no outer rim, or ring, the portion of each arm
beyond the inner rim must be strong enough to carry its own load
without any help from the other ai*ms, and must be considered
as a beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other. As there is a
tendency to contrary flexure of the arm within the ring, the arm is
generally made widest at the ring, — tapering gi'adually towards the
boss, and quickly towards the gudgeon centre or end. The type of
wheel is expensive, and the floats are deprived of such protection as is
given by the outer rims, and are therefore so much the more liable to
injury.
The ratio of breadth of arm to thickness is usually about 5 to 1.
The arms must, of course, be locally widened out where the connection
to the rim, or rims, is made. When there are two rims, from three to
five bolts may be used at each joint, but with one rim only there
should be six to ten bolts, according to size of wheel.
Nothing less than a ^-inch bolt should be used on ordinary
THE PADDLE-WHEEL PROPELLER. 221
wheels, and both heads and nuts should be square ; also, all holes
should be reamered out, and all bolts be driving fit.
Rule 203.
The section of inner ring may be 0*7 x section of arm at boss.
Rule 203a.
The section of outer „ 0*6 x „ ,,
Rule 203b.
The section of only one ,, I'ox „ „'
The proportions of breadth to thickness may be, —
Rule 204. Inner ring . -=5.
Rule 204a. Outer ring . -=4.
V
Rule 204b. Only ring . -«6'5.
In large wheels, the inner rims (or arms near inner rims) should be
stayed back to the opposite sides of the boss ; the section of stays
may be, —
Rule 205.
Section of diagonal stay (if rectangular) 7 x section of inner rim.
Rule 205a.
Section of diagonal stay (if circular) '5 x „ „
Rule 206. — Horizontal round ties, or distance rods, should also be
fitted between each pair of gudgeon bearings, and as close as possible
to them ; they may have a diameter of 1 '3 x thickness of arm.
It is a common practice to fix the centres of the gudgeons, on
which the floats are hinged, slightly, off the centre lines of the
floats, — nearer the outer edges, — as the strains on the feathering
gear are thereby reduced; the amount is to a great extent optional
with the designer, but varies in practice from one-tenth to one-
twentieth of the breadth of the float.
The whole of the gudgeons and pins should be cased with brass, and
work in lignum-vitae bushes ; unless the vessel is to work in sandy or
muddy water, — when iron pins working in white-metal bushes will
give better results.
The outer bearing for the paddle-shaft may have a length of 1*5
to 2 X diameter of journal, — according to nature of service and
consequent weight of wheel ; it should be strongly made and firmly
fixed, as, in addition to the weight of wheel, the whole of the thru?*
222 MARINB STEAM TURBINES.
is taken by it. The magnitude and direction of the resultant force on
the bearing can be easily calculated, but, as its direction is always
below the horizontal, the caps do not need to be very substantial.
The lubricant was often mainly water, but oiling pipes and tallow
boxes should be fitted, and water Kept out.
A stuffing-box should be fitted round the shaft where it passes
through the ship's skin.
MARINE STEAM TURBINES.
The turbine is now employed on shipboard to drive the propellers
in various ways. In waranips it is practically the only motor now in
use, and in the mercantile marine it continues to take the place of
the reciprocating engine inasmuch as by means of gearing, single and
double, the rate of revolution of the propeller can be reduced to permit
of the employment of screws of large diameter and consequent high
efficiency, especially in a seaway. It is a very cheap form of motor
and simple in construction ; its weight is less than that of a reciprocator,
and, while occupying no more floor space, it requires much less head
room. As a rule it consumes less steam per power unit than the best
of reciprocators, and it can make the fullest use of the high vacuum, so
cheaply obtainable on shipboard. It can use steam both of high
pressure and high temperature due to superheat, with some advantage,
but these are not conditions necessary to it for economic or power
results, inasmuch as the velocity obtainable with comparatively low
initial pressures of steam is sufficient for good results.
The steam turbine is not such an elastic instrument for the marine
engineer as the vertical reciprocator, inasmuch as by itself it is not
reversible ; at low revolutions it is not so efficient and economic as at
high, where the peripheral speed is in accordance with the velocity of
flow of the steam ; the speed of revolution even at full speed is not
generally so high as it should be for maximum efficiency, and the
speed, such as it is, does not permit of an efficient screw propeller.
That is, the turbine rate of revolution cannot be fixed arbitrarily by the
designer as can be that of a reciprocator. If the rate of revolution is
kept low, as it is on shipboard compared with what obtains on shore
with turbines driving dynamos, there must be either an increase in
diameter of the rotor so as to obtain the peripheral velocity ; or
there must be a larger number of stages whereby the "drop" and
consequent velocity of flow are reduced ; or there may be, as there
generally was, on shipboard both these features, with the corresponding
disadvantages of length of instrument and friction losses at the blades
and channels.
The solution of these difficulties was attained by the introduction of
gearing whereby the rate of revolution of turbine may be as high as
MARINB STEAM TURBINBS. 223
desired or found practicable (now 3,000 to 4,000), while the screw may
revolve at the rate for high efficiency under the service conditions.
Double gearing is now in general use for large units, and likely to be
so for even small ones, as tne spur or main driving-wheel can thereby
be of quite a moderate diameter.
The reversing of the propellers on a turbine-driven ship is
accomplished by means of a separate turbine, either in a separate casing,
etc., or housed in the rear of the ahead-going motor casing. The provi*
sion of power for this purpose is in Germany required to be 50 per cent,
of the full power, with a consequent loss of efficiency of the ahead-going
turbine of 3 to 5 per cent. ; in England the astern-going power is not so
great, being generally about 25 to 80 per cent., when the loss is about
1 per cent. There are now other methods of applying the turbine to
propel ships, such as the electric and the hydraulic, whereby the
reversal of the propeller is attained without a separate motor. The
efficiency, of such installations varies from 0*865 of small powers (150
S.H.P.) to 0*900 of the large power in express steamers. So that the
losses duo to their mechanism are more rather than less those of the
astern-going turbine.
The turbines in use in warships and express steamers are the Parsons^
the Curtis, the Zoelly, and the Rateau. Their efficiency, as judged by
steam consumption per power unit on shore, is as high as 70 per cent.,
but generally it is somewhat less on shipboard. Their consumption
of steam at full speed per S.H.P. hour, when of large size, is as low as
12 lbs. under conditions with which the theoretical maximum output
of a lb. of steam is 7*64 H.P. (vide Table V.).
That is. Efficiency = ?? -^ 7*64 = 0-854.
The arrangement of turbines in ships is now as follows : —
(1) A complete head-going machine with all its stages coupled
direct to a propeller shaft, and having an astern -going member
in the rear of it, both contained in a common casing.
(2) The turbine is divided into two parts, the high-pressure or
boiler end is in a separate casing and coupled to its own
screw shaft direct ; the low-pressure or condenser half has
its own casing and is coupled to its own screw shaft, while
within the casing is the astei*n-going turbine. In some cases
there is an astern-going turbine in an independent casing,
etc., in rear of the high-pressure half.
(3) There is a high-pressure portion in its own independent casing
coupled to its own propeller shaft, while there are iivo low-
pressure portions, each having its own casino with a reversing
turbine, and each coupled to its own propeller shaft.
(4) Each propeller shaft is fitted with a pair of helical steel wheels,
side by side, right- and left-handed, and on each side of this
334
.MUSK — -«.««.
^uV » x^*,^ ^^' ^" . .^^ airect or by
,*N 0». «- *•-;::: ;^ V « i.v r*=^ ^^,^ fitted to the sc
V t r. 5i ^ ^ .-*^--' - A^^e some forni
...^^---^ . ^ - -:..* *=» "^ri.^~iaic motor
^ . ..^ ---^^^""^r-T ^r. -^-^* ^C^ Terr l»^g^
V V '^ ^^^ ^'»>' '•"^^ " >. » :S^ 31"-- -» -x'S«
^— * '■- ^:^. . r - •• "■ • - •; •: - -Li -:^ ^'^^^:&
...^.•.. .-V. - ^ - -■ '--::;• -^^ .» ^ "-^LJ^i d» fc*-p«^
'^ ..■»••'
'=- . :. ^r s9oa St *^ t^pse screws ,
MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 225
the comparatively inefficient low-pressure end of what would be a
quadruple reciprocator is replaced by the highly efficient low-pressure
turbine.
The aiirangement of two reciprocators with twin screws ezliausting
to a low-pressure turbine driving the centre screw is in every way a
convenient one for both merchant ships and war vessels, for the recip-
rocators are reversible, and so all manoeuvring can be done by them
with the turbine out of action, and likewise cruising can be done
economically. When full speed is desired the exhausts can be easily
and quickly switched to the turbine. As a matter of fact, with the
reciprocators out of action quite a decent " slow speed " can be main-
tained by turning the exhaust from all the auxiliaries to the turbine ; if
supplemented with a modicum of steam direct from the boilers, a better
speed can be maintained when required.
This, which may be called the eighth method of applying the
turbine system to ship propulsion, is now a popular one, and being used
more especially for passenger steamers of moderately high speed work-
ing where fuel is dear. The s.s. Otdkif of 6867 I.H.P., built by
Denny Bros. , Dumbarton, having the combination, showed a gain on
fuel consumption of 17 per cent, over a sister ship with triple com-
pound reciprocators only.
The steam consumption at full power wa» 11*95 lbs. per I.H.P.
fiO
hour. The efficiency under the circumstances was -f 7 '9 = 0 'BBS,
11*95
The steam consumption on the main turbine engines of R.M.S.
Luritania was 12*77 lbs. per S.H.P. hour. The efficiency in her case
was J^^7*66 = 0-614.
12*77
Turbines geared to the Propeller Shafts is the method now
in favour as the means whereby the turbine may be used for cargo
ships, and the trials made by Sir G. Parsons with the s.s. Vespasian
amply demonstrated the practicability of it for such a purpose. Since
then further experiment with cargo steamers have confirmed the
opinions formed by Sir C. Parsons and his friends. But the most
interesting development had been the fitting of a cross-channel
express steamer with twin-screws driven by turbines geared, and
trying her against similar three-screw boats, direct-driven turbine
boats, on the same station. The following were the results : the higher
efficiency of the geared installation is no doubt due to the fact that by
such means the turbines can be run at rates of revolution appioaching
those on electric generating plants on shore, while the screws can be
of such a size and rate of revolution as to give high efficiency of
propeller. The efficiency of the Normania machinery as measured
fin fin
by steam consumption is -—-r 7 '60 or 0*658, as against— —-r 7 '60 or
0*626 of the iSfamia.
Professor Biles states that only IJ per cent, of the power was lost i'-
15
226
MARINB STEAM TURBINES.
the gearing. That is, its efficiency was 0'985. This is, of coarse, very
satisfactory, and so long as no abrasion takes place it will continue to
be so. The wheel and pinions are machine cut, with great accuracy,
and the latter run in an oil bath.
Table LXX.— Performances of Channel Steamers with
Redprocators and Turbines.
Particulars of Ship and Machinery.
Length between perpendicu-
lars . . . .ft.
Breadth . . . • m
Draught of water . . ,,
Displacement . . . tons
Block co-efficient of fineness
Wetted skin . . sq. ft.
Engines
Total heating surface .
Boiler pressure .
Propellers, diameter of
„ pitch
Revolutions of engines
sq. ft.
. lbs.
. ft.
. ft.
)>
, , scre^T s • • .
Horse-power developed
Speed, knots ....
Displacement*/* x Speed* -f I.H.P.
I.H.P. per 100 ft. of wetted skin
„ ,, „ reduced to 10
knots
Steam consumed per H.P.
hour .... lbs.
Coal consumed per H.P. hour ,,
Twin 8.8.
P.A.
Recipros.
Twin 8.8.
Chfd.
Recipros.
290
800
88-0
34-6
11-93
13-8
2,100
0-581
2,200
0-669
12,400
4 Crank
13,000
3 Crank
Triple
11,460
180
Triple
11,460
160
10-6
12-0
14-6
16-0
164
130-4
164
180-4
5,892
19-12
4,398
18-20
194
282
47-6
38-8
6-79
6-60
16-76
16-30
• ••
• • •
Three 8.8.
Samiat
Direct
Turbines.
TwinS.S.
Nor.
mafUa^
Geared
Turbs.
284
39
12-0
1,990
0-524
11,900
Direct
Turbines
12,986
160
6-60
4-62
600
600
6,670
20-0
190
66-1
7-01
16-1
1-71
290
86 0
12-0
1,876
0-624
11,700
Geared
Turbs.
10,221
160
8-0
7-12
1984 &
1380
810
6,000
19-7
232
42-8
6-61
12-0
1*48
The rate of revolution of a marine turbine can, within limits, be
determined arbitrarily, for there is no question of periodicity to com-
plicate matters. There is, however, propeller efficiency to consider,
Doth theoretically and practically, and it is here that the designer
finds his limits. He may choose a screw of small diameter with very
large surface ratio and auite a good pitch ratio, or he may, for practical
reasons, adopt one of larger aiameter, when the pitch ratio will be
smaller and the surface, as well as surface ratio, smaller; both suitable
MARINE STEAM TURBINES. 227
to the revolutions fixed on for the turbines. As a rule, the sorew of a
turbine ship is a compromise between these conditions. If a diameter,
such as one would choose for a reciprocator, were used, the pitch ratio
would be smaller than consistent with efficiency, and the surface small
too — so small that the actual slip would be less than that given by
revs. X pitch, — the apparent slip would be as high as that observable in
a twin-screw ship driven by one screw only.
The actual slip ratio may be, of coui*se, as high as desired by making
the diameter sniall, so that the column of water is of small section —
in practice, however, such screws would be* inefficient in sea service
and be bad for manoeuviing.
The following rule may be observed for arriving at a suitable
diameter for actual sea service in direct-dnve turbine ships.
Rule 208. Diameter of screw=^?:5^- x (p^)'.
Here P is the pitch in feet ; R the revolutions per minute ; x is the
real slip ratio and may be taken as =0*2 Pc+/, Pc being the prismatic
co-efficient of the ship's immersed body, and/ is the apparent slip. The
value of C is 450. The centre screw, especially of small ships, may be
of larger diameter based on aj=0 18 Pc+/.
The following, however, is a simpler rule and may be used with
confidence : —
Rule 208a. Diameter of screw=«xPc »/^'^^',
Generally a=6'75 for twin and 6*65 for centre screws (when three).
For large ocean-going steamers, z=6'6 for all three or four screws.
For T.B. destroyers, «=6'4.
The slip ratio in common practice is 13 to 1 6 per cent, with large
ocean-going expresses, and 20 to 22 '5 per cent, with smaller cross-
channel ships.
The pitch ratio with turbines direct driven is very seldom over 1 *0,
and generally under ; 0*9 to 0*95 is considered good practice.
The actual rate of revolution will be found from these fundamental
conditions, and in practice it varied from 185 of the Atlantic expresses
to 750 of the cross-channel ones. The Ltisitania and Mauretania did
over 190 revolutions at full power with their original screws, and
180 to 185 with new screws of larger pitch ratio.
In the Mercantile Marine, very high- power ocean expresses 185
revolutions, smaller one-s 200. Large cross-channel expresses 450 to
500 revolutions, smaller ones 600 to 750, and small excursion and river
steamers 750 to 1000.
The tendency latterly had been to reduce the number of revolutions
and increase the diameter of screw.
With geared installations it is possible to have a rate of propeller
revolution approximating to that which obtained with reciprocatoiT
Our largest and most powerM warshii)s, with an aggregate pow
Y
228 MARINE STBAM TURBINES.
over 100,000 8. HP., have a rate of about 840 r.p.m. with a turbine
velocity of about 8000 revolutions. The large express steamers are
run at a rate of about 130 r.p.m., while with the ordinary cargo
or cargo-passenger steamer it is as low as 80 to 100 r.p.m. On the
cross channel or small express steamer the general practice is 250 to
300 r.p.m.
The diameter of the shafting^ is, of course, small for the total
power, but is based on the power per revolution, which is small. The
rotor shaft has to be designed to suit the weight of the rotor and to give
the necessary bearing surface. The low-pressure rotor of the Olympic
weighs complete 182 tons, and has journals 33 inches in diameter ; its
diameter is 195 inches, and length over all 47*6 feet. That of the
LusUania was 184 inches in diameter over all, and its weight 120 tons ;
it was carried on journals 83^ inches diameter and 56^ inches effective
length, so that the pressure per square inch was 72 lbs. only, while
the speed of rubbing surface was 1650 feet per minute. The pressure
on the journals of the high-pressure rotor was 80 lbs., but the rubbing
speed only 1850 feet per minute.
Rule 209. Working pressure per square inch of journal
=8000-f V8 + 100 may be taken as a guide in determining the length
of journals. Their diameter must be calculated from considerations of
torque transmitted, bending moment due to weight, and, to some extent,
to inertia, and always with regard to stiffness and the critical speed.
The rules for shafting of turbines are as follows : —
Rule 210. Diameter of Intermediate Shafts=^?i5:^ x F.
The value of F generally may be taken as 1,860 -r ultimate tensile in
tons.
That is with ordinary mild steel 28/32 tons tensile . F=:62
,, ,, high tensile 38/42 tons tensile . F=46
For light swift Naval ships special steel . . . F=32
For larger ,, ,, ,, ... F=60to60
By Board of Trade and the Registration Societies' Rule
generally F=64
By Board of Trade and the Registration Societies'
smooth water service F=58
The diameter of spur wheel shaft, and of the thrust shaft near the
collars = diameter of intermediate shaft x 1*05.
If there is only one pinion, or if two pinions whose axes are at angle
of less than 120", the multiplier is 1 *! between the bearings of the axle
at spur wheel.
Rule"^!!* Diameter of Tail Shaft = diameter of intermediate
P s.
+ p, whereVP i^ t^® diameter of screw in inches and the value of K as
^^ page 137.
MARINB STEAM TURBINBS. 229
The rotor drums are generally of forged steel, but sometimes
steel castings. They must be most carefully and accurately balanced,
especially when the latter is used. The arms or discs which connect
the drums to the axle must be stiflf enough to prevent springing or
distortion, and consequently, then strong enough to transmit the torque.
The revolutions of direct driven marine turbines is so low compared
with those on shore work, that centrifugal forces and stresses pro-
duced were moderate, but still large enough to require attention.
With the single and double reduction gearing turbine revolutions are
as high as any now made.
The blades of both rotors and stators are usually of bronze,
one of the strong zinc-bronzes capable of being rolled, drawn out, or
extruded, of the required section, Deing preferred. These alloys, how-
ever, while being strong against tensile forces and soft enough to stand
manipulation, are weak against shearing forces ; phosphor-bronze is
therefore preferred by some engineers, as this can be drawn into strips,
while possessing a hardness and high elastic limit superior to the zinc-
bronzes. It will also stand better the eroding action of steam at high
velocity. Steel blades are also fitted, especially where sufficient
section cannot be got in the ordinary way to permit of the bronze.
Steel alloys — especially the nickel ones — have been used. Corrosion,*
however, is not altogether unknown — due often to leaky condenser or
other similar defects admitting sea-water to the boilers. Too much
care cannot be devoted to the workmanship when blading the rotors,
and the same may be said of the stators, but the latter are not subject
to such severe trials. as the former. Each builder of turbines has his
own design of blade, choice of material, and method of fixing. The
strip system is simple, inexpensive, and quite effective when properly
done ; at high rates of revolution, with corresponding high centrifugal
action on them, they are not always so trustworthy ; in the past, with
direct coupled turbines on shipboard, this has not had to be dwelt on,
now, however, with geared ones at 3000 revolutions, the same attention
must be given to it as obtains on shore. Since high vacuum steadily
and cheaply maintained is essential to the economic working, it is
absolutely necessary there should be no air leaks anywhere, and the low-
pressure turbine journals should be provided with means to prevent air
passing through them when they are leaky ; water or steam passing
are of no consequence, so provision may be made for one of them to
seal the journal.
The design of a turbine is really a simpler problem than that of
a compound reciprocator ; it is, however, started in quite a dififerent
way, except that in both cases the intended rate of revolution is
assumed. With the turbine it is usual to begin with a rate of steam
consumption per unit per hour ; with an initial pressure of 176 lbs.
absolute, 1 5 lbs. is a covering allowance with a vacuum of 28 inches. At
higher initial pressures the available work is, of course, greater; but
with them the turbine is not so efficient.
* The special stainless or non-cojrrodable steels are now often used, and wi"
care are quite satisfactory.
230 MARINE STEAM TURBINES.
Quantity of steam per second per 1000 aH.P. =l?51iil?, or 4'17 lbs.
•^ ^ ^ 60x60
Of this, from 3 to 5 per cent, will disappear by leakage, so that the
nett amount through first guide blades will be only about 4'0 lbs., or
10*28 cubic feet. If the flow there is 250 feet per second, and the rate
of revolution is 480 per minute or 8 per second,
Area through guide blades = — -^ =5*92 square inches, and so
on throughout the various stages during which the steam is expanding,
acquiring velocity, and giving out its kinetic energy to the rotor blades.
The loss of area through the annulus, in which the blades act due to
the blade section, is so considerable that it may be taken that: —
The gross area = 5 -92 -r 0 -32 per 1000 S. H. P. , or 1 9 nearly.
Rule 213.
Mean diameter of rotor in inches =^"^^^^y ^j'^"^ ^ ^^ ^ ^^ ^^
Revs. X IT
Factor / is the ratio of the velocity of the blades to that of the
steam, and is usually 0*4.
In this particular case,
,- ,. . 250x12x60 rt.. .^ ^ . ,
Mean diameter = r^r — ^ , ... x 0 '4 = 47 7 inches.
480x3*1416
Height of blade=19^irx47'7, or 0*127 in. per 1000 S.H.P. In
practice, such short blades would not be fitted ; instead, a considerable
portion of the first ring on the stator would be blocked, leaving ports
in which the blades would act.
Rule 214. The size of exhaust passage is, of course, very great,
for, if it is assumed that the flow to condenser is at a pressure of 1^
lbs. , the volume will be about 900 cubic feet, which, with a rate of
flow of 160 feet per second, the area of section will be 810 square
inches per 1000 S.H.P.
Rule 215. The length of blades should never exceed 15 per cent,
of the diameter of rotor ; from 8 to 10 per cent gives the best results.
Sometimes they are only about 1 per cent., in which case the leakage
is bound to be high, inasmuch as the clearance space is high comparra
with the blade annulus.
The losses of a marine turbine have been summarised by Mr
S. J. Reed as follows : —
Leakage over dummies
Friction of beatings, glands, kc.
Radiation
Loss by carry over of kinetic energy from last
row of blades of low-pressure turbine
8 to 12 per cent.
MARINB STBAM TURBINBS.
231
35 to 45 per cent. H.P.
25 to 35 per cent. L.P.
Friction of steam in blade channels >
Leakage over tops
Steam shock and eddying
Loss^of kinetic energy due to splitting action
of blades
Loss of carry over from last row blades of
high pressure •«
Testing' of turbine cases is made by water pressure after being
machined, but before blading, &c.
Rule 2j6. The Admiralty require the test pressures to be as
follows : —
(1) High- Pressure Tui*bine, ahead
and astern.
Steam end and inlet
cover . . 255 lbs.
The remainder . . 200 ,,
After completion . . 170 ,,
(2) Cruising Turbine.
Steam end and inlet
cover . . . 255 lbs.
The remainder . . 200 ,,
After completion . . 170 ,,
(3) Low-Pressure Turbine.
Astern cylinders and in-
let cover ... 50 lbs.
Ahead cylinders and in-
let cover ... 80 lbs.
Exhaust chambers and
passages . . . 30 „
After completion . . 80 ,,
(4) Receiver pipe and
valve between
cruising and high-
pressure ahead
turbine . . 255 lbs.
(5) Steam chambers of
condenser and
eduction pipes . 80 lbs.
Rule 2X7. TJie Board of Trade require high- pressure turbine cases
to be tested to 1 '83 x working pressure. Low-pressure cases, condenser
end, 80 lbs. The astern going cases to working pressure.
Rule 218. The Italian Oovemment demands are somewhat similar,
viz. : —
Casing of high- pressure turbine to 1 '88 x working pressure ; astern
going to working pressure; low-pressure turbine, admission end,
0*83 X working pressure, and exhaust end 28*5 lbs. per square inch.
Condensers for turbines 28*5 lbs.
The weights of turbine installations are less than that of reciprocators.
Rule 219. Total weight of turbine machinery (Naval) with water-
tube boilers
S.H.P.X 16-86
Revs, per minute - 100
tons.
Mercantile installations on Board of Trade rules, with cylindrical
boilers and full complement of auxiliaries, as in first-class steamers :
Rule 220. Total weight machinery = ^ - - ^' ^' ^ ^- ^^ tr •
Revs, per minute + 50
232 MARINE STEAM TURBINES.
{{) Example. ^Cross-channel steamer, 8000 S.H.P., revs. 500.
Total weight=2222^ = 640 tons or 179*2 lbs. per S.H.P.
(ii) Example. — Naval scout of 28,000 S.H.P. at 760 revs.
Total weight =??^^^i^^ = 726 tons, or 58-1 lbs. per S.H.P.
The steam consumption of a turbine ought, according to
Professor Rateau, to be nearly as given by his formula.
Rule 221.
Steam consumption =2 13 + ^^'^ "" ^'^f ^^^ ^ lbs, per hour
loge P - log« p
P being the initial and p the final pressures.
The power developed by and transmitted from a turbine is found
by ascertaining the torque or twisting moment from observations of
the twist or angular displacement of a definite length of shaft. Then
for shaft diameter d : —
If Ti is the torque in inch-lbs., R the revolutions per minute, 6° the
angular displacement in degrees,
SHP-'^iy 2^^ -Tl2^
or Ti = ?:4i?ix 63,000.
Now Ti = ^'x 20*120 (f^ f^j. g^j . J ^^^^^ ^^^
ij
Ti=0'' X 21,147 (^^) for ^oWo^ with bore ^.
It follows on combining these equations that
Rule 222. (1) S.H.P. =r >< 3~3 for solid.
Rule 222a. (2) S. H. P. = 5 x ^^Iz^* for hollow shafts.
L is the length of shaft under observation, generally taken as 40 inches
to suit the usual torsionmeter.
The formula in every day use is as follows : —
Rule 223. S.H.P.=?^ for Bolid, and <^ (d*-di*)>^^ tor
Q x L Q X L
hollow shafts, where Q is taken as 3*27, the modulus assumed being
11,250,000, which is for the ordinary mild- steel shafts of commerce.
The Admiralty require a somewhat stronger steel (32 tons ult-tensile),
and always have the actual shaft tested mechanically with its own
torsionmeter in the shops before fitting into the ship, to ascertain the
MARINE STEAM TURBINES.
233
valxxe of $* for a series of twisting moments. . From these observations
a curve for the value of Tj can be made and the value of the factor
determined for each shaft and ship.
The torsionmeters in use are either wholly mechanical, like the
Fottinger, which can, and does actually register the torque by a
continuous line on a sheet of paper like an indicator diagram; or they
may be partly mechanical, the registering being made by a beam of
light from a mirror actuated by the mechanism thrown on a scale,
which can be read off while the shaft is running. Hopkinson and
Thring's instraraent is of the latter kind, and gives good and reliable
results. Then there is the Bevis-Gibson apparatus, where a beam of
light is transmitted through slots in discs, two on the shaft and one
fixed. These are in line when the shaft is at rest or running without
load, and can be brought into line when running under load by the
angular displacement of the fixed disc. The amount of displacement
necessary is the measure of the twist. There is a fourth kind, in which
synchronism is indicated by sound, and the production of this condition
when running under load is effected in such a way that the compensa-
tion indicates the twist This latter is the Denny- Johnson.
Trials of Turbine-driven Ships.
The following results of trials with ships fitted with turbines, or
reciprocator-turbine arrangements, are interesting and instructive.
(1) R.M.S. Lusiiania, a four-screw Atlantic express steamer, 760
feet long X 87*5 feet beam, and on a draught of water of 31*6 feet
(mean) displaced 35,600 tons (v. Table X.).
Steam and Fuel Consumptions of R.M.S. '' Lusitania," with
Turbines running on Sea-service Conditions at Various
Speeds.
Speed of Ship in Knots per Hour.
Shaft horse-power . . . .
Consumption of steam per hour,
total lbs.
Consumption of stream auxiliaries
lbs.
Consumption of auxiliaries per
cent, of total ....
Steam consumption per S.H.P.
hour, turbines . . . lbs.
Steam consumption per S.H.F.
hour, auxiliaries . . . lbs.
Steam consumption per S.H.P.
hour, total .... lbs.
Coal consumed per S.H.P. per
hour, total .... lbs.
Total consumption of fuel on
voyage, 3100 miles . tons.
Time on voyage . . hours
15-77
1800
21*00
28-00
26-40
13,400
20,5U0
33,000
48,000
68,850
284,500
253,600
493,300
668,300
879,600
71,000
76,400
85,700
96,700
116,600
260
21-6
17-4
14-51
13-2
21-28
17-24
14-91
13*92
12-77
6-80
8 72
2-60
2-01
1*69
26-53
20-96
17-51
15-93
14-46
2-52
2-01
1-68
1-56
1-43
2080
203
3190
178
3670
162
4520
139
5390
126
234
MARINE STBAM TURBINES.
(2) S.S. OtaMf a three-screw passenger and cargo steamer for Ne^
Zealand service. She is 4b4*5 ft x 60 ft x 34 ft, and on a mean
draught of 27*5 feet displaces 9900 tons. Her trials, however, were
carri^ out on 20 feet mean draught She was fitted with twin screws,
each driven by triple reoiprocators havine cylinders 24 '5 inches, 89
inches, and 58 inches by 39-inch stroke, eznausting into a low-pressure
turbine, 90 inches diameter, driving a central screw. The following
shows tiie results of progressive trials and a comparison with the per-
formance of a sister ship, s.s. Orari, driven by twin screws, each having
cylinders 24*5 inches, 41*3 inches, and 69 inches by 48-inch stroke.
Measured Mile Trials of S.S. '^Otaki," with Mixed Machinery,
31st October 1908, on 20 feet Mean Draught
Mean
Mean
Mean
Mean
of A
ofB
ofC
ofD
Runs.
Runs.
Runs.
Rung.
Total horse-pover, being I.H.P. (recipro-
*
cators) + 8.H.P. (turbine) ....
6867
5348
4704
8282
Mean speed knots
16-02
14-28
13-88
12-62
Reyolutions, reoiprocators ....
103-5
»7-9
03-6
83*4
„ tnrbine
224-6
209-7
197*2
172-1
Total water consumption per hour . lbs.
82,000
67,800
60,200
44,600
Total water consumption per hour, per
H.P. ....... lbs.
11-95
12-6
12-8
18*6
Mean absolute pressure at H.P. cylinder
lbs.
103
178
166
186
„ . „ turbine inlet
lbs.
9-6
7-62
6-76
60
Vacuum at exhaust end of turbine
281
28-2
28-4
28-6
„ on condenser gauge
28-2
28-4
28-8
28-6
Temperature of sea- water . . F.*
56
56
66
66
„ circulating discharge .
70
67
70
70
„ hot well ....
72
70
73
74
Steam consumption based on the I.H.P. of
B.S. Orari and measured by tanks .
13-66
13-7
13*8
13-07
As measured by pumps per I.H.P. per hour
14*12
141
148
15-2
Name of Ship.
E.H.P.
I.H.P.
5880
5360
Propul-
sive
Co-effl-
cient.
Per
centb
67
60
Water Consumption
per Hour.
Total.
Per , Per
B.H.P. I.H.P.'
3-Bcrew 8.8. Otaki (turbo.
reciprocators)
2.8crew 8.8. Orari (recipro-
cators) ...
8350
8210
73,300
88,800
21*9
27-6
18-T
16-6
Gain per cent, in Otaki,
• •
■ •
• •
17
20
17
MARINE STBAM TURBINES.
235
(3) The two ships compared here are channel steamers of the L. k
S.-W. Ry. Co., both driven by turbines {v. Table LXX.).
(a) S.S. Samia, a three-screw steamer, is 284 ft x 39 ft. x 28-8 ft.
moulded, and on a mean draught of water of 12 feet displaces
1990 tons. She has three screws, driven direct by the usual
installation of high-pressure and low-pressure turbines
running at about 500 revolutions per minute. Her speed,
with 6670 S.H.P. developed, is 20 knots, giving an Admualty
co-efficient of 190 only.
{h) The S.S. Normania, a twin-screw ship, is 290 ft. x 86 ft. x 28*5
ft. moulded and a displacement of 1900 tons on 12 feet
draught. She has two screws, each driven by two turbines
gear^ by pinion and spur wheels to the propeller shafts, and
maintained a speed of 19*7 knots with 5000 S.H.P., showing
a co-efficient of 232*4, or 22*5 per cpnt. higher than the
Sa/mia, The fuel consumption per voyage of the Normania is,
however, as much as 40 per cent less than that on the Samia,
This vast difference is due to three causes : (i) the superior
efficiency of the turbines, due to the 1984 revolutions per
minute of the high pressure and 1380 of the low pressure ;
(ii) the superior efficiency of screws, 8 feet diameter, running
at 300 revolutions, over those of only 6*5 feet diameter at
600 revolutions ; and (iii) to the better proportion and form
of hull with the twin screws. The total steam consumption of
the Samia was as much as 17*1 lbs. per S.H.P. hour, whereas
the Normania used only 14*8 lbs., or 16*4 per cent less.
(4) The trials of H.M.S. Cruisers Amethyst, driven by turbines and
three screws, and the Topaze, by twin screws and triple reciprocators, are
interesting, but hardly fair to . the latter, as her engines had cylinders,
etc., for great power without regard to economy of consumption ; so
that it was only at reduced speed that economic conditions existed. As
showing the variation of the two systems the following is perhaps more
interesting.
Water Consumptionper I. H. P. per Hour of H. M. S. '' Amethyst "
and " Topaze " on Progressive Trials.
Speed in Knots.
10
29-8
28-8
11
26 0
22-0
12
23-7
20-6
13
22-0
196
14
26-4
18-8
15
19-0
18-4
16
17-9
18*8
17 18
16-8 16-9
1
18-4 18-7
1
t
19
15-2
19-2
20
14-7
19-8
21
14-3
20*5
22
140
21-4
H.M.S. Amethyst
(turbines)
HMJa. Topaze (tg-
ciprocators) .
(6) The series of trials of the Cruisers, '* City" Class, is instructive.
These ships are alike and 430 ft x 47 ft x 26*75 ft, having a displacement
236
MARINE STEAM TURBINES.
of 4800 t6ns and 16*25 feet mean draught. The Bristol has Curtis tur-
bines and twin screws, the others the ordinary Parsons turbines with
four screws. Each ship has twelve Yarrow water-tube boilers. The
following are the results of the various trials : —
Trials of the Quadruple Screw Cruisers, '* City*' Class.
H.M.S.
goto.
A. 22 hours at 66% full power.
•S.H.Power
Bevolutious per minute .
Mean speed, knots .
Coal per S.H.P. hour
B. 8 hours at 80% power.
S.H. Power
Revolutions per minute .
Mean speed, knots .
Coal per S.M.P. hour
C. 8 hours at full power.
S.H. Power
Revolutions per minute .
Mean speed, Knots .
Fuel per S.H.P. hour .
D.%XS.»-rS.H.P.
H.M.S.
H.M.S.
H.M.S.
H.M.S.
Bristol.*
Liver-
New-
Glou-
pod.
castle.
cester.
14,102
14,061
18,968
14,300
426-6
420-6
• •
• •
23-88
23-34
23-46
24-06
1-57 lbs.
1-66 lbs.
1-69 lbs.
• •
18,824
19,116
18,983
19,130
464
461-6
• •
• ■
25-10
24*84
26-08
26-17
1-69 lbs.
1-66 lbs.
l*48lb8.
• •
24,718
26,417
24,840
24,230
512-7
618-2
• •
• •
2617
26-27
26-31
26-84
1*65 coal
1-086 coal
l*14coal
•171 oil
-42 oU
• •
227-8
1-207
1-66
211-6
201-8
211-8
* H.M.S. Bristol has twin screws.
(6) S.S. Reina Victoria Eugenia is a four-screw passenger - cargo
steamer, 480 ft. x 61 ft. x 85 '8 ft Of the four screws, the outer pair are
each driven by a separate low-pressure turbine, 95 inches diameter, taking
steam from the corresponding reciprocator triple driving one of the
inner pair of screws, and having cylinders 29 inches and 43 inches, and
two low-pressure 47 inches diameter by 42 inches stroke. There were two
crucial trials, one deep laden to 24-7 feet mean draught, and the other
on 19 '85 feet, as she would be loaded with light cargo or partly laden
with heavy goods.
MARINE STEAM TURBINES.
237
Trials of 4-S.S. '* Reina Victoria Eugenia.*'
Displacement' .
Horse-power developed
. tons
I.H.P.
S.H.P.
total H.P.
Revolutions per minute
Speed mean
Slip per cent .
{reciprocators
turbines
knots
propellers of recipros.
,, turbines
Admiralty co-efficient D % x S' -i- 1. H. P. .
Consumption of steam per I. H.P. hour . total
,, ,, ,, only main
engines
Steam pressure at valve chests of recipros. lbs
turbine entrance . . lbs
. lbs
>)
if condenser
Temperature of sea-water .
discharge water
hot well .
Fully
Fart
Laden.
Laden.
13,229
10,181
6,760
7,840
2,157
3,500
7,917
10,840
102-9
112-6
395-0
481-0
16-10
18-12
4-0
1-0
13-0
20-0
294
257
12-375
•
15-17
10-625
• • •
170-50
170-00
5-40
7-80
0-56
0-60
45" F.
43" F.
64'' F.
70" F.
62'*F.
70" F.
Steam was supplied by seven single-ended boilers, 16 feet 3 inches
diameter X 11 feet 6 inches long, having a total heating surface of
20,965 square feet so that 5*67 lbs. of steam per hour were given by
each square foot of T.H.Surf., with an air pressure of 0*35 inch in the
ashipits with Howden's system of draught.
(7) S.S. Caimcrosa is 370 ft. x51 ft. x 27 '8 ft, of 9950 tons dis-
placement on 23*4 feet mean draught, the block coefficient 0779. She
has a single screw of large diameter, driven by two (high-pressure and
low-pressure) turbines geared by pinions and spur wheel. Steam is
supplied from three boilers at a pressure of 180 lbs. Her normal speed
in fine weather is 10 knots.
Her sister ship, the Caimgowauj has similar boilers and propellers,
but driven by triple compound engines, with cylinders 24 inches, 40
inches, and 66 inches diameter and 45 inches stroke. They were laden
practically to the same displacement, supplied with the same coal, and
steamed side by side for 36 hours. The weather, however, was bad,
so that no account is made of the speed.
It will be seen that the turbine proved a more economic instrument
than the reciprocator, and was worked with a vacuum of 28*75 inch^
238
MAIUNE STEAM TURBINES.
as against 26*8 inches in the Caimgowan, No doubt, too, that in
rough seas the turbine-driven screw did not race so much as the other,
and thereby got drier steam, etc.
The ratio of spur wheel to pinions is 26.
Special 36 Hours' Sea Trials of S.S.'s '*Caimcross"
* and "Cairngowan."
S.S. Caimerou.
S.S. Caimgowan.
Machinery, kind of ... .
Mean revolutions of screw, p.m.
Horse-power developed .
Steam pressure at engines
Temperature of hot well . . F.*
Vacuum in condenser . . ins.
Coal consumed per 24 hours . tons
„ „ ,. I.H.P. hour lbs.
Coalpersq. ft of grate . . „
Water per hour . . . . ,,
„ „ I.H.P. hour . . „
Ash from coals . per cent.
Assuming calorific value 14,600
B.T.U.. the efficiency of system is
Saving of fuel . . . per cent.
Geared Turbines
61-76
1670S.H.P.
188 lbs.
79'
28-76
27 8
= 1-46
17-9
22,400
=12-67
» 860
12-10
16 0
Triple Compound
61-63
1790 1.H.P.
IM*
26-80
82-7
1-704
-21-0
27,200
16-18
8-97
10-32
• •
Actual Steam Consumption on Two Large Liners.
Description of
Machinery.
S.H.P.
Steam
at
Turbines.
Consumption in Lbs. per Hour.
Main
Turbines.
Auxiliaries
and other
Purposes.
Total for
all
Purposes.
4 Shafts direct-coupled
turbines .
2 Shafts geared com-N
pound turbines, 1
1 H.P. and 1 L.P. /
to each. ''
23,000
14,600
Saturated
/ 86« F. ^
J super- >
\ heat. )
11-2
9-7
2-2
23
13-4
12-0
Methods of Transmission from Turbine to Screw
Compared. (Cleghorn.)
Points of Comparison in a
Ship of 20,000 S.H.P.
Method of Transmission.
Double Wheel
Gearing.
Hydraulic
Transformer.
Geared Filectri-
cal Generator,
and Motor
Driven.
Rev. of turbines per min. .
„ screws „
Transmission efficiency . .
Relative fuel consumption
,, machinery weights
2400 and 1600
90
0-966
100
100
1000 (about)
140
0-92
123
109
2400 and 1600
90
0-886
109
108
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES. 239
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.
These engines are such as consume their fuel in the same cylinder or
other vessel in which the energy is impart;ed to the mechanical means
of motion. The fuel may be in the gaseous state produced from coal,
oil, or other volatile substances giving ctl' hydrocarbon, or it may be
the spray from oils injected into the cylinder.
Gas engines on board ship have not proved an unqualified success,
and since they are generally supplied from producers, which are heavy
and occupy much space, they are at a considerable disadvantage in
competition with oil engines.
Oil engines may be divided into three classes : —
(a) Those using petrol or other light volatile oil.
(b) Those working with para&ln, having a higher flash point.
(c) Those working with heavy oils, having such a high flash
point as to be perfectly safe on shipboard.
Petrol, so much in demand for locomotion on land, is too dangerous
and now too dear for maritime purpose generally. It is convenient, on
account of its vapourising so readily, for starting engines whose general
fuel is heavy oil. With a flash point of 7Qf* F. it is also used on small
pleasure boats, where very high speed is required. It is too dangerous
for handling in confined engine-rooms or on shipboard at all.
Paraffin, which is cheaper than petrol, can be got anywhere, has a
flash point of 90" to 120° F., which renders it safe to handle, and, as may
be seen by Table LXXI., it has high thermal value, quite as high as
petrol. Paraffin engines are largely employed on small craft for propul-
sion with success, and the demand for tiiem, since petrol is becoming so
dear, is likely to increase. The flash point of paraffin is, however, too
low for the Admiralty, whose limit is 175° F., as it is also for Lloyd's,
whose limit is 150° F.
Alcohol, which can be produced so cheaply eveiywhere, has not yet
been used seriously for propulsion Inasmuch as the flash point is high
and uncertain, so that with a Diesel or Semi -Diesel engine it misses fire
often and cannot be relied on. Its calorific value is much lower than
that of the petroleum products, being only 10,260 B.T.U. per pound
of 90 per cent, mixture, or not much more than half that of good
heavy oil.
Heavy oils, with flash points from 175^ to 250°, are largely used now
on shipboard as well as on shore. They are mostly residuals of kinds,
even when called crude oils ; in fact, unless an oil has undergone some
sort of a refining process, it is not fit for an oil engine to use. Some
residuals are left after all the lighting and lubricating oils have been
abstracted. Some are crude oils after some exposure to the air to get
rid of sulphur and dangerous volatile elements. In some so-called
crude oils there remains an amount of bituminous matter which gets
converted into hard sandy coke ; this asphaltum really spoils the oil
for internal combustion purposes, as the coke formed from it will not
fuse or consume away, but remains in a crystalline state fit to cut the
pistons, valves, &c.
240
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.
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INTERNAL OOMBUSTION ENGINES. 241
Creosote, or tar oil, is a home product which can be used in these
engines quite well, especially after a little primitive refining ; the
calorific value is 15,800 B.T.U. per pound.
Shale oil, as distilled from the shale in Scotland, is also a valuable
one for fuel and easier to run with than the petroleum residuals ; it is
freed from naphtha spirit and paraffin wax, and then has a calorific
value of 16,776 B.T.U. and a flash point of 220'* F.
In course of time other liquid fuels will be found which may be used
in oil engines, for already the late Dr Diesel had tried successfully some
vegetable oils.
Petroleum, as found in various parts of the world, differs somewhat
in chemical composition and characteristics ; they are sometimes classed
as Asphaltic and Paraffin oils in America; the Russian and East
Indian oils can hardly be so classed, however.
Asphaltic oils are of high specific gravitv (0*945), high in sulphur,
harden under atmospheric influences, ana their residues tend to
solidify ; they are subject to decomposition at comparatively low
temperatures, and their distillates have a high solvent power.
Paraffin oils are of lower specific gravity (0*832), are low in
sulphur, are not aflected by exposure to air, have good capillary power,
ana their distillates have only low solvent properties.
The sulphur in the Galifomian (Asphaltic) oils is as much as 3*3 per
cent. , as against only 0 *3 per cent, in Texas oil. The British Admiralty
used to require their oil supplies to have no more than 0 *75 per cent,
of sulphur and the flash point to be not lower than 200** F. ; now
8 per cent, of sulphur and 176* are permitted. The boiling point of
such oil is about 300* F.
Oil engines are subject to another classification, viz :—
(1) Those which draw in the charge of fuel with the air and
compress the mixed charge lightly, say to 80 lbs. pressure
per square inch, before explosion.
(2) Those which draw in a charge of air only and compress it
moderately, say to about 160 lbs., or about 60 per cent, of
the pressure produced by the explosion of a charge of oil
vapour sprayed on to a hot plate or sphere. This kind is
known as the Semi-Dieseh
(3) Those which draw in a charge of air and compress it so highly
(400 to 500 lbs. ) that it becomes sufficiently hot to ignite the
charge of oil spray on entering it and produce an explosion
without shock.
This system, wherein the air is compressed by itself alone to a
temperature sufficient to ignite the charge of oil spray and to burn it
witnout any serious increase to the pressure, was invented and perfected
by the late Dr Diesel, and is known as the Diesel System.
There is still another difierentiation among oil engines, and now, for
marine engineers, an important one.
Both the Diesel and the Semi-Diesel oil engines may be worked or
either the two-stroke or the four-stroke cycle. The latter is the old
16
242 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.
and known as tbe ''Otto"; most gas and land oil engines work on
it, and altogether it is simple and reliable ; but it involves larger or
more numerous cylinders for the same power, consequently for marine
propulsion the two-stroke cycle is the one in general use.
In the Otto cycle, with a single-acting engine, the piston makes an
outward stroke, and thereby sucks into the cylinder a mixture of gas and
air in the ordinary engine and a charge of air only in the Diesel engine.
On the second, or return stroke, there is compression more or less, as
already named ; ignition takes place, so that this, the third, is the active
stroke ; on the fourth, or return stroke, the products of combustion con-
tained in the cylinder are driven out, and it is called the scavenging stroke^
In the two-stroke cycle the cylinder is scavenged and filled with
fresh air, so that the first stroke of the piston compresses it ; at the
commencement of the second stroke fuel is sprayed in, ignited, and
burnt durine that stroke ; at the end fresh air is again caused to
scavenee and charge. In' this way there is an active stroke every
revolution, while in the Otto there is one only for every two revolutions.
The double-actings oil engine, as the name signifies, is active on
both sides of the piston, and can, as a conse(][uence, have smaller
cylinders still. So far, however, this kind of engine has been successful
only in small high-speed craft, but it is said the German Naval ships
of large size are being so fitted. The Augsburg-Ntlrnberg Co. , however,
have made, and are still engaged in experiment with and perfecting of,
engines of this kind of considerable size for Naval purposes.
For obvious reasons, with such very high initial pressures and high
temperatures, cylinders of very large diameter are almost impossible
and certainly undesirable. Consequently, for large power, a large
number is usually found.
The number of cylinders in marine oil engines, for this cause and
as a consequence of the diflSculty of keeping the engine running steadily
at low revolutions, must be numerous ; and even when there are four
cvlinders a heavy fly-wheel is really necessary for safe running ** dead
slow.'* There are seldom fewer than four cylinders to marine oil
engines, and often double that number when the power is large, so
that in twin-screw ships there are sixteen cylinders, and even in quite
small ships as many as twelve. The four-cycle engine, single acting,
should, of course, never have less than four cylinders on a single line of
shaft, whatever the power may be, and even then a fly-wheel is necessary
for steady running.
In a general way it may be assumed that, whatever type of oil engine
is used, the larger the number of cylinders the better it runs ; the
torque is more uniform, and the certainty of continuous running at
** dead slow" is ensured. On the other hand, the larger the number
the more numerous are the working parts all requiring attention,
lubrication, and power for driving.
No marine oil engine of the two-cycle type should have less than
three cylinders, even if double acting; and all single-acting ones
should have not less than four. For an even torque six cylinders are
9t, and then the fly-wheel can be dispensed with.
INTERNAL OOMBUSTION BNQINBS. 243
For yery large powers six and eight cylinders must be employed on
each line of shafting. It is convenient in such cases to double the
engine into two sets of three or of four cylinders, each capable of run-
ning independently, so that with a clutch or other good coupling
between them it can be arranged to run only one half when for cruising
or other purpose low nower only is required.
It should be noted that the eificiency of the two-stroke cycle is
2 per cent, less than that of the four-stroke, for a separate compressor
gives a loss of 4 per cent.
Although the fuel of the Diesel and Semi-Diesel is a safe heavy oil,
these engines will not start with it, so that a small stock of a more
volatile oil is necessary for this purpose, as well as to clean out with
just before stopping if some hours are to elapse before restarting.
The parafl^ engine also requires, as a rule, a charge or two of petrol
or ether to start with.
Any oil engine will work readily ahead or astern if it can be started
into motion and ignition caused to take place just as the piston com-
mences the down stroke. The starting and manoeuvring of such
engines, which proved diflScult in the past with even small sizes, are
now effected easUy and quickly by means of compressed air. ■
The reversing of the propeller has been accomplished in small
craft by such means as turning the blades through a considerable angle
with the eugine running, or by means of wheel gearing, as in the
motor car.
In the large engine of to-day there is always the means of starting and
reversing provided, whereby air compressed to very high pressure is
admitted to the oil cylinders by means of valves operated by gear
which is reversible, as in a steam engine ; and it is claimed that the larse
oil engine in the hands of traiued engineers is as handy and reliable
for manoeuvring as any steam engine.
The eenerai desig^n of the marine oil engine varies somewhat ; in
the small sizes there is usually the enclosed casing surmounting the
bed-plate and supporting the cylinders, besides providing guides,
etc., as introduced by Belliss & Morcom for their high-speed electric
fenerating engines with forced lubrication, &c. The larger engines are
esigned generally on the lines of the marine vertical steam engine,
with such modifications as are necessary for oil-engine appliances.
The cylinders have a piston stroke' longer in proportion to the
diameter than usual with steam ; their ** heads " and covers have to be
very strongly constructed and secured to resist shock ; in design and
material generally the greatest care is necessary, having regard to the
high temperature as well as high pressure to which they are exposed.
Water-jacketing is resorted to freely, and seeing that 40 per cent, of the
heat is carried away by the cooling water, the circulation must be free.
The pistons are always fitted with Ramsbottom spring rings freely
distributed to prevent leakage at all times. Water-cooling is resorted
to here in big engines, and in double-aeting engines of all sizes cooled
pistons are necessary. In the two-cycle engine the scavenging pum-
is often immediately below the piston, so that a piston-rod is sonr
244
INTERNAL COMBUSTION BNQINBS.
times necessary to make the connection with the connecting-rod.
Generally speaking, a piston-rod is necessary and always desirable to
keep the connecting-rod top end in a cool place. It is certainly not
desirable to have it in a trunk close to the piston face.
The guides and shoes may be just as in a steam engine and follow
the same rules for surface, but if the initial pressures are taken for
purposes of calculation a higher nominal pressure per square inch can
be adopted.
Rule 224. Gross area of g^ide shoe=:i — yrj
100
sq. ins.
T=area piston x initial pressure —5,
S = piston speed in feet per minute.
The crankshafts are subject to considerable straining from the
intermittent action of the pistons as well as the great range of pressure
— the maximum being over 6 times the mean.
Shafts of Oil Eng^ines. — Lloyd's Rules when shafts are made of
ordinary mild steel. If special steels are used, the size must be sub-
mitted for consideration.
Rule 225. 1. Diameter of crankshaft in inches = O^^D' x S.
D is the diameter of cylinder and S the stroke of piston, each in
inches. 0 is a multiple of value as follows for smooth-water service : —
Four-Stroke Cycle.
Two- Stroke
Cycle.
Bearing
between each
Crank.
Two Cranks
between the
Bearings.
For 1, 2, 3, or 4 Oylinders
12 „
1 or 2 Oylinders
8 „
4 ,,
6 ,,
0=0-34
0 = 0-36
0 = 0-38
0 = 0-44
0=0-38
0 = 0-40
0 = 0-426
0 = 0-49
For the Open Sea Service add 0*02 to each value.
Rule 226. Diameter of screw shafts in ins. = G\/^x"S(N+3).
N is the number of cylinders ; if two-stroke, N = twice the number.
The following are the values of G : —
For all intermediate shafts, .
„ scre\^ shafts with continuous liners, .
separate ot no liners,
II
II
}i
Smooth Water
Service.
G = 0-155
G = 0-170
G = 0-180
Open Sea
Service.
0-165
0-180
0-190
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.
245
With large thrust collars the shaft between them must be ^/goth the
diameter of shaft elsewhere. For Diesel engines and others with high
initial pressures, sizes must be submitted. ■
Rales of the Bureau Veritas for the shafting of Internal Com-
bustion Engines.
Rule 227. Diameter crankshaft in ins. = 0 *1 06 f/GxWxS,
D= diameter of cylinder in inches,
S = stroke of piston
G =a variable factor.
11
Values of G for a Ratio ^.
s
D
Four-Cyde Single- Acting Engines.
6 Cylinders. 8 Cylinders. 1 10 Cylinders. 12 Cylinders. 1 16 Cylinders.
Two-Cycle Single-Acting Engines.
3 Cylinders. | 4 Cylinders. 6 Cylinders. ] 6 Cylinders. | 8 Cylinders.
TwcCycle Double* Acting Engines.
2 Cylinders. 8 Cylinders.
4 Cylinders.
10
1-1
1-2
1-8
14
1-6
1-6
1*8
2-0
127-867
119-224
112-2-21
106-425
101-626
99-421
93-868
88189
83-693
129*849
121-386
114-431
108-700
103-931
99-891
96-366
90-739
86-422
135-082
126-894
120-281
114-746
110-139
106-261
102-948
97-564
93*430
189-046
130-989
124-506
119166
114-714
111-831
107-708
102-439
98-480
161-667
144-184
138-156
183-140
129-021
125-601
122-528
117-714
114-016
Rule 228. The diameter of the intermediate shafts, di = n^D^ x S.
The values of the factor n are given in the following table : —
Four-Cycle
Two-Cycle
Two-Cycle
n.
Single-Acting.
Single-Acting.
Double-Acting.
6 Cycles
8 Cycles
• •
0*889
8 „
4 .,
2 Cycles
0-397
10 „
5 1,
• •
0-416
12
6 .
8 Cycles
0-427
W n
8 „
* »
0-459
Rule 228a. The diameter of the thrust shaft, in way of thrust
block, (ia = f^i + 6 '4 per cent.
Rale 229. The diameter of the propeller shaft, c^, = £^ + --— , where
D is the diameter of the propeller in inches.
In estimating the fuel consumed per unit of power transmitted for
use, full account must be taken of aZl fuel used in auxiliaries ; more-
over, as these engines require a very large amount of lubricating oil,
it would be only fair to include it as fuel in both the oil and stea-
246
INTBRNAL COMBUSTION ENOINBB.
engine. In both cases the consumption (total) in pounds per hour
should be divided by the Brake Horse-power, or Shaft Horse-power.
The auxiliaries or adflitions required by the two-stroke cycle
marine engines are (i) a scavenging pump delivering air direct to the
oil cylinders, (ii) a pump for compressing and storing the air necessary
for manoeuvring the engines, (iii) another compressor for the air of
very high pressure for feeding and spraying the fuel, (iv) a pump to
circulate the cooling water ; (v) a pump to deal with the fuel.
(1) The scavenging pump is generally an ordinary single-acting
air pump worked by the main engine, and having a capacity
from 1 -25 to 1 '85 that of the cylinders supplied.
(ii) The pump for the supply of air for hanaling the engine is
also generally worked by the main engine and delivers at a
pressure of about 800 lbs. per square inch, for which purpose
it has to be of the two-stage type. This pump, however, has
been lately arranged to be worked by an independent engine.
(iii) The air for oil supply is of higher pressure — about 750 lbs, ;
it is taken from the 800-lb. reservoirs and further compressed
by a small pump worked from the main engine.
The fuel consumption of the Diesel engine of the two-stroke
cycle type is generally about 0*45 lb. per B.H.P. hour ; the mechanical
efficiency of these of good size is about 0*78 ; so that the consump-
tion per I.H.P. is 0*851 lb. Some large engines when new and on
trial with skilled hands have done better, viz., 0*88 lb. per B.H.P.
or 0*800 lb. per I.H.P. hour. Generally speaking, half a pound of
good heavv oil (calorific value 19,000 B.T.U. per lb.) per B.H.P. is
a good and satisfactory result in everyday work.
When this is done the efficiency (thermal) is 0*848 (t;. Rule 17).
Tested in this way, the turbine consuming 12 lbs. of steam would
require to use 0*70 lb. of equally eood fuel and the efficiency would be
0*191. The ordinary turbine with a consumption of 18*5 lbs, would
show only 0*167, or less than half that of the oil engine.
The Diesel engine's consumption per B.H.P. at lower powers does
not increase so rapidly as does that of steam engines as may be seen by
the following table.
Table LXXII. — Consumption of Oil at Various Loads per
B.H.P. Hour in lbs.
Load.
400 B.H.P. Engine.
200 B.H.F. Engine.
Crude Oil
(Sulzer).
Crude Oil
(Chalkley).
Creosote
OU.
Crude OU.
lii'ill power,
]Si«e-quartersload, .
three aad,
should hrter load,
best, and i
0*471
0*471
0*477
0*546
0*478
0*475
0*496
0*498
0-518 *
0-462
0-528
0-442
0*462
0-506
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENaiNES.
U7
Vegetable oils are of course not so suitable for internal combustion
engines as the petroleum ones, but some can be used with advantage
as demonstrated by the following : —
Table LXXI la. —Vegetable Oils free from Water and
Impurities which may be used in Diesel Engines.
1
Palm.
Afachis
Grand
Nut.
Cotton
Seed.
Sesame.
Average.
Specific gravity at 15° 0.
(H2O=1000)
Viscosity Englerat 50** 0.
100* 0.
Flash point C. ** .
Combustion tempr. 0. ' .
Congealing point C. *"
Spontaneous combustion
in air
Moisture per cent. .
Impurities per cent.
Calorific value B.T.U. .
913-8
3-47
1-27
280
325
27*42
400
3-10
4-25
16,884
926-4
363
1-47
258
300
..«
400
0 09
Trace
16,924
923*6
3-43
1-29
243
286
• • •
• • •
010
Trace
16,785
922-2
8-37
1-21
257
299
• • t
• • •
0-08
Trace
16,840
921
3-47
1-31
259-5
302-6
• • •
• • •
• • •
161858
Composition.
Palm.
A'acUia <^^^-
Sesame.
Average.
Carbon per cent. .
Hydrogen „
Oxygen
Sulphur ,,x
76-80
11-90
10-90
0-009
76 60
1210
11-00
0-012
77-25
11-70
10-65
0-008
76-80
1213
10-50
0-010
77-1
11-9
10-6
01
N.B. — 11 to 12 lbs. of air required per lb. of oil.
The mechanical efficiency of the marine oil engine is not so high
as that of a steam engine of equal power, as the friction, both internal
and external, is greater than that of a quadruple compound, besides
which there are the various pumps driven by the main engine which
require more power than the air and feed of the steam one. It is probable
that with the large slow-moving engines of the mercantile marine t^<>
248
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENOINBS.
mechanical efSciency is under 78 per cent. , and all of this class of
engine show poor efficiency at lower speeds, so that when cruising the
general efficiency will not be so very superior to the reciprocating steam
engine.
The mean pressure in the marine oil engine at full power is from
95 to 115 lbs. per square inch. In special cases it is 125 Ibs.^ and
efforts are being made to increase this for very high-speed warahip
engines in Germany. Generally for good and economic working 100
to 110 lbs. is a fair allowance for estimating purposes.
The rate of revolution can be nu)re or less arbitrarily decided on ;
as a rule, it is higher size for size than prevails in steam engineering
in the mercantile marine.
Burmeister A Wain, with their associated friends, have a kind of
standard rate which varies from 250 revolutions per minute with single-
cylinder 30 H.P. to 150 revolutions for 1000 H.P. four-cylinder engines.
All these engines from 40 to 250 H.P. may have two cylinders ; from
50 to 750 H. P. they supply also three-cylinder ones ; while they make
four-cylinder engines of 50 H.P., which they run at 225 revolutions and
up to 1000 H.P. at 150 revolutions.
The Augsburg- Number g Co. design their 86 H.P. engines for 250
revolutions with two cylinders, and make four-cylinder 200 H.P. for
195 revolutions, while tneir 1000 H.P. are for 150 revolutions.
Sulzers will m&ke engines of 8000 H.P. to run at 105 revolutions.
Naval engines are designed for higher rates, so that the 1200-H.P.
en^ne is made for 400 revolutions.
The Selandia of 2500 I. H.P. has engines running at 140 revolutions ;
each engine is, of course, 1250 H.P. The Eavestone was designed for
aild has run at 90 revolutions, indicating 1370 I. H.P.
The following table gives the rates of revolution generally aimed at
by the Augsburg-Niirnberg Co.
Table LXXIIL— Rates of Revolution of Ausfsburg-Niimberg
Oil Eng^ines.
Size of Engine.
Kevolutions per minute.
Light Naval.
Heavy Type.
160 horso-power, .
200
800 to 500 horse-power, .
600 horse-power, .
900
1200 „ . .
660
650
600
450
420
400
400
830
830 to 275
275
260
216
The rate of revolution of marine engines may be determined by the
following rules, and be in accordance with the above and other good
Dractice : —
INTERNAL CJOMBUSTION ENGINES. 249
Rule 2y>, Number of revs, per min. = 2300 4- 4^H. P. Light naval.
Rule230SL ,, „ „ . = 2300-fA3/H.P. Heavy „
Rule 230b. ,, ,, „ =1600-r*yH.P. Mercantile.
The weight of the oil engine is considerable per H.P., so that an
oil-engine installation is often as heavy as a steam one.
(a) The very lightest, such as made specially for small Naval ships,
weigh 40 lbs. per S.H.P. of tne smaller and 35 lbs. of the
larger powers, as against 43 lbs. of reciprocator destroyers.
{b) The ordinary mercantile installation weighs from 300 lbs. of
small to 215 lbs. of large engines per S.H.P. The slower
speed ones, such as the SavestotiB^ are heavier still.
(c) The engines made for express short-passage ships are, of course,
considerably lighter, being from 90 to 100 Iba per I.H.P.
The machinery of similar ships with reciprocators would be
210 lbs. per I.H.P., and turbine installations 123 lbs. ; while
that of a third-class cruiser with water- tube boiler is 120 lbs.
with reciprocators, and 95 with turbines.
The space occupied by oil-engine installations is very much less
than that by steam ones, and practically by the amount of the boiler
room, for even the 8-cylinder engines require little or no more space
than the 4 -crank engines and condensers of the steamship. The space
occupied by oil fuel as against that by coal is a most important factor.
Leaving aside the question of taxing the space in the same way as coal
bunkers, there remains the fact that oil can be stowed at little cost for
labour in'spaces which are inaccessible for cargo, and brought from them
to the engines and boilers at equally small cost. The application of
the fuel requires no hand labour and practically costs nothing, so that
altogether the labour costs in an oil-fuel ship are very small indeed.
Besides which, the weight of the firemen not required, together with
that of the food, water, and appliances for them, which will be con-
siderable, is saved and in its place freight-paying cargo is carried. On
the other hand, it must not be forgotten that whereas any kind of fuel
can be used in a boiler, only certain kinds and qualities of oU can be
used in an oil engine ; so that in case of accident the oil is lost, a further
supply is not to be got, and the oil-engine ship is helpless. More-
over, in this country we have an abundant supply of coal, but we have
little or no oil — nor have we as yet an oil-field near at hand in foreign
countries. As long as crude oil could be got at 40 to 50 shillings a ton
it was worth while having an oil engine here, especially for intermittent
work, but the demand before the war had caused it to rise to over 90
shillings ; it is now more costly than coal with a steam engine, and
likely to be still higher if the mercantile marine goes in largely for this
class of engine, as this would expand the demand enormously ; but
doubtless other oil-fields will be found.
The advantages of the Diesel system over others are : —
(1) Safety due to the use of a harmless high flash-point fuel.
IT
250
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES.
(2) High compression of air free from fuel, whereby ; —
(a) The use of an ignitor is avoided.
(&) Explosion, or combustion rather, is effected without shock,
(e) The mixture of fuel with the air is more certain.
\d) A poorer mixture can be used when desirable.
{fi) There is no fear of pre-ignition or back-firing.
(3) Less cooling water is required consequent on the less fuel
consumed. •
The Semi-Diesel engine possesses most of these advantages, but it
requires an ignitor, which is liable to fail in action when dirty.
Of the heat generated by the combustion of the fuel, 38 to 40 per
cent, is converted into work, 40 per cent, is absorbed by the cooling
water or lost by radiation, and 20 per cent passes away at the exhaust.
A considerable amount of the 60 per cent, otherwise wasted can be
recovered by means of a steam boiler, as the temperature at exhaust is
about 450* F. — that is, sufficiently high to evaporate some of the water
from the jackets which has been raised to near the boiliDg point
The steam from this auxiliary boiler can be employed for domestic
purposes as also for steeling and driving the auxiliary machineiy
generally.
It means that if in the EavestoTis 33 per cent of the loss can be
recovered, there should be produced 1000 lbs. of steam per hour ;
enough to supply auxiliaries of an aggregate of 46 I.H.P.
The indicated horse-power can be found as follows : —
D is the diameter of the cylinders in inches whose nuiflber ian;
S is the stroke of piston in feet ; pm is the mean pressure ;
R is the number of revolutions per minute.
Rule 231.
I.H.P.=
25,338
x« I
I for 4-stroke cycle
•' V SxpmxRxTi/
Rule 232.
Pm
D^xSx^mxR^^ V
I.M.F.- J^ggg
Diam. of cylinder = ^/LMHTO
for 2-stroke cycle
^ single-acting.
Rule 233.
I.H.P.- g335 xn
Diam. of cylinder = AH-P- x 6335
V VSxpotxRxw^
for 2-stroke cycle
double-acting.
Limitation to mameter of cylinder is enforced by one or two
T^tical consideratiOffls ; the thickness will increase with the diameter
\
INTERNAL COMBUSTION BNGINBS. 251
and soon become so great as to seriously retard the passage of heat to
the cooling water, and the strength of the shell to resist internal
pressure and shock will not be proportional to the thickness. The
surface exposed to heat increases as the diameter, while the quantity of
heat will vary as the square of the diameter, so that the ability to keep
sufficiently cool decreases as the diameter increases. In practice with
the requirements of the mercantile marine, the diameter seldom exceeds
24 inches, and probably 30 inches is the safe limit with cast-iron ;
latterly, however, several firms both at home and abroad make engines
with cylinders nearly 30 inches diameter and piston stroke 43 to 45
inches. On special short service craft where spurts at high speed are
required cylinders of larger diameter may be employed.
The thickness of cylinder is, of coarse, much greater for mejx^hant
ships than for fast expresses and naval craft
Rule 234. Thickness of cylinder, = D x/ for Diesel engines.
For merchant ships, /=0'1 to 0*08.
Naval and expresses, /= 0-06 \ ^ ^ ^
Very light engines, /= 0*06 J «"i'*'""* """•
The cylinders are often made thicker at the end where there is
greatest compression and the explosion ; then the thickness tapers and
varies from/=0-10 to/=0*06.
The cylinders of Semi-Diesel engines may be, of course, thinner, so
that/ is =0*6 of the above values off.
This means that the metal, which must always be of a special kind,
is nominally stressed to 2750 lbs. per square inch in mercantile engines,
and as much as 5000 lbs. in naval high-speed engines.
The following are a few examples of the performance of the heavy
oil engine in actual practice.
(1) A Diesel engine with cylinders 22*05 inches diameter x 29*5 inch
stroke running at 150 revolutions per minute.
The consumption of oil fuel per hour was 195*2 lbs.
The maximum pressure in cylinders, 525 lbs. per square inch.
The mean „ „ 95 „ - „
The indicated horse-power— full speed, 609 ; slow speed, 163*8.
The brake „ „ 475*5; „ 54*6.
Fuel per B.H.P. hour, lbs. „ 0*411; „ 0*838.
Efficiency, B.H.P. -J- I.H.P. „ 0*78; „ 0*334.
The pumps were driven by a special engine whose efficiency was
0*715 and the horse-power 44*8. Taking into account the fuel ex-
pended on these engines and the B.H.P. of the main engine only, the
consumption of fuel was 0*444 full power, 1*415 lbs. low power.
(2) l^fie S,S, EavestonehsADiesel engines (Westgarth Carel) with four
cylinders 20 inches diameter, 86 inches stroke in which a mean pressure
of 127 lbs. has been obtained. She attained a rate of 9 knots, loaded
on a consumption of 3*5 tons of crude oil fuel per twenty-four hours,
which is equal to 0*47 per S.H.P. hour. For this speed there would
be about 900 1. H. P. developed. The mean pressure with 90 revolutioni
252 iSOARD OF TRADB RULBS FOR OIL BNQINBS.
would be only 88 *4 lbs. A sister ship, with modem good triple expan-
sion engines, requires 12^ tons of Durham coal to do the same speed.
If it cost 20 shillings per ton /.o.&., the oil to equal it in cost would be at
the rate of 71*4 shillings per ton, which is lower than was ruling for
residuals. The great saving, however, in favour of the oil engine is
in wages, etc., of firemen, which would amount to £20 to £25 per
month in a low-power boat like the Eavestone.
On the other hand, it is pretty certain that engine-room accounts
for overhauls and adjustments at terminal ports will be much heavier
in the oil-engine ships ; repairs and renewals will also figure largely.
Moreover, the energies and attention of the engine-room staff will be
more sorely tried, especially on voyages with lots of stoppages.
(8) The Dorsetshire of the Bibby Line is a twin-screw ship having
oil engines developing on trial 4500 I.H.P. at 115 revs. This ship is
450 ft. long and 57 ft. beam, and 7500 G. R. tons. Speed 12 knots. To
each propeller there are six cylinders 29 *13 ins. dia. with a piston stroke
of 45 *28 ins. ; they work on the four- stroke cycle and are single acting.
A German ship 525 feet long and of 9800 G.R. tons, has two sets of
engines each with six cylinders 22*6 ins. dia. and a piston stroke of
39*4 ins., works on the two-stroke cycle. Another ship on the two-
stroke cycle has one engine with six cylinders 23*6 ins. dia. and 43
ins. piston stroke. It develops 2300 I.H.P.
(4) A Semi- Diesel engine^ having a cylinder 17 ins. dia. x 27*6 ins.
stroke, when running at 180 r.p.m. compressed to about 300 lbs. per
square inch, and after explosion the pressure was 500 lbs. The thermal
efficiency was 40 per cent, and the mechanical 68 per cent. , thus the
general efficiency was 27 '2 average throughout trial.
{6) A Semi' Diesel engine by Beardmore has four cylinders, 9 ins. dia.
X 13 ins. stroke. It runs at 400 r.p.m., compresses to 150 lbs., and
reaches 300 lbs. after explosion. A diagram taken when running on
service shows maximum pressure 275 lbs. and mean 52 '5, giving the
ratio 5 '24.
MOTOR BOATS AND OIL ENGINES USING PETROL.
Board of Trade Rules for.
Instructions to Surveyors, 19x3.
The following instructions are issued by the Board of Trade for
the information and guidance of their officers in surveying motor
boats for which a passenger certificate is required.
201. . . . The provisions of the Act as to passenger steamers,
namely, section 267 and sections 271 to 288, apply, in so far as
they are applicable, to motor boats, and therefore no motor boat may
carry more than twelve passengers unless it has been surveyed within
the preceding twelve months and holds a passenger certificate which
is stul in force, and is applicable to the voyage or excursion on which
the vessel is about to proceed.
BOARD OF TRADB BULBS FOR OIL ENGINES. 253
The Surveyor . . . must be satisfied that the hull and machinery
are sufficient for the service intended and in good condition ; and
in considering this point, he must have regard to the conditions of
wind and weather to which the vessel may be exposed, and must see
that she is so constructed as to be able to meet these conditions
without danger to human life.
. . . The Surveyor should be satisfied that proper precautions have
been taken to guard against the occurrence of fire or explosion, and
that adequate provision has been made for extinguishing fires should
they occur.
202. The duration of the certificate. It is desirable in many
cases to limit it to three months at first, but certificates for a longer
period may be issued subsequently, if the engines are found to have
worked satisfactorily, if the tank and pipe connections and fittings
have proved oil-tight, and if everything in good condition.
203. The printed regulations relating to the survey of passenger
steamers apply, as modified and supplemented by the provisions of
this circular, sections 201-228.
The following requirements apply to launches or boats fitted with
engines using petrol or other petroleum.
204. Oil Tank.— The oil tank should be well and substantially
constructed of suitable material, and should not be larger than is
reasonably necessary. When made of iron or steel, it should be
efficiently galvanised externally ; if it is proposed to galvanise it on
the inside, the work should be carefully done, otherwise the zinc
coating may become detached by the corrosive action of the petrol.
The tank and its connections should be perfectly oil-tight, and should
be tested by hydraulic pressure corresponding to a head of water of
atleast 16roet.
Particulars of the tank and its fittings should be submitted, if a
pressure feed system is employed.
205. Tray for Oil Tank.— The tank should be securely fixed in
position, and should rest in a properly supported and suitable lead-
lined or metal tray, situated above the deep-load line, with drain pipes
from the tray leading overboard.
206. Arrangements for filling Oil Tank. — In order to reduce
the risk of explosion, the arrangements for filling the tank should
be such that oil will not readily be spilled, or overflow and drain into,
or lodge in, either the compartment containing the tank or any other
part 01 the vessel ; and provision should be made whereby the petrol
vapour which is displaced when the tank is replenished will be
discharged overboard. If the tank is filled through the deck, the
woodwork surrounding the inlet pipe should be covered with sheet
metal to prevent it becoming saturated with oil or spirit. A properly
secured wire-gauze diaphragm, or tube, which should be made readily
removable for cleaning and examination, should be fitted to each
inlet and outlet on the tank ; and the filling pipe, or orifice, should
be furnished with a suitable screwed cap.
y
254 BOARD OF TBADB BULBS FOB OIL BNGINBS.
No loose cans of petrol should be carried in the boat, and the
permanent petrol tank should be charged with petrol when the
passengers are not on board.
207. Safety Device for Oil Tank. — Means should be provided
for relieving the pressure in the tank in case ,of fire. This may
consist of (a) an open pipe with wire-gauze diaphragm fitt^, (&) a
light spring-loaded valve, or (c) a satisfactory fusible plug or similar
saiety device.
208. The pipe conveying the petrol to the carburettor should be
solid drawn copper and provided with a flexible bend or bends ; a
cock or valve should be fitted at each end of the pipe • one on the
tank, and the other on the carburettor or float chamber, and the joints
and the couplings should be reddily accessible and such that they
can be made and kept perfectly oil-tight. In this connection it
should be noted that coupling and other joints made of soft solder
are not satisfactory.
The air inlet pipe to the carburettor should be fitted with a wire-
gauze diaphragm and carried to the ship's side or to a vertical height
of at least six feet above the carburettor, and to such a position that
there will be no danger of ignition of any petrol vapour that may
escape therefrom when the engine is stopped. It is desirable that
carburettors should be of such a type that when the motor is stopped
the supply of petrol to the carburettor will be shut ofif automatically.
In some cases a suitable receptacle is required to be fitted to the
carburettor to prevent an overflow of petrol from the latter into the
launch when the engine is stopped ; this receptacle should be formed
with a narrow neck and provided with a wire-gauze covering at the
mouth and with means for draining it.
The exhaust pipe should be efficiently cooled to prevent danger.
209. Igftiition.— An exposed spark gap should not be permitted
in the engine-room, and care should be taken that the leads from
the accumulators or generators to the sparking plugs are efficiently
insulated and well secured and protected from moisture, particularly
when the high-tension system of electrical ignition is adopted.
Ignition tubes should not be passed unless oil having a higher
flash point than 73° Fahrenheit is used. If blow lamps are used for
this class of oil, they must be fixed and the flame enclosed.
210. Motor Compartment, Ventilation, &c.— If the motor, or
petrol tank, is situated below deck, it should be confined within a
separate watertight and well-ventilated compartment, in which no
stove or other apparatus for containing fire should be placed. The
compai'tment should be furnished with at least two cowl ventilators,
so arranged as to prevent the accumulation of oil vapour in the lower
part of the space, to which part one of the ventilators should extend.
Any enclosed space within which the motor, or tank, is placed should
be ventilated in this manner, except in the case of small open launches
where louvres, or other suitable openings can be provided, in which
case one cowl ventilator may be passed if the arrangements are to the
Surveyor's satisfaction. In a vessel of this class, the space occupied
BOARD OF TRuADB RULES FOR OIL BNQINBS. 255
by the motor, petrol tank, &c., should, preferably, be at the after
end of the boat, and separated from the space allotted for the
accommodation of passengers and crew by a substantial bulkhead as
high as the seats, and watertight for at least the lower half; but,
if it is specially desired to place the motor amidships, or forward,
either arrangement may be allowed, provided a bulkhead, formed
in the manner stated, is placed between the motor space and the
passenger or crew space.
211. Tray for Motor. — If the vessel is of wood, a metal tray
which can readily be cleaned should be fitted under the motor ; and,
if flooring boards are provided, they should be closely fitted, but
made removable in order to facilitate cleaning and inspection.
212. Machinery to be fenced where necessary.— The machinery
should be fenced where necessary, in order to prevent injury to the
persons in the boat.
218. The foregoing are the more important requirements relating
to the construction and arrangement of oil motors, and those which
most be complied with generally ; but it should be clearly under-
stood that the details of each case will be considered separately by
the Board of Trade, and it is only when this has been done that
all the requirements which must be fulfilled can be determined. It
is therefore necessary that the Surveyors should be in a position to
submit to the Board at an early stage full particulars of the case,
including plans of the motor, oil- tank, carburettor, and reversing
gear, in order that any necessary alterations may be pointed out
before the construction of the machinery is commenced, if possible.
To ensure this being done, it is necessary that the owners or builders
of motor boats or engines' should make early application for survey,
when such is required, by filling in the form Surveys 6 and sending
it, with the necessary fee, to the nearest mercantile marine office.
In all cases the limits within which the vessel is intended to ply
should be stated.
The material of which the various parts are made should be shown
on the plans submitted. The steel portions should be tested in the
presence of the Surveyor and should be of ductile quality, and the
scantling of all the parts should be sufficient for the purpose intended.
214. The cylinders should be satisfactorily tested by water
pressure in the Surveyor's presence to double the maximum working
pressure to which they will oe subjected, and the silencer and exhaust
pipes to at least one- fourth of the pressure applied to the cylinders,
and they should, owing to the possibility of back-firing, be of ample
strength.
215. The boat should be tried in the Surveyor's presence for
handiness in manoeuvring, going ahead, stopping and going astern,
before the declaration is issued.
216. The means for extinguishing fire to be provided in the case
of boats less than 80 feet in length should consist of at least one chemical
fluid fire-extinguisher of an efficient size and pattern, and a box of sand
of not less than one cubic foot in capacity ; a suitable scoop for applyin
256 Lloyd's rulbs for internal combustion marine engines.
the sand should also be provided. In larger boats, or in special cir-
cumstances, additional fire-extinguishing appliances may be required.
The extinguishers should be of sufficient strength to withstand the
pressure generated by the combination of the chemicals employed when
the outlet yalve to the vessel is closed. The extinguishing medium
must be of a nature that will not be harmful to anyone with whom it
comes in contact. Permanent instructions should be attached to each
apparatus showing how it is operated, and it should be stated whether
the apparatus may be stowed in any position or in a certain position
only. The extinguishers should be placed in a position ready for
immediate use, and the plunger for breaking the glass containing the
acid should be protected from accidental movement.
It is desirable that petrol or other tanks containing highly volatile
and inflammable liquids should be provided with a safety fitting to
relieve the internal pressure, and prevent the tank from bursting in
the event of its becoming overheated by fire. Whenever such fittings
are about to be adopted, particulars should be first reported for con-
sideration.
217. The foregoing instructions apply to all new motor boats and to
all motor boats which come under survey for the first time. In the
case of boats which have already been passed, the Surveyors need not
insist on alterations being made in order to secure full compliance with
the regulations, provided they are fully satisfied with the present
arrangements ; but whenever any repairs or renewals are being effected,
the regulations should be fully complied with. This does not apply
to the requirements of paragraph 23 as to fire-extinguishing appliances,
which must be complied with in all cases.
LLOYD'S RULES FOR INTERNAL COMBUSTION
MARINE ENGINES (other than Diesel Type).*
General
Section z. In vessels propelled by internal combustion engines,
the rules as regards machinery will be the same as those relating to
steam engines so far as regards the testing of material used in their
construction and the fitting of sea connections, discharge pipes,
shafting, stern tubes, and propellers.
Construction.
Section 2. 1. The following points should be observed in connection
with the design of the engines.
2. The shaft bearings, connecting-rod brasses, the valve gear, the
inlet and exhaust valves must be easily accessible.
8. The reversing gear and clutch must be strongly constructed and
easily accessible for examination and adjustment
4. In engines of above 60 B.H.P. which are not reversible and
which are manoeuvred by clutch, a governor or other arrangement
must be fitted to prevent racing of the engine when declutched.
• For Diesel type, Kules, Ac, vide Appendix H, p. 696.
Lloyd's bulbs fob intebnal oombustion habinb bnginbs. 257
6. Efficient positive means of labrication (preferably sight feed)
must be fitted to each part requiring continuous lubrication.
6. If the engines are of the closed-in type, they must be so fitted
that the contained lubricating oil can be drained when necessary, and
in wood vessels an easily drained metal or metal-lined tray must be
fitted to prevent leakage of either fuel oil or of lubricating oil from
saturating the woodwork.
7. Carburettors, where petrol is used, and vaporisers, where
paraffin is used, should be so designed that when the engine is stopped
the fuel supply is automatically shut off. If an overflow is provided
in the carburettor or vaporiser, a gauze-covered tray with means of drain-
ing it must be fitted to prevent the fuel from flowing into the bilges.
Strong metallic gauze diaphragms should be fitted either between
the carburettor (or vaporiser) and cylinders, or at the air inlets.
8. If the ignition 4s electric, either by magneto or by coil and
accumulator, all electric leads must be well insulated and suitably
Protected from mechanical injury. The leads should be kept remote
'om petrol pipes, and should not be placed where they may be
brought into contact with oil.
The commutator must be enclosed ; and the sparking colls must
not be placed where they can be exnosed to explosive vapours.
9. No exposed spark gap should oe fitted.
10. In paraffin and heavy-oil engines where lamps are used for
ignition or for vaporising, these lamps should be fixed by some
suitable bracket, and the name enclosed when in use.
11. The circulating pamp sea suction is to have a cock or valve on
the vessel's skin placed on the turn of the bilge in an easily accessible
position, and the circulating pipe is to be provided with an efficient
strainer inside the vessel. The discharge overboard is to be fitted with
a cock or valve on the vessel's skin if it is situated under or near the
load line of the vessel.
12. The pumping arrangements are to be the same as would be re-
quired in the case of a steam vessel of the same size and power, with
the exception that no bilge injection need be fitted. In the cases of
vessels ntted with water ballast, the water ballast pump must have
one direct suction from the engine-room bilges in addition. In open
launches, and in small sailing vessels in which the engines are auxiliary
only, a suitable additional hand pump, fitted to draw from the engine-
room bUges, may be accepted in lieu of a power-driven pump.
18. The cylinders are to be tested by hydraulic pressure to twice the
worMng pressure to which they will be subjected. The water jackets
of the cylinders to 50 lbs. per square inch, and the exhaust pipes and
silencer to 10 lbs. per square inch.
Fuel Tanks and Connections.
Section 4. 1. Separate fuel tanks are to be tested with all fittings,
to a head of at least 15 feet of water. If pressure feed tanks ar^
employed, they are to be tested to twice the working pressure whi
258 SUPBRHBATBD STEAM.
will come ou them, but at least to a head of 15 feet of water. If the
tanks are made of iron or steel they should be galvanised.
2. Strong and readily removable metallic gauze diaphragms should
be fitted at all openings on petrol tanks.
3. Paraffin or heavy-oil tanks, not used under pressure, are to be
fitted with air pipes leading above deck. Pressure- feed tanks and
tanks containing petrol should be provided with escape valves dis-
charging into pipes leading to the atmosphere above deck. The upper
ends of all air pipes are to be turned d!own, and pipes above 1 inch
diameter are to be provided with gauze diaphragms at the end.
4. No glass gauges are to be fitted to fuel tanks containing either
petrol, paraffin, or heavy oil.
5. Filling pipes are to be carried through the deck so that the gas
displaced from the tanks has free escape to the atmosphere.
6. Separate fuel tanks should be provided with metal-lined trays to
prevent any possible leakage from them flowing into the bilges or
saturating woodwork. Arrangements are to be provided for emptying
the tanks and draining the trays beneath them. For petrol tanks the
trays must have drains leading overboard where possible, or they should
be gauze-covered trays with means for draining them.
7. All fuel pipes are to be of annealed seamless copper with flexible
bends. Their joints are to be conical, metal to metal. A cock or
valve is to be fitted at each end of the pipe conveying the fuel from
the tank to the carburettor or vaporiser. The fuel pipes should be
led in positions where they are protected from mechanical injury and
can be exposed to view throughout their whole length.
8. The engine-room, and the compartment in which the fuel tanks
are situated are to be efficiently ventilated.
9. An approved fire-extinguishing apparatus must be supplied.
SUPERHEATED STEAM.
Previous to the general adoption of the compound engine on ship-
board and the raising of the working pressure to 60 lbs. per square inch,
superheaters were in ven^ general use both in the Navy and Mercantile
Marine. The old box wrm of boiler, made for a pressure of 30 lbs. ,
had' fitted in the uptake some form of tubular receiver for steam which
was exposed to the heat action of the effluent gases, so that its tempera-
ture was raised from 274* F. to as much as 400' ; generally, however,
it was not possible to get so high as this, and in the Mercantile
Marine 860° was satisfactory. The economy due to this conversion of
waste heat into energy was marked, but the life of the superheater
was never very long, and the restrictions imposed by the Board of
Trade latterly were onerous ; shipowners were therefore content with
the saving effected by the compound system and the high-pressure
boiler, and so gave up the use of what could have very materially
improved the efficiency of the new installations. Today the tempera-
ture of the saturated steam generated for quadruple engines is 390** F.,
or as high as superheated steam was formerly, ana the absolute pressure
nearly five times ; but, notwithstanding, even superheating it is an
ntage and can be effected at comparatively small cost. In fact,
SUPERHBATBD STEAM.
259
moderate superheat can be obtained still from the waste heat in the
uptake ; but to obtain the best economic results the grate area has to
be such that the temperature in the uptake is considerably higher
than is necessary for evaporative efficiency.
Table LXXIIIa.— A Comparison of the Steam Coasumption
with and without Superheat when Working with Steam at
i8o Lbs. Pressure in Lbs. per S.H.P. Hour.
S.H.P.
Triple Compound
Reciprocator.
Ordinary Direct
Drive Turbine.
Combined Recipro>
cator and Turbine.
Vac. 26.
Saturated
Steam.
Vac. 26.
Superheat
to 672* F.
Vac. 28-6.
Saturated
Steam.
Vac. 28-5.
Superheat
to 672* F.
Vac. 28-6.
Saturated
Steam.
Vac. 28'6.
Superheat
to 672' F.
600
1000
1600
2000
16-50
15-26
14-76
14-50
1176
11-25
11-00
11 00
14-00
11'75
11-26
11-00
11-76
9-75
9-50
9-25
18 to 22
12 to 13
11-25
11-00
13 to 16
9-5 to 9-9
9-00
8-70
The maximum temperature for safe and efficient working in every-
day practice is 550", or about 160° F. above that of the saturated steam.
Some engineers on shore use steam at 600° or even a little higher, but
in doing so there is risk which is hardly worth running. Moreover, to
attain so high a superheat there must oe an independently fired super-
heater, and the gases on leaving it must be very hot.
The specific neat of steam is determined by this formula.
Specific heat at constant pressure =0*4304 -f 0*000878 x T,
wherein T is the temperature of the steam in degrees Fahr.
Table LXXIV.— Specific Heat of Steam at various
Temperatures.
Ttomp.
Spedflo
H«aL
TUnp.
F.*
Speclflo
Heat
Temp.
Speclflo
Heal
remp.
F.'
Speclflo
Heat.
remp.
Spedflo
Heat
F.°
F.*
F-.
800
0-6438
380
0-6740
460
0-6043
•640
0-6346
620
0-6648
810
0-6476
390
0-6778
470
0-6081
550
0-6383
630
0-6685
820
0-6614
400
0-6816
480
0-6118
560
0-6421
640
0-6723
830
0-6661
410
0-5854
490
0-6156
670
0-6459
650
0-6761
840
0*5689
420
0-5894
600
0-6194
680
0-6496
660
0-6799
850
0-6627
480
0-6929
610
0-6232
690
0*6634
670
0-6887
860
0-5666
440
0-5967
520
0-6270
600
0-6572
680
0-6874
870
1
0-6703
460
0-6006
530
0-6307
610 0*6610
690
0-6912
260 SITPBRHBATBD 8TBAH.
The amount of heat required to superheat a pound of steam to a
temperature T« from its natural temperature T may be ascertained by
taking the specific heat at the mean temperature and multiplying by
the dmerence in temperature. Thus : —
T+T
(a) Mean temperature = — -— ?.
T + T
(6) Amount of heat to raise temperature=s8p. heat of tJ-zl (Ts - T).
Example, — ^To superheat a pound of steam at a pressure of 180 lbs.,
or 195 absolute, to 500** F.
Mean temperature =??5j|J^= 440'.
Specific heat iiCrrO-SOS?.
Difference in temperature =600** - 390'= 110°.
Heat required = 0-6967 x 110** or 66*637 B.T.U.
The total heat of superheated steam may be calculated by Prof.
Peabody's formula, which is as follows, —
Total heat =0-4805 (Ta-10-38-^P) + 867.
Ta is the absolute temperature Fahr. ; P is the absolute pressure.
Or by Prof. Ripper's formula.
Total heat = H + 0 -48 (<, - <j),
where H is the total heat of saturated steam at a pressure p and a
temperature ^, and tg is the temperature to which it is raised by super-
heating.
Example, — The total heat of steam at 200 lbs. gauge pressure and
500* F. temperature will be
H = 0-4805{(500 + 461)- 10-38 (200 + 15)*} +867.
= 442-7 + 857 = 1299 -7" F.
Superheated steam transmitted through pipes is greater than is
the case with saturated steam of same pressure. The quantity may be
estimated by the following formula.
d is the diameter o the pipe in inches, whose length is L feet ; W is
the weight of a cubic foot of the steam at a pressure P^ at entry and
Pg at exit
Weight passed per minute =87 /l^^ZLlfa)^.
/W(P^-PaK
SUPERHEATED STEAM.
261
Table LXXV.— Maximum Work possible from z lb. of Super-
heated Steam expanding to and exhausting at i lb.
pressure B.T.U.
luitial
Pressure
Absolute.
Temperature of Steam after superheat, degrees Fahr.
360
300-0
376
316-9
400
329-0
426
344-0
460
359-0
476
374-0
J600
626
660
421-0
676
487-0
600 626
463-0 470-0
650
486-6
676
508-0
Lbs.
100
889-5
406-0
126
306-6
321-6
336-0 349-6
364-0
379-0 394-5 410-0
388-0 398-0 414-0
426-0
442-0
468-0 475-0 491-3
508-0
160
326-0
339-0 363-0
368-0
430-0
4460
462-0 478-6 496-0
512-0
176
329-3
342 0 356-6
376-0
386-5 401-0 417-31433-0
449-3
466-3 482-0, 498 -6
616-6
200
3320
344-6 368-6
373-5
389-0
404-0 420-0;436-0
452 0
468-0 484-0; 6010
618-0
226
• •
346-4 360-6
365-5
3910
4060 422-0 438-0
454-0
470-0 486-8 602-7
620-0
260
• •
348-0 362 0 377-6
892-6
408-9 423-5 439-6
456-0
471-5 488 0 504-0
621-0
276
• •
.. 363-0 8790
394-0
409-5 426-0 441-0
466-4
472-8 489-3' 506-0
6220
800
• •
.. 864-0 380*0
i 1
8960
410-& 426-0 4420
4671
478-4 4900 606-6
622-6
Table LXXVa.— Weight of Superheated Steam passed per
minute in lbs. through Pipes 240 diameters long, with a
drop of I lb. Pressure. ,
Gangs
Pressure.
Lbs.
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
Diameter of Pipe in Inches.
5-25
5-63
6-00
6-31
6-64
6-95
7-25
7-55
26-0
27-9
29-7
31-8
83-0
34-6
36-0
37-6
64-2
69-9
73-2
77-4
81-6
86-7
89 '8
93-8
4
6
118-5
196
127-2
210
135'0
223
142-0
235
148-9
245
155-8
256
162-3
266
168-4
276
293
815
334
352
368
883
398
412
400 535
433 574
458 609
483 640
603 I 670
525 698
545 726
563
752
9
10
690
868
740
925
786
980
825
1033
865
1080
903
1125
940
1172
983
1214
The heating surface of a superheater per pound of steam must
depend on the difference in temperature between the hot gases and the
steam.
With considerable difference 6 B.T.U.'s are transferred per square
foot of surface per hour for each degree of difference Fahr. , when the
surfaces within and without are clean.
That is, if steam of 200 lbs. pressure, 500** temperature, is passing
through a superheater exposed to hot gas at 650*" temperature,
Each square foot should pass
6 (650 - 500) or 900 B.T.U. per hour.
262 SKIN FiTTiNaa and VALVKS.
Each pound of steam reqnires (500-387) 0-69B^67-7 B.T.U., so
that if Uie cooMimption of Bteaiii is 12 Iba. per I.H.P,, the snifacB
per I. H. P. = 67 '7 X 1 2 7 900, or 0 'BD27 sqnue feet
SKIN FITTINGS AND VALVES.
Blow-off valves. — Tbese ehould always be bronze Btop-vailTes
opening inwards, and sbouliJ have epigota passing through the ahip's
plating. If any guard cock isGtted, it should be placed between uie
valve on the boiler and the eea-valce, and independent of both.
The method of attachment t« tiie abip'n skin, reconunended by
Lloyd's, is shown in figs. 13, and H ; the Admiralty method in figs.
4& and IS.
Where tlie valve has to open a communication througli a double
bottom, as is usually the case in Naval work, one of the Kingston
type is generally employed, attached to th» outer bottom, as shown in
Sg. iS, and made tight by means of a stuffing box, where it passes
through the inner bottom.
The DSB of cast-iron for boxes or casings of blow-off valves is
forbidden by the Board of Trade rales.
Discharge valves.— Here also, with the object of reducing the
number of openings in the ship's akin, the smolleT valves should,
where poaaibla, discharge into the casings of the larger ones, the out-
lets from the latter being increased in area as necessary.
In the Merchant Service, lifting nonreturn valves with cast-iron
eaaings are oenarally used ; bat in ttie Navy, though the same type of
valve is used, the only material permitted is bronie,
SKIN prrriNoa and talvks. 263
Proviflion ahouJii be made for hBtiginR up ths valve, but, wheo the
circiiUting pumpe are of the reciprocating t;pe, it should not be
possible to hold it on its seat in any way.
All discharge valves should have spindles passing through the covers,
and cross haodlea for turning them round on their stats.
In some cases, where room :a pinched, a swinging flap-valve may be
employed with advantage ; and where the pumpB are of the centrifugal
type, either valves of thia class or sluice valves should b« used, in order
to leduoe the resistances as much as possible.
There should always be a spigot passing through the skin plating
of the vessel, and, where the valve is large, it is often necessary to
have a oompensating plate inside riveted to the skin plate.
The Board of Trade regfulations referring to sea connections are
as follows ;—
194. All inlets or outlets in the bottom or side of a vessel near to,
at, or below the deep-loai] water line other than the oittlets of water-
closet, soil, scupper, lavatory, and urinal pippa should have oocks or
valves fitted between the pipes and the ship's side or bottom ; such
cocks or valves should be attached to the skin of the ship, and be so
arranged that they can be easily and expeditiously opened or closed
at any time j and the cocks, valves, and the whole length of the pijies
should be accessible at all times.
264 SKIN FITTINOS AND VALVBS.
Cocks or yalves standing exceptional distances from the ship's
plating, that is where the necks are longer than is necessary for making
the joint, should not be passed without the sanction of the Board of
Trade, and one condition of their being passed is that they should be
made of gun metal, and well bracketed.
188. With a view to the prevention of accidents to boilers through
the blow-off cocks being left open after the boiler is run up, and to
prevent water getting accidentally into the ship by cocks being left
open, all blow-off cocks and sea connections below the plates or out of
sight should be fitted with a guard over the plug, with a featherway
in the same, and a key on the spanner, so that the spanner cannot be
removed unless the cock is closed. The spanner, kc, when in place
should extend to the platform. When cocks are in sight, guards need
not be fitted provided the spanners are secured to the plugs by pins.
The spanners should not be shrunk on the heads of the plugs. One
cock should be fitted to the boiler, and another cock on the skin of the
ship or on the side of the Kingston valve. Valves may be substituted
for the blow-ofif cocks on the boilers, but, in such cases, the blow-off
cock on the skin of the ship must be fitted with a spanner guard so
that the spanner cannot be removed when the cock is open ; and, if
the blow-off pipe is used for more than one boiler, an intermediate
switch-cock, or suitable non-retom valve to each boiler, should be
fitted so that water cannot be blown from one boiler to another.
189. When the pipes are so arranged that the water in the boilers
can be circulated by means of the donkey pump, similar precautions
should be observed ; and a cock fitted with spanner and guard, the
handle of which will stand above the level of the platform, should be
fitted in the circulating pipes, preferably near the pump.
190. A non*retum valve having a screw spindle not attached, by
which the valve may be set down on its seat when necessary, should
be fitted to all pipes which are so led or placed that water could, unless
such non-return valves were fitted, run from the boiler or the sea into
the bilge, either by accidentally or intentionally leaving a cock or
valve open ; the only exception to this requirement has reference to
the fireman's ash cock, which must have a cock or valve on the ship's
side and be above the stoke-hold plates.
191. Cast-iron stand-pipes or cocks intended for the passage through
them of hot brine shoula not be passed.
Surveyors should also discourage the use of cast-iron chocks and
saddles for boilers, and particular attention should be paid to the
chocking of boilers, more especially when they are fired athwartships.
192. The exhaust pipe for the donkey engine should not be led
through the ship's side, but should be led on deck or into, the main
waste steam pipe,* and in all cases should have a drain-cock on it.
193. In the case of the outlets of water-closet, soil, scupper, lavatory
and urinal pipes which are below the weather deck, there should be an
• Authors' Note.— This plan renders overhaul of main safety-valves difficult
when vessel is in port ; a separate waste pipe should always be fitted.
SKIN FITTINGS AND VALVES. 265
elbow of good substantial metal other than cast-iron or lead ; and the
pipe connected with this elbow should, if of lead, have a sufficient
bend to provide for expansion in the pipe or any movement from the
working of the ship. Pipes, no matter of what material they may be
constructed, should never be fitted in a direct line between the
apertures in the ship's side and their connection with the deck, or
closet, or other fittings. The pipes and valves should be protected
from the cargo by a substantial casing of wood or iron, which need not
be watertight
Lloyd's Rules relating to sea connections are as follows : —
5. Cocks and valves connecting all suction pipes to be fixed above the
stokehold and engine-room platforms.
6. The arrangements of pumps, bilge injections, suction and delivery
pipes, is to be such as will not permit of water being run from the sea
into the vessel bv an act of carelessness or neglect.
Sec, 7. — 8. All discharge pipes to be, if possible, carried above the
deep-load line, and to have discharge valves fitted on the plating of
the vessel in an accessible position.
Sec. 7. — 9. No pipes to be carried through the bunkers without being
properly protected.
Sec. 9. —2. All sea-cocks to be fitted on the plating of the vessel above
the level of the stoke-hole and en^e-room platforms, or attached to
Kingston valves of a height sufficient to lift them up to the level of
these platforms.
36. The bolts securing all cocks or sea connections to the plating
of the vessel are to be tapped into the plating of the vessel or fitted
with countersunk heads.
87. The blow-off cocks on the plating of the vessel are to be fitted
with spigots passing through the plating, and a brass or gun-metal
ring on the outside. The cocks are to be so constructed that the key
or spanner can only be taken off when the cock is shut.
See also paragraph 6 of section 27 of Lloyd's rules.
266
TRIPLE-EXPANSION THREE-CRANK ENGINES.
m
I
>
J)
.2
Nominal Rate of
Expansion.
7178 8-58
6740
4535
7859 ..
5406 9-80
2884 9-50
2430 ; 15-25
1547 ; ..
2754 1 7-80
1667 9-37
1883 14-70
1942 8-62
1696 6-00
554 12-75
645 26-88
283 10-1
581 9-62
622 12-26
•
s
O
c
o
O
1
1
.5
•
•
•4«ia<MlOOC«eOkOr-lt«lOtO't«r-IO>Ot>-t<>
abeoaai-iO'^o-^r-*t«-«fH-«ooo9*aA
9e4ioooi.Haaa»oo>0'^t«iOi-ie4Sr-tiH
•
oosiHi-i'*'*N«T»toeq«eo»t-'^©5oi
tXMOSQ-^OOlOe^lOI^OSCaOSiH'OOOS
Pi
m
'«tO'^eoioeoeQoocob-toeO'<«oOr-)04eQ
(N©i 1-1 e^ iH *
a
c
Mean Pressures.
Referred
to
L.P. Cylr.
►4
.CO \a\o 04 _ to o
asiH&3oa)ioooiHfHh-a»csioi-i(yi^t«to
£f-i'*(Nt^Oi-«ooo'*eoO'^eoeot*«-"eoio
'^ r-l rH rH f-f (M r^ i-H i-l iH 1-1 »H iH i-t fH r-l rH r-l
•
-a000OO^O30r-l04U3k00000t«piHka00
•
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5<>J(Mt^US(N000O00Ni-tt*T|t&5«Ot^t^aS'*
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Cut-off in H.P.
Cylinders.
00 ocooi (N 00 o> 00 r-l Q to (N Qo qo
• •••••■ ••■••••••••
o ooo oooooooooo
Revolutions.
d0O(NOmiHiHiHtA(N^-'e0»lAlCD00«D
i^.06t^r-i<«c«t^coeQa»o)t><£>iHcooo^eQ
Vacuum.
Steam.
a>
a
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Stroke.
s§sss§^5^?§s!§sasgsss
1
ft
1^
Hi
•
1^
|&SSS5l58^^l'SS^§IJS2Sg
p4
Si-ICC CO r-l CD (N-^tO«Da»a»ab00eO01 64 04 04
i;'*eOCOe004WOflC4 04lHiHf-llHiH©4iHt-1iH
Number of Screws.
. :
i
5.
«
4
>
S.S. Ag. V.
S.S. Krsn.
S.S. Lgra.
H.M.S. Ldn. .
H.M.S. Argt. .
S.S. Czgo.
S.S. otlo. .
S.S. R.W.
S.S. Vna. .
8.S. Ped. .
S.S. Cstr. .
H.M.S. Snpr.
H.M.S. Chgr.
S.S. Mlpo.
S.S. lona .
S.S. Arte.
S.S. Zde. .
S.S. Ote. .
TRIPLE-EXPANSION POUR-CRANK ENGINES.
267
0)
4)
a
bo
a
(I)
M
a
cd
ll
O
I
u
d
o
a
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(0
c
cd
cu
(I)
I
0)
I
CO
I
4>
§
^
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Nominal Rate of
Expansion.
00
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o
c
a
o
o
Pi
o
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c8
V
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t« 00
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to -«
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fin
00
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00
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00 00 t«
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Cut-off in H.P
Cylinders.
•
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•
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a
•
•
•
•
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•
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•
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Revolutions.
i-t
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3
IH
04
Si
5
04
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1:
g
Vacuum.
ins.
27 0
to
04
o
CD
04
o
«
3
9
04
9
In.
04
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9
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a
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Stroke.
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00 O) '^
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L.P.
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8
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to
04
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8
1
M.P. L.P.
.^00
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8
8
3
g
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ss
s
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lO
Hn
O
lO
f
^
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3
So
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CO
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MM
00
Number of Screws.
s
U3
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C ^
CO 00
s -o a
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00 od co'
• • . •
^ a s
w ri w
s
s
CO
GO
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00 09
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268
TRIALS OP QUADRUPLE-BXPANSION ENGINES.
Nominal Rate of
•*
o
o
g
00
§5
"*
A
•*
rH
CO
Expansion.
o
CO
i-H
o
I-H
CO
1-i
CO
rH
r-t
rH
CO
rH
to
rH
©
1-*
Ratio of L.P. to H.P.
Cylinders.
o
•
00
2
00
2
cJo
rH
•
•
CO
do
©4
rH
do
•<*
00
e
00
00
•
§
n
a
o
s
S
es
o
a
•
i-T
iH
■«*
CO
CO
eo
eo
CO
CO
g
eo
09
Cti
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©f
00
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a
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•
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•
o
CO
CO
CO
00
i
rH
g
rH
rH
rH
a
S
CO
a
to
i
o
s
to
a
'S)
a
5R
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rH
rH
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to
§
rH
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i
o
to
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c
o
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p7
01
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at
Si
06
00
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is
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to
1
i
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rH
i
ft
i
00
1
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1
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a
%
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2
on
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V
£
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•
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o
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9
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Table LXXVL— Results of Trials of Quadruple
•
o
rH
•
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rH
•
to
•
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•
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rH
9
©J
rH
CO
do
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■
ft
9
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do
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to .
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s
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9
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00
00
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to
•
00
to
CO
t^
S
it
• •
00
Cut-c
Cyl
Rev<
flfinH.P.
inders.
•
o
•
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00
o
•
o
8
•
o
•
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b
2
•
o
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rH
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53 :
©
jlutiona.
00
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1-1
00
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S8
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to
S '
Vacuum.
•IH <M
CO
9
©a
•
©^
o
•
©Q
to
•
9
to
©1
to
•
to
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tO
•
to
©1
to
to
©a
Steam Presaure.
ft rH
o
i
o
1H
©1
o
©J
©J
©^
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04
©1
to
rH
!2
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•
00
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o
Piston Stroke.
mo
Co
s
2
lO
•<*
to
-H
to
u
5
on
B
P
00 O
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s
00
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00
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£5
ee
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to
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1-4
o
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to
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to
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to
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to
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p^
00
wM eo
kO
•
00
^
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^
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M
S
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Number of Screws.
C<l
rH
ea
T-t
rH
r-l
©1
rH
-
r-i
0^ :
•
Pi
i
•
r-l
pq
rH
•
•
•
PQ
rH
CO
d
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p:i
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P
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a
H
5z;
H
ft H
BOARD OF TBADB RULES FOR OOPPBR InD STEEL PIPES. 269
Rules for Copper and Steel Pipes adopted by the Board of
Trade and the Register Societies : —
(1) Steam and other pipes may be made of wrought iron or of
wrought steel made in an open-hearth furnace.
(2) When they are welded the process shall be by hammering or
rolling the joint
(3) On completion of any work which involves heating whether for
welding the joint, welding on flanges, hot bending the pipe, or for any
other purpose, the pipe shall be carefully annealed.
(4) Mild steel for lap-welded steam pipes may have a tensile
strength not exceeding 28 tons per square inch, with a minimum
elongation of 25 per cent, in 8 inches.
(5) Feed pipes if made of steel should be solid cold-drawn finished.
(6) All iron or steel pipes prior to being fitted in place shall be sub-
jected to a hydraulic test of at least three times the working pressure,
and all feed delivery pipes of iron or steel to four times.
(7) The working pressure (W.P.) allowed on pipes shall be deter-
mined by the following rules, where
D is the internal diameter in inches,
t is the thickness in lOOths of an inch.
(a) Solid cold-drawn cold finished pipes :— W.P. =^11^^ x 120.
(6) Solid hot-drawn pipes :— W.P. =^^^^ x 120.
(c) Welded pipes of iron or steel :— W.P. =^^~}^^ x 90.
{d) Feed pipes (delivery) :— Boiler pressure =^ ~ ' x 100.
(8) In all steam pipes provision is to be made for expansion and
contraction to take place without unduly straining them.
Copper Pipes should contain not less than 99*25 per cent, of copper
and from 0*25 to 0*45 of arsenic, and must not be made from the
electro deposition.
Copper, steam, feed, blow-off, and scum pipes must be properly
annealed before putting in place, and all subject to a working pressure
over 75 lbs. per sq. in. shall be solid-drawn.
Copper steam pipes on completion shall be subjected to hydraulic
test to at least twice the W.P.
For all Feed Pipes it shall be 2 5 x W.P.
Strips cut from copper tubes should have an ultimate tensile strength
of at least 14 tons per square inch with an elongation of 40 per cent,
in 2 inches after annealing and quenching in water.
The working pressure =^ ~ ^ x F.
t is the thickness in lOOths of an inch. D is the bore in inches.
F for solid-drawn pipes is 60, and for brazed 45.
Copper pipes, when bent, must be thicker than given above ; the radius
of curvatureatcentreline must not be less than twice the outside diameter
270 TABLE LXXVII. — ^IRB GAUGBS AND THBIR EQUIVALENTS.
Table LXXVII.— Wire Gauges and their Equivalents.
L.8. e.
B. W. O.
W. W. G.
Legti Standard Wlr* Gaage.
Birmingham Wir* Gauge.
Whltworth Wlr« Gaugt.
No. of
Eqaivalent
in ini.
No Of
Equivalent
No. Of
Equivalent
Gauge.
Gaoge.
in int.
•500
Gauge.
in ins.
7/0
•500
5/0
300
•300
6/0
•464
4/0
•460
280
•280
5/0
•432
8/0
•420
260
•260
4/0
•400
2/0
•880
250
•250
8/0
•372
1/0
•840
240
•240
2/0
•348
1
•800
220
•220
0
•824
2
•280
200
•200
1
•800
8
•260
180
•180
2
•276
4
•240
165
•165
8
•252
5
•220
150
•150
4
•232
6
•200
185
•185
5
•212
7
•180
125
•125
6
•192
8
•164
120
•120
7
•176
9
•148
110
•110
8
•160
10
•182
100
•100
9
•144
11
•120
95
•095
10
•128
12
•108
90
•090
11
•116
13
•096
85
•085
12
•104
14
•084
80
•080
18
•092
15
•072
75
•075
14
•080
16
•064
70
•070
15
•072
17
•066
65
•065
16
•064
18
•048
60
•060
17
•056
19
040
55
•055
18
•048
20
•036
50
•060
19
•040
21
•032
45
•045
20
•036
22
•028
40
•040
21
•032
28
•024
38
•088
22
•028
24
•022
36
•086
23
•024
25
•020
34
•034
24
•022
26
•018
32
•032
25
•020
27
•016
30
•030
26
018
28
•014
28
•028
27
•0164
29
•018
26
•026
28
•0148
30
•012
24
•024
29
•0186
81
•Oil
22
•022
80
•0124
32
•010
20
•020
81
•0116
38
•009
19
•019
82
•0108
34
•008
18
•018
83
•0100
35
•007
17
•017
84
•0092
86
•006
16
•016
35
•0084
87
•005
15
015
86
•0076
38
•004
14
•014
37
-0068
89
•008
13
•018
88
•0060
40
•002
12
•012
•
FIFBS AND PIPE ARBANGBMBNTS.
271
The following Table shows the Legal Standard Wire Gauge and its
equivalents in millimetres : —
«
Table LXXVIII.— Legfal Standard Wire Gauge and
Metric Equivalents.
Equivalents.
Equiyalents.
Nnmber
of Gauge.
Number
of Gauge.
Inch.
MiUfmetie.
Inch.
Millimetre.
7/0
•600
12^700
23
•024
•610
6/0
•464
11^785
24
•022
•669
6/0
•432
10-973
25
•020
•608
4/0
•400
10-160
26
•018
•467
8/0
•872
9^449
27
•0164
•4166
2/0
•348
8-839
28
•0148
•8769
0
•824
8^229
29
•0136
•3464
1
•800
7^620
80
•0124
•3160
2
•276
7 010
81
•0116
•2946
8
•252
6^401
82
•0108
•2743
4
•232
6-893
33
•0100
•2540
6
•212
6 •385
34
•0092
•2337
6
•192
4^877
36
•0084
•2134
7
•176
4-470
36
•0076
•1930
8
•160
4-064
87
•0068
•1727
9
•144
8-668
88
•0060
•1624
10
•128
8^251
39
-0052
•1321
11
•116
2-946
40
•0048
-1219
12
•104
2*642
41
•0044
•1118
18
•092
2^337
42
•0040
•1016
14
•080
2-032
48
•0036
•0914
16
•072
1-829
44
•0082
•0813
16
•064
1^626
46
•0028
0711
17
•056
1-422
46
•0024
•0610
18
•048
1-219
47
•0020
•0608
19
•040
1-016
48
•0016
-0406
20
•036
•914
49
•0012
•0306
21
•032
•818
60
•0010
•0264
22
•028
•711
•••
• ••
...
272
TABLE LXXIX. — THICKNESS OP COPPER PIPES.
Table LXXIX.— Thicknesses of Copper Pipes (L.S.G.).
(May be taken as giving th'oroughly reliable strengths for all ordina.7
marine work.)
eter of pipe
I inches.
Steam pipes.
1
It
1
1
1
1
suction and
feed suction
Ire service.
BoUer
pressures in lbs.
1
Ill
M
900
180
166
126
• a •
86
0
60
7
• • •
• • •
4
pqg*
22
21
« • •
1
7
• • »
• • •
4
20
• • •
1
7
• • •
» • •
6
19
• • •
2
8
• ■
• • •
6
18
4/0
2
8
13
6
17
6/0
3/0
3
8
• • %
13
6
16
7/0
6/0
2/0
3
8
• • •
14
6
15
6/0
4/0
0
4
8
•■• •
14
7
14
i'/'o
6/0
8/0
0
4
9
11
14
7
18
6/0
4/0
2/0
1
6
9
11
14
7
12
6/0
8/0
0
2
6
9
11
14
8
11
4/0
2/0
1
3
6
9
11
16
8
10
3/0
0
1
3
6
10
11
16
9
9
2/0
1
2
4
7
10
11
16
9
8
1
2
8
5
8
10
12
16
9
7
2
8
4
6
8
11
12
16
10
9
6
a
4
6
7
9
11
12
16
10
10
5
6
6
6
8
9
11
12
16
11
10
4
6
-7
7
9
10
12
12
16
11
11
3
8
9
9
10
11
12
12
15
12
11
2
10
11
11
11
12
12
12
16
12
12
1
18
18
13
13
13
13
13
16
13
18
o 5
ji Pi
•SB
1^
35
8
33
8
32
4
29
4
28
6
26
5
24
6
21
6
20
7
17
7
16
8
16
8
14
9
18
9
12
10
11
10
10
11
9
11
8
12
7
12
6
13
6
18
Blow-off and scum pipes.
Diameter of pipe
in inches, . .
1
10
1%
10
1%
1%
2 2%
2«
2%
7
8
7
Thickness, L.S.G.
10
9
9 8
8
Feed discharge pipes to be as steam pipes for 30 per cent, higher
pressnre ; bnt in no case to be taken lower than 126 lbs.
Receiver pipes to be as steam pipes for half the test pressure of the
cylinder to which they lead steam ; but in no case to De taken lower
than 60 lbs.
The above gauges refer to straight pipes only ; bends to be suitably
Qgthened.
PIPES AND PIPB ARRANGBMBNT3.
273
Table LXXX.-— Solid-drawn Copper Pipes: Working Pres-
sures allowed in them by the Rule of B.M.E.D. & C.
Committee.
Diameter
of Bore.
Thickneas in Legal Standard Wire Gauge.
18,
. 17.
le.
15.
14.
13.
12.
11.
10.
9.
8.
7.
6.
5.
ins.
10
101
3 156
204
252
800
• • •
• ••
• • •
• ••
• • •
1-25
8(
3 124
163
201
240
297
• • •
• • •
• • •
1-5
71
2 104
136
168
200
248
296
• ••
• • •
1-76
61
2 89
116
144
172
212
253
295
• ■ ■
•
2-0
78
102
126
150
186
222
258
294
2-25
69
91
112
183
165
198
228
260
304
2 5
62
81
101
120
152
177
206
285
273
812
2-75
74
91
109
135
161
187
213
248
283
319
3 0
68
84
100
124
148
172
196
228
260
292
324
3-26
62
77
92
114
136
158
180
209
239
269
299
3-5
72
85
106
127
147
168
196
228
250
277
312
8-75
67
80
99
119
138
166
180
208
283
259
291
4-0
63
75
93
111
129
147
171
195
219
243
278
4-25
70
85
104
121
138
164
184
206
228
257
4-5
67
80
98
114
130
152
173
194
216
242
5 0
60
75
89
103
117
137
166
175
194
218
6-5
68
81
94
107
124
142
159
176
198
6-0
62
74
86
96
116
130
146
162
182
6 5
• • •
• • •
68
80
89
107
120
134
149
168
7-0
• • •
63
74
82
100
112
125
139
156
7-5
• ••
• • •
69
77
93
104
117
129
145
8 0
• • •
• • •
64 72
87
98
109
121
136
N.B. — For the working pressure of brazed pipes multiply by 0*76
or divide by 1-33.
F the diameter of flange for a pipe whose bore is D and has bolts d
in diameter.
¥=D + 6d.
Diameter of bolt circle D + 4d.
Thickness of flange in 32nds of an inch = 0 -56 VF x W. Press. + 6.
18
'^^
S74 TABLB iiXxxi. — Thickness of wbldbd iron pipes.
The thicknesses of wrought-iron lap-welded pipes rec[uisite to comply
with the B.M.E.D. k C. Committee rule are shown m the following
Table :—
Table LXXXL— Welded Iron and Steel Pipes (v. page 281) :
Working Pressure allowed in them by the Rule of the
Board of Trade, Lloyd's, etc.
Diameter
of Bore.
Thickueas iu lOOths of an lach.
20.
22.
24.
26.
28.
30. i 32.
i
34.
86.
83.
40.
42.
44.
1
46.
ins.
6-0
144
180
216
262
288
324
• • •
• • «
• • •
• • •
6-5
ISO
178
206
239
271
304
337
• • «
• • •
• • •
6-0
120
160
180
210
240
270
300
330
• • •
• • •
6-5
110
138
166
193
220
248
276
303
331
• • •
7-0
108
128
164
180
206
231
267
283
308
334
7-5
96
120
144
168
192
216
240
264
288
312
336
8-0
90
112
136
167
180
202
226
247
270
292
816
337
8-5
84
106
127
148
169
190
211
233
264
276
296
317
339
9-0
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
300
320
340
9-5
76
94
113
132
161
170
189
208
227
246
265
284
300
319
10
• • •
90
108
126
144
162
180
198
216
234
252
270
288
306
11
• • •
82
98
114
130
147
163
180
196
212
229
245
262
278
12
• • •
76
90
106
120
136
160
166
180
195
210
225 240
265
13
• • •
83
96
110
124
138
162
166
180
194
208 220
235
14
• • •
77
90
102
116
128
141
154
167
180
193
205
218
16
• •
72
84
96
108
120
132
144
156
168
180
192
204
16
• • •
78
90
101
112
123
134
146
167
169
180
190
17
• « •
74
86
96
106
116
127
138
148
169
169
180
18
• ••
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
19
• • •
76
86
94
104
113
123
133
142
160
160
20
• • •
81
90
99
108
117
126
136
143
153
21
• ••
77
86
94
103
111
120
129
136
145
22
• • •
• • •
82
90
98
106
116
123
131
139
23
• • •
• • •
78
86
94
101
110
118
126
183
24
• •«
• ••
76
83
91
97
105
113
120
128
F the diameter of flanges for these pipes whose bore is D and the
diameter of the jointing bolts is cL
F=l) + 6d.
Diameter of bolt circle = D + 4d.
Thickness of flange in 32nds of an inch = 0 "55 ^F x W. Press. 1- 8.
PIPES AND PIPB ARBANOBMBin^
276
Table LXXXI I.— Flanges for Copper Pipes.
Diameter of pipe Id
inches.
Diameter of flango.
Thickness of
flange.
Diameter of bolts.
•
i
Number of bolts.
Pitch of bolts,
(nearest sixteenth.)
14
ll
It!
PI
1^
II
1
u
•go.
1
1
1
a
1
^
>
^
ius.
ins.
in.
in.
in.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ina.
I
4
H
%
K
1^
4
4
3
I'K.
i''/4.
294
iS
4)4
It
It
II
1^
4
4
3
2)4
2H
2%
4^
M.
'X.
II
1%
4
'4
2M.
2M.
294.
1%
4%
It
It
II
^'^
6
4
2M.
2)4
2)4
2
6
II
It
II
5
5
2'/..
2»X.
254
2%
6J4
%
K
%
2)4
5
5
2X
294
S'A,
6J6
II
II
It
2X
6
5
2?4
2"/..
394
2%
6%
It
It
It
2%
6
5
• 4
2)4
2"X,
8)4
3
6%
"A*
•X.
It
2?4
6
5
5
294
8V(.
3M.
8%
6%
II
It
II
2%
7
6
5
2?4
294
8)4
3%
7H
It
It
II
i%
7
6
5
2)4
2J4
394
3%
7X
II
II
II
8
7
6
5
254
8
8)4
4
1%
%
%
II
8)4
8
6
6
294
8)4
3)4
4%
8%
It
II
II
8?4
8
7
6
2*/4.
2' 94.
894
5
8$i
II
II
II
854
9
7
7
2)4
8)4
3)4
6%
9K
It
It
II
8J4
9
8
7
294
2'M.
394
6
lOH
"A*
''A,
%
*%
9
7
6
3
8"/.
494
6%
loa
II
II
II
454
9
7
6
8«X.
4
454
7
IIM
II
It
II
4J4
10
7
6
3
i*A*
4J4
7HI11?^
It
II
II
5)4
10
8
7
S'A,
8'M,4'X,
8 il2X
%
%
• II
6H
11
8
7
sy..
*% 454
8%il2^
It
II
It
554
11
9
7
S'Xe
8J4
4J4
9
18 X
It
II
II
BJ4
12
9
8
SM.
4
4)4
9%
1378
II
It
II
6)4
12
9
8
sy..
4M.
4"X.
10
14 «
It
II
•1
e?4
13
10
9
8'X.
8' 'A,
494
11
1654
'•/i.
18/
/l6
%
7'/..
13
10
9 3V„ ,4^ ,6 i
12
17)4
It
II
It
7"/,.
14
11
10 3M,
494
4%
13
18)4
It
II
II
8M.
16
12
10 3»/i.
4yi.
6)4
14
19)4
It
M
II
8"X,
16
13
11 3y„
4M.
5
15
20)4
M
II
II
9'X.
17
14
12 ,3%
4)4
4J4
16
21)4
1
%
II
!»'M.
18
14
12 3M.
494
6)4
17
22)4
II
II
It
lOM.
19
14
12 3M,
494
694
18
28^
It
II
] It
10'%.
20
15
13 3%
4)4
6M.
NOTS.— for preanires between 10 and 800 lbs., pitch of bolts is giren by— Pitch r
l^/JL-4.-5, when t-thlckness of flange, d-dfa. of bolt, and P»pres8ur«
T
276
PIPES AND PIPB ARRANOBMBNTS.
FlO. 47.
The flanges, of which particulars are given
in the above Table, are designed either for
coupling copper pipe to copper pipe, or
copper pipe to a bronze casting of corre-
sponding strength, as indicated in Fig. 47 ;
for connections with cast-iron pipes or valves
the flange must be larger, unless studs are
used.
Table LXXXIII. (page 277) gives suit-
able thicknesses for bronze pipes, elbows,
T pieces, &c., and will be of assistance
in designing bronze stop-valves, expansion
stuffing boxes, &c.
The basis and method of construction
of the Table are fully explained in the
following memoranda: —
Memoranda. — H.P. includes feed and bilge delivery, blow-off,
scum, steam, Are service, and all sea valves.
L.P. includes all suctions, water pipes not under pressure, exhaust,
and waste steam.
The necks of all boiler fittings should be ^/e inch thicker than
H.P. list.
For plain pipes or cylinders the list is calculated for working
pressures of 180 lbs. and 90 lbs. per square inch, for the H.P. and
L.P. columns respectively; the stress per squai*e inch of material is
taken at 2240 lbs. , and a constant addition of '05 inch is made to cover
errors in casting ; the formulse are therefore i— *08 rads. -f '05 inch for
H.P., and <= -04 rads. -t- "05 inch for L.P.
For H.P. T pieces the square of the thickness (before addition
of '05 inch) has been increased by 33 per cent., — as a T pipe with
all three branches of equal diameter is considered to be that amount
weaker than the corresponding plain cylinder without branch in side.
No increase is made in the thickness of L.P. T pieces (over plain
pipes), as the pressure assumed, viz. 90 lbs. , is alreaoy high.
The B.M.E.D. h C. Committee deprecate the use of brazed copper
pipes and recommend solid drawn of copper 99*25 and arsenic 0*25 to
0*45 per cent. ; the hydraulic test pressure should stress the material
to 7500 lbs. ; no pipe for a working pressure over 180 lbs. should be of
copper if above 6 -inch bore. Hydraulic testa for steam pipes to be
twice and for feed pipes 2 '5 times the working pressure. If, when
bent, the angle between the parts is less than 150", the thickness must
be 16 per cent, greater than by rule. The radius of curvature at centre
line to be not less than two diametera.
When cast-metal pipes are used for branches, bends, &c., the follow-
ing rule to be observea : —
Thickness in 32nd8 inch=!!:2£M£OI^£!Ell2 +«, I) is the bore in
ohes.
PIPBS AND PIPE ARRANOBMENTS.
Table LXXXI 1 1. -Thickness of Bronze and Caat-Steel
(
over 5i) Pipes, T Pieces,
&c.
"i
PUlnplp-.
T»~. 1
Cilcal&ted
Thlckaw to ba.
thlc
am.
rtdekDsu to In.
ILP.
LP.
n.p.
LP.
H.P.
L.P.
H.P,
LP.
bd»t.
TEeST
liiST
"liihT
EST
Tna~
T5ar
■09
■or
10
■07
•10
11
■11
■08
12
'OS
-12
18
•13
■oe
14
■09
aH
■1*
i
16
2H
■15
•10
17
■io
2%
3
■19
■17
■11
K
1
IS
19
■i'i
g
s^
■IB
H
20
^
3H
■IB
■12
I
21
•12
t%
■20
22
i
■21
■is
54
28
•IB
i\k
■23
■14
\A,
26
•14
f,
■25
■15
28
•16
•1
si4
■27
■16
30
■19
B
■29
■17
38
•17
<K
■31
■18
86
■18
7
■83
■Ifl
Y"
37
■19
7K
■86
■20
40
•20
'/.
8
■87
■21
42
•21
|A.
8i4
■39
■22
44
■22
9
■41
■23
19
•23
9H
•43
■24
49
■24
10
■*6
■25
51
■25
lOM
■47
■26
53
■26
ii
11
■49
■27
59
■27
"!4
■51
■28
68
■28
12
•63
■29
60
■29
12H
■65
■30
93
■30
13
■67
■81
k
65
■81
1SJ4
-GO
■32
87
•32
11
■61
■33
70
■33
i*H
■63
■34
72
■84
15
■66
■35
74
■36
1614
■67
■39
78
■36
i
IS
■69
•37
%
79
■87
WH
■71
■88
«
Bl
■88
17
■78
■89
^
'A.
88
■39
»'"
17)4
■75
■10
%
%.
36
■10
%
IB
■77
■41
'«.
LU
■88
■41
JJ
»H
•7»
■<2
'%t
•M
■18
-li
278 PIPES AND PIPE ARRANGEMENTS.
For cast iron (tensile strength 9 tons), A: =200, a; =6.
,, cast steel (tensile 28/35 tons), ifc=400, x=S.
,, good bronze (tensile 15 tuns), ^=225, z=si.
The minimum thickness for cast metals in 32nds=2'6AyD + «.
For cast iron z is 4, for steel 6, and for bronze 2.
Solid-drawn steel pipes can now be obtained up to 24 inches bore,
and welded steel or iron pipes of any diameter in lOOths of an inch.
The minimum thickness as prescribed by the B.M.E.D. k C. Com-
mittee for all wrought-iron or steel pipes is 5\/5^+ 2. By this rule the
limit for a 4-inch pipe is 0*12 inch, and for a 24-inch one 0*45 inch.
Such pipes can be made considerably thinner, but with additional cost
and difficulty in attaching the flanges, unless the ends are thickened by
upsetting, as with stay tubes in boilers.
Welded steel or iron tubes are now also used for steam pipes, and
provided they are made of a materia] which can be depended on to
readily and certainly weld, there is no need for cover straps over the
weld. For such a purpose steel with a tensile not exceeding 24 tons,
with an extension not less than 80 per cent., and with a low sulphur
oontent, should be used.
The flang^es may be screwed on to the pipe or shrunk on and
riveted ; they may also be expanded into the nanses, having recesses
turned on their inside to receive the impressed metal. Flanges are now
often electrically welded to the pipes, and the welding is now so well
done as to command confidence when proper materials are used.
The Board of Trade rules were as follows : —
170. The working pressure of well-made copper pipes is found as
follows : —
Where t is the thickness in lOOths of an inch.
D is the inside diameter in inches.
F for solid-drawn pipes is 60, for brazed 45.
All copper pipes used for steam, feed, blow-off or scum purposes
subject to a pressure over 75 lbs. per square inch shall be solia-drawn,
and when the working pressure exceeds 180 lbs. the bore shall not be
more than 5 inches.
171. The internal pressure on lap-welded iron or approved steel
pipes may be found as follows : —
{a) W.P. =^1:^x90.
For pipes which are solid-drawn hot finished
(6) - w.P.=(i:^xi20.
For pipes which hav6 been solid-drawn cold finished
{c) W.P.Jl:^)xl20.
PIPES AND PIPE ARRANGEMENTS. 279
All steel pipes should be efficiently annealed after being heated
locally for welding or bending them to shape.
The flanges of wrought-iron and of steel pipes should be made of
solid wrought material of ductile quality.
Pipes for superheated steam should be made of wrought-iron or steel,
and not of copper.
172. Efficient means should be provided for draining all steam pipes.
Boiler stop- valves cannot be regarded as suitable for this purpose. All
drain cocks or valves should be accessible, and so placed as to render it
practicable to drain the water from any portion of the steam pipes or
chests in connection therewith. Drain pipes should be fitted to drain
cocks or valves when the latter are in such a position that the water or
steam discharged from them would be likely to cause personal injury.
It is desirable that the drains should be automatic in their action.
173. The parts of a socket expansion joint subject to rubbing action
should be made of brass or of other metal which will not rust.
In all cases in which such a joint is fitted to a bent steam pipe, the
Surveyor should require a fixed gland and bolts, or other efficient
means, to be provided to prevent the end of the pipe being forced out
of the socket. This regulation should be complied with in all cases of
bent pipes fitted with socket expansion joints, and it is also desirable
that fixed glands and bolts should be fitted to the expansion joints of
straight steam pipes, as cases have occurred, particularly with small
straight pipes, in which the ends have been forced out of the sockets.
A socket expansion joint on a bent pipe is not a desirable arrange-
ment, and, when adopted, the pipe should be anchored or provided
with a strut at the bend, to relieve it of any undue bending stresses
which might otherwise be produced by the internal pressure on a
surface of the pipe equal to the area due to its bore.
174. Surveyors should pay particular attention to the examination
and testing of steam pipes, and a record of the tests should be kept in
the office boiler-book.
Tables LXXX. and LXXXI. are calculated in accordance with the
rules given in paragraphs 170 and 171 of the above rules,
Pipe arrangements. — The greatest care should be taken in schem-
ing arrangements of steam and exhaust pipes to keep them as far as
possible in the same horizontal plane ; a ' * pocket " in which water can
collect must never be permitted under any circumstances. Neither
should a steam pipe which has been led horizontally for some distance
be suddenly bent up into the vertical ; all sharp bends are sources
of danger and to be avoided, but sharp rising bends are specially so.
The provision of proper arrangements for draining all steam pipes,
regulator valve boxes, shut-oflf Valve boxes, &c., is also a matter
requiring the closest attention — as water that has once left the boilers
and entered the steam pipes will never, with any ordinary arrangement
of pipes, drain back to the boiler in the face of the issuing steam.
Where the pipes are long it is very necessary to provide collectors of
280 PIPES AND PIPE ARRANGEMENTS.
some sort — as traps do not act with the necessary rapidity ; the inlet
pipes to the collectors should be large, and so placed as to arrest and
lead away the rapidly moving water.
The question of the arrangements necessary to allow for the expan-
sion of such pipes as vary much in temperature is a difficult one, and
can only be very generally treated here.
Steam pipes for high pressures are so thick and rigid that ordinary
bends are of little or no use for giving elasticity, and stuffing boxes
should be provided wherever expansion and contraction will take place
in ordinary work.
If expansion stuffing boxes and glands are not entirely of bronze,
as is usual in Naval work, the glands should be of that metal, and the
bodies so bushed or lined with it as to prevent the possibility of rust-
ing up and consequent jamming.
These stuffing boxes should be cast with the necessary flanges or
brackets to secure them to the bulkheads or other fixed bases, and the
end of each length of piping (the end furthest away from the stuffing
box) should be anchored in a similar way.
In the best class of work the end of the pipe that enters the stuffing
box is always made of a separate piece in cast bronze, and this method
has the advantage that the pair of flanges at the junction between the
bronze pipe and the copper or iron one form a convenient ''guard-
flange," or flange to take the ''guard" bolts, which prevent the pipe
from being blown out of the stuffing box. These guard bolts should
never be omitted except the pipe be very short and rigid, and the end
attachments also very rigid — as fatal accidents have occurred in tihe
past owing to their absence.
With the high pressures and temperatures now obtaining the faucet
joint does not provide for the expansion of steam pipes inasmuch as if
the packing is steamtight the friction is sufficient to grip the pipe.
A more satisfactory arrangement is to have a carefully turned spigot
whose end is bored so as to be thin enough to expand somewhat under
pressure in the smoothly bored socket without any stuffing box and
gland. This permits of the free expansion of the pipes without any
leakage of steam or water. Both spigot and socket should be of incor-
rodable metaU preferably of diff'erent compositions to avoid seizing.
It is also very important that tho^e in charge of the fitting-up of
the pipes on board ship should have full and clear information (a
special small scale tracing or diagram is best) as to the amount of
expansion anticipated, and to be provided for, at each stuffing box.
Steel Steam Pipes.
For steam pressures over 180 lbs. per square inch steel pipes are now
generally used. Up to 6 inches diameter they should be solid drawn,
and above that they may be welded ; they are better, however, solid
drawn, as generally supplied for Naval work, and though somewhat
more costly they are much lighter.
PIPES AND PIPE ARRANGEMENTS. 281
Solid-drawn steel tubes, without seam or weld, are now made in
all sizes up to 24 inches diameter, and can be obtained (Chesterfield
Tube Co.) of a minimum thickness equal to 001 5 of thediameter ; they
are usually made of special steel having an ultimate tensile strength of
about 27 tons, with an elongation of 35 per cent, in 2 inches ; but they
can be made of a stronger matenal if required. Such tubes are finished
by cold drawing, and when so very thin are, of course, very expensive ;
but when, in accordance with the following rules, which hold good for
steam and all other pipes exposed to pressure, the cost is moderate,
especially considering their safety and lightness.
The diameter is D, the length L, bo3i in inches ; the pressure is P
in pounds per square inch : —
Rule 235. Thickness of steam cold solid-drawn pipes in ins.
= ^Jll +0-08,
12,000
D X P
or in 64ths of an in. = + 5.
185
Thickness of hot drawn in 64ths of an in.
Pipes of all sizes can be made from sheets by lap-welding the joints,
and both with iron and mild steel a good and reliable tube is produced.
There is, however, the uncertainty of the weld being continuous and
complete, consequently the authorities cannot treat it on the same lines
as a weldless one. Main steam, reduced steam, exhaust and other
pipes are now made usually in the Mercantile Marine of welded steel
without any cover strap. The working pressure can be ascertained by the
Board of Trade Rule, p. 278, and by referring to Table LXXXI., p. 274.
Rule 236.
DxP
Thickness of welded, &c. , steam pipes in 64ths of an in. = + 7.
Exhaust pipes subject to external pressure of 15 lbs., continuously
or temporarily, may be solid-drawn, welded, or riveted of a thickness
given by the following : —
Rule 237. The thickness of exhaust pipes within which the pressure
may be less than the external, solid-drawn or welded.
Thickness in 64ths of an inch =a/ ^^-1-4,
L is the length of pipe between the flanges in inches.
Tables LXXXIV., LXXXV., and LXXXVI. give the thicknesses of
the various pipes in 64ths of an inch, as they can be made, worked, and
used in practice. The Admiralty have all such pipes galvanised by the
cold process ; as a preventive of corrosion, both inside and out, it
is well worth the cost. No doubt the zinc will, in course of time, wear
away from the inside, but it will always protect the outer surface.
282
PIPES AND PIPE ARRANGEMENTS.
Table LXXXIV.— Thickness of Cold Solid-drawn Steel Steam
and Feed Pipes in 64ths of an inch.
Diameter
of Bore.
Working pressures in lbs. per square inch.
50
60
70
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
220
240
260
280
ins.
2-0
d
8
9
9
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
2-5
8
9
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
11
11
12
12
3-0
8
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
10
11
11
12
12
12
3-5
9
9
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
12
12
12
13
4-0
9
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
12
12
12
13
14
4-6
9
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
12
12
13
13
13
14
6-0
10
10
10
10
11
11
11
12
12
13
13
13
14
16
6-0
10
10
10
10
11
11
12
12
13
13
14
14
15
16
7-0
10
10
10
11
11
12
12
13
13
14
15
15
16
17
8-0
11
11
11
11
12
12
13
13
14
15
16
16
17
18
9-0
11
11
11
11
12
13
13
14
15
16
17
17
18
19
10
12
12
12
12
13
13
14
15
16
17
17
18
19
20
11
13
13
13
13
14
14
15
16
16
17
18
19
20
21
12
16
15
15
15
15
15
16
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
13
16
16
16
16
16
16
17
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
14
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
19
19
21
22
23
24
15
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
21
22
24
24
16
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
21
21
22
23
24
25
N.B. — The pressure in feed pipes will be greater than the boiler
pressure, and if from pumps worked by the main engines, should be
taken at 1*3 to 1*6 times the working pressure. If from inde-
pendently worked direct pumps, 1'2 to 1*4 times is ample.
PIPES AND PIPE ARRANGEMENTS.
283
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284
PIPES AND PIPB ARRANGEMENTS.
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Diameter
of Bore.
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PIFBS AND' PIPE ARBANOBMBNTS. 285
The thicknesses are for straight pipes only ; bends to be suitably
strengthened.
Welded pipes should be subjected to a water-pressure test of about
three times the working pressure, and should be smartly struck with a
bteel hand hammer all along the weld while the pressure is on. The
Admiralty at present require all welded pipes to be fitted with an
external single-riveted butt-strap over the weld, but some of our most
experienced tube makers are more than doubtful of the value of this
addition.
Solid-drawn pipes up to about 5 inches diameter may be readily bent
to moderate curves by filling with lead and bending cold in a press, as
is usual with copper pipes. Lap- welded iron pipes of 3, 4, and 5 inches
diameter, galvanised externally, are largely used in H.M. Navy for
bilge suctions and connections, and are bent by filling with sand and
heating to a low red heat. The suitable thickness in 64ths of an inch
is 4 + 2 for each inch of bore.
The flanges for steel pipes should be stamped from steel plates, and
may be made with a small bead on the back for such sizes as are screwed
on to the pipes, and of angle bar section for those that are to be riveted
on. For the smaller sizes, say up to 5-inch pipes, a good plan is to cut
a half thread on the inside of the flange and then expand the pipe
against the surface so grooved.
Tests of Steam Pipes (Solid-drawn Steel).
The present Admiralty requirements as regards steel steam pipes are
as follows : —
To be made from acid open-hearth steel, which must stand the
following tests : —
Annexed strips cut lengthwise from each pipe must have a tensile
strength of between 24 and 27 tons, and must show an elongation of
33 per cent, in 2 inches before fracture.
Strips cut either way, IJ inches wide, heated to a low cheriy red and
quenched in water at 82* F. , must stand bending double in a press, over
a radius equal to 1 J times thickness of strip tested, without fracture.
Pieces 2 inches long cut from ends of pipes must stand hammering
down endwise, when cold, until length is reduced to 1 inch, ana
flattening until sides are within twice the thickness of the material of
each other, without signs of fracture. Pipes intended to carry 300 lbs.
steam must also, after pickling, and after fitting and facing of flanges,
but before galvanising externally, stand satisfactorily a water-pressure
test of 600 lbs. per square inch.
Steam Pipes (Welded Steel).
To be made from acid open-hearth steel.
All welding to be by gas on a mandril.
Each welded joint to be covered by an external single-riveted butt-
strap at least ^^ inch thicker than pipe.
286 STOP-VALVBS
Edges of strap to be bevelled to an angle of 75°.
Tensile and bending tests as for solid-ai-awn pipes (above).
The plates are, in addition, to stand suck other forge tests, hot and
cold, as the overseer may consider necessary, and pieces are to be
welded and broken in the testing machine ; also some pieces cut from
the pipes are to be broken to ascertain the efficiency of the welding.
Pipes of this constiiiction must also stand the water-pressure test
specified above for solid-drawn pipes.
Flangfts of Steel Steam Pipes.
To be forged from the solid, not welded.
To be made from acid open-hearth steel.
Material to have a tensile strength of between 27 and 80 tons per
square inch, and to show 27 per cent, elongation iu 2 inches ben>re
fracture.
Bending tests as for material of pipes (above).
STOP-VALVES.
These should always be made with the spindle a separate piece,
distinct from the valve, and so attached as to allow a little '* play,** —
thus enabling the valve to accommodate itself to the seat when the
latter is slightly '*out of truth."
Steam stop-valves, above about 3} inches diameter, should have
external and accessible spindle nuts, carried in crossheads or bridges ;
for water valves this is not so necessary, but it is usually best to make
only one type of valve for both purposes, — only vaiying the strengths
of the parts.
Screw glands should not be used for valves over 1 inch in diameter,
and, when used, should alwavs be fitted with some means of locking.
Ordinary gland studs should be fitted with *' check ** or '^ lock ** nuts
and split pins.
Hand-wheels for stop-valves should never be turned and polished ;
they are better left rough and served with twine.
For large valves (over 10 inches in diameter, say) a forged cross-
handle (four arms), with the ends turned over at right angles, either
towards or away from the valve, is better than a wheel ; many
engineers prefer this type of handle to the hand-wheel for all valves
above about 4 inches diameter, and there is much to be said in its
favour.
For boiler-room valves a similar forged handle, but with only two
arms, one bent outwards and the other straight, is the best.
For very large stop- valve chests the best material is, undoubtedly,
cast-steel. Trouble is occasionally caused by unsound castings, but
this cannot be regarded as unavoidable.
In Naval practice, all stop-valves for water, oil, air, &c., are entirely
of bronze, and steam valves of small and modei-ate sizes are constructed
THB BALANCING OF BNOINBS. 287
in the same way, whilst the larger sizes have commonly cast-steel chests
with bronze seats, &c.
The number of joints may often be considerably reduced by casting
the expansion stuffing boxes along with the stop-valve chests.
The handling of large shut-off valves may be much facilitated by the
addition of a small by -pass valve.
The whole of the valves in any vessel should open or close by turn-
ing the hand-wheel in the same direction. The Admiralty rule is to
olose with a right-hand motion. To remove all doubt, it is a good plan
to cast on the upper surface of all hand- wheels the words ''open" and
shut," thus :— OPEN^€-X-»SHUT.
((
THE BALANCING OF ENGINES.
In an unbalanced engine there are two perfectl v distinct sets of forces
which give trouble ; first, those set up by unbalanced rotating parts ;
and second, those caused by unbalanced reciprocating parts. The effect
of an unbalanced rotating part, such us a crank, is to produce a force
acting radially from the shaft axis through the centre of gravity of
the part, which causes the shaft to spring and its axis to revolve in
a small orbit round the centre of rotation, the shaft thus moving
eccentrically and tending to grind out the bearing round its whole
circumference. This may result in undue wear and tear and heating of
bearings ; if the bearing surface is ample, the force will tend to spring
the engine seatings and cause the whole engine to move with the
eccentrically-moving shaft ; if the seatings are rigid, the whole hull of
the ship may respond to the movement of the engines and thus be
caused to vibrate.
The forces set up by vertically reciprocating parts are mostly vertical,
and, if their resultant acts through the centre of gravity of the engine,
the tendency is to tilt the whole engine and ship up and down, but if
acting away from that vertical line of the engines they tend to rock the
engines. The result in either case, if the vibrations are severe or the
hml is lightly built, is to cause deterioration of the ship's structure,
with more or less leakage, and also discomfort to passengers and crew,
and in the case of warships to produce faulty gunnery. Even small
unbalanced forces may produce ereat vibration if their periods syn-
chronise with the vibration perioais of the hull or any part of it.
Part of the connecting-rod should be considered as reciprocating with
the piston, &c., and the other part as revolving with the crank-pin,
&c., and the relative magnitudes of these parts mav be determined as
follows : — Find the centre of gravity of the rod, and if it be found to
lie at, say, 70 per cent, of the rod's length from the top end, the recip-
rocating weight may be taken as 100 -70, or 80 per cent, of the total
weight of rod ; and the remaining 70 per cent, must then be treated as
revolving with the crank-pin, &c.
Strictly speaking, the force set up by a rotating weight can only be
tiTily balanced, or neutralised, by tne similar and equal force set up by
288 THE BALANCING OF BNGINKS.
another weight placed at the opposite side of the axis and rotating in
the same transverse plane ; and the force set up by a reciprocating
weight can only be neutralised by the similar and equal force set up by
another weight reciprocating on the same line, but in the opposite
direction.
A single crank-arm balance weight cannot be arranged to rotate with
its centre of gravity in the transverse plane through the mid-length of
the crank-pin ; it is therefore halved and placed one on each arm,
symmetrically. Strictly, such balance weights should not have a
S eater moment (weight x radius of centre of gravity) than the un-
lanced rotating parts, for if they are made heavier, with a view to
balance also a portion of the reciprocating weights, a horizontal force is
set up equal in magnitude to that portion of the vertical inertia force
that is balanced.
Still there are cases, such as those of the numerous auxiliary engines
in which the reduction of the inertia forces of the reciprocating parts,
and the vibration caused thereby, are of greater importance than the
creation of small transverse forces ; hence, for the generality of such
cases this simple method of "overbalancing" serves admirably. A
very small weight attached to the rim of a fan, or placed in the crank-
disc of a centrifugal pump engine, though not in the transvei'se plane
through the mid-length of crank-pin, yet produces a marked improve-
ment in the running of the single-crank engine, and should be always
fitted unless a more perfect arrangement is necessary. Balance weights
forged with Uie crank-arms are, of course, better, but, except in the
case of built shafts, they are very much more expensive.
A piston, with rod, &c., cannot usually be balanced by another
weight reciprocating in the opposite sense in the same vertical line, but
"bob-weights," driven by special eccentrics or cranks, can be sym-
metrically arranged as regards the transverse plane through the centre-
line of piston-rod, and may be on the same side of the crankshaft as the
piston, &c. , to be balanced ; but the extra cost, weight, and complication
are serious objections, and have led to the perfecting of what may be
called "collective" balancing — a method which secures to the full t^e
advantage of quenching vibration, though leaving the wear and tear of
bearings, to some extent at any rate, to be resisted by ample surfaces.
As already remarked, the force set up by an unbalanced rotating
weight is always radial and acts from the shaft axis through the centre
of gravity of tne rotating weight. Its magnitude (neglecting gravity)
is given by :—F-Wrl^x '00034,* where W = weight of body in
pounds, r= radius of its centre of gravity in feet, and N = number of
revolutions per minute. The vertical component of this force for any
crank position has the value : — Fv= WrN^x '00084 x cose, where 6 is
the angle between crank and engine centre-line ; or, if a graphic method
AB
is preferred, for cos 0 read-j^ as indicated in Fig. 48.
• Obtelned by substituting ^N for V in the formula F=^^1L^.
CO gr
THE BALANCING OF ENGINES.
289
This fraction has the value 1 at the top and bottom centres, 0 at the
points D and E, and intermediate values at other positions.
Similarly, the horizontal component is :—FH=WrN2 x '00034 x sin 0,
or, graphically, for sin tf read-=^. This fraction has the value 1 at
AO
positions D and E, and 0 at top and bottom centres.
The force due to an unbalanced weight reciprocating vertically is
purely vertical, as previously stated ; and it is a maximum at each end
of the stroke and falls to zero at a point near mid stroke. Its magni-
tude and its effect upon the effective pressure diagram (fig. 2), may be
d.etermined by Mr Rigg's method as follows;— Describe a circle (fig. 49)
with radius equal to WrN^ x '00084, to any convenient scale, W oeing
in this case the weight in pounds of the reciprocating parts, which are
Bottom
Fig. 48.
here considered as being located at the crank-pin and revolving with it.
Divide the diameter AB into ten equal parts and re-divide each end
part into two. Draw horizontal lines through these division marks to
meet the circle as shown. Then — supposing the connecting-rod to be
four cranks in length— from 0 set off CH equal to one-fourth OB ; and
from F and G set off, in the opposite direction, FJ and GK, each equal
to CH ; and through J, H, and K strike a circular arc (in this case from
point A). Then the distances LM, &c., will give the forces required
at each of the thirteen (including the two end points) points in the
stroke, and they may be designated - or -*- according as they are
measured above or below arc JHK.
Draw a "horizontal line AB (fig. 60) to represent the stroke of the
piston, and divide it similarly to AB in the previous figure, and at
each point set off, up or down, the force given by the ordinate of that
figure, divided by the piston area. Then, if a fair curve be drawn
through the ends of these ordinates, it will show the variation in thf
290
THE BALANCING OF ENGINES.
pressure per square inch required to accelerate and retard the piston^
&c. f during one stroke, if gravity be neglected. The variation during
the return stroke is shown by the dotted line. But gravity must be
^owed for, and to do this a new base line must be drawn at a distance
w above AB (or below AB for the up stroke), w representing to scale
the weight of the reciprocating parts per square inch of piston, — and
all measurements must then be taken from ab in lieu of AB. Now
draw the effective pressure diagram (fig. 2), above this figure, and to
the same scale, and add to, or subtract from, each of its ordinates
the amount indicated by the lower figure ; and, through the new points
thus found, draw a feiir curve as indicated by the dotted line CED. The
ordinates from CD to this curve will give the net (except as regards
friction losses) effective pressures acting through the piston rods ; and
^Bottom
Fia. 60.
from these the net pressures at the crank-pin, or the net twisting
moments, may be determined by the method shown in fig. 15, and may
be exhibited by a diagram resembling fig. 16, or by the circular form of
the same diagram. The ordinates of these figures will then give the net
crank-pin pressures, or the net twisting moments, at every point in the
crank-pin path, except as regards friction losses and the small fly-wheel
effect of the propeller, cranks, ko.
The sum of the unbalanced forces set up by any crank and its piston,
piston-rod, connecting-rod, &o., at every position during a revolu-
tion, may be exhibited by a diagram constructed in the foUowing
manner: —
First, find the amount of the radial force set up by the rotating
parts, by the method already given, and describe a circle with a
radius representing this force to any convenient scale (fig. 61). And
'econdly, from a selected number of points in the circumference of this
THB BALANOINO OF BNQINB8.
291
circle (which is also to be considered as representing the path of the
crank-pin) set off, upwards or downwards, vertical ordinates represent-
ing, to the same scale, the forces due to the reciprocating parts (from
fig. 65), and through the extremities of these ordinates draw a fair
curve. Then for any crank angle, say 30* down from top centre, the
total force is indicated in magnitude and direction, by the resultant
CB of the two forces CA and AB, and so for other positions of crank.
Bottom
Fig. 61.
If the rotating parts are balanced (either partially, wholly, or ** over-
balanced"), describe another circle with radius CD representing
centrifugal force due to balance-weights (again to same scale) and join
DB. Then the resultant DB gives the magnitude and direction of the
total force under these conditions for the crank position CD ; and if
lines such as CE, equal and parallel to the resultants so found, be set
off from the centre 0, and a fair curve be drawn through their extremi-
ties, the new diagram thus produced shows at a glance the variations
in the total force during one complete revolution. Note that in this
case the lines OE, &c., are set off the reverse way round.
T
292
THB BALANCING OF BNGINB8.
.5;
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THB BALANCING OF BNGINES. 293
If gravity is to be allowed for, as it most be when estimating forces
acting on main bearings, framings, &c., a new horizontal centre line
should be drawn at a distance W above the first one, — where W repre-
sents the weight of the rotating parts, to scale ; and the ordinates
AB, FG, &c., most be respectively shortened and lengthened by an
amount representing the weight of the reciprocating parts. All
measurements should then be taken from the point H, and HE would
be one of the set of resultants corresponding to CB, kc, in the former
case, where gravity is not considered.
When vibrations and the forces causing them are alone under con-
sideration, gravity need not be considered, for the reason that the
weights of the moving parts may be regarded as producing a slight
initial depression of the engine seatings, &c., in addition to that caused
by the weights of the stationary parts, and the vertical vibrations
may then be considered as taking place equally above and below this
lowered position, instead of unequally above and below the higher one.
The object of the *' collective " system of balancing (best known as
the ''Yarrow, Schlick, and Tweedy System") is not to balance the
moving parts in connection with each cylinder independently, but so
to space the centres of the various cylinaers, so to arrange the various
crank angles, and so to proportion the weights of the moving parts
as to cause the whole of the aisturbing forces to cancel out In order
that an engine may be balanced on this system, it must have not
less than four cranks, and, generally speaking, engines with fewer
cranks must be balanced by some combination of the rotating balance
weight and the reciprocating "bob-weight.*'
As soon as the general design and arrangement and leading dimen-
sions of an engine (say four-crank triple) have been decided upon, its
condition as regards balance may be examined by the following
approximate method, approximate because it takes no account of
disturbances due to obliquity of connecting rod : —
Make a skeleton sketch of the engine (as indicated by fig. 52) and
figure upon it the weights of the unbalanced rotating parts referred to
the crank-Din ft e ^^^g^^ Q^ P^^^ ^ ^^^t. of its c. of g. from Shaft axisX
V * ' Radius of crank path /'
the weights of the reciprocating parts, and the distance of each set of
parts from an imaginary transverse plane of reference through the
mid-length of the after crank-pin. Then, to examine the forces and
moments due to the reciprocating parts, which act in the vertical
plane through the shaft axis and tend to set up vertical vibrations,
first tabulate the data thus : —
294
THB BALANCING OF ENGINES.
Table LXXXVIa,
Distances
Harks on
Cranks,
etc.
Weights of
fromBef.
Plane to
Centres of
Piston-rods,
etc.
Moments of
Weights of
Moments of
Kecipro-
Recipro-
Unbalanced
Rotating
eating Parts.
cating Parts.
Rotating
Parts.
Parts.
lbs.
ft
ft.lba.
lbs.
ft. lbs.
a
966
-8
-2,896
660
- 1,680
«i
140
-2-6
- 850
680
-1,400
A
8,920
• • •
• • •
6,700
•••
B
6,600
6
88,600
7,650
45,900
b
860
8*6
7,310
660
4,760
h
140
9
1,260
680
4,770
Ci
140
15
2,100
630
7,960
c
60D
16-6
9,800
660
8,680
0
4,480
18
80,640
7,650
137,700
D
8,920
24
94,140
6,700
186,800
di
140
26*6
8,710
530
14,045
d
966
27
26,056
660
15,120
In this particular case the stroke of pistons was five times the travel
of valves ; the weights of valve and gear given in columns two and
five are therefore one-fifth of the actual weight. The minus sign is
used because the after low-pressure gear is to the left of the reference
plane, whilst all other weights are to the right of it. The weights in
connection with the after low-pressure crank have no moment about
the plane of reference, because the plane passes through their centre
of gravity.
As regards valve gear, the valve, rod, block, half the links and
dras rods, and a proportion of the eccentric rod and strap (say, four-
tenths) are taken as reciprocating over the ahead eccentric ; and the
remaining half of the links, and a similar proportion of the astern
eccentric rod and strap, over the astern eccenmc The unbalanced
portions of the sheaves and the remainders of the rods and straps (six-
tenths) are taken as rotating parts.
Additions are made to the reciprocating weights to allow for the
unbalanced parts of pump levers, links, rods, and backets.
The obliquity of eccentric rods is usually so small that it may be
neglected.
Next assume (as first working hypothesis) that the cranks are
arranged with a forward pair, opposite to one another, and an after
pair, also opposite to one another, but that the forward pair are at
right angles to the after pair. This combination has the advantage of
getting the lighter L.P. enjrines (with the reduced rods, etc.— L.P.
were being usually about five-eighths of H.P. or I. P. lowers) at the
THE BALANCING OP ENGINES.
295
ends, and also permits them to take steam alternately. If the engine
is a four-crank quadruple it is better to make the heavier L.P. one of
the middle cylinders and keep the lighter ones at the ends.
after low
dtterlow
A
inter
Fio. 63.
Now describe two circles (figs, 63 and 54), each representing the
crank path ; draw in the various cranks and eccentrics at their correct
angles, and figure the moments on one and the forces on the other, as
Moments
^&
4
C
Fig. 56.
B
p
/^z
forces
A
^i
P
^^_
-Sz
B
^ ^^/
Fig. 66.
indicated. Then draw a polygon (fig. 66) in which the sides are
successively parallel to the radial lines in fig. 58, and represent, to
some convenient scale, the moments figured on them. Also draw a
similar polygon (fig. 66) for the forces, from fig. 64).
If these polygons are closed figures, the moments and forces will be
in equilibrium ; but if they do not close, the additional side require^'
296 THB BALANCING OF BNGINBB.
to complete closure will represent, in magnitude and direction, tbe
moment or force required to produce equilibrium. There are four
principal weights, three principal distances (from centre to centre of
cylinders), and four cranK angles, or eleven principal variables, any
one of which may be altered in moderation, and eveiy alteration to
which will have a material efifect on the balance of the whole : and as
the polygons (shown in full lines) do not close, it must now be decided
what alterations shall be made to obtain the desired perfection of
balance. As there are only three principal moments (viz., those of
the pistou, &C. ), it is evident that the moment polygon, to close, must
be roughly triangular in shape, and this shows that some alteration in
crank angles will be necessary. In making such alteration it is well
to bear in mind the interchangeability of the crankshafts — supposing
that, as is usual, there are two of these, each carnring two cranks.
To meet this requirement the angle between A and B should be the
same as that between C and D ; then the forward half, when reversed,
may be placed in the after bearings in case of need, and mce versd.
The reversal is onlv necessary when the L.P. crank-pins are shorter
than the others, as has been assumed in this case.
The dotted lines on figs. 65 and 56 show one solution of the prob-
lem. The cranks C and A are each moved 22}'* ahead and the weight
of the H.P. piston is increased by 410 lbs. — the figures then practically
closing. It must be noted that when a crank angle is altered in these
polvgons the angular position of its eccentrics must also be altered ;
and before such an alteration is decided upon, the effect it will have
should be examined both in the moment and in the force diagrams.
Similar polygons should now be constructed for the unbalanced
rotating weights (which, by the way, if balanced in one plane are also
in balance in any other plane through the shaft* axis) ; and if the same
crank angles, &c., do not appear to be the most suitable, some splitting
of differences must be resorted to. As a rule, the weights of the rotat-
ing parts bear such a relation to those of the reciprocating parts that
the same crank angles, &c., will be found to suit both.
It will, of course, be -apparent that, with so many variables, more
than one solution may be quite practicable.
When the leading features of a design have been worked out and
settied by the methods outlined above, the results, as regards any
residual unbalanced forces, may be exhibited upon a diagram such as
that shown in fig. 57, which is constructed as follows : —
Firat, take a straight line PQ to represent the axis of the crank-
shaft, and lay off from it, at their proper fore and aft positions, or-
dinates (such as CO', DD', kc) representing in magnitude and
direction the total vertical foi*ce (t.e. force due to reciprocating parts
plus vertical component of force due to rotating parts) due to each
item at, say, O** position (top centre) of high-pressure crank ; and also
show the vertical centre line, MM, through the middle point of the
whole engine (half way between outer cranks). Then collect all the
pluses and all the minuses, and subtract from the greater sum the less
*^o find the resultant force R,— to which affix its proper sign. Then, to
THB BALANCING OF BNGINBS.
297
.s^jy
^ ^-^
»ia?^'
N
q:
determine the fore and aft position § §
of R, assume a reference plane at §o ^s q cjc>^ o&o s§
XXi (say), and find the moment of >> ^ ^f ^ ^V?*?????^ ¥*f^
each force ahout it by multiplying oi
the force (in lbs.) by the distance *$»
of its line of action (in feet) from n^
XX] , taking care to distinguish the
products by their proper signs. And ^
nnally, subtract for resultant mo-
ment, and divide latter hj resultant
force R, when the dividend will
be the distance, y, at which this
force acts from XX^ ; and a further 1
subtraction, the position of MM ^
being known, will give Z. In the
notation used, plus moments act
"clockwise," and minus moments
I 'anti-clockwise.*' The conclusion
is, then, that atO** H.P. crank angle,
there exists a couple of moment RZ
tending to tilt up the forward end
of the engines, on the after end of
the bed-plate as fulcrum, and a
vertical force K, acting on MM and
tending to press the engines as a
whole down upon their seatincs.
In determining the vertical com-
ponent of the centrifugal force due
to the rotating parts, the angle of
each crank or eccentric shomd be
stated as the number of degrees
between it and the nearest vertical
radius, and will, therefore, never
exceed 90° ; and, using the same
notation as in fig. 50, the sign
round the upper 180° will be minus
(upward force), and round the lower
180**, plus (downward force).
As regards the reciprocating
parts, the radius of fig. 49 may be
made to represent the centrifugal
force due to 1000 lbs,, and when the
radial lines have been drawn at the
correct angles and the acceleration
forces (LM, &c.) determined, the
latter may be multiplied by the
number of thousands, or by the
decimal of a thousand, requisite to
give the total force in each case.
q:
^
9
I
I
I
^ i
I
i2^._i — w?
298
THE BALANCING OF BNGINBS.
The moment EZ and the force R may now be represented by
ordinates set up at 0"* (jfig. 58), and when similar ordinates have been
determined for other crank positions (e,g. CD at 120*), curves may be
drawn through their extremities, as in the figure, and these show at a
glance the variations in the tilting moment and force during one com-
plete revolution. It will, of course, be seen that if the engines were
perfectly balanced these curves would become straight lines and would
coincide with the base line ; but this is a state of things rarely or never
reached in practice, as, to mention one point only, estimated weights
cannot be expected to tally exactly with the final weights of the parts,
which have probably been altered in many points of detail since the
Morrj,
H.Pato
Fig. 58.
first design — on which the balancing calculations were based — was
got out
Similar curves may be constructed to show the residual moments and
forces in the horizontal plane.
To give a clear idea of the condition of any set of engines as regards
balance three diagrams should be presented, viz. : —
(a) Curves of residual vertical forces and moments.
(b) Curves of residual horizontal forces and moments.
(c) Curve of twisting moment.
And each diagram should have a scale of tons, or foot-tons, marked
upon it; and the twisting moment diagram should also show the
freatest and least moment as percentages of the mean. Three such
iagrams were latterly required by the British Admiralty with each
new design of a reciprocating engine submitted by a contractor.
Amongst other causes of vibration of minor importance may be
mentioned — (a) the pendulum-like swing of the connecting-rod ; (6)
the thrusts on the piston-rod guides ; and (c) irregular action of the
propeller, due to disturbance of the water supply caused by the
hid] and fittings.
Every propeller should, as a matter of course, be accurately balanced.
BOILERS. 299
BOILERS.
Fuels, Combustion, &c.
Coal. — The chief varieties of coal and their leading characteristics
are as follows : —
(1) Anthracite^ consisting almost entirely of free carbon, generally
jet black in appearance, but sometimes greyish like plumbago, has a
specific gravity generally of about 1 *5, but sometimes as high as 1 '9 ;
it bums without emitting flame or smoke, but requires a strone
draught to burn at all. It is capable of evaporating (theoretically)
nearly 16 times its weight of water, but to obtain good results from it
careful stoking is necessary, as when suddenly exposed to heat it does
not cake but becomes very friable, breaks up into small pieces, and
falls through the bar-spaces if disturbed much. The fires should be
worked light when using it, and the coal carefully spread. The heat
is very intense and local, so that furnaces -intended to burn it should
be high in the crowns and protected at the sides.
(2) Dry bituminous coal contains from 70 to 80 per cent, of carbon,
and about 15 per cent, of volatilizable matter ; its specific cravity is
from 1*8 to 1'45. It bums easily and swells considerably while being
converted into coke. The harder kinds do not burn so readily, nor
do the pieces stick together so easily when burning, and are generally
well adapted for marine boilers.
(3) BUuminotts caking coal, containing from 60 to 60 per cent, of
carbon, is generally of about the same specific gravity as the dry
bituminous ; it contains, however, as much as 80 per cent, of vola-
tilizable matter, and consequently develops hydrocarbon gases ; it
burns with a long flame, and sticks together in caking, so as to lose
all trace of the original forms of the pieces. It requires special means
to prevent smoke.
(4) Cannel coal, or long-flaming eoal, — This is seldom used for
steieim purposes, as it gives off large quantities of smoke, and is very
scarce. It is the best coal for the manufacture of gas.
(5) Lignite, or Irown coal, is of later formation than the other coals,
and in some instances approaches to a peaty nature. It contains, how-
ever, when good, from 56 to 76 per cent of carbon, and has a specific
gravity from 1 *20 to 1 '85. It also contains large quantities of oxygen,
and a small quantity of hydrogen. The commoner kinds of lignite are
poor, and contain as little as 27 per cent, of carbon, and therefore are
not suitable for steaming purposes.
Wood. — Dry wood contains on an average about 60 per cent, of
carbon, 41 of oxygen, and 6 of hydrogen.
Patent fuels. — These usually consist of coal-dust, mixed with a
little coal-tar and pressed into hard bricks ; their value depends very
much on the quality of coal from which they are made.
The value of a fuel is determined by its chemical composition
All fuels contain more or less carbon, most have also hydrogen ar
300 BOTLBRS.
oxygen in various proportions, and some contain small quantities of
nitrogen, sulphur, kc. « in addition.
The ordinaiT symbols for these substances and their combining
weights are as follows : —
Carbon — symbol 0 — combining weight 12.
Hydrogen ,i H „ 1.
Oxygen „ 0 „ 16.
Nitrogen n N „ 14.
Sulphur M S „ 82.
When they combine chemically one with another, as in combustion,
they invariably do so in the ratio of their combining weights, or of
some multiple of the same. Thus, —
Carbonic oxide — symbol CO = Cig + Oi^.
Carbonic dioxide „ COg = C19 + Og^
Water . „ H-O = Hj + Oje-
defiant Gas .« „ CHg = C19 + H9.
Marsh gas . ,, CH4 =s C^g + H4.
Atmospheric air when dry is a mechanical mixture of nitrogen and
oxygen in the proportion of 77 parts by weight of the former to 28 of
the latter.
The heat developed by any substance during combustion is called its
total heat 0/ combuslionf and is measured in uniisofheatox thermal units.
The British thermal unit is the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of one pound of pure water one degree Fahrenheit
when at or near its greatest density (80*1" F. ).
The mechanical equivalent of heat is the number of foot-pounds
of energy required to raise the temperature of one pound of water
one degree Fahrenheit ; or in other words, —
1 British thermal unit* = 778 foot-pounds,
or 1 Horse-powers 88,000 foot-pounds =42*42 thermal units.
To burn fully 1 lb. of carbon or convert it into carbon dioxide
(" carbonic acid "), 2*7 lbs. of oxygen, or 12 lbs. of air are required, and
a total heat of combustion of 14,600 units is developed, — i.e. sufficient
to evaporate 15 lbs. of water from and at 212". If, however, the air
supply is restricted or deficient, there is a tendency to the production
of carbon monoxide or ''carbonic oxide," — a product requirinff only
half the amount of oxygen for its formation,— and the total heat
developed is then only 4400 units.
Each pound of hydrogen requires 8 lbs. of oxygen or 86 lbs. of air
for its complete combustion, and develops in combining 62,032 unite
of heat,— sufficient to evaporate 64 lbs. of water from and at 212".
• Joiile'i mtchanieal equivalent, 772, was for many yean accepted ai B.T. unit,
'ut later experlmenti of a more re&ued nature have proved it to be 778 ft.-lba.
BOIIiXBEU 301
Sulphur exists only in small quantities in good coal, and its total
heat of comhustion is only about 4000 units per pound.
When two substances combine chemically, as in combustion, the
weight of the products of combustion is the sum of the weights before
combination, — e.g., 1 lb. of carbon uniting with 12 lbs. of air gives
8*7 lbs. of carbonic acid diluted by 9*3 lbs. of nitrogen ; and the
temperature of the products is found by dividing the total heat of
combustion by their weight multiplied by their specific heat.
The specific heat of any substance is the quantity of heat required
to raise the temperature of a pound of it one degree Fahrenheit, and
is measured by the ratio that this quantitiv bears to the quantity
required to raise the temperature of a pound of water one deeree, —
«.«. to the British thermal unit ; thus, the specific heat of hydrogen,
at a pressure of 80 inches of mercury, is 3*4, that of carbonic acid '216.
When oxygen and hydrogen are both present in a fuel they are in
combination as water and become steam without developing any heat ;
it is therefore only when there is an excess of hydrogen that any
heating effect is produced. The only effect of nitrogen is to reduce
the intensity of combustion and lower temperature of products.
The following rules are deduced from the above considerations : —
Rule 238. Total heat of combusO * f / o\
tioH of one pound of fuel, —in ther- [•= 14,600 j C + 4 ^Sl H - - )
mal units. J (^ V 8/
Rule 239. Theoretical e vapor- J ( / q\\
ative power of one pound of fuel,— > =16-{ C + 4*28( H -^ j V.*
expressed in pounds of water. ) \ \ °'J
Rule 24a Number of pounds) / q\
of air required to burn one pound > =12C + 36( H--5 ).
of fuel. ) v sy
Ordinary coal or coke requires for its complete combustion 12 lbs.
of air per pound of the fuel, but in practice, with chimney draught,
twice this quantity may be supplied, as much passes free through the
furnace in an uncombined state. Kennedy found that 18 lbs. of air
gave the best results.
At the temperature of 62** F. and at the sea-level, the volume of
1 lb. of air is 13*14 cubic feet ; therefore 815 cubic feet of air are
necessary for the proper combustion of 1 lb. of coal or coke in an
ordinary furnace. If artificial or forced draught is employed, this
quantity may be reduced to about 250 cubic feet, more or less, accord-
ing to the force of the draught.
The following Table gives additional information as to the composi-
tion, total heat of combustion, and evaporative value of various fuels : —
* Allowing for the 212* below which there can be no abstraction of heat foi
evaporatioD, the multiplier should be 14*78 instead of 16.
BOILBRS — PUBU.
|fiMl!i!i^iS!!sE 111! iEll?!
SS! ■ ■ -3 ■ ■ •
151
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BOILBRS — UQDID PDKU.
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187
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Araeriosn petroleum
Petroleum from Parma .
„ Pechelbronn
II Sohwabweiler .
„ EaatGalicis
WestGalicia .
Shale oil from Ardeche, Prance
Coal tar from Paris Gas Works
Petroleum reaidaes from the Baku faotorie
Petroleora from Java
Heavy oil from Ogaio
„ „ „ Mexico, erode .
,, ,, „ California, erode
,, ,, „ Teias, crude .
304
BOILBB8 — UQUID FUELS.
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306
BOILBItS — LIQUID FUBL8.
Table LXXXVIId.-Oil Fuels as Used in U.S. American
Navy Boilers.
g
^sl
11.
Crude
Texas
Texas
Oil as
IS
81-52
uum
I Tex
ifom
caho]
eked
ened
■
Oil.
Used.
Kesid
Mixed
andCal
Coal, Po
Handpi
Sere
Carbon, content per cent.
84-60
83-26
84-35
86-94
Hydrogen „ „
10-90
12-41
11 01
11-88
4-46
Oxygen „ „
2-87
3-83
I 6-92
2-82
4-50
Nitrogen „ „
• ••
• ■ •
0-60
1-14
Sulphur ,f ,,
1-63
0-60
0-55
0-90
0-82
Specific gravity at 60* F.
Flashpoint . . F.*
0-924
0-926
0-966
0-966
• • «
180
216
311
270
• • •
Fire ,, . . ,,
200
240
• • •
280
• •«
Vaporisation point ,,
• ••
142
230
• • •
• • •
Loss for 6 hours at 212* F."
» • •
21-65%
12-20%
14-90%
■ • •
Calorific value as calcu-
lated.
18,812
19,480
18,192
19,049
14,992
Calorific value by calori-
meter
19,060
...
18,667
19,215
»• •
Water evaporated from
and at 212** F. in a
Hohenstein w.t. boiler
• ••
12-654
11-674
11-615
9*215
Water evaporated from
and at 212° F. in a
Hohenstein w.t. boiler
best results with air
pulverisers .
• • •
12-860
•••
12-660
• • «
Table LXXXVIIe.— Liquid Fuels, Viscosity of, at various Tem-
peratures, by Number of Seconds taken for the Passing
of 22 '2 cubic inches (200 ccm.).
Fuel.
Specific
Gravity.
Temperature, F.
70°.
86'.
105°.
120°.
140°.
160°.
British Navy oil .
Roumanian residues
Trinidad crude oil .
Tarakan ,,
Mexican ,,
0-907
0*946
0*964
0-948
0-950
818
• • •
• • •
745
• • •
436
■ • •
• • t
431
• ■ •
265
• • •
263
■ ■ ■
179
785
• • •
170
• • •
140
474
• • •
127
• • •
110
293
1127
99
• • •
Lloyd's rules for oil fuel, 307
Rules for the Burning and Carrying of Oil Fuel.
1. In vessels fitted for burning oil fuel, the following records will be made
in the Register book :— "Fitted for oil fuel F.P. above 150* F." iu cases in which
approval has been given for the use of high flash point oil only ; and " Fitted
for low flash oil fuel " iu cases in which the approval covers the use of low
flash point.
2. The following arrangements are applicable only to the case of oil fuel, the
flash point of which (by Abel's close test) is not below 160* F. For a lower flash
point the arrangements must be submitted for consideration.
8. Oil fuel, the flash point of which does not fall below 150' F., may be carried
in ordinary cellular double bottoms under engines or boilers or ordinary cai|;o
holds, in peak or in deep tanks, or in oil bunkers specially constructed.
4. Cellular double bottoms when fitted for oil fuel are to have oil-tight centre
line divisions, and the lengths of these compartments are to be submitted for
approval.
5. Peak tanks, deep tanks, bunkers specially constructed for oil fuel, and
settling and other service tanks must be fitted with bulkhead subdivisions or
wash plates to the Committee's satisfaction and strengthened to efficiently
withstand the stresses on them when only partly filled and in a seaway. The
riveting of these spaces is to be as required by the Rules in the cases of vessels
carrying petroleum in bulk, and the scantlings and arrangements to the Com*
mittee*s satisfaction.
6. All compartments intended for carrying oil fuel must be tested by a head
of water extending to the highest point of the filling pipes, or 12 feet above the
load-line or 12 feet above the highest point of the compartment, whichever is
the greatest.
7. Each compartment must be fitted with an air-pipe, to be always open,
discharging above the upper deck. All double-bottom compartments used for
oil fuel should have suitable holes and doors of approved design fitted in the
outer bottom plating.
8. The pumping arrangements of the oil-fuel compartments must be absolutely
distinct from those of other parts of the vessel and submitted for approval. All
oU-fuel suction pipes and all bilge or ballast pipes passing through oil-fuel tanks
or oil bunkers are to be of iron or steel.
9. If it is intended to carry sometimes oil-fuel and sometimes water ballast in
any of the compartments, the valves or cocks connecting the suction pipes to
these compartments with the ballast donkey pump and those controlling them
with the oil-fuel pump must be so arranged that oil may be pumped from any
one compartment by tiie oil-fuel pump at the same time as the ballast donkey
is being used on any other compartment.
10. All oil-fuel suction pipes should have valves or cocks fitted at the bulkheads
where they enter the machinery space, capable of being worked both from this
space and from the deck, outside of the fidely and engine-room casinni. . Valves
or cocks similarly worked are to be fitted to all pipes leading from the settling
or other tanks.
11. Oil-fuel pipes should, where practicable, be placed above the stokehold
and engine-room plates, ana where they are always visible.
12. No wood fittings or bearers are to be fitted in the stokehold spaces.
18. Where oil-fuel compartments are at the sides of, or above, or below the
boilers, special insulation is to be fitted where necessary to protect them from
the heat from the boilers, smoke boxes, casings, &c.
14. Water service pipes and hoses are to be fitted so that the stokehold plates
can at any time be flushed with sea water into the bilges.
15. If the oil fuel is sprayed by steam, means are to be provided to make up
for the fresh water used for this purpose.
16. If the oil fuel is heated by a steam coil, the condensed water should not
be taken directly to the condensers, but should be led into a tank or an open
funnel mouth, and thence led to the hot well or feed tank.
308 BOILBRS — ADKIBAI/TY OIL FTJBL.
Admiralty Conditions of Contract for Oil Fuel.
1. Quality. — The oil fuel supplied under this contract shall consist
of liquid hydrocarbons, and may be either : —
(a) Shale oil ; or
(b) Petroleum as may be required ; or
(e) A distillate or a residual product of petroleum ;
and shall comply with the Admiralty requirements as regards flash
point, fluidity at low temperatures, percentage of sulphur, presence
of water, acidity, and freedom from impurities.
The flash point shall not be lower than ITS'* F. , close test (Abel or
Pensky-Martens).*
The proportion of sulphur contained in the oil shall not exceed
8 per cent.
The oil fuel supplied shall be as free as possible from acid, and in
any case the quantity of acid must not exceed 0*5 per cent., calculated
as oleic acid when tested by shaking up the oil with distilled water,
and determining by titration with decinormal alkali the amount of
acid extracted by the water, methyl orange being used as indicator.
The quantity of water delivered with the oil shall not exceed
0*5 per cent.
The viscosity of the oil supplied shall not exceed 2000 seconds for
an outflow of 50 cubic centimetres at a temperature of 32** F., as
determined by Sir Boverton Redwood's standard viscometer (Admiralty
type for testing oil fuel).
The oil supplied shall be free from earthy, carbonaceous, or fibrous
matter, or other impurities which are likely to choke the burners.
The oil shall, if required by the inspecting officer, be strained by
being pumped on discharge from the tanks, or tank steamer, throngn
filters of wire gauze having 16 meshes to the inch.
The quality and kind of oil supplied shall be fully described. The
original source from which the oil has been obtained shall be stated
in detail, as well as the treatment to which it has been subjected,
and the place at which it has been treated.
The ratio which the oil supplied bears to the original crude oil
should also be stated as a percentage.
Rate of combustion. — In the mercantile marine, when working
economically with chimney draught only, the coal burned per square
foot of grate per hour varies from about 16 lbs., with long biars (6 feet
to 6 feet 6 inches), to about 20 lbs. when the length of the bars does
not exceed 1 'S3 x diameter of furnace, and all calculations for grate
areas of merchant steamers should be based on these figures ; for,
although larger quantities may be consumed by forcing the fires, or
may, perhaps, be completely burned when the wind is strong and
draught good, there will be, on the other hand, many days when the
quantity burned will ^e less than the average given above.
\
• In the case of oils of exceptionally low viscosity, soch as diatillates from
■naie, the flash point must pe not less than 200' F.
BOILERS — FUNNELS OB 0HIMNET8. 309
With forced or artificial draught much larger quantities are con-
sumed : with the Howden system as much as 40 lbs. can be economi-
cally burnt, and even up to 60 lbs. with somewhat less economic
results.
The higher efficiency of the shorter bars is largely due to the better
air supply, since, with a given diameter of furnace, the area at tiie
mouth of the ash-pit is the same whether the bars are long or short ;
and it is no doubt for this reason that the Macfarlane Gray rule —
that t?ie consumption ofeocU per foot of grate is very Tiearly proportional
to the diameter of the furnace— \r found to be so nearly correct in
everyday practice. Another cause of the higher efficiency of short bars
is the fact that bars over about 5 feet in length cannot be so well
stoked by hand, with the result that the fire bums into holes at the
back end, and allows cold air to rush in, — thus depriving the other
parts of the fire of their due proportion of air and reducing the efficiency
of the furnace. In practice, with average stokers, the efficiency of a
grate over 4 feet in length is nearly inversely as its length.
The rate of combustion also naturally depends a ^ood deal on the
quality or class of coal burned, but by far the most important factor
is the strength of the draught
Chimney or funnel. — ^The draught obtained with any chinmey
depends mainly on its sectional area, its height, and the difference
of absolute temperature between the gases in it and the external air.
Professor Rankine gave the following formuls for chimney
draught : —
Let w be the weight of fuel burned in a given fiimace per second in
pounds.
Yq the volume at 32° of the air supplied per pound of fiiel.
To the absolvU temperature at 32° Fahr., which is 461° +32°.
Tj the absolute temperature of the gas discharged by the chimney,
whose sectional area is A : then, —
Rule 241. Velocity of the current in the chimney in feet per
second is
Ax To
The density of that current in pounds to the cubic foot is very nearly
=l3/'o-0807-f-l'\;
that is to say, from 0*084 to 0-987 x (ro-f ti).
Let I denote the whole length of the chimney, and of the flue leading
to it, in feet ;
m its "hydraulic mean depth"; that is, its area divided by its
perimeter ; which, for a square or round flue or chimney, is one quarter
of the diameter or side ;
/, a co-efficient of friction, whose value for currents of gas moving over
sooty surfaces is estimated by Peclet at 0*012 ;
310 BOILBRS — DRAUGHT IN CHIMNEYS.
G, a factor of resistance for a passage of air through the grate and
the layer of fuel above it, whose value, according to the experiments
of Peclet on furnaces burning from 20 to 24 pounds of coal per square
foot of grate per hour, is 12.
Then, according to Peclet*s formula, —
Rule 242. The head required to produce the draught in question is
which, with the values assigned by Peclet to the constants, becomes
25\ m /
When the Jiead is given the value of fi may be calculated, and then,
Rule 243. Weight of fuel which the furnace is capable of burning
completely per hour
_jLtX AXTq
It is usual to reckon the head by taking one inch of water as the
unit; then, —
Head in inches of water=0*192 xhx Ifff 0*0807 + i\
Sir J. Thomycroft found, by careful experiment with loco, boilers
in torpedo-boats working with a plenum (that is, with a closed stoke-
hole mto which air is forced), ''that of the initial pressure, the
resistance of the tubes accounts for about seven-tenths of the whole,
the resistance of the fire and fire-bars being only about one-tenth ; ** and
that ''the pressure in the fannel, as measured, was sensibly equal to
atmospheric pressure.'*
Professor Rankine also stated that if H be the height of the funnel,
Ts the absolute temperature of the external air, then, —
Rule 244. Head produced by chimney draught =Hf 0*96ll - 1 ],
or, taking h as the head.
Rule 244a. Height of chimney required to produce a given draught
=h-i-(0'96T2-i\
The velocity of the gas in the chimney is proportional to
\/h, and therefore to /^0*96ti - tq.
The density of that gas is proportional to — .
BOILERS — SIZB OF FUNNELS. 811
The weight discharged per second ia proportioral to velocity
X density, and therefore, to ^ ^jj-ja . ^jjj^.jj expression becomes
25
a maximum, when ti=— Tg. Therefore the best chimney draught
takes place when the absolute temperature of the gas in the chimney
is to that of the external air as 25 to 1 2.
When this condition is fulfilled ^=H.
That is, the height of the chimney for the best draught is equal to
the ?iead expressed in hot gas, and the density of the not gas is half
that of the air.
From the above it appears that the best temperature of gases at the
base of the funnel is about 600**, and that therefore nearly one^fourth
of the total heat of combustion is absorbed in creating the draught
The temperature of steam at 250 lbs. pressure absolute is 400° F. ; it
is therefore necessary, in order to maintain the efficiency, of the heating
surface, to have a temperature at funnel base in excess of this, and when
there is a superheater requiring a temperature of 650** to 600" F. , it is
obvious that the hot gases when leaving it will be above those, so that
with modern conditions 600** at the funnel base is really low, and it is
not uncommon to have 700° to 750° there with the proportions of
heating surface to grate surface, size of tubes, &c. , commonly employed ;
but lower tempera&res can easily be reached by using artificial draught
and small tubes (say 2^ inch) fitted with retarders.
The diameter and height of funnel are often fixed by arbitrary
methods rather than rules. The following, however, are simple and
easily handled.
Rule 244b . Height of chimney in feet = '007[ -r- ] .
C X '084
Rule 244c. Area of chimney in square feet= =r^,
^H
Where H= Height in feet
A = Area of section in square feet.
G= Consumption in lbs. per hour on grates.
The following is a rough rule for modem practice : —
Rule 244d . Diameter of chimney in inches = VI • H. P x F.
For Ordinary Merchant Steamers F = 2 '38 Natural Draft
, , Naval and Express Steamers F = 2 '1 6 Assisted , ,
„ „ „ „ F=l-66 Forced „
When the draught depends on the chimney alone, 40 feet should be
regarded as the minimum height, where possible ; as the size of the
vessel increases it is, of course, possible to get longer chimneys, and,
in consequence, greater draught pressures, without fans. In the
"Olympic" the tops of the chimneys are at 160 feet above the dead
plates.
312
BOILERS — CHIMNKY BFPICIBNOT.
i
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BOILERS — SCANTLINGS OP FUNNELS, ETC.
313
Ordinarily, in the merchant service, the area of chimney is about a
fifth to a quarter of the grate area, whilst in the Navy they are seldom
larger that 0'14, and vary from that to 0*11, according to the air-
pressure intended to be used.
The thickness of funnel plates may be approximately as follows : —
Upper plates
Middle
Lower
•1-inch + ( "01 inch for each foot of diameter).
•125,, +(-01 „ „ ).
•15 „ +(-01 „ „ ).
Funnels should be suitably stiffened by angle, tee, or channel rings
or hoops, and large ones cross-stayed and stiffened longitudinally.
The funnels of Naval ships are made considerably lighter, the upper
plates being usually 6| lbs. per sq. foot, even for the largest sizes.
Table LXXXVIIIa.— Pitch, &c.^ of Riveting for Funnels,
Casings, &c. (Admiralty work>
Description.
Uptakes,
Funnels, .
Funnel casing.
Deck casing, .
Cowls and trunks (exposed /
to weather), . . . \
Screens and ventilating (
trunks, . . . \
Other work,
Thickness of
Plate.
Diameter of
Rivet.
Inch,
i
4
i
A
A
i
A
i
A
A
i
A
Inch.
i
h
i
8
8
i
8
i
8
8
Pitch of
Bivet.
Inches.
2
2
2i
2i
3
2
2
2
3
2
2 .
2
2
2
2
2
4
3
2 to 3
2 to3
2
314 BOILERS — FORCED DRAUGHT.
When a number of boilers are served by the same funnel, and some
of the furnaces are much further away from the base of the funnel than
others (as is sometimes unavoidably the case in Naval vessels) dampers
for regulating the force of the draught should be fitted in each ** leg"
of the uptakes.
Similarly, — proper arrangements (flues, screens, &c.) should be fitted
to distribute tne air in the stoke-holes, when the ** closed stoke-hole"
system of forced draught is used.
Smoke-box doors should be made ** three thick," — and aiTangements
provided to obtain a good current of air between the inner and central
plates, whilst the space between the central and outer plates should be
uUed with some good non-conducting substance.
Forced draug^ht. — In the Navy the '* closed stoke-hole" system of
forced draught is now generally used ; as the name implies, the whole
stoke-hole is made air-tight, and the fans force air down into it, — the
men working un(fer pressure and entering and leaving through air
locks.
Of the ''closed ash-pit" systems, the Howden is the one now
generally adopted in the mercantile marine. In this system air is led
y pipes from the fans to each furnace separately, and can thus be shut
on from any one before opening the door, so that the rush of cold air,
which is such an objectionable feature in the closed stoke-hole system,
is entirely avoided. The Howden also heats the air supply to 180* to
200** by passing it amongst a number of tubes placed in the uptake,
and thus no doubt materially increases the efficiency of the furnace,
since this increase of temperature so facilitates combustion as to give a
gain much in excess of the actual amount of heat stored in the air.
Messrs Howden state that the horse- power per square foot of grate
obtained from boilers fitted on this system varies from about 15 on
tramp steamers working with very poor bunker coal, to over 26 on
cruisers using best Welsh steam coal ; and that the corresponding
heating surfaces per I.H.P. would be about 2*8 square feet and
1*6 square feet.
A^ regards coal consumption, Messrs Howden consider that — ^in the
case of triple engines working with 160 lbs. to 180 lbs. steam pressure
— 1 '2 lbs. of Cardiff or equally good coal per I. H. P. per hour should
not be exceeded in regular work at sea.
The air pressure used in the ash-pits varies from i inch to H inch,
according to the circumstances of the case.
An air temperature of about 300° is now aimed at, and the effect of
the abstraction of this heat from the waste gases is to materially lower
their temperature. The air tubes are, as a rule, 2} inches external
diameter and 14 L.S.G. in thickness. Their length varies from 30
inches to 60 inches.
Coal consumptions up to 50 lbs. per square foot of grate per hour
have beun effected without the slightest trouble.
Mr Howden claims for his system the greatly reduced space and
weight which must be allotted to boilers, the reduced coal consump-
BOILERS — FORCED DRAUGHT. 315
tion, and the very uniform temperature of furnaces, all of which
latter tend to reduce repairs and to lengthen the life of the boiler.
The great advantage of artificial or forced draught is that at all
times it is completely under control, and quite independent of wind
or weather, thus ensuring a uniform efficiency of furnace with all
ordinarv qualities of coal, and any rate of combustion that may be
required. In Naval ships this is a necessity, — since the chimney may
be entirely destroyed at any moment.
Pressures of air in stokeholds, &c. , are usually reckoned in inches of
water (often called for shortness ** inches" simply), and are measured
by a '* water-gauge," U form, partly filled with water, and having the
open end of one leg exposed to the pressure to be measured, and the
other to the outer air. The pressure is indicated by the difTerence in
level of the water in the two legs.
Stokehold ventilators. — The downcast pipes with natural draught
should have an aggregate transverse area of 0*45 square inch per lb. of
fuel burnt per hour ; or 0*675 square inch per I.U.P. in cargo boats,
0*75 in express steamers ; 0*62 is sufficient for turbine-driven ships.
The area of the cowl mouth should be not less than
1 '35 square inch per lb. fuel per hour in 10 knot ships.
1-24
1-13
0-93
0-78
Table LXXXIX. shows the results of tests of the various modern
boilers with oil and coal fuel.
Table XC. shows the rates of combustion and of evaporation usual
on sea trials of various classes of vessel under the conditions named.
With inferior coal, supplied at foreign stations, the figures in columns
6 and 6 may be reduced as much as 20 per cent, whilst with picked coal
and highly skilled stokers, they may be increased nearly 10 per cent.
The feed temperatures usual in the respective classes of vessels are
assumed, and allowance should be made for any special feed-heating.
The evaporative efficiency of the boilers of cruisers and battleships
appears lower than it really is, as a large amount of steam is consumed
by the numerous auxiliary engines and for domestic purposes, but is
left out of consideration here ; for quantities of steam so consumed see
Tables XCII. and XCIII.
By way of a comparison with Table XC, it may be noted that a goods
locomotive consumes about 40 lbs. of coal per foot of fire-grate per hour,
and an express passenger engine from 65 to 80 lbs. ; and, as the evapor-
ative efficiency of the locomotive boiler is high , the water evaporated
per square foot of grate per hour may be taken as about 420 lbs. for th "
goods engine, and from 650 to 750 lbs. for the passenger engine.
1)
II
II
A-t.^
II
t}
II
II
15
i>
)*
II
II
20
II
II
II
>>
25
II
316 BOILERS — RESULTS OF TRIALS AT FULL POWER.
Table LXXXIX.— Results of Trials of
Type of boiler
Total heating sudace,
sq. ft.
Grate area, sq. ft.
Ratio of T.H.S. to
grate area.
Working pressure, lbs.
Fuel, kind of
Fuel value in B.T.U.
Engines supplied
Engines, horse-power,
per boiler.
Fuel consumed per hr.,
lbs.
Fuel consumed per sq
ft. of grate.
Fuel consumed per sq.
ft. of T.H.S.
Fuel consumed per
H.P.
Water evaporated per
hour, lbs.
Water evaporated per
lb. of fuel.
Water evaporated per
lb. of fuel from and
at 212'.
Water evaporated per
sq. ft. of T.H.S.
Water evaporated per
H.P.
Total beating surface
per H.P.
Efficiency per cent. .
Total weight of boiler,
i&c, perft.T.H.S., lbs,
Total weight of boiler,
Ac, per H. P., lbs.
Total weight ef boiler,
&o., lbs. water eva-
porated per hour.
U.S.A.
Hohenstein W.T. Boiler.
It
Water
tube
2,130
5014
42-5
275
Pocahon-
tas coal
14,992
1,037
20*68
0-49
• •
8,769
8-46
9-645
412
62*11
25-4
• •
6*16
.C OB
• •
•ON
Water
tube
2,130
50-14
42-5
275
Coal
14,992
4»
A •
MS
it II
Water
tube
2,180
5014
42-5
275
Texas
oil
19,481
2,674 1,969
50-33
126
• •
21,649
8-06
9*38
10'12
60*41
25*4'
2*51
0*92
• •
21,309
10-82
12*37
1000
61*31
2*51
B.
s » »
C.
12*5 diam..
(fee.
Cylin-
drical
1,200
140
Texas
oil
19,000
820
• •
0*68
• •
10,917
13-31
1613
9-09
82*08
•
i
i
4A •
u
eo
60.3
ft
A
Qua
•
49
•
4a
-cr*
Oi
' ee
o U
Sz5
iz<
^
Cylin-
Cylin.
Cylin-
drical
drical
drical
1,695
1,695
1,695
40
40
40
42*3
42*3
42*3
120
120
120
New-
Texas
Texas
castle
oil
oU
coal
14,500
• •
19,000
• •
19,000
• •
• •
974
• •
633
• •
1,222
24*35
• •
• •
0-58
0*37
0*72
• •
7,558
• •
7,756
• •
14,591
7*76
12-25
• •
9*31
14-45
14 06
4*46
4*58
8-61
• •
• ■
• •
• •
62-00
« ■
• •
73-46
• •
71-48
« ■
• •
• •
• •
• •
1-4 4^
eS ***
• ■•a
Water
tube
8,300
250
Texas
oil
19,000
Tur-
bines
8,900
9,80U
1-12
1038
107,000
11-70
13*68
12-84
12-06
0*93
71*47
13*34
12*45
1-086
BOILBRS — RESULTS OP TRIALS AT PULL POWER. 317
Boilers at Full Power.
Thornyoroft,
Light Naval,
Fed. Dght.
Whlte-Forster Naval
Boilers,
Light Naval.
Babcock-
Wilcox, U.S.A.
Naval Boiler. .
Miyabara,
Japanese
Naval Boiler.
Ordinary Mercan-
tile. 16-2 ft. diam.,
11-5 ft. long.
Niclausse Naval,
Fed. Dght.
Belleville Naval,
Fed. Dght.
1
i
1
i
•
1
i
■J
t
■i
1
i
Water
tube
7,930
Water
tube
7,500
Water tube
4,000
Water tube
6,353
Water tube
1,912
Cylin-
drical
2,994
Water
tube
8,000
Water
tube
4,099
• •
125-0
• •
119
63-91
68-6
231-8
146
• •
60-00
• •
44-98
36-47
43-67
34-6
28-1
265
220
203 1 208
203 1 210
234
180
144
287
Texas
oil
19,000
Coal
18,800
Texas oil
19,000
Pocahontas
coal
15,000
Welsh
coal
14,800
Call-
(ornian
oil
18,500
Coal
14,200
Coal
14,000
Coal
14,800
Tur-
bines
8,000
Tur-
bines
6,000
• ■
• •
Turl
612
»ines
3,484
• •
• •
• •
• •
Recpro.
turbines
1,550
Triple
comp.
2,773
Triple
comp.
1,696
8,810
9,260
1,146
3,800
1,365
6,649
2,021
1,690
1,920
6,934
3,188
• •
74-0
• •
• •
11-48
46-73
37-41
29-49
26*24
26-60
21-40
I'llO
1-28
0-287
0-96U
0-255
1037
1-067
0-831
0-641
0-742
0766
1-025
1-86
• •
• •
2-23
1-60
• •
• •
1-24
2-14
1-86
105,600
67,500
16,750
45,410
14,647
46,686
15,450
14,983
18,786
50,607
28,460
11-92
7-30
13-76
11-94
10-66
8-87
7-61
10-73
9-79
8-53
909
14-00
8-58
16-70
14-60
12-47
10-37
916
13-09
11-76
10-34
10*63
13-24
9-00
3-93
11-35
2-76
8-72
8*98
7-84
627
7-67
6-94
12-27
13-50
• •
■ •
23-77
13-42
• • -
• •
12 12
18-26
16-82
0-92
1-60
• •
• •
8-74
1-54
• • ■
• •
1-93
1-36
2-41
71-7
60-6
84-9
73-7
80-3
66-8
69-6
68-3
80-0
71-3
70-8
18*84
12-83
• •
• •
24-27
24-27
• •
• •
• •
• •
41-35
12-76
19-26
• •
• •
212
37-4
• •
• •
• •
• •
103-4
1
1-05
1-43
• •
• •
8-79
2-78
• •
• •
• •
« •
6*16
318 BOILERS — RATBB OF COMBUSTION AND BVAPOBATION.
Ill
5 = 1 i i I3SS s s
II
ai^»^l!ii^l!i
n
SS|sSgBggS8
1
1- Chimney only .
Chimney, and
■B--76 in. water
Chimney, and
Chimney, and
2 in. water ,
Chimn«y, and
2-6 in. water .
8 in. water
6 in. water .
jChimneyonly
Chimney, uid
■6 in. water .
Chimney, and
■6 in. water .
i
!
i
1
•s
1
lijiPi =]r|i|ip
1
•8
Ordinary Merchant Steamer .
PaaaMiger or Hail Steamer .
Torpedo Gnnbort . . .
Torpedo-Boat . . .
Paddle Steamer . .
BOILERS — 8URFA0B, WBIGHT, ETC.
319
Heating Surface per I.H.P.
^
s
©^ ^ COlHfH CD rH ^ <M 0» 00 :d« IH t« r> O
«D CO »0 b> 0$ iH iH 0» COAOOSiQOOiHOiHia
iH iH rH CO fH 04 el w< 03 iH 09 M iH M G1 93 M fH
Coal per sq. ft. of Grate
per hour.
(0
COOOO M «00» CDQftfHl>00lO
Coal per I.H.P. per hoar. L2
M
06 O
IO04
04 01-00 CO 00 01
Ok 00 l> 00 iH A CC
• 04 ^ CO kO lO l5 00
00 04 01 04 04 04 iH
bo
8
d
0)
o
(0
I
s
01
o
CQ
I.H.P. per ton of Boilers.
iH -41 '41 Oa O fH O t* 06 t^ <« i-l (O 00 «D OB <0 04
eo^co^St«i> e to «D to t» 00 00 1« 06 00 '^
I.H.P. persq. ft. of
Qrate.
1^0406 a» iH 04 06 lO >0 0l00 04k0t««DOO
1-100600^10 01 O) aoeoM«oe6'^<Q<DO
04 04 iH 04 CO 04 ») ^ iH 01 04 04 00 04 04 04 04 ^
Air Pressure in Stokehold, g
Total I.H.P. on Trial.
8Qt« O 0600 101004 ^
OeO iH « CO CO 01 P^ 04 ''tl 00 ^ «o •
• •• • ••••••••• •
0101^00^0000^00
oooo
eir401r^00^00 ^
Total Weight per I.H.P.
5
-3
o^•^oopo o oooooooopo
OtOOOrHbrOOO 04 iH OO 00 04 <p lO 04 CO <p O
f-tOCDiOdOMOO 00
) 00 Ol 01 90 04 01 04
ToUl Weight per sq. ft.
of Orate.
fHOicor.5f-i^ Q toi«-e-060»ooo2it50
to fH 04 r.4 Ol »• « 06 t« t<» 00 t. 00 t« t« «D (0 00
Total Weight of Boilers,
etc.
00
a
o
H
OlO^OIOOp 01 ^iHOoipp^
ua Ja 00 1» 00 06 QD ^i; o 04 04 o4 to « o> OQ r< eo
ooSooZ'^io « t«tDOO&t«SooSF>o
i-HlH 01
Working Pressure.
so
5
^tOtO l3oSr-t »» iH O ^oS 0410 lOOoS
rHi^mH 'iHtH04 iH 01 O) rH 04 O) 04 ei (N 01 01
Ratio Heating Surface
to Orate.
00 o 00 eo to oi t« t« «oooo6ox to loooooo
• •••■•• • ••••••••••^
«PaQQ«DCDeOi-l 01 00tO04t«<PQ01t0OO
eoeimoo^to^ to ^'^lo totoStoioioS
Total Heating Surface.
4a
09
§O^S«OOM 04 ^ 00 O04 lO lO '<• rHOO
OOtOOtO^A r-l «0t004'<«i tOOOOOO
eocot««oo45o 00 i-io4e4&a»oomta-«o
'^i to to 1^ '^ 00 00 00 OOOrHO'^'^MOOeOtO
Total Orate Area.
to
OQ
VPSd^P'^A '^ aO604 <00«D to lO (PO
04 Oft 00 O O to 00 lO O t« i-< t^ iH 06 to '^ CO to
iH iH PI 01 1-4 r-t fH pH 01 rH 01 r-l 01 pH 01 (N 04 t>«
Number of Boilers.
04 010100 0100 00 ^ ^0000 <«<^ 00 ^'^^CO
u
0)
•3
I
a
a
•d « C P p
O
u
'O'O h
CSV
— «^3ll§illsli|ii
•M CO
ft
HgH
o .
fe5
I
320
BOILXKB WATBEt COHBOHFTIOH TBIAU.
Table XCIL— H.M.S. "DiAna." W&ter Consumption Trials,
■hawing Cost of Auxiliaries. Cylindrical 5. E. Boilers. 155
lbs. Working Pressnre. Made in May and June, 1899, for
Admiralty Boiler Committee.
1
I
80lioun.t800I.H.P
8-3
101
«
B7
20-60
SM
2S-27
2-Sl
SO „ 4800 „
60-0
in
...
128
17 09
8.2,
2316
B-02
Cut-off In
H.P.cylindCT
Cnt-oa In
H.F.cTllnder
<4-6i«r<«nl.
SO „ 0400 „
M-a
13S
le,
lis
lit
2-68
2o-4e
2'W
8 .. 8000 ,.
Kl'S
1«
144
144
1776
lfl4 IBM
i-SIt
Table XCIta.— R.M.S. "Lusitania." Water Consumption
Trials, showing- the demands for Auxiliary Machinery and
Domestic Purposes.
Speed In Enole.
U75.
>■«.
nOO, 28.00.,25 40.
Shaft hone.power
Omsmnptlon per hour ol ateam of main
engines 1b>.
auilllarie.,Ac!. ... lbs.
0„..,.«» „...,., ..».,.;„,
Co'n-a^^p'rr^^^rVro, -.tea™ oi
aniiliarlEa. ,*it., per 8.H.P. hour
Copenmptlon per hour of iteam, totnL
mrS.H.P. houf
98
000
23
iO
20,600
853, «00
100,900
154,500
4 02
600
0OO48,00<^, 68,81-
300883,30(l! BT9,SO0
700,157,500 149,700
000 795,800 1,029,200
ei 1S.B2 1 1277
82 1 lfl-67 j 14-B4
DO 200 200
SO l-«2 1'4fl
BOILBRS — WATBB AND FUBL OOKSUMPTION TRIALS. 321
01
IS
CO
•g
O
•I
3
(S
a
o
1
a
CO
s
S
10
a
o
U
I
(2
8
O
Low Power.
4/5 to % Power.
Fall Power.
.CM a
• go
•H
Low Power.
Vs to H Power.
Fall Power.
M ago o oQoo
•M •
9104 '03
;• !00(NO)O000S .iOOI>-«
f-l ©a iH iH iH iH iHOafHiH
MO
iHOO
•©»i-i
jt>-
. .ift . . .
• -g • • •
« So
•10 'lo
'(Oeo
. .00
.8?
'OM
l5-
Low Power.
ooeSS . .
CD ^
• 9?'9 • •
e<i 04 M
t*
•^
s
4/« to % Power.
04 coco Oft
OO«0C4OO
OOQO kO
.lOMiO .06
• • • •
*ieoo(0 *«0
.M04
• •
*04IO
Fall Power.
SiO<4l«D
• • • •
,8?^
.aoo .e»
• • •
I
Preu.
:SI
.»
;o4 :S«SSej
•01 "rliHiHiH©!
Sort of.
is
OQ
P
.1
^
5 >.ft 00
S
a
a
I.H.P.
§QOOO(
oooo<_^ —^ — — — ___
<5 G>JS t^ o lO S *o \a • ©^®^» oi __t» ©^«6 CO »o
gOQO
000
lO O to tO
188
Sort of.
*9g
■as
_. lU fci
H
a fc * 5 a
H O'
.0
OD
CO
at
«; h S
S c a
CD
» ^ * • * fa
•< , . . ft
^ •-• -• -i-r ft 3 45 '^ S
K> ^^ « 1^ *
«.2 » .k » M M4A .S » .> H
5 -^ •
o
21
322 MARINB BOILBBS — KINDS OF.
MARINE BOILERS-KINDS OF.
Boilers for ship purposes are divided into two classes known as
tank and tube.
The tank boiler now used is cylindrical in form and contains
within it the water &nd the apparatus for heating and evaporating it.
The tube' boiler consists almost wholly of tubes, and generally there
is a cylindrical vessel at the top, called the receiver, into which the
tubes deliver the steam generated. If the tube delivers below the
normal water level of the receiver they are said to be drowned, as
distinct from those which deliver their contents above the water level,
as was usual with the Thornycroft boilers. Tube boilers are also
divided into two sub-divisions, each distinguished by the size of the
tubes. Those made up to l^-diameter are called the small tube variety,
while those with tubes of ereater diameter are called the large tube
variety. The water is within the tubes, and the fire-place is an inde-
pendent apparatus below the boiler ; the heat is applied to the outer
surface of the tubes.
The tank boiler contains much more water than the tube boiler,
and is the one almost exclusively in use in all kinds of mercantile ships.
In some few such ships, where very high speed and consequent very
light weight is desirable, water tube boilers are used.
The water tube boiler is used very largely in all warships, as
being lighter and safer against shot and sh^l. It is not, however,
exclusively so, as at one time was the case. As a result of the investiga-
tions of the British Admiralty Boiler Committee, warships are now *
supplied with about one- third of the power of cylindrical boilers, as they
are better suited for and more economic when cruising at low speeds. The
water tube boiler can be brought into action much quicker and stand
rougher usage in the process than the tank, for steam can be raised in
twenty minutes to half an hour after lighting fires on many water tube
boilers, whereas several hours are necessary for raising steam in the
tanks ; in fact, it is not uncommon to allow six or more hours. There
is veiy little difference in cost of a tube boiler for 800 lbs. working
pressure over that of one for 150 ; a tank boiler of large size cannot be
made for the former pressure, and for 230 lbs. is a much heavier and
costlier one than if made for 150 lbs. On the other hand, the life of the
tank boiler is pari passu longer than that of the water tube ; and
much longer than that of the express small tube boilers.
Cylindrical boilers are usually ''horizontal," but there are one or
two vertical forms used for other than auxiliary purposes with satisfac-
tion. The Cochran boiler, and others similar to it, are useful and
convenient for many purposes, especially where floor space is limited.
• Latterly there has been a reversion to the water tube boiler exclusively.
MARINE BOILERS — KINDS OF. 323
The Scotch haystack boiler was a very useful one for river steamers of
high speed when moderate pressures were the rule.
The horizontal cylindrical boiler in general use has two, three, or
four furnaces in the single-ended variety, and double those numbers in
the double-ended ones of same diameters. They are now made up to
19 feet diameter, and the double-ended as much as 22 feet long. The
working pressure is sometimes as high as 235 lbs., but generally 210 to
220 for quadruple expansion engines, and 180 to 205 for triples. In
the Navy the pressure for cylindrical boilers is usually 190 lbs.
For such large diameters and high pressures, high tensile steel is
generally used ; 36 tons is the common test per square inch, while
special steel having an ultimate strength of 40 tons can be used with
advantage. There is no shock on such steel, no reversal of stresses, and
the application and removal of load is most gentle.
The longitudinal seams are generally of the special treble-riveted
type, but may be, as they are largely on the Continent and in America,
special quadruple with vandyked edges to the butt straps, whereby as
much as 94 per cent, of solid plate is obtained. The end circumferential
seams are always double riveted for large sizes and high pressures, the
middle seams of such double-ended ones are treble riveted.
The number of combustion chambers varies in practice, at one
time even quite large boilers had sometimes only oue chamber common
to all six furnaces ; sometimes a chamber common to all the furnaces of
one end of a double-ended boiler. Sometimes, and this was quite
general practice, there was a combustion chamber common to each pair
of opposite furnaces, so that a six-furnace boiler would have three
chambers. Of late years the tendency has been to have a separate
chamber for each furnace : this is expensive and makes a heavy boiler,
but is a safe one and one more easily worked well — especially at cleaning
fire time than the others.
The gunboat boiler, in which the furnaces are at one end, the
tubes at the other, and the combustion chamber between them, was
largely used in the Navy; of late years it has been adopted with
advantage in shallow passenger steamers where deck space is important
and hold space free. It is a good steaming boiler and for small units
compares very favourably with the ordinary cylindrical, but requires
practically two stoke-holds, the second at the back to permit of cleaning
or removing the tubes.
The locomotive boiler was formerly extensively used in small
craft of all kinds, and in the Navy for very high powers. The water
tube boiler has, however, quite superseded it.
The double-ended boiler is naturally the cheaper and lighter, as
may be seen by referring to Table XCVIII. It is the one generally
used tor high powers in express steamers ; but it requires more careful
handling than similarljr sized single-ended ones, especially when raising
steam, as the bottom will remain quite cool after steam nas formed on
the top, unless means are adopted to ensure circulation.
Water tube boilers now in general use are much more limited '-
type and design than formerly. Time has tried them all, and cc
^
324 MABINB BOILERS — KINDS OF.
paratiyely few have continued to retain the confidence of marine
engineers.
Of the larg^e tube boilers there remains the Babcock k Wilcox,
so. much used in the British and American Navies ; the Nidausse in
the French Navy, and the Diirr in the German. The Belleville has
practically gone, owing to having got a bad name— perhaps worse than
it deserved, — but largely to its great cost and expense of upkeep.
They all have straight tubes, are simple in design and construction,
and- easy to work. Their evaporative efficiency is good with good
stoking, and they can be forced to a considerable amount without
injury — especially the Niclausse, which has a positive circulation
through each and every tube.
The Yarrow type of boiler is largely used in Naval ships of all
sizes, and, whereas those in the big ships had tubes generally of 1 J inches
external diameter, they are now only 1 J inches as in the smaller ships.
Their tubes are nearly all straight, at an angle not very far from
the vertical, and the general construction is simple, consequently they
can stand being forced with rough usage, while being quite efficient
evaporators.
The Hohenstein boiler also is one liked in the U.S. America ;
while in Japan the ** Miyabara " boiler, somewhat like the Hohenstein
in general design, is a favourite ; both have straight tubes, and are
simple in construction and easily worked.
Of small tube boilers there are, in addition to the Yarrow, theNormand
and others of the same type, differing in detail. The double-ended
variety of M. Sigaudy ; the Mumford modification of it, the Blechynden
variation from the Yarrow, and the White -Forster variation of the Blec-
hynden are good boilers. Those of the Blechynden are good boilers, as
are also the Mumford design, especially for small craft The Admiralty
continue to show a strong predilection for straight or nearly straight
tubes for all kinds of water tube boilers ; on the other hand, there is
more scope for design, greater economy of space and flexibility of
structure with the curved tubes, and with the moderate amount, as in
the Normand type, little fault is to be found. The freer the flow in
the tubes, the better both for efficiency and wear. With a strong
positive flow there is no priming, and no danger from lodgment of
bubbles nor any deposit of solids on the heating surface.
No doubt the troubles with the Belleville, and the controversies
following them, largely account for the prejudice against all water tube
boilers in the mercantile marine ; there is, besides this, the fact that
while these boilers are not necessarily wasteful of fuel, and are, when
carefully worked, as economic as ordinary tank boilers, they can be
made, in careless hands, more extravagant consumers than tank boilers
can be under similar circumstances. On laud, for centi'al electricity
stations, the water tube boiler is the favourite as responding to sudden
and unexpected calls, and is found to be, with mechanical stoking,
Quite efficient and economical.
MARINE BOILBRS— KINDS OF. 325
The total heating surface of a cylindrical marine boiler may be
estimated with quite a fair degree of approximation by
Rule 245. Total heating surface = D' x L x E square feet
D is the diameter and L is the length of shell in feet When the
tubes are of moderate diameter (2} to 3^ inches) and spaced as usual in
the mercantile marine, and with good room for examination and clean-
ing, E = 0 *87 for single-ended and 1 *08 for double-ended boilers. When
the tubes are smaller (2^ to 8), and as many of them as can be got
in consistent with satisfactory service, E may then be 1*0 for single
and 1 *2 for double-ended boilers.
Another method of obtaining roughly the total heating surface of
a boiler is as follows : —
6*2
Rule 245a. Total heating surface = D^ x L, x - — ^^ sq . ft.
d + V6
Lj is the length of tubes in feet, and d their external diameter in
inches. In case of a double-ended boiler, L^ is twice the length of the
tubes. A boiler may have 6 to 8 per cent, more surface than given
by this rule when the steam space is restricted.
The weight of a cylindrical marine boiler can be ascertained with
fair accuracy by the following : —
Rule 246. Weight of boUer = D'^^xV? ^ns.
\j
p is the pressure for which it is designed.
G is a factor, which, for single-endea boilers, is 768.
For double-ended boilers, with their combustion chambers common
to opposite furnaces, C=733.
For double-ended boilers, with separate chambers, 0=800.
326
THERMAL BFPICIENCY OF VARIOUS BOILERS.
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BOILERS — PARTICULARS OF DBSTR0TBR8.
327
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BVAPCmATION, HEATING SURFACE, ETC. 329
EVAPORATION, HEATING SURFACE, Ac.
The efficiency of the heating surface of a boiler depends on its
position, the material and thickness of the plates, tubes, etc., the
condition of the surfaces, and the circulation of the gases on the one
aide, and water in contact with them on the other, and their difference
in temperature.
(1) Position. — ^The most efficient heating surface is that of the
furnace crowns and combustion chambers ; its high efficiency is due
partly to the great difference of temperature between the two sides of
the plates, partly to the freedom of the surfaces from deposit of soot
or ash, and also in some measure to the fact that mineral or earthy
matter deposited from the water does not readily adhere to vertical
surfaces or to surfaces over which there is a good circulation of water.
Next in order of efficiency come the upper surfaces of the tubes,
more especially of the upper tubes at the ends next the combustion
chambers, for the reason that the flame and heated gases always seek
the highest possible course and rapidlv lose heat in passing through
the tubes, entering them at, say, 2400 and leaving them under 800",
and also because the bubbles of steam disensrage themselves more
easily when they can rise directly from a surface.
When a "nest" of tubes is made very deep {i.e. when there are
many rows one above another) it very often happens, for the reason
just given, that the lower rows do little or no work, and might be
often better absent from the boiler.
The surfaces below the level of the fire-bars, and the front tube-
plates are generally left out of consideration as of no practical value.
(2) Material. — Amongst ordinary metals suitable for boiler con-
struction, copper is by far the most efficient conductor of heat, its
conductivity compared with iron or steel being about as 8 to 1 ; for
various reasons, however, it is now very rarely used, and even brass
boiler tubes are now hardly ever used. Steel for the shells, furnaces,
and combustion chambers and for the tubes of water tube boilers, and
iron and steel for the tubes of cylindrical boilers, are now the universal
materials.
The high conductivity of copper so reduces the possible thermal
difference between the fire side and the water side of a plate as to very
materially diminish the local racking strains ordinarily produced during
the operation of getting up steam, and for this reason it was peculiarly
suitable for the fire boxes of torpedo-boat or other boilers in which
the changes of temperature are sudden and great.
330 BVAFORATION, HEATING SUBFAOB, ETC.
(3) Condition of surfaces. — A perfectly smooth and clean metallic
sorface does not give satisfactory results as a heating surface, as it is
apt to cause sudden and violent intermittent ebullition, and, for this
reason, few boilers work quite satisfactorily until they have become
slightly corroded or have acquired a thin film of scale or deposit.
Since the cooling of the products of combustion takes place mainly in
the tubes, soot is principally deposited in them, and they must be
Bwe^t more or less frequently, according to the class of coal used, if the
efficiency of the surface is to be maintained.
The external surfaces of the tubes, especially on the upper sides, are
peculiarly liable to the accumulation of deposit where water contaim'uff
salt or other mineral matter is used, as there is rapid evaporation, ana
the upward circulation is naturally sluggish and much impeded in large
"nests "of tubes.
(4) Circulation. — ^The proper circulation of the water over the heat-
ing surfetces is of the very greatest importance, for no boiler in which
the design and arrangements are such as to prevent such a circulation
will ever steam satisfactorily or evaporate the quantity of water that it
could do otherwise. The principal evils that result from defective
circulation are deposit of scale on the evaporating surfaces, with the
consequent overheating and buckling of plates and leaking of tubes,
and tile irregular and much diminished evaporation, accompanied by
intermittent fits of '* prjming."
Special difficulty was found in getting a proper circulation of water
over the tube plates next the fires of Naval boilers, mainly on account
of the close pitch of the tubes and consequent contraction of the water-
ways ; and similar difficulty was also experienced with the large flat
(almost square) tops of the fire-boxes in boilers of the locomotive type.
In this latter case, the cure was found by fitting one or two
" Galloway" tubes, a cure as effectual as was found many years ago to
be the case in large double ended cylindrical boilers. Better results,
however, were obtained by dividing the fire-box completely by means
of a water space, thus making two distinct furnaces.
Diameter of tubes. — ^The diameter of tube has a considerable in-
fluence on the efficiency of its surface, inasmuch as the contents increase
as the square, whilst the surface increases as the diameter only. Thus
if a 4-inch tube be substituted for two 2-inch ones, the absorbing sur-
&ce will remain the same, but twice the quantity of gas will be passed,
if the velocity of flow remain the same. If the velocity of now be
reduced in the 4 -inch tube (to one half) so as to pass only the same
quantity of gas as the two 2-inch ones, the 4-inch tube is still at a
disadvantage, —inasmuch as the mean distance of the molecules of gas
from its surface is greater than in the 2-inch one& Howden's
retarders somewhat remedied this defect
When artificial or forced draught is used, the diameter of tube should
be smaller than for natural draught,— if length of tube and velocity of
gas are to remain the same,— since the gases have a higher temperature
and must be divided into smaller threads or streams to prevent escape
to the chimney at a wastefully high temperature : the draught, being
BVAFORATIOK, HEATING SURFAOB, BTO. 331
positive and sharp, may be relied on to overcome the extra Motion as
well as to prevent the deposit of soot.
The diameters of tube in ordinary use are as follows : —
(a) Merchant steamer. Chinmey draught. 3 inch to 8} inch.
(b) ,y ,, Artificiid „ 2^ inch to 2| inch.
(c) Cruiser or battleship. „ „ 2^ inch, cyl. boilers.
Quantity of water evaporated per pound of coal.— This of course
depends not only on the quality of the coal, but on the type of boiler,
the strength of draught, and the skill of the stoker. The average
evaporation of water that may be expected with good fuel, under the
various conditions indicated, is shown in Tables LXXXIX., XCIII.,
&c. A good cylindrical boiler should have an efficiency of 80 per
cent, at least.
Equivalent evaporation from and at 212" F. — In order to com-
pare evaporative results obtained with different temperatures of feed
and pressures of steam, it is necessary to eliminate the effects of the
varymg conditions by reducing all the results to one common standard.
The standard generally employed is '*the equivalent evaporation
from and at 212* F.," — i.e. the number of pounds of water that would
be evaporated in each case, per pound of coal per hour, if the feed
water were supplied at 212" F., and completely evaporated under the
pressure (one atmosphere) due to that temperature.
On reference to the Table "Properties of Saturated Steam/' it is
seen that 966 thermal units are required to evaporate 1 lb. of water
firom 212", and under a pressure of one atmosphere; so that, if the
number of thermal units imparted to the water by each pound of coal
during the test be determined, and divided by 966, the quotient will
be the equivalent evaporation from and at 212 . The (Quantity of heat
imparted by each pound of coal is determined by refemug to column 7
of the same Table, opposite to the proper pressure, and there reading off
the total heat, &om 32", contained in each pound of steam, deducting
from this the number of units, above 32", contained in each pound
of feed-water as supplied, and then multiplying the remainder by
the number of pounds of water evaporated, per pound of coal per
hour, during the test. This operation is concisely expressed by the
formula, —
^212=Nt{ ^ 'll~ ^^^ } (vide Table C, p. 337) •
where Na^s Number of lbs. of water evaporated per lb. coal, from and
at 212".
Nt= Number of lbs. water evaporated per lb. coal under test
conditions.
H = total heat, from 32", per lb. of steam at test temperature
and pressure
<r= temperature at which feed was supplied during test.
Sq. Ft Total H.8.
per Ton of Boiler.
to to t»c0ta 00 iHos ^
Ss
s
S3|
Total.
^M M MMM m Mot M M M M M 09 M MMMMM
Water.
HO O OOO O r-lO O O O O O i-i iH *h i-4 iH iM i-l
Boiler.
Seq ^ AMfH O OOQ ^ t« O O M M iH ^ O iH Q CO
W« • ••• • •• • • •• » T^ # • • • r •
10403 04
Total.
0
O
H
^«io
^
O OlH »»
•^i o o
as S3 SS^:? SSf^@ f^ s^ss
SoOOr-l^
9^mSS
Water.
0 lA t«t»t» lo lOf-i lo o eioMia oo _-_
. t>> ^ CO(Nr-l Q OQ Oj O Oft 0» t* «D CO OOOOOOt*
Boiler.
CO 00 00 lO
s<
Pm Ob eomib op on^ eo lio o t«> <^ o ^- dot«fi*«eo
HOO t* OOl^t* ® t*-* ■* ■* 9 CO M 09 0» iHiHi-liH?5
_j«O00-*'<l
• • - - -
Total
Heating Surface.
^9i Ol O'
_LfH lO Ml
0*iO -^ to
OS
I to lO tH lO
•« lO
•<«00 00
go 04 t« O t« fiQQQ<
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Surface.
£m O QQQ 00 OCD -«
0''« ^ '«^03 ^ oSm M
OQ
§
s
to Oft 9
l«Oi
!S
Length.
p^Bi 4b p^i Mini p4bi p^^^i
0O4OOCDiHt>.O«OrH O OfttHCDOft t« OOMiOiOOi
M iH l-t
^t» »* t«-t»t* t* 00« t* <
fe* 00 t« «0
W <0 <D C0
Diameter.
04 04 04 04 M CO eO 00 CQ CO OO 09 00 CO qo
Number. |
OQ Q e4«PO Q 04C0 <D
W 00 gOOt^ t» <P to '^
S $ S S 22 ssssss
04 04 04 tH iH yHiHiHrH
Number of Oom-
bustion Chambers.
: : : « :oo "*
«9 00 00 09 04 04040401'^
00
Thickneee. | oS -C SS-^S: ^ :SS^ X X '^ rt < ^ X <-*-••««:
Diameter.
a o o ^ 00 a* 04 ^oo 04 la ^'^ooco o t^«Okaioo4
M-» ^ '^-t'S •* §SS <* ^ ^ •« 09 ^ 5l 0000090009
Number. |
00 00 CDCO«0 «0 CD<0 ^ 00 00 M 00 00 04 04 04 04 04 04
"3
DQ
Thicknew.
gX^xx<x«< X <<<< ^ r--^
Length.
•*a to t« Oft
COO <0 «DO Oft Oft <0 «D O « 00 <o«o«o<oa»
000ft Oft OftOO 00 r-« f-4 I-l iH O iH OftCftOftOftOft
i-4r-l fH i-« I-l I-l f* 1^ r^ vH r-l 1-4
i Diameter.
I
gkO ^ «0e0tO 00 040ft «D
09 00 o o
43«D «0 lO
CB|»H IH I-l
lO^ ^ '^•Ol iH
"« ^ 00
s
OOOOOft
fHlHOOOO
Working Pressure. 58 S §§3 § §S §
^^ u3»H r^ e4rH04 ©4 04p^ iH
8 8 S S
04 fH 01 i-l
■2®
• Sp4
p
o Oh} O
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0
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Q JOQOO-J
PROPORTIONS OF BOILERS. 333
PROPORTIONS OF BOILERS.
Grate surface.— From the information given in Tables LXXXIX.
and XCI., it will be an easy matter to determine the I. H.P. per foot of
grate that may be anticipated (or the grate area that must be provided
for any given I.H.P.) in the case of proposed new boilers of any of the
types mentioned.
Size of furnace. — The furnaces of cylindrical boilers should not be
less than SO inches in diameter, nor more than 48 inches, unless in
exceptional cases: wherever possible a diameter of not less than 40
inches should be given, as, with smaller furnaces,— owing to thickness
of fire being practically constant for all diameters,— the space above
the fuel is much contracted, and the combustion less perfect in
consequence. As previously stated, long bars cannot be properly
worked by hand, and are not so efficient as short ones : it is aesirable
tliat they should be limited to a length of 6 feel
Number of furnaces. —
Boilers up to 9 feet diameter may have 1 furnace.
,, ,, 13 ft. 6 ins. ,, 2 furnaces.
„ „ 16 feet „ 8 ,,
,, beyond 15 feet ,, 4 ,,
If the boilers are double-ended, the number of furnaces will, of
course, be double the figure given above.
The total heating surface necessary and sufficient for each ship
can be only deteimined by the special circumstances. It will be seen by
reference to Table LXXXIX. that 10 to 18 lbs. of steam can be got per
square foot of heating surface in water tube boilers, and as much as
9 lbs. from cylindrical ; in both cases the draught is forced and the
surfaces within and without quite clean but the efficiency is low for
economic working. In a general way it may be taken that 8 lbs. per
square foot of T. H. surface may be obtained economically with clean
boilers ; and to provide for dirty tubes, &c. , 7 lbs. is as much as should
be counted on with ships making a long enough voyage to cause fouling.
For short voyages not exceeding eight hours and where economy of fuel
is not of first importance, 8 may be taken. Assuming that tne steam
consumption on every kind of ship, including that of uie engine's own
auxiliaries (that is, air and circulating and feed pumps, etc.), is as
follows : —
Turbines, best modern geared . 10*5 lbs. per H.P. hour.
Quadruples generally . . .14*0 ,,
Triples, best economic . . 1 4 7 , ,
,, express service . . 15'5 ,,
Naval ships turbines (direct) . 13 '5 ,,
„ reciprocators • . 16 0 ,,
334 PASTIOnLABS Of KODHIUT OTLIHDRIOAt BOILBRB.
m a e ^ a •*» *^ -*i^ ^ » S ■ ^J"-t*"
|SH-s*-eS'J
^:fS=-i;?'- iS:
-g . . .srs-g-g-. . |8| _'
= . -§ * - «
,| E-5S I gi,-a ■ .o.'g ■ = ■-
PROPORTIONS OF BOILERS.
335
To each case add the amount of steam required for other auxiliaries
and domestic purposes, and, the proper allowance of T.H. surface is
obtained by dividing the sum by 7 or 8 as the case may be.
Of course each case may have a special rate of steam consumption of
the main engines, and that should be taken instead of the average
figures as above. The allowance for auxiliaries and domestic is also a
variable quantity, but may be taken as 5 per cent, in an ordinary
cargo steamer and may be as much as 15 per cent, on a passenger
steamer in the North Atlantic or North Sea for winter service. With
these assumptions the following holds good : —
Table XCIX.— Total Heating Surface per I.H.P.
of various Ships.
Description of Ship and Service.
Steam Consumption.
Totel
Heating
1 1
Surface
Main.
Auxly.
Total.
per H.P.
Sq. ft.
(1) Cargo steamer, general service,
quadruple reciprocators
14*0
0-70
14 70
2-100
(2) Cargo steamer, general service,
triple reciprocators .
14-7
0-74 1 16-44
2-206
(3) Passenger steamer, express long
voyage, triple reciprocators
16-6
2-00
17-60
2-500
(4) Passenger steamer, express short
voyage, triple reciprocators
(5) Passenger and cargo steamer, long
16-5
1-50
17-00
2-125
voyage, quadruple recijMrocators
14-0
1-20
16-25
2-180
(6) Atlanticpassenger, express, turbine-
driven
12-5
2-50
15-00
2-143
(7) Atlantic passenger and cargo,
turbine-driven ....
12-6
1-60
14-00
2 000
(8) Short service, express, cold climate,
turbine-driven ....
130
1'65
14-65
1-88
(9) Passenger and cargo steamer,
geared, turbine-driven •
10-6
2*3
12-8
1-83
(10) Naval ships, battleships, and large
cruiser turbines ....
13-6
2 00
15-50
1-925
(11) Naval ships, battleships, and large
cruiser reciprocators .
16-0
2-00
18-00
2-25
(12) Naval ships, scouts, and high-speed
turbines
14-0
2-00
16-00
2-00
Taking in each case the maximum average power developed by tb'
336
FBOFOBTIONS OF BOILERS.
engine daring a run of not less than two hours as the basis, the
allowance on the sea full power will be larger than above.
Steam room.-^The steam room allowed in the yarious types of
boiler, working at or about the pressures named, may be as follows : —
Table XCIXa.— Allowance of Steam Room in Boilers
(Cubic Feet per I.H.P.)
Description of Boiler.
Tyi>e of Engine.
Workiug
Pressure.
Allowance.
Lbs.
Cubic feet
(1) Cylindrical S. and D.
Triple and quad-
ended, ordinary
ruple screw
200-280
0-36-0 82
(2) Cylindrical S. and D.
Tiiple screw, slow
ended, ordinary
revolutions
176-200
0 •38-0-85
(3) Cylindrical S. and D.
Triple screw, high
ended, ordinary
revolutions
175-200
0-33-0-28 -
(4) Cylindrical S. and D.
Compound paddle
ended, ordinary
wheel
120-140
0-48-0 -88
(5) Cylindrical S. and D.
ended, ordinary
Turbines
160-180
0-24 0-18
(6) Water tube as used in
H.M. Navy .
M
180-200
0-085- -065
(7) Water tube as used in
Triple screw, very
H.M. Navy .
lugh revolutions
210-250
0'095--08
In cylindrical boilers the top row of tubes should be not less than
-28 X diameter of boiler from the top ; if higher, the contraction of
water sur£ace is apt to cause priming.
Paddle and all slow-running engines should have considerably larger
steam spaces than the faster running ones, but in practice weight of
machinery is of such great importance that everything is cut down to
the lowest limit ; so, many compound paddle engines, working at
pressures of 100 to 120 lbs., have not more than '4 cubic foot per
LH.P.
Water spaces, &c. — The spaces between the furnaces themselves,
between the furnaces and the shell, and between the combustion
chambers, although sometimes made as narrow as 5 inches, are better
5^ inches, and even 6 inches when possible ; the space between back
of combustion chamber and end of boiler should be 6 inches at the
bottom, increasing to 9, 10, or even 12 inches at the top.
A suitable pitch for tubes is 1 '35 to 1 -4 x external diameter of tube ;
where weight is of great importance, as in Naval vessels, the tubes are
ometimes pitched a little closer than this, but with water spaces so
pnOPOBTIOKS OP BOILERS.
33t
contracted there is always risk of priming. A fair average pitch is given
by the rule, —
Rule 247. Pitch of tubes = D + ^ + -85 inch ;
where D is outside diameter of tube in inches.
Whenever possible the tubes should be placed in horizontal and
vertical rows, and not arranged in any diagonal lines or zigzag fashion.
The clear space between the nests of tubes should never be less than
10 inches, and when possible should be lOJ or 11 inches, — in order
that a man may be able to get down : manholes between the furnaces
and tubes can be then dispensed with — an important point, — for the life
of a boiler depends to a considerable extent on the number of openings
in its shell, — the leakage from such openings being most destructive.
For the same reason, longitudinal seams below the water level should
be avoided as much as possible
Tables XCVII. and XOVIII. give particulars (dimensions and
weights) of a number of boilers that nave been actually constructed in
accordance with different rules as indicated. The weights given are
those of "bare boiler," without either furnace fittings or boiler
mountings.
Table C— Multipliers for Converting: Weig:ht of Water actually
evaporated to the Equivalent Quantity from and at 212'' F.
ip. of
Water.
Boiler pressure, being absolute pressure minus 14-7 lbs.
5-2
110
120
1-202
130
1-203
140
160
160
1-208
170
1-210
180
1-211
190
1-212
200
210
220
1-216
230
1-217
240
1-218
260
1-219
F*
80 1-JSOO
7 1189
1-206
1*207
1-214
1-216
1191
1-193
1*194
1-196
1-197
1-199
1-200
1-202 1-203
1-205
1-206
1-2071-208
1-209
80 1-179
1-181
1188
1-184
1-186
1-187
1-189
1-190 1-192 1-193
1-194
1-195
1-196 1-198
1-199
90 1-169
1-170
1-172
1-174
1-176
1177
1-179
11801-131
1-170 1-171
1-183
1-184
1-185 1-186 1-187
1-188
100 1158
1-160
1-162
1-164
1-165
1-167
1168
1-172
1-174
1-175 1-176 1177
1-178
110 1-148
1-16(1
1-162 1168
1-165
1-166
1158
1-169
1-lCO
1-162
1-163
1-1641-1661-167
1-168
120 1-138
1140
11411143
1-145
1-146
1147
1-149
1-150
1-151
1158
1164 1-165 1-166
1-167
180 1-127
1129
1-1301-182
1-134
1-186
1137
1138
1-140
1-141
1-142
1-144 1146 1146
1147
140 1-117
1119
1-1201-122
1-124
1-126
1-127
1128
1-1291-181
1-132
1-1831-1341-135
1-136
150 1-106
1-108
l-110'l-lll
1-113
1-115
1-116
1118
1-119 1-120
1-121
1-123 1-124 1-12611-1261
160 1-096 1098
11001-101
1-103
1104
1-106
1107
1-108
1110
1-111
1112 1-113
1-1151116
170 1086 1-087
10891 091
1-092
1-094
1-095
1-097
1-098
1-099
1-101
1-1021103
1 104 1-105
180 1-0751-077
1-0791080
1082
1-068
1086
1-086
1-088
1089
1-090
1091 1092
10941-(*95
190 1-0651 0661 06811 -070
1-071
1-073
1-074
1-076
1-077
1-078
1080
l-08l!l-< 82
1-0831*084
200 1-064 1-056 1-068 1069
1-061
1-063
1064
1-065
1067
1-068
1-069
1071! 1-072
1-0731-074
1 062 1068
210 1-044 1-046 1-047|1*049
1-061
1-052
1063
1-066
1-056
1-067
1-059
1060
1-061
22
338
RKLATIVB WEIGHTS OP BOILER INSTALLATIONS,
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PROFORTIONB OF BOILBRB.
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340
STBKL BOILERS — CONSTRUCTION.
STEEL BOILERS-CONSTRUCTION.
The following is a summary of the Admiralty, Board of Trade, and
Lloyd's rules relating to the construction of steel boilers : —
Admiralty tests of Boiler Steel.— All steel to be made by the acid
open-hearth process. Every plate, &c. , used is to be tested, and must
comply with the requirements stated below.
Table C I L— Admiralty Tensile Tests.
1
Minimum ' Mazimnm
■Minimum
ultimate ten- ultimate ten-
elongation
Description of Material.
sile strength, slle strength,
in
tons per
tons per
8 inches,
square inch, j square inch.
1
per cent.
Not exposed to flame k not flanged,
27
30
20%
Exposed to flame and flanged,
24
27
25%
Rivet bars,
24
27
25%
Steam -pipe plates,
24
27
83%
Corrugated or ribbed furnace,
23
26
27%
Tube forgings (annealed), .
21
24
23%
Pieces cut from tubes (annealed), .
•••
26
27%
For bending tests the specimens are to be heated to a low cherry red,
and then cooled in water at 82"* F. Strips of plate 1^ inches wide
must bend double in press, — dinner radius being 1} times thickness of
plate. For pieces of rivet bar, inner radius to equal radius of bar ; and
for strips from tubes, J inch. Plates exposed to flame are also to be
testedfby welding and forging, some of the welds being broken in the
testing machine to ascertain degree of perfection. Angle, tee, and bar
steel is to stand such other forge tests as the overseer may direct.
Samples from each batch of rivets are also to stand the following
tests : — ^To be bent double (cold), inner radius of bend beinc; equal to
radius of rivet; to be bent double (hot) and hammered till the two
parts of shank meet ; head to be flattened (hot) without cracking until
its diameter is 2^ times diameter of shank ; and shank to be nicked on
one side, and bent over to show quality of metal.
Tubes under ^ inch thick to stand drifting out at each end, when
hot, to 20 per cent, larger diameter, and expanding out, when cold, to
12^ per. cent, larger diameter, and thicker tubes to go half these
amounts. Sections of thin tubes, 2 inches long, to bear hammering
down, cold, to 1^-inch if lap welded, and to 1 inch if solid drawn ; and
to bear flattening, if below fV-inch thick, until sides touch, and if
thicker until sides come within twice thickness, in all cases without
fracture.
BOARD OF TRADB TESTS OF BOILBR STEEL. 341
Board of Trade Tests of Boiler and other Steel.
Instructions to Surveyors.
Manufacturb and Testing of Steel Material intended for
Boilers and Maohinert under Board of Trade Subyst.
1. Introduction. — The Board having had under cousideration the
reports issued by the Engineering Standards Committee, prepared the
following amended instructions for the guidance of their Surveyors,
which came in force on Ist August 1908.
Geneeal Conditions.
109. Process of manufacture : annealing shell plates, — All steel
intended for use in the construction of boilers and for forgings should
be made by the open-hearth process. Boiler plates should be of acid
quality ; but the other portions of boilers, and forgings, may be made
of either acid or basic stoeL In the case of castings, the steel may be
made by any process which has been approved by the Board of Trade.
It is very desirable that all plates (especially those of great thickness)
intended for the shells of boilers should be annealed, but it is important
that the process should be carefully effected, the plates being heated
singly to a suitable temperature, in a properly conslructed furnace, and
allowed to cool separately and uniformly out of the furnace.
110. Selection and treatment of test -pieces, — All the test-pieces
required should be selected by the Surveyor, and, except where other-
wise specified, the tests should be made in his presence at the place of
manufacture, and before the despatch of the material ; and the stamping
of test-pieces shall be done after all the heating or annealing is com-
pleted.
If anv material is annealed or otherwise heat-treated, the test-pieces
should oe similarly and simultaneously treated with the material before
they are tested. The specimens should not be further heated, excepting
those for temper-bending tests, which should be heated to a blood red
and quenched in water at a temperature not exceeding 80** F.
As regards forgings, the test-pieces should be taken from a part of
the forgings of sectional dimensions not less than those of the body, of
the forging, and they should be machined to size without further
fomng down.
Test-pieces should not be cut off forgings or castings until they have
been stamped by the Surveyor after the annealing has been completed.
When a number of articles are cut from one plate, bar or forging,
the number of tests required should be the same as that required from
the original piece, provided the articles have not been further heated
or forged, and can oe identified as having formed part of the original
piece.
When a number of small forgings are made from the same ingot, or
a number of small castings from the same charge of steel, the fii^
342
STBBL BOILERS — CONSTRUCTION.
number of tests specified herein need not be made ; tensile and bending
tests at the rate of one of each for every four articles will, as a rule, in
such cases be sufficient.
111. Standard test-pieces. — ^The foims and dimensions of test-pieces
should be as follows : —
(a) Tensile Tests.
Plates, Teb, and Angle Bars— Test Piece A.
u-
I
00
ib'P
?> I o
H 70*0
SB
w as *f ^
•mm "Si • •mm
a a
SI ^ I s
& ^
^91
•Si
Is
2s*
-<i
U. - •*
•r GAUCC URon-
^^^
•-MUUII fot « uMTi « m UN TIM 0 ncm--*
•mu uaen uoui ir*
I
I
Bars, Rods, and Stays— Test Piece B.
I
GiNE LEMTI NT USS TNM 8 TORI TK Ottlinil-
.^
*<»inn duuRo EiN:-MMua m a uwti v ht im tim ft tmb he men ■mktci*'
Altebnatiyb Test Piecs F — For Test Pieces over 1 inch diameter.
CAUGE LENGTH NOT LESS
■J
THAN 4 TIMES THE OIAMEH*
I^WITH EMLAHCED ENDS: PARALLEL FOB A LENGTH OF^
«rT USS THAN 4i TIMES THE REDOGCS DIAMETER
BOARD OP TRADE TBST8 OF BOILER STEEL.
343
FoROiNOB AND Castings— Test Pieces C, D and B.
T£ST PIECE C.
PARALLEL FOR A LEHCTjI.
OF NOT LESS THAN 2f
J)IA.«
AREA
564 IN.
> i SQ. IN.
TEST PIECE 0.
r
I
I •■
I
I
3" CAUCE LENGTH
0IA.«'798III.
AREA«iSQ.iR.
PARAUEL FOR A LENGTH OF HOT
USS THAN Sr
reST PIECE E-.
■+— -
I
3f CAUCE LENGTH
0IA.-977III.
AREA-ISQ.II.
•-
— -FAIAUa ffW « UNCTH OF HOT USt TIAH 4*— •-«.
The gauge length and the parallel portion of the above test-pieces
should be as shown. The foim of the ends to be as required in order to
sidt the various methods employed for gripping the test-pieces.
Any reduction of the specimens to the form required should be
effected by machine, and, whenever practicable, the rolled surfaces
should be retained on two opposite sides of the test-pieces taken from
plates, angle bars, and tee bars.
(b) Bending Tests.
The specimens sheared from plates, an^le bars, and tee bars, for
bending tests, shall not be less than 1^ inches wide ; but for small
bars the whole section may be used. The rough edge caused by
shearing samples i inch in thickness, and above, may be removed by
filing or grinding ; and samples, 1 inch in thickness, and above, may
have the edges machined. The bending specimens of round bars
should, whenever practicable, be of the ^11 diameter of the bars as
rolled, but those of large section may be turned down to a diameter
of 2 inches, if desired.
The bending tests of forgings and castings should be made wit^
r^
344 STEEL BOILERS — CONSTRUCTION.
rectangular test-pieces, 1 inch wide by { inch thick, which should
be machined to size and have the corners rounded to a radius of y^
inch : they should be bent over their thinner section.
112. DupZico^tf^sto.— Should either a tensile or a bend test fail to
fulfil the test requirements, and the Surveyor considers that the test-
piece does not fairly represent the quality of the material, two duplicate
specimens may, if the maker wishes, be tested ; and if the results
obtained from both are satisfactory, the quality of the article shall be
judged therefrom and not from the original test which failed. If, how-
ever, either of the duplicate tests fails, the article or articles represented
shall be rejected.
Should any tensile test-piece break at a point outside the middle half
of its gauge length, the test may, at the makers' option and with the
Surveyor's approval, be discarded, and another test may be made from
the same plate, bar, forging, or casting.
113. Stamping of material. — Every article shall be stamped with a
number or identification mark such that the charge of steel from which
it was made can be readily identified. In addition to this, plates and
bars shall be stamped with the maker*a name or trade mark, and plates
with the results of any tests which are made from them.
114. Reporting test results, — After witnessing the steel tests, the
Surveyors should, except in the cases subsequentiy mentioned, submit
the form Surveys 24 recording the results as soon after the tests are
made as is convenient, without waiting for the completion of the order ;
and should be forwarded without loss of time to the Surveyors at the
port at which the material is to be used.
115. Freedom from defects^ dkc. — The finished material should be
sound and free from cracks, surface flaws, and laminations, and no
hammer-dressing, patching, burning, or electric welding is permissible.
Local dressing of shell plates is undesirable, but if in any case the
steel-makers wish to adopt this method of removing surface cfefects, the
attention of the Surveyor must first be called to the defect, and no
dressing must be done until he has inspected the part and satisfied
himself that no crack exists. He should then stamp the adjacent part
with his initials and' record what he has done on the form Surveys 24,
which should be forwarded to the Engineer Sui*veyor-in-Chief for
transmission to the Surveyor who will inspect the boiler for which the
plate is intended. In no circumstances whatever is hammer-dressing
allowed, and the means for removing a surface defect must be confined
to chipping and filing.
When the Surveyor who inspects the boiler during construction
receives the form Surveys 24, he should, if practicable, arrange for the
part to which attention has been drawn to be kept on the outside of
the boiler, and he must specially examine the part after it has been
rolled to the cylindrical form.
It is most necessary that the Surveyor should carefully scrutinise
the inner and outer surfaces of all cyclindrical shell plates, with a
view to detecting cracks, while the plates are being worked in the
^oilers. If he has any doubt about a part, a light chipping should
BOARD OP TRADE TESTS OP BOILER STEEL. 345
be taken off the surface, in order to see if the chipping divides at a
crack.
Boiler-makers should be requested to examine carefully all shell
plates in the various stages of working, as they have the best oppor*
tunity of discoveiing defects, and occasionally cracks develop when
working the plates in the boiler shop ; but such inspection does not in
any way relieve the Surveyor from his duty personally to inspect the
plates.
Every precaution should be taken by the steel-makers to prevent a
defective plate leaving their works, as they are responsible for supplying
sound material. That a great deal can be done in this respect by the
makers is clear from the fact that there are some steel-makers manu-
facturing a large amount of plating with regard to which the Board
have no record of a defective shell plate.
In the event of any material proving unsatisfactory in the course of
working or machining, it should be rejected notwithstanding any
previous certification of satisfactory testing.
Steel fob Use in Boilers.
116. General instructions, — The following instructions regarding
boiler material refer to steel of ordinary mild quality. Where high
tensile steel is used, the requirements specified by the Board in each
case should be adhered to.
Plates,
117. Number wnd nature of tests, — A tensile and a bending test
should be taken from each plate, as rolled ; but, when the weight of
the plate exceeds two and a half tons, a tensile and a bending test
should be taken from each end. Bending tests only, however, need be
made from plates for which a greater stress than is allowed for iron is
not desired.
The plates for man-hole doors, and for compensating rings around
the openings for doors, should be tested in the usual manner.
118. Tensile strength and elongation. — The tensile strength of plates
not intended to be worked in the fire or exposed^ to flame, for which
special limits have not been sanctioned, should be* between 28 and 32
tons per square inch : that of other plates, from 26 to 80 tons per
square inch. The elongation should not be less than 20 per cent, in a
length of 8 inches for material | inch in thickness and upwai-ds which is
required to have a tensile strength of 28 to 32 tons per square inch, and
not less than 23 per cent, if the tensile strength is required to be between
26 and 30 tons per square inch. For material unaer f inch in thick-
ness, the elongation may be reduced ; but, for each eighth of an inch
of diminution in thickness, the reduction should not be more than
3 per cent, below the elongations mentioned.
119. Bend tests, — Bending test-pieces should withstand being benf
346 STBBL BOILERS — CONSTRUCTION.
without fractare, until the sides are parallel at a distance apart of not
more than three times the thickness of the specimen. The bending
tests of plates not intended to be worked in the fire or exposed to flame
may be made with strips in the same condition as the plates : those
from other plates should be made with strips which have been
tempered.
120. JFitnessing of tests hy Surveyor. — It is very desirable that the
Surveyor should witness the whole of these tests ; but, in the case of
plates made from steel manufactured by any of the makers whose names
are given in section 108, he need only select and witness tests from one
in four of the plates of each thickness, unless the weight of the plate is
over two and a half tons, or special limits of strength, or, in the case
of shell plates, a minimum tensile strength exceeding 27 tons is
required, in which oases the Surveyor should see the tests made from
all the plates.
Angle, Sivet, and Stay Bars.
121. Number and naifwre of tests.— One tensile test should be made
from each 15, or part of 15, bars rolled of each section or diameter from
the same charge, but not less than two tensile tests should be made,
unless the total number of bars rolled from the same charge is 8, or less
than 8, and the bars are of the same section or diameter, when one
test will suffice. For round bars If inches in diameter, and under, the
numbers 50 and 20 should be suljitituted for 15 and 8 respectively, as
determining the number of tests necessary.
A cold and a temper bend should be made from stay bars in the
same proportion as that in which tensile tests are required ; and a cold
or temper bend should be made from each angle or tee bar rolled. No
bending tests need be made from rivet bars.
122. Tensile strength and elonga/tion of stays, angles, and tee bars. —
The tensile strength of longitudinal stays, angles, and tee bars should
be between 27 and 32 tons per square inch, with an elongation of not
less than 20 per cent measured on the appropriate standard test-piece
(A or B). For bars for combustion-chamber stays, the tensile strength
should be between 26 and 82 tons per square inch, with an elongation
of not less than 23 per cent, measured on the standard test-piece.
When, however, stay bars are tested on a gauge length of four times
the diameter (test-piece F), the elongations should be 24 per cent and
28 per cent, respectively.
For tee or angle bars under § inch in thickness, the elongation may
be 3 per cent, below that specified for plates.
123. Befiid tests. — Bending test-pieces should withstand being bent,
without fracture, until the sides are parallel at a distance apart of not
more than three times the thickness or diameter of the specimen.
124. Rivet bars. — The tensile strength of rivet bars should be between
26 and SO tons per square inch, with an elongation of not less than 25
per cent, measured on the standard test-piece B, or 80 per cent, if
measured on test-piece F.
BOARD OF TRADE TESTS OF BOILER STEEL. 347
Miveta.
125. Natwe of teats. — A few rivets of each size should be selected by
the' Surveyor from the bulk, and should be subjected to the following
tests: —
(a) The rivet shanks to be bent cold and hammered until the two
parts of the shank touch, without fracture on the outside
of the bend.
(b) The rivet heads to be flattened, while hot, until their diameter
is two and a half times the diameter of the shank, without
cracking at the edges.
A few check tensile tests of rivets should also be made when the
Surveyor considers it necessary. The elongation should, when practi-
cable, be taken in a length of two and a half times the diameter of the
prepared part ; the tensile strength should be from 27 to 82 tons per
square inch and the contraction of area about 60 per cent
Stebl Foboings.
181. General, — The forgings shall be made from sound ingots, and
not more than the lower two-thirds of the ingot may be utilised for
forging. The sectional area of the body of the forging may not exceed
one-fifth of the sectional area of the original ingot ; and no part of the
forging shall have more than two-thirds of the sectional area of the
ingot. All ingot steel forgings shall, after completion, be thoroughly
annealed at a uniform temperature ; and if any subsequent heating
is done, the forging shall, if required by the Surveyor, be again
annealed.
128. Number of tests. — At least one tensile and one bend test shall
be taken from each forging ; but if the weight exceeds three tons, a
tensile and a bending test shall be taken from each end.
129. Tensile strength and elongation, — The tensile strength of steel
forgings shall not exceed 40 tons per square inch ; and the elongation,
measured on the appropriate standard test-piece C, D, or E, shall not be
less than 17 per cent, for 40-ton steel ; and in no case may the sum of the
tensile strength and the corresponding elongation be less than 57.
1 30. Bend tests. ^The bending test-pieces should withstand being bent
through an angle of ISO"* without fracture ; the internal radius of the
bend being not greater than that specified below : —
Maximiim specified tensile strength of
forging.
Up to 82 tons per square inch ^
Above 32 tons and up to 86 tons per square inch
M 86 ,, 40 „ „
Internal radius of test-piece
after bending.
inch.
I
348 STEEL BOILERS — CONSTRUCTION.
Stssl Castings.
135. (?tfn^aZ.— All steel castings shall be thoroughly annealed at a
uniform temperature and shall be allowed to cool down prior to removal
from the annealing furnace ; and if subsequently heated, with the
Surveyor's approval, shall again be similarly annealed, if required by
the Surveyor.
132. NumJbtr and nature of tests,— "No tests need be made from
unimportant steel castings or from steel castings which are used for
articles usually made of cast-iron, if the scantlings are not materially
reduced below what would be required if cast iron were used. All other
steel castings shall be tested as follows : —
At least one tensile and one bending test should be made from the
castings from each charge ; and where a casting is made from more
than one charge, at least four tensile and four bending tests should be
made from pieces cast as far apart as possible on the casting and as
near the top and the bottom respectively as practicable.
When more than one casting is made from one charge, at least one
tensile and one bending test should be made from the castings run from
one common pouring head ; but separate tests should be made from each
casting or set of castings run from each separate pouring head. Small
castings may, however, be dealt with in accordance with the provisions
of section 110.
133. Tensile strength and elongation.— TlhA tension strength may
range from 26 to 40 tons per square inch, with an elongation, measured
on the standard test-piece C, D, or E, of not less than 15 per cent. If,
however, the castings are to be used for the more important pieces of
machinery, such as pistons, etc. , or for articles usually made of wrought
material, the elongation should not be less than 20 per cent, where the
corresponding tensile strength is between 26 and- 35 tons per square
inch.
184. Bend tests. —The bending test-pieces must withstand being bent,
without fracture, through an angle of 60° if the tensile strength is
between 35 and 40 tons per square inch ; and in the case of other
castings, through an angle of 90". But if they are required to be of
the superior quality referred to above, the angle must not be less than
120°.
Tubes.
126. NuwJber and Nature of Tests. —
(a) Solid'draum Steel Steam Pipes, Boiler TtibeSt dx.,
subject to Internal PressurjR,
The makers should take a few samples from each batch of tubes and
test them for tensile strength and elongation. A bending test should
also be made by them from the scrap end of each tube drawn.
Tensile and bending tests should also be made in the Surveyor's
BOARD OP TBADK TESTS OF BOILBR STEEL. 349
presence from specimens selected by him in the following proportion,
from the tubes made from ecich charge : —
Tubes up to and including 3 inches in diameter : 1 in 40 or part
thereof.
Tubes above 3 inches up to and including 4 inches in diameter : 1 in
20 or part thereof.
Tubes above 4 inches up to and including 5 inches in diameter : 1 in
10 or part thereof.
TubBS above 6 inches up to and including 7 inches in diameter : 1 in
6 or part thereof.
Tubes above 7 inches in diameter : 1 in 4 or part thereof.
The tensile strength should not exceed 28 tons per square inch,
with a minimum elongation of 25 per cent, in a length of 8 inches,
or 23 per cent, if the thickness of the tubes is less than J of
an inch.
All the tubes should be tested by the makers to a suitable hydraulic
pressure, and the tests of at least 25 per cent, of them should be
witnessed by the Surveyor. The tests of all steam pipes should, how-
ever, be witoessed by the Surveyor on completion of the pipes, that is,
after they have been bent to shape and the flanges have been secured
in position (see section 174).
(b) Solid-draton Steel Tubes subject to External Pressure.
If no allowance over that given for iron tubes is required, a few
bending tests should be made from the scrap ends of the stay tubes,
but special tests need not be made from the ordinary tubes if the
Surveyor finds the general quality of the material satisfactory and he
is satisfied.
If allowance over iron is required, tensile and bending tests should
be witnessed by the Surveyor in the proportions given for solid-drawn
steel steam pipes. The tensile strength should range between 23 and
30 tons per square inch, and the elongation should be at least that
required tor similar solid-drawn steam pipes.
All the tubes should be tested by the makers to a suitable hydraulic
pressure, but the tests need not be witnessed by the Surveyor if he is
satisfied that the tubes have been duly tested by the makers.
(o) Steel Lap-welded Tubes subject to External Pressure,
(i) Steel tribes for which no allowance over iron is required, —
A few bending tests should be made from the scrap ends of the stay
tubes or the strips from which they are made, but special tests need
not be made from the ordinary tubes if the general nature of the
material has been found satisfactory and the Surveyor is satisfied.
(ii) Steel stay tvhes for which allowance over iron is required, —
Tensile and bending tests should be made from 25 per cent, of the
strips from which the tubes are made. The tensile strength should
not exceed 28 tons per square inch, and the elongation should be a
350
8TEKL BOILBRS.
least 25 per cent, in a length of 8 inches when the strips are tested in
their normal condition.
All the tubes should be tested by the makers to a suitable hydraulic
pressure, but the tests need not be witnessed by the Surveyor if he is
satisfied that the tubes have been duly tested by the makers.
127. General BequiremenU for all Tubes. — The hydraulic test
should not| in any case, be less than three times the working
pressure, and it should not exceed four times the pressure given by
the rule : —
6000 X thickness in inches,
inside diameter in inches
: pressure,
in the case of lap- welded tubes, or five times that pressure in the case
of solid-drawn steel tubes.
All the tests mentioned should be made in the Surveyor's presence,
except where otherwise stated, and such means as may be necessary
should be taken to satisfy the Surveyor that the specimens he may
have to test have been cut from the tubes they represent
If any of the aforesaid tubes are made in long lengths and passed by
the Surveyor in that condition, the number of tests required may be
calculated on the number of tubes as made, notwithstanding that they
TTi'^y afterwards be cut up into shorter lengths.
Table CIII.— Board of Trade Tensile Tests.
Minimum
Maximum
ultimate ten-
ultimate ten-
Elongation on
Description of Material.
sile strength,
sile strength,
10 inches,
tons per
tons per
percent.
square inch.
square inch.
Plates not exposed to \
flame, . . . j
28
32
20% in 8 ins.
Plates that are ex-\
26
80
r Not less than 23%
posed to flame, . j
1 forannealed plates.
Rivet bars,
26
80
j Not less than
I 25%.
Stay bars, ordinary .
28
32
Not 'ess than 20%.
Stay bars, combustion \
chamber . . J
26
30
Not less than 23%.
Tube strips •
26
30
/ About •>6%.
1 Not less than 20%.
Rivets, . •
28
32
j Contraction of
\ area about 60%.
Shell plates, sp<
%
Bcial, on ap{
)lication up
to 36 tons.
STEEL BOILERS. 351
Steel tubes should be made of open-hearth acid steel, unless material
of other quality has been specially approved for the purpose. Solid-
drawn tubes of a thickness exceeding i inch should be finished by the
hot-drawn process, unless cold-drawing has been specially sanctioned,
and all cold-drawn tubes should afterwards be efficiently annealed.
STEEL BOILERS.
186. Thickness of plates: drilling ^ welding, and annealing,—
The thickness of plates, other than tube strips, used in the construc-
tion of boilers should not be less than -^ inch.
It is expected that the rivet holes will be drilled, and not punched.
Plates that are drilled in place should be taken apart and the burr
taken off, and the holes slightly countersunk from tne outside.
Butt straps should be cut from plates, and not from bars.
Steel plates which have been welded should not be passed if subject
to a tensile stress, and those welded and subject to a compressive stress
should be efficiently annealed.
Local heating of the plates should be avoided, as many plates have
failed from having been so treated.
All plates that have been flanged or locally heated, and all stays
and stay tubes which have been locally heated, should be carefully
annealed after beinff so treated.
137. Cylindrieal Boiler Shells shall be of steel made by the Open
Hearth Process, acid or basic. Generally it shall be of the 28/82 tons
ultimate tensile standard quality, tested in accordance with British
Engineering Standards Rules. Steel of a higher ultimate tensile may
be used if desired, by arrangement, the tests also to be standard ones.
The elongation must be not less than 20 per cent, in 8 inches. What-
ever steel is ordered there must be a 4- ton range allowed to the makers,
unless otherwise agreed to.
All the holes for rivets must be drilled in place as far as possible,
the burrs removed, and the faying surfaces cleaned, and the edges of
holes eased, then the following holds:—
Rule . Working Pressure =^^"^^^^^*^.
OxD
S is the minimum tensile strength of the shell plates in tons.
J is the percentage of strength of the longitudinal seams.
D is the inside diameter of the outer strake of plating in inches.
C when the longitudinal seams have double butt straps 2 '75.
0 t, ,, lap joints and are treble riveted
2*88, when double riveted 2*9, and when single riveted 88.
The riveting of the seams joining the end plates to the cylindrical
shell shall be not less than 42 per cent, of that of the shell plate
352 RULES FOR STRENGTHS OF PARTS OF BOILERS.
When the shell plates are over '^^nds inch thick there shall be
double rivetiDg.
The circumferential seam at or near the middle of the single- ended
boiler shall have a strength of joint not less than 60 per cent, of the
solid plate. The inner seams of double-ended boilers shall have 62 per
cent. When single-ended boilers are over * % a nds inch and double-ended
*%ands inch, there shall be three rows of rivets in these middle seams.
When the shell plates exceed ^ 5^3 nds inch thick these seams of double-
ended boilers shall be double-riveted.
RULES FOR STRENGTHS OF PARTS OF BOILERS.
Board of Trade rules for cylindrical shells.— In all calculations
for strength of shells the minimum strength of plate, as disclosed by
the tests, must be used.
To ascertain the strength of shell, the relative sectional areas of
plate and rivet must first be determined by the following formulce : —
Rule 248. Percentage of strength of pitch plate : —
(i.) At ioint compared with solid! _100 (p—d)
plate I "~ ^ •
(ii.) Percentage of strength of rivets \ __^QQ(SaXgx?txC)
as compared with solid plate / Si x p x T '
;iiL) Percentage of combined strength ^ ioo(p-2d) 100(S2XaxC^
of plate at inner row of holes V = — — •' + — ^—^ =— '.
and of rivets in the outer row J P Si x p x i
Where 2?= pitch of rivets in outer rows in inches.
rf= diameter of rivets in outer rows in inches.
a = sectional area of one rivet.
ri = number of rivets fitted in the pitch, p,
'V = thickness of plate in inches.
C = 1 '0 for rivets in single shear.
0 = 1*875 for rivets in double shear.
Si = the minimum tensile strength of plate in tons.
82= the shearing strength of rivets taken usually as 23 tons.
Thickness of Butt Straps. — The outer one should be in thickness
0*625 that of the plate ; in every case it must be thick enough to
withstand caulking. The inner strap should be y^^nds inch thicker
than this.
When the rivets in the inner rows of the seam are double that of the
outer, as is generally the case with longitudinal joints, then for the
outer strap
<=^x(iiz4 T.
8x{p-2d)
For the inner strap add ^^nds inch to the above.
RULES FOR STRENGTHS OF FARtS OF BOILERS. 353
Rule 249. Diameter of rivet =- — f — x ^
l'21xn 1-x'
Pitch of rivet = diameter -r ( 1 - aj).
w = number of rivets per pitch of outer rows.
a;=the strength of joint as a fraction of the pitch =?- — .
P
c?= diameter of rivet, and^ the pitch in outer rows in inches.
^=the thickness in 32nd8 of an inch.
Rules for riveting^ of longitudinal seams when butted and fitted
with double straps ; the strength of the rivets against shear at 23 tons
and the plate for tensile 27 tons {vide Table CIV ) : —
n vthe number of rivets per pitch of outer rows.
se= the strength of joint as a fraction of the pitch.
<2=the diameter of rivet.
p = pitch of outer rows.
Rule 240a. Diameter of rivet = , — — - x r-^ •
^^ l*255n 1-a;
Rule 249b. Pitch of ri vet =l^^Hl£*i^.
l-x
These are deduced from the following equations : —
(a) n X 7S6id^ x 1 -876 x 23 = (p - d)27t,
that is, 1 '25571^2 =(p- d)t.
(6) ^=«,.
N.B. — The Board of Trade require the rivets diameter in all cases
to be not less than the thickness of plate.
139. Openings in shells; doors , etc. — The openings in the shells
of cylindrical boilers should have their shorter axes placed longi-
tudinally.
Compensating rings of at least the same effective sectional area
as the plates cut out, and not less in thickness than the plates to
which they are attached, should be fitted around all man-holes and
openings, or the surrounding portion of the plates otherwise efficiently
stiffened.
It is very desirable that the compensating rings around openings in
flat surfaces be made of L- or T-bars. When a ring is not fitted
around such an opening, and the plate is flanged for compensation, the
total depth, D, of the flange should not be less than that given by the
following equation : —
D= \/ width of opening x thickness of plate.
23
354 RULB3 FOB STRENGTHS OF PARTS OF BOILERS.
Table CIV.— Relative Thickness of Boiler Shell Plates
for Different Tensile Strengths.
Minimum tensile test strength in tons per square inch.
S7
28
»
80
81
82
88
84
86
86
87
88
0-50
0-483
0-466
0-450
0-486
0-422
1
0-409 0-397 0-386
0-875
0-365
0-365
0-60
0-679
0-659
0-540
0-624
0-507
0-491 0-476 0-46310-460
0-438
0-427
0-70
0-675:0-662
0-6300 -Gil
0-691
0-673 0-551
0-5400-625
0-511
0-498
0-80
0-772 0-745
0-7200-699
0-675
0-655 0-635
0-617 0-600
0-584
0-669
0 90
0-868|0-838
0-810;o-784
0-760
0-736 0-714
0-694 0-675
0-657
0-640
1-00
0-966
0931
0-900
0-873
0-844
0-818 0-793
0-7710-760
0-730
0711
110
1-061
1-024
0-990
0-961
0-929
0-900 0-872
0-848 0-825
0-803
0-782
1-20
1-167
1-117
1-080
1-048
1-013
0-982 0-925
0-925 0-900
0-876 0-853
1-30
1-254
1-211
1-170
1-185
1-097
1-0641-031
1-003 0-976
0-949 0-924
1-40
1-350
1-804
1-260
1-223
1-182
1-1451-110
1-0801-060
1-0220-996
1-60
1-447
1-397
1-350
1-8101-266
1-2271-190
1-1571-126
1-095
1-067
1-60
1-643
1-490
1-440
1-897
1-361
1-309
1-269
1-234
1-200
1-168
1-138
1-70
1-640
1-683
1-630
1-484
1-435
1-391
1-348
1-311
1-275
1-241
1-209
1-80
1-736
1-676
1-620
1-672
1-619
1-473
1-428
1-388
1-350
1-314
1-280
1-90
1-8331-769
1-710
1-659
1-604
1-654
1-607
1-465
1-425
1-387
1-360
2-00
1*9291-862
J
1-800
1-746
1-688
1-636
1-686
1-642
1-600
1-4601-421
1 '
When chain riveted, the distance between the outer and the next
row of rivets should be not less than 0 -33p + 0 '67d or 2d, whichever is
greater. When there are the full number of rivets in contiguous rows,
the distance apart must be not less than 2d. When zig-zag riveted,
these distances are 0 '2p + 1*1 bd and 0*227 + 0 id. In each case p is the
pitch in the outer rows.
The maximum pitch of rivets in longitudinal 8eams = C x T + If inch.
C is a coefficient as follows, and T is the thickness of plate or strap
in inches.
Number of Rivets per
Pitch.
Coefficient C for Lap
Joints.
Coefficient C for Butt
Joints.
1
2
3
4
6
1-31
2-62
3-47
4-14
• • t
1-75
3-60
4-63
5-52
6-00
K. B. —The Board of Trade present limit of pitch is 12 26 ins.
BULBS FOR AUXILTABT AND SPSOIAL BOILBRS. 355
BOARD OF TRADE AND REGISTRATION SOCIETIES
RULES FOR AUXILIARY AND SPECIAL BOILERS.
An auxiliary boiler is one used generally for purposes other than
that of supplying the main propelling machinery, and while it may
be so used on an emergency, it is not a necessary part of the main
boiler installations. . It is, however, supplied with feed water from a
surface condenser or with other equally pure water except on emergency.
Winch (donkey) boilers are those having no connection with the
main boilers but employed on winches, cranes, and other appliances
generally outside the engine and boiler rooms, and whose normal supply
of feed water is from the sea or other impure water.
All horizontal cylindrical boilers whose diameter exceeds 10 feet
must be made in accordance with the Rules for Main Boilers, as must
boilers of all sizes which supply steam to main machinery.
Vertical boilers must have their circumferential seams equal to not
less than 42 per cent, of the solid plate. The rivets must not exceed
1 *5 X thickness of plate, and when the seams are not complete circles
and when the plates exceed '%snds inch in thickness, the riveting
shall be double.
In boilers whose normal feed supply is not pure water, the spacings
of the smoke tubes must be increased over those given for ordinary
boilers by '^gndsinch.
Mud holes and sig^ht holes must bo provided for cleaning and
scaling cross and other tubes, amd they must be in accessible places.
Plain Vertical Furnaces.
1. When tapered the diameter for calculation purposes shall be the
mean of that at top and that at bottom where it has substantial
support from flange or ring. The length shall be from centres of rivets
at crown and the row at bottom. When there are rows of screwed
stays whose distance is not more than 14 times the thickness of
furnace plate when simply riveted over, or 16 times when fitted with
nuts, it may be measured to them. Such screwed stays must be in
diameter over the threads not less than 2*5 times the thickness of
furnace plate.
2. When the furnaces are spherical in form and convex upward at
their tops, and are without support from stays of any kind,
txr 1- 275(^-1)
Working pressure =-i — ^ — *
where t is the thickness of the top plate in d2nds of an inch,
R is the outer radius of curvature of the furnace in inches.
8. For the ogee ring which connects the bottom of the furnace to
the shell, and sustains the whole load on the furnace vertically,
• Working pre8«.re-JlJ±I^^
356 RULES FOR AUXILIARY AND SPECIAL BOILERS.
where t is the thickness of the ogee ring in 32nds of an inch.
D is the inside diameter of the hoiler shell in inches.
d is the outside diameter of the lower part of the furnace where
it joins the ogee ring.
Tubes and Tube Plates.
4. When vertical boilers have a nest or nests of horizontal tubes so
that there is direct tension on the tube plates due to the vertical load
on the boiler ends or to their acting as horizontal ties across the shell,
the thickness of the tube plates and the spacing of the tubes must be
such that the section of metal taking the load is sufficient to keep the
stress within that allowed on the shell plates.
Further, each alternate tube in the outer vertical rows of tubes must
be a stay tube. The tube plates between the stay tubes must be in
accordance with the rules for tube plates, as in par. 11, Section III.,
Part I., and in addition
Working pressure = ^^^p^^^
where S is the minimum tensile strength of the steel plate in tons per
square inch.
t is the thickness of the tube plate in 32nds of an inch.
D is twice the radial distance of the centre of the outer row of
tube holes from the axis of the shell in inches.
p is the vertical pitch of tubes.
d is the diameter of the tube holes in inches.
The spaces between the tubes of such yertical boilers should not be
less than 1| inches at the back ends.
Tops of Vertical Boilers.
6. When these are dished or spherical in form and without stays
they must be in accordance with par. 17, Section III., Part I.
6. When the top is a complete hemisphere and without stays or
other supports, and is made in more than one plate.
Working: pressure = ^ — tt^b
C X K
where t is the thickness of top plates in 32nds of an inch.
S is the minimum tensile strength of the steel plates in tons per
square inch.
J is the strength of riveted joint per cent, of solid plate.
R is the inner radius of curvature in inches.
0 for single riveting is 3*3 ; for double riveting 0 is 2*9 ; for
treble riveting 2 -83.
WATBR TUBB BOILBBS. 357
WATER TUBE BOILERS.
These boilers should be constructed generally in accordance with the
rules for cylindrical boilera, so far as they are applicable. Their
cylindrical steam receivere and water chambers are usually of com-
paratively small diameter, and inasmuch as there may be considerable
variations in pressure in these boilers occurring with a rapidity hardly
possible with tank boilers from the small amount of water contained,,
and that often in a state of violent ebullition, it is requisite that
internally they shall be practically perfectly cylindrical. They should
be made without lapped joints longitudinally. They shoula by pre-
ference be welded with an external cover strap, or, when possible, be
solid drawn. If the latter, the thick tube plate necessary for tube holes
to be parallel cannot be obtained. When the holes are radial, a thinner
tube plate will do, and the water drums may be solid drawn.
The tubes must be solid drawn, and by preference cold finished,
so as to have a smooth surface and unifonnity of thickness. They
must be made from steel produced by an open hearth process, acid or
basic, and having an ultimate tensile strength not exceeding 27 tons,
with an elongation not less than 25 per cent, in' 8 inches.
These tubes should be carefully annealed, after which they should
be capable of being flattened until the inner surfaces are within a
distance apart at most equal to twice the thickness, and their ends
must withstand expansion by rollers by 12*5 per cent, when not over
10 L.S.G. thick, 9*5 up to 6 L.S.G. ; over that thickness by 6*5,
without signs of cracking. Every tube must be tested by hydraulic
pressure to 4 x W.P., and none less than 1000 lbs. per square inch.
The thickness of the tubes =^'^ ^-^+8 in lOOths of an inch.
F
d is the external diameter in inches.
F is 60 for the two rows next the fire, and in the gaps in the nests
of tubes through which the hot gases outflow. For the re-
mainder F=75.
The tube plates forming portions of the drums must have a thick-
ness in line with the tube holes as follows : —
Thickness in 82nds of an inch=:^-^' ^^^^-h4. '
SQ7(p-d)
D is the inside diameter of drums in inches.
d is the external diameter of tubes in the line in inches.
p is the pitch of tubes in the line parallel with drum axis in inches.
The minimum strength of plate is assumed to be 26 tons.
In the case of headers as in the Babcock and similar boilers,
Thickness in 82nd8 of an inch = 6 x /y^^£ + 4 .
0
358 CAST MBTAL PIPBS AND THBTR EQUIVALENTS.
When the surface is un pierced with holes
b is the breadth in inches of their flat surface from support to
support.
C = 80 for wrought steel or 60 for steel castings.
When headers are staggered or formed in such a way as to resist
deformation, they should be ^%2nds inch thick, and in no part or patch
less than ^/^guds inch.
The thickness at the tube holes should be in 32nds inch,
4 X vdiameter of tube in inches + 8.
Safety valves. — Aggregate area in inches = total heating surface in
feet + (;? + 15).
The feed apparatus should be automatic in action, simple and
effective. There should be two independent means of admitting feed
water placed in such a position as not to check the circulation.
The tubes should have a neck bearing in the plate holes not less
than half an inch and project through at least a quarter of an inch
and be "bell-mouthed," so that the diameter of end is {d + 2) thirty-
seconds of an inch in excess of d of that of the tube hole.
CAST METAL PIPES AND THEIR EQUIVALENTS.
Recommendations of the British Marine Engineering
Design and Construction Committee.
(1) Cast steel should be used instead of castiron when the temperatui'ft
exceeds 425** F., which should have a minimum tensile strength of 28
and a maximum of 35 tons, with an elongation of 15 per cent, in 2
inches. When the castings are intricate, a higher tensile may be per-
mitted with an elongation of 12 5 per cent.
They should be tested by water up to 3 times the working pressure
they may have to bear.
When subject to sea-water the manganese content should not exceed
0*4 percent.
(2) Cast iron for boiler mountings and all fittings and pipes exposed
to pressure exceeding 75 lbs. should have a tensile strength of not less
than 9 tons, and test-bars 1 *5 inches square on supports 6 inches apart
should withstand the impact of a 21 lbs. weight dropped 4 times n:om
a height of 15 inches without fracture.
(3) Bronze for mountings and fittings exposed to temperatures over
360* F. should be of an alloy of 87*5 Cu, 10 Sn, 2 Zn, and 0*5 Pb,
or other equally good and satisfactory metal. Their ultimate tensile
strength at a temperature of 550** should be not less than 14 tons, with
an extension of 10 per cent, in 2 inches.
(4) Good commercial bronze for general purpose should have that
tensile, etc. , at 350" F.
All feed-delivery fittings should be tested to 2*6x W.P., and others
to2xW.P.
RULES FOR THICKNESS OF FLAT PLATES.
369
Their working pressure and thickness shall be determined as follows : —
Working pressure = ^-^^ x K
Thickness t = ^'^'^^ + x,
D is the internal diameter in inches.
t is the thickness in lOOths or 32nds of an inch.
K indicates the stress.
X is an added factor for toleration, etc.
Table of Values of K and x.
Material of Casting.
When t iBin32nds.
When Hs in lOOths
K.
X.
K.
X.
Cast steel (28/35 tons tensile)
Cast iron (at least 9 tons
tensile) . . * .
Bronze, Admiralty and equally
good ....
Bronze, good mercantile
Bronze, commercial quality
unknown ....
400
200
220
175
150
8
6
4
4
4
128
64
70
56
48
25
19
13
13
13
The minimum thickness for cast metal pipes and their equivalents
shall be as given by the following Rules, where D is the inside diameter
in inches, and t the thickness in 32nds of an inch.
(a) When of cast steel «= 2*6 \/D + 6.
(6) When of cast iron ^=2"5\/D + 4.
(c) When of cast bronze ^= 2 *5 n/D + 2.
RULES FOR THICKNESS OF FLAT PLATES.
The following are the rules now in use for flat plates supported by
stays by the Board of Trade and the Register Societies : —
Rule 252. Working pressure = ^^'}^^^^ .
t is the thickness of plate in 32nds of an inch.
Uo the thickness of washers, strips, or doubling plates when so fitted
in 32nds of an inch.
a is the distance apart of the stays in the rows in inches.
h is the pitch of the stays in the rows.
C a coefficient depending on the method of fitting.
360 RULES FOR THICKNESS OP FLAT PLATBS.
(a) Where plates are exposed to flame, the stays are screwed into the
plates and the ends riveted over, C = 50 ; when not exposed to flame,
57. The plate must be in thickness at least half the diameter.
(6) Where stay tubes are expanded in their holes, C=52 ; if fitted
with nuts, 72.
(c) Where plates are exposed to flame, and the stays are screwed into
the plate ana fitted with nuts on the outside, 0=75 ; and when not
exposed to flame, 0 = 86.
[d) When not exposed to flame and stays pass through the plates
with nuts outside and inside, C = 96.
{e) Where plates are stiffened by flanging, C=110 when not exposed
to flame, and C = 96 when exposed. The pitch to be reckoned from
the commencement of the curvature.
(/) When the plates are supported by stays passing through them,
and are fitted with nuts inside and washers and nuts outside, the
diameter of the washer being at least 8 *5x diameter of stay, and the
thickness at least two-thirds that of the plate,
OfXtr
(g) When the washers have a diameter of at least 0*67 the pitch of
stays, and at least 0'67 the thickness of plate, and not more than the
plate in thickness and riveted to the plate, the added part is
0-86<«,« instead of 0 16<«,".
{h) When strips of that breadth and thickness are riveted to the
plate, the added part is
0-55^0*.
{k) With full doubling plates riveted on it is O'SbtwK
(m) Back and front tube plates. — For portions of tube plates in the
nests of tubes : —
W.P.=Cx^-i^i:l^
P
t is the thickness of tube plates in S2nds of an inch.
p is the mean pitch of stay tubes, being the sum of the four sides of
the quadrilateral divided by 4.
G = 38 when the tubes are screwed and expanded in the plates, and
when nuts are also fitted, C = 49.
The Rules of the B.M.E.D. & C. Committee for flat surfaces
are: —
Rule 252a. Working: pressure = (^ - 1 )2 x 0 -r (a« + ft^),
t is the thickness in 32nds inch.
tn that of washers and doublings.
a the distance apart of rows of stays whose pitch is 6.
C a coefficient.
RULES FOR THICKNESS OP FLAT PLATES. 361
0 for screwed stays with ends riveted only, 60.
C ,, ,, ,, ,, nuts on outside of plates, 75, and when
exposed to flame, 88.
C for stay tubes without nuts, 55 ; with nuts, 72.
When the stays pass through the plates and have nuts inside, and
outside nuts with washers of diameter S'5 the diameter of stay and
at lei^st 0 '2 X diameter of stay in thickness,
Rule 252b. Working pressure=-i^J(<- l^+O'lS^*}.
When the washer is 0*66 the pitch and riveted to plate.
Rule 2S2C. Working pressure =-i5^{(«- \f+0*ZW},
When there are doubling straps in width 2/3, pitch and riveted to
plate,
Rule 252d. Working pressure =-i?l {(«- 1)«+ 0-55<n2}.
Front tube plates.
Rule 252e. Working pressure = C(< - 1 f -f jp",
p is the mean pitch and C = 88 screwed only, and 49 with nuts.
Wide spaces in front tube plate.
Rule 252f. Working pressure = 0{(^ - 1 )" + 0 ftW) -J- a« + 6»,
a is the horizontal pitch of stay tubes across the wide space.
h is the vertical pitch in the bounding rows.
0=55 when screwed only, and 72 with nuts ; when there are nuts
only on alternate rows, C = 63.
Compression on tube plates.
Rule 252g. Working pressure = ?ZI?2^E^^)2i?,
where D is the horizontal distance apart of the tubes.
d is the internal diameter of tubes.
B the width of combustion chamber.
362
RULBS FOR THICKNESS OF FLAT PLATES.
Table CVI.— Pitch of Stays and Area of Flat Surfaces of
Combustion Chambers (Board of Trade, Lloyd's, etc.).
Pressure
in lbs.
Stays screwed through plates and fitted with nuts at ends.
Plates
Plates
Plates
Plates
Plates
per
square
"/is inch.
"/8 a inch.
«%ainch.
*%2inch.
*%^ inch.
inoh
Pitch.
Surf.
Pitch.
Surf.
Pitch.
Surf.
Pitch.
Surf.
Pitch.
Surf.
150
7-49
56-1
8*50
72-2
9-50
90-2
10-49
110
11-49
132
155
7-37
54
-3
8-37
70-0
9-34
87-3
10-30
106
11-31
128
160
7*25
52
•6
8-22
67-6
9-20
84-6
10-15
103
1109
123
165
7*14
51
•0
8-11
65-7
9-06
82-0
1000
100
10-96
120
170
7-04
49
-6
7-98
63-7
8-92
79-6
9-86
97-3
10-73
116
176
6-94
48
•1
7-87
61-9
8-79
77-3
9-72
94-5
10-63
113
180
6-84
46
•8
7-76
60-2
8-67
75-1
9-57
91-6
10-48
110
185
6-75
45
•5
7-65
58-5
8-56
73-2
9-46
89*4
10-34
107
190
6-66
44
•3
7-55
57-0
8-44
71-2
9-33
87-0
10-20
104
195
6-57
43
•2
7-45
56-5
8-33
69*4
9-21
84-9
10-06
101
200
6*49
42
•1
7-36
64-2
8-23
67-7
909
82-7
9-95
99-1
205
6-41
41
•1
7-27
52-8
8-13
66-0
8-98
80-6
9-83
96*6
210
6-89
40
■9
7-19
61-6
8-03
64-4
8-87
78-7
9-72
94*4
215
6-33
40
•0
7-10
50-4
7-93
62-9
8-77
76 9
9-60
92-2
220
• • »
7-01
49-1
7-84
61-5
8-67
75-2
9-49
90-1
225
• • •
6-94
48-1
7-76
60*2
8-57
73-5
9-39
88-1
230
• • •
• • •
• • •
7-67
58-8
8-48
71-9
9-28
86-2
235
• • •
• • •
• • •
7-59
57-6
8-39
70-3
9-19
84*4
240
• ••
• • t
• • •
• • •
• . •
8-30
68-9
9-09
82-6
245
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
•.•
8-20
67-3
900
81-0
250
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
..«
813
66-1
8-91
79-8
N.B. — When plates are not exposed to flame, multiply the surfaces
above by 1*178, and the pitches by 1*088.
RULES FOR THICKNESS OF FLAT PLATES.
363
o q
4> O
o «2
si f
s^
O J
.c *
a:!!
IH
SO
>'S
OB
*s
(0
i
>a
OS
Q
0
1
0
o
s
a
0
1
1
1
00
t
OQ
Plate 40.
Washer
22.
1
WO^'^0000<N«Oi-l«Ou3>l<eQ<N<NC^<*tO
. • . .toeoot^^C40)t^^c^ooo«o^<MOoo
• • • • i-i rH i-H o o o o» O) oa o) a» 00 00 00 oo 00 1^
W<NC^C^(N(Mr-«rHr-irHrHrHi-HrHr-lr-4r-t
Plate 88.
Washer
22.
e3<Nr-HrHCiieo-44*-(0>coco(Mi-HiH(N(Meo«oo
, . C^ 0> «0 CO O t>. -^ (M 0> r* U5 eo r-l OJ t>» »0 00 i-H O
«••••••••••••••••■••••
* • f-H O O O O 0» Oi C» 00 00 00 00 00 t^t^ t>it» t^tN.
CQG^C^(NC^i-lrHi-irHrHi-ll-«i-li-Hr-(i-«i-«rHi-l
Plate 36.
Washer
22.
ot»-^0'^<oooeoo)ko<Noooi>>t<«a»r-ieokOooc4
00"*i-<OJ»00«0>l>.'««HG<IOOO»OeOrHOiOO«0'^C^r-l
• ••••••••••••■•••••• •
oooa»a»Cboooooooooot<«t»t^t»«oco«o«oco<o
WC<l(NrHi-lr-!r-(rHi-lrHi-lrHrHr-i-li-(i-lr-lrHi-HrH
Plate 34.
Washer
22.
e0r-li-H<M'<*<«^i-M«0e0rH0»C0000»OC^'<<*»^O-*ji00
^*'Jt(l-Hoou:a(Np^»»0(^^poo«'<l<WrHOit«-«'^o^
AadO}oooooooot>.t^t^A*coco«o«o^u:d^ii3io>o
r-4?-Hi-lrHrHi-l»-li-Hr-l?-li-«r-li-lr-lrHi-li— lr-(r-l?-Hi-^
Plate 32.
Washer
22.
co<NooO'^a)tAC90ooooooo»<-400<oo)coooeoA
T»l(N0»«^Tt<i-«0>^i«»O<MO00<0OC0r-<0&00«0»^00
• ««•••••'••••••■■ ••••
oooot^t^t^t^cococo««OkOkOkOkau:)«4<Tt4^'^<«
Plate 30.
Washer
20.
C900t<«OIOOOOi-iOOOrHOOUdt^OxcOkOrHr^eO
-*j<ot^»o<N(Noo<0'*(Nooo«0''i<eo»-'Ooot>.ua'*
t>.tN.<ocoto<o^u^u:dOio^-^'^-<4i^^eoeoeooo
Plate 28.
Washer
19.
<Doo^cot^^»akAt>«oooc<iioo»-^adkOi-Ht»
r-l 00 CO OO 1-H O) r^ UD CO rH O 00 CO ^ CO rH O O) t» t •
• •■••••••••••a***** ■«
«0 wo >0 »0 us -^Ji "^ -^ "* '^ "^ CO CO 00 CO CO CO G^ <N • •
Plate 26. '
Washer
17.
0100iOCOWr-l«»OOS»001«Or-lCOC^OO»0
0><0'J!»<0^p00OTl<(Nr^0Sr^^"««<00rHp . . , .
^(i'^^Ji'^-^'^OOOOOOOOJNMCNC^W^lCq • • • •
Plate 24.
Washer
16.
COCO00CO(NCQOlOlC^lC^rHrHi-li-lrH • • • • • •
Plate 22.
Washer
15.
oooooooc<i»ooscooO"^oi^'<^r-i
lo 00 •-H o 00 CO "^ CO !-• o oi t>. CO o .......
• .••••••••■••• ..2...I
C^ W (N C^ .-H 1-H f-H i-H i-H rH O O O O
Plate 20.
Washer
14.
oO'«*<THr-i«Oi-Ht««ooor^»oco
Tj< o? p pr^o "jH (N rH p 00 ^* CO .
i-i rH iH o o o o o o o o> o» « I I : I : : : :
Work-
ing
Pres-
sure,
lbs.
OtOOvOO^OtOOkOOkOOOOtOOiOOiAO
i0»0C0«0l-«-r»00000>0JOOt-irH(N<NC0C0Tt<'«!bwa
,^rHi-lrHi-irHiHt-ti-lrHClC4C^(N(NClC^(MC9<M(N
9:.
8
W
C3
00
M
O
I
BULBS FOR THICKNESS OP FLAT PLATES.
1
s
•s
1
1
^
iofils^^ililolli
=
s
1
^
S3SS58SSSgSSS£2?
a
iEKii!si!!i!iiK
1
s
s
i^^ii«ii^^if«in«
d
ssssassEssssKS^ .
SS22SS3322222J22 ■
1
-
si!S!!:Siii!si ; ;
1
So«SSm^SSS««2 : : '■
1
1
1
l|5ssi|iii|!i)ii
:
fiSiisiiSs! i i m i
1
5
1
S
S??|?||??S ,,:,;;
s
SSSlSiilS i i i ; i ! :
1
1
i
2S2 = = 32S ' " " : -
i
Zitliti i i M : : ; 1 i
y
3ISSIi§§il§i§SII
BULBS FOR THICKNESS OP FLAT PLATBS.
365
Table CIX.~Boiler Shells of 28 tons Tensile Steel and 80 per
cent. Longitudinal Jointi2i|: : Workine Pressure in lbs. per
sq. inch allowed by B.M.E.D. & C. Committee.
Diameter
of the
Shell.
Thickness of Shell Plates in S2nds of an inch
•
10.
17.
18.
19.
20.
2L
22.
23.
24.
26.
26.
27.
28.
29.
Feet.
6-00
163
174
186' 198
209
221
233
244
266
• •
• •
• •
• ■
• •
6-26
166
168
179 190
201
212
224
236
246
267
• •
• •
• •
• •
6-50
160
161
172 , 188
193
204
216
226
236
247
268
• •
• •
• •
6-76
146
166
166
176
186
196
207
217
228
238
248
269
• •
• •
7 00
140
160
160
170
180
190
200
210
320
280
240
260
260
, _
7-26
136
144
164 163
178
183
192
202
212
221
231
241
260
260
7-60
140
149 168
168
177
186
196
206
214
224
238
242
262
7-75
136
144 168
162
171
180
189
198
207
216
226
284
244
8-00
140
148
167
166
174
183
192
201
209
218
227
286
8-26
• •
136
144
162
161
169
178
186
196
203
212
220
229
8*50
» •
189
148
156
164
172
181
189
197
206
214
222
8-76
• •
136
144
162
160
168
176
184
192
200
208
216
9-00
• ft ' • *
139
147
166
168
171
178
186
194
202
209
9-25
• ^
• • • •
186
143
161
168
166
173
181
189
196
204
9*60
• •
• •
140
147
164
162
169
176
184
191
198
9-76
• •
186
148
160
167
166
172
179
186
193
lODO •
• •
• •
• •
• •
140
147
164
161
168
176
182
189
10-26
• •
136
143
160
166
168
170
177
184
10-60
• •
• • • •
.. .. 1
139
146
168
160
166
178
180
if. B.— The pressure allowed hy the Begiater Societies and Board of Trade is
97 per cent, of the aboye.
Table ClXa.— Boiler Shells of 52 tons Tensile Steel and 84 per
cent. Longitudinal Joints : Workine Pressure in lbs. per
sq. inch aUowed by the B.M.E.D. & C. Committee.
Diameter
of the
Shell.
Thickness of Shell Plates in 82nds of an Inch
»
22.
24.
26.
28.
30.
82.
34.
36.
88.
40.
42.
44.
46.
48.
Feet.
80
S09
230
261
272
293
• •
• •
• •
• •
8-6
197
217
287
266
276
296
• •
• •
• •
..
9-0
186
206
223
242
260
279
298
• •
• •
9-6
176
194
212
229
247
266
282
300
• •
10-0
168
184
201
218
235
252
268
286
302
10*5
160
176
192
208
224
240
256
272
288
304
11-0
152
167
183
198
218
229
244
259
274
290
11-6
146
160
176
189
204
219
233
248
262
277
292
120
164
168
182
196
210
224
238
252
266
280
294
12-6
147
161
174
187
201
214
228
241
255
268
281
^6
180
155
167
180
198
206
219
232
245
268
271
283
2i»6
13-5
• .
149
161
174
186
199
211
228
236
248
261
273
286
14-0
144
166
168
180
192
204
216
228
240
252
264
276
14-6
161
162
174
185
197
209
220
232
243
255
267
15-0
146
166
168
179
190
201
213
224
235
246
257
16-6
• •
161
162
173
184
195
206
216
227
238
249
16*0
• •
147
167
168
178
189
199
210
220
231
241
16-6
# •
142
152
163
173
183
193
203
214
224
234
170
• •
148
158
168
178
188
197
207
317
227
17*6
• •
• •
144
153
163
178
182
192
202
211
221
180
• •
• •
149
158
168
177
186
196
205
214
18*6
• •
• • • •
145
154
163
172
181
191
200
20<
^.B.—The pressure allowed by the Register Societies and Board of Trade is
97 per cent, of the above.
366 RULES FOR THICKNESS OP FLAT PLATES.
140. Hemispherical ends subject to internal pressure may be allowed
double the pressure that is suitable for a cylinder of the same diameter
and thickness.
141. Ends of steam receivers and similar vessels which are dished
to a partial spherical form and flanged in a hydraulic press, the whole
end being operated upon at each heat, may be passed without stays
when complying with the following : —
Rule 253.
Working pressure =H^i|f^^^ ;
t is the thickness of plate in 82nds of an inch.
R is the inner radius of curvature of the end in inches which shall
not exceed the diameter of shell.
S is the minimum tensile strength of plate in tons.
When the end has a manhole in it, the plate must be thicker by
♦/iauds of an inch than given by rule.
The inside radius of curvature at the flange must be not less than
4 times the thickness of plate, and in no case less than 2*5 inches.
The total depth of flange when w is the minor axis in inches of the
manhole =0*177 sltxw.
The above instructions do not apply to dished ends of vertical donkey
boilers, which are subject to the tnrust of the uptake in addition to the
pressure of steam.
142. Stays, properly distributed, should be fitted to dished ends
which are not of the thickness required for flat ends, or which do not
comply with the requirements stated in Section 141 ; but, if the ends
are sufficient for the pressure needed, when considered as portions of
spheres, the stays, if of solid steel, may have a nominal stress of
18,000 lbs. per square inch of net section. If dished ends are not
equal to the pressure needed when considered as portions of spheres,
they should be stayed as flat surfaces.
Lloyd's rulbs for plat surpacks.
367
LLOYD'S OLD RULES FOR FLAT SURFACES.
Table CX.~-Lloyd'8 Constants for Flat Surfaces.
Deecription of attachment of stay.
Value of 0.
Screw stays with riveted head, —
Plates ^e -inch thick and under, .
Plates over ^X 6 -inch thick, ....
90
100
Screw stays fitted with nuts, —
Plates ^/4 4 -inch thick and under,
Plates over Vie -inch and under •/4e-inch,
Plates ®48-inch and over, ....
110
120
135
0
Stays fitted with douhle nuts, ....
176
Stays fitted with double nuts and with washers of
diameter equal to ^rd (he pitch, and of thickness
equal to half that of the plate they cover, .
186
Stays fitted with double nuts and with outside riveted
washers of diameter equal to '/jths pitch, and of
thickness equal to half that of the plate they cover,
200
Stays fitted with double nuts and with outside riveted
washers of diameter equal to %rds pitch, and of
thickness equal to that of the plate they cover, .
220
Stays with double nuts and outside doubling strips
of width eoual to %rd8 distance between rows of
stays, and tnickness equal to that of the pTate they
cover, when P is taken as the pitch of rows.
220
Stays with double nuts and outside doubling strips
of width equal to ^rds distance between rows
of stays, and thickness equal to that of the plate
they cover, when P is taken as the pitch of stays
in the rows
240
N,B. — Lloyd's Register has adopted the rules of the B.M.E.P. &
0, Committee.
368
LLOYD'S RULBS FOR FLAT SURFAGBB.
Table CXI.--Corrug:ated Furnaces (Fox, Morison, Deigfhton,
Punres) : Working Pressure in lbs. per sq. inch allowed by
B.M.E.D. & C. Committee.
43 nS
n ° o
« o a,
«"8
IDS.
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
Thicknesaes in 1
32nds of an
Inch.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
la
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
1
176
192
208
"224
240
256
272
288
304
• • •
• • •
• • ■
170
185
201
216
232
247
263
278
294
309
• • •
• • •
165
180
195
210
225
240
255
270
285
300
■ • •
• ••
160
174
189
203
218
232
247
261
276
291
305
• « •
155
169
183
197
211
226
240
254
268
282
296
310
150
164
178
192
205
219
233
246
260
274
288
301
146
160
173
186
200
213
226
240
253
266
>80
293
306
143
156
169
182
196
208
221
234
247
260
273
286
299
151
164
176
189
202
214
227
240
252
265
277
290
36'3
147
160
172
184
19(5
209
221
233
246
258
270
283
295
144
156
168
180
192
204
216
228
240
252
264
276
288
• ••
152
163
176
187
199
210
222
234
245
257
269
281
• • •
148
160
171
183
194
205
217
228
240
251
263
274
• • •
145
156
167
178
189
200
212
223
234
245
256
267
• ••
152
163
174
185
196
207
218
2-29
240
251
2t)l
• • •
149
160
170
181
192
202
213
224
234
245
256
• ••
146
156
166
177
187
198
208
219
229
240
250
• • •
153
163
174
183
194
204
214
224
235
246
• ••
150
160
170
180
190
200
210
220
230
240
• • •
147
166
166
176
186
196
206
216
224
234
• • •
144
163
163
172
182
192
201
210
219
229
• ••
• • •
150
160
169
178
188
197
207
216
225
• • •
• • •
147
167
166
175
184
193
203
212
221
N.B» — For the working pressure on a Leeds Forge bulb suspension
furnace multiply by 1 '065.
COMPRBSSION ON TtJBB PLATES.
360
Lloyd's Rules for the wide sfMices between nests of tubes.— ^ is
the horizontal distance from centre to centre of the bounding rows of
tube, and C as follows : —
Rule 25s
Working^ pressure = — =- ;
t is in 16ths of an inch. .Values of 0 are as follows :—
Pitch of Stay Tabes in bounding rows.
When tabes
have DO
not! outside
plat«e.
When tubes
are fitted
with uuts
outside plates.
Where there are two plain tubes be-
tween each stay tuoe, .
Where there is one plain tube be-
tween each stay tube, .
Where erery tube in these rows is a ^
stay tube, and nuts when fitted
are on alternate tube^ .
120
140
160
•
180
150
170
Board of Trade, Lloyd's, &c., Rules for Compression
on Tube Plates, &c.
The compressive load on tube plates shall be calculated by the
following formula, in which the stress is taken at 14,000 lbs. per
square inch.
Rule 255a.
Working pressure = -^ — =1 — =r-^ — ,
where t is the thickness of plate in 32nds of an inch.
D is the horizontal distance apart of the tubes centre to centre,
in inches.
d is the internal diameter of the plain tnbes.
'W is the width of combustibn chamber measured inside from the
tube plate to back chamber plate, or between the tube
plates in double-ended boilers, with chambers common to
opposite furnaces.
Girders supporting Combustion Chamber, Tops, &c.
Rule 258.
working pre8.«re=^-^2^. 3.
21
370 HULES B'OR STAYS.
B.M.E.D. & C. Committee rule for g^ders supporting com-
bustion chamber, tops, &c.
Rule 258.
Working preas„re=^.j^^^x|.
All in inches.
where L= width between tube-plates or tube-plate and^
back plate of chamber ;
P= pitch of stays in girder ;
D= distance from centre to centre of girder ;
(2= depth of girder at centre ;
T=x: thickness of girder at centre in thirty -seconds of an inch,
S is the minimum tensile strength in tons of the plates forming
the girder. When it is a forging, S is 24 for iron and 28
for steel.
0 s= — - X 495 when the number of stays to each girder is odd ;
% 4- 1
0= — - X 495 when it is even ; n beinc the number.
»+2 ®
Board of Trade, &c., Rules relating^ to Stays.
Rule 259. Solid steel stays may be allowed by the Board of Trade
a working stress with 28/32 ton steel up to 11,000 lbs. per square inch
of net section, and on 26/30 ton steel to 9000 lbs.
Welded steel stays may not be used, but this does not apply to
stay tubes.
When the threads of longitudinal stays are finer than six per inch,
the depth of the external nuts should be at least 1} times the diameter
of the stay.
144. Stay tubes made of steel which has been tested may be allowed
a stress not exceeding 7500 lbs. per square inch of net section, provided
that their net thickness is in no case less than ^ inch.
Iron screwed stays in the combustion chambers resist the cross-
breaking stresses, to which they are subjected, better than steel ; a stress
of 9000 lbs. per square inch may be allowed on such stays, provided the
bars have been tested and have a tensile strength of not less than 21^
tons and an elongation, in 8 inches, of not less than 27 per cent.
166. A stress of 6000 lbs. may be allowed on the net section of iron
stay tubes, provided that the net thickness is in no case less than J inch.
166. The thickness of ordinary smoke tubes should not be less than : —
where T = thickness of tube, in inches ;
D = outside diameter of tube, in inches.
RULBS VOK BTATS. 371
Screwed stajs for combnation chambers, etc., ma; ba of tasted
irun equal to 21 '6 tans ultimHte tensile strength, with an elongation of
25 per cent, on Standard t<st-piece B, and 30 per cent, on t«3l-piecB F ;
the; may be of 26/SO tons tensile ateel whose elongation ia not leis
tb&n 23 per cent, on Standard teat-piece B, made by Che Open Hearth
ProcesB, acid or basic. They shall be screwed with S threads to the
inch, and accord with the following: —
Rule 259a.
where rf is the diameter over the threads.
a is the area in square inches of plate supported b; the stay.
The lon^tudinal and other stays not eipoBFd to flame may be of
the 28/S2 Standard tensile ateel ; the nambei of Ihreads per square
inch shall be 6.
Rule 259b.
Working preasDrc'
I strength of the steel bar in tons per square inch.
The streBB on these stays must not exceed 11,000 lbs.
When the longitudinal stays are made with enlarged ends and the
bod; of the stay is smaller in diameter than at the botttim of the thread,
and where fewer threads than S,
the working preaaure=' L^^'^^'•"'•' — ?^
Table CXn.— Surface of Plate supported by oi
9 Threads per inch.
I'i
Wo
klDI
pr«.
™
D pooDds pet square Inch,
'
^
m
m..m.
m.
2S0.
^^
H 51-0
tri
flR-O
in-*
ItR-B
M-)
1%
lai
lis
IM
100
»-«
"or
es-t
r..'^-^
w-i
ni-1
Iw
i"
1"
Tm
™
!n
f'n
\m
IIW
i«
i
216
m
IM
ISO
ITl
s
m
ijl
"--1-
l!i
372
RULES FOB FURNAGBS.
Table CXI 1 1.— Surface of Plate supported by one Stay of
28 tons Tensile Steel, 6 Threads per inch.
Diameter
over
Threads.
Working pressiires in pounds per square inch.
160.
175
160.
164
170.
154
180.
145
190.
188
200.
205.
128
210.
124
216.
121
220.
119
225.
116
230.
114
286.
Ill
2
181
2V8
201
189
178
168
159
151
147
144
141
137
134
181
127
f^f.
231
216
204
192
182
178
168
164
161
158
154
161
147
262
246
232
217
207
196
191
187
188
179
175
171
167
2%
295
277
261
246
283
221
216
211
206
201
197
198
189
2%
830
810
292
276
261
248
241
236
231
225
220
216
212
2%
2%
868
846
325
306
290
276
269
262
256
251
245
240
236
406
382
360
839
821
805
297
290
284
278
271
266
261
8
448
420
396
873
354
336
828
320
318
806
299
293
287
8V«
491
460
434
409
388
868
859
350
342
836
827
821
316
sv*
• •
• •
478
447
423
402
892
883
374
367
858
360
843
s-Vs
• •
• •
• •
• •
460
437
426
416
407
898
889
880
872
8%'
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
474
462
^51
441
431
421
412
408
For surfaces that may be supported by stays other than screw stays
and exceeding 1^ inches smallest diameter, see Table CXIII.
The number of threads per inch for boiler stays has been estab-
lished by the Engineering Standards Committee to be 9 per inch for
stays abore IJ inches diameter, and 6 per inch for those aboTe 2 inches,
fitted with nuts on both sides of the plate.
RULES FOR FURNACES.
The following rules are those followed by the Board of Trade, Lloyd's,
and the other Register Societies.
The working pressure to be allowed on plain furnaces strengthened
by the Adamsoii or other joints, and on the cylindrical bottoms o/com-
bttstion chambers is to be obtained as follows, the least pressure by
either formula being taken : —
Rule 261a.
«r 1 • C(/-l)2
Working pressure=^-j-l^j^.
Rule 262b.
n
Working pressure =^1 x 10(^- 1) - L.
D is the external diameter in inches.
t is the thickness of furnace in 32nds of an inch.
L is the length between points of substantial support in inches
measured from centres of rivet rows, or from the commencement
of flange curvature.
RULES FOR FURNACES. 373
C is 1450 when the longitudinal seams are welded, 1300 when they
are riveted.
Ci is 50 when welded, and 45 when riveted.
Corrug^ated Furnaces.
Rule 263. Working pressure = ^ ~ \
D is the external diameter measured at the bottom of the corrugation
in inches.
t the thickness in 32nds of an inch at that point.
C is 480 for the Fox, Morison, Deighton, Furves, and other similar
furnaces. For the Leeds Forge Bulb Suspension furnace, 0 is 510.
In no case should the thickness of any furnace exceed '%ands of
an inch.
Standard Furnaces.
By the British Engineering Standards the following is the practice
with makers of furnaces : —
All furnaces shall be made of steel produced by the Open Health
Process, acid or basic, having a maximum tensile strength of 30 tons,
and a minimum of 26 tons per square inch, with an elongation not less
than 28 per cent, in 8 inches.
The criterion diameter is that inside the furnace at bottom of cor-
rugation (that is the minimum inside diameter).
The diameter at the mouth outside shall be 5^ inches larger for the
Morison and Deighton, and 6^ inches for the Leeds Forge Suspension.
The pitch of these corrugations is 8 inches ; the plain part at the front
end maybe 10*5, 8*5, 6*5, or 4*5 inches. At the back end from the
last ridge to the front of flange 10*5 inches.
The standard lengths of these furnaces over all will be then a
multiple of 8 inches plus 21, 19, 17, or 15 inches.
The Standard furnaces are made from 86 inches minimum internal
diameter to 48 inches, varying by increments of 1 inch. The Bulb
Suspension vary from 35 inches to 47 inches.
Smoke tubes standard lengths over the tube-plates are 3 inches in
excess of the length of the furnaces ; the tubes are 1 inch longer,
that is the plain tubes are 4 inches longer than the furnaces over all.
Stay tubes can now be obtained with swelled ends at a less price
than what rules for the plain tube with a minus thread at the back
end ; moreover, they are much lighter. Their diameter in the body
is the same as that over the thread at back end. The thread at
front end is J inch greater in diameter than that at the back. If d
is the standard diameter of the plain smoke tubes and also that over
the threads at back end of the stay tube, then
Diameter over thread at front end=d+i inch.
374 HVAPORATORS, ETC. (BOARD OP TRADB RULBS).
The Board of Trade and the Register Societies require that the
minimum thickness of stay tubes under the threads shall be i inch for
marginal, and ^ inch for all others.
The threads shall be continuous and 9 to the inch.
The plain tubes shall be swelled at the front ends by | inch in
diameter for 2^ inches in the length.
Stay tubes shall be screwed at the back end for 2 inches and at the
front end 2 inches when without, and 2^ inches with nuts.
Number of tubes possible in a given area and their surface :
{a) 48 inches square will permit 169 tubes 3 *5 inches pitch.
{b) 49-25 „ „ 144 „ 3-875
(c) 48-376 „ „ 121 „ 4-126 „
id) 470 „ „ 100 „ 4-876 „
From this the following holds good as the surface per foot : —
With tubes 2^ inches external diameter, a square foot of plate will
accommodate tubes giving 6*91 square feet of surface per foot of length.
Tubes 2J inches diameter will give 6-16 square feet. Tubes 3 inches
diameter 5*84 square feet, and those 3^ inches 5*54 square feet. If,
however, the 2i-inch tubes have a pitch of 8| inches, the surface per
foot will be 6 '46 square feet.
RULES RELATING TO TESTING BOILERS
GENERALLY.
Hydraulic tests. — New boilers should be tested by hydraulic
pressure before being lagged or placed in the vessel. The test pressure
to remain on for at least ten consecutive minutes in all cases.
Board of Trade, Lloyd's, and other Registries. — Twice the work-
ing pressure for boilers whose working pressure does not exceed
100 lbs. Over 100 lbs. W.P. the ttst is 1 *6 x W.P. + 60 lbs.
Boilers which have been in use are not to exceed 1 *6 x W.P.
British Admiralty.— W.P. +90 lbs.
German Authorities. — W.P. + 75 lbs.
French Authorities.— W.P. + 85 lbs.
EVAPORATORS, &c. (Board of Trade Rules).
164. Evaporators, generators, feed make-ups, &o., where the evapora-
tion of water under pressure is an essential feature, should be regarded
as steam boilers, whether the evaporation is effected by heat from coal
gas, from steam, or from any other source, and they should be examined
by the Surveyor on each occasion the vessel is surveyed for passenger
certificate in the same manner as other boilers on board the vessel ;
and the particulars regarding them, their safety-valves, &c., should be
recorded on the declaration in the same manner as is done in the case
of other auxiliary boilers.
The strength, quality of material, and method of construction of
such apparatus, should, as a rule, be in accordance with the regulations
for steam boilers. ^^"^ nn^««,^te pressures, however, evaporators of tl^e
EVAPORATORS, BTO. (BOARD OP TRADB RULBS). 375
type usually fitted may be made of cast material, but in no case should
the pressure exceed 15 lbs. per square inch when the main body of the
apparatus is a single castin^:. Subject to this limitation and to the
sanction of the Board for the use of such material in each particular
case, evaporators made of cast-iron, or of gun-metal, having a tensile
strength of not less than 10 tons per square inch, may be allowed a
working pressure not exceeding that found by the following formulae,
provided the thickness is not less than f inch in the case of cast-iron,
and f inch in the case of gun-metal, and the castings are in every way
sound and to the Surveyor's satisfaction : —
Cylindrical Shells.
— L_Z_l/=: working pressure.
Circular Flat Surfaces.
^■^ = working pressure.
Square Flat Surfaces.
Where T= thickness, in inches ;
D = diameter, in inches;
S = side, in inches ;
0 for cast-iron = 4,000;
Ci „ „ „ =24,000;
Ca „ „ „ =16,000;
C „ gun-metal = 6,000;
Ci n )i M =80,000; and
Ca „ „ „ -20,000.
If cast-steel is used, the minimum thickness should not be less than
i inch, and the constants C, Ci, and Cq may be 10,400, 52,000, and
34,700 respectively.
The formulas may also be used for determining the working pressure
permissible for feed heaters, feed filters, &c., and for such vessels the
constants for cast-iron and cast-steel may be increased by 25 per cent.
Where there are large branches, doors, or other larce openings in the
castings, the scantlings will require to be materially increased, and
such cases should be submitted for consideration before being passed.
When the ends are cast solid with the shell, there should be a
substantial 611et all round inside, and when the ends are bolted, D, in
the flat surface formula, should be the diameter of the bolt circle. The
flange should be of sufficient thickness and have a substantial fillet at
the root all round.
165. In calculating the strength of studs or bolts securing the covers
of evaporators, feed heaters, feed filters, and other similar vessels, t^ -
376 EVAPORATORS, ETC. (BOARD OP TRADE RULES),
calculated load on the cover should be found by multiplying the area
of the pitch circle by the working pressure, and the nominal stress
allowed on the net section of the material of the studs, &c., should
not exceed 7000 lbs. per square inch in the case of iron, and 9000 lbs.
per square inch in the case of steel, the maximum allowance being per-
missible only when the diameter is J inch or more. When the studs
or bolts are of a diameter less than | inch, the nominal stress allowed
per square inch of net section should not exceed 6000 lbs. in the case
of iron, and 7200 lbs. in the case of steel, owing to the relatively
greater stress to which they are subject when the nuts are tightened.
Studs or bolts securing covers which are required to be frequently
removed should not be less than } inch in diameter.
166. The mountings, &c., for evaporators should, as a general rule,
be similar to those required in the case of boilers on board passenger
vessels, but a single safety-valve may be allowed, provided it is of
sufficient size.
167. When a reducing nozzle is iitted in the steam supply pipe,
the contracted orifice should not, in ordinary cases, exceed that found
by the following formula : —
_ — P = area of orifice,
6xP
where A = combined area of safety-valves fitted to the evaporator ;
j7= absolute pressure at which the evaporator is worked ; and
P = absolute pressure of entering steam.
The reduced orifice for an evaporator having only one safety-valve
should not, in any case, be ereater than would be allowed, for the same
pressures, with a single valve 244 inches in diameter (i.e, equivalent
in area to two 2-inch valves).
Reducing orifices should be bored through brass or similar material,
and should be parallel for a length of at least J inch ; and each nozzle
should be formed with a facing at the side, on which particulars
regarding the safety-valves, their load, the maximum pressure of the
entering steam, and the diameter of the orifice should be stamped, as
shown by the following example : —
2 S.V. DiA. 8". Load 10 lbs. sq. in.
Boiler Press. 160 lbs.
Reduced Orifice 21/32" DiA.
168. On the completion of the hydraulic test of an evaporator, a
feed heater, feed filter, or other similar vessel which complies with the
Board's regulations and has been surveyed during constmction, the
Surveyor, in order to afford means of identification, should stamp the
Lloyd's rulbs rblatino to steel boilers gbnerallt. 377
apparatas in a conspicuons place, with the pressure applied to the
shell, the pressure applied to the coils (if any), the date, and his
initials.
169. Feed pipes, feed heaters, filters or other vessels through which
the feed water passes on its way from the pumps to the boilers, should
be made sufficient for a pressure 20 per cent, in excess of the boiler
pressure ; and an efficient relief-valve (or valves), suitably adjusted,
and of a type which does not present a ready means of overloading,
should be ntted where required to prevent this pressure being exceeded
in any part of the feed system, under any conditions likely to occur.
In cases where the main feed pumps are independent of the main
engines, the area of the relief-valve (or valves) should not, as a rule,
be less than half that of the feed discharge pipe, provided the latter is
sufficient to ensure a reasonable velocity of now in the pipe ; but, wh'en
the main pumps are worked by the main engines, the relief-valve (or
valves) should be of at least the same area as the pipe.
Local heating of plates should be avoided.
Minimum thickness of plates to be used, fy inch.
Annealing^. — Ail plates which have been punched, flauged, or
locally heated, and all stays and stay tubes wnich have been locally
heated, must be carefully annealed afterwards.
Weldingf. — Steel plates that have been welded should not be passed
to carry a tensile s^ss; when subject to a compressive stress Uiey
should DC efficiently annealed after welding.
Boiler tracings, &c. — Tracings of boilers may be received for
examination upon payment of the usual fee of £2, and the Surveyors
may proceed as far as witnessing the hydraulic test before any further
instalment of the survey fee is paid. Engineers and boilermakers
should be advised of this arrangement
Donkey boilers that are in any way attached to, or connected
with, the main boilers, or with the machinery used for propelling the
vessel, should be surveved and have theii' working pressure fixed in the
same way as the main boilers, and have a water and steam gauge, and
all other fittings complete, and, as regards safety valves, should comply
with the same regulations as the main boilers.
Launch boilers. —The boilers of steam launches forming part of
the statutory boat capacity of passenger steamers should as regards
construction, strength, material, safety valves, and other fittings
comply with the same regulations as the main boilers.
LLOYD'S RULES RELATING TO STEEL BOILERS
GENERALLY.
Boilers.
Section 3. 1. The Surveyors will be guided in fixing the working
pressure by the tables and formulae annexed. {See section 11.)
2. Any novelty in the construction of the machinery or boilers to b*
reported to the dommittee.
378 RIVETED JOINTS.
3. The boilers, together with the machinery, to be inspected at
different stages of construction.
All the holes in steel boilers should be drilled, but if they be punched
the plates are to be afterwards annealed.
All plates that are dished or flanged, or in any way heated in the
sfire for working, except those that are subjected to a compressive stress
only, are to be annealed after the operations are completed.
No steel stays are to be welded.
Unless otherwise specified, the Rules for the construction of iron
boilers will apply equally to boilers made of steel.
4. The bouers to be tested by hydraulic pressure, in the presence of
the Engineer-Surveyor, to twice the working pressure, and carefully
gauged while under test.
'5. Two safety valves to be fitted to each boiler, and loaded to the
working pressure in the presence of the Surveyor. In the case of
boilers of greater working pressure than 60 lbs. per square inch, the
safety valves may be loaded to 5 lbs. above the working pressure.
If common valves are used, their combined areas to be at least half a
square inch to each square foot of grate surface. If improved valves
are used they are to be tested under steam in the presence of the
Surveyor ; the accumulation in no case to exceed 10 per cent, of the
working pressure.
6. An approved safety valve also to be fitted to the superheater.
7. In winch boilers one safety valve will be allowed, provided its
area be not less than half a square inch per square foot of grate surface.
8. Each valve to be arranged so that no extra load can be added
when steam is up, and to be fitted with easing gear which must lift the
valve itself. All safety-valve spindles to extend through the covers
and be fitted with sockets and cross handles, allowing them to be
lifted and turned round in their seats, and their efficiency tested at
any time.
9. Stop-valves to be fitted so that each boiler can be worked
separately.
10. Each boiler to be fitted with a separate steam gauge, to accurately
indicate the pressure.
11. Each boiler to be fitted with a blow-off cock independent of that
on the vessel's outside plating.
12. The machinery and boilers are to be securely fixed to the vessel
to the satisfaction of the Surveyor.
RIVETED JOINTS.
Board of Trade. — The following sketches of riveted joints, and
formulae for determining their various proportions, are given in an
appendix to the Board of Trade Rules ; the toimulae are here given in
a form differing slightly from that adopted in the Rules : —
F in the following formulae stands for the factor of safety (for which
see Table CIV.), r for percentage of plate left between rivet holes, and
S, for tensile strength of plates in tons.
RIVBTBD JOINTS. 379
ORDINARY CHAIN AND ZIGZAG RIVETED JOINTS.
Percentage of plate \ _ 100 (pitch - diameter of rivet) _
left between holes / ^iteh ^'
Nominal per-) 958-33 Butt"! -. xr • -u • ^ i. ™
centage of [= 51 1 -1 1 Lap f ^ a^ea of nv. x No.nvets m pitch x F
rivet section ) ^ ^ pitch x thickness of plate *
Rule 267. To find pitch so that nominal rivet section and net
plate section may be of equal strength: —
958-33 Buttl ^ . 4. XT • • -4. v w
"tch = ^-J- — ^ + dia. rivet.
01 X thickness of plate
Rule 267a. To find pitch and diameter of rivet :—
Diameter! __ S^ x r x thickness of plate
of rivet / "*7-526 Butt\ ,i^a x xt • * • -4. v w'
4 -014 Lan I ^ ^ -r)x No. nvets m pitch x F
i? . n 1 1 T « « r X Si X r X thickness of plate
(100 -r^x No. rivets in pitch x F
Also, when diameter of rivet is found first : —
Rule 268. Pitch -^QQ^^"^^^^o^"^^^
100 -r
When double butt straps are used each strap must have a thickness
of f ths of the plate it covers.
A single butt strap must have a thickness equal to 1( x thickness
of plate it covers.
Distance from centre of rivet to edge of plate (joint E)3:lix
diameter of rivet.
Dist^ce between rows of rivets :—
(a) Chain riveted joints (figs. B, C, E2, G), —
Rule 269.
V=not less than 2 x dia. of rivet, preferably (^ dia- rivet) + 1 ^
(6) Zigzag riveted joints (figs. Bj, Ci, Ei, Gj),—
XT _*>/(!! pitch + 4 dia. rivet) (pitch + 4 dia. rivet)
^ 10
380 RIVETED JOINTS.
Diagonal pitch (figs. B,, Ci, E„ Gi),—
6 pitch + 4 dia. rivet
RIVETED JOINTS WITH ALTERNATE RIVETS IN OUTER,
OR OUTER AND INNER, ROWS LEFT OUT.
PercenUge of plate left between holes =l°°lE*2J!^gi»t2I?t)
Nominal per- 'j ??? .? 1 1 V^ !• x area of riv. x No. rivets in pitch x F
centaee of [ = yiilM-i .
rivet section J Sj x pitch x thickness of plate
Doable butt straps for this type of joint must each be of thickness
given by, —
Rule 270.
Thicknesf of butt rtHtp=g '^ *hick. of plate x (pitch -dia. of riret)
'^ 8 X (pitch - 2 dia. of nvet)
Distance from centre of rivet to plate edge (joint E, p. 38S)=
l^ x diameter of rivet.
Rule 271. Distance between rows of rivets :—
(a) Chain riveted joints (H, p. 888},—
The greater
of these
two values
to be used.
y_. /^(ll pitch + 4 dia. rivet) (pitch + 4 dia. rivet)'
10
or y=not less than 2xdia. of rivet, and preferably
(4 X dia. rivet) + 1
2
(6) For joint H (p. 888),—
Vi=2 X dia. of rivet as a minimum, but the value (^ x dia. of rivet) +1
2
is preferable.
(c) Zigzag riveted joints (H^, p. 388),—
V= x/(H pitch + dia. rivet) (^ pitch + dia. rivet).
Diagonal pitches :—
(a) Diagonal pitch (H|, p. 883),
Pd = A pitch + dia. of rivet.
RIVBTBD JOINTS
381
(6) ForjointHi(p. 388),—
p _3 pitch + 4 dia. rivet
*^» — 10
Distance between inner rows of rivets (joint H^, p. 888),—
y _ V(ll pitch +8 dia. rivet) (pitch + 8 dia. rivet)
* 20
Maximum Pitches for Riveted Joints.
Ts thickness of plate in inches ;
p= maximum pitch of rivets in inches, provided it does not
exceed 12| inches ; and
0=con8t{int applicable firom the following table : —
1
Number of Kiveta in
one Pitch.
Constants for Lap Joints.
Constants for Double Butt-
Strap Joints.
1
2
3
4
5
L. _.
1-31
2-62
8-47
4-14
•••
1-76
3-60
4-63
6-52
6-00
(CxT) + l =:p.
382
RIVKTBD JOINTS.
Diagrams of Board of Trade Rules.
f f- o d) (f) o o~d 5
^ — cp
nff.iCi)
ng.\B)
t-
■h
It °
it4 o
O (t) j)
O (f""^<p
■3-
<p (j) o
- ^V^o o
ng.'D)
RIVETED JOINTS.
383
-^-
4-
1"
1-
--e-
6
o
6
9
o
-e-
O '
o
t-
-e-
o
o
-4- .
--e
o
o
^
Joint 6
U-Z>-J
e 0 (t)
P- o o o o
-e^o o o o
-e o o 19. o
D-o o s^
»^<>^
laj^ o
JoMut Hi
384
RIVBTBD JOINTS.
The following figs, are examples of quadruple riveting of the special
kinds adopted largely on the Oontment for boilers having thick
shells.
Jovni K^
O O
O
O O
o o
o
o
ooooooooooooo,
OOOOOOOOOOOOOiOq
o - \e^
oooooooooooo 0^o°
RIVETED JOINTS.
^5
o o o o o o
oooooooooo
ooooooooooo
ooooooooooo
oooooooooo
o o o o
e
Joint L and M
Joint E2 is an example of a double riveted joint with alternate rivets
outer rows omitted : —
0000
0000000
0000000
0000
JoMEn
k
O
26
386
TESTS OF BOTLBR MATERIALS.
Bureau
Veritas.
'noi8n8)X{g[
Per
cent.
20
M
M
3
s
•
•
•
•
3
•
•
a
s
2
2
•
•
•
•
2
•
•
A
J
*aoiBa9i)X3
s
S
S
^
04
^
3
1
to
Britii
Corpora
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VARIOUS KINDS OP JOINTINGS FOR PLATES.
387
Table JCXV.— Various Kinds of Jointings for Plates and their
Relative Values when designed in accordance with Board
of Trade Rules.
Equal to
Relative
Mark.
Description of Joint.
per cent, of
Working
Solid Plate.
Pressure.
A
Lap joint, single riveted
56
106
B
,, double ,,
66
126
C
,, treble ,, ...
72
140
D
Butt joint, with double butt straps,
single riveted
66
126
E
Butt ioiut, with double butt straps,
double riveted
75
150
E2
Butt joint, double straps, double
riveted, half number in outer rows .
81/84
162/168
G
Butt joint, double straps, treble
•
riveted
80/82
160/164
H
Butt joint, double straps, treble
riveted, half number in outer rows .
84/88
168/176
J
Butt joint, double straps, quadruple
riveted
84
168
E
Butt joint, double straps, quadruple
riveted, special, 9 to the pitch .
91-8
183-6
L
Butt joint, double straps, quadruple
riveted, special, 11 to the pitch
93-2
186-4
M
Butt joint, double straps, quadruple
riveted, special, 11 to the pitch
94-2
188-4
N,B. — In cases E2,G, and H the higher percentage is obtained by
using rivets large in diameter compared with the thickness of plates.
Case E2 is only suitable for plates comparatively thin, say up to ^ inch,
as the rivets have to be 1^ times the thickness for steel of 27 tons
tensile, and consequently, if 36-ton steel is used, the diameter will be
excessive and the pitch too great for tight work.
In case M the very high percentage is obtained by using rivets of
diameter 1*125 times the thickness of the 27-ton plate, as against the
simple (2=^ for 93*2 per cent.
SUPERVISION OF BOILER WORK.
• Admiralty. — The following instructions to boilermaker overseers
are those that were given in Admiralty specifications for cylindrical
boilers : —
The boilers will be subject to the supervision of an overseer, wh*-
388 SUPERVISION OF BOILER WORK.
will be directed to attend on the premises of the contractors during
the progress of the work on the boilers, to examine the material and
workmanship used in their construction, to witness the prescribed
tests, and to see that this specification, as regards the boilers and
work in connection, is conformed to in all respects by the contractors.
The extent of supervision is described in the following paragraphs
extracted from Admiralty instructions to overseers, and the contactors
are to afford him every facility for their proper execution.
The plates and other material used in the construction of the boilers
to be subjected to such tests as may be directed in the specification.
Every plate used is to be carefully examined by the overseer for
laminations, blisters, veins, and other defects, and to ensure that it is
of the proper thickness and brand. No plate, angle, kc, , which from
any cause is considered by the overseer to be unfit for the intended use
is to be fitted.
During the construction of the various parts of the boilers, the over-
seer is to satisfy himself that the dimensions as shown on the approved
drawings are being adhered to by the contractors.
Whenever plates are flanged or welded, or in any case where iron or
steel is worked in such manner that it is particularly liable to suffer
in strength unless carefully handled, the overseer is to be present if
possible on all occasions during the time the work on each article is in
progress, and he is to fully satisfy himself that it is sound before he
allows any part to be put in the boilers.
Samples of the rivets being used for the boilers are to be taken by
the overseer during the progress of the work and tested as specified
hereafter, and any batches of rivets found defective are to be rejected.
Before rivets are put in, the overseer is to see that the plates are
brought properly together, and that the holes are fair with one another.
He is not to allow drifting on any account, but he is to see that they
are carefully rimed fair where necessary. He is also to make sure durine
the progress of the work that the rivets fill the holes completely, and
that the heads are properly set up, well formed, and finished.
The overseer is to see that all internal parts of the boiler are riveted
with rivets having heads and points of approved shape, and that any
seams he considers necessary are riveted on the fire side. No snap
heads are to be allowed in the internal parts. Any proposal for
hydraulic riveting the internal parts is to be submitted to the
Admiralty, with sketch of the proposed heads and points. In all
parts where the rivets are not closed oy hydraulic riveting machinery,
he is to see that the rivet holes are countersunk and that coned rivets
are used. All holes in the plates, angles, &c., are to be drilled, and
not punched, and are to be drilled in place after bending. The
clearance between rivet hole and rivet before closing is not to be greater
than approved by the overseer.
The overseer will see that the particulars of the form, dimensions, and
pitch of the various stays shown on the drawings are adhered to, and
samples of them are to be tested as directed in this specification ; and
he will be guided by his experience as a workman in testing and
SUPERVISION OP BOILER WORK. 389
judging of the soundness of the forging and construction of the various
stays.
He is to see that palm stays if fitted are forged from the solid and
not welded, that all short stays are nutted on all flat surfaces except
where otherwise approved and screwed to a picch of eight threads per
inch for stays of 1 inch diameter and above, that the holes for the
screwed stays in the water spaces are drilled and tapped together after
the furnaces and combustion chambers have been riveted in place in
the boiler, that the combustion-chamber stays are drilled square to the
bevel of the combustion-chamber plates, and that no bevel washers are
inside the chamber. Any girder stays used for combustion chambers
are to be well bedded on to the tube plates to the satisfaction of the
overseer.
The overseer is to see that the arrangement of the zinc plates shown
on the approved drawings is adhered to, that the metallic surfaces in
contact are filed bright, and that means are adopted to secure a firm
grip of the clips by which the plates are attached.
The overseer is to witness the testing, in all cases, of the boiler tubes,
in accordance with this specification, before they are put in the boiler.
When the boilers are reported to the overseer by tne contractors as
being completed, ready for testing by water pressure, the overseer i* to
witness a preliminary test of them in accordance with the specification,
carefully observing with the assistance of gauges and straight edges
whether any bulging or deflection of the plates has taken place.
The official test will be conducted on all occasions in the presence of
an inspecting officer. A test pressure gauge is supplied to the overseer
fsom the Admiralty, and the official test is to be made with this gauge.
After the boilers have been tested by water pressure the overseer is
to see that they are properly cleaned inside and outside, and then well
painted outside with red lead. It is important that the whole surface
of the boilers should be thoroughly cleansed of scale formed in manu-
facture before any paint is put on them. The boilers are not to be
exposed to the weather till they are so painted, and properly cleaned
and closed up to his satisfaction.
The overseer is to make himself fully acquainted with the progress of
the whole of the work in its various stages, to satisfy himself that every
part is sound before it is allowed to be put in the boilers, and to see
that the following instructions for the treatment of mild steel are
strictly complied with.
Treatment of mild steel.— All plates or bars which can be bent
cold are to be so treated ; and if the whole length cannot be bent cold,
heating is to be had recourse to over as little length as possible.
All plates of the boilers are to be flanged by hydraulic pressure, and
in as few heats as possible.
In cases where plates or bars have to be heated, the greatest care
should be taken to prevent any work being done upon the material
after it has fallen to the dangerous limit of temperature known as a
"blue heat," say from 600** to 400** F. Should this limit be reached
during working, the plates or bars should be reheated.
390 BOILBR MOUNTINGS, ETO.
Plates or bars which have been worked locally while hot are to be
subsequently annealed over the whole of each plate or bar.
All plates for boilers and steam pipes and all tubes are to be treated
as follows for removal of scale : — Previous to work being commenced on
them, they are to stand for eight hours in a mixture of 19 of water to 1
of hydrochloric acid. They should be placed on edge and not laid flat
On removal from acid bath, they should be thoroughly brushed and
washed in fresh water, and then placed on edge to dry.
N,B, — A shorter time in a somewhat stronger solution is safer,
as it precludes the occluding of hydrogen and thereby making the
metal brittle.
BOILER MOUNTINGS, &c.
Size of main stop-valves should be such that the whole of the
steam is just capable of passing through without appreciable loss of
pressure and no more. The lift of valve should be no more than will
permit of this, for then, if with careless stoking or other causes the
steam drop, it tends to cause priming. It is surprising how small a
hole in a diaphragm, interposed between the steam-pipe flanges, will
paiSs all the steam a boiler of large size can make. Such a diaphragm
may be used often with advantage on boilers which are in the hands
of careless or unskilled engineers, as it cannot be tampered with as
can be the stop-valve.
The flow of steam through the lengths of pipe on ship-board may be
taken as 6000 feet per minute in pipes under 2*5 inches diameter,
7000 up to 4 inches, 8000 up to 7 inches, 9000 to 12 inches and over
12 inches, 9500 to 15 inches per pressure about 700 lbs, per square inch.
That is, velocity of boiler steam = 5000 x /^diameter.
T ET surf
Rule 272. Area steam-pipe section = ' x/+ 8 sq. in.,
P
for turbines, /= 1*25 ; for quick-revolution reciprocators, 1*55; for
ordinary mercantile marine reciprocators, 1*75.
I H P c
Rule 275. Area of steam-pipe section= x - + 3 sq. ins.,
p X
e is the consumption of steam per I.H.P. hour, as given in Table XCIII. ;
ajis = 6*2 for turbines; aj = 5'l for quick-revolution reciprocators, and
a; =4*3 for slow-running mercantile engines.
The area of stop- valve should be not less than 10 per cent, greater
than the pipe to provide equal area clear of obstructions, that is.
Rule 274. Diameter of stop- valve = 1 *06 x diameter of steam-pipe.
If in certain cases the boilers are going to be forced so that the pro-
duction is more than 8 lbs. per square foot of total heating surface, the
factor/ must be increased proportionately.
The following Tables will be found useful as a guide in determining
the size of steam-piping from the demand requirements.
BOILKR MOUNTINGS, ETC.
391
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BOILBR MOUNTINGS, ETC.
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BOILER HOUNTINQS, ETC. 393
Stop-valves. — ^The diameter of the boiler stop valves is often fixed
from the previously determined size of main steam pipe at engines.
When the branch pipes from two or more separate but similar boilers
join together into one main steam pipe, of diameter D, the size of each
branch pipe (their number being n) may be that given by,—
Rule 275. — Diameter of Branch pipe to each boiler =D\/— .
ofl
The more important points connected with the design and construc-
tion of stop- valves have already been dealt with (pages 286 and 892)^
and it is only necessary to add here that boiler stop-valves should have
turned spigots fitting accurately into the holes in the boiler plates, —
which should be carefully cut out by means of a bar and cutter, and
710^ by hammer and chisel, — and that the flanges and necks should be
extra strong and well ribbed, and the bolts or studs (bolts with heads
inside the boiler are best) by which they are attached to the boiler,
larger and more numerous than in pipe flanges of similar size : a §-inch
bolt should be the smallest size used for attaching boiler mountings, —
even for the smallest valve or cock.
In Naval work the boiler stop-valves are generally made entirely of
bronze, and are of the non-return type: non- return valves are also
placed at the various bulkheads, in order to localise as far as possible
the effects of injury to boilers or pipes by shot, &c.
Internal steam pipes. — Where the steam room in a boiler is small
relatively to the I.H.P. derived from the boiler, internal pipes with
closed ends, and provided with sufficient narrow transverse slits (saw-
cuts), or small holes, to ffive a clear area equal at least to twice that of
the pipe section, should l>e fitted. They are best made of sheet brass
— not copper. The number and arrangement of the pipes must be
determined in accordance with the concutions of the case, but a good
plan is to fit two pipes running the fall length of the boiler ; so mat,
with the stop-valve at one end, there are two pipes leading to it, each
rather more than half the sectional area of the valve or of the branch
steam pipe from the boiler, and with the stop-valve on the shell at
mid-length there are four shorter pipes converging to it
The steam is then gently collected from a large area, and strong
currents, which might induce priming, are avoided.
Safety-valves. — The size of safety-valve should be such that it is
capable of discharging all the steam that can be generated in the boiler,
without allowing the pressure to rise more than 10 per cent, above that
to which the valve is nominally loaded ; it therefore depends mainly on
quantity of fuel burnt per hour and the working pressure. A con-
venient and easily applied rule is, —
Rule 275a. Area in square inches of each of two valves =
/Grate area Heating 8urface\ ^ ./ 100
\ 20 200 / ^ Working pressure '
394
BOILER MOUNTINGS, BTO.
Minimum Spaces between the Smoke Tubes of Small Hori-
zontal Boilers not exceeding; lo Feet in Diameter in 32nds
of an Inch, as recommended by B.M.E.D. & C. Committee.
External Diameter of Tubes.
Length of Tube between Plates In Feet.
50
22
24
26
28
30
66
23
25
27
29
31
60
24
26
28
30
32
6-6
26
27
29
81
38
7-0
28
30
82
34
7-6
31
83
35
80
34
36
8*6
87
1 *5 inches and under .
1 75 inches
2 0 and 2 25 inches .
2-5 „ 275 „ .
3-0 „ 3-26 „ . .
SAFETY-VALVES, &c.
Safety-valves. — The Board of Trade and the Register Societies
determine their size as follows : —
Rule 276. Aggregate area in square inches = total heating surface in
sq. ft. X -—
^ i? + 15,
where p is the working pressure.
Tank boilers, K is 1*25 for coal-fired boilers and 1*5 for oil-fired
ones.
Water- tube boilers, K is 1 '0 for coal- fired boilers and 1*25 for
oil-fired ones.
There must be at least two valves to each boiler. Spring valves
must be cased in so as not to permit of overloading, but can be lifted
by means of gear and turned round on their seats by hand.
The British Marine Engineering Design and Construction Committee
recommended that the load on any single valve should not exceed
2,600 lbs.
Two or more valves may be in one chest, which must be connected
to the boiler by a strong neck, the area through which need not be
more than one-half the aggregate area of the valves ; that is, if there
are three valves each 8 inches diameter, the diameter inside the neck
need not exceed 3 '67 inches.
Rule 276a. The waste steam pipe and passage leading to it need
have an area of cross-section no more than 0*01 x total heating surface
BOILER MOUNTINGS, ETC. 395
in sq. ft., nor less than 1*1 x the combined areas of the valves. That
is, with the above three valve box, the waste steam pipe may be 5*6
inches in diameter.
During a test of 15 minutes with stop valves closed and under
full firing conditions, the accumulation must not exceed 10 per cent,
of W.P.
All superheaters must have an independent safety-valve at or con-
nected to the delivery end ; the diameter need not exceed If inches.
Means of draining the superheaters must also be provided.
Rule 278 (French Govt.). Diameter of valve if one only
= 1 '23 J '^'^'^' . ( In English measures. )
Rule 279 (German Govt.). The clear area throug^h valve seats
to be so many square millimetres per square metre of total heating
surface, the range is from 131 for a pressure of 75 lbs. to 51 for
240 lbs.
Wherever possible, the valves should be placed with the spindles
vertical, as the action of the valve (which is very sensitive to, and
easily affected by, any increase in the friction of its various parts) is
then more certain. For the same reason all the parts should be a very
easy fit, and the rubbing surfaces of the spindle should be draw-filed
and polished with emery cloth in the same direction.
The whole of the parts must be cleaned from time to time, when in
use, and the greatest care must be taken to avoid making any dints or
burrs on the working surfaces.
The spring should be so proportioned that its initial compression
at load is not less than half the diameter of the valve ; this result
can be obtained with various proportions of spriqg, and when height
is limited a shorter spring of larger diameter and section of steel may
be used.
In Naval practice, the valves, valve-boxes, &c., are usually made
entirely of bronze, and the valve is generally made as a separate piece
(not cast with the spindle), while the casing gear, when pressure is
moderate, may be fitted to lift the valve from below. This construction
has the advantage of preventing any bending or springing of the spindle
that may arise from the ends of the spring not being quite true and
square by its axis, from affecting the tightness of the valve on its seat ;
and also permits examination of the valves to be made without dis-
connecting and taking down easing gear shafts, &c.
The vaive faces should always be nat, not angled at all.
When the design of the valve permits, it is a great convenience to
those who will afterwards have charge of the machinery, to have a
thread cut on the upper end of the spindle, so that, before taking the
valve to pieces for examination or re-grinding, a nut may be put on to
prevent the release or expansion of the spring when the joint at the
base of the spring tower is broken ; spring, tower, spindle and valv
can then be readily and quickly removed in one piece.
396 BOILER MOUNTINGS, BTO.
When loose valve seats aie used (as with cast-iron and steel chests)
they should be securely fixed in place by a flange, or lugs, with studs
or screws.
The valves, seats, spindles, compressing screws and nuts, spring
washers, spindle bushes and cotters, studs and nuts for valve seats,
and lushes for bearings of easing gear shafts, should be of special
bronze suitable for high temperatures.
The valve may be with or without lip, but valves without lip are
much less violent in action.
The point of the compressing screw should be well rounded and
should enter from § to | inch into the spring washer.
Spiral springs. — The size of steel required by the Board of Trade is
given by,—
Rule 280.
, VSxD
Inhere (2= diameter or side of square of steel in inches (min. i inch).
D= diameter of coil (centre to centre of wire) in inches.
S=load on spring in pounds.
C=8000 for round and 11,000 for square steel.
In Naval work the values adopted for C are commonly 11,000 and
15,000 for round and square steel respectively.
d should, as recommended by the late T. W. Traill, always equal
-- : when this proportion of spring is adopted the above rule becomes, —
6
V
= d ; or 1 600d" = S for round steel ;
1600
V
a
=(2; or 2200(2^=8 for square steel.
2200
The relation between load on, and compression of, spiral springs is
given by, —
Rule 281. Compression in inches = — ^— — - ,
d*xa
where N = number of free coils (not counting those which are in
contact) ;
d = diameter or side of square of wire in sixteenths of an inch ;
a = 26 for round, 32 for square steel ;
'ind the other symbols have the same meanings as above.
BOd.En MODNTINGB, ETC.
Working
DimBiuioii
■ In
WorUnE
losdtlnlbi.
lnch«i.
lOIMlllDlb..
Inch^
Ubuneter OT
■t«eL
dUio»t*r
I
I
Pluneteror
4S^
Uun
II
1
H
11
100
137
"/i.
5;ii'
676
1342
•^.
li
)2fl
174
•«.
losa
1462
s.
1'
16fl
214
"A,
<'2,
1139
1668
"/4.
1'
138
260
%
i%
1226
1684
K
225
809
'%,
*'Vt.
13U
1806
"^
2*
264
"A
i"A»
1108
1B3S
W.
2'
soa
421
'%,
*■%,
1501
2064
'S.
2'
S51
4S3
1
5
ISOO
2200
H
Z-
400
650
1%.
11
1701
2330
■%.
2'
ibl
620
I'A. ■
IB06
2483
«.
2'
BOfl
69a
1%.
B'%.
1814
2831
'«,
2'
m
775
iJi
65S
2026
2784
%
8
626
850
I'^i
5"/,.
2139
2941
'%,
8'
GS9
917
iM.
5"/,.
2258
3103
'M*
3'
758
1039
I'^i
6%.
2376
S287
"A,
8"-l.
S2S
113S
IS
6Ji
3437
%
BM
900
12S7
...
lodsectioiiB, and especially
s probabl; due to the fact
The late Mr Traill fixed tlie values of a i
ments be hud mtlde, whilst Rankine gave 2
to 32'9 for square steel.
The superior transverse elasticity of the to
of email ones, compared with square ones,
that the round wires am often lirawn, while. ... _^ _._ .
^rolled J also the luate rial of square section st«el is probably more affected
by Uie coiling process than is that of the round.
Feed check valves.— Each boiler must haTe at least two inde-
pendent means of feeii, each with its own feed check valve. There
should be ioterposed between them and the boiler a shut-olT cock or
valve to permit of their examination when necessary. The internal
diameter of their seats should be at least ^iuch more than that of the
feed pipes.
Rule 282. Area through main feed valve in square inches=
total heating surface in sq. ftet-;-250 ; or
Minimuin area of pipe section = water supplied in lbs. i
bout ^2500 i
398 BOILBR MOUNTINGS, ETC.
say, Diameter of main feed pipe= Vpo^ds water per hour .
Rule 282a.
and. Diameter of auxiliary feed=^5°B5dE^LP^5omr
^ 49
or, Area of section of auxiliary feed=T.H.S. sq. ft. -r 800.
Feed check valves should be very strongly made, and entirely of the
best bronze ; the necks by which they are attached to the boilers should
be specially strong, and well ribbed to the flanges. The spigots should
be turned, and the holes in the boiler plates carefidly borea and faced
to suit The working faces of the valves should be flat, and pro-
Eortioned in accordance with Rule 158 (p. 169). The spindles should
e very stout, and provided with square threaded screws ; if space
allows the nuts to bis placed in external crossheads or bridges, they
are better so arranged.
The Admiralty require that the main feed check valve shall always
be placed at the right hand, as one faces the boiler and the auxiliary
valve at the left hand.
Internal feed pipes. — ^The feed water should be led by an internal
pipe (of brass) placed 2 or 8 inches below the water level, to a part
of the boiler where there is a descending current, and there delivered
downwards through a number of fine transverse slits or small holes.
Care must be taken that this internal pipe is arranged to be kept always
filled with water, and not partly with steam, so as to cause a severe
water hammering action to be set up, the joints started, and the pipe
very quickly destroyed.
Blow-ofif and scum valyes.— These should also be stoutly made
valves of bronze, — ribbed as above directed for feed check valves, — and
are best fitted so that the pressure tends to hold the valve on ite seat,
in order to reduce the risk of leakage as much as possible. Now that
fresh water is so much used, and loss made up by means of evaporators,
and from reserve tanks, the blow-off* valve is not so necessary as formerly,
and is now often omitted, the boilers being emptied into the bilges
when cold.
The scum valve should have an internal pipe leading to it from a
circular '*scum pan "or dished plate of sheet brass (about 15 inches'
diameter) fixed near to the centre of the water surface, and at about
he lowest working level ; or, if preferred, the internal pipe may reach
little beyond the centre of water surface, and may be closed at the
od, and have simply a few longitudinal slits in its upper side to admit
^m.
vhere i^' *^®* through the blow-off" valve may be that given by, —
Area of blow-ofif pipe in square inches
^ Z o« . Tons of water in bcdler
a = zo A —1-1 .
"^^ 25
and the other symn inch in diameter per foot diameter of boiler will
<>T modern conditions,
^e may be one-third that of blow-off pipe.
BOILBR MOUNTINGS, ETC.
399
Water-gauge.— Every boiler must have at least two independent
means of indicating the water level.
The glass tubes are | or f inch external diameter, and their standard
lengths 20, 18, 16 or 14 inches.
All single-ended boilers over 16 feet diameter shall have a glass gauge
on each side ; under 16 feet one glass gauge on one side, and a set of
test cocks near the other.
Double-ended boilers shall have a glass gauge near each end on
opposite sides, and a set of cocks at each end.
Test cocks should be fitted direct on the boiler shell, and two in
number up to 7*5 feet shells; over that there shall be three. The
stand pillars must be 2} inches bore with l}-inch pipes connecting
them to the boiler.
Table CXIX.— Weight of Pure Water at Different Temperatures.
Temperature
of Water.
Absolute
Pressure of
Steam.
Weight in Lbs.
Temperature
of Water.
1 Absolute
Pressure of
Steam.
Weight in Lbs.
A Cub. Ft.
A Gallon.
A Cub. Ft.
A Gallon.
F.**
lbs.
F.**
lbs.
60
0-2
62-87
10-0025
803
70
67-16
9-166
90
07
62*13
9-964
312
80
66-85
9117
120
17
6174
9-901
820
90
66-67
9-072
186
27
61-46
9-858
827
100
66 '33
9085
150
87
61-18
9-812
334
110
66-07
8-991
160
47
60-98
9780
341
120
65-83
8-953
168
67
60-81
9-762
347
130
66-62
8-920
176
67
60-66
9-728
353
140
66-41
8-885
181
77
60-53
9707
368
160
65-21
8-866
187
87
60-39
9-685
868
160
65-02
8*824
192
97
60-27
9-666
368
170
54-84
8-795
196
107
60-17
9-660
373
180
64-67
8-766
201
117
60-05
9*630
377
190
54-60
8-741
205
127
59-95
9-614
381
200
64-84
8717
209
137
59-84
9-696
386
210
64*20
8-693
212
147
59-76
9-584
389
220
64-08
8-668
215
157
59-74
9-581
393
230
58-87
8-660
228
20
59-43
9-532
397
240
63-76
8-619
240
25
59-10
9-479
400
250
63-63
8-590
250
80
68-75
9-430
404
260
63-46
8-574
259
35
58 -64
9-389
407
270
53-39
8-668
267
40
58-30
9 -349
410
280
53-84
8-648
275
45
68-04
9-312
413
290
53-32
8-540
281
50
67 -86
9-300
416
800
53-31
8 638
293
60
67-60
9-220
Y
400 BOARD OF TRADE RULES FOR BOILER MOUNTINOS, ETC.
If cocks or valves are to be fitted where these connections join the
boiler, they should be in sight and not capable of being closed without
advertising the fact, — as serious accidents have occurred through their
use, — and care should be taken not to place the inlets near where a
current of steam or water may be, since the level of the water in the
glass may be affected thereby, — a difference of pressure of one-tenth
of a pound causing an alteration in level of 2*7 inches.
Also, in fixing the level at which the water is to stand in the glass,
the lowering of level due to the cooling and consequent contraction
of the water in the stand-pipe connection should not be forgotten, —
though it is always an error on the side of safety.
Rankine gave the following rule for determining the volume of water
at different temperatures : —
Let the volume of the water at its temperature of maximum density
(89 •2* F. ) be represented by unity, and let its volume at T* be V, then, —
Rule 284. V-ir^±i5i+ 6^Y
^ 2V 500 T + 46iy
He stated that the error is only one four-hundredth.
Circulating apparatus.— It is very desirable that large rigidly con-
structed boilers should be fitted with an apparatus for circmating the
water whilst getting up steam ; if hydrokineters are not supplied,
connections should be made with one of the auxiliary steam pumps.
In almost all cylindrical boilers the rate of evaporation may be
improved by fitting a proper arrangement of circulating plates ; the
first cost is small, but they are rather in the way when tne boiler is
being cleaned ; the gain, however, is often worth the cost and trouble
in crowded boilers which have to be forced.
An air-cock should be fitted at the highest point of each boiler.
THE BOARD OF TRADE RULES FOR BOILER
MOUNTINGS, &c.
185. No boiler or steam chamber should be so constructed, fitted,
or arranged that the escape of steam from it through the safety-valves
required by the Act of Parliament can be wholly, or partially inter-
cepted by the action of another valve.
A stop valve should always be fitted between the boiler and the steam
pipe, and, where two or more boilers are connected with a steam receiver
or superheated, between each boiler and the superheater or steam re-
ceiver.* The necks of stop- valves should be as short as practicable and
the chests should be tested when new to double the water pressure.
186. Water-gauges, test cocks, and gauges. —Each boiler should
be fitted with a glass water-gauge, at least three test cocks, and a ste«m
gauge. Boilers that arc fired from both ends, and those of unusual
width, should have a glass water-gauge and three test cocks at each end
»w^^*? *i?^t*'?,°' **^** *" obvious, vix. to avoid the failure of all the boilers
inrougl) the failure of one.
BOARD OF TRADE RULB8 FOR BOILER MOUNTINGS, ETC. 401
or side, as the case may be. An additional glass water-gauge may,
however, be substituted for three test cocks. When a steamer has
more than one boiler, each boiler should be treated as a separate one,
and have all the requisite fittings.
When the water-gauge cocks are not attached directly to the shell of
the boiler, but to a stand-pipe or column, cocks should as a general
rule be fitted between the boiler and the stand-pipes, &c. , and may be
E laced either on the boiler or at the stand-pipe. Such cocks need not,
owever, be insisted on in cases wliere the columns, stand -nipes, &c.,
are of moderate length and of suitable strength, providea that the
diameter of the bore of any part is not less than 3 inches.
Valves between boiler and stand-pipe should not be passed.
If the dolumn, stand-pipes, &c., are of less diameter than 3 inches,
and the pipes are bolted to the boiler without the intervention of
cocks, the arrangement need not be objected to, if otherwise satis-
factory, providing there is no difficulty in keeping the passages at the
ends clear, and ascertaining that they are so. To do this it will b»
necessary that the passage in the part of the column between the U»p
and bottom gauge-glass cocks be cut off or closed, which may be done
permanently, or by the interposition of a cock at that part. The
fatter is a convenient and desirable arrangement even when cocks are
fitted on the boiler.
In the case of high-pressure boilers, it is desirable that the cocks
in connection with the water-gauges should be fitted with handles
which can be expeditiously manipulated from a convenient position.
It is desirable in all cases that test cocks should be fitted directly to
the skin of the boiler; and when the water-gauge is attached to a
column, the opening through which is stopped or can be cut off, the
test cocks must be fitted directly to the skin of the boiler.
The Surveyors should satisfy themselves by actual examination
whether the glass water-gauges of the boilers of the vessels they survey
are clear, anc» also whether they are fitted with automatic valves or
fittings, as the existence of such fittings cannot always be ascertained
by external examination. In all cases where automatic gauges are
fitted, full particulars thereof should be submitted for consideration
and approval before the gauges are passed.
191. Cast-iron stand-pipes or cocks intended for the passage through
them of hot brine should not be passed.
Surveyors should also discourage the use of cast-iron chocks and
saddles for boilers, and particular attention should be paid to the
chocking of boilers, more especially when they are fired athwartships.
The Board of Trade Rules for Safety- Valves are as follows :—
177. Oases have come under the notice of the Board of Trade in which
there were pipes between the boilers and the safety-valves. Such
arrangement is not in accordance with the Act, which distinctly
provides that the safety-valves shall be upon the boilers.
The Surveyors are mstinicted that in all new boilers^ and whenever
alterations can he easily made^ the valve chest should be placed direct'
26
pr-x-
402 BOARD OF TRADE RULES FOR BOILER MOUNTINGS, ETC.
on the boiler ; and the neck, or part between the chest and the flange
which is bolted on to the boiler, should be as short as possible, and be
cast in one with the chest
The Surveyors should note that it is not intended by this instruction
that vessels with old boilers which have been previously passed with such
an arrangement should be detained for the alterations to be carried out
Of coui*se, in any case in which a Surveyor is of opinion that it is
positively dangerous to have a length of pipe between the boilers and
the safety-valve chest, it is his duty at once to insist on the requisite
alterations being made before granting a declaration.
If any person place an undue weight on the safety-valve of any
steamship, or, in the case of steamships surveyed under the Act,
increase such weight beyond the limits fixed by the Engineer Surveyor,
he shall, in addition to any other liability he may incur by so doing,
be liable for each offence to a fine not exceeding one hundred pounds.
179. The locked-up valves, i,e. those out of the control of the engineer
when steam is up, should have an area not less, and a pressure not greater,
than those which are not locked up, if any such valves are fitted.
When natural draught is used, the area per square foot of T.H.
surface of the locked-up safety-valves should not be less than that
given by the Rule (page 394) for the boiler pressure intended, but
in no case should the valves be less than 2 inches in diameter. This
applies to new vessels or vessels which have not received a passenger
certificate.
When, however, the valves are of the common description, and are
made in accordance with the Rule, it will be necessary to fit them
with springs having great elasticity, or to provide other means to keep
the accumulation within moderate limits.
The Board of Trade will now permit the use of some other equally
good and reliable safety-valve in lieu of the valve of ordinaiy type,
and if satisfactory, allow a reduction in area of as much as 33 per
cent
When the pressure exceeds 180 lbs. per square inch the accumulation
of pressure at the steam test will probably be exceptionally high,
unless the area of the branch leading from the valve chest is in excess
of the area of the valves, and the area of the main waste steam pipe
is correspondingly in excess of the gross area of the valves.
In ascertaining the fire-grate area, the length of the grate should be
measured from the inner edge of the dead plate to the front of the
bridge, and the width from side to side of the furnace on the top of
the bars at the middle of their length.
In the case of vessels that have uot had a passenger certificate, if
there is only one safety-valve on any boiler, the Surveyor should not
grant a declaration without first referring the case to the Board for
special instructions.
BOARD OP TRADE RULBS FOR BOILER MOUNTINGS, BTO. 403 ^
Table CXX.— Safety-Valve Areas for Cylindrical Boilers
Using Coal Fuel.
Boiler
Pres-
sure.
Aggregate
Area of
Valves per
100 sq. ft.
of Total
HeaUng
Surface.
Boiler
Pres-
sure.
Aggregate
Area of
Valves per
100 sq. ft.
of Total
Heating
Surface.
Boiler
Pres-
sure.
Aggregate
Area of
Valves per
100 sq. ft.
of Total
Heating
Surface.
Boiler
Pres-
sure.
Aggregate
Area of
Valves per
100 sq. ft.
of Total
Heating
Surface.
120
0-926
165
0-700
210
0-556
255
0-463
125
0-893
170
0-676
215
0-544
260
0-456
130
0-862
176
0-658
220
0-532
265
0-447
185
0-833
180
0-642
225
0*521
270
0*489
140
0-806
185
0-625
230
0-511
276
0431
145
0-781
190
0-610
235
0-500
280
0-424
150
0-758
195
0-595
240
0-491
286
0-417
155
0-786
200
0-582
245
0-481
290
0-410
160
0-715
205
0-570
250
0-472
295
0*404
For oil-fired boilers multiply by 1*2 or divide by 0*833. For the
area through the neck take one- half these.
For the area through cross-section of waste steam pipe and passages
thereto, the allowance is 1 square inch per 100 square feet of total
heating surface in each case.
180. The safety- valres should be fitted with lifting-sear, so arranged
that the two or m^re valves on any one boiler can at all times be eased
together, without interfering with the valves on any other boiler. The
lifting-gear should in all cases be so arranged that it can be worked b
band either from the engine-room or stoke-hold.
Care should be taken that the safety-valves have a lift equal to one-
fourth of their diameter ; that the openings for the passage of steam
to and from the valves, including the waste-steam pipe, have each an
area not smaller than tlie area required by Section 179, and the area of
the main waste-steam pipe should not be smaller than the combined
area of the branch pipes. Each valve box should have a drain pipe
fitted at its lowest part.
Too much care cannot be devoted to seeing that there is proper lif
also that free means of escape for the waste steam are provided, as i1
404 BOARD OP TRADE RULES FOR BOILER MOUNTINGS, ETC.
obvious that, unless the means for escape of the waste steam are ample,
the effect is the same as reducing the area of the valves or putting an
extra load upon them. The valve seats should be secured by studs
and nuts.
181. The following conditions are to be complied with : —
(1) That at least two valves are fitted to each boiler.
(2) That the valves are of the proper size, as by clause 179.
(3) That the springs and valves are so cased in that they cannot
bo tampered with.
(4) That provision is made to prevent the valves flying off in case
of the springs breaking.
(5) That screw lifting-gear is provided to ease all the valves, as
by clause 180.
(6) That the size of the steel of which the springs are made is in
accordance with that found by the following formula : —
s=the load on the spring in lbs.
D = the diameter of the spring (from centre to centre of wire)
in inches.
d=the diameter, or side of square, of the wire in inches.
c=8000 for round steel,
c= 11,000 for square steel.
(7) That the springs are protected from the steam and impurities
issuing from the valves.
(8) That when valves are loaded by direct springs, the compress-
ing screws abut against metal stops or washers, when the
loads sanctioned by the Surveyor are on the valves.
(9) That the springs have a sufficient number of coils to allow a
compression under the working load of at least one quarter
the diameter of the valve.
The size of steel of springs of safety-valves should not as a rule be
less than i inch.
182. Safety-valve steam tests. — In no case is the Surveyor to
give a declaration for spring-loaded valves, unless he has tried them
under full steam, and full firing, for at least 15 minutes with the feed*
water shut off and stop-valve closed, and is fully satisfied with the
result of the test. If the accumulation of pressure exceed 10 per cent,
of the loaded pressure he should withhold his declaration and report
the case to the Board of Trade.
183. The tracings of new safety-valve designs should, if possible, be
transmitted to the Board of Trade for consideration before the con-
Btruction of the safety-valves is commenced.
178, Liability of owners, &c.— It is cleariy the duty of the
ADMIHALTY BULKS FOR SAFETY-VALVES. 405
masters and engineera of vessels to see, in the intervals between the
surveys, that the locked-up safety-valves, as well as the other safety-
valves, and the rest of the machinery, are in proper working order.
There is no provision in the Merchant Shipping Act, 1894, exempting
the owner of any vessel, on the ground that she has been surveyed by
the Board of Trade Surveyors, from any liability, civil or criminal, to
which he would otherwise be subject. The Act of Parliament requires
the Government safety-valves to be out of the control of the engineer
when the steam is up ; this enactment, far from implying that he is
not to have access to them, and to see to their working, at proper
intervals when the vessel is in port, rather implies the contrary ; and
the master should take care that the engineer has access to them for
that purpose. Substantial locks that cannot be easily tampered with,
and as far as possible weather-proof, should be used for locking up the
safety-valve boxes.
In witnessing the tests of boilers, &c., and safety-valves, the Sur-
veyors are to use the pressure gauges supplied by the Board of Trade.
The steam gauge should not be used without a syphon filled with
water between it and the boiler.
ADMIRALTY RULES FOR SAFETY-VALVES.
221. Safety-valves. — Each boiler is to be fitted with at least two
vertical safety-valves of approved design, loaded to 236 lbs. per square
inch, with springs on an approved plan, and placed on the boilers in-
dependently of the internal steam pipes.
The spindles are to have a suitable joint outside the valve box to
enable the valves to freely adjust themselves on their seatings.
The safety-valves are to be so adjusted that they will commence to
lift at the specified working pressure, and be fully open with an
increased pressure of not more than 7 lbs. The valves must also close
on their seats when the pressure falls to the specified working pressure,
and be quite tight at not more than 7 lbs. below this pressure.
222. Safety-valve area. — The total clear disc area of the safety-
valves on each boiler, at the most restricted part when just lifted, is to
be not less than 5J square inches per 1000 square feet of tube heating
surface for ordinary type valves, and as may be approved for valves of
special design.
223. Accumulation test. — After these valves have been adjusted
under steam, and the stops have been fitted to ensure the valves lifting
at the specified working pressure, a further trial of at least 30 minutes
duration is to be made with one boiler, with the stop-valves closed, an*""
406 ADMIRALTY RULES FOR SAFETY-VALVES.
burning oil fuel at a rate corresponding to not less than 1 lb. per square
foot of heating surface.
During these trials the accumulation of pressure, as registered by the
pressure-gauges on the boiler, is to be not greater than 7 per cent, of
the specitied working pressure.
This trial is to be carried out prior to the trials mentioned in
Clause 4.
224. Safety-valve lifting g:ear. — Gear with suitable indexes is to be
fitted to enable the safety-yalves to be easily lifted from the boiler-room
floors at readily accessible positions, and also from suitable and acces-
sible positions on deck. Cast steel levers or wire ropes are not to be
used, and no part of the lifting-gear is to be fitted inside the valye
boxes. The lifting-shafts and cams are to be forged from the solid.
All the joints of the safety-valve lifting gear are to be bushed .with gun-
metal, and provision is to be made for convenient access to the various
parts, and for efficient lubrication. The lifting gear is to be strong
enough to lift the valves easily under all conditions, and is to be so
designed that the valves are opened with a left-hand motion of
the wheel.
225. Safety-valve springs. — The safety-valve springs are to be
fitted with guides at the top and bottom, and also, if required, at the
middle ; the dimensions of the steel of the springs are to be such that
the amount of compression when screwed down to the maximum
working load shall not be less than the diameter of the valve, with
sufficient clearance to admit of further compression of one quarter
the diameter of the valve. Provision is to be made to prevent the
valves being blown out of their seats in the event of the springs
breaking.
226. Fittings for water testing.— All the necessary fittings are
to be supplied for gagging the safety-valves for the water tests of
the boilers.
BOILER MOUNTINGS AND FITTINGS,
B.M.E.D. &C. COMMITTEE.
Water gauges, two to each boiler. Tubes ^ inch or ^ inch out-
side diameter, and 20, 18, 16, or 14 inches long. Double-ended boilers
over 16 feet diameter to have three. Stand pipes at least 2% inches
diameter inside.
Pressure gauge, one to single-ended, two to double-ended boilers.
Salinometer cock, one fitcea direct to each boiler.
Lloyd's rules for boiler. mountings, etc. 407
Check feed valves, two independent valves to each boiler, with
shut-otf cocks or valves between them and the boiler.
Blow-ofF valve to each boiler not more than 1% inches diameter.
Stop-valves for steam, one main, one auxiliary to each.
Valves for steam steering and whistles ; and when more than one
boiler, two at least shall have these valves.
All valves over 1% inches diameter must have outside screws, and
shut with right-hand motion.
All cocks and valves shall be such as to be seen whether open
or shut.
Stop and safety valves, chests for temperatures over 425° F. must
be of cast steel. . '
Feed valves, chests, and all cocks and valves should be of strong
toush bronze, and those exposed to steam should be such as to maintain
good strength and toughness while at the steam temperatures.
All chests of stop- valves, safety-valves, check-feed valves, and the
shells of cocks over one inch diameter shall be tested to twice the
working pressure.
LLOYD'S RULES FOR BOILER MOUNTINGS, &c.
Generallv Lloyd's Register and the other Societies adopt the Rules
recommended by the B.M.E.D. & 0. Committee and as accepted by
the Board of Trade as set out on pages 401, etc. It was Lloyd's rule,
however, to allow the safety-valves to be loaded to 5 lbs. in excess of
the working pressure when it did not exceed 60 lbs. per square inch.
The Committee recommended that all safety-valves should be so set
that one on each boiler should blow at a pressure 2^ per cent, in excess
of working pressure and not more than 5 lbs., and the remainder at 3^
per cent., or not more than 7 lbs., which is reasonable and better than
blowing off with great noise and loss of steam at every casual stoppage
or with the running working pressure kept considerably below the
working pressure for which the boiler is made.
If improved valves are used, they are to be tested under steam in
the presence of the Surveyor ; the accumulation is in no case to exceed
10 per cent, of the working pressure.
An approved safety-valve should be fitted to every superheater near
or at the delivery end, so that when the engine is not taking steam,
there may be passage of it through the superheater. This valve
should be set to blow slightly below that at which the main safety-
valves blow.
In winch boilers one safety-valve will be allowed of the size given b'*
rules ; the Board of Trade require two valves in all boilers.
408 FURNAOB FITTINGS.
8. Each YiJye is to be arranged so that no extra load can be added
when steam is up, and must be fitted with easing gear which must
lift the valve itself. All safety-valve spindles are to extend through
the covers, and are to be fitted with sockets and cross handles, allow-
ing them to be lifted and turned round in their seats, and their
efficiency tested at any time.
9. Stop valves are to be fitted so that each boiler can be worked
separately.
1 0. Each boiler is to be fitted with a separate steam gauge, to accur-
ately indicate the pressure.
11. Each boiler is to be fitted with a blow-off cock, independent of
that on the vessel's outside plating.
FURNACE FITTINGS.
Furnace fronts, &c. — Furnace fronts and fire doors may with
advantage be of wrought4ron or steel,— although they are often of
cast-iron ; but the internal protecting or baflSe plates are better of
cast-iron, since it burns away less rapidly than the wrought material,
and should be in several small pieces, free to expand in all directions,
rather than in one large piece, which would probably very soon crack
and get adrift.
The size of fire door, in the clear, may vary from 12 inches high
by 18 inches wide, to 16 inches hi^h by 24 inches wide, — the top of
the opening being arched, and struck with a radius equal to the 'ukdth
of the opening.
A very good arrangement is that in which the otherwise useless
comers to right and left of, and above the fire door, inside the furnace,
are filled in by curved cast-iron plates, perforated with small holes to
allow the air to enter the furnace ; the air is thus heated to a certain
extent in these boxes or chambers before coming into contact with the
fuel, and the riveted joint round the furnace mouth is protected from
the fire.
Furnaces over 3 feet 6 inches diameter are ])erhaps better with two
half-doors hinged right and left, and meeting in the centre, only one
of which need be opmed at once ; less cold air is then admitted, and
one side of the fire can be attended to at a time.
Means should be provided for holding the doors open in a
sea-way
Fire-bars, &c. — When chimney draught only, or chimney and
foroed draught not exceeding '5 inches of water, is used, the bars are
better in om length, — up to 6 feet 6 inches long ; when a greater air
f)ressure is used, or when the grate is longer than 6 feet 6 inches, two
engths of bars may bo used.
When one lonar bar is used, it should be hooked to the inner edge
• •
"A.
inch.
• •
.^
»»
• •
I'A.
>>
• •
lyg
if
•66\/leE
igth in
inches.
• •
2% inch.
• t
%
f»
FURNACE FITTINGS. 409
r
of the dead plate, and free to expand inwards, and slide on the bridge-
plate ; when two lengths are used, they should be hooked to the
central bearer-bar, and free to slide on both the bridge- plate and the
dead-plate. '
In either case care should be taken that the dead -plate is formed
so as to hold or support the bars with their faces or upper surfaces
flush with its own upper surface.
The thickness of bar and width of air space between bars must
depend on the class of coal that will generally be used, and on the air
pressure with which it is intended to work.
The following are good average dimensions for fire-bars : —
Thickness on face
at bottom edge,
on face, over distance pieces,
at bottom edge,
Depth at centre,
,, near ends.
Width of air spaces.
The slope of the grate surface should never be less than 1 inch per
foot of length, and is better 1 % inches, or even more, as is possible
with large ones and short bars.
When corrugated or ribbed furnaces are used, the two side bars
should be made to templates from the furnaces, and should fit as
closely as possible into all the recesses.
Fire- bars should, of course, be made of the most refractory iron
obtainable ; fine grey irons are quite unsuitable.
Bridg'es, &c. — In return-tube boilers the grate should never be so
long that the front face of the bridge is less than 9 inches from the
face of the back tube-plate.
The height of bridge should be such that the clear area above it may
be from %th to %th of the area of grate ; this proportion is obtainea
approximately when the clear height above the bridge at its centre is
%rd of the diameter of furnace.
In the case of corrugated or grooved furnaces, the ash-pits require
to be fitted with thin lining plates to enable the rake to be used.
In Naval and other ships in which forced draught is used to any con-
siderable extent, shallow pans which can be kept full of water are
necessary.
Each ash-pit should also be fitted with a good stout pricker bar and
with a damper ; when the closed stoke-hole system of forced draught
is used, the dampers are sometimes balanced and made to open
inwards only,— closing against any pressure that may come from the
furnace side.
410
LADDERS AND PLATFORMS, ETC.
LADDERS AND PLATFORMS, &c.
The following Table gives ordinary dimensions of ladders and
gratings: —
Table CXXI.— Ladders and Grating^s.
Ladders.
"SpiU" Gratings.
S^
in.
12
16
18
21
24
-
Sixe of side bars.
'o 2
in.
• • •
• • •
4%
4%
Bar steps,
No., size,
and pitch of
bars.
Width of
grating.
Size of
side bars.
Diameter of
•• spUls."
S B>
5;"
in,
^%
2X
2X
Cast-iron
steps.
Round
bar-iron
steps.
in. in.
• • •
• ••
3% X 'X.
in. in.
8)4x56
3V»x%
• • •
in.
one %
/ two 56 I
1156 pitch/
r two 56 I
t IV, pitch/
•••
in. in.
15&18
21
24
27
f 80 1
\ and -
1 above 1
in. in.
2%x56
8x^X,
8x^X.
8 X »X,
Sx^X,
in.
%
. with
centre
Vsapport
56 -inch round iron "spills" should not be used for spans over
18 inches.
%-inch round iron "spills" should not be used for spans over
27 inches.
(2= Diameter of spills in sixteenths.
L = Length in incnes.
Then L=^' + 4.
70
Ladder steps should be from 9 to 10 inches apart (face to face).
The front corners of cast-iron steps should be rounded away, and
they should be attached to the side bars of the ladder by two % -inch
bolts at each end.
The main engine-room ladder should be at least 21 inches wide, and
in large ships, where there is plenty of room, a width of 24 to
80 inches.
Stoke-hole ladders are not usually fitted with cast-iron steps.
The inclination of a ladder to the vertical may be almost anything.
BNGINE AND BOILER SBATINGS, ETC. 411
and depends on the space available and purpose for which ladder is
fitted ; the main engine-room ladder should be 1 in 2 ^ when possible.
Handrails should be of steel or wrought-iron, 1 inch in diameter.
Stanchions, when 3 feet high, may taper from % inch diameter at
the top to 1 % inches at the bottom ; when short, for ladders, % inch at
top to 1 inch at bottom is enough. The ball through which the rail
passes may be 2 inches in diameter.
Engine and boiler-room floors are best laid with chequered wrought-
iron or steel plates, — engine-room '/ie inch thick, and boiler-room
% inch, exclusive of the raised pattern. In the Navy, J4 inch and
"Xa inch respectively are the usual thicknesses.
It is very desirable that floor plates should be secured to the bearers
where possible, as an accumulation of water surging from side to side
in the stoke-hole may lift the plates and drive them against the sea-
valves and pipes, and thus cause serious damage, sufficient sometimes
to imperil the safety of the ship.
ENGINE AND BOILER SEATINGS, &c.
It is extremely difficult to lay down any general rules that will be
of service in designing engine and boiler seatings, because so much
depends on the type and structure of ship, strength and the design of
engine framing or bed-plate, type of boilers and position in which they
are to be placed, &o., but the following hints may be of some use.
Seatingfs for vertical engines. — When the seating must be built
upon the top edges of the ship's floors, it generally consists of two box
gmlers, one under each side of the bed-plate, parallel to the shaft axis.
Whether additional cross girders should be fitted under each main
bearing depends on the strength of the framing or bed-plate.
Such girders should be made generally of scantling corresponding
with the frames and keelsons of the ship. Their tops should be much
thicker, and are usually from 1^ to 2 times the thickness of the
vertical plates.
One of the chief difficulties with this type of structure is to get a
sufficiently good attachment to the floors ; double reverse bars should
always be fitted under the engines and boilers, and for large and heavy
engines the attachment of the vertical side plates to the reverse bars
should also be by means of double angle bars, so that there may be
four rivets at every crossing point. The second bar is sometimes
represented by a separate short piece at each frame. In very lightly
built ships it is often advisable to carry the vertical plates down
between the floors, and to attach them to the skin plating as well as
to the reverse bars.
Most ships nowadays have double bottoms fore and aft, and on them
the engine girders are erected and riveted to them, thereby getting a
strong attachment and a good distribution of strains. Cross girders
or brackets are usually fitted for this purpose, as also to give stabilif*
to the structure and prevent racking.
412 ENGINE AND BOILER BEATINGS, ETC.
In all cases where rigid girders are added to the structure of the
ship for the purpose of properly distribntlDg weights or strains, care
should be taken that they do not stop abruptly at any point, bulkhead
or otherwise, but gradually decrease in section, or taper down for
three or four frame spaces, as otherwise serious results may ensue from
the localisation of the flexure or spring of the structure.
Very large and heavy engines are generally so constructed as to
require only a plain flat surface of the same length and breadth as the
bed-plate for a seating, and where the ship is built with open floors
this should be obtained by placing a numoer of longitudinal girders
across the tops of the floors and plating them over, using only so many
athwartship girders as may be absolutely necessary.
In either of the cases, if the shipbuilaers are communicated with in
time, there will not generally be any difficulty in modifying the
spacing of the longitudinals slightly to suit the engines ; a few inches
in height may also sometimes be gained by forming troughs or
recesses in the inner bottom under the cranks.
Where box girders are placed upon the inner skin as described
above, the Admiralty rule is that they shall be made watertight, in
order to prevent internal corrosion.
The seatings for paddle eng^es are usually constructed on one
of the above described plans, or on a combination of them, and do
not require any special description. The cases in which the framing of
the engine is constructed of plates and angles and built into the snip
are of too special a nature to be advantageously treated here ; and the
various methods of stififening the sides of the ship and attaching the
brackets for carrying the outer bearings also fall into the same category.
Thrust block seatinc^s should have specially strong and well-
extended attachments ; they should extend over at least three frame
spaces in small vessels, and over six or more in large ones, and some
of the longitudinals of the engine seating should be made continuous
with those of the thrust seat.
The rivet holes for the thrust blocks and all parts of the engine
beds subject to racking should be drilled, or, say, a half of them drilled
and the remainder carefully reamered out, othei-wise the rivets will
work slack and be inefficient.
Holding^ down bolts should be numerous and well distributed, and
should have the ends slightly burred over to prevent the slacking back
of the nuts.
Staying; of eng^ines. — The cylinders, &c., of vertical engines may
be stayed, but under no circumstances rigidly to the decks or upper
works of the ship ; nor should the two seta of engines in a twin-sci*ew
vessel be stayed to one another ; there is usually no difficulty in
obtaining all necessary stifl'ness and stability by care in designing the
framing, and the risks run by using rigid stays to the ship are
sometimes serious. In paddle vessels it is not practically possible
to avoid connection between the engines and the upper works of the
ship, but even here, where a certain amount of spring is allowed for,
racked entablatures, or top frames, were by no means uncofnmon.
ENGINE AND BOILER BEATINGS, ETC. 413
Boiler seatings. — When either single or double-ended boilers are
placed with their axes athwartships, the best type of seating is that in
which H section girders (10 or 12 inches deep) running the full length
of the boiler-room are used, the lower flanges being riveted to double
reverse bars, or the inner skin, and the upper flanges carry the wedge-
shaped chocks which maintain the boilers in place. When the vessel
is of cellular construction these girders should be arranged when
possible to coincide with the longitudinals in the bottom.
When the boilers are placed with their axes fore and aft, as is now
usual, each cradle or bearer is built upon the top of a separate floor ;
the proper distribution of the weight Is more difficult, but can be
effected by putting in additional intercostal longitudinals, or, pre-
ferably by fitting longitudinals on top of the floors. Care must be
taken that these additional longitudinals do not prevent access to the
underside of the boiler ; if they are made of considerable depth, man-
holes may be cut in them. When the construction of the vessel is
cellular, there is not usually any need to supplement the longitudinal
connections.
Single-ended boilers should have two cradles or pairs of chocks ;
double-ended boilers of moderate size and weight, three ; and very
large and heavy double-ended boilers, four.
The boilers should be prevented from moving end- ways by **toe"
plates or brackets riveted to some convenient portion of the seating or
of the vessel's structure.
The area of section of such toe plates should be not less than
— - — square inches to resist shear. W being the weight of the boiler,
&c*, in tons, and K the speed of the ship in knots.
The greatest care must also be taken so to secure the boilers in their
seats that no possible movement of the vessel will throw any strain
upon any of the pipes or connections. This is best done by riveting
to the upper part of the shell of each boiler four "eye" plates, from
each a rod or link is fitted leading to some convenient part of the
vessel's structure (such as stringer or deck-beam), or to the neigh-
bouring boiler. These eyes may be riveted in places when the
riveting of the shell is done, and they then serve to sling the boiler
by. Brackets of plate and angle-iron attached to the deck-beams and
almost touching the top of the shell, acting as inverted toe plates, are
also sometimes a convenient means of fixing the boilers in their seats.
The common Admiralty method of securing cylindrical boilers was
to rivet four eyes to the shell at about a foot above the top of the
seatings and in the same planes with them, and four other similar eyes
to the tops of the seatings themselves, ^nd then connect each pair of
eyes by a pair of flat links and pins, &c.
414 Lloyd's rules for engine and boiler rooms.
LLOYD'S RULES FOR ENGINE AND
BOILER ROOMS.
Section 30. — 1. Engine and Boiler Bearers.— In steam vessels
care must be taken that the engine and boiler bearers are properly
constructed, and fitted with efficient longitudinal ties. Where the
bearers interfere with the longitudinal strength of the vessel, they
must extend a sufficient distance beyond the bulkheads of the engine
and boiler space to compensate for tne same.
When Engines of High Power are fitted. — Where it is in-
tended to fit engines of greater power than in ordinary cargo-carrying
steamers, the engine seating is to be of proportionately greater strength,
and to be specially adapted with this object in view by being connected
to the sides of the vessel. Other means are, if necessary, to be adopted
in order to ensure the rigidity and strength necessary to withstand
the vibration produced in this ^art of the vessel.
2. Strengthening in Machinery Space. — ^Additional strengthen-
ing by means of web frames, and ''strong" beams, or otherwise is to
be provided in the machinery space. Plans showing the proposed
additional strengthening are to be submitted for approval.
3. Clearance between Bulkheads and Boilers. —Coal bunker
bulkheads are to be kept well clear of the boilers and their uptakes.
Where the boiler-room bulkhead is recessed for a donkey boiler, the
recess is to be of a size sufficient to give space all round the boiler to
admit of its being properly attended to.
In order to afford protection against the heat from the boiler, the
roof of the recess is to be not less than 4 feet clear of the top of the
boiler, the space between the bunker or hold bulkhead plating and
the chimney is to be not less than 18 inches, and a baffle plate is to
be fixed between the chimney and the bulkhead ; other efficient means
may be provided. Wood lining is to be fitted on the hold side of
the recess plating with an air space between it and the plating.
4. Tie-beams across Recess. — When a recess extending above the
hold beams is formed in the engine-room bulkheads, the bulkhead is
to be efficiently connected from side to side by a tie or bridle beam
at about the height of the hold beams, strongly riveted to the plating
and fitted with efficient gusset plates.
5. Protection of Deck under Donkey Boilers.— Where vertical
donkey boilers are placed on the decks of vessels, the deck underneath
them is to be protected by being covered with firebrick or cement not
less than 2 inches in thickness. The deck on which fires may be
drawn from any donkey boiler is also to be protected by firebrick or
cement not less than 2 inches in thickness.
6. Shaft Tunnel.— The plating of shaft tunnels is to be of the
thickness required in Table 10 for the lower part of bulkhead plating ;
the top plating in way of the hatchways to be not less than. '10 of an
inch thicker than the remaining plates, or to be covered with wood
not less than 2 inches thick.
Lloyd's rules fob engine and boiler rooms. 415
The tunnel is to be strengthened with transverse angle bars of the
size of the lower deck stringer angles spaced not more than two frame
spaces apart, and 3 feet in way of the hatchways.
The plating is to be caulked, and the tunnel tested with water from
a hose to ensure its being watertight
The bulkheads and top plating of tunnel recesses to be strengthened
and supported by similar angles, but spaced the same as the vessel's
frames ; the top plating where attached to the sides of the vessel to
be made watertight with steel or iron collars or chocks, to the exclusion
of wood or cement.
The tunnel to be fitted with a watertight sluice door on the engine-
room bulkhead, capable of being closed from the upper deck.
If a pipe tunnel is led through the forward holds, its structure is
to be the same as that of a shaft tunnel.
Section 50 (Valves, etc.). — 1. No sluice valve or cock is to be
fitted to the collision bulkhead.
2. No sluice valves or cocks are to be fitted to the engine-room or
other watertight bulkheads unless they are arranged so as to bo
accessible at all times.
8. If the after peak is used as a ballast tank, no sluice valve or
cock is to be fitted to the after bulkhead ; but if it is not so used, and
if no pump is fitted in it, a sluice valve or cock is to be fitted to the
after bulkhead, to allow water to reach the pumps when required.
4. When sluice valves are fitted, they are to be so arranged as to
be controlled from above the load water-line, and the rods are to be
boxed in to prevent injury.
5. All head and stern pumps to be provided with sea cocks fitted to
the outside plating to the satisfaction of the Surveyors, and in places
where they are at all times accessible.
6. Where soil pipes are attached to the outside plating below the
load water-line, the lower length must be of steel or iron of substantial
thickness, and be secured to the plating with a proper faced joint, and
extended for some distance above the load water-line.
7. If the remainder of the pipe be of lead, care must be taken that it
is of substantial thickness, and that it is properly protected externally
with zinc or iron, to the satisfaction of the Society's Surveyors.
Section 31 (Opening^s in Decks).— 1. The engine and boiler open-
ings of the weather-deck of steam vessels are to be properly framed for
a height of not less than 18 inches above the deck, the coaming plates
to extend to the lower edge of the beams, and iron or steel trunk
bulkheads connected to the coamings should be fitted to a height
of about 7 feet above the deck.
2. The engine and boiler openings in the 'tween decks of all vessels
are also to be enclosed by trunk casings efficiently stifiened by angle
bars 80 inches apart, and extending to the weather-deck beams, to
which they are secured.
3. Strong iron doors will be allowed in these ti*unk casings, provided
their lower parts are at least 18 inches above the deck, and efficient
arrangement made for their security.
416 HATCHWAYS.
4. Whea a poop, or bridge-house, covers the engine and boiler space,
the coamings of the engine and boiler openings should not be less than
2 feet above such deck, unless these openings are constructed as
provided for in the first paragraph of this section.
5. It is considered that in all cases the engine and boiler openings
should be made as small as practicable, and be subdivided by athwart-
ship iron divisional bulkheads to secure the maximum safety of the
vessel. The two sides of the casing should in all instances be efficiently
connected by angle beams within them at the upper part.
6. The engine-room skylights are to be in all cases substantially
constructed and to be securely bolted or riveted to the coamings, and
where the skylight top is not solid with bulPs-eyes fitted in the same,
efficient dead-lights of metal or wood must be provided. The grating
opening over the stoke-hold must also be protected by plates, fitted
with hinges, or otherwise in a manner satisfactory to the Surveyors.
7. Where either of the openings exceeds 15 feet, or the combined
length exceeds 30 feet, the beams in way of the same are to be plated
over from the stringer to the tie-plates, the plating extending two beam
spaces beyond the openings, and tapered from thence towards the
stringer plate for a distance not less than the breadth of the plating
required to be fitted ; the thickness of this plating to be the same as
given in Table S. 5. for steel decks.
8. Where large openings are adjacent to each other, the intervening
space between the openings to be plated over.
9. Steam Trawlers. — In all steam trawlers the deck beams should
be wholly plated over in way of the engine and boiler casings, and the
casings should extend down to the under side of the deck beams and
be connected to the deck plating with angle bars and to the half beam
ends with angle lugs. If the casings be not extended down to the
under side of the beams, they should oe attached to the deck plating
with angles 4ix4jx0*36, having two rows of reeled rivets in each
flange. In order to ensure that the scantlings and construction of these
casings are satisfactory in every case, detailed plans of the same should
be submitted for approval.
HATCHWAYS.
Section 32.-7. Connections of Coamings to Deck.— -The coam-
ing plates are to be connected to the deck plating or tie plates with
angles of not less thickness than the side coaming plates, welded at
the corners of the hatchways. Where a wood deck is fitted, the
vertical flanges of the angle bars connecting the side and end coamings
to the deck are to extend half an inch above the deck.
8. Material. — All hatchway coamings on weather decks and the
companions at the fore-end of steamera to be of steel or iron.
9. Half Beams. — Where half beams are fitted to alternate frames,
they are to be connected to the coaming plates with double angles, and
' ~lf beams fitted to every frame may be connected to coaming plates,
ships' pumps. 417
with single angles of not less thickness than the side coamings. There
are to be three rivets in each flange of the angles connecting coamings
to the half beams where the depth of the half beam is 7i inches to 9}
inches, and four rivets where the depth is 10 iDches to 12 inches.
Section 30 (Bunker Hatches, etc.). — Coal-bunker pipes, where
practicable, are to be formed so 4s to be at least 12 inches above the
upper deck, fitted with lids having studs to fit in openings made in the
pipes, for their security ; the pipes to be so formed that tar]>aulin may
be securely lashed over them. When there are coal -bunker hatx;hes in
the weather deck, thev must be properly framed with coaming plates
of suitable height, having solid hatches secured by an iron bar or other
approved fastening.
Section 39 (Pumps, etc.). — 1. In steam vessels the pumping ar-
rangements according to the division of holds, &c., to be as follows : —
2. Holds with double bottoms. — In the double bottom of each
oompartnient of the hold, and of engine and boiler space, a steam-
pump suction is to be fitted at the middle line, and one on each side
to clear the tanks of water when the vessel has a heavy list Where
there is considerable rise jof floor towards the ends of the vessels, the
middle line suction only will be required. A steam-pump suction and
a hand-pump are also to be fitted to each bilge in each hold where
there is no well. When there is a well, one or three steam-pump
suctions are to be fitted in the same, according as there is considerable
or little rise of floor, and hand-pumps fitted at the bilges.
8. Holds without double bottoms.— Where there is considerable
rise of floor, one steam- pump suction and one hand -pump are to be
fitted in each hold. Where there is little rise of floor, two or three
steam-pump suctions and at least one hand-pump are to be fitted to
each hold.
4. Engine and Boiler space. —Where a double bottom extends
the whole length of engine and boiler space, two steam-pump suctions
are to be fitted to the bilge on each side. Where there is a well, one
steam-pump suction shoiud be fitted in each bilge and one in the well.
Where there is no double bottom in the machinery space, centre and
wing steam-pump suctions should be fitted. The rose box of the bilge
injection is to be fitted where easily accessible, and is to be used for
bilge water only. The main and donkey pumps to draw from all
compartments, and the donkey to have also a separate bilge suction in
the engine-room.
6. Fore and After Peaks.— If the peaks are fitted as water ballast
tanks, a separate steam -pump suction is to be led to each. If not used
for water ballast, an efficient pump is to be fitted to the fore pestk.
6. Tunnel. — The tunnel well is to be filled with a steam-pump
suction.
7. All Hand-pumps to be capable of being worked from the upper
or main decks or above the deep load water-line. The pump chambers
are not to be more than 24 feet above the suction rose.
The sizes of the hand-pumps are to be not less than given in
following Table: —
27
418
BILOB AND OTHBR PIPBS.
Tonnage under upper deck.
Hand-pumps in holds.
Diameter
of barrel.
Diameter of
tail plpeB,
In Yessels not exceeding 600 tons, .
Above 500 tons but not exceeding 1000 tons, .
Above 1000 tons but not exceeding 2000 tons,
Above 2000 tons,
Inches.
4
4%
6
6%
Inches.
2
2%
2%
2%
In lieu of band-pumps in eacb compartment, an approved fly-wheel
pump may be fitted if it is connected to the steam-pump bilge suction
pipes of these compartments.
The hand-pumps may be dispensed with in vessels which have two
independent boiler rooms, or a donkey boiler above the bulkhead deck,
and steam*pumps (workable from either source of steam) in two separate
compartments, connected to the suctions.
8. No sluice valve or cock is to be fitted to the collision bulk-
head.
9. No sluice valves or cocks are to be fitted to the engine-room
or other watertight bulkheads unless they are arranged so as to be' at
all times accessible.
10. When sluice valves are fitted, they are to be so arranged as
to be controlled above the load water-line, and the rods are to be
boxed in to prevent injury.
11. Soundingf pipes are to be fitted on each side of holds and
ballast tanks, and' a doubling: plate is to be fitted under each.
12. Air pipes are to be fitted to each ballast tank as required.
13. All cocks and valves in connection with bilge and ballast
suction pipes are to be fitted in places where they are at all times
accessible.
14. All bilge suction pipes are to be fitted with strum boxes or
strainers, so constructed that they can be cleared without breaking the
joints of the suction pipes. The total area of the perforations in the
strainers should not be less than double that of the cross section of the
suction pipe.
15. The filling pipes for deep tanks which can be used for either
cargo or ballast must be controlled by valves placed in an accessible
position, and so arranged that when the tank is being used for cargo it
will be impossible to fill it with water. This result is to be obtained
by taking out a short bend or wedge piece and fitting blank flanges in
its place, or in some other way to be submitted to and approved by
the Committee.
16. The pipes for bilge or ballast suctions are to be fitted with
flanged joints in convenient lengths, so that they may be easily dis-
connected for clearing. In the case of cast-iron suction pipes, which
llotd's subvbts of maohinbbt.
419
are not also used as tank filling pipes, or which cannot be subjected to
sea nressure, spigot and faucet joints made with india-rubber rings
.fitted over the spigots might be adopted, except in the case of bilge
suction pipes passing through ballast tanks, which should be fitted
with flanged joints.
17. The suction pipes to fore and after peaks, and to the tunnel
well, should not be less than 2^ inches inside diameter, except in
vessels not exceeding 500 tons under deck, in which case they may be
made 2 inches.
18. The bilge injection should not be less than two-thirds of the
diameter of the sea inlet to the circulating pump.
19. The inside diameter of other hUge suction pipes should not
be loss than given in the following Table : —
Table CXXII.— Sizes of Bilee Suction Pipes by
Lloyd's Rules.
Tonnage under upper deck.
In vessels not exceeding )
500 tons, . . . V
Above 500 tons but notli
exceeding 1000 tons, . f
Above 1000 tons but not'
exceeding 1500 tons, . ^ '
Above 1500 tons but not'
exceeding 2000 tons, . t
Above 2000 tons but not\
exceeding 3000 tons, . j
Above 8000 tons, .
Engine-room
centre suction,
separate don-
key suction,
and hold centre
suctions.
Inches.
2
n
8
3i
34
Wing suctions
in holds where
no centre suc-
tions are fitted,
and wing suc-
tions in engine-
room.
Inches.
2
2
2i
2|
3
34
Wing suctions
in holds
where centre
suctions are
also fitted.
Inches.
2
2
2
24
21
In cases where more than one suction to any one compartment are
connected to the pumps by a single pipe, this pipe should be not less
than the size required for the centre suction.
LLOYD'S SURVEYS OF MACHINERY.
Lloyd's ordinary surveys of new machinery are thus described
in the Rules : —
In steam vessels, the machinery and boilers are to be inspecte''
throughout construction, the boilers tested by hydraulic pressure, a
420 llotd's subybtb of kaohinbbt.
the machinery tested under steam hy the Society's Engineer-Soryeyors,
who will furnish a report to the Committee descrihing them in the
manner shown in Form No. 4. If found satisfactory, the Committee,
will therefore grant a certificate, and insert in the Register Book the
notification **LMC." in red (i.e. "Lloyd's Machinery Certificate"),
indicating that the machinery and boilers are certified to be in good
order and safe working condition.
Lloyd's Periodical Surveys (Section 19).
1. The machinery and boilers of all steam ships and the donkey
boilers of sailing vessels are to be surveyed annually if practicable ; and
in addition are to be submitted to a Special Survey upon the occasions
of the vessels undergoing the Special periodical Surveys Nos. 1, 2, and
8, prescribed in the Rules, unless the machinery and boilers have been
specially surveyed within a period of twelve months.
2. At these Special Surveys, and on other occasions if deemed
necessary by the Surveyors, the propeller, stem-bush, and the sea
connections and their fastenings are to be examined while the vessel
is in dry dock.
8. The stem shaft is to be examined annually, and drawn and
examined at intervals of not more than two years. *
4. The cylinders, pistons, slide valves, crank and tunnel shafts,
and pumps are to be examined, and if necessary the condenser is to be
examined and tested.
5. The arrangements of cocks, pipes, bilge suctions, roses, &c.,
are to be examined.
6. The boilers and superheaters are to be examined intemally and
externally, and if deemed necessaiy by the Surveyors, both boilers
and superheaters are to be drilled or tested by hydraulic pressure ;
the safe working pressure is to be determined by their actual condition.
7. The safety-valves are to be examined and set to the safe working
pressure.
8. If satisfactory, these Surveys will be recorded in the Register
Book thus :—** LMC7,08 " in red, or *' B&MS7,08 " in red.
9. ''LMC (Lloyd's Machinery Certificate) denotes that the
machinery and boilers are fitted in accordance with the Rules ; and
when followed by a date, indicates that they were found at that time
to be in good condition. MS, with a date, denotes that the engines at
that time were found upon inspection to be in good condition. BS,
with a date, denotes that the boilers were found upon inspection at the
time to be in good condition.
10. "B&MS" (Boilers and Machinery Surveyed), with a date,
denotes that the boilers and machinery, though not fitted strictly in
accordance with the rules, were found upon inspection at that time to
be in good condition.
* On the application of owners, the Committee will be prepared to give con-
neration to the oircnmstanoet of any Bpecial case.
Lloyd's bulbs relating to sparb obar. 421
11. In the event of either, the machinery or boilers appearing to be
impaired to such an extent as to render it desirable that either or both
be specially surveyed within the periods prescribed above, a certificate
for either machinery or boilers for a limited period will be granted
according to the nature of the case.
Boilera.
12. The boilers of all steam ships and the donkey boilers of sailing
vessels are to be speciaUy surveyed when six years old, and subse-
quently they are to he speciallv surveyed annoally.
18. At these surveys the boilers and superheaters are to be examined
intemallv and externally, and if deemed necessary by tiie Surveyors,
both boilers and superheaters are to be drilled or tested by hydraulic
pressure ; the safe working pressure is to be determined by their
actual condition.
14. The safety-valves are to be examined and set to the safe working
pressure.
16. If satisfactory, these surveys will be recorded in the Register
Book thus: — "BS7,08*' in red in the case of steam vessels, and
* * DBS7,08 " in red in the case of sailing vessels.
16. " B8" (Boiler Surveyed) or " DBS " (Doukey Boiler Surveyed),
with a date, denotes that the boilers were found upon inspection at
that time to be in good condition.
17. In the event of the boilers appearing to be impaired to such an
extent as to render it desirable that they be specially surveyed within
the periods prescribed above, a certificate for a limited period will be
granted according to the nature of the case.
For Lloyd's requirements aa to steel castings, see under Cast
Steel in section on ''Materials."
LLOYD'S RULES RELATING TO SPARE GEAR.
Lloyd's requirements as to spare g^ear are as follows : —
The articles of spare gear mentioned in the following list will be
required to be carried m all steam vessels classed in the Society's
Register Book, viz. : —
2 connecting-rod, or piston-rod, top end, bolts and nuts.
2 „ bottom end, bolts and nuts.
2 main bearing bolts.
1 set of coupling bolts.
1 set of feed ana bilge pump valves.
1 set of piston springs (where common springs are used).
A quantity of assorted bolts and nuts.
Iron of various sizes.
In addition to the foregoing, the following articles are recommend
422
MISOELLANBOUS BOARD OF TRADE RULBS.
to be carried with a view to expedite repairs and lessen delay in
distant ports, viz. : —
Crankshaft
Propeller shaft.
Propeller, or a full set of blades.
Stem-bush, or lignum -vits
lining for bush.
1 pair connecting-rod brasses.
1 pair crosshead brasses.
1 set of cheek valves.
6 cylinder cover bolts.
6 junk-ring bolts.
4 valve-chest cover bolts.
1 set of link brasses.
1 eccentric strap complete.
Air-pump rod.
Circulating-pump rod.
H.P. valve spindle.
L.P. ,,
2 dozen boiler tubes.
8 , , condenser tubes.
1 cylinder escape valve and spring.
1 set of safety-valve springs.
MISCELLANEOUS BOARD OF TRADE RULES.
The following Board of Trade Rules concern the engineer, but cannot
properly be placed under any of the preceding section headings : —
79. It is advisable that the donkey engine for pumping water
through the condenser of the distilling apparatus be so fitted that it
can also be made available in case of emer^ncy for extinguishing fire
in any part of the ship ; a leather hose, with suitable bends and con-
ductors, should be supplied for this purpose.
80. £ach compartment of vessel should have an efficient hand-pump
of sufficient size, workable from upper deck. When a double bottom
is fitted extending the full length of a compartment and thereby
preventing ^e deck-pump suction being placed near the shell plating
at middle line of ship, a separate hand-pump or equivalent must be
fitted to draw from waterway at each side of compartment TMs
regulation need not, however, be enforced in the case of fore and after
peaks, chain lockers, or other small compartments near ends of vessel.
Suctions of hand-pumps should, whenever practicable, be placed at
after end of compartments in which they are fitted.
When the required deck pumps are not situated on, or attached
to, the upper deck, they should be of the closed-top type, and have
their discharge pipes carried through the upper deck or through the
ship's side, well above the deep-loiS line. If there are any cocks or
valves in connection with the pumps which are not automatio in their
action, suitable and efficient appliances should be provided, and kept
permanently in position, whereby they may be manipulated from the
upper deck.
The above rules as to the fitting of deck pumps with cloeed tops
should be adhered to in new vessels, except in cases where the deck
on which the pumps are situated has scuppers for conveying water that
MISCELLANEOUS BOARD OF TRADE RULES. 423
may collect upon it to the outside of the vessel and is at such a height
above the deep-load line as to preclude the probability of its being
submerged in the event of the vessel getting holed. A rose or per-
forated box of sufficient size should be fitted to each suction pipe, and
means should be provided for clearing it and the end of the pipe.
Deck pumps should be provided with suitable handles, and those of
the smaller size should have handles long enough for at least two men
to work them.
The Surveyor should be careful to see that the deck pumps in large
vessels are not placed so high above the bottom of the compartments
in which they are situated as to render them inefficient, and if he
sliould at any time have doubts as to their efficiency he should test
them.
It is very desirable that the steam winches (if any) be so fitted and
arranged as to be available for working the hand deck pumps.
81. Rotary or fiy -wheel pumps may be substituted for ordinary hand-
pumps, provided that two such pumps are fitted, and that either is
capable of pumping from any hold or machinery compartment in the
vessel. They should be worsed from a position well above the deep-
load line, preferably from the upper deck ; and unless they are placed
in different watertight compartments, the pump buckets and valves
should be capable of being removed from the position of working, so
that they can be cleaned and repaired, if necessary, in the event of the
compartment in which they are situated being flooded whilst the
vessel is fully laden.
If the rotary hand-pumps are connected to the main bilge system,
the various bilge suction valves or cocks should be provided with rods
carried to a height well above the deep-load line, |h'eferably to the
upper deck. Index plates should be fitted at the upper ends to show
what each valve or cock is for and how it is operated.
Hand-pumps may be dispensed with, if desired, in vessels fitted with
two or more separate watertight boiler-rooms, and a separate water-
tight engine-room, provided that steam-pumps are fitted in at least
two of the compartments named which are not adjacent, and are
capable of pumping from any of the bilge suctions in the vessel, and
provided also that the steam supply to the pumps is available from
the boilers in either or any of the boiler compartmente. The arrange-
ment should be such that, in the event of a compartment being flooded,
tiiie bilge suction pipes to that compartment can be shut off, and that
at least one of the bilge pumps may be available for pumping from any
of the other hold or machinery compartments in the vessel.
82. Sounding pipes should be fitted from the upper deck for ascer-
taining the depth of water in each compartment.
The sounding pipes for the ballast tanks under the engine and
boiler-room and under the tunnel floor may, however, be short, pro-
vided that they are fitted with screwed caps at the upper ends, or with
cocks having the handles secured to the plugs.
83. Suction pipes connected with pumps worked by the main and
donkey engines should be carried through the bulkheads into all tT
424 HISOBLLANEOUS BOARD OF TRADB BULBS.
compartments fore and aft of the engine-room, except the compartment
in front of the collinion bulkhead, so that each compartment can be
pumped out separately by the engines. When a double bottom is
fitted extending the full length of a compartment, with waterways on
each side, a bilge suction should be fitted to each waterway. This
requirement need not, however, be enforced in small compartments
near the ends of the vessel. The pipes should be well secured where
they pass through the bulkheads. In all new steamships, the cocks
or valves which are fitted for the purpose of shutting off or controlling
the flow of water through these pipes should, unless situated in the
compartment occupied by the pump to which the pipes are connected,
be provided with means by which they may be manipulated from a
height well above the deep-load line, preferably the upper deck.
The arrangement of bilge suction pipes should be such that water
cannot pass through them from one compartment to another. Valves
in bilge distribution boxes should be of the non-return type, and if
cocks are used instead of valves, suitable non-return valves should be
fitted in the pipes to prevent water passing from one compartment to
another in the event of the cocks being left open.
The free end of each hold suction pipe should be fitted with a
suitable rose box or strum, and the tunnel -well suction pipe should be
similarly fitted, unless it is provided with a mud-box of the form
required for the pipes in connection with the engine-room and stoke-
hold bilges.
Each main and donker-engfine suction pipe in connection with the
engine-room and stoke-hold bilges should be provided with an efficient
mud -box, or other similar appliance, placed above the platform, or in
any other position in which it will be accessible at all times. The
pipe leading from each mud-box to the bilge should, when practicable,
be straight, and the cover of the mud-box should be secured in such a
mannnr as to permit of it being expeditiously opened or closed.
The connection from the donkey eng^ine to the bilge main should
be by means of a switch cock or non-return valve.
An efficient bilge injection should be fitted to eaoh main circu-
lating pump.
A spare tiller (which has been properly fitted to the rudder-head),
relieving tackle, &o., should, in all foreign-going and home-trade
steamships, be kept near the after steering gear ready for immediate
service. In large steamships where the use of hand gear is im-
practicable and such gear is not provided, the spare tiller should be
attached to the rudder-head ready for immediate use, unless the
working tiller is of special design and strength, in which case a spare
tiller may not be required, but full particulars should be submitted
for the Baard*s consideration. The steering gear, including chains,
should be thoroughly overhauled at every survey, and taken to pieces
and thoroughly examined at least once a year. The chains and blocks
that are liable to interfere with or endanger the passengers or orew
should be guarded by portable, but properly secureo, guards.
With the view of relieving, as far as practicable, the rudders of
MISCELLANEOUS BOARD OF TRADE RULES. 425
yessels from severe and sudden shocks, springs have in some cases
been fitted to the quadrant, or to the rods or chains at each side of the
vessel, and the Board think that such fittings, or other efficient means,
should be adopted, more particularly in the case of new vessels.
The Surveyors should note that the steam and exhaust pipes of
steering engines in all new passenger steamships should be at least of
the same internal diameter respectively as the steam and exhaust
connections on the cylinders. The arrangement should be such that
water will not readily lodge either in the cylinders or in the steam
and exhaust pipes. Right-angled bends in the pipes should be avoided
as much as possible, and the pi]:>es should be used exclusively for the
steering engines. When this is not the case, full particulars and
sketches should be submitted to the Board for consideration.
Attention is also directed to a description of steam steering gear in
which a part of the shaft, by which the helmsman actuates the con-
trolling valve, passes through another shaft that is liable to be thrown
out of line by the reaction of the spur gearing, and, consequently, is
liable to jam the inside shaft to such an extent as to deprive the
helmsman of the control of the steering gear. All steam steering
gears should be carefully examined, and if any be found constructed
in the manner described above, their use should be discouraged, and
in any case they should not be approved, unless they have been tested
from midship to hard over in both directions, and found satisfactory
when the vessel is running at full speed.
It is very desirable that the man at the helm should be so placed
that he has a clear lookout ahead, more especially in steamers that
frequent crowded harbours or rivers ; and, in case of steam or electric
launches, the Surveyor must assure himself that view cannot be ob-
structed by passengers.
77. In passing a helm indicator, the Surveyor should ascertain by
actual trial that whenever the pointer moves to the word '* port" on
the dial or plate, wherever that word may be, it shows that the helm
is ported, and whenever the pointer points to the word ''starboard,"
wherever that word may be, it means that the helm is starboarded.
In the foregoing directions it is assumed that '*port helm*' means
that the helm is so moved as to turn the ship's heaa to tiie right, and
"starboard helm" means that the helm is so moved as to turn the
ship's head to the left
78. Passenger steamers going to sea should be provided with a hose
adapted for the purpose of extinguishing fire in any part of the ship,
and capable of being connected with the engines of the ship, or with
the donkey engine, if it can be worked from the main boiler. The
Surveyor must take care that it answers the required purpose.
The fire hose should be connected and stretchea, to judge of its
length, and thoroughly examined at every survey, and at least once a
year (and at any other time that the Surveyor thinks it necessary) it
should be tested with the conductor in its place by pumping water
through it by the main or donkey engines at full s])eed. A proper
conductor and metal bend or goose neck form part of its equipment
426 MISCBLLANBOUS BOABD OF TRADE RULES.
and should be provided. Generally, leather hoses are the most
durable, and should be supplied when a declaration for 12 months is
required.
191. Cast-iron stand-pipes, cocks, &a, intended for passage
through them of hot brine, snould not be passed. Surveyors should
also discourage the use of cast iron for chocks and saddles for boilers.
Particular attention should be paid to the chocking of boUers, more
especially when they are fired athwartships.
200. In the case of steamers performing ocean voyages, and coming
in for survey, no ^question as to gear need be raised if the following
spare gear and stores are supplied, or their equivalent, particulars of
which should be submitted to the Board for consideration. The
heavier portions of this gear should have been fitted and tried in their
E laces, and should be kept on board where access can at all times be
ad to them : —
1 pair of connecting-rod brasses.
1 air-pump bucket and rod, with guide.
1 circulating-pump bucket and rod.
1 air-pump head valve, seat, and guard.
1 set of india-rubber valves for air-pumps or ( set of metallic ones.
1 circulating pump head valve, seat, and guard.
1 set of india-rubber valves for circulating pumps, or } set of
metallic ones.
2 main bearing bolts and nuts.
2 connecting-rod bolts and nuts.
2 piston-rod bolts and nuts.
8 screw shaft coupling bolts and nuts.
1 set of piston springs suitable for the pistons.
1 set metal feed-pump valves and seats.
8 sets if of india-rubber, or 1 set if of metal, of bilge-pump valves
and seats.
1 spring (at least) for each size of escape valve.
1 hydrometer.
Boiler tubes, 3 for each boiler.
100 iron assorted bolts, nuts, and washers, screwed, but need not
be turned.
12 brass bolts and uuts, assorted, turned, and fitted.
60 iron „ „ „
50 condenser tubes.
100 sets of packing for condenser tube ends, or an equivalent.
At least one spare spring of each size for escape valves.
1 set of water-gauge glasses.
t*)fth of the total number of fire-bars necessary*
3 plates of iron, assorted.
6 oars of iron, assorted.
1 complete set of stocks, dies, and taps, suitable for the engines.
100 iron assorted bolts, nuts, and washers, screwed, but not
necessarily turned.
MISOELLANEOUS BOABD OF TRADE RULES.
42*7
12 brass assorted bolts, nuts, turned and fitted.
60 iron „ „ „
1 smith's anvil.
1 fitter's vice.
Ratchet braces, and snitable drills.
1 copper or metal hammer.
Suitable blocks and tackling for lifting weights.
1 dozen files, assorted, and handles for the same.
1 set of drifts or expanders for boiler tubes.
1 safety-valve spring (if so fitted) for every four valves if of the
same size ; but more than 6 spare springs of the same size
need not be provided, whatever be the number of the valves ;
if there are not four valves, then at least one spare spring
must be carried.
1 screw jack.
And a set of engineer's tools suitable for the service, including
hammers and chisels for vice and forge ; solder and solder-
ing iron ; sheets of tin and copper ; spelter ; muriatic acid,
or other equivalent, &g.
147. The following list of tools and materials should be provided foi
distilling apparatus : —
1 set of stoking tools.
1 scaling tool.
1 spanner for boiler doors.
1 set of fire-bars, suitable foi
boiler.
1 14-inch flat bastard file^.
1 14-inch half-round file.*
1 10-inch round file.
3 file handles.
2 hand cold chisels.
1 chipping hammer.
1 pair of efficient gas tongs.
1 soldering iron.
10 lbs. of solder.
2 lbs. of rosin.
6 gauge glasses.
24 india-rubber
washers.
80 bolts and nuts, assorted.
1 slide rod for donkey pump.
6 lbs. spun yam.
gauge-glass
10 lbs. cotton waste.
1 deal box, with lock, complete.
2 gallons machinery oil.
Animal charcoal sufficient to
charge the filter at least
twice.
1 can for machinery oil.
1 oil feeder.
1 small bench vice.
1 ratchet brace.
4 drills, assorted.
1 set dies and taps suitable for
the bolts.
2 glass salinometers.
1 hydrometer and pot.
1 shifting spanner.
1 lamp for engineer.
And other articles that the par-
ticular distiller and boiler
sunplied may, in the Surveyor's
juagment, require.
197. The boiler for supplying steam to the distillers of an emigrant
ship should be at least equal in strength to the boilers of passenger
steamships, and should have fittings in accordance with these regula-
tions. The steam for working the apparatus is not to be taken from
tiie main boilers. No exhaust steam may be permitted to go into the
428 MISCELLANEOUS BOARD OF TRADE RULES.
condenser, if appliances for the introduction of lubricants are fitted to
the steam pipes or steam cylinder of the pumping engine. The boiler
of the apparatus must not oe filled or fed with water from the surface
condensers of the main engines, and must not be fitted with cocks, kc,
for the introduction of tallow or oil. The presence of zinc in such
boilers is also objectionable, and the Surveyors should refuse to pass
boilers so fitted for use on board vessels clearing as emigrant ships.
No distilling apparatus should be passed unless fitted witii a filter
of suitable size charged with animal charcoal.
When the water is pumped into the condenser, the latter should be
fitted with an efficient escape- valve which cannot readily be tampered
with ; and, if the condensing portions of the apparatus or the cooler
and filter are unfit to bear the pressure on the boiler, an efficient
safety-valve which cannot readily be overloaded, should be fitted
between the steam pipe and the apparatus.
The Surveyor should satisfy himself as to the capability of the man
who is to have charge of the apparatus.
As the Surveyor will be held wholly responsible for the efficiency of
the distillers, it rests with him to decide whether or not the apparatus
should, in the case of emigrant vessels furnished with passenger
certificates, be taken to pieces for examination prior to every voyage,
but the distilling apparatus of such vessels must be taken to pieces for
examination at least once every twelve months^ or more often if the
Surveyor thinks it necessary. The tubes or coils should be tested to
at least twice the load on the safety-valve on the apparatus, or, in
cases where no safety-valve is fitted, to twice the highest working
pressure of the boiler from which the apparatus can be worked, and
the machinery and boiler should be thoroughly examined. The char-
coal should be removed from the filter, cleansed, or renewed, at least
once every six months.
After the distilling apparatus is put together again, it should be
tested as to the quantity and quality of the water made, and this
should also be done before the commencement of every voyage. The
water should be cool, pure, and fit to drink immediately it is drawn
off from the filter.
The presence of zinc in such boilers is also objectionable, and Sur-
veyors should refuse to pass boilers so fitted for use on board yeasels
sailing under the Merchant Shipping Act of 1894, Part III.
When the water is pumped into the condenser there should be an
efficient escape-valve on the condenser, which cannot be readily
tampered with, and if the condensing portion of the apparatus or the
cooler and filter be unfit to bear the pressure on the boiler, an efficient
safety-valve that cannot be readily overloaded should be fitted between
the steam pipe and the apparatus.
146: It is advisable that the donkey engine for pumpinff water
through the condenser be so fitted that it can be made available in
case of emergencv for extinguishing fire in any part of the ship ; a'
leather hose, with suitable bendfr and conductors, should be applied
for this purpose.
COBULINB AND ROPBS.
429
CHAINS AND ROPES
The following Tables give the Admiralty requirements as to chains : —
Table CXXIII. Admiralty Tests, &c.. of Stud-link Chain Cable.
DhLof
Breaking
Proot
■Weight of
100
fathoms
incwts.
DlA.Of
Breaking
Proof
Weight of
100
fathoms
In cwts.
cable in
strength
load
cable In
strength
load
inchea.
in tons.
In tons.
inches.
in tons.
in tons.
'A^
4*90
8-6
9-26
1%
66-70
40-6
108-0
Vt
6*80
4-6
12-0
1^
66-60
47-6
126-76
•X.
7-70
6-6
16-26
1%
77-17
66-126
147-0
%
9-80
7 0
18-76
1%
88-66
63-26
168-76
'Me
11-90
8-6
22-76
2
100-80
72-0
192 0
%
14-17
10 126
27 0
2K
113-76
81-26
216-76
%
19-26
18-76
86-76
2%
127-67
91-126
243*0
1
26-20
18-0
48-0
2X
142-10
101-6
270-76
IK
81-86
22-76
60-76
2M
167-60
112-6
800-0
89-87
28-126
76-0
2%
181-02
129-3
368-0
l$i
47-60
84 0
90-76
8 204 12
146-8
482-0
Up to and including 2^ inches diameter, the above proof loads are
equal to 630 lbs. per circular ^ inch of section of one side of link, and
are the same as those required by the Chain Cables and Anchors Acts ;
but for 2% inches diameter the load is reduced to 698 '6 lbs. per
circular 3^ inch, and for 8 inches diameter to 576 lbs. The formula for
proof loads of chains up to 2^ inches diameter may also be written, —
Proof load in tons= x8 x (diameter in inches)'.
The breaking strengths are placed at 40 per cent, aboye the proof loads.
Table CXXI I la.— Admiralty Tests, &c., of Short-link Chain.
Dia.of
Breaking
Proof
Weight
Dia. of
Breaking
Proof
Weight
chain in
inches.
strength
in tons.
load
In tons.
per
fathom in
pounds.
chain in
Inches.
strength
in tons.
load
in tons.
per
fathom in
pounds.
49-0
%
1-87
•76
8-0
"^
26-37
10-66
•/•
2-98
1-17
6*6
1
80-00
12-00-
66 0
4-22
1-69
8 0
iV<.
83-87
13-64
68-0
Mf
6-74
2-30
10-6
iH
87-97
16-18
710
7-60
8-00
14 0
!*/<.
42-30
16-92
79*0
•/•
9*49
8-80
18-0
i}4
46-87
18*76
87-0
%
11-7^
4*69
22-0
!•/<.
61-68
20*67
96-0
"Xf
14-18
6-67
27-0
IX
66*72
22*68
106-0
%
16-87
6-76
82-0
l'/4.
62-00
24-80
116*0
"/!•
19-80
7-92
87-0
IH
67-60
27-00
127-0
%
22-97
9-19
43-0
• • •
• • «
*••
.•*
The proof loads for short-link chains are %rds those for stud-link
ffhMT>«r
430 OHAIMS AND BOPBS.
The rale may be written, — Proof load ta
in inches)*. The bre&king strengths t
at 2% times the proof loads.
Lloyd's requirements as to chain Cdblea, &c., are given in Table
CXXIV. ; the proof loada and brsaiing atrengths are those required by
the Aot of Parliomeut ; the breaking atrengths for chajca above
1 % inches diameter are the same as required by the Admiralty, but for
chains of 1^ inches diameter and nnder, Lloyd's require a slightly
higher breaking strength.
Table CXXIV.— Uoyd'9 Tests of Stud-link Chain Cayes.
Inlnclm
(SUtuWrj)
(SUtutorr)
ofcb>iu
InluOiea.
^tu^)
(BtaWtorj)
Inbuu.
"A,
8 '6
12-76
IS
*7-6
66-6
%
10-136
16126
1-^
61-26
71-76
■«.
11-876
17-8
1!4
B6-125
77-126
'A
13-76
20-626
1"X.
69-126
82-76
■K.
16-8
28-7
1^
63-26
88-6
18-0
27-0
1"/..
87-6
64-6
20-3
80-*
2 ^
72-0
100 '8
I'i
22-75
8*126
76-5
1071
26 876
88-0
81-26
113-76
ii!
28-126
*2-12B
88-126
120-5
81-0
lfl-6
61-125
127-6
8*-0
61-0
1.
66-26
184-75
87-12B
6B-62B
101-6
142-1
il
40-6
68-7
L
106 ■»
149-625
ii-a
Sl'l
112-6
167-6
NoU^ — UnErtndded cloee-link chains will be admitted aa cablea if
proved to two-thirds the load required for stud-link chainB, and if
the breaking atreDgth is not less than twice such proof load.
In some recent teats of the chain cables of large steamers a 2K-iiich
cable gave on average ultimate strength of 212 tons, and a 2>X,.inch
cable gave 223 tons as the lowest and 226 tons as the highest of seven
testa.
Tbe safe worlcins load on chains should not be taken highsr
than half the proof load ; if this proportion be adopted the formula
becomes : —
Working load in ton9=
X (diameter in inches)' for Btnd-link.
, . X (diameter in inches)' for close-link.
For ordinary cione chains and slinga 4x(diameter in inches)' it
'<gh enougli.
0HAIN8 AND ROPBS.
431
Tubie CXXV.— Admiralty Flexible Steel Wire Ropes.
Torsion
fiUaeof
rope
cumfer-
eDGe)iii
Num-
ber of
wires in
each
strand.
Weight
per
fathom
in lbs.
Mini-
mum
break-
ing
st'gth
test;
No. of
twists
each
wire
DuctiUty tests, akc.
inches.
in tons.
must
stand.
8
80
68
148
9
£ach rope to oonsist of 6
strands. Wires to be of best
7
80
41
118
11
cmoible steel galvanized with
pnre zinc
6H
80
85
08
14
The rone is to be laid up
evenly ana uniformly as regards
e
80
81
84
16
size and angle, and is to con-
5K
24
28
71
16
tain a proper sized hemp core.
A latitude not exceeding 6
5
24
28
69
17
per cent, over or under the
4K
12
14
89
16
prescribed weights will be allow-
ed.
4
12
12
81
17
Elongation will be assumed
to commence when one-sixth
8K
12
9
24
18
of the breaking-load has been
applied.
8
12
7
17
22
Test A (torsion).-— Each wire
2%
12
6%
14%
26
to stand being twisted through
the number of revolutions stated
2%
12
4%
11%
26
in column 6, in a length of 8
inches.
2}i
12
8%
9
28
Test B (bending). —Each wire
to stand coiling around itself
2
12
2%
7
88
eight turns and back again.
1?4
12
2
5%
86
If, in beine tested, one wire
in seven fail, out the other six
1*4
12
1%
4
41
give fair and uniform results,
the average being up to the
standard, the rope will be con-
i]i
12
1%
2%
47
sidered satisfactory in that
1
12
K
1%
60
respect.
Y
432
0HAIN8 AND BOPBS.
Proportions of Links of Chains. — ^The standard proportions of
the links of chains, in terms of the diameter of the bar from which
they are made, are as follows :—
Overall length. Overall breadth.
Stud-link 6 diameters 8*6 diameters
Close-link 6 3*5
>)
f »
The stad has usually a diameter at the centre of *6 x diameter of chain,
and at the ends 1 x diameter of chain.
Weight of Chains. —The weight of stud-link chain cables is given
very nearly by the rule, —
where W— weight per fiftthom in pounds, and e^s diameter of bar from
which chain is made.
For close-link chain the rule becomes, —
W=68d«.
The above rules give weights about midway between those required
by the Admiralty and those required by Lloyd's. The weight is of
course much affected by the length of link usecL
Steel Wire Ropes.
The Admiralty requirements with regard to flexible steel wire ropes
are given in Table CXXV.
Steel wire ropes for standing rigging are required to be made of
fewer wires of larger diameter, are rather heavier, and must be of
rather greater ultimate strength.
The following Table shows the breaking strengths that steel wire
hawsers, &c., must show in order to be accepted by Lloyd's: —
Table CXXVL— Breaking Strengths of Steel Wire Hawsers,
&c., by Lloyd's Rules.
Size (circum-
Breaking
strength In
Size (circum-
Breaking
Size (circum-
Breaking
strength in
ference) in
ference) in
strength in
ference) in
inches.
tons.
inches.
tons.
inches.
tons.
2
7
8%
29
6%
71
2^
9U
4
33
6%
78
2^
12X
*%
85
6
85
2%
16V6
4%
39
6%
100
3
18
«%
47
7
118
8^4
22
5
59
7%
128
.. «^
26
6>4
65
8
149
O&AiNS AKD R0P£9.
4^3
Table CXXVIa.— Special Flexible Steel Wire Rope.
Size (circumfer-
ence) in inches.
Lloyd's Breaking
Test in tons.
Size (circumfer-
ence) in inches.
Lloyd's Breaking
Test in tons.
1%
2
2%
2H
2%
8
8)4
8%
8-9
11-7
14-6
18-2
22-0
26-2
30-7
85-5
8%
4
6
«)4
410
52-5
59-0
65.5
73 0
880
114
A short length of each of the wires composing the hawser, &c., will
also be required, after beinc galvanised, to show a tensile strength
equiviJent to that given in the above table, and the aggregate strength
of the wires must not be less than IG per cent, in excess of that strength.
Each wire must also be capable of being twisted around itself not
less than eight times, and of being untwisted and straightened again
without breaking.
The strength of steel wire ropes, relatively to their girth, depends
not only on the quality of the wire used, but also on the amount of
hemp core used ; usually there is a central hemp core, and sometimes
each strand has also a similar core, but sometimes there are no hemp
cores at all. There would be no particular difficulty in obtaining ropes
to stand twice the tests given in the above Table, but such ropes would
probably be wanting in flexibility, and would re<^uire drums of very
large diameter if they were to work satisfactorily and to last any
time.
Hemp Ropes.
Hemp is laid up right-handed in yams ; and yams are laid up
left-handed into strands.
A hawser is composed of three strands laid up right-handed.
A cable is composed of three hawsers laid up left-handed.
Shroud-laid rope has a core surrounded by four strands.
The strength of hemp ropes depends on the quality of the hemp
used, on the .type or make of the rope, and on its condition (i.e,
wet or dry, tarred or untarred).
The twist diminishes the strength, but increases the solidity and
durability, and the strength therefore depends to some extent on
the twist
When a rope is wet or tarred its strength is reduced by about one-
fourth.
The working strength is commonly taken as ^i^th of the breaking
strength.
28
iU
BtBEL WIRE ROPES.
Table CXXVII.— BulUvant's Steel Wire Ropes (Galvanised)
For Ships' Hawsers, Running Rigging, Cargo Falls, etc
Table Showing Weights and Breaking Stebsses.
Flexible Steel Wire Bope,
6 Strands, each 12 Wires.
Extra F
Steel T
Rop
eStra
each 24
ezib
Yire
,A
le
Special Extra Flexible
Steel Wire Rope.
nds,
Wires.
6 Strands, each
87 Wires.
Special
Make.
SizeClroum.
ference. j
1
s
OQ
Ins.
1
pi
s o S^o^a
XoQ-e
t
ft—
<
i
ftc5
ft-^
Ids.
Lbs.
Tons.
Ins.
Lbs.
Tons.
. Lbs
Tons.
Tons.
i
i
•420
1-1
4-6
•488
1
•5
• • •
•••
1
^
•720
2-0
6
•960
2
■8
1-08
8-0
IJ
• • •
1-08
3 1
7-6
1*44
4
•3
1-50
4-0
H
• • •
1^50
4^4
9
1*98
6
•0
2-16
6-6
If
A
2-10
5-9
10-6
2-82
8
•6
8^00
8-6
%
1
2^70
8-0
12
8-60
10
•9
8-96
11-3
H
•••
8-60
10-5
13-6
4-68
14
•2
5-04
14-6
H
H
4^20
12-3
15
5-70
17'
2
6-12
18-2
2j
i
6-10
14-8
16^5
6-78
20
•6
7-38
22-2
8
H
6 00
17^6
18
8-04
26
•0
8^70
26-6
H
•••
7-30
21-1
19-5
9-64
28
•9
10^32
29-0
3}
H
8-40
24-4
21
11-28
84
2
11-88
34 0
3i
» * •
9-60
27-8
22-6
12-78
38
•8
13-80
39-6
4
• • •
10 '98
32-3
24
1434
43
6
15^78
46-3
4J
• ■ •
12-00
35-4
26-6
16^60
60-
1
17-70
61-6
4i
• • •
14-04
41-8
27
18-72
67'
•0
19-98
58-2
4i
ij
• • •
• • t
• • •
20-64
62-
8
22-14
65-3
5
• • •
• • •
• • •
• ••
22-68
68-
9
24-64
72-7
6J
• • •
• ••
• • •
• • •
24-78
76-
3
27 •IS
80-6
H
\i
• • •
• • •
• • •
27-00
82-
0
29-58
86-7
5|
• • «
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • t
32-28
93-1
6
n
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• t fl
35-40
104-3
6i
• • •
• ■ ■
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • 1
40-92
118-6
7
. . •
• • •
*• •
• ••
• • •
• • «
47-94
136-2
7i
•••
• t •
• • •
# • •
• • •
• • ■
66 00
.178-5
8
...
• ••
• • •
« • •
• • •
• • •
68 00
198-0
202
9
• . •
• ••
• ••
• • •
• • •
• •fl
78-00
250-0
267
10
•••
• ••
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • ■
9800
806-0
818
11
*••
• ■ •
• • •
• • t
• • »
• • t
120-00
• ••
881
12
•••
• • •
...
• • •
• • •
• • •
142-00
• • •
465
In these Flexible Rope Tables the wire is calculated as takinir a breaking
stress of 90 tons to the square inch.
Messrs Bullivani & Co., LTD., are prepared to make steel ropes to take a
?rnIrf«J?/If*l ^}^ ***"* ^^ *^ tingle part, and they will furnish any informa-
ion connected with larger sice cables than those mentioned in the above Table.
8TBBL WIBB ROPBS.
435
Table CXXVIII.— BuUivaiit's Mild Plough Steel Wire Crane
Ropes (Black).
,
Eztra Flezible
Special Eztra
Flexible Steel Wire Rope, 6 Strands,
Steel Wire Bope,
Flezible Steel Wire
each 12 Wires.
6 Strands, each
Bope, 6 Strands,
24 Wires.
each 87 Wires.
Size Cir-
cumference.
Approz.
Diam.
Approz.
Weight
per
Fathom.
Approz.
Breaking
Stress.
Approz.
Weight
per
Fathom.
Approz.
Breaking
Stress.
Approz.
Weight
per
Fathom.
Approz.
Breaking
Stress.
Ins.
Ins.
Lbs.
Tons.
Lbs.
Tons.
Lbs.
Tons.
1
A
•8
1-9
•9
3-0
11
3-2
H
• • •
1-1
2-9
1-6
6-0
1*6
4-8
li
• • •
1-6
4-1
2-0
7 0
2-4
7-1
If
A
2-1
6-6
2-7
9-3
3-2
9-9
2
i
2-9
7-6
3-7
12-7
4-3
13-2
2J
• • •
8-6
9-6
4-5
15-8
6-2
17-0
2J
H
4*4
11-7
5-6
19-2
6-4
20-1
2i
i
6-8
14-0
6-9
23*9
7-9
24-7
3
«
6-2
16-6
8*0
28-1
9-2
29-8
8J
• ••
7-6
20-0
9-7
33-8
11-0
88 -8
Si
11
8-6
23 0
11-1
38-7
12-9
89-7
38
• ••
9-8
26 -8
12-5
43 9
14-8
46-0
4
• ••
11-1
29-8
14-5
50-9
16-5
52-9
44
...
12-5
83-6
16-2
66-9
18-7
60*1
H
i.«
14-2
88-2
180
68-2
21 0
65-9
4i
14
16-8
42-4
20-4
71-6
23-5
74-1
6
• • •
17-4
46-8
22-4
78-7
26-7
82-6
NoU. — ^The diameter of barrel or sheave for flezible ropes should not be less
than siz times the circumference of the rope, but where extra flexible and special
eztra flezible ropes are used the diameter may be somewhat reduced.
436
8TBBN0TH, BTO., OF MATERIALS.
The Admiralty reqnirements as to yarions sizes of hawser-laid
cordage in common use are ffiven in Table CXXIX. ; the 11 -inch rope
is specified to be of tarred Petersburg hemp, but all the smaller sizes
are to be of tarred Riga hemp ; all are to be three-strand.
Table CXXIX.— Admiralty Tarred Hemp Cordage.
Size of rope
(circumference)
in inches.
SIm of yam.
Nmnber of
threads in
the rope.
Standard breaking
strength.
Tons. owt. qrs.
%
40
6
0 3 0
%
II
12
0 6 0
1
II
16
0 8 0
IH
If
38
0 16 0
1%
II
42
1 0 0
2
If
64
1 7 0
2H
If
84
2 0 0
8
It
120
8 0 0
3%
80
128
8 18 0
4
>f
169
6 0 0
i)i
If
201
6 9 0
5
If
249
7 18 0
11
26
1008
86 10 0
All sizes are specified to be formed at an angle of 27**, hardened at
87", and finished at 42^
If the smallest size be excluded, the above Table gives breaking
strengths which approximate very closely to those given by the
formma, —
Breaking strength in cwts. = (6*2 x girth in inches') + 2,
The weight in pounds per fathom of hawser-laid hemp ropes is
given approximately by the rule : —
Weight in lbs. per fathom = *17 x (girth in inches)' for dry ropes.
„ „ s '21 X (girth in inches)" for wet or
tarred ropes.
STRENGTH, &c., OF MATERIALS.
Generally, where reference is made in this section to the extension
per cent of a test piece, it is to be understood that the piece is 8
diameters long between the marks, if of circular section, or 1276
thicknesses long by 2 in width, if of rectangular section.
STBBKGTH, BTO., OF MATERIALS.
437
Cast Iron.
The strength that an iron casting may be expected to possess depends
on the quality of the iron, on the number of times it has been melted,
on the design or form of the casting, and on the skill and care exer-
cised in the foundry to ensure soundness and freedom from contraction
stresses. The quality of the iron depends on its chemical constitution,
and on the method of manufacture. The effects of variations in
chemical composition are indicated in the following table : —
Table CXXX. —Compositions and Qualities of Cast Iron.
Qualify.
Oompoiition.
Combined
carbon
per cent.
Gnphitio
carbon
percent.
Silicon
percent.
Very soft, • •
Very hard, .
Great general strength, .
Great tensile strength, .
Great crushing strength.
•16
• • •
•6
• • •
over 1 '0
8 1
» • •
2*8
• • •
under 2*6
2-6
under *8
1-42
1-8
about '8
Pig irons are as a rule divided into grades, in number sometimes
seven but often only three, each of which is known by a number.
No. 1, grey iron, contains the most free or graphitic carbon, and, when
broken, exhibits a very coarsely granular fracture with dark grey
scales of considerable size; when melted, '4t runs very thin,*' or is
of extreme fluidity, and is therefore used mostly for fine ornamental
castings, and for mixing with other numbers when increased fluidity
is required.
The highest number, whether there be seven or three grades, is a
white iron, and contains the carbon in a combined state with little or
none free. . The middle number or numbers have the carbon partly
free and partly combined, and called mottled iron from the appearance
of fracture.
When in seven grades. No. 2 pig is neither so soft nor so fluid as No.
1, but is not sufficiently close grained for general use.
No. 8 pig is that usually employed for marine engine castings ; by
adding No. 1 a mixture suitable for smaller complicated castings is
obtained, and the addition of No. 4 gives a harder and closer-grained
metal.
No. 4 is almost a forge iron, not much used in the foundry except
for such mixing purposes ; it still shows a mottled grey fracture, but
the ffrain is finer and more crystalline, and there is an absence of the
graphitic scales so marked in Nos. 1, 2, and 3.
Nos. 5 and 6 are not used in the foundry at all, but are made tc
conversion into wrought iron, kc
r
438 STBBNGTH, BTO., OF MATERIALS.
No. 7 pig shows a silvery white and crystalline fracture, contains
practically no free carbon, and is extremely hard. Like Nos. 5 and 6,
It is a '* forge iron," and is sometimes called ** white forge," while Nos.
5 and 6 are called "grey for^e.'*
Iron from different distncts, and made from different classes of
ore, of coarse varies considerably in composition and quality, but
qualitv is also considerably affected by the method of imuction, —
cold-blast iron being usually stronger, tougher, and closer grained than
hot-blast, and therefore often used for mixing with other irons where
exceptional strength and toughness is required.
Iron Mixtures. — As all cast irons are improved by mixing as well
as re-melting, no important casting should be made entirely of new pig,
and if maximum strength is required, the whole of the material should
be re-melted. Chemical analysis should be made and the same com-
position aimed at by judicious mixing to get uniformly good results.
For cylinders a strong, tough, and close-grained metal is required,
which may be obtained by using equal proportions of picked scrap,
best Scotch No. 3 pig, and good cold blast If the cylinder is to have
liners and false faces, most of the hardening elements may be reduced.
Cylinder liners and false faces require a good amount of strength
and great hardness, and may be made of a similar mixture hardened up
with some No. 4 pi^.
Since cold-blast irons are scarce, and always dear, hematite with
good Scotch or other equally suitable irons may be used for such pur-
poses. In fact, hematite is often used with No. 1 and No. 3 irons of
quite ordinary brands for cylinders, &o., of cargo-boat engines when
weight is not of prime importance.
Castings of simple form, such as propeller blades and bosses, may be
increased in hardness, strength, and closeness of grain by the addition
of steel boiler plate scrap to the extent of 10 per cent, or even higher.
Hematite is used also for the same j)urpose.
The contraction of iron castings in cooling varies considerably
with the form and proportions of the casting, but is, on an average,
Vio ^ V% i°ch per foot.
The cooling of large and intricate castings should be as gradual as
possible, as the internal stresses are then somewhat reliev^, and the
risk of cracks diminished. The slower the cooling is the lander ¥rill
the crystals be, and vice versa, but slow cooling becomes a kind of
annealing.
The weight of cast iron also varies very considerably, — the differ-
ence between the heaviest and lightest kinds being nearly 40 lbs.
per cubic foot ; but a fair avei-age value, and one eaoly remembered,
is about 460 lbs. per cubic foot, or *26 lbs. per cubic inch. A
plate 1 foot square x 1 inch thick will then weigh 87 '5 lbs.
Ordinary marine castings are probably rather above than below this
weight.
Strength of Cast iron. — Cast iron suitable for ordinary marine
castings should not have a lower ultimate tensile strength than 17,000
^ per square inch, and when weight is of importance, and soantlingB
STRENGTH, BTC, OP MATERIALS. 439
are cut down, a strength of 22,400 lbs. per square inch should be aimed
at, as now with judicious blending of brands, additions of steel scrap,
and using coke free from sulphur, even 36,000 lbs. can be attained.
Testing, both chemical and mechanical, should be constantly resorted
to if there is to be any check on the foundry, or if any accurate know-
ledge as to the material being turned out is required.
The ultimate strength of cast iron in compression is about 90,000
lbs. per square inch ; in ordinary construction it may carry three
times as much as in tension.
The Admiralty requirements as to cast iron are as follows : —
Test pieces to be taken from such castings as the inspecting officer
may consider necessary. The minimum tensile strength to be 9 tons
(20,160 lbs.) per square inch, taken on a length of not less tiian
2 inches.
The transverse breaking load for a bar 1 inch square, loaded
at the middle between supports 1 foot apart, is to be not less than
2000 lbs.
Wrought Iron.
The quality of wrought iron, — provided it is free from such harmful
ingredients as sulphur and phosphorus, — depends largely on the
amount of work that has been done on it at the mill, —i.e. on the
extent to which it has been rolled down and the so-called fibre
developed.
The appearance of the fracture depends a good deal on the manner in
which it is broken ; if good bar iron is nicked at one side, and slowly
broken or bent back, it should show a clear white silvery, and almost
entirely fibrous, fracture, whereas if nicked on two sides, or broken
with a smart severe blow, the fracture will show more white crystalline
grain, with little or no fibre.
A specimen from a good forging will show a clear and silvery grain,
but larger than that of the bar iron, with about 20 to 30 per cent of
fibrous patches.
An inferior iron usually shows a coarse crystalline structure, or if
fibre is present, it is dull and earthy looking.
Coarse crystals, or large shining plates, generally indicate a ** cold-
short*'iron, and "red-shortness" is indicated by an earthy, dull, or
dark fracture.
Merchant bar is the commonest quality formerly used for ladders,
gratings, fire-bars, bearer bars, &c. , but steel is now generally cheaper
and much better for these purposes.
Best bar is the next quality ; its tensile strength is about 24 tons
(or, say, 54,000 lbs.) per square inch, and it may be used for all
ordinary smithing purposes.
Best best bar is a higher quality again, and has an ultimate
tenacity of 26 to 27 tons (or 58,000 to 60,000 lbs.) per square inch,
with an elongajdon of about 25 per cent, in 8 inches, and a contraction
of area of about 50 per cent. ; the fibre is uniform and silky in appes
ance, and the bar may be bent double, cold, withpi^t fracture,
440 STBBNQTH, BTO., OF MiLTBBIALg.
It is still largely nsed for the screwed stays of boilers,* as it
stands better than steel the strains coming on them; the Board of
Trade permit the use with a working stress of 9000 lbs. per square
inch, providing the iroh is tested as is steel. Bar steel has largely
taken the place of iron, but for smithing purposes or for chain-
making where welding is resorted to, best Yorkshire and Staffordshire
bars, and bars made from boiler plate scrap, remain still in quite
good demand.
Weig^ht of wrousfht iron. — Wrought iron varies slightly in density
according to the method of manufacture, the form into which it is put,
and the amount of impurity it contains. A fair average value is 485
lbs. per cubic foot, or *28 lb. per cubic inch ; bars and Yorkshire plates
give about this figure, but Staffordshire plates are rather lighter (about
480 lbs.), and large forgines lighter again (about 477 lbs.), — owing
probably to the presence of cinder in a minutely divided condition.
A square foot of plate, one inch thick, usually weighs 40 lbs.
CastSted.
Steel castings for the pistons, covers, framing, &c., of marine
engines should have an ultimate tensile strength of 29 to 81 tons
(65,000 to 69,000 lbs.) per square inch, with an extension of about 12
to 15 per cent in 8 incnes. For castings that are at all intricate, or
thin in parts, it is necessary to use a steel with more carbon and a
strength up to 86 or 38 tons ultimate, as the milder and tougher
steels are not sufficiently fluid when melted, but then the extension
obtainable will often not exceed 8 per cent The ultimate tensile in
tons per square inch added to extension per cent, should be not less
than 45. British Engineering Standard is 50.
The contraction of cast steel in cooling is more variable than
that of cast iron, but is on an average about /4e inch per foot, or the
same as that of brass. Special care should therefore be taken in
designing Urge pieces to be cast in this metal, and forms that will
interfere with the contraction, or cause the casting to "draw" in
cooling should be avoided ; when possible an Open or H section should
be preferred to a close or box section for framings, as the former is
more likely to give a sound casting, — especially if plenty of small
fillets are placed in the angles (say f§ inch thick and 6 inches pitch—*
for large framings — dying away at 3 inches out from the angle in both
directions) and a good radius is used.
Annealing", for the purpose of relieving internal stresses set up, is ab-
solutely necessary for large or intricate castings, and desirable K>r all.
Soft steels of this class will contain up to *3 per cent, oi carbon ;
when the proportion reaches about 1 per cent, it becomes possible to
harden or temper the steel.
Good hard cast steel, with an ultimate strength of 50 or 55 tons,
will probably contain 1*8 or 1*4 per cent, of carbon.
* B. of T. testof or iron ban, 81*5 tons tensile with 26X elongation in 8 diamtten.
STRENGTH, ETC., OP MATERIALS. 441
To weld properly, steel must not contain more than '26 per cent, of
carbon. Silicon steel of quite high tensile strength will weld readily.
Weight of steel castings. —Soft steels, of 28 to 85 tons ultimate
strength, weigh about 490 lbs. per cubic foot, or '284 lb. per cubic
inch ; a plate 1 foot square and 1 inch thick will therefore weigh
very nearly 41 lbs.
The Admiralty requirements as regards steel castings for
machinery are as follows : —
Tensile strength for pistons and intricate thin castings to be 80 to 37
tons per square inch, with an extension of at least 12 per cent, in
2 inches, and for ordinary castings 28 to 35 tons per square inch, with
an extension of at least 15 per cent, in 2 inches.
Bars 1 inch square to bend cold without fracture, over 1 % inches
radius:— for ordinary castings 90° for 28 -ton steel, 60° for 35-ton
steel, ai^d other strengths in proportion ; and for intricate thin cast-
ings 45*" independent of strength.
Test pieces are to be taken from each casting.
All steel castings are also to stand being dropped from a height of
about 12 feet upon a hard road or floor.
Lloyd's Rules for Quality and Testing of Steel Castings.
For purposes for which cast iron is ordinarily employed, such as
propeller bosses and blades, bed -plates, engine framing and columns,
brackets, weigh-shaft levers, pistons, cylinder covers, eccentric straps,
bearing brushes, &c., the castings must be sound, and are to be
subjected to such drop and hammering tests as below.
Section 5. — -1. Process of Manufacture.— Steel for castings shall
be made by the Open Hearth process, acid or basic, or by such other
process as maj be approved.
2. Anneahng. — All steel castings shall be thoroughly annealed in
a properly constructed annealing furnace, which must permit of the
whole casting being uniformly raised in temperature throughout its
whole extent to the necessary intensity. The casting shall be allowed
to cool down prior to removal from the annealing furnace ; and if
subsequently heated for any purpose it shall again be similarly
annealed if required by the Surveyor.
3. Testing and Inspection. —The following tests and inspections
shall be made, but in the event of any casting proving unsatisfactory
in the course of preparation or erection, such casting shall be rejected,
notwithstanding any previous certificate of satisfactory testing.
4. Tensile and Bend Test Pieces. — The tensile strength and
ductility shall be determined from standard test pieces, which are to
be prepared from sample pieces on the casting. These sample pieces
are not to be cut or partially cut from the castings until the annealing
of such castings has been completed.
5. Number of Tests.— At least one tensile test and one cold bend
test are to be taken from each casting. In castings of complex desig:
442 STRENGTH, BTO., OF MATERIALS.
referred to in paragraph 12, at least two tensile and two cold bend tests
are to be taken. Where a casting is made from more than one charge
of steel, at least four tensile and four cold bend tests are to be taken
from pieces cast as far apart as possible on the casting, some test pieces
being taken from as near the top and others from as near the bottom
of the casting as practicable.
6. Dimensions of Tensile Test Pieces. —The tensile test pieces are
to be turned to a diameter of '564 inch with a gauge length of 2 inches,
or a diameter of '798 inch with a gauge length of 3 inches, or a dia-
meter of '977 inch with a gauge length of 3^ inches.
7. Dimensions of Bend Test Pieces. — The bend test pieces are
to be of a rectangular section, 1 inch wide by { inch thick, with the
edges rounded to a radius of ^ of an inch. They are to be bent over
the thinner section. The bending may be performed either by pressure
or by blows.
8. Tensile Tests. — The tensile breaking strength determined from
test pieces of standard dimensions is to be between the limits of 26 and
85 tons per square inch, with an elongation of not less than 20 per
cent, measured on the standard test piece.
9. Bend Tests. — The bend test pieces must withstand without
fracture being bent cold through an angle of 120 degrees, the internal
radius of the bend being not greater than one inch.
10. Additional Tests before Rejection.— Should either the tensile
or bend test or both fail and the Surveyor consider the fractured test
piece or test pieces, or the results obtained therefrom, do not fairly
represent the quality of the casting, a duplicate of the test or tests
which failed shall be made if requested. In such cases the quality of
the casting shall be judged by the result of the duplicate test or tests,
and not by the original test or tests which failed.
11. Percussive Tests. — The castings are to be dropped on hard
ground from a height of from 7 to 10 feet, according to the design,
shape, and weight of the casting.
12. Castings of Complex Design.— Ca8tin|pi of complex design
which would be liable to be deformed if submitted to the drop or
percussive tests, may have this test dispensed with provided two tensile
and two cold bend tests be made upon pieces taken from positions as
far apart as possible on each casting ; one tensile and one bend test
being taken from as near the top and the others from as near the
bottom of the casting as practicable.
13. Hammering Tests. — After being subjected to the percussive
test, the casting in each case is to be subsequently slung up and well
hammered with a sledge hammer not less in weight than 7 lbs., to
satisfy the Surveyors that the casting is sound and without flaw.
This hammering test is also to be applied to castings which may not
have been submitted to a percussive test.
14. When the castings are to be used for purposes for which cast
iron is ordinarily employed, they need not be submitted to tensile and
bend tests, but they must be submitted to the drop and hammering
tests specified in paragraphs 11 and 13.
TESTS FOR CAST STEEL AND MALLEABLE OAST IRON. 443
15. Branding^. — Every casting, after it has satisfactorily withstood
the prescribed tests, shall be clearly and distinctly marked by the
Society's Surveyor, indicating that the casting has complied with the
Society's requirements.
BOARD OF TRADE TESTS FOR CAST STEEL
AND MALLEABLE CAST IRON.
Testing of Cast-Steel and Malleable Cast-Iron Material.
Cast Steel.
63. GcLst-steel stems, stemposts, rtidders, propeller shaft brackets, steering
quadrarUs, crossheads or tillers, and other important eastings which
are svJyect to considerable stress and strain.
Tensile and bending tests are to be made from these castings in the
manner described in sections 133 to 134. The tensile strength should
be in accordance with the limits specified in section 183. It is desirable
that the percentage of elongation and the bending angle should not be
less than those specified in sections 133 and 134 respectively for castings
of superior quality, but, provided there are no unusual features in the
design of the castings and the scantlings are sufficient, the lower limit
of elongation and the bending angle specified will not be objected to.
The Surveyor should also carefullv examine each casting, and take
all practicable measures to satisfy himself that it is sound and free
from flaws and defects.
64. Steel castings other than those referred to above, when fitted in
positions such that the failure of the castings may affect the safety
of the vessel,
(a) Side-sciUtle frames and pltigs.
In cases where side-scuttle frames and plugs are made of cast-steel,
the Surveyors should be guided by the following instructions as to tests.
When side-scuttles are fitted above the vessel's upper deck, or when
in such a position that their sills will be at least 10 feet above the
centre of the freeboard disc, no tests will be required, unless the Sur-
veyor has reason to doubt the strength of the material. When
intended to be fitted in a lower position, one frame and also one
plug should be selected at random out of each fifty, and at least one
frame and one plug for every vessel so fitted, and tested to destruction
by bendinff by means of blows from a hammer when cold and before
being machined.
Side- scuttle frames of ordinary form should be capable of being
bent to an angle of at least 20* without fracture.
Plugs should be capable of being bent through an angle of at least
40* without fracture.
444 TRtTi FOB OABT 9TBBL AND MALLSABLB OAST IBON.
Malleable Cast Ibok.
65. Owing to the great differences in the qualities of this material as
produced by different methods of manufacture, its employment in the
construction of passenger steamships should be watched with care.
The surface of malleable iron castings should not be removed by
machining to a greater extent than is absolutely necessary.
66. Side-seuUle frames and pltLgi,
Side-scuttle frames and plugs should be capable of being bent
through an angle of at least lb"* and 80** respectively without
fracture.
67. Jiail Stanchions,
Rail stanchions of malleable cast iron may be accepted for vessels
intended to ply exclusively in smooth water or partially smooth water
limits, provided the stanchions are capable of withstanding the
following test: —
Stanchions should not be passed unless they are capable of being bent
while cold at least 6 inches from the straight in a length of 36 inches,
before fracture.
Malleable cast-iron rail stanchions are not sanctioned for use in
sea-going vessels.
Steel Bars and Plates.
Mild steel has now almost entirely superseded wrought iron for
bars and plates; even for ventilators, uptakes, chimneys, casings,
&o., it is cheaper than iron of the quality to stand the necessary
working, rolling, &c.
In steel plates rolled from ingots the direction in which the test
pieces are cut from the plates {i.e. in the direction of rolling or
across that direction) is found to have less influence on the strengths
obtained than is the case with iron plates, the differences observed
usually lying between 6 and 10 per cent.
The percentage of carbon in mild steel bars and plates (27 to 80 tons
per square inch) is usually between '15 and *25 per cent.
Weight of steel bars and plates.— The average weight of steel of
this description is about 490 lbs. per cubic foot, or '284 lb. per cubic
inch, and a plate 1 foot square and 1 inch thick weighs about 41 lbs.
Experience in handling mild steel has shown that work cannot
safely be continued after the red colour of the heat has disappeared ;
when cold, the material will stand very severe treatment, and it is
equally ductile at a full red heat, but below 700* C. it seems to be in a
critical and at times brittle and unreliable condition, and should not
be handled again until it has cooled below 400* C, or been re-heated.
Also, when a plate has been locally heated or worked, the internal
stresses set up seem to be much more severe in effect than in the
^ase of wrought iron, and to avoid all risk of cracks, the plates should
carefully annealed as soon as possible.
OOHPARATIYB RBQUIRBHENTS FOR STBBL 0ASTING8. 445
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446 TBSTS FOR OAST STBBL AND MALLBABLB OAST IRON.
Steel Forgings.
Steel forgiugs are similar in most respects to bars and plates, but,
of course, not quite so dense or so uniform in texture and strength.
The Admiralty require that all important steel forgings for
machinery shall be made from ingots, and test pieces from all im-
portant ingots and forgings must satisfy the following conditions : —
Ultimate tensile strength to be between 30 and 35 tons per square
inch, and extension not less than 27 per cent, in 2 inches.
Bars 1 inch square should bend cold, without fracture, through an
angle of 180* over a radiusnot greater than ^ inch.
The ultimate tensile strength of material for crank and propeller
shafts is to lie between 28 and 82 tons per square inch, and the
extension must be at least 30 per cent, in 2 inches. 80 per cent, of top
end of ingot to be removed before forging, and at least 3 per cent,
from bottom end after forging. Sectional area of body of forging is
not to exceed one-sixth original sectional area of ingot.
The weight of steel forgings may be taken as about 487 lbs. per
cubic foot, or '282 lb. per cubic inch.
Whitworth's fluid compressed steel weighs about 495 lbs. per cubic
foot.
Lloyd's Rules respecting Ingot Steel Forgings.
Section 6. — 1. Process of Manufacture. — Ingot steel for forgings
shall be made by the Open Hearth process, acid, or basic, or by such
other process as may be approved by the Committee.
The forgings must be sound. They are to be made from sound
ingots, and from all important forgings such as cranks and propeller
shafts, connecting-rods, piston-rods, tne forgings must be graaually
and uniformly forged. The sectional area of the body of the forgings
(as forged) shall not exceed one-fifth of the sectional area of the
original ingot, and no part of the forging (as forged) shall have more
than two- thirds of the sectional area of the original ingot.
2. Annealing. — As for steel castings {vide page 441).
8. Testing and Inspection.— As for steel castings {vide page 441).
4. Tensile and Bend Test Pieces.— The tensile strength and
ductility shall be determined from standard test pieces which are to be
prepared from sample pieces out lengthwise from the forging from a
part of not less sectional dimensions than the body of the forging.
Such standard test pieces shall be machined from the sample pieces
without forging down, and the sample pieces shall not be detached
from the forging until the annealing of such forging has been
completed.
6. Number of Tests. — At least one tensile and one cold bend test
are to be taken from each forging. Where a number of articles are
cut from one forging, one tensile and one cold bend test from this
whole forging will be sufficient.
6. Dimensions of Tensile Test Pieces.— As for steel casting.
TBSTS FOB OAST STEEL AND MALLBABLB OAST IRON. 447
7. Dimensions of Bend Test Pieces.— The bend test pieces are to
be machiued to a rectangular seotion 1 inch wide by % inch thick, with
the edges rounded to a radius of Vleth of an inch. They are to be bent
over the thinner section. The bending may be performed either by
pressure or by blows.
8. Tensile Tests. — The tensile breaking strength determined from
test pieces of standard dimensions is to be between the limits of 28 and
32 tons per square inch, with an elongation on the standard test piece
of not less than 29 per cent, for 28-ton steel, and 25 per cent, for 32-
ton steel, and in no case must the sum of the tensile breaking strength
and corresponding elongation per cent, be less than 57.
9. Bend Tests. — The bend test pieces must withstand without
fracture being bent cold through an angle of 180 degrees, the internal
radius of the bend being not greater than 34 inch.
10. Additional Tests before Rejection.— Should either the tensile
or bend test, or both, fail, and the Surveyor consider the fractured test
piece or test pieces, or the results obtained therefrom, do not fairly
represent the quality of the forging, a duplicate of the test or tests
which failed shall be made if requested by the maker. In such cases
the quality of the forging shall be judged by the result of the duplicate
test or tests and not l^ the original test or tests which failed.
11. Branding. — Every forging, after it has satisfactorily withstood
the prescribed tests, shall be clearly and distinctly marked by the
Society's Surveyor, indicating that the forging has complied with the
Society's requirements.
12. General. — The requirements as to annealing and testing are
intended to apply to shafts of all descriptions, also to connecting-rods
and piston rods which require to be made in several heats. They are
not intended to apply to small forgings which during their last stage
of manufacture are uniformly heated throughout.
British Corporation Rules for SteeL
The British Corporation require the following : —
(i) Boiler shell plates and butt straps 28 to 32 tons tensile, with
at least 20 per cent, elongation in 8 inches,
(ii) Plates for flanging 26 to 30 tons and 23 per cent, at least,
(iii) Plates and stays for furnaces and combustion chambers 26 to
30 tons and 23 per cent,
(iv) Rivet bars, same tensile but with 25 per cent, minimum
extension or 31 per cent, with 3^ diameters.
Copper.
Copper in its unalloyed condition is hardly ever used. For pipes
and for fire-box plates of loco type boilers 0*25 to 0*45 per cent, of
arsenic is added.
The tenacity of such sheet copper is about 30,000 lbs. per sq. inch.
Annealed copper wire has a strength of 40,000 lbs. per sq. inch.
Wire of copper with 1 per cent, aluminium will stand 78,000 lbs
448 TESTS FOB OAST 8TBBL AND MALLBABLB OAST IRON.
per square inch, and French wire haying a small addition of silicon to
the copper as much as 128,000 lbs. Wire of copper with 0*529 per
cent, of antimony stands 78,000 lbs.
Sheet copper 8*805 specific gravity has a weight equivalent to about
650 lbs. per cubic foot, or *318 lb. per cubic inch. A square foot
1 inch thick weighs 45 *88 lbs.
For weights of copper pipes see page 492.
The Admiralty spedify that strips cut from steam and other pipes,
either longitudinally or transversely, are to have an ultimate tensile
strength of not less than 18 tons when annealed in water, and are to
elongate at least 35 per cent, in 2 inches, or 80 per cent, in 4 inches.*
They are also to bena through 180'' until the two sides touoh, and to
stand haimnering to a fine edge, when cold, without cracking.
Copper with 2 percent, aluminium must stand 15 tons (33,600 lbs. ) per
square inch and show an extension of 40 per cent. This alloy weighs about
540 lbs. per cubic foot. An alloy of 92*5 copper and 7*35 aluminium
has a very high resistance to altemating stresses, is tough and has
high tensile strongth.
Common Bronze or Gmi-metal.t
«
Bronze is composed of copper and tin in various .proportions, and
a small percentage of zinc is usually added to ensure souna castings and
permit of " tooling" easily.
Its strength depends mainly on the proportions and quality of the
metals forming its composition, but is much affected by such circum-
stances as the size of the casting, the rate of cooling, and the skill of
the founder in the heat treatment and mixing them, ventilating the
moulds, relieving the cores, &o.
In large castings which cool slowly there is a great tendency for the
metals to separate from one another to some extent, and the average
strength is tnerefore usually less than in small castings ; as a general
rule me more quickly the casting is cooled the stronger the meteQ is.
The metal sets very rapidly, and contracts nearly '/e inch per foot
on an average, so that in large castings the cores must be very quickly
relieved if the casting is not to be drawn and porous and of low tenacity.
With a mixture of 90 per cent copper and 10 per cent, tin, a care-
fully made test bar may be got to show a strength of nearly 17 tons
(38,000 lbs.) per square inch. With 84 per cent, copper and 16 per
cent, tin, a much harder metal is obtained (the hardness of gun-metal
varies almost directly with the percentage of tin in the mixture), with
an ultimate strength of test piece of about 16 tons (35,000 ll».) per
square inch.
For heavy bearings, 79 per cent, copper and 21 per cent tin is some-
times used ; the resulting metal is very hard, and test pieces show a
strength of 13% to 14 tons (30,000 to 31,000 lbs. ) per square inch.
* B.M.E.D. & C.C. require 14 tons with elongation of 40 per cent In 2 inches,
t Gum are no longer made of bron2e, but now invai'iably of steel.
TESTS FOR OAST STEBL AND MALLEABLE OAST IRON. 449
For b'earings the metal is improved by the addition of a small
amount of lead ; a little zinc is always necessary to facilitate machining.
Admiralty Bronze. — For all ordinary castings and steam fittings
in connection with the machineiy, the alloy used must contain not less
than 10 per cent of tin, and not more than 2 per cent of zinc. For
air-compressing machinery and torpedo fittings, &c. (where the working
gressure is over 3000 lbs. per square inch), the mixture specified is : —
^pper, not less than 86 per cent ; tin, not less than 10 nor mare than
] 2 per cent ; zinc, not mare than 2 per cent
Tne ultimate tensile strength of bronze is to be not less than 14 tons
(31,360 lbs.) per square inch, and it must extend at least 7^ per cent
in 2 inches before breaking.
Fairly good ordinary bronze ought to show a strength of about
12 tons (27,000 lbs.) per square inch, and should extend 10 per cent
in a length of 2 inches before breaking.
Its weig^ht is about 546 lbs. per cubic foot, or '315 lb. per cubic
inch.
Phosphor Bronze.
This metal is composed of copper and tin, with a small proportion
(about i per cent) of phosphorus. It is harder than ordinary gun-
metal, very close-gained, and of superior strength. The averaffe
ultimate strength is about 15} tons (35,000 lbs.) per square inch,
while that of some grades of the metal is as high as 22 tons ; it
is, however, "red-short," so that when heated it is liable to crack.
Great care is required in melting and running it, and repeated meltings
very much reduce its virtue, as the phosphorus disappears. Sheet
phosphor bronze and rods, wire, &c., are most useful, and this metal
is now often used for the blades t>f turbines. The elastic limit of
phosphor bronze is vexy high.
Mangfanese Bronze.
Manganese bronze now consists of copper, tin, and zinc (according
to the grade of metal required), with the addition of a proportion of
ferro-manganese.
The weight of thi^ material is about 535 lbs. per cubic foot, or
•31 lb. per cubic inch.
Rolled rods of manganese bronze can be obtained of strengths vary-
ing from 28 to 32 tons (63,000 to 72,000 lbs.) per square inch, and
showing an elongation of 40 per cent to 15 per cent in 2 inches.
Zinc Bronzes.
Parsons' Manganese Bronze Co. were the first to manufacture
manganese bronze for propellers, &c. ; their alloy formerly had a very con-
siderable content of mauganese and possessed a high tensile strength, &c.
It has of late years been replaced by alloys having much less manganese,
but some other metals in small quantities, which, with the methods of
29
450 TESTS FOR CAST STEEL AND MALLEABLE OAST IRON.
melting and treating followed by the company, possess quite as high
and often higher strength, with greater toughness, and safer for marine
castings. The following are the chief products of this company : —
Crotarite, suitable for boiler stays and other fittings exposed to heat.
The melting point is nearly as high as copper (2000** F.), it is highly
malleable, and has a tensile strength of 25 to 26 tons, with 80 to 40 per
cent elongation. Elastic limit is 16 tons.
Immadivmit suitable for shafts, pumps, rods, &c., exposed to sea-
water, being incorrodible. Mild variety has an elastic limit of 18 tons
and an ultimate tensile of 36 tons, with 25 per cent, elongation. In
the cast state it is very suitable for boiler mountings and fittings, as it
has an elastic limit of 9 tons at 500° F. and an ultimate of 23*5 tons,
with 22*5 per cent, elongation.
Turhadium is a special bronze for high-speed propellers, being
capable of resisting the corrosion of sea- water and erosion due to high
velocity. The elastic limit is- 18 tons and the ultimate tensile 40 tons,
with an extension of 18*5 per cent, in 8 inches. This can be wrought
at a cherry -red heat.
White Brass y as a bearing metal, is another product of this company.
J. Stone & Co.'s Bronzes. — This firm supply several kinds of
copper alloys suitable for the different parts of marine machinery, the
principal of which are : —
1. Toughened Copper, suitable for boiler stays and other fittings
which require to be tough and strong when at a fairly high temperature.
At 60" F. its ultimate tensile is 18*1 tons per square inch, with an
elongation of 55 per cent, in 2 inches ; while at 400° F. it is still 55
per cent., with 14*1 tons ultimate and 7*4 tons elastic limit. At
800° F. the elastic limit is 8*7 tons, with an elongation at fracture of
37 per cent.
2. Special Mangaviese Bronze, for propellers of high revolution, is
guaranteed to have an ultimate tensile of 32 tons, with an elongation
of 20 per cent in 2 inches.
8. Pate^it Bronze (No. 4 quality) when in cold rolled bars have an
ultimate strength of 45 tons, with 10 per cent, elongation in 2 inches
and an elastic limit of 87*5 tons.
In the annealed state the ultimate is 34 tons and 36 per cent, with
the elastic limit at 17 tons. •
In normal state it withstands 40 tons per square inch compression,
with a shortening of only "084 per inch, with a bulge of '035 in a
diameter of % inch.
4. Stone^s Ordinary Propeller Bronze. — Six Admiralty tests gave an
average of 33*8 tons ultimate tensile, with an elongation of 23*5 per
cent, in 2 inches.
6. White Bronze for bearings, &c. , is composed largely of tin.
Bull's Metal Company manufacture another of the zinc bronzes for
propellers, which has an ultimate tenacity of 31 tons, with an elongation
of 25 per cent. ; its elastic limit is 13*2 tons. When rolled the tensile
is 34 tons, with an elongation of 34 per cent in 2 inches and an elastic
limit of 26-8 tons. When this metal is at a temperature of 400° F.,
TSSTS FOR OAST STKBL AND MALLEABLE CAST IRON. 451
the ultimate elongation is 14*6 per cent., while the elastic limit is
21 tons.
MeUoid. — A special alloy supplied by this company to resist heat,
has a tensile of 98,000 at 60" F., while at eOO"" F. it is as high as
79,000 lbs. or 35 tons, with an elongation of 18 per cent, in 2 inches ;
and even at 800** F. it has an ultimate tenacity of 31,800 lbs., with
an elongation of 50 per cent.
Brass.
Brass is essentially an alloy of copper and zinc only, of which there
are many variations in composition. The most important in marine
engineering are : —
1. Mun& Metalj an alloy of 59 to 60 per cent, of copper with 41 to
40 of zinc. It should have a tensile strength of at least 22 tons, with
an elongation of 27 per cent ; when rolled it has an elastic limit of
36,000 lbs. It is very ductile and can be forged hot Weight 512 lbs.
per cubic foot, 0*296 per cubic inch.
2. Condenser Titbe Metal is usually made with 70 per cent copper
and 30 zinc, and should in the drawn state have a tensile strength of
36 tons ultimate. Admiralty condenser tubes are made of 70 per cent,
best selected copper, 29 of silesian zinc, and 1 of tin.
8. Condenser tubes of a mixture of 70 copper, 28 zinc, and 2 lead are
said to resist corrosion even better than the Admiralty mixture.
4. Naval Brass is virtually Muntz metal with an addition of 1 per
cent, of tin. It is generally composed of 62 copper, 37 zinc, and 1 tin ;
and in the wrought state should have an ultimate tensile strength of
60,800 lbs., with an elongation of 19 per cent, and the elastic limit
'should be 42,400 lbs. It can be forged, &c., and withstands the action
of sea- water better than Muntz metd.
The Admiralty require naval brass rods of j^ inch and upwards to
have an ultimate tensile of 22 tons and an extension be/ore fracture of
at least 10 per cent, in 2 inches ; they must also bend through 75** with
a radius of one diameter ; and when hot are to be forged to a fine point.
Yellow BrasSf for ornamental and ordinary castings where strength
is not wanted, is composed of 2 copper to 1 zinc. The addition of a
little lead improves the colour and facilitates machining. Its ultimate
tensile is about 11 tons.
Aluminium is now very extensively used in the arts, and from its
lightness would be a most useful one for marine engineers if it did
not become so quickly and seriously affected by sea-water. In the
pure state it is practically of no use to them, but when alloyed its tensile
strength and durability are much improved. It is now so cheap that
it can be used for any purpose so far as cost is concerned, and is used
for telegraph wire in place of copper in certain localities, especially
since copper has been so dear (£72 per ton). Its conductivity is good ;
its resistance is 2*839 per c.c. as against 1*621 copper wire and 9*637
iron. Its ultimate tensile in wire form is 8 tons. When alloyed with
452 TESTS FOR CAST STEEL AND MALLEABLE OAST IRON.
6 per cent, of copper and rolled into sheets, rods, &c., it has a strength
of 11 to 12 tons after, and 14 to 16 tons before annealing.
Duralumin is a 90 per cent alloy of aluminium made by Yickers
Limited, having a specific gravity of only 2*8, a melting point of
1200"* F., an ultimate tensile as high as 40 tons, when the extension,
however, is small ; at 28 to 80 tons ultimate, the extension is 15 per
cent, in 2 inches, while with 25 tons it is 20 per cent
Monel Metal is a natural nickel bronze, having a very high tensile
strength both in the cast and rolled state. Castings have an ultimate
tensile from 33*7 to 36*5 tons, with an elongation of 88 to 28*5 per
cent. ; the elastic limit being 16 to 18 tons per square inch in 2 inches.
Rolled bars, plates, &c., have an elastic limit of 25 tons and an
ultimate of 42 tons, with an elongation of 41 per cent. Can be forced
hot and brazed. This alloy is uncorrodible and used for screw propellers
of high-speed craft in the U.S.A. Navy. Its specific gravity is 8*87 ;
weight per cubic inch 0*319 lbs. cast, 0*328 rolled; melting point
2480** F.
The Delta Metal Co. produces several varieties of zinc bronze
and other alloys.
D. M. No. 1, of fine golden colour, very hard, resists corrosion, and
takes place of steel. As cast, it has an ultimate strength of nearly
41 tons, with an elongation of 20 per cent. At a red heat it is highly
malleable. When wrought, the ultimate tensile is 48 '27 tons, with an
elongation of 27 per cent.
This metal is used for extrusion into bars of various sections, the
ultimate strength of which is nearly 50 tons, with 26 per cent, elonga-
tion and 24 *5 tons yield point.
It has high resistance to corrosion from action of sea water and acids^
A shearing test showed its resistance to be no less than 23*11 tons per
square inch.
D. M. No. 2 is a silver white metal, malleable, takes a high polish,
and therefore suitable for fittings, &c. When extruded it has a yield
point of 22 tons, and the ultimate strength 42*45 tons with 1 4 per cent
of elongation. As cast, it has an ultimate of 38 tons with 10 per cent
D. M. No, 8 is suitable for condenser tubes and pipes generally, as
it can be easily drawn and resists corrosion.
D. M. No. 4 is equal to steel in strength and toughness, strongly
resists corrosive effects of sea water and acids, chemical gases, &c.,
therefore largely used in chemical engineering as well as marine. It is
used also in the cast form, and bars cut from chill castings gave 19 tons
limit of elasticity, 26*8 ultimate with an elongation of 36*8 per cent
It can be forged or drawn into tubes when tne ultimate is 34*4 tons
with 26 '25 per cent, elongation. It can also be stamped with equally
good results.
It is often used in sheets for boat-building and similar purposes, and
the company supplies for this purpose sectional bars, angles, zeds,
channels, &c. &c.
D. M. No. 5 is a bearing metal.
D. M. No. 7 is suitable for high temperature.
COMPOSITION OP WHITB METALS.
453
Table CXXXI I.— Composition of White (Bearing) Metals.
r
Name of Metal.
Co.
Sn.
Sb.
44-4
Zn.
• » •
Pb.
Fe.
Miscel.
laneous.
Dewrance's Locomotive
, 22-2
33-3
■ • •
•••
For gland packings,
7-8
88-1
3-5
• ••
2 6
•• i
Used in the Germai
Navy,
. 7-6
85 0
7-5
• t •
• • •
...
,, French Navy
, 70
7-5
...
78-5
7-0
...
,, British Navyj
, 6-5
86-0
8-5
ft • •
• • •
• • •
Babbit's Metal, .
8-5
83-0
8-5
■ • t
• • •
>• •
Fenton's ,,
4-4
16-6
• • t
79-0
• • •
• . •
Magnolia, ,, . .
• • •
• • a
21-0
• • •
78-0
1-0
• • •
!»>»•«
» • • •
4-6
13-0
• • •
82-0
0-4
Kingston's Metal,
6*0
880
• ••
• • •
« ■ •
6Hg
Parson's white brass, .
5-6
17-5
0*8
761
• • •
• • t
„ „ metal,
•t •
58-5
2-0
39-6
• • •
• • •
> • H 11
1-0
68-0
• • •
30-5
05
• • t
For common bearings, ,
. 100
* • •
10-0
*••
80-0
■ • •
,, heavily loaded bear-
ings, . , .
64 0
6-0
• • ■
• • «
30 0
INi
Plumtine, .
0-5
40-6
no
•••
48-5
• • •
A specially good white metal for heavy bearings is made by mixing
6 parts of tin with 1 of copper, and 6 parts of tin with 1 of antimony,
and then adding the two mixtures together.
The exact Admiralty specification is, — at least 85 per cent, tin, not
less than 8 per cent, antimony, and about 5 per cent, copper ; zinc or
load not to be used. This is somewhat harder than the above.
1!
|.. ..,,,,
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456
PRICES OP MATERIALS.
Table CXXXIV.— Prices of Materials.*
Materials at Maker's Works.
Prices, 1914.
August 1911.
Pig iron, Shropshire, cold
olast, No. 3,
£650^ ton.
£5 5
0
Pig iron, Haematite, West
Coast, No. 3,
3 5 0
»)
3 8
0
Pig iron, Hematite, East
Coast, No. 3, .
8 3 0
))
3 3
0
Pig iron, Scotch, good
brand. No. 8,
2 16 0
1)
2 13
0
Pig iron, Scotch, good
brand, No. 1, .
3 10 0
) )
3 3
0
Pig iron, Cleveland, good
brand. No. 8,
2 10 0
}}
2 7
0
Pig iron, Cleveland, good
brand, No. 1, .
2 12 6
i>
2 10
6
Pig iron, Lincoln, good
brand, Foundry,
2 13 0
1)
2 8
6
Pigiron, Derby, Leicester,
good brand. Foundry,
2 18 0
i»
2 10
0
Wrought iron, Cleveland
bars, ordinary, .
7 10 0
))
6 10
0
Wrought iron, Cleveland
bars, best, .
7 17 6
n
7 0
0
Wrought iron, Cleveland
ship plates,
6 15 0
}>
6 15
0
Wrought iron, Cleveland
ship angles.
7 10 0
II
6 15
0
Wrought iron, Stafford-
shire best bar, .
7 0 0
II
6 17
6
Wrought iron sheets,
9 5 0
1)
7 12
6
Steel „ „
8 5 0
11
„ angles and tees,
ship quality.
6 2 6
»i
6 7
6
Steel plates, ship quality,
6 10 0
II
6 15
0
„ boiler plates, basis,
7 15 0
II
7 10
0
„ forgings, plain
shafts with couplings,
£20 to 25 0 0
II
£10 to £15
St«el for tools, common.
4d. to 6d. \$ lb.
4d. to 6d.
„ for tools, good,
6d. to 9d.
%%
6d. to 9d.
„ for tools, self-hard-
ening, for high-speed, .
£0 1 6
II
£0 1
8
Steel for tools, very best.
for high speed, .
0 2 0
11
2s. 3d. to 2s. 6d.
Copper ingots, G.M.B., .
65 5 0 ^ ton.
£56 12 e^^ton.
„ tough, .
71 5 0
»i
60 6 0 „
• No
w altogether abnormal
ft
PRICBS OF MATERIALS.
457
Table CXXXIV. — Prices of Matenals^icontinued),
MaterialB at Maker's Works. Prices, 1914. August 1911.
Copper ingots, best selected
,, locomotive plates,
,, sheets, basis, .
,, pipes, solid drawn
li in. to 3 in.,
Copper pipes, solid drawn
under 1^ in. and over 3 in.
Copper pipes, brazed,
Brass condenser plates.
Mercantile, .
Brass condenser plates.
Naval, .
Brass tubes, 66% copper,
Brass condenser tabes, 70%
copper, Mercantile,
Brass condenser tubes, 70%
copper, Admiralty,
Tin English ingots,
Zinc slabs, Silesian, .
,, ,, best,
Aluminium ingots, Nos. 1
2, and 4,
Aluminium ingots. No. 6
, , sheets, from
Nos. 1 to 30, wire gauge
Lead pig, .
„ pipe.
Nickel ingots, of good q'Pty
Muntz metal sheet.
Naval brass rods,
Phosphor bronze ingots
for general castings,
Phosphor bronze ingots,
suitable for bearings,
Phosphor bronze rods,
,, sheet,
Manganese bronze ingots.
Antimony cakes.
Bismuth, .
Platinum wire, .
, , sheets,
Copper wire,
Steel , ,
Aluminium wire,
£71
5
0 ^ ton.
£60
5
0
83
0
0 „
73
0
0
81
0
0 „
71
0
0
0
0 lOi ^ lb.
0
0
8i
0
OlOi „
0
0
8S
0
0
81 „
0
0
8J
0
0
7i „
0
0
6i
0
0
8 ..
0
0
6|
0
0
8§ „
0
0
6f
0
0
81 „
0
0
6f
0
0
8J „
0
0
7k
170 10
0 ^ ton.
190
0
0
2111
0 „
26
10
0
22
7
6 „
27
5
0
95
0
0 »
88
0
0 „
61
0
0
£130 to 150
0
0 „
*
18 10
0 „
14
0
0
£1410s.tol6
0
0 „
16
2
6
0
1
6i ^ lb.
0
0
8i „
0
0
6i
0
0
8| „
0
0
64
98
0
0 ^ ton.
•<
- £88 to £92 1
104
0
0 „
J
0
1
14 ¥ lb.
(basis).
0
Hi
0
1
2 ,.
0
1
Oi
£70 to 80
0
Oi^ton.
28
0
0 „
£28
2
6
0
8
3 ^Ib.
5
5
0^OZ.tTOJ.
5 12
0 „
0
0
9 ^Ib.
0
0
1 M
0
1
0 „
458
PLATES OBTAINABLE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
PLATES OBTAINABLE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
Area List for Sheared Steel Plates.
Maximum dimensions of plates rolled, except by special an-angeirient.
Rectangular Plates.
Maximum.
Thickness.
Length.
ins.
ft. ins.
i
30 0
A
30 0
f
35 0
1^
40 0
h
40 0
h
50 0
i
50 0
1
60 0
i
50 0
1-
50 0
li
50 0
^T%
50 0
H
50 0
If
50 0
H
50 0
If
50 0
Width.
ft. ins.
6 0
6 0
8 0
8 0
10 0
10 0
11 0
12 6
12 6
12 6
12 6
12 6
12 6
12 6
12 6
12 6
Area in feet.
ft.
120
132
190
200
240
260
300
325
350
430
450
430
415
380
340
300
Circular Plates.
Maximum.
Thickness.
ins.
f
f
I
i
1
li
lA
14
If
If
Diameter in feet.
ft.
ins.
6
6
7
0
9
0
9
6
11
0
11
0
12
0
13
0
18
0
13
0
13
0
13
0
13
0
13
0
13
0
13
0
Area List for Thick Plates
, which can be Planed to Sizes.
Thickness.
Maximum Length.
Maximum Width.
Maximum Area.
ins.
ft. ins.
ft. ins.
ft
i£
30 0
12 0
288
2
25 0
12 0
250
2i
25 0
12 . 0
200
3
25 0
12 0
160
4
25 0
11 0
120
5
20 0
10 0
100
6
20 0
9 0
81
The area divided by the length gives the width of a plate that can
be rolled in any given thickness, and the area divided by the width
ves the length.
STEEL BARS OBTAINABLE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
459
STEEL BARS OBTAINABLE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
Section List of Bars.
FLATS.
idtl
L.
Thickness.
Widtl]
I. '
Thickness.
Width
•
Thickness.
ins.
in. ins.
ins.
in. ins.
ins.
ins. ins.
h
X
ito §
2
X
J to If
5
X
f to 4
i
X
i „ i
2i
X
:: „ 2
5i
X
f „ 4
H
X
i » 1
2f
X
:: „ 2
54
X
1 „ 4
1
X
i n f
24
X
: „ 2J
6i
X
f „ 4
H
X
i M 1
2|
X
:: ,. 2i
6
X
* » 4
i
X
i ,, 1
^
X
:; M 24
6i
X
f „ 4
1
X
i n !
8
X
:; n 2i
64
X
f „ 4
n
X
i „ 1
8i
X
:; „ 2f
6i
X
i „ 4
H
X
i » 1
84
X
: n 3
7
X
% „ 4
If
X
i ,, 1
81
X
:: » 3
7i
X
1 M 4
li
X
i „ 1
4
X
: „3
74
X
t „ 4
H
X
i „ li
4i
X
1 „ 3
7f
X
2i ,. 4
If
X
J „ li
44
X
i M 3
8
X
2i „ 4
n
X
i „ If
4i
X
1 „ 8
ROUND EDGE FLATS.
From 1 to 2 inches wide x 4 to g inch thick.
SQUARES,
ROUNDS.
LOS.
ins.
ins.
ins.
ins. ins.
i
A
f
i
7.\ A
•h
4
A
*
« A
t
«
i
«
i H
«
i
«
»
t »
1
14
li
M
* «
1|
14
i»
»
i »
If
i|
2
1
lA lA
2J
2i
2i
14
lA IJ
2i
2*
2i
If
lA 14
2i
3
3i
If
li 2
8i
84
3S
2i
2* 24
4
*i
44
2f
2J 3
4i
6
6i
8i
3* 84
64
5|
6
8S
4i
5S
6i
84
4 ii
e 5i
6 6i
7 74
9
ms.
H
H
H
iiV
If
24
2f
34
3i
44
54
64
8
460 EXTRAS ON SIBMBNS' STBBL BOILBR PLATBS AND BARS.
SLABS.
16 ins. to 20 ins. wide x 5 ins. to 8 ins. thick.
20 „ „ 86 „ „ X 6 „ n 12
86 .. ., 56 .. .. X 9 .. .. 12
MAKER'S EXTRAS ON SIEMENS' STEEL BOILER
PLATES AND BARS.
Marine, Land, and Locomotive Boiler Plates.
For every 8 inches or part over free limits in undemoted Tablej
2s. 6d. per ton.
For every 8 inches or part over Width indicated in this Tahle, 28. 6d. per ton.
Thickness of(
plate .
Width sup-)
plied free of (^
extra for(
width . .)
ins.
and
under
76
ins.
A,
and
under
ins.
and
under
A
84
90
ins.
ins.
ins.
A
f
1
and
and
and
under
under
under
f
1
i
96
96
96
ins. ins.
i 1
and and
under under
1 I U
06
96
ins.
and
under
1*
96
U
96
Weight over 80 cwts. , 58. per 6 cwts. or part up to 120 cwts. , there-
after lOs. for every 5 cwts. or part thereof. For example, the extra
for plates of 6 tons 3 cwts. would be £2, lOs.
All plates which are not rectangular will be considered sketches. Of
these 15 per cent, will be allowed free, any in excess of 15 per
cent, being char^^ed
Over H inches to Ij inches thick inclusive
,, If inches to 1 1 inches ,, . .
,, 1} inches to 2 inches ,, ...
For the undermentioned minimum tensile strains : —
A minimum tensile strain of not more than 28^ tons,
29
SO
81
82
83
84
86
For the undermentioned low tensile strains —
Plates specified not to exceed 27 tons per square inch, 1 Os.
26 „ ,, 20s.
25 .. .. 408.
ft
it
*t
M
ft
n
>>
)}
II
n
11
25s. per ton.
10s.
20s.
808.
5s.
lOs.
20s.
40s.
60s.
80s.
100s.
120s.
II
II
11
II
II
ti
If
it
EXTRAS ON SIBMBNS' STBEL BOILER PLATES AND BARS. 461
A minimnm elongatioD, 25 per cent, on 10-inch . 208. per ton.
,, ,, 25 ,, S-iR6h . 15b. „
Plates 20 feet long or over, and at the same time 6 feet
wide or over, or plates 50 cwts. each or over, to
pass Board of Trade Survey, or equal thereto . 10s.
Admiralty Survey, or equal thereto .... 208.
When the phosphorus and sulphur limit is '085 . 70s.
In every case where tensile limit narrowed to 2 tons . 20s.
In every case where the range of tensile is over 2 and
not exceeding 8 tons lOs. ,,
Testing fees, over and above Lloyd's fees, or where they exceed Is.
per ton, will be charged extra in full.
Extras on Bars.
ROUNDS AND SQUARES.
Rivet steel bars, H inch to be taken at basis price.
Under f inch to i inch 5s. per ton.
,, I inch to ^ inch lOs. ,,
,, -i^ inch to f inch 20s. ,,
Over 8 inches to SJ inches 5s. „
8( inches and up, subject to arrangement.
Stay bars to pass Board of Trade or Admiralty Survey 20s. , ,
,, ,, Lloyd's or Bureau Veritas Survey 10s. ,,
Turning Quality 20s. , ,
Double Survey Is. ,, extra
Ordinary cut lengths 5 feet and over 3 feet, 5s. per ton extra.
3 feet to 2 feet, 10s. per ton extra. Special extras will be charged
for cutting to short lengths, or to exact length, and fbr special
straightening.
Extras for testing fees and for restricted tensile limits, the same for
bars as for plates.
Plain Rolled Steel Shafts.
(As supplied by J. Spencer & Son, Newbum. )
10 inches to lOJ inches 80 to 85 feet long.
11
Hi
26 „ 30
»i
12
12i
22 „ 26
»f
18
13i
86 „ 40
ft
14
Uh
80
tt
16
15i
25 „ 80
19
16
16i
20 „ 26
>f
These shafts are now supplied with flanges formed by upsetting, etc.
by hydraulic presses.
462 LIMITS OP WOItKlNQ BTRBSaBS ON
i
1
I
f
s
1
I
i
4,440
3,000
2,200
10,150
8,200
6,000
13,800
11,150
8,800
21,750
19,100
18,950
6,950
4,350
8,000
10,400
MBO
38,140
13,800
10,750
12,500
fl,760
s
!
1
s
1
8
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BEAMS.
463
BENDING MOMENTS, Etc.
Table CXXXVI. — Graphic Representation of Bending
Moments and Shearing Forces in Simple Cases.
Bending Moment.
Shearing Force.
y= greatest permissible stress on material ; « = modulus of section
— see Table CI. ; M= greatest bending moment; S= greatest
shearing force.
Beams fixed at one end.
I A
M-Wi
Working ioad-^
XK-
3
Mi-Wj li ; and M,- W, Z,
I
i
1
(|)
s-w
^
^ »
if
1
($)
Si-Wi; andS,-W,
Beama fixed &t one eai—wntinv^.
^f5f5^(5)(5)(5)@"i)
Beams tnpported at botli ends.
Workiiiff load -4^
®
BEAMS. 45j
Beams supported at both eadB-^^oniimted,
Bending Moment
Workiiig load-^
r :#» i
^
Working: locul (per
nnit of length)
M
«>
Shearing Force.
f, / «i
I jr-. I
^
H r&
^
T-
i.
:t^
—- »
1.
O, I W,
@(g)®@
S-
2
30
466
BEAMS
Beams fixed at both ends.
Bending Moment.
In this case the bending momenta
at M, M and M are equal, and have
wz
the value Mb^\ Working load
8
X*
Shearing Force.
!••*
^
I HI
(|)
8-|.
%
Bending momenta at enda (Mi)
* 12
Bending moment at centre (Mg)
M,-?£??.
• ^ 24
Working load (per unit of length)
- -p •
Deflection of Beams of Uniform Section.
Ds — C^^\ for a beam fixed at one end and loaded at the other.
8 \ EI /
M I, II uniformly*
fixed at both enda and loaded in the middla.
»*
uniformly.
8 V BI /
1»2 \ EI /
884\ EI /
48 \ EI /
D« i. /WI^\
884 V EI /
Where D is deflection in inches ; W Uie total load in Iba. ; L the length Ib
inches ; E the modulus of elasticity ; and I the moment of inertia of section.
Average value of E is as follows :— For cast-iron, 17,000,000 ; wrought-iron,
27^,000 ; wrought-steel, 29,000.000.
For values of I aee page 407, 468.
ti
i»
%%
•»
i«
aupported at both enda and loaded in the middle.
uniformly.
n
H
MOMENT OF INERTIA, ETO.
467
e3
Ss
O 0°
US
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■s'S
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^ o
a &
o
^
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e ^
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8S„M
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n.|» ^|«,
I
I
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IS
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+
09
+
M
+
M
w
C4
3 %IS
III
*2 o 1)
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s
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s SIS
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I
I
;S
I
Sb
I
00
l"^
+
I
h
l-H
o
I
to
00
468
TABLE CXXXVir. — MOMENT OF INERTIA, MODULUS, BTO.
8
I
CQ
c
o
o
i
1
I"
I
3
I
m
PQ
«
+
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CQ
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0)
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I
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04
a
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53
s ^
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3
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S
+
I
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PQ
BBAMS.
469
Table CXXXVIII.— Forms of Beams of Uniform Strength.
Breadth {b) uniform thronghoat.
Blevatlon of unmgoment.
t
k a?
I
r^^ (^ Mj-h
Eqnatton for dlmeniioiii.
6Wx
f- /6W
V "?
Bvfsx^
V 1^
yi- /?Zte
d/?
V i/?
-4aj»)
«/
470
TABLE CXXXVIII. — FORMS OP BEAMS, ETC.
Table CXXXVIII. -Forms of Beams of Uniform
Strength —continued.
Depth (h) aniform throughout
FUn of arrangement.
Equation for dimensions.
2 —
6Was
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474
IXPANSroM OR METALS BY HEAf.
EXPANSION OF METALS BY HEAT.
The following table shows approximately the extent to whifili
metals, &c., expand under the action of heat :—
Table CXLII.— Expansion of Metals, &c., for rise of
Temperature of iSo** F.
MaterlaL
Change of length.
Fraction of
total length.
Inches per foot.
Cast-iron, ....
Wrought-iron,
Steel,
Copper, ....
Gun-metal, ....
Fire-brick, ....
•00117
•00122
•00120
•00182
•00187
•000428
•0140
•0146
•0146
•0218
•0224
•0050
If ti and ^ be the highest and lowest temperatares to whioh the
object is exposed, the oUeraHon in length is given by, —
Alteration in length (increase or diminution)— C x /^iiZLp\ x L
where L is length in feet, value of 0 is taken from above table, and
alteration of length is given in inches.
The expansion of metals, per degree rise of temperature, increases
slightly as higher temperatures are reached, but for all practical
purposes it may be assumed to be constant
Effect of temperature on streng^ths of metals.— At 400* F.
almost all alloys of copper, tin, and zinc lose from 15 to 20 per cent,
of their ultimate strength ; but beyond this temperature some of the
copper-zinc and copper-aluminium alloys weaken very rapidly.
Copper is similarly affected, and loses 8 to 10 per cent, of its
strength at 400'' F.
Oast-iron is practically unaffected up to 400* F.
Wrought-iron and mild steel gain from 10 to 16 per cent, in
ultimate strength at 400* F.
Up to 400* F. the changes seem to progress regularly with the
ehanges of temperature.
EFPBOT OF TEMPERATURE ON METALS.
475
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476
MBLTIKO POINTS OF METALS.
MELTING POINTS OF METALS.
Table CXLIV. gives the melting points of the more ordinary metali
as determined by the latest researches.
Table CXLIV.— Melting Points of Metals, etc.
Degrees.
Degrees.
MaterialB.
^ftterifllfl.
Centl.
Fahr.
Centi.
Fahr.
Water
0
32
Pig iron (white) ••
1185
2075
Mercury .
-39
-89
t> (grey) .
1121
2050
Paraffin Wax .
54
129
„ (forge) .
1220
2192
Sulphnr
115
239
Grey iron, 2nd cast
1240
2264
Tin . . .
235
455
Steel, carbon 2% .
1315
2400
Bismuth .
270
518
,, ,, low .
1580
2876
Lead .
330
630
Wrought iron weld s
1300
2550
Zinc .
415
779
,, „ melts
1600
2910
Antimony .
621
1150
Pure iron „
1525
2769
Aluminium
625
1157
Nickel „
1420
2588
Brass .
900
1650
Vanadium ,,
1730
3145
Bronze or gun-
Platinum ,,
1775
3217
metal
905
1660
Heat, dull red
700
1290
Bronze phosphor
1038
1900
, , cherry-red .
800
1470
Silver
954
1760
,, orange
1140
2100
Copper
Cobalt
1054
1929
,, white
1320
2370
1467
2672
„ dazzling .
1500
2730
Table CXLI Va.— Some Alloys which Melt at Low Temperatures.
Designation.
Composition.
Melts at
Bismuth.
Lead.
Tin.
Cad-
mium.
12-5
a-
F.'
B.C.L.T. No. 1 .
50-0
25 0
12-5
65
149
it II ^ •
50-1
26-6
18-3
100
70
158
*f >f ^ *
27-5
27-5
10-0
34*5
75
167
II >> * •
• • •
25-0
50 0
25-0
86
187
B.L.T. No. 1
500
31*2
18-7
• ••
94
201
„ 2 .
40-0
40-0
20 0
• ••
113
235
1, „ 8 .
30-8
38-4
30-8
• • •
130
266
1. » 4 .
25 0
50 0
25 0
• ••
149
300
n „ 5 .
16-0
36-0
48-0
• • •
155
311
1. ., 6 .
13-3
46-6
40-1
• • •
165
329
n ., 7 .
12-5
50 0
87-5
• • •
178
352
MELTING POINTS OP MBTALS.
477
Table CXLIVb.— Specific Heat of Tarious Metals, &c,
Water being Unity.
Material.
Specific
Heat.
Material
Speciflo
Heat.
Alumininm,
0-234
Oxygen (equal weight), .
0-166
Antimony,
0-051
Steam (saturated) (equal
Bismuth,
0-031
weight).
0-805
Brass (condenser '
tubes.
Steam (superheated) (equal
etc.), .
0-094
weight).
0-370
Copper, .
Gold,
0-096
Alcohol, .
0659
0-032
Ether, .
0-521
Iron (castings).
0-130
Mercury, .
0-033
Iron and steel, wron
gH ;
0-110
Olive oil, .
0-310
Lead,
0 031
Petroleum,
0-434
Manganese,
0-144
Petrol,
0*303
Nickel, .
0-109
Turpentine,
0-416
Platinnm,
0-088
Waterat212'F.(=161ba,
Silver, .
0 057
absolute pressure).
1-0180
Steel (high carbon),
0-117
Waterat807'*F.(=751b^.
Tin,
0-057
absolute pressure),
1-0270
Tungsten,
0-036
Water at 828* F. ( = 100
Zinc,
• •
0-096
lbs. absolute pressure), .
1 -0308
Brick work.
0 192
Water at 344'* F. ( = 126
Coal (Welsh), .
0-201
lbs. absolute pressure), .
10338
,, Bituminous,
0-241
Water at 368** F. ( = 160
Coke,
0-203
lbs. absolute pressure), .
1-0368
Glass,
0-198
Water at 37r F. ( = 176
Graphite,
0-202
lbs. absolute pressure), .
1-0398
Marole and limestone,
0-217
Water at 881' F. ( = 200
Air at constant pressure
lbs. absolute pressure), .
1-0416
(equal weight),
0-238
Water at 891' F. ( = 226
Air at constant volume
lbs. absolute pressure), .
1-0436
(equal weight),
Carbonic acid (C03) (equal
0-169
Water at 401' F. ( = 260
lbs. absolate pressure), .
1*0460
weight).
0-171
Water at 409" F. ( = 276
Carburetted hydrogen
lbs. absolute presvsure), .
1-0480
(equal weight).
0-468
Water at 417* F. ( = 300
Nitrogen (equal weight), .
0-174
lbs. absolate pressure), .
1 -0600
Table CXLI Vc.—Thermal Conductivity of Metals at 18* to 20* C.
Silver .
. 100 0
Cobalt .
. 14-7
Copper .
Gold .
. 91-8
Nickel .
. 14-0
. 63-2
Iron
11-9
Aluminium .
. 31-3
Lead .
8-6
Zinc
. 28-1
Platinum
8-4
Tin .
. 16-2-
Bismuth
1-8
47«
UMLTOG FOfSm QT MWIAIM,
XCHIIflBBBlB
liat#rtria> j ICcrafens at ^ C.
1
■
Silrer, asiMaled i 0*5874
^, osfd dflnm
* «
0«78
0-6383
0*>W, „
0-8177
Alammiiiiiiy ftmieakd
11370
,, hard drawn
» •••
Zinc, „
. > 91970
Cobalt
. 1 3-180
Pbtintuu, anneakd
! 8-5300
Ir<« „
3-7940
Kickel
4-8660
Tin, prowed
5-1570
Lead „
7-6650
Anttniony, „
13-8600
Bumnth, ,.
Kercuiy, liqnid •
51-2200
37-1400
Qerman nlrer
11-8000
Manganese copper (70Ca+30MD)
40-5000 ^
Nickel mangancM copper (78Ca + 24Mii + 3Ni)
L
18-8000
Nate, — ^Tha recording resistance pyrometer is now so perfect that
differences of one-fifth of 1* F. in the neighboorhood o^ say, 2000*" F.
can be messnred, Bnt the resolts obtained as to the melting points
of metals by different observers still differ by some 30** to 50° F.,
partly owing to slight differences in tiie conditions, and partly owing
to the fact that no metal solidifies entirely at one temperature. In
the case of pnre metals the " freezing range " is small, but in that of
alloys it is often considerable, and tne " freezing curve*' shows several
distinct freezing T)oints.
In the case of oronze containing 90 per cent, copper and 10 per cent,
tin, for instAnoe, there are two well-marked freezmg points, — one at
about 1800* F. and another at about 1470° F., — the '' ireezing range"
being thus about 880* F.
For further information see Reports of Alloys Research Committee
of Inst, of Meoh. Engineers.
WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS.
479
WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS.
Table CXLV.— Weights of Materials (Summary).
Weight of a cubic
foot in lbs.
Weight of a cable
inch in Ibt.
MateriaL
II
Air (82* F. and 14'7ib8. pressure)
{ pure,
Water, . < river,
( sea, .
Colza, linseed, or olive oil,
Mineral oils,
Tallow, . . •
Waste (moderately pressed)
Elm, pine, or fir timber, *
Beech, ash, or birch.
Oak or teak,
Greenheart,
Lignum-vit«B,
Fire brick,
Wrought-iron bars or plates,
Staffordshire plates, .
Iron forgings (large), .
Steel bars and plates,
Steel foldings (large).
Steel — ^Whitworth compressed,
Caflt-iron, .
Cast-steel (mild).
Sheet copper, .
Gun-metal,
Muntz-metal,
Naval brass (rolled), .
White metal (Babbit's),
zi-o I^TuU : :
^tet. ; :
•0807
62-4
63
64 .
67-68
66
68
11
30-40
40-46
46-66
about 66
about 80
about 140
. 486
• 480
. 477
- 490
- 487
• 496
- 460
- 490
• 660
• 646
- 612
- 630
- 466
• 436
- 460
- 708
- 711
•036
•087
•281
•277
•276
•284
•282
'287
•260
•284
•318
•316
•296
•807
•263
•262
•260
•408
•411
A plate of cast-iron 1 foot square and 1 inch thick
II wronght-lron m m
II cast-steeWmild) h h
II wrought-steel (mild) h h
II giin>metal n n
II rolled brass n „
weighs 87*6 lbs.
to
41
41
46
44
The Admiralty reckon 40 cubic feet of bunker space as 1 ton, but the usual
allowance is 46 cubic feet to the ton ; the actual average bulk of a ton is about
48 cubic feet, but if taken at 46 cubic feet a fair allowance is made for the upper
portions under the deck-beams, which cannot be filled.
* The following are the exact weights of the various kinds of pine wood in general
use, as derived from a series of careful experiments made by Mr Seaton :—
Yellow pine, very dry, 24 lbs. per cubic foot.
II in planks, seasoned,
Baltic red pine, n m
Sauri pine, » »
pitch pinr, H M
28 II
II
80-6 II
II
86 M
»♦
42 If
o
45 >,
m
480
WEIGHT OP ROUND AND SQUARE IRON BARS.
Table CXLVL— Table of the Weight of Round and Square
Wrought- Iron Bars in lbs. per lineal foot.
DU.
or
Side.
%
*A»
%
"A,
%
"A,
%
"A,
1
%
H
%
%
%
%
s
9i
Weight in lbs.
Round, j Square.
093
*164
•256
•868
•601
•654
•828
1-028
1-287
1-478
1-728
2^004
2^800
2^618
8*313
4*090
4^949
5*890
6^912
8^017
9*203
10*471
11-821
13-252
14*766
16-861
18-038
19*797
21*637
28*560
25*564
27*650
29-818
82*067
84*399
1
1
•117
•208
•326
•469
•688
•888
•055
•302
1-576
1-875
2-201
2^552
2*980
8*333
4*219
5-208
6-302
7*500
8*802
10^208
11^719
13*333
15-052
16-875
18*802
20-833
22*969
25*208
27 -552
30-000
32*552
35-208
37-969
40*833
43-802
DU.
or
Side.
3%
%
6
%
%
%
34
%
%
Weight in Ibik
Ronnd.
36*812
39*306
41-884
44-542
47-283
50-105
-53-009
55-995
59-062
62*212
65-443
68*756
72*151
75-628
79186
82-827
86-549
90-353
94-238
98-206
102-26
106*39
110-60
114*89
119-27
123-78
128-27
132-89
137-60
142*98
147*25
152-20
157*28
162-34
Square.
46-875
50*052
53-333
56-719
60*208
68*802
67-500
71-802
75*208
79*219
88-338
87-552
91-875
96*302
100-83
106-47
110-21
115*05
1120-00
'125-05
130-21
135-47
140-88
146*30
151*88
157*56
163-33
169*22
175-21
181 -30
187-50
193*80
200*21
206*72
DU.
or
Side.
8
9
10
%
%
%
Va
%
11
%
%
%
%
12
Weight In Ibt.
Roond.
167*63
172*81
178*17
183*61
189*13
194*73
200*42
206-19
212-04
217-97
223*98
280 07
236-25
242*51
248*86
265*27
261*77
268-36
275-08
281 -77
288*60
295*52
302*61
309-59
316*76
323*99
331 -81
338-71
346*20
358*76
361*41
369-14
876*96
Square.
213-33
220-06
226*88
233-80
240-88
247*97
265-21
262*56
270-00
277-66
285*21
292*97
300-83
308-80
316-88
825-06
333-38
341-72
350-21
358 -80
867-60
376-30
385*21
894-22
408-83
412-65
421-88
431-30
440-83
460-47
460-21
470-05
480-00
for larger aizes take weight of bar of half the diamettr or aide and
multiply it by four {vide page 481).
WEIGHTS OF MATERIALS.
481
Table CXLVII. -Weight of Round and Square Bar Steel
in lbs. per lineal foot
DU.
Weight In Ibt.
DUl
or
Side.
Weight in Um.
Dla.
or
Side.
Weight in Ibt.
Bound.
Square.
Sound.
Square.
Hound.
Square.
%
•042
•058
8X
85*090
44-678
7X
165-60
210*86
•/4.
•094
-120
%
37-552
47-813
34
•167
-218
X
40*097
51-063
8
170-90
217-60
%.
•261
•882
%
176-29
225*25
•876
•478
4
42*726
54-400
y^
181-76
231*41
'/i.
•611
-651
H
45*438
57-863
%
187-30
238-48
H
•667
•850
)4
48-238
61-413
1
192-93
245*66
*A*
•845
1-076
%
51 112
65-078
198-65
252-93
%
1*043
1-828
^
54-076
68-850
%
204-45
260*31
"X.
1-262
1-607
%
57-121
72-728
%
210-33
267-80
%
1-502
1-913
%
60*250
76*713
"A*
1*762
2*245
%
63-463
80-803
9
216-30
275-40
%'
2-044
2-603
%
222*35
283-10
"X.
2-847
2-988
6
66-769
85-000
228*48
290-91
H
70 139
89-303
%
234-70
298-83
1
2-670
8-400
)4
73-602
93-713
K
241-00
306*85
%
8-880
4-303
77-148
98-229
%
248-38
314*98
4-172
5 -313
^
80-778
102-86
%
253-85
323-21
%
5-049
6^428
%
84*492
107-58
%
260-40
831*55
}i
6-008
7-650
%
88-288
112-41
%
7^051
8-978
%
92-169
117-35
10
267-04
840-00
%
8*178
10-413
%
273-76
348-56
%
9-888
11-958
6
96-138
122-40
Ya
280-66
357-21
%
100-18
127-56
%
287-44
365-98
2
10-681
13-600
Va
104-81
132-81
294-41
374-85
K
12-068
15-353
%
108-52
138 18
%
301-46
383-83
]i.
18-519
17-213
112-82
143-65
%
308-59
392*91
15-062
19-178
%
117-20
149-28
%
316-81
402-10
^
16-690
21 -250
%
121-67
154-91
$i
18-400
23-428
%
126*22
160-70
11
823-11
411-40
%
20-196
25-713
H
330-50
420*80
X
22-072
28*108
7
130-85
166-60
337-97
430*31
%
135-56
172-60
346*62
439*93
s
24-033
80*600
Vl
140-86
178-71
^
363-15
449*65
H
26-078
83-203
%
145-24
184-98
%
360-87
459-48
28-206
85-913
K
160-21
191 -25
% 868-68
469-41
X
80-417
88-728
%
155**26
197-68
»
376-56
479-46
^
82*712
41*650
%
160-39
204-21
12
384-53
489-60
For Uiffer nzet take weight of bar of half the diameter or aide and
Dsaltiply It by four {vide page 482).
31
482
WEIGHTS OP MATERIALS.
Table CXLVI la.— Round Steel Shafts, Weight
per foot in lbs.
Diameter.
Weight.
Diameter.
Weight.
Diameter.
Weight
12%
400-7
16%
705-2
20%
1096
12%
417-2
16%
727-0
20%
1122
12%
4841
16%
749-2
20%
1150
18
451-8
17
771-7
21
1178
13%
468-8
■ 17%
794-6
21%
1206
13%
486-7
17%
817-8
21%
1234
13%
504-9
17%
841-3
21%
1263
14
623-4
18
865-2
22
1292
14%
642-2
18%
889*4
22%
1322
14%
661-4
18%
918-9
22%
1352
14%
681-0
18%
988-8
22%
1382
16
600-8
19
964-0
23
1418
15%
621-0
19%
993-5
23%
1444
15%
641-6
19%
1015
23%
1475
16%
662*4
19%
1042
22%
1606
16
688-6
20
1070
24
1588
Table CXLVIIb.
Round Hollow Shafts— Bore, Half of
Outside Diameter.
Diameter.
Weight.
Diameter.
Weight.
Diameter.
Weight
ins.
ins.
ins.
10
200
14%
421
19
728
10%
221
16
450
19%
761
11
242
15%
480
20
802
11%
266
16
613
20%
841
12
288
16% i
646
21
883
12%
318
17
579
21%
926
18
838
17%
618
22
969
13%
364
18
649
23
1059
14
391
18%
686
24
1163
WEIGHT OP PLAT WROUGHT-IRON BARS.
483
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484
WEIGHTS OP MATERIALS.
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8
u
10
u
CQ
I
CO
s
0^
I
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u
3
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WEIGHTS OP MATERIALS.
485
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486
WEIGHT OP IRON ANGLE-BARS.
Table CL.— Weight of Iron Angle-Bars in lbs. per
lineal foot.
OQ 9
Thicknen in fractionB of an Incb.
•X.
)4
1-88
•x.
%
'A*
• • «
*A*
• • •
• ••
"A,
• ••
"A*
2K
1-46
2*28
2*66
• • *
mi
• • •
2%
1-60
208
2*64
2*97
• • •
• • •
• ••
• • •
• <
8
1-76
2*29
2-80
8*28
• ••
• ••
»••
• • •
• 1
S)4
1-91
2*60
8*06
8*69
4-10
• ••
• ••
• • •
#4
3^
2-07
2-71
8*82
8*91
4-47
• • •
• ••
• • •
• 1
»•-
3%
2*28
2-92
8*68
4*22
4*88
• • •
• ••
• ••
• 1
4
2*88
8 13
8-84
4*68
6*20
6-88
• ••
• • •
• 1
4)4
2-64
8*88
4-10
4*84
6*66
6*26
• • •
• • •
4)i
2-70
8*64
4-86
6*16
6-92
6*67
• • •
»• •
• 4
4)4
2-85
8-76
4*62
6*47
6*29
7*08
7*86
• • •
• 1
5
...
8-96
4*88
6-78
6-66
7-60
8*82
• • •
• 1
6)J
• • •
4*17
6-14
6*09
7*02
7*92
8-79
• • •
• i
• • •
4*88
6*40
6*41
7*88
8*83
9*26
10*16
• 4
• • •
• • •
6*66
6*72
7*76
8-76
9*73
10-68
• 4
6
• • •
• • •
6*92
7*08
8*11
9*17
10*20
11-20
• <
0)4
• • •
• • •
6*18
7*84
8*48
9*68
10*66
11*72
1276
• • •
• • •
• • •
7-66
8*84
10*00
11*18
12*24
13-82
0%
• • •
• • •
• • •
7*97
9*21
10*42
11*60
12-76
18*89
7
• • •
• • •
• • •
8*28
9*67
10*83
12-07
18-28
14*46
16-68
7)4
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
9*98
11*26
12*64
13*80
16-04
16*26
7%
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • ■
10-80
11-67
13*01
14-32
16*61
16*88
7%
• • •
• • •
• • ■
• • •
10*66
12*08
13*48
14-84
16*18
17-60
18-79
8
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
12*60
18*96
16*86
16*76
18*13
19-47
8)4
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
12-92
14*44
16*89
17-88
18*76
2014
s%
• • •
• ••
• • •
• ••
• ••
18-83
14*88
16*41
17*90
19*88
20-82
8%
• • •
• ••
• • •
• • •
• ••
...
16-86
16*98
18*48
20*0021-601
9
• • •
• ••
• ••
• ••
• •«
••*
16-82
17*46
19-06
20-63;22-17|
9)4
9)4
• • •
• ••
• ••
• ••
• ••
•••
16-29
17*97
19*62
21-26
22-86
• •t
• •«
• ••
• ••
• ••
•»•
.«.
18-49
20-20
21*88
28-68
994
• • •
• ••
• ••
• ••
• ••
•»«
•••
19*01
20-77
22*60
24-21
10
• • •
■ • •
■• •
• ••
• • •
•••
••.
19*58
21-84
2813
24-88
WEIGHTS OP MATERIALS.
487
Table CLI.— Weight of Steel Angle-Bars in lbs. per
lineal foot.
Sum of
flanges (ins.).
TUckneM in fractionf of an inch.
•X.
34
•X.
%
'X.
%
*A*
%
• ••
"X.
%
• ••
• • •
2%
1-47
1-91
2-82
2*71
• • •
• ••
• • •
2%
1-68
2-12
2-59
8*08
• • •
• ••
•
,
• • •
...
8
1-79
2*84
2*86
8*85
• • •
• • •
• i
•
t • •
• • •
3)i
1-96
2-55
8-12
8-67
4*18
• • •
• 1
»■•
,
• •«
• ■ •
3)i
2-11
2-76
8*89
8-98
4*56
• • •
• 4
•
• • •
• • •
3%
2-27
2-97
8*65
4*80
4-98
■ • •
• 4
.
• » •
• • • -
4
2-48
8-19
8*92
4*62
6*80
6*95
• *
•
• • •
• • •
4)4
2 '69
8-40
4-18
4*94
5*67
6*88
• t
•
• • •
• • •
4K
2-76
8*61
4*45
5*26
6*04
6*80
• 4
•
• • •
• »•
4%
2-91
8-82
4*71
5*58
6*41
7*28
8*01
• i
•
• ••
• • •
5
• • •
4*04
4-98
5*90
6*79
7-65
8*49
• 4
•
• ••
• • •
fi)4
• • •
4-25
6*25
6*22
7-16
8*08
8*96
•
• • •
• • •
6%
• • •
4-46
5*51
6-58
7*53
8*60
9-44
10*86
•
• • •
• • •
5%
• • •
• • •
5*78
6*85
7*90
8-98
9*92
10-89
•
• • •
• • t
6
• • •
• • •
6*04
7-17
8 '27
9*85
10-40
11*42
-
• ••
6^
• • •
• • •
6*81
7*49
8*65
9*78
10*88
11*95
18*00
• • •
• ••
6H
• • •
• • •
* • •
7-81
9*02
10*20
11*86
12*48
18*69
• • •
*••
0%
• » •
• • •
• • •
8-18
9*89
10*68
11-88
18*02
14-17
» • •
• • •
7
• • •
• • t
• • •
8*45
9*76
11*05
12-81
18*66
14*76
15-94
• • •
7%
• a •
• • •
• • •
• * •
10*18
11*48
12*79
14-08
16*84
16-58
• • ■
7%
• • •
• • •
• • «
• • •
10 -61
11-90
18-27
14-61
15-92
17-21
• • •
7%
• • •
• • •
• ••
• • •
10*88
12-88
18*76
15*14
16-61
17-86
19*16
8
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
12*76
14:22
15*67
17*09
18-49
19*86
8)4
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
18*18
14*70
16-20
17*68
19-18
20-56
8)i
• ••
• ••
• • «
• ••
• ••
18-60
15-18
16*78
18*26
19-76
21-24
8%
»••
• ••
• • •
• • •
• ••
• • •
15*66
17-27
18-85
20*40
21*93
9
> ••
• • •
• 1.
• • •
• • *
• a •
16*14
17-80
19-48
21-04
22*62
9)4
• •«
• • •
• ••
• ••
• • •
• • »
16*61
18*88
20*01
21*68
23*31
9)i
• • •
• ••
• ••
• • •
• •#
• ••
• • •
18*86
20*60
22*81
24*00
9%
• • •
• • •
• • •
• • •
>***
• • •
• • •
19*89
21*18
22*96
24*69
10
• •«
• • •
• • •
• ••
• • •
• • • • • •
19*92
2177
28*69
26-38
WBiaHTB OF HATBRIAIA
TaWe CLII.-Weiglits of
BoitipiT bj imi.
WBIGHTS OF IRON BOILBR TUBBS.
489
Iron Boiler Tubes.
ovnoir.
6-808
•262
6-401
•276
7-010
•800
7-620
•126
8-176
A"
•187
4*726
¥
-260
6-860
A"
•818
7-087
r
•876 ^487
0-626 U112
•600
12-700
lOOTIK F0IJKD6.
I'866;i-g74
2-1092-804
2*473 2*634
2-777 2*968
8*061:8'298
8-8848*628
8*6888-968
8-9924*288
4-2964*618
4-6094*948
4 •908,6*278
6-20616*602
6*6106*932
6*814 6*262
6*1176*692
6*4:21
6-726
7'028|7
7*882
7-6868-241
7-940
6-922
7-262
682
7*911
8-671
2-002
2*464
2*816
8-176
8-688
8-899
4-260
4-621
4-968
6-844
6-706
6-067
6*488
6-789
7*160
7*612
7-878
8-284
8*596
8-957
9-818
8-2488-901 9-679
8-6479-28110-041
8*861 9-661 10-402
9164l9-89i:i0-768
2-199
2-592
2-984
8-877
8-770
1-146
1-800
1-478
1-686
1-800
4163
4-666
4-948
6-841
6-788
6-126
6*619
6-911
7*804
7*697
8-000
8-482
8-876
9-268
9*660
10-053
10*446
10*888
11*281
11-684
1*068
2-127
2-291
2-464
2-618
2-782
2*946
8*100
8-804
4-060
4*296
4-641
8-272
8-486
8-600
8-768
8-927
4-001
4-264
4-418
4-681
4-746
4-908
6-072
1-606
1-841
2-086
2*882
2-677
2-822
8-068
8-818
8*669
4-786
6-081
6-277
6*622
6-768
6-018
6-260
6-604
6-760
6-996
7-240
7-486
1-968
2-291
2-618
2-946
8-272
8-600
8-927
4-264
4-681
4-909
6-286
6-663
6-890
6-218
6-546
6-872
7-200
7-627
7-864
8-181
8*608
8-886
9-168
9-490
9-817
8-260
2-669
8-068
8-477
8-886
4-296
4-704
6-118
6-622
6-931
6*840
6*749
7*169
7*668
7*977
8*886
8*796
0-204
0*618
10-022
10-481
10-840
11*240
11-668
12*067
2-464
2-046
8-486
8-927
4-418
4-909
6-400
6-800
6-881
6-872
7-868
7-864
8-846
8-886
0-827
9-818
10-806
10-709
11-290
11-781
12-272
12-768
18-264
18746
14 286
2'677
8-160
8-728
4-296
4-868
6-440
6-018
6-686
7-169
7-781
8-804
8-877
0-449
2-618
8-278
8-927
4-681
6-286
6-890
6-546
7-199
7-864
8-606
0-168
0-817
10-472
10-022
10-596
11-167
11-740
12*818
12*886
18*458
14*031
14-604
16-176
16-740
16-822
11-126
11-781
12-486
18*090
18*744
14*309
16-068
16*708
16*862
17*017
17*671
18*826
Int.
490
STANDARD LIST OP IRON WELDED TUBES.
2
I
s
H
0)
"a
I
s
.a
H
o
o
I
n4
O
•
1
1
Weight,
lbs.
21-77
22-48
23-09
23-76
24-41
2506
26-72
28-88
29-55
82-88
83-59
84-86
35-12
85-88
86-66
88-18
89-70
41-28
42-76
Surface,
sq.ft.
iQrHt^mocDaoeoa^oooqaoiMeoeo^fio
04a»t9e4CbiArHS<<f««-iOOTfr-lr<.^t.Om«D
o)eMM'4«^to««>t<-ooooaaooiH&i'«nioo
.•••.• . ......7^...-.
M(N»ioieioio4oi9iM04e4oOMmooooeoe9
Price
per ft.
lH(POk003C0(MC0GjCD&9a0^OCD0QO(M'«
.iot5ot^ooooo»?-4e4r{iaia»(>t:»oQOfH04
'OlHiHrHiHiHiHiHO4»J04Mel04O)MSeOeQM
ickness.
4
5
M(Me<io(ieQe30i«oQooogo9oooQO
d
i^\ fY\ /V\ AA i^\ f1f\ Aft A!l /Vl ^^ < ■ < ^a _j ^- .
Th
L.S.
External
Diameter.
5W<* 3«r^O ^|^;H ^5« ^« 5;*
1
Weight,
lbs.
lOi-lO»Sa0^rHt^eOQ«004 00eOOO'<«a»rH
0000 iHtOCDiH to 0003^.04 «»^2«5t-II>C4-H
• •*••••••••■ •••■•••
.«to<o«0^aoooo»ooiHiHe4»iio«D«t«iH
Surface,
sq.ft.
tfii>o4ooeoa«oo4t«o4goeoo»'^o^oQoa»
r-lrHtHrHrH>HiHiHiHr-liHr-liHr-l>HOqe4M
1
a
Price
per ft
•
5
• ■*•••••>••■•••••••
6
h4
oo»c«a»oooooo^-^»^>t«l>t«t»lOlO)OlOM
1-1
External
Diameter.
% i« i« •« •« ko k6 »o wo c0 ^ S «o t» t« ^. «„ 00 00
1
Weight,
lbs.
•-itO«0C0«0t>^00iOrHr«'^qDa0OiHM>OO
t«oorHQ>«eo-«>or«oo4S5i>ooO(MeotolHio
OOiHfHp-<r-li-l>HM0904M04eOe9MeO'«-«
Surface,
sq. ft.
•262
•296
•827
•860
•893
•425
•458
•491
■523
•566
*589
•654
•687
•720
•752
786
•851
•916
•
i
Price
per ft
kO lOtOlOiO tOtOO
. . .to lO>at^O(N t«04 (N O to (NtxlOOOO
^ • •a»afta»a»oor-ioq(M'4i<4itokoot>oM
Thickness.
Inch.
OQ
h4
^i«ieQCOeOMmeO(M04»lr-liHi-liHiHi-IOO
r-lrHrHtHr-lp^iHiHrHiHiHiHr-lrHiHiHr-liHiH
I
D
External
lameter.
^ pH ^ .H rH i-lrH ,-1 N ©J ©J (N IN N (N Ofl CO rtcT
Pi
8S
O fit
mS
s ►
•■■4 -^
l«
II
0SU3
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:i a
;8
•0 Pi
S3
Is
I? 5
Pi"*» 2
"-•««■
tl ^ •
•8
O
s^
€a^
WEIGHTS OP MATERIALS.
491
o
o
S.
CO
.s
2
o
a
I
u
Q
o
CO
01
4)
.^
d
H
■*■»
m
but)
I
>
•3
(O
fH«oO'^oO(McooeooOi-itoo»eot^
r*0-«*<t>.0'^t>.f-l"<*^-.i-HrJHt^i-l"*
• •••••••• «••.••
Ot-li-H,-i0i|<MC0e0T*4"*»0U3»O«0«0
•
o
04
• ••• ••••••■••••
0iOOr-lfHi-HC<|(NC000C0'>#'«!*<US»O
d
§
O
gS
OOOb^kOdOCOGOrHOOiOC^OCOCO
O'<»tt«»rHO00CH«00JC0t*O'^00fH
0»0>0>OOOi-trHrHC<l(NC0C0C0'>*
1
a
09
S
0000000>0J0»OOOrHi-HrH(NWN
CO
IS
s
<OI>«t«»t>*00000»OiO>OOi-l»HCTCO
(NC?(N(NM(N<N(NO«0OCOCO0OCOCO
• • •••••••••••••
t^t>-0000«0000»0S0SOOOiHrHrH
s
O»«OC0rH00»O(NO>
o t^ "**< i-H t>. ^ i-n>. J : : : : : :
•••••••• Till!*
«0 OO rH Tjl «0 0>(M <*
i-H rii 00 (M
»^o<M'*
to CO CO <o
Exte
diaii]
rnal
eter.
Sk0<0t<«000»Oi-l(MC0<^k0«0h«000b
.S<NC<i(M<N<Noooocoeooocoeoeocooo
«o
'<«TH00»O<NC»<000Ot^'*r-l00»O(N
• •■«••••••••••»
COOOf-tTtiCOOiCQ-^t^OCilWiOOOCO
(NC<IOOOOCOCO'tt4<«-^iOtakOkO«DCO
•
.a
o
s
toa)co^•0'«^oOl-HlAooc^coo)eo^*
00rHU:300Cq\O00Cq»O00(NtO00(NkA
• ••••••••••••••
(NU3t^O»<N^COO)r-ieO«OOOOCOO
a
o
kaeoco:o<Dt«t>«i>«ooaoooooa»a»o
cocococotocococococococococo t>»
• •••••*■••••••«
OJi-HC0U3t«»O»i-HC0U3t^O>f-IC0iO0i
CO
13
iH
U300(MU3aft(N<OOeOI>»rH'«J<00
o CO t>.»o CO (N o o t^»o i# c^ o : :
00 o> iH CO us r^ OS o <M "^ CO 00 o * *
rHrHC^CSIQlCiCOGOCOCOCOCO-Ttl
OQ
to
«
1
O
Ok
COOt^"*i-lt«-"^r-IOO»nW
TJI r-l t>- ">* r-i t>- "^ rH r>. -^ r-l ! I ! I
<0 00 OJ r-< CO Tj< CO 00 OS »-l CO • • • •
i-ii-ii-lC<lC4C4<N(M(MeO0O
r-li-tr-l<N<N<MCQeOCO
00 CO 00 CO 00 CO 00 CO 00 : : : X t r
Tjl CO !>» OS O ©!» CO »0 «0
r-(i-li-HrH(M(MC?<N(N
00
OS (N CO OS CO CO o
rH o 00 7^ ip 00 c^ : : : : ; ; .- :
CO '^ O t^ 00 OS r-«
1— 1 rH 1— • rH i-H rH (N
Exte
dlam
rnal
eter.
!5OfH(N00'*»OC0t^000SOrH<MC0'^
o
•3
o
CO
OS
t1
o
08
■S
n
.a
2
492
WBIGHTS OF MATERIALS.
Table CLV.— Weights of Seamless
Alillimetres .
L. s. a.
Inchee
Internal
Diameter.
Inches mm.
%
19-0
1
25*4
1%
81-7
1%
88*1
1%
44*4
2
60-8
2%
67 1
2%
63-6
2%
69-8
3
76-2
8%
82*5
8%
88-9
3%
96*2
4
101*6
4^
114*3
5
127 0
5%
139*7
6
152*4
«%
165 1
7
177*8
7H
190*6
8
203-2
8%
215-9
9
228-6
9%
241*3
10
254*0
lOH
266*7
11
279-4
n)i
292-1
12
804*8
12%
817*6
18
830*2
18H
842*9
14
866*6
4/0
•400
10*160
8/0
*872
9*449
2/0
*848
8*889
-824
8*229
1
•800
7*620
2
•276
7*010
8
•252
6*401
•282
6*898
•212
6 •886
Weight of a lineal
88*23
40*65
43 07
45-49
47*91
50*33
62*75
55*16
57*68
60*00
62*42
64*84
67-26
69*68
30-93
33*18
35*43
37*68
39*93
42-18
44*43
46-68
48*93
51*18
53*43
55*68
67*98
60*18
62*48
64*68
...
•••
•••
•••
26-72
28-83
30-93
33-04
36-14
37*25i
39-35;36*55
41-46;38*61
20*87
22*83
24*79
26*76
28-71
30*67
32-63
34*59
...
• • •
43*56 40*4737*88
45*67
47*77
49*88
51*98
54*09
56*19
58*30
60^40
42*48
44*39
46*35
48*81
50^26
52^22
64*18
66*14
17*42
19-23
21*05
22*86
24*68
26-49
28*31
30*12
31-94
33*75
35*57
39*20
41*01
42*83
44*64
46*46
48-27
60*08
61*90
13*44
14*28
15-95
17-62
19*29
20*96
22-62
24-29
25*96
27*63
29*30
30-97
32*64
34*31
85*98
37*66
39*82
40*99
42-66
44*38
46*00
47*67
11*44
12*20
12*96
14*49
16*01
17*54
19*06
20*58
22*11
23-63
25-16
26-68
28-21
29*78
81*25
32*78
84*30
36*88
• •■•
• ••
• ••
• ••
• • •
»• t
88*88
40*40
48*46
9-07
9-77
10*47
11-18
11*88
13*28
14*68
16-09
17-49
18*89
20*30
21*70
23*10
24*51
26*91
27-81
28*72
8012
31*52
82-93
87*8684*88
86-78
87^14
41*9288*64
89*94
7*60
8*24
8*88
P*52
10*l6
10*80
12*08
18*37
14*66
16*98
17-21
18-50
19*78
2106
22-84
23*68
24-91
26*19
27-47
28-76
80-04
81-82
82-60
38*88
86-17
86-46
Mandzil dimwn Brawd Tnbei iraigh the
WEIGHTS OP SEAMLESS COPPER TUBES.
495
Copper Tubes.
6
•192
7
8
9
10
11
12
18
14
16
16
•176
•160
•144
*128
•116
2-946
•104
-092
•080
•072
064
4-877
4*47o| 4-064
8*668
8-261
2^642
2*877
2 0321-829
1*626
foot
in poondB.
.^
•••
•••
• »•
1*86
1-21
1^07
-94
•80
•72
68
1 • • •
• *•
...
.»•
• • •
1-76
1*67
1*89
1*21
1*04
-93
-82
• ••
•»«
...
2*48
2*13
1-92
1*70
1*49
1-29
1*15
1*02
• ••
•..
8*21
2-86
2-62
2*27
2*02
1*77
1*58
1-87
1*21
• • • •
■ • •
• • .
8-70
8-30
2*91
2*62
2*38
2*06
1*77
1-69
1*40
• • •
4-68
4-18
8*78
8*29
2*97
2*66
2*33
2-01
1*80
1-60
5-67
6*16
4*66
4-17
3-68
3*82
2*96
2*61
2*25
2*02
1*79
• • • •
6-26
6*70
6*16
4*61
4-07
8*67
8*28
2*88
2-60
2*24
1-98
6-88
6-28
6-68
6 04
4-46
4*02
3*69
8*16
2*74
2*46
2-18
7-41
6*76
6-12
6-48
4-84
4*87
8*90
8*44
2-98
2-68
2-37
• ■ • •
7-99
7-29
6-60
6-91
6*28
4*72
4*22
8*72
8-22
2*89
2-67
8-58
7-88
7*08
6-36
6-62
6-07
4*63
4-00
3*46
811
2-76
9-16
8-86
7^67
6-78
6 00
6*42
4*85
4-28
3-71
8*33
2-96
t • • •
9-74
8*89
8^06
7-22
6*89
6*78
6-16
4-66
3-96
8-55
3-16
10-90
9*96
9 02
8 09
717
6*48
6*79
6*11
4*48
8-98
8-53
12-06
11 02
9-99
8-96
7*94
7*18
, 6-42
6-67
4 '92
4*42
3-92
• • • •
18-22
12*08
10-96
9-83
8*71
7*88
7-05
6*22
6*40
4*85
4-81
14-38
18*16
11-92
10-70
9-49
8-68
7*68
6-78
6-88
5-29
4-69
16-54
14*21
12-89
11-67
10*26
9-28
8*81
7-34
6*37
6-72
6*08
• • • •
16-70
16*28
18-86
12*44
11*04
9-99
8*94
7-89
6-86
6-16
5-47
17-87
16-84
14-88
13-82
11*81
10-69
9*67
8-46
7-34
6-60
5*86
19-03
17-41
16-79
14*19
12*59
11*89
10-20
9-01
7-82
7*03
6*24
• • • •
20-19
18-47
16-76
16-06
13*36
12-09
10-82
9-56
8*30
7*47
6*68
21*36
19-64
17-73
16*98
14*13
12-79
11*45
10*12
8-79
7*90
7-02
22-61
20-60
18-70
16-80
14-91
13*49
12*08
10-68
9-27
8-34
• ••
• • • •
23-67
21-67
19-67
17-67
16-68
14*20
12*71
11*23
9-76
8-77
• ••
24-83
22-78
20-63
18*64
16-46
14*90
13*34
11*79
10*24
••*
• ••
26*00
23-80
21-60
19-41
17-23
16-60
13-97
12*34
10-72
.••
• ••
• • • •
27-16
24-86
22-67
20-28
18-01
16-30
14-60
12*90
• ••
...
• »•
28-82
26-92
23*64
21-16
18-78
17 00
16-23
13*46
• • •
••«
• ••
29*48
26*99
24-60
22*08
19-65
17*70
16-86
• • •
• • •
•••
• ••
' • • •
80*64
28-06
26*47
22*90
20*88
18*41
16-49
• »•
• *•
•»•
• • •
81*80
29-12
26*44
23*77
21*10
19*11
• *••
• *«
• •^
•••
• ••
82*96
80*18
27-41
24*64
21-88
19*81
• ••
• ••
• ••
•••
#••
■UMA
■ Baaml
eMTob
6*.
dlC«NI
Ma Tan
ring wit
htlMtl
ilekneM
1, diamc
)ttr, «M
l0lMi<
ttfctaA
L
494
WHITWORTH GAS THREADS.
Table CLVL— Whitworth Gas Threads.
DUmetorof
DUmeter over
Diameter at
Number of
pipe (iiulde).
thrMMlt.
bottom of thread.
r
•8825
-8867
28
1
•5180
•4506
19
•6563
•5889
19'
•8257
•7342
14
•9022
•8107
14
1^041
-9496
14
1^189
1-0975
14
1^809
1-1925
11
1|
1^492
1-3755
11
•1
1-65
1^6885
11
1-745
1^6285
11
1
1-8825
1^766
11
2-021
1^9045
11
1
2 047
1^9305
11
1
2-245
2-1285
11
2
2-847
2^2305
11
2}
2^5875
2^471
11
2|
8^0018
2^8848
11
2{
8^247
8 •1305
11
S
8^485
3-8685
. 11
8J
3-6985
3-582
11
8}
8^912
8^7955
11
8|
4^1225
4-009
11
4
4^889 -
4-2225
11
Table CLVII.— Weig:ht of Brass Condenser Tubes.
L.S.6.
14
•080
15
•072
1-829
16
17
18
19
20
K^6
•914
Inohes.
•064
1-626
-056
•048
1-219
•040
Millimetres.
2 032
1-422
1^016
Ext. Diameter.
Weight of a TJneal Foot in pounds.
Ins. mm.
1
15-9
•51
•46
•42
•37
•82
•27
•26
i
19-0
•62
•57
•51
-45
•39
•83
•80
1
22-2
74
•67
•60
•53
•46
•89
•85
1
•
25-4
•86
•78
•70
•62
•53
•46
•40
^otff.— 1%6 whvw weighti are for tabes containing 70 per oenl coppw.
WEIGHTS OP MATERIALS.
495
Table CLVIIL— Weight of Lead Pipes.
Thick-
ness in
inches.
2"
Weight In pounds per foot ran.
2)4"
9-7
• • •
■ • •
• • •
2W'
10-6
18-6
«• •
• • •
2%"
8"
12-6
16-0
•••
*•*
8%"
8H"
14-5
18-4
22*6
• ••
3%"
16-5
19-7
28-9
• • •
4"
4H"
18-4
28-3
28-8
83-4
6"
20-8
26-7
31-2
36-8
•X.
%
'X.
8-7
• • •
• • •
• ••
11-6
14-8
• • •
18-6
17-2
210
• ••
16-4
20-9
25-4
• • •
Lead pipes of these sizes and weights are usually manufactured
in 10 ft. lengths.
Table CLIX.— Weight of Sheet Metals.
Thickness
L.S.O.
Weight In poundi
1 per square foot.
BteeL
Iron.
Copper.
Brass.
T.ead.
Zino.
7/0
20*40
20-00
22-88
21*98
29-65
18-72
6/0
18-98
18-56
21*19
20*39
27*51
17*88
6/0
17-63
17-28
19*73
18*99
25-62
16 18
4/0
16-82
16*00
18*27
17-68
23*72
14-98
8/0
1618
14-88
16*99
16*86
22-06
18-98
2/0
14-20
18-92
16-89
16-30
20-64
18-08
0
13-22
12*96
14-80
14-24
19*21
12-18
1
12-24
12 00
18*70
18-19
17*79
11-23
2
11-26
11*04
12*60
12*18
16*87
10-84
8
10*28
10-08
11-61
11*08
14-94
9-44
4
9-47
9*28
10-59
10*20
18-76
8*69
6
8-66
8-48
9-68
9-82
12-57
7*94
6
7*88
7-68
8-77
8*44
11*88
7-19
7
7-18
7 04
8*04
7-74
10*44
6*59
8
6-68
6-40
7*81
7-03
9*49
6*99
9
6*88
6-76
6*68
6-38
8-64
5*89
10
6*22
6-12
6*84
6-68
7-59
4-79
11
4-78
4-64
6-80
5 10
6-88
4*34
12
4-24
4-16
4*76
4-57
617
3-89
18
8-76
8*68
4-20
4-04
5-45
8-44
14
8*26
3-20
8*66
3*52
4-74
3-00
16
2-94
2-88
8-29
8-16
4-27
2-70
16
2-61
2-56
2*92
2-81
3-79
2*40
17
2-28
2-24
2-56
2-46
8-82
2-10
18
1*96
1-92
2-19
2-11
2-86
1*80
19
1*68
1*60
1*88
1*76
2*87
1*50
20
1-47
1*44
1*64
1-68
2 18
1*85
21
1*81
1-28
1*46
1-41
1*90
1*20
S8
1-14
1-12
1*28
1*28
1*66
1*05
496
WEIGHTS OF BNOINES AND BOILERS, ETC.
Table CLX.— Weights of Engines and Boilers, &c.
Description of Ship and Machinery.
(1) Battleships and large cruisers, triple engines,
tank boilers, 166 lbs. pressure ....
(2) Battleships and large cruisers, triple engines,
water tube boilers, 260 lbs. pressure
(8) Battleships and large cruisers, turbines, mixed
boilers, 216 lbs. pressure
(4) Lai^e high-speed cruisers, triples, tank boilers,
1661bs.,M.F.D
(6) Lai^e high-speed cruisers, triple, water tube
boilers, 260 lbs., M.F.D
(6) Large high-speed cruisers, triples, mixed boilers,
210 lbs., M.F.D
(7) Large high-speed cruisers, turbines, water-tube
boilers, 236 lbs. M.F.D., oil-fired
(8) Moderate size cruisers, with triple engines, tank
boilers, 166 lbs., M.F.D
(9) Moderate size cruisers, with triple engines
water-tube boilers, £60 lbs.. M.F.D.
(10) Moderate size cruisers, with turbines, water
tube boilers, 210 lbs., M.F.D. .
(11) T.B.D. leaders, geared turbines, water-tube
boilers, 260 lbs. pressure
Cli") Scouts, Ac, turbines, water-tube boilers .
(18) Destroyers, triple engines, water-tube boilers .
(14) Destroyers, turbines, water-tube boilers .
(16) Largest and fastest express Atlantic steamers,
reciprocators, tank boilers ....
(16) Largest and fastest express Atlantic steamers,
turbines, tank boilers
(17) Large expresses : 20 knots, passenger and cargo,
Atlantic, reciprocators
(18) Large expresses : 20 knots, passenger and
cargo, Atlantic, turbines
(19) Express channel and excursion steamers,
reciprocators
(20) Express channel and excursion steamers,
turbines
(21) Large cargo and passenger steamers, Eastern
service, reciprocators
(22) Ordinary cargo steamers, triples and quad-
ruples
(28) La^ express short-serrice paddle steamers,
compound diagonal engines . . . .
(84) Ordinary river service, moderate size, com-
pound diagonal engines
Weight in Pounds
perH.P.
<5
SB
5 •
116
116
24-0
16-4
202
160
181
24-0
21-6
228
47
186
121
if o
180
266
246
177
202
188
216
84
196
186
91-8
82
69-7
48-0
87-8
845
807
440
426
218
168
880
462
286
866
8*46
911
12'<»
11-09
11-92
10*42
80-3
11-6
12-1
24-2
7-0
87-6
46-0
69-8
6-49
7-28
6*09
6-25
10-62
13*83
6*79
4-86
7-86
6*14
CENTRE OP GRAVITY OF MACHINERY, ETC. 49*7
The machinery of torpedo boats with loco, boilers weighed about 80
to 35 lbs. per I.H.P. in the engine-room, and about 45 to 50 lbs. in
the boiler-room, or say 81 lbs. per I.H.P. for both engine- and boiler-
room. When water-tube boilers are used, the boiler-room weights are
reduced to about 33 lbs. per I.H.P. Now with impulse turbines,
with single-geared reduction and Yarrow type of water-tube boilers
with superheaters the total weight of machinery of T.B.Ds. with
steam up is only 82 lbs. per I.H.P. That of Fome of the later 30 knot
T.B.Ds., was as low as 43 lbs. with reciprocating engines.
Modem large cruisers with impulse turbines and single reduction
and small tube Yarrow boilers have ma^inery whose total weight
per I.H.P. is only 50 lbs. which is about the same as the light
cruisers with direct driven tuibines.
• The machinery of the Naval pinnaces was from 90 to 115 lbs. per
I H.P., and that of the cutters 150 to 190 lbs. With the adoption of
water-tube boilers in the place of locomotive boilers in these crafts,
these weights have been considerably reduced.
The weights of paddle engines depend to some extent on the service
for which the vessel is intended. For open sea and cross-channel work
the wheels, etc. , must be considerably heavier than for those in smooth
water service or simple coasting.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY OF MACHINERY, &c.
When the common centre of gravity of a number of detached bodies,
— such as the various portions of the machinery of a steamship, — is
required, it is obtained as follows : —
1. Longfitudinal Position of Centre of Gravity.— On the longitudi-
nal section drawing of the machinery, near where it is supposed the
longitudinal position of the centre of gravity will be, draw a vertical
line, to represent the edge of a plane cutting the ship transversely.
Then, take the weight of each portion of the machinery, and multiply
it by the distance of its centre of gravity from this transverse plane ;
distinguish the resulting quantities, or moments, by the signs + and
- , according as they happen to be derived from the right or left side
of the plane ; and add together all the plus quantities, and all the
minus quantities. Then obtain the resultant, by subtracting the less
quantity from the greater, and place before it the sign of the greater.
If this resultant moment bo now divided by the total weight of the
whole system of bodies, on both sides of the plane, the quotient will be
the distance of the longitudinal position of the centre of gravity from
the plane ; and it will lie to the right, or to the left, of the plane,
according as the sign of the quotient is plus or minus.
2. Transverse Position of Centre of Gravity.— Assume another
plane, perpendicular to the first, and represent it by a line on the
transverse section drawings, and proceed exactly as described above.
3. Vertical Position of Centre of Gravity. — Assume a third plane,
perpendicular to both those previously used (parallel to the water-line,
that is), represent it by a line or lines as before, and again calculate
the position as described above.
32
498
MISGBLLANBOUS TABLES.
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.
Table CLXL— Surface of Tubes in square feet per foot run.
Diamr.
in
inches.
0
H
¥4
%
M
%
%
%
0
• ••
•0327
•0654
•0982
•1309
•1636
•1963
•2291
1
•2618
•2945
•3272
-3600
-3927
•4264
•4681
•4909
2
•5236
•6563
•6890
•6218
-6646
•6872
•7200
•7527
3
•7854
•8181
•8508
•8836
•9163
•9490
•9817
10146
i
10472
1-0799
1^1126
1^1464
1-1781
1^2108
12436
12763
5
1-3090
1-3417
1'3744
1-4072
14899
1^4726
1^5063
1-5381
Bulk and Weig^ht, &c., of Water.
Table CLXIL-Fresh Water.
Cubic inches.
Cubic feet.
Pounds.
Gallons.
Ton.
1
• ••
•086
• ••
• ••
277
•016
1-0
•1
• • •
277
•160
10^0
1-0
•00446
1728
1^0
624
6-24
•0279
• ••
35-9
2240
224
lO
The above figures are very nearly correct for 62* F, : for bulk of water
at other temperatures see page 400.
MISOELLANBOUS TABLES.
499
Table CLXIIL— Salt Water.
Cabio ioches.
Cubic feet.
Poandfl.
Gallons.
Tod.
1
•••
•037
• ••
• ••
27
•0156
1-0
•0^
• ••
277
•160
10-26
1-0
•00468
1728
1-0
64*0
6-24
•0286
• ••
86-0
2240
218-3
1-0
The above figures are very nearly correct for 62" P. : for bulk of water
at other temperatures see page 400.
Table CLXIV.— Solid Matter deposited from Peed Water-
Trof, V, Letoes,
Constituents.
Eiver.
Tidal Rivers.
Sea.
Calcic carbonate,
76-86
43-66
0-97
„ sulphate, •
3-68
34-78
85-63
Magnesic hydrate, .
2-66
4-34
3-39
Sodic chloride, . . . .
0*46
0-56
2-79
Silica,
7*66
7-62
1-10
Oxides of iron and alumina,
2-96
3-44
0-32
Organic matter,
3-64
1^66
trace
Moisture, ....
8-20
4-16
5-90
100-00
100-00
100-00
500
MISOELLANBOUB TABLBS.
Table CLXV.— Sea- Water, Solid Contents of.
Sea water contains certain mineral salts in solution amounting to
8*4 per cent of its weight on the average, and is at the various parts
of the globe as follows : —
Arctic Ocean
2-88
per
cent.
Red Sea .
4-80 per oent
North Atlantic .
4*26
Dead Sea .
88-66 „
South „
4-12
English Channel
8-55 „
Equator
8*94
Irish „
8-88 „
Mediterranean .
8-94
Upper Baltic ,
0-66 „
Sea of Marmora .
4-20
Cronstadt .
2-00 „
Black Sea .
2-16
Table CLXVI.— Composition of Solids in Solution
in Sea- Water.
Salts in Sea Water.
Kingston
Harbour.
Mainland
Brown.
Average.
D. K. Clerk.
Bnglish
Channel.
Thomson.
Chloride of sodium, .
Chloride of potassium,
Chloride of maguesium, .
Sulphate of magnesium, .
Sulphate of lime.
Carbonate of lime, .
Bromide of magnesium, .
Organic matter.
71-82
10-79
5-30
4-87
1-78
0-60
6-27
73-60
9*80
16-78
0-29
0-68
76-70
2-17
10-40
6-56
4-0
0-09
0-08
MISOBLLANBOUS TABLBS.
501
Table CLXVII.-^eight of Sea- Water at various Ports and
Harbours of the United Kingdom, taken at high-water and
given in ounces per cubic foot ; fresh-water being looa
Locality.
Thames at LimehouBe
Do. Victoria Dock
Do. Gravesend
Humber at Goole Dock
Do. off Hull
Do. off Grimsby
Tyne at Low "Walker
Do. Tyne Dock .
Tees at Stockton
Do. Middlesbrough
Do. Hartlepool .
Sunderiand Harbour
Mersey at Connahs Quay
Do. Liverpool .
Milford Haven .
Avonmouih Dock, Bristol
Portishead Dock, do.
Cardiff, Roatb Basin .
Do. Penarth Basin
Barrow, Buccleugb Dock
Whitehaven, Queen's Dock
Bh'kenhead Float
Weight
1000
1005
1019
1000
1016
1020
1013
1023
1005
1012
1025
1024
1018
1021
1023
1011
1015
1008
1018
1017
1024
1020
Looalil^.
Plymouth Sound .
Weymouth . •
Southampton Extension
Dock .
Portsmouth, Camber.
Dublin
Kingstown . •
Queenstown Harbour
Cork ....
Youghal . . .
Limerick .
Belfast Harbour
Glasgow, Bowling
Greenock, Tail of Bank
Port Glasgow, Dock Gates
Troon
Campbeltown .
Fraserburgh Harbour
Peterhead Harbour .
Dundee
St Andrews .
Leith and Granton, Forth at
Bo'ness Dock
Weight
1025
1Q24
1028
1024
1024
1025
1025
1000
1025
1000
1011
1000
1022
1018
1023
1024
1025
1024
1021
1025
1025
1021
502
MISOBLLANBOUS TABLBS.
Table CLXVIIL— Boiling Points, &c., of Sea-Water.
Proportion of salt in the
water.
Tempentnre, FahreDheit,
at which it boUs.
Speciilc Gravity.
•r
218-2*
214-4*
215-5'
216r
217-9'
219-1'
220-3'
221-5'
222-7"
223-8'
225-0'
226'1'
1-029
1-058
1-087
1-116
1-145
1-174
1-208
1-232
1-261
1-290
1-819
1-348
Note —Freezing Mixtures are made as follows :— (a) Mix one part of common
salt with two parts of pounded ice ; the temperature will be - 4' F. or - 20* C. ; (6)
mix three parts of chloride of calcium with two parts of snow ; the temperature
then is - 60' F. or - 46-5' 0.
Table CLXIX.— Viscosity of Oils at Various Temperatures
(Water at 68** F. being o'Oio^)—ArcMivM and DeeUy.
Name of Oil.
Sperm oil, . . •
Olive „ ...
Bape or colza oil, .
Castor oil,
Scotch mineral oil " 865,"
"890,"
Russian light machinery oil,
„ heavy „
American spindle oil,
pale „ "908y7,'
"907/12, .
red engine oil ••910/20,**
*< Bayoune " engine oil " 912/15,"
,, dark medium madiinery oil,
*' Valvoline "
A.merican filtered cylinder oil' " 888;* .*
dark .. „ "900," .
II
ti
ti
II
It
60- F.
lOCF.
160* F.
. 0-420
0-186
0086
. 1-003
0-877
0-164
1-118
0-422
0-177
• **■
2-729
0-606
. 0-146
0*066
0-036
0-509
0-188
0069
. 1156
0-307
0-099
. 8-592
0-762
0-196
. 0-727
0-236
0-086
1-188
0842
0-116
. 1-479
0-419
• ••
. 1-916
0-496
0-150
. 2-172
0-572
0-178
8*046
0-706
0-210
• •••
2-406
0-606
• •!•
8-702
• ••
• •••
ft-264
•••
212* F.
0-04«
0-070
0*080
0-169
0-043
0*066
0-039
0-049
0*068
0-063
0-076
0-187
0-288
0-814
i
3*1
lis
%
S ! ! ! S
S3
s
1
1 5 S s 1
£■
1 S 3 ! S
B
, = « ? 1
' ^ s 1 '
1
1
IP
iSni
1
niH
li
1!
! s ! 1 !
1 3 i 3 5
ft
If
li
H
1
1 1 : : ^sl
^ i-j 1 m
SS « ^ I 2
|l i f 1 ^
|j i i I ?
?1 1 h f
JJ!S
Jit 11
g _ -■«
I Si& 1
■ la- if
; 111 11
I Is- |3
Ifllsal 111 If
,|i=.
||S|3|
I 111
)04
MISOBLLANBOUS TABLES.
Table CLXXI.— Boiling, Setting, and Flash Points.
Name or Brand of Oil.
Setoat
Flashes at
Boils at
Degrees F.
Degrees F.
Degrees F.
American cylinder, ip. gr. '002, .
26
685
650
•' II If *o9o.
26
424
600
Yalvoline ,. . .
American macnine, sp. gr. "807,
• ••
• ••
700
26
402
600
Kus8ian ,, „ '909,
Scotch sliale oil
OtolO
880
• ••
82
• ••
Cotton-seed oil,
34 to 60
580
Castor oil.
14
•••
666
Lard oil, •
26 to 42
• ••
•••
Linseed oil,
6 „ 17
• ••
574
Neat's foot oil, .
82 „ 60
•••
•••
Olive oil, .
21 „ 89
• ••
• ••
Bape or colza oil.
10 „ 28
• ••
625
Sperm oil,
82
460
600
Palm oil, .
81 to 106
• ••
• ••
Whale oil,
82
440
620
Vaseline oil, .
104 to 120
640
• ••
Tallow (Bussian), .
107 „ 119
640
660
Table CLXXIL— Co-efficients of Friction.
Nature of the Bui'f aces.
Wood on wood (dryX •
Metal on hard wood, . .
Metals on oalc, .... (Rk)
„ metals only, .
It
II
smooth,
Bronze on lignum rltae.
Iron
Bronze oh bronze sliding.
II
*>
Steel
Wroi
^*»' » I.
Steel on cast iron, .
II
II
II
(S)
(Rn)
II
Wrought iron on bronze sliding, , ,
v/ast
•I II
II
WeU Lubricated with
Quite
Dry.
Greasy
Dry.
Oil.
Tallow
or Soap.
Water.
(026
>
(0-2 )
to
r '"
#••
^ to J.
• ■ •
1 0-5
)
(0-07
(004 >
• • •
0-16
] to
• ••
(0-08
<0.6
] to
(0-6
0-24
)
to
[ ...
0-2
• • •
026
r
(0-16
)
• ••
4to
(0-2
(0-07
0-14
0-8
• ••
] to
(008
>-0-05
•••
• ••
• ••
• ••
• ••
• ••
0-05
• ••
•••
• ••
005
• ••
• ••
• ••
0-88
0-176
■ • •
• ■•
• ••
0-139
•••
■ ••
• ••
0-136
• ••
• ••
«••
0-141
• • •
• ••
• ••
4
0-151
•••
• ••
• ••
Con-
stant
Flow
of
Oil.
0-05
0-OS
MISOBLLANSOUS TABLBS.
505
CLXXI I.— Co-efficients of Fnc^on—conUinued,
Nature of the Surfaoes.
Quite
Dry.
(Bn)
Steel on wrought iron, .
Wrongly iron on cast iron,
tin, . . fj
magnolia, (UHS)
i>
I)
»»
Greasy
Dry.
»t
M
white metal,
Loco axles, white metal, . (W)
Sliafts on bronze, . . . (Kn^
Leather on metals, . . . (Rk)
Wronght-iron shaft on cast-iron
bearing, speed 10 feet per minute.
Wrought iron shaft on cast-iron
bearing, speed 00 feet per minute,
Wrought-iron shaft on cast-iron
bearing, speed 100 feet per minute,
Load 50 lbs. p. sq. in., speed 50 ft., (G)
50 „ „ „ 110
60 „ „ „ 190
160 „ „ „ 60
150 „ „ „ 110
If 160 ,, „ ,, 190 „ „
Speedofl0it.p.min.,load50]bs., „
10 „ „ 76
10 „ „ 150
16 „ „ 50
15 » » 150 „ ..
7-8 ft p. min., moderate load,
»i »i , >» , , heavy , „
Railway axles and bearings, (Stahl)
«f
ri
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
II
It
II
II
If
II
t»
ti
II
II
Cast-iron steel tyres.
Steel tyres on steel rails,
(Gl)
II
0-66
(0-M
\ to
(-048
(Oil
\ to
1 0-04
0-189
0170
0181
0-060
0-28
0094
0051
Well Lubricated with
Oil.
Tallow
or Soap.
0-026
0-017
0-16
0079
0-052
0-060
Water.
0-028
• ••
0*86
0-072
0-046
0-100
0-067
6 to 30 miles per hour.
Ck>n-
stant
Flow
of
Oil.
• ••
• ••
• ••
• ••
0-01
to
0-016
•0082
•0064
•0106
•0017
•0024
•0047
•0009
•0007
•0260
-0012
•0051
-064
•047
10 to 60
»i
•»
/Tote.— Rk stands for Rankine ; Rn, for Rennie ; S, for Summers ; W, foi
Wood ; G, for Goodman ; RHS, for Prof. Smith ; Gl for Gallon and Westing,
boose.
506
MISCBLLANBOUS TABLBS.
Table CLXXI 1 1.— Conductivity of Sundry Materials.
Relative Conductivity
at 65' F.
Conducts
Sound
Feet per
Electric.
Thermal.
Second.
Silver, annealed
100-0
100-0
•»•
Silver, hard drawn .
92-1
• • •
• • «
Copper, annealed
94-0
91-8
...
Copper, hard drawn .
Gold, hard drawn
91-8
• • •
11,800
71-8
53-2
• • •
Aluminium, annealed
61-6
31-8
• ••
Zinc, pressed ....
26-7
28-1
• t •
Brass tubes (70 cu. 30 zu.)
22-0
26-0
• • •
Platinum, annealed .
16-6
6-4
• • •
Iron and mild steel, annealed .
15-5
11-9
16,700
Nickel, annealed
12 06
14-0
• • •
Tin, pressed ....
7-66
8-6
• • •
German silver ....
6-00
6-0
• • •
Bismuth
2-00
1-8
ett«
Mercury, liquid
1-58
1-8
• • •
Table CLXXIV.— Various Gases, Properties of.
Kame of Gas.
t
a
Molecular
Weight
No. of Lbs.
per Cub. Ft.
No. of Cub. Ft
per Lb.
Air Required
per Lb. Gas.
Temperature of
Combustion.
Heat Generated
bylLb.
Specific Heat
YoL Const
Cub.Ft.
Lbs.
F.-
B.T.U.
Hydrogen .
1-0
2
•0056
178-83
34-79
4813
62,290
2-415
Oxygen .
16-0
32
'0893
11-21
• • • '
■ • •
...
©•166
Steam
9-0
18
•0502
19-91
• ••
• ••
...
0-806
Nitrogen .
14-0
28
•0786
12-76
• • •
• *•
•»«
0174
Air .
14-4
• ■ •
•0807
12-39
• • «
■ • t
.*•
0-169
Carbon vapour .
12-0
• • •
•0670
14-93
11-59
4988
20,461
• • •
„ monoxide
14-0
28
•0782
12-80
2-48
3494
4,383
0-173
,, bisulphide
88-0
76
•2124
4-71
6-48
6690
9,344
0-180
Benzine .
39-0
78
•2080
4-81
13-38
6022
18,000
0-860
Acetylene .
13-0
26
•0727
13-46
13-38
6120
21,866
...
Coal gas .
4-7
...
•0320
81-60
13-89
4600
21,400
0-468
Blast furnace .
14-0
... -0790
12-66
1-00
2160
1,230
• • •
Ammonia .
8-60
17 -0632
18-78
6-13 8760
9,670 0^891
PRBS8URB OF WATER, BTO.
507
Table CLXXV.— Pressure of Water due to various Heads.
Preunrein
Pressure in
Pressure in
Depth
of
Depth
Depth
Water
PoimdB
Kilos.
Water.
Pounds
Kilos.
Water.
Pounds
Kilos.
per
per
per
per
per
per
BQ. in.
sq. c/m.
sq. in.
sq. c/m.
sq. in.
sq. o/m.
1 in.
•03608
•002637
27ft
11-691
•82196
64ft
27-712
1 -94886
2
•07216
•006074
28
12^124
-86240
66
28-146
1-97880
8
•10824
-007611
29
12^667
•88284
66
28-678
2-00925
4
•14482
•010148
30
12^990
-91329
67
29-011
2 03969
5
•18040
-012685
31
18 423
-94373
68
29-444
2-07013
6
•21648
•016222
32
13 •856
-97417
69
29^877
2-10067
7
•26266
•017759
33
14-289
1-00462
70
80-310
213102
8
•28864
-020298
34
14-722
1 -03406
71
30-743
216146
9
•82472
•022833
36
16-166
1-06460
72
31-176
2-19190
10
•36080
-026370
36
16-688
1-09496
78
31 -609
2-22236
11
•89688
•027907
87
16-021
1-12539
74
32^042
2-25279
1ft.
•438
•030443
38
16-464
1-16683
76
32-476
2-28328
2
•866
•060886
39
16-887
1-18627
76
32-908
2-81368
8
1-299
-091329
40
17-320
1-21773
77
83-841
2-34412
4
1-782
-121773
41
17-763
1-24817
78
33-774
2*37456
6
2*166
-162216
42
18-186
1^27861
79
34*207
2 40500
6
2-698
-182669
43
18-619
1-30906
80
84-640
2-43646
7
8 03]
-213102
44
19-052
1 •33950
81
86-073
2-46589
8
3^464
-243646
46
19-486
1-36994
82
86-606
2-49633
9
3^897
•273989
46
19-918
1 -40039
88
36-939
2-62678
10
4*330
-80443
47
20-861
1-48088
84
36 872
2-66722
11
4-763
-33487
48
20-784
1-46127
85
86-806
2-58766
12
6-196
-36631
49
21-217
1*49171
86
87*238
2-61811
18
6-629
-89676
60
21 -660
1-62216
87
37-671
2-64856
14
6-062
-42620
61
22-083
1 66260
88.
88-104
2-67899
16
6^496
-45664
62
22 616
1-68804
89
38-637
2^70948
16
6-928
-48709
63
22-949
1 -61849
90
38-970
2-73989
17
7-861
•61763
64
28-882
1-64393
91
39-403
2-77033
18
7-794
•64797
66
23-816
1 -67437
92
39-836
2-80077
19
8-227
•67841
66
24-248
1-70482
93
40-269
2-83122
20
8-660
•60886
67
24-681
1-78626
94
40-702
2 86166
21
9-093
•63930
68
26-114
1-76670
96
41*135
2-89210
22
9-626
•66974
69
26-667
1-79614
96
41-668
2-92266
23
9-969
•70019
60
26-980
1-82669
97
42 001
2-96299
24
10^892
•73063
61
26-413
1-86708
98
42-434
2-98348
26
10^826
•76107
62
26-846
1 -88747
99
42*867
3-01887
26
11^268
•79162
68
27-279
1-91792
100
48*800
8*04482
Th« ftboTe Table is oalonlated for fresh water at a temperature of 68*
508
MIBOBLLAiriOnS TABLM.
b
«
a
(2
.9
§
a
a
i
1
U
I
3
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H
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s.
U
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ill
1^
W W 0< r-i iH tH r4
tH pH ^H IH
9oo9ooooopS8S8S8g8288?i?||§p
-.^oa9^^^«^coSf38e?l?859S8SEi5|§a
oo9?»«»-9T^?o«oa??8?8pS?a??pplS3p3
©•orop-frTo-^-^-rfor^-
[§§I§§§§§§SS^S8388S
MISGBLLANBOUB TABLES.
509
o
a-
a
08
a
B
.S
cs
b
is
I
•a
a
.•a
O
a
i
2
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fl
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9
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■
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to
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OrHrHMOieOM'«-<«iO«b>Wa»0)'<«iCDOft'«ae90000
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afteoooei»«iHCOiH2<«eoooo4r-i^i«oQ4ob<<«(Sip«
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fHiHr-(r-l(NC4MeO^
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SSogoSSS^HgoSr-iSSt^MQgst-tojit^wonJ
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rl 1-4 rH iH 04 04 A M
IS
iS
510
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.
Table CLXXVI 1 1.— Comparison of Thermometers.
Fahrm-
Oentl.
Reau-
Fahren-
CenU-
Reaa-
Fahren-
Centi-
Bean.
heit
degi.
grade
degi.
mur
degs.
heit
degi.
n«de
degs.
mar
degs.
heit
degs.
^«de
aega.
+
mar
degB.
+
-481-20
-274-00
-219-22
+
_
.
+
+
~
•
21*20
6-
4*80
44-60
7*
5*60
0-
17-78
14-22
22*
5-66
4-44
45*
7*28
5*77
0-60
17*50
14-
28*
5*
4-
46*60
7-50
6*
1-
17*28
18*77
24-
4*45
8*56
46-
7*78
6*22
1*40
17*
18*60
24*80
4-
8*20
46*40
8*
6*40
2-
16-67
18*88
26*
8*89
8-11
47*
8*84
6*66
2-76
16*26
18-
25-25
8*75
8-
47-75
8*75
7*
8-
16-11
12-88
26*
8-84
2-66
48*
8-89
7*11
8*20
16-
12-80
26-60
8*
2*40
48*20
9*
7-20
4-
15*56
12*44
27*
2*78
2*22
49-
9*45
7-56
6-
16*
12-
27-60
2*60
2*
50-
10*
8*
6*
14*45
11-66
28*
2-28
1*77
61-
10*56
8*44
6-80
14*
11-20
28*40
2-
1-60
61*80
11-
8*80
7-
18*89
11-11
29*
1*67
1-83
62-
11*11
8*88
7*26
18*75
11-
29-76
1-25
1-
52-25
11-25
9*
8-
' 18*84
10*66
80*
1-11
0-88
53-
11-67
9-33
8-60
18*
10*40
80*20
1*
0-80
63-60
12*
9-60
9*
12*78
10-22
31-
0-66
0-44
54*
12-28
9*77
9 ''50
12*50
10-
82-
0*
0*
64*60
12-60
10*
10*
12*28
9-77
+ 88*
+ 0-56
+ 0*44
56-
12-78
10*22
10*40
12*
9-60
88*80
1-
0*80
65*40
13*
10-40
11-
11-67
9*88
84-
1-11
0-88
66*
13-34
10-66
1176
11*25
9-
84*26
1*25
1-
66*75
13*75
11*
12-
11-11
8-88
85-
1*67
1*33
67*
18-89
11*11
12-20
11-
8*80
86*60
2*
1-60
57-20
14*
11-20
18*
10*56
8*44
86*
2*28
1-77
58-
14*45
11*65
14*
10-
8*
86-50
2*50
2*
59*
15-
12*
15*
9-45
7*55
87*
2-78
2*22
60*
15*66
12-44
15*80
9*
7*20
87-40
8-
2-40
60*80
16*
12-80
16-
8-89
7*11
88-
8*34
2*66
61*
16*11
12*88
16-25
8*75
7*
88*75
8*75
8*
61-25
16-26
IS-
17-
8*84
6-66
89*
8*89
8*11
62- .
16-67
IS '38
17*60
8*
6-40
89-20
4*
8-20
62*60
17-
18*60
18*
7*78
6*22
40-
4*46
8-56
68*
17-28
18-77
18*50
7*50
6-
41-
5*
4*
63*50
17*50
14-
19-
7*28
6*77
42-
5*56
4-44
64-
17*78
14-22
19*40
7-
5*60
42-80
6-
4*80
64-40
IS-
14-40
20-
6-67
6*88
48-
6*11
4*88
65-
IS -84
14*66
20-75
6-25
6-
48*26
6-25
5*
85*75
18-75
15-
21*
6-11
4*88
44-
6*67
5-88
66*
18*89
16*11
iTete.— Temp. Fahr.»| temp. Oenl+ST.
Temp. Cent. «| (Ump Fahr. - feO-
COMPARISON OP THERMOMETERS.
511
Table CLXXVI 1 1.— Comparison of Thermometers— cow/mMed.
Fahren-
Genti.
Reau-
Fahren-
Centi-
Reau-
Fahren-
Centi-
Reau-
heit
degB.
grade
dega.
mur
degs.
heit
degs.
grade
dega.
mur
degs.
heit
dega.
grade
degs.
mur
degs.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
66-20
19-
15-20
89-60
82'
25-60
111-20
44-
35*20
67-
19-46
16-66
90-
32-23
25-77
112-
44*45
36-66
68-
20-
16-
90-60
32-60
26-
113-
46-
86-
69-
20-66
16-44
91-
32-78
26-22
114-
45-56
86-44
69-80
21-
16-80
91-40
38-
26-40
114-80
46-
86-80
70-
21-11
16-88
92-
33-34
26-66
115-
46-11
86-88
70-26
21-26
17-
92-76
83-76
27-
115-25
46-25
37*
71-
21-67
17-33
93-
83-89
27-11
116-
46-67
37-33
71-60
22-
17-60
93-20
34*
27-20
116-60
47-
37-60
72-
22-28
17-77
94-
84-46
27-55
117-
47-23
37-77
72-60
22-60
IS-
96-
36-
28-
117-50
47-50
38-
73-
22-78
IS -22
96-
86-66
28*44
lis-
47-78
38*22
73-40
23-
18-40
96-80
86-
28-80
118-40
48-
88-40
74-
23-34
18-66
97-
86-11
28-88
119*
48-34
38-66
74-76
23-76
19-
97-26
86-26
29-
119-75
48-75
39-
76-
23-89
19-11
98-
86-67
29-83
120-
48-89
39-11
75-20
24-
19-20
98*60
37-
29-60
120-20
49-
39-20
76-
24-46
19-65
99*
37-28
29-77
121-
49-46
39-56
77-
26-
20-
99-60
37-60
80-
122-
60-
40-
78-
26-66
20-44
100-
37-78
80-22
123-
50-56
40-44
78-80
26-
20-80
100-40
38-
30-40
123-80
51-
40-80
79-
26-11
20-88
101-
88-34
80-66
124-
51-11
40-88
79-26
26-26
21-
101 -76
38-76
31-
124-25
61-26
41-
80-
26-67
21-33
102-
88-89
31 11
125-
51-67
41-33
80-60
27-
21-60
102*20
89-
81-20
125-60
52-
41-60
81-
27-23
21-77
108-
89-46
31-66
126
52-23
41-77
81-60
27-60
22-
104-
40-
32*
126-60
62-50
42-
82-
27-78
22-22
106-
40-66
82-44
127-
52-78
42-22
82-40
28-
22-40
106-80
41-
32-80
127-40
53-
42-40
83-
28-34
22*66
106-
41-11
32-88
128-
53-84
42-66
83-76
28-76
23-
106-26
41-26
83-
128-76
63-76
43-
84-
28-89
•23-11
107-
41-67
83-33
129-
63-89
43-11
84-20
29-
•23-20
107-60
42-
83-60
129-20
64-
43-20
86-
29-46
23-66
108-
42-23
38-77
130-
64-46
43-66
86-
SO-
24-
108-60
42-50
34-
131-
66*
44-
87-
SO -66
24-44
109-
42-78
34-22
132-
66-56
44-44
87-80
81-
24 80
109*40
43-
84-40
132-80
66*
44-80
88-
81-11
24-88
110-
48-34
84-66
183-
56-11
44-88
88-26
31-26
26-
110-76
43-75
85-
133-25
66-26
45-
89-
81-67
26-88
111-
43-89
86-11
184-
66*67
46-88
512
HISGBLLANBOUS TABLBS.
Table CLXXVI 1 1.— Comparison of Thermometers— «m<irM««f.
Fahren-
Oentt-
Sean-
Fahren-
Genti-
Reau-
Fahren-
Centi-
Reau-
heit
degi.
miir
heit
grade
mur
heit
grade
mur
degi.
degs.
degi.
^
dega.
degi.
degs.
degs.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
184-60
67*
46*60
166-20
69*
66-20
179-60
82-
65-60
185-
67*28
46-77
167-
69*46
66-56
180-
82-23
65-77
186*50
67*60
46*
158*
70
56*
180*50
82-60
66-
186-
67*78
46*22
159*
70-66
66*44
181-
82-78
66-22
186-40
68*
46*40
159*80
71-
66-80
181 -40
88*
66-40
187-
68-84
46-66
160-
71*11
56-88
182-
88*84
66*66
187-76
68*76
47*
160*26
71*25
57-
182-76
88*75
67*
188-
68*89
47 11
161*
71*67
67-88
188-
88*89
67-11
188-20
69-
47*20
161*60
72*
67-60
188-20
84-
67*20
189*
69*45
47*65
162-
72-23
67*77
184*
84*46
67-55
140*
60*
48*
162-60
72*50
68-
186-
86-
68*
141*
60*66
48*44
168*
72-78
68*22
186-
86-66
68*44
141*80
61*
48*80
168*40
78*
68-40
186-80
86*
68*80
142*
61*11
48*88
164*
78*84
68-66
187-
86*11
68-88
142*26
61-25
49*
164-76
78*75
59-
187*26
86*26
69*
148*
61-67
49*88
165*
78*89
59-11
188-
86*67
69-88
148*60
62*
49-60
166*20
74*
69*20
188*60
87*
69-60
144-
62*28
49*77
166*
74*45
69*56
189-
87*28
69*77
144*60
62-60
60*
167*
76*
60*
189*60
87*50
70-
146*
62*78
50-22
168*
76*66
60*44
190*
87*78
70-22
146-40
68* •
60*40
168-80
76*
60*80
190*40
88-
70-40
146-
68*84
60*66
169*
76-11
60*88
191*
88-34
70-66
146-76
68*76
61*
169-26
76*25
61-
191-76
88*76
71-
147*
68-89
6111
170-
76-67
61-88
192-
88*89
7111
147*20
64-
61*20
170*60
77*
61*60 192-20
89*
71*20
148*
64*46
61*65
171-
77*28
6177 198-
89*45
71*66
149*
66-
62-
171*60
77-60
62- 1 194-
90*
72-
160*
65*66
62*44
172*
77-78
62-22
196*
90-66
72-44
160*80
66*
52*80
172*40
78*
62-40
195-80
91-
72*80
161*
66*11
52-88
178*
78*84
62-66
196-
91*11
72-88
161-26
66-26
68-
178-76
78*75
68-
196-25 91-25
78-
162*
66-67
68*88
174*
78*89
68-11
197*
91*67
78-88
162-60
67*
58-60
174-20
79*
68-20
197*60
92-
78*60
168*
67*28
58-77
175*
79*45
68-66
198*
92*28
78-77
168-60
67-60
64*
176*
80*
64-
198*50
92-60
74-
164*
67*78
54-22
177*
80-66
64-44
199*
92*78
74*22
164-40
68*
54-40
177-80
81-
64*80
199*40
98-
74*40
165*
68-84
54-66
178*
81-11
64-88
200'
98*84
74*66
166*76
68*76
65*
178*26
81-26
65-
200*75
98*76
76-
166*
68*89
66*11
179*
81 -6y
66-88
201*
98*89
76*11
COMPAKISON OP THERMOMETERS.
613
Table CLXXVIII.— Comparison of Thermometers— «)n^mtt«rf.
Fahren-
Centi.
Reau-
Fahren-
Centi-
Reau-
Fahren-
Genti-
Beaa-
heit
grade
mur
heit
grade
mur
heit
grade
mur
degs.
degs.
degi.
d^gs.
dega.
dega.
dega.
dega.
dega.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
201-20
94*
76-20
224-60
107*
86-60
246-20
119*
96*20
202'
94-45
75 -66
226*
107-23
86-77
247-
119-45
96*66
208-
95-
76-
225*50
107-50
86-
248-
120-
96*
204-
95*56
76>44
226*
107-78
86-22
249-
120-56
96*44
204*80
96-
76-80
226-40
108*
86-40
249-80
121*
96*80
206-
96-11
76*88
227-
108*84
86-66
250*
121-11
96-88
205-26
96-25
77*
227-76
108-75
87-
250*25
121-25
97*
206-
96-67
77-83
228-
108-89
87*11
261-
121-67
97-83
206-60
97*
77*60
228-20
109*
87-20
251*60
122*
97-60
207-
97-28
77*77
229-
109-45
87*55
262-
122*28
97-77
207-50
97-50
78*
230-
110-
88*
252-60
122*50
98*
208-
97-78
78-22
231-
110-56
88*44
253-
122-78
98*22
208*40
98-
78-40
231-80
111*
88-80
253*40
123*
98-40
209-
98*84
78-66
282-
111*11
88*88
254*
128-84
98-66
209-75
98-75
79*
232-25
111*26
89-
254*75
123-76
99*
210-
98*89
79*11
238*
111*67
89-38
256*
123*89
99*11
210-20
99*
79-20
233-60
112*
89-60
255-20
124*
99*20
211-
99-45
79-55
234-
112-23
89-77
256*
124-45
99-55
212-
100*
80-
234-50
112*60
90*
257"
125*
100*
213-
100*56
80-44
235*
112-78
90-22
258*
125-66
100*44
218*80
101*
»)-80
236-40
113*
90-40
258-80
126-
100*80
214-
101*11
80-88
236*
113-84
90-66
259-
126-11
100*88
214-25
101*26
81*
286-75
118-76
91*
259*25
126-25
101*
215-
101*67
81*33
237*
113*89
91*11
260-
126-67
101*83
215-60
102*
81-60
237-20
114*
91-20
260*60
127*
101 -60
216-
102-28
81-77
238*
114-45
91*55
261*
127-23
101-77
216*50
102-50
82-
239*
115*
92*
261*50
127*50
102*
217-
102*78
82-22
240*
115-66
92-44
262*
127-78
102-22
217*40
103-
82-40
240*80
116-
92-80
262*40
128-
102-40
218-
103-34
82-66
241-
116-11
92 '89
263*
128-84
102-66
218-75
103-75
88*
241 -25
116-25
98*
263-75
12875
103-
219-
103-89
88*11
242-
116-67
98-83
264*
128-89
103-11
219*20
104*
88*20
242-60
117*
93-60
264*20
129*
108-20
220*
104*45
83*66
243-
117-28
93*77
266*
129*45
108-56
221*
106-
84-
243-50
117-50
94*
266-
130*
104*
222'
105*56
84*44
244-
117*78
94*22
267*
130-26
104*44
222-80
106-
84-80
244-40
118*
94-40
267-80
131-
104-80
228*
106*11
84*88
245-
118-84
94-66
268-
181*11
104*88
228-25
106*25
85*
245-75
118*76
95-
268-26
181*25
106'
224*
106*67
85-83
246*
118-89
95-11
269*
181*67
105-88
33
5U
HISGELLANBOUB TABLES.
Table CLXXVIII.—Comparison of Thermometers— con ^mt^.
Fahren-
Centi.
Bean*
Fahren-
Centi-
Bean-
Centi-
Beaa
heit
grade
mar
heit
grade
degs.
mar
heit
grade
mar
de£8.
dega.
dega.
degi.
degs.
dega.
dega.
degs.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
269-60
182*
106*60
291-20
144-
116*20
314-60
167-
125*60
270-
182-28
105-77
292*
144*45
116*55
815-
167-28
125*77
270-50
182*50
106*
293*'
145*
116*
816-60
157-60
126-
271-
132*78
106-22
294*
146-66
116-44
816-
157-78
126*22
271-40
133-
106-40
294*80
146-
116*80
316*40
158*
126-40
272-
133-84
106-66
296-
146-11
116-88
317*
168*84
126-66
272-75
13875
107*
295-25
146*25
117*
817*76
168-76
127*
273-
138*89
107*11
296-
146-67
117-33
318-
158-89
127*11
278-20
134*
107-20
296-60
147*
117*60
818-20
159-
127*20
274-
184-45
107-65
297-
147-23
117-77
319-
159-46
127-66
275-
186*
108*
297-50
147*60
118*
820*
160*
128*
276-
135 -56
108*44
298*
147*78
118*22
821-
160*66
128*44
276-80
186-
108-80
298*40
148*
118-40
821*80
161-
128*80
277-
136-11
108-88
299*
148 84
118*66
822*
161*11
128*88
277-26
136-25
109*
299-76
148*76
119-
322*25
161-26
129*
278-
136-67
109-33
300*
148-89
119-11
323*
161-67
129-83
278-60
137*
109*60
300*20
149*
119*20
823*60
162*
129-60
279-
137-23
109*77
301*
149*46
119-55
324*
162*28
129*77
279-60
137-60
110*
302*
160*
120-
324-60
162*60
130*
280-
187-78
110*22
303-
150*66
120*44
326-
162-78
130*22
280-40
138-
110*40
303-80
161-
120*80
825-40
168*
180-40
281'
138-84
110-66
304-
151*11
120*88
326*
168*84
180-66
281-76
138-76
111*
304-26
151-25
121*
326*76
163-76
181-
282'
^88-89
111*11
305-
151-67
121 -83
327*
168*89
181-11
282-20
139-
111-20
805*60
152-
121-60
327*20
164 -.
181*20
288-
139-45
111*65
806*
152-23
121*77
328*
164-46
131*55
284*
140-
112*
806*50
152-50
122*
329*
166-
182-
286'
140-66
112-44
307*
152-78
122-22
330*
166*66
132-44
286-80
141-
112-80
307-40
153-
122*40
330-80
166*
182-80
286-
141-11
112*88
%08-
158-34
122-66
331-
166*11
182*88
286-25
141-25
113*
308-76
153-75
123*
331 '26
166*26
138-
287-
141-67
113-33
309*
153-89
123-11
832-
166-67
138-88
287-60
142-
113-60
809-29
164-
123*20
332-60
167*
138-60
288-
142-23
113-77
810*
154-45
123*65
833-
167*23
188-77
288*50
142-50
114-
311-
165*
124-
333-60
167-60
184-
289-
142-78
114-22
312-
156^6
124-44
334-
167-78
184-22
289*40
143*
114-40
812-80
166-
124-80
834*40
168-
134-40
290*
148-34
114-66
818*
166-11
124*88
336-
168-84
184-66
290-76
143-76
116*
818-26
166*26
126-
886-76
168*76
185-
891-
148-89
116-11
814-
166*67
126*88
886-
168*89
185-11
COMPARISON OF THBRMOMBTBRS.
515
Table CJLXXVII I.— Comparison of Thermometers— c(m^nti«d.
Fahren>
Centi-
Bean-
Fabren*
Centi.
Beau-
Fkihren-
Centi.
Bean-
heit
grade
degs.
mux
heit
grade
mur
heit
grade
mnr
degs.
degi.
dega.
degB.
dega.
degs.
degt.
degs.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
836-20
169*
186*20
859*60
182*
146*60
881*20
194-
165*20
837-
169*45
135*56
860*
182-28
146-77
382*
194*45
156-65
838-
170*
136-
860-60
182-60
146-
888*
195-
166*
839-
170*56
136-44
861-
182*78
146*22
884*
195*56
166*44
839-80
171*
136-80
861 -40
183*
146*40
384*80
196*
156*80
840-
171*11
136-88
362*
188*34
146-66
386*
196*11
166*88
840*25
171 -25
137*
862*75
188-75
147-
386-26
196-25
157*
841-
171 -67
137-88
868-
188-89
147*11
886*
196*67
167*88
341*60
172-
137-60
863-20
184-
147-20
886-60
197*
157-60
342-
172*28
137-77
364*
184-46
147-65
387*
197*23
157-77
842-50
172-50
138*
865*
185*
148*
387*50
197*60
158*
343*
172-78
138*22
366*
185-56
148*44
888*
197*78
158-22
848-40
173*
188*40
366-80
186-
148-80
888-40
198*
168-40
344*
178*34
188-66
367*
186*11
148-88
389*
198*34
168*66
844*75
173*75
139*
367*25
186*25
149-
889*76
198*76
159*
345*
173-89
189-11
368*
186-67
149*83
890*
198*89
169*11
345-20
174-
139*20
368*60
187*
149*60
390*20
199*
159*20
846*
174-45
139*55
869*
187*23
149*77
891*
199-45
159-66
847*
175*
140*
369*60
187-60
150-
892*
200*
160-
848-
175-56
140*44
870*
187*78
160-22
893*
200*66
160*44
848*80
176-
140*80
870*40
188*
150*40
898*80
201-
160*80
849*
176*11
140-88
871-
188-84
160-66
894*
201*11
160*88
849-25
176*25
141*
371-75
188*75
151*
894*26
201*25
161*
850*
176*67
141*88
872*
188-89
151*11
895-
201 -67
161-83
850*60
177*
141 -60
872*20
189*
161-20
895-60
202*
161*60
851*
177-23
141-77
878*
189-46
161-65
896*
202*23
161-77
851 -50
177-50
142*
874-
190*
162*
896-50
202-50
162-
852-
177-78
142*22
375-
190*56
162-44
897*
202-78
162*22
852*40
na-
142-40
375-80
191-
152-80
397-40
208-
162*40
853*
ns -84
142*66
876*
191*11
152-88
898-
203*34
162-66
858*75
178-75
143*
876-25
191*25
163*
398*75
203-76
163-
854*
178-89
143-11
877*
191*67
163-3?
899*
203*89
163*11
854*20
179-
148-20
877-60
192*
163 60
899-20
204-
163-20
855-
179-45
143-56
878-
192*23
153-77
400*
204-45
163*55
856-
ISO-
144-
378*50
192-50
164*
401-
205* •
164*
857*
ISO -56
144-44
879*
192-78
154-22
402-
206*66
164-44
857*80
181*
144*80
879*40
193*
154-40
402-80
206*
164-80
858-
181-11
144*88
880-
198*84
164-66
408*
206 11
164*88
858*25
181*26
145*
880-75
198*75
156*
403*25
206-25
165*
869*
181*67
145*88
881*
198*89
165*11
404*
206-67
165*88
616
MISOELLANBOUS TABLBS.
Table CLXXVIIL-
-Comparison of Thermometers-
conUntied,
Fahren-
Centi-
Aeaa-
Fahren-
Centi-
Beau-
Fahren-
Cent
A' Bean-
helt^
grade
degs.
mur
heit
grade
mar
heit
grad
ie mar
degs.*
degB.
degi.
degs.
degs.
degs.
degi
1. degs.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
404-60
207"
165-60
426-
218-89
176-11
448-26
281'
'26 186'
405-
207'
23
165-77
426-20
219-
175-20
449*
231
•67 185
■38
406-50
207"
50
166-
427-
219-45
175-65
449-60
232
■ 185'
60
406-
208'
75
163-22
428-
220-
176-
450-
232
•23 185
•77
406-40
208"
166-40
429-
220-56
176-44
466-
235"
• 188'
407-
208'
34
166-66
429-80
221-
176-80
464*
240
192'
407-76
208'
76
167-
480-
221-11
176-88
473-
246
196-
408-
208
89
167-11
430-26
221 -25
177-
482-
260
' 200"
406-20
209-
167 20
431-
221 -67
177-33
491-
256
204
409-
209'
46
167-66
431-60
222-
177-60
500-
260'
208
410'
210'
168-
432-
222-23
177-77
609*
266
212
411-
210'
66
168-44
482-50
222-60
178-
618*
270
216
411-80
211
168-80
433*
222-78
178-22
527-
275'
• 220
412-
211'
11
168-88
438*40
223-
178-40
636-
280
224
412*25
211'
•26
169-
434-
223-84
178-66
645*
286
228
41d-
211
67
169-33
434-75
223-76
179-
564-
290'
• 232
413-60
212
169-60
435-
228-89
179*11
663-
296
286
414-
212'
23
169-77
435-20
224-
179-20
572*
300
• 240
414-60
212
•50
170-
436-
224-45
179*55
581-
806
244
416-
212"
78
170-22
437-
225-
180-
590-
310
' 248
415-40
213
170-40
438-
225-66
180-44
599-
816
262
416-
213'
34
170-66
438-80
226-
180-80
608-
820'
266
416-75
213
•75
171-
439-
226-11
180-88
617-
826
260
417-
213'
89
171-11
439-26
226-26
181-
626-
830
264
417-20
214*
171-20
440-
226-67
181-33
636-
835
268
418-
214
-45
171-55
440*60
227-
181-60
644*
340
272
419-
216
172-
441-
227 -23
181 -77
653-
346
276
420-
215
66
172-44
441 -50
227-60
182-
662*
850
280'
420*80
216-
172-80
442-
227-78
182-22
671-
856'
' 284
421-
216
11
172-88
442-40
228-
182-40
680-
860
288
421 -26
216'
25
178-
443-
228-34
182-66
689-
866
292
422*
216
•67
i 173-83
443-75
228-75
183-
698-
870
296
422-60
217'
173-60
444-
228-89
188-11
707*
876'
800
423-
217'
'23
178-77
444-20
229-
188-20
716-
880
804
423-60
217
'60
174-
446-
229-46
183-55
726-
886
808
424-
217
■78
174-22
446-
280-
184-
784-
890
812'
424-40
218'
174-40
447-
230-66
184-44
743-
896'
816
426-
218
-84
174-66
447-80
281-
184-80
762-
400
820
426-76
218-76
175-
448-
231-11
184-88
PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM.
617
Table CLXXIX.— Properties of Saturated Steam.
Pressure
l>er Square
Ineh from
MeanAt-
mospherie
.Pressure.
Tempera-
ture in
Fahren-
heit
Degrees.
Spedfle
orRela*
tiTO
Volume
of the
Steam.
Density
or Weight
of 1 Cubic
Foot of the
Steam.
Cable
Feet of
the Steam
jperlb.
Latent
Heat of
Erapora-
tion hi
Thermal
Units per
lb. of the
Steam.
Total Heat
in Ther-
mal Units
fromSa^
Fahrenheit
. per lb. of
toe Steam.
Absolate
Pressure
Square
Inch.
Ibfl.
Ik.
lbs.
-14
90*4
28740
•002170
460*7
1051-1
1109-5
7
-13
120*3
12480
•004998
200*1
1030*3
1118-6
1-7
-12
137-5
8080
•007720
129*5
1018*8
1123*9
27
-11
149-8
6009
•01038
96-32
10097
1127-6
87
-10
169-7
4799
•01300
76*92
1002-8
1130*7
47
-9
167-9
4008
•01558
64-17
997*0
1133-2
57
-8
174-9
8439
•01814
55*12
992*1
1135*3
67
-7
181-1
801.0
•02072
48-25
987*8
1137-2
77
-6
186-7
2690
•02319
43*12
983*9
1188-9
87
-6
191-8
2428
•02568
88*93
980*3
1140-4
97
-4
196-4
2215
•02817
85-50
977-1
1141*9
107
-3
200-7
2036
*0306d
82*64
974-0
1143*2
117
-2
204-7
1886
•03307
80*24
971-2
1144-4
127
-1
208-5
1755
*03553
28*14
968-5
1145-5
137
AtuiMphwra.
212-0
1648
•03797
26-34
966-1
1146-6
147
1
215*3
1544
•04039
24*76
963*8
1147-6
157
2
218*5
1457
*04280
23*36
961-5
1148-6
167
8
221-5
1380
*04521
22*12
959-4
1149-5
177
4
224-4
1310
•04761
21*0
957*3
1150-4
187
6
227-1
1248
•05000
20-0
955-4
1151*2
197
6
229*8
1191
•05238
19*09
953-5
1152*0
207
7
282-3
1139
*05476
18*26
951*8
1152*8
217
8
234-7
1092
•05712
17-61
960-1
1153-5
227
9
237-1
1049
•05949
16-81
948-4
1164-3
237
10
239-4
1009
•06184
16*17
946-7
1155*0
247
11
241-6
971-8
-06419
15-58
945*2
1155*6
257
12
243-7
937-5
-06654
15-08
943-7
1156*8
267
13
245-8
905-7
•06888
14*52
942*2
1156*9
277
14
247-8
876-0
•07122
14-04
940-8
1157*5
287
16
249*7
818*2
-07355
13-60
939-4
1168*1
297
1«
251-6
822*2
•07687
18-18
938 1
1168-7
807
518
iimriij.^^aoca tables.
Table CLXXIX.— Properties of Saturated Sttam—amlinued.
parSnaiv
bchfraa
kvclB
oCtta
Fwytfthc
OkMe
Fcet«r
KTmpon-
tlMia
Caitaper
IMilHaafc
taTIwr.
■nlCnili
fraair
FakKBlMil
Ataolak
Sqoare
Indk.
Ail
Al
Ih&
17
S5S-8
797-8
-07819
18-79
936-8
1159-8
817
18
sss-s
774-9
-08050
18-48
935-5
1159-8
887
19
S57-0
753-S
-06288
18-07
934-8
1160-3
837
SO
S58-7
783-8
-08518
1175
933-1
1160-9
847
SI
S60-4
718-5
'087a
11-44
931-9
1161-4
867
SS
a6s-o
895-2
-08978
1114
9307
1161-9
367
SS
S68-8
877-9
-09803
10-87
929-6
1162-8
877
S4
985-S
661-4
-09433
10-60
928-4
1162-8
887
S6
S667
645-7
-09661
10-36
927-4
1163-8
897
S6
SOS'S
630-8
-09890
1011
926-8
1168-8
407
87
S69-7
616-6
•1011
9-883
925-2
1164-8
417
S8
S71-1
608-0
•1034
9-666
924-3
1164-6
427
S9
S7S-8
690-0
•1057
9-458
923-8
1166-1
437
80
S78-9
•
577-6
-1080
9-259
922.-3
1165-5
447
81
S75-8
5657
•1108
9-068
921-8
1165-9
467
8S
S707
554-8
-1185
8-885
920-8
1166-8
467
88
278-0
543-4
•1148
8-710
919-8
11667
477
84
S79-8
532-9
•1170
8-541
918-4
1167 1
487
85
280-5
528-8
-1198
8-380
917-6
1167-5
497
88
281*8
518-1
•1215
8*225
916-6
1167-9
607
87
283-0
503-8
-1238
8-075
915-8
1168-8
617
88
234*2
494-8
•1260
7-931
914-9
1168-6
627
89
285-4
486-1
-1288
7798
914-1
1169-0
687
40
286-6
477 7
•1805
7-658
913*2
1169-4
647
41
287-8
469-7
•1328
7-529
912-3
11697
657
4S
288*9
461-9
-1850
7-404
911-6
1170-1
667
48
290 1
454-4
•1873
7-883
9107
1170-4
677
44
291-2
447-1
•1895
7-167
909-9
1170*8
687
46
292-8
440-0
•1417
7-054
909-1
1171-1
697
48
898-4
433-8
-1440
6-944
908-3
1171-4
607
47
894*4
486-6
1468
6^889
907-6
11717
617
PROPSRTIBS OF SATURATBD STBAM.
aid
Table CLXXIX.— Properties of Saturated Steam— continued.
Pieiave
>er Square
Inch from
Mean At-
mospheric
Presrare.
Tempera-
ture in
Fahren-
heit
D«sraes.
Specific
or Rehi-
tire
Volame
of the
Steam.
Density
or Weight
of 1 GnUc
Foot of the
Steam.
Cable
Feet of
the Steam
per lb.
Latent
Heat of
Evapora-
tion In
Thermal
Units per
lb. of the
Total Heat
In Ther-
mal Unita
fromSa^
Fahrenheit
per lb. of
the Steam.
Abadate
Pressore
per
Square
Inch.
lbs.
Ih.
Iba.
48
295*5
420-2
•1484
6786
906-8
1172*1
62*7
49
296-5
414-1
•1506
6-686
906-1
1172-4
63-7
60
297-5
408*0
•1529
6-540
906*4
1172*7
64-7
51
298*6
402-2
•1661
6-446
904-6
1173-0
65-7
62
299*6
896-5
•1678
6*856
903-9
1178*8
66*7
68
800*6
891-0
•1695
6-267
908*2
1178-6
67-7
64
801-5
885*6
•1617
6*181
902*5
1173*9
68*7
65
802-5
880-4
•1639
6-098
901*8
1174*2
69*7
56
808*5
875*4
•1681
6*017
901-1
1174-5
70-7
67
804*4
870*4
•1684
5*988
900*5
1174*8
71-7
68
805*8
865-6
•1706
5-861
899*8
1175*1
72-7
69
806-8
861*0
•1728
5-786
899-1
1176*4
73-7
60
807*2
856-4
•1760
5-714
898-6
1176-6
74-7
61
808 1
852^
•1772
5-648
897*8
1175-9
76-7
62
809*0
847*7
•1794
5-678
897-2
1176-2
76-7
68
809*9
843-5
•1816
5*606
896-6
1176*5
77-7
64
810-8
889-4
•1888
5-440
895-9
1176*7
78*7
65
811-6
835-4
•1860
5-876
896-8
1177-0
79*7
66
812-5
881-5
•1882
6*818
894-7
1177-8
80-7
67
818*8
827-7
•1904
6-252
894*1
1177-5
81*7
68
814-2
823-9
•1926
5 192
893-4
1177*8
82-7
69
815 0
820-8
•1947
5*134
892-9
1178*0
83-7
70
815*8
816*7
•1969
6*077
892*8
1178*8
84-7
71
816-7
813-8
•1991
5*021
891-6
1178-5
85-7
72
817-5
809*9
•2018
4*967
891*1
1178*8
86*7
78
818-8
806*5
•2035
4*914
890*5
1179*0
87-7
74
819*1
803-8
•2056
4-862
889-9
1179-8
88*7
75
819-9
800-1
•2078
4*811
889-8
1179-6
89*7
7(f
820*7
297-0
•2100
4*761
888-8
1179*8
90-7
77
821-4
294 0
•2122
4-712
888*8
1180-0
91*7
78
822*2
291*0
•2144
4*664
887-7
1180*2
92*7
520
MI8CBLLANK0US TABLES.
Table CLXXIX.— Properties of Saturated SteBm-^contintied,
Fnmnn
per Square
Inch from
HeanAt-
motpherie
PresBureL
Tempera-
tare in
Fahren-
heit
Depeea.
Spedile
or Rel«-
tire
Volnme
of the
Steam.
Density
or Weight
of 1 Cubic
Foot of the
Steam.
Cnbic
Feet of
the Steam
per lb.
Tiatent
Heat of
Evapora-
tion in
Thermal
Units per
lb. of the
Steam.
Total Heat
in Ther-
mal Units
fromSS*
Fahrenheit
per lb. of
Uie Steam.
Absolnte
Pressure
Sqaare
lbs.
lb.
Iba
79
828-0
288*0
•2165
4*617
887*1
118a-5
037
80
823-8
285*2
•2187
4*572
886*5
1180 7
047
81
824*5
282-4
•2200
4*627
886*0
1180 0
05*7
82
825*2
270-6
•2230
4*488
885-5
1181*1
067
88
826*0
276-0
•2252
4*430
885 0
1181*4
077
84
826*7
274*8
•2274
4*307
884-4
1181*6
087
85
827*4
2717
•2205
4*356
883 0
1181-8
007
86
828*1
260-2
•2317
4*315
883-4
1182*0
1007
87
828*0
2667
•2330
4*275
882-0
1182*8
1017
88
820*6
264-3
*2360
4*236
882*4
1182-5
1027
80
880*8
261*0
•2382
4*108
881*0
11827
1037
00
881*0
250*5
•2404
4*160
881*3
1182*0
1047
01
881*7
267*2
•2425
4*128
880*8
1183-1
1057
02
882*8
254*0
•2447
4*087
860*4
1183*8
1067
08
838*0
252-5
•2468
4 051
870*0
1183*5
1077
04
833-7
250-5
•2400
4-016
870*4
11837
1087
05
884*4
248*4
•2511
8*081
878*0
1188 0
1007
06
885 1
246-3
•2538
8-048
878-4
1184*2
1107
07
885-7
244-2
•2554
8*014
878 0
1184*8
1117
08
836*4
242-2
•2576
8-882
877-4
1184-6
1127
00
837-0
240*1
•2508
8-840
877-0
11847
1187
100
8377
238*2
•2610
8*818
876*5
1184*0
1147
101
888*8
236-2
•2640
8*787
876 1
1185*1
1157
102
830 0
234*3
•2662
8757
875*6
1185-8
1167
108
330*6
232*5
•2683
8*727
875*1
1185-5
1177
104
340*2
230-6
•2704
8-607
8747
11857
1187
105
840 0
228*8
•2726
8-668
874*2
1185-0
1107
106
841-5
227*0
•2747
8*630
873-8
1186*1
1207
107
8421
225*1
•2760
8*611
873*8
1186*8
1217
108
8427
228*6
•2700
8*584
872 0
1186*5
122*7
100
848*8
221*0
•2811
8*556
872*5
11867
128*7
PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM.
521
Table CLXXIX.— Properties of Saturated Steam— continued.
Pressure
per Square
Ineh from
Mean At-
mospheric
Prassore.
Tempem-
tnreia
Fahren*
heit
Degreea.
Spedflc
or Rela-
Volome
of the
Steam.
Density
or Weight
of 1 Cnbic
Foot of the
Steam.
Cnble
Feet of
the Steam
per lb.
Latent
Heat of
Evapora-
tion in
Thermal
Units per
Ih. of the
Steam.
Total Heat
tn Ther-
mal Unite
fromS9*,
Fahrenhdt
per lb. of
the Stem.
Abeolnte
Pressure
per
Square
Inch.
Iba.
A.
Ita.
110
848-9
220*1
•2888
8*580
872*0
1186*8
124-7
111
844*5
218*6
•2854
8-503
871*6
1187*0
126-7
112
845-1
216*9
•2875
8-477
871-2
1187-2
1267
118
8457
215-8
•2897
8-452
8707
1187-4
1277
114
846*8
213*7
•2918
8-426
870-8
1187-6
1287
116
846-9
212-2
•2939
8-401
869-9
1187*8
129-7
116
847*5
210*7
•2961
8*377
869-4
1187*9
1307
117
848-1
209*2
•2982
8-858
869-0
1188*1
1317
118
848-7
207*7
•8008
8*829
868*6
1188-8
1327
110
849-2
206*2
•8026
8*806
868-2
1188*5
1337
120
849-8
204*8
•8046
8-288
867-8
1188*6
1347
121
850-4
203-4
•8067
8-260
867-3
1188-8
135-7
122
851*0
202*0
•8088
8-237
866-9
1189*0
1867
128
851*5
200-6
•8110
8*215
866-6
1189*2
1377
124
852 1
199-2
•8131
8*194
866*1
1189*3
1387
125
852-6
197-9
•8152
8*172
8657
1189*5
1897
126
853-2
196-6
•8178
8151
865*8
11897
1407
127
858*7
195*8
•8194
8-180
864-9
1189*8
1417
128
854-8
194 0
•8216
8-109
864*5
1190-0
1427
129
854-8
192-7
•8237
8-089
864*1
1190-2
1437
180
855-4
191*6
•8258
8*069
8637
1190-3
1447
131
855-9
190*2
•827a
8-049
868*8
1190-5
1457
132
856-4
189 0
•8300
8-030
863-0
11907
1467
138
857*0
187*8
•8321
8-010
862*5
1190*8
1477
134
857*5
186-6
•8348
2-991
862*2
1191*0
1487
185
858*0
185-4
•8364
2*973
861*8
1191*1
1497
186
858*5
184-8
•8385
2-954
861*4
1191*8
150-7
137
859-1
182-9
•8406
2-936
861*0
1191*5
1517
138
859-6
182-0
•8427
2*918
860*6
1191*6
1527
139
860-1
180-9
•8448
2-900
860-8
1191-8
1637
140
860*6
179*8
'8469
2*882
859-9
1191*9
1547
M2
T«ble CLXXnL— PropctUes of Sstvated
MetMAU
TiiifiW^
1^^^.^^
Demdtf
tantiB
belt
DcpMS.
ttw
▼otaHM
atom
•rWdKht
flflCabie
Foa««f tke
Fccsof
tbeSfaea
tfMlB
Uatoper
DiLorite
BBl Uaiti {Frenve
fnmmtr per
PUncakelt Sqnm
perlbLor bck.
thoflrwmil
tb^
A.
1 11.
141
8611
1787
-8490
8-806
859-0
11921
1557
142
801 -6
177-0
-S511
8-848
859-2
1192-2
1507
148
8021
170-0
-S582
8-831
858-8
1192-4
1577
144
802-0
176-5
-8654
2-814
858-5
1192-6
1587
146
8031
174-5
-8675
2-797
8581
11927
1597
146
808-0
178-5
•8690
2-781
8577
1192-8
100-7
147
8641
172-tf
•8617
2-705
857*4
1193-0
1617
148
864-0
171-5
-8638
2749
857-0
1193*2
1627
149
8061
170-5
•8669
2788
856-0
1193-8
1637
160
866-6
109-5
•8080
2717
858*8
1193-5
1647
161
866-1
168-0
•8701
2702
855-9
1193-0
1657
. 163
866*6
107-0
•8722
2-087
855-6
1193-8
1667
168
8671
100-7
•8748
2-072
855-2
1193-9
1677
164
867*6
166-7
•8704
2-667
854*9
1194 0
1687
166
868-0
164*8
•8785
2-642
854-5
1194*2
1697
166
868-6
168-9
•8800
2-627
854-2
1194*8
1707
167
869-0
168-0
•8827
2-618
853-8
1194*5
1717
168
869-4
1621
•8847
2-699
853-5
1194-6
1727
160
869-9
161-2
•8868
2-686
853-1
1194-8
1787
160
870-4
160*4
•8889
2-671
852-8
1194*9
1747
101
870-8
169-6
•8910
2-667
852-5
1195 0
1757
162
871-8
168*7
•8981
2-543
8521
1195-2
1707
168
871-7
157*8
•8952
2-530
851-8
1195*3
1777
164
872-2
167-0
•8978
2-617
861-6
1195-5
1787
166
872-7
156*2
•8994
2-504
8611
1195-0
1797
166
8781
166*4
•4016
2-491
850*8
11957
1807
167
878*6
164-6
•4036
2-478
850-4
1195-9
1817
168
874-0
168-8
•4067
2*465
850-2
1190-0
1827
169
874-6
168*0
•4077
2*452
849-8
1196-2
1887
170
874-9
152*2
•4098
2-440
849-6
1196*8
1847
171
876*4
151*4
•4119
2*427
8491
1190-4
1857
PROPERTIES OF SATURATED STEAM.
523
Table CLXXIX.— Properties of Saturated Stenm— continued.
Pnaanrs
per Square
Inch from
Mean At-
mospherle
Pressure.
Tempera-
tnrein
Fahren-
heit
Degreea.
Speelfle
or Rela-
tive
Volume
of the
Steam.
DensltT
or Weight
of 1 CaUc
Foot of the
Steam.
CnUo
Feet of
the Steam
par lb.
Latent
Heat of
Erapora-
tionin
Thermal
Units per
lb. of the
Steam.
Total Beat
in Ther-
mal Units
from 89*
Fahrenheit
per lb. of
the Steam.
Absolute
Pressure
Square
Inch.
Iba.
lb.
lbs.
172
876-8
1607
•4140
2-416
848-8
1196*6
1867
178
876*2
149-9
•4161
2-408
848-6
11967
1877
174
876-7
149-2
•4182
2-391
848-2
1196*8
1887
176
877-1
148-4
•4208
2-379
847*9
1197-0
1897
176
877-6
147-7
-4228
2*368
847*6
1197-1
1907
177
878 0
147*0
•4244
2-856
847*2
1197*2
1917
178
878-4
146*8
•4266
2*344
846*9
1197-4
1927
179
878-8
146-6
•4286
2*333
8467
1197-6
1937
180
879-8
144*8
•4307
2-322
846*8
1197*6
1947
181
879-7
144*1
•4327
2*311
846*0
1197-8
1957
182
880-1
143*6
•4348
2*300
8457
1197*9
1967
183
880-6
142-8
-4369
2-289
845*4
1198*0
1977
184
881-0
142-1
•4390
2-278
845 0
1198-2
1987
186
881*4
141*4
•4410
2*267
844*8
1198-8
1997
186
881-8
140-8
•4431
2-267
844-6
1198-4
2007
187
882-2
140-1
•4462
2*246
844-2
1198-6
2017
188
882*6
139-6
•4478
2*236
843*9
1198*6
2027
189
888 0
138-8
-4493
2*225
843-6
1198*8
2037
190
883-6
138-2
•4614
2-216
843-2
1198-9
2047
191
883-9
187-6
•4536
2*206
842*9
1199*0
2057
192
884-8
186-9
•4566
2*196
842-6
1199-2
2067
193
8847
136*8
•4576
2*186
842*8
1199*8
2077
194
886-1
1867
•4697
2*176
842-0
1199*4
2087
196
886*6
136*1
•4618
2*166
841*8
1199*6
2097
196
886-9
134-6
•4639
2-156
841*6
1199*6
2107
197
886-8
133*9
•4659
2*146
841*2
1199*8
2117
198
886-7
133*3
•4680
2*187
840*9
1109-9
2127
199
887*1
1327
•4701
2-127
840*6
1200-0
2137
200
887-6
1821
•4721
2*118
840-8
1200-1
2147
524
MISCSLLANBOUS TABLES.
Table CLXXIX.— Properties of Saturated Steam—eontinuetL
Pressure
per Square
Inch from
MeanAt>
mospherie
Pressure.
Tempera-
ture In
Fahren-
heit
Degrees.
Specific
or RelA-
ttre
Volume
of the
Steam.
Density
or Weight
of 1 Cubic
Foot of the
Steam.
Cubic
Feet of
the Steam
per lb.
Latent
Heat of
Eyapora-
tion in
Thennal
Units per
lb. of the
Steam.
Total Heat
In Ther-
mal Units
from 82-
Fahrenheit
per lb. of
the Steam.
Absolute
Pressure
per
Square
Inch.
Iba.
Ik
Iba.
206
889*4
129-8
-4824
2 078
888-9
1200-7
219-7
210
891-8
126*5
•4926
2^030
837^6
1201^8
224*7
215
898-2
128*9
-5027
1^989
886 ^2
1201*9
229-7
220
895-1
121*5
-5128
1'950
884-8
1202^5
234-7
225
897-0
119*2
-5230
1^912
833-4
1208 •I
289-7
280
898-9
117*0
-5382
1-876
832-1
1203-7
244-7
285
400-6
114-8
-5485
1^840
830-8
1204-2
249-7
240
402*8
112-6
-5538
1^805
829-5
1204-7
254*7
245
404-0
110-5
-6641
1-772
828 ^2
1205*2
259-7
250
405-7
108*6
•5744
1-741
826 ^9
1205-8
264-7
255
407-4
106-7
•5846
1-711
825-7
1206-8
269-7
260
409*0
104-8
-5949
1-681
824^5
1206-8
274-7
265
410-7
103-0
-6052
1-652
823 •S
1207-8
279-7
270
412-8
101-3
'6155
1-624
822-1
1207-8
284*7
275
418-9
99-7
•6258
1-597
820-9
1208-8
289-7
280
415-5
98-2
•6861
1^672
819-7
1208-8
294-7
285
417-0
96*7
•6462
r548
818-6
1209-2
299-7
290
418-5
95*2
•6568
1-524
817-5
1209-7
304-7
295
420-0
98*7
•6664
1-501
816-4
1210-2
809^7
800
421-5
92*8
-6766
1-478
815^8
1210*6
814^7
805
428-0
90*9
•6868
1-456
814-2
1211-0
819-7
810
424-4
89-6
•6968
1-435
818-1
1-211-5
824-7
815
425-8
88-8
-7068
1-415
812^1
1211 9
829-7
820
427-2
87-0
-7168
1-895
81M
1212*8
334 '7
825
428-6
85*8
•7268
1^376
810^1
1212-7
839-7
850
435-4
80*8
•7770
1-287
805*0
1214*8
864-7
400
447-9
71-2
*8764
1-141
795-7
1218-6
414-7
450
459*8
68-9
*9756
1-025
787*2
1222 1
464-7
500
469-9
58*1
1-0741
•981
779*2
1225-8
514-7
TOTAL HEAT OF EVAPORATION.
525
I-
H
bo
•g
3
a
o
I
o
3
e
H
I
(J
At 893*
Press. 230
At 889*
Press. 220
At 886*
Press. 210
At 381'
Press. 200
At37r
Press. 190
At 878*
Press. 180
^9" ^^ ^9^ ^9" ^^^ ^J" ^^^ ^v" ^9" ^9" ^9^ ^^^ ^'fl' ^9" ^P ^J' ^9" ^J" v^ ^J" ^5* ^'J' ^P
0)Q0t<*C0ka-^e0(Mr-lOa>Q0^<*<0^^00C^(Nr-IOa»C0
i-li-li-Hi-HrHi-lrHiHi-lrHOOOOOOOOOOOO»0»
OOOOOOOOOOCOOOOOOOOOCO 00 OOCOOOCOOOOOrHOOfiOOOeO
a»ootN.cOiOTi4eoc4i-HOO»GOtN.co>OTi4eo(NC<ii-ioo»oo
lH«-HrHrHiHtHi-Hi-Hr-li-HOOOOOOOOOOOO»C»
C9C<IC9C9C4C>9(MC4(NC9CqC4<N09CS|C^(NC!10C3C4S<lCI
o»oot»cotaT«4ooc^i-ioakoot>.coiOTt4coc4C4i-ioa>ao
rHr-lfHi-lrHi-l^i-li-lrHOOOOOOOOOOO0»0>
a»OOt«CD^'<^eOC4r-lOa>OOt^>COkOTt4eO<NrHr-iOO»00
rHi-lrHr-li-tf-lrHiHrHi-t«00000000000>0»
oot^cou:)-<^eo94rHoa»ootN.cDtO'^eoc4«HrHoo»oot^
f-ifHrHr-li-ti-fi-|i-tf-(000000000000>OiO>
ooooooooooGoooooooooaoooooooooooooootoaOGOoooo
OOt<«CDkO'^OOC4i-400»OOt^COU:)<Ti4eOC<lf-HrHOO»GOt^
•HrHrHi-lrHrHrHrHiHOOOOOOOOOOOOiOiO
At 868*
Press. 170
OOt^«OU:dTl4CQ94rHOa»OOt<«COO'^00(NrHi-iOakOOt>.
r-lrHi-irHrHi-if-HiHrHOOOOOOOOOOOa»0»a»
At 868*
Press. 160
At 858*
Press. 160.
At 863*
Press. 140
At 847*
Press. 180.
At 841*
Press. 120
At 385*
Press. 110
At 328*
Press. 100
a0t<««0kOrt4e0C4r-lOa»Q0t^><0iO^e0C4i-ir-lOa)00l>.
rHrHrHiHi-tiHrHi-lrHOOOOOOOOOOOOJOiO*
00 00 CO 00 00 00 00 OO OO 00 OO 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 rH 00 CO 00 CO
OOt>.QOkO'^00(NrHOO»OOr<»«OlOTl400C4r-<irHOa>GOt>«
rHrHr-|r-lr-lr-li-li-Hr-IOOOOOOOOOOOa)a»C»
OOt^«OkO<^OOC<lrHOO»QOt<^«OO^OOOIrHi-IOO»OOt^
i-li-li-lrHi-lr-«i-<i-liHOOOOOOOOOOO«0>0»
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
00^«QDkO'<^CO(Np-IOO»OOtN>COkO'T|lOO(MrHOOakOOt^
i-liHrHi-lr-lrHr-lTHr-IOOOOOOOOOOoa»0»0»
oooocoooooooooaoooaoooooooooooooQOootooooooooo
t<«(0)OTt<eo(NrHoa>oot>*QDkO-^oo(Ni-HOoa»oot>.cD
i-HrHr-lTHrHrHiHrHOOOOOOOOOOOa»a»a»a»
t<«C0iO-<d400C>9rHOa»a0tN.«0OTK00C4i-lOO0i00i»(0
r-lr-lrHrHr-lr-trHi-IOOOOOOOOOOOa>a>a»a»
tv.cOkO'^eOC4rHOa»OOtN.eOkOr}400C9rHOOO»OOt<«CO
,-(,HrHf-lr-lrHr-ti-lOOOOOOOOOOO0»0»0»0»
From
^
eooooeoooeooooeeeooooeo
OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO
<^kOCO^«OOAOrHC4eO-^)OC04>»000»Or-lr-l(NOO^ua
■J
-a
s
3
I
00
I
B
0
09
08
i
l-H
£
08
I
526
BNOLISH AND METRIOAL MBASITRE8.
ENGLISH AND METRICAL MEASURES.
The EDglish standard yard is on a bronze bar, measared at a tem-
peratare of 62** F.
The French standard metre ia the length of a platinum bar
when at a temperature of 0* Cent (82* F.)*
The Standards Commission, in their Report of 1871-72, considered
that a correction was needed to allow for this difference, but the
oriKinal equivalents were adopted without correction in the Weights
and Measures Act of 1878.
Comparison of
Metre.
Litre.
Kilogramme.
Corrected (Standards Com.),
Adopted (Act of 1878),
Inches.*
89*88202
89-37079
Gallons.!
•22018
•2200967
Lbs.
2^20462
2*20462
Bquabb Mkasurb.
ins. feet.
i-B-ooeoi >
144s 1 .
1206 s 9 .
n)204s 272):
yards, perches.
'000772»*0000265>
•HI --00867 ■
1 --OSSl -
> 80i« 1
roods.
> '00000064
> -0000018
'000820
>'026
1668160- 10690 - 1210 '-40 - 1
6272640- 48660 - 4840 - 160 - 4
10 square chains— 1 acre.
1 hectare -2'471148 acres.
{-27878400 sq. feet
-8097600 sq. yards.
-640 acres.
acre.
square
metres.
•000000160- -000646
•000028
-•0929
■0002062
-'8861
•00626
-26 298
26
-1011-7
1
-4046*7
ini.
feet.
yard.
Cubic Mbasvbb.
cubic metre
or stere.
1- -0006788- *0000021U- -000016886
1728 » 1 - -08704 -028816
46666-27 -1 -'764618
MBASURX OV CAPAOTTT.
pints, gall peck, bnshel. quarter, wey.
1= 1^6- -06-26= '01562- -00196- '00089i
8s l-'6 -'126 --0166 -'00812 a
16- 2- 1 -'26 - -03126- -006i!6>
64- 8- 4-1 --126 -'026 >
512- 64- 82 - 8 - 1 --2
2560- 820- 160-40 - 6 - 1 ■
6120- 640- 820-80 - 10 - 2 ■
last.
• -000196 >
: -00166 *
1-00812 ■
.•0126 «
!-l
•6
1
onb. ftw
-020061-
I -16046 -
-82092 -
> 1-28367 -
I 10-269 -
> 61-847
102-60
1 gallon in wine, ale, or dry measure
-277*27884 cuoio inches- '16 cubic foot.
-10 lbs. of distilled water-
Cube feet X 6*2856 -gallons x 10 -lbs.
Cube ins. x '008607 -gallons.
1 bushel -2218'19 cubic inches-l*28 enbio foot
Cubic feet x '78- bushels.
Utres.
'6679
4'548
9*087
86*84766
890*781
1463*906
8907*81
* At equal temperatures in ordinary air.
t At equal temperatures,— 4lstilled water.
KNOTS, MILBS, KILOMETRES, BTO.
627
Feet per
lecond.
aooo^•l-4koo^oooi|««-Hloo»eoooo4too^a»eo^•l-4«D
• •■•••••••■••••••••■••••
rHrHfHrHrHrHiHiHcie4e4e4C4elo909oio4e^c4e4e4G^e<i
•
f
II
ep^* «)^• op^. op^• oo^• opt* oot* opt*
oooO'««(a»'^o»oo«o«-H«o<Nt«o<iooeooo'«a»'«oio o<«o
i-ICO«O00i-<'^«OO»i-i'*tOO»rH'*tOO»i-f^<OO»C^'^b-«
OOOOrHv-ifH*HC4C^G>9C4eoeOOOOO'<^'^^'^»OtOtOlO
•
8
OQ
1
O^lOOOF-tOOOr-tlOOOiHtOOOr-l'^OOtH'^OOrHTltt-.r-l'^t'*
ooo»ud(NGO'^i-Ht*eoo«OdO»kOrHaO'^ot«ooa>«oc>9ao
toa»'<«o»eoGooot*CQt^«-H<oo»oO'«o»'^aoeot«oit<*^
• *<•• • ••«••••*•••••••••■
1
1
a
i
II
f-ioa»aot<»o^eoc9i-4a»oo»s.«o^eoo4r-<ooot»«M><^
IOCOOaOtOTl404000«DeOrHO»t<«1000rHO»rs.-^C90aO«0
lOQOOOO«DOiC4kOaO«-HOO«DO»C^U300rH<^«00»C4kOaOrH
• ••••••••••••• ■•••••••••
rHi-HC^G>1O^OlOOeOOO^'<tf(^«i«»OkOkO«0<OtD<Ot*t«t*aO
I
M»»OWdlO>OlOkOkOkO*OkOIO
•d
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2
1
s
1
1
11
io»^o»04^tooo7Heotor>.ocQ'«coo»i-ieo»oooooi'^t«
»s.iHtoO'<«oo(Nt««-Hkoa»^oo<NQooiao)oot^C4<oO'^
«<^t^0000a0Aa»OOOrHi-l(NGiieQ00e0^'<tf(k0k0<D«0
.a
Feet per
minute.
oot. cot. opt* opt. «t* opt- «t* opt*
lOOCOrHtDOit^G^GO 0000^9 '^OvaO<DrHQDe9t.CiOO
oookOoooeoiouooeotooooeotDooi-ioocoaotHeotooo
'^^'^•«kOkO»Oko«o««o«ot»t*t*t*aoooooooa»o»o»o»
c8
c8
p.
U
J)
3
CD
§
o(d«oo»c4Qoa»C4<oa»09too»t^iQa»c<ikoa)C<4koooe9tooo
iHt^C0OC0C<ia»U3rH00<^O0l000»(0(N00iOr-tt^'<««O<0
-^000000<Nt*rH«Or-IIOOkOOa'^OOOOOOC4t>.C^«Or-iCOO
t.t.aOOO»AOOrH«-IC4C1C4eOOOTt«-^lOkOtO«D»s.t^OO
•s
•
h5
u
i-*AQOt*CO'^eOC<lrHOOOt>.CDlO'^di-iOO»t*COkO-^00
toeorHa>t^»acorHa»t*'^c<iooo<o^G>iot^»ooorHa»t*
OAaotoiOT}ieodoa)cot*«o-^co<Ni-tooot*<OkOcoc4
«aOr-^t^OOOOa»rH^t*OOOQDO»C<llO(^00000»C4
• •••••■•■••••••••••••••*
^'^t0kOkO«0«0«0<0t*»^t^000000Q00)0dAOOOOi-4
ft
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•«4(<^i4l^lOU»IOkO«O««OtOt*t*t^t*00000000e»AC»tt
•
528
MISOBLLAKEOUS TABLES.
A A O O O •-Hf-H0l(Ne00000'^'^kOk0««Ot^t»00a000a»0»OOT-i
^^
8
I
u
CO
is
6
o
na
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w
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1
I
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00 »^
00 t^ 00 t^ 00 t^ 00 fr« 00 t^ OO i^
00
•^o-^oio
«e^<DC>9t^c4aoeooo'^a»'^oiooQOrHtoe9t^C9ooeooo
iooooeotooc.ioookaoooeo«oaoi-ioo«oaOfHco<DooT-iOO<oaOf-i
ooeO'^'<«'^^io^iOko<DtoQO«ot^t<«t>«t^ooaoaoooa»a)a»a»oo _
G4c<ie4(Ne4C9eio4040iicie4C4eie9e4e4e4C9c«e409e4G4c<ic9ooeooo
«oa»eoco0»eo<oa»d<oa»e4<oo>e4toAC4tf)o»C4)OAC4toooe4)ooo
ap^tHt<«eoOQoe9o»icdi-HQO'^o»^eoa)toc9aoiOr^b«<<4<ocoeoa»to
»kOO-^»^OOOOt^Clt^r-ltOrHIOO'<«0»'<«OOOOOOe4t«»e4«DtHlOO
eoeO<^-^<4«t£dlOfiO«Ot^»^OOaOC»0»OOOi-lrHC40990eO'^'<«i>OtO«0
t^«M><^e4rHOO»t^<DlO'«eOr-lOO»aO»^»0-^eOC9r-ia»OOt<^<0'^00
C^OOO<O^C^Ot<«lOOOiHO»tN.>OeOOaO<D-^e4000<OOOr-iO»t^U>eO
t<«Qo^eoc^i-«ooot^«OkOcodrHOa»t^«ekO'«eorHoa»ao«Dio^eo
r»ooo«oaac9kat<«ooo<oa»dkOooooocoa»c4kOQOp-ioo<oa»oiioao
• •••••■••••••••••••••••••••••
Q0t<«b«t^t>.0000a00»0»»aaOOOr-li-H«-HvHC4C^CSie00000C0'^'^'^
C404e«c>ic^C9e40404e4e4C9ooeoooeoeoeoooeoooooeoeoeoeoeoeoeo
eqipb. oiip^ ^u)^« e9tf^^<- ^u)^
eoe•oo'^'^Tt•^tOlou^kboo«»«9^•^•^«^•oQ
to to
lO lO
C4kOt<«
s
QQQOOOOAAAOO
c^e40io9C909C9eoeo
c<ikot<*ArHeoMdoooe4-^t^a»i-icoioaooo4'^t<^OkiHoo»oooQe4'«
0'«ooo4c^rHioo»<^ooe9tookoa»oo»^e^<oo^aooob*i-itoO'<««co
t^»N.^«OOOOa»0»AOOrHrHC<ie4e4eOOO'^'^OU>tO«D«0»^t>«0000 00
^Qiioioie^eieie^ooooooeoeoooeoooeoeoeeeoooeoooooeoooeoooeo
00 »^
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G^-^ttt^AC^^^t^OdOl^t^OC^lOt^OOiltOf^^Oe^kOt^OC^kOQOOOO
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0109 0404 09 09099109 9l09&10«e9
h
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,0009i-tO«0
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3
09rHOO&tN,«OIO"^OOfHOO»OOt>.lO'^0009i-4_.^_ ^^
^c^ots.ioeop-iAt>«ioeooaotO'«09 0oo«oeoi-HAt>«tooo^tt
09i-HOoot<«QOkaeooii-too»t<«coio-^eor-ioo»oo«Oi0^eooio
(t^009>OOOi-H«i«t^OOOW300r-l^»^OeO<OaOiH-^t^OeO«0»r-(^
OOOOa>AOkObOOOTHrHiHrH09090900eOOOOO-«<«|I^IQtOMaiQ9P9D
^^^^?^C^O9S0909C9e90909OlOie9e9C9e4OI09MeiolG9Ciel
s
lO
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to lO
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lO lO
e9kO»«
a
^^
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SSSS$3&£;*:SSSSS3SSSSS88S38SJSS;8aa
KffOra, KILIS, EILOMimUIfl, KTa
529
U
&
I
O
8
S
o
9
Pi
OQ
<«COOOOeO«DaOOC9'^tOOOrH'«««t»
OOC^QOi-IIOAOOQQC^CDO'^OteOr*
• ••••••••••••••
otDr-l«e9^•e<ooo»oo'^A4|low3
00 00 00 00 00 00 CO 00 00 00 00 00 00 00 oO
rH'^^•O^00fH•^*^^•O^00rH^»^
»^eoo»«De4ookOi-H»s.-^o«ocoa)to
^a»OOOOOOt^>C^C»fH«DrHkOO'^e»
eooO'^'^kOio«o«ot^t^aoaoa»o»a»
cA ^^^ C^^ ^^) ^O ^O ^D ^^^ ^D CiD ^O C^^ ^^r ^O ^0
II
I 00eqf-IO0»00t^tD<^01fHOA00»^
I oit^ioeoooow^^oioootoeorHO)
! QOC<lr-lOa»t^«OkO<«eOiHOO»00«D
^t^>OOOkOOOf-l^t^OOO«OOOrH<i4l
• •••••••■••••••
c^AOooOfHi-i^-iCic^G^e^ooeo
ooeo'^'^^'^'^'*'^'^'^'"*'^^^
5
ll
CO
s
1
3
I
i2
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lOtOOlOiOtOlOlO
oiiot^ e4iot<» e4iot« eqiot>
• •• ••• ••• ••>
OO OO 00 00 09 00 OO 00 00 00 00 00 OO 00 00
09^tOOOOC4<«»^OC4«««DOOOM
»oe»oot^(NQoo^a»oo»^p-ikoO'«
• ••••••■• ••••••
r-trHC^C^OOeO-^^ -^'lO lO «D «0 ^- »^
lOiOiOiOlOlOW>aOkOWdkOiOtOiOio
^ eo ^ 00^ 9 '^ OO ^« 00
otOr-ioc««A»G40Deoao-^a»4ttoio
OrHr-if-Hi-l(NC9C4C40000eoeO-^'^
00 00 00 00 00 OO 00 OO 00 00 00 00 00 00 oO
•
!
I
I
t
e9ioooT-4'<«aoc9kOoOf-i-^ooc4iooo
C400'«fHt^COO«004AkOi-iaO^O
kOO»'^a»ooaoeot»c4«OfH«ooioo
• ••••••••••«•• •
«OtOt>.t^aOaOO»AOOr-li-«Cq0100
II
M«-HOO»ao<p^eo04r-ioo»oo«'«
rHa»»^-^MO00«D'«CilOtN-O00rH
<NOa>a0tN>C0^00C4rHO00t^C01O
i-l^«00»C4iO00i-l<^f^OC<IU300f-H
• ••••••••••••••
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00 00 00 00 00 00 OO 00 00 00 00 CO 00 00 00
to
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to
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00 00 00 00 OO 00 OO OO 00 00 M 00 OO OO
s
mmt
i
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I
•
a-
11 N
34
528
MISOBLLANEOUS TABLES.
HA
d^
42
o
^»c»f-i 001000009 '^t<«a»vHeo»ooooc4^t<«a»vHeoioa>oc9'^t<«ak
09Qdi-HiOO»eOQOe4«DO'<«<AeOC^f-H<00'^000«C^f-i»OA-^00<N«DO
A A o o o i-Hf-ic9<Neoeooo'^^udio«o«D«p^-t^ooooooa»a»ooi-i
eo^» Mr« e9^* 7^^ 9^^ T'^ f'^ ?^^ ^^ ^
iooooeokOoooookooooeo«oooi-Hooteooi-Hoo«ooOi-Heo<oaOf-4^«o
0000«tf<'^'^'«lO>OkOkO«0«0««Ot<«^.t>«»«.OOOOaoaOAObO»0»000
OI(Ne9C9O9O909O9O9C^Oie9O4e9O9e909ei09O9O9C^O9O9O<IO9e0O3eO
<oa»eo«oc»eo«oa»09«DO»09«oo»09w»a»c9koa>o9M)o»e9oeoG9kOoo
QO^i-Ht<«eoo«0O9ObiOrHoo'^ot^eoa»«oo9ooiOp^t^^o«eoo»kO
Otfdp^O»'«OOeOt>«O9t^i-l«0r-lkOO^O»^OOOOaOO9t<«O9«0f-HkOO
00 00<«««^^tOlO«0«Ot»»«.OOQOOfta»OOOrHfH09C9 90e0^^tOkO«0
t^oio^09i-Hoa»t>>«Dio««ooi-HOAoot>«kO<«««eoo9*Ha>aot^«0'^oo
C9 0aO«D'^C9 0t^lOOOr-IO»t^>OeOOOO«0'<4«09 0aO«OCOrHa»t<«kOeO
r^«o<<4<coc^f-40oot>«<OkoeooifHOo»t^toio^eOf-HOO»oocDiO'«oo
^«ooo«po)C>9lO^«oeo«oa»olu^oooeo«oa)0«kOoOl-4eo«OAOl»ooo
O9O9O9c^e9O9Cio9O9e9eiO9eoeo0oeemeomeoooeooooocoeoeoeoee
I0k0k0u>l0»0»0l01pk0k0a0tf>l0»0
«'£*^- <^^•p^• 99>p«j- wuai;* ^^ob- 99>pr» oi«p^* «
eoe«eo^'«-^^kOioioio«o«ote«Dt<-t^t<»t>*QOooQOooc»a>Ofta»oo
0909090904090909090409090909090909090909090109090909090000
09kOt<«OftiHOOkOOOOe9^»«0»tHOO»Oa00 09^»«.0»iHeO»000009^
0^a009t<«rH»Oa»'^C009«OOUda»eOr«.09«DO^OOeOt>>rHkOO^QO
• ■•••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Ks.^.t^OOaOO»C»OftOOr-ll-H04090900eO'^'«tO^>0«0«Ot^^•QO«0«0
O909 09 09e9^oi09coeoeoooeoeooooocoeoeoeoeoeoeoooeoeoeoeooo
eot^ eot«- oo»^ eot« eot^ eot<» eot<* co^- eot<« oo^•
• • •« •• ■• •• •• •• •• •• ••
<-•«0 01^»0900 00aO<^a>'<««0>00«Or-l«009t^09 00eOOO'^0^'<«OkOO
04^^.0»09<^»^a>09'«t^009lOt<«0^kO»^009kO»^0 09kOQQOeO
QD««OtDt<«t^t<«t^OOOOOOO»AO»a»OpOOi-SrHiHiH09^0909eOeo
;:;;::4;!;rHrHr-liHr-li-4p-irHfHp-li-li-lO909O9O90909e9090904O9O9O9el
iH'^t^fH^t^O'<«t^o<«»«ooo»^peo<qpeotDAeo«DAeo«oeQ
k0^t^^O«Deoa»iOC9QO'^i-ir^eoOC0090»tfdr-<r«--^0«DOQAtD09
Oi-lkOOtOO»'<«00 000009r<.09CDi-l«OOtOa»^AeOOOeOt<«G9«iH«0
o»ooi-Hi-iTH09 09eoeo<^'^iOko«o«ot^«^t^ooaoa»OftOOiHf-ie909
O9eoeo«oeoooeoeo0oeoeoooeoeoeoeoeeeoeoeeoocoeo^^'^^^««t
e9fHOo»t^toiO'^eoi-iOO»oot^»o^eoo9fHA<o»^«D'<4«eoo9fHOoo
<9<NO»^»oeO'Ha»t^iooooco»'^09 0oo«DeovHAt>.ioeOfHat<«^
09fHoaot<«to»oeooii-iOo»t^«oiO'^eoiHoa»ao«DiO'^eoo9SAoo
^t^oo9kooo1-l'^t^oeoooor-l<^^.oeo«ooor-l^^•peo«Al-l^
^■P? ^ip^ ^ipS ^ip? ^«»? ^ip^ ^u>^
KNOTS, MILES, KILOMETRES, ETO.
529
•J
I
8
o
mm
S
S
01
8
S
•a
g
n4
a
0)
l-^
'^«oaooeo«Daooci|'^«ooot-H-^^«
Aa
aOG4<Or-l»00»OQQOG9«00'<«a)OOt<«
• ••••••••••••••
isi
r«00000»0»0»OOi-Hi-HC4C4C^OOCO
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c^ eot«* oot^ eot» «ot<« eo
• • • T^ . • • • • •
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• ^
»«.0»C<l^t^ACI'^t^0»C4^^-OC<l
«i
<«<^kOlOkOiO«O«D«OCD»^t^t^0000
00 00 00 OO OO 00 00 00 00 OO 00 OO 00 00 oo
1
lH'«^•0'^oOl-^^^»o^oo^•«^»
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t^eoa»«oc9aoiOrHt«.«a«o«ooa»kO
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cooooooooooooooooooooooooooooo
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iSi
lOiOIOiOiOlOiOlOlOkOiOkOkOlOiO
Ei
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• *• •• •• •• •
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o«Of-(«oc9»«-<MaoooaO'^o>^oio
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a
ioo»^Acoooeot<<-09«Oi-i«oo»oo
• ••••••••••••••
s
«D«oj>.t>«ooooa>a>ooi-Hi-icic<ioo
i
3
iOkOioiotoiaioioo«p«ow«oco
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1
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C400>oot^co-^eoc4fHOoot<>.coo
r-l<^«0a»0ltOC0i^'^t^OC4O00i-l
• ••••••••••••••
>S
OQ
^
II
lO IQ M» lO kO lO lO
kot^ 04io^ e4«ot>. c9»ot^
• • ••• ••• •••
IS
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OOCOOOOOOOOOOOOO#O0)OOOOOOOOOO
i
00
9 00 ^
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q 00 00
"00 fH
P«0 iH
00
00 to
CI »o 00
Is?
a-
II N
34
r /
530
MISOELLANBOnS TABLES.
Table CLXXXI. —Kilometres and Admiralty Knots.
1
&^
1
\i
1
Iralty
ote.
1
Iralty
lote.
J
•o^
!
ItS
^
IS
e
1^
^
5
3
<
3
-<
7-6
4-047
28-6
12-681
89*6
21*815
66-6
29*949
8
4-317
24
12-951
40
21-586
66
30*218
8-6
4-687
24-6
13-221
40-6
21-854
66*6
. 80-488
9
4-857
26
13-490
41
22-124
67
80-768
9-6
6-126
26-6
18-760
41-6
22-894
67-5
31-028
10
6*896
26
14 030
42
22-664
68
81-298
10-6
6-666
26-6
14-300
42-6
22-984
68-6
81-668
11
6-986
27
14-670
48
23-208
69
81*888
11-6
6*206
27-6
14*839
48-6
28-473
69-6
82 107
12
6*476
28
16-109
44
28*743
60
82*376
12-6
6*746
28*6
16-379
44*6
24 018
60-6
32-646
18
7-016
29
16-649
45
24-283
61
82-916
18-6
7-286
29-6
16*919
46*6
24-662
61*5
83*186
14
7-556
80
16188
46
24*822
62
83-466
14-6
7-824
80-6
16*458
46*5
25-092
62*6
88-726
16
8-094
81
16-728
47
25*362
68
38-996
15-6
8*864
81-6
16-998
47*6
26-632
63-6
84*266
16
8-634
82
17-268
48
26*901
64
84-636
16*6
8-904
32-6
17*688
48-6
26-171
64-5
84-806
17
9-178
88
17*807
49
26-441
66
86-076
17-6
9-448
88-6
18-077
49-6
26-711
66*6
86-345
18
9*713
84
18-847
60
26*981
66
36*614
18-6
9-988
34-6
18-617
50*6
27-261
66-6
86-884
19
10-253
86
18-887
61
27-520
67
86*164
19-6
10-623
35-6
19-166
61-6
27-790
67'5
86*424
20
10-792
86
19-426
62
28*060
68
86-694
20-6
11-062
36*6
19-696
52-6
28-330
68*6
86-964
21
11-332
37
19-966
68
28-600
69
87*234
21-6
11-602
37-6
20-235
63-6
28-869
69*6
87-604
22
11-872
38
20-605
64
29-139
70
37-774
22-5
12-141
38*6
20-775
64*6
29-409
70*6
88*044
28
12-411
89
21 045
66
29-679
71
88-814
>l
^ Eilometre per hour
ToV )> n
1 Admiralty knot
1 Statute mile
\ Kilometre
ti
'05396 of an Admiralty knot
*005890 „
6080 ft. per hour.
6280 ft.
8280*8992 It
MILLIMBTRES AND INCHES.
531
Table CLXXXI I.— Millimetres and Inches.
it
1
i^
1
ii
1
c S
1
||
1
1
1
ai
^
i§
c
^§
^
161
1
•08937
41
1^6142
81
8-1890
121
47689
6 •3387
2
•07874
42
1-6636
82
8-2284
122
4*8032
162
6^3781
8
•11811
48
1^6929
83
8-2678
123
4-8426
168
6^4174
4
•16748
44
17323
84
3-3071
124
4-8820
164
6^4568
6
•19686
46
1^7717
86
8-3466
126
4-9214
165
6-4962
6
•28622
46
1-8110
86
3-3859
126
4*9607
166
6 •5356
7
•27660
47
1^8604
87
8*4252
127
5*0001
167
6^6749
8
•81497
48
1-8898
88
8-4646
128
6-0396
168
6^6143
9
•85434
49
1 -9292
89
3-5040
129
5-0788
169
6^6537
10
•3937
60
1-9686
90
3-5434
130
6-1182
170
6*6930
11
•4881
61
2-0079
91
8*6827
131
6*1676
171
67324
12
•4724
62
2 0473
92
3-6221
182
6-1969
172
6*7718
13
•6118
68
2-0866
93
3-6614
133
6-2363
173
6-8111
14
•6512
64
2^1260
94
37008
184
6*2757
174
6*8506
15
•5906
66
2-1654
96
8*7402
186
6-3150
175
6*8899
16
•6299
66
2-2048
96
87796
136
6-8644
176
6*9293
17
•6698
67
2^2441
97
8^8190
137
5-8938
177
6*9686
18
•7087
68
2^2836
98
3-8588
138
6-4832
178
7*0080
19
•7480
69
2^3229
99
3-8977
189
6-4726
179
7*0474
20
7874
60
2 •8622
100
3-9371
140
6-5119
180
7*0867
21
•8268
61
2^4016
101
3-9764
141
6 •6518
181
7*1261
22
•8662
62
2^4410
102
4-0158
142
6-5906
182
7*1656
23
•9066
63
2^4804
103
4*0552
148
5^6300
183
7*2048
24
•9449
64
2-5197
104
4-0946
144
5-6694
184
7*2442
26
•9848
66
2-6691
105
4*1389
145
67088
185
7*2836
26
10236
66
2-6986
106
4-1783
146
6-7481
186
7*3230
27
1^0630
67
2-6378
107
4-2127
147
6-7876
187
7*3623
28
1 -1024
68
2-6772
108
4-2520
148
6-8269
188
7-4017
29
1^1418
69
27166
109
4-2914
149
5-8662
189
7*4411
30
1-1811
70
27660
110
4*3308
150
5*9056
190
7*4804
31
1 -2205
71
27953
111
4-3702
151
6*9460
191
7*5198
82
1 ^2599
72
2^8347
112
4*4095
162
5-9844
192
7*5692
83
1 -2992
73
2-8741
113
4*4489
153
6*0237
193
7*5986
84
1 •3886
74
2-9134
114
4-4883
164
6 0631
194
7*6379
85
1 •3780
76
2-9528
116
4*5276
155
6-1025
195
7*6773
36
1 ^4173
76
2-9922
116
4*6670
156
6*1418
196
77167
87
1 -4667
77
8-0316
117
4-6064
157
6*1812
197
7 •7660
88
1-4961
78
8-0709
118
4-6458
158
6-2206
198
7*7954
89
1-6866
79
8^1108
U9
4-6851
169
6-2600
199
7*8348
40
1^6748
80
8*1497
120
47246
160
6*2998 1 200
7-8742
532
MISOETJiANEOUS TABLES.
Table CLXXXI I.— Millimetres and Inchea—corUintied,
201
202
208
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
218
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
228
224
225
226
227
228
229
280
281
282
288
284
285
286
287
288
289
240
I
7-9185
7*9529
7*9928
8-0816
8-0710
8-1104
8*1498
8-1891
8-2285
8-2679
8-3072
8-8466
8-8860
8-4254
8-4647
8-5041
8-5435
8-5828
8*6222
8-6616
8-7009
8-7408
8-7797
8-8190
8-8584
8-8978
8-9372
8-9765
9-0159
9-0558
9-0946
9-1840
9-1784
9-2128
9*2521
9-2915
9-3809
9-3702
9-4096
9*4490
241
242
248
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
258
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
268
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
278
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
9-4884
9-5277
9-5671
9-6065
9-6458
9 -6852
9-7246
9-7640
9-8088
9*8427
9*8821
9*9214
9-9608
10-0002
10*0896
10-0789
10-1188
10-1577
10-1970
10-2864
10-2758
10*3151
10-8545
10-8989
10*4333
10*4726
10-5120
10*5514
10*5907
10-6301
10-6695
10-7088
10-7482
10-7876
10-8270
10-8663
10-9057
10*9451
10-9844
11*0238
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
298
294
295
296
297
298
299
800
801
302
303
304
305
306
307
808
809
310
811
312
818
314
315
816
817
318
319
820
I
11*0632
11*1026
11-1419
11*1813
11*2207
11-2600
11*2994
11-8388
11*3782
11*4175
11*4569
11*4968
11*5856
11-5750
11-6144
11*6538
11*6981
11*7825
11*7719
11*8112
11*8506
11-8900
11-9294
11*9687
12-0081
12*0475
12-0868
12-1262
12-1656
12*2049
12-2443
12-2887
12-8231
12-3624
12-4018
12-4412
12*4805
12-5199
12-5598
12*5986
il
821
822
828
324
825
826
827
828
829
830
381
832
883
834
835
886
887
838
839
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
352
353
354
355
856
857
858
859
860
I
12*6880
12-6774
12*7168
12-7561
12-7955
12*8349
12*8742
12*9186
12*9580
12*9924
18-0817
18*0711
18*1105
18-1498
18*1892
18*2286
18-2680
13*8078
13-8467
18*3861
13-4254
18-4648
18-5042
13-5436
18*5829
18*6228
13*6617
18-7010
18*7404
13-7798
18*8192
13-8585
13-8979
18 '9873
18-9766
14*0160
14-0554
14*0947
14*1341
14*1785
i
^i
861
362
868
864
865
866
367
868
869
870
371
372
878
374
875
876
877
878
879
880
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
400
I
14*2128
14-2522
14*2916
14-8810
14*3708
14*4097
14*4491
14*4884
14*5278
14-5672
14-6066
14-6459
14-6858
14-7247
14*7640
14-8084
14 8428
14-8822
14-9215
14-9609
15-0008
15-0896
15*0790
15-1184
15-1578
16-1971
15-2865
15*2759
15-8152
15-8546
15-3940
15*4884
15*4727
16*5121
15*5516
16*6908
16*6802
16*6696
16*7080
16*7488
MILLIMBTRBS AND INCHES.
533
Table CLXXXI I.— Millimetres and Inchts-^continued,
401
402
408
404
405
406
407
408
409
410
411
412
418
414
415
416
417
418
419
420
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
428
429
480
481
482
438
484
485
486
487
488
489
440
15-7877
15-8271
15*8664
15*9058
15*9452
15*9845
16*0289
16*0683
16*1026
16-1420
16*1814
16*2208
16*2601
16*2995
16-8389
16*8782 456
16*4176
16*4570
16-4964
16-5857 460
16*6751
16*6145
16*6588
16-6932 464
16-7326
16-7720
16*8118 467
16*8507
16*8901
16*9294
16-9688
17*0082
17*0476
17*0869
17*1263
17*1657
17*2060 477
17*2444
17*2888 479
17*828
il
441
442
448
444
445
446
447
448
449
450
461
452
453
454
455
467
458
459
461
462
463
465
466
468
469
470
471
472
473
474
475
476
478
1
480
I
17-8626
17-4019
17*4418
17*4806
17*5200
17*5694
17*6987
17*6881
17*6776
17*7169
17*7662
17*7956
17*8860
17-8743
17*9187
17-9681
17*9924
18*0318
18*0712
18*1106
18*1499
18*1893
18*2287
18-2680
18-8074
18-8468
18*8862
18*4265
18*4649
18*5048
18*5436
18-5880
18*6224
18*6617
18*7011
18*7405
18*7799
18-8192
18*8686
18-8980
S§
481
482
483
484
486
486
487
488
489
490
491
492
493
494
496
496
497
498
499
600
501
502
603
604
606
606
607
608
509
510
511
512
518
514
515
516
617
518
519
520
8
18-9874
18-9767
19*0161
19*0566
19*0948
19*1342
19-1736
19-2180
19*2623
19*2917
19*3311
19*3704
19-4098
19*4492
19-4886
19-6279
19-6673
19*6066
19*6460
19-6864
19-7248
19-7641
19*8035
19-8429
19-8822
19-9216
19*9610
20-0004
20 0397
20*0791
20*1186
20*1578
20*1972
20*2366
20*2760
20*8168
20*3647
20*8941
20*4834
20*4728
il
521
522
528
624
525
526
527
528
629
630
631
682
633
534
635
536
637
638
639
540
641
542
548
644
645
646
647
648
549
660
561
562
553
564
666
556
667
668
669
560
I
20*6122
20*6616
20*5909
20*6303
20*6697
20*7090
20*7484
20*7878
20*8272
20-8666
20*9069
20-9453
20*9846
21 0240
21 -0684
21 *1027
21*1421
21*1816
21*2209
21*2602
21*2996
21 8390
21*8788
21-4177
21*4571
21*4964
21-5368
21 -5762
21*6146
21*6539
21-6933
21 -7327
21*7720
21*8114
21*8608
21 *8902
21*9295
21*9689
22-0083
22 0476
il
661
662
563
664
665
566
567
668
569
570
671
572
578
574
575
676
677
578
579
580
581
582
588
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
592
698
694
596
696
697
598
699
600
22*0870
22-1264
22-1658
22*2061
22*2445
22-2839
22*3232
22-3626
22-4020
22-4414
22*4807
22*5201
22 •6596
22*6988
22*6882
22*6776
22*7170
22*7663
22*7967
22*8351
22-8744
22-9138
22-9532
22-9926
23-0819
23*0718
28*1106
23*1500
28*1894
28*2288
23 '2681
23*8076
-28*3469
23*8862
23*4256
28*4650
28*5044
28*5487
28-6881
28*6225
534
MI80BLLANBOUS TABLES.
Table CLXXXI I.— Millimetres and InchtS'—cofUinued,
'a
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
611
612
613
614
615
616
617
618
619
620
621
622
623
624
625
626
627
628
629
630
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
638
639
640
I
28
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
25
25
26
25
25
26
•6618
•7012
•7406
•7800
•8193
•8587
•8981
•9374
•9768
•0162
•0656
•0949
•1343
•1737
•2130
•2524
•2918
•8312
•8706
•4099
•4493
•4886
•6280
•6674
•6068
•6461
'6856
•7249
•7642
•8036
•8430
•8823
•9217
•9611
•0004
•0398
•0792
•1186
•1679
•1978
ii
§
641
642
643
644
646
646
647
648
649
650
651
652
658
654
656
656
667
668
659
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
671
672
673
674
676
676
677
678
679
680
I
26 2867
25^2760
26^3154
25 •3548
25^3942
26 •4336
25-4729
25 •51 28
25 •6516
26-5910
25^6304
25 •6698
26-7091
25 •7486
25-7879
25-8272
26 •8666
25-9060
25-9464
26-9847
26-0241
26-0636
26-1028
26 1422
26-1816
26-2210
26-2603
26^2997
26-3391
26-3784
26-4178
26-4572
26-4966
26-6369
26-5753
26-6147
26-6540
26-6984
26
i{
E •73281
17721J
681
682
683
684
685
686
687
688
689
690
691
692
693
694
695
696
697
698
699
700
701
702
703
704
705
706
707
708
709
710
711
712
713
714
716
716
717
718
719
267721 720
26-8115
26-8609
26-8902
26-9296
26-9690
27-0084
27-0477
27-0871
27-1265
27-1668
27-2062
27-2446
27-2840
27-3238
27-3627
27-4021
27^4414
27^4808
27^5202
27 •6596
27-5989
27-6888
27-6777
27-7170
27-7564
27-7968
27-8352
27-8745
27-9139
27-9538
27*9926
28-0320
28-0714
28-1108
28-1501
28-1895
28-2289
28 2682
28-8076
'a
721
722
723
724
726
726
727
728
729
780
781
782
788
784
785
786
737
738
789
740
741
742
743
744
746
746
747
748
749
750
761
752
763
754
756
766
767
768
769
28 •8470 760
28-8868
28-4267
28-4661
28-6044
28 •6438
28-5882
28-6226
28-6619
28-7018
28-7407
28-7800
28-8194
28 8688
28-8982
28-9376
28^9769
29-0163
29-0566
29-0960
29-1844
29-1738
29*2181
29-2525
29-2919
29-8312
29-8706
29-4100
29-4494
29-4887
29-6281
29-5676
29 -6068
29-6462
29-6856
29-7260
29-7648
29-8087
29-8481
29-882
29 -Ml
!
761
762
763
764
766
766
767
768
769
770
771
772
773
774
776
776
777
778
779
780
781
782
783
784
786
786
787
788
789
790
791
792
793
794
796
796
797
798
799
8001
29-9612
80-0006
800399
80-0793
30-1187
30-1580
80-1974
80-2368
80-2761
80-8166
80-3549
80-8942
80-4386
80-4730
80*6124
80-6517
80-5911
80-6305
80-6698
80-7092
80-7486
80-7880
80-8278
80-8667
80-9061
80-9454
80-9848
81-0242
81-0686
81-1029
81-1428
81-1817
81-2210
81-2604
81-2998
81-8392
81-8786
81-4179
81-4678
81 -iM^
MILLIMSTRBS AND INCHES.
636
Table CLXXXI I.— Millimetres and Indties^coTUimted.
801
802
803
804
805
806
807
808
809
810
811
812
818
814
81S
816
817
818
819
820
821
822
828
824
825
826
827
828
829
880
831
882
833
834
835
836
837
838
839
840
81*5360
81-5764
81*6148
31*6541
31*6935
81 '7329
81*7722
31*8116
31*8510
31*8908
31*9297
81*9691
32*0085
32*0478
32*0872
32*1266
32*1659
32*2053
82*2447
82*2840
32*3234
32*3628
32*4022
32*4415
32*4809
82*5203
32*5596
32*5990
32*6384
32*6778
82*7171
32*7665
32*7959
32*8362
32*8746
32*9140
32-9534
32-9927
33-0321
88*07151
841
842
848
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
851
852
853
854
855
866
867
868
859
860
861
862
863
864
865
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
874
876
876
877
878
879
880
i
I
33 1108
33*1502
33*1896
33*2290
83*2683
33*3077
33*3471
83*8864
33*4268
88*4652
83*5046
33*5439
33*5838
33*6227
33*6620
33*7014
83*7408
38-7801
83*8195
33*8689
83*8982
33*9376
33*9770
84*0164
84*0557
84*0961
34*1346
84 1738
84*2132
34*2526
34*2920
84*3318
84*3707
34*4101
34*4494
34*4888
84*5282
84*5676
84*6069
84*6468
S
881
882
883
884
885
886
887
888
889
890
891
892
898
894
896
896
897
898
899
900
901
902
903
904
905
906
907
908
909
910
911
912
913
914
916
916
917
918
919
9201
I
84*6857
34*7260
34*7644
34*8038
84*8482
34*8826
84*9219
34*9613
85*0006
35*0400
85*0794
85*1188
85*1581
85*1975
35*2369
35*2762
35 '3156
35*3560
85-3948
85*4387
36*4781
35 '5126
36-5618
36*5912
35*6306
85*6699
86*7093
86*7487
86*7880
36*8274
35*8668
85-9062
86*9466
36*9849
36*0243
36*0636
86*1080
36*1424
86*1818
86*2211
921
922
923
924
926
926
927
928
929
930
931
932
933
934
935
936
987
988
939
940
941
942
943
944
946
946
947
948
949
950
961
952
963
954
965
966
957
958
959
960
i
36*2606 961
36*2999 962
36*3392 963
36-3786 964
36*4180 966
86-4574 966
86-4967 967
36*6361 968
36-6765 969
36*6148 970
36-6542 971
36*6936 972
36*7330 978
86*7723 974
36*8117 976
36-8611 976
36-8904 977
36*9298 ^78
36*9692 979
37*0086 980
87-0479 981
87 '0878 982
37*1267 983
37*1660 984
37*2064 986
37*2448 986
37-2841 987
87-3235 988
87-3629 989
87*4023 990
37-4416 991
37*4810 992
37-5204 993
37-5697 994
37-5991 995
37*6385 996
37-6778 997
37*7172 998
37*7666 999
87*79601000
I
87*8253
37*8747
87-9141
37 -9534
37*9928
38*0322
38*0716
38*1109
88*1603
38 1897
88*2290
88*2684
88-3078
88-8472
88*3865
88*4259
38 -4658
88-6046
88*5440
88*5884
88-6228
38*6621
88-7015
88 '7409
38-7802
38-8196
88-8690
38-8984
88*9377
38-9771
89-0165
89*0658
39-0952
89-1346
89*1739
89*2138
39*2627
39*2920
89*3314
89*8708
918 mm. « 87-0088 inf. : 0*66 metres m 870*988 ina.: M'S metres ^
8700-28 ins.: A'C.
636
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kOtD^«ooo»Of-l<Neo^to«ot^ooa»Or-lCleo^to«o^«ao
ciciC^c^c^oooooooooQooooooeoeo'^'^^'^'^^'^'^^
I
Ph
looooooooooeoiooboootoaooeo^oooooioooooo
(OrHt>«c9t^C4ooooaocoa>'<4ia>-^otoOiai-t(Oi-Hco<Nc^
9»rHC^Ti4U3t^aOprHOO';(|tOr«ArHOI'^>pt^OOpr-ieO-^
004l<-«'Tl<^^4«4ib>budlOUdlOib«DQ9O^«9Ot>>Wt>«t^
eoco^'^kO>ococot<«t^ooQO(AO»ooA4AH(N(Neooo'<«4^
i-li-li-«i-li-ii-li-(i-lrHi-li-li-li-lr-l0^C^NC^©«C«O«ei©«N
I
ioooo(Nkoaoocooooooou:dooocoiAaooeokoaooeo
OtOi-HCOi-HtOC9t»(Nt»COOOeOOOTt<0»^a»l£30kOO«DrH
co^<o^•o>o(Ncok£)coooa»r-(<N^o^«ooo(NcokO«oao
o o o o o
c4Ciieic4C4C9eoeoeoo9ooeo
I
piOOk£)OUdOkOOkOOkOOkOOlOOkOOkOO>OOiO
«-HrHoic4ooeo^^o»aco«ot«>t>iaoaoakAOOi-if-4C4(N
ENGLISH FBBT AND FRENCH METBBtf.
537
I
r!I121522£r^2S<*^o*<^c>i-ii-i<Nc»coeo'^'^io»o«o
^•^^*o«»^o^^ooOlp»poorH■^^*Oeotpo>o^Maoor^
QOaoooQOooQOQOAo»a»a»o»o»a»a»o»a»o»oka»a»a»o»o»
4
&
GO^^AAa)CkO)a»a»o»ooooooooooi-Hi-4i-4
o
s
oocoaoooooaoaoooooooooooooaoooooooooooooooaoooao
■*»
(fB
«
u^opr-.^^*ooo<pa«lpop^-l'5^^*poo^*0'*t^o©^l0
I
CD to CO to <0 4D
t^oOAOfH94eO-^kOCOt^OOttOl-HC9eo^tla^^^(ȣne^
s
s
?^'r'T^^9««pooo«>»c^uaoo,-ir»it*poo«>osc^iooo
10kOU>kO(0<0<OCO<eCO«0«OCD«D«COCOCO«^So«<0
I
«<»0>0»0>0»<»OOOOOOOOOOrH^Sn5ZSS
rHr-irHi-l^i-irH<N<NCqC<l<N<N<N(NMc5<N«<NSc5e5c5
SS225SfeS;SSSS225'^«^««^^Sl§§
rHi-4<NC4C9ooooeoeo^^^iOkak0^cbQ3t<»A>t^t^QO(»
o
o
to O kA O kO O US
C4 00 eo -^ -^ lO kO
C9 kO 00 r-4 ^ bo O
OOOkOOtOOkOO
CDcot>>i>.ooooa»o»o
oocoo)C4oaoi-i-^oo
kOOkookCdOkoo
Or-ti-HC4C40000'^
Tt4 1<« o CO CO a» 09
••■"■• ^_ " • • • • • • • • • • • • •••#
Z*213!i2252!22'^*^*^*^°oooooo>o>oiOooo»H
9
kO«o^«ooo>Oi-i4Neo-^kOCDt^aooOr-ic^eo^ka»b«ao
^ ^^^'^UdiOOkOiOlOkOlOkOlOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO
538
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.
.S?
01
s
•a
I
ho
I
n4
•
s
aAOOr-iiHC9cs)cooO'<(t«««iOkO<ococ»t^oQooa»a»oo
eO <0 O 00 <0 O) 09 kO 00 i-i Tl4 t^ O CO <0 0> (N lO 00 tH ■'dt <>. i-l <«
•■• ■••••••••••••••••••••
0»0>OOOOi-irHrHC4C4C'4eOeOCOeO^-^'^lO^O««0
1
t^Qoo»o»-reico'^io«or*ooo»OfHc^cO'«*»o<o^-ooo»o
•
t<>»t^aoaoo»a»OOi-tf-tC4C9oooo'^'^ud»o«o<ot»t»oooo
oeo«oaftCMkOO»(NiooorH'<i«t^oeo«oa»C4toaoi-i'^t^o
(N09C9C4coeooo<^Tt4<«»okOu3QD«o<o<ot^t^t^aoaoooa»
coeocoeocoooeooooocoeoooooooooeoeoooeoeooooooooo
1
•
lOO<OCOt^t^OOOOa»AOOfHrHC4C40000'^'^tOkO<0«0
C^OOO<DO»C9kOOOrH-«OOtH-^t^OeO«OCkC4U300i-4<^^-
• •• •••••••••••••••••••••
'^iau:dkOiaco«ocot^t>>t<«aoaoi-40»o»aka>oooiHi-irH
<NC>4C>l<NC4(NC4<M01C4C9C4C4C4<MOC^C4eOOOeOeOOOOO
1
a>o*-4C4eO'^u3«D^.aoakOfHC9eo'<44iocot^ooa»Or-4C4
OrHrHr-«r-ir-ir-»rHr-ir-li-l(N<N<NCi|C«<N<NNO<CSlOOOOOO
•
1
eoeo'*'«^OkO«o«©i>.t^ooooofta»oorHf-«<Ne<ioooO'^'^
'^^«ooococ»c^ikOcOf-i'^j>.oooc»peo«oo>c^k£)aOf-H<^
f«t^aOaOOOOOa>0»AOOOr-iiFHr-lC9C4C4?40000eO^<i«
^,^rHpHi-Hi-HrHr-tfHC4JMC9C4C^CqOIC^94C401C^C4C<IC9
1
IOOt<*000>OrSC9C0'*»O«0t^00Oo»-««00^»O«0t>*00
•
iHi-io90ieooo'^-^kOto«ocot^t^ooaoa»a»oOf-trHe4e«
OOOi~)rHrHrHC<9C4C400eOeO'«««^'«t«kOlOlO<0«0«Ot^
1
^
rHC4eO'^>A«Ot^OOakOrHC4eO'^kO«Dt^OOO»OrHC4eO<^
<o«D(oco<o«o«o«o«D^•t<»^«^«J>>^«^«J>.^«^«ooaoaooooo
ooeoeoeococooocooooocoeoooooooMoocooo sooooooooo
1
ao»oot^fH(N<Neoeooooooou>«D«oc^t^ooooo»AOO
t«O'^t<«OOO<OA(NkOaOi-l<«t^OCO«0a»C1>OaOi-ikOOp
C9eoooeQ'<4«<^'^'^»oioto<oco(ot<*t^t^t^ooaoQOAa»o»
oooooooooooooooooooooooo
1
t^ooo>Oi^<Meo«tKiocot^ooa»OfHC4eo'^io<or^ooo»o
a
lOOOOOO^OkOOiOOkOOlO
(0t>«t^0000a»OOOr-lrH(MC400e0^»OlO«D<0t^t^0000
<^r«ococoa>(N<oa»<Nkoooi-H^t»oco(oa»e4kooo«H^
«•••,. ■• ••••• •• ••• ••••••
kOkOCOCOCO<Ot^t>ihoOOOOOOAa)a>OOOOiHiHr-409M
1
OO^kOCOt^QOAOfHC^ieO-^kOtOt^OOCftOfHCqcO^tOtO
i-«i-ii-irHrHi-ii-i<N<NC^O^«C^CN(NC^e400e<DCOeOOOCO«0
eoeoeoooeoeoooeoeoooooeoeooooooQcoeoeoooeoooooco
DECIMAL BQUIVALBNT8 AND FRACTION OF AN INCH. 539
Table CLXXXIII.— Decimal equivalents of Fractioos of an inch.
IkHttai
Decfasftli
Aftotioni.
DednuJa
Fnusttoni.
beeinuli
Fracttons.
Dtebnali
'>44
•016625
"^
•266626
"A,.
•616626
"/«
•766626
^A,
•03125
*A,
•28126
"A*
•68126
•%.
•78126
%4
•046876
"/i*
•296876
"A*
•646876
•Vi*
•796876
V(.
•0626
M.
•3126
*A*
•6626
"X.
•8126
, •'<»
•078126
•V4«
•828126
"/.4
•678126
••/4*
•828126
*A*
•09376
"A*
•34376
"/4.
'69375
"/4.
•84375
'/.*
•109876
••/.*
•369376
•%*
•609376
•%4
•869376
X
•126
X
•376
X
•626
H
•875
%*
•140626
"A<
•390626
"><»
•640626
"/<*
•890626
•/i.
•16626
"At
•40625
"/*•
•65626
"/i.
•90626
»/44
•171876
"/i4
•421876
"/i*
•671876
•%*
•921875
♦X.
•1876
'X.
•4376
•M.
•6876
"/4»
•9376
'%.
•208125
••/..
453126
"/.»
•703126
"/«*
•963125
'/i.
•21876
«%i
•46875
"/4t
•71876
"/4.
•96876
"/4*
•234376
•J44
•484376
*'/4*
•734376
•%*
•984375
)i
•25
K
•6
%
•76
X
'
Table CLXXXIV.— Metrical equivalents of Fractions
of an inch, &c
Fncttom
of ftnlneh.
H
X
^
Hi
Iti
\%k
Mllli.
metrok
©•7937
1-6876
2-8812
8 1749
8^9687
4 7624»Vlf
!4
"X.
6 •5561
6-3499
7*1486
7*9874
87311
9 •6248
10-8186
11-1128 "Xt
11*9060
12-6998|
FnctioDB
of an inch.
IT
54.
X
5i.
^"IL
• •
5i.
• li
Milli.
metret.
18^4935
14-2872
15-0810
15-8747
16-6684
17^4622
18-2669
19-0496
19-8434
20-6371
21 -4309
22-2246
23-0183
23-8121
24*6058
IiMdiei.
1
2
3
4
6
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Milll.
metrat.
26 •3996
50^7991
76 1986
101 •5982
126-9977
162^8972
177-7968
203-1963
228^6969
253 9964
279-3950
804^7945
8801940
355 •6936
880*9981
406 •89261
Inches.
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
26
26
27
28
29
80
81
82
Mim.
metrei.
431 ^7922
467^1917
482*6913
607 •9908
533-3904
658 '7899
684*1894
609-6890
634-9885
660-3881
686-7876
711-1872
786-5867
761 -9862
787-8868
812^7858
540
MI8CBLLANEOU8 TABLES.
Table CLXXXV. —Square Feet and Square Metres.
Sqnan
feel
Square
Square
Veeti
Square
Square
7eeib
Square
^ua.e
Square
Meteee.
Metrea.
Metrea.
Metna.
1
•0929
26
2*4154
51
4*7879
76
7-0604
2
1858
27
2-5088
52
4-8308
77
7-1533
8
•2787
28
2*6012
58
4-9237
78
7-2462
4
•8716
29
2*6941
54
5-0166
79
7*3891
5
•4645
80
2-7870
55
5 1095
80
7-4820
6
•5574
81
2-8799
56
5-2024
81
7-5249
7
6508
82
2-9728
57
5-2958
82
7-6178
8
•7482
88
8-0657
58
5-8882
88
7-7107
9
•8861
84
8 1586
59
5*4811
84
7-8036
10
•9290
85
8-2515
60
5-5740
85
7-8965
11
1-0219
86
8-8444
61
5-6669
86
7-9894
12
1-1148
87
8-4878
62
5-7598
87
8-0823
18
1^2077
88
8-5802
63
5-8527
88
8-1752
14
1*8006
89
8*6281
64
5-9456
89
8-2681
15
1-8935
40
8*7160
65
6 0885
90
8-8610
16
1*4864
41
8*8089
66
6 1814
91
8-4589
17
1*5793
42
8-9018
67
6-2248
92
8-5468
18
1*6722
48
8-9947
68
6*8172
93
8-6397
19
1*7651
44
4-0876
69
6*4101
94
8*7826
20
1 -8580
45
4-1805
70
6*5080
95
8-8255
21
1-9509
46
4*2784
71
6*5969
96
8*9184
22
2*0488
47
4*8663
72
6-6888
97
9-0118
28
2*1867
48
4-4592
78
6*7817
98
9*1042
24
2-2296
49
4-5521
74
6*8746
99
9-1971
26
2*8225
50
4-6450
75
6-9675
100
9*2900
The aboTe Table can, of course, be used for hundreds and thousands
of feet, or for hundredths and thousandth of feet, by altering the
position of the dedmal point : e,g , — 50 square feet — 4*645 square
metres, and 5000 square feet « 464*5 square metrsi ; also -6 square
foot — -04645 square metrSb
SQUARB MBTRBS AND SQUARE FEBT.
541
Table CLXXXVL— Square Metres and Square Feet
Sgneie
Meferei.
9sr
Sqnere
MetTM.
Sqiuie
Feet>
Square
Metraa.
Square
Feet
Square
Metrea.
Square
Feet
1
10-764
26
279*872
61
648-979
76
818*087
2
21-629
27
290-686
62
669*744
77
828-861
8
82-298
28
801 -400
68
670*608
78
889*616
4
48-067
29
812-166
64
681-272
79
860*880
5
63-822
80
822-929
66
692-086
80
861*144
6
64-686
81
888-698
66
602*801
81
871*908
7
76-860
82
844*468
67
618*666
82
882-678
8
36*114
88
866*222
68
624-829
83
893*487
9
96-879
84
866*986
69
686-094
84
904-201
10
107-648
86
876760
60
646-868
86
914-966
11
118-407
36
887*616
61
666*622
86
926*780
12
129-172
87
898*279
62
667*387
87
986-494
18
189-936
88
409-048
68
678*161
88
947*268
14
160-700
89
419*808
64
688-916
89
968*028
16
161 -464
40
480*672
66
699*680
90
968*787
16
172*229
41
441 -386
66
710*444
91
979*661
17
182-998
42
462-101
67
721*208
92
990*816
18
198-767
48
462*866
68
731-972
98
1001-080
19
204-622
44
478-629
69
742-787
94
1011-844
20
216*286
46
484-394
70
768-601
96
1022*608
21
226-060
46
496-168
71
764-266
96
1088-373
22
286-816
47
606-922
72
776-080
97
1044*187
23
247-679
48
616-686
73
785-794
98
1064*901
24
268*843
49
627*461
74
796*668
99
1066-666
26
269-108
60
638-216
76
807*822
100
1076*480
The above Table can, of course, be used for hundreds and thousan(k
of metres, or for hundredths and thousandths of metres, by altering
the position of the decimal point : e.^., — 60 square metres — 638*215
square feet, and 6000 square metres * 63821 -6 square feet ; also *6
square metre — 6*88216 square feet
542
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.
Table CLXXXVI I.— English Weights and Metric Equivalent&
LIM.
fi^ilogninmei.
Lbft.
Kflogrammet.
Um.
KflofrtnunM.
1
•4536
42
19 0509
88
87*6482
2
•9072
48
19-6045
84
88*1018
8
1*8608
44
19*9581
85
88*5554
4
1-8144
45
20*4117
86
89*0089
5
2*2680
46
20*8658
87
89*4625
6
2*7216
47
21*8189
88
39-9161
7
8 1752
48
21 -7724
89
40-8697
8
8*6287
49
22*2260
90
40*8238
9
4*0823
50
22*6796
91
41*2769
10
4*5359
51
23*1332
92
41 -7805
11
4-9895
52
23*5868
98
42*1841
12
5*4431
53
24*0404
94
42*6377
13
5*8967
54
24*4940
95
48*0913
14
6*3503
55
24*9476
96
48*5449
15
6-8039
56
25*4012
97
43*9985
16
7*2575
57
25*8548
98
44*4521
17
7-7111
58
26-8084
99
44*9057
18
8-1647
59
26-7619
100
45*8598
19
8*6182
60
27*2155
101
45*8128
20
9-0718
61
27*6691
102
46*2664
21
9*5254
62
28*1227
108
46*7200
22
9-9790
68
28*5763
104
47*1736
23
10*4326
64
29*0299
105
47*6272
24
10*8862
65
29*4835
106
48 0808
25
11*3398
66
29*9371
107
48*5344
26
11-7934
67
80*3907
108
48*9880
27
12-2470
68
80-8443
109
49-4416
28
12-7006
69
31 '2979
110
49*8952
29
13 1542
70
81*7515
111
50-8488
30
18-6078
71
82*3051
112
50-8024
81
14*0614
72
32*6587
200
90-7185
82
14*5149
78
88-1128
800
136 0778
83
14-9685
74
33-5658
400
181-4370
84
15*4221
75
34*0194
500
226*7968
85
15*8757
76
84*4780
600
272*1556
86
16-3292
77
84*9266
700 *
817-6148
87
16-7293
78
85*3802
800
862*8741
88
17*2365
79
85-8338
900
408*2884
89
17-6901
80
86-2874
1000
453*5926
40
18*1437
81
86*7410
2000
907-1868
41
18*5978
82
87*1946
2240
1016*0476
S7 Ibt.«lS-M7 kUot. :f7 lta.«ltHf kOat. t2700 lb>. -1224*7 ldloi.,*i.
MBTBIO WBIGHT8 AND BNQLISH EQUIVALENTS.
543
Table CLXXXVI la.— Metric Weights and English Equivalents.
Kilo.
LlM.
KUo.
Lbs.
KUo.
Lbs.
grams.
grams.
1
2-2046
88
88-7756
76
165-8466
2
4-4092
89
85-9802
76
. 167-5512
8
6-6189
40
88-1848
77
169*7559
4
8-8185
41
90*8895
78
171*9605
6
11-0281
42
92*5941
79
174*1651
e
18-2277
48
94-7987
80
176-8697
7
15*4824
44
97*0084
81
178-5748
8
17-6370
45
99-2079
82
180-7789
9
19-8416
46
101-4126
88
182-9836
10
22 0462
47
103-6172
84
185-1882
11
24-2508
48
105*8218
85
187*8928
12
26-4554
49
108-0264
86
189-5974
18
28-6601
50
110-2811
87
191-8020
14
80-8647
51
112-4357
88
194-0067
15
88 0693
52
114-6408
89
196-2118
16
85-2789
58
116-8499
90
198-4159
17
87-4786
54
119*0495
91
200-6205
18
89-6832
55
121*2542
92
202*8251
10
41-8878
56
123-4588
98
206-0298
20
44-0924
57
125-6634
94
207-2344
21
46-2970
58
127-8680
95
209*4390
22
48-5017
59
130-6727
96
211-6481
23
50-7068
60
132-2773
97
213-8482
24
52*9109
61
• 134*4819
98
216-0529
25
55-1155
62
136-6865
99
218-2576
26
57-8202
68
138-8911
100
220-4621
27
59-6248
64
141*0958
200
440*9248
28
61 '7294
65
148-8004
300
661 '3864
29
63-9340
66
145-5050
400
881-8485
80
66-1386
67
147-7096
500
1102-8106
81
68-3433
68
149'9142
600
1322-7728
82
70*5479
69
152-1189
700
1548*2349
88
72-7526
70
154*8235
800
1763*6970
84
74-9571
71
156-5281
900
1984-1591
85
77*1617
72
168*7827
1000
2204-6218
86
79*3664
78
160-9374
1016
2289-8952
87
81*5709
74
163*1419
ISkltoi.
-lS7*M8Ibi.:ftl
IkUoa.-
U-76MIbt.tMM
^kl]M.-i
1S7MS lbs., Ac
544
HISOELLANEOUS TABLES.
Table CLXXXVIIL— Pounds per square inch and Kilo-
gframmes per square centimetre.
Lbi.
KUm.
Lbs.
Kilos.
Lbt.
KUoe.
Lbi.
KUoe.
Lbi.
KUoe.
per
inch.
por
■q. cm.
per
inoL
per
■q. em.
per
per
■q. eoL
per
•4-
ineh.
per
■q. em.
per
inSi.
per
■q. em.
1
•0708
85
2-460
69
4*850
108
7^241
187
9*682
2
•1406
36
2-580
70
4*921
104
7*812
188
9*702
8
*2109
37
2-601
71
4-991
105
7-882
139
9*772
4
•2812
88
2-671
72
5*061
106
7*452
140
9*848
6
•8515
39
2-741
78
5-131
107
7*522
141
9*918
6
•4218
40
2-812
74
5^202
108
7-598
142
9*988
7
•4921
41
2-882
75
5-272
109
7*663
143
10-054
8
•5624
42
2*952
76
5*342
110
7-738
144
10*124
9
•6827
43
8 022
77
5-413
111
7^804
145
10194
10
•7080
44
8-098
78
5*488
112
7-874
146
10*264
11
•7788
45
8*163
79
5*558
118
7-944
147
10*835
12
•8486
46
8-288
80
5-624
114
8-015
148
10-405
18
•9140
47
3*304
81
5-694
115
8-085
149
10*475
14
•9848
48
8-374
82
5-764
116
8-155
150
10-546
15
1-0546
49
3*444
83
5-884
117
8*226
155
10-897
16
1-1248
50
8*515
84
5-905
118
8-296
160
11-249
17
1^1952
51
8-585
85
5-975
119
8-866
165
11-600
18
1-265
52
3*655
86
6-045
120
8-486
170
11-952
19
1-835
53
8-725
87
6-116
121
8-507
175
12-808
20
1-406
54
8-796
88
6-186
122
8-577
180
12-655
21
1-476
55
8-866
89
6-256
128
8-647
185
18-006
22
1^546
56
8-936
90
6*827
124
8-718
190
18-858
28
1-616
57
4-007
91
6-397
125
8-788
195
18-710
24
1-687
58
4-077
92
6-467
126
8-858
200
14-061
25
1-757
59
4-147
98
6*587
127
8-929
210
14-76
26
1-827
60
4*218
94
6*608
128
8-999
220
15-46
27
1^898
61
4*288
95
6-678
129
9-069
230
16*16
28
1-968
62
4*858
96
6-748
180
9^140
240
16-87
29
2-088
68
4*428
97
6-819
131
9-210
250
17-57
30
2-109
64
4-499
98
6-889
182
9-280
260
18-27
81
2-179
65
4-569
99
6-959
183
9*850
270
18*98
82
2*249
66
4-689
100
7-080
184
9-421
280
19-68
88
2*819
67
4*710
101
7-101
135
9*491
290
20-88
84
2-890
6S 4-780 |102
7-171 186
9*561
800
21*09
KILOGRAMMES PER SQ. CENT. AND POUNDS PER 8Q. INCH. 545
Table CLXXXIX.— Kilogrammes per square centimetre
and Pounds per square inch.
KUofl.
Lbs. per
1
EUos. 1
Lbs. per
Kilos.
Lbs. per
KUos.
Lbs. per
per
square
per
square
per
square
per
square
SQ. cm.
inch.
sq. an.
inoh.
sq. om.
mch.
sq. om.
inch.
•1
1*422
8-1
44*091
6*1
86*761
9*1
129*431
•2
2*844
8*2
45*514
6-2
88-183
9*2
130*868
•8
4*266
8-8
46-936
6*8
89-606
9-8
182*275
•4
5-689
8*4
48-368
6'4
91-028
9-4
133*698
•6
7*111
8*5
49*781
6*5
92-450
9-5
136*120
•8
8*588
8*6
51-203
6*6
93*878
9*6
186-642
•7
9*956
8-7
52-625
6*7
96-295
9*7
137-965
•8
11*878
8-8
54-048
6-8
96-717
9-8
189-387
•9
12-800
3-9
55-470
6-9
98*140
9-9
140-809
1-0
14*223
4*0
56-892
7-0
99*562
10*0
142-232
149-848
11
15*645
4-1
58*815
7*1
100-984
10*5
1-2
17*067
4-2
59*737
7-2
102-407
110
166*465
1-3
18*490
4-3
61*169
7*3
103-829
11*5
163-566
1-4
19*912
4*4
62*582
7-4
106-251
12*0
170-678
1-6
21*884
4-5
64*004
7*5
106-674
12*5
177-790
1-6
22*767
4*6
66*426
7*6
108-096
18*0
184*901
1-7
24-179
4*7
66*849
7-7
109*618.
13*5
192-018
1-8
26*601
4*8
68*271
7*8
110-940
14*0
199*124
1-9
27*024
4*9
69-693
7-9
112-863
14-5
206*236
2-0
28*446
5*0
71-116
8-0
113-785
16-0
213*348
2-1
29*868
5*1
72*688
8*1
115-207
16-6
220-469
2-2
81 -291
5*2
73-960
8*2
116-630
16-0
227-671
2-3
82*713
5-3
75-382
8*3
118-062
16-6
234 -682
2-4
84*185
6-4
76-805
8-4
119-474
170
241 794
2-6
86 '558
5*5
78-227
8-5
120-897
17*5
248-906
2-6
86-980
5*6
79-649
8*6
122-311^
18*0
266-017
2-7
88-402
5*7
81*072
8*7
123*741
18*5
268 129
2-8
89-824
5*8
82-494
8*8
125-164
19-0
270-240
2*9
41*247
5*9
83-916
8-9
126*586
19-5
277*362
80
42-669
6*0
85-839
9*0
128*008
20*0
284-464
36
^^
546
VI0CELLAKBOUS TABLES.
Table CXC— fClog^numnes per sqnaie milHmetre (or
centimetre) and Tons per square inch.*
KikM.
Tamper
iq. in.
KIlM.
per
Tout per
eq. Id.
Kiloc.
per
nun.'
Tone per
eq.in.
Kfloe.
per
mm.'
•
Tons per
•q. In.
•6
•818
17-6
11-112
84-6
21-908
51-6
82*702
10
•636
18-0
11-430
86-0
22-225
52-0
33-020
1-6
-962
18*6
11-748
86-6
22-642
62-6
83*388
20
1-270
19 0
12066
86*0
22-860
63-0
83-665
2-6
1-688
19 6
12-882
36*6
23178
63-6
83-972
8-0
1-906
20 0
12 700
87 0
23*496
64*0
84-290
8 '6
2-222
20-6
13018
87-6
23*812
64-6
84-608
4 0
2 640
21-0
13*836
88-0
24-130
66-0
84*926
4*6
2-858
21-6
18*652
88-6
24-448
66*6
36*282
6 0
8-176
22 0
18*970
890
24-766
66-0
86-660
6-6
8-492
22-6
14*288
89*5
26*082
66-6
86-878
6-0
8-810
23*0
14*606
40-0
26-400
67-0
86 186
6-6
4-128
23 -6
14*922
40-5
25*718
67-6
86*602
7-0
4-446
24-0
16-240
41*0
26-036
68 0
86*880
7-6
4-762
24-6
16-658
41-5
26*352
58-6
87*148
8*0
6-080
25-0
16-876
42-0
26-670
59 0
87-466
8*6
6-893
25-6
16 192
42-6
26*988
69-6
37*472
9 0
6-716
26*0
16*510
43 0
27-306
60-0
88-100
9*6
6-082
26*6
16*828
43*6
27*6*22
60-6
88-418
10-0
6*850
27-0
17*145
44 0
27-940
61-0
88-786
10-6
6-668
27*6
17-462
44 6
28*258
61-6
89-062
ll'O
6-986
28-0
17*780
45-0
28-576
62*0
39*370
U'6
7-802
28-6
18-098
45-5
28*892
62-5
89*688
12'0
7-620
29-0
18*416
46-0
29-210
63*0
40*006
12-6
7-988
29-6
18-732
46-5
29 -528
63*6
40-822
18-0
8-265
80 0
19*050
47 0
29*846
64-0
40*640
18-6
8-672
80-6
19-868
47-6
30*162
64*6
40*958
14 0
8-890
81-0
19*686
48*0
80 480
66*0
41*276
14*6
9-208
81-6
20*002
48*6
80-798
66-6
41-592
16'0
9-626
82-0
20*820
49*0
81-116
66 0
41-910
16-6
9-842
82-6
20-638
49*6
81-432
66-6
42-238
16-0
10-160
88 0
20-955
60*0
81 -750
67*0
42-645
16*6
10*478
88*5
21*272
50-5
82*068
67-6
42-852
17'0
10-796
84*0
21*690
610
32*885
68-0
48170
* 1 Ulo. per iq. millimetre ■> 100 kilos, per sq. oentimetre, ete.
ABBAS OF SBGMBNTS OF OIROLBS
647
Table CXCL— Areas of Segfmetits of Circles.
To find the area of any segment of a circle, — Divide the versed tine
or height of the segment (Y) by the diameter of the circle of which it
is a part (D), and multiply the square of the'diameter by the valne of
X (see Table) corresponding to the value of -g- obtained ; that is, —
Area of Segment-
- Diameter 'x a;.
V
V
V
V
•001
. X
^
X
D
X
IS
X
•000042
•088
•009768
•076
•026761
•112
•048262
•002
•000119
•039
•010148
•076
•027289
•113
•048894
•008
•000219
•040
•010687
•077
•027821
•114
•049628
•004
•000337
•041
•010981
•078
•028356
•116
•060166
•006
•000470
•042
•011880
•079
•028894
•116
•050804
•006
•000618
•048
•011784
•080
•029435
•117
•051446
•007
•000779
•044
•012142
•081
•029979
•118
•062090
•008
•000961
•046
•012664
•082
•030526
•119
•062786
•009
•001186
•046
•012971
•088
031076
•120
•053386
•010
•001329
•047
•013892
•084
•031629
•121
•054086
•Oil
•001638
•048
•018818
•086
•082186
•122
•054689
•012
•001746
•049
•014247
•086
•032746
•128
•055346
•018
•001968
•060
•014681
•087
•088307
•124
•056008
•014
•002199
•061
•016119
•088
•083872
•126
•066663
•015
•002488
•052
•016661
•089
•034441
•126
•067826
•016
•002686
•058
•016007
•090
•036011
•127
•067991
•017
•002940
•064
•016467
•091
•035686
•128
•058668
•018
•008202
•056
•016911
•092
•086162
•129
•059827
•019
•008471
•066
•017869
•093
•036741
•130
•069999
•020
•008748
•067
•017831
•094
•037328
•131
•060672
•021
•004081
•058
•018296
•095
•087909
•132
•061848
•022
•004322
•069
•018766
•096
•038496
•183
•062026
•023
•004618
•060
•019239
•097
•039087
•134
•062707
•024
•004921
•061
•019716
•098
•089680
•135
•063389
•026
•006230
•062
•020196
•099
•040276
•186
•064074
•026
•006646
•068
•020680
•100
•040876
•137
•064760
•027
•006867
•064
•021168
•101
•041476
•138
•066449
•028
•006194
•066
•021659
•102
•042080
•139
•066140
•029
•006627
•066
•022164
•103
•042687
•140
•066833
•080
•006866
•067
•022662
•104
•043296
•141
•067628
•081
•007209
•068
•023164
•106
•048908
•142
•068226
•082
•007658
•069
•028669
•106
•044622
•143
•068924
•083
•007918
•070
•024168
•107
•046189
•144
•069626
•084
•008278
•071
•024680
•108
•045759
•146
•070328
•086
•008638
•072
•026195
•109
•046881
•146
•071038
•036
•009008
•078
•026714
•110
•047006
•147
•071741
•087
•009888
•074
•026286
•111
•047632
•148
•072460
548
MI80BLLANSOTJB TABLB8.
Table CXCI.— Areas of Segrments of Circles— am<iTM««i.
V
V
V
V
15
•
H
•
D
s
D
M
•149
•078161
•198
•106261
•287
•142887
•281
•180918
•160
•078874
•194
•107061
•238
•148238
•282
•181817
•161
•074689
•196
•107842
•239
•144091
•288
•182718
•162
•076306
•196
•108686
•240
•144944
•284
•188619
•168
•076026
•197
•109430
•241
•146799
•286
•184621
•164
•076747
•198
•110226
•242
•146666
•286
.•186426
166
•077469
•199
•111024
•248
•147612
•287
•186829
•166
•078194
•200
•111823
•244
•148871
•288
•187284
•167
•078921
•201
•112624
•246
•149280
•289
•188140
•168
•079649
•202
•113426
•246
•160091
•290
•189047
•169
•080380
•208
•114230
•247
•160968
•291
•189966
•160
•081112
•204
•116036
•248
•161816
•292
•190864
•161
•081846
•206
•116842
•249
•162680
•298
•191776
•162
•082682
•206
•116660
•260
•168646
•294
•192684
•168
•088820
•207
•117460
•261
•164412
•296
•198696
•164
•084069
•208
•118271
•262
•166280
•296
•194609
•166
•084801
•209
•119083
•263
•166149
•297
•196422
•166
•086644
•210
•119897
•264
•167019
•298
•196887
•167
•086289
•211
•120712
•266
•167890
•299
197262
•168
•087036
•212
•121629
•266
•168762
•800
•198168
•169
•087786
•218
•122347
•267
•169636
•801
•199086
•170
•088636
•214
•128167
•268
•160610
•802
•200008
•171
•089287
•216
•123988
•269
•161386
•803
•200922
•172
•090041
•216
•124810
•260
•162268
•804
•201841
•178
•090797
•217
•126634
•261
•168140
•306
•202761
•174
•091664
•218
•126469
•262
•164019
•306
•208688
•176
•092318
•219
•127286
•268
•164899
•807
•204606
•176
•093074
•220
•128113
•264
•166780
•308
•206627
•177
•093886
•221
•128942
•266
•166668
•809
•206461
•178
•094601
•222
•129778
•266
•167646
•810
•207876
•179
•096366
•223
•180606
•267
•168480
•811
•208801
•180
•096184
•224
•181488
•268
•169816
•812
•209227
•181
•096908
•226
•182272
•269
•170202
•318
•210164
•182
•097674
•226
•183108
•270
•171089
•314
•211082
•188
•098447
•227
183946
•271
•171978
•316
•212011
•184
•099221
•228
•134784
•272
•172867
•316
•212940
186
•099997
•229
•136624
•273
•178768
•317
•218871
•186
100774
•280
•136466
•274
•174649
•818
•214802
•187
•101668
•281
•137307
•276
•176642
•319
•216788
•188
•102384
•232
•138160
•276
•176486
•320
•216666
•189
•108116
•238
•138996
•277
•177830
•821
•217699
•190
•108900
•234
•189841
•278
•178226
•822
•21868S
•191
•104686
•286
•140688
•279
•179122
•828
•219468
192
•106472
•286
•141687
•280
•180019
•824
•220404
ABBAS OF 8EOMBNTB OF OIBOIiBS.
549
Table CXCI.— Areas of Segments of Ciides—eofUintAed.
rv
V
V
V
D
X
D
s
D
X
D
»
•826
•221840
•869
•268218
•418
•806140
•467
•349762
•826
•222277
•870
•264178
•414
•807126
•468
•860748
•827
•228216
•871
•266144
•416
•808110
'469
•861746
•828
'224164
'872
•266111
'416
'809096
•460
•852742
•820
•226098
•878
•267078
•417
•810081
•461
•868789
•880
•226088
'874
•268046
•418
•811068
'462
'364786
'881
•226974
'876
•269018
•419
•812054
'463
'366782
•882
•227916
•876
'269982
•420
'818041
•464
•866780
•888
•228868
•877
•270961
•421
'314029
•466
•867727
•884
•229801
•878
•271920
•422
•816016
•466
•868726
•885
•280746
•879
•272890
•428
'816004
•467
•869728
•886
•281689
•880
'278861
•424
•816992
'468
•860721
•887
•282684
•881
'274882
•426
•817981
•469
'861719
•888
•288680
•882
•276808
•426
•818970
•470
•862717
•889
•284626
•888
•276776
•427
•819959
•471
'863716
•840
'286478
•884
•277748
•428
•820948
•472
-864718
•841
•286421
•886
'278721
•429
•821988
•478
•865712
•842
'287869
•886
'279694
•480
•822928
•474
•866710
'848
•288818
•887
•280668
•481
•823918
'476
•867709
•844
•289268
•888
^1642
'482
•824909
•476
•868708
•846
•240218
•889
•282617
'488
•826900
'477
•869707
'846
•241169
•890
•288692
'484
•826892
•478
•870706
•847
•242121
•891
'284668
•486
•827882
•479
•871706
•848
'248074
'892
•286644
'486
•828874
•480
•872704
•849
'244026
•898
•286621
•487
•829866
•481
•878708
'860
•244980
•894
•287498
•488
•880868
•482
•874702
•861
•246984
'896
•288476
•489
•881860
•483
•876702
'862
'246889
•896
•289468
•440
•882843
•484
•876702
'868
•247846
•897
'29a432
•441
•833886
•486
•377701
'864
•248801
•898
•291411
•442
•884829
•486
•878701
•866
•249767
•899
•292390
•448
885822
•487
•879700
•866
•260716
•400
•298869
•444
•886816
•488
•880700
•867
•261678
•401
•294849
446
•S87810
•489
•881699
•868
•262681
•402
'296380
•446
'838804
•490
•382699
•869
•268690
•408
•296811
•447
•889798
•491
•883699
•860
264660
•404
•297292
•448
•840798
492
•884699
•861
•266610
•406
•298278
•449
•841787
•498
•385699
•862
•266471
•406
•299266
•460
'842782
•494
•886699
'868
•267488
•407
•800238
•461
'843777
•496
•887699
•864
•268896
•408
•801220
•462
'844772
•496
'388699
•866
•269867
•409
•802208
'468
•346768
•497
•889699
•866
•260820
•410
•808187
'464
'846764
•498
•890699
•867
•261284
•411
•804171
•466
'847759
•499
•891699
•868
•262248
•412
'805166
•466
•848766
'600
•892699
550
mSCELLAiraOCS TABLES
99 01 OO 00 lO «D ^ r4 to «0 «0 •«.
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o«o»a»«0OOio«9aoaoiookO«o«oio-«*-i-«toe«*^
ijc : «t^^t^« '-«r-4c<»floaoao»^r-tOi»»A«Da»aoo«etaooi
• I Ot«^flOCN.t<»«OF-i«OiOOf^«0*<->«OOCftOO«iOO
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-« O 00 -^ o« « eo c<^ 00 « «D oo ^. Oft t>« c« lO lo v^ lo «D '^•i a»
^.^ . ^ ^ OkOt^Okrot-4 r4 9 t«-'^ 40 -^ eoeOOO ^ i^ 00 s^ lO ^
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9 00 f-4 o o o f-4 00 <o o» -« Ok lo e« o eo ««- 1«> 00 o» e« lo 00
O t«> f-^ 00 O lO t<* « 04 lO «D OO 00 O Ok ^ (o t^ <« eo O 00 oo
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o«ioo<9^^ioooo«oo«oioiot«.i-ft^ooo«e«^i^e«
I vHf-ie«oo^iot^oooe«-««Okf-f-«<<.ooo«oo
p4 r4 1^ fi^ ^ ei c« CO oo 00 eo <«
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d9rHt^^4 0O0Of-ltx»«-^0OO0^4
«»..ooi-4^ooeoooiooooafta»okOOOiOAOooo-«f-«ak
0k«O00O>0a0t^-<«ia00k«Di-t00000kC4ClO'«<0lOO
t-it>«0»«ckir«t-H*-it^oo*oao*<»tH«-i«ooioao«9OO«D
i-4^0kioooeo^«o«oooe4ooioaooooooaoooot^
t-HOi0»^io»*oooc«'««oo«-4'«<oa»ooook
FHr-«t-iwpHe9e«e«Meooooo
;:j^
>-<MiHooeo«o»<««0eoooFHe9
Ac^«oio«t«»o»e9«oo<oe9At^«ioio«i>«ooor^
]f 04 1<» Oft 00 ^ r^ 00 lO o «-H o lO 00 00
P M 0» M f-l CO «0 04
ooor^Oi
e4c<»oftoo^r^aoioo«-HoiooooOiookOao^«oio
0if-l(0«0e4-«0l»0t0a000'««000t«»10OO«Da0
• •••■••••••••••• 7^ • • •
^o900'<««-io^eot^C40k»^h>Oke4r^ooi-H^e4«i«oo
r-ie<ieO'<«io«oookr-ieoioaoooo«pa»e4iooo
r-l ^1-11-104 09 eiMOOeO 00
¥3OtD0ifHO00e0fr^000&^
d4<^«oa»'^Ok<^iHoootoko<Dt^oeo<o^«DC90kt^«o
9'-io>'^««ol«D»^^a»iHO«oo»ot^^eoiHi^aek«D
o»M>«oeo«D'^aoooeoiooi'^(N»^«DMeooo«S^'<«
00h»00O0»0ft^>OOb«IOkO«00k'^O00t^00Q^
FHOOtOtoOOOlOOOi-HSoO
rH^iH^o^e^e^e^eocooo
r-iOi04eoio«Daoa»i-Heotot«o«Qiooo
io»HootDio^^iot<«oeoooeoaoioo9^ookOr-i'^
oo^<o«ooo^•ao«0fH^ooo»ooeo•H«DQo^•o9«D«Deo
9|>.^piO«Q«^04«DkOOO»^a»t^OO»<4lkOi-ieOr4
oot«»e9O»oQoooeoooioeoe4eocoFH«0'iii«eo^«oo
•H^oieeio«ot^a»>-4eo»ot^Qe4iQOQr-i'«QO
uo^onivfa
^e4oo^io«t^ooo»OT-ie9eo'^io«t>«oo<
01-4 09
C9C9C«
ARBAS OF OTROLBS.
551
m
I
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n
I
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XI
o
'UOf^einvKI
eo«i)<ko<oi>-ooodOrHOieO'^iocoi>>ooa»OiHC4eo^
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OAao^•oooe4oakeoo»M»c4oa»ooGO
a»l>>eO«DCO^OOAWei9tf>0(N<D«0^0»04fH»^r-l^
iij^
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'^•^M>M>«0«0l^t<«t«a0A0»OOiHrHC<9e000^W>tfd
•
OrHt^oaOl-HrHtot^eotO'^^•^-C4eoo»(Moeoeoao
oorHOC9^a>iac<irHG4'^ooeoooa»o<4ia»uaco99
•
'<d<ooe««oo'*<»'^o>'*o»'*©50f-n^'«(i«0 5oeooi^
•^tft-^kOlOtOtDtOt^t^OOaOOftOO-rHi-HC^ieOOO^kOkO
^0»«00f-IA0»»OG4>AAe0Q0'4lf-l00
^
•
QO<oio<oc»eoa»«DWdkoooi-H«oeoi-HF-ieo*.ootO'<it«^
t«««b«oki-i'^QoeoAkoe9oa»a»oko
eoooO'<4(io<^o»iHi-^x«.rHG<io<««DkOC< M»toeo»«o»
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oor^rHkOAeooooor^d^ooeooo-^otec^oovoi-HaokO
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tO«D-^0»OC»kOAO»<00(NO<00)aOiaOr-4a>^«D
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kaoo»^iHC9t>«q»«oa>aocoeoo»Oi>-oo»-<«4^o»rHOO
^rHOrH00«0iH00<0«DQ0 rH-VO (NAO>OdC^COi-iO>»^
(MtOO-^OOC^t^rHtOrHCOiNtoeOOO^Ot^OOOtOeO
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r*o»ooh»'^rHOOsoi-i«»opoooooeo
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e«<NO«©»MOic^oocooo«eoeoooeoeooo^'<*'^'^'*
552
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.
'■idtoareid
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2
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eft eo lO -^
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0» C4 (N O)
to 00 »or« <o
e4koo<oeo94eokoc»koc4ooo9ioo«o^'^ibaoc4
toc40t<«koeorHa»tN.cDio^eoc<iFHiHOOOOOiH
«Dt<«aoooa»o^i-HMoo«#ikO<ot>»oooaOi-HC4oo-^ip
,-i_irHr-ii-ic49409^c9e4C90409C9e9eoeooooeeoM
;^
^
■««DiOrHioMdC9t^ax«.oo«o«eeot>»oo«Di-i'^eoo
kOt>«kOAaoeo^oolO'<«4eooo»>ot>>ioa»oooo-^
CDO«DOOOieO^A'«r-40»A00300'^e4^C4kOA
^fHa»«O^C40aO«D«0'^(NiHi-HOO»0»0»0»0»0»A
<ox«>^•aooftOrH•H04M«#•u^<p^<>aoooo)OlHCle9'^
,.4 ,.4 rHi-lpHM 09040404 04 09 0409 0404 0400 OOeOOOCO
04t«»OA«Oa»000
^wr-i^^04ebioaoeo
OOOOOkOeOrHO»t>>»0^
CDt«»»^00CbOOi-(0400
,HFHrHi-l,-l0404O4O4O4
SkO'^oeoeOfHkoroiQr-i'^'^O
»Oi-ieOOOOC4«D«0^'^r-4<^eO
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000000»09«040A004
oQrHoa»o»ooaoaoi>>aoao
^kO«D«otN.aoa»Qi-H0400
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t^ OO Qd ^
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eor«ao<Oi-ieoeoAeo-^r-i
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toooo4t^^C4eo■<<4ooc<4a»l>.tot>.o<4lO^•«o^<-a»eo
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CD«Dr«OOa»OOrH04eO'^kO»Q«l>-OOa»OrH04eO-^
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ABBA8 OF OIROLBS.
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rHaot<«t«o»Q9t«»eoiHi-4e4ioa»tO(NfHCi^ooooooo
a»o)OiHC4^ioi>Ai-ieotQr«oe9tocbe4»OAee«o
tO«OQOa»OrHe900'^tOt«»OOa»r-lC4eO^«Dt<«OQOrH
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flo "^»o«o^•ooo»^-^oow^^•o> ri ^ «o AOjiOASjOA
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»«oc4^o«»0'^oooO'>*«Deo»Maop»r*»poo<pi7i
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010000'«*»»Ot-OOOrHeO»Ot>-OC3000iH'2^.©2;00
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554
MfaOELLANBOira TABLB.
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c»Oi^o«eo-«iO«C(^aoAO^o«flo-«io«t^ooabO
eoo»a»c»0»o»a»oko»Aaoooooooooo^
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M>iHioaoo»aooabioaoaoiooi^o»aoaot<»<«aoA««>
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560
IflSOELLANEOUB TABLBS.
lJ»^ait|Q
to QD to t^ t^ ^« C^ C^ t^ t^ t^ t*«»t^ OOOOOOQOOOOOOOOOOO
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CIRCUMFERENCES O^ CIRCLES.
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MlSCfiLLANBOUS TABLES.
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OIROUMFBRENCES OP CIRCLES.
563
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fjo|oimia
OO^tO«Dt^QOadOf-iC4eQ^O<Ot^OOAO
r
564
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.
Table CXC IV.— Areas and Circumferences of Small Circles.
Diameter.
Area.
Circum.
Diameter.
Area.
Circam.
*/4.
•000767
•09817
1^/4.
•83526
8-2898
Vi*
•003068
•19635
iVi*
•88666
8-3379
•>4.
•006903
'29452
l»/8»
•98956
3-4361
%
•012272
•39270
1%
-99402
3*5348
Vsa
•019175
•49087
iVa.
1-0500
8-6826
Vi.
•027612
•68906
1»X.
1-1076
8-7306
Vs.
•037583
•68722
IVaa
1-1666
8-8288
)4
•049087
•78540
1^
1 -2272
3-9270
Vs.
•062126
•88357
IVs.
1-2893
4-0252
Vi.
•076699
•98175
l*^
1-3580
4-1283
"/»»
•092806
1^0799
1^V4.
1-4182
4-2216
%
•11045
1-1781
1%
1 -4849
4-8197
^'/sa
•12962
1-2763
l^Vaa
1-6531
4-4179
Vx.
•15033
1-3744
iVi.
1-6229
4-5160
^%9
•17257
1-4726
l^'/^.
1^6943
4-6142
%
•19635
1-5708
1%
1^7671
4-7124
^^39
•22166
1-6690
l^Vs.
1^8416
4*8106
»/l.
•24850
17671
iVi.
1-9176
4-9087
^•/s.
•27688
18653
1^%.
1^9949
6-0069
%
•30680
1-9635
1%
2-0739
6 1061
•Vs.
•33824
2-0617
i"/4.
2^1646
6-2038
"/•
•37122
21598
i^Vi.
2-2366
6*3014
"/s.
•40674
2-2580
l^Vsa
2-3201
6-3996
%
•44179
2-3562
1%
2-4053
6'4978
•%.
•47937
2-4644
l"/3.
2-4919
6-6969
*M.
•51849
2'6525
l^Me
2-6801
6-6941
•789
•65914
2-6507
I'y*.
2-6699
6-7923
%
•60132
2-7489
l?s
2-7612
6-8905
"/s.
•64504
2-8471
1*V8.
2 8540
5-9886
*•/!•
•69029
2-9452
l^M.
2 •9488
6-0868
•V4.
•73708
3-0434
I'Va.
8-0442
6 1860
1
•78640
8*1416
2
3-1416
6 2832
SPHERES, VOLUME AND SURFACE OP.
565
Table CXCV.— Spheres, Volume and Surface of.
(Volume=^ = ,-— -; surface =irti^.)
6 1-91
Dia.
1
Surface.
Volume.
Dia.
41
Surface.
Volume.
Dia.
81
Surface.
Volume.
3-142
0-524
5281 -0
36,084
20,612
278,241
2
12-546
4-189
42
5541 -8
38,785
82
21,120
288,640
3
28*274
14-136
48
5808-8
41,627
83
21,683
299,361
4
50-266
' 33-608
44
6082-1
44,597
84
22,146
310,316
5
78:540
65-445
45
6361-7
47,707
85
22,704
321,531
6
113-098
113-09
46
6647-6
50,961
86
23,227
333,013
7
153-938
179-58
47
6939-8
54,356
87
23,753
344,764
8
201-062
268-06
48
7238-3
57,900
88
24,328
356,791
9
254-47
381-67
49
7543-0
61,696
89
24,860
369,089
10
31416
523-56
50
7854 -d
65,445
90
25,434
381,675
11
380-18
696-86
61
8171-3
69,450
91
26,016
394,540
12
452-89
904-71
52
8494-9
73,612
92
26,601
407,690
18
530-93
1150-3
53
8824-8
77,946
93
27,150
421,130
14
616-75
1436-7
54
9160-9
82,442
94
27,742
434,860
15
706-86
1767-0
55
9603-3
87,105
95
28,338
448,887
16
804-25
2144-5
56
9852-1
91,945
96
28,939
463,212
17
907-92
2572-2
67
10,207
96,960
97
29,643
477,840
18 1017-9
3053-4
68
10,568
102,152
98
30,160
492,771
19
1184-1
3591-1
59
10,936
107,523
99
30,787
508,010
20
1256-6
4188-6
60
11,810
113,089
100
81,416
523,560
21
1385-5
4848
61
11,690
118,847
101
32,036
539,424
22
1520-5
6675
62
12,076
124,780
102
32,685
555,602
28
1661*9
6370
63
12 469
130,914
103
33,329
672,109
24
1809-6
7237
64
12,868
137,248
104
33,980
588,932
25
1963-5
8181
65
13,273
143,783
105
34,686
606,086
26
2123-7
9202
66
13,685
150,521
106
35,299
623,570
27
2290-2
10,306
67
14,103
167,466
107
35,968
641,384
28
2463-0
11,490
68
14,527
164,623
108
36,644
659,535
29
2642-1
12,769
69
14,967
172,000
109
37,326
678,025
30
2827-4
14,136
70
15,394
179,581
110
38,018
696,860
31
3019-1
15,597
71
16,837
187,387
111
38,708
716,037
82
3217-0
17,152
72
16,286
195,418
112
39,408
735,560
83
3421-2
18,812
73
16,742
203,674
113
40,116
755,440
84
3681 -7
20,523
74
17,204
212,193
114
40,828
776,676
86
3848-6
22,877
76
17,672
220,878
115
41,548
796,270
36
4071-6
24,872
76
18,146
229,827
116
42,278
817,228
37
4300 -9
26,466
77
18,826
239,023
117
43,006
888,585
38
4536-6
28,676
78
19,114
248,456
118
43,744
860,227
39
4778-4
31,057
79
19,607
258,135
119
44,488
882,282
40
6026-6
33,608
80
20,106
268,063
120
46,240
904,712
566
MISCELLANEOUS TABLES.
Table CXCV.— Spheres, Volume and Surface of—co7Uinued.
(Volume='^ = ,— ; surface =ireia.)
6 1*91
Dia.
Surface.
121
45,996
122
46,760
123
47,529
124
48,305
125
49,088
126
49,876
127
50,672
128
51,472
129
52,280
130
53,092
Volume.
927,519 131
940,413 132
974,276 133
998,230 134
1,022,577 135
1,047,320 136
1,072,452 137
1,098,000 138
1,123,916 139
1,150,2621 140
Dia.
Surface.
Volume.
53,913
54,740
55,572
56,412
57,256
58,108
58,965
59,829
60,700
61,576
177,000
204,172
231,750
260,000
288,152
317,000
346,251
376,000
406,083
436,650
Dia.
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
Surface.
Volume.
62,460
63,348
64,244
65,144 1
66,052
66,968
67,888
68,813
69,748
70,688
,467,644
,600,000
,631,100
,563,342
,696,131
,629,3901
,663,100
,700,000
,731,900;
,767,000
Kote. — Cones have half the volume and 0*809 of the surface of
corresponding spheres, that is, cones having a diameter of base and
height each = d, volume = rf** -f 3 "82, surface =d^x2 '5416.
STOWAGE.
Miscellaneous Weights and Measures.
1 sack = 224 lbs.
1 chald. = 12 sacks.
Coal.
1 Newcastle chald. = 23^ sacks.
1 keel = 8 Newcastle chald.
Welsh
Newcastle . 45*3
S. Yorkshire 46
42*7 cubic ft. to ton. Lancashire 45*2 cubic ft. to ton.
Scotch . 42
American 42 4
II
Grain.
480 lbs. = 1 quarter (approximate).
Oats 56 bushels = 1 ton
1 „ =40 lbs.
Wheat 37i „ =1 ton
1 .. =60 lbs.
n
Maize 40
it
a
if
= 1 ton
Cotton (American).
4^ bales =1 ton (measurement, approximate).
2^ to 2i bales = 1 ton oil-cake or meal
1 bale ae 20 bushels wheat
)i
fi
SQUARES, CUBES, ROOTS, AND RECIPROCALS.
567
Table CXCVI.-^Squares, Cubes, Square Roots, Cube Roots,
and Reciprocals of all Integ^er Numbers from z to 2200.
No.
Square
Cube
Square Root
Cube Root
Reciprocal
1
1
1
1-0000000
1-0000000
1-000000000
2
4
8
1-4142136
1-2599210
•500000000
8
9
27
17320508
1-4422496
•833333333
4
16
64
2-0000000
1-5874011
•250000000
5
25
125
2-2360680
1-7099759
•200000000
6
86
216
2-4494897
1-8171206
•166666667
7
49
843
2-6457618
1-9129312
•142857143
8
64
512
2-8284271
20000000
•125000000
9
81
729
8-0000000
20800837
•111111111
10
100
1000
3-1622777
2-1544347
•100000000
11
121
1331
3-3166248
2-2239801
•090909091
12
144
1728
3-4641016
2-2894286
•083333333
13
169
2197
3-6055513
2-3513347
•076023077
14
196
2744
3-7416574
2-4101422
•071428671
15
225
8375
8-8729833
2-4662121
-066666667
16
256
4096
4-0000000
2-5198421
•062500000
17
289
4918
4-1231056
2-5712816
•058823529
18
824
5832
4-2426407
2-6207414
•055655556
19
861
6859
4-8588989
2-6684016
•052631579
20
400
8000
4-4721360
2-7144177
•050000000
21
441
9261
4-5825757
2-7589243
•047619048
22
484
10648
4-6904158
2-8020393
•045454545
23
529
12167
4-7958315
2-8438670
•043478261
24
576
13824
4-8989795
2-8844991
•041666667
25
625
15625
50000000
29240177
-040000000
26
676
17576
5-0990195
2-9624960
•038461688
27
729
19688
5-1961524
8-0000000
•037037037
28
784
21952
5-2915026
8-0365889
•035714286
29
841
24389
5-3851648
30723168
•034482769
80
900
27000
5-4772256
8-1072825
-033333333
81
961
29791
6-5677644
8-1413806
•032258065
82
1024
82768
5-6568542
8-1748021
•031250000
83
1089
85937
5-7445626
8*2075343
•030303030
84
1156
89304
5-8809519
8-2396118
•029411765
85
1225
42875
5-9160798
8-2710668
•028571429
86
1296
46656
60000000
8-8019272
•027777778
87
1869
50653
6-0827625
8-3322218
•027027027
88
1444
54872
6-1644140
8-3619754
•026315789
89
1521
59319
6-2449980
8*8912114
•025641026
40
1600
64000
6-3245553
8-4199519
•025000000
41
1681
68921
6-4031242
8-4482172
•024890244
42
1764
74088
6-4807407
8-4760266
•023809524
43
1849
79507
6-5574385
8-5033981
•023255814
44
1936
85184
6-6332496
3-5303483
•022727273
45
2025
91125
6*7082039
8-5568933
•022222222
m
BQUABBS, 0UB18, BOOTS, AND BI0IFBO0AL8.
No.
Square
Cube
SquftreRoot
Cube Boot
Beeipraeal
46
2116
97386
6-7828300
8-6880479
•021739130
47
2209
103828
6-8556546
8-6088261
•021276600
48
2304
110592
6*9282032
3-6342411
•020833333
49
2401
117649
7-0000000
8-6593057
•020408168
50
2500
125000
7 0710678
8-6840314
•020000000
51
2601
132651
7-1414284
8-7084298
•019607843
52
2704
140608
7-2111026
8-7325111
•019230769
53
2809
148877
7-2801099
87562858
•018867926
54
2916
167464
7-3484692
3-7797631
-018518519
55
8025
166375
7-4161985
3-8029525
■018181818
56
3136
175616
7-4833148
8-8258624
-017857143
57
8249
185198
7-5498344
88485011
•017548860
58
8364
195112
7-6157731
8-8708766
•017241879
59
8481
206379
7-6811457
8-8929965
•016949153
60
8600
216000
7-7459667
8-9148676
•016666667
61
8721
226981
7-8102497
8-9364972
•016398448
62
8844
238328
7-8740079
8-9578915
•016129032
63
8969
250047
7-9372589
8-9790571
•015878016
64
4096
262144
8-0000000
4-0000000
•015626000
65
4225
274625
80622577
4-0207256
•015384616
66
4356
287496
8-1240384
4 0412401
•015151516
67
4489
800763
8-1853628
4-0615480
-014925373
68
4624
814432
8-^62113
4-0816551
•014706882
69
4761
828609
8-3066239
4-1015661
•014492764
70
4900
843000
8-3666003
4-1212858
•014286714
71
5041
857911
8-4261498
4-1408178
•014084507
72
5184
873248
8-4852814
4-1601676
•018888889
73
5329
889017
8-5440037
4-1793392
•013698630
74
6476
406224
8-6023253
4-1988864
•013618614
75
5625
421875
8-6602540
4-2171638
•013883338
76
5776
438976
8-7177979
4-2368236
•013167896
77
5929
456533
8-7749644
4-2543210
•012987018
78
6084
474552
8-8317609
4-2726586
•012820613
79
6241
493039
8-8881944
4-2908404
•012668228
80
6400
512000
8-9442719
4-3088695
•012500000
81
6561
531441
9-0000000
4-3267487
•012345679
82
6724
561368
9 0653851
4-3444815
•012195122
83
6889
571787
91104336
4-3620707
•012048193
84
7056
592704
9-1651514
4-3795191
•011904762
85
7225
614125
9*2195445
4-8968296
•011764706
86
7396
636056
9-2736186
4-4140049
•011627907
87
7569
658603
9-8273791
4-4310476
•011494263
88
7744
681472
9-8808316
4-4479602
•011863696
89
7921
704969
9-4339811
4-4647451
•011235965
90
8100
729000
9-4868330
4-4814047
•011111111
91
8281
753571
9-5393920
4-4979414
•010989011
92
8464
778688
9-5916630
4-5143574
•010869565
93
8649
804357
9-6436608
4-5306549
-010762688
94
8836
880584
9-6953597
4-6468869
•010688298
V
BQUARIB, CUBSB, BOOTS, AND BECIPROOALB.
561
No.
Square
Cube
Square Root
Cube Root
Reciprocal
95
9026
857875
9-7467943
4*5629026
-010526316
96
9216
884736
97979590
4-5788570
•010416667
97
9409
912678
9*8488578
i-5947009
*010809278
98
9604
941192
9-8994949
4-6104363
•010204082
99
9801
970299
9*9498744
4-6260650
*010101010
100
10000
1000000
10-0000000
4-6415888
•OlOOOOOOO
101
10201
1030301
10-0498756
4-6570095
•009900990
102
10404
1061208
10-0995049
4-6723287
•009803922
103
10609
109^27
101488916
4-6875482
•009708788
104
10816
1124864
101980390
4*7026694
*009615385
105
11025
1157625
10-2469508
4-7176940
•009523810
106
11236
1191016
10-2956301
47826235
•009433962
107
11449
1225043
10-8440804
47474594
•009345794
108
11664
1259712
10*3923048
4*7622032
•009259259
109
11881
1295029
10-4403065
47768562
•009174312
110
12100
1331000
10-4880885
47914199
•009090909
111
12321
1367631
10-5356538
4-8058955
•009009009
112
12544
1404928
10-5830052
4-8202845
•008928571
113
12769
1442897
10-6301468
4-8345881
-008849558
114
12996
1481544
10-6770783
4-8488076
•008771930
115
13225
1520875
10-7238053
4-8629442
•008695652
116
13456
1560896
10-7703296
4*8769990
•008620690
117
13689
1601613
10-8166538
4*8909732
•008547009
118
13924
1643032
10-8627805
4-9048681
•008474576
119
14161
1685159
10-9087121
4-9186847
•008403361
120
14400
1728000
10-9544512
4-9324242
•008333333
121
14641
1771561
11-0000000
4-9460874
•008264463
122
14884
1815848
11-0458610
4*9596757
•008196721
123
15129
1860867
11*0905365
4-9731898
•008180081
124
15376
1906624
11-1855287
4-9866310
•008064516
125
15625
1953125
11-1803399
5-0000000
•008000000
126
15876
2000376
11-2249722
5*0182979
•007936508
127
16129
2048383
11-2694277
5-0265257
•007874016
128
16384
2097152
11-3137085
5-0396842
•007812500
129
16641
2146689
11-3578167
50527743
•007751938
130
16900
2197000
11-4017543
5-0657970
•007692308
131
17161
2248091
11-4455231
5-0787581
•007633588
132
17424
2299968
11-4891253
5-0916434
-007575758
133
17689
2352637
11-5325626
5-1044687
-007518797
134
17956
2406104
U-6758369
51172299
•007462687
135
18225
2460375
11-6189500
5-1299278
•007407407
136
18496
2515456
11-6619038
5*1425632
-007352941
137
18769
2571353
11-7046999
5-1551367
•007299270
138
ld044
2628072
11-7473401
5*1676493
•007246377
139
19321
2685619
11-7898261
5*1801015
•007194245
140
19600
2744000
11-8321596
5-1924941
•007142857
141
19881
2803221
11-8743422
5-2048279
-007092199
142
20164
2863288
11-9163753
5-2171034
•007042254
143
20449
2924207
11-9582607
5*2293215
•006993007
570
BQUUEtSa, OUBEB, BOOTS, AND RIOIPBOOAU.
Ko.
Square
Cube
Square Root
Cube Boot
Reciproeal
144
20786
2985984
12-0000000
5-2414828
•006944444
145
21025
8048625
120415946
5-2535879
-006896652
146
21316
8112136
12-0830460
5-2656374
•006849315
147
21609
8176523
12-1243557
6-2776321
•006802721
148
21904
8241792
12-1655251
5-2895725
•006756757
149
22201
8307949
12-2065556
5-3014592
•006711409
150
22500
8375000
12-2474487-
5-3132928
•006666667
151
22801
8442951
12-2882057
5-3260740
•006622617
152
23104
8511808
12-3288280
5-3368033
•006578947
153
23409
8581577
12-3693169
5-3484812
-006535948
154
23716
8652264
12-4096736
5-3601084
•006493606
155
24025
3723875
12-4498996
5-3716864
-006461613
156
24336
8796416
12-4899960
5-3832126
•006410256
157
24649
8369893
12-5299641
5-3946907
•006869427
158
24964
8944312
12-5698051
5-4061202
•006329114
159
25281
4019679
12-6095202
5-4175015
•006289308
160
25600
4096000
12-6491106
5-4288352
•006260000
161
25921
4173281
12-6885775
5-4401218
•006211180
162
26244
4251528
12-7279221
5-4513618
•006172840
163
26569
4330747
12-7671453
5-4625556
•006134969
164
26896
4410944
12-8062485
5-4737037
•006097661
165
27225
4492125
12-8452326
5-4848066
-006060606
166
27556
4574296
12-8840987
6-4958647
•006024096
167
27889
4657463
12-9228480
6-5068784
•006988024
168
28224
4741632
12-9614814
6-5178484
-005962381
169
28561
4826809
13 0000000
6-5287748
•005917160
170
28900
4913000
13-0384048
6-5396588
•006882353
171
29241
5000211
13-0766968
5-5504991
•006847953
172
29584
5088448
13-1148770
6-5612978
•006813953
173
29929
6177717
131529464
5-5720546
•006780347
174
30276
5268024
13-1909060
6-5827702
•005747126
175
30625
5359375
13-2287566
6-5934447
•005714286
176
80976
5451776
13-2664992
6-6040787
-005681818
177
31329
6545233
18-3041347
6-6146724
•005649718
178
31684
6639752
13-8416641
5-6252-263
•005617978
179
32041
5735339
13-3790882
5-6357408
•006586592
180
32400
6832000
13-4164079
6-6462162
•005566656
181
32761
6929741
13-4536240
5-6566528
•005624862
182
33124
6028568
13-4907376
6-6670511
-005494505
183
33489
6128487
13-5277493
5-6774114
•005464481
184
33856
6229504
13-5646600
6-6877340
•005434788
185
84225
6331625
13-6014705
5-6980192
•005406406
186
84596
6434856
13-6381817
5'7082676
•006376344
187
84969
6539203
13-6747943
6-7184791
-005347694
188
85344
6644672
13-7113092
6-7286643
•005319149
189
85721
6751269
13-7477271
5-7387936
•005291005
190
86100
6859000
13-7840488
5-7488971
•005268158
191
36481
6967871
13-8202750
5-7589652
•006236602
192
86864
7077888
13-8564065
6-7689982
•005208338
SQUABIS, CUBia, BOOTS, AND BXCIFBO0AL8.
571
No.
Square
Cube
Square Root
Cnbe Root
Redproeal
198
87249
7189057
13*8924440
5-7789966
•005181347
194
87636
7301384
13-9283883
5-7889604
-005154639
195
88025
7414875
13-9642400
5-7988900
•005128205
196
88416
7529536
14-0000000
5-8087857
-005102041
197
38809
7645373
14-0356688
5-8186479
•006076142
198
89204
7762392
14 0712473
5-8284767
-005050505
199
89601
7880599
141067360
5-83827-25
-005025126
200
40000
8000000
14-1421356
5-8480355
•005000000
201
40401
8120601
141774469
5-8577660
•004975124
202
40804
8242408
14-2126704
5-8674643
•004950495
203
41209
8365427
14-2478068
5-8771307
-004926108
204
41616
8489664
14-2828569
5-8867658
•004901961
205
42025
8615125
14-3178211
5-8963685
•004878049
206
42436
8741816
14-3527001
5-9059406
-004854369
207
42849
8869743
14-3874946
5-9154817
•004830918
208
43264
8998912
14-422,2051
5-9249921
•004807692
209
43681 "
9129329
14-4568323
5-9344721
•004784689
210
44100
9261000
14-4913767
5-9439220
•004761905
211
44521
9393931
14-5258390
5-9533418
•004739386
212
44944
9528128
14-5602198
5-9627320
•004716981
213
45369
9663597
14-5945195
5-9720926
-004694836
214
45796
9800344
14-6287388
5*9814240
•004672897
215
46225
9938375
14-6628788
5-9907264
•004651168
216
46656
10077696
14-6969385
6-0000000
•004629630
217
47089
10218313
14-7309199
6-0092450
•004608295
218
47524
10360232
14-7648231
6-0184617
•004587156
219
47961
10503459
14-7986486
6-0276502
•004566210
220
48400
10648000
14-8323970
6-0368107
•004545455
221
48841
10793861
14-8660687
6-0459435
-004524887
222
49284
10941048
14-8996644
6-0550489
•004504505
223
49729
11089567
14-9331845
60641270
•004484305
224
50176
11239424
14-9666295
6-0731779
•004464286
225
50625
11390625
15-0000000
6-0822020
•004444444
226
51076
11543176
15-0332964
6 0911994
•004424779
227
51529
11697083
15-0665192
6-1001702
•004405286
228
51984
11852352
15-0996689
6-1091147
•004385965
229
52441
12008989
15-1327460
6-1180332
-004366812
230
52900
12167000
15-1657509
6-1269257
•004347826
231
53361
12326391
15-1986842
6-1357924
•004329004
232
53824
12487168
15-2315462
6-1446337
-004310345
233
54289
12649337
15-2643375
6-1534495
•004291845
234
54756
12812904
15-2970585
6-1622401
-004273504
235
55225
12977875
15-3297097
6-1710058
•004255319
236
55696
13144256
15-3622915
61797466
-004237288
237
56169
13312053
15-3948043
6-1884628
•004219409
238
56644
13481272
15-4272486
6-1971544
•004201681
239
57121
13651919
15*4596248
6-2058218
•004184100
240
57600
13824000
15-4919334
6-2144650
•004166667
241
58081
18997521
15-5241747
6-2280848
•004149878
572
SQUARES, CUBES, ROOTS, AND RECIPROCALS.
No.
Square
Cube
Square Root
Cube Root
Reciprocal
242
58564
14172488
15*5563492
6-2316797
•004182281
243
59049
14348907
15-5884573
6-2402615
-004116226
244
59536
14526784
15*6204994
6-2487998
•004098361
245
60025
14706125
15-6524758
6-2673248
•004081633
246
60516
14886936
15-6843871
6-2658266
•004065041
247
61009
15069223
15-7162336
6-2743054
•004048583
248
61504
15252992
15-7480157
6-2827613
•004aH2258
249
62001
15438249
15-7797338
6-2911946
-004016064
250
62500
15625000
16-8113883
6-2996053
-004000000
251
63001
15813251
16-8429795
6-3079935
•003984064
252
63504
16003008
15-8745079
6-3163596
•003968254
253
64009
16194277
15-9069737
6-3247035
•003952569
254
64516
16387064
15-9373775
6-3330256
•003937008
255
65025
16581375
15-9687194
6-3413267
•003921569
256
65536
16777216
16 0000000
6-3495042
•003906260
257
66049
16974693
160312195
6-3678611
•003891051
258
66564
17173612
16-0623784
6-3660968
-003875969
259
67081
17373979
18-0934769
6-3748111
•003861004
260
67600
17676000
16-1245165
6-3825043
•003846164
261
68121
17779681
16-1664944
6-3906765
-003831418
262
68644
17984728
16-1864141
6-3988279
•003816794
263
69169
18191447
16-2172747
6-4069585
•003802281
264
69696
18399744
16-2480768
6-4150687
•003787879
265
70225
18609625
16-2788206
6-4231683
•003773585
266
70756
18821096
16-3096064
6-4312276
•003759398
267
71289
19034163
16-3401346
6-4392767
•003745318
268
71824
19248832
16-3707066
6-4478057
•003781848
269
72361
19465109
16-4012195
6-4553148
•003717472
270
72900
19683000
16-4316767
6-4633041
•003703704
271
73441
19902511
16-4620776
6-4712786
•003690037
272
73984
20123648
16-4924225
6-4792236
•003676471
273
74529
20346417
16-5227118
6-4871541
•003668004
274
76076
20570824
16 •6529454
6-4950653
•003649685
275
75625
20796875
16-6831240
6-5029672
•003636364
276
76176
21024576
16-6132477
6-5108300
•003623188
277
76729
21253933
16-6433170
6-5186839
•003610108
278
77284
21484952
16-6733320
6-5265189
•003597122
279
77841
21717639
16-7032931
6-5343351
-003584229
280
78400
21962000
16-7332006
6-5421326
•003671429
281
78961
22188041
16-7630546
6-6499116
•003568719
282
79524
22425768
16-7928566
6-5576722
-003546099
283
80089
22665187
16-8226033
6-6664144
•008633569
284
80656
22906804
16-8522995
6-5731385
•003621127
285
81225
23149125
16-8819430
6-5808443
•003508772
286
81796
23393656
16-9115346
6-5885323
•008406503
287
82369
23639903
16-9410743
6-5962023
•003484821
288
82944
23887872
16-9705627
6-6088645
•008472222
289
83521
24137569
17-0000000
6-6114890
•003460208
290
84100
24389000
17-0293864
6-6191060
•008448276 1
BQUARXB, CUBS8, ROOTB, ANB RlOTPROOALfi.
573
No.
Sqnar*
• Cube
Square Root
Cube Root
Reciprocal
291
84681
24642171
17-0587221
6-6267054
•003486426
292
85264
24897088
17-0880075
6-6342874
•003424658
29B
85849
25153757
17-1172428
6-6418622
-003412969
294
86436
25412184
17-1464282
6-6493998
•003401361
296
87025
25672375
171755640
6-6669302
•003389831
296
87616
25934336
17-2046606
6-6644437
•003378378
297
88209
26198073
17-2886879
6-6719408
•003367003
298
88804
26463592
17-2626766
6-6794200
•003366705
299
89401
26730899
17-2916166
6-6868881
•003344482
300
90000
27000000
17-8206081
6-6943296
•003333833
301
90601
27270901
17-3493516
6-7017598
•003322259
302
91204
27543608
17-3781472
6-7091729
-003311258
303
91809
27818127
17-4068962
6-7166700
-003300330
804
92416
28094464
17-4355968
6-7239608
•003289474
305
98025
28372626
17-4642492
6-7313155
•003278689
806
98686
28652616
17-4928657
6-7886641
•003267974
307
94249
28934443
17-5214155
6-7459967
•003257829
808
94864
29218112
17-5499288
6-7533134
•003246753
309
95481
29503629
17-5783958
6-7606143
-003236246
310
96100
29791000
17-6068169
6-7678995
-003226806
311
96721
80080231
17-6351921
6-7751690
-003215434
312
97344
80371328
17-6635217
6-7824229
-003205128
313
97969
30664297
17-6918060
6-7896613
-003194888
314
98596
30959144
17-7200451
6-7968844
-003184718
315
99225
81256875
177482898
6-8040921
-003174608
316
99856
81554496
17-7763888
6-8112847
-003164557
317
100489
81855013
17-8044938
6-8184620
-003154574
318
101124
82157432
17-8825546
6-8256242
•003144654
819
101761
82461759
17-8605711
6-8827714
•003134796
820
102400
82768000
17-8886438
6-8899087
•003125000
321
108041
33076161
17-9164729
6-8470218
•003115265
322
103684
83386248
17-9448684
6-8541240
•003105690
323
104829
83698267
17-9722008
6-8612120
•003095975
324
104976
34012224
18-0000000
6-8682856
•003086420
325
105625
34828125
18-0277564
6-8753443
•003076923
326
106276
84645976
18 0564701
6-8823888
•003067485
827
106929
34965783
18-0831413
6-8894188
•003058104
328
107584
35287552
18-1107703
6-8964345
•003048780
829
108241
86611289
181383571
6-9034359
•003089614
330
108900
85937000
18-1659021
6-9104232
•003030308
331
109561
36264691
18-1934064
6-9173964
-003021148
332
110224
86694368
18-2208672
6-9248556
•003012048
338
110889
86926037
18-2482876
6-9313008
•003008003
334
111556
87259704
18-2756669
6-9382821
•002994012
335
W^WSi
87595375
18-3030062
6-9451496
-002985075
336
112896
87933056
18-8303028
6-9520533
•002976190
387
113569
88272758
18-3676598
6-9589434
-002967359
338
114244
88614472
18-8847763
6-9658198
•002958580
889
114921
88958219
18-4119526
6-9726826
•002949853
574
■QUABSBy (MTBM, Boon, AKD BMJnWOOASS,
No.
Squar*
Cube
Square Root
Cube Root
Reciprocal
840
115600
89804000
18-4390889
6-9795321
•002941176
841
116281
89651821
18-4661853
6-9868681
•002932551
842
116964
40001688
18-4982420
6-9931906
•002923977
843
117649
40353607
18'5202592
7-0000000
•002915452
844
118^36
40707584
18-5472870
70067962
•002906977
845
119025
41063625
18-5741756
7-0186791
-002898551
846
119716
41421736
18-6010752
7-0203490
-002890173
847
120409
41781923
18-6279360
7-0271058
-002881844
848
121104
42144192
18-6547681
7-0338497
-002873563
849
121801
42508549
18-6815147
7-0405806
-002865330
850
122500
42875000
18-7082869
7-0472987
•002867143
851
123201
43243551
18-7349940
7-0540041
•002849003
852
123904
48614208
18-7616630
7-0606967
-002840909
853
124609
43986977
18-7882942
7-0678767
•002882861
854
125316
44361864
18-8148877
7-0740440
•002824859
355
126025
44788875
18-8414487
7-0806988
•002816901
356
126736
45118016
18-8679623
7 0873411
•002808989
857
127449
45499293
18-8944436
7-0939709
•002801120
858
128164
45882712
18-9208879
7-1005885
•002793296
859
128881
46268279
18-9472958
7-1071937
•002785516
860
129600
46656000
18-9736660
7-1187866
•002777778
861
130321
47045881
19-0000000
7-1203674
•002770083
862
131044
47437928
19-0262976
7-1269360
•002762481
868
131769
47832147
19-0626589
7-1884925
•002764821
864
132496
48228544
19-0787840
7-1400370
•002747268
865
183225
48627126
19-1049732
7-1465696
•002739726
866
133956
49027896
19-1811265
7-1630901
•002732240
867
184689
49430868
19-1572441
7-1695988
•002724796
868
185424
49836032
19-1833261
7-1660957
•002717891
869
136161
50243409
19-2093727
7-1725809
•002710027
870
136900
50653000
19-2353841
7-1790544
•002702703
871
137641
51064811
19-2618603
7-1855162
•002695418
872
138384
51478848
19-2873015
7-1919663
•002688172
878
139129
61895117
19-3132079
7-1984050
•002680966
374
139876
52313624
19-3890796
7-2048322
•002673797
875
140625
62734376
19-8649167
7-2112479
•002666667
376
141376
53157376
193907194
7-2176622
•002659574
377
142129
53582638
19-4164878
7-2240450
•002662620
878
142884
54010162
19-4422221
7-2804268
•002646608
879
143641
54489939
19-4679228
7-2367972
•002638522
880
144400
54872000
19-4935887
7-2481566
•002631679
881
145161
55306341
19-5192218
7-2495045
•002624672
882
145924
55742968
19-5448203
7-2568416
•002617801
883
146689
56181887
19-5703868
7-2621675
•002610966
884
147456
56628104
19-6959179
7-2684824
•002604167
385
148225
67066626
19-6214169
7-2747864
•002587408
886
148996
67612456
19-6468827
7-2810794
•002590674
887
149769
67960608
19-6723156
7-2878617
-002683979
888
150544
68411072
19-6977166
7-2936880
•002677820
1
BQUABXS, OUBBS, BOOTS, AKD BKOIPBOOALB.
575
No.
Sqnare
Cube
Square Root
Cube Root
Reciprocal
889
151821
58868869
19-7280829
7*2998936
•002570694
890
152100
59319000
19-7484177
7-3061436
•002564103
891
152881
59776471
19-7737199
7-3128828
•002557545
892
153664
60236288
19-7989899
7-3186114
-002551020
393
154449
60698457
19-8242276
7-3248295
-002544529
894
155236
61162984
19-8494332
7-3310369
•002538071
895
156025
61629875
19-8746069
7-3372339
•002531646
896
156816
62099136
19-8997487
7-3434205
•002525258
897
157609
62570773
19-9248588
7-3495966
•002518892
898
158404
63044792
19-9499373
7-3557624
•002512563
899
159201
63521199
19-9749844
7-3619178
•002506266
400
160000
64000000
20-0000000
7-3680630
•002500000
401
160801
64481201
20-0249844
7-3741979
•002493766
402
161604
64964808
20-0499377
7-3803227
•002487562
403
162409
65450827
200748599
7-3864373
•002481390
404
163216
65939264
20-0997512
7-3925418
•002475248
405
164025
66430125
20-1246118
7-3986363
•002469136
406
164836
66923416
201494417
7-4047206
•002463054
407
165649
67419143
20-1742410
7-4107950
•002457002
408
166464
67917312
20-1990099
7-4168595
•002460980
409
167281
68417929
20-2237484
7-4229142
•002444988
410
168100
68921000
20^2484567
7-4289589
•002439024
411
168921
69426531
20-2781349
7-4349938
•002433090
412
169744
69934628
20-2977831
7-4410189
•002427184
413
170569
70444997
20-3224014
7-4470342
•002421308
414
171396
70957944
20-3469899
7-4530399
•002415459
415
172225
71473875
20-8715488
7-4590359
•002409639
416
173056
71991296
20-8960781
7-4650223
•002403846
417
173889
72511713
20-4205779
7-4709991
•002398082
418
174724
78034632
20*4450488
7-4769664
<002392344
419
175561
78560059
20-4694895
7*4829242
•002386635
420
176400
74088000
20-4939015
7-4888724
•002380952
421
177241
74618461
20-5182845
7*4948113
•002375297
422
178084
75151448
20-5426386
7-5007406
•002369668
423
178929
75686967
20*5669688
7-5066607
•002364066
424
179776
76225024
20-5912608
7-5125715
•002358491
425
180625
76765625
20-6155281
7-5184730
•002352941
426
181476
77308776
20-6397674
7-5243652
•002347418
427
182329
77854483
20-6639783
7*5302482
•002341920
428
183184
78402752
20-6881609
7*5361221
•002336449
429
184041
78953589
20-7123152
7*5419867
•002331002
430
184900
79507000
20-7364414
7*5478423
•002325581
431
185761
80062991
20-7605395
7*5536888
•002320186
432
186624
80621568
20-7846097
7*5596263
•002314815
433
187489
81182737
20-8086520
7-5653548
•002309469
434
188356
81746504
20-8326667
7-5711743
•002304147
435
189225
82312875
20-8666536
7-5769849
•002298851
436
190096
82881856
20-8806130
7-5827865
-002293578
437
190969
88453453
20-9045450
7-5885798
•002288330
^
576
SQtJARla, OtTBlS, BOOTS, AND RKCIPBOOALGL
No.
Square
Cube
Square Root
Cube Root
Reciprocal
488
191844
84027672
20*9284495
7-5943633
•002283105
489
192721
84604519
20-9523268
7-6001385
-002277004
440
193600
85184000
20-9761770
7-6059049
•002272727
441
194481
85766121
21-0000000
7-6116626
•002267574
442
195364
86350888
210237960
7-6174116
•002262443
448
196249
86938307
21-0475652
7-6231519
-002257336
444
197136
87528384
21-0713075
7-6-288837
-002252252
445
198025
88121125
21-0950231
7-6346067
•002247191
446
198916
88716586
21-1187121
7-6403213
-002242162
447
199809
89314623
21-1423745
7-6460272
•002237136
448
200704
89915892
21-16ti0105
7-6517247
-002232143
449
201601
90518849
21-1896201
7-6574188
-00222n71
450
202500
91125000
21-2132034
7-6630943
-002222222
451
203401
91733851
21-2367606
7-6687665
•002217296
452
204304
92345408
21-2602916
7-6744303
•002212889
453
205209
92959677
21-2837967
7-6800857
-002207506
454
206116
93576664
21-3072758
7-6857328
-002202643
455
207025
94196875
21-8307290
7-6913717
•002197802
456
207936
94818816
21-8541565
7-6970023
•002192982
457
208849
95443993
21-3775583
7-7026246
-002188184
458
209764
96071912
21-4009346
7-7082388
-002183406
459
210681
96702579
21-4242853
7-7138448
•002178649
460
211600
97336000
21-4476106
7-7194426
-002178918
461
212521
97972181
21-4709106
7-7260326
•002169197
462
213444
98611128
21-4941853
7-7306141
•002164502
468
214369
99252847
21-5174348
7-7361877
-002159827
464
215296
99897844
21-5406592
7-7417532
-002155172
465
216225
100544625
21-5688587
7-7473109
•0021505S8
466
217156
101194696
21-5870831
7-7628606
•002145923
467
218089
101847568
21-6101828
7-7584023
-002141328
468
219024
102503232
21-6833077
7-7639361
-002186752
469
219961
103161709
21-6564078
7-7694620
-002182196
470
220900
103823000
21-6794834
7-7749801
•002127660
471
221841
104487111
21-7025844
7-7804904
•002128142
472
222784
105154048
21-7265610
7-7859928
•002118644
473
223729
105828817
21-7485632
7-7914875
•002114165
474
224676
106496424 .
217715411
7-7969745
•002109705
475
225625
107171875
21 -7944947
7-8024638
•002105263
476
226576
107850176
21-8174242
7-8079254
-002100840
477
227529
108531333
21-8403297
7-8183892
•002096436
478
228484
109215352
21-8632111
7-8188466
•002092060
479
229441
109902239
21-8860686
7-8242942
-002087683
480
230400
110592000
21-9089023
7-8297353
•002083388
481
231361
111284641
21-9317122
7-8851688
-002079002
482
282324
111980168
21-9544984
7-8405949
•002074689
483
233289
112678587
21-9772610
7-8460184
•002070898
484
234256
113379904
22-0000000
7-8514244
•002066116
485
285225
114084125
22-0227156
7-8568281
•002061866
486
236196
114791256
22-0454077
7-8622242
•002067618
BQUABXS, COBK8, BOOTB, AND BKOTPSOOAU.
577
No.
S^pwre
Cabe
m
SiiOAraBoot
OiibeBoot
Scc^^focftl
487
237169
115501803
22-0680765
7-8676130
•002058888
488
238144
116214272
22-0907220
7-8729944
•002049180
489
239121
116930169
22-1133444
7-8783684
•002044990
490
240100
117649000
22-1359436
7-8837352
•002040816
491
241081
118370771
22 1585198
7-8890946
•002036660
492
242064
119095488
22-1810730
7-8944468
•002032520
493
243049
119823157
22-2036033
7-8997917
•002028398
494
244036
120553784
22-2261108
7-9061294
•002024291
496
245025
121287375
22-2486955
7-9104599
•002020202
496
246016
122023936
22-2710675
7-9167832
•002016129
497
247009
122763473
22-2934968
7-9210994
•002012072
498
248004
123505992
22-3159136
7-9264085
•002008032
499
249001
124251499
22-3383079
7-9317104
•00*2004008
500
250000
125000000
22-3606798
7-9370053
•002000000
501
251001
125751501
22-3830293
7-9422931
•001996008
502
252004
126506008
22-4063565
7-9476739
•001992032
503
258009
1272*^3627
22-4276615
7-9628477
•001988072
504
254016
128024064
22-4499443
7-9681144
•001984127
505
255025
128787625
22-4722051
7-9633743
•001980198
506
256036
129554216
22-4944438
7-9686271
•001976285
507
257049
130323843
22-6166605
7-9738731
•001972387
508
258064
131096512
22-5388553
7-9791122
•001968504
509
?59081
131872229
22-5610283
7-9843444
-001964687
510
260100
132651000
22-5831796
7-9895697
•001960784
511
261121
133432831
22-6053091
7-9947883
•001956947
512
262144
134217728
22-6274170
80000000
•001953125
513
263169
135005697
22-6496033
8-0062049
•001949318
514
264196
136796744
22-6716681
8-0104032
•001946625
515
265225
136690875
22-6936114
8-0155946
•001941748
516
266256
137388096
22-7156884
8-0207794
•001937984
517
267289
138188413
22-7876340
80269674
•001934236
518
268324
138991832
22-7596134
8-0311287
•001930502
519
269361
139798359
227816715
8-0362935
•001926782
520
270400
140608000
22-8036085
8-0414615
•001923077
521
271441
141420761
22-8254244
8-0466030
•001919386
522
272484
142236648
22-8473193
8-0517479
•001915709
523
273629
143066667
22-8691933
80568862
•001912046
524
274576
143877824
22-8910463
8-0620180
•001908397
525
275625
144703125
22-9128785
8-0671432
•001904762
526
276676
145531676
22-9346899
8-0722620
■001901141
527
277729
146363183
22-9564806
8-0773743
•001897533
528
278784
147197952
22-9782506
8-0824800
001893939
529
279841
148035889
23-0000000
8-0875794
•001890359
530
280900
148877000
23-0217289
80926723
•001886792
531
281961
149721291
28-0434372
8-0977689
•001883239
532
283024
150568768
23-0651252
8-1028390
•001879699
533
284089
151419437
23-0867928
8-1079128
•001876178
534
285156
152273304
23*1084400
8-1129803
•001872659
535
286225
153130375
23-1300670
8-1180414
•001869159
37
578
SQUARES, CUBES, ROOTS, AND RBCIPROCALfl.
No.
Square
Cube
Square Root
Cube Root
Reclpncal
636
287296
153990656
23-1616738
8-1280962
•001866672
637
288369
154864153
23-1732606
8-1281447
•001862197
638
289444
155720872
23-1948270
8-1331870
*001858736
639
290521
166590819
23-2163736
8-1382230
-001865288
640
291600
167464000
23-2379001
81432529
•001851852
641
292681
158340421
23-2594067
8-1482766
•001848429
642
293764
169220088
23-2808936
8-1632939
•001846018
643
294849
160103007
23-3023604
8-1683051
•001841621
644
295936
160989184
23-3238076
8-1633102
•001838235
646
297026
161878626
23-3462361
8-1683092
•001834862
646
298116
162771336
23*3666429
8*1783020
•001831502
647
299209
163667323
23-3880311
8-1782888
•001828164
648
800304
164566592
23-4093998
8*1832696
•001824818
649
801401
165469149
23-4307490
8-1882441
•001821494
660
302500
166876000
23-4620788
8-1932127
•001818182
661
303601
167284151
23-4733892
8-1981763
•001814882
662
304704
168196608
23-494Q802
8-2031319
•001811694
663
805809
169112377
23-6169520
8-2080826
•001808318
664
306916
170031464
23-6372046
8-2130271
•001806054
666
808026
170963876
23-6684380
8-2179667
•001801802
666
309136
171879616
23-5796622
8-2228986
•001798661
667
310249
172808693
23-6008474
8*2278264
•001796332
658
311364
173741112
23-6220236
8*2327463
•001792116
669
312481
174676879
23-6431808
8*2376614
•001788909
660
313600
176616000
23-6643191
8*2426706
•001786714
661
314721
176658481
23-6854386
8*2474740
•001782631
662
316844
177504328
23-7066392
8*2623716
H)01779369
663
316969
178453647
23-7276210
8*2672633
•001776199
664
318096
179406144
23-7486842
8*2621492
•001773050
666
819226
180362126
23-7697286
8*2670294
•001769912
666
320366
181321496
23-7907646
8*2719039
•001766784
667
321489
182284263
23-8117618
8*2767726
•001763668
668
322624
183250432
23-8327606
8*2816356
•001760563
669
323761
184220009
23-8537209
8-2864928
•001767469
670
324900
186193000
23-8746728
8-2918444
•001754886
671
826041
186169411
23-8956063
8-2961903
•001761318
672
327184
187149248
23-9165216
8-3010304
•001748262
673
328329
188132517
23-9374184
8-3058651
•001746201
674
329476
189119224
23-9682971
8*8106941
•001742160
676
330626
190109376
23-9791676
8*3156176
•001789180
676
331776
191102976
24-0000000
8*3203353
•001736111
677
332929
192100033
24-0208243
8*3251476
•001783102
678
334084
193100562
24-0416306
8-3299642
•001730104
679
335241
194104639
24-0624188
8-3347663
•00172ni6
580
336400
195112000
24-0831891
8-3396509
•001724138
681
337661
196122941
24-1039416
8-3443410
•001721170
682
838724
19n37368
24-1246762
8-3491266
•001718218
683
839889
198166287
24-1463929
8*3639047
•001715266
684
841066
199176704
24-1660919
8*8686784
•001712829
SQUARXS, CUBES, BOOTS, AND BECIPBOCALB.
57(
N«.
Square
Cube
Sqnare Root
CntMBoot
Beelprocal
686
8422?^
200201625
24-1867732
8*8684466
•001709402
686
848396
201230066
24-2074369
8-3682095
•001706485
687
844669
202262003
24*2280829
8-3729668
•001703678
688
846744
203297472
24-2487113
8-3777188
•005700680
689
846921
204336469
24*2693222
8-3824663
•001697793
690
848100
205379000
24-2899156
8*3872065
•001694915
691
849281
206426071
24-3104916
8-3919423
•001692047
692
860464
207474688
24-3310501
8-3966729
•001689189
693
361649
208627867
24-3615913
8*4013981
•001686341
694
862836
209684684
24-3721152
8*4061180
•001683602
696
864025
210644875
24-3926218
8-4108326
•001680672
699
866216
211708736
24-4131112
8*4165419
•001677862
697
866409
212776173
24-4336834
8*4202460
•001676042
698
867604
213847192
24-4540385
8*4249448
•001672241
699
868801
214921799
24-4744765
8*4296383
•001669449
600
860000
216000000
24-4948974
8*4343267
•001666667
601
361201
217081801
24-5153013
8*4390098
•001663894
602
862404
218167208
24-6366883
8*4436877
•001661130
603
363609
219266227
24-5560688
8*4483605
•001668375
604
864816
220348864
24-6764115
8*4530281
•001656629
605
866025
221445125
24-6967478
8*4676906
•001662893
606
867236
222546016
24-6170678
8*4623479
•001650165
607
368449
223648648
24-6373700
8*4670000
•001647446
608
869664
224766712
24-6576560
8*4716471
•001644737
609
870881
225866629
24-6779254
8*4762892
-001642036
610
372100
226981000
24-6981781
8*4809261
•001639344
611
873321
228099131
24-7184142
8*4855679
•001636661
612
874644
229220928
24-7386338
8*4901848
•001633987
618
876769
230346397
24-7688368
8*4948065
•001631321
614
876996
231475544
24-7790234
8*4994233
•001628664
615
378225
232608375
24-7991935
8*5040360
•001626016
616
879456
233744896
24-8193473
8*6086417
*001623377
617
880689
234885113
24-8394847
8*5132435
•001620746
618
881924
236029032
24-8596068
8-5178403
-001618123
619
883161
237176669
24-8797106
8-5224321
•001616509
620
884400
238328000
24-8997992
8*5270189
•001612903
621
385641
239483061
24-9198716
8-6316009
•001610306
622
886884
240641848
24-9399278
8*5361780
•001607717
628
888129
241804367
24-9699679
8*6407601
•001606136
624
389376
242970624
24-9799920
8-6463178
•001602664
625
390625
244140625
26-0000000
8-6498797
•001600000
626
891876
245314376
25-0199920
8-6544372
•001697444
627
893129
246491888
25-0399681
8-6689899
•001594896
628
894384
247678162
25-0599282
8-6636377
•001592367
629
395641
248858189
26-0798724
8-6680807
•001589825
680
396900
250047000
26-0998008
8-6726189
•001687302
681
398161
261239691
26-1197134
8-6771523
•001584786
682
899424
262436968
26-1396102
8*6816809
•001582278
638
400689
253636137
251694918
8*5862047
•001679779
aqcABSs, cuBsa, boots, and KEcmtocA.i.M,
104496
405769
407044
410SS1
412164
413419
414736
419904
431201
422500
423801
425104
426409
427718
429026
430336
431649
432964
440896
442225
443656
264S40104
256047675
267269456
260917119
262144000
263374721
276894451
277167808
278445077
279726264
281011875
BO076SOOO
802I117I1
303464448
804821217
311665752
BIS0168S9
S144320D0
S1C82124I
S1721456S
8-6062380
8-6997476
S-6042525
8-6401226
8-6445855
8-6490437
S-6634974
8-657948S
8-6623911
8-0668310
S-671266&
8-67B6974
8-6801237
B-6S4645e
8-6889630
8-6933769
8-6977843
8-7021882
8-7065877
8-7109827
8-7163734
8-7197696
-001677287
•601574808
-001572327
-001669869
-001567898
-00166494S
•001562600
•001660062
■001657632
■O01566210
■001652796
■001550388
■O01547988
•001S45e9&
'OO1MS210
■001686008
•001688742
■001B31S94
■001519767
-001517461
■001516153
-00151 286B
■001510574
iX>]508296
•001506024
■001608759
-ooisoieoa
-001499260
-001497008
•0014M788
-001492687
■001490818
-001488095
•001485881
■001483680
■001481481
■001479290
■O01477105
■O01471926
■001472764
-001170688
•0014684-^
•001468276
BQUARSB) 017B18, ROOTS, AND RSOIPBOOALB.
581
No.
Squn
Cube
SqiureRoot^
CvlwBoot
RcolproGSl
68S
466489
818611987
26*1342687
8-8065722
•001464129
684
467856
820013504
26*1533937
8*8108681
•001461988
685
469225
821419125
26-1725047
8-8151598
-001459854
686
470596
822828856
26-1916017
8-8194474
-001467726
687
4n969
824242703
26-2106848
8-8237807
*001465604
688
478344
825660672
26-2297541
8-8280099
*C01453488
689
474721
827082769
26-2488095
8-8322850
*001461379
690
476100
828509000
26-2678511
8-8365559
*001449275
691
477481
829939371
26-2868789
8-8408227
*001447178
692
478864
831873888
26-3058929
8-8450854
*001445087
698
480249
832812557
26-3248932
8-8493440
*001443001
694
481636
834255384
26-3438797
8-8535985
*001440922
695
483025
835702375
26-3628527
8-8578489
•001438849
696
484416
837153586
26-3818119
8-8620952
-001436782
697
485809
838608878
26-4007576
8-8663375
•001434720
698
487204
840068392
26-4196896
8-8705757
-001432665
699
488601
841532099
26-4386081
8-8748099
-001430615
700
490000
843000000
26-4575131
8-8790400
-001428571
701
491401
844472101
26-4764046
8-8832661
-001426534
702
492804
845948408
26-4952826
8-8871882
*001424501
703
494209
847428927
26-5141472
8-8917068
*001422475
704
495616
848913664
26-5329988
8-8959204
•001420455
705
497025
850402625
26*5518361
8-9001804
-001418440
706
498436
851895816
26-5706605
8-9043366
-001416431
707
499849
853393248
26-5894716
8-9085387
•001414427
708
501264
354894912
26-6082694
8-9127369
•001412429
709
502681
856400829
26-6270639
8-9169311
-001410437
710
504100
857911000
26-6458252
8-9211214
*001408451
711
505521
859425431
26-6645833
8*9253078
*001406470
712
506944
860944128
26-6833281
8-9294902
*001404494
718
508369
862467097
26-7020598
8-9336687
*001402525
714
509796
863994344
26-7207784
8-9378433
*001400560
715
511225
865525875
26-7394839
8-9420140
•001398601
716
512656
867061696
26-7581768
8-9461809
•001396648
717
514089
868601818
26-7768^57
8-9503438
•001394700
718
515524
870146232
26-7955220
8-9545029
•001392758
719
516961
871694959
26-8141754
8-9586581
*001390821
720
518400
873248000
26-8328167
8-9628095
*001388889
721
519841
874805361
26-8514432
8-9669570
•001386963
722
521284
876367048
26-8700577
8-9711007
•001385042
723
522729
877933067
26-8886593
8-9752406
•001383126
724
524176
879503424
26-9072481
8-9793766
•001381215
726
525625
881078125
26-9258240
8-9836089
•001379310
726
527076
882657176
26-9443872
8-9876373
*001377410
727
528529
884240583
26-9629375
8-9917620
•001375616
728
529984
385828352
26-9814751
8-9958829
-001373626
729
531441
887420489
27-0000000
9-0000000
-001371742
780
532900
889017000
27-0185122
9*0041134
•001369863
731
534361
890617891
27-0370117
9-0082229
•001867989
582
BQUARBS, OtTBXa, BOOTS, AND RKCIPROOALB.
No.
Square
Cube
Square Boot
Cube Root
Bodpvoeal
782
585824
892223168
27*0554985
9*0123288
•001866120
733
587289
893832837
27-0739727
9-0164309
•001864256
784
588766
896446904
27-0924344
9-0205293
•001862398
785
540225
897066375
27-1108834
9-0246239
•001860544
736
541696
898688256
27*1293199
9-0287149
•001858696
787
543169
400316668
27-1477439
9-0328021
•001356852
788
544644
401947272
27-1661664
9-0368867
•001355014
789
546121
403683419
27*1846544
9-0409665
•001353180
740
547600
405224000
27-2029410
90450417
•001351851
741
549081
406869021
27-2213162
9-0491142
•001349528
742
550664
408518488
27-2396769
9-0531831
•001847709
748
562049
410172407
27-2580263
9-0572482
•001845895
744
563686
411830784
27-2763684
9-0618098
•001844086
745
566025
413493625
27-2946881
9-0663677
*001842282
746
566616
416160936
27-8180006
9-0694220
•001340488
747
568009
416832723
27-3318007
9-0734726
•001338688
748
569504
418608992
27-3496887
90776197
•001336808
749
661001
420189749
27-3678644
9-0815631
•001335118
760
562600
421876000
27*8861279
9-0856030
•001833888
761
564001
423664761
27*4043792
9*0896392
•001831558
762
666604
426269008
27-4226184
9-0936719
•001829787
768
567009
426967777
27-4408455
9-0977010
•001828021
764
568516
428661064
27*4690604
9-1017265
•001826260
765
570025
430368875
27*4772633
9-1067486
•001824503
766
571636
432081216
27-4954642
9-1097669
•001822751
767
573049
433798098
27*6136330
9-1137818
•001821004
768
574664
435519612
27-6317998
9-1177931
•001319261
769
576081
437246479
27-5499546
9-1218010
•001317528
760
577600
438976000
27-6680975
9-1268053
•001315789
761
579121
440711081
27*5862284
9-1298061
•001814060
762
580644
442450728
27-6043475
9-1338034
•001312886
768
582169
444194947
27-6224646
9-1377971
•001810616
764
583696
446943744
27-6405499
9-1417874
•001808901
766
585225
447697125
27-6586334
9-1467742
•00180n90
766
586766
449466096
27*6767060
9-1497676
•001805488
767
588289
461217663
27-6947648
9-1537875
•001308781
768
589824
462984832
27-7128129
91577189
•001802088
769
591861
464766609
27-7308492
91616869
•001800890
770
592900
456633000
27-7488789
9-1656565
•001298701
771
594441
468314011
27-7668868
9-1696225
•001297017
772
595984
460099648
27-7848880
9-1735852
•001295387
778
597629
461889917
27-8028775
9*1775445
•001293661
774
599076
468684824
27-8208655
9-1815008
•001291990
775
600625
465484875
27*8388218
9-1864627
•001290828
776
602176
467288676
27-8667766
9*1894018
•001288660
777
603729
469097483
27*8747197
9-1938474
•001287001
778
605284
470910962
27*8926614
9*1972897
•001286847
779
606841
472729139
27*9106715
9*2012286
•001288697
780
608400
474552000
27*9284801
9*2051641
•001282061
SqOAaU, 00BK8, Roots, AND RBOtPttOOALd.
683
No.
Sqwre
Cabe
Square Root
Cabe Root
Reciprocal
781
609961
476379541
27-9463772
9*2090962
•001280410
782
611524
478211768
27-9642629
9*2130250
•001278772
783
613089
480048687
27-9821372
9-2169505
•001277139
784
614656
481890304
28-0000000
9-2208726
•001275510
785
616225
483736625
28-0178515
9-2247914
•001273885
786
617796
486687656
28 0356915
9*2287068
•001272265
787
619369
487443403
28-0535203
9*2326189
•001270648
788
620944
489303872
28-0713377
9*2365277
•001269036
789
622521
491169069
28-0891438
9-2404338
•001267427
790
624100
493039000
28-1069386
9-2443355
•001265828
791
625681
494913671
28-1247222
9*2482344
•001264228
792
627264
496793088
28-1424946
9*2521300
•001262626
798
628849
498677257
281602657
9-2560224
•001261084
794
630436
500566184
28-1780056
9*2699114
•001259446
796
632025
502459875
28-1957444
9*2637978
•001257862
796
633616
604358336
28-2134720
9-2676798
•001256281
797
635209
606261573
28-2311884
9-2715592
•001254706
798
636804
508169592
28-2488938
9-2764352
•001253188
799
638401
610082399
28-2665881
9-2793081
•001251564
800
640000
612000000
28-2842712
9-2831777
•001250000
801
641601
613922401
28-3019434
9*2870440
•001248439
802
643204
615849608
28-3196045
9*2909072
•001246888
803
644809
617781627
28'8372546
9*2947671
•001245330
804
646416
619718464
28*3548938
9-2986239
•001243781
805
648025
621660125
28*8725219
9-3024775
•001242286
806
649636
623606616
28*3901391
9-3063278
•001240695
807
651249
625557948
28*4077454
9*8101750
•001239157
808
652864
527514112
28*4253408
9*3140190
•001237624
809
654481
629475129
28*4429263
9-3178599
•001236094
810
656100
631441000
28*4604989
9-3216975
•001284568
811
657721
633411731
28*4780617
9-3255320
•001233046
812
659344
635387328
28*4956137
9*3293634
•001281527
813
660969
637367797
28*5181549
9*3331916
•001230012
814
662596
639353144
28-5306852
9*3370167
•001228501
815
664225
641848376
28*5482048
9*3408886
•001226994
816
665856
643388496
28*5657137
9*8446576
•001225490
817
667489
645338518
28*5882119
9*8484731
•001228990
818
669124
647343432
28-6006998
9*8522857
•001222494
819
670761
649353259
28-6181760
9*8560952
•001221001
820
672400
651368000
28*6856421
9*3599016
•001219512
821
674041
653387661
28*6530976
9*3637049
•001218027
822
675684
655412248
28*6705424
9*3675051
•001216546
828
677329
657441767
28*6879766
9*3718022
•001215067
824
678976
659476224
28*7054002
9*3750968
•001218592
826
680625
661515626
28*7228182
9*8788878
•001212121
826
682276
663559976
28*7402157
9*3826752
•001210654
827
683929
665609283
28*7576077
9*3864600
•001209190
828
685584
667668552
28*7749891
9*3902419
•001207729
829
687241
669722789
28*7928601
9*8940206
•001206272
584
8QUABB8, OUBBS, BOOTS, AND BEOIPBOOALS.
No.
Square
Cube
Square Root
Cube Root
Bedproctl
880
688900
571787000
28-8097206
9-3977964
•001204819
831
690561
573856191
28-8270706
9-4015691
•001203369
832
692224
575930368
28-8444102
9-4053387
•001201923
838
693889
578009537
28-8617394
9-4091054
•001200480
834
695556
580093704
28-8790582
9-4128690
•001199041
835
697225
582182875
28-8963666
9-4166297
•001197605
886
698896
584277056
28-9136646
9-4203873
•001196172
837
700569
686376253
28-9309523
9-4241420
•001194743
838
702244
688480472
28-9482297
9-4278936
•001193317
839
703921
690589719
28-9664967
9*4316428
•001191896
84Q
705600
692704000
28-9827535
9-4353880
•001190476
841
707281
69482;«21
29-0000000
9-4391307
•001189061
842
708964
696947688
29-0172363
9-4428704
•001187648
843
710649
699077107
29-0344623
9-4466072
•001186240
844
712336
601211584
29-0516781
9-4503410
•001184834
845
714025
603351126
29-0688837
9-4540719
•001183432
846
715716
605495736
29-0860791
9-4577999
•001182038
847
717409
607645423
29-1032644
9-4615249
•001180688
848
719104
609800192
29-1204396
9-4652470
•001179246
849
720801
611960049
29-1376046
9-4689661
•001177856
850
722500
614125000
29-1547595
9-4726824
•001176471
851
724201
616295051
29-1719043
9-476395r
•001175088
852
725904
618470208
29-1890390
9-4801061
•001173709
853
727609
620650477
29-2061637
9-4838136
•001172338
854
729316
622835864
29-2232784
9-4875182
•001170960
855
731025
625026375
29-2403830
9-4912200
•001169591
856
732736
627222016
29-2574777
9-4949188
•001168224
857
734449
629422793
29-2745623
9-4986147
•001166861
858
736164
631628712
29-2916370
9-5023078
•001166601
859
737881
633839779
29-3087018
9*5059980
•001164144
860
739600
636056000
29-3257566
9-5096854
•001162791
861
7413:J1
638277381
29-3428016
9-6133699
•001161440
862
743044
640503928
29-8598366
9-5170516
•001160098
863
744769
642785647
29-3768616
9-5207303
•001158749
864
746496
644972544
29-3938769
9-5244063
•001157407
865
748225
647214626
29-4108823
9-5280794
•001166069
866
749956
649461896
29-4278779
9-6317497
•001154734
867
751689
651714363
29-4448637
9-5354172
•001153403
868
753424
653972032
29-4618397
9-5390818
•001152074
869
755161
656234909
29-4788059
9-5427437
•001150748
870
756900
658503000
29-4957624
9-5464027
•001149426
871
758641
660776311
29-6127091
9-5500589
•001148106
872
760384
663054848
29-5296461
9-5537123
•001146789
873
762129
665338617
29-5465734
9-5573630
•001145476
874
763876
667627624
29-5634910
9-5610108
•001144166
875
765626
669921876
29-5803989
9-6646669
•001142867
876
767376
672221376
29-5972972
9-6682982
•00114155S
877
769129
674526133
29-6141858
9-5719377
•001140261
878
770884
676836162
29-6310648
9-5766746
•0011389531
SQUARES, 0UBB8, BOOTS, AND RKOIFBOOALS.
585
No.
Bqjuxt
Cube
Square Boot
Cube Boot
Bedprocal
879
772641
679151439
29-6479342
9-5792085
•001137666
880
774400
681472000
29*6647939
9-5828397
•001136364
881
776161
683797841
29-6816442
9-5864682
•001135074
882
777924
686128968
29-6984848
9-5900939
•001183787
883
779689
688465387
29-7153159
9-5937169
•001132503
884
781456
690807104
29-7321375
9-5973373
•001131222
885
783226
693154125
29-7489496
9-6009548
•001129944
886
784996
695506456
29-7657521
9-6045696
•001128668
887
786769
697864103
29-7825452
9-6081817
•001127396
888
788544
700227072
29-7993289
9-6117911
•001126126
889
790321
702595369
29-8161030
9-6153977
•001124859
890
792100
704969000
29-8328678
9-6190017
•001123596
891
793881
707347971
29-8496231
9-6226030
•001122334
892
795664
709732288
29-8663690
9-6262016
•001121076
893
797449
712121957
29-8831056
9-6297975
•001119821
894
799236
714516984
29-8998328
9-6333907
•001118568
895
801025
716917376
29-9165506
9-6369812
•001117318
896
802816
719323136
29-9332591
9-6405690
•001116071
897
804609
721734273
29-9499588
9*6441542
•001114827
898
806404
724150792
29-9666481
9-6477367
•001113586
899
808201
726572699
29-9833287
9-651S166
•001112847
900
810000
729000000
80-0000000
9-6548938
•OOUllUl
901
811801
731432701
' 80-0166620
9-6584684
•001109878
902
813604
733870808
80-0333148
9-6620403
•001108647
903
815409
736314327
80-0499584
9-6656096
•001107420
904
817216
738763264
30-0665^28
9-6691762
•001106195
905
819025
741217625
80-0832179
9-6727403
•001104972
906
820836
743677416
80-0998339
9-6763017
•001103758
907
822649
746142648
30-1164407
9-6798604
•001102536
908
824464
748613312
80-1330383
9-6834166
•001101322
909
826281
751089429
80-1496269
9-6869701
•001100110
910
828100
753571000
80-1662068
9-6905211
•001098901
911
829921
756068031
30-1827765
9-6940694
•001097696
912
831744
758550528
80-1993377
9-6976151
•001096491
918
833569
761048497
30-2158899
97011683
•001095290
914
835396
763551944
80-2324329
9-7046989
•001094092
915
837225
766060875
30-2489669
9-7082369
•001092896
916
839056
76^575296
80-2654919
9-7117723
•001091703
917
840889
771095218
30-2820079
9-7153051
•001090513
918
842724
773620632
30-2985148
9-7188354
•001089325
919
844561
776151559
80-3150128
9-7223631
•001088139
920
846400
778688000
30-3315018
9-7258883
•001086957
921
848241
781229961
30-3479818
9-7294109
•001086776
922
850084
783777448
30-3644529
9*7329309
•001084599
923
851929
786330467
80-3809151
9-7364484
•001083424
924
853776
788889024
30-3973683
9-7399634
•001082251
925
855625
791453125
30-4138127
9*7434758
•001081081
926
857476
794022776
30-4302481
9-7469857
•001079914
927
859329
796597983
30-4466747
9*7504930
•001078749
586
■QUARia, OUBKS, BOOTS, AND RKdPBOOALB.
1 No.
Square
Cabe
Square Root
CnbeRoot
Reciprocal
928
861184
799178752
30-4630924
9*7589979
•001077686
929
863041
801765089
30*4795013
9-7575002
•001076426
930
864900
804357000
30-4959014
9-7610001
•001075269
931
866761
806954491
30-5122926
9-7644974
•001074114
932
868624
809557568
30-5286750
9-7679922
•001072961
938
870489
812166237
80-5450487
9-7714845
•001071811
934
872356
814780504
30-5614136
9-7749743
•001070664
935
874225
817400375
30-5777697
9-7784616
•001069519
936
876096
820025856
80-5941171
9-7819466
•001068376
937
877969
822656953
80-6104557
9-7854288
•001067286
938
879844
825293672
80-6267857
9-7889087
•001066098
939
881721
827936019
80-6431069
9-7923861
•001064963
940
883600
830584000
80-6594194
9-7958611
•001063830
941
885481
833237621
30-6757233
9-7993336
•001062699
942
887364
835896888
80-6920185
9-8028036
•001061571
943
889249
838561807
30-7083051
9-8062711
•001060445
944
891136
841282384
80-7245830
9-8097363
•001059322
945
893025
843908625
80*7408523
9-8131989
•001058201
946
894916
846590536
80-7571130
9-8166591
•001057082
947
896809
849278128
80*7733651
9-8201169
•001055966
948
898704
851971392
80*7896086
9*8235723
•00ia'>4^2
949
900601
854670349
80*8058436
9-8270252
•001058741
960
902500
857375000
80*8220700
9*8304757
•001052632
951
904401
860085351
80*8382879
9-8339238
•001061625
952
906304
862801408
80*8544972
9-8373695
-001050420
953
908209
865523177
80*8706981
9-8408127
•001049818
954
910116
868250664
80*8868904
9-8442536
•001048218
955
912025
870983875
80-9030743
9-8476920
•001047120
956
913936
873722816
30-9192497
9*8511280
•001046026
957
915849
876467493
80-9354166
9-8545617
•001044982
958
917764
879217912
80*9515751
9-8579929
•001048841
959
919681
881974079
80*9677251
9*8614218
•001042758
960
921600
884736000
80*9838668
9*8648488
-001041667
961
923521
887503681
81*0000000
9*8682724
-00104068S
962
925444
890277128
81*0161248
9*8716941
•0010S9501
963
927369
893056347
81*0322413
9*8751136
-001088438
964
929296
895841344
31*0483494
9*8785305
-001087844
965
931225
898632125
81*0644491
9*8819451
•001086209
966
933156
901428696
81*0805406
9*8853574
•001085197
967
935089
904231063
81*0966236
9*8887678
•001084126
968 •
937024
907039232
81*1126984
9*8921749
•001088068
969
938961
909853209
81*1287648
9*8955801
-001081993
970
940900
912673000
81*1448230
9-8989830
•001080938
971
942841
915498611
81*1608729
9-9023885
•001029866
972
944784
918330048
81*1769145
9-9057817
•001038807
973
946729
921167317
81*1929479
9*9091776
•001037749
974
948676
924010424
81*2089731
9*9125712
•001026694
975
950625
926859375
81*2249900
9-9159624
•001026641
976
952576
929714176
81*2409987
9*9193518
•001024600
8QUARB8, CUBES, ROOTS, AND RSCIPROCALS.
587
No.
Sqiure
Cube
Square Boot
Cube Boot
Bedprocal
m
954529
932574833
81-2569992
9-9227879
•001028641
978
956484
935441352
31-2729915
9*9261222
•001022495
979
958441
938313739
81-2889757
9*9295042
•001021450
980
960400
941192000
81-3049517
9*9328839
•001020408
981
962361
944076141
81-3209195
9*9362613
•001019368
982
964324
946966168
81-3368792
9*9396363
•001018380
988
966289
949862087
81 -3528308
9-9430092
•001017294
984
968256
952763904
81-3687743
9*9463797
•001016260
985
970225
955671625
31-3847097
9*9497479
•001015228
986
972196
958585256
81-4006369
9*9531138
•001014199
987
974169
961504803
81-4165561
9*9564776
-001013171
988
976144
964430272
81-4324678
9*9698389
-001012146
989
978121
967361669
81-4483704
9*9631981
•001011122
990
980100
970299000
31-4642654
9*9665549
•001010101
991
982081
973242271
81-4801525
9*9699095
•001009082
992
984064
976191488
81*4960315
9*9732619
•001008065
993
986049
979146657
81-5119025
9-9766120
•001007049
994
988036
982107784
81-5277655
9*9799599
•001006036
995
990025
985074875
81-5436206
9*9833065
•001006025
996
992016
988047936
81-5594677
9*9866488
•001004016
997
994009
991026978
81-5753068
9-9899900
•001003009
998
996004
994011992
81*5911380
9*9933289
•001002004
999
998001
997002999
81-6069613
9*9966666
•001001001
1000
1000000
1000000000
81-6227766
10*0000000
•0010000000
1001
1002001
1003003001
81-6385840
10*0083322
•0009990010
1002
1004004
1006012008
81-6543836
10-0066622
•0009980040
1003
1006009
1009027027
81-6701752
10-0099899
•0009970090
1004
1008016
1012048064
81-6859590
10-0133156
•0009960169
1005
1010025
1015075125
81-7017349
10-0166389
•0009960249
1006
1012036
1018108216
81-7175030
10-0199601
•0009940858
1007
1014049
1021147343
81-7832633
10-0232791
•0009930487
1008
1016064
1024192512
81-7490167
10-0265958
•0009920635
1009
1018081
1027243729
81-7647608
10-0299104
•0009910803
1010
1020100
1030301000
81-7804972
10-0332228
•0009900990
1011
1022121
1033364831
81*7962262
10-0365330
•0009891197
1012
1024144
1036433728
81*8119474
10-0398410
•0009881428
1018
1026169
1039509197
81*8276609
10-0481469
•0009871668
1014
1028196
1042590744
81*8433666
10-0464506
•0009861933
1015
1030225
1045678375
31*8590646
10-0497521
•0009852217
1016
1032256
1048772096
81*8747549
10-0530514
•0009842520
1017
1034289
1051871913
81*8904374
10-0563485
•0009832842
1018
1036324
1064977832
81*9061123
10*0596435
•0009823183
1019
1038361
1058089859
31*9217794
10*0629364
•0009813543
1020
1040400
1061208000
81*9374388
10-0662271
•0009803922
1021
1042441
1064332261
81*9630906
10-0696156
•0009794819
1022
1044484
1067462648
81*9687347
10-0728020
•0009784786
1028
1046529
1070599167
31*9843712
10-0760868
•0009775171
1024
1048576
1073741824
82*0000000
10-0793684
•0009766625
1025
1050625
1076890625
82*0156212
10-0826484
•0009766098
w
588
8QUABB8, CUBES, BOOTS, AND RSCTPBOCAIA
No.
Sqiura
Cab«
Square Boot
Cab«Boot
JMCIprOaU
1026
1062676
1080046676
82-0S12848
10*0869262
•0009746689
1027
1054729
1083206688
82*0468407
10*0892019
-0009787098
1028
1056784
1086873952
82-0624391
10-0924755
•0009727626
1029
1058841
1089547389
82-0780298
10*0957469
•0009718173
1030
1060900
1092727000
82-0936131
10*0990163
•0009708738
1031
1062961
1095912791
82-1091887
10*1022835
•0009699321
1032
1065024
1099104768
82-1247568
10-1055487
•0009689922
1033
1067089
1102302937
321403178
10-1088117
•0009680542
1034
1069156
1105507304
82-1558704
10-1120726
•00096ni80
1035
1071225
1108717875
32-1714159
10*1153314
•0009661886
1036
1073296
1111934656
321869539
10-1185882
•0009652510
1037
1075369
1115157658
32-2024844
10-1218428
•0009648202
1038
1077444
1118386872
82-2180074
10-1250953
•0009633911
1039
1079521
1121622319
82-2335229
10-1283457
•0009624639
1040
1081600
1124864000
82-2490310
10-1315941
•0009615386
1041
1083681
1128111921
82-2646316
10*1348403
•0009606148
1042
1085764
1131366088
82-2800248
10*1380845
•0009596929
1043
1087849
1134626507
32-2955105
10*1413266
-0009587728
1044
1089936
1137893184
82*3109888
10*1445667
•0009578644
1045
1092025
1141166126
82-3264598
10*1478047
•0009569378
1046
1094116
1144445336
82-3419283
10*1510406
•0009560229
1047
1096209
1147730828
82-3578794
10*1542744
•0009651098
1048
1098304
1151022592
82-3728281
10*1575062
•0009541986
1049
1100401
1154320649
82-3882696
10*1607359
•0009632888
1050
1102500
1157625000
82-4037086
10*1639636
•0009523810
1051
1104601
1160935651
82*4191801
10*1671898
•0009514748
1052
1106704
1164252608
82-4345495
10*1704129
•0009605708
1053
1108809
1167575877
32-4499616
10*1736344
•0009496676
1054
1110916
1170905464
82*4653662
10*1768539
•0009487666
1055
1118025
1174241376
82-4807685
10*1800714
•0009478678
1056
1115136
1177583616
32*4961586
10*1832868
•0009469697
1057
1117249
1180932198
82*5115364
10*1865002
•0009460788
1058
1119364
1184287112
82-5269119
10*1897116
•0009461796
1059
1121481
1187648379
82-5422802
10*1929209
•00094428n
1060
1123600
1191016000
82-5576412
10-1961283
•0009433962
1061
1125721
1194389981
32-5729949
10-1993336
•0009425071
1062
1127844
1197770328
32-5883415
10-2025369
•0009416196
1063
1129969
1201157047
32-6036807
10-2057382
•0009407888
1064
1132096
1204550144
32-6190129
10-2089375
•0009398496
1065
1134225
1207949625
82-6343377
10*2121847
•0009389671
1066
1136356
1211355496
82-6496554
10*2153300
•0009380868
1067
1138489
1214767768
82-6649659
10-2185238
•0009372071
1068
1140624
1218186432
82-6802693
10-2217146
•0009363296
1069
1142761
1221611609
82*6955654
10-2249039
•0009354587
1070
1144900
1225043000
32-7108544
10-2280912
•0009345794
1071
1147041
1228480911
82-7261363
10-2312766
•0009837068
1072
1149184
1231925248
32-7414111
10-2844599
•0000328358
1073
1151329
1235376017
32-7566787
10*2376413
•0000319664
1074
1153476
123888f)224
82-7719392
10*2408207
-0009810087
BQUARBS, 0UBB8, BOOTS, AND RBCIi-ROOALS.
589
No.
Square
Cabe
Square Boot
Cube Boot
Bedproeal
1075
1165626
1242296875
82-7871926
10-2439981
-0009302826
1076
1157776
1246766976
82-802^9
10-2471735
•0009293680
1077
1159929
1249243633
82-8176782
10-2503470
•0009286061
1078
1162084
1262726652
82-8329103
10-2636186
•0009276438
1079
1164241
1266216039
82-8481364
10-2566881
•0009267841
1080
1166400
1269712000
82-8633635
10-2698667
•0009259269
1081
1168561
1263214441
82-8785644
10-2630218
•0009250694
1082
1170724
1266723368
82-8937684
10-2661850
•0009242144
1083
1172889
1270238787
82-9089663
10-2693467
•0009233610
1084
1176066
1273760704
82-9241663
10-2725066
•0009225092
1086
1177226
1277289125
32-9893382
10-2756644
•0009216590.
1086
1179396
1280824066
82-9646141
10-2788203
•0009208108
1087
1181569
1284366508
82-9696830
10-2819743
-0009199632
1088
1183744
1287913472
82-9848450
10-2861264
•0009191176
1089
1186921
1291467969
83-0000000
10-2882765
•0009182736
1090
1188100
1296029000
83-0161480
10-2914247
•0009174312
1091
1190281
1298596671
88-0302891
10-2945709
•0009166908
1092
1192464
1802170688
880464233
10-2977163
•0009157609
1093
1194649
1306751357
83-0605606
10-3008577
•0009149131
1094
1196836
1809338684
83-0766708
10-3039982
-0009140768
1095
1199026
1812932375
83 0907842
10-8071368
•0009132420
1096
1201216
1816632736
83-1068907
10-8102736
•0009124088
1097
1203409
1320189673
83-1209903
10-3134083
•0009116770
1098
1206604
1323763192
83-1360830
10-3166411
•0009107468
1099
1207801
1327378299
88-1611689
10-3196721
-0009099181
1100
1210000
1381000000
88-1662479
10-3228012
-0009090909
1101
1212201
1834633301
831813200
10-3269284
•0009082662
1102
1214404
1338278208
88-1963853
10-3290537
•0009074410
1103
1216609
1841919727
83-2114438
10-3321770
-0009066183
1104
1218816
1846572864
88-2264965
10-3362985
•0009067971
1105
1221025
1349232626
88-2416403
10-8384181
•0009049774
1106
1223236
1852899016
83-2666783
10-3415358
•0009041691
1107
1225449
1366672043
88-2716096
10-3446517
•0009033424
1108
1227664
1360261712
88-2866339
10-3477657
•0009026-271
1109
1229881
1863938029
83-8016516
10-3608778
•0009017133
1110
1232100
1867631000
83-8166625
10-3539880
-0009009009
nil
1234321
1871830631
83-8316666
10-3670964
•0009000900
1112
1236644
1876036928
83-3466640
10-3602029
•0008992806
1118
1238769
1378749897
88-8616646
10-3633076
•0008984726
1114
1240996
1382469644
83-3766386
10-3664103
-0008976661
1116
1243226
1386196875
83-3916157
10-3696113
-0008968610
1116
1246466
1389928896
83-4065862
10-3726103
-0008960573
1117
1247689
1393668613
83-4216499
10-3757076
•0008952651
1118
1249924
1397416032
88-4365070
10-3788030
-0008944644
1119
1262161
1401168169
88-4514678
10-3818966
•0008936560
1120
1264400
1404928000
83-4664011
10-3849882
•0008S28571
1121
1266641
1408694661
88-4813381
10-3880781
•0008920607
1122
1268884
1412467848
88-4962684
10-3911661
•0008912666
1128
1261129
1416247867
88-5111921
10-8942623
•0008904720
BQUARBS, ODBSB, ROOTS, AND RICIPBOCAIA
Ko.
8^
CbIm
BqomROQt
CbMRoM
BedpnMal
1 21
263376
1420034624
SS-e261093
10-3978366
W0S898797
1 25
266625
1423828126
S3'5410196
10-4004192
] 26
367876
1427628378
83-65592S4
10-4034999
•000888099S
127
Z70129
1481436383
83-5708206
10-4096787
■0003878111
1 28
272384
14S52491B2
83-5867112
10-4096557
•0008865218
I 29
274S41
1439069689
83-6006952
10-4127310
■0008867396
180
144289 000
83-6154726
10-1158044
■0O0884066S
1 SI
144673 091
88-6303434
10-4188760
■0008841733
1 32
281 424
145067 968
83-8462077
10-4219468
•0008833922
138
2SS6S9
1454419637
83-6600853
10-4250138
-0008826125
1 U
I28E950
1468274104
83-6749165
10-4280800
•0008818342
ISS
1288225
1462186376
SS-6897610
10-4311443
■0O0S81O573
1 se
1290496
1466003458
83-7046991
10-4342069
■0008802817
1 37
1292769
1469878353
837194308
10-4372877
■0008796075
I 38
1295044
1473760072
83-7342556
10-4408267
•0008787846
1 89
1207S21
1477648819
38-7490741
10-1433839
■0008779831
1 40
1299600
14S1644000
88-7688860
10-4464393
•OOO8771930
1 «1
1301881
1486446221
837786915
10-4494929
1 42
1304164
1489356288
83-7984906
10-4625448
I4S
130e4«
1493271207
33-8082830
10-4565948
1 44
1808736
1497198984
88-8230691
10-4586431
1 4E
311025
1501123626
83-8378488
10-4616896
1 4a
813816
16060fi0138
83-8526218
10-4647343
47
815609
160900362S
83-8678884
10-4677773
48
817904
151296S792
3S-8S21487
10-470S186
49
1820201
1516910949
88-8969025
10-4738679
GO
322500
1620375000
83-9116499
10-4768965
fil
824801
1624845961
83-9208009
10-4799314
-00088881107
1827101
1628823808
83-9411256
10-4829668
■O0086S0W
58
329409
1632808677
83-9658687
10-4859980
■oooee7aov
IM
1331718
1633800261
88-9706766
10-1890286
■OO086666U
155
1834026
1640798876
88-9862910
10-4920676
■0006668009
156
1836388
1544804418
84-0000000
10-4960817
157
1338648
1648816898
84-0117027
10-1981101
153
340964
1662836813
84-0293990
10-5011387
16fl
1343281
1666882679
84-0440390
10-5041666
■0008838138
160
1345600
1660896000
84-0687727
10-60n757
■0008620690
161
1347B21
1564936281
84-0731601
10-61019^
■0008618364
163
350244
1668983623
84-0881211
10-6132109
•00086068^
163
352569
1578037747
81-1027868
10-6162269
-0008508463
m
354896
81-1171443
10-6192891
-0008601066
leo
35722S
16S1167I2e
84-1320968
10-6222506
■0008688691
1S6
859566
84-1467122
10-626260*
•0006570839
167
361S89
1689824468
34-1613817
10-5282685
168
864224
1598413633
34-1760I50
10-5312749
169
8666S1
1697609809
34-190642a
10-6312706
170
868900
1801813000
84-2052627
10-5372826
•0000647009
171
871241
1606738211
81-319S778
10'64a3S37
«io6&ssno
178
878584
1809340448
81-28118e6
10-6182883
•oooasaes
BQUARSS, OUBBS, BOOTS^ AND RECIPBOOALS.
591
No.
Sqnan
Cube
Square Boot
CabeRoot
Bedprocal
1173
1375929
1613964717
34-2490876
10*5462810
•0008625149
1174
1378276
1618096024
34*26b6834
10-5492771
•0008617888
1175
1380625
1622234375
34-2782730
10-56227] 5
•0008510638
1176
1882976
1626379776
34-2928664
10-5662642
•0008503401
1177
1385329
1630532233
34-3074336
10-6682662
•0008496177
1178
1387684
1634691752
34-3220046
10*6612445
•0008488964
1179
1390041
1638858339
34*3365694
10-5642322
•0008481764
1180
1392400
1643032000
84-3611281
10-5672181
•0008474576
1181
1394761
1647212741
34*3656805
10-5702024
•0008467401
1182
1397124
1651400568
34-3802268
10-5731849
■0008460237
1183
1399489
1655595487
34-3947670
10-6761668
•0008463086
1184
1401856
1659797604
34-4093011
10-5791449
-0008446946
1186
1404225
1664006625
34*4238289
10*6821226
•0008438819
1186
1406596
1668222866
34-4383507
10-5860983
•0008431703
1187
1408969
1672446203
34*4628668
10-6880726
•0008424600
1188
1411344
1676676672
34*4673759
10-5910460
•0008417508
1189
1413721
1680914269
34*4818793
10-6940158
•0008410429
1190
1416100
1685159000
34*4963766
10-5969860
•0008403361
1191
1418481
1689410871
34-6108678
10*6999525
•0008396306
1192
1420864
1693669888
84-5253530
10*6029184
•0008389262
1193
1423249
1697936057
84-5398321
10*6058826
•0008382230
1194
1425636
1702209384
34*5543051
10*6088451
•0008375209
1195
1428025
1706489875
84*6687720
10*6118060
•0008368201
1196
1430416
1710777536
34*5832329
10-6147652
•0008361204
1197
1432809
1715072373
34*6976879
10-6177228
•0008354219
1198
1435204
1719374892
34-6121366
10-6206788
•0008347246
1199
1437601
1723683599
84*6265794
10-6236831
•0008340284
1200
1440000
1728000000
34*6410162
10-6265867
•0008333333
1201
1442401
1732323601
34*6654469
10-6295367
•0008326396
1202
1444804
1736654408
34-6698716
10*6324860
•0008319468
1203
1447209
1740992427
34-6842904
10*6364338
•0008312552
1204
1449616
1745337664
34-6987031
10-6383799
-0008306648
1205
1452025
1749690125
34-7131099
10-6413244
•0008298766
1206
1454436
1754049816
34-7276107
10-6442672
•0008291874
1207
1456849
1758416743
34*7419055
10*6472085
•0008286004
1208
1459264
1762790912
34*7662944
10*6601480
•0008278146
1209
1461681
1767172329
34*7706773
10-6630860
•0008271299
1210
1464100
1771561000
34*7850643
10-6560223
•0008264463
1211
1466521
1775956931
34*7994263
10-6689670
•0008267638
1212
1468944
1780360128
34-8137904
10-6618902
•0008250825
1213
1471369
1784770697
34*8281495
10-6648217
•0008244023
1214
1473796
1789188344
34*8425028
10-6677516
•0008237232
1215
1476225
1793613376
34-8568501
10-6706799
•0008230463
1216
1478656
1798045696
34*8711916
10-6736066
•00089.28684
1217
1481089
1802485313
34*8855271
10-6766317
•0008216927
1218
1483524
1806932232
84*8998567
10-6794552
•0008210181
1219
1485961
1811386459
34*9141806
10-6823771
•0008203445
1220
1488400
1815848000
34-9284984
10*6852973
•0008196721
1221
1490841
1820316861
84*9428104
10*6882160
•0008190008
r^
592
SQUARES, CUBES, BOOTS, AND REOIPBOCALS.
Ka
Sqnue
Cnbe
Square Root
•
Cube Boot
Rediirocal
1222
1493284
1824793048
34-9571166
10-6911331
•0008183306
1223
1495729
1829276667
84-9714169
10-6940486
•0008176615
1224
1498176
1833767424
84-9857114
10-6969625
•0008169935
1225
1500625
1838265625
86-0000000
10-6998748
*0008163265
1226
1503076
1842771176
86-0142828
10-7027865
-0008156607
1227
1505529
1847234083
86-0286598
10-7056947
-0008149959
1228
1507984
1851804362
85-0428309
10-7086023
-0008143322
1229
1510441
1856331989
35-0570963
10-7115083
•0008136696
1230
1512900
1860867000
86-0713558
10-7144127
-0008130081
1231
1515361
1865409391
36-0856096
10-7173155
-0008123477
1232
1517824
1869959168
36-0998576
10-7202168
•0008116883
1233
1520289
1874516337
36-1140997
10-7231165
•0008110800
1234
1522756
1879080904
85-1283361
10-7260146
•0008103728
1235
1525225
1883652875
85*1426668
10-7289112
-0008097166
1236
1527696
1888232266
86-1667917
10-7318062
•0008090616
1237
1530169
1892819053
35-1710108
10-7346997
•0008084074
1238
1632644
1897413272
35-1852242
10-7375916
-0008077644
1239
1536121
1902014919
35-1994318
107404819
•0008071026
1240
1537600
1906624000
85-2136337
10-7433707
•0008064516
1241
1540081
1911240521
86-2278299
10-7462579
•0008058018
1242
1542564
1915864488
86-2420204
10-7491436
•0008051630
1243
1545049
1920496907
86-2562051
10-7520277
-0008046052
1244
1547536
1925134784
85-2703842
10-8649103
-0008088685
1245
1550025
1929781125
36-2845675
10-7577913
•0008032129
1246
1552516
1934434936
35-2987252
10-7606708
-0008025682
1247
1555009
1939096223
35-3128872
10-7635488
•0008019246
1248
1657504
1943764992
35-3270435
10-7664252
•0008012821
1249
1660001
1948441249
35-3411941
10-7693001
•0008006405
1260
1562500
1953125000
86-3663391
10-7721736
•0008000000
1251
1665001
1957816251
85-3694784
10-7750453
•0007993605
1252
1667504
1962615008
85-3836120
10-7779156
•0007987220
1253
1570009
1967221277
85-3977400
10-7807843
•0007980846
1254
1572516
1971935064
86-4118624
10-7836516
•0007974482
1255
1575025
1976666376
36-4259792
10-7865178
•0007968127
1256
1577536
1981385216
35-4400903
10-7893815
•0007961783
1257
1580049
1986121593
36-4541958
10-7922441
•0007955449
1258
1582664
1990865512
85-4682957
10-7951053
•0007949126
1259
1585081
1995616979
36 -4823900
10-7979649
•0007942812
1260
1587600
2000376000
35-4964787
10-8008230
-0007986508
1261
1690121
2005142681
35*6105618
10-8036797
•0007990214
1262
1692644
2009916728
36-6246393
10-8065348
•0007928930
1263
1596169
2014698447
36-5387113
10-8093884
•0007917656
1264
1597696
2019487744
35-5527777
10-8122404
•0007911892
1265
1600225
2024284626
36-6668386
10-8160909
•0007905138
1266
1602756
2029089096
36-6808937
10-8179400
•0007888894
1267
1605289
2033901163
35-5949434
10-8207876
•0007892660
1268
1607824
2038720832
36-6089876
10-8236336
•0007886436
1269
1610861
2043548109
35-6280262
10*8264782
t0007880221
1270
1612900
2048383000
85-6370598
10*8298213
•0007874016
SQUABSa, CUBES, ROOTS, AND RECIPROCALS.
593
No.
Square
1271
1615441
1272
1617984
1273
1620529
1274
1623076
1276
1625625
1276
1628176
1277
1630729
1278
1683284
1279
1635841
1280
1638400
1281
1640961
1282
1643524
1283
1646089
1284
1648656
1285
1651225
1286
1653796
1287
1656369
1288
1658944
1289
1661521
1290
1664100
1291
1666681
1292
1669264
1293
1671849
1294
1674436
1295
1677026
1296
1679616
1297
1682209
1298
1684804
1299
1687401
1800
1690000
1301
1692601
1302
1695204
1303
1697809
1304
1700416
1305
1703025
1306
1705636
1307
1708249
1308
1710864
1309
1713481
1310
1716100
1311
1718721
1312
1721344
1313
1723969
1314
1726596
1315
1729225
1316
1731856
1317
1734489
1318
1737124
1319
1739761
Cnbe
2053225511
2058075648
2062933417
2067798824
2072671876
2077552576
2082440933
2087336952
2092240639
2097152000
2102071041
2106997768
2111932187
2116874304
2121824125
2126781656
2131746903
2136719872
2141700569
2146689000
2151685171
2156689088
2161700757
2166720184
2171747376
2176782336
2181825078
2186875592
2191933899
2197000000
2202073901
2207155608
2212245127
2217342464
2222447626
2227560616
2232681443
2237810112
2242946629
2248091000
2253243231
2258403328
2263571297
2268747144
2273930876
2279122496
2284322013
2289529432
2294744759
SquarsRoot
35-6510869
35-6651090
85'6791255
35*6931366
35-7071421
35-7211422
85-7351367
85-7491258
35-7631095
35-7770876
85-7910603
35-8050276
85-8189894
35-8329457
35-8468966
85-8608421
85-8747822
85-8887169
35-9026461
85-9165699
35-9304884
85-9444015
85-9583092
33-9722115
85-9861084
86-0000000
86-0138862
36-0277671
36-0416426
36-0555128
36-0693776
36-0832371
86-0970913
36-1109402
86-1247837
86-1386220
36-1524550
36-1662826
36-1801050
36*1939221
36-2077340
36-2215406
36-2353419
36-2491379
36-2629287
36-2767143
36-2904946
36-3042697
86-3180396
Cube Root
10-83216*29
10-8350030
10-8378416
10-8406788
10-8435144
10-8463485
10-8491812
10-8520125
10-8548422
10-8576704
10-8604972
10-8633225
10-8661464
10-8^9687
10-8717897
10-8746091
10-8774271
10-8802436
10-8830587
10-8858723
10-8886845
10-8914952
10-8943044
10-8971123
10-8999186
10-9027235
10-9055269
10-9083290
10-9111296
10-9139287
10-9167265
10-9195228
10-9223177
10-9251111
10-9279031
10-9306937
10-9334829
10-9362706
10-9390569
10-9418418
10-9446253
10-9474074
10-9501880
10-9529673
10-9557451
10-9585215
10-9612965
10-9640701
10-9668423
Reciprocal
•0007867821
•0007861636
•0007855460
•0007849294
•0007843137
•0007836991
•0007830854
•0007824726
•0007818608
•0007812500
•0007806401
•0007800312
•0007794232
•0007788162
•0007782101
•0007776050
•0007770008
•0007763975
•0007757952
•0007751938
•0007745933
•0007739938
•0007733952
•0007727976
•0007722008
•0007716049
•0007710100
•0007704160
•0007698229
•0007692308
•0007686396
•0007680492
•0007674597
•0007668712
•0007662836
•0007656968
•0007651109
•0007645260
•0007639419
•0007633588
•0007627765
•0007621951
•0007616146
•0007610350
•0007604568
•0007598784
•0007593014
•0007587253
•0007581501
"38
r
594
BQUARBS, CUBES, ROOTS, A17D BECIPBOGALS.
Na
Square
Cabe
Square Boot
Cube Boot
Bedproeal
1820
1742400
2299968000
86-8818042
10-9696131
•0007575768
1821
1745041
2806199161
36-3456637
10-9723825
•0007570028
1822
1747684
2310438248
86-3593179
10-9761505
•0007664297
1828
1750329
2315685267
86 -8730670
10-9779171
•0007668579
1324
1752976
2320940224
86-3868108
10-9806823
•0007652870
1825
1755626
2326203126
86-4005494
10-9834462
•0007647170
1326
1758276
2331473976
86-4142829
10-9862086
•0007641478
1327
1760929
2336752783
36-4280112
10-9889696
•0007636795
1828
1763684
2342039552
36-4417843
10-9917293
•0007530120
1829
1766241
2347334289
86-4564523
10-9944876
•0007524464
1330
1768900
2352637000
36-4691650
10-9972445
•0007518797
1331
1771561
2357947691
36-4828727
11-0000000
•0007513148
1832
1774224
2363266368
36-4965752
11-0027541
•0007607508
1838
1776889
2368593037
86-6102726
11-0065069
•0007501876
1334
1779556
2373927704
36-6239647
11-0082583
•0007496262
1385
1782225
2379270375
86-6876518
11-0110082
•0007490637
1836
1784896
2384621056
86-5513338
11-0U87569
•0007485030
1387
1787569
2389979753
86-5660106
11-0165041
•0007479482
1338
1790244
2395346472
36-5786823
11-0192600
•0007478842
1339
1792921
2400721219
86-5923489
11-0219946
•0007468260
1840
1795600
2406104000
86-6060104
11-0247377
•0007462687
1841
1798281
2411494821
36-6196668
11-0274795
•0007457122
1842
1800964
2416898688
86-6838181
11-0302199
•0007461666
1848
1803649
2422800607
86-6469644
11-0329690
•0007446016
1844
1806336
2427715584
86-6606056
11-0366967
•0007440476
1846
1809025
2433138626
86-6742416
11-0384380
•0007434944
1846
1811716
2438569736
36-6878726
11-0411680
•0007429421
1847
1814409
2444008928
36-7014986
11-0489017
•0007423906
1348
1817104
2449466192
36-7161196
11-0466339
•0007418398
1849
1819801
2454911549
36-7287368
11-0493649
•0007412898
1350
1822500
2460375000
86-7423461
11-0620946
•0007407407
1351
1825201
2465846551
86-7659519
11-0548227
•0007401924
1352
1827904
2471326208
36-7696526
11-0676497
•0007396460
1858
1830609
2476813977
86-7831488
11-0602752
•0007390988
1354
1833316
2482809864
36-7967390
11-0629994
•0007886624
1855
1836026
2487813876
86-8103246
11-0657222
•0007880074
1356
1838786
2493326016
86-8239053
11-0684437
•0007374631
1857
1841449
2498846293
86-8374809
11-0711639
•0007869197
1858
1844164
2504374712
36-8510616
11-0738828
•0007868770
1859
1846881
2509911279
36-8646172
11-0766008
•0007868852
1860
1849600
2616456000
86-8781778
11-0793166
•0007862941
1361
1852821
2521008881
86 ■8917836
11-0820314
•0007847639
1862
1855044
2526569928
36-9052842
11-0847449
•0007342144
1863
1857769
2532139147
36-9188299
11-0874671
•0007886767
1864
1860496
2537716544
86-9823706
110901679
•0007881878
1865
1868226
2643302125
86*9459064
11-0928776
•0007326007
1866
1866956
2548895896
86-9694372
11-0966867
-0007820644
1867
1868689
2554497863
36-9729631
11-0982926
•0007815289
1868
1871424
2660108032
86-9864840
11*1009982
•0007909942
SQUARES, CUBES, ROOTS, AND RECIPROCALS.
595
No.
Square
Cube
Square Root
Cube Root
Reciprocal
1869
, 1874161
2665726409
87-0000000
11*1087025
•0007804602
1870
1876900
2571353000
87-0135110
11-1064054
•0007299270
1371
1879641
2576987811
87-0270172
11-1091070
•0007293946
1372
1882384
2582630848
87-0405184
11-1118073
•0007288630
1373
1885129
2588282117
87-0540146
11-1145064
•0007283321
1374
1887876
2593941624
87-0675060
11-1172041
•0007278020
1376
1890625
2599609375
87-0809924
11-1199004
•0007272727
1376
1893376
2605285376
87-0944740
11-1225965
•0007267442
1377
1896129
2610969638
87-1079506
11-1252893
•0007262164
1378
1898884
2616662152
87-1214224
11-1279817
•0007256894
1379
1901641
2622362939
87-1848893
11-1306729
•0007251632
1380
1904400
2628072000
37-1483512
11-1333628
•0007246377
1381
1907161
2633789341
87-1618084
11-1360514
•0007241130
1382
1909924
2639514968
37-1752606
11-1387386
•0007235890
1383
1912689
2645248887
87-1887079
11-1414246
•0007230658
1384
1915456
2650991104
87-2021506
11-1441093
•0007225434
1385
1918226
2656741626
« 87-2165881
11-1467926
•0007220217
1386
1920996
2662500456
87-2290209
11-1494747
•0007215007
1387
1923769
2668267603
87-2424489
11-1521556
•0007209806
1388
1926544
2674043072
87-2558720
11-1648350
•0007204611
1889
1929321
2679826869
87-2692903
11-1576133
•0007199424
1390
1932100
2685619000
87-2827087
11-1601903
•0007194246
1391
1934881
2691419471
87-2961124
11-1628659
•0007189073
1392
1937664
2697228288
87-3095162
11-1655403
•0007183908
1393
1940449
2703045457
87-3229152
11-1682134
•0007178751
1394
1943236
2708870984
87*3363094
11-1708852
•0007173601
1396
1946025
2714704875
87*3496988
11-1736558
•0007168459
1896
1948816
2720547136
87*3630834
11-1762250
•0007163324
1897
1951609
2726397773
87-3764632
11-1788930
•0007158196
1398
1954404
2732256792
87*3898382
11-1815598
•0007153076
1899
1957201
2738124199
87*4032084
11-1842252
•0007147963
1400
1960000
2744000000
87*4165738
11-1868894
•0007142857
1401
1962801
2749884201
87*4299346
11-1895523
•0007137759
1402
1965604
2755776808
87-4432904
11-1922139
•0007132668
1403
1968409
2761677827
37*4566416
11-1948743
-0007127684
1404
1971216
2767587264
37*4699880
11*1976334
•0007122507
1405
1974025
2773505126
37*4833296
11-2001913
•0007117438
1406
1976836
2779431416
37*4966665
11-2028479
-0007112376
1407
1979649
2785866143
37-5099987
11-2055032
•0007107321
1408
1982464
2791309312
37-5233261
11-2081573
•0007102273
1409
1985281
2797260929
87*5366487
11-2108101
•0007097232
1410
1988100
2803221000
37-5499667
11-2134617
•0007092199
1411
1990921
2809189531
37*5632799
11-2161120
•0007087172
1412
1993744
2815166528
37*6765885
11-2187611
•0007082163
1418
1996569
2821161997
37-5898922
11-2214089
•0007077141
1414
1999396
2827145944
37*6031913
11-2240654
-0007072136
1416
2002225
2833148375
37*6164857
11-2267007
-0007067138
1416
2005056
2839159296
37*6297754
11-2293448
•0007062147
1417
2007889
2845178713
37*6430604
11-2319876
•0007067163
596
BQUARBSi 0UBS8, BOOTS, AND BBOIFBOOALIS.
No.
Sqiuire
1418
2010724
1419
2013561
1420
2016400
1421
2019241
1422
2022084
1423
2024929
1424
2027776
1425
2030625
1426
2033476
1427
2036329
1428
2039184
1429
2042041
1430
2044900
1431
2047761
1432
2050624
1433
2053489
1434
2056356
1435
2059225
1436
2062096
1437
2064969
1438
2067844
1439
2070721
1440
2073600
1441
2076481
1442
2079364
1443
2082249
1444
2085136
1445
2088025
1446
2090916
1447
2093809
1448
2096704
1449
2099601
1450
2102500
1451
2105401
1452
2108304
1453
2111209
1454
2114116.
1455
2117025
1456
2119936
1457
2122849
1458
2125764
1459
2128681
1460
2131600
1461
2134521
1462
2137444
1463
2140369
1464
2143296
1466
2146226
1466
2149156
CalM
2851206682
2857243059
2863288000
2869341461
2875403448
2881473967
2887553024
2893640625
2899786776
2905841483
2911954752
2918076589
2924207000
2930345991
2936493568
2942649737
2948814504
2954987875
2961169856
2967360458
2973559672
2979767519
2985984000
2992209121
2998442888
8004685307
8010936384
3017196126
8023464536
8029741623
3036027392
8042321849
3048625000
8054936851
8061257408
3067586677
8073924664
8080271376
3086626816
8092990993
8099363912
8105745579
8112136000
8118535181
8124943128
8131359847
8187785344
8144219626
8160662606
SqiuueBoot
87-6568407
87-6696164
87-6828874
87-6961536
87-7094153
37-7226722
87-7359245
87-7491722
87-7624152
87-7756535
87-7888873
87-8021163
87-8153408
87-8285606
87-8417759
87-8549864
87-8681924
87-3813938
87-8945906
87-9077828
87-9209704
87-9341536
87-9473319
87-9605058
87-9786761
87-9868398
88-0000000
88-0181656
88-0263067
88-0394532
38*0525952
88-0657326
38-0788656
88-0919939
38-1051178
88-1182371
88-1813519
88-1444622
38-1675681
88-1706693
381837662
38*1968586
38-2099463
38-2230297
38-2361086
88-2491829
38-2622529
38-2758184
88-2883794
CnbeRool
11*2846292
11-2372696
11-2399087
11-2425465
11*2451831
11-2478185
11-2504527
11*2530856
11-2557173
11*2583478
11*2609770
11*2636050
11*2662318
11*2688573
11*2714816
11*2741047
11*2767266
11*2798472
11*2819666
11*2845849
11-2872019
11*2898177
11*2924323
11*2950467
11*2976579
11*3002688
11*8028786
11*8064871
11*8080945
11*3107006
11 •8133066
11-8159094
11-3186119
11-8211132
ll-82dn84
11-8263124
11-3289102
11-8316067
11-3341022
11-3366964
11-3392894
11-3418813
11 -3444719
11-3470614
11-3496497
11-3622368
11-8648227
11-8674076
11-8699911
Redproeal
•0007062186
•0007047216
•0007042254
•0007037298
•0007032349
•0007027407
•0007022472
•0007017644
•0007012623
•0007007708
•0007002801
•0006997901
•0006993007
•0006988120
•0006983240
•0006978367
•0006973501
•0006968641
•0006963788
•0006968942
-000696410S
•0006949270
•0006944444
•0006939626
•0006934818
•0006930007
•0006925208
•0006920416
•0006916629
•0006910860
•0006906078
•0006901312
•0006896662
•0006891791^
•0006887062
•0006882312
•0006877679
•0006872862
•00068681S2
•0006863418
•0006858711
•0006854010
•0006849316
•0006844627
•00068S9945
•00068S5270
.♦:k-i i^i
•0006825839
•0006881282
SQUABBS, OUBXB, BOOTB, AND RKOtPBOOAia.
697
So,
Sqnare
1467
1468
2152089
2155024
1469 2157961
1470
1471
1472
1473
2160900
2163841
2166784
2169729
1474 2172676
1475 2176626
1476 2178576
1477 2181629
1478 2184484
1479 2187441
1480 2190400
1481 2193361
1482 2196324
1483 2199289
1484 2202256
1485 2205225
1486 2208196
1487 2211169
1488 2214144
[489 2217121
490 2220100
491 2223081
492 2226064
493 2229049
(94 2232036
[95 I 2235025
2238016
2241009
2244004
2247001
2250000
2253001
2256004
2259009
2262016
2265025
2268036
2271049
2274064
2277081
2280100
2283121
2286144
2289169
2292196
2295225
Cube
8157114568
8163575232
3170044709
8176523000
3183010111
3189506048
3169010817
3202524424
8209046875
3215678176
8222118833
8228667852
8285225239
3241792000
3248367641
3254952168
3261545587
3268147904
3274759125
3281379256
3288008308
3294646272
3801293169
3307949000
3314613771
3321287488
3327970157
3334661784
^41362375
3348071936
8354790473
8361617992
3368254499
3376000000
3381754501
3388618008
3396290527
3402072064
8408862625
8415662216
3422470843
3429288512
3436116229
8442951000
8449796831
3456649728
3463512697
8470384744
8477265875
Square Boot
88-8014360
38*3144881
38*3275358
38*8405790
38*3536178
38*3666522
38*3796821
38*3927076
38-4057287
38*4187464
38*4317577
38*4447656
38*4577691
88*4707681
38*4837627
88*4967580
38*5097390
88*5227206
38*5366977
38*5486705
38*5616389
88*5746030
38*5875627
38*6005181
88*6134691
38'6264158
38*6393582
38*6522962
38*6652299
38*6781693
38-6910843
38*7040050
38-7169214
38*7298385
38-7427412
38*7556447
38*7685439
38*7814389
38-7943294
38-8072158
88*8200978
88-8329767
38*8458491
38*8687184
38-8716834
38-8844442
38-8973006
88*9101529
88*9230009
Cube Root
11*8626785
11*8651547
11*8677347
11*8703136
11*3728914
11*8754679
11*3780433
11*3806175
11*3831906
11*3857625
11*3883332
11*3909028
11*3934712
11*3960384
11*3986045
11*4011695
11*4037332
11*4062959
11*4088574
11*4114177
11*4139769
11*4165349
11*4190918
11*4216476
11*4242022
11*4267556
11*4293079
11*4318591
11-4344092
11*4369681
11*4395059
11-4420525
11*4445980
11*4471424
11*4496867
11*4622278
11*4547688
11*4573087
11*4598474
11*4623850
11*4649215
11*4674568
11*4699911
11-4725242
11*4750562
11*4775871
11*4801169
11*4826455
11*4851781
Reeiprot&l
•0006816688
•0006811989
•0006807352
•0006802721
*0006798097
*0006793478
*0006788866
*0006784261
*0006779661
*0006775068
•0006770481
*0006765900
*0006761325
*0006756757
•0006752194
•0006747638
•0006743088
•0006738544
•0006734007
•0006729475
•0008724950
•0006720430
•0006716917
•0006711409
-0006706908
•0006702413
•0006697924
•0006693440
•0006688963
•0006684492
•0006680027
•0006675567
-0006671114
•0006666667
•0006662225
•0006657790
•0006643360
•0006648936
•0006644518
•0006640106
*0006635700
*0006631300
*0006626905
*000662-2517
*0006618184
•0006613757
•0006609385
'0006605020
•0006600660
598
8QUARI8, OUBIB, BOOIB, AND RBOIPBO0AL8.
No.
8qu«n
Cabe
Square Bool
Cabe Root
Reclprooel
1516
2298256
8484156096
88-9858447
11-4876995
•0006696806
1617
2301289
8491066418
88-9486841
11-4902249
-0006591958
1518
2804324
8497963832
88-9615194
11-4927491
•0006587616
1519
2807361
8504881369
88-9743505
11-4952722
•0006588278
1520
2310400
8611808000
88-9871774
11-4977942
•0006578947
1521
2313441
8518748761
89-0000000
11-5003151
•0006574622
1522
2316484
8525688648
89-0128184
11-5028348
•0006570302
1528
2819629
8532642667
89-0256326
11-5053535
•0006565988
1524
2822676
8589605824
390384426
ll-6078ni
•0006561680
1525
2325625
8546578125
89-0512483
11-5103876
•0006667877
1526
2328676
8653559676
89-0640499
11-5129030
•0006553080
1527
2331729
8560560188
89-0768473
11-5154173
•0006548788
1528
2334784
8567549952
89-0896406
11-5179305
•0006544503
1529
2337841
8574558880
89-1024296
U-5204425
•0006540222
1530
2340900
3581677000
39-1152144
11-5229535
-0006585948
1531
2343961
3588604291
891279961
11-5264634
•0006581679
1582
2347024
8595640768
89-1407716
11-5279722
•0006527415
1533
2350089
3602686437
89-1535439
11-5304799
•0006528157
1534
2363156
8609741304
89*1663120
11-5329865
•0006518906
1535
2356225
3616805375
89-1790760
11-5854920
•0006614658
1536
2369296
8623878656
89-1918359
11-5379965
-0006610417
1587
2362369
8630961153
39-2046915
11-5404998
-0006506181
1538
2365444
3638052872
89-2173431
11-5430021
•0006601951
1539
2368521
8646153819
39-2300905
11-5455033
•0006497726
1540
2371600
3652264000
89-2428337
11-5480034
•0006498506
1541
2374681
8659383421
39-2556728
11-5505026
•0006489298
1542
2877764
3666512088
89-2683078
11-5530004
•0006486084
1548
2380849
8673650007
39-2810387
11-5554978
•0006480681
1544
2383936
8680797184
39-2937664
11-5579931
•0006476684
1545
2387025
8687953625
89-3064880
11-5604878
•0006472492
1546
2390116
8695119336
89-3192065
11-5629815
•0006468806
1547
2393209
8702294328
39-8319208
11-5654740
•0006464124
1548
2396304
8709478592
89-3446311
11-5679655
•0006459948
1549
2399401
3716672149
89-3573373
11-5704559
•0006455778
1550
2402600
3723875000
89-3700394
11-5729453
•0006451618
1561
2405601
3731087151
89-3827878
11-5754336
•0006447468
1552
2408704
3738308608
39-3954312
11-5779208
•0006443299
1668
2411809
8745639377
39-4081210
11-5804069
•0006439150
1554
2414916
8752779464
39-4208067
11-5828919
•0006485006
1665
2418025
8760028875
39-4334888
11-5863759
•000645^)868
1556
2421136
3767287616
39-4461668
11-5878588
•0006426785
1667
2424249
3774556693
39-4688393
11-5903407
•0006422606
1558
2427364
8781833112
39-4715087
11-6928215
•0006418485
1569
2430481
8789119879
89-4841740
11-5953013
•0006414968
1560
2433600
8796416000
89-4968353
11-5977799
•0006410256
1561
2436721
8803721481
39-5094925
11-6002576
•0006406150
1562
2439844
3811036328
39-5221467
11-6027342
•00064O2O49
1563
2442969
8818360547
39*5347948
11-6052097
•0006897958
1564
2446096
8825694144
89-5474899
11-6076841
•0006888862
aQtruas, otsiis, ttoots, asd tiftoiftioOAU.
699
Ka
flqtitn
Cube
Square Root
Cabe Root
ReelprocAl
Ii6a5
2449225
8888037126
39-5600809
11-6101575
*0006889776
1666
2462856
8840889496
39-5727179
11-6126299
*0006385696
Imr
2465489
8847751263
39-5853508
11-6151012
•0006381621
I1668
2468624
8855122482
39-5979797
11-6175715
•0006377551
|l669
2461761
8862503009
89-6106046
11-6200407
•0006378486
11670
2464900
8869893000
39-6232255
11-6225088
•0006369427
|l671
2468041
8877292411
39-6358424
11-6249769
•0006366372
11672
2471184
8884701248
89-6484552
11-6274420
•0006361328
|l673
2474329
8892119517
89-6610640
11-6299070
•0006357279
/1674
2477476
8899547224
89-6786688
11-6328710
•0006363240
|l675
24S0625
8906984375
89-6862696
11-6348339
•0006349026
|l676
2483776
8914430976
39-6988665
11-6372967
•0006345178
|l677
2486929
8921887033
39-7114593
11-6397566
•0006841154
|l678
2490084
3929352552
39-7240481
11-6422164
•0006337186
11679
2498241
3936827539
89-7366329
11-6446751
•0006333122
11680
2496400
3944312000
39-7492138
11*6471329
•0006329114
11581
2499561
3951805941
89-7617907
11*6495895
•0006326111
11682 2502724
3959309368
89-7743636
11-6520452
•0006321118
11583 2505889
3966822287
89-7869325
11*6644998
•0006317119
11584 2509056
8974344704
, 89-7994975
11-6569584
•0006343181
1585 2512225
8981876625
89-8120585
11-6694059
•0006309148
1586 2515896
8989418056
89-8246155
11-6618674
•0006305170
1587 2518569
8996969003
89-8371686
11-6643079
•0006801197
1588 2521744
4004529472
39-8497177
11-6667574
•0006297229
1589 2524921
4012099469
39*8622628
11-6692068
•0006293266
1590 2528100
4019679000
39-8748040
11*6716682
•0006289808
1591 2581281
4027268071
39-8873413
11*6740996
•0006285355
•0006281407
1592 2534464
4034866688
89-8998747
11-6765449
1593 2587649
4042474857
39-9124041
11*6789892
•0006277464
1594 2540836
4050092584
39-9249295
11-6814325
•0006278526
1595 2544025
4057719875
39-9374511
11-6838748
•0006269592
1596 1 2547216
4065356736
39*9499687
11-6863161
•0006265664
1597 1 2550409
4073003178
89-9624824
11-6887663
•0006261741
598 I 2553604
4080659192
39-9749922
11-6911965
•0006267822
699 2556801
4088324799
39-9874980
11-6936337
•0006263909
600 1 2560000
4096000000
40-0000000
11-6960709
•0006250000
501 2563201
4103684801
40*0124980
11-6986071
•0006246096
;02 / 2566404
4111379208
40*0249922
11*7009422
•0006242197
103 1 2569609
4119083227
40-0374824
117033764
•0006238803
04 / 2572816
4126796864
40-0499688
11-7068096
•0006234414
05 1 2576025
4134520125
40-0624512
11-7082417
•0006230530
)6 / 2579236
4142253016
40-0749298
11-7106728
•0006226650
)7 / 2582449
4149995543
40-0874045
11-7131029
•0006222776
(S f 2585664
4157747712
40-0998753
11-7166320
•0006218905
9 / 2588881
4165509529
40*1123423
11-7179601
•0006215040
0 1 2592100
4173281000
40-1248053
11*7203872
•0006211180
I ' 2595321
4181062131
40-1372645
11 •72-28133
•0006207325
i 2598544
4188862928
40-1497198
11*7262384
•0006203474
V 2601769
4196653397
40-1621713
11*7276626
•0006199628
600
BQUAftJES, OtTBBS, BOOTS, AKB REOIPBOOAUk
No.
Sqoare
Cnbe
SqnareRoot
Gabe Root
RAdprocal
1614
2604996
4204^63544
401746188
11*7300856
•0006195787
1615
2608225
4212283376
40-1870626
11-7325076
•0006191960
1616
2611456
4220112896
40-1995025
117349286
•0006188119
1617
2614689
4227952113
40-2119385
11-7373487
•0006184292
1618
2617924
4235801032
40-2243707
117397677
■0006180470
1619
2621161
4243659659
40-2367990
11-7421858
•0006176652
1620
2624400
4251528000
40-2492236
117446029
•0006172840
1621
2627641
4259406061
40-2616443
117470190
•0006169031
1622
2630884
4267293848
40-2740611
11-7494341
•0006166228
1623
2634129
4275191367
40-2864742
11-7518482
•0006161429
1624
2637376
4283098624
40-2988834
11-7542613
•0006157635
1625
2640625
4291015625
40-3112888
11-7566734
•0006153846
1626
2643876
4298942376
40-3236903
11-7590846
•0006160062
1627
2647129
4306878883
40-3360881
11-7614947
•0006146282
1628
2650384
4314825152
40-3484820
117639039
•0006142506
1629
2653641
4322781189
40-3608721
117663121
•0006138785
1630
2656900
4330747000
40-3732586
11-7687198
•0006134969
1631
2660161
4338722591
40-3866410
117711265
•0006181208
1632
2663424
4346707968
40-3980198
11-7735306
•0006127451
1633
2666689
4354703137
40-4103947
11-7759349
•0006123699
1634
2669956
4362708104
40-4227658
11-7788381
•0006119951
1635
2673225
4370722876
40-4351832
11-7807404
•0006116208
1636
2676496
4378747456
40-4474968
11-7831417
•0006112469
1637
2679769
4386781853
40-4598566
117855420
•0006108735
1638
2683044
4394826072
40-4722127
117879414
•0006106006
1639
2686321
4402880119
40-4845649
11-7903397
•0006101281
1640
2689600
4410944000
40-4969136
11-7927371
•0006097661
1641
2692881
4419017721
40-5092582
117951335
•0006093845
1642
2696164
4427101288
40-6215992
11-7975289
•0006090134
1643
2699449
4435194707
40-5339364
11-7999234
•0006086427
1644
2702736
4443297984
40-5462699
11-8023169
•0006082725
1645
2706026
4451411125
40-5585996
11-8047094
•0006079027
1646
2709316
4459534136
40-5709256
11-8071010
•0006075334
1647
2712609
4467667023
40-5832477
11-8094916
•0006071645
1648
2715904
4475809792
40-5955663
11*8118812
•0006067961
1649
2719201
4483962449
40-6078810
11-8142698
•0006064281
1650
2722500
4492125000
40-6201920
11-8166576
•0006060606
1651
2725801
4500297451
40-6324993
11-8190443
•0006056936
1652
2729104
4508479808
40-6448029
11-8214301
•0006053269
1653
2732409
4516672077
40-6571027
11-8238149
•0006049607
1654
2735716
4524874264
40-6693988
11*8261987
•0006046949
1655
2739025
4533086376
40-6816912
11*8285816
•0006042296
1656
2742336
4541308416
40-6939799
11*8309634
•00060S8647
1657
2745649
4549540393
40-7062648
11-8333444
•0006085008
1658
2748964
4557782312
40-7185461
11-8357244
•0006031863
1659
2752281
4566034179
40-7308237
11*8381034
•0006027728
1660
2755600
4574296000
40-7430976
11-8404815
•0006024096
1661
2768921
4682567781
40-7553677
11*8428686
•0006020470
1662
2762244 4590849528
40-7676342
11*8462348
-0006016847
^
8QUABS8, 0UBB8, ROOTS, AND REOIFBOGALS.
601
No.
Sqnare
Cube
SqnanBoot
CuUBoofc
Beelprocftl
1663
2765569
4599141247
40-7798970
11-8476100
•0006018229
1664
2768896
4607442994
40-7921561
11-8499843
•0006009615
, 1665
2772226
4615754625
40-8044115
11*8623576
•0006006006
1666
2775656
4624076296
40-8166638
11*8547299
•0006002401
1667
2778889
4632407963
40-8289113
11*8571014
•0005998800
1668
2782224
4640749632
40*8411557
11*8594719
•0005995204
1669
2786561
4649101309
40-8533964
11-8618414
•0005991612
1670
2788900
4657463000
40-8656335
11*8642100
-0005988024
1671
2792241
4665834711
40-8778669
11*8665776
-0005984440
|1672
2796684
4674216448
40-8900966
11-8689443
-0005980861
\167B
•2798929
4682608217
40-9023227
11-8713100
-0005977286
|l674
2802276
4691010024
40*9145451
11*8736748
-0005973716
|l676
2805625
4699421875
40-9267638
11*8760387
-0005970149
I we
2808976
4707843776
40-9389790
11*8784016
•0005966587
1 1677
2812329
4716275733
40-9511905
11*8807636
•0005963029
11678
2816684
4724717752
40*9633983
11*8831246
-0005959476
11679
2819041
4733169839
40*9756025
11-8854847
-0005955926
11680
2812400
4741632000
40*9878031
11*8878439
-0005952381
11681 2826761
4750104241
41*0000000
11*8902022
-0005948840
1682 2829124
4758586568
41*0121933
11-8925595
-0005945303
1683
2832489
4767078987
41*0243830
11*8949159
•0005941771
1684
2835866
4776581504
41*0365691
11*8972713
•0005938242
1685
2839225
4784094125
41*0487515
11*8996258
*0005934718
1686 2842596
4792616856
41-0609303
11-9019793
*0005931198
1687 2845969
4801149703
41-0731055
41-08^772
11*9043319
-0005927682
1688 2849344
4809692672
11-9066836
-0005924171
1689 2852721
4818245769
41-0974452
11-9090344
-0005920663
1690 2856100
4826809000
41*1096096
11-9113843
•0005917160
1691 2S59481
4835382371
41-1217704
11-9137332
•0005913661
1692 2862864
4843965888
41*1339276
11*9160812
-0005910165
693 2866249
4852559557
41*1460812
11*9184283
-0005906675
694 2869636
4861163384
41*1582313
11*9207744
•0005903188
695 2873025
4869777375
41*1703777
11*9231196
•0005899705
596 2876416
4878401536
41*1825206
11*9254639
•0005896226
397 2879809
4887035873
41*1946599
11*9278073
•0005892752
>98 1 2S83204
4895680392
41*2067956
11*9301497
•0005889282
99 1 2886601
4904835099
41*2189277
11*9324913
•0005885815
00 2890000
4913000000
41*2310663
11*9348319
-0005882358
01 I 2893401
4921675101
41*2431812
11*9371716
-0005878895
)2 1 2896804
4930360408
41*2553027
11*9395104
•0005875441
)3 2900209
4939055927
41*2674205
11-9418482
•0005871991
14 1 2903616
4947761664
41*2795349
11-9441852
•0006868546
5 1 2907026
4956477625
41-2916456
11-9465213
•0005865103
6 1 2910436
4965203816
41-3037529
11-9488564
•0005861665
7 1 2913849
4973940248
41-3168666
11-9511906
•0005858231
? / 2917264
4982686912
41-3279566
11-9535239
•0005854801
» f 2920681
4991443829
41-3400532
11 •9558563
•0005851375
2924100
5000211000
41-3521463
11-9581878
•0005847953
2927521
5008988481
41-3642358
11-9606184
•0005844536
602
aQOAHtt, OOBBB, ttOOtS, AJffi AlOmtOOAtS.
No.
Sqnvt
Cnbe
SquMneBook
CateBoot
Bedproeal
1712
2980944
6017776128
41-3768217
11-9628481
•0005841121
1718
2934369
6026674097
41-3884042
11-9651768
•0006837712
1714
2937796
6036382344
41-4004831
11-9676047
•0006834306
1715
2941225
6044200876
41-4125586
11-9698317
•0006830904
1716
2944666
6053029696
41-4246304
11-9721677
•0006827606
1717
2948089
6061868818
41-4366987 '
11*9744829
•0005824112
1718
2961624
6070718232
41-4487636
11-9768071
•0006820722
1719
2964961
6079577969
41*4608249
11-9791304
•0006817386
1720
2968400
6088448000
41-4728827
11-9814628
•0006818968
1721
2961841
6097328361
41-4849370
11*9837744
•0005810676
1722
2966284
6106219048
41-4969878
11-9860960
•0006807201
1723
2968729
6115120067
41-6090351
11*9884148
•0006808881
1724
2972176
6124031424
41-6210790
11*9907886
•0006800464
1726
2976626
6132953126
41-6331193
11-9930616
•0005797101
1726
2979076
6141885176
41-6461561
11*9953686
•0006798748
1727
2982529
6150827683
41-5671895
11*9976848
•0005790388
1728
2986984
6169780352
41-6692194
12*0000000
•0006787087
1729
2989441
6168743489
41-6812467
12*0023144
•tf)0678S690
1730
2992900
6177717000
41-5932686
12-0046278
•0005780847
1731
2996361
6186700891
41-6062881
12-0069404
•0006777008
1732
2999824
6195696168
41-6173041
12-0092521
*0005778672
1733
3003289
6204699837
41-6293166
12-0115629
•0006770340
1734
3006756
6213714904
41-6413266
12-0138728
•0005767018
1736
3010226
6222740376
41-6633312
12-0161818
•0005768689
1736
3013696
5231776266
41-6663338
12-0184900
•0006760369
1737
3017169
5240822663
41-6773319
12-0207978
•0005757062
1738
8020644
6249S79272
41-6893271
12-0231037
•0005758740
1739
3024121
6258946419
41-7013189
12-0264092
•0005750481
1740
8027600
6268024000
41-7133072
12-0277188
•0005747196
1741
8031081
6277112021
417262921
12-0300176
•0005748825
1742
3034564
6286210488
41-7372736
12-0323204
-0005740628
1743
8038049
6296319407
41-7492516
12*0346223
•0005737286
1744
8041536
6304438784
41-7612260
12*0869233
•0005788945
1746
8046026
6313668626
41-7731971
12*0392286
•0005780669
1746
3048516
6322708936
417851648
12-0416229
•0005727877
1747
3052009
6331859723
417971291
12-0438218
•0006724098
1748
8055504
6341020992
41-8090899
12-0461189
•0005720824
1749,
3059001
6350192749
41-8210478
12*0484166
•0005717558
1760
3062600
6359375000
41-8330013
12*0507114
*0005n4286
1751
3066001
6368567761
41-8449519
12*0530068
•0005ni022
1762
8069504
6377771008
41-8568991
12-0653003
•0005707768
1763
3073009
6386984777
41-8688428
12-0576986
•0005704507
1764
3076616
6396209064
41-8807832
12-0698869
•0005701254
1766
3080026
6406443876
41-8927201
12*0621778
•0005688006
1766
8083536
6414689216
41-9046637
12*0644679
•0006604761
1767
3087049
6423945093
41 -9] 66838
12*0667676
•0005691520
1768
8090664
6433211612
41*9285106
12*0690464
•0005688282
1769
3094081
6442488479
41-9404339
12*0718344
•0006686048
1760
8097600
5461776000
41-9623689
12*0736216
•0005681818
tqVAMBf OtJBlS, BOOIB, AND RBOIPBOOAtitt.
603
No.
Sqium
1761
1762
1763
1764
1766
1766
1767
1768
1709
1770
1771
1772
1773
1774
1776
1776
8101121
8104644
8108169
8111696
8115225
8118756
8122289
8125824
8129361
8132990
8186441
8139984
8143529
8147076
8150625
8154176
1777 8167729
1778 8161284
1779 8164841
1780 8168400
1781 8171961
1782 8175524
1783
1784
1786
1786
8179089
8182656
8186226
8189796
1787 8193369
1788 8196944
1789 8200521
1790 I 8204100
8207681
1792 I 8211264
1793 8214849
1794 I 8218486
8222026
8225616
8229209
3232804
8236401
8240000
8243601
8247204
8250809
8254416
8258025
8261636
8265249
8268864
8272481
1795
1796
1797
798
799
800
301
i02
503
04
05
06
)7
18
•9
Cube
5461074081
6470382728
6479701947
6489031744
6498872125
6607723096
6617084663
6526466832
6635839609
6646233000
6664637011
6664051648
6678476917
6682912824
6692359376
6601816676
6611284433
6620762962
6680252139
6639762000
6649262641
6668783768
6668315687
6677868304
6687411626
6696976666
6706660403
6716186872
6725732069
6736339000
6744966671
6764686088
6764224257
6773874184
6783534876
6793206336
6802888673
6812681692
6822285399
6832000000
6841725401
6851461608
6861208627
6870966464
6880735126
6890514616
6900304943
6910106112
6919918129
Square Root
41*9642706
41-9761837
41-9880936
42-0000000
42-0119031
42-0238028
42-0356991
42-0475921
42-0594817
42-0713679
42-0832508
42-0961304
42-1070066
42-1188794
42-1307488
42-1426150
42-1644778
42-1663378
42-1781934
42*1900462
42*2018967
42*2137418
42-2255846
42*2374242
42-2492603
42*2610932
42*2729227
42-2847490
42*2965719
42-3083916
42-3202079
42-3320210
42-3438307
42-3566371
42*3674403
42*3792402
42*3910368
42*4028301
42-4146201
42-4264069
42-4381903
42-4499705
42-4617476
42-4735212
42-4852916
42-4970587
42-6088226
42-6205833
42-6323406
Cube Boot
12*0769077
12*0781930
12-0804776
12-0827612
12-0850439
12-0873268
12-0896069
12-0918870
12*0941664
12-0964449
12-0987226
12-1009993
12-1032763
12-1055503
12*1078245
12-1100979
121123704
12*1146420
12*1169128
12*1191827
12-1214518
12-1237200
12-1259874
12-1282539
12*1305197
12*1327846
12*1350486
12-1373117
12-1395740
12-1418356
12-1440961
12-1463559
12*1486148
12-1608729
12-1631302
12-1553866
12-1576422
12-1598970
12-1621509
12-1644040
12-1666562
12-1689076
12-1711582
12-1734079
12-1756569
12-1779050
12-1801522
12-1823987
12*1846448
Rodproeal
•0006678692
*0006676369
*0005672150
*0005668934
-0006666722
•0006662614
•0005669310
-0005656109
•0005662911
•0005649718
•0006646527
•0005643341
•0006640168
-0005636979
-0006633803
•0005630631
•0005627462
•0005624297
-0006621136
*0005617978
*0006614828
*0005611672
*0005608626
•0005606381
*0005602241
•0005599104
•0006595971
*0005592841
*0005589716
•0005586692
•0005583473
*0005580357
•0005577246
-0005574136
•0005571031
•0005567929
-0005564830
•0005661736
•0005658644
•0005556566
•0006552471
•0005649390
•0005546312
•0006643237
•0006640166
•0005537099
•0006634034
•0006630973
•0006627916
604
SQUASn, 0I7BBS, BOOTS, AND RBOIPltOaALB.
No.
Square
Cube
Square Root
Cube Root
Bedproeal
1810
18276100
5929741000
42*5440948
12*1868891
•0006624862
1811
8279721
5939574731
42*5558456
12*1891831
*0005621811
1812
8283344
5949419328
42-5675938
121918762
*0006618764
1813
8286969
5959274797
42*6798377
12*1936185
•0005516720
18U
8290596
5969141144
42*5910789
12*1958599
*0006612679
1815
8294225
5979018375
42*6028168
12*1981006
*0006509642
1816
8297856
5988906496
42*6145515
12*2003404
•0005606608
1817
8301489
5998805513
42*6262829
12*2025794
•0006603677
1818
8305124
6008715482
42*6380112
12*2048176
•0006600550
1819
8308761
6018636259
42*6497362
12-2070549
•0005497626
1820
8312400
6028568000
42*6614580
12*2092915
*0005494506
1821
8816041
6038510661
42*6731766
12*2115272
*0005491488
1822
8319684
6048464248
42*6848919
12*2187621
•0005488474
1823
8328329
6058428767
42*6966040
12*2159962
*0005485464
1824
8826976
6068404224
42*7083130
12*2182295
*000548246«
1825
8830625
6078390625
42*7200187
12*2204620
*0006479462
1826
8334276
6088387976
42*7317212
12*2226936
•0005476461
1827
3337929
6098396283
42*7434206
12*2249244
•0006478454
1828
8341584
6108415552
42*7551167
12*2271544
•0005470400
1829
8345241
6118445789
42*7668095
12*2293836
-0006467469
1830
8348900
6128487000
42*7784992
12*2316120
•0006464481
1831
3352561
6138539191
42*7901858
12*2838396
•0005461496
1832
3356224
6148602368
42*8018691
12*2860668
•0005468616
1833
8359889
6158676537
42*8185492
12*2882923
•0005465537
1834
8363556
6168761704
42*8252262
12*2405174
•0005462663
18:^5
8367225
6178857876
42*8868999
12*2427418
•0005449591
1836
8370896
6188965056
42*8485706
12*2449668
•0006446628
1837
8874569
6199083258
42*8602380
12-2471880
•0005448658
1838
8378244
6209212472
42*8719022
12*2494099
•0005440696
1839
8881921
6219352719
42*8835633
12*2616310
•0005437788
1840
8385600
6229504000
42*8952212
12*2538518
•0005434788
1841
8389281
6239666321
42*9068759
12*2560708
•0005431831
1842
8892964
6249839688
42*9185275
12*2582896
•0005428882
1843
8396649
6260024107
42*9301759
12*2605074
•0005425986
1844
3400336
6270219584
42*9418211
12*2627245
•0005422998
1845
8404025
6280426125
42*9534632
12*2649408
•0005420054
1846
8407716
6290643736
42*9661021
12*2671563
•0005417118
1847
8411409
6300872423
42-9767379
12*2693710
•0005414185
1848
3415104
6311112192
42-9883705
12*2716849
•0005411265
1849
3418801
6821363049
43-0000000
12-2737980
•0005408329
1850
3422500
6831625000
43-0116263
12*2760103
•0005405405
1851
3426201
6341898051
43*0232495
12*2782218
•0006402486
1852
3429904
6352182208
43-0348696
12*2804326
•0006399668
1853
8433609
6362477477
43*0464865
12*2826424
*0005896654
1854
8437316
6372783864
43-0581003
12*2848516
•0006398743
1855
8441025
6383101375
4iJ -0697109
12*2870698
0006390836
1856
8444736
6393430016
43-0813185
12*2892673
•0006387981
1857
8448449
6403769793
43*0929228
12*2914740
•00063860SO
1858
8452164
6414120712
43-1045241
12*2986800
-0005382181
SQUAREa, 0UB1ES, BOOTS, AND RXOIFBOOALa.
605
No.
Squra
Cube
Square Boot
Cube Boot
Beclprocal
11859
8455881
6424482779
481161223
12*2958851
•0005879236
1860 8459600
6434856000
43-127n73
12-2980895
•0006876344
1861 8463321
6445240381
43-1393092
12-3002930
•0006373455
1862 8467044
6455636928
43-1608980
12-3024958
-0005870569
1863
8470769
6466042647
48-1624887
12-3046978
•0005367687
'l864
8474496
6476460644
43-1740668
12-3068990
•0005364807
1865
8478225
6486889626
431866458
12-3090994
•0005361930
1866
8481956
6497829896
43-1979.221
12-3112991
•0006359057
1867
8485689
6607781363
43*2087964
12*3134979
•0005356186
1868
8489424
6618244032
43*2203656
12*3156959
•0005353319
1869
3493161
6628717909
43-2319326
12-3178932
•0006350465
1870
3496900
6539203000
48*2434966
12-3200897
•0005347694
1871
3500641
6640699311
48-2550575
12*3222854
•0005344736
1872
3504384
6560206848
43-2666153
12*3244808
•0006341880
1873
8508129
6670725617
43-2781700
12*3266744
•0006339028
1874 8611876
6581255624
48-2897216
12*3288678
•0006336179
[875 8515625
6591796875
43*3012702
12-3310604
•0005333333
876 8519376
6602349376
43-8128167
12-3332622
-0005330490
877 8523129
6612913138
43-8243680
12*3354432
•0005327661
878 852688i
6623488152
43-3868978
12*8376334
•0005324814
379 8630641
6634074439
43-8474336
12-3398229
-0006321980
m 8634400
6644672000
43*8589668
12-3420116
•0005319149
m 8638161
6655280841
48-8704969
12-8441996
•0006316321
'82 8641924
6666900968
43-8820239
12-3463866
•0006313496
83 8645689
6676632387
48*3935479
12*3485730
•0006310674
84 8649466
6687176104
48*4060688
12*3507586
•0005307856
S5 8568225
6697829125
43-4165867
12*3629434
•0005305040
^6 3666996
6708494456
43-4281015
12-3551274
•0005302227
17 8660769
6719171108
48-4396132
12-3573107
•0005299417
8 8564544
6729859072
48-4511220
12-3694932
•0006296610
9 8568321
6740658369
43*4626276
12-3616749
•0006298806
0 8672100
6751269000
43-4741302
12-3638659
•0006291005
I 1 B575S81
6761990971
43-4856298
12-3660361
•0005288207
i I 8579664
6772724288
43-4971263
12-3682156
•0005285412
! 3583449
6788468967
43*6086198
12*3703941
•0005282620
3587236
6794224984
43 '6201103
12-3725721
•0006279831
f 3591026
6804992375
43-6316977
12-3747492
•0005277045
1 3594816
6816771136
43-6430821
12-3769255
•0005274262
3598609
6826561273
43-5645635
12-3791011
•0006271481
/ 8602404
6837362792
43-5660418
12-3812769
•0005268704
1 3606201
6848176699
43-6775171
12 •3834500
•0005266929
I 8610000
6869000000
43-6889894
12-3866233
•0005268168
' 8613801
6869835701
43-6004587
12-3877969
•0006260389
3617604
6880682808
43-6119249
12-3899676
•0005267624
8621409
6891541327
43-6233882
12-3921386
•0005254861
8625216
6902411264
43-6348485
12-3943089
•0005252101
8629025
6913292625
43-6463057
12*3964784
•0006249344
8632886
6924185416
48-6677699
12-3986471
•0006246590
8686649
6935089643
43*6692111
12*4008151
•0005243838
r
606
flQUARBS, CUBES, ROOTS, AND BBOIPROCALB.
No.
Square
Cube
SquueRoot
Cube Root
Badprocal
1908
8640464
6946005312
43-6806593
12-4029823
-0005241090
1909
8644281
6956932429
48-6921045
12-4051488
•0005238345
1910
8648100
6967871000
437035467
12-4073145
•0005235602
1911
3651921
6978821031
48-7149860
12-4094794
•0006282862
1912
8655744
6989782528
48-7264222
12-4116486
•0006230126
1918
8659569
7000755497
43-7378554
12-4138070
•0006227392
1914
8663396
7011739944
43-7492857
12*4159697
•0006224660
1915
8667225
7022785875
43-7607129
12-4181316
•0006221932
1916
8671056
7033743296
43-7721378
12-4202928
-0006219207
1917
8674889
7044762213
43-7835585
12-4224533
*0006216484
1918
8678724
7055792682
43-7949768
12-4246129
•0006218764
1919
8682561
7066834559
43-8063922
12-4267719
•0006211047
1920
8686400
7077888000
43-8178046
12-4289800
•0006208333
1921
8690241
7088952961
43-8292140
12-4310875
•00062(^V^
1922
3694084
7100029448
43-8406204
12-4332441
•0006202914
1923
8697929
7111117467
43-8520239
12-4354001
•0006200208
1924
8701776
7122217024
43*8634244
12-4375552
•0006197605
1926
8705625
7133328125
48-8748219
12-4897097
-0005194805
1926
3709476
7144450776
43-8862165
12*4418634
•0006192108
1927
8713329
7155584988
43-8976081
12-4440163
•0006189414
1928
8717184
7166730762
43-9089968
12-4461685
•0006186722
1929
8721041
7177888089
43-9203725
12-4483200
•0005184033
1930
3724900
7189057000
43-9317652
12-4504707
•0006181847
1931
8728761
7200237491
43-9431451
12-4526206
-0005178664
1932
3732624
7211429568
43-9545220
12-4547699
•0006176988
1933
8736489
7222633237
43-9658959
12-4569184
•0006178306
1934
8740356
7233848504
48-9772668
12-4590661
•0006170631
1935
8744'',26
7245075375
48-9886349
12-4612181
-0005167959
1936
8748096
7256313856
44-0000000
12*4633594
•0006165289
1937
8751969
7267563953
44-0113622
12-4655049
•0006162628
1938
8755844
7278825672
44-0227214
12-4676497
•0006169959
1939
8759721
7290099019
44-0340777
12-4697937
•0006167298
1940
8763600
7801384000
44-0454311
12-4719370
•0006154639
1941
8767481
7312680621
44-0567815
12-4740796
•0005151984
1942
8771364
7323988888
44-0681291
12-4762214
•0005149331
1943
8775249
7335308807
44-0794737
12-4788625
•0005146680
1944
8779136
7346640384
44-0908154
12-4805029
•0005144038
1945
8783025
7357983625
44-1021541
12-4826426
•0005141888
1946
8786916
7369338536
44-1184900
12-4847815
•0006188746
1947
8790809
7380705123
44-1248229
12-4869197
•0005186107
1948
8794704
7392083392
44-1361530
12-4890571
•00O5138470
1949
3798601
7403478349
44-1474801
12-4911938
-0005180686
1950
3802500
7414875000
44-1588043
12-4938298
'0005128205
1951
8806401
7426288351
44-1701256
12-4954651
•0006125577
1952
3810304
7437713408
44-1814441
12-4975995
•0006122951
1953
3814209
7449150177
44-1027596
12-4997338
•a'H)6120828
1954
3818116
7460598664
44-2040722
12-5018664
•0005117707
1955
8822025
7472058875
44-2153819
12-5039988
•0006116080
1956
8825936
7488580816
44-2266888
12*6061804
•0006113174
SQUARXS, CUBES, BOOTS, AND BKCIPBOOALS.
607
1 Na
Square
Cabe
Square Root
Cabe Root
Reciprocal
1967
3829849
7495014493
44-2379927
12-6082612
•0005109862
1958
3833764
7506609912
44-2492938
12-6103914
•0006107262
1959
3837681
7618017079
44-2606919
12-6126208
•0006104645
1960
8841600
7629636000
44-2718872
12-6146496
•0005102041
1961
8845521
7641066681
44-2831797
12-6167776
•0006099439
1962
8849444
7662609128
44-2944692
12-6189047
•0006096840
1963
8853369
7564163347
44 •3057558
12-6210313
•0006094244
1964
3857296
7676729344
44-3170396
12-6231671
•0005091660
1965 1 8861225
7587307126
44-3283205
12-6252822
•0005089059
|1966
8865156
7698896696
44-3395986
12-5274065
•0005086470
1 1967
8869089
7610498063
44-3508737
12-5296302
•0005083884
11968
8873024
7622111232
44-3621460
12-5316631
•0005081301
'1969
8876961
7633736209
44-3734155
12-6337763
-0006078720
1970
8880900
7645373000
44-3846820
12-5358968
*0005076142
1971
3884841
7667021611
44-3959467
12-6380J76
•0006073567
1972
8888784
7668682048
44-4072066
12-6401377
•0006070994
1973
8892729
7680364317
44-4184646
12-5422670
•0005068424
1974
8896676
7692038424
44-4297198
12-6443757
•0005066866
1975 8900625
7703734376
44-4409720
12-6464986
•0005063291
1976
8904576
7716442176
44-4522216
12-6486107
•0005060729
1977
8908529
7727161833
44-4634681
12-6607272
•0006058169
1978
8912484
7738893352
44-4747119
12-6628430
•0006056612
1979
8916441
7760636739
44-4859628
12-6649680
•0006053067
1980
3920400
7762392000
44-4971909
12-6670723
•0005050605
1981 8924361
7774169141
44*5084262
12-6591860
•0005047966
1982 8928324
7786938168
44-5196586
12-6612989
•0006046409
1983 8932289
7797729087
44-5308881
12-6634111
•0006042864
984 8936256
7809631904
44-6421149
12-6666226
•0005040323
985 8940225
7821346625
44-6633388
12-6676334
•0006037783
986
8944196
7833173266
44-6645699
12-5697436
•0006035247
987 <
B948169
7846011803
44-5757781
12-6718629
•0005032713
988 ,
8952144
7866862272
44-6869936
12-6739616
•0005030181
989 8956121
7868724669
44-6982062
12-6760695
•0005027662
}90 3960100
7880699000
44-6094160
12-6781767
•0006026126
^91 , 8964081
7892486271
44-6206230
12-5802832
•0006022602
^92 8968064
7904383488
44-6318272
12-6823891
•0005020080
93 8972049
7916293667
44-6430286
12-6844942
•0006017661
94 8976036
7928216784
44-6642271
12-6866987
•0006016046
95 I 8980025
7940149876
44-6664228
12-6887024
•0006012631
)6 8984016
7962096936
44-6766168
12-5908054
•0006010020
)7 3988009
7964063973
44-6878069
12-6929078
•0006007611
»8 1 8992004
7976023992
44-6989933
12-6960094
•0006006006
9 8996001
7988006999
44-7101778
12-6971103
•0006002501
0 4000000
8000000000
44-7213596
12-6992105
•0006000000
1 4004001
8012006001
44-7326385
12-6013101
•0004997601
2 1 4008004
8024024008
44-7437146
12-6034089
•0004995006
i f 4012009
8036054027
44-7648880
12-6065070
•0004992611
[ I 4016016
8048096064
44*7660686
12-6076044
•0004990020
> 1 4020025
8060160125
44*7772264
12-6097011
•0004987531
608
BQUARBS, CUBES, BOOTH, AND BXCIFBOOALS.
No.
SqoATS
CalM
SqvweBool
Cube Boot
Reelpracal
2006
4024036
8072216216
44*7883918
12*6117971
•0004986045
2007
4028049
8084294343
44-7995585
12*6188924
•0004982561
2008
4032064
8096384512
44*8107130
12-6159870
•0004980080
2009
4036081
8108486729
44*8218697
12-6180810
•0004977601
2010
4040100
8120601000
44*8380236
12-6201748
•0004975124
2011
4044121
8132727331
44*8441746
12-6^W2669
•0004972650
2012
4048144
8144865728
44*8553280
12-6243587
•0004970179
2013
4052169
8157016197
44-8664685
12-6264499
•0004967710
2014
4056196
8169178744
44-8776118
12-6285404
•0004965248
2015
4060225
8181353375
44-8887514
12-6306301
•0004962779
2016
4064256
8193540096
44-8998886
12-6327192
•0004060817
2017
4068289
8205738918
44-9110231
12-6348076
•0004957858
2018
4072324
8217949832
44*9221549
12*6368958
•0004955401
2019
4076361
8230172859
44*9332839
12-6389828
-0004962947
2020
4080400
8242408000
44*9444101
12-6410687
•0004950495
2021
4084441
8254655261
44*9555336
12-6431548
•0004948046
2022
4088484
8266914648
44*9666548
12-6452398
•0004945598
2023
4092529
8279186167
44*9777728
12*6473235
-0004943154
2024
4096576
8291469824
44*9888875
12*6494071
•0004940711
2025
4100625
8303765625
45-0000000
12*6514900
•0004938272
2026
4104676
8816073576
46*0111097
12-6535722
•0004985884
2027
4108729
8328393688
45-0222167
12*6556538
•0004933899
2028
4112784
8340725952
45-0333210
12-6577346
•0004980966
2029
4116841
8353070389
45-0444226
12*6598148
•0004928586
2030
4120900
8365427000
45*0555213
12-6618948
•0004926108
2031
4124961
8377795791
45*0666178
12*6639731
•0004923688
2032
4129024
8390176768
46*0777107
12-6660512
•0004921260
2033
4133089
8402669937
45-0888013
12-6681286
•0004918889
2034
4137156
8414975304
45-0998891
12*6702058
•0004916421
2035
4141225
8427392875
46-1109748
12*6722814
•0004914006
2036
4145296
8439822656
45*1220567
12*6748567
•0004911591
2037
4149369
8452264658
45-1331864
12*6764314
•0004909180
2038
4153444
8464718872
451442184
12*6785054
•0004906771
2039
4157521
8477185319
45-1552876
12*6805788
•0004904865
2040
4161600
8489664000
45*1663592
12*6826514
•0004901961
2041
4165681
8502154921
45*1774280
12-6847234
•0004899559
2042
4169764
8514658088
45*1884941
12-6867947
•0004897160
2043
4178849
8527173507
45*1995575
12-6888654
•0004894762
2044
4177936
8539701184
45*2106182
12-6909354
•O0O4892868
2045
4182025
8552241125
46*2216762
12-6930047
•0004888976
2046
4186116
8564793336
45*2327315
12-6950738
•O0O4887586
2047
4190209
8577357828
45-2487841
12-6971412
•0004885198
2048
4194304
8589934592
45 -2548840
12*6992084
•0004882818
2049
4198401
8602523649
45-2658812
12*7012750
•0004880429
2050
4202500
8615125000
46-2769257
12*7038409
•0004878049
2051
4206601
8627738651
45-2879675
12*7054061
•0004875670
2052
4210704
8640864608
45-2990066
12*7074707
*O0O4878294
2058
4214809
8653002877
45*8100480
12*7095846
•0004870921
2054
4218916
8665658464
45*8210768
12-7115978
•0004868649
SgtABttS, OUfiUS, BOOtBy AVi> iUBOIPBOOiX&
609
L
No.
Sqnara
2055
4228026
2056
4227136
2057
4231249
2058
4235364
2059
4239481
2060
4243600
2061
4247721
2062
4251844
2063
4255969
2064
4260096
2065
4264225
2066
4268356
2067
4272489
2068
4276624
2069
4280761
2070
4284900
2071
4289041
2072
4293184
2078
4297329
2074
4301476
2076
4305625
2076
4309776
2077
4318929
2078
4318084
2079
4322241
2080
4326400
2081
4330561
2082
4334724
2083
4338889
2084
4343056
2085
4347226
2086
4351396
2087
4355569
2088
4359744
2089
4363921
2090
4368100
2091
4372281
2092
4376464
2093
4380649
2094
4384836
2096
4389025
2096
4393216
2097
4397409
2098
4401604
2099
4405801
2100
4410000
2101
4414201
2102
4418404
2108
4422609
Cube
8678316376
8690991616
8703679193
8716379112
8729091379
8741816000
8754552981
8767302328
8780064047
8792838144
8805624625
8818423496
8831234763
8844058432
8856894509
8869743000
8882603911
8895477248
8908363017
8921261224
8934in876
8947094976
8960030533
8972978562
8985939089
8998912000
9011897441
9024895368
9087905787
9050928704
9063964126
9077012066
9090072503
9103145472
9116230969
9129329000
9142439571
9156562688
9168698357
9181846584
9195007376
9208180736
9221366673
9234565192
9247776299
9261000000
9274236801
9287485208
9800746727
Square Boot
45-3321078
45*3431362
45-3541619
45-3651849
45-3762052
45-3872229
45*3982378
45-4092501
45*4202598
45-4312668
45*4422711
45-4532727
45-4642717
45-4752680
45*4862616
45-4972526
46*5082410
46-6192267
45-5302097
45-5411901
45-6621679
45*5631430
46-5741165
46-685085d
45-5960525
46-6070170
46-6179789
46-6289382
45-6398948
45-6508488
46-6618002
45-6727490
45*6836951
45*6946386
45-7055796
46-7165178
46-7274534
46*7383865
45-7493169
46-7602447
45*7711699
45*7820926
45*7930126
46-8039299
45*8148447
45*8257569
45-8366666
46 •8475736
45-8684779
CmbeBool
12-7186608
12*7157222
12-7177836
12-7198441
12-7219040
12-7239632
12-7260218
12-7280797
12-7301370
12-7321936
12-7342494
12-7363046
12-7383592
12-7404131
12-7424664
12-7445189
12-7465709
12-7486222
12*7506728
127527227
12*7547721
12-7568207
12-7588687
12-7609160
12-7629627
12*7660087
12-7670540
12-7690987
12-7711427
12-7731861
12-7752288
12-7772709
12-7793123
12-7813531
12-7833932
12*7854326
12*7874714
12-7895096
12-7915471
12-7935840
12-7956202
12*7976558
12*7996907
12*8017250
12*8037586
12*8057916
12*8078239
12*8098556
12-8118866
B6ciprocu
-0004866180
•0004863818
•0004861449
•0004859086
•0004856727
•0004854369
•0004852014
•0004849661
•0004847310
•0004844961
•0004842616
•0004840271
•0004837929
•0004835690
•0004833263
•0004830918
•0004828586
•0004826256
•0004823927
•0004821601
•0004819277
•0004816966
•0004814636
•0004812320
•0004810006
-0004807692
•0004805382
-0004803074
•0004800768
•0004798464
•0004796168
•0004793864
•0004791667
•0004789272
•0004786979
-0004784689
•0004782401
-0004780116
•0004777831
•0004775549
•0004773270
•0004770992
•0004768717
•0004766444
•0004764178
•0004761906
•0004759638
-0004757374
•0004756112
39
610
SQUABKB, OtJBtt, BOOtB, AND BSOO^ftOOAXA.
No.
Square
Cube
SqnanRoofc
Cube Root
Reciprocal
2104
4426816
9314020864
45-8693798
12*8189170
-0004762852
2105
4431025
9327307625
45-8802790
12-8159468
-0004750594
2106
4485236
9340607016
45-8911756
12-8179759
-0004748338
2107
4439449
9353919043
45-9020696
12-8200044
-0004746084
2108
4443664
9367243712
45-9129611
12-822a%23
*000474d833
2109
4447881
9380581029
45-9238500
12*8240596
*0004741584
2110
4452100
9393931000
45*9347363
12-8260861
*0004789386
2111
4456321
9407293631
45-9456200
12-8281120
•0004787091
2112
4460544
9420668928
45-9565012
12-8301378
•0004784848
2118
4464769
9434056897
45-9673798
12-8321620
•0004732608
2114
4468996
9447457544
45-9782557
12-8341860
•0004780369
2116
4473225
9460870875
46-9891291
12-8362094
•0004728132
2116
4477456
9474296896
46-0000000
12-8382321
•0004725898
2117
4481689
9487735613
46-0108683
12-8402542
*0004723666
2118
4485924
9601187032
46-0217840
12-8422756
•0004721435
2119
4490161
9514651159
46-0325971
12-8442964
•0004719207
2120
4494400
9528128000
46-0434677
12-8463166
-0004716981
2121
4498641
9541617561
46-0648168
12-8483361
•0004714767
2122
4502884
9555119848
46-0651712
12-8508551
•0004712586
2123
4507129
9568634867
46-0760241
12*8528733
•0004710316
2124
4511376
9582162624
460868745
12*8643910
•0004708098
2125
4515625
9595703125
46-0977228
12-8564080
•0004705882
2126
4519876
9609256376
46-1085676
12-8684243
•0004703669
2127
4524129
9622822383
461194102
12-8604401
•0004701467
2128
4528384
9636401152
461802504
12-8624562
•0004699248
2129
4532641
9649992689
46-1410880
12-8644697
•0004697041
2130
4536900
9663597000
46-1519230
12-8664835
-0004694836
2131
4541161
9677214091
46-1627555
12-8684967
-0004692688
2132
4545424
9690843968
46*1786855
12-8705093
-0004690482
2133
4549689
9704486637
46-1844130
12-8725213
•0004688238
2134
4553956
9718142104
46-1952378
12*8745326
-0004686086
2135
4558225
9731810376
46-2060602
12-8765438
-0004688841
2136
4562496
9745491456
46-2168800
12*8786534
-0004681648
21S7
4566769
9759185353
46-2276978
12-8805628
-0004679467
2138
4571044
9772892072
46-2385121
12*8825717
*0004677268
2139
4575321
9786611619
46-249^3
12-8845199
-0004676082
2140
4579600
9800344000
46-2601340
12*8865874
*0004672897
2141
4583881
9814089221
46-2709412
12-8886944
•0004670n6
2142
4588164
9827847288
46*2817459
12*8906007
•0004668584
2143
4592449
9841618207
46-2925480
12-8926064
-0004666356
2144
4596736
9855401984
46*3033476
12-8946115'
•0004664179
2145
4601025
9869198625
46-3141447
12-8966159
•0004662006
2146
4605316
9883008136
46-3249393
12-8986197
•0004668882
2147
4609609
9896830523
46-3357314
12-9006229
•0004657662
2148
4618904
9910665792
46-3465209
12*9026256
•0004665493
2149
4618201
9924518949
46*3673079
12-9046276
-0004668827
2150
4622500
9938875000
46-3680924
12-9066288
-0004661168
2151
4626801
9952248951
46-3788745
12-9086296
•0004649000
2152
4631104
99661S5808
46*8896640
12-9106296
■0004646840
BQUABIB, aaVMB, BOOTIi ASD BlOmOaAUk
611
No.
Square
Cube
Square Root
Cube Boot
Bedpfecal
2158
4685409
9980035577
46*4004310
12*9126291
*0004644682
2164
4689716
9993948264
46-4112055
12*9146279
•0004642526
2165
4644025
10007873875
46-4219775
12*9166262
•0004640871
2156
4648386
10021812416
46-4327471
12-9186238
-0004638219
2157
4652649
10035763893
46-4435141
12-9206208
•0004636069
2158
4656964
10049728312
46-4542786
12-9226172
-0004633920
2159
4661281
10068705679
46-4650406
12-9246129
-0004631774
2160
4665600
10077696000
46-4758002
12-9266081
-0004629630
2161
4669921
10091699281
46-4865572
12*9286027
-0004627487
2162
4674244
10105715528
46*4973118
12-9305966
•0004625347
2163
4678569
10119744747
46-5080638
12*9326899
-0004623209
2164
4682896
10133786944
46-5188134
12-9345827
-0004621072
2165
4687225
10147842125
46-5295605
12-9366747
-0004618938
2166
4691556
10161910296
46-5403051
12-9386662
-0004616805
2167
4695889
10175991468
46*5510472
12-9406670
•0004614675
2168
4700224
10190085632
46-5617869
12*9426472
•0004612646
2169
4704561
10204192809
46-6725241
12*9445369
•0004610420
2170
4708900
10218313000
46-5832588
12*9466269
•0004608295
2171
4713241
10232446211
46*5939910
12*9485143
•0004606172
2172
4717584
10246592448
46*6047208
12*9506021
•0004604052
2178
4721929
10260751717
46*6154481
12-9524893
•0004601933
2174
4726276
10274924024
46*6261729
12-9544769
•0004599816
2175
4730625
10289109875
46-6368953
12-9564618
•0004597701
2176
4734976
10303307776
46-6476152
12-9584472
•0004595588
2177
4739329
10317519283
46-6583326
12-9604319
*0004593477
2178
4743684
10331748752
46-6690476
12*9624161
*0004591368
2179
4748041
10345981339
46*6797601
12-9643996
*0004689261
2180
4752400
10360232000
46*6904701
12-96638-26
*0004587156
2181
4756761
10374495741
46*7011777
12-9683649
•0004585053
2182
4761124
10388772568
467118829
12-9703466
•0004582951
2188
4765489
10403062487
46*7225855
12*9723277
•0004580852
2184
4769856
10417365504
467332858
12-9743082
•0004678755
2185
4774225
10431681625
46*7439836
12-9762881
•0004576669
2186
4778596
10446010856
467646789
12-9782674
-0004574565
2187
4782969
10460353203
46*7653718
12-9802461
•0004572474
2188
4787344
10474708672
467760623
12-982^942
•0004570384
2189
4791721
10489077269
467867603
12-9842017
•0004568296
2190
4796100
10503459000
46-7974358
12-9861786
•0004566210
2191
4800481
10517853871
46*8081189
12*9881549
•0004664126
2192
4804864
10532261888
46-8187996
12*9901306
•0004662044
2193
4809249
10546683057
46*8294779
12*9921057
•0004669964
2194
4813636
10561117384
46*8401637
12-9940802
•0004657885
2195
4818025
10575564875
46*8508271
12-9960540
•0004665809
2196
4822416
10590025536
46-8614981
12-9980273
*0004553734
2197
4826809
10604499373
46-8721666
13-0000000
•0004561661
2198
4831204
10618986392
46-8828327
13-0019721
•0004549591
2199
4835601
10633486599
46*8934963
13-0039436
-0004647522
2200
4840000
10648000000
46*9041676
13*0069145
-0004646455
2201
4844401
10662526601
46-9148164
13-0078848
•0004543889
612 FOURTH POWBRS OP HUMBBRa
Table CXCVII. — Fourth Powers of Numbers.
So.
4th
So.
Mb
So.
pSU.
Ko.
Uh
1
I
26
468,976
51
8,765,201
IT
88, 882,178
2
18
27
681,441
82
7,311,616
77
8B,153,0«
3
81
28
614,866
63
7,390,481
78
37,016,068
1
256
29
707,281
64
8,503,068
79
38,960,081
5
825
30
810,000
65
9,150,625
80
40,960,000
8
1,296
81
923,521
66
9,634.496
61
13,016.721
7
2,101
82
1.018,578
57
ir 1
62
45,212.178
8
4,098
83
1.186,921
68
i: 1
88
47,158,321
B
6,561
34
1,386,338
69
84
19.787.136
10
10,000
36
1,500,626
60
86
62,200,626
11
14,641
86
1,879,818
61
86
64,708,018
12
20,738
87
1.874.181
62
87
67,289,761
18
28,681
88
2,085.188
63
88
59.989.586
14
88,418
89
£.813.441
84
89
62,742,241
16
60,825
40
2,580,000
85
90
86,610,000
le
86,536
11
2,826,761
88
91
68.671.961
17
88,621
42
8, 1
67
21
g2
71,639,298
IS
104.976
43
8, 1
63
2L, — ,_.J
S3
74.80S.201
IS
180,821
44
8, )
69
22,667,121
94
78,074,896
20
160,000
4S
*, i
70
24,010,000
96
81,450,626
21
164,481
46
4, >
71
26,411,881
96
84,934,666
23
234,266
47
72
26,873,866
97
88,629,231
23
278,841
48
6, i
73
28.398,241
98
92,236,816
!i
831,778
49
6,
74
20,986,576
99
96,060,601
25
890,825
50
6, >
76
31,610,626
100
100,000,000
Table CXCVIIa.— Fourth Root of Nambers.
Bo.
IthBoot.
KO.
iCb Boot.
No.
»th Root
Ho.
IthKoot.
1-000
1*899
26
2-236
37
2-166
1-189
1-934
28
a-268
33
2-482
1316
1-968
27
2-279
.19
2-199
1-411
2-O0O
•/x
2-800
411
2-615
1196
2-031
KM
2-320
41
2-630
1-565
2 060
HO
2-840
4K
2-646
I-B26
2-086
31
2-860
13
2-580
I -632
2-115
32
2-3:8
44
2-574
1-732
91
2-111
33
2-397
15
1-773
V2
2-166
31
2-116
1-821
2-190
47
12
1-8B1
21
2-215
88
2149
18
2-631
FOURTH POWERS OF SHAFT DIAMBTBRS.
613
Table CXCVI lb. —Fourth Powers of Shaft Diameters.
Dia.
4th
Dia.
4th
Dia.
4th
Dia.
4th
Dia.' -*t^
— •_
1
Power.
^i
Power.
Power.
12
Power.
184
Power.
1-00
366
7i
3,607
20,736
117,160
u
1-60
44
410
7J
3,846
12J
22,500
18f
123,600
li
2-44
4i
458
8
4,096
124
24,430
19
180,321
If
3-57
4i
509
8J
4,358
12i
26,439
19i
137,400
H
6 06
4J
565
H
4,632
13
28,661
194
144^600
li
6 97
5
625
8S
4,920
13J
30,835
19|
152,100
li
9-38
H
690
84
5,220
134
83,233
20
160,000
IS
12-4
H
760
8i
5,634
13i
35,769
20i
168,100
2
16 0
H
835
81
5,862
14
38,416
204
176,400
2J
20-4
H
915
8S
6,204
14J
41,250
20i
186,400
2J
25-6
H
1,001
9
6,561
144
44,226
21
194,480
2i
31-8
6i
1,093
9i
6,922
14f
47,350
21J
203,800
2i
89-1
6J
1,191
H
7,321
15
50,625
214
213,540
21
47-5
6
1,296
n
7,725
15J
64,100
2l|
223,730
2|
57-2
6i
1,407
94
8,145
154
67,750
22
234,256
2J
68-3
H
1,626
H
8,582
15i
61,620
22i 246,026
S
81 0
6S
1,662
9i
.9,037
16
65,636
224 266,036
3i
95-4
6J
1,785
9J
9,609
16i
69,690
22i 268,320
3i
112
6i
1,926
10
10,000
164
74,110
23
279,840
81
130
61
2,076
lOJ
11,025
16i
78,720
23i
292,680
Si
150
6J
2,234
104
12,166
17
83,521
234
804,700
Si
173
7
2,401
loi
18,363
171
88,560
23i
318,100
3i
198
7i
2,577
11
14,641
174
^3,850
24
331,380
8J
225
7J
2,763
11*
16,027
17i
99,225
241
845,740
4
256
71
2,958
114
17,503
18
104,970
244
860,000
H
290
74
3,164
iif
19,072
18J
110,930
24}
375,770
H
826
7i
3,380
614
TONS OP WATER DBLIVBRBD PBR HOUR.
Table CXCVIII.— Tons of Water delivered per hour with a
Loss of Head of 5 lbs. through Pipes of various Sizes
and Lengths f(i=10^t^\
Bore
of
Pipe.
ins.
1
li
2
2*
8
8^
4
*i
6
6
7
8
9
10
12
14
16
18
20
Length of Pipe in feet.
6-00
231
66-6
98-8
156
229
820
480
562
882
1,298
1,811
2,433
8,119
4,989
7,835
10,241
13,305
17,900
10
3-64
19-5
40-0
700
110
162
227
304
400
624
909
1,281
1,702
2,237
3,530
5,190
7,247
9,730
12,660
16
2-89
15-9
32-8
67-1
90*0
133
185
248
825
509
749
1,047
1,406
1,827
2,883
4,239
5,919
7,946
10,336
20
250
13-8
28-4
50-0
77-9
116
160
216
281
441
649
906
1194
1582
2495
8670
6124
6880
9000
80
204
11-8
21-4
40-8
63 6
93-5
131
176
229
360
529
789
993
1290
2036
3000
4180
6611
7800
40 50
177
9-76
20-1
36-0
55*2
81-0
113
152
200
312
469
641
861
1119
1765
2600
3623
4865
6330
1-67
8-76
18-1
SL-2
49*8
72-4
101
136
177
279
411
673
770
1000
1678
2820
8253
4860
6668
60 70
286
45*0
661
92*4
124
162
266
874
523
702
912
1489
2116
2956
4000
26-4
41-6
61-2
86-5
115
160
286
346
484
650
846
1332
1960
2733
8674
80
67-S
800
108
140
221
824
453
609
791
1248
1884
2561
100
61-2
71-6
961
126
197
290
406
644
707
1640
2290
120
65*8
87-8
116
180
266
870
497
646
140
^60
11161019
1600
60-6
81-2
106
167
246
842
460
600
943
1886
66-6
76-0
100
166
230
S20
430
659
882
1800
y.B. — ^The amount delivered by any other head Pi can be found by
multiplying the above by \/0'2xpj or 0*46\/ft-
Table CXC IX.— Hyperbolic Logarithms of Numbers up to 231.
No.
1-10
Logthm.
0-0958
1-15
0-1398
1-20
0-1823
1-25
0-2231
1-80
0-2624
1-36
0*3001
1-40
0-3366
1-46
0-3720
1-60
0-4056
1-56
0 4382
No.
1-60
1-65
1-70
175
1-80
1-86
1 90
1 95
2-0
2-10
Logthm.
No.
0-4700
2*20
0-6008
2-30
0-5806
2-40
0-6596
2-50
0-6878
2-60
0-6152
2-70
0-6419
2-80
0-6678
2*90
0-6931
8-00
0-7419
8-10
Logthm.
0-7886
0-8829
0-8766
0-9168
0-9566
0-9932
1 0296
1-0647
1-0986
1*1814
No.
Logthm.
8-20
1-1682
3-80
1*1989
8*40
1*2288
8-60
1*2628
8-60
1 2809
8-70
1-8088
8 80
1 -8360
8*90
1*8610
4*00
1*8863
4*20
1 -4851
HYBBRBOLIC LOGARITHMS OF NUMBBRS UP TO 232. 615
Table CXC IX.— Hyperbolic Logariihms—coTUinued,
No.
Logthm.
No.
Logthm.
No.
Logthm.
No.
Logthm.
4-40
1-4816
24
3-1781
66
4*1898
109
4-6921
4-60
1-5261
25
3-2189
67
4-2050
110
4-7018
4-80
1 -5686
26
3-2581
68
4-2197
111
4-7108
5-00
1 -6094
27
3-2958
69
4-2343
112
4-7198
6-20
1-6487
28
3-3322
70
4-2487
113
4-7288
6*40
1-6864
29
3-3673
71
4-2630
114
4-7370
6-60
1-7228
30
3-4012
72
4-2768
115
4-7458
6-80
1-7519
31
8-4341
78
4-2907
116
4 •7555
6-00
1-7918
82
8-4656
74
4-3043
117
4-7680
6-20
1-8245
33
3*4965
75
4-3178
118
4-7715
6-40
1-8563
34
3-6267
76
4-8810
119
4-7798
6-60
1-8871
35
8-5557
78
4-3668
120
4-7883
6-80
1-9094
36
3-5838
79
4-3696
121
4-7966
7 00
1-9459
87
3-6111
80
4-3828
122
4-8049
7-20
1-9741
38
8-8379
81
4-3947
128
4-8130
7-40
2-0015
39
8-6639
82
4-4069
124
4-8211
7-60
2 0281
40
3-6893
83
4-4191
125
4-8291
7*80
2-0641
41
3-7139
84
4-4311
126
4-8372
8-00
2-0794
42
8-7378
85
4-4429
127
4-8460
8-20
2-1041
43
3*7615
86
4*4546
128
4-8528
8-40
2-1282
44
8-7849
87
4-4661
129
4*8607
8*60
2-1518
45
8-8069
88
4-4781
130
4-8683
8*80
2-1748
46
3*8290
89
4-4894
131
4-8761
9-00
2-1972
47
3-8504
90
4-5005
132
4-8837
9-20
2-2192
48
3-8714
91
4-6115
133
4 8918
9:40
2-2407
49
8-8921
92
4-6226
134
4-8987
9-60
2-2618
50
3-9123
93
4-5334
135
4-9060
9-80
2-2824
51
3-9321
94
4-5440
136
4-9184
10-0
2-3026
52
3-9515
95
4-5546
137
4-9208
11-0
2-3979
53
8-9706
96
4-5652
138
4-9281
120
2-4849
54
3-9893
97
4-5756
139
4-9353
13-0
2-5649
55
4-0077
98
4-5857
140
4-9424
14-0
2-6391
56
4-0256
99
4-5958
141
4-9496
16
2-7081
57
4-0433
100
4-6052
142
4-9567
16
2-7726
58
4-0606
101
4-6159
143
4-9688
17
2-8332
59
4-0779
102
4-6258
144
4-9708
18
2-8904
60
4-0947
103
4-6354
145
4-9777
19
2-9444
61
4-1111
104
4-6451
146
4-9846
20
2-9957
62
4-1274
105
4-6548
147
4-9914
21
3-0445
63
4-1438
106
4-6642
148
4-9982
22
3-0911
64
4-1592
107
4-6737
149
5-0049
28
8 1353
65
4-1746
108
4-6829
160
5-Q116
616 HYBBRBOLIC LOGAltlTHMS OF NUMBERS UP TO 232.
Table CXCIX.--H3rperbolic J^ogAnihms— continued.
No.
Logthm.
No.
Logthm.
No.
Logthm.
No.
Logthm.
161
6-0181
172
5-1483
193
6-2636
213
5-3622
152
5 0246
173
6-1541
194
6 -2688
214
6 3669
153
5 0312
174
6-1598
196
5-2740
216
5-3716
154
5 •0.^78
176
6-1656
196
6-2791
216
5-3763
156
5 0443
176
61714
197
6'2842
217
5-3809
156
5-0507
177
61771
198
5-2893
218
6 '3866
157
5-0572
178
6-1827
199
5-2943
219
6-3900
158
5-0636
179
6-1883
200
5-2992
220
6-3946
159
5-0698
180
61939
201
5-3043
221
5-3991
160
6-0760
181
6-1994
202
6-3093
222
5 -4037
161
6-0822
182
5-2050
203
6-3142
223
6 4081
162
5-0884
183
5-2104
204
5-3190
224
5-4125
163
6-0945
184
6 2168
206
6-3240
226
5-4171
164
5-1006
186
6 -2212
206
6-3289
2-26
5-4216
165
6-1068
186
6 2266
207
6-3887
227
5-4259
166
6-1129
187
5-2320
208
6-8386
228
5-4302
167
61189
188
6-2374
209
5-3433
229
5-4346
168
5-1248
189
6-2427
210
6-3480
230
6-4390
169
5-1307
190
6-2480
211
6-3522
231
6 4434
170
5-1366
191
6-2532
212
5-8674
232
6-4477
171
6-1426
192
6*2684
Table CXCIXa. —Power Transmitted per Revolution tfaroagh
Standard Shafts by Rule diameter=//§:^J^x64.
Dia.
meter of
Shaft
8.H.P.
Dia.
meter of
Shaft.
' S.H,P.
-rR.
Dia.
meter of
Shaft.
S.H.P.
-7- a.
Dia.
meter of
Shaft.
8.H.P.
-rR.
ms.
ms
ins.
ins.
5-00
1 958
8-0
8-000
12-0
27-00
18-0
91*25
5-25
2-262
8-26
8-766
12-5
80-52
18-5
98-92
5-50
2-600
8-50
9-594
13-0
34-32
19-0
107-2
6-75
2-970
8-75
10-47
13-5
88-44
19-6
115-8
6-00
8376
9-00
11-41
14-0
43-26
20 0
125-0
6-25
8-814
9-25
12-36
14-6
47-62
20-5
184-6
6-50
4-291
9-50
13-39
15-0
52-74
21-0
144-7
6-75
4-805
9-76
14-49
15-6
58-19
21-5
155-2
7-0
6363
10-0
15-62
16-0
64 00
22-0
166-4
7-26
5-954
10-6
18-08
16-5
7019
22-6
178-0
7-5
6-691
11-0
20-80 17-0
23-77 17-5
76-76
83-74
23-0
190-1
7-75
7-274
11-6
24-0
2160
NOMEKOLATURB AND DEFINITIONS. 617
NOMENCLATURE AND DEFINITIONS AS ESTAB-
LISHED BY THE BRITISH MARINE ENGINEER-
ING DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION COMMITTEE.
(A) Boilers : Definitions of Various Sorts.
A Main Boiler is one whose special and general function is to supply
steam to the engines engaged in driving the propellers of the ship, or
to the auxiliaries necessary for the proper working of the same, and
whose normal supply of feed water is from a surface condenser.
An Auxiliary Boiler is one used generally for purposes other than
that of supplying the main propelling machinery, and, while it may be
so used on an emergency, it is not a necessary part of the main boiler
installation as used when at full service speed. It is, however, supplied
with feed water from a surface condenser, or with other water equally
pure, except on emergency.
Winch (Donkey) Boilers are those having no connection with the
main boilers but employed on winches, cranes, and other appliances
generally outside the engine- and boiler-rooms, and whose normal
supply of feed water is from the sea or other impure water which will
deposit solid matter in the boiler.
Vertical Boilers are those whose cylinHrical shells are placed with
the axis vertical or nearly so, and have the fire grate in the furnace
at or near to the bottom.
(B) Tubes and Pipes : Definitions of Terms used.
A straight hollow cylindrical body made of copper, brass, iron, steel,
or other malleable metal shall be called a Tube,
A tube when bent, flanged or otherwise worked and treated mechani-
cally, or made up for service shall be called a Pipe.
The thickness of all tubes and pipes over 18 L.S.G. thick shall b%
expressed in 100^ of an inch.
(C) Shafting: Nomenclature and Definitions of.
1. Line of Shafting, — A line of shafting in a screw steamship
consists of the motor shaft at one end and the shaft to which the
propeller is attached at the other, together with the shafts inter-
meaiate between them.
2. Motor Shaft. — The motor shaft in the case of reciprocating
engines is the crank shaft, and in turbine engines is the rotor shaft.
With an electrical drive it is the rotor or armature shaft.
3. Tail Shaft. — The shaft to which the propeller is fitted shall be
called the tail shaft.
4. Tube Shaft — When the tail shaft is entirely outboard, the shaft
which passes into the inside of the ship shall be called the tube shaft.
618 NOMENCLATURE AND DEFINITIONS.
6. Outboard IntemifdiaU Shaft — When there is a shaft interposed
between the tail shaft and the tube shaft, it shall be called the out-
board intermediate shaft.
6. Intermediate Shafts, — The shafts connecting the tube shaft with
the motor shaft shall be called intermediate shafts.
7. Thrust Shaft, — The shaft having collars formed upon it for the
purpose of resisting the longitudinal thmst on the shaft shall be
called the thrust shaft.
8. Couplings. — The flanges forged solid with a shaft, or welded to
the body as with iron ana scrap steel shafts, and the other portions
forged with, or those which are fitted to the shafts and are remov-
able, whereby the shaft may be connected to other shafts, shall be
called couplings.
9. Coupling Bolts.— Wheii two shafts are connected together by
fitted bolts with heads or with taper bodies, secured in place by nut^
they shall be called coupling bolts.
Driver Bolts. — Those bolts having plain cylindrical bodies without
heads, which are secured to the coupling of one shaft by nuts, and
are free to move longitudinally in the holes of the coupling of the
adjacent shaft, shall be called driver bolts.
10. With geared turbines the shafts having on them the pinions
and gear wheels, shall be called as follows : —
Motor Spindle, — Motor spindle or motor shaft is the axle or shaft of
the rotor of a turbine or electric motor.
First Pinion Spindle, — The first pinion spindle is that coupled to
the motor spindle and having on it the pinion which gears into the
wheel of the next spindle or shaft.
Second Pinion Spindle. — When there is double gearing the second
pinion spindle is that which has on it the wheel driven by the first
pinion and also the second pinion which drives the wheel on the next
spindle or shaft.
Main Wheel Shaft. — The main wheel shaft is that which carries
the final wheel and is coupled to the intermediate shafting.
When there are more than one set of gearing provided to each line
of shafting on account of there being more than one turbine to each,
these spindles will have added to their designations high pressure,
medium, or low pressure (H.P., M.P., L.P.).
11. Crank Webs. — In the case of cranks shafts, the arms shall be
called crank webs.
HOBSB-POWBR TRANSMISSIBLB BY SHAFTS.
619
s
a
c
«
Pi
00
a
o
o
>
00
o
MOgQMeoooogQAOOQooQ04Qoe<ios^o
Si-i5oQr«r-iooS)<5oSioQ»a>5iHQioooa»e<i
O»r-ii5ooeoaoooa»«'«oo»ieo'^oo^^aoooio-
iHf-lrHM04eQeO^
CO
00
S00b-0QQOQQ0MQ'«OOO«D:#«DOg0CDQO
rHrlrliHMMeO^^lO O t« OUOM>OaeOC«04r>
iHi^iHf-ivioiieQeo
03
o
to
04
^•lOcoo■«>ooo^oQQMOtOlaoQMQOQa»aoola
ooi-ieOGOt^i-H0 3eoeai»iM'i#c4^a»o»Qo2apt^
fHr-liH040ie0e0'«^iaCDC^0ftrH^t*THlOa)'<«l
iH rH i-H 04 ^ 04 M
SSaeOOOOOOOiOOQOOQOQOOOOQQ
9vooon«0'«ooei5Su30iOit«iot^rHOpH£<.ooc4
iH iH i-i 01 04 M CO eo^^toioooooeocoaoiOiH
iH fH iH iH 04 04 CO
3
04
9 u> w Oft 04 '^00 •~t,>o^o le^o V
iHih'iH of 04*00 C0*^^l6«et^0»rH •«*>>; O ■^00
iH iH 1-4 04 04 Ol
to U} 04 I
iiO t^04
eooi><
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04SrHr-i
s
Ol
OOkOOMO
i04t^St?M
iiOOOO
lO
04tO-^iHOQlOOQ^^O^Q!0>0«P^«009«OOiO
■«ioa»ioMioooQagoo«3oo4So44Ss09S?.
e0'#iOC«ArH^«>S00l«.rH«rHi^O20401'«ebt!.a0
lHf-lrHr>4O404e000-«^COt^a»i-ICOiO00rH
l-l »H fH 1-4 04
s
84co2«aoSo4<«4it<-oeot^i-iiooiH^dSoio«ot<-
r4i-iiHs^o4o4moo^io«pt<»aiHeocooo
^
^M04eot<»e4
04 00^10(0 00
I Q 04 op lO s S t^ t« •
~i^«>a»04o<
>04'
•^^ss
^ — — _ - — ^? ^6 ^^ flb ^b <
a»04®a»MolcoSoSeS^«>
fHi-li-li-4iHO4O4O400-«iOCD00ai-l of lO
o
o
tOi
o»<
l04
§iiill§iiiil§gliS
1>I
1-4 f-i fH iH 04 04 04 00 '<« lO «D tCoTo of
Id
(O to
'^Ofti
00 a»
piameter
of Shaft
• oopto^wftoioptcouapioo
|uaMa«»<or»t«ooooec&oorH^o4eo^io«or>.ooa60
I
•a
«
o
s
«
t4
O
g
• •
£S
.a o
-S.
62
2-
o
as
«^
Si
si
o
OB Q
a
S.
o» C
Si
Oi
J?
620 INSULATING MATKRIALS POE CLOTHING B0ILBB8, ETC.
Table CC I.— Insulating Materials for Clothing: Boilers,
Steam Cylinders and Pipes (12 inches thick).
B.T.U. per
Weight
Air-dried Materials.
sq. ft. per
1* F. per
hour.
of
Medium
per sq. ft.
Specific
Heat.
Cost per
Cub. foot.
1
lbs.
pence.
1. Slag wool (light) .
0 054
8^6
0-17
8-3
2. Hair felt
0-058
7.9
• • •
20-6 '
3. Light magnesia
0 062
10-1
• • •
26 0
4. Granulated cork
0-069
61
0-43
9-8
6. Slag wool (heavy) .
0 070
32-9
• • •
31-8
6. Kieselguhr
0-073
15-0
0-23
9-6
7. Flaky charcoal
0-08-2
14-6
0-29
7-8
8. Pumice (J-in. mean dia.)
0 095
26-0
...
24-1 1
9. Sawdust spruce
0-096
13-1
...
0-5
10. Asbestos fibre .
0-136
14-5
...
187 0
Table CCI I.— Refractory Materials for Boilers.
(Temperature in water- tube boiler furnaceSi 3000* F. )
Material.
Best fire bricks, melting point
Inferior fire bricks, ,,
,, ,, soften at
Silica bricks, ,,
,, melt at
Bauxite clay, melts at
Pure silica,
Silicon,
if
Degrees.
Centigrade. < Fahrenheit.
8270
2820
2550
2820
8090
8-260
3180
2590
APPENDIX A.
Rules of the British Corporation for the Survey and
Registry of Shipping (Machinery).
GENERAL CONDITIONS OF CLASSIFICATION.
(Section 31.)
The construction of the machinery for Steam Vessels, and of donkey
boilers for Sailing Vessels, which are intended for classification witn
the British Corporation, is to be carried out under the supervision and
to the satisfaction of the Surveyors, and before the work is proceeded
with, detailed plans and particulars of the boilers and superheaters,
copies of the specifications of boiler material, and full information
regarding the engines, together with plans showing proposed arrange-
ment of engine seating and holding-down bolts, plans of bilge and
ballast pumping arrangements, evaporators, feed-water filters and
heaters, and particulars of sizes of steam and feed pipes, are to be sub-
mitted for the approval of the Committee. The clear space between
bottom of boilers and top of tank of floors to be stated in all cases,
and is not to be less than 18 inches, without the special sanction of
the Committee. Upon satisfactory completion in accordance with the
Rules, the machinery will be entered in the Register Book *' m.b.8.* "
(Machinery British Standard — Special Survey).
BOILERS. (Section 32.)
This Registration Society now accepts and uses the new Rules of
the Board of Trade.
1. The Rules are intended to apply to the construction of steel
boilers ; where boilers are to be made of iron, they will be specially
considered by the Committee.
2. The quality of steel to be used in the construction of boilers must
be of the best " mild " quality, made on the *' Open Hearth " system,
free from hammer-dressing, cracks, and surface defects. It must have
a workmanlike finish, and be capable of standing the following tests :—
621
622 APPENDIX A.
8. All samples shall be selected by the Suryeyor, properly marked,
and tested in his presence prior to despatch, and the tensile strength
and ductility shall be determined from test pieces cut lengthwise or
crosswise from the rolled material, in accordance with the require-
ments specified in Sec. 8, par. 8: —
The tensile strength and ductility shail be determined from test
pieces cut lengthwise or crosswise from the finished material, and
when material is annealed or otherwise treated before despatch the
test pieces shall be similarly and simultaneously treated before
testing. Wherever practicable the rolled surfaces shall be retained
on two opposite sides of the test piece, and any straightening of test
pieces which may be required shall be done cold. The parallel part
of the tensile test piece shall not be less than 9 inches in length, and
the width shall not exceed 1^ inches for material more than |f inch
in thickness, from H ^<> if ^^ shall not exceed 2 inches, and under
^ the width shall not be more than 2} inches. For round bars the
parallel part may be either nine or four times the diameter of the
test piece, but the sectional area must not be less than ^ square inch ;
the bars may be tested the full size as rolled. Should a tensile test
piece break outside the middle half of its gauge length the test may,
at the maker's option, be discarded and another test made of the
same plate or bar. Test pieces for bends shall not be less than 1|
inches wide, and for small bars the whole section may be used. For
temper bend tests the samples are to be heated uniformly to a blood
red and quenched in water at a temperature not exceeding 80*
Fahrenheit The colour shall be judged indoors in the shade. The
roueh edge or arris caused by shearing may be removed from all
cold bends and from temper bends above ^ inch in thickness by
filing or grinding, pieces 1 inch thick and above may be machined,
but the test pieces shall receive no other preparation. The pieces are
not to be annealed unless the material from which they are cut is
similarly and simultaneously treated.
4. One tensile test and one temper or cold bend test shall be taken
from each plate as rolled. For plates exceeding 2| tons in weight one
tensile and one bend test shall be taken from each end — one bend
test to be temper and the other cold. For angle bars, rivet bars, and
stay bars at least two tensile tests shall be taken from each charge; but
when the number of the bars, as rolled, from one charge exceeds 15, an
additional tensile test shall be made for each batch of 15 bars, or portion
thereof, with the exception of round bars 1} inch diameter and under,
when the number shall be 50 in place of 15. A temper or cold bend
test shall be made from each angle bar as rolled, a temper and cold
bend test shall be made from every fifteen stay bars as rolled, from
each charge, but for rivet bars no bend tests will be required.
6 The tensile breaking strength of plates for shells shall be between
the limits of 28 and 32 tons per square inch if not otherwise specified.
For plates intended for flanging or welding and for combustion
chambers and furnaces, also for bars for combustion chamber stays
RULES OF THB BRITISH CORPORATION. 623
and rivet bars, the tensile breaking strength shall be between the
limits of 26 and 80 tons per square inch. In the case of material for
purposes in which tensile strength is not important, the tensile
test may be dispensed with, and the bend test only made if so specified
and approved.
All material which has satisfactorily passed the requirements
must be clearly stamped by the manufacturer in at least two places
on each finished bar or plate, thus — B.C., signifying that the material
has satisfactorily complied with the tests above described. Material
the tensile breaking strength of which is between the limits of 26
and 30 tons, and complies with the corresponding requirements for
■p /"I
elongation, should be marked —— to signify that it is of "cold
F.
Hanging" quality, and material which has been approved on bend
tests only is to be marked ~^^ so that it may be readily identified.
B.
No material bearing these brands is to be forwarded from the steel
works until the prescribed tests have been made by the Surveyors
and the mill sheets signed by them. The material must also be
legibly stamped with the manufacturer's name or trade mark, and
the place where made.
6. The elongation on a gauge length of 8 inches or 8 diameters
shall not be less than 20 per cent, for material required to have a
tensile breaking strength of 28 to 82 tons per square inch, and not
ess than 23 per cent, for material required to have a tensile breaking
strength of 26 to 30 tons per square inch. For material under ^^ in
thickness the respective elongations may be 8 per cent. less. Where
short test pieces are used for round bars, the elongations on 3jf
diameters shall be 25 and 29 per cent, respectively. Rivet bars shall
have an elongation of not less than 25 and 31 per cent, on gauge
lengths of 8 and 3^ diameters respectively, intermediate proportions
of length to diameter to have intermediate percentages.
7. Cold and temper bend test pieces must withstand, without
fracture, being doubled over until the internal radius is equal to
1^ times the thickness of the sample and the sides are parallel.
Bending tests may be made by pressure or by blows.
8. The stamping of the material, rejection for defects, the issuing
of advice notes, £c., must be carried out in the same way as for
ship steel, the Rules for which are as follows : —
In the event of any test piece failing to meet the requirements,
unless two further tests prove satisfactory, the plate or bar represented
by such sample piece must be rejected. Further tests of pieces taken
from the same charge shall then be made, and in case of these also
failing, the whole of the material produced from such charge is to be
rejected.
All material which has satisfactorily passed the requirements
must be clearly stamped by the manufacturer, as described in the
paragraph beginning at line 6 on this page.
624 APPBNDIX A.
Before the mill sheets are signed, the mannfactorer mast famish
the Saryeyor with a certificate goaranteeing that the material has
been made by the " Open Hearth" process, and that it has withstood
satisfactorily the tests above described. The following form of
certificate will be accepted if printed on each mill sheet with the
name of the finn, asd initialed by the test honse manager :-
"We hereby certify that the material described below has
been made by the ' Open Hearth ' process, and is that
which has lleen satisfactorily tested in the presence of
the Surveyors in accordance with the tests of tne British
Corporation Registry."
When it is found necessary from failure in testing, surface defects,
or other sufficient cause, to reject any of the material submitted for
testing, the Surveyor is to satisfy himself that the starap of the
Corporation upon the rejected material is obliterated by centre punch
marks, thus — B*6.
The maker must adopt a system of marking the ingots, billets,
slabs, test pieces, and finished material, which will enable all
material to be traced to its tests and original charge. The Surveyor
must be given every facility for tracing the material to the respective
charges from which it is made, and he should be furnished with two
copies of advice notes of such material as may have been satisfactorily
dealt with, for his signature — one to be forwarded by the manu-
facturer to the boiler-maker, the other to be retained for the use of
the Surveyor in attendance at the boiler works.
Where steel is not produced in the works at which it is rolled, a
certificate shall be supplied to the Surveyor deputed to witness the
testing of the material, stating the Open Hearth process by which it
is made, the name of the steel maker who supplied it, and the
numbers of the charges, for reference to the books of the steel maker.
The number of the charge shall be marked on each plate or bar for
thepurpose of identificatioD.
The foregoing tests shall be made at the place of manufacture prior
to the despatch of the material ; but in the event of any of the material
proving unsatisfactory in the process of being worked, it shall be
rejected, and such further tests of material from the same charge may
be made as the Surveyor in attendance may consider desirable, and
material then found defective shall also be rejected, notwithstanding
any previous certificate of satisfactory testing.
9. In addition to the tests for rivet steel specified above, the manu-
factured rivets are to be tested, hot and cold, by bending, crushing
under the steam hammer, or in such other way as may be required,
a sufficient number of sample rivets being taken indiscriminately for
the purpose. The shank must stand being doubled together cold,
without fracture, and the rivet head must stand being flattened hot
until its diameter is '2} times the diameter of the shank. The
rivets are not to be used until such testing has been carried oat to
^he satisfaction of the Surveyors.
BULBS OP THB BRITISH OOBPORATION. 625 '
10. All plates which have been welded, or locally heated for
furnace work, and plates in which the rivet holes are punched instead
of being drilled, must be annealed after this work is carried out.
Steel stay bars which have been worked in the fire must be sub-
sequently annealed, and in no case are steel stays to be welded.
11. Strength Calculations.— The sizes and arrangement of the
different parts for a given working pressure, or the working pressure
suitable to a ^ven size and arrangement of material, must be in
accordance with the following formulae and rules. All manhole
or similar openings in boilers are to be efficiently compensated : —
12. Cylindrical Shells of Steel whose tensile is S tons :~
DxO
Where 0=2*75 when the longitudinal seams are fitted with double
butt straps of equal width, and of thickness at least
equal to that obtained from the formula for butt straps
(see par. 13).
0=2*85 when the double butt straps are of unequal width,
i,e, one strap not covering the outer row of rivets, with
the thickness as before.
0=2*95 when the longitudinal seams are lap joints.
T= thickness of shell plate, in 82nds of an inch.
E=:the least percentage of strength of longitudinal joints,
found as follows : —
For the plate at the joint, E=^zi x 100.
P
For the rivets at the joint, E = ^L^ x - x 100.
pxt 8
Where ji?= pitch of rivets in outer rows, in inches.
d = diameter of rivet holes, in inches.
71= number of rivets used per pitch,
a = sectional area of one rivet, in square inches.
<= thickness of plate, in inches.
r=23 for steel and 19 for iron rivets.
»= minimum tensile strength of shell plates, as specified.
Where rivets are in double shear, a x 1*875 is to be used instead of a.
D= greatest internal diameter of shell, in inches.
W= working pressure, in lbs. per square inch.
13. Double Butt Straps. — The thickness of each plate is to be in
accordance with the following formula : —
^ S{p-kd)'
40
V
' 626 APPBNDTX A.
Where Ti= thickness of outer strap, in Z2nda of an inch.
Tj + 4 = thickness of inner strap.
T= thickness of shell plate, in 32n(is of an inch.
I>= pitch of rivets in outer rows, in inches.
(^= diameter of rivet holes, in inches.
A; = ratio of pitch of rivets in outer rows to that in centre
rows.
14. Flat Surfaces supported by Stays :~
(a) W.P.=0;^^-iy. and thickness T=^lii:^!±2+i.
(b) Flat surfaces not exposed to flame, fitted with doublings between
the rows of supporting stays, the doublings being at least 0 *6 of the
thickness of the plates to which they are riveted : —
V.p.^(T-iy-+0-65t.^C. ,ndT=^^-P-(^+y')-0-56f+l.
(c) Flat surfaces not exposed to flame, strengthened by outside
doublings or washers on the stays, and fitted with nuts outside and
inside: —
Where W.P. = working pressure, in lbs. per square inch.
T= thickness of plate, in 32nds of an inch.
^= thickness of doublings or washers, in 82nds of an inch.
P= distance between the rows of stays, in inches.
p= pitch of stays in the rows, in inches.
Gs=50 for plates fitted with screwed stays having riveted
heads.
0=75 for plates fitted with screwed stays having nuts
outside.
0=100 for plates fitted with stays having nuts inside
and outside.
0=0*15 for loose washers not less than 0*6 the thickness
of plate and three times the diameter of stay.
0=0*35 when the washers are riveted to plates and in
diameter two-thirds pitch.
0=0*65 when there are doubling strips riveted to plates.
0=0*85 when there is a doubling plate over the whole
surface.
Nbte.—¥oT front plates in the steam space, which are not protected
against the direct action of the flame, the constants given above are to
be reduced 20 per cent. Stays which are screwed into plates of less
thickness than -f^ inch are not to have riveted heads, but are to be
fitted with nuts.
RULBS OF THB BRITISH CORPORATION. 627
15. Tube Plates with Tubes in Nests:—
P*+l?* V 80
T=ThickneBs of plate in 82Dds of an inch.
^p,875x(P-rf)xT ^^^ ^W.VxLxP
LxP (P-d)x876
P= greatest pitch of stay tubes from centre to centre, in inches.
^= least pitch of stay tnbes from centre to centre, in inches.
For wide spaces between nests of tubes see par. 14.
When giraers are fitted to the tops of combustion chambers, the
thickness of the tube plates is not to be less than given by the pre-
ceding formula or than is found from the formula : —
Wx*LxP ^^
(P-d)xl800
Where W= working pressure in lbs. per square inch.
L= width of combustion chamber over the plates, in inches.
P= horizontal pitch of tubes, in inches.
<2= inside diameter of plain tube, in inches.
T= thickness of tube plate, in sixteenths of an inch.
16. Stays:—
V
0 ^* ^•
Where S= surface, in square inches, supported by the stay.
W= working pressure in lbs. per square inch.
D= effective diameter of stay, in inches.
O:=8250 for steel screwed stays, and for iron screwed and longi-
tudinal stays made from tested iron bars. Steel stays are
to comply with the tests specified above. Iron stays are
to be of the best quality and are to have a tensile breaking
strength of not less than 20 tons per square inch. Iron
bars for stays which require to be tested are to have a
tensile strength of not less than 21 f tons per square inch ;
the elongation on a gauge length of 8 diameters is not to
be less than 20 per cent, nor 27 per cent, on a gauge
length of S^ diameters.
G=s6500 for untested iron screwed stays.
G=s9500 for longitudinal steel stays.
C=s7000 for longitudinal iron stays.
Cs5000 for welded iron stays.
628 APPENDIX A.
17. Stay Tubes are not to be subjected to a greater stress than
7500 lbs. per square inch.
18. Circular Furnaces. — Thickness of plain furnaces, combustion
chamber bottoms, and of furnaces with Adamson rings pitched more
than 20 inches apart: —
^(l8-75T-(Lxl-03)) = W.
Suspension bulb furnaces to be : —
W P ,510x(T-l) . , rp^W.F.xjy
Yf.tr ^ , ana i gJo— + ^-
Corrugated, ribbed, and suspension^furnaces (Fox, Purves, Morison,
Deighton, and Brown's cambei^) : —
W.P.=180(Tzi) ; and T=^^LJL^ + 1.
D * 480
Where T= thickness of plate, in 32nds inch.
L=]en^h of furnace, or combustion chamber bottom between
the points of support, in inches.
D= smallest outside diameter of furnace, in inches.
W.P. = working pressure, in lbs. per square inch.
19. Girders for Combustion Chamber Tops :—
Cx^^x(^=Wwhenn=2,4,or6.
(L-P)xDxL n(» + 2) ' *
Cx(i»xT .=:i5v^iienn = l, 8, or6.
(L-P)xDxL
Where C = 495 for steel and 450 for iron.
e2= depth of girder at the centre, in inches.
T= thickness of girder, in inches.
D= distance from centre to centre of girders, in inches.
L -length from tube plate to tube plate,- or from tube plate
to back of combustion chamber, in inches.
n= number of stays fitted with each girder.
P= pitch of stays supported by girder, in inches.
BULBS OF THB BRITISH OORPORATIOlf. 629
20. General Constructioii. — Each boiler must have at least one
glass water gauge, two test cocks direct on the boiler shell, or an addi-
tional glass water gauge, and one steam pressure gauge. Where the
pillar and connections of the water gauge are 2 incnes or more in dia-
meter, the test cocks may be fitted thereon. Double-ended boilers to
have these fittings at each end. One salinometer cock to each boiler.
Where a pillar is attached by pipes to steam and water spaces, cocks
should be fitted to the boiler at the ends of these pipes. When water
gauge pillars and their boiler connections are less than 2 inches diameter
and no cocks on the boiler connections, the passage in the pillar be-
tween the gauge cocks is to be closed so as to permit of each end being
blown through separately.
21. A stop- valve is to be fitted on each boiler, so that any one of a
series of boilers may be worked independently. The neck of the stop-
valve to be as short as possible. All boiler and engine stop- valves to
be tested to at least twice the W. P.
22 Two safety-valves required for each main boiler, and one for each
superheater, and they must be tested under steam and set to a pressure
not more than 3 per cent, in excess of the intended W.P. The com-
bined area of the valves is to be sufficient to prevent the steam accumu-
lating to more than 10 per cent of the W.P., during fifteen minutes full
firing with main engines stopped. If the boilers be supplied with
forced draught, the valve area must be such that the same conditions
may be met.
23. Easing gear is to be so arranged that the safety-valves on any one
boiler may be lifted without interfering with those on any other boiler.
24. All boiler blow-off pipes are to have cocks or valves on the hull
plating fitted with spigots extending through the plating, and plate
flanges round same on the outside ; in addition, blow-off cocks or valves
are to be fitted to the boiler. (See also sec. 83, par. 12.)
25. Manhole doors in boilers to be not less than 16 ins. by 12 ins.
26. Headers for water tube boilers and superheaters are to be tested
by a hydraulic pressure of three times, and other parts by one of double
W. P The tubes to be of solid drawn steel and stand being flattened
cold until the sides are not further apart than twice the thickness of the
tube ; they must also withstand expansion cold without cracking or
splitting, until the diameter is increased by 10 per cent in tubes f^ thick
or less, and 8 per cent, in tubes of greater thickness. The finished tubes
should not exceed 27 tons per sq. in. tensile strength and should show
an elongation of 20 per cent, on a length of 8 inches ; at least one tube
in fifty is to be subjected to flattening and expansion tests and all the
tubes to a hydraulic pressure of 1500 lbs. per sq. in. The thicknesses
of the tubes in inches are not to be less than given by the formula : —
DxW
. ^ ~ 6000 ■'■^
where D= internal diameter of tube in inches,
and W= working pressure in lbs. per square inch. ^
T= thickness of tube in inches.
630
APPBNDIX A.
The two rows of tubes which are next the fire in water tube boilers are
to be increased at least 10 per cent, in thickness.
Tubes for water tube boilers and superheaters are to be of solid
drawn steel. (See present par. 26.)
27. Upon completion, the boilers are to be tested by hydraulic
pressure to 1*5 the intended working pressure +50 lbs., and after being
placed in position in the vessel, they must be efficiently secured by
Drackets and stays to prevent any fore and aft or athwartship move-
ment. Superheaters to be tested to twice the working pressure.
It is strongly recommended, because of the rapid oorrosion which
takes place in material near them, that the boilers be kept as high as
possible above the floors or tank top, and that the under side of the
boilers be efficiently insulated. (See sec. 81.)
28. Donkey boilers need not have more than one safety-valve, pro-
vided the valve area be not less than half a square inch for each foot
of grate surface. In other respects the requirements for donkey
boilers are the same as for main boilers.
ENGINES. (Sec. 33.)
1. Shafting. — ^The minimum diameters of crank, thrust, propeller,
and intermediate shafts may be found from "the following formula,
except where the ratio of length of stroke to distance between main
bearings is unusual, when they will receive special consideration : —
^=^
PxL«xS a
B
Where D = diameter of shaft in inches.
P= absolute pressure, i e. boiler pressure + 16 lbs.
S = stroke of engine, in inches.
L = diameter ^of low-pressure cylinder, in inches.
B= value as given in Table B.
0 = 1 '0 for crank and thrust shafts.
0=0*95 for intermediate shafts.
0 = for propeller shafts to be taken from the following Table :«*
Table C.
Co-efft of
Displ. of vessel
at 1 moulded
depth.
Ratio of Diameter of Propeller to Diameter of Crankibaft
18
14
16
16
17
18
•6
•62
•64
•66
•68
•70
•72
•74
•76
•78
•80
1-0
101
102
1-03
104
105
1-06
107
108
1*09
110
1^01
1-02
1-03
1*04
1-06
1-06
107
108
1-09
110
1-11
102
1*08
1^04
1^06
106
1^07
1-08
1^09
1^10
111
112
108
1*04
1-06
1^06
1-07
1-08
109
1-10
111
112
118
1*04
106
1-06
107
1-08
1^09
1^10
l^U
1-12
118
114
1-06
106 .
1-07
1-06
1*09
110
1-U
lis
1-I8
1-14
116
RULES OP THE BRITISH CORPORATION.
631
La
The value of the divisor 0 in the fonnula depends on the ratio rfa
where Ls diameter of low-pressure cylinder and H of high-pressure
cylinder, in inches : —
Table B.
i;*
Two Cranks at 90*
Compound or Quad-
Three Cranks
Four Cranks
at 90* Quad-
ruple Ex-
Ha
ruple, also Three
at 120* Triple
Aifc
Cranks at 120* Quad-
Expansion.
ruple Expansion.
pansion.
BaUo 8
9,910
••
••
» H
10,160
••
••
» 8
10,410
••
••
» sf
10,6«0
••
••
»» ^9
10,910
••
••
' »» H
ll,lflO
»•
••
., 8
11,410
• •
••
*i 8f
11,660
••
••
„ *
11,910
••
••
» *i
12,160
••
••
.. 4
12,410
• •
••
.> 4«
12,660
• •
••
M H
12,910
18,660
••
,. *i
18,376
14,160
••
., 6
18,840
14,670
ts
.. 61
14,306
16.180
• •
»» 6
14,770
16,690
• •
„ 4
16,235
16,200
• •
.. «
15,700
16,710
»•
» ^
16,680
17,780
• •
.. 7
17,660
18,630
• •
„ 7i
18,410
19,680
• •
•• \
19,260
20,430
22,660
II Oa
20,110
21,830
28,660
II »
20,960
22,200
24,660
II ®a
21,760
28,070
26,660
II 10,
22,540
28,940
26,580
1. loj
28,880
24,810
27,600
.1 11
24,120
25,660
28,420
II 11*
24,900
26,600
29,340
.1 12
26,680
27,340
80,260
Intermediate ratios to have intermediate divisors.
The least diameter of shafts for direct-coupled and geared turbine
engines may be obtained from the following formula : —
0-4/
Px66
R
xO.
Where D=: diameter of intermediate shafts.
P = shaft horse power.
C = 1 R = revolutions per minute. '
C = 1 '05 D for intermediate thrust shafts between collars
Csl'l D propeller shafts.
632 APPENDIX A.
With geared turbines where the rerolutions per minute of the
propeller are comparatively low, the value of C for the propeller shaft
is not to be less than 1*1 D, nor than the values of C given in Table G,
substituting the diameter of intermediate shafting for diameter of crank
shaft in obtaining the ratio of propeller to shaft.
Thrust and propeller shafts may be gradually tapered off to the
diameter of the intermediate shafting. The central hole through
hollow shafting may have a diameter equal to one-third that of the
intermediate shafting without increasing the diameters of the shafting
required by the formula.
2. The webs of built crank shafts are to be keyed as well as shrunk
on to the shaft, and the diameter of the shaft should be increased in
way of the web to make up the loss of sectional area at the key way ;
efficient dowel pins should be fitted in the crank pins.
3. Propeller shafts must be forged from selected scrap iron, rolled
iron bars, or a single steel ingot. It is recommended that shaft
liners be fitted in one length, that the inboard ends of all shaft liners
be tapered, and that the space between the after end and the propeller
boss be made watertight.
4. Forging^s. — Shafts, piston rods, connecting rods, and other im-
portant working parts of the machinery, are to be made from selected
scrap iron or ingot steel in accordance with the following requirements.
Other material, such as nickel steel, etc., will be accepted after com-
pliance with such special tests as may be imposed. AH shafts, etc,
are to be subjected to examination during the progress of manufacture,
when rough turned and when finished.
5. Iron forgings are to be in tensile strength between the limits
of 20 and 24 tons per square inch, and to show an elongation of 20
per cent, on a gauge length corresponding to 8^ diametera of the test
piece. Samples, 1 inch square, are to stand being bent cold to 90*
over a radius of 1} inches without fracture.
6. Steel forgings for machinery are to be forged from the lower
two- thirds of oi-dinary ingots made by the * * open hearth " process ;
the material is to be tested, and the sectional area of the body of the
forging, when it leaves the hammer, should not exceed one-fifth, and
no part of the forging should be more than three- fourths the area of
the original ingot. Forgings are to be properly annealed in an
annealing furnace, and must be free from defect. The tensile strength
of the forgings is not to exceed 35 tons per square inch, without
special sanction, the elongations are to vary from 30 per cent^ at 27
tons to 22 per cent, with 35 tons tensile strength, measured on test
Sieces of which the gauge length is not less than 3^ times their
iameter ; samples, 1 inch by f inch, with edges rounded to ^th
radius, must stand being bent cold to ISO"* without fracture over a
radius of I inch for material under 32 tons tensile strength, and | inch
between 32 and 35 tons tensile strength. The test pieces are to be
cut lengthwise from a part of the forging which is not of less sectional
area than the body of the forging, and they are not to be detached
until they have been stamped by the Surveyors, and until the forging
RULBS OF THB BRITISH OORPORATION. 633
has been annealed, in cases where subjected to the annealing process.
One .tensile and one bend test are to be taken from each forging,
. except in the case of forgings over 3 tons weight and of all propeller
shafts, where tests will be required from each end of the forging.
Where a number of small forgings are made from one ingot, tests
re])resenting each end of the ingot will be sufficient. All ingot steel
forgings are to be legibly marked in such a way that they can be
traced to the charge from which the material has been made, and
these which have satisfactorily passed the requirements are to be
clearly stamped ''B.C.,*' and with the identification marks furnished
by the Surveyor,
7. Casting's. — Steel castings are to be made in accordance with the
requirements of sec* 4, pars. 15-17, when their use is sanctioned for
parts of the machinery which are usually forged. Where steel castings
are used instead of the iron castings in orcunary use, they are to be
subjected to percussive and hammering tests only. Castings for high-
pressure cylinders of reciprocating engines are to be tested to I '5 W.
Castings for cylinders of turbine engines are to be tested undei
hydraulic pressure after having been rough bored, to the following
requirements : —
H.P. cylinders, admission end, are to be tested to I'dS W
H.P. „ exhaust end, ,, „ „ ,, W
IP 1*6 V
L.P. ,, admission end, „ ,, ,, ,, 1*6 V
L.P. ,, exhaust end, ,, ,, „ ,, 30 lbs. per sq. inch.
Where W = working pressure of boilers.
V = pressure to which cylinder safety valves are to be adjusted.
The provisions in section 8 are as follows : —
(15) Where steel castings are intended to be used instead of forgings,
every care is to be taken to avoid abrupt changes in sectional area,
and each casting must be thoroughly annealed and subjected to
percussive and hanmiering tests, as well as to tests for tensile strength
and ductility. The castings should be made by the " open hearth *'
process, and are to be accurately moulded and free from defects. The
material is to have a tensile strength of not less than 26 tons and
not exceeding 85 tons per sq. in., with a corresponding elongation
varying from 20 per cent, with 26 tons to 15 per cent, with 35 tons, "
measured on test pieces of which the length between the gauge points
is not to be less than 8^ times the diameter, and the sectional area
not less than ^ sq. inch.
(16) The sample pieces for testing must have formed part of the
actual casting submitted for approval, must have been subjected to
similar and simultaneous annealing, and are not to be detached from
the casting until after the annealing is completed, nor until they
have been stamped by the Surveyor. The piece for ductility test
should not be less than 1 inch by f inch, with edges rounded to a
radius of tV inch, and must stand being bent cold through an angle
of 1 20**, over a radius of 1 inch, without any appearance of fracture.
634 APPENDIX A.
(17) Castings of propeller frames, posts, single-plate rudder frames,
brackets, and quadrants, must be raised to a height of 6 to 10- feet,
according to the character and form of the castings, and dropped
bodily on to a hard surface, holes being prepared to receive bosses
or similar projections. When large propeller frames are cast in
one piece, they may be dropped through an angle of 45** instead of
being lifted bodily. Castings of a complex design may, at the dis-
cretion of the Surveyor, be exempted from the drop test, and where
the material is thin the limits of elongation may be reduced by 5 per
cent. All castings are to be slung clear of the ground and well
hammered all over with a heavy sledge hammer to test the soundness
of the material.
8. General Construction. — When the engine bed plate or thrust
block is fastened direct to the tank, the top plating in way of same
must not be less than f4 ^^^^ thick and must be increased according
to the size and power of the engines, and the double bottom efficiently
stiffened under the thrust block, to the approval of the Committee.
The holes for the holding-down bolts are to be tapped through the
plate, and the bolts properly screwed in, and fitted with lock nuts
underneath. The holding-down bolts must be kept as close to the
angle bax as possible, and if they pass through the bar the flanges
of the bars must be of sufficient breadth to take the nuts.
9. Two bilge and two feed pumps are to be fitted on the main engines
in vessels of 180 feet length and upwards, and are to be so arranged
that one of either set may be examined while the other is at work, or
equivalent independent pumping arrangements are to be provided.
In vessels less than 180 feet one bilge and one feed pump or equivalent
independent pumps are to be provided ; each bilge pump must be
adapted to draw from any compartment of the vessel. All &ed pumps
worked by the main engines are to be fitted with spring-loaded relief
valves. A bilge suction to the circulating pump, having a diameter
about twice that of the engine room bilge suction, or a bilge injection
valve, is to be fitted in each case.
10. The design and arrangement of pumps, valve chests, suction
and delivery pipes, and all cocks and sea connections should be such
as to prevent the possibility of water being run into the vessel
accidentally.
11. All evaporators and high-pressure feed heaters must be satis-
factorily testea by hydraulic pressure before leaving the works of the
manufacturer. Feed-water filters between pumps and boilers to be
tested to 20 per cent, above double working pressure.
12. All sea-cocks and valves connecting suction pipes are to be
placed, if practicable, above the level of the stokehold and engine
room platforms, and so as to be easily worked from those platforms.
Sea-cocks must be fitted direct on to the hull platinff and secured
with tap bolts or with bolts having countersunk heads. Discharge
pipes should be placed above the deep load line, with valves fitted in
an accessible position on the vessel's side.
13. Donkey pumps adapted to draw from the sea and hotwell, to
RULES OF THE BRITISH OORPORATION. 635
supply the boilers with water through separate auxiliary feed pipes
and check valves, to deliver water on deck, and to draw the bilge from
each compartment, are to be fitted in all cases. When there are more
main boilers than one, and the donkey pump is arranged to draw
from the bottom of the boilers, for circulating purposes, the suction
pipes are to have non-return valves on the boiler connections, and a
shut-off valve or cock on the main pipe from the boilers to the pump.
14. All pipes extended through bunkers, or other compartments be-
yond the machinery space, must be well protected with s^ong casings.
15. Steam and Feed Pipes are to be of copper, wrought iron,
or steel of thicknesses in accordance with the following formulae. All
main steam pipes must have efficient provision for expansion, and are
to be so arranged that water cannot lodge in any part of them, or, if
this be impracticable, so that they can be properly drained. Auxiliary
steam pipes which exceed 4 inches in diameter, and all main and
refrigerator machine steam pipes, are to be t^ted by hydraulic
pressure, in the presence of the Surveyor, to at least twice the work-
ing pressure when made of copper, and to three times the working
pressure when made of iron or steel ; and all boiler feed pipes are to
be subjected to a hydraulic pressure at least 20 per cent, greater than
is required for steam pipes. When pipes have screwed flanges they are
to be screwed with vanishing threads, and the thread is not tx> extend
beyond the back of the flange collar.
Thickness of brazed copper pipes in lOOths of an inch = - - iLiiiS + 8.
45
Thickness of solid-drawn ,, ,, „ = J^zZiiii: + 3.
60
W P xD
— -^ -h 12= thickness in lOOths of an inch of iron and steel pipes
^" lap- welded ; but the minimum thickness for bending
or to have screwed ends is A inch.
W P xD
\o7^ — +12= thickness in lOOths of an inch of solid-drawn steel
^20 pipes.
Where D is the internal diameter of pipe in inches.
W.P. is the working pressure for steam pipes.
W.P. = boiler pressure x 1*2 for feed pipes.
16. Spare gear, consisting of the following articles, must be supplied
to all vessels built to the requirements of the British Corporation :—
2 connecting rod top-end bolts.
2 ,, bottom-end bolts.
2 main-bearing bolts.
1 set of coupling bolts.
1 „ feea and bilge pump valves.
1 ,, piston springs, if common springs are used.
1 safety-valve spring of each size fitted, but not fewer than 1
spare spring for each 6 safety-valves fitted.
i set of fire bars for each boiler.
636 APPENDIX A.
A number of bolts, nuts, and studs of assorted sizes, including
at least six cylinder cover bolts or studs, and six valTo chest
cover bolts or studs.
Bar and plate iron in various sizes.
17. Completion of Machinery. — When all the connections are made
on board, the safety-valves set, and the machinery completely fitted
up, a trial under steam is to be made with the Surveyor in attendance,
and if everything is then found to be working satisfactorily the
Committee will grant a Certificate, and the machinery will be entered
in the Register Book, under the Class of the Hull, thus— M.B.B. *, with
date of completion.
STEAM PUMPING ARRANGEMENTS. (Sec 54.)
1. Bilge Suctions in Vessels with Ordinary Floors. — Not less
than three steam pump suctions, of the sizes given in the Table, are
to be fitted at the after end of each compartment, one being placed at
the centre line and one in each wine. At the ends of the vessel,
or in compartments where the rise of floor is considerable, one centre
line suction will be accepted.
2. Bilge Suctions in Vessels with Double Bottoms.— There
must be one suction in each wing at the after end of each compart-
ment, of the size given in the Table for wing suctions with two
suctions in each hold. Where wells are adopted, the suctions are to
be as required for vessels with ordinary floors ; but it is recommended
that the wing suctions be placed outside the wells, and the openings
into the wells fitted with non-return valves.
8. Double Bottoms. — At least -one centre suction, of the size
required by the Table for the size of the tank, is to be fitted at the
after end of each compartment in the double bottom. In vessels
where the rise of floor is less than 1 inch per foot, and the depth to
the top of the midship erections is 75 per cent, or more of the vessel's
breadth, centre and wing suctions should be fitted in the midship tanks.
4. Peaks and Deep Tanks. — Where peaks or cargo spaces are
used as ballast tanks, suctions of the size required by the Table for
the size of tank are to be fitted. Cargo spaces used as ballast tanks
are to have satisfactory arrangements for cutting off the bilge suctions
when used for water and the ballast suctions when used for cargo ; also
for draining the tops of the tanks.
5. Tunnel Wells must in all cases be fitted with suctions, of not less
size than is rec^uired for wing suctions with three suctions in each hold.
6. The Mam and Donkey Pumps are to draw from all compart-
ments, and in addition the donkey is to have a separate bilge suctioD
in the engine room. The pipes connecting the bilge pumps with the
valve chests are not to be of less diameter than required for centre
suctions, and the ballast pump connections of not less diameter than
required for a single suction to the largest tank suction in the v^sd.
The pumps must be of sufiScient capacity to give a speed of water
RULBS OF THE BRITISH CORPORATION.
637
through the pipes of not less than 400 feet per minute, under
ordinary working.
7. Bilge and Ballast Suction Pipes are to be efficiently secured,
and straps are to be fitted at the middle of the length of each range of
pipes to prevent fore and aft movement. Efficient expansion joints
are to be fitted, and where the connections at the ends of each range
of pipes are made with lead bends, the radii of the bends and the
distance between the centres of the radii should each be equal to
three diameters, and the length of the bend to eight diameters of
the pipe,
8. AU Roses and Boxes to be placed so as to be easily accessible
for examination and cleaning. It is recommended that each engine-
room bilge suction should have a mud box placed above the level of
the floor plates, with a tail pipe led from it into the bilges, and ¥rith-
out the usual rose box in the bilges. Vessels under 180 feet in length
should have provision made on the donkey pump for the attachment
of a flexible hose, which should be supplied in addition to the engine-
room requirements.
9. Soundine Pipes are to be fitted to each compartment and
ballast tank, with a small doubling plate bedded in the cement under
each pipe, for the rod to strike on. These pipes must be fitted, with-
out bends, directly into the compartment intended to be 'Bounded, and
should in all holes extend to the upper deck.
10. Air Pipes, not less than 2 inches in diameter, are to be fitted
at each comer of each ballast tank ; this requirement may be modified
in the case of small tanks and increased tor large tanks. Efficient
aiTangements must be made to permit of the air getting freely to
the pipes while the tanks are being filled.
Inside Diameters of Pipes (Minimnm Requirements).
BILOB SUOTIONS.
Lbnoth or Yxssib
Centre and
all Engine
Room
Suctions.
Wing
Suctions
with Two
Suctions
in hold.
Wing
Suctions
with Three
Suctions
in hold.
Under 180 feet,
180 feet and under 230 feet, ,
230 „ „ 280 „
280 „ ,, 330 „
330 „ „ 390 „ ,
890 „ „ 450 „
450 „ „ 520 „
Inches.
2
2i
24
2J
3
8i
34
Inches.
« • t
2
H
2|
3
8i
Inches.
• • •
2
2
2J.
24
2i
2f
638
APPENDIX A.
Inside Diameters of Pipes (Minimum Requirements)— coiOei.
Tank Suotions.
Cavaoitt or Tank.
Diameter
of
flnction.
Capaoitt ov Tank.
Dtometer
of
Saction.
Under 20 tons,
20 tons and under 40 tons,
40 „ „ 60 „
60 „ „ 85 „
85 „ „ 120 „
120 „ „ 190 „
190 „ „ 270 „
Inches.
2i
2i
8
3J
3i
4
4i
270 tons and under 365 tons,
365 „ ,, 480 „
480 „ „ 625 „
625 „ „ 800 „
800 „ „ 1000 „
1000 „ „ 1300 „
Inches.
5
6
7J
'ELECTRIC LIGHTING. (Sec. 35.)
While the Committee do not consider it advisable at the present
time to formulate definite rules for fitting vessels with electric-light
installation, they are prepared to approve of such installations as may
be carried out on well-considered and safe systems. It is suggested,
therefore, that a complete specification of the apparatus and method
of wiring proposed should be submitted for the consideration of the
Gonmiittee, together with samples of the wires, switches, cut-outs,
etc, if required.
In drawing up the specification, the following points should be
kept in view : —
1. Dynamos, motors, main and branch cables should be so placed
that the compasses will not be injuriously affected by the deotric
current. Tests should be made while the compasses are being ad-
justed, in order to prove that this condition has been satiB&ctorily
fulfilled.
2. Conductors, switches, cut-outs, and hull connections, if any,
should be so arranged as to be always and easily accessible.
3. Switches and cut-outs should be cu non-inflammable bases —
preferably of porcelain— and the switches should be of the quick-
break pattern.
4. Cut-outs should be fitted in every case at each reduction in size of
wire in the single wire system, and on both wires where double wirine
is adopted. It is recommended that tin wire cut-outs of standard
sizes be used, the number of sizes being kept as small as possible.
5. Hull connections for ''single wire'' systems should be made
with brass screws of large surface, carefully fitted.
RULES OF THB BRITISH CORPORATION. 639
6. Conductors should be made of the best copper, and the insulation
resistance should not be less than 600 megohms per mile — a certificate
from the manufacturer to this effect to be furnished if desired. Vul-
canized rubber insulation is stronsly recommended, but other materials
may be adopted if possessinff equu insulation resistance and durability.
No single wire should be smaller in diameter than No. 18, or
larger than No. 16 standard wire gauge; where sizes above No. 16
are required the conductors should be rormed of small wires stranded
together.
The current density in the conductors should not exceed 1000
amperes per square inch.
All conductors should be protected by efficient casings, or lead
covered, or armoured, and the covers on wood casings should be port-
able and fastened with screws. Conductoi's which are exposed to
excessive heat or damp, or which are led through bunkers or cargo
spaces, should be lead-sheathed, and in engine room, stokehold, and
tunnel they should be further protected by armour.
Special care should be taken to protect conductors from damp and
chafe where they pass through deck or bulkheads.
7. Joints in main cables should be avoided wherever possible, and,
when absolutely necessary, they should be so made that the water-
tightness and insulation resistance of the cables is not affected by them.
Ordinary joints in branches should be properly soldered and
thoroughly insulated, resin onlv being used as the flux for soldering.
It is strongly recommended that such a system of distributing and
auxiliary switch boards be adopted as will render all ordinary joints
unnecessary.
8. A voltmeter should be fitted in every case, and an ammetei
where there is more than ouq dynamo.
9. A final test should be made when the installation is complete,
when the insulation resistance over the whole or any part of the
system should not be below the following :—
Installations of 25 lights, •
69 »
lod „
500 „
1000 „
600,000 ohms.
260,000 „
126,000 „
25,000 „
12,600 „
For intermediate numbers of lights the insulation resistance should
be correspondingly proportionate.
For alternating currents the minimum insulation resistance should
be twice that given in the Table.
PERIODICAL SURVEY OF ENGINES AND BOILERS.
The engines and boilers of all vessels classed with the Corporation
will be required to undergo Special Periodical Surveys at the same
times as the Special Surveys on the hull. In cases of accident
involving considerable repair and an extensive examination of th^
640 APPENDIX A.
machineiy, such examinatloii may, with the sanotion of the Com-
mittee, be considered equivalent to a Special Survey.
At each Special Survey the cylinders or turbine, pistons, valves,
pumps, evaporators, thrust block and condenser, main and tunnel
oearings, shafting, and the steam-steering gear must be opened up for
examination, and such other parts of the machinery as may be con-
sidered necessary are to be examined.
The arrangements for pumping from the several holds, as well as
from the eunne and boiler space, ara to be inspected, and while the
vessel is in dry dock, all openings to the sea, together with the cocks
and valves in connection with the same, examined; in addition,
all iron and steel fastenings of sea-cocks and valves to the shell plating
should be removed for examination at each Special Survey No. 3.
The propeller shaft should be drawn at least once every two years,
and more frequently if considered necessary by the Surveyor, but
when liners are fitted solid in one length the shaft need only be
drawn once every three years ; the Committee are, however, prepared
to consider representation from owners as to special circumstances
which may modify these requirements in particmar cases.
When the after bearing is worn down \ inch with shafts not
exceeding 9 inches in diameter, ^^ when over 9 and not exceeding 12
inches, and | with shafts over 12 inches in diameter, the bearing
must be rebushed.
At each Special Survey, the boilers, superheaters, and safety-valves
are to be carefully examined inside and outside, and the safety-valves
set to the working pressure, and the main steam pipes should be
tested by hydraulic pressure every four years in case of brazed copper
pipes, and every six years in case of solid drawn copper pipes and of
iron and steel pipes ; copper pipes should be annealed oefore being
tested. If at any of these surveys the Surveyor considers it desirable,
the actual thickness of plates and strength of stays are to be ascer-
tained in order to determine the future working pressure, and the
boilers and superheaters tested by hydraulic pressure.
In addition to the requirements of the Special Periodical Surveys,
when six years old, and annually thereafter, the boilers, superheat^,
and safety-valves must be carefully examined and the valves set to
the working pressure.
If it be found desirable, upon inspection, that any part of the
engines or boilers should be examined again within a Shoi t period, it
wm be necessary for the owner to comply with the Committee^a re-
quirements in this respect.
The donkey boilers of Sailing Vessels are to be subject to Special
Periodical and Annual Survey in accordance with the foregoing
requirements.
APPENDIX B.
BUREAU VERITAS RULES AS IN OPERATION
ON THE CONTINENT.
(In the United Kingdom this Registration Society accepts
and uses the Rules of the Board of Trade. )
Fob Maohiksst.*
Classification. — Mechanically propelled vessels will only be granted
a class after the machinery has been examined and certified by an
Engineer Surveyor of the Bureau Veritas as being in accordance with
the rules.
The Special Suryev mark »{< will only be granted in the Register
when the boilers and machinery have been constructed under the
special inspection of an Engineer Surveyor of the Bureau Veritas.
The above provisions apply also to sailing vessels fitted with
auxiliary machinery.
To obtain Special Survey of machinery and boilers the following
provisions must be complied with : —
1. Make application in writing to District Surveyor.
2. Submit plans of boilers and safety-valves, and give full particulars
of materials to be used.
3. Give Surveyors every opportunity and facility for making full
inspections of all parts during manufacture and fixing.
Hand to Surveyors duplicates of all orders for material, and see
that they have facilities for testing all material.
4. Notify Surveyors where hydraulic tests as described below can be
witnessed: —
Cylinders of Oompound, Triple, and Quadruple engines,— H. P.
cylinders to be tested to boiler pressure plus 85 lbs. per sq. in. ; L.P.
cylinders to 48 lbs. per sq. in. ; I. P. cylinders of triples to 0*8 boiler
pressure ; first intermediate cylinders of quadruples to boiler pressure ;
and second intermediate cylinders of quadruples to half boiler pressure.
H.P. turbine casings to be tested to one and a quarter times boiler
pressure ; L.P. turbine casings to a quarter boiler pressure at admission
ends and 28*6 lbs. per sq. in. at exhaust ends ; astern turbine casings
to one and a quarter boiler pressure H.P. and 48 lbs. L. P. end.
* These rules are Bummarlsed, and not given word tor word.
641 41
642 APPENDIX B.
5. Condensers to be tested to 28*5 lbs. per sq. in.
6. Boilers to be tested to twice working pressure up to 142 lbs. per
sq. in. , but for all higher working pressures the test pressure is to be
working pressure plus 142 lbs. pe!)r sq. in.
7. Steam and feed pipes to be tested to twice working pressure, and
other steam pipes to twice maximum pressure to which they will be
subject. These tests may be made after fitting on board.
9. Boilers, after being fitted on board, to be tested again to once and
a half working pressure up to 85 lbs. per sq. in., but for all higher
working pressures to working pressure plus 85 lbs. per sq. in.
11. The Surveyor will afterwards attend a steam trial and adjust the
safety*yalyes, and will also proceed with the vessel on her trial trip
and satisfy himself as to the efficient working of the whole of the
machinery.
Maintenance of Class: Annual and Periodical Surveys. —
Periodical Surveys of machinery must take place every four years for
vessels of the first division, and every three years for vessels of the
second and third divisions.
Boilers over twelve years old must undergo the periodical Survey
with the corresponding tests every two years. In countries where the
testing of boilers is regulated by law, the Surveyors are authorised to
conform to the legal requiremente.
Propellers must be removed and propeller shafto drawn for ezamina*
tion at least every two years.
Surveyor to be notified whenever boiler, propeller, or tail shaft is
removed ; also all repairs te be carried out to satisfaction of Surveyor
and reported by him te the Administration.
A Survey is to be held in all cases of accident to machinery, and the
master of the vessel must notify Surveyor ; failing such notification,
class may be withdrawn.
An annual Survey will be mainly external so far as main and anxiliaiy
engines are concerned, though the Surveyor is empowered to open up
any part that he may think necessary. As regards boilers, the annual
Survey will be both external and internal, and the Surveyor will see
boilers under steam and readjust safety-valves if necessary.
At periodical Surveys the Surveyor will require to have cylinders
opened and pistons removed, and slide-valves and main bearings
opened up ; and he will also carefully examine condensers, pumps,
pipes, cocks and valves, propeller and other shafting and propeller.
He will also make a complete examination and hydraulic test of
boilers, and may order repairs, lowering of working pressure, or may
even condemn boilers. The hydraulic test to be to one and a half times
working pressure, as described above.
When boilers twelve years old are being examined the Surveyor will
probably require to drill various parts to ascertain thicknesses, and he
may require the partial removal of lagging from boilers and steam pipes.
^ (m. completion of a periodical Survey, the Surveyor will attend a
V itesnf trial and satisfy himself as to the efficiency of the whole of the
^ machinery.
BUBBAU VERITAS RULES. 643
Construction and Arrangement of Engines. — All machinery must
be 80 securely fixed that the motions of the vessel will not cause any-
thing to come adrift ; sufficient space must be provided around and
above engines and in tunnels, and sufficient ventilation given to enable
the engineers to give proper attention whilst engines are running, and
also to effect necessary examinations and repairs. Guard plates and
handrails must be fitted where required.
Turning gear must, and steam reversing gear should, be fitted to all
engines over 500 horse-power.
Condensers are to be of strong construction and fitted with suitable
manholes and handholes for examination and cleaning.
Yalve-chests, cocks and pipe connections must be so arranged
(except ash cocks and water service cocks) that sea water cannot be
run into the ship.
All discharge valves to be fitted direct on vessel's skin plating
above load line if possible, in accessible positions, and should be
capable of being closed in harbour.
All pumping pipes should be easily accessible, and none should be
carriea through the bunkers without proper protection.
Bilge pumps and donkey engines to pump from all compartments
except fore and after peaks ; and if there be no well, in holds with
double bottoms, a suction must be fitted in each wing gutter. In
addition to the suctions from the common valve boxes the engine bilge
pumps must be fitted with a direct suction from the engine-room bilges.
When the circulating pump is fitted with a bilge suction, care must
be taken to arrange so that sea -water cannot run into the ship ; and
suitable gratings must be fitted at inlets.
Steam pipes must be so fitted as to allow of expansion ; drain cocks
must be fitted where necessary ; and steam pipes on deck must be
protected by casings.
Satisfactory means of communication between engine room and
bridge must be fitted.
In vessels under the French flag all pipes must be painted with
colours indicating their purposes or uses.
Construction and iu-rangement of Boilers. — Boilers must be so
secured that neither the rolling of the vessel nor the shock of
collision will move them : they must be arranged in spaces of sufficient
size for easy working and repair, and the said spaces must be properly
ventilated, must have two easily accessible exits, and must have the
overhead opening fitted with gratings and shutters or covers.
When donkey boilers and auxiliary machinery are placed outside the
main engine and boiler rooms, the spaces provided must be enclosed
by steel bulkheads and the decks beneath must be plated and caulked ;
the spaces must also be properly ventilated.
In all steam ships provision must be made for preventing coal or
ashes getting down through stokehole flooring ; and in those of more
than 800 horse-power a steam ash-hoisting apparatus must be fitted.
Coal bunkers must be kept at least one root away from boilers or
chimney unless insulating material is fitted ; and proper ventilati
644 AFPKNDIX B.
arrangements must be fitted, especially in vessels withmore than one deck
Steam pipes most not pass through bankers, and if water pipes or
electric leads do pass through they must be protected by strong casings.
Oil fuel may be carried in the double-bottom, bunkers, peaks, or
other suitable compartments if various conditions, laid down in detail
in the Rules, are complied with. If the oil fuel has a lower flash- point
than 160° F., the proposed arrangements must be specially submitted
to the Administration for approval.
The water-level should, oniinarily, be at least six inches above the
tops of the combustion chambera, but in small boilers this may be
reduced to four inches.
The minimum level must be distinctly marked as near as possible
to the water-gauges.
At least two spring safety-valves of approved design and of area
given by following formula mast be fitted airect to each main boiler ;
and they must be provided with easing gear workable both from
stokehole and deck) and also with drain-cocks.
When A is area of valve in square inches, that must be provided per
square foot of grate surface, and P is the boiler pressure in lbs. per
square inch,
8-7
V(P-18)»'
Where forced draught is fitted, the areas of safety-valves must be in-
creased in proportion to the increased evaporative power of the boilers.
For boilers with grate surface not. ezceedine five square feet only
one valve will be required, but no valve of less than IJ inches diamet^
will be accepted. All single-seated safety-valves must be capable of
liffcing at least one-quarter of the diameter of the valve.
All steam receptacles receiving from the boilers of more than 3*5
cubic feet capacity must have a safety-valve when the effective pressure
is over 4*27 lbs.
Each boiler (except donkey boilers, etc. ) shall be supplied by two sepa-
rate feed pumps (one at least independent of main engines), pipes, and
check- valves, each of sufficient size to feed the boiler in all circumstances.
Every single-ended boiler must be fitted with two water-level
indicators, one at least being a glass water-gauge ; the second may
consist of a set of test cocks (ordinarily three in number, but for small
boilers two). Double-ended boilers must have a water-gauge at each
end. When test cocks are fitted for pressures over 114 lbs. per square
inch, long rods or handles for working them must be supplira.
A stop valve or cock must be fitted direct to the boiler shells at
every outlet for steam, and the main stop valves should, where possible,
be arranged to be worked from deck.
Every cylindrical boiler should be fitted with both a surface and a
bottom blow-off valve or cock attached direct to the shell ; but for
water- tube boilers a bottom blow-off* only will be required. Blow-off
cocks with spigots and brass or galvanised iron outside washers must
^«o be fitted on the skin plating of the vessel. Arrangements should
BURBAU VBRITAS BULBS. 645
be made to ensure that the opening and closing of blow-off cocks can
be properly regulated ; and where one pipe connects several boilers,
cocks or yiuyes for preventing the passage of water from one boiler to
another must be fitted.
Every single-ended boiler must be fitted with a pressure-gauge
marked to show working pressure, and every double-ended boiler must
be fitted with two such gauges. Gauges to be placed in view of fire*
men, to have cocks for shutting them off from the boilers, and to have
lamps fitted near them.
Each boiler must be famished with a fitting terminating in a flange
1 J inch diametor and i inch thick for attaching a standard gauge,
and also with a suitable connection for making the hydraulic test
Every boiler must be provided with manholes, mudholes, and sight
holes, conveniently arranged for inspection and cleaning. Ko manhole
to be less than 12 inches oy 16 inches, and all are to be fitted with
compensating rings.
Cast-iron must not be used for manhole doors.
Boiler Shells and Stats.
Oireular SheUs amd Stsam-holden vnih Internal Presattre.
A riveted joint may fiiil through the tearing of the plate or butt-
strap between the rivets, the sheanng of all the rivets, or oy a combina-
tion of the two. The following formulse apply to these several cases.
The plate thickness and the diametor of nvets to be applied to have
the highest values which each formula would give separately.
I. Buj^tire through Plate.
The formul® for working pressure and plate thicknesses are in this
oases—
p_2gR(<-0'04)
D
and <=J^ -I- 0-04 inch
2aR
(I.)
Wliere P sallowed working pressure, above atmosphere, in pounds
per square inch.
D= greatest inside diameter of boiler shell, or steam-holder in
inches.
t ss thickness of shell plates in inches. ^ ~ 0 '04 inch represente
the thickness left after a reduction of 0*04 inch through
corrosion.
Rssthe tensile stress, in pounds per square inch, which will
be allowed in the plate. The value of R will be the
breaking strength divided by 4, the latter figure repre-
senting the factor of safety for the plate after it nas
been corroded away by 0*04 inch.
646
APPENDIX B.
If the actual breaking strength happens to be known by tests car-
ried out to the Administration's satisfaction, it may be applied for
finding R ; but when, as usual,, it is not known, the value of B
will be : —
I^or Steel : the 4th part of the lower limit of tensile strength
chosen by the designer, which in such case is to be stated when a
boiler design is submitted for approval.
The table annexed shows the values of 2 R for various tensile
strengths.
a = ratio of the resistance of the plate left between the holes, to
that of the full plates. It will be determined from the following
expression : —
P .
Where j7= pitch of rivets in outer row, in inches (see figs. 1 and 2).
d^Qi&met&r of rivet holes, in inches.
Table showing the Values of 2 R. =1120 x Tensile.
In Formulas (I.) and (IV.) for various Tensile Strengths of
the Material.
Tensile Strength
Tensile Strength
of Plates in
Value of 2 R.
of Plates in
Value of 2 R.
tons per sq. inch.
tons per sq. inch.
32
35,800
25-5
28,600
81-6
35,300
25 0
28,000
81
34,700
24-6
27,400
30-5
34,200
24 0
26,900
30
83,600
23-5
26,300
29*5
33,000
23 0
25,800
29
32,500
22-5
25,200
28-6
31,900
22 0
24,600
28
31,400
21-5
24,100
27-5
80,800
21 0
23,500
27
30,200
20-6
22,900
26-6
29,700
26
29,100
N.B, — Boiler designs submitted for approval of Administration must
state lowest tensile of steel for various parts and also shearing strength
of rivets ; if these are not stated, minimum tensile of all plates (includ-
ing furnace) and stays will be taken as 26 tons, and steel rivets will be
understood to comply with Administration's requirements.
In every case copy of specification of material, with name of makers,
must be supplied to Surveyor through whom desi^^s arc submitted for
approval.
BURBAU VERITAS BULBS
647
II. Rupture through Rivets.
In this case the following are the formulae for finding the allowed
working pressure, or requir^ rivet section : —
and
P=
A=
2AS
PDZ
2S
(II.)
Where P and D have the same meaning as before, and
/=the length, in inches, of the identical parts into which a
riveted joint can be subdivided. In most cases I is the
pitch of the rivets in the outer rows (figs. 1 and 2).
In general it depends upon the system of joint adopted.
S=the maximum shearing stress, in pounds per square inch,
which will be allowed on the rivets. It will oe the 4th
part of the actual shearing resistance of the material,
which should always be ascertained by tests, when possible.
If the actual sheaiing resistance of the rivet bars is not
known, it will be assumed to amount to 0*8 of their
tensile strength, and the value of a will be one-fifth part
of the lower tensile limit adopted by the designer.
A=the total shearing surface, in square inches, of the rivets
(that is, twice the area of the rivet hole when a rivet is
in double shear).
Only fl of the full area are to be taken when the riveting is done
by hand.
III. Combined Rupture through Plate and Rivets.
This case is only to be examined when the outer row has a mder
pitch thtui the inner ones.
The formula to be applied in this case is : —
p_2(BxR)+(QxS) .„, .
Where P RS D^and I have the same meaning as before.
B=the sectional area, in square inches, of the plate on the
portion I of the joint along the line of its supposed
rupture, assuming that in case the plate is liable to
corrosion, its thickness has been reduced by 0*04 inch.
C=the total area of the rivets which are supposed to shear on
the length Z, corrected, if required, in the same way as
prescribed above.
For a rivet in double shear the resistance will be considered as being
twice that of one in single shear.
648 APPENDIX B.
IV. Rupture through Butt Straps,
Rupture may take place along one of the inner rows of rivets (see P Q,
figs. 1 and 2). The formule for this case, based on the same principle
as (I.), are:—
p 2aR«-0'04)
D
and «=?^ + 0-04inch
(IV.)
2aR
when plates are exposed to the direct action of products of combustion
as in superheaters.
p_l-6aR(«-0-19)
1- 5 »
when they are protected from direct action.
p_l'8aR(<-0*125)
^ D '
where P D and R have the same meaning as before.
^= thickness in inches, of butt strap, or sum of thicknesses, if
there are two straps. (The thickness, of course, not to
be less than required for caulking. )
9
where g= pitch of rivets in the inner row, in inches.
2= diameter in inches of the rivet holes in the inner row.
y. Combined Rupture through Butt Straps and Rivets,
Formula (III.) applies to this case, B being the section of the butt
strap or straps along which rupture would take place.
Remarks. — No rivet holes to be nearer the edge of any plate than
the diameter of the rivet
In zig*zag riveting, the distance between the rows is to be such that no
rupture through plate or butt strap is to be feared along the zig-zag line.
When stays are bolted through the shell, they should be so ar-
ranged that they do not weaken uie shell plates more than the riveted
joints. If the resistance at the stay bolts is the smaller of the two,
the plate's thickness shall be determined by it. It will be found firom
a formula the same as ( 1. ), J9 and d applying to the stay bolts.
Flat Plates.
The allowed working pressure or the thickness of flat plates is to be
determined by the following formulse : —
p_(£-l^ T
and /= 1 + A/-«4.i,a^.
'=l + y(a«-Hft»)^.
BUBBAU VBBITAS BULBS.
649
4
P-i#
r^
P-
p— i
L(
• O «
• o ®
• • •
^
Fio. I.
U
N
Pi
i^— p —4— p — <
-* — ^ — 4r
•-'
^^.
-r
^OH
Fio. 2.
650 APPBNDIZ B.
Where P sallowed working pressure above atmosphere, in lbs. per
square inch.
^= thickness of plate in sixteenths of an inch,
a = pitch of stays, in inches, in one row.
6 s distance, in inches, between two rows of stays.
JVo/^._When plates are effectively stiffened by doubling plates, well
riveted thereto, and having a thickness ^ in sixteenths, the value
(t + ^ ) may be substituted for t in the formula.
In case of irregular staying, such as ^ /V^
in the annexed sketch (fig. 3), " <,^ ^,' \^^
shall be taken instead of a*+ J*. ^ ^^
Ta tensile strength of the material in Q *\ ^^•
tons per sq. inch of the original ^^ ^x^ V:^
section. ♦''
It is to be determined in the same Fio. 8.
way as for shell plates, that is : —
For steel it will be equal to the lower limit of the tensile
stress, which is to be stated on the drawing.
0 = a constant, the value of which depends upon the mode of
staying as follows : —
C= 0*104 when the stays are screwed into the plates, riveted
over, and protected from hot gases; otherwise C=0'111.
Gs 0*079 when the stays are screwed into the plate and fitted
with outside nuts at both ends, and protected from hot
gases; otherwise C= 0*084.
0=0*062 when the stays are fitted with inside and outside
nuts and washers, provided the diameter of the outside
washers be at least 0*4 of the distance between the rows
of stays, and the thickness at least § that of the plate.
G= 0*556 when the stays are fitted with inside and outside nuts
and washers, the outside washer being riveted to the plate
and having | of the plate's thickness and a diameter
equal to 0 *6 of the distance between the rows of staya.
0 = 0*050 when the outside washers are replaced by strips of
plate having a width of at least 0*6 of the distance
between the rows of stays with a thickness not less
than I that of the plate ; the strips being well riveted
to the plate.
T
For the values of ^ see following Table.
BUREAU VERITAS RULES.
651
Values of ^ in the Formula for Flat Plates.
Tensile
1
Strength of
Plate in tons
C«0-111.
Oa0104.
C«0*084.
C«0*079*
C«0*062.
C«0-066.
C-0060.
per square
inch.
22
198'2
211*6
261-8
278-6
864*8
400-0
4400
28
201*8
221-1
278-7
291*1
871-0
418-2
460*0
24
216*4
280*8
286*6
808*8
887-1
436-4
480*0
26
226*6
240*4
297*6
816*4
408-2
464*6
6000
26
234*6
260-0
809*4
829*1
419*4
472*7
620*0
27
248*7
269*6
321*8
841-8
486*6
490*9
640-0
28
262*8
269*2
838*2
364*4
461-6
6091
660*0
29
261-9
278*8
846*1
867*1
467*7
627*8
680*0
80
270-0
288*6
867*0
879*7
488*9
646*6
600*0
*■ When plates are not snbjeeted to flame or hot gases C may be reduced from
0*079 to 0*066 ; or the values of—- in this column may be multiplied by 1-2.
When the plates are in contact with steam on one side and flame
or hot gases on the other, the thickness is to be increased.
For instance, when in return tube boilers, the top front plates are
in no way protected from the hot gases, the working pressure or
thickness will, in such a case, be determined by the formulae : —
and
t
=2+y(a«
+ft«)
0'9T"
When the said front plates are protected by a flame plate, d
increase of thickness will be required.
When front plates are in two pieces, the lap should be double
riveted if the thicker plate is i in. or above.
Stays.
The diameter of stays supporting flat surfaces is to be determined
ila: —
by the following formul
d=s^ inch +
V 300 T
Where c{ reflective diameter in inches (for instance, the diameter at
bottom of thread in screw stays).
Q = total load on stay in lbs.
Ts= tensile strength of the material, in tons per square inch.
652 APPENDIX B.
For steel this tensile strength will be the lower limit chosen by the
boiler designer ; the actual strength may be applied if it is known
from tests.
If the stays are not round, their cross section most be sach that the
stress per square inch, caused by the load Q, nowhere exceeds one
5*76th part of the tensile strength, after deducting ^ of an inch all
round as an allowance for corrosion or wear.
Weldinff of stays is not allowed.
For high working pressures, such as used in triple-expansion engines,
it is recommended to screw all stays into the plates they support, in
addition to fitting them with nuts.
This also applies to stay tubes, with the exception that it is recom-
mended that nuts should not be fitted in combustion chambers.
SoBEWBD Stats.
The diameter of fire-box stays is to be detennined by the following
formulsB : —
d=0177 +
s/i
Q
800 T
For margin stays the formula will be : —
v.
dt Q, acd T having the saifie meanings as above.
d=0'177-h / ^ t
Yektioal Boileks.
When the dished ends in vertical boilers are portions of spheres,
their thickness must not be less than —
When dished ends in steam chests are portions of spheres,
where <= thickness of plate in sixteenths of an inch ;
a;= percentage of joint ;
P= working pressure in lbs. per square inch ;
r=: radius of curvature in inches.
When the end is made in one plate, x=l.
When the tops of furnaces are portions of spheres, the thickness
must not be less than—
Pr
600^ '
where «, t, P, r have the same meaning as before.
BUBBAU VERITAS BULBS. 653
FXTSMAOXS.
Plain Cylindrical Fumaee$,
When plain furnaces ai*e made as traly circular as pr^Mstioable, and
of steel having a tensile strength of not less than 26 tons per square
inch, the wondng pressure P and thickness of plate T may be
calculated by the following formule : —
p_16,000T-60L
^ D •
m_PxJD+60L
16,000 '
Where T— thickness of plate in inches.
P— working pressure in lbs. per square inch.
D := external diameter in inches.
L=s length in inches.
N.B, — ^When the furnace is in one length L is measured from the
centre of rivets at furnace mouth to those connecting back end to the
tube plate, or to the commencement of flanging where back end of
furnace is flanged. When the furnace is divioied into two or more
parts by Adamson joints L is measured to the centre of the joint.
For iron and low tensile steel use 14,400.
Furnace plates should not exceed {^ inches in thickness.
Gorrugated and Ribbed FwnMC$s,
The plate thickness is to be found by the following formulsB : —
1. For corrugated furnaces : —
1260
Where P=: working pressure in lbs. per square inch.
T=: thickness of plate in sixteenths of an inch.
D= outside diameter in inches measured on the top of the
corrugations.
The formula applies to corrugations 6 inches long and 1} inch deep.
2. For ribbed furnaces, when manufactured to the satisfaction of
the Administration : —
T=^+2
^ il6b^^'
Where P and T are as above.
D» greatest outside diameter between the ribs, in inches.
The formula applies to ribs spaced 9 inches and pro-
jecting Ij-inch, the difference between the greatest and
the smallest diameters in any part of the furnace not
exceeding tAt.
654 APPENDIX B.
3. For bulb furnaces : —
1260
Where D is the outside diameter in inches measured between the bulbs.
The co-efficients in the above formulae apply to the case where the ten-
sile strength of the material is 26 tons per sq. in. or above. When it is
below 26 tons, the co-efficient is to be reduced ^i^th for each ton below 26.
When the combustion chamber bottom is cylindrical thickness,
m Px2R + 60L
" 14,400
Combustion Chamber Girdebs.
The strength of girders on the tops of combustion chambers shaU
be determine as foUows : —
(W-j3)DL
Where P= working pressure in lbs. per sq. inch.
C=a constant, found as under.
N = number of bolts in each girder.
<2= depth of girder, in inches.
<:= thickness of girder, in inches.
J) = pitch of bolts in girder, in inches.
Ls length of girder between supports, in inches.
D= distance between girders, centre to centre, in inches.
W=: width of firebox from tube plate to back plate, in inohee.
Q^18,200N ^^^^^ numbers of bolta
N + 1
^^13,200(N + 1) ^^j ^^^^ numbers of bolts.
N + 2
CONSTBUOTION OF ENGINES.
Shafts for Screw Steamers.
A. Crank Shafts.
When the crank of a screw engine is not overhung, the diameter of
the shaft shall be determined by one of the following formulas : —
For non-eompoimd condensing engines :
":j^ (A)
For double, triple, and qvfldrupU expansion engines :
BUREAU VERITAS RULES.
655
For shafts having a single overhung crank, the form under the
radical sign is to be multiplied by
For two cylinder single crank tandem engines the formula will
therefore be : —
;^ » /PL(D;+0.ip^)(5+Vg^-H)
(0)
In those formulae :
<2= diameter of the after shaft bearing in inches.
»i= number of high pressure cylinders.
Dj= diameter of each high pressure cylinder in inches. If there
are several high pressure cylinders the diameters of which are not the
same, 74 D| represents the sum of the squares of their respective
diameters.
w= number of low pressure cylinders.
D = diameter of each low pressure cylinder in Inches. If there are
several low pressure cylinders the diameters of which are not the same
n D* represents the sum of the squares of their respective diameters.
JV.^. — For triple or quadruple expansion engines the intermediate
cylinders do not come into account in the formulae.
L= length of stroke in inches, common to all pistons.
P= boiler pressure above atmosphere in lbs. per sq. inch.
<=-— (see below). In order to determine a, B is supposed to be
situated half-way the length of the
bearing, unless the latter be longer
than li times the diameter ; in
this case B C may be considered as
being equal to | of the diameter.
0 = a constant, the values of
which are given below for certain
cases.
If the diameter of shaft be above
15", it should be increased bye
an amount to be determined by
the Administration ; for built-up
shafts, however, this latter in-
crease will not be required.
For hollow shafts, the diameter must be increased by
1 per cent, if the diameter of the hole is 0*4 of the outside diameter ;
2 „ „ „ 0-5
6 „ „ „ 0-6
10 .. .. „ 0-7
>•
II
I)
11
*f
656
APFBNDIX B.
If the hole is under 0*4 of the outside diameter, no increase will b€
reouired.
The Administration may allow a reduction on the diameter in
certain special cases, for instance in well-balanced engines with light
moving parts or for very superior workmanship, etc. On the other
hand, the Administration may require an augmentation for engines
which differ much from the ayera^ proportions found in practice,
thus, for instance, for engines haymg a comparatively small stroke;
for compound engines the low pressure cylinder of which has a veiy
large size comparea with the high pressure cylinder, etc.
Values of 0 m Cbankshaft Fobmula (A), (B), and (C).
DeBcrlption
of Engine.
Cranks.
No. of
Cylinders.
No. of
H.P.
Cylinders.
No. of
L.P.
Cylinders.
Con-
stant
C.
Vonn-
nla.
A
B
B
B
No.
Angle.
Simple
or non-
com-
pound.
2
90*
lOO*
120'
140*
160-180»
2
• • •
2
4800
4870
8790
3450
3360
Two
cylinder
com-
pound.
2
90"
100*
120'
140*
leo-iso*
2
1
1
3400
3090
2680
2440
2380
Triple ex-
pansion.
3
120**
8
1
1
8900
Four
cylinder
tnple or
quadruple.
r
4 .
90*
, 4
J
1
2
or
1
4000
Not to
exceed
4100
Angles
arranged
to reduce
maximum
torsion
moment
Propeller, Tunnel and Thrust Shafts.
The diameter of propeller shaft is to be found from the following
formula : —
BUBBAU VERITAS BULBS.
657
Where 8= diameter of propeller shaft ;
D=: diameter of propeller; and
(2 = diameter of the crank shaft calculated from one of the
formulsa (A), (B), or (C), all in inches.
It is recommended to fit the propeller shaft in snch a way that it
cannot move endways, if for some reason or other it has heen uncoupled
from the rest of the shafting.
Liners fitted on propeller shafts to be tapered off at ends.
For tunnel shafts a reduction of 6 per cent on the diameter of the
crank shaft will be allowed.
The diameter of thrust shaft at the bottom of the collars, both
between and immediately beyond these latter, to be equal to that of
the crank shaft, and tapered off at each end to the smaller diameter
of the body of the shaft. The thrust of the screw propeller must be
taken up by an efficient thrust block, so as to prevent any fore-and-
aft strain on the crank shaft.
Shafts for Paddle Steamers.
In side wheel steamers having double, triple, or quadruple expansion
engines with an intermediate shaft, each end of which carries an over-
hung crank pin fitting loosely into an eye of the paddle shaft crank,
the bearing 9f the latter (see A of the above sketch) must have its
diameter calculated from the formula :
'""V 0
(D)
42
658 APPENDIX B.
where the letters have the same meaning as before, except that
a, for determining «=-~, is to be measured as shown in the above
T
ketch, the point- B being the middle of the bearing.
For two cylinder compound receiver engines with two cranks at 90'
0 = 13,000 for navigation in smooth water.*
s: 7, 100 for coasting vessels.
= 6,700 for sea -going vessels.
For triple expansion engines with three cylinders and three cranks
at 120" :—
G= 14,900 for navigation in smooth waters.*
= 8,150 for coasting vessels,
s 6,540 for sea-going vessels.
The diameter of the outer bearing of the paddle shaft and of the inter-
mediate shaft to be submitted to the Administration or the Surveyors
for approval. The same applies to other cases not dealt with in this
paragraph.
Shafts for Turbine Eng^es.
In turbme engines, where I.H.P. is the estimated power trans-
mitted by each shaft,
(2= diameter of tunnel shafting in inches.
(2= diameter of propeller shaft in incites.
D= diameter of propeller in inches.
R = number of revolutions per minute.
d and e^ should be given by the following formulss :
d' 8 /70xS.H.P.^
and rotor shaft is to have a diameter at the smallest part at least
5 per cent, greater than the tunnel shafting.
Steam Pipes.
PD
Solid-drawn copper pipes to be of thickness <=-——-f- 0 'OS.
o400
PD
Brazed copper pipes, ^=— — +0*05.
PD
Steel pipes to be of thickness, solid drawn, <=--_ +0*08.
^ '^ 7885
PD
If welded, ^=-^^.
6850
If riveted, ^=|^ + 0-08, a being the strength of joint
7886
* Not now admitted.
BUREAU VERITAS RULES. 659
P is boiler pressure in lbs. per square incli, and D is inside diameter
in inches.
Spare Gear for Engines and Boilers.— For vessels employed in
Mediterranean, in Continental coasting trades, and making long
voyages, the following articles of spare gear are required to be on
board : —
2 Top end bolts and nuts.
2 Bottom end bolts and nuts.
2 Main bearing bolts and nuts.
1 Set shaft coupling bolts and nuts (for one coupling).
i Set feed pump valves.
i Set bilge pump valves.
1 Set piston rings.
1 Set safety-valve springs.
6% of total number boiler tubes.
4% of total number condenser tubes.
i Set of fire bars.
1 Canvas fire hose.
1 Set of spanners.
Plugs for boiler tubes.
12 Gauge glasses.
1 Steam gauge.
For vessels under French flag the following additional articles are
required : —
1 Pair crank-pin brasses (or sufficient white metal and means for
applying same).
^ Set bilge pump valves (metal).
1) Qet bilge pump valves (india-rubber).
i Set bilge pump valve seats (if removable).
2 Sets gauge glasses.
i Set fire bars.
1 Set electric hand lamps.
1 Safety lamp.
1 Set firing tools.
Also in vessels carrying coal or other dangerous cargo :—
4 Safety lamps.
And in vessels fitted with electric machinery, the necessary articles
of spare gear according to the type of apparatus employed.
A further list is given in the Rules of articles that are recommended
to be carried on board, and when these articles are so carried the
vessel will be entered in the Register with the special mark ( ).
Qualities and Testing of Materials. — All material used in vessels
for which the Special Survey mark is required must be tested, at the
manufacturers* works if possible, and in the presence of a Surveyor to
the Bureau Veritas, as hereinafter described, and all material th
660
APPENDIX B.
I
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1
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664 APPBNDIX B.
satufiMstorily withstands these tests is to be legibly stamped by the
Sanreyor. If any test of steel is unsatisfactory me Surveyor is entitled
to condemn all material from that charge.
Steel must be made exclusiyely by the Siemens-Martin process;
nevertheless steel produced by the electric furnace may be adopted
with the sanction of the Administration.
Copies of lists of material giving all needful particulars are to be
handed to the Surveyors.
In the United Kingdom, the tests of the British Standards Committee
will be accepted if carried out in the presence of a Bureau Veritas
Surveyor.
Boiler Tubes. —Material to have an ultimate strength lying between
22 and 25 tons per square inch, and an elongation of 22% on 8 inches
if thicker than \ inch, and 20% if thinner. Test pieces to be 1 j^ inches
wide.
Material also to stand (cold) the following testo without cracking : —
1. End of tube to be expanded by a drift to 8% increase of outside
diametor if over ]^ inch thick, and to 10% for thinner tubes.
2. A piece 4 inches lone to be sawn through lengthwise at a reason-
able distance from the weld, opened and rolled again in the opposite
way to a cylinder.
3. A piece 4 inches long to be flattoned, the weld being in the fold,
until the distance between the sides is equal to the thickness for tubes
of or over ^V ^^^ thick, and until the sides are close together for
thinner tubes.
4. The end of the tube to be flanged at right angles into a rim of
four times the thickness for tubes under ^ inch tMck and of | inch
for thicker tubes.
5. Hydraulic tost to 560 lbs. per square inch, and each tube to be
hammered whilst under pressure.
For brass castings the minimum strength is to be 11*5 tons per
square inch, with an elongation of 8 per cent, on 4 inches.
For high tensile bronze the minimum strength is to be 28*5 tons per
square inch, with an elongation of 18 per cent, on 4 inches.
In both cases the test pieces are to be turned to A inch diamstsr.
Electric Ligfhtingf.
§ 1. Dynamos to be of an approved type ; continuous currents ue
to be preferred. The engines should be fitted with a governor and
situatea in the engine-room or in a separate adjacent compartment and
efficiently ventilated.
The dynamo cirouite to be tested to 800 volts for 5 minutes.
§ 2. Sunteh-Boards, — The fittines on main switeh-board should be
mounted on slate or other incombastible material, placed near the
dynamos, and be accessible from the back, if possible, unless all con-
nections be established on the front of the switeh-board. From tiiis
the main circuits should be led to auxiliary switoh-boards for distribut-
ing the current to the various branches which may not be token directly
off a main cable.
BUBBAU VBBITAS BULBS. 665
A Tolt-meter for each installation and an ampere-meter for each
dynamo to be supplied.
§ 8. Lead» to be of copper wire bavinff a condnotiTity of at least
98 per cent. Single wires sbonld not be less than 20 S. W.O., with a
sectional area of at least 1 square inch per 1250 amp^ores. The
insulation on the leads should be absoluteljf' watertight and be
capable of bearing a temperature of 160* F. without being softened.
All cables should hare an insulation resistance of not less than 700
megohms per statute mile after twenty-four hours' immersion in sea
water at a temperature of 60* F.
If alternating currents are used the insulation must be double that
required for a continuous current of same Yoltage.
It is recommended to test the insulation of uie electric plant before
proceeding on a long voyage.
Leads should be accessible. In cabins they should be laid in
battens with covers screwed on; where exposed to moisture they
should be lead covered, and be armoured or protected bv galvanized
iron casings in cargo holds or wherever liable to be injured.
Watertight packings of an approved Irpe must be fitted where
leads pass through decks or watertight bulkheads, and the leads
should be carefully protected from chafing against holes in beams,
&c All bends should be as easy as possible.
§ 4. Jwnta must be carefully made and insulated to the same
degree as the cables, and should be in places always accessible.
Kesin should be employed as a flux ror soldering.
In the double-wire system joints in flow and return wires should
not be opposite one another.
In single-wire plants the joints with hull must be accessible.
Laree cables should be securea in a copper plate bolted to the steel-
worK of the hull, which should be scraped bright at the contact, the
area of contact being at least five times the sectional area of cables.
A brass screw with non-oxidizable washer may be employed for single
lamps and small cables.
§ 5. SwUcku should be made so as to act <|[uickly, and be either
full on or off without remaining in an intermediate position.
They should have large ru1n}ing surfaces, and be so arranged that
the firiction takes off the oxide formed. A switch should be fitted to
each main and branch circuit, and the more important ones arranged
80 as not to be tampered with by irresponsible persons. In places
affected by moisture they should be fittea in watertight boxes having
portable covers.
§ 6. Fusible Cut-otUs should be fitted as a rule at the origin of each
branch circuit, and be situated close to switch, those for the luger
cables being placed on the switch-board. In double wire plants a cut-
out should DC fitted at the origin of each wire of each circuit. Like
switches they should be placeain accessible positions and arranged so
as not to be tampered with, be mounted on an incombustible base,
and be fitted wiui a strong incombustible cover, which should be
watertight where exposed to moisture. They must molt with $
666 APPENDIX B.
current doable the normal one, i,e, at 2500 amperes per square inch,
and care mast be taken to avoid mistakes in the size of fiises.
§7. Lamps to be of an approved pattern, strong, well insulated,
and efficiently secured in their sockets.
Those in machinery space must be watertight and be protected by a
gbiss globe with wire-netting.
In crew spaces, passages, holds, &c., they must be of a strong
pattern efficiently protected by wire-guards. Deck lamps as well as
side and masthead lamps must be perfectly watertight and be fitted
with detachable connections.
§ 8. In Oil Vessels alternating current dynamos are strictly pro>
hibited, and single-wire plants should not be fitted.
The insulating material must be such as not to be injured by oil or
vapours.
The leads must not be run through the tanks, and no switches, cut*
outs or joints may be placed in pump room.
All parts of circuits or fittings where sparks might be produced
must be above the tank-deck, and situated wliere no gas can
accumulate.
Arc lamps may not be used, and all incandescent deck and hold
lamps are to be strongly protected by air-tight globes with wire-
netting.
§ 9. Compasses, — The following precautions are recommended in
order to lessen the deflections produced by electric-currents: com-
passes, especially the standard compass, should be at least 88 feet
from any continuous current dynamo or electromotor, and 50 feet
from alternating current machines. No single wire to be nearer a
compass than 16 feet, and if this be not possible, the double wire or
concentric system should be adopted in tne vicinity of the compass.
Chronometers also should be kept at a fair distance from dynamos
and leads.
The influence of electric currents on compasses mast be tested when
these are being adjusted, with the vessel's head in any position and
with all possible arrangements of current in the leads likely to affect
the compass.
APPENDIX 0.
Rules and Rboulatioks in Force in U.S.A.
Being Extracts from those prescribed by the Board of
Supervising Inspectors.
Steel Plates for Boilers shall be made by the Open Hearth process
and not contain more than 0*04 per cent, of phosphorus, nor more than
0*04 of sulphur. When the tensile strength is less than 68,000 lbs.
the minimum elongation shall be 25 per cent, for plates not exceeding
f inch, and 22 for those over. When the tensile is over 63,000 lbs.
the donation shall be 22 per cent, and 20 per cent.
Iron rlates not less than 45,000 lbs. tensile with 15 per cent,
elongation.
Cylindrical Shells. — Factor of safety when single riveted must not
be less than 6 ; when the longitudinal laps are double riveted working
pressure may be 20 per cent, more — that is, the factor is 5.
Convex Drum Ends :—
W.P.=^.
T ia the thickness in inches.
S is one-fifth the tensile strength in lbs. per square inch.
B= one-half the radius to which this head is ** bumped."
Concave Ends.— Working pressure is 80 per cent of that for
conYex.
Flat Ends not exceeding 20 inches diameter : —
A
T is the tiiickness in sixteenths of an inch.
A = one-half the area of end in square inches.
0 = 112 for plates not exceeding ^ inch ; for those over, 120.
The radius inside at flange to be at least 1} ins. When holes
are cut in boiler shells exceeding 6 inches diameter, doubling
rings shall be fitted inside or outside to compensate fully.
When working pressure does not exceed 76 lbs. the oast-iron
strong flanges of mountings will be sufficient compensation.
667
668 APPENDIX 0.
Hydraulic Test Pressure to be 1 '5 x working pressure.
Riveting^ as prescribed by the British Board of Trade.
Rounded Bottoms of Combustion Chambers : —
' w P 50 (800T-2L)
w.r.- ^ .
T= thickness of plate in inches.
L= extreme length of plate forming bottom in inches.
D= twice the outside radius of curvature in inches.
Tube Plates, pressure allowed on when unsupported : —
^ p (D-(f)T X 27,000
wxD
D is the least horizontal pitch of tubes in inches.
d is the inside diameter of tubes in inches.
T the thickness of plate in inches.
w the extreme width of combustion chamber.
Furnaces. — vSteel shall not exceed 67,000 nor be less than 54,000
lbs. ultimate tensile strength for corrugated furnaces, and not less
than 58,000 lbs. for plain :—
OxT
w.P.=:
D
T the thickness in inches and not less than fy in.
D the mean diameter in inches.
0 for Leeds Suspension 17,300 ; Morison 15,600 ; Fox 14,000 ;
Purves 14,000 ; Holmes 10,000.
Adamson Furnace with flanges not less than 18 inches apart : —
W.P.=^{(1875xT)-(l-03xL)}.
Spherical Top Furnaces : —
Thickness in inches =^^4^ + 0 12.
10,000
R is the radius of ounrature in inches.
If made in more than one plate and e is the value of the joint as
percentage of solid plate then
Thickness will be l?^ii?.
e
Lap-welded Boiler Tubes up to 4 inches diameter shall be of mild
steel (by any process) or charcoal iron.
A piece 2 inches long shall stand flattening to three thicknesses
apart, have a flange turned over at right an^ea with a widUi of i
inch, both done cold.
RULES AND REGULATIONS IN FORCE IN U.S.A. 669
Hydraulic pressure 1000 lbs. per square inch and then stand
hammering. Tubes above 4 inches shall stand flattening to within
three thicknesses, and a hydraulic pressure of 800 lbs. etc.
Seamless Tubes of Open Hearth steel, and when cold-drawn must
be annealed. A piece 8 inches long to stand flattening to three thick-
nesses apart, and flanged as above. When hot finished no annealing,
but same tests. Hydraulic test 1000 lbs. per square inch.
Their thickness must not be less than specified. Manufacturer to
give a certificate that all these tests have been carried out.
Stays :—
W.P. = ^^.
a
A the minimum cross section.
a the areas of surface supported.
C=9000 for tested steel over 1-inch diameter and annealed.
C=7500 „ iron „ „ „
Bars for Stays. — Minimum tensile 58,000 lbs., elongation 28 per
cent, in 2 inches ; when more than 63,000 lbs., 26 per cent.
Girders on Combustion Chamber Tops and other flat surfaces : —
{w-'p)xDxL'
w is the extreme width of box, etc. , in inches.
p the pitch of supporting bolts in inches.
£> the distance between girder centres in inches.
L the length of girder in feet.
d the depth of girder in inches.
C= 650 when girder is fitted with 1 bolt; 825 when with 2 or 3
bolts ; 917 when with 4 or 6 bolts ; 963 when with 6 or 7
bolts ; 990 when with more than 8.
Flat Surfaces. — Maximum stress allowable on : —
CxTa
w.p.=:
^•,0(1)-
T is thickness in sixteenths of an inch.
p the greatest pitch of stays in inches.
0=112 for screw stays with riveted heads, plates /y inch and under.
0=120 ,, ,, ,, ,, over^iiich.
0 = 120 when fitted with nuts and plates ^ inch and under.
0 = 125 ,, ,, ,, over jV inch and under 1^.
0=135 ,, ,, ,, i^ inch and over.
0 = 175 „ ,, double nuts, without washers or doubling.
0 = 180 ,, ,, ,, and washers, etc., 0*5 X plate, and
take T as 72 per cent, of combined thickness =T x 1 08.
0 = 200 when fitted with doubling plates 0*5 x T, covering the whole
area and riveted to it inside or outside.
670 APPENDIX 0.
Fusible Plug^ of bronze filled from end to end with pure (99*5 per
cent.) tin with not more than 0*1 percent, of lead nor more than 0*1 per
cent, of zinc, } inch external diameter, the tin being not less than } inch.
All tank boilers to have not less than two plugs. Vertical boiler plags
} inch diameter with i inch tin. Very elaborate rules for fixing plugs.
Water Gaug^es. — When these are on a stand pipe there must be an
additional set of 8 cocks on the boiler shell. The lower gauge cock on
boilers over 48 inches diameter must be 4 inches above chamber tops
or flues. No need for these additional test cocks with water-tube
boilers.
Double-ended boilers to have at least 8 test cocks and a water gauge
at each end.
Steam Gauges. — One at least to each to indicate pressures up to
80 per cent, of the tost pressure ; that is 20 per cent over the working
pressure.
Safety Valves :—
Area =0*2074 x -^ x sq. feet of grate.
W= pounds of water evaporated per sq. feet of grate area per hour.
P= absolute pressure per sq. inch.
This means that area= weight of water evaporated per hour x 0*2074
-r absolute pressure.
Water-Tube Boilers. — Cylindrical drums having tube holes in their
shells : —
^ p _(p-dl)xTxS
pxB,
p is the pitch of the tubes in inches.
d is the diameter of holes in inches.
T the thickness of plate in inches.
S is } of the tensile strength in lbs. of the plate.
R the radius of the shell in inches.
N the number of holes in a pitch. *
N,B. — When the tubes are pitched diagonally, each diagonal ligament
must be not less than f of each longitudinal.
Hydraulic Test Pressure twice the working pressure.
Malleable cast iron or cast steel may be used for headers, boxes,
bends, etc. Drum ends may be of cast steel, wrought iron, or st«eL
Circumferential and horizontal seams of steam and water drums may
be welded when the ends are spherical and they are properly annealed.
Seamless Copper or Brass Tubes not exceeding £ inch diameter
may be used in water-tube boilers, and the drums may be also when the
diameter does not exceed 14 inches and the thickness not less than
g inch ; when drums are 12 inches diameter the minimum thickness
may be ^ inch.
Welding is allowed very freely both in construction and re|)airing
of boilers.
RULES AND REGULATIONS IN FORCE IN U.S.A. 671
Feed Water shall not be admitted to a marine boiler under 100*' F.
in temperature.
Main Steam Pipes. —Lap- welded wrought iron or steel, or solid-
drawn steel, shall be as follows :-—
Thickne8s=.^^ + 0-1 25.
10,000
W. P. =(T- 0-125) ^ iQ OQQ^
D is the inside diameter of pipe.
>T the thickness in inches.
Steam and Water Pipes. — Up to 2 inches diameter shall be solid-
drawn, those over 2 inches up to 30 inches shall be lap-welded.
Threaded flanges are to be avoided, and on pipes over 5 inches diameter
are not allowed.
Hydraulic tests. Up to 8} inches diameter, 600 lbs.
Pipes 4 inches to 12 inches inside diameter and those 13 inches to
80 inches outside diameter: (a) steel pipes 2 inch length piece. to be
flattened to within three thicknesses, {b) iron pipes to have pieces in
length equal to three thicknesses to be flattened to same extent.
Tensile steel 50,000 lbs., with elongation 20 per cent, in 8 inches.
Iron 40,000 to 48,000, elongation 12 per cent, in 8 inches, elastic limit
22,000 to 30,000.
Hydraulic test 4 inches to 30 inches diameter, 500 lbs.
Lap-welded or Solid-drawn Pipe of wrought iron or steel may be
used for mud or steam drums not exceeding 15 inches diameter.
Copper Pipes. — No bend shall be allowed with a radius of curvature
less than 1 '5 x diameter : —
Thickness =3^^ -f 0-0625 in inches,
6000 *
Cast Steel Pipes :—
Thicknes8=?^? -f 0-188.
7000
Cast Iron, Semisteel, or Ferrosteel Pipes having an ultimate
tensile not less than 20,000 may be used as follows : —
Px D
Thickness in inches = +0'25.
3000
Flang^es of Pipes to be not less than four times the required thickness
of pipe, plus i inch. Hard brass, bronze, or other compositions of
which 95 per cent, is copper, tin, and zinc, having an ultimate tensile
of 80,000 lbs., may be used for all fittings up to 12 inches diameter, for
all pressures up to 300 lbs., and temperatures to 425° F. Over these
pressures and temperatures steel must be used.
APPENDIX D.
Lloyd's Rules bslatino to Use of Eleotrio Light
ON BoABD Vessels.
Leads or Circuits.
copper used in all wires or oabfes should have a conductiTily
iss than that of the Engineering Standards Committee^
1. The
of not less
standard, and the wires must be protected by tinning from the sulphur
compounds present in the insulating materi^.
2. The sectioifal area of the copper wires in the cables should be in
proportion to the current carried, and should not be less than as given
in Table L , which is in accordance with the rules of the Institution of
Electrical Engineers as revised in April, 1911.
S. Except for wiring fittings the sectional area of any copper con-
ductor must not be less than that of No. 18 S.W.G. All copper
conductors having a greater sectional area than No. 14 S.W.G. must
be stranded.
4. The insulating material must be either vulcanized rubber of the
best Qo&lity or it must be equally durable.
5. The insulation must oe such that when the cables have been
immersed in water for 24 hours it will, while still immersed, withstand
1000 volts for half an hour between the conductors and the water.
6. The insulation resistance should not be less than 600 megohms
er statute mile at 60** F. after the cables have been immersed in water
or 24 hours, the test being made after one minute's electrification at
not less than 500 volts and while the cable is still immersed.
Joiiitt.
7. Joints in branches, or of branches with leads of small drouits,
must be made in properly constructed water-tight junction boxes,
or should have the copper wires thoroughly soldered ana the insulation
carefully carried out, all the joints being made water-tight Con-
ductors of larger sectional area than Vis S. W.6. must be soldered to
proper lugs for connection. Joints in flow and return wires should
not be made opposite one another. All joints should be in accessible
positions, none being made in bunkers, cargo spaces, or spaces which
may at any time be i^ed for carrying cargo, stores, or baggage.
8. For solderine wires, the fluxes used must not contain acid or
other corrosive substances.
9. Where practicable, the leads should be placed where they can
alwavs be accessible; if they are laid in wood battens the covers
'hould be screwed on, not nailed, and care should be taken that the
672
fo
Lloyd's bulbs fob blbotbio lighting.
673
casings are so arranged that water will not lodge in them. Cables
which are properly covered with protective metal sheathing, or which
are protected by galvanized wire armouring, may be unencased.
They should, however, be secured by screwed clips, not by staples.
All sharp bends in cables should be avoided.
Table I.
No. of wires
and gauge in
8.W.G. orin
inches.
Nominal
sectional
area of
conductor?,
sq. inches
Maidmum
current
per-
missible.
Amperes.
No. of wires
and gauge in
8.W.G. orin
inches.
Nominal
sectional
area of
conductors,
sq. inches.
Maximum
current
per-
missible.
Amp^es.
ls\^/25
•0009
3-7
19/17 '
•046
70
1 2 3/24
•0011
4^5
7/^097"
•050
74
S^ (8/23
•0013
5-3
19/^058"
•050
74
1/18
•0018
7-2
19/16
•060
83
3/22
•0018
7*2
19/15
•075
97
7/25
•0022
8-6
19/14
•094
113
3/21
•0024
9^5
19/-083"
•100
118
1/17
•0025
9-8
87/16
•117
130
7/24
•0026
10-4
19/13
•125
134
3/20
•0030
12^0
87/15
•150
152
7/23
•0031
124
19/-101"
•150
152
1/16
•0032
12^9
37/14
•182
172
3/19
•0037
14-8
37/083"
•200
184
1/15
•0041
16-3
37/13
•250
214
7/22
•0042
17 0
3*7/12
•300
240
1/14
•0050
19
37/-112"
•350
264
3/18
•0053
20
61/13
•400
288
7/21
•0055
21
61/^097"
•450
310
7/20
•0070
24
61/12
•600
332
7/19
•0086
28
61/-108"
•550
357
7/18
•0125
34
61/ 112"
•600
384
7/17
•017
40
6V118"
•650
410
19/20
•019
43
91/-098"
•700
434
7/16
•022
46
9V101"
•750
461
19/19
•023
47
91/^108"
•800
488
7/-068"
•025
50
91/-112"
•900
540
7/15
•028
53
91/118"
1^000
595
19/18
•034
59
127/101"
1^000
595
7/14
•035
60
1
The above sizes provide security against undesirable rise of tempera-
ture. For long leads larger wires will be required to prevent undue
drop of voltage.
43
674
APPENDIX D.
10. All cables which are liable to be exposed to the weather or
moisture should be lead-coyered, or be otherwise specially protected.
Where ereat heat is experienced, no wood casing snonld be used, but
the cables should be protected by iron casings, or, if they are not
exposed to mechanical injury, they may be armoured with galvanized
wire and fastened to decks or bulkheads with screwed clips spaced not
more than 12 inches apart.
11. If cables are led through cargo spaces, coal bunkers, or spaces
which may at any time be used for carrying cargo, stores, or baggage,
or which are not at all times accessible, they should be strongly pro-
tected against damage, preferably by iron casings. If they are led
through metal tubes, these must be strongly secured, and should be
fitted so that water cannot lodge in them.
Armoured cables may be used without casings or tubes proyided
they are strongly secured to the underside of decks or to bulkheads by
screwed clips, and provided they are armoured in conformity with the
standard of the Engineering Standards Conunittee, as shown in
Table II.
Table II.
Diameter of cable to be
armoured measured
,over lead covering.
Single wire
armouring.
Double wire
armouring.
Metal tape
armouring.
Above.
Up to and
including
Size of
Galvanized
Wire.
Size of Gal-
vanized Wire in
each layer.
Thickness of
Metal Tape,
two layers to
be used.
inch.
• • •
•50
•76
100
1-26
1-50
1-76
2^00
inch.
•60
•76
1-00
1-26
1^60
1-76
2 00
• • •
inch. S.W.O.
•072 No. 16
•092 No. 18
•104 No. 12
•116 No. 11
•128 No. 10
•144 No. 9
•160 No. 8
• • •
inch. S.W.G.
•056 No. 17
•072 No. 16
•080 No. 14
•092 No. 13
•104 No. 12
•116 No. 11
•128 No. 10
•••
inch.
• m »
•08
•04
•04
•04
•04
•04
•06
12. Where cables pass through beams, bulkheads, or other iron work,
they should be led through special fittings of sheet lead, hard wood, or
vulcanized fibre to prevent their being chafed, and where they pass
through decks they should be led through metal tubes lined with
wood or vulcanized fibre, and securely fastened to the decks, standing
at such a height above the deck level that water cannot stand above
them. Where cables pass through water-tight bulkheads the fittings
must be made efficiently water-tight
IS. In vessels having spaces allotted alternately for passengers and
Lloyd's rulbs for blbctric lighting. 676
cargo, the lamp fittings in these spaces should be removable, and the
terminals so arranged that they can be properly covered up with strong
metal covers, or tne whole of the fittings should be similarly provided
with strong metal covers. The main switches and cut-outs should be
outside these spaces, or if placed inside, they should be in strong iron
boxes provided with iron covers, or otherwise securely arranged to
prevent the fittings J)eing tampered with.
Distribution.
14. The main switchboard should be fitted if possible in the dynamo
room, to which all the main circuits throughout the ship should be
brought, a switch and fuse being fitted thereon for each circuit. The
auxiliary switchboards for further subdivision of the current should
be placed in conveniently accessible positions, and each such switch-
board should be similarly fitted with a separate switch and fuse for
each sub-circuit. Fuses should be fitted to each lamp circuit when
these are made with reduced size of wire. If vessels are wired on
the double-wire system, fuses should be fitted to each cable of these
circuits.
15. In cases where electric lights are used for the mast-head light
and side lights, the switches controlling these lights should be placed
in a position where they can be controlled by the officer of the watch,
or other responsible person, and cannot be tampered with by other
members of the crew, or by passengers, &c.
16. The switchboards should be of slate or other incombustible,
non-conducting, and moisture-proof material. The switches should be
on the quick-break principle, and should be so constructed that they
must be either full ** on " or completely ** off," that is, they must not
be able to remain in an intermediate position. They should have
ample rubbing surfaces, and their conductivity should not be less than
that of the wires connected to them, and they must be incapable of
forming a permanent arc when breaking circuit.
17. Fuses should be fitted to each 'main or auxiliary circuit on the
switchboards, as near as possible to the switches of these circuits. If
the switchboard is not fitted near the dynamo, or if more than one
dynamo may be used on any one circuit, then fuses should also be
fitted to the main cable as near as possible to each of the dynamo
terminals.
18. All fuses should be fitted in easily accessible places, and as near
as possible to the commencement of the cables or wires they protect.
They should be mounted on slate or other incombustible bases and
be arranged so that the fused metal may not be a source of danger,
and where they are fitted with covers these should be incombustible.
19. All fuses should be of easily fusible and non-oxidizable metal,
and should be so proportioned as to melt with a current 100 per cent.
in excess of that which the cables they protect are capable of canying,
as shown in Table I. The terminals must be spaced apart or screened,
so that an arc cannot be maintained when the fuse is blown. Separate
676 APPENDIX D.
single fuses and not double pole fuses must be used on circuits where
the pressure exceeds 125 volts.
20. The fuses for each cable should be made of standard dimensions,
so that a large fuse cannot be used for a small cable by mistake, or,
if wire fuses are used, permanent instructions should be fitted on or
near each switchboard giving particulars of the proper size of fuse for
each circuit.
21. In shaft passages and in damp j>laces, all lamp switches and
fuses should be of a strong water-tight pattern, or should be placed in
water-tight boxes having hinged or portable water-tight covers. No
switches or cut-outs are to be placed in bunkers.
22. There should be no joints in the cables leading from the dynamo
to the main switchboard, nor in those leading from the main to
auxiliary switchboards, nor should branches to single lamps be taken
off these cables.
23. A voltmeter should be supplied with each installation. If more
than one dynamo is fitted, neither being capable of the whole of the
output, an ampere meter should be supplied with each dynamo, unless
each dynamo is protected by extra sensitive fuses.
Joints with Hull.
24. In vessels fitted on the single- wire system, all the joints with
the hull should be placed in accessible positions. Those for single
lamps or for small cables should be made with brass screws not less
than three-eighths of an inch in diameter, carefully tapped into tiie
iron or steel, having white brass washers l3etween the wires and the
vessel, or the wires should be soldered to brass*faced washers. For
larger cables above Vis S.W.G. and for the pole of dynamo the cable
wires should be properly sweated into brass or copper shoes, which
should be bolted to the vessel. The iron or steel where contact is made
should be filed bright, and the area of contact should not be less than
eight times the section of the copper of the cable.
In Vessels carrying Petroleum.
25. The single-wire system must not be adopted for any part of the
installation. Switches and fuses must not be fitted in places liable to
the accumulation of petroleum vapour or gas, and all lamps in places
where it is possible for gas to accumulate must, with their holders, be
enclosed in air-tight fittings of thick glass. All wires in such places
are to be lead-covered, or the insulation of the cables employed is tc
be of such a nature as not to be affected by petroleum. Ko joints of
cables, switches, or fuses should be fitted in the pump-room, but the
wires for each lamp therein should be carried to the lamp from a
distributing junction box placed outside the pump-room or companion.
The following paragraphs referring to the effect of the electric
light installations upon the compasses are issued as suggestions, not
as Rules.
Lloyd's rulbs for blbctric lighting. 677
Position of Dynamos and of Electric Motors.
26. The position and type of dynamos and electric motors should
be such that the compasses will not be affected. Dynamos and large
motors should be at least 30 feet from the standard compass.
Cables.
27. In vessels fitted with continuous-current dynamos, and wired
on the single- wire system, no single cable should be carried within 15
feet of any compass, and cables conveying heavy currents should be
fixed at still greater distance. If it is necessary to fix any cables
within this distance, then for all parts of the vessel lichted from this
cable the concentric or double-wire system should be adopted, the
return-wire being carried as near the flow as possible, in the vicinity
of the compasses.
Adjustment of Compasses.
28. The compasses should be adjusted with the dynamo networking,
after which the vessel's head should be put upon the different courses,
with the dynamo running at full speed, and on each course the indica-
tions of the compass should be noted with the dynamo running with
open circuit and with all possible combinations of the current switched
'*on" and **oflf" all circuits passing near the compasses. These
indications should be compared with those obtained with the dynamo
stopped, and any serious deflections of the compasses remedied before
the vessel sails.
APPENDIX E.
Lloyd's Beoisteb of British and Foreign Shipping.
Refrigeratmg Machinery and Appliances.
On the application of the owners of yessels fitted for carrying re-
frigerated cargoes, the Committee will authorize their Sarveyors
to survey the refrigerating machinery and appliances, and in those
cases where the following conditions are complied with and a
satisfactory report is received from the Surveyor, certificates of
these Surveys will be issued, and the notation R.M.G. (in red)
{i,e. Refrigerating Machinery Certificate) will be made against the
vessel's name in the Society's Register Book, and in the special
list of vessels fitted with refrigerating appliances. In cases in
which the refrigerating machinery and appliances are constmcted
under the special survey of the Society s Surveyors and to their
entire satisfaction, the notation ^ R.M.C. {in red) will be made
in the Register Book. The name of the maker and description
and number of the refrigerating machines, whether sin^e or
duplex, and the refrigerating power of the machines will be re-
corded in the special list in the Register Book; as will also the
number and capacity of insulated careo chambers and the nature
of the insulation and the method employed for cooling the holds.
1. The insulation must be sound and in good order and of eflEioient
construction. The details of construction showing the amount and
nature of the insulating material employed in the various parts are to
be reported to the Committee.
Bilge suction and soundine pipes and ballast tank air and sounding
pipes, passing through insulated spaces, ^ould be well insulated to
prevent their being frozen up. No sluice valves, scuppers or drain
pipes are to be fitted which will permit drainage from spaces outside of
the insulated chambers into the Bilges of the insulated holds.
It is recommended that the woodwork of the insulation over tonnel
tops be fastened with screws to feusilitate the examination of this part^
and that extra strong battens of American elm be fitted upon it under
the hatches. Insulated removable portions are to be arranged in the
"bulkhead insulation, where required, to give easy access to sluice vatvei
678
Lloyd's bulbs for befrigbrating machinery. 679
and bilge suction roses.' The bottoms, sides, and coamings of all in-
sulated hatches and limbers should be painted to prevent decay.
Thermometer tube flanges and covers should be arranged so that
water does not run down and freeze in them when takmg the tem-
perature.
Cargo battens should be provided for the floor or deck, and the sides
of the chambers previous to loading the homeward careo. Those for
the sides of the chambers should be fiutened, and shoula be at least 1)
inches in depth and 2 inches wide, one batten being placed over each
frame or ground, the others beins intermediately arranged. The
fMttens for the floor and decks shoula be at least 2" x 2''.
Where the brine nystem of refrigerating is employed, the brine dr-
oulating pipes and tanks should not be galvanizea on the inside.
In cases where internally galvanized tanks and cooling pipes have
been fitted, the brine cooling and return tanks, if clos^, should be
provided with two ventilating pipes communicating with the atmos-
phere. If the tanks are not closed, the cooling room should be effici-
ently ventilated.
2. The refrigerating machinery is to be of approved construction and
of sufficient power to maintain the necessary low temperature in the
cargo chambers in tropical climates when running eighteen hours per
day. For cargo capacities of above 70,000 cnbic feet the machinery is
to be either duplex or in duplicate.
8. A sufficient amount of spare gear is to be supplied and stowed
where it is readily accessible.
No spare gear will, however, be required in cases where two complete
sets of refrigerating machines are fitted, ecu^ being of sufficient power
to maintain the necessary low temperature in the cargo chambers in
tropical climates when running eighteen hours per day, provided all
the working parts of these machines are interchangeable.
When two similar machines are fitted, each connected to different
csrco compartments, one set of spare gear suitable for either machine
wiU suffice.
Where one single dry air machine is fitted to each compartment, the
following will be required : —
1 crank shaft with eccentric sheaves, complete, or one half shaft if
the halves are interchangeable.
1 piston rod and nuts for steam and air cylinders.
1 set of piston rod and connecting rod brasses.
1 piston, complete, for each steam and air cylinder.
1 cylinder cover for each pattern used in steam and air cylinders.
1 air pump bucket and rod.
1 circulating pump bucket and rod.
1 pair main bearing brasses, complete.
Main and cut-off valves for each steam cylinder.
Balance springs and rincs for steam and air slide valves.
False valve face for each pattern fitted in steam cylinders, with
screws.
680 APPENDIX B.
1 eojentrio rod for each pattern used.
1 eccentric strap for each pattern used.
1 slide valve spindle and nuts for steam and air cylinders, for each
pattern used.
2 main bearing bolts.
1 set of connecting rod and piston rod bolts.
Full set of air valves and seats for air compressor.
1 set of inlet and outlet valves, and 1 set valve faces (if fitted) for
air expansion cylinder with screws.
1 set of valves for air, circulating and feed pnmpa
1 set of escape valve springs.
50 suction springs.
50 delivery springs.
50 buffer springs.
6 tubes and 24 ferrules for condenser.
6 tubes for cooler.
6 tubes for air drying chamber.
Assorted bolts, studs, and nuts.
1 set of lead-lined nuts for air expansion cylinder cover.
A quantity of packings and joint rings.
Where one duplex or two single dry air machines are fitted to each
compartment, the following will be required : —
1 crank shaft with eccentric sheaves complete, or one half shaft if
the halves are interchangeable.
1 piston rod and nuts for steam and air cylinders.
1 set of connecting rod and crosshead brasses.
1 piston for H. P. steam cylinder.
1 piston, complete, for air compressor ; and 1 for air expansion
cylinder.
1 set of piston springs for each steam cylinder.
1 cylinder cover for each pattern used in air compression and
expansion cylinders.
1 air pump bucket and rod.
1 circulating pump bucket and rod.
Main and cut-off slide valves and spindles with nuts complete for
H. P. steam cylinder.
Bahkuce springs and rings for steam and air slide valves.
1 H. P. steam cylinder valve and valve face with screws.
1 eccentric sheave, strap^ and rod for each pattern used.
1 slide valve spindle and nuts for steam and air cylinders for each
pattern used.
2 mam bearing bolts.
1 set of connecting rod and piston rod bolts.
Half set of air valves and seats for air compressor.
1 inlet and 1 outlet valve, and half set of valve faces (if fitted) for
air expansion cylinder, with screws.
1 set of valves for air, circulating, and feed pumps.
1 set of escape valve springs.
LLOYD'S RULES FOR RBPRIGBRATING MAOHTNBRY. 681
20 suction springs.
40 delivery springs.
40 buffer springs.
6 tubes and 24 ferrules for condenser.
6 tubes for cooler and 6 for air drying chamber.
Assorted bolts, studs, and nuts.
Half set of lead-lined nuts for air expansion cylinder oorer.
A quantity of packings and joint rings.
Where one single ammonia or carbonic anhydride compression
machine is fitted :^
1 crank shaft with eccentric sheaves complete, or one half shaft if
the halves are interchangeable.
Piston and rods complete with nuts for each steam cylinder 3nd
gas compressor.
1 air pump bucket and rod.
1 circulating pump bucket and rod.
1 pair main bearing brasses, complete.
1 set of connecting rod and crosshead brasses.
Main and cut-off valves for steam cylinders.
1 valve spindle for each pattern used and nuts complete.
1 eccentric strap and rod for each pattern used.
1 brine pump complete.
1 cover for each pattern used.
2 main bearing bolts.
1 set of connecting rod and piston rod bolts.
1 set compressor suction and delivery valves with springs and
boxes, complete.
1 set of valves for air, circulating, feed, and brine pumps.
Crank shaft for fan engine.
1 steam piston and roa, etc. , for fan engine, complete.
1 pair of connecting rod brasses for fan engines, with bolts, etc.,
complete.
1 set of blocks for making all leather packings used.
6 tubes and 24 ferrules for condenser.
Lengths and bends of piping of each size used, together with
flanges, couplings, and screwing apparatus for effecting repairs.
1 gas regulating valve.
1 distributing and 1 collecting piece with multiple branches for
coils for each pattern used. If these pieces are made of
forged steel, no spare pieces are required.
Sundry valves, cocks, flanges, and fittings.
Assorted bolts, studs, and nuts.
Quantity of leather packings and joint rings.
For ammonia and carbonic anhydride compression machines, the
following spare gear will be required, where one duplex or two single
machines are fitted to each comnartment : —
1 crank shaft, or one half shaft if the halves are interchangeable.
1 steam piston rod and nut for each pattern used.
682 APPBNDIX S.
1 piston for H.P. steam cylinder, with springs, complete.
1 set of piston rings for each steam cylinder.
1 set of piston rings for each size of compressor.
1 compressor piston rod and nuts, complete, for each pattern
nsed.
1 air pump hncket and rod.
1 circulating pump bucket and rod.
Main and cut-off slide yalyes for H.P. steam cylinder.
Main and cut-off valve spindles and nuts for H.P. steam cylinder.
1 eccentric sheave, strap, and rod, for each pattern used.
1 brine pump complete.
1 cover for each end of gas compressor, except where screwed
plugs are used.
.2 mam bearing bolts.
Half set of connecting rod and piston rod bolts.
Half set compressor suction ana 1 delivery valve with springs and
box, completo.
1 set of valves for air, circulating, feed, and brine pumps.
1 steam piston and rod, ete., for fan engine, completo.
1 pair of connecting rod brasses for fan engines, with bolts, eto.,
complete.
1 set of blocks and leather for making all leather packings used.
6 tubes and 24 ferrules for condenser.
Lengths and bends of piping of each size used, together with
flanges, couplings, and screwing apparatus for effecting
repairs.
1 gas regulating valve.
1 distributing and 1 collecting piece with multiple branches for
coils for each pattern used. If these pieces are made of forged
steel, no spare pieces are required.
Sundry valves, cocks, flanges, and fittings.
Assorted bolts, studs, and nuts.
A quantity of joint rings.
In cases where an independent circulating wator pump is used, and
its work cannot be performed by the main or auxiliary engines, a
duplicate pump completo should be fitted.
in cases where an independent circulating water pump is used, and
its work can be performed by the main or auxiliaiy engines, a pump
bucket and rod should be carried, and half set of valves for wator end.
In cases where an independent surfMse condenser with air, cireulatisg,
and feed pumps combined is fitted, and its work cannot be performed
by the main engines : —
1 crank shaft with eccentric sheaves completo.
1 piston and rod completo for each pattern used.
1 eccentric strap and rod completo for each pattern used.
1 slide valve and spindle completo for each pattom used.
1 pump bucket and rod completo for each pattom used.
1 set of connecting rod and piston rod bolte uid nuts.
Lloyd's bulbs for refrigerating machinery. 683
1 set of yalves for air, circulating, and feed pmnpa.
6 condenser tubes and 12 ferrides.
In cases where an independent surface condenser with air, circulating,
and feed pumps combing is fitted, and its work can be performed by
the main engines : —
1 pump bucket and rod complete for each pattern used.
1 set of connecting rod and piston rod bolte and nuts.
Half set of yalves for air, circulating, and feed pumps.
6 condenser tubes and 12 ferrules.
Periodical Surveys.
4. In the cases of ressels engaged on voyages of more than three
months' duration, a complete examination, as detailed in par. 9, is
required every voyage. If this examination is made at other than the
loading port a further examination is required at the loading port.
(See par. 11.)
5. In the cases of vessels engaged on voyages of more than two and
not more than three months' duration, a complete examination as
above detailed is required at each alternate voyage, but at the inter-
mediate voyage a modified examination as described in par. 10 will be
sufficient, but the survey at loading port provided for in par. 11 should
be held every voyage.
6. In vessels engaged on shorter over-sea voyages, the above
examinations are to be held at least every three months, alternate
examinations being as provided for in pars. 9 and 10, but the survey
at loading port provided for in par. 11 should be held eveiy voyage.
In the cases of vessels engaged on voyages of only a few days'
duration, the complete examinations are to be held at least every three
months, alternate examinations being as provided for in pars. 9 and 10,
but the examination of insulation, etc., provided for in par. 11, instead
of being held every voyage need only be held at intervals of four or six
weeks, as may be approved in each special case.
7. if in any case only part of the requisite examinations is Jield, the
certificate will he endorsed with a staUment of whaA is required to
complete the su/rvey.
8. The date following the record R.M.C. in red indicates the date
of the last examination of the Refrigerating Machinery and appliances
as above mentioned.
When the periodical Surveys provided for in pars. 4, 5, and 6 are
not hdd, the record R.M.C. will be expunged.
9. The complete periodical Survey required in par. 4 will consist of
the following : —
The insulation throughout the holds is to be carefally examined and
tested for dryness and fulness by sounding with a hammer and by
boring. The test holes are to be afteiwards efficiently closed. Specitd
attention is to be paid to the spaces under the snow boxes, trunk"
684 APPENDIX B.
and hatches where dampness may aocumulate, to the sides nnder
stringers and under decks and to the tunnel tops. All limber hatches
are to be removed, the limbers cleared, and the suction pipes and
roses, sluices and sounding pipes are to be examined. Hatches, air
trunk -ways, and thermometor tubes with their connections and
fastenings are to be examined, and where trunk-ways pass through
watertignt bulkheads, the watertight doors are to be examined, and
worked.
The trunk-ways should be as airtight as practicable and their
fastenings should be secure.
The steam pipes, water pipes and connections, the crank shaft and
bearings, connecting rods, steam and air cylinders, pistons, slides and
valves, compressors and pistons, compressor rods and glands, surface
condenser and air or gas coolers, circulating, air, feed and bilge pumps,
are to be carefully examined and the condensers and coolers tested if
deemed necessary.
The auxiliary machinery, where fitted, is also to be examined.
The spare gear is to be examined.
In dry air machines special attention is to be given to the condition
of the air expansion cylinders, their pistons and valves. In other
machines special attention is to be given to the condition of the
compressors, including the pistons, rods, and glands, and to the
expansion valve.
The refrigerator coils and their connections and the brine pipes
and tanks, where fitted, are to be carefully examined and tested if
deemed necessary.
Where the brine may escape to the bilges, the cement is to be
examined.
The machinery is to be examined under workine conditions, and
tested on the snow box or refrigerators, the time and fall of
temperature being noted.
It is recommended that the examination of the machinery under
working conditions should be made upon the vessel's arrival at a
home port, before the cargo is fuUy diacharged. Where brine pipes
are fitted they should be examined when under frosted conditions.
10. The examination required at alternate voyages in pars. 6 and 6
will consist of the following : —
The Insulation and Trunk-ways are to be surveyed in the same
manner as is required for the complete examination detailed above.
{See par. 9. )
Provided the machinery when tested under working oonditions is
found to be satisfactory, the following parts only will be required to be
examined at this Survey, viz. : —
Steam valves, air pump, and circulating pump.
Crank shafts and bearings.
Air and other compressors and valves.
Expansion cylinder and valves in dry air machinea.
Condenser water spaces.
LliOTD's BULBS FOR REFRIGSRATmO MAOHINBRY. 685
Sea injection yalyes to be opened whenever the vessel is in dry
dock.
Brine pipes in holds under frosted conditions.
The spare gear.
11. If the machinery and insulation have been surveyed and passed
at a home port, the further survey required at a loading port will
consist of an inspection to ascertain that the dunnage battens are in
good order and lliat no damage has been sustained to the insulation
prior to the loading of the refrigerated cargo, and also of a test of the
refrigerating machinery under working conditions, the temperature in
the hold being noted.
If the vessel loads at more than one port, one survey only at a load-
ing port will be required, provided it includes the examination of all
insulated spaces.
If there is no Surveyor to the Society available at the loading ports,
or if there is not one obtainable from a port within a reasonable
distance, this survey may be held at the port where the outward cargo
is discharged. If there is no Surveyor to the Society at either of these
ports, the Committee will accept the report of a survey held by a
Surveyor appointed by Lloyd's Agent ; or (in any case where there is
no Lloyd's Agent) the report of a survey by a reliable Surveyor, if
available ; or (if no such Surveyor is available) a report, signed by two
competent Engineers, of the vessel.
APPENDIX F,
STEERING GEAR.
L Lloyd's Rules for Stberino Gear.
Section 43. 1. Rudder Stops. — Suitable stops for the mdder
should be securely fastened to the deck in way of the tiller or quadrant
tiller. Where a suitable brake is fitted to the tiller or quadrant tiller,
or where the steering quadrant is geared direct on to the steam steering
engine, the deck stops may be dispensed with. The stops of the steam
steering engines should be fitted at a smaller angle of helm than the
rudder stops, so as to prevent excessive strains consequent on a rudder
being forced against its stops.
2. Spare Tiller. — Vessels which have not two independent steering
gears are to have spare tiller and gear ready for use when required.
8. Independent Means of Steering. — Where combined hand and
steam steering gear is adopted, and in which both gears depend upon
the efficiency of a keyed quadrant or tiller, independent means of
steering must be provided.
Steamers above 250 feet in length are to be fitted with two indepen-
dent steering gears, one of which must be a steam or other mechanical
steering gear, and it is recommended that the two controlling wheels
of the mechanical gear should be placed one at the gear and the other
one on the navigating bridge.
4. Protection of Steenng* Gear. — In steamers above 250 feet in
length, not having full poops or awning or shelter decks, the after
steering wheel and gear are to be protected by a substantially con-
structed iron or steel deck-house or hood.
5. Springs or buffers are to be fitted to all steam steering gears of
steamers.
6. Steering Chains or Rods. — The diameters of steering chains or
rods are to be as given in Table XXY. * for the various dumeters of
rudder heads and the corresponding radii of quadrant tillers. Where
the radius of quadrant or length of tiller adopted differs from that
given in the Table, the diameter of steering oham is to be calcnlated
from the following formula : —
d
= -88V W
where ^= diameter of chain in inches ; D= diameter of rudder head in
inches according to Table for rudder heads ; B= radius of quadrant or
length of tiller at the centre of the chain in inches.
* See " Lloyd's Rules and Kegulationa.'
686
llotd's and board of trade rules for steering qbar. 687
7. Leads of Steering^ Chains. — Care should be taken that the
leads of the steering chains are made as direct as possible, sharp nips
or bends being avoided.
8. The diameters at the centre of the chain of leading block sheaves
are not to be less than sixteen times that of the steering chains, and
the pins of the sheaves are not to be less than twice the diameter of
the chains.
ft
II. BoA&D OF Trade Requirements. Seo. 76.
A spare tUler (which has been properly fitted to the rudder head),
relieving tackle, &c., should, in all foreign-going and home-trade
steamships, be kept near the after steering gear ready for immediate
service. In large steamships where the use of hand gear is impracticable
and such gear is not provided, the spare tiller should be attached to
the rudder head ready for immediate use, unless the working tiller is
of special design and stren^h, in which case a spare tiller may not be
required, but full particulars should be submitted for the Board's
consideration. .The steering gear, including chains, should be thoroughly
overhauled at every survey, and taken to pieces and thoroughly
examined at least opce a year. The chains and blocks that are liable
to interfere with or endanger the passengers or crew should be guarded
by portable, but properly secured, guards.
With the view of relieving, as far as practicable, the rudders of
vessels from severe and sudden shocks, springs have in some cases been
fitted to the quadrant, or to the rods or chains at each side of the
vessel, and the Board think that such fittings, or other efficient means,
should be adopted, more particularly in the case of new vessels.
The Surveyors should note that the steam and exhaust pipes of
steering engines in all new passenger steamships should be at least of
the same internal diameter respectively as the steam and exhaust
connections on the cylinders. The arrangement should be such that
water will not readily lodge either in the cylinders or in the steam and
exhaust pipes. Right-angled bends in the pipes should be avoided
as much as possible, and the pi^es should be used exclusively for the
steering engines. When this is not the case, full particulars and
sketches should be submitted to the Board for consideration.
Attention is also directed to a description of steam steering gear in
which a part of the shaft, by which the helmsman actuates the con-
trolling valve, passes through another shaft that is liable to be thrown
out of line by the reaction of the spur gearing, and, consequently, is
liable to jam the inside shaft to such an extent as to deprive the
helmsman of the control of the steering gear. All steam steering
gears should be carefully examined, and if any be found constructed
in the manner described above, their use should be discouraged, and
in any case they should not be approved, unless they have been tested
from midship to hard over in both directions, and found satisfactory
when the vessel is running at full speed.
APPENDIX a.
Lloyd's Beoistbb of British and Fobeion Shipping.
Instructions to Surveyors regarding Tests, not Prescribed in
the Society's Rules, for Steel and other Materials.
1. In cases where the material is not required to be in accordance
with the Societr^'s Rules, the Committee will approve of their Surveyors
testing steel plates, sections and bars, iron and steel forgings and
steel castings, to suitable specifications other than those stated in the
Society's Rules, if these are mutually agreed upon by the manu-
facturers and purchasers. In the cases of rolled material tested under
these conditions, the Brand 7t< must not be used, this being reserved
n
exclusively for material conforming- in all respects to the requirements
of the Society's Rules.
2. The Committee will also approve of their Surveyors testing iron
and steel tubes and pipes, copper and brass sheets, plates and tubes,
and also similar material used in constructional work, as to which
there are no tests mentioned in the Society's Rules, provided the tests
actually specified are considered to be of a satisfactory character and
are mutusdly agreed upon by manufacturers and purchasers.
In cases where no such tests have been mutually agreed upon, the
following specifications for the different materials are suggested as
being suitable for the mutual agreement referred to, vis. :—
Steel Forgiags for Special Purposes.
In cases where it is desired to depart from the limits of strength of
material provided for in the Rules of Lloyd's Register, viz. : from 28
to 32 tons per square inch, the Rules of the British Engineering
Standards Committee are suggested, viz. :—
Tensile Strength. — A margin of 4 tons per square inch shall be
allowed between the specific maximum and minimum tensile breaking
strengths.
Elong'ation. — The sum of the percentage of elongation measured on
a Standard test piece and of the actual tensile strength in tons per
square inch shall in no case be less than 57.
Bend Tests. — Cold bend tests shall be made upon test pieoes having
688
Lloyd's ikstructions to survbyoius rsgarding tests. 68d
a rectaogular section of 1 inch wide by -f inch thick. The test pieces
shall be machined and the edges rounded to a radius of ^ inch, and
shall be bent over the thinner section. The tests may be made by
pressure or by blows. The test pieces must withstand, without
fracture, being bent through an angle of 180°, the internal radius of
the bend being not greater than as specified below : —
Maxtmum Specified Tensile Strength
of Forging.
Internal Radius
of Test Piece
after Bending.
82 tons per square inch
Above 82 and up to 86 tons per square inch .
,, 86 „ 40 ,, ,, . .
Inch.
f
f
Lapwelded Iron or Steel Boiler Tubes.
Two per cent of plain tubes and 2 per cent of stay tubes are to
be subjected to a hydraulic test of 750 lbs. per square inch.
Two per cent of plain tubes are to be expanded cold at both ends
by roller expanders to an increase of ^th of their diameter. These
tubes are then to be cut up, and two pieces, each 2 inches long, taken
from each for crushing and bending tests.
A piece of each selected tube, 2 inches long, shall be placed on end,
and must stand hammering down until it is reduced to If inches long
without showing crack or flaw. A similar test piece from each
selected tube is to be flattened till its narrowest width is two-thirds the
original diameter.
In the case of stay tubes where the ends are made thicker than the
body of the tube, the thickening is to be done by upsetting, not by
any welding process.
All the tubes are to be inspected and gauged for both diameter and
thickness.
Should any of the above tests fail, two further tubes shall be taken
and the test repeated on a piece or pieces cut from each of them. If
the repeat tests from both tubes are satisfactory, the batch of tubes
represented shall be accepted ; but, if defects are again shown, the
batch of tubes represented shall be rejected.
Charcoal Iron Lapwelded Boiler Tubes.
Two per cent of plain tubes and 2 per cent of stay tubes are to be
subjected to a hydraulic test of 750 lbs. per sauare Inch.
l?wo per cent of each size of tube ordered shall be cut up to make
the following tests : —
Each tube so selected must stand expanding at both ends, both
44
690 APPBNDIZ O.
hot and cold, without crack or Haw, until the diameter of the bulged
end measures not less than 15 per cent greater than the original
diameter of the tube when tested hot, and 10 per cent greater when
tested cold.
A piece of each selected tube, 2 inches long, shall be placed on end,
and must stand hammering down until it is reduced to If inches long,
without showing crack or flaw.
A similar piece from each selected tube must stand flattening until
the interior surfaces of the tube meet without showing crack or flaw,
thus: (^
In the case of stay tubes where the ends are made thicker than the
body of the tube, the thickening is to be done by upsetting, not by
any welding process.
All the tubes are to be inspected and gauged for both diameter and
thickness. For the thickness, a tolerance of nothing negative and
plus 10 per cent may be permitted.
Shquld any of the above tests fail, two further tubes shall be taken
and the test repeated on a piece or pieces cut from each of them. If
the repeat tests from both tubes are satisfactory, the batch of tubes
represented shall be accepted ; but, if defects are again shown, •the
batch of tubes represented shall be rejected.
Seamless Steel Boiler Tubes.
Seamless steel boiler tubes may be finished hot or cold, as may be
specified. They are to be well finished and clean inside and out, and
free from laminations, surface defects, and rust, and unless otherwise
specified are to be of uniform diameter throughout Each tube is to
be in a properly annealed condition when finished.
Any thickening I'equired to the tube ends is to be done by upsetting,
not by any welding process.
Two per cent, of the tubes are to be selected by the Surveyor for
making the following tests : —
Expanding' Test — Both ends of the tubes are to withstand being
expanded cold by a three-roller expander to the following increases of
diameter : —
fnut^i,..^.. ^4 riv.K^ Increaae of Diameter,
Thickness of Tube. percent
Under i inch 12^
I to ^ inch 9^
Above ^ inch 6^
After the expanding test, the selected tubes are to be oat up and
the following tests are to be made from each : —
Tensile Tests. — Strips about 1^ inches wide are to be cut from the
tubes and flattened. These strips may be annealed i^ter flattening.
They are to have an ultimate tensile strength of not more than 26 tons
per square inch in cold finished tubes, and 27 tons in those which are
1
Lloyd's instructions to survbyors rbgarding tbsts. 691
hot finished, and an elongation of not less than 27 per cent in a
length of 2 inches in all cases.
Temper Test. —Strips about 1^ inches wide cut from th^ tubes and
flattened, heated to a blood red, and cooled in water at about 80** F. ,
are to stand being doubled over a radius of one-and-a-half times their
thickness.
Crushing Test.— Pieces 2 inches long cut from the tubes are to
withstand, when cold, being hammered down endwise until their
length \s reduced to 1 inch in the case of cold finished tubes, and to
If inches in the case of those finished hot
Flattening' Test. — Pieces 2 inches long, cut from cold finished
tubes, are to withstand flattening by hammering, when cold, as
follows, viz. : —
Under f inch in thickness . • . Till the sides are close together
thus :
^ inch and up to ^ inch ... Till the sides are broueht to a dis-
tance apart equal to the thickness
of the tube.
Above ^ inch ••••••... 'Till the sides are brought to a dis-
tance apart equal to twice the
thickness of the tube.
In the case of hot finished tubes of any thickness, the flattening
shall be till the sides are brought to a distance apart equal to twice
the thickness of the tubes.
Hydraulic Test — The whole of the tubes are to be tested by
hydraulic pressure to 1000 lbs. per square inch.
Should any of the above tests fail, two further tubes shall be taken,
and the test repeated on a piece or pieces cut from each of them. If
the repeat tests from both tubes are satisfactory, the batch of tubes
represented shall be accepted ; but, if defects are again shown, the
batch of tubes represented shall be rejected.
The tubes are to be gauged for thickness and for diameter.
Tolerance as to Dimensions. — For thickness, a tolerance of
nothing negative and of plus 10 per cent for cold finished tubes may
be permitt^.
For hot finished tubes the tolerance may be nothing negative and
plus 15 per cent, in tubes not over 10 feet in length, and of plus 20
per cent, in longer tubes.
For diameter, in all cases a tolerance of \ per cent greater diameter
may be permitted. In cold finished tubes a tolerance of 1 per cent,
smaller diameter, in tubes not more than 2 inches diameter, and of
^ per cent, in larger tubes, may be permitted.
In hot finished tubes the tolerance of less diameter may be 2 per
cent for tubes not more than 2 inches diameter, and H P®r ^^^ "*
larger tubes.
692 APPENDIX O.
Iron or Steel Steam Pipes.
These must be made of a thickness suitable for the diameter and
the steam pressure at which they are to be used. If intended for use
in vessels classed in Lloyd's Register, the thickness must be submitted
to and approved by the Committee.
Lapweided iron and lapwelded or seamless steel pipes are to be
submitted to a hydraulic test of at least three times the intended
working steam pressure.
The flanges, whether of iron or steel, are to be forged from the solid,
and are to be screwed or riveted on, as may be specified. If the flanges
are screwed on, the threads are to be vanishing.
In special cases the welding of flanges to the pipes may be approved,
if particulars of the welding process are submitted and considered to
be satis£etctory.
All steam pipes should be properly annealed after the bending ^
welding operations are completed.
Seamless and Brazed Copper Tubes.
•
The tubes must be clean, smooth, and free from surface defects.
At least 2 per cent, of the tubes must be cut up for test.
Tubes may be ordered either annealed or hard drawn. All test
pieces shall be annealed before testing.
The tubes must stand drifting, without showing either crack or flaw,
until the diameter of the drifted end measures at least 25 per cent
greater than the original diameter of the tube.
A piece of the tube shall be flattened down until the interior surfaces
of the tube meet, and then the flattened tube shall be doubled over
itself close, that is, bent through an angle of 180**, the bend being at
right angles to the length of the tube. This test should be made both
hot and cold.
All tubes shall be subjected to an internal hydraulic test to such
pressure as may be specified. If no pressure is specified a suitable
pressure is given by —
Pressure in lbs. per square inch=4500-Yr-i
where t is the thickness and D the internal diameter in inches.
A tolerance of nothing negative and 5 per cent, positive may be
allowed in the thickness.
For copper steam pipes, electro-deposited pipes must not be used.
For large pipes, say 4 inches diameter and above, instead of tiie
flattening test, the tests applicable to plates and sheets may be
substituted upon strips cut longitudinally and transversely from the
pipes.
LLOYD'S INSTRUCTIONS TO SURVEYORS REGARDING TESTS. 693
Copper Plates and Sheets.
The plates and sheets must be clean, smooth, and free from surface
defects.
Each plate or sheet must be distinctly stamped with an identification
mark.
The number of tensile and bend tests to be taken are as may be
specitied. For large firebox plates, a tensile and a bend test should be
taken from each plate. The test pieces are to be annealed before
testing.
The tensile test pieces, with a width of about ]^ inches and a length
of 8 inches between gauge points, should show a tensile strength of
not less than 14 tons per square inch, and an elongation of at least
35 per cent.
Bend tests, both hot and cold, should be capable of being flattened
over on themselves both ways thus: v v without showing
either crack or flaw on the outside of the bends. The cold bend test
is afterwards to be drawn out cold by hammering to a feather edge,
thus : ' », ^ drawn to ^ \ ^^\^ .
Brass Condenser Plates, Condenser Tubes, &c.
Brass condenser plates are to be clean, smooth, and free from surface
defects.
If tensile tests are required, the ultimate tensile strength should not
be less than 22 tons per square inch, with an elongation of at least
10 per cent, measured on a Standard test piece.
Brass condenser tubes are to be seamless, of uniform diameter, and
free from surface defects both inside and outside.
Each tube is to be tested by internal hydraulic pressure to 300 lbs.
per square inch, the pressure being maintained while the outside of the
tube is jarred along its length between suitable mallets.
The tubes are to be grouped in parcels of 100. Two of the tubes
from each parcel are to be selected for the following tests : —
They are, without being previously annealed, to stand hammering on
the end with a hand hammer, when held loosely, or jarring by being
dropped when held horizontally from a height of 3 feet on a hard
wooden floor. Pieces, 2 inches long, cut from either end of these
tubes, are to be capable of being flattened till the diameter one way
is 70 per cent, of the original. The tubes are also to stand heating to
a dull red without fracture. They are afterwards to be cut open their
whole length for an examination of the inner surfaces.
In the event of any of the above tests failing, two further tubes are
to be selected from the same parcel and the failed tests are to be re-
peated. If these tests are satisfactory from both tubes, the parcel may
be approved ; but, if any failure again occurs, the parcel of tubes
represented should be rejected.
694
▲PPBNDIX G.
High-Tension Brass Castings.
High-tension brass castings (including propeller blades) are to have
a tensile strength of not less than 28 tons per square inch, with an
elongation of not less than 15 per cent, measured on a Standard test
piece.
High-Tension Brass Rolled Rods and Forg^gs.
High-tension brass rolled rods and forgings are to have a tensile
streugth of not less than 28 tons per square inch, with an elongation of
not less than 28 per cent, measured on a Standard test piece.
Naval Brass Rods, Sheets, and Plates,
Naval brass bars are to be capable of (a) being hammered hot to a
fine point, (b) being bent cold without annealing through an angle of
75** without fracture over a radius equal to the diameter of the bar.
Test pieces, at least 1^ inches wide, cut from Naval brass sheets and
plates, must be capable of being bent cold through the angle specified
over a radius equal to the thickness of the sample.
The tensile and bend tests for Naval brass are as follows :—
Ultimate
Tensile Tons
per square
inch.
Elongation
oil Standard
Test Piece.
Bending
Angle
through
Naval brass round and hexagon
bars 3 in. and uhder
Naval brass round and hexagon
bars above } in. .
Naval brass sheets f in. thick
and under, annealed .
Naval brass sheets | in. thick
and under, not annealed
Naval brass plates above f in.
up to ^ in. thick .
Naval brass plates above ^ in.
up to j- in. thick .
Naval brass plates above } in.
thick
26
22
26
26
26
24
22
Per cent.
20
20
SO
25
20
20
22
•
76
76
180
135
185
120
90
APPENDIX H.
Lloyd's Reoisteb Rules fob Diesel Enoinbs.
Nominal Horse Power.
The followiDg rule is to be used for determining the nominal horse
power of Diesel engines in regolating the fees for their survey, viz. : —
N.H.P. = - ^ JJ-. ^ in the case of single-acting engines of
°" the 4-cyole type,
as ^ in the case of single-acting engines of
^^ the 2-cycle type, and
s ^ in the case of double-acting engines of
2" the 2-cycle type,
where D=: diameter of cylinder in inches,
S= stroke of piston in inches in ordinary reciprocating engines,
= twice the stroke of piston in the case of engines of the
" Junker " type,
N= number of cylinders.
Rules for the Construction and Survey of Diesel
Engines and their Auxiliaries.
Section i. — In vessels propelled by Diesel oil engines, the rules as
regards machinery will be the same as those relating to steam engines,
so far as regards the testing of material used in their construction ana
the fitting of sea connections, discharge pipes, shafting, stem tubes,
and propellers.
Construction.
Section 2. — 1. In vessels built under Special Survey and fitted
with Diesel engines, the engines must also be constructed under
Special Survey.
2. In cases of Diesel engines being built under Special Survey, the
distinguishing mark ►f" will be noted in red, thus : *i*ljM.O or 4;NE.
8. In order to facilitate the inspection, the plans of the machinery
695"
696
APPENDIX H.
are to be examined by the Surveyors, and the dimensions of the shafts
are to be submitted for approval.
4. The Surveyors are to examine the nuterials and workmanship
from the commencement of the work until the final test of the
machinery under full power working conditions ; any defects are to be
pointed out as early as possible.
6. Any novelty m the construction of the machinery is to be reported
to the Committee and submitted for approval.
6. The auxiliary engines used for air compressing, working dyna-
mos and ballast, or other, pumps, are also to be surveyed during
construction.
7. In cases where the designed maximum pressure in the cylinders
does not exceed 600 lbs. per square inch, the diameters of the crank
shaft of the main engines are not to be less than those given by the
following formula : —
Diameter of crank shaft = i^D» x ( AS + BL),
where D= diameter of cylinder,
S= length of stroke,
L=span of bearings adjacent to a crank, measured from inner
edge to inner edge.
The values of (AS + BL) are as given in the following table : —
Table I.
4-Gycle Single-Acting
Engine.
2-Cycle Single-Acting
Engine.
1
Values of the
Go>efflcteBt.
4 or 6 cyls.
8 cyls.
10 or 12 cyls.
16 cyls.
2 or 3 cyls.
4 cyls.
5 or 6 cyls.
8 cyls.
•089S+066L
•099 S -1- -064 L
•111S-I-'052L
•131S-H-050L
For auxiliary engines of the Diesel type the diameters may be 6 per
cent, less than given by the foregoing formula.
8. In solid forged shafts the breadth of the webs should not be less
than 1 '33 times and the thickness not less than 0*56 times the diameter
of the shaft as found above, or, if these proportions are departed from,
the webs must be of equivalent strength.
9. Where no fly-wheel is fitted, the diameter of the intennediste
shaft must not be less than given by the formula : —
Diameter of intermediate shaft = co- efficient i/D* x S,
where D = diameter of cylinder,
S = stroke of piston,
and the value of the co-efficient is given by the following table :—
Lloyd's rbgistbb rules for dibsel engines. 697
Table II.
i-GycYe Single- Acting
Engine.
S-Cycle Single-Acting
Engine.
Value of the
Co-efficient.
4 cyls.
6, 8, 10, or 12 cyls.
16 cyls.
2 cyls.
8, 4, 6, or 6 cyls.
8 cyls.
•456
•486
•466
»
Where the stroke is not less than 1*2 times nor more than 1'6
times the diameter of the cylinder, ('785 D+'273 S) may be taken
instead of IJD^TS.
10. In cases where fly-wheels are fitted, the following valne of the
co-efficient may be taken for determining the size of the intermediate
shaft abaft the fly-wheel shaft.
Table III.
4-Cycle Single-Acting
t-Oxde Slngle-ActlDg
Value of the
Engine.
Engine.
Co-efficient.
4 cyls.
2 cyls.
•405
6 „
3 „
•400
8 „
* „
•409
10 „
5 „
•420
12 „
6 „
•427
16 „
8 „
•461
11. The diameter of the fly-wheel shaft must be at least equal to
that of the crank shaft.
12. The diameter of the thnist shaft measured under the collars
must be at least f^ths that of the intermediate shaft. The diameter
may be tapered off at each end to the same size as that of the inter-
meaiate shaft
13. The diameter of the screw shaft must not be less than the
diameter of the intermediate shaft (found as above) multiplied by
(•03 P\
•63 -I- — =- ], but in no case must it be less than 1 '07 T,
where P=the diameter of the propeller in inches,
T=the diameter of the intermediate shaft in inches.
The size of the screw shaft is intended to apply to shafts fitted with
698 APPENDIX H.
continuous liners the whole length of the stern tube, as provided for
in Section 18, paragraph 3, of the Rules for £ugines and Boilers. If
no liners are used, or if two separate liners are used, the diameter of
the screw shaft should be f^ths that given above.
The diameter of the screw shaft is to be tapered off at the forward
end to the size of the thrust shaft.
14. If the designed maximum pressure in the cylinders exceeds
600 lbs. per sq. inch, the diameters of the shafting throughout must be
J • 4.V -«.• r 8 /maximum pressure in lbs, per sq. inch
mcreased m the proportion ofw ^ -r— »- — -2
15. Where the cylinder liners are made of hard, close-grained cast
iron of plain cylindrical form, accurately turned on the outside as well
as bored on the inside so that their soundness can be ascertained by
inspection, and their thickness at the upper part is not less than ^th
of the diameter of the cylinder, they need not be hydraulically tested
by internal pressure. If, however, they are made of complicate form,
the question of testing must be submitted.
16. The water jackets of the cylinders, and the water passages of the
cylinder covers and pistons, must be tested by hydraulic pressure to
80 lbs. per square inch, and must be perfectly tight at that pressure.
17. The exhaust pipes and silencers must be water-cooled or lagged
by non-conducting material, where risk of damage by heat is iLcely
to occur.
18. The cylinders are to be fitted with safety valves loaded to not
more than 40 per cent, above the designed maximum pressure in the
cylinders and discharging where no damage can occur.
19. The air-compressors and their coolers are to be made so a» to be
easy of access for overhaul and adjustment.
20. In single-screw vessels, an auxiliary air-compressor is to be
provided of sufficient power to enable the main engines to be kept
continuously at work when the main compressor is out of action.
If the manoeuvring gear is arranged so that the engines can be kept
continuously at work with some of the cylinders out of action, the
auxiliary compressor need only be of sufficient power to enable the
engines to be kept at work under these conditions.
In twin-screw engines in which two sets of compressors are fitted, the
auxiliary compressor must be of such size as to enable it to take the
place of either of the main compressors. If in such engines each main
compressor is sufficiently large to supply both engines, a smaller
auxiliary compressor will be sufficient.
A small auxiliary compressor, worked by a steam engine, or by an
oil engine not requiring compressed air, is to be fitted for first charging
the air receivers.
21. At least one high-pressure air receiver is to be arranged with
connections to enable it to be used for fuel iigection, in ease the
working receiver of either main engine is out of use from any cause.
22. The circulating pump sea suction is to be provided with an
efficient strainer which can be cleared inside the vessel.
Lloyd's rbgistbb rules for diessl engines. 699
Air Receivers.
Section 3. — 1. Oompressed-air receivers for starting air are to be
supplied of jsafficient capacity to permit of twelve oonsecntive startings
of the engines without replenishment
2. Cylindrical receivers for containing air under high pressure, used
either for starting or for the injection of fuel in oil eneines, may be
made either of seamless steel or of welded, or riveted, steel plates.
3. Quality of Material. — If made of welded, or riveted, steel
plates, the ordinary rules regarding steel material for boilers apply,
which provide that where welding is employed, either in the longi-
tudinal seams or at the ends, the material must have a tensile
strength not ezceedins 30 tons per square inch (Section 4, par. 7,
Rules for Engines and Boilers). In these cases the welding must
be lap welding; neither ozy-acetylene nor electric welding will be
permitted.
4. In the case of seamless receivers, the rules for material will be the
same as for boiler shells, but the permissible extension may be 2 per
cent, less than that required with boiler plates.
5. Tensile and Bend Tests are to be made from the material of
each receiver. When they are welded or riveted, the tests may be
made, and the thicknesses verified, before the plates are bent into
cylindrical form. In the cases of seamless receivers, the thicknesses
must be verified by the Surveyor before the ends are closed in,
and at this time the Surveyor shall select and mark the test pieces
required from either of the open ends of the tube. The test pieces
are to be annealed before test, so as to properly represent the finished
material.
6. The permissible workinc pressure for welded or seamless receivers
is to be determined by the following formulse : —
Maximum working pressure in lbs. per square inch
= -A— Z— ^ for thicknesses of | in. and above.
^OxSx (T- 1) ^^^ thicknesses below i in.,
where S= minimum tensile strength of the steel material used, in
tons per square inch,
T= thickness of the material, in sixteenths of an inch,
D= internal diameter of cylinder, in inches,
C SCO- efficient as per table : —
C!o-efficient 77 for seamless receivers of thickness of f in. and abov«,
69 „ „ „ „ below I in.
54 „ welded „ „ of i in. and above,
48 „ „ „ »» below A in.
»f
9)
700 APPENDIX H.
7. For flat ends welded into the oylindrical shells, the thickness
must not be less than
where T= thickness, in sixteenths of an inch,
D = internal diameter, in inches,
P= working pressure, in lbs. per square inch.
8. The permissible working pressure for receivers made of riveted
steel plates is to be determined by the rules regulating the working
pressure of boilers.
9. Each welded or seamless receiver shall be carefully annealed after
manufacture, and before the hydraulic test.
10. Each welded or seamless receiver shall be subjected to a hydraulic
test of twice the working pressure, which it shall withstand without
permanent set.
11. Each receiver made of riveted steel plates is to be tested by
hydraulic pressure to twice the- working pressure for pressures up to
200 lbs. per square inch. Where higher working pressures are used,
the test pressure need not be more than 200 lbs. per square inch
above the working pressure.
12. All receivers above 6 inches internal diameter must be so
made that the internal surfaces may be examined, and, wherever
practicable, the openings for this purpose should be sufficiently large
for access. Means must be provided for cleaning the inner surfaces by
steam, or otherwise.
18. Each receiver which can be isolated must have a safety valve
fitted, adjusted to the maximum working pressure. If, however, the
air-compressor is fitted with a safety valve so arranged and ac^usted
that no greater pressure than that pennitted can be admitted to the
receivers, they need not be fitted with safety valves.
14. Each receiver must be fitted with a drain arrangement at its
lowest part, permitting oil and condensed water to be blown oat.
Pumping^ Arrang^ements.
Section 4. — 1. The requirements of the pumping arrangements for
the various holds, double bottoms or other ballast tanks, kc, are to
be the same as required in steam vessels of the same size.
2. The engines are to be fitted with two bilge pumps, which are to
be so arranged that either can be overhauled while the other is at
work. In twin-screw vessels one bilge pump upon each engine will be
approved. These pumps are to be arranged to draw from all com-
partments. Independent power-driven pumps may be fitted in lieu of
these, if desired.
8. A steam pump, or equivalent power-driven pump, is also to be
provided with connections to enable it to draw from all compartments
Lloyd's reoibtbr bulbs fob dibsbl enqinbs. 701
and from the sea. It most be arranged to discharge overboard and
also on deck to the fire service pipes. It must have at least one
suction to the engine-room bilge distinct from those connected with
the bilge pumps, so that it may be used for pumping from the engine
room when the bilge pumps are being used upon other parts of the
vessel.
4. In addition to the above, where water ballast is used, the water-
ballast pump must have one direct suction from the engine-room bilges.
(This is in lieu of the bilge injection required with steam engines.)
General.
Section 5. — 1. For the ordinary fuel tanks the requirements of
Section 49 will apply. The daily service and other separate tanks
must be tested, with all their fittings, with a head of water 12 feet
above their highest points. They must be fitted with air pipes
discharging above the upper deck. If they are fitted with glass
gauges for IndioatinK the quantity of oil contained in them, arrange-
ments must be made for readily shutting off the gauges in the event
of the breakage of the glass, and from preventing any damage from
leakage of oil.
2. Special attention must be given to the ventilation of the engine
room.
3. If the auxiliaries are worked by electricity, the cables in con-
nection with them must be in accordance with the rules for cables for
electric light.
4. It is recommended that all pipes conveying fuel oil should, as
far as possible, be made of steel or iron, rather than copper, owing to
the rapid corrosion of copper pipes when using oil containing sulphur.
Spare Gear.
Section 6. — The articles mentioned in the following list will be
required to be carried, viz. : —
1 cylinder cover complete for the main engines, with all valves,
valve seats, springs, &c., fitted to it.
In addition, one complete set of valves, valve seats, springs,
&c., for one cylinder of the main and of the auxiliary Diesel
engines, and fuel needle' valves for half the number of the
cylinders of each engine.
1 piston complete, with all piston rings, studs, and nuts for the
main engines.
In addition, one set of piston rings for one piston of the main
and of the auxiliary Deisel engines.
1 complete set of main skew wheels for one main engine.
2 connecting rod, or piston rod top-end bolts and nuts, both
for the main and tne auxiliary Diesel engines.
702 APPENDIX H.
2 connecting rod bottom-end bolts and nuts, both for the main
and for the auxiliary Diesel engines.
2 main bearing bolts and nuts, both for the main and for the
auxiliary Diesel engines.
1 set of coupling bolts for the crank shaft.
1 set of coupling bolts for the inteimediate shaft
1 complete set of piston rings for each piston of the main and o(
the auxiliary compressors.
1 half set of valves for the main and for the auxiliary compressors.
1 fuel pump complete for the main engine, or a complete set of
all the working parts.
1 fuel pump for uie auxiliary Diesel engine, or a complete set
of all working parts.
1 set of valves for the daily fuel supply pump.
1 set of valves for the water circulating pumps.
1 set of valves for one bilge pump.
1 set of valves for the scavenge pump, where lift valves are used.
A quantity of assorted bolts and nuts, including one set of
cylinder cover studs and nuts.
Lengths of pipes suitable for the fuel delivery and the blast pipes
to the cylinders, and the air delivery from the compressors
to the receivers, with unions and flanges suitable for each.
Periodical Surveys.
Section 7* —1. The engines are to be submitted to survey annnallj,
and, in addition, are to be submitted to a Special Survey upon the
occasion of the vessels undergoing the Special Periodical Surveys
Nos. 1, 2, and 8 prescribed in the Rules, unless the machinery has
been specially surveyed within a period of twelve months, in which
case the Annual Survey will be sufficient The boilers, if fitted, are
to be subjected to the same surveys as required by Section 19 of the
Rules for Engines and Boilers.
2. Special Surveys. — At these special surveys, the main engines
and the auxiliary engines are to be examined throughout, viz. : — All
the cylinders, pistons, valves and valve gears, connecting rods and
guides, pumps, crank, intermediate, and thrust shafts, propellers,
stern bushes, sea connections and their fastenings, are to be examined.
The air-compressors are also to be examined. The air-receivers are
to be cleaned and examined and, if necessary, tested, as provided for
in paragraph 3 of this section.
8. Annual Surveys. — The whole of the parts of the engines which
the engineers of the vessel open up for adjustment and overhaul
should be examined and reported upon. The Survey must include,
for each main engine, the examination of at least 2 pistons, 2 cylinder
covers and their valves, 2 connecting rods and their brasses, both top
and bottom ends, 2 of the main bearings and crank shaft jounuds, ana
LLOTDS RBQISTBR RULBS FOR DIESBL BNGINBS.
703
1 of the tunnel bearings. If these are all satisfactory, their condition
may be taken as representing that of the other similar parts.
In the auxiliary Diesel engines, a similar course must be adopted,
but in this case one of each of the parts mentioned of each engine will
be sufficient, if found to be satisfactory.
The valve gears of all the Diesel engines should be examined, as far
as practicable, without complete dismantling.
The air receivers must be examined internally if possible, and,
together with the air pipes from the compressors, must be cleaned
internally by means of steam, or otherwise. If the air-receivers
cannot be examined internally, they must be tested by hydraulic
pressure to twice the working pressure at each alternate Annual
Survey, attention being specially given to the welding of the ends and
of the longitudinal joints.
Some Ships fitted with Oil
Engines— Diesel
System Type.
Name.
Date.
OroBB
R. Ton-
No. of
Screws.
Engines.
Cylinder.
N.H.P.
Cycle.
No.
Diam.
ins.
Stroke.
iU8.
Annam
1913
5296
two
606
four
16
23*3
81-5
Arabis
1914
3697
two
302
two
8
16-5
33 9
Ares . ...
1914
3783
two
375
four
12
20-6
36-5
A. von Gwinner .
1912
3051
two
385
two
8
17-3
20-5
Artemis
1914
3803
two
385
four
12
20-5
35-5
Bandon
1909
3409
one
324
four
6
26-4
89-4
Bayard
1915
2900
two
288
four
12
19*4
26 0
Malaya
1921
9050
two
854
four
6
29-0
45-3
Calgary .
Chile
1912
1639
two
53
two
8
11*4
16-9
1915
5570
two
566
four
12
24-8
37-8
Fiona
1914
5219
two
835
four
12
29-9
43-5
Glencryle .
1915
6225
two
534
four
12
24 8
33*5
Glen pool .
Hamlet
1913
5459
two
586
two
12
18-7
31-5
1915
5093
two
497
two
6
23-6,
35-4
Juno.
1912
2345
two
228
four
6
22 0
39-4
Jutlandia .
1912
4874
two
468
four
16
20 9
28-8
Kangaroo .
1915
4848
two
398
four
12
22-0
29-8
Pangan
1909
3409
one
324
four
6
26-4
89-4
Rolandseck
1912
1663
one
361
two
6
20-0
86-8
W.E.Kiedemauu
1914
9800
two
906
two
12
22-6
39-4
Wotan
1913
5703
oile
550
two
6
23-4
43*3
The pumps and air-compressors must be examined and tried under
urorking conditions. If found to be satisfactoiy, they need not be
dismantled.
7/
704 APPENDIX H.
The manoeuvring of the engines must be tested under working
conditions.
If the examination rereals any defects, the Surveyor should recom-
mend such further opening up as he may consider to be necessary.
4. Record of Survey. —If the various parts mentioned in para-
graphs 2 and 3 are all found to be in a satisfactory condition and the
Surveyor finds that the machinery generally is in good order, he should
recommend the vessel to have a fresh record of LMC.
5. Survey of Screw Shafts. — Screw shafts are to be drawn and
examined at intervals of not more than two years. *
* On the application of Owners, the Committee will be prepared to site con-
sideration to the circumstances of any special case.
APPENDIX I.
Lloyd's Rules for Scbew Shafts and Stern Tubes.
Section 8. — 1. All shafts are to be turned all over and are to be
examined when rough turned and when finished. In the case of screw
shafts scrap steel is not to be used, and in no case is «i mixture of
scrap JTon and scrap steel to be employed. It is recommended that
screw shafts be made of ingot steel or forged 'from blooms made from
rolled iron bar of good fibrous quality.
2. Gauges of an approved oescription for testing the truth of the
crank shafts are to be supplied with all new engines, and adjusted in
the presence of the Surveyor.
3. The length of the stem bush is to be at least four diameters
of the shaft. It is recommended that the shaft liner should be con-
tinuous the whole length of the stern tube, and that the after end
should be tapered in thickness and made watertight in the propeller
boss. If the liner is made in two pieces the joint should be burned.
If the liner does not fit tightly at the part between the bearings in
the stern tube, the space between the shaft and the liner should be
charged or "forced'* with a plastic material insoluble in water and
non-corrosive. If two liners are used, it is recommended that they be
tapered in thickness at the ends, and that the shaft should be lapped
or protected between the liners. In this case, and also if no liners
are used, the diameter of the shaft should be f^ths of that required for
a shaft with a continuous liner.
4. For dimensions of shafts, see the formula.
705 • 45
APPENDIX K.
The distances to various Ports from Gibraltar and Sunderland
in Nautical Miles.
Porta.
Dis-
tance.
From Gibral-
tar to—
Algiers
410
Bermuda
2965
Barcelooa
530
Cadiz
64
Carthagena
240
Cctte
670
Constantinople
1780
Cuxhaven
1550
Dover
1239
Finisterre
556
Genoa
865
Halifax
2670
Holyhead
1221
Leghorn
870
Liverpool
1290
London
1326
Mahon
622
Malaga
70
Malta
980
Marseilles
690
Messina
995
Naples
970
Gran
222
Palermo
904
Port Said
1930
Rome
960
Syracuse
1020
Tangiers
30
TaiTagona
490
Tunis
780
Ushant
940
Valencia
390
Almeria
160
Alicante
310
Porta.
Dis-
tance.
Alexandria
1805
Azores
950
Boston, U.S. A.
3080
Buenos Ayres
5410
Cape Town
5130
Charleston
3705
Cape Verde Is.
1650
Cape Horn
6500
' Finisterre
556
Havana
4230
Huelva
130
Jamaica
3960
Lisbon
300
Las Palmas
850
Madeira
600
Now York
3250
New Grleaus
4815
Newport News
3415
Gporto
460
Quebec
3400
Rio Janeiro
4240
Trinidad
3430
Panama
4340
From Sunder-
land to—
Aberdeen
150
Barry
712
Belfast
605
Bristol
742
Cardiff
720
Cork
724
Dover
267
Dublin
792
Dundee
126
Falmouth
542
Glasgow (N.)
645
Holyhead (N.)
707
Hull
Leith
Limerick
London
Lynn
Middlesbro*
Newport(Mon.)
Plymouth
Sharpness
Southampton
Swansea
Yarmouth
Christiania
Copenhagen
Cronstadt
Dantzig
Helsingfors
Kiel
Memel
Malmo
Revel
Riga
Skaw
Stockholm
Archangel
Amsterdam
Antwerp
Bergen
Boulogne
Bremerhaven
Calais
Dunkirk
Ghent
Gothenburg
Hamburg
Rotterdam
Dis-
tance.
123
125
827
307
145
27
780
51S
750
393
700
173
536
607
1277
888
1145
695
898
615
1112
1062
464
995
1756
280
320
437
805
366
276
285
305
505
432
295
N,B, — (S.C.) means vid Suez Canal.
. 706
THE DISTANCES OF VARIOUS PORTS PROM CARDIFF. 707
The distances of various Ports from Cardiff in Nautical Miles.
Porta.
Dis-
tance.
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
Porta.
Dis-
tance.
4632
Belfast
310
Smyrna
2,776
Colon
Cork
215
Suez
8,161
Maranham
3898
Glasgow
400
Trieste
2,806
Monte Video
6139
Hartlepool
705
Venice
2,800
Para
4058
Hull
638
Pemambuoo
3940
Liverpool ^
270
Batoum
3,515
Rio Janeiro
5027
London
526
Constantinople
2,930
Rio Grande do
5751
Southampton
338
Galatz
8,274
Sul
Tynemouth
728
Odessa
Taganrog
3,272
8,519
Santos
5227
Copenhagen
1108
Barbadoes
3580
Cronstadt
1776
Aden
4,489
Belize
4510
Kiel
1185
Akyab
7,651
Cartagena
4310
Stettin
1267
Bombay
6,154
Demerara
8857
Stockholm
1498
Bnshire
6,281
Greytown
4657
Uleahorg
1910
Calcutta
7,612
Havana
4025
Colombo
6,606
Jamaica
4034
Archangel
2221
Hong Kong
9,716
Martinique
8555
Gothenburg
1000
Karachi
5,979
New Orleans
4559
Hamburg
821
Madras
6,872
St Vincent
3615
Nagasaki
10,666
Tampico
4846
Bordeaux
542
Penang
7,879
Trinidad
8780
Bilbao
560
Rangoon
7,758
VeraCmz
4840
Cadiz
1093
Shanghai
10,466
Lisbon
882
Singapore
8,186
Baltimore
8285
Oporto
710
Yokohama
11,094
Belle Isle
1962
Vigo
665
Boston
2780
Adelaide (S.C.)
10,710
Cape Race
1972
Algiers
1562
Antofagasta
9,397
Charleston
3437
Barcelona
1664
Auckland
11,768
Halifax
2440
Genoa
2020
Brisbane (S.C.)
11,961
New York
3000
Gibraltar
1153
Hobartown
11,195
Prince Edward
2433
Marseilles
1844
(S.C.)
Island
Palermo
2057
Mauritius
9,571
Portland
2746
Tunis
1943
(S.a)
Melbourne
11,085
Quebec
2812
Alexandria
2943
(S.C.)
Azores
1278
Athens
2620
Sydney (S.C.)
11,521
Cape Town
5998
Beyrout
3192
Cape Verde
Delagoa Bay
2345
Brindisi
2427
Bahia
4,870
7148
Fiume
2778
Bermuda
2,850
Tiagos
4146
Malta
2133
Buenos Ayres
6,249
Mi^eira
1297
Port Said
3072
Cape Horn
7,222
Sierra Leone
2886
708
APPENDIX K.
The distances of various Ports from Glasgow in Nautical
Miles.
Ports.
From Glasgow
to—
Aberdeen
Barry Dock
Belfast
Bristol
Cardiff
Cork
Deal
Dundee
Falmouth
Greenock
Hull(N.)
Limerick
Liverpool
London
Plymouth
Southampton
Copenhagen
Cronstadt
Dantzig
Kiel
Stockholm
Archansel
Bremerhaven
(N.)
Di8-
taDce.
520
392
115
422
400
350
696
580
430
18
745
460
220
775
462
582
984
1652
1250
1061
1380
1981
901
Forts.
Gothenburg
Hamburg (N. )
Bilbao
Bordeaux
Cadiz
Gorunna
Lisbon
Barcelona
Gibraltar
Marseilles
Alexandria
Dardenelles
Malta
Port Said
Bombay
Hong Kong
Callao
Sydney
Valparaiso
Buenos Ayres
Rio Janeiro
Dis.
tance.
884
951
805
787
1,340
810
1,118
1,908
1,401
2,085
3,185
3,028
2,875
3,825
6,396
9,958
10,382
11,763
9,111
6,491
5,280
Forts.
Havana and
Jamaica
Vera Cruz
Boston, U.S.A.
Charleston
(S.C.)
Halifax, N.S.
Montreal,
Canada
New York
Portland (Me.)
Pictou
Quebec
Sable Island
StJohn's(N.F.)
StJohn(N.B.)
Azores (S.
Michael)
Bonny
Bathurst
Canaries ( Las
Palmas)
Cane Town
Delagoa Bay
Lagos
Madeira
Teneriffe
Zanzibar {viA
S.C.)
Dis-
tance.
4200
5015 .
I
2788 ,
3417 I
2888 I
2907 •
3120 :
2700 '
2476
2735
2245
1907
2591
1520
4498
2728
1775
6240
7890
4888
1540
1765
6436
THE DISTANCES OF VARIOUS PORTS FROM HULL.
709
The distances of various Ports from Hull in Nautical Miles.
Porta.
Dis-
tance.
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
Ports.
Dis-
tfince.
Aberdeen
275
Elsinore
610
Iceland
1275
Barrow
725
Gefle
1148
Hammerfest
1335
Belfast
805
Helsingfors
1168
Havre
300
Barry
630
He&rnosand
1248
Ostend
194
Bristol
660
Kiel
718
Rotterdam
212
Cardiff
638
Eonigsberg
930
St Malo
400
Cork
Dover
Dublin
660
190
710
Memel
Malmo
Norkoping
920
638
966
Bilbao
Bordeaux
Brest
Corunna
Cadiz
Huelva
Lisbon
Oporto
Santander
St Nazaire
Vigo
Villa Real
840
825
540
860
1398
1375
1156
1012
825
679
970
1345
Dundee
Falmouth
240
450
Pillau
Revel
902
1135
Finisterre
Glasgow (N. )
890
745
Riga
Rostock
1085
735
Hartlepool
Harlingen
Leith
Limerick
110
225
240
816
Skaw
Stettin
Stockholm
Stralsund
490
793
1019
718
Liverpool
Lizard
760
455
Sundswall
SwinemUnde
1199
753
London
226
Travemiinde
706
Algiers
1865
Lynn
70
Uleaborg
1431
Alicante
1756
Middlesbro'
110
Wiborg
1265
Almazaron
1681
Milford Haven
588
Almeria
1599
Newport (Mon.)
648
Archangel
1870
Barcelona
1966
Plymouth
420
Amsterdam
209
Bona
2101
Southampton
325
Antwerp
230
Carthagena
1693
Sunderland
123
Arendal
460
Cette
2118
Start Point
392
Bergen
500
Genoa
2805
St Catherine's
800
Bremerhaven
340
Gibraltar
1440
(1. Wight)
Calais
200
Girgenti
2363
Swansea
618
Christiania
582
Leghorn
2310
Troon (N»)
750
Christiansand
423
Malaga
1515
Tyne
130
Christiansund
720
Marseilles
2146
Ushant
500
Dunkirk
200
Messina
2471
Waterford
626
Fredrikshald
548
Naples
2433
Whitby
90
Fredrikstadt
540
Gran
1685
Yarmouth
100
Friederichs-
512
Palermo
2359
hafen
Port Mahon
2077
Calmar
818
Ghent
215
Salerno
2449
Carlscrona
768
Gothenburg
528
Savona
2285
Copenhagen
630
Grimstadt
450
Syracuse
2479
Cronstadt
1300
Halmstadt
590
Tarragona
1935
Dantzig
905
Hamburg
390
Tangiers
1425
10
APPENDIX K.
The distances of various Ports from Hull in Nautical
Miles — continued.
Ports.
Tunis
Valencia
Alexandria
Alexandretta
Ancona
Athens
Ban
Bey rout
Corfu
Corinth
Fiume
Gallipoli
Jaffa
Larnaoa
Malta
Patras
Port Said
Ragusa
Smyrna
Trieste
2245
1841
8245
3505
2996
2922
2789
3494
2738
2837
3080
2665
3479
8401
2415
2779
8850
2848
8078
8109
Ports.
Dis.
tance.
Tripoli'
Venice
2524
3106
Volo
3077
Zante
2741
Batoum
8817
Constantinople
Galatz
3232
3576
Ibrail
8588
Eertch
8663
Kustenji
Odessa
8480
3574
Poti
3817
Sebastopol
Sulina
8535
8491
Taganrog
Trebizonde
3821
3789
Varna
8881
Aden
4774
Bombay
6488
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
6,566
Bushire
Calcutta
7,897
Colombo
6,883
Karachi
6,264
Madras
7,157
Penang
8,164
Rangoon
8,034
Cape Town
6,282
Singapore
8.471
Sydney
11,806
Bahia
4,639
Buenos Ayres
6,688
Colon (Panama)
5,000
Monte Video
6,423
Santos
5,605
Boston
2,913
New York
8,860
Quebec
8,093
The distances to various Ports from Leith in Nautical Miles.
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
Aberdeen
86
Alloa
28
Barry
826
Cape Wrath
260
Dublin (N.)
652
Dundee
50
Dover
874
Falmouth
650
Grangemouth
21
Hartlepool
138
Hull
240
Liverpool (N.)
686
London
416
Middlesbro'
148
Ports.
Plymouth
Southampton
Sunderland
Tyne
Yarmouth
Copenhagen
Cronstadt
Dantzig
Riga
Stockholm
Antwerp
Archangel
Dis-
tance.
620
510
126
118
800
616
1284
875
1067
1005
430
1691
Porta.
Bergen
Bremerhaven
Christiania *
Elsinore
Hamburg
Boston, U.S.A«
Halifax
New York
Quebec
StJohn's(N.F.)
Iceland
Dis.
tanee.
860
440 ,
568 I
696
490
2763
2693
8180
29S3
2106
1060 '
The distances of vi
OF VAKIOUS POBTS fBOM OAHBORG. Til
ious Ports from Hamburg in Nautical Miles.
Port*
Dis-
Port!.
Dii-
tance.
,0«.
Dii-
Aberdeen
480
Alexandria
3,415
Odessa
3,746
Barrow
973
Aden
4,950
Belfiut
900
ISombay
6.620
Acapulco
12,580
Burry
813
Hejront
8,666
Adelaide(3.C.)
11,170
Bristol
843
Cadiz
1,585
Auckland
12,250
Cardiff
Sil
Corunna
1,03!
Callao
lO.Sie
Cork (Queens-
811
S,40S
Sydney ,N.S.W.
11,980
towp)
Colombo
- -0
Valparaiso
9,346
Cnxhflven
66
Calcutta
4
Dover
892
Genoa
IS
Buenos Ayrea
fl,710
Dublin
881
Gibraltar
Colon f Panama)
5,0S6
Dundee
4S6
Grejtown
■0
Monte Video
8,808
Falmouth
831
Havana
Pernambuco
4,436
Finiaterre
1100
Hong Kong
15
Rio Janeiro
5,600
GUagow
»61
0
Santos
5,886
Grimsby
Z7e
Lisbon
■0
Hartlepool
429
Malta
<6
3,800
Havre
620
10
Boston
8,290
Hall
390
NajFles
'6
Charleston
3,970
Leith
490
New OrieanR
Halifai, N,8.
3,960
limerick
1001
Point de Galls
0
New York
3,510
IJverpool
964
Port Said
0
Quebec
3,310
London
434
Tampico
'I'tiuidad
■0
Sable Island
Manchester
1003
0
Milford Haven
781
0
Cape Town
8,460
(Hon.)
833
Venice
6
Cape Verda
hland
2,795
Vera Crm
0
Plymouth
601
SX„S'
7,610
Southampton
431
Batoum
0
2,000
432
Galatu
Zanzibar [S.C.)
8,660
The distances of vi
s Ports from Liverpool in Nautical Miles,
Porta.
tSl«.
Port*.
uX.
Porti.
Un^.
Belfast
160
Dover
591
Hull
760
BriBtol
292
Dublin
126
Leith
686
Cardiff
270
Falmouth
320
Limerick
470
Cork
265
739
Liiard
323
Douglas (I. M.)
70
Galway
450
London
680
Drogheda
120
Glasgow
220
Londonderry
217
712
APPENDIX E.
The distances of various Ports from Liverpool in Nautical
M iles — continued.
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
Mil ford Haven
Newry
Plymouth
Southampton
St Catherine's
(I. Wight)
Swansea
Start Point
Chris tiania
Copenhagen
Cronstadt
Dantzig
Kiel
Stettin
Stockholm
Archangel
Antwerp
Bergen
Bremerhaven
Gothenburg
Hamburg
Havre
Rotterdam
Bilbao
Bordeaux
Brest
Cadiz
Lisbon
Oporto
Ushant
Vigo
Algiers
Almeria
Barcelona
Genoa-
Gibraltar
Marseilles
Naples
Palermo
Venice
Alexandria
180
130
352
471
478
235
886
1005
1071
1739
1388
1144
1230
1460
2058
704
800
918
974
964
617
714
700
677
420
1230
1008
850
390
800
1700
1434
1801
2155
1290
1975
2266
2194
2941
3080
Ports.
Briudisi
Fiume
Patras
Port Said
Smyrna
Trieste
Batoum
Constantinople
Odessa
Varna
Aden
Calcutta
Hong Kong
Point de Galle
Rangoon
Shanghai
Singapore
Yokohama (v.
S.C.)
Do. (v. P.O.)
Callao {v, P.O.)
Coquimbo
Honolulu {v,
P.O.)
Iquique
San Francisco
{v. P.O.)
Valparaiso (t?.
P.O.)
Do. (tJ. C.H.)
Vancouver I.
Wellington,
N.Z.(uC.H.)
Wellington,
N.Z. (v. P.O.)
Melbourne
(S.C.)
Sydney (S.C.)
Azores
Bonny
Dis-
tance.
Port*.
2,564
2,915
2,608
3,208
2,913
2,944
8,652
3,067
3,405
3,216
4,645
7,749
9,853
6,786
7,890
10,603
8,323
11,231
8,050
5,930
9,191
9,300
9,775
7,836
7,202
9,006
14.400
11,606
11,100
11,172
11,668
1,415
4,393
Dis.
tance.
Cape Coast
Castle
Cape Town
Cape Verde
Delagoa Bay
Lagos
Las Palmas
Maderia
Sierra Leone
St Helena
Teoeriffe
Zanzibar (S.C.)
Bahia
Buenos Ayres
Cape Horn
Colon (Panama)
Maranham
Monte Video
Para
Pernambuco
Rio Janeiro
Santos
Demerara
Havana
Jamaica
New Orleans
Tampico
Vera Cruz
Baltimojre
Boston, U.S. A.
Charleston
Halifax
New York
P. B. Island
Philadelphia
Portland (Me. )
Quebec
Sable Island
St John's (N.F.)
StJohn(N.B.)
3893
6136
2470
7283
4283
1666
1436
3022
4560
1660
6330
4485
6386
7365
4548
4035
6276
4195
4086
6175
6345
1)920
4075
4080
4629
4916
4910
3337
2803
3485
2453
8060
2464
3200
2780
2803
2321
1990
2670
THE DISTANCES OF VARIOUS PORTS PR03I LONDON. 713
The distances of various Ports from London in NaOtical Miles.
Porta.
Dig.
tance.
445
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
Aberdeen
Boulogne
97
Aden
4,676
Ardroflsan
730
Bremerhaven
390
Akyab
7,838
Barrow
675
Calais
96
Bombay
6,343
Barry
518
Cherbourg
236
Calcutta
7,799
Belfast
700
Dieppe
162
Colombo
6,793
Bristol
548
Dunkirk
114
Hong Kong
9,903
Cardiff
526
Elsinore
682
Karachi
6,166
Cork
540
Ghent
165
Madras
7,059
Dublin
600
Gothenburg
600
Muscat
5,894
Dundee
415
Hamburg
434
Nagasaki
10,853
Falmouth
345
Havre
215
Penang
Point de Galle
8,066
Glasgow
775
Ostend
120
6,836
Greenock
767
Rotterdam
183
Port Said
3,250
Hartlepool
800
St Malo
330
Rangoon
7,940
Hull
225
Saigon
8,993.
Leith
415
Brest
420
Shanghai
10,653
Limerick
700
Lisbon
1041
Singapore
8,373
Liverpool
680
Vigo
855
Suez
3,340
Lynn
210
Yokohama {v.
11,281
Milford Haven
476
Algiers
GiSraltar
Marseilles
Naples
f T e/\
S.C.)
Middlesbro'
Newport(Mon.)
Newry
Plymouth
295
536
630
325
1750
1326
2040
2308
Do. (v. P.C.)
Acapulco
Auckland
8,100
12,308
11,970
Sligo
800
Antofagasta
9.582
Sonthampton
210
Alexandria
3130
Callao
10,340
Sunderland
807
Athens
2807
Guayaquil
11,052
Swansea
506
Bevrout
Brmdisi
»379
Valparaiso
9,071
Tyne
315
2614
Wellington
11,670
Waterford
526
Jaffa
3364
N.Z. (t^.C.H.)
Yarmouth .
135
Malta
2310
Wellington,
11,150
Port Said
3250
N.Z.Cv.P.C.)
Christiania
700
Venice
2993
Copenhagen
702
Adelaide (SC.)
10,897
Cronstadt
Helsingfors
1373
1248
Constantinople
3117
Auckland ,,
Batavia ,,
12,600
8,636
Riga
1153
Brisbane , ,
12,148
Stockholm
1090
PJatoum
3702
Hobartown „
11,382
Galatz
3461
Manilla , ,
9,758
Archangel
2050
Odessa
3459
Mauritius ,,
7,086
Amsterdam
210
Sulina
3376
Melbourne ,,
11,222
Antwerp
180
Taganrog
3706
Sydney „
11,708
Bergen
1
730
Varna
3266
Wellington,,
12,612
714
APPENDIX K.
The distances of various Ports from London in Nautical
M lies — continued.
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
3810
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
Hahia
4580
Barbadoes
Portland (Me.)
3003
Bennuda
3110
Belize
4740
Quebec
3030
Buenos Ayres
6438
Havana
4255
StJohn's(N.F.)
2202
Cape Horn
Colon (Panama)
7458
Jamaica
4264
4700
Martinique
3785
Azores
1400
Monte Video
6328
Tampico
5076
Cape Town
6187
Para
4247
Cape Verde
Delagoa Bay
2520
Rio Janeiro
5227
Boston, U.S.A.
3025
7337
Rio Grand,e do
5940
Halifax
2680
Lagos
4335
Sul
New York
3260
Mc^eira
1480
Santos
5410
Philadelphia
3410
Teneriffe
1720
The distances of various Ports from New York in
Nautical Miles.
Ports.
Alexandria
Amsterdam
Antwerp
Azores
Bahia
Barbadoes
Bermuda
Bombay (S.C.)
Bordeaux
Buenos Ayres
Calcutta (S.C.)
Caldera
Callao {v. P.C.)
'i,-<-on(S.C.)
Aimeiv\, (Jape)
Barcelona ^ '
Genoa"
Gibraltar
Marseilles
Naples
Palermo
Venice
Alexandria
Dis-
tance.
8,050
8,325
8,290
2,300
4,060
1,800
690
8,251
3,180
5,750
9,780
9.080
3,362
11,736
13,880
6,820
7,000
1,900
.628
-^-^74
219\o
2941
3080
Ports.
Coquimbo
Cronstadt
Cape Verde
Demerara
Galway
Gibraltar
Glasgow
Greytown
Havana
Havre
Hong Eong
(S.C.)
Limon (Hon-
duras)
Lisbon
Las Pal mas
Manilla (S.C)
Madras (S.C.)
Maranham
Melbourne
Monte Video
Madeira
Dis-
tance.
8,814
4,505
2,890
2,200
2,720
8,250
8,120
2,046
1,180
8,170
11,880
1,740
8.030
3,401
11,625
8,981
3,100
12,260
6,650
8,085
Ports.
Naples
New Orleans
Point de Galle
(S.C.)
Para
Pensacola
Pemambuoo
Port Said
Reval
Rio Janeiro
Rio Grande
Rosario
Santos
Shanghai (S.O.)
Singapore(S.C.)
Stockholm
Sydney(v. P.C.)
San Francisco
(v. Panama)
Tampico
Trinidad
Valparaiso
Do. (v. P.C.)
Dls.
tance.
4,220;
1,700
8,767
2,900
1,630
8,6801
5,180
4,340
4,754
5.340j
5,980!
4,954
12,563i
10,300'
4,255
9,811
5,6451
i
2,020,
1,940;
THE DISTANCES OF VARIOUS PORTS FROM NBW YORK. 715
The distances of various Ports from New York in Nautical
Miles — continued.
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
1,990
Porta.
Dis-
tance.
340
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
220
Vera Cruz
Cape Hatteras
Philadelphia
Portland (Me.)
Vancouver {v.
6,350
Cape Race
1000
410
Panama)
Charleston
628
Sandy Hook
18
Wellington (».
10,800
Charlestown
425
Horn)
Cape May (D.)
145
Punta Gorda
1200
Yokohama (v.
13,200
Cape Florida
Galveston
1460
Quebec
1315
Suez)
1850
Sable Island
685
Yokohama (v.
9,823
Halifax
680
Savannah
696
Panama)
Jamaica
1480
St Andrews
495
Key West
1084
(N.B.)
Dundee
8,150
Martinique
Montreal
1715
StJohn(N.B.)
620
Leith
3,180
1460
StJohn's(N.F.)
1066
Mobile
1660
Sydney (CB.)
810
Bahamas
860
Nantucket
220
Tampa
Trinidad
1300
Baltimore
410
Shoal
1940
Belle Isle
1,086
Nassau
960
Wilmington
496
Bermuda
690
Newport News
280
(N.C.)
Boston
830
Pensacola
1630
Washington
415
The distances of various Ports from Southampton in
Nautical Miles.
Porta.
DIs.
tance.
388
510
160
564
880
325
510
210
137
393
220
631
725
780
Porta.
Di8.
tance.
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
Cardiff
Dundee
Falmouth
Greenock
Hartlepool
Hull
Leith
London
Plymouth
Sunderland
Yarmouth
Bremerhaven
Christiania
Elsinore
Gothenburg
Hamburg
Rotterdam
Bordeaux
Cadiz
Conmna
Lisbon
Vigo
Algiers
Gibraltar
Marseilles
Messina
Naples
Palermo
660
481
229
620
1105
556
869
660
1561
1153
1841
2167
2129
2055
Alexandria
Athens
Brindisi
Corfu
Malta
Port Said
Venice
Constantinople
Aden
Bombay
Calcutta
Colombo
Hong Kong
8193
2618
2425
2434
2131
3069
2802
2928
4476
6148
7699
6593
9708
716
APPENDIX K.
The distances of various Ports from Southampton in Nautical
Miles — eontintied.
Porta.
Dis-
tance.
Karachi
Madras
Nagasaki
Point de Galle
Port Said
Shanghai
Singapore
Suez
Yokohama
Do. (v. P.C.)
Adelaide (S.C.)
Auckland
(C.H.)
Brisbane (S.C.)
Hobartown
(S.G.)
Melbourne
Sydney
Bermuda
Buenos Ayres
5,966
6,859
10,653
6,636
3,069
10,453
8,178
8,15^
11,081
7,950
10,697
11,770
11,948
11,182
11,022
11,508
2,910
6,238
Porto
Dis-
tance.
Cape Horn
Colon (Panama)
7258
4610
Monte Video
6128
Pernambuco
3960
Rio Janeiro
5027
Santos
5210
Barbadoes
3610
Demerara
3880
Havana
4054
Jamaica
4064
New Orleans
4589
Tampico
4876
Trinidad
3810
Vera Cruz
4870
Boston, U.S.A.
2825
Cape Race
2030
Charleston
3495
Halifax
2480
Ports.
New York
Philadelphia
Portland
Quebec
Sable Island
StJohn*8(N.F.)
Azores
Las Palmas
Cape Town
Cape Verde
Deiagoa Bay
Lagos
Madeira
Mauritius
(S.C.)
Sierra Leone
St Helena
Zanzibar (S.C.}
Dis-
tance.
3060
3210
2803
2870
2348
2002
1290
1523
5987
2320
7187
4135
1280
8590
2874
4412
6183
The distances of various Ports from Yokohama in
Nautical Miles.
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
Batavia
3,163
Bering Straits
2,300
Cape Flattery
4,163
Hakodati
540
Hiogo
400
Hong Kong
1,620
Honolulu
3,440
Kobe
345
Nagasaki
681
Nagasaki {v.
735
Inland Soa)
New York {v.
13,630
Suez)
Porto.
Dis.
tance.
New York {v.
9823
Panama)
San Francisco
4750
Valparaiso
9320
Esquimau
4220
(Vancouver)
Victoria (Van-
4223
couver)
Vancouver
4213
(RaceL)
London {v. P.C.)
Do. (S.O.)
Liverpool {v.
P.C.)
Do. (S.C.)
Southampton
(S.C.)
Do. {v. P.C.)
8,100
11,281
8,050
11,231
11,081
7,»50'
Cardiff (v. S.C.) 11,094'
Do. (v. P.C.) 7,963
\ I
THB DISTANCES OF VARIOUB PORTS FROM IIONO KONO, BTa 717
The distances to various Ports from Hong; Kong;, Halifax (N.S.),
and Cape Town in Nautical Miles.
PorU.
Porta.
Dla.
tance.
Porto.
^^
FrrnnHong
San Francisco
Thursday Is.
Taku
6,450
2,76)
1,510
JVomCape
Townio—
Amoor River
Tientsin
1.640
Cape Amber
^Madagascar)
2300
Amoy
Vladivoslflok
1,880
I0,62£
Cape Coast
Castlare
2600
Batovia
Woosung
80i
Booibaj
Wei-hai-wei
1,260
Cape Gardafni
3760
Baenos Ayrea
Yokohama
1,620
Cape St Mary
1600
Bering Straits
Yangtse Rirer
BOO
(Madagascar)
Calcutta
Mouth
Cape Verde
3860
Canton
Cape Town
Ceylon (Gallo)
Cbeefoo
From. Halifax
(N.S.)to-
CapeStVincfli.t
5180
4320
886
Congo River
1800
FormoBS
Barbadoes
1,900
Cook Town
7000
Honolulu
Bermuda
750
Gape Horn
37B0
Haiphong
Boston
88(
6861
Hang Chow
Cape Race
465
Chinde (Zam-
1630
Baj
Charleaton
1,09(
besi)
Kobe
Demeraia
2,280
DelagoaBay
1150
Manilla
1,720
Durban
860
Melbonrne
Qibialtar
2,500
East London
600
Nagasaki
1,860
Point deGalle
4300
New York (v.
11,S97
Jamaica
1,800
Gihraltar
SISO
Panama)
Liverpool
2,453
Hong Kong
7000
Hieuchwang
1,890
Montreal
880
Hobartown
6130
Ningpo
7«
Nassau
1,346
IquiquB
6160
Port Arthur
1,320
Newport News
766
Jamaica
6680
Peiho Rirer
1,S80
New York
680
Karachi
4630
Penang
1,801
PlymonUi
726
Lagos
2660
Port Darwin
2,871
2,365
Loinda
1660
River Mm
160
Portland (Me.)
300
Madeira
4300
Bio Janeiro
10.270
Quebec
780
Madras
4882
Rangoon
2,680
Sahle Island
170
Maulmain
6490
Saigon
916
Savannah
1,140
Mombasa
2480
Shanghai
800
8tJohn's(N.F.)
520
Mossamedea
1276
Singapore
Sourabaya
1,530
Sydney (C-B.)
250
Mozambique
2040
1,923
Trinidad
2,060
Melbourne
6025
Swatow
190
Wellington
886
Muscat (P.
4S50
Sydney
4,400
(N.a)
Qiilf)
718
APPENDIX K.
The distances to various Ports from Cape Town, Cardiff,
Dover, Calcutta, and Bombay in Nautical Miles.
PorU.
Dis-
tance.
Porte.
Dis-
tance.
Ports.
Dis-
tance.
From Cape
Town — etmtd.
lizard Point
Loneships
Lundy Island
172
149
65
Cape Town
Chittagong
Colombo
5430
350
1142
Manilla
6,500
Nash Point
20
Hong Kong
3094
New York
6,820
Start Point
239
Karachi
2360
Perth fW. A.)
4,900
St Catherine's
323
Madras
760
Port Darwin
6,255
Point
Mauritius
8320
Port Elizabeth
450
Ushant
245
Maulmain
800 i
Port NoUoth
300
Penane
Point de GkiUe
1300 '
Plymouth
6,897
Wv/wn. Oavpi*
1210
Port Said
5,663
X" ruin l^WCf
to—
Java
2596
Panama
6,840
Rangoon
780
Rio Janeiro
3,270
Calais
21-5
Singapore
1664
River Niger
2,500
Tamatave
8500
Rangoon
5,330
Antwerp
Amsterdam
134
Zanzibar
8610
Sierra Leone
3,195
172
Singapore
5,560
Boulogne
25-5
St Helena
Sydney
1,800
6,480
Bremerhaven
Copenhagen
380
680
From Bombay
in
(N.s:w.)
Dunkirk
37
W/^^
'
Sydney (C.B.)
7,540
Flushing
89
Aden
1637
San Francisco
10,140
Hamburg
392
Algoa Bay
4260
Tamatave
2,450
Ostend
60
Batavia
2736
(Madagascar)
Rotterdam
135
Bushire
1423
Vancouver
5,380
Schomven
91
Cape Town
Colombo
4527
Walfish Bay
800
Lightship
940
Wellington
7,350
Skaw
538
Delagoa Bay
3560
Zanzibar
2,640
West Hinder
46
Point de Galle
980
Lightship
Karachi
500 '
From Cardiff
Ushant
298
Madras
Mauritius
1180
2570
to —
Burlings
834
From. Calcutta
to—
Raueoon
Seydielle Is.
2060'
1800
Dover
431
Singapore
2458
Europa Point
1,153
Aden
8269
Tamatave
2820
Finisterre
608
Akyab
375
Taticorin
780
Hartland Point
65
Bombay
1915
Zanzibar
2600
1
APPENDIX L.
The N.E. Coast Inst. E, and S. Guidance Spboifioation foe
Triple Compound Engines of Cargo Steamers.
1. Indicated Horse Power. — For calculation purposes in this
specification and iu average sea conditions the I.H.P. is to be found
as follows: —
700
D=Diani. L. P. cylinder in inches.
S= Stroke in feet.
N = Revs, per minute. Found as per section 2,
Note. — ^The divisor is adjusted for a referred mean pressure of 80 lbs.
per sq. in.
2. Revolutions.— N = ??^^ti).
3. Boiler Pressure.— 180 lbs. per sq. in. (gauge).
4. Ratios of Cylinder Areas. — Batio for 180 lbs. pressure.
H.P. M.P. L.P.
1 About 2*74 About 7*5
1 „ 2-74
5. Cutsofif at Sea Power.—
About 57 per cent. 57 per cent. 55 per cent.
Each reversing lever to be fitted with expansion gear for adjusting
the cuts-off in engines over 800 I.H. P.
6. Speeds of Steam. — The mean steam speeds to be calculated as
follows: —
Area of cylinder in sq. ins, x pistn. speed in ft. per sec. _ Speed in ft.
Area of pipe, port, or opening in sq. ins. per sec.
Table of mean steam speeds in feet per second : —
-
H.P.
M.P.
UP.
Main steam pipe .
Port opening
Steam ports
Exhaust passage or pipe
110
110
80
60
• • •
150
85
65
• • •
240
100
75
719
720 APPENDIX L.
Steam Ports and Passag^es. — Width of porta to be about *8 of
diameter of cylinder ; and the design of L.P. exhaust ports, passages,
and pipe, to be such that the absolute pressure in L.P. cylinder, as
shown by the exhaust line on indicator cards, does not differ by more
than 1^ lbs. per square inch from that recorded in the steam space of
the condenser at top.
7. Maximum Load. — The maximum load on main working parts
to be taken as the product of the area of H. P. cylinder in inches and
the boiler pressure in lbs. per sq. in. (gauge).
8. Crank Shaft. — The diameter of crank shaft in body to be a
multiple of ^ in., and not less than | in. above Lloyd's Rule, and the
proportions of the remaining parts to be not less than the following :—
1. Diameter of crank pin to be equal to diameter of shaft +i in.
2. Diameter of <;rank shaft in web to be equal to diameter of shaft
+ i in.
8. Diameter of webs to be equal to diameter of crank pin
by 1-85.
4. Thickness of webs to be equal to diameter of shaft by *62.
5. Thickness of couplings to be equal to diameter of shaft
by -25.
6. Six coupling bolts to be used for shafts up to and including
15 ins. diameter. Nine coupling bolts to be used for shafts
above 15 ins. diameter.
*7. Diameter of pitch circle of coupling bolts to be 1 '48 diameter
of crank shaft.
*8. Diameter of coupling bolts to be equal to—
.^1 diam. of shaft' in inches
4,
number of bolts x diam. of pitch circle in inches*
Bolts to be parallel.
*Note, — These two rules may be varied, provided that equivalent
strength is given. Shaft to be in three interchangeable pieces.
9. Lengui of Connecting Rods. — Length of connecting rod be-
tween centres to be twice the stroke or four times the crank radius.
Diameter of Connecting^ Rod.~Diameter at centre of length to be
same diameter as piston -rod body.
Connecting-rod Top Ends. — Oonnecting rods to have single top
end gudgeons for all engines having H.P. cylinders of 24 ins. diameter
and under.
10. Crosshead Guides.— Main crosshead guides to be of the single
type in all sizes of engine.
Load on Main Crosshead Gnides. — Maximum load in lbs. on
crosshead guides to be taken as : —
Area of H. P. cylinder in sc[. ins. x boiler pressure in lbs.
per sq. in. (gauge)
MPECIFIOATION FOR TRIPLE COMPOUND ENGINES.
721
11. Mazimum Pressures on Principal Bearing Surfaces.
Lbs. per sq. in.
Main bearings 250
Crank pins 500
Grosshead gudgeons 1000
Guide shoes (aoead) 55
Guide shoes (astern) 110
Diameter by length to be taken as area of bearings.
Overall length by overall breadth as area of guide shoes.
12. Maximum Stresses on Principal Working Parts.
Lbs. per sq. in.
Ingot steel piston rod at screw .... 5500
Piston-rod oody (after deducting J in. from
diameter to allow for returning) 8000
Piston and connecting-rod bolts at screw . . 5500
Main bearing bolts at screw .... 4500
Main bearing keeps (if forged) .... 6000
Connecting rod bottom end keep (if forged) . 7500
Piston rod keep (if forged) 7500
Bolts at bottom end of valve spindle, at bottom
ends of eccentric rods, and at eccentric straps . 3500
Bolts at top ends of eccentric rods . . . 3000
Screw at top end of valve spindle . . . 2000
Pump levers— for design with double plates . 4000
Pump levers — for design with single plate . . 8200
Notes. — The keeps are calculated as beams with distributed loads
and supported ends.
Loads on valve gear bolts found as per section 13.
Load on pump levers found as per section 22.
Level's calculated as for bending stress only.
All dimensions to be to the nearest } in. above the calculated size
for dimensions of 2 in. and upwards, and to the nearest } in.
above the calculated size for dimensions below 2 in.
13. Valve Gear. — The valve-gear proportions to be determined from
the load on L.P. slide valve spindle calculated as follows : —
Load in lbs. = 4(L x B).
Where L= Overall length of L.P. valve face in inches.
B= Overall breadth of L.P valve face in inches.
Valve Spindles. — Diameter at gland to be not less than
diam. piston rod at gland , .
= 2 "*"*
Eccentric Rods. — Eccentric rods to be parallel in the body and the
diameter to bo not leas than =^''^ piston rod at gland ^^ ;„
Reversing Shaft.— Diameter to be not less than = diameter piston
rod at gland - 1 in.
46
722
APPENDIX L.
Maximum Pressures on Bearing Surfaces of Valve Gears.
Lbs. per sq. in
Link block gudgeons 500
Link block slippers ...... 300
Eccentric rod top end pins 500
Eccentric sheaves (ahead and astern) — cast iron
on cast iron 70
Eccentric sheaves (ahead and astern)~white
metal on cast iron 90
Nat€9. — All eccentrics and straps to be duplicates.
Eccentrics to be on body of shaft and not on couplings.
All dimensions to be to the nearest ^ in. above the size calculated.
14. Thrust Block. — When of horse-shoe ty|)e the pressure on thrust
collars not to exceed 60 lbs. per square inch when calculated from
indicated thrust, which is to be determined as follows : —
Lbs. Indicated thrust =
I.H.P.x 33,000
propeller pitch in ft. x revs, per min.'
15. Main Engine - driven Reciprocating Circulating Pnmp
(Double-acting). — The circulating pump to be proportioned to deliver
an amount of condensing water equal to 40 times tne feed water, with
a displacement efficiency of '8. The feed water to be taken at 15 lbs.
per LH.P. per hour.
16. Maximum Speeds of Circulating Water. — The speeds of
circulating water are to be calculated as follows : —
Area of bucket in sq. ins, x bucket speed in ft. per sec. _ , - .
' area of passnge in sq. ins.
Approximate Speeds in Feet per Second.
Feet per second.
Main injection . . . . 11
in pump 6
7
12
9
Valve grids
Past life of valves
Discharge pipe
17. Main Engine-driven Reciprocating Air Pump.— Capacity of
air pump not less than one-sixteenth of the capacity of L.P. cylinder.
18. Condenser. — When a condenser of the ordinary type is used,
*^^0. XI^^^^^^S surface to be 1^ square feet per I.H.P.
ype'in aifV^®^^®^ ^ ^® ^^ arranged that the vacuum in the air pump
Load on ''ijj^®^ ^^^ differ from that in the condenser steam space at
crosshead guides*^ two- tenths of an inch of mercuiy, or 2*72 inches of
Area of H. nperature between the condenser steam space at top
' as discharged by the air pump, and before admix-
-^ther source of heat, not to exceed 20* F.
of surface above specified includes an allowance
SPECIFICATION FOR TRIPLB COMPOUND BNGINB8. 723
for the prejudicial effects npon condensing efficiency of oil and scale on
the tubes, and of residual air in the condenser.
19. Alternative Production of Vacuum b^ Steam Jet.— When a
steam jet is employed for the withdrawal of air, and the condenser is
suitably proportioned and arranged, the circulating water to be 32
times the feed calculated as per section 15, the air pump to be one-
twentieth of the capacity of L. P. cylinder, and the loss of temperature
between the steam space in condenser at top and the condensate as
discharged by the air pump, and before adinixturo with drains or other
source of heat, not to exceed 10* F.
20. Utilisation of Heat in Auxiliary Exhaust Steam.— Provision
to be made for securing the complete absorption by the feed water of
the heat in the exhausts from the various auxiliaries, including the
steering engine, electric-light engine, and the evaporator.
Note. — With the propoitions already specified, and with a reasonably
airtight system, a vacuum of at least 27 ins. will be maintained in the
steam space at condenser top, at sea temperatures up to 70" F. , and
under these conditions the whole of the heat can, in ordinary circum-
stances, be utilised in the feed water.
21. Main Eng^ine-driven Feed Pumps.— Capacity of each engine-
driven feed pump l/700th of capacity oft.?, cylinder.
22. Pump Gear. — Load on pump gear to be calculated as follows : —
Load in lbs. =25 (area of air-pump bucket 4- area of circulating-pump
bucket) -Hi 5 (area of both feed-pump rams + area of both bUge-pump
rams). All in sq. ins.
Maximum Pressures on Pump-Gear Bearing Surfaces. —
Lbs. per aq. In.
Pump link pins ...... 400
Engine link pins . . . 300
Pump lever centre gudgeon bearings . . 250
Note, — For cargo vessels of large power it is recommended that the
circulating and feed pumps be independently driven pumps.
23. Evaporator. — An evaporator to be fitted capable of producing
10 tons of fresh water per 24 hours for each 1000 LH.P. of main
engines.
24. Prevention of Delivery of Oil to Boilers.— It is desirable that
oil should be separated from the auxiliary exhaust steam before it is
used to heat the teed water, but in any case the feed water to be passed
through a satisfactory filter before delivery to boilers.
25. Oe-aeration of Feed Water.— With the object of preventing
boiler corrosion, adequate means to be provided for the de-aeration of
the feed water before it enters the boilers.
26. Prevention of Heat-loss by Lagg^g.— All surfaces radiat-
ing utilisable heat, includiug the feed pipes and auxiliary exhaust
pipes, to be covered with an adequate thickness of non-conducting
material.
724
APPENDIX L.
Carep Steamers Triple Co|npound En^nes. N. E. Coast Inst.
E. and S. Standard Rule: Revolutions = 32 (S + 4) -rS. Re
volutions and Piston Speeds by it.
stroke.
Hevolutiona.
Piston Speed.
Stroke.
Revolutions.
Piston Speed.
feet.
per min.
ft. per ID In.
feet.
per min.
ft per miu.
1-60
117
352
3-25
72 •
464
1-76
10!i
36S
3-50
69
480
2-00
96
384
3-76
66
496
2-25
89
400
4-00
64
512
2-50
83
416
4-25
62
528
2-75
78
432
4-50
60
544
3 00
75
448
4-75
59
560
Diameter of L. P. Cylinders of Triple Compound Engines
by Rule: I.H.P. = D2xSxN-f 700.
Stroke of Pistons in inches.
I.H.P.
■ 1
t
18
21
33-8
24
27
32-4
' 80
31*8
88
86
89
42
45
• •
48
• •
51
54
• •
67
800
84-5
33-0
• •
• •
• •
• •
850
87-3
36-5
357
85-0
34*4
• ■
■ •
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
400
39-0
880
87-4
86-8
36-0
« •
• •
■ •
• •
• •
• ■
460
..
41-4
40-6
89-6
39-0
38 0
.37 6
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
, ,
600
• •
42-7
41*8
41-0
40*2
89-6
• •
• •
• •
• •
« •
» •
600
• •
4C-8
45-8
45-0
44*0
43-3
42-6 . .
• «
• •
fl •
• «
« •
700
• •
• •
47-8
48-7
47*6
46-8
460 45-2
• ■
• •
• •
• •
« ■
800
• •
• •
52-0
50-9
50-0
49-2 48-4
47-5
• •
• •
• •
• •
900
• •
• •
55-0
640
63-0
621 61-3
50-4
49-8
■ ■
m m
, ,
1000
• •
• •
• •
56-9
56-0
65-0 54-1
63 1
52*6
■ «
• •
, ,
1100
• •
• •
• •
69-7
58-7
67-6 66-7
667
66*1
• ■
« •
• •
1200
• •
• •
62-4
613
60-2 , 69-2
58*2
67-5
56*6
• «
• •
1300
• ■
• •
• •
64-9
63-8
62-7 617
60*6
69*9
58*8
• •
• •
1400
• •
« •
• •
• •
60-8
66-0 640
680
62-1
61-0
• •
• ■
1500
• •
• •
• ■
• •
68-6
67*3 66-2
66-1
64*3
63*1
62-2
• «
leoo
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
G9-5 68*4
67-2
66-4
«ft*2
64-2
1 ,
1700
• •
• •
• •
• •
. . 70-5
69*2
68-4
67 2
66*1
^ ,
1800
• •
• •
• •
• •
.. |72-6
71*2
70-4
69-2
68-0
671
1900
• •
.,
• «
^ ^
• •
• • • •
732
72*4
71-1
70*0
»■»
2000
• •
* •
• •
• •
• •
• • • •
76-0
74*2
729
717
•t^'-:
2200
• ■
• •
« «
• •
• •
• • • •
• •
77*8
7C4
75*3
74^
2400
« •
• •
• •
^ ,
• •
• • • •
• •
81*8
79*9
78 6 ::•■
2600
• •
• •
• *
• • • •
83*0 817 > .'
2800^
■v
^ ^
• •
• •
• •
• • ■ •
« •
.. 84-9 *<:
.'^OOO
8.00
4X)0
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
•
• •
• «
• •
• • •
« • • •
. « . .
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
• •
.. 87-9 »i •
.. :95'0 93-6
.. ! .. KV
APPENDIX M.
Russian Weights and Measures with British and Metrical
Equivalents.
Linear Measure.
1 vershok =1*75 ins. = 46 *6 millimetres.
1 arshine = 16 vershoks = 28 ins. = 711 ,|
1 sazhene = 3 arshines = 7 ft. =2*185 metres.
1 verst = 600 sazhenes = 0*67 mile = 1078 „
1 foot = 6*86 vershoks = 0*43 arshine.
1 yard = 1*286 arshines = 0*4286 sazhene.
1 mile = 1*509 versts = 754*29 sazhenes.
Square Measure.
1 sq. arshine = 0*60 sq. yd, =0*507 sq. metre.
1 sq. sazhene = 9 sq. arshines = 49 sq. ft. = 4 '552 sq. metres.
1 sq. dessiatine= 2,400 sq. sazhenes= . 2*7 acres =10,928 ,,
1 sq. verst =250,000 sq. sazhenes =281 '2 acres.
1 square yard = 1 *667 square arshines.
Cubic Measure.
1 cub. vershok =5*36 cub. ins. = 878 cub. cms.
1 cub. arshine =4096 cub. vershoks = 12*7 cub. ft =0*8596 cub. mtr.
1 cub. sazhene = 9 cub. arshines =12*7 cub. yds = 9*7cub. mta
1 cubic foot =0*0787 cubic arshine =822 cubic vershoks.
Money Values (Normal).
1 copeck =0*0213 shilling = 0*255 penny =2*68 centimes
100 copecks =1 gold rouble =£0*1063 (2s. ljd.) = 2'68 francs.
£1 sterling = 9 *42 roubles. 1 shilling = 47 '1 copecks.
1 penny =3 '925 copecks.
. Weights.
1 dolya = 0 '6856 grains,
i zolotnik =96dolyas = 2*40 drams.
1 lot =3 zolotnik = 0*4602 oz. avoir. =0'0126 kilograms.
1 funt =32 lots = 0*90 lb. avoir. = 0'41 „
1 pood =40 funts = 36*11 „ = 16*41 „
1 berkovetz= 10 poods = 3*214 cwts. = 164 ,,
1 British ton = 62 poods. 1 cwt. = 3 *! poods. 1 lb. avoir. = 35 '6 lotr
725
726 APPENDIX M.
Dry Measure.
1 garnet = 2*88 quarts = 8*275 litres.
1 chetverik= 9 garnets = 6*77 gallons =26*248 „
1 osmina = 4 chetverlks=ll'55 pecks =104*95 ,,
1 chetvert = 2 osminas = 6*77 bushels =209 90 „
1 last =12chetverts = 8*66 quarters = 2419 ,,
1 quarter = 1 *386 chetverts. 1 bushel = 1 '385 chetyeriks.
Liquid Measure.
Ichaska = 0*216 pint =0*123 litre.
1 kou8hka= 10 chaskas = 2*16 pints =1*23 litres.
Iflhtoff =12*5 chaskas = 2*70 „ =1*688 „
l^«<iro{= ^8 shToffs^''}=l^«2 quarts =12*33 .,
1 bochka = 40 vedros =108*3 gallons = 492 „
1 gallon = 3 704 koushkas = 2 *96 shtoffs. 1 pint = 4 *63 chaskas.
APPENDIX N.
Hydratjlio and Steam Tests of tub Admiralty and
Reqister Societies.
Tests and Trials.
•
Admiralty Hydraulic Tests are as follows : —
Air reserve bottles, &c., belong thereto . . . 4000 lbs.
Boiler tubes and fuel heater tubes under 2 inches . . 2500 „
Solid -drawn boiler tubes above 2 inches . . . 1600 ,,
Each condenser, distiller and oil-cooler tubes . 1000 ,,
Feed-pump chambers, pipes, valves, &c. 3 times boiler pressure.
Ash ejector pump and pipes 600 lbs.
Main steam pipes, valves, &c. 1 4. • xi. i. -i
Auxiliary pi|.J^, halves, Ac. / • • twice the boiler pressure.
Boiler-room oil-feed pumps, &c 400 lbs.
Boiler in shop and on board 1^ x W.P.
Cylinders, &c., of auxiliaiy engines . . . . l^xW-P.
Suction passage, &o. , of feed pumps .... 300 lbs.
Low-pressure cylinders of auxiliary engines . . . 235
Pump ends, discharge valves, &c., fire and bilge pumps 250
High-pressureahead turbine, steam end and cover . 255
High-pressure ahead, remainder 200 .,,
After completion of this turbine 170 ,,
Cruising turbine and astern turbine . . . . 170 ,,
Low- Pressure Turbine : —
Astern cylinders and inlet covers . . .' . . 50 lbs.
Ahead cylinders and inlet covers SO ,,
Exhaust chamber and passages 30 „
On completion, the whole 30 ,,
Receiver pipe and valve between cruising and high-
pressure ahead turbines 255 ,,
Feed suction pipes 250 ,,
Pump chambers of distilling, forced lubrication, engine-
room oil-feed pumps and lime tanks . . . 100 ,,
All underwater valves not over 12 inches diameter . 100 „
Receiver pipes between high-pressure ahead and low-
pressure turbines 60 ,,
Air pumps, auxiliary exhausts, evaporator cases, bilge
suctions, sluice valves, oil-fuel suctions . . . 00 ,,
Receiver pipes, high-pressure astern and low-pressure
astern turbines 60 „
727
if
728 APPENDIX N.
Working sides of underwater valves over 12 inches
diameter 50 lbs.
Air-pump pipes and connections . . . . . 50 ,,
Main eduction pipes 30 ,,
Steam chambers of condensers, auxiliary engine drain
tanks, steam chambers and distillers . . . 30
Shaft easings before and after fitting .... 30
Water chambers of condensers, circulating pumps,
cases, valves, &c. &c. . . . . . . 25 ,,
The feed and oil tanks 10 ,,
Boiler 0*44 ultimate strength of boiler, &c., or . W.P. +90 ,,
Valves and valve boxes to be tested with valves open and with
valves shut, and afterwards tested by steam.
Steam tests are also to be applied to all high-pressure pistons and
slide valves of auxiliary machinery ; all reducing valves both before
and after being fitted in the ship.
The Italian Government require the following tests : —
High-pressure cylinder and valve chests when W.P.
is less than 142 lbs. to 1*5 W.P., when over
(W.P. +71) lbs.
Second cylinder and valve chests to . . . W.P.
Third cylinder and valve chests to . . . . 0*66 ,,
Fourth cylinder and valve chests to . . . . 0*83 ,,
Steam jackets of all cylinders . . . 2 x W.P. in them.
High-pressure casing of a turbine . l*33xW.P.
Astern-going casing of a turbine . . . . . W.P.
Low-pressure casing of a turbine, admission end . . 0*33 ,,
Low-pressure casing of a turbine, exhaus^t end . . 28^ lbs.
Condensers when built up and all condensers for
turbines 28^ ,,
Cast-iron condensers for reciprocators . . . . 21 „
Safety valves and feed pumps 2xW.P.
Air and circulating pumps .... 28^ lbs. per sq. in.
British Corporation require as follows : —
Hydraulic tests of boilei-s . . , . 1 '6 x W.P. + 60 lbs.
Steam pipes of copper • 2 x W.P.
Iron or steel SxW.P.
Feedpipes 2*4 W.P. when copper.
Steel 3-6 X W.P.
Lloyd's Reg^ister require as follows : —
Hydraulic tests of boilera .... 1 '5 x W.P. +50 lbs.
Lap-welded boiler tubes, 2 per cent, to . 750 lbs. per sq. in.
Seamless steel boiler tubes all to . , . 1000
II »
Copper tubes, test pressure — 4500- .
{t is the thickness, and D is the internal diameter in inches.)
Condenser tubes all to 300 lbs. per sq. in.
HYDRAULIC AND STEAM TESTS. 729
Steel and iron lap- welded steam pipes . . . . 3 x W.P.
Air receivers (Diesel engines) 2 x W. P.
Board of Trade require as follows : —
Hydraulic tests of boilers . . . . I'Sx W.P. + 60 lbs.
High-pressure turbine cases to . . . . 1*33 x W.P.
Low-pressure condenser end . . 30 lbs. per sq. in.
Astern-going case W.P.
Admindty Steam Trials are as follows : —
1. 30 hours' duration trial at Jrd H.P.
2. 30 hours, the first 8 at -J^ths H.P., and 22, remainder, at^ths
H.P.
3. Full H.P. for 8 consecutive hours, with waste of water not
exceeding 3} tons per 1000 H.P. per 24 hours.
4. Various short trials to test handling of engines, speed going
astern, both with all and half the boilers, &c. &c. , the test-
ing of auxiliaries, &c. &c.
5. The engines are then opened up for examination, &c.
6. Final trial of 24 hours, half the time at half H.P., the remainder
as may be directed, all the boilers being with steam up.
Bureau Veritas {vide pp. 641-42) require the following tests : —
Compound engine cylinder* :
(a) High pressure to working pressure . . -1-85 lbs.
(6) Medium pressure, triples to . . . . 0*8 W.P.
(c) First meaium pressure, quadruples to . . W. P.
{d) Second medium pressure, quadruples to . . 0*5 W. P.
(e) Low pressure of all to 43 lbs.
Turbines, high pressure casings, and astern-going H.P.
ends . . . . 1*26 W.P.
Boilers to 2* W.P. ; above 142 lbs. W.P. to W.P. +142 lbs. On.
board, to W. P. + 85 lbs.
Steam and feed pipes to 2 W.P. Condensers, 28-5 lbs.
British Marine Engfineering Desig^n and Construction
Committee :—
. Hydraulic tests of new boilers . . . 1*5 x W.P. -f 50 lbs.
Boilers which have been on service . . . 1 '5 x W. P.
Boiler smoke tubes 1000 lbs. per sq. in.
Stop and safety valve chests and boiler mountings
generally to 2xW.P.
Copper tubes t^ a pressure which will produce a
stress of 7500 lbs.
Copper steam pipes to 2xW.P.
Copper feed pipes (delivery) 2*5 x W.P.
Wrought-iron or flteel steam pipes . . . 3 x W. P.
Wrought-iron or steel feed pipes . . . 4xW.P.
Cast-iron or steel pipes generally . . . . 3 x W. P.
730
APFBNDIX O.
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APPENDIX P.
Lloyd^s Register of Shipping.
New Unified Rules for the Survey and Construction of
Engines and Boilers of Steam Vessels.
Section i. — In steam vessels, the machinery and boilers are to
be inspected thronghoat, the boilers tested by hydraulic pressure,
and the machinery tested under steam by the Society's Engineer-
Surveyors, who will furnish a report to the Committee. If found
satisfactory, the Committee will thereupon grant a certificate, and
insert in the Register Book the notification, ** L.M.C." in red {i.e.
*' Lloyd's Machinery Certificate"), indicating that the machinery and
boilers are certified to be in good order and safe working condition.
Section 2. — 1. In steam vessels built under Special Survey, the
machinery and boilers must also be constructed under Special Survey.
2. In cases of machinery or new boilers being built under Special
Survey, the distinguishing mark »{< will be noted in red, thus :
''.^L.M.0.," or "^N.E. & B.," or **^J-N.B."
3. In order to facilitate this inspection, the plans of the machinery
and boilers are to be ezamhied, and from them the working pressure
fixed.
4. Any novelty in the construction of the machinery or boilers is to
be reported to the Committee.
5. The Surveyors are to examine the materials and workmanship
from the commencement of the work until the final test of the
machinerv under steam; any defects, etc., to be pointed out as early
as possible.
6. The Surveyors may also, if desired, compare the work as it pro-
gresses with the requirements of the specification agreed upon by the
parties concerned, and certify to the conditions thereof, as far as can be
seen, being satisfactorily complied with.
Section 3.— 1. All steam vessels must have at least two entirely
separate means of supplying the main boilers with feed water, when
working at full power.
2. If the main feed supply is from pumps worked from the main
engines, then with engines above 70 N.H.P. there must be two main
feed pumps, so arranged that either can be shut off and overhauled
while the other is at work. Each pump is to be capable of performing
the whole work required.
S. In engines of 70 N.H.P. and under, and also in all engines of
731
732 APPENDIX P.
steam fishing vessels and of tugs and tenders, one main feed pump
worked from the main engines will be approved, provided the auxiliary
feed pump required by clause 5 is fitted.
4. The laain feed pumps may be worked by independent engines,
provided they are fitted with automatic regulators for controlling their
speed. If only one such pump is fitted for the main feed, the auxiliary
feed pump required by clause 5 should also be fitted with an automatic
speea regulator.
5. A steam pump is to be provided as an auxiliary feed supply,
capable of performing the whole work required of feeding the boilers at
full power. This pump is to have suctions to the hotwell and to the
sea. This pump may be also used for general purposes, but in this
'case the suction pipes to the hotwell and sea must be entirely distinct
from those to the bilges.
6. Each feed pump, main or auxiliary, is to be fitted with a relief
valve.
Section 4. — 1. The engines are to be fitted with two bilge pumps so
arranged that one can be overhauled whilst the other is at work.
2. In engines of 70 N.H.P. and under, and also in engines of steam
fishing vessels, and of tugs and tenders, one bilge pump worked from
the main engine will be sufficient, provided the steam pump required
by clause 4 is fitted.
8. In lieu of bilge pumps worked from the main engines, a separate
steam pump may be fitted additional to that required by clause 4.
4. A steam pump is to be provided connected to the main bilge
system as required in clause 5.
6. The bilge pumps referred to in clauses 1, 2, 8, and 4 are to be
arranged to pump for each compartment of.the vessel except the peaks,
and to deliver overboard. At least one of the steam pumps (clauses 8, 4)
is to be fitted with a direct suction to the engine-room, which can
be used while the other bilge pumps are being used on other parts of
the vessel (see Section 89, clause 4). All bilge suction pipes are
to be fitted with strum boxes or strainers, so constructed that they
can be cleared without breaking the joints of the suction pipes. The
total area of the perforations in the strainers should be not less than
double that of the cross section of the suction pipe. The mud boxes
and roses in engine-room are to be placed where they are eaaly acces-
sible, and to the satisfaction of the Surveyor.
6. A bilge suction to the circulating pump is to be fitted.
7. One of the steam pumps referred to in clauses 8, 4, must be fitted
to draw from the sea and to deliver water on deck.
Section 5. — In vessels fitted with twin screw engines, the main feed
pumps and the main engine bilge pumps may be fitted, one of each on
each engine, provided they are so connected that either feed pump can
deal with the water from both hotwells, and that either bilge pump
can draw from all parts of the vessel.
Section 6. — 1. If an independent circulating pump is not fitted, one
of the steam pumps referred to in Section 4, clauses 8, 4, must be
arranged to circulate water through the condenser.
Lloyd's new unified rules. 733
2. All discharge pipes are to have discharge valves fitted on the
plating of the vessel in accessible positions, and if possible these are to
be above the deep load line. The discharge valves are preferably to
be of non-return type.
8. 1^0 pipes are to be carried through the bunkers without being
properly protected.
Section 7.— 1. In all steam pipes provision is to be made for expan-
sion and contraction to take place without unduly straining the pipes.
Where the provision for expansion is by means of bends in the pipes it
is recommended that the various lengths of pipe should be made short
of the designed lengths by amounts equal to half the calculated expan-
sion at the temperature of the steam. Where the expansion is provided
for by sleeves and packed glands, these should be of brass or gun-metal,
means being provided to prevent the sleeves being drawn out when
under pressure.
2. All steam pipes and also the exhaust pipes of all auxiliary engines
should be provided with suitable drain cocks and pipes.
3. The exhausts from the steam steering engine and from the electric
light engine are to be led by separate pipes and valves to the main
engine condenser, or to an auxiliary condenser, or to the atmosphere
where no auxiliary condenser is fitted.
4. For the thicknesses and tests of copper, iron, or steel steam and
other pipes see Section 17.
Section 8. — In single screw vessels fitted with steam turbine engines
arrangements shall be made so that steam can be led direct to the
L.P. turbine and either the H.P. or I. P. turbine can exhaust direct to
the condenser. Two turbines are to be fitted with astern wheels.
Section 9. — In all vessels fitted with steam engines in which the
lubricating oil is circulated under pressure, a spare oil pump is to be
supplied with all connections ready for immediate use, and two inde-
pendent means are to be arranged for circulating water through the
oil cooler.
Section 10. — ^^\^here the engines, thrust blocks, etc., are fitted
directly upon the tank tops, the holes for the holding-down bolts are
to be tapped and the bolts made watertight. In these cases a cast-iron
chock is to be fitted between the tank top and the engine bed plate in
way of each holding-down bolt.
Section 11. — A steam gauge attached to the main steam pipe and
one to each steam receiver, and a vacuum gauge attached to the con-
denser are to be fitted in convenient places where they can be seen from
the «ng|ine-room platform.
Section 12. — Gauges of an approved description for testing the truth
of the crank shafts of reciprocating engines are to be supplied with all
now engines, and adjusted in the presence of the Surveyor. Where
steam turbine engines are fitted, gauges for testing the truth of the
rotor, pinion, and gear wheel shafte are to be supplied, and adjusted
in the presence of the Surveyor.
Section 13. — Where feed heaters or evaporators are fitted, the parts
Bubjeoted to pressure if made of mild steel are to be constructed to
734 APPBNDtX P.
meet the requireineiits of the rales for boilers, etc. (Sections 27 to 35).
Where pressure parts are made of cast iron, the portions in direct
tension are to be made SJ times the thickness which would be re(|nired
if they were made of mild steel, and those parts which are subjected
to crofe breaking stress only are to be made of twice the thickness
which would be required ii they were made of mild steel. Similar
parts made of brass or gun-metal should be 2^ and IJ times respectively
the thickness required in mild steel. These parts are to be tested by
hydraulic pressure to twice the working pressure coming upon them.
Cocks, Pipes, Sea Coimections, and Pumping Arrangements.
Section 14.— 1. All sea cocks and valves required to be fitted od
the plating of the vessel are to be fixed in easily accessible places
above the level of the stokehold and engine-room platforms, or are to
be fitted on strong iron or steel stands of a height sufficient to lift
them up to the level of these platforms.
2. The bolts securing all cocks or sea connections to the plating of
the vessel are to be tapped into the plating of the vessel or fitted with
countersunk heads.
8. The blow-off cocks on the plating of the vessel are to be fitted
with spigots passing through the plating, and a brass or gun-metal
ring on the outside. The cocks are to be so constructed that the key
or spanner can only be taken off when the cock is shut. (See Section
23, clause 8.)
4. Cocks and valves connecting all bilge suction pipes are to be
fixed in accessible places above the stokehold and engine-room
Elatforms. They should be marked to indicate their purpose. If
ilge suction valves are placed in the shaft tunnel, they must be made
workable from a position above the bulkhead deck.
5. All valve and valve seats in connection with bilge suctions are
to be of brass or gun-metal. The valves should close with a right-
hand motion.
6. The arrangements of pumps, bilge suction and delivery pipes are
to be such as will not permit of water being run from the sea into the
vessel by an act of carelessness or neglect.
Rules for Shafts.
Material,
Section 15. — 1. Shafts for marine engines may be forged from
ingot steel, wrought-iron bars cross piled, scrap wrought iron, or from
mild steel scrap, and they may be made by hammer, press, or by
rolling mill.
2. If scrap is used, it must be selected of practically uniform quality
and be thoroughly cleaned. A mixture of iron and steel scrap is not
permitted in any case, and steel scrap is not to be used for screw
hafts, thrust shafts, or for crank shafts.
Lloyd's new xtnified rules. 735
8. When ingot steel is used it must comply with the conditions of
Section 89.
4. The webs of bnilt-up crank shafts may be made of ingot steel,
scrap wrought iron, or of scrap mild steel, forged, rolled, or pressed.
They may also be made of steel cast to shape, with eye-holes suitable
for boring to size to fit the journals and pins. If made of cast steel,
the material should have a tensile streuj^tn not exceeding 32 tons per
square inch, and the sum of the tensue strength in tons per square
inch and the elongation per cent, measured on a standard test piece
shall be not less than 50. (See Section 38, clause 6.)
5. 0)uplings of wrought-iron or scrap-steel shafts may be welded
to the body. Those of ingot-steel shafts may be forged from the solid
or formed by upsetting the shaft ends by hydraulic pressure.
Couplings may also be made separately of ingot steel, wrought iron,
or scrap mild steel forged, or they may be steel castings. In such
couplings proyision must be made for the astern pull, either by checked
rings or other approved means.
6. In ingot steel shafts made by rolling and in which the couplings
are formed from the shaft by upsetting, the test pieces are to be cut
from the outer edges of the couplings.
7. All shafts are to be turned all over and are to be examined when
rough turned and also when finished.
Roles for determininif the Sizes of Shafts.
Section x6. — 1. In steam turbine engines the diameters of inter-
mediate shafts are not to be less than those given by the following
formula : —
8 /SHP
Diameter of intermediate shaft in inches— ^^—^ x F,
where SHP is the maximum designed horse-power to be transmitted
through the shaft when working at the maximum
power ;
R is the number of revolutions per minute when working at
the maximum power ;
F=64 for ocean-going and cross-channel ships ;
= 58 for vessels working in rivers and smooth waters.
2. The diameter of the wheel shaft of a geared turbine engine, where
there are two pinions geared into it, opposite or nearly opposite to one
another, should not be less than 1*05 times that required for the
intermediate shaft. Where there is only one pinion gearing into the
wheel, or where there are two set at an angle less than 120*", the
diameter of the shaft at the wheel and the adjacent journal shall not
be less than 1 '1 times that required for the intermediate shaft. Abaft
the journal the diameter may be tapered to I'Oo times that required
for the intermediate shaft.
736
APPENDIX P.
3. The diameters of intermediate shafts for reciprocating steam
engines shall not be less than those given by the following formula :—
Diameter of intermediate shaft
.^.
D'xSxP
c(r + 2) •
where D is the diameter in inches of the low-pressure cylinder, or the
equivalent diameter where two or more low-pressure
cylinders are used;
S is the stroke of piston, in inches ;
P is the working pressure in theT)oiIers, in lbs. per square inch ;
r is the ratio of thb swept volumes of the low-pressure and of
the high- pressure cylinders ; '
e is a coefficient as per the following table : —
General Description of Engines.
Sdrvice of Ship.
Ocean-going
and
Cross-channel.
Rivers and
Smooth
Water.
(a) 2 cranks at 90', cylinders compound
(6) 1 crank or 2 cranks at 180°, cylinders
compound
(c) 8 cranks at 120*, cylinders com-
pound, triple, or quadruple
(d) 4 cranks balanced, cylinders com-
pound, triple, or quadruple
(e) 4 cranks at 90", cylinders quadruple
1800
1260
2000
2000
1900
2000
1400
2250
2250
2150
4. Crank shafts for reciprocating engines shall have a diameter not
less than 1 '05 times that required for the intermediate shafts.
5. The diameter between the collars of thrust shafts transmitting
torque shall not be less than 1*05 times that required for the inter-
mediate shafts. This may be tapered down outside the collars to the
size required for the intermediate shafts.
6. In twin or multiple screw ships, where intermediate shafts pass
through stern tubes, the diameter of the tube shafts shall in no part
be less than 1'05 times that required for the intermediate shafts, and
any part of them in the tube exposed, or likely to be exposed, to sea
water, shall not be less than 1 '075 times that required tor the inter-
mediate shafts.
7. Tail shafts (shafts carr3ring the screw propellers) within the
stern bush, whether within the stern tube or in the bracket, shall
have a diameter not less than that giten by the following formula : —
p
Diameter of tail shaft under the liners, in inches sD-i-^
Lloyd's nbw onipibd RtiLEs.
737
where D is the diameter, in inches, required for the intermediate
shaft ;
P is the diameter, in inches, of the propeller ;
G is a coefficient as given in the following table : —
Values of 0.
Where Shafts
are fitted with
Continuous
Liners.
Where Shafts
are not fitted
with Continu*
ous Liners.
For shafts for turbine engines
For shafts for reciprocating engines for
ocean and cross-channel services
For shafts for reciprocating engines for
river and smooth-water services
144
120
144
120
100
120
8. Tail shafts which are in the stern tubes should have the end
forward of the stern gland tapered down to 1 '05 times the diameter
of the intermediate shafts.
9. In fast-running machinery, in order to prevent intermediate
shafts from bending to such an extent as to cause whipping, the
distance between the edges of adjacent bearings should not exceed that
given by the following formulae : —
Greatest length between adjacent bearings in feet
'0/^-^ in the cases of solid shafts,
or
=0a/ — ~ — in the cases of hollow shafts ;
where D is the outside diameter of the shafts, in inches ;
d is the diameter of the hole in the cases' of hollow shafts, in
inches ;
B is the maximum number of revolutions of the shaft per
minute ;
G is 125 for outboard shafts ;
145 for inboard intermediate shafts ;
175 for intermediate shafts in ships engaged exclusively in
smooth- water services.
»
10. In solid couplings the thickness of the flanges at the coupling-
bolt holes shall not be less than the diameter required for the coupling
bolts. For tail shafts the thickness of the coupling shall not be less
than one-quarter of the diameter required for the intermediate shaft.
11. The radius of the fillet connecting the coupling flange to ^*
47
738 APPBNDIX P.
body of the shaft shall not be less than 0*125 times the diameter of
the shaft.'
12. The diameter of the coupling bolts shall not be less than given
by the following fonnula : —
Diameter
iameter of coupling bolts in inches, \ _ / D*
measured at the face of the coupling / \/ 3 -^ x r
where D is the diameter required for the intermediate shaft, in inches ;
n is the number of bolts in the coupling ;
r is the distance of the centre of tiie bolt holes from the centra
of the shaft, in inches.
13. The diameter over the screw-thread of the coupling-bolts should
be at least -i^ inch less than that of the body of bolts which do not
exceed If inches in diameter, at least i inch less for bolts over 12 inches
and up to 3 inches in diameter, and may be i inch less in bolts OYer
3 inches in diameter. The points of the bolts should be reduced below
the thread and made taper for a length of g of the diameter of the bolt,
so that the bolts may be driven out without damaging the thread.
14. In built crank shafts the width of the web, measured parallel to
the axis of the shaft, shall not be less than 0*625 times the diameter
required for the crank shaft, and the thickness of the metal round the
eyes should be such that hxfi is not less than 0*12 times D'. That
is: —
h should not be less than 0*625 X D,
hxfi should not be less than 0*12 D',
where D is the diameter of the crank 'shaft, in inches ;
h is the width of the crank web, in inches ;
t is the thickness of metal round the eye measured radially, in
inches.
15. Crank webs should be shrunk on the journals and crankpins, or
be forced on by hydraulic pressure. They should be fitted with one or
two keys or cylindrical dowels at the junction of the journals and webs.
If only one dowel is fitted; its diameter should be 0*2 times the diameter
of the shaft. *
16. The liners to tail and tube shafts, if fitted, must be made of hard
tough brass or bronze, shrunk on or forced on the shaft by hydraulic
pressure, and no pins to secure them shall be fitted. Each liner must
be cast in one piece ; or, if made in two or more pieces, the junctions are
to be made by electric welding or by fusing through the whole thickness
of the liners. Joints made by butting, overlapping, stepping, or by
soldering with soft solder are not permitted.
17. The thickness, in 64th8 of an inch, of the liners of_tail or tube
shafts at the bearing portions should be not less than 13 JD, where D
is the diameter of the shaft, in inches.
For the part of continuous liners between the bearing portions me
thickness should be reduced to 10\/D.
llotd's new unified bulbs. 739
18. The diameter of the screw for the nut at the end of the tail shaft
should not be less than 07 times the diameter of the shaft under the
liner. The depth of the nut should not be less than 0 *625 the diameter
of the shaft. The nut must be provided with efficient stops to prevent
it from unscrewing.
19. The length of the aftermost bearing or stem bush shall not be
less than four times the diameter required for the tail shaft.
20. The after end of the liner upon the tail shaft must be fitted
watertight into the propellor boss.
21. Where hollow shafts are used, the diameter in inches of an
equivalent solid shaft is ^ — =^ — , where D is the outside diameter
and d is the diameter of the hole in the hollow shaft, both in inches.
Steam and Other Pipes.
Section 17. — 1. No pipe made from the electro deposition of copper
on a mandril shall be used for steam, feed delivery, blow-off, or scum.
2. All copper steam, feed, blow-off, and scum pipes must be properly
anp.^led before fixing in place.
3. All copper pipes used for steam, feed, blow-off, and scum purposes
subject to a pressure over 75 lbs. per square inch shall be solid drawn.
4. No steam pipe intended for a working pressure over 180 lbs. per
square inch shall be of copper when the internal diameter exceeds
5 inches. No copper pipe shall be used for superheated steam.
5. All copper steam pipes on completion ana prior to being fitted in
place shall be subjected to an hydraulic test of at least twice the work-
ing pressure to which they will be subjected.
6. All copper feed delivery pipes shall be hydraulically tested to at
least 2i times the working pressure of the boilers.
7. The working pressure to be allowed on copper pipes is to be deter-
mined by the following formula :—
D »
where WP is the working pressure, in lbs. per square inch ;
D is the internal diameter, in inches ;
t is the thickness, in lOOths of an inch ;
.F for solid-drawn steam pipes is 60 ;
for solid-drawn feed pipes is 48 ;
for brazed steam pipes 45 ;
for brazed feed pipes 86.
8. When copper pipes are bent, they must be made thicker than
required by clause 7 to provide for the thinning at the bend. In no
case should the radius of curvature at the centre line of the pipe be less
than twice the external diameter of the pipe.
9. Steam and other pipes may be made of wrought iron or of wrought
steel.
740 APPENDIX P,
10. The process of welding the seams of iron or steel pipes shall be
such that it is done by hammering or rolling the joint.
11. On completion of any work on iron or steel steam pipes which
involves heating, whether for welding the joint, welding on flanges,
bending the pipe, or for any other purposes, the pipe should be care-
fully annealed.
12. Mild steel for lap-welded or riveted steam pipes may have a
tensile strength not exceeding 28 tons per square inch, with a minimum
elongation of 25 per cent on a standard test piece with a gauge length
of 8 inches.
13. Feed pipes if made of steel should be solid drawn, cold finished.
14. All iron or steel steam pipes prior to being fitted in place shall
be subjected to an hydraulic test of at least three times the working
pressure to which they will be subjected.
15. All iron or steel feed delivery pipes shall be hydraulically tested
to at least four times the working pressure of the boilers.
16. The working pressure to be allowed upon iron or steel steam and
feed pipes shall be determined from the following formulae : —
a. For solid-drawn cold finished steel steam pipes,
WP=(?:^)xl20;
b. For solid-drawn hot finished steel steam pipes,
WP=(i:^xl20;
c. For lap-welded steam pipes of iron or steel whether with or with-
out covering straps,
d. For feed delivery pipes,
WP=^^^xlOO;
where WP is the working pressure to which the steam pipes will be
subjected, and in the case of feed delivery pipes is the
boiler pressure ;
D is the internal diameter of the pipes, in inches ;
t is the thickness, in lOOths of an inch.
Boilers.
Section i8. — 1. In the design and construction of marine boilers
the following conditions should be observed: —
2. All steel plates, rivets, and bars used in the construction of boilers
must be tested and found to conform to the requirements of the Rules
(Sections 36, 37).
LLOYD'S NEW UNIFIED BULBS. 741
3. No steel plates sabject to a direct tensile stress are to be welded
except where the weld is covered by a butt strap or straps. For small
steam domes, by special permission, where the welding is done by
hammer, and the plates do not exceed } inch in thickness, the straps
may be omitted. The strength shall in such cases be assumed to be
60 per cent, of that of the solid plate.
4. All steel plates which are welded, dished, flanged, or locally
heated are to be afterwards efficiently annealed.
5. Butt straps must be cut from plates and not from rolled strips.
6. All rivet holes must be drillea, and as far as possible they should
be drilled in place. After drilling the plates the burrs should be
removed and the faying surfaces of the plates cleaned, and the sharp
onter edges of holes removed also.
7. No steel stays are to be welded. If plus threads are desired, the
ends of the stay bars may be upset or the bars may be drawn down in
the central portions from bars originally of the size of the ends. In
either of these two cases the bars must be subsequently annealed
throughout. In double-ended boilers the through longitudinal stays
must be supported at or near the middle of their length.
8. Screw stays of combustion chambers when fitted with nuts should
be, as far as possible, normal to the chamber plates. When this is not
possible, they must be fitted with taper washers to provide a fair bed
for the nuts.
9. Nuts to screw stays in combustion chambers shall be not less
than i inch thick for stays up to IJ inches diameter over threads, I
inch thick for If and !£ inch stays, 1 inch thick for 1|^ and 2 inch
stays, and 1^ inches thick for stays over 2 inches in diameter. The
nuts shall be made of solid mild steel or of iron which must be without
weld. The nuts for longitudinal stays shall be to the British standards
appropriate to the diameters of the stays, the outside nuts having the
thickness therein provided for ordinary nuts, and the inside nuts
having the thickness provided for lock nuts.
10. All longitudinal stays and screw stays should have threads in
accordance with British standard specification, and true to pitch, viz. : —
After June 30, 1921, all screw stays 1^ inches in aiameter and
upwards should have 9 threads per inch, and all stays 2 inches in
diameter and above passing through plates, and secured by nuts on
each side of the plate, should have not more than 6 threads per inch.
It is desirable for the threads of all screw stays to be turned off
between the parts fitting into the plates. It is also desirable that the
outer ends of screw stays should have a hole ^ inch diameter drilled
axially to a distance | inch beyond the inner face of shell and end
plates.
11. When jointed longitudinal stays are fitted between the front and
back tube plates it is desirable that they should be fitted with pins
having an effective sectional area 25 per cent, in excess of that of the
stay. The pins may be slack in the holes, the total slackness being
not more than tV inch. The pins must be as close as possible to
the shoulder of the eye forging. The shoulder of the forging shoul''
li
«u f.««:* Ji ^GK^ itfdh^l ilAr<t ft '^iL-}«r
ifttWl S&fr
^, %MZ,:,'.,*^ isi *rt\zsZTjc^ skCjs =,
of ^rtakcB
for ;L-(
to be
V/fcj^' vjinftl j'Ait-
)^, Tf^ <»»4 i/^us in tls« steaai q»ee in
%hWA»:n iroiH vMXMKt wiih the bated g»fs.
Section 20, — 1. Wb«ti s lUt frUte is iUnged to sdl&B it at s man-
}i//I« <yr mf(htt^Mi to p^nntt the Mine woiku^ pigmme as vonld be
MlUmntfi upf/n so onpiereed p!ste, the dcptii of tfae flange mttsmeil from
th« f/nUff waiUf^, ix to be at least eqosl to ^Ji x v, wbere t is the tfaick-
n«!M of tbe plate, in incha, mad w is tbe minor axis of the hole, in
in/;hes,
% 'V\tti flffon to manholes, modboles, snd n^lhsAea most be built
Ujp fit Yt*^¥»*A to »>ispe snd annealed, or made from one thickneas of
piste with s msehiDed recess for the jointing mateiiaL Their sfMgot
f;art iff th« reeens most not hare s crester cleannee thsn ^ inch al]
rr/tjrid, i,<0. the axes most not be wm than ^ inch smaller than tbe
\\iAt'M in which they are fitted^
%, The fttnrls for securing all doors should be screwed thioogh tbe
plate, and be fitted with nnts on tiie inside, or bolts may be used
ntiYtswed through the plate with the heads innde.
4. All boilem should have, when possible, means for ingress to
|mnnit of examination and cleaning of the inner surfaces of plates and
t\i})eu ex])os<jd to flame. When the boilers are too small to permit of
thi«, thor« must be sightholes and mudholes sufficiently large and
fiumerous to permit of the inside being satisfiEUjtorily cleaned.
(), When the cross tubes of vertical ooilers are lai^ there most be
ft if^hthole in the shell opposite to one end of each tube sufficiently
large it) permit the tube to be examined and cleaned. These sigbf
}iou)i niUMt be in positions accessible for that purpose.
Section 2Z. — In all new boilers working at pressures up to 100 lbs.
)or iKitiare inch tho hydraulic test must be twice the worlang pressure.
or boilors working at pressures greater than 100 lbs. per square inch
thu hydraulic test pressure must be 1} times the working pressure
plus 60 lbs. por square inch.
Section 22. — 1. Every boiler must have at least two independent
moans of indicating the water level in it, and have marked on it in a
contiguous position, easily seen, the level of the highest part of the
coin bus tion chamber. One of these means must be a glass gauge or
an equivalent. The other may be a set of test cocks.
2. Tost cooks, where practicable, should be fitted direct on the
''^oiler sholl. A set must connist of at least three cocks except in
Uers 7 feet 6 inches in diameter and under, when there may be twa
1?
Lloyd's new unified rules. 743
For vertical boilers above 7 feet high the set of test cocks must consist
of at least three.
3. All single-ended boilers over 16 feet mean diameter shall have a
glass water gauge on each side. Single-ended boilers under 16 feet
in diameter shall have one glass water gauge near one side and one set
of test cocks near the other side.
4. All double-ended boilers shall have a glass water gauge near each
end on opposite sides, and a set of test cocks at each end.
5. The cocks of all water gauges must be accessible from positions
free from danger in the event of the glass breaking.
6. If the water gauges are not fitted directly to the shell of the
boiler, but to stand pillars or columns, it is desirable that these pillars
or columns should be bolted directly to the shell of the boiler. If
they are connected to the boiler by means of pipes, the pipes must have
terminal cocks, not valves, fitted direct to the boiler shell. For
boilers exceeding 10 feet in diameter the pillars shall not be less than
2^ inches, and the connecting pipes not less than 1} inches internal
diameter. For boilers exceeding 7 feet 6 inches but not exceeding 10
feet in diameter, the pillars shall not be less than 2 inches, and the
pipes not less than 1^ inches internal diameter ; and for boilers 7 feet
6 inches in diameter and under, the pillars shall not be less than If
inches, and the pipes not less than 1 inch internal diameter. The
tipper ends of the connecting pipes must be arranged so that there is
no pocket or bend where an accumulation of water from the condensa-
tion of the steam can lodge. They should not pass through the uptake
if they can be otherwise arranged. If, however, this condition cannot
be complied with, they may pass through it by means of a passage at
least 2 inches clear of the pipe all round, open for ventilation.
7. A salinometer cock or valve must be fitted direct to each boiler
in a convenient position. It must not be on the water gauge stand-
pipe.
8. Each boiler shall have a separate steam-pressure gauge. Double-
ended boilers shall have a pressure gauge at each end. The gauges
are to be placed where they are easily seen.
9. Each boiler must have at least two independent means of feed,
each with its own check valve. In vertical boilers one of the means
of feed may be an injector.
Section 23. — 1. Each boiler must have a blow-off valve fitted
direct to the shell. The valve and its connections to the sea need not
be more than 1} inches in diameter, and may be generally about ^
inch in diameter for each foot in diameter of the boiler. It should,
however, be not less than 2 inch in diameter.
2. Blow-off valves and scum valves (when these latter are fitted) of
two or more boilers may be connected to one common discharge, but
when thus arranged there must be screw-down non-return valves fitted
for each boiler to prevent the possibility of the contents of one boiler
passing to another.
3. The blow-off cock or valve on the ship's side must be fitted above
the level of the stokehold plates, in an accessible position, and mu^^
744 APPENDIX P.
be amnged 80 that it can be readily seen whether it is open or shut
The cock handle most not be capable of being removed onless it is
■hnt, and if a rBlre is fitted the wheel most be fixed to the spindle.
The cock or yalre most be fitted with a spigot passing through the
plating and a brass or gnn-metal ring on the ontside.
Se<±ion 24. — One main stop yalve mnst be fitted to each boiler
direct on the shell of the boiler. There shall be as few auxiliary stop
valves as possible so as to avoid piercing the boiler shell more than is
absolutely necessaiy. The arrangement, however, must be such that
when more than one boiler is fitted it is possible to supply the steam
whistle, the steam steering gear, and the electric light machinery from
at least two boilers.
Section 25.— I. At least two safely-valves must be fitted to each
boiler. They must be arranged so that the springs and valves are
cased in, that the valves cannot be overloaded when steam is up, that
they can be lifted by easing gear, and turned round on their seats by
hand, and in case of fracture of springs they cannot lift out of their
seats. Easing gear mnst be arranged to lift all the safety-valves on a
boiler together, and must be workable from some accessible place,
free from steam danger.
2. Vertical boilers having more than 100 square feet of total heating
surface must have two safety-valves each not less than 1*5 inches
diameter : those having less than 100 square feet may have one valve
not less than 2 inches diameter.
8. All the safety-valves of each boiler may be fitted in one chest,
which must be separate from any other valve chest and must be
connected direct to the boiler by a strong and stiff neck, the passage
through which should have a cross- sectional area at least equal to one-
half the aggregate area of the safety-valves in the chest. Each safety-
valve chest shall have a means of draining it ; the drain pipe shall lead
to the bilge or tank clear of the boiler.
4. The minimum aggregate area of the safety-valves of the ordinary
type in each boiler, whether coal-fired or oil-fired and whether working
under natural, forced, or induced draught, shall be found by the
following formula: —
Aggregate area of safety-valves in square inches
= Total heating surface of boilers in square feetx f ^^ 1,
where p is the working pressure, in lbs. per square inch. G being 1*25
for boilers using coal, and 1*5 for those using oil fuel, and for all
boilers with closed stokehold forced draught.
5. The waste- steam pipe and the passages leading to it should have
a cross-sectional area not less in square inches than 0*01 times the
total heating surface of the boiler in square feet, nor in any case
should it be less than 1 *1 times the combined areas of the safety-valves
as given by the above rule.
t$. All safety-valves must be set to the required pressure under
Lloyd's new unified rules. 745
steam. During a test of 15 minutes with the stop valves closed and
under full firing conditions the accumulation of pressure must not
exceed 10 percent of the loaded pressure. During this test no more
feed-water should be supplied than is necessary to maintain a safe-
working water level.
Section 26. — I. All boiler mounting valves over 1} inches diameter
must have outside screws, and all are to be arranged to be shut with
a right-hand motion of the wheels, and must have means for clearly
indicating whether they are open or shut The covers must be secured
by bolts or studs.
2. All cocks and valves connected to the boiler shall be such that it
is seen without difficulty whether they are open or shut. When boiler
mountings are secured by studs, the studs must have a full thread
holding in the plate for a length of at least one diameter. If the stud
hole penetrates the whole thickness of the plate, the stud must be
screwed right through the plate and be fitted with a nut inside the
boiler. Where bolts are used for securing mountings, they must be
screwed right through the plate with their heads inside the boiler.
3. Where a superheater is fitted which can be shut off from the
boiler it must have a separate safety-valve fitted with easing gear.
The valve as regards construction must comply with the regulations
for ordinary safety-valves, but the easing gear may be fitted to be
workable from the stokehold only. The superheater must also be
fitted with a drain cock or valve to free it from water when necessaiy.
4. All stop and safety-valve chests and steam-pipe fittings when
subjected to saturated steam only may be made of cast iron, but such
valve chests and steam-pipe fittings when subjected to steam of a
temperature above 425 degrees Fahr., must be of cast steel or other
approved material.
Rules for Determining the Working Pressure to be
allowed in New Boilers.
Cylindrical Shells,
Section 27. — 1. For the cylindrical shells of steel marine boilers
the maximum working pressure (which is designated by WP, and is in
lbs. per square inch) to be allowed shall be calculated from the
following formulfie:—
Where the thickness of the shell plates does not exceed If inches,
(e-2)xSxJ
^^-" CxD '
Where the thickness of the shell plates exceeds 1 j inches, and the
longitudinal seams are made with double butt straps,
«x8x.T)
" 2-85xD'
746 APPBNDIX P.
In the above fonnalsB
t is the thickness of the shell plate, in 32nds of an inch ;
S is the minimum tensile strength of the steel shell plates, in
tons per square inch ;
J is the percentage of strength of the longitudinal seams
calculated by the methods described below;
G is a coefficient, which is 2*75 when the longitudinal seams
are made with double butt straps, 2*83 when the longi-
tudinal seams are made with lap joints and are treble-
riveted, 2*9 when they are made with lap joints and are
double-riveted, and 8*3 when they are made with lap joints
and are single-riveted ;
D is the inside diameter of the outer strake of plating of the
cylindrical shell measured in inches.
2. The percentage of strength of a riveted joint (J) is found from
the following formulee (i.)i (ii.)» (ui*): (i-) &i^u (il*) &re applicable to
any type of joint, (iii.) is applicable only to that type of joint in which
the number of rivets in the inner rows is double that in the outer row.
The lowest value given by the application of these formulae is to be
taken as the percentage of strength of the joint.
(i.) Percentage of strength of plate at joint as compared with soHd
plate
I00{p-d)
(ii. ) Percentage of strength of rivets as compared with solid plate
100(83 xgxnxC)
~ SiXpxT »
(iii.) Percentage of combined strength of the plate at the inner row
of rivet holes and of the rivets in the outer row
100{p-2d) 100(Sa x o x C)
" P "^ SiX^xT '
where j7= pitch of rivets at outer rows, in inches ;
c{= diameter of rivet holes, in inches ;
a = sectional area of one rivet, in square inches ;
n= number of rivets which are fitted in the pitch p ;
T= thickness of plate, in inches ;
C = 1 '0 for rivets in sinsle shear as hi lap joints ;
0=1*876 for rivets in double shear as in double butt-strapped
joints ;
Sj = minimum tensile strength of plates, in tons per square inch ;
89= shearing strength of rivets, which is taken generally to be
23 tons per square inch, and may be 86 per cent, of the
minimum tensile strength of the rivet bars.
Lloyd's new unified rules. 747
8. Where the longitudinal seams are fitted with double butt-strapped
joints, the outer butt strap should have at least 0 '626 of the strength
of the plate, and should be of sufl&cient thickness to permit of efficient
caulking of its outer edges. The inner butt strap should be -^ inch
thicker than this.
In cases where the number of rivets in the inner rows is double the
number in the outer row, this will require the thickness of the outer
strap to be
and that of the inner strap to be at least
6 X ( » — rf)
4. In all cases the clear space between a rivet hole and the edge of
a plate should not be less than the diameter of the rivet hole, i.e. the
centre of the rivet hole should be at least 1^ diameters distant from
the edge of the plate.
In joints whether lapped or fitted with butt straps, in which there
are more than one row of rivets and in which there is an equal number
of rivets in each row, the distance between the rows of rivets should
be not less than 0'SSp + 0'Q7d with zigzag riveting, or 2d with chain
riveting.
In joints in which the number of rivets in the outer rows is one-half
of the number in each of the inner rows, and in which the inner rows
are chain riveted, the distance between outer rows and the next rows
should be not less than 0'BSp+0-67d or 2d, whichever is the greater,
and the distance between the rows in which there are the full number
of rivets should be not less than 2d.
In joints in which the number of rivets in the outer rows is one-half
of the number in each of the inner rows, and in which the inner rows
are zigzag, the distance between the outer rows and the next rows
should be not less than 0'2p-f 1'15^, and the distance between the
rows in which there are the full number of rivets should be not less
than 0-1661? -I- 0-67rf.
In the above p is the pitch of the rivets in the outer rows.
5. The maximum pitch of the rivet.s in the longitudinal joints of
boiler shells is to be —
Maximum pitch in inches = C x T + 1{- inches,
where T is the thickness of the plate, in inches, and C is a coefficient
as giren in the following table :^
748
APPENDIX P.
Number of Rivets
per Pitch.
Coefficients for Lap
Joints.
Coefficients for
Double Butt-
strapped Joint
1
2
8
4
5
1-31
2-62
3-47
4-14
• • •
1-76
3-50
4-63
5-52
6-00
6. If holes are out in the cylindrical shells of boilers for fixing of
mountings, the diameters of the holes being greater than 2J times
the thickness of the shell plating plus 2| inches, compensation mast
be fitted as in the case of manholes. (See Section 19, clause 2. )
7. When more than three screw stays pierce the cylindrical shell in
lOO(p-rf)
a horizontal line, if d ib their diameter and p the pitch,
should not be less than the percentage of strength required for the
shell longitudinal joints. If this is not possible, the stays must be
arranged out of line with one another longitudinally.
8. The riveting of the seams joining the end plates to the cylindri-
cal shell shall be not less than 42 per cent, of that of the solid shell
plate. Where the shell plates exceed f inch in thickness, the seams
connecting the shell plates to the end plates are to be double-riveted.
Where the shell plates exceed } inch in thickness, the intermediate
circumferential seams of double-ended boilers are to be at least double-
riveted.
9. The circumferential seam at or near the middle of the length
of single-ended boilers shall have a strength of joint not less than
60 per cent, of the 'solid plate. The inner circumferential seams of
double-ended boilers shall have a strength of joint n3t less than 62 per
cent, of the solid plate. In any case there shall be three rows of rivets
when single-ended boilers have shell plates over If inch in thickness
and when double-ended boilers have shell plates over 1^ inch in
thickness.
10. The circumferential seams of the shells of vertical boilers shall
have a strength of not less than 42 per cent, of the solid plate. When
these seams are not complete circles, and when the shell plates exceed
1^ inch in thickness, the riveting shall be double.
Furnaces,
Section 28. — 1. The working pressure to be allowed on corrugated
furnaces is to be determined by the following formula : —
wp=5iizl)
\
\
Lloyd's nbw unified rulbs. 749
where D is the external diameter measured at the bottom of the corru>
gations, in inches ;
t is the thickness of the furnace plate, in 32nds of an inch,
measured at the bottom of the corrugation or camber ;
C is a coefficient which is 480 for the Fox, Morison, Deighton,
Pur yes, and other similar furnaces, and is 510 for the Leeds
Forge Bulb Suspension furnace.
2. The working pressure to be allowed on plain furnaces or furnaces
strengthened by the Adamson or other joints, and on the cylindrical
bottoms of combustion chambers, is to be determined by the following
formulae, the least pressure obtained by either formula being taken : —
(L + 24)xD
or
WP=Sx[10«-l)-L],
where D is the external diameter of the furnace or combustion chamber,
in inches ;
t is the thickness of the furnace plate, in 32nds of an inch ;
L is the length of the furnace or of combustion chamber bottom
or the length between points of substantial support, in
inches, measured from the centres of rivet rows or from the
commencement of flange curyature, whichever is applicable ;
C is 1450 where the longitudinal seams are welded, and 1300
where they are riveted ;
Gi is 50 where the longitudinal seams are welded, and 45 where
they are riveted ;
WP is the working pressure, in lbs. per square inch.
8. When the furnaces are tapered, the diameter to be taken for calcu-
lation purposes shall be the mean of that at the top and of that at the
bottom where it meets the substantial support from flange or ring.
The- length for the same purpose shall be the distance from the centre
of the row of rivets connecting the crown to the body of the furnace to
the substantial support at the bottom of the furnace, or to a row of
screwed stays connecting the furnace to the shell, provided the pitch
of stays at the furnace does not exceed 14 times the thickness of the
furnace plate when the stays are riveted at their ends, and 16 times
when they are fitted with nuts. Such screwed stays must be in
diameter over the threads not less than 2*25 times the thickness of the
furnace plate.
4. Where the furnaces are spherical in form and convex upwards at
their tops, and are without support from stays of any kind,
where t is the thickness of the top plate, in 32nds of an inch ;
B is the outer radius of curvature of the furnace, in inches.
760 APPENDIX P.
5. For the ogee ring which connects the bottom of the furnace to the
shell, and sustains the whole load on the furnace vertically,
^p,140(<-iy
Dx(D-d)'
where t is the thickness of the ogee ring, in 32nds of an inch ;
D is the inside diameter of the boiler shell, in inches ;
d is the outside diameter of the lower part of the furnace where
it joins the ogee line.
6. No furnace, plain or corrugated, should exceed ff inch in
thickness.
Flat Plates supported by Stays secured in Various Ways.
Section 29. — 1. The working pressure to be allowed on flat plates
supported by stays is to be calculated by the following formula : —
^p„(t-l)'xO^
In this formula and in that in paragi'aphs 8 to 13,
WP is the working pressure, in lbs. per square inch ;
t is the thickness of the fiat plate, in 32nds of an inch ;
tw is the thickness of the washers, strips, or doublings employed,
also in 32nds of an inch ;
a is the distance apart of the rows of stays, in inches ;
b is the pitch of the stays in the rows, in inches ;
C is a coefficient which varies with the method of fixing the
stays as follows : —
Where the plates are exposed to flame and the stays are screwed into
the plate and the ends are riveted over, 0=50. Where the plates are
not exposed to flame and the stays are screwed into the plate and their
ends are riveted over, G =57. In these cases the thickness of the plate
must be at least half the diameter of the stay required by the Rules.
Where stay tabes are screwed into tube plates and expanded, G=52.
If they are fitted with nuts, 0=72.
Where the plates are exposed to flame and the stays are screwed into
the plate and fitted with nuts on the outside, 0 = 75. Where the plates
are not exposed to flame, 0=86.
Where the stays pass through the plates not exposed to flame and
are fitted with nuts inside and outside, 0=96.
2. Where plates are stifl'ened by flanging, the inner radius of which
is not greater than 2^ times the thickness of the plate, for the support
thus given, 0 = 110 when the plates are not exposed to flame, and 0=96
when they are exposed to flame. The pitch is to be reckoned from the
commencement of the curvature.
3. For portions of plate where the stays are irregularly pitched, d^ is
be used instead of a* + 6^ d being the diameter of the largest circle
Lloyd's new unified rules. 761
which can be drawn passing through not less than three points of
support — viz. the centres of stays or the commencement of the curva-
ture of flanging, whichever is applicable. In this case C is to be taken
as the mean of the values appropriate for the points of support.
4. For the tops and sides of combustion chambers the distance
between the rows of stays nearest to the back tube plate or the back
plate respectively and the commencement of curvature of these plates
at their flanges shall not be greater than a.
5. It is desirable that the stays of the combustion chambers should
be so placed that the seams of the plates can be caulked without remov-
ing the stay nuts.
6. For the tops of combustion chambers where they are joined to the
sides by curved portions, if the outer radius, of the curved portion is
less than half the allowable distance between the girders, the distance
between the first girder and the inner surface of the side plate should
not exceed the allowable distance between the girders. If the radius of
the curved portion is greater than half the allowable distance between
the girders, the width of the flat portion measured from the centre of the
girder should not be more than half the allowable distance between the
girders.
7. Where portions of plate are supported by stays secured in different
ways, the yalue of C to be taken is the mean of the values appro2)riate
to the method of securing the supporting stays.
8. Where the plates are supported by stays passing through them
and are fitted with nuts inside and washers and nuts outside, the
diameter of the washers being at least 3 '5 times that of the stay, and
their thickness at least two-thirds of that of the plate, but not greater
than that of the plate, the working pressure may be
9. Where the washers have a diameter of at least two-thirds of the
pitch of the 8ta3's and a thickness of at least two-thirds of the thickness
of the plate, but not greater than^that of the plate, and are riveted to
the plate in an efficient manner : —
10. Where the plate is stiffened by strips at least two-thirds of the
pitch of the stays in breadth and haye a thickness at least two-thirds
of that of the plate, but not greater than that of the plate, and are
riveted to the plate in an efficient manner : —
WP=-15y(« - 1)8+ 0-55/w^.
11. Where the plates are fitted with doubling plates having :
752 APPENDIX P.
thickness of at least two- thirds of that of the plate, but not greater than
that of the plate, and are riveted to them : —
12. For the portions of tnbe plates in the nests of tubes,
jr *
where t is the thickness of the tube plate, in 32nds of an inch ;
p is the mean pitch of the stay tubes supporting any portions
of the plate (being the sum of the four sides of the quadri-
lateral divided by 4) ;
C=38 when the stay tubes are screwed and expanded into the
plate and no nuts are fitted ;
C=49 when the stay tubes are screwed and expanded into the
plates and fitted with nuts.
13. For the wide water spaces of front tube plates between the nests
of tubes and between the wing rows of tubes and the shell,
where t is the thickness of the front tube plate, in 32nds of an inch ;
tw is the thickness of the doubling plate, when so fitted, in
32nds ;
a is the horizontal pitch of stay tubes, in inches, measured across
the wide water space ;
b is the vertical pitch of stay tubes in the bounding rows, in
inches, measured from centre to centre ;
C=52 when the stay tubes are screwed and expanded into the
tube plates, and no nuts are fitted ;
G=72 when the stay tubes are screwed and expanded into the
tube plates, and nuts are fitted to each stay tube ;
G=63 when the stay tubes are screwed and expanded into the
tube plates, and nuts are fitted only to alternate stay
tubes.
14. If steel of less strength than 26 tons per square inch is used for
flat plates, the working pressure allowed shall be correspondingly
reduced.
Section 50. — The pressure to be allowed on tube plates shall be
calculated by the following formula, in which the compressive stress
is taken at 14,000 lbs. per square inch : —
(D-d)xt
LLOTd's NBW UNIFIBD tlULBS. 753
where t is the thickness of the tube plate, in 82nd8 inch ;
D is the horizontal distance apart of the tubes, centre to centre,
in inches ;
d is the internal diameter of the plain tubes ;
W is the width of combustion chamber measured inside from tube
Slate to back chamber plate, or between tube plates in
ouble-ended boilei's with combustion chambers common to
»two opposite furnaces.
Section 31. — When vertical boilers have a nest or nests of hori-
zontal tubes so that there is direct tension on the tube plates due to
the vertical load on the boiler ends or to their acting as horizontal
ties across the shell, the thickness of the tube plates and the spacing
of the taboH must be such that the section of. metal taking the load is
sufficient to keep the stress within that allowed on the shell plates.
Further, each alternate tube in the outer vertic&l rows of tubes must
be a stay tube. The tube plates between the stay tubes must be in
accordance with the rules for tube plates as in Section 29, clause 12,
and, in addition,
{t-2)xSx{p-d)xl00
^^"" 2-9xDx^ •
where S is the minimum tensile strength of the steel plate, in tons per
square inch ;
t is the thickness of the tube plate, in 82nds of an inch ;
D is twice the radial distance of the centre of the outer row of
tube holes from the axis of the shell, in inches ;
p is the vertical pitch of tubes ;
d is the diameter of the tube holes, in inches.
Oirders,
Section 32. — For girders supporting the tops of combustion
chambers the following formula is to be used: —
Gxd^xt 8
^^~(L-P)xDxL^28'
where d is the depth of the girder at centres, in inches ;
t is the thickness of the girder at centre, when this is a
forging, or the sum of the thicknesses of the plates when
the girder is made of two plates, measured in 82nds
inch ;
L is the length of the girder in inches, measured between the
tube plate and back chamber plate inside, or between tube
plates in chambers common to two opposite furnaces ;
P is the pitch of stays supported by the girder, in inches ;
D is the distance apart of the girders, centre to centre, in
inches ;
48
754 * APPENDIX P. .
S is the minimiim tensile strength of the steel plates formins
the girder, in tons per square inch. In the case of forged
girders 3 is to be taken as 24 for iron and 28 for steel ;
G is a coefficient as follows : —
JIt 1
when the number of stays in each girder is odd ;
n + 2
x496,
when the number of stays in each girder is even, n being the number
of stays to each girder. •
Stays,
Section 33. — 1. For screw stays with threads not coarser than 9
threads per inch, made of steel or of special wrought iron tested to the
requirements of the Rules (Sections 36, 37), the following formula is
to be used, but in no case must the stress exceed 9000 lbs. per square
inch : —
(d- 0-267)2x8250
WP =
a
where d is the diameter of the stay over the thread, in inches ;
a is the area, in square inches, supported by one stay.
2. For steel longitudinal stays with threads not coarser than 6
threads per inch the working pressure is to be calculated from the
following formula, but in no case must the stress exceed 11,000 lbs.
per square inch when steel of a minimum tensile strength of 28 tons
per square inch is used : —
^„ (d- 0-340)2x9600 S
WP= a ><28'
where d is the diameter of the stay over the thread, in inches ;
a is the area, in square inches, supported by one stay ;
S is the minimum tensile strength of the steel, in tons per square
inch.
8. In cases where longitudinal stays are made with enlarged ends
and the body of the stay is smaller in diameter than at the bottom of
the thread, and in cases where coarser threads than 6 per inch are used.
the working pressure is to be calculated from the following formula : —
^_ (d^-0'125)«x9500 S
^^= a "^ 28'
where d^ is the diameter of the stay at the bottom of the thread or at
the smallest part of the body.
LLOTD S NBW UNIFIED RULB8.
755
Boiler TuheSf Plain and Stay
Section 34. — 1. The following table gives the working pressures
permissible with plain boiler tubes of standard thicknesses, whether
of lapwelded wrought iron or of lapwelded or seamless mild steel : —
Outside
Diameter
of Tube iB
Inches.
Standard Thicknesses
in L.S.a.
Working Pressures in
lbs. per sq. inch.
ABC
D
A B C D
2
11 10
9
155 215 300
2J
11 10 9
8
140 190 260 315
n
11 10 9
8
125 175 230 300
21
11 10 9
8
110 160 215 275
3
10 9 8
7
140 190 250 300
8*
10 9 8
7
130 180 230 280
3i
10 e 8
7
120 165 215 260
2. On stay tubes, whether of wrought iron or of lapwelded steel, a
working stress of 7500 lbs. per square inch of the net sectional area
at the bottom of the thread is allowed.
3. The minimum thickness of stay tubes measured under the threads
shall be J inch for marginal stay tubes and fy inch for other stay
tubes.
4. Stay tubes are to be screwed at both ends with continuous
threads, and the holes in the tube plates are to be tapped with con-
tinuous threads. The thread should not be finer than 10 threads per
inch. It is desirable, however, that they should be screwed to the
standard 9 threads per inch, and after June 30, 1921, this should be
the rule. The stay tubes are to be expanded by roller expanders and
not made tight by caulking only.
5. No nuts are to be fitted to stay tubes at the combustion chamber
end.
6. If stay tubes are required to have their thickness increased at
the screwed ends so that the thickness at the bottom of thread is
practically the same as in the body of the tube, the thickening is to
be attained by upsetting and not by any welding process, and the
tubes are to be annealed after the upsetting.
Section 35. — 1. For ends of steam chests, crowns of vertical boilers,
etc., dished outwards to partial spherical form and not fitted with
stays, the following formula is to be used : —
WP=
15xS(t-l)
R
756 APPENDIX P.
WP is the working pressure, in lbs. per square inch ;
t the thickness, in 32nds of an inch ;
R the inner radius of curvature of the end in inches, which
shall not exceed the diameter of shell ;
S the minimum tensile strength of plates.
The inside radius of curvature at the flange connecting the end to
the cylindrical shell must not be less than four times the thickness of
the end plate, and in no case less than 2*5 inches.
2. When the end has a manhole in it, -^ inch must be added to the
thickness of plate.
If the plate at the manhole is stiffened by flanging, the total depth
of the flange from the outer surface, in inches, is to be at least
ss\/tXW,
t is the thickness of plate, in inches,
w is the minor axis of the hole, in inches.
3. When the end or crown is a complete hemisphere without stays
or other supports, and is made in more than one plate, the working
pressure to be aJlowed is given by the following formula : —
wp-(^-2)SxJ
^^ — oTr"'
where t is the thickness of the plates, in 32nds of an inch ;
S is the minimum tensile strength of the steel plates, in tons per
square inch ;
J is the strength of riveted joint per cent, of the solid plate ;
R is the inner radius of curvature, in inches ;
0 is a coefficient which for treble riveting is 2*88, for double
riveting is 2 '9, and for single riveting is 3 *3.
WEIGHT OP METAL PLATES PER SQUARE FOOT. 757
•
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INDEX
PAGK
AoovBTio condactlyity of metals . 606
Acting lurface of screw propellers 907
Admiralty conditions, contracts for
oil fuel 807, 308
— flexible wire ropes . . . . 481
— hydraulic tests .... 727
— instructions to boiler overseers 390
— oil specification .... 241
— rule for determining I.H.P., co-
efficients for 46
— rules for steel f orgings . 446
— supervision of boUers . . 389
— tests for rivets 390
of boiler steel .... 840
of steam-pipes .... 285
of turbines 231
and trials of machinery details 727
Air pressure in stokeholds 815
— pump barrels 161
lever pins 176
pipes of 162
rods 160
valves 160
size of 161
— pumps, capacity of . . . 169
kinetic system .... 158
ordinary 168
position of 168
—- — speeds of 161
Weir's dual 159
— required by liquid fuels . 240
for combustion .... 801
Allowance for wetted skin . 38
— of steam room in various boilers 836
— of total heating surface . 386
Alloys, fusible, melting-point of . 476
Aluminium, particulars of . . . 451
Amethyst^ trials of .... 236
Angle-bars and stays. Board of
Trade tests 346
weight of 486
Angles of entrance of steamships,
table of 87
Atmospheric air, properties of 300
Auxiliary machinery, consumpt of 820
— valves of cylinders .... 96
Balanoinq of engines
^llast tank suctions, British Cor-
"H)ratIon rules for . . . .
287
687
PASS
Bar links or quadrants ... 187
proportions of ... 190
rules for 189
— list as rolled in Great Britain . 4S9
— steel, Board of Trade rules for . 346
Beams, bending moments on . -463
— deflection of 466
— forms of, for uniform strength . 469
Bearing brasses for small engines . 147
Bearings, Michel design ... 128
— and pin, pressure on . . .128
Bevis-Oibson torsion meters . . 17
Bilge and ballast flttings, British
Corporation rules .
— and other ship's pipes .
— pipes and fittings, Board of Trade
requirements
British Corporation rules
— pumps
Board of Trade and lioyd
rules f or .
— suction pipes ....
sizes of . . .
— suctions, British Corporation
rules for ....
Blades of screw propellor .
— of turbines
Blow-off and scum cocks, Bareau
Veritas rules
— pipes, etc. for boilers
B.S1.E.D. & C. Committee's rales
for boiler stays ...
for furnaces .
for girders
for safety-valves .
tests recommended .
Board of Trade factors of safety
rules for angle and stay ban
for bilge pumps, pipes, etc
for blow-off oocks, etc.
for boiler mountings .
for boiler stays .
for copper pipes .
for distilling apparatus
for evaporators
for feed pumps, pipes, etc
for furnaces .
for motor boats .
for petrol engines
for pipes ....
6S6
418
429
685
ITS
173
167
419
687
202
2S9
644
873
374
871
896-406
7S3
854
846
178
401
868
J7>
4s:
87«
171
874
»4
SU
m
278
758
INDBX.
759
PAGH
Board of Trade rulee for riveted
joints 881
for safety-valves . . . 402
for sea fittings . . . 263
for shafts ... 136
for ship fittings ... 422
for steering gear ... 687
for turbine shafts . . 137
miscellaneous . . .422
tests of boiler steel ... 341
of steel 350
of turbines .... 231
required by .... 729
thickness of copper and steel
pipes 279
Boiler construction, materials of . 329
— efficiency, affected by fire-bars . 309
— fittings, Bureau Veritas rules for 645
— gauges, German Government
rules for 670
— installations, weight of . . 338
— materials, tests of . . . 388
— mountings and fittings . . 406
Board of Trade rules . . 401
Lloyd's rules for . . 407,742
— seats and attachments . . .413
— shell joints, strength of . . 352
openings in 855
plates, differing tensiles . 854
-^ of vai'ious strengths . . 354
Boiler shells, cylindrical —
Board of Trade rules . . . 352
U.S.A. Government rules . 667
Lloyd's Begister . . . 859,745
Boiler stays, U.S.A. Government
rules for 668
Lloyd's Register . . . 372, 750
rules for 372
pitch, etc., of Board of Trade
rules 862, 370
rules for 371
— steel, Admiralty tests of . . 840
Board of Trade tests of . . 841
Bureau Veritas and tests of . 664
U.S.A. Government rules, and
tests of 667
Lloyd's tests of ... . 856
— tubes, Lloyd's rules f or . . 689
pitch of 837
prices, etc., of .... 490
size of 330
weight of 488
— work, Admiralty inspection . 389
Boilers, British Corporation rules « 621
— capabilities of various . . 816
— circulation in 330
— comparison of weight of . 339
— construction of .... 340
British Gorporatioh rules . 629
Bureau Veritas rules . 643
— cylindrical 323
particulars of .... 382
PAGE
Boilers, cylindrical, weight of . 832
— double-ended . . . . • 328
— efficiency of ... . 816, 826
— express, particulars of . . . 319
— flat plates of, thickness of • . 860
— furnaces of, rules for . . . 374
— gauges on 407
— German Government rules for . 667
— gunboat type 323
— heating surface of . . . 324, 325
— Hohenstein 324
— hydraulic testing of . . . 374
— in general . • .... 299
— kinds of marine .... 822
— modern cylindrical, scantling of 334
— riveting of 352
— small tube varieties ... 324
— stays for, tests, etc.. Board of
Trade 370
for, tests of, Lloyd's . . . 872
— steam, room of .... 386
— stop valves of 395
— strength, U.S.A. Government
rules for 667
— sundry hydraulic tests . . . . 374
— tests of. Bureau Veritas rules . 642
— thickness of shell plates . . 351
— valves on 407
— various, trials of . ... 317
types 324
— water spaces in .... 836
tube, kinds of . . . 322, 323
tube, rules for . . . 857, 670
— weight of cylindrical . . .825
— working pressure, Lloyd's . . 869
Board of Trade . .358
Boiling-point of sea-water . 502
Bolts for cylinders and columns . 97
— for main bearings .... 146
— of screw blades . . . 211, 212
— of shaft couplings .... 181
Bombay, distance from other ports 722
Bosses of screw propellers . .210
Brass plates, pipes, and turbine
blades. Bureau Veritas rules 663
— rods, sheets, etc 694
— various kinds of ... . 461
Brasses for connecting rods .119
— for main bearings . . . .147
British Corporation rules, general 621
for electric lighting . . 638
for shafting .... 630
for steel 447
tests for steel .... 622
Bronze, Admiralty, particulars of 449
— manganese, particulars of . . 449
— or gun-metal, strength, etc., of 448
— phosphor, particulars of . 449
— various, by Bull's Metal Com-
pany 450
by Parsons' M.B. Company . 4P"
I by Stone <& Company
760
MARINB BNGINBERINQ RULES AND TABLES.
PAOK
Bronze, various products of Delta
Hetal Company .... 452
Bronzes, zino, particulars of . 449
Built up cranks, sizes of . . . 182
Bunkers, fittings in, Bureau Veritas
rules 648
Bureau Veritas rules, etc., general 641
for electric lighting . 664
for shafting .... 664
oil-engine shafts . . 246
steel for boilers .... 660
tests required by .729
Bushes for stern tubes . . . 143
Butt joints of shells. Bureau Veritas
rules 648
Caimeroti, with geared turbines . 237
Calcutta, distance from other ports 718
Caloriilc value of fuels . . 299
Cape Town, distance from other
ports 718
Caps for main bearings . 145, 146
Carbonic oxides, composition of . 800
Cardiff, distance from other ports 707
Casings (brass) for screw shafts 136
Cast iron, Admiralty requirements 439
contraction of castings . 438
mixtures of 438
strength of, ete 437
— steel, particulars of . . . 440
and bronze pipes - . . 277
Castings, British Corporation rules 632
— steel 346
Centre of gravity of machinery 497
Centrifugal pump wheels . 166
— pumps 165
— stresses on screw propellers 213
Chain cables. Lloyd's tests 480
proporiions of .... 432
safe working load on . 430
short-link, Admiralty testa . 429
stud-link. Admiralty . 429
Chains and ropes, Admiralty tests
of 429
— weight of ... . . 432
Channel steamers, performance of 226
Chemical compositions . . . 300
Circles, areas of 560
— circumferences of . . . .567
— small, areas and circumference 564
Circulating apparatus for boilers . 401
— pumps 157, 168
centrifugal 166
efficiency of 167
pipes of 165
sizes of 164
Circulation of water, apparatus for 401
in boilers 830
Classification, Bureau Veritas rules 641
Clearance, effect on mean pressure 70
-- of pistons 09
Coal, anthracite .... 299
PAGK
Coal, bituminous 299
— consumption per day ... 608
— kinds of, and value ... 299
— lignite 299
Co-efficient of fineness of ships . 43
Column bolts 149
Columns of engines .... 148
Combustion, air required for . . 300
— and evaporation in various
boilers 317
rates of 318
— chambers. Board of Trade rules
for 869
girders on 369
tops 369
numbers of 323
— rates, of, in practice . 306, 814
Compasses, Bureau Veritas rules . 606
Compensating rings at manholes . S6S
Compensation rings of boilers, . 855
Compound vfrtiu triple engines . 57
Compression on plates ... 370
Condenser, form of .... 152
--tubeidloys 451
ferrules 166
plates 156
tubes per sq. ft. . . 167
— tubes 165,603
and ferrules, standards . . 155
length 155
pitch of 167
weight of 494
Condensers, jet 149
— Morrison's 152
— surface, advantage of . .151
— tests of .Bureau Veritas rules . 642
— Weir's tJniflow .... 152
Conductivity of materials . 477, 506
Cones, volume and surface of . .566
Connecting-rod bolts . . . • 118
brasses 119-121
caps 118
ends 120
gudgeons 118
Connecting-rods, rules for . . 116
Consumption of fuel, etc., on various
ships 821
per day 606
— of oil fuel per day .... 609
Contraflow condenser . . . . 162
Converting evaporation results to
and from . . t . . . 837
Cooling surface .... 15S, ISS
amount of ISS
— water, application of . . .167
flow of 164
pipes 166
quantity of 155
ratio to steam .... 165
Copper, Admiralty requirements . 448
— alloy for pipes 44"
— pipes 27f-278
INDEX.
761
PAGB
Copper pipes, by Board of Trade
rules 278,369
flanges, and bolts for . 275
— plates and pipes. Bureau Veritas
rules 663
— strength, etc,, of . . . 447
— tubes, Lloyd's rules for . 606, 789
thickness of 272
weight of 492
— wire, strength of . . , .447
Corrugated furnaces, standard sizes 873
Coupling bolts for shafts, particu-
lars of 131,738
sizes of 131
Covers of cylinders .... 86
Crank-arms 184
— keys, rules for 185
— pins, size of . . .131, 134
— shaft journals, size of . .181
— shafts, built up .... 132
in general 125
of paddle engines ... 132
of screw engines . , . 128
loads on 129
size of arms 130
Crossed valve-rods .... 183
Crossheads for air-pumps, etc. . . 176
— of piston-rods .... 116, 118
Cube root of squares, tables of 52
Cubes, squares, and roots . . .567
Curves of speed, power, etc., of
ships 89
Cylinder arrangements in com-
pound systems 60
— columns 97
— cover Joints 93
— covers 86
cast steel 91
— diameter of, for power ... 79
— drain cocks 95
— ends 86, 88
— liners, thickness of, in cast iron 85
in steel 86
— of oil engines, number of . 242
— ports and passages .... 79
— false faces 98
— feet 97
bolts 97
— pass valves 96
— ratios 67
— relief valves 94, 95
— steam passages, thickness of . 90
— valve-boxes 89
Cylinders, general strength of . 82
— horizontal 98
— of oil engines, thickness of . . 251
— oscillating 98
— of reversing engines ... 190
— size of 78
— sizes of, for N.H.P. ... 6
— steam, thickness of ... 82
— tests of. Bureau Y»ritas rules . 641
Cylindrical boilers, scantlings of
V. water-tube boilers
PAGE
334
328
Delta Metal Company, product of 452
Denny-Edgecombe torsion meter . 17
Depth of water for speed trials . 48
Destroyers, Yarrow's productions . 237
Diagrams (Zeuner's) for valve
motions 181
Diameter of paddle-wheels . 215
Diana J H.M.S., steam consump-
tion of 320
Diesel engines,fltting8, Lloyd's rules
for 698
N.H.P., Lloyd's rules for . 695
shafts, Lloyd's rules for . 696
ships fitted with ... 708
Dished ends, Bureau Veritas rules 652
Displacements with Index f B.D.S.,
Table XVIII 52
Distance of ports from one another 706
Distilling apparatus, Board of
Trade requirements . . 428
Dover, distance from other ports . 718
Drain cocks of cylinders . . . 95-96
Draining of steam pipes . . . 279
Draught in funnels and chimneys . 809
Duralumin, particulars of . 452
ECOENTRIO rods 194
— sheaves 191
and straps . . . . .198
— straps 191
Eccentrics, rules for .... 192
Economic speed, maximum . 39
ship's length for . . 39
Eflfective horse-power, to determine
co-efficient for 46
Efficiency, as a£Fected by steam
jackets 27
— mechanical .... 17,18
— of boilers 17, 18
— of engines, general ... 19
— of marine machinery . . . 17
— of propellers i7
— of pumps 167
— of steam 17
— of steam-engines .... 66
— propulsive 17"
— thermal 17
Electric light, etc., Lloyd's rules
for 172,672
in oil-cari-ying vessels . . 676
— lighting, British Corporation
rules for 638
Bureau Veritas rules . 664
Electrical conductivity of metals . 606
— resistance of metals . . . 473
Engine and boiler rooms, Lloyd's
rules 414
seatings 411
— and boilers, weights of . . 4P"
762
MARINB BNOINBBRINQ RULES AND TABLES.
PAai
Engine oolnmns 148
— framings and foundations . . 148
— friction, Dewrance's experiments 21
Froude's method ... 20
Tower's experiments . 21
— power measurement ... 2
•— rules of N.E. coast standards . 719
Engines, construction of—
British Corporation rules . . 6S3
Bureau Veritas rules . 643
Bnffines for reversing gears 199
— for turning gears . 200, 201
— reciprocating L
Equivalent evaporation from and at
212* 887
per lb. of fuel . . 831-837
— mean pressures .... 66
Bscape valves on cylinders . 94-06
Estimated horse*power ... 3
Bvaporation, equivalent, from and
at 212* 331-837
from and at various tempera-
tures 626
Evaporative power of fuel 801
Evaporators, Board of Trade rules
for 874
Exhaust pipes of steel ... 284
— steam, properties of . . . 160
Expansion of metals by heat . . 474
— of steam isothermally ... 67
Express boilers, capabilities of 819
weights of 319
Extras charged by steel manufac-
turers 460
FACrroRS of safety for boilers, Board
of Trade 864
Feathering floats 216
Feed heaters 171
— pipes 169
diameter of 898
sizes of 170
— pump plungers .... 170
— pumps 168
capacity of 169
pipes, etc.. Board of Trade
rules for .... 171
Lloyd's rules for 172
— tanks 171
— valves for boilers .... 897
— water, gross . ... 168
solid matter In . . .499
velocity of flow . .170
Feet and metres, tables of . . 636
— of cylinders 97
Ferrules for condenser tubes . . 166
Fineness, co-efficients of, tables for 44
— of ships, rules for .... 43
Fire-bars, bridffes, etc. ... 408
Fire hose and fittings, Board of
Trade requirements ... 426
Ganges for steel pipes . . 286, 286
PAGE
276
212
239
483
360
360
Flanges of copper pipes
— of screw blades
Flash-points of oil fuels
Flat bars, weight of .
— plates of boilers
stays of .
Flat surfaces-
Greatest fluid pressure on . 471
Maximum pressure on various 471, 473
Of boiler. Board of Trade rules for 360
British Corporation rules
for 631
Bureau Veritas rules for 650
Lloyd's Register rules for 366, 760
Of boilers 800,366
Floats for paddle-wheel, number of 216
Forced draught
Forgings, Board of Trade rules for
— British Corporation rules
FOttinger torsion meter .
Fourth power of numbers . . .
of shaft diameters
— root of numbers ....
Framings of engines .
Fresh-water distillers.
Trade rules for
Friction, oo-efflcients of
— of skins of ships
Frictional resistance .
to total ratio
Fuel consumption of oil engines 246, 351
— for internal combustion engines 240
— liquid characteristics of . 3GS
— of various kinds, composition . 302
— weight of consumed . . SlO
Fuels for oil engines .... 239
— various kinds . .299
Funnels and casings, riveting . SIS
chimneys S09
draught in . . . . S09
— capacity of, for fuel . . Sll
— effect of, on fuel consumption . SlO
— height of $11
314
847
632
16
612
. 613
. . . 612
. . 148
Board of
. . . 427
. , . 504
. 46, 523, 646
. . . 2S
32
— scantlings of
— size of
Furnace fittings, etc
Furnaces, corrugated, rules for
Furnaces of boilers-
Board of Trade rules for
Furnaces of boilers, rules for
— size of
Fusible alloys, melting-point of
— plugs, in boilers
810
SIS
Sll
406
373
S73
373
S73
476
670
Gas engines for ships . . . 2S9
Gauges on boilers .... 407
Geared turbines for propulsion . 224
German Government rules—
For boilers 661
For furnaces 667
Gibraltar, distancafrom other poiti 706
INDEX.
763
Girders
tops
for combiutloii
PAOB
chamber
. . 860, 870
Olands and stuffing boxes
Glasgow, distance from other ports
Grate area, quantity of
Gratings, ladders, and platforms
Gudgeons for connecting-rods
Guides for piston-rods
slide valve rods .
101
708
333
410
118
115
187
Halifax, distance from other ports 717
Hamburg, distance from other ports 711
Hatchways, Lloyd's rules . . 416
Hawsers, steel wire, strengths of . 482
Heat on metals, effects of . 474
— total of evaporation . .526
Heating surface, allowance of, in
ships 885
of superheaters .... 261
— surfaces, condition of . . . 830
efficiency of .... 829
total, required .... 333
Hemispherical ends of cylinders . 366
Hollow shafts 124
weight of 482
Hong Eoug, distance from other
ports 717
Hopkinson-Thring torsion meter . 17
Horse-power, estimated ... 8
— indicated 9
— net 10
— nominal 8
— of oil engines, rules 250
— per 100 feet of wetted skin for
various speeds .... 88
— propeller 10
— shaft 9,15
— thrust 10
— to drive a ship, rules for 28, 29, 87, 38
— tow rope . . «... 10
— turbines 282
— various rules for . . . 4, 6, 6
Howden's forced draught . .814
Hull, distance from other ports . 709
Hydraulic tests of boilers . . 876, 670
Admiralty 727
Italian Government ... 728
Hyperbolic logarithms . . .614
IMCHBS and millimetres, tables of
India-rubber valves, Admiralty
specification for
Indicated horse-power
multipliers for .
of oil engines
Indicator diagrams
Inertia, effect of, on engine parts
— forces on engines .
Injection orifice, size of .
— water, quantity of .
Inlet valves
JnsnlatiDg materials for boilers, etc.
627
161
9
12
260
11
127
287
151
149
222
670
PAGE
Internal combustion engines . 239
Lloyd's rules .... 256
— steam pipes of boilers . . 895
Iron bars, strength, etc., of . 439
weight of 480
— cast, particulars of . . . 437
— pipes, Board of Trade thickness of 274
— stay bars. Board of Trade allow-
ance 871
Italian Government tests and trials
of machinery details ... 728
hydraulic tests .... 728
Jet condensers 149
Joy's valve gear 194
Keys for propellers .... 136
Kilogrammes per sq. cm. to lbs" per
sq. inch 645
Kilometres and Admiralty knots 580
— and miles, standard and nautical 527
Kirk's analysis of steamship trials 86
Knots, miles, kilometres, tables of 627
Ladders, gratings, etc. . 410
Lead of slide valves .... 177
Lead pipes, weight of . .495
Leith, distance from other ports . 714
Levers for air pumps . . . .174
— for reversing links .... 189
Link motion, drag rods ... 189
effect of crossed rods . . 188
of obliquity of eccentric
rods .... 183, 184
levers 189
notched up 182
open rods 183
Links, double bar . . . .191
— for pumps and levers 175
Liquid fuels in practice ... 305
particulars of .... 303
Liverpool, distance from other
ports 711
Lloyd's Register —
Kules for bilge and other pipes . 418
pumps, etc. . 173, 417, 732
boiler mountings . . 407, 743
rooms 414
stays ..... 371
tubes 693
boilers . . . 356-859, 740
brass rods, sheets, etc. . 694
carrying liquid fuel . . 807
condenser tubes, etc. . 693
copper tubes . . . 696, 739
Diesel engine fittings . . 698
shafts .... 696
electric light . . . 172,672
engine rooms . . .414
feed pumps, pipes, etc. 172, 731
flat surfaces . . 368, 750
furnaces .... 376, 7^
764
MARINE BNOIKBERINQ BULBS AND TABLB8L
PAOB
Lloyd's Register-
Rules for internal combostion
engines 266
list of spare fl^ear . .421
motor boats .... 256
nominal horse-power . 6
of Diesel engines . 699
oil-engine shafts . 244
pipes 269,734
refrigerating machinery . 682
screw shafts . . 706, 735
sea fittings . . . 266, 738
shafto 138,734
spare gear for refrigerating
machinery .... 683
steam pipes . . 269, 739
steel boilers .... 379
forgings . . . 441, 447
steering gear .... 686
survey of boilers . . .421
of machinery ... .419
surveys of refrigerating
machinery ... 683
tests of boiler steel . 366
of steel and other mate-
riahi 688
Logarithms, hyperbolic . . .614
liOndon, distance from other ports 718
Low-pressure steam, particulars of 150
Lubricating oils, charactfTistics of 503
LtiHtania, S.S., steam consump*
tion of 320
trials of 283
Main bearing bolts and caps . . 145
brasses 147
— bearings of engines . . .145
Malleable cast iron, Board of Trade
requirements 144
Manganese bronze, particulars of . 449
Manholes, compensating rings 853
Marine engines, trials of, Table
XXV 74
Materials, weight of . . . .479
Mean pressure, equivalent of a com-
pound system 66
of dry steam expanding
adiabaticaUy, Table XXI L 71
of steam expanding isother*
mically 67
of steam as found in practice 78
referred, of a compound
system .'.... 66
— pressures, allowing for clear-
ance 70
— speed of ships, rules for . 47, 48
Measurement of engine power 2
Measures, English and metrical . 626
Mechanical efficiency .... 17
rr equivalent of heat .... 800
nelting.point of various metals . 476
PA6S
Melting-points of metals (Prof.
Carnelly's Constants) ... 734
Metallic packings, Table XLH. . 102
Metals, conductivity of . . . 477
— electrical resistance of . . 489
— melting-point of . . . 476, 730
— specific heat of .... 477
— strength of, when heated . 475
— various, eflFect of temperature on 475
expansion of, by heat . 474
— varioiis prices of ... . 456
properties of • . . • ,454
Meters, to ascertain torsion . . 16
Metres and feet, table of . . .536
Metrical measures, standards of . 526
MichePs Thrust blocks . . .141
Mild steel bars, weight of . . ' . 481
Miles, statute and nautical, and
kilometres 527
Millimetres and inches, tables of . 531
Minimum length of ships for speed 36
Model experiments for ships . 42
Modulus of certain sections . . 467
Moments of inertia of sections . 467
Monel metal, particulars of . 452
Motor boats, Board of Trade rules
for 262
Mountings, boiler, Board of Trade
rules for 401
Multipliers for LH.P. ... 12
Nayal brass, particulars of . 451
New York, distance from other
ports 714
Nomenclature of boilers . . .617
— of shafts 617
Nominal horse-power .... 3
foreign countries ... 9
Lloyd's rule .... 6
Normania, S.S., efficiency of . .223
trialsof 235
North-East Coast standard engines 719
Notching up slide valve link
motion, effect of . . . . 1S2
Number of screw blad^ ... 202
— of propellers 2t»l
Nuts and bolts, dimensions of 105
Oil, Admiralty requirements . . 241
— and liquid fuel, air necessaiy for 244*
composition of . . , 24i'
flash and boiling-points of 2^
specific grfcvity of . . .240
thermal value of . • . 240
— consumption per day ... 509
— creosote, or tar . . .241
— engines. Bureau Veritas, shafts . 246
characteristics of . . .24!^
classified 241
crankshafts .... 243
cycles of 241
cylinders of . . . 242, 261
INDBX.
765
PAOB
Oil engines, design of . . . .242
efficiency of 247
for ships 289
fuel consumption . . 246, 261
guide shoes of ... . 248
indicated H.P. of . 250
mean pressure in ... 248
pistons of 242
pumps for 246
reversing of 242
revolutions of ... . 248
space occupied by . . . 240
tests of 247
various 1
weight of 249
— fuels, Admiralty condition of
contract .... . 308
as tested in U.S.A. navy . . 806
consumption of . . . 804
various kinds of . . . . 803
viscosity of 806
Oil-shale 241
Oils, asphalt 241
— boiling and flash points of . . 604
— Calif ornian . . . . .241
— paraffin 241
— various, criterion for tests . 603
— viscosity of 602
Openings in decks, Lloyd's rules . 416
Oscillating cylinders 98
— cylinder pistons .... 186
Otaki, trials of 234
PACKING, metallic .... 102
— of glands 100,101
— of thrust blocks .... 142
Paddle-engine cranks 132, 133
seatings 412
— engines, rules for size of shafts . 124
— floats, immersion of . . . 217
— frames, rules for ... . 220
— shafts, particulars of . . . 133
— wheel propeller .... 215
— wheels, area of .... 216
design of ... . 218, 219
diameter of 216
dimensions of ... . 220
feathering floats .216
frames of 217
number of floats .... 216
radial 216
slip of 216
thickness of floats . . .217
Passage of steam through pipes 261, 393
Patent fuels 299
Path of pistons, diagram of . .180
Petrol engines. Board of Trade rules 252
Phosphor-bronze, particulars of . 449
Pins for pumps 175
Pipe arrangements .... 279
Pipes and pipe arrangements . • 269
— bends and T-piecea . . 276
PAOB
Pipes bilge 167
— blow-off and scum .... 272
— bronze and cast steel . . .277
— copper. Board of Trade thickness 278
brazed 276
flanges of .... -275
— — thickness of . . • . . 273
— discharge 272
— exhaust, thickness, etc. . . 284
— expansion joints, Board of Trade 279
— for cooling water .... 166
— for steam, draining off . . 279
— for steam, steel .... 280
~ Lloyd's rules for .... 279
— miscellaneous 276
— of air pumps, size of . 162
— of circulating pumps ... 165
— solid drawn steel . . .281
tests for .... 281
— steam and feed .... 269
tests of, Bureau Veritas 642
— steel, "bending of .... 286
steam 280,283
welded, etc 274
~ test of Board of Trade ... 278
Piston clearance 99
— path, diagram of . . .180
of an oscillating cylinder . 185
Piston-rod crossheads . . . 116, 118
guides 115
Piston-rods, construction of . 114, 116
loads on 118
rules for size ... 114
— slide valves, rods of . . . 187
— speed 76
Pistons, cast iron .... 109, 110
steel . . . . .106,107
— forged steel 109
— general construction .112
— rules for 106, 109
— stroke of 78
Pitch of rivets, maximum 354
— of screw propellers . . 206
— ratio of screws 204
Plate list as rolled in Great Britain 468
Plates subject to compression-
Board of Trade rules . . . 870
Lloyd's rules for .... 370
Ports and passages of cylinder 79, 81
Possible work from 1 lb. of steam . 28
Power to speed, relations of
30, 31, 37, 48
— transmitted by shafts . . .616
Pressure of water due to head . . 607
— on pistons, effective ... 13
Pressures on bearings and pins when
working 128
— on thrust blocks .... 139
— per sq. inch and kilos, per sq.
centimetre 544
Prices of various metals and alloys 466
Prime movers on shipboard . . 1
766
MARINE BNOINBBRING RULES AND TABLES.
PAGE
Piiiin oo-efflcienta, table of, for
▼ariouishipB 44
Prismatic co-efBcienta ... 89
Propeller blades, shape of, sec-
tion of 203
— driven by turbines, reversal of . 223
— shafte 135
Propulsion of ships .... 27
Propulsive efficiency .... 17
Pump crossheads .... 175
— levers, links, etc 174
Pumping arrangements, British
Corporation rules .... 636
Pumps, air and circulating, scant-
lings of 163
— barrels of 161
— circulating water .... 168
-feed 168
— for bilge water .... 172
— for ship's use —
Board of Trade rules . . 422
Lloyd's rules .... 417
— relief valves for ... . 169
Pure water, weight of hot * 400
QUADBUPLB compound engine,
horse-power of, Table III. . . 8
— compound engines, trials of . 268
— screw cruiser trials . .236
RATIOS of cylinders in compound
engines 67-59
Receiver safety valve ... 95
Reciprocating engines ... 1
Refractory materials for furnaces 620
Refrigerating machinery, Lloyd's
rules 678
Relief rings on valves . . .177
— valves for pumps .... 169
Reserve feed tvater-tanks . . .171
Resistance due to skin friction of
ships 28,46
— of ships 27
due to eddies .... 28
to waves 28
— of various surfaces to water
passage 47
— residual, in ships .... 28
Reversing gear 197
cylinders 198
engines 199
weigh-shafts .... 199
— quadrants 188
Revolution, rate of, in marine
engines 77
Revolutions of oil engines . . 248
— of turbines 226
Riveted Joints, Board of Trade
rules 880
double and quadruple special 387
examples of various ... 384
maximum pitch of rivets . 383
PAai
Riveted joints, quadruple examples 386
relative strengths of . 389
treble examples . . • . 385
Riveting, multiple, pitches of 354
— of longitudinal seams . . . 853
Rivets, Board of Trade tests . . 847
— maximum pitch of ... 854
Rods for slide valves . . . .188
— of circulating pumps . . 165
Roots, square and cube . . 567
Ropes and cordage, tarred hemp . 486
— hemp, particulars of . . . 433
— steel wire flexible . . 431-433
— tarred hemp. Admiralty . 486
— wire, Bui livant's .... 434
Bound bars and shafts as rolled 459-461
Rule for girders, B.M.B.D. A C.
Committee's 371
Rules for boiler stays • . . 371
— for N.E. coast standard engines 719
— for shafting, Bureau Veritas . 654
Russian weights and measures com-
pared 725
Safety valves, area of ... 396
Admiralty requirements 895-405
B.M.B.D. & C. Committee
Rules for . . .896,406
Board of Trade rules
895,402
Bureau Veritas rules
. 644
French rules . . * .
. 896
U.S. A. Government rules
. 667
on cylinder receiver
. 96
springs for ....
. 397
tests of ....
. 407
Screw engines, rules for sice of shafts 124
— propeller, numbers of .
. 202
acting surface .
. 207
blades, number of
. 208
sections ....
. 204
bolts of blades .
. 211
bosses
. 212
centrifugal stress
. 212
diameter of.
21).% 205
dimensions of .
. 20S
flanges
. 212
for turbines ....
. 227
keys
. 186
materials of
. 208
particulars of .
. 218
pitch of . ..
. 206
pitch ratios ....
. 21^
slip of
. 2M
surface of . .
. an
thickness of
. 9?T
thrust of ... .
. 204
weight of ....
. 2U
— shaft casings ....
. 186
— shafts
. 185
Lloyd's rules for
. 706
— threads, particulars of
. iw
per inch of boiler stays .
. 874
INDBX.
767
PlOB
Screw threads, Whitworth gas . 494
Screws, number of .... 201
Sea and other ship Talve8,Lloyd'8i ules 416
— fittings, Lloyd's rules for . 264-265
— valves generally .... 222
— . water, boi1ing<points of . 602
in various parts of world . 500
supply to engine room . 222
temperature of ... . 153
— waters, solids in . . .600
weight of, cub. ft. . . . 501
Seaports, distance of, from one an-
other 710-718
Seatings for engines and boilers . 411
Seaton's rules for nominal horse-
power ....... 6
Sections of screw blades . . . 203
Segments of circles, areas of . . 647
Semi-Diesel engines . ... 252
Shaft couplings 181
— diameters, fourth power of 615
— horse-power .... 9-15
— of paddle engines .... 124
— tunnels, Lloyd's rules . . . 414
Shafting, British Ciorporation rules 630
— Board of Trade rules for . 136, 187
— Bureau Veritas rules for . 658
— Lloyd's rules for . . . 188, 734
— paddle, Bureau Veritas rules . 657
— torque on . . . ' . .122
Shafts, fourth power of diameters 618
— nomenclature of ... . 617
— of paddle engines .... 124
— of screw engines .... 124
— of turbines 228
— power transmitted by . . . 616
— size of, to resist torsion . . 123
— tail, crank, etc 137
— weight of hollow .... 482
of steel 482
Shape of screw blades .208
Sheet metals, weight of . . .495
Shell plates of boilers ... 864
Ships, fineness of .... 43
— fitted wiih Diesel engines . 703
— model, experiments with 42
— power and curves of . 39, 40
— propulsion of 27
— resistance of 27
— skin friction of ... 28, 46
Size of cylinders corresponding to
N.H.P. 5
to calculate 78
Skin fittings of steamers ... 262
Slide valve proportions . . 177-179
rods, sizes of 187
section of 178
— valves, effect of notching or link-
inor up, diagram .... 182
guides for rods .... 187
lead of, for steam ... 177
loads on rods ... .187
PAQK
Slide valves period of release . 177
relief rings on .... 177
springs on back of . . . 177
travel and surface of 176
Zeuuer's diagram of motion 180
Slip, apparent, of paddle-wheels . 216
of screws 204
— ratio of turbine screws . . . 227
— real, of screws ..... 206
Slot links for reversing . . .187
rules for 188
Solid-drawn steel pipes . 285
Solid matter in sea-waters . . 600
Sound, conductivity of, by metals ^06
Sounding pipes. Board of Trade re-
quirements 428
Southampton, distance from other
poi-ts . 715
Spare gear. Board of Trade require-
ments 426
British Corporation rules . 686
* Bureau Veritas rules . . 659
Lloyd's requirements . . 421
Specific heat, definition of 301
of metals 476
of superheated steam . 259
of various materials . 477
Specification, standard, N.E. coast,
triples 719
Speed and power curves, of ships . 39
— of air pumps 161
— of pistons 76
— of ship and power, relation of . 43
— of ship in knots from measured
mile observations. Table XVII. 49
— of ships, economic maximum 39
— of steam through ports and pipes 80
— true mean, rules for . . . 47
Spheres, volume and surface of . 565
Springs for safety valves . . .397
— on back of slide valves . . 177
Square feet and square metres . 540
— metres and square feet 541
Squares, cubes, and roots, etc. . 567
Standard specification for triple
compound engines, N.E. coast . 719
Stay for flat surfaces of boilers . 862
— tubes in boilers .... 370
Staybars of iron. Board of Trade al-
lowance 371
— surfaces sustained by . 372, 373
— threads of standard . . . 374
Staying of boilers-
Board of Trade rules for . . 370
British Corporation rules for . 627
Bureau Veritas rules for 651
U.S.A. Government rules for . 667
Lloyd's B.egi8ter rules for . . 371
Stays for flat plates . . . . 360
Steam and feed pipes . 269, 635
— and fuel consumption of various
steamers S*"
768
MARINE BNGINBBRING RULES AND TABLES.
FAGS
Steam, consumption .... 14
H.U.S. Amethygt ... 285
how affected by vacuum . . 152
of thips 320
of turbines 232
S.S. Lwdtania .... 233
S.S. Normania .... 235
S.S. Otaki 234
trial, S.S. Cairncroii . . 238
— cylinders, thickness . . 82, 83, 84
— efficiencies of engines ... 56
— expanding adiabaiically . . 68
factors for mean pressures of,
Table XXI 69
factors for mean pressures of,
when with clearance, Table
XXII 70
isothermally . • . . 67
— flow of, through ports and
passages . . 80, 261, 893
— jackets, effect on efficiency . 27
— maximum output from one pound 23
work from one pound expand-
ing ^ . 67
— of low pressure, characteristics
of 150
— passing through pipes, weight of
393, 394
— pipes, Lloyd's rules for . . • 269
and yalves, diameter of . . 392
of boilers, size of . . . 892
— port openings 177
— properties of 617
— room in various boilers . . 836
— ships, trials of . . . .88, 84, 36
— superheated 258
Steel bar sand plates, strength, etc.,
of 444
weight of .... -481,484
— boilers, details of ^ .361
— castings, Admiralty require-
ments 441
and forgings, test pieces for
Board of Trade ... 343
Board of Trade requirements 443
tests 848
comparative requirements . 446
cylinder covers .... 91
exhaust pipes, thickness of . 281
for boilers, Bureau Veritas
rules 660
Lloyd's requirements . . 441
strength of, etc 440
tests of, by various bodies . 446
— for boilers, Bureau Veritas . . 660
— forcings, Admiralty require-
ments 446
and castings, British Corpora-
tion rules .... 632
Board of Trade t«sts . . 347
Bureau Veritas rules . . 662
Lloyd's requirements . . 446
PAQI
Steel plates, angles and bars, as
made 458
etc., British Cori>oration re-
quirements . . 447
makers* extras for . . 460
— materials, extra for size, etc. 460
— pistons 106, 109
— slabs, weight of . . . • 485
— steam pipes .... 280, 283
thickness of . . . 280-282
— test pieces for Board of Trade . 842
— tests, British Corporation . 622
— welding of 441
Steering engines, Board of Trade
requirements 425
Steering gear-
Board of Trade requirements 687
Lloyd's rules for • . . . 686
Stem bushes 148, 144
— tube fittings at outer end . . 136
— tubes 142
Stem tubes and bushes, sizes of.
Table LV 144
Stop valves 286
of boilen, size of . . . 395
Stowage of cargoes .... 566
Straps for eccentricities . . 191, 192
Strength of materials .... 436
Stresses on materials, safe limits of 462
Stroke of pistons 78
Studs and bolts, loads on ... 103
stresses of lOS
Stuffing-box of stem tubes 144
— boxes, sizes of. Table XLI. . . 100
Sunderland, distance from other
ports 706
Superheated steam . . . . 2S
maximum temperature . . 859
maximum work by . . .261
specific heat of . . . .259
total heat of .... 260
transmission of . . .200
Superheaters, heating surface 261
Supervision of boiler work. Ad-
miralty . ' SS8
Surface condensation . . .151
— condenser, capacity of . . .157
— of plate, etc., R.M.B D. A C.
Committee rules, Table CXH. 373
for large stays, Table
CXIII 373
— of thrust collars . . . 139,142
— of tubes of various sizes . 49^
Surfaces sustained by stay bars 37^
large 373
Surveys of machinegr—
British Corporation rales . . 6»>
Bureau Veritas rales ... 642
Lloyd's ' . . *19
Suspension pins for reversing links,
position of l$i^
— of quadrants . . . Iw
INDEX.
769
PAOE
Tail shafts 135
Tanks for feed water . . . . 171
— reserve 171
Temperature effects on metals . 475
— of sea- water in various parts of
the world 153
Testing of boilers by water . 376
Test pieces for Board of Trade . 842
Tests, hydraulic forboilers . . 374
— for boiler materials ... 388
— of boiler plates, etc. . . . 388
— of cylinders and turbines. Bureau
Veritas rules . . .641
— of india-rubber (Admiralty) . 161
— of solid.drawu steel pipes . . 285
— of welded and riveted steel
pipes 285
— required by Board of Trade . 729
by Bureau Veritas . . .729
Thermal conductivity of metals 477, 506
— efficiency 17
maximum of steam engines 18,19
— units, British 300
Thermometei-s, comparison of . 510
Thickness of flat plates-
Board of Trade 360
Lloyd's 866,368
Thickness of screw propellers 207,208
Threads for gas pipes . . . .494
Thrust block seatings ... 412
— blocks 139,141
securing to the ship . . .142
— collars . . . . . 140,141
— normal mean 139
— of screw propellers . 205
— shafts 139
Tiller, spare, Board of Trade re-
quirements 424
Tools, etc., for distilling apparatus,
Board of Trade requirements 427
Torpedo-boat destroyers ... 32
Torsion meters 16
for power of turbines . 233
— on shafts ..... 122
Torsional stiffness of shafts . 122
Total heat of combustion . .801
of evaporation .... 525
of superheated steam . . 260
Travel of slide valves , . .176
Trials of engines 74,76
four-crank triples . 267
quadruple compound . 268
three-crank triples . 266
— of quadruple screw cruisers 2S6
— of steamships 88, 84
— of S.S. Caimcroii .... 287
— of S.S. LutCtaniik'8 turbines 233
— of S.8. Reina Victoria Eugenia 837
Trick slide valve 178
Triple compound engines —
Advantages of 67
N.B. coast specification of . 719
PIQS
Triple compound engines—
Koniinal horse-power of. Table
II 7
Triple compound engines-
Trials of 266
Trunnions of oscillating cylinders,
sizes of 99
Tube plates, boiler . . 360-387, 6i7
compression on . . 369
of tank boilers .... 360
of water tube boilers . . 857
wide surfaces of . . . 869
— surface in boilers, efficiency of . 156
Tubes, Board of Trade tests . . 848
— copper, weight of ... . 492
— for condensers, composition of . 155
— for water tube boilers . . . 357
— in boilers, size of ... . 830
— iron and steel, standard list of . 490
— large steel, weight of . . . 491
— of surface condenser, pitch of . 157
— of tank boilers .... 373
per square foot . . 874
— solid- drawn steel . . . 281, 849
— surfaces of .... 374, 498
Turbine castings, Bureau Veritas
rules 236
trials of 236
— propellers, slip ratio . 227
— shafting, rules for . . 228
Bureau Veritas rules 658
Turbines, Admiralty tests of . 231
— advantages of 222
— and reciprocators combined 2
— astern going 228
— blades of 229
— Board of Trade tests of . . 281
— combined with reciprocators 224
— designs of 229
— dimensions of 230
— division of, in ships .224
— efficiency of 223
— geared, etc 2
to screw shafts .... 224
— Italian tests of .... 281
— kinds of 223
— rates of revolution .... 226
— rotor drums 229
— screw propeller for . . 227
— shaft horse-power of . . 232
-steam 222
consumption of. Bateau's rule 282
— torque 282
— torsion meters for .... 238
— various arrangements of . . 223
— ver«u« reciprocators . 224,226
— weight of 231
Turning gears 190
wheels, worms, etc. . 202
Twisting moment, equivalent 126
— moments, curves of . .126
49
770
MARINE ENGINEERING RULES AND TABLES.
UnifIiOW condenser . . . .
United States, America, rules of—
for boilers .
for furnaces
for seamless tubes .
for stays in boilers .
for fusible plugs
PACK
162
e67
668
669
670
Vaouux augmenter, Parsons' . 160
— effect of, on steun consumption 152
— highest possible .... 155
Valve-boxes for feed'pumps . 169
— casings of cylinders ... 00
— gear, general motion of . . 186
Joy's 194,196
— rods, guides, etc 188
Valves of air pump . . .160
— for admission of water 262
— for discharge of water . .262
— on boilers 407
— rubber, Admiralty specification
for 161
— steam cylinders, travel of . 176
— stop and regulating 286
— to admit sea-water .... 222
Viscosity of various oils ... .602
Water consumption of boilers 820
— delivered through pipes 614
— evaporated per lb. of fuel . 831
— for jet condensing .... 140
— fresh, bulk and weight of . .499
— gauges and tent cock 401
Bureau Veritas rules 644
rules for 400
— level in boilers, Bureau Veritas
rules 644
~ pressure of, due to '* head " . 607
~ salt, bulk and weight of 499
— spaces in boilers .... 886
— tube boilers, rule for . . 867-670
^ weight of, at various temperatures 480
Water-feed, solid matter from . 499
Weigh-shafU for reversing gear . 198
Weight of angle-ban ... 486
— of boiler tubes 488
— of boilers, rules for . .826
— of brass condenser tubes . 494
— of copper tubes .... 492
— of cylindrical boilers . 826. 832
— of engines and boilers ... 496
— of flat bars 488
— of hollow shafts .482
— of iron 488,440
PAOK
Weight of iron and steel bars . 480
— of lai^e steel tubes .491
— of lead pipes 495
— of marine installations 496
— of oil engines 249
— of pure water at various tempera-
tures 400
— of screw propellers ... 211
— of sheet metals .... 496
— of steam passed through pipes 893, 394
— of steel shafts 482
Weights and measures, Russian,
compared 725
— English and metrical ... 542
— of turbine installations . . 231
— of various boiler installations . 338
— of various boilers compared . 339
— of various materials . . 479
— of various sea-waters ... 301
— of water 498
Welding of steel 441
Wetted skin, to estimate —
Kirk's rule 86
Mumford's rule .... 38
Seaton'srule 38
Wheels for turning engines 200
White metal in brasses .147
— metals, particulars of ... 468
Wire gauge, legal standard and
metric do 271
— gauges and their equivalents . 270
— ropes and hawsers .... 481
Wood fuel, value of . .299
Work from one pound of steam
expanding and exhausting to at-
mosphere 26
Work from one pound of steam ex-
panding and exhausting to con-
denser 24
Work from one pound of steam ex-
panding and exhausting at pres-
sure j^a 16
Working pressures on bearings and
pins, rules for 128
— stresses on various metals . . 461
Worms for turning wheels . 201
Wrought-iron bars, weight of 480, 48S
pipes, Board of Trade rolet . 874
qualities of, etc . . . 4S9
TOKOHAMA, distance tron other
ports 716
Zhdner'8 diagram for slide valves 180
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Sentinel Valve Works, WORCESTER.
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JAMES HOWDEN & CO.,
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Head Offices and Works.
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. . QLASQOW.
774
Branch Offices
in Great Britain.
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AND
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Telegrams : " ARCAWELDO " each City.
The
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Approved by the Board of Trade and Lloyd's Register under
following Tests :—
1910 Board of Trade (Marine Consultative Branch).
1914 Lloyd' sSRegister.
1919 Lloyd's Register (for new Construction).
LONDON: Glcngall Rd., Mill-
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ALEXANDRIA (Egypt).
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Electric Welding Repairs to Iron and
Steel Structures and Steel Castings.
Welding Repairs to Ships^ Marine and
Land Boilers. Fractures Welded^
Landing Edges filled up, Corroded
Surfaces Built up. Leaky Seams and
Rivets and Uncaulkable Places
Welded.
Welding Plant conveyed to any part.
ONLY EXPERT BRITISH WELDERS EMPLOYED
776
Wl B manufacture ship wiring cables to Lloyd's
* ' Rules and all recogoised specifications, aad
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