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VOL. III.

EDINBURGH:
T. & T. CLARK, 38 GEORGE STREET.

1887.

CONTENTS.

SECOND PAET.— FIRST BOOK.

SECOND DIVISION.— HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES.
CHAPTER II. — THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA.

(A) THE UGRIAN-FINNIC- TARTAR GROUP OF RACES.

§ PAGE

261. Ethnographical and Historical Sketch, . . . , 1

262. The Religion of the Finnic Tribes, .... 5

263. The Religion of the Tartars, .... 10

(B) THE MONGOLIAN RACES.

264. Characteristics and Distribution of the Mongolian Group, 14

265. Buddhism among the Mongolian Tribes, ... 33

266. The Ancient Religion of the Mongols, . . . 41

267. The Ancient Religions of Tibet, Higher India, and Ceylon, 46

268. China and its Religion, /. . . %.,... 52

269. Japan and its Religion, . . . . 66

270. The Unity of the Malay- Polynesian Group of Tribes, . 74

271. The Religion of the Malays, .... 82

272. Culture, Religion, and Traditions of the Polynesians, . 87

(D) THE CUSHITE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA.

273. The Remnants of Cushite Peoples in Asia and Polynesia, 95

274. Civilisation and Religion of the Kolhs and their Traditions, 99

275. The Religion of the Papuans, Negritos, and Alfurus, . 109

CHAPTER III. — THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA.

276. Ethnographical Survey, . . . . . 113

277. Religions of the Cushites of South Africa and of the

Hottentots, ... 12]

278. The Religion and Traditions of the Negroes, . . 131

1C59S63

vi CONTEXTS.

CHAPTER IV.— THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA.

279. Introductory, . . . . • 142

(A) MALAYAN-POLYNESIAN IMMIGRATION, B.C. 1600-1400.

280. Evidence of this Immigration, . . . 148

281. Traces of Malay Religions in various parts of America, . 158

282. The Religion of the Tsonecas, . . . . 165

283. The Religions of the Aruacas and Tamanacs, . . 167

(E) IMMIGRATIONS FROM AFRICA FROM B.C. 600 TILL A.D. 600.

284. Indications of African Immigrations at various times, . 176

285. Religion and Legends of the Caribs, . . . 183

286. Traces of an Early Mongolian Immigration, . . 1 88

287. The Old Peruvian Empire of the Aymaras and their

Religion, v 197

288. Religion and Traditions of the Wild Aymara Tribes, . 209

289. The Empire of the Muyscas and their Religion, . . 214

290. The Old Cultured Races of Central America, . 221

(Z>) CHINESE IMMIGRATION OF A.D. 650. THE TOLTECS AND THE INCAS.

291. Historical Traditions of the Aztecs, . . . 226

292. Criticism of the Aztec Tradition, .... 229

293. The Origin of the Toltecs and their Relation to the Incas, 236

294. The Empire of the Incas in Peru, . . . 246

295. The Religion of the Incas, ..... 250

296. The Legends of the Toltecs and Mayas, . . 257

(E) IMMIGRATIONS OF THE TSHUKTCHIS, ABOUT A.D. 1220, AND MONGOLS,
ABOUT A.D. 1281.

297. The Chicimecs and Nahuatlacs, .... 264

298. The Religion of the Aztecs, . . 285

299. The Buddhism of the Aztecs, . . . 293

300. Traces of Pre-Aztec Deities in Central America, . - . 295

(F) THE UGRO-FINNIC IMMIGRATION INTO THE NORTH DURING THE
THIRTEENTH CHRISTIAN CENTURY.

301. The Redskins and their Religion, . . 301

302. The Traditions of the Redskins, ... 3] i

SECOXD BOOK.
THE REVELATION OF GOD.

303. Summary of Results already gained, . . . 317

CONTENTS. Vll
FIRST SECTION.

THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD.

§ PAOK

304. The Flood, 325

305. The Confusion of Languages and Separation of Peoples, . 327

306. The Cardinal Question : Is the One God a Product of

Israel ? Or is Israel the Product of the One God ? . 339

307. The Semitic Eace and the Choice of the Covenant People, 343

308. God's Educative Procedure in the Patriarchal Age, . 348

309. The Law and the Ordinance of Sacrifice, . . 354

310. The Period of the Judges, 359

311. The Period of the Kings and the Prophets, . . 364

312. The Divine Act of Redemption, .... 372

SECOND SECTION.

THE EFFECTS OF REDEMPTION.

313. The Several Effects of Redemption, . . . 381

314. The Influence of Christianity on the Life of the People

and the State, ...... 384

315. The Influence of Sin on the Christian Life of the Com-

munity, ...... 391

SECOND PART. FIRST BOOK.

SECOND DIVISION. HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE
RACES.

CHAPTER II.— THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA.

A. — THE UGPJAN-FINNIC-TARTAR GROUP OF RACES.

§ 261. Ethnographical and Historical Sketch.

THE Iranians in their remote and legendary antiquity
(§ 224), in addition to the Semitic tribes inhabiting
the banks of the Euphrates, had as neighbours other two
nations, the Salm or Sairimians, and the Turanians. The
former are the Sarmatians and Sauromati, both of which
designations are connected together as Salm and Sairim, and
so may be identified with the Slavs. The Turanians are
found first of all to the east and south of the Sea of Aral and
around Lake Balkash, where under the names Turan, Turkes-
tan, Turkomania, the old designation is still retained.

A. Although the present inhabitants of East Turkestan are
correctly represented as of Aryan extraction,1 belonging to
the Iranian stock, yet of the Turanian origin of the Tartar
races there can be no doubt. After the Tshu-king dynasty of
the Chinese, there was the Turanian family of Yuchi, which,
about B.C. 150, descended from the north upon Bactria and
Yarkand, and made subject to them the Iranians dwelling

1 Robert B. Shaw, Journey to High Tartary, Yarkand, and Kashgar,
1871, chap. ii.

EBRARP III. A

2 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 261.

there. From the mixture of the two there arose the Uzbeks,
who, as a settled and agricultural people, were called Sarti.
The pure Tartars, who have maintained the nomadic habits
of life, were called Kirghis, embracing the tribes Kazak,
Kiptchak, Kari-Kalpak, and that of the Kirghis in the
narrower sense. But tribes of a like form and descent
inhabit those vast steppes in the north and east of Turkes-
tan, which are usually designated by the generic name of
the Kirghis-steppes. To these tribes belong the Kalmucks
from Mustagh, the Dulans from the Akmetshet Lake, and a
portion of the inhabitants of Dzoungaria, south-east from the
Balkash Lake, east of the Thian-Shan mountains.

B. But it is now discovered that far in the north and
north-west, and even in Europe, there are peoples tribally and
linguistically related to these Tartars. When the Hungarians,
about A.D. 950, appeared on the borders of Europe, they were
designated Turks by the Byzantine writers, because they came
from Turkestan. The present Hungarian language is, in fact,
most intimately related to that of the Turks, who about A.D.
1400 rushed down from Turkestan, founded in Further Asia
the Turkish Empire, and in 1453 took Constantinople (see
Obs. 1). In this way the Tartar origin of the Hungarians is
proved.

C. If, now, we go back to the appearance of the Hungarians
in history, Constantinus Porphyrogenitus (A.D. 950), a con-
temporary, relates that the Hazara tribe of the Kabars was
joined with the Hungarians. But the Hazara, according to
Hunsalvy's l happy suggestion, are identical with the Akhaziri,
of whom Jordanes, writing in A.D. 570, gives an account, and
in the Kabars we recognise the name of the Avars, who were
spoken of by Theophylactus Simakotta, in A.D. 580, as an
Ugrian race, consisting of three tribes, Uars, Vars, and Huns,
a portion of which in Justinian's time founded the kingdom
of the Avars on the banks of the Theiss and the Danube.
Eoman and Byzantine writers, however, designate these Avars
1 Hunsalvy, Reise in die Ostseeprovinzen, 1873.

THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 3

as Huns. The chiefs of the Avars were called Chagaus,
and Eginhard speaks of Chagani et Jugurri as missi
Hunnorum. It is thus made apparent that from one and
the same mother - tribe, the Ugrians (Ogori, Jugurri) or
Hazara, which had its home on the Volga and Kama, first
of all the Huns, about A.D. 375, then the Avars about A.D.
740, rushed down upon Europe, and from Turkestan about
A.D. 950 there came the Hungarians. All the three were
Turanians, that is, they belonged to the Tartar races.1

D. As there is a linguistic relationship between the
Hungarians and the Turks, so is there also between the
whole circle of those races now extant in Asia and Europe
and these two races, especially the Hungarians. These are
the Tsherimis and Mordvins on the Volga, the immediate
neighbours of those Hazara, the Zirianians, the Permians, the
Votiaks on the Dwina and northern Kama and the western
slopes of the Ural mountains ; also the Suranians, Voguls,
Ostiaks, Tshudes, hunting tribes on the north of the Urals,
round the Sosva, Konda, about the Obi down to Tobolsk and
even to Irtis; likewise, the Finns, Esthonians, Livonians, and
Lapps (see Obs. 2) ; finally, the Eussian Tartars, those of the
Crimea, Kazan, and the Obi, along with the Bashkers, the
Yakuts, Teleuts, etc.

E. But also the Samoyed family, of which the greater part
occupies the north of Siberia, and a smaller part, including
the Koibals, Soiots, Motors, Kamassintzi, the south of Siberia,
speaks a common language, which is so closely related to that
of the Tartars, that even these tribes must be regarded as
belonging to the Ugrian-Tartar group. Among the northern
Samoyeds are included, the Samoyeds proper, the Ostiaks of
the Narum and of the Yenesei, the Assans, Karagassans,
Gorales, and other Yenesei tribes, the Kottovs, Arnizians, and
Tubnizians, and the Tshuktshians on the north-eastern corner
of Asia.

1 Constantinus Porphyrog. relates that the Hungarians and Hazara
were able to understand one another's languages.

HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES.

2C1.

F. On the other hand, the Tungus, in the south-east of
Siberia, among whom are included the Mandshus, in the
north-east of the Chinese empire, seem to be a race partly
Mongolian, partly Tartar.

Obs. 1. — "Words which in Hungarian and Turkish are pro-
nounced exactly alike, such as kulta, gold, rauta, iron, miekla,
sword, etc., are less decisive, because they might have been
introduced among the Hungarians from a foreign language after
the date of their subjugation under the Turks. This is less
probable in the case of words like atra, plough, leipa, bread,
kakra, oats, ruis, rye, multa, dust, etc., which designate things
which the Hungarians could not have learnt to know first from
the Turks. Those words, again, are quite decisive as evidence
of the original linguistic relationship of these races, in which
transmutation according to a fixed law takes place ; for example,
in Turkish a z takes the place of what was originally r in the
Hungarian. Thus, e.g., we have the Hungarian borju, Turkish
buzagu, a calf ; terd, diz, the knee ; ir, jaz, to write ; bor, boza,
drink ; kard, kazik, stake ; okor, okuz, an ox ; iker, ikiz, twin ;
gyurii, jiiziik, a ring, etc.

Obs. 2. — In order to render perfectly clear the relationship of
the Finnic-Esthonian and the Hungarian language, we may here
append a few examples : —

Moon,

Finn, kua

Esthon

kuti H

ang. ho

Fish,

„ kala

kala

„ hal

To die,

„ kuole

kool

, hal

To hear

„ kuule

kuul

, hall

Wood,

„ puu

pun

, ^

Morsel,

„ pala

pala

, fal

Cloud,

„ pilve

pilve

, felho

Wife,

„ puole

poole ,

, feleseg

Old,

„ vanha

vana

, ven

Blood,

„ vere

vere

, ver

World,

„ valkea

valge . ,

vilag

Water,

,, vete

ved

, viz

Eye,

„ silma

silm

, szem

Heart,

„ sybm

suame

, sziv

One,
Two

„ yhte
„ kahte

iihd
kahd

, egy Vogul,
, kett „

akve
kitt

Three,

„ kolme

kolme

, harom „

horom

Four,

„ nelja

neli ,

, negy „

nils

Five,

„ viite

viid ,

> ot°y ;,

The members of the Finnic group generally may be arranged
as follows: — Finnic, Esthonian, Livonian, Vespian (that is,
North Tschud), and Votian ; and to the Ugrian group belong, the
Hungarian, Lapp, Vogul, and Tsheremisic. For the languages
of the Samoyeds, Tshuktshians, Mandshurians, etc., we may

§ 262.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 5

compare the following words: Eye, Samoyed saima, saiica,
Ostiak sai, Kurile sik; sea, Finnic jaka (flood), Tshuktschian
ajam, Koriak uuem; wood, tree, Ostiak pob, Samoyed and
Tshuktschian pfa, ua ; stone, Hungarian ko, Finnic kiivi,
Koriak guwwen, Ostiak kei, Turkish guaja ; son, Hung.
fiu, Ostiak puwo, Kurile poo; brother, sister, Hung, nenem,
Samoy. nenja, Koriak ninichsch. On the relation of the
Mongolian languages to the Ugro-Finnic, see below at § 264.

Obs. 3. — The Ugrians or Ogori are still met with in Genghis
Khan's time under the name of Uigrians to the east of the
Balkash Lake. D'Hossom, hist des Mongoles, vol. i. p. 107 f.

§ 262. The Religion of the Finnic Tribes.

While we have no information regarding the earlier form
of religion prevailing among the Asiatic races of the Ugrian
group, and while, in that which is now preserved among
them in the way of religious conceptions and customs, so far
as they have not come under the influence of Islam, we see
before us only a picture of religious decay, we are, on the
other hand, fortunate enough to be in possession of informa-
tion regarding the Finns and Esthonians from the date of
their conversion to Christianity, which affords us an accurate
picture of their religion. And this picture is anything but an
attractive one. In general, their enumeration and conception
of the gods (as already J. Grimm had remarked) corresponded
to those of the Germans and Celts ; only among them these
notions are found in a more primitive stage. While among
the Celts and Germans the godhead had been already formally
dismembered into a multitude of distinct individual deities,
there still continued among the Finns and Esthonians, first of
all, a mode of thought corresponding to that of the oldest
Vedic religion, according to which the gods of heaven were
only forms of revelation of the one God ; and secondly, from
these gods of heaven the inferior deities, in a way somewhat
similar to that in which the Iranians spoke of the Yazatas
and Ahuramazda, were sharply distinguished.

The appellative term for God, which has also been carried
over into Christianity, is jiimala, Esthonian jumal, from the

6 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 2G2.

verb jum, Hungr. vim, etymologically identical with the Old
High German vrihi, wihjan (see 0Z».)- The verb jum means
to pray: jumala is he who is prayed to, one who can be
worshipped. But the supreme god was Taara, Esthonian
Tor, Lapp Toraturos, with the predicate vana-isa, old-Father.
In name he corresponds to the Celtic thunder-god Tarani, the
Norse Thor, but not in nature. For Taara was quite
essentially regarded and worshipped as creator of the world,
and indeed as the invisible ; and a multitude of very beautiful
Finnic and Esthonian legends, which are to some extent
current among the people to this day, refer to this position
of his. There are Taara mountains, Taara groves, Taara oaks.
Dorpat, too (Tar-to), has its name from him. Three yearly
festivals were celebrated in his honour ; where, by opening the
vein in the fourth finger, blood was offered him, and in doing
so the words were uttered: "With my blood I name and
mark thee; with it I mark my house, that it may be
blessed." In a quite similar way this sacrificial custom
existed among the ancient heathen Hungarians. In this
there was present not merely the thought of a gift to the
deity from whom men had received their blood and life, but
also there was bound up in it that of a sin-offering and
expiation ; for the pagan Esthonians characterized their
Taara-faith, in opposition to the munga-usk, monkish faith,
that is, Christianity, as lepingu-usk, expiating faith.

Besides Taara, they had also a second god, Ukko, the
Ancient (Esth. Kb'u), who was the god of thunder and
lightning, of rain and fruitfulness. When it thunders, the
Finns of the present time still say: Ukko pauhaa, the
ancient rolls. Every village had a Uku kivi (Hung.
Ukko kove), Ukko stone, whereon in spring offerings of seed,
and in harvest offerings of grain, were laid. But Ukko also
had this same cognomen of vana isa, old-Father, as well as
Taara, and the name Taara itself signifies the thunderer.1 It

1 This circumstance decides against any sort of notion that the name
Taara was derived from an ancestral hero of the Turanians. The

§ 2G2.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 7

was therefore one and the same old-Father who thundered
as Ukko the ancient, and as Taara, the thunderer, created
the world. Only when this is recognised is the sameness of
name for him with the German Donar and Thor, and the
Celtic Tarani, rightly explained The thunder-god of the
Ugro-Finnic race was not regarded as distinguished poly-
theistically from the creator of the world as a separate
individual deity, but as the creator of the world himself
under another form of manifestation.

From him, however, three inferior deities were very
decidedly distinguished. They occupied an intermediate
position between heaven and earth, and were endowed with
the qualities of mythical champions or heroes rather than
those of the gods properly so called. 1. VANA-MUINE (Esth.)
or WAINE-MOINEN (Finn.) is the contriver, and so the god of
art, especially of music, but also of wisdom and magic.
Once on a time men and animals were gathered together in
the Taara grove to learn a heavenly festal speech. Vana-
muine descended in a rushing of the wind, touched the
strings, and sang. Then the streams ceased to flow: all
things listened. But now men learnt the art of song ; the
trees caught only the gentle murmuring sound, the streams
only the rustling of his garment, the woodpeckers only the
creaking of the strings beating upon the lyre, the fishes,
whose ears were under the water, only the dumb movement
of the mouth. 2. ILMARINE is the discoverer and god of
the art of forging. 3. Then alongside of these two there
appears LAMMEKUNE, without any other predicate than that
embraced in the name.

These are, as we have said, mythical figures rather than

derivation of the old onomatopoetic primitive root tar, tonar, is much
nearer the mark, all the more as we find among the Celts and Germans,
among whom there is no trace of a descent from a patriarch Tur, that the
name of the thunder-god of heaven is derived from the same primitive
root. From this, by necessary consequence, it follows that the ancestor-
gods among the Finns are distinguished sharply and consciously from
the one god as inferior deities.

8 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 262.

gods; for they are wrapt up in legend. The present race
of men, it is said, was preceded by a race of giants, begotten
by the sons of the gods, who came down to earth and
associated with the daughters of men. One of these giants
was KALEVA (Finn.) or KALEV (Esth.). An ancient epic
among the Finns and Esthonians, Kalevala (Kalevapoeg),
relates how Kaleva sailed in a ship over the Baltic Sea, seeking
his mother, who had been robbed and hidden away by a power-
ful giant; also how he, from among three virgins, Salme, an
orphan, and Linda, who had sprung respectively from a hen, a
crow, and an egg, chose Linda as his wife, had by her three
sons, and died before the birth of the third.1 Have we
not here a reminiscence of Noah and his three sons ? Kalev
in the ship seeks mother earth, which is robbed and hidden,
and is no more to be seen. Those giants then, who signifi-
cantly enough remind us of Gen. vi. 1 ff., are designated
appellatively as vainemoinen : the first part, vana, is the well-
known adjective meaning old (§ 261, Obs. 2); but muine
seems to be an old word for man, identical with the Sanscrit
manu. Those who lived before the flood were thus desig-
nated as the old men. That legendary hero, Vanamuine, is
therefore nothing else than one of the antediluvians, and we
need not for a moment doubt that in the three legendary
figures, Vanamuine, Ilmarine, and Lammekune, we have pre-
sented to us in a quite uncontorted form a reminiscence of
the three brothers, Jubal, the discoverer of music ; Tubal-cain,
the discoverer of working in metal and the art of forging ; and
Jabal, who, as a nomad, is not specially designated. The
popular tales of the Finns and Esthonians point to the name
of the divine or half-divine being, to whom the ancient
Father has entrusted the care of morning dawn and evening
twilight, the sunrise, etc., and in fact these peoples have

1 Thus speaks the Esthonian legend. The Finnic legend gives him
twelve sons, and enumerates among them Vana-muine. This evidently
arose from a secondary and confused combination of different myths.
Kaweh (not Kalev) also is once mentioned as Vana-muine's father,
and Vana-muine is designated as father (not son) of Kalev.

§ 262.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 9

worshipped deities or genii of the sun, of the dawn, etc., like
the Iranian Yazatas. Their Wipune appears to have corre-
sponded to the German Vola. A Eune speaks of a goddess
Suometar as the guardian-goddess of Finnland. The Salme
of the legend points to a goddess of the sea, bearing the same
name (Salme signifies gulf of the sea). In legendary songs
it is related how the sun as a man, and the moon, and a star
made love to Salme, and she chose this latter one.1 Koit
was goddess of the dawn. Tapio was a forest god ; his wife
was Metan-emanta, mother of the wood, with the surname
Sinifirkku, blue-bird. Pakkainen was the god of the winter-
cold ; Turrisa, the god of war.2 Particular animals, especially
birds, were sacred to the several deities, and as such were
inviolable. The god to whom they were sacred was supposed
to be present in them, hence the stories of the old chroniclers s
that the Esthonians and Finns had worshipped birds. Thus,
in spite of that remnant of a primitive monotheism, a poly-
theistic deification of nature was spread in ever-widening
circles. At the three chief festivals, sacrifices were offered
to Taara, and to the rest of the genii of nature. Magical arts
and conjurations, especially serpent charms/ entered into the
service of the genii.

Obs. 1. — As the old primitive religion of the Ugro-Tartar
group of nations is related to that of the Slavs, Germans, and
Celts, so also is the Ugro-Tartar group of languages related to
the rest of the Japhetic group, that is, the so-called Aryan
family of languages. Notwithstanding varieties of construc-
tion, as in the case of the Basque dialect (see § 256, Obs. 2), they
are essentially cognate. I need only briefly, by way of example,
cite the following words : Finnic kuul, Hungr. hid, xXos/v,
to hear; Finnic paljo, Hungr. falo, croX-ij, much; Finnic
pu, Hungr. fu, Sansc. vd, to blow ; Finnic valkea and
vilag, Old High German ivereld, world (from primitive root
var, val ; comp. Sansc. Varuna) ; Finnic vete, Z&up, udor, water ;

1 H. Neus, esthn. Volkslieder, i. p. 10 ff.

2 This war-god may be a reminiscence of the tribal ancestor of the
Turanians. Turr-isa means father-Turr.

3 For example, Adam von Bremen, in Pertz, Monum. Germ. iv. 17.

4 Esthnische Beschworungslieder, see in Xeus, pp. 65-86.

1 0 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 263.

nime, name ; teke, tev, Sansc. dhd, to do ; soo, suo, sea ;
Murta, murda, Lat. mordere ; vana, ven, Lat. vetus, old ; Hungr.
fog, Germ, fahen, fangen, to catch ; pata, head, French pot,
Finnic pciakka, Old High Germ, pihal, beil, axe; pttw,
cloud, Old High Germ, pilipi,^ nourishment, the clouds
regarded as dispensers of nourishment ; edes, sweet, r,Mc ;
haj, haar, hair ; hajlek, harke, rake ; fer-to, swamp, Lat.
pcd-us ; kdt, Goth, handus ; Vogul uri, to waken, Sansc. #ar ;
Finnic era, Hungr. <xra, Old High Germ, ala, ahle, awl;
ar, prize, Germ, ehre, etc.

Qbs. 2. — The Finnic - Esthonian myths of the creation, in
the Kalev epic of Vanamuine having transformed an eagle's
egg into a world, since heaven is produced from the upper half,
the earth from the lower, the moon from the yolk, is an
ingenious fable, rather than of significance for the history of
religion, and belonging to the earlier mythology. It has its
origin during a period when the remembrance of Taara was
already thrown into the background by the worship of Vana-
muine, and its similarity to the later Indian (Brahmanical)
egg-myths of the creation is purely accidental.

§ 263. The Religion of the Tartars.

When we turn from the European tribes of the Ugro-
Finnic group to those of Northern Asia, we meet with the
tribes of the Finnic, Ugrian, and Samoyed group in Siberia,
among whom not only heathenish superstition, but even, in many
cases, open and avowed heathenism has prevailed, generally,
however, along with a significant trace of an old religion
like that of the Finns, that has been subjected to a decided
religious deterioration. Most markedly have those traces
been retained in the East among the Tungus and Mandshus.
These believe in a creator of the world invisible to man, who
dwells in heaven or in the sun. Some of their tribes attribute
to him a human form ; 1 others identify him with the sun
itself.2 The Ugrian tribes on the west of the Urals, like the
Finns, worship the invisible creator of the world under the

1 This human figure has in the course of time assumed once and again
very different forms. The Teleutians think of God as an old bearded man,
in the form of a Russian officer of dragoons.

2 Compare Stuhr, Religionssysteme der heidn. Volker des Orients,
p. 244.

§ 263.] THE FACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 1 1

name of Jumala.1 The Voguls have still kept the name
Torom, the Ostiaks the name Turum, Torm, Tshudo the name
Tora, for their supreme god. By the Yotiaks, on the other
hand, Tirgani is worshipped as the sun-god.3 Thus, in part
at least, has the knowledge of the invisible creator of the
world been retained, while in other cases it has degenerated
into a worship of the sun-god. The Tungus worship along-
side of the creator of the world a number of guardian spirits,
who watch over female virtue, over children, over the chase,
over herds, over health, over the rearing of reindeers.3 But
this forms the transition to the belief in spirits, the so-called
Shamanism, which became most prevalent midway between
the extreme east and the extreme west, between the Lena
and the Yenesei, and which has completely overgrown the
forms of the old religion, while even on the Ural and among the
Tungus it also plays a part alongside of it. If in the Yedic
religion the one God was regarded with a pantheistic one-
sided prominence to his immanence as present in existence,
and in the principal powers of nature, and gradually then
his TrpoacoTra were elevated into deities alongside of him, he
was, on the other hand, thought of in those Ugro-Tartar
religions as present in all separate particular things, split up
and divided into a countless number of spirits, amid which
his unity would either be utterly forgotten, or at least
practically thrust into the background. In every power of
nature, in every natural existence, there dwells a ruling
spirit. This stage of the beginning of a belief in spirits
and in natural magic we found, § 262, existing among the
Finns and Esthonians ; it appears at a further advanced
stage in the Shamanism of the Ugro-Tartars. Because there
is much of evil in the world, those spirits were regarded by
the Tartars for the most part as hurtful to men. threatening
evil, or more properly, unclean spirits, although they did not,

1 Stuhr, supra, p. 260.

2 J. G. Miiller, amerikanische Urreligionen, p. 57.

3 Georgi, Beschreibung oiler russ. Nationen, part 2, p. 380.

12 HALF- CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 263.

like the Iranians, regard the contraposition of a kingdom of
good and a kingdom of evil as fundamental. To those spirits
belonged pre-eminently the souls of the departed: they
were thought of and feared as ghosts and hobgoblins, and
Shamanism consisted essentially in the art of conjuring those
spirits, and rendering them serviceable, so that instead of
being hurtful, they would become useful. The Shamans did
not form a priestly order. Each person of both sexes, who
was thought to understand the art of conjuring the spirits,
is a Shaman, or among the Tartars, Karne, as in the time of
Genghis Khan among the Ugrians,1 the rest were even then
in part Buddhists. As such they wear a special dress,2 and
live mainly on gifts, which are brought them as rewards for
exorcising of spirits. At night sitting by a fire, smoking
tobacco and beating a drum, the Shaman falls into convul-
sions, distorts his limbs, roars, dances round the fire, summons
the spirit to battle, puts questions to him, listens trembling
and shuddering to his answer, audible only to himself, and
falls at last in a state of utter prostration ; the belief, more-
over, prevails, that during this prostration the soul quits the
body, and in the shape of animals of various kinds makes a
journey to the abodes of the spirits, where they make their
appearance also in the animal form (see 06*.). To these
spirits belong, as we have said, the souls of the departed,
who ramble wandering in deserts and among wastes of snow,
and dwell in clefts of the rocks. The souls of departed
Shamans are feared as specially powerful and malignant.

But it is not only by the incantations of living Shamans that
the Ugro-Tartars seek to drive away all kinds of evil, sickness,
and death, but also by magical rites which they themselves
practise. In every jurte or tent-dwelling is found a sort of
idol image, a small figure in human form wearing a Shaman's

1 D'Hossom, hist, des Mongoles, vol. i. p. 107 ff.

2 Long leathern robes, stocking boots, everything with wonderful
magical emblems represented,— tin-plates, bells, eagles' claws, strips of
skin, stuffed serpents, etc.

§ 263.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 13

dress, which, however, is not at all to be described as a deity,
but is simply an amulet, in which a virtue is supposed to
reside for protecting against the influence of evil spirits.
Especially on the east of every jurte there are two birches
bound by an oak twig, and ermine skins are hung on them :
this, too, is a protective amulet. And finally, in the third
place, every one possesses amulets of other sorts, on which in
the most senseless and arbitrary fashion he suspends trifles
of various kinds, rags of red linen, bunches of horse hair,
bones of animals, etc., even bells from the dress of a Shaman.
The whole tribe too, as well as the individual, has its pro-
tective amulets. These are stones or stakes which are erected
on heights,1 to which every passer-by must bring the offering
of a stake or stone. Evidently it is thought that good
protecting spirits are associated with these stones or dwell
within.

A terrible fear of one's own death prevails, just as in regard
to the apparition of the souls of the departed and their corpses.
At funerals various ceremonies are observed in order to
prevent the soul of the departed from haunting the survivors.
Care is taken not to mention the name of the dead. Par-
ticular nomadic tribes like the Iranians, and probably in con-
sequence of Iranian influences,2 allow the corpses to remain
exposed to the air. In the east among the Tshuktshians, and
especially among the closely-related Kamtshadales, a more
hopeful view of death still continues along with other
remnants of the old religion. The Kamtshadales fear death
in no form ; rather they often bring it on themselves by
voluntary suicide, because they expect afterwards a joyous
and glorious life.

1 These should not be confounded with the Obos of the Buddhist
Mongols, that is, earth hillocks which are erected on heights. There is
evidently a certain connection between the two, and this is easily ex-
plained by the manifold connections which the Tartar and Mongolian
tribes had with one another.

2 The Tadshiks in the Government of Orenburg are descendants of the
ancient Persians. Berghaus, allg. Lander- und Volkerkunde, v. 518.

14 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 264.

Obs. — The notion that during this mantic powerlessness
the soul had been able to leave the body and to assume the
form of an animal, gave occasion to the development of this
further belief, that the earlier generations of their ancestors
had been in possession of this power in a yet higher degree.
Thus by the Turks the form of the wolf is ascribed to the
father of their race, and this legend of the Turks is to be under-
stood as indicating that they were descended from a wolf, which
is called Tsena (Bitter, Asien, 438; Schmidt, Forschungen
im Gebiete Mittelasiens, Petersb. 1824, p. 70). In conse-
quence of the close connection which subsisted in the time of
Genghis Khan between the Turks and the Mongols, this legend
was introduced among a portion of the latter, who designated
their tribal ancestor as Burtetschino, the blue wolf. That the
legend was not of Mongol origin is shown, partly from its close
connection with Shamanism, partly from the fact that the
Mongols have quite another legend in regard to their descent
(§ 266).

B. — THE MONGOLIAN EACES.

§ 264. Characteristics and Distribution of the Mongolian
Group.

The determining of the limits between the Mongolian
and the Ugro-Finnic races is one of the most difficult and
intricate points in ethnographical science. In Tibet, China,
Corea, the Loo-Choo islands, and Japan, we find a race of
inhabitants who show no sort of connection either in speech
or in bodily appearance with the Tartars, Turks, Hungarians,
and Finns. In bodily appearance those cultured races of
Eastern Asia resemble one another in the yellow colour of
their skin, the dark hair, the little dark obliquely set eyes
and prominent cheek-bones; while, on the other hand, the
races which form the Ugro-Finnic family have white skins,
fair hair, inclining sometimes to red, regularly curved blue
eyes, inclining to grey, and cheek-bones riot prominent.
Those characteristics of the Chinese and other Eastern
Asiatics are found also in a leading race of Northern India,
the Barmans, as well as in Further India, among the
Nepaulese, and are among them, on account of a mixing

§ 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 15

with Aryan-Indian blood that is historically demonstrable,
only in a slight degree modified. In the form of their coun-
tenance the Barmans are much more like the Chinese than
the Hindus.1 Since it has been customary to reckon these
tribes among the Mongolian races, we shall group them
together for convenience' sake and without prejudice pro-
visionally under the name of East-Mongolian tribes. In
their languages these tribes are indeed far removed from one
another. In respect of language this alone is common to all,
the negative characteristic, that while there is a pretty close
affinity among the languages of the Ugro-Finnic tribes, a
great linguistic diversity is the prevailing characteristic of
this group of East-Mongolian tribes, which have led some to
go so far as to suggest that the languages are altogether of
an isolated character (see Obs. 1).

If now, however, we turn to the eastern part of the moun-
tainous district of Asia, we meet with the Western-Mongolian
group of tribes, that is, those of the Mongols in the narrower
and more exact sense, and in them we have the most difficult
part of our investigation. Under them the following tribes
are grouped : — (a) The Mongols in the strictest use of the
word, living between the desert of Gobi and Mandshuria ;
(V) the Buriats and the Kalka around Lake Baikal, north of
the Gobi ; (c) the Olb'ts or Kalmucks, of whom one branch
still occupies its ancient home in Dzoungaria, while the
other, which during Genghis Khan's lordship was resident in
the North- West, now dwells between the Ural and the Volga ;
(d) the Tshatshers, far up on the north-western borders of
China, and in the deep vale of Kokonoor; (e) alongside of
the Buriats we find also in the south-east the Mandshus, a
people of Mongolian origin, with a mixture of Tartar blood ;
while, on the other hand, the Tungus on the north-west of

1 Easier Mission* Mag. 1837, p. 213. J. W. Heifer's Reisen in Vord-
erasien und in Indien, Leipz. 1873, part 2, p. 83 : "A broad face with
strong cheek-bones, a flat snub nose, more or less protruding lips, small
grey eyes, oblique, and with a sharp upward angle, and pale yellow skin
of a hue like an unripe citron." On the Carenes, see § 267, Obs.

16 HALF-CIVILISED AXD SAVAGE EACES. [§ 2G4,

the Buriats seem to be a people of Tartar origin, with a
mixture of Mongol blood. The West-Mongolian group has
thus its original residence around the Baikal lake, while the
original home of the Turko-Tartaric group is round about Lake
BaFkash.

At this point we are met by the difficult question : To
what group do these West - Mongolian races belong?
Whether must we assign their origin to the Ugro-Tartaric
stem, or to that which we have designated the East-Mon-
golian ? It is only during the present century that any real
distinction has been made between the Tartars and the Mon-
gols. De Guignes,1 and even more recently D'Hossom,2
employ these names as synonymous terms. Scientific
research regarding these has now led to the marking of a
distinction between the Ugro - Tartaric races, comprising
the Huns, Avars, and Hungarians, which, one after another,
between A.D. 375 and A.D. 950, broke in upon Europe,
following the Slavs in their movement westward, and the
Mongols who under Genghis Khan Temujin3 in the 13th
century struck horror into Eastern Europe. But even after
this has been settled, the question still remains unsolved
as to whether these West - Mongolians should have their
descent traced back to the stem of the Ugro-Tartars, or
whether they should be regarded as essentially one with the
East-Mongolian group of nations (Tibet, China, etc.). The
Mongolian language, which seems to have an intimate con-
nection with Ugro - Finnic - Tartaric, favours a decision in
accordance with the former alternative ; 4 but the bodily

1 De Guignes, allg. Geschickte der Hunnen und Tiirken, deutsch von
Dahnert, Greifswald 1769 ff.

2 D'Hossom, hist, des Mongoles, Amsterdam 1852.

3 Compare upon this, besides the two works named, Petis de la Croix,
hist, du grand Genghizcan, Paris 1710. Hammer-Purgstall, Gesch. der
goldenen Horde, Pesth 1840. von Erdmann, Temutschin der Unerschutter-
liche, Leipzig 1862.

4 This is the view of Schott, " Ueber das altaische Sprachgeschlecht," in
the Abhandlungen der Berl. Akad. der Wissensch, of the year 1847, p.
281 ff.

§ 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 17

appearance of the Mongols is in favour of the latter. The
West-Mongolians are similar to our East-Mongolians in the
shape of their skull, the prominent cheek-bones, the dark
and oblique eyes, as well as in the yellow colour of their skin.
In Dzoungaria the Tartars who are resident there (§ 261) are
easily distinguishable from the Kalmucks and Tunganis1 in
bodily appearance, dress, and manners. Nobody will main-
tain that there is any greater similarity in bodily appearance
between the Finns and Kalmucks, or between the Magyars
and Mongols, than there is between the Mongols and the
Chinese. But if the West-Mongolians are to be regarded in
respect of bodily appearance as of the same stem with our
East-Mongolian group, and consequently to be joined together
with them as a Mongolian people, how then is the relation-
ship of the West-Mongolian language with that of the Ugro-
Tartars to be explained ? For the case is not merely that
of borrowed words,2 but one of an actual primary relationship
of the roots, at least of many roots. This phenomenon, how-
ever, is at once easily explained so soon as we take history
into account.

(a) We know, in the first place, that Celts and Germans
are two nations belonging to different groups, and yet they
have many roots in their languages in common. Similarly,
too, the Greeks have roots in common with the Germans, and
both with the Latins ; and not only so, but the Indo-
Germanic languages have entire series of roots in common
with the Semitic. We have a precisely similar phenomenon
in the fact that a number of roots are common to the Mon-
golian and Ugro - Tartaric languages, and the development
of comparative philology has led to the abandonment of the

1 Shaw, Journey to High Tartary, Yarkand, and Kashgar, p. 28 f. The
derivation of the name of the Tunganis from the Chinese tun-jen, military
colonists, that is, Chinese, seems to me most improbable. The Taranhis
among the Dzoungarians are colonists of a late period (Shaw, p. 29 f.).
We must not confound with the Tunganis the Tibetan tribe of the
Tanguts (called in Chinese Si-fan) which occupies Kokonoor.

2 Schott, Ueber das altaische Sprachgeschlecht, p. 323.
EBRAKD III. B

18 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 264.

narrower conception of the Indo-Germanic group, and to
substitute for it that of the Japhetic group. The possibility
of such an original relationship between the Mongolian
language and the Ugrian becomes peculiarly feasible when
we find roots in which both are related, not only with one
another, but also with the Aryan, and even with the Semitic.
For " mother " we have in nearly all the languages of the
world the primitive root ma, Aryan mdtr, ^'njp, mater,
mutter, mother, Irish mna, Basque emea (wife), in the
language of South Sonora mama (grandmother), Malayan
mu, amu, ma, mak, Finnic ema, Mandshurian erne, Semitic
em. Earth, turf, Arabic tarbu, Swedish torfoa (turf), Finnic
turpaha, Mongolian towarak, Turkish toprak, Tungusic tuor,
turn. Hand, Sanscrit kara, Mongolian ghar, Tungusic gala,
Turkish kol, while in %ei/> and in the Old Latin hir we have
partially related roots. To take, Turkish cap, tschap, Mon-
golian chab, Latin capio. Cloth, clothing,1 Semitic buz (Syr.
buso, hence Arabic buza, to be white), Greek /Sucro-o?, Turkish
bus, Mongolian biis, Mandshurian boso, Chinese pu. Silk
is in Mandshurian and Tungusic sirge (raw silk, se), Chinese
sse and se, Corean sil, sir, Eussian scholk, North - Germany
silk, Greek o-tfp (silk cord). For other examples, see under
§ 305.

(6) This, however, does not carry us far. We have still
to account for the fact, that the West-Mongolian language is
closely connected with the Ugrian languages, even in regard
to words that do not occur in other tongues, and that its
intimate relation to the Ugrian languages is more obvious than
its separation from the East-Mongolian languages. In order
to make this plain, we must keep in mind the fact that
according to the original documents of Chinese history there
was in the early times a dynasty of Hiang-nu, which held
sway from B.C. 200 till A.D. 93, and then at a later period

x We do not forget that the Basques of the Stone Age had brought
with them from Asia the art of weaving. This, therefore, was a common
endowment of primitive times before the separation of the races.

§ 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA, 19

over Northern China till A.D. 330. That this kingdom of
the Hiang-mi was a Ugrian or Turanian one, can be proved
from the fragments of the language l which are preserved in
these early historical documents. Its chief, for example, had
the title tanglikutu, which, according to the appended note of
the Chinese historian, means in Chinese tien tsse, Son of
Heaven. Now heaven is in the Ugrian language tengri, and
son is kuto, kotti, guto. The princes bore the title of luli, and
in Turkish they are called ulu, great. The Hiang-nu were,
therefore, a Ugrian or Turanian people. If, now, during
those centuries the Ugro-Tartars extended their dominion
eastward even to China, so that the wall of China was built
to withstand their advances, it follows that while the West-
Mongolian tribes in the north and west of China were gradu-
ally subdued by them, and lived for at least half a century
under their dominion, there was a blending together of the
two races and an intermixture by marriage, just as we find
actually taking place between the Tungus and the Mandshus.
That the conquered should during that half-century adopt
the language of their conquerors 2 was indeed very natural.3
After the overthrow of that Turko-Tartar Empire, the foreign
speech adopted by the West-Mongolians was formed into a
separate dialect, but still a Ugro-Tartar one, just as the Latin
language adopted by the Visigoths was modified into Spanish ;
and as between A.D. 552-703 the Turks of Turkestan still
continued their inroads into China, the Mongolian tribes were
subject to the influence of the Ugrian tongue for nearly two
centuries. We must not therefore hastily conclude for the
Ugrian language of the Mongol race, strictly so called, that

1 Schott, Sprachgeschlecht, p. 289 ff.

- Franz von Erdmann, too, assumes (Temutschin, p. 131 f.) that in con-
sequence of historical circumstances the original language of the Mongols
had been changed into the Turkish, but he does not enter more minutely
into the subject.

3 Schott has shown that before the appearance of Buddhism in Higher
Asia, the Mongols possessed the art of writing and the beginnings of a
literature. The art of writing, however, was introduced among them by
the Uighurs. Petis, p. 120 f.

20 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264.

they are of the same stock, for this their bodily appearance
will not allow.

(c) When at a later period, during the 12th and 13th
centuries, the West-Mongolians got the upper hand of the
Tartars, when Genghis Khan subdued the nation of the Nighurs
and of Turkestan, and of all Higher Asia, and led his mixed
horde of Mongolian and Ugro-Tartar tribes against Europe,
many words were transferred from the Mongolian dialect. It
was then also developed into a distinct language, into the
language of those Ugro-Tartar races with which the Mongols
were now brought into connection, and those words referred
to were borrowed words (see Obs. 2).

The correctness of the view which we have taken finds
confirmation, first of all, in this, that even in religion there is
a thoroughly characteristic distinction between the primitive
religion of the Mongols and that of the Tartar tribes (see
§ 266 ff.), and that a similar distinction is observable in the
languages themselves. One may already conjecture that there
would be very frequently two quite different words for the
same idea in the languages of the Ugro-Tartar tribes dwelling
most closely to the Mongols, that the one of these words
would be originally derived from the Mongolian, the other
would be originally derived from the Ugrian. It is indeed
quite evident that the Hiangnus may have derived their
words from the Mongols, just as well as the Mongols from
them. But of yet greater importance is the grammatical
structure of the language. In the Mongolian, as well as in
the closely related Mandshurian language, the characteristics
of the Mongolian family of languages are predominant in its
purer forms (see Obs. 1). The verb has the form of an
indeclinable verbal substantive, the infinitive, while the verb
in the Ugro-Finnic languages is conjugated. In Mandshurian,
I stand, thou standest, etc., are rendered, bi ilwibi, si ilimbi,
etc. ; while in the language of the Tungus we have ilitschem,
ilitscJiende, ilitscheren, ilitschereb, ilitschesch, Uitschere. The
Hungarians and Finns have a very finely constructed conjuga-

§ 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 2 1

tion, with a modification in the word to indicate the object,
like the Semitic suffix of the object. While the Ugro-Tartar-
Finnic have likewise a declension, the Mongols and Mandshus,
inasmuch as the former were powerfully influenced in
linguistic matters by the Turks of Turkestan, express their
cases by separate case terms, such as man -possession for
man's. In neither of the languages do we find any relative
pronoun. In both the Mongolian and Ugrian languages the
infinitive is freely used as a verbal noun, for example, I know
thee to be conquered, instead of, I know that thou art con-
quered. In the Ugrian language, however, the pronominal
suffix has undergone a metamorphosis in sound, so that it
is conjoined with the verbal stem, while in Mongolian it
continues separate. Thus, notwithstanding that the West-
Mongolians of ancient times adopted the Ugrian language of
the Hiangnus, yet the impress of the Mongolian tongue has
been left upon the very form in which this foreign speech
was adopted by them.1

We have now, finally, to consider the languages of the
tribes that have been designated by us East-Mongolians.
We have already indicated the fundamental characteristic of
these as that of the multiplication of dialectic differences.
This common character is shown in these three fundamental
features : (a) a number of common roots ; (5) a tendency to
continual change of sound in defiance of all rules; and (c)
a tendency to secure construction by the use of separate
particles. These three points deserve careful consideration.

The existence of words common to all the languages is
specially noticeable in the case of words indicating numbers.
I select from Lliken's tables,2 drawn up from Lassen's Indian
Antiquities and Klaproth's Archives, the following list, to

1 Quite analogous to this was the adoption of the Latin language by
the Goths, Franks, Langobards, and from it, modified by the Teutonic
taste and genius, the Romance languages were constructed. They did
not say amabo, butj'e aimer ai, amar ai, etc. ; not amavi, but je amd'i,
and then je ai aime, ho amato, etc.

2 Einheit des Moischengeschlechts, p. 174.

HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES.

[§ 264.

which I add numerical terms from the Vogul and Tangut
dialects, in order to show the distinction between them and
the Ugro-Tartar languages. For an exact acquaintance with
the Tibetan numerical terms I am indebted to an oblig-
ing communication from J. Th. Eeichelt, missionary at
Herrnhut : —

Barmese.

Nepaulese.1 Tibet1

Tangut

China.

Loochoo.

Japan.

Cores.

Vogul.

1 thit

sehi (g)tschig

chzik

tids, idshi

iz, flto

ho-thiin

aku

2 niht

nus-ki (g)nji(s)

611

ni, tads

ni, fi-tak

thu-pu

kit

3 ssum

suuin l(g)suin

sum

san

schan, nids

san, miz

ssai

tcorom

4 leh

pi (h)«chi

bsche

sse

achen, juds

si, ioz

nai

nila

5 ngah
6 khiok

nga (l)nga
kbu d(r)ug

rna
tschok

u
1C.

u, idsilzi
rugu, nits

f.o, izuz
rok, muz

taschtt

ii-schU

kat

7 khu-nit

nhei (b)dun

dun

schi, nanadzU

siz, nanaz

ii-kii

sat

8 seit
9 koh
10 ta-zak

kea j(br)gjad Idijat
ga i(fl)gu rsu.
sanah (b)tschu jztt-taniba

kfeu
sche

fiCdshi, jads
ka, kogulads
ssa, tu

faz, jads
kou, Tcokonoz
siou, towo

ii-ta

ia-hao
je

nala
(fciiente.Hung.)

The second of the words given in the columns for Loochoo
and Japan represents the language of the earlier inhabitants,
who were probably of Tartar blood. One pair of synonyms
under the Vogul and Hungarian group represent a variety
in cursive manuscripts. In the numerals for 1, 3, 9, 10,
the resemblance among the East-Mongolian languages is quite
apparent ; in regard to 2, China and Corea go their own way ;
in regard to 7, the Tartar root, with the hissing sound, in
Loochoo and Japan dislodged, even among the Mongolian
inhabitants, the Mongol root; in regard to 8, we find no
sort of agreement appearing. The perfect agreement, how-
ever, in regard to 1, 3, 9, 10, and the well-nigh perfect
agreement in regard to 2, 4, 5, 6, is sufficiently striking.
In regard to the Barmanic and Chinese, W. von Humboldt 2
has proved the relationship of the more important gram-
matical roots ; the nota pluralis is in the Barman language
kra (pronounced Jcja), in Chinese Tcidi ; the Barman particle
tfiang (pronounced thi) corresponds to the Chinese tschi, ti ;
the verb to be is in Barman hri (pronounced shi), and in

1 The letters placed within parentheses are written but not pronounced.
3 Gesammelte Werke, vi. " Ueber die Verschiedenheit des Sprach-
baus."

§ 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AXD POLYNESIA. 23

Chinese sM ; the term in numeration, "piece, particular,
head," is in Barman Jehu, and in Chinese ko.

Although in respect to other words no relationship, or only
a very slight one, is discernible, an explanation of this is
afforded under our second point : the free change of sounds
which prevails in those languages. From the time of
Khongtse, B.C. 600, or at least from the time of Shi-Hoangti,
B.C. 213, the Chinese had adopted a fixed form of expression ;
but that the written symbol was pronounced in ancient times
in a way different from that which now prevails is placed
beyond dispute ; just as in the provincial dialects of to-day
the pronunciations vary considerably from one another. In
the Barman language, which has a written alphabet, the
variation in the pronunciation is regularly marked, and in
their writings it is shown what an older, and that not a
very ancient form, had been. W. von Humboldt has let us
see how incredibly great the change from it to the pro-
nunciation of the present day has been ; for example, what is
written kak sounds ket, what is written tup is pronounced
tok, re is pronounced je, hri is pronounced shi, etc. Now,
if we could sometimes pass over into sh, sometimes into /,
ang into i, ak into et, up into ok, and if such changes were
continued for four thousand years, and if this were done, as
was natural, by every race in a different way, it is quite
conceivable that the corresponding roots of the different
languages should by this time be no longer in the least like
one another.

The third point is the tendency in the East-Mongolian
languages to indicate its structural modifications by separate
particles. This is not universally, nor in the same way,
characteristic of these languages. In Japan, where, as we
shall see in § 269, the East-Mongolian or North-Chinese
immigrants found before them a primitive Ugro-Tartar race,
and mixed themselves up more or less with them, there is
no appearance of this tendency to isolation. In Tibet, where
the original Mongolian language has undergone perhaps the

24 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 264.

least change, the use of modifying suffixes has not been
altogether abandoned, but in the languages of Northern India
this process has been well-nigh, and in those of China
altogether carried out with the most rigid consistency. There
have indeed been important and talented men who regarded
this mode of grammatical construction by separate particles
as the most primitive of all. In accordance with W. von
Humboldt's example,1 we feel ourselves unable to accept this
view (see Obs. 1).

Finally, however, there is one characteristic common to all
those nations of the Mongolian group, that is, their extreme
national feeling, by reason of which each one of them, living
on friendly terms with one another, and each in unconditional
servile subjection to its own chief, is absolutely separated
from all other peoples, or exercises against them in war the
severest cruelties even to utter extermination.

Obs. 1. — There are two elements which the language will give
expression to : ideas, and the combination of these in a judg-
ment. For ideas it creates for itself simple words, roots, and
so soon as these have once been created, they are objectively
given to him who speaks as a vocabulary. The relations, on
the other hand, in which certain of these ideas stand to one
another in the judgment are not objectively given, but are
every moment subjectively determined by the speaker. One,
for example, has to relate, and for this he must first think and
then speak, " his enemy has slain him ; " another, " he has slain
his enemy ; " the one, " he will rest ; " the other, " he will
journey."

A. Human speech for the most part supplies words of one
syllable to express ideas, though even here such have initial
and final double consonants ; the Semitic races have had the
instinct to enlarge these roots into words of two syllables, even
to split up one into more (e.g. z4r,jazar, zarar, comp. also § 260,
Obs. 1), and in this way to secure a multiplicity of vocables for
the expression of modifications of the idea. The Japhetic
languages have made only a sparing use of the two-syllabled
roots of the kind described, and show a preference for the com-
pounding of two roots, as we have seen exemplified in the
Aryan language in the pronoun ; for example, au-roc, Sanscrit
i-dam, Zend a-clem, etc. (comp. Bopp, krit. Gramm. der Sanskr.

1 Humboldt's Werte, vi. p. 118 and p. 196.

§ 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 25

Spr. § 247). Iii order to give definiteness to a purely abstract
uncertain term, as when, for example, there are roots alongside
of it of the same meaning, a synonym is set down beside it, or
a word indicating the next higher kind or species. This style
of quasi-compounding is practised in Chinese, in the Barman
language, and is employed with special freedom by the Tagals,
among the Malays, and by the Aztecs and Delaware tribes l
among the Americans. Thus, for example, in Barman pan
means to endeavour, and krd means to obtain an answer, and
pan-kwd means to endeavour to obtain an answer, that is,
to question, to ask; lak means hand, tat, to be skilful, and
lak-tat, an artificer. The most primitive stage of all in this
root construction by means of the compounding of words is
seen very conspicuously in various negro languages. In the
Ga and Akra languages the theory of these compoundings forms
a not unimportant part of the grammar. (Comp. J. Zimmer-
mann, Grammar of the Gd Language, Stuttg. 1856, together with
its Vocabulary.) For example, dslie, to come about, to happen ;
mdclshe, to transmit (from md, to place); ladshe, to be lost (from
la, to hang loosely) ; kddshe, to lie on the back (from kd, to
lie) ; dshadshe (from dsha, to be stretched). Also ga, to go ;
fe, to do; gafe, to go in order to do. While, then, the
primitive roots of the Hamitic languages were monoliteral, con-
sisting of one consonant with an accompanying vowel, biliteral
roots were formed by means of this process of compounding.
Certainly in quite a similar way have triliteral stems been
formed in the Aryan and Semitic languages from biliteral roots.
£. The monosyllabic or isolating languages separate the
objective ideas from the relation in which the speaker places
these ideas in such a way that they give only to the former a
vocal garb, while the relation is expressed only by the posi-
tion of the words. The Chinese language, for example, makes
the governing word precede the governed, the subject precede
the verb or verbal noun, this again precede the object, and this
again the more remote object, while the word that has to be
qualitatively determined must follow that which determines
the quality. The Barman language, on the other hand, has the
following order of succession : subject, object, verb, but requires
the adverb of quality to precede that of which it determines the
quality. For " I eat with butter boiled rice," the Chinese says,
" I to eat butter to boil rice " (infinitives as verbal nouns), the
Barman says, " I butter to boil rice to eat." For " I praise

1 The Delaware language in the agglutination of suffixes divides again
its compounds, and makes use of only one of the roots. For example,
will-it, beautiful ; loitsch-gat, foot ; tf uligat-schis means thy dainty little
foot.

26 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264.

him who all things has created and from sin is free," the Bar-
man says, " All things to create then he, thau, sin free to be
he, thau, I praise ; " the particle thau serves only to bind to-
gether like a vocal comma what precedes as referring to one
thing. This importance belonging to the position of words
meets us also in inflectional languages, and indeed plays scarcely
anywhere a more conspicuous part than in the Middle Age and
modern German, where by means of the three different arrange-
ments of the words — the direct, as " I do my duty ; " the ante-
cedent and relative arrangement, as " if I my duty do," " who
his duty does;" and the consequential and interrogative arrange-
ment, as " so loves me my father," " loves me my father ? "
" how loves me my father ? " " inexpressibly loves me my
father " — the entire proposition and the structure of the period
are deter mined. The German language, however, and also the
agglutinate languages, in which, as for example in the Massa-
chusetts dialect, the arrangement of the words is of decisive
importance, have always in addition inflectional suffixes, corre-
sponding to the agglutinative suffixes, by means of which the
relation, in which the speaker wishes the idea to be understood
by the hearer, is audibly expressed and embodied. This evi-
dently is the process that is more strictly in accordance with
nature. W. von Huinboldt also (see p. 118) thinks it probable
" that the use of naked roots is something secondary. Originally
the roots never appear as such, but clothed with the accompany-
ing sounds which fit them to express some living relation."
And at p. 196 he says: "The more primitive the languages are,
the richer they are in the abundance of forms and constructions."
The abstraction which separates the relations of the ideas from
the ideas themselves, and analyses the latter like anatomical
preparations, is quite an artificial thing, and presupposes,
according to W. von Humboldt, an unimaginative and one-
sidedly rational process of thinking. It is primitive and in
accordance with nature, that the entire vocable should corre-
spond to the entire mental conception, and should portray it.
" Der Mann spaltet der Stamm " (the man splits the tree). As
the man actually represents the agent, a primitive language will
apply the term that represents the subject to one who works and
acts, and will express this by a suffix to the verb and a suffix
to the object, thus : " Mann-er Spaltung-thun Baum-hin (baum-
wa'rts)." These suffixes are still evidently found in the inflectional
languages. The s of the Indo-Geriuanic possessive singular is an
abbreviated pronoun sa (ta) ; many languages form their verbal
forms from nouns by dhd, ta, tu, and the accusative has still in
Sanscrit preserved its original characteristic by taking a locative
termination. But even this form of language is not the most
primitve of all, for even it belongs properly to the inflectional

§ 261.] THE RACES OF ASIA AXD POLYNESIA. 27

languages. The most primitive is that in which the entire con-
ception of the action is set forth under one single complex word,
in which the idea is not yet exactly determined, but has only
its principal element brought out, to which the more exact
determination is subsequently joined, and this is the essence of
that agglutination (comp. § 256, Obs. 1), which we, therefore,
regard as the primary form of grammatical structure. " Er
spalten es, Mann er, Baum-hin." There is first of all the
general notion of a splitting, then the statement, who is the he,
and what is the it. That this was actually the primitive form
of language we have ample proof in the fact emphasized by W.
von Humboldt, that by means of the comparison of languages
the pronominal roots are always found to be the very oldest
and most primitive elements of the various languages and of
human speech, and indeed above all the roots of the personal
pronouns. In this, then, we have also a new confirmation of
what we have said in § 49 about the origin of language, and
against the naturalistic and materialistic explanation thereof.
The origin of language is dependent upon personal conscious-
ness, self-consciousness in the sense of § 57.

From the agglutinative stage there were two possible ways
along which the course of development might be continued.

(1.) The ever-recurring pronominal suffixes of nouns of action,
of verbal nouns, and the likewise recurring suffixes of direction,
of names of things, might be abbreviated into unaccented ter-
minations,1 and thus the pronoun of the object for a noun of
action would be altogether disused as superfluous. Instead of
ta-bhandsh-tam, manu-sa, druma-im, we now say bhandsJia-ta
(later bhandshati) manus drumam, which in Sanscrit means,
" The man breaks the tree." The noun of action is formed into
a conjugated verb, the noun that designates a thing into a de-
clined substantive, and thus every word of such a kind has its
relation to the other words expressed in its own grammatical
construction, the drawback of a slavish grammatical order of
words was overcome, and that freedom of rhetorical and poetic
arrangement of words secured which has been most thoroughly
developed in the Latin language, and contributes so largely to the
beauty and the pre-eminence of the languages of the old cultured
Indo-Germanic races. The Teutonic languages, and still more
the Romance languages, in their recurrence to a grammatically
determined order of words, represent a certain retrogression,
and in such a sentence as cest ce que je vous ai dit, the French
is scarcely to be distinguished from an agglutinative language.

(2.) The pronominal suffix and the suffix of direction might,
instead of being abbreviated and combined with the word, be

1 In the language of the Aztecs and in that of the Delaware Indians
this process is seen in a merely initial stage.

28 HALF- CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES. [§ 264.

wholly removed, and might wholly give over to the arrangement
of the words the expression of the relation of the ideas with one
another. Language now no longer portrays the action to him
to whom it is told, but puts before the hearer only the material
of the conception rationally arranged, in order that he by the
exercise of reason may form a conception of the action for him-
self. In the language of the Barmans this process is not yet
absolutely completed. It forms out of synonymous monosyllabic
roots actual compounds, inasmuch as it changes the initial
mute of the second word into a sounded syllable. It has also
such a wealth of particles, that by means of them and of pro-
nouns it can sufficiently and clearly express the persons, tenses,
numbers, and words of the verb. The Chinese language, again, has
carried out the principle of isolating, or monosyllabism, with
that strict intellectual consistency characteristic of the Chinese
people.

Ols. 2. — A. Primitive roots which occur in various families
of languages : — To take, grasp : Turkish kap, tsckap, Mongolian
ap, Latin capere, etc. — Breath, life, soul, spirit : Finnic henJca,
angga (to breathe), Tsherimis language jang (soul), Mongolian
angki-l (to smell, inhale), changgu-la (to sniff), amin (life) ;
Mongolian and Tungusic onggo-d (spirits), ong-char (to recog-
nise), ong-si (to rehearse) ; Turkish ang (to remember), originally
connected with Sanscrit anas, breath, anilas, wind, avisos, animus,
Old High German unst. — To turn, to revolve: Mandshurian clwrgi
(gur, land), Mongolian chorijan, court, kurdu, wheel, Susmi Jeer,
kier, to move around ; Hungarian kor, circle, for, course of time,
koros, old ; Turkish kura, court, kari, old ; Finnic kadri, to turn,
karmet, serpent ; comp. Mongolian and Turkish ordu, tent-circle,
camp, Turkish orta, middle. Originally connected with spxoc,
t'lpyw, Lat. circus, Old High German cherjan. — Mother, wife :
Mongolian erne, wife, Mandshu. ama, mother, amu, aunt, sister-in-
law, erne, mother, mama, grandmother, Finnic emi, emo, mother,
em, im, to suck ; Turkish meme, breasts, Tshuvash anja, and
Mandshu. enie, mother. Originally connected with md in mdtr,
wrrip, mater, mamma, Old High German muader, muoter ; also
with the Basque emea, wife. — Flame of fire, Mongolian chaksa
hardened by fire, Mandshu. dschak-sannga, red, Chinese tsse, red,
Lapp kwokso, down, comp. xa/u. — Water, Finnic wesi, viz, vete,
Hungarian uss, Mongolian usun, yd cap, Latin udor, Slavic voda,
Old High German wazar, etc.

B. Of such primitive roots, however, there are many which
are not found in one of the two groups of languages. Thus the
root that lies in in, opos, is only met with in the Ugro-Finnic
group : Finnic ivuori, Tungusic uro, urjo. So, too, the root pre-
sent in the Latin jacere, Lapp jawat, to spread out, jawaidk,
cushion, bolster, Turkish jatak, bolster, jat, to lie, Finnic ivuot,

§ 264.] THE EACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 29

bed, wat, to throw, Turkish at, to throw. On the other hand, the
roots that underlie saOitiv, Latin edere, to eat, appear only in
Mongolian in ide, to eat, which first passed over into Turkish
and Hungarian in the Middle Ages, when it appears in Hun-
garian as et, to eat, and in Turkish as et-mek, bread, whereas the
Ugro-Finnic languages have another root SE, perhaps partially
connected with the former, Mandshu. dshe, Finnic syo, Yakut
se, Tshuvash si. The root underlying the word to see, Goth.
saivjan, exists only in Finnic and Esthonian szem, silm (see
under E} ; in Mongolian it is wanting. On the other hand,
chair, Mongol, for stone, Turkish kyr (xoppri, Sansc. tsehr) — Jcira,
Mongol, for mountain ridge, Mandshu. gira, bones, Hungarian
gerentz, ridge of the back (Middle High German grdt, Grat,
Grate)— lejna, Mongol, for sound, Latin lonus — se Mongol, for
thou, Greek av, — are wanting in the Ugro-Finnic languages. In
the Mongolian again are wanting : Jcuul, Finnic to hear, chorwa,
ear, Ostiak chol, Vognljul, Turkish hulak, and chulga, ear, Tun-
gusic korot, ear (Sanscrit gru, xXus/v, Celtic cual, cluinn, Old High
German liorjan).

0. The verbal stems, which the Mongols in a remote
antiquity appropriated to themselves from the Ugro-Finnic
languages, are very numerous ; for example, to ask : Mongol.
asak, Lapp jasko ; to flow : Finnic wirta, Turkish eri, to melt,
ir-mak, stream, Mongol, ur-us, flowing water; an oath, to
swear: Esthonian wand, Mongol, andaghar, Turkish and;
fine: Finnic arka, tender, Turkish aryk, slender, Lapp njuor,
tender, Mongol, nar-in, fine, wise, Mandshu. narchun, thin ;
sympathy: Lapp njuor, Mongol, ure; small: the diminutive
affix kenne, ken, kun, gun, gen, is common to the Ugro-Finnic
and Mongolian languages, as also to the Dutch ; firm, strong :
Finnic jirka (also steep), Turkish iri, firm, Mongol, erki, steep ;
red : Finnic weri, blood, Ostiak wyry, red, Mongol, jurte, to
redden, Mandshu. kira, red.

D. Still more significant is the fact that we have a consider-
able number of roots and word stems which are found either
only in the Ugro-Finnic languages, including the mixed dialects
of the Tungus and Mandshurians, or only in the Mongolian
language, and the Turkish as affected by it in the Middle Ages.
(a) The following roots are strictly confined to the Ugro-Finnic
languages : — to sing : Finnic wiru, Turkish ir ; girdle, haunch :
Finnic wyo, Turkish ui-luk ; thief, to steal : Finnic warka, worn,
Yakut or, Turkish oghur ; reindeer: Finnic poro, Lapp ron,
Tungusic irum, Mandshu. iren, oron (comp. Scand. ren] ; early :
Mandshu. nergin, Turkish erken ; to rain : Lapp okte, Mandshu.
aga, Turkish jagli ; to build, to adorn : Finnic koria, Turkish
kor, kurghan, etc. (&) The following belong exclusively to
the Mongolian languages : — Man : Mongol, ere, Mandshu. eru,

HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES.

[§ 264.

Turkish er (comp. Latin vir, Celtic fir, Old High German wer) ;
sister : Mongol, eke-tschi, Tungusic akin, Yakut akas ; nose :
Mongol, chdbar, Kalmuck chamar, Mandshu. oforo, orro, Tun-
gusic ongokto, okto, Turkish murun, burun ; bones : Mongol.
omok, Turkish stimuk, kemuk, Tshuvash schunu, Yakut ungoch
(comp. Old High German knoche}; horde : Mongol, and Tungusic
aimak; to bury: Mandshu. somi, Turkish kiim ; flesh: Tungusic
ulla, ulta, Mandshu. jali, Tshuvash jut (from jult\ etc.

E. This becomes specially remarkable when it is seen that
peoples who have been untouched by the Mongols actually
employ another root to express the same idea. For example : —
Father: (a) Ugro-Finnic root ise, Lapp attsche, Mongol, etsi ;
(&) Mongolian root aba, dbu, Tsherimis and Tshuvash aba,
mother, Turkish baba, father, Mandshu. mafa, grandmother ;
red: Finnic puna; on the other hand, Mongol, ula-gahn,
Tungusic kula-rin, Mandshu. fulgian. Mouth: Finnic suu;
on the other hand, Mongol, arna, Tungusic amga, Yakut Jiamun,
Tirianian worn, Turkish anggir, jangir, and tscluingir, to cry ;
to see : Finnic and Esthonian szem, eye, silm ; on the other
hand, Mongol, chara, connected with opa,v, kara, to foresee,
Yakut charak (karak, eye), Turkish kara, kur ; to eat (see
above under B) ; to drink : Finnic juo, hence jauma, a drink,
md is the borrowed syllable, I&ppjukka and tschuoke, to soak,
Turkish jut, adopted into Mongolian ugliu ; on the other hand,
the Chinese dialects: jam, modern Chinese jen, in, Mongol.
um-tan, a drink, Tungusic ami, to drink, with the radical m ;
to rejoice: Finnic ilo, Mandshu. ilga; on the other hand,
even if originally related, Mongol, dshir, ir, Mandshu. urgun,
Hungarian orom, drul, Turkish ir-mek ; heaven : Finnic minid,
Hungarian meng ; on the other hand, Mongol, koke, Mandshu.
kuku, Kamtskadal kagal, Turkish gok, Hungarian kek. Specially
deserving of notice are the personal pronouns : —

Mongol.

Mandshu.

Turkish.

The Ugro-Finnic.

be-n

en (Samoede, man)

Thou

tzin

ozi

se-n

te, de

(ol)

s,a

bi-da

biz

mi, mek (Samoede,

mende)

You

sue

siz

dek tek (Samoede,

tende)

They

ede

dshe

(on-lar)

-k, sek, vok (Sa-

moede, tin)

§ 264.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 31

F. On the other hand, there exist certain words similarly
pronounced (homonyms) which have, nevertheless, in the two
groups of languages fundamentally different significations, and
are thus of different origin. Tor example, el in Finnic means
to live, and in Hungarian el has the same meaning; on the
other hand, in Mongolian el means peace, in Hungarian el-eg,
satisfying, sufficient, in Mandshu. elche, nelche, means peace.
In Finnic and Hungarian fej means head, Turkish basch is
head ; in Mandshu. feje is wound, and in Turkish basch is
wound.

G. In the words for heaven, as well as in the homonymous
words el, we see that in the Ugrian languages two different
synonymous or homonymous words lie alongside of one another,
but the latter are distinguished in pronunciation (el and el).
The case is similar in regard to the Turkish. Originally
Ugro-Finnic roots, which as such are also present in Turkish,
which, however, already in primitive times had been borrowed
from the Mongols, came, in the Middle Ages, in consequence
of that linguistic change which they had suffered from the
Mongols, to be regarded by the Turks as foreign words. For
example, Finnic jauko, Turkish jygh, to accumulate, was in use
among the Mongols as tschuk, much, Mandshu. tschoocha, crowd,
and this passed over again into Turkish in the form of tschok,
much. Similarly, the Turkish jdk, to kindle, jakty, bright,
Lapp tsake, to burn, Hungarian ek, to burn (eg, heaven),
Mandshu. jacha, glowing coal. Among the Mongols the root
took the form tschok,1 tschakil, to lighten, tschaki, to strike fire,
and then tschak, to strike fire, was borrowed again by the Turks
as a foreign word.

Unless this note is to be allowed to swell up into a volume,
I must select just a few from the hundreds of examples that
might be given ; but what have been adduced may suffice to
illustrate the correctness of the view set forth in the section
to which these observations are appended. The Mongolian
and Ugro-Finnic groups of languages are like two streams
which two thousand years ago overflowed one another's banks
and got their waters mixed. That, notwithstanding, they should
still show evident traces of their original linguistic diversity, is
more than could be expected. Under division D, I might, had
space been allowed me, besides the thirteen examples given,
have adduced eighty-eight other similar instances ; and under

1 Similarly, among the Lapps we find that an initial./ is quite readily
transformed into ts or tsch; for example, tschdke, to accumulate, from
jauk; tschuok, light, tromjak; but it is remarkable that it is not from
the Lapps, but from the Mongols, that the Turks have received those
modified constructions.

32 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 264.

division A, I might easily have given a dozen more. In many
cases under division E, the changes in pronunciation show that
the one root was originally Ugrian and the other originally
Mongolian. Thus, for the word " to go," we have the Mongolian
rootjabu (Mandshu. jabu,jo, Hungarian jo, to come, Turkish
jol, a way); but alongside of it an Ugrian root, Turkish jiirfi,
Mongol, dshurtschi, Mandshu. dshura, where the transformation
of the j into the squeezing sound indicates the course along
which it has travelled (comp. Schott, p. 380). In a similar
way the Lapp jurte, to think, Turkish jurek, spirit, Mongol.
dshurik, spirit, will, dshuri, are determined. Also, Turkish
joba, to be in travail, Mongol, dshoba, pain. Also, Lapp kawa,
to bend, Finnic kawala, crooked, kojc, bending, Mongol, chadsha,
crooked, etc. In like manner the investigation of the changes
in pronunciation in division A teaches us to recognise a
primitive relationship. In the Ugro-Finnic languages, w some-
times passes over into k (Schott, p. 382). Thus in Finnic we
have for turn (German wenderi), wdand, and also the form
kadnt ; and in Mongol, we have chantu, which is allied to the
Gothic vandjan, Old High German wendjan. There is also an
evident connection between wulu, lulu, hair, in the Malayan
languages, and the Gothic mdla, the Old High German wolla
(wool), Lapp kwol-ga, Mongol, and Turkish kil, hair of animals.
In regard to division C, it should be observed that many stems
originally Ugrian have become modified in signification among
the Mongols, by means of which they clearly enough give
evidence of their non-Mongolian derivation. In the Finnic
and Magyar languages, koyda, kot, is to bind, koyte is a cord,
perhaps originally connected with Latin catena. The Mongols
evidently adopt the noun as it stands, and make therefrom the
verb kilte, to lead an animal with a cord. Among the mixed
race of the Mandshurians both words are brought together
again ; chuaita, to bind, and kutele. The Finns say neitid,
moist (German nass, Old High German nazi), Magyar nete,
moist, Lapp njuos-ka, moist, fresh, Turkish jascli, fresh, hence
j'ascha, to live ; in this derivative sense the word passed over
to the Mongols as nasu, age, or stage of life. On the other
hand, the word nara, the sun, is wanting in the Ugro-Finnic
languages, and so is originally Mongolian, and it has passed
over into Turkish and Hungarian in the derivative sense of
summer, Magyar nyar, Turkish jar. In reply to those who do
not concern themselves with details about the so-called Altaic
languages, I observe, in conclusion, that in the above investiga-
tion I have not taken into account any etymological connections
between words of the Altaic languages which have not been
already proved as such by Schott in the work to which refer-
ence has been made.

§ 265.] THE BACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 33

§ 265. Buddhism among the Mongolian Tribes.

Before entering upon our investigation into the primitive
religions of the Mongolian races, it is indispensably necessary
that we should endeavour to acquaint ourselves with the form
in which Buddhism was first received among these people. In
§ 206 we followed its fortunes in the land of its birth. The
panacea for mankind had been found, and was practically
applied to the life, pantheism was carried out to its ultimate
consequence, the wish of D. Fr. Strauss was already realized
twenty-three centuries before his day : miracle was divorced
from religion, and priesthood from the religious community ;
without any priestly interference, any one might surrender
himself to the confession that he is a moment in the self-
developing process of the unconscious absolute, and will
infallibly lose himself in the universal negation. This doctrine
spread with gigantic strides ; with truly fanatical zeal it was
preached to the peoples of Asia by hundreds, yes, by thousands
of missionaries. Upper India received it with open arms ;
and in the last century before Christ it had won possession
of the countries west of Tibet, Cashgar, Khotan, and Yarkand.
About A.D. 500 the whole of Higher Asia lying south of Gobi
was already under the sway of Buddhism, and a hundred years
later, the Emperor Srongdsan Gambo of Tibet, when he had
given political unity to the kingdom, completed his work by
the introduction of Buddhism. When, in the beginning of the
10th century, owing to a reaction on the part of the adherents
of the old national religion, the Tibetan dynasty was over-
thrown, and a dreadful persecution of Buddhists set in, this
only gave occasion for its further spread. Those who were
driven forth began to proclaim their doctrines in the north,
as far as Japan, where at least a great portion of the in-
habitants adopted the new faith. Buddhism had been intro-
duced into China in B.C. 65 ; and in A.D. 648, Hiouen-Thsang
made the distribution of Buddhist literature throughout the
empire his special life-task. In A.D. 1200, the Lama Oshu

EBKARD III. C

34 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 265.

Adhisha again restored Buddhism in Tibet, and in the
13th century this religion was carried thence among the
Mongols, in the strict sense of the word ; and after Genghis
Khan had adopted it in A.D. 1247, it soon became (about A.D.
1260) the national religion.

It may now be asked : How far has pantheism preserved
its much lauded excellences in this religion ? History makes
answer thus : It has appeared in the form of absolute im-
potence in religious, intellectual, and moral relations. A
David Fr. Strauss of the 5th century was immediately
followed by a crowd of Vischers, who were convinced that
halting half way was not at all such a bad thing, but that
rather it was absolutely necessary for the people,1 and that we
must leave to the masses their faith in the gods. Connivance
with polytheism was the universal characteristic of Buddhism.
A more thoroughgoing contrast is nowhere to be found in
history than that which exists between this Buddhism and the
gospel, as in the first centuries after Christ, and now again in
modern missionary enterprise.2 Like a pungent salt, the gospel
purged out all the filth of polytheistic superstition, and in the
power of the living God overcame heathenism and overthrew it ;
whereas the pantheism of Buddhism was never able to conquer
heathenism, but, like a wet wrapper, clung round every form of
polytheism, and thus became itself often thoroughly polytheistic,
adapting itself even to the crudest forms of pagan belief. Thus
in India, its own proper home, it accommodated itself in order
to win the people, so as to admit into its system the worship

1 Vischer, kritische Gange, Heft 6, " Alter und neuer Glaube."

2 On the other hand, the degraded, paganized Christianity of the
Romish Church has, besides other striking resemblances to Buddhism,
shown this tendency to connive with heathen superstition and poly-
theism. The whole system of saint-worship in the Church of Rome has
its origin essentially in such a connivance (compare the letter of Gregory
the Great to the British Missionary Augustine in Bede, i. 30, and my own
Kirchen- und Dogmengeschichte, i. p. 438). One is also reminded of the
Jesuit missions to China and Malabar (see the same work, iii. p. 678 f.),
where the Jesuit Nobili expressed himself in favour of the idea of a
bodily return of the god Brahma.

§ 265.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 35

of Indra along with a multitude of Indian gods and demi-gods
and legendary heroes. This strange amalgam was then
introduced by Buddhism into Higher India and Tibet. In
China, Ceylon, and among the Mongols, a similar connivance
with local beliefs was exercised ; and thus Buddhism has as
many forms as there are countries into which it has been
introduced. In China it was reduced to a dry rationalistic
philosophical system, that it might be conformed as far as
possible to the system of Confucius. In the empire of
Mongolia nothing was left that was characteristic of Buddhism,
but an external ceremonial, wherein in a masked form the old
Mongolian religion was reproduced.1

We are now in a position to advance to a study of its inner
and essential development. Just as with David Fr. Strauss
the craving for some sort of worship, after the divine object of
worship had been removed, sought out earthly objects, and had
recourse to a worship of genius, so also it happened in the case
of the Buddhists. Sakya-Muni was himself the genius who
pre-eminently received their adoration ; in him the impersonal
absolute had reached the highest stage of his self-developing
process. So far back, then, as the period between 400 and
100 B.C., the name of Sakya-Muni had become the subject and
centre of a cycle of myths, wherein he was straightway
elevated to the rank of a divine being. He is to descend
upon India from Damba-Togar, the abode of the gods, in the
form of an elephant, and to enter into the womb of Queen
Maha Madsha ; so soon as born, he is to pass through the
whole world in seven steps, he is to enter into marriage, but
during his thirty years' life he is to pass his time in penitential
exercises ; the King of the Apes (very suitably) declares his
reverence for him, a raging elephant is pacified by him, fair
maidens, who are brought to him inflamed with the passion of

1 " The influence of the Chinese on the Mongols is everywhere the
same. It may be described as in the first instance a demoralizing, and
then a civilising influence." Thus writes, though with immediate
reference to the present, Prejevalsky in his Travels in Mongolia, p. 202,
who otherwise ranks Buddhism and Confucianism high above Christianity.

36 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES. L§ 265.

love, are persuaded by him to enter on the life of nuns.
While the Brahmans of India during those last centuries
before Christ contrived their philosophical notion of the
Trimurti, according to which Brahma as the absolute manifests
himself in Vishnu, the creator of matter or the water-god, and
in Siva, the destroyer of matter or the fire-god, Buddhism
brought forth its doctrine of a Trimurti in quite another form ;
the deified Sakya-Muni, under the name of Buddha or
Gautama, called in China and among the Mongols Fo, his
doctrine designated Dharma or the law, and the Buddhist
priesthood, Sangha, form all that now remains as an object of
worship. This, however, was the esoteric doctrine ; alongside
of this there was still allowed, as we have said, to the masses
the entire accumulation of their polytheistic belief. As might
be expected, there is no lack of theoretical attempts to bring
these two into harmony. It is this that brings to view the
impotence of Buddhism from an intellectual point of view.
The question as to how the world had its origin was solved in
a way which strikingly reminds us of the atomistic material-
ism of our own times. The world had its origin from the
aggregation of elements. First a great wind blew ; by this
means the atmospheric particles were gathered together; in
the midst of these a cloud arose, and out of its rain the sea
was produced, and upon the surface of the sea the dry land
appeared like cream on milk. The several atoms are here
evidently assumed to be the primitive existences, for they
do not need first to be originated, but only to be gathered
together. In the beginning all was light, but then arose a
thought, and this produced the false light, darkness. The
subjectively self-conscious is thus regarded as evil and
destructive. According to other schools, for Buddhism was
split up into many sects and parties, over matter there existed
a world of spirits, who by degrading themselves by contact
with matter fell, and thus were made to assume the form of
personal existence. Personality or self-consciousness is thus
evidently regarded as a function of matter ! Upon earth,

§ 265.] THE EACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 37

besides men and animals there are good spirits and Asurs,
half-evil spirits, and under the earth there are wholly evil
spirits. Indra is enthroned on Mount Sumeru in his own
special heaven, called by the Mongols Churnmsta.1 Four
heavens lying below this mountain, and four wrapped in the
clouds above the heaven of Indra, in each of which resides a
spirit-prince, form with it the nine heavens of delights. The
spirits inhabiting these marry and are given in marriage.
Above these are three heavens, in which there is the ordeal of
fire ; in the three succeeding these there are still storms and
perturbations of mind ; in the next three there are still
separate sensations and thoughts. Finally, there come six
heavens, in which all feeling and sensation is utterly dead,
and the essential nature of all as they are in themselves is
shown. Above these eighteen " coloured " heavens there are
thus, finally, those six " colourless " heavens, in which all
knowledge and consciousness cease, and utter annihilation
or Nirvana (§ 205) is reached. At last the whole world
together with all the heavens will be destroyed and pass into
nothingness. Every man has to make his way through these
heavens to this goal ; to be is pain, not to be is the one true
happiness, — the Schopenhauer-Hartmann practical conclusion
of Hegelianism, for there is nothing new under the sun.

It was a true practical instinct that led the Buddhists to
assign this process of gradual self- extinction, not to the earthly
life, but to that which is beyond. In this way there was
preserved for the earthly life a bright page of existence free
from care. Buddhism has given forth some moral precepts,
since during the present life such cannot altogether be dis-
pensed with. These indeed are few in number. The pro-
hibition against killing man is extended into a prohibition
against killing any living thing. The Buddhist finds vermin
on his body ; he wraps it up carefully in cotton, or pushes it

1 The nine legendary tales of Sickli-Khur have been issued in Mongolian
•with a German translation by Bernhard Jiilg, published at Innsbruck
1868. See p. 181.

HALF- CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [| 265.

off unnoticed upon his companion. In Higher and Further
India there are to be found as Buddhist institutions great
hospitals for the treatment of sick animals ; but miserable sick
men are left untended. The institution of caste continues in
all its severity. There is no command of mercy ; the pro-
hibition against killing any living creature is regarded as
sufficient. Further, stealing, lying, and drunkenness are
forbidden ; also men are warned against becoming the slaves
of lust. This last injunction, just precisely as in the Eomish
Church, is intended in the sense of giving a special honour to
the life of celibacy. Marriage and property are denied to the
priesthood, also sharing in dances and music, and dyeing of the
hair and skin ; set hours for eating, too, are prescribed for
them. It is meritorious for a layman to give a present to the
priests. But where do the priests come from ? Had not
Sakya-Muni divorced priesthood from religion ? Even at this
point pantheism has shown its impotency. Buddhism here
appears inconsistent with its own principles. Deliverance
from all priestly interference had been promised, and instead
of this a guardian-like position is assigned to the priesthood,
which has the closest resemblance to that of the Eomish
Church, and is even brought to a point in a way similar to
that of the Papacy. At the outset there was the hope of
speedily reaching Nirvana, which induced hundreds and
thousands to abandon marriage and property and to live as
beggars. These holy penitents soon came to be regarded as
priests of Buddha, called in other regions Jainas, and in Tibet
and among the Mongols, Lamas. They gathered together in
cloisters under abbots called Gurus ; they preached with zeal
the Buddhist doctrine. The burying of the dead, the educa-
tion of the youth, were by and by assigned to them. Rapidly
these communities developed into an elaborately arranged
hierarchy, consisting mostly of three orders, but among the
Mongols of four. This soon led to the opinion that the priest
has to perform the duties of religion for the laymen, and thus
religion was reduced to a mere mechanical thing. This shows

§ 265.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 39

itself most conspicuously in the way in which the meritorious
duty of prayer is discharged. The form of prayer is written
on a slip of paper, this is fixed on a round stick and is turned
about for a long while. And since even this takes up too
much time and is inconvenient, the little stick is often set as
the axle of a small water-wheel and then put in a brook,
and thus the water performs the devotional duties of the
worshipper. Among Chinese Buddhists, offerings consist of
strips of gold-paper, which are burnt.

In Tibet for the last four hundred years, as is well known,
the priesthood has had its head in the Dalai-Lama at H'lassa,
who is looked upon as the representative of Buddha on the
earth, and as the incarnation of a spiritual prince, Bodhisattwa.
This Buddhist papacy is of Mongolian origin. In A.D. 1260,
the Khan Batu, uncle of Genghis Khan, set up, after the
pattern of the strict monarchical system that prevailed in the
political constitution of the empire, a supreme Lama (Khubil-
ghan) over the Lamas of his dominion. And just as in India,
with its polytheism, the images of the gods were put under
Buddhist protection, and were introduced into Buddhist
worship, so in the Mongolian empire, made up of a mixture of
Mongolian and Tartar tribes, the whole system of magic and
necromancy was readily incorporated. And if Buddhism
boasts that it has rendered nations gentler, and has vanquished
in them the thirst for blood, there is in the history of the
Mongols nothing to warrant such a claim. They were, after
the year 1247, the same savage and bloodthirsty robbers and
murderers as before (see § 266). In this kingdom, during the
loth century, the Lama priesthood split up into two parties, —
the red-caps, who allowed the lower orders of their priests to
marry, and the yellow-caps, and between these there was a
bitter and bloody strife. The yellows renounced the authority
of the Mongolian Khubilghan, and put themselves under the
Dalai-Lama of Tibet. These two are set over against one
another to the present time as opposing sects. The Chinese
Buddhists belong to the yellow faction. The Buddhism of

40 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 2fio.

to-day has assumed in every respect the quality of a worship
of the idols of the land.1 Among the Barmans polygamy and
polyandry is allowed by law, and they have reduced lying to
a system as thoroughly as the Brahrnans of Further India.2
In Japan, not merely with the connivance of the Buddhist
priests, but organized and zealously and actively conducted
by them as a lucrative business, prostitution is pursued
under State regulation ; 3 and, indeed, under the influence of
Buddhism it has been developed into a regular phallic
worship in the temples.4 This is the noble result of pan-
theism as a world-purifying power in Buddhism.

1 On Buddhism in Higher India, compare Easier Miss. Mag. 1837, H. 2.
On Ceylon, 1839, H. 4. Of the Cingalese, Ed. Hildebrandt (Reise urn die
JErde, 4th ed. Berlin 1873, i. 58) writes : "I have often given attention
in order to see if I could discover in the countenance of suppliants any
trace of inner spiritual feeling. In vain ; there was to be observed in
them just as little discontent or dissatisfaction with the Sansdras, this
present world, as hope of the eternal peace of Nirvana. It was only
my worldly rupees that always kept the pious Cingalese in the best
spirits."

2 Heifer's Reisen in Vorderasien und Indien, ii. 86 and 95.

3 Ed. Hildebrandt, Reise urn die Erde, ii. 85 ff. In Yeddo there were,
in 1869, no less than 3289 public prostitutes (von Kudriafisky, Japan, p.
108). That the Japanese for the most part marry their wives from among
the prostitutes is doubted, in so far as men of good position are concerned,
by Al. von Hubner (Spazierg. urn die Welt, i. 342), but is affirmed by
E. von Hildebrandt with regard to those of the lower orders, who also are
devotees of Buddhism. Wernich doubts even this, but admits that in
youths of eighteen years a quite unreasonable lust is awakened which is
satisfied in brothels, so that young men of from eighteen to twenty-five
years appear hah* -grizzled elderly men ; further, that it is a duty to
protect sailors of ships trading with Japan because of the State-sanctioned
vice through the establishment of brothels, and that, according to ofiicial
reports, on twenty-five ships with 2740 men, thirty-five were daily
incapacitated from work on account of syphilitic diseases ; further,
that in the higher ranks marriages are concluded only for five years,
in the lower ranks for even a shorter time. On the other hand, what
will it signify though adultery by the woman is threatened by law with
death, and though an old law, that has long passed into desuetude, that
youths should marry in their sixteenth year? Compare also Kreitner,
zurfemen Osten, pp. 235-276.

4 Hildebrandt, Reise urn die Erde, ii. 101.

§ 266.] THE EACES OF ASIA AXD POLYNESIA. 41

§ 266. The Ancient Religion of the Mongols.

Those who use the name Mongols as interchangeable with
that of Tartar are wont to appeal to the fact that Genghis
Khan doomed to death those found guilty of witchcraft and
soothsaying, and enacted by law that all his subjects should
believe in the creator of heaven and earth,1 as a proof that
the same Shamanism must have prevailed among the Mongols
as did among the Ugro-Tartar tribes. It is, however, quite
evident that Genghis Khan, who never advanced any preten-
sion to be regarded as a founder of a religion, did not intend
by that law to take away from his Mongolian subjects their
earlier religion and substitute another in its place, but rather
simply to introduce the religion of his own superior race into
the conquered domains of the Kirghiz, Nigurs, Merkites of
the Altaian group, Turks, etc., and thus to extirpate the
Shamanism that was offensive to the Mongols. It might
therefore be assumed beforehand that the Mongols had believed
in the creator of heaven and earth, and that they were not
addicted to Shamanism. Both of these positions can be sup-
ported by direct evidence. The Franciscan Johannes Plankar-
pinus, who was sent in A.D. 1246 by Innocent IV. to the
Grand Khan of the Mongols, relates,2 that they believed in a
creator of all things, whom they called Nagatai, naga corre-
sponding to ngangnja in Tungusic and inikch in Aleutian,
meaning heaven, and tai corresponding to the Chinese tab,
god (comp. deva, Gothic tius). To this god, however, they did
not render any special worship. Alongside of him they
had guardian deities of their tents and herds;3 a wooden image
of such deities stood in every tent covered with silk cloth,
placed also on a special decorated car. If an ox was slain, its
heart was placed before the image as an offering, and was left
lying there till the following day. Of the mare's milk, which

1 Ssanang Sseten, p. 393. Timoffsky's Reise, iii. 182.

8 See de Guignes, allg. Geschichte der Hunnen und Turken, iii. p. 7.

3 Oe<jgo-d, spirits, from the root any, ong ; see § 264, Obs. 2.

42 HALF-CIVILISED AXD SAVAGE RACES. [§ 2GG.

they drink, and the flesh, which they eat, they first take a
portion and besmear therewith the mouth of the idol. They
worship these images kneeling.1 In front of the Khan's tent
stands a costly decorated image. Plankarpinus tells also of a
god Fo, who was from a southern land. This is Buddha,
whose religion (§ 265) had even then begun to spread among
the Mongols. Traces of Buddhism appear in the prohibition
against killing young birds ; the Buddhist missionaries, how-
ever, were not able to extend the prohibition to the slaying of
all animals in dealing with a nomadic race which lived by the
rearing of cattle. Other customs and laws, which Plankar-
pinus speaks about, appear, on the other hand, to be purely
Mongolian ; for example, the prohibition against leaning on a
whip, spitting out chewed flesh, spilling milk, easing nature
within a dwelling, putting an iron vessel upon the fire, beating
a horse with the bridle, or sending it without a halter into a
meadow. All these were forbidden on pain of death ; if any
of these faults had been unintentionally committed, it might
be atoned for by a fine and a ceremony of purification by fire.
All these precepts bear the character rather of a reasonably
severe police arrangement than that of a religious system.
Those guardian deities, however, seem to us of special interest,
inasmuch as they were evidently family gods, being placed not
in common public sanctuary, but in every tent ; and this will
be confirmed by reports obtained from other quarters. After
the death of Genghis Khan a monument was placed over his
tomb, and round about it eight sanctuaries were built, where
his followers should be obliged to render him worship ; 2 this
reverence being claimed by him, not as prince of the nation,

1 D'Hossom gives Tangri as the name of the creator of the world, and
ongon as that of the images of the guardian deities. As he mentions no
authorities, and manifestly confounds what is Tartarian and what is
Mongolian, his assertions are of no great weight. The name tangri may
either be the Tartarian appellative for heaven, tengri (see § 264 under &), or
may be the result of a confusion with the tegris or ancestral spirits of the
Mongols.

2 Ssanang Sseten, pp. 109 and 399.

§ 266.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 43

but as the ancestor of their race. Now this could not have
been done unless the worship of ancestry prevailed among the
Mongols ; and that such a custom was actually prevalent, and
that ancestors of both sexes were appealed to for protection
and assistance, the document referred to explicitly declares.1
When the Mongolian empire came to an end in A.D. 1368,
and Buddhism was with it overthrown, the old national
religion was revived, until Dajan again restored Buddhism in
A.D. 1578. During this period, as in former times, an offering
(choilga) was brought to the spirit of the departed (tegri),
consisting of horses and camels, which were slain and buried
with the deceased ; but sometimes also men, and especially
children, were sacrificed. It seems now quite evident that
those images in the several tents were nothing else than
images of the tegris, the ancestors of the race, whose spirits
were appealed to and worshipped as guardian spirits of the
family. In this respect the Mongolian people stand contrasted
with the Ugro-Tartar races generally ; for while the Ugro-
Tartar feared the spirits of the departed as vengeful ghosts, so
that he would not venture even once to mention their names
(§ 263), the Mongol regarded them as friendly guardian deities,
set up their images in his tent, worshipped them, and invoked
their help. We shall find this prevalence of a pious feeling
in regard to their ancestors to be thoroughly characteristic also
of other nations belonging to the Mongolian family.

Belief in a creator of the world does not as such form any
distinction between the Mongolian and the Ugro-Tartar groups,
for we have already shown in § 263 that even among the
Ugro-Tartars there are evident traces of a primitive acquaint-
ance with the idea of a creator. And yet even in respect of
this point there is a thoroughgoing difference in the form in
which this belief was adopted. We find among the Ugro-
Tartars, and even among the Finns, a perceptible tendency to
think of that creator after a purely anthropomorphic fashion ;
— among the Finns he is called " the old father ; " among the
1 Ssanang Sseten, pp. 109, 235, 249, 416.

44 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 266.

Votiaks and their neighbours he is spoken of as dwelling
under human conditions in the sun ; by the Teleutians he is
described as in the uniform of the dragoons. The Mongols,
on the other hand, have persistently conceived of their
Nagatai as a pure spirit, an incorporeal being, without material
form, raised beyond the reach of the senses, and dwelling far
away in an abstract distance. The same is also true in regard
to the Chinese.

A second point, in regard to which the Mongols would
seem at first sight to be at one with the Ugro-Tartars, but
occupy in fact quite a different position, has been referred to
in § 262 f. There the sun and the moon were raised as
near as possible to the creator, and the creator brought down
as near as possible to the sun, either as dwelling in it or as
wholly identical with it. Among the Mongolian races, one
might say, the creator stands rather in the wide expanse of
heaven, dwelling in an abstract distance above all that is
visible ; whereas the sun and moon are thought of as approach-
ing near to man, like the ancestors of the ruling family, in
whom the nation itself is represented as an ideal unity, and
toward whom it regards itself as standing in a pious relation
of children to their parents. It is not only in China that the
Emperor bears the title Son of Heaven, Thiants6, but also the
Mongols, according to Plankarpinus, worshipped the moon,
and, indeed, the full moon, as the great queen j1 and the sun,
as the direct ancestor of the royal house. They possessed in
regard to this a very definite tradition.2 One of the ancient
Khans, Yulduz. had two sons, who died before him ; the one
left a son, Dedshunbajan, the other a daughter, Alankava.
Those two -were married to one another ; the husband soon
died, after Alankava had borne him two sons, Baktut and
Balaktut, named by Marco Polo, who draws upon other sources,

1 De Guignes, Geschichte der Hunnen und Turken, iii. 8.

2 Abnabdallah Marrakeschi (im abmamalik), Mehemed bin Cavendshah
(called Miraconda), and Marco Polo, see in Petis, p. 11 ; D'Hossorn, p. 21 ;
De Guignes, p. 11 f.

§ 265.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 45

Balgadai and Begdsadai. There appeared to the widow in her
chamber, while she lay once upon her bed, a clear shining ray
of light which three times encircled her breast ; according to
another account, it took the form of a beautiful orange-coloured
man : she became pregnant, was led before the judges, related
the phenomenon, and told that she had conceived three sous ;
if she should not bring forth three sons, she should then be
treated as an adulteress. She actually did bring forth three
boys, who were called nuranium, sons of light : Bokum katagun,
Boskin saldgi, and Buzend shir. The last of these was the
ancestor of Genghis Khan.

This tracing of their descent from the sun affords a very
striking contrast to the tracing of their descent by the Ugro-
Tartars from the wolf. It is nevertheless clear that the sun
legends of the Mongols, which we shall find recurring in the
traditions of the most varied nations of the Mongolian family,
has a purely polytheistic origin, just as the Phcenicio-Greek
legends related in § 250, Obs. 2, have their root in Phoenician
polytheism. If it had been the despotic patriarchal constitu-
tion of the Mongolian people, together with their worship of
ancestry, that had led to the apotheosizing and tracing back to
the sun-god the descent of the ruling class in each of those
nationalities, then of necessity myths to this effect must have
been constructed. That the sun was regarded as a god,
though subordinate to the supreme god, is the one presup-
position required for the production of such legends.

Finally, there are still some customs of the Mongols reported
by Marco Polo that may be mentioned. Ambassadors from
foreign nations were made to pass between two fires, to be
purified, before there could be any intercourse with them ; also
whoever was found in a tent that had been struck by lightning,
or in which a dead body had lain. Whoever had been present
at the death of a man, was unclean until the next new moon.
The dead was buried with his tent ; before him was placed a
table with flesh and mare's milk, and along with him a horse
saddled and bridled and a mare with her foal were buried : for

46 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 267.

the life to come was regarded as a continuation of the life that
now is. Polygamy was allowed ; adultery and impure relations
of unmarried persons were punished on discovery without more
ado with death. Among themselves the Mongols had never
any strife ; they never lied to and stole from one another ;
they practised free hospitality and benevolence. In regard to
strangers, they were allowed to indulge in all manner of decep-
tion, and were bound by no contracts. The Khan exercised
unlimited jurisdiction ; there was no private property apart
from him ; the people willingly and heartily submitted to his
authority.

§ 267. The Ancient Religions of Tibet, Higher India,
and Ceylon.

In Tibet, remnants of the primitive religions continued down
to A.D. 900 ; although very little more is known about them,
but that the priests were called bonbos, and formed a regularly
graded community, at the head of which were two chief
priests, a lonlo of heaven and a lonlo of earth.1 This leads to
the supposition that here also there was that separation between
the purely spiritual and invisible creator of the world, enthroned
in heaven, and a multitude of guardian spirits which had rule
over the earth. Then in Tibet, as in China, a worship of spirits
was prevalent in early times. The spirits in China, how-
ever, will be shown in § 268 to be no Shamanistic hobgoblins
and ghosts, but friendly guardian spirits of their ancestors, as
among the Mongols. The same thing is illustrated by a further
circumstance. The population of the island of Ceylon 2 seems
to be wholly or partially of Mongol blood. In the inland
parts of the island there are independent tribes which have
remained uninfluenced by Buddhism. The references in the
songs of these tribes to Maha-Bambo as the name of a great

1 See Stuhr, Religionen des Orients, p. 262.

2 Compare on what follows, Stuhr, Religionen des Orients, p. 274 ff.

§ 267.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 47

guardian spirit,1 prove unmistakeably their connection, in
respect of race and of religion, with nations of the Mongolian
family ; and the existence of a regular intercourse between
Ceylon and Higher India in early times is also in other ways
quite demonstrable. In the religion professed by those tribes
in the present day, though doubtless now found in a very
corrupt form, of which we have detailed accounts given us by
Knox2 and by Davy,3 we have an extremely satisfactory
source of information regarding the early religion of those
nations. Those peoples believe in one supreme god, the
invisible creator of heaven and earth, whom they call Ossa
polla maupt Dio. Further, they worship the sun Irrihaumi,
and the moon Handahaumi,4 as a divine pair ; also four great
guardian spirits of the earth, enthroned on the mountain
peaks, pattinie ; a multitude of spirits of the woods and the
hills ; but, above all, the spirits of the departed, dajautas.
Each family erects a temple (kmvilla, meaning perhaps place
of invocation ; comp. Mandshu. chula, Tungusic goli, to call, to
invoke, Mongol, choola, voice, throat) to its own dajauta,
where the father of the family officiates as priest. These
temples are adorned with swords, battle-axes, arrows, and
shields, and the walls are painted with human figures in war-
like attitudes. Here, too, we have the specific religious
patriotism of the Mongols, which seeks the aid of their
ancestors in their struggle against foreign tribes and nations.
In connection with every act of worship of the spirits there
was a magical performance carried out by those Cingalese,
which, however, had not the least resemblance to Shamanism.
The priestly head of the family laid on his shoulder one of the

1 In Tibet the word which designated god was applied to the priests,
who were called god's servants, god's men, the godly.

2 Knox, Historical Account of the Island of Ceylon.

3 Davy, Account of the Interior of Ceylon.

4 Great and small Son ! Iri is in Turkish great, compact, firm ; Icenne
in all Mongolian and Ugrian languages is small ; Mongol, chomsa,
Mandshu. komso, small. Haumi may be Mongol, ko'ice, Tungus.
kunga, Chinese hdi, — son.

48 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 267.

sacred weapons hung up in the temple, and is thereby carried
away into an ecstasy in which he utters prophecies. The
origin of sicknesses is attributed to an angry guardian spirit ;
in order to discover who among them it is, recourse is had to an
oracle, — iron shears are hung to the strings of a bow, the
names of all the guardian spirits are called out in succession,
and that one at whose name the shears fall with a vibrating
motion is understood to be the angry spirit, and atonement is
made to him with offerings and wild dances and masquerades.
The dancers are called dshaddese or jakka dura. It is evident
that at the basis of this religious practice there lies an idea
completely different from that of Shamanism. A hobgoblin
to whose nature it belongs to do mischief, and a good guardian
spirit, who, because he has been wronged, temporarily chas-
tises his charge, are two very different things. Neither should
we identify a magician by profession and a family chieftain as
hereditary priest.

In Cingalese legends and songs the word bambo often
means a dragon or snake, and so it seems that the guardian
spirits were conceived of as having the shape of a dragon or
serpent, and in earlier times were probably represented as such
in figures. The legends of the Aryan Indians tell of the
spread of a worship of Nat and Naga,1 spirits and serpents,
which in the earliest times had made its way through all the
southern parts of Further India ; 2 and this would lead to
the supposition that the Aryan population had been preceded
by a Mongolian. These Cingalese have also a system of star
observation, which, however, is of Chaldsean origin, and has
clearly come to them from the Aryan Indians, and at a later
period from the Arabians.3 Among those dwelling on the

1 It should be noticed here that ndga is a Sanscrit appellative for
serpent, and not at all a Mongolian proper name of the sun-god. The
name Nagatai has nothing to do with it.

* The serpent king of the Indian legends, Karakotaka, springs un-
doubtedly from a Mongolian origin, though not in name, yet certainly in
regard to character.

3 Stuhr, Religionen des Orients, p. 282 f.

§ 267.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 49

coasts of Ceylon the modern Aryan - Indian religion and
mythology have plainly been mixed up with their own primi-
tive religion. From a corrupt form of Brahmanism they have
adopted the goddess Kali as Omawan ganama, the health-
god Kumaras, and a multitude of evil spirits, and all this
jumble they have mixed up with their idolatrous Buddhist
worship.1

When, again, we turn our attention to Tibet, we are told by
the inhabitants of this land that they have a tradition2 to the
effect that their nation sprang, partly from the marriage of an
ape with a female hobgoblin, partly directly from the apes
who were instructed in agriculture by a great sage, whether
he was called Darwin is not said, in consequence of which
their tails became gradually shortened, their hair fell off, and
they began to speak. This tradition represents a stage
of scientific knowledge far too advanced to be regarded as a
genuine relic of antiquity. Jesting aside, it bears quite the
character of a Buddhist fable; and that it is not of early
Mongolian origin appears from this, that among the Mon-
golian nations there never appears any trace (§ 263, Obs.) of
a belief in a descent from animals ; but that Tartars should
be confined to the Brahmaputra is not in the least degree
possible.

Of the old national religion of the peoples of Upper India
only a few vestiges remain. Long before Buddhism made its
appearance 3 in its polytheistic modifications, these peoples
were under the spiritual influence of the Aryans of Further
India. It is all the more remarkable that those slight traces
exhibit the same characteristics as the old Mongolian religion.
The Barmans of the present time, although Buddhists, still
celebrate the full moon and the new moon,4 an evident
remnant of a primitive moon-worship. In Siam there has

1 Stuhr, Religionen des Orients, p. 278 ff. 2 Ibid. p. 261.

3 The image of the god Jamataga, which has been found in Nepaul,
with eight heads, thirty-six arms, and eighteen legs, proves the blending
there of the worship of Siva and Buddha. See Stuhr, p. 279.

4 Easier Miss. Mag. 1837, p. 219.

EB11ARD III. D

50 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES. [§ 207.

been maintained a special adoration of the departed, and belief
in their sheltering influence : the dead are burned with peculiarly
honourable rites ; but the body of a pregnant woman is buried,
and to the foetus in the mother's womb is ascribed a special
power for protecting against evil spirits. Whoever succeeds
in stealing such an undeveloped child from the grave, cuts off
its head, hands, and feet, fits them on to a stump of clay,
and sets up this image as a guardian deity in his temple.1
Throughout the whole of Anam and Cochin-China, where in
general Buddhism has made its way and prevails in the form
of the rudest idolatry, with a predominant fear of the evil spirits
of the Buddhist system (§ 265), ordinarily the spirits of the
departed are regarded as guardian spirits, and are profoundly
and earnestly honoured. Four times in the year are offerings
brought them.2

In all this we find an illustration of the old truth, that
when we go back to a remote antiquity we find, as the original
common possession of all peoples of the various groups of
nations, belief in the one invisible creator of heaven and earth,
that then there grew up in various forms a polytheistic deifica-
tion of nature, — among the Mongols connected essentially with
ancestor-worship, among the Ugro-Tartars, on the other hand,
with animal- worship, — and in consequence thereof soothsaying
and witchcraft of various kinds were practised. Among the
Mongolian nations that have been hitherto spoken of, there has,
finally, to be added to all this deterioration that pestilential
and corrupting product of the foreign, Aryan-Indian cultured
race, Buddhism. The lowest depth of degradation is occupied
by the Khyeng, who inhabit the mountain region between
Aracan and Ava in Further India. With them religion has
been almost completely reduced to a system of soothsaying.
They have a priesthood under a spiritual chief, the passine,

1 Stuhr, Rdigionen des Orients, p. 297. Finlayson, Mission to Siam and
Sue, p. 238.

2 Hamilton, East India Gazetteer, p. 296 and p. 835 ; Barrow, Voyage to
Cochin-China, p. 232. The same four sorts of offerings are made in China ;
see § 268.

§ 267.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 51

a clear proof that in earlier times they had a religion. This,
however, has now shrunk up into the adoration of a big tree
called Subri, to which once a year they offer oxen and swine
and the thunder columns, that is, stones which they dig out of
the earth on places that have been struck by lightning. At
such places a pig and an ox are offered, and the stone that has
been dug up, which they regard as having fallen from heaven,
is given up to the passine as a charm against sickness. This
points to an earlier worship of a thunder-god ; and, in fact,
they tell of a god who dwells on a high, inaccessible mountain.1
The passine is consulted in regard to marriages in order to
secure good luck for him, and he is the arbiter in disputes.
Death is regarded as a joyful circumstance, and is celebrated
by festival, at which there is drinking, debauchery, and dancing;
the bodies of distinguished persons are burnt, others are buried,
and watchers against evil spirits are placed at the grave.
Whoever has lost children and cattle, and gets befittingly
drunk over it, has the happy prospect for his soul of its being
turned, after death, into an ox or a pig.2 Of the Old Mongolian
religion there is here no trace to be seen. The adoration of
a sacred tree, the worship of the thunder-god (Indra), with his
dwelling on a high mountain, Sumeru (comp. § 265), the use
of Brahmanical customs in burning the bodies of the dis-
tinguished, the doctrine of the transmigration of souls, and,
finally, the joy that is shown over death as marking a step in
the journey back to the universal primary being, — all this
shows clearly the presence, if not of Aryan-Indian influences,
pure or mixed, at least the operation of influences from the
Brahmanical Buddhism of Further India.

Obs. — The Karens dwelling in the mountains of the Burmese
empire are, according to their own traditions, immigrants from
the north, from a land where they possessed books ; and in spite
of their servile position under the Burmese, which has lasted
for centuries, they show traces of having had a higher civilisa-
tion in their dress and customs (Heifer's Reisen, ii. 104), when

1 Busier Miss. Mag. 1837, p. 215.

* Asiatic Researches, vol. xvi. p. 261 ff.

52 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 2C8.

the Burmese were savages going almost naked and tattooed. The
Mongolian type is much more faintly discernible in them (Heifer).
This fact, as well as their religion, leads us to conjecture that
in them there is primarily an Iranian, and only secondarily a
Mongolian extraction. Their doctrine of the gods is limited to a
belief in good and evil spirits (nat), to whom they lay down, in
hidden spots in the woods, offerings of rice, fruits, and flowers ;
they have no priesthood or any regular form of worship; but
their burial ceremonies are evidently the result of a compromise
between Iranian and Mongolian customs. The bringing together
and laying out the whole possessions of the deceased, and their
burying of the dead, was thoroughly Mongolian ; their raising
the body after the expiry of a year, and their letting it remain
exposed to the air, was thoroughly Iranian (comp. § 216). Also
the custom (Heifer, p. 107 f.) of surrendering the body, care-
fully wrapped up, to the earth for a year, appears to rest origin-
ally upon an Iranian notion that the body should not come into
any immediate connection with the sacred earth. The sacred
books which this people possessed in their primitive state, of
which they have a remembrance, and over the loss of which
they bitterly lament, undoubtedly must have been those of
the Avesta.

§ 268. China audits Religion.

The Chinese are in the highest degree a cultured people.
Although I have not treated of them in the first section, but
ranked them in this place, this has been done simply on account
of their geographical, ethnographical, and historical position.
In respect of bodily form they belong to the great Mongolian
group of nations, and must be regarded as a branch of the
same, though even as such they became isolated from the
other members of the group in a very remote antiquity. This
isolation, moreover, was not so much an external one, for
during a thousand years they were obliged to wage a defensive
war against the hostile inroads and predatory attacks, first of
the Ugro-Tartars and then of the savage West-Mongolians.
Their isolation was rather in respect of spiritual development
and in respect of language (see Obs.). It is not necessary that
we should here enlarge upon the primitive culture of the
Chinese, who are acknowledged to have anticipated the West
in the use of the magnetic needle, in the discovery of the art

§ 268.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 53

of printing, of gunpowder, etc. ; nor is it required of us that
we should give in detail a history of the Chinese people and
their empire. The ancient historical document of the Chinese,
ScM-Klng, which reaches from B.C. 2356 down to B.C. 947,
exists no longer in its original form, but only in an abridg-
ment, which the well - known Khung-tse, Confucius, made
about B.C. 500.1 We shall have to consider farther on what
the Chinese tell about the early history of mankind and about
the flood; for the present it need only be said that the
Chinese, or as they put it, the hundred families, pe Ha (where
a hundred evidently is a round number in the sense of many,
for there are 438 such families expressly enumerated), when
they reached the land, found already before them certain wild
tribes of a Malay race, the Miao-tse, in the mountains of Sze
Chuen, Kuei Choo, Che Kiang, Kuang Se, and Kuang Tung,
whom they, since they were not able to subdue them, shut out
by means of strong fortifications at the outlets of the mountain
ravines.2 They continue to exist down to the present day,
living in fenced villages of, at the most, 2000 inhabitants,
tending their cattle and following agricultural pursuits. They
formed the pith of the Tai-ping rebellion of 1850, and the
great rival Emperor Tien-te was of this race.3 This people of
the hundred families at the beginning possessed only the
country between the great desert and Mandshuria on the
north, and the Kiang-uria on the south, beyond which there
were only the two provinces of King and Yang. From B.C
2205 China has been a hereditary kingdom, with a feudal
constitution; from B.C. 1122 till B.C. 256 the Tchow dynasty
reigned ; it was overthrown by Tsin, a vassal king, who gained
the superiority; his adopted son, Chl-Hoang-Ti, B.C. 246-209,
who built the Chinese Wall about B.C. 220, to resist the
inroads of the wild Hiong-nu (see § 264), sought to change

1 V. von Strauss, Lao-tse's Tao-te-ling, Leipzig 1870, Introd. § 11,
p. xxxvii. By the same author, Schi-king, Heidelberg, 1880, Intro-
duction.

2 De Mailla, xi. p. 588.

3 Callery and Ivan, L' insurrection en Chine, p. 50.

54 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. L§ 268.

the national constitution into an imperial government, and
ordered, in B.C. 212, the burning of all the old books, with
the exception of medical and economical treatises, and those
containing prophecies. Original documents were thus irre-
coverably lost in the flames. When this dynasty broke up
under the hands of his incapable successors, and in B.C. 201
the Han dynasty assumed the reins of government, the Schu-
Klng was reproduced from memory, and soon also a hidden
and secretly preserved ancient copy was discovered.1 But far
more corrupting and injurious than the burning of those
books was the course of action entered on by the so-called
philosopher and reformer, or rather deformer, Confucius, about
B.C. 500, who, almost contemporaneously with Sakya-Muni,
endeavoured, only too successfully, to introduce into China
a system of purely worldly wisdom. His teaching consists in
a barren morality founded upon eudasmonist rules of prudence.
The charge against him is not so much that he argued against
the ancient god of the Chinese, as that he ignored him, and
taught the people to ignore him. In his edition of the Schu-
King, as well as in that of the Schl-King, a collection of
ancient songs, he has carefully struck out every reference to
the early Chinese worship of god or of the gods ; of 3000
songs, he has only given 315.2 These expurgated editions of
the two ancient documents constituted all that was preserved
when, three hundred years later, the other literary products
were committed to the flames. There is thus no very brilliant
expectations excited in regard to the sources of information
concerning the history of the early Chinese religion. Never-
theless even from these we shall be able to sketch its charac-
teristic features. In turning our attention to this subject, we
shall set aside Buddhism, the first traces of which are found in
the south of China about A.D. 65, but which was first exten-
sively spread, between A.D. 202 and 220, by the Buddhist
missionary Ho -Chang, and only about A.D. 500, when the

1 V. von Strauss, Lao-tse's Tao-te-king, p. Ixx. ff.
2 Ibid. p. xxxviii.

§ 268.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 55

first Buddhist patriarch or Lama was appointed for China,
began to play an important part ; and we shall also decline to
follow the story of the barren morality of Confucius.1

A. The Chinese religion acknowledges only one God, the
invisible lord (Ti), or the supreme lord (Schang Ti) and ruler
of the world, whom it also designates Thian, heaven, a
designation which reminds us of the Mongolian name of God,
Xaga-tai, heaven's-tai. He is consbious, all-seeing, all-hearing,
omnipresent, and incorporeal : he gives life, endues with
wisdom, rewards the good, and punishes the evil. He
provides for the course of the world, and determines it.
Thus, as the unapproachable and supersensible, he exists in
absolute separation from his creatures. The gulf between
him and the visible world is filled by the souls of their
deceased forefathers, who act as mediators, as with the West
Mongols, and by a multitude of nature-spirits, The souls of
the departed are with God in heaven. The invisible God is
worshipped by offerings which the Emperor presents at the
solstices on an altar of earth under the open canopy of
heaven. The spirits of ancestors have their temples and halls,
where offerings are brought them four times a year by the
heads of families. There is no order of priests, and the fact
that there is none, and that monarch, princes, and heads of
families are required to perform the worship of God and of
the ancestors, is an indication of a primitive condition having
prevailed in China similar to that which we meet with in
India during the Vedic period.

B. The want of a word for God is very striking. Such a
word, however, had originally existed. In the oldest portions
of the Schu-King, B.C. 2255-2206, the supreme being is once
called Tao, and the philosopher or theosophist Lao-tse, in the
6th century B.C., speaks of the Tao of antiquity. In the
consciousness of the Chinese this name Tao was perhaps only
an appellative, identical with the appellative tab, in Japanese

1 An account of this system may be found in Stuhr, Religionen des
Orients, p. 10 ff.

56 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 2G8.

too, which has the root signification of way, and the derived
significations of procedure, order, government of the world.
The name of God, Tao, is also indicated by the same written
sign. It nevertheless seems to me a fair question whether
we have not rather in Ta6 a primitive proper name, identical
with the Naga-tai of the West Mongols, preserved to us from a
time when as yet the art of writing was unknown. When the
art of writing was discovered by the Chinese, the sign for the
apellative tab would be seized upon, and it would be thought
that the name of God must be explained from the signification
of that appellative term. The written sign for Tao, however,
may much more plausibly be regarded as compounded of two
signs, one of which, tschho, stands for come or go, and the other,
scheii,. for head or origin, which when combined present the
idea — " that from which all springs." This notion we find
in the remarkable writing of Lao-tse, a philosopher almost
exactly contemporary with Khung-tse, Confucius. In his
Tab-tS-king, which all the more easily escaped the book
burning since Chi-Hoang-Ti, while hostile to Confucianism,
was favourable to the Tao-sse"e, the worshippers of Tao,1 Lao-
tse developed in a theosophical manner the doctrine of the
Tao antiquity.2 Tao existed as an incomparably perfect being
before the origin of the heavens and the earth (cap. 25), and
before Ti (cap. 4). Incorporeal and immense, invisible and
inaudible, mysterious and unsearchable, without form or
figure (cap. 14), he is the eternal ultimate ground of all
things (cap. 1), and the original creator of all being (cap. 4) ;
as such he is unnameable, nameable only as revealed by the
creation, and in this duplicate form the outlet of everything
spiritual and intellectual (cap. 1). Everything springs from
him and returns to him again (caps. 16 and 21), and it is his
work to reproduce these things again (cap. 40) ; for though
eternal and without any neediness, he is yet never inactive

1 V. von Strauss, Tad-t$-klng, p. Ixxiii.

2 Tad-tS-klng, cap. 28 : " who, born in the present age, goes back to the
ta6 of antiquity."

§ 268.] THE KACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 57

(caps. 34 and 37). Never growing old, omnipresent, immut-
able, and self-determining (cap. 25), he creates, upholds, and
perfects all existences, which, therefore, honour him and
praise his goodness, because he loves them and allows them
free self-determination (caps. 51 and 34). In him is spirit,
and his spirit is the most genuine ; yet only those who are
purified from lust can see him (caps. 21 and 1). He who
determines his conduct according to Tao is one with him
(cap. 23); Tao is the ground of his moral life (cap. 38).
He is the great giver, and perfecter, and peace-bringer (caps.
41 and 46), the refuge of all beings, the protection of the
good, the saviour of sinners, and he who forgives their guilt
(cap. 62).1 It is quite evident now that Lao-tse did not meet
with the belief in Tao in such a form and at such a stage
of development in the common religious conceptions of the
people. It is, indeed, in the highest degree probable that he
came into contact with fugitives and exiled Israelites of the
ten tribes, recognised in their Jehovah the Tao of his own
nation,2 and was led by them to the attainment of such a
profound knowledge of God. But he could not have re-
cognised in the ancient Tao of his nation the God of
revelation, and he could never have identified the two,
unless the Tao of the Chinese had clearly been conceived
of as the invisible creator of the world. In the Sclm-King,
too, Confucius has allowed words in two passages to remain
(i. 3, § 6 and § 15) which refer to the ancient Tao worship :
" Oppose not Tao, so as to secure the praises of the hundred
families." " Man's heart is fraught with danger ; Tao's heart
is fine, is pure, is one ; wishes you to hold by him."

In the time of Lao-tse the Tao worship among the people
had no doubt become greatly corrupted. A portion of the
people preserved alongside of the belief in Thian-ti the belief

1 V. von Strauss, Tao-te-klng, p. xxxv.

2 Cap. 14 : " His name is It Hi Wei." How this suggests an acquaint-
ance with the religion of Israel is shown in thoroughly convincing way
by V. von Strauss (p. 61 If.) in answer to Stanislas Julien.

58 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 268.

in the old god Ta6. They were called Tao-ssee. But they
were distinguished from the rest of the people, so far as
practice was concerned, only in their being addicted to sooth-
saying, magic, astrology, and alchemy.1 Lao-tse exercised no
influence upon them ; he was and continues a lonely, private
thinker. His book was in later times commented on by Con-
fucianists, but in doing so they read into it their own ideas.2
He has exercised no influence upon the Chinese people ; hence
all the greater became that of Khung-tse (Confucius), for the
insipid Ta6 religion could offer no sufficient opposition to his
superior enlightenment.

The question now arises, how did the god Tao stand in
relation to the thidn, heaven, and to Schang-ti, the supreme
lord, not in Lao-tse's time, but in these primitive ages which
Lao-ts& himself designates antiquity ? The passage in Tab-tS-
klng seems to me of the utmost importance where Lao-tse says :
I know not whose son Tao is, that is, he is no one's son ; he
reveals himself as the ancestor of the Schang-ti.3 In the
early Chinese religion, therefore, Schang-ti, or what was the
same, Thian-ti, was a son of Tao. It is told, too, of an
Emperor Schun, B.C. 2254-2204, that he offered sacrifices to
Thian; in the L\-ki (cap. 23) is found also the old sacrificial
formula : " At the presentation of the solstice offering there is
great praise rendered to heaven, and first of all to the sun,
and also to the moon : the offering to the sun is made on an
altar of earth, and to the moon in a pit." It thus appears
that the lord of heaven of Chinese antiquity was no sun-
god in the strict sense, that is, not to be identified as a deity
with the sun, like the Japanese Ten-sio dai-sin, but still a

1 V. von Strauss, Tab-te-kmg, Introd. p. Ixxiii.

2 Ibid. p. Ixxvii.

3 By this La6-tse cannot intend merely to say that the name of Ta6 is
more ancient than that of Schaug-tf. For had this been his intention, he
would have been obliged in some sort of way to indicate the identity of
SchSng-tf with Ta6 ; but he rather affirms that Ta6 is Schang-tf s ancestor,
in the same sense in which he denies that Ta6 has any ancestor, or has
been begotten.

§ 268.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 59

Oeos, a lord and ruler of the visible heaven and its
stars, subordinate to the eternal supreme god and creator of
the world, Tao. The title of the Chinese emperor, Thian-tse',
heaven's son, is literally identical with the Japanese ten-si;
but while the latter is given to the Emperor of Japan as a
descendant of the sun, there is no trace among the Chinese
of their emperor having ever been regarded as descended
from the sun ; on the contrary, the offerings which the
Emperor of China presents to his ancestors in his ancestral
temple, and the offerings at the solstice, are quite distinct
things. The title Thian-tse is therefore to be regarded as
an abstract title of honour, or, at furthest, it may be con-
jectured that in primitive times the emperors of the oldest
dynasty had regarded themselves as descendants, not of the
sun, but of that son of Tao, Thian-ti, and that the title, in
the most general sense, had been assumed by emperors of
succeeding dynasties, in regard to whom there could be no
pretension of descent even from those who had preceded
them. The Tchow dynasty, however, actually traced their
descent back through Heii-tsI to Schang-ti.1

If, then, in early times there was placed alongside of Tao a
son of Tao and Thian-ti in an emanationistic rather than a
polytheistic sense, it is quite conceivable that there was here,
as well as among the Iranians, a reformatory reaction against
this emanationistic development of religion, which showed

1 The Heii-tsI legend (in Schl-King, iii. 2. 1) corresponds in its character-
istic features to the Mongolian Buzend legend (§ 266). A woman, Kiang-
Juan, brings an offering to the lord of heaven, praying for the blessing of
children ; in perfect solitude she walks in the god's footsteps, and becomes
pregnant. That she was impregnated by the god in the mythological
fashion is not expressly stated, the redactor evidently putting this idea
aside, or at least evading it, and favouring rather the supposition that
the god simply granted her the blessing of fruitfulness, so that she
became pregnant by her own husband. The old mythological form of
the tradition, however, appears clearly enough from out of its artistic
drapery. In the first place, it is quite manifest that according to the
invariable custom of the Schl-Klng the name of no earthly husband is
given. Thus we observe that the child, the boy Heii-tsi, was born
without pain. Then the child was exposed, which is inconceivable if

60 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ -268.

itself in an attempt to identify Thian-ti with Tao, to
transfer the attributes of Tao to Thian-ti, and to set aside
altogether the name of Ta6 as superfluous and calculated to
foster false doctrine. "When this reaction set in, the product
of which was called the religion of Syu, of the learned, in
contrast to that of the Tao-ssee, it is not easy exactly to say.
It was, at least, so long before the time of Lao-tse that the
pre-reformation time seemed to him a remote antiquity ;
yet it must have been subsequent to the writing of the
section of the Scku-King, i. 3. The old emanationistic
religion of two gods only maintained its hold of a portion
of the people, and that the very lowest of them, and continued
to be developed in a superstitious manner in the form of
soothsaying and magic. ' The lonely thinker, Lao-tse, first
became dissatisfied with the reduction of the Thian-ti religion
by his contemporaries to a system of abstract deism, and
sought to lead them back to the Tao of antiquity, endeavour-
ing in his name to construct his own profoundly speculative
philosophy of religion. Thus would La6-tse have become the
founder of a second reformation, if he only had gained
disciples, and had been able to found a school.

From chapter 5 of Lao-tse's work it appears that in his
time the Chinese had a richer sacrificial ceremonial than they
have had since the time of Khung-tse (Confucius).1 There
he speaks of the hay-dog, a dog made of hay, covered with

his birth had been eagerly longed for by the parents, but quite conceiv-
able if the child, like Buzend, seemed an illegitimate. The exposed child
is then wonderfully preserved and brought up by the wild beasts. "We
find underlying that version of the myth which, in the Schl-Klng, cor-
responds to the abstract deistical Syu-religion, an older and purely
mythological version, and this affords evidence of a mythological stage of
the Chinese religion. "We shall yet meet with (§ 298) among the Aztecs,
who are descended from a Chinese- Mongolian stock, the Mongolian
tradition of Buzend without any concealment of its mythological features ;
but it is most noticeable that the Aztec proper name of the child, Hwitzi,
is more closely related to the Chinese Heu-tsi than to the Old Mongolian
Buzend.

1 In the temple of agriculture in Pekin oxen were even then offered,
and indeed burned alive. Hildebrandt, Reise um die Erde, ii. 161.

§ 268.] THE HACKS OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 61

rich clothing, which was placed as an offering before the altar
to avert bad luck, the influences of evil spirits ; l but, after the
offering had been made, its dress was taken off and it was torn
up and scattered on the streets.

C. This leads to speak of the belief in spirits that prevailed
among the ancient Chinese. This belief, in spite of Con-
fucianism and Buddhism, has lingered among the people down
to the present day. We do not here speak of the Shamanism
that had its origin among the Ugro-Tartars (§ 263), which
already at an earlier period, but especially from A.D. 1644,
when the Mandshurian dynasty of Thsing came to the throne,
may have been introduced from the north among some of the
border tribes, but of the specifically Mongolian belief in spirits,
which, as already the magical superstition of the Tao-sse'e
shows, was an integral constituent of the Old Chinese national
religion, and even now is generally current throughout China.
This belief in spirits stands in the closest connection with the
specifically Mongolian practice of ancestor-worship. How
deeply rooted this was in the national life in early times is
shown by the fact that in every city a sort of temple, Khung-
tse-kia, is dedicated to tjie spirit of Khung-tse, in which he is
invoked as a guardian spirit, and is entreated to look down on
them with favour.2 In the capital, too, there is a temple
which is called " the hall of the ancestors," where the spirits
of the departed members of the royal family are worshipped.
The regular festival of this worship is called tsin jun men,
gate of the pure clouds ; the emperor betakes himself to a
table laden with flowers and frankincense ; the wall behind
the table bears a tablet with the names of the ancestors, and a
son or grandson of the emperor appears as Schi, the dead boy,
dressed in the cloak of the most distinguished of the ancestors,

1 This reminds of the dog Nasu, driven away by the Iranians, § 216.

' Barrow, Travels in China, chap. 4. The reverence for parents, grand-
parents, and old persons, everywhere prominent in the national life of the
Chinese, carried so far that in order to flatter a young man it is customary
to say, Thou art already very old, stands in close connection with this
worship of ancestors.

62 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 268.

takes his place on the seat of honour, and in his stead receives
food, and drink, and homage, and dispenses good fortune and
blessing. While sixteen dancers perform in a solemn circle,
the emperor bows before the Schi and the tablet of names,
and two series of musicians sing with musical accompaniment
a hymn in three strophes, the oldest hymn extant, which,
according to Chinese accounts, dates as far back as B.C. 1122.
During the performance of the first strophe it is thought that
the gods approach, during the singing of the second they
linger about, and during the rendering of the third they again
withdraw. Libations and prostrations fill up the pauses
between the strophes.1 Similar ceremonies are observed by
the people. At the burial of a Chinaman the relatives offer
rice-wine to the spirit of the deceased, pouring it out at the
grave, and also gold paper, which they burn.2 Besides the
spirits of ancestors, guardian spirits of the soil and agriculture,
of mountains and streams, are also honoured with offerings ;
but this is confined to the princes and noblemen.3

- D. From the earliest times the dragon, Lung, is the
national emblem, appearing as such as early as B.C. 2100.
In the Schu-Klng, expurgated by Khui\g-tse, traditions about it
are not found ; but it may be supposed that the dragon or
serpent had figured in the national myths in some sort of way
as a guardian deity or as a god of the empire ; and this
supposition gains weight when we think of the bambo and
the serpent of the southern races connected with the Mongolians
(§ 267), and of the legends of the Japanese (§ 269), the
founder of whose kingdom, Dsin mu ten, had a dragon for
his grandmother. In fact, there is a great dragon festival

1 Billert in Mendel's rmisik. Convers. Lexikon, ii. p. 410, where the text
and music of the hymn are given.

2 Hildebrandt, Reise um die Erde, iii. 4.

3 Stuhr (p. 22 ff.) could only come to the opinion that La6-tse had first
introduced this belief in spirits because La6-tse's book had been in-
accessible to and unknown by him. There is not a word there about spirits
and belief in spirits. The custom of setting up images to the spirits was
introduced (according to Stuhr, p. 28) under the Song dynasty, which was
peculiarly favourable to the Ta6-ssee, between A.D. 1000 and 1300.

§ 268.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 63

celebrated yearly at Canton on the 18th of June, where the
dragon is called upon to give fruitfulness to the fields and
an abundant fishing, and has his image borne about in
procession through the streets.1

E. This brings us to the Chinese traditions. These begin
as far back as B.C. 2900 with Pcao-hi or Fu-hi, who is said
to have invented the figures (kua) of the Ii-k!ng and the
art of fishing. Then followed Schm-nung, who introduced
agriculture, trades, and markets, B.C. 2837. Then came
Hoang-ti, B.C. 2697, who conquered China by the overthrow
of the Emperor Tsche-jeu, during whose reign the laws were
put in shape, and music was introduced by Ling-Kin. But
although the third of these heroes of tradition had been
transplanted to China, they were all antediluvian heroes.
It was during the reign of lao, who is said to have begun to
reign in B.C. 2657, that the flood, which submerged the whole
kingdom, occurred in B.C. 2597. It was lao who averted
the flood by showing the streams their courses. It is very
remarkable how this chronological statement agrees with that
of the Bible. According to the Masoretic text of Genesis, the
flood came in the year B.C. 2544 ; according to the Septuagint
text, somewhat earlier (§ 248, Obs.}.

To return now to Pao-hl, Schm-nung, and Hoang-ti, we see
in these three as emperors successively reigning a reminiscence
of the three brothers Tubal-Cain, Jabal, and Jubal, who
introduced working in metals, the keeping of cattle, and the
art of music, the remembrance of whom, we are persuaded,
has been preserved among the most diverse nations of the
earth.2 The Chinese name of Noah, lao, agrees literally with
the Yima of the Iranians, the Yniir of the Germans. The
Chinese tradition calls the first man Puan-ku.

Finally, we have still to mention the tradition of the
Coreans, that the daughter of a river in the county of Fii-jli,

1 Hildebrandt, Reise um die Erde, ii. 55 f.

* A more modern form of the tradition confounds Pao-hl and lao. See
Klaproth, Asia polyglot, p. 28.

64 HALF- CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 268.

north of Corea, being impregnated by the sun, laid an egg,
from which the first king of the Coreans was brought forth.1
This is just that specifically Mongolian tradition which we have
already come to know (§ 267), and have found in a more
refined form among the Japanese.

Obs. — We have already spoken of the spirit and construction
of the Chinese language, § 264, Obs. 1 ; and now we need only
refer to the vocabulary. If the words of the Chinese language
of the present day show little resemblance and literal relation-
ship to synonymous words in the other Mongolian languages,
this is to be explained on the following grounds.

A. The monosyllabic words of the Chinese language should
not without more ado be assumed to be the literally well-con-
served original roots. If we take tsckhi, to run, tschklng, horse,
sse, to operate, sse, result, sse writer, ssjti,, a scribe, thstin, to exist,
tlisun, to preserve, etc., no one can for a moment suppose that
the second word is a root word ; its derivation is unquestion-
able.

B. If one considers the multitude and diversity of meanings
which one and the same Chinese word has, — as when, for
example, ji means slight, immediate, rightly, great, peaceable,
contented, like, equally, to arrange, to root out, to destroy, to
damage, to overturn, — there is here presented to us a process of
derivation and change of ideas which is so great, that one must
admit that, apart from current use, the oldest meaning and the
most original can no longer with any certainty be discovered, as
when, for example, kung means bodies, but also art.

C. But also the pronunciation of the words has changed in no
less a degree. In regard to a number of words, it is known
with certainty that in early times they were pronounced other-
wise than now ; of no word can it be said with certainty that
in early times it was pronounced as it is now. For the Chinese
writing is not phonetic but notional ; it does not indicate the
separate letters of which the word consists, but has for the
whole monosyllabic word one sign, and evidently an ancient
picture writing lay at the basis of these signs.

D. If one considers the indefinite multitude of diverse, often
quite unconnected dialects, so great that, for example, the
inhabitants of Tientsin would scarcely understand the dialect of
a native of Pekin, only a few days' journey distant (Hildebrandt,
ii. 159), and as the so-called written language, more correctly
the Mandarin dialect, is only one of these dialects, the pro-

1 Gatterer, Handb. der Universalkistorie, part 2, p. 357. Liickeu,
Einheit des Jfenschengcscklechtes, p. 181.

§ 268.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 65

nunciation of this Mandarin dialect is no more decisive in the
way of determining the original sound of these roots.

E. The extent of the verbal changes that the Chinese language
has made upon the old Mongolian roots in the course of a
thousand years may be calculated, on the one hand, from the
way in which it formed the proper names of foreign nations, as
when it rendered Shakia by Schi, Kharisma by Ki-li-sse-mo,
Kashgar by Kie-scha, etc. ; on the other hand, from its having
an indefinite number of homonyms, which are only distin-
guished by the accent ; for example, tschi, to fix, to hold firm ;
tschi, to acknowledge ; tschi, this ; tshi, to heal ; tschhing, horse ;
tschhing, to complete ; sching, holy ; selling, sound ; sching, sail ;
tl, to wash ; ti, earth and ruler, etc. It is thus evident that roots
originally different have been by mutilation made like one
another, and only by means of the tone can be artificially dis-
tinguished. And often it cannot be done even in this way.
For example, mil, finger, Mongolian musiim, and mu, mother,
Mongolian amu, have the same accent.

F. Since, then, it cannot be determined with any certainty,
either from the present meaning or from the present pronuncia-
tion, wrhat the original pronunciation and meaning of any
particular word may have been, any comparison between it and
other languages of the Mongolian group is well-nigh impossible.
But where are those other languages ? The Burmese, as well as
the Japanese, has itself passed through an equally radical pro-
cess of change, and this is beyond question true of the Tibetan
language. The Mongols in the strict sense, however, had (§ 264,
Obs. 2) already at a very early period, while under the Ugro-
Tartar dominion, practically adopted the Ugro-Tartar language.

G. It is not, then, to be wondered at that in regard to a
multitude of Chinese words it should be demonstrable or highly
probable that there should be a similarity of sound with
Burmese (W. von Humboldt above in § 264), with Nepaulese,
Tibetan, Japanese (see the table of numerals in § 264), and also
with such Mongolian words as the Mongols had not received
from the Ugro-Tartars (§ 264, Obs. 2, D), or with such as (comp.
under A) were derived from primitive roots common to the
Japhetic languages. I may refer, for example, to khiti, old
(ukko) ; khi, heath (angga, henki) ; kieu, guilt, sin (qual, glwl, to
excite horror) ; tschin, dust (choso, cliasy) ; te, to reach (tap) ; tab,
way (Japanese too, way ; Mongol, and Ugrian tul, to come) ;
thing, to hear (tun, don, to hear, feel, perceive) ; siab, small ; syeu,
pliant (suikia, suiclia, thin) ; yne, to tell ; yu, conversation (yatte,
to tell) ; tso.1, to embrace (sisa, sisi, inward, to bound) ; tse, teacher ;
tsing, spirit (sed, sod, to think, to know ; it seems that a
reduplicated dental is modified into ts) ; tseng, to quarrel (tschigg,
dsanggo, soy) ; sdn, to strew (sata, dsata, to rain) ; syui, point ;

EBRARD III. E

66 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 269.

suogge, tsoghol, to pierce, bore ; ludn, unquiet (liigga, likka, Iciiky,
to rule oneself) ; mung, blind (menck, weak, lame) ; mido, spirit
(mede, midle, to know); syf, pronounced ski, sun (Tungusic
schiwun, schuri) ; tsi (Old Chinese ts\), son (Mongol, -tschi,
eke-tschi, sister) ; Mi, child (kunga, kowe) ; Mo, great ; and ku£i,
greatness (gnm)t etc.

§ 269. Japan and its Religion.

The insular empire of Wa or Jamato, as it was called in
earlier times, or Nipon, as it has been called more recently,
or Japan, more properly Shapan, as we are accustomed to call
it, from the Chinese word sgi-pun, the sun-rising, or eastern
land, has two different races among its inhabitants.1 The
Japanese tradition relates that Zen-mou-ten-wo arrived with
his people from the West in B.C. 660, but found already
a population resident upon the island of Nipon. These
aborigines were driven eastward, and were designated Atsum-
adshebis or Eastern barbarians. Both races actually continued
to exist down to A.D. 1100, and even after they had become
thoroughly amalgamated they are distinguishable by the use
of a different idiom in their written language which is not
monosyllabic but agglutinate. At the present time a Ugro-
Tartar tribe of Ainos lives on the coasts of the islands of
Yezo and Turakai, and on the Kurile isles, reaching even to
Kamtskatka and Mandshuria, which probably is identical
with the Atsumadshebis, and forms the older element in
the mixed population of Japan. Wernich 2 has satisfactorily
proved that the Ainos, notwithstanding the peculiarly hairy
aspect of body, stand closely related to the Japanese, while
both are strongly distinguished from the Malays. That these
Ainos are to be identified with the Atsumadshebis, and not

1 Compare especially the following works : Klaproth, histoire mythol.
des Japons. PhiL von Siebold, Nippon. Mitford, Tales of Old Japan.
Eufemia von Kudriaffsky, Japan, vier Vortrage. Al. von Hiibner,
Spaziergang um die Welt, part 1, pp. 267-396. A. Wernich, geogr. medic.
Studien nach den Erlebnissen einer Reise um die Erde, Berlin 1878, pp.
56-286.

2 Wernich, Studien, p. 112 ff.

§ 269.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 67

with the hordes of Zen-mou-ten-wo, is hardly to be questioned.
The latter were undoubtedly a Mongolian race. They were
followed, in B.C. 209, by a second immigration from China
under Ziko-suku, in Chinese Seu-fuh, who introduced the
arts. Thus the Old Japanese language, furu-koto, which was
used down to A.D. 1600, was one closely connected with the
Mongolian, with some Chinese words interspersed (Kudriaffsky,
p. 183). That Malays also occasionally landed in Japan,
and got mixed up with the native races, has been abundantly
proved.1 A sort of picture writing, which is found on some
very old monuments,2 may have belonged to these Malays.
The use of paper was introduced about B.C. 600. At first
the Chinese ideograuime was employed. This, however, did
not suit for the agglutinate speech of Japan, and so, soon
after A.D. 700, the Japanese syllable-systems kata-kana and
fira-kana, of forty-eight signs, were invented by Kobo, and
from that time until now have continued in use. The art
of reading and writing is universally acquired, and a rich
literature has been produced, especially since A.D. 1206,
when the book trade with China was opened up. The
Japanese were great sailors in early times : they possessed
mighty fleets, and their merchant vessels sailed as far as to
Bengal. In consequence of a revolution in A.D. 1585,
seafaring and the fleet were destroyed, and an edict of A.D.
1638 shut out Japan from intercourse with foreign lands, and
forbade any attempt thereat.

As early as A.D. 543, Buddhism had been introduced from
Corea and was made the State religion. The Japanese name
of Buddha is Shaka. It is well known that until lately there

1 Round half-precious stones, maga-tamas, are regarded in Japan as
presents of the sun-goddess, but had already, according to Japanese
tradition, been in use by the original inhabitants, and that in the twofold
character of instruments of exchange and barter and of things sacred.
We may compare therewith the (§ 272) bracks of the inhabitants of the
Malay-Melanesian island Palau.

2 Braunschweig, amerik. Denkmdler. Ranch, Einh. des Menschengesch-
lechtes, p. 317.

68 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 269.

existed not only a spiritual head, the Mikado, who had also the
title Dairi, great house, but also a secular head, the Shiogun
or Tycoon, who had an almost equal jurisdiction. The Dairis
are properly the descendants of the old national royal family,
and as such have been greeted from the earliest times with
divine honours ; the Shioguns, as a sort of major-dorno and
marshal of the empire, had, from the end of the 12th
century, assumed the greater part of the civil power, and
were the patrons and representatives of Buddhism, but were
attacked by the present Mikado and completely overthrown,
the Sintu temples were stripped of Buddhist emblems, and
the fiefs (hari) of the vassal princes (daimios) were confiscated.
Long before Buddhism, luttoo, even in A.D. 288, the doctrine
of Confucius (sintu) had found entrance from China into
Japan. But the two imported religions were not able to
drive out the old national religion, which even in the present
day numbers many among its followers, although it has
become corrupted by the introduction of many Buddhist
•elements. The details of its earlier, unadulterated form are
given in the religious legends preserved in the Japanese
literature.

This old national religion, since the introduction of Buddh-
ism, and in order to mark its distinction from it, has been
designated by the Chinese word Sintu, the way or doctrine of
spirits, and in Japanese words kami-no-mits, Jcami signifying
a good spirit or a guardian spirit. The ruling family is
descended from Zen-mou-ten-wo, and through him from the
sun, just as in the Mongolian tradition and in that of China.
The Mikado bears the predicate ten-si, son of heaven, and is
in his nature so sacred and divine, that he dare not be
designated by his name, but only described as the dairi of
the royal palace. His race can never die out ; for, if a
Mikado be childless, there is found always quite unexpectedly
under a tree of the palace a little boy chosen out of a Kuge
or old noble family and laid there by its contriving, who is
considered a present from heaven, and is adopted as successor

§ 269.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 69

to the throne. All this is an order of things quite similar
to that which primitively prevailed in Mongolia, which
Buddhism has not been able to efface; Japan, however,
required no superior-lama, for it already possessed in its own
Mikado a direct offshoot of deity. Sintuism distinguishes,
as all Mongolian religions do, the invisible and far distant
deity, and the present and guardian deities which are around
men ; but it has this peculiarity, that it endeavours to secure
a transition from the one to the other, and for this cause
divides the god of heaven into seven heavenly gods, to which
are added five earthly gods. The former are the world-
ruling powers. But even this doctrine, as it is reported in
Japanese literature, shows unmistakeable traces of Buddhist
influences, so that in this form it cannot possibly be regarded
as the old genuine national religion. First of all chaos
existed, while as yet heaven and earth, male and female, were
not distinguished. Then the bright, pure part gathered itself
together above as heaven ; the heavy, dark part gathered
itself together below as sea ; and floating upon the latter, the
dry land gathered itself together (comp. § 265). Between
heaven and earth there grew in the form of a flower a Aami,
by name Kuni toka tatsi no mikkoto, " worthy of the
reverence of the ever-enduring empire," and has ruled for a
hundred thousand millions of years. He produced for himself
a water-spirit, that one, again, a fire-spirit, and that one, next,
a wood- spirit, who had a wife, and ruled along with her two
hundred thousand millions of years. These huge numbers
plainly reveal the Buddhist origin of the fables ! These were
succeeded by a metal-spirit with his wife, and sixthly by an
earth-spirit and his wife, each ruling during an equally long
period. Then these spirits have offspring, but not through
intercourse with their wives; and this is thoroughly in
keeping with Buddhist influences. It is the seventh, Isa-na-gi,1

1 According to the modern form of the language : wanderers of man.
More correctly, the Old Turanian isa, " father," is taken as the fundamental
meaning.

70 HALF- CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 269.

who first begets in this way, and he produces one after
another the islands of the Japanese empire, and afterwards
all the rest of the world. Thereafter — and here we come
upon genuine remnants of the myth — he begot as mistress of
the world a noble and lovely daughter, whom he set as the
sun in the heaven, Ten-sio-dai-sin, sun-heat, great spirit, and
then her sister the moon. The god begat also two brothers,
the younger of which, on account of his violent passion,
challenged the sister of the sun to a fight, which interrupted
the husbandry fostered by her, and so frightened her that
she wounded herself with her weaver's spool, and enraged
thereat betook herself to a cave. Then the whole world was
darkened. The eight hundred thousand gods (the numbers
again suggest derivation from Buddhism) brought her back
again by persuasion and force, and cast her brother down to
the earth, where he delivered men from a dragon which was
slaying them.

Ten-sio-dai-sin is the first of the five earthly deities, and
among the Japanese the most highly honoured. Her son, the
first king of Japan, is the second of the earthly deities, and here
begin the spirits of ancestors or ancestral gods. What has to
be added later on of the part they play in the struggle between
good and evil spirits is again purely Buddhistic and worthless.
All the more genuine and important is that which is narrated
about the third of the earthly deities, Amatsu-fiko, grandson
of the sun. His bride became pregnant before marriage :
she offered during her pains to set fire to her soul ; if she
remained unconsumed, it would be a sign that the child was
her bridegroom's. In the flames, remaining unburnt, she
bore three sons. We met with this very identical legend
among the Mongols, § 266 ; only by the Buddhists it is rent
from its proper position : the sun-god was a male,1 and she
who bore was made pregnant by him. This was evidently

1 Is Ten-sio-dai-sin actually a female deity ? Or has the Old Japanese
language had originally only one word to designate both son and
daughter 'I

§ 269.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 71

the original of the legend ; but Buddhism cannot be satisfied
without an elaboration of the simple story. A similar story
is retold in that of the fourth earthly deity, Amatsu-fiko's
son, who marries Dshebidsu, a daughter of the sea-god ; he
watches his wife during her confinement ; she changes herself
for shame into a dragon, and destroys herself in the sea.
The fifth, finally, begets Zen-mou-ten-wo, the founder of the
Japanese empire.

When we have distinguished the genuine original germ
from its Buddhistic admixture, we have left — (a) the distinc-
tion between the spirits of ancestors and the heavenly, world-
creating deity ; (6) the classifying of the sun-god among the
earthly or ancestral gods ; and (c) in close connection there-
with, the tradition of the origin of the father of the ruling
family from the sun. These three particulars are genuinely
Mongolian. On the other hand, the conception of the
Japanese, that after death souls lose themselves in universal
being, is distinctly Buddhistic ; while in contrast to this, as
representing the Old Mongolian element, we have the belief
that the souls of the Mikados are immortal, as much as the
prevailing belief among decided adherents of Sintuism is in
the immortality of all men and in an existence after death.
Apart from such a belief in immortality, the worship of
spirits of ancestors could have no meaning.

This result of a critical investigation of the Buddhist legends
is confirmed by an examination of the Sintuism of the present
day as distinguished from the present form of Buddhism in
Japan. It is a characteristic feature in the contrast of these
two, that the adherents of Sintuism use for deities the word
kami, lord or ruler, also ssin, spirits ; and the Buddhists use the
word hotoke ; that the former have not zinc-roofed, but straw
or wood-roofed temples (ds/iasiro), in which a mirror is found
as the image of the sun, while among the Buddhists the mirror
is the emblem of the value of good works ; that besides they
have miyas, private chapels, where the ancestral god, gohei, is
represented by a tuft of five different coloured strips of paper.

72 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§269.

The gods presently worshipped by the adherents of Sintuism
are these : the sun-goddess Ten-sio-dai-ssin, the god of travel
and roads Saveno-kami or Dsiso, the thunder-god Kai-dshiu
(thunder they call kami-nari, the noise of god), the water-
god Sui-idshiu, etc. Alongside of these they have guardian
deities for everything conceivable : Fukuno-kami for prosperity,
Tschi-no-okura for marriage, Gun-dshui for defence in war,
Funa-dama for seamen, Jnari for cultivation of rice, Kodshin-
do-kodshin for cooking, that the rice may not burn, Yabukidsho-
kami against pestilence, etc. The dragon is a great guardian
spirit of the nation : to him serpents, as a sort of incarnation,
are sacred, and hence are regarded as inviolable.1 The worship
of ancestors is a most elaborate ceremonial. If the parents of
the bridegroom are dead, their images take their place at the
marriage. In the event of a death, the deceased has an
accompanying name given him, oku-rina, which is written on
a tablet, hung up in the temple, and worshipped with frank-
incense. For seven weeks after the death there is a weekly
festival of the dead celebrated ; the name-tablet and the image
of the dead, with those of his ancestors, are collected, and
vessels with fruits, flowers, and food are placed before them ;
after the seventh celebration, the deceased is supposed to have
been received among the blessed. Great and wise men are
apotheosed into kamis and canonized ; thus, for example, from
the Emperor Adshin, A.D. 270-313, we have the warrior deity
Hatsiman. The priests are called kami-nusi, hosts or keepers
of the gods. It is not very easy to determine whether the
pantomimic struggle,2 which the priests carry on during cer-
tain festive seasons with invisible enemies or evil spirits,
is an element which genuinely belongs to Sintuism or to
Buddhism.

The following legends current among the adherents of

Sintuism are specially worthy of attention. Yamato, whose

name at once reminds us of that of Yima in the Iranian

legends, § 224, slew an eight-headed dragon, who had required

1 Hiibner, Spaziergang urn die Erde, i. 350. 2 Ibid. 303 ff.

§ 269.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 73

that a yearly sacrifice of the daughter of a king should be
made to him. According to one version of the story, this
Yamato lived nineteen hundred years ago. According to an-
other version, he lived before Zin-mou-ten-wo. At the age of
forty-five years, Zin-mou-ten-wo undertook, along with his
brothers and his sons, a voyage by sea to the East ; a pilot led
the way in a tortoise-shell. When a severe storm broke out,
they offered up the two brothers of Zin-mou-ten-wo to the
water-god. When he landed on the island of Yamato in
Japan, he encountered a bear, but succeeded in driving him
off without being injured. Then appeared a man, and handed
him the sword Tsurugi, which Yamato had found on the tail
of the slain dragon (hence Yamato was older than Zin-mou-
ten-wo), and a goddess promised to send him a raven as a
guide. This raven, just like that of the German ancestral
god (Wodin, § 260), is a reminiscence of Noah's raven. In
the Japanese tradition, the reminiscence of the leader of their
special immigration into Japan is confounded with the remini-
scence of the continuance of the flood. Alongside of Yamato,
by means of a reduplication similar to those of the Iranians
and Greeks, they have a second dragon-slayer, Dsharimarisa,
who destroyed a dragon, Nuge, which threatened the Dairi.
There are also sacred animals : the fox, sacred to the sun ; the
tortoise, the heron, the cock, and (as the emblem of luck) the
crab. In the spring the Sintuists celebrate a feast, when they
beseech the Jcame of the earth for favour in agricultural matters.
In autumn they have a second feast, when they thank him for
the harvest. They have also the custom of prayer at the
family table, and prayer at the rising and setting of the sun.
Instead of the belief that men may assume the shape of
animals, the converse notion prevails in Japan, that animals
may assume the shape of men, in order to bewitch men and
cause them terror.

74 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 270.

C. — THE MALAY RACES.

§ 270. The Unity of the Malay-Polynesian Group of Tribes.

While the idea of an immigration of the various nationalities
of the Asiatic and European continent from the banks of the
Euphrates presents no difficulty, so that there is no physical
impediment preventing our adoption of the idea of their
original unity of stock ; when, on the other hand, the matter
is viewed from the standpoint of natural science, — a peopling
of the scattered islands of Polynesia from the continent of Asia
is highly improbable and even inconceivable, and indeed all
the more inconceivable, if we are to regard the original popula-
tion of the earth as existing in a condition of rude barbarism.
That in each of those islands or groups of islands a distinct
native population had been developed from a purely animal
condition, may appear to many a one1 more feasible than the
bold geological hypothesis,2 that the Polynesian groups of
islands had, during the period of man's existence, been con-
nected with the Asiatic mainland, and that, after they had
been peopled, they were separated and made into islands,
either by a volcanic catastrophe, or by a gradual process of
submersion. The Javanese have, indeed, a tradition that
Java was once a peninsula and afterwards became an island:3
and also in regard to the Sunda islands, which are separated
from the continent only by a shallow sea ; and in regard to
the volcanic group of Sumatra, Java, Lambock, Sanibana,
Flores, Timor, Band a, Ternata, Mindanor, and Luzon, such a
hypothesis might be urged with a high degree of probability.
Such an idea, however, could by no possibility be urged in
regard to the islands of Polynesia, for the simple reason that a
volcanic convulsion which had riven into small fragments and,
as it were, pulverised a continent extending from 23° S. to

1 Waitz, Anthropologie der Naturvolker.

2 Forster, Carli, cle Mas, Vogt.

3 Rauch, Einheit des Jfenschengeschlechtes, p. 340.

§ 270.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 75

30° N. latitude, and from 140° to 230° East longitude, and
so embracing an extent of something like 85,000 square
miles, would have utterly destroyed every vestige of life on
the portions of land which were allowed still to exist. The
submersion hypothesis is rather more plausible. Polynesia is
really one of those regions where a long-continued process of
submersion has been observed j1 but in order to reach the
notion of Polynesia forming part of the continent, this sub-
mersion must be conceived as having commenced at least a
hundred thousand years before the present day,2 and must
thus be relegated to an age prior to the origin of the human
race.3 Thus, then, purely from the standpoint of natural
science the hypothesis of separate native races would have
most to recommend it, if only the conclusion was well founded,
that the original inhabitants were too rude to be able to sail
over a great tract of sea. At the present day, indeed, such
tribes as those of the Pelew islands, so thoroughly degraded
and fallen into barbarism, or, according to that hypothesis,
remaining barbarous, venture upon voyages to the far outlying
island-groups;4 why should the same thing not have been
possible in earlier times ? Cook found on these islands entire
fleets, one consisting of seventeen hundred ships, each one
manned by forty men.5 The inhabitants of the Tonga islands
kept up a lively intercourse with the Fiji islands and the Kew
Hebrides. Forster and Cook obtained from a native of the
Society islands a sort of map, on which the Marquesas, Tahiti,

1 Wallace, The Malay Archipelago, i. 9 ff.

2 Peschel in Ausland, 1864, p. 363.

3 As we have seen from purely scientific grounds (§ 168), the Ice Age
can at farthest be dated back to a period of 10,000 years ago. Compare
Kirchoff, die Sudseeinseln, p. 245 (in Frommel and Pfaff, Samml. von
Vortriigen, iii. 9) : " The flora make it quite plain to us that here we have
before us the last remnants of a portion of the primitive antediluvian world
before the development of the mammalians and long before the Tertiary
period. For on the Fiji islands fifty per cent., and on the Hawaiian group
sixty per cent., of the plants are indigenous."

* Semper, die Palau-Inseln, Leipz. 1873.
5 Kennedy, Essais, p. 137.

76 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACE3. [§ 270.

Samoa, and the Fiji islands were marked.1 In these same islands
Forster found a native who was able to name more than eighty
islands spread over a surface of thirteen or fourteen hundred
miles, which he had himself, for the most part, visited. In
1824 the inhabitants of Anaa undertook a voyage to Tahiti, a
distance of three hundred miles.2 A promontory in Hawaii3 is
designated by the natives " toward Tahiti," though the one is
between twenty-seven and twenty-eight hundred miles distant
from the other. The Tongan language has no other words for
north and west than toward Samoa, toward Fiji.4 These fleets
do not any longer exist ; the shipping industry has fallen into
decay. Here, as everywhere, we meet with the degradation,
not the elevation, of races. But it may here be asked, what
means had these people at command in order that without
compass and instruments for taking observations they might
find their way upon the high seas ? The Hawaiians still pre-
serve a tradition that their forefathers had made long voyages
with their whole fleets, and had kept their course by means of
the stars.5 A second means of determining their whereabouts
were the sea-birds, following the flight of which the ships
were sure to reach land somewhere. The boats of the Poly-
nesians, though small in comparison with our ships, are yet
skilfully constructed for battling with rough water, for they are
protected against the surging waves by an outrigger, a suspended
boom, or by being formed as a double canoe. Thus the funda-
mental presupposition of the hypothesis of distinct native races
is utterly shattered by the history of recent voyages of discovery.
If we turn now to the legends of the Polynesian races, we
find among the Sandwich islanders the tradition that they are
originally from Tahiti, and there they place their paradise.6

1 See in Eauch, Einheit der Menschengeschlecktes, p. 342 f.

2 Beechy in Ausland, 1860, p. 446.

3 Pickering, Races of Man, p. 298.

4 W. von Humboldt, " Kawi-Sprache," Abhandl. der Berl. Akad. des
Wissensch. 1832, iii. p. 241 ff.

5 Pickering, Races of Man.

6 Ellis, Reise nach Owaii, Hamb. 1827, pp. 220, 243.

§ 270.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 77

New Zealand is thickly peopled in the north, thinly in the
south, showing that there was an immigration there from the
seafaring islands. The Pelew islanders placed their paradise
and the land of their origin in the West.1 We do not, how-
ever, need to rely upon these traditions. The language alone
will decide, and completely put to confusion the hypothesis
of distinct native races. Whoever, from the higher ground
of general culture, refuses to allow himself to be followed in
a one-sided manner by the reading of researches in natural
science and by hypothesis, and takes into account the notices
given by travellers of their linguistic discoveries, will only
treat the hypothesis of distinct native races as a subject of
ridicule. It was proved as early as 1832, by W. von Hum-
boldt,2 that the inhabitants 3 of Madagascar, Java, Celebes,
Sumatra, Malacca, New Zealand, and the whole insular region
of Polynesia between 30° N. and 30° S. latitude, and within
a curve extending from New Zealand to Easter island, from
thence to the Sandwich islands, and from thence to the
Philippines, speak languages that belong to one and the same
stem. If any one wishes to be more thoroughly convinced,
he may examine the comparative tables of roots given by
Buschmann on pp. 241—256, and 264, which occupy seven-
teen folio sheets. (See Obs. 1.) It is a fact that one and the
same Malay race inhabit Madagascar, the Sunda islands, and
Polynesia. This Malay race has spread out from 60° to 250°
E. longitude, if we draw a line from Madagascar over Celebes to
Hawaii, a linear distance of 170 degrees, or over 10,000 miles.
Evidently, before the Mongols, the Malays had overrun India,
as the Mongols did before the Aryans. Driven out before these
two, the Malays wandered toward the coast, westward to Mada-
gascar, and the greater part eastward to the Sunda islands ;
another portion migrated to China (comp. § 268, the Miao-tse),

1 Semper, die Palau-Inseln.

2 Abhandlungen der Berl. Akad. d. W. 1832, vols. ii.-iv.

3 With the exception of the iMelanesian tribes, of which we shall treat
in § 273.

78 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 270.

and then, pressed by the Chinese, moved toward the Philip-
pines and the various groups of the other Polynesian islands.1
From these facts it follows that even in a very remote antiquity
the Malays must have been very expert as a seafaring people.
This character of bold and fearless seamen is in fact retained
down to the present day by the natives of the Sunda islands,
and by the Polynesians down to the times of Captain Cook.
Historical records prove that in the 12th and 13th cen-
turies there existed a mighty shipping and trading Malay
State, having its capital at Singapore, the southern point of
Malacca.2 When the Portuguese first came into the Indian
Archipelago, they found Menangkabu the centre of a great
trade with the East and the West, and with a command of
the sea beyond anything then known in Europe. One of the
fleets numbered ninety ships, among which were twenty-five
large galleons ; a second had three hundred ships, of which
eighty were of 400 tons burthen each ; a third had five
hundred ships, having in their crews six thousand men.3 The
historical records of the Chinese carry us back to a yet more
remote period;4 and so early as A.D. 417-423, Chinese ships
found a civilised people at Java. In these regions, too, we
now find, in comparison with those early times, a thorough
degradation of race, especially in Polynesia, the inner causes
of which will be treated of in a later section. The causes of
corruption are of a religious and moral nature, and it did not
require first the visits of European ships in order to inflict
upon the people the doom of decay and diminution of popula-
tion. Europeans already found them a race abandoned to
corruption, and the process of decrease in population and
degradation of character had already set in long before the

1 And then (§ 269) from the Philippines, and even directly from China
to Japan.

2 This peninsula, according to the native records of the Malays, had
been taken and was overrun by the Malays from Sumatra.

8 Marsden, Sumatra, p. 424. Bradford, American Antiquities , p. 232.
In Rauch, Einheit Menschengeschlechtes^ p. 341 f.
4 W. von Humboldt, Abhandl. der Berl. Akad. ii. p. 16 f.

§ 270.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 79

arrival of the first Europeans. When Europeans discovered
the Tortoise islands or Galapagos group, lying close to South
America, as well as the islands of Bourbon and Juan Fernandez,
and also the Falkland islands at the southern point of
South America, they were found to be already destitute of
inhabitants, but they found on them evident traces of their
having been inhabited at an earlier period.1

While thus the researches that have been made in the
comparative science of language demonstrate the unity of the
Malay races, we find this also confirmed by an examination
of their bodily construction. That varieties appear among
them will be matter of surprise to no thinking person. In
the Ugro-Tartar family the Finns and Esthonians are dis-
tinguished from the Tsherimis, Votiaks, and Balkash-Tartars ;
among the Mongolians the Kalmucks are different from the
Chinese and Japanese ; and these last again are as different
from the Tibetans as the Javanese are from the Tahitians
and the Malagassy. A diversity that has grown up during
hundreds or thousands of years amid various conditions of
life and civilisation, is accounted for by variations of climate
and the relative isolation of their insular dwellings, shows
itself naturally in the colour of the skin and in the physiog-
nomy ; the Polynesians, who go naked during an eternal spring,
must have a darker colour than the Sunda islanders and Mala-
gassy, who have retained certain customs of civilisation. The
light colour of the skin is common to all the Malay-Polynesian
tribes, ranging from brownish yellow and light brown to a
reddish hue, in marked contrast to the Melanesians, § 273 ;
and the shape of the skull and general configuration of the
body reminds us of the Mongolian family. We are thus led
to define the Malays as a Mongol- Aryan or Mongol-Caucasian
mixed race. The view of Oscar Peschel in the Races of Man,
p. 359, and Otto Mohnicke (Banka und Palemltang, Munster
1874, p. 180 f.), is extremely probable, that the Malays are
a race that was early broken off from the primitive Mongoloid
1 Ellis in Rauch, Einheit Mtnschengeschlecktes, p. 341 f.

80 HALF- CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 270.

stem, and that they bear to the Mongols a relation similar to
that borne by the Basques to the Celts.1 The statistical
relations, too, are analogous. The Mongolian races, if we
reckon only one-half of the mixed races of Tungus and Mand-
shurians, number somewhere about four hundred and twenty
millions ; the Malays, great as the space is over which they
are spread, number at furthest no more than two and a half
millions.

Obs. 1. — The principal Malay languages are these : The Mala-
gassic, the Malayan in the narrower sense, as confined to Malacca,
the Javanese, the Bugish in Celebes, the Tagalic in the Philip-
pines, the Tongan in the Tonga islands, the Maoric in New
Zealand, the Tahitian in the Society islands, and the Hawaiian
in the Sandwich islands. Here we give only a few illustrations
of the relation subsisting between these languages. Eye is in
Malag. Javan. Bug. Tag. Maori, Tah. mata, in Tong. matta,
in Haw. maka, Malagass. masse. Tree is in Malay, Jav.
kaju, in Tag. cahui, in Tong. acow, in Maori racau, in Tah.
raau, in Haw. laau, in Malag. hazo. To plant is in Mai.
tanam, in Jav. tanem, in Tong. tano, in Maori and Tah.
tanu, in Haw. Jcanu. Blood is in Mai. darah, (a) in Jav.
rah, in Malag. rd, (b) in Bug. dara, in Tag. dugo, in Tong.
tawto, in Maori and Tah. toto, in Haw. koko. Earth is (1) in
Mai. Jav. Bug. tana, in Malag. tane ; (2) in Mai. benua, in
Bug. wanua, in Tag. banjan, in Maori wenua, in Tah. fenua,
in Haw. honua and aina. Fire is in Mai. and Bug. api, in
Sav. hapi, in Tag. hapon, in Tong. aft, in Maori ahi, in
Tah. auahi, in Haw. ahi, in Malag. affe or fe. Fruit is in
Mai. buah, in Jav. woh, in Bug. buica, in Tag. bonga, in
Toug. foa, in Haw. hua, in Tah. hodu, in Malag. voha, etc.
The Javanese, Tagals, and Bugis possess the art of writing ; but
their alphabets were of Indian origin. (W. von Humboldt,
Kawi-Sprache, part 2, p. xi.)

Obs. 2. — In the Malay languages, much more distinctly than
in those of the nations belonging to the Mongolian group, we can
trace a relationship with the Aryan languages ; a new proof that
the process in the direction of monosyllabism and of immoderate
change of pronunciation in the Mongolian languages belongs to a
secondary stage. Gerang, kerah, kahik, Old Sanscr. garan, garas,
vpuz. Lava, loa, loma, Inmu (old), lagui, great, long, Lat.

1 That in Java, besides Aryan-Indian or Brahmanical influences, there
may have been an intermixture of Aryan-Indian blood, is not at all
incredible.

§ 270.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 81

longus. Maka, mata, eye, Sanscr. mukka. Mauna, maua, moonga,
mountain, Lat. mons. Bukit, heap, Old High Germ, piokan, to
curve, bend, puhil, hillock. Tana, earth, %6uv (which is not
connected, as Curtius thinks, with %apat, humus). Lema in
Javanese means earth (as matter), Old High Germ. Urn, lema,
leim, lehm, loam. Benua, bajan, fenua, land, {Baivuv, Lat. venire.
Kai, ki, cain, to eat, Old High Germ, chiuwan, kauen, to chew.
Run-toll, to fall, Lat. ruere. Padang, a plain, x'ediov, Sanscr. pad.
Vaoo, wenua, wilderness, waste, Old High Germ, wasda, Lat.
vastus. Gni, genni, ahi, auahi, ahi, fire, Sanscr. agni, Lat. ignis.
Ika, isda, ika, hiwah, fish, fyOvf, Lat. piscis, Celt. iasc. Buah,
buwa, foa, huu, fruit, Sanscr. bhu, <pvu. Poa, pe, fe, vae, food,
ToDs, Lat. pes, Sanscr. pad-. Dshadi, to become, Sanscr. dsJian,
yiv-. Per-dshadi, to be born, Lat. parere (comp. Sanscr. pra-
thuka, Kopas, xopng, Old High Germ, far, farre, bullock). Semu,
hesmu (Jav.), sight, Ugro-Finnic silm, szem, Gothic saihvan, to
see. Ambou (Malag.), both, ambo, u>j,<pi Sova, soa, sora (Malag.),
good, oaf. Bulu, wulu, bolo, wool, down, Old High Germ, and
Finnic wula, wule, comp. Lat. pluma. Dulam, house, dd.7Mfju><;
(which is not derived from dd\xu). Tangan, tang, tahan, hand,
Sanscr. tang, Lat. tangere, comp. Germ, zange, a pair of tongs.
Houdis, Iwditte, skin, xitro;, Lat. cutis, Old High Germ, hut, haut.
Kulit, uli, houlits (Malag.), skin, comp. xXg/w, daudo. Rangi,
rai, langi, heaven, from root r, to go (from movements of the
stars). Harsa, jarsa, harec, to hear, Sanscr. sru, K\-JUV, Old High
Germ, horjan, horran. Mamah, to chew, Lat. mandere, comp.
Sanscr. mrd, Lat. mordere. Kunjah, kenjuh, ngongo, gnow, to
chew, gnaw, •yj/a.vu, Old High Germ, chiuwan. Vidi, vanga, to
sell, uvsopai, Lat. vcneo and vendo. Hanac, zanaka, anak, kane,
son, zend, hunu, Sanscr. and Goth, sunus, vi6;. Baitschu (Bug.),
little, Celt. becc. Mara, malasa, mare, mai, marare, ill, Lat.
morbus, comp. tnalus. Doule (Malag.), illness, Lat. dolor, dolere.
Ahinh, aina (Malag.), breath, Sanscr. and Goth. ahma. Maha
(Tong.), empty, void, Lat. mancus, Old High Germ, mangen,
mankolon. Liuanag, lama, light, Lat. lumen, lux, Old High
Germ, lioht. Lahut, luut, lot, sea, Lat. lacus, Celt, loc and ler.
Mahina, marama (Polyn.), moon, Old High Germ. mdne. Mulut,
mulu, month, Germ, maul, Old High Germ. mdla. Mu, amu,
ma, matua, medua, maku, mother, Sanscr. mdtr, wrr,p, etc.
Haran, ngalan, hingoa, jeneng, juluk, name, comp. harsa, jarsa,
harec, to hear, as given above. Parau, para, bola, to speak,
ppa?eiv. Pipi, bibi, cattle, /Souj, Lat. bos, etc., and dshawi, sapi,
cattle, Sanscr. gaus, Old High Germ, chuo, Jcuh, cow. Kakano,
seed-corn, xoK-s.og. Sarem, sira, garam, salt, «X$, Lat. sal, etc., r
being convertible with 1. Sawang, to see, Goth, salhvan. Quita,
kitea, ite, hita, to see, recognise, know, Sanscr. vid-, fUov, oJSa,
Lat. videre, Old High Germ, vitan, wizzen. Ada, to be, Sanscr.

EBRARD III. F

82 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACE3. [§ 271.

as. Ld, rd, sun, Celt. Id, latha, comp. Egypt, ra. Mati, mate,
to die, comp. Lat. mori. Tonoc, tinging, sound, Lat. sonus, tin-
nire. Mahira, hari, arao, day, comp. Sanscr. mar, f^dp/j,apog

Ao (Polyn.), world and bright, Sanscr. gaus, yuTa, xJa. Pa, pdpa,

, Old

bapak, father, -ra-r-ra;, Lat. papa, comp. pitr, rar^, pater
High Germ, fadar. Tutap, tutup, taboo, opani, to cover, Lat.
taker, zeppich (from root teg-). Punu, pono, fenu, full, Sanscr.
par, pdr, Lat. plenus, T^TX^/. Pili, fili, to choose, ^G-J/.O^OC/,
Lat. velle, Goth, viljan, Old High Germ, wellan, to will. Halas,
alok, hala, ala, ulu, forest, wold, Old High Germ. Tiaruc. Wahine,
fafine, babaji, bai, vjinah, wife, Old High Germ, wip, iveib. An gin,
hangin, mat-angi, wind, air, Sanscr. ana, avisos, Finn, henka,
angga, Mongol, angkil, see § 264, Obs. 2, A. Wilang, bilang, to
count, root &p in apifatic, r changing into I. Lela, lila, lidah,
tongue, comp. Lat. lingua, lingere, Old High Germ, lekjan, and
Lat. lambere. Telinga, ear, comp. Old High Germ, chlingan,
klingen (the interchange of the guttural and dental consonants
cannot occasion surprise, since among the Malay languages the
transition from the one to the other is very frequent).

§ 271. The Religion of the Malays.

The old original religion of this Malay-Polynesian race can
be ascertained only in its leading features, and even in respect
of those only with difficulty. For in those lands which have
a history, the primitive religion is not only mixed up with
Brahmanical and Buddhistic elements, but lies buried under a
layer of Indian influences spread over more than a thousand
years. Where, however, as in Polynesia, it has continued to
exist undisturbed by and unmixed with foreign ingredients,
there is wanting, on the other hand, a history, so that we
know the Polynesian religion only in the stage of its utter-
most decay, such as it presents in the most recent times,
during Cook's voyages round the world.

A. In Java, Brahmanical influences and immigrations can
be traced with certainty by means of the monuments down to
A.D. 1298 ; * but since the Indian immigrants introduced into
Java the week of five days, which passed out of use in India
itself in A.D. 600, this affords confirmation to the Javanese
tradition, which dates the introduction by the Indians of
1 W. von Humboldt, Kairi-Sprache, part 2, p. 15.

§ 271.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 83

agriculture, the art of writing, and of medicine, just about
this time.1 In consequence of this immigration there sprang
up in Java, Madura, and Bali, alongside of the Javanese
language, the Kawi-language, a mixed language, made up of
Javanese and Sanscrit. The earliest immigrants were Buddh-
ists, and the pyramid of Boro Budor,2 a Buddhist Dagop, or
temple of remains, which was not built later than the 10th
century, is a witness to the early predominance of Buddhism
in the island. In their ornaments there appears a syncretic
mixture of Buddhist and later-Brahmanic or Sivaist repre-
sentations. Between the 10th and the 15th centuries the
Siva-worship gained favour among the superior castes ; by
them were built the temples of the Brahmans, dating about
A.D. 1292. In the year 1478, Mohammedanism was intro-
duced. Under this threefold layer of foreign religions the Old
Malay religion lay so deeply buried that no trace of it remains;
and even in the Javanese collection of legends, Kanda and
Manek Madsha, the native is so mixed up with the Indian
that it seems impossible to distinguish the former.

B. On the introduction of Mohammedanism there was an
influx of Brahmans and Buddhists from Java to Bali, and
they brought with them their mixture of religions. Here,
however, we find still a faint trace of the Old Malay religion.
While the Indians there, as well as in Java, named the
supreme god Batara Guru (from Sanscr. awatara, superior), a
compromise between Brahma and Buddha, and subordinated
to him the Trirnurti, Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, the natives
of Bali knew and named one supreme being, whom they
designated by the Malay name of Sang-jang-tunggal, and
subordinated Batara Guru to him.3

C. The Battas in Sumatra have in like manner combined a
remnant of the old national religion with Brahmanism. From

1 Stuhr, Religionen des Orients, p. 316.

2 W. von Humboldt, Eawi-Sprache, p. 120 ff.

3 Raffles, Memoir, p. 171. History of Java, ii. Append, p. 329. Stuhr,
Religionen des Oritnts, p. 308.

84 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 271.

the imported India Batara Guru they distinguish the creator
of the world, whom they call Debata Hasi Asi, but say that
he has betaken himself to rest, and resigned the government
to his three sons, Batara Guru, Sori Pada, and Mangulu
Bulang.1 Evidently the hero of the flood, distinguishable by
his three sons, and these comparable again with the Indian
Trimurti, is here confounded with the creator of the world.
The Battas have in fact a flood-legend,2 which they associate
with the Indian name Batara Guru, in which, however, some
Malay legendary elements still appear. Since its creation the
earth has rested on a serpent furnished with cow's horns ; but
the serpent had its head shattered, and then the earth was
immersed in the sea. Thereupon Batara's daughter, Puti-arla-
bulan, mounted up on a white owl from heaven, but never
found the land, till Batara let fall from heaven the mountain
Bakarra, around which again the rest of the earth gathered.
The earth was laid again upon the serpent, and bound upon
his hands and feet by Batara's son, Lajang-lajand-mandi.
Then Puti-arla-bulan bore three sons and three daughters, the
progenitors of the present race of men. Lajang-lajand-mandi
means " diving swallow." With the In'dian fish-legend of
Manu (§ 207), this bird-legend of the Battas has no such
similarity as could lead us to regard it as old Malayan. It
is worth noticing that in spite of their high culture, which
is shown by their constitution and laws, their writing and
literature, the Battas had yet been so far degraded as to be-
come cannibals, while the Melanesian race of the Kubus in
Sumatra, notwithstanding their barbarous condition, regarded
this with horror.3

D. In Celebes, too, the national religion is buried under a
mass of Buddhism, Sivaism, and Mohammedanism ; yet here,
as in Java and Sumatra, still a remnant of the old national reli-

1 Baffles, Memoir, Transactions of Royal Asiatic Society, vol. i.
p. 499.

2 Stuhr, Religionen des Orients, p. 326 f.

3 Mohnicke, Banka und Palembang, p. 200.

§ 271.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 85

gion is found : the spirits of ancestors are worshipped,1 and the
Javanese language, besides a multitude of imported Sanscrit
words, whereby various kinds of Indian worship of trees, woods,
and mountains, and of good and evil spirits, are designated, some
Malay words 2 are used to indicate guardian spirits (demmit,
guardian spirits in human form ; dadang-awu, guardian spirits
of the chase) and evil hobgoblins (kebo, kemale, buffaloes, evil
spirits in the form of buffaloes ; comp. /toj9a\o9 ; w£w£, giant
women, who steal little children). The spirits of the departed
were therefore, without doubt worshipped as guardian spirits ;
if, then, the Malays had this religious element in common
with the tribes of the Mongolian group,3 this favours our
supposition (§ 270) that the Malays are nothing else than a
branch thrown off from that stem and subjected to a pecu-
liar course of development. Those guardian deities and spirits
meet us among the Battas. Among them particular places
and countries have their guardian deities, and each man has
his guardian spirits (bogu), which protect him, and his evil
spirits (saitans), which seek to do him harm. Both are
regarded as souls of the departed : 4 it was therefore the spirits
of wicked men who after death became saitans. The Battas
have priests who prophesy to them and practise soothsaying,
and over them is a high priest, who lives in Toba. The
use of the word guru for priest, and the purely Indian
title for the high priest, Sa singah rnaha radsha, the lion,
the great king, show the Indian origin of this hierarchical
arrangement. For priest, however, besides guru, there is
also the word datu ; this, as well as the form of sooth-
saying, seems to be purely Malayan. In cases of misfortune
and illness the Batta goes to the datu, brings him a present of

1 Crawfurd, History of Indian Archipelago, vol. ii. p. 230. Raffles,
History of Java, ii. Append, p. 186.

2 W. von Humboldt, Kawi-Sprache, part 2, p. 747.

3 Not with the Indians. In India the old worship of ancestors had
already (§ 199) under Brahmanism, and then more completely under the
influences of Buddhism, fallen completely into the background.

4 Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society^ i. p. 500.

8 6 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 271.

rice and a bird, from examination of the entrails of which the
datu declares which of the evil spirits have been offended
(comp. the Cingalese, § 267). To the honour of the deceased
father or grandfather a feast is given, an ox, pig, or cock is
offered, and the dance is kept up until one of those ^present
becomes possessed of the spirit of the departed, and is believed
to be identified with him. This one, as the spirit of the
deceased, now prays as mediator to that spirit which has
been made angry, and seeks to pacify him. According to the
belief of the Battas, the souls of good men go to heaven, those
of the wicked into a fiery lake : still even here there is a
large intermixture of Indian elements.1

E. The Malay religion, free of all Indian elements, but only
in the present stage of deep deterioration, is found in the
Philippines, especially at Luzon, among the Tagals. With
the exception of the creator of the world, who is here not
only put to rest but is utterly forgotten, we find the rest
of the features of the Malay national religion, hitherto
-appearing only in scattered fragments, all united again :
the guardian spirits of mountains, plains, and seas, the spirits
of the departed as guardian deities of families ; but alongside
of them are still other important elements of religion pre-
served, which among the Sunda islanders are buried and over-
laid by the weight of Indian influences. The Tagals in
Luzon worship the sun, the moon, and the rainbow as their
gods. For their worship they have priests and priestesses.
The guardian deities of mountains, countries, seas, are re-
presented by images, and instead of setting up these images
in temples, they place them in caves, where they burn incense
before them.2 No one enters a district without presenting
prayers and offerings to the guardian deity of that pro-
vince. Sacred mountains, too, and rocks and trees are
objects of worship. When, finally, alligators also, which

1 Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society, i. p. 502.

2 White, Voyage to Cochin- China, p. 120 S. Zuniga, Historical Views
of the Philippine Islands, i. p. 39.

§ 272.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 87

there constantly destroy many human lives, have worship
rendered them, and have houses built for them along the
coasts, and mammals and birds offered them in sacrifice
as food, this custom is to be explained, without being
regarded as a universal Malay religious practice, simply
enough from the local danger ; an evil, destructive spirit is
supposed to be in the destructive animal Possibly, more-
over, in pre-Indian antiquity in the Sunda islands, where still
the dangerousness of the Cayman is experienced, a similar
cause may have led to the development of a like belief and
custom.

We shall group together the traces of the old national
Malay religion which we have discovered. 1. The old faith
in a supreme, invisible god, who created the world, — partly
held by in a feeble way, partly already practically of no
account ; 2. The polytheistic worship of sun, moon, and rain-
bow, only existing among the Tagals, elsewhere driven out by
the Indian religion ; 3. The worship of guardian spirits of
localities, mountains, etc., and of families, of which the latter
are spirits of ancestors ; and 4. The fear of deadly powers of
nature as operations of evil spirits, among which are reckoned
perhaps the souls of deceased wicked men.

§ 272. Culture, Religion, and Traditions of the Polynesians.

The Polynesians exhibit in many ways traces of an earlier
civilisation, which must have far exceeded their present state
of culture. " They have a firmly established constitution,
thoroughgoing and by no means simple,1 religious notions
and customs, in part at least a kind of spiritual government,
show ingenuity in the most varied sorts of work, and are bold
and skilful seamen. In many places there are still found
among them fragments of a sacred language that has ceased
to be understood, and the custom of calling back into use
antiquated expressions in certain solemn celebrations, wit-
1 And, indeed, feudal constitution.

88 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 272.

nesses not merely to the extreme age of the language, but also
to the attention that has been paid to the marking of changes
that have occurred in the course of time. . . . Their languages
are in no way derived from the corruption and modification of
the Malay languages. It is much more likely that they
represent a primitive form of these Malayan tongues." l We
shall have to treat of the Polynesians as members of the
Malay group, who migrated in advance of the rest and formed
the head of a long procession.

We must now show what groups of islands and what period
of time we should keep in view, and especially trace the
downward course of the process of decay. Of the mixed
Malay and Melanesian 3 race of the Pelew islanders we possess
a thorough description from the pen of Dr. Semper,3 who not
altogether of his own free will was detained among them
for a long while, and came to know them in a very exact
way. These islanders still possess the products of arts
which their forefathers practised, but which are no longer
understood by them, and these relics they use as medals.
They also worship the souls of their forefathers as gods or
guardian deities, and regard those bracks or medals as repre-
sentatives of their forefathers, and even give honour and
reverence to them as gods. They have also fabricated tradi-
tions of journeys and feats which the various species of medals
as gods had accomplished. They have a race, in which the
priestly orders are hereditary, but it is only the shell without
a kernel that remains ; for they have no longer any proper
forms of divine worship. Those gods, kalids, whom each man
reverences in his own club, and of whom each man supposes
himself to be in some measure inspired, as well as the belief
that in particular rocks, in particular serpents, etc., kalids
dwell, are the only vestiges of a religion which are now left
to them, and the priest has nothing else to do but to practise
soothsaying and magic. This condition has all the more

1 W. von Humboldt, Kawi-Sprache, part 2, p. 3. 2 See § 273.

3 K. Semper, die Palau-fnseln, Leipzig 1873.

§ 272.] THE KACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 89

appearance of a state of decay when we compare in this
respect the other groups of islands, on which the more im-
portant remnants of the Old Malay national religion are pre-
served. The inhabitants of the Society, Tonga, Sandwich,
Friendly, Fiji islands, and of New Zealand, believe in one
supreme divine being, an invisible creator of the world, to
whom they address their prayers ; called in Tongan liotooa, in
Maori and Tah. atna, in Hawaiian akua. This god is common
to all those groups of islands. On the other hand, they differ
very much among themselves in reference to the inferior
deities, a certain proof that the polytheism involved in the
recognition of them is of a secondary growth.

A. The Tahitians regard the sun as the dwelling-place of
God. From him are derived a series of inferior deities, among
which are thirteen gods of the sea, and from him also men
are descended. Each separate island has its own particular
guardian deity. The soul after death hovers about the body
for a long while, and then chooses one of the wooden images,
which are erected in the neighbourhood of the burying-places,
for a dwelling-place, until it reaches the sun, where it leads
a joyful bright life, with abundance of bread-fruit, and all
manner of dainties.1

B. The Tonga islanders have a tradition of a god of arts
and discoveries, Tangaloa, whom they honour as their own par-
ticular creator or progenitor, confounding him also with the
creator of the world. This tradition 2 is therefore peculiarly
worthy of attention, because in it we have an unmistakeable
reminiscence of Cain's murder of his brother.

At first nothing existed but heaven, water, and the island
Bolotu, the dwelling of the gods. One day Tangaloa, the god
of all arts, whose priests in Tonga are carpenters, wished to fish
in the ocean, but suddenly felt a great strain upon his fishing
line. Supposing that he had hooked a large fish, he hauled
with his utmost strength. Then there appeared the points of
rocks jutting out of the water, and by and by the Tonga islands

1 Easier Miss. Mag. i. 36.

2 By W. von Humboldt, Kawi-Sprache, part 4, p. 442 ff.

90 HALF-CIVILISED AXD SAVAGE EACES. [§ 272.

were brought above the surface. There would have been an
entire mighty continent1 brought up, only that the line broke.2
The gods created plants and animals according to the pattern of
those in Bolotu, with only this difference, that they were not
immortal. The legend then continues literally as follows :
" The god Tangaloa with his two sons dwell in Bolotu. They
dwelt there and continued to dwell on there, and Tangaloa says
to his two sons: ' Go hence with your wives and dwell together
on earth in Tonga. Divide the land into two halves, and occupy
the separate divisions.' So they went forth. The name of the
elder was Tubo, that of the younger Waka-Akau-uli. The
younger lad was very smart : he first made axes, jewelled orna-
ments, Papalangi-stuff,3 and mirrors.4 The lad Tubo was of
quite another character ; he was slow and lazy. He always went
to walk, and slept, and envied much the works of his brother.
Weary of begging things of him, the elder brother thought to
kill the younger, and to conceal the wicked act that he had
done. Meeting his brother, he beat him till he died. At that
time their father came in great wrath from Bolotu. He asked:
' Why slewest thou thy brother ? Canst not thou work as he
did ? Alas for thy wickedness ! Make proclamation to the
members of Waka-Akau-uli's family that they come hither.'
They came, therefore, and Tangaloa commanded them : ' Go,
launch a ship upon the sea ; sail to the east towards the great
land, and dwell there together. Your skin shall be white as
your disposition — a good disposition. Be skilful, make axes,
valuable things of all kinds, and go in ships. Nevertheless, I
go to tell the wind to come from your land to Tonga.6 The race
of Tubo shall never be able to reach you with their poor ships.'
Tangaloa then addressed the elder brother thus : ' Thou shalt
be blackest of the black, thy spirit is mean, and thou art friend-
less. No good thing shalt thou have ; thou shalt not go to the
land of thy brother ; how could you go there with your wretched
ships ? Thy brother only will come to Tonga to trade with
you,' "

1 These islanders had therefore the idea of a continent, and so evidently
a reminiscence of such a thing.

2 A rock on the island of Hunga is still pointed out as the one in which
the fishing-hook stuck.

3 Papalangi is in Tongau myths the name of a far-off land of wonders,
where pigs have horns, houses are drawn by great birds, etc. Bolotu lies
north-west of Tonga. Tonga, in fact, means East. See Humboldt,
p. 421.

4 In North American sepulchres also mirrors of mica were found, a
proof that the so-called savage people did not first learn the use of mirrors
from Europeans. See Humboldt, p. 453.

5 The trade-winds blow there from east to west.

§272.] THE RACES OF ASIA AXD POLYNESIA. 91

Mariner found this tradition only known to the most intelli-
gent, and the oldest people assured him that it was a genuine
native tradition. All internal and external evidences go to
confirm this. No mission agency had previously existed in
the Tonga islands ; the idea that passing Europeans had
related to the islanders the biblical history of Cain and Abel,
is quite inadmissible from the difficulty of the language and
the absence of written modes of expression. The discoverers
of America found there already a thoroughly similar tradition
among many of the American tribes.1 Finally, the core of
the history of Cain and Abel in this Tongan tradition has
developed, if one may use the figure, in a sort of chemically
modified way, and become blended with a specifically Tongan
mythology, which would not have been the case if these islanders
had received for the first from some passing traveller of the
last generation the history of Cain as a foreign story. Even in
such a case they might have treated their material according
to Tongan taste, and introduced external decorations and modi-
fications in this sense, but no such fundamental changes and
no such omissions. The particulars of the offerings of the two
sons would have been quite intelligible to them, that of the
marks on Cain's brow would have commended itself to them :
both points would have been retained in their memories, and
certainly reproduced in their story. This they have not done ;
and instead of this, their tradition has its point in the deadly
conflict between the bright-coloured and seafaring Malays, and
the black, sluggish, and unskilled Melanesians. It is evident,
therefore, that there is here a primitive reminiscence of a
primitive national conflict between Malays and Melanesians
(of which see more particulars in § 273), which appears here
in the form of a spiritual national possession of the Malays
coming down from primitive times. The recollection of a
primitive conflict of races is connected with a recollection of
the murder of a brother that happened shortly after the creation
of man, which affords an explanation of this race antagonism.
1 Humboldt in AbhandL d. Berl. Akad., part 4, p. 450.

92 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 272.

C. A trace of this tradition is also found in Tahiti. The
first man is the son of a god, Taroa-t'eay-etoomo, and of a
goddess, O-te-papa, and was called 0-tea, the white.1 The
parents here are evidently an apotheosis of the first human
pair, and the first man as the son of this pair is identical with
the Waka-Akau-uli of the Tongans. Waka-Akau-uli means
literally Ship-wood-black, that is, a ship of black wood ; such
a one do we find in the legends of a related people, the
Melanesians (§ 274), as the ship of the hero of the flood. It
might therefore be assumed that the Tongan Polynesians had
heard and received of old from the Melanesians their tradition
of the flood, and the emerging of the earth was confounded
with its first creation, and therefore the survivor of the flood
was confounded with Abel, who is thus represented as a
skilful seaman. In § 281 we shall return again to this
question.

D. In the Sandwich island, Oahu, Kotzebue 2 found in a
temple enclosure a female and a male statue, the former of
which, in whose direction the other is turned, seizes upon
fruit that is between them on a stalk hanging with bananas,
while the latter stretches out his hand for the fruit. That
this representation is founded on the story of Adam and Eve
is noted by Humboldt.3 Ellis found in Hawaii the tradition
of a flood, which covered all the mountains with the exception
of a small peak of Mauna Kea.4 Thus do we find among the
Polynesians, in connection with their belief in the invisible
creator of the world, fragments of an evident reminiscence of
the primitive tradition of the human race, distorted indeed and
disturbed by the afterwards intermixed polytheism, but by no
means altogether lost to view. This polytheism, however,

1 Forster, Observations, p. 551. Etoomo agrees literally with Adam ; pa
in Malay is father ; in Maori, mother also is expressed by pa; papa may
therefore be an old word for mother. In the present Malay, Javanese,
Hawaiian, and Maori, papan, papa, means bond, which does not suit as
the name of that goddess.

2 Kotzebue, Entdeckungsreisen, part 2, p. 115. 3 Rid- p. 449.
4 Ellis, Reise durch Owaii, Hamb. 1827, p. 251.

§ 272.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 93

bears the essentially Mongolian character of ancestor-worship.
At other points we meet with this veneration of the
departed.

E. On the Fiji islands long mounds or terraces of from
thirteen to twenty feet in height are found, consisting of stone
or sand, and consolidated by the aid of cement, which now
serve as foundations for the houses of the chiefs. That they
were originally sepulchral monuments is shown by a compari-
son with Tahiti. King Oberea had already in Cook's time
erected a monument there, consisting of a long pyramidal
hillock of 45 feet in height, 87 in breadth, and 267 in
length; the sides consisted of large pieces of coral, which
were carefully hewn and polished in square blocks, and
placed above one another in eleven courses each two feet
high.1 These monuments or sepulchral mounds were called
morals, and were at the same time used as places of worship,
sites for temples. Each family has its own guardian deity,
who is the spirit of some departed relative.

F. Everywhere in Polynesia the custom prevails of dedi-
cating something as taboo to the gods, by means of which it
is withdrawn from earthly use, and reserved for sacred
purposes. But instead of the expression taboo, other terms
are used in certain groups of islands, as, e.g., in the Pelew
islands Jcalid or Uul, and in Australia kiibong.

G. Everywhere, too, prevails the belief in evil spirits, who
occasion illnesses and other evils, and plagues, and are pro-
pitiated by magic and offerings ; among them the evil spirits
who bring death are pre-eminent, and they frequent the
neighbourhood of burying-places. As a whole, however, these
spirits, so far as descriptions and naming of them are con-
cerned, are different in the several groups of islands.

H. Most of the tribes, besides their other gods, worship

one who is their god of war, in whose honour they slay in

sacrifice prisoners taken in battle. He is perhaps identical

with that evil spirit of death, or the god of death. In Tahiti

1 Eougemont, Bronzezeit, p. 18.

94 HALF-CIVILISED AXD SAVAGE KACES. [§ 272.

the war-god is called Oro, and is there confounded with the
supreme Atua, the creator of the world. The missionary
Jeffer describes such a sacrifice.1 Before a morai 18 feet
long, 4 broad, and 5 high, on which some stone tablets with
tops cleft in the shape of hands had been erected, sat the
priests with their legs folded beneath them, their backs
leaning to a stone, and muttering their prayers toward the
morai. Then the war offerings were beaten on the head with
clubs and stones ; the high priest plucked out their eyes, and
gave them to the king, who touched them with his lips, as if
he would eat them ; then the corpses were cast into a hole
and covered with stones. In other islands, especially in New
Zealand, they were consumed ; and thus cannibalism grew
out of the practice of human sacrifices. In Tahiti, in the last
age before the arrival of the first missionaries, the frequency
of those human sacrifices had become atrocious, a further
proof of the regular deterioration which is naturally at once
moral and religious. If one considers what a frightful number
of lives is consumed by war, and by the consequent sacrifice
of prisoners, and how the constitution of survivors is under-
mined by polygamy, lust, and uncleanness,2 and, finally, how
the physical ruin is completed by the passion for the use of
rum imported from Europe and America, he will cease to
wonder at the rapidity with which these populations are
dying out, and will not, with the Langhannsens and Ger-
stackers of our days, lay the blame of the decay of those
races on the missions of evangelical Churches. In the case

1 Easier Miss. Mag. i. 363.

2 In the Pelew islands, for example, every married woman, whensoever
she chooses, without any objection on the part of her husband, goes to
the bai for a period, which is a sort of common house, in order to earn
something for herself as armungul, by whoredom. Something analogous
to this is found in all the groups of islands. What is a recognised custom
is called by the Pelew islanders tokoi, good ; what is not a recognised
custom is called nwgul, bad. Thus we have reached the vaunted stand-
point where good and evil are mere products of convenience and habit.
That a wife should show love to her husband before strangers is mugul,
that she should go to the bai is tokoi. See Semper, Palau-Inseln, p. 66.

§ 273.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA, 95

of the Society, Fiji, and Sandwich islands, the missions have
already quite decidedly rejuvenated and given a new power
and glory to their inhabitants.

Obs. — Some of the first missionaries who went to Polynesia
thought that they had discovered in Tahiti a sort of doctrine of
the Trinity. They heard God spoken of as tane medua, Father ;
they heard of an oromattow tooa te tamaidi, God in the Son ;
and finally, they thought that they discovered in a taroa
mannu te hoa, the bird, the Spirit, a correspondence to the
Holy Spirit, and thereupon they concluded that these tribes
must have had an early acquaintance with the doctrines of
Christianity. But this idea rests evidently on a misunder-
standing. That the creator of the world is designated the
father of men, appears, if one compares the above paragraph,
where the traditions are reported, quite natural. Oro mattua
toa te tamaidi does not mean God in the Son, but is the name
of Oro, the god of war, Oro the father and his son, where a son
of the war-god is spoken of in a thoroughly polytheistic sense.
And taroa mannu is the bird spirit which designates one of
the guardian deities, who is represented in the form of a bird.

D. — THE CUSHITE EACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA.

§ 273. The Remnants of Cuskite Peoples in Asia and
Polynesia.

We have in § 247, D, stated the fact admitted by all the
most recent investigators, that the family of the Cushites
(Xovcratoi, AldioTres) had in ancient times spread not only
over Abyssinia, but also over the whole south of Asia, even
to India.

1. No one entertains the least doubt that the dark-skinned
races of Further India are remnants of these Cushites, and so
we find Megasthenes in antiquity, and Jones and Prichard in
modern times, calling attention to the physical resemblance
between these tribes and the Abyssinians. To these tribes,
which, according to Hunter, number sixty millions, belong
the Doms in the Himalayas, the dark tribes of Nepaul, and,
above all, that of the Horos, or so-called Kolhs in the

96' HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 273.

mountains of Napura, south-west of Calcutta. In reference
to the customs and religion of these Kolhs, we have in quite
recent times obtained trustworthy information. There is now
an a priori probability that only a portion of that earliest
population of India would have escaped into the mountains
from the hordes of invading Malays, and from the Mongols
who followed, and from the Aryan Indians. Another portion
wrould undoubtedly seek safety in the islands,1 and perhaps
even before this some of them had voluntarily betaken them-
selves thither.

2. This is confirmed by the fact that on the Sunda islands,
as well as in Australia and some parts of Polynesia, we find,
alongside of the Malay tribes, races of a dark colour and
Hamitic structure of body, the so-called Melanesians, whose
languages have not the slightest connection with those of the
Malays.2 To these belong, —

A. The Negritos or Austral-Negros on the Philippine and
Marianne islands, where they have been driven by the Malays
into the interior and into the mountains. They have a black
skin, partly also crisp, almost woolly hair, but are distin-
guished from the negroes of Africa by the structure of the
skull, and indeed their general conformation is quite different.

B. The Alfurus, or Horofurus,3 or Turadshas in Borneo,
Celebes, Mindanao, and some neighbouring islands, the Kubus
in Sumatra, and the Semang in Malacca, which have been all
driven away back by the Malays into the most remote moun-
tains. They are distinguished from the Negritos by a lighter
skin, sometimes passing into light brown, sometimes, especially
among the wilder tribes, approaching perfect black. In the

1 The black cannibal inhabitants of the Andamans, who go about quite
naked, belong to these Cushites.

2 Klaproth in nouv. journal Asiatique, xii. 240. W. von Humboldt in
Abdl. d. Berl. Akad., part 2, p. iv. ff. The grammar of the Melanesian
languages has been wrought up by Gabelentz.

3 Among the Horos or Kolhs in India horo means man ; another word,
alala, has the same meaning. These two words came to form the roots
of the names Horofuru and Alfuru.

§ 273.] THE RACES OF ASIA AXD POLYNESIA. 97

Pelew islands they have become amalgamated with the
Malays and become a mixed race.

C. The Papuans, who form the populations of the islands
of New Guinea, New Britain, New Ireland, some of the
New Hebrides (Aneityum, Tanna, Mallicollo), the Solomon
islands, and New Caledonia ; and the Alfurus of the islands
of New Holland and Van Diemen's Land.

D. Finally, in the inland districts of Madagascar we find
the Negrito tribe of the Verzimbers.

According to Latham's account,1 the languages of these
Melanesian tribes are closely related to one another ; and,
indeed, the languages of the Papuans in New Guinea, New
Ireland, the Solomon islands, and the New Hebrides, are
quite the same. From this, notwithstanding the varieties in
colour, which may be explained partly from climate, for as
you approach the equator the shade becomes darker, and
partly from mixture with Malay blood, it may be at once
concluded that they are descended from one main stem.
Since, then, the Papuans on the north coast of New Guinea,
in New Britain, New Ireland, New Caledonia, and Van
Diemen's Land, with crisp hair have yet a lighter colour than
the Alfurus on the south coast of New Guinea and in New
Holland,2 the conclusion is reasonable that (a) the Negritos
of the Philippine and Marianne islands, the Alfurus of Borneo,
Celebes, Mindanao, and the Alfurus of New Holland and of
the south of New Guinea, had taken possession of those islands
and peopled them in primitive times before the immigration of
the Malays into India ; and that (b) the Papuans in the north
of New Guinea, in New Britain, New Ireland, the Solomon
islands, and some of the New Hebrides, had first come to
these islands along with the Malays, as subject to them, and
then continued to intermarry with them. In favour of this
latter statement we may adduce the fact that the Papuans

1 In Ausland, 1843, Mairz (March).

2 Lesson, " Me"moire sur les Papouas," in the Annales des Soc. Nat. vol.
x. 1827, p. 93.

EBRARD III. G

98 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 273.

of the New Hebrides in stature and customs show some
resemblance to the Malays,1 and even some Malay words
have found their way into their language, among which are
these four numerals : — one, tsikai, MaL sa, Haw. kahi ; two,
eru, Tah. rua ; four, ebats, Mai. ampat ; five, erim, Tah. rima.
In behalf of the former statement — namely, that even before
the arrival of the Malays a free Cushite population inhabited
New Holland, the Philippines, etc. — we may adduce the
Javanese tradition,2 Kanda and Manek madsha, that the
original population of Java came in ships from the Red Sea,
that is, from Arabia; that some worshipped the sun, some the
moon, and some fire, but that all were worshippers of the
stars, and that they were roving in wild hordes without laws.
During the historical period no Alfurus or Negritos have been
found in Java; but this tradition clearly shows that originally
they were there, as in the present day they are in Celebes
and Borneo. In Java they had been completely driven away
or rooted out by the immigrant Malays.
. Here, too, the legend of Tonga about the white and the
black son, which we have related in § 272, B, has its full
significance. If the reminiscence of the good son and his
wicked brother who slew him had already among the Malay
inhabitants of Tonga in early times taken the form of repre-
sentation of the white or light-coloured and black brother,
it may be concluded, as was done by W. von Humboldt,3 that
there had been an ancient conflict between the light-coloured
Malay races and a hostile black race. And if, now, in that
tradition those belonging to the white brother go from Tonga
to an eastern island, and the black people remain in Tonga,
it would seem that we might conclude from this that, at the
time of the immigration of the Malays, the Alfurus at first,
at the time when the tradition took this form and assumed
its established character, kept possession of Tonga, and that
only at a later period did the Malays, returning from the

1 Forster, Bemerkungen, etc., pp. 238 and 482 ff.

2 Raffles, History of Java, ii. 65. 3 Ibid. 450.

§ 274.] THE KACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 99

eastern islands, succeed in conquering Tonga. It is worth
noticing that even in this tradition the greater skill in sea-
faring craft of the Malays (§ 270) in comparison with the
Cushites is emphasized.

§ 274. Civilisation and Religion of the Kolhs and their
Traditions.

Of the sixty million Cushites who live in Further India,
by far the greater part became Hinduized — that is, the con-
stitution, customs, and Sivaite worship of the Hindus were
imposed upon and adopted by them. Only the Kolhs,
though even among them the Hinduizing process was already
beginning, had, when the Protestant missionaries began to
work among them, still in great measure retained their
national character and their religion. My friend, the mis-
sionary Jellinghaus, who for many years lived among them,
has written a very thorough account of their nationality and
religion in the Zeitschrift fur Ethnographic.

Besides the Munda-Kolhs, numbering about a million, and
the Larka-Kolhs, closely related to them, there are usually
counted among the Kolhs in the wider sense, the Urauhs,
that is, leaf-people, in the south of Tshaibassa, actually con-
nected with the Munda-Kolhs, though speaking a Tamul
dialect; and farther north the Santals, speaking a Kolh
dialect ; and finally, also, though with some uncertainty, the
Kerias, speaking quite a different language. These peoples
have dark, black-coloured skins, not generally, however, like
the negroes, but with a good facial angle, prominent noses,
large but well-formed mouths, reminding one, just as the
Abyssinians do, of the Aryan type. They are of a fine,
powerful development ; and the Mundas, before they had been
thoroughly spoiled and corrupted by mixture with the cowardly
Hindus, were characterized by child-like open-heartedness,
fidelity, and bravery, although they certainly are not distin-
guished for truthfulness. The Hindus have given them the

100 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 274.

name of Kolhs ; they call themselves simply Jioros, that is,
men.1 The position of the various Kolh tribes in respect of
culture is very varied. The leaf-people are purely savage.
They go naked, and their women wear absolutely no clothing
or covering of any kind ; only before Europeans do they
think it necessary to put on a small bunch of leaves. The
Munda-Kolhs, to whom this account specially applies, engage
in agriculture ; the farms are not private property, but belong
to the community, that is, to the whole company of the male
inhabitants of the villages ; each holds his own plot for his
lifetime, and after his death it reverts to the community.
Till they reach maturity they go naked ; then youths and
men wear a small girdle, maidens and wives a strip of cloth,
and in the cooler seasons both sexes wrap themselves up with
a large cloak. As among all peoples accustomed to go naked,
the practice, as such, does not provoke to sensuality. Mar-
riage, when once concluded, is faithfully and purely observed ;
the adulterer is thoroughly flogged, the adulteress is either
surrendered to the blows of her own lawful husband, or sent
away to her seducer. Thus adultery is rare. The Laskas
punish it with death. Monogamy prevails as a rule; two
wives are allowed, but the practice is not common. Before
marriage, however, there is free intercourse of the sexes
practised in open day, and their lax conscience regard it as
sport : rarely is a young woman married as a virgin. Parents
who take the matter seriously have their daughters married
or betrothed before they reach maturity. Desertion of wives
and divorce are not infrequent, and concubines, along with
legally married wives, are permitted.

In respect of religion they have retained the early
primitive monotheism, the belief in an invisible, personal
creator of the world, and to him they present offerings ; they

1 Besides this word for man, which they indicate by the simple word
horo, the Hindus by kero-horo, and the Moslems by turko-horo, they have
also a second word for man, alala ; and, especially in their older tradi-
tions, also a third, manoa. About this see more farther on.

§274.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 101

also have proverbs, in which a personal trust in him and a
surrender of themselves to him are expressed. But in general
he is regarded as far off, and is practically ignored, while they
are powerfully possessed and dominated by the fear of evil
spirits. The name of that creator is Sing-bonga j1 sing means
sun, sengel, fire, and bonga means spirit. Sing-bonga is
therefore literally spirit of the sun. We should not, how-
ever, conclude that we have here a sun-god or a sun-worship.
No trace, indeed, has been discovered among the Kolhs of
any worship or reverencing of the sun, and greeting of its
rising and setting, or even any form of fire-worship. In the
composite word sing-longa, sing is evidently a qualitative
attribute, and so has the position of an adjective : sun-spirit
means a bright, beaming spirit. It is thus quite similar to
the Aryan diva, from div, to beam forth, and the Munda-Kolhs
quite expressly say that Sing-bonga created the sun, and the
earth, and the whole world.2 Among the most commonly used
proverbial expressions are the following : Great in heaven is
Sing-bonga : he has created heaven and earth ; none is greater
than he. As we kindle a light in the house, so has Sing-
bonga set the sun in the heavens to lighten the whole world :
had he not done so, how should the nida-attingtariko, night-
eaters, that is, wild animals, and the day-eaters, that is, men,
do with one another ? And that the reminiscence of Sing-
bonga involves an ethical element, is shown by the following
sayings : If a wife suspects her husband of infidelity, she says
to him, Sing-bonga has appointed thee for me, and thou goest
to another. One ought to say, in comforting one who has
been robbed, Sing-bonga is the giver, be not low-spirited;
Sing-bonga sees it, Sing-bonga will award punishment. How
many days will the thief enjoy it? They encourage to

1 The Urauhs call him Dharme. See Notrott, die Gossner'sche Mission
unter den Kolhs, 1874, p. 57. Dharme is the Sanscr. dharmin, the
righteous, or the speaker of right, the judge.

2 On the other hand, the Larka-Kolhs identify Sing-bonga with the
sun itself, regard the moon as his wife, and the stars as his children.
Among them monotheism is passing over into polytheism.

102 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 274.

sincerity in these words, By our concealing it is not concealed ;
Sing-bonga will show it openly. On the death of a child
they say, What can I do ? Sing-bonga has done it, Sing-
bonga has taken it ; I am powerless ; I cannot give my own
life instead of his. The poor man comforts himself thus:
I am hungry, but he who feeds the ants and the birds will
also give to me ; why should he not give to me ? The good,
that is, the degree of conscientiousness that is met with in the
national character of the Kolhs, is to be accounted for by the
fact that they have not yet altogether forgotten that personal
God ; but although sin, too, has a mighty hold of them, they
feel themselves separated from this god, and think of him as
far removed from them, and then cast upon him the guilt of
the evil that is on the earth, as though he no longer troubled
himself about the earth. Thus say they when any great
wrong or violence is done : Sing-bonga is almighty in heaven,
but he is removed too far away. Hence they feel themselves
not only given over to the dominion of human wrong, but also
by reason of it surrendered by an accusing conscience to a
foreign power of darkness, which, however, they do not
recognise as a power of sin, but only as a power of evil, and
seek for as something magical operating outside of themselves.
Apart from Sing-bonga, who is a good bonga, there is a
multitude of evil bongos which haunt nature : burnbonga,
mountain spirits ; ikirbonga, spirit of the shady depths ; daa-
bonga, water-spirits ; and at the head of these wicked, ill-
producing spirits stands a marang-bonga, which haunts
Marang-burn, one of the highest mountains of the land.1

Sacrificial worship is rendered partly to Sing-bonga, partly
to the evil bongas. Each village has besides its secular
chief, the munda, its priest, pahan, as a rule a hereditary
rank, and its sarna, sacrificial court, of the trees of which no
twig may be broken, and which must not be entered by any

1 By the Larkas he is called Desauli, has a wife Chahirburhi, a son
Malura, and he again has a wife Chondorburhi. Among the Santals,
Zarnabonga and Dhahkrburhi are the chief of the evil spirits.

§ 274.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 103

woman. These sacred enclosures contain no idol images, and,
indeed, the Kolhs generally have no images. A sacrificial
stone is found in every sarna, and on it the pahan offers to
Sing-bonga white cocks and white goats in order to conciliate
him, but to evil spirits black or coloured cocks and goats.
The chief sacrificial festival is in baa-tschandu, the flower
month, March, the tschait of the Hindus ; but tschandu,
month, comes not from tschait, but is connected with the
Sanscrit tschandra, moon. After the offerings are brought,
the palian is carried on the shoulders round the village, all
houses are decked with flowers, and a banquet, with rice
brandy and dancing, follows.1 On sickness, death, miscarriage,
etc., they take their complaint against the evil bonga, not to
the pahan, but to a sorcerer (soko, deonra'), who, amid varied
ceremonies and calling on Mahadeo or Siva, falls into con-
vulsions, and in this condition pretends to see and name the
woman who as a witch has occasioned the evil. Only after
three soothsayers have denounced the same woman is she put
to death. If the sorcerer sees no woman but only animals,
then animals of the same sort must be offered. That the
belief in evil bongos has been independently developed
among the Kolhs on the ground of their own religion I
would not in any way question, but those appeals to
Mahadeos show that this witchcraft was the weak point
where first the Siva-worship obtained an influence. The
belief of the Kolhs, that men with the help of evil spirits
can be changed for a long while into tigers in order to eat men,
is worthy of being noticed. They call them kula-horo, tiger-
men. It is essentially the same belief which we have found
as a belief in the were-wolf among the Germans and among the
Ugro-Tartars, and which we shall yet meet with in the most
varied parts of America, and which we meet with here in a

1 This flower festival is certainly not genuinely Cushite, but, like the
name of the flower month, has been obtained from the Hindus. The
Larkas celebrate five festivals yearly to the evil bonga Desauli (Notrott,
p. 77).

104 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 274.

Hamite race. Such a belief, which is common to the most
diverse families of the human race, those farthest separated
in space and origin, must, since it cannot be explained from
any physical cause,1 find its explanation in some occurrence
which has taken place in the primitive history of the still
undivided family of mankind. Neither in Siberia, nor in
India, nor in Germany, nor in North or South America, could
a man for a length of time change himself into a wolf, or
tiger, or any other animal. Should the case of a beast
coming into such connection with a man have occurred in
primitive history, it would become apparent from this that
in it there was a nature higher than that of a beast, which
gave itself a form, and that of a destructive kind.

This brings us to the legends of the Kolhs. One may
venture the remark almost without reservation, that just as
in the case of the reminiscences of one god, the primitive
traditions of the human race have remained undisturbed.
The Kolhs exhort one another to diligence by the saying : In
the beginning Sing-bonga said to us, wiping the sweat from
thy brow, labouring, ploughing, chopping, wilt thou have food.
Another saying runs : Men from the beginning have had to
submit to hard labour, women to birth -pains. Something
more of a legendary tale is the following reminiscence of a
lost paradise: Sing-bonga created the human body in the
moulded form of a child : then came a horse and wished to
overthrow the moulded form. Then Sing-bonga made a dog,
which chased the horse ; and now God gave life to man
(Gen. ii. 7), and created also for the youth a maiden (Gen. ii.
22). Then God called all creatures to himself (Gen. ii. 19),
but they all tarried late ; only the tiger came, and so he was
made mighty beyond other creatures. Much less disfigured is
the legend of the flood : Men became wicked, then refused to

1 Fr. von Erdmann's attempted explanation quite misses the mark ;
that the sun, regarded as beneficent, is represented by an ox, and as
burning up it is represented by a wolf. This might account for the
change of an ox, but not of a man, into a wolf.

§ 274.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 105

wash themselves and would no longer work, but only dance
and engage in revelries ; then caine a sengel-daa, a flood of
fire, which, according to the explanation of the Kolhs, means
simply a tnarang-daa, a great, overwhelming flood ; while
another version of the legend says that by this flood the wood
of the ship had been burnt black. In this flood all men
were swallowed up.1 Only a brother and a sister laid them-
selves in the stem of a Tiril tree, a kind of tree with black
wood, and so were saved ; and from them all men are sprung.
But Sing-bonga did not wish that men should again suffer
from a flotid. Therefore he created a lur-bing, a lur serpent,
lur being the name of a particular kind of serpent, in order that
it should hinder violent excess of rain. When it threatens to
rain violently, this lur-Ung breathes his soul toward heaven,
and his breath is there spread out again as a rainbow and
brings the rain to an end. So long as the soul of the lur-
bing as a rainbow remains in the heavens, the lur-bing is
dead. Hence on the appearing of a rainbow the Kolhs are
wont to say : lurbing kuted aJcanna, lurbing has become a
bow ; they also commonly call the rainbow lurbing. The
Urauhs also have a legend of the flood, in which only a
brother and a sister save themselves in the hollow or shell
of a large crab. The Munda-Kolhs, in their legend of the
flood, use to express man not the word horo, but constantly
the word manoa. As this word has become antiquated, and
is only found in their old tradition of the flood, which is
clearly different from that of the Aryan Indians,2 it cannot

1 It is probable that a portion of the Kolhs preserved the ancient mean-
ing of sengel-daa as equivalent to marang-daa; but another portion
understood sengel-daa literally, and so developed the idea of burning the
ship black. That the original intention of the tradition was to represent
a flood of water and not a flood of fire, will, we think, appear for the fact
that men are said not to have been burned, but swallowed up or drowned,
and that a ship is naturally connected with a flood, and especially that
the legend itself explains the blackness of the ship from the nature of the
Tiril tree, which does not need to be burnt in order to be black.

2 The Indian legends of the flood (§ 207) speak only of one man as
having been saved, not of a pair, and have a reminiscence of the rainbow

106 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 274.

have been borrowed from the Sanscrit, but must be a genuine
primitive word of the old language of the Kolhs. This is
not to be wondered at, for we have this root, man, manu, for
man among the most diverse races and families of mankind,
even in the Menes of the Egyptians. The Malays, too, have
this root at least as a verbal stem, manatu, to think, although
for man they have the word tangata, furnished with hands.

Souls after death go into " that land." Of the dead they
say : The body is still, the soul (roa) continues to move on.
They bewail the death of a father (abba) and a mother (umma)
with the cry : 0 father, 0 mother, whither hast thou gone
away from us ? Traces are found of the worship of ancestors,
called haram horoko, old men, burrhi horoko, old women, to
whom they present offerings of rice, whose names they
enumerate back to the fifth degree. In particular cases, too,
they invoke them for protection. This ancestor -worship
appears only in sporadic forms,1 and it is quite supposable
that this is an element of religion imported from the Mongols
(§ 267) or from the Malays (§ 276). At the same time, the
reverse mode of viewing it is frequent, and may be accounted
for by their inclination to witchcraft, the idea, that is to say,
that the souls of the departed pass into evil longas, or
actually become, especially in the case of suicides and those
who meet a violent death, muas, hobgoblins. They expect an
end of the world, when seven suns instead of one shall rise,
and melt and burn up everything. They speak also of a nork,
hell, lying in the south, which nida singil sengel jultanna, burns
with fire day and night. There the wicked suffer punishment,
while the good go with Sing-bonga into heaven. This belief,

that grew up, according to the Indians themselves, at so late a date as
B.C. 1000. The legends of the Kolhs, on the other hand, know nothing
of a fish-god, who proclaimed the flood, and drags Manu's ship over the
waves.

1 It is the usual custom to burn the dead, and to lay stone plates over
the urns. To eminent men are also erected, in or around the villages,
nisans, that is, memorial stones, two to four feet broad, and five to
fifteen feet long.

§ 274.] THE EACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 107

however, has little influence upon their walk and conversation
beyond this, that they will never sleep with their heads
toward the south. Their conscience, indeed, is not altogether
asleep. There are many parents among them who will not
suffer their children to sing impure songs or take part in
dances ; l and the hearty reception which the missionaries had
from the Kolhs may be explained from this fact, that
conscience in them was not quite dead. The religion of the
Kolhs undoubtedly is pagan ; it is, however, the twilight and
not the black night of heathenism.

Obs. 1. — If in the old national religion of the Cushites the
belief in the invisible living god has had so powerful an influ-
ence and has prevailed so long, this just confirms what was
said in § 247 about the Cushite empire of Nimrod, and its god-
fearing character. In like manner the presence of Semitic
words in the language of the Kolhs, such as abba, father,
umma, mother, roa, soul, mi, serves to confirm the position
laid down in § 247, that the Cushites originally dwelt together
with the Semites on the banks of the Euphrates.

Obs. 2. — The Assyrian tradition of the Kolhs is extremely
important and worthy of attention ; in the first place, as con-
taining a reminiscence of a conflict in arms between the Cushites
and the ungodly Assyrians (comp. § 247), and in the second
place as expressing the consciousness that the worship of the
evil bongos and the fear of them is a secondary and more recent
element in their religion than the belief in Sing-bonga. Twelve
brothers of the Assyrians, thirteen brothers of the gods, melted
iron, also ate iron, and defiantly declared themselves bongos of
the mountains and the dells, and said : We are Siug-bonga, of
whom should we be afraid ? Then anguish came upon men ;
fearful heat arose, so that even the golden throne of Sing-bonga
began to melt. Then he sent word by two birds to the men of
Assyria that they should smelt their iron either by day or by
night ; but they ill-treated the birds, and sent them back to
Sing-bonga. Two other birds which he sent, a lark and a
raven, brought the message that the Assyrians would them-

1 From this it may be concluded that the moral decay described above
must have been first introduced in comparatively recent times along with
Hinduism, and cannot be reckoned against the old national morality.
In fact, from 1585 to 1680, the Kolhs were tributary to the Turkish
Musselmen ; and thereafter they came under the influence of the Hindu
Zemindars.

108 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES. [§ 274.

selves be the great deota, deity, and would drive out and over-
throw Sing-bonga. With no better result he sent two eagles.
Then Sing-bonga determined himself to visit the earth. [Here
we find a blending of the Indian mythological element of the
incarnations of Krishna,] He comes in human form, finds a
young servant of a man Lutkum afflicted with leprosy out in
a rice field, and heals him. He had first slain him, drawn the
leprous skin off the dead body, and then made him alive again
with a sound healthy skin. Sing-bonga's own son clothes him-
self in the leprous skin, comes to the earth, seeks work among
the Assyrians as a swineherd, but is thrust away as a loath-
some being. Thereupon he works many miracles ; playing ball
with Assyrian boys, he breaks in pieces their iron balls with
eggs, etc. There are similar Hindu myths of Krishna. He pre-
vents any more iron from coming out of the Assyrian furnaces.
When no sorcerer is able to help them, they turn to the young
leper (kasra-kora) for counsel. He demands first an animal,
then a human sacrifice. They wish to offer up one of their
own sons [Moloch-worship] ; he forbids them, and says : Offer
me, I have neither father nor mother. Then at his command
a smelting furnace was built by two virgins, and heated to its
highest degree. [Here is a reminiscence of the Moloch-worship
of the Semites of the Euphrates.] He goes into it, but comes
out again unburnt, beaming and covered with ornaments of
gold. The Assyrians ask where he got the gold. He says, in
the furnace there is yet much gold ; they should go in, and let
their wives for a week blow the bellows, and keep up the heat.
They went in ; their cries of agony are heard, they are burnt to
a cinder ; Kasra-kora turned their wives into bongos, and then
arose the longas of the hills and dells and streams ; then he
himself went back to heaven. And now Sing-bonga sent a
messenger to men, Jwro, that is, the Kolhs, the Cushites, who
taught them the art of working in iron. It is quite clear, in
'priori, that the Assyrians of the Kolhs have nothing at all in
common with the Sivaite-Buddhist Assurs, comical spirits of
the air, and are not derived from them. Another tradition,
however, presents traces of an Indian origin. The Mundas and
Urauhs were in olden times united under one king, from whom
the present princes of Tshutia-STagpore, the land of the Kolhs,
are descended. A serpent longing after wisdom should, in
order to learn wisdom, be changed into a man, sought the most
celebrated schools, and married the daughter of a man. When
she was inquiring closely into the pedigree of her husband, he
changed himself back into a serpent and cast himself into a
lake. She thereupon brought forth that king, but died in
giving him birth. The kings of Tshutia-Xagpore call them-
selves naglansi, sons of the serpent ; a hybrid word from the

§ 275.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. 109

Sanscr. ndga, a serpent, and the Kolh word bao, p. This
legend reminds us of the Japanese myth of the step-daughter
of Amatsu-fiko, who changed herself into a sea-serpent, § 269.
That this Japanese legend is of Buddhist, and certainly of
Indian origin, we have already shown. Ruins of an ancient
royal castle, and numerous temple-like buildings in the city
of Tshutia (Notrott, p. 89), prove that even in regard to
culture among the Kolhs there must have been a decay
and deterioration.

Obs. 3. — The language of the Kolhs, broken up into various
dialects, is rich in vocabulary, — from the letter A to L already
no less than 7800 words have been collected. Besides Semitic
words, there are many that seem identical with Japhetic or
Indo-Germanic roots, which cannot be supposed to have been
simply borrowed. Horn, man, Lat. homo; had, Germ, heiss,
is, is called ; numu, name ; nidi, night ; nama, new ; ar, plough ;
damm, sleep, Sanscr. drui, Lat. dormire ; kiwa, Germ, kinn,
chin ; ruJcu, Germ, riicken, ridge ; lenga, links, left ; ruru, ruhe,
rest ; te, tag, Lat. dies, day ; kunibru, Sanscr. kumbrila, thief ;
sukri, Sanscr. sukara, sow ; danta, zahn ; dens, tooth ; loge,
lligen, to lie, etc. For father, besides the Semitic abba, apu,
they have the Malay or generally Japhetic baba ; for mother,
besides the Semitic umma (Babyl. ummu), they have the
words enga and ago, which again more resemble the Malay;
for brother they have anako hago (comp. Mai. naka, son) and
bao, plur. bansi ; comp. p ; for sister they have misi and ankoi
(comp. nx Dinx, Arab, achaturi) and dai; for water they have
da (Mai. danau toja) and am (D"D); for fire, sengel (Old High
Germ, sangjan, sengen) ; for house, ora (Mai. and Polyn. ware)
and vipa ; for man, horo, ho, alala (Bugish, oroane) ; for son, hon
(Zend humu, viog, Goth, sunus). The numerals from one to ten :
miad, baria, adia (pea, mund), upunia (nach), monea, turia,
aja (ea), iralia, area, gelea, are quite independent and peculiar ;
only the Urauhs use from five to ten the Hindu numerals.
The structure of the language is agglutinate. The personal
pronouns are: aing, ing, I; am, thou; ini, ni, he; abu, we
(inclus.); ale, we (exclus.); a, we two (inches) ; a, we two (excl.) ;
ape, you ; aben, you two ; enko, they.

§ 275. The Religion of the Papuans, Negritos, and Alfurus.

The knowledge which we possess of the old Cushite religion
among the Kolhs is all the more important as it affords us a
standpoint from which to estimate the greatness of the dete-

110 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§275.

rioration to be seen in their brethren closely related in regard
of race, but widely scattered, in Australia and on the Sunda
islands. The terrible fraction and shattering of languages,
which gives an entirely different dialect, not only as dis-
tinguishing one islet from another, but even one village from
another, is a proof of this deterioration.1 Among the Mela-
nesians of the New Hebrides we meet with cannibalism and
fearful cruelty. The petty chief Buba at Nengone caused
any one who had wronged him in the least, even several of
his fifty-five wives, to be slain, and then he ate the limbs of
the corpse.2 Nevertheless some remnants of earlier culture
are still extant. On the island of Gera, Patteson saw a chief's
" ship " of fifty feet long inlaid with mother-of-pearl.3 As
regards the religion of these peoples, we have seen in § 273
that, according to the thoroughly credible Javanese tradition
there reported, polytheism had been already developed there
among them before the Malays invaded the Sunda islands,
and had indeed assumed a thoroughly national form, for some
worshipped the sun, some the moon, and others fire ; and hand
and hand therewith savagery and lawlessness were introduced.
It might seem worthy of notice that, according to that
Javanese tradition, the Alfurus who were then met with on
Java were star-worshippers, while there is not the least trace
of any knowledge of the stars among the Kolhs. Astrology
cannot have been a national characteristic of the Cushites.
This Javanese legend, however, may be quite unconstrainedly
explained, if, according to its own statement, those Cushites
found in Java belonged, not to a Cushite race from India, but
to one from the Eed Sea, that is, from the south of Arabia,
which had there learnt the knowledge of the stars from the
Semitic Arabians.

Of that long period that intervened between the Malay
immigration in B.C. 1600 and the modern discovery of Australia

1 Wilh. Baur, John Coleridge Patteson, der Missionsbischof von Mela-
nesien, Gutersloh 1877, p. 51.

2 Ibid. p. 84. 3 Ibid. p. 86.

§ 275.] THE RACES OF ASIA AND POLYNESIA. Ill

by Magelhaens and Cook, we would have had no information
at all but for some inscriptions discovered on stone tablets.
On the Fiji islands, alongside of the Malay Polynesians, there
is a mixed race made up from them and Negritos, who still in
recent times worship stone pillars as divinities ; and now on
one of the Marianne islands, where, as we have said, the
Negrito tribes are found, two parallel rows of such pillars
have been discovered. But even on Easter island, which on
its discovery was found uninhabited, there were similar pillars,
of which one was twenty-seven feet high.1 These stone pillars
are ascribed to an Alfuru, therefore a Cushite population, and
not to the Malays, for among the Malays no trace of the worship
of stones is found. Its origin among the Alfurus is easily
explained. It is not necessary to assume that there had been
a south Arab tribe which had adopted this worship of stones
from Semitic Arabs (§ 254, Obs.}, for such could scarcely have
been there at so early a period ; but it is enough to remember
the evil bongas of the Kolhs, haunting mountains and rocks,
and their nisans erected to deceased worthies, and finally, their
belief that the souls of the deceased became evil bongas.
From similar grounds similar elements might be developed
among the Alfurus, all the more readily because the idea of
a creator of the world had been by them completely forgotten.
So soon, however, as those three elements were combined, the
nisans must have become in their minds stones and idols in
which longas were present.2 The religious condition of the
Alfurus of the present time thoroughly agrees with this.
For the taboo of the Polynesians (§ 272) they have the
word Jeubong, an original primitive Hamitic word (§ 278),
which among the Adshi negroes of to-day designates the
invisible creator of the world, and had also been among the
Alfurus of the primitive age an appellative of deity, but has
now been reduced to signify anything that is placed under

1 Rougemont, Bronzezeit, p. 18.

2 That also among the negro races in Africa worship of stones is found,
see § 278.

112 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 275.

the taboo. Of a belief in the one invisible creator of the
world there is scarcely any longer the least vestige. Even
the polytheistic star-worship has been shrivelled up into a
gloomy dread of the powers of nature and natural phenomena,
taking different shapes in the various islands, assuming usually
the form of fear of thunder and meteoric showers. On the
other hand, the dread of spirits of the deceased and the appear-
ance of their ghosts has been developed in its fullest dimen-
sions.1 Only among the Melanesians of the New Hebrides,
especially among those of the island of Aneityum,2 the mis-
sionary Geddie found still significant remnants of the ancient
religion. They knew about a supreme god, Nangerain, among
some other Melanesian tribes called Nengei, who created the
island, raising it out of the sea, whose name, however, could
only be uttered by the chiefs and priests. A multitude of
rude and grotesque spirits, haunting the air, sea, and land,
called natmasi, were regarded as sons and descendants of
Nangerain. Sun and moon, and the souls of departed chiefs,
were special objects of worship, and to the latter offerings of
animals and food were given. But, finally, they have also a
vast number of sorcerers, who pretend to be able to produce
thunderstorms, vermin, sicknesses, and must be conciliated
by presents. The legend of these Melanesians of Aneityum, that
their forefathers were originally immortal, and then on account
of an offence were made subject to death, is specially deserving
of notice.

Patteson3 tells of the Melanesians of the islands of Bauro and
Gera, that they worship the deity in the form of a serpent.
On the island of Mota the supreme god is called Ikpat, who
has many brothers, and among them a hostile one, an accuser,
— a reminiscence of the angels and Satan as the fallen angel.
In regard to the souls of the dead the belief prevails among
those Melanesians that they continue to live, that they gather

1 Zimmermann, Australien, part 1, p. 344 ff.

2 See Easier Miss. Mag. 1876, May, p. 180 ff.

3 AYilh. Baur, Patteson, p. 79 f.

§ 276.] THE SAVAGE EACES OF AFRICA. 113

together by night, and do mischief to those who then meet
them. The natives of Mota think that white people are the
spirits of dear friends come back again.1

The Papuans are in some respects more closely connected
in regard to religion with the Malays ; in other respects that
utter stupidity in religious matters bordering upon imbecility
shows itself in them, as in various others of the Alfuru race,
which we have already observed (§ 272) in the mixed popu-
lation of the Pelew islands ; and so Moritz Wagner is quite
right when he, in proof of the statement that there are men
with no religion, refers to these South Sea islanders, and on
the other hand to individuals such as D. Fr. Strauss, Vogt,
etc. The only question is, whether D. Fr. Strauss, along with
his like-minded companions, have raised themselves to the
standpoint of those half -idiotic Alfurus, or whether these
have degraded themselves to the standpoint of our modern
savants.

CHAPTER III. — THE SAVAGE EACES OF AFRICA.
§ 276. Ethnographical Survey.

When in the First Division, in treating of the civilised
races of Africa, we spoke of the Egyptians, together with the
Libyans and the Cushites, Ethiopians or Abyssinians, we left
over three families of the African race : 1. The Kaffirs and
tribes of the Kaffir order, which are characterized by the use
of languages belonging to a common stock, the Bantu lan-
guages ; 2. The Hottentots at the southern point ; and 3. The
vast multitude of negro tribes.

The Kaffirs in the stricter sense occupy the district lying
between 25° and 33° south latitude, and are distinguished
from the negroes by the lead-coloured, greyish-black skin,
but still more by the shape of the skull and countenance
(arched nose and prominent cheek-bones, a very fine develop-
1 W. Baur, Patteson, p. 141.

EBRARD III. H

114 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES. [§ 276.

merit of skull, and strong but not protruding lips), with woolly
hair. Their bodily structure reminds one of the Abyssinians,
so that Lichtenstein l has quite correctly suggested their
descent from the Old Ethiopians, and so classed them with
Cushites. They call themselves Amatembus, Amapondas,
Amakosahs ; 2 and in this last designation we readily recognise
the root cush. Closely related to them in appearance and
in language (see Obs.) are the Betchuanas, to the west of the
Transvaal, together with the Sutos, to the south-east of the
Orange State, and the Bushmen, to the north-west of the
Kaffirs and north of the Hottentots, the I)amaras, north-west
of the Betchuanas and north of the Bushmen, on the west
coast, and the tribes dwelling around the Congo and in Loango,
on the west coast, up to the equator. The tribes of the east
coast in Mozambique and Zanzibar and the Suaheli also show
a striking resemblance in bodily form and language to the
Kaffirs.3 The Betchuanas have a tradition that their fore-
fathers came from a land where the sun appeared to them
when they looked to the west, not over the right, but over the
left shoulder, that is, from the northern hemisphere.4 Whether,
then, these tribes have spread out from Ethiopia southwards,
or were wholly or partly Indian Cushites who had been driven
from India by the Malay immigration, finding their way across
Madagascar into South Africa, it is quite certain that they
pressed out the Cushite population, or more probably got
mixed up with the descendants of Cush and Phut. Of the

1 Lichtenstein, Reise in Siidafrika, part 1, p. 402. Comp. in Easier
Miss. Mag. 1861, April, the portrait of the Suto chief Moshesh.

a Kaffir comes from the Arabic kafenina, unbelievers, and is applied
by the Arabs as a nickname to all who are not Mussulmans, and espe-
cially to their black neighbours.

3 Lichtenstein, Reise in Siidafrika, p. 393. Marsden, Narrative of a
Voyage to the River Zaire, London 1818, app. nro. 1. Prichard.

4 Campbell, Missionary Travels in South Africa. E. von Weber, Vier
Jahre in Afrika, part 2, p. 126. They possess also ancient animal fables,
of which one is as like the Low German tale " Vom Swinegel und siner
Fru" as one egg is like another (Weber, ii. 129), and seems to indicate a
primitive stock of possessions common to races of men utterly uncon-
nected.

§ 276.] THE SAVAGE KACES OF AFRICA. 115

name of Phut we have a reminiscence in the Bantu and
Bunda languages. It is interesting to discover the word horo,
man, which we found (§ 274) in the speech of the Asiatic
Cushite tribe of the Kolhs, in use on the west coast of Africa
among the Akra negroes in the duplicate form of horo and
holo. The Somalis, too, on the east corner of Africa, are of
Ethiopic origin, and the Danakil, to the east of Abyssinia,
who erect pyramids as sepulchral monuments. In the 16th
century the Gallas, a wild Mohammedan shepherd tribe,
rushed down from the interior eastward upon Abyssinia,
which they now encircle ; and at the same time the Shyagas
(Giaga) broke out from the interior westwards upon the Congo.
Both tribes, however, speak languages which are closely related
to those of the Somalis and Danakils,1 and must therefore be
regarded as Cushite. This is all the more probable, seeing
that these tribes had been in early times driven from Ethiopia
into the interior of the continent, and there abandoned the
habits of civilisation, adopting the nomadic life of shepherds.
How strongly in Africa a tendency toward an uncivilised
mode of life had set in is proved by the fact that in the time
of Ptolemy and Seneca the rising of the Nile in two lakes was
well known, which presupposes an unopposed travelling through
the Nyanza country ; whereas in our times, after the utterly
fruitless attempts of others, Samuel Baker succeeded only with
the utmost difficulty in pressing his way through. The case
has been similar in the south. In 1683 the English found the
lands round about Delagoa Bay inhabited by a peaceable, good-
hearted negro race ; in 1816 the Zulu Kaffirs from the north
rushed down and massacred them, changing the south-east of
Africa into a region of war and conflict.2 In favour, too, of
the existence of a condition of culture in early times, the fact
may be adduced that in Africa no traces of stone weapons
have been found ; but in the midst of fossil bones of hippo-

1 Murray, " Vocabulary of the Galla Language," in Bruce's Travels, iii.
p. 420. Prichard, i. 1 70.

2 E. von Weber, Vier Jahre in Afrika, ii. 175.

116 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 276.

potami and other animals identified with extant species in the
delta of the Zambesi there have been found pottery and iron
work, like those of the negroes of the present time, and also
inland here and there remains of old smelting furnaces. " At
a time when our forefathers had still their stone weapons, the
Africans seem to have already reached a decidedly higher
stage in their development." l

A second principal tribal division of the Africans is that
of the Hottentots, who give us the impression of an old but
fast vanishing mixed race. That they have negro blood in
their veins is proved by their flat noses, protruding lips, the
peculiarly thick development of the hips in the woman, and
the strongly developed labia, covering the pudenda like a
leather apron, — four physical characteristics which they have
in common with the blackest of all negro races, the Joloffers
of Senegambia.2 That they are not pure negroes is shown
by their prevalent custom, which they have in common with
the Gallas, of besmearing their hair with fat, wearing a
sheepskin and a girdle, and wrapping their heads round with
the entrails of oxen.3 Thus they were a mixed race of
Gallas, that is, Ethiopic Cushites migrating in early times
into the interior, and a negro tribe closely resembling the
Joloffers. They had come there from the north, for in the
region now peopled by the Kaffirs names of rivers and places
are Hottentot.4 In consequence, there still remains something
peculiar about the colour of their skin. Their lighter hue
may perhaps be accounted for by their longer residence in the
temperate zone, but it is not merely lighter, but even inclines
from sooty brown to yellow. The shape of their skulls,
moreover, has a resemblance to those of the Chinese.5 This
would almost lead to the conclusion that some Mongolian
tribe from India (Ceylon, § 267), perhaps through Madagascar,

1 Livingstone's Last Journeys.

2 Berghaus, allg. Lander und Volkerkunde, vi. p. 228 f.

3 Blumenbach in Bruce's Travels, v. 256.

4 Prichard, ii. 289 ff. 5 Ibid. i. 376 f.

§ 276.] THE SAVAGE EACES OF AFKICA. 117

had migrated to Africa, and got mixed up here with the
Cushite Gallas and Joloffers, and had at a later period been
driven southwards by the Kaffirs.

The negroes proper, among whom we must reckon, accord-
ing to § 247, the pure descendants of blood, form a third
family group. Up to the present time this group has only
been partially examined. We know that the Dahomians,
occupying the district between 6° and 7° north latitude and
18° and 21° east longitude, came from the interior of the
Soudan to their present dwelling-place during the 17th
century ; that the Mandingoes, who occupy the region between
10° and 12° north latitude and 6° and 12° east longitude, did
so during the 16th and 17th centuries; that the Ashantees,
occupying the region between 5° and 7° north latitude
and 14° and 18° east longitude, did so during the 18th
century, and that the Joloffers were driven by them from the
coasts of Senegambia. Each of these four races speaks its
own language. The Joloffers and Mandingoes have become
Mohammedans. From the east coast of the Gulf of Guinea
in an inland direction the Bunda language predominates ;
farther inland, toward the north-west, we meet with the
Bomba language. The Dahomians of the Slave Coast and
their inland neighbours the Borgoes, who speak the same
language, have a tradition that Bornu, the Lake Tchad, had
changed its position,1 and indeed to the north-east of the Lake
Tchad lie two tracts of land called Borgu and Bergu. Names
of coast places, too, are sometimes found in inland districts of
the Soudan ; 2 so that we agree with Liiken in the supposition
that the whole mass of the negro race, coming from the Red
Sea, migrated before the Cushites over Nubia and Darfur into
the Soudan or Central Africa, and thence spread out westward
and in a south-west direction to the coasts, and got split up
into various tribes. The common derivation of these tribes
would naturally be suggested by the essential similarity in

1 Lander and Clapperton in Prichard, ii. 125.

2 Liiken, Einheit der Mensch. p. 59 ff.

118

HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES.

[§ 276.

colour and bodily structure, in customs, institutions (slavery),
and religion. Only the Fullahs show their Libyan origin by
their bodily structure and countenance, as well as by the
tradition current among them that they came from Numidia.
In the Sahara and the Soudan they are called Fellatahs ;
among foreign races, in Senegambia, and on the Grain Coast,
they were called Fullahs. That the North African Berber
tribes are descendants of the Numidians, that is, the Libyans,
is doubted by no one.

Obs. — The tribes of the Congo and of Loango appear to be a
mixed race, having both Kaffir and Betchuana blood. Their
language, however, decidedly belongs to the Bantu family of
languages, that is, to the same class as those of the Kaffirs and
Betchuanas. Negroes from Zanzibar and Mozambique easily
make themselves understood by those of the Congo and Angolo.
Wilson and de Page witness to this in Bastian, Expedition a. d.
LoangoJciiste, i. 145 f. In order to make evident the connection
of the languages I give the following tables, to which I add as
less closely related the two negro languages, the Kirna language
of Central South Africa and the Akra language of Western
Africa : —

Thou.

He.

We.

You.

They.

Kaffir, .

mina

wena

dshena

tina

nina

dshena

Congo, .
Loango,

meno
i

ngue
u

odshandi
ka

etu
tu

enu
lu

au
ba

Kirna, .

amiwa

avl

aye

atwe

awe

atsha

Akra, . .

o(bo)

e(le)

nye

ame

Mine.

Thine.

His.

Our.

Your.

Their.

Kaffir,

amo

ako

ake

etu

enu

ake

Congo,

ndi

etu

enu

Loango,

ame

aku

andi

ame

aku

andi

Kirna,

mina

ave

aye

mina

ave

aye

Akra,

o(wo)

nye

ame

276.]

THE SAVAGE EACES OF AFRICA.
NUMERALS.

119

Kaffir.

Kirna.

Akra.

munje

kamo

ekome

mafoft

tttvnli

enyo

m-Atatu

tnsatu

ete

mawe

tuna

edse

mahlanu

tutano

enumo

\s\tupa
i&ikombisa

tusampa
tusampa-la-wili

ekpa
kpawo

8
9
10

ishijangalombili
ishijangalolunje
ishumi

mwanda
kitema
di-kumi, or kikwi

kpdnyo
nehu
nyonmd

di kumi na kamo

nyonma ke ekome

19
20

ishumi na shijangololunje
amashumi ma bill

vikwi viwili

nyonmai enyo

wikwi visatu

nyonmai e"te

amashumi ashijangalolunje

100

amakuli

katwa

oha

1000

akpe"

2000

akpe'i enyo

The

second

moni dsi enyo
(he who is two)

The rank of these tribes in respect of culture, notwithstanding
the scantiness of their clothing owing to the extreme heat, con-
sisting of a loin cloth, apron, and jacket, is by no means very
low. They manufacture their bark material (lilibetite) into
various kinds, some of very fine texture and with artistic
ornamentation. The smith (fusi, gangula) melts his copper
by means of a blast furnace (umkanda), and makes nails
(hizenga), by means of which again extremely fine ivory
carvings are produced. Bastian represents on his title-page
an elephant's tusk with one hundred and thirty-five figures
upon it. As national and native money they have pieces of
mat-cloth (in lalla, plata-i-olo). They have a game of marbles
and a game of draughts (fina and tschiella), a dance (tschina)
with dancing songs ; also a very noisy kind of music, various
sorts of trumpets, horns, trombones, guitars, and cymbals. Of a
really artistic pictorial art Bastian found evidence (i. 85) in the
temple of Bunsi in Tshimsinda, and a similar proof is afforded
by the engravings of numerous groups of figures on elephants'
teeth. In counting they use a knotted string (mutschinga,
m'singa). For an account of the extraordinarily complicated
civil constitution, with priest-kings, many grades of officers
and priests, as well as an account of the civil and criminal

120 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 276.

law and the law of heritage, see Bastian, i. pp. 191 ff., 216,
237, 253.

Obs. 2. — Some migration from India to Loango must un-
doubtedly have taken place at some time or other, but pro-
bably only at a comparatively recent period. In Loango the
chiefs (fume) form a special caste in contrast to the people
(fioth} and to their community of elders (bomma), and trace
their origin from a king who came into the land as an
invader from a foreign country (Bastian, i. 196, 200). Similarly
there exists alongside of the genuinely African priestly caste of
the ganga melongho a special class of war priests (gatiga bumbo).
The tradition of the people of Loango, that they had previously
been called bramas (Bastian, pp. 47, 260), would by itself be
of no great importance, since the resemblance to the Sanscrit
word Brahma might be accidental ; but the custom of the
Loangans to wear yellow or red bands on their foreheads,
reminds us of a similar custom among the Siva sect of India,
those worshippers of Siva, who, according to § 265, was not an
old Aryan deity. There is also a reminiscence of this worship
in a form of prayer, in which the mother of the gods Bumsi is
designated " bearer of the shell and the bow-string," and is said
to dwell in the land of Sind ; hence the place where the temple
stands is called Tshimsinda. The war-god Bumbo reminds us
of the Maha Bumbo of Ceylon (§ 267). The title gifen to
holy men, swamie, is in Sanscrit swdmin, lord. Also the repre-
sentation of various kinds of bananas in Loango (Bastian, p. 128)
points to the native country of the banana. It may thus be
fairly assumed that at some time, not before the birth of Christ,
a Mongol-Cushite mixed horde from India, by way of Mada-
gascar, invaded Africa, and settled on the Zaire as a dominant
class over the original inhabitants, and brought with them new
polytheistic religious elements.

A Jewish immigration also took place. Alvaro de Caminho
in 1492 deported two thousand children of Spanish Jews to
the island of St. Thomas. From thence a number must have
crossed to the mainland near by, and from these the " Judeos "
or Mawumbu are descended, who occupy certain villages in
Loango. They have become quite black, but have still a dis-
tinctly Jewish physiognomy, live apart from the negroes, and
are despised and hated by them because " they keep the trade
to themselves, so that the negroes grow poor." They have thus
preserved the national instinct, but of their religion only what
had already impressed itself on the children in the form of
customs; they continue rigidly to avoid swine's flesh and
lighting a fire on the Sabbath, and on that day even speaking
is forbidden. In other respects they are pure heathens
(Bastian, pp. 42, 187, 275 ff.).

§ 277.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 121

§ 277. Religions of the Cushites of South Africa
and of the Hottentots.

A. The Kaffirs, including Zulus, Amakosas, Amapondas,
etc., to whom also, according to Livingstone,1 the Matabeles
living north of the Lake Ngami belong, are a very finely-
developed, athletic, intelligent race. They live, however, only
for hunting and fighting, despising agricultural pursuits,
and so leading a savage career of bloodshed.2 This savage
condition has accordingly contracted their religion into a mere
superstitious belief in witchcraft. Among the Zulus their
daughters are regarded as only pieces of merchandise, sold for
cattle as wives to the highest bidders. These wives alone
have all the work to do, the man passes his time in idleness,
and two men may mutually agree to exchange their wives.
To a distinguished guest the husband has to give up his
handsomest wife. Among the other Kaffir races young men
and women after reaching maturity, when circumcision is
practised upon both, have the right for a period of free sexual
intercourse with any individual desired. Adultery is only
punished with a fine.3 Amid all these evidences of degrada-
tion there are slumbering in the Kaffirs great mental capacities.
In the Missionary Institute at Lovedale the Kaffir boys have
made great progress in Latin and Greek, and the girls in
music. The tribes most closely related to them, the Betchu-
anas, or more correctly the Tshuanas (sing. Mo-tschuan, plur.
Be-tschuan), in the hill country south-east of Lake Ngami, have
settled under a patriarchal constitution as owners of herds, and
at the same time engaging in agricultural pursuits. They are
therefore physically not so athletic, but have a better mental
development, and have the highest place among them, especi-

1 Livingstone's Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa,
London 1857.

2 The Zulus still brew beer (leting) from the sorghum caffrense, smelt
and work iron, and ornament weapons and dress with engravings (von
Weber, Vier Jahre in Afrika, ii. 201 f.).

3 Weber, Tier Jahre in Afrika, ii. 215 ff.

122 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 277.

ally the Bassutos,1 bordering upon the Kaffirs. These had a
complete feudal constitution, until in 1820 an inroad by the
Kaffirs under Matati made their country desolate ; under the
pressure of famine they began to eat human flesh, which pre-
viously was unheard of among them. The chief Moshesh,
gifted with high talents for command, restored the country,
but put it under an absolute monarchy, and brought cannibalism
to an end. The religion of the Betchuanas in practice almost
wholly consists in Fetichisrn and witchcraft. They have,
however, in their language the word mo-rimo for the idea of
God, and possess a tradition of mo-Eimo as having first created
the black, then the white men, but as having shown favour to
the white rather than to the black, and as having, therefore,
given to the white clothing and many beautiful things, but to
the black only cattle, and the assegai, and the art of making
rain. The principal features in the witchcraft of the Bassutos
are these. From burnt bats, the limbs of rabbits, jackals'
livers, baboons' or lions' hearts, and poisonous bulbous roots a
decoction is prepared, and given as a drink to a sheep, which
consequently dies. Another portion of the same ingredients
is burnt, and the rising smoke infallibly brings rain. But the
fact that first a sheep must be slain shows that at the basis of
what is now a blinded superstition there lay the earlier worship
of a rain-dispensing deity. The tribe of the Bassutos has, in
fact, preserved considerable remnants of a primitive worship of
a god. Indeed, the worship of ancestry which they celebrate,
like the Mongolian races, is essentially distinguished from that
of the Mongols by this, that they do not regard the souls of
their ancestors as merely guardian spirits subordinate to the
gods, but as themselves barimo, gods. When a Bassuto man
dies, his soul takes up its abode among the ancestor-gods of
the race, and consequently itself becomes a rimo. The body
is buried wrapt up in a cowhide, and at the grave an animal
sacrifice is offered, which is brought as the first mark of honour

1 E. Casalis, les Bassoutos, ou 23 ann&s de stfour et d observations au
Sud d'Afrique, Paris 1860.

§ 277.J THE SAVAGE EACES OF AFRICA. 123

to the new rimo, but at the same time also as an atonement
for his trespasses committed on earth, in order to secure for him
a friendly reception among the older ancestor-deities. These
are regarded as dwelling under the earth, and are more feared
than loved. At the birth of a child, too, an offering is brought
to the ancestor-gods, that they may grant happy days to the
newly born. The knowledge of mo-Rimo, who created the
world, is a belief held quite formally, and exerting no influence
alongside of this ancestor-worship. Of practical importance
are the sorcerers (linohe) who foretell future things, impending
dangers, etc., and are believed in notwithstanding the frequent
failure of their prophecies. Polygamy prevails among those
tribes generally. The wives are sold by their parents for cattle;
the number of them possessed is therefore a sign of wealth.
There is no want of jealousies and brawls between the different
wives, and even the children are regarded as simply useful to
the parents, the sons as herds of cattle, the daughters as mar-
ketable wares. The rising generation lives without order or
discipline, and the father of the family rules despotically.
The Betchuanan tribe of the Bakalahari, who inhabit the
Kalahari desert, to the south of Lake Ngami, engage in agri-
cultural pursuits. The Bushmen, however, living farther west,
are, according to Livingstone, thoroughly uncivilised, a Betchu-
anan tribe become nomadic, which no longer possesses domestic
animals except the dogs necessary for hunting, and conse-
quently occupying in respect of religion the lowest place
among uncivilised people, little raised above the condition of
the beasts of the field.

B. The inhabitants of the Congo district and of Loango are
usually described as fetich -worshippers, because the word
fetisso has been rashly transferred to their amulets and
charms, to their idols, and even to their gods. Such a pro-
ceeding, however, is quite wrong.

(a) Fetisso in reality means those sorts of evil spirits
(sliimbi) which have their residence in the breast of a sorcerer
(fetissero), by the power of which he criminally inflicts upon

124 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 277.

other men by witchcraft sicknesses, death, and misfortunes of
all kinds. This, however, is not regarded as religion, but as
wickedness, and is punished with death. Another class or
order of shimli, the doko, seem to be sorcerers (dokien, endoxe),
with charms (longJw) for the injury of other men. These
endoxe are also, like the fetissero, punished with death as
evil-doers.

(6) For protection against evil spirits and their familiars
there are protective charms (mttongho), which come from good
spirits, and which are carried about the person in little bags.
For the protection of houses, plantations, and temples, idol
images are erected, and in front of their sacred places are set
gates of three bars, reminding us of the Tartar custom, repre-
senting here as there simply an enclosure, a <f)pdy/jia.

(c) Out of the great multitude of such local guardian deities,
however, there are some occupying a pre-eminent position
which are found under the same name and with the same
emblems in various places, and are already in this way
characterized as old national deities. As such they are
characterized by the circumstance that definite worship is
appointed them, and priests (ganga} are assigned them. These
gods are characterized by the appellation kisso, kissie, and, what
is most important, are clearly distinguished by their images.
In their temples there are empty couches, beside which em-
blems of the god are set ; for example, in the temple of kisso-
i-Nimina we find a wooden spear and an iron gong. From
time to time the kisso is raised from the earth, takes unseen
its place upon the couch, and then the priests beat upon the
gong. The chief of all these kisso are the following : Bunsi,
with the predicate Mama Mamkissie, mother of all gods,1 who
is worshipped in all parts of the land, and has, in Tshimsinda
in Moanga, an oracle, where she invisibly rises from the earth
in order to instruct a newly-crowned king in regard to his
kingly duties by the mouth of her ganga. The Kissie insie,

1 Bastian, Expedition a. d. Loangokiiste, i. 223 f., translates loosely :
Mother of all fetiches.

§277.] THE SAVAGE EACES OF AFRICA. 125

god of the earth, also called Mo-kisso insie Makonih, is repre-
sented by two wooden figures, the one bearing the other ; also
by a pot bound round with bands ; less frequently also (as the
god of harvest, Umkissie Boma) by a mere heap of animal
skulls. The first-fruits of harvest are brought to him as
an offering. His ganga gives his services likewise to Kissie
'mshiti, the god of the woods. A Kisso Mangaka protects from
thieves and robbers, and whoever has a personal enemy, in
order to rouse against him the anger of the god, drives a nail
into the god's wooden image. The lower half of this image is
covered with matting, and the bearded countenance is depicted
with a flat retreating forehead. Mangaka' s wife is called
Matanga. For a similar reason nails are driven into Mabiali
(Abiala, Mandembo) ; his image is of a white colour, the eyes
of glass, with threatening outstretched arm ; in his mouth a red
cloth, on his head a mirror. Additional forms or additional
names of this god are Mabiali-panso, Mabiari-pano, Mani-
panso. Nimina and his wife Njambi are the god of the fish-
ing and the goddess of wealth and commerce. Lunsunsi, in
Cabinda, is the god of the coasts, is regarded as the son of
Bunsi, and has a brother, Um-wemwe, who slays the sorcerers.
The itaphylle Kondu-mambo (Koinbi-mambo), with his wife
Umgulambenzi, seem to be gods of animal productiveness. In
earlier time a Tshekoke (Tshikoko) had been worshipped as
Mo-kisso kola, the mighty god, along with his wife Gumbiri.
This perhaps was the old national war-god. On the war-god
Bumba, see § 276, Obs. 2.

Besides these gods there are various others, some dispensers
of rain, some protectors of their infants. We find that in
Congo and Loango a developed polytheism has prevailed,
which very generally grows over into witchcraft and super-
stition, but is in no way overgrown by the so-called
fetichism, and is quite distinct from the actual fetisso belief.

(d) There are still, indeed, most evident traces remaining
of an ancient monotheism. High above the kissos, imported
perhaps in part or wholly at a later period from India (see

126 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 277.

§ 276, Obs. 2), stands Zarabi. This word zambi seems to be
a primitive appellative of deity ; for over against the good
god Zambi am-Pungo we have the wicked god Zambi an-hi ;
and among the pirate tribe of the Solonghos, south of the
Zaire, we have Zambi 'm-pi Tshimbi.1 The proper name of
the good god is Pungo (Pungu), which, singularly enough, is
connected with the Bonga of the Kolhs (§ 274), whose name
recurs generally among the most varied Melanesian and
African tribes. The Loangans say of Zambi Pungo that he
created the whole world, including Jcissos and also men ;
the latter sinned against him, and have been punished by
being made black. The Solonghos or Mossorunghos south
of the Zaire have a tradition that Zambi Pungo died, that is,
his worship ceased to be practised ; after his death another
evil zambi, Zambi 'm-pi, arose, created the evil spirit Shimbi,
and keeps up their numbers from the souls of the deceased.
To the Shimbi belong the fish-god Kudshanga Nemadia, who
is invoked on behalf of animal productivity; a god of the
sea-storms, Memo diatudili mankumbi ; an Umpoeta, who
teaches men the arts, etc. The inhabitants of Cabinda, or
Angoy, have a tradition that Zambi Pungo carries thunder
and lightning in his hand ; he created ma-Gog, the first king
of the land of Angoy, and put under his protection the
mother of the gods, Bunsi, who then, on her part, brought
forth and created the various Jcissos. Thus in Zambi Pungo
we have a distinct reminiscence of the one original God, the
creator of the world.

(e) In Cabinda there is also associated with Zambi Pungo
a tradition of the flood. Zambi had created all men white ;
when, however, a woman, out of curiosity, opened the door
of a room in which wonderfully beautiful things were stored,2
there fell over her head and that of her tempter a barrel full

1 Similarly the Lobals place their good god Kashanda over against the
evil god Mikitschi. The Moluwas, too, have a supreme god or creator,
Kalumbo.

2 Comp. the Papalangi stuff of the Tonga islanders, § 272.

§ 277.] THE SAVAGE KACES OF AFKICA. 127

of black colouring powder, whereby both were made black.
She fled screaming from Em-puto1 to the river Zaire. The
following tradition of the flood in Cabinda is very fully
developed. When the whites stayed away from the coast,
the sacred palm-tree closed up its crown, and thick clouds
gathered over heaven and earth. Njambi, the goddess of
wealth, retired to Em-puto. Always heavier the clouds hung
overhead, till at last birds, bende-bende, were let loose from
the confinement of the palm-tree, and flew hither and thither.
Now Njambi turns back ; the clouds fled, the sun shone forth
in his full strength, and ships came again with white people.
A modern element, the keeping away and the coming again
of ships with white people, is here confusedly mixed up with
the older part of the tradition. If in the old legend mention
was made of a ship which after a long voyage found landing
at last, it is evident how such a story, when it was no longer
understood, was confusedly interpreted and combined with
elements of quite a recent origin. The Portuguese whites
appeared at first to the blacks as almost superhuman beings,
and Njambi was the goddess of commerce. What wonder,
then, that they should understand the going out and coming
again, of the withdrawal and return, of the Portuguese ships ?
A quite similar commingling of an old legend with a modern
element was observed (§ 278) among the Odshis.

(/) The most remarkable point is that the belief in Zambi
has practically counteracted, by means of its awaking effect
on the conscience and its moral influence generally, the worst
consequences of polytheism and witchcraft. In consequence
of polygamy, vindicated by Bastian on medical grounds,
immorality and adultery, especially on the part of women,
are frequent, and married women often seek to seduce youths
into sin by measures analogous to those spoken of in Gen.
xxxix. 1 2 ff. If, now, Zambi is called upon, settling invisibly

J Is there here concealed a reminiscence of Phut 1 Em-puto may be
the land or the inheritance where the first progenitor of the tribe
lived.

128 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 277.

on a wooden plate, married women are obliged to confess
unreservedly all their failings, and to obtain forgiveness.
There have thus sprung up a certain kind of marriages,
Lemba marriages, which are concluded with special cere-
monies, with invocation of a kissie Lemba, holding a particular
relation to Bunsi and Zambi, and its members are under
strict obligation to faithfulness and eventual confession in the
presence of Zambi. Oaths, too, are sworn by Zambi. In
short, what little good is to be found among these peoples
is connected with the belief in Zambi Pungo. For the rest,
the moral and social conditions which are the immediate
consequence of the kisso-polytheism and fetisso-witchcraft
are sad enough. As the Malays have their taboo, so the
tribes of Congo and Loango have their quidsilles and schinas,
that is, to every individual from childhood something or other
in itself quite harmless is forbidden: one must never give
any one a hand, another may eat no maniock, a third must
not cross the Zaire, etc. In the observance of this super-
stition they are evidently quite equal to the Pharisees ; but
impurity is not forbidden. When one is sick the gangas
come, set themselves down smoking hemp, and amid noisy
music work themselves into a frantic condition, and declare
whether the sickness of the sick person has been caused by
the breaking of a schina, or by some fetissero who has bewitched
him. In the latter case, he who is charged as guilty is either
subjected to ordeals, such as the drinking of poisoned cassa,
which, if causing vomiting, shows him guiltless, if otherwise,
shows him guilty, or is driven to confession by the most
revolting and cruel tortures, and the convicted or confessor
is burnt alive or else put to death on the rack. There are
also human offerings during war, and on the death of every
king or prince or eminent individual.

(g) The dead are roasted to mummies over fire, and are
then buried; into the graves of chiefs their images are cast.
The continuance of the soul after death in a ghostly condition
is put in connection with the appearance of the new moon.

§ 277.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFEICA. 129

In Congo the appearance of the crescent moon is greeted with
the words Eatua fua, eatua dshinga, man dies, man lives
again.

C. On the religion of the mixed race of the Hottentots,
it is reported to us from a period in which it continued
uninfluenced by Europeans, or at least less under such
influence than now,1 that in practice their chief object of
worship was the moon, although they said expressly that this
was not the highest, but only a subordinate and visible god, —
a sign that even they still possessed the idea of one invisible
supreme God. To the moon they ascribed the control of the
weather. At every full moon and new moon they gathered
together, danced, shouted, and clapped their hands till sun-
down, and cried — " We greet thee, we welcome thee ; give us
fodder for our cattle, and milk in abundance ! " Besides this,
they had a peculiar worship of animals. An insect of their
country with green back, white and red speckled belly, and
two wings,2 was regarded by them as an incarnation of a
benevolent deity. When one of these appeared in a village,
they gathered around, danced about in wrapt devotion, offered
him two fat sheep, sprinkled before him powdered Spiraea
(meadow sweet), feeling assured that by his appearance all
guilt is forgiven, and blessing and good fortune are secured.
If that insect lights upon a man, he is regarded as a saint
well-pleasing to the deity, and to the honour of both the
fattest ox is immediately slaughtered as a thank-offering.
After the death of such a saint, a mountain or a river is
called after his name. Whoever passes through such a place
ought to conceal his head in his cloak and dance round the
place, imploring the saint for his protection. As, then, this
chafer worship reminds us of the scaraba3us of the Egyptians,
and affords a new witness in favour of the derivation of the
Hottentots from the neighbourhood of Egypt, the land of the

1 H. Adam, View of Religions.

- The mantis religiosa, a locust-like creature, with a head turning to
every side. See Weber, Vier Jahr in Afrika, part 2, p. 210.
EBRAKD III. I

130 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 277.

Gallas, see § 276, the worship of an evil spirit, whom they
seek to pacify by offerings of oxen and sheep, tells of their
mixing with the negro tribes.

D. Even in the north-east of Africa there is to be found
in the Wagandas on Lake Nyanza a tribe of Ethiopic descent.1
They had, according to their own traditions thirty-five genera-
tions ago, according to Stanley's well-grounded opinion at a
much earlier period, made their way hither from the north.
They have the tradition that a pious man, Kintu, a priest, had
migrated, together with his wife and some domestic animals,
and seeds of various kinds, to Uganda, which was then wholly
uninhabited, rapidly peopled the land with his children, of
whom his wife bare four to him every year, and who came
into the world bearded and already arrived at man's estate,
introduced the banana and potato plant, and held in abhorrence
all shedding of blood. A paradisiacal state prevailed. But
when his children discovered the art of brewing banana wine
(comp. Gen. ix. 20 ff.), and in consequence excess, godless-
ness, and violence began, Kintu went forth with his wife
during the night, and has been sought for in vain by his
successors on the throne, his son and grandsons, Tshwa,
Kamiera, Kimera. There is here something that reminds us
of paradise, the fall, and Noah. It is noticeable that in Mowa
at the Livingstone Falls the name Kintu occurs as the title of
their chiefs.2 There is also found round about the Victoria
Xyanza the root Mani, Mana, Moeni, Muini, in Uregga Wana,
in Bateke Land, Nwana, which are identical with Manu,
meaning lord.3 The tribal relationship between the Wagandas
and the Bassutos and the Congo negroes is shown by the
relationship of their languages. Among all these peoples, mo
and m' is the prefix of the singular, ba, be, wa that of the plural.
See, for particulars of the linguistic relationship, the compara-
tive tables of Stanley, vol. ii. pp. 536-551.

1 Stanley, Through the Dark Continent, vol. i. chap. xiv.

2 Ibid. vol. ii. p. 425. 3 Ibid. vol. i. p. 545.

§ 278.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 131

§ 278. The Religion and Traditions of the Negroes.

If one reads the usual descriptions given by missionaries
and other travellers of the social and religious condition of the
negroes, one would suppose that these tribes had as good as
no religion, or that at least their religion consisted in a mere
senseless fetich-worship, since any sort of potsherd, a broken
bottle, thrown-out offal, is regarded, venerated, and feared as
an awfully mighty thing, and as at the same time an amulet.
It is quite true that among many negro tribes religion has
been degraded and shrivelled up into such fetich -worship,
especially since about the year 1517, when Europeans, calling
themselves Christian, introduced the slave trade and brandy,
which have exercised a dreadfully deteriorating influence,
socially, morally, and also religiously, upon the negro race.1
The remnants, however, of a quite complicated civil constitu-
tion2 show significantly enough that these tribes have sunk
from a higher stage of civilisation.3 Then, again, if only one
carefully considers that among the most of these tribes, besides
these absurd private fetiches of individual negroes and their
sorcerers, there also exist idol temples with idol images, that,
e.g., the Joruba city Abbeokuta before its conversion to
Christianity swarmed with idol images, and that in it the gods,
the highest of which is called Shango, were honoured with

1 Compare, in regard to this, Bastian, Expedition a. d. Loangokuste,
i. p. 352.

2 E.g. among the Akwamboo negroes, a king ruling over 400 square
miles, under him four chamberlains : he and they limited by the village
councils. Each village, again, has its president, along with a set of village
councillors. The chamberlains are also war chiefs. All higher ranks are
hereditary (Easier Miss. Mag. 1837, p. 537 ff.). Among the Bulloms and
other tribes of Western Africa we find a monarchy limited by a regular
nobility with an electoral kingship. At the head of every village there
is an elected chief (Easier Miss. Mag. 1839, H. 2, p. 187 f.). The
Jorubas distinguish ogbonis, that is, civil authorities, and baloguns, that
is, war chiefs (ibid. 1858, Feb.).

3 So also have the cannibal Wavinza negroes on the Victoria Nyanza
a developed art of iron-smelting and copper-founding as an industry
understood by tradition. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent.

132 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 278.

festivals with solemn processions,1 that among the Akwapim
human offerings are brought to particular idols,2 that generally
among the most of the negro tribes human victims are slain in
fearful numbers, not only during war, but also at the graves of
distinguished persons, which probably indicates an idea of a
god of death, we shall no longer be able to doubt, that even
where now there remains over only that fetich-worship, there
had originally lain at the foundation of it some sort of
polytheistic worship of a higher sort. But we are fortunately
able to prove this in the most decided manner in regard to
one negro tribe, and not this only, but there have also been
found there very evident traces of an original monotheism
which passed over into polytheism, and it is highly probable
that by continued minute investigation in Africa those traces
will be found in other districts.

The Odshi negroes 3 on the Gold Coast, in the Akwapim
mountains, not only knew, but still continued to worship
one god, the supreme creator of the world, whom they call
Onjang-kd-pong, or shortly, Onjame,* from njam, to beam
forth, and a root that is not otherwise found in their
language, kopong, but which we have assumed to be quite
synonymous with kubong (§ 272 f.) among the Alfurus of
Australia ; its second syllable, pong, bong, we have found also
among the Kolhs, § 274, as bonga, spirit, god: so that we
may here with certainty conclude that there was a primitive
Hamitic root bong, which was originally an appellative for
God, and seems to have designated God as an invisible Spirit.
Onjang-ko-pong, the god Pong, is synonymous with the Sing-
bonga of the Kolhs, with the deva, deus, tins of the Aryan

1 Basler Miss. Mag. 1885, Feb. p. 74 f.
' Ibid. 1837, p. 555.

3 The report of the missionary Mader in the Basler Miss. Mag. 1862,
September. The same in all essential respects, only less thorough and
complete, had been reported previously by other missionaries. Compare
issue of 1837, H. 3.

4 The various Akra or Ga, tribes worship Njongmo or Onjame as the
highest being, the creator of heaven and earth. J. Zinimermann,
Vocabulary of the Akra or Ga Language, p. 337.

§ 278.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 133

races. We find this Pimgu again in the interior of Africa
under the slightly changed form of Mungu. " The Makonde
at Eowana believe in an invisible god, Mungu." 1 " At Lake
Bangweolo they call God Mungu or Mulungu." 2 This widely-
spread name is also found in Bambarra-land in Moero, where
Mulungu has also the additional name of Eeza, and a good
Eeza in heaven is distinguished from a wicked Eeza in the
lower world.3 Besides the name Mungu, we also here and
there meet with the name Chesimpu,4 which plainly points to
the Zambi of the Loango Coast. Also the Uandalas south
of Bornu have a good god Da-damia, whose name in part
sounds like Zambi; besides him they have an evil god
Oeksee, and a good spirit Abi.5 The name of the chief idol
of Alkum, Boka,6 reminds us of Pungu. In every invocation
of an inferior deity, and in every sacrificial act, the Odshis
utter first the name of Onjame, then the earth, and only after-
wards that of the inferior god. They have these proverbs :
" The hawk says, Everything that Onjang-ko-pong has made is
good. No one shows the smithy to the smith's son ; if he
understands smith-work, it is Onjame that has taught him.
The earth is vast, but Onjame is the highest. So long as
Onjame slays thee not, thou shalt not die, even though a man
wished to kill thee. When the cock drinks water, Onjame
points him to it. Wilt thou speak with Onjame, tell it to the
wind." The clouds of heaven are the border and outer part
of God. He maintains the supervision of all things, and
considers the conduct of men. The earth is called wjase,
literally, what is under the sun. The sun is awjia, moon and
stars ; wsoromma, heaven's children ; and they are the servants
of God. Indeed, awjia is a friendly servant, who with his
beams, anuenjam, shines willingly upon the earth, and thus,
too, rises daily. The moon, again, is a murderer, aimdifo, who
carries the death drum, which is visible in the spots on the

1 Livingstone's Last Journals, London 1874.

2 Ibid. 3 Hid. * Ibid.

6 Eohlfs, Quer durch Afrika, ii. 62. 6 Ibid. ii. 223.

134 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 278.

moon, and by beating it slays many men, calls forth sick-
nesses on its becoming full ; hence God allows it to become
full only once a month, but to be out of sight for two whole
days. The stars are appealed to for the blessing of children.
Besides these star-gods, there are a multitude of inferior
deities, regarded by missionaries as principal fetiches, which
receive divine worship. The Odshi negroes call them children
of God, and describe them as created beings, and indeed as
spirits (alionlwrn, from Iwme, to breathe ; sunsum, from sum,
dark, invisible; in Ga, sisa), which are in themselves
invisible, but can become visible to the initiated as fleeting
forms in a white sheet, and to other men make themselves
and their will known mediately through animals, trees, etc.
The appellative for these inferior deities, bbosom,1 from bbo,
stone, and som, to serve, indicates that at an earlier time these
were considered to be present in sacred stones, and must have
been worshipped, as indeed several traditions testify.2 They
are also called Atumfo, the mighty ones, because they have
from Onjame absolute power over the life and death of men,
only, according to the present belief of the Odshis, they have
not this power over a witch or against the use of an amulet.
God is their father, a reminiscence of the Vne elohim, whom wre
meet with again in the Adityas of the Indians and the Amesha-
spentas of the Iranians. They are absolutely dependent on
his will, and they carry it out. If a man has done evil, they
bring the case first of all before God ; if he approves the
same, they execute the sentence, for they bring sickness or
death upon the guilty. They move hither and thither
between heaven and earth. Whoever wishes to pray must
address himself to them ; then they bring his prayer before
God. They are gracious to all who serve them. But such a
false mediatorship must necessarily lead to a polytheistic
development. Among the Odshis generally there is recog-

1 By o I indicate the open sound, that is, between o and a in the middle
of a word, like the English aw.

2 See later on under the tradition C.

§ 278.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 135

nised a superior bbosom called Bosompra or Obosomdade, the
iron Obosom, who is at the same time the house-obosom of
the king of Akwapim, the kwaw dade, the iron man, and
receives yearly a sheep in sacrifice. Under him stand next
in order Kjengku, Akonedi, and Ohjiar ; then comes a river
god, Ajesu, good-water ; Akjefo, one. who partakes of sacrificial
flesh ; Burukumadaw, as guardian spirit of the fields ; Awan-
samme, to whom the tiger, dog, and antelope are sacred ;
Kjeritinanse, poison spider; Dasik-ji, as the guardian spirit
of the river Volta, etc. The worship of this bbosom, however,
is now in practice completely overshadowed by the worship
of akomfoabosom, the spirits of the fetich prophets, that is, the
fetiches proper or the idols (amagd, wodshi). The latter have,
according to the statements of the Odshis themselves, had
their origin and have come into favour in a recent period, and
daily new ones are being added from the sorcerer priests. In
earlier times, say they, the bbosoms lived with men ; but then
they separated from them, and went apart into a certain
grove where there was a lake with a serpent. They now
bring to them also human sacrifices : the bodies of the
victims are laid in that grove, and remain lying there
unburied. The akomfoabosom , whose number is legion, are
not well-disposed, but mischievous, evil spirits, who know
nothing of goodness and mercy, and slay every one without
favour who does not secure their goodwill by bringing gold
and palm wine to the priest. Thus we can clearly perceive
how the fetich -worship originated. The insertion of the
bbosom between Onjame and men brought men into depend-
ence upon the priests, and the instinctive cunning and greed
of the priests, together with the fear of the powers of dark-
ness and death, to whom men of an unexpiated conscience felt
themselves delivered over, occasioned the spiritual bondage
and superstition of the fetich-worship. Among the Odshis
alongside of and behind this fetich-worship the worship of
the bbosom and the knowledge of the one God still endure.
Among many other negro tribes, but certainly not among all,

136 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 278.

nothing now remains save the bare product of the fetich-
worship. The souls of the deceased (sissa) are feared as
ghosts by the Odshis. When an Odshi rises up from a chair,
he turns it over so that no sissa may sit upon it.1

The legends of the Odshis are extremely worthy of atten-
tion. They are wont in the evenings to gather their children
together, and tell them the old legends and stories of their
race. That now, when they give out anew their stories, they
should mix up many marvels with their legendary tales, does
not astonish us so much as the amount of truth that they
have retained from the primitive traditions of mankind.

A. In regard to the creation they say: God began the
creation on a kwasida, the first of their week of seven days,
and completed it on fida, the sixth day of the week. On the
seventh day He created nothing, but gave man a command.
In those six days He created first the woman, then the man,
then animals, then plants, then the rocks, — just reversing the
order. Men were after their creation sent forth into this
sub-solar world (wjase), a reminiscence of the expulsion from
Eden.

R The fall : — formerly God was very near to men ;
when they needed anything, they just pointed with a staff
upward, then it rained fish and other things. But a woman
who pounded a/ksw, a banana fruit, in a mortar, went with
the pestle inadvertently into God's presence. Then was God
angry and withdrew into the high heavens,2 and listened no
more to men. After six rainless years came a famine
which compelled them to slay men. At the advice of a
wise man they sent a messenger to God, acknowledging they

1 The report of the missionary Riis in Akropong, Easier Miss. Mag.
1837, p. 560 ff.

2 And with him the obosom, as results necessarily from what is afterwards
told that God sends again in answer to the prayers of men Obosomtua.
But this return of the obosom into high heaven is to be distinguished
from the withdrawal of the obosom into the grove, which is a later
occurrence. The Odshis themselves seem to have confounded the two,
for the serpent which exists in that grove identifies the grove with the
garden of Eden.

§ 278.] THE SAVAGE KACES OF AFEICA. 137

had done wrong, and entreated Him to send one of His
counsellors, bsafohene, who should care for them. Then God
sent His highest minister Obosomtua and his wife Ntuabea,
with the message that He would now no longer scorch them,
but would give rain in its proper season : when the rainbow
would appear, they should fire their muskets, and remember
God the giver of rain and sunshine. (We observe 'here a
striking intermixture with a certain reminiscence of the flood,
of the story of a specifically African disaster, the want of
rain, which overshadows the other.) Obosomtua dwelt now
as bbosom or inferior deity in the west, his wife in the east,
of the country, and placed around also six other bbosom,
Obosomdade, Ajesu, Akiefo, Kjeretinanse, Awansamme, and
Burukumadaw.

C. The legend of the flood, of Noah, and the tower
building is very much disfigured, but still quite recognisable.
It turns again on man being driven forth upon the earth.
There were two Gods in heaven (onjangkdpong), and two
men, a white and a black. (This feature in the legend
of a distinction between white and black men is referred back
to heaven, — a tradition probably derived from a primitive
period, see § 272 f.) The two Gods— God and Satan-
fought long with one another for the possession of the two
men. Finally, the people of heaven (brsoromang) agreed to
cast the two men out of heaven. Borebore, to whom, as the
servant of God, another legend, given under D, ascribes the
creation of the world, let the two men down to earth by a
chain, which he hung round his neck, and stayed with them
a hundred years. Then he dug an enormous pit, and
brought down a fearful rain from all sides, which rushed like
a river over the earth, but in the pit dug by the wise Borebore
it found a place where it would empty itself. The rain filled
this pit : then rose up the sea between the black and the white
people. Borebore swept with a broom his wisdom into a box,
but lost this, and must die. The white man found the
wisdom-box, and discovered by means of it a medicine to

138 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 278.

save from death. Because men, however, were too old, too
hostile to one another, and too numerous, he renounced the
use of this means (a truly heathen way of minimizing the
necessity of death !) ; but the black man concluded to worship
the stone on which he sat. There was then only one
language among men. The whites joined things together
and placed what they had made on the waters. (A con-
fusion between the ark and the first European ships.) They
went into the land of the blacks, and before they parted from
these they made an attempt to mount up to heaven. They
heaped all their fusu-mortars on one another to make a tower.
Only one mortar was then wanting, and they took out the
lowermost to place it on the top, but now the whole tower,
wanting a foundation, fell and had slain them all had they
not instantly fled. They were scattered over the earth, and
thus sprang up the multitude of different languages.

D. Borebore, as already remarked, plays a part in yet
another legend of the Odshis. God sent out Adomaukania
and Borebore with the instruction to create the earth, wjase.
Sleepless and with never halting motion they drove through
all regions until they came to Efoo, the black monkey, who
took them with him to eat and to spend the night with him.
Waking from sleep, they separated : Borebore went to Africa
and created the products that are found there ; Adomankama
parted the sea with a cow's tail, went to Europe, and created
all things that are found there. Then the legend itself runs
out into a cow's tail, for it goes on to relate that Adomankama
at a later time came to Africa in a ship and brought the
negroes brandy, which in this form is naturally a recent
addition, but possibly only a modernized version of a remini-
scence of Gen. ix. 20 ff., similar to the Kintu tradition
current among the Wagandas. In the original tradition
evidently Adomankama and Borebore stand in relation to
the separation of the races of mankind, and so are parallel
to the sons of Noah or Manu, and in Adomankama we may
perhaps find a trace of the name Manu. But the post-

§ 278.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFEICA. 139

diluvian condition of the earth is here, as among so many
other nations, confused with the first creation of the world ;
hence those two as servants of God appear in the original
creation. According to Mader, Borebore is derived from the
Odshi word bo, to create, which seems related to the Sanscrit
word bhu; but from the appearance of the consonant r
it reminds us much more strikingly of Buri and Borr of the
Scandinavian legend (§ 250), who corresponds to the Noah
of the biblical primitive tradition, whose name is derived
from the primitive Sanscr. root bhr, fyepeiv, Lat. ferre, Goth.
bairan, Old High Germ, beran, Celt, ber, biur, Heb. ana and
13, son, Mong. bari, to bring, to give. Borebore, however, seems
in the original legend current among the negroes to have corre-
sponded not so much to Noah as to Adam, or the persons of
Adam and Noah have been confounded together in it. The
disobedience into which he allowed himself to be seduced by
the black monkey, reminds us distinctly of the fall.

E. I add here a tradition that prevails among another race
on the Gold Coast, the Ashantees.1 In the beginning God
created three white and three black pairs, and gave them the
choice between good and evil, for He laid on the earth a
calabash and a sealed leaf. The blacks chose the calabash,
but found therein only a piece of gold, and a piece of iron,
and other metals, the use of which they did not know. The
whites took the sealed papers, and it told them everything.
When now God was angry with the blacks, they wandered
away from Him, and worshipped subordinate spirits, who
presided over the rivers, mountains, and woods. This
tradition in its present form is evidently modern. It cannot
have taken this shape before the arrival of Europeans, and
was made apparently under the influence of astonishment
at their skill in writing and reading. The kernel of it,
however, is found in a primitive tradition which makes its
appearance in Tonga and in America, as well as among the

1 Bowdik, Mission from Cape Coast Castle to Ashantee, London 1819,
p. 344.

140 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. f§ 278.

Odshis, of the white and black brothers, and especially
we find in it the consciousness that the fetich-worship marks
a secondary religious stage, which had been preceded by the
worship of one God. The Ashantee language, too, has a
word to indicate the idea of God.

The supreme god of the Jorubas, Shango, was the god of
thunder and lightning. The Egbas worship a good god
Obbatalla, over against whom is the evil god Shugudu. The
Nupis worship one supreme god Soko, who is again evidently
identical with the Shango of the Jorubas. The names Zambi,
Shango, Soko, form an etymological series. The heathen
tribes existing in and around Bajirmi in the Soudan have all
a belief in one supreme, invisible being. They regard the
thunder as his voice, and assign his dwelling to the clouds.1
The negroes of the Bonny country call their temples Uru-
houses, uru-wara, or in the Ebo dialect, houses of Ara, olo
ab-ara. They thus have uru, ara as an appellative of God.

There are now, however, negro tribes widely spread through
.Central Africa, among whom there is still preserved the know-
ledge, yea the worship, of the one invisible god Mungu,
Mulungu. There is such a knowledge among the Makra
negroes, who " have a clear conception of a supreme being,
but do not pray to him;"2 among the Matambwes, who
" tremble before Mulungu, do not willingly speak of him, and
fear misfortune when he is spoken of." 3 There is such a
worship in the countries between the Lakes of Nyassa, Bang-
weolo, Tanganyika, and Muero, where they know nothing of
idols and fetiches.4 The Maganjas of Lake Nyassa in a
case of death say of the deceased: Mungu took him. The
inhabitants of these regions in respect of their bodily forma-
tion, a fine facial angle, good cast of countenance, and lips not
protruding, occupy a position nearer the original type of the
negro, and show less evidence of deterioration ; 5 and traces

1 Comp. Nachtigal, Sahara und Sudan, 1881, part 2, p. 685.

2 Livingstone's Last Journals.

3 Ibid. * Ibid. 5 Hid.

§ 278.] THE SAVAGE RACES OF AFRICA. 141

are found among them of previous higher culture, of the
exercise of the art of agriculture, smith's and potter's craft.1
The maintenance of a higher religious position among them
goes hand in hand with the preservation of a nobler form of
a physical type.

That the knowledge and worship of the one invisible God
is the original, and the heathenism is the element afterward
introduced, is demonstrated incontestably from this, that the
root of the divine name, Punga, Bonga, Mungu, is common
to the most diverse negro tribes, and even to the most diverse
Hamite tribes, therefore in use before their separation,
whereas each tribe has its own designation for the inferior
deities, idols, fetiches, and spirits. Thus, for example, in
Central Africa, as designations of the souls of deceased men,
we meet with the words ngolu and mezimo; then in the GSL
language, sise} sunsum ; in the speech of the Loango Coast,
fetisso and shinbi; the gods are called by the Odshi obosom,
in Loango kissie, among the Betchuanas rimo, in Manjuema
nkongolo ; idol images among the Odshis are called amagd
and wodstii, etc. In Majuemeland, between Lake Tanganyika
and the river Lualaba, there exists still the transition stage
between the old monotheism and the fetich and spirit worship.
A god of heaven is still worshipped under the name of Gulu,
which means above or heaven ; but there is placed alongside
of him a god of earth, Mamou, which means below. Souls
after death go to Gulu, and are worshipped as ancestor-deities
by the erection of wooden and tin images of the ancestors, and
by the offering of goat's flesh.2 The names of particular sub-
ordinate deities are entirely different among the various tribes.
For example, among the Kanuris of Bornu there are a forest-
god Koliram, a water-god Ngamaram ; among the Afoos there
are the animal-shaped idol Dodo with two faces, one bearded
the other beardless, and Harna-ja-mussa, sitting without arms ;
among the Batumas, on the islands in Lake Tchad, there is a
god of storms Nadshikenem, and two good spirits Betziromaino
1 Livingstone's Last Journals. 2 Ibid.

142 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 279.

and Bakoma-main.i The Wagandas acknowledge one god, a
creator of the world, whom they call Kabonda. Especially to
the god of thunder do they present offerings and prayers.2

CHAPTER IV. — THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA.

§ 279. Introductory.

We possess a useful work upon the history of the religions
of the primitive inhabitants of America, which has been
wrought up with great diligence, but it is only in the form
of a collection of materials. J. G. Miiller of Basel, in his
Amerikanischen Urrdigwnen, Basel 1855, has indeed assured
us in his preface that he has no intention whatever of doing
anything more than to present a statement of facts. In the
execution of his work, however, he has done the very opposite,
and has put a violent pressure upon his facts in the form of
a scheme of & priori conceptions which he carries with him.
His fundamental error consists in his refusing to hear any
question about a historical connection between those races and
religions and the races and religions of the Old World, and his
tracing the origin of the American religions purely to physical
causes. In cold climates the mind must turn to belief in
ghosts and shamanism, and in warm climates to the worship
of the sun. This would require us to regard Senegambia as
possessed of a very cold climate ! (See § 278.) How far one
may be carried by such & priori constructions is shown in the
case of Fr. von Erdrnann (see § 260, Obs. 3), which should
afford a warning against such methods. The Great Spirit of
the redskins is, according to J. G. Miiller, only the chief of the
hobgoblins, and indeed scarcely makes a figure at all after Miiller
has laboriously proved that that Great Spirit is not the God of
the Christians ! Surely the petrifaction of a palm is not the

1 Eohlfs, Quer durch Afrika, ii. pp. 10, 199, part 1, p. 333 ff.

2 Easier Miss. Mag. 1880, p. 252.

§ 279.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 143

living palm, but yet it gives evidence that a living palm had
once existed there. The legends of the Peruvians, Toltecs, and
other tribes of foreign origin, who introduced culture and the
worship of the sun into the country, may be ever so clear and
definite, yet J. G. Miiller reduces them all to an in priori con-
structed sun-myth, in which the sun-god is represented as the
god and patron of agriculture ; in this way, by and by, he
might make a sun-god out of the Scandinavian god Odin.
However distinctly traces of a knowledge of the flood are
found among the most diverse American tribes, — a flood which
came upon the earth after the human race had existed there,
from which only one pair was saved, — those traditions, accord-
ing to J. G. Miiller, are only cosmogonic philosophemes
explaining the origin of the world from the water; as if
these Indian tribes had troubled their heads about such
problems, and had simply adopted the philosophical principle
of Thales ! The animal attributes of the gods he regards as
original forms under which conceptions of the gods had been
formed ; the idea of gods in human form is generally of later
growth.

The Mexican priesthood is extremely like that of the
Buddhist, down even to minute details of their dress, and
their monkish orders, and their seminaries ; in the empire of
the Incas, Chinese customs, and institutions, and religious
ceremonies are still scrupulously preserved, down to the
smallest particulars ; but these immigrations from Asia must
upon no account be thought of. These are fancies, but no
history. The constant, ant-like diligence, however, with which
J. G. Miiller has gathered together from a literature very
rich but very fragmentary, and often hard to disentangle, the
material for a scientific investigation, though it may be only in
an unmethodized heap of chaff and chips, is deserving of our
sincere gratitude.

When, now, I set myself to work up this material (in regard
to which generally it may here suffice to refer to the pages of
Miiller, where the sources and guarantees are found carefully

144 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES.

recorded), it is quite evident that I shall not separate the
ethnographical question about descent and extraction from
the religious and historical, and that in regard to both of these
questions the linguistic researches, to which Buschmann l
before all others has made important contributions, will be
employed by me as a lever, yea, often as a foundation. In
ethnographical matters Eauch 2 has broken ground in a very
capable manner. He has properly acknowledged that one
should not allow himself to be determined by any isolated
characteristic to assume this or that derivation for any one
American tribe.3 Besides what we learn from the anatomical
physical constitution, we must have relationship in manners
and customs; besides proof of the physical possibility of a
migration or sea voyage from the conjectured fatherland to the
American abode, we must have some historical record of the
fact, even though it be only in the form of a tradition. If
then, moreover, the facts thus arrived at are confirmed by the
manifest affinity of the religion ; if, for example, the worship
of the moon in connection with impure practices is found
among such tribes of the East Coast opposite Africa as have
a construction of skull and a dark colour which point to a
North African extraction; if, on the other hand, a faithful
reproduction of the Chinese customs and constitution, and the
Chinese worship of the sun, is found among the Western
tribes of a light colour and oblique eyes, — the facts arrived at
obtain a very important confirmation. That the population
found by the discoverers of America in possession of the

1 J. E. O. Buschmann, " Spuren der aztek. Sprache im Norden Mexi-
ko's," in the Abhandl. der Berl. Akad. der Wissensch. 1854, Suppl. vol. ii.
"Ueber die aztek. Oetsnamen," ibid. 1852. "Ueber die athapaskischen
Sprachen," ibid. 1859. " Die Vb'lker und Sprachen Neumexiko's," ibid.
1857, p. 209 ff.

2 P. M. Eauch, die Einheit des Nenschengeschlechtes, Augsb. 1837, pp.
266-366.

3 Even the single fact that Europeans who live long in Brazil find
their hair becoming crisp and splitting at the ends, and their skin assum-
ing a greyish yellow colour (Oscar Canstatt, Brasilien, Berl. 1877, p. 17),
shows how alongside of descent, yet in spite of and in contradiction to it,
the climate has an influence upon the bodily constitution.

§ 279.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 145

country, was made up of tribes of very diverse extraction, is
proved by the differences of colour. We have (§ 125,05s. 1)
convinced ourselves from facts in our possession that sameness
of colour does not justify us in concluding to sameness of
origin ; but all the more surely does diversity of colour in the
same country and climate lead to the assumption of diversity
of origin. When, then, in California, alongside of the majority
of the tribes remaining there, who are dark-coloured, and,
according to Rollin and Prichard, have negro skulls and short
depressed noses, we find the bright-coloured tribe of the
Monas ; l when on the northern coasts of South America,
alongside of the dark-coloured Caribs worshipping a moon-
goddess, we find the light-coloured, small-nosed Guaranis ; on
the banks of the Amazon, alongside of the black Amaquas,
the light-coloured, oblique-eyed Botocudos, who call themselves
Aymaras,2 and in this unwittingly give evidence of their tribal
affinity with the Peruvian Aymaras of Lake Titicaca, — it is
shown by this and similar circumstances to be a fact, that races
of very diverse origin had migrated to America, and having
thrust themselves among one another, they here and there,
quite naturally, got blended together.

In conclusion, there only remains the question, what weight
in this investigation should be allowed to the language and
the affinity of the languages of the several groups of tribes ?
Tribes which, notwithstanding local separation from each
other, still speak the same or a very similar language, or at
least have important roots common to one another, certainly
prove thereby their tribal affinity.3 On the other hand,
diversity of language affords no incontestable proof against
sameness of origin. There is found in the languages of un-
civilised, or even half-civilised people, quite demonstrably a
remarkable process of rapid and most irregular transmutation

1 Rauch, die, Einheit dcs Menschengeschlechtes, p. 278.

2 Miiller, amerikanischen Urreligioiien, p. 241.

3 Thus Buschmann has proved the linguistic and tribal affinity of the
Sonora group, and the same again in regard to the Athabascans.

EBRARD III. K

146 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 279.

of sounds, and a change of language going the length of
becoming unintelligible to those who have its earlier form.
The comparison of the Greek dialects with one another shows
an interchange of gutturals and labials (TTOIO?, Ionic /coto9,
etc.) ; among Celtic languages, the Welsh has constantly
changed gutturals into labials; but what is that in com-
parison to the changes of sound introduced into the Burmese
languages, although in these, as monosyllabic languages, there
is no opportunity of changing the root-stems by inflection or
agglutination. There the present language as spoken differs
completely from that of former times fixed in writing ; l leak
has become tet, kri is shi, kra is kya, thang is thi, etc. "What,
then, must it have been in the case of the agglutinate lan-
guages of America, where, in addition to this agglutinate con-
struction, it was customary to mutilate the several roots
in the rarest and most capricious manner 1 2 With what
rapidity such languages come to be unintelligible, that is, to
be completely changed, Moffat 3 and Tschudi 4 show by most
notable examples. Single troops of Indians, as Tschudi tells,
are separated from the main body of the tribe, pass into
distant regions, and there form for themselves an essentially
new language, at least an idiom, which contains an altogether
new vocabulary, and is not intelligible to the mother tribe. To
all this we must still add the mingling of languages, when one
tribe is brought into relation with a foreign tribe of different
extraction, be it in the way of friendly commercial inter-
course, or as dwellers in the land in the form of a subject

1 TV. von Humboldt, Gesammelte Werke, vi. 343. Compare above,
§264.

2 The Delaware language, e.g., connects together ki, thou, wulit, pretty,
wichgat, paw, schis, little, into one word — kuligatschis, thy pretty little
paw; naten, to fetch, amochol, boat, into nadhol - ineen — fetch us in
boats ; nayundam, to bear a burden, awesis, an animal — into nana-
yung-es, a beast of burden. Humboldt, Werke, vi. 323.

3 Moffat, Missionary Labours and Scenes in Southern Africa, London
1842.

4 Tschudi, die Kechuassprache, i. 8. Comp. Rauch, die Einheit des
Nenschengeschlechtes, p. 303.

THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 147

race. Hence only positive proofs of tribal affinity, or at least
historical evidence of close connection, and not merely absence
of proof to the contrary, should be sought for from the
languages.1

When now, by the application of the above-mentioned
criteria, we investigate scientifically the primitive populations
of America, we find that America was peopled by means of
six successive immigrations. 1. The original stock of the
population seems to have consisted of Malay tribes, together
with Melanesians, who either were subject to them or had
fled before them. These made their appearance in America
about B.C. 1600 or 1400. From them are sprung the
Araucaniaus, Patagonians, primitive Californians, the Kolushes
of the Orinoco, and the primitive inhabitants of Peru, repre-
senting the Stone Period there, whose blood flows in the
veins of many of the mixed tribes. 2. It may, perhaps, be
considered doubtful whether Phoenician ships touched the
coasts of America so early as B.C. 600; but it can be proved
with certainty that about A.D. 600, North African pirates, the
Berbers, were driven to Brazil, and that from them are sprung
the Amaquas, Caribs, Charruas, etc. 3. From the Mongolian
group of races, and especially from Japan, there came, at a
somewhat earlier date, about A.D. 100, civilised tribes which
took possession of Chiapa, or, indeed, generally of Central
America, and founded in Bogota the two empires of the
Muysca, and in Peru the ancient Peruvian empire. The
Botocudos are some of those which broke off from the rest and

1 Buschmann, " Spuren der aztek. Sprache," says at p. 39 : " I would
only undertake to explain the general type of this group of languages
spread over a vast tract of the earth's surface, and broken up into a
thousand forms. I have already by repeated endeavours sought to indi-
cate the contents of such a problem ; they embrace the infinite sub-
divisions, separations, alienations, and violent expulsions of the American
races and the smallest groups of men, occasioned by natural circumstances,
by prevalent customs, and modes of life, by the hatreds rankling in savage
natures ; and also, on the other hand, the most multifarious commingling
through friendly relations, intentional and violent linguistic changes, and
disfigurement, and finally, capricious linguistic contrivances."

148 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 280.

took to the nomadic hunting life, and uncivilised customs of
a degraded tribe. 4. Somewhat later, probably about A.D. 500,
from China or its immediate neighbourhood, a troop rushed
down through California upon Mexico, founded there the
empire of the Toltecs, was driven southward about A.D. 1290
by new hordes of invaders, and founded the empire of the
Incas in Peru. 5. The Tshukkhi tribes, driven away by the
Mongols under Genghis Khan, fled about A.D. 1200 over
Aleutia to North America, where they appeared as Tshits-
himecs, and from these are descended also the Mandans,
the Menomennecs, east of the Eocky Mountains, and the
Calif ornian Monas. Soon afterwards, about A.D. 1282, a
Mongolian horde followed, made up of various constituents,
outwardly tinged with Buddhism and Chinese civilisation,
from China, which were then subject to the Mongols, a horde
which, under the name of the Nahuatlan tribe, entered
Mexico, then under the Aztecs. 6. Finno-Tartaric tribes
came in the 13th century over Kamtschatka into the north,
peopled Greenland, drove the Malayan Alligewi, and later
also the Aztecs, southwards, and got mixed up with the
original population belonging to the two principal races of
the Redskins, the Delawares and the Mengwes.

Each of those six immigrations will now be carefully proved,
and there will be added in respect of each of them a historical
statement of the nature of their religious condition.

A. — MALAYAN-POLYNESIAN IMMIGRATION, B.C. 1600-1400.

§ 280. Evidence of this Immigration.

A. It has been already shown in § 270 that the Malays
were expert seamen, and undertook relatively long voyages,
and that Polynesia was peopled by them. This makes it quite
possible that the Malays should have reached America. A
race which had spread itself over a space 2550 geographical
miles long, from Madagascar to Hawaii, might also surely

§ 280.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 149

travel thence to California, a distance of 600 miles, and, if not
willingly, then all the more certainly if under constraint to do
so. The North Pacific Ocean current runs from the Polynesian
islands direct to North California, and in the Gulf of California
there are continually seen the wreck of boats, stems of trees,
and sea- weed, which have been driven from Polynesia to those
coasts. On the other side, the South polar current in the South
Pacific Ocean passes over toward Easter island and thence to
Chili. Ships or boats which get into one of these two currents
would inevitably be driven either to California or to Chili.

B. Now, as a matter of fact, Indian tribes are found in both
of these countries which exhibit in a striking manner the
Malayan-Polynesian type. Pickering1 found in California,
alongside of the group speaking the Sonora languages, which,
as we have seen, are Mongolian tribes of a later immigration,
tribes of darker complexion, whose build and cast of counte-
nance were quite Polynesian. The same also is reported by
Jaquinot.2 From California these tribes spread themselves
southwards along the coast. In Acapulco, on the south-west
coast of Mexico, Chamberlain, a missionary in Hawaii, found
aborigines whose Polynesian customs arrested his attention.
Such, too, were the experiences of Captain Hall, Bory de St.
Vincent, Ellis, and W. von Humboldt, all along the west
coast.3 The Indians of New Spain have the brown skin, the
small hands, and slender build of the Polynesians. Malay
servants, brought by Smith to New Jersey, were astonished at
the appearance of the Indians there, and the Indians at theirs,
because of their likeness to one another.4 These extend down
to Terra del Fueso.5

1 Pickering, The Races of Man, pp. 100-108.

2 Jaquinot, -Annuaire des voyages, 1846, p. 179.

3 Hall in Pickering, p. 113. Bory, der Mensch, Weimar 1827, p. 170.
Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. 121. A. von Humboldt, Reisen in die Aequa-
torialgegenden, part 2. Com p. Piatich, EinJieit des Menschg. p. 349 f.

4 Smith, Essay, p. 217. Assal, Nachrichten iiber die friiheren Eimcan-
derung Nordamerikds, p. 85.

5 Lin. Martin, Naturgeschichte des 3fenschen, p. 343.

150 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 280.

C. To the similarity of physical build must be added
similarity of customs, and this proves that Malayan-Polynesian
tribes gave their populations not only to the west coast, but
also, pressed and driven by later incomers, or led by the love
of wandering, they have made their way in North, as well as
in South, America to the east coast. Decidedly Polynesian
customs are found not merely on the west coasts of California
down to the Araucanians and Patagonians, but also among the
Natchez and Creeks, among the Iroquois and Dahcotahs or
Sioux, and even the Kolushes of Norfolk Sound, as well as among
several tribes on the Orinoco. The custom of shaving away
their hair, with the exception of a single lock, is not decisive ;
it prevails in Polynesia, but, according to Herodotus, was met
with among several of his Scythian tribes, which perhaps were
identical with the Ugro-Tartars or Tungusic-Mongols, and is met
with at the present time among Tartars and Kalmucks. More
decisive are the painting of the body in gay colours, the piercing
of the ear-flaps and hanging in them heavy ornaments. The
Araucanians, along with many neighbouring tribes, wear wrapt
about their head the Pontsho, which is exactly similar to the
Tiputa of the Tahitians.1 Both peoples have the same sort
of armour ; both, as well as the most of the Indian tribes of
North America designated the Eedskins, preserve the scalps of
slaughtered foes as a sign of victory. As on many of the
South Sea islands, it is customary among the Old Californian
savages to cut off the little finger of a child in order to save
one from a deadly sickness.2 In the one race as well as in
the other, and also among the Brazilian Tupis, corpses are
buried in a sitting posture. In Durango in the north-east of
Mexico, in 1818, a pit was uncovered, in the bottom of which
over a thousand well-preserved Indian corpses were seated,
with their hands placed upon their knees.3 Sometimes they

1 Ellis, Polynesian Researches, i. 182.

2 "Waitz, Anthropologie, iv. 250.

* Buschmann, " Spuren der aztek. Sprache," etc., p. 183. Canstatt,
Brasilien, p. 80.

§ 280.] THE PEOPLES AND HOKDES OF AMERICA. 151

were put in a boat, and this then hung between two trees. At
San Sacramento in New California, the women wear the maro,
just as in Polynesia.1 The Indians of Old California, when
the country was first visited by Europeans, went naked, the
men completely, the women with a girdle, just as in many
Polynesian islands. Tattooing is not only generally a
Polynesian custom, but also in Bodega Bay Vancouver found
the women tattooed exactly in the same way as on the Sand-
wich islands. Among the Assiniboins, as also upon the
Marquesas islands, there is found in front of every village a
paved court for holding assemblies of the people.2 In Upper
California the women wear a needle in their hair as in the
Fiji islands, and the feather head-dress like that of Hawaii.
The Aztecs in Mexico were distinguished in the art of feather
ornamentation, garments and carpets being' made up of
feathers, wrought in patterns and representing complete scenes.
They seem, however, to have learnt this art from some tribe
which they met with among the older inhabitants. Mummies
have also been found in North America with such feather
dresses, which could hardly have been of Aztec origin, but
must rather have belonged to some Polynesian tribe, since
that art of feather embroidery is native to Polynesia.3 The
artistic carvings of the Kolushes are also produced by the
Polynesians. On the Orinoco the Indians shoot their poisoned
darts through a long tube, just as the Malays of the Indian
Archipelago do ; by the Malays the tube is called sarlacane,
by the Orinoco Indians it is called sgaravatana ;4 the c is
turned into t, otherwise it is the same word. The Polynesians
prepare from the piper amethysticum the intoxicating drink
called Jcava, in preparing which old women chew the root of
this plant, then spit it out, and cause an affusion to run over
the matter expectorated while in a state of fermentation. In

1 Smith, Essay, p. 238. Ellis, Researches, i. 178.

2 Jaquinot, Annuaire des voyages, p. 182.

3 Assal, Nachrichten, etc., pp. 65, 95.

4 Bradford, American Antiquities, p. 416.

152 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. f§ 280.

precisely the same way the Tupis prepare their kaveng, or
kavan, or kaonin from soaked maize, which is chewed by old
women. The Ges in Brazil prepare an intoxicating drink from
the fruit of the Assai palm, and other South American Indians
from soaked Cassada, chewed by old women.1 Among the
Dahcotahs, Iroquois, and Hurons, every family chooses an
animal or a plant as an escutcheon or protection, and then he
dare not kill or eat any of that species. This custom is also
found in Australia, where the word kobong is used to indicate
such an animal or plant.2 The taboo of the Polynesians is
also of a similar nature. The Melanesians, too, seem to have
reached America either before the Polynesians or along with
them as a subject race. The custom, prevalent among the
Papuans, of knocking out an upper incisor tooth on reaching
man's estate, was observed by Skyring among the Patagonian
tribes, and the bodily build of the Pesherahs reminds one
very strongly of that of the Papuans.

D. The tradition of the Malays of Tonga, that two
daughters of the demi-god Langi, while their father attended
an assembly of the gods, went, contrary to his orders, to
the earth, and for this were condemned to death, is found,
as has been already noticed by W. von Humboldt,3 among
the Tamanacs on the Orinoco. It there takes the form of
a legend of Amalivaka, who breaks the feet of his travel-
loving daughters in order to keep them at home.

E. It must now be quite evident that we assume not a
single immigration, but several repeated immigrations of the

1 "Waitz, Anthropologie, iii. 423. Kotzebue, Eeisen, ii. 42. Globus, vii.
204. Gerland, das Austerben der Naturvolhr, p. 42 if. Canstatt, Brasilien,
p. 81. Also at Chittagong, on the Burmese territories in Further India,
E. Hildebrandt (Reise um die Erde, i. 115) found this custom, which also
there was evidently of Malay origin. The drink is there called tshitsha,
from the Jav. root tshotshot, mouth, to eat, to drink. The same word is
found in Peru. See § 294. Kava, kavan, corresponds to the Polynesian
root kai, kain, ky (kaneri), to chew. This root, too, may possibly lie at the
basis of the Jav. tshotshot.

2 Prichard, The Physical History of Mankind, iv. 282.

3 Werke, iv. 454.

§ 280.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 153

Malayan-Polynesians, as well as Melanesians, into America,
and also that we have by no means intended to describe
the above-named American tribes as pure, unmixed Malays
or Polynesians. Blendings of many a kind with Melauesians
and with tribes of a different extraction, which in other
ways came into America at a later period, have certainly
taken place ; yet this has happened in such a manner that
the Malay-Polynesian customs continue in full force among
the above-named tribes, so as to prove the predominance in
them of Polynesian blood, and that, too, just where the
physical appearance of the Polynesians is most perfectly
preserved.

F. This Malay-Polynesian population, however, seems to
have been the earliest population of America. The Malays
moved on before the Mongolian races toward the south-
east We might suppose that at latest, about B.C. 2200,
they peopled the Sunda islands; about B.C. 1800 they took
possession of Polynesia; and between B.C. 1600 and B.C. 1400
they reached America. This conjecture commends itself as
feasible, not only because the seafaring art and the spirit
of enterprise among the Malayan-Polynesians failed at a
later period,1 and that the idea of separate boats being
cast involuntarily upon the coast of America is not a
probable theory, but also for several other reasons. First
of all, the so-called cultured races of Japanese and Chinese
extraction, which we have come to know in § 286-291,
as a whole and separately, have the tradition that on their
first arrival they found before them a wild, uncivilised
population. And, in fact, the cultured period in Peru,
under the old Peruvian empire of the Aymaras, was pre-
ceded by a Stone Age.2 In the second place, the American
language as a whole, — if we except from them those of

1 This sinking continued in America. The Tupis or Tubinambas in
Brazil in earlier times built ships which were able to carry as many as
sixty men ; now they only construct small canoes (Canstatt, Brasilien,
p. 79).

2 Eougemont, Bronzezeit, p. 26.

154 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 280.

the cultured races, the Katshua language in Peru, some
Central American languages, the Sonora-Xahuatlian group
of languages, and the language of the Caddos, among which
are found traces more or less of a finer construction, —
viewed as a whole and separately in regard to their con-
struction, belong to the class of agglutinate languages (§ 256,
Obs. 1), and are indeed of the same rude order as is pre-
valent among the languages of the Malays and Polynesians.
To seek after a similarity of vocabulary between these
American and Malayan - Polynesian languages would be
(§ 279) uninteresting and wearisome. The meanings of
words among those wild races are constantly changing.
Such changes occur first in their spelling, so that the same
root changes its letters ; l secondly, in the use of words,
so that homonymous words are attached to their synonyms
by way of explaining their meaning, and are often so fused
together as to be unrecognisable till the ingredients of the
word so formed are swallowed up and lost, and then a
new compound vocable is produced. These languages are
related to the languages of the cultured races of the Old
World as the gravel, rubbish, and sand of the rivers are to
the historical or crystallized rock of the mountains. Every-
thing of the most diverse sort is there gathered together in
a pounded condition. It is, however, all the more remark-
able if amid such rubbish something of value may here
and there be discovered. Thus Ellis found in the language
of the Araucanians several New Zealand words.2 The
Portuguese found the world anile used for the indigo plant
in South America; in Malayan nil means blue, derived

1 The same is true of the superior Sonora group of languages. Dark
is among the Comanches tohop, among the Wihinasht tuhuhtrit, among
the Soshones tmcit, among the Sonoras, in the narrower sense, tucu,
tschoca; white is among the Comanches toshop, totshza, among the
Soshones tushawi, among the Sonoras tosca, tosa, toa; bear is in Com.
ochzo, among the Coroados oztet; water is among Aztecs a-tli, Sonoras
ah-te, Soshones ookshe ; stone, Azt. te-tl, Sonor. tim-ba, tupa ; dog,
Azt. tshitshi, Sosh. sogoouk ; wind, Azt. eca-tl, Sonor. heicava, etc.

2 Ellis, Researches in Polynesia, ii. 46.

§ 280.] THE PEOPLES AND HOEDES OF AMERICA. 155

from the Sanscrit nila, dark- blue. It is also remarkable
that the dual, which is found in Malacca, the Philippine
islands, and New Holland, appears again among the Arau-
canians, in Peru, on the Orinoco, among the Totanacs of
Vera Cruz, among the Cherokees, the Chaimas, and even as
far as Greenland.1 In like manner, the existence of a
restricted and wider plural, signifying respectively some
and many, in Tahiti, and then again among the Abipones
in Paraguay, and the Mocobis in Chaco, is worthy of attention
(see Obs).

G. Finally, the Malay-Polynesian immigration to America
is confirmed by the plants found in cultivation there. The
yam is native to the Indian Archipelago, and grows there
wild ; in America it appears as a cultivated plant, reared by
many of the Indian tribes.2 Bradford makes the same
remark in regard to the indigo and banana.3 The same
holds true in regard to the architectural remains. The
pyramid temples of the Aztecs, the teocalli (see § 299), are
well known. That the Aztecs were not of Malay origin is
sure enough ; yet it would appear that this style of archi-
tecture, as well as the art of feather embroidery, was learnt
from a people of Polynesian descent, which they met with
in America, probably in California. The very same sort of
pyramids are found in the South Sea islands ; in Tahiti and
the Fiji islands, where they are called morai (see § 283),
and then again also in America, in parts not under the
dominion of the Aztecs (§ 283). These morais, again,
are connected with the Indian pagoda style of temples.
Also the mussel heaps, as remnants of meals that had been
partaken of, are found in Australia, and in Terra del Fuego,

1 W. von Humboldt, Gesammelte Werke, vi. 562 ff.

2 De Candolle, Geographie botanique raisonn&, 1855, ii. 280.

3 Bradford, American Antiquities, p. 416. The Musa paradisiaca and
sapientium has, according to G. Brown, vermisch. Schrifttn, i. 302, and
Grisebach, Vegetation der Eade, its home in the East Indies ; but, on the
discovery of America, it was found wild and half wild in Peru, Central
America, and Mexico.

156 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 280.

and in the interior of Brazil, and indeed in a great multitude
of places.1 Also the Polynesian art of constructing weapons
from quartz and flint is met with in Brazil, where the Indians
of the present day understand how, by means of plane-tree
wood, sand, and water, to bore through the quartz and fit
it to their purposes.2 On Cuba, Columbus found orange
trees growing wild. The home of the orange is Asia
(Grisebach).

Obs. — Malay words are found in many American languages.

1. Among the Jumas, north of the river Gila in California.
Her-mai, boy, Tagal. aro. Hailpit, child, Jav. kulup. Ntaie,
mother, Maori and Tah. matua. Homaie, son, Maori and Tah.
tamaidi, Haw. kamalii. Sithl, bone, Jav. sikil. Weel, foot,
Maori wae. Klup-wataie, star, Bug. witoeng. Tawawam, earth,
Mai. Jav. Malag. tana. Huth-lja, moon, Jav. wulan, Bug. ulong
(Haw. la, light, sun). Oumut, hut, Jav. homah. Ahatlau-o,
sea, Mai. luhut, Jav. lahut. Hashacut, inland lake, Jav. tasek,
Bug. tasik. Weequateie, mountain, Jav. bukit. Owee, stone,
Tah. ofai. Eesh, tree, Malag. hazo. Tasauo, food, flesh, Malag.
tandzah, to eat, Bug. dshuca, flesh. Awocope, hail, Haw. pohacu,
stone. Aa-wo, fire, Mai. Jav. Bug. api, Tagal. hapon. Aha,
water, Mai. ajer. Otaique, great, Mai. gadang. Onoeoque, small,
Maori nohi-nohi. Halolk, slight, Mai. hakal. Huts-ele, cold,
Jav. hatis. Ep-ele, warm, Bug. mobola, Jav. panas. Asee, husue,
to drink, Malag. hisnan. Quer-quer, to speak, Jav. witscharo
(root KAE).

2. Among the adjoining Comaricopas the word tschampapa,
four, is found quite peculiar to them, and corresponding to the
Malay word ampat.

3. On the language of the Athabascan tribes, which appears
in scattered groups from Hudson's Bay down to Mexico, see
below at § 301, Obs.

4. Even in the Sonora languages, which belong to non-Malay
tribes (§ 297, Obs.\ we meet with several Malay words. For
foot the Malay word is kaki, the Soshone and Wihinasht is kuki,
that of the Comanches is koegen, of South Sonora is goggui,
besides the genuinely Sonora words rag and tola. We have
also: teshcap, flesh, Bug. dshuca; tani, to demand, to pray,
Mai. tana, to ask ; tami, we, Mai. kami ; pitschige, to believe,
Mai. pertschja ; hulidade, skin, Mai. kulit ; otose, to send, Mai.
hutus; dubur, dust, Mai. dabu; huri, to live, Jav. hurip ; tapa,
to hew, Mai. tebbang, teba, tappa ; couyet, tree, Mai. kaja ; agu,

1 Kougemont, Bronzezeit, p. 19. 2 Hid. p. 18 f.

§ 280.] THE PEOPLES AXD HORDES OF AMERICA. 157

great, Mai. agung ; ica, this, Mai. iko, hika ; ini, that, Mai. ini ;
harepo, will, Jav. harep ; oma, house, Mai. homa ; tzinna, day,
Jav. dhina ; tessek (Eskimo), sea, Mai. tasek ; ach, seed, Mai.
kako; ilhuica-tl (ilwica), heaven, Mai. langi; dse (ce), ice, Mai.
tshes, hatis, cold ; calli, cari, house, Haw. hale, Maori ware ;
caqui, cauque, to hear, Tagal. paguing ; dse, se, he, Mai. se, sa,
taha ; eheka, cka, heka, uka, wind, Mai. and Polyn. angin, angi ;
mati, to know, Pelew madang ; miqui, to die, Polyn. mate;
~baa, water, Jav. bangu, Polyn. wai. Qua, to eat, may be com-
pared with Polyn. kai.

5. In the Tsoneca language of the Tehuellches of Patagonia
(G. Cha worth -Musters, At Home with ike, Patagonians: A
Years Wanderings, etc., London 1871), many words are found
the same as in Malay. Kaki, wood, Mai. cuju, Tagal. cahui;
ketz, good, Tagal. igui, Haw. maikai; ham-mersh, slight, Mai.
mara, Tagal. masama ; ipors, warm, Mai. panas, Bug. mapola,
Tagal. mabanas; kekosh, cold, Mai. sej'uk, Bug. ma-cMkek;
talenque, small, Malag. kelik; pash-lik, hungry, Tab. Haw. poia,
pololi; tehonik, men, Tong. tangata, Tagal. Bug. tau ; jank
(yank), father, Jav. jaja, pak, Bug. am-bak ; janna, mother,
Tagal. Bug. ina, Jav. ~bi-jang ; iliallum, son, Jav. kulup, Malag.
calau (daughter) ; iten, brother, Mai. Jav. adik, hadi ; koque-tra,
children, Jav. katschung (kachung), Mai. kotto ; tal, tongue,
Tagal. dila, Malag. dela ; tsicc-r, hands, Mai. tangan ; shankence,
feet, Jav. sucu; gegenko, seed, Jav. sren-genge; slwwan, moon,
Malag. tsauon, sawa, light; aaskren, star, Jav. sasa, Malag.
vasia ; tsor, year, Mai. taun, tahun, taon, Tong. tow ; lei, water,
Jav. Mai. lahut, luut, sea ; jaik, fire, Polyn. ahi, awahi ; hoshen,
wind, Jav. Tagal. liangin ; pawal, cloud, Tagal. papajitin ; paan,
smoke, Polyn. po, darkness ; quejomen, night, Jav. wengi, Bug.
w'oni ; jipper, flesh, Polyn. kai, ai, to eat, Haw. io, flesh ; tsclioi,
cattle, Mai. dshawi; gol, puma, Haw. holo, animal; oin, fish,
Mai. ikan, Jav. hiwah, Tah. Haw. ia ; tschorlo, black, Jav.
tscheleng ; golwin, white, Jav. pin-gal, Haw. keo ; y-shengs, to
go, Mai. song ; amili, to buy, Jav. Tagal. ~bili ; quewar, to barter,
Haw. quai, Maori oko, Tong. fuccu, Jav. tuku; i-muk, to kill,
TagaL Tong. mate; Tdnskot, Jav. handhika. Among the
numerals, tshutshi, one, corresponds to Jav. sawitshi ; winikusk,
six, Bug. onbng, is more doubtful. With giialitshu, evil spirit,
we may compare the Malag. word manguelo, sickness ; it may,
however, be connected still more closely with the Haw. icali,
to be alone, Tong. wale, frantic, Haw. wale-wale, to bring into
danger.

6. The language of the Cotshimi, in the north of California,
yields the following parallels: tejueg, one, Polyn. tahi ; goguo,
two, Polyn. dua, ua; kcina, father, Haw. kane, man; lahai,
father, Mai. Malag. laki lahi, husband ; ac, father, Haw. makua ;

158 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE BACES. [§ 281.

nada, mother, Bug. indok, Tagal. ina; wakoe, imktu, wagin,
wife, Polyn. ivahine ; jwta, blood, Jav. getih, Maori toto; aha,
mouth, Polyn. waha ; ajibika, eye, Haw. wok, to see ; miwibanga,
name, Jav. wewangi, Polyn. hingoa; cucuem, to go, Pelew kom;
nagana, hand, Mai. tang an, Tagal. kamai ; aji-huenen, house,
Tong. obi, dwelling, Mai. homa, house.

7. In the languages of the Pueblo Indians in New Mexico,
the Tesuque, Zunni, etc., which are rich in Ugro-Tartar words, a
remarkable number of Malay words are also found.

(a) Tesuque : koo, to eat, Polyn. kai ; ojez, ear, Tong. ongo, to
hear ; peu-ih-qwah, dead, Tag. poke ; paindih, black, Polyn. po,
night ; tairi, evening, Mai. suri; au, foot, Tah. avae, Tong. vae ;
eose, God, Polyn. etoa, atua ; pih, heart, Mai. Polyn. poso, fo ;
piquai, mountain, MaL bukit (Zunni : tai-poke) ; taik (Zunni :
taiko-hanannai), light, Bug. tadshang, day ; sae, man, Mai.
Tong. tauo, tau; poje, moon (Polyn. po, night, and Tesuque,
ahgo-jah, star, po-jah, night star) ; hiquia-eh, small, Haw. iki ;
hiih, to speak, Haw. hai, i; poh, water, Tah. pape (Tesuque,
ogh, water, Ugr. oja) ; muaho, wind, Haw. makani.

(b) Zunni : klemkai-annai, ice, Haw. anu, cold ; aina, iena,
dead, Bug. unoi; tsanna, small, Tong. tschi; piji, to speak, Bug.
pan; jai, wife, Polyn. wahine; quinna, black, Bug. wonni;
icaiquinne, river, Haw. kapu-wai ; annanai, heart, Polyn. nanu.

Among the numerals the following are Malayan : four,
Tesuque ionauh, Haw. kauna, Zunni awite, Tag. apat; five,
Tesuque panau, Zunni apte, Tah. pae; seven, Tesuque tschae,
Mai. tudshu; nine, Tesuque kuaenou, Polyn. chiwa. The rest
are for the most part Ugro-Finnic : e.g. one, guih, Ugr. akve ;
two, guihgeh, Ugr. kita; six, sih, Ugr. seitse; eight, kuhbeh, Ugr.
kahde; ten, taheh, Ugr. tiz.

But above all things we must hold firmly by the possibility,
yea, the probability, of Old Malay appellatives, which in the
American languages have been changed absolutely, or to such a
degree as to be unrecognisable, remaining unchanged, or with
very little change, in the case of the proper names of the gods,
which from the nature of things are more stable. Special
attention will be given to this in the following sections.

§ 281. Traces of Malay Religion in various Parts
of America.

As we have been able to gain some idea of the old
primitive religion of the Malays, at least of the Polynesian
Malays, it will be possible for us to recognise whatever traces
there may be in the religions of the American races of a

§ 281.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 159

Malay origin. This has, indeed, difficulties peculiarly its own.
For as we find in the Indian Archipelago, and in Polynesia,
and among the tribes generally that still remain unaffected
by Buddhism, a state of matters that indicates only a deep
decadence and deterioration from an earlier existing religion,
the case in America is analogous with respect to certain
tribes, of whom it must be concluded, from their bodily build
and their customs, that there is a large proportion of Malay
blood in their veins. If (§ 280) the erection of pyramidal
mounds was a custom prevalent among the early Malay
inhabitants of California, it follows that these people must
have had a worship of God or the gods like to that of their
progenitors, as seen among the Fijians and Tahitians of the
present time. Venegas l found in Old California among the
Indians two religious parties : adherents of Niparaja, whom
he describes as God, and adherents of Wac-Tuparan, who was
described to him as a giant and evil spirit. Niparaja seems
to have had a resemblance to the Great Spirit of the Eedskins.
More than this cannot be said decidedly, least of all can it be
definitely affirmed that the worship of Niparaja was of Malay
origin. The name of Wac-Tuparan is connected in respect
of its first portion with wacan, spirit, in the language of the
Iroquois, and the wahs of the Dahcotahs, that is, with those
redskin tribes whose customs, if not directly of Malay origin,
show at least a strong mixture of Malay blood. Thus the
word wac, waca, which at the same time reminds us of the
Waka-akau-uli of the Tongan legend (§ 272), seems to have
been an Old Malay appellative of God (see Obs. 1). The name
Tuparan is certainly derived from a Malay source. The term
used to designate the idea of God is in Malayan tuhan, in
Javanese tuivan.2 In confirmation of the Malay origin of the
Californian Tuparan, where ran may be a nominative suffix
or an agglutinate predicate, the following remarkable circum-

1 Buschmann, Volker und Sprachen Neu-~Mexicds, p. 463.

2 W. von Humboldt, " Kawisprache," Abh. d. JBerl Akad. d. W, 1832,
part 3, p. 243.

160 HALF-CIVILISED AXD SAVAGE EACES. [§ 281.

stance may be advanced. When we find among the tribes
of the Tupaja Indians in Brazil, the god Tupan, in this form
approaching still nearer to the Javanese Tuwan, we may
assume for those Tupajas a Malay descent or mixture.
Tupan is with them God absolutely, and is regarded indeed
as invisible. It is he who thunders in the clouds, it is he
who taught men agriculture, and who blesses their harvests.1
But among those tribes both agriculture and the worship of
Tupan have fallen into decay, and now lie quite in the back-
ground. For all practical purposes, evil spirits and the
sorcerers defending from them with the marica-bottle play
the most important part. Thus, then, in the Tupan of the
Tupajas we find an indication that originally one God, an
invisible being, had been worshipped by the Malay tribes of
America. Among the Californians this Tuparan, in opposition
to a god Niparaja, evidently imported at a later period, and
from other, probably conquering, tribes, has assumed the place
of the subordinate god of a subordinate race, and is regarded
as an evil spirit, or has been described by the victorious
strangers as a mean and evil god, a process to which we shall
yet find parallels. Fear of evil spirits, however, is met with
in all religions of the most diverse races that have fallen into
deep decadence.

The Araucanians worship a thunder-god, Thalclave, whom
they describe as a pillan, and indeed as guenu-pillan, a
heavenly spirit, dwelling among or above the clouds, who has
also placed under him another friendly pillan, Muelen.2 Over
against this good spirit stands Guencubu, heaven's cubu, an
evil spirit, who is at the same time god of war and death,
from whom all evil comes. He is, however, an oracle. His
name has a connection with the kopong, kulong of the Hamitic
races (§ 278); possibly he was the heavenly god of an
enslaved Melanesian tribe, and was degraded by the victorious
Malayan-Polynesians into an evil deity. Guencubu some-
times appears visibly in the form of a wild animal, and to

1 Miiller, amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 252 ff. 2 Ibid. p. 271.

§281.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 161

whomsoever he appears, that appearance indicates the approach
of a violent death. Under him are other evil spirits : Kaa-
gerre, Taguaiba, Temoli, Taubimana, Curupira, Marangigoana,
Pictangua, Aucangua,1 etc., evidently Melanesian deities. In
the language of the Melanesians, which is closely related to
that of the Kolhs, marang means great, while angua is similar
to the Kolh word ankoi, brother.

The religion of the neighbouring Tsonecas or Tehuellches in
Patagonia is similar to that described (§ 282). Among the
Araucanians gen means a good, malghen or walitshu, gualitshu,
an evil spirit (see § 280, Obs. sub. 5). These evil spirits are
pacified by offerings. The Patagonians in the wider sense,
including the Araucanians and the Penks, had witches of
whom they were afraid, women that were in covenant with
the evil spirits ; they also believed in Jvuneas, that is, men
who live by day in caves, but by night wander as birds of
prey, something like the werewolf; and, finally, they believe
in sorcerers, who compel the evil spirits to share their power
with them, and who hold converse with them by means of the
marica (tamarica), a magic flask made of gourd. By means
of this flask the sorcerers are almighty, and can assume the
form of animals, as in the werewolf legend.2 It is also
remarkable that among the Iroqtiois witches play an important
part, and at the present time are put to death by burning.3
On the other hand, the custom of the Patagonian sorcerers to
secure a state of ecstasy by means of smoking tobacco is
common to many and very diverse wild tribes of America.

The Araucanian tradition of the flood is of interest.4 It
speaks of a flood that covered the whole earth, and represents
only a few men as being saved on a mountain with three
peaks, which swam on the water, and is called "the flashing."
The reminiscence of men saving themselves on some great

1 Miiller, amerikanischen Urreligionen, p. 274.

2 Ibid. p. 275 ff. On the Caribbean origin of the marica, see below
at § 285.

3 Ibid. p. 79 f. 4 Ibid. p. 267.
EBRARD III. L

162 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 281.

swimming article has been confounded with a reminiscence
of the mountain on which this article landed ; but the three
peaks seem to point to the fact that three men were saved
upon it ; and this number of three reappears in most of the
legends of the flood as indicating the number of the sons of
the hero of the flood.

Finally, among many tribes of the Redskins, especially the
Dahcotahs, Iroquois, and Hurons, under the name of kobong,
we meet with the religious custom of the Malay taboo and
the Melanesian kiibong (§ 272).1 If an animal or a species
of plant is declared by a chief of a tribe and by any head of a
family to be kobong, then such an animal may never be killed,
such a plant may never be plucked, by those belonging to
that tribe or to that family. It is indisputable that the
practice, and the word which describes it, were introduced
into America by the Melanesians, who settled there along
with the Malay - Polynesians (comp. § 275). Among the
Melanesians who migrated to South America, cubu was still
used as a name of God ; among those who migrated north-
wards, Jcubong had already been degraded to the meaning of
taboo. The migration northward thus seems to have taken
place at a later period.

Obs. 1.— In the Waka-akau-uli of the Tongan legend (§ 272),
waka means ship, and the whole name means ship of the black
wood. But if it be a priori improbable that a human indivi-
dual should have been called ship, then this name will not be
quite suitable for that form of the myth that answers to the
story of Abel. We saw, § 274, that the legend of the ship of
the black wood was not of genuinely Malayan, but of Cushite-
Melanesian origin, and was connected with the hero of the flood,
the Noah of the Bible. The transference of the Melanesian
name of the hero of the flood to the Malayan-Polynesian Abel,
and the consequent confounding of the two, is thus quite a
later episode. It was precisely the name Waka that gave
occasion to this confusion. From the divine appellative wac,
wakan, wall, met with in various Malayan tribes of America,
we may conclude that waka was a primitive Malay word for
designating God or the demi-gods, legendary heroes receiving

1 Prichard, Physical History of Man, iv. 282.

§ 281.] THE PEOPLES AXD HOKDES OF AMERICA. 163

divine honours. Wok in Hawaiian means to see; God was
designated as the seeing One, the gods were designed as those
who see. Thus could waka be employed as a predicate of Abel,
who bears, in the Tongan legend, the proper name of Akau,
which is confirmed by § 287, sub. c. If, then, the Tonga islanders
heard the Melanesian legend of a man who survived the flood
in a ship of black tiril wood, and told this story in their
own language to one another, the expression Waka-akau-uli
would lead to a confusion regarding the men of the black-
wood ship, the black-wood sailor, and to the identifying of
him with the Waka Akau of their legend of Abel. Such com-
binations and confusions are indeed quite common in the
traditions of the wild races.

In the name Wac Tuparan among the old Californians, we
find that old appellative of God, waka, combined with the
Javanese tuwan. It is possible that the earliest settlers had
brought the word waka as a word and name for the one God
from Hawaii, that this wok then gradually became, in conse-
quence of a polytheistical development of religion, the proper
name of the supreme God, and that later incomers added to it
in apposition the appellative tuwan ; Wac tupa-ran means Wac
the God, or perhaps Wac the great God (rai, rahi means in
Maori and Tahitian great). We meet with this name of God,
Wak, in yet other American tribes, whose customs prove them
to be of Malay blood. The Iroquois (Miiller, Urreligionen, p.
102 ff.) addresses Wakon as the supreme God (Wacon-da, Tongo
Wakon, Uakon tongo). Some Iroquois tribes give Him the pre-
dicate Owaineo, Hawai-neo, Yawo-neo, Hauwe-negu, Howe-ne,
which reminds us of the name of the island Hawaiia. The
Iroquois also use the word wac, wakan, and the Dahcotahs the
word wall, the h having the guttural sound, as an appellative
for the gods, and generally for the world of spirits. The Great
Spirit, of the Leni-Lenape Indians rides on a bird, Wakon
(Chateaubriand, i. 192) ; comp. with this taroa mannu, the bird
spirit of the Tahitians (§ 272, Obs.). But, finally, we again meet
with our appellative waka in Peru, the very place which we
might expect to have been peopled first of all by a Malay
immigration. During the period of the empire of the Incas
there existed there, according to Mliller (p. 370 f.), the word
giuica, pronounced waka, which was employed, according to the
testimony of Montesino, to designate the old discarded gods of
the ancient Peruvian empire, as well as the gods of foreign
races, in opposition to the gods of the Incas. The word was
thus evidently an old appellative for the idea of God or of the
gods, that had come into disrepute, and there is no impro-
bability in the supposition that it had arisen at a time pre-
vious to that of the old Peruvian empire of the Aymaras,

164 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§281.

that is, that it was introduced with the primitive settlement
of the Malays. Thus, then, we find this word generally is in the
most diverse part of America, from Brazil to Canada, from Peru
to California, always in connection with manifest indications
of Malay customs, religion, and extraction, and so its Malayo-
Polynesian origin cannot well be doubted. At least this deri-
vation from the Hawaiian wok, to see (Maori wakka, and Tong.
fcekka, to point out, make to see), is much more feasible than
any derivation from the Ugro-Finnic thunder-god Ukko, whom
we meet with again in America as Okki or ffokkan, or
again a derivation from the Iranian bdgds, which should rather
be found identical with the bogu, guardian spirit of Sumatra.

Obs. 2. — Among the Tamanacs on the Orinoco, who, according
to § 280, are a distinctly Malayan race, the following tradition
is found. The first man was called Loguo ; he was not created
by any one : descending from heaven, he first of all created the
earth, then the moon (Gen. i. 1, 2, 14 ff.), and next he brought
forth men from his navel and thighs, the first of whom was
Eakumo. For a long time he lived on earth, then he died,
after three days he became alive again, and returned to heaven
(Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 229). Ptakumon was turned into a
serpent with a human head, and he lived on a fruit tree, of the
fruit of which it, as well as others, partook (De la Borde,
Recueil de divers voyages, 1864, p. 385 ; Mejer, mytholog.
Tasclienbuch, 1813, 6). Rakumon was changed into a star, and
becomes the god of rain and fruitfulness. Further, the Tama-
nacs must have been savages, for they lived only on fish : one of
their sages, Longuo, who was the first man, addressed a prayer
to heaven ; thereupon a white man appeared who taught him
to use pointed stones as axes, to build huts, to plant the manioc
root, and from it to prepare bread. We do not attach the least
importance to this tradition in so far as it concerns the creation
and the fall. It is quite evident that the Tamanacs owe to an
unsuccessful missionary attempt, or to occasional intercourse
with Christians between A.D. 1500 and 1864, that knowledge
of a creator appearing '-in Paradise in human form, the know-
ledge of the serpent, etc., which knowledge they have in the
strongest manner thoroughly mixed up with pagan conceptions ;
— they have also a knowledge, confused indeed, of Christ's
resurrection and ascension. The only important point is that
they call the first man Loguo, Longuo. This name, like
Kacumo, that of the rain-god, belongs to the purely pagan
element in this legendary conglomerate. Loguo cannot at all
be derived from Myo;. Romish missionaries can scarcely be
supposed to have preached to them of the ?.oyoc under this
Greek designation : they would rather say, God died. This
last part of the legend, which is purely Tamanac, also shows

§ 282.] THE PEOPLES AXD HORDES OF AMERICA. 165

that in their national traditions the first man was actually
called Loguo. But then in Malayan and Javanese, man, man-
kind, is laki. It is therefore similar to the Langi of the
Tongan legend (§ 280), who also seems to have been a sort
of first man, his story recurring also among the Tamanacs
(§ 280).

§ 282. The Eeligion of the Tsonecas.

The Tsonecas1 or Tehuellches, who inhabit Patagonia from
the Rio Negro down to the southern point of America, now
numbering on 1500 individuals, are distinguished from their
northern neighbours, the Araucanians, living in the south of
Chili, and Pampas Indians or Penks, who have a similar
origin, by a more stately development, darker colour of skin,
and a costume more nearly approaching nakedness, painting
of the body, and tattooing of the arms. The Tsonecas wear a
hip-cloth, tshikipa ; and, notwithstanding the raw climate of
their country, only a cloak of guanaco skins protects them from
the cold, and even this is often thrown aside. These differ-
ences, as well as their residence on the southern corner of
the American continent, their good nature and their peaceable
disposition, and their language (§ 280, Obs. sub. 5), lead us
to recognise in the Tsonecas a purely Malay race, which has
been driven so far into the cold south by warlike tribes
pursuing them. The inhabitants of Terra del Fuego, again, are
nothing else than a Tsoneca tribe 2 driven farther south, and
deteriorating under a frigid climate. They also maintain
intimate relations with the Tsonecas of the mainland. They
have been, however, mixed up with a Melanesian tribe, which
either had migrated along with the Malays, or more probably
had been settled in America before them, having been pre-
viously by the Malays driven out of Polynesia, and having
crossed over by the way of the Gallopagos islands ; they were

1 As the Malay t in the Tsonecan language is frequently changed into
to, no other root could lie at the basis of the name Tsoneca than the
Polynesian tane, man.

2 Berghaus, allg. L. und B. K. vi. p. 241.

166 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 282.

then driven to the southernmost point, and made their appear-
ance there under the name of the Pesherahs. Valuable
information regarding the present condition of the Tsonecas
has been given by Chaworth-Musters.1 This naval officer,
who lived for a whole year among the Tehuellches in Indian
dress, and had intercourse with all their chiefs and through all
their tribes, did not hear them use any personal name of a
God. They speak only of evil spirits, gualitshus; and on
inquiry he learnt that a Great Spirit also existed, who is good,
but does not much trouble himself with men. And so men
do not trouble themselves much about him, but only about
the evil spirits, the gualitshus. In the case of a dangerous
sickness a sham fight by night, with shooting and rattling of
arms, is engaged upon.2 Every disease has its own special
gualitshu. Other evil spirits haunt the woods, rivers, rocks,
and must be conciliated, if one is to approach the place, by greet-
ing and adoration. At every birth, at every important event,
whether good or evil, animals, now horses, which, however, were
first introduced into the country by the Spaniards, or human
blood in the form of venesection or scratching, are offered in
sacrifice. To the sorcerer the gualitshus show themselves in
the form of animals, — guanacos, pumas, ostriches, vultures, etc.
He endeavours to draw off the evil spirit from the sick person
by shrieks, sucking, and other charms. On the graves of the
dead heaps of stones are raised. Among the 1500 Tsonecas
that survive of the peopling of Patagonia, and are decimated
more and more by civil contentions and foreign wars and by
small-pox, drunkenness and gambling are prevalent. In
regard to their sexual relations there is little to complain of.
They practise monogamy, cases of bigamy are very rare, and
they marry only for choice, and show true conjugal and filial
affection. When the wife dies, the husband burns all that
belonged to her. Their chiefs are called gaunoks, and are
addressed as yank, father. They have no idol images. Legen-
dary poems and prayers, which till lately were known to
1 Chaworth-Musters, Among the Palagonians. * Ibid.

§ 283.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 167

some old men, are now quite forgotten, although the race has
lived free and independent, and has not had its paganism dis-
turbed. At an earlier period, however, when Magelhaens first
discovered Patagonia, he found there still the name of a
supreme god, Settaboh,1 employed, probably the Polynesian
hotooa, god, or buan, which in Tagal means moon ; for the
Tsonecas still greet the new moon,2 which implies an earlier
worship of the moon. Magelhaens' immediate successors 3
told their story more in detail : the Patagonians worshipped
a supreme, good, and invisible god, whom they called Taquit-
shen or Soitshu, and set over against him an evil god, Guura-
cunni ; taquitshen means ruler of the race, guura-cunni means
lord of death. It is questionable, however, whether in this
report the Araucanians have not been confounded with the
Tsonecas. The fact is, that the barren knowledge of the
existence of a Great Spirit has continued among the Tsonecas
down to the present time, but just in the same way as belief
in witchcraft. The one legendary element which Chaworth-
Musters 4 found among them was the story that the Great
Spirit in the caves made the beasts, and from a hill, which is
still pointed out as the hill of God, sent them abroad over the
earth. This connection of caves with the divine myth, and
also the worship of the moon, are fragmentary elements, which
remind us of the religion of the Tagals (§ 272).

§ 283. The Religions of the Aruacas and Tamanacs.

A thoroughly faithful copy of the Tagalese religion is
preserved among the Aruacas, called by the Spaniard Guatiaos,
the inhabitants of the Antilles, who, on account of their friendly,
gentle character, as well as on account of the stage of their
civilisation when Columbus went among them, forcibly enough

1 Shakespeare refers to him in the Tempest under the name Satebos.
Act I. Scene 2.

2 Chaworth-Musters, Among the Patagonians.

3 See in Miiller, amerikanischen Urreligionen, pp. 261, 264 f.

4 Chaworth-Musters, Among the Patagonians.

168 HALF-CIVILISED AXD SAVAGE RACES. [§ 283.

remind us of the Polynesians. Going about quite naked or
almost so, and painting their bodies, they had yet a singu-
larly complicated feudal constitution, quite after the style
of that of the Polynesians. The island of Hayti, e.g., was
divided into five States, under whose five absolute monarchs
again the Casignes had the position of vassals. The ground
was the property of the State, and was allocated. They had
substantial fixed dwellings, practised agriculture, baked bread,
wove cotton garments. They sang heroic and legendary
ballads, areitas,1 and had in Charagua (Xaragua) an ancient
dialect as a sacred language, and a monument found on Hayti
gives evidence of a higher form of civilisation existing there
at an earlier period.2 This monument consists of a circle of
large round hewn stones, 2270 feet in circumference, in
the centre one rude stone figure almost six feet high. They
themselves affirm that they came from Florida.3 Along the
river course of the Mississippi and in Ohio there are now to
be seen about 5000 old ruined villages, many surrounded
with walls of earth or stone, in them the circular or square
inclosures of sacred places, finally, artificial mounds with
terraced slopes, like the morais of the Polynesians, some of
them ninety feet high, often containing urns with ashes,
often bones, and all that had constituted the residence of
the deceased (hearthstone, etc.). The urns with ashes we
shall not be able to trace back to any Malay race. A
people of a different extraction must have mingled with the
Malays in the Mississippi valley (§ 293). The tombs in
terraced mounds, however, with bones and house gear, are
thoroughly Malayan. Those mounds are particularly nume-
rous to the south of the Gulf of Mexico. They contain some
articles of silver, stone axes, unwrought potter's ore, ornaments
of shells and copper, neatly-shaped clay vessels, and clay pipes

1 By this one is naturally reminded of the Tahitian and Maori parau,
Jav. wara, Malag. zara, tatera, to say, to speak.

2 Ausland, 1851, No. 172.

3 Alex, von Humboldt, Rtisen, v. 27.

§ 283.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 169

in imitation of the heads of animals, but made without the
help of the potter's wheel.1 Thus, then, it is clear that
before the rude hunting nomads, the Eedskins, a settled,
half-civilised people had inhabited the Mississippi valley,
who were then driven southward by an invasion of the
Eedskins. On some of those circumvallations old trees of
eight hundred annual rings have been found.2

The Californian Indians have a tradition that their fore-
fathers on their arrival found before them in California a great
city ; 3 and that there, in fact, a Malay race must have been
settled, from whom the Aztecs, when they came in among
them, learned the art of feather embroidery and of building the
Teocalli or pyramid temples, has already been shown (§ 280).
But now also the Eedskins of the Mississippi and Ohio know
of a cultured race that preceded them, to whom they give the
name Alligevi ; 4 and the Iroquois know about a hundred
years' conflict between this race and their forefathers. In
like manner, the Comanches in Texas tell of a white or light-
coloured people who inhabited the country before them.5
We can thus picture to ourselves how through the Malays,
who were reduced to slavery by the Eedskins, and their
women taken as wives, such elements of Malay customs and
language would pass over among the Eedskins, as we actu-
ally do find, according to § 280, among the Dahcotahs,
Iroquois, and Hurons. From California the primitive Malay
population had spread over the Mississippi and Ohio districts.

1 Eougemont, Bronzezeit, p. 21 f.

2 Harrison in the Transactions of the Hist, and Phil. Soc. of Ohio, vol.
i. 1839.

3 Allg. Augs. Ztg. 1850, 14th March. If the stones of the ancients about
the island Atlantis are to be applied to America (see § 284), the Phoe-
nicians had founded a great empire, about B.C. 600, in the neighbour-
hood of the Gulf of Mexico. (Plato, Timaeus, p. 25 : tiotvpourrvi lv»*[t.i$
fistaihiav.)

4 Verhandl. d. nordam. gel. Geselhchaft v. Philadelphia, i. p. 29 ff.
Ausland, 1829, p. 141 ; 1848, p. 175. Prichard, iv. 402 ff. The name
AlligeVi resembles Tag. lalaqui, Jav. laid, man. Aruaca may be a
corruption of Alligeva, I changed to r, and a metathesis of the v or u.

5 Buschmann, " Spuren," etc., p. 382.

170 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACE3. [§ 283.

Many centuries later they were attacked by the invading
Redskins, in some parts reduced to slavery, in other parts
exterminated, in other cases driven, doubtless already made
savage by the experiences of the hundred years' war, to
Florida, and finally to the Antilles. Here they continued
to show themselves pure Malays in respect of constitution,
customs, and religion. Like the Tagals (§ 272), they had1 in
place of a temple, sacred caves. Like the Tagals, they had
images of the gods, had a multitude of guardian spirits and
the images of these, and counted among such the spirits of
the departed. Like the Tagals also, they had evil spirits, and
some are specially mentioned, to whom they ascribed the form
of a dragon, which reminds us of the alligator-worship of the
Tagals. The common word for everything superhuman was
dseme (Spanish, in plural zemes, cemes), which perhaps comes
from the Malay root dse, to see (Mai. dseling, Jav. sawang,
Malag. zara), just as waka (§ 281, Obs. 1) comes from the
synonymous wak, to see.

Pillars were dedicated to the sun-god with the emblem of
the sun, and in front of them altars were erected. In Hayti
there was a cave called Chuanaboina pointed out, from which
the sun and moon had come forth to give increase to the
world in plants and animals. In this cave, too, were set up
the images of the divine pair ; they called them Binthaihell
and Maro. The identity of the name Maro with the
Maori and Tahitian marama, the moon, is indisputable.
In like manner, the first two syllables of the name Binthai-
hell are the Malay Untang, Tagal litoin, star, firmament;
while hell is probably the Tongan vela, Hawaiian wela, hot,
heat. Besides these two genuinely Malay names, we meet
with on the Antilles the names of Tonatiks and Tona also for
this divine pair. A derivation of these from Malay roots
would not be absolutely impossible.2 Since, however,

1 Mtiller, Urreligionen, p. 169 ff.

2 In Florida the birds, which were regarded as messengers of the gods,
were called ton-azuli. This ton might be the Malay appellative for God,

§ 283.] THE PEOPLES AND HOEDES OF AMERICA. 171

Tonatiuh is found in Mexico and Central America as a name
of the sun - god decidedly belonging to the Sonora group
of languages, coming from the Sonor. Aztec tona, heat,
and teo, tin, god, comp. § 298 and § 299, Obs., it is
the simplest and most natural conclusion to suppose that
the names Tonatiks and Tona had been imported to the
Antilles from Central America, and that at a compara-
tively recent period, probably not long before the arrival of
Columbus.

The tradition of the Aruacas tells how Binthaihell and
Maro, sun and moon, had first shone out upon the island of
Hayti from that cave ; then through an opening in the roof
of the cave they ascended to heaven to lighten and rule the
whole world, but sent to Hayti as their representative
Chocauna and Chemao. In cho, che, there appears a root
which seems to mean great ; cauna may correspond to the
Malay hantu, Haw. uhane, spirit ; and mao is the Malay
ma, mu, mother. That Chocauna is the Great Spirit is all the
more certain, because, (1) the moon-goddess was described
by the Aruacas to the Spaniards as the mother of the Great
Spirit, and (2) Chocauna was described as the invisible,
immortal, almighty ruler of all dsemes, who is, nevertheless,
no longer an object of worship. Thus we have here, in an
American race closely related to the Tagals, the remnants
of a religion which reaches farther up than the religion of the
Tagals itself. We have a close indication of the worship
originally among the Malays of a supreme invisible god, but
he is degraded from the rank of creator of the world and ruler
of the gods into a son of the sun-god and moon-goddess.
But considerable uncertainty prevails in reference to this
degradation. That great mother Chemao was sometimes
described by the Aruacas as the earth - goddess, sometimes
again she was identified with the moon-goddess Maro or Tona

tuwan. Thus in any case Tonatiu may be explained from tuwan-matua
(for Polynesian matua, father), and Tona from tuwan-na (from Tagal. and
Bug. ina, mother).

172 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 283.

herself, and represented as the mother of Chocauna, not as his
wife, — a sign that Chocauna cannot be confidently pronounced
to be a married god. Arnold in 1663 tells that Chocauna
had the cognomen Wamoanocan, and his mother the cognomens
Wakaropi, Tamiellam, Wimazoam, Attab, and Euchani. Ac-
cording to other reports, Wamoanocan was a cognomen of
Chemao, and that besides she was called Mamona and
Attabara. In Wakaropi we have again our divine appellative
of waka (§ 281, Obs. 1), together with ropi, which seems to be
identical with the Tagal lopa, earth ; so that Wakaropi will
mean the earth-goddess. In Tamiellam there is the Tagal
tammi, father, mother, and for ellam perhaps the Polynesian
ivulan, ulong, moon (comp. on Binthaihell and wela) : thus
Tamiellam would be the mother moon. In Wamoanocan,
ivomoa reminds us of the Tong. omea, Haw. honua, earth ;
ocan reminds us of Haw. haku, lord.

The Aruacas' tradition of the creation deserves indeed to
rank only as a fable (see Obs.}. The legend of the flood, too,
has assumed a fabulous form (see Obs.}, but yet shows that
•this people had a tradition about the whole earth having been
covered by a flood. The priests of the Aruacas are called
bohitos, while among the Battas in Sumatra bogu means a
guardian spirit.1 The bohitos formed a special caste, lived
in solitude on the receipt of the offerings in the form of cakes,
took them and presented them to the dsemes, whereupon
pieces of the cake offerings were distributed among the heads
of families as charms. They had no yearly festivals. Along
with their supreme god they ranked a multitude of guardian
spirits. On Hayti there stood three sacred stones, stone pillars,
which formed the image and residence of the three highest
guardian spirits : the guardian spirit of the earth (the land,
that is, the island of Hayti), the guardian spirit of births, and

1 Perhaps a Melanesian, therefore a Hamitic word (comp. the bongos
of the Kolhs, the kopang of the Odshi negroes), or more probably a
primitive root common to the Japhetic and Hamitic languages, which
recurs in the Iranian baga.

§ 283.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMEEICA. 173

the spirit of rain and sunshine.1 Also on Luzon (§ 272)
stone pillars were found, which, as we saw, were rather of
Melanesian than of Malay origin. There is nothing to pre-
vent the supposition that the Malays passing over into
America had been mixed up with Melanesians. The primitive
Melanesian population of Polynesia must either have been
driven out before the Malays, as certainly happened to those
who migrated to South America over the Tortoise islands, or
they were subjected by the Malays and attached to them
as slaves.

Each tribe, each family, each individual had its own
particular dseme as a guardian spirit. They had images of
them of wood, fish-bone, stone, in human form and animal
form, sometimes ornamented with precious stones, and these
they placed in their houses. On Hayti the Spanish priests
destroyed 170,000 of such images. The island Guanabba
was inhabited exclusively by manufacturers of these images.
Each chief had a cave temple for the guardian deity of his
country and for his image. The cave temple Chuanaboina,
150 feet deep, contained, besides the images of Binthaihell
and Maro standing at the entrance, a thousand other idols
hewn in the rock. The superior chief ordained a feast, when
it pleased him, when the bohitos arranged in front of the cave
received the offerings of cakes, and distributed the portions,
whereupon the whole multitude rushed at the sound of a
drum into the temple, and went one after another before the
chief idol, and excited vomiting by means of a little wand
thrust down the throat. After each has presented his own
separate offering, the women with little bells on their arms
and legs perform a dance. Heroic songs and songs of praise
are sung, and the protection of the dsemes is invoked.

There are also evil spirits which show themselves by night
as ghosts. Among them was a Korotschot, an Epileguanita,2

1 Muller, Vrreligionen, p. 175.

2 Perhaps from Mai. Jav. Bug. api, fire, and legua, the Indian word
leguan. Therefore fire-dragon.

174 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 283.

and a Tuira, represented as a dragon-shaped, horned monster
with open mouth. On the mentioning of Korotschot one
involuntarily thinks of the Indian serpent king Karkotaka,
who may quite likely be of Malay or Cushite origin.1 The
spirits of the dead, too, are regarded as dsemes, good and bad.
The latter, however, only appeared at a recent period, since
the Aruacas in Hayti had rather the belief that the souls of the
dead lived a serene life on the west side of the island in caves,
and ate the fruit of the Mamei plant. The custom of putting
into the grave with the dead, bread and a calabash of water,
implies a notion that the future life was a continuation of the
present, and not the belief in a change into evil spirits.

We must also mention the legend that one of their kings in
the olden times after a five days' fast obtained a revelation from
the dsemes that the Maguacotshen, a foreign, bearded, clothed
race should come and overrun the island with rare weapons
and overthrow their religion. This tradition was contained in
old poems, and has therefore not been produced ex eventu.2

We have now recovered all the essential features of the
Tagalese religion from that of the Aruacas, with the exception
of the rainbow-god. We meet with him, however, on the
Orinoco, where the Tamanacs (§ 280), a Malay race, had made
a settlement. From these, too, the non-Malay Caribs (§ 281,
Obs. 2) borrowed the name of their demi-god Langi. These
Orinoco Indians, undoubtedly the Tamanacs, worshipped a god
of the rainbow,3 whom they called Chuluka, Spanish Juluca.4

1 According to Sepp (Jfythol. ii. 155), a serpent - god, Wodu, was
also worshipped on Hayti. But since he indicates no sources, it remains
doubtful. The Mayas in Tshyapa worshipped a similar shaped god, "Wotan.

2 Acquaintance with the Norman colonists in Massachusetts from A.D.
863-1347 may be resumed on behalf of the Aruacas (§ 301, Obs. 3) while
they lived on the Mississippi, and have given occasion to this legend.

3 See in Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 225. Miiller calls all the 500 Orinoco
tribes, without more ado, Caribs. He also makes Amaliwaka (§ 280) a
Caribbean hero. Compare, on the other hand, "W. von Humboldt, part 4,
454 f. In the name Amaliwaka we meet again with the divine appella-
tive waka. Amali, perhaps, may be explained by the Tag. malaqui, great,
Bug. malic, good.

4 Perhaps from Mai. suh'.h, Jav. tshulu, light, torch.

§ 283.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMEKICA. 175

He is a mighty giant spirit, who stretches over land and sea,
his head and brow adorned with a band and gay feathers :
now, feather ornamentation and feather trimming are Malay
arts (§ 280). When he appears to the east, over the sea, it
betokens fortune ; but if westward, over the land, misfortune.
When the Tamanacs once brought him too few offerings, he
destroyed them by a flood, saving only a single pair. He is a
good spirit, but no longer troubles himself about the govern-
ment of the world and man, and it is therefore not necessary
to worship him.1 Here we have the universally recurring
characteristic of the one invisible, that he no longer troubles
himself about man! From that flood a man and a woman
are saved on the peak of the mountain Tamanacu : they
cast behind them the fruit of the Mauritius palm, and from
their seeds men and women sprang up.2

A tradition of the fall has also been preserved among the
Tamanacs. The god Amaliwaka, the great god, came to the
first parent of the Tamanacs, and before he would let them
again into his boat, said to them : Ye shall change your skin,
that is, ye shall rejuvenate yourselves like the serpent, and
not die. But when the old woman believed not the pro-
mise, he recalled it, and so the Tamanacs now are mortal3
Amaliwaka, as is self-evident, is only an epithet of Chuluka.
The Tamanacs give him a brother, Wossi, Span. Vocci, who
helped him to create the Orinoco. They worship also a sea-god
Kurumon, a creator of woman Kuliminia, and an evil thunder-
god Kualina, or Kouotlua, evidently from a root ku, to make.
All the other gods run before Kualina, and this is the explana-
tion of the trembling noise of the thunder. On the Loguo

1 De la Borde, 384. Picard, 135, etc., in Muller, Vrreligionen.

2 Alex, von Humboldt, Rdse, p. 35 ff. The egg-shaped fruit of the
Mauritia vinifera is, perhaps, nothing else than an emblem of the testiculi.
Similarly in many non-Indo-Germanic dialects of Further India the word
pisang of Malay origin means the penis. "Whether this name is given to the
banana fruit because of its resemblance to the human organ, or was trans-
ferred from the former to the latter, cannot be decisively determined.

3 Aufsdtze zur Kunde ungebildeter Volker, Weimar 1789, p. 151.

176 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 284.

legend, see § 281, Obs. 2. Their gods collectively they call
tschemun. This is the same word with the dseine of the
Aruacas.

Obs. — The tradition of the creation among the Aruacas is as
follows : Large men issued forth from a great cave, Kazi-
bachagua (comp. Jav. letshik, good), and little men from a small,
Amachauna (comp. Maori kino, slight, small, Tong. com}. A
giant, Machakael, was to watch the cave, but one night removed
away too far from it ; the rising sun by an angry glance trans-
formed him into the rock Kauta. Now, men left the cave at
night to fish ; some who made themselves late in the morning
were changed by the sun into stones, plants, animals. Wagu-
oniona was ruler of the cave men. When his friend was changed
into a nightingale in his grave, he left the cave with wife and
children, and all of them were metamorphosed, the children
into frogs, which now called after their mother Toa ! too, ! (the
Polynesian matua, mother). The other cave-dwellers cautiously
accustomed themselves to the sunlight ; but they were all men.
Then the ants changed themselves into maidens, and became
their wives. This tradition is a fabulous reconstruction of the
old Malay legend of the going forth of the stars and animals
from caves. An ancient troglodyte life among the Malay tribes
may have given occasion to the origin of this legend and the
whole mode of its presentation.

The tradition of the flood among the Aruacas is as follows :
The mighty chief Chaya had an only son who rebelled against
him. He slew him, and preserved his bones in a gourd box.
These were changed into fishes. Now Chaya boasted that he
held the sea shut up in his gourd box. His four inquisitive
brothers opened the box, but let it fall, terrified by his coming
in upon them. It broke, there burst forth therefrom a flood,
which covered the whole earth, so that only the peaks of the
highest mountains remained visible.

R — IMMIGRATIONS FROM AFRICA FROM B.C. 600 TILL
A.D. 600.

§ 284. Indications of African Immigrations at various Times.

South America is distant from Africa about 1400 miles,
and if an African ship were caught in the equatorial current a

1 This current, running at the rate of 50 miles in 24 hours, passes
from the north-west coast of Africa to the north-east corner of Brazil,

§ 284.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 177

it would be inevitably driven over to the coast of Brazil.
Indeed, Brazil was discovered by Cabral when he was thus
driven thither. In the year 1797 twelve negroes escaped
from a slave ship to the African coast, took a boat, and in
five weeks reached Barbadoes. Similar cases are on record.1
The possibility of Africans thus reaching America cannot be
denied.

A. As a matter of fact, alongside of bright-coloured Indian
tribes there are found, in America, and especially in South
America, some of a quite or almost quite black colour and a
negro build of body. To this class belong Amaguas on the
river Amazon, the Charruas, and then the Caribs, who, if not
quite black, are yet of a decidedly dark colour ; and also in
North America there have been observed by Eollin, Prichard,
and others, among the scattered tribes, even up to California,
that those of a darker complexion had those peculiarities of
physical organization2 which at least point to an admixture
of negro blood. Cultivated plants, too, have been transferred
along with man. In the opinion of De Candolle,3 the yam
root has been imported into America from Africa.

B. That conjecture, moreover, receives confirmation when
we are able to point to distinct traces of specifically African
customs and religion. Of the traces of African religions in
America we shall speak in the next section. When, now, we
seek in the east of South America for traces of African customs,
we meet with those enormous conical clay vessels of several
Brazilian tribes in which they place their dead for burial in a
sitting, almost erect posture. In quite a similar way the
Congo negroes bury and construct the graves of their chiefs in

thence through the Caribbean Sea into the Gulf of Mexico, and then, as the
Gulf Stream passes down along the North American coast, a counter
current goes off from the eastern point of Brazil southwards along the
coast.

1 Bradford, American Antiquities, p. 235. Latham, Man and his Migra-
tions, p. 131, inRauch, Einheit des Menschengeschlechtes, p. 374.

2 See Bauch, Einheit des Menschenges. p. 277 f.

3 Ibid. p. 355.

EBRARD III. M

178 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ ?84.

the earth, conically shaped with the depth in the breadth, and
in the very same posture they place the bodies.1 Since the
Congo negroes do not belong to the proper negroes, but to the
Kaffirs (§ 276), we need not be surprised to find that the
black tribes of Brazil have smooth hair.

The tribes of Libyan descent on the north and north-west
coasts of Africa were, in ancient times, bold seamen, traders, and
pirates, and during the course of centuries they have developed
more and more in the latter directions. Like them in their
powerful athletic physical form, in the dark colour of their skin
and their straight hair, and also in their national character,
are the Caribs, who at the time of the discovery of America
were settled on the north coast of South America from the
mouth of the Orinoco on to Darien and Nicaragua. Here they
had driven back a cultivated race, and here as balove bonon,
dwellers on the mainland, they bore the name of Carinas,
Guarinis, Kalinas, Galibis. They were also found on the
islands of Guadeloupe, Trinidad, etc., where, as ubao bonon,
dwellers on islands, they were called Caribas or Canibas.
They had then begun to gain the mastery over the Aruacas of
the Antilles. The wives of the slain Aruacas they took to
themselves as wives. These continued to speak their own
language among the Caribs, and also brought with them their
dseme images. If this was a general practice among the Caribs
to exercise such patience toward the wives of their subjected
foes in the use of their own language and religion, proceeding,
doubtless, from a superstitious fear of their gods, then it must
appear quite conceivable that many a foreign element would
find its way into the religion and customs of these Caribs
alongside of those that were purely African. Their own
distinctive character was quite that of a pirate race. They
had well-built ships, forty feet long, with two or three masts,
eight or nine seats for rowers, and a helm, which a steersman
guided. They had fleets of from thirty to forty such vessels.
They observed the course of the stars, and reckoned their time
1 Eougemont, Bronzezeit, p. 80.

§ 284.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 179

accordingly. The trade which they carried on all along from
Guiana down to the river Amazon (for scattered Carib tribes
are found down on the coasts of Brazil), and piracy, were their
almost exclusive means of livelihood ; and in this consists the
most characteristic distinction between them and the Malays.
They would have nothing to do with agricultural pursuits.
They lived on game, fish, crabs, and eggs. The women
planted some manioc in gardens round about their huts. A strip
of cloth round their thighs was their only covering. While
their aversion to agriculture is distinctly non-Malayan, it is a
thoroughly African characteristic that they had slavery as an
institution and a slave-trade, yea, even sold children of their
tribes as slaves to foreigners. To the Spaniards they appeared
as the most savage of the savages. They were also cannibals.
Indeed, the name cannibal seems to be derived from their
name Caniba. They even deliberately fattened the boys of
their captive enemies before eating them. They were particu-
larly dangerous on account of their crafty surprises and their
poisoned darts. And yet their condition presupposes a higher
culture at an earlier time. Their skill as shipwrights has
been already referred to. Their women, too, could weave
cloth for those hip-bands seven feet long, and clay vessels
were manufactured capable of containing up to twenty gallons.1
Such arts could not have been developed as isolated pheno-
mena among a race in a condition of bestial rudeness. Their
condition as a whole must at some time have been quite
different. These arts might, however, be continued as practi-
cally useful among a people that had sunk from a relatively
cultured condition to one of general savagery. There are also
found among the Caribs traces and remains of an ancient
picture writing or hieroglyphic painting. Their constitution,
too, shows indications of an older settled condition. All their

1 Rougemont, Bronzezeit, p. 24. It could not have been Aruaca women
seized by them who brought with them those arts, for they are not found
among the Aruacas. They were therefore arts originally belonging to
the Caribbean women.

180 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. |_§ 284.

tribes formed a great war confederacy, and lived in the most
carefully observed terms of peace with one another, whereas
they took advantage of their widespread intercourse by sea
with foreigners for piratical attacks and regularly planned
robber raids. Now we have in fact at hand a proof that at
a very early period they had entered America. While they
themselves did not in the least degree possess metal tools, and
understood nothing of smelting and smith-work, they never-
theless possessed ornaments or models, called karakoli, which
were made of a non-corrosive metal composition 1 and were
extraordinarily bright, and the remnants of the tribe possess
these down to the present day. We shall hear in § 290 of
the immense ruins of Pallenque in Chiapa, and others in
Central America, which tell us of the existence of an old
Central American cultured race, which disappeared at the
latest in the 12th century after Christ. The most of the
figures on the bass-reliefs of Pallenque have their heads adorned
just with those very kinds of ornaments. These karakoli,
therefore, must have come to the Caribs from that people in
the way of trade.2 This assumes the existence of the Caribs
in America before the 12th century, and to have had
at that earlier period a more peaceable and more civilised
character.

Certain discoveries that have been made in America 3 lead
to the conclusion that at a period long before Carthage itself,
or the Punic worship of Moloch and Astarte had existed,
bold Phoenician or Punic sailors had reached America. In
Mexico Uhde found a vase and brought it to Europe. It
is quite like the Etruscan vases, and is ornamented with

1 It consists of six parts of silver, one part of gold, and three parts of
copper (Rougemont, Bronzezeii). In the Gfi language of the Gold Coast,
the coloured stones, -which are worn as ornaments and valued as highly as
gold, are called Jcoli (J. Zimmermann, Vocabulary of the Akra or Gd
Language, Stuttg. 1858, p. 157).

2 The hatchets of the Aruacas, made of nephrite found only on the
banks of the Amazon, which could only have been brought to the Antilles
in the way of trade, afford a further evidence of their commercial pursuits.

3 See in Eauch, Einheit des Memchengeschlechtes, p. 474 ff.

§ 284.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 181

figures, which resemble the images of the Eoman deities.
In Oasha terra-cotta busts with a Greek form of head and
helmet were found.1 Such articles could clearly have been
brought to America only by the Phoenicians, and this race
must have had colonies there. The vases found by Leferrier
in a Peruvian tomb, that is, on the west coast, which in
their material and their ornamental form remind us of
Grecian workmanship,2 might rather, I think, be taken for
the work of the ancient Peruvian cultured race, because a
visit of the Punic peoples to the west coast is scarcely
credible. All the more important, on the other hand, are
the colossal hollow metal statues, in which calcined human
remains have been found on the island of Carolina in the
Gulf of Mexico.3 There we have the Moloch-worship in all
its forms, and in this also the evidence that on that island
there existed a Phoenician or Punic trading colony, and that
the name of the island, Atlantis, was by the ancients actually
used with reference to America. Solan heard from Egyptian
priests4 that away out in the ocean there was an island
Atlantis, a/j,a Ai{3vrj<? ical 'A<ria<; pet^wv, larger than Libya
and Asia Minor together, ruled over by mighty kings, which
now, however, Std a-eio-pav5 is no longer accessible. In
regard to this, Liibker writes:6 "The tradition seems to
affirm on behalf of the knowledge of a far distant and vast
continent an extremely remote antiquity. Perhaps Phoe-
nician and Punic ships had been driven to the American
coasts, by means of which, on their happy return home, a
general acquaintance therewith may have been spread, so
that by the Atlantis of Plato, or the great unnamed island
of Pliny,7 and Diodorus,8 and Arnobius, actually America was

Antiquites Mexic. iii. pi. 36. 2 Ausland, 1836, No. 24.

Miintor, Religion der Karthager, p. 10.

Platon, TimcBus, p. 24 f. ; Critias, p. 109 ff.

A hurricane of a violent kind, comp. Matt. viii. 24.

Liibker, Reallexikon, p. 127.

Plinius, Historia Natural™, vi. 31 and 199 ; ii. 90 and 205.

Diodorus Siculus, v. 19.

182 HALF- CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 284.

intended." In like manner also Pauly says : 1 " From this,
now, one may conclude as he will, but the possibility cannot
be denied of there being, at the bottom of this supposed
Egyptian legend, a Phoenician sailor's story, disfigured it may
be to some extent designedly ; so there is contained in other
passages of the ancients, either some obscure knowledge, or
an impression of the existence of the continent of the Western
hemisphere. Closer investigation among the ruins of earlier
civilisations in America must yet give enlightenment on this
question." Now such ruined fragments of culture of a
specifically Phoenician kind have actually been found and
thoroughly verified. In Nicaragua and on the Orinoco
circumcision was practised,2 as well as in North Africa by
the Egyptians and Libyans, and by the Phoenicians and Punic
races.3 The natives in Nicaragua celebrated a yearly festival,
at which the women abandoned themselves to prostitution in
honour of the moon-goddess,4 the genuine Astarte (§ 249 ff.).
In Ushmall, in Central America, Stephens 5 found monuments
which prove quite clearly that phallic worship had been
•prevalent there (comp. also § 289, Obs., and § 290). But
although there be here actually found a direct repetition of
the Phoenician or Punic religion, we may not on that
account conclude that the black-coloured Caribs are direct
descendants of the light-coloured Punic race. This would be
in every way absurd. The Caribs themselves preserved the
most distinct tradition of their coming from the south, from
South America, that they had come to the Antilles from
Guiana in ships, and that there they had been called benari,
people from over the sea. They had also not long before
pushed their way into Nicaragua as invaders, and it could
not be from thence that they brought their Astarte-worship,

1 Pauly, Realencydopcedia, i. 2035.

2 Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 479.

3 Herodotus, ii. 104. Diodorus Siculus, i. 28.

4 MUller, Urreligionen, p. 663.

5 Stephens, Reiseerlebnuse in Zentralamerika, p. 407. Comp. Caiii,
ameriL Briefe, ii. 59 and 72. Braunschweig, amerik. Denkm. p. 63.

§ 285.] THE PEOPLES AND HOKDES OF AMEEICA. 183

since no trace is found among them of such a Moloch and
Astarte worship. As we shall point out more fully in a
later part (§ 289, Obs., and § 290), traces of this worship are
rather to be found in the old cultured empires of Central
America with which the Caribs had commercial intercourse,
whose people were regarded by them as foreigners, and of an
altogether different stock. We must therefore consider the
Caribs, not as an Old Punic or Phoenician race, but as of a
Libyan or Berber stock, which migrated to South America,
probably long before the discovery of the American continent,
perhaps during the first century after Christ.

Obs. — In the hieroglyphics on the ruins of Pallenque in
Chiapa (see § 290), Rafinesque-Schmalz (Letters to Cham-
pollion in the Atlantic Journal, Philad. 1832-33, p. 4 ff. and
p. 40 f.), among others, thought that he recognised one kind
which had a great resemblance to Old Libyan inscriptions,
which he found represented in Gramay's Africa illustrata. If
this were confirmed, it would support the view that they were
not Phoenicians or Punic tribes, but Old Libyans of the pre-
Christian era, who introduced the Astarte and Moloch worship
into America. It would then be much easier to consider the
Caribs direct descendants of these Old Libyan colonists. But
those conjectures of Rafinesque awaken little confidence. The
genuineness and the origin of those Libyan inscriptions of
Gramay are doubtful, and Rafinesque is so preoccupied with his
own pet theories, that his discovery, in order to appear credible,
would need at least to be supported by other and quite
independent evidence.

§ 285. Religion and Legends of the Caribs.

The Caribs l worshipped the moon as the supreme god.
That they worshipped not the sun and moon as a pair,
distinguished them from the Malays as well as from the
Phoenicians ; from the latter they are further distinguished
by regarding the moon as a male deity. The worship of
spirits alongside that of the moon may have been borrowed
by them in America from neighbouring tribes; and when

1 For the detailed proof, see Miiller, amerik. Urreligionen, i. B, b.

184 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 285.

they call the female guardian spirits tslumen, it is quite
evident that this name was adapted from the dsemes of the
Aruacas. But when we find them terrorized by the idea of a
regular kingdom of evil spirits, with a governor at their
head, we are at once specifically reminded of Africa. The
Libyans of ancient times had certainly adopted the worship
of Astarte, as the Libyan coins found in Spain with a
woman's head crowned with a crescent prove ; this, however,
would not lead us to believe that in those ancient times
the Caribs had come over from Africa. But it is now
admitted that Libyan tribes were driven before the power of
the Roman empire, and later, before the influence of Chris-
tianity, and then again before the Vandals, and last of all,
before the Arabs, toward the south-west, where they made
their appearance as Berbers, and where they still exist. It
is highly probable that among them, in the pre-Mohammedan
era, in common, perhaps, with the old negro tribes like the
Joloffers, a worship of the moon was practised, as we have
found it existing among the races of South Africa.1 In a
hot climate, where the sun gives forth a sweltering heat, it
is quite conceivable that the starry firmament of night should
be pre-eminently an object of worship, as bringing refreshing
coolness, and be placed in honour above the sun. This
religion may, indeed, have been also developed from remini-
scences and echoes of the religion of their Carthaginian
neighbours. The Moloch of the Libyans, as the scorching,
life-destroying god of death, may have been originally at the
foundation of the conception of Mabocha, the chief of the
evil spirits among the Caribs, although this appears not so
much in the form of the name as in the idea and nature of
the being. And when we remember that (§ 251, Obs.) among
the Punic races in later times Dido-Astarte was represented
as a bearded hermaphrodite, we are afforded an explanation
of the transition to a conception of the moon as a male

1 Have the mountains of the moon received their name from the moon-
vrorship of their inhabitants 1

§ 285.] THE PEOPLES AXD HORDES OF AMERICA. 185

deity. The Caribs called him Nonun. This name reminds
us of the promontory !N"un in the south of Morocco. It is
specially noticeable that they worshipped the planet Venus
as the wife of the moon-god. We have here Ashera along-
side of Astarte, conceived of now as a man. The islander-
Caribs in addition worshipped a sun-god Hudshu ; and called
heaven, as the residence of good spirits and the souls of the
dead, Tiudskuku, house of the sun. The myth about the sun
emerging from a cave was evidently borrowed by them from
their Aruaca wives : the idea of the sun-god might come
from the same source. The idea, however, is quite feasible
that this Hudshu corresponds to the Punic Baal, as Mabocha
does to Moloch ; and that the Caribs called the sun by
another name than the Aruacas, seems evidence in favour of
this opinion. A god Hutsha is also mentioned among some
of the Brazilian tribes.1

Besides these gods they had a thunder-god, Sawaku, a god
of the wind, Atshi-waon, a god of the sea and storms and
tides, Kurumon. It is questionable whether these gods were
not borrowed from neighbouring tribes. Sawaku has quite
a Malay sound, and from their Malayan neighbours, the
Tamanacs, they have taken the name of the first man, Eaku-
mon, besides a portion of the Loguo legend, and out of him
they have made a rain-god. They say expressly, Eakumon
has been changed into a rain-dispensing star.

When it is told of them that they had worshipped a goddess
of birth, this constitutes another Punic characteristic. They
had also guardian deities of the chase, of the seasons. They
called the earth mother, like the Aruacas, and an earthquake
was to them a token calling them to dance.

We might therefore assume that they had introduced from
Africa, about A.D. 600, the worship of the moon-god ISTonun, of
the planet Venus, of the evil god Mabocha, and perhaps also of
the sun-god Hudshu ; while, on the other hand, they adopted
the worship of Sawaku, Atshiwan, Kurumori, and Eakumon,
1 Muller, Urreligionen, p. 270.

186 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 285.

as well as the legend of the sun emerging from the cave,
from their Malay neighbours in South America, the Tamanacs ;
the words tskcmen as designating female spirits, and dsheri
as designating male spirits, were first learnt, before the dis-
covery of America, from those Aruaca women whom they
seized upon the Antilles and married. As names for the
spirits, they possessed some other expressions, probably of
Tamanac origin, — opofen and umeka for good spirits, mapojen
for evil spirits.1 For the spirits collectively they have the
word akambue.

They represent their gods and spirits by images, some in
human, others in animal form. Their sorcerers, piatsJies,
piai, boclier, bagoier, constituted an order, which received
novices, which points back to an earlier priestly caste. Every
sorcerer had his own special spirit, to whom he sacrificed,
and upon whom he called. Moreover, every head of a house-
hold at his meals offered to the spirit a part of the food,
and the first portion of the tobacco and cassava. All offer-
ings (u-akri, an-akri, al-akri) were laid on a sacrificial table
(matutu, mitutu}. At burials slaves were slain. They had
no annual festivals, or else these had been discontinued.
Feasts and offerings were appointed just as occasion required,
and were celebrated with dances and fasts without prayers.

The maraca, the old hollow fruit of a tree, filled with little
stones ornamented with feathers, was a sort of idol, around
which they danced on the feast of the fifteenth day, and to
which they sacrificed men. We have said in Mabocha there
seemed to be found the essential characteristics of the Punic
Moloch, and it would seem that in the maraca his very name
has been preserved, I being very frequently in the American
languages changed into r, and that in the Maraka-bottle we
have nothing else than a miniature image of Moloch. Evidently,
then, that marica which has become among the Patagonians

1 Pojen reminds us "of the Malagasy pangahi, spirit. Ma is the
common Malay word for evil. 0, u, reminds us of the Polynesian ao,
bright, and meka of the Tahitian makai, good.

§ 285.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 187

(§ 281) a magic flask, is of Caribbean origin, and was intro-
duced by the Caribs among the southern tribes. That there
was an intercourse between the two, and that the Caribs
exerted an influence upon those tribes, is proved by the
fact that among the Brazilians all sorcerers are called
karips, just as among the Syrians all magicians were called
Chaldeans.

According to the notions of the Caribs, each man has several
souls, one in his head, one in his heart, one in his arms. From
the heart-souls after death come the good spirits ; from the
other souls come the evil spirits. These spirits long to return
to the body, haunt the bones and hair of the dead, and even
continue to propagate themselves. The heart -souls go to
heaven and are changed into stars, or live at least a happy
life, served by their dead slaves. Here and there the bodies
were preserved as mummies. This, as well as the distinction
of the three souls, which vividly reminds us of the Egyptian
trias, soul or heart shade, and body (§ 241), is satisfactorily
explained by the hypothesis of a connection with the Libyan
race, which would involve proximity to the Egyptians.

In regard to customs these may be mentioned : the infant
was sprinkled with the blood of his father, the youths
wounded themselves on becoming capable of bearing arms,
the man, too, when he becomes a leader or a sorcerer. This
is an evident relic of an old blood-offering.

They had the tradition that the sun and the moon were
created after the earth. They were very much afraid of
thunder, and in the case of eclipses of the moon they thought
that Mabocha, the evil spirit, was devouring the moon, and
they sought by offerings and various ceremonies to appease
his wrath.

188 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES. [§ 286.

C. — EARLY IMMIGRATION OF JAPANO-MONGOLIAN EACES
ABOUT B.C. 100.

§ 286. Traces of an early Mongolian Immigration.

Since the time of Hieronymus Bock's newen Kreuter-
luch (Strassb. 1539) down to modern times, the general
impression has heen that maize (Zea mays] was a plant
native to the American continent.1 Europeans always first
came to know it there, and found it spread over almost the
whole of North and South America. But this view has
been overthrown since Crawfurd met with maize among the
natives in the Indian Archipelago, and found them naming it
by the native word sagung? There is not the least shadow
of probability in the supposition that these Melanesians and
Malays had obtained the maize through Europeans. But this
notion has been completely overturned by Siebold's discovery
of maize cobs among the Japanese emblems. Bonafous also
proved that before the discovery of America the Chinese had
cultivated maize in their own land.3 That the maize had not
been introduced into Japan by Europeans, and could not have
been introduced by Europeans into China before 1492, is
incontestable. If it came directly from America to those
countries, that presupposes an early intercourse between the
east coast of Asia and of the New World, which fully grants
the possibility of East Asiatic immigrations into America ;
and so the question is simply reduced to this, whether the
East Asiatics imported the maize from America to China and
Japan, or whether they brought it to America from these
lands. The latter supposition is surely the more probable,
and becomes a certainty when we read in the ancients of an
Asiatic species of corn, of which the description can only
apply to maize. Herodotus4 tells of a Arj^rjTpo^ Kapiro^ or

1 So still Koch, Taschenbuch der deutschen und schweizer Flora, p. 555.

2 Crawfurd, Indian Archipelago, vol. i. p. 366. See his report in
Ranch, Einheit des Mensch. p. 327 f.

3 Rauch, Einheit, etc. 4 Herodotus, i. 193.

§ 286.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 189

0-IT09 the heads of which bore from 200 to 300 corns, and
had leaves four finger-breadths broad (TO, 8e (j)v\\a avroSi TWV
Se irvpwv Kal rwv tcpiOeav TO TrXaro? yiverai, Teaaepwv euTrerea)?
%aKTv\\wv) ; and Theophrastus * says that a kind of grain
grew in Asia throughout Bactria, the corns of which were of
the size of olive berries ; and that has been by Schleiden 2
quite properly identified with maize. Since, then, the maize
is never found growing wild in America, but even in the
Indian territories is only found as a cultivated plant,3 the
view of Eeynier 4 must surely be adopted, that the maize
had been introduced into America by East Asiatic colonists.
As regards the possibility of such an immigration, it may be
proved to demonstration by the following facts. North of the
Tropic of Cancer the ocean current passes from west to east.
Kotzebue 5 relates the fact that Japanese were driven from
Osago to California by a current after a seventeen months'
voyage ; but in 1 7 2 1 a French ship was driven in fifty days
from China to the west coast of Mexico ; 6 in 1833 a
Japanese junk was driven into the coast of Mexico ; and
so early as the 16th century, remains of Japanese and
Chinese ships were found on the coasts of Dorado.7 "Japanese
boats are often driven by storms to America. In the end of
last century such a boat landed on the coasts of Oregon ; a
Japanese ship sailing from Osaka was met with in 1815 by
the American brig Forster in the eddy of the ocean current,
and since the rise of San Francisco similar cases have often
been observed, so that one cannot doubt of their frequent
occurrence in earlier times." 8 In connection with this we
must remember that the Japanese (§ 269) in olden times
were a seafaring race.

1 Theophrastus, viii. 4. * Schleiden, Studien, p. 24.

3 Martius, zur Ethnograph. Amerika's, i. 17 f. Bachmann, The Doctrine
of Unity, p. 281.

4 Reynier, economic des Arabes, p. 94.

0 Kotzebue, Reise, ii. 36. 6 Banking, Researches, p. 49.

7 Bradford, Amer. Antiquities, 236. Al. von Humboldt, Ansichten, i. 215.

8 Bastian, das Bestiindige in den Menschenrassen, Berl. 1868, p. 133.

190 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 286.

Now traces of an immigration of tribes belonging to the
Mongolian group are actually found, and that, indeed, in great
numbers.1 In the most diverse parts of America a Mongolian
physical build is discoverable among the Indian tribes. In
Boston three skulls were found of a tribe that is now extinct
belonging to the Mississippi valley, which are strikingly
similar to Chinese skulls.2 The Guarani Indians in Brazil,
on the river Amazon, and on the La Plata, living in the
interior, are of a bright and indeed yellow-coloured skin, and
have obliquely set eyes.3 The Botocudos, a very savage race,
going naked and of cannibal habits, living south of the
Amazon, who suck up the blood of the slain and then cook
their flesh, engage in no agricultural pursuits, and where old
people are used as food, have in their yellow-coloured skin and
oblique-set eyes so striking a resemblance to the Chinese and
Japanese, that Tschudi 4 says : " I have seen Chinese whom at
the first glance I would have taken for Botocudos, had not
their head-dress and clothing indicated their origin ; and again
I have observed some Nackenuks (Botocudos) who had in
perfection the appearance of Chinese coolies." The derivation
of these Botocudos from the western side of the Cordilleras
can be proved to a certainty. The Portuguese gave them the
Portuguese name Botocudos, plug-people, from the plugs which
they wear in the lobes of their ears and in their lips. They call
themselves Aymaras or Ensheregmung. Now we have learnt
about (§ 287) the old cultured race of the Aymaras on the
Titicaca lake in Peru, a race showing essentially Mongolian

1 Peschel, The Races of Man, Lond. 1876, p. 402 ff., and Tschudi,
" Ollantadrama " (Denkschr. d. k. ostr. Akad. d. W. 1876, vol. xxiv. p. 176),
assume that the American cultured peoples were Mongolian, and
wandered from north-east of Asia into the north-west of America, and
from that moved southwards. But Tschudi goes too far when he applies
this to all the American peoples, while yet the Old Peruvian traditions
collected by himself, p. 170, show a connection between Mongolian
colonists and the Malays.

2 Perty, Ethnographic, p. 54.

3 According to the testimony of Martius, Orbigny, St. Hilaire.

4 Ausland, 1867, p. 1186.

§ 286.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 191

characteristics. A remnant of these exists even now under a
similar name on the plateau of Bolivia ; 1 and also in Peru
there is a tribe of Chiriguanos (comp. Ensheremung) of whom
Temple 2 says : " Had I seen them in Europe, I would un-
doubtedly have taken them for Chinese." In the Botocudos
and Guaranis, then, we have again a striking example of races
passing into savage ways, a case of deterioration, which is
that which on all sides presents itself to view in real life
instead of the chimerical upward development. Even
Martius 3 declares it to be his conviction that those Guaranis,
and the Miranchas or Botocudo tribes related to them, had
been at an earlier period civilised, and had gradually sunken.
The process of degradation toward savagery is therefore
quite conceivable. When hordes of the Aymara cultured
people, driven by love of the chase and a wandering life, went
over the passes of the Andes, and, following the watercourse,
lost themselves and strayed in the endless prairies and low-
lands of Brazil, which yielded them no support except the game
and some wild-growing plants, hunger would compel them to
undertake longer and yet longer journeys. Agriculture and
weaving would be abandoned, unlearnt, and forgotten. The
clothing judged necessary, and in that hot climate unneces-
sary, tended more and more to disappear. The wild life of the
chase nourished and strengthened the thirst for blood. This
is quite conceivable, if these were rude tribes of the Aymara
stock which chose this nomadic life or drifted into it. And
that this was actually the case, that especially with the
cultured Japanese on their entrance into America there were
also rude Mandshurians from Yeso and the Curile islands,
will be shown in § 288.

Then, again, we also find among those Indians of South
America the Old Mongolian-Japanese legend of Alancava or

1 Tschudi, Reise in Peru, ii. 362.

2 Temple, Travels in Peru, ii. 184.

3 Martius in the Deutschen Vierteljahrschrift, 1839, ii. 235 ff. Similarly
Tschudi, " Ollantadrama," p. 175.

192 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 286.

Amatsufiko (§266 and 269). The Mandshusikers in Para-
guay l had a fair woman who, without any intercourse with a
man, bore a beautiful child, who, after various miracles, was
raised to heaven, and was changed into the sun. They wor-
shipped three gods, titianacos, — namely, Omequa turigni or
Urago soriso, Ura-sana, and Ura-po, to whom they gave meat
and drink offerings. In the appellative tini-a-naco we have an
echo of the Japanese ten, heaven ; but perhaps ni is a plural
suffix, in which case ti-ni-a-naco would exactly correspond
to the Mongolian nagi-tai (§ 266), and would mean gods in
heaven or gods of heaven. Ome. seems to be the Old
Mongolian amu, ama, father. Ura might be a reminiscence of
a Japanese-Mongolian term, like the Old Mongolian nura, light
(§ 266) ; but it may also be connected with taru,juru (§ 288).
In these three gods there might be embraced an original form
of the Old Japanese mythology, like that in the Buddhist
tradition of the Japanese deities (§ 269).

The Jurukares in Bolivia tell2 of a virgin who painted the
beautiful tree Ule with Eoku. It was changed into a man,
and embraced her. They lived happily together till a jaguar
killed him. She laid the torn members together, and Ule
became alive again. As, however, there was a piece wanting
out of his cheek, he wished, in this deformed state, no further
to accompany her, and he left her. There is a very apparent
similarity between this legend and that of Osiris and Typhon,
Absyrtus and Medea, Jason and Pelias, and favours its Asiatic
origin.

When we turn now from the legends to the manners and
customs, we find among the Abipones on the La Plata, and also
among several tribes on the river Amazon as well as in Cali-
fornia, the quite unusual practice of the husband lying down
while his wife is in childbed, and conducting himself as a
woman in that condition, and at the end undergoing a cere-
mony of purification.3 Now this custom is purely Asiatic. It

1 Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 255 f. 2 Ibid. p. 264.

s Dobritzhofer, Geschickte der Abiponer, ii. 273. Quandt, die Arovaken

§ 286.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 193

was already found in early times among the Tibareni in
Armenia,1 and is found among the Miaos in China,2 and also
among the Basques (coinp. das Fabliau : Aucassin und
Nicolette).

Unnatural vice was widely spread in the Old Peruvian
empire and its surroundings ; but the Incas stamped it out
with great energy in the new empire of Peru (§ 294). Even
among the wild tribes of Brazil, not only such vice, but also
the practice of certain men, for the most part sorcerers, going
in women's clothes as Kinaden, prevailed and still prevails.3
This custom, originating from a profligate religion, was already
met with in antiquity among the Enari, a people of Northern
Asia,4 continued to be practised by various Mongol tribes,5 and
especially is indulged in among the Japanese, among whom
" every sort of lust bears sway." 6 The sculptures which have
been found here and there upon rocks in Brazil, deeply carved
figures, which represent the sun, moon, serpents, and other
monsters, have the greatest possible resemblance to sculptures
of a like nature in Siberia.7 In Peru we shall have to seek
the chief residence of the immigrating East Asiatics of the
Mongolian stern, and this will be fully confirmed by the monu-
ments found in the Peruvian empire. These immigrants,
however, would scarcely have gone so far southwards in a
direct voyage over the Pacific Ocean, but rather by coasting
voyages, or, still more probably, by coast journeys on land
from Cape Analaska, by which course they could easily pass
from Japan over the Kurile islands, and Kamtschatka, and the

in Guiana, p. 252. Venegas, noticia de la California, Madrid 1757. Al.
von Humboldt, Reisen in die Aequatorialgegenden, v. 323.

1 Strabo, iii. p. 165. Diod. Sic. v. p. 341. Apollon. Bhod. argon, ii.
1009 ff.

2 Neumann, asiat. Studien, i. 73 ff.

3 Martius in the deutschen Vierteljahrschrift, 1839, ii. 235 ff. Miiller,
Urreligionen, p. 240 ff.

4 Herodotus, iv. 67.

5 Miiller, Urreligionen, 240 ff. Stark, de vovea 6*1*11'*, 1822.

6 Stuhr, Relig. des Orients, p. 48.

7 A. von Humboldt, Reisen, iii. 408 ; iv. 315, 516. Spix, Reisen in
Erasilien, ii. 741, 752 ; iii. 1257 ff., 1272.

EBRARD IIL N

194 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 286.

Aleutia, proceeding in short occasional voyages from island to
island. If, then, they moved southward from Analaska along
the west coast of America, we would expect to find traces of
their presence north of Peru. And so we actually do meet with
a cultured people in the Muyscas of Bogota, whose language,
according to the researches of Paravey,1 has many roots in
common with the language of Japan. It will also be shown
at a later point that its constitution also is very similar to that
of the Japanese. Farther north, in Central America, figures
are found on the ruins of Pallenque, which show the leg from
the knee downwards bound with broad bands and a sandal on
*he foot. This fashion must certainly be derived from the
Japanese rather than from the Basques (§ 258) ; for, though it
is the national style in both countries, the Japanese wear a
girdle under their clothes upon the body, and this also is found
in those figures at Pallenque.2 We shall therefore ascribe to
the cultured people of Central America, to whom we owe the
ruins in Chiapa, Yucatan, and Guatemala, a Mongol-East-
Asiatic, or more precisely, a Japanese origin. And in propor-
tion as the influences and after-effects (§ 284) of an Old
Phoenician or Punic colony made themselves felt upon this
Central American people, will we be obliged to date back its
immigration to a very early period. If the Malays were
driven into the Sunda Archipelago about B.C. 2000, they may
have reached America about B.C. 1600 or 1400. The origin
of the Phoenician colonies on the Gulf of Mexico, seeing that
the island Atlantis is mentioned in Solon's time, must be set
down before B.C. 600. The arrival of the Japanese in
America, as these had reached a high degree of culture, cannot
be put earlier than B.C. 209, the date of the entrance of the
Zikofucus into Japan (§ 269), or, more probably, B.C. 100.3

1 Paravey, Memoire sur Vorigine Japonaise, Arabe et Basque de la
civilisation des peuples du plateau de Bogota, Paris 1835. Comp. Braunz-
•weig in the Amerik. Denkmalern.

3 Minuto, Beschreibung einer alien Stadt, Berlin 1852, Lafel (tables)
ii.-iv.

J The Chinese have the remarkable story (Gfrorer, Urgeschichte, i. 261),

§ 28G.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 195

There have been, then, certain influences from the Old Punic
race operating upon the Malay States, which took shape in the
Japanese race of Central America.

These Japanese tribes certainly at first spread themselves
over part of North America. The mocassins of the Eed skins
have a resemblance to the foot-coverings of the figures of
Pallenque. Also the Old Malay Alligevi empire on the
Mississippi may have had connections with the West, and there
may also have been a mixture of the races. In the time of
Cortez, however, those Old Japanese cultured peoples had long
passed away, driven southwards by later immigrations from
other lands.

Obs. 1. — The Ketshua language of the Old Peruvian empire,
which held its place as the national language under the later
domination of the Incas (§ 293), has certainly few points of
contrast with the Japanese language. But we must remember
that already in Peru it was, from the first, a conglomerate of
Malay and Japanese, and had thereafter a course of develop-
ment two thousand years long. The consonants d, g, &, v, w have
been altogether lost ; and in place of these they have formed
gutturals and palatal sibilants with a smacking sound to an
extraordinary degree. Notwithstanding all this, some striking
correspondences are still found with the Japanese languages.
I will give a few examples, in which the Ketshua words are
printed in italics. Kame, ruler, regent, cama, to rule ; tsuku, to
send, mention, catscJia, to send ; tshoccha, to throw ; on, with,
huan, with ; ari, and, also, ari, yea, but ; si6, kingdom, suju,
province ; koku, seed, ccJwcchau, provisions ; kin, gold, echo,
gold ; tsiaku, to come, tscJiaki, foot, leg, track ; kai, sea, cchotsJia,
sea ; tschuja, fluid ; aksingu, acchi, to sneeze ; kuru, to give,
chum, to lay down ; akibonu, it dawns, acapana, dawn ; aki,
empty, acuy, slight ; atsa, thick, accha, much ; amaru, fearful,
amaru, the great serpent ; arassu, empty, aslla, little ; asi, taste,
asna, to spread an odour ; jagi, dirt, yaca, to dung ; ju, y, to tell ;
jubi, finger, yupi, to grasp; ikara, to be angry, ik, interjection of
rage; skui, iscu, chalk. Whether there be any etymological
connection between the following words, I must admit, seems
to me very problematical : — Between fune and huampu, pro-

that in B.C 209 Shi-hoang-ti sent forth three hundred pairs in ships to
search for the plant of immortality. The ships were cast ashore by a
storm, and never returned. This, however, might refer to the troops of
the Zikofucus who reached Japan.

^196 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES. [§ 28G.

nounced wambu, ship ; between feo, weapon, and pfcda (with
smacking sound of p), bow, sake, and kakia, to scream ; and
between these numerals — 2, itsi, iscay ; 3, san, kinisa • 4, si,
tschusca; o,go,pitscJica; 6,sen,socta; 7, sitsi, cantschis, jantskis ;
8, fakka, puschak ; 9, kiu, iscun; 10, ziu, tscJiunca; 100, fiaku,
patschak. In 2, 6, 8, 10, 100, such a connection may be granted
— e.g. from fiaku by reduplication we would have f-k-k, and
then these become p-tsch-k. But now, in addition, we must
remember that the language of Japan (§ 269) has, just within
the last three centuries, undergone a complete transformation.
What alterations may have taken place in it during the period
of the immigration of the Zikofucus in B.C. 200 ! The immigra-
tion of the Aymara tribes from Japan into Peru did take place
just about that time. There were tribes which were driven
from Japan on the entrance of the Zikofucus into that country.
That the Ketshua language is no longer similar to the language
now spoken in Japan, nor indeed to the furu-koto spoken in
Japan 1600 years ago, cannot be a matter of doubt. The
present Japanese language is characterized by Wernich as " in
itself already [since what time ?] an overloaded language, which,
by a vast number of incorporated foreign expressions and figures
of speech, has degenerated into a sickly, crammed, linguistic-
amalgam, scarcely capable of life."

Obs. 2. — The Araucanians in Chili are a mixed race, made up
of Malays and Aymaras. They show themselves to be such in
comparison with the pure Malay Tsonecas: (1) by their bright
skin (Chaworth-Musters, Among the Patagonians) ; (2) by their
decidedly superior culture, for they have fixed abodes, cultivate
maize and fruits, prepare cider, wear a complicated dress like
that of cultured races, of which they are very careful, they weave
handsome pontshos, and manufacture fine silver work (Chaworth-
Musters, I.e.) ; (3) by their language, which is quite different
from that of the Tsonecas ; (4) by their religion, which shows
clearly the influence of the Aymaras, these Japanese incomers,
for the Araucanians have a distinct sun-worship beside their
own spirits or sorcery ; and (5) finally, by their warlike
character. In contrast to the peaceful, good-natured Tsonecas,
whose occasional wars bear simply the appearance of wild,
sudden robber-raids, they are a warlike and very brave people,
which have kept the Government of Chili pretty busy down
even to the present time. They are born riders. Their mode
of warfare is extremely like that of the Chirokees. In earlier
times, too, quite according to Mongol custom, they reduced to
slavery all who were conquered in war (Berghaus, vi. 239 f.).
Their Asiatic extraction is also proved by the game of chess,
which (according to Molina, ii. 108 ; Bradford, 407) was known
among the Araucanians under the name of komilkan before the

§ 287.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 197

country was discovered. The subordinate position which they
(as is also still the custom in Japan) assign to their women is
a thoroughly Mongolian feature ; and also the way in which,
without any question of inclination, they purchase the bride
from her parents. In the Aymaras, then, of the Old Peruvian
empire, notwithstanding their outward culture, we shall be
obliged to admit an extraordinary measure of national rudeness,
and so shall find it quite conceivable that isolated hordes of this
people could sink to the degraded position of the Botocudos.

§ 287. The Old Peruvian Empire of the Aymaras,
and their Religion.

When Pizarro discovered Peru, the empire of the Incas was
then existing, with its capital at Cuzco. According to the
declarations of its princes themselves, this empire had been
founded only a few centuries before ; * but according to the
most definite traditions and the reports of the people, there
had been an older empire under a line of eighty successive
kings, in which a different religion had been professed. This
empire and people were in a state of deep moral degradation,
and had fallen into an almost savage condition. Human sacri-
fices and unnatural vice had been commonly practised, when
the Inca Eoca founded a new empire and introduced the new
Inca religion,2 the laws of which actually forbade human sacri-
fices and unnatural vice under pain of death. But besides
those traditions, we have also the evidence of ancient monu-
ments in regard to the existence of this pre-Inca empire. On
the Lake Titicaca, about 150 miles south-east of Cuzco, lying
in a deep valley 12,700 feet above the sea, in the district
which in Pizarro's time the Aymaras inhabited,3 stand the

1 According to Garcilasso (Geschichte der Inka's, Germ., Nordhauseu
1788), whose mother was an Inca princess, the Inca empire lasted 400
years ; according to the opinion of the Royal Spanish audiencia of Peru
(in Prescott, i. 9), only 200 years ; according to the conjecture of Velasco,
500 years. As the thirteenth king was reigning at the time of the discovery,
about 250 years may be a more probable guess.

2 Garcilasso, p. 303. In the Peruvian language, c and k are quite distinct
and different sounds.

3 At the present time the Huantshas dwell there, while the Aymaras

198 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 287.

buildings of Tia-Huanacu, of which the natives declare that
they were erected before the sun shone on the earth, that is,
before the introduction of the sun religion of the Incas. In
fact, the fourth Inca, Mayta Capac, when he invaded that
district, found it in process of building and partly unfinished.
Down to the present time, in the quarries of Capia, there lie
stone columns wholly or half hewn. These structures are
mounds of a hundred feet high, similar to the morais of the
Malays, and owe their origin undoubtedly to the primitive
Malayan inhabitants. These, however, are surrounded by
pillars which are not Malayan. Then there are also several
temples of from 300 to 600 feet long, with colossal cornered
pillars, these ornamented with bass-reliefs. There are also
basalt statues with heads constructed with anatomical correct-
ness, and natural in form. A palace, too, has been discovered
of hewn masses of rock.1 Also in the valley of Pachacamac,
south of Lima and west of Cuzco, there was a temple which
was dedicated to a god of the same name, but had been
changed by the Incas into a temple of their sun-god Yn-ti, of
which there are still remaining some columns with niches
and paintings.2 Similar buildings, too, are found in Tambo,
Truxillo, Cuclap, and Tia-Huanacu. In these structures there
are many traces of an ancient picture-writing, mentioned by
the Incas, but, evidently on account of their contents, con-
sidered irreligious or ungodly, and extirpate by force. The
second last Inca, Huayna Capac, overran Quito (Ecuador), 960
miles north of Cuzco. Here, too, stood an ancient temple, which
had been before that time dedicated to the sun and moon,
containing pillars of the sun, golden discs of the sun, and
silver discs of the moon, along with columns of the twelve

are now to the south-east of it, in Bolivia. Tschudi, Reise in Peru, ii.
362.

1 Prichard, iv. 486. Prescott, i. 9, 10. Tschudi, Reuen durch Sud-
amerika, v. p. 288 ff. Stone slabs of 25 feet long by 15 feet broad had
been transported to the place of building up hill and down hill a distance
of eleven miles.

2 Tschudi, Reise, I 291.

§ 287.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 199

months. The new moon and the shortest day were there held
as festivals, also a god of health was worshipped, and a war-
god was honoured with human sacrifices, and the first-born of
men had been offered in sacrifices, — all of which were put an
end to by the Incas.1 A remnant of that Old Peruvian
cultured people, living in stone houses, was in existence in the
time of the Incas to the east of the Andes, in the district of
Tucumen and Caxamarca, under the name of Caltschacis. The
Bolivian dialect of the Old Peruvian language, the Ketshua
language, is spoken there by the Indians to the present day.2

This brings us to speak of the religion of the Old Peruvian
empire, or rather that of the race. It really did not consti-
tute an empire, but comprised a number of independent States,
the princes of which, curacas,3 received from the Incas under
the new empire the rank of a high nobility. The old empire
was essentially distinguished from the new in a religious
aspect by the different place which it gave to the worship of
the moon. Under the earlier order time was reckoned by
lunar months, under the Inca rule by solar months.4 But
before we can more exactly determine this point, the Old
Peruvian system of the gods must be considered as a whole.
It was completely different from that of the Incas. We meet
with the names of two gods under the old empire ; both of the
kings there represented are regarded as the supreme god. These
are Pachacamac and Jlla-Tidsi.

1. Pachacamac is designated in an Old Peruvian poem (see
Obs.) pacha-rurac, earth-builder or creator. Patscha, or accord-
ing to the Spanish spelling, pacha, means earth, perhaps also
the world ; in camac we have the participle of cama, to create,

1 Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 335. Velasco, i. 116.

2 Tschudi, " Ollantadrama," p. 177. Versen, transatlant. Streifzuge,
Leipz. 1876, p. 10.

8 M'ontesino mentions as names of such curacas : Jupangui, Patschacuti,
Viracotscha, Topa-Japangui, and Inti-Capac. Curaca might be originally
connected with the Sanscrit $ura, xvpiof, Celt, curaid. With Topa com-
pare the Mongol, or Mandshurian people, Topa, \vho subjected Northern
China from A.D. 386-600.

4 Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 356.

200 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 287.

a root which is fundamentally the same as that which we meet .
with in the Japanese appellative of god, kame. His name desig-
nates this deity the earth-god, creator of the earth ; and so when
Garcilasso, Velasco, and Ulloa agree in reporting the tradition
of the Peruvians, that Pachacamac was an invisible deity, of
whom they had no image, and to whom they brought no sacri-
fices, this tradition is not discredited by Acosta and Monte-
sino having discovered long after the overthrow of the empire
of the Incas wooden images, columns with human heads, which
bore the name of a god, or by Acosta l having found in this
god's temple various fish and serpent emblems. Pacha-
camac still continued, under the rule of the Incas, to be
worshipped by the common people ; 2 but among them he was
regarded as one of the subordinate gods, the Jmacas, as a par-
ticular sort of god, whom they no longer represented by any
image. Originally, in the ancient empire, he evidently corre-
sponded to the Nagatai of the Mongols (§ 269), to the Tao of
the Chinese (§ 268), to the Kuni toko of the Japanese (§ 269),
and thus serves for the completing of our knowledge of the
original Japanese religion before it was affected by Buddhism.
It affords proof that the Japanese, as well as the Mongols and
Chinese, had originally known and worshipped an invisible
creator of the world. Another designation given to this god
was Apachecta, power-bestower ; and another such designation
was Ataguchu. Special mention is made of a god Ataguchu,3
to whom many temples had been dedicated. One of the
temples at Lake Titicaca was assigned to him. It consisted of a
large court surrounded by high walls, in the midst a deep trench
surrounded by trees. The offerings would be hung upon the
trees. At the same time this Ataguchu is represented as the
creator of the world, and it is told that he produced from him-
self two other gods. One of these was called Tangatanga.4 We
have here the primitive form of that Japanese emanation myth,

1 Acosta, v. 12.

2 Tschudi, Reise, 149. Ausland, 1852, p. 919.

3 Lacroix, Univers pittoresyue. 4 Hazart, p. 249.

§ 287.] THE PEOPLES AXD HORDES OF AMERICA. 201

in which is represented the transition from the primitive
monotheism of the Old Mongolians to polytheism, the buddh-
istically affected form of which we have already considered
(§ 269). There 7 + 5, here only 3, gods go forth from one
another. We shall meet again (§ 288} with these three gods
among the wild Aymara tribe of ,the Mandshusicas. In the
name Ataguchu there is unuiistakeably the root atta, father
(Tshuvah attja, Mongol, etsi, Turk, ata), common to very
diverse languages, but not found in the Malay group.

2. There is, however, a second god that lays claim to be
the supreme deity of the Old Peruvian empire, the creator of
the world. This is Illa-Tidsi, in Spanish Illatici. In con-
nection with him there is also a third god, named Wiracotscha
or Guiracotscha. In the legend of Wiracotscha not only is
the story of Illa-Tidsi completely overgrown, but it is only
from it that he is known to us. J. G. Mliller, however, has
too hastily concluded from the fact that once Illatidsi Guira-
cotscha occurs as if one name, that originally the god Illatidsi
was identical with the hero of the flood, Wiracotscha. The
identification of the two was evidently a later development.
If we give our attention first of all to the name, we cannot
fail to notice that alongside of Illatidsi are found also the
forms Tidsi and Contidsi. Hence it undoubtedly follows that
Tidsi is the proper name, and Ilia and Con only prefixes. The
form Contidsi reminds us of Kuni-toco, the supreme god and
creator of the world among the Japanese (§ 269). If, then, in
the Wiracotscha legend Illatidsi is described as the supreme
god, there can be no doubt as to his identity with that Kuni-
toco. The verbal transition from k to the sibilant c (z, ts, ds)
has abundant analysis in late Latin, the Basque, and some
hundreds of the American languages.

3. We turn our attention now to the Wiracotscha legend.
" After the great flood," so the Collas, dwellers in the moun-
tains east of Cuzco, told the thoroughly dependable Acosta,1 —

1 Acosta,"natiirliclie und Sittengeschichte Westindiens, 1589," in Miiller,
p. 308.

202 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 287.

and the story is also similarly told by Molina, Balboa, and
Garcilasso, — " three brothers 1 issued from the caves of Pacari-
tampa. Their father was Wiracotscha (who, according to
Garcilasso, i. 259, was represented as a white-bearded man
in a long garment), and he had risen after the flood out of
Lake Titicaca." If we continue to examine this, we shall find
that the flood is spoken of as a definite and well-known occur-
rence. "We have here one of the legends of the flood, and
Wiracotscha with his three sons corresponds to Noah and his
three sons. The same Wiracotscha is by Garcilasso said to
mean " foam of the sea," by others " son of the sea." 2 Since
the Spaniards, too, were designated by the Peruvians wiracot-
schas, it will be seen that men of the sea, or sons of the sea,
is the more correct meaning. Foam of the sea could at least
be understood only in the figurative sense of rising up from
the sea. But should any one suggest the idea that Wiracotscha
was not a form of the primitive legend common to mankind,
but that the Malay early inhabitants gave to the Japanese in-
comers, as having come over the sea (but they came, according
to § 286, undoubtedly overland from the north), the name of
men of the sea, or those who rose from the sea, it has to be
said, on the contrary, that Wiracotscha is not said in the legend
to have risen from the Pacific Ocean, but from the Titicaca
lake far up in the lofty plateau of the Andes. It is also
specially irreconcilable with this theory, that Wiracotscha is
not a Malay, but a Japanese word. For sea the Malayan-
Polynesian languages have the words luhut, dagat, taik ; but
in Japanese the sea is called kay, and hence in Peruvian the
unduplicated form coca, cucha, cutscha. It is the same root
that lies at the basis of GDJTJV, (aiceavos, the Celtic cuan, and
its older uncontracted form in the name of the lake Titicaca,

1 Ajar Catschi topa, Ajar Auca topa, and Ajar Utschu topa.

2 Man is in Mongolian ere, in Mandshuriau eru, in Turkish ir. It is
the same original root in Latin vir, Celtic fir, Gothic vair. In the time of
Garcilasso the word may have been oljsolete ; hence he derives the name
from another word that was still in use — wira, foam (comp. Mongol, ur,
Finn, wuori, to flow).

§ 287.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 203

•which evidently consists of the root ti (Chinese tian, deity,
heaven, Japanese ten), and caca, sea, and so means God's
sea or heaven's sea, and thus etyrnologically and in significa-
tion corresponding perfectly to the Titi-Sea of the Celts
(§ 259).

Just as the legend of the Indian Manu (§ 207) transformed
Manu into the creator of the post-diluvian world, and as the
German legend (§ 260) attributed the same rank to Wodan
or Odin, so also the Peruvian legend l tells how Wiracotscha,
after the flood, gathered together several men (his sons) who
had saved themselves in caves, and thus made the sun, moon,
and stars, then formed images of stone, which he called to
come forth from various caves, and with them he moved to
Cuzco, departing at that point from the earth. Here now
evidently we have the well-known Malay legend of creation-
caves current among the Tagals on Luzon, the Aruacas on
the Antilles, and the Tsonecas in Patagonia, combined and
confounded with the Japanese and Mongolian legend of
Wiracotscha. The father of the post-diluvian world, who
was probably already elevated by the Mongols into a god, is
thus identified with the creator of the world among the early
Malay inhabitants of Peru. In this way are to be explained
such composite names as these : Illatidsi Wiracotscha and (see
Obs.~) Pachacamac Wiracotscha.

There remains but one further element in the legend of
Wiracotscha calling for explanation. A reminiscence of
Cain's murder of his brother has been transferred to the sons
of the hero of the flood, and these have been confounded with
the sons of Adam. This element appears under various forms
in the different accounts given. Auca, the oldest son of
Wiracotscha, climbed a mountain, cast stones to the four
winds, in order by this symbolic act to take possession of
the land, but by so doing he roused the jealousy of his
youngest brother Utschu. He persuaded Auca to go into a
cave to worship there the supreme god Illatidsi- Wiracotscha.
1 Betan<jo in Garcia, Orig. de los Indios, v. 3. 7.

204 HALF-CIVILISED AXD SAVAGE KACES. [§ 287.

When his elder brother was in the cave, Utschu shut up its
entrance with masses of rock, then persuaded the third
brother, Catschi, to search for the lost Auca, climbed with
him under this pretence a mountain, and cast him over a
precipice. He then gave out that Catschi had turned him-
self into a stone. The part which here again the caves play,
and the existence of legends among the Tongans (§ 272)
which tell in a similar way the chief incident of the brother's
murder, lead us to recognise this legend as one derived from
the early Malay inhabitants of Peru. It is noticeable, too,
that the name Auca corresponds to the Tongan name Waca
Acau, and so our conjecture is confirmed (§ 281, Obs. 1) that
Acau in the Tongan legend was originally a proper name, and
that the appellative signification "ship of the black wood"
was a secondary designation first occasioned by a combination
with a Melanesian legend.

To return again to Peru ; according to another version of
the Peruvian Auca legend, Catschi had been transformed by a
sorcerer into a rock ; the rock was still shown and treated
with reverence. According to yet another version, Auca got
out of his cave and fled. Utschu gave out that Auca had
been received into heaven, a reminiscence perhaps of Enoch.
Utschu took the name Manco,1 and built Cuzco, and was at
last changed into a stone. This changing into stone evidently
means nothing else than that stones existed as images of those
brothers, and were objects of worship. According to the
account of Acosta, Manco Capac was not Utschu himself, but
a son of Utschu. According to Garcilasso and Balboa, Utschu
had three sons, Manco, Auca, and Catschi, around whom the
above stories gathered. It appears from the name and the kind
of connection with Wiracotscha how confusion and uncertainty
prevail. The core of the legend, however, is always there,
that one brother puts another to death through jealousy,

1 As in Peruvian Inca means son of the sun, Manco, which is only an
older form of Manca, means Man-son, Manu-son. And so we have here
again the name of Manu as that of the hero of the flood.

§ 287.] THE PEOPLES AXD HORDES OF AMEKICA. 205

while the murdered one is represented as a worshipper of the
supreme God.

4. This last legend carries us over to the legend of Manco-
Capac,1 which leads us at once into the regions of American
history. The people of the country, so says the tradition,
lived in the beginning naked and without laws, worshipped all
possible false gods, even animals [and ate their prisoners
taken in war]. Then [the sun] pitied them, and sent them
two of his children, Manco-Capac and his [sister and] wife
Mama-Ohello (Odsello, Oello) Huasco, to introduce among
them the worship of the sun and general culture. These
sprang up from Lake Titicaca : a golden magic wand showed
them Cuzco, that is, the navel, as a place where they should
rear a city. Pacha-mama,2 the earth or land mother, was a
designation of Mama-Ohello. This legend, as the words
inclosed in the square brackets show, no longer exists in
its original form, but remodelled in the style and according
to the ideas of the Inca religion and the Inca empire. The
Incas first introduced the sun-worship, called themselves
sons of the sun, put a stop to human sacrifices, and taught
that the moon-goddess was at once sister and wife of the
sun-god. The old germ of the legend is evidently simply
this : Foreign invaders, the Japanese Aymaras, came upon
the Malays, found them going naked and already in a state
of savagery ; 3 they settled first of all at Titicaca, then built
Cuzco, and so founded the Old Peruvian empire. The later
legend identified the leader of these invaders, who perhaps
was actually called Capac, with that Mauco of the primitive
legend, the son of Manu-Wiracotscha, and to the time of the
Incas he would be completely changed into a son of the sun.
The Incas were thus crafty in connecting their genealogical
tree with the legendary Manco-Capac. Their actual father

1 Garcilasso, Gesch. des Inkas, ii. 9.

2 Muller, Urreligionen, p. 363.

3 And indeed the legend (in Barcia, Hist oriadores primit., Madrid 1749,
vol. iii.) speaks of a whole race, the Eingrim, as having migrated under
Capella (Capac).

206 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACE3. [§ 287.

and the founder of the empire was the Inca Eoca, about A.D.
1200. Garcilasso, Balboa, and Velasquez would have him
to be Manco-Capac's fifth successor. Montesino, however,
gives it as the story of the Peruvians, that Manco lay far
back in the past, about a thousand years before Eoka, and
had been the founder of an older empire. Although the
thousand years may altogether be too much of a stretch to
the report given .by Montesino, it must be honourably con-
ceded that it gives the correct statement of the fact, whereas
that of Garcilasso is evidently constructed with a definite
purpose.

5. One more notable legend 1 leads us back to a considera-
tion of the religion of the Old Peruvian empire. The god
Con, so runs the tradition, had come from the north and was
long worshipped as the one god. Then from the south
appeared Pachacamac as a mightier god, who renewed the
world and changed former men into monkeys. We cannot
regard this Con as identical with that Kon-tidsi, who is the
same as Illa-tidsi and Kuni-toco of the Japanese ; for he is
rather to be identified with Pachacamac himself, as both
again are one with "VViracotscha. Since also Pachacamac is a
Japanese name as well as Kon-tidsi, it can scarcely be
supposed that two branches of one people had fallen into a
religious conflict over two names for one and the same god.
The dislodging of the god Con by the god Pachacamac
evidently therefore means that the worship or religion of the
former was displaced by that of the latter. Con then must
necessarily have been the deity of a Malay race, which had
been driven away before the Japanese as in their migrations
they followed the coast, which therefore still occupied the
heights of Cuzco. When, then, those Japanese, the Aymaras,
extended their empire from Titicaca northwards, when the
district of Cuzco was subjugated, and the city of that name
was founded, the god Con, the worship of this god, was
displaced ; and seeing that his former worshippers were wild
1 Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 319.

§ 287.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 207

men going naked, it is conceivable that they were regarded
by the cultured race as monkeys, were reviled as monkeys,
and that so the legend of the changing of an earlier race of
men into monkeys may have arisen. If Con was worshipped
by them as the one god, he must have corresponded to the
tuwan of the Japanese, the atua of the Tahitians and New
Zealanders ; and as atua is in Hawaiian changed into akua,
so may tuwan have been chauged by some tribes into Jcuan,
kon, or indeed kon may have originated directly from the
Hawaiian akua. In fact, it is now reported to us1 that the
common people in Peru, besides other Jiuacas, Old Peruvian
gods discarded by the Incas, worshipped a Zarap-cono-pa,
god of the maize, and a Papap-cono-pa, god of the potato.
Pa is the Malay word for father, ma is the Malay word for
mother, and occurs in the name Coco-mama, goddess of the
cocoa plant. Cono then will be, in fact, a later form of the
divine appellative tuan, atua, akua. Such guardian deities
for the several species of plants are, essentially considered,
genuinely Japanese (§ 269).

6. Finally, we are told of other Old Peruvian deities which
under the Incas continued to be worshipped by the people
in hidden way, or as tolerated, and which prove that the
emanationistic multiplication of the divine Creator had led to
regular polytheism. There was a thunder-god, Katequil, or
Apo katequil, compounded with MaL api, fire, or Tschaquilla,
thunder, Katuilla, lightning, Inti - allapa, heaven's gleam,
which according to the image representing it, one of the old
sacred stones, is quite sufficiently proved to be Old Peruvian.
His sister was the rain-goddess, whose name is not preserved,
of whom, however, an old legendary song says that her wild
brother, with the flash of his lightning, dashed her urn in
pieces, so that the rain gushes out. (Comp. the Ols.} We
learn the names of this rain-goddess from Japan (§ 269).
Alongside of her wild brother there is the Japanese Tensio-
daisin. A fire-god whose name is unknown is also distinguished
1 Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 367.

208 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 287.

by his stone image as Old Peruvian. Thunder or meteoric
stones were supposed to have fallen from heaven, and that
they operated as love-charms ; just as in Japan aerolites were
worshipped as amatsakitsne, heaven's foxes. Twins were re-
garded as sons of lightning (comp. the Mongolian legend of
triplets of Alankava, § 2 60, begotten by a ray of light); and
he to whom twins were born brought a thank-offering to the
god Akutschukkaque, whose name corresponds to akua Tscha-
quilla, and means, therefore, the thunder-god.1

In Quito we hear about a god, Rimak, the speaker, who
gave oracles. The magic forbidden by the Incas, but con-
tinued among the people, originated in the Old Peruvian
religion. The Malay and Japanese - Mongolian worship of
spirits was mixed up with it. The Jmarellas were at once
hobgoblins and guardian spirits. Of like origin was the
huacapuillak, a sort of higher order of oracle - priest who
converses with the gods. The name is composed of the
genitive of the Mai. waka, god, and uillak, part, act., from
Peruvian uilla, to speak. Likewise the necromancer, malqui-
puillak, is derived from mallki, a corpse. The explanation of
this latter name by means of ajatacuc must, on the other
hand, be Japanese, since the root cue is found again in the
word pacha-cue, shown by its first portion to be Japanese — he
who tells the future by the movement of spiders. The hacaricue
tell the future from guinea-pigs ; the hatschus, from maize ;
the moscoc, from dreams. The hantsctias or ripnakmicuc sought
to destroy enemies by witchcraft. Finally, there was a special
oracle-god for love affairs, who is met with under two names,
Huacanki and Kuiankarani. 2 In Quito, again, an old god
of health is spoken of, and along with him a god of war
and vengeance.3 The Incas had to contend against animal-
worship.4 The constellations were regarded by the Old
Peruvians as symbols of the genera of animals ; the animals

1 Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 368 f.

2 Ibid. p. 397. 3 Ibid. p. 33,").
4 Montesinos and Lacroix in Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 365 f.

§ 288.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 209

were taken as representatives of the corresponding constel-
lations.

Ols. — An ancient prayer to the rain-goddess, of which the
Peruvian text is given in Tschudi, Die Ketshua-Sprache, part
ii. p. 68, is as follows : —

Fair Princess,

Thine urn

Thy brother has broken,

Even now into fragments.

From the blow

Noise and fire and

Lightnings proceeded.

Still, 0 Princess,

Thy moisture

Dispensing, thou rainest,

And all around

Thou makest it shower,

[And sometimes]

Thou sendest forth snow.

Pacharurac

Pachacamac

Wiracotscha.

For this function

Has determined thee

And made thee.

§ 288. Religion and Traditions of the wild Aymara Tribes.

If we are right in the reconstruction of the Old Peruvian
religion as in the supposition that the Botocudos, Guaranis,
Jurucares are degenerate Japanese- Aymaras, the traces of that
religion will be found again among these tribes. And this also
is the case, so far as one can expect such still to be traceable.
The Mandshusicus in Paraguay, whose very name reminds us
of the Mandshus, neighbours and relations of the Japanese,
worshipped in one temple three gods, Urago sorisu, whom they
also called Omegua turigni, Ura sana, and Ura po; and to
them they presented food and drink offerings. Here we have
really the Ataguchu of the Old Peruvians along with two other
gods which he produces from himself. In Omegua the first
two syllables are evidently the word amu, ama, father, mother,
common to the Mongolian languages. Ura, however, is a
divine appellative which we shall meet with again in the forms
juru, guru, taru, and tiri, in other wild tribes of the Aymaras.
It seems to be related to the Taara of the Ugro-Finnic tribes
(§ 262). That with the Japano-Mongols, the Mandshurians,
neighbouring tribes made up of Mongols and Tartars, had
migrated from the adjacent islands of Yesso, Tarakai, and the
Kuriles, is indeed quite possible (§ 286), and just such Ugro-

EBRARD III. 0

210 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 288.

Tartar tribes would have had the most decided tendency to
nomadic dispersion. They took their religious conceptions and
the ideas of their gods from the Japanese, the dominant race,
but retained, besides, the use of the divine appellative tarn,
juru, ura. Thus sor-isu is certainly derived from the Ugrian
iso, father ; po, from the Ugrian poeg, son ; sana might be con-
nected with the Ugrian asszonyi, female, and mean woman.
We find Ura again in the form of Taru among the Botocudos.
They had borrowed the moon- worship from the Caribs ; they
called the moon Taru ; the sun, Taru-pido ; the thunder, taru-
decu-wong ; the lightning, taru-demerang ; the wind, taru-cuhu ;
night, taru-tatu.1 J. G. Miiller concludes from this that they
had ascribed thunder and lightning to the moon ; but even
these untutored people would see with their eyes that thunder
and lightning, wind and night, were not derived from the
moon. Taru means not moon, but god. They gave the title
of god to the moon in a pre-eminent way. If, then, they
designated the lightning as the glance of God, thunder as
the rumbling noise of God, the wind as the breath of God,
etc., these figurative expressions are a proof that, before the
adoption of the Caribbean worship of the moon, they had
known a God, to whose working the most diverse of natural
phenomena were reduced. Finally, we find the name but not
the nature of this Taru among the Jurukares in the form of
Tiri. The Old Mongolian legend of the Child of the Sun,
current in this tribe, has already been given in § 286. Around
this legend of Ule 2 another now entwines itself,3 in which we
light upon significant reminiscences of the fall, the flood, and
the building of Babel. Tiri, whom the legend regards as
Ule's son, thus connecting him with the Ule legend, was lord
of all nature, and so, evidently, according to its original concep-
tion, not the son of Ule, but the creator of the world. As he
was quite alone, and longed for a friend, he created from the

1 Muller, Urreligionen, p. 254.

* Compare the Turkish word ulu, great.

3 Muller, Urreligionen, p. 267 ff. Andree, Westl. i. 335 ff.

§ 288.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 211

nail of his great toe the first man, Kara. He begat children
with a hokko, bird ; but his son died (reminiscence of Abel),
and he himself ate upon his grave a pistachio-nut against the
command of Tiri, who had said to him that his son would
be restored again to life should he keep from eating of that
tree. When, nevertheless, he ate thereof, Tiri said to him :
Thou hast been disobedient ; for punishment, thou, together
with all men, shall be mortal, and have suffering and toil. At
Tiri's command Karu now ate a duck, which he vomited, and
produced birds of all kinds. A spirit, Sararuma or Aima-
sunne, caused a " sin "- burning, a conflagration of the world.
We have here a combination of the flood legend with the
German legend of the world-burning of Surtur. (Compare
also the fire-water in the one form of the flood legend of the
Kolhs, § 274.) A single man was saved in a cave, and thrust
out repeatedly a twig, which at first sank, but at last re-
mained safe. From the cave went forth the various nations
of the earth, evidently in the person of that one man, their
first parent, the Mansinnos, Solortos, Quichuas,1 Chiraguanos,
etc. But when a man came out of the cave who wished to
rule over all, Tiri closed the opening of the cave, and com-
manded the peoples to divide and populate the whole earth,
and sowed strife among them. They fought against each
other with darts, which fell down from the sun. The Juru-
kares traced their descent from the Mansinnos, whose name
again reminds us of the Mandshurians. To the rainbow and
the twilight they ascribe the origin of sicknesses.2

If we have admitted a mixture in those tribes of Mongolian
and Ugro-Tartar blood, that is, a Mandshurian origin, we find
in many other tribes of South America an extremely probable

1 Quichua language, or Ketshua language, is the name with which the
Peruvians describe their own tongue. The Jurukarian tradition, therefore,
knew of the existence of a Ketshua people ! A new feature is, that they
sprang from Peru. That the Ketshua language was not introduced into
the country by the Incas, but was already found by them in Peru, will be
shown farther on.

2 Muller, Urreligionen, p. 258.

212 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACE8. [§ 288.

mixture, with that Mongol and Ugro-Tartar blood also Malay
and Bubu blood, which mixture is quite recognisable at all
times in the conglomerate religion of such tribes. Besides
the Malay Tapujas (§ 281) and the Mongol Guaranis
(§ 286), we meet with the Tupiguaranis. Among the
Botocudos we find, besides the Ugrian name of god, Taru,
as already observed, the moon -worship derived from the
neighbouring Caribbean Berber tribes, and particularly the
name Hutscha for the sun-god,1 which evidently is the
Hudshus of the Caribs (§ 285). The Mandshusicus wor-
shipped, besides those three Uras, also a water-god, presenting
offerings of tobacco, which they represented with fishes in his
hand. The Abipones worshipped a god of the tribe, Pilla.2
This name is met with again among the Araucanians as a
divine appellative for spirit, for they describe a thunder-god,
Thalclave, as guenu-pillan, heaven's spirit.3 That mixed race
the Tupiguarauis feared an evil god, lurupari (Goropari)
or Aignan (Anacha, Anchanga, Anonga), who again essentially
corresponds to Aharaigitschi (or Elel, or Kebet) of the
Abipones.4 His name reminds us of the Ainus who inhabit
the island Yesso. Eude sculptures with the figures of
serpents and other wild animals5 on the one side (similar to
those in the temple of Pachacamac, § 287), with figures of
the moon on the other side, are found here and there on
rocks in various districts of South America. The Caribbean
custom, too, at eclipses of the moon, of frightening by a
roaring noise the evil spirit who is strangling the moon,
spread to the Abipones in Paraguay and even down to the
Araucanians.6 The latter, in keeping with this Malay-
Mongolian sun-worship, have a similar practice on the
occasion of eclipses of the sun ; and while the Botocudos,

1 Miiller, Vrreligionen, p. 270. * Ibid. p. 258 f.

3 Ibid. p. 271. 4 Ibid. p. 273 £.

5 To this class belongs specially a pyramidal sanctuary in West Brazil,
with a serpent deity in the tribe of the "Wajakuru or Waikurs. Charle-
voix, p. 131.

6 Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 255 if.

§ 288.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 213

Moluchos, etc., ascribe the origin of everything good to the
sun, and the Aucas sprinkle the blood of slain game toward
the sun, and the Dignits in Paraguay offer to him birds'
feathers moistened with blood, in all this their mixed descent,
be it Malay, be it Mongolian, be it both, is made quite
evident, as well as the Caribbean descent or mixture among
the Tapujas, who represent the maraca-bottle with an open
mouth like a human head, honour the sun with an annual
festival, and slay for him even men as sacrifices.1 A trace
of star -worship among the Tapujas, and down even to the
Abipones, who regard the Pleiades as the dwelling-place of
an evil spirit, give reverence to the constellation of the Great
Bear, etc., seems to be of Caribbean, and therefore of African
origin. "When, on the other hand, the Guaranis speak of a
god Tamoi, who taught their fathers agriculture, the cultivat-
ing of maize, and then went back into heaven,2 this is nothing
but a reminiscence of the apotheosized leader of the first
troop of Japanese or Mandshurian immigrants into the
East, who introduced the cultivation of maize among the
early Malay inhabitants, and joined themselves with them.
The more variegated this religious conglomerate appears, the
more important does the fact become that traces of the old
primitive monotheism in the most diversified reminiscences
of the flood in particular should be found among all these
tribes. In polytheism they part in various directions from
one another, but the primitive religion and primitive tradition
must have been the same among all the groups of races.

As concerns the early monotheism, to what has been already
said I add the following. The Coeruas in Chapuro pray to one
god, of whom they say that he created the sun, stars, wood,
streams, and air.3 The Araucanians have, besides other pillas,
aguen-pilla, heaven's spirit, whom they call Guencubu or Ville-
mooe, pilla-mooe, great spirit, who has created all things. Pilla
seems to have been derived from villa, from that Old Peruvian

1 Miiller, Urrdigionen, p. 262 f. 2 Ibid. p. 266.

3 Martius, brasil. Reise, iii. 1202.

214 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 289.

word that means to speak (§ 287). The Araucanians
use the word still as an appellative. Among the Abipones
it had come to be used in a polytheistic sense as the proper
name of an individual, and indeed of an evil god or spirit.
As concerns the legends of the flood, that of the Arau-
canians has been already reported (§ 281). Various other
Brazilian tribes tell of a flood that overwhelmed the whole
of mankind, from which only the wise old man Ta-manduare
with his sister were saved. The supreme god had instructed
to wait for the flood in a boat, or, according to another
version which has got mixed up with this one, into a hollow
palm. He begot children with his sister, — that is a thoroughly
Inca-like feature, — and so replenished the earth.1 In Taman-
duare, ta, just as in tamaraca, is a contraction for taru, god,
divine ; and in Manduare we again meet with the name Manu.

§ 289. The Empire of the May seas and their Religion.

From the midst of a motley crowd of wild Malay, Japano-
Mongolian, and Caribbean tribes, and of tribes in which all three
were mingled on the higher reaches of the Orinoco and on the
river Magdalena, the Europeans found to their amazement in
the highlands of Bogota the cultured race of the Muyscas.2
This people, forming two organized States, dwelt between the
river Magdalena and the tributary stream the Cauca, in what
is now called the Cundinamarca province of New Granada.
Over against the hill country of the wild tribes they were
shut off and secured by an almost impassable ravine, in which
the stream formed the beautiful waterfall of Tequendana, but
on all other sides by the mountains. A dense population
carried on the cultivation of maize and potatoes. They wore
dresses of cotton, which they were able to spin, weave, and
dye in a variety of beautiful colours. They also produced
fine goldsmith work, and indeed procured gold, as it was not

1 Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 266 ff.

2 For sources of information regarding what follows, see Mtiller,
Urreligionen, p. 421 ff.

§ 289.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 215

found in their own land, by trading, receiving it in exchange
for rock salt. They manufactured elegant vessels and images
from clay. They possessed a standing army. They had also
a very artificially constructed calendar, with a sacerdotal year
of thirty-seven months, a civil year of twenty months, and an
agricultural year of twelve or thirteen months. These latter
months, therefore, were evidently lunar months, as in the Old
Peruvian empire, since there was sometimes a thirteenth
month intercalated. The intercalations, by means of which
they always brought again the three different sort of years
into harmony, show, according to Alex, von Humboldt, a
striking resemblance to the intercalary systems of the East-
Asiatic cultured races. They possessed a calendar stone
with hieroglyphic signs. This picture writing, too, has its
parallel in the Old Peruvian empire. While the Incas in
the New Peruvian empire had introduced a yearly distribution
of cultivated land, because regarded as State property, the
social economy of the Muyscas was in this particular like
that of the Old Peruvian empire, the lands being viewed as
private property and passing down to descendants by heritage,
and a feudal hereditary nobility having a place among them
(comp. the daimios in Japan). In view of all this, and in
view of their language related to the Japanese (§ 286), we
are justified in considering the people a branch of that Old
Japano-Mongolian immigration to which the Old Peruvian
empire also owed its origin. In the well-protected asylum
of their mountain valley, this branch was able to maintain
itself for a longer period than the Old Peruvian. The civil
constitution of Muyscas, too, reminds us of Old Peru, and at
the same time of Japan. There were two States, each under
a king, who was chosen by four elector princes. This
independence of the two States, and again that of the elector
princes in them, reminds us of the curacas of Old Peru ; but
when we are told that one of the kings who was in Tundsha
bore the title Zake, and that the other in Bogota bore the title
Zippa, we find in this latter name a remarkable resemblance

216 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 289.

to the Japanese field-marshal title Dshubo. In order to
make the analogy more complete, there was in the State
Tundsha alongside of the Zake a spiritual chief who resided
in Iraka,1 and held, as it seems, a hereditary office. Thus
the constitution at Tundsha corresponded perfectly to that of
the Japanese, as it was in early times, before the 12th
century, before the Dshubo had taken to himself the power
of the Dairi. In Bogota, on the other hand, a similar process
seems to have been carried out as in Japan, the spiritual king
having been overthrown; since then we hear only of the Zippa.

The Muyscas have a tradition in regard to the founding of
their empire, which tells that Huncahua (Hunkahwa) led them
into the land, founded the empire, and built the city
Tundsha, originally called Hunca, overran the surrounding
districts, reigned for 250 years, and had 200 wives. The
syllable hwa sounds exactly like the oldest name of Japan
(§ 269), and what is told of the number of wives (even if
perhaps the number be exaggerated) agrees with the national
lustfulness and wantonness of the Japanese.2

The religious traditions of the Muyscas are nothing else
than a tertiary construction of the Wiracotscha legend of the
Old Peruvians, at the foundation of which there already
lies the secondary identification of the hero of the flood,
Wiracotscha, with the creator of the world, Pachacamac. The
hero of this legend of the Muyscas is called? Botschika ; a
name which cannot be traced back to its source with
any certainty. Whether this name is derived by modifi-
cation or abbreviation from Pachacamac (Patschacamak),
or by change of consonants from the latter part of Wira-
cotscha with a suffix added, we cannot confidently determine.
In respect of sound the former is more probable. The
tradition runs thus : When as yet the moon had not been

1 In the province of Muts in Japan there is a city called Sirakawa.
Names of cities that end in ka are common in Japan ; e.g. Takosuka,
Tanaka, Morioka, Marnoka, Nagooka, etc.

2 Stuhr, Religion des Orients, p. 48.

§ 289.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 217

created, the chasm of the Tequendana was still closed, the
Muyscas lived wild in the land without agriculture, religion,
morals, and civil constitution. The name Muyscas here seems
to be an appellative for man : at its foundation lies the old
primitive root, in Sanscrit manu, manuscha, in Iranian meschia.
Then from the east there appeared a bearded old man,
Botschika, who had three heads, — this at once characterizes
him as the emanationistic threefold god of the Old Peruvians
and Mandshusicus. He is called Nemquetheba and Zuhe",
which seem to have attributive names. He had a wife
Huithaka, or Tschia, or lubecaiguaja ; and he taught those
wild men to clothe themselves, to cultivate the fields, and
worship the gods. His beautiful but wicked wife, however,
defeated all his endeavours, and caused the Funzha river, the
Eio de Bogota, the river Magdalena, to overflow the whole
land. Here we have a greatly defaced reminiscence of the
fall of the first mother of our race combined with an equally
defaced reminiscence of the flood.1 Only a few men were
able to flee to the top of the mountains. In anger Botschika
changed his wife into the moon, and gave a passage to the
water in the waterfall of Tequendana. He called together
the men that were saved, introduced sun-worship, with priests
and festivals, appointed a spiritual and a secular chief as
heads of the State, taught the calendar, and withdrew after
1000 years' presence under the name of Idacanza (comp.
Ataguchu). The legend of the flood has here a form which,
considered in itself alone, would frame the idea that it was a
reminiscence of a local submersion. If, however, we consider
that in Botschika we have quite evidently the Wiracotscha
who has been already identified with Pachacamac- Ataguchu,
and that the consciousness still evidently existing in Old Peru
of the deity of that Pachacamac- Ataguchu and his character

1 It is characteristic of J. G. Miiller that he should here find a
cosmogonic myth a la Thales, of the origin of the earth from water. But
in the legend men existed before the flood. This does not quite sound
like a cosmogonic myth.

218 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 259.

as creator of the world has been so completely transferred to
the Botschika legend of the Muyscas, that only the three heads
along with the name Idacanza, and probably also the name
Botschika,1 lead us to recognise that old god in Botschika, it
will be immediately apparent that here we have before us a
later, a tertiary form of the Wiracotscha legend, which must be
explained from the Old Peruvian as that which lies at the
basis of the older tradition. Seeing then that the Old Peruvian
evidently contains the idea of a flood, this idea by the process
of localizing has been completely narrowed by the Muyscas,
as may also be seen from the localizing attempt to put the
recession of the waters in connection with the waterfall.2

The knowledge of the one invisible creator of the world
had died out among the Muyscas before the time when the
first Europeans came into contact with them ; and of the Old
Japanese religion, as this appeared in the Old Peruvian
empire, there remained among them only the polytheistic
sun and moon worship. They had a temple with a multitude
of images of the gods, an organized priesthood, a festival cycle

1 The change of p in Pachacamac into b in Botschika is similar to the
change of t in Ataguchu to d in Idacanza. The modification of ch into z has
again an analogy in the modification of the dsh of dshubo into z in Zippa.

2 Similar localizings are to be found elsewhere. Thus Caspaya, a
grandson of Brahma, in Thibet, provided for the flood an outlet by the
chasm of Baramulla ; so in China, Yao (§ 268) drains off the flood by the
Chinese rivers ; so among the Greeks, Poseidon lets the waters flow
through the vale of Tempe ; among the Egyptians, Menes does this by
the Nile. Among the Alemanni of Switzerland, Chriemhildeli or Breneli
stopped the outflow of the Tyrlee lake, and so occasioned the flood, but
as a punishment was transposed into the Glarnisch, into the glacier
Brenelisgartli. As the mountain where the ship landed, or whereon the
survivors took refuge, every people fixed upon a mountain of the country
in which they dwelt. But just the circumstance that only the localized
names differed, while the idea of the flood, the escape of few, the ai*riving
on a mountain, the beginning of a disappearance and dispersion of the
flood by valleys and beds of streams, the sons numbering three, the raven
being sent out, recurring among the most diverse peoples, must distinctly
prove to every thinking man that there is a reminiscence common to the
whole human race of an occurrence experienced by their common ancestors,
which in the traditions of particular groups and tribes assumed only at a
later period a localized form.

§289.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMEPJC A. 219

of fifteen years, offerings, processions, fasts. Every fifteen
years there was a great principal festival, celebrated with a
human offering. At the beginning of a cycle a child, a little
boy, would be chosen in a particular village, which is now
called St. Juan de los Llanos, taken from his parents, and
brought up as quesa, the wanderer, that is, homeless, or
quihika, door or passage from the old cycle to the new, in
the temple of the sun in Saga-mozo, then brought to different
places, through which he should be led as Botschika. In the
fifteenth year of his age, and therefore at the beginning of a
new cycle,, he was led to a round place in front of the pillars
of the sun. The shhegues, priests, follow him, masked to
represent Botschika with his wives and descendants. The
youth was then firmly bound to the pillars, his heart, pierced
through with spears, was torn from his body, and the blood
caught in sacred vessels. The Europeans, however, found
traces among the Muyscas of another religion which had been
introduced from Central America, where we shall meet with
remains of it, at no very early period, but, at farthest, during
the immediately preceding centuries.

One of the idols of the Muyscas is called Fomagata, and it
is told of this god that he rushed through the air as the spirit
of fire, changed men into beasts, was a hateful tyrant, and was
overthrown by Botschika. This latter feature shows us that
the Fo-Magata religion was not able to get a footing among
the Muyscas, but by means of a reaction of the old national
religion was set aside again, or at least restricted within such
limits that Fo-Magata was degraded into a single, subordinate,
and undoubtedly evil god. J. G. Miiller assumes that
naturally Fo-Magata should be taken for a sun-god, and his
wife worshipped in Nicaragua as Sipal-tonal for the moon-
goddess, although not even the least evidence of this can be
adduced. Fo is the Chinese-Mongolian name of Buddha,1

1 That the names Fomagastad (so it is given in Nicaragua) and Sipal-
tonal cannot be explained from the Aztec language is admitted by
Buschmann (azt. Ortsnamen, p. 769 f.)-

220 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 289.

and magata, magasta, is a corrupt form of mahadeo, for the
forms of Fo and of Mahadeo Siva, who appears in the hybrid
Sipal-tona (from Siva and the Aztec tona, heat, glow), pass
confusedly from one to another.1 The correctness of this
explanation is confirmed by the fact that in Ushmal in
Yucatan an image of the Buddha was found with his legs
folded under him,2 which agrees exactly with the Indian
images of Buddha, just as the images of Siva standing in
niches are exactly like those in the Buddha temple of Java.
As it is admitted that the Siva-worship and Siva legends in
later Buddhism in Further India, in China, and in Japan,
got mixed up with the Buddha legends into an indissoluble
knot (comp. § 271), surely in this fourth layer of the
Buddhist religion the predicate mahadeo, great god, might
have been transferred to the Buddha, unconditionally placed
superior to Siva. Thus might Fo himself, the Buddha, be
represented as the fire-spirit, and the glowing-god Siva be
placed alongside of him as his wife (Sipal-tonal). Since the
Buddha- worship first began in earnest to spread in Eastern
Asia during the 10th century after Christ (§ 265), it can have
first reached America only by means of a later immigration,
in no case by that of the Japano-Aymares in B.C. 100.

Obs. — Among the wild tribes dwelling around the Muyscas
traces are found on every hand of an earlier Baal and Astarte
worship. On the isthmus of Veragua the Doratshos wandered
about, the men naked, the women with a hip-cloth, the latter
engaging in a little field labour. They were not only addicted
to unnatural vice, but had regular kinaden (Miiller, p. 418),
which must be explained from that influence of the Phoenician
religion that had made itself felt in Central America (§ 284).
A granite pilkr, which depicts a flaming sun-head, reminds us
of the Baal-worship. In Nicaragua there was a god of unnatural
vice, Tschin. That the people had sunk from an early rank of
culture is proved by the pillars and sculptures, with an ancient
picture writing, which is quite different from the Mexican

1 As the b in Dshubo has been hardened into the pp of Zippa, so is the
v of Siva into the p of Sipal, and the h and d of Mahadeo into g and t.

2 Copied in Paravey, VAme'rique, Paris 1844.

§290.] THE PEOPLES AXD HORDES OF AMERICA. 221

writing as well as from that of Central America. The tombs
contain well-wrought vases. When a chief died, then his wives
were buried along with him. The recurrence of darkness was
accounted for by the Doratshos by an old quarrel between the
sun and the moon. On the Eio Negro were settled the Maripi-
zanos and Mariwilanos, and on the upper parts of the Orinoco
the Gwaipunabis. Next to the Muyscas, and going quite
naked, were the Pantshos ; on the Eio Grande were the
Dabaibas, and west of Bogota the Pupoyans, both of whom
went quite naked. On the Orinoco, too, are found sculptures
of sun, moon, serpents, tigers. Alex, von Humboldt discovered
those two rocks which, under the names Kamosi, almost
identical with the Semitic Chemosh (§ 252) and Keri, were
worshipped as the sun and moon. The Dabaibas wor-
shipped a mother of the gods, whom they called Dabaiba, to
whom they ascribed the showers and changes of weather.

§ 290. The Old Cultured Races of Central America.

That in Central America, in Guatemala, Chiapa, Nicaragua,
Yucatan, and Honduras, an old cultured people had their
residence, is proved by a series of immense ruins. Of the
people themselves, however, their history and religion, we
have scarcely any other information than that which may be
gathered from these remains. In Pallenque in Chiapa ruins
of a great city, Otolum, are found (described by Dupaix, Alex.
von Humboldt, Stephens, etc.). There among others is a
palace of 130 feet high, 950 feet long, and 590 feet wide;
the east front has fourteen doors each 13 feet wide, between
which stand pillars with beautiful bass-reliefs. The stones
are bound together with lime, covered over with plaster, and
then painted. Eemains of vaults show a kind of pointed
arch. Even solid aqueducts are found. There are similar
ruins in Okosingo. To the south of that, in Guatemala, and
to the east, in Yucatan, the remains of forty-four greater and
smaller towns were discovered by John Stephens and the
Spanish Colonel Galindo, and have been described by Stephens1

1 John L. Stephens, Incidents of Travel in Central America, Chiapa,
and Yucatan, London 1842, 2 vols., with maps. Incidents of Travel in
Yucatan, London 1843, 2 vols., with 120 plates.

222 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 290.

and Catherwood.1 There are remains of pyramidal temples,
towers, palaces, sepulchral mounds, artificial caves. Especially
in Yucatan, of Uxmal or Itztalana, with a stone pyramid and
a palace, called the house of the governor. But in Guatemala
we have that of Mitlan,2 in Oashhaga, consisting of a temple
with insulated pillars and a fortress; those of Utatlan, a
citadel-like palace, a seminary building with cells for 6000
scholars ; those of the city of Tehuantepec, a pyramidal temple
hewn out of the living rock ; those of Atitlan, Shhillotepec,
Mishhko, Guirigua, Quiche, and Quesaltenango. Then there
are in the district of Peten the ruins of Tikal, discovered by
Ambrosio Tut and Colonel Mendez in 1848, and described by
Hesse ; and of Ishkum and Ishkuz, in the Indian city called
by the Spaniards Dolores, and destroyed in 1695. These
ruins show groups of magnificent building upon natural hills,
which are terraced and provided with hanging stairs, and
there are also attempts at the construction of arches.3 In
Honduras there are at Copan the remains of a city, and of
a temple ornamented with statues, and the temple mound
Tibulco. In Nicaragua, Squier4 discovered a number of
antiquities, mostly pyramidal mounds, at the foot of which,
as in Copan, there stood images of the gods.

When these rich discoveries are examined more closely, it
becomes absolutely certain that not one of these ruins is of Aztec
origin. The Aztecs, entering Mexico from the north about
A.D. 1300, had their little chapels on truncated solid pyramids,

1 F. Catherwood, Views of Ancient Monuments in Central America,
Chiapa, and Yucatan, London 1844, with 26 plates. F. V. Waldeck
has conducted explorations in Yucatan, Voyage pittoresque et arch&logique
dans la province de Yucatan, 1834-1836, London and Paris 1838.

2 What still remains is described by F. Ratzel, Aus Mexico, p. 274 ff.
He thinks that it is proved by the polished and painted plaster, and also
by the porphyry sculptures on the walls, that the building proceeds
neither from the Zapotecs nor from the Aztecs. The style of building is
precisely the same as in Otolum.

3 Thus the Indians designate the place. This would mean in the Maya
language ruined house. In the Aztec language, too, calli means a house.

4 E. G. Squier, Nicaragua, London 1852, 2 vols.

§ 230.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 223

and in these were the images of their gods. The pyramids
of Central America are not truncated, and have mostly
passages and chambers in the inside of them, and the
images of the gods stand down in front of the pyramids,
just as the pillars stand before the pyramids in the Old
Peruvian ruins. The Aztec sculptures there are far ruder ;
in the profile heads the eye stands en face, the figures are
stiff, the features without expression ; while the figures of
Central America are free, bold, almost noble in form, and
their features express individual characteristics.1 In Central
America, again, are found not merely pyramids, but also
besides actual temples, which are roofed and arched like
those of the Incas in Peru, a style of building of which the
Aztecs knew nothing.

We must now pass to the positive question as to what
people those antiquities belong to. Here we find various
characteristics appearing which point to several entirely
different peoples. In Uxmal, naked statues are found ;
in Nicaragua not only this, but besides this, the generative
organs are represented in a way that indicates undoubtedly
the practice of phallus and linga worship.2 It is significant
that beside these statues, smaller rudely - wrought naked
figures of a similar kind were also found in the ruins of
the cities, evidently idols for private use, showing how
deeply that impure religion had penetrated among the
people. If, then, we take with this the traces found in
§ 289, Obs., of the development of the worship of Astarte
down to the 16th and 17th centuries among the wild
Indian tribes most closely adjoining Nicaragua on the south,
as well as the plain indications of a Phrenician or Punic
colony with its Moloch-worship on the island of Carolina
(§ 284), the whole combined will necessarily lead to the
conclusion that the Astarte-worship with its revolting cere-
monies, issuing forth from this colony to the neighbouring

1 Squier, Nicaragua, vol. i. p. 293 ff. Ausland, 1840, No. 181 f.

2 Stephens, Incidents of Travel. Miiller, Urreligionen, p. 544.

224 HALF- CIVILISED A'XD SAVAGE RACES. [§ 2DO.

parts of Yucatan, pushed its way farther along with Phoe-
nician or Punic culture into Nicaragua. Were they Africans
who made up the population of those regions ? Or have
Punic tribes, more exactly Libyans, along with their culture
introduced their abomination into a Malay race which was
already in possession of the land ? The hieroglyphics on
these monuments might perhaps at once give information
on this subject if only we could succeed in interpreting them.
The ruins of Pallenque (Otolum), Ocosingo, and Uxmal have
the most perfect similarity one to another in style and mode
of building. Upon them are found, especially in Pallenque,
various sorts of picture writing. On the ruins of Tikal l we
meet with written characters which look like alphabetical
writing. Such writing might be developed under Phceiiicio-
Punic influence, but also might be developed from a picture
writing of East- Asiatic origin.

There is, however, another series of indications which
point to a people of Japanese origin, related to the Muyscas
and Old Peruvians. The ruins of Copan, Guirigua, Atitlan,
etc., in short, those along the west coast, are not of that
vast and enormous style which reminds us of the Egyptian
and Phoenician building. We find there, on the other
hand, pillars of the sun with altars in front, which are quite
like those on Titicaca and among the Muyscas. In Pallenque
and Uxmal, again, we have sun discs, representing a face
with tongue hanging out. Clay vessels, too, are found,
which are strikingly like those of the Muyscas. Seeing,
then, that a picture writing was found in Old Peru, but
in Central America various sorts of picture writing, the
conjecture is reasonable that one of these latter might be
similar or related to the Old Peruvian writing, a point
which is deserving of more careful investigation. The
sculptures, too, of serpents and tigers, which are found in
Guatemala, remind us of the Old Peruvian sculptures of the
temple of Pachacamac ; while, on the other hand, in the
1 Buschmann, aztec Ortsnamen, 1852, p. 723.

§ 290.] THE PEOPLE AND HOEDES OF AMERICA. 225

artificial caves an element might be discovered of the religion
of the early Malay inhabitants.

How these various elements have been mingled in the
cultured people or cultured peoples of Central America,
who can tell ? Just here in this tripartite isthmus the
various layers of immigrants crowded one after another,
and remained on the two peninsulas of Yucatan and Hon-
duras as if hemmed in and piled one over another in a
blind alley. There are also evident traces of immigrations
of a later date than that of the Old Japanese. Buddhism
had secured an entrance into China and Japan (§ 265)
as early as A.D. 600, but scarcely obtained a position worthy
of mention before A.D. 900 or 1000. But no traces of
Buddhist influences are found in the Old, nor yet even in
the New Peruvian empire. This Old Japanese immigration
has been already unconditionally placed before A.D. 900,
and must undoubtedly have been before A.D. 600 ; and as,
according to § 286, it must be set unconditionally after
B.C. 209, we may with probability assign it to B.C. 100.
In Central America, however, alongside of the traces which
the Africans have left, and alongside of those which these
Old Japanese colonists have left, are found evident traces of
Buddhist influence, which could have originated only from
an East -Asiatic tribe which first reached America after
A.D. 1000. We shall find these traces of Buddhist
religion widely spread throughout Mexico. In Central
America not only does the fact of their existence afford
indubitable evidence that at the time of its discovery the
worship of Fo-magata and of Sipal-tonal was generally pre-
valent (and in these we recognise, according to § 289, the
Fo Mahadeo and Siva the glowing), but also that conventual
seminary building in Utatlan, with its cells for 60 teachers
and 6000 scholars, appears as like to a Buddhist seminary
as one egg is to another. What then this immigration
people, which introduced Buddhism, may have been, is a
question the answer to which must not here be anticipated.

EBRAED III. P

226 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 291.

It is closely connected with the investigation into the various
successive immigrations into Mexico, those of the Olmecs, the
Toltecs, the Chichimecs, the Acolhuans, and the Nahuatls, and
thus introduces us to the subject of the next division.

2). — CHINESE IMMIGRATION OF A.D. 650. THE TOLTECS AND
THE IXCAS.

§ 291. Historical Traditions of the Aztecs.

When Ferdinand Cortez discovered Mexico, the cultured
race of the Aztecs were in possession of the country as rulers,
along with several other fragments of peoples, governing a
large and well-organized empire. According to their own
historical tradition, they had first, three centuries before,
along with six other closely related tribes, the Nahuatls,
migrated from the north. They possessed also a very
complete tradition in regard to a series of other peoples
who had in succession to one another inhabited Mexico before
them.

1. This historical tradition is contained first of all in
hieroglyphic pictures, of which, however, it must be remarked
that this picture writing was not phonetic, as in the case of the
Egyptian hieroglyphs, where each sign represented a sound
like a letter of the alphabet, but realistic, so that occurrences
as such were depicted by means of a regularly fixed
symbolism for recurring historical ideas,1 and chronological
dates were added in the form of signs from the calendar.2
These hieroglyphs existed in great part in books, manu-
factured partly from deer-skin parchment, partly from Agave
bark (metl), scarcely a hand in breadth, and artistically
folded. There was a rich literature, which, however, was in

1 E.g. a mountain with a tongue meant a mountain with an active
volcano, a head with a dart through it meant a death sentence, footprints
meant a street, etc.

2 Alex, von Humboldt gives complete information on this point in his
Yues des Cordilleras.

§ 291.] THE PEOPLE AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 227

great measure destroyed by the fanaticism of the Spaniards.
Fragmentary remains still exist in the National Museum of
Mexico, in the library of the Escurial, in Eome, Bologna,
Oxford, Vienna, Dresden, Berlin.1 But these picture writings
could have been deciphered only by means of knowledge
traditionally transmitted. By this time such knowledge has
utterly disappeared from among the Mexican Indians. In
the 16th and 17th centuries the meaning of a portion of
those picture writings was rendered in Eoman letters
into Spanish or into the Aztec language. But all these
sources, as already Gallatin has rightly insisted,2 form a
very poor, and not at all very trustworthy fountain from
which to draw information. Of a singularly rich literature,
only a small fragment has by accident been preserved,
without the exercise of any critical skill in the selection ;
of this only a small part has been deciphered; the deciphering
has been done partly at a very recent time, and is therefore
precarious ; and finally, amid a wilderness of private notes
about boundaries and landmarks, processes, etc., only a few
historical statements occur, and these often of a purely
legendary kind.

2. This historical tradition was also contained in orally
communicated songs, which had once been taught in the
schools of the Aztec empire, which, however, have now been
closed for centuries.3 From these Clavigero, Sahagun, and
Ixtilxocuitl 4 compiled their account written in the Spanish
tongue. Buschmann puts all these sources in the lump, and
ascribes to them great value and credibility, but finds himself
obliged to confess5 that not the least agreement prevails

1 A collection and fac-similes are given in Kingsborough's Antiquities of
Mexico, 9 folio vols., London 1830-1848.
J Gallatin, Ethnol. Soc.

3 Prescott, History of the Conquest of Mexico, 3 vols., London 1843, i. 97.
Buschmann, p. 657.

4 Clavigero, Storia antigua del Messico, Cesena 1780. Sahagun, Historia
general de las cosas de Nueva Espana, Mex. 1829. Ixtilxocuitl in
Kingsborough's Antiquities.

5 Buschmann, aztek Ortsnamen, p. 658 ff.

228 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES.

among the chroniclers just named, that passing from Clavigero
to Sahagun, one finds himself transferred into an almost
new world, and that it is impossible from these con-
tradictory reports to reproduce a chronology. Alex, von
Humboldt has likewise attempted to gather the threads, and
we will conscientiously report the conclusions reached by
him.

The oldest inhabitants of the land, of whom the Aztecs
knew scarcely more than the name, were the Olniecs, by
whom undoubtedly the early Malay inhabitants were meant.
Thereafter, about 922 years before the landing of Cortez,
therefore about A.D. 596, according to another account A.D.
544, a race of Toltecs made their appearance from a country
lying to the north-west, which the Aztecs designate by an
Aztec appellative huehue-tla-pallan, Old Eed Land ; about
A.D. 700, according to another account about A.D. 648, they
came to Tollantzinco ; in A.D. 720 or A.D. 670 they founded
the city Tula, and chose their first king, Tanub. Ixtilxocuitl,
however, relates in addition the not unimportant fact that
the Toltecs, driven from their native country, after a long
sea voyage reached the coasts of California, and arrived at
Huehue Kapallan in A.D. 387. They seem to have been a
peaceful, mild, cultured people, living under laws, cultivating
maize and nursery gardens, doing work in gold and silver,
and skilled in the cutting of precious stones, and in sculpture
and architecture. The pyramids of Cholula and Teotihuacan
were built by them. The later inhabitants were indebted to
them for the calendar and the picture writing. They had the
same language as the Aztecs, who, according to Ixtilxocuitl,
came into the country in A.D. 1178, or about 500 years later
than the Toltecs. Nine kings ruled the empire in succession,
each of them reigning for an immensely long period. Then,
however, they suffered from famine ; drought and disease
decimated the people, according to Ixtilxocuitl in A.D. 959,
according to Alex, von Humboldt in A.D. 1052, according to
Bustamente in A.D. 1116, according to Sahagun in A.D. 1200,

§ 292.] THE PEOPLE AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 229

and the remnants of the race were driven southward toward
Nicaragua.

A hundred years after the overthrow of the Toltecs' empire,
in A.D. 1170, or, according to Ixtilxocuitl, as early as A.D. 963,
a wild hunting race, the Chichimecs, their fatherland lying to
the north in Amaquenieca, according to Ixtilxocuitl, Chico-
mostoc, made their appearance under a King Xolotl, subdued
the remnants of the Toltecs, founded first Tenuyaca, then
Tescuco. Soon afterwards they were succeeded by the
Acolhuacs, according to Sahagun, one of the tribes belonging
to the Nahuatl group, and were mixed up with them, the
whole mixed race being called Acolhuacs, though the ruling
family still belonged to the Chichimecs. A portion of the
Chichimecs, however, that did not mingle with the Acolhuacs,
settled west of Mexico, where there is still a tribe bearing the
name of Chichmecs.

Finally, in A.D. 1178, the Nahuatls, under six chiefs,
embracing the tribes of the Shochimilcs, Chalcs, Tepanecs,
Colhuacs,1 Tlahuics, and Tlascaltecs, made their entrance ;
and somewhat later, according to Humboldt about A.D. 1196,
the seventh and mightiest, that of the Aztecs, appeared,
which in A.D. 1325 founded the city Tenochtitlan, from te,
stone, and nock the nopal plant, or Mexico, from Mexitl, the
god of war. The after history of the Aztecs will occupy our
attention at a later point. Their account of the Toltecs must
meanwhile form the subject of our investigation.

§ 292. Criticism of the Aztec Tradition.

What the Aztecs report in the form of history first assumes
the character of clearness, certainty, and reliableness when

1 On the question whether these Colhuacs were identical with those
Acolhuacs, see Buschmann, p. 689 ff. If Buschmann is undoubtedly right
in rendering acolhuacan by water- colhuacs, the two would most certainly
be racially related. And in fact a means in Aztec water. In all these names
ac or ec is a genitive ending : the stem of the name Acolhuac is colhu. It
has no etymological connection with Malay tra£aand Old Peruvian huaca.

230 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 292.

we reach the period of the immigration of the Xahuatls.
This is what might naturally be expected, since every people
will have more reliable sources of information for their own
history than for the history of people who have had posses-
sion of the country before them, especially when there have
been three layers of such peoples in succession to one another.
The Aztecs came into no sort of contact with the Toltecs.
Ixtilxocuitl maintains that it was not a hundred years, but
only four years after the decay of the empire of the Toltecs
that the Chichimecs succeeded them. In this contention he
is right, for it is much more probable that the Toltec empire
was directly destroyed by the wild Chichimecs, than that the
desirable country had remained uninhabited for a century.
But even then, between the overthrow of the Toltecs in A.D.
1000 and the arrival of the Aztecs, almost a century must
have intervened, and the first people with whom the remnants
of the subjugated Toltecs were mingled was the rude, wild
Chichimecs. A turn for history first showed itself among the
Acolhuacs.

We nevertheless regard the account of the Toltecs as in
the main historical. Then, besides the ambiguous remains of
the picture writing and the traditions given by Fernando de
Alva Ixtilxocuitl, a descendant of the kings of Tescuco,
certainly transmitted by faithful family accounts, we have
yet a third source of information in the monuments and
ruins in the land of Mexico. The pyramid of Cholula, on
the Mexican table-land, 580 feet high, 4667 feet wide, with
a temple on the top of it, shows by its non-Aztec name,
Churultecal (for the Aztec language has no r), that it is pre-
Aztec. The legend in Ixtilxocuitl assigns it, indeed, to the
Olmecs ; the Chichimecan legend l assigns it to the hero of the
flood,. Xelhua, — an evident proof that the Chichimecs were
conscious that the pyramid was there before them. Of a
similar kind are the two pyramids at a place to which the
Aztecs give the Aztec name of Teotihuacan, from teo, god, and
1 In Alex, von Humboldt, Monum. xxiv. 31.

§ 202.] THE PEOPLE AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 231

Tiuaca, dwelling, which are dedicated to the sun and the
moon, the larger being about 590 feet high.; Then there is
the pyramid with steps at Papantla, with a great principal
stair and numerous corner stairs, made of carefully wrought
blocks of porphyry, and found in a district first conquered by
the Aztecs shortly before A.D. 1518. There is also the casa
grande on Eio Gila;1 the ruins of a palace 1377 feet long
and 852 feet wide, strewn with fragments of pottery, partly
azure blue, partly white, or glazed in other colours. The
building contained five saloons of 85 feet long- by 33 broad.
Similar ruined cities are found between Gila and Colorado in
the land of the Moquis, also in the province of Durango and
elsewhere. It must, however, be expressly stated that these
cities may be of Aztec origin ; while, on the other hand, those
pyramids are undoubtedly earlier than the time of the
Chichimecs.

We have a further witness in the Mexican calendar. This
corresponds with the calendars of the provinces of Central
America, which were never subject to the Aztecs. The
astronomical symbols and hieroglyphic signs for the day on
the ruins of Uxmal (§ 290) are identical with the Mexican,
and among the latter we meet with the monkey and the
tiger, which are not native to California.2

If, then, in opposition to Gallatin's hypercriticism, we
assume the existence of an earlier race than the Chichimecs,
that is, the existence of the Toltecs, and willingly admit the
vacillating character of the chronology, we may venture to
place the arrival of the Toltecs in Mexico somewhere about A.D.
650 or 700. We must at the same time vigorously protest,

1 See Arricivita's description in Buschmann, aztek Ortsnamen, p. 666 f.

2 The Aztec name of the month from 15th Dec. till 3rd Jan., atemozli,
coming down of waters, should lead us to think of their northern home,
since during that month it does not rain in Mexico. But J. G. Muller
calls attention to this, that the Aztecs, according to Clavigero, i. 430, just
during this dry month celebrated a festival in which they pray for rain, for
the coming down of the waters, and after this festival the month seems
to be named. It by no means follows that they must have brought with
them that calendar from the north country, where it rains in December.

232 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 292.

with Gallatin, against the credulity that accepts unquestionably
the statement that this ancient race spoke a language the
same as, or at least nearly related to, that of the Aztecs.
We are here in the fortunate position of being able to cite
Buschmann against Buschmann in our behalf. This thorough
linguist, in his laborious investigations regarding the Sonora
languages,1 has proved-—!. That the tribes of the Cahitas,
Tarahumars, Coras, and Tepeguanas in the Mexican provinces
of Sinaloa, Sonora, and Guadalajara, tribes which were before
designated Chichimecs, and partly are to this day called
Chichimecs, spoke and speak languages which have an extra-
ordinary number of words in common with the Aztec language,
but distinguished from one another by a variety of dialectic
peculiarities, and by that process of linguistic degradation
(§ 279) separated into so many different languages. 2. That
the same primitive relationship between one another and
with the Aztec language and supplementary diversity are
found in the languages of the Wihinasht, Soshones, Yutahs,
and Moquis to the north of the river Gila in New Mexico, and
Yutah, and down to California, as well as elsewhere among
the Comantshes in Texas (comp. § 297, Obs.~). We shall not,
therefore, be able to doubt that in all these tribes we have
before us descendants of the Chichimecs. But now, greatly
as the entire group of these Chichimec languages varies from
the Nahuatl or Aztec group, Ixtilxocuitl,2 not without reason,
but rather with very much to support his position, considered
the Chichimec as one of the various Aztec dialects, just as at
the present time one might speak of the Dutch as one of the
various German languages. Buschmann himself goes indeed
still farther. He is inclined, though not without some
vacillation and hesitation, to the view that that Sonora
family of languages was radically and entirely different from
the Nahuatl languages, and that the Sonora peoples had
appropriated as foreign terms those numerous words only from

1 Abh. der Berl. Akad. d. W. v<m 1854, 2 Snpplem. Bd.

2 See in Buschmann, aztek Ortsnamen, p. 686.

§ 292.] THE PEOPLE AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 233

Nahuatls wandering amongst them and coming into contact
with them. Although for good reasons (see Obs. 1) we cannot
go so far, yet we keep in view the fact of the diversity of
the Chichimec and the Nahuatl languages. If then, however,
«the Chichimec and Nahuatl languages, in spite of the proved
racial connection and chronological as well as geographical
adjacency of the two national groups in their successive
immigrations, had been so differently constructed that it
required first the laborious researches of Buschmann in order
to discover only a general relationship of roots between the two,
how will one then affirm that the nation of the Toltecs, that
migrated into Mexico 500 years earlier, had spoken the same
language as the Aztecs ! Granted that the Toltecs were
racially connected with the Aztecs, and therefore originally
also linguistically related,1 still surely between A.D. 500 and
A.D. 1170 the languages of the two would go much farther
apart from one another than the languages of the Chichimecs
and Aztecs, or according to Buschmann, the roots common to
both by borrowing, would between A.D. 1100 and A.D. 1200.
Where, then, are the positive proofs of the asserted sameness
or similarity of the languages ? It may be said 2 that the
Toltecs in the migrations carried books with them, wherein
they gave an account of their movements from year to year.
Ixtilxocuitl mentions such books ; and although no European
eye has ever seen any of them,8 we have no reason to doubt
that in the time of Ixtilxocuitl, about A.D. 1600, certain
remnants of the Toltec literature may have been still in
existence. But seeing that they contained no phonetic
hieroglyphs, they prove nothing in regard to the Toltec
language. Ixtilxocuitl also tells of a Toltec book, to which
he gives the Aztec name of teomoxtli, book of God, of which
he is able to report that it had been written in the end of the

1 We shall find farther on that both at least belonged to the great
Mongolian group.

2 Alex, von Humboldt, Vues des Cordilteres, i. 204.

3 Prescott, Conquest of Mexico, i. 11.

234 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. |_§ 292.

7th century by a Toltec astrologer, Huematzin, in the city
of Tescuco. That city, however, was founded by the Chichi-
mecs not earlier than A.D. 1100. This book, we are also told,
treated of cosmogony, chronology, history, mythology, and
morals. According to others,1 who corrected the error about
the city just referred to, the book was composed about A.D.
660 or A.D. 708, in the Toltec city of Tula. But even if such
a book did exist, as we doubt not it did, and if it really were
of Toltec origin, as we very much doubt, and not rather
Acolhuan, in which case Tescuco might suit as the place of
its issue, and even if a picture writing discovered by Waldeck2
were, as he thinks, the Teomoxtli, these non-phonetic hiero-
glyphs would yet never give us the very least information about
the language of the Toltecs. Buschmann has, indeed, pointed to
names of places in Central America, and in regions that were
not subject to the Aztecs, which can be satisfactorily explained
from Aztec roots, and thinks s that these names lead us back
to the Toltecs. But who will assure us that it was not
rather a Chichimec tribe that had already, before the establish-
-inent of the Aztec empire, pressed far south and found those
communities ? It is quite deserving of remark, that in many
of those names of localities * we find instead of the Aztec tl,
the Sonora or Chichimec t. The Maya language in Yucatan
shows, as Buschmann himself has proved,5 a number of
Sonora-Aztec words (see Obs. 2), which indicates the nearness
to the Mayas of some Sonera-speaking tribe. The Toltecs,
who entered America about A.D. 600, could not have intro-
duced the worship of Fo or Buddha, but the Chichimecs did
this, who came to Nicaragua from Eastern Asia after A.D.
1100.

1 In Humboldt, Vues des Cordilteres, i. 249 ff., ii. 386.

2 "Waldeck, Voyage pittoresqiie, p. vii.

3 Buschmann, aztek Ortsnamen, p. 727.

* E.g. Utatlan, Buschmann, p. 720 ; Tikal, Buschmann, p. 721, which
must represent the Aztec Utlatkn (from otlatl) and Tlikal (from tlilli,
black, and kalli, house).

5 Buschmann, "Spuren des azt. Sprechen im Nordl. Mexico," p. 51 f.

§ 2S2.] THE PEOPLE AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 235

Thus, in behalf of the assertion that the Toltecs and the
Aztecs had spoken one and the same language, there has not
been advanced the least shadow of a proof; but, on the
contrary, all the evidence tells against the idea. Indeed, we
have a positive trace of another language having been spoken.
During the dancing around the Toltec pyramid of Cholulu, an
old song was sung in the time of the Aztecs in an ancient
speech not understood by the Aztecs. It began with the
words tulanian, hululaez.1 "We have thus been able to reach
to this as a certain fact, that before the appearance of the
Chichimecs there existed an old and different people and
empire, which after their capital Tulu were called by the
Aztecs Toltecs, or the people of Tula, and that this people
centuries earlier, probably between A.D. 600 and A.D. 700,
had migrated from California, bearing with them the tradition
that they had previously come to California by a long sea
voyage.

Obs. 1. — It is in itself extremely probable that the Nahuatls,
and before them the portion of the Chichimecs who had migrated
into Mexico, had adopted from the people they there met with,
the Toltecs, those words which are now found only in the
Aztec and not in the Sonora languages. Had it been, as the
tradition in § 291 gives it, the Toltecs who introduced the
cultivation of maize into Mexico, then could we understand
the fact insisted upon by Buschmann, that the Nahuatls,
besides the Acolhuacs and Chichimecs, who were before them
in Mexico, have other words for maize and everything pertain-
ing to the cultivation of maize than the Sonora, that is, than
the languages spoken by the wild Chichimec tribes remaining
outside the land of Mexico. The former adopted these words
from the Toltecs ; the latter have constructed words for them-
selves for these things. The words common to the Nahuatl
and Sonora languages, however, point to a primitive relation-
ship of race and speech, and not, as Buschmann thinks, to a
borrowing on the part of the Sonora tribes. The twofold fact
speaks against Buschmann's view : (a) that the Aztec language
has the personal pronouns in common with the Souora (ne, I ;
mu, thou ; ta, tarn, we ; an, amo, you) ; and (&) that the t, which
is found as such in all the Sonora languages, as well in roots
as in the nominative suffix, and which proves itself original by

1 Alex, von Humboldt, Vues des Cordilleres.

236 HALF- CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 293.

this agreement of all the Sonora languages, has been changed
in the Aztec language into tl. Had the Sonora languages
adopted Aztec roots as foreign words, some at least with the
tl would have been adopted. But thus we see that the Aztec
language is rather a daughter of a Sonora primitive language,
and is related to it as Middle High German to Gothic ; or more
exactly, that the primitive Sonora and primitive Nahuatl were
sisters, like the Old High German and the Old Norse. When,
then, we are thus obliged to admit that the Aztec contained,
besides its genuine roots common to the Sonora languages, also
other foreign words picked up in Mexico, which the Chichimecs
and Acolhuacs had already learnt and adopted from the
Toltecs, Buschmann argues against this conclusion, that the
Aztec language gives the impression of a unity. Such an
impression is also made by the French language in contrast
to the English, and nevertheless it possesses a number of Celtic
and German words alongside of the Latin.

Obs. 2. — Maya words which are common to the Aztec
languages: seel, cold, Azt. se; kum, head, komi ; kussli, thorn,
kuitz; miatzil, wisdom, mati, to know; missh, midstun, cat,
Sonora midston, misto, Azt. mids, lion ; nenel, pupil of the
eye, Azt. neue; thul, rabbit, totsch; tumin, gold, tomin;
tuncalutscho, owl, tecolo ; tzo, hair, tzon ; shhiu, herb, slihikui.
Also the Mayan name Tical, which is explained from ti,
equivalent to tli, and from the Aztec calli, belongs to this
class.

§ 293. Tlie Origin of the Toltecs, and their Relation to
the Incas.

The Toltec empire crumbled to pieces between three and
four hundred years before the discovery of America (§ 291),
and a remnant of the Toltecs went southwards into Central
America. Between two and three hundred years before the
discovery of America (§ 287, note 1), the race of the Incas
entered into Peru. This brings us to the question that has
been urged by many, Is there any historical connection
between the Toltecs of Mexico and the Incas of Peru ? Did
the remnant of the Toltecs go, not merely, as the Aztecs
report, into Central America, but also continued moving
southward, of which the Aztecs probably knew nothing, until
they reached the west coast, and perchance a century after

§ 2D3.] THE PEOPLE AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 237

their expulsion from Mexico, perhaps even earlier, arrived in
Peru ? In recent times, the two most thorough investigators
in regard to Peru, Von Tschudi and Von Versen, have
expressed themselves thoroughly in favour of this view. The
latter says1 that the Peruvians — he is speaking of the Incas
• — had probably inhabited Mexico before the Aztecs, until by
the Aztecs they were driven out. The former 2 regards the Old
Peruvians, the builders of the temple of Tiahuanaco, according
to Angrand's supposition, as a race that had branched off from
the Toltecs, and at an early period migrated southwards, — a
point which we leave undecided. Without hesitation, how-
ever, he maintains that the migrating Incas were Toltecs
(p. 178). It is curious, then, to find Tschudi expressing
astonishment at the Aztecs knowing nothing of the Inca
empire of Peru (p. 179). Why they should have known
nothing of it is sufficiently explained in § 292.

We shall now adduce evidence in behalf of those statements
which we have made.

1. Hunger and disease are said by the Aztecs to have been
the special causes of the decay of the Toltec empire. Such an
account must undoubtedly have been got from the Toltecs
themselves who remained in Mexico, and under the dominion
of the Chichimecs, for it presents their overthrow and decay in
the most favourable light. By mere famine and sickness,
however, no empire, no State has ever been overthrown, but is
only so weakened that, if an outward foe then threatens and
comes down upon it, it may not have power to resist the
attack. The outward foe which gave the finishing stroke to
the inwardly weakened empire of the Toltecs was (§ 292) the
wild tribe of the Chichimecs. These Chichimecs, however,
were soon driven into Central America. Chichimec tribes
have settled (§ 292) in the neighbourhood of the Mayas in
Yucatan. By the Chichimecs and the allied Colhuacs (§292)

1 Transplant. Streifzuge, Leipz. 1876, p. 71.

2 J. J. von Tschudi, " Ollanta," etc. etc., in the Denhchriften der k. k.
ostreich. Akad. d. Wissensch. 1876, vol. xxiv. p. 177.

238 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 293.

the Fo worship was introduced into Nicaragua. Seeing then
that this is so, it is most probable that the remnant of the
Toltecs which fled into Nicaragua did not here find its
permanent abode in these isthmuses and peninsulas already
crowded with a dense population made up of old cultured
races (§ 290), but hastened before the wild Chichimecs
pursuing them still farther south. And they would not stop
on the plateau of Bogota, where we have already met with
the Muyscas, the unmixed Old Peruvians, as a Japanese race ;
but they would move along the west coast, on the narrow
strip of land between the Andes and the sea, a natural street,
which of itself must have led them on to Peru.

2. The members of the ruling family in the New Peruvian
kingdom were called Incas, sons of the sun. Was this in
reality only a family? A mere particular family would never
have been able to overturn the Old Peruvian State, and over-
throw its constitution and religion. The ruling family must
have had a people behind it. But such a people, if they over-
ran the Peruvian empire, and put the Old Peruvians into
subjection, would then also introduce their own language, and
either would have forced this upon the subject race, or at
least have been compelled to frame a mixed dialect, which, in
relation to the Old Peruvian, would be a new language. The
case, however, was not so. The Incas did, indeed, introduce
new names of the gods. But the etymology of all names of
places and of deities of the Old Peruvian empire may be
explained from the Ketshua language as it was spoken in the
New Peruvian empire of the Incas. The language, therefore,
must have continued essentially the same. The Incas must
have adopted the language of the Old Peruvians. This view,
already expressed as a likely conclusion in as many words
in the first edition of this work, I find now powerfully con-
firmed by positive information communicated by Tschudi.1
Garcilasso, as well as Balboa, reports that the Incas spoke
among their own people a different language than the
1 " Ollantadrama," p. 178.

§ 293.] THE PEOPLE AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 239

Ketshua. They did not therefore obtrude this their own
language brought with them into the land upon the Old
Peruvians whom they found there, but they learned their
language. And, in fact, they have even formed their own
names from Old Peruvian words, as pacha, Jiuaca (§ 294).
This does not look like a conquering race. Indeed, the very
tradition of the Incas themselves, which will be given fully
in § 295, knows nothing about a conquest, but rather of a
religious stratagem, a pia fraus, whereby the family secured
the supremacy of their religion and their own elevation
to the throne, in the first instance to the throne of one of
the numerous Old Peruvian States, from which position they
wrought on gradually until they had secured dominion over
the other States. Throughout there is mention only of a
princely family, of a princess Mama Sibaco and her sons.
This, however, does not mean a family in our European
sense. The daughters of this ruling family were brought
up, down to the time of their marriage, as maidens of
the sun in a particular royal institute, and the number of
these maidens of the sun had risen in the time of Pizarro to
as many as 1500. We know from history, and have
examples in Europe, of very old and flourishing royal
families ; but that any one of them should be able to
produce at one time as many as 1500 princesses, this has
never been heard of ! That number of maidens of the sun
would lead us to the conclusion that there must have been
six or seven thousand persons of the Inca race. Indeed
almost all the higher offices of State were filled by Incas.
The Incas, then, were no nation, neither were they in our
sense a family, but they were a tribe, and indeed a foreign
tribe of immigrants, which therefore regarded themselves over
against the Old Peruvians among whom they came as a family
or a race, and which secured to themselves the rank of a
ruling class.1

1 Briefe Alex, von Humboldt au seinen Bruder Wilkelm (Stuttg. 1880),
p. Ill : Ou ne doit pas oublier ausei que nous ne connaissons pas le

240 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE BACES. [§ 293.

3. If the members of this tribe were related to one another,
not by direct descent from one common ancestor, but by un-
doubted cognate affinity, then it was in the highest degree
natural that they should have intermarried among themselves
and among themselves alone. This was indeed a law in the
Inca empire, that the son of an Inca should marry only an
Inca's daughter, and the Inca /car' €%o%i]v, the king, was
indeed obliged to marry his sister. The seclusion of the race
is a feature thoroughly characteristic of China. That pecu-
liarly extended, but, with reference to those without, thoroughly
exclusive idea of the family or the race (kid), is to be found
in China. The Chinese call themselves to this day " the
hundred families" (§ 268), and indeed even to the present
time among that exceedingly numerous people there is only
438 family names.

4. At this point we enter upon a series of positive proofs
on behalf of a connection of race subsisting between the Incas
and the Toltecs. In both traces are found of a specifically
Chinese culture. While the Phoenicians alloyed their bronze
in the proportion of 9 of copper to 1 of tin, or 85 of copper
to 15 of tin,1 the Chinese, on the other hand, had very
variously proportioned alloys, 1 to 1, 5 to 2, 3 to 1, 4 to 1,
5 to 1, 6 to 1, and most usually 3 to 2.2 Xow in those
Mexican ruins bronzes are found corresponding to these blends
of the Chinese, and in Central America bronzes are found
corresponding to the alloy of the Phoenicians.3 Those found
in Mexico may be traced back to the Aztecs ; those in Central
America, to the Toltecs. But also the bronzes of the Inca
empire are blended in the proportion of 3 of copper to 2 of
tin.4 The peaceful character, too, of the Toltecs, mention of
which had been made to the Aztecs, agrees with the Chinese
nature. The Chinese, like us Germans, rarely entered upon

language de la cour de Tineas ; celui de la familla royale differe du
yquicha.

1 Kougemont, Bronzezeit, p. 9. 2 Ibid. pp. 28 and 29.

3 Ibid. p. 25. 4 Ibid. p. 27.

§ 293.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 241

offensive, but mostly limited themselves to defensive warfare.
The Incas do not appear to have been altogether so peaceable.
But that they acquired a warlike nature in their war against
the Chichimecs, and during their movement into South America,
where they had to defend their own persons, is, if once the
correctness of our hypothesis is granted, quite conceivable,
since it must be admitted that their reformatory culture
mission obliged them to subdue one after another the corrupt
States of the old Peruvians sunk in all manner of abomina-
tions, if they were not, on the contrary, to be themselves
utterly stifled by them. The civil constitution set up by
them as such had a thoroughly mild and peaceful character.
We shall indeed find so much that reminds us of the Chinese
in the Incas, especially in their religion (§ 295), that they
present to us almost a copy of the Chinese. We may here
in a preliminary way just point to one feature, that the Incas
exactly as the Chinese assigned to the year 365 days and
6 hours, and like the Chinese reckoned and observed the
solstices and the equinoxes.1

5. The tradition that the Toltecs, after a long residence in
the Old Eedland, entered Mexico about A.D. 650,2 gives support
to the view that the Toltecs came to America either from
China itself or from a neighbouring country (Corea or the Loo
Choo islands) influenced by Chinese culture, having been in
all probability driven away from their early home. We have
no Chinese reports in reference to this (see Ols.\ But such
we could not have expected ; for of the old Shu-king only a
fragment has been preserved (§ 268), and the loss of a single
ship was certainly not so rare an occurrence that it must
necessarily have found a place in their annals.

6. Of the language of the Toltecs we know nothing

1 Tschudi, Ketschuasprache, p. 6. Carli, ameriL Briefe, ii. 8, 9. Eauch,
Einheit d. Mensch. p. 319.

2 When Ixtilxocuitl sets down their arrival in Old Eedland at the year
A.D. 387 (§ 291), we have advanced abundant proof to show that little
weight is to be attached to the chronological statements of the Aztec
historical tradition, which differ from one another by centuries.

EBRARD III. Q

242 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 293.

(§ 292). The Mayas appear (§ 296) to have been a Toltec
tribe, but mixed up with the earlier inhabitants. They con-
tinued in Chiapa, and took no part in the migration to South
America. How much that is Toltec has been preserved by
this tribe in its language, we are utterly unable to say. A
comparison with the Mandarin Chinese helps us nothing, for
in China to-day a great number of different dialects are
spoken (§ 268); and because further, on the one hand, the
Chinese has essentially changed since A.D. 500, and, on the
other hand, the Toltecs, after their arrival in America, in
intercourse with the Malay early inhabitants, undoubtedly
adopted many foreign elements into the language and have
modified these. The Incas in Peru completely appropriated
the Ketshua language that was prevalent there : they only
retained the old names of their gods, but then these clearly
enough correspond to Chinese roots (f 295).

V. Between the Toltec empire in Mexico and the Old
Malay cultured empire of the Alligevi on the Mississippi
(§ 283), there appear to have been communications, perhaps
even some mingling of races, We are reminded that the
ruins and tombs of the Mississippi valley become more fre-
quent toward the Gulf of Mexico, and in them just here are
urns with ashes found beside the bones. The burning of
bodies was also a custom of the Aztecs, and we shall be
able to prove (§ 298, Obs. 2) that neither they nor the
Chichimecs brought it with them from Asia, but that they
could only have adopted it from the earlier inhabitants of
Mexico, the Toltecs. It came to the Alligevi also from the
Toltecs. That the Incas, too, burned the bodies of their dead,
is shown in § 295.

8. While thus a multitude of positive marks favour the
Toltec descent of the Incas, there has to be added to these
the exceedingly important negative argument, that no one
knows at all how to explain whence the Incas could have
come, if not from the Toltec empire. They were a race of
high culture, and indeed a civilised people, who, with their

§ 293.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 243

mild humanity and noble religion, presented the most striking
contrast to the corrupted races of the Old Japanese immigra-
tion, the Old Peruvians, and the Muyscas, opposed with firm
determination unnatural vice and human sacrifices, possessed
other gods and other names of gods, as like to the Chinese
as those others were to the Japanese. They could not there-
fore have formed a branch of that same Japanese immigra-
tion. Still less ground would there be for deriving them
from the Malay cultured race of the Alligevi, or from the
empires of Central America, festering with their iropveia and
phallus-worship. Where, then, is there another cultured race
left from whom we could derive them, but only the Toltecs ?
With this result chronological facts agree, with it all the
details of fact and circumstance correspond.1

Obs. 1. — It has been thought that in the Chinese literature
a positive statement has been discovered to the effect that
America, and indeed Mexico, had been known to the Chinese
by the end of the fifth century before Christ. A Buddhist priest
Hoei-schin came about this time to China, and declared that he
had been in a country, Fu-sang, in the description of which
Paravey (I 'Amerique sous la norn de Fou-Sang, Paris 1844),
Neumann (in Ausland, 1845), Tschudi, and Ptauch (Einheit, etc.,
p. 310), and most recently Quatrefages (le genre humain, t. v.),
think that they recognise America, and especially Mexico or
California. On the other hand, however, Dr. E. Bretschneider
of Pekin (in the Chinese Recorder, Oct. 1873) declares that
the story of the Buddhist priest is humbug, and the land
Fu-sang a terra incognita nee non dubia, and that, if it existed
at all, we have not the slightest reason for looking for it to
America. I cannot help inclining to this latter opinion.
There seems, indeed, to have been an actual country of Fu-sang ;
for Bretschneider himself says : In Notes and Queries, vol. iv.
p. 19, there is a passage cited out of the Liang-ssu-kung-ki,
that the kingdom of Fu-sang had sent envoys to China. But
wherever this kingdom may have been situated, this much is
certain, 1. That Hoei-schin had not been himself there, for he
only gives a confused and legendary story, and 2. that his
account does not suit America. We shall now listen to this
story, which I possess only in the English translation of Bret-

1 We may also point to the thoroughly Chinese ending of the names of
places, Tomantsin, Acamapitsin, etc.

244 HALF-CIYILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 293.

Schneider. "The kingdom of Fu-sang lies 20,000 li (miles)
east of Tahan, and indeed due east of China. The country gets
its name from a like-named tree, which grows there very
abundantly. Its leaves are like those of the tree Thung ; the
young sprouts are like those of the bamboo, and are eaten ; the
fruit is like a pear, and is of a red colour. From the bark cloth
is prepared, and also paper. The houses are built of wood.
There are no cities there : weapons and wars are unknown.
There are two prisons in the lamd, one for -slight, the other for
serious offenders. Carts are in use drawn by horses, or oxen,
or stags (reindeers). The deer are their domestic animals, as
the cow is in China. A 'fermented drink is prepared by them
from milk. There are mulberry trees, and red pears which keep
for a whole year. Grapes also grow there. Silver and copper
are not esteemed of any value. There is no iron, but copper in
abundance. They have books. The inhabitants of Fu-sang
knew nothing of the Buddhist religion until live priests from
Ki-pin went thither about A.D. 458 (the year, of course, is given
in the Chinese reckoning), and took with them the sacred books
and the faith. A thousand miles east of Fu-sang is -a kingclorn,
in which there are no men but 'Only women, whose bodies are
completely covered with hair. When they wish progeny, they
bathe themselves in a certain river. They have no breasts, but
bunches of hair on the neck from which the children suck."
The conclusion of this report, the story about the laud of
women, shows -that the whole, if not cosacocted by Hoei-schin
himself, is related on the foundation of a sailor's tale. His
silence about the sea voyage shows that he was never there
himself. It must still, however, be admitted as possible that
the beginning of the story, the description of Fu-sang, rests
upon reports of voyagers who had actually been in America.
This might be supported if we look at details. 1. The situation.
Tahan lies, according to the Thang-schu, chap, 259&, on the
Kianhi or Lake Baikal, bordering on the country of the Kie-
kia-su (the Kirghizes), is wooded, mossy, has no sheep and
horses, nor reindeers, and so is to be looked for between the
Yenesai and the Lena in the south of Siberia. We shall take
the 20,000 miles east of Tahan, to use the Buddhist style of
reckoning, as a round number in the sense of an immensely
great distance. If, again, we take the latitudes of America,
going directly east from China we come, not to Mexico, but to
California. 2. The fauna. Neither in California nor in Mexico
were there horses and oxen before the arrival of the Spaniards.
If, however, we admit that, according to the style of the
Buddhists, the ambiguous words of the Chinese original may
perhaps also bear the sense : " carts like those which among us
in Asia are drawn by horses, oxen, or reindeer are in use ; but

§ 293.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 245

the domesticated animals of the inhabitants of Fu-sang are
deers ; " then this would exactly suit Mexico, where the Aztecs
had tamed species of deer, iztac mazame and tlamscaz mazame,
as domesticated animals (Hernandez, p. 324 ; Buffon, hist. nat.
x. 431). We cannot, therefore, take the situation to have been
exactly east of China, but must rather go two degrees farther
south. 3. The flora. The case is still worse in regard to the
plant world. The vine, indeed, is found in North America.
Peter Kalm in 1749 discovered in North America no less than
seven varieties of the vitis vinifera growing wild (Eauch, Ein-
heit des Mensch. p. 357) ; these, however, all seem to have gone
wild, and to have been originally brought there by the Normans
(§ 301, Obs. 3). They were found, too, in Massachusetts, Vir-
ginia, Ohio, Florida (Berghaus, allg. Geogr. iii. p. 229), not in
Mexico. Of mulberry trees the Murus rubra is found wild in
Florida and Virginia, the Madura aurantiaca in North America
(not more exactly determined) ; and, according to Grisebach
( Vcgd. der Erde, ii. p. 321), the climate of the highlands of
Mexico is suitable for the olive, the mulberry, and the vine.
What is to be made of the pear that keeps a whole year, it is
hard to say. In the Fu-sang tree some think they recognise
the Agave mexicana. The use of its bark for making cloth and
paper, as well as the use of the young sprouts for food, would
support this identification ; but the agave sprouts are altogether
unlike those of the bamboo, still less can it be said that the
Agave mexicana or americana bears pear - shaped, red fruit.
The word Fu-sang is strikingly like the word Pisang. The
pisang or the banana, Musa paradisiaca, is probably a native
of the East Indies, but is met with, on the one hand, upon the
Gold Coast of Africa, where its fruit is called fusu; and, on the
other 'hand, is spread throughout Polynesia, and was found
by the Spaniards growing wild, or become wild, on the west
coast of Peru and in the vast stretches of Mexico. In the
American languages we know of only the names parura and
atoca for the banana. The name pisang is, according to Forbes
Waston in his Index to the Native Names of Plants (1868,
p. 487), of Malay origin. Since then, according to Lennis,
the young sprouts of the pisang are eaten in the East Indies as
vegetables, the fibres of the leaf sheaths are used for garments
and cloths, and the bright yellow fruit, in shape like a cucum-
ber, might be compared to a pear, it seems to me that the
sailor's tale which Hoei-schin, living in Tahan, and probably
never in India, reproduced, had for its basis some particular
plant of the Musa species in one of the Polynesian groups. We
are not only not compelled to think of the Agave mexicana, but
we are actually debarred from doing so. 4. The culture of the
people of Fu-sang. Their peaceful character and their possess-

246 . HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 2P4.

ing books would suit as a description of the Toltecs : the absence
of cities does not suit, and the preparation of a fermented drink
from milk does not answer at all, but is a feature which Hoei-
schin, in a poetizing way, probably added from his own experi-
ences at Kirghiz. In this story, therefore, there is no proof
afforded of any intercourse by sea existing between China and
Mexico in A.D. 450. Rauch (Einheit d. Mensch. p. 309) refers
to Marco Polo, who reached Pekin in the thirteenth centuiy,
and there heard an account of the island Sipango, which lay
1500 miles distant over the sea, and was rich in gold, pearls,
and precious stones. Between Sipango and China lay 7448
islands. But Sipango is evidently the Chinese tschi-pun, sun-
rise, east, the same word from which Japan derives its name.
As to the island of which the Chinese gave an account to Marco
Polo, it can scarcely be understood of any other than the
Japanese island group. And even if America were to be
understood by it, we could only reach this conclusion from it,
that in the thirteenth century, and not in the fifth or sixth
century, Chinese sailors had gone to America and returned
thence to China again.

Obs. 2. — That the Incas were not at all an Old Peruvian race,
that the Inca religion was not at all a reformatory effort that
grew up on native Old Peruvian soil, is shown clearly and dis-
tinctly from the consideration that a native religious reformer
would in all circumstances have laid hold upon the noblest and
best element in the Old Peruvian religion, belief in the invisible
creator of the world, PacJuicamac-Elatidsi, put new life into this
belief, and by means of it have purified the sunken religion. But
of such a creator of the world the Incas knew nothing (§ 295).
They had only the sun-god, and his sister- wife, the moon-
goddess, and for this divine pair they had entirely new names,
and not those of the Old Peruvians. The range of ideas, wor-
ship, and ceremonial of the Inca religion is wholly different
from those of the earlier inhabitants of Peru. Only the legends
common to all the races of the Mongol group, the Mongolians,
Japanese, and Chinese in Asia, about the descent of the ruling
house from the sun, were transferred to their ruling house,
as they had already found them among the Old Peruvian
dynasties.

§ 294. The Empire of the Incas in Peru.

About A.D. 1300 the Inca Pioca (comp. § 287) founded the
empire of the Incas in the north of the Old Peruvian realm.

§ 294.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 247

His third successor,1 Yaliuar Huacac, " the divine " or " the
Son of the Gods," subdued the Old Peruvian tribes of the
Ringri or Aymares at Titicaca; the fifth, Pachacutec, "the
earth bruiser," conquered Pachacamac ; the seventh, Tupac
Yupanqui, in A.D. 1450 conquered Chili; and the eighth,
Huayna, added Quito to his dominions. When Pizarro in
1526 landed at Tumbes, the brothers Huascar and Atahualpa
were striving with one another for the sovereignty.

The stage of civilisation to which they had attained is
sufficiently indicated by the fact that the clothing of the
men consisted in a woollen or cotton garment reaching down
to the knees, while that of the women reached to the heels,
together with an under-garment of cotton cloth. Thorns and
prickles were cleverly used for sewing instead of needles.
For other sorts of work they had tools of bronze. They
cultivated maize and potatoes (papa, an Old Peruvian word,
see § 287) and cotton; bred lamas and sheep; distilled from
the Coco a spirituous liquor tschitscha ;2 they were also
skilful workers in gold and silver, and were singularly well
acquainted with the principles of architecture. Of their
temples we shall speak farther on. They built immense
viaducts and stone bridges, by means of which not only the
coast regions, but also the valleys and defiles of the Cor-
dilleras, were rendered accessible. Their aqueducts, too, were
of gigantic size, often extending to a length of 500 miles.
The postal system, however, was perhaps the most remarkable
of all their institutions. Tschakis or runners were placed in
stations throughout the whole country, just as in China, and
they forwarded news and correspondence with incredible
rapidity. They had no alphabetical writing, and sought to
extirpate the Old Peruvian hieroglyphics, not on account

1 So says Acosta. Garcilasso's statement, that he was the seventh
successor of Eoca, is less probable. Garcilasso is always inclined to
lengthen out the various dynastic periods.

2 It is a word of Malay origin also met with in Further India (§ 280).
The art of preparing this drink seems not to have been discovered by the
Incas, but by the primitive Malayan population.

248 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES. [§ 294.

of their form but of their contents. They themselves
used two kinds of writing, (a) For ordinary purposes they
employed the knot-cord and knot-texture, the guipu. The
cords were two feet long ; from these threads were suspended,
•which were tied up in knots, and significance was attached both
to their colour and the way of tying them. In the reports sent
by the judges to the Government the various colours meant the
various offences, and the form of the knot the nature of the
punishment.1 The numerals-, too, were designated by the
knots : a simple knot meant ten, a double knot one hundred,
a triple knot one thousand. Thus 3140 would be repre-
sented by three triple knots, one double knot, and four simple
knots. In this way a register was kept of births and deaths,
the number of the troops, the quantity of stores, of cattle, etc.
(&) For the recording of historical events a picture-writing
•was used, the occurrences being represented on clay tablets
•which were then exposed to harden under the rays of the
sun. All further historical matter was transmitted orally
by the amautas or national historians. — It is said that the
Toltecs also had a picture - writing ; and though it is not
expressly said that they used the knot-writing, it is extremely
probable ; for, on the one hand, the Chinese employed this
knot - writing in the earliest periods ; 2 and, on the other
hand, at the time of the Aztecs the knot-writing continued
in use among several of the older tribes subject to the Aztec
empire, e.g. among the Nepehualtzitsi.3 This knot-writing and
the institution of running posts 4 are two new witnesses on

1 "W. von Humboldt, Sammtl. Werke, vi. p. 556.

2 Rauch, p. 317. Before the discovery of syllable-writing the knot-
writing was in common use in China, and long prevailed among the lower
orders. The Majidshurians and Ostiaks still employ it. See Miiller,
p. 357 f.

3 Miiller, p. 357.

4 The running posts, it is well known, were already an institution
among the ancient Iranians, and seems to have been transmitted by them
to the Mongolians, to whom, according to § 264, the Chinese belong. This
must have happened in a very remote age, when the Iranians and
Mongolians were in close connection with one another.

§ 294.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 249

behalf of the Chinese descent of the Incas ; and the former,
as prevailing throughout Mexico in pre- Aztec times, is a new
witness for the relationship of the Incas and the Toltecs.

We now turn our attention to the condition of the empire
of the Incas, which still more strikingly reminds us of that of
the Chinese. The members of the Royal family (that is,
according to § 293, of the ruling tribe, the Toltec race that
had come into the country) call themselves IN-CA, " sons of
the sun," and since the sun-god is called IN-TI, therefore
Sun-ti, we have in this ti the identical root ti, " lord," which
appears in the Chinese designations of God — thian-ti, " lord
of heaven," and shdng-ti, " supreme lord." But ca is the root
common to the Mongolian languages for son (Mong. kowe-gun,
Tung, kunga-kan, child, boy, Syryen. kaga, Chin, hdi, child).
But also the word IN, "sun," can be derived from one root
with the Chinese ji (dshi~), " sun " the initial consonant being
dropped, for which modification abundant time is afforded
between A.D. 500 and 1300-. It is quite- indisputable that
In-ti and In-ca were not Old Peruvian words, but were name
forms imported by the Iiica or Toltec race. And again, while
it is demonstrable that among the Chinese from the time of
Genghis Khan (B.C. 600)> and undoubtedly even from a much
earlier period, it was customary for the emperor, the son of
the thian, that is, of the- sun-god (comp. § 268, B}, once a
year to plough the earth, in the presence of the assembled
people, it was also the custom for the Inca, the son of the
sun, in Peru once a year to plough, before the assembled people
with a golden ploughshare.1

The civil constitution was, just as in China, essentially
founded upon the idea of a mild patriarchal despotism, which
in Peru was developed into a sort of civil communism.
All the land was national property, and was divided according
to established laws. There were four ranks : 1. The INCAS,
that is, the whole vast tribe of the ruling family (§ 293) of
the immigrant Toltecs, numbering in A.D. 1526 about 7000,
1 Miiller, p. 345 ff.

250 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 295.

to which the Inca tear e^o^v, the emperor, belonged. From
its members, offices in the priesthood, in the government, and
in the army were filled, and by them alone was possessed the
knowledge of the laws and the mysteries of the knot-writing,
unknown to the Old Peruvian people. Each Inca had to
undergo a searching examination in his sixteenth year. 2.
The CURACAS; these were the descendants of the subjugated
Old Peruvian princes and members of the royal family. From
them were chosen the subordinate military and civil officers
and judges of the criminal court in Cusco, and the rest of the
judges, as well as the lower officers of the army. 3. The
AGRICULTURISTS. 4. The WORKERS IN METAL AND THE
BUILDERS, corresponding to our artisans. Besides these there
was a fifth class of SLAVES OR BONDMEN (yanacwna), taken from
conquered neighbouring tribes. — The land was divided into the
"sun-land" for the gods, priests, the aged, sick, and widows; the
Inca-land for the Incas and holders of office; and the People's
land, which was divided anew every year among the house-
holders. Citizens and peasants were obliged to labour the sun-
land and Inca-land before working their own lots. The army,
on account of compulsory military service, numbered as many as
200,000 men, including slingers and archers, halberdiers and
axe-bearers, and lancers. Commanding officers had golden
and silver armour, subalterns leather helmets, common soldiers
a thick cotton dress and a sort of turban.

§ 295. The Religion of tlu Incas.

The two gods of the Iiicas * were the sun-god IN-TI, " sun-
lord," therefore lord over the sun and governing it, and his
sister and wife, the moon-goddess Killa.2 The former was
represented as a flat disc, with a ring of flame surrounding a

1 For documentary proof of what follows, see Miiller, p. 363 ff.

2 There is no philological connection between the Mama Odsello of the
Old Peruvian Manca-Capac legend (§ 287rf) and Killa. Killa is rather
an Old Mongolian word connected with the Ugro-Finnic root fcfi, the

§ 2D5.] THE PEOPLES AXD HORDES OF AMERICA. 251

countenance of gold, though no statue is found under it. This
sun disc was brought to the eastern door in the temple of
the sun, so that it was illuminated by the rays of the rising
sun. Killa was represented by a silver disc. The rainbow,
Kitscha, was servant to both, and his representation on a gold
plate as a bow, and not in human form, occupied the side wall
of the temple of the sun at Cusco. The stars were regarded
as male and female servants of Inti and Killa, and indeed
the planet Venus, Tschasca,1 was the page of Inti ; but the
comets were messengers of the divine anger. The thought of
the invisible creator, of whom later on we shall find a trace
among the Old Toltecs of Mexico, § 298, had been utterly
lost. Inasmuch, however, as we hear about a lord of the sun,
and have no anthropomorphic representations of the sun,
moon, and rainbow, which are reverenced only as stars and
heavenly phenomena, the polytheism of the Incas remained
at that primitive, non-mythological stage which is somewhat
analogous to the Indra period of the Vedic religion. And
even though we have no information as to whether there may
not have been a lingering impression among them that it was
one and the same deity which ruled in those different stars,
that primitive polytheism of the Incas stood unquestionably
high above the rude polytheism into which the Old Peruvian
religion (§ 287), as well as the withered and decaying Pacha-
camac worship, had sunk. The conscience of the Old Peru-
vians, just as in the case of the Japanese, had been lulled to
sleep under the influence of base lusts. Unnatural vice, and,
hand in hand therewith, the cruel custom of human sacrifice,
were prevalent. The Incas, who vigorously opposed both of
these forms of wickedness,2 showed thereby that conscience

1 Derived from the Chinese tschdo, light, and Mo, high, elevated.

2 Since, according to Muller's pet assumption, human sacrifice is insepar-
able from heathenism, he seeks (p. 377 f.) to prove that even by the Incas
human sacrifices were repeatedly offered up. According to Prescott, i. 8,
occasionally a child was offered in sacrifice at the festival of the sun. But
it will hardly be affirmed that this was done at Cusco, and by order of the
Inca. Acosta, Balboa, Montesino, Sarate are agreed in testifying that those

252 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 295.

was living and awake in them. The law that enjoins the
king or the heir-apparent of the throne to marry his own
sister seems indeed to be in direct contradiction to this state-
ment. But that this arose from no blunting of the con-
science in regard to the crime of incest as such, but was only
a consequence of a false belief that the kings, as sons of the
gods, were of a divine nature, and raised above the laws that
bound other men, may be seen from this, that among all
others marriage with sisters was forbidden under pain of
death.1

Inti was worshipped by sacrifices and presents of devoted
and consecrated gifts. The former, consisting of lamas, sheep,
dogs, hares, birds, were kindled by concave mirrors, and in
part wholly consumed, in part reserved for a sacrificial feast,
the blood having been sprinkled on the temple gates. The
offering of incense and flowers formed the transition to the
presentation of gifts. The consecrated gifts consisted of gold,

•who belonged to the Old Peruvian element in the nation still brought
human sacrifices to their gods, and that this the Incas were not always
able to prevent. But to say that by order of the Inca Government 200
children were drowned and buried is contradicted by Muller himself,
when he tells that the Incas ordered that instead of children, images of
them should be buried. Hence we may also assume that the offering of
children was done by the Old Peruvians against the will of the Incas.
And since, finally, according to Sarate, i. 4, earthenware vases were found
in the temple at Cusco with the remains of children, these may be supposed
to be deceased children of the Incas, who had received an honourable
burial, rather than sacrificed children. Tschudi also assumes that
Garcilasso's story of the Incas having had no human sacrifices is mere
romance, and tells of 1000 men having been offered up at the death of
Huayna Capac. But, after all, the accounts of Acosta and others, that
the people made such sacrifices against the will of the Incas, are not
invalidated, and no one is by any means entitled to affirm, with Tschudi,
" that human sacrifices were made by the Incas." The reports of all
credible historians as to the opposition offered by the Incas to human
sacrifice are too decided and distinct, and evil reports of fanatical priests
about the heathenism of the Peruvians may easily be understood. Even
the ill-substantiated report, that upon the death of a king his wives were
burnt with his corpse, seems to be a calumnious transference to the
Peruvians of a heathen Indian custom. The Spaniards saw the death of
none of the Inca kings but of the two whom they themselves killed.
1 Muller, p, 410.

§ 295.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 253

silver, shells, pearls, cloths, feathers, and a third part of the
spoils of war. There was an essential distinction between the
temples and the sacrificial caves of the Old Peruvian people
and the Teocallis of the Aztecs. They were real built
temples, roofed in, and the place for sacrifice was inside ;
only the burnt-offerings were brought out to a spot outside in
front of the temple.1 Each province had its temple of the sun
as well as its Inca palace. The great temple of the sun in
Cusco, the royal residence, called Coricancha, or Golden Court,
was a square brick building, its inner walls covered with
ornaments of gold ; on the western wall, over the altar, was
the golden sun disc, on the side walls tke moon disc and
picture of the rainbow ; alongside of the sun disc on a
golden throne were -the figures of deceased Inca tings (like
the " Hall of the Ancestors " of the Chinese, § 298, C}. Eound
about the temple were several small chapels for the star-gods
forming the train of Inti, and one mere prominent than the
rest for Killa. In the chapel of Killa were found figures of
the Inca queens. At the entrance into the temple, wor-
shippers took off their shoes and kissed hands to the image of
the sun. The high priest presented the offerings with the
words : " Behold what thy children and creatures offer unto
thee ! Accept it, and be not wroth with them ! Grant them
life and health, and bless their fields!" It is evident that
they had the idea of a personal power ruling in the sun. At
the festivals of the sun songs of praise were sung, each strophe

1 The Toltecs of Mexico built the vast pyramids of Cholula, Papantla,
and Teotihuacan, greater in breadth than in height (§ 292). Here the
question may be asked : If the Incas were really neighbours of those Tol-
tecs, why did they not build pyramids like these ? The answer is easy.
Pyramids built of hewn stones of 1400 feet in breadth and up to 180 feet
in height could only be the work of a settled people. During the period
of their southward wanderings, occupying nearly a hundred years, they
must have after a little while forgotten the art and style of pyramid-
building ; they only retained the art of temple-building, after the pattern
of that which stood on the pyramids of Cholula, as something indispens-
able and easily reproduced. Just such roofed temples as those of the
Incas of Peru are in fact found (§ 290) in Central America, that is, on the
route of the wanderings of the Inca- Toltecs.

254 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 295.

of which began with the word haylli, "triumph."1 The
melodies were weird and melancholy, and constructed on the
principle of a definite acoustic system, so that in A.D. 1555 it
was found possible out of these melodies to compose a mass.
It is well known that the Chinese had a diatonic scale of five
tones (kung, tschang, kio, tsche, jil, = f, g, a, c, d), and that,
according to their traditions, from primitive times, apparently
from the era of Ling-liin, B.C. 2637, and that they possessed
long before the Egyptians a knowledge of the octave.2 Like
the Chinese too, the Inca Peruvians, in addition to their sing-
ing, had wind and percussion instruments. Also, again, as in
China (§ 268, C'), a circular dance, called raymi, was connected
with their worship. They had also a yearly cycle of festivals.

1. The INTI-P-RAYMI,3 the festival of the sun-god, in winter,
on the 21st June, as the shortest day (the month was called
situp raymi), when the death and regeneration of Inti were
celebrated. Three sun discs, which were called apu-inti,
tschurintin, and inti-cok, that is, Prince Inti, Father and Son,
and Inti the Giver, were set up in the temple, the offered gifts
were carried in solemn procession, the sacred fire was
quenched, and with a concave mirror was kindled again, and
with a sacrificial meal and dance the festival was concluded.

2. SITUA RAYMI, in September, a festival of purification, intro-
duced by a preliminary fast and a bath on the night preceding
the feast day. Balls of caucu, sacred bread, were cooked in
pans, sprinkled or mixed with the blood of the sacrifice, and
sent to all temples and to the Curacas. The worshippers
smeared themselves with the blood of their sacrifices. A
messenger of the sun came armed from the Inca palace, and
ordered four others to drive away all evil. Amid shouts of

1 Comp. the hulu-laez in the old song of Cholula (§ 292). JIulu and
liaalli sound very much alike.

2 Comp. C. Billert in H. Mendel's musiL Conversationslexikon, Berlin
1870, Bd. 2, p. 394 ff.

3 Raymi is an appellative, and means " festival ; " it has therefore
nothing to do with the Indian god Rama, with whose name Ranch
(Einheit d. Mensch. p. 324) seeks to connect it.

§ 295.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 255

joy from the people they rushed down through the streets.
In the evening a torch procession was formed. 3. AYMU
RAYMI, the harvest festival, in May ; an image made of corns
of maize (pirhua) was worshipped. 4. CAPAC RAYMI, summer
festival, in December, when alongside of three sun discs the
image of the thunder-god was placed, prayer was offered for
protection from rain and lightning, and the young Incas were
put through their exercise in the use of arms. The first,
second, and fourth of these festivals correspond, even in
regard to the seasons of their observance, to the Chinese
festivals of the equinoxes and solstices. Besides these, there
were monthly festivals (Comay, when the ashes of an animal
burnt as a sacrifice were scattered on the river ; Arihua, in
April, etc.), and in times of distress and scarcity special days
of penitence and prayer, itus, with a two days' fast, proces-
sion, and concluding dance. — The high priest, always an Inca,
was called huacap-u&lak, "he who addresses the gods," or
uillak-umu, " the speaking priest." He chose the other
priests, who were called huaca-rimatschik, and he assigned
them their places. The callparicuk foretold things from
examining entrails; the uirapirca prophesied from the smoke
rising from the sacrifices. — The daughters of the Inca families,
"Virgins of the San," were placed at Cusco under the
guardianship of women, mamacuna. So long as they remained
in this order they had to prepare the clothing of the inmates
of the royal palace, the curtains for the temple of the sun, and
the sacred bread, and they had also to maintain the sacred fire.
Unchastity on their part was punished with burying alive,
while the ravisher was strangled ; only if the virgin of the sun
ventured to swear that she was pregnant by the sun was she
allowed to escape.1 The emperor and the other Incas chose
their brides from the virgins of the sun. The rest of the

1 May not this statement rest upon a misunderstanding ? The Incas
may have told the Spaniards the legend, common to all Mongolian
peoples, of these virgins of the sun, -who became pregnant by the sun, and
what had happened once in fable may have been assumed to be a regularly
recognised law.

256 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 295.

virgins of the sun were, after a seven years' service, married
to the Caracas. Eeligious customs : Fifteen or twenty days
after birth the child was bathed with water ; l in its tenth or
twelfth year, just as among the Chinese, it got another name ;
then its hair and nails were cut, and what was cut was
offered to the sun. Corpses, maUJci, were sometimes reduced
to mummies, sometimes burnt. Eschatology: The souls of
the Incas pass into the hanan patscha, " the higher world ; "
other souls pass into the hucu patsclia, "the lower world,"
which is also called Supaypa -kuaei, literally " Supai's house."
Supai was the name of the god of the dead.

Obs. — As to the way in which the Incas adopted the religion
of the sun from the Old Peruvians and secured themselves upon
the throne, Montesino gives the following tradition : The Inca
Eoca, the founder of the Inca empire, was the son of a princess,
Mama Sibaco, who, shocked and indignant at the sunken and
base condition of the Old Peruvian race in regard to religion
and morals, especially at their unnatural vice and their human
sacrifices associated with cannibal practices, determined to make
a change in their religion and customs. She now caused to be
prepared gleaming discs'of gold and a robe decked with precious
stones, and having put these upon her son, she hid him in the cave
Tschingana, near Cusco. To the people, however, she told the
story that her son had been in his sleep enveloped in the rays
of his father the sun and taken by him up into heaven, but that
he was to return again, for the sun-god had determined that he
should be king in Cusco. Six princesses came forth as witnesses
to attest the truth of her story. After four days the people of
Cusco were called together ; the princess entreated of the sun
the restoration of her boy. Then suddenly he emerged in his
glittering attire from the cave. It reminds one of the Malayan
legend of the emerging of the sun from a cave (§ 271, 283), as
if this story had passed over to the Old Peruvians, and been
incorporated in their Auca legend (§ 287, C}. Sibaco therefore
very cunningly adapted her devices in accordance with existing
beliefs of the Old Peruvians. The people led forth her son with
enthusiasm to the old temple of the sun, and here he issued the
commands of his father, the sun-god, as new laws : First of all,
the abolishing of human sacrifices and of all kinds of unnatural
vice (those guilty of such vice were to be burnt), with the
threat that if those laws were not enforced and obeyed, the god
1 See more in regard to this under § 303, Obs.

§ 296.] THE PEOPLES AND HOEDES OF AMERICA. 257

would repudiate the whole people and abandon them to destruc-
tion. The people hasted to obey, and on the day following six
thousand of the inhabitants were joined together in legal mar-
riage, and instead of the Old Peruvian god Illatidsi-Wiracotscha,
they now rendered worship to Inti. — This legend is highly
probable on internal grounds. Since the immigrant race of the
Incas or Toltecs met with a sun-god in Peru, just like the Old
Japanese or Old Mongolian legend, originally connected with
the Chinese-Toltec, of the descent of their ruler from the sun,
so is it natural and reasonable that they should have prudently
used this legend, and should have attached to it their Inti
religion, in order to introduce it first of all into the city of
Cusco, and so to secure to themselves the sovereign rule.
When, after two generations (§ 294), the new religion and cus-
toms and the new royal family had gained a footing in Cusco,
Yahuar Huacac began by means of hostile raids to spread his
religion and rule over the other Old Peruvian States. Always
with admirable skill, especially in regard to the position assigned
to the Curacas, he managed to secure for a comparatively small
race, like that of the Incas, sovereignty over a great people, and
the adoption by them of a new religion to which they were
naturally averse. It is therefore quite conceivable that the
overturning of the old religion and its horrors, especially in the
provinces conquered at later times, was not always immediately
accomplished by the Incas. — But that in the esoteric circle of the
Inca family, which indeed alone received instruction in history,
and alone understood the notation of the knotted cord, a know-
ledge of the cunning device of Mama Sibaco should have been
preserved, is also quite a probable conjecture. More recent
historians, like Ternaux and Stephenson, have confounded the
story of the introduction of the Inti religion by Eoca with the
Old Peruvian legend of Manco Capac (§ 287), and mixed them
up together ; they have represented Manco as making golden
sun discs, which is a priori inconceivable, since the Old Peruvian
religion did not depict their sun-god on discs, but in stone
statues.

§ 296. The Legends of the Toltecs and Mayas.

At the pyramids erected by the Toltecs of Cholula there
was during the age of the Aztecs a local festival celebrated
by the inhabitants of Cholula, and at it that song referred to
in § 292 was sung in an ancient pre-Sonora dialect, which
had as its contents the legend of Shhelhua. Only the two
opening words of the song have been preserved ; but the

EBKARD III. B

258 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 296.

legend itself was found by a Spaniard, Pdos, in an old
hieroglyph, now lost, and so we have still the outline of the
story.1 — Four thousand eight hundred years after the creation
of the world there was a flood. The country of Anahuac,
that is, Mexico, was then inhabited by giants, tzocuilleshheque.
In the flood some of them were saved alive, others were
changed into fishes. Only seven giants fled into a cave.
When the water receded, one of these seven giants, Shhelhua,
known by the nickname of " the builder," went to Cholula,
and built there as a memorial on the mountain Tlaloc, which
had served him and his six brothers as a place of refuge, a
pyramid, which was to reach up to heaven ; but the gods
destroyed this work with fire, by which means many of the
workmen perished. Then the pyramid was dedicated to
Quetzalcoatl. — The reminiscence of the flood, of !N"oah and his
three sons, who are given in -this case as six, — perhaps the
brothers and their wives, since in the agglutinate language of
the Toltecs the same word probably stood for brothers and for
sisters, — makes its appearance here, and also a lucid account
of the tower building. But as concerns the form of the
proper names, it may be conjectured that that picture-writing,
because not phonetic, did not transmit any pronunciation of
the name, that rather Eios received 'these names from the
mouths of those who interpreted for him the writing after the
discovery of America, and therefore in accordance with the
laws of the Aztec language. It cannot therefore be matter
of surprise to us that these names appear in an Aztec form.
Thus, especially, the mountain Tlaloc must have originally
been called Taloc or Taroc. Tlaloc was worshipped by the
Aztecs as God of water, but the name was similarly used in
Central America.2 This, as well as the occurrence of the name
as the name of a mountain in the Cholula legend, shows us
that even in pre-Aztec times a protecting deity was fashioned
out of the protecting mountain, and was adopted by the

1 A. v. Humboldt, Vues des Cordill. p. 30.

2 Muller, p. 501 f.

§ 296.] THE PEOPLES AND HOKDES OF AMERICA. 259

Aztecs into the number of their gods. Since the Sonora
languages have for water the roots la, pa, and agui, but possess
no roots tar, tal, tlal, a non-Sonora derivation of the name of
the mountain of the flood or the god of the flood must be
admitted. — Shhelhua may be derived from Selwa, Jelwa,
or Chelwa (§ 297, Obs.) ; the latter form would evidently
have affinity to the Kaler of the Finnic legend (§ 262).
Finally, Quetzalcoatl is in form a purely Aztec word, meaning
" winged serpent," from quetzalli, the name of a kind of bird,
as well as an appellative term for wings, and coa, a serpent ;
and so undoubtedly the same god to whom the Aztecs dedi-
cated the pyramid of Cholula has been named Quetzalcoatl.
But in respect both of matter and form this was also a
pre-Aztec God, met with and adopted by them.1 This is
made evident from another legend which survived among a
non-!N"ahuatl race, the Mishtecs. This people named their
supreme god Votan, and represented him as a winged serpent,
that is, as a dragon. There have been found among them
small emeralds, four inches high, images of this god which
they called chalchihuites, from the words clialc, " stone," and
Tiuita, " a bird." 2 But even in the ruins of Chiapa, Nicaragua,
and Guatemala representations of this winged serpent are
often found, and even the Mayas in Chiapa called their
supreme god Votan. This serves to confirm our opinion as
to the Chinese origin of the Toltecs, to whom the Mishtecs as
well as the Mayas trace their origin ; for it has been already
shown (§ 268) that the dragon (Iting) was in China a primi-
tive national deity. But now as regards the name Votan, we
cannot without more ado conclude with Al. v. Humboldt that
it is identical with that of the German Wuotan, but must

1 He was reckoned even by the Aztecs as a Toltec deity ; Mtiller,
p. 486.

2 The word chalc, or tschalc, for stone, is present also in the name of the
ancient, perhaps even pre-Chichimec city Chalco, or, according to the
Aztec form of the name, Tschalco,— a further proof that the Toltec
language was distinct from the Sonora- Aztec, where stone is timpe,
tupe, te.

260 • HALF-CIVILISED AXD SAVAGE EACES. [§ 296.

further inquire what still is known about this god. Now
the inhabitants of Chiapa had a legend about him.1 He was
nephew of the aged man who saved himself from the great
flood. He took part with his uncle in the building of the
great tower which was to reach up to the clouds. But during
the building a scattering of the peoples took place, then Yotan
.at the command of teotl (an Aztec appellative for the abstract
deity) led his people southward to Guatemala and introduced
civilisation among the barbarians there, such as the use of
table requisites and table-cloths. That the legend at last
localizes the occurrence cannot be overlooked. In it we have
simply the conviction expressed: We Mayas in Chiapa are
sprung from Votan ; Votan is the ancestor of our race. But
they thought of him as the primitive ancestor who dates back
from the time of the flood. That they made him not the
son but the nephew of the hero of the flood, and regard the
tower builder as his uncle, should not be overlooked. In
those matters all pagan myths are a mass of confusion. In
the reminiscences of those peoples, largely composed of gossip-
ing stories, the tower building is immediately connected with
the receding of the flood ; but the conviction that the tower
was dedicated, not to the supreme god, but to the dragon, was
retained by the Mishtecs, and that this was the cause of the
anger of the great god was the belief of the Mayas. Even
a glimmering recollection of the name of the ancestor of the
Japhetic tribes has been preserved ; for in Votan we have the
radical letters of nnc (comp. § 260, Obs. 1). About A.D. 500
this tradition still survived in China. There in the mother
country it by and by was extinguished under the blighting
blasts of rationalistic abstraction ; but in the Chinese colonies
of America the old tradition was long retained. And now,

1 Muller, p. 487. The Bishop of Chiapa, Nunnez de la Vega, had in
his possession the sacred wri tings of the Chiapans. More recently some
of these were in the possession of a Chiapan called Aguyar ; according to
his oral communication, Dr. Paul Felix Cabrera made known the legend
in his work, Beschreibung einer alien Stadt, die in Guatemala unsern
Pulenque entdeckt worden ist, Berlin 1832.

§ 296.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 261

just as in the farthest east, we have in America and in the
extreme west of the Old World, in Europe, a race which has
preserved a reminiscence of the name ns11 or nns. The
Cambrian Gwydion also, and the German Vodan, Wuotan,
Odhinn, has been shown by us (§ 260) to have been an
ancestral hero, elevated into a "god, striding with his descend-
ants through the world, and making conquests in all parts
of the earth. And thus we are certainly quite justified in
declaring that the Votan of the Toltecs and the Wuotan are
identical In regard to this it is worthy of notice that
according to Minutoli and Braunschweig, a picture of Votan
has been found in which he bears a sceptre, the top of which
is a head with the hair blowing in the wind. Among the
Toltecs, then, just as among the Germans, the idea of the
rushing wind that cannot be held is connected with that of
the world-striding ancestral deity. — Yet another legend,1
which is declared quite decided by the Aztecs to have been an
old Toltec tradition, and was no doubt actually current among
the remnant of the Toltec population, is associated with the
name of Quetzalcoatl. When the Toltecs founded the city of
Tula, Quetzalcoatl was their high priest, and Huemac was
their king. The former was of a fair complexion, with dark
hair and beard, dressed, like the Chinese, in long white
garments, such as according to Aztec tradition and report the
Toltecs themselves wore, with a mitre on his head like the
Toltec priests, and a sickle in his hand. He taught agricul-
ture, mining, statesmanship, and the calendar, and put a stop
to human sacrifices, this last constituting a new and important
point of resemblance between the Toltecs and the Incas. — Up
to this point the legends have been simply reminiscences of
the Chinese immigrants about their leader Huemac, who with
them first introduced a higher degree of culture into the
country previously inhabited by a Malay race. The ancestral
god of those immigrants (for we have seen that the Toltec
name Quetzalcoatl was just Votan) is placed alongside of him
1 See in Miiller, p. 577 f.

262 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 296.

as if still living. But now an old tradition about the fall
is confounded with this reminiscence. Under Quetzalcoatl,
abundance, fruitfulness, peace, and prosperity prevail. When
Tezcatlipoca let himself down from heaven by a filament of
spider's web, he made his appearance before the daughter of
Huamac, Ciocoatl, the serpent wife, in the form of a beautiful
young pepper-pod seller, and seduced her, and thus the flood-
gates of universal sin and impurity were opened.1 He gave
to Quetzalcoatl, that is, to Votan, the ancestor of the race, a
drink which he pretended would render him immortal ; but
the effect of partaking of the draught was that Quetzalcoatl
destroyed his own palaces, changed fruit trees into barren
shrubs (thorns and thistles !), and flew away with the singing
birds (Gen. iii. 23 f.). In Quauhtitlan he uprooted a tree by
throwing a stone ; in Tlalnepautla he left the print of hand
and foot upon a rock. In Cholula he came to be worshipped
as a god — a reminiscence of the fact that originally he was
no god. After twenty years he wished to return to his native
Tlapallan, " the red land," but reached only so far as Coatza-
cualco, " serpent-stone," and promised at once to return to the
Toltecs. Once he actually attempted to return, but, since the
Toltecs had meanwhile formed connections with the native
races, they would have been hateful to him. He died at
Coatzacualco. According to another version, he was brought
back to Tlapallan, his early home, in a ship made of a coiled-up
serpent. — In regard to all these legends we should not forget
that they have come to us first of all through the medium of
the Aztecs, and therefore not without considerable disfigure-
ment, and certainly with Aztec transliterations or even
translations of the proper names. The name Quetzalcoatl is,
as has been already observed, an appellative predicate which
the Aztecs gave to the Votan of the Toltecs, because in

1 She is called by the Aztecs " our lady and mother, the first goddess
who brought forth, who bequeathed the sufferings of childbirth to women
as the tribute of death, and by whom sin came into the world." Prescott,
Mex. p. 640. She is represented with a serpent beside her.

§ 296.] THE PEOPLES AND HOKDES OF AMEKICA. 263

pictures he had alongside of him the emblem of a winged
serpent,1 while he was himself represented under the figure of
a bearded man in a long robe. It is therefore certain that he
was not originally represented as a serpent, but only stood in
connection with the serpent ; for it is instructive to notice
that in Coatzacualco, the place where Quetzalcoatl meets his
death, the serpent is regarded as nothing else than his tempter
who had handed him that deadly draught. But it is, on the
other hand, quite conceivable that in Quetzalcoatl we have a
combination of the particular tribal ancestor Votan-Japhet
and the primitive world-ancestor Adam. The traditions of all
races are indeed full of such confusions and identifications. —
Traces of this tradition are met with here and there throughout
Central America. In Yucatan, a god, Cuculcan, seems to
have been worshipped, and his worshippers were called cocome,
" serpents." In Humboldt's Monuments (84), Tezcatlipoca is
represented hewing a serpent in pieces. Hence Tezcatlipoca
was not originally, as in the Aztec version of that tradition,
the tempter himself, but the opponent of the tempting serpent.
With this, too, corresponds the feature of the Aztec tradition,
according to which Tezcatlipoca "lets himself down from
heaven." He was without doubt originally thought of as a
celestial being, perhaps as the promised serpent slayer, and
then the Aztecs confounded him with the tempter. They
found him represented with a serpent alongside of him, and
so might regard that as his own emblem, and then gradually,
instead of designating him " the man with the winged
serpent," they would come to call him " the winged serpent."
Comp. § 298, where this conjecture is confirmed in a very
convincing manner.

1 Miiller, p. 284.

264 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 297.

E. — IMMIGRATIONS OF THE TCHUKTCHIS, ABOUT 1220,
AND MONGOLS, ABOUT 1281.

§ 297. The CMchimecs and Naliuatlacs.

The possibility of an immigration from Asia over into
America by way of the Aleutian Islands does not admit of
the slightest doubt. It has been shown by Nordenskiold * that
since the earliest times a brisk trade was maintained between
the one continent and the other. No scientific demonstration
can be rendered more concisely, or supported by more con-
vincing evidence, than that which can be adduced as to the
Mongolian origin, in the strict sense of the word, of the Sonora
nationalities.2 It is specially worthy of note that the Sonora-
Aztec family of languages belongs to the Finnic-Mongolian
linguistic order. It thus possesses nearly all those roots and
stems which, in part originally Ugrian, in part originally
Mongolian (§ 264, Obs. 2), had already become in a remote
antiquity, through mutual contact and subjugations, the
common possessions of both peoples, of the Mongols in the
narrower sense, including Mandshurians, Kalmucks and
Kirghis, and the Ugro-Finnic tribes, including among others
the Tchuktchis or Tchurtchis. The letter / is wanting in the
Sonora- Aztec languages as well as in the Mongolian. The
Aztec as well as the Mongolian has lost the r; the modifica-
tion of the Sonora t into the Aztec tl has its analogue in the
tl of the Tchuwashis and Tcheremissis ; the change of con-
struction from the agglutinate to the inflectional is made just
as in the Ugro-Finnic ; but this is the most important point,
that nearly all those stems which are common to the Sonora
languages and the Aztec, as well as those which belong
exclusively to the Sonora languages, are most distinctly
proved to be identical with Ugro-Mongolian stems ; (for the

1 Die Umsegelung Asiens u. Europas auf der Vega, Leipzig 1882,
Bd. ii. pp. 80-83 ; comp. also p. 101.

2 On this idea see above, § 291, 292.

§ 297.] THE PEOPLES A^ HORDES OF AMERICA. 265

proof of this see Obs.) A second point is the calendar. The
Mongolians represent the twelve signs of the Zodiac, and also,
according to Przewalski, the several years of a twelve years'
cycle, by the figures of animals. The Aztecs have figures for
the representation of twelve successive days. We may now
compare the two series side by side : l —

Mongol.
1. Chulungu, mouse
2. Ukyr, cow
3. Sar, tiger
4. Tottaj, hare
5. Lu, dragon
6. Mogo, serpent

Aztec.
Reed
Knife
Panther
Hare
Lizard
Serpent

Mongol.
7. Mori, horse
8. C/ioni, sheep
9. Metschi, ape
10. Tastja, hen
11. NockoJ, dog
12. Gackaj, swine

Aztec.
The ecliptic
Dog's tail
Ape
Eagle
Dog
House

The variations may be explained on the supposition that
there were no oxen, sheep, horses, and swine in Mexico. The
substituted signs (reed, knife, etc.), derived from the Indian
calendar, can only have come to the Ugro-Mongols through
Buddhist missionaries. — This brings us to the third point in
the proof of their similarity : the quite undeniable traces of
Buddhist institutions in the Aztec religion. We have the
cloisters and seminaries, the sacerdotal theocracy, the dress of
the priests, precisely similar to that of the Buddhists, and a
whole mass of old-world stories of a purely Buddhist type, all
of which we shall more closely examine in the following
paragraphs. But now we call attention to the fact that
(§ 265) in the twelfth century Buddhism obtained an entrance
among the Mongols, and in the thirteenth century, in A.D. 1260,
became the national religion. At the same time we also call
attention to this, that this Buddhism of that period, and
especially among the Mongols, was nothing more than an
outward, impotent form and whitewash, which pushed itself
into favour by its easy compliance with the rites of the national
religion. Thus, then, it is perfectly explained how Buddhist
institutions and traditions came to be combined among the
Aztecs with a kind of worship that was not Buddhist, but

1 A. v. Humboldt, Vues des Cordill Prescott, Mexico, p. 644. Rauch,
Einheit d. Mensch. p. 318.

266 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 297.

essentially Mongolian. But here we come upon a question
which demands careful investigation. We meet with not one,
but two successive immigrations of distinctly different kinds.
The first was that of the Chichimecs somewhere about
A.D. 1170 (see § 291). These were, according to the Aztec
accounts, a wild hunting tribe, nomads. They were soon
followed by the Acolhuacs, a people related to them ; and then,
probably about A.D. 1178, these were followed by the
Nahuatlacs ; and Sahagau says that the Acolhuacs were
themselves a Nahuatlac tribe. And indeed among the six
ISTahuatlac tribes the tribe of the Colhuacs is reckoned,
and A-Colhuacs means nothing else than Water-Colhuacs,
and therefore simply designates the Colhuacs wlio dwell
around Lake Tezcuco. If, then, we only refuse to close our
eyes in tmcritical credulousness to the clear light of day,
we shall be forced to admit that there is no trace of three,
but only of two immigrations, namely, that of the Chichimecs,
and later that of the Nahuatlacs. " Later," I say, though I
do not at all believe that the latter followed at the heels
of the former. That immigrating civilised race could not
certainly know how long the nomadic tribes which they met
with had been already in possession of the land, and this
nomadic race could not itself have any very certain chrono-
logical tradition in regard to such a matter, since, owing to its
wild unsettled habits of life, it could not have any reliable
chronological system. This only has been recorded, " that they
had not been long" in the land. Thus the chronological and
historical statements of the Aztecs on this point would not be
absolutely credible, even if they had been clear. But they
are not by any means clear. So ambiguous were the old
picture-writings of the Aztecs, that their editors (§ 291) differ
from one another to the extent of half, and even a whole
century. We shall therefore have to look out for a more
reliable basis for our chronology. Two fixed points are given
us, — Buddhism, which could not have made its appearance in
a Mongolian tribe in a manner so thoroughly dominating the

§ 297.] THE PEOPLES AND HOEDES OF AMERICA. 267

constitution of the priesthood and of religion before A.D. 1260 j1
and, in the next place, the highly developed stage of culture
reached by the Aztecs, which was not that of the Tungusic, or
Mandshurian, or Tartarian nomads, could not certainly have
been found among the Mongols themselves earlier than the
establishment of the empire of Temudjin, or more exactly,
not before the beginning of the reign of Kublai - Khan
in A.D. 1260.

A. The Chichimecs were nomads; they may have passed over
the Aleutian Islands in to* America about A.D. 1220, driven out
before Genghis Khan Temudjin. It may not have been they
who brought the Fo- worship into- Central America ; this may
have been done at a later date by Buddhist missionaries, who
were met with among the N-ahuatlac tribes.2 There is no
reason for assuming that Buddhism was known or accepted by
the Chichimecs. When. Temudjin after the overthrow of Ungh
Khan had conquered the Nay mans in A.D. 1204, and made
his entrance into the country of the Tan juts or Tang-hiangs
in A.D. 1205, and soon thereafter, in A.D. 1211, the Mand-
shurian tribe of the Khitaais, confederate with him, cast off
the yoke of the Tchuktchis dwelling in the north-east, while
a portion of those Tchuktchis,. whose name is nearly the same
in sound as that of the Chiehioaecs,3 may have passed over
the Aleutian Islands into America along with other Mand-
shurian tribes.

B. But when did the Nahuatlacs come, and who were they ?
— The Aztecs, and, according to their accounts, the Acolhuacs

1 Hiouen-Thsang (§ 293, Obs. 1) made a Buddhist missionary effort
among the Kirghis about A.D. 600, but must have had small success, since
even in the time of Genghis Khan there is no trace of Buddhism among
the Ugro-Tartars.

2 It did take place, however, before Ahuizotl, Emperor of Mexico,
conquered Yucatan in A.D. InOO, but probably at the time when the Aztecs
abandoned Buddhism (see § 299). At that time, about A.D. 1350, the
expelled Buddhist priests fled towards the south.

z The k in Tchuktchi is not essential, for alongside of Tchuktchi we
meet with the name in the form of Tchurtchi. It was an unimportant
guttural sign before the percussive guttural tsch, a sign which might
easily happen to fall out by and by.

268 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES. [§ 297.

also had attained a considerable degree of culture. Among
the Aztecs, however, the culture was not very deep. The
fact that they still wrought the land with the spade and not
with the plough, shows plainly enough that the race to which
they belonged had not long before ceased from the habit of
the nomad and adopted the fixed and residential mode of life.
They cultivated cotton and wove it into garments, but the
loom was unknown to them. They had no weights or
measures, no coined money, but gold dust in quills, tin and
copper stalks, and cacoa cobs served the purposes of exchange.
Merchants carried on a trade which, in a fashion truly
characteristic of Upper Asia, was conveyed by caravans
through the country ; and slaves, precious stones, cochineal,
pottery, and grain were offered for sale. They were able to
work in bronze, making it for tools in the proportion of 8 of
copper to 1 of tin, and for other purposes in other proportions,1
just as in China. But more frequently they made their tools
of obsidian. Flesh and venison they used only at their feasts ;
the lakes afforded them fish daily. The cultivation of maize
had been carried on in the country before their arrival. From
the stalks of the maize they extracted sugar ; the Agave
mexic., in Aztec maquai, me, afforded them paper, string, nails,
needles, roofing, and the drink called Pulque. They built
large cities, bridges of wickerwork, not like the Peruvians of
stone, instead of which they often had recourse to simple ferries.
Their highways are not nearly so magnificent as those of the
Peruvians. They had also a well-developed system of posts.
Their architecture was symmetrical, but is far inferior to that
of the Toltecs, and very decidedly behind that of the ancient
cultured race of Central America. Their animal figures were
far better drawn than the stiff, expressionless figures of the
gods with great flat brows, with which they adorned their
temples and the entrances to their houses. That they had no
naked figures of gods is what might be expected in a people
of Mongolian extraction. In their frescoes and other paintings
1 Rongemont, Bronzezeit^ § 24.

§ 297.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 269

there is no perspective; profile figures show the eye en face.
In the Aztec hieroglyphics preserved in the Dresden Library,
we meet with series of animal figures sitting upright on their
haunches, with peculiarly elongated snouts or jaws with
fearful teeth. Precisely similar animals on blue Chinese
porcelain about twenty or twenty-four inches high are to
be seen in the royal collection of porcelain at Dresden. This
points clearly to a connection between the culture and
mythology of the Aztecs and the Chinese. — The art of feather
ornamentation was known to them as well as to the primitive
Malayan population of California (§ 280), and was probably
learnt from the latter. Their constitution was a feudal one.
The emperor, always a brother or nephew, never a son, of his
predecessor, was chosen from the reigning family by four
electoral princes who belonged to the highest rank of the nobles,
and was crowned by the Prince of Tezcuco. The nobles had
hereditary landed property ; the peasants (macaqiie) were the
bondmen of the nobles, but could be transferred for a life-
time with the estates. The crown, too, and the priesthood
had land and bondmen. The artisans in cities were divided
into guilds. The nobles provided a militia out of their own
slaves ; warriors of noble birth formed the core and phalanx
of the army. The priests took part in the battle; tactics
were carefully planned ; the weapons were clubs, spears,
wooden swords inlaid with obsidian, javelins with obsidian
points, slings, and bows. The nobles wore golden and silver
armour and an animal-shaped helmet ; the common soldiers,
quilted cotton doublets. The emperor exercised absolute
authority through his officers, who were chosen from the
nobility. The judges, named by the emperor, gave decisions
from which there was no appeal. The penal code was of
Draconic severity, and a death sentence was given for
even trivial offences. Thieves, debtors, and prisoners of
war were delivered up to slavery, but also men might if they
chose sell their wives as slaves, and parents their children.
When we consider, too, the rudeness of their music, which

270 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 297.

simply amounted to wild noise with empty shells and fifes ;
the coarseness of their singing; the inartistic character of
their theatre, where the performers either appeared dressed
as animals or as suppliants who cried to some particular god
for help, but put in his mouth simply preposterous burlesque
answers; and, finally, when we consider especially the cannibal
savagery of their human offerings, associated with the eating
of the victims (§ 298), — we have presented to us such a picture
of their general condition as we should expect of a horde
sprung from the empire and army of Genghis Khan. But
the Mongols must have already, previous to their migrations,
come into contact with an actually cultured race, such as the
Chinese, since, besides the Chinese art of alloying bronze,
which they might indeed have learnt from the remnants of
the Toltecs, they had also made respectable attainments in
astronomical science, so that they knew the causes of the
eclipses, which was not the case among the Incas, inserted an
intercalary day in every fourth year of 365 days, and again
inserted an intercalary day every 104 years, a remarkable
approach to the accuracy of the Gregorian calendar ! — Now
it is a historical fact that after Mangu Khan had conquered
China, his successor, Kublai Khan (1260-94), introduced
Chinese culture and customs,1 that he caused a book on
astronomy and chronology to be written by a Persian mathe-
matician, Dshemaleddin, that he gathered scholars of all sorts
at his court, formed a high school (han-lin), appointed a
Tibetan Buddhist, Pasepa, high priest and lama, and that
under him the Mongols were changed in character and habits,
and from being nomads became settled, civilised people. But
as the incessant wars continued, one could suppose that this
culture, at least in the army, could not be very deep, and that
the Mongols with all their increase of knowledge and artistic
skill retained many of their old savage habits. Those Mongols
who, as we have seen, made their appearance as Nahuatlacs,
consisting of a multitude of different but closely related
1 De Guignes, Gesch. der ffunnen und Turken, iii. 154.

§ 297.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 271

tribes, could not have effected an entrance into that continent
before the beginning of the reign of Kublai Khan. But we
can state precisely even the year of their arrival. Having
resolved to make an attack upon Japan, where an ambassador
of his had been killed, in A.D. 1281 Kublai Khan fitted out
an army of a hundred thousand men, among whom, as we
might expect, there were not only Mongols, but hordes from
various subject Mongolian and Tartarian tribes, and sailed
with a confederate army from Corea in a fleet. This squadron,
however, was completely shattered by a dreadful storm ; a
number of ships fell into the hands of the Japanese, who are
said to have killed 70,000 Coreans and Chinese and 30,000
Mongols. What became of the other ships with the other
70,000 Mongols, Kublai Khan does not say.1 We think
that an answer may be fairly risked. The routed host of
Kublai and the group of tribes known as Xahuatlacs precisely
correspond to one another like two coinciding triangles. The
multitude of different but closely-related tribes, the advancing
culture which had reference purely to military matters, the
distinction between officers and soldiers, which must have
quite naturally of itself grown up into a distinction of nobles
and serfs, the elective emperor from the want of a hereditary
royal family, a mass of scholarly acquirements, the possessors
of which, the Buddhist priests, were joined to the army, and,
finally, Buddhism itself, which as a ceremonial varnish covered
over the inward rudeness of the warrior hordes, — here every-
thing explains itself down to the slightest detail. The Aztecs
tell that they, nominally four hundred years before the landing
of Cortes, but really only four Mexican cjrcles of fifty-two
years, had lived in a country lying to the north, Aztlan,
which Humboldt rightly identifies with California, and from
that were driven southwards. But it is just to California
that the North Pacific current would carry the ships which,
shattered by the typhoon, were placed at its mercy (see
§ 280). Seeing that they were a fully - equipped army,
1 De Guignes, Gesch. d. Hunnen, iii. 187 f.

272 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 297.

they would have no difficulty in making from thence a
victorious advance ; and the knowledge of the lately-arrived
Chichimec race dwelling in the south and speaking the same
Mongolian language, with whom, too, they were certainly
more closely related than with the naked Malays of California,
must have induced men in want of wives to make a rapid
advance southwards. The union, too, of cultured Colhuacs
with the nomadic Chichimecs in the empire of Tezcuco
(§ 291) is quite explicable on the same grounds of marriage
necessities. But how does this agree with our chronology ?
According to their tradition, the Aztecs were driven, about A.D.
1091, from Aztlan, but made their first entrance into Mexico
(Anahuac) in A.D. 1178 — ninety years for five hundred
miles ! * Here they remained for fifty years subject to the
Nahuatlac tribe of the Colhuacs, but then gained their
freedom, and founded the capital city of Tenochtitlan or
Mexico.2 This brings us to A.D. 1228, and yet they them-
selves place the finding of Mexico one hundred and ninety-
years before the arrival of Cortes, that is, in the year 1325 !
"They say that in A.D. 1352 their first king was elected, and
that he had ten successors. This latter calculation of years
may be correct; but since they must already have had a
residence under the rule of the Colhuacs, and since it is only
in legends that cities originate from resolutions and decrees,
but in reality by natural growth, we may assume that such

1 The Huns under Attila in A.D. 451 rushed down from Pannonia upon
Orleans, over seven hundred miles, in one year.

2 Tenochtitlan means " the cactus on a stone." According to the legend,
they saw on a rock at the Tezcuco lake a cactus on which sat an eagle with
a serpent in its claws, and they took this as a divine token that there they
should build a city. Whether the city had its name from this circum-
stance, and the Aztecs were called from their city Tenochen, Tenochichi,
or whether it was not conversely the city that was after them called " the
Stone of the Tenochen," and that this gave rise to the legend, any reader
may decide for himself. The name Tenochichi seems to indicate a com-
bination of a Mongolian tribe "Teno " with the Chichimecs. — So, too, the
place Chichomoztoc had its name from the Chichimecs, — " the cave of the
Chichano," — but the Chichimecs had their name not from Chichi, dog,
but, as already said, from Tschuktsche, Tschiiktsche.

§ 2D7.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 273

also was true regarding Tenochtitlan. The city as the
original residence of the Tenochichi, that is, the Aztecs, must
have grown up while these were still under the rule of the
Colhuacs; then in A.D. 1352 the Aztecs gained their freedom,
and elected their own king. Had they been for fifty years in
the country subject to the Colhuacs, this would give A.D. 1302
as the date of the migration of the Aztecs into the country of
Mexico occupied by the Colhuacs and other Nahuatlac tribes ;
and in fact the twenty-one years from A.D. 1281 to A.D. 1302
will be perfectly sufficient for the journey from the Old
California down into Mexico, — giving twenty-six miles for
every year! — Here, then, for the first fifty years, down to
A.D. 1352, the tribe of the Acolhuacs, who had settled in
Tezcuco, held the supremacy over the other tribes. The
Aztecs themselves relate that they received their laws from
the Acolhuacs. These had distinguished themselves over
the other tribes in respect of culture, had reared stable
dwellings, and had as king in Tezcuco a lyric poet. In the
year 1352 the Aztecs secured their independence and elected
their own king, and the attitude which they assumed toward the
Acolhuacs was like that of Sparta toward Athens. When in
A.D. 1418 the Acolhuacs declared war with the Tepanecs, also
a Nahuatlac tribe, and were subdued by them, their king,
Nezahualcoyotl, called in the assistance of the Aztecs. These
overcame the Tepanecs in A.D. 1425, destroyed their capital,
Azcapozalco, and entered into a league with Tezcuco and
Tlacopan, in which they assumed to themselves the supremacy,
said to be a hundred years long, but actually existing only
ninety-three years, from A.D. 1425 till A.D. 1518. This league,
however, did not really continue until A.D. 1518, but already
toward the end of the fifteenth century this supremacy was
converted into an absolute sovereignty from which the Otomies
and the Tlascalans, perhaps Toltec tribes,1 emancipated them-

1 The monosyllabic language of the Otomies has in its one-syllabled
words, in respect of structure and vocabulary, according to Naxera (de
lingua Othomitorum, Transactions of the Amer. Phil Soc. vol. v. Philad.
EBRARD III. S

274 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 207.

selves. About A.D. 1500 the Emperor Ahuitzotl conquered
Yucatan and Guatemala ; and Moutezuma II. began to reign
in A.D. 1502. Thus the period during which this league was
in force may be put at fifty instead of a hundred years ; it
was an Aztec sceculum, not a European.

Obs. — I use the sign ss. to indicate the South Sonora languages
(Cora, Tarahumeric, Tepeguanic, Cahita) ; ns. for the Northern
Sonora languages (Soshonic, Wihinasht, etc.); es. for the East
Sonora dialects (that of the Comantshes, etc.); a. for the Aztec
language. A single s. means the whole of the Sonora languages
collectively. — I render the ch of words recorded by the Spaniards
in the Spanish fashion by tsch, the c preceded by an e or an i
by s, or for distinguishing the decidedly guttural origin of it by
f, the hu by hw, gu by gw,j by ch (to express the guttural, as in
machen, lachen,* only somewhat weaker) ; but the letter x, which
the Spaniards used in order to express the sharp li of the Aztecs,
sounded sh (the French./), I render by shh (see Humboldt's
Werke, vi. p. 168) ; z, which sounds like a weak s, I render by
the Greek £

I. Stars, Elements, Light, Colours. — 1. Day, Sun, ns. taba,
tapa, ss. taica, taa, tasse, es. tali, tap, correspond to the Finnic
taiwas, heaven, which does not come from the Finnic taipua,
" to bow," but is originally connected with Sanscr. div, " to shed
beams." The Turkish tang-ri is related to the Finnic taiwas, as
the ss. taica to the ns. tava, as the Old High Germ, tak to the
Old Latin dius. — 2. Heaven, ns. toke, ss. tehweca, and Sun, taica,
tasse, come from the same root as the Finnic tcihte, " star." — 3.
Heaven, s. re-gwega, re-wega, te-hicecca (tecca), il-hwica, Tungus.
ngdngnja, Aleut, inikch. — 4. Moon, ss. metscha, massade, mushh,
ns. mushha, munga, mojah, es. mea, a. mee^ ; the root m-k, m-g,
which appears as the radical in all these forms, corresponds
exactly to the Tungus. bjego, " moon " (Mandsh. Ha), for in the
Ugrian languages the initial m is generally transmuted into
another labial. For the rest, that root m-g seems to be derived
from the same primitive root MA as the Sanscr. mas, MI, Goth.
mena and menoths, Old High Germ, manot, Lith. menu, Zend

1835) and Ampere (Revue des deux mondes, 1853, Oct.), great resemblance
to the Chinese, so that we majr regard the Otomies as a part of the
Chinese-Toltec immigration. They were indeed a very savage race ; they
provisioned themselves on their warlike expeditions with slaughtered
children! More precisely, the Otomies may be identified with the
remnants of that Corean-Chinese auxiliary aimy which had been driven
to America at the same time with the Nahuatlacs. On the Tlascalans,
see § 300.

§ 297.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 275

maonk (already with k /), Polyn. mahina (already with h /). — 5.
Star, s. gitlallin, Ugr. csillag. — 6. Night, dark, black, ns. tugaguo,
tuhukwit, tuwit, ss. tucu, tschoca, teca, es. tohop, a. tlilli (from
tec-li), Tungus. tiniwo (and tinu, "stars"), Turk, tun, Along.
dagn, " black." — 7. Colour, — witja, — wit, oi (t), from the primi-
tive root VID, fUov, Lat. videre. — 8. White, ns. toha-k-ivitja,
tuscha-oi, ss. tossa, toshha, toa, es. totschoa, toschop, from the
primitive root DIK, Sanscr. di$, faixvufii, Lat. dico, Goth, teih,
Old High Germ, zeigon, Along, tagha (" to foresee, prophesy "),
dsagan, tschagan ("white"), Finnic taika, "a premonition ;" white
means glancing, sending forth a gleam. — 9. Red, Manclsh. chak-
san, dshaksangga, Chin, tsee, es. ecksa, ekatsch, ns. anga-wit,
atsakwitja, ss. tsestana, sita. — 10. Fire, Sanscr. dr, data, Finn.
tuli, " tire," Mong. till, " to burn," Tungus. toggo, tua, and
Alandsh. tuwa, tua, " tire," ns. daibor, tschuwat, ss. tait, tai, a.
tic. — 11. Heat, s. and a. tona, Mandsh. tuwi, tua, " fire," Tungus.
tua. Hence ss. taasa, and es. taartsch, " summer." — 12. To catch
tire (see No. 139). — 13. Smoke, s. cu-busci, buitschi, Finn, pukk,
Turk, bogh, " vapour." — 14. To extinguish, s. tutzane (redupli-
cated), Mong. and Mandsh. sun. — 15. Water, ns. and es. pa, ss.
ba (hence bagui and bibei, " to drink"), Finn, wuo, " to flow," from
the same primitive root PA, BA, as /3arr«, Lat. bibo, poto,
Polyn. pape and u'ai. This primitive root is closely related to
a second, VA, VAD, in vdup, Lat. udor and vadum, Slav, voda,
Old High Germ, wazar, Finn, wete, see No. 189.— 16. Water,
ns. ooksehe, ss. ahti, achte, aqui, a. a (Tarahum pa-ugui), Sanscr.
ahwa, Lat. aqua, Lapp, okte, " rain," Turk, jagh, " rain," Alandsh.
aga, " rain," Tschuw. jog, " to flow," jaki, " river," Turk, ak, " to
How," Finn, joki, " river," Ugr. jo, and Along, ja, " river." — 17.
Wind, ns. hikwa, ss. haica-la, aca-te, a. eca, Finn, henka, angga,
"to breathe," henki, "breath." — 18. Earth, s. gue, tschutschti,
Finn, waha, Mandsh. weche, Aleut, tschikik. — 19. Stone, ns.
timpi, tupa, es. tupe, teppa, tetech, tete, a. te, Mong. tamir, " firm-
ness, hardness " (Turk, timur and Along, temiir, " iron "). — 20.
Dust, s. tschuet, Along, clwso and Turk, chasy, " to grind, to nib."
— 21. Sand, dust, a. teuh, Along, toghosan, toosun, Tschuw. tos. —
22. Brown, s. and a. camo (perhaps as the colour of the sand,
from Mong. chomaki, Turk, kumak, "sand"). — 23. Cold, ice,
snow, s. and a. $e, " ice," $ebi, " to freeze," ciibai, " ice, snow," s.
coboja, kepaliki, "snow," Lapp, jagna, "ice," Finn, jda and
Alandsh. dschuche and Mong. dshige, "frost."

II. God, Man, Spirit, Alental States.— 24. God, a. teo, from
primitive root DIV (Sanscr. deva, Lat. deus, Chin, thian,
Central Am. teo, Old Peruv. titi). The appellative of God as
" Lord," Aloqui. tokkil, a. teuc, is to be distinguished from the
former. See No. 50. The root teo, however, is not found in the
Sonora languages. It seems that the Aztecs, when they returned

276 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 297.

from Buddhism to their^own national religion (§ 299), first
adopted from their Corean neighbours tea as an appellative of
God. — 25. Man, s. teodi, teata, tehoche, tevit, es. tywoo, from a
root ted = sed, Mong. sed, " to think," sed-kyl, " heart, mind,"
Mordw. sod, " to think, to know," Finn, syddame, " heart," Chin.
ta, " man." — 26. Men, s. iorem, Lapp, olma, Mandsh. nialma,
Sanscr. nara. — 27. Heart, spirit, s. sura, sulala, khura, joli, a,
jolli (Nicaragua julio, " heart," joli, " to live "), not from the
Finn, el, " to live," but identical with the Lapp, jur-te, " to
think," Mong. dshurik, " heart," Turk, jurek, " heart." — 28. To
know, to understand, s. and a. mati, Mong. mede, Finn, mieti
(Lapp, midle, Turk. Ml), from the same primitive root as Sauscr.
man, pavdavu, Lat. meditari, Slav, mineti, Old High Germ.
meinjan. — 29. To will, s. and a. nequi, naqui, natschki, from the
Ugro-Mong. root ne, " to see," in the sense of " perceive, under-
stand."— 30. To pray, s. tani, tane, a. tlani, originally in the
sense of " to give to understand," comp. Mong. and Turk, tani
(Ugr. tan), " to understand." — 31. To crave, to love, Mong. kiise
and Finn, kysy, " to crave," Mandsh. gosi, " to love," s. ga-ne,
gai-le, ga-la, " to love," ga and qualli, " dear, good." (Connected
with this is also Finn. Jcauni, Mong. ghuwai, "good, fair.")
One thinks naturally of Old High Germ, geron, ger£n, " to
crave," Goth, gairns, " desirous," Lat. goliare, " to long eagerly,"
and gula ; and yet there is a closer connection with Old High
Germ, kiusan, " to choose, to elect." — 32. To conceal, Finn, kaisa,
Turk, gis, s. and a. usci-di, itschi (hence itschtaca, " secretly "). —
33. To treat as an enemy, ss. nemiki, " to take vengeance,"
namoca, " to quarrel," also " to haggle," nahtsche, " to act toward,
behave," seems to be compounded of na-qui, " to will," and
mdka, " evil " (see No. 35). — 34. To lament, s. soaque, soashhc,
tschoca, comp. Mong. chokija (Mandsh. koki, Finn, koyha), " poor,
miserable." — 35. To be afraid, s. maha, malie, maluci, comp.
Finn, paha, " bad," Mong. bogha, " to abhor," and magho, " evil."
— 36. To be anxious, a. qualani, Finn, kyola and Mong. chuli,
ghol, " to feel loathing " (comp. Old High Germ, chwdla, " pain").
— 37. Sin, s. tatacoli, a. tlatlacolli, compounded of tak, ta-qui,
" to do " (Finn, teke) and qual, " to cause disgust, to be offensive."
See Nos. 164 and 36.

III. Relationship, Sex, Service. — 38. Name, s. tehwa, tutuga,
teua, a. tocai, from the root die, tagha, see No. 8. — 39. Father,
ss. ja-oppa, Mong. aba, bau (comp. Lapp, oppa, " sister "), Corean
api. — 40. Father, ss. atzai, achai, ogga, ocha, Yakut, aga (comp.
Mong. acha, " uncle "). — 41. Mother, ss. mama, Finn, emo,
" mother," Mandsh. ama, " aunt," mama, " grandmother," from
the primitive root MA. — 42. Wife, s. quenna, cuna, mo-goni,
rnu-gui, muki (with the Sonora prefix mu, " thine "), a. qihua,
from the Mong. root KE in the Mong. eke, " mother," Mandsh.

§ 297.J THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 277

cheche, " wife," from the same root as in Sanscr. gani, y\>vr\,
Goth, quino. — 43. Wife, uahaipe, wepi, ss. ubi, upi, hubi, cubi, es.
meishpe, either from Malay-Polyn. bai, wahine, " wife," and the
Sonora suffix po, " thine," or (if the labial should belong to the
root) from the primitive root WA, WI, constructed like the Old
High Germ, wip, wib. From cube and amu (No. 41) is com-
pounded s. cube-ameke, cune ame, " bridegroom." — 44. Youth, son,
ss. telpotsch-ti, " youth," and itsch-potscfi-tli, " maiden " (Busch-
m&i\n,Spuren, etc. p. 94) ; potsch means "youth" (son or daughter),
and this is confirmed by the Tepeguan. viapuguli, " youth ; " it
is the primitive root PA, PU, PAU, which we meet with in the
Lat. pau-c-us, pau-ll-us, pau-per, and in Finn, poika (Esthon.
poega), " son, boy," also here with the diminutive suffix ka ;
puguli corresponds precisely to the Lat. pauculus. In Aztec
we come across the word as the name of the god Hwitzi-li-
potsch-tli, Hwitzi, " the son," or " the young." Also the Sonora
form batschi, " brother," is identical with potsch. — 45. Child, a.
cane, is the root kan, gan, ken, recurring in all the Ugro-Finnic
and Mongolian languages as the diminutive suffix. In Tungus.
kunga-kan, " little boy," Aleut, kingugikch, this root appears
twice as stem and as diminutive suffix ; in Esthon. poisikenne,
" little son," it is combined with the previous No. 44. The
Low German diminutive ending -ken, -chen, is identical with
it. — 46. Sou, daughter, s. mara, mala, related to Mong. amu,
erne, " wife." — 47. Grandfather, s. catso, jatsu, Mandsh. dshedshe,
" father," Mong. etsi, Finn, isd, Lapp, attsche, Tschuw. attje,
Turk, ata, Aleut, atan, atach. — 48. Uncle, aunt, s. tata, from the
same root ata. — 49. Father-in-law, etc., s. mon, muni, Mong.
amu, " father," comp. Mandsh. amu, " aunt " (Old High Germ.
oheim, Anglo-Sax, edm, " uncle," Lat. homo). — 50. Lord, s.
tccual, tecua, a. tecut, teuc, not likely from the Mong. toghol, " to
stride away over something " (dolgin, " billow," Finn, tulwa,
" overflow "), since the sharp vowel is constant, but rather from
DIG, Nos. 38 and 8, " giving direction," pointing, guiding. — 51.
Servants, s. and a. teatsch, Finn, tacha, and Mandsh. dacha, " to
follow, to stand or go behind any one," Cor. tsjong, Chin.
chsung, " to follow, to obey."

IV. Parts of the Body, their Functions and their Diseases.
— 52. Bodies, upright bodies, s. taca-ua, a. tlac, Mong. tok,
" standing upright." — 53. Bones, a. omi, oo, Mong. omok. — 54.
Skin, to splint, s. shhipehua, besuma, butschume, from shhi,
" skin," Corean sar, " skin," Mong. sari (comp. Old High Germ.
scintjan, " to splint "), and a stem buk instead of bulk, burk,
which we seem to meet with again in Finn, purka, " to divide,"
Mong. bolgha, " to tear, to break." — 55. Veins, sinews, nerves,
s. tatta, tattat, tata, a. tlalhiva, from a root tan : Finn, tan, " to
stretch," Moug. tate, " to expand " (identical with niw, No. 87),

278 , HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§297.

corresponding to the Goth, senawa, Basque zaina. — 56. Head,
Moqui. quatah, ss. coba, a. quai (hence s. kupala, kupaca, cuH,
kepoati, " hair of the head "), from the primitive root KAP in
Sanscr. and Javan. kapalas, x«fa?.?j, Lat. caput, Goth, haubith,
Mong. kabala, Finn, kallo, Aleut, kamga. — 57. Head, ns. and
es. moola, moo, muuti, from mo, "thine," and olo, the latter
either from Mong. tol, Turk, dill, " head," .or more probably a
Malayan stem (Tagal. olo), Corean mori. — 58. Brow, crown of
the head, ss. covara, coba, ns. cuwo, es. koveh, also quatzi, a. qai
(hence a qua-quahui, " head-tree," that is, horns of a stag), from
the same primitive root as No. 56, comp. Mong. kabala,
" skull," Finn, kallo, " skull," Mong. chabar and Kalrn. chamar,
" countenance." — 59. Face, countenance, s. neric (and ne$i, " to
come to light," neshhi, " bright "), from the root ne, in Finn.
nah and Mordw. nee, " to see," Mong. niyhor, " countenance,"
Corean nun, " eye," nas, " countenance," Tangut. nik, " eye,"
nidun, " eye." — HO. Eye, to see, ns. puse, pusi, pusiki, es. puile,
Corean pur, " to see," Mandsh. facha, " pupil of the eye," Turk.
bak, " to see " (originally connected with Lat. oc-ulus, Goth.
vakan, Old High Germ, wachon, " to have the eyes open," as
also with the Folyn. wakk, "to see"). — 61. Ear, to hear, s.
kauke, kaqui, kaje, reduplicated from KA, which seems to be
derived by dropping the final r from kar (Tuugus. kor-ot, " ear,"
Finn, chonvan, " ear," kuul, " to hear," Corean kui, identical
with Sanscr. c/ru, xXvsiv, Old High Germ, hvrjari). — 62. Ear, ns.
nongkawa, ss. naca, nashha, es. naki, a. nacaz, see No. 68. — 63.
Mouth, s. and a. cama, and cheek, cant, Mong. ama, " mouth,"
Tungus. amga, Yakut, hamun (comp. Tungus. omun and Yakut.
amga, " lip"). — 64 Lip, ns. timpa, tupa, es. tupa, teppa, ss. tuni,
a. ten, Curean ip, " mouth, lip," perhaps from Malay and Bug.
timu, " mouth," which again is originally connected with <r™>a,
ra/j,nT>. — 65. Tongue, Moqui. linga, Mandsh. ilenggu (originally
related to the Lat. lingua, lingere, Goth, lagjan, " to lick "). —
66. Tongue, anongin, ss. nunu, nini, es. ehk, aku, a. nene, Tungus.
igni, Aleut, anagkch. — 67. To speak, s. itoa, Lapp, jdtte, Turk.
ejit (comp. Lat. a/0, Old High Germ, jehan, Chin, jue, " to tell,"
and fA, " yes "). — 68. To speak, speech, s. noca, neoca, noqui, a.
notza, and s. noba, nahwa (whence No. 62, naca, nongkawa,
" herring ") ; the roots NOG and NAB are related to one
another as the similar and related roots LOC (Lat. loqui) and
LAB (Ir. labar, Lat. labium, Anglo-Sax, lippa), the second of
which appears in the Finn, lau and Mandsh. leo, " to speak." —
69. To sing, s. cuica, guica, huica, not related to the Mong.
tschigin, " ear," the tsch of which has as its base not k but s
(Tungus. sin, Mandsh. schen, " ear," Mong. son-os, " to hear,"
originally related to Lat. sonare), but perhaps identical with
Lapp, kwolk, kweik, " to stream," Turk, huigha, and related to

§ 297.] THE PEOPLES ASD HORDES OF AMERICA. 279

the Goth, qithan, "to discourse." — 70. Throat, windpipe, Finn.
kaula, Mong. choola (related to Mong. kele, Finn. kieli, Lapp.
hole, Tungus. goli, Mandsh. chula, " to speak," and not related to
Sip and ^\), which appear in ns. kuro, whence keupi, kuape,
kuto), ss. kutala, a quetsch. — 71. Breath, busica, putsdw, puetza,
ibusta, ibui, ibusane, and pitza, " to blow a musical instrument,'1
" to blow up a fire," hence also " to srnelt," Finn, puhu,
Hungar. fui, originally related to tpusdu, Sanscr. puphulam,
Lith. pusti, Old High Germ, wajan, also with «»!/*/, <me?v. From
ibui comes ihio, " breath " (as Sanscr. ahman from dtman, Goth.
ahma from -n^aa). — 72. Nose, Finn, nokka, Tungus. ongokto,
Aleut, angmikch, comp. Tangut. chnaa, ns. jakuk, ss. jatschcala,
a. jaca, Corean ko (the East Sonora here instead of this mule,
mui, from Malay mulut, " countenance," Malagass mulu, " snout,"
unrelated to maul). — 73. To scent, es. okui, ss. chui, Mong.
angki, from same root with Finn, angga, No. 17. — 74. To snort,
sniff, s. necui, tschui, also from Mong. angki, Finn, angga,
No. 17. — 75. Tooth, ns. tangwa, tama, ss. tami, tatamo, temela,
remela, es. tan, tani, a. tlan, evidently from a root tan, as in pK>,
Sanscr. dantas, bdovc, Lat. dent-, Goth, tunthus, Old High Germ.
zand, zan; in the Ugro-Finn. languages it appears in Turk.
disch, still more evidently in the Moiig. languages in Tangut.
soo, " tooth." — 76. To eat, s. hucua, cua, coai, bua, a. qua, Malay
(Tagal. cain, Tong. ky, Maori kai), from a primitive root which
also lies at the basis of the stem ^vdua, Old High Germ.
chiuwan, " to chew," Polyn. kunj'uh, kenjah, ngongo, gnow, " to
chew" (comp. § 270, Obs. 2). — 77. Food, provender, bittuga,
hitaca ; to provide oneself, bittu-te, Mong. budshu (Turk, pisch,
Hungar. fo), " to cook." Not related to Sanscr. bidh, Lat. findo,
Old High Germ, pizan, " to bite "). — 78. To hunger, s. tukriti,
Mong. tora, " want, famine." — 79. To hunger, a. teo-sihwi, from
teo, " man," and sihwi = Finn, suikia, " weak, thin, lean." — 80.
To drink, ns. ivi, pahi, baji, iwi-pi (compounded with pa,
" water "), ss. iwi, ie, es. ibig, ebet, Finn, juo, Lapp, jukka,
Mong. ugku. Hence s. iivat, icuat, "to thirst," and nabaiti,
" wine " (an early example of the compounding of words).
— 81. Hand, ns. mahat, mai, ss. moa, ma, es. mowa, masch-pa, a.
mai (also in the Pueblo language mah, New Californ. menat,
Ketschua m-aqui), probably derived from Moug. mata, " to bow,"
Finn, mutka, " bowing," but which is itself again originally
related to Lat. movere and manus. — 82. Finger, ns. mascho, ss.
massaqui, es. massit, compounded from two roots, which we
meet with again in Mong. ki-milsun, cho-mosum, " claws," and
Finn, kinsy (from ki-msy}, Chin, mu, " finger." Comp. Tangut.
mdsu-gee, " finger." — 83. Flesh, ns. atuku, ss. tucaja, es. tokko,
teschca-p, is the Malay daging, Bug. dshuka. — 84. Flesh, a. naca,
Finn, nakka, " skin," Mandsh. notscho, " skin " (related to naked,

280 • HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 297.

nudus, IT. nocM). — 85. Back, hunch-backed, s. topossi, teputzi,
a. tepotzo, comp. Finn, typa and Lapp, tawa, " hillock," Mong.
dobo, " to project." — 86. Navel, s. sicu, a. skhik, comp. Mandsh.
sekien, " origin," Finn, siki, " to originate." — 87. Filth, excre-
ment, s. and a. guekle, cuitla, cuita, tschuita, originally related
to Lat. cacare, Old High Germ, qudt, and to xax6$. — 88. Knee,
ss, tono, tuna, tonna, es. tamap, from the root tan, Finn, tan-ot,
" to extend," Mong. tata, " to stretch," Sanscr. and Zend, tan,
rtivu, Lat. tendo, Goth, thanja, Litb. tempju, Old High Germ.
dennan, "to stretch." — 89. Foot, leg, Finn, kidke (comp. Lat.
calcare, conculcare), " foot," Mong. cholkita, " to wander," Tun-
gus. chalgan and kul, " foot," Finn, jalka, " foot," Mandsh. chol-
chon, "leg" (also Finn, juok, Mong. gilju, Ostiak. chog, " to run"),
ns. kugi, koegen, ss. goqqui, hivoqui, "foot." — 90. Foot, s. tola,
tara, Corean tari, " leg," Mong. toyhol and tol, " to stretch over "
(comp, Lat. talus). — 91. To go, s. simi, Mong. jabu. From the
same jabu comes the word ami, " to go forth to hunt." — 92. To
run, to trot, ss. judu, Hungar. jut, " to reach the end," Mandsh.
io, " to come." — 93. To shave, to shear, s. shhima, from shhi,
" skin," No. 54 — 94. To scratch, s. suku, comp. Lapp, suogge,
" to pierce, to bore," Turk, sok, " to pierce," syk, " to squeeze." —

95. To scourge, gwepa, gupe, originally related to vapulare ? —

96. Wearied, ibi, Mandsh. ebe, Lapp, ebere (comp. Mong. ebe, " to
be ill," and Lat. hebes). — 97. To sleep, cotschi, comp. Turk, gidshe,
" night," Mong. kedsho, " late." — 98. Ill, cui, cocho, cocoa, cocore,
originally related to xax.6;. — 99. To die, s. mu, mue, mumu,
mueque, a. miqui (hence muetsckita, mictlan, " the kingdom of
the dead ") ; hence in the Ketschua language in Peru, " corpse,"
munao and malqui, and in Nicaragua mique, so undoubtedly
the root mu was met with in the land of the Toltecs by the
Chichimecs and the Nahuatlacs derived perhaps from Malag.
mati, "to die;" but certainly it is originally connected with
Sanscr. inr, Lat. mori. — 100. Groans, s. ooga, ugat, Tschuw. jog,
and Turk, ag, " to flow," see No. 16.

V. Quantity, Quality, Direction, Movement. — 101. Great, s.
gu, huetscha, es. huei, Mong. ghowai, quai, " important," Chin.
chao,hao, Corean kdu, Finn, kau-ni. — 102. Large, much, gwelu,
gweru (where gw is a labial; comp. Nos. 119, 121, and 143).
Finn, paljo, ~Vogul.paul, Hungar. felu (-rcXi?, Goih.Jilu, " much ").
— 103. Small, s. and a. pitzacce, pitzactic, Mong. utschil-ken, Turk.
kfdschuk, Mandsh. adsi, Lapp. utse. — 104. Small, s. ari, iri, ali,
Finn, arka, "short," Mong. narin, Lapp, njuor. — 105. To be
full, te-mi, Magy. tol, " to fill," tele, " full," Syr. tvr and Turk.
tolu, " full," Mong. del, " full moon," Finn, tdy-te, " to fill."—
106. Strong, ss. igue, es. sliigon, Ymn.jirka, and Turk, iri, "firm."
A tendency to drop the r is noticeable in the Sonora languages ;
the Aztec, too, has no longer an r. The Chinese have similarly

§ -297.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 281

rid themselves of r. — 107. Whole, all, gem, hence gem-anahua-tl,
" the whole of Anahuac," that is, the whole kingdom, the whole
world, Mong. cham, " to unite," Turk, cham, " all," identical with
%\>v, Lat. cum, Celt. con. — 108. All, bu-ssi, mu-tschi, from mui,
"much" (No. 109), and ki, Finn, kaiki, Turk, kai, Chin, kiai,
kai, "all." — 109. Much, mui, mie^, Mong. baki, and Mandsh.
mangga, " strong," originally related to Sanscr. mahat, (ityas,
Lat. magnus, Old High Germ, manag, "many." — 110. One (the
numeral), $e, sse, ssenu, Nepaul. sehi, Loochoo idsi, Malay sa. —
111. Good,ga, qualli (gwalli), see No. 31. — 112. Sweet, s. hatschca,
coca, from cua, " to eat," No. 76. — 113. Bad, es. teschzek, ss.
tscheti, Finn, suikia, " weak, thin," soika, " blind, miserable "
(comp. Mong. schinggu, "low"). — 114. Oblique, tschico, Mong.
cliadsha, Turk. kuja. — 115. To be, to find oneself in a place,
s. gati-ki, a. cat-qui, ca, Mong. and Mandsh. chada, " to put
something in a place," Turk, chadak, "peg." — 116. Far, s.
tnetschea, Finn, mene, " to go," or connected with /AJJXOC. —
117. Way, street, s. bogwi, boi, boo, pobe, a, es. Mong. bai, "to
stand," Mandsh. ba. "place," Finn, paikka, "place." Bogwi is
probably compounded of ba, " place," and a verbal root, gwi,
qui, see No. 118. — 118. To enter, s. ba-qui, ba-que, and cohabita-
tion, boi-qui, from ba, " place" (No. 117), and qui, which expresses
a movement. — 119. To fall, gaguse, gioetschi-ki, hwetsch, hwetzi,
u-ausdsi, asi, Mandsh. wasi, " to descend," closely connected
with the Finn, wdt, heit, "to throw" (No. 166), wuot, "bed,"
Lapp, jdwat, "to scatter." — 120. To reach, attain, win, a-tsi,
from root ti, which appears in Finn, tyty (reduplicated), " to be
held fast," and in Mong. tutu, " capable of being seized." —
121. To find, to meet with, s. tugwe, tebua, teuh, Finn, tawa, "to
catch, reach, find." — 122. To hold, tepi, tepu, the same root with
the last. — 123. To give, maca, mache, mashhe (hence " to receive,"
maiti-qui, muni-te, a-hwe), Mong. bacha and Lapp, fagge, " to
take, to receive." The ideas of giving and taking are mixed up
with one another in the Ugro-Mongolian languages ; the Mon-
golian bari has both meanings. — 124. To pour, to discharge, tcma,
from tegma, Finn, tyko, Turk, tok, Tibet, dug, "to pour." —
125. To rend in pieces, s. tapani, Turk, tap, " to hit with a
weapon," Finn, typpi, "stem of a tree, fragment." — 126. To beat,
s. tuque, Finn, tokko, " to hammer," Turk, tok, dog, " to beat." —
127. Circle, tschitula, comp. Mandsh. hutule, " to lead bound,"
Finn, hoyte, " a cord." — 128. Round, s. cau-ol, hence " bullet,"
cawoli, Lapp, kaiva, " to crook, to curve."— 129. Ball, bullet, ura,
ule, oli, Finn, wieri, " to roll," piora, " a roll," Mandsh. foro, and
Malag. forog, " to roll," Lapp, wer, " ripe," Mandsh. weren,
" whirlpool," originally connected with Old High Germ, vriroil.
— 130. To raise, s. cucuse, quetza, Finn, kdy, "to stand up,"
kdyttd, " to make to stand upright."

282 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 297.

VI. Nature. — 131. Mountain, tepe, Lapp, tawa, "hillock,"
Mong. dobo, "to project." — 132. Sand, s. saate, a. shhalli, from a
primitive root SA, " to strew, to sow," Lat. sero, from which the
Finn, sata, and Mong. dsata, " to rain," and the Old High Germ.
sant, "sand," are derived. — 133. Hollow, s. tesso, osto, asta, Finn.
sisd, "inward," Turk, itsch. — 134 Hollow, hiding-place, cusco,
comp. Lapp, and Turk, katsch, " to flee," Mandsh. chatsi. —
135. Salt, s. honaca onne, Mong. chomaki, and Malag. homok,
Turk. kumak, and Mandsh. jonggan, "sand." — 136. Metal, iron,
s. gwenomi, vainomi, the Persian ayan. There were Persian
sages at the Court of Kublai Khan ; see the above section. —
137. Copper, tin, s. amutzi, either from Finn, waski (Turk./es,
Mong. dsJies) or from Semitic abtsa. — 138. To smelt, ss. tepula,
tepura, hence tepuraca, " hatchet," and teputz, " copper," Mong.
sobi, and Tschuw. sab, " to cut," Finn, sepd, " a smith." — 139. To
inflame, sprout, spring, s. jossiga, " to blossom," ssehwa, ssegwa,
" a flower," a. shhotla, " to bud," and " to catch fire," shhotli, " a
flower," Turk, jak, " to kindle," Mandsh. jaclia, " glowing coal,"
Lapp, tsake, " to burn," Turk. jagJiads, " a tree," Aleut, jagakch,
" a tree," Ostiak. juch, " twig," Hungar. ag, " branch," Mong.
tsetsek, " flower." — 140. Tree, coagui, susiki, usci, quahui, Finn.
kusi, and Mong. chosi, " fir-tree," — 141. Tree, aga, and fir, cedar,
juggue, oko, otschco, Turk, jaghad, aghad, "tree." — 142. Eoot,
nelhwa, from Finn, and Ugr. el, " to live," comp. Mong. el and
Mandsh. elche, nelche, " peace," that is, is a fixed, settled condi-
tion.— 143. Willow-tree, liwecho, hweshho, Finn. pao. — 144. Veget-
ables, roots, s. and a. qui-li, from the same primitive root as Goth.
quijan, Old High Germ, quichan, " to make alive, to quicken," and
Finn, ivieka, Malag. vig, Mandsh. we/, " lively, fresh." — 145. Shaw,
shhacca, eushhati, also paca, Mong. chaghorai, " dry, withered,"
Lat. siccus. — 146. Sour, shhoccoa, originally related probably to
Mong. chaga, " to rend, to split," Mandsh. dshaga, " to split."
We speak in the same way of a biting, stinging taste. — 147. Dry,
lean, vaki, saki, Mong. chowa, Lapp. koike,~Finn. kuiwa and suikid.
— 148. To spring, sprout, meja, from root ba, wuo, No. 15. —
149. To rain, s. chukiki, ducue, quiahui, vije, Turk, jagh, Lapp.
ok-te. Further : pa-jagwi, compounded from pa, " water," and
fagwi = Turk.jagh, Corean pi, rain. — 150. To thunder, s. tatzine,
a. tlatzine, Mong. tschakil, " to lighten," Lapp, tsake, " to burn,"
TJgr.jak, "to kindle." — 151. Male (said of animals), s. hoguila,
hougui,pougu, a. oquitsch, Mandsh. chacha, Ostiak. cho. — 152. Egg,
s. kauquaca (reduplicated from root quek, No. 142). — 153. Bear,
ss. bohi, vohi, Mong. baki, Finn, wdki, " strong," bogi, " ox,"
Mandsh. bucha, "ox," buka, "ram;" perhaps J3ovg is from this
root — )8/a — rather than from Sanscr. gaus. — 154. Bear, es. uira,
es. wilak, Sanscr. urksJia, apKrog, Lat. ursus. — 155. Bear, es. uisisi,
ss. otzet, es. ochzo, Mong. oteke, Uigur, adik, Aleut, tangach ; on

§ 297.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 283

the other side, comp. Goth. atiJisa, Old High Germ, ohso, " oxen ;"
there are two collateral roots, o-t-k and o-ch-t(s). — 156. Dog, s.
tschu, cocotschi, gogosci, a. tschitschi, from the primitive root,
Sanscr. pan-, xvuv, Lat. canis, Goth, hunds, Ir. cu. — 157. Ser-
pent, coa, Lapp, kawa, " to curve, bend," Lith. kum-pis, " crooked,"
x.ayu,™, hence probably also x/jroj, rather than from %du, ^daxu.
— 158. Bird, s. tschulugui, urugui, ugui, Mong. chuli, Lapp, halwe,
Turk, kalja, " to fly." — 159. To fly, s. daai, daa, Esthou. tup,
Finn. sdpi. — 160. Nest, s. cosade tosa, Finn, keisa, Turk, gis, " to
save, conceal" — 161. Kaven, xo>ag, Aleut, kalkagiak, kalkahjon,
s. colatschi, comp. the collateral form any, Lat. corvus, Old High
Germ, kraban. — 162. Eagle, s.gwaugue, gwague, bagwe, bwaue, a.
quauh, comp. Finn, kajawa and Mong. chairaga, " sea-gull." —
163. Bug, teshhca, Finn, and Esthon. tdi, "vermin, louse,"
Huugar. tetu.

VII. Works and Tools, Clothing and Dwellings.— 164. To
do, to make, s. duni, tawa (iehwd], primitive root dhd, te.
Hence also s. tuca, a. toca, "spider, spinner." — 165. Work, s.
tahwa (jehwa\ a. tequi and tschihiva, Finn, teke, " to do," from
the same primitive root. — 166. To carry, it-qui, comp. Turk.
at, Finn, wdt, Turk, jat, " to throw, to lay." — 167. To lay, s.
tutu-qui, a. teca, from the same root ; compare Lapp, jawat,
"to scatter," jawatak, "cushion," Turk, jatak, " pillow." — 168.
To dress, put on, s. tschemi, a. quemi, Finn, kapia, "folding
closely," Turk, kap, " to cover," 'La.pp.japte, " to conceal, cover."
— 169. Cloak, tilma, perhaps from Moug. dul, Finn, tuli, " to
be warm." — 170. To stitch, soso, Lapp, suogge, " to bore," Turk.
sog. — 171. To plait, to weave, a. gwigwi-tu, iguri, from a root
which we meet with in the Finn, wyo, Turk, ui, " girdle," and was
closely related to or identical with the Old High Germ, weban.
— 172. Mat, peraca, petla ; and " to spread out," pert, Finn.
perd, " earth, soil," Mandsh. fere. — 173. House, ss. cari, cali, es.
camike, a. calli, Mong. ger, " skin, hide," Turk, kura, " court,"
for chor, gur, " to encircle, surround." — 174. To dwell, s.
bctschte, bete, and dwelling, betschteke, baqui, qui, a. hwaca (they
were thinking of its possible destruction and distigurement),
Mandsh. buksin, " ambush," Mong. lukku, " to bow oneself, to
save oneself." From primitive root BAK, " to march." — 175.
Field, acre, s. bussa, Finn, mojsa, " field, estate," Corean pas,
" field," comp. Turk, buza, " wheat." — 176. To sow, plant, put in
the ground, toca, Finn, tukki and Turk tyka, " to stop hard,"
Mong. sigha, " to drive stakes into the ground." — 177. To sow,
to strew, ach, ech, atz, uss ; root, ach, which should be closely
related to the Mong. jak, No. 139, and which probably lies at
the basis of Turk, and Lapp, oghul, j'uglo, " sow ; " compare
Lat. satus. — 178. To bury, s. cobe, hoco, Turk. kum. — 179. To
guard, stand and watch, pia, via, from root bai, No. 117. — 180.

284 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 297.

Bread, ss. temeke, remeke, shimmita, from Mandsh. and Turk.
sdhe, Yakut, se, Tschuw. si, Finn, syo, " to eat," and a root tnek,
which is found in Turk, et-mek, comp. also Malay makan, " to
eat," and Sanscr. bhaksh, <payin. — 181. To baste, to roast, s.
chaque, gwaugukke, gaggai, Mong. chaga, Corean koki, " cooked
flesh;" comp. Lat. coquo. — 182. To knead, a. tesi, tegi, and
dough, s. tuschiki, tui, tuligi, a. teshh, comp. Finn, tako, " to beat,
smelt," Turk, dog, " to beat," syk, " to press," Finn, saka, " to
condense ; " perhaps relates to Goth, daigs, Old High Germ, teik,
" dough," and Goth, deigan, " to knead." — 183. To cut, s. sica,
Finn, sarke. — 184. To cut small, cut in pieces, s. and a. pajana,
Finn, wdhd, " small," weistd, " to cut in pieces," Mong. bagha,
" small." — 185. Hatchet, hwik, Finn, padka, Hungar. fejsze. —
186. Bows (weapons), ns. ati, atsche, ss. hata-ca, es. eth, Finn.
heit, wat, Turk, at, " to sling, to throw." Hence s. at-la, " javelin-
strap." — 187. Arrow, s. gwaca, vu, a. mi; comp. Mandsh.
wejche and Malag. fog, " tooth." — 188. To wash, paca, bacua,
vacua ; also vaccui and palti, " wet," palwa, " to dive, to dip,"
wadduide, wapakate, " to moisten," pahi, bahi, " to drink," pa,
" poison," from primitive root pa, ba, " water," No. 15. — 189.
To paint, s. jushha, hossele, aosa, oae, probably =" to moisten,"
from primitive root VA, see No. 15, Mong. usum, " water,"
Finn, wete, wiz, wesi.

Among the 189 words enumerated we have three which
certainly, and two which probably, are Malayan (43, 76, 83, and
'57, 64) ; eight which are themselves primitive roots (7, 24, 38,
68, 95, 98, 99, 155), earlier forms of which are not to be found
in the Ugro-Tartar and Mongolian languages of to-day, but
which might certainly have existed as late as the 12th century
in the Tschuktchian and Mandshurian dialects ; one Persian
word (136), which serves only to confirm our view of the origin
of the Aztecs ; the other 175 are found all and several in the
Ugro-Mongolian languages, for the most part quite evidently.
Upon this we make. these observations: To the Ugr. t and
Mong. d corresponds the Son. t, Aztec tl ; to the Finn, s, Mong.
sch or ds, a Son. s or shh ; to the Mong. s, a Son. t or tz ; to the
Ugr. j, Mong. dsh, a Son. /, or k, or s, or shh ; to the Finn, p, a
hw, gw, or p ; to the b a m ; to the w, Mong. b, a p or hw ; the
Lapp, ts, Ugr. j, Mong. tsch, is in Son. t ; the Ugr. t or Mong. d
is Son. t and r, Azt. tl ; k and ch remain or become tsch.
These are the transmutations which have their analogues in
the various Ugro - Finnic - Mongolian languages. Finally, we
need only review the above 189 words in an unprejudiced
manner in order to find immediate confirmation for our opinion
(§ 292) that these stems of words did not come from the
Aztec into the Sonora languages, but from the Sonora into the
Aztec ; for it has been made thoroughly clear that the Sonora

§ 298.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 285

languages possess the older and less adulterated form of the
word. — Among the words which are found only in the Aztec
language and not also in the Sonora languages, are presumably
many which the Aztecs had not brought with them from Asia,
but had learnt from the remnants of the Toltecs still in the
land. Thus, e.g., gucgue, "old," pec, "mountain" (Malay
bukif), etc.

From the work of Oppert, Ein Versclilossenes Land, Reisen
iiach Korea, Leipz. 1880, it appears that the Coreans also have
the tradition of the sun's son. A daughter of the god Hoango-
ho was made pregnant by a sunbeam, bore a son Tschumong,
who afterwards called himself Kao, and from him the noble
families of Corea trace their descent. It is noticeable that the
population of Corea is a mixture from an Aryan and a
Mongolian tribe. It is thus explicable how we find traces of
traditions of an Iranian character, and of customs which re-
appear in Eastern Asia and America.

§ 298. The Religion of the Aztecs.

As we might expect from a people that had sprung from a
warrior tribe, the supreme god of the Aztecs is their war-god,
who is called Meshhitli or Huitzilopochtli. The latter name
is explained by J. G. Miiller, following Torquemada and
Acosta, to mean " a humming-bird on the left," from Huitzili,
" a humming-bird," and Opochtli, " the left." Clavigero saw
pictures of this god in the feather embroidery work, in which
" sometimes " the feathers of humming-birds were among
others used on the left foot ! The Aztecs also had the
legend that that chieftain who led their fathers southward
from Aztlan had borne the name Huitzitoc x or Huitziton,2
and that he was impelled by the call of a bird, " tihwi,"=let
us go, to lead his people southwards. This affords ground
enough for J. G. Miiller to assume that the Aztecs
worshipped as god a humming - bird by whose cry they
had originally been led forth, and that as culture advanced
they raised the bird -god into an anthropomorphic deity,
on whose left foot the humming - bird was represented
as sitting. The only drawback is that in Calif ornian-
1 Prichard, iv. 385. 2 Clavigero, Gcsc/t. Mex. i. 172 ff.

286 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 298.

Aztlan there happens to be no humming - birds. We
know that potsch - tli means " the son " or " the youth,"
§ 297, Obs. No. 44; huitz means in Aztec "thorn, sting;"
and if the name in question were an appellative designation,
then " son of a thorn " would suit better than " a humming-
bird on the left " as a description of the war-god, who in his
pictures is represented as holding a spear in his right hand
and a bundle of arrows in his left, human bones on his
garments, and bearing the figure of a torn and lacerated man,
and has the titles of tetzalcotl, " the terrible," tetzaliuitl, " the
frightful." But it may be asked whether Huitzilopochtli was
an appellative designation, or whether Huitzi-li was not rather
a proper name. That legend which makes the Aztecs conquer
the country under a human hero, Huitzitoc, is in this form
recent, having been first heard in the 18th century by
Clavigero for the mouth of the Aztecs. According to its
original form and meaning, the god Huitzi precedes in
advance of the Aztecs as the breaker of their path, and their
actual leader was Huitzi's servant (Huitzi-toc, toe = teascJi,
•tacha, § 297, Ols. No. 5 1).1 But now, in fact, the Aztecs had
quite a different legend 2 of Huitzilopochtli, which in respect
of its contents is found to be of a thoroughly Old Mongolian
type. In Coatepec, " the serpent mountain," there lived a pious
woman Coatlicue or Coatlantana ; once when she went into
the temple a feather ball fell from heaven ; she stuck it in
her bosom, intending with its feathers to adorn the altar ;
placed there she found it no more, but found that she was
pregnant. Her sons, the Centzonhwi£nahis, wished now to
kill her, but a voice proceeded out of her womb : " Fear not,
0 mother, I shall save thee to thy honour and mine own

1 The Aztecs actually report (Miiller, p. 594) that on the journey from
Aztlan to Mexico four priests had borne in front the image of the god on
a teoiepalli, " a carrying chair," in regard to which we would not omit
remarking that it was a custom common to the Mongols and Japanese
to carry the images of their gods on such carrying chairs in front of their
armies.

2 Miiller, p. 601.

§ 29&] THE PEOPLES AXD HOEDES OF AMERICA. 287

renown." When now those sons prepared to kill her, Huitzi-
lopochtli sprang armed from her body, slew them, and plun-
dered their dwellings. — We have here again that Old
Mongolian Alankava legend (§ 266), the echo of which we
have already found among the Mandshurians (§ 286). But
here the very names correspond. In Coat-licue, Coat-lantana,
coa is an old form of the Sonora goni, cunna, of the Aztec
gihua, from Mong. eke, cheche (§ 297, Obs. No. 42), and licue
or lantana, a phonetic transmutation of lankava, so that
Goa-t-licue, " the woman Licue," precisely corresponds to that
A-lankava = Arna-lankava, " mother Lankava." But among
the Aztecs she also bears the name Teteionan, and this corre-
sponds again to the signification of tinian-ac in the Mandshu-
rian legend. And now, in conclusion, we need not doubt
that also the most eminent son of Alankava will correspond to
the son of Licue ; in the one he is called Buzend-shir (§ 266),
in the other Hwitzi or Huitzi ; but to the Mongolian b corre-
sponds the Aztec hw (§ 297, Obs. No. 47, Mong. etsi, Sonora
jatsiC) ; the interchange of the flat vowel with the sharp and
light accounts for the transposition of Lankava into Licue ;
only the ending is different, which will surprise nobody. We
yet observe that the Finn, stem liika, Mandsh. lukku, has
the meaning of rich, great ; so then Huitzi-li-pochtli means
Buzend, the great son (of Licue). It was the sun's son of
the Old Mongolian legend whom the Aztecs worshipped as
their war -god and ancestral deity. It is nothing to be
wondered at that we should find the same tradition in a tribe
of the Old Japanese immigrants of B.C. 100, the Mandshusicus
in Paraguay, and, among the Aztecs, the Mongol immigrants
of A.D. 128 1.1 That legend was already in Asia the common

1 On the other hand, Citlalicue, the goddess of the Mayas in Chiapa,
has only a chance and apparent similarity in name with Coatlicue. The
sun-god is called Citlali by the Mayas (see § 300), cue in all the Mongolian
race of languages is the same primitive root for " wife," which in the
name Coatlicue forms the beginning, but in Citlali-cue forms the end of
the name. This latter name, therefore, means the sun-god's wife, the
moon-goddess, and has nothing to do with Licue or Lancava.

288 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 298.

possession of the most diverse races. We found it in Japan
as a primitive myth of the pre-Buddhistic Old Japanese
religion (§ 269), and heard it told in 1246 to Plankarpin
by the Mongols. — Another name of Huitzi was Meshhihtli
or MexitL According to the Aztec tradition, the capital
Tenochtitlan obtained the name of Mexico from the agave or
mango plant (me-tl) growing in the district, and that from
the city again the god obtained this name. It is possible,
however, that here too, as in § 297 (see note on Tenochtitlan),
the city was rather named after the god ; but whence this
name of the god came I cannot determine.1 — By means
of the festivals also, celebrated in his honour, Huitzi is
characterized as the son of the sun. In the rainy season, in
the middle of May, figures of the god of an edible plant
and honey were made and eaten, frankincense was offered,
dances were performed, prayer songs for rain and fruit-
fulness were recited, and human sacrifices were presented.
At the end of the rainy season, in the middle of August,
in the twelfth month of the Aztecs, an image of the god was
wound round with a blue baud, indicating the blue heavens,
and all houses were ornamented with flowers. At the winter
solstice an image of the god made of seeds and the blood of
the sacrificed children was pierced by a priest with an arrow,
the heart was cut out and eaten by the Emperor, the rest was
divided among the people. The winter solstice is the death
and new birth of the sun, therefore also of the sun's son. —
Now Huitzi himself, as well as his mother Coatlicue, was
represented as having the attributes of the serpent, not for the
reason, far from it,2 that the serpent by reason of its casting
its skin is a symbol of the rejuvenating power of nature, still
less because the antique word coa, " woman, wife," had been
erroneously taken for " serpent," but because already in the

1 Meshhi would litei-ally correspond to Boskim (Buzend's brother, § 266).
Since the Aztec legend knows only of one son of Licue, the names of the
Old Mongolian triplet-brothers of Buzend were transferred to this one.

2Miiller,p. 611.

§ 298.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMEKICA. 289

primitive Mongolian tradition the serpent played an important
part. Among the Chinese the dragon is the ancient symbol
of the empire (§ 268) ; so also among the Toltecs the
symbol of the dragon was confounded with the form of Votan
(§ 296), and especially the Aztecs distinguish themselves by
this, that they, like genuine Ophites, have made the temptress
of the human race into a god, and confounded her with God.
We have seen this already in the disfigurement which the
Toltec tradition of Votan has suffered at their hands when it
is rendered into the legend of Quetzalcoatl, the legend of the
dragon (§ 296).1 We meet with it too in the legendary
figure which they name Tezcatlipoca, where God and the devil
are confounded. The name Tezcatlipoca was not an Aztec
word.2 They themselves affirmed that they had learnt to
know and had adopted this god from a foreign race of Tlait-
lotlacs dwelling in the country who inhabited Tescuco and
Chalco, and this, too, with a misconception of the serpent
attributes such as already referred to at the end of § 296.
Since it is in accordance with the belief of all the Mongol
peoples that every district and every land has its own guardian
spirit, and since the Aztecs particularly worshipped alongside
of their ancestral deities such local guardian spirits,3 it is
highly probable that they adopted among their own gods the
god whom they came to know as already resident in that
region as the local guardian spirit of the land. The Aztecs
made Tezcatlipoca a brother of their own Huitzi, but did not
expressly entitle him a son of Licue, and they devoted to the
two the festival of the winter solstice. Of the former, how-

1 Huitzi, too, is found frequently represented as encircled by a serpent
with a serpent staff in his hand ; the walls of his temple were' adorned
with pictures of the serpent.

2 As an Aztec word, Tezcatlipoca should mean " smoking mirror," which
is the designation of the sun. The Aztecs may have, in adopting Toltec
words, modified them according to taste.

3 Tepejollotli, guardian spirits who dwelt in particular mountains,
fairies about particular lakes, as e.g. the Malitsin; penates (tepitotori)
which they kept in the house hung up in cords, guardian deities for par-
ticular periods of life, etc.

EBRARD III. T

290 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 298.

ever, they tell1 that he dwells in heaven, is the invisible
ruler of the whole world ; it was he who foretold to men the
great flood. This was the old Toltec form of the story, in
which he corresponds to the invisible tao of the Chinese !
The Aztecs have also made him the god of death and of the
lower world, of barrenness and of all evil. This invisible
god of the Toltecs was to them a dismal, feared, and hated
god, and was only served for terror, and therefore they put
him just in the place which among the Mongolian peoples was
usually given to evil spirits (Aztec tzitzimete). They desig-
nated him jactzin, " the fiend, the enemy." He was, indeed,
supposed to dwell in heaven, but only to shoot from thence
the arrows of the pestilence, barrenness, and famine as
disasters upon the race of mankind. This, his double nature,
is set forth in his figure, for he was represented sometimes as
a fair youth, sometimes with the countenance of a bear. His
chief festival, toschcoalth, " barrenness," was celebrated on the
day of his death, the 19th May; as god of barrenness, he
died at the beginning of the rainy season. The priest took
dust in his hand and swallowed it ; the people fasted ; on a
carrying chair of dried maize plant the image of the god was
carried about ; a troop of youths and maidens, tepotschtlityli,
crowned with dry stalks of maize, made a procession. The
kneeling people lashed themselves with cords, and besought
the help of night and storms against the god. The fairest of
the prisoners of war had been selected a year before, received
even divine honours, and twenty days before the festival he
was given four beautiful maidens as his companions ; on the
festival day he was offered as a victim to the god ; young
men and young women were married, and were exposed to
the scoffs of the youth. A second festival was in October, at
the end of the rainy season, when the god returning was met
with the scattering of maize flour, and men were burnt in
his honour. His third festival was celebrated at the winter
solstice in common with that of Huitzi, as the conqueror
1 Muller, p. 613.

§ 298.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 291

of Tezcatlipoca. — Thus, then, the Aztecs worshipped their
blood-stained savage ancestral deity Huitzi as the highest god,
and changed the invisible creator of the world of the Toltecs
into the devil. And from this horrifying perversion, as
well as from the Votan legend, we may obtain for ourselves
this addition to our scientific possessions, the knowledge that
the Toltecs had known in North America the invisible creator
of the world, who was afterwards forgotten by them in Peru
during the period of the Inca empire. There, then, again we
have depravation, development downwards! — The number
of human victims sacrificed by the Aztecs was frightful.
According to Diaz,1 they amounted in one year to at least
2500, but sometimes in a single year to as many as 6000.
At the consecration of the great temple of Huitzi, in A.D.
1486, there were during one year offered of prisoners spared
for the purpose, according to Torquemada, 72,344 ; according
to Ixtilxocuitl, 80,400. They had separate apartments in
the temples for the preservation of the skulls of the victims
sacrificed; in one such quashhitschalco, Cortez found 136,000
skulls. — They had, as real unsophisticated polytheists, a mul-
titude of various sorts of gods. It is said that they had as
many as thirteen principal deities. Certain it is that they
adopted gods into their religion from all the tribes with which
they came into contact. Although their Huitzi, as son of the
sun, was their chief god, they had still besides a sun-god,
Tonatiuh (tona, " heat," and Huh, " god "), subordinate to him,
whom they, as the non- Aztec word tiuh already shows, had
taken over from a Toltec or such-like tribe. Further, they
had a moon-god Me£tli, a god of the earth Tlatecutli or
Tewacajohua, the pre-Chichimec water-god Tlaloc or Taloc, a
Chichimec fish-god Coshhcoshh or Qipactli, a fire-god Shhiuh-
teuctli or Ishhcoazauqui (comp. § 297, Obs. No. 139), a salt-
goddess Hwishhto-qihuatl, to whom women were sacrificed,
a god of the Agave wine Tototschtli. Further, they had
guardian deities of boys and girls, Joalteuctli and Joalticjtl ; of
1 Diaz, iv. 259

292 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 298.

men and women, Ometeuctli and OmeQihuatli ; of age, Jlama-
teuctli ; of merchants, Chacateuctli ; of fishers, Opotschtli and
Amimitl ; of goldsmiths, Shhippe ; of marriage, Tla£blteotl and
Tla£blteugihua ; and a strange, naked figure, Ishhcuina, for
whom one is tempted to suggest a Phoenician origin, nu'K and
cunna, a hybrid of tautological construction ; of lust, Tlerne£-
quiquilli ; of concord, Cundinamarca.

Obs. 1. — Tezcatlipoca is also judge of the dead who receives
the souls of fallen warriors into heaven, while other souls pass
into the lower world. In Ausland of 1831, p. 1027, the follow-
ing Aztec prayer to Tezcatlipoca at the outbreak of a war is
reported : 0 Lord, most friendly and most helpful to men,
invisible and impalpable protector, by whose wisdom we are
.led. . . . Lord of battles! A war draws on, the god of war
opens his mouth ; he is hungry ; he will drink the blood of
those who fall. The sun and the god of the earth, Tlatecutli,
will rejoice, and the gods of heaven and the lower world will
refresh themselves with meat and drink, and prepare them-
selves a meal from the flesh and blood of mortals who fall in
the fight. They glance upon us who shall conquer and who
shall die. . . . The noble fathers and mothers whose children
are to die know it not ; the mothers know it not who nourished
them when they were little, who suckled them with their milk.
Grant, 0 Lord, that the fallen be graciously received of the
sun and the earth, the father and mother of all, in whose heart
love (of eating human flesh) dwells. Thou didst not deceive
them when thou required that they should die in battle. For
it is true and certain that thou sentest them to the earth, in
order that they should feed sun and moon with their flesh
and blood. Oh most friendly to men, we flee to thee, that those
whom thou causest to fall in this battle may be received with
love and honour among the heroes who in former times had
fallen. There shall they enjoy unheard-of pleasures, celebrate in
constant songs the praises of our Lord the sun, breathe the sweet
perfume of the flowers, intoxicate themselves with delights,
number not the days and nights, the years and the periods,
for their power and happiness are without end, and the flowers,
whose perfume they breathe, never fade.

Obs. 2. — The dead were some of them burnt, some of them
buried. The former custom might, indeed, have been intro-
duced through the Indian Buddhists. But since the Mongols
of Asia when they became Buddhists did not adopt this custom,
while urns with ashes are found in pre- Aztec, that is, in Toltec
graves as far down as the Mississippi (§ 283 and 293), it is more

§ 299.] THE PEOPLES AND HOKDES OF AMERICA. 293

probable that that custom was borrowed by the Aztecs from the
Toltecs.

§299. TJie Buddhism of the Aztecs.

The Aztecs were not Buddhists; their religion is purely
Mongolian, and the name Fo is not once met with in it. But
they had been Buddhists, and all of the Nahuatlacs, especially
the Colhuacs, had been Buddhists. The Aztecs themselves
have reported that the Colhuacs in Tescuco had no human
sacrifices, that they themselves first introduced the practice,
and made a beginning of it by the sacrifice of the daughter
of a Colhuac king craftily decoyed among them.1 Thus,
then, the Aztecs were that Nahuatlac tribe which first fell
away again from the Buddhism that had been grafted on from
a foreign source,2 and under their supremacy the old national
religion was again introduced among the other tribes.3 But
we have remnants of two different kinds from their Buddhistic
periods. FIRSTLY, we have the specifically Buddhist legends,
or rather system, of the ages or the periods of the world4 which
have been preserved by Ixtilocuitl, from which, however, Eios
and Clavigero have drawn different conclusions from A. von
Humboldt. According to the latter, the ages of the earth,
fire, air, and water succeed one another; according to the
former, the succession is that of water, earth, air, and fire.
But in precisely the same way as the Indian and Tibetan
Buddhists, the Aztec legend represents the first age as over-
thrown by means of an earthquake, the second by means of
fire, the third by means of a storm, the last by means of water.5
The old traditions of giants and the flood are in those legends

1 Miiller, p. 597 f.

2 It must have been about the same time that it happened that the
Aztecs won political independence, that is, about A.D. 1350 or shortly
before.

3 To this old religion belonged the custom of human sacrifice. Marco
Polo found it practised among the civilised tribes of Asia even in China
and Japan. Prescott, Mexico, p. 643.

* Miiller, p. 509 ff. 5 Waitz, A-nthropologie, i. 291.

294 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 299.

interwoven in duplicate repetitions. The pair who saved
themselves in the flood are called sometimes Coshhcoshh
and Shhochiquetzal, sometimes Nata and Nena (comp. § 300).
Ethnography too lays hold upon those legends, for an attempt
has been made to explain as legendary the genealogy of the
Mexican races (see Obs.~). — SECONDLY, we have the ordinances
of the ritual and the priesthood. Their temples (teocalli),
truncated pyramids with horizontal terraces, stairs at the four
corners leading to the chapels placed at the top which con-
tained the image of the god, remind us in their ground-plan
of the structure of the Polynesian pyramids (§ 280), but in
their ornaments and hanging bells rather of the pagodas of
Further India. The priests, of whom there were in the
capital 5000, in the whole country, according to Clavigero,
four millions, were organized as they are among the Buddhists
in a complicated series of ranks.1 They were divided into
assemblies or classes, each of which had its chief. Celibacy
was no longer enforced, they had rejected it along with
Buddhism, and therewith not only the high estimation of the
unmarried state but also of chastity ; for polygamy was pre-
valent, and the celebrated " law against adultery " which
punished with stoning the entrance into another's harem,
had no deep moral significance. Unrestricted intercourse of
the sexes outside of marriage was generally allowed, and such
licence had even its own special guardian deity. But the
outward shell of Buddhism still remained. They practised
the Buddhist custom of consecrating their children with water
and the custom of confession. The black clothing of the priests
with yellow and red ornaments was precisely that of the
Buddhists.2 The bells, too, are of Buddhist origin, which are
found on the noses, lips, and ears of figures of Aztec work-
manship. Golden bells hang from the old Ssiba trees on the

1 At the head stood two chosen high priests, the teoteuctli, " divine Lord,"
and the huei-teoquishhque, "great servant of God ; " the highest sacrificing
priest of Huitzi of hereditary rank is called topitzlin, the chief superin-
tendent over all the priests ineshhico-teo-huatzin.

2 Al. v. Humboldt, Vues des Cordill. i. 197.

§ 300.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 295

tumuli at Caramari, just as they hang on the pagodas of
Further India, and the elephant - like masks of the Aztec
priests in the Aztec hieroglyphics correspond exactly to the
tapir-like mythical animal Me of the Chinese Buddhists.1
Finally, the Aztecs had the cloisters for orders of monks and
nuns (tlamaca^qui}, with which were connected, exactly as in
the case of the Buddhists, seminaries for the education and
instruction of youth, in which boys and girls remained from
their seventh year until their marriage. The Aztec religion
had only diverged in this particular, that the vows of monks
and nuns were not life-long, but their renunciation on the
part of those who wished to marry was freely permitted. — On
the Buddhist handle-cross among the Aztecs, see § 303, Obs.

Ols. — Genealogical traditions of the Aztec Buddhists (Miiller,
p. 517): After the destruction of the first world there was
darkness for twenty-five years. Then Citala-Tonal, the sun-
god of the Mayas, or Ometeuctli, Old Japan name of a deity
(see § 300), with his wife the moon-goddess Citali-cue or
Omecihuatl begot a stone, which fell to the earth, broke in
fragments, and became 16,000 heroes. These commissioned one
of their number, Shholotl, to fetch from the lower world the
bones of a dead man ; the bone burst ; from the fragments
came a boy and maiden, Chiltacmischhcuatl and Ilancuaitl ;
these produced six sons, Shhelwa, Tenuch, the ancestor of the
Aztecs, Umecatl, ancestor of the half-fabulous Olmecs, Shhika-
lacautl, ancestor of the Shhikalacautlacs, Mishhtecatl, ancestor
of the Mishhtecs, and Otomitl, ancestor of the Otomies. Old
and new, foreign and native, Buddhistic and Mongolian elements
are confusedly mixed up together.

§ 300. Traces of Pre- Aztec Deities in Central America.

Only after we have thoroughly acquainted ourselves with
the special characteristics of the Aztec religion is it possible
to distinguish those elements in it that have been imported
from other sources, whether from the Toltecs or from the
influence of the Old Japanese immigrants into Central
America.

1 Rauch, Einheit d. Mensch. p. 323 f.

296 • HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 300.

Among those pre- Aztec divinities the first place belongs to
the divine pair Oraeteuctli and OmeQihuatl, who in the legend
in which Buddhist elements are mixed up (§ 299, O&s.) are
identified with the divine pair of the Mayas, Citlalitonal and
Citlalicue; which identification, however, is of no critical
importance. We know that among the Aztecs the Ome-pair
did not figure as the sun and the moon, but as the guardian
of men and women. This, however, is immaterial to the
question as to what this divine pair, in the country to which
they belonged, may have been originally conceived to be.
But we should also expect to meet again with this divine pair
in another tribe, to which it evidently was native, for certainly
the name Ome cannot be explained from any Aztec word.1 This
tribe is one which inhabits Nicaragua, in which a divine pair,
Homey-at elite and Homey-ate§iguat, is named alongside a son
Siagat ; and thus we are here reminded of the tribe of the
Mandshusicas in Paraguay (§ 286) who worship Omequaturigni
(or Urago soriso), Ura-sana, and Ura-po. There were, as we
there saw, undoubtedly three purely Japanese heavenly gods,
supposed to rule consecutively, each following the other, and
begotten the one of the other emanationistically, and so not to
be regarded as a divine pair, and so with nothing in common
except the syllable ome = liomey ; but Ome, or in the
Nicaraguan language, Homey, is evidently enough equivalent to
the Ugro-Finnic-Mongolian, or rather generally Japhetic primi-
tive root (Mong. amu, ama, § 297, Obs. No. 49) for "father"
and " mother," or generally for any of the older relatives, e.g.
uncle. But Qua is a contracted kame, the Japanese appella-
tion of god. Atelite might be derived from the Ugro-
Mongolian word tuil, " fire, heat " (No. 1 0), which would be

1 No one will consider the meaning "Twtf-men," " Two- women," for
Aztec ome, "two," as satisfactory (Buchmann, art. " Ortsnamen," p. 773).
This careful investigator has allowed himself to be carried away by the
desire to trace everything to an Aztec source. But though the places
Bonames and Bilbil near Frankfort a. M. may be rightly derived from
bona messis and villa bella, it does not follow that Frankfurt must be
derived from frangere and fortis.

§ 300.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 297

suitable as a designation of the sun-god; but the parallel
ategiguat leads to the supposition that ate is an auxiliary
word (perhaps ata, atta, Nrs. 47, 48, as synonym of homey,
amu), where then lite would indicate the masculine, giguat
the feminine gender (comp. Mandsh. chcche, No. 42). We
know then nothing more than that there was a god and a
goddess, a father and a mother. But Homey-Atelite had, just
like the Mandshurian Omequa, a son Siagat, and the
Nicaraguans at a religious examination made the following
statements about him, and made this record : Question : Qui
a cre^ les hommes, les femmes et toutes les austres choses ?
Rtponse: Us ont e"te" cree"s par Famagostad et Zipaltonal, et par
un jeune homme nomm4 Ecalchotl guegue et le petit Ciagat.
But here we see the person of Siagat already amalgamated
with Buddha Qiwa and a god Ecalshhotl,1 which from its name,
ending in tl, we may conclude to have been imported by
Buddhist missionaries of Aztec blood from Mexico. We first
come upon the religion of this people at a time when it had
already become amalgamated with Buddhist elements. The
only conclusion we can draw is that Siagat, if in the Buddhist
religion he belonged to the order of creating deities, must also
in the national religion have had to do with creation, so that
he emanated from the Ome-pair, and then again the world
from him. What then is to be made of the fourth, " the
young man, Ecalshho, the old " — for guegue means " old " in
Aztec ? Perhaps these four gods were suggested by,1 and bear
some relation to, the four Buddhist periods or evolutions of
the world. To the second, " Qiva, the glowing," undoubtedly
belongs the empire of fire ; but eca means in Aztec " air,
wind," and the wind might well be designated " a young old
man ; " 2 then Fo-mahadeo will correspond to the god of water,

1 The French ch has been transliterated by shh, and not, as the
Spaniards have done, by tsh. So, too, the c in Ciagat is rendered by s. —
Ecalshhotl, too, which according to Aztec etymology is identified with the
Nicaraguan rain-god Quia-teol, "Rain-god," will have been imported
from Mexico along with Buddhism.

2 In Nicaragua a god of the air is named Tschiquinan. It was hence

298 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 300.

and the son Siagat1 to the earth. — But besides in Nicaragua
we meet with a Thomatojo, by Oviedo translated "great god"
(comp. on mathqjo, § 297, Obs. No. 109, baki, mangga, mieds),
with his son Theotbilahe (comp. Tepeguan puguli, " son," No.
44). It is possible that these were identical with Homey-
atelite and Siagat. — When in Nicaragua the god of the lower
world is called Miquetan-teo, and in Yucatan and Chiapa the
lower world itself is called mitual, we are reminded that the
root mic, male, mu, is Malayan, already met with by all the
later immigrants (§ 297, Obs. No. 99).— We again meet with
the Yotan of the Toltecs (§ 296) in the Tipotan, the god
Potan of the Indians of Martiaca, and also with the tradition
that the first human pair were "called Nembrita and Nengui-
tamali.2 In the Buddhist- Aztec legend given in § 299, man's
first parents were Nata and Nena. According to Oviedo,3
in Nicaragua guardian deities of cultivated plant were
worshipped, e.g. a Cacao-god, Caco-guat. It might therefore
be concluded that guat,gwat, was an appellative of god, which
would then have a singular resemblance to the Sanscr. Jchut,
Asarn. khoda, Goth, guths, Old High Germ, cot ; but the
meaning of that appellative may very well have been that of
making or that of protecting, as in the case of the Sanscr.
ghut. It would indeed be quite possible to suppose that gwat
was a transmutation of the Old Malayan appellation of god,
waka, which was also transferred to the Old Peruvian gwat,
coming from wak-ti, gwakti.4 — A female deity of the chase,
Mishhcoatl, was adopted by the Aztecs for the Otomies.5
She had also been worshipped by the Tlascalans.0 Her name,

possible that only the name Ecalshhotl was imported by the Aztecs, and
was given to an old Nicaraguan deity, namely, to Tschiquinan.

1 As son he is called le petit, " the young."

2 Buschmann explains (frangendo, fortiter, see note 1) this name from
the Aztec nemi, "to live," and tamalli, "maize," "a woman who lives
upon maize."

3 Oviedo, ix. 200 ff.

4 Comp., with special reference to the Malay gods of maize and potatoes,
zarap cono-pa and papac cono-pa, § 287 E.

* Miiller, pp. 484 and 495. 6 Ibid. p. 529 f.

§ 300.] THE PEOPLES AXD HORDES OF AMERICA. 290

which may be explained from the Aztec mishh-tli, " a cloud,"
and coatl, " a serpent," may be the Aztec translation of the
name of a Toltec god of similar signification ; for although the
Otomies were indeed scarcely a Toltec tribe, yet the Tlascalans
were undoubtedly largely intermixed with Toltecs, as is shown
in § 297. But now in Nicaragua we meet with a similarly
sounding name of a god Mixcoa, which indeed belongs as it
seems to a male deity, not of the chase, but of trade. We
read in the examination above referred to : Qu. Pourquoi
sacrifiez-vous en vous incisant la langue ? R6p. Nous le faisons
toujours quand nous allons vendre, acheter ou conclure quelque
marche, parceque nous croyons que cela nous procure une
heureuse reussite. Le dieu que nous invoquons a cet effet, se
nomme Mixcoa. Qu. Ou est votre dieu Mixcou ? Ittp. Ce sont
des pierres figurees que nous invoquons en son honneur. But
that one and the same deity of wealth and well-being should
pass in one tribe, a civilised one, as patron god of trade, and
in another, a nomadic tribe, living by the chase, as patron
goddess of hunting, is quite conceivable. But now, as the
pierre fiyurte show, Mixcoa must have been (in Nicaragua
before the appearance of the Old Japanese immigrants, on
whose stone-worship comp. § 287 C. The name itself is
nothing else than a contracted Pacha-camac (§ 287); and as
it is changed into Botschi-ka among the Muyscas (§ 289), so
it might in Nicaragua be rendered Mitsch-ca, Mits-co. In
Old Peru there were figures of sea-monsters with connection
with Pachacamac. His temple in Pachacamac valley was
adorned with such.1 Further, also, in Old Peru there was
worshipped a god of wealth, Urcaguay, represented as a
serpent,2 whose name reminds us strikingly of the Urago of
the Mandshusicas (§ 286), which may therefore have been
only an appellative of Pachacamac, as Urago was an appella-
tive of the " Father-god " Omequa. Thus, then, the Mixcoa
of the Nicaraguans is certainly to be identified with their
Homey - atelite (the Omequa of the Mandshusicas), conse-
1 Miiller, p. 366. 2 Ibid. p. 366.

300 • HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 300.

quently also with the Urago of the Mandshusicas, the serpent-
shaped god of wealth among the Old Peruvians, Uruguay.
In fact, serpent sculptures are found in abundance in
Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Yucatan, and the Indians in those
regions also worshipped living serpents.1 This worship of a
serpent-shaped god of wealth, Mixcoa, spread from Central
America to several Toltec tribes, belonging therefore to the
period of the Chinese immigration in B.C. 600, or at least to
tribes in which their were Toltec elements, such as the
Tlascalans, where the god of wealth was already specialized into
a god of the abundance of the hunting-field. At a far later
period the remnants of the Corean-Chinese hordes that had
entered the country in A.D. 1281 along with the Mongolian
Nahuatlacs (§ 297), i.e. the Otomies, adopted a mode of
worship in keeping with the stage of civilisation reached by
them as hunting nomads, and finally, the Aztecs formed the
name of that god, so that he in their language, as " the cloud-
serpent," mishh-coa-tl, came to have a tolerably adequate
designation. — For the rest we may find here further con-
firmation of the conviction already reached of an original
knowledge of the one god overshadowed by the rubbish of
polytheistic superstition. Pachacamac, the creator of the
world, is reduced at last to a serpent idol that gives good
fortune in the chase ! — Among the Tlascalans the name of
Ome-tosch-tli, as he appears under the influence of the Aztec
language, was indeed retained alongside that of Mixcoa. This
god was evidently closely connected with Ome-teot. Next to
him they worshipped a war-god Camashhtle,2 an unmistake-
able transmutation of Camac with the usual Aztec ending.
Thus on all sides the idea is confirmed that the Tlascalans
were a mixed race made up of the Old Japanese and Toltec-
Chinese immigrants. — That the Mayas, too, had a strong Toltec
infusion has been already shown. They had for the sun-god
the Chichimec or Sonora name of Tomahicli, "fire-lord,
glowing lord," and for the moon - god, Tonaca-cihwa, " the
1 Mtiller, p. 483. 2 Ibid. p. 529.

§ 301.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 301

glowing woman;"1 but besides these they had the Toltec
names Dsitlala and Dsitlali-cue, at the basis of which we
seem to find the Chinese sji, " the sun," although the two
names have experienced a modification in the Aztec qitlalli,
"star." Tlali, under the influence of Aztec philology, is
derived from ta-li; to, is the Chinese tao, "god," li un-
doubtedly is the same Old Mongol root which we find in the
atelite of the Xicaraguans, as well as in the Finnic liika,
"great, rich," which will thus have had the meaning of
" great." 2 Ate-lite, " the great father ; " Dsi-tla-li, " the great
sun-god ; " Dsi-tla-li-cue, " the great sun-god's wife." 3

F. — THE UGRO-FINNIC IMMIGRATION INTO THE NORTH DURING
THE 13TH CHRISTIAN CENTURY.

§ 301. The Redskins and tJieir Religion.

The wild Indian tribes between Mexico and Greenland are
comprehended under the name of the Eedskins. In the
middle of the 17th century eight so-called families were
distinguished among them. Those of the Hurons and Iroquois
(with the tribes of the Sioux, Nadowessi, Dahcotahs, Mengwees,
Oneidas, Onondagas, Cayegas, Senecas, etc.) dwelt around
the great lakes ; south of them, along the east coast, and
westward to the Mississippi, was the great family of the
Algonquins (with the tribes of the Delawares, Mohicans,
Senilenapsis, Wampanogas, etc.) ; south of them are the
families of the Cherokees (with the Creeks), Utsches, Nat-
shez, Tuskaroras, Catanbas, and Mobilians. — Quite in the
north, farther north than the Iroquois, although some stretch

1 Miiller (p. 474) explains to-naca-fi/uca by "Lady or Mistress of our
flesh ! "

2 Therefore in Chinese, II, "gain," we meet again with this word.

3 Then also Licue among the Mayas, and already Lan-cava in Japan
among the Japanese, had the meaning of "great lady." The Mand-
shurian liika is identical with the Finnic lukka ; the vowel therefore
was not constant.

302 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 301.

out far south like straggling shoots, dwell the Athabaskans
(see Obs.}. All these follow a nomadic course of life, and
support themselves by hunting, which they foolishly and
recklessly pursue to the utter ruin of the hunting-fields.
Still traces of an earlier culture are discoverable, especially here
and there a rude sort of picture-writing for epistolary advice
in war, here and there the knotted-thread system, with various
coloured pearls (wampuri). The languages of these tribes,
although in the last stage of decadence and decomposition,
show clearly a mingling of Ugro-Finnic and Malayan words,
(see Obs. 1), and also almost all these tribes have traditions
that they came from the west over the sea, and found in
America around the Mississippi a cultured race, the Allegevi
(§ 283), and that they had been subdued or oppressed (see
Obs. 2), which has been thoroughly confirmed by the ruins
and monuments of the Mississippi region (§ 283). In general,
the further south we go, the remnants of Malayan customs
and language become more conspicuous (comp. § 280, which
treats of the Delawares and Iroquois), while the Athabaskans
appear to be far purer Ugro-Finns or Siberians. The immigra-
tion of this tribe was most undoubtedly made over Kamtschatka
and Aleutia, partly also by way of Behring's Strait (see Obs. 2) ;
and that specifically Ugro-Finnic form of their religion, with-
out specifically Mongolian elements, leads to the conclusion
that they were in all probability tribes from the east of
Siberia. Like the Tartar- Siberian peoples (§ 263), these
redskins also worshipped — (a) the invisible creator of the
world as "the Great Spirit," (b) next to him the Sun, Moon,
and Stars, and, finally, (c) a multitude of evil mischievous
spirits, which were represented in the form of animals.

A. The invisible creator of the world appears under three
different names.1 1. The Huron s, especially the Mengwees,
call their highest god Okki or Hokkan. He sits in heaven,
has the seasons, wind, and sea, under his control. By him
they swore their oaths. Among the Canadians we find this
1 For the proofs of what follows, see Miiller, p. 102 ff.

§ 301.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 303

Hocan bearing the name of Ata-hocan, " father Hocan," from
the well-known root ata, atta. In Okki, Hocan, every one will
easily recognise the Ugro-Finnic Ukko (§ 262), identical with
Taara ; to ata corresponds in Finnic the form iso, isa, so that
Ata-hocan is literally and in meaning the same as Ukko iso,
" father Ukko, the ancient father," of the Finns. Alongside
of Ata-hocan we come upon the forms of Adnagni, Cuduagni,
which either are mere corruptions of Atahocan, or are derived
from ata, and a word identical with the Tungus., ngangnja,
" heaven," and so meaning " father of heaven," but in no case
having anything to do with the word gni, from agni, " fire," a
word not generally Polynesian, but introduced into Java from
the Sanscrit. In Oudu a prefix seems to have been combined
with adu, ada. 2. The Delaware tribes called him Manitowa
(Monaitowa, Manitah, wisi Manitto, Maniton}, in which we
seem to see a compound of Mani with the Malayan appellative
of God, tuwan, " Lord." Mani is a proper name, and is no
other than the hero of the flood, Manu, who here again, just
as among the Battas (§271 c), or among the Muyscas (§ 289),
or the Germans (§ 250), and elsewhere, is confounded as the
postdiluvian, quasi-creator with the real original creator of
the world (comp. § 303). The Canadians distinguish two
creators of the world, Aduagni, " who first made the world,"
and Messu (comp. the Iranian Messhia /), who " restored the
world after the flood." We shall meet again with the name
Manu in the flood legend of the Chippeways (§ 302). The
Leni-Lenapis brought to Manitowa an offering of tobacco ; the
Maudans offered him animals and the spoils of war. He had
various attributes : kitschi, " the great,"1 wolsit, " the heavenly,"
waosemsjogan, " the universal father," wazehaud, " the creative,"
tarorihi conagon, "he who embraces heaven," hurahuannentacton,
"he who binds the sun," etc. But besides this name, he
also bears among the Delawares the Ugro - Finnic one
Atahocan, Ato-han. The Moschkas called him Esteki-isa,
\vhere isa is evidently the Ugro-Finnic iso, " father," but esteki,
1 Comp. the Sonora huetscha, "great," § 297, Obs. No. 101.

304 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 301.

some sort of adjectival predicate. 3. The Dahcotahs and
Sioux and Stone Indians called him by the Malayan name of
Wakon (see on this § 281, Obs.). Here and there, however,
Wakon appears alongside of Manitowa. Among the Mengwes
kitschi Manila shows himself in the clouds, sitting on the bird
Wakon. This bird produces lightning by the twinkling of his
eyes, thunder by the flapping of his wings.1 Besides these,
among the Iroquois tribes, we meet with the following desig-
nations : Nigoh, Nijoh, Neo, lawo-neo, Kowai-neo, Hawai-neo,
Lanwe-neo, Hauwe-negu, Howe-nea, Hawonio, whence we
conclude that nijo, noo, is an appellative for god which is
derived from the Ugro-Finnic nee, "to see," as waka, Wakon,
from the Malayan wak, "to see," so that Neo was only a
translation for Wakon.

B. The Chippeways worshipped only Manedo, and not the sun
and moon ;2 and so among them the old primitive Monotheism
had retained its present form.3 The Mingwes, Nadowessis,
Natchez, and many of the Leni-Lenapis worshipped Manitowa
as the sun-god, that is, they represented him, as most Siberians
did, as dwelling in the sun, and designated him taron-hiawagon,
" holder or occupier of heaven." Other Delaware tribes prayed
to a sun-god besides Manitowa as a subordinate but separate
deity. The Hurons and Iroquois had a sun-god Arescowi or
Agriskowe, who was at the same time their war-god. The name
may be derived from, the Malayan-Polynesian arao, " sun," but
it can have scarcely any connection with "ApTjs, Ear, Airja.
In Florida the first-born male children were sacrificed to the
sun-god.4 This worship of a special sun-god, as well as the
existence of priests (jacuas), temples, and annual festivals 5

1 Chateaubriand, i. 192. 2 Miiller, p. 117.

3 A Chippeway chieftain prayed during a voyage over a lake : " Thou
hast made this lake, and hast also created us as thy children ; thou art
able to make this water calm until we have safely and happily crossed
over. Tanner, Narrative of the Captivity, etc., New York 1830. Quoted
in Muller, p. 117 f.

4 Account of an eye-witness in Nejer mytliol. Taschenl. 1811, p. 28;
Muller, p. 57 f.

5 Muller, p. 57 f.

§ 301.] THE PEOPLES AXD HORDES OF AMERICA. 305

among the southern tribes, the Natchez and Apalachians, seems
to have proceeded from the AllegeVi empire, and to have been
introduced among these tribes, naturally without the accom-
paniment of human sacrifices from the south-west, by means
of Toltec influences such as are referred to in § 293. To
this conclusion we are led by the circumstance that in Florida,
as well as among the Natchez on the lower Mississippi, the
tribal chiefs called themselves " sons of the sun " l (comp. the
Incas). The Natchez, too, preserve in a kind of temple of the
sun a sacred fire, which we find again as a custom in Mexico,2
as also among the Muyscas and among the Incas, and so in
Mexico as a pre- Aztec institution. "We also find traces of the
sacred fire as far down as Louisiana and New Mexico, and
even among a particular branch of the Chippeways, called the
Wambenos.3 In the south, among the Pimos, we meet with a
remnant of the Old Mongolian legend of Alankava. During
a famine a beautiful woman distributes maize ; while she
sleeps naked, she is rendered pregnant by a rain-drop, and
bears a son. The woman, like the legend itself, belongs to
the race of the Old Japanese immigrants who (§ 286)
brought the maize to the Malays in America. The moon is
regarded by all the Eedskins as a living being ; the eclipse of
the moon is regarded as a sickness, whose evil spirit they
seek to drive away by noises. Particular tribes worship the
morning and evening star ; the star in the tail of the Great
Bear, which represents three hunters who pursue the okuari,
" she-bear ; " the Pleiades, tejeun-non-jakua, " male and female
dancers;" the Milky Way or spirit's path; the northern light ;
the rainbow, etc. The Delawares have a god of the sea,
Mikabitschi (Mirabitschi, Mitschi) ; a thunder-god who fights
with the giants ; 4 a mother earth goddess — in short, a com-
pletely developed polytheism. Among the Apalachians and
Natchez the stars are regarded as the dwelling-places of

1 Mejer, p. 74. 2 Chateaubriand, Voyage, etc. i. 165.

3 Tanner, Narrative of the Captivity, etc. p. 135.

4 Schoolcraft, Algonquin Researches, ii. 212 f.

EBRARD IlL U

306 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 301.

departed souls ; the sun as the dwelling-place of the dead
heroes, — a Malayan, or at least not a Ugro-Finnic conception.
Among the Chippeways this idea is found combined with the
Ugro-Finnic notion (§ 263) that every man has two souls, of
which one passes to the stars (Malayan), while the other
remains in the grave, and appears on earth as a ghost under
various forms (Ugro-Finnic).

C. Belief in local spirits, which dwell in trees, mountains,
etc., was not less prevalent among the Malays than among
the Ugro-Finnic races, and is accordingly met with among
all the Redskins. Belief in ghosts and fear of ghosts, which
we saw prevailing among the Ugro-Finnic-Tartar tribes (§ 263),
in short, Shamanism, is on the other hand only fully developed
among the northern tribes of the Redskins. Here, too, is it
especially that the souls of the departed are regarded as spirits
which must be propitiated. The appellative for spirits is, among
the Hurons nantena, among the Iroquois hondal, among the
Mandanian Mengvves clwppenih and maunom-heha, among the
Chippeways maschkape and namscJiwa, among the Dahcotahs
iianoffgi, etc. Here, too, again we see that among every family
of nations one word for the idea of God has survived from the
period of primitive Monotheism; but for the worship of spirits,
which marks a later period of decay, each tribe had formed
for itself its own particular expression. It is, however, con-
ceivable that after one god, as " the great Manitu," had been
placed at the head of the spirits, the name Manitu, or Okki, or
Xeo (neene), or Wakon (wah], came to be used as an appellative
term for the spirits, and in this way obtained the meaning of
" spirit." — As among the Tartar-Finnic races, so also among
the Redskins, guardian spirits were regarded as attaching
themselves to some favourite object (ojaron among the
Iroquois), and these were worn as amulets. With this
there was combined a Malayan element ; a species of animal
was chosen as the dwelling of the guardian spirit, as a
totem, which then could not be eaten by the party concerned
(comp. § 272, the Tabu of the Polynesians). The werewolf

§ 301.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 307

legend1 is common to all the families of the Eedskins. The
art of the sorcerers and sorceresses is altogether of Ugro-Tartar
origin. Among the Canadians the sorcerers are called pillotoas,
ostemois, arendiovann, by the Ottowas panatis, by the Dahcotahs
we chasba Wakon, by the Blackfoots nahlose, by the Delawares
safotkatta. The sorcerer gives information about the future,
decoys the game into the hunter's path, exorcises the evil
spirits of disease ; all this is performed in a condition of
ecstasy and convulsion.2 Also belief in demoniacal possession,
called by the Maudans otschkih-hadda, and in witches is wide-
spread ; among the Iroquois, witches are burnt to this very
day. Fear and dread constitute the foundation of the religion
of the Eedskins since they have become known to Europeans ;
bloodthirstiness and cruelty form the basis of their character.
Belief in the Great Spirit is now reduced to a mere relic of
an antique superstition.

Ofa 1. — The languages of those tribes afford a picture of the
most utter linguistic decadence. Even the length of the words
in many of those languages shows that they are formed by
infinitely repeated composition of decayed and depreciated
roots. From thousands of examples, we offer only a few.
When among the Comanches " to cut " is neiwchkian, among
the Chippeways " woman " is gee-ack-au-we, among the Wakos
" small " is teethidekitz, among the Kaddos " son " is hinnin-
catrseh, " finger " duts-est-kats-ke, in the Zurni language " lake "
is tscatolilanah, among the Kahwillos " life " is ninujeshmapacul,
among the Moleles " love " is tischktaschewetaungko, who can
possibly any longer resolve this clatter of syllables into any
recognisable roots ? And when every tribe, every village of
perhaps a hundred inhabitants, speaks its own language, who
does not see from this that such splitting up would have been
impossible without an exceptionally often repeated modification
of root words, which must render any recognition of the roots
originally at the basis of their structure absolutely impossible ?
All the more important therefore is the fact that, notwith-
standing in many of those languages quite recognisable roots

1 Mliller, p. 64.

* Magicians converted to Christianity have declared that these con-
ditions are by no means feigned, and ascribe them to the kingdom of
darkness. Muller, p. 80 f.

308 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE RACES. [§ 301.

are still retained, and those pretty generally Malayan roots
mixed with Ugro-Finnic, which thus afford evidence for the
blending of blood such as we had affirmed. From a great
multitude of examples I give only the following selection from
the Californian, Pueblo, and Athabaskan languages. (On the
latter, compare Buschmann in the Abh. der JBerl. Akad. d. W.
of the year 1859, § 50 ff. To that group belong the Chippe-
ways, the Beaver-Indians, Tahkalis, Kinais, Goloshes, Apaches,
Inkilik, Dogrib, Navachas, Sicanis, Ugalenses, etc. The Pueblo
languages are Tezuque and Zumi. The Kotschimi are a
Californian tribe.)

A. MALAYAN BOOTS AND WORDS. — Makua-kane (Hawaian),
" father," Kotschim. ak and Jcdna. Walia, " month," Kotsch.
aha. Wewangi, " name," Kotsch. mimanga. Getih, " blood,"
Kotsch. jueta. Wahine, " wife," Kotsch. hwagin, wakoe, wuktu,
Zumi okea and mi. Huma, " house," Kotsch. aji-huemen. Uku,
" small," Tezuque liiquia. Hai and pau, " to speak," Tez. hii,
Zumi piji. Pono, " tree," Tez. beh. Tshi, " small," Zumi tsanna.
Apat, " four," Zumi awite. Kai, " to eat," Tez. koo. Ongo, " to
hear," Tez. ojez. Etooa, " God," Tez. ease. Avae, Tahit. " foot,"
Tez. au. Bukit, "mountain," Tez. piquai, Zumi poke. Mate,
" dead," Beaver-Ind. mite, " to kill." Tane, " man, husband,"
Chippew. dinne, Beaver-Ind. dunna, tine (Chippew. etc. tinne,
" man "). Quita, kita, " to see," Beaver-Ind. kaneta. Kaki,
" foot," Athabaskan cu, cas, cagasch. Sejuk and ma-cJwkek,
" cold," Chippew. ktekchoz, Kinai ktechoz. Wanna, fenua,
aina, " earth," Ugal. nanee, Tahk. nee. Lima, " hand," Athab.
laa, lani, llah. Camay, Tagal. "hand," Athab. kene, kuna,
kone, kuina, etc. Tangata, Polyn. " man," Athab. tenge, tenghi,
tachkoli. Kaiki, kane, Haw. " son," Athab. askehaja, chuane,
cheecanc. Tahi, tai, Polyn. " sea," Athab. tu, too, towe, toa, tchu,
" water," atenni, toatna, " to drink." Gigi, niko, nio, " tooth,"
Athab. houh, goo, gji.

B. UGRO-FINNIC Ptoois AND WORDS.— Paljo, fain, " much,"
Kotsch. hauilei. Kiwe, ko, " stone," Kotsch. kota, Tez. kuk.
Kuu, " moon," Kotsch. gamma. Hugy, " star," Tez. ahgojah.
Jo, jaki, " stream," Tez. koh. Paaw, " sun," Tez. pah. Ingni,
anongkin, " tongue," Zumi honinne. Tuba, " post," Tez. taiwa,
" house." Taiwas, " heaven, day," Tez. tai, " light," Zumi
taiko-hanannai, " day," Tahk. tsa, " sun," Tlasc. taose, " sun." Et,
dset, " to eat," Zumi ito, etor, Chippew. etse, shati, Beaver-Ind.
atoun and Tahk. utson, " flesh." Kuula and kurk, " neck," Tez.
kaiku. Silm, " to see," Tez. tzi, tschai, " eye." Atta, tate, iso,
" father," Athab. atta, ata, tah, nta, staa, " father ; " Zumi
tatschu, Tahk. utso, " grandmother." Tok, " to beat," Chippew.
telkit, " to beat to death." Serke, serel, " to wound," Chippew.
siltir, "to kill." Jdgna, "cold," Chippew. ghdjai, jakkai, cheita,

§ 301.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 309

" winter," Athab. jacks, jochos, jas, jath, " snow." Tul, " to
come," Athab. etelj, nathall. Ne, " to see," nighor, nidun, " sight,"
Athab. nila, nentsbno, Tahk. and Kinai neetlen, " to see." Quili,
" herbs, grass," Athab. klo, chlmv, tchlo, qlucJio, tljuch. Kulke,
jalka, " foot," Athab. katlnja, katch, Chippew. and Ugal. chagut,
kakout, "knee," Tahk. kutchlai, "to run." Cheche, "woman,
wife," Tahk. tschekwe, Dogrib-Ind. tsckikwe, other Athab.
languages, tseokeia, tzagai. Kola, " fish," Tahk. cloolai, Inkit.
tchjalch, kchchach, etc., and Kotsch. kahal, " water." Jak, " to
kindle," Ugal. etc. chong, konli, kon, "fire." Chuli, "to fly,"
Kinai kaselju, "wing." CJwra, "court" (comp. Sonora cari,
" house "), Athab. cooah, cunno, kanka. Suikia, " lean," Athab.
seisekwe-tzik, "hungry." Kutschuk, "small," Athab. ehtzakke.
Kenne, kan, " child," Athab. zkaniken, zchanik, i-schinnika, eeskane,
cshkee, etc. Tan, tate, "to extend," Athab. tsone, tsee, zzenn,
" sinew, bone." Chaga, " to roast," Ugal. coath, " to cook,"
Ami, " to go," Tahk. and Kinai ani, " to come." Atla, " spear,"
Final, aillotai. Angga (Aztec eca), " air, wind," Dogrib-Ind.
eattige. Nokka, ongokto, "nose," Athab. chee, chi, tsee, intsos,
tschess, kalkagjak, "raven," Kinai, etc. tscMjischlja, cheensla.
Ulagan, fulgian, " red," Athab. te-lkosse, etle-lkoss, ti-galtU (?).
Po, ba, " water," Kinai bon, ben, bana, " lake." Jdtte, " to speak,"
Tahk. etc. jaltuk, jeste. And inasmuch as we have proved in
§ 297 that the Sonora branch of languages is a member of the
Ugro-Finnic family of languages, we may now add to the other
Ugro-Finnic words the following Sonora words that are still to
be met with in the dialects of the Eed skins : nashha, " to hear,"
Athab. nisch. Cocho, "ill," Athab. tan-choc. Tecual, "lord,
man," Athab. tkichli, tachkoli, tschilje. Honasa, " salt," Athab.
nutge, nute, " salt, salt-water." G-waca, " arrow," Athab. kohuk,
kcha, kahuss. Coa, " serpent," Athab. coo, cotso. Tete, te, " stone,"
Athab. te, tse. Noca, " to speak," Athab. nok-eilnjik, nukiln-
jak. Tohakwitja, tossa, " white," Athab. tolkai, talkae, tekhine,
halokai. Tuni, " lip," Athab. taon, tu, dthu, tso, toula, " tongue."
Obs. 2. — The Upper Creeks have a tradition of their having
migrated from the west of the Mississippi into Florida (Malte-
Brun, Geogr. Univ. v. 217). The Comanches in Texas say that
they came from the west and found before them a civilised
people (Buschmann, Spuren, etc., p. 362). The Delawares say
that they came from the west with the Iroquois, and that
they drove out the civilised Alligevi (Heckewelder, ArcMolog.
Amdric. i. 30). The Indians of Arkansas say the same. The
Shawnees on the Ohio (Assal, diefruliern Uinwohner v. Amerika,
Heidelb. 1827, p. 87) say that their forefathers at an early
period came over the sea, and they celebrate a feast in memory
of their happy landing. The country about the Ohio was in-
habited by a white race possessed of iron (comp. on this Obs. 3).

310 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES. [§ 301.

The Chippeways tell how their forefathers caine from a land
where they dwelt alongside of a cross-grained people, over a
long narrow sea full of rocks and islands under ice and snow,
and that they got with great labour and difficulty into the
country and to the Copper River (Mackenzie, Voyage dans
I'inUrieur de I'Amdrique, Septentr. 1789-1793, Paris 1802, i.
278). The Dogrib-Indians, which are related to them, say that
their ancestor Chippewa lived on a narrow strip between two
seas in the land from which the white man came (Franklin,
Second Expedition to the Polar Sea). The Squint Indians on
the Mackenzie River say that they came in early times from
the west over an arm of the sea (Ausland, 1843, Aug., No.
238). The Californians came into California from the north
(Augsb. Allg. Ztg. 1850, 14th March). The Chippeways and
Dogrib-Indians thus undoubtedly came across Behring's Straits.
When ? See Obs. 3. The medicine men of both the sections of
the Thlinkite Indians in Southern Alaska bear the name of
Shamans, just as among the Tartar races (Reform. Kirchenzeitung
von Cleveland, 24th Dec. 1884).

Obs. 3. — The white, iron-possessing people on the Ohio, who
•were met with by the Chippeways on their first landing, were
without doubt a northern race. Gardar discovered Iceland in
A.D. 863 ; Gunbjorn discovered Greenland in A.D. 877 ; from
thence Leif the Fortunate, son of Eric the Red, started on a
voyage of discovery, and reached the mouth of a river in a
region where the shortest day was nine hours long, therefore
about 40° northern latitude. The island now called New-
foundland was called by him " Helluland," that is, stone land ;
New Scotland was called Markland ; Massachusetts, where he
found the vine, he called Vinland (Al. v. Humboldt, Cosmos).
After him Thorfinn Carlsefue, in A.D. 1007, arrived in Vinland
with 160 men and waited there three years, but was then
driven out by the hostile inhabitants. But Norman planters
remained there, and in A.D. 1121 the Greenland bishop Eric
Gnupson went to Vinland to confirm his countrymen there in
the Christian faith. The last voyage from Greenland to
Vinland was undertaken in A.D. 1347. The ruins of a building
standing on round pillars at Newport on Rhode Island were
regarded by Rafu, a learned expert in northern antiquities, as a
Norman baptistry, and in some inscriptions on the rocks of that
place it is thought that runes are discoverable (Mem. de la Soc.
roy. des antiquaires du Nord, 1852, pp. 133 and 135). Dr.
Lund thinks that even in Brazil at Bahia are to be found runes
and a statue of Thor (Ausland, 1840, p. 652), which may
perhaps rest on a misunderstanding. But that in the neigh-
bourhood of the Ohio, Norman colonists had settled in the 12th
century, is historical truth. Hence the coming of the Chippe-

§ 302.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 311

ways into that region must be placed somewhere during the
13th century. The consequences of the storm occasioned
by Temudjin among the peoples of Asia, might also have led
those Siberian tribes to betake themselves to flight and wander-
ing.—What became of the remnants of those " Skarlinger" of
Vinland no one knows. They may have been partly extirpated,
partly absorbed among the savages, and mixed up with the
Ugrian tribes. In the speech of the warlike Kaddos (comp.
Goth, hathus, Old High Germ, hadu, " war "), who according to
their own tradition came from the north, alongside of Ugrian-
Sonora roots (aa, ugugh, " father ; " maso, " hand ; " quid, " life ; "
deta, " tooth," etc.), some are found which sound very much
like German roots (tunua, " tongue ; " liattato, " hot ; " houchto,
" breath ; " diska, "day ; " nubba, "night ; " notsche, natse, "neck ; "
hunniu, "son;" hee-cut, "lake;" datsch, "bull-dog;" dah, "animal;"
dehka, "death;" duscliku, "darkness," comp. Engl. dusk; kiaotsch,
" child ; " dehto and teso, " this ; " deJie, " the ; " bete, " among ; "
tahho, " roof, house "). — The tradition of the Dogrib-Indians
(Miiller, p. 129), that a man visited them who healed the sick,
raised the dead, and gave them holy books, can only be explained
as a reminiscence of the attempts at evangelization by the
Danish Mission, in which the Indians have confounded what
was told them with what they had seen actually living among
them. — The Indians on the Ohio had the tradition that a white
race dwelling on the east coast had been annihilated by their
forefathers (Rauch, p. 366, Obs. 2). It has been thought that
in the Indian tribe of the Mandanes on the Mississippi we
have the descendants in America of the defeated Celts (Rauch,
pp. 363-371).

§ 302. The Traditions of the Redskins.

A. Traditions of the Flood. — 1. The Canadians * tell of a
flood which covered the whole earth. Messu alone (comp.
the Meshia of the Iranian tradition, § 224) saved himself and
restored the devastated earth. They honour him as a second
god2 alongside of the original creator Ata-Hocan. 2. The
Chippeways say that the whole earth was buried under a

1 The proof for this statement and those that follow will be found in
Muller, p. 112.

2 The Japhetic pagan name Messu (Manuscha, Meshia), as well as the
whole cast of the traditions, forbids us deriving this from the preaching of
the Danish missionaries. In that case we would have expected to meet a
name similar in sound to that of Noah.

312 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE KACES. [§ 302.

flood in which all men perished ; only one, Mano-bozho,1 saved
himself on a tree, that is, in a canoe. Manobozho commanded
the water to stand still, and had sent forth several animals one
after another which were swallowed up, until finally a musk-
rat brought back something from the submerged earth, and
out of this he created a new earth.2 3. The Lenilapi and
Iroquois say that Manu-kitschton, " the great Manu " (comp.
Gen. i. 2), created the earth out of a grain of sand, and the
first human pair out of the stem of a tree. When men were
afterwards destroyed by a great flood, he converted the sea
animals into land animals and men.3 We have here complete
confusion between the traditions of the creation and the flood
in consequence of the confusion between the creator and the
hero of the flood. 4. The Knistinos on the Upper Missouri
say that when the whole earth was covered with a flood, and
all men had been destroyed, a woman, Kwaptaw, " virgin,"
grasped the foot of a flying bird (confusion of the raven with
the ark !), and was by it saved on a cliff, and then, im-
pregnated by a royal eagle, bare twins by whom the new earth
was peopled. 5. The Apalaches tell how the sun stood still
in its course for twenty-four hours ; 4 then the water of the
lake Olaimi rose till it covered the tops of the highest moun-
tains, with the exception of Mount Olaimi, on which stood a
temple of the sun. Whoever could reach this peak was
saved. After twenty-four hours the sun resumed its course,
and the flood withdrew. 6. Among the Chirokees a dog is

1 The name Manu proves again that the tradition had been carried
from Asia.

2 The Indians then have made out of Manobozho a sort of tricky
hobgoblin of whom they inquire as an oracle, whom they bring into
connection with the werewolf legend (Miiller, p. 130 ff.).

3 Miiller, pp. 107 and 110.

4 If that which is narrated in Josh. x. 12 was an objective fact, and so
observable throughout the whole earth, a reminiscence of it would be
retained among various peoples. The Greek legend of Phsethon, too, seems
to be such a reminiscence. Among the Apalaches this reminiscence
has got mixed up anachronistically with the much older story of the
flood.

§ 302.] THE PEOPLES AND HORDES OF AMERICA. 313

said to have pointed out to Ins master the rising flood, and
then to have saved him.

R Creation, Fall, Cain's Murder of his Brother. — 1. The
Mengwes1 say that Tschi-Maniton made on an island animals
out of clay. The Manitus (coinp. the Elohim) behold and rejoice
in it. Tschi-Maniton, " the great Manitu," breathes upon each
of the clay animals and gives them life ; those that did not
please him he destroyed, the rest swam over to the continent.
He created one which was so great that he himself was
afraid of it. He also created one in the form of man. It
pleased him not ; but he forgot to destroy it ; and so from it
there came the evil spirit Matschinito. 2. The Dahcotahs
say that the first men when they had been created by the
great spirit, stood like trees firmly planted in the earth ;
then the serpent gnawed them, and to him do they owe their
freedom. (Ophitism ! ) 3. The Iroquois and Onondagas
say that men (oneidas) are created from onia, " a stone, earth."
The great spirit breathed out of his mouth breath and life
into two figures which he had made from the earth : thus
came into being the first man and the first helpmate. The
first man, Juskeka,2 however, slew his brother and became
thereby lord of the whole world. 4. The Mandanes say
that when at first the Mandanes dwelt with the Monitarris,
the great spirit appeared to them visibly in human form.
5. The Wakoschs tell how the creator of the world,
Quahutze,3 appeared to the first mother of mankind in
human form. 6. The Lenilenapi say that Nahabusch or
]S"anabusch4 at the command of the great spirit created
plants and animals, but rebelled against God because he had
slain his brother (confusion between fall and Cain's murder !).
But the great spirit was reconciled, and sent him for his

1 Schoolcraft in Muller, p. 108 ff.

2 The Arickarees, a Mengwe tribe, call the first man Ihkotschu, also
Ssiritsch.

z Qua=l;ami, "god," and hutze=kitschi, "great"
* Comp. the Nena of the Aztecs, § 299, and of the Indians of Martiaca,
§ 300. — -"

314 HALF-CIVILISED AND SAVAGE EACES. [§ 302.

restoration the formula Metai. 7. The Wiandots say that
the creator made two brothers, one good and one bad ; the
latter slew his mother, and was therefore slain by the
creator, and the grandmother, who had incited him to the
murder, was transformed into the moon. 8. According to
a tradition of the Mengwes and Lenilenapi, the first man
was called Numank Matschana (by the Monitarris, Ehsicka
Wahaddish), and is identified with the hero of the flood, and
then even with the great spirit himself. It may mean
perhaps the appearing of God in human form ; see B, Nos. 4
and 5. 9. The Chippeways and Dogrib-Indians say that
the earth was at first covered with water ; then a terribly
powerful bird dived into the water (comp. § 301, the bird
Wakon, and Gen. i. 2, the Spirit of God brooding on the
face of the waters, which the Dogribs may perhaps have
heard of from the Danish missionaries ; but it is more probable
to think of the bird Wakon), then the earth rose out of the
water, and at his command animals came forth. 10. The
Mingos, a Mengwe tribe, say that Mitschabu, the occupier of
heaven (Taronhiawagon), lived for a generation among men.
He conquered the giants by hurling great stones at them.1
The Onondagas, who call him Hiawatha, " the heavenly," have
the same tradition.

1 Muller, p. 119.

SECOND BOOK.

THE KEVELATION OF GOD.

THE EEVELATION OF GOD. 317

§ 303. Summary of Results already gained.

WHAT was stated in § 190 by way of assertion has now
been established by the detailed examination which
we have made of the history of civilisation and religion among
all the races of mankind. We have nowhere been able to
discover the least trace of any forward and upward move-
ment from Fetichism to Polytheism, and from that again to a
gradually advancing knowledge of the One God ; but, on the
contrary, WE HAVE FOUND AMONG ALL THE PEOPLES OF THE

HEATHEN WOELD A MOST DECIDED TENDENCY TO SINK FROM AN
EARLIER AND RELATIVELY PURER KNOWLEDGE OF GOD ; even

among such as are wholly sunk in the rude superstition of
Fetichism there still exist certain reminiscences, like the ruins
of an earlier worship, of one invisible Creator and Ruler of the
world, which are objectively all the more important because
they are no longer understood by the degraded people. The
cause of this sinking has invariably been found to be the
tendency to excuse and apologize for sin, to lull to sleep the
accusing conscience, and to drive to a distance the holy God.
Hand in hand with this religious deterioration we meet with
deterioration in culture and civilisation. The islands of the
Malays, North and South America, not less than Asia and Africa,
have afforded us historical proofs that the most remote anti-
quity was an age of highest and most widely-spread civilisation,
not in the sense of asserting that in the course of later cen-
turies very important technical inventions and discoveries were
not made, and civil and social conditions were not more and
more thoroughly elaborated, but in the sense of affirming that
under far simpler conditions, and by far simpler means, the
civilisation of that remote antiquity was far nobler and more

318 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 303.

ingenious than that of later times. The world has become
more artificial, not more spiritual or full of genius (§ 257).
The scientific knowledge of nature among men left to their
own resources therefore in the realm of heathenism, has
developed itself essentially only on the side of astronomy, as
observation of the stars, which was connected with a study of
the significance of the stars, — a study belonging to the remotest
antiquity. Physics among the Greeks remained still in its
swaddling-clothes. The farthest advanced in scientific know-
ledge among the ancients were the Old Persians (§ 208), but
just these were the people who worshipped the One invisible
God.1 All higher advance of science was first secured under
the daylight which was shed abroad by Christianity. Art, in
the more exact sense of the term, is as old as mankind, and
belongs to the very idea of man. We do not know any
civilised people of antiquity who were not in possession of
poetry and music. The latter was cultivated in the earliest
times among the Egyptians, Assyrians, and Chinese ; the
system of acoustic development was awkward, but had a dis-
tinctive character of its own. In the development of archi-
tecture and the plastic arts, as we pass from the Egyptians
and Assyrians to the Greeks, we note a decided advance
similar to that which we observe in the development of poetry,
— an advance, however, which was followed by reaction and
decay. Invariably where civilisation in the higher sense was
developed in a people, it burst forth like a northern light, only
soon to be quenched again, like a flash of lightning illuminat-
ing different nations in succession, and leaving behind it a
darkness more dense than that which it found. The ancient
civilisation of the Egyptians passed away ; that of the Indians
has become corrupt ; that of the Chinese is fossilized ; the
Christian nations have served themselves heirs to the civilisa-
tion of Greece and Eome ; and the old civilised empires of the
Malays, Aymares, and Toltecs are known to us only from their

1 Even the learning of the Alexandrians rested essentially on the basis
of Egyptian and Oriental learning.

§ 303.] SUMMARY OF EESULTS. 319

ruins. But while civilisation, like a fleeting flash of light,
illumined for a little a few races, history shows us among the
untold multitude of other peoples and tribes the process of
inconceivable savagery, and even amongst those few civilisa-
tion was not able to break the power of moral evil. Sin had
indeed become a national habit, a national institution, which
underlay their forms of civilisation. Sin operates in the
direction of barbarism. When once the one holy God has
been banished to a distance and forgotten, the second step is
no longer difficult, whereby polytheism is degraded into a
blind superstition, or exchanged for a frivolous irreligiousness
and scepticism. The history of religions shows us at every
step that the one holy God is forgotten by men ; but nowhere
that He is found, conceived of, discovered by them. Even
where reformatory movements back toward God on the part
of those who had forgotten God make their appearance, as in
the 6th century before Christ, we find that either there had
been previous deformations and perversions (as in the case of
Sakya-Mouni and Confucius), or the reformation, even if
honourably and honestly meant, bore already in itself (as in
the case of Zarathustra, cornp. § 222 f.) the seeds of further
decay. The history of man left to himself is not development,
but retrogression and decline.

And now we come upon a second incontestable result of
our investigations : THE UNITY OF THE HUMAN EACE AND THE
UNITY OF ITS PRIMITIVE TRADITION, i.e. THE TRUTH OF ITS
EARLY HISTORY. Whether or not the conjectures ventured
upon in § 247 about the ancestors of the several families of
nations may be altogether correct, may be a matter still open
for discussion, but, quite independent of this question, rest-
ing on purely physiological, ethnographical, historical, and
linguistic investigations, is the scientifically certain fact that
the population of all parts of the earth has gone forth from
the west of Inner Asia, the Euphrates region. To all parts of
the earth they took the remembrance of One invisible God,
who in the beginning had revealed Himself visibly to man ; of

320 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§303.

a sin committed by the first parents, begun by the wife in
her eating of forbidden fruit under the influence of a tempter,
who for the most part appears in connection with a serpent ; of
the entrance of death as consequence and punishment of this
sin ; of a brother's murder ; of three brothers who discovered the
arts, namely, the working of metals ; of a race of mighty men
or giants who rebelled against God (specially " demanding the
daughters of the gods for their wives ") ; of a flood that covered
the highest mountains, in which all men but one family
perished ; of a mountain on whose top this family landed ; of
birds which the father of this family sent forth ; of a rainbow
which stood in some relation to their deliverance ; of the three
sons of this man as ancestors of the various peoples ; of a new
rebellion against God, when men sought to rear a building
which should reach to heaven ; of a fire from heaven which
destroyed this building, confused the languages, and scattered
the races of mankind over the face of the earth.1 But these
traditions of the heathen bear to the primitive tradition of
the Israelites the relation which crude, often perverted and
confused, misty glimmerings bear to the clear light of day,
so that the sense of those legends is often first intelligible
through comparison with this clear history. In them sin is
excused, Noah is confounded with Adam, even with God Him-
self, men are raised into gods, here and there (comp. § 300 and
§ 302, J? 2) the serpent is directly celebrated and worshipped
as the benefactor of humanity, who confers wealth or wisdom.
And still, in spite of all such distortions, the characteristic
features, down to minute details (such as the rainbow, the
sending out of the birds, then in the Iranian tradition, § 224,
the three stories of the galleries and the window), are so faith-
fully reproduced that it is impossible to doubt as to the
original identity of these traditions and the original traditions
of Scripture. THE MOST DIVERSE PEOPLES, SPRUNG FROM THE

MOST DIVERSE STEMS, HAVE THE REMEMBRANCE OF ONE COMMON

1 Comp. § 207, 224, 231, 240, 255, 260, 262, 266, 268, 269, 271 (sub C),
272. 274, 278, 281, 283, 287, 288, 289, 296 (comp. 298), 302.

§ 303.] SUMMARY OF RESULTS. 32 1

PRIMITIVE HISTORY OF THEIR COMMON ANCESTORS, AND THIS
COMMON GROUND IN THEIR REMINISCENCES EXTENDS DOWN
EXACTLY TO THE BUILDING OF THE TOWER AND THE CONFUSION

OF LANGUAGES, AND NO FURTHER. These peoples could not
have had a reminiscence of this common primitive history
unless this had been transmitted to them by their forefathers.
The conclusion that " because the heathen have similar tradi-
tions, the original biblical tradition is itself no better than
such traditions," is the ne plus ultra of absurdity and vacuity.
The adoption of this conclusion presupposes that the common,
still unseparated ancestors of our race had combined and
had concocted, invented, and forged among them that "legend"
of the creation, the fall, the flood, etc. ; for if it is not history,
but legend, it must have been devised ; and if it was devised,
it must have been devised by somebody (one or many) ; and
if peoples, who for thousands of years, until a few hundred
years ago, lived quite apart from one another, so that these
traditions could not have been communicated to one another
by mutual intercourse, — all alike, one as well as another, have
versions and representations of one and the same tradition, —
it must have been the common ancestors of these scattered
peoples who concocted these traditions. But the traditions
reach down to the scattering of the peoples, and include the
story of that scattering! How could the still unseparated
race devise the legend of the confusion of languages and scat-
tering of peoples as having actually taken place, and have
brought themselves to believe it ? And how, again, could this
report of the tower building and the scattering of peoples be
found among the most diverse races, the Odshi negroes in
Western Africa, the Tongans in Polynesia, the Toltecs in
Mexico, etc., unless it had been a heritage to those several
peoples from their own tribal ancestors ? and this could be
only if it were not a legend, but the story of actual facts.
The common element in the original pagan traditions in which
the most diverse peoples of all parts of the earth and of all
races agree (while they differ widely from one another in their

EBRARD III. X

322 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 303.

special polytheistic national legends according to race and
family, comp. § 266), affords evidence for the historical truth
of the original biblical tradition.

Ols. — A lie is the ape of truth, paganism the ape of the reve-
lation of God. Some Chinese tribes, among which no other trace
of Buddhist influence appears (so the Incas, § 295), had a custom
of a solemn bathing of newly-born children, a custom which
imdoubtedly (just like the institution of running posts) came in
very early times from the Iranians (§ 216) to the Mongolians.
There was no specially religious significance associated with
this bathing performance (see § 216) ; it has therefore only an
external resemblance to Christian baptism. The Diksha cere-
monial of the Brahmins, described in § 202, has a much more
particular and genuine resemblance to the ordinance of baptism.
It may have been that which suggested the Buddhist baptism
of children, which in § 299 we again met with among the
Aztecs. But what conclusion is to be drawn from all this ?
Nothing more than that in an extreme antiquity, even among
men left to themselves, the knowledge sprang up that the con-
dition of man was an organically perverse one, that it was neces-
sary for him that he should be wholly born again (see § 202).
A correct postulate in earliest time, perhaps even among the
Iranians, lay at the basis of that practice, — a postulate such as
that repeated by John the Baptist, the fulfilment of which, how-
ever, was first accomplished by Christ, for He met the need of
regeneration in Christian baptism with the pledge and guarantee
of the new birth. Paganism had at first only the postulate,
then only a no longer understood symbol of the postulate. —
Among more than one pagan nation we meet with the tradition,
not only of sons of God who, because they were only the
immediate consequence of polytheism and of polytheistic genea-
logies of the gods, stand not in a relation of analogy but of
opposition to the revealed Son of God, but also of some sort of
virgin's son. But here all those legends which are of Phcenician
origin pass quite out of account (§ 250, Ols. 2) as symbolical
adaptations of astronomical observations (the waxing of the
moon represented as the fructification of the moon-goddess).
They have only an accidental and caricature resemblance to the
sacred mystery, with which D. F. Strauss {Leben Jesu krit.
bearb. i. § 14), undeterred by any feelings of modesty, has not
scrupled to represent them as parallel. Even the legend of the
son of the sun among the Mongolian races (§ 266, 269, 286,
298) has, according to § 266, a polytheistic origin. The sun-god
was conceived of by the Mongolian races as an inferior deity,
occupying a position far beneath the Creator of the world, and

§ 303.] SEEMING CHRISTIAN ELEMENTS IN PAGANISM. 323

it was to him that the genealogical tree of the reigning family
pointed back. The might of lies produces caricatures which
bears a relation to the truth such as a caricature or parody bears
to a genuine work of art. — The symbol of the cross is found,
we can scarcely say with what meaning, on old pre-Christian.
Celtic coins or medals, as also among the Scandinavian runes,
likewise as a handle-cross among the emblems of the Indian
Siva ; and so it was adopted in Buddhism, and with it found its
way among the Aztecs, in whose system of hieroglyphics, accord-
ing to Ixtilxocutil, it represented the god of rain and health, and
also the tree of nourishment. Even on Egyptian monuments
the handle-cross is found, where, according to Champollion,
it signifies help. The mathematical figure of two lines bisect-
ing one another at right angles is in itself one so simple that
it need not occasion surprise that among various races it should
be found used as a sign for various things or ideas. Similarity
to the historical Roman instrument of torture, and consequently
to the Christian cross, is explicable as a purely casual one ;
and nothing is more groundless than when J. W. von Miiller,
upon the pre-existence of that Buddhist ideogram among the
Aztecs, rears the conjecture that the Apostle Thomas had gone
to America, and there had preached (to the Aztecs ? ! !) Chris-
tianity. He and Tiedemaun (Heidelb. Jahrb. 1851, 176) thought
that they recognised in Quetzalcoatl a portrait of the apostle ! —
One might push the parallel of seeming resemblance between
the heathen religion and the divine revelation to yet greater
length. The latter even had its animal symbolism. The ser-
pent of Paradise is indeed no symbol, but belongs to the history ;
only paganism has here and there made of the serpent a bene-
ficent deity, dispensing wealth or wisdom (see in the section
above). But if, among the Egyptians, the persons of several
deities were sensibly represented in the form of particular kinds
of animals, is not also the Saviour of the world described as the
Lamb of God and as the Lion of the tribe of Judah, and was there
not a visible descent of the Holy Spirit upon Him in the form
of a dove ? Yes, quite true. Paganism gives us here again the
caricature of the truth. In the revelation of God, the Lamb,
the Lion, and the Dove, also the D'ariD, the ox, and the eagle
(Ezek. i. 10 ; Eev. iv. 1), may serve for similitudes and symbols,
and that rightly and without desecration of that which is holy ;
for they are indeed (§91) divine thoughts which are realized in
nature and in the several orders of the animal kingdom. In the
relation of the head to the members, of the vine to the branches,
of the seed-corn to the future harvest, of hunger and thirst and
the satisfying of them, of the father and mother to the child, of
brother to brother, of bridegroom to bride, higher and richer
spiritual relations are mirrored forth. All nature is a parable of

324 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 303.

spiritual things. There are also ethical qualities, like the patience,
courage, purity mirrored in the lamb, lion, dove, and thus the
lower can be used in order to set forth the higher by way of
similitude. Paganism has made a caricature of this, a distorted
representation, lor it viewed the animal, not as a similitude, but
as the residence and incarnation of a deity (John i. 32 and
parallel passages do not speak of the animal as residence and
incarnation, but gives in vision an animal form by way of simi-
litude to the visible manifestation of the Holy Spirit), and so the
higher is sunk into the lower, and instead of a tendency to rise
upwards from the creature to the Creator, head and knee are
bowed low in the dust before a creature lower than man, yea, in
the veiy filth, and here and there (§ 263 and § 267) the utmost
extreme is reached by men tracing back their own descent from
the irrational beasts, — to which extreme the wisdom of modern
denial of God once again inclines. — The D^air, Isa. vi. 2 ff., are
not to be derived, with Gesenius, as serpent-gods, from fpb>,
"serpents," but as sitters upon the throne, with Winer, from the
Arab, sharif. How should Isaiah have come upon the idea of
serpent-gods when he had, in chap, xxvii. 1, used the serpent
as symbol of God-opposing powers I

FIRST SECTION.
THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD.

§ 304. The Flood.

rTlHAT the law of the Macrocosmos of nature as well as of
-*- the Microcosmos of man, before there was more than the
possibility that man should decide for that which is evil, were
ordained of God, has been shown in § 129 ff. That the tempta-
tion of the first man could have taken place in no other form
than that under which it did take place according to Gen. iii.,
and which is now witnessed to by the traditions of all the
races of mankind, has been shown in § 128. When the fall
had taken place, and consequently the penalty of toilsome
labour and the doom of death, we have the beginning of
a series of facts by which the living God, who is gracious as
well as holy, co-operates with man himself in the realization
of the development of the human race, in order to secure that it
should be preserved redeemable, i.e. to save it from sinking from
a sinful condition (§ 114-124) into one of obduracy (comp.
§ 130 and § 131). The first of these facts is the flood, the
second the confusion of languages and the scattering of peoples.
With the call of Abraham as father of a chosen people begins
the series of those divine operations which positively prepare
the way for redemption ; but alongside of these the first series,
that of operations of a disciplinary character, with the object of
keeping within the range of redemption, still always continues
in operation. The God-forgetting, but, in respect of the crea-
turely capacities of human nature, highly-endowed race of

325

326 THE KEVELATION OF GOD. [§ 304.

Cain lived from the first apart from the God-fearing race of
Shem,1 those " sons of God," Gen. vi. 2, whose genealogy is also
significantly traced back in Gen. i. 1 ff. and Luke iii. 38 to
God as the creator of Adam. Universal overthrow became
imminent when both races began to get mixed up together.
More than this ie not said in the words of Gen. vi. 1 ff.
Although in Job i. 6 " the sons of God " may be understood
of the angels, yet in Gen. i.-vi. no mention is made of angels ;
and only good angels, who remained holy (as in Job i. 6), not
the fallen and evil angels, could be described as b'ne Eloldm.
Even Christ the Lord brings as a reproach against Noah's con-
temporaries only this, that they spent their time frivolously,
" they were eating and drinking, marrying and giving in
marriage" (Matt. xxiv. 38; Luke xvii. 26); of supernatural,
extraordinary forms of wickedness, of sexual intercourse be-
tween demons and women, he had read nothing in that passage
from Genesis. The pagan traditions speak of a race of giants
in antediluvian times ; Holy Scripture knows nothing of such.
As though it would directly shut out all such legends of pagan
neighbouring nations, the Scripture says at ver. 4 : " The
Nephilim were in the earth in those days, and also after that,
when the sons of God came in unto the daughters of men," etc.
In fact, even Num. xiii. 33, in the time of Moses, speaks of
the Nephilim as sons of Anak (comp. ver. 2 2) ; but they were,
according to ver. 28, reckoned simply as men of strength, and,
according to Deut. i. 28, ii. 10, ix. 2, as "tall people,"
i.e. people of great stature, and there is no idea of reckoning
them supernatural giants ; on the contrary, Joshua succeeds in
subduing them (Josh. xi. 21 f., xv. 13 f.). And so, too, in
Num. xiii. 32 they are quite simply characterized as an'scM
middoth, " people of great stature." If so, then in the word
^33 we cannot find the meaning " giant," 2 but at most that

1 Gen. iv. 26, where ftf means not " then " but " there," is to be under-
stood not temporally but locally (in opposition to the land of Nod and its
Cainite inhabitants).

2 The extraordinarily large Og (Deut. iii. 11), whose bed, according to
the account of one who had this relic before him, was 9 cubits long, i.e.

§ 305.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF C?OD. 32?

of "a man of large growth." We may perhaps derive the
word from an obsolete stem tea = Via (Arab, phdla, "to grow,
to become thick ; " Aram, and Arab, phil, " elephant," as a thick,
plump animal), which seems to me better than Winer's deriva-
tion from tea, in the sense of irruere. — Such people of great
stature are said by the author of Genesis to have lived, not
only before the flood, but also after it ; and then he contradicts
the legendary tales of the pagans in whose fancy the ante-
diluvian race had grown into giants in the fabulous, mythical
sense, yea, were even elevated into gods. It was not, more-
over, in their size of body that the danger lay, but in this, that
the forgetfulness of God which characterized the Cainites
affected also the children of Seth. When the living God, who
guides the course of nature according to natural laws and yet
according to His own will (§ 101, Obs.), allowed the flood to go
up, this need as little be regarded as a miracle as the earlier
tertiary and secondary floods. That He revealed Himself to
Noah, and directed him to build an ark, this rather belongs
to the category of miracles (§ 134). The historical truth of
the flood, and Noah's deliverance and that of his three sons,
is witnessed to by the traditions of all the families of races on
the earth (§ 303); with this, too, geology thoroughly agrees
(see § 257).

§ 305. The Confusion of Languages and Separation
of Peoples.

The primitive occurrence of the flood had the intention and
result of keeping mankind in a redeemable condition, inasmuch
as it prevented the disaster of an obdurate forgetfulness of God
gaining dominion over all men down to the last, but it was
not itself an act of redemption. Thus, then, that organic
decadence, i.e. that pathological sinful condition (§ 114 ff.),
continued to exist after the flood, and led, five generations

somewhere about 2.7 metres or 10 feet, his length of body would then be
about 8 feet. He is not designated Naphil.

328 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 305.

after Noah, but several centuries after the flood, to the reitera-
tion of a catastrophe of a critical kind. The endeavour to
drive away the holy God, whose all-seeing nearness was a
painful experience to the accusing conscience of the sinner,
and of whom " we wish to rid ourselves," led to an extremely
clever, but thoroughly satanically clever, notion : " Let us no
longer be creatures of God, but let us make a god, who will
be our creature and of our kind and nature." A ShSm, a
symbol and figure of this god, was to be set up for worship.
That this is the meaning of Gen. xi. 4 has been already
shown in § 255, and if we refer back to the history of the
heathen religions in Book I., we can scarcely doubt that it
was the sun, which as operating beneficently, shining im-
partially on the evil and the good, was singled out as that
god. It is always the sun that in all the religions of men, that
is, the pagan religions, first enters alongside of the invisible
creator as a secondary deity. But then in the time of Pheleg it
makes its appearance as the only god in his place, the visible
creature in place of the invisible creator, the natural law in
place of the moral law. It was what we might expect of the
sun-god shining in the heavens, that the temple building reared
to his honour should reach high above the earth, stretching
toward heaven, as the region of the clouds was called. With
what individual this idea originated, whether with a descendant
of Shem, or of Ham, or of Japhet, is not recorded. Hence it
may be concluded, that by whomsoever it may have been first
suggested, the whole race of mankind, still occupying a common
dwelling-place, were agreed and unanimous regarding it, and
found in the proposition only that which each of them had
half-consciously been entertaining in his own heart. The morally
indifferent regulative course of nature, which reached its
highest point in the illuminating, warming sun distinguishing
day from night, was to take the place of the holy, living God.
Then God manifested Himself as the living One, the Creator
and Lord. By an act of revelation of Himself, the foolish race
of mankind must be reminded that the creation can make no

§ 305.] THE EEDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 329

God, cannot create its own creator, but is bound to worship
Him who is God. He comes down, whether in a form actually
visible to men or in another "Way, is not told. The former
supposition we may regard as improbable ; that still after the
fall the creator l should appear in visible form among men, of
this we find no trace among the traditions of the nations.
Had God appeared in human form among the tower builders
at Babel, we should certainly have found in the earliest
types of heathenism images of the creator of the world in the
form of a man. Such images, however, occur only at a late
date. The Adityas of the oldest Vedic religion were invisible.
The Iranians, the Germans, the Basques had no images of the
gods. The Ugro - Finnic and Mongolian peoples expressly
declare that the creator of the world (Taara, Xagatai, Pacha-
camac, etc.) was invisible. But the Ugro-Finns confounded
the idea of the invisible creator of the world with that of
Taara, the thunder-god, the thundering ancient (Ukko) ; just
as among the Germans Tins, " God," is the thonar, among the
Pelasgians Aevs, and among the Latins Dius-pater is he who
thunders and lightens. The form of the special thunder-god
Volcanus, Percuna, Fairguns, owes its origin evidently to a
later polytheistic distinguishing of the forms of the gods. Did
God manifest Himself in lightning and thunder to the builders
of the tower? If we imagine that before the flood the con-
stitution and composition of the atmosphere must necessarily
have been different from what it is now, and that then also the
primitive tradition before the flood knows only of deposition
of dew and not of rain (Gen. ii. 6), then it is no over-subtle
assumption that the first thunderstorm appeared one and a
half century later than the first rain, namely, that of the flood ;
and indeed a thunderstorm of a terrific description, by means
of which hitherto unheard-of occurrence the living God made of

1 The anthropomorphic appearance of polytheistic deities, e.g. of Zeus
become a mythological deity, do not naturally come into consideration
here. "We have here to do only with such legends as have in them a
reminiscence of an underlying primitive monotheism, as e.g. § 302, B.
4-5 ; § 278, B. etc.

330 THE EEVELATIOX OF GOD. t§ 305.

the lofty building a heap of ruins,1 revealed His might and His
being, and by means of this occurrence awakening terror in the
souls of men deep enough to paralyse the powers of their souls,
and so to introduce that which He in His gracious and wise
counsel desired : a breaking up of the human race into various
nationalities. As each appearance of the rainbow anew re-
minded men of the tender mercy of God, every thunderstorm
must have reminded them of that manifestation of His judicial
holiness and of Him the living and holy One,2 and the division
into separate nations made one grand concentration of wicked-
ness and obdurate defiance of God impossible. — The primary
cause of the separation of peoples was the confusion of
languages, not the converse, and the primary cause of the con-
fusion of languages was a psychical impression of a paralysing
nature from that unprecedentedly terrible occurrence. If we
assume in this case a sudden confusion of tongues, we have
then indeed the flippant, modern theory against us, but the
results of more careful and comprehensive researches in com-
parative philology are in our favour. If one really would
picture to himself the circumstances that an individual had
suddenly to begin to speak Greek, another German, another
Russian, a fourth Arabic, a fifth Egyptian, etc., their fancy
would seem as absurd as anything that could be conceived.
The matter here cannot relate to the multiplicity of later
languages, but only of some few principal or fundamental
tongues, each of which is to be regarded as the mother of a
cognate family of languages. We may assume as such : The

1 According to Nostiz in Heifer's Travels, in the ruins of Birs Nimrud
lay huge stones blasted by lightning, which must have been hurled down
from an immense height.

2 Down to this very day ! For though natural science ten times should
discover in electricity the secondary cause of the thunderstorm, it is ever
the living God who designedly ordains it, as well as all natural laws, and
even that of electricity itself (§ 74), and who in these laws and by them
works out His own free determinations. The lightning flashes are in His
hand unaffected by the law of electricity, which binds and fetters Him as
little as the physiological laws of the circulation of the blood, and of the
nerves, etc., hinder me in the free use of my hand (see § 101, Obs.).

§ 305.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 331

early Semitic (closely related to the Arabic, according to
§ 245, Obs.~), the Indo-Irano-Pelasgian, the Early Cymbrian,
Getic, Early Sarmatian, Ugrian, Mongolian along with Early
Malayan, Old Egyptian, Cushite, besides one or two other
Hamitic languages. That all these languages are in possession
of originally related roots, namely, of root words for the simplest
and most original leading ideas, has been long admitted in
reference to the Indo-Iranian, Pelasgian, Cymbrian, Getic or
Germanic, Sarmatian or Slavic. That this primitive relation-
ship extends also to the Semitic languages has been proved
by R v. Eaumer and Fr. Delitzsch ; and that it extends to the
Egyptian language has been proved by Ebers (see § 247,
Obs. 4). The close connection of the Ugrian, Mongolian, and
Malayan languages in their earliest forms with the other
Japhetic languages, has been demonstrated in § 256 and
§ 270 ; and in § 280-302, I have shown that the various
languages of the tribes and nationalities of the New World, as
well as those tribes themselves, are sprung from the Old World.
Although we do not now possess any further facts beyond
these isolated instances of very early relationship between the
various languages of the earth, we can nevertheless come to
the conclusion that these families and groups of languages
branched off gradually from one another, and by degrees dis-
tinguished themselves and secured a distinct and characteristic
form. But whoever has attentively followed the investigations
carried on in § 256, 264, 270, etc., must have been impressed
by a second series of facts. Besides the early relationship, an
early distinction in the possession of genuine primitive roots
which go not hand in hand with the diversity of descent,
but intersect one another, and that in such a way that the
dozen primitive languages which we have been obliged to
assume seem from the earliest times to have been split up
and severed into a great number of dialects or idioms of par-
ticular tribes, where now the group of tribes belonging to one
family of peoples have a series of roots in common with groups
of tribes of quite a foreign family, while the tribes of the

332 THE EEVELATION OF GOD. [§ 305.

former have in use for the corresponding ideas words that are
altogether different. We may designate this a scattering or
diffusion of words and roots, and will prove our contention
by adducing a series of examples.

1. For hand the Latin has the root man-, which we again
meet with in the Ugrian and Mongol, mata, " to bend," and in
the thence derived Sonor. Aztec, and other American words for
hand : ma, mowa, mai, etc. On the other hand, among the
Pelasgians and Greeks this root for hand is quite lost, and
instead of it the Sanscr. root kr, " to rend, to seize " (Zend zar),
as %ifp, has come into use. The Old Latin, too, had still hir.
The Germans had neither of the two, but Goth, haiulus (corre-
sponding to the Greek xtvr-, " sting, twig," in xsvrpov and xtvrou).
The Basques have seized on the root «%g?», " to have, to hold,"
and from it form escu. The Celts from the root present in the
Greek iMppfauv have formed lab, lamb, lam. The Bantu
languages have a root ok, oko (sing, koko, plur. miako) ; the
Acra languages, ninde, nine. And, finally, the Malayan has
taken the root tang-, which we meet with again in the Lat.
tangere and in the Germ, zanga, " pincers," only with a different
application. Quite different from all that is the Semitic root
jadd. We find here the phenomenon of particular Indo-
Germanic tribes, in order to express an idea for which in the
primitive common language of the still unscattered people
there must of necessity have existed a word, and for which, in
fact, there was a word, allowing this word to pass out of their
vocabulary and using instead a word altogether different, which
with some other application had also belonged to the common
primitive language.

2. For tooth the Semitic languages (in their scJian-n) have, in
common with the most of the Japhetic (Sanscrit, Greek, Latin,
Gothic, Ugrian, Sonora) and the languages of the Swaheli,
Gandas, and Kaffirs, the root dant-, tann- ; the Malay-Polynesian
languages have for this a root ngip, nif,1 and have no longer
any trace of the old primitive root. The Rua language has
neno, resembling the Malayan nif. Other negro languages have
meno, lino, neno, imlno.

3. For mouth we find a root variously constructed with m
among the Indians (mukka), the Goths (munths), the Mongols
(ama, hamun, amga ; comp. Son. cama\ which the Basques
have in the form of minha, meaning " tongue," the Malays as
maka, mata, with the signification of " countenance, eye," the

1 "With probably collateral relation to the Old High German gntant,
knltan, " to rub."

§ 305.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF G'OD. 333

Bantu language in Africa and the Sabinda negroes as munu
(sing, umunu, plur. iminu), "mouth," the Eua language in
Central South Africa as maJcanu, the Swaheli as kinwa, the
Baregga, Gande, Manjema, etc., as kama, kamu-a, kaniwa,
uniwa ; on the other hand, among the Greeks and among the
Malayans, immediately related not to these but to the Mongols,
there is another root or&pa, Bug. timu, from root ra,u,-ie?v, " to
cut," with which dan-, " mouth," in the Acra language (a negro
dialect), may be compared. So also dd, da, " mouth," among the
Susi and Mandingo negroes, and again among the Latins or-,
which originally meant " countenance," from the root wor, war,
opdu. Then, further, the Germans and Malays have yet another
root, mul (Javan. mulut), which may indeed be related to the
first named, and which we again meet with among Njamwesi
and Sukuma negroes as mulomo, m'lomo, among the Tschuani
and Kaffirs as molomo, umlomo. The Amharia, together with
the G alias and Somali, have for mouth a fifth root, of, affan, off.

4. For "foof'and "to go," the Lat., in common with the Mongol.,
has the two roots culc-, calc-, and tal (-us) ; the Tagal. and
Malag. have, in common with the Greek, Latin, and German, the
root pad, cro5, ped-, fuoz, paa, pe; while two other Malayan
tribes (Malays of the Straits Settlements and Javanese) have
preserved the root culc in the forms haki, sikil, suku. Kolu,
gulu, ulle, " foot " in the Bantu language (sing, kulle, plur.
matte), may also be related to culc. On the other hand, the Eua
language has umaga. Among the Njamwesi and their neigh-
bours we find for foot the words lu-geri, kl-geri, ki-rengi,
vi-rengi.

5. For "to speak" we find the Greek root ?paS- in New
Zealand and Tahiti as parau (in Bug. shortened into paii),
while the root lab is retained in Tongan and Hawaian in the
form of lea (New Zeal, and Tahit. rea, red), and the Ugr. leo, lau,
which we find in Lat. labium, Celt. Idbar ("word"), Anglo-
Saxon lippa; but the Lat. has modified this root lab into
loc~(loqui), and the Mongolian languages have introduced for it
two roots, nob- and noc-. The Germans have for it the roots
Goth, rathjan (Old High Germ, radja, redjon, "to reckon,"
ratio, apiSpoc), sprehhan (comp. Sanscr. sph'iirdsh, " to sound, to
thunder"), and seggjan, sagen; but the Tagals and Malagassy
use tinging, tsinging (Lat. tinnire), and the Area negroes have
Tee, a modification of ke, " to cry out," which resembles Goth.
qithan and Lat. inquit. In the whole south-east of Africa the
prefix ki is used to designate the language of a people, e.g.
Ki-rua, the language of the Warua ; Ki-ganda, the language of
the country U-ganda, or of the people Wa-ganda.

G. For the word sinew, nerve, the Germans, Basques, and the
(according to § 297, Ugro-Finnic) Chichimecs and Aztecs have

334 . THE REVELATION OF GOD.

in common Sehne, senawa, zaina, tatta (from the root tan, nfvu).
The Greeks and Latins have for that vttpov, nermis, from a root
ner (Old High Germ, snara, snuor, " cord, string ") ; the Acra
negroes have a third root, fd.

The same phenomenon is repeated throughout, and instead
of those six examples we might give a hundred and sixty.
I shall only farther refer to the single but important instance,
that for the idea of God the Indians, Latins, Celts, Mongolians,
and Malayans have words from the root div : d$vci, deus, diet,
tai, tao, tuan, etooa (which among Greeks and Germans has
become a proper name, as Aevs, Zevs, and Tins, Ziu) ; the
Iranians and Slavs, loga, log, with which is closely connected
Pungu, Boka, Bonga, Mungu, common to the Hamitic races.
The Assamese and Germans have kliota, guths, cot; the
Esthonians jumala ; the Malayans (besides tuwari), waka
(§ 281, Obs. 1). The Germans have in common with the
Semites the root ta, alia, i'lu, in the Old High German form,
alhs, alah, " sanctuary," only with a modification of meaning.
How remarkably here and everywhere does diversity in
vocabulary appear among peoples that are closely related in
respect of race ! Groups of nations of very remote relation-
ship have for some of the simplest material designations
words which are formed out of the same primitive root, and
peoples which are connected together by the closest affinities
have, with occasional resemblance of laws of grammatical
construction and roots, for a number of the simplest primitive
ideas words from wholly different roots. Only the Semitic
tribes afford here a relative exception, in so far as they sharply
distinguish themselves from the rest of the related peoples
by the possession of many roots peculiar to themselves, e.g.
T, n% etc. ; while, on the other hand, they have preserved
among one another so nearly the same roots, — a new proof
that the Semites, after the confusion of languages and the
scattering of the peoples took place, had continued for a long
time (according to § 254, down to the overthrow of the
empire of Nimrod) to live on as one undivided nationality

§ 305.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 335

(under Cushite, that is, Hamitic sovereignty) on the banks of
the Euphrates, where then first the Arabs, unaffected by the
Baal- worship, must have been driven out by them (§ 254,
Ols.}. — That scattering of the peoples, which affected the
Japhetic and most of the Hamitic races, in view of the fact of
the crossing and interchange of roots above referred to, cannot
be conceived of by us otherwise than as having as its primary
cause this breaking up of the original tongue into many
languages. Had the various families of nations in the
moment of their dispersion still spoken the one original
language, it would indeed be conceivable that it would for
that time undergo many modifications of sound among the
various peoples, even that for new ideas, which arose in
consequence of advances in civilisation and industry, each
nationality should have created its own new words ; but it
would not be conceivable that those peoples should have
forgotten and wilfully abandoned words of the original
language which had been in common use from the earliest times
for the simplest and most primitive ideas, e.g. for the most
essential parts of the human body and the bodily functions,
for which, too, the original language must necessarily have
been already supplied with words. And even if one should
still regard this as possible, it can scarcely be regarded as
conceivable that in the forming of new expressions for these
old primitive ideas they should have seized upon old primitive
roots which had been in use only among another remote
people and not among themselves. If we assume that the
word of the original language for sinew was one formed from
the root nar, ner, and that the Basques had taken this word
with them in their wanderings, and that only at a later period
in Western Europe they had let it drop out of view, how in
all the world could they thus have hit upon the word zaina,
which was identical with the word senewa, of the Geto-
Germans, then living far in the depths of Asia, and lying at
the basis of the root tan (reiW), now completely lost in the
Basque ? Or if we make the converse assumption, that the

336

THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 305.

primitive word for sinew was one formed from the root tan,
and that the Greeks and Latins, as well as the Basques and
Germans, had taken the same word with them in their
wanderings, and that it was only at a later period, first in
Asia Minor and Southern Europe, that it passed out of use,
how in all the world did they in the forming of a new word
for that idea hit upon the root nar, ner, which was not present
in their languages, but only in the German snara ! It is
therefore incontestable that the Greeks and Latins must have
seized upon vevpov, nervus, the Germans, Basques, and Mongols
upon tan, sen, zaina, at a moment when the original language
still continued to exist as a common tongue, and when the
primitive roots were still used in unreflecting thinking
(§ 51 ff.), and to reflective thought presented themselves
involuntarily. Each family of nations retained in memory
some portion of the vocabulary of the original language for
common objects and forgot the rest, and for these others
formed for themselves new words from unconsciously, i.e.
unreflectively, present roots of the original language. And in
this way it happened that nationalities which were not closely
related to one another agreed in the retention of the same
primitive words, or even in seizing upon the same primitive
roots for the formation of new words. There must therefore
have been a moment when they could no longer recollect the
expressions formerly in use for the most common of all things
and notions ; some wanted one expression, others wanted
another ; then the descendants of Javan, and at the same time
a pair of separate Malay families of the stock of Magog, in
order to designate the mouth, seized upon the root tarn, " to
cut into, to bite," which then unconsciously or half- consciously
survived among them, though at a later period it became
quite forgotten by the Malays, and designated the mouth as
(Trofjba, timu, " bite ; " the ancestors of the Latins purposely
seized upon the general expression or "countenance;" the
Semites on the primitive root fd, wd, " to blow, to sound "
(see § 260. Ols. 1) ; while the ancestors of the Indians, Goths,

§ 305.] THE EEDEMPT1VE ACTS OF GOD. 3 3 "7

and Mongols, and a portion of the Karaites (the negro tribes),
retained the undoubtedly original root word mu in the further
developed forms of mukka, ninths, muno, mul. The primitive
word pad, ped, for " foot " and " to go," was lost by the Mongols,
and they laid hold upon calc-, " to stamp," and tal-, " sole."
According to the result of researches in comparative philology,
this is what must have taken place. It was not by any
means a comical, but an extremely tragical and terrible
occurrence, as, in consequence of the most frightful, soul-
harrowing catastrophe, such a partial insanity, such a partial
madness, such a disturbance of soul and confusion of mind
came over the human race, and the dread of the already
appearing loss of the capacity of understanding one another
drove them apart in all directions. Thus the family of
Ashkenaz was driven toward the north-west, through Armenia
and over the Caucasus as far as the Danube, along the Alps
on the lakes and thence to the Cevennes and Pyrenees,
in timorous flight before the power of the living God, whose
fear they have preserved for a thousand years (§ 258).
After a time they were followed by the family of Eiphath,
who, as the Celts, rushed down on the west of Europe ; while
the tribe of Togarmah, as Sarmatians and Slavs, pushed east-
ward to the Aral lake and then northward. The tribes of
Javan made their way into Asia Minor, and thence, soon
becoming skilful sailors, they crossed the Bosphorus into
Macedonia and Greece, and over Illyria into Etruria (see
§ 247). The race of Meshech, however, including Scythians,.
Getae, Germans, pushed also, like that of Togarmah, to the
north of the Aral lake, and from thence moved westward, and
some centuries before Christ occupied a narrow strip of land
between the Celts and the Sarmatians. Of the Karaites, the
descendants of Gush moved eastwards to South Arabia and
India, and spread out over Madagascar to South Africa and as
far as the Congo, over the Sunda islands, over Polynesia and
Australia as far as the Gallopagos. After them the vanguard
of the Malays of the family of Magog moved on and subdued

EBRARD III. Y

338 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 305.

and oppressed the Cushites or Melanesians of the Sunda and
Polynesian islands. After the Malays came the rest of the
branches of the family of Magog, the moving mass of the
Mongols, first to lake Baikal, and from thence partly into
Mongolia, partly through the district of the Kokonor to China,
then southwards to Tibet. The race of Tubal — the Turanians
and Ugro-Finnic Tartars — moved on in succession to the
Mongols, but only went so far as the Baikal lake, and from
that point spread out, most vigorously in pre-Christian times,
into two branches: northward to Finland, Lapland, and
Siberia, and southwards through Upper Asia to the borders of
China and India, the East Mongolian empire threatening
China and subduing the west Mongols. The Iranians,
descendants of Madai, moved south - eastwards from the
Turanians to Persia and Bactria, and the Indians separated
themselves from them in religious conflict (§ 218), pushing on
to the Punjab and settling down in the region round about
the Ganges. Th'e family of Mizraim, however, soon after the
scattering of the nations moved across the Eed Sea into
Middle Egypt, settled in the whole of Egypt and Libya, and
sent out the Phoenicians from Mons Casius to Lebanon, the
Cretans and Philistines into Crete and Palestine. The race
of Phut crossed the Eed Sea and Nubia into the Soudan, and
peopled Africa with its negro tribes from Atlas southwards to
the confines of the Cushite Caffraria and Bechuanaland. The
descendants of Canaan moved westward to Palestine. Only
the Semitic tribes, together with a portion of the Cushites, the
ancestors of the modern Abyssinians as well as the Kolhs
speaking a Semitic language, but having black and woolly
hair, continued to reside in the plain of the Euphrates, where
a God-fearing Cushite, Nirnrod, cleared the land of wild beasts
(§ 247), founded walled cities, and without opposition was
recognised as lord of these united tribes. Without opposition,
indeed, but yet on the side of the Semites grudgingly (§ 247).
After his death, to the proud hatred of the Semites against
the sovereignty of a Hamite there was added the hatred of

§ 306.] THE KEDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 339

the Semites against the God whom this Hamite feared, and
whose worship he had persistently maintained. Only the
descendants of Arphaxad, as well as the tribes of the family of
Joktan, took no part in this demoniacal rebellion against God
(§ 249). The latter either now separated themselves from
the Euphrates-Semites, or had done so shortly before (along
with the Cushites driven into Abyssinia on the overthrow of
the empire of Nimrod), and moved toward the south-west into
Arabia.

§ 306. The Cardinal Question: Is the One God a product of
Israel ? Or is Israel the product of the One God ?

The antediluvian corruption bore the character of light-
hearted forgetfulness of God. It was an intensification of sin
when one hundred and fifty years after the flood a created
substance, the sun, was put in the place of God. They may
have thought that in his warming rays, which dried up the
remnants of the flood, they discovered a merciful power
operating over against the avenging God.1 This was sinful
folly, but it still distinctly bore the character of folly. But
when, some two hundred and thirty years later, the Semites
had, along with the yoke of the Nimrod-Cushites, cast off the
yoke of God, and in full conscious defiance raised the sun as
Bi'lu (-fen) and the moon as Bilit (n^jn) to the throne of
worship, and placed these heavenly bodies in such a relation
to animal fruitfulness that the act of coition as such, as mere
animal energy, dissociated from the ethical background of
personal appropriation, was regarded as divine worship and a
sacrificial act, and again death by fire and self - mutilation
(see § 251) were considered essential acts of worship of the
blind nature deity begetting physical life and again destroy-

1 In the more recent Babylonian tradition, § 255, the one belonging to
the stage of the Baal-worship, such a representation again finds a parallel,
inasmuch as Istar is set over against Anu. Still this is nothing at all
conclusive, for on the other hand Shamas, the sun -god, is regarded as the
cause of the flood, and Istar as saving from it.

340 THE REVELATION OF GOD. L§ 306.

ing it, this fundamentally destructive perversion of religion,
when carried out to its legitimate issue, resulted in diabolical
and demoniacal obduracy. Here was the deisidaimonia not
merely dissociated from ethics, but placed in direct antithesis
thereto. This terrible revolt against conscience led to the
regarding of that on account of which conscience accuses
men as a service acceptable to God. Had mankind then
been still one united race, and as united affected by this most
potent corruption, our race had then passed beyond the
possibility of redemption. But by the divine judgment of
the scattering of the nations that followed the second stage of
rebellion, it was provided that this third stage should be
limited at first to that one of the families of the race which
was guilty of this potent revolt, the Semites, yea, only to a
portion of these, for the sons of Joktan in Arabia, and in the
beginning also the sons of Arphaxad in Mesopotamia, took no
part in it, and that only through a long-continued process
should the plague of that demoniacal Baal-worship spread
among the Phoenicians and Canaanites, and through the
former among the Egyptians, Libyans, Greeks, yea, even to
America (§ 284).

According to our previous investigations, then, two things
are established : Firstly, the disciplinary or punitive acts of
revelation of the living God are witnessed to by the traditions
common to all the peoples : the Flood, the Scattering of the
Eaces ; secondly, the Semitic groups of nations are shown to be
far in advance of the Hamitic and Japhetic tribes in the way
of polytheistic corruption. Quite in harmony with this, the
Holy Scriptures of the Old Testament declare that the living
God led away a pious man of the race of Arphaxad who
still feared Him from the dangerous neighbourhood of the
Euphrates-Semites to the Hamite inhabitants of Canaan who
were still worshippers of God (§ 248 and § 254); and when
the Semitic plague had spread even among these, He led His
people into Egypt and made them there grow into a great
nation, and by a series of successive acts of revelation among

§ 306.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 341

this people which He had chosen out for the sphere of the
future operations of redemption in the incarnation of His
eternal Son (§ 137 f.), He once and again awakened their
slumbering conscience and kept alive the knowledge of Him-
self, the one living God, by means of ever new revelations of
His holiness and His mercy. Thus Holy Scripture declares
to us on every page that the Semitic people Israel was, in
itself and according to its natural tendency, in no particular
better than, but equally corrupt as, the multitude of the other
Semitic tribes ; that it was possessed with a demoniacal ten-
dency to polytheism, and indeed specially to Baal-worship,
and excessively prone to rebellion against God, and that only
by the most unusual acts of revelation on the part of God a
fragment of the people — not the whole — was got to retain
the knowledge and fear of God. In Israel, Holy Scripture
finds nothing lovable or praiseworthy (Amos v. 25 f . ; Micah
vii. 1 f. ; Isa. i. 3 ff. ; Dan. ix. 9-13, etc. ; com p. Ex. v. 20 f.,
xvi. 2, xxxii. 1 ff. ; Num. xxv. 1 ; Judg. ii. 1 1 ff. ; 1 Kings
xi. 4 f., xii. 28, etc.). It says, indeed, that Israel is a noble
people, but it finds its nobility to consist only in this, that
God has drawn so near to this people (Deut. iv. 7) ; the
people's nobility consists not in that which the people has
done, but in that which God the Lord has done in it. Thus
speaks Moses, and just so speaks Paul. The apostle, even
where he enumerates the privileges of Israel, can say nothing
else than this, that " unto them were committed the oracles of
God " (Rom. iii. 2) ; " the adoption, and the glory, and the
covenants, and the law, and the service of God, and the
promises " (Eom. ix. 4). Thus God has revealed Himself to
Israel as rvnK itt'N rvnx, as Him " who is what He is," i.e. who
is that which He is of Himself, independently of His being
worshipped and recognised by men.1 What is always made
by man the object of worship, whether rightly or wrongly,

1 That this explanation is the right one, and the only philologically
possible, has been convincingly proved by Drechsler, Die Eintoit der
Genesis Handb. 1838, p. 11 ff.

342 THE EEVELATION OF GOD. [§ 306.

is an m^K, whereas the one living God is njrp, because He is
who He is independently of the inclination and will of men.
He is not the product of men, not devised by them ; this is
already contained in this name. And no heathen people has
known this name. Schrader1 has called attention to the fact
that the name of Jahavah is not found among any of the
heathen Semite nations,2 while the words r6x, ta, ^jn are
common to all the Semitic languages. — In spite of all this,
however, the modern negative criticism takes great pains over
this matter. What is incontestably good in the religion of
Israel, its monotheism and high - toned ethical precepts, is
regarded as a natural product of the " Semitic mental develop-
ment;" the Semitic races had in the blood a tendency
toward monotheism, just as the Indians had to pantheism.
But what in the history of Israel is rightly or wrongly con-
sidered base and corrupt is speedily found to have been
brought about by their belief in a " wrathful Jehovah," who
is pictured as a crude and undeveloped kind of deity.
When Jacob deceives Esau and Laban, David commits
adultery, etc., this is supposed to prove that a God who had
such "favourites" has nothing in common with the God of
Christianity, but is to be regarded as a product of thought
among a rude people occupying the same rank as the product
of thought of the heathen mythology. And when the Hamitic
race of the Canaanites, sunken in the corruption of the Baal-
worship, is exterminated at Jehovah's command, or when
Jehovah is obliged to waken up the conscience of the corrupt
and polluted Semitic race of Israel from its lethargy by sharp
judgments, these must be taken as proofs of the wrathful and
bloodthirsty character of this God, i.e. of the Israelitish con-
ception of God ! But when it suits their purpose to praise

1 Schrader, Cuneiform Inscriptions and the Old Testament, 2 vols.
London 1885-1887, voL i. p. 11.

2 In Palmyra, on a monument of the post-Solomonic time, we meet with
the name Jao, evidently, as also Schrader assumes, borrowed from Israel.
So, too, had the Chinese philosopher Lao-tse, about B.C. 600, come to know
the name Ji-hi-wei through exiled members of the ten tribes ; see § 268.

§ 307.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 343

the Jewish race, these critics can glorify it loudly enough by
saying that monotheism lay " in the blood " of that people, and
that they produced the idea of the unity of God, or that " they
have raised themselves to this conception."1 — This is now-
very specially the cardinal question in reference to the history
of the religion of the Old Covenant : Is Jahavah a product of
Israel ? or is Israel a product of Jahavah, the living God ?
With the answer to this stands or falls the fact of redemption
under the New Covenant. We must deal more closely with
this question, and then also the further question demands an
answer : Why God has chosen for the field and sphere of
the revelation that was to prepare the way for redemption a
nation not the noblest by nature, but rather by nature one of
the most corrupt of the races of mankind.

§ 307. The Semitic Race and tJie Choice of the Covenant People.

It was pointed out in § 247 that we cannot speak of three
races of men as thoroughly distinct. From the flood down to
the scattering of the peoples, a period of a century and a half
passed before the descendants of Shem, Ham, and Japhet
would be obliged to have interchange of marriages with one
another. No trace of such interchanges has been found as
yet in history. For example, the Hamite race of the
Egyptians has in its determined stability and exclusiveness
and its monosyllabic speech such remarkable similarity to the
Japhetic race, and indeed to the Chinese of Mongolian descent
from the family of Magog, that one might suppose that some
of the sons of Mizraim had married daughters of Magog, or
one of the sons of Magog had married a daughter of Mizraim.
An affinity of such a kind might also be assumed between
Javan and that son of Madai from whom the Indians are

1 As though the matter in question was the numerical unity merely,
and not rather the qualitative essence of the One ! If the God of the
Old Testament were actually that " bloodthirsty fury," He were then
in spite of the unicity a merely common idol, and the praise of having
" produced the idea of monotheism " does not belong to Israel.

344 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 307.

sprung. But while the distribution of mankind into three
chief races, as the sons of Japhet, Ham, and Shem, must
always be taken cum grano salis, each of these, notwith-
standing the overlapping of its single line determined by
affinity upon the second or third chief race, has nevertheless
preserved a certain unique set of characteristics. This funda-
mental character of the three chief races or families may be
summarily expressed in a few words. There is no doubt that
the sons of Japhet in contrast to the Hamites were endowed
with higher intellectual capacity. What the Latins called
ingenium, the capacity for free intellectual production and
movement, we meet with among the Indians and Iranians,
the Pelasgians and Latins, the Germans and Celts;1 even
among the Chinese in a high degree, among the old Uigurs in
a less degree but one not to be despised, among the Esthonians
and the Finns and the Slavs, as well as among the Etruscans,
there was a high development of art. The Hamites, on the
other hand, if we except the Egyptians and their Phoenician
offshoots, give the impression of a thoroughly dull, mentally
sluggish race, with an innate tendency to run out into bar-
barism ; while for the rest even in a state of barbarism they
show a certain good-natured disposition, an honourable open-
ness and true-heartedness, as we see, e.g., among the Kolhs
and in the negroes, breaking forth, too, among the converted
negroes sometimes from under the mass of ignorance as a
childlike, naive simplicity. The highest intellectual elevation
to which a Hamitic tribe has risen is that of the Egyptian
civilisation, which, however, in its angularity and one-sided-
ness can be compared at most to the Chinese, certainly not to
the Hellenic, Indian, or German, and results, perhaps, only

1 In spite of the complaint of Vilmar about the sluggishness of the
ingenium of the Bretons, it would not be difficult to prove, even apart
from the Ossian question, that the Celts were a singularly gifted race in
the domain of poetry, and since the time of Iro-Scottish Christian
missionaries they have been remarkably fruitful in their contributions to
the poetry and music of the Middle Ages. One need only compare, for
example, Th. Stephens, Gesch. der walischen Literatur, Halle 1864.

§ 307.] THE EEDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 345

from intermarriage between the children of the Karaite
Mizraim and the Japhetic Magog. — If we turn now to the
Semites, no one can deny that in respect of mental and
spiritual endowments they are as like the Japhetites as these
are unlike the Hamites. And yet between the Semites and
the Japhetites there is a thoroughgoing difference. There is,
almost independently of the relation of God, a purely human
nobility, a full development of those natural powers which
distinguish man as man, mark him off as a rational being
from the brute creation, the harmonious unfolding of which
ought on this account to be denominated " humanity." This
humanity may coexist with a sinful determination of will and
a God-forgetting disposition, i.e. it may along with godlessness
of heart and life continue for a long time to exist among the
people as heir of an earlier God-fearing age. According to
its nature, it may be designated a kind of esthetic and social
conscience, a feeling for the distinction of the becoming and
the unbecoming, the fair and the hideous, the noble and the
base, in one word, a sense of honour, which has become to a
people or to a group of peoples a second nature.1 This noble
sentiment of humanity we find now among most of the peoples
of Japhetic descent, while it is wholly wanting among the
Semites. No Semitic nation possesses a true aesthetic sense.
Even the Hebrew muse, although inspired by God, has
admittedly much crudeness, and the beauty of the Old

1 The origin of this honourable aesthetic sense of the becoming in a
people can only be directly explained by this, that in a very remote
antiquity among the fathers of the race conscience in reference to the
relation of man to God continued awake through a large series of genera-
tions. In these ancient times such a sense of honour became a second
nature to that people, and now survived as a natural characteristic during
centuries and even thousands of years, even after the fear of God of
earlier days had meanwhile been lost. But nothing is more certain than
that when in a nation the last remnants of a religious conscience has
been utterly lost (as in the case of polytheism generally), and the frivolity
of such ages as that of Euripides and the Augustan writers has taken its
place, then that noble character which appears in a sense of aesthetic
beauty and of social honour hurries on to a sudden overthrow and
extinction.

346 THE KEVELATION OF GOD. [§ 307.

Testament Psalms and prophetic poetry depends on something
quite different from the unfolding of a human sense of beauty.
Still more were the Semites, again only something like half-
way excluding the Arabs, wanting in the human moral sense
of honour. The Semitic huckstering spirit, this dishonourable
and shameless quest of gain and selfish ends, and the Semitic
insolence of reckless and inconsiderate pride, are vouchers
enough for the want of magnanimity of nature and a sense of
honour. That there were and are among the Semites indi-
viduals of a nobler temper, we would by no means deny.
We are only stating here what is the national character. —
And from this general characterization we by no means exempt
Israel, the people of the Old Covenant. It is a fault that
has been transmitted from generation to generation among
Christian theologians, especially noticeable in practical religious
literature, that the patriarchs and the godly of the Old Testament
are represented as saints, or at least as ideals of humanity.
Jews they were in their nature and in their national character.
Jacob bargains with his twin brother for his birthright privilege,
and gets by craft the herds of Laban; Joseph takes advantage
of the Egyptians' famine to do a brilliant stroke for Pharaoh ;
and thus the Semitic characteristics crop up through cracks
and crannies in the lives of the most pious and the best.1
" And such people were the favourites of Jehovah ! " exult-
ingly cries out rationalism in coarse homely wisdom. Yes,
answer we, just this nation, wanting all natural magnanimity
and high sense of honour, has God chosen as the sphere and
organ of His revelation, that should prepare the way for

1 The much spoken of " purloining " (more properly : snatching from,
taking by force) of Egyptian articles (Ex. xiv. 35 f.) can scarcely be
reckoned under this head. The Egyptians themselves constrained and
urged the Israelites (ver. 34), without seeking back their articles. One
might say, but just as well might doubt, that the noble-minded Japhetites
would nevertheless have left the articles behind, instead of taking them
with them in the excitement of the moment. Objectively considered, it
was a reward which the Egyptians were obliged unwillingly to pay the
Israelites according to the counsel of God for their long service as
bondmen.

§ 307.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 347

redemption, — not in spite of but because of its being so
mean a race, yea, in its natural form the meanest and most
corrupt of all the three. A few words will be enough to
explain and establish this. The Japhetites had high mental
endowments with that natural nobility of mind, the Semites
had great mental endowments without that nobility, and the
Hamites were but meanly equipped intellectually. So far it
is plain — (1) That the Hamites earliest of all sank into
barbarism, and in them sin showed itself as merely savage
rudeness without any veil of craft; (2) That among the
Japhetites remnants of a conscience and of a knowledge of
God was longest retained, and among them that national sense
of honour as a relative drag resisted the development of evil ;
and (3) That among the Semites evil as a combination of
shamelessly selfish desire with natural acuteness and mental
ability, without any counteracting drag, must have taken the
form of essential corruption and pollution, especially when
to dishonourable baseness was added shameless pride and self-
righteous stubbornness. And now it is directly also easy to
understand why God's Son, according to the counsel of His
Father, must have assumed flesh and blood from the Semitic
race. Not the stupidest, endowed with the slenderest natural
capacities, in which sin showed itself in mere savage rudeness,
could be the race that should be the vessel and bearer of
salvation for the rest of the nations. This, without more ado,
is clear. One might rather have supposed the Japhetic family
the most suitable. But if the Son of God was to be born the
redeemer of a world of sinners, the opposition of lost humanity
and the saving God must be sharply and distinctly emphasized.
" The people that sat in darkness saw a great light." Not
then among those in whom there was an appearance, however
fallacious, of a capacity for self-redemption, which was in
reality only a relative check upon sin such as kept them in
a redeemable condition, but among those in whom the full,
deep misery of sin in its most dangerous form had manifested
itself, in whom there was no natural check upon this corrup-

348 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 308.

tion, upon whom only the acts of the Old Testament revelation
of God operated as checks restraining them within the limits
of possible redemption, and in whom all goodness present, e.g.
the piety of those in the land who waited for salvation, a
Mary, an Elizabeth, a Simeon, a Nathanael, a Peter, a John,
was to be traced back simply to the operations of God and
the revelations of God, — among such a people must the Lord
become man. And this had to be in order that He might
passively endure sin in its most potent form, sin as Semitic
corruption (see § 312).

But now we must, in conclusion, call attention to the
incontestable fact that our Lord Jesus Christ has in Himself
not a fibre of that peculiarly Semitic character. The person
of the Lord is distinguished by the highest, freest magnanimity,
as is evidenced to us by the record of all the four evangelists.
The Son of God became man within the range of a people of
the Semitic race ; but He became not a Semite, but a man.
Whatever can be regarded within the limits of the Japhetic
family as the highest ideal of all that is noble in man most
harmoniously developed, is in comparison with Him, like pale
moonlight before the clear shining of the sun. This alone
should suffice to prove the truth of this incarnation. Jesus
Christ is no product of humanity. The combined powers of
a whole series of Semites, together with Thamar (Matt. i. 3)
and Jezebel (2 Kings viii. 18 and Matt. i. 8), might have
begotten a Semite, but never a Son of man, the second Adam.

§ 308. God's Educative Procedure in the Patriarchal Age.

The foolishness of unbelief that thinks itself wise sneers at
the God who blesses Jacob, this man of cunning (Gen. xxvii.
and xxx., xxviii. and xxxi.), and prefers him to the honest,
upright Esau. According to the notion of such, the fruits
must be fully formed before even root or tree exists.1 But

1 The unbelief of our day, which boasts of its " liberalism," thus under-
mines the foundation of ethics, the fear of God and conscience, and tears

§ 308.] THE KEDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 349

such modelled mature fruits are not useable, and melt away
like butter before the sun. The living and wise God pro-
ceeded in a manner quite the contrary of this. " Walk before
me," this is the demand which He makes of His servant. Not,
walk correctly, walk with a firm step, and without faltering ;
but " walk before me ; thou weak, lame, halting one ; thou wilt
stumble every moment, but follow me closely with thine eye,
continue in my presence, be sincerely ashamed of thy weak-
ness and sinful nature ; but fly not from my sight with the
foolish, proud thought of hiding from me thy guilt and
palliating it ; but confess it, and put believing confidence in
me who am the holy God, hating thy sin, yet showing tender
mercy toward thee." This was the course of God's pro-
cedure with Abraham and the rest of the patriarchs. Of the
racial defects of the Semites, insolent pride and mean selfish-
ness and love of gain, the pride must first in order be eradi-
cated and overcome by awakening the childlike and humble
but firm faith in God ; in the God who revealed Himself as
the merciful One notwithstanding His holiness, which He
showed, e.g., in His treatment of Sodom. This humility and
this stedfastness of faith we find among the patriarchs as a
first-fruit well matured of the divine education, though ex-
hibited, indeed, in the midst of many evidences of the weaknesses
of a child's faith.1 As an immediately consequent fruit of
this we have neighbourly love, which in Abraham shows itself
in his friendly yielding to Lot, and in Joseph in the noblest
manner as forgiving love. How well must Joseph have
understood the innermost depths of the divine pity ! He
acted toward his brethren in the hardest manner before he

them from the heart, but then complains with sad lamentations that
instead of the morality of pantheism " in need of no religious basis,"
" standing on its own feet " (i.e. hanging in the air), we have only naked
selfishness (on the one hand, maintenance of privilege and the exciting
struggles of the exchange ; on the other hand, social democratic covetous-
ness) ; and instead of the hoped-for modern Buddhist reign of peace, :t
lellum omnium contra omnes.
1 E.g. Gen. xx., xxxii. 7 fl'.

350 THE EEVELATIOX OF GOD. [§ 308.

made himself known to them in order to bring home to them
their guilt and make them confess it ; but in the very moment
when he makes himself known to them, he imparts to them
also the assurance that he has forgiven them ! — Similarly, too,
does God assume a position toward the other racial defect, the
mean huckstering spirit and the low cunning that is by no
means passive or indifferent. Jacob deceived his old blind
father by a slain kid and a borrowed coat ; but the surrepti-
tiously obtained blessing drives its possessor immediately into
the unblessed region of homelessness and banishment ; in his
old age he himself is deceived in the most heartless way by
his own sons by means of a coat smeared with the blood of
a slaughtered kid (Gen. xxxvii. 31 ff.). By a trick, though
indeed in self-defence, he obtained for himself a large portion
of Laban's herd ; he led them away in anxiety, and soon after
felt himself obliged to offer and surrender to Esau a part
of his flocks and herds (Gen. xxxii. 13 ff., xxxiii. 11). With
genuinely Semitic cunning Joseph took advantage of the
need of the Egyptians to effect a clever financial policy for
Pharaoh (Gen. xlvii.), but his descendants soon found how
easily such cleverness is turned into foolishness when (comp.
§ 241, Obs. 1) the national hatred of the Egyptians against
Israel kindled by this very proceeding, and against the fifteenth
dynasty connected with Israel, burst out in a flame, overthrew
the dynasty, and terribly oppressed Israel as " plunderers of
the treasures of the land." — The leadings of divine providence,
by means of which Jacob's race are brought to reside in
Egypt, had a special purpose in connection with the history of
redemption ; Abraham's race would thus be preserved from
the plague of the Semitic worship of Baal. Once already this
plague had come near enough. In the vale of Siddim, which
had for twelve years been subject to the Euphrates-Semites
(Gen. xiv. 4, comp. § 253), this plague had taken root. There
the Lord rooted it out by that judgment of which traces in
the geological formations are to be found to this day (see
Obs.). When, some generations after the overthrow of Sodom,

§ 308.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 351

this pestilence of Baal-worship spread also iuto Palestine
among the Canaanites, Phoenicians, the children of Lot, and
the Midianites, the Ishmaelites had already moved southwards
into Arabia, remaining true to" the faith of Abraham " (§ 254,
Obs.). But the Israelites were saved in Egypt from this
plague. They were not, however, preserved from the con-
tagion of the relatively harmless Old Egyptian polytheism
(§ 241), that symbolizing of the creator of the world, ossified
as the soul of the world, invisible but }*et unfree, represented
in the regular course of the stars and of nature. How deeply
the Israelites were influenced and affected by the tendency to
such polytheistic nature-symbolism, and specially to symbo-
lizing through animals, is seen from the fact (Ex. xxxii.) that
they, after and in spite of all the powerful manifestations of
the free, living God, who was the God of their fathers, and
had revealed Himself to them as mrp, yet set up a polytheistic
plurality of gods (comp. ver. 1, in^1) in place of that one God,
and wished to symbolize these in the form of animals (the
figure of Apis). This inbred tendency to polytheism showed
itself in a very marked manner even during the wilderness
wanderings, in the worship of the heavenly bodies (Amos
v. 26), and later also in animal symbolism (1 Kings xii.).
And this is the people, forsooth, that have of themselves pro-
duced " the idea of monotheism ! " The mass of the people
could but after a long time grasp the idea that Jahavah was
one God, but only that He was stronger than the gods of the
heathen (with Deut. iv. 35 comp. iii. 24 and Num. x. 17
and 2 Chron. ii. 5). And this is the people that were to
produce the idea of monotheism ! A " Jehovist party "
arose and gained a standing among the people long, long
after Moses, and this party remodelled the Semitic Baal into a
rather more spiritually conceived and not altogether so terrible,
but still a tolerably bloodthirsty " Jahveh," craftily introduced
Him into the old songs of the people, and set Him forth
under Jehovistic titles. And in regard to this grand discovery
of wisdom only this small matter is forgotten, that (§ 246)

352 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 308.

the proper names which have "Jehovah" in them are already
met with in the time of Moses.

The Israelites in Egypt, by reason of their natural Semitic
character as a nation, would undoubtedly have forgotten the
God of their fathers, and have fallen completely into poly-
theism, had not the violent hatred of their Egyptian oppressors
forcibly compelled them to cry out to their fathers' God.
And then did this God reveal Himself in a series of judg-
ments which He sent upon the Egyptians,1 judgments which
found their like in the natural magic practised by the
Egyptians, but in the degree and manner in which they are
here performed are clearly enough marked out as miracles
(§ 134). So, too, an east wind makes it possible for them
to pass through the Eed Sea (Ex. xiv. 21), and nothing
prevents us from understanding the words of ver. 22, D^oni,
noin Dr6, as meaning that the waters on right and left of the
sandbank laid bare by the wind served as a protection to
them from attacks upon their flanks, and not that the waters
stood up like the walls of a tower around them, which would
have been expressed by niDina D'Wi. But should one con-
clude from this that the miracle can be explained away as a
natural occurrence, in which case that east wind would have
been merely an event of lucky chance, he should remember
that without the admission of a notable miracle the passing
of the Jordan (Josh. iii. f.), of which the stone memorials still
existed in the time when the story of the occurrence was
written (iv. 9, 20), cannot be satisfactorily explained. By
manifestations of His omnipotence God graciously unlooses the

1 When it is said that God hardened the heart of Pharaoh, the meaning
of the author is not to discuss the dogmatic question as to the relation of
human freedom to the divine decree, but simply to remove the erroneous
conception of a people prone to polytheism, as if God somehow were not
mighty enough to immediately enforce obedience from Pharaoh. That
the opposition of Pharaoh so long continued was not contrary to God's
plan and counsel, but operated within limits determined by God's counsel,
this and nothing else is here affirmed. The subtler question as to whether
God's will here shows itself determining or permissive, does not in the
least come into consideration.

§ 308.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 353

entanglements of sin in what is the complication and not the
development of man. By means of ever repeated acts He
overcame the inbred Semitic tendency to polytheism, and as
it were enforced the acknowledgment of Himself.

Obs.— The admitted fact that the surface of the Dead Sea is
1300 feet below that of the Mediterranean has nothing to do
with the catastrophe of Sodom. Even the Lake of Gennesareth
lies 600 feet below the Mediterranean. The whole Jordan
valley is a cleft or fissure which, long before there were men
upon the earth, in the beginning of the Tertiary period, was
occasioned by a volcanic plutonic eruption, probably in conse-
quence of the explosive nature of the Jebel Kuleib or the
mountains of Bashan. — It is quite a different geognostic fact
which affords evidence of the overthrow of Sodom. The Dead
Sea throughout its greater part, down as far as the peninsula,
is of very great depth ; the plummet here sounded a depth of
12UO or 1300 feet ; from the peninsula to the south end of the
lake, however, it is only from 4 to 13 feet deep. It here forms
a basin of 10 miles long, and has the appearance of an inter-
sected shallow flooded valley of about the same breadth. The
continuation of the valley that is not flooded, only a few feet
higher, forms the peninsula, and this has under its surface rich
beds of asphalt, just as is said in Gen. xiv. 10 of the whole
range of the valley. Close to the sea on the west side stands
Jebel Usdum, 500 feet high, 2^ leagues long, composed entirely
of rock-salt covered with a thin layer of chalk and clay, which
forms a steep background of bare rock-salt over against the
Dead Sea. The English naval officer Van de Velde (Journey
through Sinai and Palestine, 2 vols. Edin. 1854), to whom we
are indebted for these detailed geognostic observations, explains
the origin of these geognostic geographical peculiarities by the
simple assumption that the southern quarter of the lake was
land at an earlier period, that a flash of lightning kindled the
layer of asphalt lying under the surface, and probably here and
there existing to this day or intentionally laid bare by the hand
of man ; that this burned on underground, destroying by its
heat the cities situated above it ; that in consequence of this
conflagration the crust of the earth sank from 10 to 20 feet
therefore below the level of the lake, and so was flooded by it
to a slight depth ; and finally, that in consequence of the heat,
the crust of clay of the Jebel Usdum overlooking the east
side burst into flame, and with part of the rock-salt fell into
the lake and thus gave it its saltness, which now also every
rush of rain which washes down the naked walls and gorges
of the salt mountain increases. — That t^Kl JV~ia:i, falling from

EBRARD III. Z

354 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 309.

heaven, in Gen. xix. 24, can be understood of a kindling flash
of lightning, admits of no doubt. If we are to think of actual
burning brimstone, the effects would evidently be the same as
from the lightning.

§ 309. The Law and the Ordinance of Sacrifice.

We pursue no farther the series of these particular facts, but
turn now to the giving of the law. No unprejudiced person can
deny that in post-Mosaic times particular additions as well as
several historical elucidations were added by way of supplement
(e.g. Gen. xii. 6, xiii. 7, xxxvi. 31; Num. xxxv. 14; Deut. iii.
14). The groundwork of the law, however, and that in a far
higher degree than the Vendidad (§ 208), is derived from one
source, and from the tune of Moses. This groundwork falls
into three parts, which may even be externally distinguished.
The "law" (nny), Ex. xx., contains the eternal requirements
made by God of His people, requirements which are only an
exposition of the requirements which conscience makes of
every man ; hence then the decalogue can maintain its place
in Christianity as the expression of the ethical law for all the
nations of the earth. For it covers the whole ground of the
ethical law as such. To worship the living God alone as God,
to worship Him as the invisible, as a spirit, not by images, to
treat His holy name as holy, and not to drag it down into the
service of sin through passion or superstition, to withdraw a
set portion of one's lifetime from the pursuit of earthly busi-
ness and devote it to the concerns of the soul's salvation in the
exercises of worship and the service of God, to honour parents
as the representatives of God (comp. § 124), to respect the
life, the marriage ties, and the property of our neighbours, to
speak the truth, and finally, to acknowledge our sin and put
away from us even the secret desire for what is not our own, —
these are the groundworks of a true system of morals basing
itself upon God and the fear of God. In regard to marriage,
polygamy was still in practice tolerated, because God will not
have the fruits before the root. This law was not to change

§ 309.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 355

the sinner into a sinless man, but was to produce the con-
sciousness of sin (usus elenchticus), and to construct a solid
wall of wholesome discipline to resist its further inroads. The
second part of the law : D'BQB>o (Ex. xxi., xxii), affords an out-
line of judicial procedure, of social and civil order, and for this
very reason has had significance only for Israel as a nation
peculiar in respect of its civil constitution. Specially worthy
of notice is the injunction to love enemies, Ex. xxiii. 4 ; comp.
Num. xix. 1 7. — The third part : mpn (Ex. xxv.-xxxi., and
Lev. i.— viii. and xi. ff.), gives detailed directions concerning
divine worship. God made a covenant with Israel, nna, pro-
mising His grace, demanding the fulfilment of His law. But a
nation of sinful men fulfils not this requirement, and cannot
fulfil it ; Israel still, even as at the beginning (Ex. xxxii.),
breaks the covenant, and proves itself a stiff-necked people
(vv. 9, 10). Thus the decalogue becomes an accusing witness
against the nation. It deserves only overthrow ; but God for the
sake of His own honour, the honour of His covenant faithfulness
(ver. 1 ff.), shows Himself merciful to His people. The accusing
witness will be concealed with a covering (mia), and the
covering is to be sprinkled with the blood of an ox slain as a
substitutionary sin-offering (Lev. xvi.), in order that the eye
of the Lord may fall, not on the accusing witness, but on the
consummated atonement. The whole ritual, with all its other
offerings, is organically grouped around this central act per-
formed yearly by the high priest. The sprinkling of blood on
the lid of the ark in the holiest of all, symbolized the main-
tenance of the covenant by a continual new atonement for the
continual new breaches of the covenant of the people. In the
holy place the relatively incomplete fulfilment of the law was
set forth under symbol by the daily presentation of the fruit
of the land, bread and oil, and the worship of God by the
presenting of incense to Him on the altar of incense at the
entering in of the holiest of all. In the holiest of all the
living God manifested, not His creative omnipresence, but speci-
fically His gracious nearness growing out of His covenant with

356 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 303.

Israel in the light-gleam of the Shechinah ; but the holiest of
all was unapproachable and shut ; the sacrificial worship only
secured that God cared for His people, went not into judgment
with their sins, but continued to exercise further patience ; not,
however, that the guilt of sin which stood between Him and
His people as a wall of partition was fully atoned for (ira-pecris,
not a<£e<m, .comp. Horn. iii. 25). This points significantly
enough to the need of a future more perfect atonement (comp.
Heb. ix.).

In regard to two points we must here enter on a closer
examination.

A. The whole ritual is founded on the assumption of the
sinfulness and guilt of Israel, and the whole history of the
exodus and the wilderness journey has to tell of nothing else
than the unusual stiff-neckedness and depravity of the people,
not of their merits, excellences, and virtues, but only of the
wonderful long-suffering of the holy God. That is a phenomenon
which we do not meet with in the history of the religion of any
other nation. The heathen nations (comp. Book First) repre-
sent themselves in the best light ; here and there on account
of particular sins their gods are angered, and they seek by
means of sacrifices of various kinds to pacify them. To a sad
extent they have lost the idea of sin and guilt and the con-
ception of an avenging God, and know only of capricious evil
powers or beings from a necessity of their nature injurious,
whose blind rage they seek to avert by sacrifice. But the
peoples as such are always and everywhere full of their own
praises and the glorification of themselves. The Moabite
king Mesha describes himself as on the best understanding
with his god Chemosh ; he has built him a temple, and there-
fore looks to him for a brilliant victory. This tone prevails
in the inscription of Darius at Bagastana or Behistun, and in
the other Achamadian inscriptions. The case is similar, too,
with regard to the Greeks, the Eomans, the Indians, the
Mongols, and the Chinese. And a people so characterized by
insolent pride as the Israelites were, possesses now as the oldest

§ 309.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 357'

literary monument and the earliest book of laws a treatise in
which mention is only made of the wickedness and depravity
of the people, in which the whole ritual is built up upon
the assumption of the sinfulness and guilt of the people,
in which is found nothing else in praise of the people than
that God, the holy and living God, revealed Himself to them,
and has shown His patience in dealing with them. And this
book, which gives such a slap in the face to all their pride and
national self-esteem, is to be regarded as a product of the
national spirit of the people ! If a national enemy of Israel
had turned his attention to wounding Israel's pride in its most
tender point, he could have written nothing more cutting than
this history of the exodus. But as this Torah was not written
by a member of a hostile nation, but by an Israelite, in the
language of the Israelites, it can have the ground of its origin
only in the revelation of a divine friend, i.e. of a friendly God,
who in His grace roused up a member of that race, so sunken
naturally in corruption, from the sleep of conscience, that root
of hardening and unredeemable depravity, again and again un-
weariedly shaking them up with powerful disciplinary words
and acts of God, and kept awake the awakened consciousness
of sin by means of the ordinance of sacrifice.

B. This sacrificial worship embraced in its deep symbolism
the truth whose caricatures are seen in the various heathen
religions. Even the first men had brought their sacrifices. The
idea of sacrifice was given in the very consciousness of guilt.
In the Book of Genesis there is no word to the effect that God
ordained and recommended sacrifice.1 Man quite naturally came
upon the idea himself. The consciousness of being behind-
hand in the discharge of duty, of that which he was bound to

1 When God, appearing in human form (Gen. iii. 21), gives to man
clothing of skins of beasts as a covering of their nakedness, the act of the
slaying of those beasts is not there indeed once mentioned, and therefore
comes into consideration only as a means for supplying clothing, not as
a sacrificial act. All the less is the latter reference possible from the fact
that God Himself slew the animals, and would in that case have presented
the sacrifice to Himself.

358 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 509.

do, led to the idea of making good the deficiency, i.e. of a suf-
ficient satisfaction. For the performance of the duty which
man has left unperformed, another performance which he is
not obliged to do, the voluntary surrender of some good thing,
looks like the payment of an equivalent. This idea seems to
have lain at the basis of the first sacrifices (Gen. iv. 3 f.). But
conscience could not be thereby pacified. Conscience said to
man that he not merely left good undone, but had willed and
done evil, and by his sin had deserved punishment This led
to the idea of a personal substitution. Instead of the person
who is amenable to punishment, another being may suffer the
death due by reason of sin, and the skin victim should blaze
up in flames before God, whom man involuntarily thinks of
as in the distant heavens ruling over the earth. This was the
notion underlying the burnt-offering (e.g. Gen. viii. 20), and
the equivalent substitution, the surrender of some possession
or something treasured, was likewise present and emphasized
therein. But even these sacrifices sufficed not to bring peace
to the conscience. Can an animal make an appearance for a
man ? Would it not be proper that a man, and that a very
dear and much loved man, even the offerer's own son, should
be presented unto God ? This was not proper, in the first
place, because every man by his own sin was under the doom
of death, so that he could not atone for the sin of another ;
and secondly, because a man, even one's own son, is not the
property of the offerer, but the property of God, and therefore
as little suited for essential substitution as for personal. It
was not proper, yet one can understand how men hit upon the
idea. And thus have we, even among noble Japhetic nations,
the Greeks, the Romans, the Germans, significant traces of
human sacrifices having been made in very early times, apart
altogether from the savage practice in later times of slaughter-
ing prisoners of war in honour of the war-god. These noble
human sacrifices are quite essentially distinguished from the
horrible Moloch sacrifices of the Euphrates -Semites, which had
not in the remotest degree any reference to the consciousness

§ 310.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 359

of guilt and the idea of an essential and personal substitution,
but were presented to the deity of the blind process of nature,
which produced and then again destroyed its own production,
bereft altogether of any moral notion. The Israelites may be
considered as from the first preserved from the error of the
more nobly conceived human sacrifices. This occurred through
the incident recorded in Gen. xxii. God demanded for a burnt-
offering Abraham's son, whom he had given Him by a miracle
(Gen. xviii. 11), and on whom the promise rested (Gen. xvii.
19). Firmly believing that God could not be unfaithful to
His promise, and so restore the victim again to life (Rom. iv.
1 7 ; Heb. xi. 1 9), he prepared himself to obey ; but God sub-
stituted an animal for Isaac. Since, then, God had Himself
declared that He preferred an animal sacrifice, every doubt as
to whether God would be satisfied with an animal sacrifice
was dispelled. And then afterward in the law at Sinai, God
ordained animal sacrifice, and expressly forbade human sacri-
fice (Lev. xviii. 21).

§ 310. The Period of the Judges.

When the Israelites entered Palestine, the plague of the
Baal-worship had laid hold upon the Canaanites, and the pro-
duct of Semitic corruption had called into existence on the
neighbouring territory of Hamitic barbarism a form of religion
like that which we have already seen to be current among
the Phoenicians (§ 251), and in Palestine exhibitions possibly
were met with of a yet more horrible kind (Num. xxv. 1 ff. ;
comp. the command, Deut. xxiii. 18 ; further, 1 Kings xiv. 24,
xv. 12, xxii. 47; 2 Kings xxiii. 7; also Judg. ii, 17, etc.,
where ^ins H3T is wrongly taken symbolically, but rather just
means the 7ro/Ji>eta-service of Ashera). The animal vice of
whoredom was regarded as service to the deity ; on all hills
and under all trees (2 Kings xvi. 4, xvii. 10; Jer. ii. 20;
Ezek. vi. 13, xx. 28) stood pillars and images of Ashera
(Judg. iii. 7; 1 Kings xiv. 23), where that vile worship was

360 THE EEVELATIOX OF GOD. [§ 310.

practised. The Canaanites were foul to the very marrow and
ripe for judgment, and Israel was not to be infected by the
plague ; hence the righteous and gracious command of the
holy God that the Canaanites should be utterly destroyed.
We call this command a gracious one. Rationalistic sen-
timentality * has regarded it as hard and cruel ; but the
individuals of the generation that perished through the
charem had in any case once to die, and that this generation
should have no descendants of a still blacker die was grace,
or rather, would have been grace had only Israel obeyed, and
consistently and completely fulfilled the command. But the
Semitic nature fell lusting after the lusts of the Baal-worship
(Num. xxv.), stopped short in the execution of the divine
injunction, allowed (Judg. i. 21 ff.) a portion, by no means
small, of the Canaanite inhabitants to escape, and were tempted
by them to engage in the worship of Baal (Judg. ii. 17,
iii. 7, x. 6, etc. ; comp. chap. vi. 28). Then God gave them
up for chastisement to the tyranny of their neighbours, the
Philistines, the Ammonites, the Midianites, the Moabites, etc.,
till in their need they cried to the Lord, and He revealed
Himself to them, and called individuals (e.g. Judg. iv. 4-8,
vi. 8, and xi. ff.), and endowed them with courage, wisdom,
and power to free the subject people and restore the worship
of Jahavah. The tabernacle with its high priest and sacri-
ficial worship (1 Sam. i. 3) and series of festivals (Judg.
xxi. 19) continued to exist throughout the period of trouble
and decay, and was regarded as a safe retreat by that por-
tion of the people which had not yielded to seduction, or had
under the influence of the divine chastisements returned again
to the service of God (1 Sam. iv. 3). But that in that
period of oppression and confusion the precepts of the Torah
should have been preserved only in an imperfect and frag-
mentary form is what might have been expected, and it is
mere folly to draw from the deviations in the ordinary form

1 Samuel was entirely free from such sentimentality, Saul was not
(1 Sam. xv. 8 and 33).

§ 310.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 361

of the law during the period of the Judges the conclusion
that the law did not as then at all exist. Many of these
deviations are, indeed, only in appearance. The Baal- worship
on the high places (Judg. iii. 7, etc.) is in conflict with the
prohibition of any other places for sacrifice than the door
of the tabernacle (Lev. xvii. ; Deut. xii.), or when Gideon in
Ophra by the setting up of a golden ephod gave occasion to
image-worship (Judg. viii. 27), or Micah engaged in idolatrous
practices (Judg. xvii. 4), — but there is no such conflict when
God as mrv ijxta appears visibly, and an offering is then
brought to Him (Judg. ii. 5, vi. 24, xiii. 16); for the latter is
required and approved by an angel of the Lord Himself
(Judg. xiii. 16), and not on its own account, but on account
of the God present in the holiest of all over the ark of the
covenant was the tabernacle the appointed place of sacrifice.
When, moreover, the ark of the Lord was carried in war to
Bethel (Judg. xx. 27), and before it an altar was raised and a
sacrifice presented (Judg. xxi. 4), this is quite in keeping with
what we have in Lev. xvii It was not on account of the taber-
nacle that the ark of the covenant existed, but on account of
this ark of the covenant was the tabernacle the legitimate place
for sacrifice. When Samuel (] Sam. ix. 12), at his residence
in Eamah in the land of Zuph (south of Bethlehem, comp.
1 Sam. x. 2), presented a sacrifice to God on a high place, the
offering seems in this case to have been occasioned by the pre-
ceding theophany (ix. 5). In ver. 1 2 it is expressly said, "For the
people have a sacrifice to-day." But it is mere silliness from these
passages to think to draw the conclusion that the God originally,
and still during the period of the Judges, worshipped in Israel
was no other than the Semitic Baal, or at least some sort of Baal
(see Obs.~), and . that He was then usually worshipped on high
places, and that first in later times was Jehovism introduced
along with the law that Jehovah should be worshipped only
in the tabernacle, whereas the whole history of the period of
the Judges from first to last is taken up with an account of
the vigorous antagonism of the worship of the self-revealing

362 , THE KEVELATION OF GOD. [§ 310.

Jehovah and the service of Baal. — The moral condition of
the people during this rough, wild age showed more of a
retrogression than a progression, quite as might be expected,
seeing that this whole period as such was one of great falling
off on the part of the people of the fear of God (Judg. ii.).
The Lord must again begin from the first to heal and
strengthen the damaged root that threatened the very seat
of life, so that in future times blossoms and fruits might
be developed. We find individual ethically beautiful traits
in Deborah, Barak, Gideon ; in Jephthah and Samson, again,
the moral element falls into the background. God has been
obliged to be satisfied with fitting out these men by miraculous
endowments of His Spirit so as to make them, as it were,
involuntary and blind instruments for His particular opera-
tions which they had to perform for God's purposes on others
and for others, without having been themselves men renewed
in heart and spirit. They were servants of God, not chil-
dren ; l servants who acknowledged the one living and true
God, and faithfully (faithfully in a relative sense, Judg.
viii. 27) rendered Him service, and continued to avoid and
abhor the worship of Baal. In the struggle between the
service of God and the service of Baal, they attached them-
selves to the party of God, and this negative attitude was for
the time enough. The garden must be saved from the
rushing flood which could destroy it utterly, and would have
turned it into a poisonous swamp. The rooting out of weeds
from within the garden was a work that must be left for later
times. With every decline in the worship of the true God
there was a corresponding decline in public morals ; conscience
could not wholly fall asleep. When Samson (Judg. xvi. 1, 4)
entered into relations with a Philistine harlot, we see the sinful

1 "We cannot, indeed, speak of children of God in the strict sense in the
Old Covenant. One becomes a child of God first when born again of Christ.
He gives the power to become sons of God (John i. 12). But a germ of the
child-consciousness was already possible even under the Old Covenant,
namely, to those whose believing knowledge and trust were directed
to the future salvation promised (Isa. Ixiv. 16 ; Heb. xi. 13-16).

§ 310.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 363

rudeness of fleshly lust ; but there is a heaven-wide difference
between the sinful coarseness and the conniption of the Baal-
worshippers, which made whoredom a part of divine worship.
And far above Samson stand his parents, also Jephthah
(Judg. xi. 34 f.) and Gideon.

Obs. — In Jephthah's history some find a hint that among the
Israelites whoredom belonged to the service of their national
god, as it belonged to the Baal-worship of the Canaanites and
heathen Semites. Jephthah, when he could not offer his
daughter as a burnt-offering, gave her as a temple attendant to
the service of the god for the said purpose. Hence the maiden
bewailed the loss of her virginity for two months. The words,
Judg. xi. 39 : K*N njrv vb «vn, are then used in reference to the
past. But this rendering is as senseless as possible. If the
idea of the national god of Israel was similar to that of Baal,
nothing would have prevented Jephthah from burning his
daughter in honour of this god, since such offerings by fire were
certainly proper to the Baal-worship (comp. Lev. xviii. 21 ;
Deut. xviii. 10) ; and if he avoided doing this from paternal
tenderness, then it would not have been said in ver. 39, trjn
mms r6, but it ought to have explained that, and why he
left his vow unfulfilled, and what he substituted in its place.
Further, if it is regarded as an act of divine worship to
surrender oneself as a temple attendant, it is not conceivable
how the. maiden should bewail the loss of her virginity ; not
amid lamentation, but amid wild demoniac exultation did the
female devotees of Baal and Bilit give themselves up to dis-
honour. That explanation is based upon two assumptions which
are mutually exclusive : that prostitution had been introduced
as an act well-pleasing to the gods, and that in reference to
it there existed a fine moral feeling, and that it was considered
a misfortune and dire calamity. Finally, the observation : " she
knew no man," seems on that assumption quite vain, since in the
Baal- worship married women as well as virgins gave themselves
up to such practice in the temples. — The idea that Jephthah
actually slew his daughter as nt'lj? is golden as compared with
that vile interpretation. She bewailed then " her virginity,"
i.e. not the loss of it, of which there is no mention at all, but that
she must die a virgin, in accordance with which her not having
known a man is quite a reasonable expression. It is well known
that among the Israelites marriage and the blessing of children
seemed the highest good, and barrenness the greatest misfor-
tune.— And yet even this explanation is not tenable. The
Book of Judges is written for readers, all of whom it is
admitted would assume that (Lev. xviii. 21) Jehovah would

364 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 311.

have no human sacrifices made to Him, specially not of children
by their parents, and above all not as burnt-sacrifices. It is
clear that the first half of the vow must have been fulfilled
upon the maiden, and what is implied when a man is spoken
of as being the Lord's is already clear from Judg. xiii. 5 and
1 Sam. i. 11. But, farther, the author writes quite expressly
(Judg. xi. 39) : he did with her according to his vow which he
had vowed, and she knew no man. (The preterite serves here
to render the negative judgment absolute ; the future with vctu
conversive would not have suited here.) This shows how the
first part of the vow is to be understood. How the second
half of the vow must have been fulfilled, is most clearly laid
down in Lev. xxvii. 1-7. Whoever had vowed a man to God
as a burnt-offering, he dared not actually slay and burn him
(comp. Deut. xii. 31, also the horror of the Israelites on seeing
such a sight, 2 Kings iii. 27), but must have him valued by the
priests in order that he may buy with the valuation price an
animal to offer, and slay and burn this. (Comp. Kohler, Lehrb.
der bibl. G-esch. a. T. p. 100 ff.)— So then Jephthah's daughter
spends her lifetime as a virgin in maidenly service in the
tabernacle, and this devotement to an unmarried life she
bewails. Such maidens of the sanctuary are spoken of in
1 Sam. ii. 22 ; and that their tasks were not those of the temple
attendants of Baal follows from this passage, where it is re-
garded as an unpardonable sin against the Lord that Eli's sons
had intercourse with them, which, according to that, would
have been very well pleasing to Baal, and would have been
regarded as an act honouring to Baal. How unworthy it is to
rend from their connection isolated points in a story and to
twist it into its own very opposite, so that it stands in con-
tradiction to the rest of the narrative, and then to represent
those distorted features as the historical germ, and all the rest
as a later mythical and evidently forged addition !

§ 311. The Period of the Kings and the Prophets.

After Israel, under Samuel and Saul, had definitely thrown
off the yoke of the neighbouring nations, there was under
David a flourishing and powerful State, in which the worship
of the living God and the performance of the law were fully
carried ont. Thus the brilliant period of David's reign became
an actual prophecy of the New Testament kingdom of God,
but still only a prophecy and not the fulfilment. As yet the
divine act of redemption had not taken place j the law awoke,

§ 311.] THE EEDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 365

the sacrificial worship quieted conscience for the time being ;
but the real atonement for the guilt of sin was not yet accom-
plished, and so the curse of sin was not yet broken. David
himself, in whom already rich fruits of moral holiness had
ripened (e.g. 2 Sam. iii. 33, xvi 10, xviii. 33), fell into a ter-
rible double deadly sin (2 Sam. xi.), which God brought home
to him by means of sore chastisement, and of which David
sincerely repented. Had the people, like him, yielded them-
selves under the hand of God, there had then been an advance
in the spiritual condition of Israel. But there actually was
a decline. The Semitic tendency to naturalism made itself
conspicuous in Solomon, who at the end of a life full of
wisdom and glory allowed himself to be led away by his wives
to the worship of Baal and Moloch. In consequence of this,
the plague of the most corrupt paganism was planted down
in the midst of Israel, and thus was laid the germ of utter
desolation. The division of the kingdom followed as a divine
judgment. The whole period that followed, down to the exile,
was a time of extraordinary declension. In the kingdom of
the twelve tribes the deterioration proceeded from the politic
image-worship of Jeroboam to the Baal-worship of Jezebel,
and Jehu's reformation was only half-hearted, and therefore,
from its very nature, without lasting significance. In the
kingdom of Judah the sins of Solomon were continued, with
short periods of fluctuation (1 Kings xiv. 23 f., xv. 3 ; comp.
with xi. 11); by means of affinity with Ahab's house it
became worse and worse. Israel's inbred naturalism as a
Semitic characteristic was seen conspicuously in the specifically
Semitic pantheistic foul nature-worship of the religion of Baal,
and the consequent departure from God. On the other hand,
there are acts of the living God which snatched the people
from the threatened danger of utter declension into the most
corrupt forms of paganism. During the most critical period,
that of Jezebel, prophecy makes its appearance as, in this form,
a new instrument in the hands of God. It starts with the
heroic figure of Elijah. The living God reveals Himself as

366 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 311.

the living, free, almighty, over against the deity of the unbend-
ing course of nature conceived of by men (2 Kings xviii.).
Elijah at God's command executes against the priests of Baal
that same righteous and necessary judgment, one also in
accordance with law (Lev. xvii. 2 ff.), which Joshua had
formerly been compelled to carry out upon the Canaanites.
But he must experience and learn that judgment and the
fulfiment of law do indeed set limits to corruption, but cannot
break the evil, sinful will (2 Kings xix.), and that the Lord
Himself is not in the judgments of the Lord, but in the still
small voice of His Spirit. The whole of the prophecy of all
subsequent prophets is only a development of this one truth,
is a pointing on of law to the future salvation of redeeming
grace. As Elijah in acts, so they in words, had to punish the
sins of the people, to set forth the innermost meaning and the
innermost demands of the law, but above all, to point away
from the provisional ritual of expiation through sacrificial
worship to the need and the promise of a real redemption, from
the sign to the thing signified. Hence, while they prophesy
of future judgments, they promise salvation and redemption.
Joel, in the closest spiritual relationship with 2 Kings xix.
11-13, prophesies that God, while visiting all the nations with
judgment, will pause till He had poured out His Spirit on
His people, and had given it spiritual renewal ; therefore a
gracious healing operation of God should precede the judg-
ment, fitting them for undergoing the judgment. Amos
makes known that Israel has no reason to look forward
with delight to the judgment day of Jehovah, as though it
were that people described in Joel iv. 2 ; even Israel could
not endure the judgment of God (Amos v. 18 ff.), and yet
a judgment of God against her is at hand, especially sub-
jection under the Gentile and exile (Amos vii.-ix.) ; only if
thereby she is brought to repentance will God raise up again
the tabernacle of David that is fallen. Hosea carries out
this prophecy to further development ; the kingdom of the
ten tribes will be carried away to the river Euphrates in

§ 311.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 367

Assyria. When under Ahaz, even in Judah, rebellion gained
the mastery, which Hezekiah was able only temporarily to
turn aside, Micah pronounced the threat of exile against
Judah, but prophesied also that after the chastisement of
exile had been suffered, Zion, as the abode of the word of the
Lord, would become the meeting-place of the nations, whither
they should turn in order to be converted to the true God
(Micah iv. 1-5) : " And thou, O tower of the flock (where the
first David first tended his flock), 0 hill! the daughter of
Zion shall come unto thee (to meet there the second David),
and the former dominion shall come, the kingdom of the
daughter of Jerusalem " (iv. 8) ; then, v. 1 : Out of Bethlehem
shall go forth the future ruler and king, He, that is to say, whose
goings forth have been from of old, yea, from everlasting, as
Jehovah, before ever His people had gone out of Egypt; and yet
in ver. 3 he is distinguished from Jehovah, and described as a
man. Contemporarily with Micah, Isaiah prophesied the birth
of a human child, to be called and to be God, inr^N, and to
reign eternally on the throne of David. Before this virgin's
child1 is born the land was to become desolate, and to be
subject to the Assyrians, so that only pasturage and forests
with wild honey should remain in it (vii. 15-25). Hence,
first exile, then, but still during the time of need consequent

1 Rationalism has made the discovery that nof>J7 means, not the virgo
intacta, but a grown maiden as marriageable. Some have derived the word
from the Arab, ghalama, "to be marriageable." But in the Hebr. Q^y
means celare, and HO^V is connected with chy, celare, just as pforn with
brQ, segregare, and in all places where the nD^JJ is met with it is virgin
that is intended (virgines intactce) ; and this meaning suits the context
(Gen. xxiv. 43 ; Ex. ii. 8 ; Prov. xxx. 19, where not a grown young
woman, in contrast to the parea puella, but the bride on the bridal night ;
and Song of Songs i. 3 and 8). When He who already from of old had
gone forth before His people (Micah v. 1), the "1132~^X, whose own the land
and people already are (Isa viii. 8, 10), should be born as the future
Saviour (Isa. ix. 5-7), and indeed as the Branch (Isa. xi. 1) promised
to David by Nathan (2 Sam. vii.), it followed from these premisses, so
becoming in themselves, and so strongly confirmed by the Holy Spirit in
the prophet, that the D^iyo cannot be being first begotten of a father, but
only entering into the womb of a mother. Corup. § 138 in vol. i. p. 334.

368 . THE REVELATION OF GOD. (_§ 811.

upon the exile, the birth of Immanuel. That the child of
Isaiah, Maher-shalal-hash-baz (viii. 1), was not the Immanuel
prophesied, but a typical foreshadowing of Him, and indeed
first of all a warning of the immediately approaching overthrow
of Samaria, ver. 4, is quite evident. This child was even bora
before the beginning of the exile. — But as each successive
stage of the prophecy is organically developed out of the
preceding under the control of the Holy Spirit in the prophet,
so also was this Messianic prophecy of Micah and Isaiah only
the organic unfolding of that which Nathan had declared to
David in 2 Sam. viii. It was not David that was to build a
house to the Lord, but the Lord that was to build a house to
the seed of David, and this seed should reign for ever. David
himself immediately acknowledged that this promise given to
his seed, i.e. his descendants, could find its fulfilment (Ps. ii.
and Ps. ex.), not in a multitude, but only in one individual in
" the estate of a man of the high degree of Jehovah, of God "
(1 Chron. xviL 17); but Solomon understood and confessed
(1 Kings viii. 25 ff.) that he was not this promised seed of
David. Therewith was given the germ and groundwork of
the hope and promise and expectation of a branch of David
who should be a man of equal rank with Jehovah. — When
the Babylonian empire arose on the ruins of the declining
Assyrian empire, it was further revealed to Isaiah that the
kingdom of Judah, preserved by God from the power of
Assyria for the sake of Hezekiah's faithfulness, should be
carried away into exile by the hand of Babylon (Isa. xxxix.
and xiii. and xiv.). Closely connected with the indolent
resignation wherewith Hezekiah (xxxix. 8) receives this an-
nouncement, is the great prophecy of the SERVANT OF GOD in
Isa. xl.-lxvi., expressed in terms thoroughly in keeping with
the Palestinian views of nature, and consequently not first
originated during the exile in Babylon. In respect of calling,
Israel is the servant of God among the Gentile nations and
for them (xliii. 1, xlii. 6, xliv. 1 and 21), who in this service
has to endure the hatred of the heathen ; but Israel is herself

§ 811.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 369

blind (xlii. 19), and has fallen away from God to heathen
idols (xliii. 22 ff., xlviii. 1-8, etc.), and suffering therefore her
many troubles as righteous judgments (xlii. 24). Therefore
God needed first again a servant who should bring Israel again
to Him (xlix. 5), and, ver. 6, through Israel also the Gentiles.
But not even Isaiah is this servant ; he has spent his strength
for his people for nought, ver. 4. He points to a servant of
God of the future, by whom the people shall be comforted
after their exilian distress (xlix. 13 ; comp. xl. 1), and should
be delivered out of this and all other distress. But as in
chap. xxiv. the prophetic view of the joyous return from the
exile (vv. 14-16) is suddenly interrupted by the view of a
new misdeed and new chastisements (vv. 16-20), he was by
a process of analogy thinking himself into the position of the
servant-prophet of the future, that he too will suffer opposi-
tion, reproach, yea, even death (1. 5 ff.) ; the call to Israel to
repent remains unheeded (li.) ; the joyful shout, Thy God
reigneth (lii. *7), awakens no enthusiasm ; they take offence
at his lowly form, and despise and reject him (liii. 1-3). And
just for this reason, that in his guiltless sufferings and death
he bore the guilt (py, ver. 6) and the punishment (IDID, ver. 5)
of our sins patiently as a lamb, he fulfils the Father's decree
of redemption, he constitutes the true sin-offering (DE>X,
ver. 1 0). In this way he breaks the curse of sin ; there now
comes to him a great people (liv. ff.) from the Gentiles
(liv. 3, Iv. 5), but a part of Israel still continues hardened
(Ivii.), until finally, through God's sharp discipline (Ixv. 13,
etc.), they are brought to cry to the Lord (Ixiv.) ; those who
remain hardened against the redeeming grace of God fall under
eternal condemnation (Ixvi. 24). — The essential part of this
prophecy was repeated and further developed during succeeding
ages (Jer. xxiii. 29 ff., xxxiii. ; Ezek. xviii., xxxiii. f . ; Zeph.
iii. ; Hag. ii. ; Zech. viii. ff.). — The exile began. What had
happened on a small scale in the times of the Judges happened
on a large scale now ; the people who had once and again
forsaken their Lord, and had gone a-whoring after the service

EBRAKD III. 2 A

370 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 311.

of Baal, were obliged, now in the cradle of this Baal-worship
in Babylon, to groan for more than two generations under the
cruel and harsh oppression of the worshippers of Baal. Here
they were thoroughly cured of their love for Baal. It must
have been a moment for Israel of great relief when the natur-
ally noble Japhetic race of the Iranians, with their acknow-
ledgment of one holy Creator of the world, restored to them
by Zarathustra, overthrew the Babylonian empire. Cyrus
(Iranian Kurush), already foretold of God by Isaiah, allowed
the return of the banished ; but already had God through
Daniel l declared that notwithstanding the return to Palestine
from the seventy years' exile, foretold in Jer. xxv., the entire
period of the subjection of Israel under heathen monarchs
would be extended to seventy times seven years, until the
redemption and reconciliation (ix. 24) should come. What
Isaiah had seen perspectively as contemporaneous — the return
from exile and the appearance of redemption — now are seen
to be entirely apart. — If Daniel foresees and foretells special
occurrences (chap. xi. ; comp. also Ezek. xxiv. 1, the vision
in the distance, and Jer. 1. f.), a gift is here placed at the
service of the Holy Spirit, which, even in the secular life, is
here and there met with under the name of second sight. The
prophetic gift of the prophet in the service and spirit of the
living God is related to the soothsaying stoutly forbidden in
the Old Testament law, the miraculous gift of the prophet to
the heathen sorcery, just as the God-enjoined sacrificial wor-
ship of Israel is to the sacrifices of the heathens, that is, as
truth to its distortion and caricature.

Obs. — Anything more crude, destitute of truth, and utterly
absurd cannot be written than that which D. Fr. Strauss (Let).

1 To push this Daniel away down into the Maccabean age is an unhappy
attempt. How could that Maccabean age, with its narrow-hearted, fana-
tical hatred of the Gentiles and characteristic Semitic arrogance, have
conceived of such a figure as that Daniel who, while firm as a rock in his
fidelity to his God, exhibited at the same time the most wonderful large-
heartedness toward the Gentile ruler (e.g. Dan. iv. 16) and toward the
forms of the Magian learning ?

§.311.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 371

Jesu f. d. deutsche Volk, p. 1G8) has written : " Little trace is
to be found of that special treasure which Israel had been pro-
mised by her Jehovah, seeing that with short interruptions
there was scarcely ever a people more held down than the
chosen people of the Jewish race. This, indeed, the priests and
prophets of the one God represent as chastisement for the
people's disobedience, whereas the people might excuse their
unwillingness to serve such a God by citing the non-appearance
of the special treasure which they had been led by him to expect."
— Where, then, was the people of Israel led to expect a special
treasure apart altogether from any condition ? Let him read
Lev. xxvi., Deut. xi. 26. So long as the people under Joshua,
under Samuel, under David, and in the beginning of Solomon's
reign, feared God, they conquered everywhere. The pious
Hezekiah was delivered from Sennacherib. So often as the
people rebelled against God they were chastised. And now
this unhappy man affirms that the prophets had described
strokes of misfortune only as " penal judgments," and rebellion
against Jehovah is the righteous return for his breaking of his
word ! Thus with his unwashed fingers does he catch a history
of Israel with its head placed downwards. This is the same D.
Fr. Strauss whom I already, before his removal from this world,
publicly, in my Gospel History, charged with being guilty of
falsifying a quotation from a Church Father (Tertull. de bapt. 15),
and who found it convenient to remain lying under the reproach,
and never to answer a single word. It would have cost him
some trouble to find anything to reply ! Tertullian and like-
wise Jerome (Gated. 77) relate that a presbyter of Asia Minor
in the second century composed a legend of Paul and Thecla,
also called Kpd%u; nau/.ov, in such a form as if Paul himself
were the author, and that this presbyter had consequently been
deposed, notwithstanding his excuse id se amore Pauli fecisse.
Hence it follows that the Church of the second century
could not endure the forging of spurious writings, and acted
very decidedly in reference to the matter. D. Fr. Strauss, in
order to make the German people believe the opposite, cited
the beginning of that passage, but left out the words that spoke
of punishment by deposition, and added to it the fabricated
statement that the Church had " kept in use " that very writing
(whereas, according to Euseb. iii. 25, it had rather reckoned it
among the vodoig), and, " on the ground of this, had celebrated a
feast to that same saint " (in the Middle Ages, but not in the
second century), and proved to " the German people," on the
ground of those three fabrications and lies, that critical admis-
sion of ungenuine writings had been the order of the day in the
pre-Constantine age ! This surely is an admirable man to be
recommended by a teacher of the German people as a pattern !

372 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 312.

§ 312. The Divine Act of Redemption.

Malachi, the last of the Old Testament prophets, had pro-
phesied that there would be no further revelation of God until
the final manifestation of Jehovah Himself coming to His
temple accompanied by an alter Elms. And so it was. Cured
of their idolatrous tendencies, the people were left to themselves
and to their outward and inward distress, until during the
period of Eoman supremacy the divine act of redemption was
wrought. Wherein this divine act of redemption in Christ
consisted has been already shown in the First Part, § 138
(see vol. i. p. 334). The climax of this Second Part is iden-
tical with that of the First as the corner-stone of the whole.
The indistinct glimmering desire of the heathen world, and the
unquieted, because only symbolically and figuratively quieted,
desire of the people of Israel has found in the incarnate Son
of God their real and absolute satisfaction. A sinless holy man
was given,1 of purely human development, yet one in will and
being with the Father, holy in the form of human self-deter-
mination, who by reason of the voluntary act of His incarnation
had placed Himself under the natural consequences of sin,
natural amenability to death, and therewith to natural suffer-
ing, § 129 ff., and who, by reason of His constant self-deter-
mination to that which is good (John iv. 34), which allowed Him
not to connive in the least with lies and sin, endured in a violent
death the actual outbreak of potent sin. Sin in all its forms
spent its rage upon Him. He experienced pain from the weak-
ness of His believing disciples (Matt. xxvi. 35, 40, 51, 69 ff.).
The sin of the heathen world in the form of moral frivolity

1 The statement as to how in a genuinely human consciousness of the
boyhood and youth of the growing incarnate Son of God the knowledge
and consciousness of His calling as Messiah and of His eternal being
(John viii. 58) had grown and developed, is a necessary supplement
to § 138, which I recommend to be here read over again. This statement
I have given in my Gospel History, § 51, and could here have done
nothing else than reprint what is said there. Reference, therefore, is
simply made to that passage.

§ 312.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 373

and indifference (Matt, xxvii 24-26), and as savage barbarity
(vv. 27-29), was directed against Him. But the Jews, who de-
livered Him to the pagan Romans, with their specifically Semitic
corruption, were the main occasion and authors of His sufferings
and death. What parallels of Jewish and pagan personalities
are contained in the Gospel history ! We might place to-
gether the Jewish nobleman, John iv. 47 ff., who did not
trouble himself with questions of religion and matters of the
soul, and so did not think of Jesus until a family affliction
led him to Jesus for help in the affairs of this life ; and the
Gentile centurion of Matt, viii., who was a friend of the
Jewish race despised by the Eomans, because he was a wor-
shipper of Israel's God (cornp. Luke vii. 5), and who had so
great a measure of acquaintance with and understanding of
Messianic prophecy, that it was clear to him (Luke vii. 7 f.)
that Jesus the Messiah is more than an avdpwTros VTTO
fgovcrutv, and who had such a great measure of love that set
all his friends to work on behalf of his sick slave, and who
had awakened and called forth so much love that the
friends, Gentiles and Jews, willingly and " instantly " (Luke
vii. 4) interested themselves in his servant. We might con-
sider the impression made upon the Eoman Pilate in one hour
by the appearance of Jesus, and compare it with that made on
the chief priests and the people of the Jews during the three
and a half years' activity of Jesus under which they remained
hardened. As a thoroughly skilled official, Pilate immedi-
ately saw through the hypocritical spite of the Jews (John
xviii. 29), admitted that Jesus was no political adventurer1
(vv. 34-38), declared Him innocent (ver. 38; Luke xxiii. 4),
and used every endeavour to secure His escape. Throughout
this whole procedure Pilate appears a naturally noble man.
First, where (John xix. 12) the alternative is placed before

1 The words, What is truth ? could not in this connection have been
the expression of philosophical scepticism ; Pilate does not say as a
philosopher that truth is not discoverable, but he says as a statesman that
the kingdom of truth is politically free from danger.

374 . THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 312.

him either to assume the responsibility and reproach of de-
livering Him whom he had pronounced innocent or to con-
demn the guiltless, then for the first time did the natural
nobility of the man show its limitations. How very different
was it with the Jews ! What mean, low tricks on the part of
the Pharisees wherewith from the first they steeled themselves
against every call to repentance, men who utterly prevented
the purpose of the divine law to awaken the consciousness of
sin and humility, and with unspiritual and senseless precepts
of their own devising practised a thoroughly Semitic barter-
righteousness in the service of a thoroughly Semitic arrogance I1
How essentially of the same sort was the root idea of the
Sadducean party, in which the old tendency to heathenism
was only changed in form, — into the form of the cosmopoli-
tanism of Eeformed Judaism, with a tincture of Pantheism,
inwardly absolutely indifferent toward God, and directed only
to a cunning estimation of earthly relationships, goods, and
enjoyments ! 2 Over such souls sunk in corruption every
appeal of truth runs like water on a waxed floor. And now,
finally, of Judas ! Had he not had the natural gifts of an
apostle, he would not have been chosen by the Lord to a
place among the Twelve. For Judas, as well as for each of
His disciples, the question was whether he would bring his
heart to repentance and self-knowledge, and have himself
separated from his natural love of sin. So long as the
Galilean people applauded the Lord, Judas held the Lord dear
and listened to Him. When (John vi.) for the first time the
popular masses gave signs of deserting Jesus, there arose, as

1 The passages collected in the Mischna date in part from this period ;
even then the party of the Pharisees was dominated by that Talmudic
spirit which gave its attention to passages (e.g. of Corban, Mark vii. 11,
of the D^IVy, of the CprVC', etc.) which had only the effect of making it
possible to dispense with the law under the hypocritical pretence of the
strictest fulfilment of the law.

2 Herod Antipas is a genuine type of this Sadducean Judaism. Along-
side of him whom his wife, married to him in incestual adultery, tempted
to a murder, may be placed Pilate, whom his wife, faithfully concerned
about his peace of conscience, warned against committing a judicial murder.

THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 375

we must conclude from the warning of ver. 70, in the soul of
that disciple the dark feeling of indignation and disappoint-
ment. It may have dawned upon him, from the words of
Jesus in ver. 51, that the following of Jesus was not to bring
the hoped-for earthly glory. Possessed by the specifically
Semitic sin of greed, which showed itself in him in the most
despicable forms (John xii. 6), he surrendered himself more
and more to a spiteful hatred of Jesus. A man upon whom
the Japhetic characteristics had been imprinted would in such
circumstances have forsaken Jesus ; it was the crowning
example of the Semitic form of sin to feign submission and
thus betray his Master. This all the more commended itself
to him when a profit could be made out of it. When Dante
in his Inferno associates Brutus and Judas together, he
strangely overlooks a manifest difference between the two
cases. Brutus, in the interest of a political idea, therefore
really, or according to his own notion, for the well-being
of the State, sacrifices the duty of private gratitude, and was
not more ignoble than Ulysses in the Philoctetes. With
Judas he has not anything in common. Among the disciples
of Socrates there was no betrayer. To produce a Judas was
reserved for the Semitic race. And thus what was said in
§ 307 of the grounds and purpose of the choice of the
covenant people from the Semitic race is here thoroughly con-
firmed. Not in spite of, but because in it (comp. the sayings
of Christ, Matt. viii. 10, xi. 21, etc.) sin had assumed its most
potent form, and all conquest of sin was seen to be purely the
act and operation of God,1 the Semitic people of Israel was
chosen as the organ of preparation and as the arena of the act
of redemption.

WThen sin had spent the full measure of its rage upon the
incarnate Son of God, the sin-offering, which is of eternal
significance, was accomplished in His death, and He who was

1 Hence then, too, among such Semites as turn in repentance and be-
lievingly accept salvation (a Simeon, a John, a Paul, etc.), we behold the
noblest, because the humblest form of Christian faith and life.

376 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 312.

dead and is alive again for evermore went forth in a trans-
formed body from His grave as the first-fruits, the beginner
and king of a new humanity and of a new nature. Detailed
investigations regarding the genuineness and credibility of the
writings which witness to these facts belong not to this
department (see § 7), but to the so-called science of Intro-
duction. But apart from those detailed researches, the his-
torical truth of His incarnation, of His atoning death upon
the cross, of His resurrection and ascension into heaven,
stands unalterably firm, through witnesses which the most
negative criticism has not dared to impugn.

A. JESUS THE ETERNAL SON OF GOD IN TIME BECAME MAN.
In opposition to the pretext that this doctrine first appears in
the fourth Gospel, and that this writing had its origin only in
the second century, it is answered that, in Luke i. 17, John
the Baptist is called the forerunner of the icvpto? 6 ©eo? (for
only to this can avrov refer; comp. Paulus, de Wette, Bleek,
etc.), and compare the passages already cited in § 137 ; Matt.
ii. 6 ; Mark xiii. 32 ; Matt. xxvi. 63 ff. ; Luke i. 16 f. The
Revelation of John, not merely by the believing, but also by
the negative criticism of the present day, is emphatically
recognised as a genuine work of the apostle ; but just in it
Jesus declares Himself (i. 8, 18) as the "Alpha and Omega,
the beginning and the ending," as " the first and the last, and
He that liveth," who " was dead, but is alive for evermore,"
and (ii 18) as "the Son of God" who (ver. 23) "searcheth
the reins and the hearts," and (iii. 1) who "hath the seven
spirits of God " (i. 4, iv. 5) ; and in chap. xxi. 3 it is
said that God with them (Immanuel) shall be their God.
To this incontestable witness of the Apostle John may be
added the unexceptionable testimonies of the Apostle Paul
(1 Cor. i. 2, eiriKoKov^evo^ TO ovopa TOV Kvpiov r]^wv 'Irjaov
Xpiarov ; viil 6 ; 2 Cor. viii. 9). Now it should be remem-
bered that any deification of a creature would appear to the
Israelites of that age as a blasphemous enormity, and then let
one make the assumption that it had been a private specula-

§ 312.] THE REDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 377

tion of Paul himself, Ins own individual opinion that Jesus is
Son and Lord by whom the Father created all things (with
1 Cor. viii. 6 comp. Eoin. xi. 36), and that He, before He
became poor through His incarnation, had been rich, and even in
Moses' time (1 Cor. x. 4) already existed and invisibly accom-
panied the people, — if one. should suppose all this, then the
twelve apostles would not have had this belief, but, according
to Baur's assertion, would have pictured a purely Ebionite Jesus
as a mere man. What a bitter strife must then have broken
out between Paul and the Twelve ! Some have indeed, on the
ground of a false exegesis of Gal. ii., assumed that such a
struggle actually took place between them in regard to the
observance of the ceremonial law, but no one has ventured to
attribute to them any controversy over the doctrine of the
divinity of Christ. And how can this ever be done so long
as the genuineness of the Apocalypse is acknowledged, in
which either (according to the Christian theory) Christ re-
vealed Himself to John in visions as the eternal Son of God,
or, if (according to the modern pagan theory) John had only
invented these visions, he expresses at least his own belief
in the eternal divine Sonship of Christ. And Paul in the
admittedly genuine Epistles to the Corinthians (1 Cor. i. 2)
describes the Christians simply as people who call upon the
name of Jesus, i.e. worship Him (otr'n Xip). Would then an
Israelite, and it is admitted that there were plenty of Jewish
Christians in Corinth, have worshipped a creature ? But even
Peter himself says (1 Pet. i. 11) that in the prophets of the
Old Testament the spirit of Christ was already working. If,
now, the twelve apostles of the Lord were at one in this
TrXypofopia rrjs a-vveffews, we have in this the most convincing
and incontestable proof that they, these Israelites who would
shrink with horror from any deification of a creature, had received
from Jesus in deeds and words satisfactory proofs and demonstra-
tions of His eternal Godhead, and that the person and teaching
of Jesus must have been just what it is represented as being
in the Gospel of John, and not less in the other three Gospels.

378 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 312.

R In regard to the ATONING DEATH OF THE LORD, it is
enough to point to the holy Supper observed in the whole
Christian Church, and that from the very beginning (1 Cor.
x., xi.), in addition to which we consider that in 1 Cor. x.
16-21 Christ the Lord is again represented as God over
against the false gods of the heathens. In regard to the
CRUCIFIXION AS THE MODE OF DEATH, the passages Eom. vi. 6,
1 Cor. i. 13-18, ii. 2, 2 Cor. xiii. 4, Gal. ii. 20, v. 24,
vi. 14, should be sufficient.

C. As the holy Supper witnesses on behalf of the death
upon the cross, so THE OBSERVANCE OF THE LORD'S DAY

WITNESSES TO THE RESURRECTION OF THE LORD, taking rank

at first alongside of the Jewish Sabbath, and soon thereafter
taking its place. Only in consequence of a divine act could
Christendom have held itself entitled formally to change the
rite enjoined in the decalogue. Thus, then, we have testimony
borne to the fact of the resurrection, not only in such disputed
apostolical Epistles as Eph. i. 20, 2 Tim. ii. 8, and 1 Pet.
i. 4, but also in those which, as iucontestably genuine, are the
most certain of all (Rom. vi. 4 ; 1 Cor. ix. 1, xv.). The
apostle (1 Cor. xv. 6) could refer to the fact that the Risen
One had been seen by more than five hundred brethren at
once, of whom the greater part even then survived, which
excludes any thought of a merely subjective vision. The
insipid fancy of D. Fr. Strauss as to the way in which the
belief in the resurrection of Christ may have arisen without
the actual occurrence of this resurrection, in which he has
involved himself in the most ridicu^us self-contradictions,
has been already sufficiently commented on by me in my
Gospel History, where it is tried by the torch of reason and
found to be irrational. That even the appearance granted to
Paul on the way to Damascus was no mere subjective inward
dream- vision in the soul of Paul, but an objective appearance
of the Risen One, may be gathered indirectly from 1 Cor.
xv. 8 f., as well as from the fact that Paul designates the
resurrection of Christ (Eph. i. 19, 20) evepyeta rov Kpdrovs rijs

§ 312.] THE EEDEMPTIVE ACTS OF GOD. 379

tV^w»9 rov Qeov, and (in 1 Cor. xv. 53; 2 Cor. v. 2 f.) lie
speaks of the resurrection in general as a being clothed upon
of the material body in itself mortal with power, not as an
immaterializing. What sense would there be in this on the
supposition of a subjective dream-like vision, since in that case
no "working of the mighty power of God," but only some
nervous weakness of a man, would be required. But we have
direct proof from his disciple and fellow-traveller Luke, who,
partly in his own words, partly in those of the apostle, tells how
the appearance was seen also by the companions of the apostle,
though they perceived not indeed the form of Christ (Acts
ix. 7), but only the bright light (xxii. 9), by the brilliancy of
which they were dazzled (comp. ver. 11) ; and heard indeed
somewhat of the sound (ix. 7, rrjs favfy"), but could not
understand the words (xxii. 9, TTJV $wvr)v TOV XaXowro? /iot).
D. That the Risen One has ascended into heaven, and that
from thence He will visibly descend to judgment, is witnessed
to. again by Paul (1 Cor. i. 7, iv. 5, xv. 51 ; 2 Cor. v. 10 ;
comp. Eph. i. 20, iv. 9 ; Col. iii. 4 ; 1 Thess. iv. 13 ff.), by
Peter (1 Pet. i. 7, iv. 5), by John (Eev. i.-xxii.).— The
Ebionite Jesus, who was a mere man, exists only in the
imagination and wish of modern Buddhists, not in history.

Obs. 1.— D. Fr. Strauss (Leb. Jem / d. d. V. p. 206) affirms
that the historical Jesus of the first three Gospels thought that
the heavenly Father should be conceived of as unconditional and
indiscriminate goodness. One need only read Matt. viii. 12,
xii. 34, xxiii. 13 ff., 33, and 35, xxiv. 13, 31, and 51, xxv.
41 ff., and their parallels ! There is a certain tone which could
not certainly be used of a God who was " unconditional good-
ness." But in Jesus Christ, whether we refer to the synoptic
Gospels or the Gospel of John, there is represented throughout
the nature of that same holy God who had revealed Himself in
the Old Testament, of the God who in His grace, yea, through
His grace, is holy — through grace, because the kind of the
redemption with which pantheism, like its father, since Gen.
iii. 5, has been able to bless men — " there is no difference, and
it is all one whether you love God or set your will in opposition
to His ; the latter, just as well as the former, leads to the end,
yea, even better, for sin is a necessary transition point in the
development," would be not only a degradation but a complete

380 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 312.

brutalizing (comp. § 141). Christ indeed lias taught (Matt. v. 45)
that God exercises long-suffering toward the sinner, and gives
him a gracious respite, and that He actually exercised such long-
suffering (Luke xiii. 8 ; Matt, xxiii. 37), not, however, that He
may treat the sinner " without distinction," and lull his con-
science asleep, but in order to comfort those who have been
longing for salvation, the weary and heavy laden, to call the
impenitent by earnest threatening of doom unto repentance, to
proclaim in the ears of the hardened the infallible judgment of
God. Between Jesus Christ and the God of the Old Testament
there is not the least essential disagreement. " Search the
Scriptures, for they are they which testify of me."

Obs. 2. — The performance of miracles generally is historically
•witnessed to in 1 Cor. xii. 9 ; 2 Cor. xii. 12 ; Acts xvi. 26, xx.
9 ff., xxviii. 3-6, and 8, 9.

SECOND SECTION.
THE EFFECTS OF REDEMPTION.

§ 313. The Several Effects of Redemption.

TO those who believe in His name, Christ has given the
power to become the sons of God (John i. 12). In
regard to redemption, however, man has the right of free self-
determination (§ 135); he can harden himself against the
offered salvation, against the gracious operations of the Holy
Spirit on his inner man. Hence it may be at once concluded
that the divine act of redemption does not affect the subsequent
history of mankind mechanically after the pattern of a law of
nature, so that the process of historical development from the
appearing of Christ might be represented as that of the history
of a generation made free from sin. This indeed were impos-
sible for this reason, that Christianity must first spread itself
among unredeemed mankind, which requires time. So, then,
besides the community of those who believe in Christ, there is
present from the first the multitude of those who do not yet
believe, or have not yet even once heard of Christ. But even
within the range of the first community, yea, within the range
of the most exclusive, most exactly defined Christian com-
munion, individual self-determination remains always free, and
in it the possibility of an opposition to salvation or a turning
away again from it. Hence, then, Christ has foretold (Matt,
xiii. 24—30) that there will be no sort of community which
will not include stalks of tares along with the stalks of wheat.
It therefore follows that there can and must be an organic

3ol

382 THE REVELATION OF GOD.

communion of those who, through holy baptism, confess Christ
as Eedeemer ; but this communion — the Christian Church — is
a communion of the means of grace, not of the effects or results
of grace. God, on His part, stores up in it in the word and
sacraments all the means which are necessary in order to reach
unto eternal life, but the results of grace — the fruits of the
redeeming act of Christ — are always dependent upon the
individual self-determination. There are within the range of
the Church — the society which hands out to its members the
means of grace — visible because distinguished by baptism
from all that are without — nominal Christians and hypocrites,
and it never has been and never will be possible to form a
close communion which shall consist of members all truly
converted to Christ, born again of His Spirit, and endued with
the power of a new life. These " true Christians " constitute
the kingdom of God, known only to God, but not visible to
the eyes of men. — But still further : even among the true
Christians the fruits of redemption are here below always only
relative, because even in the redeemed individual alongside of
the new man of regeneration there is still the old man as some-
thing to be overcome, the last remnant of which will first be
utterly destroyed at the death of the body (comp. Rom. vii. 24).
— If, now, we inquire after the specific fruits of redemption,
after the proofs of its power, we have to advance this proof,
not from the history of Christian communities, but are quite
properly pointed to the biographies of Christian personalities
in whom the gospel has proved itself the power of God. And
thus through all centuries there exists a cloud of witnesses
before our eyes which in no respect comes behind that of the
Old Testament (Heb. xi.). We find among them no single
saint, at least no sinless man, let alone any one who per-
formed more than he was bound to do, and had " superfluous
merits." Even the purest Christian had his blemishes, — his
black side, — where the old man was still present in weaknesses
or one-sidednesses of character, in errors, in manifold moment-
ary failings. The world hostile to Christianity, which loves

§ 313.] THE EFFECTS OF REDEMPTION. 383

to blacken the shining and to drag the noble in the dust, is
never weary of pointing with scorn and malicious joy to any
naked point where a Christian lays himself open to attack.
But in doing so it always contributes something of its own, and
after all does not make much of it in the end ; for, if it regards
every sin and sinful weakness in the Christian as so evil, it
thereby involuntarily testifies that, according to its own convic-
tion and its own feeling, sin and Christian faith are incompatible
with one another, that therefore Christianity is directly hostile
to sin. Higher praise and fuller recognition Christianity cannot
desire. But whoever now considers with an unprejudiced
mind the history of the kingdom of God, — i.e. of those
witnesses, — this power of patience under sufferings, gentleness
toward persecutors, the constancy of faith which prefers tor-
tures and death to denial of the truth, the self-sacrificing love
which goes forth to the erring, the neglected, the miserable,
the sick, the poor, regards it as a sacred duty to alleviate every
sort of trouble, gives up earthly gain and enjoyment, the happi-
ness and ease of life, in order to work for Christ's kingdom in
the Spirit of Christ : then again, the power of heroic witnessing
against sin with willing endurance of the reproach of Christ,
or, to refer to more homely instances, whoever keeps in view the
sanctity of the family life, the purity of chastely-living youth,
the fostering of quiet domestic happiness in modesty and the
fear of God, the heavenly nobility of Christian wives — whoever
turns his attention to a Paul (2 Cor. xi.), a Polycarp, an Am-
brose, an Augustine, a Monica, a Patrick and Columba, a Peter
Waldus, an Elizabeth of Hesse, to the Eeformers, to those who
witnessed for the gospel with their blood, then again to a Spener,
Cocceius, Lampe, Tersteegen, Francke, Anna Frey, Amelie
Sieveking,Wilberforce, Fliederer, Baron v. Koltwiz, Gossner, and
hundreds who cannot here be named, or thousands of unknown
who yet are known to the Lord, — he will perceive that fruits of
purity, holiness, self-denial, Christian patience and Christian
courage have never been wanting, and that though the Spirit of
Christ here below makes of believers no sinless saints, He does

384 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 314.

make men of God, who walk in the fear of the Lord and in the
love of the Lord, and are engaged in a constant struggle against
sin. The celebrated blasphemer of God, now gone to his place,
has thrown contempt upon the position of a Christian engaged
in such a conflict, by comparing him to a beast on which an
angel rides. It is well, then, that the angel finally rides the
beast to death ; better such a riding angel than a mere beast.
The words of Jesus Christ in John xvi. 8-11 retain their
truth : the Holy Spirit proving in actual believers its sin-
conquering power convinces the world that it is wrong in
regard to sin, righteousness, and judgment. In regard to sin,
it becomes apparent that where there is no belief in Christ,
sin undestroyed and unpunished shoots up into a strong
growth. In regard to righteousness, it is felt that a world
which had no place for the solitary Being who was without sin,
but hated, drove away, and slew Him, as it still to-day hates
and to-day would slay Him, has not righteousness on its side ;
the world has a presentiment, and feels that the Church has a
living connection with its invisible, and by the world so much
hated head ; it feels that its hatred is directed against a really
supernatural power of life, and is therefore unrighteousness ;
the invisible Church of Christ is to it a phenomenon that
causes discomfort and uneasiness.1 Then also in regard to
judgment, it is convinced by the Spirit of the Lord proving
itself powerful in that Church, that the final judgment is already
in operation, that the sifting process in the world incessantly goes
on, and what will not let itself be saved is given over to certain
destruction. — But this leads to a second point— to the ferment-
ing influence which Christianity exercises upon the world.

§ 314. The Influence of Christianity on the Life of the
People and the State.

By means of the ordinance of baptism instituted by Christ
the multitude of the confessors of Christ are marked out and
1 With the Church as visible it sooner learns how to deal.

THE EFFECTS OF REDEMPTION. 385

brought together into a visible communion, the Christian
Church. To every member the Christian Church furnishes
the means of grace. In those means and through them the
Holy Spirit exercises His influence upon man (gratia sufficiens) ;
but the kind of use and the result of the means depends on
the self-determination of the man to repentance, faith, sancti-
fication. It is possible for a man to withdraw himself from
the operation of the Holy Spirit in the means of grace,
or not to use the means of grace themselves, or finally, to
use them hypocritically and only in appearance.1 Thus
(§ 313) the membership of the Church contains in itself
no guarantee of the membership of the kingdom of God.
But the kingdom of God, the invisible, that is, not visibly
marked off, community of those standing in the new life of
the Spirit of Christ, is within the range of the Christian
Church. With all its defects and blemishes and impurities,
the visible organization bears in it that invisible organism
(Eph. i. 22, iv. 15 ; John xv. 1 ff.) with its heavenly powers,
and therein the former, where it exists, and all the more
powerfully in proportion as it exists in relative purity,
exercises a transforming influence, not only upon the life of
the individual and family, but also upon that of the people
and the State. The influence which it thus exercises is that
of a witness. More than this the Christian Church should
not exercise. It should offer the means of grace, it should
not make their use compulsory, fur then it would usurp
authority over the State, and by civil laws enact entrance into
the Church, therefore baptism,2 or even faith itself. But it

1 One thinks, for example, of the Semite H. Heine, who from purely
worldly motives accepted baptism, and immediately after receiving the
ordinance wrote a letter full of blasphemy against the Christ whom he
hated.

2 And if not baptism, then also not the Christian consecration of
marriage. That by the introduction of civil marriages the Church and
Christendom should suffer damage, I cannot for my part admit. The
Church will then, if membership in it is a matter of free self-determina-
tion, first truly find again the power that comes from independence, and
this is also for the good of the State and public life. Only there evidently

EBRAKD III. - B

386 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 314.

must and does bear witness, the witness for the truth and
against lies and sin. In this its influence upon the life of
the people consists, in that it wakens the sleeping conscience
even in those who stand far removed from the faith. The
appropriation of redemption is a matter of individual self-
determination ; but conscience is a universal attribute of man
as such (§ 106). Thus, then, history teaches that the Christian
Church wherever it has spread itself, and wherever it has
affected the majority of a nation, has aroused the public con-
science, and has in this way secured that deeds, which might
have before passed unpunished, are now repudiated by the
civil legislature and are placed under the criminal code, by
which means the conscience awakened in regard to them is
also kept awake throughout succeeding generations. When
the Eoman State under Constantine adopted Christianity, the
gladiatorial contests, those butcheries for the enjoyment of a
brutalized public, as well as the production of obscene per-
formances at the theatre, were forbidden by an act of the
legislature ; the divorces, which had before been possible on
the flimsiest pretences, were in some measure restricted ; the
absolute power of fathers over their children, to kill them or
sell them as slaves, as well as that of masters over their
slaves, was greatly modified; slaves were placed under the
protection of the laws, and their condition generally was
essentially improved; the prisons were arranged and fitted
in accordance with more humane ideas ; the more horrible

must be in the Church and its officers as much force of character and
ecclesiastical esprit as to exercise in a consistent manner church discipline
against those who actually speak contemptuously of Christianity, e.g. by
the concluding of mixed marriages with those who are not Christians. —
This ecclesiastical esprit is wanting here and there. In the Zurich
State Church, calling itself Reformed, the simple declaration, "I wish
to belong to this State Church," is all that is required in order to be
received into it, and for full membership in it baptism is not indispens-
able ! Indeed, the two communions still rub together in the German'
Swiss State Church, the Christian and that of the heathenish "Reformer '
fumbling about in a transition process, but it might be wished that this
process were conducted with some more energy.

§ 314.] THE EFFECTS OF REDEMPTION. 387

forms of penal execution were abolished ; greater privileges
were accorded to women, and widows and orphans, who
previously were utterly uncared for, had now legal protection
extended to them.1

We shall not need to go through all the various nationalities
pointing out the legislative improvements introduced in con-
sequence of their receiving Christianity. The notorious
horrors that were publicly suffered : human sacrifices, blood-
revenge, murder, public immoralities and shameful deeds,
have all been prohibited by law. So also slavery was by
degrees completely abolished. When it was introduced
again in A.D. 1516 by Spain and Portugal as negro slavery,
this was done, indeed, on the well-meant but unfortunate
advice of the personally estimable Bishop Las Casas of
Chiapa, by a part of the Christian Church in which the
knowledge of the essential core and centre of Christianity,
the knowledge of the gospel, was thoroughly obscured; and
just in this way is explained the continuance of absolutism
and barbarism during the Middle Ages. By Christian believ-
ing statesmen of an evangelical State the abolition of negro
slavery was accomplished. To put it all in a few words :
Not where the Church has become a power, but where in the
Church the gospel has become a power, the Church exercises
its blissful influence as a witness upon the life of the people
and the State. And this influence is one that rejuvenates
the people. In the heathen world (§ 303) civilisation has
passed over particular peoples like a shadowy cloud, and after
it has past they are in deeper barbarism and rudeness than
before. When, on the other hand, the Eoman empire, that had
become politically rotten, was shattered by the wild heathen
German tribes, the Christianity of the conquered overcame
the conquerors. Among the Eomanic mixed races, as well as
among the pure Germans, and later also the Scandinavians,
the civilisation of ancient times lived on, their culture was

1 De Ehoer, dissertatio dc effectu religionis Christiana injurifprudentiam
Romcmam, Groniug. 1776.

388 THE EEVELATIOX OF GOD. [§ 314.

indeed a slow but steady revival, and with an ever-renewed
and increasing vigour these nations have surmounted every
historical crisis.

One must not, however, on this account entertain the idea
that that is to be ascribed to the credit of ancient civilisation
which was the proof of the power of Christianity ; and so we
turn, finally, to a consideration of the effects which the gospel
has directly produced upon wholly uncivilised peoples. The
modern heathenism of our day, quite properly characterized
on account of its hostility to missions as friendly to heathenism,
though not friendly to the heathens, affirms that missions do
nothing for the savage peoples, and that missionary effort is
foolishly lost labour,1 that we should give the heathen people
civilisation, or still better, we should let them follow out their
own development. We simply place these foolish and false
cries over against history. When, in A.D. 1816, the first
English missionaries, Jansen and During, went to the Cape
of Sierra Leone they found there twenty-two different negro
tribes, with twenty - two different idioms or dialects, in a
condition of utter corruption, and threatened with speedy
extinction. They went about quite naked, had no longer
any trace of marriage ; the ideal of that " free love " which is
advocated by a well-known party in our own day was realized
among the negroes, i.e. free sexual intercourse of all with all
as liking prompted, prevailed ; from fifteen to twenty persons
of both sexes lived together in the same hut. The physical
consequences were not far to seek. They were altogether
miserable and wasted ; the death-rate increased to a frightful
extent, while throughout the whole district in one year there
were only six births. Their religion consisted in gloomy and
most absurd Fetich- worship. Four years later, when Eenner
visited these coasts, he found a large village consisting of
nineteen streets with regularly built houses, inhabited by four
hundred respectably dressed married couples ; in six months

1 E.g. Kossak Hildebrandt's Reise um die Erde (in many passages).
Comp. the various writings of Gerstacker, Langhaus, etc.

§ 314.] THE EFFECTS OF KEDEMPTIOX. 389

there were only six deaths, while in last three months there
were forty-two births. These four hundred married couples
were Christians, the first - fruits of the mission ; thirteen
hundred negroes took part in Christian worship : live hundred
boys and girls attended school.1 All good qualities and
natural gifts of the Hamitic races, childlike openness and
trustfulness, hearty gratitude, were awakened out of the
grave, where they had slumbered for more than a thousand
years. But, first of all, the conscience had been awakened,
and, lo, it had suffered itself to awake ; it was still existing,
deep though its sleep had been, and under the light of the
gospel it quickly became a tender conscience, more tender
than that which the enemies of missions possess. This is
not an isolated case. That the Bushmen have reached the
very confines of extinction, and border upon the very brute
creation, has been shown in § 277. But even among them
the gospel has proved its regenerative power. Among many
facts this one will serve as an example, that at the consecration
of a new house of God in Bushland a choir of converted
Bushmen performed well and correctly the chorus, "The
Heavens are telling," from Haydn's Creation.2 Among the
Papuans of Australia the horrible custom prevailed of the
newly - married man giving over his young bride to all the
men of the tribe ; the children begotten from these connec-
tions were slain and eaten. The language of the people has
no words for the ideas "love, fidelity, honour, forgiveness.''
The people have no longer any trace of religion ; instead of it
there is only a faint conception of a good and a bad spirit, to
whom, however, no sort of worship is rendered. Nowhere
have idols or fetiches been met with, no ritual, no priest, no
sacrifice. Long-continued efforts of the Moravian missionaries
proved fruitless. When Threlkeld, nevertheless, attempted a

1 Keports by Jansen, During, and Eenner from 1816-1820 in Basl.
Miss. Mag. 1839, H. 2.

2 Schleinitz, "The Lowest of the Heathen," in History of Sixth Confer,
of Emng. Alliance, New York 1874, p. 622.

390 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 314.

new mission enterprise, the unbelieving laughed, even the
believing were doubtful. (Does still Darwinism maintain
that a crow has more mind or spirit than a Papuan !) But in
A.D. 1860 the first-fruits of New Holland Papuans, Nathanael
Pepper, was baptized ; by this time there is a considerable
number of Christian Papuan villages ; many Papuans have
learnt reading, writing, and arithmetic, and among the twelve
hundred colonial schools of New Holland that of Papuan
children at Eamahyuk has lately received from Government
the first prize.1 While previously the number of deaths far
exceeded the births, the relation which they bear to one
another is now quite the reverse. — On the strip of coast down
from Sierra Leone the Methodist missionaries alone, from A.D.
1817 to A.D. 1834, have gathered together no less than 2220
Church members of converted negroes. The Baptists had, in
A.D. 1856, in their East Indian and South African Mission
Stations 4240 communicants. And these are just the two
denominations which are most inclined to be slow in admitting
to baptism. In the New Hebrides, where in A.D. 18o9 the
missionary Williams was killed and eaten, there are now
50,000 converts. In New Holland, among those Papuans
that had become almost brutish, the missionary Threlkeld has
wrought with most encouraging success ; even in them con-
science had only been asleep; so soon as it was awakened
and had found peace in Christ, they became instead of
apparently half-ape like creatures, God-fearing and civilised
men. In the West Indies there were, in A.D. 1825, not less
than 40,000 converted negro slaves. If one takes the trouble
and reads the history of the conversion of the Bechuanas and

i, p. 621. — Our Darwinians should not stop short of instituting
crow-schools and securing still further the culture of the crows, as
Threlkeld has done for the Papuans. If they do not succeed, it is clearly
proven that the heathen Papuans do not represent a low grade of natural
development like the crows, but are actual men, i.e. qualitatively dis-
tinguished from the brutes by having a self -consciousness and a conscience
that may be awakened, and so has not been utterly destroyed, and that
their nature has only been deeply sunk in sin and through sin.

§ 315.] THE EFFECTS OF REDEMPTION. 391

Bassutos in South Africa, that of the Fiji islanders wholly
converted, of New Holland, of the Sandwich Islands, since
A.D. 1831 wholly converted, of the Karens and others of
Further India, with 14,000 communicants, among a profess-
ing Christian population of 100,000, of the Kolhs, etc.,1 — if
one reads that, he will soon see that only miserable and pitiful
ignorance can form such absurd judgments as those which we
have quoted. Along with salvation the gospel has brought
to the heathens a pure civilisation (Matt. vi. 33). But what
has civilisation without Christianity ever brought to tbe
heathens ? Brandy and opium.2 For a civilisation that is
carried out in the service of selfishness and greed brings not
culture, but only produces a more terrible barbarism among
the heathens. Civilised men, if in themselves conscience has
not been awakened, are unscrupulous in making use of the
heathens for their own selfish ends, but cannot be expected to
be able to awaken conscience in the heathen. This can only
be done by the witness of the gospel carried out by the
Church. And only on the basis of an awakened conscience
can true civilisation grow.

§ 315. Tlie Influence of Sin on the Christian Life of the
Community.

If the Christian Church, by reason of the power of the
gospel living in it, exercises an influence of such a sort upon
the world and society by means of the witness of the truth, it
cannot be wondered at that the power of sinful purpose present
in the world, which is not willing to have itself punished,
should lead on a hostile reaction against the Church as the

1 Cornp. especially Warneck on Missions in Allff. Conserved. Monat-
schrift of Nathusius (1879, May and June), also in Daheim of that date,
in the literature quoted by him on the subject.

2 Messrs. Kossak and company speak glibly as if the Christian-hearted
people of England should bear the blame of the opium traffic. In
England there are friends of missions ; in England there are also opium
traders ; consequently these two are one and the same persons ! !

392 THE EEVELATION OF GOD. [§ 315.

bearer of the gospel. There was first of all the downright
hostility of bloody violent persecution ; but the v-jropovr) KOI
TTto-rt? rwv dylwv won the victory over the rage of the enemies,
the Spirit of Jesus Christ was victorious over brutal cruelty.
Even the craftily conceived system of Neo-Platonism, which
arose about the middle of the third century, proved impotent
over against the gospel, and was buried with its chief patron,
Julian the Apostate, in the same coffin " which the son of the
carpenter" made for them. Much more formidable was, and
still is even to this day, a kingdom of lies in which during
the seventh century the opposition of the darkness to the light
gained for itself concentrated force. Once again it was a
Semitic tribe which put itself in the hands of the Prince of
darkness as his fit and convenient tool. If God had chosen the
Semitic Israel as His people, that they, because quite destitute
of natural goodness, should in the persons of their believing
members appear a pure work of divine grace, but in the persons
of unbelievers should vent forth their sin as wickedness against
Jesus, it was this time the Prince of darkness who chose the
Semitic race of Ishmael as his people and instrument, in order
to produce in an amalgam of truth and lies a religion which,
like a poisonous simoom, has spread its life-destroying presence
over a great part of the earth. A mongrel product of mantic
fanaticism and cunning calculation, borrowing a monotheism of
merely doctrinaire significance from a corrupted heretical
Christianity and from the Judaism that survived among the
Old Arabians (§ 255, Obs.~), removing from its idea of God the
attribute of holiness, and from its idea of Christianity its central
point, redemption, by some external observances, which were
not very grievous to the flesh, silencing conscience, setting
aside the mystery of the incarnation of the eternal personal
love by shallow rationalistic arguments, Islam, under its two
chief forms of savage and fanatical cruelty and calm refined
sensuality, has emancipated the flesh, degraded the position of
the wife, destroyed the family life, changed the State into a
despotism, and under the varnish of an outward appearance

§ 315.] THE EFFECTS OF REDEMPTION. 393

of civilisation has made true culture of the mind impossible.1
Islam, possessed of such deadly power, not only well-nigh
extinguished the Eastern Church which had already become
inwardly rotten, and even temporarily endangered the Church
of the West, but also like a wall of separation forced itself
between Christian Europe and the African and Asiatic heathen
world from the Pillars of Hercules to the Aral and Balkash
lakes, and for centuries, down to the discovery and opening
up of the seaway to the East Indies, made it impossible for
Christendom to exercise any influence upon heathendom, or do
anything for the spread of the gospel.2

And yet these outside foes of Christianity are not altogether
the worst. More hurtful than the opposition to the gospel by
the world from without, is the influence which sin, present
in the human race as a pathological condition (§115 ff.), and
even, too, among the most pure and faithful Christians not yet
wholly overcome, exercises upon the life of Christian society,
and therefore upon the Christian Church. It is no evidence
against Christianity, but rather a witness to its truth, that the
condition of Christendom as a whole shows no rising, but a
steady sinking, no development, but a growing decay, a Baby-
lonian confusion of truth and lies, and that the history of the
Church or " Christendom " after a certain point moves down-

1 It was with the foreign plumes of Old Persian civilisation that the
oft-praised Chalifat of Haroun al-Raschid adorned itself. Islam could
not preserve this culture, but could only help to kill it out among the
Persians. On the weird stories of the demoniacal origin of Islam and its
whole system, comp. Miihleisen- Arnold, Ishmael, or the Bible and the
Koran.

2 Nothing can be more perverse than the assertion that Islamic Semitism,
by reason of its monotheism derived from natural Semitic tendencies (!),
formed for the negro races a bridge over to Christianity. One only needs
to read Livingstone's and Baker's travels to be convinced how that boasted
Semitism brings to the negroes along with the slave trade, war, brandy,
murder, mutilation, and destruction, without even making an attempt to
convert the heathen to monotheism. One may read in Eholfs Quer durch
Africa, how still under our very eyes well-disposed and peaceable negro
tribes were changed by Islamism into crafty fanatics, and how, alongside
of other praiseworthy institutions, Islam has introduced among them
syphilis.

394 THE REVELATION OF GOD. L§ 315.

ward, where it must reach a final crisis, and where a new divine-
act will separate the gold from the dross, the wheat from the
tares (Matt. xiii. 41 ; Rev. xix. 16, 19). Pantheistic dreamers
have fabled that mankind will always grow better, till the
Church will be quite superfluous, and finally be absorbed in the
State. Jesus Christ prophesies the opposite. The Babylonian
blending of truth and lies becomes ever finer and more subtle.
The characteristics of this course of development are shadowed
forth in the history of the apostolic age. Paul during his
lifetime had to fight against a Judaistic legal perversion of
Christianity. It was not that Israel was chosen as the instru-
ment of God for the sake of redemption, and redemption
wrought for all penitent members of the sinful human race,
but Christ was to come for Israel's sake, and one must first
become an Israelite through circumcision and observance of the
law before he can have a part in Christ. So Christ was
regarded as a machine for blessing, a thesaurus leatitudinis
for Israel, and man's fulfilling of the law was to guarantee and
secure salvation.1 About the time of his departure Paul
prophesied of a directly opposite heretical tendency as immi-
nent, of an antinomian character, and what he prophesied was
fulfilled soon after in the appearance of Gnosticism within the
Church, against which Jude and John contended, and (1 John
ii. 19) banished from the Church, so that from the second
century it was found in sects outside the Church's pale. It
was not through the question, What must I do to be saved,
to be freed from guilt and sin, that those Gnostics were drawn
to Christianity, but they hoped to find solutions for cosmo-
logical, religious - historical, and pagan - ethical problems in
particular points of the Christian doctrine. They took Chris-
tianity not for that which it is, as redemption from sin, but as
something entirely different, yea, directly the opposite of this.
They were not concerned with redemption from sin, but with
the palliation of sin. So they shifted the guilt of sin from

1 Against the fundamental error of the 'recpnuie.x.Toi ^£i/5*5£A£o/, Paul can
cite the authority of the twel ve apostles on his side. Gal. ii. 6 ; Acts xv.

§ 315.] THE EFFECTS OF REDEMPTION. 395

man on to matter and on to the Demiurge, who as dis-
tinguished from the highest God was the creator of matter.
That in Christ, the eternal personal love, the eternally-loved,
loving One became man, in order to manifest absolute love in
substitutionary suffering of death and of absolute pain on
account of sin, was to them, who longed for no redemption,
as inconceivable as it is to Pantheists of to-day. They ex-
plained Jesus, either as having assumed the appearance of a
body,1 or as a mere man distinguished from the "Aeon
Christ." 2 The Aeon Christ should not suffer, should not die,
but should only have brought a philosophical knowledge, or
have redeemed the spirit from matter. Since sin was now
regarded, not as a determination of the will, but only as conse-
quence of connection with matter, it followed that no sin
which He committed could stain the spirit inwardly redeemed
from matter, that to Him anything was allowable. — During
the apostolic age such errors could not be affirmed within the
Christian Church ; by powerful discipline the Church was
purged of such heresies. But in the post-apostolic age we
have what in the course of almost two thousand years has
been repeated in a remarkably similar manner. Understand-
ing that the gospel means of grace are to be found within and
not without the Church, that outside of it are only Jewish,
pagan, and gnostic lies, men like Ignatius exhorted to faithful
combination and union under the eVtWoTrot. This was what
might be expected and is justifiable. But when even over
against earnest, though in part morbidly earnest tendencies,
like those of the Montanists, the Novatians, and Donatists, a
Cyprian and an Augustine place the consensus episcoporum
as the criterion of truth, it was not a long step that was
needed to set aside the proposition, " The Church possesses the

1 So the Xaassenes and Perates (Hippolytus, Book V.) ; also the
Gnostics of Tralles, Smyrna, and Ephesus (Ignat. Smyr. ii. and v., Eph.
xviii., and Trail, x.).

2 So Cerinthus (Tren. i. 26). According to the testimony of Polycarp
(in Iren. iii. 3. 4), Cerinthus was a contemporary of John, and lived beside
him in Ephesus.

396 THE HEVELATIOX OF GOD. [§ 315.

truth because it possesses the gospel," and substitute for it its
opposite, " The gospel is truth because it is taught by the
Church." Thus the Church was not for the sake of the gospel,
but the gospel was for the sake of the Church, as among the
Jewish teachers Christ was for the Israelites. Soon this
instinctive, demoniacal striving after dominion, inherited from
paganism, gained possession of that distorted proposition, of
the Eoman chair significantly standing forth among the turmoil
of the movements of the nations, " Truth depends upon the
consensus episcoporum" This must be carefully guarded, and
how could this be done more effectually than by a sovereign pon-
tiff? for which rank the Bishop of Rome endeavoured eagerly
to qualify himself by the use of utterly unhistorical figments.
By what means from that day forth the Roman chair proceeded
to break down and destroy every National Church independent
of Rome which would not submit itself to him, how he made
his command and laws paramount, but the grace of God a
thesaurus, under the custody of the Church of Rome, the
treasures of which must be merited by works and acts of
obedience, while in practice he turned the glance of the Chris-
tian away from the Redeemer to the ecclesiastical means, Pope,
priesthood, mass, indulgences, Mary and the saints, and de-
manded submission from States and their rulers as the general
dispenser of the divine grace, may be learnt from Church
history. When, among the Reformers, the Paulus redivivus
opposed to this pagan creature- worshipping as well as Judaistic-
legal system the evangelical witness, the Roman Pontiff
hardened himself and lost his opportunity, engaged in cruel
persecutions of the gospel in Spain, France, Holland, Italy,
Hungary, and at first also in Great Britain, played the role
which once the heathen world had played, and produced in the
diabolical craft of the order of the Jesuits and other instru-
ments a moral pest, the like of which paganism had never
known. The corrupt products of a Christianity reared upon
lies must necessarily be more poisonous and vile than those of
heathenism. Nitrate of potash gives nitre, but nitrate of silver

§ 315.] THE EFFECTS OF KEDEMPTION. 397

gives lunar caustic. Only madness can charge the offensive
manifestations of the papacy against Christianity, or, yet more
silly, against religion in dbstracto. It is only reasonable that
one should distinguish between the gospel and an ecclesiastical
institution. The former is the truth revealed by God, the
latter a product of the reception of this truth on the part of
man. An ecclesiastical institution may become faulty and
decay ; the gospel, never. The gospel is and remains for ever
one and the same ; a Church institution can change, because
it sets in the place of the gospel figments of human sin, or
adulterates the gospel with such ingredients. Hence, then,
arise those manifestations of moral corruption. But senseless
as it is to lay to the charge of Christianity, i.e. the gospel,
those manifestations which have their origin just in departure
from the gospel, nevertheless the world, which eagerly catches
at every kind of reproach against the truth, draws this false
conclusion. It confounds with the gospel the faults of the
Christian community, of the Church. Because men in opposi-
tion to the gospel misuse the name of the gospel, or Chris-
tianity, or Christ, or the forgiveness of sins, or grace, etc., in
the service of their lust of power or greed, for the delusion,
yea, for the actual stupefying of the people, the mass of those
who have not yet come to a knowledge of their sinful misery,
have no longing after salvation, yea, no wish to be delivered
from sin, immediately will draw with instinctive cunning
the false conclusion, "therefore this whole affair of Christ,
forgiveness of sins, etc., is silly deceit, the gospel only a trick
or delusion, all religion only a sham." Because an infected
pseudo-Church has involved itself in the guilt of fanatical, yea,
Satanic persecutions, the bulk of people draw the false conclu-
sion that all religion is fanatical and leads to fanaticism.
Thus is unbelief bound in the fetters of superstition. The
confused mixture of truth and lies in Roman Catholicism
has brought truth into discredit.1 The theory of unbelief, like

1 Of the pillagings by soldiers under Louis XIV. Chateaubriand writes :
" The sight of the narrow-minded and cruel bigotry of the king, of the

398 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§ 315.

that of a new Gnosticism, yea, of a repristinated Buddhistic
paganism, was first of all found out in the form of a philo-
sophical theory by a Semite, Baruch Spinoza (§ 182). It
belongs as such to the province of philosophical science. But,
that the essential view in this system, the denial of the per-
sonal, holy, willing God, the theory of absolute natural necessity
under which the Absolute Himself stands, therefore the explain-
ing away of sin as a necessary moment in the world's develop-
ment, and the denial of the miraculous, — that this essential
view, since Bayle, the Deists, and Encyclopaedists, could keep
hold of the masses of the people, and that during one genera-
tion also in Germany should have thoroughly permeated the
masses, is a consequence of that discredit into which the gospel
of God has been brought through faulty Church organizations
of men. And this is to be said of Churches Roman or non-
Eoman, for who will deny that even the period of orthodoxy
in the Evangelical Churches, and even Pietism itself, has here
its seamy side ? But here now a conclusion obtrudes itself
which we cannot refuse to draw : Superstition and unbelief
work together hand in hand, though the representatives of the
two tendencies have not this in view. According to their
individual intention they hit wildly at one another, and thereby
the one only furthers the other. The farther the confusing
power of the amalgamating of truth and lies pushes its
<f)apfji,aKeiai, the. more surely do the masses turn away from all
truth. The more daintily and consistently unbelief undermines
all the grand works of moral, and therefore of social and civil
order, the more surely will instances occur in which the

dishonourable tricks of his godfather, of the profanation of the sacraments
approved by the clergy, of the soldiers transformed into missionaries, of
the soiling of religion with blood and horrors, of the priests who trampled
under foot all human and divine laws, were the immediate cause that
drove the upper classes into the arms of scepticism." — In our own days,
how much have the two newly-ordained doctrines of Pius IX., together
with his contention against the civil power, contributed to arouse multi-
tudes in Germany to make a great outcry against the whole of Christianity
and the gospel, which is indiscriminately summed together under the
name of the papacy !

§ 315.] THE EFFECTS OF REDEMPTION. 399

comfortless, weary, and excited masses, because they cannot
longer exist upon mere negations, will cast themselves into the
arms of the most extravagant superstitions of the Church.
We see here standing over the individual will of sinful man a
higher power opposed to God, a providence of evil which
operates against the providence of God, only, indeed, with the
prospect of a certain final overthrow by a last decisive act of
God. Thus by ocular demonstration and experience what Holy
Scripture says of the Prince of this world is confirmed, not a
supernatural, not a supramundane, but a superhuman being,
because belonging to another department of creation than the
earth, a created being wilfully rebelling against God ; and this
doctrine of Scripture is the truth, the caricature of which is
seen in the heathens' fear of evil spirits and in the heathens'
worship of evil spirits. Paganism, not recognising sin as evil,
traces evil back to evil spirits, which it seeks to pacify by sacri-
fices, to curse and bind by sorcery ; Christianity recognises in
calamity and evil God's chastisements, but acknowledges as the
tempter to sin, and as him whose plans directed against God,
the will of man directed against God must involuntarily carry
out, a prince of darkness, against whom no sorcery, but only
believing surrender to God's purpose of grace, can avail. —
Under the successive forms of lies, the Church that has let its
place be usurped by a lie and open revolt from Church and
Christianity, the invisible Church of the members of Christ,
which in time is still the invisible kingdom of Christ, has to
suffer. In the history of this kingdom the history of the Lord is
repeated. The persecution of the child Jesus by Herod answers
to the pre-Constantine persecution by the heathen world outside
the Church. The age that followed corresponds to the three
and a half years' official activity of Christ. When the pro-
phesied falling away (Rev. xvii.) has been accomplished, and an
end has been made of the witness of -the law (§ 314) and of
the gospel (Rev. xi. 7 ff.), then will the days of the passion
for the invisible Church of Christ have come, which He will
bring to an end by His second coming.

400 THE REVELATION OF GOD. [§315.

Where do we stand ? "Whoever considers attentively the
signs of the times, will be ready to admit that our age is com-
parable to the last year of the active work of Christ, where
the great masses of the people of Israel, who previously had
followed under a mistaken enthusiasm, turned away from Him,
and left Him alone with His disciples (Matt, xvi.-xx.). In
this present day, again, this same Semitic people appears as
chief operator in introducing a phase of modern Sadduceanism
which aims at overthrowing the Christian faith of the
Germanic and Germano-Roman, but mainly the Germanic
races, and carrying out a propaganda on behalf of a pantheistic
theory of the world, and strives in this way to decompose and
destroy as much as possible the specifically Japhetic-Aryan
nationality of the German peoples. That the modern State,
under the influence of evangelical church institutions, no
longer persecutes and oppresses the Jews as the mediaeval
State did, under the influence of the Eomish Church, is in the
highest degree proper ; but not so this, that the members of
this foreign race, with the characteristic forwardness of their
race,1 should not only take their place in the German States
alongside of others, but should bit by bit give the lead in the
press and in the legislative assemblies.2 Our German people
has been only too complaisant toward them during this
generation. The social and civil life of the people is already
dominated by pantheistic ideas. " Laissez faire ! Leave
unrestricted freedom to the will of the individual ; all evil
corrects itself as a moment in the necessary course of develop-
ment, and will do so infallibly of itself." In the social and

1 It deserves to be recorded that a Jewish paper appearing in Berlin
had the impudence to demand the abolition of the Christian second
festival !

2 Comp. Constant. Frantz, Der Nationalliberalismus und die Judenkerr-
schaft, Miinchen 1874. — Yet quite curtly has a distinguished Jewish
literateur spoken out in a publication : " German Judaism works now so
powerfully, so vigorously, so unweariedly for the new culture and science,
that the greatest part of Christianity [sic! he would say : Christendom]
consciously or unconsciously is guided by the spirit of modern Judaism.'
Comp. Deutsche Reichspost, 1879, 23 Juli.

§ 315.] THE EFFECTS OF REDEMPTION. 401

civil economic sphere it is said : " The egoism of the
individual already secures its own highest well-being ; when
prices are dear, then importation increases; work is mer-
chandise ; " and are spoken of as the infallible dicta of the
Manchester school! But experience has shown that the
principle of unrestricted egoism (since labour is a sort of
merchandise which cannot be piled up) leads to nothing else
than a depression in the rewards of labour in favour of the
capitalists and to their immense enriching, and a fit of rage
on the part of men robbed of their Christian faith and
Christian Ethics, an incitement of the labourers also by the
egoism of the religion of this world against the propertied
classes, and consequently the danger of a bellum omnium
contra omnes, an overthrow of all culture and civilisation. In
the sphere of politics we meet with this idea: "All men
have an equal right to govern. To govern is not to acknow-
ledge and carry out God's will, but the will of the majority.
'Since man is good by nature, the will of the majority is
infallibly good, and what may nevertheless be perverse is
corrected of itself in the process of development. Hence
universal suffrage." But experience has taught that men by
nature are not good, but are possessed by the passions of
greed, lust of power, vanity, and that fear of man which
sacrifices conviction for fear of giving offence, and that
election by universal suffrage is a mere farce, where the
masses are lured and wooed by party leaders with ill-under-
stood catchwords and phrases of the day, and led about as
blind tools, with no will of their own, by the will of those
leaders. In the department of journalism we meet with the
following proposition : " Freedom of the press ! Only let all
untruth and poison be freely spread abroad ! Truth can
likewise be disseminated, and will thus surely gain the
victory." Yes, truly, if it would be read ! But not the truth,
but the money turns the scale in deciding what sheets shall
find the widest circulation. And if one succeeds after many
sacrifices in founding and maintaining papers which oppose

EBRAFJ) III. 2 C

402 THE KEVELATIOX OF GOD. [§ 315.

untruth and afford an antidote to the poison, they are not
read just by those who are most in need of such an antidote.
Should one then be still obliged to prove what sort of
influence the pantheistic falsehoods about the natural excellence
of man and about sin as a self-correcting moment in the
process of development exercises in the department of educa-
tion and in our schools ? — We stand over an abyss. Our
national and civil life is disorganized by the perverse teaching
of that antichristian system. A people that shuns the
quickening influence and conscience-awakening witness of the
gospel, loses the power of self-renewing and of continued
existence, and mankind fallen away from Christianity passes
down into utter corruption (Matt. xxiv. 28). Have we gone
so far ? It is still possible to recover lost ground. Still in
our German people there is a remnant, not of millions, but of
many thousands, who have not bowed their knees to Baal, this
old god of pantheism, and who in the fear of the Lord exert
all the powers wherewith God has endowed them in witness-
ing by word and deed against untruth, sin, and shamelessness,
on behalf of the truth that man is a sinner and needs
redemption, and that not egoism, but self-denying love, which
endeavours first to secure the well-being of its neighbour and
the community, and then afterwards its own, makes a people
happy. God grant that this book may contribute its mite to
the dissemination of this truth.

INDEX.

ACHILLES heel of materialis-

VOL. 1'AGE

Basques, an Indo-Germanic

VOL. PAGE

tic theories, '. . '.

i. 373

people, '.

ii. 373

Adaptation in nature, .

i. 162

Basques, their history and

in the Darwinian

religion, .

ii. 387

theory, .
Africa, Races of, .

ii. 24
iii. 113

Bilu and Bilit, Worship of,
Brahma, ....

ii. 340
ii. 166

Ahuramazda in the Iranian

Brahmanical priesthood,

ii. 171

traditions,

ii. 195

schools,

ii. 174

Alfurus, Religion of the,

iii. 109

Brahmanism, Origin of,

ii. 167

America, Races of,

iii. 142

Buddhism of the Aztecs,

iii. 293

Ameshaspentas in Iranian

among Mongolian

traditions,

ii. 195

tribes, . . .

iii. 33

Ammonites, Religion of the,

ii. 349

Amraphal, War of,

ii. 321

CANAANITES, Origin of the,

ii. 284

Ancestry, Worship of, .

ii. 165

Religion of the, .

ii. 328

Angromainyus, Iranian legen

Oaribs, Religion and legends

of,

ii. 200

of the, ....

ii. 183

Animal, The psychical func-

Celtic nations, Religion of

tions of the,

i. 145

the, . . . . .

ii. 402

Apologetics as a science,

i. 1-12

Ceylon, Ancient religion of,

iii. 46

Arabians, Ancient religion

Chemosh, God of Ammonites

of the

ii 360

and JMoabites

ii. 350

Aruacas, Religion of the,

iii. 167

Chichimecs, Origin and re-

Aryan-Indian religion,

ii. 143

ligion of the, ..'.'.

iii. 264

Aschera, Worship of, .

ii. 337

Chinese ; their immigration

Asia, Races of, .

iii. 1

into America, .

iii. 226

Assyrians, Religion of the, .

ii. 328

Chinese, Religion of the,

iii. 52

Assyrio - Babylonian tradi-

Christianity, Nature of,

i. 15

tions, ....

ii. 363

its influence on society,

iii. 384

Astarte, Worship of, .

ii. 338

Confusion of languages at

Avesta, Sacred book of the

Babel, ....

iii. 327

Iranians, ....

ii. 187

i, 250

Aymaras, The religion of the,

iii. 197

Consciousness, Facts of,

i. 25

The empire of the,

iii. 209

Consciousness of guilt,

i. 272

Aztecs, Traditions of the, .

iii. 226

Creation, Legends of the, ii. 363

, iii. 313

Buddhism of the,

iii. 293

Crimes, their place in moral

Religion of the, .

iii. 285

statistics,

ii. 82

Cushite races of Asia and

BAAL, Worship of, ii. 337,
Babel, Building of the tower

351, 355

Polynesia,
Cushite races of South Africa,

iii. 95
iii. 121

of, . . ii. 357, 371, iii.

137, 327

Babylonians, Religion of
the,

ii. 328

DAGON, a deity of the Philis-
tines, ....

ii 347

Baldr,' a Norse deity, .

ii. 411

Darwinian theory of descent,

ii. 1-69

404

IXDEX.

VOL. PAGE

Derceto, a deity of the Philis-
tines, ii. 347
Design, Proof of the theory
of, .... i. 162-198
Design of the Universe, . i. 235
in rudimentary organs, i. 396
in nature, Presumed
absence of, ... i. 400
Design in nature, Evidence
of, i. 402
Devas in Iranian religious
system, . . . . i. 200
Donar ; German name of the
Xorse Thorr, ii. 409
Doric influence on Greek
religion, ii. 252
Dualism of Zarathustra, . ii. 215

EGO, Self-certainty of the, . i. 110

VOL. PAGE

God, Proofs for existence of, i. 277, 248
Feeling of constraint to
know i. 236
Gospel, no human invention,
The, . . . . i. 341
Government of the world,
Divine, . . . . i. 307
Greeks, Religion of the, ii. 232-259
Gwydion ; Cambrian name of
Teutonic deity, . . ii. 408

HAECKEL'S arguments, Re-
view of, . . . . ii. 15
ETamites, Moral and intellec-
tual character of the, iii. 344, 347
Hartmann ; his physical and
philosophical system, . iii. 116
Hegel, Philosophical system
of . iii HO

Relation of, to the laws
of the outer world, . . i. 198
Egyptians, Gods of the, . ii. 263
Myths of the, . . ii. 266
Ethics of the, . . ii. 278
Embryogenesis and phylo-
genesis, . . . ii. 47
Ethical law and its con-
tents, i. 236-288
Ethical law and its author, . i. 17
Origin of, . . . i. 21

Hegelianism, Failure of, . iii. 124
Heredity and transmission
according to Darwin, . ii. 35
History : what may and may
not be learned from it, . ii. 133
History of religions, . ii. 143-iii. 314
Homeric age of Greek re-
ligion, ii. 249
Hottentots, Religion of the, . iii. 129
Huitzi ; war - god of the
Aztecs . . iii. 285

no law of nature, . i. 23
Existence of God, Proofs of
-the, i. 227, 230, 248
External world, Knowledge
of the, . . . . i. 26-100

FALL, Traditions of the, ii. 226, 365,
iii. 136, 313
Fall, Authenticity of the, . i. 310
Fetichism among African
tribes, .... iii. 122
Fichte, ii. 106

Humanity, Hypothesis of
sinless development of, . i. 320
Hungarians ; their appear-
ance in Europe, . . iii. '2
Hyksos, Researches in regard
to the ii. 271

IMPOTENCE of the will, . i. 211
Inability of man to save him-
self, . . . . i. 329
Incarnation of Christ con-

Finnic tribes, Religion of, . iii. 5
Flood, Traditions of the, . ii. 183,
227, 248, 366, iii. 137, 311
Flood, its place in history of
redemption, . . . iii. 325
Force, Denial of idea of, . i. 371
Freedom of the will, i. 266, 268,
ii. 85
and permission of evil, i. 303
Freyr ; Norse god of fruit-
fulness, . ii. 411
Functions of Blood, Mechan-
istic explanations of, . i. 378

GEOLOGY contradicts Dar-

ceivable, i. 346
Incas ; their relation to the
Toltecs, .... iii. 236
Incas, Empire of the, . . iii. 246
— Religion of the, . . iii. 250
India, Religions of Higher, . iii. 46
Indian religions, . . ii. 143-186
Indians originally connected
with Iranians, . . . ii. 221
Indra period in history of
Indian religion, . . ii. 160
Inorganic and organic na-
ture, . . . . i. 125
Instinct, Mechanistic ex-
planations of, . . . i. 388
Iranian religion, . . ii. 186-232

Germans, Religon of the
ancient, ii. 407
God, the self - conscious
author of the world, . i. 219

traditions, ii. 22o

JAPAN, Religion of, . . iii. 66
Judges, Period of the, . . iii. 35J

INDEX.

405

VOL. PAGE

KINGS and Prophets, Period

of the, .... iii. 364
Knowledge of God, . ii. 208-236

of self, . . ii. 100-208

Kolhs, Religion and culture

of the, . . . . iii. 99

LAMAISM among the Mon-
golian tribes, . . . iii. 38

Language, The origin of, . i. 71

Languages, Laws of trans-
mutation of, . . . i. 287

Confusion, . . iii. 327

Law, The Moral, . . . i. 17

— Contents of the Ethical, i. 251

Linguistic peculiarities of the

Basques, ii. 375

MALAY religions in America,
Traces of, ...

Malays into America, Immi-
gration of, ...

Malays, Religions of the, .

Man : the ultimate design of
nature,

- his destiny according to
ethical law,

Man's inability to redeem

himself, . . .

Marriage as viewed in moral

statistics, . . .
Materialism, Consequences

of, .....

- fails to construct a moral
system, . . . .

- related to Pantheism,
Materialistic and Christian

estimates of man, . .
Materialists, Argumentation

of, ... .

Mayas, The legends of the,
Mechanistic theory of the

world, i

Miracles of Christ conceiv-

able, . . .
Miracles, Possibility of, .
Moabites, Religion of the, .
Monads of various orders, .
Mongolian races, Character-

istics and distribution of, .

- Buddhism among the,

- Traces of their immi-
gration into America, .

Mongols, Ancient religion of

the, ....

Monotheism of Israel, .

- of Zarathustra, . .

- Traces of, in savage
peoples, . . iii. 125, 132, etc.

Moral Law, . . . i. 17
Moral statistics, . . . ii. 81

iii. 148
iii. 82

i. 199
i. 248
i. 329
ii. 88
ii. 77

ii. 80

ii. 257

371-395

i. 346
i. 325
ii. 349
i. 134

iii. 14
iii. 33

iii. 188

iii- 41
iii. 339
ii. 209

VOL. PAGE

Muyscas, The Empire and
Religion of the, . . iii. 214

NAHIJATLACS, Traditions and
religion of the, . . iii. 264

Nature and man, . . i. 195

Negritos, The religion and
culture of the, . . iii. 109

Negroes, The religion and
traditions of the, . . iii. 131

ODHINN ; a Norse and Ger-
man deity, ii. 415

Odshi negroes, Legends and

religion of, . . . iii. 132

Organic nature, i. 125

Origin of sin, . . . i. 298

PAGANISM the caricature of

Christianity, ' . .iii. 322

Pangenesis, Theory of, . i. 390

Pantheism a paralogism, . i. 204

Pantheism : can it afford an
explanation of the uni-
verse ? .... ii. 116

Papuans, Religion of the, . iii. 109

Parseeism ; the Persian re-
ligious system, . . ii. 189

The dark side of, . ii. 224

Pathological effects of evil
volition in the individual, i. 269

Patriarchal age, God's edu-
cative procedure in the, . iii. 348

Pelasgians, Origin of the, . ii. 235

Divinities of the, . ii. 237

Perception, The theory of, . i. 26

Philistines, Religion of the, ii. 347

Phoenicians, Religion of
the, . . . . ii.336

Phylogenesis ; its relation

to embryogenesis, . ii. 47

Polynesians, Culture, reli-
gion, and traditions of the, iii. 87

Polytheistic corruptions of
religion, . . ii. 163, 257

REDEMPTION, Divine act of, iii. 372

Effects of, . . . iii. 381

Outline of idea of, . i. 328

as set forth in revela-
tion, . . . . i. 332

of Christ corresponds

to requirements, . . i. 342

Redemptive acts of God, . iii. 325

Redskins, The religion of, iii. 301

- Traditions of, . . iii. 311

Reflective consciousness, . i. 90

Reflex motives, Mechanistic

explanation of, . . i. 383

Regenerative principle, Me-
chanistic explanation of, i. 384

406

INDEX.

Reminiscence no activity of
brain and nerve,

VOL. PAGE •

i. 38

Tshuktchis, Immigration
into America of the,

OL. PAGE

iii. 264

Romans, Religion of the, .

ii. 259

Tsonecas, The religion of
the

iii. 165

SAKYA MOCNI, .

ii. 179

Schelling, The philosophical

UGRIAN races, Ethnographi-

system of, ...

ii. 109

cal and historical sketch

Scholastic period in history

iii. 1

of Indian religion, .
Self-certainty of the Ego, .

ii. 178
ii. 110

Ultimate design of nature:
Man, . . .

i. 199

Self-consciousness,

ii. 104

Unconscious thinking,

i. 81

Semites, Moral and intel-
lectual character of the, .

iii. 345

Unity of Malay-Polynesian
group of tribes,

iii. 74

of the Euphrates,

ii. 355

Unreflected thought, .

i. 81

Semitic race and choice of

the covenant people,
Separation of the peoples, .
Sexual selection,

iii. 343
iii. 327
ii. 44

VARIABILITY and adaptation
according to Darwinism, .
Vedic period in histoiy of

ii. 24

Shamanism among Tartar
tribes, ....
Sin, The fact of,
The nature of, .

iii. 11
i. 259
i. 266

Indian religion,
Vegetable kingdom, Dar-
winian theory of, .
Natural law in the,

ii. 145

ii. 18
i. 14-2

The origin of, .

i. 298

Vital force,

i 131

The possibility of,
Slavs, Religion of the,

i. 314
ii. 407

Denial of idea of,

i. 375

Spinoza, The philosophy of,
Struggle for existence,
Subjectivity, The two kinds

ii. 100
ii. 36

i. 223

WILL, Province of the,
Free. and not free,
Not absolutely free, .

i. 56
i. 266

ii. 85

Sutra theology : a reaction-

Limits to freedom of
the, ....

i. 267

ary movement,

ii. 181

World, Our knowledge of

TABLE of the nations,
Tamanacs, Religion of the,
Tartars, The religion of the,

ii. 393
iii. 167
iii. 10

the external,
Influence of Christianity
upon the, . .

i. 26
iii. 384

Teleological theses proved, .
Teleology, The proof of,
Tibet, Religion and tradi-

i. 164
i. 402

YAZATAS in the Persian re-
ligious system,

ii. 197

tions of, .

iii. 46

Toltecs, Origin of the,

iii. 236

ZARATHUSTRA ; Persian re-

Legends of the, .

iii. 257

ligious reformer, ii. 186,

209, 215

Traditions of all races, A

Zend, the Huzvaresh trans-

common element in,

iii. 319

lation of the A vesta,

ii. 193

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APOLOGETIC LECTURES

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