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I 


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AE. 
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I9JJ> 


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APPLETON'S 

NEW   PRACTICAL 

CYCLOPEDIA 


VOLUME    VI 


„  Google 


„  Google 


APPLETON'S 
ISTEW  PRACTICAL 
CYCLOPEDIA 


A   NEW   WORK  OF  REFERENCE 
B^SED     UPON  THE  BEST  AUTHORITIES,  AND  SYSTEMATICALLY 
ARRANGED  FOR   USE  IN  HOME  AND  SCHOOL 


MARCUS  BENJAMIN,  Ph.D.,  ScD.,  F.C.S. 


ASSISTED  BT 
ABTHUH  E.  BOSTWICK,  Ph.D. 


GEBAU)  VAN  CASTEEL  GEORGE  J.   HAGAR 

CHIVP  or  XDITOBIAI,  BT^rr  CXPBBT  COUPIUU  AND  ITATimCUX 

WITH  AN  INTEODUCTION  BT 

ELMES  ELLSWORTH   BROWN,  Ph.D.,  LL.D. 


NEW  AND  REVISED  EDITION 

VOLUME    VI 


NEW    YORK 
D.    APPLETON    AND     COMPANY 


„  Google 


OovTiltht.  IBSB,  laoa,  ISBT,  im,  bj  a,  J.  Jobomm  Oa 
Copjrilcht,  ISO],  bj  D.  Appleton  aad  Compuv 


..Google 


PLATES 


SONG    BIRDS           28 

TABLE    OF    THE    SOLAR  AND  SOME  OTHER  SPECTRA       .  ' 60 

STEAMSBIPS            82 

TEXTILE    FABRICS 184 

THREE-COLOR   PRINTING 200 

CABINET    W^OODS                     208 

TRUES    AND    PLANTS  OF  COMMERCE 242 

THE   WONDERS  OF  THE  X-RAY 453 


MAPS 
UNITED    STATES   (EAST)                | 
tmiTED    STATES   (NORTHEAST) ) ■       "       ' 


UNITED    STATES   (fiENTRAL) 
UNITED   STATES  (WEST) 


3o7oo0 

Dig,  zed  by  Google 


KEY  TO  PRONUNCIATION 


i,  u  in  faU.  Q,  M  in  fmU. 

t,  u  in  fat.  fi,  u  in  »iit. 

.  i,  M  Id  /oil.  It,  prodnoed  with  lip«  rounded  to  nttnr  oo  and 
fi,  OS  io  father.  tongue  placed  u  in  uttering  «. 

i,  H  in  u^art.  A,  u  in  bum  or  iurg. 

e,  M  in  metl.  ^_  u  in  Oeraian  Uh. 

.'       .    I     '     ,       ,    -r,       L  klL  M  cA  in  Oerman  naeht  and  Bcotcit  loeh,  and 
e,  as  m  A#r  and  eu  in  French  -«wr.  ,    ^  ^ 

'  as  p  in  Oeniuui  taf. 

I,  sa  in  jfw.  th,  as  in  thin. 

i,  M  ia  tt.  th,  aa  in  thotigh. 

0  as  in  tober  *'  ^^""^  '^"^  **  *"^  ™!  P«>no«noe  onj,  *n^, 

A  as  in  not  *'''^'  ***'* '"  ^'^'■^ "?'  ''^'  wituout  sound- 

6,  as  in/DoI  or  flwon,  or  as  «  in  nJa.  "«  **■*  '" 

8,  as  in  foot.  H,  Spanish  o-y,  as  in  caflon ;  French  and  Italian 

,fl,  at  in  CfiOie  and  eu  in  French  nAj^,  — gn,  as  in  Boulogne. 


„  Google 


APPLETON'S 
NEW  PRACTICAL   CYCLOPEDIA 


VOLUME  VI 


Sii'tMB  ttt  Chai^t;.  Sm  Chabttt,  Sisttss 
or. 

SUten  of  Hei'cy,  Boman  Catholic  siiter- 
hood,  foonded  ^.t  Dublin,  1627,  by  MiM  Ckth- 
erine  UeAuky.  Th«  rule  is  aimilar  to  that 
of  the  PreaentBition  nuns.  OrlEin^ly  each 
coiiT«iit  was  independent,  but  offabooti  from 
the  pttrent  house,  eapeaially  outside  of  Ire- 
land, are  nmall;'  mbject  to  it.  ,  These  reli- 
ffioDS  women  are  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
kical  bishop.  They  were  introduced  into  the 
U.  8.  in  1843,  at  Pittsburg.  They  have  more 
than  200  oonvents,  and  are  occupied  in  the 
conduct  of  parochial  schools,  acadmuiss,  hoa- 
pitali,  and  homes  for  the  o^d. 

Si'Tphni,  in  Grecian  mythology,  son  of 
iGolua,  father  of  Olancus,  grandfather  of  Bel- 
lerophon,  and  king  and  founder  of  Corinth. 
Because  of  his  deceitful  wickedness  Zeus  aent 
Death  to  take  him  to  Hades;  but  Sisyphus 
bound  Death  and  held  him  prisoner,  so  that 
no  one  died  until  Death  was  released  by  Atm. 
For  this  reason  (though  other  reasons  also 
are  KiTen)  Sisyphus  was  doomed  to  roll  to 
the  wp  of  a  mountain  rock,  which  always 
broke  away  from  him  just  as  the  top  waa 
being  reaened. 

XViM.  (formerly  New  Abchangbl),  former 
capital  of  Alaska  Territory,  on  Baranof  Is- 
land, near  the  Pacific.  It  has  a  harbor  that 
is  deep  and  commodious,  but  is  difficult  of 
approach.  It  was  founded  by  the  Kussians  in 
tbe  eighteenth  century,  but  consisted,  when 
transferred  to  the  U.  8^  1B6T,  of  only  100  log 
huts.  Sinoa  then  several  large  'edinces  have 
been  built.  Pt^  (1910)  1,039.  In  1900  Ju- 
neau became  the  capital  of  Alaska. 

Siftfaqc  BnH  (Indian  name,  Tataitka  To- 
TAKKA),  IS3T-90;  Sioux  chief  and  medicine 
man;  became  tbe  leader  of  the  unruly  mem- 
bers of  his  tribe,  who  massacred  whites  at 
Spirit  Lake,  Iowa,  and  In  Minnesota  1862, 
and  were  driven  by  Oen.  Sully  into  the  Big 
Horn  r^on  and  to  the  Yellowstone,  1S64. 
They  wen  defeated  on  the  Uuscle  Shell  River, 
1B6S;  were  placed  on  a  reservation  in  the 
Black  Hills,  from  which  they  were  driven  by 
miners,  I87S;  refused  to  be  transported  to  tbe 
Indian  Torritoryj  «lcw  a  party  of  troops  un- 
der Qm.  Custer.  On  being  pursued  by  Oen. 
Terry,  Sitting  Bull  SlpI  some  of  his  followers 


1 


escaped  into  Canada.  Hs  surrendered  on  « 
promise  of  pardon  IBBO,  and  returned  to  Da- 
kota, but  fomented  trouble,  and  In  the  Indian 
rising  in  IBQO  he  was  killed. 

Si'va,  or  Shiva,  a  Hindu  god,  the  "  Destrmrer 
and  R^enerator,"  member  of  the  Hindu  Trl- 
murtt  or  triad  of  divinities,  with  Brahma, 
the  "  creator,"  and  Vishnu,  the  "  preserver." 
He  sppears  Under  many  names,  attributes,  uid 
funcUons.  As  the  Destroyer  he  is  represented 
hj  Budro.  Aa  the  Regenerator  or  Beproducer 
his  symliol  is  the  linga  or  phallus,  and  under 
this  he  is  worshiped.  He  represents  the  con- 
templative and  ascetic  aide  of  Hinduism.  Ha 
is  represented  aa  sitting  absorbed  in  thought, 
naked,  and  smeared  with  funereal  ashes,  with 
matted  bur,  and  a  necklace  of  human  skulls 
and  bones.  He  baa  three  eyes,  and  fire  from 
them  eonaumes  those  who  interrupt  his  devo- 

Sivathe'iinm,  extinct  genus  of  ruminants 
from  the  Siwalik  Hilla,  India,  remarkable  for 
their  size  and  peculiar  borna.  Bivalhenum 
Siganteum  nearly  equaled  the  elephant  in  siae, 
and  was  armed  with  ttro  pairs  of  horns,  a 
small  pair  on  the  anterior  part  of  tbe  head 
and  a  larger  pair  on  the  top. 

Six-prln'clple  Bap'tlsts,  a  sect  of  American 
Christians  who  tales  as  their  creed  the  prin- 
ciples laid  down  in  Hebrews  vi,  1,  2:  (1)  re- 
pentance, (2)  faith,  (3}  baptisms  (of  repen- 
tance, of  fire,  and  of  Christ's  au&erinsa),  (4) 
laying  on  of  handa,  (5)  the  resurrection,  (6) 
the  eternal  judgment.  There  are  in  the  U.  S. 
(IQOBj  abt.  SeO  communicants  and  12  churches. 

Slx'tns,  the  name  of  Ave  popes;  the  most 
important  follow:  Sixtub  IV  (Francesco  della 
Roverc),  1414-64;  entered  the  Franciscan  or- 
der; attracted  notice  by  his  eloquence  and 
learning;  became  the  close  friend  of  Cardinal 
Besaarion,  through  whose  influence,  it  is  said, 
he  was  chosen  pope  1471.  Be  built  the  Sistine 
bridge  and  the  Sistine  chapeL  He  was  munif- 
icent in  his  patronage  of  arts  and  letters. 
He  used  his  influence  to  advance  relatives, 
and  was  unfortunate  in  some  of  his  political 
affiliations.  Sirrus  V  (Felice  Peretti),  1521- 
90;  one  of  the  abteat  of  the  popes;  entered  the 
order  of  the  Franciscans;  taught  canon  law 
at  Rimini  and  at  Siena,  and  became  a  car- 
dinal in  1G70.    His  ambition  s«emed  to  go  no 


SKAGERRAE 

further.  E«  lived  qiiietif,  auA  gave  iht  im- 
prewion  of  being  a  mem  cmt  to  lead.  The 
cardinalB,  thinking  be  would  l>e  mild  and  in- 
dulgent, elected  nim,  but  he  threw  oS  all 
eoaeeatoient  of  the  natural  energy  of  charac- 
ter, and  began  vigoroue  refonna.  Hia  aim 
was  to  raise  the  papal  see  to  its  former  splen- 
dor, and  hia  political  negotiations  show  his 
capacity  for  Btatefunanship.  He  suppraeoed  the 
banditti,  encouraged  trade,  and  enforced  the  lav 
in  his  states. 

Skagemk'  (formeriy  Seager-Rack),  an  arm 
of  the  North  Sea,  80  nu  broad,  between  Nw- 
way  and  Jutland,  connecting  the  German  Ocean 
with  the  Catt£gat  or  Katt^at.  It  came  into 
special  prominence  as  a  part  of  the  area  of  the 
grwt  naral  battle  between  the  British  and  Qei^ 
man  fleets  in  the  battle  of  Jutland  Bank,  May 
31-June  1, 1916. 


aifecies  of  the  genus 

tAie  skeleton  is  cartilaginous,  the  body  much 
depressed  and  more  or  lesj  approaching  to  a 
rhomboidal  form.  The  common  skate  agrees 
with  other  members  of  the  genus  in  possess- 
ing a  flat,  broad  body,  the  chief  portion  of 
which  is  made  up  of  the  expanded  pectoral 
fins,  which  are  concealed,  in  a  manner,  under 
the  skin.  The  tail  is  long  and  slender;  the 
snout  pointed,  with  a  prominent  ridge  or  keel. 
The  teeth  are  arranged  in  a  mosaic  or  pave- 
mentlike pattern.  The  fish,  although  common- 
ly seen  of  moderate  dimensions,  may  attain 
a  weight  of  ZOO  lb.  or  more. 

SkM,  or  Sid,  a  Bcandinarian  snowshoe  made 
from  a  long  wooden  runner,  0  to  10  ft.  in 
length,  about  the  width  of  a  man's  foot,  and 
i  in.  thick,  wiUi  a  groove  along  the  middle 
of  the  under  surface  to  prevent  slipping  side- 
ways. It  ia  curved  upward  at  the  tip.  In 
the  U.  S,,  Canada,  and  Norway  clube  have 
t>een  fbrmed  for  the  sport  of  akeeing,  the  con- 
tests being  for  long  runs,  20  m.  or  more,  for 
short  nms  at  high  speed,  and  for  jumping. 
The  UtUr  is  a  long  flight  through  the  air 
from  a  hillside,  and  the  jumper  must  alight 
on  his  feet  without  falling,  and  continue  nis 
course. 


and  protect  the  more  delicate  tissues 
animal.  Among  the  invertebrates  the  skeleton 
is  often  represented  by  calcareous  or  siliceous 
plates  developed  in  connection  with  the  in- 
tegument, known  as  the  exoskeleton,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  apparatus  developed  with- 
in the  connective  tissue  aa  the  cartilage  or 
the  true  osseous  substance  of  the  endoskeleton. 
A  true  skeleton  exists  only  in  vertebrated  ani- 
mals. Among  the  higher  vertebrates  a  pri- 
mary cartilaginous  framework  is  gradually 
replaced  by  the  osseous  skeleton. 

The  vertebrate  axis  is  formed  of  a  series  of 
disks,  from  16  to  306  in  number,  at  one  end 
of  which  is  the  cranium,  or  brain  case,  which 
juiT  be  considered  as  composed  of  enlarged 
nnd  modified  vertetme.  The  axial  skeleton  in 
man  includes  the  vertebrm.  skull,  ribs,  and 
sternum,  while  the  appendicular  skeleton  con- 
sist* of  the  shoulder  girdle   (clavicle  and  scap- 


ula connecting  the  arm  to  the  axis)  and  th« 
pelvic  girdle  ( hip  bones,  or  innominata ) , 
which  Bupporte  the  thigh  itonea.  In  animals, 
as  the  whales,  where  the  liind  limba  are  want- 


Ttaa  BmuM  aaxLnoH. 

ing,  the  pelvic  girdle,  and  hence  the  pelvis,  is 
absent.  Bones  are  united  by  fibro-elastio 
bands  (ligaments)  and  the  structures  of  the 
joints.  The  voluntary  muscles  are  attached 
to  the  skeleton  and  tti.e  leverage  afforded  by 
the  long  bones  of  the  limbs  gijcs  power  and 
swiftness  to  their  motion.  The  number  of 
bones  in  the  human  skeleton  varies  with  age. 
Thus  the  thigh  bone  or  femur  represents  the 
fusion  of  five  segments,  the  union  not  being 
complete  until  the  twentieth  year.  The  adult 
human  skeleton  consists  of  206  distinct  bones, 
as  follows: 

TbaBpiiie,lDdudiac24vBrt«bi»,Baaruni,miid«xH7X.  3C 

Th«  nba,  12  pain,  ■temuia,  and  bvoid  20 

Tha  Bkull  m.  tocstbec  with  S  su^bonta 28 

Tha  uppar  axtmnitiaa,  ew:h  32 Oi 

Tha  lower  BXCraraltiM,  CMh  ai «2 

At  birth  their  number  is  278;  at  twenty- 
flve,  224;  and  in  advanced  old  age,  194.  About 
660  segments  are  needed  in  the  formation  of 
the  200  permanent  bones. 

Skel'tan,  John,  abt.  1455-1620';  English  poet; 
b.  probably  in  Norfolk;  graduated  at  Cam- 
bridge abt.  1482;  laureated  at  Oxford  abL 
1400;  tutor  to  Prince  Henry  (afterwards 
Henry  VIII} ;    held  a  position  at  court,  bj 


SEEPTICISH 

Bome  coiuidered  equiTalcnt  to  king's  iteter, 
by  others  to  poet-laureate ;  incurred  the  re- 
sentment of  Cardiual  Wolaey  by  his  satirical 
verses ;  obliged  to  take  aanctiuuy  at  Westmin- 
ster, and  died  there.  Slcelton  was  one  ot  the 
earliest  EnElish  pools  whose  writings  are  eas- 
ily intelligible  to  modern  readers.    Most  of  his 


I  "Philip  Sparrow"  and 
"■  uoiin  i^ioui." 

Skep'tidsm,  the  doctrine  whicb  sets  np,  as 
its  highest  principle,  doubt  or  suspense  of 
indgment  in  view  of  the  contradictory  nature 
of  pheuonjena,  and  infers  the  impossibility  of 
knowing  truth.  Skepticism,  therefore,  inten- 
sifies mental  independence,  and  is  regarded 
as  a  neoessary  clearing  up  preparatory  to 
philosophic  thinking.  At  Uaat  since  the  time 
of  Descartes  this  has  been  the  case,  and  some 


skepticism  is  elementary  philosophy.  Skepti- 
cism is  based  upon  the  obeervation  of  method, 
and  in  this  respect  is  a  higher  activity  of  the 
mind  than  mere  dogmatism.  Among  the 
Qreeks,  Georgiae  had  reached  the  doctrioB  of 
nihilism — nothing  exists;  and  Socrates  assert- 
ed that  he  knew  only  that  he  knew  nothing; 
while  Beitus  Empiricus  sums  up  ancient  skep- 
ticism as  follows;  Nothing  is  certain  in  itself, 
as  is  proved  by  the  diversity  of  opinion,  and 
nothing  can  be  made  certain  by  proof,  since 
it  derives  no  certainty  from  itself,  and,  if 
based  on  other  proof,  leads  us  either  to  the 
re^e«»u«  ad  infinitum  or  to  a  vicious  circle. 
See  AoiTosTiasM. 

Skirn'mei,  Sds'aOTsbill,  or  Shear'wnter,  any 
bird  of  the  genus  Rhyncho^t,  and  related  to 
the  terns.  These  birds  skim  over  the  sea  with 
the  lower  mandible,  which  is  much  longer  than 
the  upper  and  compressed  like  a  kni^  blade, 
cutting  through  the  water.  The  black  skimmer 
{R.  fiigra)  is  black  above,  whito  below.  The 
spread  ot  wings  is  3}  to  4  tt.;  length,  IB  to 
20  in.  It  ranges  northward  to  New  Jersey, 
but  R.  albicoU*»  is  Indian  and  R.  pavirottria 
African. 

Skin,  the  name  given  to  the  external  layer 
or  tissue  of  the  bodies  of  most  animals,  form- 
ing at  the  same  time  a  protective  and  a  blood- 
purifying  organ.  Structurally  viewed,  the  skin 
of  all  vertebrates  consists  of  two  layers — an 
outer  and  inner  layer.  To  the  outer  layer  the 
name  of  cuticle,  epidermit,  or  scar/  cfcin  is 
popularly  given.  This  layer  is  destitute  of 
nerves  and  of  blood  vessels,  and  is  thus  a  non- 
sensitive  structure.  The  inner  layer  is  a  highly 
vsacular  and  sensitive  layer,  and  is  named  the 
demits,  oorium,  or  (rue  sicin.  At  the  lips  and 
elsewhere  the  epidermis  becomes  continuous 
with  the  more  delicate  mucous  membrane 
which  forms  the  lining  membrane  of  the  in- 
ternal passagea.  This  membrane  is  to  be 
viewed  as  a  mere  modification  of  the  epider- 
mis itself. 

The  epidermis  is  oomposed  of  several  layers 
of  epithelial  cells.  The  upper  cells  of  the 
epidermU,  as  seen  in  a  vertical  section  of  the 
ikin,  STB  flnttened,  ud  of  scaly  conformation. 


SKIN 

ilongated 

shape.  The  elongated  celle  have  their  long 
axes  arranged  vertically  to  the  general  skin 
surface.  The  deeper  portion  of  the  epidermis, 
or'rete  mucoaum,  is  of  softer  and  more  opaque 
oonsiBtence   and    appearance   than  the   upper 


Sun,  Hiqhlt  I 


layer;  and  it  is  in  tiie  rete  muootum  that 
coloring  matters  are  present,  which  give  the 
hue  to  the  skin.  The  dermis  or  true  skin 
rests  upon  a  layer  of  adipose  and  cellular 
tissue,  and  is  composed  of  interlacing  fibers 
of  flbrocellular  tissue.  It  is  richly  supplied 
with  blood  vessels,  so  that  when  cut  it  bleeds; 
and  nerve  fibers  are  likewise  disposed  in  it, 
conferring  sensibility.  The  surface  of  the  true 
skin  is  tnrown  into  a  series  of  elevations — 
papillm,  or  minute  prominences — which  are 
specially  rich  in  capillary  blood  vessels  and 
nerve  endings,  and  which  are  thus  particularly 


^ 


SscnOM  or  Sein,  Hiam.T  IQaiiiviaB. 

vascular  and  sensitive.  The  special  glands  of 
the  skin  are  in  the  form  of  tubes  coiled  up 
into  balls,  and  the  total  number  of  them  in 
the  human  skin  is  estimated  at  over  two  mil- 
lions. There  are  also  sebaceous  glands,  whioh 
secrete  an  oily  fluid  useful  for 


SKINE 

lliougli  the  mort  oatmulbla  ftmotion  of  the 
■kin  Mems  ta  be  that  it  covers  Rnd  protecta 
the  more  dettcate  atrueturea  thftt  lie  Deneath 
it,  its  functions  as  sn  excretory  orKon  and  as 
*  regulator  of  the  temperatura  of  the  body 
are  also  of  higli  importance.  The  hair  and 
nails  are  modi&cationi  of  the  epidermis,  as 
are  also  the  feathers  of  birds  and  the  claws 
of  animals.  Extensiona  of  skin,  as  between 
the  toes  of  ducks,  etc.,  or  between  the  arms 
Eind  legs  of  flying  squirrels,  and  as  seen  in 
bate,  may  exist.  And  pendulous  skin  folds, 
horns,  callosities,  homy,  plates,  scales,  and 
other  modificatione  of  the  epidermis,  are  met 
with  in  various  animals.  The  acvtea,  or  bony 
plates,  seen  in  the  armadillos  are  dermal 
structures  united  to  horny  plates  formed  by 
the  epidermia.  In  many  reptiles  and  in  some 
liiards  the  two  layers  of  the  skin  similarly 
participate  in  forming  the  exoskeleton.  The 
scales  of  flshee  are  formed  by  the  dermis  or 
true  skin,  but  those  of  serpents  are  epidermic 
in  their  nature.    See  Epidebmis;  Bpitkeuuu. 

SUnk,  any  one  of  a  numerous  species  of  liz- 
ards belonging  to  the  family  ScincidiB.  The 
body   is  eubcylindrieal,   with  the  tail  cylin- 


CoMHoiT  Bunk. 

drical  or  tapering;  the  scales  generally  smooth 
and  regular;  the  timbs  variable  in  develop- 
ment, typically  four,  generally  more  or  lees 
weak,  sometimes  atrophied;  the  tong<ie  is 
short,  flat,  and  squamous.  They  are  distrib- 
uted in  almost  aU  parts  of  the  world,  more 
eapecially  in  the  warmer  climates.  It  was 
believed  by  the  ancients  to  be  a  speciflc  for 
various  disease  a. 

Sko'beleff,  Mikhail  Dimitrievlch,  1843-18S2i 
Russian  general;  entered  the  army  as  sub- 
lieutenant in  18Q1;  distinguished  himself 
against  the  Poles  in  1S66',  and  afterwards  in 


Turkish  War  Skobeleff  distinguished  himself 
at  the  second  battle  of  Plevna,  and  also  at 
Loftscha;  was  created  adjutant  general  to  the 
emperor,  1878;  sucoesafully  led  an  expedition 
against  the  Tekke  Turkomans,  and  captured 
Oeok  Tepe,  January  12,  1881;  then  promoted 
to  the  rank  of  general.  He  died  suddenly  in 
Moscow.  Be  was  a  brilliant  and  scientific 
officer,  antl  much  beloved  by  the  troops. 


SKULL 

Skn'a,  Sfctu-gnU,  or  Jae'fsr,  names  given  to 
gulls  belonging  Ut  the  subfamily  fitcrcorortintB, 
who  have  the-  habit  of  pursuing  smaller  gulls 
and  forcing  them  to  give  up  tlieir  food.  They 
also  eat  eggs  and  prey  upon  small  or  young 
birda.  The  akuas  aj-e  readily  diatinguiehed  by 
the  homy  hood,  or  cere,  at  the  base  of  the 
bill,  beneath  which  the  nostrils  opeiL  From 
four  to  six  species  are  recogniced,  the  largest 
being  the  great  Antarctic  skua  { Megalettrit 
antarctieua] ,  the  only  one  peculiar  to  the  S. 
hemisphere,  the  others  being  most  abundant 
in  high  N,  latitudes  ,and  in  Arctic  regions. 
The  large  N.  species,  M.  skua,  is  about  8  ft. 
long,  powerfully  built,  and  of  a  dusky-brown 
plumage.  It  is  an  uncommon  bird,  and  in 
Great  Britain  has,  through  persecution,  be- 
come  so  rare  that  it  is  now  protected  by 
taw.  Three  other  and  much  smaller  species 
occur  along  the  more  N.  shores  of  the  U.  8., 
and  are  locally  known  as  gull  catchers  or  gull 
chasers. 

SkuU,  hard  framework  of  the  vertebrate 
head,  composed  of  the  cranium,  which  pro- 
tecta the  brain,  and  the  facial  structures. 
These  may  consist  entirely  of  cartilage,  as  in 
the  shark,  or  of  bone,  as  in  mammals.  As 
the  size  of  the  skull  is  intimately  connected 
with  brain  development,  human  skuUa  are 
grouped  according  to  their  cranial  capacity, 
as:  microcephalic,  below  1,360  c.c.  (including 
such  races  as  the  Andamese  and  Bushmen )  ; 
meaocephalic,  from  1,360  to  1,460  cc.  (as  in 
the  American  Indians,  Chinese,  and  some  ne- 
groes)  1  and  megace^allc,  over  1,460  c.c,  met 
with  in  the  more  civilized  races  (European, 
Japanese,  etc.).  The  relation  of  the  length 
to  the  breadth  of  the  akull  is  also  important, 
and  the  "  oephalio  index "  is  found  by  multi- 


plying the  maximum  length  by  100  and  divid- 
ing the  result  by  the  maximum  breadth.  Do- 
lichocephalic skulls  have  an  index  below  75 
(as  Australians,  Zulus,  Eskimos)  ;  mesoticeph- 
alic,  from  76  to  80  (as  mixed  Europeans  and 
Chinese)  ;  broehy cephalic,  over  80  (as  Malays, 
American  Indians,  etc.).    The  facial  an^le  iq 


BKUNK 

also  calculated  In  eraniologj,  a  skull  with  m 
greatly  projecting  lover  jaw,  as  (wen  in  Afri- 
c*ii  negroes,  being  called  prognathoui;  a  IcBser 
degree  of  projection,  b«  in  the  Chinese  and 
PolTseBianB,  being  meBognathoufl;  while  or- 
tbognathouB  includes  the  almost  vertical  eII- 
houette  of  the  mixed  European  races. 

In  the  human  skull  but  twenty-eisht  bones 
exist— aix  in  the  ears  (see  Eab),  eight  in  the 
crajiium  and  fourteen  in  the  face.  This  is 
largely  due  to  the  fusion  of  bones  distinct  in 
the  embrvo  as  well  as  in  the  adult  of  lower 
forms.  Ilie  cranial  bones  are  ( 1 )  the  occipital 
bone,  which  lies  at  the  back  of  the  skull;  (2) 
the  frontal  bone,  which   forms   the   forehead; 

(3)  the  parietal  bones,  two  in  number,  which 
meet  one  another  above  the  middle  of  the 
crown  of  the  bead,  and  form  a  large  part  of 
the  sides  and  root  of  the'skulli  (4)  the  tem- 
poral bones,  one  on  each  side,  which  contain 
the  ear  cavities;  (6)  tbe  sphenoid  bone,  which, 
with  the  occipital  bone,  forma  the  base  of  the 
dcull;  (6)  the  ethmoid  bone,  which  forme  the 
partition  between  the  brain  and  the  nose 
chambers.     The  paired  bones  of  the  face  are 

(1)  the  maxills,  or  upper  jaw  bones;  (2)  the 
palate  bones;   (3)  the  malar,  or  cheek  bones; 

(4)  the  nasal  bones;  <5)  the  lachrymal,  or 
tear  bones,  between  the  eye  socket  and  the 
nose;  (6)  the  inferior  turbinate  bones,  in  the 
nose.  The  single  bones  of  the  face  are  the 
lower  jaw  bone,  or  mandible,  and  the  vomer, 
which  forms  a  partition  between  the  two  nos- 
trils.    See  Man;   PHbedoloot. 

Sktmk,  a  mustetoid  carnivorous  mammal  of 
the  Mephitina.  The  body  is  moderately  elon- 
gated and  arched  backward;  the  legs  compara- 
tively short;  the  feet  subplantigrade;  tlie  tail 
rather  long  and  very  biuhy;  the  color  is  par- 


CoMMOH  Skdhk. 

ticolored,  black  and  white  being  contrasted. 
Their  anal  glands  contain  a  nauseous  liquid, 
which  the  animal,  on  being  alarmed,  diS' 
charges  with  such  force  that  the  jet  is  car- 
ried from  8  to  12  ft. 

The  skunks  are  distributed  throughout 
America,  N.  as  well  as  8.,  except  the  coldest 
parte,  and  are  found  in  no  other  portion  of 
the  world.  They  are  all  active  carnivorous 
animals,  feeding  on  small  quadrupeds  and 
birds  as  well  as  reptiles.  They  burrow  and 
hibernate.  They  bring  forth  from  six  to  nine 
»t  »  birth.    The  mephitic  fluid  has  been  em- 


SLATEST 

ployed  medidnally  as  an  antispasmodic  The 
□ite  of  the  animal  iS'  dreaded,  and  is  said  to 
induce  hydrophobia.  Mepkitis  mephtttca  is  the 
common  large  skunk;  U.  putoritu,  the  little 
striped  skunk;  Conepatu»  mapurito  is  about 
the  size  of  M,  mephitica,  and  extends  into  the 
BW.  of  the  U.  S.  (Texas,  ete.),  from  Mexico. 
Skunks  are  beneficial  from  the  number  of  mice 
and  insects  the^  devour.  They  are  said  to  be 
gentle,  inoffensive  pets.  Their  fur  is  sold  aa 
Alaskan  sable. 

Skimk  Cabltage,  the  Symploearpua  feetidua, 
a  large  marsh  plant  of  the  arum  family,  com- 
mon in  the  U.  S.,  distinguished  by  the  un- 
pleasant smell  of  its  leaves.  'It  produoes  earljr 
in  the  spring  ite  four-petaled  flowers  in  a 
globular  cluster  upon  a  Bh<»'t  st«n.  The  fruit 
IS  oval  and  fleshy,  inelosins  large  purple  seeds. 
The  roots  and  ^ves  have  Deen  used  as  stimu- 

Skye  (ski),  island  of  Scotland,  the  largest 
of  the  Inner  Hebrides;  area,  536  sq.  m.  The 
surface  is  mountainous  and  rusged.  Fishing 
is  the  principal  occupation.  TbB  inhabitante 
are  poor,  and  their  number  decreases,  as  many 
emigrate.     Pop.   (1901)    14,642. 

SkyTark,  the  Alauda  arcensts,  an  Old  World 
bird,  noted  for  ite  song.  It  is  about  7  in. 
long,  the  teil  being  3.  It  is  fou'hd  all  over 
Europe,  as  well  as  in  N.  Africa  and  the  cor- 
responding zones  of  Asia.  It  frequents  mead- 
ows, and  does  not  perch.  It  feeds  chiefly  on 
seeds  and  larva.  Its  nest  is  on  the  ground. 
It  lays  four  or  five  eggs  of  a  whitish  gray. 
It  is  esteemed  for  the  delicacy  of  ite  flesh  and 
Ihe  melody  of  ite  song. 

Slan'der.    See  Libel  and  BiAnnEB. 

Slate,  a  rock  consisting  largely  of  silicate  of 
aluminum,  which  splits  into  slabs  or  plates, 
formed  by  the  consolidation,  under  heat  and 
pressure,  of  clay  deposited  in  still  water.  It 
weighs  from  170  to  180  lb.  per  cubic  foot,  and 
ite  most  extensive  use  is  for  roofs.  The  out- 
put of  slate  in  the  U.  S.  in  1910  was  valued 
ftt  S(I,23a,769,  of  which  «2,S92,358  worth  was 
quarried  in  Pennsylvania  and  $1,841,589  worth 
Ui  Vermont. 

Slav'ery,  a  stete  of  bondage  of  one  human 
being  to  another.  In  its  usual  sense  it  does 
not  include  the  milder  forms  of  bondage,  such 
as  serfdom  or  villanage.  In  its  origin  it  was 
the  sign  of  civilization,  in  that  it  arose  from 
the  sparing  of  captives,  who  in  savagery  were 
slain'  by  their  capters.  The  slavery  of  the 
industrial  classes  has  characterized  the  early 
history  of  all  civilized  races,  and  as  forcing 
men  to  labor,  .despite  the  reluctence  inherent 
in  barbarous  tribes,  seems  to- have  been  a  nec- 
essary element  of  progress.  It  existed  among 
all  races  of  whom  there  is  historic  record,  but 
in  some  ite  rigors  were  mitigated  by  peculiar 
laws  and  customs,  as  among  the  Hebrews, 
whuae  slaves  became  free  after  seven  years, 
while  every  fiftieth  year  all  slaves  were  eman- 

The  rearing  of  slaves  was  not  profiteble  in 
Greece;  it  was  cheaper  to  purchase  those  who 
had  reached  the  age  of  labor.  Tliey  were  em- 
ployed in  domestic  service,  in  agriculture,  aad 


SLAVERY 

eren  in  commerce,  ind  ocenpcUons  in  whieli 
the  risk  and  rseponsibilitj  were  great.  In 
Attica  the  slaves  bore  to  the  free  native  popu- 
lation the  ratio  of  three  to  one,  and  is  Sparta 
the  Helots  numbered  220,000,  while  the  Spar- 
tan* numbered  only  32,000.  In  Sparta  the 
Helots  Buffered  cruel  treatment,  while  Athenian 
maatera  were  noted  for  their  mildness.  In 
Athene  a  slave  who  bad  a  just  complaint 
against  his  master  could  demand  to  be  sold; 
he  had  a  right  to  asylum  in  the  temples,  and 
his  death  could  be  avenged.  Be  could  pur- 
chase his  freedom,  and  could  be  liberated  by 
the  act  of  his  master.  Emancipation  was  fre- 
quent No  ooneciousneas  of  the  injurious  moral 
effects  of  slavery  leema  to  have  been  felt  by 
the  greatest  thiiucers. 

In  Rome  the  aourow  of  supply  of  slaves 
were  wars  and  commerce.  The  proportion  of 
■lave  to  free  is  estimated  at  three  to  one  in 
the  period  ISO  b.Ov23S  a.d.  A  freedman  in 
the  reign  of  Augustus  is  said  to  have  left  over 
4,000,  and  families  of  2O0  or  300  slaves  were 
not  uncommon.  A  slave  was  under  the  domin- 
ion of  his  maatcr,  against  whom  he  bad  no 
legal  redress.  The  marriage  of  slaves  had  no 
legal  recognition,  nor  oould  a  slave  acquire 
property,  though  it  became  customary  to  per- 
mit him  to  enjoy  a  share  of  his  earnings, 
known  as  his  peoulium.  Punishments  for 
crime  were  aevere  against  slaves.  Their  barsb 
treatment  is  attest^  by  several  servile  inBur- 
rections,  as  that  of  Eunus  in  Sieily,  133  B.C., 
and  that  of  Spartacus  in  73  n.o.  By  the  sec- 
ond century  greater  humanity  began  to  dis- 
play itself  in  dealing  with  the  slaves.  Upon 
contact  with-  the  Roman  civiliEation  the  Ger- 
manic tribes  were  naturally  affected  by  the 
system  of  agricultural  labor  wbicb  tbey  found 
in  operation,  the  coloni  being  free  but  not 
allowed  to  leave  the  aoil.  The  resulting  sys- 
tem waa  serfdom  (see  S&ar}. 

Durins  the  Middle  Ages  slavery  was  still 
practiced,  but  among  Christian  races  the  en- 
slavement of  Christians  was  opposed  by  the 
Church-  No  such  scruple  applied  to  the  en- 
slavement of  Mohammedans,  many  of  whom 
were  beld  as  slaves  in  Europe,  while  Christian 
slaves  were  left  in  tbe  hands  of  the  Turks  and 
Saracens.  Tbe  great  commercial  cities  of  Italy 
carried  on  an  extensive  slave  trade  with  the 
East,  and  the  corsairs  of  Barbary  carried  off 
Christiana  into  slavery,  even  penetrating  into 
Spain  and  S.  France,  and  seizing  the  peasants. 
Charles  V  freed  20,000  Christian  slaves  after 
his  expedition  against  Tunis  in  1635,  and 
12,000  Christian  galley  slaves  were  liberated 
after  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  1G71.  White  slav- 
ery still  exists  among  the  Mohammedans,  but 
the  slaves  are  on  the  whole  humanely  treated. 
The  traffic  in  black  slaves,  honever,  is  marked 


African  slavery  on  an  extensive  scale  was 
not  practiced  bjf  Europeans  till  after  the  dis- 
covery of  America,  when  a  great  demand  arose 
for  negro  tabor.  The  Portuguese  had  at  first 
a  monopoly  of  tbe  slave  trade,  but  the  English 
soon  took  part  in  supplying  the  Spanish  de- 
mand. The  first  slaves  sold  te  Englisn  colonists 
were  brought  by  a  Dutch  vessel  lo  Jamestown 


SLAVIC  LANGUAGES 

in  lelO,  but  tbe  English  afterwards  supplied 
the  greater  number,  and  continued  the  trade 
throughout  the  eighteenth  century,  despite  tbe 
increasing  opposition  to  it  on  both  sides  of 
tbe  Atlantic.  The  Quakers  had  from  the  first 
opposed  It,  but  they  lacked  numbers  and  influ- 
ence. Tbe  enemies  of  slavery,  through  the 
labors  of  Clarkson,  Sharp,  Wilberforce,  and 
others,  after  repeated  failures  to  secure  legis- 
lation triumphed  at  last,  and  an  act  abolishing 
the  slave  trade  was  passed,  180T.  August  ZS, 
1B33,  a  law  was  enacted  fixing  August  1,  1834, 
as  the  date  for  tbe  emanoipation  of  all  slaves 
witbin  the  British  Empire,  and  providing  for 
the  payment  of  £20,000,000  to  the  masters, 
who,  however,  were  to  retain  their  slaves  as 
apprentices  till  August,  1940.  The  appren- 
tiMship  system  was  found  to  work  badly,  and 
was  discontinued  in  1S3S.  Slavery  was  not 
abolished  in  Brazil  till  1888. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  slave  trade  was  forbidden 
by  law  in  1808.  Franklin,  Jefferson,  Mtidison, 
and  Jay  were  among  the  advocates  of  eman- 
cipation, and  in  the  N.  this  policy  was  so 
far  carried  out  that  by  1821  slavery  had 
ceased  to  be  a  power  in  that  region.  The 
ordinance  of  1787  prohibited  slavery  in  the 
Northwest  Territory.  In  the  S.,  however,  the 
cotton  gin  .laused  an  ever-increasing  demand 
for  slave  labor,  and  the  S.  states  were  more 
tenacious  of  slavery  while  the  abolition  senti- 
ment was  developing  in  the  N.  The  more 
moderate  opposition  confined  itself  to  attempts 
to  restrict  its  sphere,  but  unconditional  aboli- 
tion was  favored  by  radical  reformers  like 
Benjamin  Lnndy  and  W.  L.  Garrison,  who 
represented  a  small  and  discredited  but  ag- 
gressive party.  The  contest  belongs  to  the 
histoiy  of  the  U.  S.  In  tbe  Missouri  Com- 
promise, in  the  struggle  over  the  Wilmot  Pro- 
viso, resulting  in  the  formation  of  the  Free- 
soil  Party,  in  the  Kansas-Nebraska  difficulty, 
and  tbe  formation  of  the  Republican  Party  the 
extension  of  slavery  became  the  leading  issue. 
Wben  civil  war  followed  secession,  the  expedi- 
ency of  emancipation  as  a  war  measure  began 
to  be  seriously  cofasidered,  and  on  January   1, 


lion  slavea.     See  NEaBOES;  Sebfs. 

Slav'ic  Lan'gnages,  group  which  embraces 
Russian,  Polish,  Servian,  etc  Tbe  undivided 
Slavic  people,  apparently  with  the  principal 
designation  of  Blavitte  (sing,  filovdncnti ) ,  in- 
habited the  region  of  the  Vistula  (upper  and 
lower)  and  of  the  upper  Dniester  and  Dnieper, 
extending  to  the  outer  fringe  of  the  Carpa- 
thian Mountains.  ^^  ^i^b  first  mentioned 
by  Pliny,  Tacitus,  and  Ptolemy  as  the  Veiieda 
(Ohfttai).  The  Slavic  overflow  into  central 
and  SE.  Europe  came  to  a  close  in  the  first 
decade  of  the  sixth  century.  The  patriarchal 
organization  of  tbe  Slavs  and  their  division 
into  small  disunited  tribes  allowed  them  to 
make  no  immediate  political  impression  on 
their  better  organized  neighbors.     Their  Chris- 


learnt  tbe  new  forms  of  political  and  national 
life  from  those  around  them. 
In  answer  to  a  request  of  Rostislsv,  who 


8UT0NIA 

wjibed  to  frM  U«  Uagdon  from  woladutio*! 
dependaniM  upon  tlw  Frankiih,  the  iMrned 
Coaatantin*  and  bis  brother  Hethodina  were 
•ent  from  Ck)iiitantinop1e  as  misaionuies  to 
the  S1»T*.  Cotutantine  (lata  called  Monk 
Crril)  found  a  literary  language  for  all  the 
SlaTB— tbe  Church  SlaTonio  or  Old  Bnlgariaii 
(Old  BloTenJaii),  which  aerred  for  many  oen- 
turiea  as  the  organ  of  Uie  Gmrch  ud  of 
ciTilizatlon  for  half  the  Slavie  latm.  It  was 
written  in  two  alphabet* — the  Glagolitie,  atill 
retained  for  Coostantine'a  writings,  and  the 


Cyrillio,  which  arose  aoon  after,  apparently 

"ulnria,  and,  becaose  of  ita  aimpfieity  and 

ablanoe  _to    the    litnrgieal    Greek    uncial 


{while  the  Glagolitic  ii  baaed  chiefly  on  the 
euraivfl  mimuonle),  displaced  the  earlier  al- 
phabet With  wmie  modemiEation  nnder  Pe- 
ter th«  Great,  tt  is  aUU  the  alphabet  of  Great 
and  Little  Russian,  Bulgarian,  and  Servian, 
while  the  Croatian,  Slorenian,  Slorakian  (Hcr- 
Tatian),  Czech,  Idisatiaii-Serrian,  and  Polish 
use  the  Latin  alphabet.  In  Slavic  philology 
Church  Slavonic  plays  much  the  same  part  sa 
Gothic  in  Germanic  philology.  It  has  thb 
advantage  of  having  raceivea  a  fixed  literary 
form  three  hundred  years  earlier  than  any 
other  dialect,  and  baee  an  alphabet  extraor- 
dinary for  ita  fine  phonetic  discriminations. 

Saro'nia,  tarritotyof  tanaar  Auatri^-Hunganr, 
bounded  N.  by  the  DraTc,  S.  by  the  Bave^  and  £. 
by  the  Dsnuber«i«i  9,106  aq.m.  See  Czbcho- 
Slovak  Republic;  Jugo-&avu. 

Slavt,  a  race  of  Indo-European  relationghip, 
characterized  chiefly  by  their  apeech  and  con- 
atftuting  three  tenths  of  the  population  of 
Europe,  and  divided  into  three  main  branches 
— Eastern,  Western,  and  Scmthem.  To  the 
first  belong  the  Rustians  and  Rntheniaua;  to 
the  Beoond  the  Polet,  tbe  Oeehs,  the  81ovak^ 
and  tbe  Wenda;  to  the  third  tbe  Bnlnrians, 
the  Serviana  and  Croatiana,  and  the  Slovenes. 

Sleen  >•  normal  and  periodical  condition  of 
tbe  organism  in  which  there  is  more  or  less 
nnconsciousaess  with  loss  of  power  of  volun- 
tary motion.  The  lowest  forms  of  aninali, 
M  the  amtaba,  do  not  show  any  rest  reaem- 
blins  sleep.  Among  the  theories  of  the  cause 
of  sleep  are  that  it  ia  due  to  (1)  a  periodical 
anemia  of  the  brain;  (2)  a  numbing  of  the 
brain  by  ezhanation  products  accumulated 
during  the  day;  (S)  a  shrinkins  of  the  nerve 
elements  in  the  brain  so  that  temporarily 
they  do  not  interlace.  During  sl^p  the  cir- 
culation  is  slower.  The  heart  beats  with  more 
regularity,  but  with  leaa  force  and  frequencv. 
So  the  blood  is  not  distributed  so  thoroughly 
and  rapidly  as  during  wakefulness,  and  the 
extremities  readily  lose  their  heat. 

The  nervous  system  continues  in  action  dur- 
ing sleep,  though  generally  with  somewhat 
dimiuiahed  power  and  sensibilit;.  The  reflex 
funetiona  of  the  nerve  centers  are  still  main- 
tained, and  thus  various  movements  may  be 
executed  without  consciousness  being  awak- 
ened. Somnambulism  is  a  condition  of  ex- 
altation in  tbe  functions  of  nerve  centers  with- 
out the  oontrolling  infiuence  of  the  cerebrum 
being  brought  into  aiition;  but  aaide  from  thla 
rather  abnormal  phanmnenoii,  there  are  others 


OiEEP  OF  PLANTS 

which  ar/entlrelT  within  the  range  of  health. 
Thus,  if  the  position  of  the  sleeper  beecsne* 
irksome,  it  is  changed;  if  the  feet  become  oold, 
they  are  drawn  up  to  a  warmer  part  of  the 
bed;  and  cases  are  recorded  in  which  indi- 
viduals have  risen  from  bed  and  performed 
many  complicated  and  apparently  volitional 
acts  without  awaking.  The  extreme  of  this 
condition  is  known  as  eomnambuliam,  or  slemi- 
walking. 

That  the  imagination  may  in  Its  fiighta  dur- 
ing Bleep  strike  upon  fancies  which  are  sub- 
Sueutly  developed  by  the  reason  into  lucid 
[.valuable  ideas  is  probable.  It  would  be 
strange  if,  from  among  the  absurdities  and 
eitravagancee  to  which  It  attains,  something 
fit  to  be  appropriated  by  the  mind  should  not 
"»"— lionally   be  evolved,  and  there  are  many 


leep.  Tie  clarifying  effect  <j  " sleeping  over" 
a  complicated  mentM  problem  is  well  Known, 
thoughts  being  found  to  be  rearranged  and 
coordinated  when  waking  life  Is  resumed.  Yet 
there  are  many  instances  on  record  of  knowl- 
edge which  had  passed  out  of  the  mind  behig 
reacquired  during  sleep.  During  sleep  judg- 
ment is  suspended.  We  do  not  actually  lose 
the  power  of  arriving  at  a  decision,  but  we 
cannot  exert  the  faculty  in  accordance  with 
truth  and  reasoning.  An  opinion  may  be 
formed  during  sleep,  but  it  is  more  likely  to 
be  wrong  than  right;  and  no  effort  that  we 
can  make  will  enable  us  to  distinguish  the 
false  from  the  true,  or  to  discriminate  between 
the  pouible  and  the  impossible. 

Defirivation  of  sleep — a  form  of  punishment 
in  China — produoea  death  in  a  few  Says.  Con- 
tinued insomnia  demands  medical  treatment, 
as  it  too  often  leads  to  mental  deterioration, 
insanity,  and  suicide.  Hypnotics  should  be 
taken  only  apon  preseription,  and  after  out- 
door exercise,  bathing,  and  proper  hygiene  hav« 
proved  Ineffectual.  An  infant  may  sleep  twen- 
ty hours  out  of  every  twenty-four;  a  child 
may  sleep  twelve  hours;  as  age  advancea  sleep 
becomes  less  profound.  The  deepest  sleep  oc- 
curs in  the  first  two  hours  after  reUring- 

Sleep'lnx  filek'nesa  (TrypdiuMomiatia) ,  also 
called  AxXLCAS  Lkthabot,  a  disease  prevalent 
in  Africa,  particularly  in  the  Uganda  and 
the  Kongo  district.  Although  white  men  are 
by  no  means  immune,  it  occurs  mainly  among 
the  n^roes.  It  is  believed  to  be  due  to  an 
animal  parasite,  transmitted  to  its  victims  by 
means  of  the  tsetse  fly,  and  causes,  specially, 
cerebral  disorder  and  nervous  disorganization. 
The  symptoms  are  headache,  pains  in  the  cheat, 
dullness  of  faculties,  loss  of  mental  and  phys- 
ical energy,  apatl^,  lassitude,  and  increasina 
desire  for  sleep.  Some  cases  reach  their  fatal 
termination  in  two  or  three  months,  others 
not  for  vears.  Coma  appears  in  the  final 
stage,  ana  death  uanally  follows  from  ttarva- 

ffleep  of  PUnti^  the  nootnmal  condition  of 
many  plants.  Many  leave*  assume  a  particu- 
lar position  at  uightfall  or  in  a  darkened  room, 
as  is  the  case  with  certain  sorrels  (OaoMs), 


Ogl( 


SUCK 

•a) ,  and  other  Legumtnota.  Many  Howen 
eloM  at  night  and  open  in  the  rooming,  aa  of 
•pecies  of  Portulaca  and  Oxalis,  the  dandelion, 
and  other  Compoaita. 

Slide,  Sam.  Bee  HAUBnaroH,  THOMAS 
Chandler. 

SUden:,  John,  1793-1871;  American  ataUi- 
mani  b.  Kew  York;  settled  at  Mew  Orleans; 
U.  S,  District  Attorney,  1829-33;  member  of 
Congress,  1843—46;  miniBter  to  Mexico,  184G, 
but  not  received  by  the  Mexican  Govt.;  U.  S. 
Senator,  1S63-61,  but  withdrew  upon  the  se- 
eeeaion  of  his  state,  which  he  had  done  much 
to  promote.  Sailing  from  Charleston  as  com- 
missioner of  the  Confederate  Qovt.  to  Franca, 
he  and  his  aasoeiatc,  James  M.  Mason,  em- 
barked at  Havana  on  the  British  steamer 
Trent.  On  November  8,  1881,  Capt.  Wilkes, 
of  the  U.  8.  frigate  San  Jaointo,  stopped  the 
Trent,  seized  the  commissi  oners,  and  brought 
tfaem  to  the  U.  S.,  where  they  were  impris- 
oned at  Fort  Warren.  Bitter  denunciations  of 
the  seizure  appeared  in  the  British  press,  and 
the  attitude  of  the  British  Govt,  was  threat- 
ening, but  the  U.  S.  disavowed  the  act  of 
Willus  and  released  the  prisoners  January  1, 
1862. 

Slide  Sole,  an  instrument  for  solving  arith- 
metical problems  where  approximate  results 
are  Batisfactory.  The  form  invented  by  Will- 
iam Oughtred  (1ST3-1S60)  is  beet  known,  and 
the  more  precise  one  introduced  by  Edwin 
Thacher  in  1886  is  much  used.  The  principle 
is  that  of  logarithms,  the  divisions  on  one 
scale  being  those  of  the  logarithms  of  numbers 
from  1  to  lOO,  or  from  1  to  1,000,  while  the 
numbers  th^nsetves  are  marked  at  the  divi- 
sions of  the  other;  by  sliding  one  scale  along 
the  other  the  products  and  quotients  of  two 
numbers  may  be  read  off  by  inspection. 

Sli'gfl,  country  of  Connaught,  Ireland;  area, 
721  sq.  m.     Agriculture  is  the  principal  occu- 

Sation,  especially  cattle  breeding  and  dairy 
timing.  Fop.  ( 1901 )  84,083.  Principal 
town,  Bligo,  137  m,  NW.  of  Dublin;  pop. 
(1901)    10,882. 

Sling,  a  small  disk  of  leather  pierced  by  a 
hole  and  suspended  by  one,  two,  or  three 
strings,  say  a  yard  long.  A  stone  was  placed 
upon  the  disk,  and  then  whirled  rapidly  about, 
when  one  of  the  string  was  dropped  from  the 
baud  at  the  proper  instant  and  the  missile 
sent  with  force  through  the  air.  A  sling  was 
used  by  David  in  his  encounter  with  Ooliath. 
The  Greeks  used  the  sling,  often  with  a  plum- 
met of  lead.  The  Persians,  Archsano,  Acar- 
nanians,  and  especially  the  Balearic  islanders, 
were  famous  alingers. 

Slo'cnm,  Heniy  Wumer,  1827-94;  American 
military  officer;  b.  Pompey,  N.  Y,;  graduated. 
West  Point,  1862;  appointed  second  lieutenant 
of  artillery;  first  lieutenant,  1666.  After  a 
brief  campaign  against  the  Seminoles,  he  re- 
signed to  practice  law.  On  May  21,  1861,  he 
was  colonel  of  the  Twenty-seventh  New  York 
Volunteers,  and  led  at  Bull  Bun,  July  2lEtl 
He  was  engaged  In  the  siege  of  Yorktown  and 
action  of  Weat  Point.    At  Gaines's  Mill,  June 


27th,  his  command  rendered  important  service; 
at  Olendale,  June  30tb,  it  held  the  right  of 
the  main  line,  as  at  Malvern  Hill,  July  1st. 
He  was  made  a  major  general  of  volunteers 
July  4th,  and  engaged  In  the  second  battle  of 
Bull  Run,  at  South  Mountain,  and  at  Antie- 
tam.  In  command  of  the  Twelfth  Corps,  he 
led  at  Chanceilorsville  and  at  Get^sburg, 
where  he  commanded  the  right  wing.  He  then 
served  in  the  Department  of  the  Cumberland 
and  the  District  of  Vicksburg.  In  command 
of  the  Twentieth   Corps,   be   was   the  first   to 


left  grand  division.  In  September,  1866,  he 
resigned,  and  resumed  the  practice  of  law; 
was  member  of  Congress,  1870-72  and  1884-86, 

Sloe,  fruit  of  the  blackthorn  {Pntnua  apina- 
•a],  a  small  thorny  plum  tree  of  Europe, 
sparingly  naturalized  In  the  E.  U.  S.  The 
black  austere  fruit  is  used  for  preserves,  for 
making  a  factitious  port  wine,  and  for  dyeing 
black.  The  unripe  fruit  yields  German,  acacia, 
a  substitute  for  gum  arable,  and  the  wood  la 
made  into  walking  sticks.  The  sloe  is  per- 
haps the  original  form  of  the  plum. 

Sloth,  any  one  of  several  species  of  the 
Bradypodida,  notable  for  sluggiBbnesa.  The 
form  resembles  that  of  the  Primates  (man 
and  monkeys)  in  the  freedom  of  the  membera 
from  the  common  abdominal  int^^ument,  the 
length  of  the  limbs,  and  especially  of  the  fore 
ones,  and  the  atrophy  of  ttie  tall.  Toes  in 
reduoed  numbers,  two  or  three  {fully  devel- 
oped) in  front  and  three  behind.  The  apeclea 
differ  considerably.    All  are  confined  to  S.  and 


a  Two-TOBD  Sbom. 


I  by  t 

des  are  ill  adapted  for  prwression  on  the 
ground,  the  feet  being  bent  Uiward,  but  are 
fitted  for  life  in  trees.  Unlike  all  other  mam- 
mals, they  cling  to  the  branches  by  their  feet 
with  the  back  downward,  and  thus  they  pro- 
gress, feed,  and  sleep.  They  rarely  or  never 
voluntarily  descend  to  the  ground,  but  when 
one  tree  is  denuded  of  its  leaves  proceed  from 
it  to  a  contiguous  one  by  means  of  Interlock- 
ing boughs. 
Sloyd.    See  Maiojal  TBAiimra. 


9LTJQW0fiMS 

applied  to  other  moUnaca,  and,  wrongly,  to 
certaih  fntecta  whieti  occur  aa  peats  in  gar- 

SlBK'woima,  inoorreetly  called  Sldgb,  lar- 
nt  of  aawfliea,  belonging  to  the  Hymtnoptera. 
The;  are  atvglike  in  form.  In  the  U.  8.  the 
pear,  roae,  Tine,  raipberry,  walnut,  linden,  and 
other  trees  are  inleated  with  similar  larvte, 
whidt  Bjfl  very  deatructive.  Decoctiona  of  to- 
bacco or  quassia,  whale-oil  soap,  a  weak  solu- 
tion of  carbolic  acid,  and  petroleum  are  recom- 
mended for  ahniba  and  trees  infested  with 
■luffworma.  For  small  trees  and  shruba  hand- 
piling  la  generally  aulUcient. 

&naU  Amii^  the  projectile  arms  which  aince 
the  inventiou  of  gunpowder  have  replaced  the 
bow  and  arrow  and  eroasbow.  The  original 
firearma,  bombards,  were  not  portable,  hut  in 
the  flftMnth  century  lighter  pieeea  came  into 
nke;  even  these  required  the  aerviee  of  several 


Fia.  1. — Kiu.'*  Baaacs-LOAnnta  Uubebt,  FiTamau. 


the  Bnke  of  Orleans  poaseaaed  4,000  in  14i:  ,  _ 
1414  they  were  employed  at  the  siege  of  Arraa, 
and  in  1471  were'  introduced  into  England. 
Thcae  hand  cannon  could  be  carried  by  two 
men,  had  a  straight  stock  of  wood  about  3  ft. 
long,  and  were  Bred  by  a  match.  In  Italy  and 
Spain  improvements  received  the  namea  of 
haeqnd>utte,    arquebuae,    and    mousquet;    the 


taken  from  tiie  shoulder  instead  oiflriiCg  from 
the  cheat,  and  the  weight  was  reduced  to  IS 
lb.  The  tripod  had  now  been  replaced  by  a 
forked  rest  which  the  aoldier  carried  as  a  cane. 
At  the  battle  of  Favia  the  Spanish  bod  2,000 
arqnebnaiera  and  800  mousqueteers,  whose  fire 
determined  the  issue  of  the  battle,  the  balls 
penetrating  the  best  armor  of  the  knights. 

In  the  Untlock  the  weight  was  greatly  re- 
duced, and  without  material  improve- 
ment remained  during  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  the  arm  of  the  Infantry,  un- 
til in  the  nineteenth  century  the  pei- 
cusafon  cap  was  invented  and  rifiea  were 
substituted  for  smooth  bores.  The  needle 
gun  uaed  by  the  Pmaaiana  In  the  war 
with  Austria,  18S6,  demonstrat«d  the  auperi- 
oritf  of  the  breech-loading  over  the  muizle- 
loading  rifie.  The  blunderbuss  was  a  short, 
heavy,  large-bored  gun,  uaed  to  discharge  a 
heavy  load  of  alugs  or  small  bullets  at  ^ort 
range.    During  the  CMl  War  iMaily  iJOQOflOO 


SHALL  AILHS 

small  arma  were  obtained,  Including  nineteen 
varieties  of  breech 'load  iuR  carbines  and  eight 
of  rifles,  those  of  Bumaide,  Sharps,  Maynard, 
and  Henrv  (the  latter  a  magazine  arm)  being 
the  best  Lnov- 


Fio,   8 — Ruiiiaroif   LocKma   Rin.a,   Uodcl,   18T1. 


Since  1880  there  has  been  a  great  improvn- 
ment  in  small  arms,  the  moat  important  being 
the  substitution  of  magazine  arms  for  aingle 
loaders,  the  decrease  in  the  caliber  of  the  bar- 
rel, and  the  use  of  smokeleas  powder.  The 
penetration  of  the  bullet  has  been  increased  by 
the  alteration  in  its  shape,  by  ita  harder  but- 
face,  and  also  bv  its  more  rapid  initial  move- 
ment.   At  the  anorter  rangea,  800  to  300  yds., 


(Bamsa). 


protection  is  now  obtained  by  0.2  in.  of  8t«et 
plate  and  about  0.3  in.  of  wrought  iron,  and 
the  penetration  into  earth  at  these  distonoes 
is  about  26  in.,  into  pine  about  30  In.  Their 
effect  upon  the  living  human  body  ia  yet  to 
be  fully  determined;  probably  if  striking  no 
bone  the  bullets  will  tnflict  wounds  on  Uiree 
or  four  men  in  file,  but  wounda  leaa  aerious 
than  those  from  the  heavier  lead  ball.    Knivea 


Fid.  <.—UAOBaa  (Gaauir).  ' 

with  blades  9  to  12  in.  long  have  replaced  the 
triangular  bayonet  In  1892  the  U.  S.  adopted 
a  rifle  invented  by  Cant.  0.  Krag  and  B.  J6r- 
fiensen,  of  Norway.  Tne  modem  rifle  ts  effect- 
ive at  4,000  yds.,  and  capable  of  firing  nearly 
forty  shots  per  minute.  A  recant  invention  is 
the  Maxim  "  silencer,"  a  device  which,  when 


Flo.    a, — V.   B.   HlOAIDd    RlTLH. 

attached  to  firearms,  renders  their  discharge 
noiseless.  It  is  baaed  on  the  principle  of  cen- 
trifugal force,  and  consists  of  a  cylinder  which, 
while  having  a  direct  hole  in  tiie  oenter  for 
the  passage  of  the  bullet,  has  twelve  aonnect- 
ing  vortaz  ohambera  through  whioh  the  gas    , 

)oglc 


pendl  which  lollowv  fhe  bnllat  is  raeeeMlnlT 
loroed  b^  its  expaiuioii  and.caiutantlT  deflect- 
ed until  its  power  is  ezhsiutod.  See  UiiiAZiiTK 
Guns. 

Small'voz,  at  VaiiolJI,  k  ipecific,  contaKions 
eruptiTe  lever.  Smallpoi  wOb  unknown  to  the 
eATlf  Qreek  writers,  but  is  mentioned  in  the 
oldwt  books  of  India — the  Vedas — which  de- 
scribe iiMKulatioii  with  the  secretion  of  the 
smallpoi  pustule  as  producing  a  mild  form 
of  the  disease,  and  thereby  preventing  the 
dangerous  natural  form.  Smallpox  was  known 
in  Europe  in  Uie  sixth  eentun'i  and  in  the 
sixteraith  centur;  it  was  earried  bj  the  Span- 
iards to  America. 


I  chill,  high  temperature,  followed  in 
three  or  four  days  by  an  eruption  of  papules 
(pimples),  which  in  about  four  days  more 
become  vesicles,  and  then  pustules.  The  pus- 
tules may  break  down  into  ulcers,  which  when 
healed  leave  pits  of  scar  tissue,  which  have  a 
characteristic  appearance.  In  discrete  small- 
pox the  pustules  are  separate  and  distinct;  In 
confluent  smallpox  the  pustules  run  together, 
and  form  serious  ulcers.  ConHuent  smallpox 
is  a  severe  ^pe.  With  the  appearance  of  the 
papules  the  fever  abates,  but  the  pustules  are 
accompanied  by  a  seooud  rise  of  temperature, 
after  which  Uie  symptoms  progress  toward 
death  or  recovery. 

Smallpox  is  both  contagious  and  infectious; 
that  is,  it  may  be  derived  from  direct  asso- 
ciation with  patients  or  by  contact  with  arti- 
cles which  have  been  used  by  them.  It  may  be 
spread  from  oorpses.  The  disease  has  appeared 
after  articles  used  by  the  sick  have  been  han- 
dled, even  after  these  articles  have  been  re- 
moved to  a  long  distance,  and  after  a  long 
time  had  elaps^.  The  smallpox  germ  has 
not  been  satisfactorily  isolated.  Unborn  chil- 
dren have  developed  the  disease,  showing  that 
it  is  transmissible  through  the  blood  of  a 
mother.  Freviotu  to  the  introduction  of  vac- 
cination, smallpox  was  one  of  the  most  dread- 
ed of  diseases,  and  millions  lost  their  lives 
from  its  ravages.  Since  the  general  use  of 
vaccination,  and  partly  on  account  of  im- 
proved hygienic  conditions  among  all  classes 
of  society,  the  ravages  of  smallpox  have  di- 
minished add  only  lo  few  localities  does  it 
appear  as  an  epidtonic.  The  treatment  of 
smallpox  is  principally  symptomatic,  that  is, 
addressed  to  individual  conditions.  Violent 
medication  has  beeu  abandoned.  The  patient 
is  isolated,  given  digestible  food,  plenty  of 
water,  and  cool  and  antiseptic  applications 
are  made  to  the  skin.  Among  the  most  severe 
complications  of  smallpox  are  gangrene,  boils, 
and  blindness. 


Smsctym'snoB,  name  compounded  of  the  in- 
itials of  the  authors  of  B.  tract  entitled  "  An 
Answer"  (1641),  written  in  reply  t«  Bishop 
Hall's  "  Episcopacy  by  Divine  Bight  Assert- 
ed" (1641).  The  Ave  writers  were  Stephen 
Marshall,  Edmnnd  Calamy,  Thomas  Young, 
Matthew  Newcomen,  and  Witlism  Spurstowe. 

SmelL    See  Noax. 


aULAX 

&ult  (In  »lhi«>on  to  the  cnctunberlike  odor 
of  the  Wpical  species),  a  small  salmonlform 
fish  of  the  ftenus  Otmerut,  or  a  related  genus, 
of  the  family  Argentinidce,  and  esteemed  as 
fi>od.  0.  eperlantu  is  the  European  species; 
0.  mordam,  the  E.  N.  American,  known  also 
as  frost  fi^.  Among  flsbes  improperly  known 
as  smelts  are  the  cyprinoid  BybogtiatKua  re- 
giut,  the  spawn  eater,  and  the  Pacific  tomcod. 

Smelf  ing,  the  process  of  redu^g  metals 
from  their  ores  oy  fusion,  or  processes  in 
which  an  ore  or  a  product  of  other  opera- 
tions, such  as  roasting,  treatment  with  aeids, 
etc.,  is  reduced  to  pure  metaL  The  fusions 
are  conducted  in  shaft  furnaces,  reverberatory ' 
furnaces,  or  crucibles.  Metals  may  be  pro- 
duced from  ores  by  a  single  smelting  operation, 
as  iron ;  or  they  may  require  a  series  of  smelt- 
ings,  alternated  with  roastings,  as  copper  when 
made  from  sulphureted  ores.  The  smelting 
process  may  be  simply  reducing,  or  oxidising 
and  reducing,  or  may  be  designed  to  volatilize 
certain  bodies,  to  oxidize  others,  and  to  re- 
duce still  others.  Charcoal,  coke,  and  anthra- 
cite are  the  fueU  generally  used  in  shaft  fur- 
naces and  for  heating  crucibles,  and  bitumin- 
ous coal  and  wood  for  reverberatory  furnaces; 
but  peat,  natural  gas,  petroleum,  and  waste 
gases  from  furnaces  are  used. 

Smei'dis,  brother  of  Cambyses,  who,  envi- 
ous of  his  strength,  sent  him  back  to  Susa 
from  Egypt.  Shortly  afterwards  Cambyses, 
having  dreamed  that  Smerdis  was  seated  on 
the  throne,  had  him  put  to  death  secretly.  A 
rebellion  broke  out  in  Suea,  and  the  brother 
of  the  governor  of  the  palace,  because  he  re- 
sembled the  dead  Smerdis,  was  declared  to  be 


discovered  the  fraud,  the  false  Smerdis 
was  able  t^l  hold  the  throne  for  seven  months. 
He  was  murdered  by  the  nobles,  who  elected 
Darius  Hystaspis  king. 

Smiloz,    large    genus    of    monocotyledonous 

Jlants  of  the  subfamily  Bmilacea  and  family 
iliacew.  They  consist  of  herbaceous  or  shrub- 
by plants,  generally  more  or  less  climbing. 
There  are  a^ut  two  hundred  species  scattered 
over  the  globe,  most  numerous  in  the  tem- 
perate and  tropical  parts  of  Asia  and  Amer- 
ica. True  sarsapanlla  and  China  root  are 
among  the  products  of  the  genus.  The  U-  S. 
has  numerous  species,  none  important.  The 
China  brier  is  the  most  widely  known  of  them. 
It  is  very  frequent  in  the  S.  of  the  U.  S.,  and 
extends  N.  to  Mew  Jersey.  It  has  large,  tuberous, 
brownish-red  root  stocks,  which  coutain  much 
starch.  Formerly  the  Seminotes  used  the  root 
stocks  for  food  in  times  of  scarcity.  At  pres- 
kind  of  beer  is  made  from  them  with 
molasses,  parched  corn,  and  sassafras.  Several 
plants  of  this  genus  are  fine  in  hothouse  and 
garden  culture.  The  climbing  plant  which 
under  the  name  of  ami  lax  is  cultivated  hj 
florists  is  the  llyraiphyllum  aaparagoida.  It 
from  the  Cape  of  Grood  Hope,  and  is 
cloaely  allied  to  the  asparagus.  It  has  a  fine, 
threadlike  stem,  sometimes  /iO.  ft.   lo^ 


B  20.  ft.   longi  an 

.C.oogic 


Smilei,  Sunnel,  1812-1604;  Englfih  kuthor; 
b.  HadiUngtcm,  Scotluid ;  educated  for  tbe 
medical  profeeaion;  became  editor  ajid  railroad 
official.  Among  his  numerous  works  are  "  Self- 
Help,-with  IlluHtrationB  of  Character  and  Con- 
duct," which  had  an  eDormous  sale  (1860); 
"Workmen's  EamingB,  Strikes  and  Savings"; 
"  LiVGfl  of  the  Engineers  " ;  "  Cbaract«r  " ; 
"Thrift";  "The  Huguenots  in  England  and 
Ireland";  "The  Huguenots  in  France  after 
the  Relocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes " ; 
"Life  of  a  Scotch  Naturalist";  "  George 
Moors,  Merchant  and  Philanthropist";  "Life 
of  Robert  Dick"  (1878);  ''Duty";  "Men  of 
JnTentioD  and  Industry";  "A  Publisher  and 
his  Friends;  John  Murray";  "Josiah  Wedge- 
wood"    (1894). 

Smitl^  Adam,  1783-W;  Scotch  economist 
and  philosopher;  b.  Kirkcaldy.  Studied  at 
Unir.  of  Glasgow  and  at  Oxford.  In  1761  was 
Prof,  of  Logic  and  17G2  Prof,  of  Moral  Philos- 
ophy, Univ.  of  Qlasgow.  He  rasolvcd  morals 
into  ^l)  natural  theology,  (2)  ethics,  (3) 
justice   with   reference   to  ipecifio   rules  and 

fireoepta,  and  (4)  political  expediency  as  af- 
ecting  the  honor,  power,  and  prosperity  of 
the  state.  His  lectures  were  very  popular. 
His  first  publication  (1759),  the  ''Theory  of 
Moral  Sentiments,"  led  to  his  being  selected 
Ui  accompany  the  young  Diike  of  Buccteugh 
on  his  travels.  Smith  thus  bad  an  oppor- 
tunity to  become  acquainted  with  the  internal 
policy  of  other  sta't^  and  to  confer  with  dis- 
tinguished economists.  After  his  return  in 
176fl  he  lived  for  ten  years  in  retirement.  The 
result  was  his  great  work,  "  Ah  Inquiry  into 
the  Nature  and  Sources  of  the  Wealth  of  Na- 

Many  prioeiplea  it  laid  down  were  derived 
from  the  French  economists,  but  the  complete- 
ness of  their  compilation  and  his  clearness  of 
statement  entitle  Adam  Smith  to  be  regarded 
as  the  father  of  modem  political  economy. 
His  book  will  continue  to  be  a  standard  of 
reference.  "Its  great  object  is  to  demonstrate, 
that  the  most  effectual  plan  for  advancing  a 
people  to  greatness  is  to  maintain  that  order 
of  things  which  nature  has  pointed  out,  by 
allowing  every  man,  as  long  as  he  observes 
the  rules  of  justice,  to  pursue  his  own  interest 
in  his  own  way,  and  to  Dring  both  his  industry 
and  his  capital  Into  the  Ireest  competition 
with  those  of  his  fellow  citizens."  He  was 
appointed  a  commissioner  of  customs  for  Scot- 
land, and  in  1787  was  elected  lord  rector  of 
the  Univ.  of  Glasgow, 

Smith,  Bdmonil  Kirb7,  1824-93;  b.  St.  Au- 
gustine, Fla.;  graduated  at  West  Point,  1846; 
participated  in  Mexican  War,  then  1 1849-62) 
Assistant  Prof,  of  Mathematics,  West  Point, 
In  1801  became  brigadier  general  Confeder- 
ate States  army,  and  was  wounded  at  Bull 
Run.  Under  Bragg  be  led  the  advance  into 
Kentucky;  routed  ins  Union  forces  at  Rich- 
mond, &.J.,  August  SOth,  and  advanced  to 
Frankfort.  Promoted  to  lieutenant  general, 
be  was  engaged  at  Perryrille,  October  10th, 
»r  1 


SWTH 

and  in  tbe  battle  of  Hurfressboro,  DsMmber 
31,  18B2~January  3,  1863.  He  was  soon  after 
made  general,  and  in  command  of  the  Trana- 
Missiseippi  Department,  opposing  Banks  in 
the  Red  River  campaign,  and  engaged  at  Jen- 
kins's Perry,  April  30,  18S4.  He  was  the  last 
to  surrender  the  forces  under  his  oommand. 
May  26,  1866.  He  was  president  Pacific  and 
Atlantic  Telegraph  Company,  1866-68;  pres- 
ident Western  Military  Academy,  1868-70; 
chancellor  Univ.  of  Nashville,  Tenn.,  1870-76; 
Prof,  of  Mathematics,  Univ.  of  the  South, 
1876-03. 

Smith,  Gerrft,  1707-1874;  American  pbllan- 
thropiat ;  b.  Utica,  N.  Y. ;  graduated  at  Ham- 
ilton ColWe,  1818;  took  up  his  residence  at 
Peterboro,  Madison  Co.,  N.  Y.,  devoting  him- 
self to  the  management  of  his  great  landed 
estate;  became  a  member  of  the  Colonization 
Society,  18ZS,  but  wTthdrew,  1836,  when  he 
connected  himself  with  tbe  American  Anti- 
Blavery  Society,  of  which  he  was  thenceforth 
one  of  the  leading  members ;  member  of  Con- 
gress, 1862.  Was  a  liberal  contributor  to  the. 
Free  Boil  campaign  in  Kansas;  gave  pecuniary 
aid  to  John  Brown,  1869;  nominated  for  Gor- 
emor  ol  New  York,  1840  and '1868,  at  the 
latter  time  on  a  platform  of  abolition  and 
prohibition;  joined  Horace  Greeley  in  signing 
the  bail  bond  of  Jefferson  Davis,  1867. 

Smith,  GoldwfB,  1623-1910;  EnglUh-Aber- 
ican  author;  b.  Reading,  England;  educated 
at  Eton  and  at  Oxford,  where  he  graduated, 
1846;  fellow  of  University  Collie,  1847; 
called  to  the  bar,  1847,  but  sever  firacticed 
law.  Member  of  the  popular  education  com- 
mission, 1868;  Regius  Prof,  of  Modem  His- 
toi7,  Oxford,  1858-66,  and  Prof,  of  English 
and  Constitutional  History,  Cornell  iSiiv., 
1868-71.  He  championed  the  cause  of  the 
U.  S.  Govt,  during  the  Civil  War;  visited 
the  U.  S.  in  1864  to  lecture.  In  1871  he 
removed  to  Toronto,  Canada;  was  for  a  time 
a  member  of  tbe  senate  of  Toronto  Univ. 
Since  bis  removal  to  Canada  he  has  persist- 
ently advocated  the  annexation  of  that  coun- 
try to  the  U.  S.  In  addition  to  numerous 
magazine  artictea  he  has  published  the  follow- 
ing among  other  worlis:  "Lectures  on  tbe 
Study  of  History,"  "Irish  History  and  Irish 
Character,"  "The  Empire,"  "Three  English 
Statesmen,"  "  Cowper,"  ''  A  Trip  to  England," 
"Jane  Austen,"  'Canada  and  the  Canadian 
Question,"  "  The  Moral  Crusader,  W.  L.  Gar- 
rison," "The  United  SUtes,"  "Bay  Leaves," 
"Essays  on  Questions  of, the  Day,'  "Quessee 
at  tbe  Riddle  of  Existence,"  and  "Revolution 
or  Progress  t" 

Smith,  JamM,  I71B-1B06;  a  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence;  b.  Ireland.  He 
came  to  America  in  1720,  and  settled  a>  a 
lawyer  in  York,  Pa.  He  was  a  member  of  the 
Continental  Congress,  1776-78,  and  when  Con- 
gress held  its  sessions  in  York  the  board  of 
war  occupied  his  law  office. 

Smith,  John,  1679-16S1;  advsnturar  and 
founder  of  Virdnia;  b.  England.  When  voung 
he  took  part  in  the  wars  in  the  Netherlands, 
and  afterwards  fought  against  the  Torki,  was 


,,  Google 


SHTFH 

taken  prisoner,  utd  sent  as  &  tlave  to  Con- 
Btantinople.  Be  was  sent  to  the  seft  of  Azov, 
whence  he  escaped  to  a  Russian  garrison  on 
the  Don.  Smith  returned  to  England  and 
joined  the  expedition  of  Newport  to  Vir"="'- 
aettiag  sail  December  19,  1006.     At  the 


'  for  the  rest  of  the  voyage.  His  trial 
resulted  in  his  acquittal;  be  was  admitted  to 
his  rights  as  a.  member  of  the  council,  and  by 
his  skill  and  energy  saved  the  colony  from 
destruction.  On  one  of  his  expeditions  into 
the  country  to  obtain  com  he  was  taken  pris- 
oner t^  thfl  Indians,  and  his  life  was  saved, 
it  is  said,  by  Pocahontas.  In  June  and  July, 
1608,  Smith  explored  the  coasts  of  Chesapeake 
Bay  as  faf  as  the  Patapsco,  and  afterwards 
the  head  of  the  bay.  He  was  now  president 
of  the  colony,  and  admin^tered  its  affairs  with 
energy,  restoring  order  and  confidence.  The 
company  in  EnKland  being  dissatiB&ed,  he  was 
superseded,  and  returned  to  England,  Septem- 
ber, 1000. 

In  1614  he  explored  with  two  ships  the  New 
England  ooost  (so  named  by  bim).  In  1616 
he  sailed  again  to  New  England  to  found  a 
colony,  but  was  captured  by  a  French  man- 
of-war,  and  carried  to  La  Rochelle.  He  es- 
caped, and  on  hia  return  was  appointed  ad- 
miral of  New  England  and  wrote  an  ocooiuit 
of  his  voyages  to  promote  American  coloniza- 
tion. The  moat  important  of  his  works  are 
"The  General!  Hiatorie  of  Virginia,  New  Eng- 
land, and  the  Summer  Isles^  (1620),  and 
"  The  True  Travels,  Adventures,  and  Observa- 
tions of  Captain  John  Smith"  (1030).  Some 
of  his  wonderful  adventures,  as  narrated  by 
himself,  are  probably,  in  part  at  least,  fic- 
titious. 

Smith,  Joseph,  Jr.,  IS06-44;  Mormon  proph- 
et; b.  Sharon,  Vt.;  grew  up  almost  without 
education,  leading  an  idle  and  rather  disrepu- 
table life.  He  began  to  have  viaiona  at  the 
age  of  fifteen,  and  on  September  21,  1823, 
the  angel  Moroni  appeared  to  him,  announcing 
that  God  had  a  work  for  him  to  perform,  and 
that  buried  in  the  earth  in  a  certain  spot  a 
few  miles  distant  was  a  record  inscribed  upon 
gold  plates,  and  with  this  record  would  be 
found  a  kind  of  spectaclea  through  which  alone 
the  writing  sould  be  read.  Smith  deacribed 
the  plates  as  being  inscribed  on  both  aides  with 
characters  in  a  language  no  longer  extant,  but 
which  he  was  able  to  decipher  bv  the  use  of 
the  miraculous  spectacles,  which  he  called  the 
Urim  and  Thummim.  Smith  professed  to  have 
dictated  in  Engliah  the  contents  of  these  plates 
to  Oliver  Cowdery,  the  pistes  thunselves  mys- 
teriously disappearing  oa  they  were  trans- 
scribed,  and  the  transcript  was  printed  at 
Palmyra  in  1S30  as  "The  Book  of  Uormon, 
an  .Account  written  by  the  Hand  of  Moroni 
upon  Plates  taken  from  the  Plates  of  Nephi. 
By  Joseph  Smith,  Jr.,  Author  and  Proprietor," 
and  to  it  was  prefixed  a  certiflcate  signed  by 
t'owdery  and  two  others  that  they  had  han- 
dled the  plates.  Later,  all  the  witnesses  de- 
clared the  whole  matter  to  be  a  hoax. 

l'l831 


SMITH  COLLEOB 

went  to  E^rtUnd,  Ohio,  where  he  built  a  tMn- 
ple  and  set  up  a  fraudulent  bonk.  In  18S8 
they  were  driven  away.  Smith  had  in  the 
meantime  fixed  upon  a  place  in  Missouri  as 
Uie  site  of  hie  New  Jerusalem;  but  bis  ad- 
herents becoming  obnoxious  to  the  inhabitants, 
they  abandoned  their  settlement  and  took 
refuge  in  Hancock  Co.,  III.,  where  in  1840 
they  esteblished  themselves  at  Nauvoo;  in  six 
years  the  population  numbered  16,000.  Here 
Smith  soon  began  to  put  forth  new  revelations, 
amon^  others  one  eatablishing  polygamy  as  an 
essential  of  the  Church  of  the  Xatter-Day 
Sainte,  and  combining  in  his  own  person  all 
civil,  military,  municipal,  and  sacerdotal  au- 
thority. A  newspaper  was  set  up  to  oppose 
him;  the  presses  were  destroyed  by  Smith  and 
hie  adherents;  warrants  were  issued  for  his 
arrest;  the  Mormons  armed  themselves,  and 
a  confiict  was  imminent  They  were  committed 
to  jail  at  Carthage,  on  an  indictment  of  per- 
jury and  adultery.  A  mob  aaaembled,  dis- 
persed the  guard,  and  began  firing  into  the 
jail.  Hynim  Smith  was  shot  de^;  Joseph 
returned  tUe  fire  with  a  revolver  until  his 
charges  were  exhausted,  when  he  endeavored 
to  escape,  but  was  shot  dead.  He  was  auo- 
eeeded  by  Brigham  Young  ( g.v. ) .  See  Uoi- 
uons. 

Smith,  Samuel  Proads,  1808-96;  American 
author  and  editor;  b.  Boston,  Mass.;  gradu- 
ated Harvard,  182S;  edited  Th«  Baptist  Mit- 
gionary  MagaHne,  1832-33;  Prof,  of  Modem 
Languages,  Waterville  College,  1834-42;  ed- 
ited The  Christian  Revimo,  1842-49.  He  pub- 
lished (with  Rev.  Baron  Stow)  The  PsaZniist 
(1843);  edited  a  volume  of  "Lyric  Qems"; 
wrote  a  "  Life  of  Rev.  Joseph  Grafton,"  and 
is  author  of  many  well-known  songa  and 
hymna,  including  "  My  County,  tis  of  Thee " 
and  "  The  Morning  Light  is  Breaking." 

Smith,  ayOaej,  1771-1845;  EngUsh  der^- 
man  and  author;  educated  at  Oxford;  was,  in 
1802,  a  founder  and  first  editor  of  the  Edin- 
burgh Bevieio.  In  1807-8  appeared  anony- 
moualy  .his  "  Letters  on  the  Subject  of  the 
Catholics,  by  Peter  Pl^ley,"  advocating  Cath- 
olic emancipation,  which,  owing  to  an  admira- 
ble mixture  of  sound  sense,  irony,  and  pleas- 
antry, had  an  immense  circulation. 

Smith,  William,  1769-1839;  English  eeolo- 
giat;  "the  father  of  English  geology  ;  b. 
Churchill;  as  a  mineral  surveyor  ne  mode  and 
published  many  maps  of  the  succession  of 
geological  strata.  He  discovered  and  was  the 
first  to  apply  the  principle  of  the  clasaiflcation 
and  correlation '  of  strata  by  means  of  their 
contained  fossils.  He  received  the  first  Wol- 
laston  medal  from  the  Geoloeical  Society  of 
London,  and  later  a  pension  of  f  100  a  year. 

Smith  CoI'lege,  institution  for  the  higher 
education  of  women  at  Northampton,  Mass., 
founded,  1871,  by  Misa  Sophia  Smith,  who 
bequeathed  for  that  purpose  about  £306,000. 
It  was  opened  to  atudente  in  1876.  It  is  non- 
sectarian  in  management  and  instruction.  In 
1910  there  were  122  instructors  and  l,fl3S 
students.  The  college  library  contains  30,000 
volumes.    Productive  funds  (1910J,  $1,284,000. 


Dior; 


,v  Google 


SMTTHFIELD 

Smitb'fielO,  a  ItxnJitj  in  Lcmdon,  foHnerlf 
lued  as  &  cattle  market,  but  historically  in- 
teresting  aa  the  place  of  execution  of  EnglUh 
martyrs,  1401-1012.  Bartholomew  Fair  was 
held  bere- 

Smith'aoii,  J«iae«,  abt  1706-1829;  English 
■eientiHt;  b.  France;  was  a  natural  son  of 
Hugh  Smithson,  first  Duke  of  Northumber- 
land; educated  at  Oxford,  graduating  in  1TS6 
under  the  n«me  of  Lewia  Macie;  fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society,  17B7|  devoted  himself  to  sci- 
ence, especially  chemistry  and  mineralogy,  and 
published  many  papers.  He  waa  a  friend  and 
associate  of  manj'  of  the  most  learned  men 
of  bis  day.  He  lived  usually  in  Paris,  where 
he  was  an  intimate  of  Arago.  Sometime  be- 
tween 17S1  and  1803  he  took  the  name  of 
Smithson.  Died  in  Qenoa,  Italy.  In  1904  his 
remains  were  brought  from  Genoa  and  rein- 
terred  at  Washington.  For  aa  account  of  his 
muniftcent  bequest  to  the  U.  8.  see  SidTHBon- 

JAN   I:*BTITDTION. 

Smitbaon'Un  Instltn'tioii,  an  establishment 
in  Washington,'  D.  C,  for  the  advancement  of 
leoming  under  the  patronage  of  the  Govern- 
ment of  the  U.  B.,  organized  in  184fi.  Its 
founder  was  James  Smithson,  whose  will  con- 
tained the  following  clause:  "I  bequeath  the 
whole  of  my  properly  to  the  United  States  of 
America,  to  found  at  Washington,  under  the 
name  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  an  es- 
tablishment for  the  increase  and  diffusion  of 
knowledge  among  men."  It  is  probable  that 
he  was  familiar  with  Washington's  projeot  for 
a  national  institution  of  learning.  The  phrase 
"  an  institution  for  the  increase  «nd  diffusion 
of  knowledge "  occurs  in  Washington's  fare- 
well address  (September  IB,  ITBO). 

There  waa  opposition  to  the  acceptance  of 
the  gift.  Statesmen,  led  by  Calhoun  and  Pres- 
ton, argued  that  it  was  beneath  the  dignity 
of  the  IT.  S.  to  receive  presents,  and  that  the 
donor  was  seeking  immortality  for  too  moder- 
ate an  equivalent.  The  acceptance  of  the  gift 
was  advocated  by  others  under  the  leadership 
of  J.  Q.  Adams.  Richard  Bush  was  appointed 
agent  to  prosecute  the  claim,  and,  owing  to 
the  generous  tolerance  of  the  British  author- 
ities, the  matter  was  soon  concluded.  The 
l^acy  was  received  in  the  form  of  104,960 
■overeigns,  which  were  delivered  to  the  Phila- 
delphia mint,  and  reeoined  into  U.  S.  money, 
producing  $608,318.46,  the  flrst  installment 
of  the  legacy,  which  by  1807  amounted  to 
•050,000. 

Prof,  Joseph  Henry,  for  thirty  years  secre- 
tary of  the  Institution,  deSnas  its  objects  as, 
first,  to  inereaae  knowledge  by  research  and 
study  in  science  or  literature,  and,  second,  to 
diffuse  knowledge  everywhere,  especially  by 
promoting  an  interchange  of  thought  among 
those  prominent  in  learning  in  all  nations. 
No  restriction  is  made  in  favor  of  any  one 
branch  of  knowledge.  The  leading  features 
of  the  plan  of  PxM.  Henry  were  to  assist 
men  of  science  in  making  original  reiearehes, 
to  pnbliab  tbem  in  a  series  of  volumes,  and 
to  give  a  copy  of  them  to  every  flrst-class 
library  on  the  faoe  of  Uie  earth."  Probably 
there  is  not  a  scientific  investigator  in  the 
U.  8.  to  whom  a  helping  hand  has  not  at 


SMOKELESS  POWDERS 

some  time  been  extended  by  the  institution, 
and  the  hand  has  often  reached  across  the 
Atlantic.  Books,  apparatus,  and  laboratory 
accommodation  have  been  supplied  to  thou- 
sands, and  each  year  money  grants  have  been 
made.  Not  less  important  has  been  the  per- 
sonal encoursgement  afforded  and  advioe  ^ven 
in  the  tens  of  thousands  of  replies  writton 
each  year  in  response  to  inquiries. 

The  value  of  the  books  distributed  since  the 
Institution  wae  opened  cannot  be  much  less 
than  $1,000,000,  estimating  at  standard  pub- 
lishers' rates.  In  return  for  its  own  publica- 
tions, and  by  purchase,  the  institution  baa 
received  the  books  which  form  Its  library,  and 
whioh  is  one  of  the  richest  in  the  world  in 
the  publications  of  learned  societies.  The  Na- 
tional Museum,  the  National  Zoological  Park, 
the  Astrophysical  Observatory,  and  many  other 
valuable  establishments  are  outgrowths  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution. 

Smoke,  the  product  af  imperfect  combus- 
tion. If  coal,  which  is  chiefly  composed  of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  be 
burned  perfectly,  the  result  will  be  carbonic 
acid,  steam,  and  nitrogen,  which  iubstancea 
~ill  escape  and  blend  with  the  atmospher'   ~~ 


But  s 


the 


ordinary  combustion  of  coal  is  Imperfect,  in- 
flammable gases  and  Tapors  and  fine  particles 
of  carbon  form  soot  and  black  and  brown 
smoke,  contaminate  the  air,  and  caijse  a  loss 
of  fuel.  As  coal  smoke  is  a  unisance,  and  in 
large  towns  such  as  London  even  a  serious  evil, 
much  attention  hag  been  paid  to  the  burning 
of  it.  This  is  attended  with  practical  difficul- 
ties, arising  from  the  necessity  of  preventing 
the  smoke  from  cooling  and  of  supplying  the 
combustible  gases  and  vapors  with  the  neces- 
sary amount  of  oxygen  in  order  to  make  them 
bum  with  flame;  but  these  difficulties  are  not 
greater  than  ms;  be  generally  overcome.  In 
some  cities,  as  Washington,  D.  C,  the  dilu- 
tion of  the  air  by  chimney  smoke  is  forbidden 

Smoke'Ieai  Pow'dan,  ezplosives  acting  with> 
out  the  production  of  smoke.  They  are:  (1) 
Those  composed  of  oellulose  nitrate,  either  the 
insoluble  or  soluble  variety,  or  both;  (2)  those 
composed  of  the  constituents  of  1  mixed 
with  nitroglycerih  or  other  organic  nitrates; 
(3)  those  composed  of  the  constituents  of  1 
mixed  with  nitro-derivativea  of  hydioearbona, 
Bucb  aa  picric  acid  and  the  picrates.  Each  of 
these  may  contain  oxidising  agents  like  bari- 
um or  potassium  nitrates  and  retarding  agents 
such  as  tannin  or  lycopodium. 

Among  the  most  successful  of  these  powders 
are  of  the  first  class  indurite,  used  by  the 
U.  S.  navy,  and  B.  N.,  used  by  the  French; 
of  the  second  class  ballistito,  used  by  the 
Italians,  and  cordite,  used  by  the  British;  and 
of  the  third  class  Peyton  powder.  These  are 
smokeless  because  the  products  of  their  com- 
bustion are  wholly  gaseous,  whereas  fifty-five 
per  cent  of  the  products  of  the  combustion  of 
ordinary  gunpowder  is  finely  divided  solids. 
While  this  property  of  smokelessnesa  is  a  de- 
sirable property,  and  one  which  has  modified 
strategy  and  tactics,  the  most  valuable  prop- 
erty common  to  these  powderi  ia  the   high 


SMOLENSK 

Teloeities  which  they  Impart  to  projectiles. 
In  order  to  minimize  the  stniin  on  the  gun 
the  presBure  developed  must  be  kept  within 
prescribed  limits.  The  best  powder  gives  the 
maximum  initial  velocity  with  the  minimum 
chamber  pressure;  which  gives  uniform  re- 
sults when  used  under  uniform  conditions;  and 
which  undergoes  no  change,  either  chemical  or 
physical,  under  the  exposure  incident  to  the 
military  and  naval  service.  One  disadvantage 
of  using  smokeless  powder  is  the  oorrosive 
eSect  it  has  on  the  gun.    See  Explosives. 

Smolensk*,  government  of  RubhIb,  8W.  of 
Moscow;  area,  21,938  sq.  m.,  generally  exten- 
sive plains  interspersed  with  morasses.  The 
climate  is  cold,  but  healthful;  the  soil  is  fer- 
tile and  welt  cultivated,  yielding  rye,  hemp, 
and  flax.  .  Many  fine  cattle  are  raised,  while 
its  vast  foreets  furoish  valuable  timber.  Its 
msDufaotures  are  unimportant.  Pop.  (1915)  est. 
at  2,210,200.  Capital,  Smolensk,  on  the  Dnieper; 
pop.  (1913)  est.  at  7fl,000. 

Smollett,  Tobias  GroriB,  1721-71;  Scotch 
novelist;  b.  Dalquburn,  Scotland;  studied  at 
Qlasgow,  where  he  served  an  apprenticeship  to 
a  surgeon-,  went  to  London  at  the  age  of  nine- 
teen, with  a  tragedy,  "The  Regicide,"  which 
he  unsuccessfully  offered  to  the  managers;  was 
surgeon's  mate  in  the  navy;  participated  in 
the  expedition  agvinst  Cartagena,  1741;  resid- 
ed in  Jamaica;  returned  to  England,  17 4S; 
published  in  174B,  with  success,  his  first  novel, 
"  The  Adventures  of  Roderick  Random,"  in 
which  he  made  good  use  of  his  W.  Indian 
experiences ;  published  "  The  Adventures  of 
Peregrine  Pickle";  after  seeking  medical  prac- 
tice at  Bath,  settled  at  Chelsea,  17G3,  and 
wrote  "  The  Adventures  of  Ferdinand,  Count 
Fathom";  translated  "Don  Quixote";  issued 
"  A  Compendium  of  Authentic  and  Entertain- 
ing Travels,"  in  which  he  embodied  his  own 
experiences;  edited  a  Tory  organ,  The  Critical 
Rtview;  was  fined  and  imprisoned  three  months 
for  a  libel  on  Admiral  KnowlpB  (ITGQ)  ;  wrote 
in  fourteen  months  a  "  Compleat  History  of 
England,  deduced  from  the  Descent  of  Julius 
Ciesar  to  the  Treaty  of  Aii-la-ChapeUe"; 
translated  "Gil  Bias";  wrote  in  prison  his 
"Adventures  of  Sir  Launcelot  Greaves";  ed- 
ited The  Briton,  in  defense  of  Lord  Bute;  aid- 
ed in  issuing  a  translation  of  "  The  Works 
of  Voltaire";  made  a  journey  through  France 
and  Ital;,  1763-66,  which  furnished  materials 
for  a  work  of  "Travels";  satirized  Bute  and 
the  elder  Pitt  in  "Adventures  of  an  Atom"; 
wedt  to  Italy,  1769,  and  wrote  on' the  journey 
"  The  Expemtion  of  Humphrey  Clinker,"  his 
best  novel- 
Smollett  ranks  Tith  Richardson  and  Field- 
ing as  one  of  the  standard  novelists  of  the 
eighteenth  century,  founders  of  the  English 
school  of  prose  fiction.  He  was  influenced  by 
Cervantes,  Le  Sage,  and  the  group  of  Spanish 
"  rogue  "  or  picaro  novelistfl.  His  stories  deal 
with  low  life,  travel,  and  broadly  comic  ad- 
venture, vigorous  and  racy,  but  coarse  to  the 
verge  of  brutality.  In  the  persons  of  Commo- 
dore Trunnion,  Jack  Battlin,  Tom  Bowling. 
and  other  nautical  characters  he  introduced 
the  British  tar  into  fiction. 


&UUT3 

Smoc'glinb  tiia  (statutory)  offense  either 
of  bringing  into  a  country  articles  prohibited, 
or  of  defrauding  the  customs  revenue  by  se- 
cretly importing  dutiable  goods  without  pay- 
ing such  duties  or  without  paving  the  full 
amount.  In  Great  Britain  the  o^ense  includes 
the  exporting  of  goods  with  like  intent,  and 
(as  often  deftoed]  the  introduction  of  any 
articles  into  consumptk>n  without  payii^  the 
duties  chargeable  upon  them.  In  the  U.  S.  the 
offense  ia  within  the  federal  power  to  r^ulate 
foreign  commerce,  and  is  denned  as  "  the  act, 
with  intent  to  defraud,  of  bringing  into  Uie 
United  States,  or,  with  like  intent,  attempting 
to  bring  into  the  United  States,  dutiable  arti- 
cles without  passing  the  same,  or  the  packe^ 
containing  the  same,  through  the  customhouse, 
or  submitting  them  to  the  officers  of  the  rev- 
enue for  examination." 

The  penalties  are  a  floe  of  from  $50  to 
$5,000,  or  imprisonment  for  not  more  than 
two  years,  or  both ;  the  contraband  goods  are 
forfeited,  as  may  also  be  the  vessel  or  other 
means  used  to  import  them.  Resistii^  or 
hindering  the  revenue  officers  adds  to  the 
gravity  of  the  offense.  These  officers  are 
clothed  with  large  powers  of  search,  and  may 
even,  by  court  order,  obtain  an  inspection  of 
the  books  and  papers  of  those  suspected  of 
or  charged  with  the  wrongful  nonpayment  of 
duties.  When  the  property  seized  is  condemned 
and  sold,  the  net  proceeds  are  distributed,  part 
to  the  U.  S.,  part  U>  the  principal  customs 
officers  of  the  district,  and  part  to  the  in- 
former If  there  was  any  distinct  from  the 
officer  himself  who  detected  the  offense  and 
procured  the  seizure. 


•'.* 


Smuts,  the  Ustiiaginete,  an  order  of  minute 
parasitic  fungi  principally  attacking  the  huh- 

I  .c.oogrc 


SKTRNA 

er  plant*,  and  ottm  produoIiiK  Mrioni  injuriei 
to  {arm  and  gkrden  orops.  In  England  they 
ara  aometitnc*  known  as  duet  brands.  They 
consist  of  slender,  branohlDg,  colorless  threads, 
whidi  gioyf  through  the  tissues  of  their  hosts, 
following  the  intercellular  spaces,  or  penetrnt- 
log  and  even  filling  the  cell  cavities.  After 
A  period  of  growth,  the  threads  produce  nu- 
merous spores,  forming  dark,  dusty  masses, 
which  have  suggested  tneir  popular  name.  No 
sexual  organs  are  known  in  any  of  the  smuts, 
and  it  ia  probable  that  the  structural  degra- 
dation due  to  excessive  parasitism  is  so  great 
that  these  organs  have  been  lost.  Smut  masses 
should  be  burned,  and  seed  soaked  in  water 
and  treated  with  copper  sulphate  or  potaa- 
sium  sulphide  solution,  to  kill  the  fungus.    See 

Smyi'iu,  ci^  and  vilayet  of  Aidin,  Asia 
Uinor,  at  the  E.  of  the  Gulf  of  Smvrna.  Areft 
of  vilayet,  25,801  aq.  m.  Pop.  about  2,600,- 
000.  Were  it  not  for  tbe  camels  traversing 
its  quay,  tbe  city  of  Smyrna  with  its  modern 
edifioes,  would  be  taken  at  Srst  glance  for  a 
dtv  of  W.  Europe.  It  still  justifles  its  poet- 
ical names  of  Crown  of  Ionia,  Eye  of  Ana- 
tolia, Pearl  of  tbe  East. 

Its  origin  is  lost  in  myths.  Tantalus,  abt. 
1600  B.C.,  is  said  to  have  founded  it.  It  was 
colonijeed  by  the  Greeks  soon  after  the  Trojan 
War,  Taken  and  dismantled  by  Alyattes, 
King  of  Sardis  (628  B.C.),  it  was  rebuilt  by 
Alex'Jider  the  Great,  It  rapidly  developed, 
and  has  since  been  the  chief  commercial  city 
of  Asia  Minor,  Here  was  one  of  the  Apoca- 
lyptic churches.  Captured  by  the  Seljuk  pi- 
rate Tuchas  (1080),  Smyrna  suffered,  but 
was  soon  retaken  by  the  Greeks.  The  Seljuk 
prince  of  Aldin  conquered  it  (1313),  but  a 
crusading  fleet  drove  out  the  Moslems.  The 
Roman  Catbolio  faith  was  introduced  134S, 
and  the  city  has  contained  ever  since  many 
Catholics.  Tamerlane,  after  defeating  Baye- 
zid  I  st  Angora  (1401),  filled  up  the  port, 
carried  the  place  by  storm,  and  butchered  the 
inhabitants.  Since  1424,  when  it  was  con- 
qnered  by  Murad  II,  it  has  been  held  by  the 
Ottomans  save  that  it  was  sacked  by  ths 
Venetians  in  14T3.  The  site  of  the  city, 
though  always  near  the  bay,  has  changed 
many  times.  Smyrna  has  suffered  fronl  earth- 
quakes, notably  in  177  (aft«r  which  it  was 
rebuilt  by  Marcus  Aurellus),  1688,  1778,  and 
1880;   and  from  plague,  as  in  1612  and  1837. 

IlM  Btreets  mn  parallel  with  or  at  right 
angles  to  the  shore.  The  houses  are  built  of 
wtmden  beams  encased  in  stone,  as  safer  in 
fire  and  earthquake.  Educational  advantages 
are  nowhere  greater  in  ths  Ottoman  empire. 
Tbe  principal  exports  are  dried  fruits,  raw 
silk  and  cotton,  opium,  wheat,  rice,  valonia, 
oil,  sesame,  goatskins,  carpets,  wax,  emery, 
cheese,  beans,  bones,  mohair,  etc  The  sports 
average  about  $20,000,000  annually  in  value, 
and  ttie  imports  about  $15,000,000.  Smyrna 
possesses  some  remarkable  ruins,  as  the  Gen- 
oese castle  on  Mt.  Pagus,  the  theater  lower 
down,  the  stadium  and  remains  of  tbe  Temple 
of  Diaiuu  Fop.  about  S7fi,00D,  of  which  half 
an  Gi«dn,  the  rest  bdng  Timu,  Armenians, 
Europeans,  and  Jsws.    Levantines,  offspring  of 


15 


8HAKER00T 

Eunqiean  and  native  mairiagea  are  numerous. 

Early  in  May,  1019,'  an  extenaiTe  Allied  naval 
oonoentration  was  beguu  at  Smyrna  in  oonneo- 
tion  with  a  mandate  to  Greece  to  administer  the 
city.  The  fleeta  represented  England,  France, 
the  TJ.  8.,  Italv  and  Greece.  Troops  were  also 
concentrated  tbere  from  Salonica.  At  a  pre-de- 
termined  mommt  Greece  landed  a  division  of 
tzoops  and  took  format  posseesioD  of  tbe  dty — 
important  aa  being  Asia  Miaot't  ip«at  ■eu>ort. 
This  movement  sigaalised  the  begmning  of  the 
rearrangement  of  the  old  Turkish  Enmire, 
and  Grwce^  though  disappointed,  welcomed  tiie 
clumge. 

Snail,  terrestrial  shell-bearing  mollusks  gen- 
erally.    It  has  two   pairs  of  tentacles  on   its 


much  esteemed  as  food.  Both  male  and  female 
organs  appear  in  each  snail,  but  they  procre- 
ate by  cross  fertitiiation,  and  bury  their  eggs. 
See,  further,  GAaT&aoPODA. 

Snake'bird.    See  Dabteb. 

Snake  Xel,  marine  eel  of  the  genus  Ophiau- 
rtia,  allied,  to  the  oonimoo  eel,  but  found  only 
in  warm  latitudes. 

Snake  In'dians.    See  SHosBonEAH  Inoiahb. 

Snake  Plalsa,  region  in  Idaho  throng  which 
Snake  River  flows  in  a  deep  caDon,  covered  by 
successive  eruptions  of  lava  which  came  from 
fissures  and  deluged  an  area  of  260,000  sq.  m., 
including  parts  of  Oregon  and  Washington.  In 
Idaho  the  lava  occurs  iii  horizontal  sheets  rest- 
ing on  older  volcanic  rocks,  and  the  streams 
flow  beneath  it,  forming  "  lost  rivers." 


between  Idaho  and  Oregon,  for  200  m.,  and 
between  Idaho  and  Washington  for  30  m.  It 
then  turns  W.  and  joins  the  Columbia  in  Wash- 
ington, near  Pasco.  Its  length  is  lietween  800 
and  1,000  m.  In  most  of  its  course  it  is  a 
rapid  stream,  flowing  in  caSons  1,000  to  3,000 
ft.  deep,  with  fine  cataracts.  It  is  navigable 
above.  It  flows  through  an  arid  region,  the 
drainage  of  which  has  been  rejuvenated  by 
overflows  of  volcanic  rock  and  probably  also 
by  recent  elevations,  and  the  gorge  it  has  cut 
is  still  narrow  and  steep  sid^. 

Snake'ieot,  plants  believed  to  cure  snake 
bites.  In  the  U.  S.  the  name  is  applied  to: 
(1)  Tbe  black  snakeroot  or  sanicle  (Santcula 
marilandica) ,  a  common  untbelliferous  plant, 
with  a  root  of  an  aromatic  taste,  used  as  an 
antispasmodic.  (2)  Eryt^givm  gueoafoUum, 
button  snakeroot,  or  rattlesnake  master,  a  di- 
aphoretie  and  expectorant.  (3)  The  Beneca 
snakeroot.  (4)  Liatria  tpiaata,  (0)  L.  tquar- 
roaa,  and  (S)  L.  tcariaaa,  called  also  button 
snakeroot,  blazing  star,  rattlesnake  master,  ete,, 
showy  oomposite-flowered  plants,  with  stimu- 
lant and  diuretio  properties.  (T)  Eupatorium 
agaratoUht,  common  in  the  N.  states  and  a. 
good  tonic,  called  white  snakeroot.     (8)  Am- 


tohchia  lerpentaria,  th«  Virginia  Bnakeroot,  & 
valuable  stimulant  and  tonic  luid  of  pleasant 
fragrance.  (B)  A.  retioulata  of  the  8W.  has 
properties  similar  to  Virginia  snakeroot,  and 
produces  much  of  the  snakeroot  of  commerce. 
(10)  CintiiH/ui^a  racemota,  black  anakeroot,  is 
a  sedative  and  expectorant.  (11)  Jiarutn 
eanadenge,  wild  ginger,  is  called  Boakeroot  and 
Canada  snakeroot  in  New  England;  it  is  fra- 
grant, with  propertiea  like  A.  aerpentaria,  but 
more  pungent. 

8iuk«a.    Bee  Serfert. 

Snake'atone,  a  piece  of  stone,  bone,  or  other 
substance  placed  upon  the  bite  of  a  serpent 
to  absorb  or  charm  awa^  the  poison.  The 
vulgar  in  almost  all  countries  have  faith  in 
such  cures  as  the  m&dstone,  which  is  applied 
to  tlie  bite  of  a  rabid  dog.  In  India  there  are 
apparently  authentic  instances  of  the  efflcacj 
of  snakestones.  It  is  possible  that  the  stones 
may  have  a  strong  ftbsorbtive  power,  for  the; 
are  often  porous,  and  the  faith  which  the  vic- 
tims have  in  this  cure  ia  doubtless  a  powerful 
adjuvant. 

Snake'wood.    See  Lmtebwood. 

SiiAp'dragon,  any  plant  of  the  genus  Antir- 
rhinum, family  Scrophulariacea.  The  snap- 
dragons are  annuals  and  perennials,  and  many 
flue  flowering  varieties  are  cultivated. 

&iap'pei,  fishes  of  the  family  Lutjantda. 
They  inhabit  warm  seas,  and  are  carnivorous. 
The  red  snapper  [Lutjanua  aya),  of  the  Gulf 
coast  of  the  U.  B.  in  deep  water,  is  an  im- 
portant food  fish.  The  mangrove  snapper,  or 
gray  snapper  (£>.  griteut),  ranges  from  the 
W.  Indies  N.  to  New  Jersey,  and  is  abundant 
along  shore  among  mangroves.  The  name  is 
improperly  applied  to  tb«  roseflsh  (SeboslM 
',  the  btuefish,  and  others. 


Snap'ping  Tni'tle,  in  the  U.  B.,  om 
eral  species  of  tortoises.  (1)  The 
snapping  turtle  of  the  N.  and  most  of  the  B. 
states  is  the  Chelj/dra  aerpentina.  This  has 
the  head  moderately  large,  and  covered  with 
a  soft  skin,  and  the  marginal  scales  of  the 
shell  are  in  a  single  row.  It  rarely  attains 
4  ft.  and  a.  weight  of  60  lb.  It  is  found  from 
Canada  &.,  and  from  the  Atlantic  seaboard  W. 
to  the  plains.  (2)  A  species  which  in  some 
parts  of  the  8.  states  replaces  the  C.  avrpenlina 


SNAPTDia  TuaTLB. 

is  the  Maerochelyt  laeertiita.  This  animal  has 
the  head  very  large  and  broadly  triai^ular, 
and  it  is  covered  with  homy  plates;  the  mar- 
ginal scales  of  the  shell  are  in  two  rows.  It 
reaches  a  large  size,  iKimetimeH  weighing  100 
lb.    It  is  confined  to  the  B.  states,  from  Florida 


to  W.  Texas,  and  N.  op  to  MisHiuri.  It  is 
known  as  the  alligator  snapper.  These  are 
distinguishable  from  other  turtles  of  the  U.  S. 
by  the  long  and  imperfectly  retractile  neck  and 
tail,  and  the  cruciform  plastron  or  lower  shell. 
Their  popular  name  is  due  to  the  habit  of 
snapping  at  food  or  enemies.  Their  bito  is 
severe,  and  it  is  difficult  to  relai  their  hold. 
They  are  esteemed  for  food,  especially  for  soup. 
They  have  a  strong  musky  odor.  In  the  early 
summer  they  lay  ^om  20  to  40  eggs  in  a  hole 
dug  by  themselves.  (3)  The  name  is  locally 
applied  to  the  soft-shell  turtles,  or  Trionjfch- 
ida,  which  snap  abruptly  at  food  or  other 
objects. 

Sneeie'wDod,  the  timber  of  the  Pt<Broxylon 
■utile  (family  8apindae«a] ,  of  S.  Africa.  When 
sawing  it,  joiners  are  much  troubled  by  the 
sneezing  which  its  fine  dust  provokes. 

Sneet'ittg,  or  Sternuta'tion,  a  convulsive  move- 
ment by  which  the  lungs  and  cheat  walls  are 
expanded  and  then  suddenly  contracted,  forcing 
the  breath  out  violently  throush  the  nose.  It 
is  produced  by  reflex  action,  thire  being  some 
irritation  of  the  membrane  of  the  nose  which 
originates  the  action.  Sneezing  tends  to  re- 
move irritants  from  the  nose.  As  a  symptom 
of  cold,  it  indicates  catarrhal  inflammation. 
In  children  measles  may  begin  with  this  symp- 
tom, and  influenza  is  also  frequently  bo  ini- 
tiated. Sneezing  due  to  irritation  of  pollen  is 
a  distressing  s^ptom  of  hay  fever.  The  use 
of  sternutatories,  such  as  snulT,  was  long  a 
popular  method  of  "  clearing  the  head," 

Snipe,  any  bird  of  the  BcoUipaoUUe,  includ- 
ing shore  birds  or  sandpipers,  and  commonly 
restricted  to  the  20  marsh -haunting  species  of 


CoiIHOH  Shipe. 

the  genus  QalUnago,  which  are  widely  distrib- 
uted. They  have  a  straight  bill,  longer  than 
the  head,  grooved  to  the  end,  which  is  slightly 
expanded,  well  supplied  with  nerves  and  used 
in  probing  the  mud  for  worms.  The  eye  is 
placed  far  back,  over  the  ear.  The  plumace  is 
streaked  with  buff  and  brown,  black  and  white, 
and  blends  completely  with  the  ground.  The 
tail  feathers  vary  from  12  to  28.  The  Amer- 
ican snipe  (0.  delioata)  is  found  over  the 
greater  part  of  the  U.  S.  In  winter  it  mi- 
grates as  far  S.  aa  Brazil.     It  is  SMuetimes 


8N0RBI  STCRLUSON 

called  English  snipe;  but  that  bird,  althongli 
similar,  ia  a  distinct  epeciea  (ff.  gallinago), 
which  does  not  reach  N.  America,  although 
found  in  Greenland.  The  jackanipe  of  Europe 
(G.  jraUtnulu)  is  the  smalleat;  the  great  anipe 
of  E.  S.  America  {G.  gigantea)  is  the  largest. 

Snor'ri  StnT^nson,  luuallj'  written  Snobbb 
STBKLABOn,  I17S-1241-,  Icelandic  historian;  b. 
Evam ;  beloi^ed  to  the  powerful  clan  of  the 
Sturlunge.  We  was  speaker  of  laws,  and  for  sev- 
eral  jrears  was  the  richest  and 
most  influential  man  in  the 
land.  He  became  involved  in 
feuds  and  litigation  with  his 
relatives  and  others.  Tu  1218 
be  Tisited  Norwaj,  and  was  re- 
ceived by  the  young  king.  Eakon 
Halconson.  In  121q  he  visited 
the  lagman  Eakil  in  Sweden,  and 
there  he  must  have  obtained 
that  knowledge  of  Swedish  af- 
faire which  appears  in  his  writ- 
ing, in  1220  he  returned  to 
Iceland,  after  having  promised 
to  work  for  the  subjugation  of 
Iceland  to  Norway.  Aa  he  made 
no  progress  he  was  suspected  of 
faithlessness,  and  his  enemies  in 
Iceland   took   advantage  of  this 


to  r 


After  endless  feuds,  Snorre 
went  to  Norway  in  1237,  but  he 
lost  the  good  will  of  Eakon  and 
returned  to  Iceland.  On  his  ar- 
rival there  he  got  into  trouble 
with  his  son-in-law,  Gieaur  Tbor- 
vaJdson,  who,  at  the  instigation 
of  Kins   Eakon,   murdered  him 


at 


listen 


land's  most  distinguished  saga- 
nan,  and  he  enjoys  some  repu- 
tation as  a  skald.  As  a  writer 
of  histoiT  he  ranks  with  Herod- 
otoB  and  Thucydides.  His'  "  Heimskringla," 
embracing  an  elaborate  history  of  the  kings  of 
Norway  to  the  death  of  Magnus  Erlingaon  in 
117T,  it  famous.  The  "Younger  Edda"  also 
bears  Snorre's  name,  and  is  to  a  great  extent 
his  work. 

Snow,  the  spicules  of  ioe  into  which  atmos- 
pheric vapor  IS  condensed.  These  snowflakes 
assnma  a  variety  of  crystalline  forms,  but  usu- 
ally Resent  the  outbne  of  a  heiason  or  a 
nx-pouted  star.  (See  Ice.)  In  high  and 
middle  latitudes  the  ground  is  covered  with 
■now  each  winter,  but  within  the  tropical  re- 
gions no  snow  falls  at  or  near  the  level  of  the 
■ea,  for  the  temperature  of  the  lower  atmos- 


^r  decreases  upward,  the  formation  of  snow 
is  always  possible  upon  high  mountains,  even 
under  the  equator.  At  the  summit  of  the 
Andes  and  the  Himalayas  the  moisture  con- 
densed during  the  rainy  season  falls  as  snow, 
while  it  rains  on  the  slopes  and  plains  below. 
In  all  lAtitndes  from  the  equator  to  the  poles 
the  tops  of  high  mountains  are  permanently 
covered  with  snow,  which  the  summer  heat  is 
not  snlBidatt  to  melt.    Tlu  lower  limit  of  per- 


SNOWBIRD 

petna]  snow,  called  the  anou;  line,  varies  in 
altitude  in  the  different  portions  of  the  globe. 
Within  the  tropics  it  is  about  3  m.  above  aea 
level;  in  temperate  latitudes  it  desoends  to 
below  2  m.;  and  at  the  N.  limits  of  the  con- 
tinents it  is  half  a  mile,  or  less,  above  sea 
level;  while  on  the  Arctic  islands  vast  fields 
of  snow  remain  permanently  near  the  sea- 
shore.    See  Glacibbs. 

Red  Snow,  real  snow  tinted  by  the  presence 
of    iTonniifocacmM    taouttria     (or    Protocooout 


Show  CanuM, 

nivalit),  microscopic  alge  of  the  order  Proto- 
cocooidea.  The  cells  are  subglobose.  and  about 
rW  iA.  in  diameter.  In  1819  Ross  found  banks 
of  red  snow  on  the  E.  shore  of  Baflln  Bay 
extending  for  miles,  and  these  were  in  some 
parts  12  ft.  deep. 

Snowball,  the  Viburnum  opvUis,  a  cultivat- 
ed shrub  of  the  Caprifoliacem,  called  also 
Guelder  rose.  To  this  species  belongs  the  high- 
bush  oranberry  of  the  U.  S.,  whose  fruit  is 
edible.  The  species  is  native  to  Europe  and 
N.  America.  The  Japanese  snowball  is  T. 
tomentogum  (T.  pitoatum  of  nurseries). 

Snow'btny,  the  Bj/mphorioarpo*  racemosua, 
a  handsome  shrub  ( family  Caprifoliacea ) , 
common  in  the  U.  8.  and  naturalised  in  Eu- 
ropean shrubberies.  It  has  persistent,  white, 
inedible  berries.  The  name  is  also  given  to 
Cluog*ne»  hiapidala  (family  Erioacea),  a 
creeping  woody  plant,  whose  leaves  and  white 
edible  berries  have  tiie  taste  of  the  checker- 
berry  {OauHI\«ria).  It  is  common  in  the  N. 
parts  of  the  U.  S.  and  Canada. 

Snowliird,  species  of  the  genus  Junco,  fam- 
ily Fringillida,  and  have  a  small  conical  bill, 
the  wings  rather  short;  the  color  is  blackish 


SNOWDROP 

or  uh  above,  wh>t«  on  the  b«11f,  KaA  not 
duveloped  in  streaks)  the  outer  tail  feathers 
are  white.  They  are  about  6  in.  in  length, 
of  which  the  tail  forms  a  half.  They  are 
distributed  over  the  U.  8.  They  are  moatly 
birds  o{  pasaage  in  the  E.  and  Middle  states, 
as    the   majority   go   N.    to   breed   while   yet 


The  name  is  applied  to  the  snow  bunting  {Pleo- 
trophewui  nivalia),  a  little  flnch  of  high  N. 
latitudes  and  seen  sometimes  in  vast  flocks. 
The  back  is  gray,  tail  and  wings  black  and 
white,  under  parte  white.  In  breeding  plum- 
age the  back  and  bill  are  black,  and  there  is 
more  white  .in  the  plumage  than  in  winter. 

SnoVdiop^  the  OoIoatAus  nicalM  (family 
AmarjfUidiioea) ,  a  small  herb  much  cultivated 
for  its  anow-white  flower,  appearing  in  earliest 
epriDg.  A  native  of  the  Atpa,  it  is  natural- 
ized in  N.  Europe  and  in  the  U.  B.  A  larger 
Bpeciee,  <},  imparatri,  is  also  grown. 

Snowdrop  Tree,  either  the  BaUaia  tetraptera 
or  tiie  H.  diptera  (Btyraoacea),  small  trees  or 
large  ehrubs  native  in  the  S.  parts  of  the 
U.  S.-  They  bear  showy  white  dusters  of 
flowers,  which  appear  in  spring  somewhat  be- 
fore the  leaves.    They  are  very  fine  in  culti- 

Snow'flAln,  Xnropean  berha  of  the  Amaryl- 
.  Udacea,  cultivated  in  the  U.  S.  They  ar4 
hardy  bulbous  plants  with  white  flowers.  The 
bulbs  have  long  been  employed  as  an  emetic. 

Snow'aliMa^  footwear  worn  in  Canada  and 
elsewhere,  conaistinit  of  an  oval  frame  like  a 
tennis  racket.  The  Scandinavian  skee  is  a  long 
strip  of  wood,  a  few  inches  wide,  curved  up 


In  front,  and  used  as  a  snowshoe  or  skate. 
The  object  of  these  is  te  secure  a  larger  foot- 
hold, and  BO  prevent  the  waarer  from  sinking 
into  the  snow. 

Snnff.  See  Tobacco. 

Soap,  any  salt  of  tlte  fatty  a«ids  with  a 
metalae  base,  usually  a  soda  or  a  potash.  All 
the  true  oils  and  fats  are  decomposed  by  alica- 
line  hydrates,  b^  certeiu  metetlic  oxides,  and 
also  by  acids,  high  steam,  and  hot  water.  In 
the  decomposition  of  fate  by  alkalies  the  prod- 
ucte  formed  are  glycerin  and  the  alkali  salts 
of  the  fatty  acids.  This  process  is  known  as 
taponifKatitm.  As  a  rale,  soaps  produced 
from  soda  are  hard  aoapa,  while  those  pro- 
duced from  potash  are  soft  aoaps.  Caater  oil 
fonns  with  potash  a  hard  and  brittle  soap. 
A  difltinctlon  betweao  the  hard  and  soft  soaps 
ia  that  in  th«  iormor  the  glycerin  ia  removed 


SOAP 

in  the  mother  liquor  or  spent  lye,  while  In 
the  latter  it  remains  mingled  with  the  semi- 
fluid mass.  Moreover,  it  is  not  possible  to 
dry  the  potash  soaps,  owins  te  the  hygroscopic 
character  of  the  base,  while  soda  soaps  may 
be  dried  so  as  to  admit  of  grinding  to  powder. 
Formerly  the  clearing  of  forests  provided  a 
plentiful  supply  of  potash,  but  the  cheap  prO' 
duction  of  soda  by  the  Leblanc  process  has 
practically    stopped    the    making    of    potash 

In  making  soap  with  caustic  potash  and 
stearin  (glyceryl  stearate)  the  producte  are 
glycerin  and  potassium  stearate;   thus: 

8te&iia.      3  moleautn      Qlyovin.   3  moleoulea  of  p<^ 

(C^O-      1  H.j         H.    J  K,        f 

The  alkaline  liquor  (lye)  is  added  to  the 
neutral  fat  or  oil  in  large  soap  pans,  and  the 
mixture  heat«d.  Resin  is  sometimes  added,  as 
it  gives'  the  product  more  than  its  value  in 
weight  and  volume.  Then,  by  the  addition 
of  salt,  the  emulsion  of  oils  and  alkali  ia 
decomposed,  the  salt  taking  the  water  and 
causing  the  precipitation  of  the  newly  formed 
soap  in  a  curdy  stete,  floating  on  the  dense 
spent  lyea  in  which  is  found  the  glycerin  and 
salt,  and  no  alkali.  The  soap  is  again  boiled, 
skimmed,  and  placed  on  frames  to  harden. 

The  principal  classes  of  aoapa  are  those 
made  from  vegetable  oils  and  those  made  from 
animal  oils  and  fate.  Uarseillee  or  Castile 
Boap  is  made  of  olive  oil,  with  rape-seed  oil 
to  prevent  crumbling.  The  richness  of  the 
olive  oil  in  margann  or  palmitin,  and  the 
freedom  from  animal  odors,  account,  in  part, 
for  the  excellence  of  this  soap.  Coeoanut-oil 
soap,  or  marine  soap,  is  not  easily  decomposed 
by  weak  aaline  liquors,  so  it  is  used  to  wash 
in  salt  water.  Common  yellow  or  roain  soap 
is  a  serviceable  soap,  which  lathers  well  and 

In  domestic  economy  it  is  a  practice  in  New 
England  and  Kew  York  to  saponify  the  drip- 
pings of  the  kitchen,  chiefly  beef  and  mutton 
sue^  with  the  crude  potash  of  commerce  is 
the  cold.  The  following  receipt  is  traditional 
for  domestic  soft  soap:  Fat,  12  lb.;  potash, 
9  lb.;  water,  IS  gal.  The  fat  and  alkali  are 
placed  in  a  cask,  and  water  added,  3  gal.  at 
a  time,  Imiling  hot,  once  in  twenty-four  hours, 

itil  all  is  used.     Saponiflcation  sete  1       ~ 


but  i 


IS 


and  is  hastened  by  stirring  with  a  strong 
stick.  When  saponification  is  complete  bU 
lumps  of  unaltered  fat  disappear,  the  soap  has 
a  silky  luster  when  stirred,  and  the  consist- 
ency of  a  jelly,  trailing  oS  in  slender  threads 
from  a  stirrer,  and  is  a  powerful  detergent 
for  the  coarser  purposes  of  the  household. 

Toilet  soaps  are  made  from  pure  and  sweet 
materials — sweet  almond  oil,  beef  marrow,  re- 
lined  aweet  lard,  saponified  without  beat  and 
perfumed  with  essential  oils.  Pure  curd  soap 
IS  also  used  for  the  foundation  of  toilet  Hoaps, 
for  which  purpose  the  soap  is  reduced  to  thin 
shavings,  melted  over  a  water  bath  with  rose 
and  orange-flower  water  and  common  aalt — 24 
"    of  soap,  with  4  pinte  each  of  lose  and  o^ 


soafstom!b 

ange-flower  w&t«r,  uid  8  oe.  of  uilt.  BbaTing 
ereun  it  made  b^  beating  np  lard  with  one 
and  ft  half  times  its  weight  of  potash  Tje,  and 
perfuming  and  coloring.  Oljcerin  Map  is  pre- 
pared by  mixing  glycerin  with  a  toilet  soap, 


Q  cold  weather.  Soap  was  not  known  to  the 
ancients.  It  is  first  mentioned  by  Pliny,  who 
refers  to  it  aa  something  used  b^  the  Romans 
to  beatitlfy  the  hair.  Geber  in  the  second 
century  atates  that  soap  was  prepared  front 
tallow  with  potash  and  lime.  It  is  stated 
fnrUier  that  soap  is  ased  as  a  medicine,  and 
that  by  means  of  it  all  dirt  could  be  removed 
from  the  body  and  clothes. 

Soap'stone,     See  STCATtnL 

Soap'wort,  plants  of  the  BapifidaeetB,  some- 
times BO  called  from  the  soapy  quality  of 
their  fruits.  Plants  of  the  genua  Saponaria 
{family  Caryophjfllacctr)  and  other  plants  of 
the  same  family,  which  are  alao  sometimes 
utilized  for  their  detergent  powers.  There  are 
many  vegetables  which  are  excellent  substi- 
tutea  for  soap.  This  cleansing  power  some- 
times depends  upon  the  principle  saponine, 
found  in  plants  of  widely  diverse  families. 

Sobiesld.    See  John  m,  Bobibski. 
Soc'cAge,  or  Socage.    See  Tkitube. 

So'dal  Con'tiact,  or  Social  Com'pact,  an  ex- 
ploded theory,  ftr^  fully  stilted  by.Bousseau, 
that  society  originated  l^  the  coming  together 
of  men  in  convention  consciously  to  bind  them- 
Belve»-itito  a  community  or  state.  The  theory 
took  for  granted  a  previous  unsocial  existence, 
and  overlooked  the  gradual  evolution  of  so- 
ciety. 

St/daliam,  a  conscious  endeavor  to  substi- 
tute organized  cooperation  for  existence  in 
place  of  the  present  competition  for  existence. 
Socialists  are  divided  into  several  schools,  each 
with  its  own  shades  of  opinion.  This  article 
will,  therefore,  endeavor  to  present  the  main 
lines  of  thought  and  the  conclusions  upon 
which  most  aocialists  are  agreed. 

Primitive  society  was  founded  upon  oom- 
tnunfsm,  or  common  ownership  of  the  means 
of  production  and  of  the  products.  With  the 
Institution  of  private  propertjr  the  destruction 
of  the  communal  form  of  lite  and  all  that 
this  involved  was  inevitable.  But  during  the 
period  of  communism  all  the  inventions  and 
discoveries  which  fomi  the  foundation  of  the 
modem  system  of  machine  production  were 
placed  at  the  disposal  of  mankind.  The  do- 
mestication of  animals,  the  srowth  of  cereals, 
the  wheel,  the  potter's  wheel  and  pottery,  the 
canoe  and  aall,  weaving,  dyeing,  the  use  of 
the  stencil  plate,  the  mining  and  smelting  of 
metals — each  and  all  of  these  were  in  use 
under  communism.  The  names  of  the  kivent- 
ors  are  unknown,  and  the  circumstances  under 
which  they  lived  prevented  them  from  deriving 
any  individual  advantage  from  their  superior 
ingenuity.  Exchange,  in  the  modem  sense, 
was  unknown. 

Aa  the  power  of  man  to  prodnoe  wealth  in- 
creased further  progreaa  m  wealth  production 


SOGIAUSH 

was  hampered  by  th«M  eommnnkl  forms,  and 
by  the  necessity  incumbent  upon  each  member 
of  the  tribe  to  perform  his  share  of  the  oom- 
munal  duty.  When,  also,  it  was  discovered 
that  the  captives  from  neighboring  tribes  could 
produce  by  their  labor  more  than  was  neces- 
sary to  maintain  themselves  in  health  and 
strength,  there  was  a  strong  economic  reason 
for  keeping  them  alive,  in  Ihe  service  of  the 
conquering  tribe  or  its  chiefs,  in  place  of  butch- 
ering them  on  the  spot  or  reserviUK  them  tor 
cannibal  banquets.  Taough  the  alaves  were 
often  more  numerous  than  their  masters,  they 
scarcely  thought  of  achieving  freedom.  The 
division  into  castes  and  classes  followed.  The 
extension  of  trade  led  to  the  rise  of  the  mer- 
chant class.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  slave  was 
replaoed  by  the  serf.  Then  arose  ttie  free 
peasant  cultivators  and  the  city  craftsmen. 
Owing  to  historic  and  economic  causes,  these 
free  individual  owners  and  craftsmen  were 
gradually  deprived  of  their  private  property 
and  independence,  and  wer^  driven  as  wage- 
earners  to  produce  goods  no  longer  primarily 
for  use  but  for  exchange.  Previously  produc- 
tion for  exchange  and  profit  had  heoi  the  ex- 
ception; now  it  became  the  rule.  The  personal 
relations  which.  In  the  main,  had  dominated 
over  the  old  civilizations  became  'mere  pecu- 
niary relations,  and  thenceforth  p^uniary  con- 
siderations were  supreme  in  society.  -   ' 

The  change  to  the  modem  competitive  sys- 
tem was  gradual.  Instead  of  individual  pro- 
duction, generally  for  individual  use  or  for' 
the  local  market,  only  the  surplus  coming  into 
exchange,  production  itself  assumed  a  social 
form,  and  the  local  market  widened  into  the 
national  and  international  market.  The  mem- 
l>ers  of  the  wage-earning  class  possessed,  nom- 
inally at  least,  liberty  to  do  what  they  pleased; 
hut,  having  no  property,  they  were  compelled 
to  sell  their  labor  to  those  who  would  hire  it. 
But  Uiese  workers  had  no  share  in  the  owner- 
ship of  the  raw  material,  no  say  in  the  quan- 
tity or  quality  of  the  articles  produced,  no 
control  over  Uie  finished  product,  which  he- 
longed  to  the  master.  They  received  as  wages 
that  which  represented  on  the  average  their 
cost  of  subsistence,  in  accordance  with  the 
standard  of  life  of  their  class,  so  long  as  their 
employer  required  their  services.  What  then 
had  happened!  Production  had  become  social, 
but  appropriation  and  exchange  remained  at 
the  entire  disposal  of  individuals. 

This  initial  antagonism  lies  at  the  root  of 
all  the  ontagonisma  of  the  modem  system  of 
capitalist  and  wage-earning  production  for  ex- 
change and  pro&t.  Competition  ruled  the  mar- 
ket. Competition  by  free,  propertyleas  wage- 
earners  below;  competition  for  increased  profit 
by  capitalists  and  employers  above.  The  lat- 
ter were  driven  to  sweep  aside  the  old  local 
restrictive  laws,  and,  as  they  gained  strength, 
they  substituted  their  own  commercial  control 
in  politics  for  that  of  the  classes  theretofore 
supreme.  Thenceforward  all  improvements  and 
inventions  went  into  the  hands  of  the  capital- 
ist class  and  were  shared  by  them,  unwillingly, 
with  the  landlords.  Such  was  the  course  of 
evente  in  Great  Britain,  where  the  eoonomio 
tranatormstion   was   soonest   effected,   the   r4 


BOCIALISH 

moTal  of  the  people  from  the  IndiTldQal  or 
collective  ownereliip  of  the  soil  havinK  first 
been  carried  out.  Socialiata  claim  that  with 
the  factor;  iaduatry,  founded  on  the  inven- 
tions of  Watt,  UarK^eaves,  and  others,  the  last 
Seat  system  of  human  slavery  was  estab- 
hed,  and  that  the  cruelty  and  physical 
degradation  by  which  it  has  been  invariably 
accompanied  fully  equal  chattel  slavery  and 
serfdom. 

The  conQict  for  the  markets  of  the  world 
has  prepared  the  way  for  a  closer  understand- 
ing between  all  races  and  nationalities.  The 
■low  economic  development  which  arises  out 
of  the  institution  of  private  property  is  thus 
approaching  its  close,  and  we  are  on  the 
threshold  of  the  most,  crucial  transformation 
that  the  world  has  ever  seen.  The  distin- 
guishing feature  of  the  capitalist  system  of 
production  from  all  previous  systems  is  that 
it  is  carried  on  primarily  for  profit  and  ex- 
change. Goods  are  of  do  immediate  use  to 
those  who  produce  them.  They  are  made  to 
go  upon  the  ma.rket  under  the  control  of  the 
employer,  who  must  sell  them  for  cash  in  com- 
petition with  others,  who  likewise  sell  for 
cash.  Cheapness  being  the  determining  force 
in  the  commercial  conflict,  each  manufacturer 
must  cut  down  bis  cost  of  production  to  the 
lowest  point  so  that  be  may  undersell  his  rivals. 

The  commodity  which  the  wage-earner  sells 
— his  power  to  labor— produces  more  value 
than  the  worth  of  the  wages  which  he  is  paid. 
From  this  surplus  labor-value  incorporated  in 
commodities  the  employer  derives  his  profit, 
the  landlord  his  rent,  the  commission  agent 
his  brokerage,  the  banker  his  interest,  and  so 
on.  It  is  the  unpaid  labor  of  the  wsge-eamers 
— the  labor  which  they  give  in  excess  of  the 
value  of  the  wages  they  receive — that  enables 
the  capitalist  class  and  th8ir  associates  to  pHe 
up  riches  and  capital.  Individua.1  capitalists 
may  run  risks,  but  a  profit  for  them  as  a 
class  is  certain;  but  in  order  to  enhance  this 
profit  in  circumstances  where  they  are  pressed 
by  the  competition  of  their  fellows,  they  have 
reduced  wages,  lengthened  hours  of  labor,  in- 
troduced improved  machinery,  and  turned  out 
as  much  goods  as  cheaply  as  possible,  so  as 
to  obtain  a  larger  sale.  The  wage-earners  be- 
ing obliged  to  competa  with  one  another  for 
the  sale  of  their  sole  oommodity,  labor  power, 
often  accept  lower  wages  because  they  must  do 
this  or  sU.rve.  The  sucoess  of  the  emplo;fer 
seems  a  necessity  of  existence  to  them,  and  a 
large  employer  of  labor  for  profit  ie  often 
regarded  as  a  public  benefactor;  but  the  in- 
terests of  the  wage-earning  class  nnd  the  cap- 
italist class  c&nnot  be  in  reality  identical, 
though  it  may  be  and  is  to  the  temporary 
interest  of  a  particular  set  of  wage-eamera 
that  their  own  individual  employer  should  he 
successful. 

Organized  industries  call  for  thorough  or- 
gduiuitiou,  and  anything  in  the  shape  of  un- 
punctuality  or  dereliction  of  duty  on  the  part 
of  the  employees  is  fined.  It  is  essential, 
from  the  profit-making  point  of  view,  that 
there  should  be  no  waste  of  time,  and  that 
the  plant,  mechanical  and  human,  should  work 
with  regularity.    But  this  oomplete  orgouiia- 


80CIALISM 

Hon  of  production  finds  its  ooTrelative  oppo- 
site in  the  anarchy  of  the  exchange  when 
competitive  capitalism  is  in  full  awing.  Each 
fights  for  himself-  Moreover,  the  capitalist 
system  of  production  haa  developed  on  antag- 
onism between  the  sexes,  and  even  between 
parents  and  their  children.  The  family,  in  its 
ancient  sense,  has  been  disrupted,  and  men  are 
compelled  to  compete  for  wages  by  women 
who,  owing  to  a  variety  of  causes,  accept  a 
lower  standard  of  life  and  a  lower  rate  of 
wages.  Children  in  many  countries  compete 
against  men  and  women.  Of  the  antagonism 
between  skilled  and  unskilled  labor,  between 
casual,  unorganized  workers  and  trade  union- 
ists, between  employed  and  unemployed,  it  is 
unnecessary  to  speaJc 

Ever  since  the  capitalist  ^stem  became  pre- 
dominant, ups  and  downs  of  trade,  periods  of 
inflation  alternating  with  depression,  have 
been  the  rule,  and  they  are  taken  for  granted 
by  men  of  business,  who  base  their  calcula- 
tions upon  such  variations.  The  remarkable 
feature  in  all  the  cataclysms  from  ISIO  to 
1S07,  before  as  after  the  use  of  steam  vessels, 
railways,  and  telegraph  cables,  was  that  they 
were  preceded  and  accompanied  by  on  excess 
of  products.  In  previous  economic  epochs,  as 
in  barbarous  couotriea  at  present,  general  de- 
pression of  trade  has  arisen  from  drought  or 
flood,  from  bad  harvest  or  pestilence.  Only 
among  the  most  civilized  peoples  does  on  ex- 
cess of  what  the  world  requires  become  a  cause 
of  stagnation,  and  the  reason  why  workers  are 
prevented  from  earning  their  livelihood. 

At  this  point  socialism  claims  tliat  the  an- 
tagonisms inherent  in  the  capitalist  system 
must  be  solved  by  making  exchange  social,  a« 
production  is  social;  by  establishing  coSper- 
ative  production  and  distribution  in  the  place 
of  competitive  wsgedom  and  competitive  cap- 
italism. The  formation  of  companies  of  bond- 
holders and  shareholders,  to  carry  out  publio 
works,  and  the  transformation  of  many  pri- 
vate concerns  into  similar  companies,  form  a 
distinct  move  in  the  direction  of  socialization. 
The  individual  employer  is  merged  in  a  mul- 
titude of  shareholders,  and  the  pecuniary  rela- 
tion becomes  the  sole  tie  between  employers 
and  employed.  Fnrtbermora,  these  companies 
are  minimiaing  competition  by  combination. 
Banks  are  oonsolidated,  nationaUy  and  inter- 
nationally; shipping  companies  agree  not  to 
eompet«;  joint-stock  associations  form  tmsta 
and  "  rings."  Human  nature  assumes  a  higher 
character  in  a  society  in  which  life  is  not  s 
constant  struggle  against  want  and  misery. 
Instead  of  the  personal,  limited,  introapectiva 
individual  ethio  Is  the  social,  altruistic,  broad 
ethio  In  which  the  duty  toward  society  neces- 
sarily involves  the  highest  duty  toward  a  man's 
self.  Woman,  relieved  of  economic  and  social 
subjugation,  will  assume  her  place  as  the  so- 
cial equal  of  man.  So  for,  therefore,  from 
individual  initiative  and  personal  freedom  be- 
ing limitAd,  human  beings  will  have  the  op- 
pertnnity  for  attaining  to  a  level  of  physicdl, 
moral,  and  mental  development  such  as  tjia 
world  has  never  seen.  The  golden  age  of  hu- 
man society  Is,  indeed,  not  in  tiie  post  bnt  ia 
the  future.  /-- •  i 

)  ijC.oogle 


SOCIAL  WAK 

In  1917  tbere  were  orgMiiied  m  HuniK  m<uiT 
Soviets  (oouncils  or  oommitteeB),  some  of  which 
UtcT  beokme  known  as  radical  aocialiBls,  and 
othen  aa  Bolaheviki,  and  tmder  one  or  more  of 
tbeoe  namea  opiead  nraidly  into  other  oounUka, 
indudiog  tlw  U.  8.  while  ttieae  organiiationB 
differed  acMnewbat  in  method,  they  were  iimilar 
inpuipoae.  Andthia  puipoee  waa  freely  stated 
by  NLkalai  Lenine,  Botaheviki  leader,  at  Mos- 
cow, Aim.  4,  1919,  as:  revolution,  not  refonn; 
the  orerLnrow  of  all  landowners  and  capitalists; 
the  oixaniaation  <A  the  worken  of  the  world  into 
a  sin^  fraternal  union,  and  the  oruahing  of  all 
leaistanoe  by  tenor  if  neoeeaaiy. 

So'dal  Wot,  the  war  (90-89  B.C.)  betw^n 
Rome  and  her  Italian  allies.  The  latter,  who 
had  for  nearly  two  centuries  shared  the  bur- 
dens and  dangers  of  the  republic,  juatly  de- 
manded the  pririlege  of  the  franchise.  After 
the  BBsansinBtion  of  M.  Livius  Drusus  (91 
B.C.),  who  desired  to  grant  citiEeoahip  to  the 
Italians,  tlie  allies.  Including  the  Marsi,  the 
Peligni,  the  Lucaniana,  the  Samnites,  and 
others,  roae  and  proclaimed  a  new  republic. 
A  bloody  war  followed,  and  notwithstanding 
the  great  victories  of  Sulla,  Marius,  L.  Cesar, 
and  others,  the  Romans  were  compelled  to 
make  ooncessions.  Over  300,000  men  are  said 
to  have  been  slain  in  this  war. 

Sod'ety  Islands,  or  Tahl'ti  Atchipel'SEO,  a 
group  of  islands  in  the  B.  Pacific  Ocean,  in- 
ctndinB  the  French  establishments  in  Oceania, 
and  the  Marquesas,  Tuamotu,  Qambier,  and 
Tubnai  greupa  and  Rapa  Island.  They  consist 
of  one  Targe  island,  Tahiti,  and  small  isles; 
total  area,  S60  sq.  m.,  with  13,266  inhabitants', 
Id  the  center  some  of  the  islands  rise  to  S,000 
or  S,000  ft.,  bat  all  have  a  belt  of  low  land 
extending  between  the  foot  of  the  mountains 
and  the  sea,  and  are  generally  surrounded  by 
coral  reefs.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  the  climate 
delishtfuL  The  inhabitants  are  Polynesians; 
most  of  them  Christians.  The  capital  of  the 
colony  is  Papeete.  The  chief  exports  are 
mother-of-pearl,  copra,  cotton,  and  Tanitla. 
Sugar  and  coffee  also  are  produced. 

Society  of  Fiisnda. '  Bee  FaiEiins,  Sociktt 


SOCTOLOGT 

by  creating  free  agents  He  has  TOlnntarily 
limited  His  power  and  His  knowledge,  because 
free  will  is  self-determined,  and  future  con- 
tingent events  are  not  the  objects  of  knowl- 
edge. (4)  There  is  no  such  Jnstice  in  God 
as  requires  absolutely  and  inexorably  that  sin 
be  punished.  Hence  He  can  pardon  any  re- 
pentant and  reforming  sinner  without  a  satis- 
faction to  justice.  (B)  The  Holr  Ghost  Is  the 
impersonal  power  and  efficacy  of  God. 

In  practical  ethics  Fauatus  Socinue  was  hu- 
mane— opposed  to  war  and  capital  punish- 
ment. The  system  of  Socinns  was  remarkable 
for  ita  radical  de^rture  from  traditional 
theology.  Even  the  English  Vnitarlaoa  ot  the 
eighteenth  century,  who  were  Socinlan  rather 
than  Arian,  were,  much  more  cautious  and 
conservative  than  Socinua,  while  the  early 
Unitarians  in  the  U.  S.  were  generally  Arians, 
regarding  Jesus  as  a  being  <m  gtnerit,  and 
only  a  little  less  than  God. 

Sodol'ogy,  the  setenee  of  society,  which  oc- 
cupies itself  with  the  elements  and  first  prin- 
ciples ol  social  phenomena,  and  leaves  to  eth- 
nology, demography,  political  economy,  com- 
parative jurisprudence,  the  theory  of  the  state. 


groups  of  social  factBj,aIl  of  which  have  their 
ultimate  interpretation  in  sociology. 

Systematic  sociology  is  not  an  abstract  sci- 
ence, tracing  the  operation  of  particular  social 
forces  through  all  their  ramifications,  but  a 
concrete  science,  descriptive,  historical,  and  ex- 
planatory, concerning  itself  with  the  organ- 
ization, activities,  and  evolution  of  those  bands 
and  nations  into  which  the  populations  of  the 
world  are  distributed.  Sociolo^  is  the  funda- 
mental social  Ktenoe,  because  it  includes  the 
elementary  and  preliminary  descriptive  matter 
which  is  presupposed  by  ul  Uis  apeeial  aocial 


Bodety  of  Je-an 


Bee  JxeTTiTB, 


Sodn'lana  and  Sodn'Unlam,  the  historical 
designations  of  the  advoeatca  and  doctrines  of 
an  organized  system  of  anti-Trinitarianism. 
In  tlie  U.  S.  the  names  have  given  place  to 
Unitarians  and  Unitarianism,  names  of  wider 
■cope.  LkIIus  Socinus  (1526-62),  b.  Siena, 
haa  been  called  "  the  spiritual  father  of  6o- 
dnianjsm,"  while  his  nephew,  Faustus  So- 
cinus (1530-1604),  waa  the  founder  of  the 
■ect.  Bocinians  accept  the  Scriptures  aa  di- 
Tinely  revealed,  but  hold  that  Adam's  guilt 
is  not  imputed,  and  that  responsibility  is  lim- 
ited by  ability.  They  hold  that:  (1)  The 
divine  unity  is  inoonaistent  with  personal 
distinetlona.  (2)  Free  self-determination  is 
more  fundamental  in  the  divine  nature  tban 
eiUier  justioe  or  love.  (3)  By  the  act  of 
creating  the  world,  God  haa  voluntarily  lim- 
ited Bis  omnlpreseikM  as  to  Hia  esaenoe,  tad 


B^tematio  sociology  begins  with  analysis, 
classification,  and  generalization.  The  ele- 
ments of  society  are  all  included  under  the 
term  population,  which  must  be  studied  un- 


gling  of  races  snd  nationalities,  and  under  its 
aspect  of  empathies,  antagonisms,  tolerances, 
habits,  and  character.  The  social  composition 
includes  the  family,  the  horde,  the  tribe,  the 
town,  the  connW,  the  commonwealth,  uid  the 
nation.  The  other  form  of  organization  may 
be  called  the  aocial  constitution.  Its  basis  Is 
a  division  of  labor,  and  it  consists  of  associa- 
tions engaged  in  different  activitiea,  some  eco< 
nomic,  some  political,  some  cultural,  but  all 
coordinated.  Tlis  study  of  population  begins 
with  the  facts  of  aggregation  or  grouping. 
AggregaUon  is  of  twofonns.  Individuate  de- 
scended from  a  oommon  ancestry  are  often 
found  living  near  each  other  in  and  about  the 
place  of  their  birth.  This  is  a  genetic  a^^e- 
gation.  Other  individuals  bom  in  many  differ- 
ent places  are  found  carrying  on  their  life 
activitiea  in  one  place,  as  in  London  or  Mew 
York.     This  is  a  congregate  aggregation. 

Turning  to  the  psychical  factors  of  sociefy, 
the  most  elementary  phenomena  of  social  psy- 


individiwlB,  namely:  (1)  Mutual  perception 
And  oommunieation,  by  motlona,  tones,  or 
■peech;  (2)  reoognition  of  fellow  beings  of 
one'a  own  kind  or  Hpeciei  as  like  oneself 
knd  unlike  all  1>ther  objecta;  (3)  imitation; 
(4)  conflict;  (S)  toleration;  (6)  mutual  aid, 
alliance;  <7)  mutual  pleasure,  play,  festivity. 
These  constitute  ataoeiation  as  distinguished 
from  the  merely  physical  phenomenon  of  ag- 
gregation. 

Association  rsaots  on  the  associated  indi- 
viduals, developing  in  them  a  social  nature; 
but  owing  to  differences  of  circumstance  and 
of  heredity  the  development  does  not  go  on 
equally,  or  at  the  same  rate,  in  all  parts  of  the 
population,  and  social  classes  result.  In  a 
majority  of  individuals  fellow  feeling,  imi- 
tativeness  amounting  to  industry,  tolerance 
amounting   to    justice,   helpfulness,   and    com- 

riionableness,  are  ruling  qualities.  This  class 
the  normally  social.  Dt  other  individuals 
these  qualities  are  deficient  or  absent,  but  are 
simulated.  Pretending  to  tu|ve  the  social 
nature  and  appealing  to  those  In  whom  it  is 
real,  these  pseudosocial  characters,  if  not  ag- 
greaalvely  antisocial,  make  up  the  pauper 
class.  Yet  others,  whether  simulating  the  so- 
cial nature  or  not,  having  become  aggressively 
antisocial,  are  the  criminal  class.  The  fore- 
going mental  and  moral  elements  of  society  are 
combined  in  products  which  wb  call  the  com- 
mon feeling,  the  moral  sense,  the  public  opin- 
ion, the  general  will,  of  the  community,  and 
which  it  Tb  convenient  to  name  collectively  the 
social  mind  or  the  social  c^insciousness. 

The  social  integration  of  desire,  belief,  and 
will,  which  constitutes  this  mind,  is  effected 
sympathetically  or  rationally;  passionately 
and  violently,  or  dellberatively.  One  mode  is 
seen  in  fada  or  crazes,  panics,  emotional  re- 
vivals, mobs,  lynchings,  riots,  violent  revolu- 
tions. The  other  is  seen  in  the  proceedings  of 
a  parliamentary  body,  the  execution  of  legal 
justice,  the  movements  of  a  disciplined  army. 
The  primary  products  of  the  social  mind  are 
social  choices  and  values.  These  are  further 
combined  with  reference  to  the  phases  and 
interests  of  life  into  standards  of  living  and 
of  industry,  rules  and  methods  of  art,  laws  of 
conduct,  political  policies,  religious  faiths,  sci- 
entifle  doctrines,  ethical  ideals,  all  of  which, 
being  handed  on,  become  traditions.  The  pri- 
mary traditions  are;  (1)  The  economic,  con- 
sisting of  the  whole  body  of  knowledge  and 
usage  pertaining  to  material  welt  being;  (2) 
the  jnndical — the  customary  and  positive  law; 
(3)  the  political — the  political  history,  policy, 
and  aspirations  of  a  B^t«.  Secondary  tradi- 
tions are  the  lingual.  Bathetic,  religious,  scien- 
tific, and  ethiaaL 

In  the  social  structure  small  groups  arc  com- 
bined into  larger  groups,  and  these  again  into 
groups  yet  larger.  The  unitary  group  in  soci- 
eties of  the  higher  animals,  or  of  men,  is  the 
family,  which  may  be  a  temporary  or  an  en- 
during union  of  one  male  with  one  female  and 
their  offspring,  or  of  one  male  with  two  or 
more  females  (polygamy),  of  one  female  with 
several  males  {polyandry),  or  of  several  males 


80CI0L0GT 

with  several   female*    (pnnaloan  or   commu- 
niatio  marriage). 

Hliman  societies  composed  of  families 
grouped  in  larger  aggr^ates  are  of  two  typeaj 
Ethmcal  B     ■  ■■ 


1  societies  s 


Demotic  societies  are  groups  of  people  bound  by 
habitual  intercourse,  mutual  interests,  and  co- 
operation, without  regard  to  origins  or  genetic 
relationships.  Ethnical  societies  are  the  ear- 
lier, and  among  them  many  are  metronymic, 
kinBhip  being  |raeed  through  the  mother  name 
only.  Others  are  patronymic,  with  the  kinship 
traced  through  the  fatLer  name  only.  The 
smallest  ethnical  society' is  the  horde,  a  gronp 
of  from  three  to  thirty  families,  dwelling  to- 

father  in  a  camp  or  village.  The  Bushmen, 
uegians,  and  Inuits  afford  examples.  The 
next  larger  group  is  the  tribe,  probably  orig- 
inating in  an  alliance  of  several  hordes  for 
defense  or  agression.  Horde  and  tribe  are 
often  confounded  with  the  clan  or  gens.  The 
horde  and  the  tribe  includes  all  of  its  de- 
scendants who  dwell  in  the  parent  camp,  while 
the  clan  is  a  partly  natural,  partly  artificial 
brotherhood  and  sisterhood,  which  rigidly  ex- 
cludes all  of  the  descendants  of  its  sons  if 
metronymic,  or  all  the  descendants  of  its 
daughters  if  patronymic.  Related  tribes  speak- 
ing dialects  of  the  same  language,  when  they 
confederate,  are  a  folk  or  ethnic  nation. 

In  demotic  society  the  smallest  community 
is  the  deme,  village,  or  township.  Townships 
are  combined  into  counties,  counties  into  com- 
moowealtlis,.tiommonwealths  into  federal  states. 
It  is  an  error  ta  attribute  to  the  state  defen- 
sive and  juridical  functions  only,  and  to  private 
associations  economic  and  cultural  functions 
only.  The  fact  is  that  the  state  performs  al- 
ways important  economic  functions  of  produc- 
tion, transportation,  exchange  and  finance,  and 
cultural  functions,  religious  or  educational,  and 
that  private  ossoeiationa,  such  as  political  par- 
ties, political  clubs,  revolutionary  societies,  and 
private  tribunals  to  achieve  political  or  jurid- 
ical ends,  are  among  the  most  important  vol- 
untaiT  organizations  known.  The  socialists, 
therefore,  are  right  in  saying  that  the  state 
could,  if  necessary  and  deaired,  carry  on  all 
social  undertakings,  and  the  individualists  are 
right  in  saying  that  society  could  get  on,  and 
in  a  way  achieve  its  ends,  without  the  organ- 
ized state;  but  both  are  wrong  in  supposing 
that  either  thing  will  happen  under  a  normal 
social  evolution.  Whatever  belittles  the  state 
or  destroys  popular  faith  in  its  power  to  per- 
form successfully  any  kind  of  social  service — 
whtttever  impairs  the  popular  habit  of  achiev- 
ing ends  by  private  initiative  and  voluntary 
associations,  by  so  much  endangers  society, 
checks  its  development,  and  prevents  the  full 
realization  of  its  ends. 

The  supreme  end  of  society  is  the  protection 
and  perfecting  of  sentient  life.  The  end  of 
human  society  is  the  evolution  of  the  person- 
ality of  its  members.  The  associations  directly 
concerned  in  this  function  are  the  cultural, 
namely:  the  religious,  the  scientific,  the  eth- 
ical and  the  xethetic,  the  educational  organica- 
tions,    and    what    is    called    poIit«    sociafy. 


Economic,  legal,  and  political  orgEnisatioa 

oog 


■«te 


^. 


„  Google 


„  Google 


irta   (in  a  fimctiona]  i 


m)    for  the  wke  of 


tiont  Bnd  ,  . ,   .  .  .. 

mind  are  knoim  u  iiutitatioiis,  and  they 
fostered   or  abolished  *Jwa7S   vith  s  view  w 
cultural  aa  well  as  to  prDt«i!tiTe  ends, 

Soo-atu  (eSWii-tta),  470(  !46e)-3ft9  B^; 
Greek  philotopher;  b.  near  Athens;  tiie  Mm  of 
6ophroni»cuB,  a  uulptor,  and  was  trained  in 
hU  father's  art.  Aa  a  philoaopher  he  called 
himself  self-taught,  and  referred  his  knowledge 
■ometimes  to  books,  but  more  often  to  inter- 
niUTse  witli  distinguished  men.  Few  events  of 
his  life  are  recorded.  Of  bis  wife  Xanthippe, 
all  that  hu  passed  into 
hiBlOTT  is  that  she  bore 
him  three  sons,  that  she 
had  a  violent  temper, 
and  that  be  said  he  mar- 
ried and  endured  her  for 
self-discipliQe.  He  sought 
influence  neither  as  a  sol- 


bravelf  at  PotidKa,  _  _ 

Hum,    and    Amphipolis) 

~  ~  r  as  a  statesman,  and 

ce   ontj    discharged    a 

falitical  office.  He  proved 
imself  to  have  an  ex- 
traordinary capacity  to 
endure  cold,  heat,  and 
fatigue.  He  walked  bare- 
foot upon  the  ice  and  snow  ot  Thrace  in  his 
usual  clothing,  while  others  were  clad  in  furs. 
He  was  warned  from  participating  in  public 
affairs  by  what  be  called  a  im/iino^ — i.e.,  an 
internal  voice,  which  be  professed  to  tiear  from 
ehildhood  in  the  way  of  restraint,  and  whtch 
be  waa  accuetomed  to  speu  of  familiarly  and 
to  obey  implicitly.  By  divinations,  dreams, 
and  oracular  intimetioDS  also  be  believed  his 
peculiar  mission  to  be  imposed  upon  him;  and 
when  the  Pythian  priestess  pronounced  him  to 
be  the  wisest  of  men,  he  was  perplexed  between 
the  decision  of  an  authority  which  he  deemed 
worthy  of  respect  and  bis  own  estimate  that 
be  had  no  wisdom  whatsoever  on  any  subject! 
With  this  sanction,  be  struck  out  the  orig- 
inal ^th  of  an  indiscriminate  public  talker 
for  the  sake  of  instruction,  founding  no  school, 
teaching  in  no  fixed  plaee,  and  writing  no 
booka.  His  assumption  of  the  ctiaractcr  of  an 
ignorant  learner  added  zest  to  his  discussions. 
He  Let  slip  no  opportunity  to  engage  with  the 
masters  of  sophutry,  Ut  iollow  them  through 
their  subletiea,  to  unravel  their  captious  In- 
quiries, and  to  wield  the  weapons  ol  rhetorical 
adroitness  in  the  interest  of  truth.  Attached 
to  none  of  the  political  parties,  ridiculed  in 
turn  as  a  buffoon  and  as  a  moral  corrupter, 
only  a  decent  pretext  was  wanted  to  bring 
upon  him  the  vengeance  of  power,  and  this  was 
found  in  *  charge  of  impiety  and  corruption 
of  youth.  Socrates  had  cross-examined  with 
his  dialectic  skill  and  bitter  irony  most  of  the 
atateamctt,  orators,  posts,  sophists,  and  artisans 
of  Athena.  None  iM  forgotten  their  humilia- 
tion at  hi*  hands;  a  few  had  songht  help  and 
instmctiMi  from  him  aftcnmrda,  Mt  most  of 
them  avoided  his  presence  and  deaired  revenge. 
Ha  approached  hia  trial  with  no  opeetation  of 


SODA  ASH 

acquittal,  though  he  had  alwa^  obejed  the 
law*,  and  even  in  religious  opinions  was  iden- 
tified with  the  public  mind  of  Athena.  In  his 
defense  he  declared  his  solicitude  rather  for  the 

rd  of  the  Athenians  than  for  himself;  and 
heard  without  surprise  ttie  sentence  of  con- 
demnation, which  was  passed  b;  a  majori^  of 
only  five  or  six  in  the  Athenian  dicastery  of 
GBTmembera.  He  chose  a  cup  of  bnnlock  as  the 
instrument  of  his  death.  He  drank  the  cup  with 
perfect  composure  after  a  oonversation  with  his 
friends  upon  the  immortality  of  the  soul. 

The  Platonic  dialogues  of  "Crito"  and 
"  Phsdo  "  may  be  regarded  as  tha  substance  of 
his  last  arguments  on  the  duty  of  obedience  to 
the  laws  and  on  tbe  evidences  of  immortality.  ' 
The  "  Uemorabilia  "  of  Xenophon  and  tbe  dia- 
logues of  Plato  have  been  supposed  to  represent 
an  exoteric  and  an  esoteric  Bocrates,  and'  there 
has  been  a  long  oontroversy  as  to  which  con- 
tains the  most  complete  and  true  aocounts. 

Socrates,  with  a  tumed-up  nose,  projecting 
eyes,  bald  head,  thick  lips,  round  belly,  re- 
sembled a  satyr  of  Silenus;  he  wore  a  miser- 
able drees,  and  would  frequently  stand  still  in 
sudden  fits  of  abstraction,  rolling  his  eyes, 
staring  on  vacancy.  The  teaching  of  Socrates 
expresses  tbe  transition  from  the  morali^  of 
custom  and  habit,  mere  conventional  use  and 
wont,  to  morality  as  conscious  right  conduct, 
resting  on  refiection  and  moral  piinciples. 

So'da,  a  hydrous  oxide  of  sodium,  Na,0;, 
and  the  compound  formed  by  the  action  of 
water  unon  this  oxide,  hydrate  of  soda,  or 
sodium  bydrate.  The  carbonates  of  sodium 
also  are  commercially  called  soda.  Sodium 
hydrate,  NaOH,  or  caustic  soda,  is  prepared 
from  the  carbonate  by  the  action  of  lime.  Much 
caustic  soda,  is  made  by  beating  or  boiling  to- 

f ether  the  Oreenland  mineral  cryolite  with 
ydrato  of  lime.  The  compound  is  white, 
opaque,  crystalline,  and  melts  below  incandes- 
cence. It  IS  used  largely,  in  the  form  of  solu- 
tion or  Boda  lye,  for  mining  Soap. 

Soda  Ash,  crude  soda  before  having  been 
refined.  Previous  to  the  French  Revolution  the 
only  source  of  tbe  alkali  soda  was  from  the 
ashes  of  seashore  plants,  or  kelp.  Tbe  trade 
in  kelp  ceasing  durmg  tbe  revolution,  the  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Safety  called  upon  chemists 
to  find  some  new  source  of  soda,  ell  the  {lotash 
attainable  being  needed  for  gunpowder.  Nico- 
las Leblanc,  a  surgeon  and  chemist,  obtained 
the  prize  offered.  His  method  consists  in  con- 
verting common  salt  into  sulphate  by  sul- 
phuric acid,  and  then  beating  this  together 
with  cltarcoal  and  carbonate  of  calcium,  which 
gives,  theoretically,  a  mixture  of  carbonate 
of  sodium  and  sulphide  of  calcium.  This 
process  is  carried  on  particularly  in  England, 
all  the  soda  used  for  making  soap,  glass,  and 
many  other  products  being  thus  procured. 

The  defect  of  Leblanc's  system  as  originally 
carried  out  was  the  toss  of  the  sulphuric  acid 
or  of  the  sulphur  used  in  making  it.  Hence 
other  methods  have  been  sought.  One  in  suc- 
cessful operation,  tbe  Solvay  or  ammonia-soda 
process,  consists  of  decomposing  concentrated 
brine  with  a  strong  solution  of  bicarbonate  of 
ammonia,    which   engenders   chloride,  of    am-. 

I  LM_.a  .C.oogle 


SODA  WATER 

moDittm  and  nearly  insoluble  bicarbonate  of 
Boda.  The  chloride  of  ammonium  is  reconvert- 
ible  into  bicarlmuate,  to  be  used  over  agaic. 
By  Chance's  procesa,  patented  in  1888,  the  sul- 
phur can  be  economically  recovered  from  the 
exhausted  black  ash  in  Leblanc's  method. 
,  Soda  Wa'tei.  Sen  Aerated  Watebb. 
So'ditm,  a  metallic  element  first  obtained 
in  1807  by  H.  Davy  by  the  electrolysis  of  caus- 
tic soda  (hydrate).  Its  occurrence  in  nature 
is  chiefly  as  common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium) 
in  the  ocean,  and  as  a  constituent  of  silicates, 
chiefly  the  feldspars  alblte  and  oUgoclase,  on 
the  land.  It  is  also  found  in  natron,  an  im- 
pure sodium  s«squicarbonate,  contaiuing  be- 
sides sodium  sulphate  and  chloride.  A  cubic 
foot  of  ocean  water  contains  about  6,440  grains 
fnot  far  from  1  tb.  avoirdupois)  of  metallic 
sodium,  and  a  cubical  tank  14  ft.  on  each  side 
filled  with  sea  water  will  contain  more  than 
one  ton  of  this  alkali  metal.  A  cubic  foot  of 
rock  salt  contains  over  52  lb.  of  sodium. 
Sodium  is  a  metal  probably  more  abundant  in 
its  occurrence  than  iron,  and  probably  not  nec- 
essarily much  more  difficult  or  expensive  to 
obtain  in  approximate  purity  than  the  latter 
metal,  and  yet,  by  reason  of  the  fewer  uses 
developed  for  it,  the  cost  of  sodium  is  much 
greater  than  that  of  iron.  Sodium  is  one  of 
the  elements  moat  essential  to  animal  life,  be- 
ing a  constituent  of  alt  blood.  It  is  also  found 
in  the  vegetable  organisms  that  dwell  in  the 
ocean  and  along  its  coasts,  hut  plants  dwelling 
on  land  above  the  sea  level  contain  potassium 
more  abundantly  than  sodium. 

It  may  be  prepared  by  distilling  a  mixture 
of  charcoal  and  carbonate  of  sodium,  the  trans- 
formation being  essentially 

Na,CO.  +  C,  =  2Na  +  3C0. 
The  sodium  vapors  are  condensed  and  the  metal 
collected  under  paraffin.  When  exposed  to  the 
air,  it  rapidly  absorbs  oxygen  and  moisture, 
forming  either  anhydrous  oxide  |Na,0}  or 
caustic  soda  (NaOH).  When  water  toucbee  it 
there  is  an  intense  reaction,  with  evolution  of 
hydrogen  gas  and  caustic  soda.  The  heat  pro- 
duced may  be  so  high  that  the  metal  takes  fire, 
and  bums  with  a  yellow  flame.  Sodium  must 
be  kept  immersed  in  some  liquid  which  is  free 
from  oxygen,  such  as  the  hmvy  oils  of  coal  tar. 
The  most  important  salts  or  compounds  of 
soda  are:  Acetate  of  Sodium. — This  is  prepared 
on  a  large  scale  by  the  makers  of  wood  vinegar 
or  pyroligneous  acid.  It  is  used  in  medicine 
and  OS  the  source  of  commercial  acetic  acid  by 
distilling  with  sulphuric  acid.  Borates  of 
Sodiitm. — Of  these  the  most  important  is 
borax.  Oarbonatea  of  86dium. — Of  these  there 
are  two  of  importance — the  neutral  or  normal 
carbonate,  commercially  sal  soda  or  washing 
soda,  and  the  bicarbonate,  commercially  cook- 
ing soda.  Sal  soda,  Na,CO,  +  IOS,0,  crys- 
tallizes in  large,  transparent  crystals.  This 
salt  effloresces  in  the  air  very  rapidly,  falling 
down  to  a  white  powder,  which  contains  but 
half  as  much  water  as  before.  It  dissolves  in 
twice  its  weight  of  cold  water.  The  anhydrous 
carbonate  is  a  product  of  enormous  value  in 
the  arts,  used  chiefly  in  the  making  of  glass 
and   soap.      Cooking    loda,   or   loda   talemtut 


SOLAR  PARALLAX 

idisodiuM  dikydrogen  dioarbonale) ,  HNaCOt, 
is  made  by  exposing  the  last  compound  to  an 
atraoephere  of  carbon  dioxide,  which  is  ab- 
sorbed, with  evolution  of  heat  and  separation 
of  water.  Commercial  bicarbonate  of  soda  la  a 
white  ^anular  powder,  which  requires  thirteen 
times  its  weight  of  water  for  solution.  It  la 
largely  used  in  medicine  and  in  cookery. 

Sulphate  of  todium,  or  Glauber's  salt^ 
Na,SO.  +  10H,0,  occurs  native  in  mineral 
springs,  and  as  IJie  mineral  species  mirabilite. 
Glauber's  salt  is  highly  efflorescent,  tailing  to 
a  white  powder  in  the  air,  and  in  time  toeing 
all  its  water  of  crystallization.  It  dissolves  in 
three  times  its  weight  of  cold  and  in  ite  own 
weight  of  boiling  water.  It  has  a  remarkable 
propensity  to  form  supersaturated  solutions. 
For  sulphite  of  todium,  see  Sulpbuboub  Aoid. 

Sod'om,  a  city  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment memorable  for  its  wickedness  and  its 
miraculoua  destruction  hy  a  storm  of  brim- 
stone and  fire  (Gen.  xii,  24,  25}.  The  site 
of  Sodom  and  its  allied  cities,  Gomorrah,  Ad- 
mah,  Zeboim,  and  Beta  or  Zoar.  in  the  vale  of 
Siddim,  has  long  been  discussed,  the  usual  con- 
clusion having  been  that  the  "  cities  of  the 
plain "  occupied  the  present  hasin  of  the  S. 
bay  of  the  Dead  Sea.  The  catastrophe  was 
perhaps  not  volcanic,  but  in  consequence  of  the 
Ignition  by  lightning  of  the  asphalt  with  which 
the  land  is  full,  which  would  hum  up  the 
cities.  The  land  sank  when  the  asphalt  had 
been  burned  out,  and  the  Dead  Sea  overflowed 
the  sunken  ground.  On  the  SW.  coast  of  the 
Dead  Sea  is  Jebel  'Usdom  (hill  of  Sodom],  a 
mass  of  mineral  salt.  At  the  8.  end  is  a  tall, 
isolated  needle  of  rock,  resembling  a  woman 
carrying  a  child.  This  Is  called  Lot's  wife. 
Josephus  says  that  traces  of  the  lost  five  cities 
could  be  seen  under  the  waters.  The  catas- 
trophe is  mentioned  by  Strabo  and  Tacitus. 

Sodom,  Sea  of.     See  Dead  Sea. 

Sofia  (s6-fe'a).    See  Sophla. 

SoftaSp'at  Constantinople  the  whole  body 
of  the  theological  students  who  receive  instruc- 
tion in  the  colleges  (medressehs)  connected 
with  the  larger  mosques.  From  them  are  re- 
cruited the  Mussulman  clergy.  Without  or- 
dination, hut  according  to  aptitude  or  length 
of  study,  each  one  is  appointed  to  his  special 
religious  functions.  This  body  of  students 
has  taken  a  prominent  part  in  political  af* 
fairs.  Thus  prior  to  the  Russo.'Hirkish  War 
(1877)  they  caused  the  deposition  of  an  in- 
capable grand  vizier  and  of  an  obnoxious 
sheik-ul- Islam.  Their  number  at  the  capital  is 
probably  not  much  below  10,000, 

Sohiab'.     See  Rubtau. 

Soil    See  Loau. 

Sotana'cee.    See  Niortshadk  FAKiLr. 

Solan  Goose.    See  Oaknet. 

Solar  Bn'gine,  or  Solai  Ho'tOT,  an  appara- 
tus for  utiliain^  the  heat  of  the  sun  as  a  motive 
power  hy  causing  it.  through  the  medium  of  a 
reflecting  metallic  mirror,  to  heat  the  water  in 
a  boiler  and  convert  it  into  steam. 


luut  HIV  DIUUHn 

•  Google 


SOLAK  PARALLAX 


and  center  of  the  earth.  Attempts  to 
the  distanoe  of  the  bud  were  made  by  the  an- 
cient aBtronatneTB,  Ariatarchua  and  Ptolemy, 
but  they  were  necesMirily  futile,  since  no  ot>- 
•ervatioDi  tbej  were  able  to  make  would 
measure  so  aniall  a  quantity  aa  the  parallax 
of  the  Bun.  Still  they  thought  they  measured 
the  dietance,  and  found  it  to  be  1,210  radii  of 
the  earth.  Telescopic  observations  showed  that. 
the  ann'a  distance  was  far  more  than  1,200 
radii  of  the  earth.  At  the  time  of  Newton  all 
that  was  known  of  the  sotar  parallax  waa  that 
it  muat  be  immeaaurable  with  the  Instnimenta 
then  at  ootnmand. 

As  the  eartii  revolTea  around  the  sun,  as- 
tMmomera  see  other  planets  In  various  direc- 
tiouB,  and  can  thus  determine  the  annual  par- 
allax of  each.  In  this  way  the  ratios  between 
the  different  orbits  admit  of  very  exact  ob- 
servation. Without  any  knowledge  of  the 
actual  distance  of  the  sun,  it  can  he  said  that 
if  the  distance  of  the  earth  be  unity,  then  that 
of  Venus  will  be  0.72333,  that  of  Mars  1.52360, 
that  of  Jupiter  G.2028,  etc.  It  follows  from 
this  titat  if  any  one  of  these  distancea  can  be 
dJatermined,  or  even  the  diatance  of  Venus  or 
Mara  from  the  earth  at  any  moroent,  all  the 
other  distances  will  follow,  including  that  of 
the  earth  from  the  sun.  The  nearer  a  planet 
eomea  to  the  earth  the  greater  wilt  be  its  par- 
allax, and  the  more  easily  will  its  distance  be 
determined.  Moreover,  obaervationa  on  the 
position  of  a  planet  can  be  mode  with  much 
more  accuracy  than  on  the  sun. 

It  is  now  found  that  the  most  accurate 
measures  of  the  parallax  can  probably  be  made 
(HI  the  small  planeta  between  Mars  and  Jupi- 
ter. There  are  other  methods  of  determining 
the  aun'a  distance.  One  of  these  is  the  measure- 
ment of  the  velocity  of  light.  The  phenomena 
of  aberration  show  that  there  ia  a  ratio  between 
the  velocity  of  light  and  the  velocity  of  the 
earth  in  its  orbit.  This  ratio  ia  such  tiiat  the 
velocity  of  light  ia  a  little  more  than  10,000 
times  that  of  the  earth  around  the  sun,  and 
from  this  it  follows  that  li(^t  takes  about 
four  hundred  and  ninety-eight  seconds  to  paas 
from  the  sun  to  the  earth.  It  follows  that  if 
.it  can  be  determine  how  many  milea  per  sec- 
ond light  travels,  the  distance  of  the  aun  can 
be  at  once  obtained  by  multiplying  this  number 
by  408.  This  determination  has  actually  been 
made  with  a  high  degree  of  preciaion. 

Yet  a  third  method  of  determining  the  sun's 
distance  is  founded  on  the  theory  of  gravita- 


SOLAR  8YSTEU 

tion.  The  action  of  the  sun  in  changing  the 
motion  of  the  moon  around  the  earth  will  be 
slightly  different,  according  to  Ita  distuioe. 
The  difference  ia  such  that  an  inequality  of 
about  two  minutes  In  the  motion  of  the  moon 
arises  from  this  cauae;  but  this  inequality  is 
difficult  to  determine.  The  value  of  the  par- 
allax is  protably  between  8,780"  and  8.790". 
This  gives,  in  round  numbers,  93,000,000  m. 
for  the  dlstanoe  of  the  sun,  a  result  protwbly 
correct  within  100,000  m. 

Solar  Sys'tem,  the  sun  and  the  bodies  which 
revolve  around,  it.  Its  main  featurea  are  the 
great  maaa  of'  the  central  body,  between  700 
and  800  times  the  total  mass  of  all  the  bodies 
which  revolve  around  it;  the  orderly  arrange- 
ment of  the  principal  bodies  of  the  system, 
which  revolve  around  the  sun  'in  a  fairly  r^u- 
lar  progression  of  distances,  and  in  i>early  cir- 
cular orbits ;  and  the  isolation  of  the  system 
from  the  other  bodies  of  the  universe,  the  near- 
est fixed  star  being  about  9,000  time*  tho  dia- 
tance of  the  farthest  planet. 

The  bodies  which  compose  the  system  are: 
(I)  The  great  central  body,  the  sun.  (2)  The 
four  inner  planets,  Mercuiy,  Venus,  the  Eartii, 
and  Mara.  (3)  A  group  of  several  hundred 
minor  planets,  or  asterotda,  revolving  outaids 
the  orbit  of  Uars.  Over  400  have  been  cata- 
logued. (4)  The  four  outer  planets,  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune.  These,  with  the 
four  planets  first  named,  are  called  major 
pUmett.  (5)  Twenty-one  satellites  revolving 
around  the  planets,  of  which  one  belongs  to 
the  earth,  two  ta  Mars,  five  to  Jupiter,  eight 
to  Saturn,  four  to  Uranus,  and  one  to  Neptune. 
Also  a  number  of  comets,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  the  system ;  and  clouds 
of  meteoric  particles,  iuviaible  in  themselves, 
the  presence  of  which  is  made  evident  by  their 
combustion  when  they  strike  the  atmosphere, 
forming  shooting  atars. 

The  principal  features  of  the  orbits  of  the 
major  planet^  are  their  near  approach  to  cir- 
cles, and  the  fact  that  they  lie  nearly  in  the 
same  plane.  The  moat  eccentric  of  their  orUta 
is  that  of  Mercury ;  yet  the  eye  could  scarcely 
distinguiah  its  deviation  from  a  circle,  though, 
it  could  perceive  that  the  sun  was  not  situated 
in  the  center  of  the  circle.  It  is  also  tjie  planet 
whose  orbit  is  moat  inclined  to  the  ecliptic,  the 
inclination  being  seven  degrees. 

The  principal  elements  of  the  planetary  or- 
bits are  shown  in  the  following  table: 


TABLE  OF  THE  PLANETARY   ELEMENTS. 


PLurar. 

DiUDDtW 

iamilM. 

(•UD  1-   I). 

<.Srt'„. 

Diumsl 

-aJT" 

'"»r 

fii 

4,210 

!Sffl 

30.900 
34.000 

% 

■is 

.728 

.240 
.134 
.249 

.209 

13    5 

23  M          41 

24  37.22       « 

9    SS          21 

Unknown. 

S,mi|" 

141 
480 

i:i 

■ 

is 

ffS 

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SOLDER 

SoUet  {aOA'tn),  an  alloy  Mnplojed  to  unite 
pieoes  of  metal  bf  fusion  upon  the  propoeed 
joint.  Tbere  are  mutj  solder«,  each  designed 
lOr  some  special  use.  Three  grades  of  Holder 
are  in  common  use:  common  solder,  of  equal 
parts  of  tin  and  lead ;  floe  solder,  of  two  parts 
of  tin  to  one  of  lead ;  and  a  cheaper  article,  of 
two  of  lead  to  one  of  tin.  The  soft  solders  are 
usually  of  lead  and  tin,  or  lead,  tin,  and  bis- 
muth; these  melt  at  a  low  temperature.  The 
hard  eolden  cannot  be  melted  at  a  low'tem- 
perature ;    tfaey    are    conuncnly   of   lino   and 

Sole,  a  flat&sb  of  the  Boleida.  The  com- 
mon sole,  Solea  aolea,  is  dark  brown  on  its 
upper  and  white  on  its  lower  aide,  with  the 
pectoral  &n  blscldsh  at  its  end;  it  ranges  be- 
tween 10  and  20  in.  in  lengtb,  and  between  I 
and  10  lb.  in  weight,  although  the  latter  di- 
rarcly    attained.     It    ie    fouiid 


teemed;  the  flesb  ie  wbite  and  Ann. 
chiefly  taken  on  the  coasts  of  the  British  Is- 
lands by  trawling.  Another  species  is  the 
lemon  sole.  Achirua  lineaiui  is  the  nearest 
American  ally  of  the  European  species;  it  is 
known  as  the  hog  choker,  cover  clip,  or  calico; 
it  is  worthless.  In  California  several  species 
of  true  PleuToneotiiUB  are  called  solea. 

Solfeuio  (sOl-f &d'iO) .    See  Souozatiok. 

Solfeiino  [sAl-f6r-S'D9),  village  of  Mantua, 
N.  Italy;  celebrated  for  the  battle  in  which 
the  French,  under  Napoleon  III,  and  the  Sar- 
dinians, under  Victor  Emmanuel,  defeated  the 
Austrians  (June  24,  1S60).  It  was  the  de- 
cisive battle  of  the  war  of  Italian  independence. 
The  forces  of  the  allies  numbered  about  150,- 
000,  while  the  Austrians  brought  about  170,000 
into  the  field.  After  their  defeat  the  latter 
retreated  toward  Verona,  and  left  all  Lombard; 
open  to  the  allies.  Napoleon  concluded  the 
truce  of  Villafranca. 

Solic'itoi,  in  Great  Britain,  an  officer  of  the 
courts  who  is  entitled  to  institute  or  defend 
any  action,  similar  to  attorneys  in  the  U.  S., 
except  that  the  solicitors  do  not  appear  before 
the  higher  courts,  that  function  being  reserved 
for  the  barristers  ig.v.). 

Sol'idaB,  Homan  gold  coin,  Vi  of  the  pound. 
In  the  Middle  Ages  a  silver  solidus,  A  of  the 
pound,  was  coined.  This  became  the  sol  or 
sou,  the  latter  being  retained  as  the  popular 
name  for  the  five-centime  piece. 

Sollngen,  town  of  Rhenish  Pnusia;  13  m. 
E.  of  Dltsseldorf;  famous  since  the  Middle 
Ages  for  its  iron  and  steel  goods,  especially 
sword  blades,  and  still  an  important  center  for 
cutlery.    Pop.  (1900)  45,260. 

Soils  y  Klbndeneyra  (e  re-v&tha-na'e-ra) , 
Antonio  de,  1610-86;  Spanish  writer,  first  of 
poems  and  dramas;  later  as  secretary  to  Philip 
IV  and  historiographer,  wrote  "  Historia  de  la 
Conquista  de  Mexico,"  a  Spanish  classic, 
thot^h  shallow  «nd  bigoted,  but  the  first  ctm- 
uectea  history  of  the  conquest. 

Solitaire  (sM-I-tSr'),  the  Pezophapt  tolifaria, 
a  bird  related  to  the  dodo,  formerly  inhabitiDg 


SOLOMON 

the  island  of  Bodrignez.  Numerous  remains 
of  the  solitaire  have  been  found.  It  was  larger 
than  the  turkey,  and  did  not  use  its  wings  lor 
flight.     It  was  a  slow  runner,  and  dcKnded 

itself  with  its  wings  and  beak.  Its  fieah  was 
good  to  eat.  Francis  Leguat,  1691,  describes 
the  solitaire  in  bis  "  Voyages  et  Aventures." 

SOLITAIBE,  or  Patience,  a  game  which  one 
person  can  play  alone;  usually  applied  to 
games  of  cards  in  which  the  player  arranges 
the  cards  according  to  some  fixed  rule  and 
tries  to  classify  them  according  to  suits. 

Solmisa'tiou,  or  Solfeg'gio,  in  music,  the  art 
of  giving  to  each  of  the  seven  notes  of  the 
scale  its  proper  sound  or  relative  pit<:h.  The 
acquiring  of  a  true  intonation  of  the  scale,  first 
i)y  regular  gradation  upward  and  downward, 
and  then  by  skips  from  one  degree  to  another, 
is  of  importance  in  vocal  music.  To  facilitate 
this,  expedients  have  been  devised,  chiefly  the 
association  of  the  several  sounds  with  articu- 
l9.te  utterances,  such  hb  the  numeral  words, 
ont,  tvjo,  three,  etc.  Many  centuries  ago  cer- 
tain syllables,  void  of  any  special  meaning, 
but  containing  the  several  vowel  sounds,  were 
selected  for  Uiia  purpose,  and  are  in  general 

SDl'omon  (Hebrew,  8h'l6mOh,  "peaceable"),' 
son  and  successor  of  David,  King  of  Israel. 
His  name  was  given  with  reference  to  the  peace 
which  should  attend  bis  reign  (I  Chron.  xxii, 
7-10).  As  the  recipient  of  Jehovah's  promise 
to  the  eternal  line  of  David  (II  Sana,  vii)  he 
was  also  named  Jedidiah,  beloved  of  Jehovah 
(II  Bam.  xii,  24,  25).  His  mother  was  Bath- 
siteba,  the  widow  of  Uriah.  In  I  Chronicles 
xiiii,  I-xxix,  22a  is  an  account  of  Solomon's 
being  made  king,  followed  (verses  22b-25)  by 
an  account  of  his  being  made  king  "  a  second 
time,"  this  second  account  being  a  condensation 
of  I  Kings  I.  Apparently  the  flrst  coronation 
occurred  near  the  close  of  the  fortieth  year  of 
David  (bis  last  year  but  one),  and  just  before 
the  outbreak  of  Absalom's  rel^llion  (I  Chron. 
xxvi,  31;  II  Sam,  rv,  7),  which  interpretation 
gives  a  consistent  meaning  to  the  biblical  data, 
— Solomon  b^an  his  reign  humbly  and  wisely, 
asking  God  for  wisdom,  which  was  granted. 
In  his  fourth  year  be  began  his  great  work, 
"the  house lof  the  Lord,"  for  which  David  had 
laid  plans  and  accumulated  enormous  treas- 
ures. It  was  completed  and  dedicated  seven 
years  later.  This  was  but  the  beginning  of 
his  achievements  as  a  builder.  Among  the 
structures  attributed  to  him  are  his  own  palace, 
"the  House  of  the  Forest  of  Lebanon,"  and 
his  wonderful  throne,  together  with  cities,  fbr- 
tiflcations,  stations  for  commerce,  reservoirs, 
and  aqueducts.  He  also  engaged  In  husbandry 
and  in  landscape  gardening.  He  oonaDlidat«d 
the  kingdom  which  his  father  had  conquered. 
He  reorganized  and  enlarged  the  civil  service 
of  David.  He  started  the  hitherto  pastoral  or 
agricultural  Hebrews  on  the  new  road  of  com- 
merce, sending  ships  to  "  Ophtr,"  India,  and 
Arabia  in  tlie  Bast  from  Ezion-geber  on  the 
Red  Sea,  and  from  Jaffa  and  Tyro,  to 
"  Tarshiah "  in  Spain.  Many  kings  were  his 
tributaries;  untold  wealth  abd  the  wonders  and 
curiosities  of  many  countries  flowed  into  the 
land.    Many  foreigners  were  attracted  tiy  hia 


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SOLOMON,  SONG  OF 

Hplendor  and  wisdom,  notably  the  Qnwn  of 
Sheba,  mth  her  retinue.  His  harem  had  1,000 
inmates,  in  accordance  with  Oriental  ideas  of 
magnificence. 

in  Jewish  and  Mohammedan  tradition  he 
appears  aa  a  person  of  fascinating  beautj  and 
grace,  impetuous,  generous,  sympathetic,  and 
at  first  humble;  of  fine  humor  and  noble  in- 
tellect, a  man  of  broad  views,  a  far-sighted 
statesmaii,  learned  in  the  science  of  the  day. 
He    was   an    organizer    of    splendid    executive 

Gwers,  a  great  builder  and  artist,  poet,  phi- 
lopher,  and  had  from  the  Lord  preeminently 
,  '■  an  understanding  heart  to  judge."  Unfortu- 
nately, there  fa  another  side  to  the  picture. 
From  motives  of  state  Solomon  married  the 
daughter  of  Pbaraoh  of  Egypt  and  many  other 
wives  from  among  the  princesses  of  his  tribu- 
tary kingdoms.  This  led  to  latitudinarianism 
in  religion,  to  extravagance,  to  oppression  and 
disregard  of  human  rights.  The  result  was 
that  his  reign  was  partly  a  failure.  Before  his 
death  Bdom  and  Syria  revolted,  and  Jeroboam 
raised  rebellion.  After  his  death  the  ten  tribes 
revolted,  so  that  the  strictly  Israelite  portion 
of  his  kingdom  was  divided,  while  the  tribu- 
tary peoples  fell  away  from  their  all^iance. 

Solomon,  Son{  of.    See  Canticle. 

Solomon  Ben  I'saac,  generally  known  aa 
Rashi  (a  combination  of  the  initial  letters 
of  bis  title  and  name),  1040-1105;  celebrated 
Jewish  commentator;  b.  Troyes,  France.  Lit- 
tle is  known  about  his  life,  except  that  he 
studied  at  the  theological  schools  of  Maycnce 
and  Worms.  He  died  July  13,  1105.  He  wrote 
I   all   the   books   of  the   Bible 


f  the  traditional  rabbinic  exegesis,  seek 
to  determine  the  simple  meaning  {Peahat)  of 
the  text.  They  have  been  held  in  the  highest 
esteem  not  only  by  Jewish  writers,  but  also  by 
NicolauB  de  Lyra,  Luther,  Sebastian  Mttnster, 
etc  His  commentary  on  the  Pentateuch  was 
the  first  Hebrew  book  printed  ( 1475).  He  also 
wrote  a  commentary  on  twenty-three  of  the 
treatises  of  the  Balgrlonian  Talmud,  which  is 
printed  in  every  eilition  of  that  work.  Among 
his  other  writings  may  be  mentioned  a  com- 
mentary to  BeresHlft  Rahha;  Bappardet,  con- 
taining decisions  on  ritual  and  legal  matters; 
and  a  few  hymns.  In  bis  commentaries  Rasbi 
cites  a  large  number  of  Frovengal  words  which 
have  been  collected  by  ArsSne  Dnrmeateter, 
and  which  are  of  value  in  determining  the  pro- 
nunciation of  the  particular  dialect  used  by 
the  Jews  in  that  part  of  Provence. 

Solomon  (German,  Salouok)  Islands,  an 
archipelago  E.  of  New  Guinea,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  Bismarck  Archipelago  and 
Louisiade  Islands.  It  consists  of  seven  large 
isianda  and  many  small  ones.  The  N.  half  of 
the  archipelago  was  taken  under  German  pro- 
tection in  1886.  The  largest  of  the  isianda  are 
Bougainville  (pop.  10,000),  Choiseul  (5,S50), 
and  Isabel  {6,S40).  The  total  area  of  the 
islands  is  16,950  sq.  m. ;  pop.  89,000.  The  re- 
mainder of  the  archipelago  was  brought  witbin 
the  British  protectorate,  June,  1893.  In  1899 
Germany  ceded  Choiseul  and  San  Isabel  to 
Great  Britain,  which  now  controls  the  remain- 


SOLON 

der  of  the  group  with  the  exception  of  Bou- 
gainville and  BuVa,  which  still  belong  to'  Ger- 
many. The  inhabitants  are  Papuan  and 
Polynesian.  They  are  intelligent,  quick,  and 
crafty,  but  make  good  servants,  and  are  in  de- 
mand as  laborers.  They  are  cannibals;  their 
weapons  consist  of  the  bow  and  arrow,  spear, 
and  club,  which  are  of  fine  finish.  Their 
canoes  are  the  finest  in  the  Pacific.  The  islands 
are  volcanic,  surrounded  by  coral  reefs.  They 
were  discovered  in  the  sixteenth  century,  but 
were  lost  sight  of  until  1767,  when  they  were 
rediscovered  by  Carteret.  They  are  still  the 
least-known  group  of  the  Pacific. 

Solomon's  Seal,  any  one  of  the  liliaoMus 
herbs  of  the  genera  Polggonatvm,  Yagjtrrv,  and 
UnifoHum,  found  in  Europe  and  N.  America. 
The  name  properly  belongs  only  to  the  specie* 
of  Polj/gcxMtfum ;   the  "seal"  is  the  cfrcnlar 


Solomon's  8iau 
t  ■tem.  bud.  aod  Ktu 


oth 


depressed  sear  left  on  the  root  stock  by  the 
separation  annually  of  the  flowering  stem. 
The  common  Solomon's  seal,  P.  muHiflorum,  is 
foimd  in  England  and  Scotland.  It  has  a  stem 
2  ft.  high.  The  flower  stalks  are  generally 
unbranched;  the  (lowers,  which  are  not  large, 
are  white  and  drooping. 

Solomon's  Tem'ple.    See  Jebusaulu. 

Solon,  abt.  638-669  B.C.;  Athenian  law- 
giver of  royal  descent,  but  impoverished  by  bis 
father's  extravagance;  he  visited  in  his  youth 
many  parts  of  Greece  and  Aaia  as  a  merchant, 
gained  distinction  by  his  poenls,  and  from  his 
reputation  for  political  wisdom  was  reckoned 
one  of  the  seven  sages.  He  began  his  political 
career  by  recovering  Salamis  from  the  Mega- 
rians,  and  gave  to  Athens  the  mastery  of  the 
sea.  The  repeated  failure  to  capture  Salamis 
had  BO  discouraged  the  Athenians  that  a  law 
was  passed  prescribing  death  for  anyone  who 
should  renew  the  attempt.  The  Athenians 
were  captives  in  their  own  land.  Solon,  feign- 
ing madness,  roused  the  patriotic  ardor  of  hia 
countrymen  by  his  poems,  and  then  led  them 
to  victoi?.  It  was  the  turning  point  in  the 
history  of  Athens.  In  694  he  was  called  to  the 
archonship,  with  authority  to  confirm,  repeal, 
or  modih-  the  Draconian  laws.  The  constitu- 
tion of  Solon  was  by  a  solemn  oath  declared 
valid  without  alteration  for  ten  years.  He  ob- 
tained leave  of  absence  for  that  period,  and 
visited  E^t  and  Cyprus,  He  returned  to 
Athens  prior  to  the  first  usurpation  of  his 
relative  Piaistratus  (660),  and  amid  violent 
dissensions  was  respected  by  all  parties. 

The  radical  evil  which  Solon  had  to  cure 
was  that  the  small  landowners  were  hopeless^ 

,>,Coogle 


SOLOR 

in  d«bt.  The  debtors'  Uws  were  mollified; 
limita  were  set  to  the  uquiaitidn  of  large  es- 
tg.be»,  and  b  modification  of  tlie  coinage  ulevi- 
ated  the  wretched  condition  of  the  proletariat. 
The  garemment  was  no  longer  conducted  by 
a  few  noble  families,  but  shared  in  hj  all 
in  proportion  to  their  property.  Sumptuary 
regulations  repressed  extra vagancs ;  snd  the 
statutes,  written  on  wood,  were  exposed  to  be 
read  bj  all.  Crtesus,  the  magnificent  King  of 
Ljdia,  seeking  a  oompliment,  asked  Solon, 
"  Who  is  the  happiest  man  jou  have  ever 
seen!  "  and  was  mortified  b;  the  philosopher's 
reply:  "I  can  speak  of  no  one  as  happy  until 
I  hare  seen  bow  his  life  has  ended." 

SoloT',  an  island  of  Malay,  off  the  E.  ex- 
tremitj  of  Florea;  area,  106  sq.  n. ;  pop. 
15,000,  mostly  engaged  in  fishing  and  tratung. 
Sulphur  and  ediMe  birda'  nests  are  the  prin- 
cipal artides  of  exportation.  Also  the  small 
archipelago  to  which  this  islAnd  belongs.  It 
contains  two  other  larger  islands — Adenara 
and  Lomhiero.  Area  of  the  group  about  1,260 
sq.  m.;  pop.  est.  from  40,000  to  180,000. 

Sol'sUce,  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  equa- 
tor to  the  ecliptic  or  plane  of  its  annual  mo- 
tion about  the  sun  is  the  cause  that  the  latter 
is  during  half  the  year  on  the  N.  polar  side  of 
the  equator,  the  other  half  on  the  S.,  causing 
,the  Ticissitudes  of  summer  and  winter  to  the 
respective  hemisphercB.  The  distance  from  the 
Hun  N.  or  8.  of  the  equator  is  thus  constantly 
varying.  The  two  points  at  which  this  ap- 
parent N.  or  S.  motion  ceases  (or  at  which  its 
progressive  increase  of  declination  appears  to 
he  arrested)  are  the  summer  and  winter  sol- 
stices. At  these  periods  the  day  is  the  longest 
or  shortest,  according  as  the  earth  is  in  the 
summer  (June  Zlst)  or  winter  (December 
21at)   solstice.     See  Equmox. 

Sol'nble  Glass,  or  Wa'ter  GUsa,  an  artificial 
silicate  of  aoda  or  potash,  or  a  double  silicate 
of  these  atkalies.  It  may  be  formed  bj  fusing 
eight  parts  of  dry  carbonate  of  soda  or  potash 
with  fifteen  parts  of  white  sand.  Soluble  gloss 
is  applied  to  brick  and  stone  walls  to  harden 
them,  is  fireprooflng,  and  as  a  fixative  in 
dyeing. 

jSoln'tion,  the  liquid  product  formed  when 
a  solid,  a  liquid,  or  a  gas  dissolves  in  a  liquid. 
Thus  when  water  is  poured  upon  salt  or  sugar 
the  solid  substance  disappears  as  such  and 
passes  into  the  liquid  form.  Any  liquid  which 
has  the  power  to  dissolve  a  substance  is  called 
a  solvent,  and  the  substance  is  said  to  be  sol- 
uble in  the  liquid.  Water  is  used  more  com- 
monly than  any  other  liquid,  while  alcohol  is 
also  much  used,  especially  tor  medicinal  solu- 
tions. Tinctures  are  suiJt  alcoholic  solutions 
of  medicinal  constituents  of  plants.  Some 
liquids  mix  with  one  another,  or,  in  other 
words,  they  dissolve  one  in  the  other,  as  water 
uid  alcohol.  Other  liquids  act  diO'erently. 
Thus  water,  as 'is  well  known,  does  not  dissolve 
oily  liauids.  Ether  and  hendne,  on  the  other 
hand,  do  dissolve  oils.  Some  gases  dissolve  in 
water  to  a  veiy  remarkable  extent.  Thus  wa- 
ter can  dissolve  1,000  times  its  bulk  of  the  gas 
Water  also  dissolves  carbonic-acid 


gas,  and  all  natural  waters  oontain  some  of 
this,  gas  in  solution.  When  a  liquid  is  placed 
in  a  dosed  vessel,  and  gas  forced  into  it,  it 
dissolves  more  and  more  gas  as  the  pressure 
increases;  and  when  the  pressure  is  removed, 
the  gas  passes  rapidly  out  of  solution,  giving 
rise  to  ^ervescenoe,  as  is  commonly  seen  in 
soda  water. 

In  a  solution,  whether  of  a  solid,  a  liquid,  or 
a  gas,  the  dissolved  substance  is  uniformly  dis- 
tributed—there is  as  much  of  it  in  one  drop  of 
the  solution  as  there  is  in  any  other  drop.  A 
drop  of  a  concentrated  solution  of  magenta 
brought  into  many  gallons  of  water  imparts  a 
distinct  color  to  all  parts  of  the  liquicC  liiis 
gives  some  idea  of  the  extent  to  which  the  divi- 
sion of  matter  can  be  carried,  for  in  each  drop 
of  the  dilute  solution  there  must  be  contained 
some  of  the  dve,  though  the  quantity  must 
be  inflnitesimally  small.  Little  is  positively 
known  in  regard  to  the  nature  of  solution. 
There  are  facts  that  indicate  that  the  particles 
of  the  solvent  form  unstable  compounds  with 
the  particles  of  the  dissolved  substance.  Id 
some  cases  it  appears  that  solution  Involves  a 
complete  breaking  down  of  the  dissolved  sub- 

Sol'way  Pirtb,  an  inlet  of  the  Irish  Sea,  83 
m.  long,  from  2}  to  20  m.  broad;  it  separatee 
Cumberland  from  the  S.  of  Scotland.  It  is 
noted  for  the  swiftness  and  strength  of  its  ebb 
and  flow,  the  spring  tide  rushing  in  with  a 
wave  from  3  to  6  ft.  high,  and  with  a  speed 
of  from  8  to  10  m.  an  hour.  It  receives  the 
Esk,  the  Derwent,  and  several  minor  streams. 

Sol'yman,  same  as  ScLEiiiAn  iq.v.). 

Somali  Coast,  or  Somali  Land,  an  ill-defined 
area  occupying  the  E.  horn  of  Africa,  and  ex- 
tending along  the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  the  Indian 
Ocean  from  Zeila,  in  lat.  11°  IB'  N.,  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Jub,  in  lat.  0°  14'  N. ;  claimed 
by  the  British  (along  the  Gulf  of  Aden)  and 
the  Italians  (along  the  Indian  Ocean  S.  to 
British  E.  Africa)  ;  the  remainder  subject  to 
Abyssinia ;  area  of  the  former  part  about,  SB,- 
000  sq.  m.  The  British  and  Italian  ^vem- 
ments  in  19M  defined  the  limita  of  their  pro- 
tectorates. It  is  mountainous,  rich  in  myrrh 
and  incense,  and  inhabited  by  tribes  relate  to 
the  Abyssinians,  Mohammedans,  and  Oallas, 
and  mostly  nomads  and  ill  famed  from  their 
predatory  habits.  Tha  principal  port  is  Ber- 
bera.  During  the  hot  season  it  is  deserted,  but 
in.  winter  comprises  a  population  of  about 
30,000    people,    who    gather   to    exchange   the 

groducts  of  their  industry.  The  French  Somali 
oast  Protectorate  is  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden; 
capital,  Jibuti. 

Sonutol'ogy,  the  science  of  living  organized 
bodies  as  far  as  relates  to  material  conforma- 
tion and  not  to  psychological  phenomena.  The 
name  has  also  l^n  ^ven  to  the  study  of  in- 
organic bodies,  iji  which  case  it  does  not  differ 
much  in  signification  from  physics. 

Som'eiB,  John  (Lord),  1661-1710;  English 
statesman;  b.  Worcester;  was  chairman  of  the 
committee  which  drew  up  the  Declaration  of 
Right;  in  I6B7  was  Lord  Chancellor.  He  drew 
up  the  plan  for  the  uniim  of  the  crowns  of 


Dior; 


,v  Google 


L 


SONG   BIRDS. 


,v  Google 


„  Google 


England  and  SootUnd,  1706.  A  nliuible  col- 
lection of  «Ut«  papeTs,  known  u  the  "  Somera 
Tr«ct»,"  WM  edited  from  ariginaU  in  hia 
library. 

Som'enet,  Edward  ScTmotur  {Duke  of), 
1500-S2;  English  Btateeman;  brother  of  Jane 
SeTmour,  mother  of  Edward  VI.  After  the 
death  of  Heary  VIII  he  rose  to  the  head  of 
ftffaira,  becoming  king  in  alt  but  name.  When 
the  Scots  opposed  the  mnrriage  of  Marj  Stuart 
to  Edward  VI,  Somerset  defeated  them  in  the 
Inttle  of  Pinkie.  His  arrogance  and  rBShnees 
provoked  opposition,  and  among  hie  political 
adTETvariee  was  his  own  brother.  Sir  Thomas 
Sefiaour,  who  was  executed  by  his  orders, 
Harch,  1549.  This  brought  the  protector  into 
EKat  odium,  and  in  October,  164Q,  the  j'oung 
king  had  bim  thrown  into  the  Tower,  but  he 
was  released  in  a  few  months.  Among  his 
rivala    was   the   Earl   of   Warwick.      Somerset 

filotted  against  his  life;  was  again  armted, 
ound  guilCj  of  felony  and  conatructiTe  treason, 
Mid  beh^ed. 

Somerset  House,  a  building  in  London  be- 
tween the  Strand  and  the  l^mea  erected  in 
the  eighteenth  centunr,  and  now  occupied  hy 
King's  Oollege,  as  well  as  Bereral  government 
branches,  as  Uie  inland  revenue  and  tbe  reg- 
istrar's office.  It  ia  also  the  depositary  of 
wills. 

Som'erMtsIilre,  county  of  SW,  England; 
area,  1,615  aq.  m.  The  surface  is  diversifled 
by  low,  rocky  bills;  the  Mendip  Hills  in  the 
N.  and  the  Quantock  Hills  in  the  W.  Cool 
and  freestone  are  mhied,  and  iron  and  lead  in 
small  quantities.    large  tracts  afford  excellent 

Kturage.  Cheddar  cheese  and  eider  are 
jely  produced.  Dairy  farming  is  one  of  the 
principal  occupations ;  leather,  glass,  paper, 
•nd  iiOD  goods  ^re  made.  Fop.  (1911) 
407,346. 

So'man't  Iilaada.    See  BEBinnu  Isunds. 

Somerrilk,  city;  Middlesex  G04  Uass'.;  on 
tlM  Mystic  River;  till  IB42  a  part  of  Charlea- 
town,  and  is  a  residential  city  for  many  en- 
gaged in  buainesa  in  Boston.  In  1000  there 
were  114  "factory  system"  manufacturing  ea- 
tablishments,  employing  5,280  wage  earner*, 
and  turning  out  products  valued  at  ^8,087,- 
000.  The  city  was  setUed  in  1029,  and  in- 
corporated 1872.  It  ia  built  on  seven  hilU. 
The  first  vessel  built  in  tbe  state  waa  launched 
from  Gov.  Winthrop'a  Ten  Hill  farm  on  the 
Uystic  River  in  1631;  a  powder  house  erected 
on  Quarry  Hill  abt.  1703  is  preserved  in  tbe 


Hill  during  the  wiege  of  Boston;  Oen.  Putnam' 
"  impr^naUe  fortress"  waa  on  Cobble  Bill; 
»nd  the  "  citadel "  where  Washington  raised 
the  first  colonial  union  flag,  January  1,  1770, 
was  on  Prospect  Hill.     Pop.  (1910)  77,238. 

Somme  (sOmm),  department  of  N.  France, 
bordering  on  the  English  Channel;  area,  2,443 
•q.  m.  The  surface  is  flat,  hut  the  soil  fertile, 
knd  large  crops  are  raised.  Cattle  breeding  is 
extensively  carried  on,  and  the  manufacturers 
of  velvet,  silk,  ootton  goods,  soap,  chemicala. 


SONG  OF  SONOS 

beet-root  sugar,  paper,  and  linen  are  important. 
Pop.  (1911)  620,161.  • 

SouuE  is  also  the  nnme  of  a  river  of  France; 
rises  in  the  department  of  Aisne,  passes  by  St. 
Quentin,  Ham,  Amiens,  and  Abbeville,  and 
falls  into  the  English  Channel  after  a  course 
of  152  m.  It  IB  navigable  to  Amiens,  and  is 
connected  with  the  Seine,  Oise,  and  Scheldt  by 
OaiutlB.  The  river  gives  its  name  to  two  B^tMl 
batUea  in  the  World  War.  The  first,  fought  by 
the  British  and  Flench  on  one  nde  and  the 
Oermans  on  the  othai,  began  July  1, 191Q,  lasted 
into  November,  saw  the  introduction  of  tbe 
"tank,"  and  resulted  in  the  failure  to  break  the 
Genoan  linea.  Tbe  second,  (^>ened  Aug.  12, 
1918,  between  the  same  antagonists,  and  re- 
Bultea  in  large  Allied  gains,  tbe  recrossinK  of 
the  river  by  the  British,  2»th,  and  the  full  Ger- 
mOn  retreat  toward  the  Hindenburg  (9.  v.)  line. 

Sona'ta,  originally,  in  the  sizieenth  century, 
any  composition  for  instruments,  in  contra- 
distinction to  vocal  compositions,  or  oanfala. 
Later,  especially  after  Bach,  the  name  was  ap- 
plied principally  to  compositions  for  solo  in- 
struments and  of  a  certain  form,  consisting  of 
several  movements — flrst,  three,  the  allegro, 
adagio,  and  rondo — to  which  afterwards  a 
fourth  was  added  by  Haydn,  the  mtnuelfo  or 
tofterso,  which  differed  from  each  other  in  time 
and  sentiment,  but  were  held  together  by  the 
general  character  pervading  all. 

Song  of  Birds,  the  musical  notes  uttered  by 
many  birds,  especially  by  oecine  passerines. 
Nearly  all  birds  utter  some  kind  of  a  cry,  but 
in  the  majority  it  can  scarcely  be  called  a  song. 
In  man  and  other  mammal,  gounds  are  i>rO' 
duced  in  the  larynx^  but  in  birds  musical 
sounds  are  produced  m  an  enlargement  of  tbe 
windpipe  termed  the  syrinx.  To  the  syrinx  are 
attached  the  ringing  nsusoles,  numbering  in  ihn 
oscines  from  four  ui  six  or  eight  pairs.  The 
apparatus  is  simple,  and  its  modifications  are 
slight.  There  ia  no  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
tongue  takes  any  important  part  in  the  pro- 
duction of  sounds  even  in  birds  which  pro- 
nounce words.  Son^  is  almost  excluaively  an 
attribute  of  male  birds,  although  the  female 
may  sing,  as  does  the  cardinal  of  the  U.  8., 
and  it  is  heard  most  often  during  the  time  of 
pairing,  so  that  spring  time  is  preeminently  the 
season  of  song;  still  some  birds  sing  t^  —  ' 
out  the  year,  and  even,  like  tbe  Carolin 
in  winter.  The  bobolink  changes  his  n 
with    his    coat,    and    sings   only   in    full-dress 

Slumage.  Early  morning  is  the  favorite  hour 
>r  aong ;  next  to  that  the  sunset  hour,  but 
some  birds,  like  the  scarlet  tauager,  sing  dur- 
ing the  torrid  heat  of  a  8.  noonday,  and  many 
songsters  besides  the  nightingale  sing  at  night, 
notably  tbe-mockins  bird  and  yellow-breasted 
chat  of  the  U.  S.  The  gay-plumaged  birds  of 
the  tropics  belong  large^  to  the  harsh-voiced 
Clamatoret,  but  a  bright  coat  is  not  a  sure 
sign  of  a  discordant  voice.  Not  only  do  indi- 
viduals of  a  given  species  var^  considerably  in 
their  power  01  song,  but  certain  localitiea  seem 
to  develop  musical  talent  better  than  others. 
The  meadow  lark  sings  better  in  Florida  than 
in  the  N.  parts  of  the  U.  8.,  while  the  W.  aub- 
species  excels  that  of  tbe  E. 

Song  of  Songa    See  Cakhou^,    T  jQqqIp 

I  O 


Son'aet,  a  poetic*!  form  Thich,  as  finally 


fonrteeuth  cepturiea,  consists  of  fourteen  hen- 
decBBfllabic  Tere«a  (corresponding'  to  English 
decasyllablee),  arranged  according  to  a  rind 
scheme.  The  main  features  of  tliia  are  xbe 
division  of  the  sonnet  into  two  parts,  the  first 
of  eight  lines  (called  the  octaTe),  the  second 
of  six  (called  the  sestet)  ;  the  furUier  division 
of  the  octave  into  two  tetrastiches  (called  in 
Italian  piedi)  ;  the  emptoyment  of  but  two 
rhymes  in  the  octave,  arraneed  abbaabba; 
the  use  of  either  two  or  three  rhymes  la  the 
sestet  variously  arranged,  though  a  b  b  ab  aia 
preferred.  The  Hestct,  when  it  forms  an  in- 
divisible whole,  is  often  called  in  Italian 
tiriTim;  when  it  falls  into  two  tercets,  volte. 
This  severe  form,  however,  has  not  been  fol- 
lowed hy  all  sonnet  writers.  Shakespeare 
hardly  observes  the  minor  divisions  of  the 
sonnet  at  alL  He  arranges  the  rhymes  of  the 
octave  abababab.oi  even  ababodod, 
thus  neglecting  all  the  subtle  modulations  of 
the  Petrarchan  type.  He  often  allows  the 
sense  to  run  over  from  the  octave  to  the  sestet ; 
and  even  when  he  parts  the  two  he  makes  little 
effort  to  contrast  the  meaning  and  the  har- 
mony of  the  latter  with  those  of  the  former. 
This  loose  type  of  the  sonnet  is  often  called  the 
bastard  or  illegitimate  sonnet;  but  this  is 
hardly  justified  by  the  history  of  the  torra. 

Wordsworth's  sonnet  on  the  sonnet  does  more 
than  exemplify  its  form: 


Boom  not  (h«  Sc 


)vu  have  f  inwDsd, 
■     ■  i.  key, 


»  thii  pipe  did  Tu*q  m 


Amid  Ihe  oypm 

HiBvifdon 

To  ■tn^K'*  [hmui^  dar^  w 

path  of  Uilton.  in  1 


r,  called  f  mi 


Sono'ra,  NW.  sUte  of  Mexico;  area,  76,900 
sq.  m.  The  Sierra  Madre  Kange  forms  the  £. 
boundary,  and  its  spurs  cover  much  of  the  E. 
part,  which  is  imperfectly  known.  Succeeding 
this  r^ion  are  plateaus  and  valley  with  a 
rich  soil,  but  only  available  for  agriculture  by 
irrigation.  The  ^nds  along  the  coast  are  arid, 
except  in  the  river  valleys.  The  NW.  part  is 
a  desert,  resembling  Ariiona.  Of  the  few  riv- 
ers the  Yaqui  is  the  most  important.  The  cli- 
mate is  hot  on  the  lowlands,  mild  on  the 
plateaus  and  in  the  higher  valleys;  rains  (prin- 
cipally from  July  to  September)  are  soantv, 
and  the  NW.  deserts  and  parts  of  the  coast  belt 
are  essentially  rainless.  There  is  no  true  for- 
est, except  id*  the  mountains.  The  state  is  rich 
in  minerals;  the  mines  of  silver  and  gold  are 
famous,  lead  occurs  with  silver,  and  coal  beds 
have  been  opened  in  the  Yaqui  valley,  the 
product  being  exported  to  Arizona.  Mining  is 
the  only  important  industry;  cereals,  etc.,  are 
cultivated  in  the  river  valleys,  and  there  are 
herds  of  cattle  in  the  N.    A  kind  of  guano  is 


SOPHIA 

found  on  Islands  in  the  Gulf  of  California. 
Pop.  (1910)  262,Si5.  A  large  proportion  are 
Indians  of  the  Opata,  Pima,  and  other  tribea, 
who  retain  their  old  customs  and  languages, 
and  are  often  practically  independent. 

Soochow',  formerly  Boo-Chow  Too,  or  Sd- 
CHOW,  a  city  of  CUna,  capital  of  a  depart- 
ment of  same  name,  and  of  the  province  of 
KiangBu;  on  the  Grand  Canal,  80  m.  W.  of 
Shan^uii.  In  1861  the  Taipings  reduced  the 
city  almost  to  ruins,  the  only  buildings  which 
escaped  destruction  being  the  temples  (300  in 
number)  and  pagodas,  one  of  them,  the  Great 
Pagoda,  being  the  highest  in  China.  Soocbow 
is  a  great  commercial  and  manufacturing  city, 
thousands  of  looms  turning  out  silk  and  satin, 
and  there  are  numerous  workers  in  wood,  iron, 
brass,  tin,  stone,  silver,  and  gold.  Its  streets 
— 7  or  8  ft.  wide — are  too  narrow  for  traffic, 
but  a  network  of  canals  extends  throughout 
the  city  and  surrounding  region,  and  along 
these  the  heavy  traCBc  passes.  Pop.  600,000. 
A  history  of  Soochow  in  ISO  volumes  was 
written  one  thousand  years  ago.  September 
26,  18&6,  Soochow  was  opened  to  f^rei^  trade. 

Soot,  a  carbonaceous  deposit  from  smoke, 
formed  !n  chimneys.  That  which  forms  near- 
est the  fire  is  often  shining  and  Tamishlilce, 
consisting  chiefly  of  dried  tany  matters  mixed 
with  carbon,  and  giving  a  brownish-black  pow- 
der, sometimes  used  as  a  pigment  under  the 
name  of  bistre.  That  which  forms  farUier  up 
the  chimney  is  more  like  lampblack. 

Soo'ty  Tern.    See  Eco-BtBD. 

Sophl'a.  capital  of  Bulgaria;  on  a  tributary 
of  the  lakra.  Till  1878  it  was  "  a  dirty  and 
pestilential  village  of  wooden  huts,"  but  since 
Russia  wrested  from  the  Ottoman^  a  semi- 
independence  for  Bulgaria  (IS7B),  it  has  im- 
proved. It  now  resembles  a  European  city  with 
straight,  clean  streets  and  attractive  houses. 
Over  7,000  Ottomans  from  among  its  former 
residents  emigrated,  but  the  population  has 
steadily  increased.  It  has  manufactures  of 
leather,  earthenware,  and  woolen  cloth,  and  an 
active  transit  trade.     Pop.   (1006)   82,021. 

Sophia,  St.,  Church  of,  in  Constantinople, 
the  most  celebrated  ecclesiastical  edifice  of  the 
Greek  Church,  now  used  as  a  mosque,  was  built 
by  the  emperor  Justinian,  and  dedicated  in 
668.  It  is  in  the  Byzantine  style  of  archi- 
tecture, has  a  fine  dome  rising  to  the  height 
of  180  ft.,  and  is  richly  decorated  in  the  in- 
terior. With  the  principal  dome  are  connected 
two  half  domes  and  six  smaller  ones,  which 
add  to  the  general  effect.  The  mass  of  the 
edifice  is  of  brick,  but  is  overlaid  with  marble; 
the  floor  is  of  mosaic  work,  composed  of 
porphyry  and  verd  antique.  The  great  piers 
which  support  the  dome  consist  of  square 
blocks  of  stone  bound  with  hoops  of  iron.  The 
numerous  pillars  supportinr  the  internal  gal- 
leries are  of  white  and  colored  marbles,  por- 
phyiy,  granite,  and  have  capitals  of  various 
peculiar  forms.  The  interior  of  the  church  is 
243  (t.  in  width  from  N.  to  S.,  and  266  in 
length  from  E.  to  W.,  and  ila  general  effect  is 

ao""'"'""--  I, .Google 


SOPHISTS 

Soplt'lsta,  the  Mven  iriM  men  of  Oreeee,  but, 
later,  the  teaeben  at  Athens  who  gave  lessons 
ID  the  arts  and  sciences  for  money.  Truth  be- 
ing man;  sided,  the  point  of  view  taken  was 
supposed  to  justifr  differences  of  opinion,  and 
the  art  of  presenting  grounds  or  reaaona  to 
justify  any  view  is  the  art  of  the  Sophists,  or 
sophistry. 

Sophocles  (sSf'O-klez),  4S6  or  496-40S  B.C.; 
tragic  poet  of  Greece;  b.  of  a  wealthy  family 
at  Colon ug,  near  Athens.  He  was  carefully 
trained  in  gymnsstica  and  muaic  At  sixteen 
he  led  the  chorus  of  bo^s  in  honor  of  the  tIc- 
tory  of  Salaoiis,  and  there  is  other  evidence 
of  his  personal  beauty  and  grace.  Tlis  first 
play,  acted  in  468,  was  a  great  auccess,  and 
won  the  prise  over  ■Esohylus  after  a  close  con- 
test. For  the  next  ten  yeara  Sophocles  divided 
with  .Sschylus  the  empire  of  the  stage.  After 
the  death  of  .^^schylus,  Sophocles  was  the  lead- 
ing dramatist.  Be  never  tailed  of  at  least  the 
second  prize,  and  coped  successfully  with  auch 
plays  as  the  "  Alceatia  "  and  the  "Medea"  of 
Euripides.     But  as  jf^hylus  accepted  the  im- 


whose  greatness  he  did  not  fail  to  recogni 
Sophocles  took  an  active  part  in  public  life, 
and  was  called  to  hold  high  positions.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  sentiments  expressed  in  his 
"  Antigone  "  (440)  he  was  made  a  colleague 
of  Pericles  in  tbe  command  of  the  forces  sent 
•gainst  Samos.  Before  that  he  had  been  an 
Hellenotamiaa  or  treasurer  of  the  Alliance, 
and  in  the  trouhlous  times  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesian  War  he  is  said  to  have  been  one  of  the 
wpiPattiM,  or  coPimittce  of  safety.  Love  played 
a  large  part  in  his  life,  and  his  sweet  and  easy 
temper  was  often  put  to  the  test.  According 
to  traditipn,  when  far  advanced  in  years  Sopho- 
s  brought  before  a  family  court  by  his 


jolonus  from  the  "  (Eldipus  Colo- 
neuB,"  whi^ti  be  bad  just  composed,  and  the 
charge  wan  dismissed — as  the  story  may  be. 
He  died  an  easy  death  in  405. 

Of  his  123  dramas  seven  are  extant — "  Ajax," 
"Electre,"  "  CEdipus  lyrannus,"  "Antigone," 
"Tracbiniffi,"  "  Philoctetca,"  "CEdipus  Colo- 
neus."  In  the  construction  of  tbe  plot  Sopho- 
cles bad  no  rival.  Bis  "  CEdipus  Tyrannus,"  to 
cite  but  one  instance,  is  a  tragic  web  of  un- 
equaled  sublety  and  effectivenesa.  The  lyric 
parts  of  hia  plays  are  in  beautiful  balance  with 
the  dramatic  element.  Bis  language  ia  more 
supple  than  that  of  .^CBchylua,  but  never  falla 
short  of  elevation.  It  ia  sweet,  and  yet  doea 
not  lack  a  certain  austerity  that  saves  it  from 
cloying. 

Sopra'no,  the  highest  voice  of  women  and 
boys.  The  compaaa  of  the  high  soprano  ex- 
tends from  lower  E  on  the  treble  staff  to  C 
above,  and  that  of  the  meezoaoprauo  from  A 
below  to  A  above.  Among  the  high  sopranos 
exceptional  compaas  is  aometimes  found,  reach- 
ing  even  to  T  and  O  in  alt. 

Soiac't^  the  present  MonTE  Di  Sait  Orbste, 
»  mountain  of  Etruria,  an  outlying  offset  of 
tiie  Apennines,  froni  which  it  U  detached  by 


SORDELLO 

the  valley  of  the  Tiber.  It  rises  abruptly 
2,420  ft.  above  the  plain,  and  forms  a  pictur- 
esque feature  in  the  views  of  the  Campagna. 
In  ancient  times  it  was  dedicated  to  Apollo, 
and  bore  on  its  top  a  celebrated  temple  to 
which  peculiarly  aolemn  processions  were  made 
from  Home.  In  740,  Carlomon,  the  brother  of 
Pepin,  founded  the  monastery  of  San  Silveatro 
on  the  aite  of  the  old  temple.  Its  present  name 
is  derived  from  a  village,  San  Create,  on  Its 
slope  and  known  for  its  sour  wine. 
Sora'tft.    See  Illahpu. 


(a5r-bAn'],  the  theological  faculty 
of  the  ancient  Univ.  of  Paria;  named  from 
Kobert  de  Sorbon  (b.  at  Sorbon,  Ardennes, 
1201,  chaplain  to  Louia  IX;  died  renowned 
for  aanctity  and  eloquence,  1274).  In  I2S2 
be  founded  an  inatitutiou  connected  with  the 
Univ.  of  Paris,  in  which  seven  secular  priests 
were  to  teach  theology  to  sixteen  poor  students, 
and,  1253,  the  institution  received  ita  charter 
from  Louia  IX,  which  was  confirmed,  1268,  1^ 
Pope  CItment  IV.  Connected  with  it  was  a 
preparatory  schooL  Both  were  imder  a  pro- 
visor.  The  severity  of  the  examinations  made 
its  d^rees  of  high  esteem.  During  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  even  after  that  time,  the  decisions 
of  the  Sorbonne  were  appealed  to  not  only  in 
theological  controversies,  but  also  in  tbe  con- 
tests between  the  popes  and  the  secular  powers. 
It  demanded  the  condemnation  of  Joan  of  Arc; 
it  justified  the  massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew; 
it  sided  with  tbe  League,  and  condemned  both 
Henry  III  and  Henry  of  Navarre.  On  the 
other  hand,  it  introduced  printing  into  Paris 
immediately  after  ita  invention,  and  prevented 
the  introduction  of  the  Peter's  Pence  and  tbe 
Inquisition  into  France.  It  was  a  standi 
champion  of  tbe  freedom  of  the  Oallican 
Church,  and  strongly  opposed  to  Ultramontan- 
iam.  Its  culmination  was  in  the  time  of 
Richelieu,  who,  himself  a  graduate  of  the 
school,  provided  it  with  a  magnificent  building 
and  enlarged  its  library   (1620).     In  its  cen- 


tury it  was  unsuccessful,  and  It  had  outlived 
its  fame  when  during  the  revolution  it  was 
suppressed  (17S0).  At  the  reconstruction  of 
the  university  in  180S,  the  building,  called  the 
Sorbonne,  became  the  seat  of  the  acadimie,  and 
between  1816  and  1827  was  given  to  the  the- 
ological faculty  in  connection  with  the  facul- 
ties of  science  and  btllea-Uttret.  New  build- 
ings were  erected,  1884-89,  at  an  expense  of 
nearly  (4,600,000.  The  Sorbonne  haa  now  over 
100  professors  and  10,000  students. 

Sorb  Tree,  or  Wild  SerVJce,  the  Pyrtu  ter- 
minalia,  a  small  European  tree  (family  Rosa- 
cea), the  wood  of  which  ia  hard  and  valuable. 
Ita  fruit,  the  sorb,  when  overripened,  is  soft 
and  mellow  and  good  eating.  Hertfordshire, 
England,  is  famous  for  ita  sorbs.  The  name  is 
Bometimea  applied  to  P.  (fomesd'co. 

Sor'cery.     See  Maqic. 

Sordello,  abt.  tl80-aht.  12S6;  Italian  poet 
and  warrior;  b.  Goito,  of  noble  Mantuan  fam- 
ily; wrote,  in  Provencal,  love  aongs  and  polit- 
ical poems;  eloped  with  Cunizza,  wife  of  Count 
Richard  of  St.  Boniface.    Pied  a  violent  death. 


Sorel',  Acn«8.    8m  Agnes  Sobel. 

Sor'ghiim,  a  tall,  broad-1ea,Ted  ansual  plant 
of  tbe  graM  family,  regarded  as  a  varietj' 
iSacoharatum)  of  Andropogon  torgktta.  Its 
origins.!  home  was  doubtleen  the  interior  of 
Africa,  but  modem  travelers  do  not  report  ita 
having  been  found  there  in  a  wild  state,  and 
the  wild  formi,  as  in  the  case  of  the  sugar 
cane,  appear  to  have  been  lost.  Sorghum  as  a 
cultivated  plant  has  been  known  from  an- 
tiquity.    It  was  introduced  into  Italy  at  the 


b«giiiiiiDK  of  the  Roman  Empire,  but  ita  culture 
did  not  Sourish.  ESxperiments  were  again  con- 
ducted with  it  at  Florence  in  1768,  hut  with 
no  pr8cti<^  results.  In  China  it  has  been  cul- 
tivated from  the  earliest  historical  tiniea,  but 
only  as  a  cereal  and  for  fuel  and  forage  until 
reeeutl;.  During  the  Civil  War  sorKhum  was 
cultivated  owing  to  the  high  price  of  sugar. 

The  difficulties  attending  the  making  of  su- 
gar from  sorghum  depend  on  the  presence  of 
bodies  such  as  starch,  gum,  nonciTstallizable 
sugar,  etc.,  which  tend  to  prevent  crystalliza- 
tion. Sorghum  produces  seeds  which  are  equal 
to  ordinary  cereals  for  food;  each  ton  wilt 
yield  100  to  160  lb.  of  seed.  It  la  valuable  as 
foraffe,  lor  which  purpose  it  is  chiefly  culti- 
vated, although,  in  a  small  way,  it  is  used  for 
making  molasses. 


80THIC  PERIOD 


Sor'rel,    sour-leaved    plants    of    the    genua 
Rumem    {Polj/gonaaea),    to    which   genus   the 
coarse  herbs  called 
dock  also  belong. 

rel  of  sterile  fields 
is  B.  aeetoaella. 
Plants  of  the  ge- 
nus Oayria  are 
called  mountain 
sorrels.  The  wood 
sorrels  are  of  the 
genus  OaalU  {Oe- 
ramaoea).  In  Eu- 
rope the  sorrels, 
fountain  sorrels, 
and  wood  sorrels 
are  cultivated  in 
gardens  for  table 
use.       All     these 

to  oxalic  add  and 
its  salts. 

Sorrel  Tree,  or 
Soni'wood,  tbe  Oa- 

ydendrum  arboreum,  a  handsome  tree  of  the 
U.  8.,  found  in  Ohio  and  Pennsylvania  and 
aoutbward  to  the  Gulf.  Its  leaves  resemble 
those  of  the  peach.  They  are  sour,  and  from 
them  a  cooling  drink  is  made  for  the  sick. 
The  wood  is  soft  and  difficult  to  dry.  It  is 
sometimes  planted  as  an  ornamental  tree. 

Sorren'to  (ancient,  Burrentum),  town;  prov- 
ince of  Naples,  Italy;  on  a  small  rocky  penin- 
sula S.  of  the  Bay  of  Naples.  It  was  a  Qreek 
settlement,  was  adorned  with  splendid  temples, 
and  after  the  tall  of  the  W.  empire  was  ruled 
bv  its  own  consuls  and  dukea.    Of  the  old  tem- 

Files,  a  few  fragments  atone  remain.  The  bo- 
ubriouB  climate,  the  luxuriance  of  tbe  vegeta- 
tion, and  the  beauty  of  the  scenery  have  made 
Sorrento  one  of  the  most  frequentM  resorts  in 
S.  Italy.  It  is  the  birthplace  of  Torquato 
Tasso.    Pop.  (1901)  0,909. 

So'tei.    See  Ptolemy. 

Soterol'ogy,  that  branch  of  Christian  theol- 
ogy  which  treats  of  tbe  redemptive  work  of 
Christ.  In  ita  wider  signification  the  term  in- 
cludes tx)th  the  atonement  which  Christ  made 
and  its  application  through  faith  to  indi- 
viduals. It  is,  however,  used  in  a  more  re- 
stricted signification,  to  denote  only  the  atone- 
ment.    See  Atoncuent. 

So'thic  Pe'riod,  a  period  of  1,460  Julian 
years  (3661  days),  equal  to  1,461  vague  years 
(of  365  days)  of  the  Egyptian  calendar.  In 
the  latter  the  year  was  reckoned  by  twelve 
months  of  thirty  days,  with  the  addition  of 
Ave  intercalary  days.  The  difference  between 
the  two  .thus  amounted  to  atiout  six  hours  an- 
nually, BO  that  the  vague  year  receded  al>out 
day  in  each  four  yean.     The  beginning  of 

ithic  -  -'-■ '-"■  '^-  ■'--     -'—" 

of  the  h 


80THIS 

new  year,  and  at  the  rate  of  divergence  be- 
tween the  two  BjBtems  this  coincidence  recurred 
ODG«  in  about  4  X  366^  1,460  solar  years.  In 
the  eonrae  of  a  Sothic  period  any  periodic 
event,  tuch  aa  the  inundation  of  the  Nile  oi 


En  the  Mtpearanca  of  such  periodic  events  waa 
not  marked  in  the  lite  of  an  individual,  being 
only  about  twenty-flve  daya  in  a  century,  Con- 
■eqnoitly  little  attention  was  paid  to  the  mat- 
ter till  in  the  Ptolemaic  dynaaty,  when  the 
Sothio  period  aeema  first  to  have  been  used  in 
calculating  time.  Reckoning  back,  by  Bothic 
periods,  beginning  approximately  )32Z  B.C., 
S78Z  B.O.,  and  4242  B.C.,  the  beginning  of  the 
first   dynasty   has  been   auigned  to   tne   year 


So'tUa,  another  d 


I  iq.v.). 


Soto  (sC'tO),  Fernando,  or  Henundo  de, 
1496-1542;  Spanish  explorer.  After  studying 
at  one  of  the  universitiea,  lie  accompanied  in 
leie  his  patron,  Pedrarias  Davila,  on  his  sec- 
ond Bxpedition  to  America  as  Governor  of 
Darien.  He  supported  Hemandei  in  Nica- 
.ragua  in  IS27,  and  in  152S  explored  the  coast 
of  Gnatemala  and  Yucatan,  la  1632  De  Soto 
joined  Pizarro  in  his  enterprise  for  conquering 
Pern.  In  IS33  he  penetrated  through  the 
mountains,  and  discovered  the  great  natitHial 
road  which  led  to  tits  Peruvian  capital,  and 
was  soon  after  selected  by  Fisirro  to  visit  the 
inca  Atahuallpa  as  ambassador.  He  was  prom- 
inent in  the  engagements  which  completed  the 
conquest  of  Peru,  and  was  the  hero  of  the 
battle  which  resulted  in  the  capture  of  Cusco. 
He  returned  to  Spain  with  a  large  fortune. 
Having  obtained  permission  to  make  the  con- 
quest of  Florida  at  bis  own  expense,  De  Soto 
■ailed  in  1638  with  more  than  600  men,  and 
reached  Florida  in  1539.  He  sent  back  his 
ships  to  Havana,  set  out  upon  a  journey  to  the 
NW.,  and  reached  the  Miaaiasippi  in  1B41,  after 
losing  many  of  his  followers.  He  crossed  the 
river,  went  N.  to  Paeaha,  and  thence  to  the 
Whit«  River,  the  W.  limit  of  his  expedition. 
Then  proceeding  S.,  he  wintered  at  Autiamque 
on  tlie  Washita  River.  While  descending  the 
Mississippi  in  1S42  he  died  of  fever,  and  to 


the  stream.  His  followers,  reduced  in  number 
more  thJaji  half,  then  went  to  Mexico.  Soto  is 
properly  r^;arded  as  the  true  discoverer  of  the 
Mississippi,  though  Pineda  found  its  mouth  In 
1619,  and  Cabeia  de  Vaca  must  have  crossed  it 
near  the  GuU  in  1628. 

Sondui'.    Bee  BtniAiT. 

Son],  a  term  variously  used  to  signify  either 
the  principle  of  life  in  an  organic  body,  or  the 
first  and  most  undeveloped  stages  of  individual- 
ized spiritual  being,  or,  finally,  all  stages  of 
spiritual  individualit?,  incorporeal  as  well  as 
corporeal.  Aristotle,  whose  treatise,  "  De 
Anima,"  ie  the  first  and  perhaps  the  greatest 
work   on   the   subject,  hss   himself  introduced 


stance  as  the  aelf-detenmning  power  of  an  or- 
ganicsd  body,  and  tiiui  aft«rmrds  attributing 


SOUND 

to  it  reason,  and  making  it  as  reason  entirely 
separable  from  body.  The  much-debated  ques- 
tion of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  implies  a 
definition  of  soul  as  including  not  only  its 
phases  of  corporeal  existence,  but  also  the 
higher  ones  of  thought  and  wilL  See  FUTUKB 
State;  Ikkobtauti;  Ruukbxctiov. 

Sonlt  (sOlt),  Hlcolai  Jean  de  Dleii,  Duke  of 
Dalmatia,  1799-1361;  French  military  officer; 
b.  St.  Amans-la-Bostide,  France.  In  1793-94 
he  rose  from  captain  to  brigadier  general,  and 
in  1799  was  made  general  of  division  for  his 
share  in  the  battle  of  Zurich,  which  saved 
France  from  Invasion.  He  was  captured  by 
the  Austrians  at  Genoa,  May  16,  1800,  but  was 
exchanged  after  Marengo.  In  1B04  Napoleon 
mode  him  a  marshal,  and  at  Austerlitz  declared 
him  to  be  the  first  strategist  of  Europe.  In 
I806-T  he  won  fame  in  the  Prussian  campaien, 
after  which  he  was  made  Governor  of  Berlin 
and  Duke  of  Dalmatia.  He  nearly  annihilated 
the  Spanish  army  at  Burgos  (November  10, 
180BJ,  took  from  the  English  Corunna  and 
Ferrol,  and  occupied  Oporto  and  N.  Portugal, 
whence  Wellington  expelled  him.  On  March 
11,  1811,  he  secured  Badajos  through  the 
treachery  of  the  Spanish  commander ;  but 
Wellington  carried  it  by  assault  with  fearful 
loss  on  the  night  of  April  6,  1812.  Disapprov- 
ing of  King  Joseph's  proceedings,  Soult  asked 
to  be  relieved;  but  Napoleon  ordered  him  to 
assume  the  chief  command  and  retrieve  Jo- 
seph's crushing  defeat  at  Vittoria,  June  21, 
1813.  He  was  defeated  at  Orthei,  February 
27,  1814,  and  forced  back  to  Toulouse,  where 
he  made  a  heroic  resistance  until  he  received 
the  news  of  Napoleon's  first  abdication.  After 
accepting  the  Ministry  of  War  from  Louis 
XVni,  fie  rejoined  Napoleon,  served  at  Water- 
loo, was  in  exile,  1816-19,  reinstated  as  a  mar- 
shal in  1S20,  and  in  1827  was  made  a  peer. 
Under  Louis  Philippe  he  was  Minister  of  War, 
1830-31;  Premier,  1832-34,  and  again  from 
1830-47,  when  he  retired  as  marshal  geneiml. 

Sonnil,  The,  a  narrow  strait,  one  of  the 
passages  between  the  Cattegat  and  the  Baltic, 
and  separating  the  island  of  Seeland  from 
Sweden.  It  extends  N.  and  S,  68  m.,  and  op- 
posite Copenhagen  is  about  16  m.  wide.  Toe 
name  is  properly  confined  to  its  narrowest  part, 
which  between  Elsinore  and  Helsinborg/ia  only 
3  m.  wide.  Denmark  formerly  held  both  sides 
of  the  strait,  and  taxed  all  vessels  passing 
through  the  Sound;  but  this  right  was  bougU 
off  under  treaties  concluded  in  1867. 

Soimd  is  the  sensation  produced  when  cer- 
tain vibrations  are  excited  in  the  ear.  This 
sensation  is  produced  by  the  transmission  of 
the  vibrations  to  the  ear  by  some  elastic  fluid, 
such  as  air.  (For  the  physiology  of  hearing, 
see  Eab.)  Acoustics  is  the  study  of  the  nature, 
production,  and  perception  of  eotmd. 

That  sound  is  a  vibration,  or  wave  motion, 
can  be  shown  by  setting  in  vibration  a  tuning 
fork  and  holding  it  close  to  the  surfaea  of  * 
glass  of  water.  The  vibrations  of  the  tuning 
fork  will  be  transmitted  to  the  surface  of  tha 
water,  and  minuto  ripples  will  spread  out  bo 
the  sides  of  the  glass.  Sound  waves  can  also 
be  reflected  from  properly  arranged  suiiaeM 


80OTD 

producing  echoed,  inch  as  in  the  old  BepreMnt- 
ktive  Chamber  in  the  Capitol  at  Washin^gton, 
where  a  whiaoer  at  one  part  of  the  room  will 
be  reflected  irom  the  walla  and  returned  to 
another  part  of  the  chamber.  An  echo  at 
Woodstock  Park,  England,  repeats  seventeen 
ayllable*  by  day  and  twenty  by  night,  while  in 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  London,  the  faintest 
sound  is  conveyed  from  one  aide  of  the  dome 
to  the  other,  but  la  not  beard  at  any  inter- 
mediate point  {I^dall).  If  a  vibrating  body 
be  surrounded  by  a  vacuum,  as  in  an  air  pump, 
no  sound  will  be  transmitted. 

The  relation  of  the  quickness  of  the  succes- 
sion of  the  wave  vibrations  to  the  pitch  of  a 
sound  can  be  shown  by  spikee  of  a  toothed 
wheel  striki^  upon  a  tongue  of  metal  fixed 
sAsinst  it.  ^th  every  increase  in  the  rapidity 
<a  the  vibrations  of  the  metal  tongue  the  sound 
produced  will  rise  in  pitch,  or  shrillness,  and 
this  increase'  will  bear  a  constant  relation  to 
such  rat«  of  vibration.  Below  IS  vibrations 
per  second  the  sound  will  be  an  unmusical 
noise  or  rattle,  but  as  the  rate  is  increased 
this  will  become  a  low  hum,  which  will  grad- 
ually rise  with  the  increased  speed  tUl  it 
reacnet  the  utmost  shrillness  appreciable  by 
the  human  ear.  By  using  the  electric  apark, 
also,  the  sound  waves  can  be  made  visible. 
Musical  sounds  are  those  produced  when  the 
vibrations  are  r^ular  in  their  succession ;  noiae 
is  the  sensation  produced  by  single,  or  irregu- 
lar, vibrations.  Many  people  cannot  hear 
sounds  of  12,000  vibrations  per  aeeond  or  over, 
■o  the  shrill  ciy  ot  the  bat  or  the  squeak  of  a 
mouse  cannot  be  perceived  by  them.  The  up- 
per limit  of  the  human  ear  seema  to  be  about 
40,000  vibrations  per  second,  therefore  some 
of  the  shrill  sounds  emitted  by  insects  cannot 
be  directly  sensed. 

When  a  gun  ia  discharged  at  a  distance  the 
flash  ia  aeen,  and  an  appreciable  moment  of 
time  then  elapses  before  the  report  is  heard. 
This  is  because  the  vibrations  of  tight,  i.e., 
the  flash,  are  transmitted  through  the  sir  at  a 
much  greater  speed  than  the  vibration  waves 
of  sound.  Experiments  show  that  sound  trav- 
els through  the  air  at  the  rate  of  1,089  ft.  per 
second  at  0"  C,  and  that  this  rats  increases 
for  every  degree  of  temperature  because,  the 
air  being  expanded  by  heat,  there  is  a  leaa 
number  of  air  particles  to  be  set  in  motion 
between  the  resonant  body  and  the  observer. 
Sound  is  transmitted  more  readily  through  fog 
and  mist  than  through  the  clear  air  of  a  sum- 
mer day.  The  velocity  of  sound  through  wa- 
ter is  four  times  its  velocity  in  air,  and  through 
iron  the  velocity  is  seventeen  times  the  rate 
through  air.  In  addition  to  the  pitch,  as  de- 
termined by  the  number  of  vibrations,  and  the 
loudness,  due  to  the  intensity  of  the  motion, 
there  is  another  element  which  enters  into 
sounds,  known  as  quality,  or  acoustic  color,  or 
clang  tint,  which  is  due  tfl  the  blending  of  the 
overtones  with  the  main  vibrations. 

If  a  string  be  stretched  between  two  points 
and  then  set  ia  vibration  it  will  be  found 
that  while  the  string  is  in  motion  as  a  whole 
this  vibration  is  accompanied  by  subsidiary 
vibrations  of  each  half  and  quarter  of  the 
vibrating  len^h.    II  vibrating  string  A  B  be 


SOUNDING 

lightly  touched  at  C  the  vibration  D  will  be 
stopped,  but  the  string  will  continue  to  vibrate 
from  A  to  C  and  C  to  B,  and  the  tone  pro- 
duced will  be  the  octave  above  the  sound 
produced    by    the    whole    string.     These   har- 


monics are  utilized  by  violin  players,  and  their 
mastery  is  one  of  the  hardest  parts  of  the 
technie  of  that  instrument.  If  these  har- 
monic or  BubeidisTy  waves  of  sound  chime  in 
well  with  the  main  note,  the  result,  as  in  the 
violin  or  piano,  is  pleEising  to  the  ear;  but  if 
the  overtones  are  not  harmonious  the  resultant 
note  will  be  harsh  and  discordant,  though  still 
retaining  its  quality  as  music  as  distinguished 
from  noise. 

The  pitch  of  musical  sounds  la  measured 
from  G,  which  is  produced  by  256  vibrations 
per  second.  If  this  number  of  vibrations  be 
doubled,  the  octave  of  C  is  produced,  and  every 
doubling  of  the  rata  of  vibration  produces  a 
combination  which  gives  the  ear  a  sense  -at 
agreement  as  if  the  notes  were  felt  to  be  re- 
lated in  some  way  to  each  other.  The  simul- 
taneous sounding  of  notes  of  different  rates  of 
vibration.  If  the  result  is  unpleasant,  produces 
discord,  or,  if  the  result  is  pleasant,  harmony. 
To  Europeans  and  Americans  a  combination 
of  notes  whose  rates  ot  vibration  is  represented 
by  the  ratio  i:B:6:  is  generally  pleasing,  and 
is  known  as  a  major  triad. 

If  two  notes  are  nearly  but  not  quite  in 
accord,  the  resultant  note  will  alternate  be- 
tween a  rise  and  fall  in  loudness  as  the  con- 
stituent waves  converge  and  diverge  from  each 
other;  these  alternations  are  colled  beats.  A 
similar  phenomenon  is  noted  in  the  ease  of  a 
moving,  sound-producing  object,  as  the  whistle 
of  a  rapidly  approaching  train;  the  traveling 
sound  waves  follow  each  other  so  quickly  that 
the  pitch  of  the  note  is  raised,  and  lowered 
as  the  whistle  recedes  from  the  observer. 

Sound'ing,  the  operation  of  trying  the  depth 
of  water  and  the  quality  of  the  bottom,  espe- 
cially by  means  of  a  plummet  sunk  from  a 
ship.  In  navigation  two  plummeta  are  used, 
one  called  the  nand  lead,  weighing  about  S  or 
9  lb.,  used  in  shallow  water,  and  the  other, 
the  deep-sea  lead,  weighing  from  25  to  30  lb. 
The  nature  of  the  bottom  is  commonly  ascer- 
tained by  using  a  piece  of  tallow  stuck  upon 
the  base  of  the  deep-sea  lead,  and  thus  bring- 
ing up  sand,  shells,  ooie,  etc.,  which  adhere  to 
it.  The  scientific  investigation  of  the  ocean 
and  its  bottom  has  rendered  more  perfect 
Bounding  apparatus  necessary,  and  has  led  to 
the  invention  of  various  contrivances  for  this 
purpose,  among  the  most  simnle  and  common 
of    which    is    Brooke's    Kiunaing    apparatus. 


BOURWOOD 

Soni'VooiL    See  Sokbxl  Tbee. 

South  Africa,  Union  of,  British  dc 
formed  M&7  31,  1910,  bj  the  union  under  one 
government  of  the  selt-eoveming  oolonies  of 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Natal,  the  Transvaal, 
and  the  Orange  River  Colony.  The  government 
ift  admin  lite  red  by  a  Oovemor-General  ap- 
pointed by  the  Crown,  assisted  by  an  Executive 
Council  of  the  ministers  of  state.  L^islative 
power  is  vested  in  a  Parliament  consisting  of 
a  Senate  of  40  members,  mainly  eiective,  and  a 
Hooae  of  Assembly  of  121  elective  members. 
Parliament  meets  annually.  The  seat  of 
government  is  Pretoria,  and  the  seat  of  the 
I^egislature  Cape  Town.  A  rebellion  hy 
Boers  of  German  eyropathies  in  1914  was 
quickly  suppressed  and  its  leaders  punished. 
The  area  of  the  Union  is  473,1B4  sq.  m.; 
pop.  (1911)  6.968.499,  of  whom  1,278.025 
are  whites.  The  revenue,  1911-2,  was  esti- 
mated at  £14,859,000;  expenditure,  £16,160,000; 
public  debt,  1911,  £11S,SOO,ODO.  The  import*, 
1911,  were  valued  at  £36,400,000;  exporta, 
£58,800,000.  Nearly  one-half  the  value  of  the 
ex  porta  is  contributed  by  the  gold  of  the 
Transvaal  mines. 

South  African  Bepnblle.    See  Transvaal. 

South  Afrium  War.    See  Boiss. 

South  Amer'ica.    See  Akekica,  S. 

Southamp'ton,  Henry  Wrlothealey  {third 
Earl  of),  1673-1624;  Eaglish  statesman;  was 
a  patron  of  Shakespeare,  who  dedicated  to  him 
"Venus  and  Adonis"  and  "The  Hape  of 
Lucrece."  He  was  accused  of  complicity  in  the 
ireaaonahle  designs  of  Essex ;  protested  his  in- 
nocence ;  was  convicted,  and  sentence  of  death 
and  attainder  was  pronounced,  but  Elisabeth 
remitted  the  death  penalty,  and  the  attainder 
was  removed  by  Parliament  soon  after  the  ac- 
ceoaion  of  James  I.  He  was  an  assignee  of 
the  patents  of  settlement  of  Sir  Walter  Ra- 
leigh, and  took  a  prominent  part  in  the  early 
couuization  of  America.  He  went  with  hia 
son.  Lord  Wriothesley,  to  the  Netherlands,  to 
aid  the  Dutish  in  their  struggle  against  Spain, 
and   took  command   of   a   regiment.      Died   at 


Senthamptoii,  seaport  in  Hampshire,  Eng- 
land; 79  m.  8W.  of  London.  Southamntoo 
contains  many  old  buildings,  among  wbien  is 
the  Domut  Dei,  an  hospital  dating  from  the 
thirteenth  century;  also  St.  Michael's  Church 
(1080).  Shipbuilding  and  the  manufacture  of 
engines  are  carried  on.    Pop.  (1911)  119,039. 

Sonth  Austia'lia,  State  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia,  occupying  a  central  N. 
and  S.  band  of  Australia,  from  the  Arafura 
Sea  to  the  8.  Ocean,  with  Queensland,  New 
S.  Wales,  and  Victoria  on  the  E.,  and  W. 
Australia  on  the  W.  The  greatest  length  is 
1350  m.  N.  and  S.,  and  the  average  breadth, 
6G0  m.  It  also  embraces  many  ialands,  of 
which  the  largest  are  Kangaroo  Island   (1,700 

S.  m.),  off  the  mouth  of  St.  Vincent  Gulf; 
elville  Island  (80  m.  long  by  30  broad),  and 
Bathurst  Island,  both  off  Port  Darwin;  and 
Groote  Eyiandt  (about  40  m.  in  each  direo- 
tion),  in  the  Onlf  of  Carpentaria.  Total  area, 
903,090  s<i.  m.    The  district  N.  of  the  parallel 


SOUTH  BEND 

of  26*  S.  is  called  the  N.  Territory,  and  is 
practically  separate  from  the  8.  portion,  with 
Palmersti^  as  its  capital. 

The  interior  is  little  known,  but  in  the  cen- 
ter is  a  mountainous  region,  with  but  slight 
elevations,  rarely  Burpassing  3,000  ft.  The  cul- 
minating range  seems  to  be  the  McDonnell 
To  the  S.  of  the  mountains  is  a  district  with 
many  bodies  of  water  called  lakes,  but  ara 
really  aalt-water  la^^oona.  W.  of  the  mountain- 
ous and  lagoon  districts  and  along  the  W. 
boundary  is  a  desolate  region  forming  an  ex. 
tension  of  the  Great  Victoria  Desert,  and  the 
Great  Sand  Desert  of  W.  AuBtralia.  Amhem 
Land  is  sn  elevated  plateau  sloping  gently 
toward  the  E.  and  abruptly  toward  the  N.  To 
the  W.  of  it  the  country  is  better  watered  and 
more  fertile.  The  climate  about  Adelaide  is 
like  that  of  S.  France  or  N.  Italy.  The  N. 
Territory  is  tropical,  resembling  Guinea  and 
central    America,    and,    in    the    Interior,   the 

The  most  important  mineral  is  copper,  and 
the  colony  owes  its  continued  existence  at  a 
critical  time  to  the  discovery  of  the  Burra 
Burra  copper  district,  90  m.  N.  of  Adelaide. 
The  mines  were  developed  in  1845,  and  Isr 
some  years  paid  eight  hundreil  per  cent  on  the 
investment,  but  were  abandoned  in  1864  be- 
cause of  the  difficulty  of  transport,  and  re- 
opened <m  the  construction  of  the  railway  from 
Adelaide  to  Kuringa.  Gold  it  obtained  from 
mines  in  the  hills  S.  of  Adelaide  (at  Echunga, 
etc.)  and  at  other  places,  but  chieQy  from  Uie 
N.  Territory,  where  there  is  a  large  alluvial 
and  auriferous  quarts  r^on  100  to  150  m.  8. 
of  Port  Darwin.  Gold  was  discovered  in  1S&2> 
8.  Australia  is  essentially  an  agricultural  and 
pastoral  country;  it  is  called  "  the  ^nary  of 
Australasia,"  but  only  about  one  third  of  one 
per  cent  of  the  area  is  under  cultivation;  sev- 
enty-five per  cent  of  this  was  in  wheat,  twenty- 
one  per  cent  hay,  and  less  than  one  per  cent 
each  for  vines,  oats,  barley,  and  potatoes.  Vina 
growing  and  the  making  of  wine  receive  mucll 
attention.  Pop.  (1900)  412,808;  capita), 
Adelaide  (1909)  164,393.  Revenue  (1909-10) 
£3,986,806;  expenditures,  £3,513,061;  imports 
(1909)  £11,336,6«9;  exports  (IDOS)  £18,646,- 
701.  Executive,  a  governor  appointed  by  the 
crown,  with  a  council  of  ministers.  Parlia- 
ment consists  of  a  L^islative  Council  snd  a 
House  of  Assembly,  elected  by  adult  suffrage 
with  certain  property  qualifications.  The  col- 
ony was  founded  1836,  but  was  not  firmly 
established  till  1856.  In  1802  Stuart  crossed 
the  continent  from  S.  to  N.,  and  in  1863  the 
N.  Territory  was  granted  to  8.  Australia. 

South  Bend,  capital  of  St.  Joseph  Co.,  Ind.; 
on  the  St.  Joseph  River,  85  m.  E.  of  Chicago. 
It' is  in  a  rich  agricultural  region.  8.  Bold 
is  the  seat  of  the  Univ.  of  Notre  Dame  (Roman 
Catholic),  founded  in  1842.  The  census  re- 
turns of  1909  showed  218  factories  turning  out 
products  valued  at  C27,S54,000.  The  leading 
industry  is  carriage  and  wagon  making;  agri- 
ciultural  implements  rank  second.  Here  La 
Salle  landed  in  1679  on  his  tour  of  exploration 
to  the  Mississippi,  and  here  he  camped  msny 
tintes  thereafter.  It  was  then  the  site  of  a 
large  village  of  Uiomi  Indians,  and  inhabited 


SOUTH  BETHLEHEM 


South  Betlilehem,  borough  in  Northamptoi 
Co.,  P».;  on  the  Lehigh  River.  It  waa  aettled 
in  1741,  but  its  growth  dat^s  from  {850.  The 
Bethlehem  Iron  Company  is  the  principal  i 
ufacturing  establishment,  but  there  are  other 
metal  works  and  several  wood-working,  koit- 
ting,  and  silk  mills.  The  Lehigh  Univ.  is  in 
the  borough.    Pop.  (ISIO)  12,837. 

South  Caroli'na,  one  of  the  V.  8.  of  N. 
America,  popularly'  known  as  the  PALItElro 
Statk,  area,  30,9S9  sq.  m.,  of  which  500  sq.  m. 
are  water  surface.  A  great  gtologic  break 
pBHsing  through  the  «tnte  near  Cheraw,  Co- 
lumbia, and  Aiken  divides  it  into  the  "  up 
country  "  of  Primary  formation,  and  the  "  low 
countiy "  of  Tertiary,  with  Cretaceous  out- 
croppingi.  The  up  country  19  subdivided  into 
the  Alpine   and   Piedmont   regions,   which  are 


notable  for  granite,  gold,  and  other  minerals, 
especially  large  deposits  of  iron.  The  Sandhill 
or  Pine  region  (2,000  sq.  m.),  the  beach  of  a 
former  age,  atretchea  across  the  state.  The 
Red  Hilis  (1,500  sq.  m.),  slcirting  the  sand- 
hills, are  Eocene.  The  Upper  Pine-belt  (6,000 
sq.  m. }  comprises  some  of  the  Qnest  farming 
lands,  both  gray  and  "  mulatto  "  or  chocolate 
lands.  Here  was  produced  the  largest  yield 
of  com  (2gS  bu.  to  an  acre)  ever  gathered. 
The  Lower  Pine-belt  (9,000  sq.  m.)  comprises 
the  lower  tiers  of  countries,  excepting  the  salt- 
water region ;  it  has  phosphate  deposits.  The 
Coast  region   (1,500  sq.  m.)  is  Post  Pliocene. 

There  is  much  water  power  in  the  state. 
The  Catawba  River  falls  178  ft.  in  8  m.  The 
Columbia  Canal,  on  the  Coogaree,  has  devel- 
oped 13,000  horse  power.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the   Savannah,   the   Santee,   and   the  Pee   Dee 

?'stem,  consisting  of  the  Great  Pee  Dee  (the 
ndkin  in  N.  Carolina),  the  Little  Pee  Dee, 
Lynch's,  Black,  and  Waccamaw.  The  Ashley 
and  the  (hooper  rivers,  forming  Charleston  har- 
bor, the  Edisto,  Ashepoo,  Combahee,  and 
Coosawhatchie,  are  smaller  streams.  There 
are  no  important  lakes.  Cotton,  maize,  wheat, 
rice,  peas,  hay,  and  sweet  potatoes  are  the  chief 
stapica.    The  Sea  Islands  grow  10,000  bales  of 


SOUTH  CABOLINA 

crop    amounted   to    1,848,712   hales.     Tobacco 

S rowing,  truck  farming,  and  fruit  growing  are 
eveloping.  Stock  raising,  once  profitable,  then 
neglected,  has  been  revived.  Hired  field  labor 
is  supplied  by  negroes,  but  there  are  nmny 
Hihall  farmers  among  the  whites,  especially  of 
the    Piedmont    region,    who   work    their    own 

The  climate  Is  mild,  and,  except  in  the 
swamp   and   rice   regions,   is   salubrious.     The 

equable  and  dry  climate  of  some  portions,  as 
the  pine  lands,  is  favorable  for  sufferers  from 
pulmonary  complaints.  Aiken  and  Bomerville 
are  noted  health  resorts.  Other  localities  at- 
tract winter  tourists,  and  the  Alpine  and  Pied- 
mont regions  are  much  frequented  in  summer. 
The  mercury  rarely  reaches  100°  in  summer, 
or  falls  below  13'  above  zero  in  winter.  Snow 
is  practically  unknown  below  Columbia.  Cy- 
clones visit  the  coast  apparently  in  periods  of 
four,  seven,  and  eleven  years  each.  One  in 
August,  1893,  did  much  damage  in  Beaufort, 
Charleston,  and  Port  Royal,  and  on  the  8e» 
Islands.  A  severe  earthquake  visited  the  state 
in  188S,  doing  great  injury  to  Charleston, 
"''''ipal  cities  are  Charleston,  Columbia  (cap* 


Newberry,  Orangeburg,  Georgetown,  Beaufort, 
Chester,  Laurens.  Pop.  of  state  (ISlO  census) 
1,615,400. 

Manufacturing  induatries  of  the  state  in 
leoe  had  ft  total  capital  of  $173,221,000;  the 
raw  material  used  was  valued  at  $60,351,000, 
and  the  output  at  9113,236,000.  In  1900  there 
were  ninety-three  cotton  mills  with  1,693,649 
spindles,  and  twenty-five  new  mills  under  con- 
elruction;  in  1909,  3,754,251  spindles  were 
in  operation.  Assessed  valuations  in  1011: 
Real  property,  f  149,802,901 ;  personal,  994,- 
192,626. 

A  majority  of  the  first  settlers  were  dissent- 
ers. The  first  Huguenot  church  (the  only  one 
in  America  still  preserving  its  old  form  of  wor- 
ship) was  built  abt.  1681;  first  English  church 
abt.  1682;  first  Baptist,  16S5;  first  Quaker, 
1QB6;  first  Scotch  Presbyterian,  1696;  first 
Jewish,  ITSO;  first  Lutheran  (in  Charleston), 
1750,  and  the  first  Methodist,  178S;  and  the 
first  mass  was  celebrated  (in  Charleston)  in 
1788.  An  act  of  the  assembly  in  1712  allowed 
negro  slaves  to  join  the  church.  The  war  of 
1861-65  closed  many  schools.  In  1968  a  pub- 
lic-school system  was  provided,  which  is  stead- 
ily improving.  The  races  are  taught  sepa- 
rately. In  the  school  year  ending  June,  1909, 
the  school  population  was  517,875>  in  1S08-0 
the  enrollment  was  334,902;  teachers,  6,876  i 
school  buildings,  4,748;  expenditures  of  the 
year,  {1,905,236.  The  enrollment  showed 
163,807  white  pupils  and  181,095  colored,  and 
2,696  teachers  were  colored.  The  state  has 
two  higher  institutions  of  learning — the  Univ. 
of  S.  Carolina,  founded  in  I80S,  and  the  Clem- 
son  Agricultural  College,  founded  in  1893. 
There  are  a  number  of  small  colleges  and 
many  private  institutions.  Clafiin  Univ.  at 
Orangeburg  is  endowed  by  part  of  the  national 
land  grant. 

In  1892  the  legislature  prohibited  the  aals 
of  liquor  by  prfAta  persons,  and  e-'-*-"-' 


SOUTH  CAROLINA  '      ' 

etuto  and  oountf  dupensaTfea.  Idqnon,  chan- 
ioallf  pure,  put  up  in  ualed  pnckaget,  aiB  sold 
l^  mJaried  county  diapeasers  in  the  dajtime 
to  t«mperat«  persoDB,  who  «ra  not  allowed  to 
open  the  package  on  the  premisca.  The  proflta 
are  divided  between  the  state  and  local  treae- 
nriea,  a  portion  being  devoted  to  the  achools. 

In  1620  Spaniarda  visited  Fort  Royal  and 
kidnaped  Indians.  Hie  Qrat  attempt  to  col- 
onise the  territory  now  comprised  in  8.  Garo- 


created    by 

Charles  II  in  1663.  The  first  permanent  set- 
tlement in  S.  Carolina  was  made  on  Ashley 
River  in  ISTO  by  English  colonists,  who  re- 
moved in  1&60  to  the  present  site  of  Charleston. 
In  I6SS  many  French  Huguenots  arrived.  Un- 
der the  name  of  Carolina,  both  the  present 
atates  of  N.  and  S.  Carolina  nera  held  as  a 
proprietary  government  till  July,  1728,  when 
the  Idng  bought  out  the  proprietor!,  and  formed 
two  royal  colonies.  5.  Carolina  suffered  from 
Indian  depredations,  and  with  Georgia  waa  en- 
gaged nnoer  Oglethorpe  in  a  contest  with  the 
S[MUuah  aettleiUenta  m  Florida.  It  was  the 
aeene  of  severe  warfare  during  the  revolution-. 
■ry  atru^te,  hotly  contest^  battles  being 
fought  at  Fort  Moultrie,  Charleston,  Camden, 
Klng'a  Mountain,  Cowpena,  Eutaw  Springs,  etc. 
The  British  held  the  country  for  the  greater 
part  of  1780  and  1791. 

A  atate  constitution  waa  adopted  March  26, 
1776;  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.  was  ratified 
by  8.  Carolina,  May  23,  1T8S.  In  November, 
1632,  a  state  convention  adopted  the  "  Nullifi- 
cation Ordinance,"  which  pronounced  the  high 
tariff  of  1828  and  1832  ''null,  void,  and  no 
law,  nor  binding  on  this  state,  its  officers  and 
citizens,"  and  prohibited  the  payment  of  duties 
on  imports  imposed  by  that  law  within  the 
atate  after  February  1st  ensuing.  It  was  also 
declared  that  should  the  general  government 
attempt  to  enforce  the  law  thus  nullified,  or  to 
interfere  with  the  foreign  commerce  of  the 
state,  the  people  of  8.  Carolina  would  "  bold 
themselves  absolved  from  all  further  obligation 
to  maintain  or  preserve  their  political  connec- 
tion with  the  people  of  the  other  states."  Pres. 
Jackson  ordend  ben.  Scott  to  Charleston,  and 
issued  &  proclamation  in  which  he  held  that 
nullification  wa>  treason,  and  should  be  pun- 
ished as  such.  But  as  Congress  passed  the 
compromise  tariff,  which  was  acceptable  to  8. 
Carolina,  the  course  threatened  by  that  state 
was  not  pursued. 

8.  Carolina  was  the  first  of  the  states  to 
institute  active  measures  for  withdrawing  from 
the  Union  on  the  election  of  Lincoln,  and  the 
first  to  pass  an  ordinance  of  secession.  Oq 
November  T,  1860,  an  act  was  passed  by  the 
legialature  calling  a  state  convention.  The  or- 
dinance of  secession  was  adopted,  December 
20th.  On  the  24th,  Gov.  Pickens  proclaimed 
the  dissolution  of  the  union  between  8.  Caro- 
lina and  the  other  states.  On  the  27th,  Fort 
Moultrie  and  Castle  Pincfcney  were  seized  by 
the  state.  The  bombardment  and  capture  of 
Fort  Sumter,  April  12th-13th,  by  Gen.  Beau- 
T^ard,  waa  the  banning  of  open  hostilities. 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 

T.  W.  Sherman.  In  January,  1866,  Oen.  W.  T. 
Sherman's  army  b^an  its  maren  from  Sa- 
vannah through  8.  Carolina.  Columbia  waa 
surrendered  and  Charleston  evacuated  on  Feb- 

and  declared  slavery  abolished.  By  the  war 
the  assessed  property  of  the  state  was  re- 
duced from  96SO,000,000  to  {100,000,000  (|200,- 
000,000  being  the  value  of  the  slaves  set  free). 
A  refusal  to  ratify  the  Fourteenth  Amendment 
led  to  a  reconstruction.  In  18Q8  S.  Carolina 
was  restored  to  the  Union. 

Sontk  Dako'ta,  called  the  Cotote  Stati,  one 
of  the  U.  S.  of  N.  America,  the  twenty-seventh 
state  admitted  into  the  Union.  It  Is  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  N.  Dakota,  E.  by  Minnesota  and 
Iowa,  8.  by  Nebraska,  and  W.  by  Wyoming 
and  Montana;  length  from  E.  to  W.,  866  m.; 
breadth,  N.  to  S.,  240  m.;  area,  77,615  aq.  m.; 


pop.  (IBIO  census),  683,868,  about  6ne  aixt^ 
are  foreign  born.  The  Missouri  River  divides 
S.  Dakota  into  two  nearly  equal  portions. 
The  E.  part  is  generally  smooth  and  rolling, 
but  the  W.  rises  more  rapidly,  and  culminates 
in  the  Black  Hills  in  Hame/s  Peak  (7,400 
ft.).  The  climate  is  dry  and  bracing,  tempera- 
ture ranging  from  40*  P.  to  110°  F.;  the 
average  rainfall  varies  from  30  to  40  in.  The 
Bad  Lands  (French,  MauDaisea  Tcrrea) ,  near 
the  head  of  White  River  and  extending  into 
Nebraska,  arc  a  striking  feature,  with  cafions,' 
depressions,  walls,  and  castles  of  white  earth, 
a  desert  region  rich  in  soil-making  chemicals 
and  abounding  in  fossils.  The  gently  sloping 
lands  of  the  E.  portion,  and  the  intervals  and 
parks  of  the  Black  Hilla  and  the  Talleys  near 
them,  are  the  moat  fertile  soils.  The  river 
bottoms  are  rich  and  fertile,  while  the  more 
rolling  or  hilly  lands  are  dry  and  less  pro- 
ductive. The  Big  Sioux  River  flows  8.  near 
the  E.  border.  Its  current  is  swift,  and  there 
are  rapids  falling  110  ft.  at  Sioux  Falls.  The 
Dakota  (or  James)  River,  80  m,  W.,  is  a  slug- 
pah  stream  200  to  4O0  ft.  lower  than  the  B^ 
Sioux.  W.  of  the  Missouri  the  .streams  In  or- 
der of  their  size  are  the  Cheyenne,  Grand, 
White,  Bad,  and  Moreau.  A  long  artesian 
basin  stretehea  across  the  state,  and  the  weUa 


SOUTHERN  CROSS 


___>  of  red  quartzite,  and  at  Yankton  thick 
beds  of  Fort  Beaton  clay  and  chalkstone,  from 
which  a  Huperior  Portland  cement  ia  made. 
Brick  clays  are  found  in  many  localitiea.  Tjn 
is  found  in  the  Harney  Peak  and  Nigger  Hili 
regions  of  the  Black  Hills,  and  the  first  tin 
mill  in  the  U.  S.  was  opened  here  in  IBOO. 
During  1809  the  Black  Hills  yielded  312,982 
fine  ounces  of  gold,  \-alued  at  $6,469,500,  and 
M5,600  fine  ounces  of  silver,  valued  at  $188,- 
2B1.  In  1910  the  product  of  gold  was  valued 
at  «5,3B0,20O,  and  silver  at  «65,1D0.  Granite, 
aandatone,  and  limestone  sre  quarried.  The 
Sioux  Falls  quartEite  has  been  used  for  paving 
in  Chicago  and  other  cities  with  good  results. 
The  chief  industry  of  S.  Dakota  is  agriculture. 
Stock  raising  has  become  an  important  inter- 
est. In  1910  6.  Dakota  had  77,644  farms,  con- 
Uininx  26,010,892  acres,  valued  at  $902,606,- 
751.  The  crops  in  order  of  their  value  are: 
corn,  wheat,  oats,  bartev,  potatoes,  hav,  and 
rye.  The  yield  of  corn  in  1911  was  50,820,000 
bu.;  of  wheat,  14,800,000;  and  of  barley, 
6,508,000.  There  are  about  40,000  acres  in  the 
state  imder  irrigation. 

The  chief  manufacturing  industries  of  the 
state  are  the  making  of  butter,  cheese,  and  con- 
densed milk,  and  flour  and  grist  niillinf^.  The 
institutions  for  advanced  instruction  mclude 
the  Univ.  of  8.  DakoU  at  Vermillion,  Dakota 
Univ.  at  Mitchell,  Pierre  Univ.  at  E.  Pierre, 
Sioui  Falls  Univ.  at  Sioux  Falls,  a  State 
Agricultural  CoUe^,  and  a  State  School  of 
Mines.  There  are  also  Indian  schools  main- 
tained by  the  state. 

8.  Dakota  as  well  as  N.  Dakota  was  included 
in  the  Louisiana  Purchase  of  1803;  in  ISSl 
IMcota  Territory  was  organiied,  including  a 
great  part  of  what  now  constitutes  Montana 
and  Wyoming.  The  pop.  of  the  territory  was 
at  this  time  abt.  3,000;  in  1968  the  area  of 
the  territory  was  much  reduced,  and  in  1870 
the  pop.  was  abt.  136,180.  In  1889  N.  and  S. 
Dakota  were  admitted  into  the  Union  as  states. 

Principal  cities  and  towns  are  Sioux  Falla, 
Lead  City,  Yankton,  Aberdeen,  Mitchell,  Dead- 
u'ood,  ^VatertowD,  Huron,  Madison,  Brookings, 
Pierre,  Vermillion,  Canton,  Webster. 


Sonth'cni  Cross,  a  coast«lUtion  visible  in 
the  S.  hemisphere,  the  four  largest  stars  of 
which   are  arranged,  roughly,  in  the  form   of 

Southern  Wood,  a  plant    See  Axteuisu. 

Sosthey  (sowth'I|,  Bobert,  1774-1343;  Eng- 
lish author;  b.  Briatoi;  received  his  early 
education  at  Westminster  School;  in  1793  en- 
tered Baliol  College,  Oxford,  with  the  design 
of  taking  holy  orders,  but  left  Oxford  after 
two  years,  and  entered  upon  a  career  of  au- 
thorship, his  first  work  being  a  small  volume 
of  poems  (1794).  He  was  made  secretary  to 
the  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  for  Ireland, 
a'  sinecure  with  a  salary  of  £350,  but  resigned, 
and  in  1804  settled  for  life  at  Keswick.  He 
was  named  poet  laureate  in  1813.  In  1807  he 
received  a  pension  of  £160  a  year,  iitcreaoed  to 


SOUTH  SEA  BUBBLE 

£460  in  1S3S.     His  wife  died  in  1837,  and  two 

S».rs  afterwards  he  married  Caroline  Bowles, 
ut  Southey's  faculties  had  begun  to  give  way, 
and  on  the  day  when  he  brought  his  wife  to 
their  home  he  felt  into  a  state  of  mental  pros- 
tration which  soon  grew  into  complete  imbe- 
cility. 

Southey's  principal  poems  are  "  Joan  of 
Arc,"  "  Thalaba  the  Destroyer,"  an  Arabian 
tale;  " Madoc,"  founded  on  legends  of  early 
Welsh  voyafes  to  America;  "The  Curse  of 
Kehama,"  based  upon  Hindu  mythology; 
"  Hoderick,  the  Last  of  the  Goths,  founded 
on  Spanish  history;  "A  Vision  of  Judgment," 
an  apotheosis  of  Qeoroe  III;  and  "A  Tale  of 
Paraguay."  Among  hte  numerous  prose  works 
are  ''  History  of  Brawl,*'  "  Life  of  Nelson," 
"  Life  of  John  Wesley,"  "  HistoiT  of  the  Penin- 
sular   War,"    "  Book    of    the    Church,"    "  '^-'- 


the  most  indefatigable  and  ' 
luminous  of  English  authors,  his  published 
works  numbering  over  100  titles.  His  reputa- 
tion aa  a  poet,  imposing  in  bis  on-u  lifetime, 
has  steadilv  declined.  His  poetry  is  common- 
place, without  inspiration,  spontaneity,  or 
charm  of  style.  The  worth  of  his  character, 
his  wide  learning  and  incessant  productiveness, 
his  dignified  social  standing,  and  his  intimate 
association  with  Wordsworth  and  Coleridge, 
men  of  a  higher  genius  than  his  own,  still 
make  him  an  important  figure  in  English  lit- 
erary history. 

Sonth  Geoi'sia,  a  group  of  uninhabited  is- 
lands, generally  icebound,  nearly  800  m.  E.  by 
S.  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  of  which  they  are 
a  dependency;  area  about  1,000  sq.  m.;  first 
discovered  in  1676. 

Sonth  O'maha,  city  of  Douglas  Co.,  Neb.; 
adjoining  Omaha  on  the  S.  Is  the  third  larg- 
est meat-packing  city  in  the  U.  S.,  and  has 
extensive  stock  yards  and  "five  large  packing 
and  rendering  plants.  Pop.  (ISfO  oenaus) 
26,26S. 

South'poTt,  town  in  Lancashire,  England;  18 
m.  N.  of  Liverpool.  Southport  from  being  a 
sandy  waste  has  rapidly  developed  into  a  pop- 
ular watering  place.    Pop.  {1911]  61,650. 

Sonth  Sea  Bnb'ble,  a  financial  speculation 
which  arose  in  England  about  the  same  time 
as  Law's  Mississippi  Scheme  in  France.  The 
South  Sea  Company  was  established  by  Lord 
Treasurer  Harley  in  1711  with  the  design  of 
providing  for  the  extinction  of  the  public  debt 
(ilO,000,000).  The  debt  was  assumed  by  a 
number  of  merchants,  the  govenunent  to  pay 
six  per  cent  interest  for  a  certain  period,  se- 
curing this  sum  by  making  permanent  certain 
import  duties.  The  purchasers  of  the  fund 
were  to  have  a  monopoly  of  the  trade  to  the 
S.  Sea  or  the  coast  of  Spanish  America, 
and  were  organized  as  the  South  Sea  Company. 
Though  the  S.  Sea  trade  yielded  no  great 
profit,  the  company  flourished  from  the  pre- 
vailing delusion  with  regard  to  the  riches  of 
Spanish  America,  and  vied  with  the  Bank  of 
England  in  controlling  the  finances  of  the 
country.     After  the  FeM«  of  Utrecht,  Spain 


SOUTH  8HEW.AND 
refused  to  open  her 


e  compaiiy  aBHUnied 
the  entire  debt  of  over  £30,000,000,  bearing  in- 
terest of  five  per  cent.  The  ministers  intended 
to  give  the  company  a  good  bargain,  but  the 
House  of  Commons  voted  to  open  the  scheme 
for  competition  to  the  Btxk  of  England  also. 
The  company  was  thus  compelled  to  offer  £7,- 
600,000  for  its  privilege. 

Notwithstanding  this  drawback  the  stock 
was  in  great  demand,  under  the  eztravagaot 
expectation  of  profits  from  the  American  trade 
and  the  prevalent  rage  tor  speculation.  It  was 
increased  by  successive  tubBcriptions,  the  price 
of  shares  rising  till  £1,000  waa  paid  for  a 
single  share  of  £100.  Other  bubbles  were 
started,  such  as  schemes  for  a  fishery  of 
wrecks,  to  make  salt  water  fresh,  to  make  oil 
from  sunflowers,  to  extract  silver  from  lead, 
all  with  promises  of  enormous  profits.  For 
lack  of  office  room  the  streets  near  'Change 
Alley  were  lined  with  desks.  The  BCtk)n  of  the 
South  Sea  Company  itself  in  proceeding  against 
some  of  these  .bubbles  turned  attention  to  its 
own  affairs,  and  dbtrust  arose,  under  which 
the  stock  declined.  Confidence  was  further 
weakened  when  it  became  known  that  some  of 
the  directors  had  sold  out.  The  failure  of 
IdW's  schema  opened  alt  eyes  to  the  delusion, 
and  as  the  year  1720  closed  the  bubble  burst, 
bringing  ruin  to  the  company  and  to  thousands 
of  families.  An  investi^tion  ordered  by  Par- 
liament disclosed  much  fraud  and  corruption. 
Some  of  the  directors  were  imprisoned,  and  all 
of  them  were  fined  to  an  aggregate  of  over 
£2,000,000  for  the  benefit  of  the  stockholders. 

Sonth  Shetland,  or  New  Sonth  Shetland, 
lalands,  an  Antarctic  archipelago,  S.  of  S. 
America,  between  31°  and  03°  30'  8.  lat.,  con- 
sisting of  Clarence,  George  First,  Livingston, 
and  SmitJi  islands,  discovered  1810;  area  about 
850  sq.  m.  The  islanda  are  mountainous,  deati- 
tuta  of  vegetation,  in  the  interior  covered  with 
perpetual  snow  and  ice,  and  rise  out  of  very 
deep  water.  They  are  visited  by  whalers,  but 
navigation  is  dangerous  on  account  of  the  ice. 

Sonth'well,  Sobert,  1S60-96;  English  author. 
He  became  a  Jesuit  at  Rome,  I57S,  and  in 
1686  waa  sent  as  a  missionary  to  England. 
He  waa  imprisoned  in  the  Tower  in  16B2,  was 
t«n  times  subjected  to  the  torture  to  make  him 
disclose  a  plot  against  Elizabeth,  and  was  exe- 
cuted at  l^bum.  His  most  important  poems 
are  contained  in  "  St.  Peter's  Complaint  and 
other  Poems."    His  chief  prose  works  are  "  The 


SottVMtre  (sO-vestr'),&niIe,lB0e-64;  French 
novelist  and  dramatist;  h.  Morlaix,  France. 
Aifter  editing  a  newspaper  at  Brest,  he  settled 
in  1S3<  in  Paris,  where  he  attracted  attention 
first  by  his  sketches  of  Brittany,  and  became 
soon  popular  aa  a  writer.  The  most  remark- 
able of  his  novels  are  "  Les  Demlers  Bretons," 
"  L'Eorome  et  I' Argent,"  "  Confessions  d'un 
Ouvrier,"  "  Un  Philosophe  sous  les  Toits"; 
and  of  his  dramas,  "  Henri  Hamelin,"  "  L'Oncle 


SOVEREIGNTY 

Baptiste,"  "  Le  Mou89«,"  etc.  All  his  works 
have  a  strongly  marked  tendency,  representing 
morality  and  riches  as  incompatible. 

SOT'ereign,  tha  British  coin  representing  the 
pound  sterling  of  208.  It  first  appeared  in 
1817,  and  now  weighs    123.27447  grains  troy, 

and  is  worth  14.866  in  U.  S.  money.  The  Eng- 
lish coin  first  called  double  royal  (afterward^ 
replaced  by  the  guinea),  first  struck  about 
1489,  was  often  called  the  sovereign.  Its  value 
varied  from  208.  to  30s.,  but  its  original  valuo 
was  22>.  sterling. 

Sov'treignty,  the  posseBpion  of  the  highest 
power  in  any  given  sphere,  aa  in  the  state. 
The  debates  concernin?  the  supreme  power, 
whether  it  resides  by  right  in  the  people — i.e., 
the  organized  people — ultimately,  or  in  some 
ruler  who  received  it  from  God,  led  to  the  ap- 
plication of  the  word  to  the  former  as  the 
source  from  which  the  right  of  the  particular 
magistrate  or  line  of  kincs  was  derived,  and 
to  the  latter  as  invested  by  the  former  with 
bis  power  according  to  the  will  of  God.  In 
the  English  usage  the  king  or  queen  is  called 
sovereign,  although  possessed  of  an  authority 
limited  by  law.  Yet,  aa  in  theory  all  executive 
power  is  derived  from  that  of  the  monarch,  the 
term  sovereign  contains  no  absolute  miBnomer. 

Sovereignty  in  public  law  is  the  right  to 
exercise  uncontrolled  the  powers  of  the  stat«. 
The  internal  sovereignty  of  a  state  includes  all 
those  powers  which  it  possesses  over  its  own 
subjects  and  transient  foreigners  within  its 
territorial  limits  and  on  its  merchant  ships  on 
the'  high  seas.  Such  are  those  of  eminent  do- 
main, taxation,  legislation,  punishment,  etc. 
Thus  the  interna]  sovereignty  of  the  U.  S.  was 
complete  from  the  declaration  of  its  inde- 
pendence. External  sovereignty,  being  the 
right  to  enter  into  relations  with  other  states, 
for  which  intercourse  their  consent  is  neces- 
aary,  depends  upon  their  recognition.  In  the 
case  of  the  tJ.  S.  this  was  made  by  France 
tbrongh  the  Treaty  of  1778;  by  Great  Britain 
in  Bxprem  terms  by  the  Treaty  of  1782.  When 
a  state  exercises  some  but  not  all  of  the  powers 
of  external  sovereignty,  it  is  called  a  dependent 
or  semisovereign  state,  e.g.,  Bulgaria. 

Under  the  U,  8,  Constitution  the  question 
whether  the  several  states  or  the  U.  8.  are 
invested  with  the  sovereignty  has  been  a  great 
contention.  The  following  considerations  are 
TOrthy  of  nbtiee : 

"in  the  provisional  articles  of  peace  betweai 
the  U.  8.  and  Great  BriUin  (1782),  and  in  - 
the  Treaty  of  1783,  the  king  acknowledges  the 
U.  S.  "  to  be  free,  sovereign,  and  independent 
states,"  "  treats  with  them  B9  such,"  and  "  re- 
linquishes all  claims  to  the  government,  pro- 
priety and  territorial  rights  of  the  same,  and 
of  every  part  thereof."  The  meaning  of  this 
is  that  he,  and  no  one  else,  had  any  claims  of 
sovereignty  over  the  territory  of  the  U.  8.,  and 
that  by  relinquishing  those  claims  he  left  them 
in  the  same  condition  in  which  other  states  in-  ' 
dependent  of  all  external  powers  were  by  the 
nature  of  their  situation  placed.  The  thirteen 
states  were  at  that  time  confederated,  but  of 
this  confederation  he  took  no  notice. 

The  limitationa  Imposed  by  the  Federal  CaO) 


I  Federal  Coov 

,C,ooglc 


SOWINQ  AND  SOWING  MACHINES 

Btitution  Are  well  expreasad  In  Prea,  Jmeluou's 
proclamation  of  December,  IS32:  "The  itatea 
Beyerallf  have  not  retained  their  entire  aov- 
ereignty.  It  has  been  ehown  that  in  becoming 
parts  of  ft  nation,  not  members  of  a  league, 
tiuy  surrendered  many  of  their  essential  parts 
of  soTereignty.  The  right  to  males  treatiea, 
declare  war,  lery  taxes,  exercise  exclusive  judi- 
cial and  l^alative  powers,  were  all  of  them 
functions  of  sovereign  power.  The  states,  then, 
for  these  important  purposee  were  no  longer 
sovereign.  The  allegiance  of  their  citizens  was 
transferred,  in  the  Srat  instance,  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  U.  S. ;  they  became  U.  8.  citizens, 
and  owed  obedience  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
U.  B.  and  to  laws  mode  in  confonnitf  with  the 
powers  it  vested  in  Congress.  This  last  posi- 
tion has  not  been  and  cannot  be  denied.  How, 
then,  can  that  stat«  be  said  to  be  sovereign 
and  independent  whose  citizens  owe  obedience 
to  laws  not  made  bj  it,  and  whose  magiatrates 
are  sworn  to  disregard  [its  own]  laws  when 
th«^  come  into  conflict  with  laws  passed  by 
another  t  What  shows  conclusively  that  the 
states  cannot  be  said  to  have  reserved  an  un- 
divided sovereignty  is  that  they  expressly  ceded 
the  right  to  punish  treason — not'  treason 
against  their  separate  power,  but  treason 
against  the  U.  S.  Treason  is  an  offense  against 
gocereigntg,  and  eoverei^ty  must  reside  with 
the  power  [able]  to  punish  it." 

Sov'lnc  and  Sowinc  Ha'diiiiei,  the  act  or 
process  of  depositing  seed  in  the  ground,  and 
the  machines  used  lor  the  purpose.  When 
seeds  are  deposited  singly  or  with  only  a  few 
in  ft  definite  spot,  the  act  is  usually  called 
planting,  the  term  soun'nji  being  restricted  to 
coses  when  the  seed  is  thrown  broadcast  or 
deposited  in  rows  or  drills.  Bowing  or  plant- 
ing Is  usually  performed  in  the  spring,  but 
sometimes,  and  with  some  kinds  of  crops,  in 
the  autumn,  so  that  the  plants  may  have  a  fair 
start  when  the  spring  opens.  The  seeds  are 
usually  covered  over  by  narrowing,  brushing, 
OT  rolling  the  soil  after  they  have  been  depos- 
ited. As  a  rule,  it  may  ba  laid  down  that 
when  the  soil  is  rather  firm  and  the  climate 
moist,  little  depth  of  covering  is  required ;  but 
when  the  soil  is  loose  and  the  climate  dry,  the 
seeds  should  be  covered  to  a  depth  of  twice 
or  more  their  thickness.  Machines,  more  or 
less  complex,  have  been  In  use  from  time  im- 
memorial for  performing  the  operation  of  sow- 
ing or  planting  in  all  its  forms.  Boms  scatter 
the  seed  broadcast ;  others  dibble  it  into  the 
ground  in  rows  or  drills,  and  then  cover  it, 
the  general  principle  being  that  the  drills 
should  be  at  such  a  distance  apart  that  a  horse 
drawing  a  light  plow  may  pass  between  the 
drills  without  injuring  the  plants.  In  the 
larger  machines,  often  drawn  by  horse  power, 
the  seed  is  often  placed  in  small  cups,  from 
which  it  passes  through  tubes  so  arranged  as 
to  allow  them  to  drop  r^vlarly  into  shallow 
furrows  cut  by  coulters  just  in  front  of  the 
escape  orifice  of  the  tubes,  the  furrows  beins 
closed  up  by  a  kind  of  rake  or  harrow  fol- 
lowing immediately  after  and  forming  a  part 
of  the  machine,  xbere  are  many  kinds  of  seed 
drills  and  planters  in  use. 


fiPAtH 

Soy  Bean,  the  O^oitw  (or  Boja)  Mapida;  • 
bean  extensively  grown  in  Japan,  China,  India, 
and  the  ^ice  Iilandi,  where  it  is  much  used 
as  food.  Tha  sauce  called  aoy  is  made  of  boiled 
soy  beans,  mixed  with  tr^'^'^t  meal  and  fer- 
mented. It  is  then  salted  and  mixed  with 
water,  and  after  daily  stirring  for  a  long  time 
the  BUpematant  liquid  is  poured  off  and  pre- 
served. Qood  soy  is  a  spirited  and  excellent 
sauce,  and  Is  believed  to  improve  with  oget 
The  plant  is  ooming  into  notice  in  tbe  U.  S. 
for  forage. 

Space,  OS  defined  by  Aristotle,  "  tlie  first 
and  unmoved  limit  which  bounds  body  "  when 
taken  ae  finite  space  or  plaee ;  taken  as  space 
in  general,  it  is  "  the  nnmoved  limit  of  wnat- 
ever  is  moved  " — i.e.,  of  all  bodies.  Time,  on 
the  other  hand,  should  be,  according  to  him, 
the  number  and  measure  of  movement.  Tbe 
existence  of  pure  space  is  evident,  he  says, 
from  the  fact  that  things  diange  places ;  yet 
in  spite  of  its  three  dimensions  it  is  mtt  to  be 
confounded  with  body,  for  in  that  case  two 
bodies  would  coincide ;  it  is  not  cause ;  there 
is  no  place  in  which  space  itself  exists;  nor 
does  space  grow  with  what  grows.  Matter  and 
form  are  iwparable,  but  extension  and  limit- 
ing surface  are  separable;  hence  matter  and 
form  do  not  explain  them,  as  was  thought  by 
Plato  in  the  Titnatu,  where  he  makes  space  to 
be  the  primitive  matter  of  the  universe;  it  is 
not  form,  for  space  remains  when  the  form  is 
removed.  As  ultimate  logical  condition  it  has 
frequently  been  identified  with  the  infinite,  or 
made  to  be  a  divine  attribute.  Newton  sug- 
gested that  Ood  by  existinf  constitutes  time 
and  snace.  Locke  thought  tnat  he  could  trace 
the  idea  of  space  to  the  senses  of  touch  and 
eight;  most  of  his  followers  have  adopted  the 
same  doctrine,  making  it  a  generalization  from 
experience  gained  in  the  perception  of  bodies. 
Accordingly,  they  ignore  in  different  ways  the 
attributes  of  universality  and  necessity  which 
are  the  distinctive  characteristics  of  a  priori 
ideas,  and  make  unbroken  custom  or  habit  to 
be  tbe  explanation  of  ibe  inability  or  impotence 
of  the  mmd  which  we  call  inccmceivabilily. 

Spalila,  or  Slpalila,  the  name  ^ven  to  the 
irregular  Turkish  cavalry,  which  is  said  to 
have  been  organized  by  Amnrath  I,  and  which 
gave  place  in  1826  to  r^ular  cavalry.  _  Their 
usual  arms  were  the  saber,  lance,  and  javelin. 
Tbe  French  call  a  body  of  light  cavalry  raised 
in  Algeria  by  the  name  of  spahis.  The  name 
sepoys  given  to  the  native  troop*  in  British 
India  is  a  variation  of  the  word. 

Spain,  kingdom  of  Europe  occupying  more 
than  four  fifths  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula, 
which  it  divides  with  Portugal,  and  separated 
from  France  by  the  I^enees.  It  Includes  the 
Balearic  Islands,  the  Canary  Islands,  and  the 
town  of  Ceuta  on  the  Moroccan  coast.  It  con- 
sists of  forty-nine  provinces;  area,  104,783  sq. 
m.;  pop.  (1910)  ia,603,06B.  Until  180g  it  also 
had  colonies — in  Americai  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico;  in  Asia;  the  Philippine,  Sulu,  Caroline, 
and  Marianne  islands;  In  Africa;  Rio  de  Oro, 
Adrar,  and  several  small  towns  and  islands  im 
the  N.  and  W.  coasts,  making  altogether  under 


40 


Spanish  oontrol  603,000  aq.  m.     Aa  a 


Aa  a  randt 

Google 


SPAIN 

of  the  war  with  the  U.  8.,  Cubk,  Porto  Kico, 
Qana,  uid  the  Fhilippinea  were  lott  to  Spain. 
The  FeninHuIa  is  Bep&rated  from  Africa  by 
the  Straita  of  Oibmltar,  IS  m.  across.  The 
center  ol  the  Peninsula  is  formed  by  a  mass 
1,600  to  SfiOO  fL  high,  and  separated  into  ser- 
eral  river  basins  hj  mountain  chains  running 
approximately  E.  and  W.  The  plateaus  ol 
Leon  and  Old  Castile  occupy  the  N.,  and  that 
of  New  Castile  the  center.  The  Pyrenees  cross 
the  isthmus  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay  to  Cape 
Creus  on  the  Mediterranean.  The  culminating 
points  are  Mount  Ferdo  (10,907  ft.),  and 
Poeets  (11,047  ft.),  and  Mount  Aneto  (11,170 
ft).  Toward  the  E.  end  of  the  chain  the  little 
republic  of  Andorra  ilea  between  France  and 
Spain.  The  Pyrenees  are  continued  W.  by  the 
Cantabrian  Uouutaina  for  3S0  m.  They  rise 
directly  from  the  ocean  on  the  N.,  but  on  the 
S.  they  ■   ■  -       -        - 


I  level 


ri  into  plaina  2^00  to  3,000  ft.  above 
The  highest  point  is  the  Torre  de 
Ceredo  (8,780  ft).  The  Sierra  Nevada  borders 
the  Mediterranean  along  the  S.  coast,  and  is 
higher  than  the  Pyrenees.  Between  the  N.  and 
S.  coast  ranges  are  four  other  principal  and 
many  minor  chains,  which  divide  the  river 
basins,  ramify,  join  together,  or  are  lost  in  the 
central  mass,  covering  Spain  with  vioimtains 
naually  rough  and  wild,  yet  not  offering  difE- 
enltiea  to  intercommunication. 
The  largest  streams  flow  W.,  through  Portu- 

Sil,  into  the  Atlantic  The  largest  stream 
□wing  into  the  Mediterranean  is  the  Ebro 
(440  m.),  which  drains  the  Pyrenees  and  E. 
Cantabrian  alopea.  The  longest  river  is  the 
TaguB   (666  m.),  which  cjY«sea  the  Peninsula 


S[eae  Donro  (Spanish,  Buero).  It  drains  the 
blai-land  of  Old  Castile,  and  empties  into  the 
Atlantic.  The  GuadalquiTir  (310  m.)  and 
Otladiana  [316  m.,  with  the  Zancara,  610  m.) 
empty  into  the  Atlantic  oa  the  Qulf  of  Cadis. 
The  riTcn,  so  far  aa  th^  lis  In  Spanish  ter- 
ritoiy,  are  of  little  use  for  navigation,  except 
the  Guadalquivir,  bat  are  used  for  irrigaticoi. 
The  amount  of  flow  is  unequal,  being  very 
■mail  in  summer  and  autumn. 

The  climate  in  the  interior  table-lands  is  gen- 
erally continental,  rigorous  and  dry,  that  of 
tiie  E.  coast  dry  cuid  mild,  that  of  the  S.  coast 
moist  and  hot,  and  that  of  the  N.  slope  cool, 
wet,  and  stormy.  Madrid  has  onlv  11  in.  of 
annual  rainfall,  lesa  than  that  6t  Denver,  but 
more  than  that  of  EI  Paso.  Hie  summer  tem- 
peratures in  tlie  Interior  are  the  hottest  in 
Europe. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Spain  has  been  known 
from  the  most  ancient  times,  and  its  richness 
In  gold  made  it  the  California  of  the  Carthagin- 
ians and  Romans.  The  production  of  gold  nas 
Itaig  failed,  but  Spain  still  continues  the  rich- 
eat  country  in  Europe  in  other  mineral  prod- 
ucts. Iron  is  abundant  in  the  mountains, 
especially  in  tie  Biscayan  provinces;  lead  is 
abnudatn;  argentiferous  l^d  is  extensively 
distributed,  ami  the  mines  at  Linares  are  im- 
portant; copper  is  worked  at  many  places, 
Cdpally  to  the  N.  of  Hnelva;  cinnabar  has 
u^en  out  at  Almaden  from  the  time  of 
and  rock  salt,  marble,  plaster. 


SPAIN 

mineral  fertilinra,  and  ooal  offer  huge  re- 
sources. The  wealth  of  Spain  in  mineral  and 
thermal  springa  is  even  more  unique  than  her 
wealth  in  minerals.  These  occur  chiefly  at  the 
foot  of  the  Pyrenees  and  of  the  Sierra  Nevada. 
Of  the  lauds,  eighty  per  cent  is  classed  as 

Sroductive,  and  of  thia  thirty-four  per  cent  is 
evoted  to  agriculture,  twenty-one  to  fruits, 
twenty  to  meadows,  four  to  vineyards,  and  two 
to  olives.  The  great  variations  in  altitudes 
permit  the  productions  to  range  through  those 
of  the  subtropio  and  temperate  zones.  The 
leading  crops  are  wheat,  rye,  barley,  maize, 
rice,  esparto,  flax,  hemp,  and  pulse.  The 
product  of  wine  Is  very  large  and  highly 
valued ;  it  is  the  chief  item  of  export.  Raisins, 
almonds,  oranges,  olive  oil,  and  conserves  are 
also  largely  exported.  Cork  is  chiefly  furnished 
t^  Spain,  though  the  cork  tree  growa  in  SW. 
Europe  and  N.  Africa.  The  Spanish  races  of 
sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  are  alt  celebrated. 
The  Imports  are  chiefly  wheat,  cotton,  raw  or 
'  manufactured,  coal  and  coke,  drugs  and  chem- 
icals, sugar,  machinery,  tobacco,  and  woolen 
goods.  The  chief  exports  are  wine,  minerals 
and  ores,  cork,  boots  and  shoes,  cotton  textiles, 
fruits,  oil,  and  wool.  The  trade  is  chiefly  with 
France,  Great  BriUin,  and  the  U.  S.  In  1007 
the  imports  were  rated  at  095,139,697  peaeUa 
(9180,007,000),  the  exports  at  962,809,466  pe- 
setas ($174,603,000). 

Spain  is  a  monarchy,  under  the  constitution 
of  1876.  The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a 
parliament  called  the  Cortes,  consisting  of  a 
Senate  and  a  Congreas.  The  senators  in  part 
hold  life  positions  by  inheritance,  or  ea  officio, 
in  part  are  nominated  by  tbe  orowD,  and  in 
part  elected,  and  together  number  not  more 
than  360.  The  Congress  has  406  elected  depu- 
ties.  All  are  elected  for  five  years,  or  until 
the  Cortes  are  dissolved  by  the  crown.  The 
ministry  ia  respoaaible,  and  conslata  of  nine 
members.  The  local  governments  are  generally 
representative-  The  revenue  is  derived  from 
direct  and  indirect  taxation,  stamp  duties, 
monopolies,  and  income  of  public  property. 
The  monopolies  are  the  tobacco  trade,  the  lot- 
tery, the  mint,  and  others.  The  public  debt  of 
all  kinds  (funded  and  floating)  in  October, 
1911,  amounted  to  9,902,870,000  pesetas  «1,- 
911,264,000),  and  the  principal  item  in  the 
public  expenditure  is  the  payment  of  the  in- 
terest charges. 

Gibraltar,  which  controls  the  Straits,  is  in 
tbe  bands  of  the  British.  The  army  and  navy 
are  recruited  by  conscription.  The  permanent 
army  consists  of  about  80,000  men,  with  about 
1,200  afl^cers.  Of  tbe  colonies  in  1B98,  Rio  de 
Oro  and  Adrar  were  governed  by  the  province 
of  Canarias,  and  the  others  were  ccmtrolled  by 
governors.  Cuba  had  forty-six  representatives 
in  the  Cortes. 

The  present  popnlatfon  consists  of  Ilwriana, 
modifled  successively  by  intermixture  with 
Celts,  Carthaginians,  Romans,  Goths,  Jews,  and 
,  Moors.  With  the  last  came  some  negro  blood, 
and  to  the  slight  intermixture  of  this  blood  is 
.  probably  due  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  ca- 
pacity for  tropical  colonization.  At  the  same 
time  from  Spain  has  poured  out  an  enormoua 
'  wave  of  emigration,  which  has  left  ita  mark  OB 


..Google 


SPAIN 

the  most  of  America  and  ■everal  oeeanlo  archi- 
pelagoes,    and    thia    has   had   its    reaction    on 

purity  of  Spanish  blood.  Yet  notwithBtanding 
these  intermixtures,  each  lasting  through  cen- 
turies, the  people  are  among  the  most  cbarac- 
teriatic,  Bell-contatncd,  and  sharply  defined  of 
Europe.  The  linguistic  type  evolved  is  esaen- 
tially  Boman,  but  the  ethnic  includes  the  Por- 
tuguese, and  is  dearly  distinct  from  the  rest 
of  Europe.  The  Spaniard,  somewhat  swarthy, 
is  well  balanced  as  to  virtues  and  Tiees,  vig- 
orous, original,  serious,  proud,  dignified,  cour- 
teous, tenacious,  patriotic,  thrifty,  sometimes 
vain,  bigoted,  intolerant,  and  vindictive.  In 
the  Roman  conijuest  Spaniards  were  found 
gallant  and  warlike,  and  when  overcome  they 
made  the  most  faithful  and  conservative  of  the 
Koman  provinces.  They  formed  a  fertils  and 
easy  field  for  early  Christian  missionary  effort, 
and  having  accepted  the  Boman  supremacy  and 
Christianity  they  were  tenacious  of  them. 
With  the  discovery  of  America  this  race  dis> 
played  to  the  world  Its  courage,  enterprise,  and 
endurance,  as  well  as  its  indifference  to  the 
Hufferinga  of  inferior  races.  Tlie  principal 
cities  are:  Madrid  (pop.,  I8I0,  571.639), 
Barcelona  (660,000),  Valencia  (213,530), 
Seville  (155,368),  Malaga  (133,045),  Murcia 
(124,9B5),  and  Zaragoza  (105,788)-,  no  other 
cities  have  more  than  100,000.  Emigration  is 
chiefly  to  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  Argentina. 

The  national  church  ia  the  Roman  Catholic, 
and  the  only  professed  diaaenters  number  about 
30,000,  about  7,000  Proteatanta,  4,000  Jews, 
and  19,000  of  other  religions.  In  1884  there 
were  32,436  priests,  1,Q84  monks  resident  in  161 
monastic  houses,  and  14,5Q2  nuns  in  1,027  con- 
vents. Since  1876  private  Protestant  worship 
hsa  been  permitted.  In  1860  onlv  twenty  per 
cent  of  the  population  could  read  and  write; 
in  lOOO  this  had  grown  to  37.0.    Compulaory 

!>rimary  education  is  statutory,  but  ia  not  en- 
orced.  There  are  about  35,000  public  schools, 
with  2,000,000  pupils,  and  8,100  private  ones, 
with  350,000  pupils.  The  secondary  schools  are 
less  efficient.  There  are  10  universities  with 
10,000  students.  The  colonisation  of  the  coasta 
by  the  Ph<Enicians  (Cadiz),  Greeks  (Sagun- 
tum),  and  Carthaginians  (Cartagena)  began 
abt.  1100  B.C.  Tlie  Cartha^ians  connuercd 
about  half  of  the  Peninsula  in  the  third  cen- 
tury B.o.  This  waa  inherited  by  the  Romans, 
and  the  conquest  completed,  19  B.C.  The  prov- 
inces were  thoroughly  Romanized.  The  Gothic 
invasion  was  begun  in  the  fifth  century  A.D., 
but  the  Qothic  kingdom  was  overthrown  by 
the  Arabs  in  711,  who  remained  in  control  for 
three  centuries.  Christian  kingdoms  were  es- 
tablished from  the  eleventh  century  until  the 
marriage  of  Ferdinand  V  of  Aragon  and  Isa- 
bella of  Castile  united  these  kingdoms  in  1479, 
•and  began  a  career  of  prosperity,  which  re- 
sulted in  the  conquest  oi  the  Moors  and  the 
discovery  of  America,  and  gave  Spain  the  form 
it  yet  bears.  The  marriage  of  Isabella's  daugh- 
ter Johanna  with  Philip  I,  son  of  the  Emperor 
Maximilian,  made  Spain  a  part  of  the  Haps- 
burg  Empire,  with  Germany,  the  Netherlands, 
Milan,  Naples,  and  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Burgundy, 
and  the  colonies,  under  Charles  I  of  Spain, 
V    of    Germany    (1510).    The    despotism    of 


Charles  i 


I  followed  by  the  tyra 


of  the  Inquisition,  undertook  to  root  out 
Protestantism,  and  he  with  his  no  less  despotic 
and  intolerant  successors  succeeded  in  bringing 
to  a  close  before  the  eighteenth  century  the 
brilliant  period  of  Spanish  history.  The  line 
of  Hapaburg  princes  doaed  with  Charles  II 
(1885-1700). 

On  bia  death  followed  the  War  of  the  Spaniah 
Succession,  which  resulted  in  placing  a  Bour- 
bon on  the  throne,  and  with  two  brief  inter- 
ruptions this  dynasty  has  remained  In  power. 
In  1608-14  Joeeph  waa  kept  in  power  by  his 
brother  Napoleon.  This  waa  the  period  of  the 
Peninsular  War,  in  which  succesaful  reaistonce 
to  the  schemes  of  Napoleon  was  for  the  first 
time  offered.  Upon  the  dethronement  of  their 
king  and  the  occupation  of  his  throne  bj  Joaeph 
Bonaparte,  the  Spanish  people  rose  in  arms, 
and,  though  ill  disciplined,  showed  such  vigor 
and  courage  as  to  require  the  presence  of  Na- 

Kleon  to  restore  French  authority.  Later  he 
t  to  his  marshals  the  task  of  subduing  the 
Spaniards,  whose  persistent  elTorts,  aided  and 
directed  by  Wellington,  contributed  to  the  final 
overthrow  of  Napoleon.  The  second  interrup- 
tion of  the  Bourbon  rule  was  1368-74,  during 
which  years  a  regency,  a  short-lived  monarchy 
under  Amadeus,  and  a  republic  were  suc- 
cessively established.  The  Bourbons  were  re- 
stored, December  30,  1874,  in  the  person  of 
Alfonso  XII.  He  died  in  1SS6,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  posthumous  son,  Alfonso  XIII, 
with  Maria  Christina,  his  mother,  as  regent. 
A  rebellion  in  Cuba  led.  In  18B3,  to  war  with 
the  U.  8.,  in  which  the  flower  of  the  Spanish 
navy  was  destroyed.  The  death  of  Alfonso  XII 
in  188S,  and  the  accession  In  1886  of  his 
posthumous  son,  Alfonso  XIII,  failed  to  dis- 
turb the  political  conditions.  The  Carlists, 
indeed,  have  been  uneasy  at  certain  crises,  and 
the  adherents  of  a  republic  are  not  unimpor- 
tant. Nevertheless,  afi'sira  have  been  in  the 
hands  alternately  of  the  Liberals,  led  by 
Sagasta,  and  the  Conservatives,  led  by  Cfinovas 
until  his  assassination  by  an  anarchist  in  1807. 
Spain  has  in  fact  had  her  share  of  anarchism; 
she  has  suffered  from  labor  trouble,  and  her 
finances  have  been  on  the  verge  of  collapse. 
Externally,  the  chief  recent  event  is  the  loss 
of  the  Spanish  colonial  empire,  incident  to  the 
Spanish- American  War  of  1898.  See  SpAiaSH- 
AUKBICAK  Wab. 

SpanOan  (spSn'dow),  an  old  fortified  town 
and  military  station;  province  of  Brandenburg, 
Prussia ;  st  the  confluence  of  the  Havel  and 
the  Spree,  9  m.  WNW.  of  Berlin  [see  map  of 
German  Empire,  ref.  3-Ct).  The  citadel  stands 
on  an  island  in  the  Havel,  and  is  used  by  the 
Prussian^  Govt,  as  a  prison  for  military  and 
political  criminals.  The  city  is  well  built,  has 
manufactures  of  hosiery,  woolen  fabrics,  gun- 
powder, and  arms,  and  carries  on  a  large 
transit  trade  between  Berlin  and  Hamburg. 
Pop.   (1005)   70,295. 

Spaniel  (apBn'ySI),  Cani»  tatraritu,  a,  variety 
of  hunting  dog;  in  form  a  small  setter,  with 
silky  hair,  long  in  some  parts  of  the  body,  and 
long,  soft,  pendulous  ears.    It  probably  orlg- 


.y  Google 


SPANKH  AfiHADA 

iiuted  In  Bpftln.  The  colon  are  varioiu,  black, 
brown,  ^iea,  liver  colored  and  white,  and  black 
and  white.  The  Englieh  breed  ia  oonaidered 
the  best  (or  aportamen,  being  etrong,  with  an 
Kccellent  noee,  and  fond  of  the  water.  The 
water  apaniel  differs  from  the  common  breed 
in  the  eagemesa  to  hunt  and  swim  in  water, 
-whence  it  U  used  to  drive  ducks  into  the  nets 
in  decqj  ponds.  The  Alpine  or  St.  Bernard 
apaniel  is  the  largest  and  most  celebrated  of 
the  race,  being  2  ft.  bi^  at  the  shoulderi,  and 
S  or  6  fL  from  nose  to  end  of  tail.  This  ia 
one  of  the  breeds  which  search  the  mountain 
paauB  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Botpioe  of  8t.  Ber- 
nard in  ipiest  of  bewildered  or  weary  travelGm. 
The  Newfoundland  dog  resembles  the  Alpine 
spaniela;  it  is  large  and  has  great  strraigth; 
is  gentle,  very  intelligent,  and  affectionate;  it 
is  an  excellent  swinuner,  the  toes  being  partly 
webbed.  The  King  Charles  spaniel  is  a  small 
and  beantiful  breed,  prized  as  a  lady's  pet, 
generally  black  and  white,  or  black  and  tan 
colored;   the  hair   is  soft  and   silky,  the  ears 

Endnlous,  the  forehead  elevated,  and  the  eyes 
telligent;  the  variety  prized  by  Charles  I  of 
England  was  wholly  black. 

Sput'ish  Anu'da.  See  Amuada,  Tbb  Spait- 
19K. 

Spanish  Fly.    See  Cakthasis. 

Spanish  Graaa,  another  name  for  Ebpabto 
(9.".). 

Spanish  Lan'gitaga,  the  national  language  of 
Spain  and  also  of  some  other  countriea  where 
it  has  been  carried  by  colonista,  as  Mexico  and 
the  rest  of  Spanish  ijnerica.  Di  Spain  certain 
regions  are  not  properly  included  in  the  ter- 
ritoi7  of  Spanish;  tiius  the  dialect  of  Qalicia 
belongs  to  Portuguese,  and  there  is  a  amall 
territory  in  the  N.  where  the  language  is 
Basque,  while  Catalan  is  spoken  in  Catalonia, 
Valencia,  and  the  Baleario  Islands.  The  num- 
ber of  thoae  whose  native  tongue  is  Spanish  in 
some  form  or  other  is  estimated  at  from  eleven 
to  fourteen  mUlions.  Noteworthy  is  the  al- 
moat  total  lack  of  doubled  consonants  in  Span- 
idi  words.  The  orthography,  as  regulated  by 
tha  Academy,  is  a  fairly^ood  representation 
of  the  spoken  language.  The  pronunciation  of 
modem  Spaniah  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  the 
older  language,  in  which  some  sibilant  sounds 

eisted  which  have  been  lost.  Thus  a  formerly 
d  in  popular  words  the  sound  of  th  in  Eng- 
lish ahe,  but  this  has  become  the  aspiration 
written  j  or  g;  compare  -Qvijote,  formerly 
Quimitt,  with  the  French  form  Quiehotte,  or 
English  sherry — that  is,  wine  of  Xerez  (now 
written  Jerez] ,  An  initial  h,  now  silent,  often 
■tands  for  older  f. 

The  grammatical  structure  of  the  language 
is  similar  to  that  of  other  Romance  languages. 
Certain  neuter  usee,  especially  of  the  neuter 
form  (lo)  of  the  article  with  adjectives,  are 
noteworthy;  so,  too,  are  the  frequent  use  of  a 
prapoeitioB  (i,  "  to  ")  before  the  direct  object 
of  a  verb,  the  distinction  between  the  two 
words  ter  and  eitar,  "  to  ,be,"  and  that  between 
iaber  and  tmer,  "to  have."  Among  the 
eoorces  of  the  Spanish  vocabulary,  Meides 
Latin,  Greek,  and  old  Germanic  dialects 
4r  4 


SPAKISH-AMEMCAK  waA 


Spanish  Mack'erel,  (1)  along  the  &.  coast 
of  N.  America,  Scomieromorut  maoulatua,  a 
very  slender,  compressed  flab,  bluish^reen 
above,  satinlike  white  below,  with  yellowish 
spots  on  the  back  and  sides;  it  attains  a  length 
of  Zi  ft;  it  is  a  native  of  the  tropioal  aeas, 
but  ranges  from  8.  Brazil  to  Cape  Cod,  and 
is  one  of  the  moat  esteemed  of  salt-water  fishes. 
(2)  In  Europe,  Scomber  ooliae,  distinguished 
externally  from  the  common  mackerel  (18. 
ecombrua)  by  the  larger  eye  and  the  dimin- 
ished number  of  wavy  streaks;  it  is  known 
in  the  U.  S.  ea  the  chub  madierel  and  the 
thimble  eye. 

Spanish  Main,  an  old  term  still  used  for 
those  portions  of  S.  and  Central  America 
which  border  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  {.«.,  Ven- 
ezuela, Colombia,  and  the  Central  American 
states.  The  original  Spanish  term,  Tierra 
Firvie,  Included  only  the  coasts  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Orinoco  to  Costa  Rica.  Some  writers 
erroneously  use  the  name  for  the  Caribb^n 
Sea. 

Spanish-Amer'icBb  War,  a  war  between 
Spain  and  the  United  States,  caused  by  tha 
condition  of  aiTairs  in  Cuba.  Centuries  of 
misrule  had  culminated  in  such  anarchy  that 
interference  on  the  part  of  the  U.  S.  seemed 
to  be  called  for.  In  the  nineteenth  oentury  as 
many  as  ten  organised  efforts  bad  been  made 
to  throw  off  the  Spanish  yoke  in  Cuba,  the 
moat  energetic  extending  from  1808  to  1678, 
when  the  iaiand  was  desolated  and  impover- 
ished by  a  ten  years'  war.  When,  at  length, 
it  was  over,  the  Spanish  Govt,  caused  new 
difficulties  by  undertaking  to  reimburse  itself 
for  the  expense  of  the  war  by  additional  taxa- 
tion. The  consequence  was  an  outbreak  of 
an  organized  revolt  in  189S.  The  autbonties 
at  first  made  little  headway  against  it,  and 
the  govermnent  at  Madrid,  ooncluding  that 
Capt.-gen.  Campos,  the  governor  of  the  island, 
was  too  oentle  in  his  methods,  snperaeded  him 
by  Gen.  Weyler,  who  aa  governor  of  the  Phil- 
ippines had  acquired  the  name  of  "  The  Butoh- 
er."  W^ler's  methods  in  Cuba  were  energetic 
and  cruel.  His  plan  was  to  reduce  the  insur- 
gents by  burning  the  bouses  and  crops,  and 
driving  the  starving  population  into  villages 
surrounded  with  stockades  and  ditches  known 
aa  trochaa. 

Appeals  from  the  leaders,  however,  found 
their  way  into  the  U.  S.,  and  an  organiiatiou 
in  New  York  known  as  "  The  Junta  "  furnished 
the  press  with  details  of  the  horrors  to  which 
Cubans  were  subjected.  Such  was  the  state  of 
Cuban  affairs  when  Senator  Proctor,  of  Ver- 
mont, determined  to  visit  Cuba.  The  result 
of  his  visit,  OB  reported  in  a  speech  in  the 
Senate,  thrilled  the  nation.  The  reooncentra- 
ifos,  as  the  people  penned  within  the  tTookaa 
were  called,  were  dying  of  starvation  at  an  - 
unprecedented  rato.  lu  the  little  city  of  Santa 
Clara,  with  a  population  of  only  about  14,000, 
the  number  of  deaths  in  1897  was  6,961,  while 
in  the  seven  years  previous  to  that  time  the 
total  number  of  deaths,  including  the  victims 
of  an  epidemic  of  yellow  fever,  waa  only  S,48B. 


8PANISH-AMEBICAN  WAK 

It  wa^  while  such  terrible  fBcte  were  beoom- 
ing  known  that  the  U.  S.  battleship  Maine 
Tia^ted  Havana,  after  due  eonsultation  with 
the  Spaniah  minister  at  Washington,  and  the 
vessel  was  moored  in  a  position  EMsigned  by 
the  authorities  of  the  harbor-  The  ship  had 
been  in  position  less  than  a  month  without 
having  left  the  moorings  when,  ou  Februai? 
16,  1698,  a  terrible  explosion  occurred  which 
destroyed  the  ship  and  caused  the  loss  of  SSS 
officers  and  men.  The  U.  S.  appointed  m  com- 
mission to  investigate  the  causes  of  the  ex- 
plosion, and  this  commission  reported  that 
the  ship  had  been  destroyed  b;  a  mine  exterior 
to  the  vessel,  and  that  the  oonoussioD  had 
caused  two  of  the  magaziues  also  to  eXpIode. 
The  publication  of  this  report  caused  all  the 
slumbering  fires  of  indignation  in  the  country 
to  burst  out  into  flame. 

Pres.  McKinley  had  persAiall;  learned  the 
horrors  of  war,  and  was  determined  that  every 
resource  of  diplomacy  should  be  exhausted  to 
secure  the  desired  result  without  an  appeal 
to  arms.  On  his  request,  Weyler  was  recalled, 
but  the  changes  made  by  the  new  captain  gen- 
eral were  not  enough  to  satisfy  the  coimtry. 
Aooordingly,  on  March  8th,  McEinley  asked 
for  an  appropriation  of  $60,000,000  for  na- 
tional defenses,  and  Congress  granted  the  ap- 
propriation without  a  dissenting  vote.  The 
coast  defenses  were  at  once  strengthened,  ves- 
sels and  naval  supplies  were  purchased.  Con- 
gress declared  war  April  IBth,  the  anniversary 
of  the  battles  of  Lexington  and  Concord.  Tbie 
Pre^dent  called  for  200,000  volunteers  and  an 
increase  of  the  regular  army  from  27,000  to 
60,000. 

The  first  great  event  of  the  war  was  in  the 
Far  East.  The  Pacific  fleet,  under  Commodore 
Qeorge  Dewey  was  ordered  to  proceed  to  the 
Philippine  Islands  and  capture  or  destroy  the 
Spanish  fleet.  The  squadron  arrived  off  Manila 
Bay  on  the  evening  of  April  30th.  Besides 
strong  fortifications  at  the  mouth  of  the  bay, 
there  was  a  tort  with  ita  arsenal  at  Cavite, 
and  there  were  numerous  submerged  torpedoes 
in  the  channel.  The  two  fleets  consisted  of 
about   the   same   number  of   cruisers,  but  the 


At  daybreak  the  ships  bad  reached  Manila,  a 
point   nearly   30   m.   from   the   mouth   of   the 

The  Spaniards  fought  with  the  utmost  dee- 
peration,  and  it  was  not  till  all  their  ships 

had  been  sunk  or  were  on  fire  and  the  arsenal 
at  Cavity  had  been  exploded  that  the  white 
flag  was  raised  over  the  fort.  The  number  of 
Spanish  casualties  has  not  been  reported,  but 
on  the  American  fleet  not  a  man  was  killed, 
and  only  seven  were  slightly  wounded.  With 
the  Spanish  fleet  destroyed,  Manila  was  easily 
taken,  and  the  entire  group  of  some  1,200  is- 
lands soon  fell  under  U.  S.  control. 

As  soon  as  the  war  broke  out  the  President 
ordered  the  fleet  at  Key  West  to  blockade 
the  ports  of  N.  Cuba.  On  Juns  14th,  there- 
fore. Gen.  Shatter,  in  command  of  the  mili- 
tary expedition  against  Santiago,  set  out 
from  Key  West  with  16,000  men  on  board 
thlrty-flve  transports,  under  the  protection  of 


SPANISH-AMERICAN  WAR, 

fourteen  armed  vessels  of  the  navy,  and  after 
six  days  they  arrived  oS  Morro  Castle,  and 
landed  at  Daiquiri,  16  m.  E.  of  Santiago. 
The  first  engagement  was  at  Ouaaimas,  two 
days  after.  IfuicGug,  where  the  Spaniards  were 
vigorously  driven  back,  chiefly  dv  the  First 
U.  S.  Volunteer  Cavalry,  commonly  known  ai 
the  Bough  Riders,  under  Col.  Wood  and  XJeuV- 
ooL  Boosevelt.  A  general  advance  was  ordered 
for  June  30th.  Gen.  Lawton's  division  carried 
El  Caney  July  Ist,  and  this  was  succeeded  by 
the  storming  of  San  Juan  under  Oen.  Kent 
and  Gen.  Wheeler.  The  Americans  killed  num- 
bered 230i  the  wounded,  1.284.  On  the  evening 
ot  July  lat  the  American  lines  were  within 
6  m.  of  th^  city. 

When  it  became  evident  that  the  city  must  be 
taken,  the  Spanish  Govt,  ordered  Admiral  Cer- 
vera  to  att^pt  an  escape.  At  about  10  a.ic. 
the  first  of  the  Spanish  fleet,  quickly  followed  by 
the  others,  appeared  in  the  mouth  of  the  har- 
bor. As  the  Spanish  fleet,  on  emerging  from 
the  bay,  turned  westward  to  escape,  piej  were 
subjected  to  a  terrific  flre  from  the  American 
battleships  and  cruisers.  Soon  all  the  Spanish 
vesoels  were  captured  or  on  fire. 

Ab  soon  as  it  became  certain  that  the  sur- 
render of  Santiago  was  assured,  Gen.  Nelson 
A.  Miles  organized  a  force  to  take  possession 
of  the  island  of  Porto  Rico.  His  force  landed 
at  Ponce,  on  the  S.  side  of  the  island,  and 
met  with  very  little  resistance- 
Soon  after  the  destruction  of  Cervera's  fleet 
the  French  minister  at  Washington  presented 
a  note  in  behalf  of  Spain,  asking  the  terms  on 
which  the  U.  S.  would  make  peace.  Pres.  Mc- 
Einley issued  a  proclamation  suspending  hos- 
tilities. Spain  was  to  abandon  all  rignt  to 
Cuba;  Porto  Bioo  was  to  be  ceded  to  the  U.  B. ; 
Spain  was  to  grant  to  the  U.  S.  one  of  the 
Caroline  Islands,  to  be  selected  by  the  commis- 
sion, and  the  commission  in  the  flnal  treat; 
was  to  determine  the  future  status  of  the 
Philippines.  Theae  conditions  were  duly  am- 
ptifled  in  the  Treaty  ot  Paris,  which  was  lati- 
fled  by  the  U.  S.  on  Februanf  6,  1899,  and  l^ 
Spain  on  March  ITth.  The  Philippines  passed 
to  the  U.  S.  in  consideration  of  the  payment  of 
$20,000,000,  and  the  island  of  Guam  was  se- 
lected as  the  representative  of  the  Carolines. 
In  the  course  of  the  war  public  opinion  had 
come  to  favor  the  accession  of  Hawaii,  very 
largely  for  military  and  naval  reasons.  As 
soon  as  it  became  probable  that  the  Philippine 
Islands  would  be  retained  by  the  U.  S.  it  be- 
came obvious  that  there  would  be  many 
strate^c  advantages  in  the  possession  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands.  Accordingly,  on  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  President,  Congress  adopted 
a  resolution  acceding  to  the  petition  of  the 
Hawaiian  Govt.,  annexing  the  islands  to  the 
U.  S.  A  precedent  for  this  method  of  procedure 
had  been  furnished  at  the  time  of  the  annexa- 
tion of  Texas. 

Unfortunately,  war  did  not  close  with  the 
signing  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace.  The  condition 
of  the  Philippinee  was  the  cause  of  not  a  little 
anxiety.  The  natives  had  been  in  revolt  against 
the  Spanish  Govt,  when  the  war  broke  out,  and 
when  Spanish  authority  was  overthrown  the 
party  In  rebellioi^  was  unwilling  to  yield  to 


SPANISH  WAR  OF  SUCCESSION 

the  U.  S.  Aguiiwldo,  the  leader  of  tbe  rerolu- 
tionjets,  ioBiated  upon  independence.  Hub  the 
U.  8.  WHS  not  wiUing  to  grant,  although  it 
gave  most  formal  asaurancee  that  the  political 
and  civil  rights  of  tbe  OBtivea  nould  be  re- 
■pectAd.  The  U.  8.  could  not  believe  that  tbe 
Filipinoa  were  fitted  for  aelf-goTemment.  It 
was  evident  that,  if  abandoned,  they  would  fall 
into  anarchy  and  under  military  despotisni. 
But  the  aMurances  of  Fres.  McKinley  were  not 
satisfactoTT  to  the  military  dictator,  Agui- 
naldo,  and  on  February  4,  1899,  his  troops 
attacked  tbe  American  lines  in  the  suburbs  of 
Uauila.  Not  till  early  in  1900  was  the  or- 
ganiied  insurrection  broken  up.  and  even  after 
that  time  fighting  was  continued  by  aniall 
bauds  in  the  more  inaccessible  parts  of  the 
island  of  Luzon.  Aguinaldo  was  captured 
March  £3,  1901,  by  Gen.  Funston.and  taken 
to  Manila.  On  April  2d  he  took  the  oath  of 
alliance    to    the    U.     8.,    and    published    a 

Sroclamation  advising  bis  followers  to  lay 
own  their  arms.  In  the  meantime  a  commis- 
sion appoint^  ty  the  U.  S.  had  established 
local  native  governments  in  many  places  in  the 
islands,  and  had  introduced  many  needed  re- 


^■n'worm,  or  Meaa'aring  Worm,  the  larvs 
of  any  geometrid  moth ;  so  called  from  the  ele- 
vation of  its  body  in  locomotion,  as  if  measur- 
ing.    The  canker  worm  is  an  example. 

Spar,  in  mineralogy,  a  term  used  vaguely 
for  several  crystalline  minerals  of  nonmetallic 
luster  and  smooth  cleavage.  See  Cai^oaxtoub 
Spab,  Feldbpab,  and  Fluo&spab. 

Spatk,  £lec'tric    See  Elexttbic  Dibchaboe. 

Spai'iow,  any  bird  of  the  family  FHn^'ilt- 
da.  Tbe  term  is  generally  applied  to  those 
with  a  streaked  plumage  in  which  some  shade 
of  brown  predominates.  The  most  familiar  is 
Paaser  dometttcut,  called  in  tbe  U.  S.  English 
sparrow,  from  the  country  whence  it  was  in- 
troduced, and  more  correctly  known  in  Great 
Britain  as  the  house  sparrow.  It  is  too  well 
known  to  need  a  description.  Its'  original  hab- 
itat was  the  greater  part  of  Europe  and  tem- 
perate Afia  and  N.  Africa.  Tbe  English 
sparrow  was  introduced  into  the  U.  S.  in  the 
fall  of  1850,  when  Nicolas  Pike  and  other  di- 
rectors of  the  Brooklyn  Institute  imported 
eight  pairs.  These  did  not  thrive,  but  others 
y  were  brought  over  in  1852  and  thereafter,  and 
by  the  end  of  1886  tbe  sparrow  had  spread  over 
the  ftreaUr  portion  of  the  U.  B.  E.  of  tbe 
Mississippi  and  N.  of  Florida,  and  extended  in 
the  NW.  portion  of  its  range  into  Iowa  and 
'  Minnesota  and  beyond  the  Missouri.  It  wem 
also  abundant  about  San  Francisco,  Salt  Lake 
City,  and  New  Orleans.  Since  then  it  has 
steadily  spread,  but  exactlv  how  much  territory 
it  covers  u  not  definitely  known.  The  sparrow 
haa  also  been  introduced  into  Australia,  New 
Zealand,  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  where,  as 
in  the  U.  B.,  It  has  become  a  pest.  Evidence 
it  orerwbelmingly  against  the  sparrow.  It  is 
convicted  of  beuig  destructive  to  various  crops, 


SPARROW  HAWK 

of  crowding  out  native  birds  by  eating  their 
food  and  occupying  their  nesting  places,  and 
also  of  actually  driving  them  away.  It  is  par-  , 
ticularly  harmful  to  grain,  grapes,  peaioiea, 
and  pears,  while  the  number  of  injurious  in- 


HODBB  Sr^uuiw. 

sects  destroyed  by  it  is  trivial.  Its  phenomena] 
increase  is  due  to  its  fecundity,  as  a  pair  of 
sparrows  raise  on  an  average  three  or  four 
broods  a  season,  and  may  raise  as  many  as 
six,  each  brood  numbering  four  or  five, 

Spar'tow  Aawk,  any  one  of  several  small 
species  of  the  genus  Falco.  The  color  of  the 
sexes  is  very  different  at  all  ages,  but  the  old 
and  young  of  each  sex  are  alike.  The  common 
American  species  is  F.  ITinnunculua)  spar- 
vertus.  Its  characteristics  are  the  bluish 
crown,  whitish  front  and  c 
spicuous  "  mustaclie "  acr 
the  cheeks,  the  whito  or  whit- 
ish abdomen;  in  the  male  the 
upper  part  of  the  head,  as  well 
as  wines,  is  ashy  blue  or  slata 
colored;  in  the  female  the  bead 
is  bluish  above,  but  the  bluish 
on  other  parts  is  replaced  by 
rufous,  which  is  barred  by 
blackish.  Its  len^h  is  about 
a  foot.  The  species  is  an  in- 
habitant of  N.  as  well  as  8. 
America;  the  only  U.  S.  form 
is  the  ^iiical  Bparverius,  and  Hkad  ahd  Foot 
this  is  found  from  the.  sub-  of  Auestcan 
polar  regions  to  the  Isthmus  Spahrow  Bawe. 
of  Panama.  It  preys  upon 
small  birds  as  well  as  mice  and  reptiles.  It 
may  be  frequently  seen  perched  on  the  top  of  a 
tree  nearly  erect  and  motionless,  surveying  the 
country  around.  It  breeds  in  the  N.  parts  of 
the  U.  8.,  as  well  as  farther  N.,  and  selects 
for  its  nest  a  hollow  tree,  in  which  it  Isys  five 
to  seven  dark  cream-colored,  nearly  spherical 


SPAETA 

eggB.    It  IB  one  of  the  moat  useful  of  tbe  small 
hawks,  feeding  iii>on  insects,  and  particttlarl; 

grasBhoppers. 

Spai'ta,  or  Laced«'moi^  in  antiquitjr,  the 
capital  of  Laconia  and  chief  citj  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesuB ;  on  the  Eurotaa,  20  m.  from  the  sea, 
in  a  valley  bounded  W.  and  E.  by  the  ranges 
of  Taygetus  and  Pamon.  It  was  about  S  m. 
in  circumference,  and  consisted  of  the  orig- 
inally separate  villages,  Pitane,  Cynosura, 
Limnee,  and  Mesos.  It  included  several  hills, 
upon  the  largest  of  vbich  was  the  theater,  of 
white  marble,  the  two  wings  of  which,  430  ft. 
apart,  still  remain.  The  private  dwellings, 
including  the  palace,  were  ^mple;  but  few 
Greek  cities  equaled  Sparta  in  the  magniB- 
cence  of  its  temples  and  statues.  The  modem 
town  of  Sparta  occupies  one  of  the  hills  in  the 
S.  part  of  the  ancient  site;  pop.  4,000.  The 
Domarch  and  other  ofHcials  of  laconia  reside 
here.     According  to  tradition,  Lacediemon. 


snd  gave  the  name  of  his  wife  to  the  city,  and 
his  own  name  to  the  people  and  country. 
Amoi^  the  mythical  kings  is  Menelaus.  After 
the  Dorian  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
Sparta  fell  to  the  twin  sons  of  Aristodemus, 
EuryBtheues  and  Procles,  and  ever  after  had 
two  lines  of  joint  kings,  the  Agid  (from  Agis, 
son  of  Eurysthenes)  and  Proclid.  At  first  in- 
ferior to  Argos,  Sparta  became  the  chief  of  the 
Dorian  powers  only  after  the  institutions  of 
Lycurgus  had  made  it  a  nation  of  soldiers. 

The  Lycurgan  legislation  (probably  before 
820  B.C.)  recognized  three  classes:  (1>  The 
Spartans,  of  Dorian  stock,  resident  in  the  city, 
alone  eligible  to  public  offices,  and  all  warriors; 

(2)  the  PeritEci  or  Laconians,  freemen  of  the 
neighboring  townships,  with  no  political  power, 
devoted  to  agriculture  and  industry,  and  form- 
ing bodies  of  heavy-armed  soldiers  in  war;  end 

(3)  the  helots,  or  serfs,  txtund  to  the  soil,  and 
sometimes  employed  both  in  domestic  knd  mili- 
tary service.  The  most  important  part  of  the 
Lycurgan  legislation  related  to  the  discipline 
and  education  of  the  citizens.  The  individual 
was  held  to  eitist  exclusively  for  the  state,  to 
which  he  should,  devote  all  his  time,  property, 
and  energies ;  and  eyery  male  child,  uiereforc, 
was  under  public  inspection  from  bis  birth, 
and  was  trained  to  warlike  exercises.  If  weak 
or  deformed,  he  was  exposed  to  perish  j  other- 
wise he  was  taken  at  seven  years  from  his 
mother's  care,  and  educated  in  the  public 
classes.  At  thirty  the  Spartan  was  allowed 
to  engage  in  public  aSairs  and  to  marry,  but 
still  continued  under  public  discipline,  and  was 
released  from  military  service  only  in  his  six- 
tieth year.  Both  sexes  were  subjected  to  nearly 
the  same  rigorous  gymnastic  training.  Under 
the  Lycurgan  constitution  Sparta  began  its 
career  of  conquest.  The  first  and  second  Mes- 
senian  wars  (743-723  and  '  685-668  B.C.) 
doubled  its  population  and  territory.  The  long 
stru^le  between  the  Spartans  and  Argives 
terminate)]  in  favor  of  the  former  In  647  and 
624. 


I  by  unanimous  consent  i 


BPAETACUa 

trusted  with  the  chief  command.  Leonidas 
died  a  glorious  death  at  TbermopyUe'  (480) 
and  Paiuanias  won  the  great  battle  of  Platsa 
(479).  But  in  476  the  allies,  alienated  by  tbs 
arrogance  of  Pauaanias,  offered  the  supremaq' 
to  Athens,  and  the  rivalry  of  these  states  modi- 
fled  all  the  history  of  Greece  till  the  Macedon- 
ian  era.  The  Peloponnesian  War  (431-404) 
terminated  with  the  conquest  of  Athens  and 
the  restoration  of  the  hegemony  b>  Sparta. 
The  Spartans,  who  now  had  a  great  commander 
in  AgesilauB,  exerted  unrivaled  authority  until 
at  the  battle  of  Leuctra  (371)  they  were  de- 
feated by  the  Thebans  under  Epaminondas,  and 
thenceforward  ceased  to  be  a  leading  state  of 
Greece.  In  221  Sparta  for  the  first  time  felt 
into  the  hands  of  conquerors.  In  146  it  fell 
with  the  rest  of  Greece  under  the  dominion  of 

Spar'taciu,  leader  in  the  Servile  War  (73- 
TI  B.C.)  i  b.  in  Thrace;  was  a  shepherd  and 
afterwards  chief  of  a  gong  of  robbers,  but  wsa 
captured  by  tbe  Romans,  sold  as  a  slave,  and 
trained  as  a  gladiator.  By  showing  how  much 
better  it  would  be  to  die  in  an  attempt  at  free- 
dom than  to  be  butchered  in  the  arena,  he 
formed  a  conspiracy  among  the  pupils  of  the 
schools.  Seventy  of  the  conspirators,  headed 
by  Spartacus,  fought  their  way  out  of  Capua 
and  took  refuge  in  the  crater  of  Vesuvius. 
Hers  they  were  soon  joined  by  numbers  of  ri 


taken.  C.  Claudius  Pulcher  was  then  sent 
against  them  with  an  army  of  3,000  men  and 
blockaded  them  in  the  crater,  but  his  force 
was  suddenly  attacked  in  the  rear  and  almost 
annihilated.  After  this  success  the.  mutiny 
rapidly  grew  into  a  formidable  war.  The 
peculiar  state  of  affairs  in  S.  Italy  contributed 
much  to  this  result.  The  soil  was  owned  or 
leased  in  large  allotments  by  the  Boman 
nobles,  whose  estates  were  cultivated  by  a  stave 
population,  which  lived  in  an  abject  condition, 
bfuirtacus  proclaimed  the  abolition  of  slavery, 
and  before  long  he  was  at  tbe  head  of  70,000 
men.  His  plan  was  to  force  tbe  pEisses  of  the 
Alps,  lead  his  army  out  of  Itol^,  and  then  send 
every  man  to  his  home.  With  a  victorious 
army  of  100,000  he  passed  by  Rome,  and  pene- 
trated into  the  regions  of  the  Po,  where  he  was 
met  by  two  consular  armies.  He  routed  them 
both.  Unable  to  induce  his  soldiers  to  follow 
him  out  of  Italy,  he  marched  S.  and  went  into 
winter  quarters  in  Thurii.  Tbe  defection  of 
some  of  his  troops  and  dissensions  in  his  &mp 
led  to  his  defeat  by  Crassus.  He  then  tried  to 
cross  over  to  Sicily,  but  was  betrayed  by  the 
Cilician  pirates  who  had  agreed  to  transport 
his  forces.  A  part  of  his  army  fell  into  the 
hands  of  Crassus,  but  Spartacus  and  the  re- 
mainder effected  their  escape.  Lucullus  was 
now  recalled  from  the  E.,  Pompey  from  the 
W.  After  new  victories,  Spartacus  went  to 
Brundisium  with  the  purpose  of  seizing  the 
shipping  in  the  harbor  and  crossing  over  to 
Thrace.  Falling  in  with  the  army  of  Crassus, 
near  the  source  of  the  river  Silarus,  he  wm* 
defeated  and  slain.  The  fugitives  were  huntad 
down  and  slaughtered,  and  the  revolt  was  com- 
pletely suppre^ed. 


Spurn,  audden  and  involvintaiy  mUHcular 
contraction.  Spaam  of  muicle  mtLj  result  from 
dUtuTbaoce  of  the  nerve  centeni,  from  pe- 
ripheml  irritation  of  the  BffecUd  part,  or  froiii 
irritation  of  other  organs  or  surfaces  reflected 
from  the  nerve  centers.  When  spasmodic 
rigidity  is  persistent  it  is  termed  fonto  spaam. 
Such  is  the  period  of  rlRidity  at  the  beginning 
of  ths  epileptic  attack  and  the  prolonged 
rigidity  of  tetanus  and  cerebro-spinal  meningi- 
tis. When  spurn  is  brief  and  recurs  rapidly, 
it  is  termed  clonic  spasm.  Such  are  the  in- 
termitting and  repeated  muscular  contractions 
following  the  inception  of  the  true  epileptic 
attack,    and   constituting   the    more    ordinary 

ffiileptifonn  attacks  or  "  fits "  of  children. 
le  graver  spasmodic  diseases  are  true  epi- 
lepsy; epileptiform  attacks  from  many  causes, 
as  indigestion  and  worms  in  children,  renal 
disease  in  adults,  and  in  the  course  of  severe 
acute  diseases,  narcotic  poisoning,  etc. ;  chorea 
or  St.  Vitus's  dance,  tetanus,  hydrophobia. 
Sneedog  and  coughing  are  spasmodic  Contrac- 
tions of  the  respiratory  tracts  excited  by  irri- 
tation of  the  mucous  membrane.  Asthma  is 
spasmodic  constriction  of  many  bronchi  o! 
tubea,  producing  dyspncea.  -Intestinal  colic  is 
a  condition  of  painful  spasmodic  constriction 
of  the  intestines,  due  to  cold  or  bad  diet.  In 
invalids  painful  spasms  of  various  internal  and 
external  parts  may  develop  suddenly  from  un- 
known or  trivial  exciting  causes.  The  im- 
mediate relief  of  spasm  is  secured  by  anti' 
■pasmodics,  as  valerian,  mask,  camphor;  l^ 
anssthetics,  narcotics,  and  sedatives,  as  potas- 
sium bromide,  hyoscyamus,  bellndonna,  opium. 
The  permanent  sure,  when  attainable,  follows 
the  correction  of  known  causes.     See  Cohvul- 

Spathe,  the  single  sheathing  bract  which  in- 
closes a  cluster  of  one  or  more  flowers  in  many 
species  of  monocotylcdonous  plants.  Some* 
times  the  inclosed  flowers  are  arranged  on  a 
spike  of  the  form  called  ipadw,  and  in  numer- 
ous palms  the  spadix  is  branching,  and  besides 
the  principal  spathe  there  are  numerous  sec- 
ondary ones  on  the  apadix. 

Sps'Tin,  certain  swellings  upon  the  hock 
Joint  of  the  horse.  In  bog  spavin  the  swellint^ 
and  lameness  are  due  to  undue  secretion  of  the 
lubricating  fluid  of  joints.  The  treatment  is 
entire  rest,  with  frequent  bathing  of  the  parts 
with  cold  water,  and  baudaginK.  accompanied 
I^  firm  pressure  upon  the  swelling,  by  com- 
presses  or    spring   trusses.     Bone   spavin. 


spavin  proper,  is  bony  enlargement  of  the  hock 

It  causes   lameness,   even  in  the  early 

I,  and  an   imperfect  action   of   the   joint. 


gradually  groving  worse  until  the  bones  be- 
come united  and  solidified  by  the  mass  of 
Bbrons  bone  which  grows  over  them.  The  dis- 
ease is  caused  by  strains,  to  which  the  bock  is 
anbiect. 

When  taken  early,  rent  and  counter  irritants 
will  effect  a  cure;  but  when  a  considerable 
growth  of  bone  has  taken  place,  no  absorption 
can  be  expected,  although  setons,  iodine  blis- 
ters, or  firing  may  cause  au  absorption  of  the 
bony  excrescence,  or  even  of  the  contiguous 
bone  to   wme  extent.     When  the  disease  is 


SPECIE  PAYMENTB 

taken  early,  or  his  diet  otherwise  regulated,  a 
spavined  horse  should  be  turned  out  to  grass, 
BO  that  it  shall  be  nutritious,  yet  cooling  and 
laxative.  At  the  same  time  the  spavin  may  be 
bathed  for  a  week  daily  with  salt  and  vinegar, 
and  then  a  blistering  salve  of  iodide  of  mercury 
rubbed  in.  Though  caused  by  s'b'ains  and  over- 
work, spavin  is  hereditary,  and  a  spavined 
horse  or  mars  should  never  be  used  as  > 
breeder. 

Speak'ei  of  the  Honse,  the  presiding  officer 
of  the  House  of  Representatives  of  the  Con- 
gress of  the  U.  8.,  of  the  lower  houses  of  state 
legislatures  in  the  U.  S.,  of  the  British  Houses 
of  Parliament,  and  in  legislatures  of  British 
colonies.  As  the  representative  of  the  House, 
the  Speaker  communicates  its  resolutions  to 
others  and  conveys  its  thanks  or  censures.  In 
the  V.  S.  House  of  Representatives  the  Speaker 
presides  over  the  deliberations  of  that  body, 
appoints  its  committees,  supervises  its  journal, 
signs  its  bills,  resolutions,  etc.,  and  as  a  mem- 
ber  may  participate  in  debate  after  calling  an- 
other member  to  the  chair.  He  is  chosen  by 
the  House  from  its  own  number,  and  can  be 
removed  from  office  by  the  House. 

Speak'ing  Tmm'pet,  an  instrument  of  wood, 
metal,  or  papicr-macli^,  usually  in  the  form  of 
B  liollow  truncated  cone,  the  mouthpiece  being 
at  the  smaller  end.  It  is  used  to  intensify  the 
sound  of  speech  and  increase  its  propagation 
in  one  direction,  as  on  shipboard,  or  in  giving 
commands  to  firemen.  The  cheaper  papier- 
mach^  trumpet  ia  aliu)  known  as  a  megaphone. 
When  the  instrument  ia  uacd  the  air  in  front 
is  acted  upon  over  so  wide  a  surface  that  it 
becomes  subject  to  greater  compression  and 
rarefaction,  by  the  diminished  lateral  overfkiw 
or  inflow.  Tims  the  air  retains  its  vibrations 
and  propagates  the  sound  more  etTectively. 

Spui'mint,  a  plant,  Mentha  viridis,  of  the 
Labiata,  abundant  in  Europe  and  the  U.  S., 
generally  found  on  moist  soil.  It  is  much  cul- 
tivated for  its  leaves,  which  are  used  in  a 
sauce  and  as  a  flavor  to  beverages.  An  oil  is 
also  distilled  from  spearmint,  and  from  this 
an  essence  ia  prepared,  both  of  medicinal  use. 
It  is  a  handsome  plant,  with  deep-green  leaves, 
and  pale-purple  flowers  springing  from  an 
erect  stem,  usually  2  ft  in  height.    See  Mint. 

Spe'de  Pay'ments,  Beamnp'tion  of.  During 
the  Civil  War  the  U.  S.  Govt,  issued  paper  ' 
money  ("greenbacks").  These  greenbacKS, 
which  were  not  redeemable  in  any  otlier  form 
of  money,  were  made  legal  tender;  in  other 
words,  persons  were  obli^d  to  accept  them  as 
the  equivalent  of  money  m  the  ordinary  course 
of  business.  This  paper  rapidly  depreciated, 
and  before  the  end  of  the  war  a  dollar  in  gold 
was  equivalent  to  a  value  of  92.S5  in  green- 
backs. In  1975  Congress  passed  an  act  pro- 
viding for  a  return  to  specie  payment  on  the 
first  day   of   January,    1870 ;   in   other   words, 

Eroviding  for  the  redemption  of  the  green- 
icks  in  coin.  When  the  time  of  resumption 
arrived,  however,  there  were  but  a  few  de- 
mands for  coin,  with  which  the  paper  moo^ 
was  already  do  par.  ^.~.  , 

C.izclbyCOOglC 


Spe'cies,  in  biolog;r,  the  smalleBt  group  rec- 
ognized in  ordinarj  classification.  In  general 
words  the 'members  of  a,  Bpecies  differ  only  in 


arate  them  from  allied  forms  are  practically 
permanent.  But  the  idea  of  Bpecies  belongs 
rather  to  metaphjeica  than  to  nature,  for  in 
the  living  world  sharp  distinctions  do  not  ex- 
ist, and  if  we  take  into  account  extinct  forms 
all  so-called  species  really  intergrade.  Species 
are  grouped  into  genera;  allied  genera  com- 
pose  an  order;    and  orders   are  grouped   into 

Specific  GiaT'ity.    See  Obatttt,  Bpicino. 

Specific  Beat,  the  heat  capacity  of  a  giren 
mass  of  a  substance  compared  with  the  heat 
capacity  of  the  same  mass  of  water.  If  a 
pound  of  water  and  a  pound  of  some  metal 
such  as  lead  or  mercury  be  raised  the  same 
number  of  degrees,  it  is  found  that  it  takes 
a  much  larger  amount  of  heat  to  increase  the 
temperature  of  the  water  than  that  of  the 
metal.  So  we  say  that  water  has  a  great  ca- 
pacity for  heat.  Indeed,  among  liquids,  water 
naa  the  largest  speciflc  heat,  and  acts  every- 
where as  an  equalizer  of  temperature.  It  has 
such  great  capacity  for  heat  that  it  warms  up 
slowly  and  coots  down  slowly. 

Specific  heats  are"  measured  by  heating  the 
body  to  a  known  high  temperature  and  deter- 
mining the  amount  of  heat  in  calories  which 
it  gives  up  in  falling  to  a  second,  lower,  known 
temperature.  This  quantity,  divided  by  the 
number  of  d^reee  between  the  lower  and  the 
hirher  temperature  and  also  by  the  mass  of 
body  in  grams,  gives  the  mean  specific  heat  for 
the  interval  of  temperatures  used.  The  most 
delicate  of  calorimetrjc  operations  is  that  in 
which  the  amount  of  ice  liqueQed  by  the  cool- 
ing body  is  indicated  by  the  change  of  volume 
which  it  undergoes. 

Tabue  or  Srxcino  Bmb. 


;  1 

.      .083 

S^r;;:- 

S-.v.;;::::::; 

See  Heat. 

Specific  Peifoim'ance,  in  the  equitable  juris- 
prudence of  ths  U.  S.  and  of  England,  the 
species  of  remedy  conferred  by  courts  of  equity, 
in  wliich  a  party  is  compelled  to  perform  the 
very  thing  which  he  has  undertaken  to  per- 
form in  behalf  of  the  person  to  whom  the 
undertaki)^;  is  given.  In  its  broadest  sense, 
the  phrase  would  properly  describe  all  the 
varieties  of  equitable  relief  which  consist  in 
procuring  a  defendant  upon  whom  on  obliga- 
tion rests  to  do  the  very  specific  acta  which 
such  obligation  requires  him  to  do;  but  in  its 
technical  and  more  restricted  signiflcstion  it 
is  confined  to  cases  in  which  the  obligation 
arises  out  of  a  contract  entered  into  by  the 
defendant. 

The  fundamental  rule  is  that  a  ppwiflc  per- 
formance will  not  be  ordered  when  the  com- 


6PECTACUSS 


purely  legal  Judgntent.  If,  therefore,  the 
contract  vests  the  pTaintiff  with  property  in  a 
chattel,  BO  that  he  can  recover  its  poasession 
through  an  action  at  law,  or  if  by  uie  money 
recovered  ho  can  restore  himself  to  the  same 
position,  in  contemplation  of  law,  which  he 
would  have  occupied  if  the  defendant  had  ful- 
filled his  agreement,  he  must  resort  to  his  legal 
remedy  alone.  As  an  illustration:  If  the  con- 
tract relates  to  ordinary  goods  and  chattels, 
or  to  any  personal  property  of  marketable 
value,  and  conteinplates  a  delivery  thereof  in 
any  manner  or  a  transfer  of  title,  since  suffi- 
cient money  paid  to  the  injured  party  will 
always  enable  him  to  procure  other  articles  of 
a  like  value  to  those  stipulated  for  such  a 
pecuniary  compensation  is  deemed  an  adequate 
remedy,  and  a  specific  performance  will  be 
refused.  In  order  that  a  speciflc  performance 
may  be  decreed,  such  a  performance  must  be 
reasonably  possible  by  the  contracting  party, 
and  must'he  of  such  a  nature  that  the  court 
can  compel  the  specific  performance  which  it 
decrees.'  Thus  the  agreement  of  an  actor,  a 
singer,  a  painter,  or  other  artist  to  employ 
hia  talents  in  a  specified  manner  qannot  be 
specifically  enforced.  Finally,  the  agreement 
and  the  relations  of  the  parties  must  be  such 
that  a  decree  of  speciflc  performance  will  be 
reasonable,  just,  and  equitable. 

Spee'tacles,  a  device  for  the  improvement  of 
defective  sight.  The  invention  of  spectacles 
has  been  ascribed  to  Alexander  OB  spina,  of 
Florence,  or  to  Salvinus  Armatus  (d-  1317); 
also  to  Roger  Bacon  (g.e.).  It  is  more  prob- 
able, however,  that  the  knowledge  of  them  in 
Europe  came  throu^  the  Saracen  Alhazen  (d. 
1038).  Ths  Chinese  have  for  ages  employed 
spectacles,  and  probably  they  were  known  to 
the  ancients.  Lenses  for  spectacles  are  spher- 
ical and  cylindrical.  In  a  spherioal  lens  the 
surface  on  one  or  both  sides  is  a  section  of  a 
sphere.  Rays  of  light  passing  through  it  are 
refracted  equally  in  at)  planes.  In  a  cylindrioal 
lent  the  surface  on  one  side  Is  a  s^^tion  of  a 
cylinder  parallel  to  its  axis.  Light  passing 
through  a  cylindrical  lens  in  a  pliijie  parallel 
to  its  axis  is  not  refracted.  At  right  angles  to 
its  ,axis  parallel  rays  are  rendered  convergent 
or  divergent  according  as  the  cylindrical  sur- 
face is  convex  or  concave, 

Convea  tpheriaal  lentea  ground  into  specta- 
cles are  used  (a)  to  correct  presbyopia  (a 
diminution  of  the  range  of  accommodation,  in- 
terfering with  vision  of  near  objects)  ;  [b]  to 
correct  bypennetropia,  or  far  sight  (over- 
sight),  by  increasing  the  refraction  of  the  eye, 
so  that  distant  rays  instead  of  coming  to  a 
focus  behind  the  retina  are  accurately  »>eu8ed 
upon  it;    (o)   to  supply  the  loss  of  refractive 

Ewer  caused  by  removal  of  the  crystalline 
IS,  e.g.,  after  extraction  of  cataract;  these 
must  be  powerful  glasses  having  an  optical 
value  of  about  eleven  diopters.  Gonoaue  epher- 
ical  Unaea  are  used  to  correct  myopia,  or  short 
sight,  by  lessening  the   refraction  of   the  eye, 


.lb,  Google 


BPECTACLE  8NAEE 

Tariea  in  the  different  meridiaua  of  the  eye> 
The  eflindricAl  Burfaee«  ma;  be  either  eoneave 
OT  oonTex,  according  u  the  faulty  meridian  is 
myopic  or  hypermetropic.  Priamatia  glojuet 
are  used  to  reliere  miueular  weakness  of  the 
q'e,  because  a  prism  will  alter  the  direction 
of  the  ray  from  the  point  of  fixation,  so  ttiat 
it  coincides  with  the  visual  line  of  the  weaker 

If  tliere  is  a  combination  of  aatigmatiam  and 
bypermetropia  or  myopia,  oompound  lentea  are 
lued.  On  one  face  of  the  glass  is  ground  the 
spherical  curvature  (convex  or  concave,  ao- 
eording  as  there  la  bypermetropia  or  myopia ) , 
and  on  the  other  the  cylindrie  curvature,  to 
neutralise  the  astigmatiBm.  Iicnsea  are  num- 
bered according  to  oqo  of  two  s^tems.  In  the 
old  system  a  strong  lens  of  1-iu.  focal  length 
is  the  unit.  'Lenses  weaker  than  the  unit  are 
expressed  bf  fractions;  thus  a  leiu  of  2  in. 
focus  is  expressed  as  },  one  of  10  in.  focus  as 
iVi  Btc.  In  the  second  or  new  system  a  weak 
lens  of  1-meUr  (100  am.)  focus  is  the  unit, 
and  is  called  a  diopter  (abbreviated  D.)  ;  a 
lens  twice  the  strcEngth  of  the  unit  is  &  D.,  and 
has  a  focal  length  of  50  cm.  Lenses  used  to 
correct  optical  defects  may  be  mounted  in 
spectacle  framea  or  in  eyeglasses.  When  sep- 
arate glasses  are  required  for  distance  and 
reading  they  may  be  combined  in  one  frame  by 
cementing  the  stronger  lens  upon  the  lower 
portion  of  the  distance  glass.  These  are  ce- 
mented bifocals  or  double-focus  glasses,  and 
have  replaced  largely  the  old  Franklin  glasses, 
which  were  of  two  pieces  divided  horizontally 
and  joined  by  their  cut  surfaces.  Instead  of 
doubfe-focDS  glasses  the  reading  lemi  may  he 
added  as  a  separate  glass  in  a  hook  front. 

Spectacles  should  never  be  worn  unless  the 
eyes  have  been  carefully  examined  by  a   — 


lenses.     Qlass  used  i: 


s  should  be  of 


>  special  ad- 
vantages. 

Spectmde  Snake.    See  Cobr^  dk  Cafello. 

Spectntphotom'etei,  an  instrument  for  the 
comparison  of  any  color  or  wave  length  from 
any  given  source  of  light  with  the  same  color 
or  wave  length  from  a  standard  source.  Ta- 
riouB  sources  of  light,  such  as  the  sun,  the 
incandescent  filament  of  the  glow  lamp,  and  a 
standard  gas  flame,  have  be«i  used  as  stand- 
ards with  this  instrument. 

Spec'troacope,  any  instrument  for  the  pro- 
duction and  study  of  spectra.  Bpectroecopes 
designed  for  the  precise  determination  of  wave 
lei^^  are  called  spectrometers.  Spectroscopes 
may  be  clasaifled  with  reference  to  the  nature 
of  the  dispersing  device,  whether  pTism  or 
grating;  or  with  reference  to  the  aisnersing 
power  (high  or  low)  ;  or  according  to  tne  spe- 
eial  purpose  to  which  the  instrument  is  to  be 
put  (t«lasp«ctroseope,  microspectroscope,  etc.). 

The  essential  parts  are  the  slit  and  the  dis- 
persing device,  with  the  focusing  arrangemoit, 
and  the  means  of  idratifying  and  det«nnining 
the  positions  of  the  various  regions  of  the 
spectrum.     The  slit   consists   of   two   parallel 


,       SPECTROSCOPE 

jaws  of  metal,  accurately  worked  and  adjusted. 
One  or  both  have  freedom  of  motion  in  a  direc- 
tion at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  slit 
(Fig.  1).  The  two  ed^  should  be  so  true 
that  when  brought  within  a  small  fraction  of 
a  millimeter  of  one  another  the  aperture  will 
be  of  uniform  width.  This  aperture  when  Il- 
luminated from  behind  forma  thi  source  of 
light  the  image  of  which,  dispersed  and  focused 
upon  a  screen,  or  within  the  eyepiece  of  an 
observing  telescope,  is  to  form  the  spectrum. 

FlQ.    1. 

The  usual  material  of  the  prism  or  dispersing 
device  is  glass,  although  for  special  purposes 
rock  salt,  quartz,  fluorspar,  carbon  bisulphide, 
etc.,  are  used  as  different  degrees  of  disperwion 
of  the  rays  are  desired.  Whenever  high  dis- 
persion fs  desired  and  a  prismatic  spectrum  is 
preferred  to  the  normal  spectrum  produced  by 
of  the  diffraction  grating,  a  train  of 


1  the  spectro 
'   in  apectroa 
.    .  spectrum  n 

than  a  prismatic  spectrum  is  desired — that  is 
to  say,  when  direct  absolute  determinations  of 
wave  length  are  to  be  made;  (2)  when  high 
dispersion  is  wanted.  Gratings  give  relatively 
greater  openness  in  the  lonper  wave  lengths 
and  less  in  the  violet  and  ultraviolet  than  do 
prisms.  They  are  objectionable  on  account  of 
the  faintness  of  the  spectra  produced,  of  the 
overlapping  of  the  spectra,  and  of  the  fortuitous 
and  irregular  distribution  of  intensities.  For 
photographic  work,  however,  gratings  are  ad- 
vantageous because  the  strong  absorption  which 
violet  light  suffers  in  passing  through  flint 
gloss  may  be  avoided. 

Collimator  and  Ohtcrving  Teleaeope. — Speo- 
troacopes  of  the  usual  form  (Fig.  2)  have  be- 
tween the  prism  or  grating  and  the  slit  a  lens 
( C) ,  the  purpose  of 
which  is  to  bring 
light  to  the  prism 
in  parallel  rays. 
This  lens  is  at- 
tached by  means 
of  the  connecting  C~ 
tube  to  the  slit 
at  such  a  distance 
that  the  latter  is 
at  the  principal 
focus.  This  ar- 
rangement is  called  the  collimator.  Beyond 
the  prism  the  dispersed  raya  enter  the  observing 
telescope  (7),  which  having  been  focused  for 
parallel  light  brings  the  portion  of  the  spec- 
trum under  observation  to  a  focus  in  the  eye- 
piece. Collimator  tube  and  telescope  swing 
upon  a  common  vertical  axis  at  the  center  of 
the  instrument.  By  means  of  the  position  of 
the  telescope,  as  indicated  upon  a  divided  dr- 


,,  Google 


Fid.  3. 


SFECTRUM 

cle   (a),  about  which  it  moveB,  the  resion  of 
the  epectriun  which  is  in  coincidence  with  the 
cross  hairs  in  the  ejepiece 
'  is  identified. 

Where  a  grcting  is  uaed 
the  position  of  the  psrts  of 
the  qiectroseope  is  that 
shown  in  Fig,  3,  the  tele- 
scope being  placed  on  either 
side  of  the  collimahir  ac- 
cording as  the  right-handed 
r  left-handed  spectra  are 
a  be  observed,  and  at  vari- 
oDB  asfflcs  according  to  the 
order  m  the  spectrum. 

By  instrumental  develop- 
ments known  as  the  inter- 
ferometer and  the  echelon  spectroscope,  indi- 
vidual lines  of  the  spectrum  have  been  ana- 
lyzed ftnd  studied.    S«e  SpEcnvu.        ^ 

^ec'tmm,  the  oblong  figure  or  stripe  formed 
on  a  wall  or  screen  by  a  beam  of  light,  as  of 
the  sun,  received  through  &  narrow  slit  and 
paased  through  a  prlam,  being  thus  decom- 
posed or  separated  into  its  constituent  rays. 
This  stripe  is  colored  throughout  its  length, 
the  colors  shading  insensibly  into  one  another 
from  red  at  the  one  end,  through  orange,  yel- 
low, green,  blue,  indigo,  to  violet  at  the  other. 
These  colors  are  due  to  the  different  constitu- 
ents of  which  solar  light  is  made  up,  and  the 
stripe  seen  is  formed  oy  an  indefinite  number 
of  images  of  the  slit  ranged  In  order  and  par- 
tially overlapping.  The  analysiB  or  decomposi- 
tion of  the  beam  is  due  to  the  different  re- 
frangihilitiee  of  the  component  rays,  the  violet 
being  the  most  refrangible  and  the  red  the 
least  Besides  the  colored  rays,  the  spectrum 
contains  thermal  or  heating  rays,  and  chem- 
ical or  actinic  rays,  which  are  not  visible  to 
the  eye.  The  heating  effect  of  the  solar  spec- 
trum increases  in  going  from  the  violet  to  the 
red,  and  still  contmues  to  increase  for  a  cer- 
tain distance  beyond  the  visible  spectnun  at 
the  red  end,  while  the  chemical  action  is  very 
faint  iu  the  red,  strong  in  the  blue  and  violet, 
and  sensible  to  a  considerable  distance  beyond 
the  violet  end.  The  actinic  rays  beyond  the 
violet  may  be  rendered  visible  by  throwing 
them  upon  a  surface  treated  with  some  fiu- 
oresoent  substance. 

A  pure  spectrum  of  solar  light  is  crossed  «t 
right  angles  t^  numerous  dark  lines,  called 
Fraunhofer's  linee,  each  dark  line  being  in- 
variable in  position.  For  the  proper  under- 
standing of  the  import  of  these  lines,  five  prin- 
ciples require  to  be  kept  in  view.  First,  an 
incandescent  solid  or  liquid  body  gives  out  a 
eontinuoui  spectrum.  Second,  an  fncandeecent 
gaseous  body  gives  out  a  discontinuous  spec- 
trum, oonslsti^  of  bright  lines.  Third,  each 
element  when  iD  the  state  of  an  incandescent 
gas  gives  out  lines  peculiar  to  itsslf.  Fourth, 
if  the  light  of  an  incandescent  solid  or  liquid 
passes  through  a  gaseous  body,  certain  of  its 
rays  are  absorbed,  and  black  lines  in  the  spec- 
trum indicate  the  nature  of  the  subetuice 
which  absorbed  the  ray.  Fifth,  each  element, 
when  Easeons  and  inoandeecent,  emits  bright 
rays  iaentical  in  color  and  position  on  the 
spectrum  with  those  which  it  absorbs  from 


SPELT 

light  transmitted  through  it.  Kow,  applying 
these  principles  to  the  solar  spectrum,  we  find, 
from  the  nature  and  position  of  the  rays  ab- 
sorbed, that  its  light  passes  through  hydrogen, 
potassium,  sodium,  calcium,  barium,  mag- 
nesium, sine,  iron,  chromium,  cobalt,  nickel, 
copper,  and  manganese,  aU  in  a  state  of  gas, 
and  constituting  part  of  the  solar  envelope, 
whence  we  conclude  that  these  bodies  are  pres- 
ent in  the  substance  of  the  sun  itself,  from 
which  they  have  been  volatilized  by  heat. 

The  moon  and  planets  have  spectra  like  that 
of  the  sun,  because  they  shine  by  its  reflected 
light,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  each  fixed  star 
has  a  spectrum  peculiar  to  itself.  It  has  been 
already  said  that  the  incandescent  vapor  of 
each  elementary  substance  has  a  characteristic 
spectrum,  consisting  of  fixed  lines,  which  never 
changes.  This  furnishes  the  chemist  with  a 
test  of  an  exquisitely  delicate  nature  for  the 
detection  of  the  presence  of  very  minute  quan- 
tities of  elementary  bodies.  Thus,  by  heating 
any  substance  till  it  becomes  gaseous  and  in- 
candescent and  then  taking  its  spectrum,  he  is 
able  by  the  lines  to  read  off,  as  it  were,  from 
the  spectrum,  the  Tsrious  elements  present  in 
the  vapor.     (See  also  Light.) 


and  tin  capable  of  taking  a  high  polish,  though 
the  term  has  also  been  applied  to  unsiWered 
glass  since  the  introdui^ion  of  silvered-gl&sa 
telescopes. 

Speech.    See  Lanou&oe. 

Speed'well,  a  plant  of  the  genus  Teronica  of 
the  Bcropkularuica!.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous, comprising  annual  and  perennial  herba- 
ceous plants  and  small  shrubs,  natives  of  all 
temperate  and  cold  climates,  some  of  them 
growing  in  wet  ditches  or  in  marshes,  others 
on  the  driest  soib,  but  all  having  beautiful 
blue,  white,  or  pink  fiowers, 

Spichem   (spi' 

Speke  (spek),  John  Huming,  1827-44;  Eng- 
lish explorer;  b.  Jordaqs,  Somerset;  served  in 
India  and  in  the  Crimean  War;  accompanied 
Capt.  K.  F.  Burton  in  the  expedition  which 
resulted  in  the  discovery  of  the  great  )akes  of 
central  Africa,  and  lat^  {with  Capt.  Grant) 
discovered  the  connection  of  the  Hile  with ' 
those  lakes.  Capt.  Speke  published  a  "  Journal 
of  the  Discovery  of  the  Source  of  tlie  Nile " 
(1863),  and  "What  Led  to  the  Discovery  of 
the  Source  of  the  Nile"  (1664)  ;  and  was  en- 
gaged after  his  second  expedition  in  a  bittu' 
controversy  with  Capt.  Burton  as  to  the  merits 
"  "    ■  discoyeries. 


See  ORTHOOBAPHr. 


of  their  respective 

SpeU'ing  Bcform'. 

Spelt,  the  Tritiovm  apelta,  probably  the  far 
of  the  ancient  Bomana  and  the  sea  of  the 
Greeks;  a  grain  somewhat  resembling  wheat, 
but  distinct  from  it.  It  can  be  grown  on  poorer 
soils  than  those  which  are  required  for  wheat. 
It  is  much  raised  in  ports  of  Europe,  and 


,  Google 


TABLE    OF    THE    SOLAR    AND    SOME    OTHER    SPECTRA. 


,v  Google 


„  Google 


crops  of  it  tkW  oceaaionslly  eeeti  in  the  U.  S., 
u  m  Virginia.  In  quality  it  is  much  inferior 
to  wheat.  T.  hetygalenae  is  raised  in  India. 
Lesaer  spelt,  or  St.  Pet«ea  com  (T.  monocoo- 
cum),  called  also  one-grained  wheat,  is  raised 
to  some  extent  on  poor  soils  in  Europe. 


^el'ter,  ooinmercial  i 


i  for  pig  or  block 


Spen'cei,  Herbert,  1820-1803 ;  b.  Derby, 
England;  wa«  attracted  to  natural  history; 
devoted  himself  chiefly  to  mathematics,  and  in 
IB37  b^an  work  as  a  civil  engineer.  After 
this  he  was  engaged  several  years  on  railroads, 
bat  gave  his  spare  time  to  inventions,  scientific 
experiments,  mathematical  studies,  and  to 
wnting  for  the  Civil  Bngineer'a  and  Arohitict'e 
Journal.  In  1S42  contributed  a  series  of  let- 
ters to  the  iionoonformiat  on  "  The  Proper 
Bpb^e  of  Government " ;  published  his  first 
book,  "Social  Statics,"  a  treatise  on  social 
science  based  upon  the  conception  of  the  evo- 
lution of  society  through  the  operation  of  nat- 
ural laws;  from  1850-60  published  a  series  of 
eassys,  mainly  devoted  to  various  subjects  of 
the  principle  of  evolution;  wrote,  in  1855, 
"  The  FrinciplsA  of  Psychology,"  in  which  work 
the  doctrine  of  evolution  was  applied  to  the 
science  of  mind,  and  the  ground  was  taken  that 
mental  faculties  in  the  whole  scale  of  animal 
life  have  been  developed  by  eiperience,  through 
the  intercourse  of  living  organisms  with  their 
surroundings,  through  the  principle  of  heredity 
and  variaHon,  producing  slow  modifications  in 
vast  periods  of  time. 

In  1858  Spencer  reached  the  conclusion  that 
evolution  is  a  universal  process  dependent  upon 
the  laws  of  matter  and  force  conformed  to  by 
all  orders  of  phenomena  and  capable  of  being 
resolved  and  formulated.  Believing  that  the 
time  had  come  to  attempt  a  comprehensive 
scheme  of  Uiought  from  the  point  of  view  of 
modem  scientific  results,  be  resolved  to  under- 
take it.  He  began  his  work  by  drawing  up 
the  prospectus  of  a  "  System  of  Philosophy, ' 
involving  the  full  working  out  of  the  law  of 
evolution  and  its  application  to  the  phenomena 
of  life,  mind,  society,  and  ethics.  The  Phi- 
losophy was  divided  into  two  parte :  { 1 )  "  The 
Unknowable";  (2)  "The  Laws  of  the  Know- 
able."  In  the  first  part  it  is  argued  that  in 
its  knowing  th«  human  mind  cannot  transcend 
phenomena,  but  that  it  cannot  escape  thi  — 


all    phe 

which  human  thought  can  never  grasp  or  un- 
derstand. The  initial  treatise,  "First  Princi- 
ples," was  published  1862;  it  is  occupied  with 
the  foundations  of  his  scheme,  in  which  the 
law  of  evolution  is  broadly  worked  out  and 
fonnnlated  in  terms  of  matter,  motion,  and 
force.  In  1B67  he  completed  the  "  Principles 
of  Biology,"  devoted  to  the  data  and  inductions 
of  biolf^ical  science  from  the  pcrint  of  the  view 
of  evolution  as  expounded  in  "  First  Principles." 
In  1872  appeared  the  "  Principles  of  Psychol- 
ogj,"  an  exposition  of  mental  science  grounded 
in  biology  and  in  accordance  with  the  theory 
of  evolution.  The  fourth  division  of  his  system 
ia  the  "  Principles  of  Sociology,"  in  three  vol- 
umes   and  "  Tke   Principles  of  Ethics "  occO' 


pies  two  volumes.    His  "  Autobiography  "  was 
published  in   1904.     Mr.  Spencer  visited  tbe 

'.  S.  in  1882. 

Spencer,  John  Cfiarles  (third  Earl  Spencer), 
better  known  as  Lobd  Althobp,  17B2-184S; 
English  statesman ;  elected  to  Parliament, 
1804;  held  ofllce  under  Fax.  as  Junior  Lord  of 
the  Treasuiy;  sat  in  parliament  from  Decem- 
ber, 1806,  till  tbe  passage  of  the  Reform  Bill, 
1832,  during  which  period  he  was  one  of  the 
leading  members  of  the  opposition;  especially 
prominent  in  attacks  upon  the  financial  policy 
of  tbe  Tory  administrations;  Chancellor  of  tbe 
Exchequer  and  ministerial  leader  of  the  House 
of  Commons  in  tbe  reform  ministry  of  Earl 
Grey,  1330-34;  succeeded  his  father  as  Earl 
Spencer  in  November,  1834,  and  soon  after- 
wards withdrew  from  active  political  life;  de- 
voted himself  to  scientitlc  agri'iulture ;  was 
a  founder  and  the  first  president  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society,  1838. 

Spencer,  John  Poynti  (fifth  Earl  Spencer), 
1836-1910;  English  statesman;  entered  Parlia- 
ment, 1857,  but  succeeded  to  the  peerage  in  the 
same  year;  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  1868- 
74;  Lord  President  of  the  Council.  1880;  again 
Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland,  1882-85;  for  a 
second  time  Lord  President  of  the  Council  in 
the  Gladstone  administration,  1866;  First  Lord 
of  the  Admiralty  in  the  Gladstone  government 
of  1892.-B6. 

Spen'ser,  Bdmnnil,  1662-00;  English  poet; 
b.  E.  Smithfield,  London.  He  was  educated 
at  Merchant  Taylors'  School.  He  entered  as  a 
siKar  at  Pembroke  Hall,  Cambridge.  &Iay  20, 
1669,  in  which  month  be  contributed  sonnets 
and  epigrams  to  "  The  Theater  of  Worldlings," 
a  volume  printed  at  London.  In  1570  he  left 
Cambrid^  without  a  fellowship  and  visited 
Lancashire,  where  he  fell  in  love  with  a  lady 
supposed  to  have  been  Rose  Dynley,  whose 
charms  he  celebrated  under  the  name  of  Rota- 
linde  In  a  pastoral  poem,  "  The  She^bearde's 
Calendar,"  published  anonymously  in  1579, 
dedicated  tn  Sir  Philip  Sidney ;  printed  soon 
nfterwsrdB  "  Thrpe  Proper  and  Wittie  Familiar 
Letters  lately  passed  between  two  Universitie 
Men"  (ISSO),  being  a  correspondence  with  his 
friend,  Gabriel  Harvey;  obtained  in  1680, 
through  the  influence  of  Sidney,  the  post  of 
secretary  to  the  government  under  Lord  Orey 
of  Wilton,  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland ;  prob- 
ably resident  in  Dublin,  1682-88,  when  he  re- 
signed his  clerkship  of  decrees;  his  services 
were  rewarded  in  1560  by  a  grant  from  the 
crown  of  an  ,estato  of  3,028  acres,  near  Done- 
raile,  county  Cork,  where  he  resided,  and  where 
he  completed  his  "Faerie  Queene";  wrote  in 
1586  his  "  Astrophel,"  a  pastoral  elegy  on  the 
death  of  Sidney;  was  in  1688  appointed  clerk 
of  the  Council  of  Munster;  received  in  IB89 
a  memorable  visit  from  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  to 
w^om  he  read  the  first  two  books  of  his  great 

Sem,  which  the  latter  thought  "  a  dish  to  set 
fore  a  aueen." 

Spenser  s  reception  by  EliEabeth  appears  to 
have  been  appreciative,  tor  she  granted  him  a 
pension  of  £50.  In  1600  he  also  published 
''Muic--' "     '-   '■'"'  '^-   - -•'■ -^    ■  "" 


.y  Google 


8PERB[>.CEn 

the  World's  Vudtie,"  "The  Btdnes  of  Time," 
"  The  Tc«rM  of  the  Uuaai,"  and  "  Proeopo- 
poia."  His  miuTuge  in  16S4  iiupired  tiia 
beautiful^  love  eonneta  entitled  "Amoretti" 
utd  a  KLBgniflceiit  "  Epithalamfuro  "  ( 16BG ) , 
which  irare  followed  by  "  Colin  Clout's  Come 
Home  Again."  la  1596  he  published  "  The 
Second  Fart  of  the  Faerie  l^eeue,"  "  Foure 
B.jmneh,"  and  "  A  View  of  the  State  of  Ire- 
land." In  1098,  as  sheriff  of  the  county  of 
Cork,  Bpeneer  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  in- 
surgent of  '^the  Ear!  of  Tyrone's  rebellion," 
who  burned  his  house  and  plundered  his  estate, 
forcing  him  to  Qj  to  England,  Rednced  to 
porer^,  Bpenser  passed  a  few  miserable  months 
in  London,  and  oied  in  Westminster,  Accord- 
ing to  Ben  Jonson,  he  "  died  for  luck  of  bread," 
after  having  refused  money  sent  him  by  the 
Earl  of  Essex.  He  was  hurled  in  Westminster 
Abbey,  near  the  tomb  of  Chaucer,  as  he  had 
desired. 

Spennace'tl,  Spermaceti-fat,  or  Ce'tia,  a 
Bubetanee  (CtiH,,0,)  which  exists  ready 
formed  in  the  cavities  of  the  head  of  tbe  sperm 
whale  {Phf/aeier  maorocephalua) ,  and  also  in 
that  of  some  other  whales  and  of  DetphimtB 
edenttiiua.  It  crystallizes  out  of  the  sperm  oil 
of  the  head  cavities  after  the  vital  heat  is  lost, 
forming  a  magma  or  mirole,  from  which  in 
cold  weather  the  sperm  oil  Is  expressed  by 
hydraulic  pressure  ("cold-drawn  sperm  oil"), 
the  sperroaoeti  being  left  behind.  It  Is  purified 
by  melting  it  by  steam  to  separate  mechanical 
Impurities,  and  recrystallizing.  It  then  forms 
a  lustrous,  pearly  white  mass  of  crystalline 
texture,  soft  and  soapy  to  the  touch;  does  not 
grease  paper  if  quite  freed  from  oil.  If  pure, 
it  is  without  taste  or  odor,  and  has  a  neutral 
reaction.  It  yields  by  aapcniflcation  cetyl  al- 
cohol and  palmitic  acid.  Spermaceti  was  for- 
merly much  used  in  the  production  of  sperm 
candies,  which  are  no  longer  so  common  as  in 
the  prosperous  days  of  toe  sperm-whale  fish- 
eries, the  decline  of  which  datee  from  the  in- 
troduction of  refined  petroleum  and  paraffin. 
Spermaceti  bums  with  a  bright,  clear  flame 
like  wax.  The  standard  sperm  candle,  which 
is  the  common  unit  of  comparison  for  photo- 
metric experiments  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
U.  8.,  is  taken  to  bum  120  grains  of  sperm 
in  an  hour,  which  !t  rarely  does  with  accuracy. 

Spermatoio'a,  the  male  reproductive  cells  of 
animals,  which  by  union  with  the  female  cell 
I  egg)  render  the  latter  able  to  develop.  They 
consist  largely  of  the  cell  nucleus  with  the 
addition  of  other  accessory  structures  to  facili- 
tate the  union  with  the  egg  (impregnation). 
In  shape  they  vaiy  greatly,  but  the  most  com- 
mon shape  recalls  the  tadpole.  In  these  forms 
there  is  a  head,  composed  of  the  nucleus,  fol- 
lowed by  a  "  middle  piece,"  and  this  in  turn 
by  the  tail,  which  may  either  be  threadlike,  or 
ma^  have  an  undulatery  membrane  attached 
to  it.  Usually  the  spermatozoa  have  the  power 
of  motion,  by  means  of  the  vibrations  of  the 
tail,  but  in  some  forme  they  are  motionless. 
Recent  investigations  show  that  both  nucleus 
and  "  middle  piece  "  are  concerned  in  impreg- 
nation; the  tai)  and  analogous  structures  play 
no  part  after  the  union. 


Spe^atttitt.    See  Qumr. 
Italy,  60  m.  SE,  of  Genoa,    It  has  grown  rap- 


SpezU  (sptt'sB-H),  town;  province  of  Genoa, 
^y,  5fl  m.  SE,  of  Genoa,    It  has  grown  rap- 
idly in  consequence  of  the  construction  of  tbe- 


naval  arsenal.  The  town  since  1861  is  the  chief 
naval  stetion  of  Italy,  and  is  defended  by  for- 
midable batteries;  it  has  extensive  shipyards, 
docks,  etc.,  and  manufactures  sailcloth,  white 
lead,  cables,  and  leather.  It  is  much  frequented 
as  a  seaside  T«sort,  Pop.  (1901)  commune, 
65,612. 

Sphagnum  (sffig'nflm),  a  large  genua  of 
mosses,  many  species  of  which  grow  ia  the 
U,  8.,  mainly  in  bogs,  forming  deep,  spongy 
masses,  almost  always  damp.  They  are  called 
peat  mosses,  being  the  principal  ingredient  in 
pure  peat. 

Sphere  (sfer),  a  surface  all  of  whose  pointe 
are  equally  distant  from  a  point  within  called 
the  center.  It  may  be  generated  by  a  semi- 
circle revolving  about  its  diameter  as  an  axis. 
Any  line  from  the  center  to  a  point  of  the 
surface  is  a  radiiu,  and  any  line  drawn  through 
the  center  and  limited  by  the  surface  is  a 
diameter;  all  radii  of  the  same  sphere  are 
equal;  also  all  diameters  of  the  same  sphere 
are  equal.  Every  plane  section  of  a  sphere  is 
a  circle ;  if  the  plane  passes  through  the  cen- 
ter, tbe  Aectiou  is  called  a  great  oircle ;  if  it 
does  not  pass  through  the  center,  the  section 
is  called  a  tmall  otVcIe.  The  surface  of  a 
sphere  is  equal  to  four  grnt  circles,  or  it  is 
equal  to  the  circumference  of  a  great  circle 
multiplied  by  iU  diameter.  The  surface  of  a 
zone,  otz.,  the  portion  of  surface  included  be- 
tween two  parallel  planes.  Is  equal  to  the  cir- 
cumference of  a  great  circle  multiplied  by  the 
altitude  of  the  zone.  The  volume  of  a  sphere 
is  equal  to  its  surface  multiplied  by  one  third 
of  its  radius.  The  volume  of  a  spherical  sector 
is  equal  to  the  zone  which  forms  ite  base  mul- 
tiplied by  one  third  of  the  radius  of  the  sphere. 

Sphe'roid,  a  surface  generated  by  an  ellipse 
revolving  about  one  of  its  principal  axes.  If 
the  ellipse  revolves  about  its  conjugate  axis,  it 
generates  a  surface  resembling  a  fiattened 
sphere  called  an  oblate  spheroid;  if  it  revolves 
about  ite  transverse  axis,  it  generates  an  elon- 
gated surface  called  a  prolate  spheroid.  The 
surface  of  the  earth  ia  approximately  an  oblate 
spheroid. 

Sphetom'eter,  an  Instrument  for  msBBuring 
the  radius  of  a  sphere  when  only  a  portion  <S 
tbe  spherical  surface,  as,  for  instance,  a  lens, 
is  given.  The  usual  form  conaiato  of  a  vertical 
screw  turning  in  a  socket;  which  fa  equidistant 
from  three  supporting  legs  with  sharp  steel 
pointe.      Above   the   socket^  the   screw   has   a 

Gaduated  circular  head.  The  pointe  of  the 
js  are  brought  in  contact  with  the  spherical 
surface,  and  the  screw  is  turned  until  ite  ex- 
tremity also  touches  it.  This  process  is  re- 
peated with  a  plane.  Thus  the  diateuce  between 
the  center  of  the  circle  through  the  ends  of  the 
legs  and  ite  pole  on  the  sphere  is  obteined, 
from  which  tne  radius  of  the  sphere  can  be 
calculated. 

SpUnc'teT,  in  anatomy,  a  muscle  the  flbnv 
of  which,  general^   dreular,  surround  Mm* 


xCoogle 


SPHIKX 

passage   in   the   animal  organiam,   closing  the 

passage,  ia  oppoeition  to  certain  other  muscli^B 
called  dilators.  Some  of  tlie  sphincters  are 
composed  of  striped  liboT,  some  of  unstriped, 
and  some  of  both  combined.  The  eyes,  pupils, 
mouth,  rectum,  vagina,  bladder,  aod  urethra 
are  the  most  important  passages  which  are 
provided  with  sphincters  j  but  there  are  numer- 
ous other  seta  of  circular  fibers  which  have 
more  or  less  of  the  kction  of  sphincter  mnscles. 
Sphinx  (sfliiki),  a  fabulous  monster  of  Greek 
mytholo^,     In   the  legends   of  tlK   poets   the 


T^  OvuT  BpBm. 

Chimera,  or  of  T;phon  and  Echidna,  and  to 
have  come  from  the  most  distant  parbi  of  Ethi- 
opia. She  was  TavagJDK  Thebes  and  devouring 
those  who  could  not  solve  a.  riddle  which  she 
proposed,  when  CEdipus  solved  it.  upon  which 
the  sphinx  destroyed  herself.  (See  (Edipos.) 
Among  the  Egyptians  sphinxes  had  the  head 
of  a  man,  bearded  and  capped,  and  the  body 
of  a  lion,  thus  differing  from  the  Greek 
sphinxes,  which  had  a  female  head  and  the 
body  of  a  winged  lion.  The  great  sphinx  at 
the  pyramids  of  Oizeh  is  near  the  E.  edge  of 
the  platform  on  which  they  stand,  with  its 
head  turned  toward  the  Nile.  The  head  meas- 
ures 28  ft.  6  in.  from  the  top  to  the  chin.  The 
total  length  of  the  body,  which  is  that  of  a 
lion  crouching  close  to  the  ground,  is  146  ft. 
Across  the  shoulders  it  measures  36  ft.,  and 
the  paws  are  extended  about  60  ft.  Between 
the  paws  was  built  a  small  temple,  which  was 
of  masonry,  as  were  the  paws,  while  all  the 
rest  of  the  sphinx  seems  u>  be  carved  out  of 
solid  roclc. 

The  countenance  is  now  so  much  mutilated 
(since  it  wa«  used  as  an  artillery  target)  that 
the  outline  of  the  features  can  with  difficulty 
be  traced.    All  but  the  head  utd  ahoolden  ve 


BFIDERS 

buried  by  desert  sand,  though  it  has  been  un- 
covered several  times  by  ancient  kings  and  by 
modern  explorers,  its  age  is  unknown^  it -has 
been  assigned  to  preliistoric  times,  to  the  age 
of  Cheops,  and  evon  later,  but  without  proof. 
It  probably  represents  Ra-Harmaeh is,  the  sun 
god,  as  guardian  of  the  tombs  in  the  vicinity. 
Spice,  certain  aromatic  seeds,  barks,  roots, 
dried  fruits,  etc.,  used  in  cookery  for  their 
Qavoring  qualities,  and  in  medicine  as  stim- 
ulants and  carminatives.  Such  are  cloves, 
ginger,  allspice,  nutm^,  pepper,  mace,  cap-' 
sicum,  cinnamon,  cassia,  vanilla,  etc  Besides 
the  above,  which  are  exported  from  tropical 
countries,  and  especially  from  the  East,  there 
are  others  now  nearly  forgotten,  such  as  cas- 
samuniar,  zerumbet,  zedoarv,  culilawan,  and 
the  so-called  clove  bark.  These  have  nearly 
disappeared  from  general  commerce — some  be- 
cause they  are  inferior  in  quality,  and  others 
on  account  of  th^ir  limited  supply.  Most  of 
the  spices  are  natives  of  the  Old  World,  but  a 
few  tire  American,  and  nearly  all  the  important 
ones  are  now  generally  naturaliied  throughout 
the  tropical  world. 

SpiMtitialL    See  Feveb  Bubh. 
Spice  Is'landa.     See  Moutccab. 


S^'dei  Crab.    See  Cbab.    ' 

Spiders,  an  order  of  arachnid  animals,  the 
Araneida.  The  chief  characters  which  distin- 
guish them  from  other  groups  are  the  posses- 
sion of  a  body  divided  into  two  regions, 
eepbalothorax  and  abdomen,  both  without  dis- 
tinct joints,  and  the  latter,  which  is  joined  to 
the  former  l>y  a  slender  stalk,  hearing  spinning 
mammilln  on  the  hinder  end.  The  cephalo- 
thorax  bears  four  pairs  of  legs  and  two  pairs 
of  smaller  appendages,  the  first  of  which  are 
the  poison  jaws,  while  the  second  are  curiously 
modified  in  the  male  for  reproductive  purposes.  ' 


present 

there  are  two  pairs  of  these  organs  on  the  un- 
der side  of  the  abdomen.  It  other  forms  there 
is  a  single  pair  of  lungs,  the  other  pair  being 
replaced  by  air  tubes  lilce  Uiose  of  true  insects. 
Spiders  are  carnivorous,  and  live  upon  other 
insects,  which  they  kill  by  the  poison  forced 
through  the  poison  jaws.  They  do  not  eat  the 
prey,  but  merely  suck  its  juices.  Some  spiders 
hunt  their  prey,  jumping  upon  it  like  a  minia- 
ture tiger,  but  the  majority  form  webs  of 
silken  threads  covered  with  a  viscid  substance. 
The  shape  and  character  of  these  webs  vary 
exceedingly.  In  general  it  may  be  said  that 
the  spider  has  a  loir  where  he  can  recognise 
any  vibration  of  the  web,  and  whence  he  can 
rush  out  further  to  entangle  the  prey.  The 
web  is  made  from  a  fluid  secreted  by  glands 
inside  the  body,  and  as  it  comes  in  con'^c^  with 
the  air  in  its  passage  through  the  spinning 
organs  it  hardens  into  the  familiar  threap 
which  in  reality  is  a  cable  formed  of  a  number 
of  smaller  fibers.    Beaides  its  ua«  in  formiiy 


db,  Google 


SFIELHAOEH 

weba  the  silk  ia  employed  in  nuUdnf;  xesta,  as 
a  means  of  flying,  and  for  the  formation  of 
cocoont  to  contain  the  fgg».  The  malea  are 
smaller  than  the  females,  and  their  approaches 
to  the  latter  are  made  with  extreme  caution, 
aa  they   run  the  risk  of  beins  devoured 


betake  themselves  to  flight.  In  their  habits 
spiders  are  among  the  nioat  interesting  of  ani- 
liials,  well  repaying  observation.  Among  the 
largest  is  the  crab  spider,  measuring  6  or  7  in., 
and  strong  enough  to  prey  upon  small  animals. 
The  bite  of  the  tarantula  (g.u.)  is  feared, 
though  usually  not  fatal. 

Spiel'hagen,  Fliedrieli,  182&']911i  German 
Dowelisti  b.  Magdeburg;  studied  jurisprudence, 
and  afterwards  philosophy,  philology,  and  lit- 
erature; taught  for  some  time  at  the  Univ.  of 
Leiprig,  and  finally  devoted  himself  to  literary 
pursuits;  1869-62,  he  was  Jiterary  editor  of 
the  Zeitung  fir  Horddeutachland.  Spielhagen 
has  successfully  aspired  to  treat  the  great 
questions  of  the  day  in  a  series  of  novels  dis- 
tinguished by  their  artistic  composition,  ele- 
gant style,  and  philosophic  thought.  The  most 
important  of  these  novels  are  "  Froblenuttische 
Naturen."  "  Duroh  Nacht  sura  Lioht,"  "  Die 
von  Hohenstein,"  "  In  Reih  und  Glied,"  "  Ham- 
mer und  Amhoss,"  "  Sturmflut,"  "  Quisisana," 
"  Angela,"  "  Was  soil  das  werden,"  "  Noblesse 
oblige,"  "  Der  neile  Pharao.''  In  his  enoellent 
book,  "  Beitrflge  lur  Theorie  und  Technik  des 
Romans,"  Spielbagen  attempts  to  fix  the  Es- 
thetic laws  which  govern  the  art  of  novel  writ- 
ing, and  in  his  autobiography,  "  Finder  und 
Erflnder,"  he  gives  a  chnrmmg  account  of  the 
inlluences  which  conspired  to  make  him  a  novel 

Spike'nxrd,  or  Hard,  (1)  the  Nardoataehya 
jatamanai,  a  valerianaceous  plant  of  India.  Its 
strong  odor  is  disagreeable  to  most  Europeans, 
but  it  is  considered  precious  in  the  IHast.  Its 
medicinal  properties  are  those  of  valerian.  (2) 
Roots  of  various  species  of  valerian  are  ex- 
ported from  Europe  to  the  Levant  under  the 
name  of  Frankish  nan],  Celtic  nard,  and  moun- 
tain nard.  Cretan  nard  is  also  the  root  of  a 
valerian.  These  are  used  as  substitutes  for 
true  spikenard.  {3)  In  England  the  fragrant 
oil  of  Andropogen  nardu4,  an  E.  Indian  grass, 
is  called  oil  of  spikenard,  and  used  in  per- 
fumery. ( 4 )  In  the  U.  S.  the  name  spikenard 
is  given  to  Aralia  raeomota,  and  the  A.,  nu- 
dicaulia,  or  false  sarsaparilla,  is  called  small 
apikenard. 

Spike,  OQ  of,  the  volatile  oil  of  the  Lavan- 
dula jtpioa,  the  broad-leaf  lavender  of  Europe. 
It  has  an  odor  much  like  turpentine.  It  is 
used  by  artists  in  preparing  varnishes,  and  by 
veterinarians. 

S^ncch,  or  Spinafe  (spln'Bj),  the  Spinaoia 
cAeracea,  a  cbenopodiaceous  Old  World  herb, 
much  cultivated  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world 
as  A  pot  herb,  especially  for  use  in  the  spring. 
There  are  about  twenty  varieties  grown  \n  the 
U.  S.  Otlier  plants  of  this  and  of  other  genera 
having  similar  usea  are  locally  called  by  this 


SPINAL  CUBVATURE8 

Spi'nal  Caries  (ki'rl.fa),  or  Pott'*  Diaease" 
of  the  Spine,  an  inOammatory  condition  of  the 
vertebrce,  destructive  in  its  nature,  uaually 
tuberculous,  and  slow  in  its  course.  A  slight 
injury  ia  often  sufficient  to  awaken  the  process 
in  a  predisposed  individual.  Gradual  disin- 
tegration of  the  bodies  qf  one  or  more  vertebrte 
takes  place  with  subsequent  bending,  which 
produces  a  kyphosis  or  sharp  projection  back- 
ward. The  early  symptoms  are  colicky  pains 
in  the  abdomen  (often  mistaken  for  indiges- 
tion), reflex  pains  in  the  limbs,  Euid  rigidity 
of  the  back  in  walking  and  stooping.  If  the 
disease  ia  situated  in  the  cervical  or  upper 
dorsal  r^ions,  an  irritative  cough  is  often  an 
early  symptom. 

"Ihe  treatment  consists  in  keeping  the  dis- 
eased bones  perfectly  at  rest  until  nature 
throws  a  bony  bridge  across  the  diseased  gap 
and  anchyloses  the  spifie.  This  result  may  be 
accomplished  by  placing  the  patient  continu- 
ously in  the  recumbent  posture,  or  by  the  ap- 
plication of  a  hard  leather  or  rigid  jacket, 
plaster  of  Paris  splint,  or  other  device.  The 
disease  is  long  and  tedious,  often  extending 
over  many  years.  Abscesses  frequently  form 
in  the  back  or  groin,  more  commonly  in  ttie 
latter  situation.  The  latter  oondition  is  known 
as  a  psoas  abscess,  from  the  fact  that  the  pua 
follows  the  sheath  of  the  psoas  muscle.  When 
the  pus  seeks  exit  in  the  back,  the  process  con- 
stitutes a  lumbar  abscess. 

Paralysis  qf  the  lower  limbs  occasionally  re- 
sults, which  though  tedious  ia  usually  curable, 
Sirovided  extension  and  fixation  are  rigidly  en- 
orced.    See  Caboes. 

Sp'nal  Cni'vatnru  are  of  three  kinds:  (1) 
rachitic,  (2)  lateral,  (3)  angular.  The  curva- 
ture of  rickets  (rachitis)  is  usually  a  simple 
exaggeration  of  the  normal  curves  of  the  spine 
— convexity  or  kyphosis  in  the  dorsal,  and 
concavity  or  lordosis  in  the  lumbar  region; 
occasionally  there  is  a  lateral  bending  (bco- 
liosie ) .  ' 

Lateral  curvature  is  a  deviation  of  the  spinal 
column  at  one  or  several  points  from  the  posi- 
tion which  it  occupies  in  health  in  the  median 
line  of  the  back,  accompanied  by  marked  rota- 
tion of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebrie  aroi^nd  the 
axis  of  the  spinal  column,  which  is  thus  much 
more  distorted  in  front  than  behind.  It  occurs 
in  children;  in  young,  imperfectly  developed, 
feeble,  and  growing  adults,  more  especially 
women,  and  less  often  In  men.  Habitual  use 
of  one  arm  to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  may 
cause  deviation  of  the  spine  to  the  stronger 
side — a  common  occurrence  in  weakly  children 
atr  school,  housemaids,  etc  Disease  of  one  lung 
by  limiting  respiratory  movement  on  one  side 
often  causes  dorsal  curvature  to  the  more 
active  side.  Shortening  of  one  limb,  hip-joint 
disease,  persistent  limping  by  tilting  trie  pel- 
vis, throws  the  spine  out  of  center  and  develops 
lumbar  curvature. 

Lateral  curvature  is  often  cnrable  by  cor- 
recting bad  habits,  as  favoring  one  side  in 
standing,  aitting,  or  aleeping,  by  resort  to  light 
gymnaaticB  and  passive  movements,  and  by  the 
use  of  apparatua  which  removes  weight  from 
the  spine  and  applies  pressure  or  traction  to 


.y  Google 


SPINE 

eaontenet  the  raires.  Oreat  advanUM  may, 
in  «arl;  cases,  be  derived  from  l^^ing  flat  on  the 
bock,  without  a  pillow  and  on  a.  hard  mattreaa, 
for  at  least  an  hotir  in  the  mid  part  of  the 
day.  6«neral  tonic  treatmeDt,  cod -liver  oil, 
and  phosphates,  out-of-door  life,  warm  clothing, 
etimulBting  baths,  and  regulated  diet  are  indi- 
cated in  all  cases. 

For  angular  curvature,  see  Spinal  Cariea. 
Spine,  the  backbone,  the  composite  bony  col- 
unm  of  vertebrated  animala  which  affords  at- 
tachments, direct  or  indirect,  for  the  ribs  anij 
other  bony  parts,  and  for  numerous  muscles. 
In  man  it  is  a  flexible  column  of 
thirty-three  vertebre  united  by  liga- 
ments, with  interposed  cartilaginous 
cushiona.  The  column  is  from  2  to 
2i  ft.  in  length,  and  viewed  later- 
ally presents  marked  curves.  ( Fig. 
1.)  The  column  is  divided  into  re- 
gions— the  cervical,  dorsal,  lumbar, 
and  pelvic — corresponding  to  the 
neck,  chest,  abdomen,  and  pelvis. 
The  vertebrie,  excepting  in  the  pel- 
vic region,  rotate  freely  and  fles 
both  anteroposteriorly  and  lateral- 
ly. A  single  vertebra  (Fig.  2)  con- 
sists of  the  lody,  which  unites  it 
to  other  vertebrEs,  and  a  bony  ring 
which  incloses  the  vertebral  fora- 
men or  vertebral  canal,  protecting 
the  spinal  cord;  this  ring  has  proc- 
esses for  attachment  of  ribs,  liga- 
ments, and  muscles. 

The  medulla  spinalis  is  that  part 
of  the  central  nervous  system  which 
na.  1.      is  inclosed  in  the  spinal  canal,  ex- 
tendinjf  from  just  below  the   fora- 
men  magnum,    at    the   base   of   the   skull,    to 
a   point   usually   opposite   the   upper   part  of 
the  first  and  second  lumbar  vertebrc.     It  is  a 
cylindrical,  slightly  flattened,  cordlike  mass  of 
nervous   matter,   continuous   at  its  upper   end 
wtth  the  medulla   oblongata,  and   terminating 
below  in  a  conical  extremity,  its  entire  length 
being  about  18  in.     In  this  course  it  gives  off 
thirty-one  pairs  of  spinal  nerves,  by  means  of 
which  it  is  pieced  in  communication  with  the 
whole  of  the  body 
below     the     head. 
The  spinal  cord  is 
inclosed   by    three 
membranes   which 
lie  within  the  bony 
canal  of  the  spine 
— the  dura  mater, 
the  arachnoid,  and 
the  pia  Plater.  The 
structure  and  gen- 
eral   arrangement 
of    these   mem- 
branes     do      not 
essentially     differ 
from  those  of  the  same  enyelopes  around  the 

The  spinal  cord  itself,  like  the  other  nervous 
centers,  consists  of  certain  elementary  tissues; 
these  are  a  supporting  baaia  substence,  the 
neuroglia,  the  connective  tissue  derived  from 
the  pia  mater;  the  nerve  cells,  the  nerve  fibers. 


ferent  parts  of  the  spinal  cord.  In  general 
terms,  it  may  be  said  that  the  spinal  cord  is 
made  up  in  its  central  parts  of  gray  matter — 
i.e.,  groups  of  ganglion  cells  of  different  sizes, 
with  nerve  fibers,  blood  vessels,  and  delicate 
basis  substance;  and  in  its  outer  peripheral 
parts  of  white  matter — i.e.,  or  less  coarse  basts 
substance,  supporting  medu Hated  nerve  Sbers 
and  containing  blood  vessels. 

Spin'el,  a  mineral,  essentially  a  compound 
of  alumina  and  magnesia,  but  with  variations 
and  admixtures  that  give  rise  to  a  great  variety 
of  colors  and  tints.  The  transparent  spinels 
make  beautiful  gems,  the  finest  bavit^  often 
been  erroneously  sold  tor  true  rubies.  The  pink 
variety  is  known  as  balas  ruby  or  hibicelle, 
the  blue  sapphire  spinel,  the  green  chloroepinel, 
tb»  purple  almandine  spinel.  The  so-called 
Black  Prince's  ruby  in  the  English  crown  is  a 
spineL  The  best  spinel  gems  are  from  Ceylon, 
Burma,  and  SUm. 

Spinello  di  Ln'ca  Spinelli,  called  Spihello 
Aretiko,  aht.  1333-1410;  painter;  b.  Arezzo, 
Italy.  He  was  the  pupil  of  Jacopo  di  Casen- 
tino,  and  at  the  age  of  twenty  surpassed  his 
master.  Some  scenes  from  the  life  of  St.  Bene- 
dict (painted  in  1384)  by  Spinello,  at  San 
Miniato,  near  Florence,  are  still  in  good 
preservation.  Before  this  date  he  bad  deco- 
rated many  churches  in  his  native  city;  in 
San  Francesco  an  "  Annunciation  "  still  eiisb 
in  the  chapel  of  St.  Michael.  He  painted  a 
fantastic  composition  of  the  archangel  driving 
Lucifer  from  heaven,  a  fragment  of  which 
fresco  is  in  the  National  Gallery,  London.  In 
ISal  Spinello  painted  a  panel  for  the  abbey  of 
the  Catnaldolesi,  in  the  Casentino.  In  13S7 
Spinello  was  invited  to  Pisa  to  work  in  the 
Campo  Santo  there,  and  painted  pictures  con- 
sidered his  masterpieces,  but  now  nearly  de- 
stroyed. He  left  Pisa  on  account  of  political 
disturbances,  and  after  a  year  in  Florence  he 
returned  to  Arezzo  aht.  1394.  Here  he  worked, 
decorating  many  churches  with  frescoes  till 
I40G,  when  he  went  to  Siena  to  paint  the 
aeries  of  frescoes  still  preserved  in  the  towu- 
hall  of  that  city.  The  last  that  is  heard  of 
him  in  Siena  is  in  1408,  after  which  he  re- 
turned to  his  birthplace,  where  he  died. 

Spin'et.    See  Habpsicbobd;  Pianofobte, 

Spin'ning,  the  art  of  producing  from  vege- 
table or  animal  fibers  an  even  and  compact 
thread  suitable  for  sewing  or  weaving,  it  is 
one  of  the  most  ancient  of  industries,  and  is 
still  practiced  in  many  countries  by  the  spindle 
and  aiatafl  in  the  some  manner  that  the  process 
is  pictured  on  Egyptian  monuments.  The 
distaff,  held  in  the  left  hand,  was  a  simple 
stick  around  which  the  fiber  was  loosely  coilod; 
the  spindle  was  a  species  of  top  which  was  set 
in  motion  by  a  twirl  of  the  hand,  and  by  com- 
bining its  rotary  motion  with  a  gradual  move- 
ment away  from  the  spinner,  who  equalized 
the  size  of  the  flber  by  passing  it  between  the 
finger  and  thumb  of  the  right  hand  until  the 
motion  of  the  spindle  was  exhausted,  when  the 
thread  was  wound  around  it,  and  tiie  proceea 


mmasa 

WB8  repeated.  The  flnt  {mpTovement  cotwiBted 
in  plAciDg  the  Hpindle  in  a  frame  «od  maJdng 
it  revolve  in  connectioD  with  a  wheel  and 
treadle.  This  coastitut«d  the  spinning  wheel, 
which  cannot  be  traced  further  back  titan  1530. 
Modem  inveutiod  hsa  added  little  to  this  im- 

Slement,  the  chief  improvement  being  a  bobbin 
n-  winding  the  yam  b;  a,  motion  separate 
from  that  of  the  spindle. 

The  spinning  jenn;  was  theearliest  spinning 
machine  in  which  more  than  one  thread  was 
spun  at  a  time.  Cotton'  is  reduced  from  the 
state  of  the  fleecy  roll  called  carding  into  the 
state  of  spun  thread  bj  repeated  though  aim- 


Thb  SnimiNa  JsinrT. 

liar  operations.  The  first  draws  out  the  card- 
ing and  gives  it  a  very  slight  twiat,  so  as  to 
make  it  into  a  loose  thread  about  the  thickness 
of  a  candle  wick,  which  is  called  a  roving  or 
slubbin.  The  subsequent  processes  draw  out 
the  roving  much  finer,  and  at  length  reduce  it 
into  yam.  The  spinning  jenny,  invented  abt. 
1764  by  James  Hargreaves,  was  not,  like  Ark- 
wrights  spinning  frame  (ITQB),  capable  of 
being  applied  to  the  preparation  of  the  roving 
itself.  In  tTTB  Samuel  Crompton  completed 
his  invention  of  the  mule,  which  combined  In 
one  machine  the  principles  of  both  the  jenny 
and  the  frame,  and  by  which  the  jenny  was 
ultimately  superseded.  The  person  operating 
the  jenny  turned  the  wheel  with  the  right  hand, 
and  with  the  left  drew  out  from  the  slubbin 
box  the  ravings,  which  were  twisted  by  the 
turn  of  the  wheel.  Next  a  piece  of  wood,  lifted 
up  by  the  toe,  let  down  a  wire,  which  so  pressed 
out  the  threads  that  they,  wound  regularly 
upon  bobbins  placed  in  the  spindles.  The  num- 
ber of  spindles  in  the  jenny  was  at  first  eight, 
but  as  many  as  120  have  been  used.  The  in- 
troduction of  the  spinning  jenny  met  with 
great  opposition.  In  IT7S  a  mob  destroired  the 
jennies  for  several  miles  around  Blackburn, 
and  with  them  all  the  carding  engines,  spin- 
ning frames,  and  every  machine  turned  by 
water  or  horses.  The  spinning  industry  was 
driven  from  Blackburn  to  Manchester  and  other 


ginning  Wheel.    See  Spihnimo. 


SpinoU  (spe'nft-U),  Ambtoilo  (Marquii  de), 
abt.     1671-1630;     soldier    in    the    service    of 
Spain)  b.  Genoa,  Italy;  took  service  under  his 
brother,  an  admiral  in  the  Spanish  navy ;  par- 
ticipated  in  the   war   against  the  Dutch  and 
Snglish,   15S8 ;    raised  at  his   own   expense  in 
Spain  a  corps  of  veterans,  at  whose  head  he 
proceeded  to  the  Spanish  Netherlands,   160Z; 
rescued  the  Archduke  Albert  from  the  superior 
forces  of  Prince   Maurice   of   Nassau ;   became 
chief    commander    of   the    Spanish   armies   in 
Flanders,    1003;    and    took   command   of    the 
forces  around  tetend,  which  had  been  besieged 
for  two  years.    The  city  capitulated,  Septem- 
ber, 1604.     He  conducted  the  war  with 
Seat  abili'^,  but  varying  success,  until 
e  truce  oi  twelve  years  (1609),  which 
be    favored;     commanded    the    Spanish 
forces    in    Oermanv;     took    AiX'la-Cha- 
pelle,  Wesel,  and  JQlich,   1622;   was  re- 
pulsed from  Bergen-op-Zoom,  1623;  cap- 
tured  Breda   after    a   protracted    siege, 
I   1626;  was  later  commander  of  the  Span- 
ish army  in  Italy,  and  captured  the  city 
of    Caaale,    Pie^ont,    but    died    while 

Sressing  the  siege  of  the  citadel.  His 
eath  is  said  to  have  been  hastened  by 
his  chagrin  at  the  ingratitude  of  tha 
'  Spanish  Govt,  in  disr^^rding  his  pe- 
cuniary claims. 

S^D'ca,  BatdcIi  or  Boiedict,   1632- 
77;  Dutch  philosopher;  b.  Amsterdam; 
«    member    of    the    Spanish-Portuguesa 
Jewish  community  at  that  place,  then 
the   chief   seat   of    European  Judaism. 
Becoming  a  sceptic,  he  cut   loose  from 
Judaism,   and   unable   to   accept   Christianity, 
he    was    left   without    support.     The   Jewish 
Qod,    as    the   cause    and    creator   of   tlie   uni- 
verse,  he   had   discarded;    the   Christian   con- 
ception of  Gh>d  was  utterly  repugnant  to  his 
originally  Jewish  mind ;   and  thus  he  had  no 
other  recourse  left  than   the  so-called  panthe- 
ism of  Substantiality.     He  was  expelled  from 
the  synagogue  in  1658,  and  changed  his  name 
from    Baruch    to    Benedict    Spinoza;    and,    to 
avoid  persectition,  lived  in  deep  seclusion  from 
1656  to  1661. 

'In  personal  appearance  Spinoia  was  of  mid- 
dle height ;  his  features  were  regular  and  well 
formed,  complexion  dark,  hair  curly  and  black, 
long  black  eyelashes,  and,  as  Leibnitz  remarks, 
"  with  somewhat  of  the  Spanish  in  bis  face." 
To  earn  his  livelihood  he  learned  to  grind  op- 
tical glasses,  and  also  tbe  art  of  painting.  His 
mode  of  living  was  extremely  frugal  and  se- 
cluded. He  never  married.  The  ground  ot  the 
extraordinary  interest  taken  in  Spinoza  is  to 
be  found  in  the  pantheistic  view  of  the  universe 
which  he  has  carried  out  in  the  completcst  of 
extant  forms  in  his  "  Ethics."  Hence  none  of 
the  other  works  of  Spinoza  claim  special  notice. 
In  his  scheme  there  were  no  (Jod,  no  Freedom, 
no  Immortality.  > 

Spire,  term  specifically  applied  fo  the  taper- 
ing portion  of  a  steeple  rising  above  the  tower, 
but  sometimes  loosely  applied  to  the  steeple 
itself.  The  earliest  spires.  In  the  architectural 
sense,  were  merely  pyramidal  or  oonical  roofs, 
of  which  sUll  exist  in  Nomum  build- 


Inga.  Th«M  roofa,  baeoming  gradasUr  elon- 
gated  and  more  aod  more  acute,  r«aulted  at 
Imgth  in  the  elegant  tapering  spire.  The  spirea 
of  mediRTBil  architecture 
(to  which  alone  the  term 
is  appropriate)  are  gen- 
erallj  aquare,  octagonal, 
or  circular  in  plan;  tbe^ 
are  Bometimei  solid,  more 
frequently  hollow,  and  are 
varloiulj  onuunented  with 
bands  mcir  cling  them, 
with  panelB  more  or  leaa 
enriched,  and  with  spire 
lighta,  which  are  of  in- 
finite variety.  Their  an- 
gles are  eometimet  crock- 
eted,  and  they  are  almost 
invariably  terminated  by 
a  flnlaL  The  term  spire 
i«  aometlmea  restrictea  to 
signify  such  tapering 
buildings,  erownmg  tow- 
era  or  turrete,  as  have 
parapets  at  their  base. 
Spii'itB.  See  Gsosra. 
Spirit  Dock,  a  com- 
mon N.  American  dnck 
( Charitonetta  albeola) . 
Brmx.  Tha    male    haa    the    head 

very  puffy  and  Irideaoent, 
hence  the  name  bufflehead.     It  is  an  expert 

Spirit  Plant    See  Holt  Qhost  Flowxb. 

Spli'ItnaUam,  the  creed  of  those  who  believe 
in  the  communication  of  tbe  spirits  of  the  dead 
with  the  living,  usually  through  the  agency  of 
peraons  called  mediums,  and  also  in  certain 
physical  phenomena,  traiucending  natural  laws, 
MUeved  to  accompany  frequently  such  spiritual 
communication,  and  attributed  either  to  the 
direct  action  of  spirits  or  to  some  force  devel- 
oped by  the  medium's  personatitv. 

The  elements  of  the  spiritualistic  creed  are 
not  new,  but  are  traceable  severally  to  a  high 
antiquity  among  different  races  and  in  widely 
separate  localities,  and  have  usually  been  as- 
sociated with  some  form  o{  religion;  they  have 
been  revived,  though  not  of  conscious  purpose, 
and  gathered  into  one  body  of  beliefs  as  the 
result  of  certain  incidents  which  took  place  at 
Hydesville,  N.  Y.,  in  1848,  In  March,  1848, 
rapping  sounds  were  heard,  apparently  proceed- 
ing from  various  parts  of  a  house  in  Hydes- 
viUe,  belong!^  to  a  family  named  Voss  (an- 
glicized into  Fox) .  These  sounds  were  always 
perceived  In  the  presence  of  one  or  both  of  the 
young  daughters  of  Mr.  Fox,  and  a  code  of 
communication  was  established  by  which  con- 
versation was  carried  on.  In  1868  Mrs.  Eane 
(Margaretta  Fox)  confessed  that  she  and  her 
sister  had  made  the  sounds  with  their  toes; 
but  before  her  death  she  repudiated  this  con- 

The  Hydesville  phenomena  led  to  the  forma- 
tion of  numerous  circles,  where  rappinga  of  a 
umilar  kind  were  produced,  and  supposed  com- 
moaicatian  with  toe  spirits  of  the  d^d  was 
(stabliahed.    To  the  spirit  rapplngs  were  added 


SPnUTTTALISU 


other  phenomana,  audi  as  table  turning,  auto- 
matio  writing,  trance  speaking,  etc. ;  and  tiie 
persons  who  developed  them  received  the  name 
of  mediums.  The  first  medium,  after  the  Fox 
sisters,  was  Andrew  Jackson  Davis,  who  at- 
tracted notice  in  164S  as  a  clairvoyant  and 
later  as  a  trance  speaker.  In  18SS  the  cele- 
brated Daniel  D.  Home  went  to  England,  and 
later  to  the  Continent.  With  Home  spiritual- 
ism reached  its  highest  development,  and  pri- 
vate and  professional  sauces  veii  established 
in  almost  every  European  town.  Home  over- 
shadowed all  contemporary  mediums,  and 
gained  adherents  to  spiritualism  from  every 
intellectual  and  social  class.  He  was  equally 
Bucoetsful  in  receiving  spiritual  communica- 
tions and  in  producing  physical  phenomena, 
which  were  often  severely  tested.    Notable  ei- 

erimenta  in  testing  Home's  powers  were  made 
William  Crookes,  by  means  of  apparatus  of 
his  own  construction. 

Some  years  later  Slade,  and  also  Eglinton, 
attracted  much  attention  in  Europe  by  so- 
called  psychography,  or  spirit  writing  (usually 
on  slates).  The  spiritualists  attributed  this 
psychography  to  the  spirits,  and  the  nonspirit- 
ualists  asserted  it  to  tie  due  to  conjuring.  One 
of  the  most  noted  mediums  in  England  was  the 
Rev.  William  Steinton  Moees  (d.  1892).  Ha 
claimed  to  receive  communications  from  spir- 
its, both  of  those  recently  departed  and  of 
personages  belonging  to  remote  generations. 

In  I8B2  a  series  of  sittings  under  unusually 
stringent,  If  not  perfect,  conditions  wss  held 
by  a  committee  of  Italian  savants  with  a  Nea- 
politan medium,  Mme,  Eusapia  Palladino,  with 
the  result  that  several  of  this  committee  were 
convinced  of  the  supernormal  character  of  the 
phenomena  observed,  while  the  others,  if  not 
quite  convinced,  were  unable  to  offer  any  sat- 
isfactory explanation  of  what  thc^  had  seen. 
The  phenomena  consist^  in  alterations  in  the 
weight  of  the  medium,  raps,  moving  of  furni- 
ture, and  materialisation  of  hands. 

Spiritualistic  communications  or  vnessagea 
are  received  through  the  automatic  writTng 
with  pencil  or  planchette,  or  trance  speaking 
of  the  medium  when  under  spirit  control;  by 
direct  writing  of  the  spirite  on  paper  or  slates 
with  pencil  or  chalk;  by  precipitated  writing 
— that  is,  writing  supposed  to  be  produced  on 
paper  without  visible  means;  by  tabic  turning, 
eitiier  with  or  without  contact  of  the  medi- 
um, and  interpreted  by  a  conventional  code; 
and  by  raps  on  the  furniture  or  walls  of  a 
room,  made  intelligible  by  a  code  as  in  table 
turning. 

Tbe  principal  so-called  physical  phenomena 
of  spintualism  are  lights,  musical  sounds,  as 
of  invisible  inatruments  played  on  or  playing 
of  real  instruments  by  invisible  or  materiatized 
hands ;  moving  of  furniture  and  other  heavy 
objects;  the  passage  of  matter  through  matter, 
as  bringing  flowers  or  other  material  objecte 
into  closed  rooms;  materializations  of  hands 
or  other  parts  of  the  body  or  of  complete  hu- 
man figures;  spirit  photography;  and,  finally, 
phenomena  immediately  affecting  the  medium, 
such  as  levitation  or  floating  in  the  air  with- 
out visible  support,  the  elongation  or  shorten- 
ing of  his  body,  and  fire  teste,  when  tbe  medium 


'SPTTHEAD 

haudlea  live  coala  and  gives  them  to  othen  to 
handle  without  injuiy,  phenomena  for  which 
Home  was  especially  renowned. 

Spiritualiato  acknowledge  that  many  expo- 
sures of  fraud  in  medimus  have  been  made. 
They  assert,  however,  that  such  fraud  is  to  be 
expected  occasionally  in  professional  mediums, 
since  their  living  depends  upon  the  production 
of  phenomena,  and  the  necessary  power  is  very 
uncertain.  They  also  say  that  the  trickery  is 
generally  of  a  rather  simple  kind,  and  that  the 
genuine  phenomena  are  unmistakable,  and  not 
to  be  so  explained,  and  that  therefore  occa- 
sional trickery  does  not  necessarily  prove 
habitoal  bad  faith  on  the  part  of  a  medium. 
In  190S  there  were  437  spiritualistic  organixa- 
tions  in  the  U.  S.,  with  75,000  members. 

Spifhead,  a  roadstead  off  Portsmouth,  Eng- 
land, the  E.  portion  of  the  sea  channel  sep- 
arating the  Isle  of  Wight  from  the  English 
mainland.  Its  security  as  an  anchorage,  being 
protected  from  all  winds  except  those  from  the 
SE.,  its  contiguity  to  the  naval  establishioent 
at  Portsmouth,  and  its  proximity  to  the  coasts 
of  the  Continent,  make  it  a  favorite  rendezvous 
of  the  British  navy.  Spitbead  has  been  strong- 
ly fortified  since  1884. 

SpltiberE'eQ,  Arctic  archipelago,  400  m.  N. 
of  North  Cape  of  Norway;  coosisting  of  W. 
Spitzbergen,  Northeast  f-and,  Stana  Foreland, 
King  Charles  Land,  Prince  Charles  Foreland, 
and  many  amatler  islands;  area,  27.000  sq.  m., 
with  no  permanent  inhabitaitts,  and  not  claimed 
by  any  country.  The  islands  are  mountainous, 
and  mostly  covered  with  snow  and  ice.  Only 
along  the  shore  are  found  patches  of  laad, 
where  during  the  two  summer  montlis,  when 
the  thermometer  rises  10°  F.  above  the  freez- 
ing point,  the  snow  melts  and  a  few  herbs 
appear.  The  mountains  contain  granite,  mar- 
ble, and  coal.  Sears,  reindeer,  and  foxes  are 
found,  and  innumerable  whales,  seals,  and  sea 
fowl  gather  along  the  shores.  The  islands  were 
discovered  in  IS33,  and  visited  in  1596  by  the 
Dutch  navigator  Barentz  while  seeking  a 
NE.  passage  to  India.  The  group  forma  occa- 
sionally the  base  of  operatiqns  for  Arctic  ex- 
peditions. 

S^tx  Dog,  the  Pomeranian  dog,  a  small  va- 
riety thought  to  be  a  crosa  between  the  Arctic 
wolf  do^  and  the  Arctic  fox,  like  the  Es- 
kimo, Siberian,  and  Iceland  dogs,  to  which, 
though  much  smaller,  it  has  a  marked  resem-' 
blance.  It  is  characterized  by  short  and  erect 
ears,  a  pointed  muzzle,  a  curved  bushy  tail, 
and  long  hair,  usually  pure  white,  but  some- 
times cream  color  or  even  deep  black.  It  is 
brisk  in  its  movements,  useful  as  a  watch- 
dog, somewhat  snappish,  handsome,  quick  of 
apprehension,  and  a  favorite  lapdog  in  the 
U.  S.  and  Europe. 

Splaen,  the  largest  of  the  ductless  glands 
'  the  body.  In  man,  it  is  in  the  left  hypo- 
cnondriac  r^ion,  beneath  the  ninth,  tenth,  and 
eleventh  ribs;  its  inner  surface  adjoins  the 
stomach.  It  is  directly  related  to  adjacent 
viscera  by  its  blood  supply,  the  splenic  artery 
being  the   largest   branch   of  the  ctaliao  axis. 


SPOKANE 

^0  variable  size  and  gross  and  minute  struc- 
ture of  the  spleen  indicate  that  it  is  a  great 
vascular  reservoir.  In  health  it  is  G  in.  long, 
3  to  4  thick,  and  1  to  1  j  in  breadth,  and 
weighs  7  oz. ;  it  is  larger  immediately  after 
eating,  and  in  malarial  and  certain  other  dis- 
eases may  weigh  15  or  20  lb.,  and  occupy  the 
abdomen  down  to  the  pelvic  bones.  Such  en- 
largement is  popularly  called  the  ague  cake, 
rupture  of  which  and  consequent  death  may  be 
caused  by  slight  violence.  The  subetauce  of 
the  spleen  is  a  soft,  pulpy  mass  of  dark, 
reddish-brown  color,  consisting  of  granular 
matter,  red  and  white  blood  cells,  and  the 
Malpighian  corpuscles — masses  of  lymphoid 
cells  closely  padced  about  the  terminal  arte- 

The  functions  of  the  spleen  are  not  definitely 
known,  but  it  is  certainly  the  birthplace  of 
iioth  white  and  red  blood  corpuscles.  It  is 
active  also  in  the  destruction  of  red  corpuscles. 
It  is  prol>ably  a  storehouse  for  nutritive  ma- 
terial, and  since  in  certain  diseases,  as  malaria, 
plague,  etc.,  the  invading  organisms  are  sotoe-  . 
times  found  in  the  spleen,  though  hard  to  dis- 
cover elsewhere,  it  may  be  that  it  has  a  pro- 
tective '  function.  It  is  not  an  indispensable , 
organ,  for  it  has  been  removed  in  animals  and 
men  with  no  serious  result.     The  spleen  is  fre- 

Juently  congested  in  the  course  of  infectious 
iseases,  such  as  typhoid  fever,  malaria,  typhns 
fever,  and  the  like,  and  is  often  permanently 
enlarged  by  repeated-  congestions,  infiltration, 
and  hypertrophy  of  its  tissue.  ,  There  may  be 
Bupemumerary  spleens. 

Splint,  a  bony  growth,  generally  upon  the 
inside  of  the  fore  leg  of  the  horse,  below  the 
knee.  In  young  horses  it  is  usually  caused  by' 
overwork.  Rest,  poulticing,  and  packing  with 
cold,  wet  compresses  are  recommended  for  the 
early  stages.  I^ter,  iodine,  mercurial  oint- 
ment, blisters,  and  the  actual  cautery  may  be 
employed,  but  not  till  the  inflammation  is 
gone.  If  the  tendons  are  interfered  with,  vet- 
erinary surgeons  sometimes  remove  the  splint. 

Splil'gen,  mountain  pass  of  the  Alps,  leading 
from  Switzerland  into  Italy  over  an  elevation 
of  6,046  ft.  On  the  Italian  side  it  is  covered 
at  many  places  with  galleries  of  solid  masonry 
to  protect  travelers  from  avalanches.  These 
galleries  were  built  by  the  Austrian  Govt.,  and 
finished  in  1834. 

Spoils  Syi'tem,  in  politics,  the  system  of 
bestowing  public  offices  upon  members  of  the 
party  in  power  as  rewards  for  political  services. 
See    Civil    Sebvick    and   Civil   BESTica   Rs- 

FOBM. 

Spokane'  (formerly  called  Spokane  Falls), 
capital  of  Spokane  Co,,  Wash.,  on  the  Bpokane 
River,  and  an  Important  railway  center  of  the 
Pacific  coast;  about  15  m.  W.  of  the  boundary 
between  Washington  and  Idaho.  It  is  at  the 
falls  of  Spokane  River,  and  has  a  picturesque 
location.  The  business  portion  is  built  about 
the  falls,  with  broad  streets. 

Spokane  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  in  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  and  the  Jesuits 
have  three  church  buildings,  several  parochial 


SPONGE  FISHERIES 

gchoole,  and  a  college — Qoiua«:&  Collie.  The 
Jesuit  missioiiBTiea  came  to  Spokane  when  it 
was  &  mere  village,  H.nd  acquired  an  extenaive 
tract  ol  land,  now  within  the  city  limits,  by 
which  their  college  has  become  well  endowed. 
Spokane  has  an  excellent  school  Hystem. 

In  Iflll  the  city  hud  a  property  valuation  of 
191,034,031,  and  a  bondtd  debt  of  $S,UBH,391. 
The  receipts  from  all  sources  are  about  $2,300,- 
000   per   annum,   and   expenditure's   aomething 

Admirable  water  power  from  the  Spokane 
River  has  mode  Spokane  an  important  center 
for  manufacturea.  The  output  of  the  flour 
mills  for  1900  was  357,080  barrels.  It  has  a, 
large  lumber  trade. 

In  1879  the  aite  of  Spokane  was  occupied  by 
an  Indian  trading  store  and  a  aawmill.  The 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad  was  completed  as 
far  as  Spokane  in  I8S4,  and  from  that  time 
the  place  had  a  rapid  growth.  It  became  the 
chief  supply  point  tor  numerous  mines  in 
VVaahington,  Idaho,  and  British  Columbia,  and 
a  rich  agricultural  region  S.  and  W.  In 
August,  1869,  it  was  almost  wholly  destroyed 
by  fire.  More  than  ^8,000,000  was  invested  in 
bnsiuesa  blocks  within  two  years.  During  the 
same  period  there  was  a  rapid  concentration  of 
railways  here.  In  1S94-95  its  citizens  gave 
1,000  acres  adjoining  the  city  to  the  U,  S. 
Govt,  for  the  eHtablishment  of  a  large  military 
post.  Fort  Wright.    Pop.  (1910)  104,402. 

Sponge  Fiah'eiies,  those  industries  which 
consist  in  the  gathering  and  preparation  of  the 
fibrous,  homy  framework  remamiug  when  the 
fiesby  matter  has  been  washed  away  from  one 
of  the  Ceratoapongia.  The  softness  and  value 
of  a  sponge  depend  on  the  firmness  and  elas- 
tid^  of  the  fibers,  and  their  freedom  from 
hard  spicules.  The  best  sponges  grow  in  clear, 
quiet  water,  150  to  200  ft.  deep.  The  commer- 
cial grades  of  sponges  range  in  value  from 
twenty-five  cents  to  $50  a  lb.,  the  fine  Turkey 
sponges  being  most  expensive.  The  greater 
portion  and  the  best  qualities  of  sponges  come 
from  the  Mediterranean  and  Adriatic.  Some 
are  taken  in  the  Bed  Sea,  and  quantities  of  the 
coarse  kinds  corns  from  Florida  and  the 
Bahamas. 

Sponge  flsberies  are  mostly  carried  on  from 
small  rowboate.  The  ^ater  portion  of  the 
Bpongea   are  wrenched   from  the  bottom  by   a 

E rouged  spear ;  but,  owing  to  the  weight  of  the 
andle,  this  Impl^ent  can  be  used  only  in 
water  under  40  ft.  deep;  beyond  that  depth 
divers  are  employed,  or  a  dredge.  In  connec- 
tion with  the  spear  a  water  glass  is  used,  this 
being  a  tube  of  wood  or  metal  3  or  4  ft.  long, 
with  on  end  of  plain  glass.  When  this  is  low- 
ered into  the  water,  the  bottom  can  be  seen 
through  it  plainly.  After  the  sponge  has  been 
taken  from  the  sea  it  is  exposed  to  the  air  until 
decompoaition  sets  in,  and  is  then  beaten  with 
a  stick  or  trodden  nnder  foot  in  water  till  the 
soft  parts  are  removed.  In  Florida  the  sponges 
are  put  in  pens,  where  the  animal  matter  de- 
composes, and  is  washed  out  by  the  tide.  After 
cleaning,  the  sponges  are  bleached,  dried,  and 
baled.  The  Florida  sponge  fishery  for  1908 
amounted  to  622,000  lb.,  worth  $545,000.    Sue- 


SPONSOBS 

cessful  experiments  have  been  made  in  culti- 
vating sponges.  Fresh  sponges  are  cut  into 
pieces  an  inch  square,  and  the  cuttings  are 
skewered  on  bamboo  rods,  which  are  attached 
to  boards  and  sunk  in  favorable  localities.  It 
requires  from  three  to  seven  years  for  a  sponge 
to  attain  a  marketable  sise. 


gida  or  Porifera  of  zoGlogists. 
are  animals  of  uniform  structure,  elt*ho:^^ 
varying  greatly  in  ap^)earance.  All  over  their 
outer  surface  are  minute  openings  or  pores 
which  communicate  with  canals,  and  through 
these  water  enters  the  mass  of  the  aponge.  In 
this  the  canals  branch  and  supply  large  num- 
bers of  chambers  lampulbe),  and  from  these 
ampiillBe  the  water  is  collected  into  excurrent 
canals  and  transported  through  the  cloaca  to 
the  exterior.  In  any  common  sponge  the  gai- 
eral  course  of  these  canals  can  be  traced  among 
the  fibers.     (See  figure.)     Nourishment  is  ob- 


tained from  minute  particles  drawn  in  with 
the  water  which  is  con.stantly  passing  through 
the  body.  In  some  sponges  no  skeleton  occurs, 
but  the  usual  skeletal  elements  are  spicules 
and  fibers,  and  these  are  greatly  different,  both 
in  appearance  and  in  origin,  among  different 
sponges. 

Spicules  are  composed  of  calcium  carbonate 
or  silica.  Fibers  and  spicules  may  occur  in  the 
same  sponge.  The  fibers  form  a  continuous 
network,  and  consist  of  a  peculiar  organic  sub- 
stance, spongin.  Sponges  are  hermaphroditic; 
the  reproductive  elements  consist  of  ^ga  and 
s)icrm  cells,  and  it  is  only  after  the  union  ol 
tliese  two  that  the  egg  will  develop.  Among 
the  more  interesting  forms  which  occur  as  fos- 
sils and  in  the  detper  parte  of  the  ocean  are 
the  "  glass-rope  sponges "  and  the  beautiful 
"  Venua's  flower-basket  sponge."  A  single 
gonua  of  sponges  live  in  fresh  water,  and  are 
found  in  the  U.  S.,  especially  in  the  vicinity  of 
Chicago.  The  deca^  of  these  often  injures  the 
water  supply  of  cities. 

Spon'sors,  in  general,  those  who  In  any  way 
become  surety  for  another;  specifically,  one 
who  at  the  baptism  of  an  infant  promises  in 
L  „■    ....    1       ™  -.  ...     ... 


SPONTANEOUa  COMBUSTION 

bind  tbemaelves  to  see  to  it  tbnt  tb«  child  aliall 
receive  ChriatiaD  trBiniii^.  Uaually,  in  the  Ro- 
man Church,  there  are  two  spoiuors,  a  oiftn 
and  a.  wonun,  ftnd  the  relation  of  godfather  or 
godmother  and  godchild  is  held  to  be  a  real 
one,  precisely  as  though  it  were  one  of 
saneuinity.  The  rule  of  the  Church  of  .  „ 
land  calls  for  three  Bponsors,  two  of  whom  are 
of  the  same  sex  as  the  godchild,  and 


spoonbill  is  often  applied  to  the  shoveler.    The 
spoonbill    aandpiper    is    EuTynorhgnchut    pyg- 


parents  to  act  as  spomiorH. 

Spont«'neous  Combus'tlon,  combostion  with- 
out the  application  of  heat.  Lucifer  matchcH 
have  igniU^l  when  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays, 
and  ptwsphorue,  when  in  a  dry  state,  has  often 
taken  fire  at  the  touch  of  the  hand,  on  account 
of  its  affinity  for  oxygen.  It  is  this  readiness 
to  combine  with  oxygen  which  causes  spontane- 
ous combustion  in  the  case  of  other  bodies. 
Mechanical  division  increases  it  greatly,  by  af- 
fording a  larger  surface  to  the  action  of 
o^gen,  and  by  lessening  the  conducting  powers 
of  the  bodies  acted  on.  If  the  oxides  of  nickel, 
cobalt,  or  iron  are  reduced  by  hydrogen  below 
a  red  heat,  the  resulting  finely  divided  metals 
take  fire  when  poured  into  the  air.  Freshly 
burned  charcoal  is  liable  to  take  fire,  owing 
probably  to  condensation  of  oxygen  in  its 
pores ;  so  it  is  not  ground  for  making  gunpow- 
der imtil  it  has  been  kept  for  a  time.  Recently 
expressed  fixed  oils  absorb  oxygen  and  give  out 
carbon  and  hydrogen;  the  temperature  of  heaps 
of  rags,  tow,  sawdust,  and  similar  bodies 
soaked  with  oil,  grease,  turpentine,  varnishes, 
etc.,  will  rise  on  this  account,  and  the  lov 
conducting  power  of  such  materials  helps  thi 

Brocess,  until  very  often  the  mass  takes  fire, 
ituminous  coal,  especially  when  containing 
much  pyrites,  is  liable  to  spontaneous  combus- 
tion, when  moistened  with  water.  Moisture 
aids  spontaneous  combustion  also  in  the  cases 
where  fermenting  piles  of  damp  hay  or  freshly 
mown  grass  have  taken  fire.  There  are  a  num- 
ber of  alleged  cases  of  spontaneous  combustion 
of  the  human  body,  but  there  is  hardly  an  in- 
stance which  admits  of  no  other  explanation. 
Liehig  considered  that  the  dead  body  of  a  fat 
man,  who  had  been  saturated  with  alcohol, 
might  possibly  bum,  but  that  in  no  circum- 
stances could  a  body,  in  which  the  blood  is  cir- 
culating, take  fire.    See  CoMBDsnon. 


SpoonHiiU,  any  one  of  flvi  or  six  species  of 
wadins  birds  closel;^  related  to  the  ibises,  and 
remarkable  for  their  apoon-shaped  bills.  The 
roseate  spoonbill  ( Ajaja  ajaja )  of  tropical 
and  subtropical  America  is  from  30  to  36  in. 
k)ng;  the  rack,  wings,  and  under  parts  are  of 
a  delicate  rose  color ;  the  lower  neck,  amaller 
wing  coverts,  and  tail  coverts  of  a  rich  car- 
mine hue;  legs  darker.  The  bill  and  bald  head 
are  varied  with  tints  of  green,  yellow,  and 
black.  This  bird  occurs  in  the  S.  of  the  U.  S., 
but  is  growing  scarcer  as  it  is  much  sought 
after.  PlalaUa  leueorodia,  the  only  apeciea 
found  in  Europe,  was  formerly  in  some  de- 
mand for  the  table.     In  the  U.  S.  the  name 


Spoonbill  Duck.     See  Sboveler. 


E» 


between 

Samos  and  Rhodes.  The  more  important  are 
Samos,  Ni carta,  Patmos,  Kalymno,  Cos,  Symc, 
Telos,  Scarpanto,  and  Rhodes.  All  belong  to 
Turkey.  The  cluster  of  islands  N.  of  Negro- 
pont  is  sometimes  called  the  N.  Sporades. 
Scyros,  Scopelos,  Sciathos,  and  Halonnesos  are 
the  chief.    They  belong  to  Greece. 

Spare,  in  botany,  a  single  cell  which  becomes 
free  and  is  capable  of  developing  into  a  new 
plant.  When  it  ia  produced  directly  or  indl' 
rectly  by  an  act  of  fertilisation,  it  is  a  "  sexual 
spore,"  while  any  cell  produced  by  ordinary 
processes. of  vegetation,  and  not  directly  by  a 
union  of  sexual  elements,  which  liecomes  de- 
tached  for   the    purpose   of   direct    vegetative 

logation,  is  called  an  asexual  spore.    Many 

'-  of  spores  are  distinguished  by  botauists. 

Sportt.  See  Bascball,  BASKBr  Ball, 
Cricebt,  Cubuno,  Footbux,  Oolf,  Lacbossb, 
Lawn  Tennis,  Rowina,  Whkstliiio,  Yachtg 
AND  Yadhtino,  etc. 

Sports,  Book  of,  a  proclamation  by  James  I 
of  Great  Britain,  issued  in  1618,  setting  forth 
certain  games  which  might  lawfullyoe  in- 
dulged in  on  Sundays  after  church  service. 
Among  these  were  "  dancing,  archery,  leaping,  . 
vaulting.  May  games,  Whitsun  ales,  morns 
dances,  and  the  setting  up  of  Maypoles."  It 
was  designed  to  prevent  unlawful  interference 
by  Puritanical  magistrates  with  popular  recre- 
ations. Bear  baiting,  bull  baiting,  bowling, 
and  "  interludes  "  were  forbidden  on  Sundays, 
Charles  1  reissued  the  proclamation  in  1633. 
In  1044  the  Lour  Parliament  directed  that  all 
copies    of  the  "  Book  of  Sports  "  be  burned  by 


the 


The  pubUcftUon  of  tlie 


"  Book  of  Sporti  "  gave  riB«  to  intense  excite- 
ment, and  amused  strong  opposition  among  the 
Puritans. 

Spota'wood,  or  Spot'tiswood,  Joiu,  1S66- 
1639;  Scottish  prelate  and  historical  writer; 
b.  Scotland;  educated  at  Glasgow;  chaplain  to 
Scottish  ambassador  in  France,  ISOl ;  accom- 
panied James  VI  to  London,  and  made  Arch- 
bishop of  Glasgow  and  a  member  of  the  Privy 
Council  for  Scotland,  1003 ;  Archbishop  of  St. 
Andrews  and  Primate  of  Scotland,  1615.  He 
crowned  Charles  T  at  HolTTOod,  1633;  in  1625 
became  Chancellor  of  Scotland.  He  drew  great 
obloquy  on  himself  for  the  part  he  took  in  the 
examination  of  John  Ogilvie,  a  Jesuit  priest 
who  was  apprehended  at  Glasgow  and  hanged, 
and  in  the  prosecution  of  Ljord  Balmerino,  who 
was  condemned  to  death  for  the  crime  of  sedi- 
tion. In  1637  he  endeavored  to  introduce  the 
new  liturgy  and  book  of  canons  into  Scotland, 
urged  on  bj  the  king  and  Laud,  contrary  to 
his  own  wish.  He  was  removed  from  the 
chancellorship,  deposed  from  his  bishopric,  and 
excommunicated,  1638.  Wrote  "  History  of 
the  Church  of  Scotland,"  1625.  Among  his 
other  writings  is  a  Latin  treatise,  "  Refutatio 
Libelli  de  R^mine  Eccfeain  Scoticano,"  1620. 


Sprain,  or  Snbltucc'tion,  a  stretching  or 
wrenching  of  the  nonbony  parts  of  a  joint, 
without  aisplacement  of  the  bones,  and  either 
with  or  without  tearing  of  ligaments  or 
tendons.  Severe  sprains  are  eometimes  as 
serious  as  dislocations,  especially  if  the  patient 
attempts  to  use  the  part  before  the  inflamma- 
tion nu  wholly  subsided.  Perfect  rest,  cold 
or  sometimes  hot  lotions  { if  the  latter  be  more 
agreeable),  with  splints  for  mechanical  sup- 
port and  opiates  for  the  pain,  are  the  treat- 
Sprat,  or  6«i'vi«,  the  Barengulus  tprattua, 
a  little  herrins  of  the  European  seas.  Sprats 
are  spiced,  salted,  dried,  or  potted,  and  are 
very  good  when  freah,  but  are  generally  eaten 
only  by  the  poor.  The  French  preserve  small 
sprats,  and  sell  them  for  sardines.  Quantities 
are  also  used  for  fertilizing  land. 

SprM  (sprK),  a  river  of  Prussia;  rises  in 
Saxony,  passes  through  Berlin,  and  joins  the 
Havel  at  Spandau,  after  a  course  of  220  m. 
I^ibsch  was  its  former  limit  of  navigation,  but 
it  has  recently  been  deepened  so  as  to  permit 
ships  to  go  as  far  as  Berlin.  It  has  canal  con- 
nection with  the  Oder. 

Spring;  the  season  of  the  year  which  follows 
winter  and  precedes  summer.  In  the  temper- 
ate regions  of  the  N,  hemisphere  it  includes, 
in  an  indefinite  way,  February,  March,  and 
April  (as  in  Great  BriUin),  or  March,  April, 
and  May  (as  in  N.  America)  ;  astronomically, 
it  wonld  extend  from  March  Slst  to  June  Slst. 
In  the  temperate  regions  of  the  S.  hemisphere 
the  spring  months  are  September,  October,  and 
November.  In  the  tropical  regions  there  is 
neither  spring  nor  autumn,  but  only  two  sea- 
sons, iJie  wet  and  the  dry;  in  the  polar  r^ons, 
only  two  Masons,  summer  and  winter. 


SPRINGFIELD 

SpbiKG,  an  underground  current  of  water 
which  Is  fed  by  rain  falling  on  higher  land, 
and  finally  rises  to  the  earth's  surface.  The 
rain  after  percolating  through  the  soil  gathers 
as  "ground  water"  above  some  impervious 
strata  such  as  clay  or  rock,  and  then  issues  at 
the  base  of  some  hillside  as  a  spring.  The 
water  of  warm  springs  usually  comes  from  a 
great  depth,  or  is  heated  by  coming  in  contact 
with  lava.  Water  in  percolating  through  the 
soil  dissolves  the  soluble  salts,  and  when  the 
amount  of  these  is  large,  they  Tai.^  form  min- 
eral springs  of  more  or  less  medicinal  value. 
See  ABTE8iAn  Wells;  Geisers. 

Spring'liok,  so  called  from  its  habit  of  leap- 
ing when  alarmed,  a  beautiful,  active,  and 
graceful  antelope  of  B.  Africa,  ths  Oaxella 
euchors.    It  goes  in  immense  herds  upon  the 


plains.  Its  flesh  is  in  some  estimation  as  food, 
and  the  hides  are  much  sought  for  by  tanners. 
This  timid  creature,  when  taken  in  band  young, 
becomes  very  tame  and  sportive. 

Spiing'er,  a  name  given  by  sportsmen  to 
several  varieties  of  the  hunting  spaniel,  used 
for  starting  birds  from  bushy  coverts.  The 
Clumber,  Sussex,  and  Norfolk  breeds  are  the 
best.  The  springer  should  weigh  from  14  to  40 
lb.,  and  should  have  a  good  coat,  a  feathery 
tail,  carried  low,  and  an  active,  graceful  style 
of  work.  The  Clumber  is  especially  liked,  be- 
cause it  gives  no  tongue  while  at  its  duty. 

Sprlng'&eld,  capital  of  Illinois  and  of  San- 
gamon Co.,  1S6  m.  SW.  of  Ciiicaga.  The  city 
contains  d.S4  sq.  m.  The  most  conspicuous 
of  the  public  buildings  are  the  state  house, 
the  U.  S.  courthouse  and  post  office,  the  county 
courthouse,  the  governor's  mansion,  the  state 
arsenal,  tlie  city  hall,  and  the  public  library. 
The  capitol,  completed  in  1887,  stands  in  a 
park  of  about  eight  acres.  The  governor's 
mansion  and  grounds  occupy  an  entire  block 
in  the  S.  part  of  the  city.  The  mansion  is  a 
fine  and  imposing  brick  structure.  The  city 
hall  is  built  of  cream-colored  brick  with  stone 
trimmings. 

Among  the  chief  historical  attractions  of 
Sprinsfleld  are  the  Lincoln  residence  and  the 
Lincoln  national  monument  The  latter  stands 
in  Oak  Ridge  Cemetery.  This  mausoleum  con- 
tains the  remoina  of  Pres.  Lincoln,  his  wife, 


SPRINGFIELD 

two  of  hia  children,  and  one  grandson.  In  1900 
the  monument  uas  taken  down  and  rebuilt 
upon  a  foiuidatioD  extending  to  the  solid  rock 
at  the  baae  of  Monument  Hill.  The  recon- 
structed monument  is  identical  in  outline  with 
the  original  except  that  the  shaft  is  greatly 
increasM  in  altitude.  The  Lincoln  borne  is 
owned  bj  the  state,  and  la  maintained  as  it 
was  when  the  President's  family  left  it,  with 
BB  much  as  possible  of  the  furnishings  intact. 

The  tree  public  library  is  claimed  to  be  the 
largest  in  the  U.  S.  in  proportion  to  the  size 
of  the  city.  In  addition,  the  city  has  the  Il- 
linois Stat«  Library,  the  Illinois  State  Histor- 
ioal  Library,  and  the  Supreme  Court  Library. 
Near  the  city  is  Camp  Lincoln,  the  permanent 
training  grounds  of  the  Illinois  National 
Guard. 

The  census  of  1909  showed  171  "factory  sys- 
tem" manufacturing  establishmentB.  represent- 
ing many  industries,  employing  3,662  pcraons, 
and  turning  out  products  valuud  at  $8,407,000. 
The  principal  industries  were  cars  and  general 
shop  construction,  foundry  and  maebine-Bhop 
products,  and  lumlwr  and  planing-mill  prod- 
ucts. The  city  is  an  important  coal-mining 
center,  and  is  surrounded  by  a.  rich  agricul- 
tural region. 

SpringlieUl  was  settled  in  1819,  and  in  1823 
became  the  county  seat.  It  was  incorporated 
as  a  town.  April  2,  1832,  and  as  a  city,  April 
6,  1840.  In  1837  it  was  made  the  permanent 
seat  of  the  state  government.  Pop.  (1910) 
61,678. 

Springfield,  county  seat  of  Hampden  Co.. 
Mass.;  on  the  Connecticut  River.  Springfield 
has  forty-six  churches,  and  an  elaborate  and 
efficient  public-school  system.  There  are  also 
a  French -American  (Protestant)  College  and 
a  Bible  Normal  College. 

The  city  has  property  valuation  of  over 
«128,000,000,  The  receipts  and  expenditures 
are  nearly  equal,  and  are  more  than  $2,100,000. 
The  census  returns  of  1909  showed  .^48  fac- 
tories, employing  11,855  hands,  turning  out 
products  valued  at  831,773,000.  The  city  has 
extensive  factories  of  cars,  arms,  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  paper,  machinery,  metals,  and 
chemicals,  etc.  The  U.  S.  armory  employs 
about   1.000   men   and   the  output  of   rifles   is 


1,500  B 


Springfield  was  settled  in  1636  by  emigrants 
from  Roxbury  under  the  leadership  of  William 
Pynchon,  and  was  firist  called  Agawam.  In 
1840  the  name  was  changed  to  Springfield  in 
compliment  to  Mr.  Pynchon,  whose  country 
residence  in  England  bore  that  name.  In  1675, 
during  King  Philip's  War,  the  town  was 
burned  by  the  Indians.  During  Shay's  Re- 
bellion in  1787  the  U.  S.  arsenal  was  attacked, 
but  the  insurgents  were  dispersed  by  the  state 
militia.     Pop.  (1910)   88,928.. 

Springfield,  capital  of  Greene  Co.,  Mo.;  240 
m.  WSW.  of  St.  Louis,  It  is  on  one  of  the 
highest  plateaus  of  the  Ozark  Mountains,  1.450 
ft.  above  sea  level;  is  built  in  a  grove  of  forest 
trees  with  prairies  on  three  sides,  and  is  in  an 
agricultural  and  lead  and  zinc  mining  region. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Drury  College  (Congr^a- 
tional)    and  &  Roman  Catholic  college.     The 


city  h&8  a  large  jobbing  trade,  embracing  the 
chief  lines  of  merchandise,  and  covering  prin- 
cipally SW.  Missouri  and  NW.  Arkansas. 
There  are  railway-car  and  repair  shops,  a 
wagon  factory,  flour  mills,  etc.  Pop.  (1910) 
35,201. 

Springfield,  capital  of  Clark  Co.,  Ohio;  on 
the  Mad  River,  Lagonda  Creek.  80  m.  NE.  of 
Cincinnati.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region, 
but  best  known  for  its  manufactures.  It  is 
also  the  seat  of  Wittenberg  College.  The  man- 
ufactures inoll.de  a  great  variety  of  farming  im- 
plements and  maehini'ry.  shoes,  grave  vaults, 
coffins,  and  proprietary  medicine.  One  of  the 
great  industries  of  the  city  is  flowering  plants, 
there  being  eight  large  establishments  tbat  do 
a  mail-order  and  wholesale  busineas.  The  city 
had  in  1910  an  assessed  valuation  of  C47|700,- 
480.    Pop.   (1910)   46,921. 

Spruce,  trees  of  the  genus  Picea,  in  the 
U.  S.  especially  P.  nigra,  black  or  double 
spruce,  and  P.  alba,  white  or  single  spruce, 
which  both  afford  useful  timber,  superior  to 
hemlock,   but  inferior   to  the   best  pine.     The 


NOBWAT   apBDCI. 

Norway  spruce  P  ejce!sa  is  a  noble  forest 
tree  of  the  N  of  li.uropp  The  natue  spruces 
of  the  U.  S  afford  a  rtiinous  substance  called 
spruce  gum  used  as  a  magticatory  The  tops 
are  often  brewed  to  make  spruce  beer,  by  add 
ing  the  essence  of  spruce  to  water  in  which 
sugar  has  been  dissolved,  in  the.  proportion  of 
1  L  L.lHJi^lC 


spurge.     Bee  Eupeobbia. 

Spnr'tjeon,  Chatlea  H&ddon,  1834-B2;  Eng- 
liah  preacher  and  writer;  b.  Kelvedon,  Essex; 
becamo  usher  of  a  school  at  Newmarket,  but, 
embracing  Baptiit  views,  joined  n  congrega- 
tiaif  in  Cambndge;  became  a  tract  distributor, 
and  at  eighteen  minister  of  a  small  chapel  at 
Waterbeach,  where  he  became  noted,  for  his 
zeal  and  eloqueace.  He  went  to  London  in 
1853,  where  his  audiences  were  so  numerous 
that  the  congregation  had  to  remove  first  to 
Exeter  Hall,  and  thence  to  Surrey  Hall.  In 
IBQI  an  immense  chapel,  called  the  Tabernacle, 
was  built  for  htm.  where  he  afterwards 
preached.  Nearly  20,000  persons  were  admitted 
to  his  church,  and  thirty-sis  other  chapels  were 
opened  in  London,  the  ministers  of  which  were 
trained   at  a  college  founded  and   directed  by 


gecretly  telegraphed  by  the  Germnn  miniatcr  at 
Buenos  Ayres,  May  19,  1917,  regarding  Argen- 
tine Bteftmahips.  Germany  announce!  reaump- 
tion  of  aubmarioe  rut iilessneEs  after  Feb.  1,  1917, 
on  Jan.  31,  ante,  and  the  advice  or  order  from 
Buenos  Ayrea  was  the  firat  direction  to  U-Boata. 

Spnnlieiin  (spOrts*hlm) ,  Kaspai,  1770-1832; 
German  phrenologist ;  b.  Longwieh,  Rhenish 
Prussia;  studied  medicine,  and  became  a  dis- 
ciple of  Dr.  Gall,  whom  be  accoinpanied  on  his 
travels,  and  assisted  in  popularizing  phrenol- 
ogy by  lecturing,  newspaper  articles,  etc.  In 
1813  he  undertook  the  introduction  of  the  new 
doctrines  in  England,  where  he  resided  1814- 
17,  and  from  1825-28,  and  gave  very  popular 
lectures;  1817-25,  he  lived  in  Paris.  In  1832 
he  removed  to  the  U.  S.,  and  h,id  just  begun 
to  excite  interest  when  he  died  in  Boston, 
November  10,  1832.     bee  Gall,  F,  J. 

Spnyten  Duyvil  (spl'tn  dl'vll)  Creek,  the 
channel  connecting  the  Hudson  with  the  Har- 
leni  BJver,  forming  the  N.  boundary  of  Man- 
hattan Island. 

Spy,  in  the  laws  of  war,  a  person  who  goes 
in  disguise  or  under  false  pretanses  within  the 
lines  or  territory  of  a  belligerent  to  observe 
his  strength  and  obtain  information  for  the 
purpose  of  communicating  the  same  to  the 
enemy.  A  scout  ditTers  from  a  spy  in  that  he 
retains  his  character  as  a  soldier,  and  uses  no 
false  pretenses  to  obtain  information.  The 
rules  of  warfare  permit  the  infliction  of  the 
death  penalty  upon  spies  taken  in  disguise 
within  the  enemy's  lines.  The  employment  of 
spies,  however,  is  considered  a  kind  of  deceit 
allowable  by  the  rules  of  war,  and,  notwith- 
standing that  death  is  usually  inflicted  by 
hanging,  men  of  high  honor  have  often  under- 
taken the  office.  Two  notable  instances  in  his- 
tory are  those  of  Capt.  Nathan  Hals  and  Maj. 
AndrS  during  the  Revolutionary  War. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  instructions  for  the  govern- 
ment of  the  armies  of  the  U.  8.  in  the  field 
provides  that  "the  spy  is  punishable  with 
death  by  banging  by  the  neck,  whether  or  not 


he  succeed  in  obtaining  the  information  or  in 
conveying  it  to  the  enemy."  Exactly  what  acts 
shall  bring  a  person  within  the  definition  ot  a 
spy  is  not  definitely  determined,  nor  when  he 
ceases  to  be  a  spy  after  once  having  had  that 
character.  In  the  Franco-German  War  of  1870 
the  Germans  claimed  that  persons  crossing 
their  lines  in  balloons  were  spies,  but  this  is 
not  in  accordance  with  present  generally  ac- 
cepted opinion.  Political  '  spies  have  been 
largely  employed  in  Europe,  especially  in  Rus- 
sia, and  in  France  under  Napoleon  III.  In  the 
U.  S.  the  Secret  Service  (q.v.)  of  the  Treasury 
Department  has  been  employed  for  otJier  pur- 
poses than  the  detection  of  counterfeiters. 

Squad'ron,  two  troops  ot  cavalry;  two 
squadrons  form  a  regiment.  A  squadron  in- 
cludes from  100  to  200  men.  In  naval  par- 
lance a  squadron  is  a  division  of  a  fleet  under 
the  command  of  a  junior  flag  officer,  and  de- 
tached for  some  particular  duty  or  station,  as 
"the  bloclcading  squadron,"  "the  S.  Atlantic 
squadron." 

SquaUs,  bursts  of  wind,  usually  of  brief 
duration  and  accompanied  by  rain.  snow,  or 
hail.  One  of  the  commonest  of  the  many 
causes  of  squalls  is  the  falling  wind  which 
descends  on  the  water  from  mountainous 
coasts.  On  the  NW,  coast  of  Lake  Superior 
squalls  descend  from  the  bluffs  and  low  moun- 
tains only  a  few  hundred  feet  high,  yet  with 
such  violence  and  suddenness  in  calm,  warm 
weather,  and  in  the  heat  ot  the  day.  that  they 
are  dangerous  to  sailing  vessels.  In  the  Aleu- 
tian Islands  they  often  descend  the  mountains 
behind  a  head  of  white  woollike  fog,  and  are 
therefore  called  "  woollies."  The  white  squalls 
of  the  tropics  on  the  ^V.  coast  of  Africa  are 
sudden  and  furious  bursts,  whose  approach  is 
indicated  by  an  advancing  but  harm  less -look- 
ing white  cloud, 

Sqaarea,  Ueth'od  of  Least,  a  process  used 
to  obtain  the  most  probable  value  of  a  quan- 
tity from  a  series  of  observations.  In  ordinary 
cases  an  average  is  sufficiently  accurate;  but 
in  Boientiflc  work  reijuiring  extreme  accuracy 
the  rule  is  that  "  in  treating  observations  ot 
equal  precision  the  unknown  quantities  are  to 
be  so  determined  that,  after  allowing  for  con- 
stant error,  the  sum  of  squares  of  the  remain- 
ing errors  shall  be  the  least  possible."  This  is 
the  "  method  of  least  squares." 


I.  Crook-osck  iquuti. 

Sqnasb,  in  N.   Amer 


2.  Scalloped  gquagli. 


BQUASH  BUG 

varietica  of  C.  pepo.  and  alao  sometimea  rari- 
etiea  of  G.  mogchata.  (See  PifMPKiN.)  The 
fruits  of  C.  maxima  have  aott,  cylindrical 
Btema  which  are  not  inflated  at  their  insertion, 
the  flesh  is  dry  and  orange  yellow,  and  the 
seeds  are  large  and  not  thin  margined.  Va- 
rieties of  this  species  are  Hubbard,  Boston, 
Marrow,  tlie  Turbans,  Marblehead,  etc. 

Squash  Bug,  the  Anata  trigtia,  a  hemipter- 
ous  inaeet,  well  known  for  its  ravages  upon 
squash  and  pumpkin  vinea.  It  emits  a,  power- 
ful and  offensive  odor.  The  striped  squash  bug 
is  ZKobroltoa  vittata.  As  a  rule,  these  insects 
are  most  destructive  while  the  plants  are 
young;  and  the  aquaah  hills  ahould  be  pro- 
tected  by   a   frame   covered   with   millinet,  or 


Squat'ter  Sor'eieisnty,  or  Pop'ulai  Sover- 
eiKiity,  a  term  used  in  the  political  history 
of  the  V.  S.  to  deride  the  principle  of  leaving 
to  the  settlers  within  the  territories  of  the 
U.  S.  the  decision  of  the  question  whether  slav- 
ery should  be  permitted  by  the  f;onstitution8 
to    be    adopted    when    the    territories    became 

Squeteagne  (skwe-t«g'].    See  Wbakftbh. 

Squid,  a  popular  name  for  many  decapod 
cephalopoda,  particularly  those  of  the  Teulht- 
d<e  {cslanaries),  but  al.to  extended  to  the 
Sepiida  or  true  cuttleflshea,  and  even  to  the 
poulpes  or  Octopodida.  The  squids  proper 
are  found  in  nearly  all  seas;   they  form  an 


important  part  of  the  food  of  many  flahes  and 
crustaceans,  are  extensively  used  as  fish  bait, 
and  in  many  countries  nre  much  used  as 
food.  (See  Cephalopoda,  Ccttlefish,  Ftrisa 
Squid,  c^tc. )  There  are  several  squids  com- 
mon on  tlie  U.  S.  coasts. 

Squiet,  Bphiaim  George,  1821-88;  American 
archanlogist.  His  principal  works  are  "  An- 
cient Monuments  of  the  Mississippi  Valley," 
"  The  Serpent  Symbol."  and  an  important 
work  OP  Peru,  for  which  he  Iwd  gatJiered  ma- 


ssloner    to    Peru, 

Squill,  a  drug  made  from  the  hulb  of  Ur- 
ginca  maritima  (sea  onion),  a  perennial  plant 
of  the  Liliacete,  growing  on  the  Mediterranean 
coast.  The  bulbs  are  dried  and  sliced,  and 
offer  the  varieties  known  as  white  and  red 
squill,  according  to  the  tint.  Squill  has  little 
smell,  but  an  acrid,  nauseous,  bitter  taste.  It 
contains  much  mucilage,  but  there  is  uncer- 
tainty concerning  the  active  principles,  which 
are  probably  »  resin  and  a  bitter  principle. 
Squill  has  been  known  as  a  medicine  from  a 
remote  period.  It  is  an  acrid  irritant,  affect- 
ing the  mucous  membranes  and  glands,  and  in 
large  dose  causes  vomiting,  purging,  strangury, 
and  may  even  prove  fatal.  In  small  doses  it 
produces  an  increased  flow  of  urine,  and  also 
modifies  the  morbid  condition  of  a  mucous 
membrane  adjected  with  catarrh,  especially  of 
the  bitHichiB. 

Sqoinf  ing,  or  Stnbis'mtis,  the  condition  of 
vision  when  the  visual  axis  of  one  eye  is  devi- 
ated from  the  point  of  Siation.  The  deviation 
may  be  inward,  convergent  strabismus;  out- 
ward, divergent  strabismus;  upward  or  don'n- 
ward,  vertiail  strabismus. 

In  paralytic  squint  the  deviation  is  caused 
by  a  paraWsia  of  one  of  the  musclea  of  the 
^eball.  The  normal  position  of  the  eye  and 
t^e  correct  direction  of  its  visual  line  depend 
upon  the  tonicity  of  the  four  straight  muscles, 
attached  one  above,  one  beneath,  and  one  on 
each  side  of  the  eyeball.  If  one  muscle  is 
paralyzed,  the  eye  is  deflected  to  the  opposite 
side  by  the  stronger  or  intact  muscle.  Gener- 
ally with  paralytic  squint,  in  addition  to  the 
deviation,  there  is  loss  of  movement  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  action  of  the  affected  muscle. 
Thus,  if  the  outer  straight  muscle  of  the  right 
eye  were  paralyzed,  the  affected  eye  could  not 
move  toward  the  temple  on  that  side,  and 
would  be  turned  inward  by  the  action  of  the 
inner  straight  muscle  which  is  unatTected — 
that  is,  there  would  be  a  convergent  squint. 
There  is  also  generally  double  vision,  because 
the  images  from  an  object  do  not  fall  upon 
identical  points  in  the  t»-o  retinas,  and  hence 
are  no  longer  fused.  Paralytic  squint  is  caused 
by  diseases  of  the  brain,  meningitis,  and  spinal 
cord,  especi^illy  locomotor  ataxia,  certain  gen- 
eral diseases  like  syphilis,  rheumatism,  diph- 
theria, diabetes,  etc.;  poisons,  e.g.,  lead,  and 
injuries. 

In  concomitant  squint  the  deviating  eye  is 
able  to  follow  the  movements  of  the  otlier  in 
all  directions.  It  usually  appears  about  the 
age  of  four.  Far-sightedness  ia  often  accom- 
panied by  convergent  squint,  while  in  near- 
sightedness there  may  be  divergent  squint. 
Proper  glasses  may  straighten  the  squint,  but 
if  it  is  persistent  it  citlls  for  operation,  which 
ahould  not,  however,  be  performed  before  the 
sixth  or  seventh  year. 

Squir'iel,  name  properly  applicable  to  the 
slender  arboreal  forms  constituting  the  genus 
SctuniB  of  the  family  Sciurida.  Tlipae  are  of 
moderate  size  or  small,  have  a  r:it!icr  stcodcr 
head,  no  cheek  pouches,  rather  long  ears,  no 


SQUIRREL 

lateral  winglike  extension  of  the  skin,  and  a 
large  bushy  tail.  The  genus  grades  into 
Tamiaa,  or  the  chfpmunlcB,  and  Spermophilua, 
or  the  gionnd  tquirrelB.  There  are  about  ]S0 
■peciea,  and  representativea  are  found  in  al- 
most every  n^on,  Australasia  and  Polynesia, 
the  S.  extremity  of  8.  America,  and  the  W. 
Indies  being  the  only  considerable  bodies  of 
land  in  the  temperate-  or  tropical  zones  desti- 


COMHOS  aa*T  SOUIBBXL. 

tnte  of  them.  In  habits  the  living  epecles  are 
all  similar.  Most  of  their  life  is  spent  among 
the  trees,  and  they  exhibit  great  agnity  in  run- 
ning  up  the  trunlis  and  leaping  from  branch 
to  branch.  Their  principal  fo^  consists  of 
nuts;  they  also  eat  to  some  extent  the  larva 
of  insecte,  and  attack  the  neste  of  birds  for 
their  eggs,  and  even  for  their  young.  Their 
favorite  attitude  in  eating  is  to  sit  on  their 
haunches,  with  their  tail  thrown  upward  on 
the  back,  and  holding  the  eatables  in  their 
paws.  In.  the  colder  countries  they  lay  up 
stores  of  provisions  in  boles  and  nooks  in  or 
near  the  trees  in  which  they  live.  They  are 
mostly  readily  tamed,  and  are  generally  kept 
in   cages  with  rerolving  wheels,  wherein  they 


Sqnlnel,  Fty'lng.     Bee  Flxiko  Sqcibbel. 

Sriaagai,  or  Setlnagnr  (sre'nB-gar),  capital 
of  Kashmir,  situated  in  the  beautiful  valley  of 
Kashmir,  at  an  elevation  of  G,2T6  ft.,  and  with 
a  mean  temperature  of  56.R°  F. ;  on  the  river 
Jhitam.  It  is  famous  for  its  shawls  and  attar 
of  roses.  The  most  remarkable  building  is  the 
palace  of  the  maharajah ;  it  is  called  the  ShcT' 
garh  (citedel).  Close  by  the  city  is  I^e  Dal, 
which    boasts  of  the  far-famed  isle   Chinars 

(Platinu*  onetttalit).  Vwetables  are  raised 
here   on   flosting   rafts   called   gardens.      Pop. 

(IMl)    122,636,  nOBtly  Mohammedans. 


Smch'iun,    formerly    Bzk-ohven, 


Ssn- 


000  sq.  m.     It  is  approached  from  t 
the   Yaug-tse,   up  which   boats   of   1 


than 
seventy  tons  are  dragged  slowly,  and  by  the 
"  Great  North  Boad  "  over  the  mountains  from 
Bi-ngan-foo.    C^  ^  found,  but  not  mined  ex- 


8TADIUM 

tensively.  The  making  of  iron  from  its  ores  is 
general.  Bait,  from  brine  raised  from  wells, 
IS  valued  at  $63,000,000  annuallv.  Petroleum 
ia  plentiful.  Silk,  insect  was,  tobacco,  and  tea 
are  produced.  Ch'ung-k'ing  is  a  river  port 
open  to  foreign  trade.  Capital,  Ching-tu;  pop. 
(1906)    68,7E4,S90. 

SUIwt  Ha'ter  ("the  mother  was  sUnd- 
ing"),  the  first  words  of  a  Latin  hymn  ranked 
among  the  seven  great  hymus  of  the  medieval 
Church.     It  begins: 

By  tha  onMi.  Md  vivl  keap- 

Stood  tha  moomful  mother 
mepiac. 

As  the  "  Dies  Irm "  has  been  pronounced  the 
greatest,  so  the  "  Stabat  Mater  "  is  deemed  the 
most  pathetic  of  hymns.  Its  author  is  un- 
known, but  it  is  assigned  either  to  Pope  luio- 
eent  III  (d.  1216)  or  Jacopone  da  Todi  (d. 
1300).  The  hymn  is  still  in  use  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  being  sung  during  the  Holy 
Week  and  on  the  festival  of  the  Seven  Dolors 
of  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  is  known  te  all 
through  the  beautiful  music  of  Rossini, 


Sta'dia  Heas'nrement,  in  surveying,  a  meth- 
od of  determining  distances  by  graduated  rods_ 
and  the  cross  hairs  in  the  telescope  of  a  transit' 
instrument.  The  principle  of  the  method  is 
that  of  similar  triangles,  shown  in  the  figure. 
tha  two  hairs  a  and  6  seeming  to  be  projected 


on  the  rod  at  A  and  B.  Let  o  be  the  distence 
from  the  hairs  to  the  object  glass  ftnd  d  the 
distance  from  the  object  glass  to  the  T*d,  then 


d  = 


ab        ab 


The  precision  of  stadia  work  is  equal  to  that 
of  ordinary  chaining  on  rough  ground.  The 
word  "  telemeter "  u  generally  employed  in- 
stead of  stadia  on  the  if.  S.  Coast  and  Geodetic 
Survey. 

Sta'dtnm,  the  principal  Greek  measure  of 
length  for  journeys,  used  la  later  times  also 
for  other  linear  measuremente,  especially  by 
the  Romans.  Its  length  was  fixed  by  that  of 
the  foot<race  course  (alaifium)  at  Olympia, 
and  was  600  Greek  =  625  Roman  =  6001  Eng- 
lish ft.,  or  one  eighth  of  the  Roman  mile. 
Stadium  was  originally  the  name  of  the  foot- 
race course  in  which  nmning  and  other  athletic 
exercises  took  place.  Stadia  existed  at  many 
Greek  cities,  but  the  moat  famous  was  that  of 
Olympia.  The  stedium  was  laid  out  in  two 
parallel  oblong  areas,  connected  at  one  end  by 
a.  semicircular  tract.  The  whole  was  sur- 
rounded by  eeate  for  spectators,  ~  > 


STADTHOLDER 

Stadtholdei  (BtBt'hald-«r),  a  govemor  of  a 
country  or  province.  In  the  course  of  tbe  re- 
volt of  the  Netherlands  ogaiiist  Spain  the  seven 
United  Provinces  choee  William,  Prince  of 
Orange,  as  their  stadtholder.  The  title  was 
iDtentionallj  a  modest  one,  intimating  that  the 
revolt    was    not    against    the    sovereign,    but 

yiinst  the  tyranny  of  his  viceroy,  the  Duke 
Alva.  It  involved  tbe  chief  civil  and  mili- 
tary command,  and  was  heLd  with  some  inter- 
missions by  the  head  of  the  state  until  the 
annexation  of  Holland  by  France  in  1S02.  On 
the  reatoration  of  the  house  of  Orange  in  1814 
the  title  of  king  was  assumed. 

Staol-Hol stein  (sta-er-ol-staA'},  Anne  Lanise 
Germaine  Heckei  de  ( Baroness) ,  commonly 
called  Mme.  d&  Sta£l,  1766-1817 ;  French  au- 
thoress. She  was  the  only  child  of  the  Finance 
Minister,  Necker,  She  married  in  1786  tbe 
Swedish  ambassador.  Baron  de  Bta^l-Holatein 
(d.  1802),  and  became  the  center  and  oracle 
of  a  distinguished  society.  During  the  revolu- 
tion she  saved  Matthieu  de  MontaiorenQ-  and 
other  friends  from  the  guillotine,  bsrely  es- 
caped herself,  and,  1793-94,  resided  in  Lon- 
don. Under  the  Directory  she  was  conspicuous 
as  a  leader  of  the  constitutional  party  with 
Benjamin  Constant.  Bhe  was  an  enemy  of 
Bonaparte,  who  compelled  her  to  leave  Paris, 
and  sne  took  refu^  with  Mme.  lUcamicr.  She 
returned  to  its  vicinity,  but  a  work  published 
by  her  father  ( 1 S02 )  became  a  pretext  for  her 
being  banished  forty  leagues  from  Paris,  and 
she  went  to  Oermany.  Napoleon  persecuted  her 
whenever  she  left  Coppet,  and  the  French  edi- 
tion of  her  work  on  Germany  wos  destroyed. 

In  the  spring  of  1612  she  went  t<i  Vienna; 
and,  OS  she  was  not  safe  even  there,  she  went 
to  St,  Petersburg,  and  in  1S13  to  London.  In 
1S16  she  vainly  sought  to  regain  her  health  in 
Italy.  Of  her  three  children  by  her  first  hus- 
band, Auguste  (author  of  "  Lettres  sur  I'An- 
Eleterre ")  survived  her  till  1827,  and  Al- 
ertine,  wife  of  the  duke,  Acfailte  de  Broglie, 
till  1836.  Ths  youngest,  Albert,  was  killed  in 
a  duel  in  1813.  She  bad  one  child  by  her  sec- 
ond husband,  Albert  Jean  de  Rocca,  a  French 
ofBccr  and  military  writer  (b.  1787,  d.  1818), 
whom  she  secretly  married  in  1811,  first  dis- 
closing  the  fact  in  her  will.  Mme.  de  StaCI 
was  especially  celebrated  for  bold  and  sug- 
gestive generalizations,  a  masculine  grasp  of 
thought,  an  irrepressible  flow  of  ideas  and  lan- 
guage, and  love  of  humanity  and  constitutional 
liberty  after  the  models  of  England.  Her  beat- 
known  works  are  "  Delphine,"  a  novel  in  which 
she  idealizes  herself;  "  Corinne,  ou  I'ltalie," 
"  De  rAllemagne,"  and  "  Dji  annSes  d'exil." 

Staff,  the  sasistants  of  the  general  in  chief 
of  an  array  and  of  his  generals,  and  as  com- 
monly used  includes  (1)  the  heads  of  depart- 
ments (such  as  artillery  and  engineers,  mili- 
tary law,  medical,  quartermaster,  pay,  etc.), 
(2)  the  personal  staff  (including  aids,  orderly 
officers,  etc.),  (3)  adjutants,  and  (4)  a  special 
body  of  officers,  intrusted  with  duties  connected 
directly  with  military  operations,  entitled  the 
general  ttaff. 

The  gfaiera!  staff  has  been  universally  recog- 
nised «a  on  eswDtial  port  of  modem  army  or- 


STAG 

ganiEBtion.  Its  purpose  is  to  convert  the  ideas 
of  the  general  commanding  into  orders,  not 
only  by  conve^ng  them  to  the  troops,  but  far 
more  by  working  out  all  the  necessary  matters 
of  detail,  and  to  watch  over  and  preserve  the 
fighting  condition  and  material  welfare  of  the 
troops. 

Staff,  an  exterior  covering  for  buildings,  re- 
sembling plaster  or  stucco,  first  used  at  the 
Paris  Exposition  of  1880,  and  employed  for 
most  of  the  buildings  and  exterior  decorative 
work  of  the  expositions  at  Chicago  and  St. 
Louie.  It  is  made  of  hydraulic  cement,  sand, 
and  a  binding  material  of  jute  fiber.  It  is 
cheap  and  easily  molded,  but  not  adapted  for 
permanent  structures. 

Staffs,  a  small,  uninhabited  island  of  Ar- 
eyle,  Scotland;  8  m.  W,  of  Mull;  celebrated 
for  its  curious  caverns,  among  which  FinOAl.'B 
Cave  ig.v.)  is  the  most  remarkable.  Among 
the  other  caves  are  the  Cormorant  and  the 
Clam  Shell.  The  interior  Uble-land  is  covered 
with  rich  soil  and  luxuriant  grass,  which  feeds 
a  number  of  black  cattle. 

Staff Oidshite,  a  county  of  England;  area, 
1,120  eq.  m.  Tlie  central  part  is  low  and  un- 
diihiting,  but  in  the  N.  and  S.  the  surface  be-' 
comes  hilly.  The  soil  is  generally  cold,  clayey, 
and  nob  productive.     The  coal   fields  are  very 


blc,  freestone,  and  an  excellent  potter's  clay. 
V^'ith  respect  to  its  manufactures,  chiefiy  china, 
earthenware,  and  iron,  this  county  is  the  third 
in  rank  in  England.    Pop.  (1911)  739,105. 

Stag,  or  Bed  Deei,  the  largest  deer  of  Eu- 
rope, the  Cervus  elaphtu,  resembling  the  Amer- 
ican wapiti.     The  male  is  called  the  hart,  the 


under  four,  a  apayad;  under  five,  a  gtaggoKd; 


.A.OO>^l( 


STAGBEETLE 

and  under  ais,  a  stag;  bo  that,  atrictl;,  a  stag 
is  a  red  deer  five  years  old.  At  six  years  he  ia 
a  hart  of  ten,  and  when  aeven  years  old  he  is  a 
Jtart  orovmed,  und  considered  fair  game.  The 
stag  JB  distributed  over  the  greater  part  of 
Europe,  and  is  found  in  N.  Asia  bh  far  as  the 
Lena  Snd  hake  Baikal.  It  inhabits  Exmoor, 
in  England,  and  tbe  Highlands  of  Scotland. 
lU  homa  are  lofty  and  branching.  In  sumnter 
it  is  yellowish  brown ;  in  winter,  reddish 
brown ;  the  color  deepens  much  with  age,  and 
in  winter  the  old  stags  are  nearly  hlack.  The 
flesh  is  inferior  to  that  of  the  fallow  deer. 

Stag1>eetle,  or  HomliuE,  large  beetles  of  the 
Luainidte,  remarkable  for  the  great  size  of  the 
head  and  lar^  horullke  mandibles.  L.  damn. 
of  the  U.  S.  IS  a  well-known  inhabitant^  of  de- 
caying wood,  piles  of  chips,  etc.,  and  is  capable 
of  inflicting  a  severe  bite.     L.  cervtit  is  Euro- 

StAge'coaclL    See  Cabkiaqcs. 

Stag'KBis,  popular  name  for  several  diaeasea 
of  horses  and  sheep.     Blind  staggers  in  horses 
is  a  sort  of  epilepsy;  mad  staggers,  an  inflam- 
mation of  the  brain ;  grass  staggers,  an  acute 
and  dangerous  gastritis.     The  treatment  of  the 
first  is  hy  aetona  about  the  head,  hut  the  dis- 
ease  is   incurable.     The   second   ia   treated   1:^ 
blisters,  cathartics,  and  bleeding.     Grass  atag- 
gera  calts  for  active  enemata  and  full 
doses  of  calomel  and  opium.     Stag- 
gers in  sheep  is  caused  hy  larvK  of 
(Estrus    ovU    in  the  nostrils;   they 
may  sometimes  be  removed  by  throw- 
ing into  the  nostrils  snuff  mixed  with 

Stag^Otud,  a  large,  rough-haired 
dog,  much  like  the  greyhound  in 
general  huild,  although  heavier.  It 
is  strong,  swift,  and  fearless,  and  the 
rival  of  the  bloodhound  in  powers  of 
scent.  It  is  supposed  to  be  a  cross 
breed  of  the  bloodhound  and  the  grey-' 
hound,  and  is  used  in  Europe  for 
hunting  the  stag,  and  in  the  W. 
U.  S-  for  hunting  antelope. 

Stog'iiite,     Ar'istoUe     th«.      See 


STALACTITES 

95.  He  was  an  advocate,  and  figured  in  Scotch 
politics  under  both  Cromwell  and  Charles  II. 
The  latter  made  him  a  baronet,  and  in  ISTl 
he  became  Lord  President  of  the  Court  of  Ses- 
sion ;  but,  refusing  to  take  the  new  test  oath, 
he  was  obliged  to  resign  in  1681.  In  the  latter 
year  appeared  his  "  Institutions  of  the  Law  of 
Scotland,"  the  Scottish  Blackstone.  He  fied 
from  persecution  to  Holland  in  I6S2,  came  with 
the  Prince  of  Orange  to  England  in  ISB8,  and 
was  restored  to  his  former  office  and  raiaied  to 
the  peerage.  (2)  John  Dalbtuplb,  Earl  of 
Stair,  abt  1648-1707,  son  of  the  preceding. 
Secretary  of  State  for  Scotluid.  He  was  pro- 
nounced by  the  Scottish  Parliament  the  orig- 
inal author  of  the  massacre  of  Glencoe,  and 
censured,  hut  never  prosecuted.  (3)  JoHlT 
DALBTm-LE,  Ear!  of  Stair,  I6T3-1T47,  son  of 
the  orecediug.  He  served  with  distinction  un- 
der Marlborough,  won  the  battle  of  Dettiogen, 
was  ambassador  to  France  and  Holland,  and 
was  made  commander  in  chief  in  Scotland,  and 
afterwards  in  Great  Britain. 

Stalac'titea,  iciclelike  masses  of  lime,  limou- 
ite,  chalcedony,  pyrites,  etc.,  attached  to  the 
roofs  of  caverns;  they  are  formed  hy  the  evap- 
oration of  water  holding  these  auhatances  in 
solution.  Stalactites  sometimes  form  columns 
reaching  from  floor  to  roof  of  high  chambers; 
sometimes   they    imitate   curtains,    waterfalls. 


Stained  GUw.    See  Glass  Paint- 


Stain'ei,  Sir  Jobn,  1840-1901 ;  Eng- 
lish composer  and  organist;  b.  Lon- 
don;  chorister  and   assistant  organ- 
ist in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  till  1872, 
then  organist  till   1B68;    1889,  Prof, 
of  Music,  Oxford.     His  compositions 
were  chiefly  sacred,  and  include  three 
sacred   c&ntatas,   "  The   Daughter   of 
Jairus,"  "  St.  Mary  Magdolene,"  "  The  Cruci- 
fixion";    the    oratorio,    "Gideon,"    an    early 
work;   and  many   anthems  and  services;   also 
wrote  "  Music  of  the  Bible  "  and  a  "  Diction- 
ary of  Musical  Terms." 

Stair,  a  prominent  Scottish  family,  of  which 
the  following  are  the  moat  eminent  members: 
(1)   Jaus  Dalbtuplx,  Viscount  Stair,  1616- 


SruACTmB  AMD  Stai. 


H  Roor  AND  FLooa  a, 


The  amiira  ebow  the  direction 

etc.,  and  constitute  notable  features,  as  in  the 
Mammoth  Caves  (Kentucky)  and  the  Luray 
Caverns  (Virginia).  The  name  stalagmite  is 
given  to  accumulationa  of  material  of  the  same 
nature  as  stalactites,  but  deposited  on  the 
fioors  of  caverns.  This  sometimes  forma  con- 
tinuous sheets  over  the  surface,  sometimes  risea 
into  columns,  which  join  the  stalactites  above. 
Stalactites  are  often  tubular,  and,  indeed,  gen- 


xCoogle 


STALWARTS 

erally  begin  h>  form  ai  tubM,  rituw  the  aoliA 
matter  held  in  Mlution  by  %  drop  of  water 
when  precipitated  by  eTaporation  (orma  a  ring 
at  the  base  aod  outside  of  the  drop. 

Stal'warts,  a  section  of  the  Republican  Par- 
^  that  in  1S81  opposed  the  adminiatTation  of 
Prea.  Garfield,  llie  quarrel  arose  from  the 
appointment  of  a  collector  of  the  port  of  New 
York  in  opposition  to  the  wishes  of  Conkling 
and  Piatt,  the  senators  from  that  state.  The 
party  waa  divided  into  Stalwarts  and  "  Ealf- 
breeda,"  a^  friends  of  the  adminiatration  were 
called,  and  this  helped  the  Democrats  to  win 
in  18S4. 

Stambonl  (stSm-bOl'),  the  wealthiest,  most 


Stambonl  ia  a  trianffular-ahaped  promon- 
tory, protecting  B.  toward  the  Bosporus  from 
the  raainuud,  and  indnded  between  the  Golden 
Horn  and  Marmora. 

Sta'men,  the  pollen -bearing  organ  in  plants. 
Morpbolosically  it  is  a  leaf,  npon  which  one  or 
more  pollen  aacs    (spore  sacs  or  sporangia) 


STAMPS 

after  the  attainment  of  adult  a^.  It  is  gen- 
erally increaaed  by  emotional  disturbance,  es- 
pecially fright,  and  is  often  cured,  by  the 
patient  acquiring  confidence,  nerer  attempting 
to  speak  in  a  hun^  or  when  the  diest  is  empty 
of  aii,  or  by  reading  with  deliberation.  Stam- 
merers never  have  any  difflcultr  in  singing,  for 
they  know  that  a  certain  definite  manner  is  to 
be  observed,  and  this  ^ves  them  confidence. 
The  affection  is  aometimes  permanently  re- 
moved in  time  by  the  patient  performing  aome 
trifling  muscular  action  aa  he  enunciates  the 
words  over  which  he  stumbles.  Thus  he  CMi 
sometimes  prevent  the  fault  by  moving  a  flnger 
at  the  very  instant  that  he  begins  to  utter  the 

Stamp  Acta,  laws  requiring  that  stamps  pur- 
chased from  the  government  be  placed  on  cer:- 
tain  legal  documents.  In  the  history  of  the 
British  colonies  in  N.  America,  Stamp  Act  re- 
fers to  a  law  pas»ed  by  the  British  Parliament, 
iMorch  22,  1765,  "  for  granting  and  applying 
certain  atamp  duties  and  other  duties  in  the 
British  colonies  and  plantationa  in  America." 
It  took  effect  from  November  1,  1766,  but  waa 
the  occasion  of  such  protests 
and  resistance  that  it  waa  re- 
pealed, March  18,  1706,  and  a 
bill  of  indemnity  for  those  who 
had  incurred  penalties  waa 
paaaed,  June  6,  1706. 


are  produced.  On  account  of  its  special  func- 
tion it  is  rarely  an  expanded  structure,  al- 
though it  is  BO  in  water  lilies,  cannas,  and 
some  other  eases.  In  its  usual  form  the  slen- 
der stalk  (/tloment)  Is  surmoimted  by  the  pol- 
len sac  (anther),  which  at  maturity  contains 
many  loose  cells,  the  pollen. 

Stam'ford,  town  and  city,  Fairfield  Co., 
Conn.,  on  IJong  Island  Sound  and  Mill  River, 
34  m.  NE.  of  New  York.  It  lies  in  a  valley 
with  hills  on  three  aides  and  the  Sound  on  the 
S.  There  are  lumber  mills,  metal  and  chemical 
works,  stove  and  range  factories,  and  a  variety 
of  other  industries.  Stamford  locks  are  well 
known.  Stamford  was  settled  in  164S,  had  its 
name  changed  from  the  Indian  Rippowam, 
1642.  Assessed  property  valuation,  ^9,678,- 
413i  pop.   (1910)  26,130. 

Stam'meiing,  an  afTcction  of  speech  charac- 
terized by  imperfect  coordination  of  the  mus- 
cles concerned  in  articulation.  It  may  tw 
manifested  as  a  difflcuUy  in  beginning  the 
enunciation  of  words,  especially  words  which 
b^n  with  the  "explosive  consonants  "  (b,  p), 
and  which  require  the  sudden  opening  of  the 
lips.  Or  the  word  may  be  b^cun,  but  after  the 
enunciation  of  a  syllable  there  is  a  repetition 
of  the  same  syllable.  This  is  also  known  as 
stuttering.  Stammering  may  be  acquired  by 
carelesenesa  in  speech  or  by  association  with 
others  similarly  effected,  or  even  by  mocking 
gfich   person*.     In  most   QaK«  it  diaappears 


Stampa,  cdScial  marks  aet 
upon  tnings  chargeable  with 
some  du^  or  tax,  snowing  that 
the  tax  baa  been  paid.  These  stamps  may  be 
either  emboased  or  printed  separately  and 
gummed  on  the  back.  Hie  British  Govt,  has 
long  required  the  use  of  such  stamps  on  checks, 
receipts,  bank  drafts,  and  legal  documents,  and 
during  the  Civil  War  and  the  Spanish-Amer- 
ican War  the  U.  8.  made  aimilar  use  of  stamps 
for  revenue  purposes  upon  proprietary  articles 
and  a  variety  of  other  commodities.  Internal 
revenue  stamps  are  used  in  the  U.  S.  only  for 
tt^Micco,  snuff,  cigars,  ales,  etc.,  and,  since 
1894,  for  playing  cards. 

Postage  stamps  are  also  of  two  kinds:  (I) 
those  that  are  impreaaed  on  envelopea,  wrap- 
pera,  and  cards,  and  (2)  adhesive  labels!  Th^r  . 
use  is  an  evidence  of  prepayment  of  postage. 
Before  their  introduction  it  wka  tlie  custom  to 
take  letters  to  the  post  office  and  prepay  the 
postage  in  cash,  the  postmaster  then  stamping 
such  mail  matter  aa  prepaid.  The  first  intro- 
duction of  postage  stamps  for  regular  issue 
took  place  in  Oreat  Britain,  Mav  0,  1840,  and 
was  tiie  result  of  the  efforts  of  Sir  Rowland 
Hill,  who  had  fought  for  three  yeara  in  tbo  . 
House,  of  Commons  for  postal  reform.  Prior 
to  that  time,  James  Chalmers,  of  Dundee,  S<»t- 
land,  had  invented  an  adhesive  label  intended 
.to  be  used  as  a  postage  stamp,  but  he  was  un- 
able to  introduce  his  invention.  It  was  in 
France  that  the  flrat  attempt  waa  made  to  pre- 

ey  letters  by  means  of  a  cover  or  band  at  a 
ed  rate. 
In  the  y.  S.  tite  pioprieton  d  lo^  d|> 

sic 


..Cjooglc 


STAMPS 

IiTGry  companies  began  to  aell  postage  stamps 
to  their  patrons  as  earlv  as  1842.  The  first 
was  the  Cit;  Dispatch  Poet,  owned  by  Alex- 
ander H.  Greig.  operating  ia  the  city  of  New 
York;  in  August,  1842,  he  sold  the  entire 
outfit  to  the  U.  8.  Govt.,  which  retained  his 
design  for  the  stamp,  a  three-quarter-face  por- 
trait of  WashiztRton,  chanfiug  the  inscription 
to  read  "  United  SUtes  0\tj  Deepatch  I^Mt." 
The  government  of  the  U.  8.  was  rather  tardy 
in  accepting  the  new  system,  and  until  1647, 
when  the  first  stamp  for  general  use  was  ifl- 
HUed,  the  postal  service  depended  either  upon 
the  old  cumbersome  system  or  the  individual 
enterprise  of  the  postmasters  in  various  towns, 
who,  on  their  individual  responsibility,  had 
postaee  stamps  printed  and  sold  at  their  otBces. 
Brazil  issued  postage  stamps  in  1843;  France, 
,  Belgium,  and  Bavsria  followed  suit  in  1649. 
Host  of  the  prominent  governments  in  Europe 
followed   in   rapid   succession,  but 


<18531,  Norway  (1854),  Busaia  (1857), 
Sweden  (1858), Greece  (1861),  Turker  (1863). 

'All  early  issues  of  postage  stamps  had  plain 
edges,  until  in  I34S  Henry  Archer,  in  London, 
invented  a  machine  for  perforating. 

The  number  of  stamps  issued  by  different 
countries,  fts  well  as  the  extremes,  both  high 
and  low,  of  denomination,  vaiy  greatly.  Tbe 
V,  B.  enjoys  the  .distinction  of  uavine  hod  in 
n^ular  use  at  one  time  a  larger  number  than 
any  other  country.  From  1873  to  1884,  besides 
the  r^ular  issue  for  general  use  of  13  ad- 
hesive stamps,  13  envelopes,  and  2  wrappers, 
each  department  of  the  government  had  it«  own 
series,  with  a  total  of  02  adhesives,  12  en- 
velopes, and  2  wrappers;  besides  these  there 
were  T  postage  due  and  24  newspaper  and  peri- 
odical stamps.  This  does  not  take  into  account 
minor  varieties  of  die  or  the  different  eolors 
of  paper  used  for  the  envelopes.  The  postage 
stamps  which  have  the  lowest  face  valu«  are 
the  i  milesimo  stamp  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Bico 
and  th«  )  centimo  of  Spain,  each  represent* 
ing  about  -^  of  a  cent.  These  are  used  for 
local  newspaper  postage.    The  stamp  of  largest 

.  denomination  is  tlie  £20  of  S,  Australia,  which 
is  available  for  both  postage  and  revenue  pur- 

Ad  interesting  feature  of  the  use  of  postage 
ttampe  ia  the  issue  of  a  special  kind  of  stamps 
on  the  occaaio*  of  any  celebration.  The  first 
issue  of  this  Ueecription  was  made  in  Great 
Britain  in  18S7,  on  the  fiftieth  anniversary  of 
the  accession  of  Queen  Victoria.  The  example 
was  not  followed  for  some  years,  hut  it  has 
become  fashionable  to  make  such  issues,  and 
among  them  may  be  mentioned  especially  the 
Columbus  issue  made  by  the  U.  S.  in  1893  to 
celebrate  the  discovery  of  America,  and  similar 
issuia  made  in  the  Argentine  Republic,  Nic- 
aragua, Salvador,  Honduras,  Venezuela,  and 
Porto  Rico  in  1802  and  1893.  All  of  these 
were  legitimate  issues,  made  to  commemorate 
au  event  of  real  importance,  but  they  have 
opened  the  eyes  of  other  government*  to  the 
speculative  value  of  such  stampe,  and  1894  saw 
a  flood  of  jubilee  and  commemorative  issues. 
Flagrant  examples  tf  such  abuM  ore  on  Issue 


STANHOPE 

in  the  repnblic  of  San  Marino  to  commemorate 
the  opening  of  a  new  palace,  and  an  issue  in 
Portugal  to  commemorate  the  seven  hundredth 
anniversary  of  the  birth  of  St.  Anthony  of 
Padua,  both  of  which  are  avowedly  made  solely 
on  account  of  the  profits  to  be  derived  from 
the  sale  to  postage-stamp  collectors.  Philately, 
as  the  study  of  postage  stamps  is  termed,  has 
its  text-books  and  periodicals,  and  its  devotees 
are  in  all  countries.  Every  minut«  variation 
of  paper,  style  of  printing,  perforation,  gum, 
water  mark,  etc.,  is  considered  as  marking  a 
different  issne,  and  in  some  instances  as  many 
as  fifty  distinct  variations  of  a  single  stamp 
are  collected. 

Stand'arda     See  BannEB;  Fi,Aa. 

Standards  of  Tal'ne.    See  Monrr^BT  Staioi- 

ABDE. 

Stan'dish,  Milea,  abt.  1G84-1656;  soldier;  b. 
I4kncashire,  England;  served  on  the  Continent, 
probably  with  the  English  forces;  became  a 
captain;  settled  in  Leyden,  and  accompanied 
the  Pilgrims  of  the  May/lotDor  to  New  England, 
1020;  lost  his  wife,  Ro«e,  during  the  first  win- 
ter; is  said  by  tradition  to  have  employed  his 
friend,  John  Alden,  to  negotiate  hia  marriage 
with  the  fair  Priscilla  MuUins  (see  Longfel- 
low's "  Courtship  of  Miles  Standiah"),  with 
the  result  that  Alden  married  her;  rendered 
important  services  to  the  colonista  in  preserv- 
ing 4hem  from  the  Indians ;  visited  England  as 
Xnt  for  the  colony,  1S25,  returning  with  sup- 
■M,  I62S;  broke  up  the  settlement  at  Meriy 
Mount,  1628;  was  for  the  remainder  of  his  life 
either  magistrate  or  a  member  of  the  board 
of  osaiatants  to  the  governor,  and  took  part  in 
the  settlement  of  Bridgewater,  1649.  He  was 
of  smatl  stature  and  choleric  temper,  and  pos- 
sessed great  energy  and  force  of  will.  One  of 
his  swords  and  other  relics  are  preserved  in 
the  Pilgrim  Hall,  Plymouth. 

Staa'fleld,  William  CUikson,  IT93-1807; 
EnBlish  landscape  and  marine  paint«r;  b.  Sun- 
derland, Durham.  He  was  a  sailor  in  the 
British  navy,  became  a  scene  painter  white  still 
a  young  man,  and  taking  up  painting  of  land- 
scape and  naval  battle  scenes  attaint  success, 
and  was  elected  a  Royal  Academician  in  1836. 
Among  his  moat  celebrated  works  are  "  Battle 
of  Trafalgar"  and  "Battle  of  BoverEdo." 

Ston'ford,  Leland,  1824-93;  American  cap- 
italist and  philanthropist ;  b.  Watervliet,  N.  Y. ; 
admitted  to  the  bar,  1849;  removed  to  Port 
Waahiligton,  Wia.,  where  he  practiced  law  till 
1862,  when  he  went  to  California  and  engaged 
in  gold  mining;  settled  In  San  Francisco  in 
ISSe,  and  entered  into  business.  He  first  ap- 
peared in  politics  as  a  dele^te  to  the  conven- 
tion at  Chicago  in  1660  which  nominated  Lin- 
coln; was  elected  Governor  of  California,  1861, 
and  urged  the  importance  of  building  the  Pa- 
cific Railroad.  He  superintended  the  construc- 
tion of  that  part  of  the  road  that  crossed  the 
mountains,  spending  personally  more  than 
£20,000,000  on  a  stretch  of  rosdway  of  100  m. 
U.  S.  Senator,  1885-91.  With  hU  wife  he 
founded  Leiand  Stanford  Junior  Univ. 

Stanliopa,  Lady  Hester  Lncy,  1776-1839; 
b.  Cbevening,  Kent;  ca«44etttial  secretary  tQ 


vCoogIc 


6TANH0PB 

ier  uncle,  William  Pitt,  179tt-180fl;  raceiyed 
theTeafter  a  pension  of  £1,200;  proceeded  in 
1810  to  Syria;  acquired  by  her  nuii^iflceat  and 
singular  ways  of  living  the  veneration  of  the 
Arabfl,  who  treated  her  as  a  queen ;  established 
herself  in  1SI4  in  the  deserted  convent  of  Mar 
Elias,  upon  a  crag  of  Lebanon;  became  a  bene- 
factrew  to  political  refugees  and  to  the  poor ; 
exerted  considerable  political  influence,  and 
praeticed  astrology. 


Stanhope,  Philip  Henry  ( fifth  Earl  Stan- 
hope), better  known  by  his  courtesy  title,  Lobo 
MIhor,  1806-76;  English  statesman  and  au- 
thor; b,  Walmer,  Kent;  elected  to  Parliament, 
1830;  Under  Secretary  of.  State  (or  Foreign 
ASairs,  1S34;  supported  the  repeal  of  the  Com 
Laws;  carried  the  Copyright  Act  of  1842;  de- 
feated at  the  electiona  of  1SS2  for  having  vot«d 
with  the  protectionists  against  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  navigation  laws ;  founded  the  Stan- 
hope price  for  the  study  of  modem  history  at 
Oxford,  ISGG;  Lord  Rector  of  the  Univ.  of 
Aberdeen,  1858.  Author  of  "  History  of  the 
War  of  Succession  in  Spain,"  "  History  of  Eng- 
land, 1713-83,"  "The  Life  of  the  Riiht  Hon. 
William  Pitt,"  and  a  "  History  of  England, 
Comprising  the  Beign  of  Anne,  until  the  Peace 
of  Utrecht." 

Stan'ialaiis  LeucsyB'Bki,  1677-1766;  King  of 
Poland;  b.  Lemberg,  Oalicia,  of  one  of  the 
oldest  and  wealthiest  families  of  the  Polish 
nobility;  held  a  high  position  at  Polish  court; 
won  the  favor  and  friendship  of  Charles  XII 
of  Sweden,  who,  after  the  defeat  of  Augustus 
II  of  Poland  and  Saxony,  declared  the  Polish 
throne  vacant,  and  by  hii  influence  Stanislaus 
was  elected  King  of  Poland  in  170S.  BtanislauB 
was  a  noble  character,  and  not  without  talent 
as  a  ruler;  but  after  the  disaster  of  Charles 
at  Poltava,  1700,  was  compelled  to  flee  from 
Poland;  joined  friends  at  Bender,  and,  1714, 
vas  made  governor  of  the  duchy  of  Zwei- 
brttcken.  At  the  death  of  Charles,  1718,  fled 
to  France.  His  daughter  Marie  was  married 
to  Louis  XV,  1725,  and  at  the  death  of  Au- 
gustus II,  1733,  he  was  reflected  King  of 
Poland  by  French  Influence.  Russia  was  op- 
posed to  his  restoration,  and  the  army  placed 
Augustus  III  OQ  the  Polish  throne.  By  the 
Peace  of  Vienna,  1736,  his  family  estates  were 
restored;  he  received  the  duchy  of  Lorraine 
as  a  pension,  and  retained  the  title  of  King 
of  Poland.  He  resided  at  LuQJville  or  Nancy, 
where  he  held  a  brilliant  court,  gathered  sci- 
entiflc  men  around  him,  founded  splendid  edu- 
estional  institutions,  erected  magnificent  public 
buildings,  and  was'  generally  called  Le  Bien- 
faitant.  Wrote  "  (Euvrea  du  PhJlosophe  Bien- 
faisant "  and  "  Voix  d'un  Citoyen,"  in  which 
he  predicts  the  division  of  Polsjid. 

Stanley,  Arthur  Fenrhyn,  1815-81;  English 
clergyman  and  author;  b.  Alderl^,  Oheshire; 
was  B,  favorite  student  of  Dr.  Thomas  Arnold 
at  Rugby,  1820-34  (he  was  the  Arthur  in 
"  Tom  Brown's  School  Days  " )  ;  gained  a  schol- 
arship at  Baliol  Coll^^,  Oxford,  1834;  took 
a  fellowahip  at  Univeraity  College,  1838,  and 


STANLEY 


waa  tutor  for  twelve  years,  and  i 
I84I;  took  orders  in  the  Church  of  England, 
1840,  affiliating  himself  with  the  Broad  Church 
party;  preacher  to  the  Univ.  of  Oxford,  1840- 
47;  Canon  of  Canterbury,  1851-68;  Regius 
Prof,  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  Oxford,  1866- 
04,  and  Canon  of  Christ  Church,  1868-64;  in- 
stalled Dean  of  Westminster,  1864,  and  Lord 
Rector  of  the  Univ.  of  St.  Andrews,  1874-  He 
was  prominent  as  a  defender  of  broad-minded- 
QesB  in  the  Church  of  England;  cultivated 
friendly  relations  with  dissenters,  and  was 
much  more  popular  with  them  than  in  his 
own  church;  and  was  regarded  as  the  repre- 
sentative of  the  progressive  school  of.  British 
theology.  He  was  a  seasitive,  highly  gifted, 
poetic,  spiritual,  pure,  and  picturesiiue  person- 
all^.  The  chief  of  his  many  publications  are 
"  The  Life  and  Correspondence  of  Thomas  Ar- 
nold," "  Sermons  and  Essays  on  the  Apostolic 
Age,"  "The  Epistles  of  St.  Paul  to  the  Co- 
rinthians," "  Historical  Memorials  of  Canter- 
bury CaUiedral." 

Stanley,  Henry  Horton,  1841-1904;  African 
explorer;  b.  near  Denbigh,  Wales,  of  humble 
parentage.  He  was  in  the  poorhouse  until  his 
thirteenth  year,  then  taught  school,  and  later 
shipped  as  cabin  boy  for  New  Orleans,  where 
he  was  adopted  by  a  merchant,  whose  name  he 
assumed  instead  of  his  own,  which  waa  John 
Rowlands.  His  adoptive  father  having  died 
without  a  will,  and  the  Civil  War  breaking 
out,  he  enlisted  in  the  Confederate  stat«s  army; 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Shiloh  (1802);  volun- 
teered In  the  U.  S.  navy,  and  was  made  an 
officer  for  bravery.  After  the  close  of  the  war 
tie  went  as  a  newspaper  correspondent  to  Tur- 
key and  Asia  Minor,  and  in  1868  accompanied 
the  British  expedition  to  Abyssinia  as  corre- 
spondent of  the  New  York  Berald.  In  October, 
1809,  being  then  in  Spain,  he  was  sent  by  the 
Herald  to  head  an  expedition  to  learn  the  fate 
of  Livingstone,  from  whom  only  vague  intima- 
tions had  been  heard  for  two  years.  He 
reached  Zanzibar  in  January,  1871,  and  act  out 
for  tlie  interior  with  192  men.  In  Novemt>er 
he  found  Livingstone,  who  was  living  near  Lake 
Tanganyika,  and  furnished  him  with  supplies 
for  further  explorations.  After  having  ex- 
plored the  N.  portion  of  the  lake,  Stanley  set 
out  on  his  return  journey  in  March,  1872, 
reaching  England  in  July,  where  he  was  re- 
ceived with  honor,  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society  awarding  to  him  in  1673  its  patron's 
medal.  Tidings  having  been  received  of  the 
death  of  Livingstone,  Stanley  headed  an  expedi- 
tion, the  cost  of  which  was  jointly  undertaken 


3uatoriat  Africa.  Starting  with  300 
ter  many  hardships  and  severe  contests  with 
the  natives,  he  reached  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza, 
having  lost  194  men  by  death  and  desertion. 
He  circumnavigated  the  lake,  and  found  it  to 
be  a  single  larce  lake,  and  not,  as  supposed  by 
Burton  and  Livingstone,  a  group  of  lagoons. 
He  arrived  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kongo  River 
after  having  explored  its  whole  course;  re- 
turned to  the  Kon^  in  1879,  at  the  head  of 
a  Belgian  international  expedition,  and  organ- 
ized the  EoDgo  Free  BtaM;  lectuzed  is  tlu 


XiOOglC 


STAHNAIU&8 

U.  8.  {n  December,  188S;  returned  to  Kongo 
Fn»  StAt«  in  1887  with  mi  expediUoo  for  the 
relief  of  Emin  Bey,  whom  he  found  on  the 
Albert  Hjaaxa.  On  the  return  trip  he  discov- 
ered the  Ruwenzori  Mouutkini  S.  of  Albert 
Nyonza.  In  1891  he  visited  the  U.  8.  and  Aus- 
tralia on  lecturing  tours.  In  180G  he  was 
elected  to  Pftrlituient,  and  was  knighted,  1899. 
Hie  principal  works  are  "  How  I  Found  LiriuK- 
stMie,"  "  Coomaseie  and  Hagdala,"  "  ThrouDh 
the  Dsrk  Continent,"  "  The  Kongo,  and  the 
Founding  of  its  Free  State,"  "  In  Darkest 
Africa,"  "  M7  Dark  Companions,"  and  "  Slav- 
ery and  the  Slave  Trade  in  Africa." 

Stan'narlei,  in  general,  tin  mines,  but  ape- 
ciallj'  those  of  Cornwall  and  Devon,  with  pecul- 
iar laws,  usages,  and  courts  of  their  own. 


Stanovoi  (sta-nO-voi')  Bjuge,  name  given  hy 
Pallas  to  the  mountains  at  the  source  of  the 
Olekma,  but  since  expanded  to  embrace 
whole  Siberian  watersned  between  the  Arctic 
and  Paciflc  drainage  systems.  It  is  imperfectlj 
Icnown,  but  appears  to  extend  NE.  fripn  near 
Urga,  in  N.  central  Mongolia,  to  the  Chukchu 
Peninsula,  8,700  m.  A  principal  range  on  the 
W.  side  is  the  Yablonoi  Khrebet,  whi<^  borders 
the  plateau  of  Vitim.  The  highest  point  is 
Mount  Sokhoudo  (lat.  SO"  N.,  Ton.  110'  E.), 
9,250  ft. 

Stan'ton,  Xdwln  HcHasters,  1814-69;  Amer- 
ican statesman;  b.  Steubenvilte,  Ohio;  admit- 
ted t«  the  bar,  1838;  seUIed  at  Cadlt  and 
afterwards  at  SteubenviUe;  1S42-4S  he  was  re- 

GrUr  of  the  Ohio  Supreme  Court.  In  1847 
removed  to  Pittsburg,  Pa.  In  December, 
1S60,  he  was  made  U.  8.  Attorney-general,  and 
served  to  the  close  of  Pres.  Buchanan's  admin- 
istration. In  January,  1862,  he  was  appointed 
by  Lincoln  Secretaiy  of  War.  The  character 
istica  of  Stanton's  administration  were  in 
tegrity,  energy,  determination,  singleness  of 
purpose,,  and  capacity  to  comprehend  the  mag- 
nitude of  the  Civil  War  and  the  labor  and  cost 
in  blood  and  treasure  Involved  in  suppressing 
it.  His  labors  irere  indefatigable,  and  many 
of  the  most  important  and  successful  move- 
ments of  the  war  were  originated  by  him.  He 
continued  as  secretary  after  the  succession'  of 
Johnson,  hut  supported  many  measures  which 
were  vetoed  by  the  President  and  refinacted  by 
Congrees,  including  those  for  the  establishment 
of  the  Freedmen'e  Bureau,  for  protection  of 
civil  rights,  for  admission  of  Colorado  as  a 
state,  for  organication  of  governments  in  in- 
surrectionary states,  and  for  conferrin^^  suf- 
frage without  i|^r^i^d  to  color  in  the  District 
■  of  Columbia,  l^ie  led  the  President  (from 
whom  the  power  of  removal  had  been  taken  by 
the  tenure  of  office  act)  to  request  his  resigna- 
tion. He  refused  to  resign,  but  gave  wa^  under 
protest  to  Gen.  Grant  as  secretary  ad  mterim. 
On  JaouaiT  13,  1868,  the  BenaU  reinaUted 
htm.  On  February  2lBt  the  President  ap- 
Minted  Lorenzo  Thomas  Secretary  of  War  ad 
interim.  Stanton  refused  to  vacate,  and  the 
impeachment  of  the  President  followed.  Upon 
bis  acquittal,  Stanton  resigned.    A  few  days 


STARCH 

before  his  death  he  was  made  an  aa80ciat« 
justice  of  the  V.  S.  Supreme  Court. 

Stanton,  EUiabeth  (Cast),  181S>1902;  wom- 
an suffragist  (  b.  Johnstown,  N.  Y.;  educated 
Johnstown  Academy  and  Mrs.  Willard's  Sem- 
inary at  Troy;  married,  1640,  Henry  B. 
Stanton  (author  and  state  senator,  d.  1887)  ; 
accompanied  him  to  the  World's  Anti-Slaveiy 
Convention  at  London;  there  met  Lucretia 
Motti  resided  in  Boston  until  1847,  when  they 
settled  at  Seneca  Falls,  N.  ¥.;  with  Lucretia 
Mott  signed  the  call  for  the  first  Woman's 
Rights  Convention,  which  met  at  her  place  of 
residence,  July  19-20,  1848;  addressed  tiie  New 
York  I^slature,  1864,  on  the  rirht  of  suf- 
frage, in  1800  io  advocacy  of  divorce  for 
drunkenness,  and  in  1B67  maintaining  that 
during  the  revision  of  the  constitution  thu 
state  was  resolved  into  its  original  element", 
and  all  the  eitixens  had  a  right  to  vote  for 
members  of  the  constitutional  convention. 
Most  of  the  calls  and  resolutions  for  conven- 
tions, addresses  to  women,  legislatures,  and 
Congress,  were  from  her  pen.  She  was  presi- 
dent of  the  National  Woman's  Rights  Commit- 
tee, 1865-46,  of  the  Woman's  Loyal  League, 
1863,  aiid  of  the  National  Association  until 
she  withdrew  in  1892;  contributed  articles  to 
Journals  and  maga sines;  president  of  the  first 
International  Council  of  Women,  Washington, 
1888 ;  joint  author  of  "  The  History  of  Woman 
Suffrage."  • 

Sta'ple,  in  English  history,  certain  towns 
which  bad  the  royal  authority  to  sell  and  ex- 
port goods  abroad.  While  these  regular  mar- 
kets were  first  established  for  convenience  In 
levying  taxes,  the  monopoly  of  trade  which 
tbi^  afforded  was  carefully  preserved  I^  the 
local  merchants.  By  extension  of  the  term, 
staples  or  staple  ^joods  are  tliose  commodities 
which  are  ordinanty  dealt  in. 

Star  Ap'ple  Fam'ily,  the  Bapotaceif,  a  amall 
family   (400  species)   of  gamopetalous,  dicoty- 


ila  of  the  leaves,  and  have  o 
two  series  of  stamens,  and  a  superior  two-  to 
flve-celled,  few-ovuled  ovary.  They  are  mainly 
tropical  and  subtropical.  In  the  8.  U.  8.  there 
are  nine  or  ten  species,  five  of  which  are  amall 
trees  of  the  genus  Buvmtia.  "  Several  species 
of  this  family  are  useful  to  man.  The  fruits 
of  Luouma  mammoaa,  the  marmalade  of  the 
W.  Indies,  are  a  very  agreeable  food,  as  are 
those  of  Aohrat  aapota  (the  aapodilla  plum) 
and  various  species  of  Gkryaophgllum  (star 
apples),  whii;h  are  much  sought  after  in  the 
AJltilles."  Some  species  of  Baaiia,  the  butter 
trees,  yield  a  fatty  substance  by  pressure  of  the 
seeds.  Gutta-percha  is  obtained  from  Jtonan- 
Ara  gvtia,  a  large  tree  of  the  E.  Indies,  by  the 
evaporation  of  its  milky  Juice. 

Starch,  a  substance  { also  called  feeula,  ami- 
don,  and  amylum )  of  the  ehemli^  formula, 
C,H„0.  or  0„H„Oi„  widely  diffused  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  liere  are  two  other  sub- 
stances found  in  plants  which  resemble  starch 
— the  inulln,  which  occurs  in  the  dahlia,  dan- 
delicm,  chicory,   mustard  seed,  etc.,  and  the 


stah  CHAMBSft 

lichen  starch  which  ia  found  in  leeluid  in 

and  leTeTal  of  the  lichen  and  fucua  tribes  of 

Starch  ii  extracted  chiefly  from  wheat,  In- 
dian com,  rice,  potatoes,  the  root  of  manioc 
or  casUiTa,  Jatropha  manihot  (tapioca),  tha 
root  of  several  species  of  the  Maranta  (arrow- 
root), and  the  pith  of  many  palma  (sa^o). 
Wheat  flour  contains  fifty  to  ei^ty  per  cent 
of  starch.  The  starch  is  extracted  from  the 
whole  wheat  hy  "  softening "  in  cold  water 
and  pressing  under  millBtones  or  rollers,  or  in 
bags  uuder  water,  »b  long  sa  milky  water  runs 
off  from  it.  This  liijuid,  when  left  to  itself, 
deposits  starch  containing  gluten;  the  latter, 
however,  diisolves  for  the  most  part  in  the 
liquid,  which  turns  sour;  on  decanting  this 
acid  liquid,  repeatedly  stiTring  up  the  starch 
with  fresh  water,  and  leaving  it  to  settle,  it  is 
at  length  obtained  pure,  and  may  be  dried. 
Com  starch  is  made  in  the  U.  S.  by  soaking 
corn  in  water  containing  caustic  soda  or  hydro- 
chloric acid  to  dissolve  the  sluten,  grinding, 
washing  on  sieves,  etc.  The  cheapness  and  ex- 
cellaice  of  this  starch  has  put  an  end  to  the 
importation  of  atarch,  and  much  is  now  ex- 

Birted.  Rice  starch  is  largely  made  in  Great 
ritain,  France,  and  Belgium.  The  rice  is  first 
soaked  in  weak  lye,  then  ground,  and  washed 
on  a  sieve.  Potato  starch  is  largely  made  i 
Europe  and  the  U.  S.  Horse-chesUiut  atarch  i 
made  in  France. 

Starch  is  a  white  shining  powder,  soft  to 
the  touch,  grating  between  the  fingers  or  the 
teeth,  sometimes  couaiating  of  amorpboua 
masses,  but  more  frequently  of  granules  rec- 
ognisable by  the  microscope.  Starch,  so  long 
as  it  retains  its  natural  state  of  s^r^ation, 
is  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether;  but 
when  placed  in  contact  with  hot  tpater,  the 
water  penetrates  between  the  different  layers 
of  which  the  granules  are  composed,  swelling 
thero  up  and  forming  a  gelatinoua  moaa  known 
OS  ttarch  paste,  and  vaed  for  stiffening  linen. 

Starch  is  used  for  stiffening  cotton  and  linen 
cloth,  paper,  etc.  Com  starch  possesses  the 
highest,  and  potato  starch  the  lowest,  stiffen- 
ing qualities.  It  is  used  for  food,  aa  arrow- 
root, tapioca,  sago,  etc.,  for  making  paste,  for 
dextrin,  glucose  (com  simp),  etc.  For  the 
nutritional  value  of  starch,  see  Food. 

Star  Cham'bei,  in  English  history  a  high 
court  of  justice  supposed  to  have  derived  its 
name  from  the  fact  that  the  room  in  which 
it  waa  held  at  Weetminater  waa  decorated  with 

filt  stars.  As  early  as  the  reign  of  Edward 
II,  the  chancellor,  treasurer,  justices,  and  oth- 
ers are  mentioned  aa  exercising  jurisdiction  in 
Uie  "  star  chamber."  Its  powers  are  thought 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  council  which 
in   14S3  was  reeogniied  as  having  jurisdiction 


Wara  of  the  Hoses.  By  the  act  of  1488,  Henry 
VII  empowered  a  committee  of  the  council  to 
act  oa  a  court  of  justice  with  jurisdiction  over 
caaea  in  which  the  operation  of  the  law  was 
wnmgfully  impeded.  It  had  the  right  to  pun- 
ish tnthout  a  jucr  tha  misdemeanors  of  sheriffs 


STAKE 

and  juries,  and  in  spita  of  its  arbitrary  nature 
was  of  use  in  quelling  the  turbulent  spirit  of 
the  great  nobles  and  eatabtishing  order.  In 
Henry  VIII'h  reign  its  powers  were  reabsorbed 
by  the  council,  but  thenceforth  the  composition 
of  the  court  was  uncertain.  Its  jurisdiction, 
which  was  equally  vague,  comprised  in  prac- 
tice almost  every  class  of  offenses,  and  it  could 
inflict  any  penalty  short  of  death.  Indeed,  it 
claimed  its  power  aa  representing  the  King's 
Council.  Its  abuse  of  torture  to  extort  con- 
fessions, and  its  condemnation  of  persons  who 
were  not  given  an  opportunity  to  defend  them- 
selves, made  it  particularly  odious.  The  pecul- 
iar uncertainty  of  its  legal  rules  made  it  the 
defense  of  absolute  power,  and  under  the  Stu- 
arts its  arbitrary  decisions  and  cruel  punish- 
ments brought  down  upon  it  the  popular 
hatred.     It  was  abolished  in  1641. 

Stare  Deciais  (sta'rB  de-sl'sls),  a  shortened 
form  of  the  maxim,  "  stare  dedaia,  et  turn 
quiela  movere  " — "  to  stand  by  decisions  and 
not  to  disturb  matters  once  settled."  Ordi- 
narily, it  applies  only  to  decisions  of  the  court 
in  which  the  question  is  again  mooted,  or  to 
those  of  its  superior.  At  Umes,  however,  the 
rule.ia  followed  with  regard  to  decisions  of 
inferior   courts   and  even   to   decisions   of   ex- 


Stai'fiah,  any  animal  of  the  Echinodermata, 
order  Aateroidea ;  characterized  by  having  the 
body  more  or  lesa  star  shaped,  and  without 
sharp  distinction  between  the  Ave  or  more  rays 
or  arms  and  the  central  disk.  The  body  wall 
ia  hardened  with  plates  and  spines;  the  mouth 
is  in  the  center  of  the  lower  surface  of  the 
disk,  and  the  vent,  when  present,  ia  above. 
Each  arm  bears  on  its  lower  surface  two  zigzag 
rows  of  tubular  suckers,  by  means  of  which 
the  animal  moves  or  anchors  itself;  while  at 
the  tip  of  each  ray  is  an  eye  spot.  The  round 
spot  noticeable  on  the  upper  surface  is  a 
strainer  through  which  water  is  admitted  to 
tubes  connected  with  the  suckers.  The  sexes 
of  the  starfish  are  separate,  and  the  eggs  ara 
usually  committed  to  the  waves.  Star&sh  lack 
all  hard  armaturtt  to  the  mouth,  and  they  eat 
by  protruding  the  stomach,  inserting  it  into 
the  mollusc  upon  which  they  feed.  They  are 
extremely  destructive  to  oysters. 

Star'gaiers,  marine  fishes  of  the  TJranotcopi- 
dm.  The  best-known  apeciea  is  V.  toaber  of 
the  Mediterranean;  two  species  are  found  on 
the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  U.  B.,  but  most  of 
the  species  are  E.  Indian.  They  are  spiny 
fishes,  having  tbe  eyes  on  top  of  the  head, 
whence  tbe  name. 

Stark,  John,  1728-1822;  American  miliUry 
ofBcer;  b.  Londonderry,  N.  E.  In  1TG4  he  en- 
tered the  service  against  the  French  and  In- 
dians, and  in  1757  was  made  a  captain.  In 
1776  he  became  colonel  of  a  r^ment  which 
formed  the  left  of  the  American  line  at  Bunker 
Hill.  He  was  in  the  expedition  against  Canada, 
and  in  1776  joined  the  army  under  Washing- 
ton. He  led  the  van  in  the  attack  upon 
Trenton,  and  was  in  the  battle  at^inceton. 


Jg\C 


STAfiUNd 

Being  a^rieved  &t  Con^esi  in  regard  to  pro- 
motioDfl,  be  resigned  his  commission,  April, 
1777.  In  1777  he  was  in  command  of  the  New 
HampaMTe  troops  raised  to  oppose  the  British 
advance  from  Canada,  and  on  August  16th 
fought  the  battle  of  Benoia^D,  for  which 
Congress  made  him  a  brigadier  general.  He 
afterwards  cut  oil  Burgoyne's  retreat  from 
Saratoga.  In  177B  he  was  placed  in  command 
of  the  N.  department;  in  1779-60  he  served 
in  Rhode  Island  and  New  Jersey,  and  at  West 
Point  was  a  member  of  the  court-martial  fur 
the  trial  of  Maj.  AndrC;  and  in  1781  he  again 
had  command  of  the  N.  department.  After  the 
war  he  retired  to  his  farm. 

Stalling,  the  Btumui  vulgarit,  a  common 
European  bird.  It  is  a  favorite,  especiaJty  with 
the  Germans,  who  have  it  caged,  and  t^ch  it 


CotmoH  BrisLiHa. 

.to  whistle  tunea  and  even  speak  words.  The 
bird  is  S}  in.  long,  black,  with  violet  and  ^reen 
reflections  and  buff  spots.  It  has  been  intro- 
duced into  the  U.  S. 

Star  of  Bethlehem,  plants  of  the  Liliaata, 
native  of  Europe,  but  widely  grown  in  the  U.  8. 
Their  clusters  of  white,  waxy,  itar-shaped  flow- 
ers arc  very  common  in  gardens,  though  their 
odor  is  not  pleasant  to  ^1.  They  are  propa- 
gated from  offsets  of  their  bulbs. 

Stai  of  In'dlx,  Ofder  of  the,  British  order 
of   knighthood,   to   reward    distinction   in   the 

rtmment  service  in  India.  It  was  instituted 
1861,  and  reorganized,  1869  and  187S.  It 
consists  of  the  sovereign,  the  Viceroy  of  India, 
and  three  clasacfl  of  members :  ( 1 )  knights 
grand  commanders  (Q.  C.  B.  I.)  ;  {2)  kuighU 
eommanden  (K.  C.  S.  I.);  and  (3)  compan- 
iona  (0.  S.  I.).  The  badge  is  a  light-hlue  rib- 
bon with  white  stripes,  and  the  motto,  "  Heav- 
en's Light  our  Quide." 

Stan,  in  general,  immenie  maasea  of  mattar, 
at  a  temperature  so  high  as  to  be  self- luminous, 
scattered  through  space,  and  of  the  same  gen- 
eral nature  as  the  sun.  According  to  the 
nebular  hypothesis,  each  mass  is  hot  because 
it  has  never  had  time  to  cool  since  it  was  first 
formed  from  the  condensation  of  the  nebula. 
Like  the  sun,  the  stars  are  surrounded  hy  at- 
mospheres of  vapor,  cooler  than  themselves, 
and  spectrum  analysis  shows  that  they  are 
composed  of  chemical  elements  similar  to  those 
found  upon  the  earth. 


STARS 

The  number  of  stars  which  can  be  seen  at 
one  time  by  the  average  eye,  on  a  clear  even- 
ing, may  be  estimated  as  between  2,000  and 
2,500.  As  only  half  the  celestUl  sphere  is 
above  the  horizon,  and  few  stars  can  be  seen 
near  the  horizon,  owing  to  the  vapora  in  tbe 
atmosphere,  the  number  in  the  whole  celestial 
sphere  is  more  than  double  that  visible  at  any 
one  time.  The  number  in  the  heavens  which 
the  ordinary  eye  can  see  is  about  5,000,  but 
these  are  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  whole 
number,  the  great  majority  being  invisible 
without  telescopic  aid.  No  exact  estimate  has 
ever  been  made  of  tbe  total  number  visible 
with  the  neat  refractor  of  the  Lick  Observa- 
tory, hut  it  would  probably  exceed  50,000,000. 

An  ancient  system  of  estimating  the  ap- 
parent magnitudes  or  brightness  of  the  stars, 
still  in  use  by  astronomers,  divided  the  stars 
into  six  orders  of  brilliancy.  About  twenty  of 
the  brightest  stars  were  called  of  the  first  mag- 
nitude. Next  in  order  came  the  brightest  stars 
of  the  Great  Bear  and  of  Cassiopeia.  These 
were  of  tbii  second  magnitude.  The  successive 
magnitudes  corresponded  with  the  continually 
diminishing  degree  of  light,  until  the  sixth  was 
reached,  which  included  the  faintest  visible 
with  the  naked  eye.  The  original  division  into 
magnitudes  was  made  from  estimates  by  the 
eye.  In  modem  timea  greater  exactness  has 
been  aimed  at,  though  not  always  attained,  by 
the  use  of  decimals.  Thus  a  star  of  2.5  mag- 
nitude stands  midway  between  stars  of  the 
second  and  third  d^reca  of  brilliancy.  The 
number  of  stars  of  each  magnitude  increases 
with  their  minuteness.  Roughly  speaking, 
there  are  three  timea  as  many  of  the  second 
magnitude  as  of  the  first;  three  times  as  many  ' 
of  the  third  as  of  the  second,  and  so  on.  In 
the  case  of  the  fainter  stars,  however,  the  pro- 
gression is  not  so  rapid.  There  are  between 
two  and  three  times  as  many  stars  of  the  sixth 
magnitude  as  of  the  fifth ;  probably  about  twice 
as  many  of  the  seventh  as  of  the  sixth,  and 

In  former  ages  the  figures  of  men,  animals, 
or  natural  objects  were  supposed  to  be  deline- 
ated on  the  face  of  the  nocturnal  sky,  so  as  to 
include  all  the  principal  stars,  and  the  stars 
were  designated  by  the  particular  limb  or  part 
of  the  animal  in  which  they  were  found.  The 
bright  red  star,  Aldebaran,  for  example,  in 
the  constellation  Taurus,  formed  the  eye  of  the 
bull,  and  two  other  smaUer  stars  were  at  the 
ends  of  his  horns.  So  we  have  three  stars 
forming  the  belt  of  Orion,  and  three  others  his 
sword.  In  ancient  times  special  names  were 
given  to  several  of  the  bnghter  stars;  thus 
ArcturuB  is  alluded  to  in  the  book  of  Job.  The 
Arabs  introduced  special  names  for  100  or  200 
of  the  stars.  Some  of  these  names  are  still 
used,  but  the  tendency  is  to  designate  the  stars 
according  to  the  system  of  Bayer,  introduced 
abL  1600.  All  the  stars  of  a  constellation 
have  the  name  of  that  constellation  as  a  sur- 
name. The  Christian  names  are  the  lettera  of 
the  Greek  alphabet,  a,  A  etc.  These  letters 
are  used  in  each  constellation  in  the  same 
manner  that  persona  of  different  familiea  may 
have  the  same  Christian  name.  The  first  liit 
tere  of  the  alphabet  are  usiuUly  applied  to 


X.oog 


■olc 


BTAB8 

brighter  starB.  ThuB  a  Una  lOnorls  Is  one 
of  the  two  brightest  stars  in  Ursa  Minor;  fi 
Ursa  Minoris  la  the  other>  7  Minoris  is  the 
tbird  in  the  order  of  brilli&ai^,  etc.  When  Qie 
Qreek  alphabet  wss  eshauatM,  in  the  case  of 
an;  one  conatellation,  the  Italic  alphabet  was 
used.  In  modem  times  aeveml  stars  are  rep- 
ressited  b^  one  of  Bayer's  letters  and  a  num- 
ber attached  to  it.  Thus  two  stars  in  Aquarius 
are  represented  by  h,  and  ft,  respectively. 

Flamsteed,  in  making  his  catajogue  of  stars, 
found  that  he  had  to  include  so  many  stars 
not  lettered  by  Bayer  that  be  used  numbers, 
instead  o(  the  Qreek  and  Italic  letters.  These 
unmbers  were  arranged  in  the  orders  of  right 
ascension;  tbus  1  Scorpii  was  the  first  star  in 
ScorpiuB  which  passed  the  meridian,  2  Scorpii 
the  second,  etc.  The  system  comnionly  used 
now  is  to  designate  the  star  by  Bayer's  letUr, 
when  it  has  one,  otherwise  by  Flamsteed's 
number.  Stars  which  have  neither  letter  nor 
number  are  distinguished  simply  by  tbeir  mag- 
nitude, right  ascension,  and  declination,  or  t^ 
tbeir  number  in  some  well-known  catalogue; 
but  for  uniformity  the  constellation  to  which 

'  i  dis- 

>  the 

distribution  of  the  stars  in  space.  In  certain 
parts  of  the  heavens  the  stars  are  heaped  to- 
gether in  clusters.  The  telescope  reveals  won- 
derful groups,  such  as  that  in  Hercules,  which 
containa  thousands  of  stare  in  a  small  apaee, 
spreading  at  the  edge  into  curved  sprays.  A 
group  near  «  of  the  8.  Cross  shows  an  ag- 
gr^ation  of  variously  colored  stars. 

Coi 
A.  t/<ir1htm  ContUUO' 


7  LMerta. 

8  Lyax. 

•  Um  Major. 


6<fwH>i  1A«  uniUt  0} 
latiludt  4S'  and  thi 

12  Equuleui. 
14  I^m!!*' 
16  A 


*7  Saipcni. 

48  Ophiuchus. 

49  Scutum  SoUbUI. 

50  AquUa  M  AdUoous. 
Gl  Libn. 

S3  Boocpio. 
64  S><itIaTi(u. 
ES  CupricpniuL 

S7  Piscia  AustnliL 


■  indude  13  atan  of  the  Gnt 


maffnitudtt.  4i  ^-  --^  — ^^ — .  *- 

flfth.  3.074  xUlh.  irilh  41  vnriible  >Un.  IS 
•■>,<  T  nohiilrr  in  atl  fi,421  gtara  of  the  aiz 
'd  tha  Dalud  »]'•. 


ra  the  amoUaat  viaibl*  U 


8TASS 

Oertafn  star*  vary  In  brilliant  from  time 
to  time.  The  two  most  remarkable  ones  are  a 
Ceti  and  g  Persei,  or  Algol.  During  the 
greater  part  of  the  time  the  former  of  these 
stars  is  invisible  to  the  naked  eye;  but  at  in- 
tervals of  about  eleven  months  it  becomes 
Elainly  visible,  and  after  retaining  a  Maximum 
rilliancy  for  some  two  weeks  fades  awa^ 
again.  Its  maximum  brilliancy,  bowerer,  is 
very  different  at  different  appearanoea,  ranging 
from  the  second  all  the  way  to  the  fifth.  In 
the  8.  hemisphere  q  Argus  for  several  cen- 
turies has  varied  in  a  singular  manner.  The 
first  record  of  it  was  by  ^lley  in  1677,  when, 
it  was  classed  as  of  the  fourth  ma^itude.  In. 
1837  Sir  John  Herschel,  while  making  observa- 
tions at  the  Cape  of  Oood  Hope,  was  aston- 
ished by  'the  appearance  of  a  new  star  of  the 
first  magnitude,  which  he  found  to  be  q  Argus. 
Its  light  was,  however,  nearly  trebled,  being 
then  RTeater  than  that  of  Rigel.  He  states 
that  the  liglit  continued  to  increase  until  the 
beginning  of  1B38,  when  it  was  brighter  than 
most  of  the  stars  of  the  first  magnitude.  It 
then  graduail;  faded  awa;  for  two  or  three 
years,  but  in  1842  and  IB43  blazed  up  brighter 
than  ever,  so  as  to  be  the  brightest  star  in  the 
heavens,  except  Sirius.  Since  that  time  it  has 
been  steadily   diminishing. 

With  most  of  the  variable  stars,  the  changes 
of  light  go  on  BO  continuously  as  to  show  that 
it  Ib  due  to  the  constitution  of  the  star  itself. 


due  to  a  process  analogous  to  that  of  the 
formation  of  spots  01^  the  sun.  The  spots  on 
the  sun  go  through  a  regular  period  in  eleven 
years.  It  may  therefore  be  called  a  variable 
star,  with  a  period  of  eleven  years.  It  may 
therefore  be  said  that  variations  in  brilliancy 
among  the  stars  are  due  to  the  r^ular  forma- 
tion of  spots  like  those  on  the  sun,  at  intervals 
which  are  sometimes  fairly  regular. 

A  slight  examination  will  show  to  any  ob- 
server that  the  stars  are  of  different  colore. 
The  great  majority  are  white.  A  few,  such 
as  Sirius  and  Alpha  Lyne,  have  a  slightly  blu- 
ish tint.  Uany  others,  as  Aldebaran,  Arcturua, 
Antaree,  and  -Alpha  OrioniB,  have  a  reddish 
tinge.  These  differences  of  color  are  probably 
due  in  part  to  differences  in  the  temperature 
of  the  stara,  and  in  the  absorbing  power  of 
the  atmoapheres  which  surround  them.  It  is 
familiarly  known  that  the  color  of  the  light 
emitted  by  a  piece  of  heated  iron  is  at  first 
red,  and  then  it  changes  toward  white  as  the 
iron  gets  hotter.  There  is  little  doubt  that 
the  red  stars  are  not  at  so  high  temperature 
as  those  of  other  colors.  Stellar  spectra  show 
that  the  stars  contain  the  same  elements  as 
the  earth  and  the  sun — hydrogen,  sodium,  iron. 

There  is  no  well-established  cewe  of  a 
known  star  disappearing  from  the  heavens. 
The  supposed  cases  were  those  when  an  ob- 
server had  made  some  mistake  in  recording  th« 
poaition  of  a  star,  so  that  future  observers  on 
looking  at  the  place  found  it  vacant.  Stars 
apparently  new  appear  from  time  to  time.  Tha 
most  extraordinary  on  record  was  that  of  1752, 
described  by  Tycho  Brahe.    For  nearly  a  mcmth 


,L.OOgl( 


STAItSTOHC 

It  was  BO  bright  as  to  be  diRcemible  in  full 
daylight.  It  then  faded  avaj,  and  at  the  end 
of  MKither  yeaf  gradually  became  invisible. 
The  position  of  the  itar  was  determined  by 
T^cho  «fl  well  as  his  inBtruments  would  per- 
mit, and  there  is  now  a  telescopic  star  near 
the  place.  Kepler  records  a  similar  star,  which 
appeared  iu  1604,  in  the  constellation  Ophiu- 
cnus.  In  October  of  that  year  it  was  of  the 
first  magnitude,  and  remained  visible  during 
1606.  It  faded  away  early  In  1606,  and  the 
question  whether  such  stars  were  new  might 
nave  been  considered  an  open  one  until  the 
appearance  of  T  Coronv  m  May,  1886.  It 
waa  first  seen  on  the  11th  of  that  month,  when 
it  had  attained  the  second  magnitude.  On  the 
question  whether  the  star  was  visible  before 
tnat  day  the  testimony  is  conflicting.  The 
most  important  circumstance  connected  with 
this  star  is  that  it  was  found  to  have  been 
already  recorded  in  Argenlander's  catalc^e, 
being  a  teleseopie  star  of  the  ninth  magnitude. 
A  few  days  alter  it  blazed  forth  it  began  to 
fade  again,  and  has  aince  diminished  to  its 
former  state.  In  1802  a  new  star  appeared  in 
.  the  constellation  Aurigte,  but  it  did  not  rise 
above  the  fifth  magnitude,  and  might  therefore 
have  passed  unnoticed.  No  certain  e:cplana- 
tion  can  be  given  of  these  phenomena. 

To  the  unaided  vision  the  stars  seem  to  pre- 
acrre  the  same  relative  position  in  the  heavens 


astronomy  show  a  slow  motion  to  be  taking 
place  in  at  least  all  the  brighter  stars.  This 
motion,  however,  does  not  follow  any  exact  law 
that  has  yet  been  discovered,  except  to  the 
extent  that  there  ia  a  preponderance  of  mo- 
tions in  a  certain  direction  in  the  heavens 
which  may  be  described  as  from  the  constella- 
tion Hercules  in  the  N.  hemisphere  toward 
that  of  Pictor  in  the  8.  For  shooting  stars, 
aea  Motdobiie.  See  also  Abteboid;  Coket; 
UentoBi  Planet. 

Star'atone,  a  variety  of  sapphire,  the  aaleria 
of  the  ancients,  found  in  C^lon.  It  presents, 
when  cut  en  eaboehon,  or  in  a  bemispberical 
form,  and  viewed  in  a  direction  perpendicular 
t«  the  axis,  a  peculiar  reflection  of  light  in  the 
form  of  a  star. 

Starva'tion,  or  Inani'tlon,  the  condition  of 
tissue  waste,  exhausted  vitali^,  and  death  re- 
sulting from  prolonged  privation  of  food.  A 
slower  starvation  ensues  when  food  is  scanty 
and  impure,  or  is  deSeient  in  one  or  more  of 
the  constituents  essential  to  man.  Animals 
have  been  fed  experimentally  on  single  classes 
of  food — one  upon  albuminoid  matter,  another 
partaking  of  only  farinaceous  substances,  a 
third  only  of  the  hydrocarbons  or  fats.  Such 
exclusive  diet  proved  disastrous;  emaciation, 
enfeeblement,  and  death  by  starvation  ensued. 
The  phenomena  of  starvation  have  been  re- 
corded by  the  shipwrecked,  by  persona  immured 
in  mines,  and  Arctic  explorers. 

Prolonged  abstinence  necessitates  bodily 
waste;  hence  the  reported  cases  of  prolonged 
subsistence  without  food,  usually  women  ap- 
parently in  a  state  of  trance  or  catalepsy,  are 
not  to  be  accredited;  carefully  investigated, 
6p  ', 


STATE 

they  invariably  prove  to  be  artful  deceptions 
by  hysterical  or  demented  persons.  Rigid  ex- 
clusion of  food  and  drink  causes  death  in  from 
five  to  eight  days.  Water,  freely  supplied, 
may  prolong  life  two  or  three  weeks,  excep- 
tionally longer.  Water  constitutes  over  half 
the  weight  and  bulk  of  the  body,  and  even  solid 
food,  so  called,  is  iu  part  water.  Starvation 
at  the  outset  produces  urgent  hunger;  this  may 
gradually  lessen,  be  replaced  by  laintness,  loss 
of  appetite,  and  evei^  loathing  of  food.  The 
strength  fails,  the  body  wastes,  the  mind  be- 
comes enfeebled;  in  some  cases  there  is  liat- 
lesaness  and  stupor,  in  others  excitement  and 
delirium.  The  starving  person  ia  liable  to  in- 
tercurrent disease,  and  the  community  suffer- 
ing privation  is  often  visited  by  epidemics  of 


victims.  Starving  persona,  when  rescued, 
should  not  be  supplied  too  suddenly  or  freely 
with  food;  the  enervated  digestive  apparatus 
can  retain  and  assimilate  but  small  quantities 
at  a  time,  an  excess  exciting  irritation  and 
dangerous  diarrhea.  Certain  diseased  condi- 
tions may  cause  starvation;  such  are  stricture 
and  cancer  of  the  cesopbagua  and  upper  orifice 
of  the  stomach,  and  tubercle  of  the  mtegtine. 

Stasafnrt  (st&s'fort),  town;  province  of  Sax- 
ony, Prussia;  on  the  Bode;  20  m.  SSW.  of 
Magdeburg.  It  is  noted  for  the  immense  layer 
ol  rock  salt  in  its  vicinity,  discovered  in  1337 
at  a  depth  of  826  ft.  and  with  a  thickness  of 
1,000  ft  The  production  in  1887  was  201,062 
tons  of  rock  salt  and  1,204,081  tons  of  other 
salts.  An  extensive  chemical  industry  has  been 
built  up.    fop.  (1000)  20,031. 

State,  in  its  pre«ent  sense,  a  body  politic;  a 
aelf-goveming  community  organised  under  per- 
manent law  which  has  for  its  aim  justice  and 
the  security  of  all.  It  ia  the  best  term  for 
denoting  communities  on  their  political  side 
whatever  their  form  of  government  be.  The 
term  nation  implies  common  origin  and  lan- 
guage. The  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  such 
as  it  was  before  the  disruption  in  1830,  con- 
sisted of  inhabitants  speaking  three  languages 
— Dutch,  Flemish,  and  French — with  various 
earlier  institutions  and  political  connections. 
This  was  in  no  sense  a  nation,  but  was  a  state. 
So  Austria  at  present  is  not  a  nation,  but  is 
a  state  where  three  UBtionalities  at  least — a 
German,  a  Hungarian,  and  a  Slavonic,  to  say 
nothing  of  Polish  and  Roumanian  and  other 
subjects— ere  bound  together  under  the  same 
political  institutions. 

State,  Depart'meat  of,  an  executive  depart- 
ment in  the  U.  S.  Govt.,  having  charge  of  the 
relations  of  that  government  with  foreign  pow- 
ers. Its  head  is  the  Secretary  of  State,  who 
ranks  as  the  first  of  the  Cabinet  officers.  The 
secretary  not  only  is  charged,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  the  President,  with  all  negotiationa 
relating  to  foreign  affairs,  but  is  the  medium 
of  correspondence  between  the  President  and 
the  executive  of  the  several  states,  is  custodian 
of  the  great  seal  of  the  U.  S.,  and  publishes 
the  laws  and  resolutions  of  Congress,  proclama- 
tions admitting  new  states  into  the  Union,  and 


STATEN  ISLAND 

amendmentB  to  the  conatitutiona.  He  Ib  fur- 
ther required  to  iuue  reports  of  information 
received    from    the    consular    and    diplomatic 

Stat'eu  Ii'land,  largest  island  in  New  York 
harbor )  formerl}'  Ricbmond  Co.,  N,  Y.,  now 
the  Borough  of  Richmond,  New  York  City; 
length,  13  m.;  width,  8  m.;  area,  S8}  sq.  m.; 
and  ii  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Kill  von  EuU, 
£.  by  New  York  harbor.  New  York  Bay,  and  the 
Narrows,  SSE.  by  RaritlLn  Bay  and  the  lower 
bay  of  New  York,  and  W.  1^  Staten  Island 
Sound.  January  I,  18SB,  it  was  annexed  to 
the  city  of  New  York  us  the  Borough  of  Rich- 
mond, and  the  five  towns  into  which  It  waa 
divided  became  wards.  The  island  is  very 
hilly.  A  mile  SE.  of  Clifton  is  Fort  Wads- 
worth,  guarding  the  approach  to  New  York 
harbor;  on  the  N.  shore  Ib  the  Sailors'  Snug 
Harbor,  and  between  St.  George  and  Tompkins- 
ville  is  a  U.  S.  lighthouse.  The  island  is  a 
place  of  residence  of  many  New  York  busineaa 
men.    Pop.  (IBIO)   86,960. 

StKte  Sights.    See  BonaaasTr. 

State's  Er'ideuce,  or  (in  Great  BriUin) 
Ein£'B  or  Qnsen's  ETidence,  a  phrase  popu- 
larly used  to  describe  the  evidenoe  of  an  ac- 
complice, generally  given  under  an  arrange- 
ment made  with  the  officer  repreaentins  the 
state  that  the  witness  so  testifying  shall  not 
himself  be  prosecuted  for  the  crime  of  which 
he  confesses  himself  to  be  guilty  white  he  is 
disclosing  the  guilt  of  the  party  on  trial.  It 
is  often  neceesaryj  in  order  that  the  ends  of 
justice  may  not  be  defeated,,  that  one  of  several 
criminals  should  be  suffered  to  testify  on  the 
trial  of  his  fellows,  although  hb  evidence  may 
show  himself  to  be  guilty.  When  and  with 
whom  such  an  arrangement  shall  be  made  rests 
on  the  sound  discretion  of  the  ofEcer  who  rep- 
resents the  people,  or,  if  suit  has  already  been 
instituted,  of  uie  court  Such  evidence  is  of 
course  suspicious,  and  it  has  even  been  said 
that  no  conviction  should  be  had  upon  the  un- 
corroborated testimony  of  an  accomplice.  A 
jury  has  the  power  to  convict  upon' such  evi- 
dence, and  their  verdict  could  not  be  set  aside 
as  illegal.    See  Evidence 

SUtes-G«n'eial,  an  assembly  composed  of 
representatives  of  the  nation.  In  France  it 
consisted  of  representatives  of  the  three  orders 
— the  nobility,  the  clergy,  and  the  third  estate, 
or  the  bourjreoune.  Its  origin  seems  to  date 
back  to  Charlemagne.  The  first  convocation  of 
which  history  gives  authentic  report  is  that  of 
Blois,  1302,  by  which  Philippe  le  Bel  tried  to 
give  a  greater  weight  to  the  course  he  hod 
adopted  in  his  quarrel  with  Boniface  Till. 
The  most  memorable  convocation  was  that  of 
1789,  which  ushered  in  the  revolution.  In 
Holland  the  name  States-General  is  applied  to 
the  legislative  body  of  the  kingdom,  uiere  dis- 
tinguishing that  assembly  from  the  merely 
provincial  states.  The  Dutch  States-General  is 
composed  of  two  chambers — the  upper,  elected 
by  the  provincial  states,  and  the  lower,  chgaen 
)^  the  citizeuS. 

States  of  the  Cbnich.    See  Papal  States. 


STAHONS  OF  THE  CROSS 

Stat'icSi  that  branch  of  mechanics  whicli 
treats  of  the  properties  and  relations  of  forces 
in  equilibrium.  By  equilibrium  is  meant  that 
the  forces  are  in  perfect  balance,  so  that  the 
body  upon  which  they  act  is  in  a  stat«  of  rest. 
The  word  statics  is  used  in  opposition  to 
dynamics  ( q.v. ) ,  the  former  being  the  science 
of  equilibrium  or  rest,  the  latter  of  motion, 
and  tioth  together  constituting  mechanics. 

In  statics,  forces  are  measured  by  the  press- 
ures that  they  will  produce;  the  umt  of 
pressure  is  usually  a  certain  effect  of  the  force 
of  gravitation  as  indicated  by  a  spring  balance 
(not  by  a  steelyard  or  scales)  acted  upon  at 
some  assigned  place  by  a  definite  quantity  of 
matt«r  measured  in  pounds,  kilograms,  etc, 
and  represented  by  lines,  the  lengths  of  the 
lines  being  proportional  to  the  intensities  of 
the  forces,  their  directions  parallel  to  the  di- 
rections of  the  forces,  and  their  ends  denoting 
the  points  of  application  of  the  forces.  The 
resultant  of  two  or  more  forces  is  a  single 
force  which  produces  the  same  effect  as  the 
several  forces  acting  together.  The  components 
of  a  single  force  are  forces  whose  united  action 

froduoes  the  same  effect  as  the  single  one. 
be  process  of  combining  forces  into  a  resultant 
is  called  composition,  and  that  of  separating 
a  single  force  into  components  is  called  reso- 
lution. Theae  proo- 
essea  are  effected  b^ 
means  of  the  princi- 
ple of  the  parallelo- 
gram of  forces,  which 
is  thus  stated:  If  two  a*^ 
forces  P  and  Q  acting 
upon  the  material  point  a  are  Tepresentetl  in 
intensity  and  direction  by  the  lines  a  b  and 
a  d,  their  resultant  R  will  be  represented  in 
intuit;  and  direction  by  the  diagonal  a  o  of 
the  parallelogram  a  b  e  a  constructed  upon  the 
two  given  sides. 

Another  fundamental  law  is  the  principle  of 
moments  (See  Momknt. )  Statics  considers 
also  parallel  foroes  and  the  determination  of 
centers  of  gravity  and  moments,  of  inertia  of 
bodies,  and  the  equilibrium  of  forces  acting 
through  the  cord,  lever,  pulley.  Inclined  plane, 
and  screw,  of  which  all  machines  are  com- 
poimded,  together  with  tbeir  modification  by 
the  foroes  of  friction  and  cohesion.  The  laws 
of  the  equilibrium  of  gsses  and  of  liquids 
(hydrostatics),  with  their  applications  to  the 
barometer,  pump,  and  hydrostatic  press,  ai* 
then  developed.  Among  the  more  complex 
aspects  of  statics  are  the  theory  of  the  equilib- 
rium of  arches  and  bridges,  the  theory  of  th« 
flexure  of  elastic  bodies,  the  theory  of  the 
strength  of  materials  subject  to  forces  of  ten- 
sion, compression,  shearing,  or  torsion,  the 
theory  of  the  tension  of  fluids,  and  tlio  statics 
of  molecules. 


ries  of  figures  or 
representing  the 
r  ''  cniriat's  Paa- 


Sta'tioBs  of  the  Cross,  a  s< 
pictures,  usually  fourteen, 
stages  of  the  Via  Dolorosa,  i 
sion  on  the  way  to  Calvary."  They  are  gener- 
ally found  in  every  Roman  Catholic  church. 
In  Roman  Catholic  countries  they  are  .often 
erected  by  the  wayside,  in  cemeteriM,  on  prom- 
inent sites,  etc  '  ~  ' 


■  Google 


STATISTIGS 

Statii'tlci,  in  its  simpleat  meaning,  a  de- 
scription of  any  clau  of  fact*  expreued  b^ 
mean*  of  flpiree.  The  Book  of  Numbers  is  a 
■tatiitical  report.  There  ia  record  of  Btatis- 
tical  work  in  Chins  in  2300  B.C.  In  Greece 
aiid  Some  also  there  were  iystematic  collec- 
tions of  data  pertaining  to  gational  life.  In 
SS4  B.C.  a  cenaua  was  taken  in  Greece  for  the 
purpose  of  levjinK  taxes  which  divided  the 
people  into  four  Masses  according  to  wealth. 
Athens  took  a  census  of  population  in  309  B.a. 
The  constitution  of  Servius  Tullius,  G50  B.C., 
distinguished  six  property  classes.  -  In  the 
Middle  Ages  there  was  national  enumeration 
of  papulation  or  of  property.  The  work,  how- 
ever, was  suggested  by  some  practical  neces- 
sity, as  the  "  Domeaday  Book  "  of  William  I, 
1088  A.D.,  or  the  "  Land  Raster  "  of  Walde- 
mar  II,  leSl  A.D.  In  France  the  need  of  defi- 
nite information  as  to  national  conditions  fol- 
lowing the  revolution  was  reoogniied,  and  a 
commission  established  to  collect  data  for  re- 
forms in  administration  and  finance.  This  led 
to  the  establishment  of  statistical  bureaus  in 
France,  as  also  in  other  countries. 

The  phrase,  "  science  of  statistics,"  has  been 
looself  used  to  convey  a  number  of  indefinite 
Ideas.  Its  claim  to  be  a  science  usually  rests 
OD  the  observation  of  uniformity  In  those  do- 
mains of  human  activity  which  are  commonly 
regarded  as  subject  to  the  control  of  the  in- 
dividual. For  example,  one  would  suppose 
that  suicides,  being  wholly  under  the  direction 
of  the  individual  will,  would  show  no  rule  of 
recurrence,  but  a  study  of  the  statistics  of 
saicides  shotM  that  notning  ia  more  constant 
in  ita  recurrence  ttian  the  cause  for  which,  the 
time  in  which,  and  the  manner  by  which  sui- 
cides are  committed.  The  same  is  true  In  any 
domain  of  human  activity,  ao  much  so  indeed 
that  by  the   use  of  statistics   one  is   able   to 

tredict  with  great  assurance  what  ia  likely  to 
ippen.  This  fact,  however,  does  not  seem  to 
make  good  the  claim  that  statistics  is  an  in- 
depen£nt  science,  but  indicates  rather  the 
possibility  of  scientific  treatment  of  ail  social 
and  moral  questions.  Statistics  therefore 
comes  to  be  a  method  of  investigation,  a  branch 
of  the  science  of  logic.  Accepting,  then,  statis- 
tics as  a  science  of  method,  it  may  be  regarded 
as  consisting  in  a  systematio  observation  and 
classification  of  facts. 

Among  the  most  frequent  errors  made  in 
dealing  with  statistics  are  ttie  consideration  of 
percentages  without  r^ard  to  the  figures  upon 
which  they  are  founded.  For  example,  an  in- 
crease of  10  m.  in  railway  mllef^  in  a  district 
which  bad  but  10  m.  to  start  wilh  would  show 
a  higher  percentage  of  increase  than  an  in- 
crease of  1,000  m.  In  a  district  which  had 
10,000  m.  of  line  at  the  outset.  One  who  rea- 
sons by  means  of  percentages  must  hold  con- 
stantly in  mind  that  he  is  dealing  with  ratios, 
and  not  with  absolute  facts.  Caution  is  also 
necessary  in  drawing  conclusions  from  aver- 
ages. In  the  first  place,  a  sufficiently  large 
number  of  individual  facts  must  be  collected 
to  nullify  the  influence  of  any  unusual  or  ab- 
normal caaea.  Then  individual  facts  should 
be  allowed  to  influence  the  average  in  propor- 
tion to  their  relative  importance,     for  exam- 


STATTTS 

pie,  wheat  ia  relatively  of  more  vital  impor- 
tance to  the  people  than  silks,  and  any  in- 
vestigation which  holds  in  view  the  efl'ect 
of  chan^  in  prices  on  the  well  being  of  a 
community  must  lay  greater  stress  on  varia- 
tions in  the  price  of  wheat  than  in  that  of 
silks.  Again,  it  will  not  do  in  determining 
the  average  of  wages  to  rely  upon  the  daily 
rate  of  wages  reported  as  paid,  but  the  number 
of  days  in  the  year  for  which  the  workmen 
receive  the  stated  wages  must  also  be  taken 
into  account. 

Under  population  statistics  are  included  an 
extensive  class  of  facts.  Thus,  in  addition  to 
the  actual  count,  there  is  a  classification  of 
population  by  territorial  groups  to  discover  the 
density  of  population.  Changes  in  population 
are  also  included,  with  all  questions  of  birth 
rate  and  death  rate  (vital  statistics)  and  im- 
migration. The  facta  pertaining  to  the  physical 
life  of  the  people  are  also  included  under  popu- 
lation statistics,  OS,  for  example,  expectation 
of  life  at  various  ages,  classification  on  a  basis 
of  age,  etc.  Under  industrial  statistics  are  in- 
eluded  all  facts  pertaining  to  the  production, 
exchange,  distribution,  and  consumption  of 
wealth ;  also  to  the  means  by  which  the  In- 
dustrial process  is  carried  on.  Statistics  of 
wages,  capital,  railways,  money,  prices,  and  the 
like  are  all  included  under  industrial  statistics. 
The  statistics  of  social  and  political  life  include 
the  facta  descriptive  of  the  manner  in  which 
people  live  and  of  the  governments  under  wtkicb 
they  live.  Moral  statistics  Include  all  facts 
which  indicate  the  character  and  habits  of  the 
people,  education,  religion,  crime,  marriage, 
etc. 

In  the  Federal  Constitution  it  is  provided 
that  a  census  shall  be  taken  once  in  ten  years, 
and  many  of  the  states  also  require  that  a 
state  census  shall  be  taken  at  certain  inter- 
vals. In  1870  the  scope  of  the  federal  census 
was  greatly  extended  until  at  present  it  may 
be  regarded  as  a  general  statistical  bureau. 
The  Agricultural  Department  has  a  bureau  of 
statistics  which  aims  to  collect  facts  of  inter- 
est to  the  growers  and  consumers  of  farm 
products.  The  Treasury  Department,  In  addi- 
tion to  financial  statistics,  maintains  a  bureau 
of  statistics  on  imports  and  exports  of  the 
U.  S.  The  comptroller  of  the  currency  re- 
ports upon  banking,  and  the  director  of  the 
mint  upon  coinage  and  the  production  of  the 
precious  metals.  The  commissioner  of  educa- 
tion reports  on  the  number  of  schools,  col- 
leges, and  universitieB  in  the  republic,  the 
number  of  pupils  attending  each,  the  num- 
ber of  teachers,  their  compensation,  etc.  The 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  provides  for 
the  atatiatics  of  railwaya.  Congress  frequently 
authorizes  special  investigations  into  special 
topics.  The  public  documents  of  the  Federal 
Government  are  rich  in  statistical  material, 
while  many  of  the  states  maintain  efficient 
bureaus  for  the  collection  of  facts  of  local  in- 

Sta'tlu^  Polilina  Paplnios,  b.  abt.  4S  A.D., 
in  Naples;  Latin  author;  court  poet  to  the 
emperor  Dtnnitian.  It  has  been  said,  without 
foundation,  that  he  was  a'  Christian,  and  that 


f  mger. 

SUt'nary.    See  SctopniBE, 

Sta'tns,  a  term  of  the  Roman  law,  denoting 
the  legal  condition  of  a  person,  or  the  sum  of 
hia  capacitieB ''and  incapacities  to  hold  le^l 
rights  or  to  be  subjected  to  legal  duties.  In 
the  Roman  law  there  were  three  grades  of 
Btatua  or  legal  condition,  the  lower  and  more 
general  of  which  might  exist  without  the  oth- 
ers, while  tbe  higher  and  more  special  always 
presupposed  the  lesser.  The  flret  and  most 
general  was  that  of  liberty  {atatut  Ubertatia), 
by  virtue  of  which  a  person  was  either  s,  tree- 
man  iliber)  or  ft  slave  (serviu).  The  second 
was  that  of  citizenship  {status  oivitatia),  by 
virtue  of  which  a  person  was  either  a  citizen 
{oioii)  or  a  stranger  Iperegriniu).  The  high- 
est was  that  of  the  family  {status  familia), 
by  virtue  of  which  a  person  might  be  the  head 
of  a  household  {paterfamilias)  and  bia  own 
master  {sui  juris),  or  under  the  control  of 
another  (alteni  juris),  as  a  .son,  daughter, 
wife,  ward,  and  the  like. 

Stafate  of  Frauds.    See  Fbauds,  Statute 


Stattltei,  laws  in  a  written  form  enacted  by 
the  supreme  It^ialative  authority  of  a  nation 
or  commonwealth,  as  contradistin^ished  from 
taws  established  by  judicial  decision.  The  ex- 
tent of  the  powers  held  by  law-making  bodies 
is  determined  by  the  organic  law  of  each  coun- 
try. The  British  Farlianient  is  said  to  be  om- 
nipotent, which  simply  means  that  the  restric- 
tions under  which  it  ordinarily  acts  are  self- 
imposed.  In  the  U.  S.  the  most  remarkable 
feature  of  the  political  organisation  is  the  lim- 
itation of  the  legislative  function  contained  in 
all  the  written  constitutions,  which  are  them- 
selves fundamental  statutes  adopted  by  the 
people  in  their  sovereign  capacity.  With  every 
new  revision  of  the  state  constitutions  this 
limitation  in  reference  to  the  forms  and  modes 
of  legislation,  as  well  as  its  subject-matter,  is 
mode  more  far  reaching,  minute,  and  prohib- 
itory. 

The  time  when  statutes  take  effect  is  fixed 
in  most  of  the  states  of  the  U.  S.  either  by  a 
constitutional  provision  or  by  a  general  law. 
In  some  they  become  operative  at  the  expira- 
tion of  a  specified  number  of  days  after  the 
close   of  the   session,   in  others  at  a   specified 

Griod  after  tlie  day  of  their  passage ;  but  the 
jislature  may  in  the  body  of  a  statute  pre- 
scribe a  difTerent  time,  as.  for  example,  Uiat 
it  shall  take  effect  immediately.  The  common 
law  made  an  net  operative  from  the  first  day 
of  the  session  at  which  it  vne  passed,  but  this 
absurd  doctrine  was  abiiliahcd  in  the  thirty- 
third  year  of  George  III,  and  all  laws  were 
declared  to  be  binding  from  the  time  when 
they  received  the  royal  ansent.  The  repeal  of 
a  statute  may  be  either  express  or  by  implica- 
tion. It  is  express  when  effected  by  a  clause 
inserted  for  that  specific  purpose  in  a  subse- 
quent act;  it  is  by  implication  when  the  pro- 
visions of  a  later  enactment  are  wholly  and 
irreconcilably  inconsistent  vith  those  con- 
tinued in  an  earlier  one.    Bepeal  by  implica- 


STBAM 

tion  is  not  favored.  If  the  two  statutes  con- 
cerning the  ssjne  subject-matter  can  possibly 
be  harmonized,  both  will  stand;  if  the  contra- 
diction is  absolute,  the  prior  one  gives  way. 
See  Law;  Codk 

Staub'hach  ("dust  stream"),  a  celebrated 
waterfall  of  Swltserland,  in  the  canton  of 
Bern;  has  a  descent  of  between  SOD  and  900 
ft.  Before  the  water  reaches  the  bottom  it  is 
dissolved  into  spray  and  carried  away  b^  the 


•  StsTTD'pol,  government  of  Russia,  on  the 
Caspian  Sea;  area,  23,397  sq.  m.  It  is  mostly 
low  and  flat,  with  shallow  lakes  and  extensive 
swamps.  In  the  SW.  agriculture  is  tlie  prin- 
cipal occupation;  wheat,  millet,  and  mulber- 
ries are  cultivated.  In  the  N.  the  inhabi- 
tants are  nomads,  and  inunense  herds  of 
cattle,  horses,  and  sheep  are  reared.  Fop. 
(1W7)  1,048,100. 

Steam,  the  vapor  of  water.  Pure  steam  is 
an  invisible  gas  and  must  be  distinguished  from 
the  white  clouds  of  vapor  which  consist  of  mi- 
nute drops  of  water  temporarily  suspended  in 
the  air.  Water,  and  even  ice,  at  all  tempera- 
tures, when  not  confined  within  impermeable 
walls,  continually  give  off  vapor,  the  surface 
particles  assuming  the  gaseous  state  with  a 
rapidity  determined  by  the  temperature  of  the 
moss  and  the  nature  and  density  of  the  sur- 
rounding atmosphere.  When  confined,  this  gasi- 
Scation  goes  on  without  rt^ard  to  the  character 
or  density  of  the  atmosphere  present  until  the 
vapor  produced,  by  gradual  accumulation,  ac- 
quires the  maximum  density  and  pressure  at- 
tainable at  that  temperature.  The  pressure 
rises  faster  than  the  temperature.  Under  pres- 
sure of  one  atmosphere  the  boiling  point  is 
212°  F.;  at  four  atmospheres  it  is  301*,  while 
at  twenty  it  is  444°.  This  temperature  is 
called  the  temperature  of  saturation  under  the 
given  pressure.  When  the  process  just  de- 
scribed is  carried  on  in  a  vessel  open  to  the 
atmosphere,  the  issuing  vapor  mingles  with  the 
molecules  of  that  atmosphere  as  rapidly  as 
formed,  and  separates  only  at  the  surface,  until 
the   boiling   point    is    reached.      See    Bohjko 

POIKT. 

Steam,  as  worked  in  the  steam  engine,  if  not 
dried  by  superheating,  is  wet;  i.e.,  it  carries 
in  suspension  fine  particles  of  water.  A  cubic 
inch  of  water  makes  a  cubic  foot  of  dry  steam. 
The  principal  advantage  of  superheating  is  an 
increase  of  economy  due  to  the  thorough  ex- 
pulsion of  water  from  the  vapor,  and  conse- 
quent reduction  of  loss  by  condensation  and 
revaporization  in  the  steam  engine  cylinder.  A 
less  degree  of  improvement  is  due  to  the  simple 
increase  of  temperature,  and  to  the  consequent 
widening  of  the  range  of  temperature  within 
which  it  is  worked.  The  following  table  gives 
a  summary  of  the  properties  of  steam.  Frea- 
Bures  are  given  in  pounds  per  square  inch  above 
a  vacuum,  and  in  inches  of  mercury  measuring 
from  the  same  point.  Volumes  are  relative  to 
water  at  its  greatest  density.  Weights  are 
given  in  pounds,  and  specific  gravity  is  referred 
to  ^r  as  unity  at  a  temperature  of  32°  F. 


STEAM  COILER 


A.  Tb*  wiwble  but: 


1.  'n>lH 


b  ISC. , 


B.  Tba  latent  b«t: 

2.  To  ooavcit  tbc  mtertovapor. 
imflpeetivo  of  pnsnire  on  not- 

vhetbet  air  or  provioualy  ^ren- 
Z.lie.g  lb.  p«r  aqtuis  Coot  ol 

Total  latent  haat 

Total  heat  of  steam 


892.0'  -  6SS,Z42 


72.8"  -    M,S1B 


>  Stbau  Boileb;   Steau  Hauueb;  Steau 


Steam  Boil'er,  an  apparstuB  for  generating 
Bteam  by  the  application  of  beat.  In  general 
terms  it  may  be  described  as  a  closed  metallic 
\eue\,  kept  partly  filled  with  water  and  so 
arranged  that  heat  ma;  be  imparted  to  the 
water  by  means  ot  the  combustion  of  fuel.  The 
steam  generated  is  confined  in  the  vesael  above 
the  water  until  it  is  required  for  use,  when  it 
is  dran-n  off  through  pipes.  This  metallic  ves- 
sel, with  its  compartmenta  and  openings,  takes 
the  name  of  "boiler"  in  the  shops  where  it  is 
manufactured;  but  in  many  classes  or  forms 
of  boilers  the  steam -generating  apparatus  is 
not  complete  until  the  bailer  is  set  up  in  brick- 
work,  with  an  external  furnace  constructed  for 
the  combustion  ot  the  fuel  and  external  Sues 
for  conducting  the  heated  gases  to  the  chim- 
ney along  the  sides  of  the  boiler.  In  other 
cases  the  boiler  ia  ready  for  use  as  it  comea 
from  the  manufacturer,  having  within  iU  ex- 
ternal shell  all  these  necesaa^  arrangementa 
for  combustion  and  draught.  In  all  cases  cer- 
tain adjuncts  and  appurtenances  are  necessary, 
such  as  the  feed  pump  or  other  means  of  sup- 
plying water,  the  safety  valve,  steam  and  wa- 
ter gauges,  and  grate  bars  for  the  furnace. 

Boilers  may  be  classified  under  a  few  types, 
which  will  serve  to  illustrate  not  only  general 
principles  of  construction,  but  the  adaptability 
of  the  various  forma  to  particular  circum- 
stances of  use.  While  the  sphere  is  a  form  of 
inclosing  envelope  which  is  best  adapted  for 
the  resistance  o(  internal  fluid  pressure,  it  is 
not  the  best  adapted  for  the  application  of 
heat,  nor  is  it  the  cheapest  form  of  construc- 
tion. The  nearest  approach  to  it  which  is 
practicable  is  the  cylinder  with  hemispherical 
ends.  Boilers  may  be  divided  into  two  great 
groups  known  as  the  externally  Sred  boilers 
and  the  interfially  fired  boilers  respectively. 
In  the  first  class  are  included  all  boilers  whose 
furnace  is  external  to  the  proper  structure  of 
the  boiler,  arid  in  the  second  class  al!  those  In 
which  the  water  to  be  evaporated  surrounds 
the  fumaot.  The  first  class  require  a  brick  set- 
ting, while  the  second  class  do  not,  but  are  sdf- 
contained.  The  latter,  while  more  oMtly,  have 
these  advantages:   There  is  less  loss  of  beat 


STEAM  BOILER 

From  radiation,  they  make  steam  more  rapidly, 
and  a  great  evaporative  capacity  ia  »ucuied  in 
a  very  compact  form. 

Fig.  I  is  a  type  of  externally  fired  boiler  of 
the  simplest  form,  being  a  plain  cylindrical 
shell  with  a  dome  for  the  collection  of  eteam. 


FiQ.  i. 

It  is  bricked  iq,  the  furnace  beine  exterior  to 
the  boiler  shell.  This  type  ia  used  where  gase- 
ous fuds  are  employed  and  where  the  water 
contains  chemical  salts  liable  to  precipitation 
upon  boiling,  as  in  iron  works  and  smelting 
furnaces.  The  next  type  (Figs.  2  and  3)  of 
externally  fired  boilers  are  those  containing,  in 


Ftos.  2  and  3. 

the  space  devoted  to  water,  fluea  or  tubes 
through  which  the  hot  gases  pass  on  their  way 
to  the  chimney.  A  type  of  multitubular  boiler 
is  given  in  Fig.  4.  The  Sue  boiler  is  used  where 
the  fuel  gives  a  long  flame  from  the  presence  of 
combustible  gas,  since  the  fine  subdivision  of 
the    products    of    partial    combustion    which 


Fio.  4. 

would  be  the  case  in  tubes  would  tend  to  extin- 
guish the  flame  before  complete  combustion  had 
takHi  place.  Where  complete  combustion  can 
take  place  before  the  gases  enter  the  tubes  the 
multiiubulftr  boiler  is  preferable  by  reason  of 


8TEAU  ENGINE 

its  extended  heating  Burface.  The  fourth  type 
of  this  class  of  bMler  (Fig.  6)  ia  the  sectiona] 
or  water-tube  boiler.  It  consifite  of  a  ■jstem  of 
tubes  or  small  units,  eo  arranged  as  to  provide 
a  continuous  circulation  of  water  through  the 
tubes.  Of  the  internally  fired  boilers  the  moat 
prominent  type  is  the  locomotive  boiler  <Fig.  6). 


A  modified  fonn  known  as  the  upright  boiler 
is  much  used  for  portable  and  stationary  en- 

For  marine  piirposes,  where  a  thoroughly  self- 
contained  boiler  IS  a  necessity,  the  internally 
fired  type  has  received  great  development,  sjid 
■»- —  --e  many  varieties  in  use,  the  most  prom- 


The  term  "horse  power"  of  boilers  is  often 
used  as  the  measure  of  work  which  it  can  do. 
It  has  been  agreed  that  the  commercial  horse 
power  of  a  boiler  sbaU  be  an  evaporation  of 
30  lb,  of  water  an  hour  from  a  feed-water  tem- 
perature of  100°  F.  into  steam  at  70  lb.  gauge 
pressure.     See  Steau. 

Steam  En'sine,  a  machine  for  converting 
heat  energy  into  that  of  mechanical  motion 
through  the  medium  of  steam.  It  conrists  of 
two  parts— the  boiler,  where  the  steam  is  "  gen- 
erated "  by  boiling  water,  and  the  engine 
proper,  where  the  steam  acts  on  a  piston,  pro- 
ducing motion.    Machiiies  where  the  st«am  acta 


STEAM  ENGINE 

nn  blades  set  on  a  rotating  wheel,  although  log- 
ically steam  engines,  are  generally  called  steam 
turbines  or  turbine  engines.  (See  Tusbine.) 
Other  vaporizablc  liquids,  as  ammonia,  ether,  or 
carbon  disulphide,  may  be  used  witb  practi- 
cally the  same  mechanism,  but  water  has 
obvious  advantages. 

Toys  in  which  motion  is  due  to  steam  pres- 
sure were  made  in  old  times,  but  the  first  use- 
ful steam  en^ue  is  due  to  Edward  Somerset, 
Marquis  of  Worcester,  in  1663.  This  applied 
the  pressure  directly  to  a  water  column  for 
raising  it— a  plan  now  again  coming  into  use 
after  three  and  a  half  centuries.  The  first 
practical  piston  engine  was  that  of  Newcomea, 
which  was  improved  by  Watt  Automatic 
valves  were  added  by  Humphrey  Potter.  Pos- 
sibly  the  most  important  application  of  the 
steam  engine  ia  that  to  traction.  See  Locx>- 
uonvE. 

In  all  engines  the  steam  is  admitted  from  the 
boiler  to  a  cylinder  in  which  fits  a  piston,  slid- 
ing lengthwise.  The  pressure  drives  this  piston 
to  the  opfKKite  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  this 
motion,  through  the  connected  valve  gear, 
closes  the  aperture  through  which  the  steam 
was  admitted  and  opens  another  on  the  other 
aide  of  the  piston  head,  so  that  this  is  driven 
back  to  its  first  position.  This  goes  on  as  long 
as  desired.  In  a  type  of  large  engine  called 
"  single  acting  "  the  steam  is  admitted  only  on 
one  side,  the  piston  returning  by  gravity.  Most 
engines  are  now  "  double  acting,  as  described. 
The  steam  pressure  on  the  side  that  ia  discon- 
nected with  the  boiler  is  abolished  in  any  one 
of  several  ways.  If  it  is  allowed  to  escape 
through  a  valve  into  the  outside  air,  the  engine 
is  called  "  high  preasure,"  because,  as  the  steam 
must  then  work  against  the  ordinary  air  pres- 
sure of  15  lb.  to  the  square  inch,  its  preesuro 
must  be  great  enough  to  overcome  this.  Moat 
locomotives  are  biKD  pressure,  and  the  "  ex- 
haust," as  it  is  called,  reaches  the  outer  air  by 
way  of  the  smokestack,  where  the  expansion  of 
the  waste  steam  causes  the  characteristic  puf- 
fing sound  and  aids  the  draught  of  the  furnace. 

If  the  exhaust  is  directed  into  a  cold  com- 
partment or  condenser,  it  ia  quickly  condensed 
to  water,  and  causes  a  partial  vacuum,  so  that 
the  steam  pressure  on  the  other  edde  has  no 
longer  the  normal  atmospheric  pressure  to  work 
against,  but  a  much  less  one.  Where  con- 
densers can  be  used,  as  in  steamers  and  in  most 
stationary  engines  near  bodies  of  cool  water, 
this  form,  known  as  the  "  condensing "  or 
"  low-pressure  "  engine,  is  much  more  econom- 
ical. If  tie  valve  connecting  with  the  boiler  be 
closed  before  the  one  on  the  other  side  is 
opened,  and  while  the  piston  has  still  some  dis- 
tance to  travel,  the  steam  in  the  cylinder  con- 
tinues to  exert  its  own  expansive  force,  though 
no  longer  ia  connection  with  the  main  body  of 
steam  in  the  boiler,  and  the  steam  is  said  to 
work  "  by  expansion."  If  the  exhaust  be  con- 
nected with  a  second  cylinder,  this  expannve 
power  of  the  steam  may  be  sufficient  to  dnva 
another  piston.  In  this  way  as  many  as  four 
diflerent  seta  of  cylinders,  at  different  pres- 
sures, may  be  used.  Such  an  engine  is  called 
"compound,"  and  is  denominated  a  "double," 
"  triple,"  or  "  quadruple  "  expauMpn  engine,  ac- 

0  .C.oo^^k 


STEAM  ENGINE 

cording  to  the  number  of  cylinder!  used.  Ms- 
rine  enpneB  are  commonly  compounded,  And 
the  principle  has  occasionally  been  applied  to 
locomotivea,  as  in  the  Vauclain  type. 

In  order  to  preserve  uniformity  of  motion,  de- 
vices called  "  governors  "  are  used.  The  moat 
common  type  depends  on  the  centrifugal  force 
imparted  to  balls  rotated  at  the  end  of  arms 
connected  with  the  steam  valve.  As  the  speed 
increases,  the  balls  rise  slightly  and  the  steatn  is 
partly  turned  off.  The  action  here  does  not  re- 
spond quickly  and  is  jerky;  but  in  the  Corlisa 
engine  the  governor  does  not  actually  do  the 
work  of  turning  off  the  steam,  but  only  "  indi- 
cates "  to  another  mechanism  when  the  work 


s  wheel  which,  by  its  inertia,  not  only 
acts  to  equalize  motion,  as  does  the  governor, 
but  also  carries  the  engine  past  its  "  dead  cen- 
ter " — the  point  where  the  piston  'thrusts  di- 
rectly against  the  axle  of  the  wheel.  Where 
there  are  two  cflindera,  the  pistons  are  so  con- 
nected that  the  two  are  never  on  a  dead  center 
at  the  same  time;  hut  with  a  single  cylinder 
the  lly  wheel  is  essential. 

The  motion  of  the  engine  is  generally  im- 
parted to  the  machineiT  through  rotating 
parts.  Aa  the  motion  of  the  piston  is  "  recipro- 
cating," or  to  and  fro,  this  necessitates  a  trans- 
formation, which  is  usually  effected  through  a 
crank.  A  reciprocating  motion  such  as  that  of 
an  engine  piston  will  not  in  general  turn  a 
wheel  with  uniform  regularity;  hence  an  oddi- 
tional  reason  for  the  regularizing  action  of  the 
heavy  fly  wheel.  In  the  turbine  engine,  where 
there  are  no  reciprocating  parts,  no  transforma- 
tion ii  reqnired.  Since  the  time  of  Watt  at- 
ternpts  have  been  mode  to  construct  a  rotary 
piston  engine,  but  it  has  been  Impos^ble  to 
avoid  lea^ge  and  difficult  to  use  the  steam  ex- 
pansively. 

Engines  are  sometimes  classed  as  "  horizon- 
tal "  or  "  vertical,"  according  to  the  position  of 
the  cylinder.  In  the  old  vertical  marine  en- 
gines motion  was  transmitted  to  the  crank  by 
means  of  a  vibrating  beam,  called  the  "walking 
beam "  (supposed  by  some  to  be  a  corruption 
of  "  working  "  beam ) .  The  vertical  rod  con- 
necting the  other  end  of  this  beam  with  the 
crank  was  often  called  the  "  pitman,"  from  its 
use  in  mine  pumps,  where  it  extended  into  the 
shaft  and  connected  with  the  pump  rods. 

As  the  steam  engine  i*  only  one  form  of  heat 
engine,  its  efficiency  depends  on  the  differmce 
in  temperature  between  the  boiler  and  con- 
denser, or  the  range  through  which  its  working 
substance  (steam,  in  this  case)  parts  with  its 
heat  The  whole  amount  of  heat  could  not  be 
converted  into  mechanical  energy,  even  theo- 
retically, unless  the  condenser  was  at  the  ab- 
solute  zero  of  temperature.     As  the  practical 


is  tra^ 


rature  Is  far  hisher  and  really  not  very 

low  that  of  the  hot  boiler,  only  t         

atively  small  part  of  the  fuel  heat 
formed  into  work — the  rest  is  wasted,  jim- 
ciency  may  be  increased  by  widening  the  tem- 
perature range,  either  by  cooling  the  condenser 
to  a  lower  point  or  by  increaning  the  temper- 
ature of  the  working  steam.  This  may  be  done 
by  incsoing  the  cylinder  in  a  steam  jacket,  and 


STEAM  HAMMERS 


Steam  Harn'mers,  hammers  which  are  raised 
by  the  direct  action  of  steam  an  a  piston  in  a 
steam  cylinder,  as  distinguished  from  hammers 
which  are  raised  by  other  mechanical  means, 
receiving  their  power  from  a  steam  eniine 
through  the  intervention  of  belts  and  pulleys 
or  gearing.  A  heavy  mass  of  iron  constitutes 
the  hammer,  or  "  tup."  as  it  is  called.  This  tup 
slides  freely  in  guides  or  ways  in  the  frame  or 
upright  of  the  hammer.  On  top  of  this  frame  is 
placml  a  cylinder  Stted  with  piston,  piston  rod, 
and  valve,  after  the  manner  of  a  steam  engine. 
The  piston  rod,  extending  downward,  termi- 


Flo.  1. 

nates  in  its  attachment  to  the  tup  or  ham- 
mer. Steam  admitted  under  the  piston  raises 
it,  and  thus  lifts  the  hammer;  upon  the  open- 
ing of  the  exhaust  and  escape  of  the  steam  the 
hammer  falls  with  a  force,  due  to  its  weight, 
less  the  friction  of  the  piston,  piston  rod,  and 
escaping  steam.  This  form  of  hammer  was  at 
first  made  single  acting  only — that  is,  the 
steam  is  used  only  beneath  the  piston;  but 
hammers  are  now  made  double  acting,  the  pres- 
sure of  the  steam  above  the  piston  in  the  down 
stroke  assisting  the  action  of  gravity,  thus  caus- 
ing the  hammer  to  strike  a  more  rapid  and 
more  powerful  blow. 

The  steam  hammer  was  invented  by  James 
Nasmvth,  of  the  Bridgewater  Foundry,  near 
Manchester,  England.  Nasmyth's  first  ham- 
mers were  worked  by  hand,  but  his  manager, 
Robert  Wilson,  devised  a  plan  of  operating  the 
valve  automatically;  and  he  also,  it  is  believed, 
first  applied  the  balance  principle  of  valve  to 
the  steam  hammer.  Hammers  for  heavy  forg- 
ings  are  constructed  with  douUe  uprights, 
large-sized  hammers  with  a  long  stroke,  having* 
a  wide  spread  of  base  between  the  legs  of  the 
upright  to  give  room  for  the  workmen  to  imt- 


(Coogic 


ffTEAU  VESSEIS 

dk  the  iron  being  forged.  Ftg.  Z  showa  a 
double  upright  hammer.  For  light  work,  luch 
ai   drawing  out   bars   of   eteel,   an   automatic 


valve  motion  is  of  the  utmost  importance.  Fig. 
1  EhowB  the  form  of  a  single  upright  hammer 
M  uied  for  light  forging.    See  Bteau. 

Steam  Vea'sel*.  The  pOBHibilitj'  of  udng 
■team  for  the  propulsion  of  ships  seems  to  have 
occurred  to  Roger  Bacon.  The  earliest  prac- 
tical effort  appears  to  l>e  that  of  Papin,  who 
in  1707  applied  bis  steam  engine  to  the  pro- 
pulsion of  a  model  on  the  Fulda  River  at 
Cassel.  Newcomen  had  in  the  meantime 
brought  the  steam  engine  itself  to  a  working 
condition,  and  in  1730  Jonathan  Hulls  patented 
a  marine  steam  engine  to  be  used  in  a  tugboat. 
Abt.  ires  William  Henry,  of  Pennsylvania, 
built  a  small  model  steamboat,  which  he  tried 
with  succasB  on  the  Conestoga  River ;  the  ex- 

Srimcnt  fumislied  the  hint  to  Robert  Fulton, 
mes  Bums«7,  of  Maryland,  in  1780  built  a 
boat  which  was  propelled  upon  the  Potomac  by 
steam  at  the  rate  of  4  m.  an  hour  by  means 
of  a  jet  of  water  forced  out  at  the  stem.  He 
bnilt  a  boat  in  London  with  which  a  sucoeasful 
experiment  i»aa  made  on  the  Thames  in  I79Z. 
Meanwhile  John  Fitch  experimented  on  the 
Delaware  River.  His  first  boat,  built  in  1780, 
wsa  propelled  by  paddlee  moved  by  a  steam 
engine;  at  Srst  a  spaed  of  only  3  m.  an  hour 
wa«  attained,  but  improvements  increased  that 
speed  to  a  n.  He  employed  side  wheels,  with 
a  screw  piT>pelIer  at  tne  atera. 


STEATITE 

Abt.  17M  Robert  Fulton  left  the  U.  8.  for 
England,  where  he  turned  his  attention  espe- 
cially  to  steam  navigation.  In  1800  he  re-  . 
.tamed  to  New  York,  bringing  with 
him  a  Boulton  ft  Watt  steam  engine, 
for  which  a  hull  was  built.  This  vessel 
the  Clermont,  made  a  trial  trip  to 
Albany,  August  7-9,  1807,  returning  on 
the  two  following  days,  her  average 
running  speed  being  G  m.  an  hour.  Ttie 
Clemwnt  was  130  ft,  long,  18  ft.  beam, 
7  ft  deep,  with  a  burden  of  160  tons. 
6he  soon  began  making  regular  trips 
between  New  York  and  Albany,  and 
for  all  practical  purposes  must  be 
considered  the  first  steamboat  adapted 
for  the  conveyance  of  passengers  and 
freight.  John  Stevens,  of  New  York, 
was  even  earlier  than  Fulton  an  ei- 

S>rimenter  in  steam  naviration.  The 
rst  steamboat  in  Great  Britain  was 
the  Comet,  40  ft.  long,  built  in  1812  for 
the  navigation  of  the  Clyde.  As  early 
aa  1819  the  steamer  Savannah  made 
the  voyage  from  Savannah,  GrO.,  to 
Liverpool,  England,  in  twenty-two  days, 
and  thence  to  Russia.  From  that  time 
the  development  in  ocean  steamships 
has  been  steadily  toward  larger  steam- 
ers, including  the  famous  Great  East- 
em  the  Dreadnought  among  battle- 
flhips,   and   the   Olj/mpic   among   ocean 

Steau    Tlrbines,    now    used    upon 
many  ocean  steamships,  were  invented 
in  1884  by  C.  A.  Parsons,  of  Sweden, 
who  applied   to  the  steam  engine   the 
principle   that  had   long   been   used   in 
constructing  water   wheels.     The   Far- 
eons   type   of   turbine   has   a  series   of 
disks  mounted  upon  a  common  shaft,  and  alter- 
nating with   parallel   blades   fixed  within   the 
casing  of  the  shaft.    There  are  buckets  or  cups 
upon  both   the   revolving  disks   and   the  fixed 
blades,  the  fixed  buckets  being  reversed  in  rela- 
tion to  the  moving  cups.    The  steam,  admitted 
first  through  a  set  of  stationary  blades  or  buck- 
eta,  impinges  at  an  angle  upon  the  first  rotat- 
ing disk  and  imparts  motion,   passing  thence 
through  ailbther  set  of  fixed  blades  to  the  sec- 
ond disk  upon  the  main  shaft,  and  thus  through 
the  entire  series  of  alternately  fixed  and  rotat- 
ing buckets.  The  area  of  the  passages  increases 
progressively  to  correspond  with  the  expansion 
of  the  steam  as  it  is  used  on  the  succeasive 
disks.     See  also  Navy;  Ships;  SrsAU. 

Ste'aiin,  a  glyceride  or  ether  of  glycerin 
(C.H,lC„H„0,),  =  C.,H„.0.).  In  commer- 
cial parlance,  stearin  is  a  term  applied  to  the 
impure  stearic  acid  obtained  by  the  saponifica- 
tion of  fats  in  the  preparation  of  star  candles. 
Xristearin  is  the  natural  form  of  stearin  in 
hard  fats. 

Ste'atlte,  or  Soap'stone,  a  stone  which  re- 
ceives both  its  names  from  ite  unctuous  qual- 
ity. It  is  a  compact  form  of  talc,  and  is  an 
impure  hydratad  silicate  of  magnesia.  It  has 
some  use  in  ths  porcelain  manufacture.  A  soft 
white  sort  ia  toe  French  chalk  of  the  toilet 
and  of  the  tailors'  shops.     Powdered  steatita 


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STEDUAN 

ie  used  m  »  lubriouit,  and  in  tiet,m  packing. 
Steatite  is  eMily  cut  into  figures,  which  are 
then  hardened  I^  Sre  and  colored  to  imitAte 
more  eoertljr  etones.  St«atite  la  employed-  in 
making  stores  and  foot  stoves  for  use  m  cold 
weather,  since  it  retains  heat.  It  ia  abundant 
in  many  parts  of  the  U.  S.  and  other  countries. 

Sted'man,  Edmnnd  CUience,  1833-I90S ; 
American  poet  and  critic;  b.  Hartford,  Conn.; 
in  1860  waa  employed  upon  the  New  York 
Trilmne;  editor  and  war  correapondent  of  the  ' 
New  York  World,  1861-63;  contributed  to  The 
Allanlio  Monthly  and  other  magazines;  wae  in 
1S63  in  the  Attorney-general's  office,  Washing- 
ton, and  after  18BG  a  stockbroker  in  New  York. 
Works  include  "  Poems,  Lyric  and  Idyllic," 
"  Alice  of  Monmouth,"  "  The  Blameless  Prince," 
and  "  Hawthorne."  "  Victorian  Poets  "  waa 
followed  by  "Poets  of  America,"  and  by  "The 
Nature  and  Elements  of  Poetry."  In  1S95  he 
brought  out  "  A  Victorian  Anthologr,"  and  in 
1900  "An  American  Antholo(^"i  in  ISOS  a 
"  History  of  New  York  Stock  Eichange." 

Steel,  a  compomid  of  iron  which  has  been 
cast  from  a  fluid  state  into  a  malleable  mass. 
The  terms,  "pot"  or  "crucible"  steel,  "open- 
hearth  "  steel,  and  "  Bessemer  "  steel,  are  used 
for  distinguishing  processes  of  manufacture, 
but  they  do  not  necessarily  distineuish  between 
steels  which  differ  either  obemicaUy  or  mechan- 
ically. 

The  grand  structural  characteristic  of  stcd, 
to  which  it  largely  owea  its  value  for  all  uses, 
is  lu>mi»eneity,  due  to  fusion.  The  important 
cheroicar  qualities  of  tool  steel  are:  (1)  The 
tempering  quality,  which  is  due,  flrst,  to  the 
presence  of  from  three  quarters  to  one  and  a 
quarter  per  cent  of  carbon;  second,  to  the 
mecbanica)  mixture  of  this  carbon  with  the 
metal  by  means  of  slow  cooling  from  a  red  heat 
which  makes  the  metal  comparatively  soft,  so 
that  it  can  be  cut  with  the  ordinary  tools; 
third,  the  extreme  hardening  of  the  metal 
when,  hy  means  of  sudden  cooling,  the  carbon 
is  chemically  dissolved  in  the  iron.  (2)  Its 
freedom  from  ingredients,  such  as  phosphorus, 
which  cause  brittleness.  Excepting  some  mod- 
em steels,  in  the  manufacture  of  which  nickel, 
manganese,  tungsten,  chromium,  titanium,  and 
some  other  metalloids  are  employed,  the  best 
tool  steels  have  but  a  few  hundredths  of  one 
per  cent  of  any  ingredient  except  carbon,  sili- 
con, and  iron.  The  more  important  qualities 
of  atructural  steels  vary  with  their  precise 
uses.  In  general,  great  resistance  to  statical 
strains,  or  to  those  gradually  applied,  is  ac- 
companied by  comparative  brittleness  and  un- 
fitness to  redst  strains  suddenly  applied.  High 
resistance,  resilioice,  hardness,  and  brittleness 
increase,  up  to  certain  limits,  with  the  amount 
of  impurities  contained  in  the  metal.  Low 
resistance,  softness,  ductility,  and  toughness 
become  more  marked,  within  certain  limits, 
as  the  impurities  become  leas ;  hut  too  little  ss 
well  as  too  much  impurity  makes  steel  weak 
and  unsuitable  for  structural  purposes.  It  re- 
quires what  is  called  body  to  give  it  resistance 
to  either  statical  or  sudden  strains.  This  body 
ia    impacted    by    carbon,    manganese,    silicon. 


tfl'kKT. 

phMphoms,  and  1^  other  ingredients;  but  too 
much  of  either  of  them,  or  of  certain  com- 
pounds of  them,  weakens  the  metal. 

In  the  manufacture  of  steel  the  oructble- 
eteel  proeeat  at  first  consisted  in  melting 
wrought  iron  with  carbon  in  day  crucibles. 
In  the  present  manufacture,  other  ingredients 
besides  carbon,  chiefly  manganese,  are  added. 
Sometimes  substances  intended  to  combine 
with  and  remove  the  impurities  in  the  wrought 
iron  are  introduced,  but  generally  these  im- 
purities remain  in  the  steel.  The  finest  et«el 
must  therefore  be  made  from  wrought  iron 
which  has  been  purified  t^  reworking  with  pure 
fuel,  and  which  was  originally  made  from  pure 
ores.  The  melting  point  of  wrought  iron  u  so 
high  that  it  has  been  usual  to  carburize  it  in 
order  to  fuse  it  at  a  convenient  temperature 
in  crucibles.  The  use  of  the  Siemens  furnace 
and  the  modem  improvement  of  crucibles  ren- 
der the  melting  of  wrought  iron  practicable 
and  cheap.  The  cheaper  nodes  of  crucible 
steel  are  largely  made  from  Bessemer  steel-rail 
ends  and  other  scrap.  The  quantity  of  steel 
made  by  the  crucible  procfsa  is  relatively 
small.  The  two  processes  ^hich  produce  the 
bulk  of  the  metal  for  rails,  structural  mate- 
rial, wire,  nails,  pUttes,  hoops,  tin  plates,  etc., 
are  the  open-hearth  or  Siemens-Martin  process 
and  the  Bessemer  process. 

The  Siemens  regenerative  gas  furnace,  by 
means  of  the  intensity  and  uniformity  of  its 
heat,  first  furnished  practical  conditions  to  the 
open-hearih  proeeat  (or  Siemens-Martin)  abt. 
1B62.  It  was  also  demonstrated  by  Martin 
that  the  addition  of  manganese  at  a  certain 
stage  was  necessary  to  the  production  of  sound 
and  practically  malleable  steel.  In  the  Siemens 
open-hearth  steel  furnace  the  hearth  or  bed  of 
the  furnace  consists  of  a  shallow  iron  tank, 
ventilated  below  to  prevent  the  concentrated 
heat  of  the  hearth  and  the  regenerators  from 
endangering  the  structure,  and  lined  with  a 
vary  refractory  material,  usually  silica,  nearly 
pure,  and  just  fusible  enough  to  set  into  a 
solid  mass.  The  red-hot  air  and  gas  play  upon 
the  materials  placed  on  the  hearth,  and  pass 
down  into  the  rc^nerators  at  the  left  end, 
where  they  give  off  their  heat  to  a  checker- 
work  of  fire  bricks.  The  current  being  reversed 
after  some  thirty  minutes,  the  air  and  gas 
enter  at  the  left  end  through  the  newly  heated 
regenerators  and  pass  out  at  the  right  end. 
The  design  of  furnaces  undergoes  some  modi- 
fications when  natural  gas  is  used  as  a  fuel. 
An  important  modification  of  the  ordinary 
open-hearth  furnace  consists  in  plilcing  the  en- 
tire hearth  on  rockers,  which  pertuit  of  tilting 
the  furnace.  This  presents  important  advan- 
tages in  charging  and  in  tapping  the  charge. 

The  materials  employed  are  various,  and 
consequently  the  process  varies,  although  the 
deearburization  of  pig  iron  is  always  a  part 
of  it.  In  order  to  obtain  a  sufflciently  intense 
combustion  there  must  be  a  slight  excess  of 
air;  the  flame  Is  therefore  oxidizing,  and  would 
seriously  waste  wrought  iron  or  the  ingredi- 
ents usually  melted  in  crucibles.  A  bath  of 
east  iron,  which  on  account  of  its  carbon  can 
be  melted  without  serious  loss,  ia  first  neces- 
sary; in  this  are  immersed  and  Pi^tected  the 


(l^iOOglC 


varies  from  ten  to  thirtj-three  per  cent  of  the 
total  charge.  The  more  commoii  procesa  is 
known  as  the  scrap  process,  and  this  again  is 
divided  into  (1)  the  fuaioii  of  pig  and  scrap 
wrought  iron  or  steel  charged  together,  the 
former  melting  while  the  latter  is  heated  pre- 
paratory to  melting;  (2)  the  diasolving  of 
either  hot  or  cold  scrap  in  a  bath  of  pig 
previously  melted ;  ( 3 )  the  dissolving  of 
wrought-iron  aponge  in  a  caat-iron  batb.  Tlie 
operation  in  all  these  caaea  is  chiefly  the  melt- 
ing of  the  decarburized  iron  forming  the  bulk 
of  the  charge,  and  the  oxidation  of  toe  greater 
part  of  the  carbon  and  silicon  in  the  crude  cast 
iron,  end  also  in  the  basic  process  of  the 
phosphorus.  A  portion  of  the  iron  is  aha 
oxidJEed,  and  this  oxide  of  iron  makes  the 
product  unmalleable  or  red  short.  To  remove 
the  oxygen  something  (for  instance,  manga- 
nese) must  be  addM  which  has  a  greater 
affinity  for  it  than  iron.  By  using  an  excess 
of  nanganeae  «ny  desired  proportion  of  it  re- 
mains in  the  steel.  If  the  decarburization  of 
the  east  iron  and  the  dilution  of  the  carburized 
and  uncarburieed  portions  of  the  charge  are 
carried  only  to  such  an  extent  that  a  nighiy 
carburized  product  remains,  less  manganese  is 
Deeded  to  make  it  malleable.  As  soon  as  the 
manganese  is  thoroughly  diffused  through  the 
bath  the  charge  is  tapped  out  and  cast.  The 
pig-and'ore  process,  as  developed  by  Siemens, 
consists  in  decarburizio^  a  bath  of  pig  iron  by 
iron  ore,  and  then  adding  ferromanganese  in 
the  usual  manner.  The  iron  in  the  ore  is  added 
to  the  bath,  and  a  little  limestone  is  thrown 
in  to  facilitate  its  separation.  The  theory  is 
to  use  ore  enough  to  make  good  the  waste  of 
the  iron  by  oxidation. 

The  chemical  part  of  the  B«Memer  process 
may  be  described  as  the  oxidation  by  means  of 
air  blasts  of  the  carbon  and  silicon  {as  in  the 
older  or  acid  process),  or  of  the  carbon  and 
phoBphoruB  (as  in  the  basic  or  improved 
process)  in  melted  crude  cast  iron  so  as  to 
make  it  malleable.  During  this  reaction  a 
certain  quantity  of  iron  is  also  oxidized.  This 
is  reduced  by  adding  manganiferous  pig  iron, 
which  reintroduces  the  necessary  unount  of 
carbon  and  also  adds  manganese,  whose  pres- 
enoe  is  useful  in  the  subsequent  rolling  of  the 
steel.  The  Bessemer  process  as  first  performed, 
and  as  still  practiced  to  a  limited  extent  abroad 
with  irons  rich  in  manganese,  consists  in  ap- 
plying the  blast  until  all  but  one  fourth  to 
one  half  of  one  per  cent  of  the  carbon  is  burned 
out,  and  then  casting  the  product.  The  pres- 
ent practice  is  to  blow  the  iron  imtil  all  the 
carbon  is  exhausted,  but  the  product  now,  as 
in  the  open-hearth  process  before  described, 
contains  so  much  oxide  of  iron  that  it  is  brittle 
while  red  hot  and  crumbles  in  working.  To 
reduce  this  oxide  of  iron,  manganese  is  added. 
No  phosphorus  is  removed  from  the  iron  In 
the  acid  Bessemer  process.  Only  the  carbon 
and  the  silicon  are  oxidized.  It  is  therefore 
important  to  start  with  pig  irons  having  a  lit- 
tle less  phosphorus,  sulphur,  and  copper  than 
the  steel  ma^  safety  contain;  but  it  is  not 
usually  practicable  to  use  irons  low  in  silicon. 


STEEL 

for  the  oxidation  of  this  element  produces  the 
high  temperature  necessary  to  keep  the  mass 
fluid.  Manganese  is  to  a  certain  extent  a  sub- 
stitute for  silicon  in  this  respect,  and  always 
a  valuable  ingredient,  but  the  greater  part  of 
the  irons  of  the  world  do  not  contain  it  in 
important  quantities. 

A  standard  American  Bessemer  plant  of  a 
type  to  which  many  existing  works  belong  con- 
sists ( 1 )  □!  a  melting  department,  the  furnace 
and  working  floor  of  which  are  shown  in  plan 
by  Fig.  1 ;  sections  of  these  floors  and  the 
furnaces  are  shown  by  Fig.  2.      (2)   The  con- 


verting department,  shown  in  ground  plan  by 
Fig.  1  and  in  cross  section  by  Fig.  2.  The 
vessel  in  which  the  melted  iron  Is  treated 
by  air  blasts  is  Illustrated  by  Fig.  3.  (3) 
liie  engine  department,  which  oonta&a  a  blow- 
ing engine,  capable  of  delivering  air  at  25-lb. 
pressure  to  the  square  inch.  The  water-press- 
ure machineiy  for  actuating  the  hydraulic 
machinery  consists  of  a  pair  of  duplex  pumps. 
The  tendency  in  the  U.  S.  has  been  to  do  away 
with  the  casting  pit.  This  is  accomplished  by 
pouring  the  steel  into  a  ladle  suspended  from 
EUi  overhead  traveling  crane.  The  steel  is 
poured  into  molds  standing  on  cars,  consti- 
tuting a  train,  so  that  the  whole  charge  can  be 
hauled  out  of  the  converting  house  bv  a  loco- 
motive soon  after  it  is  east.  A  growing  prac- 
tice in  Europe  and  in  the  U.  S.  is  to  dispense 
entirely  with  the  remelting  of  the  pig  iron  in 
cupolas.    The  molten  pig  lioa  as  it  u  tapped 


n  as  it  ii  tappei 
.yCOOgl 


from  the  blast  fnnikce  is  run  into  Udles 
moun^  on  can.  It  is  cast  mb>  a  large  ves- 
■el  boldin^  100  to  160  tons  of  molten  metal, 
eallad  tbe  mixer.  From  this  mixer  the  iron  is 
tappeid  whenever  required,  and  in  the  quanti- 


ties needed  into  bdle  cars,  from  whioh  it  is 
poured  into  the  eouvertere  direct.  Thia  is 
called  the  direct  process. 

The  hydraulic  crane  generally  used  in  works 
in  tbe  U.  S.  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  4,  and 
consieta  of  a  cylinder  open  at  the  top  only,  and 
requiring  chiefly  Tertical  support  from  the 
solid  pier  on  which  it  reeU.    Since  abt.  ISTO 


open-hearth  and  Bessemer  steel  hare  prac- 
tically displaced  puddled  iron  in  the  manu- 
facture of  rails,  wire,  plates,  structural  shapes, 
tin  plate,  and  cut  niuls,  and  has  made  heavy 
inroads  into  Its  field,  in  bars  and  other  shapes. 
In  1867  there  were  produced  in  the  U.  8. 
19,643  long  tons  of  steel;   in   1610  there  were 


Steele.  Sir  BichJtTd,  1Q72-1T29;  English  au- 
thor; b.  Dublin;  educated  at  the  Charterhouse, 
Loudon,  and  at  Oxford.  In  1B06  he  enlisted  as 
a  private  in  the  Life  Guards,  and  in  tbe  ssme 
year  published  "  The  Procession,"  a  jioem  on 
Queen  Mary's  funeral.  This  was  dedicated  to 
Lord  Cutta,  who  gave  Steele  a  captain^  in 
the  Coldstream  Guards..  In  1701  he  published 
"  The  ChriBtian  Hero,"  a  short  manual  of  re- 
ligious ethics,  and  brought  out  at  Drury  Lane 
his  first  comedy,  "  The  Funeral."  This  was 
followed  by  "  The  Lying  Lover "  and  "  The 
Tender  Husband."  About  this  time  he  mar- 
ried a  widow,  Mrs.  Margaret  Stretch,  who 
seems  to  have  died  in  1700.  In  May,  1707,  be 
was  appointed  gazetteer.  In  September,  1707, 
he  married  Miss  Mary  Scurlocic,  of  Llangun- 
nor,  Wales.  His  letters  to  this  lady  were  first 
printed  in  1787.  He  was  always  in  pecuniary 
diOicultiea,  but  such  was  his  amiability  that 
be  always  found  friends  to  assist  him,  and 
was  successively  appointed  to  many  lucrative 
offices.  In  politics  be  was  an  ardent  Whig.  In 
1713  he  was  returned  to  Parliament  for  Stock- 
bridge,  and  was  expelled  on  account  of  polit- 
ical articles  written  by  him,  but  was  knighted 
by  the  king,  and  returned  to  Parliament  for 
Borou^hbridge  in  171S.  In  1721  he  brought 
out  his  successful  comedy  of  "  Tbe  Conscious 

His  first  wife,  who  died  soon  after  their 
marriage,  brought  him  a  plantation  in  the  W. 
Indies,  and  his  second  wife  was  a  Welsh  heir- 
ess, but  he  squandered  bis  large  income  in  dis- 
ai^tion  and  unprofitable  speculations,  and 
being  attacked  with  a  paralytic  stroke,  which 
disabled  bim  from  literary  work,  he  retired  to 
his  estate  at  Llangunuor,  where  he  died.  "  My 
life,"  he  said,  "  has  been  spent  in  sinning  and 
repentinc."  Several  of  Steele's  political  es- 
says and  pamphlets  had  a  high  reputation  In 
their  day,  and  his  comedies  were  well  received. 
His  chief  fame  rests  upon  his  connection  with 
The  Tatl«r  and  The  Spectator,  although  in 
these  his  part  was  inferior  to  that  of  Addison, 
who  was  his  lifelong  friend.  The  TatUr  ( 1709- 
11 )  contained  271  numbers ;  IBS  were  by 
Steele,  42  by  Addison,  and  30  by  both  con- 
jointly. This  was  eucoeeded  by  The  Spectator 
(I71I'I!),  containing  655  numbers,  of  which 
236  were  l^  Steele  and  274  by  Addison.  After 
the  discontinuance  of  The  Bpeotator,  Steele, 
with  the  cooperation  of  Addison,  started  The 
OvardicM,  but  Addison  soon  withdrew,  and  ths 
work  was  brought  to  a  close.  Steele  started 
other  papers  which  were  comparatin  failures, 
__i    ^_    ._^    . —    .._=_...,,  ...       ,.^^ 


Sted  EngrxT'lng.    See  EnesAviHa. 

StMl'ton,  Dauphin  Co.,  Pa.;  on  the  Susque- 
hanna BiTer,  3  m.  G.  of  Harrisburg.  It  was 
laid  out  under  the  name  of  Baldwin  in  1866; 
later  known  aa  Steel  Works  P.  O.,  and  incor- 
porated under  present  name  in  1880.  It  con- 
tains the  plant  of  the  Pennsylvania  Steel  Com- 
pany; several  fiour,  saw,  and  planing  mills, 
and  a  public-school  building,  elected  by  the 


elected  17  the 


STEELYAM) 

steel  oompany.  Pop.  (1880)  2,447;  (1910) 
14,246,  sot  including  the  suburtw  of  Highland, 
Oberlin,  New  CumbeTland,  and  New  Market. 


St«eil  (Ht&n),  Jan,  1036-80 ;  Dutch  painter. 
He  punted  about  300  pictures,  combining  all 
the  elements  of  genuine  low  comedy.  In  the 
museum  at  The  Hague  ia  his  well-known  "  Rep- 
resentatioQ  of  Human  Life." 

Stee'ple  Chase.    See  Eoksb  Racino. 

Stein  (stm),  HeinricB  Fdedrich  Karl  (Baron 
Ton),  German  Btatesman.  1757-1831;  b.  Naa- 
sau-on-the-Lahn ;  atudiad  jurisprudence  at 
GOttingea,  1773-77;  entered  the  civil  service  of 
Prusaia,  1780,  and  was  made  chief  of  the  de- 
partment of  commprce,  manufaeturea,  and  in- 
direct taxation,  1804.  Ho  was  dismisBed,  Jan- 
uary 4,  1307,  but  recalled  after  the  Peace  of 
Tilsit  (July  20,  1807),  and  mr.de  president  of 
the  cabinet.  He  developed  astonishing  energy. 
His  reforms  were  a  reorj^anizntion  of  the  Prus- 
sian atate.  Serfdom  was  abolished,  and  llni- 
versal  obligation  of  military  service  introduced ; 
manorial  estates  were  tSM-d,  nil  citizena  made 
equal  before  the  law,  a  lilieral  municipal  sys- 
tem established,  and  on  the  crown  lands  the 
system  of  peasant  proprietorfihip  was  intro- 
duced. His  final  aim  "ns  to  cli'vate  the  jieaa- 
ant  class  and  to  create  a  powerful  and  intel- 
ligent middle  class,  and,  with  tlie  nation 
reorganized  on  this  btisii,  to  renew  the  contest 
with  Napoleon.  He  had  also  a  clcnr  idea  of 
what  a  united  Germany  mcnnt,  and  was  averse 
to  the  division  of  the  country  into  petty  states. 
An  incautious  letter,  in  which  he  criticized  the 

Slicy  of  Napoleon  and  spoke  of  his  own  plans, 
1  into  the  hands  of  the  French  police. 
On  November  24,  1908,  Ptein  was  compelled 
to  resign,  and,  on  December  IBth,  Napoleon 
outlawed  him  and  confi-^eatcd  his  property.. 
He  went  to  Austria,  thence  to  Russin,  but  once 
again  he  was  at  the  head  of  the  political  affairs 
of  Germany  during  the  period  between  Napo- 
leon's disaster  in  Russia  and  the  Peace  of 
Paris,  when  he  actually  was  the  leader  of  the 
diplomatic  coalition  against  France.  His  in- 
fluence soon  became  small.  The  German  princes 
hated  him  for  hia  ideas  of  a  German  unity; 
the  abeolutista  hated  him  for  his  ideas  of  a 
representative  government;  and  he  himself  was 
unwilling  to  adopt  the  impracticable  views  of 
the  radicals.  He  retired  to  his  estates,  and 
died  at  Kappenberg,  Westphalia. 

Stein'bock,  any  one  of  several  species  of  the 
family  Bovidte.  (1)  The  German  designation 
BtHnboek  (and  hence  the  Dutch  aleenbok)  was 
orinoally  conferred  on  the  ibex  or  bouquetin 
of  Europe,  a  species  of  goat,  and  to  that  ani- 
mal the  name  properly  belongs.  (See  Bou- 
QUETIK.)  (2}  The  Dutch  settlers  of  S.  Africa 
applied  the  name  to  an  antelope  peculiar  to 
that  region.  It  is  the  Nanatragua  tragulu*. 
The  steinbok  ia  an  animal  of  graceful  and  sym- 
metrical form,  with  the  head  well  proportioned, 
having  a  bovine  nose  and  large  muffle;  the  legs 
long  and  slender,  and  the  tail  very  short.  The 
color  is  a  fulvous  ash  above  and  on  the  sides. 


STENOGRAPHY 

and  white  beneath.    The  lei^Hi  is  leas  than  3} 

ft.,  and  the  height  at  the  shoulder  about  1)  ft. 
The  species  is  most  abundant  on  stony  plains 
and  in  v.illeys,  and  eapecially  on  open  flats, 
where  large  stones  and  clumps  of  trees  are 
found.  It  is  very  swift,  and  progresses  by  great 
bounds.  It  is  also  very  timid  and  readily 
alarmed.    It  is  much  esteemed  for  its  flesh. 

Steinmeti  (sttn'mStz),  Karl  Friedrich  von, 
1796-1877;  Prussian  military  ofticer;  entered 
the  Prussian  array  1813  and  fought  against 
the  French;  made  bis  name  illustrious  as  com- 
mander in  chief  of  the  Fifth  Army  Corps  in  the 
campaign  against  Austria  in  1800.  On  Jime 
27, 28,  and  20,  186S,  he  made  a  stand  at  Nachod, 
Skalitz,  and  SchweittshHdel  with  his  corps  and 
one  brigade  against  three  corps  of  the  eneuij', 
defeated  them,  drove  them  back,  and  took  11 
guns  and  6,000  prisoners.  By  tliis  victory  he 
made  it  possible  for  the  Second  Army  to  de- 
bouch, on  which  maneuver  the  success  of  the 
Prussian  battle  plan  depended.  In  the  war 
against  France,  1871,  he  was  at  the  head  of  the 
First  Army,  but,  having  in  some  way  conflicted 
with  the  plana  of  Von  Moltke,  he  was  I  Sep- 
tember, 1870)  made  Governor  of  Posen  and  Si- 
lesia, and  removed  from  the  theater  of  war; 
the  King,  however,  declined  to  accept  his  res- 
ignation,  and  (April,  1871)  he  was  made  gen- 
eral field  marshal. 

Stem,  a  term  of  historical  grammar  denoting 
that  part  of  a  <Ac)r(l  which  is  left  When  the  in- 
flexional ending  is  removed. 

Stem.     See  Botary. 

Stenog'raphy,  systems  of  brief  writing, 
whether  written,  printed,  or  published,  previous 
to  the  invention  of  phonography,  or  writing  by 
sound,  invented  by  Isaac  I'itman,  1S37,  and 
which  is  now  almost  universally  used  in  all- 
English- speaking  countries. 

Dr.  Young  ( 1  JS4-10a2)  and  Champollion 
(1701-1832)  endeavored  to  prove  that  the  Egyp- 
tians, from  their  threefold  form  of  writing,  had 
a  kind  of  tachygraphy,  Diodorus  hn\  ing  said 
that  "  the  King  of  Kgypt  was  hound  by  a  cer- 
tain law  to  have  before  him  a  daily  report  of 
the  state  of  affairs  over  tlie  length  and  bieadth 
of  his  kingdom,"  some  believed  the  Egyptians 
used  shorthand.  There  are  pa.^sages  in  the  Bi' 
ble  (Jer.  xxxvi,  4,  18;  Fa.  xlv,  1,  and  Ezra 
xiv,  24,  etc.)  which  tend  to  show  that  the 
Hebrews  had  abbreviated  writing.  These  are 
merely  conjectures.  Xenophon  (445-355  B.C.) 
is  given  credit  by  Diogenes  Laertius  for  having 
first  taken  down  the  sayings  of  Socrates  (470— 
399  B.C.)  in  notes  ( hravii»'«i^ivil )  ■  To  impart 
a  shoi-tliand  meaning  sucli  as  that  contained  in 
the  well-known  Greek  word  "luchjgiaphv"  is 
overstraining  that  original  tenu.  In  a  letter 
written  by  Flavins  Philostratns,  105  A.n.,  is 
found  the  first  undoubted  mention  of  a  Gieek 
shorthand.  It  is  probable  that  in  the  century 
before  Christ  some  kind  of  writing  briefer  than 
the  common  was  practiced  by  the  Greeks,  but 
existing  examples  of  taehygraphy  date  only 
from  the  tenth  century. 

Tachygraphy  appears  to  have  been  taught  in 
Roman  schools,  and  many  distinguished  men, 
among  them  Emperor  Titus  (40-8)  a.d.),  used 
a  meuiod  ol  brief  writing.    In  eftri;  Clbnstian 

*  I  vCoogIc 


STENOGRAPHT 

times  taeh]rgr*phy  wks  employed  in  taking 
down  the  worda  and  aeraioni  ot  the  bUht^  of 
the  Church.  In  the  ninth  and  tenth  centuries 
these  brief  noteB—initial  Greek  nod  Roman  let- 
ters and  ooDtraotiona — were  used  by  the  revia- 
sre  and  annotators  of  the  texti  of  USS.  The? 
appear  to  have  gone  out  of  general  uae  about 
tus  time. 

There  are  etill  existing  an  inventory  and 
fifty-four  charters  ot  I^uia  the  Pius  of  France 
in  the  characterH  of  the  Tironian  eystem.  In 
the  time  of  Frederick  Tl  (I4S2-1656)  shorthand 
was  confounded  with  the  Armenian  or  diat>oI- 
ical  characters,  and  books  and  MSS.  were 
burned.  From  the  reign  of  Louis  XIV  (1654) 
until  the  present  there  have  been  a  multitude 
of  treatises  on  the  art  of  writing  "  as  quickly 
as  one  speaks."  The  syatem  most  in  use  by 
practical  French  reporters  is  that  of  Duploye. 
Isaac  Pitman's  shorthand  has  been  adapted  to 
the  French  language.  From  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century  until  1S32  there  was  no  re- 
liable German  system  of  stenography.  Franz 
XaverG8bebberger(n8ft-1849)  in  1817  planned 
his  sTstem,  but  it  was  fifteen  years  before  he 
found  a  publisher.  It  was  at  first  crude,  but 
subsequent  editions  contained  improvements 
which  entitled  it  to  first  rank  in  Germany.  In 
1900-1  ita  practitioners  claimed  30,660  pupils 
attending  1,087  schools,  and  being  instructed 
by  1,2-13  professors.  The  Prussian  Chamber  is 
the  only  exception  to  the  olBcial  use  of  the 
Oabelsberger  shorthand  in  Germany. 

There  is  no  country  in  Europe  where  short- 
hand is  so  extensivety  practiced  as  in  England. 
In  1002  it  boasted  the  creation  of  49S  distinct 
systems.  Nearly  all  the  earlier  ones  are  worth- 
less catchpenny  pamphlets.  In  1588  Dr.  Timo- 
thy Bright  published  "Characterie:  The  Art  of 
fthort,  SH-ift,  Secret  Writing."  It  was  dedi- 
cated to  Queen  Eizabeth,  and  all  others  were 
forbidden  to  print  the  same.  Peter  Bales  in 
1590  published  the  art  of  "  Brachygraphy." 
Both  these  efforts  are  not  now  considered  wor- 
thy the  name  of  stenography,  John  Willis  is 
regarded  as  the  founder  of  alphabetic  short- 
hand. The  first  edition  appeared  in  1602.  From 
this  date  to  1700  appeared  forty  distinct  alpha,- 
betic  systems.  From  1700  to  1800  there  were 
twenty-seven  systems  published.  From  Crome 
(1801)  to  Selwyn  (1847)  torty-tme  systems  are 
recorded.  Tliese  make  no  pretentions  to  pho- 
netics, and,  with  tbe  exception  of  the  modified 
and  improved  systems  of  Byrora  and  Taylor, 
which  are  still  used  by  a  few  old  practitioners, 
have  passed  out  of  practical  use.  Systems 
based  on  phonetic  shortliand  alphabets — conso- 
nants and  vowels— are;  TitTin,  1750;  Lyie, 
1702;  Holdsworth,  1760;  Roe,  1802;  Isaac  Pit- 
man, 1837;  and  De  Stains,  1839.  Of  these,  only 
the  Isaac  Pitman  system  survives,  which  has 
become  practically  universal  for  correspondence 
and  reporting. 

In  the  U.  S.  previous  to  1845  there  were 
many  uiiauccessful  attempts  to  invent  practica- 
ble shorthand  systems.  Most  prominent  among 
these  were  those  of  Day  and  Stetson  and 
Chnrles  Saion.  In  the  early  days  of  the  re- 
public modifications  of  tbe  systema  of  Byrom 
and  Taylor  were  roost  used.  Thomas  8.  Malone 
arranged  a  -  new  set  of  consonant  signs,  took 


Duplt^'i  Towel  arrangement,  and  called  it 
"  Script  Phonography."    Being  unsuccessful  in 

England,  it  was  transferred  to  the  U.  S.  Sine* 
the  introduction  and  failure  of  "  Script 
Phonography,"  other  systems — five  in  all — 
having  the  same  vowel  basis,  have  been  pub- 
lished, the  most  vigorously  pushed  being  tiiat 
by  Kingsford,  entitled  "  Oxford  Shorthand," 
and  by  Gregg,  called  "  Light-line  PbtNiogr^- 
phy."    See  Phonoobapht. 

Stepb'aniia,  or  Stephena  (ste'vCns],  Frencli, 
Ebtiehse  or  Etiesnk,  name  of  a  French  fam- 
ily of  printers  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth 
centuries.     Henst,  the  founder  of  the  family 


mathematical  and  theolc^cal  works.  His  sons, 
Fkanoib  (1502-50),  ROBEBT  I  (1603-G9),  and 
Chasles  (abt.  1505-64),  were  largely  engaged 
in  printing.  Robert  in  his  twentieth  year  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  tbe  Latin  New  Testament. 
In  1531  he  began  tbe  publication  of  hia  "  Did- 
tionarium,  seu  Thesaurus  Lingua  lAtina," 
which  he  Improved  in  two  subsequent  editions, 
and  which  is  still  in  use.  He  published  at  least 
eleven  complete  editions  of  the  Bible,  in  He- 
brew, Greek,  I^tin,  and  French,  besides  many 
separate  editjoos  of  tbe  New  Testament  and  3^ 
other  worka.  He  first  introduced  the  existing 
division  of  the  New  TestanKot  into  verses. 
His  brother  Charles  succeeded  to  his  business. 


9S),  waa  a  profound  student  of  Greek  litera- 
ture. He  carried  on  business  successively  in 
Paris  and  Geneva,  but  suffered  severe  financial 
losse*  by  the  publication  of  his  "  Thesaurus 
Lingun  Grwae.'"  Paul  (1566-1027),  son  of 
Henry,  succeeded  his  father  at  Geneva,  and 
Antuoki  (abt.  1592-1674),  his  son,  for  fifty 
yeara  conducted  a  printing  house  in  Paris,  and 
died  in  poverty. 

Ste'pken,  Saint,  the  first  Christian  martyr; 
one  of  the  seven  deacons  in  the  Christian  con- 
gregation of  Jerusalem.  Charged  by  the  Jews 
with  speaking  against  the  law  and  against  God, 
he  was  stoned  to  death  by  order  of  the  Sanhe- 
drin.  (Acts  vi  and  vii.)  His  festival  is  held 
on  December  26th,  both  in  the  Eastern  and 
Western  churches. 


Stephen,  the  name  of  ten  popes.  Some  his- 
torians count  but  nine,  from  the  circumstance 
that  Stephen  II  died  three  days  after  his  elec- 
tion, March  27,  762,  before  he  had  been  con- 
secrated. The  following  bearers  of  the  name 
are  the  most  noteworthy:  Stipukh  I,  Saint, 
pope  from  abt.  254-257  a.d.;  ia  noted  tor  bis 
controversy  with  Cyprian  as  to  the  necessity 
of  rebsptiiing  converted  heretics.  The  coun- 
cils of  Carthage  (2S6  and  256)  having  decided 
Hfrainst  the  Roman  practice  of  recognizing  bap- 
tism by  heretics  as  valid,  Stephen  broke  off 
communion  with  the  African.  Church.  Stsfbek 
III  (11),  pope  from  752-757,  suffered  severely 
from  the  aggreaaiona  of  the  Lombards.  After 
asking  in  vain  for  help  against  them  from  tbe 
Byzantine  emperor,   Conatantine  Copronymua, 


he  went  in  person  to  Pepin  le  Bref,  chief  of  the 
PrankB,  whom  he  crowned  kine  on  the  condi- 
tion that  he  should  expel  AiBtuIf,  the  Lombard 
king,  from  the  exarchate  of  R«Tenn«  (wd  the 
Pentapolia,  and  bestow  these  territories  on  the 
■ee  of  St.  Peter.  Pepin  made  two  campaigns 
in  Italj,  but  succeeded  at  last  in  forcing  the 
Lombards  to  retreat  from  the  above  territories, 
vhidi  be  then  gave  to  the  papal  see,  in  spite 
of  tlw  protest  of  the  BjEantioe  emperor,  there- 
by laying  the  foundation  of  the  temporal  power 
of  the  pope.  Stephek  ¥11  (VI)  (896-897)  is 
most  noticeable  for  his  violence  in  respect  to 
his  predecessor  Formosus,  whose  corpse  he 
caused  to  be  exhumed,  stripped  of  the  papal 
insi{piiB,  mutilat«d,  and  thrown  into  the  Tiber, 
annulling  all  his  ordinances,  and  even  his  con- 
secrations. Stephen  X  (IX)  (1067-68),  eon 
of  the  Duke  Gotelon  of  Lower  Lorraine,  and 
elected  pope  through  the  influence  of  Cardinal 
Hildebrand,  afterwards  Pope  Or^ory  VIL 

Stephen,  abt  1100-11S4;  King  of  England; 
the  last  of  the  Anglo-Norman  line.  His  father 
was  Stephen,  Count  of  Blois,  and  bis  mother 
was  Adela  or  Adeltcia,  daughter  of  William  the 
Conqueror.  Henry  I,  his  mstemal  uncle,  pro- 
cured bis  marriage  to  Matilda,  heiress  to  the 
Count  of  Boulogne,  as  early  as  1114.  After 
Henry's  death,  white  deliberations  as  to  his 
proper  successor  were  tn  progress  in  Normandy, 
Stephen  hastened  to  England,  and  was  crowned, 
December,  1135.  At  first  hit  government  was 
fairlf  successful,  but  his  reign  was  a  period 
of  war  and  tumult,  the  most  miserable  in  Eng- 
lish history.  He  was  involved  in  contests  with 
the  Welsh,  who  inflicted  defeat  and  loss  on  the 
English.  In  the  war  that  was  renewed  with 
Scotland  in  1138,  the  English  ^ined  the  battle 
of  the  standard,  August  i2d.  The  cause  of  the 
Empress  Matilda,  Henry's  daughter,  was  early 
taken  up  hy  a  party  in  England,  headed  by  her 
natural  brother  Robert,  Earl  of  Gloucester; 
and,  September  30,  1138,  Matilda  landed  in 
England.     Stephen    was    defeated    add    made 

Eisoner,  February  2,  1141,  at  the  battle  of 
ncoln.  The  greater  portion  of  the  country 
submitted  to  the  victors,  but  Matilda's  arro- 
gance caused  a  speedy  reaction.  Robert  of 
Gloucester  was  defeated  and  captured  in  Sep- 
tember, 1 141,  and  was  exchanged  for  Stephen. 
At  Uie  battle  of  Wiltcm,  July  I,  1143,  Glouces- 
ter was  victorious,  and  the  king  fled.  In  1153 
Henry,  son  of  Matilda,  defeated  Stephen  at 
Malmesbury;  but  leading  men  now  interposed 
to  make  peace,  and  under  the  Treaty  of  Win- 
chester (or  Wallingford),  November  7,  1153, 
the  throne  passed  on  Stephen's  death  to  the 
house  of  Plantagenet  in  the  person  of  Henry  IL 

Stephen,  Sir  Jamei  Pitxjames,  1820-94; 
English  jurist;  called  to  the  bar,  1864;  as 
member  of  legislative  council  of  India,  1869, 
he  made  important  contributions  to  codes  of 
evidence  and  criminal  procedure.  Judge  of 
Queen's  Bench  Division,  1877-91.  Wruta  "His- 
tory of  the  Criminal  Law  of  England,"  "  Lib- 
erty, Equality,  and  Fraternity,"  digests  of  evi- 
dence and  criminal  law,  and  many  monc^aphs. 

Stephen,  Leslie,  1832-1904;  English  author; 
brother  of  the  preceding,  educated  at  Eton, 
King's  College,  London,  and  Cambridge.     He 


edited  T\e  Oornhill  Magazine,  1871-72,  resign- 
ing to  take  charge  of  the  "  Dictionary  of  Na- 
tional Bioeraphy,  the  first  twenty-six  volumes 
of  which  he  edited.  Among  bis  writings  are 
"  The  Playground  of  Europe,"  "  Free  Thinking 
and  Plain  Spealdng,"  "  Houn  in  a.  Library," 
"  History  of  English  Thought  in  the  Eighteenth 
Century,"  "  The  Science  of  Ethics,"  "  An  Ag- 
nostic's Apology,"  besides  biographies  and  an 
edition  of  Fielding. 

Ste'pheat,  Al«z«nd«i  Eamflton,  1812-83 ; 
American  statesman;  b.  Georgia;  admitted  to 
bar,  1834;  member  Georgia  L^slature,  1836~ 
42;  member  of  Congress,  1843^9.  He  vigor- 
ously opposed  the  secession  ordinance  at  the 
convention  at  Milledgeville,  January  16,  1861, 
but  was  a  member  of  the  congress  which  met 
at  Monigomeiy  in  February,  and  was  elected 
vice  president  of  the  Confederacy;  May  11, 
1865,  he  was  arrested  and  sent  to  Fort  Warren 
in  Boston  harbor,  but,  October  11th,  was 
l«roled.  Member  of  Congress,  1872-82;  then 
Governor  ol  Georgia. 


structed  the  first  operable  locomotive.  In  1815 
he  originated  the  steam  blast  and  devised  a 
miner's  safety  lamp  still  used  in  England. 
Sir  H.  Davy,  however,  received  the  pnie  of 
£2,(XI0  offei^  for  such  a  lamp,  Stephenson 
receiving  £100.  A  subscription  of  £1,000  was, 
however,  later  raised  for  him.  The  first  rail- 
way built  by  him,  opened  in  1822,  8  m.  long, 
was  BO  successful  that  he  was  thereafter  almost 
inoessantly  engaged  on  new  roads.  In  1824, 
with  Edward  Pease,  he  opened  locomotive 
works  at  Newcastle-upon-TjTie.  In  1825  he 
was  principal  engineer  of  the  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  line,  on  which  he  overcame  great 
engineering  difficulties.  He  prevailed  on  the 
directors  to  otTer  a  prize  of  £500  for  the  most 
eflTective  locomotive  engine;  and  at  the  trial, 
October  6,  1829,  his  engine  the  "  Rocket,"  con- 
structed by  himself  snd  his  son  Robert,  was 
adjudged  to  be  the  beet.  At  the  opening  of 
the  road,  September  IS,  1830,  eight  locomotives 
constructed  at  the  Stephenson  works  were  em- 
ployed.    His  life  has  been  written  by  Samuel 

ROBEBT  (1803-59),  his  son,  a  railway  en- 
gineer. For  many  years  he  was  employed  in 
constructing  railways  and  otber  engineering 
works  at  home  and  abroad.  Among  nia  most 
remarkable  works  are  the  high  level  bridge 
over  the  Tyne  at  Newcastle,  the  viaduct  over 
the  Tweed  valley  at  Berwick,  the  Conway 
bridge,  and  the  Britannia  tubular  bridge  across 
the  Menai  Straits.  He  also  designed  an  im- 
mense bridge  across  the  Nile  at  KaSre  Azzayat, 
and  the  first  great  tubular  bridge  across  the  St. 
Lawrence  near  Montreal.  From  1847  till  his 
death   he   was  a  member  of   Parliament.     He 

Eublished  "  Description  of  the  Locomotive 
team  Engine,"  "  Report  on  the  Atmoepherio 
Railway  System,"  and  "  The  Great  Exhibition, 
its  Palace  and  Contents."  His  life  has  been 
written  I 
and  W.  1 


.y  Google ' 


Steppe  (•tep),  tbo  name  nren  by  the  Tu- 
Un  to  the  plaina  of  central  A«U.  The^  are 
umiallj'  coT^^  with  grass,  and  coirespond  in 
their  aspects  and  relations  to  the  prairies  o{ 
the  U.  B.  and  the  lUnos  and  pampas  o(  S. 
America. 

Steppe-mttr'Ttln.    See  RiimKRFEST. 

Sterfc    See  Mxrtio  Systeu. 

Ste'reo-chBm'iatrr,  a  branch  of  chemistrf 
that  baa  to  deal  with  the  relations  which  the 
atotnH  bear  to  one  another  in  apace.  The  ordi- 
iisry  methods  of  Investigation  of  chemical  com- 
pounds lead  to  certain  conclu^ons  in  regard  to 
■  existing  between  the  atoms  in 


Lnything  about  the  arrangement  ii 
two  atoms  of  hyd 
gen.    The  formula 


two  atoms  of  hrdrogen  and  the  atom  of  0x7- 

aula  expi«         

of  the  two  atoms  of  nydrogen  is  linked  to  the 


*  that  each 


atom  of  oxygen,  but  the  question  whether  they 
are  on  the  same  aide  of  on  oppoaite  aides,  abOTe 
or  below,  is  not  touched.  Yet  it  is  certain  that 
if  these  atoms  exist  and  are  united  in  the  mole- 
cule they  must  be  arranged  in  space,  and  a 
formula  that  does  not  take  into  consideration 
the  three  dimeniions  of  space  is  certainly  in- 
complete^ Up  to  within  a  comparatively  short 
time  no  facts  were  known  that  justified  any 
speculation  concerning  the  uiace  relations  of 
atoms,  but  it  appears  that  the  time  has  come 
when  such  speculation  is  nrofltable,  and  facts 
are  conatantly  beioE  brougtit  to  light  that  can- 
not be  explained  without  itg  aid.    See  Ceeu- 

ISTBT. 

Stereop'tkon.    See  Haoio  Lantxbit. 

Ste'reoscope,  an  Instrument  by  aid  of  which 
the  two  eyes  view  two  different  pietnres  ai  the 
same  object  and  combine  them  Into  one  hav- 
ing the  appearance  of  solidity.  This  illusion  is 
produced  oy  presenting  to  each  eye  a  picture  in 
perspective  as  it  would  appear  to  each,  which 
can  readily  be  accomplished  by  means  of  pho- 
tography. It  is  said  that  such  a  atereotcope 
was  conceived  by  Prof.  Elliot,  of  Edinburgh,  In 
1S34,  but  was  not  constructed  by  him  till  IBSQ, 
after  Sir  Charles  Wheatstone  had  in  1838  in- 
vented and  exhibited  his  refleoting  stereoscope. 
In  Wheatstone'a  instrument  the  M)server  looks 
with  each  eye  into  a  separate  mirror,  the  two 
being  inclined  at  an  angle  of  about  4S°,  which 
reflect  the  images  of  pictures  placed  one  on 
either  ude.  In  I84S  Sir  David  Brewster  in- 
vented a  refracting  Btereoacope,  which  is  more 
convenient  than  Wheatstone'a.  The  open  atere- 
oecope  common  in  the  U.  S.  was  devised  in  IBSl 
by  Dr.  Oliver  Wendell  Holmes.  In  this  the  two 
pictures  are  placed  side  by  side,  separated  by  a 
partitbn,  and  viewed  through  two  lenticular 
priams  which  slightly  magoi^  tbem  and  00m- 
Inne  them  into  one. 

The  illusions  of  the  stereoecope  are  explained 
by  the  fact  that  binocular  vision  gives  us  the 
perception  of  solidity  or  the  third  dimension  of 
extension  in  all  objects  not  over  £00  fL  distant 
from  the  eyes;  for  in  the  atercoseope  we  have 
tiie  image*  formed  on  the  retina  of  the  rieht 
eye  and  of  the  left  ^milar  to  the  images  that 
would  be  formed  in  the  eyea  if  real  lolia  objects 


STETHOSCOPE 

were  before  us,  having  the  sizes  and  the  situa- 
tions that  they  appear  to  liave  in  the  stereo- 
scopic illusion  in  the  instrument;  also,  the  axes 
of  the  eyes  are  inclined  to  each  other  in  the 
aame  manner  wh»i  looking  in  the  stereoscope 
as  they  would  be  if  they  regarded  the  above- 
mentioned  group  of  solid  objects.  Hence  tha 
eye  is  affected  exactly  as  when  it  views  these 
real  objects,  and  a  stereoscopic  perception  is  t^ 
effect  If  the  pair  of  pictures  b«  transposed, 
that  intended  tor  the  right  eye  being  put  for 
the  left,  the  effect  is  a  reversal  of  the  relief  fore- 
ground points  appearing  to  be  in  the.  back* 
ground. 
Ste'reotyping  and  Elec'trotTplaK,  the  proeeaa 
'  making  metal  plates,  reproducing  ir  *---'— 


ully  of  oopper,  depoa- 
Thera  are  three  methods  of  atereotypiiu 


U  pi 

with  a  sheet  of  papier-mache,  which  forma  the 
matrix.  Whrai  tiie  matrix  is  dry,  metal  is 
poured  upon  it,  and  the  resulting  plate,  when 
trimmed,  is  ready  for  the  printing  press.  In 
the  chalk-plate  process  a  sheet  of  steel  is  cov- 
ered thinly  with  soft  material,  like  chalk, 
which  is  scraped  away  where  lines  are  to  show, 
leaving  tile  ateel  bare.  The  plate  is  then  used 
as  a  matrix.  In  electrotyping,  a  wax  mold  i* 
first  made  from  the  engraving  or  type  and  pow- 
dered graphite  is  apread  over  its  surfaoe,  so 
as  to  make  it  a  conductor  of  electricity;  cop- 
per may  then  be  deposited  on  it  by  the  ordinary 
process  of  electroplating.  For  glyphography  a  ■ 
sheet  of  copper  la  bla^ened  ou  one  side  and 
then  covered  with  a  waxlike  composition. 
Wherever  the  wax  is  scraped,  the  black  surface 
is  seen,  and  ahowa  what  an  electrotype  printed 
from  the  plate  will  be.    See  ELBcraoTTPb 

Sterne,  Laurence,  1713-08;  English  humor- 
ous author;  b.  Clonmel,  Ireland.  He  was  a 
parish  clergyman  of  Yorkshire  and  a  preben- 
dary of  York  Cathedral.  His  "Tristram 
Shandy  "  took  an  extraordinary  hold  upon  the 
public,  end  Stems  ranked  with  Fielding,  Rich- 
ardson, and  BmoUett  as  a  great  writer  of  prose 
fiction.  In  1760  and  1766  appeared  four  vol- 
umes of  termona.  In  1767  he  wrote  the  first 
and  only  part  of  "  The  Sentimental  Journey," 
his  best   work.     In    1775   hia   daughter  Lydia 

fublished  three  volumes  of  his  "  Letters  to  His 
rienda,"  and  in  the  same  year  appeared  "  Let- 
ters to  Eliza,"  consisting  of  ten  letters  ad- 
dressed by  Stems  in  1767  to  "  Mrs.  Elizabeth 
Draper,"  and  another  collection  of  letters  in  one 
volume.  He  was  a  subtle  delineator  of  char- 
acter, and  his  chosen  province  was  the  whim- 
sical. His  views  are  kuidly,  but  bis  works  are 
mostly  corrupt. 

Steth'oscope,  an  instrument  employed  by 
phyaiciaue  for  the  physical  exploration  of  the 
chest.  Laennec,  the  founder  of  methodical  aus- 
cultation, introduced  the  solid  stethoscope,  a 
tube  made  from  a  single  piece  of  wood  (Fig.  1). 
It  Is  from  10  to  IS  in.  long,  has  a  flanging 


STETTIN 

eheatpieoc  to  receive  aound,  u  open  eanal  h) 
convey  Bound,  the  solid  itructiire  alio  lerving 
to  conduct  it,  and  a  broad,  flat  earpiece  for 
sppoiition  to  the  ear  and  the 'excluBion  of  ex- 
tranmua  Kxmds.  This  has  now  been  replaced 
by  the  "  binaural "  or  "  double  itethoscope  " 


{Fig.  2).  For  careful  diagnoais,  by  eoncen- 
tratiDK  local  sound,  and  conveying  a  separate 
but  similar  and  simultaneous  impreasion  to 
each  ear,  the  stethoaoope  is  invaluable.  In  Uie 
phonendoecope  the  sound  is  increased  by  a 
plate  of  hard  rubber  at  the  end  in  contact  with 
the  patient. 

Stettin  leVH-ttn'),  capital  of  province  of 
Pomerania,  Prussia;  on  the  Oder,  S3  m.  NE.  of 
Berlin.  The  site  it  occupies  is  hilly,  and  the 
houses  are  neat  and  substantial.  Its  sugar  le- 
fineries,  oil  mills,  glassworks,  breweries,  distil- 
leries, and  manufactures  of  anchors,  sailcloth, 
rope,  tobacco,  soap,  candlee,  hats,  etc.,  are  im- 
portant, and  Btettin  is  the  tiird  port  of  Ger- 
many; its  port  on  the  Baltic  is  SwinemHnde. 
Stettin  was  a  flourishing  member  of  the  Ean- 
seatic  League.  It  forms  the  outlet  for  the 
rich  products  of  Silesia.    Pop.  (1910)  239,146. 

Steuben  (stoi'bin),  Friediich  Wilhelm  An- 
pwt  Heinrich  Feidinand  (Baron  von),  1730- 
S4;  American  soldier;  b.  in  Prussia.  He  en- 
tered the  Prussian  army  in  1747,  and  distin- 
guished himself  at  Prague  and  Roesbach  (1767), 
at  Kay  and  Kuneredorf  (175B),  and  later  at  the 
siege  of  Schweidnitz.  Received  special  instruc- 
tion in  t&cticB  from  Frederick  the  Great  In 
1764  the  Prince  of  Hohenzoll^n-Hechingen 
made  him  grand  marshal  and  general  of  nis 
guard.  In  1777  he  volunteered  in  the  American 
army  under  Washington,  and  during  the  winter 
reached  Valley  Forge.  On  May  S,  1TT8,  he  was 
appointed  inspector  general  ^th  the  rank  of 
major  general,  and  in  June  he  was  at  the  battle 
of  Monmouth.  He  prepare  a  manual  for  the 
army,  which  was  approved  by  Congress  In  1779, 
and  introduced  the  most  thorough  discipline. 
In  1T80  he  was  a  member  of  the  court-martial 
on   Major  Andre ;   afterwards  commanded  the 


STEVENiSON 

grew  Toted  him  a  life  annuity  of  42,600.  Sev- 
eral of  the  states  voted  him  tracts  of  land, 
New  York  presenting  him  with  16,000  acrea 
near  Utica.  Died  at  Steuben,  N.  Y.  He  was  a 
man  of  great  kindoess  and  generosity,  of  ready 
wit,  and  polished  manners. 

Stenlienville,  capital  of  Jefferson  Co.,  Ohio; 
on  the  Ohio  River.  It  is  in  a  rich  agricultural 
and  mining  region;  is  laid  out  on  the  second 
terrace  of  the  Ohio,  above  danger  from  the 
floods,  for  which  the  river  is  noted,  and  is 
nearly  surrounded  by  hills  from  300  to  600 
feet  high.    Pop.  (IBIO)  22,391. 

Ste'vens,  Thaddens,  1792-186B;  American 
statesman ;  b.  Peacham,  Vt. ;  graduated  Dart- 
mouth CollMe;  went  to  Gettysburg,  Pa.,  where 
he  taught  school  and  studied  law;  admitted  to 
the  bar,  1S16,  and  soon  acquired  an  extensive 

Practice.  In  the  presidential  canvass  of  182S 
e  was  a  strong  opponent  of  Jackson;  in  1833 
and  several  times  later  he  was  a  member  of  the 
state  le^slature,  and  in  1836  a  member  of  the 
convention  to  revise  the  state  constitution.  He 
wa«  active  in  introducing  the  public-school  sys- 
tem in  Pennsylvania.  In  LS48  was  elected  a 
member  of  Congress;  was  reelected  1850,  18S8, 
1862,  and  thereafter  to  each  Congress  until  his 
death,  serving  as  chairman  of  important  com- 
mittees, being  one  of  the  acknowledged  leaders 
of  the  Republican  Party,  and  distinguishing 
himself  for  his  advocacy  of  measures  in  oppc^. 
tion  to  slavery,  for  the  emancipation  and  en- 
franchisement of  the  negroes,  and  after  the  war 
for  stringent  proceedinrs  against  the  seceding 
states.  He  was  one  of  the  most  active  man- 
agers in  the  impeachment  trial  of  Pres.  John- 
son.    Died  in  Washington.  . 

Ste'vcnaon,  Adiai  Ewing,  1636-  ;  Vice 
President  U.  8.,  1893-97;  b.  Christian  Co.,  Ky.i 
admitted  to  the  bar,  1858;  member  CongrcM, 
1876-77;  again  nominated  for  Vice  Preudent 
in  1800  on  Democratic-Populist  tickets, 

Stevenaon,  Robert  Louis  Balfour,  1860-94; 
English  author;  b.  Edinburgh,  Scotland.  He 
was  admitted  to  the  Scottish  bar,  but  did  not 
engage  in  pracUce.  He  first  attracted  attention 
by  "  An  Inland  Voyage  "  and  "  Travels  with  a 
Itonkey."  These  were  followed  by  a  series  <rf 
romances — "New  Arabian  Nights,"  "Treasure 
Island,"  a  tale  of  buccaneers  and  buried  trea»- 
ure  and  one  of  the  best  boys'  books;  "Prince 
Otto,"  a  love  story;  "The  Strange  Case  of  Dr.' 
Jekyll  and  Mr.  Hyde,"  a  psychological  ro- 
mance, and  the  moat  popular  of  Stcvenaan's  Ac- 
tions 1  "  Kidnapped,"  a  novel  with  historical 
elements  and  studies  of  Scottish  character  types 

Juite  equal  to  Scott's;  "The  Merr^  Men  and 
iher  Tales,"  a  volume  of  short  stones  in  a  va- 
riety of  keys;  "The  Master  of  Ballantrae  "; 
"  The  Wrecker  "  (with  Lloyd  Osboume) ;  "  Da- 
vid Balfour,"  a  sequel  to  "  Kidnapped,"  etc. 
Rtevenson's  versatility  is  shown  in  his  "  A 
Child's  Garden  of  Verses,"  a  very  imaginative, 
pnetic  representation  of  the  world  from  the 
childish  point  of  view,  and  in  various  volumes 
of  travel,  criticism,  miscellaneous  essays,  and 
sketehes  such  as  "  VirKinibus  Puerisque," 
"Across  the  Plains,"  "The  Silverado  Squat- 
ters," and  "  Memories  and  Portraits."  He  trav- 
eled much  in  search  of  health,  and  many  of  his 


STEWART 

books  nere  written  in  a  dck  bed,  on  railway 
ioumeye,  or  at  sea.  For  yeara  he  resided  at 
SMnoa  and  elaewherc  in  the  S.  Sea  Islands,  re- 
portiiig  his  observations  in  "  A  Footnote  of  His- 
tory," "  Island  Nights'  Entertainments,"  etc. 
In  an  ase  of  realism  Stevenson  brilliantly  ad- 
vocated the  claims  of  romance  both  by  practice 
and  by  theory.     Died  Vailima,  Samoa. 

Stewart,  Balfonr,  1829-87;  Engtisb  physi- 
cist; b.  Edinburgh.  Director  at  Kew,  1859; 
Prof,  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Owens  College, 
Hanchcat«r,  1870.  He  discovered  the  law  of 
equality  between  the  absorptive  and  radiative 
power  of  bodies.  Joint  autnor  of  "  Besearcbes 
m  Solar  Physics "  and  of  a  religio-scientiflc 
treatise,  "  The  Unseen  Universe."  Also  wrote 
many  popular  tezt-boolis. 

Stewart,  David  (Duke  of  Rotbeaay  and  Earl 
of  Carrick),  1377-1401;  son  of  Robert  III, 
King  of  Scotland;  became  lieutenant  of  Scot- 
land, subject,  however,  to  the  advice  of  his 
council,  of  which  his  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Al- 
bany, was  a  member.  He  defended  Edinburgh 
against  Henry  IV  of  England,  1400,  but  waa 
■oon  after  seized  by  the  opporite  party  and 
tmpriioiied  In  Falkland  Castle,  where  ha  died 
by  starvation. 

Steyn  (stln),  Martin"!  Thennis,  1857-  ; 
Preaident  Orange  Free  State.  Called  to  the  bar, 
1S82;  StaU  Attorney,  IB8Q;  then  raised  to  the 
bench.  President  of  the  republic,  1806.  Coop- 
erated with  the  Transvaal  to  resUt  the  Britisn, 
and  after  Pres.  Kruger's  departure  waa  in 
command  of  the  fighting  forces. 

Stick'ing  Plas'tei,  or  Adhe'sive  PUater,  an 
article  for  surgeons'  use,  made  of  resin,  lead 
plaster,  and  soap,  melted  together  and  spread 
by  machinery  upon  stout  muslin.  Light  ad- 
hesive plasters,  court-plasters,  and  the  like 
are  made  of  silk  or  goldbeater's  skin,  covered 
with  a  solution  containing  isinglass  and  gum 
betuoin,  and  backed  with  a  varnish  of  Cbian 
turpentine  and  benzoin.    See  Coubt  PulSTRB. 

SticHUeback,  a  small  fish  of  the  family  Oa»- 
terottaidie,  having  the  back  armed  with  stout 
■pines,  whence  the  popular  name.    The  species 


TwivsniniD  BncELUA 


rarely  exceed  6  in.,  and  are  generally  much 
less.  Although  so  small,  they  are  neverthe- 
less extremely  pugnacious  and  voracious,  and 
attack  without  hesitation  animals  many  times 
larger  than  themselves. 

Stfg'ma,  certain  abnormal  appearances  which 
mark  a  degenerate  person,  such  as  irregular 
teeth  or  ears,  or  deformed  palate;  or  func- 
tional derangement,  such  as  epilepsy  or  deaf- 


STILT 

sion  upon  certain  saints  of  marks  similar  to  the 
five  wounds  of  Christ  (stigmata)  or  of  the 
crovm  of  thoms.  Instances  are  those  of  St 
Francis  of  AskeI  (September  15,  1224)  and 
Veronica  Giuliani  (1694).  Many  persons, 
among  whom  was  St  Catharine  of  Siena,  ara 
said  to  have  felt  at  regular  intervals  the  pain 
of   such   wounds,   but   without  any    ex^mial 

Stilicho  (stll'1-kfl),  FUviiu,  abt.  360-408; 
Roman  general;  the  son  of  a  Vandal  officer  ot 
cavalry  under  Valens.  For  his  services  as  an 
envoy  to  Persia  in  384  Theodosiua  gave  him  the 
band  of  Serena,  his  adopted  daughter.  Stilicho 
became  tuaster  general  of  the  army,  and  in  304 
Governor  of  the  West  as  guardian  of  Honorius. 
Theodosins  died  in  305,  leaving  to  Honorius  the 
Empire  of  the  West  and  to  Arcadius  that  of  tlw 
East.  After  establishing  peace  on  the  border, 
Stilicho    turned  toward    the    East,  osteoubl^ 


assasBination  of  Bufinus  (305).  In  308  a  mar- 
riage was  celebrated  between  Btilicho's  daugh- 
ter Maria  and  Honorius.  In  403  Stilicho  twioa 
defeated  Alaric,  and  in  404  received  a  triumph 
in  Pome.  In  406  Italy  was  invaded  by  Bada- 
galsus  with  a  swarm  of  Vandals,  Buevi,  Bur- 
gundians,  Alans,  and  Ooths;  and  although  he 
was  defeated  and  slain  (406)  and  bis  troop* 
sold  as  slaves,  a  portion  of  his  horde  ravaged 
Gaul,  from  which  Stilicho  had  been  obliged  to 
withdraw  the  garrisons.  This  caused  indigna- 
tion, and  Stilicno's  power  at  court  was  secretly 
undermined  by  the  eunuch  Olympius,  who  rep- 
resented to  Honorius  that  he  meditated  his 
death,  Stilicho  took  refuge  in  a  church  in  Ba- 
venna,  hut  was  soon  brought  out  and  slain. 

Stilt,  a  name  applied  to  birds  of  the  genna 
Himantopua,  related  to  the  avoeet.  ,  They  are 
distinguished  by  excessively  long  legs,  ft 
straight,  slider  bill,  which   is  slightly  com- 


pressed, feet  with  the  middle  and  outer  toe* 
connected  by  a  small  web  and  destitute  of  m 
hind  toe,  and  tail  projecting  beyond  the  winga. 
Sis  spedes  of  the  genua  are  recognised  as  m- 

ogTe 


STIMULANTS 

habitants  of  varioiu  purta  of  the  world.  One 
species  ia  found  in  America,  and  ranges  from 
tile  N.  U.  S,  to  Paraguay. 

Stim'ulants,  tliose  agents  nhich  increase 
functional  activity  of  the  various  organs  of  the 
body,  especially  of  the  respiration,  circulation, 
and  nervous  system.  Such  are,  preeminently, 
strongly  nourishing  hot  food,  if  it  can  be  di- 
gested; if  it  cannot,  then  aleoholic  or  ethereal 
potions,  ammoniacal  soIntlonB,  lieat,  strych- 
nine, etc. 

Sting  Ray,  of  the  genus  Trygon,  a  group  be- 
longing to  the  order  Raiia.  They  nave  the 
body  rhombic  and  moderately  broad,  slcin 
smooth  and  without  tubercles,  nasal  valves 
coalescent  into  quadrangular  fiaps,  teeth  flat- 
tened, and  the  tail  long,  tapering,  destitute  of  a 
true  fin,  and  armed  nith  an  elongated  spine 
(sometimes  with  two}  compressed  from  before 
backward,  with  teeth  or  serratures  at  each  side 
directed  downward.  These  spines  are  the 
"  stings."  There  are  about  thirty  species  found 
in  tropical  and  temperate  seas,  and  are  much 
dreaded  on  account  of  the  wounds  they  inflict 
with  their  spine-bearing  tail.  They  can  whip 
the  tail  around  with  great  ease  and  transfix  the 
incautious  intruder  with  the  spines. 

Stirling,  capital  of  Stirlingshire,  on  the 
Forth;  35  m.  NW.  of  Edinburgh.  It  contains  a 
fijie  old  castle.  The  town  at^  its  vicinity  are 
rich  in  historic  associations.  Tartani,  shawls. 
rope,  soap,  leatlier,  and  malt  are  manufactured. 
Fop.  (1901)  18,403. 

StlTlingsMre,  county  of  Scotland,  forming 
the  borderland  between  the  Highlands  and  the 
Lowlands;  area,  447  sq.  m.,  of  which  about 
two  fifths  is  under  cultivation.  The  W.  part  of 
the  county  is  mountainous,  and  rich  in  iron, 
coal,  and  freestone.  The  highest  peak  is  Ben 
Lomond,  3,192  ft.,  near  the  foot  of  which  lies 
Loch  Lomond.  Agriculture,  cattle  breeding, 
mining,  and  the  manufacture  of  cotton  and 
woolen  goods,  chemicals,  etc.,  are  pursued.  The 
ironworks  at  Carron  are  among  the  largesf;  in 
the  country.  Stirlingshire  is  rich  in  Ustoric 
associations,  and  boasts  of  many  battle  fields, 
the  chief  of  which  are  Stirling  Bridge,  Falkirk, 
Bannockburn,  and  Kilsyth.  Pop.  <1911)  161.- 
003.    County  town,  Stirling. 

Stoat    See  EBUinE. 

Stock  Bxcbange',  an  association  of  brokers 
In  shares,  bonds,  or  other  accuiitiea  of  corpora- 
tions, nations,  states,  counties,  or  municipali- 
ties, and  in  negotiable  certificates  representing 
commodities  of  trade.  Until  the  decade  ISSO-90 
the  last-mentioned  instruments  were  not  regu- 
larly dealt  in  by  stock  exctianRes.  The  Petro- 
leum and  Mining  Exchange  of  New  York  City 
was,  however,  in  I8S6,  expanded  into  an  ex- 
change for  stocks,  oil,  and  mining  shares,  and 
the  older  New  York  Stock  Exchange  shortly 
afterwards  admitted  to  regular  trading  on  its 
board  the  so-called  "  pipe-line  certificates "  of 
the  petroleum  market,  and  later  certificates  of 
deposited  silver  bullion,  through  which  the 
price  of  silver  might  be  made  a  convenient  spec- 
ulation. 

Membership  in  a  stock  exchange  is  nsnally 
limltad,  and  as,  in  a  number  ol  exchangee,  a 


STOCK  EXCHANGE 

"  seat "  is  the  property  not  only  of  an  active 
broker,  but  also  of  his  hein  or  aasigneee,  the 
privilege  represented  by  it  possesses  a  market- 
able value.  Memberships  in  the  New  York 
Stock  Exchange  have  sold  as  high  as  (00,000 
(in  1001)  and  as  low  as  91S,260,  the  record  of 
1863.  The  purchase  of  a  seat  from  a  previous 
incumbent  does  not  of  itself  entitle  the  buyer 
to  the  privilege  of  trading  on  the  floor.  He  be- 
comes a  member  only  after  formal  application 
and  by  the  approval  of  the  committee  on  ad- 
missions. StocK  exchanges  are  governed  by 
strictly  enforced  by-laws,  covering  rules  for 
general  management,  mutual  arrangement  and 
enforcement  of  contracts,  and  requirement  of 
personal  businesB  honesty  and  good  behavior. 
On  the  New  York  Stock  Exchange  an  insolvent 
member  is  suspended  until  he  has  settled  with 
his  creditors,  and  may  be  readmitted  only  on 
proof  of  such  settlement  and  on  the  formal  vot« 
of  the  committee  on  admissions,  or,  if  rejected 
by  them,  on  appeal  to  the  general  governing 
committee.  Suspension  or  expulsion  is  also 
fixed  as.penalty  for  (1)  the  making  of  fictitious 
sales;  (2)  the  making  of  fictitious  or  trifling 
bids  or  offers;  (3)  the  buying  or  sellinir  erf  se- 
curities for  a  less  commission  than  that  fixed  in 
the  by-laws;  (4)  "obvious  fraud";  (5)  refusal 
to  comply  with  any  other  regular  provision  of 
the  by-laws. 

In  nearlv  all  stock  exchanges  no  Security 
can  he  dealt  in  on  the  floor  uSess  it  has  been 
officially  admitted  by  the  committee  appointed 
for  the  purpose.  Securities  may  also  be  ex- 
pressly excluded.  The  only  exception  to  this 
privilege  of  exclusion,  in  Eunniean  stock  ex- 
changes, is  the  public  stock  of  the  nation  to 
which  the  exchange  belongs.  In  Loudon  a  ruts 
forbids  trading  in  public  loans  raised  by  nations 


change  the  applicant  company  must  show  to 
the  committee  on  stock  list  th^t  the  shares  or 
bonds  in  question  were  regularly  issued,  and 
that  they  have  been  actually  marketed.  A 
general  financial  statement  at  a  data  not  too 
tar  distant  must  accompany  the  applicaticn. 
In  the  case  of  shares,  the  securities  must  be  reg- 
istered with  a  trust  company  satisfactory  to  the 
stock  exchange,  lii  the  case  of  bonds,  evidence 
must  be  submitted  that  the  mortgage  was  prop- 
erty drawn  and  recorded.  These  stringent  pro- 
visions were  the  result  of  numerous  frauds  and 
"  overissues "  of  securities  in  the  earlier  his- 
tory of  American  stock  speculation.  .  On  the 
New  York  Stock  Exchange  the  regular  mini' 
mum  commission  is  one  eighth  of  one  per  cent 
on  outside  orders,  one  thirtv-seeond  of  one  per 
cent  on  orders  given  by  fellow  memlierB,  and 
one  fiftieth  of  one  per  cent  where  a  memlier  has 
merely  employed  a  fellow  memi>er  to  make  the 
bargain,  delivery  beins  made  to  or  by  the  ,real 
purchaser  or  seller.  All  conuniBsions  are  reck- 
oned on  a  security's  par  value.  A  broker  is  for- 
bidden under  a  penalty  to  sell  stock  at  a  price 
lower  than  the  best  bid  made  in  his  hearing 
for  the  amount  in  question  oc  to  buy  at  a  price 
higher  than  the  lowest  offer.  This  is  to  prevent 
unfair  "  manipulation." 
In  all  stocK  exchanges  actual  delivery  of 
iui«a,  th 


securities  sold  Is  requl 


«  apparent  tt> 

(Google 


STOCK  EXCHANGE 

cation  being  in  cbsm  when  mutually  bftluiced 
eontracta  are  canceled  through  the  stock  ck- 
change  clearinjE;  house.  The  commou  aasump- 
tion  that,  trading  on  stock  exchanges  iovolvea 
no  real  sale,  purchase,  or  tranafer,  but  is  merely 
a  species  oE  gambling  on  differences,  is  whoUjr 
erroneous.  This  species  of  gambling  is  confined 
to  the  "bucket  shops,"  private  concerns  with  no 
stock  exchange  membei^ip,  and  which  neither 
receive  nor  deliver  actual  securities,  merely 
paying  to  cuetomers  or  receiving  from  them  the 
monej'  balance  due  between  the  stock -exchange 
price  at  the  time  of  the  fictitious  sale  or  pur- 
chase and  at  the  time  the  contract  ia  closed. 
In  the  U.  S.  these  institutions  are  illegal  in 
most  states,  and  are  lAided  by  the  police  as 
common  gambling  bouses. 

Trading  in  stocks  has  tor  nearly  two  centu- 
ries been  characterised  by  a  set  of  terms  and 
phraseology  peculiar  to  itself.  A  "  bear  "  la  a 
market  operator  working  to  cause  lower  prices. 
A  ■"  bull,  conversely,  is  working  for  higher 
prices.  Both  of  these  terms  are  at  least  as 
old  as  England's  S.  Sea  speculation  of  1720. 
The  bear  is  ui^ually  ^d  to  be  "  short "  of 
stocks.  The  origin  of  this  more  modem  term 
is  plain,  and  ngnifies  that  the  operator  has  sold 
stocks  which  be  does  not  vet  own,  for  delivery 
at  a  fixed  future  date.  The  price  may  or  may 
not  be  lower  than  previous  recorded  quota- 
tions. Usually  he  receives  his  payment,  at  cur- 
rent prices,  on  the  spot,  and  in  modem  stock 
exchanges  he  also  makes  his  deliverv  of  stocks 
on  the  spot.  But  the  stock  thus  aelivered  is 
borrowed  from  real  holders,  to  be  repaid  when 
the  "  short "  seller  "  covers  " — that  is  to  say, 
when  he  buys  outright  in  the  market  to  close 
his  contracts.  The  tull  is  commonly  "  long  " 
of  stocks  in  a  speculative  way.  This  term  sig- 
nifies that  he  buys  the  stock  and  pays  for  it  in 
money  on  the  spot,  but  borrows  the  money  for 
payment  When  he  sells  his  stock,  at  a  profit 
or  otherwise,  he  repays  the  loan.  It  often  hap- 
pens, therefore,  that  when  the  bear  is  borrow- 
ing stocks  and  the  bull  borrowing  monev,  the 
one  is  simply  lending  to  the  other.  Bales  oy  the 
bulls  are  currently  called  liquidation.  Stocks 
are  said  to  be  "  carried  "  when  a  banker  ad- 
vances money  to  the  bull  speculator,  retaining 
the  stocks  as  security  for  the  loan.  The  "  car- 
rying rate "  naturally  varies,  therefore,  with 
the  rate  of  money  and  the  demand  for  stocks. 
"Pools"  are  combinations  of  operators  devot- 
ing their  joint  resources  to  the  manipulation 
of  a  single  security  or  group  of  securities. 
The  manipulation  is  usually  directed  by  one 
member  of  the  pool.     Contracts  for  such  pur- 

fiose  have  in  some  cases  been  recognized  as 
sgal  by  the  courts,  but  appeal  to  law  is  rarely 
made,  and  bad  faith,  such  as  the  "  selling  out 
on  his  associates  "  by  one  member  of  a  "  bull 
poo),"  is  not  easily  proved  against  the  offender. 
A  "put  "  is  a  contract  drawn  by  a  capitalist 
or  broker  and  sold  at  a  specified  sum  to  a  spec- 
ulator, in  virtue  of  which  the  speculator  may, 
within  a  fixed  period,  deliver  the  stock  to  the 
iMuer  of  the  put  and  be  paid  for  it  at  a  stipu- 
ated  price.  The  buyer  of  a  put  is,  of  course, 
'  usual^  a  bull,  and  buys  the  put  to  guard  him- 


STOCKPORT 

contracts  to  sdl  to  the  buyer  of  the  call,  at  or 
before  a  stipulated  date,  a  certain  amount  of  a 
certain  stock  at  a  fixed  price.  The  bear  buys 
this  to  guard  against  unexpected  advanceo.  A 
"  spread  "  or  "  straddle  "  combines  the  features 
of  both  put  and  call,  contracting  at  the  option 
of  it«  buyer  to  deliver  to  him  or  receive  from 
him  a  fixed  amount  oif  securities  named,  the 
limits  of  price  being  set  as  many  points  apart  as 
the  situation,  in  the  view  of  the  issuer,  will  jus- 
tify. AH  of  the  contracts  described  are  gener- 
ally classed  as  "  options  "  or  "  privileges,"  A 
"  wash  sale  "  is  a  transaction  in  stocks  wherein 
buyer  and  seller  do  not  permanently  transfer 
the  securities  at  all,  but  work  in  a  commou  in- 
terest to  create  semblance  of  activity  and  af- 
fect prices.  In  most  stock  exchanges  "  wash 
sales  are  forbidden  under  heavy  penalty,  but 
they  are  difficult  of  detection  and  undoubtedly 
play  a  large  part  in  current  stock  transactions. 
Two  expreesions  in  stock -exchange  dialect, 
frequently  used  in  cable  dispatches,  are  peculiar 
to  London.  "  Contango,"  a  word  probably  de- 
rived from  the  continental  expression  for  con- 
tingent," refers  to  the  rste  or  percentage 
charged  an  operator  long  of  stocks  for  carrying 
over  nis  account  to  the  next  fortnightly  settling 
day.  "  Backwardation "  is  an  etymological 
barbarism  describing  the  premium,  if  any, 
charged  to  a  short  operator  tor  permitting  him 
to  defer  delivery  from  one  settling  day  to  the 
next.  Its  equivalent  on  the  New  York  Stock 
Exchange  is  the  premium  charged  in  the  "  loan 
crowd,"  where  actual  owners  of  stocks  are  lend- 
ing the  shares  to  bear  operators  desirous  of 
making  present  deliveries. 

Stockliolm,  capital  of  Sweden,  is  built  upon 
the  mainland  and  several  islands  at  the  outlet 
of  Lake  Millar  in  the  Baltic,  and  has  been  called 
the  "  Venice  of  the  North."  In  the  island  of 
Staden  is  the  royal  palace  (built  1697-1754), 
oneof  the  most  beautiful  in  Europe.  The  islands 
have  been  enlarged  by  embankiDents  built  on 
piles,  whence  the  name  Btockholm,  meaning  an 
Island  on  piles.  The  Swedish  kings  are  crowned 
in  the  old  St  Nicholas  Church.  The  Djur^ard, 
or  deer  park,  occupying  almost  an  entire  island 
about  3  m.  in  circumference,  and  containing  the 
Rosendal  Palace,  is  one  of  the  numerous  pleas- 
ure grounds.  The  industry  is  considerable,  es- 
ped&lly  in  tobacco,  leather,  linen  and  cotton 
fabrics,  iron,  sugar  refining,  etc.  Navigation  ia 
closed  each  year  for  about  five  months,  during 
which  the  harbor  ia  covered  with  ice. 

The  town  was  founded  toward  the  end  of  the 
twelfth  century  by  Knut  Erikson,  and  given 
the  rank  of  city  in  1255  by  Birger  Ja.ri;  1389 
it  was  taken  by  Margrethe,  Queen  of  Denmark  i 
October  14,  1471,  the  Swedes,  under  Sten  Sture, 
defeated  the  Danes  at  BrunkeberR  and  drove 
them  out  of  the  country ;  but  in  1520  they  again 
took  the  city  under  Christian  II,  and  the  Stock- 
holm massacre  took  place;  bythe  general  risin;.; 
which  resulted,  Guslavus  Vasa  established  him- 
self on  the  throne.  During  the  peaceful  tiiii  s 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  prosperity  of  the 
citv,  like  that  of  all  Sweden,  has  much  in- 
cre'ased.    Pop.   (1907)   337,460. 


Coog 


..^!t- 


STOCKS 

BSE.  o(  ManchwUr.  It  Is  irregularlf  built  on 
rugged  and  uneven  ground  across  a  gorce.  It 
ia  BO  important  seat  of  the  cotton  iudUBtrr, 
•nd  has  also  breweries,  fou7idrie»,  machine 
shops,  etc.  Stockport  was  the  site  of  a  Roman 
BtatioQ,  and  afterwards  of  a  Nonnan  castle, 
which  vas  destroyed  during  the  parliamentary 
war.     Pop.    (1911)    108,693. 

Stocks,  a  wooden  apparatus  formerly  much 
used  in  Europe  for  punishing  petty  offender* 
and  Tagrants.  It  conaisted  of  two  heavy  tim- 
bers placed  one  above  the  other,  with  notches  so 
arranged  that  when  the  upper  timber,  which  was 
movable,  was  shut  down  in  place  and  fastened, 
hides  were  formed  in  which  the  ankles  of  the 


e  sometimes 


offender  were  secured.  There  v 
other  holes  for  the  handa,  and  li 
hole  lor  the  neck.  Stocks  were  first  introduced 
into  England  probably  about  the  time  of  the 
statute  of  laborers,  23  Edward  III  (1350), 
which  provided  that  they  be  erected  in  every 
town,  and  by  subsequent  statutes  this  punish- 
ment was  inflicted  for  minor  offenses  of  various 
kinds  down  to  very  recent  times.  In  the  U.  S. 
they  were  used  to  punish  slaves.  Stocks  may 
■till  be  seen  in  some  villages  in  England. 

Stock'ton,  Francis  Richard,  1834-1902 ;  Amer- 
ican humorist;  b.  Philadelphia;  applied  him- 
self to  wood  engraving  and  to  literature,  con- 
tributing illustrations  to  Vanity  Fair  and 
other  periodicals,  and  issuing  stories  for  chil- 
dren, such  as  "  The '  Ting-a-Ling  Stories," 
"  Tales  out  of  School,"  etc.  He  was  employed 
successively  upon  the  Philadelphia  Post,  the 
New  York  Hearth  and  Home,  Scrihner's 
Monthly  (afterwards  The  Century  Magazine), 
and  Si.  mcholas.  The  first  of  his  books  to  at- 
tract general  notice  to  him,  as  a  humorist  of 
a  new  and  original  vein,  was  "  Rudder  Grange." 
This  was  followed  by  "The  Lady  or  the 
Tigerl"  "The  Ijite  Mrs.  Null,"  "The  Casting 
Away  of  Mrs.  Leeks  and  Mrs.  Aleahine,"  "  The 


STOICS 

Dusantes,"  "  The  Merry  Chanter,"  and  many 
others. 
Stockton,  capital  Son  Joaquin  Co.,  Cal.;  on 

an  arm  of  the  Ban  Joaquin  River,  100  m.  E.  by 
N.  of  San  Francisco.  The  fertile  San  Joaquin 
Valley  is  tributary  to  Stockton.  The  water 
supply  ia  from  artesian  wells.  The  average 
temperature  is  40°  in  winter  and  76°  in  sum- 
mer. The  city  was  laid  out  in  1849  by  Charles 
M.  Weber,  who  owned  a  large  tract  of  land  un- 
der a  Mexican  grant ;  first  became  important  as 
a  point  of  departure  for  gold-mining  parties, 
and  has  since  prospered  as  a  commercial  and 
wheat-distributiug  center.    Pop.  (1910)  23,2S3. 

Stod'dard,  Richard  Heniy,  1826-1903;  Amer- 
ican journalist  and  poet]7  b.  Hingham,  Mass.; 
became  a,  mechanic  in  a  foundry;  contributed 
poems  to  periodicals,  and  in  1840  privately 
printed  "  Footprints,"  a  small  volume  of 
poems,  followed  in  1852  by  a  larger  volume; 
1853-73,  he  held  appointments  in  the  New  York 
customhouse  and  dock  department;  literary 
editor  the  New  York  fforW,  1860-70,  and  in 
1880  became  literary  editor  of  the  New  York 
Mail  and  Express.  Bis  writings  include  "  Ad- 
ventures in  Fairy  Land,"  "  Songs  of  Summer," 
"  Town  and  Country,"  "  Life,  Travels,  and 
Books  of  Alexander  von  Humboldt,"  "  The 
King's  Bell,"  "  The  Children  in  the  Wood,"  in 
verse;  "Abraham  Lincoln,  a  Horatian  Ode"; 
"  Putnam  the  Brave,"  "  The  Book  of  the  East," 
and  "  The  Lion's  Cub,"  poems. 

Sto'icB  (literally,  belonging  to  the  Porch, 
derivation  of  Xrai  *w«l\tr,  the  Painted  Porch 
at  Athens,  in  which  the  Stoics  were  wont 
to  gather),  an  ancient  philosophic  school 
founded  abt.  310  B.C.  by  Zeno  of  Citium  in 
Cyprus  (flourished  abt.  350-25S),  and  which 
for  centuries  exercised  a  great  and,  good  influ- 
ence upon  the  stronger  minds,  especially  of  the 
Romans. 

The  Stoica  attached  great  importance  to 
what  they  called  a  criterion  of  truth,  though 
they  were  never  able  to  fix  upon  any  that 
would  satisfy  them.  They  r^arded  force  and 
matter  as  inseparable,  much  as  tliey  are  by 
modern  physicists.  They  believed  in  a  peri- 
odical return  of  the  universe  to  primeval  fire, 
which  was,  of  course,  incompatible  with  the 
resurrection  of  the  body.  The  individual,  as  a 
mere  temporary  emanation,  returns  at  lost  to 
his  source.  But  it  was  its  ethics  rather  than 
its  logic  or  physics  which  gave  stoicism  its 
practical  importance. 

In  their  ethica  the  Stoica,  if  not  altruistic, 
were  essentially  unselfish — they  rigidly  main-  ' 
tained  that  the  end  of  life  was  virtue  for  vir- 
tue's sake.  What  virtue  was  they  found  it 
difficult  to  define,  their  "  living  agreeably  ti> 
nature "  being  vogue,  not  to  aay  that  they 
sometimes  made  nature  mean  human  luiture, 
sometimes  universal  nature.  Man  exiata  for 
society,  for  only  in  that  is  virtue  possible. 
Virtue  is  sufficient  for  happiness;  and  pleas- 
ure, which  naturally  accompanies  activity,  is 
not  to  be  sought  for  ita  own  sake.  The  car- 
dinal  virtues   are   practical    wisdom,   courage. 


wise  man,  who  ia  free  uid  the  equ^  of  Jupiter 


upiter 
I  :XrOOg  IC 


STOKE-UPON-THBNT 

bimMlf.  The  Stoics  drew  a  broad  diatinetion 
between  acta  and  motives,  and  made  the  moral 
quality  of  acts  depend  eotirel;  upon  motives. 
Man  shall  do  that  which  is  good  independently 
of  BUTTOunding  influences  and  circumstancea, 
and,  having  done  that  which  ia  good,  he  shall 


Stote-npon-Tient,  Staffordshire,  England; 
on  the  Trent;  16  m.  N.  of  Stafford.  It  is  the 
capital  of  the  potteries  district,  producing 
earthenware,  porcelain,  encaustic  tiles  and 
pavements.  Coal  mining  and  bricic  making  are 
carried  on,  and  engines, .  machinery,  etc.,  are 
made.    Pop.   (1901)   30,4^0. 

Stom'acht  organ  for  the  reception  of  food, 
its  disintegration  and  solution,  and  the  di- 
.  geation  of  albuminoid  matter.  The  stomach  is 
aituated  on  the  left  side  of  the  body,  below  the 
diaphragm,  behind  and  beneath  the  ribs.  It  is 
a  membranous  bag,  capable  of  great  distention, 
but  often  flaccid  and  collapsed.  When  full  it 
is  12  in.  long  and  4  high.  The  stomach  re- 
ceives food  from  the  esophagus  through  its 
upper  or  cardiac  orifice.  The  greater  curva- 
ture of  the  stomach  ia  the  lower,  convex  sur- 
face ;  the  lesser  curvature  is  concave  and  above. 
Food  leaves  the  stomach  through  its  lower 
orifice,  the  pylorus,  and  enters  the  duodenum, 
the  first  section  of  the  small  intestine. 

The  stomach  has  four  coats:  (1)  Tie  octer- 
nal  serous  layer,  coverinf^  It  at  all  points  except 
the  entrance  o£  the  nutrient  vessels  and  nerves 
in  the  great  and  small  curves.  (2)  The  mus- 
cular layer,  which  has  three  sets  of  fibers — 
the  longitudinal,  the  circular,  and  the  oblique. 


Flo.  1 


--Thb  Stduach. 


These  muscular  bands,  acting  in  diflTerent  di- 
rections, propel  the  contained  food  from  aide 
to  side  of  the  cavi^,  (3)  The  cellular  coat, 
consisting  of  loose  areolar  tissue,  connects  the 
muscular  to  the  Internal  mucous  coat.  It  is 
called  also  the.submucous  coat  and  the  vascular 
coat,  as  it  contains  the  blood  veaseU  which 
supply  the  elaborate  capillariea.  (4}  The 
mucous  coat,  thiclc,  especially  at  the  lower  or 
pyloric  end,  presents  large  longitudinal  folds 
when  the  stomach  ia  but  partially  filled  or 
empty,  which  disappear  when  it  is  distended. 
Closely  inspected,  the  mucous  surface  is  found 


STOMATA 

to  be  perforated  by  innumerable  closely  aggre- 
gated oriQces  of  the  gastric  tubules.  Tbese  are 
of  two  Icinds :  ( I )  the  peptic  glands  situated 
in  the  cardiac  and  central  parts  of  the  organ, 
end  (2)  the  pyloric  situated  at  the  pyloric 
end.  The  stomach  is  constantly  lubricated  t^ 
secreted  mucus,  which  may  become  excessive 
in  digestive  disorders.  Gastric  juice  is  chiefly 
secreted  after  the  taking  of  food.  By  branches 
of  the  sympathetic  nervous  system  the  func- 
tional activity  of  the  stomach  is  influenced  by 


Fio.  2, — The  Tbreb  Coats  or  the  SioUACa.  p.  inusr 
■urfkoe  muoDui  membmtiei  mi,  drculu  layer  of 
musoalAT  fiben;  me,  outer  layer  of  loncjludiuai 
mutoular  fib«ii;  p.  lidge  of  pylorie  linf. 

the  health  of  each  organ  end  part  of  the  body; 
it  receives  the  terminal  branches  of  the  pneu- 
moKastric  nerve,  which  gives  off  branches  con- 
trolling the  action  of  the  heart,  lungs,  and  in 
a  measure  the  larynx  and  pharynx.  It  is  by 
these  connections  that  gastric  indigestion  may 
cause  palpitation  of  the  heart,  difficult  and 
sighing  breathing,  irritability  of  the  larynx, 
and  hoarseness,  and  by  reflex  influence  many 
morbid  sensations  in  various  parts  of  the  body. 

The  most  frequent  diseases  of  the  stomach 
are  its  functional  disorders.  Acute  inflamma- 
tion or  gastritis  is  of  rare  occurrence,  the  result 
of  violent  mechanical  or  chemical  irritation, 
swallowing  corrosive  poisons  or  putrid  and 
acrid  food.  It  is  characteriEed  by  violent  ejec- 
tion of  all  food,  gastric  mucus,  traces  of  bloo4 
and  bile,  by  local  burning  pain,  feeble  pulse, 
cold  e-itremities,  and  collapse.  Perforating 
ulcer  of  the  stomach  is  a  not  infrequent  dia- 
ease  in  young  women  of  anemic  character.  The 
symptoms  are  pain  in  the  stomach  upon  recep- 
tion of  food,  its  rejection,  and  hemorrhage 
when  the  ulcerative  process  has  eroded  a  blood 
vessel.  Cancer  of  the  stomach  is  a  relatively 
common  affection  of  old  persons,  particularly 
of  males.  Cases  of  entire  removal  of  the 
stomach  for  cancer  or  other  cause  show  that 
this  organ  is  not  essential  to  life. 

Stomach  Pump,  a  syringe  with  a  flexible 
tube,  designed  to  be  passea  down  the  esopha- 
^s  into  the  stomach,  after  which  water  is  In- 
jected through  it  into  the  stomach  and  then 
withdrawn  by  reversing  the  action  of  the  syr- 
inge. The  operation  may  be  repeated  until  the 
stomach  is  clear  of  its  contents.  The  instru- 
ment is  useful  in  removing  poisons.  In  case  of 
insane  persons,  or  where  some  disease  of  the 
mouth  or  esophagus  exists,  artificial  feeding  is 
required,  and  is  usually  done  with  a  simple 
rubber  tube,  which  may  also  be  used  as  a  si- 
phon for  washing  out  the  stomach. 

Sto'mata,  breathing  pores  in  the  epidermis 
of  plants,  each  stoma  consisting  of  two  eloQ. 


STONE 

gated,  curved  cells,  the  guud  celU  {g  in  fig- 
ure), between  which  iB  a  definite  opening. 
When  the  guard  cells  curve  away  from  one 
another,  bb  they  do  when  the  atmoaphere  ia 
moiBt,  the  alit  between  them 
^        ,  is  opened,  permitting  the  free 

/         r\  ingresa    and    egresB    of    gaaea. 

(  1   N.  Thej    rarely    occur    on    Bub' 

^^W         >      merged  parte  of  plants,  and  in 
I^HL  leaves  which  lie  upon  the  sur- 

^H^B  face    of    the    water    they    are 

^^^B  confined  to  the  upper  aide.    In 

^Hn  ordinary  leaves  they  are  uau- 

/         1  nlly  uure  abundant  upon  the 

j  I  luwcr  Bide. 

J  I  Stone,     Thomas,      1743-87; 

signer   of   the   Declaration   of 
A  SioHA.  Independence;     b.     Maryland. 

I  He  was  a  lawyer;  delegate  to 

Congress,  1774-78;  served  on  the  committee  to 
prepare  a  plan  of  confederation  ret^lected  to 
Congress,  1777  and  1783. 

Stone.  See  Butxj>in<)  Sto.ne;  Concbete 
CoKSTBUcnos. 

Stone,  in  Great  Britain,  14  lb.  avoirdupois. 
though  other  stones  are  24  lb.  of  wool,  8  lb.  of 
meat,  16  lb.  of  cheese,  etc. 


Stone  (in  pathology). 


e  Calculus. 


Stone,  Age  of,  the  atage  of  development  in 
which  people  used  tools  and  weapone  of  atone. 
It  doea  not  refer  to  general  chronology,  but  to 
a  period  in  the  development  of  each  race.  Thus 
certain  races  of  the  S.  Sea  islands  and  the 
extreme  N.  belonged  to  the  Stone  Age  in  the 
nineteenth  century.  It  seems  probable  that  in 
all  parts  of  the  world  men  have  passed  throueh 
this  stage  before  making  use  of  metals.  In 
Europe  the  Stone  Age  is  divided  into  the 
Paleeolitbic  and  Neolithic.  The  remains  of 
the  former  consist  exclusively  of  Bint,  and 
roughly  shaped  by  clipping  into  rude  forms. 
The  Neolithic  implements  include  axes,  ham- 
mers, knives,  etc.  These  are  made  of  various 
stones,  some  finer  specimens  being  of  jade, 
often  highly  polished. 

Stone'henge,  a  collection  of  huge  stones 


arranged 


9  to  form  t 


avals  within  two 


circles,  surrounded  by  a  bank  of  earth  16  ft 
high  and  l.ftlO  ft.  in  oircumfcrence.  It  Is  now 
much  defaced.     There  are  about   140  stones, 


STORAGE  BATTERIES 

weighing  from  10  to  70  tons.    Scattered  over 

the  plain  are  about  300  tumuli,  or  barrows, 
some  of  which  have  been  opened  and  found  to 
contain  charred  human  bones,  fragments  of  pot- 
tery, and  British  and  Roman  ornaments  and 
weapone.  According  to  Geoffrey  of  Monmouth, 
Stonehenge  was  erected  by  order  of  Aurelianus 
AmbrosiuB,!  the  last  Brili^  king,  in  honor  of 
4tH)  Britons  slain  by  Ilengiat  the  Saxon.  Some 
believe  it  to  have  been  a  druidic  temple,  and 
others  that  it  was  a  place  of  both  worship  and 
o(  council,  but  later  archteoIogiBta  regard  it  as 
a  burial  place  of  the  people  of  the  Bronze  Age, 

Stone  Lily,  a  crinoid  having  the  form  of 
a  lily.     Bee  Cbjnoid.£. 

Stone  Riv'er,  Bat'tle  of.    See  & 


and  leaves  are  very  simple,  often 
no  more  than  a  row  of  cells,  but  sometimes  a 
rylindrical  mass  of  cells.  The  sexual  organs, 
which  occur  upon  the  leaves,  conaiat  of  anthe- 
I'ida  and  carpogones.  Fertilization  takes  place 
by  the  entrance  of  the  antherozoid  through  the 
opening  in  the  coronula,  and  its  fusion  with  the 
odapbere,  which  then  acquires  a  thicker  walL 
This  ripened  spore  fruit  soon  falls  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  pond,  and  after  a  period  of  rest 
germinatee  by  sending  out  a  jointed  filament, 
which  eventually  gives  rise  to  a  branching  plant 
again.  The  stoneworts  number  about  150  spe- 
cies. In  N.  America  there  are  about  sixty- 
two  species,  widely  diatributed  in  ponds  and 
slow  streams. 

Ston'7  Point,  town;  Rockland  Co.,  N.  Y.; 
at  the  head  of  Haverstraw  Bay;  on  the  W.  side 
of  the  Hudson  River;  42  m.  N.  of  New  York 
City.  It  is  on  a  rocky  promontory,  which  was 
fortified  early  in  the  Revolutionary  Wjlr,  was 
captured,  .strengthened,  and  garrisoned  by  the 
British,  retaken  by  the  U.  S.  forces  under  Gen- 
eral Wayne  in  a  night  attack.  July  IS,  1779, 
and  soon  afterwards  the  fortifications  were  de- 
stroyed and  the  place  abandoned.  The  summit 
contains  a  lighthouse  and  fog-bell  tower.  The 
hou.w  in  which  Arnold  held  his  treasonable  in- 
terviews was  destroyed  by  fire  in  I8B2.  Ke- 
mains  of  the  fortifications  are  Still  preserved. 
The  site  was  acquired  as  a  national  reservation 
in  1807.     Pop.   (1910)   3,6S1. 

Stop'page  in  Tran'situ  (fn  transttu^Lnt., 
in  passage),  in  law,  stopping  goods  while  they 
are  in  transit,  and  resurotng  possesaiou  of  them 
by  an  unpaid  seller,  who  haa  parted  with  their 
possession.  The  seller  is  allowed  to  exercise 
this  right  upon  discovering  the  insolvency  of 
the  buyer,  on  the  ground  "  that  the  goods  of 
one  man  should  not  be  applied  in  payment  of 
another's  man's  debts." 

StoT'age  Bat'teiJes,  also  called  accumulators 
Of  secondarv  batteries,  are  voltaic  cells  for  the 
storage  of  electrical  energy.  Voltaic  cells  may 
be  dii-ided  into  two  classes:  primary  and  sec- 
ondary. A  primary  cell  consists  of  two  chem- 
icallv  different  mrlnl*.  such  as  zinc  and  copper, 
placed  in  a  vessel  or  jar  coUtaining  an  add  to- 


STORAGE  BATTERIES 

lution  called  an  electrolyte.  This  combiiuttjoii 
will  give  a  current  of  electrieit;  whenever  the 
tnetau  are  coimectad  by  a,  eonductor.  Thii  cur- 
rent, the  eTiei^  of  vliich  is  obtained  by  the 
combination  of  one  of  the  metals  with  the  acid 
part  of  the  electrolyte,  will  continue  to  flow 
until  the  supply  of  metal  and  electrolvte  ie  ex- 
hausted. The  products  of  the  chemical  reaction 
must  then  be  removed  and  fresh  material  sup- 
plied before  the  cell  can  be  brought  into  activ- 
ity again. 

In  the  storage  battery  or  secondary  cdl  the 
necesBBry  difference  between  the  two  metais  la 
brought  about  by  the  direct  actioa  of  the  cur- 
rent flowing  through  the  cell.  The  current  em- 
ployed for  this  purpose,  which  is  called  the 
charging  current,  baa  a  portion  of  its  energy 
transformed  into  potential  energy  of  chemical 
combination,  in  which  form  it  may  be  said  to 
be  stored— hence  the  term  storage  battery. 
After  the  charging  process  has  gone  on  for  a 
sufficient  length  of  time  the  cell  may  be  taken 
out  of  the  circuit,  its  terminals  metallically 
connected,  and  it  may  thus  be  made  to  give 
current  just  as  any  primary  cell  would  do. 
This  current,  which  Is  calleo  the  diechaiging 
current,  flows  in  the  opposite  direction  irom 
the  charging  current.'  The  amount  of  energy 
which  may  be  obtained  from  it  can  never  ex- 
ceed the  total  energy  stored  in  the  cell  by  the 
action  of  the  charging  current,  but  under  the 
best  conditions  it  may  approach  very  near  to 
the  latter  in  amount. 

A  storage  battery  does  not  in  reality  store  up 
electricity!  but  by  electrochemical  action  it 
stoics  up  energy,  which  is  supplied  to  It  in  the 
form  of  electricity,  and  which  it  will  return  in 
the  same  form,  ^ving,  when  charged,  a  cur- 
rent like  an  ordinary  primary  battery.  The 
ordinary  storage  battery  consists  of  plates  of 
lead  covered  with  lead  salts,  placed  ■-  "   -"" 


the  lead  sulphate,  formed  by  the  action  of  the 
acid,  becomes  spongy  metallic  lead  at  one  plate 
and  brown  lead  dioxide  at  the  other.  When  the 
lottery  discharges,  the  dioxide  is  again  reduced 
to  lead  sulphate,  and  a  similar  action  takes 
place  with  the  spongy  lead.  By  passing  a 
charging  current  through  the  cell  again  the 
plates  are  restored  to  their  original  condition. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  Btorage-battery 
plates,  known  as  the  pasted  and  the  Plants. 
In  the  Plants  plates  the  active  material  is 
formed  by  certain  chemical  actions  on  the  lead 
plate  itself.  In  the  pasted  plates,  known  also 
as  the  Faure,  the  active  material  is  made  up  in 
quantities  and  applied  to  a  perforated  lead 
plate  called  a  grid.  The  capacity  of  a  battery 
is  usually  given  in  ampere  hours,  meaning  that 
a  tattery  will  discharge  a  given  number  of  am- 
peres for  a  certain  number  of  hours.    A  battery 


ampere  hours.  A  new  type  of  storage  battery 
invented  by  Thomas  A.  Edison  usen  nickel  steel 
in  place  of  lead,  thereby  gaining  considerably 
in  lightness^— a  great  consideration.  Storage 
batteries  are  made  in  many  sizes  and  of  differ- 
ent dedgns  to  suit  the  purposes  for  which  they 
are  required.    Tbey  are  much  nwd  for  running 


electric  launcbes  and  automobiles  and  to  sup- 
plement a  dynamo,  from  which  they  may  store 
enough  ener^  to  be  expended  at  intervals  when 
the  dynamo  u  insufficient  or  at  rest. 

Stork,  any  bird  of  the  genua  Cioonia  and  of 
the  family  Ciconiid<B,  which  contains  half  a 
dozen  species,  all — save  C.  tnagnari — inhab- 
itants of  the  Old  World.  In  general  appearance 
they  resemble  the  European  stork  {C.  alba). 
This  is  a  large  bird,  3}  ft.  long;  the  head,  neck, 
and  body  above,  as  well  as  below,  are  white, 
the  wings  partly  black,  and  the  bill  and  leg* 


red.  It  is  a  migratory  species,  which  In  the 
warm  season  extends  into  N.  Europe,  and  in 
winter  (as  well  as  other  seasons)  is  found  in 
N.  Africa  and  Asia.  It  has  no  cry,  but  claps  , 
its  bill  together  with  a  loud  noise.  Storks  are 
great  favorites  with  the  people,  who  conceive 
that  their  presence  brinp  good  luck.  They 
often  build  upon  the  roofs  ofhouses.  They  de- 
vour offal,  reptiles,  and  other  vermin.  The 
stork  displays  remarkable  affection  for  its 
young,  and'is  of  old  a  popular  emblem  of  filial 
liety     and    conjugal    laithfulnese.       See    also 

, ^jjij    gjiAoOW   BiBD. 


Storm,  an  intense  atmospheric  disturbance, 
which  may  be  general  or  local,  and  may  be 
characterised  by  high  winds,  when  it  is  of  es- 
pecial importance  to  navigators,  or  by  heavy 
precipitation  of  rain  or  snow,  when  it  is  most 
important  inland,  or  by  both  wind  and  precipi- 
tation. General  storms  are  areas  of  low  pres- 
sure ("  lows,"  or  cyclones)  of  intense  action, 
which  travel  eastward  in  temperate  latitudes, 
hut  westward  in  the  tropics.  In  summer  very 
few  of  the  "  lows  "  are  sufficiently  intense  to  de- 
serve the  name  of  storm;  in  winter,  perhaps, 
half  of  them  are  stormv,  and  in  spring  and  au- 
tumn the  ratio  is  still  larger. 

Stormy  weather  ineresses  in  frequency  from 
the  tropics  toward  the  poles.  The  ocean  in 
the  vicinity  of  Cape  Horn  has  the  reputation 
of  being  the  stormiest  sea  in  the  world,  but 
the  N.  Atlantic  is  the  stormiest  frequented 
ocean.  The  Pacific  Ocean  deserves  its  name 
only  In  lower  latitadea.    About  the  Aleutiaa 


STOEMY  PETREL 

Islands  and  8.  of  AustrslasiB,  it  is  vetj  BtoTrnj. 

In  the  U.  8.  the  Htomi  frequency  is  greatest  in 
New  EnfUnd  uid  the  region  of  the  Great 
Lakes.  Next  come  the  eKtreme  NW.  and  the 
Atlantic  coast.  The  most  destructive  general 
storms  in  the  U.  8.  are  of  tropical  origin 
(see  HcBBCCASBS),  but  they  affect  only  the 
E.  part  of  the  country  and  occur  only  In  late 
Rummer  and  autumn.  The  general  storms 
which  enter  Uie  U.  8.  from  the  W.  Gulf  coast 
or  Mexico  in  the  colder  seasons  bring  wai 
weather  with  abundant  precipitation,  si 
times  torrential  raina.  Host  of  the  general 
storms  which  alTect  the  E.  part  of  the  U.  S. 
appear  first  in  sight  on  the  plains  E.  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  in  Alberta  or  Assiniboia. 
The  American  storms  which  last  long  enough 
to  cross  the  Atlantic  usually  pass  northward 
of  the  British  IslandB.  A  few  pass  over  Great 
Britain,  or  sometimel  pass  farther  S.,  over 
France,  or  ereu  Spain. 

The  approach  of  a  general  storm  is  heralded 
by  a  falling  barometer,  a  rising  thermometer 
(generally),  and  a  sheet  of  clouds  ascending 
from  the  W.  and  preceded  by  long,  filmy 
Btrealcs  of  cirrhua.  These  signs  usually  give 
a  day's  notice,  and  the  weather  map  a  no- 
tice of  two  or  three  days.  The  storm  lasts 
from  one  to  three  days;  the  maximum  of 
rainfall  and  wind  usually  precede  by  a  few 
hours  the  minimum  of  air  pressure;  and  the 
retreat  of  the  signs  of  the  storm  is  more  rapid 
than  their  advance  with  the  approaching 
storm.  The  official  forecasts  of  general  storms 
can  be  mode  with  more  accuracy  than  those 
with  moderate  changes  of  weather,  and  their 
approach  is  herald^  by  storm  signals  and 
warnings.  A  general  storm  occupies  an  area 
of  about  600  m.  in  diameter,  and  may  live 
from  three  days  to  a  fortnight. 

While  the  advance  of  the  general 'storm  can 
be  forecasted  with  fair  accuracy  a  day  or  two 
beforehand,  the  same  is  not  true  of  local 
storma  They  are  small,  are  not  of  long  dura- 
tion, travel  but  short  distances,  occur  usually 
in  warm  weather,  and  only  in  Oie  hottest  part 
of  the  day.  In  the  U.  g.  local  storniB  usually 
occur  in  the  warm  season  a  few  hundred  miles 
to  the  southward  of  a  large,  moist,  and  warm 
"  low,"  especially  when  this  is  closely  followed 
by  a  shaip  fall  of  temperature.  In  the  tropica 
they  have  no  association  with  general  areas  of 
low  pressure,  but  have  a  marked  diurnal  pe- 
riodicity. For  instance,  at  San  Jdb£,  Costa 
Riea,  in  the  roioy  season  there  is  rain  two  days 
in  three,  and  the  rain  is  always  after  noon. 
Nine  tenths  of  the  rain  there  ^lls  between  2 
FM,  and  7  P.u. 


Sto'ry,  Joseph,  1T79-1S4G;  American  jurist; 
b.  Marblehead,  Mass.  He  was  several  times 
elected  to  the  Massachusetts  Legislature,  and 
in  1B08  to  Congress;  ISll  he  was  appointed  As' 
sociate  Justice  of  the  U.  8.  8upreme  Court; 
1829,  Prof,  of  Law  in  Harvard,  and  he  after- 
wards resided  in  Cambridge.  His  worha  com- 
prise "  Commentaries  mi  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  Btates,"  "  Commentaries  on  the  Con- 
flict of  Laws,"  "  Comm»ntari«fl  on  Equity  Ju- 


risprudence," and  "  Equity  Pleadings,"  and  va- 
rious treatises,  which  have  passed  through 
many  editions. 

Story,  WilliAm  Wetmoie,  1810-95;  sculptor 
and  author.  He  studied  law,  and  published  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Law  of  CiDntracts"  and  a 
"Treatise  on  the  Law  of  Bales  of  Personal 
Property,"  and  three  volumes  of  reports  of 
case  in  the  U.  S.  Circuit  Court.  Among  his 
other  publications  are  two  volumes  of  poems 
(1S4T  and  1366};  "Eoba  di  Roma,  or  Walks 
and  Talks  About  Rome  ";  "A  Roman  Lawyer 
in  Jerusalem";  "Nero,  an  Historical  Play," 
and  "  Castle  St  Angelo  and  the  Evil  Eye,  being 
Additional  Chapters  to  '  Roba  di  Roma.'" 
After  1648  be  resided  in  Rome,  devoting  him- 
self to  sculpture.  Among  his  works  are  a  ut- 
ting  statue  of  his  father,  in  marble,  in  the 
chapel  at  Mt.  Aubtim;  statues  of  George  Pea- 
body,  Josiah  Quincy,  and  Edward  £^erett; 
busts  of  Lowell  and  Theodore  Parker,  and 
many  ideal  works. 

StOtk'ard,Thomaa,lT66-lB34;  English  paint- 
er and  designer;  b.  London;  apprenticed  to  a 
designer  of  patterns  for  the  silk  trade,  but  soon 
became  an- illustrator  of  books,  and  finally  a 
painter.  Elected  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Acad- 
emy in  1794,  and  its  librarian  in  1812.  His  il- 
lustrations for  books  number  more  than  ifiOO, 
among  them  being  those  for  "  Robinson  Cru- 
soe "  and  "The  Pilgrim's  Progress,"  1788;  the 
"Rape  of  the  I^oek,"  1798;  the  worics  of  the 
German  poet  Gessner,  1802;  Conper's  poems, 
1826,  and  Rogers's  "  Italy "  and  poems.  He  ' 
made  many  designs  for  KOldsmitbs.,  Amon^  his 
best  paintings  are  the  '"Canterbury  Pilgrims," 
"  Flitch  of  Bacon,"  "  Four  Periods  in  a  Sailor's 
Life." 

Stvraine',  a  synthetic  product,  the  hydro- 
chlorate  of  I-dimenthylamijio  ^-benzoyl  pen- 
tanol,  discovered  by  Ernest  Fonmeau,  a  French 
chemist  whose  name,  translated  into  English, 
is  "  8tove."  It  is  not,  as  many  think,  a  de- 
rivative of  cocaine.  It  is  not  as  poisonous  as 
cocaine;  it  takes  three  times  as  much  stovaine 
as  cocaine  to  kill  a  guinea-pig.  As  a  local 
anesthetic  it  is  considered  by  many  as  good 
as  coca4ne.  Prof.  Thomas  Jonnesco,  a  Rou- 
manian, of  the  medical  department  of  the 
Univ.  of  Bucharest,  has  recently  brought  this 
anesthetic  prominently  before  the  American 
public.  Stovaine's  local  anesthetic  properties 
are  applied  by  its  injection  in  solution  into 
the  spinal  canal.  The  discoverer  of  spinal 
anesthesia  was  Dr.  J.  Leonard  Corning,  of 
New  York  City,  who  at  that  time,  1866,  used 
the  then  only  available  drug,  cocaine. 

Stove,  an  apparatus  for  retaining  and  dif- 
fusing heat,  as  for  warming  and  ventilating  or 
cooking.  In  the  Middle  Ages  stoves,  construct- 
ed of  onck  or  tiles,  were  used  for  warming 
dwellings.  They  were  large,  and  in  Scandinavia 
their  broad,  flat  surfaces  were  sleeping  places. 
The  fire  was  kindled  at  the  bottom,  and  the 
heat  and  smoke  passed  through  flues  into  tha 
chimney.  Some  of  these  stoves  had  ovens  uid 
Sues  for  cooking,  and  when  once  thoroughly 
heated  required  feeding  but  once  in  twenty-lour 
hours.    Cardinal  Polignac,  in  France,  construct- 


STOVE 

ed  flreplkMS  with  hollow  backs,  bekrths,  And 

Jaaba  of  iron,  and  Des  Aguliera  modified  Po- 
KDAc's  flrepliiceB  to  a.B  to  use  them  lor  coal. 
Neither  these,  nor  the  Holland  stoves,  which 
were  introduced  sobn  after  (plain  bmc  stoves, 
with  a  Hmall  amoke  pipe  or  flue  at  the  top,  and 
a  aingle  door,  into  which  the  wood  or  coal  was 
thrown),  became  popular  in  England,  owing  to 
the  prejudice  of  tba  people  in  favor  of  open 
firea.  Franklin's  atove  was  a  great  advance. 
Although,  in  ita  ordinary  use,  a  fireplace,  it  was 
capable  of  being  closed,  and  hod  a  downward 
draught,  distributing  the  heat  through  the  air 
boxea  in  its  sides,  till  at  laat  the  remainder  ot 
the  heat  escaped  with  the  smoke  through  a  flue 
leading  into  the  base  of  the  chimney.  A  reg- 
ister or  "  damper  "  of  sheet  iron  was  introducol 
into  the  descending  flue,  which  checked  and  con- 
trolled the  Ore.  In  ITTl  and  lat«r  Franklin  in- 
vented other  stoves.  Between  IT86  and  1795 
B«njamin  Thompson  (Count  Kumford)  derisad 
several  improvements  in  stoves,  intended  to 
economize  fuel  and  heat. 

In  the  U.  B.  before  1S25  the  use  of  stoves, 
generally  of  the  box  pattern  and  very  rude, 
was  confined  to  shops  and  offices,  public  rooms, 
and  churches  in  cities  and  larger  villages.  In 
the  country  the  churches  were  seldom  warmed, 
but  the  women  carried  foot  stoves  and  the  men 
protected  their  feet  by  stout  overshoes,  called 
''boxea."  Among  the  wealthy  in  cities  cannel 
and  other  EngBsh  coal  (sea  coal ")  was 
burned  in  imported  grates  or  in  the  Rumford 
stove,  lined  Mth  fire  brick.  A  greater  number 
in  cities  ana  larger  villagea  used  the  Franklin 
stove,  burning  wood  and  making  an  open  fire- 
place of  it  The  rest  of  the  world  used  the  old 
open,  capacious  fireplace,  buniing  wood  logs. 
Until  1835  stoves  in  the  U.  S.  were  heavier  and 
ruder  than  now  and  had  loose  and  imperfect 
joints.  Most  of  them  were  made  In  New  Jer- 
sey, Penosylvania,  and  Ohio,  though  a  few 
were  east  quite  early  in  the  furnaces  at  Cold 
Spring  and  Warwick,  N.  Y.,  and  at  Balisbury 
and  Canaan,  Conn.  Stoves  for  heating  pur- 
poses were  either  box  stoves,  made  on  uie  old 
German  plan,  au  oven  being  sometimes  added, 
placed  directly  over  the  fire,  or  portable  and 
partly  open  fireplaces  made  on  Franklin's 
plans.  For  cooking  purposes  Count  Rumford's 
cooking  Btovea  or  ranges,  lined  with  fire  brick 
or  Boapstone,  and  with  a  ventilating  oven, 
which  had  been  introduced  in  New  York  aa 
early  as  1768  and  into  Boston  about  1800,  were 

E dually  coming  into  use.  Anthracite  coal  was 
tined  to  create  a  revolution  in  stoves.  Jor- 
dan L.  Uott  and  James  Wilson,  both  of  New 
York,  made  self-feeding  stoves  between  1827 
and  1831  that  would  bum  the  British  coats, 
and  were  an  improvement  on  previous  inven- 
tions; but  it  was  not  until  1S33,  when  Ur. 
Uott  had  demonstrated  that  an  anthracite  fire 
could  be  made  successfully  from  nut  and  pea- 
sized  coals,  and  that  the  depth  of  the  column 
of  coal  in  his  self-feeders  must  be  in  direct  pro- 

Eartion  to  its  site,  the  largest  coal  requiring  the 
ighest  column,  that  anthracite-coal  stoves  be- 
came aalable.  The  first  cooking  stoves  made  in 
Albany    (1835)   were  ot  the  old  ten-plate  oval 

Cttein,  with  oven  above  the  flre  and  a  single 
le  gn  the  top.     These  were  followed  by  the 


STOWE 

saddlebag  pattern,  having  the  oven  in  the  mid- 
dle oyer  the  fire  and  the  stove  collar  and  pipe 
over  it.  The  nest  pattern  was  the  horse  block 
(so  called  from  the  rear  portion  of  the  stove, 
which  contained  the  oven,  being  a  step  higher 
than  the  front).  The  rotary  atove,  having  a 
movable  top,  revolved  by  means  of  a  crank,  so 
as  to  bring  any  desired  vessel  directly  over 
the  fire,  was  a  later  invention.  Then  came  the 
buck  atove,  both  (or  wood  and  coal,  having  the 
flre  above  the  oven  and  reversible  flues,  which 
carried  the  heat  and  flame  around,  behind,  and 
below  the  oven. 

In  cooking  stoves  and  fixed  and  portable 
ranges  the  number  of  inventors  and  manufac- 
turera  is  lai^ge.  The  eflJorta  of  the  stove  makers 
since  1850  have  been  directed  rather  toward 
completing  the  adaptation  of  the  principles  of 
base  burning,  hot-air  feeding,  and  the  anti- 
clinker  arrangement  to  stoves  and  greater  accu- 
racy and  perfection  of  the  castings  than  to  the 
discovery  of  any  new  principles.  Portable  and 
brick-set  ranges  in  great  variety  are  now  pro- 
duced, with  similar  arrangements  for  heating 
water  as  in  the  cooldng  stoves.  They  are  well 
constructed,  have  all  the  improved  facilities  tor 
labor  and  fuel  saving,  and  are  particularly 
noteworthy  for  the  perfection  of  their  castings 
and  finish. 

While  the  use  in  the  U.  8.  of  cast  iron  has 
continued  for  heating  stoves  and  the  majority 
ot  cooking  stoves,  there  has  been  a  growing  ap- 
plication ot  steel  in  the  construction  of  cooking 
ranges.  Since  1685  an  important  development 
has  been  in  the  use  of  gasoline  as  a  fuel.  At 
first  such  stoves  were  made  so  aa  to  bum  the 
gasoline  direct,  but  in  the  newer  forms,  called 
process  stoves,  the  gasoline  is  first  changed  into 

¥i.a.  Kerosene  has  also  been  used  aa  a  fuel, 
he  employment  of  illuminating  gas  as  a  fuel 
is  steadily  growing,  and  in  cities  improved 
burners  and  cheapened  gas  have  led  to  the  in- 
troduction of  many  forms  of  gas  stoves  for  use 
in  apartments.  The  use  of  electricitv  as  a  heat 
producer  is  recognized,  and  forms  of  heating  ap- 
paratus for  it  have  been  devised,  but  as  yet  its 
employment  is  not  large.  All  the  stoves  used 
in  the  U.  B.  are  of  domestic  manufacture.  In 
the  U.  S.  In  1909  there  were  676  esUblish- 
ments,  having  a  total  capital  of  tS6,944,000, 
for  the  manufacture  of  stoves  and  furnaces; 
the  value  of  products,  including  repairing,  waa 
»78,853,000. 

Stowe,  Harriet  Elixabetk  (Beeches),  18U- 
98;  American  author;  daughter  of  Lyman 
Beecheri  b.  Litchfield,  Conn.  At  thirteen  she 
was  sent  to  the  school  kept  by  her  sister  Cath- 
erine at  Hartford,  where  she  studied  and 
taught  until  1632,  when  she  mnoved  to  Ciucin- 
naU;  married,  1836,  to  Rev.  Calvin  E.  Stowe, 
then  professor  at  Lane  Seminary,  Cincinnati. 
In  1840  she  published  "The  Mayflower,  or 
Sketches  of  the  Descendants  of  the  Pilgrims," 
and  in  1B5I  began  in  The  li'ational  Era  of 
Waahington  a  serial  to  illustrate  the  horrors 
of  slavery,  which  was  published  separately  in 
1852  as  '' Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  and  attained  a 
rapid  and  almost  unparalleled  succesa  at  home 
and  abroad.  Within  five  years  600,000  copies 
were  sold  in  the  U.  S.;  within  ten  yeaia  there 
bad  been  made  from  it  two  or  three  Fmioh  ver 


STRABISMUS 

aions  and  more  than  a  dozen  Germaii  ones.    It 
.  woe  also  translated  into  Danish,  Bwediah,  Porta- 

Kese,  Spanish,  Italian,  Welsh,  Sutdan,  Polish, 
in^^rian,  Wendiah,  Wailachian,  Arraeoinn, 
Arabic,  Romaic,  Chinese,  and  Japanese.  It  has 
been  repeatedly  dramatized.  It  did  more  than 
any  other  literary  agency  to  rouse  the  public 
conRcience  against  slavery.  In  1663  she  put 
forth  a  "  Key  to  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  in  which 
was  set  [ortb  the  main  facts  upon  which  the 
story  was  based,  together  with  many  incidents 
in  corroboration  of  its  truthfulness. 

In  18G0  Mrs.  Stowe  removed  to  Brunswick, 
Me.,  where  her  husband  was  a  professor  in 
Bowdoin  College;  18fi2  they  went  to  Andover, 
Mass.,  where  ne  had  accepted  a  chair  in  the 
theological  seminary.  In  tSSS  she  accompanied 
her  husband  and  her  brother  tn  Europe,  and 
upon  her  return  published  "Sunny  Memories 
01  Foreign  Lands.  Her  subsequent  writings, 
mostly  inferior,  usually  first  appeared  in  peri- 
odicals, especially  in  The  Atlantic  Monthly 
and  in  Searth  and  Borne,  of  which  she  was 
for  a  time  one  of  the  editors.  Among  these  are 
"  Dred,"  later  published  as  "Nina  Gordon"; 
"  The  Minister's  Wooing,"  *'  The  Pearl  of  Orr's 
Island,"  "  Agnes  ol  Sorrento,"  "  Oldtown 
Folks,"  "  Pink  and  White  Tyranny,"  "  My  Wife 
and  I,"  "  Bihle  Heroines,"  "  Poganuc  People," 
"  A  Dog's  Misnon,"  and  a  volume  of  reli^oua 
poems.  Her  paper  in  The  Atlantio  Monthly, 
"  The  Tnie  Story  of  Lord  Byron's  Life,"  started 
an  unfortunate  scandal,  and  she  replied  to  ber 
critics  with  "Lady  Byrim  Vindicated:  a  His- 
tory of  the  Byron  ControTeray."  In  1864  Mre. 
Stowe  removed  to  Hartford,  Conn.,  where  she 
died  July  1,  ISH. 

Strabis'mai.    See  Squinttho. 

Stralo,    abt.    64    B.o.-abt.    24    aj;.;    Greek 

geographer;  b.  Pontus,  Asia  Minor.  He  trav- 
eled in  Syria,  Fgypt,  Crete,  Greece,  and  Italy, 
'  and  wrote  "Historical  Memdrs,"  wbieh  are 
tost,  and  a  "  Geography  "  which  embodies  the 
geogrspbical  knowledge  of  bis  age. 

Stradivarina  (stra-dl-Ttl'rl-tls),  Antonio,  1644- 
1737;  Italian  maker  of  musical  instruments; 
b.  Cremona,  Italy;  learned  the  art  of  making 
violins  and  other  string  instruments  from  Nic- 
olo  Amati,  under  whom  he  worked  for  several 
years;  in  1668  began  to  make  violins  marked 
with  his  own  signature,  and  by.  degrees  not 
only  rivaled,  but  even  outshone  his  master. 
His  best  instruments  were  made  between  1700 
and  1T2S,  and  command  from  91,000  to  f3,000. 

Strafford,  Thomas  Wentwortb  (Earl  of), 
1603-1641;  English  statesman.  He  was  elected 
to  Parliament  in  1614,  was  made  Baron  and 
Viscount  Wentwortb  in  1628,  and  was  the  most 
trusted  adviser  of  Charles  L  He  was  appointed 
Lord  President  of  the  Council  of  the  North,  and 
in  1632  Governor  of  Ireland,  where  his  adminis- 
tration was  severe  and  unjust,  but  advanced 
the  material  prosperity  of  the  people.  He 
aimed  at  the  establishment  of  his  system  of 
"  thorough,"  or  the  absolute  power  of  the  King, 
and  he  acquired  the  designation  of  "  the  Wicked' 
Earl."  In  1640  he  was  created  Earl  of  Straf- 
ford and  appointed  Lord  Lieutenant  of  Ireland. 
In  the  same  year  Charles  put  him  in  command 


of  the  anny  against  Uie  insurgent  Scots,  before 
whom  the  royal  troops  fled,  panic-struck,  after 
the  rout  at  Newbum  (August  28tb) ;  and  con- 
trary to  the  strenuous  advice  of  Straflord,  th« 
King  accepted  the  terms  imposed  by  the  Scots. 
In  November  articles  of  impeachment  were  pre- 
sented against  Strafford,  who  was  accusea  of 
an  attempt  to  subvert  the  liberties  of  the  coun- 
try. His  guilt  is  placed  beyond  a  doubt  by 
later  evidence,  but  .it  could  not  then  be  proved, 
and  the  House  abandoned  the  original  impeach- 
ment A  bill  of  attainder  was  passed,  and  the 
King,  by  Strafford's  own  advice,  but  in  viola- 
tion of  an  express  pledge  to  him,  signed  a  war- 
rant for  his  execution.  His  attainder  was  re- 
versed under  Charles  IL 

Straits  Set'ttoments,  a  British  crown  colony 
in  tbe  K  Indies,  including  Malacca,  Penang  or 
Prince  of  Wales  Island,  with  the  province  of 
Wellesley,  the  Dindlngs,  and  Singapore.  The 
Settlements  were  made  a  separate  dependency 
of  the  British  crown  in  1853  and  placed  under 
tbe  Governor  General  of  India.  April  1,  1867, 
the  connection  with  India  ceased,  the  provinca 
became  a  crown  colony,  and  is  administered  by 
a  goTnnor  residing  at  Singapore.  In  1866  the 
Cocos  or  Keeling  Islands  were  attached  to  the 
colony,  and  in  I86B  Christmas  Island.  Christ- 
mas Island  was  annexed  to  the  Settlement  of 
Singapore  in  1000  and  the  Cocos  Islands  in 
1003.  Tbe  British  possessions,  of  1,4721  eq.  m., 
were  inhabited  (1901)  by  572^48  persons, 
mostly  Chinese  and  Malays.  Since  January  1, 
IS07,  tbe  colony  of  Labuan  has  been  included  in 
the  colony  and  incorporated  for  administralive 
purposes  in  the  Settlement  of  Singapore.  The 
federated  Malay  states  (Perak,  Selangor,  Negri 
Sembilan,  and  Paliang)  comprise  about  34,660 
sq.  m.  Pop.  (IMl)  672,249,  not  including  Jo- 
hor,  which  has  an  estimated  population  of 
300,000.  Tbe  internal  administration  of  these 
states  is  in  tbe  hands  of  the  British  residents. 
Mining  is  actively  carried  on,  and  tin  is  export- 
ed from  Perak  and  Selangor.  Fifteen  hundred 
British  troops  and  •  few  vessels  maintain 
order  and  punish  piracy. 

Stiamo'ninm,  a  drug  consisting  of  tbe  seeds 
and  leaves  of  Datura  ttramonium,  an  annual 
plant  of  tbe  Bolanacea,  growing  as  a  weed 
throughout  almost  all  the  temperate  and  warm- 
er countries  of  the  world.  The  herb,  called 
thorn  apple,  and  in  the  U.  S.  also  Jamestown 
or  Jimson  weed,  is  found  mostly  in  rank  soil 
near  dwellings.  Its  average  height  is  3  ft. 
Tbe  seeds  are  flat  and  of  a  dark-brown  color. 
Both  leaves  and  seeds  contain  an  alkaloid, 
daturine,  closely  analogous  in  its  poiaonous 
properties  to  atropine.  Medicinally,  stramo- 
nium is  a  duplicato  of  belladonna.  The  dried 
leaves  or  powdered  roots  are  smoked  for  the 
relief  of  asthma. 

Strasa'bnrK,  fortifled  town  of  Alsace,  on  the 
ni,  the  Breusch,  and  the  Rhine-RhAne  and 
Rhine-Mame  canals;  2  m.  W.  of  the  Rhine. 
It  is  ill  built,  with  narrow  atreeta  and  high 
houses,  but  is  improving.  Tbe  most  remark- 
able of  its  buildings  is  the  cathedral,  with  • 
tower  466  ft  high,  fdunded  in  610  by  Chlodwig, 
but  the  older  structure  was  destroyed  by  light- 
ning in   1007.     In    1016   Bishop  Werner,  of 


STRASSBTIRG  CLOCK 

Hapaburg,  laid  a  new  foundation,  and  in  1275 
the  main  buUding  was  finished.  The  tower  was 
b^ion  in  1277  aod  completed  in  1439.  In  this 
building  is  the  famoua  clock  (made  1547^0), 
representing  our  planetary  system  and  ita  con- 
■tellations.  The  Church  of  St.  Thomas,  founded 
in  1031  and  containing  a  monument  to  Mar- 
shal Saxe,  and  the  New  Church  are  also  notice- 
able. A  German  university  was  opened  May 
1,  1S72,  and  numerous  educational  and  benev- 
olent institutions  exisL  Commerce  and  indus- 
try flourish  in  consequence  of  the  favorable 
situation  on  the  river.  Under  French  domin- 
ion the  city  had  a  strong  bastioned  circum- 
vsUation,  but  since  1871  a  new  system  of  forti- 
fication has  been  applied,  consisting  of  large, 
strong  forts  surrounding  the  Inner  fortifica- 
tions, BO  that  an  army  can  encamp  between  the 
city  and  the  forts,  while  the  city  is  protected 
from  the  enemy's  Are  liy  the  outer  forts. 

During  the  Middle  Ages  Strassburg  was  one 
of  the  moat  powerful  free  cities  of  the  German 
Empire,  and  during  the  Reformation  it  was  a 
center  of  the  Protest&nt  movement.  September 
30,  1681,  Louis  XIV  captured  it,  and  l^y  the 
Peace  of  Byswick  he  retained  it.  It  continued, 
however,  a  completely  German  city  down  to 
the  revolution,  when  French  gradually  gained 
the  ascendency.  By  the  Peace  of  Frankfort 
(1871)  it  returned  to  Germany,  and  Ixicame  the 
seat  of  the  civil  and  military  Kovemment  of 
Alsacb-Lorraink  (s-b.)  Pop.  (1910)  178,290. 
Strassbnrg  Gock,  the  famous  clock  in  Straas- 
burg  made  in  1547-80.  It  is  30  ft.  high  and 
15  ft.  broad  at  the  base.  It  has  globes  and 
calendars  which  indicate  sidereal  time,  the  ris- 
ing and  setting  of  the  stars,  phases  of  the 
moon,  the  days  of  tbe  month,  the  fixed  and 
movable  feasts.  The  days  of  the  week  are  rep- 
resented by  figures  of  Diana,  Mars,  Mercuiy, 
Jupiter,  Venus,  Cupid,  and  Saturn  drawn  in 
chariots.  A  figure  turns  an  hourglass  at 
the  end  of  each  hour  and  the  quarter  hours 
are  struck  by  figures — the  first  by  an  infant 
with  a  rattle,  the  second  by  a  youth,  the  third 
by  an  old  man,  and  the  last  by  Death,  with  a 
bone.  At  Uie  top  Is  a  figure  of  Christ,  before 
which,  each  day  at  noon,  passes  a  proceasion 
of  figures  of  the  twelve  apostles  while  a  cock 
crows  three  times, 

Stiaf  egy,  that  branch  of  the  art  of  war 
which  has  for  its  object  the  initiation  and  con- 
duct of  wars,  campaigns,  and  battles  in  such  a 
mamier  as  ( 1 )  to  take  advantage  of  all  avail- 
able means  for  securing  success,  and  (2)  to 
Cftusethe  greatest  benefits  to  result  from  vic- 
tory and  the  least  injury  from  defeat.  Ques- 
tions of  statesmauBhip  ttnd  diplomacy  are  fre- 
quently the  leading  factors  in  planning  modem 
campaigns  and  oattles,  and  thus  become 
strategical  considerations.  Tlie  domain  of 
strat^y  includes  the  methods  of  organizing 
and  autioning  active  armies  and  reserves  so 
that   without   unintentionally    threatening    or 


cial  oonsiderationa  have  weight  in  this  connec- 
tion, and  frequently  fix  the  time  for  banning 
hoatiUtiM  ana  determine  the  plan  of  campaign. 
In  a  country  with  a  popvlar  government,  in 


STRATEGY 

order  to  arouse  enthusiasm  and  lead  the  people 
to  make  necessary  sacrifices,  strategy,  as  de- 
fined above,  sometimes  requires  a  plan  of  cam- 
paign which,  under  other  circumatajices,  might 
not  be  desirable. 

An  army  in  campaign  seeks  to  obtain  pos- 
session of  some  pomt  which  is  known  as  its 
objective,  which  is  selected  with  a  view  to  the 
injury  inflicted  upon  the  enemy  by  its  loss, 
and  UiB  advantages  resulting  from  its  capture. 
The  first  may  be  material,  moral,  or  political; 
the  second  generally  consist  in  facilities  tor 
further  advance,  better  communications,  and 
greater  ease  in  supplying  the  army.  Hence 
objectives  are  frequently  capitals,  large  com- 
mercial or  manufacturing  cities,  arsenals,  river 
crossings,  or  railway  centers.  The  base  of 
operations  is  that  part  of  a  country  from  which 
an  army  draws  its  supplies.  The  portion  of 
country  between  the  army  and  its  base  which 
contains  the  railways,  wagon  roads,  and  water 
routes,  by  which  the  arm^  advances  and  re- 
ceives its  supplies,  is  its  line  of  operations  or 
its  communications.  Since  the  combatants  of 
an  army  cannot  be  expected  to  carry  with  them 
more  ammunition,  provisions,  etc.,  than  are 
needed  for  one  battle,  this  line  of  operations 
must  not  be  broken.  Strategical  movements 
frequently  are  directed  with  a  view  to  threat- 
ening the  enemy's  oommunicatioiiB  and  protect- 

A  large  army  covering  a  very  extended  front 
may,  by  a  skillful  attack,  have  one  wing  de- 
stroyed before  the  other  can  come  to  its  sup- 
port. To  accomplish  or  prevent  this  is  another 
problem  in  strategy  of  frequent  application. 
Similar  problems  arise  when  a  small  but  con- 
centrated army  tries  to  beat  in  detail  the  parts 
of  a  larger  one  which  attempts  to  concentrate 
upon  a  point  at  or  near  that  occupied  by  the 
smaller  force,  and  also  in  maneuvering  to 
strike  a  hostile  force  in  flank.  The  guiding 
principles  of  strategy  consist  in  so  conducting 
the  preliminary  operations  and  movements  as 
to  force  the  enemy  to  flght  at  a  disadvantage 
either  in  numbers,  in  position,  or  in  the  rd- 
ative  results  which  will  follow  victory  or 
defeat.  The  best  strategical  combinations, 
however,  will  not  secure  victory  unless  supple- 


operations,  and  which  is  the  field  of  tactics. 

There  have  been  many  great  generals  who 
were  not  men  of  learning,  or  even  men  with 
great  powera  of  understanding.  The  question 
at  once  suggests  itself.  Why  is  it,  then,  that 
there  are  so  few  great  generalsl  A  glance  at 
some  of  the  difficulties  met  with  at  every  step 
in  actual 'campaigning  will  give  the  answer. 
A  complete  list  of  them  would  not  be  prac- 
ticable, but  the  following  are  examples;  (I) 
There  are  comparatively  few  men  whose  mintb 
are  not  somewhat  clouded  by  the  presence  of 
danger;  great  moral  and  physical  courage  are 
therefore  necessary.  (2)  There  is  total  or  par- 
tial iterance  of  the  enemy's  condition  and 
intentions,  and  information  is  contradictory. 
Tbe  natural  anxiety  as  to  the  correctness  of 
our  conjectures  upon  these  points  leads,  with 
nn  ordinaty  man,  to  hesitation  and  doubt,  and 
these  are  Utal.    Perfect  self-reliance  and  eabn 


STRATFORD  DE  moCUFFE 

ftdhcreaee  to  origiiuil  pluiB  are  here  damanded. 
(3)  There  ie  oearly  alwEiys  some  miscalculBi- 
Uon  in  the  difficulties  of  a  road  or  the  strength 
of  a  poet.  Expecting  to  reacb  n  point  at  a 
given  time,  a  commander  finds  himself  a.  long 
distaoee  from  it  Great  energy,  strong  will, 
even  aome  severity  to  obtain  toe  utmost  exer- 
tions of  the  troops,  are  here  necessary.  (4) 
The  movements  of  an  enterprising  enemy  call 
constantly  for  new  combinations,  and  these 
must  be  made  and  act^d  on  nlthout  hesitation. 
This  demands  great  decision  of  character.  ( 6 ) 
To  insure  the  full  support  of  troops,  the  gen- 
eral must  he  able  to  impress  upon  them  bis 
own  spirit.  This  requires  a  deep  knowledge  of 
men.  (6]  There  is  always  the  element  of 
chance;  a  sudden  rain  storm  or  a  fog  may 
neutralize  the  greatest  efforts. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  principal  max- 
ims of  war^:  ( 1 )  Foresee  everything  that  the 
enemy  may  do,  and  provide  means  to  thwart 
him.  (2)  The  forces  employed  must  be  pro- 
portionate to  the  obstacles  to  be  overcome.  (3) 
Debate  well  at  the  outset  whether'to  assume 
the  offensive  or  defensive;  but  the  offensive 
having  been  selected,  pursue  It  to  the  last  ex- 
tremity. (4)  Be  ready  to  meet  the  enemy  at 
all  hours  of  the  day  or  night,  whether  on  the 
march,  at  a  halt,  or  in  camp.  (6)  With  an 
army  inferior  in  numbers  avoid  a  general  bat- 
tle, and  supply  the  place  of  numbers  1^  rapid- 
ity of  marching.  (6)  The  honor  of  his  arms 
is  a  general's  first  consideration,  the  lives  of 
his  men  secondary,  though  the  two  are  entirely 
consistent  with  each  other,  for  safety  to  the 
whole  is  found  in  audacity  and  persistency. 
(Tt  Never  do  what  the  enemy  wishes  you  to, 
for  the  reason  merely  that  he  desires  it.  (B) 
When  surprised  by  a  superior  enemy,  a  bold 
attack,  will  generally  disconcert  him.  {9)  On 
the  day  of  tattle  neglect  no  chance  of  success ; 
a  battalion  sometimes  decides  the  day.  See 
Tactics. 

Strat'ford  de  Bed'cliffe,  Stbattobo  CANinno 
(Viscount),  1786-1880;  English  diplomatist; 
b.  London;  educated  at  Eton  and  Cambridge; 
1814,  minister  to  Switzerland;  1820,  on  a  spe- 
cial mission  to  the  U.  S. ;  1S24,  to  Russia,  and, 
1825,  ambassador  to  Turkey,  Diplomatic  in- 
tercourse having  been  interrupted  by  the  naval 
battle  of  Navarino,  he  returned  to  England  and 
sat  in  Parliament  until  1842,  when  he  was 
again  ambassador  to  Turkey  till  1858,  during 
which  time  his  influence  at  the  Ottoman  court 
was  great,  and  always  in  favor  of  reforms, 
especially  to  ameliorate  the  condition  of  the 
Christian  population  of  Turkey.  The  most  in- 
teresting pomt  of  his  whole  career  was  the 
contest  between  him  and  Prince  Meoshikofi!,  in 
1853.  The  question  was  whether  British  or 
Russian  influence  should  prevail  iu  Constanti- 
nople, or,  rather,  whether  Russia  should  be 
allowed  to  settle  the  destinies  of  Turkey  to  her 
own  advantage  and  without  regard  to  other 
European  powers.  The  keenly  contested  diplo- 
matic stru^le — the  result  of  which  was  the 
Crimean  War— is  narrated  with  dramatic 
power  by  Kinglake  in  his  "  Invasion  of  the 
Crimea."  Canning  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1362  by  the  title  of  Viscount  Stratford  de 
Bedcliffe.     He  published  an  essay,  "Why  am 


STRAVSS 

I  a  Christian t"  and  a  drama,  "Alfred  the 
Great  in  Athelney." 

Stratford,  a  city  in  Perth  Co.,  Ontario,  Can- 
ada, S8  m.  W.  of  Toronto.  It  has  excellent 
water  power  and  manufactures  of  iron  cast- 
ings, agricultural  implements,  machinery,  lum- 
ber, furniture,  woollens,  and  flour.  The  Grand 
Trunk  Railroad  haa  extensive  workshops  in 
the  city,  giving  employment  to  a  large  num- 
tar  of  men.    Pop.  (1911)    12,846. 

Stratford-on-A'van,  in  Warwickshire,  Eng- 
land; 8  m.  SVV.  of  Warwick;  on  the  Avon,  here 
crossed  In  a  bridge  with  fourteen  arches  built 
iu  the  fifteenth  century.  The  house  in  which 
Bhakespeare  was  bom  is  still  preservral;  tJiat 
in  which  be  died  has  been  razed.  The  former, 
which  is  a,  Shakespeare  museum,  and  Anne 
Hathaway's  cottage  (at  Shottery,  I  m.  W.  of 
Stratford)  are  national  property.  In  the  chan- 
cel, restored  1890-92,  Shakespeare  was  buried. 
Pop.  (1901)  8,310. 

Strath'clyde,  an  independent  kingdom  formed 
in  SW,  Scotland  at  the  dissolution  of  the 
ancient  Britannic  confederacy,  and  consisting 
chiefly  of  the  broad  valley  of  Clyde.  The  an- 
nals of  its  sovereigns  are  involved  in  obscurity, 
little  more  thaJi  their  names  being  known.  It 
fell  to  the  crown  of  Scotland  early  in  the 
twelfth  century,  was  held  for  some  years  hy 
Prince  David  as  an  independent  kingdom,  and 
was  permanently  united  to  Scotland  on  his 
accession  in  1124. 

Stiathco'DA  and  Hoiuit  Boy's!,  Sn  Donald 
Alexandsb  Buitu  (Lord),  1820-  ;  Cana- 
dian statesman;  b.  Archieston,  Scotland;  en- 
tered the  service  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company 
in  1838,  and  was  promoted  until  he  became  resi- 
dent governor  and  chief  commissioner  of  the 
company  in  Canada.  In  1870  he  entered  the 
legislature  and  the  House  of  Commons,  but  re- 
signed his  seat  in  the  legislature  four  years 
later.  He  remained  in  the  house  until  1880, 
and  entered  again  in  1887,  remaining  until 
1896,  when  he  retired  from  Canadian  political 
life  on  his  appointment  to  represent  the  Do- 
minion in  London  as  High  Commissioner.  In 
1897  he  was  raised  to  the  peerage  as  Baron 
Strathcona  and  Mount  Royal;  Cnancellor  of 
Aberdeen  Univ.,  1903. 

Stratlfica'tjon  and  Stra'ttun.    See  GSoloot. 

Stia'tna.    See  CLOtma. 

Stravn  (strowse),  name  of  a  noted  family 
of  composers.  Johakn  (1804-49],  the  elder, 
h.  Vienna,  in  early  childhood  showed  gr^at  tal- 
ent for  the  violin;  became  deputy  conductor 
to  I^nner.  In  1826  he  had  his  own  orchestra, 
and  began  writing  the  waltzes  which  have  made 
the  name  of  Strauss  known  everywhere.  In 
1840  he  conducted  for  the  first  time  in  the 
Imperial  Volksgarten,  Vienna.  He  had  five 
children.  Johann  (1826-99),  the  eldest  son, 
b.  Vienna,  succeeded  his  father  as  conductor, 
and  in  1SB3  became  conductor  of  the  court 
balls.  Be  composed  nearly  400  waltzes,  and  a 
number  of  operettas  which  have  had  great  suc- 
cess. He  retired  from  the  conductorship  in 
1870  to  devote  himself  to  composition.  Joseph 
(1327-70),   the   next   Bon,   b.   Vienna,   became 


STRAUSS 


r  And  composer.  Eb  vorka 
DtUDber  upward  of  283.  Eduabd  (1835-  ), 
the  third  son,  b.  Vieniui,  made  bis  first  ap- 
peanukce  as  a  conductor  in  1862)  in  1865  con- 
ducted at  St.  Petersburg,  and  in  1370  huc- 
oeeded  his  brother  Johann  in  Vienna.  He  has 
composed  over  200  danoe  pieces.  Both  Johann 
And  Eduard  visited  tlie  U.  8.  and  conducted 
concerts. 

Strauss,  D«rid  Tiiedrich,  1603-74 ;  Qerman 
philosopher;  b.  Ludwigsburg,  Wflrtembere. 
While  stud^ng  at  TQbingen  wrote  his  "  Life 
of  Jesus"  (1835-36),  based  upon  the  principle 
that  nothing  which  is  supernatural,  neither 
prophecj  nor  miracle,  can  be  historical.  He 
replied  to  his  critics  in  several  "  Btreitschrif- 
ten"  and  in  "  Zwei  friadliche  BlKtter."  He 
lost  his  theological  position  at  TUbingen,  and 
became  e.  teacher  in  Ludwigsburg  and  Stutt- 
gart. He  was  called  to  be  Prof,  of  Dogmatics 
and  Church  History  in  Zurich,  1838,  but  was 
deprived  of  his  chair  bj  a  popular  insurrec- 
tion, though  retaining  for  life  half  his  aalarf ; 
1840-11,  he  attempt^  to  do  for  theology  what 
he  had  aimed  at  m  his  "  Life  of  Christ,"  but 
his  work,  though  learned  and  acute,  made  a 
comparativeij  slight  impression.  In  1847  he 
wrote  an  ingenious  parallel  between  Julian  the 
Apostate  and  King  Frederick  William  IV  of 
FruBsia.  In  1857  he  produced  an  important 
'•  Life  of  Ulrich  von  Hutten,"  In  1864  he 
wrote  a  second  "  Life  of  Jesus." 

Strauss  founded  no  school,  either  in  philoao- 
phf  or  theology.  He  was  a  critic,  learned, 
sagacious,  yet  without  well-defined  ultimate 
system.  His  life  is  a  reflex  of  the  most  extreme 
anti -Christian  theory  of  human  life.  He  b^an 
as  an  idealist,  and  ended  as  a  materialist.    He 

Sve  up  his  early  Hegelian  pantheism  to  the 
:est  theory  of  atheistic  evolution.  I>ied  at 
Ludwigsburg  of  cancer,  after  long  and  patient 
suffering,  and  was  buried,  by  his  own  direction, 
without  any  church  service. 

Straw,  the  stalk  or  stem  of  certain  grains, 
chiefly  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barW,  and  buckwheat, 
and  sometimes  of  peas  and  beans.  Straw  en- 
ters largely  into  the  manufacture  of  textile 
fabrics,  paper,  and  braid  for  hata  and  trim- 
ming Mats  for  sleeping  on  are  perhaps  the 
earliest  objects  that  were  made  from  straw. 
Baskets  and  bags  of  braided  straw  are  still 
eommon.  Those  made  in  the  S.  Sea  Islands 
are  so  close  in  texture,  though  quite  fiexible, 
as  to  be  impervious  to  water.  A  development 
of  the  art  is  shown  in  the  Panama  hats  made 
In  S.  and  Central  America  from  the  straw  of 
the  Carlitdooica  palmata.  The  leaves  of  this 
plant,  which  resemblea  a  patm,  are  gathered 
before  they  unfold,  and,  after  the  ribs  and 
coarser  veins  have  been  removed,  are  cut  into 
shreds.  These  are  exposed  to  the  sun  and  then 
tied  into  a  knot  and  immersed  in  boiling  water 
until  they  became  white,  when  they  are  hung 
up  in  the  shade  and  afterwards  bleached.  The 
finest  Panama  hats  take  several  months  to 
make,  and  come  from  Ecuador,  while  commoner 
kinds  are  made  in  a  few  days.  In  the  U.  S. 
ft  domestic  straw  from  some  varieties  of  hair 
grass  was  formerly  used  in  making  women's 
hats.     Straw  in  its  natural  state  is  put  to 


STREET  HAILWAYS 

innumerable  uses.  The  fiber  from  the  straw 
of  the  flax  plant  is  largely  used  in  mek'ng 
linen.  Straw  is  much  employed  In  paper  mak- 
ing, and  lye  straw  yields  the  best  qualities  of 

StrawHMrry,  any  species  of  the  genua  Fraga- 
ria,  family  Botaeea.  The  genua,  comprising 
about  twelve  species,  is  con&aed  to  temperate 
climates.  The  species  are  all  low  herbs  with 
thrice-divided  leaves,  propagating  by  runners, 
and  bearing  the  flowers  and  fruite  upon  short 
scapes.  The  strawberry  fruit  is  a  fleshy  re- 
ceptacle or  stem,  upon  which  the  true  fruits 
or  akenes — generally  called  seeds — are  home. 
The  strawberry  is  of  recent  cultivation,  the 
first-named  garden  variety  having  appeared  in 
1660.  At  the  present  time  it  is  largely  grown, 
and  in  N.  America  it  exceeds  In  importance  any 
other  of  the  small  fruits.  Commercial  straw- 
berry culture  began  in  the  U.  S.  abt.  1B30.  The 
commercial  strawberries  of  N.  America  are  off- 
springs of  the  old  Pine  strawberries,  sprung 
from  the  Chilian  beny  (F,  chiUxntia).  la 
the  N.  U.  S.  strawberries  grow  best  in  a  rich, 
sandy  ^m.  The  plants  are  not  profitable 
after  having  home  three  crops.  An  average 
good  yield  is  from  160  to  260  bu.  per  acre. 

Strea'tor,  city  of  La  Salle  Co.,  HI.,  on  the 
Vermilion  River.  It  ia  built  on  the  river 
bluffs;  is  surrounded  by  a  rich  agricultural 
country,  and  is  underlaid  by  several  seama  of 
coal,  two  of  which  are  beina'  worked,  and  also 
by  valuable  straU  of  shale,  ^re  clay,  and  other 
clsys,  which  are  used  in  making  paving  brick, 
sewer  pipe,  and  other  cla^  products.  The  in- 
dustrial esteblishments  include  clay- working 
factories,  producing  building  and  paving  brick, 
sewer  pipe,  and  tile;  several  manufactories  of 
glass  lK>ttIeB,  window  glass,  rolled  plate  glass. 
Bint  and  Bohemian  ware,  and  glass  specialties ; 
foundries  and  machine  shops,  and  flour  and 
planing  milU.     Pop.   (IBIO)    14,263. 

Street  Rall'wayt,  or  Tiam'wara,  railways 
constructed  in  citiei  or  tewns,  and  desioned  ' 
especially  for  local  passenger  traffic.  The  first 
street  railway  was  built  by  John  Stephenson 
in  New  York  in  1831,  on  the  Bowery  and 
Fourth  Avenue,  from  Prince  Street  to  Uie 
Harlem  River.  In  18S2  the  Second,  Third, 
Sixth,  and  Eighth  Avenue  lines  in  New  York 
were  begun.  Boston  began  the  construction 
of  horse-car  lines  in  1S66,  Philadelphia  in 
1857,  and  New  Orleans  in  1S61.  In  France 
a  lirie  was  constructed  in  Paris  in  1363.  In 
Oreat  Britain,  in  1880,  George  Francis  Train 
built  a  road  at  Birkenhead  and  one  in  Lon- 
don, which  was  removed  in  a  few  months,  and 
not  until  1870  were  horse  cars  permitted  in 
that  city.  In  1866  a  number  of  horse-car  lines 
were  built  in  S.  America. 

In  1870,  in  several  American  cities,  surface 
cable  lines  and  elevated  roads  with  steam  loco- 
motives began  to  be  constructed.  The  first 
city  to  construct  a  cable  line  was  San  Fran- 
>  (1873),  whose  hilly  location  made  horse 
impracticable  on  many  of  its  streets. 
Chicago  began  to  use  cable  traction  in  1878, 
and  Philadelphia  in  l'B84.  The  first  franchise 
an  elevated  railway  was  granted  to  New 


(Google 


STRENOTH  OF  MATERIALS 

York  City  in  1867.  The  first  plan  wm  to  use 
cable  traction  upon  these  elevated  linea,  but  it 
ma  decided  to  adopt  dummy  locomoti'rea,  which 

were  used  for  twenty  years,  until  displaced  by 
electricity.  In  Chicago  the  construction  of  ele- 
vated railways  began  in  1888;  Boston's  system 
wag  opened  in  1903,  and  Philadelphia's  in  IQOT. 

In  1864  the  dynamo  was  invented  which  later 
made  possible  the  use  of  electricity  to  propel 
railway  cars,  but  it  was  not  until  nearly 
twenty-five  years  later  that  it  was  adapted  to 
street-railway  service.  At  first  the  overhead 
trolley  was  used,  but  gave  wa^  to  the  under- 
ground trolley  as  soon  as  the  difficulty  of  insu- 
lating the  conductor  in  the  conduit  was  over- 
come, and  the  expense  reduced.  The  third-rail 
syBt<an  utilizes  a  rail  placed  on  the  ties  between 
Uie  two-track  rails  or  about  2  ft.  outside  of  the 
rail  as  a  positive  conductor.  A  cast-iron  eliding 
shoe  collects  the  current  from  the  rail.  The  third 
rail  has  many  advanta^iea  for  beavy  work. 

In  1880  seven  tenths  of  the  total  single-track 
mileage  of  street  railways  in  the  U.  S.  was 
operated  by  animal  power;  to-day,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  ^ort  cable  lines,  electric 
traction  occupies  the  field.  The  transition  from 
animal  to  mechanical  traction  was  quickly 
made,  because  of  the  greater  economy  and  effi- 
ciency of  the  electric  railway.  In  18BB  there 
were  503  m.  of  horee-car  lines  in  Massachusetts 
and  no  electric  roads,  and  the  ratio  of  operat- 
ing expenses  to  gross  receipts  was  81.07  per 
cent.  In  1902  there  were  no  horse-car  lines 
and  i,4Si  m.  of  electric  roads,  and  the  operat- 
ing expenses  had  fallen  to  69.6  per  cent.  For 
d^ription  of  the  system,  see  EfLECTBio  Rah.- 
WATB.  In  1881  Mdcarski  applied  compressed 
air  with  success  as  a  motive  power  to  street 
cars  at  Nantes,  France,  and  tbe  same  method 
has  since  been  applied  in  Paris  and  in  Bern, 
Switzerland.  See  Railway;  UNnEBOBocuD 
Railways. 

Strength  of  Mate'rials,  the  resistance  of  ma- 
terials to  forces  which  tend  to  change  their 
form;  often  called  the  elasticity  and  resistance 
of  materiala  The  materials  used  in  constmc- 
tions  are  more  or  less  elastic  when  the  applied 
forces  are  not  too  great*— that  is,  tbey  spring 
back  to  their  original  form  upon  the  removal  of 
these  forces.  It  is  a  rule  in  engineering, that 
materials  should  not  be  strained  beyond  the 
elastic  limit,   since  then   the   elasticity   is   im- 

K'lred  and  a  permanent  deformation  results. 
e  molecular  reeistance  which  is  developed  by 
an  applied  force  is  called  stress.  Stresses  are 
tensile  when  the  forces  tend  to  pull  a  body 
apart,  compre^ive  when  they  tend  to  crush  it, 
and  shearing  when  they  tend  to  cut  it  across. 
In  bending  a  beam  stresses  are  produced  often 
called  flexurat,  but  they  can  always  be  resolved 
into  those  ot  tension,  compression,  and  shear;  in 
twisting  a  shaft,  stresses  are  produced  often 
called  torsional,  but  the^  can  also  be  resolved 
into  the  three  kinds  ot  simple  stress. 

Of  materials,  steel  has  the  greatest  strength, 
followed  by  wrouBht  and  cast  iron.  Timber  va- 
ries in  strength,  the  heav^  woods,  as  box,  ash, 
and  beech,  being  more  resistant  than  the  lighter 
poplar  and  white  pine. 

Steady  stresses  occur  in  buildinf^,  varying 
stresses  in  bridges,  while  shocks  are  liable  to 


occur  in  machinery  and  on  railway  wheels  and 
rails.  Tbe  injurious  natura  ot  shoeka  r»quires  a 
high  factor  of  safetv,  and  hence  a  tow  working 
stress.  A  load  suadenly  applied  theoretically 
produces  twice  the  stress  caused  by  the  aune 
load  when  applied  gradually,  and  the  elongation 
is  also  double.  When  a  load  drops  upon  a  bar 
the  resulting  stresses  and  deformations  are  often 
more  than  double  those  caused  by  a  gradually 
applied  load.  In  all  cases  it  is  desirable  that 
such  a  factor  of  safety  should  be  used  that  the 
maximum  working  unit  stress  mav  not  exceed 
one  half  the  elastic  limits  of  the  material. 
Repeated  stresses  beyond  the  elastic  limit  cause 
a  change  of  molecular  structure,  or,  as  com- 
monly expressed,  the  material  becomes  fa- 
tigued. For  instance,  if  the  ultimate  strength 
of  a  bar  of  wrought  iron  is  G6,000  and  its  elas- 
tic limit  is  25,000  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  a  single  appli- 
cation of  a  load  will  not  cause  fracture  until 
the  66,000  lb.  per  stj.  in.  is  reached;  but  if 
stresses  be  often  apphed  which  exceed  the  25,- 
000  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  the  molecular  structure  ia 
altered,  the  iron  becomes  brittle,  and  finally 
fracture  will  occur  under  a  stress  of  perhaps 
30,000  or  40,000  lb.  per  sq.  in.  It  is,  hence,  a 
fundamental  rule  that  the  materials  of  perma- 
nent structures  should  not  be  strained  beyond 
the  elastic  limit,  and  the  factor  of  safety  ahould 
be  selected  with  this  in  view. 

Strike  (in  geology).    See  Fault. 

Strike,  the  refusal  of  the  employees  of  an 
establishment  to  work  unless  tbe  management 
complies  with  some  demand.  A  lockout  occurs 
when  the  management  refuses  to  allow  em- 
ployees to  work  except  under  some  condition 
dictated  by  the  management. 

The  first  great  strike  of  which  we  have  a  rec- 
ord was  that  of  tbe  Hebrews  in  E^pt.  There  was 
a  prolonged  labor  agitation,  lastmg  many  years, 
which  the  Egyptians  endeavored  to  repress  by 
imposing  severer  tasks  upon  the  Hebrews. 

A  strike  may  be  declared  for  one  <»■  more  of 
the  following  objects:  (1)  To  secure  an  ad- 
vance or  resist  a  reduction  in  wages.  (2)  To 
effect  a  reduction  or  oppose  an  increase  of  the 
hours  of  labor.  (3)  To  resist  the  discharge  of 
union  men  and  binder  the  employment  of  non- 
union men.  (4)  To  regulate  methods  of  work, 
materials  used,  number  of  apprentices,  kind  of 
work  done  by  each  branch  of  laborers,  and  the 
like.  (5)  To  support  a  strike  in  some  other 
industry  or  in  some  other  branch  of  tbe  same 
industry,  as  when  pavers  strike  to  help  gran- 
ite cutters,  or  hrakemen  to  help  switchmen  on 
a  railway.  These  are  sympsthetic  strikes. 
Strikes  are  wisely  held  by  workmen  to  be  tbe 
last  resort  of  a  contest,  and  never  to  be  risked 
nnti]  it  is  clear  that  the  desired  object  cannot 
he  reached  without  them.  They  are  expensive, 
arduous,  and  uncertain,  and  if  rashly  under- 
taken end  in  disaster  after  much  suffering. 

To  the  earlier  weapons  ot  strikers  modern  in- 
genuity has  added  the  boycott,  by  which  all 
markets  are  closed  against  the  goods  of  the 
employer  against  whoin  a  strike  is  ordered. 
This  proved  a  very  effective  weapon  in  the 
hands  of  laborers,  but  its  illegality  has  recently 
been  declared  by  the  courts. 

The  first  recorded  strike  in  tbe  U.  8.  was  that 
of  the  journeymen  bakers  in  174L_jrhe  leadera 


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STRIKE 

were  tii«d  for  conapiraer.  Next  came  Uia  ahoc- 
maken  of  Philadelphia  in  ITM,  1796,  and  I7M; 
then  the  Bailors  in  Philadelphia  in  1803,  who 
struck  for  $14  againttt  <10  a  month.  They 
were  arrested  and  the  leaders  imprisaned.  In 
1309  the  New  York  cordwainers  struck,  and 
used  the  term  "  scab  "  to  denote  nanatrikers  of 
their  association.  Printers  struck  in  1821,  us- 
ing the  word  "  rat "  for  nonunion  men  against 
whom  thev  struck.  In  1B34  the  6nt  women's 
strike  took  place  at  Lynn,  Mass.,  In  the  shoe 
trade.  It  was  unsuccessful.  In  1S7T  occurred 
the  great  railway  strikes  on  the  Baltimore  i, 
Ohio,  the  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Erie  systems, 
resulting  in  the  destruction  on  Julv  2Ut'23d  of 
1,600  cars,  126  locomotives,  and  »5,000.000  worth 
of  property.  In  the  spring  of  1692  occurred  the 
granite  cutters'  strike,  i^ch  extended  finally 
to  pavers  in  New  York,  and  arrested  for  a 
time  the  whole  stone  industry.  This  was,  bow- 
ever,  quite  eclipsed  by  the  famous  strike  in  the 
Carnegie  ironworks  at  Homestead,  which  were 
kept  in  a  state  of  siege  for  several  days.  Eight 
thousand  soldiers  were  required  to  subdue  the 
rioters,  and  though  the  strilce  apparently  failed, 
yet  it  probably  minimized  the  wiliingness  of 
both  laborers  and  capitalists  to  enter  upon 
future  battles.  In  1894  a  railway  strike  in 
Chicago  and  other  Western  cities,  although  a 
failure,  threatened  for  a  time  the  commercial 
interests  of  the  whole  country. 

The  cost  of  strikes  runs  into  enormous  sums; 
<0O,OOO,OOO  was  sunk  in  strikes  and  lockouta 
from  1S81  to  1688.  One  lockout  on  the  Clyde, 
in  Scotland,  was  reckoned  to  have  cost  the 
unions  $7SO,000,  while  91,660,000  was  last  in 
wages.  A  strike  in  Manchester,  England,  cost 
the  unions  (400,000  and  the  employers  $1,600,- 
000.  False  economic  theories  are  responuble 
for  a  large  part  of  the  enmity  between  capital 
and  labor,  out  of  which  strikes  and  lockouts 
are  bom.  The  false  notion  that  profits  must 
fall  as  wages  rise— a  notion  contradicted  flatly 
by  history,  which  shows  high  wages  and  laive 
profits  inseparably  yoked  together— is  partly 
responsible  for  the  striking  spirit.  The  higher- 
priced  workmen  are  in  reality  the  cheaper,  on 
accountof  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  work 
done.  Low-priced  labor  ia  found  to  be  dearest. 
Of  course,  it  would  be  but  a  visionary  business 
policy  to  favor  increasing  wages  were  it  not  that 
wage  advance  mesne  larger  demand,  increased 
consumption,  and  ultimately  larger  profits,  out 
of  which,  again,  further  advances  of  wages  may 
be  made,  as  they  will  certainly  be  demanded  by 
strikes.  Violence  nearly  always  condemni  the 
strikers  in  public  r^ard  and  defeats  their  ends, 
while  it  cripples  their  resources.  It  is  of  no 
advantage  b)  wortcmen  striking  for  wages  to 
destroy  the  property  out  of  which  wages  come, 
and  the  impolicy  of  violence  toward  property 
ia  now  becomine  clear  to  strikers  themselves; 
but  toward  workmen  seekins  to  take  the  place 
of  strikers  there  is  still  a  ready  spirit  of  violence. 

During  the  period  1881-1906  there  were  in  the 
U.  S.  36,767  strikes  and  1,546  lockouts,  involv- 
ing I99,9E>4  establishments  and  throwing  9,629,- 
434  persons  out  of  work.  The  greatest  nnmbw 
of  strikes  occurred  in  the  building  trades  and 
the  largMt  peroent^e  of  strike*  was  in  New 
York  SUta. 


STBtrrr 

Strob'oBcope,  an  instrument  for  examining 
the  motion  of  a  body  by  intermittent  light.    In 

its  simplest  form  it  is  a  disk  perforated  with  a 
series  of  equidistant  radial  openings,  through 
which  the  body  is  viewed  while  the  disk  rotates 
uniformly.  The  principle  of  the  stroboscope  is 
applied  in  instruments  to  which  a  variety  of 
names  have  been  ^ven,  such  as  thaumatrope, 
phenakistoscope,  Yibroscope,  xoetrope,  soOpraxi- 
Bcope,  kinetoBcope,  etc.  If  a  succession  of  pho- 
tographs of  a  rapidly  moving  body  be  taken  at 
intervals  of  less  than  one  tenth  of  a  second, 
and  these  be  appropriately  arranged  for  exami- 
nation by  the  stroboscopic  method,  the  result- 
ing perception  is  that  of  the  body  in  actual 
motion.  With  the  development  of  instantane- 
ous photography  the  preparation  of  such  series 
of  pictures  has  been  brought  to  a  high  degree  of 
perfection. 

Stromlrali,  northernmost  of  the  Llpari  la- 
lands,  in  the  Mediterranean,  off  the  N.  eoast  of 
Sicily;  area,  8  sq.  m.  It  is  wholly  of  volcanic 
formation,  and  Jias  a  constantly  active  volcano, 
3,040  ft.,  with  an  extinct  crat«r  on  top,  but  an 
active  one  on  the  side  at  about  2,150  ft  Cot- 
ton, wine,  and  fruit  of  superior  quality  are 
produced,  and  sulphur  and  pumice  stone  are  ex- 
ported. On  the  east  side  lies  the  smaU  town  of 
Stromboli.    Pop.  of  island,  2,000. 

Stron'tinm,  the  metallic  basis  of  strontia, 
one  of  the  alkaline  earths,  first  obtained  by  Sir 
H.  Davy  in  1808.  It  is  &  pale  ydlow,  bums 
with  a  crimson  fiame,  emtttmg  sparks;  decom- 
poses water,  liberating  hydrogen  gas;  is  bard, 
ductile,,  and  malleable,  and  is  obtained  from 
the  anhydrous  chloride  hj  electndysis.  Specific 
gravity,  2.54;  atomic  weight,  87 .S;  symbol, Sr. 
Its  most  important  compound  is  the  oxide 
called  strontia,  a  grayish-white,  porous  mass, 
which  combines  with  water  to  form  a  white 
potrder,  hydrate  of  strontium  (SrO.H.O).  This 
compound  has  acquired  importance  in  Germany 
for  Ite  use  in  extracting  sugar  from  beet-root 
molaases.  The  nitrate  Sr(NO,),  is  emi^oyed  in 
making  crimson  lights  in  ^reworks.  The  crys- 
talline sulphate  (SrSO,)  is  found  native,  and  is 
known  as  celestine. 

Strophan'thns,  a  genus  of  apoeynaceons 
plants.  From  certain  African  climbing  shrubs 
of  this  genus  is  prepared  a  poison  locally 
known  as  kombo,  inee,  and  onaye,  and  used  tor 
the  purposes  of  the  chase  and  war,  which  con- 
teins  a  crystalline  principle,  strophanthin, 
which  has  a  powerful  influence  upon  the  mus- 
cular system,  first  stimulsting,  but  if  in  sufB- 
eient  doses  Anally  causing  a  general  paralysis, 
ending  in  death  through  failure  of  the  respira- 
tion. It  affects  not  only  the  voluntary  mus- 
cles, but  also  the  muscle  flbers  in  the  heart  and 
in  the  walls  of  the  blood  vessels;  and  since  its 
first  action,  and  indeed  its  entire  action  when 
in  minute  doses,  is  stimulating,  it  is  a  valuable 
remedy  in  failure  of  the  heart.  It  resembles 
digitafis,  but  is  more  prompt  and  fugacious  in 
its  action,  and  acte  more  powerfully  upon  the 
kidneys. 

Stm'thin.    Bee  Sapodih. 

Stmtt,  John  William  (third  Baroo  Ray- 
leigh),  1S48-         ;  English  phyddst;  adneated 


.Google 


STRUVE 

at  Cambridge;  fellow  of  Trinity  College,  1886; 
Prof,  of  Experimental  Physics,  Cambridge, 
1879-84;  Prof,  of  Natural  Philosophy,  Kojal 
IiLstitutJon  of  London,  since  1887.  He  is  the 
author  of  "  The  Theory  of  Sound."  In  1884,  in 
conjunction  nith  Prof.  Ramaay,  he  discovered 
a  new  element  in  the  atmosphere,  which  he  has 
called  argon. 

Stnive,  Otto  Williwn,  I81B-1905 ;  b.  Dorpat. 
Ab  consulting  astronomer  he  superintended, 
1847  to  1862,  all  investigations  conducted  by 
the  Russian  army  and  navy.  He  succeeded  Ins 
father  aa  director  of  the  observatory  of  Pul- 
kova  and  resigned  18S0.  His  labors  relate 
chiefly  to  nebulie,  double  stars,  faint  sateilitea, 
and  comets,  and  include  a  new  determination 
of  the  constant  precefision,  the  discoTery  of 
about  600  new  double  stars,  the  determination 
of  the  mass  of  Neptune,  investigationa  in  re- 

Erd  to  Saturn  and  his  rings  and  to  the  paral- 
c  of  various  fixed  stars,  and  obserrations  of 
the  nebula  of  Orion.  He  first  showed  that  the 
red  prominences  visible  in  a  total  solar  eclipse 
belong  to  the  aun's  surface. 

Sti7ch'nine.     See  Kux  Vouica. 

Stn'ait,  or  Stewart,  a  royal  family  which 
has  given  several  sovereigns  to  Scotland  and 
England.  They  trace  their  descent  to  a  Nor- 
man baron,  Alan,  who  accompanied  William 
the  Conqueror,  and  received  large  gifts  of  land 
in  England.  His  second  son  went  to  Scotland, 
entered  the  service  of  David  I  (abt.  1130),  by 
whom  he  was  made  steward  of  the  kingdom, 
the  dignity  remaining  hereditary  in  the  family, 
who  assumed  the  title  as  their  family  name. 
The  sixth  of  these  Stewards  married  in  1316 
a  daughter  of  Robert  Bruce,  and  their  son 
Robert  in  13T1  succeeded  David  Bruce  on  the 
throne  of  Scotland  as  Robert  H.  The  fallow- 
ing are  the  sovereigns  of  the  Stuart  line,  with 
the  dates  of  their  accession:  Robbbt  II 
(1371),  RoBEBT  lU  (1390),  Jauxh  I  (1424), 
Jaues  II  (1437),  Jauss  III  (1460),  James 
IV  (1488),  Jaues  V  (1513),  Uabt  Stuabt, 
Queen  of  Scots  (1642);  Jauxb  VI,  crowned 
King  of  Scotland  in  1568,  King  of  England  as 
Jaiibb  I  (1003),  and  transmitted  both  thrones 
to  his  successors;  Chables  I  (1626),  Chables 
U  (1649),  and  James  II  (1685).  See  the  re- 
spective titles.  James  Il'e  son.  Jambs  Edwabd 
Francis  Stuabt,  assumed  the  title  of  James 
III  upon  the  death  of  his  father,  and  is  known 
as  the  Old  Pretender.  His  eldest  son,  Chables 
Edwabd,  is  known  as  the  Young  Pretender. 
Beury,  the  second  son  of  the  Old  Pretender 
(see  Stuabt,  Heitbt  Benedict  Makia  Clem- 
ent), died  in  1807,  and  with  him  ceased  the 
line  of  the  Stuarts.  The  present  royal  family 
of  England  are  descended  only  indirectly,  and 
in  the  female  line,  from  the  Stuarts,  through 
a  granddaughter  of  James  I  of  England,  upon 
whom  the  succession  was  bestowed  by  Pariia- 

Stuart,  Arabella  or  Arbella,  1576-161B;  often 
called  the  Lady  Arabella;  the  only  child  of 
Charles  Stuart,  Earl  of  Lennox,  brother  of 
Damley  and  uncle  of  James  I.  Her  relation- 
ship to  Elizabeth,  being  the  same  as  that  of 
James,  made  her  the  subject  of  constant  in- 
trigues, and  in   1603   Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was 


STUBBS 

accused  of  a  plot  to  raise  her  to  the  throne. 
In  1610  she  secretly  married  William  Seymour, 
grandson  of  the  Eart  of  Hertford.  Seymour 
was  committed  to  the  Tower,  and  the  Lady 
Arabella  placed  in  custody.  In  June,  1611,  she 
escaped  by  feigning  illness,  but  was  captured 
while  sailing  to  France  >iid  thrown  into  the 
Tower,  where  she  became  insane. 

Stuart,  Gilltert  Charles,  1766-1828;  Amer- 
ican painter;  b.  Rhode  Island.  Ue  received 
his  first  instructions  from  a  Scottish  painter 
named  Alexander,  went  to  England  in  1778, 
was  befriended  by  West,  and  rose  to  eminence, 
rivaling  Reynolds.  After  residing  in  Dublin 
and  Paris,  he  returned  to  America,  1793.  He 
went  to  Philadelphia  to  paint  a  portrait  of 
Washington,  'and  destroyed  his  first  picture  as 
unsatisfactory;  but  at  the  second  sitting  he 
produced  the  well-known  head  from  which  he 
painted  all  his  other  portraits  of  Washington, 
and  which  is  regarded  as  the  standard  likeness. 
After  residing  several  years  in  Washington,  be 
settled  in  Boston,  1906.  As  a  painter  of  beads 
he  holds  the  first  place  amouK  American  artists, 
if  we  except  Copley,  and  nis  flesh  coloring 
rivals  the  finest  modem  efforts.  Over  750  of 
his  portraits  are  in  existenoe. 

Stnait,  James  EweD  Brown,  1833-64;  Con- 
federate cavalry  general;  b.  Patrick  Co.,  Va.; 
graduated  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  1864.  Re- 
signed his  captaincy  in  the  Union  army,  and 
was  in  chief  comraand  of  the  Ckmfederate  cav- 
alry at  the  first  battle  of  Bull  Run.  As  briga- 
dier general  (September,  1861)  and  major 
general  (July,  1862}  he  served  with  the  army 
of  N.  Virginia.  During  the  invasion  of  Mary- 
land he  covered  the  Confederate  rear,  and  took 
Krt  in  the  battle  of  Antietam.  At  Chancel- 
'sville,  after  the  fall  of  Stonewall  Jackson, 
he  was  in  temporary  command.  During  the 
campaign  of  Qettysburg  he  passed  up  through 
E.  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania,  and  rejoined 
Lee  at  Gettysburg.  In  1864  Stuart,  by  a  wide 
detour,  suoceeded  in  interposing  himself  be- 
tween the  Confederate  capital  and  Sheridan's 
column.  Concentrating  at  Yellow  Tavern,  near 
Richmond,  he  was  attacked  by  his  able  rival. 
During  the  obstinate  but  ineffectual  struggle 
Gen.  Stuart  was  mortally  wounded. 

Stnbbs,  William,  I82&-1901;  English  his- 
torian; Bishop  of  Oxford;  b.  Knaresborough, 
educated  at  Bi^n,  Christ  Church,  Oxford ; 
elected  a  fellow  m  Trinity  College;  took  holy 
orders,  1848;  became  vicar  of  Navestock,  1862; 
librarian  to  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury, 
1362,  and  was  school  inspector  in  the  diocese  ' 
of  Rochester,  1860-66,  when  he  received  tha 
appointment  of  Regius  Prof,  of  Modem  His- 
tory at  Oxford.  In  1869  he  became  curator 
of  the  Bodleian  Library ;  was  chosen  as  a  mem- 
ber of  the  hebdomadal  council  in  1872,  and  in 
1876  received  the  presentation  of  the  rectory 
of  Cholderton,  Wiltshire.  He  was  appointed 
canon  residentiary  of  St.  Paul's  in  1879,  con- 
secrated Bishop  of  Chester  in  1884,  and  became 
Bishop  of  Oxford  in  1889.  Published  many 
books  on  historical  and  ecclesiastical  subjects. 
His  "Constitutional  History  of  England"  is 
one  of  the  ablest  and  most  authoritative  works 
on  the  period  of  which  it  treat*. 


I  by  Google 


STUCCO 

Stnc'co,  plastic,  adbeaive  composition  ap- 
plied to  walls  to  give  them  a  smooth  and  eren 
Burface,  either  decorative  or  plain.  The  ce- 
menting medium  of  the  composition  for  iniide 
work  is  common  lime  or  calcined  gypsum,  or  a 
combination  of  the  tno,  generally  mixed  with 
sand.  The  word  aluceo  technically  applies  to 
a  mixture  of  lime  putty  and  white  sand  or 
powdered  marhle,  and  to  a  coating  produced 
with  this  compound.  The  rudest  example  of 
the  plastarer'a  art  is  the  application  of  a  single 
coat  of  mortar  composed  of  lime  paste  and 
common  sand  laid  on  the  surfaRc  of  a  wall 
with  the  trowel,  while  the  highest  consists  in 
imitating  fine  marbles  and  other  beautiful 
building  gtoDCfl  by  using  pure  calcined  gyp- 
lum,  mixed  with  gum,  iainglasa,  and  suitable 
coloring  matter,  laid  on  in  a  variety  of  dec- 
orative forms  in  order  to  produce  panels, 
pilasters,  moldings,  cornices,  etc. 

The  mortars  used  for  inside  plastering  are 
"  coarse  stuff,"  "  fine  stuff,"  "  gauge  stuff," 
called  also  "  hard  flnish,"  and  "  bastard 
stucco."  Coarse  stuff  is  simply  common  lime 
mortar,  of  the  quality  suitable  for  brick  mn- 
sonry,  mixed  with  well-switched  bullock's  hair 
free  from  animal  and  v^etable  matter.  Fine 
stuff  ia  prepared  by  slaking  pure  lump  lime 
with  a  small  quantity  of  water,  and  after- 
wards adding  water  until  the  paste  is  diluted 
to  the  consistency  of  cream.  It  is  then  allowed 
to  stiffen  by  evaporation.  One  coat  of  plaster- 
ing on  laths  is  said  to  be  laid,  and  the  coat  is 
called  a  laying  coat;  and  work  in  two  coats 
is  said  to  be  laid  and  «e(,  and  the  coats  are 
styled  a  laying  coat  and  a  set  coat.  In  three- 
coat  work  on  latbs  the  first  b  called  the 
priektd-up  or  the  soratcA  coat,  the  second  is 
the  floated  coat,  and  the  third  the  tet  coat.  In 
the  U.  S.  hydraulic  cement  and  clean,  sharp  sand, 
mixed  up  with  fresh  water  to  the  consistency  of 
plasterer's  mortar,  is  most  commonly  used  for 
the  exterior  coating  of  walls,  more  especially 
of  brick  walls.  The  mortar  is  usually  applied 
in  two  coata  in  one  operation;  that  is,  the  sec- 
ond coat  is  put  on  while  the  Brst  is  yet  soft 
and  pUstio,  14  that  the  two  become  one. 


ComioH  EuBorauf  SntaoioM. 

StniKCOn    (stflr'jQn),  any   ganoid   fishes  of 
the   Acipenteridtx.     All   the   species   have   the 


the  fresh  water, 

dents  of  the  sea  part  of  the  year,  while  oUiers 
are  permanent  denizens  of  the  lakes  and  rivers. 
They  nearly  agree,  in  fact,  in  distribution  with 
the  sahnonids,  save  that  they  are  less  generally 
found  in  streams,  on  account  of  their  larger 
size.  Their  flesh  is  reddish,  and  is  highly  es- 
teemed. Their  eggs  are  often  made  into 
caviare;  their  air  bladders  can  yield  a  kind  of 
isinglass.  They  are  the  largest  of  fresh-water 
fishes,  the  huso  (A.  Auao)  of  the  Caspian  and 
Black  seas  sometimes  exceeding  the  length  of 
16  ft.,  and  the  weight  of  £,000  lb. 

Stvim  (stArm),  Johannes  ran,  1507-89;  Ger- 
man educator;  b.  Schleiden;  founded  (1537) 
the  gymnasium  in  Strassburg,  which  attained, 
under  him,  world-wide  celebrity.  Ho  was  the 
greatest  educator  connected  with  the  Re- 
formed  Church,   and   received   the   title   Pra- 


and  introduced  the  method  of  grading  pupils. 
To  read,  write,  and  speak  Ciceronian  IJitin 
was  the  great  object  tit  his  instruction,  and  to 
this  end  a  course  of  twenty-one  years — six  at 
home,  ten  at  school,  five  at  college  or  univer- 
sity— was  thought  about  sufficient. 

Stnt'terin{.    See  Stammemko. 

Stntt'gart,  capital  of  kingdom  of  Wttrtem- 
berg,  Qermany;  on  the  Nesenbach,  an  affluent 
of  the  Neckar;  33  m.  ESE.  of  Carlsruhe.  It 
lies  in  a  charming  valley.  The  Alstadt,  occu- 
pying nearly  the  center,  and  grouped  around 
the  marketplace,  contains  several  small  and 
narrow  streets,  but  the  new  parts  of  the  city, 
mostly  erected  during  the  nineteenth  century, 
have  broad  and  beautiful  streets  and  sym- 
metrical squares.  The  most  prominent  point 
is  the  palace  square,  surroundcnl  by  magnificent 
buildings.  Among  these  the  new  palace  is  the 
most  remarkable — a  very  handsome  structure, 
with  two  projecting  wings,  the  central  building 
containing  305  rooms  rich  in  works  of  art.  To 
the  right  of  this  edifice  stands  the  old  palace, 
built  1563-70,  a  gloomy  castle  with  towers  and 
pinnacles.  The  finest  promenade  is  the  palace 
garden,  a  park  with  lakes,  fountains,  statues, 
etc.,  stretching  from  the  palace  for  2  m.  In 
the  vicinity  are  the  royal  summer  palaces. 
Solitude,  Villa  Rosenstcin,  Wilbelma,  and  the 
Villa,  and  the  charming  town  of  Canstatt-on- 
thc-Neckar,  with  22,000  inhabitants,  frequented 
as  a  bathing  place.  The  woolen  industry  is 
important.  The  manufactures  of  pianos,  ear- 
risges,  chocolate,  sugar,  and  machinery  are 
considerable.  The  commerce  of  the  city  is  ex- 
tensive; the  book  and  art  trade  is  especially 
important.  Pop.  (1910)  285,5S9.  The  name 
^lullsart  first  occurs  in  history  in  1229,  though 
the  exact  date  of  its  foundation  is  not  known. 
It  became  the  residence  of  the  Count  of  Wllr- 
temberg  in  l.'!20,  and  the  capital,  1482.  The 
city  was  held  by  Austria,  1510-34,  and  occu- 
pied by  Alba  in  1546.  Prom  1634-38  one  half 
(8,810)  of  the  inhabitants  died  from  the 
plague.    In  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV  it  w 


"i^lc 


Stnyvesant  (stl'v^  sfint),  Petnu,  1802-82; 
the  last  Dutch  Director  General  of  New  Nath- 
erlaud  {New  York),  b.  in  Holland.  Lost  a.  leg 
in  an  attack  upon  the  Spanish  island  of  St. 
Mart  in.  He  arrived  at  New  Amsterdam  as 
director  general  in  Maf,  1847;  conciliated  the 
Indiana,  who  had  been  provolced  to  hostilities 
bj  his  predecessor,  William  Kieft,  and  restored 
order  in  every  department.  In  1656  he  ousted 
the  Swedes  from  their  posseHsions  on  the  Dela- 
ware, where  they  had  taken  Fort  Casimir,  built 
by  the  Dutch  in  1651.  In  August,  1664,  an 
^iglish  fleet  under  Richard  Nlcolls  appeared 
ia  the  bay  and  demanded  the  surrender  of  the 
city,  in  virtue  of  the  ^ant  by  Charles  II  to 
the  Duke  of  York  of  the  territ<i^  between  the 
Connecticut  and  the  Delaware.  The  municipal- 
ity, seeing  the  futility  of  resistance,  insisted 
on  yielding,  and  the  city  was  given  up  on  Sep- 
tember 3d.  Stuyvesant  went  in  166S  to  report 
tn  his  superiors  in  Holland,  but  returned  and 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  life  on  his  bouwerij 
or  farm,  whence  the  Bowery  derives  its  name. 

Sty,  or  Horde'olum,  a  small  boil  on  the  edge 
of  tiie  eyelid.  It  should  be  treated  with  a 
warm-water  dressing  or  light  wet  poultice; 
after  the  discharge  of  a  little  pus  and  a  slough, 
it  usually  gets  well  at  once.  If  there  be  a  suc- 
cession of  sties,  tonics,  with  mild  laxativea, 
will  be  useful. 

Style,  or  Stylus,  an  inBtrumentT  usually 
made  of  metal,  bone,  or  ivory,  used  in  olden 
times  for  writing.  It  was  sharp  at  one  end 
for  writing,  and  flattened  at  the  other  for  the 
purpose  of  making  erasures  on  the  tablets, 
which  were  covered  with  wai. 

Style,  Old  and  New.    See  Calekiiab. 

Stylites.    See  Pn.r.An  Saints. 

Stylit'eB,  St.  Sim'eon.    See  Siueoit  Sttutss. 

Styr*!*,  province  of  Austria;  bounded  N.  by 
upper  and  lower  Austria,  E.  by  Hungary,  S. 
by  Camiola  and  Croatia,  and  W.  by  Carinthia 
BUd  Salzburg;  area,  8,670  sq.  m.;  pop,  (1900) 
1,355,494,  of  whom  over  710,000  are  of  Ger- 
man and  the  rest  of  Slovenian  descent;  capital, 
OratK. 

Styx,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  river  of  Hades 
which  flowed  from  the  tenth  source  of  Oceanus. 
At  the  entrance  to  Hades  was  the  abode  of  the 
nymph  or  goddess  Styx,  by  whom  the  most 
solemn  oaths  of  the  gods  were  swam,  thus  dedi- 
cating themselves  to  death  in  cose  of  perjury. 
Styi  was  also  the  name  of  the  highest  water- 
fall in  Greece,  near  Nonacris  in  Arcadia.  The 
ancients,  like  the  modem  residenia  of  the  vicin- 
ity, considered  its  waters  poi.sonous,  and  it  was 
believed  that  no  vessel  could  hold  any  of  it 
unless  made  of  the  hoof  of  an  ass  or  horse. 

Sua'bio.    See  Swabia. 

Suakim  (sw^'klm),  or  Saw«1dn  (Ba-wK'kin), 
fortified  town  of  Nubia  and  beat  port  on  the 
Red  Sea;  on  an  island  near  shore.  It  has  been 
in  the  possession  of  the  British  since  18fi2. 
Formerly  the  head  of  the  caravan  rout^  into 


SVBUARINE  NAVIGATIOK 

the  interior,  it  lost  much  of  its  importance  aa 
a  result  of  the  Mahdist  rebellion,  and  this  is 
not  yet  recovered,  because  of  the  insecurity  of 
the  interior.  Opposite  Suakim  on  the  mainland 
is  the  suburb  of  El-Kef.  Suakim  is  of  great 
strat^cal  and  commercial  importance,  and  is 
the  most  suitable  terminus  for  a  railway  into 
Egy^ian  Sudan.  The  chief  exports  are  rum 
arable,  silver,  ivory,  senna,  and  skins.  Pop. 
(1897)    16,713. 

Snbllma'tion,  a  chemical  process  of  separa- 
tion and  purification,  applicable  only  occasion- 
ally in  cases  in  which  a  volatile  substance  con- 
denses or  crystallizes  from  the  condition  of 
vapor  directly  to  the  solid  condition,  and  not 
to  the  usual  liquid  form.  Among  the  more 
important  substances  to  which, this  method  ia 
"  .ble  are  sulphur,  iodine,  vermilion,  cor- 
sublimate,  calomel,  salts  ( 
lus  oxide,  oxalic,  benzoic,  s 
pyrogallic  acids,  camphor,  caffeine,  etc 

SnWime'  Porte.    See  Fobte. 

Submarine'  Mines.    See  Tokfedobs, 

Submarine  Navi£a'tion,  the  art  of  navigating 
a  submerged  vessel.  In  submarine  navigation 
it  is  requisite  that  an  operator  should  be  able 
to  move  freely  in  any  direction  and  at  any 
depth,  and  with  no  communication  with  the 
Eurface  except  at  long  intervals.  The  accounts 
of  early  attempts  to  accomplish  these  results 
are  exceedingly  meager,  and  but  little  was  done 


Fro.  1. — Bubdhbll's  Sdbmiiuhb  Boat;  VEsncAi. 
LoHorrnDiH*!.  Section.  A,  Permanenl  ballast; 
B,  mavBble  balloM;  C,  watei^«aiige;  D,  compsn;  E, 
screw;  F.  screw;  G.  rudder;  /,  eptnmoe;  LL.  aii-uipes; 
M,  yeniU«tor;  XX,  vmive*  in  LL;  JV,  valve  to  »d- 
mit  water;  OO.  WKler  Unk;  P,  pump  for  disohsr«iaa 
O;  Q,  bilge  pump;  R.  wood  Krew;  S,  rospnine:  T, 
percusdon  clockwork. 

till  1771,  when  David  Bushnell  suggested  the 
idea  of  attacking  a  vessel  underneath  the  wa- 
ter, and  constructed  a  submarine  boat  capa- 
ble of  accomplishing  the  desired  object.  The 
accompanying  figure  corresponds  with  the  de- 
scriptions and  will  serve  to  illustrate  an  inven- 
tion whirh  was  the  most  perfect  thing  of  its 
kind  that  has  ever  been  inventei' 


'"'^^oogle 


SUBMARINE  NAVIGATION 

The  bo«t  wu  aluped  like  a  turtle,  uid  BcMii- 
pd  in  the  w&ter  with  the  tul  down.  It  con- 
laiiied  air  enough  to  support  life  for  haJf  an 
hour,  and  air  could  be  renewed  through  unaJl 
Tentilatore  by  rising  to  the  eurface.  Ihe  oper- 
ator waa  Mated  in  the  middle,  the  seat  forming 
fi  brace  between  the  two  eideH,  and  in  this  posi- 
tion he  had  his  ejes  oppoeite  one  of  the  numer- 
ous glaae  plates  in  the  cover  or  top  of  the  boat. 
In  front  of  him  was  the  handle  of  a  screw. 
by  which  the  boat  was  propelled;  another, 
which  it  waa  raised  or  loweredi  a  comi 
marked  with  phosphorus;  a  water  gauge, 
show  the  depth,  marked  with  oil  and  phospho- 
rus; and  Dear  him  the  handles  or  treadles  of 
Tarioua  small  pumps  and  levers,  by  which  wa- 
ter and  foul  air  were  eipelled,  the  rudder 
moved,  ballast  let  go,  etc.  The  torpedo  con- 
sisted of  a  block  of  oak  containing  a  charge  of 
about  150  !b.  of  powder.  This  block  was  on 
the  upper  after  part  of  the  boat,  and  connected 


eCBUABINE  NAVIGATION 

■afrty  Um  bbst  must  have  strengtli  to  resist  the 
crushing  force  of  the  greatest  depth  to  which  it 
will  descend,  and  must  possess  a  reserve  buoy- 
ancy, overcome  during  submergence  by  me- 
chanical means,  but  never  destroyed.  It  must 
have  stability  enough  to  prevent  capsizing  or 
considerable  change  of  trim  under  service  con- 
ditions, and  must  carry  an  ample  supply  of  air 
for  the  crew.  Modem  steel  construotJMi  pro- 
vides the  necessary  strength  for  a  subroergeDce 
of  IGO  ft.,  which  is  ample,  to  be  obtained  with 
a  weight  of  hull  of  about  one  half  the  displace- 
ment. Reserve  buoyancy  is  a  feature  of  all 
modern  submarine  boats,  and  additional  safety 
is  given  by  various  devices,  whereby  the  pres- 
sure due  lo  any  stated  depth  will  automatically 
impel  the  boat  upward,  either  by  expelling  wa- 
ter from  the  tanks  or  by  moving  the  horizontal 

Stability  on  the  surface  is  obtained  as  in  or- 
dinary vessels,  and  below  the  surface  by  simply 


re  rsBulator; 


by  means  of  a  rope  to  a  wood  screw,  the  handla 
of  which  waa  directly  in  front  of  the  operator. 

The  mode  of  operation  waa  to  move  slowly 
alon^  the  surface,  with  the  top  just  awash,  till 
within  a  short  distance  of  a  vessel  at  anchor, 
then  to  sink,  and,  coming  up  underneath  the 
bottom,  fasten  the  torpedo  by  means  of  the 
screw.  The  torpedo  and  screw  were  then  de- 
tached from  the  operator's  boat,  a  clockwork 
mechanism  inside  the  torpedo  being  set  for  six, 
eight,  or  twelve  hours'  run,  thus  allowing  the 
operator  time  to  escape. 

Since  Bushnell's  time  many  inventors,  in- 
cluding Fulton,  have  given  attention  to  sub- 
marine navigation,  but  it  is  only  within  the 
last  half  century  that  any  real  progress  has 
been  made.  In  France,  under  the  auspices  of 
the  government,  experiments  were  made  by 
Bourgeois  and  Brun,  followed  more  recently  by 
those  of  Groubet  and  Z€de,  while  in  England 
the  Nordenfeldt  boat  gained  approval.  In  the 
U.  S.  the  inventions  of  Gleorge  C.  Baker,  of 
Detroit,  and  J.  P.  Holland  (see  Fig.  2),  at 
New  York,  have  been  conspicuous.  The  types 
vary,  and  Improvements  are  constantly  being 
made.  In  the  European  War,  their  first  test, 
submarines  proved  their  value  aa  offensive 
weapons.    See  next  page. 

Essentially  tbe  general  requirements  fur  sub- 
muine  boats  for  war  purposes — and  this  is 
their  only  practical  use---given  in  the  order  of 
thdr  importftnce,  are  safety,  facility  of  maneu- 
Tcr,  ^eed,  endurance,  and  offenaive  power.    For 


placing  the  center  of  gravity  below  the  center 
of  buoyancy.  Compr^ed  air  in  tanks  gives  a 
ready  means  of  ventilation,  but  ii,  a  boat  of 
ordinaryi  size  there  is  enough  air  to  last  the 
crew  several  hours,  especially  as  the  storage 
batteries  generally  in  use  tor  propulsion  under 
water  give  off  a  certain  quantity  of  oxygen. 
Complicated  means  for  purifying  the  air  are 
found  to  be  practically  not  necessary.  Facility 
of  maneuver  in  the  vertical  plane  can  probably 
be  best  obtained  by  diving  rudders,  for  with 
these  a  boat  can  most  quickly  come  to  the  sur- 
face and  again  disappear.  Any  simple  form  of 
pressure  gauge  wilt  indicate  the  depth  of  sub- 
mergence, and  the  variations  of  the  water  pres- 
sure are  easily  made  to  control  the  diving  rud- 
dera  automatically,  the  replacement  of  fuel, 
torpedoes,  or  other  stores  expended  by  an  equal 
weight  of  water  keeping  the  buoyancy  and 
trim  unchanged.  Motion  in  the  horizontal 
plane  is  controlled  by  ordinary  rudders,  and 
twin  screws  add  to  the  turning  power.  Surface 
speed  is  of  great  importance,  since  approach  to 
an  enemy  must  be  on  the  surface,  and  escape 
may  depend  upon  it.  Steam  propulsion  is  still 
the  best  for  surface  use,  means  being  provided 
for  rapidly  bousing  the  smokestack  and  sealing 
the  furnace  doon  preparatory  to  diving. 

Endurance  depends  only  on  the  weight  which 
can  be  allotted  to  fu«  or  other  sources  of 
powsr.  Fuel  for  a  run  of  1,000  m.  on  the  sur- 
face and  electric  power  for  i 
under  water  can  easily  be  carried^ 


"■F.Tft^f^C 


In  the  World  War  kU  the  maritime  belUgerenlB 
employed  aubmarinea  with  toipedo  equipment 
Thdr  laiceet  uae  vaa  by  the  British  and  Ger- 
mADB,  and  while  avowedly  directed  against  naval 
craft  and  merchant  BhippinR  the  Gennan  U- 
boats  did  not  hentate  to  attadk  and  sink  crowded 
hoepitAl  ahipa  with  thenr  cbsracter  conspicuously 
marked,  llie  U.  S.  losaea  by  submarine  action 
during  tile  war  were;  Veffleta  torpedoed,  50; 
mined,  7:  deatroyedby  gmifire,  etc.,  87 — a  total 
of  144,  of  354,449  groestonn^.  The  loss  of  life 
waa  775.  Allied  and  neutralBhipping  loet,  11,- 
827,572  p-oes  tona  from  the  be^mung  of  the  war 
U>  early  1918. 

Sabp<s'na,  in  law,  a  writ  or  process  by  which 
either  parties  or  witnesses  are  compelled  to 
appear  in  court  or  before  a  judicial  officer 
and  answer  or  testify,  bb  the  case  may  be,  un- 
der a  penalty  for  their  disobedience.  There  are 
several  different  kinds  of  this  writ.  The  com- 
mon species  of  subpiena  now  used  in  all  the 
courts  is  for  the  purpose  of  ordering  witnesses 
to  attend  upon  a  trial  or  other  judicial  exam- 
ination and  to  give  their  evidence  thereat.  It 
generally  purports  to  be  issued  hy  the  court,  to 
be  signed  by  its  clerk,  and  sealed  with  its  seal; 
but  in  the  loose  practice  prevailing  in  many 
states  of  the  U.  S.  it  is  issued  by  the  attorney. 
A  variety  termed  the  avbpiena  duce»  tecum 
contains  an  additional  clause  directing  the 
witness  to  bring  with  him  into  court  certain 
books,  papers,  etc.,  in  his  possession  which  may 
be  useful  as  evidence,  and  which  must  be  des- 
ignated with  Butlieient  particularity  to  apprise 
the  witness  of  the  exact  papers  to  be  produced. 
Both  these  forms  are  compulsory;  the  witness 
must  obey  the  mandate,  and  it  is  for  the  court 
alone  to  decide  whether  his  evidence  or  the 
documents  he  is  ordered  to  produce  are  mate- 
rial and  proper.  If  the  witness  violates  the 
comniand,  an  action  for  damages  may  be  main- 
tained against  him  by  the  partv  who  is  mate- 
rially injured  by  his  default.  The  subpcena  is 
served  by  exhibiting  the  original  to  the  wit- 
ness and  delivering  to  him  a  copy  thereof,  and 
paying  him  his  lawful  fees  for  travel  and  for 
attendance. 

SubTi>ga'tiDn,  an  equitable  doctrine  hy  which 
a  person  paying  in  proper  circumstances  a  debt 
which  as  between  himself  and  another  should 
have  been  paid  by  the  latter  is  given  the  rights 
and  remedies  of  the  original  crditor. 

SnVsidy,  money  given  in  aid  of  something; 
spcciflcally,  in  modem  use,  a  grant  of  money 
by  the  state  in  aid  of  individual  enterprise. 
This  is  the  most  common  use  of  the  word  since 
1840.  In  English  constitutional  history  a  sub- 
sidy is  a  special  tax  on  persons  (not  on  prop- 
erty), and  in  general  European  political  his- 
tory it  is  a  payment  of  money  to  an  ally  to 
aid  in  carrying  on  a  war. 

In  the  modern  sense  of  the  word,  subsidies 
have  been  grsnted  especially  to  railway  and 
steamship  lines.  In  several  continental  Euro- 
pean countries,  the  |K>^emment  defrayed  about 
one  half  the  originnl  coat  of  the  railways.  In 
the  U.  S..  states  and  municipalities  have  sub- 
scribed largely,  sometimes  unwiiely.  to  railway 
stocks  and  bonds.     The  Federal  Qovemment 


has  usually  given  land  ^ants,  but  in  1862 
Congress  granted  in  addition  a  money  subsidy 
of  over  {25,000  a  mile  to  the  Pacific  railroads. 
Great  Britain  has  paid  no  railway  subsidiea, 
but  as  early  as  1840  granted  an  annual  sulwidr 
of  £81,000  to  the  Cunard  Steamship  Line,  which 
amount  was  gradually  extended  until  185B. 
Grants  were  also  made  to  other  lines  until 
about  a  million  pounds  annually  were  so  paid. 
This  has  been  considerably  reduced  iu  recent 
years,  owing  largely  to  public  sentiment  con- 
sequent on  the  success  ot  unsulnidlzed  lines. 
Similar,  though  smaller,  subsidies  were  given 
in  the  U.  S.  to  the  Collins  and  other  lines,  and 
these  amounted  to  several  million  dollars  just 
after  the  Civil  War;  but  a  reaction  in  public 
feeling  abolished  most  of  them,  and  the  most 
strenuous  efforts  have  been  unsuccessful  in  re- 
newing them  on  any  considerable  scale,  though 
l^  1694  over  1700,000  were  paid  to  varioiu 
lines.  Subsidies  are  usually  paid  ostensibly 
for  transporting  the  malls,  but  are  generally 
advocated  as  means  of  building  up  a  merchant 
marine  and  of  supporting  lines  of  vessels  that 
may  furnish  cruisers  in  war  time. 

Subatitn'tiona,  The'ory  of,  branch  of  modem 
mathematics.  A  substitution  is  an  operation 
which  is  conceived  to  interchange  quantities 
or  symbols  among  themselves,  putting  one  in 
place  of  another,  hut  taking  none  away  and 
adding  no  new  ones.  If  we  have  an  algebraic 
expression  containing  several  symbols,  say  the 
roots  of  an  algebraic  equation,  some  substitu- 
tions may  change  the  value  of  the  expression 
and  others  may  not.  For  example,  in  the  ex- 
pression X  -f  y  —  t,  an  interchange  of  x  and  y 
makes  no  changs  of  value,  because  x  -f*  y  ^ 
y  +  X ;  but  interchanging  either  of  these  quan- 
tities with  z  changes  the  value. 

Snb'way.     See  Urdeboboukd  Railwatb. 

Succes'don,  the  distribution  of  intestste  esr 
tates  which  now  prevails  dates  back  directly  to 
a  statute  enacted  in  1670  (22  and  23  Car.  II, 
cap.  10)  by  which  the  respective  rights  of  wife, 
children,  and  next  of  kin  were  fairly  and,  as 
the  event  has  proved,  permanently  adjusted. 
One  third  of  the  personal  estate  undispiraed  of 
by  will;  and  remaining  after  the  payment  of 
debts  and  funeral  expenses,  was  to  go  to  the 
widow  and  the  residue  to  the  children,  to  be 
equally  divided.  If  there  was  no  widow,  the 
children  took  the  whole  of  the  surplus;  if  there 
was  a  widow  but  no  children,  the  widow  took 
one  halt  and  the  next  of  kin  (parents,  brothers 
and  sisters,  grandparents,  etc.,  "  everyone  ac- 
cording to  the  decree  that  belongs  to  him  ") 
took  the  other  half.  If  the  intestate  left  no 
widow  or  children,  the  next  of  kin  were  enti- 
tled to  the  whole  surplus.  In  case  a  person  en- 
titled was  dead,  his  legal  representatives  would 
take  his  share.  There  was  no  discrimination 
(as  there  was  in  the  rules  r^ulating  the  de- 
scent of  real  property)  against  kin  of  the  half 
blood  nor  against  female  kin,  but  all  of  the 
class  or  grade  of  kinship  inherited  equally. 
"  :hts  of  the  husband  in  the  personal  es- 
his  wife  ^■ere  not  altered  by  this  stat- 
ute, but  remained  as   at  common  law.     As  a 


e  of  hi* 


SUCCESSION  WABS 


purpose  of  collecting  them  in  and  converting 
them  to  his  own  use. 

The  dtatutee  of  distribution  now  in  force  in 
Great  Britain  and  the  U.  S.  are  sutMtiintia.Uf 
only  reEnactments  of  the  act  of  Charles  II 
above  described.  The  meaning  of  the  expres- 
sion "next  of  kin"  and  the  relative  rank  of 
such  persons,  and  the  order  of  their  succes- 
BJon,  are  deSned  with  precision  in  the  sev- 
eral statutes  of  distribution.  The  test  usu- 
ally applied  is  nearness  in  degree  of  blood, 
and  the  method  emploj-ed  to  ascertain  the 
degree  is  usually  that  of  the  civil  law.  Per- 
sons bom  out  of  lawful  wedlock  have  no 
part  in  the  distribution  of  personal  estate, 
whether  they  claim  as  children  of  the  intestate 
or  as  next  of  kin.  A  bastard  is  nulliiu  plius 
by  the  common  law,  and  is  wholly  ouUide  the 

file  of  consanguinity.  In  some  of  the  states, 
owever,  an  illegitimate  child  has  by  statute 
been  rendered  capable  of  inheriting  from  his 
mother.  Of  course,  if  such  a  person  marries,  he 
or  she  thereby  becomes  capable  of  taking  prop- 
erty by  descent  from  the  wife  or  husband,  the 
capacity  in  that  case  being  wholly  independent 
ol  any  relationship  of  blood. 

Succession  Wars,  wars  resulting  from  con- 
flicting claims  to  the  throne,  especially  applied 
to  the  four  wars  of  the  eighteenth  century  that 
arose  from  the  disputed  succession  to  ( 1 1  the 
throne  of  Spain  (1701-U),  (2)  that  of  Poland 
(1733-38),  (3)  that  of  Austria  (1741-48), 
and  (4)  that  of  Bavaria  (1778-79)— of  which 
only  the  first  and  third  are  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance to  be  treated  here. 
Wab  or  THE  Spasish  Stjccesbion. — The  im- 


n  accordingly 
devolved  upon  the  collateral  heirs.  In  the  life- 
time of  (diaries  there  were  three  principal 
claimants:  first,  Louis  XIV,  in  right  of  nis 
wife,  Maria  Theresa,  daughter  of  Philip  IV, 
who,  however,  had  renounced  her  richt  m  the 
Treaty  of  the  Pyrenees;  second,  Leopold  I, 
Emperor  of  Germany,  by  virtue  of  his  descent 
from  Philip  III  of  Spain;  and  third,  Joseph 
Ferdinand,  the  electoral  Prince  of  Bavaria, 
grandson  of  Leopold  and  Margaret  Theresa, 
the  younger  daughter  of  Philip  IV,  Neither 
Louis  nor  Leopold  ventured  to  claim  the  throne 
for  himself,  die  former  supporting  the  candi- 
dacy of  his  grandson,  Philip,  Dnke  of  Anjou, 
the  latter  that  of  his  second  son,  the  Archdulce 
Charles.  '  Nevertheless,  so  great  an  accession 
of  power  to  either  the  Bourbon  or  the  Hapsburg 
dynasty  was  thought  to  endanger  other  nations, 
and  it  was  fwreed  that  the  electoral  prince 
should  sueeeea  to  the  Spanish  throne.  Bis 
death,  however,  in  IS99,  reopened  the  question. 
In  the  Intrigues  which  ensued  Louis  was  suo- 
cessfu],  and  Charles  II  made  a  will  bequeathing 
his  posaesaions  to  Phillip  of  Anjou.  The  latter 
was  well  received  in  Spain,  and  his  title  was 
generally  recogniied  throughout  Europe,  but 
Louis  alienated  other  nations  by  declaring  that 
Philip's  sueoeesion  to  the  Spanish  throne  had 
in  nowise  affected  his  right  to  the  Uiroiw  of 


SUCCESSION  WABS 


France,  and  he  angered  England  h;f  pronounc- 
ing the  Pretender  the  lawful  heir  to  the  Eng- 
lish  throne;   1701-2,  the  Grand   Alliance  waa 


Duke  of  Qesse,  with  the  object  of  breaking  the 
power  of  the  Franco- Spanish  monarchy.  For 
ten  years  the  war  was  carried  on,  the  chief 
campaigns  being  in  Spain,  in  Italy,  in  the 
Rhine  countries,  and  in  the  Spanish  Nether- 
lands. In  Spain  the  French  were  successful, 
and,  under  Berwick  and  Vendflme,  expelled  the 
invaders  and  maintained  Philip.  In  N.  Italy 
the  Austrians,  under  Prince  Eugene,  conquered 
Milan  and  Mantua,  and,  after  a  victory  at 
Turin,  forced  the  French  to  withdraw  from 
Italy.  In  the  meanwhile  Marlborough  and 
Prince  Eugene  had  won  the  victory  of  Blenheim 
in  1704.  The  victory  at  Ramillies,  I70Q,  drove 
the  French  out  of  tbe  Netherlands,  and  their 
attempts  to  regain  their  lost  footing  were  foiled 
at  Oudennrde  (1703)  and  Malplaquet  (1709). 
Louis  now  sued  for  peace,  but  the  terms  im- 
posed were  so  humiliating  that  he  preferred 
to  continue  the  war.  Circumstances  came  to 
the  rescue  of  France;  the  death  of  Leopold  I 
and  of  hie  sou  and  successor,  Joseph  I,  brought 
the  Archduke  Charles  to  the  throne.  To  unite 
tho  thrones  of  Spain  and  the  German  Empire 
seemed  even  more  menacing  to  the  balance  of 
power  than  to  maintain  the  Bourbon  king  in 
Spain.  In  England  the  Tories,  who  had  sup- 
planted the  Whigs,  desired  peace,  and  in  1713 
was  signed  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht,  stipulating 
that  the  two  lines  of  the  Bourbon  house  should 
renounce  all  claims  of  inheriting  from  each 
other,  and  the  two  crowns  should  never  be  held 
by  the  same  person. 

Wab  of  the  Austkiait  Stjccebsion. — As 
the  Emperor  Charles  VI  had  no  male  beirs, 
he  tried  to  obtain  the  accession  of  all  the  pow- 
ers concerned  to  the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  by 
which  after  his  death  all  the  Austrian  posses- 
sions should  be  transmitted  undivided  to  hia 
eldest  daughter,  Maria  Theresa.  The  nearest 
claimant  to  the  Austrian  inheritance,  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  never  gave  his  consent  to 
the  Pragmatic  Sanction,  and  when  Charles  VI 
died  (October  20,  1740)  a,  desire  was  mani- 
fested among  the  European  powers  to  divide 
the  Austrian  dominions.  Claims  were  advanced 
by  Spain,  Augustus  III  of  Poland  and  Saxony,, 
the  King  of  Sardinia,  and  Frederick  the  Great 
of  Prussia,  to  whom  France  was  added  by  her 
traditional  hatred  of  the  Hapsburgs.  Great 
Britain  alone  went  to  the  aid  of  Austria.  The 
Elector  of  Bavaria  took  possession  of  Bohemia 
in  1741,  and  in  1742  was  crowned  emperor. 
Frederick  the  Great  seized  Silesia.  Maria 
Theresa  appealed  to  her  Hungarian  subjects 
for  aid.  It  was  granted,  and  a  period  of  Aus- 
trian success  followed,  due  in  part  to  the  pur- 
chase of  Prussian  neutrality  by  the  surrender 
of  Silesia  to  Frederick ;  but  the  latter,  alarmed 
by  the  success  of  the  Austrians,  again  took  the 
field  in  support  of  the  emperor  (1744),  In 
upper  Italy  a  French  army  joined  the  Spanish, 
and  fought  with  great  success,  and  in  the  Neth- 
erlands Marshal  Saxe  began  his  brilliant  cam- 
faign  with  the  victory  at  Fontenoy,  May  11, 
745.     Soon,  however,  events  occurred  which 


On  Januaiy  20,  1746,  the  emperor, 
VII,'  died,  and  Joseph,  the  husband  of  Maria 
Theresa,  was  electea  Emperor  of  Oermuiy  aa 
Francis  I.  Frederick  the  Qreat  had  become 
thoroughly  disgusted  with  his  allies,  the 
French,  and  iu  the  death  of  Charles  VII  be 
found  an  opportanity  of  retiring  from  the 
coalition ;  peace  was  concluded  between  Prussia 
and  Austria,  December  2G,  1745.  The  war  with 
France  continued.  Marabal  Saxe  gained  bril- 
liant victories  in  the  Netherlands,  and  pene- 
trated into  Holland.  The  British,  howeTer, 
had  nearly  destroyed  the  French  shipping  and 
conquered  many  French  colon  iea,  and  when 
Russia,  in  June,  1747,  joined  Austria,  France 
was  willing  to  make  peace.  Peace  was  con- 
cluded at  Aix-la-Chapeile,  October,  IT4S.  Aus- 
tria gave  up  Parma,  Guostalla,  and  Piaccnza. 
to  Don  Philip,  of  the  Spanish  Bourbon  line, 
several  districts  of  Milan  to  Sardinia,  and  con- 
finned  Frederick  II  in  the  possession  of  Silesia. 
See  Mabia  Thebbsa. 

Snc'cory.    See  Chicobt. 

Sudc'er,  any  one  of  several  fishes  which 
have  no  resemblanoe  to  one  another  except  that 
they  "  suck  "  in  some  way.  They  have  ventral 
flns  adapted  for  adhering  to  rooks  and  other 
bodies.  The  species  are  numerous,  and  each 
family  is  represented  on  the  coast  of  the  U.  S. 

Sucre  (sO'kri),  commonly  called  Cboqdisa- 
CA,  and  formerly  La  Pl.ata,  official  capital  of 
Bolivia  and  capital  of  the  department  of 
Chuquisaca;  on  a  terrace  of  the  E.  Cordillera, 
and  in  the  midst  of  magnificent  mountain  scen- 
ery, 8,840  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  was  founded 
by  order  of  Pizzaro  in  153Q,  on  the  site  of  the 
Indian  village  of  Cbuijuichaca  (golden  bridge), 
and  during  the  colonial  period  was  renowned 
for  its  riches,  derived  from  the  silver  mines  of 
the  1-icinit^.  In  1S26  the  name  was  changed 
to  Sucre,  in  honor  of  the  first  president.  It 
remained  the  official  capital,  but  during  the 
civil  wars  it  became  customary  for  Congress 
to  mee,t  at  La  Paz,  which  is  now  virtually  the 
capital  of  Bolivia.  Remains  of  its  former 
grandeur  are  teea  in  the  fine  cathedral  and 
other  public  building.  It  has  a  university,  the 
oldest  in  the  republic,  and  is  still  the  metrop- 
olis of  the  mining  region  and  of  a  rich  agri- 
cultural district.     Fop.   (1006)   est,  at  23,410. 

Sadan',  forrocriy  sometimes  Soudah  or  Soo- 
ui^,  geographic  name  for  that  part  of  Africa 
lying  S.  of  and  adjacent  to  the  Sahara,  and 
extending,  roughly,  from  5°  N.  lat.  to  15°  N., 
and  from  10°  W.  Ion.  eastward  to  the  Nile. 
This  re^on  is  occupied  by  many  peoples  and 
many  different  states,  and  embraces  the  basins 
of  the  Niger,  Lake  Chad,  and  the  Bahr-ei- 
<.:ha)!al  branch  of  the  Nile,  representing,  re- 
spectively, W.,  central,  and  E.  or  Egyptian 
8udan.  The  upper  part  of  the  basin  of  the 
Senegal  is  sometimes  dixtlnguished  as  the 
French  Sudan.  This,  with  the  Kong  country 
on  tbe  upper  Niger,  is  mountainoua,  with  ele- 
vated plateaus.  Central  Sudan  is  lens  elevated 
and  generally  level,  but  contains  some  high 
mountains  (as  Alantika,  0,S00  ft.).  French, 
W.,    and   central    Sudan   are    generally    well 


SUEVI 

wooded  and  watered,  and  of  great  agricultural 
eapacih^  The  Egyptian  Sudan  is  generally 
and.  ITic  races  occupying  the  Sudan  are  very 
varied,  mostly  Negroes  (hence  sometimes  called 
Nigritia,  or  Negroland) ,  but  also  including 
Fulas,  TnaregE,  Arabs,  and  In  the  B.,  Shoos. 
Khartum  (I4,SE3)  is  the  capital  of  the 
Sudan  provinces  under  British  administration 
since  1809.  Portions  are  also  administered  by 
France  and  Germany, 

Sudtiniy,  mining  town  in  N.  Ontario,  Can- 
ada. It  is  noted  for  the  very  valuable  de- 
posits of  nickel  in  Its  neighborhood.  Thefe 
are  accounted  tbe  most  est^sive  in  America. 
Pop.  5,000. 

Su'detnuutm,  Heimaim,  1867-  ;  German 
dramatist  and  novelist)  b.  Matziken,  E.  Prus- 
sia; was  a  private  teacher  and  |oumaliat  until 
he  suddenly  became  famous  by  his  drama,  "  Die 
Eh  re,"  which,  on  account  of  the  clever  and 
sentimental  treatment  of  the  social  question, 
achieved  a  remarkable  success.  Hia  subsequent 
pla;^,    "  Sodoma    Ende,"    "  Die    Heimat,"    and 

Die  Schmetterlingsschlacht,"  were  less  suc- 
cessful, and  established  the  fact  that  thdr  au- 
thor had  been  overestimated.  He  also  wrote  a 
number  of  novels  and  short  stories,  of  which 
"  Der  Katzensteg  "  is  the  best. 

Sne  (sU),  Harie  Joseph  Engine,  1804-69 1 
French  novelist;  b.  Paris;  studied  medicine, 
and  was  surgeon,  first  in  the  army,  then  in  the 
navy,  until  1829,  when,  having  inherited  a 
fortune,  he  devoted  himself  to  literature.  His 
first  novels,  "  Kernock  le  Pirate,"  "  Plick  et 
Plock,"  "  AUr-Gull,"  "  La  Salamandre,"  "  La 
Coucaratcha,"  "  La  Vigie  de  Koat-Ven,"  were 
inspired  by  Cooper,  and  inaugurated  in  France 
the  novel  of  naval  adventure.  In  "  Cecils,? 
"  Arthur,"  "  Le  Marquis  de  Letorifire,"  "  Jean 
Cavalier,"  "  TherCse  Dunoyer,"  "  I^tr^u- 
mont,"  from  183E-38,  he  worked  the  historic, 
melodramatic,  and  romantic  vein.  After  1940 
be  became  socialistic,  and  celebrated  the  prole- 
tariat in  his  most  famous  and  popular  novels, 
"Mathilde,"  "  Les  MystircB  de  Paris,"  "  Le 
Juif  Errant,"  "  Martin,"  "  Les  Sept  P«chte 
CBpitaux,"  "  Lea  MystSres  du  Feuple."  After 
the  eoup  d'itat  be  left  France  and  settled  at 
Annecy,  in  Savoy.  Ho  wrote  about  fifty  vol- 
umes of  novels  not  mentioned  here. 

Suetonius  (swE-tO'nl-as)  TrangnHlna,  Caini, 
Roman   author;   b.   probably  about  the  begin- 


magister  epistolarvm.  His  principal  work, 
"  Duodecim  Casarum  Vita,"  has  been  preserved 
entire  and  iu  authentic  form.  It  contains 
biographies  of  the  first  twelve  Roman  emperors, 
beginning  with  C.  Julius  Cssar  and  ending 
with  Domitian. 

Sn«vi  (swS'vI),  originally  a  collective  name, 
comprising  several  imlividuat  Germanic  tribes 
which  formed  a  kind  of  union.  It  is  thus  used 
by  Coisar  and  Tacitus.  In  the  fourth  centuiy 
the  nama  wew  applied  to  a  single  tribe,  one 
branch  of  which  settled  along  the  Neckar 
(Swabia),  while  another  branch  broke  into 
Gaul,  and  in  40Q  crossed  the  Pyrenees  and  pene- 
trated into  Spain,  where  they  embraced  Cfhrio- 


8TIEZ  CANAL 

tianitf,  conquered  Oallda,  and  foim^  a.  king- 
doiti,  which  ia  Ses  wu  united  with  the 
Visigothic  Empire. 

Soei'  Canal',  a  ship  canal  connecting  the  Red 
&ea  with  the  Mediterraneaa  Sea.  According  ki 
UiodoruB  Siculiis  (60  B.C.)  there  wua  a.  canal 
from  the  Gulf  of  Pelusium  (not  far  from  the 
present  terrainua  of  the  canal)  to  the  Red  Sea. 
'    — I  by  Neeoa,  continued  hy  Dariua, 


In  1849  the  project  of  a  ahip  canal  was  talien 
up,  to  be  carried  through  by  Count  Ferdinand 
de  ^>ssepB,  after  delays  due  principally  to  the 
opposition  of  Qreat  Britain,  and  it  was  not 
until  1859  that  actual  work  was  begun.  A 
commission  estimated  2(K),000,0a0  fr.  as  the 
cost  ol  tlie  work.  A  eecond  concession  waa 
given  on  January  16,  1856,  the  terms  of  which 
were  designed  to  satisfy  the  opposition  which 
had  already  begun  in  Great  Britain,  and  to 
guarantee  fair  returns  to  the  stoclibolders  who 
might  invest,  and  the  capital  stock  of  the  com- 
pany was  fixed  at  that  figure.  The  viceroy 
made  an  official  declaration  for  himself  and  hjs 
BucceasDTa,  subject  to  the  ratiBcation  of  the 
sultan,  that  the  canal  and  all  its  ports  should 
be  open  at  all  times  as  a  neutral  highway  to 
every  merchant  ihip  passing  from  one  sea  to 
another,  without  any  cKclusive  distinction  or 
preference  to  persons  or  nationalities. 

The  Egyptian  Govt,  engaged  to  furnish  a 
contingent  of  the  fellaheen,  and  the  work  was 
at  once  begun.  The  location  of  the  N.  terminus 
of  the  canal  was  changed  from  Pelusium  to 
Port  Said,  The  first  work  of  the  canal  was  at 
this  terminus,  and  was  begun  on  August  2S, 
18S9,  by  De  Lesseps  in  the  presence  of  about 
ISO  persons. 

From  Port  Said  the  distance  across  the 
isthmus  in  a  direct  line  is  about  TO  m.  The 
length  of  the  canal  is  100  m.,  of  which  over 
sixty  per  cent  is  through  shallow  lakes.  The 
material  excavated  was  usually  sand,  but  in 
places  It  was  necessary  to  blast  throu^  strata, 
2  or  3  ft.  is  thickness,  of  solid  rock.  The  total 
excavation  was  80,000,000  cu.  yds.  The  oppo- 
sition of  Great  Britain  to  the  employment  of 
fellaheen  labor,  etc.,  delayed  its  completion  and 
increased  its  cost.  This  necessitated  the  adop- 
tion of  machines.  The  appliances  thus  used 
were  various  and  very  efficient.  With  them 
the  contractors  excavated  60,000,000  eu.  meters, 
with  the  assistance  of  less  than  4,000  men  and 
in. less  than  five  years.  The  work  was  all  per- 
formed in  daylight. 

The  canal  was  opened  November  17,  ISitO. 
The  canal  has  s  depth  and  wiijth  to  permit  the 
safe  pasaaffe  of  ships  drawing  2G  ft.  The  fol- 
lowing table  shows  the  inereaae  in  the  number 


of  ships,  tonnage,  and  receipts: 


43S.B11 
3,0S7.4Z1 

a,eao,ost 


Miptatton 
roflsaiKi 


SUFFRAGE 

The  busineeB  of  the  canal  soon  became  Bo 
peak  that  i  t  was  necessary  to  widen  and  deepen 
it.  The  new  dimensions  are  31-2  ft.  depth; 
bottom  width,  108.2  ft. ;  surface  width,  420  ft. 
There  are  Beveral  sidings  excavated  tor  the  pas- 
sage of  vessels.  The  cost  of  the  canal  as  orgiu- 
aliy  completed  was  $95,000,000.  In  the  World 
War  the  Turks  made  several  inefieotual  at- 
tempts to  capture  or  control  the  canaJ,  deeiHt« 
careful  preparation. 

Suez,  Gulf  of,  the  W.  and  larger  of  the 
branches  into  which  the  Red  Sea  divides  lying 
between  Egypt  and  the  peninsula  of  Sinai ; 
len^h,  180  m. :  breadth,  20  m.  It  is  generally 
believed  that  the  scene  of  the  passage  of  the 
Red  Sea  by  the  Israelites  is  near  the  present 
head  of  the  gulf. 

Snei,  Isth'maa  of,  a  neck  of  land  connecting 
the  continents  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  sep- 
arating the  Mediterranean  from  the  Red  Sea. 
Its  extreme  breadth  from  the  Gulf  of  Suez  to 
that  of  Pelusium  is  about  72  m.  The  surface 
is  low  and  sandy,  having  an  average  devation 
of  not  more  thnn  6  or  g  ft.  above  the  sea,  but 
ill  places  reaching  to  60  or  60  ft.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  whole  isthmus  was  once  covered 
by  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Red 
seas,  which  .were  then  connected. 

Suffolk,  county  of  England;  area,  1,476  sq. 
m.  The  surface  is  flat,  and  the  soil  for  the 
moat  part  productive  and  excellently  cultivated. 
Wheat,  barley,  beans,  oats,  and  hemp  are 
raised,  and  butter  is  one  of  the  principal  prod- 
ucts. Pop.  (1911)  320,141;  capital.  Bury  St. 
Edmunds. 

Suffrage,  the  act  or  right  of  casting  a  vote, 
either  for  some  measure  directly,  as  in  a  pure 
democracy,  or  for  representatives  In  an  assem- 
bly. The  right  has  never  been  regarded  as 
belonging  wiuiout  exception  to  all  members  of 
the  community;  it  has  always  been  limited  In 
various  ways,  although  it  ia  less  limited  now 
than  formerjy.  So-called  "  universal  suffrage  " 
means  generally  the  admiBsion  to  the  ballot  of 
all  males  who  are  of  age,  with  the  exception 
of  unnaturalized  citizens,  mentally  deficient 
persons,  and  those  who  have  been  convicted  of 
crime.  Thus,  besides  the  three  classes  lost 
mentioned,  the  vote  ia  denied  to  all  women  and 
to  all  minors.  On  the  other  band,  unnatural- 
ized citizens  are  allowed  to  vote  in  some  locali- 
ties, especially  In  local  motters.  When  the 
suffrage  is  not  "  universal."  the  most  common 
qualification  is  that  of  property,  no  one  being 
allowed  to  vote  who  does  not  possess  wealth 
of  some  kind  to  a  certain  amount  or,  some- 
times, who  is  not  a  landholder.  The  limit 
may  be  small ;  in  fact,  states  or  countries 
nominally  under  universal  suffrage  commonly 
impose  a  small  poll  tax  [three  or  four  dollars), 
the  payment  of  which  is  a  prerequisite  for 
voting,  and  which  thus  acts  aa  a  small  property 
qualincation . 

In  the  Middle  Ages  suffrage  was  a  right  not 
so  much  of  the  individual  as  a  citizen  as  of 
the  member  of  some  community  regarded  as 
entitled  to  representation  in  the  law-making 
body.  The  community  might  be  territorial,  or 
it  mig^t  be  education&l,  mercantile,  religious. 


SDFFRAGE 

or  military.  Eren  to-day  the  Enelista  uniTer- 
■ities  return  members  to  Parliament.  In 
Franoe  and  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  definite 
social  ranke  and  orders  had  definite  privileges, 
and  were  practically  separate  communities  for 
electoral  purposes.  Thus,  in  England  still,  the 
upper  House  of  Parliament  is  compoHed  wholly 
01  lords — a  separate  social  order,  and  a  defi- 
nite division  of  this  bouse  consists  of  bishops 
represenUng  the  Established  Church,  on  ec- 
clesiaBtical  body.  Under  these  circumstances 
the  idea  that  each  vote  of  a  persfm  entitled  to 
suffrage  should  count  equally  was,  of  course, 
not  prominent.  It  became  generally  known 
first  as  a  corollary  of  Rousseau's  doctrine  of 
the  eauali^  of  man,  according  to  which  not 
only  snould  eveiy  man  have  the  right  to  vote, 
but  one  man's  vote  should  count  as  much  as 
another^s.  This  will  be  the  case  only  where 
the  number  of  representatives  is  proportional 
to  the  voting  population,  which  is  often  the 
cose,  even  in  this  country,  only  in  one  branch 
of  the  legislative  body.  The  Senators  of  the 
U.  S.  still  represent  communities  (states) 
whatever  their  size.  In  Connecticut  the  Senate 
is  the  more  papula^  body  in  the  legislature, 
the  members  of^ the  lower  house  representing 
towns,  no  matter  what  their  population. 
The  general  rale  that  the  majority  governs 


recent  schemes  for  so-called  minority  repre- 
sentation, a  number  of  which  have  been  put 
into  practice.  Such,  for  Instance,  is  the  pro. 
viso  that  no  one  shall  vote  for  the  entire  num- 
ber of  candidates  to  be  elected,  so  that  the 
minority,  by  concentrating  its  vote,  may  thus 
secure  representation. 

The  suffrage,  as  noted  above,  is  not  usually 
extended  to  women,  although  in  some  countries 
they  enjoy  it  partially  and  in  a  few  wholly. 
Agitation  for  fAe  extension  of  woman  sTiffraga 
was  begun  about  the  middle  of  the  last  century, 
and  has  taken  on  a  particularly  active  phase 
during  the  last  few  years,  especially  in  Eng- 
land, where  it  has  been  carried  on  by  public 
meetings  and  even  by  ojAb  of  disorder  intended 
to  coll  attention  to  what  ite  advocates  consider 
the  injustice  of  withholding  it. 

Women  voted  for  memb^  of  Parliament  in 
England  down  to  the  seventeenth  century,  and 
th^  have  always  had  some  form  of  represmta- 
tion  as  property  holders — in  most  European 
countries  the  feme  tale  (widows  and  spin' 
sters)  voting  in  person,  the  feme  covert  (mar- 
ried wonuu)  hf  proxy,  the  husband  outing 
her  vote  as  well  as  his  own.  In  this  country 
New  York  ( 1778)  was  the  first  state  to  qualify 
the  antFrage  by  inserting  the  word  "  mate  "  in 
its  constitution.  School  suffrage  has  been 
granted  to  women  by  twenty-five  states,  mu- 
nicipal sufTrage  by  Hontana  (188T),  New  York 

(1001),  Michigan  (1908),  and  Illinois  (1913), 
and  full  suffrage  in  Wyoming  (1869),  Colorado 

(1893),  Utah  (1890),  Idaho  (18941),  Washing- 
ton (1910),  Calffomia  (1911),  Arisona  (19I2J, 
Kansas     (1912),    Or^on     (1912),    Montana 

( 1914) ,    and    Nevada     ( 1914) .       Since     1800 

women  in  Great  Britain  have  voted  for  all 
oDIcers    except    members    of    Parliament.      In 

Canada,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Australia,  and 


SUGAB 

other  British  colonies,  women  honsdioldera 
vote  at  all  municipal  elections.  In  the  Isle  of 
Man  women  gained  full  suffrage  in  18SI,  in 
New  Zealand  in  1893,  and  In  S.  Australia  in 
1896.  -In  Russia,  women  who  are  heads  of 
families  vote  for  all  elective  officers  and  on 
all  local  queetiouB.    In  Asatio  Russia,  the  mir  or 


jept 

meat  Women  obtained  full  suffrage  in  Norway, 
in  1909,  and  in  Sweden  iu  1912.  In  Austria- 
Hungary  they  voted  (by  proxy)  at  k11  elections. 
In  Italy  widows  vote  (by  proxy)  for  memben  ot 
Parliament.  In  December,  1916,  a  proposed 
amendment  to  the  Fed^al  Constitution,  grant- 
ing full  suffrage  to  women,  was  introduced  m  the 
V.  B.  Senate;  June  13,  1918,  President  Wilson 


CiTKKM. 


See  Fkanchise;    Disfkamchiseiibnt; 


Su'fis,  or  Soofees,  mystics  of  Islam,  deriving 
their  name  from  a  coarse  woolen  cloak,  their 
principal  ^rment.  Rabia,  a  Mussulman  wom- 
an who  lived  not  long  after  the  prophet  Mo- 
hammed, taught  as  her  central  doctrine  divine 
love,  and  is  reckoned  by  them  their  founder. 
.Ibu  Said,  son  of  Abul  Khair,  in  the  ninth  cen- 
tury, advanced  further,  and  urged  abandon- 
ment of  the  world  and  consecration  to  a 
eontonplative  life.  The  various  doctrines  de- 
veloped by  his  adherents  and  followers  embrace 
every  possible  phase  of  mysticism.  Many  are 
pantheists  and  declare  that  God  is  all,  but  , 
that  all  is  not  God.  Some  claim  direct  coro- 
munication  with  the  Deity,  and  a  mysterious 
union  with  him.  In  Persia  there  have  sprung 
from  them  noted  scholars  and  poets. 

Sug'ar,  chemically  defined  as  anv  carbob;^- 
drate  soluble  in  water,  but  popularly  sugar  is 
any  such  compound  having  a  sweet  taste  and 
usually  denotes  cane  sugar  (sucrose  or  saccha- 
rose) and  sugars  made  from  starch,  known  as 
glucose  or  grape  sugar.  The  sugar  of  com- 
merce is  deriv^I  from  sugar  beet«  and  sugar 
cane,  the  beets  supplying  about  two  thirds  and 
the  cane  one  third  of  the  total  supply.  Minor 
sources  of  sugar  are  the  palm,  mapfe,  sorghum, 
and  starch.  Sunr  is  formed  in  plants  from 
the  carbon  dioxide  and  water  in  the  air,  and 
this  sugar  furnishes  the  principal  food  supply 
for  the  growth  of  all  the  other  tisauea  of  the 
plant. 

The  nations  of  remote  antiquity  were  not 
acquainted  with  sugar  as  such,  but  used  honey. 
The  chief  supply  of  su^r  was  furnished  by  the 
bees  until  the  oeginning  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. The  sugar  cane  (Sii«eharti>a  ojpetHamm) 
came  from  bdia,  though  not  found  there,  or 
elsewhere,  in  a  wild  state,  and  cultivated  cane 
dies  out  when  deprived  of  the  care  <^  man. 
Its  yield  of  sugar  has  been  raised  by  cultiva- 
tion from  2  per  cent  to  IS  or  10  per  cent. 
The  sugar  beet.  Beta  mtlgarU,  originally  came 
from  Burgundy,  and  was  carried  hy  the  Men- 
nonite  exiles  into  the  Palatinate.     From  this 


locality  it  gradually  spread  to  all  parts  < 
Germany,  and  was  grown  as  cattle  fooo. 
In  1747  Marggraf  (1709-^2)   discovered  that 


SUGARBERRT 


sugar  could  be  obtained  from  the 
Aaurd  (1TS3-I821),  {a  Kaullsdarf,  near  Ber- 
lin, was  tha  flrat  who  undertook  a  sTatematic 
eolture  of  the  beet,  and  he  largely  increased 


Its  content  of  sugar. 


ipect  of  the  sweet- 
ening properties  of 
pure  eaue  and  beet 
sugars  there  is  no 
difference  whatever 
between  the  two  Tft- 

The  maple  tree  is 
the  Bugar  palm  of 
temperate  climatee. 
Of  the  several  va- 
.  rieties  of  this  tree, 
only  the  Acer  bar- 
hatum  (also  called 
A.  jncchariniitn )  is 
used  to  any  ext«nt 
for  sugar  making. 
The  principal  center  b 
of  the  maple-BUKar 
industry  are  in  Ver- 
mont, New  York,  and 
Ohio,  but  almost 
everywhere  in  the 
NE.  of  the  U.  8.. 
and  also  in  parts  of 
Canada,  some  sugar 
and  molasses  are 
made.  Only  the  old 
trees  are  used  for 
sugar  making,  and, 
until   within   a   few 

Jears,  the  natural 
oreats.  Within  the 
past  few  decades 
there  has  been  some  planting  of  maple  trees 
for  sugar  produciiig,  although  a  grove  is  not 
profitable  lor  use  until  it  is  thirty  or  forty 
years  old.  In  some  few  instances  trees  have 
yielded  40  lb.,  andyields  of  20  lb.  per  tree  are 
not  uncommon.  The  average  quantity  of  sap 
required  to  make  a  pound  is  sixteen  quarts.  It 
Is  probable  that  the  average  yield  of  ail  the 
trees  from  one  season  to  another  is  about  3  lb. 

Cane  sugar,  sucrose,  or  saccharose  forms  a 
molecule  represented  tiy  the  formula  CitHnOn. 
The  world's  production  of  sugar,  1911,  was: 
Cane  sugar,  8,321,G00  tons;  beet  sugar,  8,007,- 
000  tons.    See  Beet. 

Sng'arbeny. 

Svou'tlon. 

Sn'ldde,  intentional  death  by  one's  own 
hand.  By  the  andeDts  suicide  was  considered 
neither  a  crime  nor  dishonorable.  Demosthenes, 
Themiatodea,  Mark  Antony,  Cleopatra,  Han- 
nibal, and  others  baving  uiosen  this  way  of 
ending  their  days.  The  Scriptures  furnish  az- 
amplta,  aa  SaniMin,  Sleazar,  and  Judas  Iscari- 
ot.  Uithridates  and  Hanniljal  died  in  this  way 
rather  than  be  taken  prisoners.  Others  have 
committed  suidde  through  false  pride  or  timid- 
ity: a  striking  case  in  point  'was  the  death  of 
Gala ;  determined  not  to  live  under  the  deapot- 
Jsm  of  Cfttar,  he  stabbed  himself,  but,  having 
fainted,  his  wound  was  dressed.  When  he  re- 
covered   lie  tore   off  the  bandage*,  let  out  his 


See  Hackbebkt. 
Bee  HTPNonsic. 


SULIOTES 

suidde  (hara-kiri),  by  ripping  the  bowels,  was 
considered  honorable  and   praiseworthy. 

Many  writers  have  defended  this  crime,  the 
most  able  of  whom  were  Mme.  de  StaSl,  Gib- 
IxtD,  Uume,  Schopenhauer,  and  Von  Hartmann. 

Suidde  has  sometimes  been  epidemic  in  char- 
acter, and  is  often  suggested  by  sensational 
newspaper  reports.  But  few  Huicides  are  com- 
mitted oy  those  whose  brains  are  not  impaired. 
Buicides  are  more  often  men  than  women  by  3 
to  1.  There  are  half  the  number  of  suiddea  in 
Roman  Catholic  countries  that  there  are  in 
Protestant  countries.  The  average  number  of 
suicides  per  million  of  inhabitants  is:  Den- 
mark, 268;  Germany,  175;  Norway  and  Swe- 
den, 100;  France,  150;  England  and  the  U.  &, 
each  70,  Among  undvilizld  peopies  suicide  is 
practically  unknown.  It  is  peculiarly  a  disease 
of  dvilization.  It  is  more  frequent  among  the 
mercantile  than  among  the  professional  dassea, 
and  more  frequent  among  the  responsible  heads 
of  institutions,  business  houses,  etc.,  than 
among  the  dependent  classes  represented  by 
clerks.     See  Felo-de-BE;   Uara-Kjbi. 

Sn'idse.    See  Swine. 

Snleiman  (sO-lS  idKq')  ,  or  Soryman,  name  of 
Ottoman  sultana,  who  follow: 

SULEIUAH  I,  1406-66;  called  the  GREAT. 
His  rdgn  was  a  series  of  auccessfui  wars.  In 
1521  he  crushed  a  rebellion  in  Syria  and  cap- 
tured Belgrade;  1522  he  subdued  Rhodes,  e«- 
pelling  the  Knights  of  St  John  of  Jerusalem, 
whose  stronghold  it  had  been  214  years,  who 
found  an  asylum  in  Malta;  1526  he  broke  the 
Hungarian  power  at  the  battle  of  Mohaci,  slay- 
ing 25,000  Hungarians  and  bringing  to  Constan- 
tint^Ie  100,000  Christian  captives.  Venice  and 
Austria  paid  him  tribute.  He  conquered  Per- 
sian Kurdistan  and  partially  aubdued  Oeorgia. 
His  siese  of  Vienna  was  repulsed  in  1529,  and  is 
1552  the  Austrians  defeated  his  forces  with 
fearful  loss  in  their  Ave  months'  siege  of  Er- 
iau.  Instigated  by  his  favorite,  Roielana,  who 
sought  the  succession  for  her  son,  he  put  to 
death  bis  oldest  son,  Mustapha  (15S3),  En- 
raged with  his  son  Bayezid,  who  fled  to  Persia, 
he  paid  the  Shah  Tahmasp  400,000  gold  pieces 
to  msure  the  murder  of  the  Fugitive  and  of  his 
fcur  sons  (IGBl).  To  break  the  naval  power  ot 
Spain  and  control  the  Mediterranean  he  at- 
tacked Malta,  but  was  defeated  with  the  loss  of 
20,000  men  (1585).  Carrying  on  a  last  war 
with  Austria,  he  died  at  the  dege  of  SzigetJi 
(1606),  which,  after  an  heroic  resistance,  fell 
three  weeks  later.  During  his  reign  the  Otto- 
man Empire  reached  its  acme  and  l>^an  its  de- 
cline. 

ScLEiiLan  II  (1642-91).  Timid  and  incapa- 
ble, he  committed  the  administration  of  affairs 
to  his  vizier,  Kupruli  Zadek  Mustapha  Pasha, 
the  Virtuous,  who  was  slain,  with  28,000  Otto- 
mans, at  the  terrible  defeat  of  Selankemen 
(Au^st  19,  1091),  two  months  after  the  death 
of  his  master. 

SnIioUs  (sA'lI-Sts),  a  band  of  1,500  Albanian 
Christian  warriors  who  forced  the  Ottomans  to 
acknowledge  thdr  independence  about  1730. 
From  1799  to  1803  they  were  besieged  in  their 
mountain     tastneeses     by     Ali     Pasha;     their 


entnila,  and  expired.    Tho  Japanese  form  of  |  strongholds  were  gradually  captured,  despite 


SDLLA 

deflperate  nristanM,  And  ihtj  buStj  iutraa- 
dei«d  on  tftvorable  terma.  The  oonqueron  vio- 
lated  their  oath,  and  tuui,  vomen,  and  children 
were  indiacriminntelj  massacred.  Only  a  few 
escaped.  The  story  of  the  twenty-two  Suliote 
wwnen,  who,  rather  than  fall  into  the  ha^da  of 
the  Ottomana,  hurled  their  children  from  a, 
precipice  and  then  leaped  after  tbem,  is  every- 
where known.  Marco  BotiariB  waa  a  Suliote. 
They  were  avariciaue  and  haughty,  but  loved 
their  freedom  aboTO  all. 

Snlla,  or  SylU,  Lncina  Comeliua  (Felix), 
138-78  B.C.;  a  Boman  dictator.  The  family 
wae  originally  called  Kufinua  and  belonged  Ui 
the  Cornelia  gens.  In  107  b.c.  he  waa  dected 
qiUEstor,  and  was  sent  with  oeTalry  to  Africa 
to  aid  Mariua.  In  104  he  was  l^ate  under 
Marius;  in  103  he  was  military  tribune;  and  in 
102  he  left  Mariua,  who  had  become  jealous  of 
him,  to  anre  under  Q.  Catulus.  In  93  he 
Kained  the  pr«torahip  by  the  use  of  money.  In 
92  he  waa  sent  aa  propfEstor  to  Cilicia  to  re- 
store  Ariobarzanes  to  bia  kinedom  of  Cappado- 
cia,  from  which  Mithridates  had  expelled  him. 
In  the  Social  War  Sulla's  successes  far  out- 
shone those  of  Marina;  bis  moat  brilliant  ex- 
Eloits  were  in  SB,  when  bb  legate  of  the  consul 
.  Cato  he  destroyed  Stabiie,  subjugated  the 
Hir^int,  defeated  the  Samnites,  and  captured 
Bovianum.  In  88  he  became  consul,  and  was 
appointed  to  the  command  against  Mithrida- 
tea.  Mariua,  who  himaelf  desired  this  command, 
succeeded  in  driving  him  out  of  the  city.  He 
hastened  to  the  army  then  besieging  Nola,  per- 
suaded six  legions  to  march  under  him  against 
Rome,  and  drove  out  Marius. 

Early  in  ST  he  b^an  the  war  against  Mithri- 
dates. In  8<6  be  took  and  plundered  Athens, 
and  from  this  time  till  his  return  to  Borne  in 
S3  he  enjoyed  uninterrm>ted  success.  In  the 
meantime  Marius  and  L.  Cinna  returned  to 
Rome  and  were  elected  consuls.     Sulla 


bria.  In  84  Sulla  made  peace  with  Mitbridatea 
and  defeated  Fimbria.  Sulla,  after  exacting 
enormouB  sums  from  Asiatic  cities,  returned  to 
Rome,  shut  up  the  younger  Marius,  the  older 
being  dead,  in  PrMieate,  defeated  the  Eamnites 
and  Lucanians  before  the  CoUine  gate,  Norein- 
ber  1,  82,  and  then  took  PrEeneste,  ending  the 
Marian  war.  He  slaughtered  hia  Bamnite  pris- 
oners and  the  Pr^nestines,  and  the  younger  Ma- 
rius killed  himself.  Sulla  now,  as  dictator,  bad 
absolute  power  over  the  lives  and  property  of 
all  citizens.  A  reigti  of  terror  followed.  Tteah 
lists  of  proscribed  persons  constantly  appeared, 
till  Sulla  was  rid  of  hia  enemies.  In  80  he 
was  elected  codsuI,  and  in  80-70  he  introduced 
reforms  in  the  constitution  and  eetabtished  mil- 
itary colonies  throughout  Italy.  He  voluntarily 
resigned  the  dictatotahip  in  7B,  and  retired  to 
hit  estate  at  Puteoli,  where  he  devoted  bimaelf 
to  literary  and  sensual  enjoyments. 

Sullivan,  Sir  Arthnr  Seymour,  1842-1&00; 
English  composer;  b.  London.  He  was  early 
tramed  in  the  art,  dnging  in  the  Chapel  Royal 
when  a  child;  at  fourteen  gained  the  Mendels- 
sohn scbolarebip,  which  enabled  him  to  puraoe 
Us  studies  under  the  bert  masters.    For  "  The 


SULPHUR 

Tanpsat"  of  Shakespeare  he  oomposed  iniri- 
dental  music.  His  compositions  includa  over- 
turea,  symphonies,  songs  (including  "The  Lost 
Chord"),  and  piano  music;  the  operettas  "  Box 
and  Cox,"  "TliMpia,"  and  "Contrabandista  "; 
the  cantatas  "The  Bride  of  Neath  Valley," 
"  Kenilworth,"  and  "  On  Sea  and  Land "; 
the  oratorios  "The  Prodigal  Son"  and  "The 
Light  of  the  World,"  and  an  opera,  "The 
Sapphire  Necklace."  Sullivan's  greatest  siic- 
cesses  have  been  made  with  bis  comic  operas, 
in  which  he  had  the  invaluable  collaboration 
of  W.  8.  Gilbert  Beginning  with  "  H.  M,  8. 
Pinafore"  and  followed  by  "The  Pirates  of 
Penzance,"  "  Patienoe,"  "  lolanthe,"  "  The  Mi- 
kado," also  "  The  Yeomen  of  the  Quard," 
"  The  Gondoliers,"  etc.,  his  popularity  has 
been  greater,  perhaps,  than  that  Of  any  other 
English  composer.  He  also  wrote  a  grand 
opera  called  "  Ivanboe,"  which  did  not  prove 
a  succeaa 

Snllivan,  John,  1740-95;  American  general; 
b.  Berwick,  Me.  In  1774  he  was  a  member  of 
the  first  General  Congress.  In  June,  1776,  he 
waa  appointed  brigadier  general,  and  com- 
manded on  Winter  Hill  at  the  aiege  of  Boston. 
He  took  command  of  the  army  in  Canada  June 
2,  1776,  conducted  the  retreat  frran  the  prov- 
ince, was  commissioned  major  general  August 
10th,  and  in  the  battle  of  Long  Island,  August 
27tb,  contributed  to  the  preservation  of  the 
American  amy.  As  successor  of  General  Lee, 
he  led  the  right  at  Trenton  on  Christmas  night, 
1776.  On  August  22,  1T77,  he  made  a  bold  de- 
scent on  Staten  Island,  the  entire  success  of 
which  was  prevented  by  misconstruction  of  his 
orders.  At  the  battle  of  Brandywine  ha  com- 
manded the  right  wing.  He  defeated  the  Brit- 
ish left  at  Germantown,  but  mistakes  on  the 
American  left  changed  a  victory  into  a  repulse. 
August  29,  177S,  he  defeated  the  Indians  under 
Brant  and  Tories  under  Sir  John  Johnson,  at 
Newtown  (near  the  present  Elmira),  N.  Y.; 
member  of  Congress,  1780;  1782-86  he  was  At- 
torney-General of  New  Hampshire,  and  1788- 
89,  president  of  the  state;  1789-05  he  was  Fed- 
eral judge  of  New  Hampshire. 

Sully  (Bfl-ie'),  Hazimilien  de  Bethnne,  Baron 
of  Roany  (Duke  of),  1600-1641;  chief  minister 
of  Henry  IV  of  TVanoe.  A  skillful  adminis- 
trator rather  than  a  statesman,  be  made  no 
radical  changes,  but  reformed  the  finances  so  aa 
I  a   large   reserve,  and  greatly   devel- 


Snl'phates.    See  8uif  ntmic  Acid. 
Snl'phides^  compounds  of  sulphur. with  inet- 
als  or  other  elements. 
Snl'pUtet.    See  Sm.PHiTBoca  Acid. 

Sal'phnr,  or  Brim'stone,  an  element  abun- 
dantly distributed  throughout  the  earth  and 
the  sea.  It  occun  naUve  as  a  mineral.  It  is 
also  found  in  gypsum  and  in  a  great  variety  of 
metallic  sulphides;  also  dissolved  in  the  ocean 
as  sulphates.  It  is  an  essential  element  of  the 
blood,  mineles,  skin,  hair,  and  other  parts  of 
Boimala,  and  eiists  also  in  planta,  though  not 
It   u   (     '^      ■ 


in  the  woody 


I  evolvMl  tiao 


SULPHUBETS 

from  TolcMioca,  both  u  v»,fOi  of  mlphnr  and 

ComiDBrcUI  BUlphur  ts  th«  native  mincr^t 
purified  by  luaioD  or  further  b;  distillation  and 
•ubliDUitioii.  Depofita  of  sulphur  are  reported 
In  variouB  parts  of  the  U.  S.,  aa  Louisiana,  Xe- 
TBdA,  Texu,  aud  Utah,  but  the  chief  eource  is 
from  iron  p^rite.  Beflued  sulphur  (brimstone) 
and  Sowera  of  sulphur  are  product*  of  distilla- 
llan  and  sublimation.  Roll  sulphur  is  made  by 
pourins  tbe  melted  sulphur  into  molds. 

Sulphur  aasumes  various  forma  or  allotropic 
states,  which  differ  in  crystalline  or  amorphous 
appearance  and  in  their  solubility  in  various 
liquids.  Sulphur  on  heating  pastes  through  a 
succession  of  chaBKes,  melting  at  about  120°  C. 
to  a  thin  yellow  liquid.  If  again  cooled,  it  be- 
comes a  permanently  transparent  solid.  Above 
120*  the  sulphur  becomes  thick  and  viscid,  los- 
ing its  fluidity  altogether  and  assuming  a 
brown  color  at  about  2S0°  C.  At  300°  C.  the 
mass  again  becomes  liquefied.  At  440°  C.  1924° 
F.)  sulphur  boils,  forming  an  orange-yeliow  va- 
por. Some  of  the  sulphur-allotropes  are  soluble 
in  several  liquids,  such  as  bisulphide  of  carbon, 
oil  of  turpentine,  etc.  Sulphur  inflames  in  air 
at  a  remarkably  Ion  temperature — about  iB2° 
F. — burning  with  blue  flame  and  evolution  of 
suffocating  sulphurous  oxide,  SO,. 

Taken  internally,  sulphur  produces  little  ef- 
fect beyond  that  of  a  mild  and  somewhat  slow 
laxative.  Externally,  applied  as  an  ointment, 
it  is  a  powerful  parasiticide,  especially  useful  in 
the  itch  disease  Potassium  sulphide  is  a 
sharp  irritant,  and  in  large  dose  inUmally  a 
corroaiTe  poison.  It  may  be  used  Instead  of  the 
simple  sulpbnr  ointment  in  itch  and  other  skin 
diseases,  and  dissolved  in  water  as  a  bath  is 
used  in  skin  disease.  In  common  with  other 
Bulphldes,  it  is  used  a*  a  depilatory. 

Sol'phnieti.    Same  aa  Sulphides. 

Solphnreted  Hy'drogen,  or  Hydiosnlphur'ic 
Ac'idi  a  gas  whose  chemical  formula  is  SH,. 
It  occnra  naturally  in  some  mineral  springs  and 
in  volcanic  regions.  In  combination  with  am- 
monia, it  is  evolved  from  putrefving  organic 
matter,  such  as  rotten  eggs,  which  have  its 
ehatactcriitic  odor.  8H,  is  artificially  pre- 
pared by  the  aetion  of  a  dilute  acid  upon  cer- 
t^  sulphides,  and  is  much  used  in  analysis  to 
determine  the  presence  of  any  of  a  large  group 
of  metala  and  in  the  preparation  of  organic 
acids.  It  is  a  colorieea  gas.  When  inhaled  8H, 
caused  vertigo  in  some  persons,  though  in  oth- 
ers it  may  produce  no  apparent  effecL 

Snlphnr'Ic  Aeifl  aud  Sul'pbates,  a  compound 
of  sulphur,  E,SO,,  and  its  forms  of  combina- 
tion. Sulphuric  acid  is  called  also  oil  of  vit- 
riol, from  its  having  been  originally  obtained 
by  distillation  from  vitriol,  or  sulphate  of  iron. 
Tliia  acid  was  probably  known  to  the  Arabian 
protoehemfats.  Basil  Valentine,  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  first  mentions  the  making  of  sulphuric 
acid  I7  distilliog  Iron  sulphate.  The  mamifac- 
ture  by  bumingsulphur,  aa  now  practiced,  was 
introduced  in  Enriand  bv  Dr.  Roebuck  abt, 
ITEO.  The  general  method  la  to  bum  sulphur, 
either  as-  brimstone   or   metallic   sulphides.    ~ 


SCLPHUEIC  ACID  AND  SULPHATES 


from  a  mixture  of  saltpeter  with  sulphuric  acid. 
The  oxides  of  nitrogen  in  the  presence  of  water  . 
oxidize  the  sulphurous  acid  to  sulphuric  acid 
and  are  thHuselves  reduced  to  lower  forms, 
which,  in  the  presence  of  air,  are  couTeited  into 
higher  oxides,  among  which  is  nitrogen  perox- 
ide, NO,,  and  thus  again  react  with  sulphurous 
acid,  so  that  the  operation  of  a  limited  amount 
of  nitrous  fumea  is  continuous,  acting  as  a  cai^ 
rier  of  oxygen  to  the  sulphurous  dioxide  with- 
out consumption  of  it*  own  aubatance.  The 
product  precipitates  with  condenaiiig  steam 
upon  the  walls  and  fiooia  of  the  leaden  cham- 
bers as  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  which  ia  then 
concentrated^ — first,  in  pans  of  lead,  and  then 
the  boiling  down  is  completed  in  stills  of  glaa* 
or  platinum. 

Sulphuric  acid  is  an  oily,  colorless,  inodorou* 
liquid,  which  boils  at  620°  F.  and  freezes  at 
—  31°.  It  absorbs  water  rapidly  from  the  air, 
being  one  of  the  most  useful  aAcuta  for  drying 
air  and  absorbing  moisture  from  other  sub- 
stances. When  mixed  with  water,  great  beat 
is  developed.  Nordhausen,  or  fuming  sul- 
phuric acid,  ia  obtained  by  distilling  ferrie 
sulphate.  It  has  the  composition  E,S,Ot,  and 
is  considered  as  containing  sulphuric  trioxide 
SO,  or  as  H,SO,.SO,.  WTien  gently  heated,  it 
breaks  up  into  sulphuric  oxide,  which  distills 
over  end  condenses  as  a  solid  body,  and  ordi- 
nary oil  of  vitriol  remains.  Its  name  of  fummg 
acid  comes  from  the  fact  of  its  forming  white 
fumea  in  the  air.  Fuming  oil  of  vitriol  is  used 
for  dissolving  indigo  and  as  a  reagent  in  gas 
analysis. 

Among  the  products  of  science  and  art  that 
constitute  the  pillars  of  modem  civilization, 
sulphuric  acid  occupies  a  first  rank.  Probably 
no  other  except  iron  could  be  justly  ranged 
with  it  in  this  regard.  Indeed,  it  has  been 
stated  that  the  civilization  of  a  country  may 
be  gauged  by  the  amount  of  vitriol  it  c<m- 
BUmes.  This  will  appear  on  a  mere  enumera- 
tion .  of  some  of  the  products  necessary  to 
human  life,  health,  comfort,  luxury,  or  neces- 
sity, which  are  dependent,  ^irectly  or  indi- 
rectly, upon  sulphuric  acid  as  an  eesentiol 
agent  in  their  production:  soda  from  common 
salt,  and  through  this,  glass,  soap,  aluminum, 
magnesium  ;  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids,  upon 
which  depend  the  arts  of  refining  gold  and  sil- 
ver, with  the  electroplater's  and  photographer's 
arts;  artificial  mineral  waters,  all  the  t^ 
etable  acids  and  alkaloids,  alum,  ammonia, 
ultramarine,  the  aniline  colors,  bleariiing  pow- 
der, chrome  compounds,  chloroform  and  ether, 
and  matches,   artificial   fertillxers, 


phoaphoi 


Among  the  compounds  of  sulphuric  acid  with 
metals  are  many  of  commercial  value  and  im- 
portance which  are  described  under  the  heads 
of  the  different  metals.  The  following  ia  a 
more  complete  enumeration; 

J.IuttHnum  SulphatM. — Of  these  there  are 
spveral,  some  of  which  occur  as  native  min- 
crnls.  Tlie  normal  aulphate  is  AI,(SO.),. 
1RH,0,  constituting  the  mineral  alunogen, 
(See  also  Alcu.)  Ammonium  jSu^kato  (NH.),- 
S0„  a  Mpmmercial  salt  of  importaaoe,  made 


SDLPHUHIC  ETHER 

from  the  anmoDiacal  liquor  of  ^asworka,  ftnd 
used  as  a  fertilizing  agent.  Banum  Sitlphale, 
the  mineral  barite,  iaryiM,  or  keaoy  tpar 
(BaSO.l,  insoluble  In  water,  very  heavy,  and 
the  source  of  most  commercial  barium  com- 
pounds. It  in  Bold  largely  as  a  pigment  or  in- 
ferior Hubstitute  for  white  lead.  Caleiitm  8ul- 
pAoles,  represented  by  gypsum.  Copper  Sulphate 
^Blue  vilriol),  an  important  commercial  salt. 
Iron  Stilpkatea  {Copperas  or  green  vitriol), 
a  large  article  of  commerce,  Magnen^im  Sul- 
phate, Bpaora  Salt.  See  Maonesiuu.  Nickel 
Sulphate,  very  beautiful  green  cryetale.  This 
salt  is  of  commercial  importance  by  reason  of 
its  use  in  nickel  plating.  PataMeium  Sulp/tate, 
a  considerable  article  of  commerce  for  fertiliz- 
ing purposes,  for  which  it  has  great  power. 

Snlphoric  B'ther.    See  Etseb. 

Snlpic'ina  or  Snlpitina  SeVeins,  abt.  335- 
abt.  425;  ecclesiastic  and  author;  b.  Aqui- 
tania.  He  was  descended  from  a  noble  family, 
and  in  bis  youth  had  a  career  of  distinction 
at  the  bar  and  in  public  life  open  before  him. 
The  loss  of  his  wile,  to  whom  he  was  greatly 
attached,  led  him  to  abandon,  abt.  392  a.d., 
the  career  on  which  he  had  entered,  and  to  give 
himself  up  to  solitude  and  religious  medita- 
tion. He  entered  the  Church,  became  a  pres- 
byter and  a  devoted  admirer  of  St.  Martin  of 
Tours,  whose  life  be  wrote.  His  chief  writings 
ere  "  Chronica,"  in  two  books,  from  the  Crea- 
tion to  400  A.D.;  "Vita  S.  Martini,  Tres  Epis- 
toln,"  all  relating  to  his  patron,  St.  Martin, 
and  B,  sort  of  continuation  of  the  "Life"; 
"Dialog!  duo"  (in  some  editions  (re>)  ;  to 
these  are  added  "  Epistolse  Septem,"  though 
doubtfully  ascribed  to  Sulpicius, 

Snl'tan,  a  tjtle;  first  used  by  Mahmud  of 
Ghazni  (997-1030).  It  is  assumed  by  man^ 
Mussulman  sovereigns,  as  the  rulers  of  Zanzi- 
bar, Borneo,  etc.,  and  is  the  common  Eurojtean 
appellation  of  the  sovereign  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire,  who  is  sultan  of  sultans,  though  called 
by  his  Mussulman  subjects  Padithah.  The 
feminine,  sultana,  is  applied  to  the  mother  or 
daughter   of   a   sultan.      The   masculine   form 

S recedes  the  name,  as  Sultan  Mahmud;  the 
■miniue  follows,  as  Nacbshedil  Sultana. 

Sniu'  or  Snlnk'  Is'lands,  a  group  of  162 
small,  mountainous,  fertile  islands  in  the  In- 
dian Ocean,  extending  from  Borneo  to  Min- 
danao, Philippine  Isluids;  between  lat.  4°  44' 
and  6-  66'  N.,  and  Ion.  IIO"  SC  and  122"  30' 
E.;  area,  1,048  sq.  m.;  capital,  Sulu  (officially, 
Joio).  Pop.  76,000,  mostly  Malays,  addicted 
to  piracy  and  the  taking  of  slaves  till  con- 
quered by  the  Spaniards  in  1876,  and  since 
tnen  chi^^  engaged  in  pearl  fishing  and  col- 
lecting editile  birds'  nests,  the  Sulu  pearl  or 
ManiUi  shell  being  an  important  export.  The 
islands  yield  sandalwood,  teak,  sugar,  rioe,  cof- 
fee, apices,  metals,  and  fish.  The  largest  is 
Baailan  (4C0  sq.  m.),  adjoining  Mindanao  on 
the  N.  Spain's  claim  to  these  islands  was 
recognized  in  1886,  and  they  were  ceded  to  the 
U.  S.,  December  10,  1S08;  and  in  I89S  the 
Sultan  of  Sulu  lecognized  the  sovereignty  of 
the  U.  S. 


SXJMATRA 

Sn'tnac,  or  Samach,  any  plant  of  the  genus 
Bhu»,  which  includes  about  120  species,  mostly 
natives  of  warm  or  hot  climates.  In  the  U.  S. 
there  are  about  twelve  species  of  sumacs,  all 
of  which  are  shrubs  or  small  trees;  of  these 
the  most  common  is  the  well-known  smooth 
sumac  {Rhus  glabra),  which  is  ofteti  found 
covering  large  tracts  of  barren  ground,  where 
it  grows  to  a  height  of  from  2  to  12  ft.,  with 
compound  leaves  a  foot  long.  The  yellowish- 
green  flowers  appear  in  June,  and  have  a 
fragrant  odor.  The  -fruit  is  in  dense  crimson 
clusters  with  a  velvety  appearance  and  a  pleas- 
ant acid  flavor;  the  leaves  are  among  the 
earliest  to  take  on  their  autumn  colors  of  yel- 
low and  scarlet.  The  stag's-hom  sumac  (A. 
typhina)  sometimes  reaches  the  height  of  30 
ft.,  and  is  readily  distinguished  by  the  soft 
down  at  the  extremity  of  the  branches.  The 
dwarf  sumac  or  mountain  sumac  {B.  oopaU 
lina)  is  rarely  mote  than  6  or  8  ft.  high,  with 
dark  shining  leaves,  which  in  autumn  become 
a  rich  purple.  A  still  more  diminutive  species 
(R.  pumila)  is  found  in  the  pine  barrens  from 
N.  Carolina  southward.  The  fragrant  sumao 
(E.  aromatica)  ranges  from  Vermont  to  Flor- 
ida, and  as  far  westward  as  the  Rocl^  Moun- 
tains; its  leaves  are  among  those  which  are 
smoked  by  the  Indians  in  lieu  of  tobacco  under 
the  name  of  killikinick.  The  Toancodendnm 
group  of  the  sumac  family  includes  the  two 
species,  with  white  or  dun  berries  and  a  very 
"■■'■" "  foliage,  the  poison  oak  and  the  poison 


'"&.. 


formerly  consisted 
of  the  leaves  of  the  R.  ooriaria,  closely  resem- 
bling the  N.  American  stag's-hom  sumac,  cul- 
tivated in  Sicily,  and  used  in  tanning,  dyeing, 
and  calico  printing;  but  it  has  been  proved 
that  the  sumacs  of  the  U.  8.  are  quite  as 
valuable,  and  these  are  now  prepared  in  parts 
of  the  South.  The  Japan  wax  is  yielded  by  the 
K.  tuecedanea,  being  prepared  from  the  white 
coating  of  the  seeds  within  the  capsules.  The 
Japanese  lacquer  is  prepared  from  the  juice  of 
R.  vemicifera,  a  shrub  resembling  the  poison 
sumac  of  the  U.  S.  The  Chinese  galls  are  the 
result  of  the  deposition  of  the  eggs  of  an  insect 
on  the  leaf  stalks  and  young  shoots  of  B.  temv- 
alaia,  and  are  largely  imported  into  England 
for  ^ing  and  tanning.  Botanically,  the  su- 
mac family  (inaeanHacea)  includes  the  ca- 
shew and  pistachio  nuts,  and  the  mastic  and 
mango  trees. 

Sumatra  (sO-ndl'trft),  island,  extending  from 
NW,  to  SB.,  between  lai  5"  45'  N.  and  5°  65' 
S.,  and  between  Ion.  90°  40'  and  105°  6'  W., 
divided  by  the  equator  into  two  equal  parla: 
length,  1,115  m.;  breadth,  275  m.;  area,  162,- 
eoS  to  (with  coastal  islands)  about  180,000 
sq.  m. 

Through  its  length  Sumatra  is  traversed  by 
a  range,  Bukit  Barissan,  which  reaches  Its 
greatest  height,  0,655  ft.,  in  Ophir.  The  prin- 
cipal rocks  are  granite,  syenite,  gneiss,  mica, 
slate,  and  red  sandstone,  none  of  which  are 
found  in  Java,  whose  formation  is  entirely  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  Sumatra.  Six  volcanoes 
are  situated  near  the  eq^uator.  The  SE.  part 
is  rich  in  streams,  navigable  even  for  large 
vessels  U,t  into  the  interior.     These  streams 


StJUBAWA 

carry  large  maua  of  mud  anil  earth  to  tba 
sea,  the  result  of  which  ie  a  nmaiderable  ex- 
tension of  the  coast  line ;  at  the  same  time  the 
island,  like  Java  and  Borneo,  appears  to  be 
tibIdk  slowly  but  steadily.  The  climaf«  Tariei, 
but  II  generally  healthful,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Mw  coast  regions  to  the  W.  The  heat 
varies  on  the  coast  between  82°  and  80°  F.,  at 
an  elevation  of  from  2,500  to  3,000  ftu  between 
64°  and  73° ;  the«e  highlands  are  known  for 
their  healthful  climate.  The  monaoons  are  not 
BO  steady  and  r^ular  as  elsewhere. 

The  natural  productions  are  more  Tsried  and 
more  abnndant  than  in  any  of  the  other  is- 
lands. Of  metals,  gold,  iron,  copper,  and  tin 
abound ;  brown  coal  occuia,  but  not  anthracite. 
Petroleum  abounds,  and  is  exported.  Bice 
forms  the  principal  food,  then  sago,  beans,  and 
roots.  Among  the  fruits  are  many  which 
thrive  <mly  here,  and  cannot  be  introduced  into 
other  countries.  Of  trees,  the  Biderooylon 
(justly  called  iron  wood)  yields  the  best  wood 
for  shipbuilding,  it  being  so  hard  that  it  blunts 
the  sharpest  arrow ;  t^k  ia  not  found.  -  The 
most  important  plants  entering  into  commerce 
are  cotton,  black  pepper,  caoutchouc,  benzoin, 
gutta  percha,  dyestufiB,  and  camphor,  for  which 
the  island  was  celebrated  among  the  ancients. 
The  Dutch  have  introduced  coffee,  tobacco,  and 
cacao.  The  fauna  corresponds  nearer  to  that 
of  Borneo  than  to  that  of  Java.  Of  mammals 
there  are  eighty  species,  among  which  are  the 
elephant,  rhinoceros,  tapir,  tiger,  panther,  and 
bear;  among  the  many  species  of  apes  are  the 
oran^CKiutang  and  two  gibbons,  the  siamang, 
and  the  wau-wau;  the  buffalo  occurs  both  wild 
aud  domesticated;  the  horse  ia  small,  but  vig- 

The  pop.  ( with  coastal  islands ) ,  about  4,000,- 
000,  is  chiefly  Malayan.  Sumatra  was  the 
cradle  of  the  Malays  as  a  nation;  in  the  in- 
terior they  founded  the  empire  of  Manang- 
KabBU.    Next  to  them  the  Battas  are  the  most 


important  division;  thn  formerly  inhabited 
the  couutrv  N.  of  lat.  1°  N.,  but  the  population 
of  Achin  naa  separated  from  them,  and  they 


themselves  have  decreased  in  number.  The 
Malays  are  all  Moslems.  The  Battas  are  fetich 
wor^ipers,  and  addicted  to  cannibalism— a 
custom  which  the  Dutch  have  tried  in  vain  to 
abolish.  Ptolemy  calls  the  island  Atirea  Cher- 
tonetut.  The  Arabs  visited  Sumatra  abt.  800 
A.D. ;  Islamism  was  introduced  into  Achtn, 
1200;  Marco  Polo  landed  here  in  1290;  the 
Portuguese  under  Alvaro  Talesso  in  1500,  the 
I>uteh  in  I6ST ;  an  English  squadron  appeared 
before  Achin  in  1002.  The  Dutch  East  India 
Company  established  settlements  on  the  E. 
coast,  I61S.  Great  Britain  tried  to  compete, 
but  WHS  compelled  in  ITS3  to  return  all  its 
possessions  in  Sumatra  to  Holland-  In  1811 
It  once  more  occupied  the  island,  but  by  treaty 
of  March  17,  1S24,  exchanged  all  its  posses- 
sions in  the  archipelago  for  the  Malayan  penin- 
sula. Since  then  the  Dutch  have  been  occupied 
in  gradually  extending  their  conquests  over  the 
entire  island.  The  last  to  hold  out  were  some 
tribes  of  the  Battas  in  the  interior. 

SwnlM'wa,  island  of  the  Stmda  Islands, 
Dutch  EL  Indies,  E.  of  Java,  between  Lombok 
and  Fiona.     Area,  5,400  iq.  m.     It  is  high. 


mountainous,  and  vdcanic.  The  still  active 
volcano  Tambora,  on  the  N.  coast,  8,B40  ft. 
high,  caused  a  terrible  destruction  by  its  erup- 
tion in  1815;  the  ashes  fell  in  6un)atra,  S40 
m.  distant,  and  more  than  12,000  people  ara 
said  to  have  lost  their  lives.  Another  erup- 
tion, lees  destructive,  occurred  in  133S.  The 
principal  products  are  gold,  sulphur,  saltpeter, 
rice,  various  kinds  of  wood,  and  a  fine  breed  of 
horses.  The  inhabitants,  IBO.OOO  in  number 
and  closely  allied  in  habits  and  manners  to 
those  of  Celebes,  live  in  four  states  which  are 
under  Dutch  authority. 

Snme'iians,  the  people  who  are  believed  hy 
moat  Assyrian  scholars  to  have  occupied  Baby- 
Ionia  before  the  Semites  appeared  in  that  re- 
gion; to  have  invented  the  cuneiform  script; 
and  to  have  been  the  teachers  of  the  Bemjtea, 
by  whom  they  were  finally  displaced  or  ab- 
sorbed. It  would  seem  that  there  were  two 
branches  of  this  people — the  Sumerians  and  the 
Akkadians. 

Som'mer,  the  warm  season  of  the  year,  in- 
cluding astronomically  the  time  between  the 
vernal  and  autumnal  equinoxes,  or  from  about 
June  Slst  till  about  September  22d.  The 
calendar  summer  comprises  in  the  U.  S.  June, 
July,  and  August;  m  England,  May,  June, 
and  July.  The  Indian  summer  is  a  period 
of  warm,  pleasant  weather,  which  usually 
occurs  every  year  over  the  N.  portion  of  the 
U.  S.  after  the  autumnal  storms,  and  con- 
tinues often  without  ihterrupUon  two  or  three 

Summer  I>tick.    See  Wood  Duck. 

Summer  TeaL    See  GAsoAm. 

Snm'mong,  in  law,  a  writ  addressed  to  the 
defendant  in  a  personal  action,  admonishing 
him  to  appear  in  court.  It  must  contain  the 
names  of  all  the  defendants,  the  name  and  ad- 
dress of  the  person  taking  it  out,  and  the  date 
of  issue;  but  it  need  not  state  the  form  or  cauae 
of  action.  A  summons  should  be  served  on  the 
defendant  in  person;  but  if  reasraiabte  efforts 
are  made  to  do  this,  snd  the  defendant  is 
aware  of  its  issue,  the  judge  may  authoriie  the 
plaintiff  to  proceed  in  the.  action  without  per- 

Siim'ner,  Charles,  1811-74;  American  states- 
man; b.  Boston,  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Har- 
vard, 1830;  studied  law;  was  reporter  of  the 
U.  8.  Circuit  Court,  and  published  three  vol- 
umes ("Sumner's  Reports")  containing  de- 
cisions of  Judge  Story.  He  also  edited  the 
quarterly  Ainertcon  Jun'sl.  He  tonk  no  ac- 
tive part  in  politics  till  1846,  when  on  the 
Fourth  of  July  he  made  in  Boston  an  ora- 
tion, "  The  True  Grandeur  of  Nations,"  a  plea 
for  peace,  which  was  followed  by  a  succession 
of  public  addresses.  He  opposed  the  annexa- 
tion of  Texas,  on  the  ground  of  slavery.  Is 
the  Presidential  canvass  of  1848  he  support- 
ed the  Free  Soil  candidates,  Van  Buren  and 
Adams.  In  16SI  he  entered  the  U.  S.  Senate  as 
the  successor  of  Webster,  and  retained  his  seat 
till  his  death.  His  first  important  speech  waa 
in  oppoNtion  to  the  Fugitive  Slave  Act.  In  the 
debate  on  the  repeal  ot  the  Missouri  Compro- 


aUMPTtTARY  LAWS 

nuM  and  on  the  conteit  in  Kahmm  Snnmer  toolt 
a  prominent  part.  Hii  l&st  speech  upon  thia 
topic  was  delivered  on  Majr  lo  and  20,  \85C, 
and  was  printed  under  the  title  of  "  The  Crime 
AgkiUBt  KansaK."  Some  p&««ages  in  it  greatl; 
iac«nied  the  members  from  S.  Carolina,  one  ot 
whom,  Preeton  B.  Broolcs,  on  May  2241  assault- 
ed Sumner  while  he  was  writing  at  hie  deak  in 
the  Senate  Chamber,  and  with  a  cane  struck 
him  on  the  head  till  he  fell  to  the  door  inaen- 
Bible.  The  injury  thua  received  was  followed 
by  a  severe  and  long  disability,  from  which  his 
cecovery  was  not  complete  till  three  or  four 
years  later. 

Sump'tnary  Law*,  laws  to  restrict  and  regu- 
late private  ezpenditurea,  generally  aimed  at 
extravagant  outlays  for  food,  clothing,  or  fu- 
nerals. Such  laws  were  enforced  by  every  na- 
tion of  the  Old  World,  and  have  been  indulged 
in  even  by  the  modem  states  of  N.  America. 
For  example,  Massachusetts  thought  it  neces- 
sary at  one  time  to  r^^late  the  cost  of  funer- 
als. One  of  these  statutes  (10  Ed.  HI,  at.  3), 
ordaining  that  no  man  should  be  served  at  din- 
ner or  supper  with  more  than  two  courses,  ex- 
cept upon  certain  holidajrs,  when  he  might  be 
served  with  three,  was  not  repealed  until  the 
nineteenth  century. 

Sumptuary  laws  have  not,  howeTer,  always 
been  directed  to  check  extravagance.  In  Eng- 
land the  wearing  of  ailk  on  garments  was  pro- 
hibited so  as  to  promote  the  domestic  wool 
trade,  and  shrouds  were  required  to  be  of  wool. 
In  OUT  day  the  term  sumptuary  la  often  applied 
to  laws  restraining  the  liquor  traffic.  They  are 
dealt  with  "by  the  courts,  however,  aa  police 
regulations.  Under  the  Federal  arid  state  con- 
stitutions of  the  U.  S.,  with  their  guaranties 
of  individual  liberty,  it  is  held  that  the  habits, 
occupation,  food,  and  drink — the  life  of  the  in- 
dividual— are  severally  matters  for  his  own  de- 
termination, subjfct  only  to  considerations  of 
public  health  and  safety.     See  Fbobibition. 

Snm'ter,  Thomas,  1734-1832;  American  mili- 
tary ollicer;  b.  Virginia,  but  early  removed  to 
S.  Carolina.     In  1776  he  was  made  lieutenant 


mps  of  the  Santee,  and,  with  the  rank 
of  brigadier  general,  became  an  able  leader  of 
the  South.  Member  of  convention  which  adopt- 
ed the  Federal  Constitution;  member  of  Con- 
gress, 178e-S3  and  1797-1801;  U.  8.  Senator, 
1801-Si  minister  to  Bradl,  1809-11.  He  was 
the  last  surviving  general  of  the  Revolution. 

Sumter,  Fort    See  Fobt  Sumteb. 

Son,  for  us,  the  most  important  body  in  the 
universe,  next  to  the  earth.  It  is  the  center 
around  which  the  planets  revolve,  and  without 
its  vivifying  influence  the  earth  would  speedily 
be  envelope  in  a  mantle  of  ice,  on  which  no 
living  being  could  exist  In  volume  it  is  more 
than  a  milrion  times  that  of  our  earth ;  in  mass 
more  than  300,000  times.  Its  density  is  about 
one  tonrtb  that  ot  the  average  of  the  materials 
which  make  np  the  earth,  and  therefore  only 
about  half  as  much  again  as  that  of  water.  Its 
mean  distance  from  us  is  93,000,000  m.;  its 
diameter,  800,000  m.    The  force  of  gravity  on 


ita  lurfaM  la  tw«nty-MT«B  timaa  what  it  ta  on 
the  earth.  Under  such  circumatanoes  a  nan  at- 
tempting to  stand  up  would  be  crushed  to  death 
by  his  own  weight  Like  the  earth  and  plan- 
ets, the  sun  rotates  from  W,  toward  £.  on  an 
axis  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic.  The 
period  of  rotation  is  about  twenty-six  days. 

The  flood  of  heat  which  the  sun  sends  us  at 
its  enormous  distance  indicates  that  the  matter 
compoaing  it  is  intenady  hot — probably  more 
than  10,000°  F.  The  interior  must  be  at  a 
much  higher  temperature.  At  sucb  a  temper- 
ature as  that  within  the  sun  no  permanent 
chemical  combination  is  possible.  There  can  be 
only  an  indiscriminate  mixture  of  elements. 
We  must  regard  the  sun  as  a  mass  of  gas,  con- 
densed nearly  to  the  density  of  a  liquid  by  the 
pressure  of  its  own  mass.  The  visible  jHioto- 
sphere  is  Bometimes  supposed  to  be  partially 
solid.  It  may  be  that,  under  the  influence  of 
rapid  cooling,  the  substances  which  riae  to  the 
surface  are  constantly  condensing  to  solids,  and 
then  falling  down  again  are  once  more  melted 
by  the  heat  of  the  interior;  but  a  purely  gase- 
ous envelope  around  the  sun  would  increase  ■» 
rapidly  in  density  toward  the  interior,  owing 
to  the  immense  pressure  of  gravity,  that  it 
would  present  the  same  appearance  tbat  the 
sun  actually  does. 

Through  a  good  telescope,  under  favorable 
conditions,  the  photosphere  is  seen  to  have  a 
mottled  or  curdled  appearance,  looking  much 
like  a  plate  of  rica 
soup.  This  appear- 
ance probably,  arises 
from  a  constant  ris- 
ing of  currents  of 
heated  matter  from 
the  interior.  The  most 
striking  feature  of  the 
photosphere  is  formed 
by  the  spots,  which 
may  nearly  always  be 
seen  when  the  aun  is 
examined  with  a  tele- 
scope. When  examined 
with  a  high  power,  a  si 
seas  marked  pecuiiariti 
the  appearance  may  be  formed  from  Fig.  1. 
We  have  in  tiie  center  a  dark  portion,  called 
the  nucleus,  or  umbra,  which  is  commonly  of 
irr^ular  form.  The  word  dark  must,  however, 
be  interpreted  in  a  relative  sense;  though  ap- 
parently dark  hy  contrast,  the  spot  would  be 
intensely  bright  if  iaolated.  Around  thia  dark 
center  is  a  gray  fringe  intermediate  in  bright- 
ness between  the  nucleus  and  the  photosphere, 
which  is  called  the  penumbra,  and  has  a  striated 
or  fibrous  appearance,  being  composed  of  an 
immense  number  of  rootlike  filaments  directed 
from  the  outside  toward  the  center.  Groups  of 
minute  specks,  brighter  than  the  general  sur- 
face of  the  sun,  are  often  seen  in  the  neighbor- 
hood   of   spots   or    elsewhere,    and   are   called 

The  spofa  vary  in  size  from  the  smallest  viu- 
ble  points  to  objects  large  enough  to  be  seen 
with  the  naked  eye,  and  therefore  nearly  100,- 
000  m.  in  diameter.  The  spots  are  not  seen  all 
over  the  solar  disk,  but  oiUy  near  to  what,  in 
our  globe,  would  correapond   to  the  tropica. 


Thay  freqaentlr  Appaar  m  graniM  of  two  or 
three,  BometimM  more.  In  coniequcnce  ol  th« 
nin'B  rotation,  each  niot  loovtB  alawlj  ftcrou 
its  disk,  occupying  about  thirteen  days  from 
the  time  it  appears  on  <aw  aide  until  it  dioap- 
peara  on  the  other.  The  duration  of  a  qnt  is 
Tariable,  ranging  from  a  few  da.j»  to  aeveial 
months. 

Sun  spots  are  snppoaed  to  bs  cavitiei  in  the 
photoBphere,  or  cooled  portions  of  matter  floatr 
ing  upon  the  photoepliere,  or  down  riuKei  of 
matter,  carrying  the  cooler  portions  with  them. 
The  frequency  uf  the  sun  spots  goes  through  a 
fairly  regular  period  of  about  eleven  years.  In 
reoent  years  the  maxima  have  occurred  about 
the  years  1848,  1S60,  1870,  ISSl,  1892,  and  1904. 
Dunng  the  years  of  >"=vim„m  +>..  ...n  ia  rBTvW 
seen  -without  - — ■'- 


without  spots 


about  halt  the  time.  The  fact  seems  to  be  that 
the  variation  occurs  in  consequence  of  a  cycle 
of  changes  going  on  within  the  body  of  the  sun 
itsdf,  but  of  the  nature  of  those  changes  noth- 
ing is  known.  (See  Corona  snd  Ecupbb.)  The 
photoBphere  is  surrounded  by  a  comparatively 
thin  layer  of  vaporized  or  gaseous  matter, 
known  as  the  chromoBphere.  Continuous  with 
this  layer,  and  yet  poBsibly  having  a  different 
origin,  are  the  protuberances,  which  appear,  to 
consist  of  vast  ma«ees  of  flowing  gas  ejected 
from  the  sun  with  inconceivable  force,  the  ve- 
locity sometimes  amounting  to  200  m.  a  senmd. 
These  protuberances  exhibit  a  variety  of  fan- 
tastic forms,  Bometimes  appearing  like  immense 
flames,  sometimes  like  clouds  floating  above  the 
Bun  and  remaining  for  hour«,  or  even  days,  in 
the  same  region.  They"  are  more  frequently 
seen  in  the  neighborhood  of  sun  spots  than  else- 
where, vet  not  necetearily  over  the  spots.  Borne 
of  the  forms  are  shown  in  Fig.  2,  on  a  scale  on 
which  the  earth  would  be  r«pre*ented  by  a  globs 
of  barbap*  one  eighth  of  an  ineh  In  diamater. 

^e  coronal  lignt  can  be  plainly  seen  extend- 
ing to  a  distanoe  from  the  sua  neariy  equal  to 


SUN 

its  Mmldiametar,  but  it  also  shows  rays  or 
streamen  extending  to  much  greater  distances, 
even  millions  of  mijee  in  extent 

Magnetic  force  may  very  well  account  for  the 
structure  and  appearance  of  the  corona,  but 
the  difficulty  is  how  substances  of  any  sort  can 
remain  at  rest  so  near  the  sun,  under  the  enor- 
mous gravitating  force  of  the  latter.  The  coro- 
na has  lieen  described  as  a  solar  atmosphere, 
but  it  cannot  be  such  in  the  sense  in  which  we 
use  the  term.  The  fact  that  comets  have 
passed  through  its  snbstanca  with  a  speed  of 
several  hundred  miles  a  second,  without  suf- 
fering, so  far  BB  could  be  seen,  the  alighteat  re- 
tardation or  disturbance,  shows  that  there  can 
be  in  the  corona  no  substances  but  such  as  are 
of  the  utmost  tenuity — particles  so  light  that 
the  thinnest  air  would  be  as  lead  in  compari- 
son. It  has  been  suggested  that  these  parUclea 
may  be  held  up  by  electrical  repulwon,  or  that 
they  may  be  in  a  state  of  projection,  continu- 
ally thrown  up  from  the  sun  and  falling  back 
again  upon  its  surface.  A  comparison  of  the 
solar  spectrum  vrith  the  spectra  of  the  various 
elements  found  on  the  earth  shows  that  the  sun 

I  earth.  Uf  these,  calcium,  iron, 
and  sodium  are  among  those  most  strongly 
marked. 

The  question  whether  the  sun  aSectg  the 
earth  otherwise  than  by  its  tight,  beat,  and 
gravitation  is  one  with  which  science  is  busy, 
but  on  which  no  positive  conclusions  are  yet 
reached.  A  relation  between  the  period  of  the 
aurora  and  that  of  the  BUn  spots  seems  to  be 
not  improbable,  but  the  question  whether  auro- 
ras are  themselves  excitnl  by  actions  going  on 
in  the  sun  is  an  open  one.  To  our  ancestors 
there  was  no  apparent  reason  why  the  sun 
should  not  continue  to  lieht  and  warm  the 
earth  and  planets  forever;  out  modem  science 
shows  that  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  sun 
to  the  earth  involves  a  continuous  expenditure 
of  an  agent  called  energy,   of  which  the  sup- 

£is  necessarily  limited.  If  the  amount  o( 
t  falling  on  a  square  centimeter  were  trans- 
formed into  a  lifting  force.  Without  any  toss 
whatever,  it  would  raise  a  cubic  centimeter  of 
water  against  the  force  of  gravity  at  the  rate 
of  about  4,800  ft  per  minute.  A  Bimilar  com- 
putation shows  that  the  heat  #hich  the  sun, 
when  near  the  zenith,  radiates  upon  the  deck  of 
a  steamship  would  sufBce,  could  it  be  turned 
into  work  without  loss,  to  drive  her  at  a  fair 
rate  of  speed.  Considering  the  sun  simply  as 
a  hot  body,  it  would  be  cooled  by  the  heat 
which  it  radiates,  and  calculation  shows  that 
the  amount  of  heat  radiated  would  result  in  a 
cooling  of  6°,  more  or  less,  per  year,  accord- 
ing to  the  specific  heat  of  the  suhstaiiceB  which 
compose  it.  It  follows  that,  in  such  a  case,  the 
sun  would  cool  off  entirely  in  a  very  few  thou- 
sand years.  As  no  actual  cooling  seems  to 
take  place,  the  question  arises  how  the  heat  is 
kept  up. 

Two  theories  have  been  maintained.  One,  the 
meteoric  theory,  is  that  the  countless  meteors 
which  are  moving  in  ail  directions  through  the 
solar  system  are  continually  falling  into  the 
sun  and  BUpplytng  it  with  the  heat  generated 
by  the  impact.    Aa  to  this  theory.  ){  can  only 


oogle 


SITNBIRD 

be  said  that  it  teems  imposaible  tbat  meteoric 
matter  in  aufficient  quantity   could  be   falling 

into  the  Bun.  The  other  theory  is  that  the  he»t 
is  kept  up  by  the  contrac^tjon  of  the  sun's  vol- 
ume as  it  cools.  This,  however,  does  not  mean 
that  the  heat  would  last  indefinitely.  After 
contracting  to  a  certain  point  the  matter  com- 
posing the  sun  would  necessarily  begin  to  as- 
sume a  solid  or  liquid  form,  and  then  would 
rapidly  cool  off.  The  available  supply  of  en- 
ergy would  then  be  exhausted  forever,  and  our 
system  would  be  overtaken  by  eternal  cold  and 
darkness.  From  the  known  amount  of  heat 
which  it  radiates  we  can  even,  in  a  rude  way, 
calculate  the  probable  length  of  its  life.  From 
fifteen  to  twenty  millions  of  years  seems  to  be 
the  limit  of  its  age  in  the  past,  and  it  may  ex- 
ist a  few  millions  of  years,  perhaps  five  or  ten, 
in  the  future.  There  is  no  reason  to  appre- 
hend any  sudden  or  rapid  changes  in  the  sup- 
ply of  solar  heat.    See  Solaa  Stbteu. 

Snn'biid,  any  bird  of  Neclariniida,  inhabit- 
ing a  great  part  of  Africa,  S.  Asia,  and  Aus- 
tralasia. They  have  a  superficial  resemblance 
to  the  hiunminB  birds  in  their  smallness,  slen- 
der build,  brillTant,  often  metallio  colors,  and 


habits  of  feeding  from  flowers,  but  belong  to  a 
different  order,  the  passerines.  Their  to^  con- 
sists mainly  of  insects.  Their  nests,  which  are 
roofed  over,  are  swung  from  a  slender  twig  or 
the  tip  of  a  leaf;  the  eggs,  generally  three,  are 
white,  plentifully  sprinkled  with  grayish  gre«i. 
There  are  over  100  species. 

Snn'da  fs'lands,  the  chain  of  large  islands 
belonging  to  the  Malay  Archipelago,  which,  be- 
giuninif  with  Sumatra  and  ending  with  Timor, 
separates  tlie  Java  Sea  from  the  fndian  Ocean. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  indigenous  name 
'  of  the  W.  part  af  Java,  adjoining  the  Sunda 
Straits.  Most  of  them  belong  to  the  Nether- 
Sun  Dance,  a  ceremony  formerly  practiced 
by  the  Sioux,  Cheyennes,  and  other  Indian 
tribes  of  the  plains  to  propitiate  the  sun  ^od. 
As  it  involved  self-torture  and  other  ohjection- 
able  features,  it  has  been  suppressed  by  the 
Federal  authorities. 

Sun'day,  the  secular  name  of  the  first  day 
of  the  week,  which  is  held  among  Christians  as 
a  Eabbatb,  or  rest  day.  As  soon  as  the  Chris- 
tian religion  was  recognized  by  the  state,  laws 


SUNDAY  SCHOOLS 

were  enacted  for  the  observance  of  Sunday. 
Constantim  (321)  prohibited  all  business  ex- 
cept agricultural  labor  and  all  legal  proceed- 
ings except  the  manumission  of  slaves.  Subse- 
quent emperors  made  similar  enactments.  In 
England  Sunday  laws  were  of  very  early  ori- 
RJn.  The  common  law  distingnisbed  Sunday 
from  other  days  by  allowing  no  judicial  acts  on 
that  day.  The  statute  6  and  5  Edw.  VI,  c.  3, 
makes  Sundays,  with  Ghristmas,  Easter,  etc., 
holidays,  but  permits  work  in  harvest  and 
in  other  eases  of  need.  The  statute  1  Eliz.,  c- 
2,  punishes  by  fine  persons  absenting  themselves 
from  church  without  excuse.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  the  English  sUtutes  is  2B  Chas.  11, 
c,  7,  which  prohibits  all  worldly  labor  or  busi- 
ness {works  of  necessity  and  charity  only  ex- 
cepted), the  sale  of  goods,  traveling  for  pur- 
poses of  trade,  and  the  serving  or  executing  of 
any  process  or  warrant,  except  in  case  of  trea- 
son, felony,  or  breach  of  peace.  The  dressing 
of  meat  in  families  and  its  sale  in  inns  and  eat- 
ing shops  and  the  crying  of  milk  before  nine 
and  after  four  are  allow^.  This  st&tute,  later 
modified  by  laws,  is  the  present  Sunday  law  of 
Great  Britain,  and  lies  at  the  basis  of  the  Sun- 
day laws  of  the  tJ.  S.  The  early  laws  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, Connecticut,  Geoigia,  S.  Carolina, 
and  Virginia  also  compellea  attendance  at 
church.  In  most  of  the  states  common  labor 
and  traffic  are  prohibited;  contracts  made  or 
for  service  on  Sunday  are  invalid  i  public 
amusements  are  restricted  or  forbidden.  The 
constitutionality  of  Sunday  laws  has  been  de- 
cided frequently^  by  the  highest  state  courts. 
See  Sabbath;  Blub  Laws. 

Sunday  Let'ter.    See  Douikicai.  IiETteb. 

Sunday  Schools,  gatheringa  for  religious  in- 
struclion  and  worship,  in  which  the  learners 
are  clustered  in  classes  under  separate  teacheis, 
all  the  classes  being  associated  under  a  common 
head,  and  the  form  of  instruction  being  in- 
terlocutory or  catccheticaL  Although  many 
single  schools  were  of  earlier  date,  modem 
Sunday  schools  had  their  origin  in  a  movement 
begun  by  Kobert  Raikes  in  Gloucester,  England, 
July,  1780.  His  purpose  was  to  provide  in- 
struction in  reading,  and  in  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land catechism,  for  the  neglected  children  of 
that  city.  His  first  school  was  gathered  on  a 
Sunday  in  a  private  house  under  the  charge  of 
four  women,  who  were  employed  at  a  shilling 
a  day.  Its  forenoon  session  was  from  ten  to 
twelve  o'clock.  In  the  afternoon,  after  a  brief 
session,  the  children  were  conducted  to  the  par- 
ish church  for  a  part  in  worship,  and  were  after- 
wards' examined  in  the  catecnism.  The  Rev. 
Thomas  Stock,  a  parish  clergyman,  assisted 
Mr.  Raikes  in  this  work,  and  gave  an  extra 
sixpence  a  day  to  the  teachers. 

Descriptions  of  this  movement  called  atten- 
tion to  it,  and  it  soon  became  widely  popular. 
Volunteer  teachers  took  the  place  of  paid  ones, 
John  Wesley  introduced  its  plan  of  work  into 
ligious  operations.  The  success  of  the 
nent  was  quickly  assured,  though  it  met 
with  ecclesiastical  opposition. 

Among  the  Jews  religious  instruction,  apart 
from  that  which  was  given  in  the  faniUy,  seemi  _ 
to  have  been  practiced  in  the  daysj>f  Abraham 


.Ca)o>^Ic 


SUNDERLAND 

(Gen.  xiv,  14).  Accordins  to  Ui«  Talmud  and 
to  JceephuE,  a  s^Bteni  of  religiouB  Bchools  in 
connectiDit  with  the  ejn&gogues  was  organized 
in  the  century  before  Chriat.  The  die  of  cUssea 
woi  limited  to  the  capability  of  the  teacher. 
Seleirted  Bible  leseone  were  arranged  for  a  aeries 
of  yean.  Freeneaa  in  questions  and  anawers 
wsa  cultivated.  Such  luihaole  were  general  in 
Paleatine  in  the  day!)  of  Jesus, 

In  the  U.  S.  a  Sunday  school  was  organized 
under  the  direction  of  BiBhop  Aabury  at  the 
house  of  Thomas  Crenshaw,  in  Hanover  Co., 
Va.,  in  1780;  yet  little  is  Icnowu  of  it  save  its 
banning.  Now  Protestants  and  Roman  Cath- 
olics alike  recognize  its  importance,  and  it  is  in 
favor  among  the  Jews  as  among  Christians.  Its 
management  varies  according  to  the  ecclesias- 
tical systems  of  which  it  has  become  a  part, 
but  its  main  features  are  alike  throughout. 
According  to  the  statistics  reported  by  the 
Twelfth  International  Sunday  Scliool  Conven- 
tion (1908),  there  were  in  the  world  244,628 
Sunday  schools,  2,411,373  teachers,  and  22,- 
672,SS8  scholars.  In  the  U.  S.  there  were 
(1917)  195,276  schools,  1,959,918  officera  ami 
teachetB,  and  19,951,676  aeholars. 

StUl'dedaild,  town;  in  county  of  Durham, 
England;  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wear;  12  m. 
SE,  of  Newcastle'Upon''I^ne.  The  borough  in- 
cludes townships  on  the  S.  aide  of  the  Wear, 
and  Montcwearmouth  on  the  N.  side.  Sunder- 
land is  a  well-built  modem  town  with  broad 
streets.  It  has  large  piers  and  docks  capable 
of  reoeiviog-  the  lan^est  vessels.  The  shipments 
of  coal  and  coke  average  upward  of  4,01)0,000 
tons.  Glass,  earthenware,  iron,  lime,  cement, 
and  chemicals  are  also  exported.  The  principal 
imports  are  iron  ores,  timlier,  clialk,  and  agri- 
cultural produce.  Shipbuilding  is  largely  car- 
ried on.  In  Monkwearmouth  is  one  of  the 
deepest  collieries  in  the  world  (3S1  fathoms). 
Pop.  of  the  municipal  borough  (1911  census) 
151.]  e2. 


of  England  the  name  la  also   applied 
basking  shark.     (4)    It  ia  also  frequei 

Slied  by  sailore  to  floating  acaleplia  ( 
shes. 


jelly. 


)  Isaxairraaova 


Snn'dew.    See  Dbobeka  i 
Plants. 

Snn'aUL    See  Dui- 

Sim'fiaii,  a  name  given  to  different  aquatic 
animals  on  account  of  their  brilliant  colors, 
sllape,  or  habit  of  basking  in  the  sun.  ( 1 }  In 
the  U.  8.  and  Canada  it  is  most  frequently 
applied  to  fresb-natcr  fishes  belonging  to  the 
CentrarckidtB,  and  cliiefly  to  the  genus  Lepo- 
mis.  The  colors  are  alwavH  quite  brilliant. 
Hie  species  are  numerous.  The  best  Imown  in 
the  N.  states  are:  The  L.  gibboaus,  the  com- 
mon sunflsh  of  New  England  and  the  middle 
states,  and  is  recognizable  by  the  ear  flaps  being 
black,  tipped  with  scarlet,  and  by  the  orange 
spots  of  the  sides.  The  L.  aurttu*  has  long 
black  but  bluish-edged  ear  flaps.  The  L.  pal- 
lidut  baa  squarish  black  ear  flaps.  Wherever 
found,  Uiey  are  generally  among  the  most  com- 
mon fishes.  They  are  carnivorous  and  bold, 
and  talce  a  hook  Intited  with  the  conmton  earth- 
worm. Many  of  the  species  build  curious  nesta. 
<2)  On  the  sea  coast,  to  some  ertent,  but  more 
especially  in  Great  Britain,  the  name  is  given 
to  species  of  OrthagorUOa  or  liola,  fishes  of 
an  almost  circular  outline.  (3)  In  some  parts 
»r  1 


Sun'flower,  the  EeliantKu*  otmuua;  a  coarse 
and  tall  annual  plant  of  the  Compositm.  It 
is  often  seen  in  gardens.  It  is  a  native  of  the 
Great  Plains  of  N.  America,  where  it  grows 
in  abundance.  In  Europe  the  plant  is  raised 
for  its  seeds,  which  afford  a  good  drying  oil, 
nearly  equal  to  linseed.  The  leaves  are  ted  to 
cattle,  the  seeds  to  poultry,  and  the  flowers 
yield  honey.  In  tropical  America  the  sun- 
flower often  attains  a  height  of  20  ft.,  and 
produces  a  flower  I  to  2  ft  in  diameter.  In 
8.  Europe  it  is  cultivated  as  a  field  crop  for 
its  seed.     See  Coufosites  for  illnatration. 


Sun'stioke,  or  Thet'mic  Fe'vei,  a  fever  due 
to  tlie  effect  of  ei(cessive  beat  or  of  exposure 
to  the  direct  heat  of  the  sun,  on  the  nervous 
centers  at  the  haae  of  the  brain.  Reduction 
of  the  excessive  fever  by  application  of  cold 
water  or  ice  to  the  l>ody  of  the  patient  Is  the 
first  requisite  treatment.  Where  the  circula- 
tion is  failing,  digitalis  should  be  given  hypo- 
dermatically.  Heat  exbaustion,  due  to  exertion 
while  subjected  to  heat,  is  diaracterized  by 
depression    of   the    temperature    of   the    body, 

fillor,  and,  in  severe  forms,  unconsciousness, 
lie  use  of  external  heat,  and  such  stiinulantA 
as  digitalis,  atropine,  and  strychnine  roust  be 
resorted  to.  In  both  forms  of  the  disease, 
prompt  treatment  may  avert  death  from 
paralysis  of  the  controlling  mechnnism  of 
respiration  and  circulation  in  the  brain. 

Sun  Wor'ship,  commonly  regarded  as  one  of 
the  characteristic  features  of  the  religion  of 
ancient  Persia.  The  Peruvians  of  old,  wlio 
worshiped  every  aspect  of  nature,  paid  the 
chief  honors  to  the  sun.  The  Egyptians,  the 
Greeks,  the  Italians  of  antiquity,  and  tbe  Celtic 
and  Teutonic  rants,  the  E.  Indiana,  and  some 
Africans,  were,  as  some  heathen  Taces  still  are, 
sun  worshipers.  Sun  worship  is  one  of  the 
most  widely  diffused  forma  of  nature  worship, 
the  genial  and  fructifying  warmth  and  bright- 
ness, the  mystoriouH  nature,  and  the  constant 
course  of  the  great  luminary  appealing  power- 
fully   to   the   religious   feelings   of   the   ruder 

Supereioga'tion,  Works  of,   in  the  Roman 

Catholic  Churcli,  good  works  performed  by  a 
Christian  over  and  above  his  simple  duty. 
These  works  constitute  a  fund  of  merit  which 
is  applied  to  the  relief  of  aouls  in  purgatory. 
The  definition  is  based  on  a  distinction  betwera 
what   is   commanded  and   wliat   is  only  conn- 

Snpe'rior,  ci^;  capital  Douglas  Co.,  Wis.; 
at  the  head  of  Idike  Superior,  opposite  Duluth, 
Klinn.  It  has  three  perfect  landlocked  harbors, 
all  connected,  with  total  length  of  13  m.  and 
width,  1  to  3  m.;  an  imporSint  railroad  cen- 
ter. The  climate  ia  crisp,  dry,  and  healthful, 
with  average  temperature  for  twenty  years, 
"*    average  number  of  fair  days  m^  annum,, 


(Coogle 


SXn^RIOR,  LAKE 

2G0.  The  water  supplj  is  from  Lake  Superior, 
and  the  sewerage  sjat^m,  pUimed  when  the 
city  was  laid  out,  is  sufncient  for  a  cit;  of 
1,500,000  people.  The  mamifacturee  are  chiefly 
flour,  lumber,  lath,  ahinglea,  iron,  chairs,  bar- 
rels, bags,  coke,  and  woolen  goods.  Besides 
the  shipping  facilities  furnished  by  the  rail- 
ways, the  cil^  has  eiceptional  facilities  for 
receiving  and  shipping  freight  by  water.  Pop. 
(1910)   est.  at  40,384. 

SnperiDi,  Lake,  the  largest  of  the  Idoren- 
tian  chain  of  lakes.  It  is  the  largest  fresh- 
water lake  in  the  world  and  the  largest  inland- 


Superior  in  size  is  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza  (> 
mated  27,000  sq.  m.).  The  mean  elevation  of 
the  surface  of  Lake  Superior  is  602  fL  above 
the  sea  and  20  ft.  above  La^e  Huron,  into 
which  it  dischargee  through  fit.  Mary's  Biver. 
Its  greatest  measured  depth  is  1,008  ft.  Its 
hydrographic  basin,  includmg  the  lake  surface, 
has  an  area  of  about  B5,000  eq.  m.  The  dis- 
charge through  Bt.  Mary's  River  is  estimated 
at  sS.OOO  cu.  ft  per  second.  In  the  deeper  por- 
tions of  the  lake  the  temperature  varies  little 
from  3B°  F.,  the  temperature  of  water  at  its 
maximum  density. 

The  boundary  between  Canada  and  the  U.  S. 
passes  through  the  lake,  about  one  third  of  the 
area  of  the  lake  betongit^  to  the  Dominion, 
ihe  N.  shore  is  formed  of  crystalline  locks,  and 
in  places  is  bold  and  picturesque.  The  S.  shore 
is  moatly  low  and  covered  with  blown  sand, 
glacial  deposits,  and  fine  pinkish  clays,  which 
were  deposited  from  the  lake  during  a  former 
high-water  stage,  when  it  extended  for  many 
mHes  8.  of  its  present  boundaries.  The  Pic- 
tured Bocks,  about  100  m.  W.  of  the  outlet  of 
the  lake,  are  Clio's  of  sandstone,  formed  by  the 
edges  of  nearly  horizontal  strata,  and,  together 
with  other  bold  features  about  the  lake,  are 
remnants  of  an  old  topography  which  was  fash- 
ioned by  stream  erosion  and  weathering  pre- 
vious to  the  Glacial  period.  The  land  boraering 
Lake  Superior  is  not  well  adapted  for  agricul- 
ture, but  neb  deposits  of  copper  and  iron  and 
abundant  forests  of  pine,  together  with  flsberies 
and  facititiee  for  transportation  which  the  lake 
aD'ords,  have  led  to  rapid  developments. 

Sappi  (sOp-plL'),  From  tod,  1820-06;  Aus- 
trian opera  composer,  whose  baptismal  name 
was  Francesco  Ezechiele  Ermengildo  Cavaliere 
Supp£  Demelti.  He  very  early  manifested 
musical  talent,  and  at  fifteen  composed  a  maso. 
After  study  with  the  best  masters,  be  became 
conductor  at  the  Josephstadt  Theater,  Vienna, 
succeeded  by  other  similar  engagements.  His 
first  operatic  work  was  "  Sommernachtstraum," 
founded  on  Shakespeare,  in  1844.  Then  came  a 
long  list  of  operettas.  In  the  U.  S.  he  is  best 
known  by  his  "  Fatinitza,"  "  Boccaccio,"  and 
his  overture  "  Poet  and  Peasant" 

Snp'per,  Lord's.    Bee  Eucbabist. 

Snppnia'tion,  a  form  of  inflammation  which 
goes  OB  to  the  development  of  pus  or  matter, 
as  in  abscesses,  inflammations  of  the  mucous 
membranes,  and  in  wounds.  Although  pus  may 
be  otherwise  produced,  for  practical  purposes  it 


SURGKRY 

may  be  regarded  as  the  result  of  a  conflict  be- 
tween invading  pus-producing  bacteria  and  the 
white  blood  cells.  In  studying  the  process  mi- 
croMopically  it  is  found  that,  as  in  other  forms 
of  inflammation,  the  white  blood  corpuscles  of 
the  blood  leave  the  vessels  and  accumulate  in 
the  tissues;  at  the  same  time  a  quantity  of  the 
fluid  part  of  the  blood  exud^.  Eventually  the 
cellular  exudate  softens  by  d^eneration  and 
yellowish  pus  results.  At  the  same  time  the 
surrounding  tissues  produce  a  wall  of  young 
cells  around  the  suppurating  focus,  and  thus 
an  abscess  with  a  retaining  wall  is  formed.  The 
true  pus  corpuscle  is  a  white  blood  coipuscle 
which  has  emerged  from  the  blood  vessela  and 
undergone  more  or  less  degeneration.  > 

The  ^mptoms  indicative  of  suppuration  are 
those  of  inflammation — heat,  redness,  pain,  and 
swelling;  ,but  the  pain  has  often  a  peculiar 
throbbing  character,  and  the  swelling  is  found 
to  be  fluctuating  or  elastic  In  addition,  £;en- 
cral  fever  of  irr^ular  type,  sweats,  or  chills 
may  be  noted;  and  general  infection  (pysmia 
and  septiCKmia)  may  occur.  The  treatment  of 
suppuration  consists  in  abortive  measures,  and, 
these  failing,  in  meaauros  to  promote  "  point- 
ing "  and  in  the  evacuation  of  the  abscess.  Ap- 
plications of  cold  are  most  useful  for  the  first 
purpose;  for  the  second,  heat,  and  especially 
poultices.  After  the  development  of  fluctuation, 
incision  should  be  made,  the  pus  cavity  cleaned, 
and  then,  if  necessary,  packed  so  that  it  may 
drain  and  granulate  from  the  bottom. 

Snprem'aey,  Act  of.    Bee  Act. 

Snraba'ya,  town  on  the  N.  coast  of  Java; 
capital  of  the  Dutch  province  of  Surabaya;  op- 
posite Madura,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kedlri.  It 
has  a  good  harbor  and  is  strongly  fortified.  It 
is  a  station  on  the  railway  from  Surokarta  to 
Probolingo,  communicates  regularly  with  Sama- 
rang,  Batavia,  and  other  places  by  steamboats, 
and  carries  on  an  important  trade,  exporting 
annually  rice,  coflfee,  cotton,  su^r,  tobacco, 
and  cocoanuts.  Its  shipbuilding  is  also  exten- 
Kive.  Pop.  (1905)  150,196,  of  whom  8,063  ftre 
Europeans,  the  rest  Javanese,  Malays,  and 
Chinese. 

Surakar'ta,  town  of  Java;  capital  of  the 
Dutch  residency  of  Surakarta;  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Solo;  connected  with  Bamarang  and  Su- 
rabaya by  railway.  It  contains  a  magnificent 
palace  of  the  native  emperor,  who  lives  here  as 
a  pensioned  rather  than  as  a  tributary  prince; 
the  Dutch  fortress  is  opposite  the  Kmperor's 
palace.  The  trade  is  very  latge,  especially  in 
pepper,  vanilla,  and  cacao.    Pop.  (1900)  109,469. 

Snrat',  town  in  Bombay,  British  India;  on 
the  Taptee.  It  is  0  m.  in  circumference,  and 
surrounded  by  walls  surmounted  by  towers.  It 
is  said  to  have  had  BOO.OOO  inhabitants  at  the 
end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  its  manu- 
factures died  out,  Its  trade  is  lost,  and  many 
of  the  Dutch,  French,  and  Portugese  establish- 
ments are  deseried.  'The  place  is  most  impor- 
tant from  a  military  point  of  view.  Pop. 
(1901)   119,306. 

Sure'ty.    See  Guxbantt;  Scbfitbhip. 

Sur'geiy,  that  branch  of  medical  science 
which  has  for  its  object  the  treatment  by  man- 


SURGERY 

ual  operatioiu  of  aJI  ImImu  or  mftlfonuktioiu 
of  the  human  bod;.  Pictures  bave  been  found 
'  amon^  GgTption  and  Aasyrian  ruins  display- 
ing  instrumenta  and  operations  not  unlike 
manT  in  use  in  modem  timea.  The  BUi^cal 
attammenta  of  the  early  Qreekt  seem  not  to 
have  extended  further  ttian  the  extraction  of 
darts,  the  suppression  of  hemorrhage  fay  pres- 
sure or  styptics,  and  the  application  of  lenitive 
salves.  Homer  says  that  when  the  warriors  at 
the  Trojan  siege  sustained  fractures  of  the 
bones,  recourse  was  had,  as  when  pestilence 
arose,  to  invocations  to  the  gods.  Uippocrat«8, 
fa.  abt.  4QD  B.C.,  commeD^ed  some  operations 
that  have  only  of  late  years  been  acknowledged) 
to  be  legitimate  surgical  resources,  such  as 
tapping  the  chest  for  emjiyema,  nephrotoniy 
for  calculus  lodged  in  the  kidnev,  and  trephin- 
ing the  skull  for  pergiatent  headache.  He  was 
familiar  with  cataplasms  and  venesectioD  and 
cupping;  with  operations  on  ranula,  nasal 
polypi,   and  ganglia;   with  the  treatment  of 

Siles  and  flstulc  by  ligature;  with  tapping  in 
ropsies.  Eraaistratus  was  a  bold  surgeon, 
not  hesitating  to  excise  portions  of  the  liver 
and  spleen ;  he  invented  a  metal  catheter. 
Aretcus,  of  Cappadocia,  about  the  first  century 
AJ>„  opened  atwceases  of  the  liver  and  used  the 
trephine  for  the  cure  of  epilepsy.  Rhazes 
(BS2-932  A.D.) ,  of  Bagdad,  cauterized  the  bites 
of  rabid  animals.  Guy,  of  Chauliac,  who  prftc- 
ticed  in  Avignon  in  the  fourteenth  century. 
flrat  mentions  the  Cesarean  operation,  and  de- 
scribed the  use  of  weights  to  keep  the  lower 
limb  extended  in  cases  of  fracture  (now  called 
the  "  American  method  "}.  Ambrose  Far^  tied 
the  arteries  with  ligatures  after  amputation. 
In  tha  U.  S.,  Dr.  Wm.  Shippen,  of  Philadel- 
phia, in  1703  first  dElivered  lectures  on  anat- 
omy and  surgery,  and  the  first  medical  school 
in  America  {the  Univ.  of  Pennsylvania)  was 
founded  by  Dr.  Morgan  in  ITSS.  John  Collins 
Warren,  of  Boston  ( 1778-1860 ) ,  wroU  a 
treatise  on  tumors,  and  wa4  the  first  to  per- 
form (October  16,  184G)  an  operation  of  im- 
portance on  a  patient  anesthetized  by  ether. 
Durgery  was  revolutionized  in  the  nineteenth 
century  by  the  introduction  of  anastheties,  and 
the  antiseptic  methods  adopted  as  a  result  of 
increased  knowledge  of  the  function  of  bacteria 
in  disease.  By  skin  grafting,  large  ulcerated 
surfaces  caused  by  bums,  etc.,  can  now  be 
healed,  though  formerly  abandoned  as  incur- 
able. Nerves  are  cut  or  stitched;  the  skull  is 
opened  to  permit  the  arrest  of  bleeding,  the 
evacuation  of  abscesses,  and  the  removal  of 
tumors  the  exact  site  of  which  has  been  deter- 
mined beforehand  by  the  rules  of  cerebral 
localication.  The  thorax  is  cut  into  for  the 
relief  of  empyema,  or  even  morbid  conditions 
of  the  lung  itself,  and  after  evacuation  of  the 
pleural  contents  reaccumulation  is  prevented 
Dj  tecuring  free  drainage;  and,  in  cases  of 
stab  wounds,  stitches  have  been  made  in  the 
walls  of  the  heart.  Hardly  any  organ  of  the 
abdominal  cavity  but  is  subjected  to  explora- 
tion, ^nd,  in  cases  otherwise  incurable,  to  com- 
plete or  partial  removal.     See  Medicine. 

Snrinam'.    See  Guiana  (DutoA). 
Sttnnvllet     See  Muuxr. 


Siir'i«T>  Henry  Howard  (Earl  of),  abt. 
1SI6-47;  English  poet.  He  was  the  eldest  son 
of   Thomas   Howard,  third    Duke   of   Norfolk, 


earned  the  rank  of  field  marshal.  After  the 
taking  of  Boulogne  he  became  its  governor, 
and  continued  the  war  with  advantage  luitil 
January,  1546,  when  he  met  with  a  reverse, 
which  induced  the  king  to  recall  him.  Sur- 
rey's comments  on  this  action  offended  Henry, 
who  imprisoned  him  for  a  sbort  time  in  the 
Tower.  December  12,  1646,  Surrey  with  his 
father  was  again  arrested  on  a  charge  of  trea- 
son, for  quartering  the  royal  arms  with  his 
own.  Surrey  proved  conclusively  bis  right  to 
assume  the  royal  arms ;  yet  he  was  condemned 
and  executed  about  a  week  before  the  death  of 
the  king.  His  works  consist  of  sonnets,  ama- 
tory verses,  elegies,  paraphrases  from  the 
Scriptures,  and  translations  of  the  second  and 
fourth  books  of  the  ..Eneid.  They  are  the  ear- 
liest use  of  blank  verse  in  Bnglish  poetry. 

Snirey,  county  of  England,  bordering  N.  on 
the  Thapies;  area,  758  sq.  m.  In  the  N.  part 
the  soil  is  very  fertile;  in  the  S.  it  consists 
mostly  of  day,  chalk,  and  iron  sand ;  in  the 
whole  W.  psrt  the  land  is  heath.  Wheat,  hops, 
and  vegetables  are  raised;  hogs  and  poultry 
are  reared.  Near  London  are  many  factories. 
The  county  contains  much  wood,  and  the 
beauty  of  the  scenery  and  the  proximity  to 
London  have  attracted  many  residents  to  Sur- 
rey, which  is  studded  with  mansions  and  villas. 
Pop.    (1911)   eT0,9B0. 

Sur'TOgate,  one  appointed  as  a  substitute 
for  another,  and  particularly  an  officer  ap- 
pointed to  act  in  the  place  of  a  bishop,  or  of 
a.  judge,  in  matters  relating  to  marriages  and 
to  probate  jurisdiction.  In  England  the  surro- 
gate's principal  function  now  is  dispensing  li- 
censes to  marry  without  banns.  In  some  states 
of  the  U.  B.  the  term  is  employed  to  designate 


period,  during  which  the  governor  of  a  colony 
was  vested  with  full  authority  and  jurisdiction 
over  matters  of  probate,  but  exercised  them 
through  local  delegates  or  appointees.  In  the 
U.  S.  the  courts  exercising  such  jurisdiction 
bear  various  titles,  such  as  probate  courts,  or- 
phans' courts,  parish  courts,  county  courts,  or 
courts  of  the  ordinary.  As  a  rule  they  are 
tribunals  of  limited  jurisdiction,  whose  proced- 
ure and  authority  are  prescribed  by  statutes. 
In  some  jurisdictions  surrogates  or  probate 
courts  have  the  power  to  appoint  guardians 
for  Infants  and  imbeciles,  to  hear  and  deter- 
mine disputes  affecting  estates  before  them  for 
administration,  to  entertain  and  dispose  of 
proceedings  for  the  sale  of  real  estate,  and 
even  to  administer  the  estates  of  insolvent 
debtors.  As  a  rule  these  courts  do  not  possess 
a  general  equity  jurisdiction. 

Sturey'inK,  the  art  of  measuring  land  for 
determining  areas,  locating  lines,  and  making 
maps.  Surveying  is  supposed  to  have  orig- 
inated in  E^^t,  where  property  lines  were 
annually  obliterated  b^  the  inundation  of  the 
Nile.    Plane  surveying  is  divided  into  land  aur- 


veyinr  to  determine  proper^  lines  and  aieu 
of  fields ;  topographical  surveying,  which  pro- 
ducei  laaps  showing  the  undulations  of  the 
surface,  the  forests,  swamps,  and  waters; 
hydrographic  surveying,  whieh  locates  rocks, 
shoals,  and  all  the  features  of  bays  and  rivers ; 
mininK  surveying,  which  locates  the  under- 
ground passages  and  shafts  of  mines;  railway 
surveying,  which  establiahae  the  best  routes 
and  grades  for  railway  lines;  and  city  survey- 
ing, which  deals  with  streets,  sewers,  and  water 
supplies.  Qeotogical  surveying  notes  the  out- 
crops of  rock  formations,  and  lays  them  down 
on  topographical  maps,  tJie  field  operationa  be- 
in^  usuallj'  of  the  nature  of  a  rough  recon- 
naissance. Geodetic  surveying  extends  over 
areas  so  large  that  it  Is  necessary  to  take  into 
account  the  curvature  of  the  earth.  See  Coast 
AND  Geodetic  Survey  ;  Geodest. 

The  Gunter's  chain  of  66  ft.,  the  engineer's 
chain  of  100  ft.,  and  tape  lines  of  various 
lengths  are  used  for  measuring  distances.  By 
the  use  of  the  compass  and  transit  for  measur- 
ing angles,  many  distances  can  be  computed 
from  a  few  measured  ones,  and  the  work 
greatly  expedited  and  economized.  The  com- 
pass determines  the  bearings  of  lines  with  re- 
spect to  the  magnetic  meridian,  while  the  tran- 
sit measures  angles  on  .  a  graduated  limb. 
Leveling  instnunents  and  rods  are  needed 
for  determining  elevations  and  diOerences  of 
heights.  In  topographical  work  the  plane  table 
and  stadia  rods  are  used  in  connection  with  a 
triangulation.  (See  Stadia  Mzasubkmeht. ) 
Instead  of  using  a  chain  the  distances  may  be 
approximately  found  by  pacing,  or  by  walking 
over  the  tinea,  and  counting  the  ateps. 

Two  methcidB  of  finding  the  distance  AX 
across  a  river  are  shown  in  Fig.  1.  By  the 
first  method  a  parallelogram,  ABGD,  is  laid 
out,  AB  being  a  prolongation  of  XA;  then  E 
is  marked  on  AD  at  its  intersection  with  CX. 
The  distances  AB,  AE,  DE  being  measured, 
the  distance  AX  is  computed  by  multiplying 
together  AB  and  AB,  and  dividing  the  product 
by  DE.    By  the  second  method  XA  is  produced 


to  B,  and  a  stake,  C,  placed  at 
point;  then  D  and  E  are  taken  ( 
so  that  they  are  in  line  with  X. 
AB,  BD,  DC,  CE,  and  EA  being 
distance  AX  is  equal  to 

ABXAEX  CD 
nDX.CE  —  AEXC 


iny  convenient 
n  BC  and  AO, 
fhe  distances 
measured,  the 


BURTUYINQ 

A  method  of  6i>diiig  the  length  of  an  inac- 
cessible line,  XT,  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  A 
stake  is  flrst  placed  at  any  convenient  point 
A,  two  stakes,  B  and  0,  at  points  on  AX  and 
AT,  and  a  fourth  stake,  i),  so  as  to  maka 


ABCD  a.  parallelogram.  Then  E  and  F  are 
placed  on  BD  and  CD  at  their  intersections 
with  CX  and  BY  respectively.  The  distances 
AB,  BD,  DF,  and  EF  being  measured,  the  dis- 
tance XT  is  equal  to 

ABXBDX  EP 


DEXDF 
The  area  of  a  field,  as  ABODE  in  Fig.  3, 
may  be  found  by  dividing  it  into  triat^les  by 
either  of  the  methods  stiown,  measuring  all 
the  lines,  and  then  computing  the  area  of  each 
triangle  separately.  To  find  the  area  of  a 
triangle  whose  three  sides  are  known,  add  the 


three  sides  together,  and  take  half  the  sum; 
from  the  half  sum  subtract  each  side  sep- 
arately, multiply  together  the  half  aum  and 
the  three  remainders,  and  the  square  root  of 
the  product  will  be  the  area. 

A  map  of  an  island  or  irreRular  field,  ns  in 
the  second  diagram  of  Fig.  3,  may  be  made 
by  staking  out  a  polygonal 
area   ABODE,   and  mens-    . 


tral  point.     Then  perpen- 
dicular   lines,    called    off- 
sets, are  set  off  from  each 
side  "to  the  boundary  and    .  / 
their     lengths     measured,      ^^ 
thus  giving   all   the  data 
for  mapping  and  comput- 
ing  the   area.      The   area    ' 
of    a    field   is    determined 
in   compass   surveying   by  '  "*■  ■*■ 

measuring  the  lengths  and 

trearings  of  the  sides.  For  example,  tor  the 
case  shown  in  Fig.  4,  the  field  notes  would  be 
as  follows: 


,ib,  Google 


SURVEYING 


LiHI. 

B«ami«. 

DiMaoM. 

From  these  datii  the  distances  Ab,  Ac,  Ad, 
called  latitudes,  and  the  distances  Bb,  Cc,  Dd, 
called  departures,  are  computed,  and  from  these 
the  areas  included  between  each  line  and  its 
projection  on  tlie  meridian  XB.  Then  the  area 
of  the  field  is  the  sum  of  the  areas  BbcC  and 
CedD,  less  the  areas  BbA  and  DdA. 

On  account  of  oscillations  in  the  forces  of 
magnetism  and   of  local  attractions   the  com- 

e,ss  is  not  an  accurate  instrument,  and  should 
used  only  for  rough  reconnaissance  or  for 
farm  surveys,  where  precision  ia  not  impor- 
tant. In  all  town  or  city  work,  as  also  for 
railways  and  mines,  the  transit  is  employed 
tor  the  direct  measurement  of  angles. 

A  topographical  survey  of  a  region  embrac- 
ing more  than  a  few  square  miles  should  be 
baaed    on    a   triangulation   which    locates   the 

Citions  in  latitude  and  longitude  of  a  num- 
of  stations.  Then,  starting  from  these  sta- 
tions, lines  are  run  in  various  directions,  and 
the  location  of  roads,  houses,  streams,  and 
other  features,  ia  made  by  offsets  or  by  stadia 
sights.  Leveb  are  also  run  t^  which  the  con- 
tours or  lines  of  equal  elevations  are  deter- 
mined, and  thus  a  picture  of  the  relief  of  the 
surface  may  be  obtained.  Photography  is  an 
aid  in  this  class  of  work,  views  being  taken 
from  different  points  which  enable  the  contours 
of  the  surface  to  be  sketched  in  the  otEce.  In 
the  survey  of  a  railway,  topographical  work  is 
done  on  each  side  of  the  liue,  and  this  is  neces- 
sarily of  a  precise  character  so  as  to  enable 
computations  of  excavation  or  comparative 
estimates  of  the  coat  of  different  locationa. 

The  general  features  of  the  plan  for  survey- 
ing and  recording  the  public  lands  that  be- 
longed to  the  U.  S.  after  the  Revolution,  to- 
gether with  all  ceded  by  individual  states  soon 
after  the  formation  oi  the  Constitution,  and 
additions  since  made,  are  as  follows :  The  en- 
tire public  domain  is  first  divided  into  parts 
called  land  districts,  each  of  which  is  in  charge 
of  a  surveyor  general.  In  each  district  a 
meridian  line  is  run,  extending  through  the 
entire  district,  and  from  some  point  of  this 
meridian  an  E.  and  W.  line  is  run,  which  also 
extends  through  the  district.  These  lines  are 
determined  astronomically,  and  when  located 
serve  as  axes  to  which  tne  subdivisions  of  the 
district  are  referred.  Parallel  to  the  axes,  and 
on  each  side  of  them,  other  lines  are  run  S  m. 


To  take  into  account  the  obliquity  of  Hie  me- 
ridians, suitable  offsets  are  made.  The  town- 
ships lying  between  two  consecutive  merid- 
ians 6  m.  apart  constitute  a  ran^,  and  iiie 
ranges  are  numbered  from  the  principal  me- 
ridian, both  E.  and  W.  In  each  range  the 
townships  are  numbered  both  N.  and  S.  from 


it  is  called  township  3  N.,  range  2  E,  Each 
township  is  divided  by  meridians  and  ^.  and 
W.  lines  into  squares  having  a  mile  on  each 
side.  These  are  called  sections,  and  each  con- 
tains, approximately  640  acres,  liie  sections 
of  a  township  are  numbered  from  the  NE.  cor- 
ner, running  along  the  N.  tier  of  sections  to 
So.  8,  thence  backward  to  section  No.  12, 
which  lies  exactly  S.  of  No.  1,  and  so  on  alter- 
nately, running  from  right  to  left  and  from 
left  to  right,, to  the  SE.  comer,  which  is  No. 
38.  The  four  middle  sections  are  numbered 
respectively  15,  ID,  21,  82.  In  some  of  the 
states,  section  No.  16  is  set  apart  for  school 
purposes. 

Surri'Tal  of  the  Fit'teat.    See  EvoLunon. 

Sn'sa,  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Elam,  and 
afterwards  one  of  the  residences  of  the  kings 
of  Persia;  in  lat.  32°  N.,  Ion.  48°  E.  It  was 
taken  by  Aashurbanipal  (863-626  B.C.),  and 
(Ezra  iv,  9,  10)  some  of  its  people  were  sent 
to  Palestine.  When  Alexander  took  the  city, 
331  B.C.,  he  found  great  treasures  of  gold. 
Susa  is  the  scene  of  several  biblical  narratives; 
(1)  The  vision  of  Daniel  (vjii,  2]  ;  (2)  Nehe- 
miah's  office  as  cupbearer  (i,  2;  ii,  1);  (3) 
the  feast  of  Xerxes  (Esther  i,  2).  One  of  the 
buildings  is  reverenced  by  the  natives  as  tHs 
tomb  of  Jonah,  Excavations  have  revealed 
much  of  its  magnificence. 

Snsan'iia,  His'tory  of,  a  short  book,  consid- 
ered by  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  to  be 
canonical,  and  regarded  as  the  thirteenth  chap- 
ter of  Daniel,  but  put  among  the  Apocrypha 
in  the  English  Bible.  It  relates  the  attempt 
on  the  virtue  of  Susanna,  a  beautiful  Jewish 
matron,  her  false  accusation,  her  rescue  from 
death,  and  the  overthrow  of  the  wicked  men 
who  designed  her  ruin.  It  is  probably  a  fiction 
of  neo-Uebrew  origin. 

Snspen'sion  Bridges.    See  Bbiiweb. 

Snsqnehan'na  Biv'er,  formed  by  the  union 
of  its  E.  and  W.  branches  at  Northumberlnnd, 
Pa.  The  E.  branch,  the  larger,  rises  in  Otsego 
Lake,  N.  Y.,  at  an  elevation  of  1,300  ft.  The 
W.  branch  rises  in  Cambria  Co.,  Pa.,  and  has 
a  very  tortuous  and  generally  eastward  course 
through  a  region  abounding  in  timber  and  coal, 
but  less  celebrated  fur  its  fertility  and  beauty 
than  the  valley  of  the  E.  branch,  a  portion  ot 
which,  the  Wyoming  valley,  is  renowned  in 
history  as  well  as  for  its  mineral  wealth.  The 
main  Susquehanna  flon-s  through  a  wide,  open, 
fertile,  and  picturesque  country  of  Devonian 
elates  and  limestones.  It  reach^'S  the  head  of 
Chesapeake  Bay  at  Port  Deposit,  Md.  It  is  a 
wide  and  stately  stream,  but  is  shallow,  and  ia 
nowhere  navigable  to  any  extent,  save  in  the 
spring,  when  the  freshets  bring  down  rafts  of 
logs  and  .  lumber  and  some  loaded  boats- 
Length,  main  stream,  160  m.;  W.  branch,  200 
m.;  E.  (or  N.)  branch,  2S0  m.  The  branches 
afford  great  water  power.  Canals  have  been 
built  ^ong  the  river,  but  have  been  rendered 
useless  to.  a  great  extent  by  railways. 

Sm'Kz,  county  of  England;  S.  of  Surrey 
and  bordering  on  the  English  Channel ;  area, 
1,4S8   sq.   m.;   comprises  the   two  modem  ad- 


SUTTEE 

ministrative  divisions  of  E,  and  W.  Sussex.  It 
is  intersected  from  E.  to  W.  by  a  range  of  Ion 
hills,  called  the  S.  Downs,  of  chalk  covered 
with  flne  turf  and  affording  pasturage,  where 
the  Southdown  sheep  are  reared.  To  the  N. 
of  the  range  are  extensive  woods;  to  the  8. 
the  ground  is  wholly  under  tillage,  and  large 
crops  of  wheat,  barley,  beans,  turnips,  and 
bops  are  raised,  and  hogs,  fowls,  and  rabbits 
are  reared.     Pop.   (1911)   418,478. 

Snt'tee,  the  voluntary  burning  of  a  widow 
on  the  funeral  pile  of  her  husband,  a  practice 
formerly  prevalent  among  Hindus  in  India.  In 
the  event  of  the  husband  dying  in  a  distant 
land,  the  widow  would  place  his  sandals  on 
her  breast  and  cast  herself  alive  into  a  fire. 
Between  1B15  and  1826  more  than  7,000  cnses 
were  reported  in  the  province  of  Bengal  alone. 
In  1829  suttee  was  suppressed. 

Suvatoff,  or  Suwarow  (sO-vft'rOf).  Alezei 
Taailievitch  (Count  and  Prince  Italiaki),  1720- 
1800;  Russian  military  officer.  After  various 
distinguished  services,  he  became  general  in 
chief  in  1783.  In  I7S7-8B  he  won  fresh  laurels 
against  the  Turks,  whose  main  army  he  routed 
on  the  Rimnik,  receiving  the  title  of  count. 
After  repeated  repulses  be  stormed  Ismail  in 
1790.  losing  20,000  men,  and  massacring  the 
Turkish  garrison  of  30,000.  In  1794,  after  de- 
feating Kosciustko  jointly  with  Fersen,  he  car- 
ried Praga,  a  suburb  of  Warsaw,  by  assault, 
deluging  it  with  blood,  and  was  made  Geld 
marshal.  In  1799  he  was  placed  at  the  head 
of  the  united  Austrian  and  Russian  armies  in 
Italy,  achieved  many  victories  over  the  French, 
at  Cassano,  on  the  Trebbia,  and  at  Novi,  and 
received  the  title  of  Prince  Italiski.  He 
crossed  the  Alps  to  join  Korsakoff,  when  Maa- 
s^na's  decisive  victory  over  the  latter  at  Zurich 
(September  25,  1798)  enUrely  changed  the  sit- 
uatton,  and  he  was  recalled  with  the  rank  of 
generalissimo. 
Sre'aborg.  Bee  Sweabobo. 
Swatia,  or  Suabia,  former  territory  of  SW. 
Germany,  corresponding  nearly  to  the  present 
WUrtemberg  and  Baden.  Its  original  name 
was  Alemannia,  but  when,  in  496,  the  Alemanni 
were  conquered  by  Clovis,  the  country  received 
the  name  ot  Swabia  after  the  Suevi.  In  lOSO 
the  Emperor  Henry  IV  made  it  a  duchy,  and 
bestowed  it  on  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen. 
Under  this  faniily  Swabia  prospered,  and  be- 
came the  seat  of  a  flourishing  civilisation; 
but  when  the  family  became  extinct  with  Con- 
radin,  who,  as  the  head  of  the  Ghibelline  party, 
.  was  executed  at  Naples  in  1208,  Swabia  was 
brolcen  up  into  many  small  dominions  and  free 
cities.  From  1663  to  1B06  Swabia  was  one  of 
the  ten  circles  into  which  the  German  Empire 
was  divided. 

Swallow,  any  bird  of  the  Eirundiaidir,  dis- 
tinguished by  the  wide,  deep  gape,  allusion  to 
which  is  evidently  conveyed  in  the  name.  They 
have  the  neck  rather  short,  the  head  full,  the 
bi!l  short,  but  comparatively  brond  and  de- 
pressed; the  gape  yery  deep,  and  continued 
backward  nearly  as  far  as,  or  quite  under,  the 
eyes.  The  winga  are  long  and  pointed,  the  tail 
is    forked,    and   normally    consists    of    twelve 


SWANSEA 

feathers;  the  legs  are  weak  and  smatl,  the 
claws  curved  and  acute,  but  slender.  There 
are  over  125  species,  and  representatives  are 
found  in  almost  every  land  and  zone.  The 
species  are  among  the  most  active  and  graceful 


of  birds,  and  ttieir  circling  and  sweeping  flight 
is  well  known.  They  feed  almost  exclusively 
on  insects,  which  they  take  on  the  wing.    The 


purple  martin,  the  cliff  swallow,  the  bam  swal- 
low, and  the  bank  swallow  or  sand  martin. 
The  so-called  chimn^  swallow  is  a  swift.  See 
Swdt;   Mabtin. 

Swan,  any  one  of  those  swimming  birds  of 
the  Anatido!,  subfamily  Cygnina,  which  have 
a  bill  nearly  equally  broad  throughout  and  as 
long  as  the  head;  the  cere  soft  and  extending 
to  the  eye;  neck  long  and  slender,  consisting 
of  twenty-two  to  twenty-six  vertebrie;  the 
front  f«es  with  a  large  web,  the  hind  toe  with- 
out a  lobe,  the  tail  short  and  rounded,  the 
second  and  third  wing  quills  the  longest.  They 
are  among  the  largest  of  birds.  Omitting  the 
Coscoroba  swan,  which  probably  belongs  with 
the  ducks,  there  are  nine  species,  all  but  two 
inhabitants  of  the  N.  hemisphere.  The  excep- 
tions are  the  btnck-necked  swan  of  Chili  and 
the  black  swan  of  Australia.  The  N.  American 
swans,  whistling  swan  and  trumpeter  swan, 
are  fine  birds,  both  white.  The  tame  swans 
are  of  two  European  species — red-billed  swan 
ICygnua  olor)  and  Polish  swan  (C.  im- 
mutabilis).  The  former  is  found  in  a  wild 
stiite  in  Europe,  while  comparatively  little  is 
known  of  the  second  species.  C.  immulabilis 
is  so  named  from  the  fact  that  the  5'oung — or 
cygnets — are  white,  while  those  of  other  spe- 
cies are  grny.  Though  once  held  in  esteem 
for  the  tabic,  domestic  swans  are  now  bred 
merely  for  ornament. 

Swan' sea,  seaport  in  Glamorganshire,  S. 
Wales;  at  the  mouth  ot  the  Tawe;  216  m.  W. 
of  London.  Owing  to  the  rich  coal  fields  in 
the  vicinity,  and  its  position  on  the  bay  af- 
fording safe  anchorage,  Swansea  has  developed 
into  one  of  the  most  important  manufacturing 
to»-na  in  Great  Britain.  Nearly  half  the  entire 
exports  are  tin  plates,  the  rest  being  coal,  coke, 
iron,  steel,  line,  copper,  alkali,  etc.  Pop.  of 
municipal  borough  (1911)    114,673. 


I  by  Google 


SWAZILAND 

Swa'iiluid.    See  Tbanbtaal. 

Sweaboig,  or  Sruboig  (sv&'ft-Mrg),  a  fort- 
MM  of  Fimkud  on  the  N.  coast  of  the  Gutf  of 
Finlajid.  The  place  was  originally  fortified  by 
Sweden.  When  Finland  became  a. province  of 
Eusiia  (1809),  the  latter  made  it  a  military 
and  naval  depot.  The  isle  of  Vargoe  ia  the 
central  or  principal  fortress;  the  iaie  of  Great 
Oester-Svartoe  the  principal  naval  depot  and 
dockyard.  Pop.  (190S)  with  Eelsingfors,  124,- 
637.    See  Helsindbobh. 

Sweat,  oT  Petapira'tioD,  the  fluid  exuded 
through  the  pores  of  the  akin.  The  amount 
of  water  excreted  from  the  akia  is  but  little 
leaa  than  the  volume  of  the  urine.  It  varies 
with  the  seasons  and  climate,  sweat  being  most 
profuse  in  summer.  The  action  of  the  akin  is 
complementary  to  that  of  the  Kidneys;  chilling 
of  tbe  akin  sends  more  blood  to  the  kidneys. 
Experiments  of  cloeiog  the  pores  by  a  coating 
of  Tarnisb  or  tin  foil,  both  in  man  and  animals. 


BuBFACE  or  TBE  Falu  OF  THE  H*HD.  A  ponioo  of  (he 
■kin  about  half  in  inch  square,  magniSed  four  diam' 
Mara:  i,  I,  I,  I,  openings  of  th<  swcM  ducts;  >,  1. 1,  t, 
KTOffres  between  the  papillB  of  the  ildn. 


have  induced  alarming  depression  and  death. 
Tlie  artificial  etiinulation  of  the  perspiration 
is  a  valuable  channel  of  elimination  in  im- 
paired health.  Bathing,  friction,  and  clean 
clothing,    by    favoring   activity    of   the   sweat 

S lands  and  open  pores,  are  means  of  preserving 
ealth.  The  sweat  is  secreted  by  the  sweat 
glands,  coiled  tubular  masses  beneath  the  akin, 
with  excretory  tubulca  terminating  on  the  sur- 
face. The  tube  is  about  j+j  in.  in  diameter, 
the  coils  or  glands  vary  from  -j^j  t«  |V  or 
^  in.  in  diameter.  The  number  of  sweat 
openings  varies  on  diO'erent  surfaces ;  thus  the' 

Calm  of  the  hand  has  2,736  to  the  sq.  in.,  the 
ack  of  the  hand,  1,490;  sole  of  the  foot,  2,6B5; 
top  of  the  foot,  924;  forehead,  1,259;  cheek, 
648.  Tlie  number  of  sweat  glanda  in  the  body 
is  estimated  at  381,248,  and  the  aggregate 
length  of  tubules  as  2|  m. 

SWMt'ing  Sys'tem,  in  popular  usage,  the 
practice  followed  in  certain  trades  of  subcon- 
tracting for  a  low  class  of  work,  which  is  done 
on  the  premises  of  the  laborers,  or  the  premises 
of  the  subcontractor,  and  often  amid  unaan- 
itary  surroundinga  and  with  excessive  hours 
of  labor.  The  term  "  sweating"  is  in  this  con- 
nection a  term  of  reproach,  and  was  Srst  ap- 
plied to  tailors  who  took  home  work  that  their 


SWEDEN 

wives  and  children  might  assist  them.  I«ter 
tbey  found  it  profitable  to  do  all  their  work 
at  home.  Then  they  began  employing  others, 
thus  becoming  sweaters  instead  of  being 
sweated.  Sweating  is  an  effect  of  the  survival 
of  domestic  induatry.  Factory  labor  ia  not 
subject  to  it.  It  is  common  in  certain  trades 
— in  Europe  in  tailoring,  bootmaking,  furriery, 
needlework  of  all  kinds,  nail  and  chain  making, 
and  dock  labor;  in  the  U.  S.  the  practice  Ts 
almost  exclusively  confined  to  tailoring  and 
other  needlework,  the  preparation  of  feathers, 
the  making  of  cigars,  artificial  flowers,  and 
fancy  leather  goods. 

The  tailoring  trade  is  the  employment  in 
which  sweating  is  chiefly  practiced.  Tlie  whole- 
sale clothier  supplies  the  cloth,  which  ia  cut 
and  trimmed  in  hia  own  workshops.  The  goods 
are  then  farmed  out  to  contractors,  for  the 
most  part  Jews,  to  be  made  up  and  returned 
at  a  fixed  price  per  garment.  The  contractor 
is  generally  the  leasee  of  a  small  room,  usually 
attached  to  his  own  lodgings  in  a  tenement. 
Here  two  or  three  "  teams  of  workers  are 
employed — a  machine  man,  a  baster,  and  a  fin- 
isher constituting  a  "  act."  Wages  are  fixed 
on  a  piece  basis.  Where,  for  example,  $7  ia 
allowed  for  making  up  two  doEen  coats,  C3 
goes  to  the  machine  man,  $2.60  to  the  baster, 
and  $1.50  to  the  finisher.  The  laborer  must 
frequently  work  sixteen  or  eighteen  hours  to 
earn  a  nominal  day's  pay.  The  sweater  works 
with  his  hirelings,  overseeing  them,  and  often, 
doubtless,  driving  them  to  do  their  utmost. 
See  Factory. 

Swe'den,  kingdom  occupying  the  E.  slope 
and  S.  end  of  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula; 
area,  including  lakes,  172,876  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
(1909)  census  S,4T6,441.  The  most  of  the 
boundary  with  Norway  ia  formed  by  the  water- 
shed of  the  EiOlen  Mountains,  and  that  with 
Finland  hy  the  Tomeft  River.  The  coast  it 
4,740  m.  long.  The  fiords  are  few,  and  the 
seas  shallow,  with  gentle  slope.  The  coast  ia 
bordered  by  a  narrow  ribbon  of  islets  called  the 
ekSrgird,  rocky  and  bare  on  the  W.  coast, 
but  green  and  fertile  on  tbe  E.  "Hie  Sound, 
2}  m.  wide  at  its  narrowest  part,  separates 
Sweden  from  Denmark.  Tbe  islands  are  most 
numerous  about  Stockholm.  The  Baltic  slope 
of  the  peninsula  is  gentler  than  the  Atlantic 
one,  and  in  Norrland  (the  N.  part  of  Sweden] 
it  descends  in  a  series  of  terraces,  giving  its 
rivers  alternately  gentle  courses,  when  they 
expand  into  lakes,  and  rapids,  or  cataracts. 
The  S.  of  Sweden,  or  Gothland,  has  rocky 
hills,  and  is  separated  from  tbe  central  part, 
or  Svealand  (Sweden  proper),  by  a  broad,  low 
land  filled  with  lakes.  The  extreme  S.  is  an- 
cient Bkania,  and  is  very  fertile.  N.  Qotbland 
is  relatively  arid.  Beyond  Stockholm  is  Up- 
land, the  classic  ground  of  Sweden.  Dalecarlia, 
NW.  of  Stockholm,  and  on  tbe  Norwegian 
frontier,  is  a  beautiful  and  picturesque  land 
with  gay,  hardy,  end  independent  inhabitants; 
here  Gustavus  Vasa  found  the  support  neces- 
sary to  overthrow  the  tyrannical  Christian. 

The  highest  known  mountains  are  Kebne- 
kaiae,  or  Ivanstenen  (more  than  7,000  ft.), 
and  Sulitelma  (6.154  ft).  Sweden  is  not 
mountainous ;  it  descends  a  lon^  and  relatli 


and  relatively 

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SWEDEN 


gentia  alope.  GladeTs  are  nnmerouB  In  tbe 
N.,  corering  160  sq.  m.  Tfas  tareest  are  about 
Sarjekt^okko  (0,828  ft),  and  between  the  two 
movntainB  above  named,  where  on  a  surface 
of  460  sq.  m.  the;  cover  70  eq.  m.  The  glaciera 
are  reported  aa  growing.  A  score  of  rivers 
descend  tbe  slopes,  form  lakes  in  their  course, 
hava  a  length  of  160  to  260  .m.,  and  empty 
into  the  Bothnia  or  Baltic.  The  lakes  occupy 
one  twelfth  of  the  surface.  They  are  generally 
small.  The  largest  are  the  Wener  (2,150  aq. 
m.,  greatest  depth,  295  ft.)  and  I^ke  Wetter 
(7^3  sq.  m.,  greatest  depth,  410  ft.).  Lake 
KfitUr,  third  in  sise,  and  penetrating  St«ck- 
hoim,  Sordlike  in  form,  ie  aaid  to  have  1,200 
lalanda.  The  climate  ia  mild  for  the  latitude, 
and  atorms  paaa  uaually  W,  or  S.  The  annual 
precipitation  ia  from  10  to  40  in.,  and  is  great- 
eat  on  tbe  SW.  coast.  It  ia  aaid  that  the  bar- 
veatB  ai;e  fifteen  days  later  than  in  the  eigh- 
teenth century.  Primitive  rocks  cover  moat 
of  tbe  oooairy.  Tlie  Glacial  period  was  an 
important  one  in  Sweden,  and  has  left  traces 
•Terywhere.  Mining  is  an  important  industry, 
and  the  production  of  iron,  lead,  and  copper  la 
large.  The  chief  districts  are  the  Gellivara, 
within  ths  Arctic  Circle,  and  the  Dannemora, 
in  Umala.  Zino  and  manganese  are  also  pro- 
duced, and  cobalt  and  nickel  are  found. 

The  forests  are  extensive,  covering  two  fifths 
of  the  area,  and  are  characterized  by  spruces 
and  birches  to  the  N.,  pines  and  oaks  in  the 
center,  and  beeches  in  the  B.  The  reindeer  are 
nearly  all  domesticated,  but  the  large  pastur- 
age they  require  and  their  tendency  to  diseases 
limit  their  uaefuluess.  The  bear,  wolf,  lynx, 
and  glutton  are  disappearing,  while  the  fox 
and  elk  appear  to  be  increasing,  and  the  roe- 
deer  is  extending  its  range  farther  N.  The 
Bwan  is  a  common  visitant  of  the  lakes.  Food 
fish  are  abundant,  and  include,  in  fresh  water, 
the  aalmon  (the  most  important),  eel,  pike, 
perch,  and  turbot;  in  salt  water,  the  herring 
(the  moat  Important),  flatfish,  cod,  mackerel 
and  sprata.  The  climate  and  soil  are  not  favor- 
able for  agriculture,  but  thia  is  made  up  by 
the  care  given  to  the  art.  Only  one  fifteenth 
of  the  area  is  cultivated.  Barley  and  potatoes 
reach  08'  N.  lat. ;  lye  passes  N.  of  Haparanda, 
at  the  N.  end  of  Bothnia ;  wheat,  formerly  cul- 
tivated only  S.  of  Stockholm,  reaches  76  m. 
farther  N.  The  farma  are  generally  small,  but 
they  give  occupation  to  half  of  the  population. 
He  largeat  area  ia  in  oats,  but  the  largest  crop 
Is  potatoes.  Horses  are  relatively  numerous 
(one  to  every  ten  persons) ,  due  to  the  charac- 
ter of  the  roads.  Tbe  stock  generally  is  of 
poor  native  races,  but  the  dairy  industry  ie 
growing  rapidly,  aa  London  ia  an  acceaaible 
and  profitable  market. 

The  country  Is  divided  into  tweniy-four  gov- 
ernments beaidea  the  city  of  Stockholm.  The 
Finns  number  (1900)  about  22,138;  Lappa, 
6,983.  Aside  from  these,  and  a  few  Jews  and 
other  foreigners,  tbe  Swedish  type  is  pure 
and  unmixed.  Tbe  Lutheran  is  the  state 
church,  and  other  religions,  though  tolerated, 
are  few.  Education  is  compulsory,  schools  are 
nnmerons,  and  the  percentage  of  illiteracy  is 
evanescent.  Serious  crimes  are  rare,  but  pau- 
perism is  increasing.    The  value  of  the  annual 


SWEDEN 

imports  is  (190S)  $106,304,000,  chiefly  textiles, 
colonial  wares,  and  coal;  the  annual  exports 
are  valued  (1000)  at  $126,769,000,  chiefly  tim- 
ber, animals  and  their  products,  and  ores. 
Germany  is  the  chief  importer,  Great  Britain 
the  chief  buyer.  Gothenburg  is  the  most  fre- 
quented port,  Stockholm  next,  and  about  36,000 
vessels  visit  Swedish  ports  annually. 

Sweden's  system  of  goTemment  ia  the  out- 
growth of  centuries  of  history,  like  that  of 
Great  Britain.  The  king  ia  intrusted  with  the 
executive,  sTid  is  aided  by  a  council  of  state 
of  ten  ministers.  Taxation  and  legislation  (the 
latter  subject  to  the  king's  veto)  are  intrusted 
to  the  two  elective  houses  of  a  parliament, 
one  of  ISO  unpaid  members  holding  for  nine 
years,  the  other  230  paid  members  holding  for 
three  years.  Tbe  government  of  the  provincea 
is  in  the  hands  of  prefects  appointed  by  the 
king,  but  local  affaire  are  administered  t^ 
communal  and  municipal  couneila.  The  munici- 
palitiea  are  limited  to  cities  of  over  26,000  in- 
habitants. The  army  was  reoi^nized  in  1901, 
and  general  personal  service  adopted.  The 
navy  is  intended  only  for  coast  defense. 

The  early  mythical  history  of  Sweden  is  dig- 
nified and  attractive,  and  the  gods  of  the 
Northmen  displayed  their  chief  activity  in 
Svealand.  The  Goths,  who  played  so  impDr< 
tant  a  part  in  tife  downfall  of  the  Boman  Em- 
pire and  the  reconstruction  of  Europe,  seem  to 
have  come  from  Gothland.  Authentic  history 
begins  abt.  1000  a.d.,  when  Olaf  became  a. 
Christian.  The  people  did  not  accept  Chris- 
tianity for  one  hundred  and  fifty  years,  and 
pagan  ideas  and  customs  lingered  long  after. 
The  dissensions  between  Goths  and  Swedes  were 
heated  abt.  1300,  and  their  amalgamation  has 
continued  since  without  serious  interruption. 
The  early  history  was  terminated  in  1389  by 
the  battle  of  Axelwalde,  when  Queen  Margaret 
of  Denmark  and  Norway,  a  striking  historical 
figure,  took  the  Swedish  king,  Albert,  prisoner, 
and  the  union  of  the  three  Scandinavian  coun- 
tries was  confirmed  in  1367  by  the  act  called 
the  Union  of  Calmar. 

Sweden  was  very  restivB  under  the  onion, 
and  tried  repeatedly  to  break  away,  but  with- 
out success,  until  led  by  Gustavus  Vasa 
(1623).  With  this  king  began  the  brilliant 
period  of  history  which  made  Sweden  one  of 
the  first  powers  of  Europe,  gave  her  extensive 
lands  to  the  S.  and  E.,  and  made  her  at  one 
time  the  leader  and  defender  of  Froteetantiam. 
During  this  period  appeared  his  grandson, 
Gustavus  AdolpbuB,  by  far  the  greatest  of 
Swedish  kings,  and  the  period  ended  with  the 
resignation  of  his  daughter  Christina  in  1654. 
Then  follow  one  hundred  and  fifty  years  of 
decline,  during  which  Sweden  was  robbed  both 
of  her  infiuence  and  her  foreign  possessions, 
until  Gustavus  IV  (1792-1809)  proved  so  im- 
potent and  perverse  that  he  was  dethroned, 
and  hia  poaterity  repudiated.  Charles  XIII 
was  then  elected  (1809-18),  but  was  childless, 
and  Marshal  Bernadotte  was  invited  to  become 
crown  prince.     He  accepted,  and  founded  the 

E resent  line,  under  which  Sweden's  progress 
aa  been  ateadj  and  secure.    In  1906  Norway 

dissolved  the  union,  and  t~~         ""* '"~" 

of"      • 


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SWEDENBORG 

SwVdcabois,  Bmuniel,  16SS-17T2;  Swediah 
theologian;  b.  Stockholm.  His  father,  Jesper 
Siredberg,  was  a  bishop,  and  his  familv  was 
-eimobled  in  1719,  and  took  the  name  of  Swe- 
denborg.  He  was  educated  at  Upsala,  and  then 
traveled  through  Europe.  He  attained  emi- 
nence by  his  writings  upon  mathematics  and 
mechanics,  and  later  on  the  natural  acieucea 
and  on  finance.  In  171S  he  was  made  asseasor 
of  the  Board  of  Mines  by  Charles  XII.  He  as- 
sisted the  king  at  the  siege  of  ^rederickshall 
in  1718  by  transporting  some  vessels  over  four- 
teen milea  of  land  by  machines  he  invented. 

He  had  always  been  a  thoroughly  religious 
man,  but  for  a  few  years  before  1745  his  diaries 
and  notebooks  show  that  he  was  changing  the 
direction  of  his  studies  from  the  physical  and 
natural  to  the  psychical  and  spiritual.   In  that 

Cr,  he  tells  us,  he  "  was  called  to  a  new  and 
/  olfiue  by  the  Lord  himself,  who  manifested 
himself  to  him  in  person,  and  opened  his  sight 
to  a  view  of  the  spiritual  world,  and  granted 
him  the  privilege  of  conversing  with  spirits 
and  angels."  In  1747  he  resigned  his  office  of 
assessor,  which'  he  had  held  for  thirty  years, 
requesting  that  half  of  his  salary  might  be 
continued  to  him.  The  king  accepted  his 
resignation,  and  granted  him  a  pension  for  life 
equal  to  his  full  salary.  He  wrot«  to  a  friend : 
"  Mv  sole  view  in  this  resignation  was,  that  I 
might  devote  myself  to  that  new  function  to 
which  the  Lord  had  called  me.  On  resigning 
my  office  a  hisher  degree  of  rank  was  offered 
ms,  but  this  I  declined,  lest  it  should  be  the 
occasion  of  inspiring  me  with  pride." 

From  1749  to  1758  he  published  the  "  Arcana 
Ctelestia"  in  eight  quarto  volumes;  in  1768, 
"  An  Account  of  the  Last  Judgment  and  the 
Destruction  of  Babylon,"  "  On  the  Whito  Horse 
Mentioned  in  the  Revelation,"  "  Heaven  and 
Hell,"  "  On  the  Planeta  in  our  Solar  System 
and  in  the  Starry  Heavens,"  and  "  On  the  New 
Jerusalem  and  its  Heavenly  Doctrines " ;  in 
1763,  "  The  Doctrines  of  the  New  Jerusalem 
Concerning'  our  Lord,"  same  "  Concerning  the 
Sacred  Scriptures,"  same  "  Concerning  Faith," 
same  "  Concerning  Life,"  a  "  Continuation 
Concerning  the  Idst  Judgment  and  the  De- 
struction of  Babylon,"  and  "  Angelio  Wisdom 
Concerning  the  Divine  Love  and  Wisdom";  in 
1704,  "  Angelic  Wisdom  Concerning  the  Divine 
Providence";  in  1766,  "The  Apocalypse  Ee- 
vealed."  He  bad  written  a  much  larger  work, 
"The  Apocalypse  Explained,"  as  far  as  the 
tenth  verse  of  the  nineteenth  chapter,  vhich  he 
did  not  publish,  nor,  as  far  as  is  known,  finish 
— it  has  been  published  since  his  death;  in 
1768,  "  The  Delights  of  Wisdom  Concerning 
Conjugial  Love";  in  1769,  "A  Brief  Exposi- 
tion of  the  Doctrine  of  the  New  Church,"  and 
a  small  work  entitled  "  The  Intercourse  be- 
tween the  Soul  and  the  Body"  (in  tiie  English 
translation,  "  A  Treatise  on  Influx  ") .  In  1771 
he  published  his  last  work,  "The  True  Cfaris- 
tian  Religion,  Containing  the  Universal  The- 
ology of  the  New  Church."  He  also  left  volu- 
minous manuscripts. 

After  the  publication  of  the  "  True  Christian 
Heligion  "  he  went  to  Loudon,  and  while  there 
he  was  struck  with  hemiplegia.  After  a  few 
weeks  be  recovered  hia  apeech,  and  his  facul- 


8W1FT 

tiefl  were  cImt  to  the  laat  He  has  never  been 
charged  with  impoature,  and  they  who  think 
he  was  insane  muat  rest  that  opinion  on  the 
fact  that  for  more  than  twenty-five  years,  with 
brief  intermiaaions,  he  claimed  that  he  was  in 
the  spiritual  world  whenever  he  wished  to  be 
there,  and  published  what  would  fill  volumes 
of  things  there  seen  and  heard. 

Swe'dish  Green.    See  Scubelb'b  Qbeer. 

Swedish  Lan'giMge,  genetically,  a  member 
of  the  Scandinavian  division  of  the  Teutonic 
group  of  languages.  With  Danish  it  forms  the 
minor  group  E.  Norse,  as  distinguished  from 
W.  Norse,  made  up  of  Icelandic  and  the  popu- 
lar dialects  of  Norway.  Its  present  territory 
is  Sweden,  with  parts  of  Russian  Finland  and 
Esthonia.     Chronologically,   two   main   periods 


recognized  in  the  history  of  the  language. 

Old  Swedish,  from  the  end  of  the  Vikins 

age    to    the    Reformation     (1050-1640),    aid 


Modem  Swedish,  from  the  Befonnatiou  to  the 
present  time. 

Sweet  Bay.     See  Bat. 

Sweefbread,  the  pancreas,  or  thymus  gland 
of  an  animal,  used  as  food.  The  former  is  uau- 
ally  called  stomach  sweetbread  and  the  latter 
throat  sweetbread. 

Sweetfiriei.    Bee  EoLAnnnE. 

Sweet  Flag.    See  Acobds  Caiaicub. 

Sweet'aop,  the  soft,  sweet,  and  aromatic 
fruit  of  a  small  tree,  the  inona  (Tuaniow  of 
tropical  America,  cultivated  not  only  in  Brazil 
and  the  W.  Indies,  but  also  in  Hindustan  and 
the  E.  Indies.  The  fruit  is  greenish  and  re- 
sembles an  artichoke  in  size,  in  form,  and  in 
its  scaly  covering.  The  pulp  is  soft,  somewhat 
mealy,  sweet,  and  luscious,  though  with  a 
musky,  aromatic  odor  and  flavor.  It  is  ex- 
tensively used  as  an  article  of  food,  and  it  has 
proved  the  staff  of  life  to  the  people  of  Hindu- 
stan in  seasons  of  famine.  In  India  it  is  called 
custard  apple,  though  the  true  custard  apple 
is  A.  reltculalo, 

Sweys  (awBn),  Swegen  (sv&'gen),  or  Svend, 
King  of  Denmark  and  father  of  Canute  the 
Great ;  invaded  England  to  avenge  the  massacre 
of  the  Danes  in  1M2,  and  ravaged  the  country. 
In  1013  he  made  another  invasion,  and  this 
time   reduced  the  Anglo-Saxon  Kingdom.     He 

Eroclaimed  himself  king,  but  died  (1014)  be- 
>re  he  had  established  hii  power,  leaving 
Canute  as  his  successor. 

Swift,  Jonathan,  1667-1745;  British  author; 
b..  in  Dublin,  of  purely  English  descent;  grad- 
uated Trinity  College,  Dublin,  in  1685,  and 
remained  till  the  Revolution  of  16SS-89  drove 
him  to  England,  where  he  became  private  sec- 
retary to  Sir  William  Temple.  In  1692  he 
took  his  master's  d^free  at  Oxford,  and  two 
years  later  went  to  Ireland.  In  1694  be  was 
ordained,  and  soon  after  received  the  prebend 
of  Kilroot,  in  the  diocese  of  C<ninor,  but  soon 
returned  to  his  secretaryship.  He  next  became 
chaplun  to  Lord  Berkeley,  a  lord  justice  of 
Ireland,  whom  in  1699  he  accompanied  to 
Dublin.     Having  reoeived  leveral  livings,  he 


SWIFT 

asBtuned  the  duties  of  his  vicarage  at  Lam- 
COT  in  1700,  and  shortly  aft«r  received  the 
prebend  of  Dunlivin  in  St.  Patrick's  Cathedral, 
Dublin.  In  1701  be  published  his  "  Discourse 
on  the  Contests  and  Dissensions  between  the 
Nobles  and  Commons  of  Athena  and  Rome," 
vindicating  the  conduct  of  the  Whig  leaders. 
In  1704  appeared  hia  "Battle  of  the  Books," 
which  was  succeeded  by  the  "  Tale  of  a  Tub," 
a  satire  upon  the  Catholics  and  disaenters-. 

In  IT08  he  published  his  "  Ar^ment  to 
Prove  the  Inconvenience  of  Abolishing  Chris- 
tianity," "  Bentimenta  of  a  Church  of  England 
Man  with  Respect  to  Religion  and  Govern- 
ment," "  Predictions  for  1708,  by  Isaac  Bicker- 
■taO',"  and  "  Letters  on  the  Sacramental 
Test";  and,  b  1709,  "A  Project  for  the  Ad- 
vancement of  Relision  and  the  Reformation  of 
Manners,"  the  only  work  to  which  he  ever 
attached  hia  name.  Failing  to  receive  prefer- 
ment from  the  Whigs,  he  went  over  to  the 
Tories  in  1710,  Eis'powertul  pamphlet  on  the 
"Conduct  of  the  Atlies "  (ITll)  raised  hia 
reputation  to  the  highest  pitch;  but  Queen 
Anne,  under  the  advice  of  Archbishop  Sharp 
and  others,  refused  him  any  high  preferment. 
In  1713  he  was  appointed  to  the  deanery  of 
St.  Patrick's  Cathedral,  Dublin,  the  income  of 
which  amounted  to  £700.  About  this  time  he 
wrote  bis  "  Public  Spirit  of  the  Whigs,"  and 
in  1714  appeared  hi»  "Free  Thoughts  on  the 
State  of  Public  Affairs,"  The  death  of  the 
queen  and  the  overthrow  of  the  Tories  sent 
Swift  back  to  Ireland,  where  he  remained  dur- 
ing the  next  twelve  years.  Swift's  history  was 
pamfully  involved  with  that  of  three  young 
ladles:  Miss  Jane  Waring,  whom  he  called 
Varina;  Miss  Esther  Johnson,  named  Stella 
in  his  poems;  and  Miss  Hester  VanhomrigU, 
named  by  him  Vanessa.  Under  the  stipulation 
of  perpetual  secrecy  he  married  Stella  privately 
in  I7I6.  Their  relations  had  been  and  con- 
tinued to  be  equivocal,  and  she  died  without 
any  public  recognition  of  ber  marriage. 

Swift  produced  in  1720  "A  Defense  of  Eng- 
lish Commodities,  being  an  Answer  to  the  Pro- 
posal for  the  Universal  Use  of  Irish  Manu- 
factures," followed  in  1724  by  the  celebrated 
"  Drapier's  Letters,"  in  which  he  attacked  the 
scheme  to  allow  William  Wood  to  supply 
Ireland  with  a  copper  coinage.  In  1726  ap- 
peared bia  "  Gulliver's  Travels,"  a  series  of 
satires  on  human  nature  and  society,  the  most 
original  and  extraordinary  of  all  bis  produc- 
tions. It  has  been  conjectured  with  proba- 
bility that  the  voyage  to  the  Country  of  the 
Houyhnhnms  was  written  during  the  last  ill- 
ness of  Stella,  and  that  the  mental  anguish  of 
the  author  save  ferocity  to  this  appalling 
satire.  By  1738  bis  health  became  so  under- 
mined as  to  preclude  literary  labors.  In  1740 
his  memory  almost  left  him,  and  frequent 
fits  of  passion  terminated  in  furious  lunacy. 
This  subsided  in  1742,  and  be  passed  the  last 
three  years  of  his  life  in  speechless  torpor. 
Some  Dosthumous  works  of  Swift  were  pub- 
lished long  after  his  death,  including  "  A  His- 
tory of  the  Four  Lost  Years  of  Queen  Anne," 
"Polite  Conversation"  (a  satire),  and  "Direc- 
tions for  Servants."  Innumerable  anecdotes 
preserve  the  tradition  of  his  wild  humor,  his 


SWIFT 

tumultuous  bursts  of  arrogance,  his  admirable 
perspicuity,  and  his  curious  inconsistencies  of 
conduct  and  temper.  His  person  was  athletic 
and  commanding,  his  eyes  of  the  clearest  blue, 
and  all  his  lifs^he  was  endeavoring  by  violent 
exercise  to  subdue  his  mysterious  physical 
maladies,  probably  due  to  labyrinthine  vertigo. 
History   bos   dwelt   to  excess  on   his   ferocity. 


charm  of  address  and  his   i: 
quisite  outbursts  of  sympathy. 

Swift,  common  name  for  the  birds  of  the 
Micropodida  (or  Cj/paelida) ,  probably  first  be- 
stowed on  the  European  species  from  its  rapid 
flight.  In  external  appearance  the  swifts  much 
resemble  the  swallows,  but  the  bill  is  decidedly 
smaller;  the  tail  is  variable  in  shape,  deeply 
forked  In  some,  almost  square  in  others,  but 
always  composed  of  ten  feathers.  The  first  toe 
is  directed  more  or  less  forward,  and  in  the 
typical  swifts  [Cypaelina]  the  second,  third, 
and  fourth  digits  have  but  three  joints  each. 


Ebculekt  Sin 


?  iCaUocaHa  mcuianiai. 


Anatomically  the  swifts  ere  very  different 
from  the  swallows,  and  do  not  belong  to  the 
same  order.  There  are  about  fifty  species  dis- 
tributed over  the  grenter  portion  of  the  globe; 
with  the  exception  of  the  E.  Indian  tree  swifts 
{Macropterj/n] ,  which  are  prettily  clad,  they 
are  mostly  of  somber  plumage.  They  are  in- 
sect eaters  and  pass  the  greater  portion  of 
their  time  on  the  wing,  and  some,  like  the 
chimney  swift  or  cbimfiey  swallow  (Ckalura 
pelagica)  of  the  U.  S.,  even  gather  the  mate- 
rials for  their  nests  in  full  flisbt.  They  build 
in  caves,  crevices  of  the  rock,  nooks  of  old 
building,  hollow  trees,  or  adapt  themselves  t« 
civilization  in  chimneys,  while  an  African  swift 
suspends  its.  nest  to  a  palm.  The  nests  are 
gummed  together  with  saliva,  and  the  famous 
edible  birda^  nests,  built  by  the  little  swifts  of  - 
the  genua  Callocalta,  consist  entirely  of  a  pecul- 
iar salivary  secretion.  The  common  species  of 
Euro^  IMioropua  aput)  ranges  from  Great 
Britain  to  India,  occurring  also  in  N.  Africa. 
In  the  W.  of  the  U.  S.  the  name  swift  is  ap- 
plied to  a  small  fox  ( Vulpet  velox) ,  and  in  the 
S.  to  a  small  Uiard  (fiosloportts  unduIahM). 


.Google 


SWIFT  SHRIKE 
Swift  Shrike.    Se«  Wo(»i  Swallow, 


SwIin'iliuiE,  the  act  of  progressing  in  the 
(rater  by  means  of  ad-okei  with  the  hands  and 
feet  As  the  specific  gravit;  of  the  human 
body  is  only  alightly  greater  than  that  of 
water,  swimmiiig  is  easily  learned,  with  or 
without  an  instructor.  The  density  of  salt  wa- 
ter being  greater  than  that  of  fresh,  it  is  much 
easier  to  swim  in  it.  Indeed,  if  the  aaturation 
is  very  great,  as  in  the  Dead  Sea  or  the  Great 
Bait  Lake,  the  specific  gravity  is  greater  than 
that  of  the  human  body,  and  a  man  cannot  sink 
in  it 

A  variety  of  devices  have  been  in  use  both 
to  assist  in  acquiring  the  art  and  for  making 
swimming  easier  or  more  rapid ;  but  the  pres- 
~i  the  water  of  a  competent  instructor  to 


buoy  the  body  too  high  in  the  water,  and  teach 
the  svrimmerto  depend  on  Hometbing  other  than 
his  own  floatage.  Let  the  learner  wade  out 
until  breast  deep  in  the  water,  turn  toward  the 
shore,  and  throw  a  white  pebble  or  any  other 
object  easily  discernible  a  short  distance  before 


moment  he  has  acquired  confidence  and 
mand  of  his  limbs  to  strike  out  regularly  he 
has  learned  to  swim.  The  common  strokes  are 
the  broad,  dog  paddle,  and  side,  or  Indian.  In 
the  broad  stroke,  after  bringing  the  body 
nearly  horizontal,  the  arms  and  legs  are  drawn 
slowly  toward  the  body  and  then  extended,  al- 
ternately, with  a  quick  and  strong  impulse. 
The  hands  should  be  kept  flat  and  the  flngers 
closed,  the  legs  should  be  well  apart  at  the  be- 

E'nning,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  the  act  of 
eking  brought  together.  In  the  tread  the 
body  is  kept  perpendicular  and  the  hands  and 
feet  beat  downward.  In  the  dog  paddle  the 
body  lies  nearer  horizcatal,  and  hands  and  feet 
are  moved  rapidly  and  alternately  with  a  pad- 
dling movement.  The  side  stroke  is  commonly 
used  in  racing,  and  consists,  briefly,  in  turning 
the  body  on  one  aide  and  reaching  far  ahead 
with  the  under  hand  while  the  other  sweeps  by 
the  ebest  and  belly. 

Swin'bnme,  Alseinon  Chailes,  1837-1909; 
English  poet;  b.  London;  received  his  educa- 
tion partly  at  Bton,  partly  in  France,  and 
in  1867  entered  Balliot  College,  Oxford,  where 
he  remained  only  a  short  time.  His  life 
was  mainly  spent  in  London.  He  published, 
among  other  works,  "  Rosamond  "  and  "  The 
Queen  Mother,"  dramas  (1861);  "Atalanta  in 
Caiydon,"  a  tragedy  constructed  after  the 
Greek  model,  in  which  he  flrst  manifested  his 
peculiar  mastery  of  rhythm  of  the  English  lan- 
guage (1864);  "Chastelard"  (1885);  "Poems 
and  Ballads,"  which  were  so  severely  criticised 
for  their  erotic  character  that  the  English  pub- 
lisher endeavored  to  suppress  them,  and  which 
were  put  forth  in  New  York  under  the  title 
"I.aUB  Veneris"  (1866);  "A  Song  of  Italy," 
"Ode  on  the  Proclamation  of  the  French  Re- 
public," "  Songi  Before  Sunrise,"  "  Bothwell," 
a  dramatic  sequel  to  "  Chastelard  " ;  "  Essays 
and  Studies,"  "  Studies  in  Bong,"  "  A  Century 


SWINE 

of  Roundels,"  "Life  of  Victor  Hugo"  (1888), 
"Locrine"  (1887),  "The  Sisters"  (1892), 
"  Rosamolid,"  "  Love's  Cross  Currants,"  a  novel 

(I90S).  After  the  death  of  Tennyson,  Swin- 
burne was  the  praSminent  poet  of  England. 

Swine,  any  artiodacty)  mammal  of  the 
Suidce.  The  wild  boar  {Su»  scrofa)  of  Eu- 
rope, N.  Africa,  and  Asia  Minor  is  generally  re- 
garded as  the  original  of  the  domestic  forms. 
The  river  hogs,  the  babiroussa,  and  the  wart 
hogs  are  other  swine.  The  chief  seat  of  the 
world's  swine-rearing  industry  is  in  the  N. 
states  of  the  MissiBSippi  valley,  where  favoring 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate  encourage  the 
production  of  Indian  com,  which  is  chiefly  re- 
lied on  to  feed  the  swine. 

In  the  U.  8.,  swine,  when  very  young,  are 
designated  as  pigs,  when  partly  grown  aa 
sliotes,  and  later  as  hogs.  Nine  tenths  of  the 
hogs  in  the  U.  S.  are  black,  with  small  mark- 
ings of  white  on  the  face,  feet,  and  tail,  and 
sometimes  elsewhere.  These  are  of  the  Poland- 
China  and  Berkshire  breed,  or  a  mixture  of  the 
two;  the  next  most  prominent  breed  is  the 
Chester  White.  Other  breeds,  equally  distinct, 
are  the  Essex,  black;  Duroc- Jersey  or  Jersey, 
red,  sandy,  or  reddish;  Victoria  and  Suffolk  or 
SmaU  Yorkshire,  white.  The  Essex  and  York- 
shires are  from  England,  the  Duroc-Jerseyi  are 
of  uncertain  ori^n,  and  the  Victorias  origi- 
nated since  I860  in  Indiana.  The  predominant 
breed,  the  Poland -Cihlna,  originated  by  crossing 
in  Butler  and  Warren  Coa,  Ohio,  betweoi  1838 
and  1840.  These  were  crossed  with  imported 
Berkshires  to  give  refinement  and  propensity  to 
earlier  fattening,  and  incidentally  tney  acquired 
the  Berkshire's  black  color  and  white  mark- 
ings. The  Berkshire  in  its  improved  form  orig- 
inated (as  did  the  Essex)  in  Bngland—Italian 
and  Spanish  swine  being  crowed  with  the 
coarser  native  stock— between  1780  and  1800, 
but  although  flrst  introduced  into  N.  America 
about  1830,  it  did  not  obtain  general  favor  un- 
til 1870-80.  Hogs  of  a  dark  color  are  most 
largely  reared  because  of  a  belief  that  they  are 
hardier  and  lees  susceptible  to  aflections  of  the 
skin  incident  to  sudden  changes  of  temperature 
and  the  muddy  tjuarters,  severe  winds,  and 
burning  suns  to  which  they  are  subjected.  Po- 
land-Chinas, Berkshires,  Chester  Whites,  and 
Duroc-Jerseys  are  large  breeds,  weighing  from 
300  to  450  lb.  at  twelve  months  and  from  600 
to  6(X>  and  even  more  at  eighteen  months,  and 
tbey  have  been  bred  to  a  degree  of  fineness  in 
bone,   smallness  of  offal,   compactness  of  form, 

nd   early   maturity  which   makes  them  well- 

li^  perfect. 
The  two  principal  markets,  slaughtering  and 
packing  points,  for  swine  are  Chicago,  III,,  and 
Kansas  City,  Kan.  There  were  marketed  in 
the  former  city  in  1894  7,483,228  head,  and  in 
the  latter  2,547,077.  Chicago  packed  in  the 
year  ending  March  1,  1895,  6,293,202,  and  Kan- 
sas City  2,106,333;  these  numbers  have  been 
largdy  exceeded  in  previous  and  succeeding 
years,  but  are  a  fair  average.  Next  to  cotton 
and  wheat  the  swine  interests  furnish  the 
largest  values  in  exports  from  the  U.  S.;  value 

•  -wine  in  the  U.  S.    (IBll)    1823,328,000. 
le  chief  scourge   among  swine  is  a  conta- 
gious fever,  popularly  called  cholera,  which  de- 


xCoogIc 


SWISS  GUARDS 

luitary  and  itj- 
Icient  variety  of 
lood,  tending  to  an  enfeebled  constitution,  en- 
courage its  development.  It  is  fatal  in  from 
one  to  dx  days,  or  enda  in  &  tedious  or  uneatiB- 
factoty  recoTery, 

Swlu  Guarili,  bodies  of  meroenaiy  Swiss 
troops  employed  as  guards  about  courts.  Swiss 
mercenaries  have  frequently  been  hired  by  for- 
eign powers  since  the  time  of  the  Swiss  struggle 
for  independence,  which  brought  the  valor  and 
hardihood  of  that  people  into  notice.  The  term 
Swiss  Guards,  however,  especially  refers  to  the 
royal  bodyguard  of  the  kings  of  France.  This 
force,  which  was  organized  iu  1616,  showed  re- 
markable courage  and  lovalty  in  the  service  of 
the  Bourbons.  In  1789  they  were  roughly  han- 
dled by  a  mob,  and  August  10,  1792,  almost 
every  man  was  killed  in  the  hemic  defense  of 
the  Tuileries.  Tfaey  numbered  about  2,000. 
Their  heroism  is  commemorated  by  Thorwatd- 
sen'e  "  Lion  of  Lucerne,"  carved  from  the  liv- 
ing rock  in  a  cliff  near  one  of  the  gates  of  Lu- 
cerne. Louis  XVIII  reorsanized  the  Swiss 
Guard  in  1816.  In  the  Revolution  of  1830  they 
were  defeated  and  dispersed.  . 

Swith'in,  Swithnn,  or  Swithun,  Saint,  d. 
862;  bishop  and  jMitron  of  Winchester;  became 
a'monk  in  the  Old  Monastery  in  Winchester; 
later  provost ;  private  chaplain  to  Egbert,  King 
of  the  W.  Saxons;  his  adviser  and  rator  to  the 
King's  son  Ethelwolf,  and  later  bis  adviser 
also;  Bishop  of  Winchester,  852.  He  was  re- 
markable for  piety  and  activity  in  building 
churches.  In  B71,  when  his  relics  were  trans- 
ferred to  the  church,  "  such  a  number  of  mirac- 
ulous cures  of  all  kinds  were  wrought  as  was 
never  in  the  memory  of  man  known  to  have 
been  in  any  other  place."  Hie  day  in  the  Ro- 
man calendar  is  July  lid — bla  death  day — but 
in  the  English  calendar  July  15th;  and  it  is 
commonly  said  in  England  that  it  it  rains  on 
St.  Svrithin's  Day  it  will  rain  for  forty  days 
thereafter,  a  saying  which  is  supposed  to  have 
originated  in  the  alleged  fact  that  the  transla- 
tion  of    Swithin's    remains   was   delayed   by 

Swif cerland,  formerly  alao  called  Helvetic 
Confederation,  a  federal  republic  of  Europe, 
bounded  N.  by  Germany,  B.  by  Austria,  S.  by 
Italy  and  France,  and  W.  by  France;  area, 
16,976  sq.  m,;  pop.  (1910  census)  3.741,971.  It 
is  the  most  mountainous  region  of  Europe,  and, 
with  Tyrol  and  Savoy,  the  most  elevated,  though 
the  Caucasus  rises  higher  in  single  peaks.  It  is 
covered  throughout  almost  its  whole  extent  by 
the  Alps,  of  which  the  following  groups,  with 
their  various  branches,  belong  properly  to 
Switzerland:  The  Pennine  Alps,'  the  Lepontine 
or  Helvetian  Alps,  including  the  divergent  Ber- 
nese Alps;  the  Rbeetian  Alps.  The  principal 
summits,  ranging  between  15,200  and  13,700  ft., 
are  treated  separately.  To  the  W.  of  the  Alps, 
between  France  and  Switzerland,  extends  the 
Jura  Range.  Of  the  heights  commanding  the 
most  striking  panoramas,  the  Bigi,  Uiough 
comparatively  low,  is  probably  the  finest.  In 
the  valleys  of  the  Bernese  Oberland,  and  those 
which  descend  from  Monte  Rosa  in  Valais,  the 
glaciers  are  seen  to  great  advantage.     The  ra- 


SWITZERLAND 

vine  of  the  Via  Hala,  on  the  upper  Rhine  in 
Grisone,  presents  one  of  the  most  sublime 
scenes.  The  gladen  are  the  reservrars  which 
feed  some  of  ibe  largest  rivers  of  W.  Europe, 
including  the  upper  Rhine,  which  flows  within 
'and  along  the  boundary  line  of  Switzerland, 
and  then  enters  Germany,  and  the  Rhone, 
which  rises  among  the  glaciers  of  the  8.  Goth- 
ard  range.  The  next  largest  river,  the  Aar, 
carries  the  waters  of  fourteen  cantons  to  the 
Rhine.  There  are  numerous  waterfalls,  the 
most  celebrated  being  those  of  the  Rhine,  3  m. 
below  SchalThauHen,  60  to  76  ft.  high. 

The  principal  lakes   are  those  of  Constance, 
Geneva,  Lucerne,  Zurich,  etc.    Qeologically,  the 


mineral  resources,  including  iron,  lead,  and 
copper,  are  small.  The  salt  mines  near  Basel 
and  those  at  Bex  (Voud)  are  the  most  impor- 
tant. The  mineral  springs  and  watering  places 
include  Leuk  (Valais),  St,  Monte,  in  the  val- 
ley of  Engadine  (Grisons) ;  Pfflfers  (St  Gall), 
and  Baden  and  Scbinznach  (Aargau).  On  the 
highest  summits  snow  and  ice  are  perpetual; 
yet  in  Valais  the  fig  and  grape  ripen  (it  the 
foot  of  iee-clad  mountains.  The  climate  is  sub- 
ject to  great  variations,  but  on  the  whtde  is 
very  healthful.  About  two  thirds  of  the  sur- 
face consists  of  lakes  and  other  watere,  glaciera, 
miked  rocks,  and  uninhabitable  heights.  Same 
districts  are  very  fruitful,  yet  the  grain  raised 
is  inadequate  for  home  consumption.  The  vine 
is  cultivated  on  the  dopes  of  the  Jura  and  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Rhine,  Rhone,  Reuss,  Lim- 
mat,  and  Thur,  and  in  some  places  ripens  at 
2,000  ft.  above  the  sea.  Flax  and  hemp  are  ex- 
tenuvely  grown.  The  forests  cover  about  sev- 
enteen per  cent  of  the  soil,  and,  although  im- 
perfectly cultivated,  the  production  of  timber 
exceeds  the  home  consumption. 

fishing  is  extensive,  but  hunting  has  fallen 
off,  and  in  some  of  the  cantons  is  prohibited. 
Chamois  are  still  found  in  the  Alps;  other  ani- 
mals are  bears,  wolves,  wild  boars,  and  roe- 
bucks; foxes  and  hares  abound,  and  otters  are 
found  in  some  of  the  lakes.  Switzerland  is 
celebrated  for  rich  and  excellent  pastures;  the 
finest  breeds  of  cattle  are  those  of  the  Simmen- 
thai  and  Saauen  (Bern),  GruyCre  (Fribourg), 
Zug,  and  Scbwytz.  The  best  cheese  is  made  in 
Gruy6re  and  in  Urseren  (Uri),  and  in  the  val- 
leys of  the  Emmen,  Saane,  and  Simmen.  The 
chief  seats  of  the  cotton  manufacture  are  in 
Aargau,  Appenzell,  St.  Gall,  Zug,  and  Zurich; 
of  silks,  in  Basel  and  Zurich;  and  of  watches, 
In  Bern,  Geneva,  NeucblLtel,  Solothum,  and 
Vaud.  Switzerland  oonsists  of  twenty-tWo  can- 
There  are  no  villages  beyond  5,000  ft,  ex- 
cept the  hamlet  of  Juf,  at  7,000  ft.,  the  highest 
in  Europe.  On  the  Great  St  Bernard  the  hos- 
pice is  at  8,110  ft  The  inhabitants  of  the  high 
valleys  have  larger  bodies  and  feet  than  those 
below,  and  are  more  free  A-om  several  mala- 
dies, notably  phthisis.  Pneumonia  and  pleu- 
risy are  more  common  and  more  dangerous 
than  below,  as  are  also  asthma,  scrofula,  and 
rheumatism.  In  the  deep,  moist  valleys,  with 
little  sunshine,  goiter  and  cretinism  occur,  but 
increasing  attention  to  cleanlineaa  »nd  gemral 
c«Mufort  diminishes  this. 


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SWITZERLAKD 

Oertnan  ia  spoken  bj  the  niKJoritj,  and  ii 
the  official  language  in  iixteen  cantons,  French 
in  five,  and  Italian  in  one.  Education  U  com- 
pulsory, primary  education  is  free,  and  the  per- 
centage of  illiteracy  nearly  evaneacent  There 
are  about  6,000  schooU  of  all  grades  and  6  uni- 
Tersities.  The  principal  toiraa,  with  the  popu- 
lation for  1910,  are:  Zurleb.. (189,088),  Basel, 
Baale,  or  Bale  (131,914),  Geneva  (12G,e2Q|, 
Bern  (8^,264),  Lauaanne  (03,920),  St.  Gallen 
(37,667),  Chaux-de-Fonda  (37,630),  Lucerne 
or  Luzerne  (39,1S2),  aod  Neuchfitel  (23,606). 
The  imports  for  1010  were  valued  at  $336,- 
789,000  and  the  exporU  at  $230,803,000.  Th« 
ehief  im^rts  were  foodatuffs,  tobaooo  and 
■pirits,  «lk,  wools,  cottons,  and  other  tex- 
tiles; metals,  minerals,  and  chemical  colors, 
bullions,  and  coin.  The  chief  exports  were 
textiles,  timepieces,  and  colors.  Wheat  and 
flour  are  largely  imported.  The  trade  is 
chiefly  with  Switzerland's  immediate  neigh- 
bora-— Germany  Srst — but  many  exports  go  to 
France,  Italy,  Oreat  Britain,  and  the  U.  S. 

The  constitution  is  thoroughly  federal,  with 
some  novel  features.  Supreme  legislative  and 
executive  authority  in  federal  matters  resta  in 
a  federal  assembly  of  two  houses:  a  state  coun- 
til  of  forty-four  members,  elected  by  the  can- 
tons, and  a  national  council  composed  of  167 
members— one  for  each  20,000  population,  elect- 
ed erery  three  years  by  direct  ballot.  Execu- 
tive authority  ia  deputed  to  a  federal  council 
of  aeven,  elected  by  tbe  assembly  for  three 
years,  and  its  president  and  vice  president  are 
the  chief  magistrates  of  the  nation.  There  is 
a  special  tribunal  for  trial  of  cases  between  the 
confederation  and  cantons,  or  between  cantons. 
The  confederation  can  levy  no  direct  taxes,  and 
its  chief  source  of  revenue  is  the  customs.  The 
revenue  for  1910  was  (29,747,000  and  the  ez- 

Cnditures  930,774,000.  No  standing  army  may 
maintained  within  the  confederation,  but  the 
militia  consiflts  of  S00,000  available  men.  Each 
dement  of  the  confederation  is  sovereign  and 
independent  in  local  affairs  and  in  such  others 
as  are  not  limited  by  the  federal  constitution. 
The  cantonal  govemmenta  agree  only  in  the 
absolute  popular  sovereignty,  and  differ  much 
in  organization  and  details.  The  referendum 
ia  most  fully  developed  in  Zurich,  where  all 
laws,  and  even  the  chief  matters  of  finance, 
must  be  submitted  to  the  popular  vote.  Com' 
munal  government  is  well  developed  for  local 
afTaira.  Several  cantons  have  only  indirect 
taxation — duties,  stamps,  etc — while  others  tax 
income  and  property  also. 

Though  many  traces  of  the  ancient  race 
known  as  lake  dwellers  remain  in  Switzerland. 
the  Eelvetii  were  the  flret  inhabitants  whose 
name  has  been  transmitted  to  us.  They  were 
continually  Involved  in  war  with  Gauls,  Ger- 
mans, or  Romans,  and  even  dared  to  attack 
Cesar's  anpy,  but  were  beaten  back  to  their 
native  valleys,  and  from  this  time  to  the  Teu- 
tonic invasions  they  served  as  a  bulwark  for 
Some  against  the  Germans,  and  their  country 
became  a  Bdmau  province.  The  time  came, 
however,  when  the  Romans  had  to  withdraw 
their  forces  and  make  room  for  other  invaders 
— the  Ostrofnoths,  the  Alemanni,  the  Burgun- 
diani,  and  the  Franks.    Tbe  W.  part  was  in- 


SWrrZERLAND 

eluded  in  tbe  Burgundian  Kingdom.  In  1082 
Switzerland  came  under  the  rule  of  the  emper- 
ors. At  the  beginning  of  the  twelfth  century 
the  emperor  granted  to  the  dukes  of  Zahringen, 
as  vassals,  the  greater  part  of  W.  Switzerland 
and  Lesser  Burgundy.  At  the  death  of  the  last 
^hringeo  (1218)  Switzerland  was  again  under 
the  emperor,  who,  however,  conferred  several 
parts  on  other  vassals.  The  Swiss  were  will- 
ing to  submit  to  tbe  emperors,  hut  bore  uB- 
easily  the  rule  of  vassals.  Following  the  exam- 
ple of  the  leagues  of  the  nobles  and  of  the  free 
cities,  the  three  forest  cantons — Uri,  Schwytc, 
and  Unterwalden — formed  in  1291  a  league, 
known  as  the  Old  League  of  High  Germany, 
which  was  the  nucleus  of  the  present  eonfeder- 

The  house  of  Hapsburg  attempted  to  increass 
ita  rights  and  domains;  the  Lands  (or  forest 
cantons)  opposed,  and  tried  to  free  themaelvea 
from  the  dominion  of  the  Hapsburgs.  The 
Swiss  war  of  independence  is  memorable  for  the 
bravery  and  vigor  of  tbe  league.  At  Morgar- 
ten  Pass  (131fi)  Duke  Leopold  waa  utterly  de- 
feated, and  for  aeventy  years  no  serious  at- 
tempt was  made  by  tbe  dukes  of  Austria  to 
force  their  rule  upon  the  Bwias.  In  1^86  tke 
Swiss  gained  another  victory  over  the  Anatrians 
at  Sempach,  and  this,  followed  by  another  vic- 
tory at  Nllfels  (1388),  plsiccd  the  league  on  a 
firm  footing.  New  distncts  were  added,  and  in 
1474  their  independence  of  the  house  of  Haps- 
burg was  formally  recoKnized.  In  the  fifteenth 
century  another  powerful  foe  appeared  in  the 
person  of  Charles  tbe  Bold  of  Burgundy,  but 
the  Swiss  won  victories  at  Grandson  and  Uorat 
in  1476  and  in  1477  under  the  walls  of  Nancy, 
where  Charles  was  slain.  By  1613  the  number 
of  the  cantons  waa  increased  to  thirteen.  In 
the  next  few  years  Protestantism  spread  rap- 
idly throughout  the  country,  under  tne  impulse 
of  Zwingli,  and  in  1631  war  broke  out  between 
tbe  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  cantons. 
The  Protestant  canton  of  Zurich  waa  defeated 


ism,  and  the  Pays  du  Vaud,  long  subject  to 
Savoy,  waa  conquered  in  1636  by  the  Protestant 
canton  of  Bern, 

During  the  Thirty  Years'  War  Switzerland 
remained  neutral,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  West- 
phalia (1648)  her  independence  of  the  German 
Empire  waa  recognized.  Up  to  the  death  of 
Louis  XIV  disorder  existed  in  Switzerland,  and 
this  disturbed  condition  continued  until  the 
French  Revolution,  the  principles  of  which 
gained  ground  easily  ia  Switzerland.  The 
numl>er  of  malcontents  increased,  and  the  Swiss 
were  to  be  seen  in  opposing  armies.  Tbe  can- 
ton of  Bern  fought  valiantly  to  the  last  against 
the  new  ideas  and  the  foreign  republican 
armies,  but  without  aucceaa.  Switzerland  was 
to  be  converted  into  a  republic  "  one  and  indi- 
visible," according  to  the  views  of  the  French 
Directory.  This  was  known  as  the  Helvetic  Re- 
public, and  lasted  four  years.  To  that  form  of 
government  succeeded  a  league,  based  upon  fed- 
eration. Under  this  constitution  Switzerland 
recovered  an  appearance  of  peace,  but  the  me- 
•■tnmliBlinn   nft"  (Fehruarv  IS. 


or  ana  a  uea- 

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SWORD 

potic  ruler.  The  mediation  luted  ten  yeara, 
ftnd  came  to  an  end  at  the  fall  of  the  French 
Broplre.  The  European  reaction  againit  France 
took  place,  and  Snitzerland  had  to  oarticipate 
in  it;  her  soil  was  invaded  by  the  allieB,  as  it 
had  been  by  the  French  armiet.  By  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  (1S15)  her  indenendence  and 
neutrality  were  acknowledged  and  guaranteed. 
In  1S48  a  new  constitution  was  adopted  with- 
out foreign  interfereoee;  this  gave  place  in  1874 
to  that  now  in  farce. 

Sword  (sOrd),  a  weapon  consisting  of  a  long 
blade,  and  a  handle,  or  hilt,  for  grasping,  the 
blade  being  larger  than  the  dagger.  The  saber 
has  one  edge  only  and  a  broad  back ;  some 
cavalry  sabers  are  straight.  The  Japanese 
two-handed  sabers,  worn  aa  the  badge  of  the 
Samurai  or  warrior  class,  are  of  great  excel- 
lence.    The  scimiter  of  Mohammedan  nations 


I.  Qnak  Sword,  from  ■  moaument.  Z.  Qnek 
in  tba  RoyiJ  AnliqUBiium.  Berlin 
isD  nrord,  from  a  vua.  *.  Qntk  iword  in  scab- 
bard, rram  ■  vue.  0.  Barbarian  ■word,  from  the 
CoiumD  of  Antoniu*.  6  and  7,  Roman  nn>nis.in 
the  Uiueo  NuioniUa,  Naplw. 

is  a  light  saber  with  a  blade  much  curved 
backward;  they  were  made  of  the  famous 
Damascus  steel,  wrought  so  tliat  its  surface 
is  covered  with  delicate  waving  lines  in  its 
substance.  The  yataghan  of  the  Mohammednns 
hoH  a  sharp  concave  edge.  The  cutlass  is  a 
short  saber,  cheaply  mounted.  The  ancient 
Roman  infantry  used  a  straight,  double-edged, 
sharp-pointed  blade  about  £0  to  24  in.  long. 
The  Malayan  creese  is  about  18  in.  long  with 
a  decidedly  waved  edge  on  each  side.  In  the 
early  Middle  Ages  the  swords  of  the  knights 
were  broad  bladed  and  straight;  in  the  Uiir- 
teenth  century  the  blades  were  sometimes  45 
in.  long,  and  the  two-handed  swords  were  even 
longer.  It  was  not  an  age  for  delicate  sword 
play.  The  rapier  was  introduced  by  the  Span- 
iards {the  blades  of  Toledo  being  famous),  and 
adopted  by  men  of  family,  about  the  close  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  but  the  private  soldier 
still  used  a  blade  for  cutting  as  well  as  thrust- 
ing, and  this  passed  into  the  heavy  broadsword 
of  the  seventeenth  century,  famous  in  tbe  hands 


of  Cromwell's 
by  the  8 

,  but  the  claymore  proper  y/oM  a  huge  two- 
handed  sword.  In  modem  armies  the  sword 
is  worn  by  officers  generally,  though  in  the  8. 
African  War  it  was  found  to  be  too  distinctive 
a  mark  for  shazpshooters.  In  a  ceremonial 
way  the  city  sword  or  walking  sword  of  the 
eignteenth  century  was  the  ba^e  of  a  gentle- 
man, and  even  to-day  a  slender  sword  forms 
part  of  the  costume  of  a  European  courtier  or 
diplomatist. 

Sword'flah,  any  fish  of  th^  XtpMute,  re- 
markable for  having  tbe  upper  jaw  prolonged 
forward  in  a  bony  sword.  Tne  common  sword- 
dsh  (XipkioK  giadiiu]  ranges  from  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  of'N.  America  eastward  to  the  Medi- 
terranean. It  is  often  10  to  16  ft.  long.  It  is 
a  rapid  swimmer,  and  is  said  to  assail  the 
largest  whales  with  its  sword.  It  sometimes 
strikes  ships  with  such  forca  as  to  penetrate 


CoHHOH  Swob 


several  thicknesses  of  plank,  and  tbe  sword  is 
frec^uently  broken  off  and  left  in  situ,  but  the 
Bsh  which  moat  often  assaults  vessels  is  a 
smaller  species  of  the  genus  Tetrapturm.  The 
swordfish  is  generally  esteemed  as  food,  and  is 
taken  by  the  harpoon,  an  exciting  and  danger- 
ous sport,  but  is  too  scarce  to  be  of  commercial 
value.  The  use  of  the  sword  is  not  clearly 
ascertained.  The  food  of  the  swordfish  con- 
sista  of  cuttlefish,  especially  the  squid,  and  of 
small  fishes. 

Syb'aiiB,  city  of  Magna  Grecia,  in  Lucania; 
founded  abt.  T20  n.c. ;  3  m.  from  the  Tarentine 
Oulf,  between  the  rivers  CratJiis  and  Sybaris, 
the  modem  Crati  and  Coacile.  It  rose  rapidly 
to  a  ^eat  prosperity,  founded  other  colonies 
— PoBidonia,  LsQs,  and  Scidrus — covered  a 
space  of  6  m.  in  circumference,  and  was  no- 
torious for  the  luxury  and  effeminacy  of  ita 
inhabitants.  In  510  B.C.  Sybaris  was  com- 
pletely destroyed  by  the  Grotonians  and  never 
recovered,  but  in  443  n.a.  the  deacendanta  of 
the  conquered  and  exiled  Sybarites  founded  the 
city  of  Thurii  near  the  old  site  of  Sybaris. 

Syc'amore,  a  tree  {Fietu  ageomonta,  or  Syo- 
omonu  antiguorum)  which  is  a  near  relative 
of  tbe  fig.  It  ia  a  widespreading,  shady  tree, 
much  plant«d  in  the  Levant  for  ita  shade.  Its 
light,  fragile  wood  is  reputed  to  be  inde- 
structible. Its  fruit  is  inferior  in  quality  to 
the  fig,  but  ia  abundant  and  palatable.  In  the 
U.  S.  the  buttonwood  or  plane  tree  is  improp- 
erly called  sycamore,  and  in  Great  Britain  that 
name  is  applied  to  a  maple  {Acer  pieudo- 
platanua). 

Syd'enham,  Thomas,  1624-80;  English  phy- 
sician; b.  Winford  Eagle,  Dorset;  educated  at 
Oxford,  and  in  1648  became  a  fellow  of  All 
Souls'  College;  served  oa  an  officer  in  tbe  par- 


liBmentarian  armf;  studied  medicine  at  the 
Goll^  of  Montpetlier,  France;  took  his  iegne 
of  iLD.  at  Cambridge,  and  establiBhed  himaeU 
abt.  1660  u  a  pb}^iciaii  in  Londoa,  where  be 
•oon  attained  the  foremost  place.  He  aban- 
doned the  routine  practice  then  prevalent,  baa- 
ing- his  own  upon  the  tbeor^  that  there  ia  in 
nature  a  recuperative  power  which  it  is  the 
province  of  the  phyaiciaii  to  aid.  He  waa  espe- 
dallj  acute  in  abeerving  and  describing  the 
gymptoma  of  diseases.  Among  the  aervicea 
which  he  rendered  were  the  treatment  of  ma- 
laria hj  cincbona  and  the  administration  of 
cooling  remedies  in  sniBllpoi.  'His  norka, 
which  are  not  numeroue,  were  written  in  Latin, 
but  have  been  frequently  tranalated.  In  1843 
waa  founded  the  Sydenham  Society,  for  the 
purpoM  of  printing  important  medical  works 


Syd'ney,  capital  of  New  S.  Wales,  Australia, 
and  the  oldest  city  of  Australasia;  on  the  S. 
aide  of  Fort  Jackson,  in  tat.  33'  6V  B.,  Ion. 
151*  12'  E.  The  dimate  ia  temperate  sad 
generally  healthful.  Port  Jackson  is  a  long. 
Blender  inlet,  farming  a  magnificent  land- 
locked harbor. 

Tha  city  proper  ia  about  i  m.  from  the 
heads,  on  a  peninsula  between  Rusbcutter  B^ 
on  the  E.  and  BUelcwatUe  Bay  on  the  W.  It 
has  a  water  front  of  8  m.  The  surface  ia  un- 
dulating. The  streets  are  often  crooked  and 
steep,  but  this  gives  the  city  an  old-fashioned 
appearance  unique  in  Australia,  and  affords 
frequent  end  charming  vistas  over  tbe  waters 
o(  the  bay.  There  are  many  public  parks 
(3,800  acres),  including  the  Domain  (130 
acres),  and  Moore  Park  (600  acres),  to  the 
8E.  of  the  city.  The  more  fashionable  of  the 
numerous  suburbs  are  toward  tbe  E.,  while 
the  business  portion  Is  extending  westward. 
The  entire  distance  to  Parramatta,  15  m.,  is 
practically  suburban.  The  factories  are  more 
on  the  S.  side,  and  population  is  rapidly  ME- 
tending  toward  Botany  Bay,  6  m.  to  the  S. 

The  public  and  many  private  buildin^n  are 
of  floe  style,  and  generally  of  a  fine  sandstone 
found  in  the  vicinity.  The  university  is  the 
most  important  edifice  in  Australia,  the  prin- 
cipal facade  being  600  ft.  in  length.  With 
r^rd  to  its  degrees  it  has  the  status  of  the 
English  universities.  The  metropolitan  cathe- 
dral of  St.  Andrew's  and  tbe  Roman  Catholic 
Cathedral  of  St  Maiy  Are  two  of  the  flnest 
structures  In  AustAIia.  The  city  is  in  the 
center  of  a  large  coal  basin,  and  the  beds  prob- 
ably pass  under  the  city  itself.  Coal  Is  cheap 
and  abundant.  The  manufactures  include  all 
the  products  of  the  pastoral  industiT<  and  es- 
pecially boot  and  shoe  making,  railway  sup- 
plies, carriage  and  wagon  making,  glass,  pot- 
tery, furniture,  atovea,  tobacco,  etc.,  and 
distilling  and  brewlm;.  The  city  waa  founded 
In  1786  oy  Capt.  Philip  aa  a  penal  station,  and 
lout  remained  a  humble  village.  In  1801  it 
had  56,S4S  InhabiUnU,  93,685  with  tbe  aub- 
urba.    Pop.  (1910)  eat.  at  621,100. 

Sydney,  an  important  seaport  and  manufac- 
turing city  of  Nova  Scotia,  Canada.  It  Is  situ- 
ated on  an  ezoetlent  harbor  in  the  E.  part  of 


SYNAGOGUE 

Cape  Breton  Island  and  haa  extensive  coal 
mines  in  its  vicinity.  Tbs  city's  manufactures 
Include  iron,  steel,  tar,  cement,  and  lumber. 
A  large  fleet  of  ocean-going  steamers  is  owned 
in  the  city,  as  well  as  many  fishing  craft. 
Pop.   (leil)    17,723. 

Sydney.    See  Sid.net. 

Sye'ne,  ancient  name  of  Assouan   iq.V.). 

Sylla.     See  SCIJ.A. 

Sylves'ter,  name  of  two  popes,  besides  an 
antipope.  SyLVESTEB  I,  SaiNT  (abt.  270-33B), 
Bucweded  Pope  Melcbiades,  January  31,  314, 
and  concurred  with  Conatantlne  in  convening 
the  Council  of  Nice.  In  the  false  decretal! 
Constantine  la  said  to  have  made  to  him  a 
"  donation "  of  Rome  and  ita  temporal itiea. 
Stlvebtek  II  (Gesbeit)  (abt.  820-1003)  waa 
a  Benedictine  monk  and  a  famous  instructor 
at  the  Univ.  of  Rheima.  The  Emperor  Otho 
III  made  him  Arcbbiahop  of  Ravenna,  and 
had  him  elected  pope,  April  2,  990.  Ha 
adminiatered  the  c^ce  with  uncommon  leal, 
talent,  and  severity.  Hia  universal  knowledge 
caused  him  to  pass  for  a  magician.    SYLvEstn 

III,  for  three  m     ' .  -       ..  . 

IX  and  Gregory 
of  Sutri,  1046. 

Syl'vicultnre.     See  Foszbtbt. 

Symbio'aia,  a  kind  of  commensaliam  or  com- 
panionship, in  whioh  associated  living  forma 
are  Intimately  connected  with  and  dependent 
upon  each  other.  Thus  the  plants  kiu>Mm  as 
lichens  are  composed  of  symbiotic  aasociations 
of  alg«  and  fungi.  The  association  of  "yellow 
cells"'  (plants)  in  tbe  Kadiolaria  (animals) 
is  an  example  in  the  animal  kingdom. 

Symbol'ic  I^lc,  or,  better,  Aloobithhio 
LoQic,  a  form  of  Ic^c  introduced  by  George 
Boole,  an  English  mathematician,  character- 
ized by  an  artificial  language  composed  of  sym- 
bola  with  their  laws  of  combination,  and  pos- 
sessed of  peculiar  advantages  in  giving  of 
actual  relations  repreaentations  whlSi  can  be 
manipulated  accoraing  to  rules  of  operation 
and  procedure,  experimented  upon  to  give  new 
knowledge,  according  to  organised  processes. 

Sym'pliony,  oi  Slnfo'nia,  in  music,  an  elab- 
orate composition  designed  for  performance  t^ 
a  full  orcoestra,  and  consisting  of  several  dis- 
tinct movements'  (usually  four),  each  of  which 
has  ita  individual  character,  as  the  alUgro, 
andante,  adagio,  tninutl,  scfterzo,  etc.,  while 
the  whole  unite  in  forming  one  symmetrical 
work  of  art.  There  appears  to  have  been  no 
important  difference  between  the  symphony 
and  the  overture  until  about  the  end  of  the 
eighteenth  century. 

Symplecades  (slm-pleg'&-dez] ,  two  islanda  in 
the  N.  entrance  of  tbe  Tbracian  Bosporus,  de- 
scribed by  the  ancients  as  floating  islands 
which  dashed  against  each  other,  eruahing 
whatever  came  between  them. 

Synagogue  (sln'ft-gOg) ,  a  Jewish  church. 
The  earlier  aynagoguea,  under  the  Persians, 
Greeks,  and  Romans,  were  also  for  deliberative 
or  higher  educational  purposea,     Dcapita  rab- 


SYNCOPATIOK 

binical  tr&ditiona,  tti  beglmiliigB  pnil)abt7  io 
Dot  go  beyond  the  Babflonian  captiTity.  The 
BynaffOKUe  ia  Eenerally  a  buch  buildins,  facing 
Uie  four  cardinal  points.  The  E.  wall,  wbicE 
all  must  face  during  the  recital  of  certain 
prayer*,  incloB^  the  "  holy  ark  "  ( aron  hak- 
kod«eh),  in  which  Hebrew  copies  of  the  Penta- 
teuch, written  on  rellum,  are  deposited ;  and 
opposite  it,  near  the  center,  ia  the  platform 
(btmoA)  on  which  the  reading  from  the  same 
ia  performed  by  the  reciter  or  cantor  I'hazan] , 
or  by  a  special  reader  Ikore).  Sermona  or 
lectures  are  delivered  from  a  smaller  platform 
adjoining  the  ark,  by  the  rabbi  or  lecturer. 

The  Gbeat  Stnagooue  was  an  assemblage 
of  120  men  which,  according  to  Jewish  tradi- 
tion, Nehemiah  brought  together  for  the  re- 
organization of  religions  worship  and  the  main- 
taining of  civil  order.  They  are  supposed  to 
fill  up  the  gap  between  the  last  of  the  prophets 
and  the  first  of  the  rabbis.  To  this  body  are 
ascribed  the  reconstitution  of  public  worship, 
the  final  collection  of  the  canon  of  the  Old 
Testament,    and    the    introduction   of    certain 

Krayera.  Many  other  ordinaneea  are  referred 
)  their  initiatire. 

SyncOpft'tion,  in  muaic,  an  arrangement  of 
notes  which  often  checks  the  rhythmical  move- 
ment, disturbing  the  accent,  and  rendering  em- 
phatic that  part  of  a  bar  or  measure  n^hich 
would  otherwise  be  unaccented.  Bee  a,  6,  and 
o  i/i  the  axample ! 

Syncopation  of  a  simpler  kind  occurs  when  the 
last  note  of  any  bar  and  the  first  note  of  the 
her  succeeding  are  tied  together  by  a  "  bind," 
and  thus  form  in  reality  only  <me  note. 

Syncope  (^n'ka-pE).    See  FAinnno. 

Synecdoche  (sln-ek'dO-kS),  a  figure  of  speech 
which  displaces  an  ordinary  term  by  one  which 
naturally  suggests  it,  on  account  of  the  relative 
whole  to  part  or  part  to  whole,  genua  to  spe- 
cies or  species  to  genus;  thus  oily  for  people 
of  the  city,  hUide  for  suiord,  bald  head  for  bald- 
headed  man,  bird  (or  fighting  oook,  man  for 
humankind,  etc. 

Syn'eigiam,  in  theology,  the  view  that  Ood 
and  man  share  in  the  work  of  r^eneration,  the 
human  will  responding  to  the  Spirit  of  God. 
So  Melancbthon  taught,  opposing  the  view  of 
Luther  aa  to  the  bondage  of  the  will  and  its 
complete  passivity  in  conversion. 

Syno'rial  HemliTaiies,  connective-tissue  mem- 
branous structures  which  surround  the  closed 
cavities  connected  with  the  joints,  or  occur 
about  certain  tendons  or  between  opposed  mov- 
able surfaces,  their  purpose  being  to  lessen 
friction.  They  resemble  serous  membranes  in 
structure,  but  are  distinguished  from  them  bv 
the  viscid  or  glairy  character  of  the  fluid  wita 
which  they  are  lubricated,  in  contrast  to  the 
thin  watery  secretion  bathing  the  serous  sur- 
faces. The  synovial  fluid  consists  of  nearly 
nthety-five  per  cent  of  water,  rendered  viscid 


SYRACUSE 

hj  muoni,  endothelioid  oells,  fat,  albumen,  and 
salts. 

Syn'tax,  that  branch  of  grammar  which 
treats  of  the  position  and  relations  of  words  in 
a  sentence.  In  Greek,  I^tin,  and  other  inflec- 
tional languages,  the  coordination  is  shown  by 
the  terminations  of  the  words,  and  their  order 
in  the  sentence  is  of  little  consequence;  but  in 
English,  which  lias  but  few  inflections,  the 
relation  of  the  words  is  shown  by  their  order 
in  the  sentence.     See  Gbauuab. 


Syn'thesis.    See  Cbbuistbi. 
S/phax.    See  JfUsiNisaA. 
Sy'phon.    See  Siphon. 

Syra  (sS'rB),  ancient  Byroa,  an  island  of  the 
Cyctades  belonging  to  Greece;  area,  44  sq.  m. 
During  the  Greek  revolution  it  was  used  as  a 
refuge  for  fugitives.  It  is  now  the  commercial 
center  of  the  ^gean  Sea.  Capital,  Hermop- 
olis;   pop.   (1896J    2S,S6e. 

Syr'acuse,  (1)  a  province  of  Sicily,  on  the 
E.  coast;  area,  1,420  sq.  m.    It  is  chiefly  moun- 
tainous, but  the  S.  is  a  plain.     The  principal 
Sroducts  are  grain,  barley,  olives,  wines,  fruity 
ax,  and  hemp.     (2)   A  fortifled  citv   (ancient 
Syraciuit] ,  the  capital,  81  m.  B.  by  W.  of  Mes- 
sina; communal  pop.  (1001)   32,030.     It  has  a 
fine  cathedral,  numerous  palaces,  and  extensive 
ruins.     It  trades  chiefly  in  oil,  wine,  brandy, 
frait,   salt,   saltpeter,   and  sulphur.      The   an- 
cient Syracuse  was  the  largest  city  of  Sicily, 
with   a   pop.    est   at   500,000,   800,000,   and 
,200,000.     It  really   consisted  of  five 
separated  by  walls — vie.,  Ortygia  (the 
l1   city),   Achradina,  Tyche,  Neapolia, 

the  Epipolte,  and  hence  was  sometimes 

called  Pentapolis.  After  the  Roman  conquest 
its  limits  became  restricted;  under  Augustus 
it  occupied  only  Ortygia  and  the  lower  part  of 
Achra^na,  and  since  its  capture  by  the  Sara- 
cens the  town  has  been  confined  to  the  Orty- 
gian  peninsula. 

The  peninsula  and  the  lowland  pprtion  of 
Achradma  and-  Neapolis  present  evidences  of 
former  splendor.  Near  the  borders  of  Tyche, 
Achradina,  and  Neapolia  ia  the  ancient  theater, 
hewn  out  of  the  rock,  440  ft.  in  diameter,  .con- 
tained sixty  ranges  of  seats,  all  cut  in  the  rock ; 
it  could  accommodate  24,000  spectators.  The 
lautumiie  or  latomiee,  originally  quarries  cut 
in  the  wall  of  rocks  which  formed  the  face  of 
the  heights  of  Achradina,  and  excavated  to  the 
depth  of  60  to  80  ft.,  are  still  perfect  Near  the 
theater  is  that  remarkable  prison  cut  in  the 
rock,  now  called  the  "  ear  of  Dionysius."  There 
are  also  catacombs  of  great  extent  Near  the 
left  bank  of  the  Anapo,  outside  the  walls,  are 
the  ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Olymplua 
The  celebrated  fountain  of  Arethuaa  has  been 
repaired  anc)  beautified.  Syracuse  was  founded 
by  the  Corinthians,  under  Archias,  about  734 
—     Within  seventy  years  it  began  to  send  out 


color 

In  486  an  oligarchy  called  the  Geomori,  or 
Gamori,  which  had  usurped  the  government, 
was  overthrown.  The  Geomori  withdrew  to 
Caamenn,  but  Gelon,  deipot  of  Gfela,  restored  ■ 
them  to  power,  reserving  for  himself  the  su- 
preme government     Hiero,  his  successor   (abt 


xCoogle 


8TRACDBE 

478 ) ,  promoted  literature  and  a.rt.  His 
brother  and  incoeiBor,  Thraejrbutus,  vaa  ex- 
pelled, ftiid  a  popular  Kovemment  was  in- 
■tituted.  In  410  the  Athenians  forraed  & 
league  against  Sjraeiiae,  but  their  expedi- 
tion ended  in  disaster.  Dionfaius  the  Elder 
made  himself  deapot  of  the  citT  in  405,  and 
ruled  vigorously  but  tjrannicaflr  for  thirty- 
eight  years.  After  defeating  the  Carthaginians 
(397),  .  he  extended  bis  dominion  over  the 
sreater  part  of  Sicily  and  a  part  of  Magna 
Onecia.  He  was  aucceeded  in  367  by  hia  son 
Konysius  the  Younger,  who  was  Qnally  over- 
thrown by  Timoleon  in  343,  The  restoration  of 
liberty  was  followed  by  unexampled  though 
brief  proaperity.  Twenty-aix  years  later  Agath- 
oeles  ac<)uired  despotic  power,  and  used  it  for 
twenty-eight  years  to  plunge  Syracuse  into  new 
and  destructive  wars.  Soon  after  his  death 
(289)  new  tyrants  assumed  the  sway,  till  in 
270  Hiero  TI  obtained  supreme  power,  and  main- 
'  tained  a  firm  and  judicious  administration  for 
fifty-four  years.  He  was  a  steadfast  ally  of 
Rome.  His  grandson  and  successor  Hierony- 
muB  abandoned  Rome  for  Carthage,  which  ulti- 
mately led  to  the  siege  of  Syracuse  by  Marcel- 
lus  (214-212),  a  siege  rendered  illustrious  by 
the  patriotic  efforts  of  Archimedes,  but  which 
finally  resulted  in  the  capture  and  plunder  of 
the  splendid  city. 

Syracuse  fell  into  decay;  yet  in  the  fourth 
century  a,d,  it  was  still  one  of  the  largest  cities 
of  Sicily.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Goth*, 
was  recaptured  b^  Belisarius  in  635,  and  in  SIS, 
after  a  sipge  of  nine  months,  sacked  and  burned 
by  the  Saracens.  In  lOSS  Count  Roger  of  Sicily 
made  himself  master  of  Syracuse.  It  was  par- 
tially rebuilt  and  fortified  by  Charles  V,  but  in 
1642,  1683,  and  1767  was  nearly  destroyed  by 
earthquakes. 

Syracnse,  city,  county  seat  of  Onondaga 
Co.,  N.  Y.;  on  Onondaga  Lake:  147  m.  W.  by 
N.  of  Albany  and  ISOJ  m.  E.  of  Buffalo.  It  is 
at  the  foot  of  Onondaga  valley,  in  the  lake  re- 
gion of  Central  New  York.  Salina  Street  is  the 
principal  thoroughfare,  crossing  the  city  from 
8.  to  N.,  and  W.  Genesee  Street,  part  of  the  old 
turnpike  from  Albany  to  Buffalo,  crosses  the 
dty  from  B.  to  W.  The  streets  contain  so 
many  tree*  that  during  summer  the  city, 
viewed  from  adjoining  nills,  appears  to  be 
buried  in  a  forest.  The  city's  water  system  has 
it;  source  in  Skaneateles  Lake,  18  m.  distant, 
and  is  considered  one  of  the  finest  in  the  TJ.  S. 

Syracuse  is  the  fourth  city  of  the  state,  meas- 
ured by  the  value  of  its  manual  product.  The 
census  of  1006  gives  the  number  of  factory  sys- 
tem manufacturing  establishments  as  738, 
employing  18,143  persons,  and  producing  ar- 
tic^  valued  at  949,435,000.  The  leading  in- 
dnstries  are  clothing,  iron  and  steel,  tjpewrit- 
era,  automobiles,  chemicals,  furniture,  wagons, 
agricultural  implements,  candles,  electric  sup- 
plies, and  malt  liquors.  Syracuse  wsa  settled 
in  1797,  and  was  known  first  as  Bogardus 
Comers;  afterwards  as  Milan,  South  Salina, 
Cosaitt's  Comers,  Corinth,  and  in  1824  Syra- 
cuse. In  1826  the  village  was  incorporated; 
in  1847  the  rival  villages  of  Syracuse  and  Sa- 
lina were  brought  Into  a  city  corporation.    The 

Jesiiibs,  in  1664, "^-  ^—^  '-  -"-"  "-  '" 

10  P 


e  the  first  to  vidt  the  lo- 


cality, then  inhabited  by  Indiana  (Onondagaa), 
a  remnant  (425)  of  whom  now  occupy  a  reser- 
vation 6  m.  S.  of  the  city  and  6  m.  aq.  PoA. 
(1910)   137,000. 

SytacUM  nniver'sity,  coedueational  institu- 
tion at  Syracuse,  N.  Y. ;  founded  1848;  located 
at  Lima,  N,  Y.,  and  known  as  Genesee  College 
until  1871,  when  it  was  removed  to  Syracuse, 
the  most  prominent  citizens  and  the  city  giving 
$100,000.  The  campus  comprises  fifty  acres; 
has  hall  of  languagea,  Holden  Observatory, 
fine  arts,  and  the  library  building,  containing 
the  famous  library  formerly  the  property  of 
the  historian  Yon  Ranke,  with  78,000  volumes 
and  pamphlets,  the  Young  Men's  Christian  As- 
sociation hall  and  gymnasium.  The  athletic 
field  Is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  state.  The 
medical  college  is  near  the  center  of  the  city. 
A  college  of  taw  was  opened  in  1896.  The 
value  o?  grounds  and  buildings  is  $3,260,000, 
the  endowment  fund  is  $1,700,000,  and  the 
total  income  $7H8.44»,  In  1910  tbe  number  of 
studenU  was  3,040. 

Sy'ila,  a  vilayet  of  the  former  Turkey,  in 
Asia  Minor;  bounded  N.  by  the  vilayet  of 
Aleppo,  K.  and  S.  bv  the  Syrian  and  Arabian 
deserts,  W.  by  the  Mediterranean.  It  comprises 
the  ancient  Phcenicia,  Ccele-Syria,  and  Pales- 
tine. Two  parallel  ranges,  Lebanus  and  Anti- 
Litianus,  run  southward,  and  the  chief  rivers 
are  the  Euphrates,  the  Orontea  and  Jordan, 
and  the  Leontes.  Earthquakes  are  frequent. 
The  climate  is  parching  and  the  heat  oppres- 
sive. The  scourge  of  the  country  ta  the  locust. 
Above  all,  however,  the  misfortune  of  Syria 
has  been  its  geographical  position,  rendering 
it  the  battleSeld  of  races  and  reli^ona.  Tbe 
mountain  slopes  are  covered  with  pine,  fir,  and 
oalc  Cedars  are  still  found  in  Lebanon;  lau- 
rel groves  are  frequent  in  the  valleys ;  exten- 
sive forests  are  rare.  Farming  tools  and  im- 
plements of  all  sorts,  as  well  as  the  system  of 
cultivation  and  handicraft,  are  of  the  simplest. 
The  common  cereals  are  wheat,  rye,  and  barley; 
rice,  dhurra,  sesame,  lentils,  and  beans  are 
raised.  Cotton,  hemp,  madder,  indigo,  melons, 
cucumbers,  and  artichokes  are  extensively  cul- 
tivated. The  tobacco  along  tbe  coast  is  of 
excellent  quality.  Plantations  of  fig,  orange, 
lemon,  mulberry,  peach,  pomegranate,  and  alm- 
ond, and  the  vineyards  yield  excellent  returns. 
The  coffee  plant  has  been  introduced  at  Lata- 
kia,  tbe  sugar  cane  at  Beirut,  and  Damascus 
is  surrounded  i>^  orchards  and  gardens.  All 
the  domestic  animals  of  Europe  are  triund  in 
Syria,  as  is  also  tbe  camel.  Ilie  wild  animals 
are  jackals,  hyenas,  antelopes,  the  Syrian  hear, 
wolves,  and  especially  wild  boar,  deer,  and  wild 
buffalo.  The  silkworm  is  extensively  reared. 
Mining  is  hardly  carried  on. 

There  are  no  reliable  statistics  aa  \a  popula- 
tion. The  lost  estimate  gives  it  3,675,100  which 
is  made  up  of  heterogeneous  races,  peoples  of 
Semitic  origin  predominating.  Arabic  is  the 
generally  spoken  language,  and  French  much 
employed  by  the  higher  classes.  Tribal  di- 
visions are  rather  on  the  score  of  religion  than 
origin  or  race.  The  country  swarms  with  seota 
—Mussulman,  Jewish,  and  Christian,  equally 
zealous  and  intolerant.     The  ehief  oitiee  ar« 


6TRIA 

Damascus,  Aleppo,  Beirut,  Jerusalem,  and 
Horns.  The  earliest  known  inhabitants  of 
Syria  were  Semites,  such  as  the  Cana&nites, 
PhcEaicians,  Aramsaiu,  the  latter  of  vrbom 
held  Damascus  and  ruled  to  the  Enphrates. 
Such,  too,  were  the  Hebrews.  Practically 
all  Syria,  except  Phcenicia,  became  subject  t<> 
the  Hebrew  monarchy  under  David.  When  on 
the  death  of  Solomon  the  Hebrew  empire  di- 
vided into  the  two  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Is- 
rael, an  independent  Aramiean  monarchy  under 
Rezin  waa  set  up  at  Damascus.  Its  kings  con- 
quered N.  and  central  Syria.  Tiglath-Pileser, 
King  of  Assyria,  subdued  this  state,  capturing 
Damascua  (740  B.C.),  and  likewise  Israel  (720 
B.C.).  Judah  was  conquered  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, King  of  Babylon,  in  SB7  B.C.  Syria  passed 
from  the  Asq^ians  to  the  Babylonians,  then  to 
the  Medet,  then  to  the  Persians,  and  after  the 
battle  of  IsBuB  (333  B.C.)  to  Alexander  and  the 
Greeks.  During  these  transitions  many  ivon- 
Semitic  elements  were  introduced.  On  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Seleucidn  founded  a 
Syrian  empire,  which  they  ruled  from  301  to  64 
B.C.  Antioch,  built  by  Seleucus  I  (301-281 
B.C.) ,  was  their  capital.  The  Syrian  Empire  at 
its  height  rivaled  in  extent  that  of  Alexander. 
AntiochuB  III,  the  Great  (223-187  B.C.),  was  a 
most  formidable  enemy  to  Rome.  Antiochus 
XIII  (89-85)  was  overthrown  by  Pompey,  who 
made  Syria  a  proconsular  Roman  province  (64 
D.C.).  Syria  con^ued  part  of  the  Roman  and 
then  of  the  Byiantine  Empire,  but  (836-638) 
was  gradually  conquered  by  the  Mussulmans. 
Damascus  was  made  the  capital  of  Syria  in 
064;  under  the  Ommiade  dynasty  of  caliphs  it 
continued  the  capital  of  the  entire  Mussulman 
Empire  (661-7G^).  The  ^asaide  caliphs  de- 
graded Syria  to  the  rank  of  a  province  and  re- 
moved the  capital  to  the  newly  founded  Bag- 
dad. Distracted  by  rebellions  and  by  frequent 
wars  between  the  caliphs  and  the  Byzantine 
Empire,  the  condition  of  Syria  became  deplor- 
able, till  it  fell  under  the  humane  sway  of  the 
Seljuk  suHan  Malek  Bhah    (1073-93).    Next 


TABEHNACLE 

the  crasadera  deluged  the  country,  and  irom 
1099,  when  the  Christian  kingdom  of  Jerusa* 
lem  was  set  up,  until  1291,  when  Acre,  the  last 
Christian  stronghold  in  Syria,  was  retaken  by 
the  Mussulmans,  was  the  most  disastrous  pe- 
riod Syria  has  ever  known.  Prom  ths.t  time, 
except  during  the  invasions  of  Tamerlane  and 
■""' Syria  was  ruled  by  the  Mameluke 


of  1832-41,  it  farmed  a  part  of  the  Ottoman 
Emi^ire  from  1516  till  late  in  1918,  when  a 
British  army  under  Gen.  Allenby  occupied  Pal> 
eatine,  Jerusalem  and  other  historic  plaoea. 

Stt'Ixc  Lan'guagft.     See  Araiujo. 

Sy'Toa.    See  Stba. 

Syr'tis,  Ma'jor  and  Hi'nor,  the  ancient  names 
of  the  two  targe  inlets,  or  rather  of  the  two 
opposite  angles  (E.  and  W.)  of  the  great  almost 
rectangular  reentrant  in  the  S.  coast  (rf  the 
Mediterranean,  of  which  the  margins  are  the 
coasts  of  Tunis  and  Tripoli.  They  are  now 
called,  respectively,  the  Uulf  of  Sidra  and  the 
Gulf  of  Cabes.  They  are  shallow  and  danger- 
ous to  navigate  on  account  of  quicluands  and 
the  uncertainty  of  the  tides. 

Systole  (sIs'tA-le).    See  Hkabt. 

Siegedin  (seg-Edeu'),  after  Budapest  the 
most  populous  city  of  Hungary,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Maros  with  the  Theiss;  118  m.  SE.  of 
Budapest.  The  old  Turkish  castle  is  the  sole 
reminder  that  Szegedln  was  once  an  important 
fortress.  In  1879  the  town  was  submerged  by 
inundation;  almost  half  the  houses  were  de- 
stroyed and  nearlv  2,000  persons-  perished. 
Soda,  soap,  and  clotn  are  made  on  a  large  scale, 
and  trade  is  carried  on  in  corn,  wine,  tobacco, 
salt,  and  lumber.  The  town  is  famous  for  it* 
floating  mills  and  river  boats.  The  HungaHana 
were  defeated  here  by  the  Austriaus  0849). 
Pop.   (1910)    118,328. 


T,  the  twentieth  letter  of  the  English  al- 
phabet, derived  from  the  Greek  T  or  tau.  Its 
sound  is  like  d,  but  softer;  t  is  silent  in  hasten, 
listen,  often,  etc.;  as  ti  before  vowels  it  has 
tbo  sound  of  sh ;  as  ati  its  value  is  tsh,  as  in 
question,  Christian.  In  the  combination  th  it 
represents  a  spirant,  either  voiceless,  as  in 
thin,  or  voiced,  as  in  then. 

Sytn6oii»m.~T  =  Tuesday,  ton,  Tullius;  Ta 
=  tantalum;  Te ^tellurium;  Th. r=  Thursday, 
thorium;  Ti^ titanium;  Tl  =  thallium.  See 
Abhbeviationb. 

Tab'aid,  The,  a  famous  Inn  at  Southwark, 
I«Qdon,  whose  sign  was  a  tabard  or  the  sleeve- 
less coat  worn  by  heralds.  It  was  demolished 
in  1360. 

Tabas'co,  a  SE.  sUte  of  Mexico;  area,  10,- 
072  sq.  m. ;  of  fertile  soil,  raising  maize,  cacao, 
and  sugar  cane.     In  general  it  is  one  of  the 


Tab'ernacle,  a  tent  erecteit,  under  divine  di- 
rections (Exod.  xiT-xl),  by  the  Israelites  at 
Mount  Sinai,  and  carried  with  them  into  the 
Holy  L.ind.  It  was  the  place  where  God  should 
especially  manifest  His  presence,  and  where 
they  should  offer  to  Him  their  sacrificial  wor- 
ship, and  was  replaced  by  Solomon's  Temple, 
which  exactly  doubled  Its  dimensions. 

It  was  a  rectangle  49  ft.  long  and  16  broad 
and  15  high.  It  consisted  of  two  adjoining 
rooms,  with  an  outer  court  surrounding  both. 
The  inner  room,  an  exact  cube,  contained  the 
ark  of  the  covenant;  over  this  were  the  figure* 
of  two  cherubim,  and  between  them  the 
Shekinah.  The  only  access  to  this  room,  which 
called  "  the  holy  of  holies  "  (Heb.  Ix,  3,  7), 


I  from  the  outer  room,  whii^  ,.v 


tO^aa  called 


TASERNACLES 


width  sod  teight,  but  just  twice  the  leagth. 
Between  them  hung  a  double  curtain,  whkh 
wHB  pasaed  only  bj  the  high  priest,  and  by 
him  only  on  one  day  of  the  year,  the  great  Day 
of  Atonement.  In  the  out«r  room  was  the 
golden  censer,  the  golden  altar  on  which  in- 
cense wsa  burned  eveiy  morning  and  evening, 
the  table  of  sbewbread,  on  whlen  were  twelve 
loaves  of  bread,  replaced  each  week,  and  the 
golden  candlestick,  lighted  every  evening.  Into 
this  the  high  priest  and  the  priests  entered 
daily,  in  the  course  of  their  regular  ministra- 
tions, but  no  othera.  In  the  court  the  prin- 
cipal object  was  the  large  brazen  altar,  on 
which  sacrifices  were  burned.  Between  this 
and  the  sanctuary  itself  was  the  brazen  laver 
for  the  ablutions  of  the  priests.  This  court 
was  entered  bj  all  Israelites — who  must  be 
ceremonially  clean — who  came  to  offer  sacri- 
flees.  The  entrance  to  thia'also  was  by  a  hang- 
ing of  curtains  gorgeously  wrought  in  colors, 
supported  on  pillars,  and  was  twenty  cubits  in 
width.  The  three  entrances  were  thus  in  one 
line,  all  facing  eastward. 

Tabernacles,  Fesst  of,  the  last  of  the  three 
great  annual  festivals,  at  which  all  th«  males 
of  Israel  were  required  to  present  themselves 
at  the  sanctuary  (Lev.  xxiii,  33-43).  It  lasted 
seven  days,  and  on  the  eighth  was  a  "  holy 
convocation."  It  occurred  in  the  last  part  of 
September  and  first  part  of  October,  after  the 
harvest,  and  was  called  "  the  feast  of  ingath- 
ering." The  participants  dwelt  in  booths 
roofed  with  boughs,  in  memory  of  the  wilder- 
ness wandering.  The  sacrifices  were  specially 
arranged  (Kum.  xiix,  13-38).  Further,  the 
priest  drew  water  in  a  golden  pitcher  from 
the  Pool  of  Siloam,  and  poured  it  on  the  altar 
amid  the  rejoicings  of  the  people;  and  two 
great  lights  were  set  up  in  the  court  which 
are  said  to  have  illuminated  nearly  the  whole 
dty. 

Ta'bea  Dorulia.    See  LocoiioiOB  Ataxia. 

Ta'ble-land.    See  Plateau. 

Table  Hoon'tain,  a  mountain  of  S.  Africa, 
S.  of  Table  Bay,  its  highest  point  being  right 
over  Cape  Town.  It  is  about  3,500  ft.  high, 
and  level  on  the  top.  It  joins  the  Devil's 
Mount  on  the  E.,  and  the  Sugar  Loaf  or  Lion's 
Head  on  the  W. 

Taboo',  or  Tabu,  a  Polynesian  interdict 
which  makes  persons,  places,  or  things  sacred, 
BO  that  certain  persons  cannot  touch  or  come 
near  them  without  becoming  dedled  and  out- 
lawed. The  svstem  of  taboo  penetrates  the 
whole  social  life  of  moat  of  the  unchristianizfd 
Pohnesians,  and  is  a  powerful  agent  of  chiefs 
and  priests  in  controlling  the  people. 

Taint,  Honnt,  an  insulated  mountain  of  N. 
Palestine,  in  Qnlilee,  6  m.  8E.  of  Nazareth, 
risi:^  1,063  ft  above  the  plain  and  2,018  ft. 
above  the  sea.  It  is  often  mentioned  in  the 
Old  Testament,  and  was  from  the  fourth  cen- 
tury generally  regarded  as  the  scene  of  the 
transnguration  of  Christ,  although  it  is  now 
known  that  at  the  time  when  that  event  took 


TACKING  AND  WEAAIHCI 


place  its  summit  v 


9  occupied  by  a  fortified 


I«.ke  Urumeyah.  It  is  fn  the  midst  of  a  fertile 
and  well-cultivated  plain,  and  surrounded  by 
gardens.  It  is  poorly  built,  with  no  impor- 
tant public  edifices,  except  the  remains  of  the 
Blue  Mosque,  a  marvel  of  decorative  art  that 
was  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  of  1780.  There 
ara  important  manufacturer  of  silk,  arms,  sbawla, 
tobacco,  and  leather,  and  e,  larga  tianait  trade. 
It  has  suffered  severely  by  fin,  earthquake,  and 
by  the  invasioDa  of  Turks,  Although  not  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  World  War,  Perua  came 
under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain  and  Ru»- 
sia  in  the  early  part  of  the  struggle,  as  the  Ger- 
mans and  Turka  were,  anxious  to  possess  its 
great  industrial  centers  as  well  as  to  gain  the 
adhesion  of  its  people.  Of  the  coveted  places 
Tabris  ranked  high,  and  was  evacuated  by  the 
Turks,  Oct.  22, 191&     Pop.  est.  at  200,000. 

Tadtus  (tfisl-ttts),  CoiUB  (or  Pnblina)  Coi- 
nelini^  abt.  6&~11T  a.d.;  Boman  historian.  He 
was  early  appointed  to  a  public  office  under 
Vespasian,  and  married  a  daughter  of  Julius 
A^icola.  He  held  a  pratorsTiip  under  Do- 
mition,  and  was  cotuuI  su/fectua  under  Nerra. 
Nothing  positive  is  known  of  his  subsequent 
career  except  that  late  in  life  he  was  procon- 
sul in  Asia.  He  was  a  famous  orator  and 
lawyer.  His  "  Vita  Julii  Agricolie "  is  the 
masterpiece  of  biography,  ms  "  Germania  "  * 
appeared  soon  after,  both  probably  in  98. 
Abt.  105  appeared  the  first  portion  of  his  his- 
tory of  Rome,  embradng  "  Hiatorite  "  of  the 
years  88-08  a.d.  Only  the  first  four  books 
and  a  part  of  the  fifth  are  estant.  Next  ap- 
peared the  "  Annales,"  a  condse  history  of  the 
events  from  a.d.  14  to  69.  Of  the  original  six- 
teen books,  only  nine  complete  and  parts  of 
three  others  are  extant. 

Tadtna,  Harcni  Qandins,  abt.  200-276  aj>.; 
Koman  emperor.  After  the  assassination  of 
Aurelisn,  276,  Tacitus,  who  had  held  varioua 
offices  and  was  noted  for  wealth  and  int^rity, 
was  unanimously  elected  emperor  by  the  sen- 
ate. He  instituted  domestic  reforms.  Accord- 
ing to  one  account,  he  was  assassinated  by  his 
soldiers  when  on  an  expedition  against  the 
Qoths  in  Asia  Minor. 

Tack'ing  and  Weai'ing,  the  common  methods 
of  working  a  vessel  from  one  tack  to  the  other ; 
they  differ  in  that,  while  in  tacking  the  vessel 
turns  toward,  in  wearing  it  turns  from  the 
wind.  Square-rigged  vessels  when  close  hauled 
lie  within  about  six  points  of  the  wind;  fore- 
and-aft-rigged  vessels  lie  a  point  or  two  high- 
er; therefore,  in  tacking  a  ship  turns  through 
twelve  and  in  wearing  through  twenty  points 
of  the  compass.  A  vessel  wears  when,  through 
high  winds  or  heavy  weather,  or  some  other 
reason,  tacking  is  impracticable.  If  in  tacking 
a  vessel  comes  up  into  the  wind  and  lies  there, 
it  is  said  to  be  in  irons;  it  may  then  by  shift' 
ing  the  helm  be  made  to  tall  off  on  the  other 
tack  when  stem  board  is  gathered,  otherwise 
it  may  be  boxed  off  im  the  same  taek.    See 

,r        "■  iXoogle 


Taco'ma,  capital  PierM  Co.,  Wuh.;  on  Com- 
nencement  Bay  and  the  Puyallup  River;  25  m. 
NE.  o(  Olympia,  and  28  m.  S.  of  Seattle.  The 
Pufallup  River  empties  within  the  city  liinitB, 
and  aida  in  making  n  flue  natural  harbor,  and 
the  shipping  faciiitiea  are  excellent.  Moat  of 
the  manufacturing  and  railway  indurtriea  are 
in  the  E.  part,  on  or  about  the  level  tide  flata 
at  the  head  of  the  bay.  The  buainess  and  resi- 
dence portions  are  on  a  bluff  80  ft.  above  the 
1  ^ound  rising  gradually  to  320  ft., 


of   unusual 
grandeur,   with   the   Olympic  or   Coast   Bange 

in  the  W.  and  the  Cascade  Range  in  the  E.; 
Mount  Tacoma  (by  some  called  Mount  Bain- 
icr)  rises  over  14,52fl  ft.  Wright  Park,  con- 
taining 40  acres,  and  Point  Defiance  Park,  602 
acres,  are  the  principal  parks.  The  region 
immediately  S.  of  the  citf  is  a  park  land  of 
much  tieauty. 

Ticoma  IB  well  supplied  with  churcheB,  the 
membership  exceeding  10,000.  The  public 
schools  occupy  twenty  building,  and  there  are 
over  twenty  private  academies  and  business 
eoUeges.  In  1681  a  cargo  of  wheat  valued  at 
$51,000  was  shipped  from  Tacoma  to  Liverpool 
in  an  American  bottom.  Since  then  there  has 
grown  an  ocean  commerce  which  in  1900  ag- 
gregated $16^45,407  in  exports  of  wheat,  flour, 
coat,  lumber,  canned  salmon,  etc.;  and  the  im- 


shipping  is  extensive.  About  $12,000,000  is  in- 
vested in  manufacturing  industries.  The  plants 
include  large  car  shops  and  sawmills.  Over 
3,000  persons  are  employed  in  other  works. 
Tacoma  is  one  of  the  most  important  shipping 
and  distributing  points  on  the  Pacific  coast. 
Tacoma  Citv,  now  the  First  Ward  and  called 
Old  Town,  was  laid  out  in  1808  by  Gen.  M. 
M.  MeCaner.  On  July  U,  1873,  the  Northern 
Pacific  Railroad  Company  established  its  Pa- 
cific terminus  on  Commencement  Bay,  naming 
it  New  Tacoma;  in  18flO  the  town  became  the 
county  seat,  and  in  1883  the  two  towns  were 
consolidated  as  Tacoma.  Pop.  (1010  census) 
83,743, 

Tacoma,  Hotut    See  RAinix,  Mounr. 

Tac'tics,  the  art  of  drawing  up  military  or 
naial  fuicts  in  order  of  battle  and  of  perform- 
ing military  or  naval  evolutions. 

MiuTABV  Tactics  is  the  art  of  so  handling 
bodies  of  troops  as  to  utiliie  to  the  fullnt  ex- 
tent the  fighting,  maneuvering  and  resisting 
capacity.  When  applied  to  the  combined  action 
of  larger  masses,  of  dilTerent  arms,  on  the  field 
of  battle,  it  ia  called  grand  tactics.  When  re- 
stricted to  actions  of  amall  bodies  or  single  arms 
it  is  called  minor  tactics. 

Minor  tactics  include  drill  regulations,  or 
drill,  formerly  called  in  the  U.  S.  by  the  gen- 
eral name  of  tactics.  The  object  of  drill  is  [1) 
to  enable  the  commanding  officer  to  place  each 
and  every  soldier  on  the  spot  he  ia  to  occupy,  in 
any  desired  formation,  in  the  most  rapid  man- 
ner consistent  with  complete  control  at  alt 
stages;  {2)  to  enable  the  soldier  to  use  his 
weapon  in  the  most  effective  way  in  action,  and 


ciit«  properly  formations  i 
ceremony,  such  as  parades,  reviews,  etc.,  to  pre- 
serve the  pride  of  the  soldier  in  his  own  appear- 
ance and  that  of  his  command.  The  field  of 
minor  tactics '  now  embraces  the  subjects  of  in- 
formation ajid  security,  including  outpoeta,  re- 
connoissance,  and  the  handling  of  advance  and 
rear  guards;  niarchee,  instruction  of  the  three 
arms  in  all  that  refers  to  the  use  of  their 
weapons  and  their  employment  upon  the  field 
of  battle.  The  most  marked  changes  which  re- 
sult from  the  increased  range  and  accuracy  of 
flrearms  are  forcing  the  enemy  to  deploy  and 
open  fire  at  much  greater  distance,  enlarging 
very  much  the  area  covered  by  the  effective  Are 
of  a  battery,  thus  necessitating  fewer  changes 
in  ita  position  and  giving  a  larger  latitude  in 
its  selection.  They  also  allow  the  artillery  to 
open  the  combat  at  a  distance  from  the  enemy 
which  can  be  traversed  by  him  only  with  such 
losses  and  in  such  time  that  the  artillery  may 
safely  inarch  at  the  bead  of  a  column,  open  fire, 
and  receive  support  before  it  is  endangered  by 
the  approach  of  the  enemy. 

The  correct  tactical  use  of  artillery  requires 
the  concentration  of  ita  fire  upon  properly  se- 
lected targets,  and  the  modem  improvements 
have  added  largely  to  its  efficiency  by  facilitat- 
ing this;  while  the  great  distance  at  which  a 
destructive  fire  can  be  poured  upon  a  body  of 
cavalry,  by  both  artillery  and  infantry,  has 
almost  entirely  changed  the  tactical  use  of 
mounted  troops  on  the  field  of  battle,  narrowly 
limiting  the  opportunities  for  a  successful 
charge  upon  infantry  or  artillery  in  position. 
The  changes  made  since  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
mans in  the  arms  and  equipments  of  the  caval- 
ryman, as  distinguished  from  the  dragoon  or 
mounted  infantryman,  have  reduced  themselves 
almost  entirely  to  the  addition  of  the  revolver 
and  the  abolition  of  body  armor.  The  first 
adds  somewhat  to  his  aggressive  value,  while 
the  second  is  the  direct  reault  of  the  improve- 
ment in  the  infantry  weapon.  The  most 
marked  change  in  modem  cavalry  is  the  eon- 
versioti  of  all  mounted  troops  into  dragoons, 
armed  with  a  rifie  or  carbine,  and  trained  to 
fight  00  foot  or  mounted ;  or  even  in  some  case* 
into  mounted  infantry  who  use  their  horses  for 
transportation  only  and  fight  on  foot.  In  recent 
operations  cavalry  has  hem  used  as  a  val  or 
screen,  to  cover  the  advonce  of  the  rest  of  the 
army,  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  it  was 
formerly.  Scouting,  reconaoissances,  and  map 
making  have  become  important  parts  of  the 
duties  of  cavalry. 

The  modem  minor  tactics  of  infantry  be- 
gin an  action  with  a  dispersed  skirmishing 
line,  in  which  the  front  of  each  battalion 
or  company  is  covered  by  its  own  men,  who 
are  ret!nforced  and  strengthened  by  their 
own  comrades  and  commanded  by  their  own 
officers,  thus'  avoiiling  the  disorganization  re- 
sulting from  mingling  different  commands  on 
the  front  line  of  battle.  In  attempting  to  ac- 
complish this,  great  prominence  is  necessarily 
given  to  the  advance  of  suceeasive  lines  in  open 
order,  which,  by  short  rushes  and  by  taking  ad- 
vantage of  all  possible  cover,  may  diminish  as 
much  as  possible  the  losses  caused  by  modem 


TACTICS 

■mall  arms  and  machine  guiu,  and  at  tbe  Mme 
tiine  collect  for  the  final  charge  a  Btrong  line 
ol  companiea  and  battaliom. 

Orofvl  taclica  iacludes  planning  battles,  per- 
fecting the  preliminary  arrangements,  conduct- 
ing them  during  their  progress,  and  ssciiring 
the  results  of  victory  or  avoiding  the  conse- 
quences of  defesL  Battles  are  usuaJl;  preceded 
and  followed  by  minor  actions,  classed  as  com- 
bats, skirmisbes,  etc.,  which  are  generally  not 
intended  to  be  deciaive.  Battles  are  classed  as 
offensive,  defensive,  and  defensive-offenaive,  the 
latter  name  being  applied  to  those  actions  in 
which  the  attack  having  exhausted  its  strength, 
the  defense  takes  the  offensive  to  gain  the  vic- 
tory. In  great  battles  the  fighting  is  not  car- 
ried on  in  the  same  manner  at  all  points  of 
the  line.  False  attaclia  and  demoustratioos  of 
the  class  known  as  "  containing  movements " 
are  made  at  some  parts  of  the  line,  while  the 
strength  of  the  attack  is  concentrated  kt  an- 
other, thus  "  making  oneself  stronger  than 
the  enemy  at  the  time  and  place  -of  actual  con- 
flict," whioh  is  the  very  soul  of  success.  It  is 
this  principle  which,  by  overshadowing  all  oth- 
ers, has  led  to  the  statement  that  "  the  rules  of 
tactics  are  invariable,  and  are  the  same  now  as 
they  were  in  the  time  of  Alexander."  This  is 
true  only  of  grand  tactics.  History  shows  that 
success  has  generally  attended  the  aggressive 
leader  when  other  things  wese  equal;  but  when 
an  army  is  weak  in  men,  in  training,  or  in 
morale,  its  leader  can  only  seek  to  give  It  su= 
perior  strength  in  actual  confiict  by  fighting  a 
defensive  battle  in  a  well-selected  position  made 
strong  by  fortifications,  against  which  the  en- 
emy may  exhaust  his  superior  strength. 

Naval  Tactics. — The  subject  may  be  divid- 
ed into  grand  tactics,  or  the  tactics  of  battles, 
and  elementary  tactics,  or  the  tactics  of  in- 
struction. The  history  of  naval  tactics  can 
very  properly  be  separated  into  three  ^rand  di- 
visions. The  first,  the  oar  period,  Iwgins  where 
tradition  merges  into  history,  and  ends  about 
the  battle  of  Lepanto  (1571),  covering  about 
two  thousand  years.  The  second,  or  sail  pe- 
riod, is  embraced  between  Lepanto  and  the  bat- 
tle of  Lissa  (1866),  lasting  only  two  hundred 
and  ninety-Bve  years,  since  which  time  there 
has  been  only  tbe  steam  period,  yet  in  its  in- 
fancy. The  key  to  any  system  of  naval  tac- 
tics IS  the  tine  of  battle.  If,  in  the  line  of  bat- 
tle, the  vessels  are  all  in  line — or,  as  it  was 
called  in  the  tactics  under  sail,  "  line  abreast " 
and  heading  toward  the  enemy — we  have  the 
line  of  batUe  of  the  oar  period,  when  war  gal- 
leys were  armed  at  the  bow  with  a  epui  (ros- 
trum), and  depended  for  success  in  battle  on 
ramming  and  sinking  the  galleys  ol  the  enemy 
or  grappling  and  boarding  him.  This  formation 
gives  us  also  the  line  of  battle  of  modem  flght- 
mg  ships  when  their  principal  offensive  pow^r 
lies  in  their  rams.  If,  however,  the  power  of  the 
ship  lies  in  her  broadside  [artillery  placed  on 
the  side  of  the  ship),  it  is  obvious  that  such 
ship  must  present  her  broadside  to  the  enemy. 
In  which  case  the  line  of  battle  must  be  the 
"line  ahead,"  or,  as  it  is  now  properly  called, 
in  "  column."  In  addition  to  the  above,  there 
are  certain  "  orders  "  in  which  it  is  convenient 
iar  a  fleet  or  squadron  to  navigate  the  sea,  to 


another, 


stitutes  elementary  tactics.  The  disposition  of 
the  fleet  for  actual  contact  with  the  enemy 
under  various  conditions  constitutes  grand  tac- 
tics. It  was  in  the  tactics  of  battle  tbat 
Nelson's  genius  was  most  conspicuous. 

An  assembly  of  twelve  or  more  line-of-battle 
ships,  or  vessels  of  equal  value,  is  called  a 
fleet,  and  is  separated  into  three  divisions  of 
one,  two,  or  three  squadrons  each,  each  squad- 
ron comprising  not  less  than  four  vessels.    Tbe 


fl    0    fl 
A    fl    Q 


0 


commander  in  chief  commands  the  entire  fleeti 
the  second  in  command,  the  van  division  (or 
right  when  in  line) ;  the  third,  the  rear  di- 
vision (or  left  when  in  line) ;  and  the  fourth, 
the  center. 

The  line,  the  order  of  battle  for  line-of-battle 
ships,  rams,  and  torpedo  vessels,  is  formed  as 


S  H' 

J- 


oFig.  I. 


The  column  is  the  order  of  battle  for 
whose  principal  power  is  in  their  broad- 
side batteries.     (Fig.  2.) 

Double  echelon  orders  are  offensive  (salient 
angle)  and  defensive  (reentrant  angle)  for  ves- 
sels (or  all  descriptions  (Fig.  3).  Vessels  are 
said  to  be  in  direct  single  echelon  when,  steer- 
ing the  same  course,  each  bears  from  its  next 
astern  at  an  angle  of  45°  (four  points)  from 
thi  course;  consequently  the  wines  of  a  fleet 
in  double  echelon  form  a  right  angle.    One  ves- 


sel should  always  be  designated  by  signal  to 
act  as  guide,  by  which  the  movements  of  the 
other  vessels  are  to  be  governed,  and  should 
wear  a  guide  flag  at  the  main.  When  maneu- 
vering, the  vessel  upon  which  a  formation  is 
mode  must  necessarily  be  the  guide.  'When 
the  fleet  is  in  line  in  natural  order,  the  van 
squadron  is  on  the  right  (Fig.  4).  This  i 
the  line  of  battle  formed  by  C'" — '  ■"--  ' 


Call  icrati  das  the 


TACTICS 

Spartan,  at  the  battle  of  Arginuw.  his  fleet 
being  composed  of  3CK)  galleya.  The  fleet  in 
column  ii  in  the  natural  order  when  the  van 
squadrDO  is  leading. 

Fig.  6  exhibita  the  fleet  in  column  of  squad- 
rons, or  of  fours.     Should  aigual  by  fours,  left 


Stbategt. 

Tad'pole.     Bee  Fbog. 
Te'nia.    See  Tapeworm. 


,m»jii  HiiiJHi  mil  in 


whed,  be  made,  each  squadron  on  coming  into 
line  must  find  its  place  in  the  line  without 
crowding  or  confusion.  It  was  this  evolution 
that  was  performed  by  Cnemus,  commander  of 
the  Lacedemonian  fleet,  in  the  battle  in  the 
Crisean  Bay,  when  be  engaged  the  force  under 


Taft,  WilUam  Howail,  ISST-  ;  Amer- 
ican Jurist  and  twenty-seventh  President  of 
the  tf.  S.;  b.  Cincinnati,  Ohio;  graduated  at 
Yale,  18TS,  and  at  the  law  school,  Cincinnati 
College,  13S0.  He  was  law  reporter  on  the 
Citicinnati    Commercial,     1660-^1;     assistant 


5    J    (1    0    0    0 


Phormio,  the  skillful  Athenian  tactician,  then 
guarding  Naupactus,  the  modern  Lepanto. 
These  two  ittustrations  show  bow  closely  the 
fleet  tactics  of  the  oar  period  resemble  those  of 
the  steam  period.  The  single  line,  as  in  fig.  4, 
is  eaaily  shattered  or  doubled  up.  It  should 
therefore  be  reenforced  as  in  Fig.  1.    As  the  sin- 


A/ 


\ 


gle  column  may  be  broken  and  the  rear  ships 
cut  off,  it,  too,  should  be  reinforced  as  in  Fig.  2. 
In  any  case,  there  should  be  a  reserve  (R,  Fig. 
2),  ready  to  succor  any  portion  of  the  fleet  that 
may  need  it. 

A  strong  order  of  battle  is  the  French  pelo' 
ton  formauon,  for  facility  of  manenvering,  af- 


r.o.  7, 

fording  mulual  support,  etc  Three  vessels  act 
as  a  unit,  and  these  pelotoua  may  be  formed 
in  line  (Fig.  6),  in  column  (Fig.  7),  or  in 
echelon. 

The  simple  orders  are  the  line,  column,  and 
echelon;  compound  orders  are  those  wherein  the 


-   —    1890-02;   and 

U.  S.  judge.  Sixth  Circuit,  1802-lflOO.  In 
March,  ISOO,  bb  was  appointed  president  of 
the  oommisaion  to  organize  civil  government 
in  the  Philippines,  and  on  July  4,  1001,  became 
civil  governor  of  the  islands.  In  1903  be  was 
appointed  Secretary  of  War.  Elected  president 
01  tha  U.  S.,  1908,  he  represented  the  oonaer- 
vative  element  of  the  Republican  party  in  op- 

fiosition  to  tha  "prc^ressive"  wing.  He  was  d«- 
eated  for  a  second  term  in  1912;  became  Kent 
Professor  of  Law  at  Yala  University  in  1913; 
and  exerted  great  influence  with  pen  and  speech 
in  sustainins  the  U.  S.  and  Red  Crow  activities 
in  tha  World  War. 

"TagUoni  (tal-yO'ne),  celebrated  family  of 
dancers  and  ballet  masters,  of  Italian  origin, 
but  principally  connected  with  the  Royal  ITie- 
ater,  Berlin.  Tbe  most  illustrious  member  was 
Maria  Taglioni  (I804-S4);  b.  Stockholm.  Sba 
made  her  d£but  in  Vienna  in  IS22,  danced  in  all 
the  capitals  of  Europe,  and  created  great  en- 
thusiasm, especially  by  her  performance  of  tbe 
title  role  in  her  father's  ballet  "La  Sylphide." 
She  retired  in  1847.  Her  brother,  Paul  Taglio- 
ni  (1808-841,  b.  Vienna,  was  ballet  master  in 
the  Royal  Theater  of  Berlin,  and  composed  tbe 
ballets  "  fiardanapal,"  "  Satanella,"  etc. 

Ta'gns,  one  of  the  principal  rivers  of  Spain. 
It  rises  in  the  Sierra  Albarracin,  flows  mostly 
W.  and  SW.  through  Spain  and  Portugal,  and 
empties  into  the  Atlantic  at  Lisbon;  Imgth, 
566  m.    It  is  navigable  115  m.  from  ite  mouth. 


TAHITI 

Tahiti  (tS'he-te),  or  Otahei'te,  largest  of 
the  Society  IsIandG;  in  the  Pacific,  lat  17°  SS' 
B.,  Ion.  149°  20'  W.  It  is  high,  reaching  7,336 
It.  at  its  highest  point,  but  traversed  bj  beau- 
tiful valleys,  in  which  tropical  plants  grow  lux- 
Qriantly.  It  is  120  m.  in  circumference,  with 
an  area  of  about  600  sq.  m.,  and  had,  in  1900, 
11,601  inhabitants.  It  is  the  principal  island 
of  the  French  eBtabliehments  in  Oceania,  and 
contains  Papeete,  the  capital. 

Tailor,  name  applied  to  the  bluefish;  also 
sconetimes  to  the  fall  herring. 

Tailor  Bird  (so  called  from  its  habit  of 
sewing  together  the  tips  of  two  or  three  leaves 
to  moks  a  neBt),  Sutoria  futoria,  of  the  fam- 
ily LutoittiidtB ;  found  in  India  and  other 
Eastern  countries.    It  is  about  5  in.  long,  with 


TAII.OB  Bian  ahd  Nest. 

a  slender  and  slightly  decurved  bill,  short  and 
rounded  wings,  and  very  long  tail  compoaed  of 
navrow  feathers;  olive  green  above  and  white 
beneaUi,  and  brick  red  on  top  of  the  head.  Its 
nest  is  lined  with  soft  downy  or  oottonlike  veg- 
etable substance^,  and  usnally  contains  six  to 
eight  eggs. 

laine  (t£n),  Hippolyte  Adolphe,  1828-03; 
French  philosopher  and  historian;  b.  Vouziers, 
Ardennes,  France^,  educated  at  the  Coll^ 
Bourbon  and  the  Ecole  Normale  of  Paris,  and 
became  a  teacher,  hut  soon  gave  it  up  because 
of  the  hostility  of  the  authorities  to  tiis  ideas. 
His  "Essai  sur  Tite-Live "  (1854)  and  "Lea 
Pbilosopbei  francais  du  XIX>  siScle"  (1356) 
attracted  attmtion  by  their  brilliancy  and 
their  sharp  criticism  of  the  current  philosophy 
of  Cousin's  school.  Influenced  by  the  study  of 
the  natural  sciences,  he  sought  to  apply  rigidly 
to  the  whole  range  of  human  achievements  the 
laws  of  heredity  and  environment.  He  regard- 
ed all  pn>ducts  ot  human  activity  as  determined 


TAKTT 

by  three  factors — eoTironment  (milieu),  race, 
and  moment.  His  works  include  "  Voyage  aox 
eaujc  des  Pyr^neea,"  "  La  Fontaine  et  ses  fa- 
bles," "  Histoire  de  la  littSratuiB  anglaiae," 
"  Philosophie  de  I'art,"  "  Philosophic  de  I'art 
en  Italie,"  "  Voyage  en  Italie,"  Vie  et  opi- 
nions de  Thomas  Graindorge,"  "  Philosophy  de 
I'art  dans  les  Pays-Bas,"  "  De  1 'Intelligence 
Notes  Bur  I'Angleterre,"  "  Origines  de  la  France 
confemporaine  ;  1884  he  became  Prof,  of  Ma- 
thetics  at  the  School  of  Fine  Arts,  Paris,  odd 
in  1S78  member  o(  the  Academy. 

Taipins  (ti'ping)  or  Taeplns  BebelOion,  a 
formidable  insurrection  which  broke  out  in 
1850  in  S.  China  to  overthrow  the  Manchu 
dynasty  and  establish  a  new  purely  native 
dynasty.  The  rebels  were  by  the  Chinese  called 
Ch'ang-mao-tseh,  br  "  long-haired  rebels,"  as 
they  had  discarded  the  queue,  or  outward  ex- 
pression of  allegiance  to  the  Manchus.  The 
leader,  a  Hakka  schoolmaster  named  Hung- 
Siu-Chuen,  b.  1813,  meditated  the  establishment 
of  a  corrupt  Christianity  elaborated  by  himsdl 
from  a  vision  he  bad  bad  and  from  a  study  of 
some  Christian  tracts  and  books.  In  this  vision 
he  thought  he  was  taken  to  heaven,  whern, 
having  been  "  washed  "  by  an  old  woman,  some 
venerable  sages  opened  his  body  with  a  knife, 
took  out  hia  heart  and  other  parts,  and  put 
new  parts  in  their  place.  A  "  Church  of  God  " 
was  established,  and  so  xealous  were  its  mem- 
bers in  demolishing  temples  and  idols  that  they 
came  into  conflict  both  with  tbeir  neighbors 
and  with  the  authorities,  and  many  flghts 
ensued. 


1852  they  moved  into  Hunan,  advai 
Yang-tse,  down  which  they  sailed,  capturing 
every  important  city;  made  Nanking  their  cap- 
ital, threatened  Fekin,  and  carried  destruction 
and  death  over  fifteen  of  the  eighteen  provinces 
of  China.  It  has  been  estimated  that  20,000,- 
000  lives  were  sacrificed  in  this  struggle.  It  was 
not  till  1864,  when  Nanking  was  recaptured  on 
July  IBth  by  the  Ever- victorious  Army  under  ■ 
"Chinese"  Gordon,  that  the  movement  began 
to  weaken;  Hung  himself  had  already  taken 
poison  and  his  principal  generals  had  fled.  The 
remnant  under  Tsze  Wang  made  a  last  stand 
at  Chang-chow-fu,  in  Fuh-kien,  but  were 
pressed  so  hard  by  the  imperialists  that  they 
had  to  withdraw  and  disband.  The  imperial 
operations  were  directed  by  Tsftng-kwoh-fan 
and  li  Hung-Chang,  but  without  the  assistance 
rendered  bv  the  British  and  French  at  Shang- 
hai and  elsewhere,  and  by  the  native  army 
drilled  and  ofScered  by  foreigners  and  led  suc- 
cessively by  Ward,  Burgevine,  Holland,  Cooke, 
and  Gordon,  it  is  questionable  if  they  would 
have  succeeded  in  crushing  the  movemenL 

Tal-wan  (tl-wOn').     See  FosyoBA. 

Taj  Mahal  (tftih  me-hai').    See  Aasa. 

Toko',  Chinese  village,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Peiho;  TO  m.  by  water  from  Tientsin.  Here 
are  the  famous  Taku  forts,  which,  deemed  im- 
pregnable by  the  Chinese,  were  taken  three 
times  by  the  Anglo-French   fleets  in  ,the   cam- 

E signs  of  1858-60,  and  again  on  June  17,  IBOO, 
y  tiie  fleets  of  the  allied  powers. 


Talc,  a,  magneaium  silicate,  whlcb  sometintca 
makea  up  the  maae  of  geological  fonaationa. 
Talc  bdonga  to  the  soft^t  minerals,  ranking 
with  graphite  in  the  scale  of  hardness.  Its 
usual  color  is  a  light  green,  but  it  is  found  per- 
fectly white.  The  massive  vaiieties  are  called 
soapstone.  When  powdered  it  is  iiaed  far  lu- 
bricating, and  aa  talcum  powder  la  a  popular 
toilet  article. 

Tal'ent,  ancient  Qreek  weight  containing  60 
mine,  about  SZ  lb.  avoirdupois.  There  was  a 
Babylonian  and  an  JCginetan  talent,  which 
were  to  the  Attic  as  B  to  3;  the  Eubcean  talent 
was  to  the  Attic  nearly  aa  4  to  3;  the  Tyrian 
was  equal  to  the  Attic,  etc.  There  wss  also  a 
gold  or  Sicilian  talent  of  about  three  fourths 
of  an  ounce,  called  the  little  talent.  A  talent 
in  money  was  originally  a  talent's  weight  of 
silver  or  gold,  but  the  talent  finally  became  a 
money  of  account  It  wss  among  all  the 
Greeks  the  monetary  unit.  Ita  value  varied 
with  the  kind  of.  talent  used  and  with  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  gold  and  silver — from  $365 
to  $1J59.26.  The  Attic  silver  talent  was 
smaller  than  the  commercial  talent,  weighing 
67  lb.  of  silver. 

Tal'ipM.    See  Club-voot. 


for  covering  houses,  making  umbrellaa,  and 
for  making  a  substitute  for  writing  paper  that 
ia  used  extensively  in  the  East,  as  well  as  for 
many  other  purposea.  The  pith  affords  a  kind 
of  sago.  Ilia  tree  grows  in  Malabar  and 
Ceylon. 


Tolk'int:  Machine'.    See  FBOHoosaPH. 

^oUahas'we,  capital  of  Florida  and  of  Leon 
Co.;  21  m.  N.  of  the  Gulf  of  Meiico,  166  m.  W. 
of  Jacksoniille,  It  is  in  an  agricultural  and 
fruit-growing  r^on;  contains  four  churches 
for  white  people  and  six  for  colored,  aeparate 
public  schools  for  white  and  colored  children. 
West  Florida  Seminary,  Normal  College  for 
Colored  Teachers,  two  libraries,  U.  8.  Govt, 
building,  a  national  bank  and  a  state  bank, 
■nd  hoe  railway  car  shops  and  machine  and 
novelty  wood  works.     Pop.    (ISIO)    5,018. 

TaUeyraud-PSrigora  (tB-la-rttfl'-p6-r8-g5r'), 
Charles  Maurice  (Due  de),  Prince  of  Benevento, 
1764-183S;  French  statesman;  b.  in  Paris; 
was  compelled  by  his  family  to  renounce  his 
right  of  primogeniture  on  account  of  his 
being  lame,  and  was  educated  for  the  Church, 
and  attracted  much  attention  hy  bis  wit  and 
other  brilliant  gifts.  In  1776  he  was  ordained 
priest  in  spite  oF  his  licentiousness,  in  1780 
was  agent  general  for  the  clergy,  and  in  1780 
Bishop  of  Autun.  Elected  a  deputy  to  the 
States-General,  he  was  one  of  the  first  of  the 
clergy  who  joined  the  ttert  itat,  and  iu  intimate 
harmony  with  Mirabeau  and  Sieyfes  he  took  a 
prominent  part  in  the  Assembly.  October  10, 
1769,  he  proposed  the  confiscation  of  all  Church 
property;  July  14,  1790,  he  officiated  at  the 
grand  national  featival  in  the  Champ  de  Mars 


TALLOW 

and    cosBecrated  the   colors   of   the    national 

guard;  December  28,  1790,  he  took  the  oath  to 
obey  the  constitution,  and  when  the  Pope  ex- 
communicated him  (May  I,  1791)  he  resigned 
his  see.  In  the  Assembly  his  speeches  on  finan- 
cial, educational,  and  other  reforms  exercised 
great  influence.  Nevertheless,  a  rumor  was  cir- 
culated that  he  was  conspiring  with  the  Duke 
of  Orleans,  and  his  friends  saved  him  by  pro- 
curing for  him  a  diplomatic  mission  to  London. 
While  there  his  name  was  placed  on  the  list  of 

He  lived  for  some  time  in  London  and  in  the 
U.  S.,  but  returned  to  Paris  in  1780;  was 
Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs,  1797-1807.  Rec- 
ognizing the  force  of  Napoleon,  he  gave  him 
his-  loyal  support.  He  negotiated  all  the 
treaties  of  peace  of  this  epoch — the  Concordat 
with  the  Pope,  who  relieved  him  from  excom- 
munication and  secularized  him;  the  Confeder- 
acy of  the  Rhine,  after  which  he  was  made 
Prince  of  Benevento,  etc.;  but  he  disapproved 
of  Napoleon's  policy  toward  Great  Britain,  op- 
posed his  plans  with  respect  to  Spain,  and 
when,  after  the  Peace  of  Tilsit,  an  alliance  wa» 
formed  between  France  and  Russia,  he  resigned 
his  office.  Before  the  Russian  disaster  he  pre- 
dicted the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  and  entered 
into  communication  with  the  Bourbons;  and 
during  the  last  three  years  of  Napoleon's  career 
he  was  one  of  his  most  active  and  dangerous 
enemies.  He  negotiated  the  first  Peace  of 
Paris,  and  represented  France  at  the  Congress 
of  Vienna.  Here  he  succeeded  in  dissolving  the 
general  feeling  of  concord  with  which  the  pow- 
ers met,  snd  produced  a  confusion  of  jealousy, 
mistrust,  rivalry,  and  hatred,  which  he  under- 
stood how  to  use  to  the  advantage  of  France. 
After  the  second  restoration  he  fell  into  dis- 
grace, and  during  the  reigns  of  Louis  XVIII 
and  Charles  X  took  little  part  in  public  life. 
September,  1830,  Louis  Philippe  sent  him  as 
ambassador  to  London,  and  he  established  cor- 
dial and  intimate  relations  between  the  courts 
of  St.  James  and  the  Tuileries,  and  concluded 
the  quadruple  alliance  between  Great  Britain. 
France,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  April  22,  1834. 
His  "  M^moircB  "  were  intended  by  him  to  be 
published  thirty  years  after  his  death,  but 
in  1868,  the  publication  was  postponed  for 
twen^-two  years  on  the  proposition  of  Napo- 
leon III.  They  were  published  in  five  volumes, 
1889-ai- 

Tallow,  the  hard  fat  of  animals,  more  prop- 
erty called  suet,  and  includes  those  fats  of  a 
leas  degree  of  hardness,  e.p.,  lard  and  grease, 
as  distinguished  from  oils.  The  fats  obtained 
from  the  rendering  of  animal  fats  of  all  kinds 
are  technically  known  as  tallow,  and  are 
chiefiy  used  for  making  soap  and  candles.  The 
animal  fats  are  hard  in  proportion  as  they 
contain  more  stearin  and  palmitin  and  less  of 
olein.  The  quality  of  animal  fats  is  much  in- 
fluenced by  the  mode  of  feeding  and  the  food. 
The  quality  of  tallow  is  also  dependent  on  its 
being  rendered  at  a  low  temperature  by  steam, 
the  cleanliness  of  the  operation,  the  character 
of  the  animals  treated,  etc. 

Vegetable  tallow  is  found  in  many  seeds. 
Chinese  vegetable  tallow  is  from  the  hu<ik  about 
the   berries  of  £[fillinj)ta  aetifera;   the  berries 


TALLOW  TREE 

contain   a   liquid   fat.      The   ioUd   cODunercig.! 

Sroduct  is  white,  sp.  gr.  0.81S,  and  melts  at 
9°  F. ;  it  is  rich  in  palmitin.  Bayberry  tal- 
low, from  Myrica  cerifera,  also  called  myrtle 
wax,  IB  a  pale-green,  brittle,  solid  fat  from  the 
berriea.  !t  molds  in  the  fingers  like  nnx  when 
warm.  Other  hard  vegetable  fats  are  found 
in  nutmeg,  palm  oil,  Japan  wax,  cocoa  i>ut- 
tcT,  cocculus  graina,  and  Tarioue  species  of 

Tallow  Tree,  (1)  of  the  8.  parts  of  the 
U.  S.  and  of  China,  Btillingia;  iZ)  the  Penta- 
dcsnta  but^aoea  of  W.  AFrioa,   a  tree  whose 


Taixow  Tbib. 

fruit  yielda  a  yellowish  tallow;  (3)  the  piny 
dammar  tree  of  India,  Valeria  indica.  whoae 
Beeda  on  boiling  yield  an  excellent  white  tal- 
low. 

Tal'mage,  Thomas  DeWitt,  1832-1902;  Amer- 
ican clergyman;  b.  near  Bound  Brook,  N.  J.; 
educated  Univ.  City  of  New  York,  New  Bruns- 
wick Theological  Seminary;  pastor  Central 
Prest^riaa  Church  ( later  known  as  the 
"Tabernacle"),  Brooklyn,  N.  Y.,  18(19-94. 
The  "Tabernacle"  was  built  1870,  burned 
1872;  rebuilt  1874,  burned  1889;  rebuilt  18SI, 
burned  18D4.  He  was  copastor  of  the  First 
Preabj-teriaa  Church,  Washington,  D.  C,  1895- 
99.  He  edit(?d  various  religious  papers,  in- 
eluding,  after  1890.  The  Christian  Herald,  and 
liis  sermons,  published  under  sensational  titles, 
had  a  certain  popularity  in  their  day. 

Tal'mnd,  a  work  whose  authority  was  long 
esteemed  second  only  to  that  of  the  Bible,  and 
according  to  whose  precepts  the  whole  Jewish 
people,  with  the  exceptioivof  the  Karaites  and 
the  Reformed  Jews  of  the  nineteenth  century, 
have  endeavored  to  order  their  religious  life. 
It   is   composed   of  two  distinct  works,  which 


TALMUD 

Talmud.  Later  on,  when  learned  disputations 
on  the  Mishna  became  more  frequent,  the  name 
Talmud  was  employed  to  denote  these  more 
recent  discussions  in  contradistinction  to  the 
Mishna  proper.  In  later  times  they  were  called 
Oemarfi  (the  Aramaic  equivalent  of  Talmud). 
It  was  only  at  a  still  later  period,  when  the 
ilishna  and  the  Gemara  were  no  longer  tran- 
scribed separately,  that  the  name  Tahnud  was 
applied  to  the  whole  of  both  Alishna  and 
Gemara. 

The  Mishna  consists  of  six  divisions  (Sed' 
harim)  :  (1)  Zeraim,  laws  relating  to  seeds 
and  products  of  the  fields ;  { 2 )  Moedh,  festival 
celebrations;  (3)  Xashim,  women;  (4)  Nesi- 
kin,  civil  and  criminal  laws;  (S)  Eodaihim, 
offerings  and  vowa ;  ( 6 )  Teharoth,  ritual 
cleanliness  and  .  uncleanlineaa.  Each  division 
is  divided  into  tracts,  and  these  are  subdivided 
into  chapters,  which  are  made  up  of  para- 
graphs. 

During  the  sojourn  of  the  Jews  in  Babylon 
the  hope  of  restoration  to  the  promised  land 
had  lea  to  a  deeper  study  of  the  law  and  to 
a  resolve  to  put  it  into  practice  when  that 
restoration  should  be  accomplished.  At  the 
head  of  this  restoration  stood  Ezra,  "  a  ready 
scribe  in  the  law  of  Moses"  (Ezra  vii,  6). 
Not  only  the  forma  of  temple  worship,  the 
many  dietary  laws,  the  laws  of  Lcvitical  pur- 
ity, but  even  the  agricultural  regulations  and 
the  whole  judiciary  code  hud  to  be  included 
in  the  work  of  reconstruction.  Jewish  tradi' 
tion  ascribes  the  continuation  of  Ezra's  work 
to  the  8opherim  (scribes)  or  the  men  of  the 
Great  Synagogue  ( see  Stkaoooue  ) .  After 
these  the  Sanhedrin  of  Jerusalem  became  the 
chief  tribunal.  From  its  decisions  there  waa 
and  could  be  no  appeal.  Thus,  in  the  course 
of  centuries,  a  vast  body  of  laws  and  usages 
accumulated  which  the  Torah  {five  books  of 
Moses)  did  not  directly  authorize,  but  which 
were  transmitted  orally  from  generation  to 
generation,  and  which  Jewish  orthodoxy  refers 
back  to  the  time  of  Moses  (Oral  Law).  Acftd- 
emies  arose  for  the  propagation  of  this  stock 
of  tradition,  and  efforts  began  to  be  made  to 
found  the  traditional  enactments  upon  biblical 
support. 

R.  Jehudah  Hannasi,  simply  called  "  Rabbi " 
(abt.  160  A.D.)  gave  final  form  to  tjte  Mishna. 
There  are  three  versions  of  the  Mishna,  one  in 
the  manuscripts  and  editions,  another  em- 
J>odied  in  the  Talmud  of  Babylon,  and  a  third 
the  Talmud  of   Palestine.     In  whole  or  in 

Eart  the  Mishna  has  been  translated  into 
atin,  Spanish,  Italian,  French,  English,  and 
German. 

The  Gemara  includes  the  controveraies  and 
achings  which  arose  after  the  close  of  the 
Mishna,  one  Gemara  being  elaborated  in  Baby- 
lon, the  other  in  Palestine.  It  is  in  gaieral  a 
commentary  upon  the  Mishna,  and  is  remark- 
able for  pregnant  brevity  and  succinctness. 
Often  a  single  word  indicates  whole  sentences.  ■ 
The  Oemara  has  gathered  the  utterances  which 
have  dropped  from  the  lips  of  great  masters 
and  the  traditions  which  had  been  preserved 
of  their  life  and  actions.  Thus  it  contains 
^1  enactments,  homiletieal  exegesis  of 
cripture,  gnomes,  maxims,  proverbs,  parabli 


^,00' 


K^rc 


talea,  and  also  medical,  mathematical,  and  at- 
tronomical  data. 

For  eiEhteen  oenturieH  Jewish  thought  has 
almost  whoU;  moved  within  a  "^erc  of  which 
the  Talmud  was  the  center.  The  more  the 
Jews  were  oppreHsed,  the  more  fruitful  did 
their  literary  activity  become.  It  kept  the  soul 
alive  while  the  body  wa«  almost  dead.  An 
immense  literature  has  grown  out  of  and 
around  the  Talmud.  A  bare  list  of  such  would 
All  a  bulky  volume.  It  ia  almost  impossible 
to  give  in  one  paragraph  an  idea  of  what  the 
Talmud  ia  in  its  entire  scope.  It  has  been  cus- 
tomary to  speak  of  the  Ocean  of  the  Talmud. 
liie  metaphor  is  well  chosen.  It  is  a  sea  into 
which  have  Qowed  the  waters  of  Jewish  life 
and  thought.  It  swarms  with  a  thousand 
varied  forms  of  life.  The  Talmud  is  no  dry 
handbook.  It  is  an  open  encyclopedia  of  rab- 
binical Judaism,  cont«ining  not  only  a  diger' 
of  laws,  euactmenU  of  ceremonial,  moral,  n 
ligious,  and  social  character,  but  a  record  c 
the  discuBBions  themselves  on  each  and  all  i 
these  subjects;  the  history  of  the  men  who 
appear  on  its  pages,  their  sayinn  and  doings, 
and  the  record  of  the  events  which  took  place 
in  the  political  life  of  the  people  during  so 
eventful  a  period.  For  the  great  mass  of  Jews 
it  has  been  the  one  regulator  of  their  every 
action,  and  has  been  held  in  as  high  esteem 
as  the  Bible. 

Tal'pidie.    See  Desuait  and  Hole. 

Ttm'arlnd,  a  beautiful  leguminous  tree,  the 
Tamarindut  indica,  from  S.  Asia  and  Africa, 
now  naturalized  in  moat  warm  regions.  The 
pods  are  filled  with  a  pleasant  sour  pulp,  which 
IS  preserved  with  sugar,  and  is  uaed  for  mak- 
ing a  drink  for  fever  patients,  etc.    Tamarind 


pulp  contains  citric,  tartaric,  and  malic  acids, 
potash,  sugar,  vegetable  jellv,  etc  Tamarind 
pulp  is  refrigerant  and  gently  laxative,  and  ia 
employed  in  the  diseaaea  of  children.  The  tree 
to  sparingly  grown  in  S.  Florida  and  along  the 
N.  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  wood  to 
hard  and  handsome, 

Tam'aiisk  Fam'ily,  a  small  group  of  about 
forty-five  species  of  shruba  or  treea,  mostly  of 
the  temperate  and  wanner  regions  of  the  N. 
hemiaphere.  The  most  important  genus  U 
Tamarite,  which  Includes  about  twenty  species, 
several  of  which  are  cultivated  for  their  pretty 
pink  flowers  and  beautiful  foliage.    Aa  inter- 


V 


CouuoH  TAiuanK. 


Tambourine',  a  musical  instrument  resem- 
bling a  drum,  consisting  of  a  wooden  or  metal- 
lic hoop  over  which  a  parchment  ia  stretched, 
and  furnished  with  bella.  It  is  held  in  ona 
hand,  and  beaten  with  the  knucides  or  fingers 
of  the  other  hand,  also  with  the  elbow.  It  baa 
been  in  use  from  time  immemorial  in  the 
Baaque  provinces  of  Spain  and  in  the  retired 
r^ions  of  Italy,  especially  in  the  Abruezi,  and 
is  employed  by  gypsies  and  wandering  muai- 
icans,  being  a  favorite  inatniment  for  accom- 
panying their  dances.  It  also  figures  prom* 
mently  In  the  Solvation  Army. 

Tamerlane'.    See  Tiuxm. 

Tam'many  Soci'ety,  a  political  society  in 
New  York,  founded  l^  an  upholsterer  named 
Mooney,  May  12,  178S.  It  derived  Its  name 
from  a  Delaware  chieftain  who  for  his  reputed 
virtues  was  in  the  latter  years  of  the  Revolu- 
tion facetiously  chosen  patron  saint  of  the  new 
republic  Organized  ostenaibly  for  charitable 
purposes,  it  nevertheless  had  a  definite  political 
character  from  the  first,  repreaenting  the  dread 
of  an  artotocracy  and  the  diatrust  of  Hamil- 
ton's policy  felt  by  tha  thoroughgoing  Demo- 
crats. Secret  societiaa  under  the  auspices  of 
St.  Tammany  were  or{|anlzed  in  Philadelphia 
and  other  cities;  but  tiie  institution  soon  fell 
into  oblivion  except  in  New  York,  where  it  was 
soon  a  political  lever,  and  became  the  principal 
inHtrument  of  the  managers  of  the  Democratie 
Party  in  New  York,  exerting  a  considerable 
influence  also  upon  state  politics,  and  to  a  less 
extent  on  national  politics.  The  aodety  was 
much  dlscredit«d  by  the  participation  in  its 
honors  of  William  M.  Tweed  and  bis  accom- 
plices in  fraud,  but  it  was  reorganized,  and  to 
some  extent  reformed,  after  the  Tweed  proas- 
cutiona. 

Tam'pa,  capital  of  Hillshoro  Co.,  Fla.;  at 
the  head  of  Tampa  Bay,  at  mouth  of  the  Hills- 
horo Kiver;  30  m.  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.    It 


TAMPA  BAY 

has  an  excellent  faarbor,  with  23  ft  of  water 
at  tha  outer  bar.  The  principal  industry  is 
cigar  making,  which  has  120  eitablishmeDts, 
employs  4,000  persons,  and  tum«  out  goods  of 
an  annual  value  of  {6,000,000.  Many  thousand 
tons  of  phosphate  are  shipped.  Tampa  was 
made  a  port  of  entry  In  ISS8,  and  has  grown 
rapidly  aince.    Pop.  (IQIO)  37,782. 

TuniM  Baft  *  ^?  of  water  on  the  W.  coast 
of  Florida.  Its  upper  portion  ia  divided  into 
Old  Tampa  Bay  and  Hillsboro  Bay.  It  is 
■ome  3S  m.  long  and  from  6  to  16  m.  wide.  A 
line  of  keya  fences  its  entrance  from  storms,  so 
that  it  constitutea  a  safe,  spacious,  accesBible, 


Tampi'co,  town  and  port  of  the  State  of 
TBm«ulipas,  Mexico;  a  short  distance  above 
the  mouth  of  Panuco;  terminus  of  milways  to 
Monterey  and  San  Luis  Potosl.  The  harbor 
has  been  made  good  and  safe  by  extensive  Int- 


enter.     The  town   i 


built   < 


The  Pftnuco  and  its  branch,  the  Tamest,  are 
navigated  for  some  distance  by  small  steamers, 
and  there  is  a  canal  to  afford  inland  com- 
munication. Tampico  was  opened  as  a  port 
in  1823,  when  the  fort  in  Vera  Cnu  was  still 
held  by  the  Spaniards.  During  the  frequent 
blockades  of  vera  Cruz  it  has  been  the  most 
important  Gulf  port  of  Mexico,  and  its  trade  is 
increasing.    Pop.  (1900)  ie,3]3. 

Tan.     See  Fbecxles. 

TBn'asers,  a  family  of  passerine  birds,  hav- 
ing, as  a  rule,  a  thick,  conical,  triangular  bill, 
with  the  cutting  edges  not  much  inflected  and 
generally  notched  or  toothed  behind  the  tip; 
the  nostrils  are  placed  verv  high,  and  tne 
wings  are  modera^.  The  colors  are  in  almost 
all  the  species  quite  brilliant.  The  group  is 
peculiar  to  the  New  World,  and  Is  chiefly  devel- 
oped in  the  tropics.  Over  300  species  have  been 
described.  One  genus  (Piranha)  is  represented 
in  the  U.  B.  by  five  species,  the  most  conspicu- 
ous of  which  are  the  scarlet  tanager  (P.  ery- 
thromcltu)  and  summer  redbird  (P.'  rubra). 
They  feed  upou  grass  as  well  as  insects,  etc 

Tan'agra  TigaTiiM',  statuettes  and  groups 
of  terra  cotta  found  since  1S73  among  the  ruins 
of  Tanagra,  in  the  modern  provinces  of  B<Eotia, 
Greece,  and  extended  to  similar  pieces  found 
elsewhere.  The  greater  number  are  draped  fe- 
male figures,  6  to  9  in.  high,  genenilly  made  in 
molds,  with  the  head  finisbea  by  hand.  Hany 
were  elaborately  colored. 

Tananarivo'  (formerly  Attakuiabivo),  the 
capital  and  chief  city  oil  Madagascar  ^  situated 
in  a  mountainous  region  in  the  middle  of  the 
Island;  in  18°  66'  8.  lat.;  166  m.  BW.  of  Tam- 
Btave  (see  map  of  Africa,  ref.  8-1).  It  is  built 
on  a  series  of  eminences  about  600  ft  above  the 
neighboring  valley,  and  about  6,000  ft.  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  reported  to  be  a  large 
citv  and  to  have  manufactures  of  gold  chains 
and  silk  stuffs.  The  private  houses  are  mostly 
of  wood.    Pop.  ( 1907  ]  72,000. 


TANGENT 

Tan'cied,  1078-1112;  one  of  the  most  cele- 
brated heroes  of  the  first  crusade;  b.  Sidlv; 
1096  raised  an  army  in  Apulia  and  Calabria, 
crossed  over  to  Epirus,  joined  his  cousin,  Bobe- 
mund  of  Taranto,  and  distinguished  himself  by 
his  valor,  sagacity,  piety,  and  chivalric  for- 
bearance toward  a  defeated  enemy  in  Asia  Mi- 
nor and  Byria,  but  still  more  at  the  conquest 
of  Jerusalem  in  1099,  and  afterwards  in  the 
battle  of  Askalon.  He  was  made  Prince  of  Ti- 
l>eriaa,  and  governed  with  wisdom  not  only  his 
own  principality,  but  also  that  of  Bohemund, 
who  had  been  captured  by  the  Baracens;  but 
most  of  his  time  had  been  taken  up  in  petty 
warfare,  partly  with  Baldwin  and  the  other 
Christian  princes,  partly  with  the  Saracens. 
Died  in  Antioch.  He  plays  a  conspicuous  part 
in  TasBo's  "  Gerusalemme  Liberata." 

Taney  (t&'al),  Soger  Brook«,  1777-1864; 
American  jurist;  b.  Maryland.  In  1816  he  was 
elected  to  the  Maryland  State  Senate;  became 
Attorney -general  of  Maryland,  1627,  and  of  the 
U.  B.  in  1831.  He  supported  Jackson  in  his 
controversy  with  the  U.  S.  Bank,  was  appointed 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury  on  the  dlsmisaal  of 
Duane,  September,  1833,  and  issued  orders 
for  the  removal  of  the  Government  deposits 
from  the  U.  S.  Bank  to  the  local  banks  selected 
by  bim.  When  his  nomination  was  communi- 
cated to  the  Benate,  that  body  rejected  it.  In 
1830  he  was  nominated  to  fill  a  vacancy  on  the 
bench  of  the  Supreme  Court,  but  was  not  con- 
firmed. He  was  later  appointed  to  succeed 
Chief  Justice  Marshall,  took  his  seat  In  Janu- 
ary, 1637,  and  held  it  till  his  death.  Hie  most 
noted  of  his  decisions  was  that  in  Dred  Scott 
V.  Sandford  (19  Howard,  393),  pronounced  in 
1867  Iq.v.).  In  this  he  denied  that  Scott,  a 
negro  claimed  as  a  slave  and  suing  for  his  free- 
dom, was  entitled  to  bring  suit  in  the  Federal 
Court,  because  he  was  not  a  citizen;  negroes, 
whether  slave  or  free,  }iaving  been  regarded 
before  and  at  the  time  of  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  "  as  beings  of  an  inferior  order, 
.  .  .  and  BO  far  inferior  that  they  bad  no 
rights  which  the  white  man  was  bound  to  re- 
spect." Another  opinion  which  was  severely 
criticized  was  that  Pres.  Lincoln  had  no  con- 
stitutional authority  to  suspend  the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus.  He  favored  state  aovereignty 
and  opposed  centralized  government 

Tanganyika'  (tan-e$n-ye'kl),  lake  of  central 
Africa,  between  lat.  3'  and  9'  3.  and  Ion.  89° 
and  32°  E.;  about  400  m.  in  length  from  NW. 
to  BE.;  discovered  by  Burton  and  Bpeke  in 
1368,  and  afterwards  explored  by  Livingstone 
and  Cameron.  It  has  an  elevation  of  2,700  ft. 
above  sea  level,  deep  and  clear  water,  and  a 
very  irr^ular  form,  its  width  varving  from  10 
to  60  m.  Area,  12,170  sq.  m.  It  diseharmi 
through  the  Lukuga  into  the  Luataba,  or  Up- 

Kr  Kongo.  Its  diores  are  generally  rich  In 
sutiful  Boenery,  especially  those  of  the  N. 
part,  which  are  set  with  mountains  and  bills 
covered  with  a  luxuriant  vegetation.  The  sur- 
rounding country  is  in  many  places  densely 
Mopled.  The  moat  important  towns  are  Ujiji, 
Bismarckburg,  and  Albertville. 


TANGIEK 

and  which  being  produced  dow  not  ent  It;  a 
Rtrkight  line  drawn  at  risbt  angles  to  the  diam- 
eter of  >  circle,  from  the  extremity  of  it,  aa 
HA  In  figure,  which,  being  continued  at  A, 
W'luld  merely  touch  and  not  cut  the  circle.  la 
trigonometry  the  tangent  of  an  arc  is  a 
Btraieht  line  touching  the  cir- 
cle of  which  the  arc  la  a  part, 
at  one  extremity  of  the  arc  and 
meeting  the  diameter  passing 
through    the    other    extremity. 


ure.  The  are  and  its  tangent  have  always  a 
certain  relation  to  each  other;  and  when  the 
H  given  in  parts  of  the  radius,  the  other 


to  SO  degrees,  as  well  as  sines,  cosines,  etc., 
hare  been  ealeulated  with  reference  to  a  radius 
of  a  certain  length,  and  these  or  their  loga- 
rithms formed  into  tables.  In  higher  geometry 
the  word  tangent  is  not  limited  to  straight 
lines,  but  is  also  applied  to  curves  in  oontact 
with  other  curves,  and  also  surfaces. 

Tangici  (tan-jer"),  fortified  port  and  diplo- 
matic capital  of  Morocco,  on  the  Straits  of  Gi- 
braltar, a  m.  E.  of  Cape  Spartel,  on  a  shallow, 
semicircular  bay.  Its  trade  is  large  and  in- 
creasing. The  chief  imports  are  cMton  goods 
and  sugar;  exports,  beans,  barley,  and  wool. 
Tangier  is  also  of  political  importance  as  the 
onIj[  plaee  of  rewdence  permanently  open  for 
forei^era,  whether  representative*  or  private, 
and  it  is  a  favorite  refuge  far  fugitives  from 
justice.  The  winter  climate  is  exceptionally 
fine,  and  is  largely  resorted  to  hj  those  who 
are  unable  to  stand  the  severer  climate  of  Eu- 
rope. Pop.  abt.  30,000,  one  third  Jews,  who 
transact  most  of  the  business. 

Tanltituer,    See  TANSKAuaKtt. 

Tannhinser  (tfinlioi-zte),  b.  early  in  the 
thirteenth  century;  German  minnesii^r; 
probably  a  member  of  the  noble  family  Tan- 
hausen,  in  Bavaria;  lived  chiefly  at  the 
court  of  Vienna;  participated  in  one  of  the 
crusades;  probably  joined  King  Konrad  IV, 
and  disappears  with  the  death  of  King  Kon- 
radin  (1208).  He  is  one  of  the  foremost  repre- 
sentativee  of  the  later  minnesong,  a  poet  of 
great  talent,  of  delightful  humor,  and  of  a  re- 
markable mastery  of  the  metrical  form.  He  led 
for  a  time  a  very  gay  life,  and  the  eensuous 
character  of  many  of  his  poems,  as  well  as  a 

Knitential  song  which  he  composed  later,  may 
.ve  been  the  cause  of  his  becoming  the  hero 
of  the  Tannh&user  legend. 

According  to  this  legend,  Tannldueer  lived 
for  some  time  with  Venus  in  the  Venusberg, 
but  finallf  was  smitten  by  conscience  and 
begged  Venus  to  allow  him  to  depart.  She  re- 
fused, but,  owing  to  the  help  of  the  Holy  Vir- 
^n,  TannhBuser  made  his  escape  and  went  to 
Pope  Urban  (IV)  to  obtain  remission  of  his 
sins.  The  pope  answered  that  TannhKuser's 
xins  could  as  little  be  forgiven  ai  the  wand 
which  he  held  in  his  band  could  become  green 
again.    Tasnbtuaer,  in  hi*  despair,  went  back 


TANSY 


to  Venniberg  and  was  received  with  great  re- 
joicing. Three  days  after,  the  popes  wand 
suddenly  began  to  sprout,  and  messengers  were 
sent  to  Inform  TaunhSuser  of  this  miracle,  but 
on  account  of  his  return  to  the  Venusbeiv  he 
was  obliged  to  remain  there  till  doomsday. 
The  TannhRuser  legend  is  doubtless  one  of  the 
stories  treating  of  the  fatal  union  between  a 
mortal  youth  and  an  elf  which  frequently  oc- 
cur in  German,  Danish,  and  English  folk  songs. 
Venus,  in  this  legend,  takes  tlie  place  of  the 
elf  because  the  minnesinger  Taimhftuser  fre- 
quently addresses  in  his  poems  Hinne  (love)  as 
Fruu  Venus.  The  story  of  the  wand  which  be- 
gan to  sprout  in  spite  of  the  words  of  the  pope 
seems  to  expresH  the  popular  viev  "  '"" 
the  papal  abuses  in  granting  the 


Tanjoi«  (tfin-jQr'),  elf^  of  Madras,  British 
India;  capital  of  a  distnct  of  same  name;  on 
the  Cavery.  It  is  one  of  the  great  religious  and 
literary  centers  of  Tamil  India,  and  is  renowned 
for  its  artistic  industries  (silk  rugs,  jewelry, 
and  copper  repoussS),  and  for  its  great  pa- 
goda. The  nalace  of  the  rajahs  contains  a  very 
valuable  collection  of  18,000  Sanskrit  manu- 
scripts.   Pop.  (IBOl)  57,870. 

Tan'nic  Ac'id,  or  Tan'nin,  any  one  of  seve- 
ral vegetable  astringent  principles.  The  chief 
sources  of  these  compounds  are  the  barks  of 
varieties  of  the  oak  and  pine,  sumac,  kino, 
divi-divi,  and  catechu ;  the  bark  and  berries  of 
many  forest  and  fruit  trees,  such  as  the  elm, 
the  willow,  the  horBe-chestnut,  the  plum,  the 
pear.  It  occurs  in  tea,  especially  boiled  tea, 
and  by  combining  with  albumen  in  the  stomach 
interferes  with  digestion.  It  has  a  bitter  taste, 
and  is  used  medidnally  as  an  Bstringmt  in  a 
great  variety  of  disorders.  With  the  salts  of 
iron  it  forms  the  basis  of  ordinary  writing  ink, 
and  its  power  of  combining  with  animal  matter 
is  utilized  in  the  tanning  of  leather. 

TaEoan  (tKn'yO'^n),  or  Tan'oan  In'dians,  a 
family   of  N.   American   Pueblo   Indians,  wl 


tieramen  of  the  Pueblo  country.  On  the  N.  and 
E.  they  were  contiguous  to  the  Great  Plains, 
and  thus  to  the  Utes,  Pawnees,  Comanches, 
dog-using  Apaches,  and  other  buffalo-hunting 
or  roving  tribes.  With  these  they  were  con- 
stantly either  at  war  or  on  terms  of  doubtful 
amity  during  brief  trading  tfucea.  Thus  they 
became  hardier  and  more  warlike  and  greater 
travelers,  traders,  and  hunters  than  any  others 
of  the  Pueblo  peoples.  Their  training  as  moun- 
taineers, and  their  intermarriage  Tot  genera- 
tions with  wilder  neiffhbors,  especially  with  the 
Shoshonean  Utes  and  Comanches,  have  had  a 
marked  influence  on  their  physical  development 
and  appearance.  There  are  now  only  about 
3.300  of  them.  Isleta,  New  Mexico,  is  the 
most  populous  pueblo  (1,059  inhabitants). 

Tao'iM,  or  Teniec,  an  insectivorous  mam- 
mal of  Madagascar,  with  a  superficial  reeem- 
blance  to  hedgehogs.  They  arc  molelike,  and 
burrow  in  the  rice  fields,  doing  much  damage. 


TANTALUM 

September.  It  wu  introduced  Into  the  U.  S. 
from  Europe,  where  it  is  indigenous.  It  is  cul- 
tivated in  gardens,  but  also  grows  in  fields 
and  along  roadsides.  It  possesses  a  strong,  not 
unpleasant  odor  and  an  acrid  and  aromatic 
taste.  The  volatile  oil  of  tansy  poMesBes  poi- 
sonous propertieH.  Tansy  tea  wsa  used  as  a 
supposed  tonic.  Tan^  seeds  and  leaves  are 
employed,  to  a  slight  extent,  in  medicine. 

Tan'talum,  one  of  the  rarer  elements,  a 
metal  discovered  in  1802  by  the  Swedish  chem- 
ist Ekeherg.  It  was  named  from  Tantalus  be- 
cause of  the  difficulty  encountered  by  its  dis- 
coverer in  isolating  it. 

lan'talus,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  vary 
wealthy  king  of  Phrygia  sometimes  wrongly  as- 
signed to  ArgoB,  Corinth,  or  Paphlaeonia.  He 
was  a  son  of  Zeus  and  a  nymph  called  Pluto 
(wealth)  and  father  of  Pelops  and  Niobe.  He 
was  a  favorite  of  the  gods,  who  often  invited 
him  to  their  banquets,  but  their  favor  changed 
to  hatred  when  Tantalus  stole  nectar  and  am- 
brosia from  their  table.  To  test  the  omniscience 
of  the  gods  he  slew  his  son  Pelops  and  served 
him  up  at  a  banquet  to  which  he  invited  the 
Olympians.  As  a  punishment  he  was  cast  down 
to  Tartarus,  where,  tortured  by  hunger  and 
thirst,  he  was  made  to  stand  In  a  lake,  whose 
water  receded  whenever  he  tried  to  drink;  rich 
fruit  hung  from  trees  above  his  head,  but  was 
withdrawn  whenever  he  tried  to  pluck  it.  Ac- 
cording to  others,  his  punishment  consisted  in 
eternal  fear  caused  by  a  huge  rock  that  was 
suspended  over  his  head  and  threatened  to  fall 
and  crush  him.  The  myth  is  based  on  facts. 
The  capital  city  of  Tantalus  was  near  Smyrna, 
and  its  acropiMiB  and  what  u  called  the  tomb  of 
Tantalus  still  exist 

Ta'oism  (Chinese  tao,  road,  way,  or  path; 
word,  doctrine,  reason,  etc,),  a  philosophy  and 
a  religion  found  in  China 
supposed  to  be  based  on 
the  teachings  of  Lao-tse. 
Just  what  philosophic  Tao; 
ism  is  depends  largely  on 
the  meaning  of  the  word 
tao,  and  there  is  no  word 
in  English  which  can  be 
used  in  all  cases  as  a  sat- 
isfactory equivalent.  Some 
describe  it  as  "  Rational- 
ism,"  or  the  doctrine  of 
Reason;  while  still  others 
speak  of  it  as  "Naturalism.'"  Lao-tse  wished 
people  to  cultivate  "  naturalness,"  or  the  sim- 
plicity and  innocence  of  former  days.  It  is 
only  when  tao  (or  nature)  is  missed  that  arbi- 
trary standards  are  set  up,  that  men  become 
ambitious  and  violent,  and  squabble  in  their 
eagerness  for  gain.  He  who  does  not  act  con- 
trary to  his  nature  continues  long.  Lao-tse 
inculcated  unseiflshness  under  the  fl^re  of 
"  emptiness,"  and  humility  under  the  simile  of 
water,   which,    though   good   at   benefiting   all 


TAPEWORM 

a  warp  of  strong  twine,  which  warp  is  not  seen 
in  the  finished  stuff.  Tapeatry  is  made  entirely 
by  hand  and  without  those  repetitions  of  the 
pattern  which  are  characteristic  of  mechanical 
weaving.  It  also  differs  from  all  weaving  in 
the  usual  aaise  in  the  fact  that  there  is  no 
shuttle  thrown  from  side  to  side  of  the  web. 
It  is  a  mosaic  of  threads  held  in  place  only 
by  the  warp.  Tapestry  diflfers  from  worsted 
work  chieSy  in  its  greater  solidity  and  in  the 
superior  character  of  the  designs  executed  In 
it.  Both  differ  from  embroidery,  in  that  there 
is  no  background,  as  of  cloth  or  leather,  upon 
which  the  work  is  done. 

During  the  fifteenth  and  following  centuries 
tapestry  was  made  in  Flanders,  France,  and 
Italy,  and  probably  in  other  European  coun- 
tries. The  most  famous  center  was  Arras, 
France,  and  the  name  "  arras  "  was  often  ap- 
plied to  tapestry  of  any  make.  Tapestry  was 
the  favorite  decoration  for  walls  of  rooms  and 
even  for  the  lower  part  qt  the  interior  of 
churches  and  chapels.  It  was  hung  from  hooks 
and  generally  left  free  at  the  lower  edge,  so 
that  a  certain  space  might  be  left  between  it 
and  the  wall.  The  famous  factory  of  the 
Gobelins  in  Paris  was  established  in  1G30,  the 
royal  factory  of  Aubusson  in  1686,  and  the 
royal  factory  of  Beauvais  is  of  the  same  epoch. 
These  three  factories  have  generally  been  main- 
tained by  the  state;  they  are  still  so  main- 
tained, and  their  most  important  productions 
are  not  commonly  sold.  Tne  Bayeuz  tapestry, 
BO  called,  is  a  long  and  narrow  piece  of  em- 
broidery in  worsted  on  linen,  and  is  therefore 
not  tapestry  in  any  sense. 

Tape'woim,  any  one  of  the  Cestodeg,  a  group 
of  parasitic  fiat  worms,  the  most  striking 
feature  of  which  is  the  complete  absence  of  an 
alimentary  csnal.  This  is  compensated  for  by 
the  mode  of  life,  as  these  animals  live  in  the 


sdult  state  fastened  to  the  inner  wall  of  the 
digestive  tract  of  some  animal,  and,  being  thus 
surrounded  by  partially  digested  food,  absorb 
their  nourishment  through  the  body  walls.  In 
ali  there  is  a  head  in  which  is  the  chief  nervous 
center  or  brain,  and  which  serves  usuallv  by 
means  of  suckers  or  hooks  as  the  organ  of  fix- 
ation. In  the  simpler  tapeworms,  which  occur 
in  some  of  the  lower  animals,  the  body  ia  un- 
divided and  there  is  but  a  pair,  male  and  fe- 
male, of  reproductive  openings.  In  the  other 
forms  tlie  head,  followed  by  an  unsMpnented 
portion  or  neck,  is  called  a  scolex,  and  behind 
this  occure  a  series  of  joints  or  prORlottids, 
each  of  which  contains  its  own  aet  of  repro- 
ductive organs.  New  iegmeata  are  continually 
formed  from  the  scolex,  and  this  is  the  reaacoL 


TAPIOCA 

why  the  head  of  the  woim  mnrt  be  removed 
in  order  to  atop  the  troubles  caused  bj  these 
paraaitea. 

The  largest  tapeworm  which  occurs  In  man 
is  known  aa  Bothrioaephalu*  lalu»;  It  may  con- 
sist of  over  2,000  proglottids,  and  have  a  length 
of  40  ft.  It  ia  common  as  a  human  parasito 
in  Switzerland,  N.  Bussia,  and  Sweden,  but  ia 
rare  in  other  parts  of  Europe.  In  America, it 
is  found  only  in  natives  of  these  countries. 
Tania  solium  is  the  moat  common  tapeworm 
of  man.  The  tip  of  the  head  is  surrounded  by 
a  double  circle  of  hooka,  and  the  body,  aome- 
timea  10  ft.  in  length,  may  conaiat  of  600  to 
flOO  proglottids.  The  ripe  proglottids  and  eggs, 
cast  out  from  the  body,  are  eaten  by  pigs,  and 
the  embryos,  batching  in  the  intestine,  bore 
through  into  the  mnsclee,  where  they  develop 
into  the  cysticereoid  atage.  If  pork  infested 
with  these  bladder  worms  ("measly  pork") 
be  eaten  in  an  uncooked  condition,  the  cysticerei 
are  set  free  and,  fastening  themaelvea  to  the 
inteatinal  wall,  develop  into  the  ftdult  worm. 
Sometimes  man,  by  eating  lettuce,  eto.,  which 
has  been  watered  by  liquid  manure,  becomes 
the  host  of  the  bladder-worm  atage.  The  pres- 
ence of  tapeworms  in  the  human  being  ia  tibu- 
ally  followed  by  uncomfortable  symptoms,  and 
a  physician  should  be  called.  In  domestic  ani- 
mala  these  parasites  sometimes  causa  death. 
An  Infection  in  man  almost  always  occurs  by 
eating  raw  or  improperly  cooked  meat. 

Ta^o'co,  the  atarch  of  the  monioo  UaMhot 
vtiiittima  {Janipha  or  JatTopha  manihot).  It 
ia  prepared  by  pressing  the  washed  and  dried 
roots  under  water,  when  it  ia  obtained  in  a 
mealy  form,  which  is  converted  into  a.  gran- 
ular condition  by  drying  aver  hot  plates. 
Upon  drying  and  pressing  the  pulp  remaining 
in  the  water,  cassava  bread  ia  obtained.  This, 
when  pulverized,  is  known  aa  man j  ok  flour. 
Tapioca  ia  largely  consumed  aa  food. 

Ta'pii,  any  one  of  the  Tapirida,  a  family  of 
mammala  related  to  the  rhinoceroses  and 
horsea.  All  are  denizens  of  deep  forests,  but 
near  where  water  abounds,  to  which  they  fre- 


quently resort.  Thev  vary  in  bIeg  from  that 
of  a  small  ass  to  that  of  a  moderate  horse. 
They  had  a  wide  distribution  in  the  Tertiaiy 
geological  epoch,  roaming  over  Europe  and  K. 
America.  They  are  now  found  widely  spread 
over  S.  America  and  northward  to  S.  Mexico; 


in  the  Malaccan  peninsula,  Sumatra,  and  Bor- 
neo. The  American  species  are  dark  brown. 
Ail  species  are  str!p«^  or  spotted  in  early 
youth,  but  soon  assume  the  livery  of  full  age. 

Tap'ping,   or   Farocente'aia,   in  surgery,   the 

piercing  of  the  walls  of  a  cavity  so  as  to  draw 
off  a  collection  of  fluid.  The  abdomen,  chest, 
and  even  the  head  are  ao  tapped.  The  trocar 
and  canula  answer  for  the  performance  of  the 
operation  in  many  cases.  In  others  the  fluid 
hsa  to  be  removed  by  an  instrument  acting  as 

relief,    i 

toward  recovery. 

Tar,  a  word  aasociated  with  pitoh  and  nsed 
in   a  verv   indeflnito  manner,  usually   with  a 

freflx.  Tar  is  a  name  properly  applied  to  a 
lack,  exceedingly  viscous  fluid  di stilled  in 
forests  from  the  wood  of  pine  and  spruce.  In 
the  U.  S.  the  principal  supply  comes  from  N. 
Carolina.  The  wood  is  placed  in  a  pit  and 
covered  with  turf  in  a  manner  resembling  a 
charcoal  pit.  A  part  of  the  wood  is  burned 
to  furnish  heat  to  distill  the  remainder,  and 
the  tar  is  received  into  barrels.  It  ia  mainly 
used  in  preparing  the  hemp  ropes  used  in  the 
rigging  of  ships  and  in  calking  ships.  A  dif- 
ferent kind  of  tar  is  obtained  when  the  wood 
of  deciduous  trees  is  distilled  for  pyroligneous 
acid;  this  is  called  wood  tar.  Coal  tar  (also 
called  gas  tar)  is  obtained  when  biturainoua 
coal  is  distilled  for  gas.  A  similar  liquid  called 
blaat-fumace  tar  is  obtained  by  condensing  the 
vapora  that  escape  from  blast  furnaces  and 
coke  ovena.  Bone  tar  is  obtained  from  the 
distillation  of  bone  oil  or  Dippel's  oil.  Candle 
tar  is  %  residuum  from  the  stearin  manu- 
facture. The  word  pitch  appears  to  have  been 
applied  at  a  very  remote  period  to  asphaltum 
and  maltha  or  mineral  tar.  When  different 
tars  are  distilled,  as  well  as  petroleums,  va- 
rious kinds  of  pitch  are  obtained.  The  pitoh 
from  the  paraffin  petroleuraa  is  called  coke 
pitoh;  that  from  wood  tar  is  the  black  pitch 
of  commerce.  Bur^ndy  pitoh  is  more  properly 
a  resin;  it  is  obtained  from  the  European  fir, 
Abie*  excelaa.  In  Persia  and  Afghanistan  goat 
and  sheep  dung  is  distilled,  furnishing  a  mo- 
torial  of  a  tarry  or  pitehy  consistence  that  ia 
applied  to  the  goata  or  aheep  to  ward  ofT  dis- 
ease. The  oily  distillato  of  tar  is  called  oil  of 
tar.    See  Pitch. 

Tar'antiun,  an  epidonic  dancing  mania,  for- 
merly prevalent  in  Apulia,  and  especially  at 
Taranto,  whence  its  name.  It  was  believed  to 
be  caused  by  the  bito  of  the  tarantula,  and 
doubtless  the  fright  attonding  the  bito  may 
have  aggravated  the  nervous  symptoms.  The 
disease  was  a  form  of  emotional  or  hystorical 
excitotion.  Not  only  dancing,  but  catalepsy 
was  one  of  the  symptoms.  It  was  believed  that 
the  patients  possessed  an  ardent  passion  for 
music  and  the  dance  and  for  bright  and  beauti- 
ful objects.  The  moat  successful  cure  waa 
from  bearing  and  dancing  the  music  of  tbo 
tarantella,  the  Sicilian  national  dance. 

Taran'to  (ancient  name,  Tarentma),  town; 
in  the  province  of  Lecce,  Italy;  on  on  island 
at  the  N.  of  the  Oulf  of  Taranto.     Two   low 


TARANTULA 

IsUnds  (aucient,  Charada),  Ban  I^etro  snd 
San  Paolo,  lie  as  a  protection  across  the  har- 
bor, which  is  one  of  the  finest  in  Italy,  The 
iDOst  important  buildings  are  the  Cathedral 
of  San  Gataldo,  the  church  of  the  archbishop, 
and  a  castle  erected  hj  Charles  V.  The  t^ 
etatifai  is  hardl;  less  luxuriant  now  than  when 
Horace  wrote.  Even  the  date  palm  bears, 
though  not  in  its  perfection.  The  houey,  the 
oil,  and  the  fruits  of  the  neighborhood  have 
as  (treat  a  reputation  as  ever,  and  the  waters 
of  the  Gnlf  of  Taranto  are  noted  for  their 
shallflsh,  the  gathering  of  which  affords  much 
employment.  The  remains  of  the  ancient  town, 
the  lai^cst  of  all  the  ciUes  of  Ma^a  Grncia 
(foundMi  708  n.c.),  and  once  boasting  of  an 
army  of  30,000  foot  and  5,000  horse,  besides  a 
strong  navy,  are  insignificant.  Pop.  of  com- 
mune <1901}  00,733. 

Taxan'tnla,  a  large  apider  [Tarantnla  apu- 
lia)  of  the  warmer  portions  of  Europe,  fabled 
to  cause  1^  its  bite  the  madness  called  tarant- 
ism.  In  America  the  term  is  given  to  any  of 
the  large  crab  spiders  of  the  tropics. 

TaiOMOn  (tB-rfis-lcOft') ,  town;  department  of 
Bonches-du-RhOne,  France;  on  the  Rhone,  8  m. 
N.  of  Arlea.  It  boa  manufactures  of  woolen 
and  silk  fabrics,  and  the  Aries  sausages  are 
made  here.  Tbe  Gothic  church  of  St.  Martha 
and  the  castle  finished  in  the  fifteenth  century 
1^  King  Ren6  of  Anjou  are  its  most  important 
buildings.  The  town  celebrates  the  fSte  of  Ia 
Tanisque,  a  monster  subdued  by  St.  Martha 
and  described  by  Daudct  in  his  works  devoted 
toTartarin.    Pop.  (1901)  5,702. 

Tatax'acnm.    Bee  Dandklioh. 

Tsioi'tnm.    See  Taranto. 

Taxes,  various  leguminous  plants,  aapeclally 
of  the  genus  Vicia.  Some  of  them  are  common 
weeds  in  the  cultivated  grounds  of  the  U.  B. 
and  Europe.  T.  taliva  is  cultivated  as  a  foiH^ 
plant  and  as  a  green  manure.  Its  herbage  u 
nutritious.  It  is  probable  that  the  plant  called 
tare  in  the  Engbsh  New  Testament  is  either 
darnel  or  chess.  . 

Tsr'gvm,  name  ^ven  by  the  Jewa  to  the 
Aramtean  trauslatioaa  and  paraphrases  of  the 
Old  Testament  which  became  necessary  when 
Bebrew  was  superseded  by  Aranuean  as  the 
spoken  language  of  Palestine.  The  word  occurs 
for  the  first  time  in  Ezra  Iv,  7,  but  it  is  im- 
possible to  say  when  theAe  translations  were 
9rst  innde — unofficial  ones  probably  at  an  early 
date.  We  hear  of  a  Targum  to  Job  as  early  as 
the  time  of  Gamaliel  the  elder,  the  teacher  of 
Paul 

Tari'fa,  town;  province  of  Cadiz,  Spain;  on 
tbe  Strait  of  Gibraltar.  It  is  the  southernmost 
town  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  It  is  sur- 
rounded l>y  old  Moorish  walls  within  which  is 
aa  alcaiar.  Its  fisheries  for  tunnies  and  an- 
chovies are  important,  and  its  oranges  are 
noted  for  their  aweetness.    Pop.  (1900)  11,730. 

Tat'iS,  a  list  or  acheduls  of  dues  or  duties; 
speelflcailk,  a  list  of  duties  on  imports  or  ex- 
ports. The  word  is  popularly  extended  to  the 
autiea    themselves,    or    to    tbe   system   under 


TARIFF 

which  they  are  levied.  Custom  duties  levied 
on  goods  passing  from  country  to  eountij  are 
as  old  as  international  trade,  being  originally 
the  chief  means  of  raising  revenue.  As  early 
as  the  sixteenth  century,  however,  duties  hav- 
ing a  protective  purpose  appear,  and  the  fos- 
tering of  certain  industriea  by  their  means 
was  soon  common.  A  notable  example  was  the 
French  tariS  of  16S4,  and  another  that  of  1607, 
both  due  to  Colbert.  By  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury every  European  country  had  an  elaborate 
tariff  system  of  this  sort.  Other  instruments 
then  uaed  to  effect  the  same  end — prohibitions, 
bounties,  premiums,  etc. — have  generally  dis- 
appeared, but  import  duties  are  still  widely 
used  with  a  view  to  the  protection  of  home 
industries.  The  chief  country  where  they  are 
not  so  used  is  now  Great  Britain,  which  has 
been  practically  a  free-trade  country  since  the 
repeal  of  tbe  Com  Laws  in  1846,  and  wholly 
BO  since  1800. 

In  tbe  U.  S,  tbere  are  four  distinct  tariff 
periods— that  of  1789-1816,  when  tariff  l^is- 
lation  was  politically  subordinate;  that  ot 
1S16-48,  during  the  early  protective  move- 
ment; that  of  1848-60,  during  which  the  Uriff 
issue  first  became  a  party  question;  and  that 
since  1861,  ushered  In  by  the  Morrill  Act. 

During  tbe  first  period,  duties  were  imposed 
chiefly  for  revenue,  beginning  with  the  Tariff 
Act  of  1769,  although  that  act  and  others  of 
the  period  had  some  protective  features.  In 
1S04  the  duties  on  cordage,  iron,  and  glass 
were  undoubtedly  intended  as  protective. 

In  the  second  period  (1816^2)  protection 
was  definitely  adopted  as  a  principle.  The  Act 
of  1816,  feeling  the  stimulus  of  national  feel- 
ing due  to  the  War  of  1B13,  raised  duties  gen- 
erally. In  1828  the  "Act  of  Abominations" 
was  passed,  so  called  because  including  certain 
extreme  features  intended  to  kill  it.  These 
were  dropped  in  the  Act  of  1832.  The  opposi- 
tion of  toe  Bouth  now  brought  atraut  a  reduc- 
tion of  duties  intended  to  decrease  them  in 
1842  to  a  twenty-per-cent  level.  In  that  year, 
however,  the  opening  of  the  third  period,  the 
Whigs,  newly  in  power,  passed  a  frankly  pro- 
tectionist measure  providing  high  duties  on 
manufactures  in  generaL  This  was  superseded 
by  the  moderate  Democratic  tariff  of  1646, 
which  arranged  dutiable  articles  in  nine 
schedules  with  duties  varying  from  one  hun- 
dred per  cent  in  Schedule  A  down  to  the  free 
list  (Schedule  I).  The  system  inaugurated  by 
this  act  continued  until  the  Civil  War.  At  ■ 
the  outset  of  the  fourth,  or  modem,  period  the 
revenues  had  become  low,  and  the  Bepublicans, 
controlling  the  House  of  Kepresentatives  for 
the  first  time,  passed  the  high-tariff  Morrill 
Act.  In  every  year  of  the  Civil  War  acts 
raising  duties  still  further  were  passed,  espe- 
cially in  1862  and  1864,  the  latter  becoming 
the  basis  ot  the  present  tariff  system.  In  1872 
the  repeal  of  the  tea  and  coffee  duties  seemed 
to  settle  the  policy  of  using  protective  duties 
as  the  main  source  of  customs  revenue.  The 
McKinley  Act  of  1800,  though  admitting  sugar 
free,  raised  most  of  the  duUes,  but  the  Demo- 
cratic act  lowered  them  again,  besides  marldng 
a  change  in  policy  toward  placing  raw  mate- 
rials on  the  free  list.     Tha  return  of  the  Be* 


TAHLETON 

publicana  to  power  was  marked  by  a  renewal 
of  the  higher  rates.  More  recent  years  hav'e 
Hhown  B.  tendency  of  W.  RepublictinB  to  advo- 
cate a  reduction  of  duties;  and  the  act  of  1009, 
tDaking  ctmsiderable  changes  in  the  tariff,  was 
n^rded  bj  them  aa  unsatisfactory  iKcause  the 
level  of  rates  was  in  general  nuintained.  See 
Fbxb  Tbadei  pBOTE(?riON. 

Taileton  (tBrl'tOn),  Sir  Buastie,  1764-1833; 
English  military  officer;  b.  Liverpool;  served 
under  Howe  and  Clinton  in  the  campaigns  of 
1777-78;  became  lieutenant  colonel  and  com- 
manded the  British  Legion,  with  which  he 
served  in  the  Carolina^,  achieving  a  reputation 
tor  cruelty,  so  that  "  Tarleton's  quarter  "  be- 
came a  aynonym  for  wholesale  butcheiy.  He 
took  part  in  the  battles  of  Camden  and  Guil- 
ford Court  House,  and  at  the  battle  of  the 
Cowpens,  January  17,  1781,  was  defeated  by 
Col.  Morgan.  He  then  served  with  Comwallla, 
and  was  among  th<He  surrendered  at  Yorktown. 
Returning  to  England,  he  was  promoted  to 
colonel,  and  in  17B0  entered  Parliament  for 
Liverpool,  serving  till  1806,  and  again  io  1807- 
12.  He  was  promoted  to  l>e  lieutenant  general 
in  1817,  having  previouslv  been  appointed 
Governor  of  Berwick  and  Holy  Island.  He  pub- 
lished a  "  History  of  the  Campaigns  of  1780- 
Sl  in  the  Southern  Provinces  of  Korth  Amer- 
ica"  (London,  1767}. 

Tupei'a.    See  Tabpeian  Kock. 

Tarpei'an  Bock,  the  8K  portion  of  the  Capi- 
t^dine  Hill  at  Rome.  According  to  tradition, 
named  from  Tarpeia,  a  vestal  virgin,  who  dur- 


from  them  the  promise  that  they  would  give 
her  what  they  wore  upon  their  left  arms,  mean- 
ing' certain  gold  ornaments.  They  kept  their 
Sromise  by  crushing  her  beneath  their  shields. 
he  waa  buried  on  the  hill.  In  later  times  it 
was  customary  to  burl  condemned  criminals 
from  the  Tarpeian  Rock. 

Tai'pOIl,  a  large  flsh,  Megalopa  thriiaoidfa, 
of  the  family  EUipida;  closely  related  to  the 
herrings.  The  eye  is  large,  and  bo  is  the 
obliquely  placed  rooutb.  The  dorsal  fin  is  high, 
with  a  long  filament  behind,  the  tail  deeply 
forked,  the  body  covered  with  scales,  some 
more  than  2  in.  wide,  and  used  In  ornamental 
work.  The  color  is  silvery  below  and  on  the 
sides,  blue  above.  The  tarpon  reaches  a  length 
of  6  ft,  and  a  weight  of  ISO  lb.  It  is  found 
in  the  warm  parts  of  the  Atlantic,  and  is 
common  on  the  Florida  coast,  where  it  has 
come  much  into  vogue  among  anglers,  since, 
in  spite  of  its  vast  size,  it  can  be  taken  with 
rod  and  line,  furnishing  rare  sport;  from  its 
vigorous  leaps  and  fine  fighting  qualities.  Its 
flesh  is  too  coarse  for  food. 

Taiquln'ina,  the  name  of  a  Roman  family  of 
Greek  origin,  which  played  an  important  part 
in  the  early  history  ot  Rome,  and  two  of  whose 
members  became  kings.  Bemaratus  emigrated 
from  Corinth  and  settled  at  Tarquinii,  in 
Etruria.  His  son,  Lucumo,  married  Tanaquil, 
an  ambitious  and  cunning  woman,  dau^ter  of 
one  of  the  prominent  £truscan  families,  and 


TARSHISH 

she  induced  him  to  emigrate  to  Rome,  where 
he  became  a  citizen,  and  assumed  the  name  of 

(1)  LaciUS  Tabquikius  Pbiscub  (the  Elder). 
HJa  wealth  and  wisdom  made  him  prominent. 
The  king,  Ancus  Marcius,  appomted  him 
guardian  of  his  children,  and  after  the  death 
of  Ancus  Marcius,  618  B.C.,  the  senate  and 
people  unanimously  elected  him  king.  He 
wa^ed  Buccessful .  wars  against  the  Sabines, 
Latins,  and  Etruseans,  and  extended  the  power 
of  Rome.  He  built  the  Cloaca  Maxima,  laid 
out  the  Circus  Maximus  and  the  Forum,  and 
began  the  Capitoline  Temple  and  the  stone  wall 
around  the  city.  He  instituted  the  Roman 
games,  and  added  100  new  members  ta  the 
senate.  He  was  murdered  in  678  B.C.,  and 
succeeded   by   his   son-in-law,   Servius  TuUius. 

(2)  His  son,  Lucius  Tabquinius  SuPERnua, 
assassinated  Servius  Tullius  in  534  B.C.  and 
seized  the  crown.  Ha  abolished  the  reforms 
which  Servius  had  introdnced,  and  ruled  ar- 
bitrarily and  oppressively,  whence  his  surname 
Superbus  ("the  Proud").  The  vacant  places 
in  the  senate  were  not  filled,  the  advice  of  this 
body  was  seldom  asked,  and  he  sliejited  the 
higher  classes  and  oppressed  the  lower  by 
heavy  taxes  and  forced  labor.  Finally,  the  rape 
of  LucrctJa  caused  an  outbreak.  Tarquinius 
was  deposed,  and  the  monarchical  government 
abolished  in  Rome.  He  made  throe  attempts 
to  reconquer  his  power  by  the  aid  of  the  people 
of  Tarquinii,  Porsena,  and  the  Latins,  but  in 
vain,  and  died  in  wretchedness  at  CutnK, 
495  B.C. 

Tsr'ragon,  an  aromatic  perennial  composite 
herb  {Artemisia  dracunculw>) ,  native  of  N. 
Asia,  but  acclimated  in  European  gardens, 
whore,  especially  in  France,  it  is  cultivated 
for  the  young  shoots  used  in  the  dressing  of 
'salads  and  for  flavoring  vin^ar.  Its  leaves 
have  a  taste  resembling  anise.  Tarragon 
vinegar  is  an  article  of  commerce. 

Tai'rytown,  village,  Westchester  Co.,  N.  T.; 
on  an  expansion  of  the  Hudson  River  known 
as  the  Tappon  Sea;  26  m.  N.  of  New  York. 
It  is  one  of  the  most  attractive  places  for 
suburban  residence  on  the  Hudson ;  was  the 
scene  of  the  capture  of  Maj.  Audr6;  and  con- 
teins  the  Sunnyside  home  (2  m.  S.  of  Tarry- 
town)  and  the  burial  place  of  Washington 
Irving,  Sleepy  Hollow,  the  Phil  ipse  manor 
house  (erected  in  1683),  and  a  Dutch  church 
(erected  prior  te  lOBB).  Pop.  (1010)  0,600; 
including  N.  Tarrytown,   11,021. 

Tar'shllh,  the  name  of  an  ancient  emporium 
known  te  the  Hebrews.     Thero  are  twenty-five 
nth 

commerce,  and  prob- 
ably in  shipbuilding;  it  is  several  times  spoken 
of  as  an  island  or  sea  coast;  it  had  large  trafflo 
with  Tyre  and  Bidon,  especially  in  gold  and 
silver,  tin,  iron,  and  lead;  it  is  usually  repre- 
sented as  W.  of  Palestine  and  of  Tyre,  and 
ite  ships  are  spoken  of  as  broken  by  an  E. 
wind.  It  has  been  variously  identified  with 
Taitessus  in  Spain,  Tarsus  in  Cilicia,  the  is- 
land of  TbasoB,  Carthage,  ete.  The  claims  of 
Tartessus  are  the  best  supported,  in  spite  of 
some  apparently  contradictery  e '" — 


T  nnressions. 

.yCoogle 


TARSUS 

Tai'ni%  town  In  Asi*  Minor,  in  the  TiUjet 
of  Adana,  on  the  Cydnus  i Tartu*  duU)  ;  the 
Uicient  metropolis  of  the  Cilician  confedera- 
tion; then  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province 
of  Cllicia,  and  for  several  centuries  before  and 
after  Christ  the  most  important  citj  of  Asia 
Alinor  as  a  seat  of  learning  and  center  of 
oommerce.  Cleopatra,  accompanied  by  Mark 
Antony,  ascended  the  Cydnus  \a  Tarsus  in  a 
glided  galley  with  purple  sails  and  silver  oars. 
TaisuB  was  the  birthplace  of  Paul  the  apostle, 
and  the  burial  place  of  Julian  the  Apostate. 
The   city  has   greatly-  declined.     The   greater 

Eut  of  its  former  site  is  covered  with  debris; 
lit  it  possesses  one  colossal  ruin,  an  enigma 
to  antiquarians,  as  it  resembles  no  known  edi- 
fice, and  as  ita  object  has  never  been  deter- 
mined. This  consists  of  two  solid  masses  of 
ooncret«  masonry;  the  larger  115  ft.  long,  49 
ft  wide,  and  23}  ft.  high;  the  smaller  66  ft 
long.  39  ft.  wide,  and  23}  ft.  high;  the  two 
inclosed  in  a  rectangular  space,  3S0  ft.  long 
and  153  ft.  wide,  by  ■  solid  wall  21  ft.  thick, 
and  231  ft.  high.  Tarsus  carries  on  much 
trade  in  cotton,  sesame,  wheat,  maize,  yellow 
wax,  skins,  carpets,  tobacco,  and  raw  mate- 
rials. Pop.  ab£  15,000.  reduced  in  summer, 
on  account  of  its  unhealthinesp,  to  7,000. 

Tarsni.    8ee  Foot. 

Tai'tan,  a  well-known  species  of  cloth,  check- 
ered or  cross  barred  with  threads  of  various 
colors.  It  was  originally  made  of  wool  or  silk, 
and  constituted  the  distmguishing  badge  of  the 
Scottish  Highland  clans,  each  clan  having  its 
own  peculiar  pattern.  An  endless  variety  of 
fancy  tartans  are  now  manufactured,  some  of 
wool,  others  of  silk-;  others  of  wool  and  cotton, 
or  of  silk  and  cotton. 

Tai't«r,  any  salt  of  tartaric  acid,  more  espe- 
cially the  acid  potassium  tartrate  or  hydro- 
gen-potassium tartrate.    See  Abool. 

Tartar,  Cream  of.    See  Cbeak  of  Tabtab. 

Tartar  Bmet'ic,  a  double  tartrate  of  potas- 
sium and  antimony.  It  has  a  nauseous,  me- 
tallic tast«,  and  Is  a  local  irritant  and  power- 
ful poison.  Token  in  small  doses  it  promotes 
perspiration  and  reduces  the  pulse;  causes 
nausea  and  vomiting,  with  relaxation  of  the 
bowels,  and  general  weakness  and  depression, 
especially  of  the  heart.  In  cases  of  tartar- 
emetic  poisoning,  tannic  acid  or  strong  tea 
■hould  be  given,  and  vomiting  promoted. 

Taitar'ic  Ac'id,  an  apid  with  the  chemical 
formula,    H,C,H,0„    found    free    in    various 

Knts,  berries,  especially  in  grape  juice  from 
cream  of  tartar  (q.v.),  of  which  the  bulk 
of  the  commercial  acid  is  derived.  It  crystal- 
liies  In  transparent  rhombic  prisms,  very  sol- 
uble in  «^ter.  Tartaric  acid  is  extensively 
used  in  dyeing  and  in  preparing  effervescing 
drinks  and  baking  powders.  Some  of  the 
tartrates,  such  as  tartar  emetic,  Kochclle  salt, 
and  the  potassium- ferrous  tartrate,  possess  val- 
nable  mediciiial  properties. 

Tai'tars  (properly  Tatabs),  an  ethnol<^eal 
name,  used  by  some  in  a  wider,  by  others  in 
a  narrower,  and  always  in  a  vague,  sense.    The 


TASHKEND 

word  TaK-tar  was  Srst  applied  to  thoss  Mon- 
golian tribes  which  descended  from  the  Altai 
plsteaus  to  raid  the  Chinese  lowlands.  By 
Europeans  the  word  was  changed  into  Tar-tar, 
with  an  allusion  to  Tartarus,  and  was  applied 
'to  all  those  tribes  and  races  which  Genghis 
Khan  led  into  Europe,  including  Mongolian, 
Tungusian,  and  Turkish  races.  -The  name  is 
used,  especially  by  Russians,  to  designate  cer- 
tain populations  speaking  Turkish,  living  in 
Siberia,    the    Caucasus,    and    central    and   B. 


Tar'tortis,  used  synonymously  with  Eadt9 
by  the  later  Greek  and  liitin  writers,  but  with 
Homer  it  means  a  separate  place,  as  far  below 
Hades  as  the  heavens  are  above  earth,  into 
which  Zeus  had  thrown  the  worst  offenders. 
Later  a  distinction  was  made  between  Tartarus 
And  the  Elysian  Fields  as  two  diviiions  of 
Hades,  the  former  occupied  by  the  criminals, 
the  latter  simply  inhabited  by  the  dead.  Aa 
a  personification,  Tartarus  is  represented  aa 
the  son  of  .lEther  and  Gea  (air  and  earth), 
and  by  his  mother  he  was  father  to  the 
Qigantes,  Typhosus,  and  Echidna.    See  Hadu. 

Tar'tai7,  a  geographical  name  of  vague  and 
variable  application.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the 
name  denoted  the  whole  central  part  of  E. 
Europe  and  Asia,  from  the  Dnieper  to  the  Sea 
of  Japan.  Later,  a  division  Into  European  and 
Asiatic  Tartary  took  place,  and  the  name  of 
European  Tartarjr  was  soon  confined  to  the 
territory  now  called  Crimea,  while  that  of 
Asiatic   Tartary   first  signified   the  whole   era- 

K'  e  of  Genchis  Khan  and  his  successors,  then 
rkestan  alone,  with  the  exclusion  of  Turfan, 
Mongolia,  and  Manchuria,  and  now  only  that 
part  of  Turkestan  {q.  v.)  which  does  not  belong 
either  to  Rusia  or  to  China. 


Tashkend',  capital  of  Russian  Turkestan  and 
chief  town  of  Syr-Darya;  the  most  populous 
city  in  central  Asia;  in  a  gently  sloping,  well- 
watered,  fertile  plain,  covered  with  numerous 
fruit  trees,  at  the  foot  of  the  Alatau  and  Chat- 
kai  Mountains.  The  city  was  formerly  in- 
closed by  a  wall  7  m.  long  and  pierced  by  nine 
filths,  but  this  is  now  in  a  ruinous  condition. 
here  is  a  Russian  citadel,  with  barracks  and 
military  stores,  surrounded  by  a  bastioned  walL 
A  great  caravansary  forms  the  center  of  the 
wholesale  business  district.  The  Asiatic  ci^ 
has  narrow,  crooked,  and  ill-paved  streets. 
Tashkend  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  largest  cities 
of  central  Asia,  from  old  times  the  seat  of  an 
important  agriculture  and  a  brisk  trade.  The 
value  of  foreign  goods  exchanged  in  the  ci^ 
amounta  to  about  120,000,000  (UinunllT.  The 
Arab  gec^aph  era  of  the  Middle  Agea  eslled  the 
dtv  Snaah;  from  the  sixteenth  century  to  the 
eighteenth  it  was  the  capital  <^  the  Kir^iis 
KoBoka;  in  1810  it  was  taken  by  the  Ehan  ot 
Khokan,  and  in  1867  it  was  occupied  by  the  Rue- 
Biano.  In  the  upheaval  in  Ru«ift  what  wag 
formerly  the  Russian  part  iA  Tuikeetan  ot- 
ganisetf  ft  republican  form  of  govemmoit  in 
1918,  Tashkend  lemainins  tibe  eHiit>L  Pm. 
(1912)  271,660. 


Digili 


d  by  Google 


TASHAlflA 

Tmsna'Bia  (form«rtr  Vait  Dmmi'fl  Lahi*), 
ui  UUnd  M)d  BTitiah  oolony  at  AuatraUai*; 
160  m.  B.  of  VictoiM,  AtutnllA,  from  which  it 
is  aepAistcd  bv  Baas  Stnito.  It  is  the  BmallMt 
and  most  be«lthful  for  EuropeanB  of  the  seven 
Auitnlasikn  ocdoniesi  area,  20,216  sq.  m.,  about 
tiiat  of  Greece.  The  diBcoTerer,  Tasman,  named 
it  Van  Diemen'fl  Lahd,  but  when  the  importa- 
tion of  coDvictB  ceased,  la  1863,  it  was  renamed 
after  the  discoverer.  The  colony  includes,  with 
the  island  of  Tasmania  aod  the  adjacent  small 
islands,  the  Fumeaux  Archipelago,  N.  of  the 
NXL  angle,  and  consisting  of  Flinders  Island 
(area,  800  sq.  m.),  Cape  Barnn  Island,  and 
others  smaller;  also  King's  Island,  N.  of  the 
NW.  point  and  about  halfway  to  Australia 
(area,  42E  sq.  m.).  The  main  island  is  well 
watei«d,  picturesque,  and  varied,  with  high 
mountains  and  fine  valleys,  rocky  and  often 
precipitous  coasts,  and  numerous  rivers,  cas- 
cades, and  fresh-water  lakes.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  Green  Isle. 

The  coast  is  indented  by  many  bays,  eetu- 
'    aries,  and  well-protected  porta. 

The  surface  is  roush  and  mountainous,  and 
consists  essentially  of  a  central  plateau,  about 
4,000  ft.  above  sea  level.  Cradle  Mountain,  in 
the  W.,  is  6,089  ft  high;  Frenchman's  Cap, 
4,760;  Hugel  Mountain,  4,700,  and  Mt  Bischoff, 
2,500.  In  the  K  the  highest  peak  is  Ben  Lo- 
mond (6,020  ft.);  in  uie  S.,  Mt.  Wellington 
(4,170  ft.)  dominates  Hobart.  The  streams  are 
numerous.  The  longest  rivers  are  the  Tamar 
(160  m.),  and  the  Derwent  (140  m.).  The 
latitude  and  insular  charact«r  give  Tasmania  a 
temperate  and  genial  elimat«.  The  autumn  is 
the  pleasantest  season,  with  a  mean  tempera- 
ture of  about  67°.  The  mean  annual  tem- 
Krature  for  Hobart  for  fifty  years  is  66".  The 
t  winds  of  Australia  are  much  tempered  by 
the  passage  of  Bass  Straits.  Zymotic  diseases 
are  relatively  rare. 

The  strata  generally  are  very  much  contorted 
and  tangled,  and  the  density  of  the  scrub  vege- 
tation has  greatly  impeded  their  investigation. 
Gold  was  discovered  in  1862,  and  hi  generally 
distributed  in  the  river  sands  and  in  the  quartz 
rock,  but  Tasmania  has  an  unimportant  posi- 
tion among  the  AQstralasian  colonies  as  a  pro- 
ducer of  gold.  The  value  of  the  output  in  1910 
was  £167,370.  As  a  producer  of  tin  she  leads 
her  sister  colonies.  It  has  hitherto  been  ob- 
tained almost  exclusively  from  alluvial  depos- 
its, and  is  always  in  the  form  of  cassiterite  or 
tin  oxide.  The  most  celebrated  mines  are  those 
of  MtL  Biscbofi',  in  the  NW.,  and  those  of  the 
Bingarooma  district.  Considerable  areas  of 
stream  tin  are  worked  out,  and  attention  is 
turning  to  the  lodes.  The  output  in  IBIO  was 
valued  at  £390,373.  Anthracite  and  bitumi- 
nous coal  are  found,  the  latter  in  abundance. 
The  silver-mining  industry  is  developing  rap- 
idly, and  silver  to  the  value  of  i247,67B  was 
produced  in  ISIO.  Copper  is  produced  in  in- 
oreaeing  quantities.  Iron  is  present  in  large 
quantities  and  in  all  varieties  of  ore.  Hobart 
freestone  is  largely  exported  to  the  other  colo- 
nies. A  peculiar  infiammable  resinoiu  mineral 
haa  been  found  in  the  Mersey  district  and 
named  tasmanite. 

The  fauna  is  similar  to  that  of  Australia, 


TABUANIA 


but  tbs  Taananian  wolf  and  Tasmanian  de^I 
are  peoutiar  to  Tasmania.  A  leas  favorable  im- 
migrant is  the  rabbit,  which  has  become  a  pest 
here,  as  in  Australia.  The  Qora  is  similar  to 
that  of  Victoria,  but  has  many  peculiar  species. 
The  celebrated  bine  gum,  or  Ew>alypttt»  glob- 
ulus, which  has  become  a  favorite  immigrant 
in  pestilential  localities  in  America  and  Europe, 
flourishes  best  in  the  S.  districts  of  Tasmania. 
Forests  are  abundant,  and  afford  some  woods 
of  great  value.  The  scrub  is  very  thick  and 
tangled.  The  evergreen  forests  are  aromatic 
There  is  a  lai^  timber  trade.  ,The  soil  is  gen- 
erally good,  and  some  of  the  lower  plains  and 
valleys  are  nmrvelously  fertile.  The  higher  pla- 
teau is  especially  suited  to  stock  raising.  In 
1910  there  were  236,020  acres  under  crop  and 
403,232  acres  under  permanent  artificially  sown 
grass.    Oats,  potatoes,  and  hay  are  exported. 

In  1D^  the  oolony  possessed  1,7S8,310  Bhe«» 
and  201,654  cattle.  It  U  singularly  well  adapt- 
ed to  ^eep  rearing,  and  its  stud  floeka  are 
annually  drawn  on  to  improve  the  breed  of 
aheep  in  the  other  colonies,  but  the  industry  Is 
slowly  decreasing.  The  wool  clip  in  1910  was 
estimated  at  9fi3Sfi4C  lb.  The  number  of  cat- 
tle and  horses  is  increasing. 

The  aborigines  were  nearly  allied  to  the  na- 
tive Australians,  and  in  1803  numbered  about 
6,000.  Boon  after  arose  the  "Black  War,"  in 
which  they  ware  nearly  ext^jninated.  In  1S39 
they    were    transported    to    Flinders    Island, 


there  remained  139  half  castes.  In  1911  1 
population  of  the  colony  was  190,808,  with  a 
considerable  surplus  of  males.  The  conditions 
for  longevity  are  favorable,  and  the  percentage 
of  those  over  sizty-Sve  years  of  age  is  6M, 
which  is  very  high. 

School  attendance  is  compulsory.  The  chief 
imports  are  textiles,  art  and  mecnanical  prod- 
ucts, and  foods  and  drinks.  The  trade  is  al- 
most entirely  with  Great  Britain  or  the  other 
Australasian  colonies. 

The  constitution  became  operative  in  1886. 
The  Parliament  consists  of  a  I/^slative  Coun- 
cil of  eighteMi  elective  members,  holding  office 
for  six  jears,  and  of  a  House  of  Amembly  of 
thirty-six  members,  elected  for  three  years. 
All  members  of  Parliament  receive  £60  a  year, 
and  have  free  passes  on  railways  and  franks  in 
the  post  office  and  on  the  telegraph  lines.  The 
governor  is  appointed  by  the  British  crown,  and 
haa  a  cabinet  of  advisers  of  six  responsible 
ministers.  The  public  revenue  is  derived  from 
taxation  (68  per  cent),  mostly  customs;  from 
railway,  postal,  tel^raph,  and  other  public  serv- 
ices (32  per  oent)  ;  and  from  the  rental  and 
Bale  of  pulitic  lands.  In  lSlO-11  it  was  £970,092. 
The  capiUl  is  Hobart;  pop.  (1011)  27,719.  The 
next  largest  town  is  Launoeston;  pop.  (1911) 
20,838.  Tasmania  was  discovered  by  Tasmsji, 
November  24,  1642,  and  first  circumnavigated 
by  Bass  and  Flinders  in  1798.  The  first  settle- 
ment was  made  from  Bydney  in  1803,  and  in 
the  following  year  a  penal  colony  was  estab- 
lished at  Hobart.     There  were  several  conflicts 


saped  oonvists  who  had  token  to 

I  .Google 


TASMANIAN  DEVIL 

the  bush  and  become  bri^tuida.  Up  to  this  time 
the  colony  had  been  subject  to  tiew  8.  Wales, 
but  it  was  then  made  independent.  A  pro- 
test was  made  against  the  continuance  of  the 
importation  of  convicts,  but  thia  had  to  be 
mwated  for  nearly  a  generatioiL  before  it  was 
effective.  Freedom  of  the  press,  trial  by  jury, 
and  popular  government  were  also  gain«i  only 
after  long  struggles.  Although  large  numbers 
of  criminals  were  transport^  to  the  colony 
from  the  beginning  till  1863,  the  convict  taint 
upon  it  was  never  so  deep  as  on  New  S.  Wales. 

Taamau'iaii  Der'il  (so  called  from  its  fierce, 
untamable  disposition),  the  Dasyurua  urst- 
Kus,  a  carnivorous  marsupial  peculiar  to  Tas- 
mania. It  is  about  20  in.  long,  exclusive  of  the 
UN,  and  dull  black,  with  a  white  mark  on  the 
breast-  The  form  is  thickset,  head  large,  teeth 
powerful.  Before  these  animals  were  reduced 
uk  numbers  tbey  were  very  destructive  to  poul- 
try, and  even  ta  sheep. 

Tasmanian  Wolf,  Ze^ra  Wolf,  or  Thylacine, 
the  Thj/Utcinua  cynocepkalua,  a  marsupial  of 
doglike  appearance,  restricted  to  Tasmania. 
It  is  the  largest  of  carnivorous  marsupials. 
Teaching  a  length  of  4  ft.    It  has  no  marsupial 


Tasuanun  WoLr. 

bones,  their  place  Jbeing  taken  by  tendons.  The 
color  is  grayish  brown  washed  with  yellowish, 
and  there  are  about  a  dozen  blackish  eroas- 
bara  on  the  hind  part  of  the  back.  It  was 
abundant,  hut  has  been  nearly  exterminated, 
owing  to  the  havoc  it  wrought  among  sheep. 

Tus'd,  Torqnato,  1544-95;  Italian  poet;  b. 
Sorrento.  In  1562  he  wrote  his  cnarming 
romantio  poem  "  Rinaldo."  In  1665  he  went 
to  Ferrara  in  the  suite  of  Cardinal  d'Este. 
His  grave  and  melancholy  beauty,  eloquence, 
and  varied  accomplishments  enlisted  general 
admiration  and  endeared  him  to  the  duke's 
sisters  Lucrezia,  the  future  Duchess  of  Ur> 
hino,  and  Eleonora,  whb  became  known  as 
the  special  object  of  his  adoration.  After 
about  a  year's  reaidenee  in  Paris,  he  was 
in  1572  formally  attached  to  the  court  of 
Ferrara,  before  which  hia  pastoral  drama 
"  Aminta  "  was  performed  in  1573  with  splen- 
dor. In  1675  he  completed  his  epic  on  the  de- 
livery of  Jerusalem  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon, 
under  the  title  of  "  II  GoiTredo,"  which  was  at- 
terwarda  changed  to  "  Gerusalemme  liberata." 
Be  submitted  it  to  Scipione  Gonzaga,  and  was 
invited  to  enter  the  service  of  the  Medici,  ene- 
mies of  the  Estes.  He  declined,  but  ever  after- 
wards fancied  that  Duke  Alfonso  had  taken 
umbrage  at  his  negotiation  with  them. 


TATTERSALL'S 

Od  returning  to  f%rrera  he  lived  in  perpetual 
fear,  especially  when  he  found  his  correqrand- 
ence  intercepted  and  his  private  papers  pur- 
loined, with  a  view,  he  suspected,  of  giving  the 
duke  evidence  of  his  relations  with  Eleonora. 
But  the  former  long  treated  him  with  apparent 
forbearance,  and  even  released  him  after  a 
brief  confinement  for  a  murderous  aaaault  said 
to  have  been  committed  by  him  in  a  frantic  fit 
upon  Lucrezia's  servant,  and  permitted  him  to 
retire  to  a  convent  (1677).  Tasso,  however,  fled 
to  his  sister's  house  at  Sorrento,  whence  he  was 
allowed  to  return  in  1578  on  condition  of  re- 
niaiuing  under  medical  treatment.  His  renewed 
attempt  (1579)  to  regain  the  favor  of  the  Fer- 
rara court  subjected  him  to  new  indignities,  for 
resenting  which  he  was  committed  to  the  hos- 
pital of  Santa  Anna.  Despite  the  death  of  Ele- 
onora in  1581,  he  lingered  in  confinement  till 
l.'isa,  when  he  was  released  on  condition  of  re- 
maining in  charge  of  Duke  William  of  Mantua, 
who  showed  him  much  kindness.  For  the  rest 
of  his  life  he  almost  continually  traveled  from 
Naples  to  Rome  and  from  Kome  to  Naples,  and 
finally  lived  in  a  charitable  asylum  in  Home 
until  the  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany  enabled  him 
in  16B0  to  visit  Florence.  In  1693  appeared  his 
"  Gerusalemme  conquiatata,"  a  remodeled  form 
of  his  first  epic,  to  which  he  alone  regarded  it 
as  superior.  In  1594  Pope  Clement  VII  invited 
him  to  come  to  Eome  to  be  crowned  with  lau- 
rel in  the  Capitol,  but  he  died  before  the  so- 
lemnity took  place. 

Taste,  one  of  the  five  senses.  The  glosso- 
pharyngeal nerve  is  re^rded  as  the  principal 
channel  by  which  taste  impreasions  are  conduct- 
ed from  the  tongue  to  the  brain.  The, exact 
seat  of  the  sense  of  taste  is  in  the  "  taste  budsi" 
which  are  a  closely  compacted  group  of  cells 
Bet  around  the  large  papillc  at  the  back  of  the 
tongue.  To  be  tasted,  substances  must  be  dis- 
solved. There  are  four  principal  tastes:  aweet, 
bitter,  acid,  and  salty.  Sweet  tastes  are  best 
appreciated  by  the  tip,  acid  by  the  side,  and 
bitter  tastes  hy  the  back  of  the  tongue.  Fla- 
vors are  reallv  odors.  Taste  is  affected  by  very 
high  or  very  low  temperature.  By  chewing  the 
leaves  of  an  Indian  plant  (Oymnema  eylvea- 
tre)  the  power  of  tasting  bitters  and  sweets 
may  be  lost,  while  the  taste  for  acids  and  salts 
remains.  The  sense  of  taste  may  be  greatly 
refined  hy  conscious  practice,  as  in  the  case 
of  professional  wine  and  tea  tasters,  to  whom 
Savors  entirely  inappreciable  tp  the  ordinary 
palate  are  clearly  distinct.  See  Sbkbe;  Sbnsa.- 
TioH>  Tongue. 

Ta'tara.    See  Tabtabs. 

Tate,  Hahnm,   1662-1716;   English  poet;   b, 

Dublin;  went  to  London;  became  poet  laureate, 
1692,  and  died  in  the  precincts  ot  the  Mint,  a 
privil^ed  place  for  debtors.  He  ia  chiefly  re- 
membered by  hia  version  of  the  Psalms,  made 
in  conjunction  with  Brady,  which  ia  atill  re- 
tained in  the  "Book  of  Common  Prayer"; 
assisted  Haydn  in  writing  "  Absalom  and  Achi- 
tophel,"  and  perpetuated  a  one-time  popular 
stage  version  of  Shakespeare's  "  King  ]l«ar." 

Tat'teraall'a,  Knightsbridge  Qreen,  London, 
is  the  greatest  metropolitan   mart  for  honM/j 

>7  O 


bj  Richard  TatUrsall  in  1773,  A  nibscripUoii 
room  is  open  for  bettora  on  the  turl,  where  they 
make  and  iettle  their  beta, 

Tattuo'ing,  the  practice  of  marking  the  akin 
by  means  of  ^ight  punctures  or  inciaiom  into 
waich  pigments  are  introduced.  In  the  B.  Fa- 
ciflc  the  custom  was  originally  almost  univer- 
sal, although  now  dying  out.  Tattooing  is  also 
found  among  the  Burmese,  Lsos,  Japanese,  and 
American  Indians;  in  Japan,  however,  the 
practice  has  been  forbidden  by  the  government, 
and  is  disappearing.  With  the  races  of  darker 
color,  such  as  negroes,  Malays,  and  the  natives 
of  Australia  a  mora  prevalent  method  o£  orna- 
menting the  skiu  is  by  simple  scara.  The  tat- 
tooing of  a  lew  emblems  on  the  arms  or  body 
is  a  custom  with  sailors  and  the  lower-class 
population  of  Europe.  With  the  Polynesians 
and  Japanese,  however,  the  figures  cover  nearly 
the  whole  body,  and  largely  take  the  place  (3 
clothing.  A  peculiarity  of  the  Maoris  was  the 
elaborate  tattooing  of  the  face;  many  of  their 
heads  are  preservKl  in  museums.  The  art  of 
tattooing  was  brought  to  its  most  artistic  de- 
velopment in  Japan. 

Xann'ton,  capital  of  Brietol  Co.,  Maaa,;  on 
the  Taunton  River;  33  m,  S.  of  Boston.  It  was 
called  Cohannet  by  the  Indians;  the  first  pur- 
chase of  ground  by  the  whites  was  in  1637;  in- 
corporated in  1639,  and  had  a  city  government 
in  1865.  It  is  in  an  agricultural  region,  and  in 
1909  (census)  had  146  manufacturing  estab- 
lishmenta,  including  cotton  machinery,  cotton 
clotii  and  yarn,  metal  goods,  silverware,  oil- 
cloth. Are  and  building  brick,  and  jewelry. 
Pop.   (leiO)   34,250. 

TaDch'niti,  Kail  Chilstopli  Tiangott,  1761- 
1836;  German  publisher;  b.  at  Grossbardau, 
Saxony;  learned  printing  at  LeipQg;  worked 
for  some  time  in  Unger's  establishment  in  Ber- 
lin, and  opened  in  1796  a  printing  house  in 
Leipzig,  to  which  were  added  in  1708  a  book 
store.  In  1800  a  type  foundry,  and  in  1816  the 
first  stereotype  foundry  in  Germany.  From  hia 
estabiishment  were  issued  the  celebrated  edi- 
tions of  Greek  and  Latin  authors,  which  in  cor- 
rectness, convenience,  and  cheapness  surpassed 
all  other  editions' which  had  hitherto  appeared. 

Taniida  (tft'ri-dS}  former  government  of  Rus- 
ua,  on  the  Dnieper,  the  Blade  Sea,  and  tiie  Seft 
of  Aeot;  area,  23,3l2Bq.  m.  It  consiata  of  the 
peninsula  of  the  CrimeA  and  districts  of  the 
mainland.  The  populstian  is  very  much  mixed. 
In  March,  1918,  the  former  government  (pro- 
vinoe)  was  declared  uripublio.  Fop.  of  former 
province  (IQlfi)  2,133,300. 

Tau'ma,  range  of  mountains  in  Asia  Minor, 
stretching  E.  to  W.  from  the  Euphrates  to  the 
Gulf  of  Adalia.  By  the  Alma-Dagh  it  communi- 
cates with  the  Lebanon  Mountains,  in  Syria, 
and  by  one  branch  of  the  Anti-Taurus  with  the 
Caucasian  Mountains.  It  rises  in  terraces  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  10,000  ft.,  and  incloses  be- 
tween itself  and  Anti-Taurus  an  elevated  plain, 
arid,  dotted  with  salt  lakes.  Highest  peak,  the 
Aidost,  U,6S0  ft. 


TAXATION 

Tannia  ("the  bull"),  a  brilliant  constella- 
tion which  may  be  seen  S.  of  the  zenith  dur- 
ing the  eveninga  of  December  and  January.    It 
includes  the  Plriades  and 
Evades  and  the  red  star 
Aldebaran,    Taurus  is  the 
second  sign  of  the  ZcmIibc. 
See  ZoDiao. 

Taxa'tion,    the  '  system 
by  which  revenue  is  raised  Tioaus. 

to  meet  the  general  ex- 
penses of  a  government  whether  Bational  ot 
local  A  direct  tax  is  levied  upon  the  persons 
who  are  to  pay  it,  as  a  poll  tax;  an  indirect 
tax  is  levied  in  such  manner  that  the  person 
paying  it  can  recoup  himself,  as  in  customs 
duties,  when  the  duty  is  added  to  the  selling 
price  of  the  goods. 

In  his  "  Weaftii  of  Nations "  Adam  Smith 
laid  down  four  canons  of  taxation:  (I)  The 
subjects  of  everr  state  ought  to  contribute  to 
the  support  of  tbe  government  as  nearly  as  poa- 
aible  in  proportion  to  their  respective  abihties 
— that  ia,  in  proportion  to  the  revenue  which 
they  respectively  enjoy  under  the  protection  of 
the  state,  (2)  The  tax  which  each  individual 
is  bound  to  pay  ought  to  be  certain,  and  not 
arbitrary.  (3)  Every  tax  ought  to  be  levied 
at  the  time  or  in  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
most  likely  to  be  convenient  for  the  contributor 
to  pay  it.  (4)  Every  tax  oucht  to  be  so  con- 
trived as  both  to  take  out  and  keep  out  of  the 
pockets  ot  the  people  as  little  as  possible  over 
and  above  what  it  brings  into  the  treasury  of 
the  state.  As  the  French  financier  Colbert  cvn- 
ically  put  it,  taxation  is  tbe  art  of  so  plucking 
the  goose 'as  to  secure  the  largest  amount^ 
feathers  with  the  least  amount  of  squealing. 


tban  on  its  owners.  (2)  In  conformity  with 
this  rule,  an  income  tax  should  be  levied  at  the 
sources  of  the  Income  rather  tban  on  the  receiv- 
ers of  the  income.  Of  course  this  complicates 
the  possibility  of  levying  compensatory  3r  pro- 
gressive innune  taxes,  and  may  beB.T  hard  upon 
people  with  small  Incomes;  but  the  evasions 
which  result  from  a  violation  of  this  rule  do  far 
more  harm  than  the  hardships  which  result 
from  conformity  to  it.  (3)  No  deductions  from 
the  value  of  property  should  be  made  on  ac- 
count of  debt  Mor^aged  real  estate,  for  in- 
stance, should  be  assessed  at  its  full  value. 
Under  the  present  systero,  which  allows  deduc- 
tion for  debt,  a  large  part  of  the  money  lent 
on  real  estate  whofly  escapes  taxation.  Tbe 
preamt  system  puts  burdens,  first,  on  the  holder 
of  unmortgaged  real  estate,  who  has  to  pay  a 
higher  rate  of  tax  because  the  valuation  of  the 
town  where  he  lives  ia  lower;  second,  on  the 
widows  and  orphans,  who  pay  a  high  tax  rate 
on  their  investments,  while  otner  investors  con- 
ceal the  fact  of  their  holdings.  Its  benefit  to 
the  holder  of  mortcaged  real  estate  is  largely 
illusory,  because  the  existence  of  the  present 
system  keeps  the  rate  ot  interest  higher  than 
would  otherwise  be  the  case.  The  only  man 
who  gets  much  benefit  is  the  lender,  who  enjoya 
the  high  rate  of  interest  and  makes  no  tax  re- 
turn. (4)  The  same  principle  should  be  applied 
to  ccarporationa.     Tbe  value  of  the  corporate 


TAXIDERUT 

pTopertT  is  repreBcntcd  hj  tbe  market  value  of 
its  stock  and  debt  Thia  debt  can  be  reached 
by  taxing  the  corporation  either  on  ita  gioee 
earnings,  ita  net  earnings,  or  its  securities  as  a 
whole.  It  cannot  be  reached  by  an  attempt  to 
tax  it  in  the  hands  of  the  holders.  (E)  To  se- 
cure an  equitable  land  tax,  real  estate  should  be 
assessed  on  the  basis  ot  its  price  rather  than 
of  its  productiveness;  unimproved  real  estate 
should  be  assessed  higher  and  improvements 
relatively  lower  than  at  present.  The  assessors 
to-day  see  that  the  man  who  holds  unimproved 
real  estate  gets  little  income,  and  they  let  him 
off  easily  on  account  of  his  supposed  inability 
to  pay  a  high  tax.  The  real  effect  of  this  is  to 
take  burdens  off  the  shoulders  of  a  man  who  is 
waiting  for  the  growth  of  the  community  to 
make  him  rich  and  to  put  those  burdens  on  the 
shoulders  of  those  who  are  contributing  to  that 

SDWth.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  Henry 
gorge's  single-tax  theory  as  a  whole,  there  can 
be  little  question  that  a  relatively  higher  as- 
sessment of  ground  rent,  with  corresponding 
relief  for  those  who  have  made  improvements, 
is  a  much-needed  reform.  {6)  The  objects  of 
national,  state,  and  local  talation  should  be 
separated  as  far  as  possible.  See  Excise;  In- 
couz  Tax;  Inhebitakce  Tax;  Rktende;  Sin- 
OLE  Tax;  TABirF. 

Tax'idermy,  the  art  of  preserving  the  skins 
of  animals  and  replacing  the  flesh  by  some 
durable  material,  so  as  to  represent  life.  It  dif- 
fers from  embalming,  which  seeks  to  preserve 
the  flesh  itself.  The  skin  of  the  animal  must 
I>e  carefully  removed,  cleaned,  and  poisoned, 
preferably  with  sotne  preparation  of  arsenic,  as 
arsenical  soap  or  powder.  The  skin  of  moet 
mammals  must  be  so  tanned  that  the  hair  will 
not  fall  out,  and  so  that  the  skin  may  dry  hard 
and  stiff  to  retain  the  form  given  it.  Wires 
or  irons  are  placed  in  the  legs  to  sustain  the 
weight,  and  around  these  the  original  shape  ot 
the  legs  is  built  up  in  tow,  or  tow  and  eicelrior. 
On  the  care  with  which  this  is  done  depends 
much  of  the  appearance  of  the  finished  work, 
and  in  the  caae  ot  quadrupeds  thinly  clad  with 


tral  wire,  board,  or  body  of  excelsior,  according 
to  the  size  of  the  animal  or  method  to  be  fol- 
lowed, and  in  birds  and  small  mammals  the 
nec^and  body  are  made  tf^etber,  and  little  re- 
mains to  be  done  in  the  way  of  further  fllling. 
The  easiest,  but  worst,  method  is  after  the  skin 
has  been  drawn  over  the  legs,  and  they  have 
been.atUched  to  the  body,  to  fill  out  the  skin 
with  tow  or  straw,  working  out  the  principal 
muscles  from  within.  The  best  method,  with 
quadrupeds  of  any  size,  is  to  build  up  over  a 
wooden  framework  the  entire  shape  of  the  body, 
including  the  neck,  replacing  the  muscles  by  ex- 
celsior and  tow,  smearing  this  manikin  over 
with  clay  or  plaster  to  attain  smootlsiess.  The 
finer  details  about  the  eyes,  lips,  and  nostrils  are 
reproduced  by  placing  a  layer  of  plaster  beneath 
the  skin  and  working  in  the  lines  and  other 
characters.  Birds  are  preserved  readily;  mam- 
m^  are  more  difficult ;  the  smooth,  glossy  skin 
of  cetaceans  defies  the  taxidermist,  and  can 
only  be  imitated  by  a  carefully  made  cast,  and 
the  same  ia  true  of  the  large  majority  ot  rep- 


TaxoB'omy,  that  department  of  biological 
science  wiiich  deals  vrittt  the  arrangement  and 
classification  of  animals  and  plants. 

Tax  Sales,  public  olScial  sales  of  land  made 
in  pursuance  of  law  for  nonpayment  of  taxes 
which  have  been  laid  upon  them.  I^Jwer  to 
make  such  sales  is  entirely  statutory,  and  is 
not  derived  from  any  rule  of  the  common  taw, 
the  right  ot  a  government  to  grant  such  power 
being  a  necessary  attribute  of  ita  sovereignty. 
The  power  when  granted  ia  a  naked  power,  and 
not  one  coui>led  with  an  interest,  and  the  stat- 
utes giving  it  must  be  strictly  construed.  To 
make   a  valid   title  under  a   tax  sale,  all  the 


sessed,  not  be  exempt,  and  proper  steps  taken  tc 
collect  the  tax,  a  tender  of  the  amount  ot 
which  will  invalidate  the  sale.     Due  notice  of 

Subiic  sale  must  be  given,  and  the  right  of  re- 
emption  is  liberally  construed. 
Tay,  river  and  loch  of  Perthshire,  Scotland. 
The  river,  which  is  the  largest  in  Scotland,  rises  _ 
on  the  border  of  Argyieshire,  and  is  called  the  ' 
Fillan  until  it  passes  through  Loch  Dochart,  8 
or  9  m.;  and  thence  to  Loch  Tay,  10  m.  far- 
ther,  it   is   generally   known   as   the   Dochart. 
Near  Loch  Tay  it  receives  the  Lochie,  and  be- 
low that  loch  the  Lyon  and  other  .tributaries. 
It  is  nearly  120  m.  long,  describes  almost  a  semi- 
circle to  Perth,  and  nows  thence  neariy  B.  to 


IS  m.  long,  1  m.  wide,  and  600  ft  deep. 

Taylor,  Bayard,  1825-7B;  American  traveler 
and  author;  b.  Keiuiett  Square,  Pa.;  appren- 
ticed to  a  printer;  published  his  first  volume, 
" Ximena  and  other  Poems,"  1S44;  made  a 
pedestrian  tour  in  Europe,  and  published 
"  Views  Afoot,  or  Europe  Seen  with  Knapsack 
and  Staff";  In  1847  joined  the  staff  of  the 
New  York  Tribune,  with  which  he  was  con- 
nected while  he  lived,  publishing  in  that  jour- 
nal originally  the  substance  ot  most  of  his 
works  of  travel.  In  1849  he  risited  California; 
1851,  Egypt,  Asia  Minor,  Syria,  and  Europe; 
1852-63,  crossed  India  from  Boml>ay  to  Cal- 
cutta, going  thence  to  Hongkong,  and  joining 
Perry's  expedition  to  Japan.  In  18S2-63  he 
was  secretary  of  legation,  and  for  a  while 
chargi  d'affaires  at  St.  Petersburg,  He  re- 
sided at  intervals  several  years  in  Germany, 
and  from  1873  he  was  engaged  upon  a  biogra- 

Shy  of  Goethe  and  Schiller,  which  he  left  un- 
nithed.  His  books  of  travel  include  "  El 
Dorado,"  "  Journey  to  Central  Africa,"  "  The 
Lands  of  the  Saracen,"  "  Visit  to  India,  China, 
and  Japan,"  "Northern  Travel,"  "Travels  in 
Greece  and  Russia,"  "  Colorado,"  "  Byways  of 
Europe,"  and  "  Egypt  and  Icelaikd."  He  wrote 
four  novels,  including  "  The  Story  of  Kenneth," 
which  is  autotiiogTaphica],  and  many  volumes 
of  poems,  bis  best-known  verse  being  "  The 
Bedouin's  Love  Bong";  and  translated  into 
the  original  meters  both  parts  of  Goethe's 
"Faust"'  (1870-71),  which  ia  his  most  im- 
portant literary  worlc.    Ho  lectured  extensively 


In  tbs  U.  S.    He  -iru  a.ppotirtcd  V.  S,  minister 
to  Qernuuif  in  1877. 

Ta7loi,  Jeremr,  1613-07;  Englisb  theologi- 
an;  b.  Cambridge,  England;  1026,  entered 
Caiiu  College  m  a  lizar;  gained  the  friend- 
thip  of  Biahop  Laud,  and  in  1636  obtained 
a  fellowBbip  at  Oiford;  in  1638  was  pre- 
sented to  tne  rector;  of  Uppingbam.  In  tlie 
civil  wara  he  adhered  to  tbe  cause  of  Charles 
I,  who  made  him  hia  chaplain;  but  hia  rec- 
tor; waa  sequestered  by  Parliament,  and  he 
fled  to  Wales,  where  he  supported  bimaelf 
by  teaching  a  school  and  wrote  his  noblest 
works;  was  several  times  imprisoned  for  his 
royalist  sentiments,  and  in  1658  took  up  his 
residence  in  Ireland.  In  1660  he  signed  the 
TOj-alist  declaration  of  April  24th,  which  paved 
the  way  for  the  restoration  of  Charles  II. 
Soon  after  the  Restoration  ha  was  made  Bishop 
of  Down  and  Connor.  As  a  preacher  and 
writer,  he  occupies  a  foremost  rank  in  litera- 
ture. Besides  his  "  Sermons,"  his  principal 
works  are  "  Discourse  on  the  Liberty  of 
Prophesying,"  setting  forth  the  iniquity  of  per- 
secution for  differences  in  opinions,  by  some 
held  to  be  the  ablest  of  all  his  works;  "The 
Great  Exemplar  of  Sanctity  and  Holy  Life,"  a 
life  of  Christ;  "The  Rule  and  Exercise  of  Holy 
Living,"  "  The  Rule  and  Exercise  of  Holy  Dy- 
ing," "  Ductor  Dubitantium,"  a  work  on  casu- 

Ta^or,  ZftchJiy,  1784-1860;  twelfth  Pres- 
ident of  the  U.  S.;  b.  Orange  Co.,  Va.  He 
became  lieutenant  in  the  U.  S.  army,  1808; 
captain  in  1810.  In  1812  he  was  in  command 
of  Fort  Harrison,  near  the  present  site  of 
Terre  Haute,  on  the  Wabash  River,  and  in 
September  wltH  flfty  men  repulsed  an  attack 
by  a  large  force  of  Indiana.  For  this  he  re- 
ceived the  first  brevet  (as  major)  ever  given 
in  the  U.  S.  service.  In  1814,  with  the  rank 
of  major,  ha  commanded  an  expedition  against 
the  British  and  Indiana  on  Rock  River.  He 
was  employed  for  several  years  on  the  NW. 
frontier  and  in  the  S.  In  1810  he  became  lieu- 
tenant colonel,  and  in  1832  colonei,  and  was 
engaged  in  the  Black  Hawk  War.  On  Decem- 
ber 25,  1337,  he  defeated  the  Seuiinolea  in  the 
battle  of  Okechobee,  and  wan  breveted  briga- 
dier general;  and  in  April,  1838,  be  was  com- 
mander in  chief  in  Florida.  In  1840  he  was 
ii^  command  of  the  first  department  of  the 
army  in  the  SW.  Congress  having,  March, 
1843,  passed  the  joint  resolution  annexing 
Texas,  Gen.  Taylor  %\'as  directed  to  defend  it 
against  invasion  from  MesJeo. 

Early  in  1346,  with  4,000  troops,  he  marched 
to  the  Rio  Grande,  opposite  Matamoros,  and 
erected  Fort  Brown.  Arista,  the  Mexican  com- 
mander, crossed  the  Rio  Grande  with  6,000 
men,  and,  on  May  8th,  attacked  and  was  de- 
tented  by  Gen.  Taylor  with  2,300  men  at  Palo 
Alto,  a  few  miles  from  Matamoros,  The  Mexi- 
cans retreated  to  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and  the 
next  day  again  gave  battle  to  tbe  Americans, 
Mho  after  a  severe  contest  drove  them  across 
the  Rio  Grande.  The  total  loss  of  the  Mexicans 
in  tbeoe  luttles  amounted  to  about  1,000  men. 
Taylor  was  made  a  major  general.  May  IBth 
he  entered  Hatamoros,  and  in  September,  with 


Ampudia  capitulated.     On  February  22,  : 

Gen.  Taylor  with  about  6,000  men  was  attadeed 
at  Buena  Vista  by  SanU  Anna  with  21,000. 
The  Hexicana  were  signally  defeated,  and  "  Old 
Rough  and  Ready,"  as  he  waa  called  in  the 
army,  became  a  honaehold  word.  In  1848,  Gen. 
Taylor  waa  nominated  as  the  Whig  candidate 
for  President  of  the  U.  S.  over  Clay,  Scott, 
and  Webster,  with  Millard  Fillmore  for  Vice 
President.  They  received  163  electoral  voten, 
BEainet  127  for  Cass  and  Butler.  In  the  midst 
of  violent  discussions  excited  by  tbe  propoai- 
tlon  to  admit  California  as  a  free  atate,  and 
other  measures  affecting  slavery,  upon  which 
the  President's  recommendations  had  deeply 
offended  the  8.  leaders,  he  died  of  bilious  fever 
sixteen  months  after  his  inauguration.  One 
of  his  daughters  married  Jefferson  Davis.  His 
son  Richanl  waa  an  officer  in  the  Confederate 
states  army.  , 

Tchad  (formerly  Chad  or  Tsad),  a  large, 
ahallow  African  lake,  full  of  islands,  hut  fluc- 
tuating in  size  with  the  season;  in  central 
Sudan,  on  the  B.  margin  of  the  Sahara 
Desert,  in  a  military  district  of  its  own  name 
in  the  French  Kongo.  The  waters  are  fresh, 
though  it  has  no  outlet.  The  elevation  ia  1,150 
ft.  above  tbe  sea,  and  the  area  varies  from 
10,000  to  60,000  sq.  m.  Its  principal  tribu- 
taries are  the  great  Shari  River,  the  Komadn- 
gu,  and  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal. 

XchOOkctiMS',  a  tribe  inhabiting  the  NE.  cor- 
ner of  Siberia,  and  of  the  same  family  as  the 
Eskimos  of  N.  America, 

Tea,  (1)  the  prepared  leaves  of  a  plant  of 
the  genus  Thea,  and  specifically  of  the  T. 
chinenaU;  (2)  the  plant  itaelf;.and  (3)  an 
infusion  of  the  leaves  of  the  tea  plant,  widely 
used  as  a  beverage.  It  is  probable  that  all  tea 
owes  its  origin  to  Assam,  a  province  of  Burma. 
There  in  the  jungle  bordering  on  the  Brahma- 
putra were  found  thickets  of  indigenous  tea 
trees,  often  attaining  30  fL  It  has  been 
claimed  that  Indigenous  tea.  exists  in  China 
and  Japan;  but  it  is  probable  that  the  plant 
waa  Introduced  into  Cliina  from  India  1,500 
years  ago,  and  into  Japan  from  China  not  later 
than  the  ninth  century.  Tea  was  introduced 
into  Europe  by  the  Dutch  about  the  beginning 
of  the  seventeenth  centtiry.  The  tea  made  from 
the  Assam  leaf  is  strong,  often  pungent  and 
rasping;  it  is  half  egam  as  strong  aa  the 
Chinese. 

Tbe  Chinese  plant  is  of  bushy  growth  and 
of  far  less  attractive  appearance  than  its  As- 
samese relative.  It  is  tough  and  hardy,  en- 
during the  severe  winters  of  tbe  higher  lati- 
tudes of  China  and  Japan  or  of  tbe  elevated 
gardens  on  the  Himalayan  slopes.  It  survives 
deficiencies  in  moisture,  soil,  and  cultivation, 
but  gratefully  acknowledges  care  and  enrich- 
ment with  an  improved  growth  and  higher  leaf 
qualities.  Under  ordinary  agricultural  condi- 
tions it  annually  produces  only  four  or  five 
fhishes  or  crops  of  leaves.  The  leaf  is  smaller, 
tougher,  and  darker.    It  yields  when  properlf 


TEA. 

prepared  ft  mora  d«Iieftt«  If  WMker  te*  thui 
the  AnwiiiiTifi  Uafortuiwtely  the  Tvry  oondi- 
tioni  eondadTe  to  iU  best  growth  creftU  the 
wont  iiMl«ri>l  dUorden  unong  Europeani 
•ud  tbose  frcm  othsr  temperate  climatea. 
"  Ferer  and  te*  go  together."  Cultirated  tea 
ia  rafMd  from  ae^  ^e  plant  produeea  Biaall 
white  flowen,  wtdeh  one  Tear  later  ^ield  from 
one  to  four  seeds  about  naif  the   »ze  of  the 


it  called  the  pekoe  tip,  or  flowery  pekoe  when 
mjid*  into  ten.  MandaTin  tea  is  prepared  from 
it  in  China;  the  tips  are  tligbtly  rolled  and 
dried,  and  finallj  tied  up  with  ribbons  in  tiny 
bnncttea,  like  cigars.  Except  as  a  curiosity 
one  does  not  see  this  tea  outside  of  China,  as 
in  that  country  it  commands  a  very  Iiigh  price. 
The  nest  leaves  are  called  the  orange  pekoe 
and  pekoe.  They,  with  the  tip,  yield  pel^'M 
tea,  eapeciallj  esteemed  for  strength  and  oaTor. 
When  not  fermented,  but  prepared  as  green 
tea  from  the  half-opened  leaves  in  April,  it  is 
known  as  young  hyson,  hyson  being  a  corrup- 
tion of  the  Chinese  "  yu  tsien,"  meaning  "  he- 
fore  the  rains."  Hoet  pekoe  teas  are  sent  to 
Great  Britain  and  Hussia. 

In  this  order  of  mumeration,  from  the  pekoe 
tip  downward,  the  aise  of  the  leaf  ' 


and  smaller  leaves,  the  better  Is  the  quality, 
but  the  more'  expensive  and  curtailed  is  the 
crop.  Genuine  green  teas  are  the  result  of 
quickly  drying  tne  fresh  leaf,  whereas  black 
teas  are  subjected  to  oxidation  before  being 
"  fired,"  as  the  drying  of  the  moist  leaf  is 
eallML  The  most  important  chemical  difter- 
euce  between  the  simply  dried  tea  leaves  (i.e., 
green)  and  the  fermented  (i.e.,  black)  lies  in 
the  Tees  amount  of  tannin  in  the  latter.  For 
black  tea  the  fresh  leaf  is  thinly  spread  out 
to  wither.  It  ia  then  rolled;  then  the  balls 
or  moss  of  rolled  leaf  are  broken  up,  spread 
out  thinly,  moistened,  and  are  subjected  to 
oxidation,  wbereby  tea  loses  Its  raw  smell  and 
acquires  a  fine  flavor.  This  conBti,tutes  the 
most  critical  operation  in  the  whole  process, 
there  being  no  fixed  rules  to  determine  its 
length  and  intensity.  The  effect  of  oxidation 
is  chenucal,  the  eUef  change  being  a  loss  In 


B«triiigeiicy,  induced  by  a  diminution  of  tlw 
tannin;  the  tea  also  becomes  darker  In  color. 
After  the  rolled  leaf  is  broken  it  is  flrpd  In 
iron  vessels  over  charcoal  fires.  The  thoroughly 
dried  and  brittle  tea  should  be  packed  while 
hot  in  metallic  cases,  and  hermeticiilly  sealed 
to  exclude  moisture. 

The  annual  crop  of  tea  in  China  has  been 
estimated  at  from  400,000,000  to  8,000,000,000 
lb.,  of  which  about  200,000,000  is  exported. 
The  Chinese  cultivate  the  tea  plant  in  small 
gardens,  or  in  outlying  comers  or  on  steep  hill- 
aides  where  no  other  crop  can  be  raised.  The 
farmer  often  sells  his  crop  on  the  bushes,  as 
oranges  are  sold  in  Florida. 

Japanese  teas  sre  almost  wholly  green,  llie 
leaf  is  not  adapted  for  black  tea.  Steam  with- 
ering is  practi<^  to  reduce  the  raw  flavor.  The 
general  nniab  is  very  elegant,  but  artiflcial  col- 
oring and  facing  are  common.  The  green  color 
is  given  by  dusting  it  with  Prussian  blue  at 
the  time  of  roasting.  The  most  esteemed 
brand  of  Japaneae  tea  is  called  tenoha  oj  flat 
tea,  because  it  is  not  rolled;  indeed,  it  Is 
claimed  that  it  Is  not  touched  by  bond  after 
being  put  on  the  steaming  apparatus.  It  com- 
mands a  high  price  in  Japan.  Such  teas  aro 
finely  ground  shortly  before  use,  and  after 
stirring  with  warm  (not  boiling)  water  for  a 
few  minutes,  the  whole  infusion  is  drunk.  They 
play  an  important  part  in  the  ceremonial  t^ 
drinking — a  curious  feature  of  Japanese  polit- 
ical history  and  social  life.  Tea  production  In 
the  British  Indies  is  on  a  large  scale.  Wealthy 
corporations  or  individuals  cultivate  hnndreds 
or  thousands  of  acres,  employing  great  capital 
and  inunenise  numbers  of  laborers.  The  opera- 
tions in  the  field  are  performed  under  the 
piecs  system  and  in  a  tDorou^hty  syetematio 
manner.     In  the  factory,  the  simplification  of 

STOcesses  and  the  sutwtitution  of  machinery 
)r  manual  labor  have  rednced  the  cost  of  man- 
ufacture, and  resulted  In  the  production,  of  a 
more  uniform  and  cleaner  article. 

The  chief  active  ingredient  of  tea,  upon  which 
depends  most  of  its  influence, .  is  the  alkaloid 
theine,  which  is  practically  identical  with 
caffeine  derived  from  coffee.  Tea  leaves  con- 
tain from  one  half  to  six  per  cent  of  theine, 
with  from  twelve  to  eighteen  per  cent  of  tumic 
acid  (which  gives  overdrawn  and  boiled  tea 
its  bitter  taste)  and  an  aromatic  volatile  oil. 
Tea  stimulates  brain  and  spinal  cord;  it  quick- 
ens thought  so  that  a  mild  condition  of 
"  nervousness "  is  produced  which  prevents 
sleep.  Tea  retards  tissue  waste.  Strong  tea 
ia  a  useful  antidote  in  poisoning  by  opium  or 
antimony,  as  it  combats  the  depression  of 
heart  and  lungs  induced  b^  oplimi,  and  forms 
an  insoluble  compound  witii  antimony  which 
delays  Its  absorption. 

Teak,  a  forest  trea,  Teetona  grandit,  of  the 
Terbenaeea,  of  India  and  Farther  India.  It  is 
the  best  timber  known  lor  shipbuilding,  as  it 
resists  water  and  insects.  It  is  more  durable 
than  oak,  more  easily  seasoned,  equally  strong, 
considerably  lighter,  and  far  more  easily 
worked.  It  is  used  for  making  decks  and 
planking,  for  the  keel,  timbers,  and  even  masts 
and  spars.  Many  all-teak  ships  are  reported 
to  be  over  one  hundred  years  old,  and  stul  Mm,- 


worthy.  The  wood  reseinblea  mahcgany.  The 
flowers  Bud  leaves  have  medicinal  qualities, 
And   are    used   in   dyeing.      African   teak,   the 


Teal,  any  one  of  Hveral  small  ducks  having 
a  rather  narrow  bill  but  little  longer  than  the 
foot.     The  wing  beara  a  conspicuous  ^ark,  or 


speculum,  of  blue  or  metallic  green.  Hiey  are 
birds  of  rapid  flight,  partial  to  fresh  water, 
and  their  flesh  is  excellent  food. 

Tea,  pBragua/.    See  Mate. 

Tecbnorogy,  a  general   name  for  industrial 

science.  Strictly,  there  is  no  such  science,  but 
all  the  sciences  contribute  much  that  is  of 
value  to  the  various  industries ;  and  technol- 
ogy is  the  teaching  of  those  parts  of  science 
which  are  of  direct  industrial  importance. 

TeCDin'seh,  or  Teciuntha,  1768-1813;  chief  of 
the  Shawnee  Indians.  Abt.  1805  he  and  his 
brother  Elskwatawa,  who  had  set  up  as  a 
prophet,  attempted  to  unite  the  W.  tribes  to 
resist  the  whites.  In  1811.  during  Tecumseh's 
absence  in  the  South,  Gen.  Harrison  marched  on 
the  prophet's  town.  The  prophet  attacked  him, 
and  was  defeated  at  Tippecanoe,  November  7th. 
This  disconcerted  Tecumseh's  plans  and  broke 
the  spell  of  the  prophet's  power.  When  war 
was    declared    with    England,    Tecumseh    ap- 


TEETH 

peared  in  Canada,  served  in  the  action  on  the 
Raisin,  and  after  being  wounded  at  MaguagOi 
was  made  a  brigadier  general  in  the  British 
forces.  He  was  in  command  with  Proctor  at 
the  si^jE  of  Fort  Meigs,  and  saved  American 
prisoners  from  massacre.  He  commanded  the 
right  wing  at  the  battle  of  the  Thames,  and 
fought  desperately  till  he  was  killed. 

Te  Denm  ^t6  de'Qm),  the  most  famous  non- 
biblical  hymn  of  the  Western  Church,  dating 
from  the  fifth  century,  named  from  its  opening 
phrase,  "  Te  Deum  laudamus  "  ("We  praise 
thee,  O  God  I  ").  Its  authorship  is  unknown. 
Besides  its  use  in  the  morning  servi(x,  it  is 
a  special  service  of  thanksgiving  after 
great  victories  and  at  coronations. 

Teeth,  the  organs  in  vertebrates  for  the  leiE- 
ure  and  mastication  of  food,  placed  at  or  near 
the  entrance  to  the  alimentary  canal.  In  adult 
man  there  are  thirty-two,  sixteen  in  each  jaw, 
implanted  in  sockets,  and  of  an  Irregular 
conoid  form ;  in  the  child,  previous  to  the  sec- 
ond dentition,  there  are  only  twenty.  The 
number  of  the  teeth  increases  in  the  lower 
animals,  being  greatest  in  the  cetaceans  and 
marsupialH  among  mammals,  and  also  consid- 
erable in  many  reptiles  and  Bahes.  The  por- 
a.  tooth  above  the  socket  is  called  the 
the      concealed 

Cart  the  root  or  fang; 
etween  these  there  is  ^ 
or  less  marked 
constriction  or  neck.  In 
rtebrate  animals  the 
teeth,  like  the  bones, 
have  for  their  earthy 
basis  phosphate  of  lime, 
mingled  with  some  car- 
bonate of  lime  and  fluo- 
ride of  calcium,  the  lat- 
ter being  chiedy  in  the 
enamel. 

A  tooth   is  composed 
of    dentine,    crutta    pe- 
troaa,  and  enamel.    The 
dentine,      forming     the 
greater  part  of  the  body 
of    the    tooth,    is    firm,   ■b.si^b.o 
transparent,  and  nearly      noii 
homogeneous,   composed 
of     about     seventy -two 
per   cent   of   calcareous 
and    twenty-eight    per 
cent    of    organic    matter.      It    is    permeated 
throughout    by    minute    cylindrical    channels, 
called  canaliculi,  about   ti^do  in.  in  diameter, 
which  radiate  from  a  central  or  pulp  cavity. 
The    pulp   is   the   only    portion    of   the    tooth 
whieh  is  supplied  with  blood  vessels  and  nerves. 
The  crueti  petrosa  is  a  thin  layer  of  bony  tis- 
sue attached  to  the  outside  of  the  dentine  in 
the  fang  of  the  tooth,  and  serving  to  connect 
it,  by  means  of  its  periosteum,  more  firmly  to 
the  socket.     The  enamel,  which  covers  the  sur- 
face of  the  crown  of   the  tooth,  is  much   the 
hardest   of   its   tissues,   containing   often   over 
ninety-flve  per  cent  of  calcareous  matter. 

In  man  there  are  in  each  jaw  four  incisors 
or  cutting  teeth ;  next  to  these,  on  each  side, 
is  a  canine  tooth,  those  of  the  upper  jaw  being 


pulp ;   4,  blood    i 


TEGUCIGALPA 

called  eye  .t«eth;  next  to  these  are  two  bi- 
cugpida,  uid  then  three  molare,  makiD^  sixteen 
teeth  in  each  jaw.  The  laat  molar  ia  known 
aa  the  wisdom  tooth,  as  it  appears  much  later 
than  the  othera.  The  temporary,  or  milk  teeth, 
consiat  o(  ten  in  each  jaw,  four  incisors,  two 
canines,  and  four  molars.  Thej  usually  begin 
to  appear  at  seven  months,  and  are  complete 
when  the  child  is  two  years  old.     See  Den- 

TeKudK'lpa  (ta-gA-se-g^l'pS},  capital   (since 
1880)   and  largest  city  of  Bonduras;  in  a  plain 
or   basin   surrounded   by   mountainH,    3,250  ft. 
above  the  sea;  60  m.  from  its  port  of  Amapala, 
on  the  Gulf  of  Fonseca.    It  is  in  the  most  thick- 
ly populated  region  of  the  republic,  is  the  cen- 
ter  of  a   fertile  agricultural   district,   and  has 
minea  of  ^old  and  silver.     The  most  conspicu- 
ous building  is  the  cathedral;   the  president's 
palace  and  other  public   edifices  are  unpreten- 
.  tious.      The   climate    is    mild    and   saluorioua. 
Pop.  (1906)   34,ee2.    Tegucigalpa  is  the' 
capital   of   a   department   of    the   same 
name,   having  an   area  of   3,476   sq.  m. 
and  a  pop.  (1901)  of  81,800. 

Teheran',  capital  of  Persia;  province 
of  Irak-Ajmi,  .70  m.  S.  of  the  Caspian 
Sea;  in  a  sandy  and  stony  plain  at  the 
8.  foot  of  the  Elburs  Mountains,  which 
rise  here,  in  Mt.  Demavend,  to  18,600  ft. 
The  streets  for  the  most  part  are  nar- 
row, crooked,  ill  paved,  and  filthy,  and 
the  houses  low  and  insignificant,  gener- 
ally built  of   mud,  although  there   are 
some  modern  boulevards   and  houses  in 
Western  style.     Some  mosques,  bazaars, 
and  caravansaries   are  handsome   struc- 
tures,  however,   and   the   palace   of   the 
shah,   forming   a   city   by   itself,   is   vast   and 
ele^nt     Teheran  became  the   residence  of  the 
shah  in  1796.    It  has  some  manufactures  of  car- 
nets,   cotton  and   linen  goods,  shoes   and  hats. 
Its  population  varies  much  from  winter  to  sum- 
mer, as  the   shah    and   the   wealthier   citizens 
leave  it  early  in  spring  on  account  of  the  heat 
and  unhealthful  atmosphere.    Pop.  280,000.     In 
the  vicinity  are  the  ruins  of  Eei,  the  Rhages 
of  Scripture.    The  comment  on  Tabriz  [g.c] 
appliea  also  to  Teheran. 

Tclraantepec  (ta-wtln-tB-pek'),  lath'mns  of, 
a  constriction  of  the  American  continent,  in 
SE.  Mexico,  between  the  Bay  of  Campeche 
(Gulf  of  Mexico)  on  the  N.,  and  the  Gulf  of 
Tehuantepec,  an  arm  of  the  Pacific,  on  the  8. 
Its  width,  in  the  narrowest  part,  is  134  m. 
The  mountain  chains,  on  reaching  the  isthmus, 
are  suddenly  depressed,  with  several  passes  be- 
low 700  ft  There  have  been  many  projects  for 
a  canal  across  this  neck,  and  careful  surveys, 
one  by  the  U.  S.  Govt,  have  been  made.  Some 
of  the  reports  are  favorable,  but  the  work 
would  be  enormously  expensive.  A  railway 
from  CoatMCoalcoB  on  the  N.  to  Salina  Crur 
on  the  S.  now  runs  across  the  isthmus;  it  was 
constructed  by  the  Mexican  Govt,  and  it  was 
opened  1894.  As  lonf^  ago  as  184T  the  U.  B. 
Govt,  endeavored,  without  results,  to  pro- 
cure a  right  of  way  over  the  same  route. 
Physically,  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  sepa- 
rates Mexico  from  Central  America,  the  land 


TELEGRAPH 

K  of  it,  with  Yucatan,  belonging  rather  with 
the  latter  than  with  the  former  region. 

Telan'toeiaph,  name  given  by  Elisha  Grav 
to  an  instrument  invented  by  him  by  whicn 
autoeraphic  messages  can  be  transmitted  elec- 
trically. The  mechanism  conaiBts  of  a  trans- 
mitting and  receiving  instrument,  with  two 
conducting  wires,  and  by  its  use  handwriting, 
drawings,  etc.,  are  instantly  reproduced  at  the 
receiving  point  in  facsimile.  The  message  or 
drawing  is  produced  with  an  ordinary  lead  pen- 
cil, near  the  point  of  which  two  conls  are  fas- 
tened at  right  angles  nith  each  other.  These 
cords  connect  with  the  mechanism  of  the  trans- 
mitter, and,  following  the  motion  of  the  pencil, 
produce  positive  and  negative  electrical  im- 
pulses through  the  action  of  a  permanentlv 
magnetized  steel  gear  wheel,  the  teeth  of  whicn 
induce  pulsations  as  they  pass  by  an  electro- 
magnet. The  receiving  mechanism  at  the  ter- 
minus of  the  conducting  wire  is  driven  by  an 


TsE  Tblautoobipb  (1 


Hitting  iiutnunent). 


electric  motor  operated  by  a  local  battery. 
The  pulsations,  as  they  arrive,  control  an  es- 
capement wheel,  driven  by  the  motor,  which 
moves  the  writing  lever  in  exact  unison  with 
the  pencil  of  the  transmitter.  The  movements 
of  the  pencil  of  the  writer  are  reproduced  by 
the  shifting  of  a  friction  wheel  driven  by  two 
disks,  one  of  which  gives  it  an  advance  and  the 
other  a  retrograde  movement,  dependent  upon 
the  wheel  being  brought  into  contact  with  one 
or  the  other  of  the  two  disks.  The  receiving 
pen  is  a  capillary  glass  tube  supplied  with  ink 
from  a  reservoir.  The  pen,  paaaing  over  the 
paper,  leaves  a  facsimile  of  the  sender's  mo- 
tions. The  writing  is  made  and  reproduced  on 
continuous  strips  of  paper  6  in.  in  width.  As 
each  line  is  completed  the  movement  of  a  lever 
advances  the  paper  the  proper  distance  for  the 
beginning  of  a  new  line.  The  same  opeiation 
brings  the  two  instruments  into  unison  in  case 
of  discrepancy  in  their  movements.  Satisfac- 
tory tests  of  the  practical  working  of  the  tel- 
autograph have  been  made  between  Chicago 
and  Qeveland,  and  Loudon  and  Paris. 

Tel'egraph  (from  Greek  TTjXt,  far,  +  rpiC^iv, 
write),  any  apparatus  or  process  for  convey- 
ing intelligence  to  a  distance  other  than  by 
voice  or  writing.  The  idea  of  speed  is  included, 
the  telegraph  being  employed  only  to  transmit 
intelligence  more  quickly  than  can  be  done  by 
ordinary  means. 

As  soon  aa  it  became  Ii 


•  'ifisQes^' 


TELEGRAPH 

could  be  oondncted  hj  wlna  to  a  diatuiee,  it 
began  to  be  re^rded  M  ft  powible  meana  o( 
eoavejiag  inteUigence. 

Experiments  were  made  by  many  persoiu, 
both  in  the  U.  8.  and  abroad,  and  these  cul- 
minated in  the  demoDBtration  of  the  feasibility 
of  transmitting  mgnals  by  a  ciurrent  of  electric- 
ity through  insulated  wire  by  Joseph  Henry  in 
Albany,  N.  Y.  Bamuel  F.  B.  Morse,  of  New 
York,  in  1832  conceived  the  idea  of  maliinK 
a  at  a  distance  by  means  of  a  pencil  moved 


by  an  electro-magnet  and  a  single  conducting 
circuit,  the  paper  being  moved  under  the  pen- 
cil by  clockwork.     He  constructed  a  working 


modd  of  his  invention  in  1836,  and  exhibited  it 
in  1837.  Several  years  were  devoted  by  Horse 
and  his  associate,  Alfred  Vail,  to  improving  the 
invention.  In  1844  the  first  public  line  was 
completed  Iwtween  Waaiiington  and  Baltimore 
(40  m.),  and  the  first  message  transmitted  May 
27th  of  Uiat  year.  Soon  lines  were  extended  to 
the  principal  cities  of  the  U.  B,  The  Morse  tel- 
egraph was  introduced  into  Germany  i>i  1847, 
vrtienoe  it  has  spread  all  over  the  E.  hemi- 
sphere, and  now  is  the  universal  telegraph  of 
the  world. 

Ezperimenta  in  submarine  telegraphy  fol- 
lowed. In  1842  Morse  laid  a  cable  between 
Castle  Garden  and  Governor's  Island,  in  New 
York,  and  obtained  results  that  demonstrat- 
ed the  practicability  of  submarine  telegraphy. 
In  1800  an  experimental  line  was  lud  acrosa 
the  English  ChanneL  This  success  suggested 
the  laying  of  a  cable  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
In  1854  the  attention  of  Cyrus  W.  Held,  of  New 
York,  was  directed  to  the  subject,  and  mainly 
through  his  efforts  a  company  was  formed  to 
undertake  the  enterprise.  The  first  attempt  was 
made  in  August,  1857,  but  it  was  unsuccessful, 
thb  cable  parting  300  m.  from  shore.  The  fol- 
lowing year  the  attempt  was  renewed  and  the 
work  successfully  completed  August  6,  1858. 
Communications  were  exchanged  until  Beptem- 
ber  Ist^  when  the  cable  tailed  altogether.  In 
1866  a  new  cable  was  successfully  laid,  being 


Uaded  at  Newfoundland,  in  perfect  working 
order,  July  27,  1866.  The  British  Pacific  cable, 
the  first  to  cross  the  Pacific  Ocean,  connecting 
Vancouver,  B.  C,  with  Sydney,  Australia,  was 
completed  in  1902,  and  the  cable  joining  San 
Francisco  with  Manila,  via  Hawaii  and  Guam, 
in  1903. 

All  electric  telegraphs  may  be  said  to  consist 
of  three  parts:  first,  an  apparatus  for  gener- 
ating or  producing  the  electric  current ;  second, 
a  conductor  for  conveying  the  electricity  from 
one  point  to  another  as  required;  and,  tlilrd, 
apparatus  for  transmitting  and  receiving  the 


signals. 


TELEGRAPH 

magneto-electric  maehlne,  or  the  thermoelec- 
tric battery.  Of  these,  the  voltaic  battery  has 
been  the  most  contmimly  used,  though  much 
baa  been  done  in  dereloping  the  capacity  of 
the  dynamo-electric  machine,  which  in  most 
large  stations  lus  successfully  replaced  the 
voltaic  system.  Conductors  are  usually  car- 
ried through  the  air,  but  when  required  may 
be  placed  under  ground  or  under  water.  In 
either  case  they  must  be  well  insulated  with 
nonconducting  materials. 

The  apparatus  used  in  tcl^raphy  may  be 
convenienuy  divided  into  recgrdlng  and  non- 
recording.  Of  each  of  these  Uiere  are  several 
varieties,  but  the  most  important  is  the  re- 
cording telegraph  that  bears  the  name  of  Morse. 


T»i.«aH*i'Hie  RsaisTBB. 

Its  characteristic  feature  is  tlie  register,  which 
is  constructed  on  tihe  general  principle  shown 
in  Uie  diagram.  A  honiontal  lever  is  mounted 
upon  a  fulcrum,  a,  and  armed  at  one  end  with 
a  steel  point,  o,  projecting  upward  and  nearly 
toucliing  a  ribbon  of  paper,  f,  which  is  carried 
along  at  a  uniform  rate  by  a  grooved  roller 
just  above  it,  the  roller  being  impelled  by  a 
system  of  clockwork,  e.  The  opposite  end  of 
the  lever  carries  a  soft  iron  armature,  n,  sus- 
pended Just  atiove  the  poles  of  an  electro- 
magnet, t.  The  end  of  the  wire  helix  surround- 
ing this  magnet  terminates  in  binding  screws, 
g  g,  to  which  the  conducting  wires  are  at- 
tached. A  current  of  electricity  traversing  the 
helix  of  the  electro-magnet  causes  it  to  become 
powerfully  magnetic,  attracting  the  armature, 
n,  to  its  poles,  and  thus  pressing  the  steel 
point,  0,  against  the  paper  ribbon  moving 
atiove  it  upon  the  grooved  roller.  A  continu- 
ous line  will  in  this  manner  be  emlHMsed  upon 
the  paper  as  long  as  the  armature  remains  at- 
tached to  the  poles  of  the  magnet.  When  the 
current  is  interrupted,  the  magnetism  disap- 
pears, and  the  spring,  d,  draws  the  marking 
point  away  from  the  paper.  Thus  the  length 
of  the  line  embossed  upon  the  paper  corre- 
sponds to  th(4  greater  or  less  length  of  time 
that  the  electric  current  is  allowed  to  traverse 
Hie  helix  of  the  electro-magnet,  (.  This  la 
governed  by  the  transmitting  instrument 
termed  the  key,  which  is  simply  a  small  hori- 
zontal lever  with  a  finger  knob  at  one  end  and 
a  spring  l>«neath.  The  wire  leading  from  the 
line  is  connected  to  this  lever,  and  when  the 
latter  is  depressed  by  the  finger  of  the  oper- 
ator it  comes  in  contact  with  a  metallic  stud, 
known  as  the  anvil,  to  which  the  lottery  wire 
is  attached;  thus  the  circuit  is  oompleted,  and 
the  current  permitted  to  flow  into  the  line. 


TELEGRAPH 

When  the  latt«r  la  bnt  a.  few  miles  lotig,  the 
battery  aiod  k^  arc  eonneeted  directlj  by  a 
wire  with  the  elwtrD-magDet  of  the  register; 
but  when  the  distance  ia  greater,  an  instni- 
ment  e«lied  the  relay  is  employed.  This  con- 
sisti  of  an  electro-magnet  with  a  lever  mounted 
like  that  of  a  register,  eioept  that  the  marldnc 
point  is  replaced  by  a  contact  point,  which 
open*  and  cloaes  the  circuit  of  a  local  battery, 
and  this  in  turn  operates  the  Teeter.  A  con- 
iiderable  number  of  relays  with  their  rasters 
may  be  placed  at  ae  many  different  points  upon 
the  aame  line,  and  all  operated  simultaneously 
bj  a  kqr  at  any  point.  This  is  the  arrange- 
ment nanally  adapted  in  the  U.  8.  The  line 
or  main  batteries  are  usually  placed  at  the 
two  ends  of  the  route,  though  each  station 
haa,  of  oonise,  its  local  battery  of  one  or  two 
eelU.  The  alphabetical  code,  consista  of  ar- 
bitrary characters  composed  of  combinations 
of  ibort  lines  termed  dots  and  longer  ones 
termed  dasheq,  separated  by  Tarying  spaces . 
The  following  is  the  alphabetical  (wde  used 
in  the  U.  B.,  Canada,  Maxico,  and  Central 
America: 




t^E~~ 

~ 

g— - 

r=~ 

1=-— - 

lziz.-zz:zr^ 

Period  Q 

Comma  i.)  '-^— — ^- 

In(emi(atioo  (ft 

EzalamatloD  <!) 

Of  tlie  nonreeording  teleKraphs  the  most 
important  is  the  sounder,  which  is  simply  a 
Uorse  register  stripped  of  all  its  parts  except 


'  almost  entirely  auperneded 
the  reoording  apparatus  in  the  U.  S.  and  Can- 
ada, as  experience  proves  that  the  speed  of 
transmisslca  ia  praMioU^  doaUed,  mile  the 


TELEGRAPHY 

proportion  of  errors  is  largely  diniinishrd.  The 
operator  reads  from  the  instrument,  and  simul- 
taneously copies  the  message.  For  military 
purposes  the  sounder,  together  with  a  manipu' 
lating  k^,  is  often  reduced  in  size,  so  as  to  be 
contained  in  a  pocket  case  not  larger  than  a 
tobacco  box  and  weighing  but  a  few  ounoea, 
and  yet  forming  a  completely  equipped  Mone 
telegraph  station,  which  may  be  connected  with 
a  lijie  at  any  required  point.    See  Cablk 

Teleg'rBphy,  Wire'less,  a  name  now  restricted 
to  telegraphy  by  means  of  electro-magnetic 
("Hertzian  )  waves,  although  at  first  used 
to  include  telegraphy  by  induction,  by  earth 
conduction,  and  by  other  methods  that  have 
not  yet  reached  the  commercial  stage.  Electro- 
magnetic waves  were  treated  theoretically  by 
Clerk-Maxwell,  the  English  physicist,  over 
thirty  years  ago,  but  their  actual  eristenoe 
was  first  demonstrated  by  Heinrich  Herts,  of 
Karlsruhe,  Germany.  He  devised  means  for 
generating  them  by  an  oscillating  electrostatic 
dischaive  (the  "oscillator")  and  tor  receiv- 
ing ana  detecting  them;  but  these  instruments 
were  not  delicate  enough  to  transmit  and  re- 
ceive intelligible  messages.  The  first  patent  on 
an  electric-wave  telegraph  was  granted  in  Eng- 
land fo  William  Marconi,  an  Italian  inventor, 
in  ISH.  In  the  same  year  he  exhibited  hia 
apparatus  at  Toynbee  Hall,  London.  His  i«- 
ceirer  was  essentially  the  "  coherer "  of  Sir 
Oliver  liodEB,  based  on  the  "radioratnductor" 
discovered  m  France  1^  Brauly  in  1800.  This 
depends  on  the  fact  that  a  mass  of  fine  metal 
particles,  such  as  iron  filings,  becomes  a  con- 
ductor when  an  electric  wave  passes  it,  be- 
cause the  particles  then  adhere.  The  particles 
will  fall  apart  when  the  wave  has  passed  if 
they  receive  a  slight  mechanical  ahoclc.  Mar- 
coni's first  receiver  consisted  of  such  a  coherer, 
with  a  tapping  device  to  "  decohere  "  ,the  par- 
ticles and  a  device  to  detect  the  passage  of  a 
current  in  the  circuit  of  which  the  coherer 
formed  a  part.  The  whole  was  connected  with 
an  "  antenna "  or  aSrial  wire.  On  strBdng 
this,  the  wave  "  cohered "  the  filings,  com- 
pleted the  circuit,  and  made  an  appropriate 
signal  which  was  at  once  broken  off  by  the 
action  of  the  decoherer.  At  the  sending  sta- 
tion a  HertE  oscillator  was  used  with  an  in- 
duction coil,  the  wave  being  started  by  a  spark 
sent  across  a  gap  one  side  of  which  was  con- 
nected with  an  '^antenna."  and  the  oUier  with 
the  earth. 

This  is  the  simplest  wlreleet-telegraph  sys- 
tem. Improvements  on  it  have  been  generally 
either-  to  increase  the  sending  distance,  or  so 
to  adjust  the  sending  and  receiving  instru- 
ments that  only  messages  intended  for  the 
latter  will  affect  it.  The  sending  distance  has 
now  been  extended  to  several  thousand  miles. 
Wireless  mesBagea  are  sent  across  the  Atlantic 


world;  but  the  efiforts  to  adjust  the  i 
and  receiver  so  as  to  exclude  outside  men  _  . 
and  to  send  messages  that  other  apparatus 
cannot  receive,  have  not  been  so  successful. 
Most  of  them  have  been  based  on  the  early 
.  r,,.  ^..  ^^  Lodge,  who  Intro- 
L  oonduissrs  into  i<|» 


TELEGRAPHY 

circuits  in  such  a,  way  that  the  receiTer  would 
napoud  only  to  waves  betneen  certain  limits 
of  length.  Such  devices  are  now  included  in 
.  all  the  awdem  syatetne,  but  their  object  has 
not  been  oompletelj  attained,  since  the  electric 
wavM  used  are  not  suffldently  regular  and 
conttnuoua. 

In  the  most  recent  HareonI  ByBtem,  &  new 
form  of  receiver  is  used  in  which  the  electric 
wave   disturba    the    mugnetic    condition    of    a 


WVAW 


Uakconi's  ArriKxiot. 

metallic  band  in  a  kI^ss  tiibe  oo  which  primary 
and  secondary  coils  are  wound,  inducing  iu 
these  currents  that  are  detected  by  meana  of 
a  telephone.  In  the  Lodge- Muirhead  system  a 
"  busier  "  for  regulating  the  frequency  is  in- 
cluded in  the  tranamitting  apparatus,  and  the 
receptor  uses  a  rotating  mercurial  coherer  in 
conjunction  with  a  siphon  recorder.  The  Fes- 
aenden  system  haa  an  electrolytic  detector 
consisting  ot  a  fine  platinum  wire,  one  end  of 
which  is  plunged  in  an  acid  solution  in  a 
platinum  veseeT,  The  De  Forest  system  dis- 
cards the  direct  current  with  induction  coil, 
and  uses  instead  an  alternating  current  with 
a  "  step-up  "  transformer,  which  charges  a  bat- 
tery of  Iicyden  jars.  The  detector  is  a  Email 
crystal  ot  carborundum.  In  Qermany  two 
systems,  known  as  the  Braun-Siemens  and  the 
Slaby-Arco,  have  combined  to  form  the  "  Tele- 
funken "  system,  which  still  uses  the  old 
coherer,  with  nickel  and  silver  filings,  as  a 
detector. 

An  effort  to  produce  waves  that  are  suffi- 
ciently regular  and  lasting  to  make  perfect 
"  tuning  "  possible,  and  so  brins  about  the  ad- 

i'ustment  of  sending  and  receiving  instruments 
hat  have  been  imperfectly  realized  hitherto, 
has  been  made  by  Valdemar  Poulsen,  a  Dane. 
He  does  away  altogether  with  the  electric 
spark  as  a  wave  generator,  and  uses  instead  a 
"singing"  arc  lamp,  whose  frequency  be  in- 
creases to  several  millions  a  second  by  placing 
an  alcohol  lamp  under  the  are.  The  waves 
thus  obtained  are,  it  is  claimed,  continuous 
and  regular,  beins  comparable  to  a  musical- 
note,  wliile  those  due  to  a  spark  are  more  like 
on  explosive  noise.  Ordinary  forms  of  detector 
may  be  used  and  experiments  appear  to  indi- 
cate that,  with  the  new  form  of  wave,  exact 
"tuning"  may  be  carried  out;  but  the  system 
ia  not  yet  in  the  commercial  stage. 

The  chief  use  of  wireless  telegraphy  ao  far 
haa  been  at  aea,  or  between  vessels  at  sea  and 


TELEPATHY 

coast  atations,  much  greater  sending  diatonees 
beii^  possible  over  water  than  where  moun- 
tains and  other  obstacles  intervene.  Nearly  all 
latKe  liners  and  warshipB  are  now  equipped 
with  the  necessary  apparatus,  and  by  ita  mean* 
often  keep  in  communication  with  land  during 
voyages  of  many  days'  extent.  On  October  7, 
1007,  a  regular  transatlantic  service  was  estab- 
lished between  stations  at  Clifden,  Ireland,  and 
Glace  Bay,  Nova  Scotia. 

Telem'achns,  in  Greek  mythology,  son 
of  Odyueus  and  Penelope.  He  was  on  in- 
fant  when  his  father  joined  in  the  war 
against  Troy.  After  the  termination  of 
the  war,  he  sailed  out,  accompanied  by 
Athene  in  the  shape  of  Mentor,  and  visited 
PyloB,  Sparta,  and  other  places,  to  leam 
the  fate  of  bis  father;  and  on  his  return 
to  Ithaca  he  found  Odysseus  living  there 
in  disguise  with  the  swineherd,  Eumnua. 
A  recognition  took  place,  and  he  then 
aided  Odysseus  in  slaying  the  suitors  and 
clearing  the  house  of  its  burdenaome 
guests.  His  voyage  forms  the  subject  of 
F6ne1on's  "Ttfierasque." 
^^  Tdep'athy,  thought  transference,  or  the 
phenomenon  of  the  reception  by  the  mind 
of  an  impression  not  traceable  to  any  o( 
the  recognized  chaimels  ot  sense,  and  assumed 
to  be  due  to  an  infiuence  from  the  mind  of  an- 
other person,  near  or  remote.  Thus  the  sphere 
ot  telepathy  is  not  the  same  as  that  of  olatr- 
voganee,  in  which  it  is  assumed  that  the  mind 
of  the  subject  may  receive  an  impression  ot  im- 
ptraonal  fact»,  or  things  at  a  distance.  The 
subject  who  receives  the  impression  is  called 
the  percipient,  the  one  from  whom  the  infiuence 
emanates  is  usually  called  the  agent,  in  ac- 
counts of  experiments  on  this  phenomenon. 
In  the  earlier  wprks  on  animal  magnetism 
there  are  many  reports  concerning  subjects 
who  are  said  to  have  developed  the  power  of 
obeying  the  silent  commands  of  the  bypnotiser. 
More  recently  there  have  been  public  e^ib- 
itors  of  "  mind  reading,"  and  their  perform- 
ancea  have  been  imitated  in  private  circles  by 
the  so-called  willing  game.  In  most  ot  these 
teats  the  agent  is  required  to  think  intently 
of  some  act  while  be  lays  his  bands  on  some 
part  of  the  so-called  mind  reader's  person.  The 
mind  reader,  either  promptly  or  hesitatingly, 
will  then  usually  perform  the  act.  It  is  safe 
to  assume  that,  wherever  such  personal  eon- 
tact  between  the  pair  is  allowed,  the  percipient 
is  guided  by  the  encouragement  or  checking 
which  the  agent's  hmds  more  or  less  uncon- 
sciously exert  upon  his  at  first  tentative  move- 
ments; so  that  muscle  reading,  and  not  mind 
reading,  is  the  proper  name  for  this  phenome- 
non. The  strongest  evidence  tor  thought  trans- 
ference is  given  by  the  sittings  of  certain  "  test 
mediums,"  of  which  the  best  worked-out  cose 
is  that  of  Mrs.  Piper,  published  in  the  Society 
for  Psychical  Research  "  Proceedings "  for 
1S90,  1892,  1896.  This  lady  ahows  a  profuse 
intimacy,  not  so  much  with  the  actual  pass- 
ing thoughts  of  her  sitters,  as  with  the 
whole  reservoir  of  their  memory  or  potential 
thinking. 

Telepathjr  haa  been  used  as  a  theory  to  ezi 
plain  '*  veridical  hallucinations  "  such  «a  w9ld4C 


TELEPHONE 

be  the  sppfkrition  of  a  peraon  at  a  diBtance  at 
the  time  of  bis  death.  The  theory  is  that  one 
who  is  djdng  or  passing  through  some  crisis 
is  for  some  unknown  reason  peculiarly  able  to 
serve  as  "  agent "  and  project  an  impression, 
and  that  the  telepathic  "  impact "  in  such  a 
ease  produces  hallucination.  Stated  thus 
boldly  the  theory  sounds  most  fanciful,  but  it 
reets  on  certain  actual  analogies.  Thus  a  sug- 
gestion made  to  a  suitable'  subject  in  the  hyp- 
notic trance  that  at  a  certain  appointed  time 
after  his  awakening  be  shall  see  the  operator 
or  other  designated  person  enter  the  room  will 
take  effect  and  be  followed  by  an  exterioriied 
apparition  of  the  person  named.  Moreover, 
strange  as  the  fact  may  appear,  there  seems 
evidence,  smalf  in  amount  but  good  in  quality, 
that  one  may,  by  exerting  one's  will  to  that 
effect,  cause  oneself  to  appear  present  to  a 
person  at  a  distance.  As  many  aS  eight  per- 
sons worthy  of  couSdence  have  recently 
reported  successes  in  this  sort  of  ex- 
,  perimenL  The  whole  subject,  however, 
is  still  in  its  infancy  so  far  as  definite 
observation  goes. 

Tel'ephone,  a  word  applied  by  Wheat- 
stone   in    1840   to   the   rod  and   string 
telephones  (as  they  are  now  called),  in 
which  sound  rihrations  are  transmitted 
from  one  point  to  another  by  means  of 
a  rod  or  tightly  stretched  string  con- 
necting two  elastic  diaphragms  of  mem- 
brane,  wood,   or   other   suitable   mate- 
rial.     In   strictness,   the   word   telephone,  still 
refers  to   the  acoustic  ai  well   as  the  electric 
telephone,  but  the  latter,  on  account  of  Its  uni- 
versal use,  is  the  instrument  to  which  the  term 
is  usually  applied. 

As  early  as  1S54  a  suggestion  as  to  the  pos- 
sibility of  transmitting  speech  by  means  of 
electricity  was  made  by  Charles  Bourseul  in 
Paris,  France,  and  In  1861  in  Frankfort,  Ger- 
many, Philipp  Reis  published  an  account  of  his 
experiments  on  the  same  subject.  Reis  en- 
deavored to  secure  the  transmission  of  speech 
by  a  circuit-breaking  operatioo.  For  a  trans- 
mitter he  employed  a  membrane  to  which  was 
fastened  a  flexible  strip  of  metal  connected  with 
one  terminal  of  a  voltaic  battery.  The  receiver 
nsed  consisted  of  a  long  helix  of  insulated  wire 
wound  about  a  knitting  needle,  the  whole  be- 
ing mounted  upon  a  sounding  box.  When  the 
receiver  was  connected  in  circuit  with  the 
transmitter  and  a  battery,  and  the  transmitter 
was  operated,  the  alternate  makes  and  breaks 
of  the  current  produced  by  the  intermittent  con- 
tact between  the  metallic  strip  and  point  of  the 
transmitter  cstised  a  sound  to  issue  from  the 
receiver.  This  sound  necessarily  corresponded 
in  pitch  with  that  spoken  into  the  transmitter. 

A  method  by  which  the  quality  of  sounds, 
including  those  of  articulate  speech,  can  be  re- 
produced with  an  apparatus  as  previously  sug- 
gested was  invent^  by  Alexander  Graham 
Beil  and  patented  on  March  7,  1876.  His 
method  consists  in  the  production  and  utiliza- 
tion of  electrical  undulations  similar  in  form 
to  the  vibrations  of  the  air  of  the  sound  waves. 
The  electrical  condition  of  the  line  particles 
and  the  vibration  of  the  receiver  are  controlled, 
not  intermittently,  at  the  end  of  each  complete 


TELEPHONE 

vibration,  but  throughout  the  whole  duration 
and  extent  of  this  vibration.  To  do  this  the 
transmitting  instrument  must  produce  in  tho 
line  an  electrical  current  which  possesses  a  va- 
riation in  strength  from  instant  to  instant, 
similar  to  the  corresponding  changes  in  the 
density  of  the  air  in  the  sound  waves  which 
actuate  the  transmitter,  in  which  case  tlie 
electrical  changes  will  copy  the  air  waves,  so 
to  speak,  and  the  varying  electrical  current 
will  be  represented  graphically  by  substantially 
the  same  curve  that  represents  the  air  waves. 
By  the  action  of  this  undulatory  current  upon 
a  suitable  receiver  it  will  reproduce  at  the  re- 
ceiving end  of  the  line  air  waves  which  ftre 
similar  In  form  to  the  electrical  variations,  and 
hence  to  the  sound  waves  actuating  the  trans- 
mitter. The  original  apparatus  devised  by 
Bell  was  a  form  of  what  is  called  a  "magneto 
telephone."    In  the  improved  instrument,  which 


Fig.  I.  P  F  ii 
soft-iron  pole  . 
a  coil  of  insulated  wire,  D,  whose  terminals 
run  to  the  binding  posts,  G  G-  H  is  a  circular 
diaphragm  of  thin  iron,  held  at  its  edge  be- 
tween tne  case  of  the  instrument,  K,  and  the 
mouthpiece,  A.  When  used  as  a  transmitter 
the  instrument  is  put  in  circuit  with  a  second 
one  at  the  farther  end  of  the  line,  which  serves 
as  a  recover.  The  operation  is  as  follows; 
When  the  soft-iron  diaphragm,  H,  is  spoken  to, 
it  takes  up  the  motions  of  the  particles  of  air 
and  vibrates  in  accordance  with  these  motions, 
and  so  moves  toward  and  away  from  the  mag- 
netized pole  piece  periodically  with  a  veloci^ 
varying  from  instant  to  instant,  according  to 
the  characteristic  form  of  the  air  waves,  ^nce 
these  possess  all  the  characteristics  impressed 
upon  tne  electrical  current  by  the  vibrations  of 
the  diaphragm  of  the  transmitter,  the  receiver 
will  give  out  a  sound  similar  to  that  uttered 
into  the  transmitter.  The  telephone  just  de- 
scribed has  been  universally  employed  as  a  re- 
caver.      As    a    transmitter,    however,    it    was 


current  passed  from  one  conductor  to  another 
through  a  "  loose  contact  " — that  is,  when  the 
contact  surfaces,  or  electrodes,  rested  only  very 
lightly  upon  one  another — there  was  at  the 
joint  a  resistance  to  the  electrical  flow,  which 
was  lessened  when  the  pressure  was  increased. 
Tho  Blake  transmitter  was  invented  by  Fran- 
cis Blake,  and  introduced  into  public  use.  in 

>ogle 


TELEPHONE 


ft  button  of  h&rd  carbon,  C,  ii 


',  u  epim  a  brmH 
'ht,  W.  A  rather 
■tiS  epring,  S,  mutaina 
WondC.  A  and  Bare 
iniulated  fropi  each 
other  at  their  upper 
enda.  K  and  W  are 
die  hammer  and  anvil 
electrodes,  retpective- 
It,  of  the  microphone^ 
A  current  from  a  bat- 
tery, B,  paasea  through 
the  joint  between  the 
two  electrodes.  When 
the  diaphra^  entera 
into  vibration  under 
the  action  of  the  voice 
It  pusheB  the  hammer 
electrode,  K,  into  more 
or  lesB  intimate  con- 
tact with  the  anvil 
electrode,  C.  The  in- 
ertia of  C,  weighted  as 
it  ie  bf  W,  keeps  the 
anvil    electrode    from 

f'  imphig  away  from  the 
ammer  electrode,  and 


er  position  as  regards 
the  diaphragm.  The 
varying  pressure  be- 
tween K  and  C  causes 
a  oorreiponding  vari- 
ation in  the  strength 
of  the  current  to  take 

flace,  so  that  when  a 
in  circuit  with  the 
trusmitter  speech  is  reproduced.  The  proper 
norioa]  pressure  between  ths  electrodes  is  se- 
cured by  means  of  the  bent  lever,  L,  and 
adjusting  screw,  N. 

The  development  of  the  art  of  telephony  has 
necenitated  the  invention  of  a  large  number 
of  special  contrivances  for  local  and  long-dis- 
tanea  transmission.  For  long-distance  trans- 
mission complete  metallic  circuits  ar^  em- 
ployed rather  than  the  grounded  circuits  usual 
m  telegraphy,  and  such  lines  are  also  far  more 
satisfactory  for  local  busineaa  on  account  of 
their  greater  freedom  from  ekctrieal  disturb- 

WmxLESS  TKLKPHOiry.— Considerable  prog- 
ress has  been  made  in  telephony  by  means  of 
"""""sgraph  music  has 
0  Copenhagen  by 
Poulsen,  and  the  system  devised  in  this  coun- 
try by  Pessenden  has  been  used  between  Brant 
Rock  and  Plymouth,  Mass.,  a  distance  of  11 
m.,  with  success.  Radio- telephones  have  also 
been  installed  on  ships  of  war,  and  the  art  is 
In  about  the  same  stage  of  development  as  was 
wireless  telegraphy  ten  years  ago.  The  tele- 
phone is  called  to  control  the  Hertzian  waves 
at  the  transmitting  apparatus  by  the  insertion 
of  a  microphone  in  the  condenser  shunt  circuit, 
whoae  action  molds  the  wavss,  as  it  were,  into 


Fio.a, 


■psach  forms.  In  th«  noairing  apparatus  an 
electrolytic  detector  may  ba  used,  which,  when 
properly  coupled  to  the  antenna  and  condensers, 
vanes  in  resistance  according  to  the  variation 
in  amplitude  of  the  incident  wavea. 

Tel'eseope,  an  optical  instrument  for  in- 
creasing the  apparent  magnitude  and  Intensity 
of  distant  objects,  or  the  size  of  their  imtwes  on 
the  retina.  The  essential  parts  of  the  matru- 
mcnt  are  two  in  number:  a  mirror  or  com- 
bination of  lenses  for  bringing  the  rays  of  light 
which  emanate  from  each  point  of  the  distant 
object  to  a  focus,  thus  forming  an  image  of  the 
object,  and  an  ocular  for  viewing  tins  image. 
A  refracting  telescope  is  one  in  which  the  rays 
of  light  are  made  to  converge  to  the  focus  by  a 
syst^  of  lenses;  a  reflecting  telescope  is  one 
in  which  they  are  made  to  converge  by  being 
reflected  from  the  surface  of  a  slightlv  concave 
polished  reflector.  Telescopes  were  nrst  made 
in  Holland,  about  the  year  1608,  when  Hans 
Lipperhey  applied  for  a  patent  for  such  an  in- 
strument. Apparently  an  attempt  was  made 
by  the  Dutch  authorities  to  have  the  inven- 
tion kept  secret.  The  first  ^lescopes  were,  of 
course,  very  imperfect  instruments,  the  object 
glass  consisting  only  of  a  ein|^e  smiall  lens.  It 
does  not   seem   that  the   Dutch   inventors   at- 


N,  ocular;  a  b,  ob)«ct. 


in  leiO,  who,  having 
the  principles  ^ 
structed.  Galilean  telescopes  consisted  of  a 
object  glass  and  a  concave  eyepiece,  the  latter 
being  placed  inside  the  focua  This  form  is  still 
used  in  opera  passes,  but  does  not  admit  of  a 
high  power  being  obtained  with  distinctness. 
Galileo,  however,  was  able  with  this  imperiFect 
instrument  to  see  the  phases  of  Venus  and  the 
satellites  of  Jupiter,  making  the  discoveries 
which  have  made  his  name  immortal.  The 
great  difficulty  encountered  by  the  astronomers 
of  the  seventeenth  century  arose  frofti  the  tact 
that  the  different  rays  of  colored  light  are  un- 
equal in  length,  and  hence  do  not  meet  at  the 
same  focus.  This  deviation  of  the  foci  is  called 
chromatic  aberration  of  the  telescope.  It  was 
found  that  this  defect  could  be  diminished  by 
increasing  the  focal  length,  but  then  the  in- 
strument would  soon  become  unmanageable. 
This  led'  to  the  invention  of  the  reflecting  tele- 
scope, in  which  no  such  defect  exists.  The  lat- 
ter instrument  underwent  gradual  improvement 
from  the  time  of  Newton  to  that  of  Herschel,  a 
hundred  years  later,  who  brought  it  to  great 
perfection.  Meanwhile  Chester  More  Hall,  of 
England,  about  1733.  invented  a  combination  of 
crown  lenses  and  flint  lenses,  which  would  in 
great  part  correct  not  only  the  chromatic,  but 
also  the  spherical  aberration,  which  b  the  de- 
viation of  rays  of  light  due  to  the  imperfect  fo- 
cusing of  the  lens.    The  invention  w«  h "^^ 


n  vu  bnngfat 

.CooqIc 


TELESCOPE 

into  practloal  um  hj 
Dollond,  of  London, 
whoM  teleacop«   ftc- 

S aired  great  oeleb- 
ity  during  the  lat- 
ter half  of  tbe 
eighteenth  century; 
but  their  aite  waa  * 
on^  what  is  now 
considered  the  Email- 
est  Up  to  1800  it 
was  thought  almost 
impoHsible  to  make 
a  good  disk  of  flint 
gloas  of  more  than 
4  or  6  in.  ii^  diam- 
eter. The  difficulty 
waa  that  the  great 
density  of  the  lead 
which  ia  a  compo- 
nent of  the  flint 
glaaa  caused  the  low- 
er part  of  the  pot 
of  glaaa  to  be  denser 
thui  the  upper  part. 
By  skill  and  atten- 
tion Blaas  nutkera 
learned   bow   to   ob- 


EBFLacmia  TnLaaoora  at  tub  Lick  OaaUffAXmr. 


)  that  early  in  tLe  nineteenth  centu^  disks  ' 
of  8  or  10  in.  became  oommon,  and  before  tbe 
middle  of  the  century  they  were  carried  to  15 
in.  The  difficulty  then  waa  on  the  part  of  the 
optician  to  grind  the  lenses  of  this  aiie  so  per- 
fect in  figure  that  they  would  bring  all  the 
rays  to  the  same  foeue.     The  greatest  artisui 


K  Ramcma  TnLaacon  a  n 


in  this  rcflpect  during  the  first  half  of  the 
century  waa  Fraunhofer,  of  Germany.  The 
first  person  to  improve  upon  hia  work  waa  Al- 
van  Clark,  of  Cambridgeport,  Mass.  About 
1846  he  b^an  to  experiment  in  grinding  lenses, 
and  by  1863  had  attained  such  success  that  a 
glass  of  nearly  8  in.  diameter  was  purchased 
from  him  by  Rev.  K.  Dawes, 
Who  found  that  Mr.  Clark's 
gloss  waa  superior  to  any  that 
be  had  been  able  to  obtain  else- 
where— a  conclusion  which  ea- 
tabliahed  tbe  reputation  of  the 
maker.  He  and  his  two  sons 
continued  to  make  larger  and 
larger  inatruments,  aa  orders 
were  given,  until  his  work  cul- 
minated in  the  grinding  of  the 
ae-in.  telescope  of  the  Lick  Ob- 
servatory and  that  of  hia  aon 
Alvan  G.  in  the  Yerkea  teleacope, 
of  Chicago,  40  in.  in  diameter. 
The  principal  refracting  tele- 
scopes of  the  world  are  the 
Yerkes,  at  Geneva  Lake,  Wis., 
which  haa  an  object  glass  40  in. 
in  diameter,  and  a  focal  length 
of  64  ft.;  the  Lick,  at  Mt.  Ham- 
ilton, Cal.,  with  an  object  glasa 
3S  in.  in  diameter  and  a  focal 
length  of  68  ft.;  tbe  two  instru- 
ments at  Meudon,  France,  which 
have  lenses  32  and  24  in.  in 
diameter,  and  the  telescope  at 
the  Imperial  Observatory  at 
Pulkowa,  Russia,  where  the  ob- 
ject glass  is  30  in.  in  diameter. 
For  many  years  the  largest  re- 
flecting telescope  in  the  world 
was  that  built  in  1844  by  Lord 
Roake  at  Birr  Castle,  Ireland. 
AWBT.  The    mirror    waa  , of    ipemiliim 

»  l.yCOOQlC 


TEILL 

metal  uid  was  72  in.  in  diaiBet«r.  It  failed 
to  field  the  expected  returns,  and  no  inatru- 
meatB  with  Urge  mirrorH  were  agftin  built 
until  1801,  when  A.  A.  Common  erected  ' 
Ealing,  England,  a  telescope  in  which  the  n 
ror  Wit  of  mlTcr  on  glass,  and  was  60  in. 
diameter.  In  the  U.  S.  valuable  results  have 
been  obtained  with  the  24-in.  mirror  at  the 
Yerkes  Ohsenatory  and  with  the  3a-in.  Cross- 
ley  refiector  at  the  Lick,  on  Mt.  Hamilton.  In 
1908  there  was  completed  by  G.  W.  Hitchey  a 
60-in.  mirror  for  the  Soar  Observatory,  Mt 
Wilson,  Cal.,  and  in  1903  the  Carnegie  Insti 
tute,  of  Washington,  ordered  for  the  same  ob 
servatoiy  a  100-in.  mirror  for  a  reflecting  tde 
scope  of  50   ft.  focal  length.     See  BiNoctri.AB 

TELSaCOPEj    FlEUl  <iLASS. 

T«ll,  William,  l^[endar7  hero  of  Switzerland. 
According  to  tradition,  he  was  a  hunter  living 
in  BQrgelen,  in  the  canton  of  Uri.  His  wife 
was  a  daughter  of  Walter  Fttrst,  who  with 
Stauffacher  and  Melcthal  organiied  the  con- 
spiracy of  the  GrUtli  in  1307,  and  founded 
Swiss  independence.  Tell's  part  in  the  revolt 
against  Austria  is  related  as  follows:  Gessler, 
Austrian  bailiff  in  KUasnacht,  placed  his  cap 
upon  a  pole  in  the  market  place  at  Altorf, 
commanding  passert-by  to  do  it  reverence.  Tell 
neglected  or  refused  to  do  this,  and  was  sen- 
tenced to  death.  But  as  he  was  a  skillful 
marksman,  Gessler  offered  to  spare  his  life  on 
condition  of  his  shooting  an  apple  from  his 
boy's  head.  Tell  succeeded  without  injuring 
the  child.  Gessler  perceived  that  he  possessed 
a  second  arrow,  and  asked  the  object.  Tell  re- 
plied: "To  kill  yon  if  I  had  harnied  my  son." 
Be  was  again  put  in  chains,  and  Gessler  em- 
barked for  KQisnacht,  taking  Tell  with  him. 
The  boat  being  overtaken  by  a  storm,  Oeesler 
released  Tell  to  steer  it;  and  as  they  neared 
the  present  "  Tell's  Eock,"  or  "  Tell's  Leap," 
.  Tell  sprang  ashore,  went  around  by  land,  and, 
lying  In  ambush  between  Brunnen  (where  Gess- 
ler safely  landed)  and  Kllssnacht,  wounded  him 
mortally  with  an  arrow.  A  general  uprising 
took  place,  the  Austrian  bailiffs  were  expelled, 
and  tneir  castles  destroyed.  In  1315  Tell  served 
in  the  battle  of  Morgarten,  and  in  1354  was 
drowned  while  trying  to  save  a  boy's  life. 
Such  is  the  story  as  told  in  old  chronicles  and 
songs  and  as  dramatized  by  Schiller.  But  re- 
cent historical  ^investigations  have  shown  it  to 
lack  a  historical  foundation,  althoush  the 
legend  U  common  among  the  nations  of  Aryan 
race,  and  is  found  in  the  Persian  poet  Fared 
Udden  AttAr,  the  Icelandic  sagas,  and  the  Eng- 
lish song  OD  William  of  Cloudesley. 

Telln'rinm,  one  of  the  rarest  elements,  re- 
■embling    sulphur    and     selenium.      Its    com- 

Kunds,  such  as  gold  and  silver  tellurides,  are 
jnd  in  N.  America  and  Europe.    Tellurium  is 
silver  white,  brittle,  and  lustrous. 

Tem'pe,  a  valley,  or  gorge,  in  NE.  Theasaly, 
Greece;  6  m.  long,  and  in  some  places  so  nar- 
row that  there  is  space  only  for  the  river 
Feneus,  which  traverses  the  valley,  and  a  car- 
riage road.  In  antiquity  it  was  celebrate]  for 
its  beauty.  The  ruins  of  its  fortifications  are 
(till  viubie. 


TEMPERATURE  OF  THE  BODY* 

Tem'perament,  an  old  popular  classification 
of  the  general  temper  or  disposition  of  a  per- 
son. There  were  four  temperaments:  choleric, 
sanguine,  phl^matic,  and  melancholic 

Tem'peiance.    See  Abstinehce,  Total;  Pbo- 


Tem'petatnre,  the  condition  of  a  body  in 
relation  to  molecular  activity  manifested  as 
he^t,  which  determinee  its  interchange,  either 
by  giving  off  or  by  absorption,  with  neighbor- 
ing bodies.     See  Ukai. 

Temperatnie  of  the  Bod'y.  The  lemperatuiv 
of  the  human  adult  in  health  averages  from 
08.4°  to  98.8"  F.,  the  Iractionallv  hi^er  tem- 
perature existing  in  the  warmer-blooded  races, 
those  of  8.  Europe,  the  lower  average  being 
N.  nations  and  the  Anglo-Saxon  r~ 


The  fluctuations  of  temperature  in  health  are 
exceedingly  small — fractions  of  a  dt^ee,  rarely 
more— dependent  on  physical  activity  or  Inac- 
tivity in  sleep  or  wakefulness,  or  functional 
activity,  as  digestion.  The  regulation  of  the 
production  and  dissipation  of  heat  is  controlled 
by  nervous  centers  in  the  brain.  Any  disturb- 
ance of  these  by  conditions  of  the  blood  or  cir- 
culation may  tJierefore  lead  to  disturbances  of 
the  temperature.  "  Shock,"  or  nervous  deprM- 
sion,  causes  reduced  temperature,  while  excite- 
ment, pleasure,  anger  accelerate  the  circulation 
and  elevate  temperature.  The  temperature  of 
children  and  infants  is  one  to  two  degrees 
higher  than  that  of  adults.  The  temperature  of 
aged  persons  Is  half  a  degree  or  more  below  the 
adult  average^ 

In  many  diseases  there  Is  elevation  of  tem- 
perature. Where  this  is.  but  a  symptom  in 
some  distinct  local  disease  the  fever  is  regarded 
as  but  a  symptom;  but  tjiere  are  diseases  in 
which  the  fever  is.  the  most  decided  symptom. 
These  have  long  been  known  as  the  fevers,  or 
the  infectious  fevers.  Among  such  are  typhoid, 
malarial  fever,  and  the  like.  In  these  there  is 
usually  a  period  of  onset,  a  stage  of  continued 
symptoms,  and  a  stage  of  decline.  The  temper- 
ature of  the  body  varies  greatly  in  different 
cases  of  the  same  fever  or  other  disease  and  at 
different  times.  This  may  depend  either  upon 
the  individual  or  upon  the  severity  of  the  dis- 
As  a  rule,  its  range  is  from  101"  to  105' 
When  above  the  latter  point  the  term 
hyperpyrexia  is  applied.  Such  may  occur,  espe^ 
cially  in  pernicious  malarial  fever,  in  sunstroke, 
and  in  certain  cases  of  rheumatism.  In  the 
last-named  diseases  temperatures  of  110"  or 
' """  ".  have  been  noted  where  recovery  en- 
Occasionally  cases  of  elevation  of  the 
temperature  to  118°  or  120'  or  even  more  are 
recorded;  but  in  many  of  these  deception  has 
been  practiced.  The  reverse  of  fever,  sulmor- 
mal  temperature,  is  also  frequent.  Moderate 
grades  are  noted  in  conditions  of  depression  or 
shock.  It  reaches  serious  grades  in  collane 
from  injury  or  such  diseases  as  cholera.  The 
external  temperature  may  here  sink  to  90°  or 
even  to  8S°  F.  In  practice  the  temperature  is 
usually  taken  in  the  axilla,  or  mouth,  though 
the  rectal  temperature  is  less  liable  to  accidental 
errors  of  olwervation.     See   Ahiual.   Heat; 


„  Google 


Tem'periiiE,  in  meUllnrg^,  the  prooew  of 
giviiig  to  metals,  priiiGipally  iron  and  steel,  the 
requisite  degree  of  hardness  or  softneM,  espe- 
cially the  process  of.  giving  to  steel  the  neces- 
tATj  hardness  for  cutting,  Btamping,  and  other 
purpoeee.  If  heated  and  suddenly  cooled  below 
a  certain  d^^ree,  it  becomes  as  soft  as  iron;  if 
heated  be;ond  that  degree,  it  becomee  very 
bard  and  brittle.  The  process  esseiitiallj>  con- 
•ista  in  plunging  the  steel  when  red  hot  into 
cold  water  or  other  liquid  to  give  an  excess  of 
hardness,  and  then  graduall;  reheating  it  until 
the  hardness  is  reduced  or  brought  down  to  the 
required  degtee.  The  excellence  of  all  cutting 
ateel  Instruments  depends  on  the  degree  of  tem- 
per given  to  them. 

Tem'plui,  Knights.   See  Knights  Templabs. 

Tem'ple,  Sir  William,  1628-99;  English 
statesman.  In  1665  he  was  sent  on  a  secret 
mission  to  the  Bishop  of  MUnster,  created  a 
baronet,  and  appointed  resident  at  Brussels. 
In  1667  be  visited  Holland,  and  in  1668  con- 
eluded  the  triple  alliance  of  England,  Holland, 
and  Sweden  against  France.  He  went  as  am- 
bassador to  The  'Hague  in  1668,  was  recalled  in 
1671,  and  returned  thither  in  1674.  In  1679- 
80  he  was  a  member  of  the  Priv;f  Council  of 
Charles  II,  and  thenceforth  lived  in  retirement. 
His  works  (edited  by  Swift)  comprise  "Ob- 
serrations  upon  the  United  Provinces  of  the 
Netherlands,  essays  on  the  "  Origin  and 
Nature  of  Government,"  "  Ancient  and  Modern 
Leamtaig,''  "  Gardening,"  etc. 

Temple,  The.    See  Jebii8aij:ii. 

Tem'po  (time),  in  music,  the  comparative 
speed  at  which  a  composition  is  to  be  played. 
Ais  is  usually  indicated  by  certain  words — ■ 
as  lento,  largo,  or  adagio  (slowly),  andante 
(moderately),  all^ro  (lively),  allegretto  (a 
little  slower  than  aU^;ro),  presto  (quickly). 
A  more  exact  method  is  to  use  a  metronome, 

Tem'poial  Pow'er.    See  Papal  States. 

Tench,  a  fish,  abundant  in  European  streams 
Hid  lakes,  of  dark  greenish-olive  color  above 
and  on  the  sides,  and  lighter  below.     Some- 


times it  attains  a  length  of  3  ft.f  and  weighs 
12  lb.,  but  usually  weighs  below  3  lb.  Its  ileah 
la  insipid. 
Ten'der,  in  law,  the  attempt  to  perform  a 
liso  to  do  something  or  to  pay  something. 
tender  must  be  made  by  the  promiser,  or 
by  -one   duly   acting  on    his    behalf,    to   the 

-—    or   his    duly   Authorized    represent- 

13F  1 


K 


TENIGRd 

atlvs;  it  must  be  of  the  kind  and  mast  be 
made  at  the  time  and  place  stipulated  in  the 
contract  or  fixed  by  law,  and  it  roust  be  un- 
conditional. The  effect  of  a  rejected  tender  t« 
pay  money  is  somewhat  different  from  that  of 
a  rejected  tender  of  goods.  In  the  latter  oaao 
the  seller  is  discharged  by  his  tender,  "  and 
may  either  maintain  or  defend  successfully  an 
action  for  the  breach  of  the  contract."  In  the 
U.  S.,  the  tender,  althou^  rejected,  vests  title 
to  the  goods  in  the  purchaser.  Such  is  not  the 
effect  in  England,  unless  the  buyer  has  pre- 
viously assented  to  the  appropriation  of  tha 
goods  to  the  contract  by  the  seller. 

A    tender    of    money    in   performance   of   & 

Eromise  does  not  discharge  the  debt.  It  does, 
owever,  if  kept  good,  atop  interest  and  en- 
title the  tenderer  to  coats,  if  he  is  sued  u^on 
the  contract.  The  money  musti  be  of  a  kmd 
declared  by  law  to  be  tendcrable.  The  U.  B. 
Constitution  (Art.  1,  Sec.  10,  cl.  1)  provides 
that  no  state  shall  make  anything  but  gold 
and  silver  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts;  and 
U.  S.  gold  coins  are  a  legal  tender  to  any 
extent;  also  silver  dollars,  except  when  other- 
wise expressly  stipulated  in  the  contract;  also 
U.  S.  notes;  while  silver  certificates  are  tender- 
able  for  customs,  taxes,  and  public  dues,  and 
silver  coins  below  the  dollar  are  tenderable  in 
sums  not  exceeding  $10,  and  other  minor  coins 
for  an  amount  not  exceeding  twenty-five  cents. 
Silver  coins  are  tenderable  although  worn 
smooth  by  wear,  as  are  gold  coins  unless  re- 
duced one  half  of  one  per  cent  below  standard 
weight. 

Ten'don,  in  anatomy,  the  name  of  a  white 
fibrous  tissue  connecting  the  end  of  a  muscle 
with  the  bone  which  it  is  intended  to  move. 

Tcnerife',  the  larErat  of  the  Canary  Islands; 
area,  780  so.  m.  The  coasts  are  rocky  and 
wild,  and  ailord  only  one  good  harbor,  Santa 
Cruz  de  Santingo.  The  interior  is  mountain- 
ous, and  in  the  center  is  the  volcano,  Pico  de 
Teyde  (12,182  ft.).  The  middle  region  is  clad 
with  beautiful  forests,  and  the  foot,  as  well  as 
the  hills  and  valleys,  is  covered  with  vine- 
yards, olive  and  almond  groves,  wheat  fields, 
and  orchards.  Prior  to  1853  the  average  an- 
nual yield  of  wine  was  25,000  pipes,  but  the 
grape  disease  appeared,  and  the  yield  fell  to 
8,0()0  pipes.  Land  previously  devoted  to  vine- 
yards was  given  up  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
cochineal  insect,  and  it  became  the  chief  prod- 
uct. Pop.  (1900)  138,008.  Capital  town, 
Santa  Cruz  de  Santiago  (or  de  Tenerife). 

Teniers,  David,  the  younger,  1610-90;  Flem- 
iab  painter;  b.  Antwerp;  studied  under  his 
father,  but  the  influence  of  Rubens  and  Adrian 
Brouwer  is  recognizable  in  his  work.  Hia 
works  were  extremely  popular,  and  he  became 
wealthy  and  distinguished.  Archduke  Leonold 
William,  the  Governor  of  the  Spanish  Netlier- 
lands,  appointed  him  to  be  hia  court  painter 
and  chamberlain.  Teniers  bought  an  estate  at 
Perck,  between  Antwerp  and  Mechlin,  whither 
people  of  distinction  went  to  visit  him ;  re- 
moved to  Brussels  in  1647.  This  artist  is  well 
represented  in  all  European  collections.  He 
painted    rapidly,    and    produced    hundreds  ofi 

■ogle 


ffmre  pictured,  also  Bome  UadseapeB.  The 
father'a  sisiutturp  eeema  to  have  been  a  T  with- 
in a  D,  while  the  son  wrote  hie  name  D.  Ten- 
iera  F. 


the  Bia  BcnD  State,  one  of 
Uie  U.  S.  of  N.  America,  the  third  state  ad- 
mitted into  the  Union;  bounded  N.  b;^  Ken- 
tucky and  Virginia,  £.  by  N.  Carolina,  S.  by 


,  breadth,  N,  to  8. 
sq.  m.  Pop.  (ISIO)  2,184,789.  The  E.  third 
of  the  state  ie  hill^,  the  middle  undalating, 
and  the  W.  low  and  level.  There  are  eight 
natural  diviiione:  (1)  The  Unaka  Range  on 
,  the  E.  border,  compriaine  wooded  mountain 
ridges  with  epurs  and  fertile  intervening  coves; 
also  loftj  peaks  with  treeless  euminita  covered 
with  luxuriant  graasea,  and  having  the  flora 
of  Canada  and  the  climate  ol  New  England; 
Krea,  2,000  sq.  m.     (8)  The  valley  of  £  Ten- 


nessee,  a  fluted  region  of  parallel  ridges  and 
narrow  valleja,  extending  NE.  to  SW.  through 
the  E.  part  of  the  state;  elevation,  1,000  ft; 
area,  0,200  sq.  m.  (3)  Next,  on  the  W.,  the 
Cumberland  Tahle-land,  or  level  top  of  the 
Cumberland  Mountains,  which  rise  abruptly 
1,000  ft.  above  the  valley  of  E.  Tennessee  and 
2,000  ft.  above  the  sea;  surface  ahows  low 
ridgea  and  shallow  valleys;  much  of  it  is  cov- 
ered with  native  graaaes;  summers  are  cool 
and  climate  healthful;  area,  5,100  so.  m.  (4) 
The  Highland  Rim  bounds  the  table-laud  on 
the  W.,  and,  extending  on  the  N.  and  S.,  aa 
far  W.  aa  the  Tennessee  valW,  incloaes  the 
Central  Basin;  elevation,  1,000  ft.;  has  uumer- 
OUB  mineral  springs  and  many  summer  resorta ; 
area,  6,300  sq.  m.  (6)  The  Central  Basin,  a 
depreaaion  of  5,450  sq.  m.,  reaembles  the  bed 
ot  a  drained  lake  with' its  main  slope  to  the 
NW, ;  greatest  diameter  from  NE.  to  SW., 
120  m.;  altitude,  650  ft  (0)  The  W.  valley 
of  the  Tennessee  River  embraces  1,200  sq.  m. 
of  river  lowlands  and  valleys  extending  into 
the  highlands;  3Q0  ft.  above  the  sea;  reaches 
across  the  state  from  N.  to  S.;  breadth,  10 
to  12  m.  (T)  Adjoining  this  is  the  plateau 
■lope  of  W.  Tennesaee,  descending  to  the  Mis- 
sissippi; surface  slightly  undulating,  streams 
sluggish;  W.  border  terminatcB  abruptly  with 
steep  hills  which  overlook  the  Mississippi  bot- 


TENNESSEE 

toms;  average  elevation,  600  ft;  area,  8,850 
sq.  m.  (8)  The  alluvial  Mississippi  bottoms 
are  low  and  level,  with  swamps  and  lakea, 
abounding  In  flsb  and  wild  fowl;  elevation 
abqve  the  gulf,  205  ft.;  area,  950  sq.  m. 

The  Clinch,  Powell's,  and  Holston  rivers 
drain  upper  E.  Tennessee;  the  French  Broad, 
Little  Tennessee,  and  Hiwassee  assist,  lower 
down;  and  the  Tennessee,  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  two  forks  of  the  Holston,  car- 
ries all  this  water  into  Alabama,  thence  back 
N.  across  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  into  the 
Ohio.  The  Cumberland  pours  into  the  Ohio 
the  drainage  of  N.  Middle  Tennessee ;  the 
Duck,  the  Elk,  and  Caney  Fork  drain  the  rest 
of  this  section ;  and  the  Obion,  Forked  Deer, 
Big  Hatchie,  and  Wolf  carry  moat  of  the  W. 
Tenneaaee  waters  into  the  Miaeisaippi.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Mississippi,  the  Cum- 
berland, and  the  Tennessee,  The  only  lakea 
are  in  the  Miasiaaippi  bottoms,  and  are  little 
more  than  expanaions  of  small  rivers.  Reel- 
foot,  between  Lake  and  Obion  cos.,  is  the 
most  noted;  it  was  largely  produced  by  the 
earthquake  of  lBll-12, 

The  principal .  mineral  products  are  bitu- 
minous coal  and  iron,  Tiie  marble  induatry  is 
growing.  Zinc,  copper,  lead,  mineral  paint, 
and  limeatone  are  increasing  sources  of  rev- 
enue, and  other  mineral  riches  abound.  The 
rich  limestone  soils  of  the  Central  Basin  make 
it  the  garden  spot  of  the  state,  although  the 
richest  soil  is  the  black  loam  of  the  Mississippi 
bottoms.  Cotton,  com,_and  general  crops  are 
produced  In  luxuriance.  The  principal  cropa 
are:  corn,  wheat,  hay,  tobacco,  and  oats. 

The  average  annual  mean  temperature  ia 
60*.  liiough  in  summer  and  winter  marked 
extremes  are  sometimes  reached,' yet  these  sea- 
sons are  generally  mild,  and  spring  and  au- 
tumn are  delightfully  temperate  and  pl^f'^ 
ant  A  limited  amount  of  anew  falls.  There 
are  three  recogniied  political  divisions:  E., 
Middle,  and  W.  Tennessee,  and  much  local 
feeling  exists  among  theae  as  to  the  apportion- 
ment of  officea,  etc.  Principal  cities  and  towns 
are:  Memphis,  Nashville,  Knoxville,  Chatta- 
nooga, Jatjcson,  Clarkaville,  Columbia,  Bristol, 
part  in  Tennessee.  The  latest  census  reporta 
4,009  factories,  including  seventeen  cotton  and 
twenty-one  woolen  mills.  Flour,  lumber,  leather, 
cotton  seed,  and  tobacco  are  important  sources 
of  revenue.  The  most  notable  educational  in- 
stitutions are  the  Univ.  of  Tennessee  at  Knox- 
ville; Vanderbilt  Univ,  and  Univ,  of  Nashville 
at  Naahville,  Univ,  of  the  South  at  Sewanee, 
Cumberland  Univ,  at  Lebanon,  Southwest  Pres- 
byterian Univ,  at  Clarksvllle  and  Southwest 
Baptist  Univ.  at  Jackson,  and  Fiak  Univ.  at 
Nashville.  In  1900  the  public  elementary 
schools  had  512,158  enrolled  pupils,  with  10,- 
450  teachers.  The  public  high  schools  had  3T1 
teachers  and  9,43S  pupils. 

In  1541  the  Spaniards  under  De  Soto  touched 
Tennessee  where  Memphis  now  stands.  Here 
the  French  under  La  SaUe,  1682,  built  a  fort, 
and  the  Spaniards  afterwards  erected  San  Fer- 
nando. The  country  was  claimed  by  the  Span- 
ish, the  French,  and  the  English,  Charleville, 
coming  up  from  Louisiana  in  1714,  built  a 
tradiJig  house  near  the  present  Nashville,  and 


.Coo;-^lc 


TENNESSEE  RIVER 

French  and  Engliah  struggled  to  wcure  the 
Indian  trade.  In  1T4B  Dr.  Thomoti  Walker, 
with  other  Virginians,  discovered  the  Cumber- 
land Mountains,  Oap,  and  River,  which  he 
named  for  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  Fort 
Loudon,  the  first  .Anglo-Saxon  outpoat  in  the 
wildemeu,  waa  built  hy  Andrew  Lewis  in  17S6, 
It  was  taken  b^  the  IndianB,  1760.  The  tide 
of  migration  wea  from  Virginia  and  tbe  Caro- 
linas.  First  came  hunters,  explorers,  and 
traders,  followed,  in  1769,  bj  immigrants  who 
settled  on  the  Watauga.  In  1772  the  first 
government,  the  Watauga  Association,  was 
formed.  Tbe  Revolutionary  War  found  the 
settlemeDts  patriotic.  Shelby  and  Sevier  led 
600  men  into  the  Carolinas  in  ITHO,  where  they 
defeated  the  British  Ferguson  at  King's  Moun- 
tain. On  his  return,  Sevier  made  a  conqueat 
of  the  Cherokee  Indians.  After  the  Revolu- 
tion, N.  Carolina  ceded  the  territoiy  to  tbe 
Federal  Oovemment,  and  left  the  inhabitants 
without  law  or  protection.  Therefore  in  1784 
the  State  of  Franklin  was  formed,  and,  though 
*  the  parent  state  at  once  reversed  her  act  of 
cession,  lasted  till  1788.  The  final  cession, 
however,  was  made  in  1790,  and  the  "  Territory 
South  of  the  Ohio  River  "  was  formed.  Knox- 
ville  was  laid  out  in  1702. 

In  ITM  the  'state  was  admitted  into  the 
Union.  The  first  two  decades  of  the  nineteenth 
century  were  characterized  by  rapid  growth 
and  contests  with  the  Indians.  The  &rst  bank 
(the  Nashville)  was  chartered  iu  1807.  Mem- 
phis was  laid  out  in  1819.  The  state  capital 
was  Knoxville  till  1611,  except  in  1807,  when 
it  was  Kingston.  Knoxville,  Nashville,  and 
Murfreesboro  had  the  honor  iiF  turns  till  IS26, 
when  Naahville  became  the  permanent  capital. 
Three  Presidents  of  the  U.  8.  have  come  from 
Tennessee:  Jackson  (1829-37),  Polk  (1845^ 
49),and  Johnson  (1B66-69).  In  the  CiviLWar 
Tennessee  at  first  hesitated,  but  on  June  8, 
1801,  voted  to  join  tlie  Confederacy.  The  Fed- 
eral Government  soon  regained  the  capital  and 
a  large  part  of  the  state,  and  Lincoln  ap- 
pointed Andrew  Johnson  military  governor. 
The  contending  forces  fought  successively  the 
batUea  of  Fort  Henry,  Fort  Donelson,  PitU- 
burg  Landing  (Shiloh),  Stone  River,  Chicka- 
mauga.  Lookout  Mountain,  Missionary  Ridge, 
Knoxville,  Franklin,  and  Nashville.  In  April, 
I6SS,  the  legislature  ratified  the  Thirteenth 
Amendment  to  the  Federal  Constitution,  and 
on  July  12,  181)6,  the  Fourteenth  Amendment 
The  usual  reconstruction  troubles  succei^led  the 
war.  Following  the  war  a  large  stat«  debt 
uenmulated,  which  has  been  greatly  reduced. 

Tennesiee  Rlv'ei,  the  chief  affluent  of  the 
Ohio.  It  originates  in  the  confluence  of  the 
Holston  and  the  N.  Fork  of  the  Holston,  near 
Kingaport,  Sullivan  Co.,  Tenn.,  fiows  SW.  to 
Chattanotwa,  thence  W.,  and  again  SW. 
Sweeping  through  N.  Alabama,  it  turns  north- 
ward, traverses  Tennessee  and  Kentuclty,  and 
joins  the  Ohio  at  Paducah,  Ky. ;  total  length 
to  the  head  of  the  Holston,  1,200  m.;  below 
tbe  confiuence,  800  m.  It  is  navigable  without 
obatniction  280  m.  to  Florence,  Ala.,  at  the 
"foot  at  the  Muscle  Shoals.  Canals  and  locks 
now  obvint«  this  diffloulty.    Above  this  point 


the  river  is  navigable  throughout  its  course  for 
the  greater  part  of  the  year  by  light-draoght 

steamcn. 

Ten'nis,  a  game  played  with  small,  hard 
balls,  formerly  struck  by  tbe  hand,  perhaps 
always  gloved ;  then  by  the  hand  covered  with 
a  special  gauntlet,  and  finally  by  a  bat  or 
racket;  but  Lawn  Tennis  Iq.v.)  isa  distinct 
game.  The  game  is  played  by  striking  the  ball 
so  as  to  make  it  bound  from  the  upper  wall 
or  the  pent  house  on  the  hazard  side,  and  by 
returning  it  from  the  hazard  side.  The  ball 
must  strike  the  floor  within  certain  limits;  it 
must  be  struck,  on  the  first  bound;  it  must  not 
strike  the  net,  nor  tbe  roof,  nor  the  high  wall 
beyond  a  certain  line.  The  player  counts  hy 
sending  a  ball  into  any  of  the  openings  in  the 
lower  wall,  ond  by  striking  the  bafi  on  its 
first  bound  in  certain  ways  relatively  to  the 
cross  marlcs  on  tbe  floor.  The  not  dissimilar 
game  of  racket  is  sometimes  encouraged  by  the 
same  association  with  tennis;  thus  in  New 
York  City  the  Racquet  and  Tennis  Club  bos 
a  court  for  each  game,  but  nowhere  does  the 
game  find  many  players,  as  it  is  superseded  1^ 
other  sports,  as  lawn  tennis,  criiket,  and  iMSe- 
ball. 

Ten'nyson,  Alfred  (Baron  Tennyson),  1B09- 
92;  English  poet;  b.  Somersby,  England.  He 
was  a  pupil  of  Louth  Grammar  School,  1816- 
20.  During  the  next  eight  years  he  was  edu- 
cated at  home  by  his  father  and  private  teach- 
ers. The  rector  requiring  only  a  moderate 
amount,  of  intellect'ual  work,  he  was  out  of 
doors  much  of  the  time,  rambling  in  the  woods 
and  pastures  about  Somersby.  He  was  solitary 
and  reserved,  moody  and  absent-minded,  the 
mental  habits  of  tne  boy  foreshadowing  the 
characteristics  of  the  man.  His  literary  career 
began  in  his  youth,  his  b^lsh  rhymes  and 
those  of  his  elder  brother  Charles  being  col- 
lected into  a  volume,  "  Poems  by  Two  Broth- 
ers" (1827).  He  coipposed  a  labored  nar- 
rative entitled  "The  Lover's  Tale,"  two  parts 
of  which  were  printed,  1B33,  but  suppressed; 
in  1879  the  entire  poem  was  given  to  the  world 
in  a  more  finished  dress.  In  October,  1S28, 
Tennyson  entered  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
leaving  in  1831  without  a  degree.  Here  he  was 
fortunate  in  having  the  companionship  of 
choice  spirits,  but  he  owed  moet  to  one  whose 
name  is  forever  associated  with  his  own^ — Ar- 
thur Henry  Hallam,  a  son  of  the  historian. 
This  dearest  of  his  friends,  whom  he  calls  more 
than  brother,  became  the  betrothed  of  his  sis- 
ter £mily.  Together  they  traveled  in  the 
French  Pyrenees  in  1830.  Hallam's  sudden 
death  (September  15,  1833)  in  Vienna  made  an 
ineffaceable  impression  on  Tennyson,  and  may 
be  connidered  an  important  agency  in  shaping 
his  character  and  poetical  career.  In  produc- 
ing "  In  Memoriam,"  he  conferred  immortality 
upon  his  lost  friend  and  won  it  for  himself. 

In  1829  Tennyson  won  the  chancellor's  gold 
medal  for  the  prize  poem,  "  Timbuotoo."  In 
1830  appeared  his  first  book,  "Poems,  Chiefly 
Lyrical."  His  second  book  of  "  Poems  "  ( 1832) 
was  more  ambitious.  It  contained  some  of  his 
loveliest  lyrics,  having  the  richness  of  melody 
and  the  witcher;  of  style  wbjcb   constitute 


TENNYSON 

Tevnyaoa'a  charm,  yet  it  found  but  few  ad- 
mirers. Not  man^  reviewers  noticed  it.  Stung 
by  the  savage  critieisma  of  Wilson  and  I^ock- 

hart,  he  set  himself  to  the  task  of  improving 
what  he  had  written.  He  experimented  with 
various  styles  and  meters;  thus  he  served  his 
laborious  apprenticeship  as  poetic  artist.  Ten 
years  passed,  then  he  issued  his  "  Poems " 
(1842)  in  two  volumes.  The  singer,  hitherto 
unrecognized,  was  greeted  with  universal 
praise.  The  new  spirit  of  the  age  found  an 
exponent  in  his  verse,  which  reflected  the  un- 
rest and  hopefulness  of  a  transitional  era. 
This  was  the  beginning  of  a  series  of  triumphs 
and  honors.  In  1845  he  was  granted  a  pension 
of  £200;  in  1S60  he  was  appointed  poet  laure- 
ate to  succeed  Wordsworth,  and  in  1855  he 
received  the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  from 
Oxford.  He  roamed  on  foot  through  England 
and  Wales,  often  visiting  friends  in  London 
and  elsewhere,  and  making  occasional  trips  to 
Ireland  and  the.  Continent.  His  writings  prove 
that  he  WB8  a  close  observer  of  nature  as  well 
as  a  diligent  student  of  books.  Hamerton 
called  bim  the  "  prince  of  poet  landscapists." 
"The  Princess,"  in  which  he  first  essayed  ex- 
tended narrative  in  blank  verse,  was  published 
in  IMT. 

In  ISeO,  which  is  called  his  golden  ^ear,  ap- 
peared anonymously  the  poem  that'  is  gener- 
ally regarded  as  Tennyson's  masterpiece,  "  In 
Memoriam,"  a  monumental  work  in  process  of 
growth  during  the  sevpnteen  years  after  Hal- 
lam's  death.  In  185G  "Maud  and  Other 
Poems  "  was  published.  The  volume  contained 
two  patriotic  lyrics,  "  Ode  on  the  D^th  of 
the  Duke  of  Wellington"  (1852),  and  "The 
Charge  of  the  Light  Brigade "  (1854). 
"  Maud "  was  at  first  misjudged  and  under- 
rated, but  later  won  its  way.  The  appearance 
of  "  Idylls  of  the  King"  in  1859  was  a  literary 
sensation.  Tennyson's  fame  was  now  interna- 
tional, and  his  hooka  sold  by  the  hundreds  of 
thousands.  His  next  publication,  "  Enoch  Ar- 
den,"  has  been  the  moat  widely  read  of  the 
laureate's  writings  in  foreign  lands,  having  tieen 
fuequently  translated.  Four  mors  Arthurian 
romaunts  were  added  in  "The  Holy  Grail,  and 
Other  Poems"  (1809),  two  in  1B72,  and  one 
in  1885.  This  sfries  of  tales,  if  not  entitled 
to  the  name  of  epic,  is  the  greatest  of  his  lit- 
erary undertakings ;  the  longest  of  his  works, 
though  not  the  niost  orij;inal.  At  threescore 
he  showed  no  signs  of  failing  powers.  The  last 
two  decades  of  his  life  were  exceptionally  pro- 
ductive of  works  stamped  with  dignity  of 
thought,  felicitous  expression,  and  musical 
versification.  The  list  includes  the  dramas, 
"  Queen  Mary,"  "  Harold,"  "  Becket,"  '■  The 
Cup,"  "  The  Falcon,"  and  "  The  Foresters," 
several  of  which  were  put  on  the  stage. 

Tennyson  is  not  a  world  poet,  his  appeal 
being  more  or  less  insular.  He  has  been  criti- 
cizea  for  being  a  "  chanter  of  the  aristocratic 
idea,"  yet  he  was  a  poet  of  the  common  people 
as  well  as  of  lords  and  ladies.  He  was  master 
of  the  technical  resource*  of  the  poetic  art.  and 
possessed  unrivaled  power  as  a  word  painter. 
But  the  domain  of  beauty  was  too  narrow  for 
him.  Beyond  any  mere  esthetic  influence  tliat 
he  exerted,  he  was  a  mighty  force  for  good,  his 


TENT 

polished  verse  being  the  vehicle  of  ethical  in- 
struction and  spiritual  uplift.  His  success  is 
largely  explained  by  the  fact  that  he  clothed 
in  artistic  form  the  higher  thought  and  senti- 
ment of  hia  time.  Tennyson's  career  woa  un- 
stained by  excesses:  his  life  was  a  poem.  He 
was  a  man  of  many-sided  culture,  keenly  intar- 
eeted  in  astronomy,  geology,  botany,  and  other 
sciences.  He  was  familiar  with  the  discussioni 
and  speculations  of  physicists  and  metaphysi- 

Ten'or,  the  highest  kind  of  adult  male  voice. 
The  average  compass  of  a  true  tenor  is  from  C 
in  the  bass  staff  to  A  in  the  treble,  and  rarely 
two  or  three  tones  higher. 

Tenor  Violin'.    See  Vtoul. 

Tent,  a  pavilion  or  portable  lod^  made  of 
skins,  strong  cloth,  or  canvas,  sustained  by  one 
or  more  poles,  and  used  as  a  shelter  from  the 
weather,  especially  by  soldiers  in  cainp.  The 
material  used  as  a  coverins  is  usually  stretched 
by  means  of  cords  secuied  to  tent  pegs.  Such 
portable  shelters  have  been  used  as  homes  by 
nomadic  tribes  from  the  earliest  ages.  The  pa- 
triarchs were  dwellers  in  tents,  and  the  poorer 
classes  in  Persia,  China,  and  other  Eastern 
countries  still  live  in  tenia  formed  of  frames  of 
wood  covered  with  a  thick  cloth,  felt,  or  mat- 
ting. Different  forms  of  tents  for  military  pur- 
Cises  have  been  employed  in  the  armies  of  the 
.  S.  and  of  Europe.  Prior  to  the  Civil  War 
the  Sibley  tent,  which  is  a  conical  tent,  support- 
ed by  a  central  pole  resting  on  an  iron  tripod, 
and  capable  of  sheltering  fifteen' infantry  sol- 
diers or  thirteen  mounted  men,  was  used  in 
the  U.  8.  army.  One  of  its  advantages  was 
that  it  could  be  warmed  by  an  open  fire  or 
small  stove,  and  afforded  ample  ventilation, 
having  a  circular  opening  at  the  apex  partially 
covered  by  a  movable  piece  of  canvas,  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  be  shifted  according  to  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind.  It  resembled  a  Sioux  lodge, 
the  chief  difference  being  that  it  was  construct- 
ed of  canvas  and  suppqrted  by  the  central  pole 
and  tripod,  while  the  Indian  lodge  was  made  of 
rudely  tanned  buffalo  skins  stretched  on  sev- 
eral long  wooden  poles. 

The  tents  used  in  the  U.  S.  military  service 
include  the  hospital  tent,  which  is  made  to  open 
at  both  ends,  so  that  several  may  be  placed  to- 
gether and  form  a  continuous  ward.  Each  tent 
holds  from  six  to  eight  beds.  The  wall  tent  ts 
used  for  officers  and  the  conical  wall  tent  for 
enlisted  men.  The  shelter  tent,  which  is  a  mod- 
ification of  the  French  tenia  d'oftri,  consists  of 
two  pieces  of  cotton  duck.  In  active  service 
each  soldier  carries  half  a  tent,  which  may 
serve  as  a  cloak  on  the  march,  as  a  coverins 
at  night,  and  when  the  two  pieces  are  joined 
forms  a  tent  for  both  men.  Besides  military 
tents,  there  are  special  forms  of  tents  made  for 
emigrants,  lumbermen,  gypsies,  surveyors;  pros- 
pecting parties,  as  in  railway  construction, 
have  tents  devised  for  their  want*.  There  are 
pleasure  tents  of  many  forms,  as  those  used  for 
camping  out,  for  lawns  (square  and  oblong), 
for  children,  for  screens,  as  the  surf  tents  used 
on  beaches.  Besides  large  circus  tents,  which 
are  of  heavy  twilled  duck  and  special  construc- 
tion, there  are  iMording  tents,  atable  tents,  and 

4  LM_.:i  .C.oogle 


refreshroenti  and  exhibition  of  side  ehowa;  also 
pbotograpben'  Unta,  iUaeiou  teuta,  etc. 

Ten'rec.    See  Taitbec. 

Ten  Thou'NWd,  Retreat'  of  tlie,  the  home- 
ward march  of  about  10,000  Greek  mercenaries 
from  Cunaxa,  a  town  60  m.  N.  of  Babjion.  At 
Cimaxa  their  leader,  Cyrus  the  Younger,  was 
killed  in  battle  asainst  bk'brotber,  Artaxerxes 
II  (401  B.C.).  Thereupon  their  Persian  allies 
disposed  and  the  Greeks  were  left  in  a  critical 

KBition.  Their  onl;  possible  line  of  escape  was 
the  upper  Tigris  through  the  country  of  the 
Kardouchi  (the  modem  Kurds),  and  acroaa  the 
highlands  of  Armenia  to  some  Greek  cit;  on 
the  Black  Sea.  At  the  river  Zapatas  their  five 
principal  generals  were  assassinated  by  the  Per- 
sian satrap  Tissapbcmea.  Thereupon  Xeno- 
phon,  then  a  private  soldier,  was  elected  a  gen- 
eral, and  became  practically  commander  in 
chid!.  After  a  winter's  march  of  over  100  m. 
in  an  enemy's  country,  they  reached  Trapesus 
(Trebimnd).  Finally  they  arrived  at  Chrysop- 
olifl,  opposite  Byzantium  (400  B.C.).  Their  buc- 
cessful  escape  revealed  the  weakness  of  the 
Persian  Empire  and  encouraged  Alexander  to 
undertake  its  subjugation.  In  the  "  Anabasis  " 
Xenophon  describes  this  retreat. 

Ten'nre,  the  manner  in  which  real  property 
is  held  or  owned.  The  exigencies  of  the  feudal 
system,  which  required  the  complete  depend- 
ence of  the  man  upon  his  lord  and  of  the  lord 
upon  the  king,  substituted  for  the  notion  of 
absolute  ownership  of  lands — such  as  was  rec- 
ognized in  the  case  of  goods  and  chattels— the 
conception  of  "  states  "  m  land,  the  land  being 
deemed  to  be  held  of  and  in  subordination  to 
the  lord  of  the  man  and   of  the  land.    These 


person  of  whom  the  land 

pendent   for   their  contini _^._    ._.. 

perfcHmanee  of  the  terms  and  conditions  of 
such  "  holding."  It  is  true  that  the  early  Eng- 
lish law  reconiized  an  "  allodial  "  or  absolute 
ownership  of  lands,  but  this  did  not  long  sur- 
vive the  Norman  Conquest.  It  became  a 
maxim  of  English  law  that  the  king  is  the  ul- 
timate and  absolute  onner  of  all  ttie  lands  in 
the  kingdom,  and  that  all  of  his  land-owning 
subjects  are  only  his  tenants.  He  who  held 
directly  or  immediately  of  the  king  was  said  to 
hold  in  chief  (in  capiu)  ;  but  the  tenant  in 
eapite  is  not  usually  the  person  who  deals 
with  tlie  land  as  owner. 

So  important  is  tbia  fact  of  service  that  the 
principal  classification  of  tenures  is  by  the  serv- 
ice to  be  performed.  A  tenant  may  hold  his 
lands  in  fee  simple,  fee  tail,  or  for  life,  but  his 
tenure  is  by  "  knight  service,"  or  by  the  service 
of  "  free  alms,"  or  by  the  service  of  "  serjeanty." 
or  by  the  service  of  "socage."  (I)  Knight's 
service  was  created  by  "  homage,"  a  solemn  aot 
by  which  the  tenant  acknowledged  his  lord  as 
him  of  wbom  be  held  his  laud  and  to  whom  he 
was  bound  to  render  service,  and  from  which, 
on  the  other  hand,  arose  the  duty  on  the  part 
of  the  lord  of  protecting  his  tenant.  This  ten- 
ure was,   aa  its  various   designations  indicate. 


TENURE 

based  upon  the  performance  by  the  tenant  of 
military  service  in  the  army  of  the  king. 
(2)  Serjeanty  reauired  the  tenant  to  perform 
some  personal  and  ofttimes  domestic  or  menial 
service  to  his  lord,  as  the  "  grand  serjeanties  " 
of  the  king's  marshal,  chancellor,  or  justiciar. 


chase.  (3)  Tenure  by  frankalmoign  implied 
spiritual  service— to  sing  masses,  to  distribute 
money  among  the  poor,  etc. — and  the  land  was, 
as  between  the  donor  and  the  tenant  in  frank- 
almoign, held  free  from  any  services  or  dues 
of  a  secular  nature.  (4)  Socage  tenure  com- 
prehended all  freehold  lands  not  held  by  mili- 
tary, or  "  domestic,"  or  spiritual  tenure.  By 
statute  of  Charles  II  all  freehold  tenures  were 
turned  into  free  and  common  bocskc,  and  this 
has  continued  to  be  the  well-nigh  universal 
form  of  land  holding  in  England.  The  so- 
called  "burgage"  tenure  was  merely  a  form 
of  socage  which  obtained  in  certain  boroughs. 
The  tenures  of  borough  English  and  gavelkind 
were  only  local  variations  of  socage  tenure. 

There  were  also  lands  held  at  the  will  of  the 
lord,  perhaps  for  the  life  of  the  tenant,  some- 
times even  by  tha  tenant  and  his  heirs  forever 
— upon  the  service  and  condition  of  agricul- 
tural or  other  labor  to  be  performed  at  the 
lord's  will.  This  service  was  called  "villan- 
age."  Later  the  condition  of  labor  was  com- 
muted into  rent,  and  the  copy  of  the  "  roll  " 
or  record  of  the  lord's  court,  in  which  was  re- 
corded his  accession  to  the  estate,  became  his 
muniment  of  title.  He  was  now  a  "  copyhold  " 
tenant  and  was  said  to  hold  "  by  copy  of  court 
roll."     Copyhold  tenure  still  prevails  in  Eng- 

The  usual  incidents  of  tenure  were:  (a)  Re- 
lief: a  fine  paid  to  the  lord  of  the  fee  by 
the  heir  upon  the  death  of  a  tenant  of  an  es-  . 
tate  of  inheritance,  (b)  Aids:  regular  or  Ir- 
regular exactions  made  by  the  lord  to  enable 
him  to  meet  his  own  pressing  necessities.  They 
were  regularly  and  lawfully  claimed  for  the 
purpose  of  ransoming  the  lord  from  the  enemy, 
for  knighting  his  eldest  son,  and  for  marrying 
off  bis  eldest  daughter,  (c)  Wardship  and 
Marriage:  the  right  of  the  lord  of  a  minor 
tenant  to  the  custody  or  wardship  both  of  the 
land  and  tenant  during  the  nuuority  of  the 
latter,  as  well  as  to  dispose  of  the  infant  ten- 
ant in  marriage.  These  rights  were  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  feudal  regime  the  principal 
source  of  Vevcnue  to  the  king  and  the  other 
territorial'  lorda  The  lord  was  entitled  to  all 
the  rents  and  profits  of  the  tenement  for  his 
own  use  during  tbe  continuance  of  the  ward- 
ship, and  he  might  "  sell "  the  young  heir, 
whether  boy  or  ^rl,  in  marriage,  (d)  Es- 
cheat: tbe  lord's  right  to  resume  an  estate  in 
fee  upon  failure  of  the  estate.  Nothing  is 
more  siniificant  of  the  reality  and  permanence 
of  the  lord's  rights  in  the  lands  held  of  him 
than  this  notion  of  the  escheating  or  reverting 
of  the  estate  to  him. 

Tbe  more  burdensome  of  feudal  tenures — i.e., 
the  military  tenures — never  gained  a  foothold 
on  the  American  side  of  the  Atlantic.  The 
earliest  colonial  charters  invariably  provided 
for  socage  tenure.     The  usual  provision  waft 


TENURE  OF  OFFICE  ACT 

that  the  land  ^ould  be  bolden  of  the  king 
"  in  tree  and  common  socage,  b;  fealty  only,  for 
all  services,  and  not  in  capite  or  by  knight's 
service."  Tenure  in  this  form,  the  lordship  of 
the  state  being  substituted  for  that  of  the  king, 
and  all  feudal  incidents  being  abolished,  sur- 
vives in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  S.  Caro- 
lina, Georgia,  and  several  other  states.  In  New 
Yoric  and  most  of  the  remaining  states  "  all 
feudal  tenures,  with  all  their  incidents,"  have 
been  abolished  even  in  name,  and  all  lands  are 
declared  by  statute  "  to  be  allodial,  so  that, 
subject  only  to  the  liability  to  escheat,  the  en- 
tire and  absolute  property  is  Vested   In  the 

Tenure  of  Qfflce  Act,  an  act  passed  by  Con- 
gress in  March,  1887,  as  a  result  of  the  contro- 
versy between  Pres.  Johnson  and  Congress. 
It  provided  that  a  person  appointed  to  office  by 
the  Pre^dent  and  approved  by  the  SenaU 
should  hold   offiee  till  another  person  was  ap- 

■■'■' "■     ■    -f  the 

binet 

should  hold  oHice  fbr  the  term  of  the  President 
appointing  them  and  one  month  thereafter, 
"  subject  to  removal  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate."  An  officer  might, 
however,  be  suspended  while  the  Senate  was 
not  in  session  and  the  place  given  for  the  time 
being. to  some  other  person. 

Tcpic  (tfi-p$k'},  territory  of  Mexico  sepa- 
rated, 188e,  from  the  NW.  part  of  Jalisco. 
Most  of  the  inhabitants  are  Indiana,  who 
maintain  a  quaH^indepeDdence.  Fop.  (1010) 
171,337.  Tepic,  the  capital,  is  on  a  plateau  IS 
m.  from  the  bay  of  San  Bias,  has  a  fine  view 
of  the  Pacific,  and  manufactures  cotton  cloth, 
cigars,  etc.     Pop.   (1900)    16,48B. 

Ter'aphim,  imapes  or  figures,  probably  used 
by  the  ancient  Hebrews  either  as  objects  of 
household  worship  or  as  religious  symbola 
Nothing  satisfactory  is  known  of  their  charac' 
ter,  origin,  or  use.  They  were  found  in  Jacob's 
and  David's  houses  as  household  gods  (Gen. 
xxxi,  30,  32-35;  I  Bara.  xix,  13-10) ;  Josiah  at- 
tempted their  suppression  (II  Kings 


4. 


Tet^iiun,  a  substance  associated  with  er- 
bium and  yttrium'in  the  mineral  gadolinite, 
and  supposed  to  be  a  new  element;  but  its  ex- 
istence is  doubted. 

Ter'burg,  Gerard,  1608-81;  Dutch  painter; 
excelled  in  color  and  the  finish  of  his  draperies, 
especially  white  satin. 

Teredin'ida  and  Tere'do^,  family  of  mollusks. 
very  destructive  of  timber  vsed  as  piles  in  the 
ocean.  The  "  ship  worms  "  are  its  chief  repre- 
sentatives. They  feed  on  infusoria,  etc.,  liut 
form  a  long  burrow  in  which  to  conceal  them- 
selves, and  the  largest  piles  may  be  destroyed 
by  them  in  two  or  three  yeare.  The  only  reme- 
dies are  to  prevent  the  teredos  from  entering 
the  wood  by  sheathing,  painting  with  coal  tar, 
etc.  Their  distribution  is  widp;  have  been  par- 
ticularly noted  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where 
wharves  have  been  totally  destroyed  by  them. 

Tei'eflce,  Publiua-TerentiBS  Afer,  abt.  1S5- 
159  B.C.i  Boman  comic  poet;  b.  Carthage.     He 


TERMITES 

became  a  slave  of  P.  Tcrentius  Lucanus,  a  Ko- 
man  senator,  who  gave  him  an  excellent  educa- 
tion, and  finally  freed  him.  The  "  Andria,"  his 
first  play,  was  acted  in  166.  Later  in  lite  he 
went  to  Greece,  and  there  translated  lOS  of 
Menander's  comedies.  Six  of  his  comedies  are 
extant — the  "  Andria  "  ("  The  Woman  of  An- 
dres "),  "  Hecyra  "  ("  The  Stepmother "), 
"  Herfuton-TJmoroumenoB  "  ("  The  Self-Tormen- 
tor "),  "  Eunuchue"  {"The  Eunuch  "),  "Phor- 
mio,"  and  "Adelphi"  ("The  Brothers").  The 
Romans  generally  did  not  appreciate  the  works 
of  Terence;  but  their  purity  of  language,  ele- 
gance of  diction,  and  refinement  of  humor  made 
them  favorites  with  the  more  cultivated  Eo- 
mans,  as  well  as  later  scholars., 

Tennitea  (tir'mfts),  insects;  also  called 
White  A»tb  from  the  fact  that,  like  the  ants, 
they  are  social.  The  termites  form  large  colo- 
nies, and  in  each  colony  the  individuals  are  dif- 
ferentiated into  different  castes,  each  being  fit- 
ted by  structure  for  its  duties.  ~  Only  the  Idng 
and  queen  are  winged.  The  mouth  parts  are 
elTicient  biting  organs.  The  wingleas  forms  are 
grouped  into  smafl-headed  workers  and  soldiers 
with  enormous  heads.  The  king  and  queen  are 
the  sexual  members  of  the  colony;  they  swarm 
from  the  nest,  take  a  marriage  flight,  and  then 
lose  the  wings,  and  under  favorable  circum- 


Vertical  Section  or  TiaHrri's  Ntsr.  thou  Apex 
TO  Ground,  o.  a,  a,  sollerica  peoetnitiDa  outer 
dome;  b.  A,  nij  chamber:  c.  <,  msgssina  and  nuiMriM; 
d,  d,  iDval  cbamlier;  <, 
0.  e.  congeriu  of  royal  bi 

stances  found  a  new  colony.  Before  egg  laying 
the  abdomen  of  the  femaie  becomes  enormously 
distended  with  eggs.  The  workers  wait  upoa 
the  royal  pair,  feed  the  young,  do  ail  the  ex- 
cavating, and  store  away  the  food,  etc.  The 
soldiers  are  far  less  numerous,  and  are  the 
fighters  of  the  colony,  and  in  some  species  act 
as  overseers  of  the  workerB. 

The  great  home  of  the  termites  is  in  the  trop- 
ics, but  they  also  extend  into  colder  climates, 
one  species  being  found  in  New  England.  Theee 
N.  forms  do  little  damage,  although  one  year 
they  seriously  threaten^  libraries  in  Cam- 
bridge. In  the  tropica  they  are  a  finmidable 
pest.  '^  ' 


,,  Google 


TERN 

The  termites  are  djirk-loving  forms,  And  the 
workers  »nd  soldiers  are  blind.  They  are  rarely 
Been,  since  they  are  miDers  &ad  spend  their 
whole  lives  in  tne  tunnels  which  they  excavate. 
When  they  wish  to  attack  a  piece  of  timber 
they  build  a  covered  approach  of  earth  and 
saliva,  and  then  when  the  wood  is  reached  their 
tunnels  run  through  it  in  every  direction,  until 
at  last  only  the  thinnest  shell  remaina,  ready 
to  crumble  at  the  slightest  touch.  In  this  way 
they  build  their  mortar  approaches  up  the 
trunks  of  the  largest  trees  in  order  to  reach 
dead  branches.  They  do  good  in  tropical  for- 
ests by  removing  dead  timber,  but  when  thejr 
attack  humsn  hsbitations  the  result*  are  seri- 
ous, since  the  ravages  sive  no  external  sign. 
They  will  completely  riddle  everr  bit  of  timber 
in  a  house,  and  have  even  been  known  to  enter 
a  table  through  its  legs  and  leave  nothing  but 
the  outside,  ready  to  collapse  upon  theslighteat 
strain.  The  species  found  in  the  U.  5.  lives  in 
decaying  wood,  but  some  of  the  tropical  species 


height  and  40  to  60  in  circumference.  They  are 
made  of  clay,  packed,  and  cemented  by  saliva, 
while  in  the  interior  are  passages  and  store- 
ropms  for  food,  nurseries  for  the  young,  quar- 
ters for  the  workers  and  soldiers,  and  always 
near  the  center  of  the  base  is  the  royal  cham- 
ber where  the  queen  is  kept. 

Tern,  any  small  gull  of  the  Btemina,  or 
sea  swallows.  They  are  chaTacterised  by  their 
slender  build,  remarkably  long,  pointed  wings ; 
rather  long,  sharp  beak;  small  feet,  and,  usu- 
ally, deeply   forked  tail,     Tbfy  range  in  size 


r^ 


style  of  plumage  1b  white,  with  a  pearly  mantle, 
and  top  of  head  black)  but  there  are  excep- 
tions to  this,  tho  sooty  tern  and  noddy  being 
almost  black.  Terns  are  found  over  the  great- 
er part  of  the  world.  They  nest  on  the  ground, 
and  feed  (>n  fishes  and  small  crustaceans.     Bee 


Teipan'der,  Greek  musician  of  the  seventh 
century  B.C.  He  established  in  Bperta  the  first 
musical  school  in  Greece,  enlarged  the  compass 
of  Iks'  lyre  from  four  to  eeren  strings,  and  was 
the  first  who  r^ularly  est  poetry  to  music. 

Terpsicliore  (tirp-slk'O-rfi),  one  of  the  i 


plectrum  in  her  bands  and  a  wreath  of  flowen 
on  her  head. 

Tei'TRce,  a  limited  plain,  natural  or  arti- 
ficial, from  which  the  surface  descends  on  one 
side  and  ascends  ou  the  other.  They  have  ex- 
tensive use  in  agriculture,  especially  in  8.  Eu- 


gullies  and  steep  ridges  when  cultivation 
poses  them  to  the  action  of  rain.  To  prevent 
this,  the  land  is  graded  in  terraced  whose  flat 
surfaces  give  the  rain-water  rills  no  power  to 
erode,  and  the  steep  bluffs  bet«-een  the  terraces 
are  guarded  by  turf  or  stone.  Natural  terraces 
are  ofl  various  kinds,  the  most  abundant  being 
terraces  of  differential  degradation.  Frost  and 
other  agencies  that  break  up  rocks  act  more 
rapidly  on  weak  rocks,  such  as  shales,  than  on 
strong  rocks,  and  reduce  them  to  earth  which 
is  washed  away  by  rain.  Often  a  weak  rock 
is  in  this  way  eaten  back  until  the  strong  rock 
above  it  is  deprived  of  support  and  falls  away 
in  blocks.  By  such  proces-ies  the  hillside  is 
carved  into  a  series  of  terraces  separated  by 
bluffs  or  cliffs.  Stream  terraces  are  next  in 
abundance.  When  the  volume  and  grade  of  a 
stream  are  so  adjusted  to  the  load  of  detritus 
it  carries  forward  that  it  neither  wears  down 
nor  builds  up  its  bottein,  the  stream  wears  ite 
banks,  making  a  Bood  plain,  and  this  gradually 
becomes  broader.  If  the  stream  is  overloaded, 
part  of  the  lond  is  deposited,  snd  the  flood 
plain  grows  higher  as  well  as  broader.  If  then 
the  land  is  lifted,  or  the  fiow  of  water  is  in- 
creased, or  the  load  is  diminished,  the  stream 
cute  its  channel  deeper  and  ceases  to  spread 
over  the  flood  plain,  which  then  constitutes  a 
terrace  on  each  side  of  the  stream.  A  repeti- 
tion of  this  process  produces  a  series  of  ter- 
races rising  like  steps  on  the  valley  side,  and 
such  series  are  to  be  seen  in  many  valleys  of 
the  U.  S.  Shore  lerraoea  are  frequently  carved 
out  by  the  waves  where  the  sea  attacks  the 
land.  They  ivre  overlooked  bv  cliffs,  and  are 
usually  submerged  at  high  tide,  Ou  parte  of 
a  coast  where  drifting  sand  or  shingle  accumu- 
lates, beach  being  added  to  beach,  a  rather 
uneven  terrace  is  produced,  and  this  is  bounded 
seaward  by  a  submerged  dedivity.  A  tnOrains 
terrace  is  formed  where  a  stream  of  water 
flows  between  a  glacier  and  the  side  of  Ite  val- 
ley. The  earth  and  stones  of  the  lateral 
moraine,  together  with  other  material  brought 
by  the  stream,  are  built  by  the  running  water 
into  a  plain ;  and  afterwards,  when  the  glacier 
bos  disappeared,  this  plain  constitutes  a  ter- 
race on  the  valley  side. 

Ter'ra  Cot'ta,  baked  clay,  that  is  to  say, 
pottery.  In  the  language  of  decorative  art  the 
term  is  used  for  an  object  made  of  baked  clay, 
such  as  the  Tanagra  figurines.  Early  Homan 
architecture  used  many  terra-cotta  ornaments, 
and  in  modem  times  the  taste  for  terra-cotta  - 
cornices  and  other  ornaments  is  growing,  espe- 
cially when  they  consist  of  many  repetitions 
of  the  same  pattern,  as  they  can  be  made 
cheaply  In  pleasing  colors. 

Ten«  de  Fue'go.    See  Tiebra  del  Fuego. 

Ter'rapln,  any  one  of  various  small  fresh- 
water turtle!  of  the  Emydida.    The  name  hu 


TERRE  HAUTE 

no  exact  scientific  meaning,  but  in  the  U.  S. 
ia  uaually  applied  to  the  salt-water  terrapin 
(Malaclemmys  paluatria) ,  or  diamond  back. 
"nt'u  Bpeciea,  esteemed  for  the  delicacy  of  its 
flesh,  ie  an  inhabitant  of  the  salt-water  marshes 
from  New  York  to  Texas.    It  has  a  large  head, 


covered  with  a  Boft,  naked  akin;  the  akin  is 
gtey,  Bpotted,  and  otherwise  marked  with 
blade.  It  rarely  much  'exceeds  8  in.  in  length. 
It  commands  from  $15  to  SlOO  a  dozen,  ac- 
cording to  size,  sesBon,  and  demand.  It  is 
active  in  the  water,  swimming  well,  and  on 
land  runs  with  considerable  speed. 

Terre  HauU  (Wr-fi  hot),  city  (founded  in 
1316 ) ;  capital  of  Vigo  Co.,  Ind. ;  on  the 
Wabash  River,  73  m.  W.  of  Indianapolis.  It 
is  on  a  rolling  prairie  between  the  Wabash 
and  a.  low  raiige  of  wooded  bluffs,  and  contains 
three  parks,  Union  Station,  Collett,  with 
thirty  acres,  and  a  driving  park  and  fair 
grounds  of  ninety  acres,  with  a  noted  racing 
{rack.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  coal  fields, 
and  has  five  productive  oil  wells,  and  two  ar- 
tesian wells,  supplying  sulphur  water.  The 
notable  buildings  include  the  county  court- 
house, U.  S.  (h)vt.  building,  Union  Station, 
state  normal  school,  opera  house,  and  St. 
Benedict's  Church — the  finest  in  the  state.  The 
Rose  Folytechnic  Institute  is  an  advanced 
school  of  engineering  and  chemistry,  founded 
by  the  late  Chauncey  Rose.  The  charitable  in- 
stitutions include  the  Bose  Ladies'  Aid  Society, 
St.  iinthony's  Hospital,  Union  Hospital,  Rose 
Dispensary,  Rosa  Orphan  Home,  and  St.  Ann's 
Orpnan  Asylum.  The  industries  include  glass 
factories,  railroad  works,  rolling  mills,  brew- 
eries, four  box  factories,  flour  and  hominy 
mills,  foundries  and  structural-iron  shops,  car- 
riage works,  boiler  shops,  coopers^,  clothing 

the  largest 
S8,15T. 
TMi«i'tri«l   Hag'netiim. 

TEBU6TK1AL. 

Tei'rieT,  any  one  of  a  large  number  of  breeds 
of  small  dogs  distinguished  for  vivacity  and 
courage.  Among  the  best  known  are  the  Eng- 
lish or  black-and-tan  terrier;  the  bull  terrier, 
a  miniature  bulldc^  in  courage,  and  often  in 
shape;  the  fox  terrier,  formerly  used  to  un- 
earth foxes;  the  Scotch  or  rough-haired  ter- 
riers, including  the  Skye,  the  Dandie  Dinmont, 


See   M1.0NETTBIC, 


Sara  Tuwiaa. 


Ter'ritoiy,  a  term  technically  applied  In  the 
U.  S.  and  in  some  Spanish- American  republica 
to  certain  portions  of  the  public  landa  which 
are  under  the  direct  control  of  the  national 
legislature.  In  the  U.,  S.,  territories  are  or- 
ganised  by  congressiona'l  enactment.  The  gov- 
ernor and  the  administrative  and  judicial 
officers  are  appointed  by  the  President,  but  a 
territorial  legislature  is  intrusted  with  limited 
powers,  subject  to  the  approval  of  Congress. 
When  a  territory  attains  a  population  sumcient 
to  entitle  it  to  one  representative  in  Congress, 
it  has  usually  been  given  permission  oy  a 
special  act  to  form  a  state  constitution,  and 
then  admitted  into  the  Union  with  rights  equal 
to  those  of  the  other  states.  See  Conbtitu- 
Tiou  Of  TBt  U.  S.,  Art.  iv.  Sec.  3.  With  the 
exception  of  Texas,  California,  W.  Virginia, 
and  the  original  thirteen  colonies,  all  the  states 
of  the  Union  have  passed  through  the  terri- 
torial stage. 

Tefror,  Keign  of.    See  Fbekch  REvoLtmoit. 

Ter'tiary  E'ra,  a  division  of  geologic  time 
coordinate  with  the  Primary  era,  and  Second- 
ary era,  which  it  foUows,  and  the  Quaternary 
era,  wliich  it  precedes.  In  the  later  and  widely 
adopted  claaaiflcation  based  on  life,  the  Ceno- 
Eoic  era  is  made  to  include  the  Tertiary  and 
Quatemarv.  Tertiary  time  is  divided  by  Euro- 
pean geologists  into  four  periods — Eocene. 
Oligocene,  Miooene,  and  Pliocene.  The  U.  8. 
Geological  Survey  represents  these  by  t»o  pe- 
riods named  EoMue  and  Neocene. 

TertollUn  (Quiktds  Septiiocs  Flobehs 
TEBTUUAAirjjB),  abt.  100-240  A-D.;  the  most 
ancient  of  the  Church  Fathers^  b.  Carthage. 
He  was  a  lawyer  and  afterwards  a  priest,  and 
became  widely  known  by  bis  controversial 
treatises,  as  well  aa  his  ascetic  practices.  About 
£02  he  joined  the  Montanista,  and  became  the 
champion  of  the  sect.  He  was  the  tearless 
champion  of  Christianity  against  Jews  and  pa- 
gans and  of  catholic  ortiiodoxy  in  the  Church. 
His  "  Apologettcus  "  is  one  of  the  best  defenses 
of  Christiamtv.  He  led  the  way  in  ecclesias- 
tical anthropolo^  and  soteriolc^,  and  was  the 
teacher  of  Cypnan  and  the  forerunner  of  Au- 
gustine. Among  bis  practical  works  u  one 
against  eecond  marriage*.    His  specially  Mon- 


TE8LA 

Uulat  writings  include  "  On  Chaatity,"  which 
denies  that  tnoae  who  are  guiEty  of  grom  sins 
coo  be  absolved,  and  "  Oa  Flight,"  which  in- 
sists thst  Christians  ought  not  to  flee  from  per- 
secutions. He  was  stem  and  uncompromiBing— 
a  Puritan  of  the  cs.riy  Church.  Tertullian'a 
works  are  written  in  a  rude  Punic  Latin.  The 
style  ia  nervous,  abrupt,  often  obscure,  and  ve- 
hement. Many  of  his  pointed  sentences,  aa 
"  the  blood  of  the  Martyrs  is  the  seed  of  the 
Church,"  have  become  proverbs.  His  life  waa 
written  by  Jerome. 

TealA,  Nikola,  1B67-  ;  American  elec- 
trician; b.  Smilian,  Croatia;  graduated  Poly- 
technic School,  Grate;  came  to  the  U.  S.  and 
waa  associated  with  Edison;  became  electrician 
of  the  Tesla  Electric  Light  Company,  and  es- 
tablished the  Tesla  laboratory  in  New  York 
(or  independent  dectrical  research.  He  is  the 
inventor  of  the  modem  principle  of  the  rotating 
magnetic  Held  embodied  in  the  apparatus  used 
in  the  transmission  of  power  from  Niagara 
Falls,  of  new  forms  of  dynamos,  transfonnerB, 
motors,  induction  coils,  condensers,  arc  and  in- 
candescent lamps,  and  of  the  oscillator,  combin- 
ing Hteun  engine  and  dynamo,  etc.  He  also  dis- 
corered  and  patented  a  method  of  transmitting 
dectrieal  eno^  without  wires,  antedating  Mar- 
eoni's  invention  of  wireless  telegraphy. 

Tu'tament*,  Old  and  Vew.    See  Biblk. 

Tei'timony.    See  Evidence. 

Teat  Oath,  the  oath  required  by  the  Cor- 
poration and  the  Test  Acta  (13  Car.  11,  at.  2, 
C.  1,  A.D.  1661,  and  25  Car.  II,  c.  2.  A.D.  1672) 
to  be  taken  by  civil  and  military  otBeers. 
Blackstone  describes  these  statutes  aa  "  two 
bulwarks  erected  in  order  the  better  to  secure 
the  Established  Church  against  perils  from 
nonconformists  of  all  denominations,  infidels, 
Turks,  Jews,  heretics.  Papists,  and  sectaries." 
They  made  tha  holding  oi  public  office  condi- 
tional upon  the  incumbent's  taking  the  oaths 
of  alliance  and  supremacy,  and  subscribing 
a  declaration  against  transubstantiation  and 
TBceiving  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
according  to  the  Church  of  England.  After  va- 
rious modifications,  they  were  substantially  re- 
p^ed  in  1828.  During  the  Civil  War  in  the 
ll,  8.  and  after  its  doss  test  oaths  were  im- 
posed by  Federal  and  state  legislation,  but  were 
soon  declared  unconstitutionaL 

Tsrtndlna'ta.    Bee  Tubtles. 


TEUTONIC  KNIGHTO 

their  oblong  shi^ds  or  targets  by  holding  them 
over  their  neads  when  standing  close  to  each 
other.  This  cover  somewhat  resembled  the 
back  of  a  tortoise,  and  served  to  shelter  tha 
men  from  the  missiles  thrown  from  above. 
The  name  waa  also  siven  to  a  atructure  mov- 
able on  wheels  or  rollers  for  protecting  sappers. 

Tet'anus,  or  Lock'jaw,  a  dangerous  diaease 
caused  by  the  tetanua  bacillus,  and  character- 
ized by  spasmodic  muscular  contractions.  The 
spasms  usually  appear  first  in  the  muscles  of 
mastication.  Death  uaually  occurs  by  arrest  of 
respiration.  Tetanus  is  more  frequent  in  warm 
climates.  The  bacillus,  which  is  present  in 
most  garden  soil  and  about  stables,  enters  the 
systeiQ  through  cuts  or  wounds  which  are  in- 
fected with  dirt  Opium,  chloroform,  etc.,  are 
useful  in  treating  tetanus,  but  the  best  remedy 
is  in  the  injection  of  antitoxins. 

Tetrahe'dion,  a  solid  having  four  bounding 
planes,  four  solid  angles,  and  six  edges.  If  reg- 
ular, its  sides  are  equilateral  trian^ee. 

Tetrarch,  a  name  which  strictly  designated, 
originally,  the  viceroy  or  monarch  of  the  fourth 
part  of  a  country  (Iheasaly,  etc.),  but  later  a 
titled  bestowed,  especially  under  the  Romans, 
upon  the  minor  tnbutary  princes  of  the  East 

Tetnan',  town  of  Morocco;  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Martil;  in  a  fertile  region,  celebrated, for 
its  orangea.  The  town  is  fortified,  and  has  sev- 
eral fine  mosques  and  an  active  trade  in  woolen 
and  silk  stuffa,  leather,  and  fruit.  Pop.  20,000 
t«  26,000,  one  quarter  Jews. 

Tetiel,  or  Teiel  (tet'a^l),  Johann,  1465-1610; 
a    Domioican    preacher    of    indulgences.      His 

E reaching  to  encourage  contributions  for  the 
uilding  of  St.  Peters  at  Rome  led  Luther 
tg.v.]  to  publish  bis  famous  ninety-five  theses. 

Teuton'ic  Knights,  a  military  ecclesiastical 
order,  founded  in  1100  by  some  N.  German  mer- 
chants, who  had  been  moved  by  the  sufferings 
of  the  Crusaders  at  the  siege  of  Acre.  It  soon 
found  a  patron  in  Frederick,  Duke  of  Suabia, 
and  secured  charters  from  the  emperor  and  the 

Kpe  entitling  it  to  all  the  privileges  possessed 
the  two  great  rival  orders  of  the  Knights 
iWplars  and  the  KnighU  of  St.  John.  The 
menlbers  of  the  order  were  required  to  be  Ger- 
mans of  noble  birth,  but  priests  and  half  broth- 
ers, not  noble,  were  admitted.  In  the  early 
times  they  took  vows  of  chastity  and  poverty. 
In  1230  they  entered  upon  a  crusade  against 
the  Prussians,  and,  after  a  century  of  hard 
fighting,  established  their  rule  over  Prussia, 
when  they  flsed  their  headquarters  at  Marien- 
burg.  They  served  in  the  crusades  of  Bt.  Louis, 
i24S-S0i  founded  KCnigaberg  in  1255,  and  atr 
Ucked  the  heathen  Lithuanians  in  1283.  They 
were  for  many  years  involved  in  wars  vitn 
Poland;  held  at  times  E.  and  W.  Pnuaia,  Es- 
thonia,  Pomerania,  and  other  neighboring  coun- 
tries. In  1466  they  surrendered  W.  Prussia  to 
Poland,  and  recognised  the  latter's  feudal  own- 
ership for  E.  Prussia,  when  KOnlgsberg  became 
their  ca^tal.  In  1625  their  grand  master,  Al- 
bert of  Brandenburg,  converted  Prassia  into  a 
secular  hereditary  dukedom,  and  in  1627  the 
seat  cuf  the  order  was  transferred  to  Mergen- 


TEUTONIC  LANGUAGES 

theim,  in  Suabin.  In  1661  th«y  lost  All  their 
LivoniaD  posaeasioiia.  In  1605  the  Emperor  of 
Austria  became  grand  master  of  the  onler.  In 
1809  Napoleon  declared  the  order  abolished,  and 
gave  ita  lands  to  various  Oenaan  sovereigns. 
In  1840  the  Austrian  Emperor  reorganized  the 
Teutonic  Knights,  and  in  1S06  the  order  was 
still  further  reorganized. 

Teaton'ic  Langoaces,  a  branch  of  the  Indo- 
European  family  of  languages.  The  term  Oer- 
nanic  is  also  used,  eapecially  in  Germany, 
where  it  is  Hupplantine  the  older  term 
Deutsch.  The  members  of  this  group  may  be 
enumerated  and  compared  with  the  aid  of  the 
following  diagram.  Teutonic  is  generiil  and 
theoretical,  and  represents  the  one  prehistoric 
language  spoken  by  the  Teutonic  stock  in  cen- 
tral Europe,  between  the  Baltic  and  the  Black 
Sea.     The  first  divergence  in  general  Teutonic 


was  between  E.  and  W.  Teutonic  E.  Teutonic 
is  divided  into  Gothic  and  the  Scandinavian 
languages,  but  the  differences  between  the  two 
are  more  striking  than  their  similarities.  The 
W.  Teutonic  division  stands  out  as  more  dis- 
tinct and  compact.  Applyii^f  Grimm's  law  in 
ita  second  shifting  we  get  three   subdivisions: 

(1)  High  German,  which  shifted  most  of  all; 

(2)  Low    German,    which    shifted    th    to    d; 

(3)  English,  which,  like  Gothic  and  Scandina- 
vian, shifted  only  once.  The  Frisian  language 
stands  between  English  and  Low  'German. 
Some  of  iba  modern  dialects  have  preserved  Ih, 
some  shifted  it  to  d,  and  even  to  (.  The  general 
term  Low  German  should  be  limited  to  the 
non-High  German  continental  dialects,  includ- 
ing modem  Dutch,  Flemish,  Plattdeutsch,  and 
perhaps  Frisian,  all  of  which  shifted  Ih  to  d. 

Ten'toni,  the  members  of  the  Teutonic 
branch  of  the  Aryan  family.  Much  uncertainty 
is  manifested  in  the  extent  of  the  application. 
The  Greek  and  Latin  authors  seem  to  have  used 
the  word  to  designate  only  a  certain  portion  of 
the  great  race  then  inhabiting  the  lands  N.  of 
the  Alps  and  Q.  of  the  Khine  which  undertook, 
in  company  with  the  Cimbri,  to  invade  the  Ro- 
man Empire  abt.  113  B.C.,  and  whose  original 
abode  had  been  probably  the  W.  coast  of 
Schleswig-Holstein  and  the  territory  about  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe. 

In  its  broadest  sense  must  be  included  under 
the  name  Teuton,  in  the  first  degree,  the  Ger- 
mans of  the  Continent — viz.,  the  inhabitants  of 
Uke  Gemuui  Empire,  of  Austria  proper,  of  the 


TEUTONS 

N.  and  NE.  cantons  of  S^tceriand,  of  Holland, 
and  the  Scandinavians  of  the  two  N.  peninsu- 
las; in  the  second  degree,  tbe  English,  the  in- 
habitants of  Lower  Scotland,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  U.  Sl;  while  in  the  ethnological 
composition  of  almost  every  truly  European 
nation — that  is,  every  nation  W.  of  Russia 
proper  and  Turkey— the  Teutonic  component 
enters  in  a  greater  or  less  degree. 

At  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  when  the 
great  movement  known  in  European  history  as 
the  migration  of  the  peoples  ended,  the  Teutons 
were  Uie  ruling  race  from  Carthnge  to  the 
Vistula;  the  Vandals  in  Africa  from  Carthage 
to  Gibraltar;  the  Visigoths  from  Gibraltar  to 
the  banks  of  the  Loire;  tbe  Suevi  occupying 
Portugal;  Burgundians  from  the  upper  Loire 
to  the  cmter  of  Switzerland;  the  Ostrogotha 
from  the  last-mentioned  boundary  to  that  of 
the  present  Turkish  Empire  on  the  £.,  and  from 
the  Mediterranean  on  the  S.  to  the 
Danube  on  the  N,;  the  Pranks  from  the 
lower  Loire  to  Ihuringia)  Sajcon  con- 
(bl  querors  upon  the  English  coasts;  Sax- 
ons Frisii,  Thuringians,  Marcomonni, 
Bavarians,  and  Longobardi  still  upon 
the  original  German  soil,  the  latter  mov- 
ing down  a  little  later  (last  half  of 
the  sixth  century)  into  Italy,  and  oc- 
cupying the  plain  of  the  upper  Po,  while 
the  Scandinavic  branch  reached  round 
the  entire  E.  and  SE.  shores  of  the 
Baltic  and  far  inland.  In  Africa,  His- 
pania,  SW.  Gaul,  and  middle  and  S. 
Italy  the  Teutonic  element  disappeared 
almost  entirely  in  the  amalgamation 
with  tbe  Romantic  population;  while,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  inhabitants  of  M.  and  NE, 
France,  of  Belgium,  of  N.  Italy,  and  of  Russia's 
Baltic  provinces  manifest  still  most  strongly 
the  ethnological  charact«ri  sties  of  tbe  Teutons. 
Individual  liberty  and  personal  worth  were 
the  fundamental  principles  of  the  old  Teutonic 
life  and  polity.  In  the  old  assemblies  of  the 
village,  the  hundred,  and  the  tribe  it  was  the 
will  of  the  freeman  which  was'the  authority  of 
law.  While  in  Rome  the  central  power  was  the 
strongest,  and  there  existed  no  local  power 
worth  tbe  name,  save  as  an  imperial  agency, 
among  the  Teutons,  again,  the  local  power  was 
always  the  strongest,  and  centralization  always 
opposed,  defied,  and  overthrown.  When  Uar- 
bodius,  the  Marcomannic  duke,  and  even  Ar- 
miniuB,  to  whom  the  German  tribes  were  in- 
debted for  the  expulsion  of  the  Roman  I^ions, 
attempted  to  retain  in  peace  the  centralized 
authority  which  they  had  exercised  as  leaders 
in  war,  the  one  was  obliged  to  flee  to  Rome, 
while  the  other  fell  a  victim  to  his  fatal  ambi- 
tion. To  this  Teutonic  spirit  of  liberty  we  ovre, 
even  in  the  midst  of  the  Middle  Ages  in  Ger- 
many, the  establishment  of  municipal  privi- 
leges and  citizens'  rights  in  the  Hansa  towns, 
the  personal  freedom  of  the  members  of  the 
guilds,  which  constitutes  the  basis  of  modem 
individual  rights;  in  England,  Magna  Charta 
and  before  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century 
tbe  first  representative  Parliament,  with  the 
establishment  of  the  English  common  law, 
which  is  the  nucleus  of  the  legal  procedure  and 
the  guarant;  of  the  civil  rights,  ot  the  KnglJBtl- 


TEXAS 

'speaking  psople  ftt  least,  all  OT«r  the  world. 
This  ipirit  of  iudividnalit^,  t^ically  Teutonic, 
hu  given  to  modem  civilization  its  freedom  of 
thought  and  conscience,  its  eetimatioii  of  men 
alxtve  institutions,  its  doctrine  of  popular  sov- 
areigntv,  its  local  self-government,  and  its  na- 
tional devdopment. 

Tex'aa,  one  of  the  U.  8.  of  N.  America;  the 
fifteenth  in  order  of  admission  into  the  Union; 
popular];  known  as  the  Lone  Stab  State,  the 
largest  state  in  the  Union.  Capital,  Austin. 
It  is  bounded  NK  and  E.  b;  Oklahoma,  Ar- 
kansas, and  Louisiana,  SE.  h;  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  8W,  by  Mexico,  and  NW.  by  New 
Mexico,  with  a  projection,  known  as  the  Pan- 
handle, included  between  Oklahoma  on  the  N. 
and  U.  and  New  Mexico  on  the  W.;  area, 
265,806  sq.  m.  Pop.  (IBIO)  3,89e,e4Z. 
L  In  its  geology  and  totKigraphy  Texas  is  com- 
posed of  areas  marked  by  typical  aspects.  The 
tiK,  part  belongs  to  the  forest  belt  extending 


aeross  the  S.  SUtee,  the  NW.  to  an  exten- 
sive plain  reaching  downward  through  sev- 
eral states  from  the  .N.,  and  the  SW.,  beyond 
the  Pecoe  Biverj  to  the  Socky  Mountain  sys- 
tem. The  surface  of  the  state,  omitting  the 
Transpecos  region,  consiits  of  a  series  of 
benches,  parallel  to  the  Gulf  coast,  rising  gently 
toward  Uie  NW.,  and  culminating  in  the  pla- 
teau of  the  Llano  SsUcada,  or  "  SUked  Plains," 
so  called  from  the  abundance  of  yucca  stems, 
resembling  stakes.  The  Transpecos  country  is 
covered  with  scattered  mountain  pealu  and 
ranges  having  great  basins  between.  The 
principal  benches  named  in  order  from  the  8E. 
are  the  Coast  Prairie,  the  LignlUc  Belt,  the 
Black  Waxy  Prairie,  the  Grand  Prairie,  and 
the  Central  Denuded  Region. .  Beyond  the  last 
lies  the  Llano  Estacada.  The  Coast  Prairie  has 
a  width  var^ng  from  60  to  100  m.,  and  the  SE. 
wit*"  '*-  '"■ 

plains,  from  some  of  which  great  basins 
been  carved  out  by  rivers: 

The  surface  of  the  Black  Waxy  Prairie  rolls 
gmtly,  and  is  marked  by  numerous  small  hoi- 
lows  or  depressions  known  as  hog  wallows. 
This  prairie  is  about  140  m.  wide  along  Red 
River,  about  86  m.  on  the  Rio  Qrande,  and, 
only  about  10  where  the  Colorado  intersects  it.' 
The  Or«&d  Prftliie  ia  a  gtmt  plateau,  the  BW. 


TEXAS 

part  of  which  is  a  bed  of  hard  limestone  Its 
SE.  edge  is  marked  by  a  cliff  reactiing  from 
the  Colorado  to  the  Rio  Grande,  known  as 
the  Balcones.  Many  springs,  remarkable  for 
beauty,  burst  out  along  the  base  of  this  es- 
carpment The  C«itral  Denuded  R^on  is  a 
basin  having  a  maximum  width  of  180  m.  It 
extends  S.  into  the  et^te  for  more  thfin  three 
fourths  of  the  distance  across  and  separates 
the  Grand  Prairie  from  the  Llano  Estacado. 
The  Grand  Prairie,  however,  sweeps  around 
the  5,  end  of  the  basin  and  reaches  the  Llano 
Estacado  in  that  quarter.  The  latter  is  a  vast 
table-land,  sloping  gently  to  the  SE.  The  coast 
has  a  line  of  long,  narrow  islands  extending 
along  its  front  at  a  distance  of  10  to  20  m. 
From  Galveston  NE.  these  islands  sink  into 
shoals.  .  The  principal  bajrs  are  those  of  Gal- 
veston, Mata^rda,  Espiritu  Santo,  Aransas, 
Corpus  Christ),  and  Alazan.  While  there  are 
districts  in  N.  and  central  Texas  mountainous 
in  geological  formation,  the  only  elevations  de- 
serving the  name  of  mountains  by  their*alti- 
tude  are  in  the  Transpecos  country.  The  riv- 
ers all  have  SE.  direction,  except  the  Canadian 
and  the  Red.  The  former  flows  NE.  across  the 
Panhandle,  and  the  latter  nearly  E.  along  the 
N.  boundary.  The  principal  remaining  rivers 
named  in  order  toward  the  SW.  are  the  Sabine, 
Neches,  Trinity,  Brazos,  Colorado,  Guadalupe, 
Nueces,  and  Rio  Grande,  with  its  tributary  the 
Pecos.  The  Canadian,  the  Red,  the  Pecos,  and 
the  Rio  Grande  originate  beyond  the  state,  and 
their  sources  are  included  in  a  comparatively 
small  district  of  upper  New  Mexico  uid  lower 
Colorado. 

The  coast  prairie  has  a  fertile  soil  of  sandy 
loam,  with  a  red  or  yellow  clay  aubsoil.  The 
alluvial  deposits  of  its  river  bottoms  are  ex- 
ceedingly nch.  In  the  Ltgnitic  Belt  the  pine 
uplands  have  a  gray  sandy  soil,  usually  not 
very  fertile,  but  the  lowlands  are  better.  The 
Black  Waxy  Prairie,  though  somewhat  difficult 
of  tillage,  is  one  of  the  flnest  agricultural  areas 
of  the  world.  The  NE,  half  of  the  Grand  Prai- 
rie is  covered  with  a  chocolate  soil  of  great  pro- 
ductive capacity.  The  SW.  half  has  "a  rougher 
surface,  and  the  soil  is  shallow,  the  parts  fit 
for  cultivation  being  mainly  the  valleys.  The 
Llano  Estacado  is  deeply  covered  with  a  brown 
loam,  suited  especially  for  wheat  and  fruit. 
The  mineral  resources  of  Texas  are  great,  but 
as  yet  little  developed.  Bait  is  obtained  from 
lak^  along  the  Rio  Grande  border  and  from 
salines  in  E.  Texas.  Extensive  beds  of  rock 
salt  exist  in  Van  Zandt  and  Mitchell  cos. 
In  E.  Texas  lignite  has  been  found  throughout 
a  lai^c  district.  In  the  central  and  W.  parts 
are.  beds  of  bituminous  coal.  The  workable 
area  of  the  central  beds  i\  estimated  at  2,300 
sq.  m.  Near  the  Sabine  River  oil  wdls  pro- 
duce about  9,000,000  bbla.  per  annum. 

There  are  deposits  of  iron  ore  in  E.  Texas,  in 
the  Transpecos  region,  end  adjacent  to  the 
town  of  Llano.  Copper  ore  exists  in  the  last 
two  localities,  and  also  in  NW.  Texas.  Lead 
the  Central  Mineral  Region  and  the 


sections.    There  are  numerous  quarries  of  good 
building  limestone  in  the  state,  and  several  of 


TEXAS 

sandstone.  Among  the  moet  durable  &nd  eortlr 
varieties  of  atone  are  the  ffranitee,  marbles,  and 
Berpentinea  of  Burnet  and  Llano  cos.  and  ths 
Transpecos  region.  The  principal  foreet«  are 
in  E.  Texas,  and  tlie  prevailing  growtli  is  pine. 
In  the  W.  part  of  the  forest  region  oak,  hick- 
ory, and  ash  are  common.  In  the  river  bot- 
toms of  the  SE.  cjpresa  is  abundant,  and  in  the 
NE.  hois  d'arc.  Running  from  Red  River  8. 
are  two  belta  of  poet  oak  and  black-jacks 
about  40  m.  apart,  the  E.  being  known  as  the 
Lower  Cross  Timbers  and  the  W.  as  the  Upper 
Cross  Timbers.  Toward  the  SW.  the  forests 
disappear  and  are  replaced  by  cedar  brakes, 
stretches  of  mesquite,  etc.  Along  the  Rio 
Grande  border  are  dense  thickets  of  chaparral, 
mimosa,  and  acacias.  Texas  ranks  Drat  among 
the  cotton-growing  states.  It  produces  also 
lar^e  crops  of  maize,  wheat,  and  oats. 

The  animals  of  Texas,  like  the  vegetables, 
change  in  type  in  passing  from  the  N.  and  K 
toward  Mexico.  In  the  forests  and  along  the 
streahiB  of  the  E.  part  are  the  red  deer,  beaver, 
squirrel,  gopher,  and  badger,  with  an  occasional 
brown  bear  and  panther.  On  tlie  plains  and 
in  the  more  rugged  districts  of  the  W.  are 
antelopes,  black- tailed  deer,  and  big-horn 
sheep.  In  different  quarters  are  lobo-wolves 
and  coyotes,  red  and  gray  foxes,  skunks,  wild 
cats  and  civet  cats.  The  prairie  districts 
abound  in  prai/ie  d(^  and  Texas  hares. 
Among  the  birds  of  the  state  are  wild  geese 
and  ducks,  mainly  in  the  E.  portions  and  on 
the  coast,  while  farther  W.  the  plover,  curlew, 
snipe,  and  Me)£ican  canary  prevail.  The  quail, 
wild  turkey,  crow,  hawk,  owl,  and  mocking 
bird  are  widely  distributed.  The  commonest 
reptiles  are  the  alligator,  horned  toad,  and 
snakes  of  various  kinda^  the  only  dangerous 
ones  being  the  copperhead  and  rattlesnake. 
Two  hundred  and  thirty  species  of  fishes  have 
been  distinguished,  most  of  them  In  the  rivers 
of  the  Coast  Prairie.  The  finest  is  the  black 
bass.  Among  the  invertebrates  are  the  lobster, 
shrimp,  crab,  centipede,  and  tarantula,  while 
along  the  coast  are  found  oysters  and  qlams  in 
abundance.    The  principal  crops  in  order  of  im- 

Krtance  are  cotton,  com,  wheat,  oata,  and  hay. 
xas  produces  nearly  twenty-five  per  cent  of 
the  cotton  of  the  U.  B.  The  total  value  of  tho 
farm  animals  exceeds  {315,000,000.  In  the  NE. 
and  E.  part  there  is  a  fair  amount  of  humidity, 
but  the  SW.  and  W.  are  too  arid  for  sueeeaaful 
agriculture  without  irrigation. 

Principal  cities  and  towns  are;  Ban  Antonio, 
Houston,  Dallas,  Galveston,  Fort  Worth,  Aus- 
tin, Waco,  EH  Paso,  Laredo,  Denison,  Sherman, 
Beaumont,  Paris,  Corsicana,  PalesUne,  Tyler, 
QaincsviUe,  Marahall,  Cleburne,  Temple,  Green- 
ville, Terrell,  Brownsville,  Brenham,  Hillsboro, , 
Texarkaua,  Bouham.  The  system  of  public 
instruction  includes  common  schools,  high 
schools,  the  Sam  Houston  Normal  Institute  for 
whites  at  Huntsville,  the  Prairie  View  State 
.  Normal  School  for  colored  atudenta  near  Hemp- 
stead, the  Agricultural  and  Uechanical  College 
at  Biyan,  and  the  State  Univ.,  which  has  the 
departments  of  literature,  acience,  arts,  and 
law  at  Austin,  and  that  of  medicine  at  Gal- 
veston. 

It  is  believed  that  the  coast  of  Texas  was 


'    TEXAS 

reached  in  1628  by  Cabeca  de  Vaca,  but  the 
first  European  settlement  within  the  present 
limits  was  planted  by  RenS  Robert  Cavelier,  ' 
February,  IflSS,  on  the  Lavaca  River,  and  was 
named  Fort  St.  Louis.  Previous  to  this  tb^ 
country  had  been  occupied  only  by  scattered 
Indian  tribes.  In  16B0  the  Viceroy  of  Mexico 
sent  a  small  force  against  the  new  colony, 
but  the  Indians  had  already  stamped  It  out. 
In  1691  Don  Domingo  Teran,  Governor  of 
Coahuila  and  Texas,  planted  several  settle- 
ments in  the  latter  province,  hut  none  sur- 
vived long.  In  1714  Crosat,  to  whom  Louis 
XIV  had  granted  Louisiana,  sent  Euchereau 
Saint-Denis  through  Texas  to  the  Rio  Grande 
to  ascertain  the  trading  possibilities.  This 
roused  the  Spaniards  to  secure  possession  of 
Texas.  In  1715  they  established  missions  in 
the  province,  among  them  that  of  Ban  Antonio 
de  Valero,  afterwards  moved  to  the  famous 
mission  house  known  as  the  Alamo.  From  this 
time  the  hold  of  Spain  on  Texas  was  secure  as 
against  France,  though  the  latter  continued  to 
assert  its  claims.  In  1729  the  Spanish  Govt. 
tried  to  colonize  the  country,  but  the  attempt 
failed.  In  1736  the  French  planted  a  settle- 
ment  on  the  W.  bank  of  Red  River,  and  the 
Spaniards  protested;  but  an  official  investiga- 
tion made  in  Mexico  tended  to  show  that  the 
settlement  was  on  French  territory.  In  1TG2 
France  ceded  Louisiana  to  Spain,  and  in  1800 
Spain  gave  it  back  to  France. 

The  eatablishment  of  the  independence  of  the 
U.  S.  WHS  followed  by  a  controversy  as  to  the 
boundaries  between  It  and  the  Spanish  terri- 
tory, and  the  sale  of  Louisiana  to  the  U.  S. 
in  1803  made  it  necessary  to  define  the  E. 
boundary  of  Mexico.  Spain  strengthened  her 
forces  in  Texas,  and  in  1806  a  conflict  between 
the  Spanish  troora  and  those  of  the  U.  S. 
B.  of  the  Sabine  River  was  prevented  only  by 
an  agreement  between  the  opposing  generals  to 
recognize  the  strip  between  the  Sabine  and  the 
Arroyo  Hondo,  a  little  fhrther  E.,  as  neutnll 
ground.  lu  1910  the  Sabine  was  agreed  on  as 
the  E.  limit  of  Mexico.  During  1821-34  SE. 
Texas,  except  the  part  adjacent  to  the  lilexican 
border,  was  settled  by  colonists  from  the  XI.  S. 
The  most  important  colony  was  that  brought 
by  Stephen  F.  Austin  to  the  lower  Colorado 
and  the  BraEOS.  The  Anglo-Americans  soon 
became  so  numerous  in  Texas  gs  to  excite  the 
jealousy  of  the  Mexicans.  The  province  had 
been  joined  to  Coahuila,  and  the  whole  was 
governed  unsatisfactorily  to  the  colonists.  In 
1830  further  tmniigration  from  the  U.  S.  was 
prohibited  by  the  Mexican  Ccugress.  In  1833 
the  Texana  sought  to  obtain  a  separate  state 
government,  but  Santa  Anna  would  not  con- 
sent. In  1836  Texas  revolted.  A  proviatonal 
govermnent  was  organized  and  a  war  followed, 
which  was  ended  bv  the  rout  of  the  Mexican 
army  at  San  Jacmto,  Anrit  81,  1S3S.  On 
March  2,  IS36,  Texas  declared  its  independ- 
ent, and  on  September  2d  it  adopted  a  repub- 
lican constitution.  Sam  Houston  was  chosen 
president,  and  an  almost  unanimous  vote  was 
cast  in  favor  of  annexation  to  the  U.  S.  The 
measure  was  then  checked  by  Pres,  Van 
Buren's  declining  the  proposition,  and  it  failed 
again  in  1844  because  the  anti-slavery  eenti- 


TEXAS,  tmiVERSITY  OF 

ment  end  the  fact  that  annexation  meant  war 
with  Mexico  prevented  Qonflnnation  by  the 
Senate.  In  1646,  under  Polk,  who  had  been 
elected  on  ft  platform  favoring  annexatioQ. 
Texas  was  annexed,  not  bj  treaty,  hut  by  a 
joint  reaolntion  of  Congrera.  War  with  Mexico 
followed.  The  Treaty  of  Quadalupe  EidalKO 
in  1S4S  eatablUhed  the  Texas  claim  to  the 
■trip  between  the  Nuecea  and  the  Rio  Qrande, 
previously  claimed  by  both  Texas  and  Mexico. 
In  1B61  Texas  MM^ed  from  the  Union  and 
joined  the  Confederate  atatea.  From  June, 
1&65,  to  March,  1867,  the  state  wae  under  a 

Srovisioual  government,  and  from  the  latter 
ate'  to  September,  1809,  under  miliUry  ad- 
miniatration.  After  this  it  waa  restored  to  its 
place  in  the  Union. 

ttXM,  Vniver'Bity  of,  a  coeducational  inati- 
tution  comprisim^  departments  In  Austin, 
Oalveaton,  and  Bryan,  provided  for  by  the 
constitution  of  the  Republic  of  Texas.  The 
Congress  of  1839  provided  for  the  selection  of 
a  site  for  a  university,  and  when  Austin  was 
located  aa  the  capital  of  the  state,  forty  acrea  of 
land  in  that  city  were  designated  for  the  seat 
of  the  university.  This  action  of  the  republic 
was  followed  by  a  grant  of  221,400  acres  of 
land  for  the  "  establishment  and  endowment  of 
two  colleges  or  universities";  and  in  1S5S  the 
state  appropriated  to  the  university  tlOO,000 
in  U.  S.  bonds  then  in  the  state  treasury,  and 
confirmed  to  it  the  fifty  leagues  grant  of  the 
republic.  In  I8S3  the  legislature  granted  an- 
other million  acres  of  land  to  the  university. 
The  main  university  establishment,  embracing 
the  academic  and  law  departments,  was  lo- 
cated at  Austin  in  accordance  with  a  vote  of 
the  people  of  the  state  in  18S1,  and  was  opened 


poae  in  the  temporary  capitol,  and  used  till 
the  university  building  was  finished  and  oc- 
cupied, January  I,  1384.  The  medical  de- 
partment, located  at  Oalveaton  in  1S81,  was 
formally  opened  in  October,  1891.  The  Agri- 
cultural and  Mechanical  College  at  Bryan, 
which  had  been  in  operation  many  years  before 
the  university  was  organized,  and  which,  under 
the  federal  grant  of  1S6S  for  establishing  agri- 
cultural colleges,  in  the  several  states,  was  a 
beneficiary  of  the  general  government,  was 
made  a  bra^ich  of  the  university  by  the  state 
convention  of  1876  in  order  that  it  might  «lso 
have  the  boieflt  of  appropriations  from  the 
nuiversity  fund.  The  medical  department  at 
Oalvestou  embraces  the  Medical  College,  which 
eost  about  $125,000,  and  the  John  Sealy  Hos- 
pital, valued  at  <70,000,  the  latter  having  been 
originally  willed  to  the  city  by  John  Sealy,  a, 
citiien  of  that  plnce,  and  transferred  to  the 
university.  In  1910  the  university  had  103 
instructors,  1,BS1  students,  and  a  library  of 
72,732  volumes. 

Tez'tile  FaVrica,  fabrics  made  by  weaving 
threads  in  a  loom.  The  threads  usually  em- 
ployed are  those  made  by  spinning  from  veg- 
etable fiber,  such  as  that  of  hemp,  flax,  cotton, 
and  many  plants  with  fibrous  leaves,  especially 
common  in  the  tropics;  of  animal  fiber,  such 
as  wool  of  sheep,  the  hair  of  many  varieties  of 


TEXTILE  FABRICS 

goat,  the  llama,  the  camel,  the  horse,  and  other 
beasts;  and  of  the  threads  spun  t^  the  silk- 
worm. A  few  exceptional  fabrics  have  been 
woven  from  the  thread  of  a  spider,  also  from 
byMtu,  or  the  silky  filaments  attached  to  the 
bivalve  shell.  Pinna  /tabellutn.  Gkss  has  been 
spun  into  threads  and  woven.  Wire,  as  of 
Sliver  and  silver  gilt,  has  been  woven  into 
cloth  with  other  materials,  as  linen  and  silk, 
for  ornament,  and  gilded  paper  cut  into  slender 
strips  is  used  for  the  same  purpose.  Feathen 
also  have  been  woven  into  fabrics. 

Simply  woven  goods  are  those  in  which  one 
thread  of  the  weft  or  woof  passes  across  th« 
width  of  the  web,  passing  alternately  above 
and  t»elow  the  threads  of  the  warp,  one  at  a 
time.  Examples  are  common  iinen  and  cotton 
goods,  such  as  are  used  for  under  garments  or 
sheets.  Linen  cloth  or  linen  is  the  common 
name  for  cloth  made  from  flax.  Cambric  or 
linen  cambric  is  a  fine  and  close-woven  ma- 
terial for  handkerchiefs  and  for  different  arU- 
cles  of  dress;  batiste  is  a  still  finer  cambric; 
dimity  is  a  thin  cotton  fabric,  usually  orna- 
mented in  weaving  by  raised  stripes  or  printed 
figures;  crash,  canvas,  duck,  and  aailcloth  are 
all  stouter  cloths,  made  originally  of  linen  or 
hemp,  although  now  more  commonly  of  cotton. 
Other  cotton  goods  of  plain  weave,  besides  cot- 
ton cambric,  etc.,  are  the  cloth  which  is  called 
in  Qreat  Britain  calico  and  in  the  U.  S.  more 
.commonly  muslin,  except  when  printed  in  col- 
ors, and  muslin  proper,  a  cloth  which  is  either 
the  flue  hand-woven  stuff  of  India  or  its  Euro- 
pean imitation.  Woolen  cloths  and  those  of 
silk  and  wool  or  cotton  and  wool  are  also  fre- 
quently of  simple  weave.  Such  are  many 
blankets  and  flannels,  the  stuff  called  challis, 
which  is  usually  printed  In  colors  and  the  dress 
material  formerly  called  mdusseline  de  laine. 
The  patterns   in  simply  woven  stuffs  must  be 


Eats,"  or  other  plain  figures.  When  the 
reads  are  slightly  buncbea  together,  so  that 
three  parallel  threads  of  the  woof  which  have 
been  separately  alternating  with  those  of  the 
web  are  gathered  into  one  strand  and  alternate 
with  another  similar  strand  made  up  of  three 
threads  of  the  warp,  there  is  produced  a  square 
of  coarser  weave,  giving  a  decided  pattern  to 
the  surface.  In  like  manner,  especially  in  silk 
weaving,  threads  are  bunched  together  for  the 
whole  fabric,  producing  "  basket  weave,"  or 
an  appearance  of  silky  softness  is  got  by 
bunching  the  threads  lying  In  one  direction, 
and  holding  these  together  by  fine  strong 
threads  the  other  way,  as  in  some  silk  blankets. 
A  twiil  or  a  twilled  fabric  is  one  in  which  a 
thread  of  the  woof  is  carried  over  and  then 
under  several  threads  of  the  warp  at  one  time. 
This  produces  in  the  simple  forms  a  kind  of 
dia^nel  striping  characteristic  of  the  stuffs 
ordinarily  called  twill.  Scotch  tartan  plaids, 
the  soft  India  shawls  called  Rampoor  Chud- 
dabs,  most  linen  diaper,  tweeds  and  cheviots 
and  ■  serges,  are  examples  of  twilled  fabrics. 
Satin  is  nothing  more  than  a  twill,  the  threads 
which  lie  side  by  side  and  form  Uie  surface 
being  very  soft,  with  a  silky  luster.  Twilled 
fabrics  are  much  stronger  than  those  simply 


,CoogIc 


woven,  and  it  is  much  easier  Id  these  to  pr. 
due«  elaborate  pattenu  on  the  surface,  whether 
in  different  colors  or  by  the  mere  airuiging 
of  the  threads  so  as  to  catch  the  light.  Linen 
damask,  for  iasttijice,  such  aa  is  used  tor  table- 
cloths, has  commonlj  a  pattern,  the  principal 
threads  of  which  lie  in  one  direction,  while 
those  of  the  background  He  In  the  contrkry  di- 
rection. Crape  is  the  general  name  of  material 
made  of  threads  twisted  in  reverse  directions, 
so  that  the  surface  of  the  stuff  is  crimped  and 
blistered.  Ordinary  silk  crape,  a  thin  and 
gauzy  textile,  is  d^ed  black  and  used,  for 
mourning  garments  m  Europe,  but  is  printed 
in  brirht  colors  in  the  East.  Canton  crape  is 
a  thicker  and  softer  silk  textile.  CrSpon  is  a 
similar  labric  made  of  woolen  or  other  thread 
much  heavier  than  crape.  Perhaps  the  most 
important  variety  of  weave  is  that  which  pro- 
duces goods  having  a  pile,  sUch  as  velvet,  vel- 
veteen, and  fustian;  alao  corduroy,  which  is 
merely  velveteen  or  fustian  in  lengthwise  ribs. 

Thack'erar,  WilUam  Makepeace,  lSll-63; 
English  novelist ;  b.  Calc,utta.  He  was  sent  to 
England  in  1SI6;  educated  at  Gbarterbouse 
School,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge 
(182»-30],  but  left  without  taking  a  degree. 
At  Cambridge  he  edited  The  Snob,  a  weekly 
undergraduate  paper,  in  which  he  printed  a 
parody  on  Tennyson's  priee  poem,  ''  Timhuc- 
too."  He  then  traveled  and  studied  on  the 
Continent,  especially  in  Italy,  with  a  view  to 
becoming  a  painter;  spent  a  season  (1830-31) 
in  Weimar,  enjoying  free  access  to  the  ducal 

jurte  and  " 
Goethe  and 

residence  in  the  Temple,  and  began  to  read 
law ;  but  in  1 832  he  went  to  Paris,  in  which 
city  he  continued  to  be  as  much  at  home  as 
in  London  for  the  next  ten  years.  He  had  in- 
herited about  £20,000,  which  he  lost  in  an 
Indian  bank  and  in  journalistic  speculations, 
and  by  1637  he  began  to  devote  himself  seri- 
ously to  literature. 

He'  became  a  correspondent  of  The  Times; 
wrote  humorous  papers  for  The  Xeto  Monthly 
Magazine,  for  Fraaer,  and  for  Punch  over  a 
variety  of  signatures,  such  aa  "  Michael  Angelo 
Titmarsh"  and  "The  Fat  Contributor";  pub- 
lished collections  of  his  magazine  articles  with 
original  illustrations,  as  "  The  Paris  Sketch 
Book,  by  Mr.  Titmarsh";  "Comic  Tales  and 
Sketches."  including  the  "  Yellowplueh  Pa- 
pers"; "The  Irish  Sketch  Book."  He  visited 
the  East  in  1846,  and  published  "Notes  of  a 
Journey  from  Cornhill  to  Grand  Cairo";  was 
first  Tecognised  as  a  literary  celebrity  upon  the 
publication  of  his  novel,  "Vanity  Fair."  He 
was  called  to  the  bar,  1848,  but  never  prac- 
tioed;  availed  himself  of  his  recently  acquired 
popularity  to  issue  several  small  volumes  made 
up  from  earlier  articles ;  brought  out  in 
monthly  parts  his  second  novel,  "  The  History 
of  Pendennis,"  which  confirmed  his  already 
high  reputation,  and  made  him  in  popular  esti- 
mation a  rival  of  Dickens  for  the  first  place 
in  modem  English  fiction;  lectured  with 
brilliant  success  on  the  "  English  Humorists 
of  the  Eighteenth  Century,"  in  London,  1861, 
and  In  the  U.  S.,  18G2;  published  "The  His- 


se,  and  afterwards  In  England,  on  "  The  Pour 
C^rges";  presented  himself  unsuccessfully  as 
a  Liberal  candidate  for  the  representation  of 
the  city  of  Oxford  in  Parliament,  1867; 
founded  Thv  ComKUl  Magatnne  (1860),  in 
which  he  published  his  two  i  latest  novels, 
"  Lovel  the  Widower  "  and  "  The  Adventures 
of  Philip,"  both  Inferior  to  his  earlier  produc- 
tions, and  a  series  of  articles  collected  aa 
"Roundabout  Papers"  (1B62),  and  resigne<l 
his  editorship,  1862. 


^  ^eat  part  of  his  life  wi 
anity  of  his   wife,   who   ( 


Thackeray  bis  been  variously  described  as  a 
realist  and  a  caricaturist,  a  cynic  and  a  senti- 
mentalist Beginning  with  burlesque,  satirical 
character  sketches,  and  all  manner  of  humor- 
ous skits  and  broadly  comical  drolleries,  he 
gradually  widened  his  field  and  refined  his 
method  until  in  his  great  novels  he  was  able 
to  draw  a  picture  of  English  life,  and  especially 
of  the  life  of  town,  society,  and  the  upper 
classes,  which,  while  brilliant  as  satire,  in- 
cluded the  tragic  as  well  as  the  comic  elements, 
and  in  truth  to  nature  was  superior  to  the 
work  of  his  great  rival  and  counterpart,  Dick- 
ens. He  left  an  unfinished  novel,  "  Denis 
Duval,"  printed  in  1867. 

Tha'ii,  an  Athenian  courtesan,  as  celebrated 
for  her  wit  as  for  her  beauty.  She  accom- 
panied Alexander  the  Qreat  on  his  expedition 
into  Asia,  and  Is  said  to  have  instigated  him, 
during  a  festival  at  Persepolis,  to  set  fire  to 
ths  palace  of  the  Persian  kings  in  revenee  for 
the  calamities  which  Xences  had  brought  on 
her  native  city. 

Thaler  (tt'lfer),  Ull  1871  the  monetary  unit 
for  N.  Oermany,  worth  about  seventy-three 
cents.     See  D01J.AB. 

Thaleu  (thfi'lei),  abt.  636-S46  b.c.;  the  ear- 
liest Greek  philosopher,  and  one  of  the  seven 
wise  men;  b.  Miletus,  Ionia.  Various  physical 
discoveries  are  attributed  to  him.  He  is  said 
to  have  computed  the  sun's  orbit,'  to  have  fixed 
the  length  of  the  year  at  3fl6  days,  and  to  have 
been  the  first  among  the  Greeks  to  predict 
eclipses.  Philosophical  language  being  then 
unlnvented,  he  defined  his  atistract,  universal 
ground  of  things  as  water,  being  led  to  this 
perhaps  by  observing  that  all  nourishment  con- 
tained moisture.  Aristotle  calls  him  the  orig- 
inator of  the  Ionic  natural  philosophy,  and 
hence,  indirectly,  of  Greek. philosophy  in  gen- 

Thall'a,  in  Greek  mythology,  one  of  the  nine 
muses.  She  presided  over  comedy,  idyllic  and 
bucolic  poetry,  and  her  attributes  ere  the  ivy 
crown,  the  comic  mask,  and  the  shepherd's 
staflr. 

Thallltun,  one  of  the  rarer  elemen^,  a  metal 
discovered  almoet  simultaneously  in  1861  by 
I^my  in  France  and  Crookes  In  England,  by 
means  of  the  spectroscope,  in  which  it  gives 
a  bright  green  line.  It  is  found  in  iron  and 
copper  pyrites  and  with  sulphur.     Thallium 


•  Google 


THAU-0PHYTE8 

is  nearly  as  white  as  HilreT,  softer  than  lead, 
and  with  no  eUaticity.  Its  salts  are  highly 
poJBOnotiB,  and  aome  of  them,  like  silver  salts, 
are  sensitive  to  light. 

ThtllopbyteBi    or    Thalloph'ytj.,    a    general 
term  applied  in  botany  to  tbe'plaDta  below  the 


moesworts,  and  including  ths  protoDbytes, 
pl^cophyteB,  and  carpophytes.  Originally  the 
group  of  the  thallophytes  was  made  coordinate 
with  the  cormophytea  ("stonmed  planta"), 
the  two  including  the  whole  vegetable  king- 
dom, but  in  recent  years  it  hae  been  maae 
the  lowest  of  the  four  branches,  anthophytes 
(Oowering  plants),  pteridophytes  (fernworts), 
bryophytes  (mo&sworts),  thallophytes  (thallus 
plants).  While  the  term  is  a  convenient  one 
to  use,  it  does  not  represent  a  natural  group 
of  plants,  but  rather  an  aggregation  of  groups. 
Thames  (temK),  the  principal  river  of  Eng- 
land. It  rises  on  the  SE.  side  of  the  <>tsword 
Hills  near  Cirencester,  3T6  ft.  above  the  sea 
terel,  and  Bows  E.  to  the  North  Sea,  passing 
Oxford,  Beading,  Henley,  Windsor,  Eton,  and 
Richmond  on  i&  wa^  to  Loudon.  It  is  called 
the  Isis  up  to  its  junction  with  the  Thame. 
The  tide  ascends  as  far  as  Teddington,  between 
Eton  and  Richmond,  and  from  this  point  up 
to  Oxford  there  are  thirty- three  locks.  At 
Loudon  Bridge  its  width  is  290  yds. ;  at  Wool- 
wich, 490  y<fi,i  at  Gravesend,  800  yds.;  three 
miles  below  Oravesend  it  expands  into  a  targe 
estuaiy,  6  m.  broad  at  its  mouth,  at  the  Nore 
Light.  Its  entire  course  is  about  250  m.,  and 
it  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  1,400  tons  burden 
up  to  Blackwall,  0  m.  below  London  Bridge, 
and  barges  may  ascend  as  far  as  200  m.  from 
the  mouth.  It  owes  its  importance  as  a  water- 
way to  its  tidal  estuary  and  to  the  fact  that 
it  has  no  delta.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the 
Coin,  Leach,  Windrueb,  Cherwell,  Thame, 
Colue,  Lea,  and  Roding  on  the  left  bank,  and 
on  the  right  the  Kennet,  Loddon,  Darent,  Mole, 
and  Medway.  Above  London  the  Scenery  is 
interesting,  and  the  river  is  studded  with 
numerous  islands.  Through  a  vast  system  of 
canals   it  communicates  with  the   "  ' 

Thames,  a  river  of  Ontario,  Canada,  in  the 
peninsula  between  lakes  Hurcm  and  Erie,  flow- 
ing 8W.  about  160  ro.  into  Lake  6t  aair.    It 

is  navigable  for  small  vessels  to  Chatham,  18 
m.  At  the  Moravian  settlement  on  this  river, 
October  6,  1S13,  the  battle  of  the  Thames  was 
fought  between  the  British  under  Qen.  Proctor, 
with  2,000  Indians  led  by  Tecumseh,  and  the 
Americans  under  Gen.  Harrison.  The  Amer- 
ican cavalry,  commanded  by  Col.  Richard  M. 
Johnson,  opened  the  battle  and  defeated  the 
enemy.  Tecumseh  was  killed,  and  600  prison- 
ers, six  pieces  of  cannon,  and  large  quantities 
of  stores  ware  taken  by  the  Americans. 

Tbone,  or  Ttaegn  (thsn),  the  title  among 
the  Anglo-Saxons  and  early  Normans  of  cer- 
tain military  tenants  and  freeholders  in  the 
king's  service.  They  were  originally  the  serv- 
ants of  the  king,  and  became  a  new  nobility.. 
supplanting  the  older  nobility  of  birth,  the 
t«rls.     As  a  nobility  of  office.  It  made  it  pos- 


dble  for  the  simple  freeman  to  rise  to  noble  |  nences  o: 


TBGATBR 

Ilk.  The  churl  who  owned  five  hides  of 
nd  or  had  taken  three  sea  voyages  was  eligi- 
e    to    thanehood    and    had    a    voice   in'  the 

Itenagemot.    After  the  Norman  Conquest  the   . 
thanes  were  gradually  merged  in  the  barons. 

Tluui'et,  Isle  of,  the  NE.  extremity  of  the 
county  of  Kent,  England,  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  the  river  Btour  and  the  Nether- 

ig  Rivulet;  area,  26,180  acres.    The  surface 

level  and  the  soil  fertile,  though  light.  It 
contains  the  watering  places  Ramsgate,  Mar- 
gate, Westgate,  and  Broadstairs. 

Thasksgiv'ing  Day,  an  armual  religious  fes- 
tival in  the  U.  S.  It  originated  in  l&l,  when 
Governor  Bradford  of  the  Plymouth  Colony  ap- 
pointed a  day  for  public  praise  and  prayer  after 
the  first  harvest.  The  practice  was  observed 
by  the  other  New  England  colonies,  and  during 
the  Revolution  was  introduced  in  the  middle 
states.  Since  then  it  has  extended  to  nearly  all 
the  states,  and  has  been  a  national  institution 
since  1863.  The  day,  which  is  usually  the 
fourth  Thursday  of  November,  is  designated  by 
a  proclamation  signed  by  the  governor  m*  the 
President. 

Tha'sDS,  island  in  the  £gean  Sea;  S  m.  S. 
of  the  mainland;  since  1462  belonging  to  Tur- 
key. Area,  8S  sq.  m.  The  island  has  gold 
mines  not  worked  since  antiquity;  is  the  most 
fertile  and  least  visited  by  forei^ers  of  all  the 
Greek  islands;  and  in  dress  and  customs  its  in- 
habitants have  be^n  the  least  affected  by  mod- 
ern innovations.  Ruins  of  ancient  a^d  medi- 
eval monuments  abound.  Pop.  aht.  12,000,  all 
Greeks — simple,  unambitious,  and  prosperous — 
living  in  nine  villages. 

The'ater,  specifically,  any  strucoire  erected 
for  dramaUc  or  operatic  performances,  the  pres- 
ent form  being  a  modification  of  the  model  first 
established  by  the  Greeks  before  600  B.C. 

In  the  very  earliest  days  the  Athenian  dra- 
mas were  performed  upon  temporary  woodoi 
scaffoldings,  prototypes  of  the  booths  of  medi- 
aeval times,  which  were  put  up  for  the  festivals 
of  Dionysus  and  then  laid  aside  for  future  use. 
It  was  upon  such  a 
scaffolding  that  the 
first  acted  drama  of 
jEschylus  was  pro- 
duced, and  the  col- 
lapse of  the  structure 
during  the  perform- 
ance, an  accident  re- 
garded as  an  evil  omen, 
suggested  the  construc- 
tion of  a  more  durable 
edifice.  The  first  stone  I''-"' 
theater  was  begun  soon 
afterwards  on  the  8E.  slope  of  the  Acropolis, 
and  it  is  a  noteworthy  fact  that  the  plans  were 
drawn  with  such  skill  and  foresight,  such  ex- 
act appreciation  of  acoustic  and  spectacular 
requirements,  that  none  of  the  architects  of 
succeeding  generations  was  able  to  suggest  any 
important  improvement  upon  them.  In  all  the 
ruins  of  theaters  extant  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor, 
and  Sicily  the  same  arrangement  is  observable. 
All  Greek  theaters  were  built  either  upon  eml- 


a  the  side  of  a  hill,  and  in  evetj  cost 


THEATER 

tite  speettttors  occupied  the  upper  or  NW.  and 
the  Btage  the  lower  or  SE.  part  al  the  structure. 
As  the  perfonuances  occurred  at  eompaiiitivelf 
long  intervals,  and  were  originally  in  the  nature 
of  religious  festivals,  it  was  neceasary  to  pro- 
vide accommodation  for  ^eat  crowds,  and  some 
of  the  largest  theaters  held  70,000  or  SO.OOO 
people.  The  acoustic  qualities  of  the  audi- 
torium were  thus  the  last  to  receive  attea- 
tion,  and  the  actors  were  compelled  to  adopt 
ft  alow  method  of  elocution  aod  to  use  mechan- 
ical devices  in  their  masks,  like  megaphones. 
Originally,  the  most  importaut  part  of  the 
Greek  theater  was  the  orchestra,  the  central 
space  devoted  to  the  moTements  of  the  chorus, 
out  of  which  the  drama  ultimately  grew.  It 
was  a  little  loner  than  the  lowest  row  of  seats 
or  benches  surrounding  it,  and  was  boarded 
over.    In  the  center  of  it,  equidistant  from  the 

"  rear  of  the  stage  and  from  all  other  points  of 
its  circumference,  stood  the  altar  of  Dionysus. 
The  approaches  to  the  seats  were  mainly 
'  through  underground  passages.  There  was  no 
roof,  although  awnings  were  later  introduced. 
little  is  known  as  to  the  scenery,  although 
there  was  a  cert»in  amount  of  machinery,  in- 
cluding one  device  for  bringing  a  god  down 
from  the  sky  or  up  from  the  infernal  regions. 
To    add    to   their   stature,   Greek   actors   wore 

'  high-heeled  boots  ieothurnus)  ;  they  were  pad- 
d(5  BO  extravagantly  that  free  movement  was 
not  to  be  thought  of;  their  faces  were  hid- 
den behind  masks,  and  they  chanted  their  lines 
through  a  metal  contrivance  like  a  speaking 
trumpet.  The  performances,  which  always  in- 
cluded a  series  of  playa,  often  lasted  from  sun- 
rise until  sunset.  The  places  of  honor  were  in 
the  lowest  rows  of  benches,  where  the  magis- 
trates and  military  and  social  magnates  and 
illustrious  strangers  sat.  Above  them  were  the 
senators,   then    the    cpAeW,    then    the    general 

'  public.  The  average  rata  of  admiaaion  was 
about  two  obols,  or  six  cents.  Pericles  passed  a 
law  which  conferred  the  right  of  free  admiaaion 
upon  the  poor.  The  expenses  of  the  representa- 
tions were  defrayed  by  wealthy  citizens  and  by 
state  subvention. 

The  Roman  theaters  were  built  upon  the 
model  of  the  Greek,  but  had  no  altar  or  pro- 
vision for  a  chorus.  The  stage  as  we  know  it 
dates  from  the  old  miracle  plays  or  mysteries, 
performed  in  churches,  booths,  or  the  courtyards 
of  inns.  The  earliest  London  theaters  were  in- 
closed yards,  octagonal  or  nearly  circular  in 
shape  and  roofless,  except  over  the  stage,  which 
continued  to  give  shelter  to  the  fashionable 
theater  goers  until  Voltaire,  in  France,  set  the 
example  of  driving  them  into  the  boxes.  The 
green  room,  or  "  lirevnge  house,"  was  on  one 
Sde  of  the  stage,  and  the  roof  of  it  was  often 
surrendered  to  the  audience.  ,The  first  play- 
house in  London  was  the  theater  erected  by 
James  Burbage  in  1576-77,  and  the  next  the 
Curtain  Theater,  in  Shorediteh.  Burbage  built 
the  Globe,  of  Shakespearean  fame,  in  1698,  and 
in  the  same  decade  Henslowe  opened  the  Rose 
and  the  Swan.  Among  other  contemporary 
houses  were  the  Blockfriars,  the  Bed  Bull,  the 
Hope,  the  Whitetriars,  and  the  more  famous 
Fortune  of  Edward  AUeyn,  which  lasted  from 
ISOO  to  IS 19. 


The  invention  of  movable  scenery  datos  from 
the  seventeenth  century.  In  the  modem  the- 
ater the  spaces  on  either  side  of  the  stage  ara 
known  technically  as  the  wings,  and  these  orig- 
inally contained  all  the  scenery  (flats),  whi^ 
was  pushed  forward  as  required,  running  in 
grooves.  There  is  a  space  atrave  the  stage  as 
high  again  as  the  proscenium  arch,  known  as 
the  flies,  while  below  the  stage  there  is  an  ex- 
cavation called  the  dock.  The  double  stage  (of 
which  the  first  example  was  constructed  bt  the 
Madison  Square  Theater,  of  New  York)  is  use- 
ful when,  a  succession  of  elaborate  interiors  is 
to  be  presented,  but  it  occupies  much  space,  and 
has  other  disadvantages  which  has  prevented 
its  geperal  adoption.  The  advance  in  the  art 
of  stage  illusion  has  been  great.  Thunder  ie 
counterfeited  by  iron  balls  or  sheets  of  tin. 
The  use  of  electricity  has  made  real  light- 
ning possible  in  storms,  and  the  noise  of  rain 
and  wind  is  simulated  by  the  use  of  a  cogged 
cylinder  revolving  against  tightly  stretched 
cloth.  Formerly  lightning  was  simulated  by 
flashes  of  lycopodium  and  the  noise  of  rain 
by  parched  peas  in  a  metal  cylinder.  Wag- 
ner, at  Bayreuth,  £rst  used  steam  for  mag- 
ical and  other  effects,  and  water  is  most  faith- 
fully represented  by  mirrors  in  which  scenery 
is  reflected.  Until  1720  dip  candles  were  used 
for  footlights,  but  were  replaced  by  lamps  with 
Argsnd  burners.  Gas  followed  in  1822,  and 
now  yields  to  eiectricity. 

For  purposes  of  directions  to  actors,  scene 
shifters,  etc,  the  stage  is  divided  into  flve  lat- 
eral strips,  which,  beginning  from  the  left-hand 
side  as  the  spectator  faces  it,  are  denominated 
the  "prompt  side"  (from  the  position  of  the 
prompter,  who  no  longer  occupies  a  box  in  the 
very  center  of  the  footlights,  except  in  opera 
and  in  continental  theaters ) ,  "  prompt  center," 
"  center,"  "  opposite  prompt  center,"  "  opposite 
prompt  side.  These  titles  are  abbreyiated  into 
''P.  k,"  "P.  C,"  "C,"  "O.  p.  C,"  and  "O. 
P.  S."  The  various  entrances  tor  actors  in  the 
wings,  counting  from  the  front  of  the  stage, 
are  called  the  first,  second,  and  third  entrances, 
left  or  right,  as  the  case  may  be.  Doors  in  the 
rear  of  the  stage  are  described  as  center  and 
left  or  right  center  (back), according  to  position. 
The  dangers  from  fire  in  a  modern  theater  are 
very  small,  although  the  terrible  disaster  at 
Chicago  in  1003,  when  the  burning  of  the  Tro- 
i^uois  Theater  resulted  in  the  loss  of  over  800 
lives,  shows  that  every  precaution  of  fireproof 
construction  and  fire-resisting  material  must  be 
observed.  The  largest  theaters  in  the  U.  S.  are 
the  Metropolitan  (jperA  House,  New  York,  with 
a  seating  capacity  of  3.336,  and  the  Audito- 
rium, Chicago.  In  Europe,  La  Scala,  in  Mi- 
lan, and  the  San  Carlo,  in  Naples,  have  each 
a  seating  capacity  of  G,0(K>. 

The'bais  or  the  Thebaid,  ancient  name  of  S. 
or  Upper  Egypt,  from  its  capital,  Thebes. 

Thebes  (th^bz),  a  city  of  Egypt  on  both 
sides  of  the  Nile.  After  the  desertion  of 
Memphis  by  the  princes  of  the  seventh 
to  the  tenth  Egyptian  dynasties,  due  pos- 
sibly to  a  foreign  invasion,  Thebes  became 
the  capital  of  Egypt,  and  bo  continued  during 
the  middle  and  new  kingdoms.  The  city  proper 
was  on  the  £.  side  of  the  Nile,  and  is  now  — 


>,Coog 


of  Kamak  knd  Luxor  being  the 

W.  aide  of  the  river  was  occupied  by  the  The- 

ban  necropolis  and  varioiu  temples.    The  t«m- 

SlcB,  begiaiiing  toward  the  N.,  were  those  of 
umah,  the  lUmesBeum  (built  b;  Barneses  11), 
D^r  el-Medlneh  (founded  bjr  Ptolemj  IV  and 
continued  dawn  to  the  time  of  A^ustus,  dedi- 
cated to  Hathor),  and  Medtnet  Habu.  There 
was  also  formerly  a  temple  of  Amcnhotep  111 
(the  Mcmnpn  of  the  Greeks)  adjacent  to  the 
Colossi  of  Mcmnon,  but  it  ha*  almost  entirely 

Til    "„." '  ' 

and  the  Tombs  of  the  Queens,  W.  of  Medtnet 
Habu.  It  was  in  the  hills  W.  of  D6r  el-Bahri 
that  the  mummies  of  the  Pharaohs  of  the  sev- 
enteenth to  the  twentieth  dynasties  were  dis- 
covered in  1881. 

The  Libyan  hills  are  honeycombed  with 
toqibfl.  The  residence  portion  of  Thebes  was  to 
the  E.  of  the  temple  of  Kamak,  though  it  is 
estimated  that  about  a  quarter  of  the  popula- 
tion, consisting  of  priests  and  artisans  whose 
employments  were  of  a  funerary  character, 
dwelt  in  the  necropolis  on  the  W,  The  city 
goes  back  probably  to  the  Old  Kingdom, 
though  at  that  time  it  was  inaiKniflcant.     Its 

Srominence  dates  from  the  eleventh  and  twelfth 
ynasties,  when  more  extensive  building  oper- 
ations were  begun.  During  the  Hyksoa  period 
it  was  the  seat  of  native  princes  tributary  to 
tbe  invaders,  and  it  so  continued  till  the  sev- 
enteenth dynasty,  when  a  revolt  occurred,  oc- 
casioned by  religious  demands  made  upon 
Beqen-Ra,  Sing  of  Thebes,  by  Apepi,  the  Hyk- 
soa ruler.  War  was  waged  during  several 
reigns,  till  at  last  the  Egyptian  armies  were 
victorious.  Thebes  became  the  national  capi- 
tal again  and  Amon-Ra,  the  tutelary  deity  of 
Thebes,  became  the  supreme  god  in  the  Egyp- 
tian pantheon.  The  kings  of  the  eighteenth 
and  nineteenth  dynasties,  especially  Tnothmes 
III  and  Kameses  II,  were  active  in  building  at 
Thebes,  and  the  history  of  the  city  is  largely  a 
history  of  these  dynasties. 

During  the  reign  of  Amenophis  IV,  the  "  here- 
tic kin^'  the  capital  was  temporarily  removed 
to  Tell  el-Amarna,  but  the  power  of  the  priests 
of  Amon  was  too  great  for  the  innovator,  and  the 
old  r^me  was  speedily  restored.  After  the  close 
of  the  twentieth  dynasty  the  seat  of  government 
was  removed  to  the  delta,  and  Thebes  gradually 
lost  its  power,  though  it  was  twice  tne  source 
of  insurrections,  which  were  subdued  only  by 
the  aid  of  the  Romans.  Its  final  destruction  as 
a  politieal  power  occurred  in  85  B.C.  The  sanc- 
tity of  Thebes,  the  "  On  of  the  South  "  as  con- 
trasted with  "  On  Heliopolis,"  at  the  apex  of 
the  delta,  arose  from  the  fact  that  it  was  re- 
puted to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  Osiris,  but 
ft  was  inferior  to  Abydos,  the  burial  place  of 
Osiris,  and  Heliopolis,  the  city  of  the  Sun, 
In  the  relirious  estimation  of  the  people.  Its 
wealth  and  power  were  due  to  the  spoils  of 
war  taken  thither  by  the  warlike  Pharaohs 
of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  dynasties. 
The  epithet  "  hundred-gated "  applied  by  the 
Greeks  to  Thebes  had  reference  to  the  multi- 
tude of  pylons  which  marked  tlie  entrances  to 
-■' *  tcmplea. 

ISF  1 


THEISS 

Thebu,  capital  oil?  of  BceoUa;  founded  bf 
Ciulmua  in  a  fertile,  well-watered,  Mid  undu- 
lating plain.  The  city  was  very  prominent  in 
mythical  times,  for  many  of  the  most  important 
and  most  extensive  myths  were  located  there. 
Its  waits  and  their  seven  g8t«s  were  built  by 
Amphion,  and  \ .-i.—   l...  . 


il  then  by  Alexander  the  G 
usually  hostile  to  Athens,  but  she  never  fought 
with  success  or  rose  to  first-rate  Importanee  till 
after  the  battle  of  Leuctra,  when  she  assumed 
the  hegemony  of  Greece,  though  she  maintained 
it  only  during  the  lifetime  of  Epaminondaa. 
She  was  unfortunate  in  her  wars  with  Philip  of 
Macedon,  who  placed  a  earrison  within  her  cit- 
adel. On  the  death  of  Philip  she  expelled  this 
Sarrison,  hut  was  punished  therefor  by  Alexan- 
er,  who  razed  the  city,  sparing  only  the 
temples  and  the  house  of  Pinoar,  and  sold  the 
inhabitants  into  slavery.  Fhryne  offered  to 
rebuild  the  walls,  but  her  offer  was  declined. 
The  city  was  rebuilt  by  Cassander  with  the 
help  of  the  Athenians,  but  it  did  not  proqier. 
The  modern  town  has  about  S/IOO  inhabitants. 
It  was  virtually  destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in 
1BS3.. 

Thecla,  Saint,  according  to  legend,  a  virgin 
of  Antioch,  enthusiastically  attached  to  the 
Apostle  Paul,  by  whom  she  was  converted  to 
Christianity  and  strict  celibacy,  She  main- 
tained her  faith  in  Christ  amid  persecutions, 
public  and  private,  and  was  miraculously  c* 
■■      upon   hpr   virtue.      ••  T 


Uvered  from  assauibi  upon  her  virtue. 
Acts  of  Paul  and  Thecla     is  a  widely  circulated 
Christian  romance  of  tfae  sectMid  or  third  cen- 
tury, designed  to  exalt  celibacy. 


The'ism,  in  the  widest  acceptation,  the  doc- 
trine of  a  divine  Iwing.  As  such  It  may  be 
deistic,  pantheistic,  or  polytheistic.  In  later 
usage  theism  indicates  a  belief  in  Ood  not  de- 
rived from  BUpertiatural  revelation  and  not  spe- 
cifically Christian.  The  god  of  deism  (see 
Deists  )  was  a  god  outside  the  world  and  leav- 
ing it  to  go  alone,  or  goverued  by  natural 
laws.  The  god  of  theism  is  a  principle  of  life 
and  order,  never  ceasing  from  his  operations, 
his  laws  not  delegated  forces,  but  the  constant 
habita  of  his  activity.  On  the  physical  qide 
theism  has  allied  itself  wi(h  the  doctrine  of  evo- 
lution. During  the  transcendental  period  in 
the  U.  8.  deism  was  contemned  as  resting  on 
the  argument  from  design,  while  theism  was 
glorified  as  the  doctrine  of  conscience  and  di- 
rect intuition.  See  Deists  j  PoLTTHDSif ;  Pah- 

THUSH. 

Theisa  (tls),  a  river  of  Hungary;  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  Rlack  and  White  Thdsa, 
both  of  which  rise  in  the  Carpathians;  flows 
with  a  winding  S.  course  to  the  Danube,  which 
it  joins  22'  m.  E.  of  Peterwani:}in.  Its  entire  . 
length  is  828  m.,  for  the  greatest  part  of  which 
it  is  navigable.  After  entering  the  Hungarian 
plain  its  breadth  is  from  400  to  800  ft.,  ita 
shores  tow  and  marshy,  and  its  current  slug- 
gish.   It  is  rich  in  flah,  Mpedally  stiusecm. 


.  Cooglc 


THEIiOS 

Tke'mii,  B  daughter  of  Uraniu  and  G«a, 
anil  the  aecond  wife  of  Zeus,  by  whom  she  be- 
tame  the  mother  of  the  Hone  and  the  Mcertt. 
She  IB  the  peiBoniflcatJon  of  law  and  order  aa 
estublUbed  by  cuBtom  and  equitjr.  She  preeideg 
over  the  aBBembliea  of  men,  and  sees  to  it  that 
their  deliberations  make  for  order  and  juatice. 
In  art  her  features  resemble  thoee  of  Athene, 
aUr   of 


Tbemiitocles  ( the- mis 'tO- kite] ,  abt.  G14-449 
B.C. :  Athenian  general.  After  the  exile  of  Aria- 
tidea  in  4S3  he  waa  the  chief  political  leader  in 
Athena,  and  hia  main  endeavor  waa  to  make  it 
a  great  naval  power.  On  the  inTosion  of  Xencea 
he  induced  the  Athenians  to  abandon  their  city 
and  remove  mainly  to  Salamia,  where  the  whole 
naval  force  of  Greece  waa  gathered.  It  waa 
only  by  hia  influence  that  the  fleet  was  kept 
.together,  and  the  naval  battle  waa  fought 
wUch  reaulted  in  a  complete  victory  for  the 
Oreeka.  When  the  Athemans  returned  to  their 
city,  through  his  influence  and  management  the 
fortificationa  were  rebuilt  on  ao  enlarged  scale 
and  the  three  harbors  were  inclosed  bv  a  wall 
nearly  7  m.  in  circuit.  His  political  ascend- 
ency soon  declined,  and  about  471  he  waa 
oatraciKed  and  went  into  exile  at  Argoa,  and 
then  Bed  to  Penia,  where,  according  to  aome 
accounts,  he  excited  Artaxerxea  with  deluaive 
plans  for  the  subjugation  of  Greece,  and  finally 
poiaoned  himself. 

He  was  impetuoua  and  abrewd,  aagacious  in 
hia  judgment  of  actual  ctrcumstancea  and  their 
probable  consequences,  awift  in  arriving  at  a 
resolution,  inexhaustible  in  devices  for  the  real- 
ization of  hia  plans,  poaaeased  of  a  moat  imprea- 
sive  eloquence,  energetic,  cunning,  and  unacrU- 
puloua.  His  actions  show  a  blending  of  rank 
ambition  and  lofty  atateamanahip,  of  egotiam 
sometimea  even  aordid,  and  an  elevation  of 
mind  truly  noble,  which  becomes  the  more  in- 
explicable the  better  known  hia  ways  and  means 
become.  Neverthelesa,  in  a  moat  deciaive  criaia 
he  was  the  aavior  of  Athens  and  Greece. 

ThenAid'a'  Blue.    See  Cobalt. 


Theoc'ritna,  flouriahed  abt.  270  B.C.;  b.  Syra- 
cuse. He  was  the  creator  of  paatoral  poetry  as 
a  department  of  literature.  There  are,  under 
his  name,  thirty-one  poems,  besides  epigrams. 
He  wrote  in  Syracusan  Doric,  and  combined 
oonsummate  artistry  with  an  intimate  love  of 

Theod'oUte,  a  surveying  instrument  for 
measuring  vertical  and  horizontal  ansles  and 
taking  levels,  combining  the  uses  of  the  ordi- 
nary engineer's  transit,  the  quadrant,  and  the 
level.  In  the  American  form  of  the  instrument 
the  telescope  turns  over  and  the  vertical  angles 
are  read  on  a  graduated  circle.  In  the  Engush 
form  the  vertical  angles  are  read  on  a  semicir- 
cle beneath  the  telescope  and  level;  the  tele- 
Rcope  cannot,  therefore,  turn  over,  but  ia  re- 
versible. The  American  form  is  preferable  by 
reason  of  the  greater  facili^  and  predaion  of 


THEODORIC 

the  adjustments.     When   used   for  important 
aurveya  the  circles  are  30  in.  or  more  in  diam- 
eter; in  smaller  in- 
atruments  they  are 
5    or    6    in.      See 
Htfbomethx. 

Theodo'ra,  abt. 
508-S48;  BysanUne 
empress;  b.  either 
at  Cyprus  or  Con- 
stantinople; daugh- 
ter of  AcBciua, 
master  of  bears  to 
the  Green  Faction. 
She  appeared  on 
the  stage  as  a  pan- 
tomimic dancer,  an 
occupation   held   in 

reral  contempt, 
the  "  Anecdota," 
attributed  to  Pro- 
copiua,     acandalous 

rated  of  Theodora'a 
youth.  In  626,  when 
she  married  the 
consul  Juatinian,ahe 

was  but  seventeien  years  old;  hence  some  of  the 
charges  against  her  cannot  possibly  be  true. 
In  627  Justinian  succeeded  to  the  throne.  He 
required  pnblic  functionaries  to  swear  allegi- 
ance to  Theodora  aa  well  aa  to  himself,  caused 
her  effigy  tfl  appear  on  the  coins  with  his  own, 
and  cited  both  their  names  in  public  decrees  as 
joint  rulers.  During  twenty-three  years  she 
showed  herself  his  worthy  consort.  Her  cour- 
age and  judicious  counsels  prevented  hia  depo- 
sition at  the  revolt  of  the  Nika  in  632,  and  in 
all  questions  ,of  administration  she  took  a 
notable  share.  No  female  sovereign  manifested 
larger  interest  in  the  unfortunate  and  destitute 
of  her  own  sex  or  strove  more  earnestly  to 
alleviate  their  condition.  She  retained  her 
ascendency  over  Justinian  to  the  last.  The- 
odora was  of  small  stature,  pale,  delicate, 
vivacious,  graceful  rather  than  Mautiful,  had 
expressive  eyes,  and  was  fascinating  in  manner. 
She  died  of  cancer  at  Pythia,  near  Brusa, 
whither  she  had  gone  for  the  baths. 

Theod'OTic  (German,  Dietrich)  ,  surnamed 
the  Great,  abt  4G5-fi2g;  king  of  the  Ostro- 
goths; b.  Pannonia.  He  was  brought  nn  at 
the  court  of  Conatantinople,  and  aucceeded  hia 
father  Theudemir  aa  king  in  476.  He  waa  alter- 
nately an  ally  and  enemy  of  the  emperor  Zeno 
the  laaurian,  whose  territories  he  ravaged,  and 
who  to  get  rid  of  him  auggestel  the  conquest 
of  Italy.  In  488  Theodoric  marched  thither  at 
the  head  of  his  whole  people,  amounting  to 
about  200,000,  repeatedly  defeated  Odoacer,  cap- 
tured him  after  three  years'  siege  in  Ravenna 
(493),  had  him  asaasainated,  and  firmly  eatab- 
liahed  the  Gothic  power  over  the  whole  penin- 
sula by  partitioniiig  one  third  of  it  among  his 
warriors.  He  fostered  industry,  literature,  and 
the  arts.  The  Arlans,  to  which  sect  he  be- 
longed, being  persecuted  in  the  East,  he  retali- 


Theodo'siu*,  a  Roman  general  from  whom  a 
line  of  emperors  desceoded.  Sent  to  Britain  in 
307  A.D.,  ^e  drove  out  the  Ficts  and  Scots, 
strengthened  the  frontiers,  and  restored  order  in 
'the  countiy.  After  hia  return  he  was  on  the 
upper  Danube,  where  he  defeated  the  Alemanni. 
In  872  he  took  command  in  Africa,  and  put 
down  a  revolt  led  by  the  Moorish  chieftain  Fir- 
mua.  TheodosiuB  was  executed  in  3TQ  bj  order 
of  Valens. 

His  son,  Theodosius  I,  the  Great,  Roman 
Emperor  from  370  to  396,  b-probnblj  at  Cauca, 
in  Galicla,  abt  346,  and  educated  in  hie  father's 
camp.  Be  early  received  an  independent  i 
mand  in  Mccda,  and  diatinmiiahed  himself 
the  Sarmatians,  but  after  the  execution  of  hia 
father  be  retired  from  public  life.  After  the  de- 
feat and  death  of  Valena  in  the  battle  of  Adri- 
anonle  (376),  Qratlan  recalled  bim  to  the  court, 
made  him  commander  in  chief  against  the  Ooths, 
and  declared  him  Augustus  (January  19,  378), 

eacing  Egypt,  Asia,  Thrace.  Macedonia,  and 
acia  under  his  scepter.  Theodoeijs  pursued 
a  skillful  policy  Bgainat  the  Ootbs,  and  a  peace 
wail  concluded  by  which  thej  received  lands 
within  the  empire  and  became  allies  of  Rome. 
In  383  Oratian  was  defeated  and  killed  by 
MaximuB  at  Lyons,  and  Theodosiua  acknowl- 
edged the  usurper  as  Emperor  of  Britain,  Spain, 
and  Gaul,  but  secured  Africa,  Italf,  and  ifljri- 
cum  for  Oratian's  brother,  Valentiniau  II.  In 
387,  however,  Maximua  broke  from  Gaul  into 
Italy,  and  the  weak  Valentinian  II,  and  his 
mother  Justina,  who  was  the  true  regent,  fled 
to  Theodosius.  Theodosius  became  infatuated 
with  Valentinian's  sister  Oalla,  and  promised 
to  rettore  him  to  the  throne  in  order  to  obtain 
her  hand.  Maiimus  was  defeated  and  put  to 
dtfath  in  368,  and  Valentinian  II  was  rein- 
stated as  Emperor  of  the  West,  brt  in  392 
was  killed  by  Arbogastes,  who  raised  the  rhet- 
orician Eugenius  to  the  throne. 

Theodosiua  in  394  marched  against  Eugenius 
and  Arbogastes  and  defeated  them  at  Aquileia, 
thereby  uniting  the  whole  Boman  Empire  un- 
der his  scepter.  He  died  shortly  after,  how- 
ever {January  IT,  3S5),  at  Milan,  leaving  the 
empire  to  his  sons  Arcadius  and  Honor! us. 
TheodosiuB  was  a  Kealous  upholder  of  orthodox 
Christianity,  and  took  active  measures  for  the 
suppression  of  pagan  rites  and  heretical  opin- 
ions. His  obedience  to  the  Church  was  ex- 
emplified in  his  submission  to  the  penance  im- 
posed by  at  Ambrose  after  the  cruel  massacre 
of  Tbessalonica  (390).  His  grandson  Theodo- 
sius n  (40B-S01,  b.  401,  succeeded  his  father, 
Arcadtus,  as  emperor  in  tlie  East.  He  was  a 
weak  ruler,  controlled  bv  his  sister  Pulcheria 
and  his  wife  Eudocia.  He  is  chiefl;^  known  for 
the  Theodosian  code,  a  collection  of  the  im- 
Mrial  constitutions  issned  since  the  time  of 
Constantine. 

Theof'nfs  of  He^'ara,  Greek  poet;  flourished 
abt.  G60  B.C.  He  was  a  citisen  of  Megara, 
was  exiled  with  the  aristocratic  party,  and 
survived  the  Persian  War.  His  elegies  show 
the  state  of  pv^ies  and  the  social  problems  of 


THERAPEtJTJB 

Theol'ogy,  the  science  which  treats  of  God 
and  divine  things.  Viewed  as  the  whole  of  re- 
ligious science,  it  consists  of  four  main  branch- 
es: historical;  exegetical,  to  which  belongs  tlie 
interpretation  of  the  Bible;  systematic,  also 
called  merely  theology,  which  comprises  the  sys- 
tem of  Christian  doctrines  (dogmatics);  and 
Practical  or  moral  theology,  which  includes 
omiletics,  liturgies,  ecclesiaatical  law,  etc. 
These  are  again  variously  subdivided,  and  sev- 
eral auxiliary  sciences  are  connected  with 
them,  such  as  soteriology,  or  the  doctrine  of 
salvation  through  Christ;  eschntology,  or  the 
doctrine  of  the  final  state  of  all  men;  ecclesi- 
ology,  or  the  doctrine  of  the  constitution  of  the 
Church,  etc.  The  theologians  of  the  Middle 
Ages  were  divided  into  two  fundamental 
schools — the  scholastics  and  mystics — a  dis- 
tinction traceable  also  after  the  Reformation. 
Kant  developed  a  new  theory  of  Christian  the- 
ology, commonly  called  rationalism.  Its  oppo- 
nents, who  defended  the  Bible  as  the  absolute 
rule  of  faith,  were  called  supernatural  is  ta.  The 
chief  arena  of  this  controversv  has  been  Ger- 
many. In  Roman  Catholic  scnools  theology  is 
divided  into  dogmatic  and  moraL  Moral  theo- 
logians are  often  called  casuista  from  their 
treating  of  "  cases  of  conscience."  See  Reu- 
oiON;  God;  Natd&ju.  Tbboloot. 

Theophras'tns,  Greek  philosopher;  b.  Eresus, 
in  Lesbos;  head  of  the  Peripatetic  School  after 
the  death  of  Aristotle  for  thirty- five  years 
(322-287  B.C.).  This  prosperity  was  due  to  the 
character  and  ability  of  the  head  of  the  school, 
who  enjoyed  the  lushest  esteem.  Especially 
attractive  were  his  discourses  on  ethical  topics, 
in  which  he  showed  the  indulgent  temper  of  a 
man  of  the  world;  and  in  the  province  of  sci- 
ence he  eclipsed  the  botanical  work  of  Aristotle. 
But  the  work  by  which  he  is  best  known  is 
hia  treatise  called  "  Characters."  These  sketch- 
es are  taken  from  the  mimic  life  of  the  stage, 
and  are  of  importance  for  the  study  of  the  New 
Comedy.  The  book  has  been  imitated  scores 
of  times.  Especially  famous  are  La  Bri^Cre's 
companion  pieces  in  French  and  George  Eliot's 
"  Theophrastus  Such." 

Theos'ophy  (the  "knowledge  of  divine 
things  "),  a  name  now  applied  to  the  doctrines 
of  the  Theosophical  Society,  founded  in  1875  by 
Mme.  H.  P.  Blavatsky,  Col.  H.  S.  Olcott,  Will- 
iam Q.  Judge,  and  others,  its  avowed  objects 
being  (1)  "ito  form  the  nucleus  of  a  Universal 
Brotlierhood  of  Humanity  without  any  distinc- 
tions whatever;  (2)  to  prcmiote  the  atud^  of  an- 
cient and  modern  religions,  philosophies,  and 
sciences;  (3)  to  Investigate  unexplained  laws  of 
nature  and  the  psychical  powers  of  man." 

Theoaophy  is  founded  upon  the  doctrines 
of  reincarnation  and  Karma  or  justice.  It 
teaches  a  sevenfold  division  of  the  nature  of 
man,  the  three  highest  principles  —  spirit 
(Atman),  discernment  (Buddhl),  and  mind 
(MaQBa)^^Kintlnuing  through  each  rebirth. 
Much  stress  is  laid  upon  the  so-called  occult 
phenomena  and  the  development  of  higher  psy- 
chic powers. 

Therapeti'ta,  a  sect  of  Jewish  contemplative 
ascetics,  kindred  to  the  Esaenea.  Their  chief 
seat  was  on  lAke  Mareotis,  in  Egypt.    TbBj 


THERAPEUTICS 

were  of  both  seiea,  strictly  obserred  the  Sab- 
bath and  other  Jewish  feBtivals,  were  ardent 
etudeuts  of  the  Uosaic  law,  and  daimed  to 
have  secret  religioiu  knowledge. 

Tfaeiapeu'ticB,  Hea'taL    See  Pstobotbbsact. 

Theresa  (t«-Te'sa),or  Teieu  de  Je'aua,  Saint, 
1515-82;  b.  Avila,  Spain,  her  full  name  being 
Tebesa  Sanchez  de  Cepeda;  entered  |  Novem- 
ber 2,  1530)  the  Carmelite  monastery  at  Avila, 
and  in  1562  founded  a  reformed  branch  of  Car- 
melite nuns.  She  made  a  prolonged  study  of 
theology  and  wrote  several  mystical  and  ascetic 
treatises,  which  are  accounted  among  the  Span- 
ish classics,  and  obtained  her  a  great  reputa- 
tion. Among  them  are  an  autobiography  giv- 
ing an  account  of  her  interior  conflicts  and 
visions,  and  a  mystic  description  of  the  heav- 
enly life.    She  was  canonized  in  1S21. 

Tlier'mal  Springs,  or  Hot  Springs,  springs 
having  in  general  a  higher  temperature  than 
the  regions  in  which  they  are  found,  the  rise 
being  probably  due  to  contact  with  heated  rocks 
below  the  surface.  They  are  usually  found  in 
regions  where  the  rocks  have  undergone  great 
displacement,  or  where  there  have  been  vol- 
canic eruptions.  In  England  the  hot  springs 
of  Bath  have  been  known  since  the  time  of 
the  Romans.  In  the  U.  S.,  Virginia  and  N. 
Carolina,  Arkansas  and  S.  Dakota,  are  noted 
for  their  hot  springs,  but  the  grandest  devel- 
opments are  seen  in  the  Yellowstone  Park,  and 
in  Iceland  and  New  Zealand.  Geysers  are  in- 
termittent hot  springs. 

Thei'mlc  TtY'n.    See  Sunstboke. 

Theimidor',  the  eleventh  month  of  the  French 
republican  calendar  (July  19th  to  August 
18th). 

Thei'tnit,  a  mixture  of  alnminora  and  ox- 
ide of  iron,  which  when  ignited  produces 
aluminum  oxide  and  iron  at  a  very  high  tem- 
perature, near  3000°.  It  is  used  to  weld  met 
als,  to  make  solid  castings,  etc. 

Thermo dyiuun'icB,  the  science  that  treats  o{ 
transformations  of  energy  involving  heat,  espe- 
cially, in  its  earlier  stages,  of  the  transforma- 
tion of  heat  energy  into  mechanical  energy  (the 
BO-cnllcd  "development  of  power").  Thermo- 
mical  priaciples  are  involved  in  all  such 

Eical  phenomena  as  the  expansion  of  heated 
w,  development  of  heat  by  compression, 
dissociation  of  gases  and  of  dissolved  solids, 
flow  of  gases,  fusion  and  evaporation,  the  in- 
fluence of  temperature  on  an  electric  battery, 
etc.  The  fundamental  principles  of  the  science 
are  usually  stated  in  two  laws,  each  of  which 
assumes  a  variety  of  forms  whose  identity  it 
is  often  difficult  to  detect.  They  are  respect- 
ively the  thermodynamic  statements  of  the 
'   '  s  of  Ckinservation  and  Dissipation  of 


principles 


I  form,  the  First  Lato  simply 
states  that  heat  is  a  trausformable  form  of 
energy,  whose  mechanical  equivalent  is  con- 
stant. According  to  this  law,  if  a  quantity  of 
heat  be  imparted  to  a  body,  its  energy  is  ex- 
pended in  two  ways,  internally  and  externally. 
Internally,  the  body's  temperature  is  raised, 


THERMOELECTRICITY 

and  its  Btat«  may  be  changed;  externally,  the 
body  expands,  and  does  work  against  atmos- 
pheric or  other  pressure. 

The  Second  Law  states  that  to  change  all 
the  heat  in  a  body  into  other  forms  of  meigj 
is  Impossible,  and  it  depends  on  the  experi- 
mental fact  that  heat  passes  always  from  a 
hotter  to  a  colder  body;  never  in  the  opposite 
direction.  From  a  consideration  of  what  would 
happen  in  an  engine  of  ideal  efficiency  (one  in 
which  the  cycle  of  operations  is  reversible),  it 
appears  that  the  efficiency  of  a  heat  engine 
(any  device  for  transforming  heat  into  me- 
chanical work)  depends  on  the  range  of  tem- 
peratures that  may  be  used;  in  a  steam  engine, 
for  instance,  on  the  ditference  in  temperature 
between  the  toiler  and  the  condenser.  As  the 
passage  of  heat  would  involve  the  equalization 
of  these  temperatures  if  they  were  not  artifi' 
dally  maintained,  there  is  always  a  great  part 
of  the  heat  that  remains  Incapable  of  trans- 
formation. The  second  law  of  thermodynam- 
ics is  stated  in  another  form  by  introducing  & 
new  conception,  that  of  entropy,  which  may  be 
defined  as  the  ratio  of  a  minute  quantity  of 
beat  to  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  trans- 
ferred from  one  body  to  another.  During  such 
a  transfer  the  temperature  of  course  falls,  and 
entropy  is  therefore  increased  by  the  trans- 
formation. In  this  way  the  total  entropy  in 
the  universe  tends  toward  a  maximum,  and 
when  that  maximnm  is  reached  no  more  move- 
ment of  heat  will  be  possible,  tor  evetythtng 
will  be  at  one  dead  level  of  temperature,  and 
there  will  be  no  "  available  "  heat  left — no  pos- 
sible "development"  of  power  by  heat  en- 
gines. This  result  is  nothing  but  the  dissipa- 
tion of  energy,  so  far  as  it  applies  to  the 
particular  form  that  we  recogniee  as  heat. 
Thermodynamics  deals  very  laigely  with  the 

Shenomena  of  the  steam  engine;  and  its  de- 
uctions,  especially  from  the  data  obtained  by 
the  so-called  "  indicator,"  giving  the  varying 
relations  between  the  volume  and  pressure  of 
the  steam  in  the  cylinder  during  the  stroke, 
have  thrown  valuable  light  on  the  construction 
and  operation  of  such  engines.    See  Heat. 

Tliermoelectifc'ity,  electricity  produced  di- 
rectly by  the  action  of  heat;  also  the  branch 
of  electrical  science  tjiat  treats  of  the  direct 
transformation  of  heat  into  electrical  energy. 
If  two  dissimilar  conductors  be  joined  at  both 
ends  to  form  a  circuit,  and  the  junctions  be 
kept  at  different  temperatures,  an  electro- 
motive force  will  be  generated  at  the  junctions 
and  a  current  will  flow  around  the  circuit. 
With  iron  and  copper  the  current  flows  from 
copper  to  iron  across  the  warmer  junction. 
By  a  proper  arrangement  of  such  thermo- 
electric elements,  joined  in  series,  a  thermo- 
electric battery  may  be  formed,  and  several 
types  of  such  batteries  are  in  use,  though  not 
extensively.  The  electromotive  force  of  a  sin- 
gle element  or  couple  is  very  small,  but  such  a 
couple  may  act  as  a  very  delicate  thermosco^, 
a  slight  rise  in  temperature  at  one  junction 
producing  a  current  that  ma^  be  detected  by 
9  sensitive  galvanometer.  This  is  the  principle 
of  the  TKermopile. 

The  electromotive  force  dependijiot  only,  on 


,ooglc 


THERMOELECTRICITY 

the  difference  of  temperature  fit  the  junctioiu, 
but  on  their  absolute  temperatures.  For  every 
combination  of  metals  there  is  a  mean  tempera- 
ture al  which  the  electromotive  forces  at  the 
junctiona  are  equal  and  opposite,  so  that  no 
current  Bows.  This  is  callea  the  neutral  tern- 
perature.    For  mean  temperatures  of  the  two 


Fio.  1. — Thirhopile. 


junctions  above  the  neutral  temperature  the 
current  is  in  the  opposite  direction  from  that 
resulting  from  a  mean  temperature  below  the 
neutral  temperature.  This  is  called  thermo- 
electric inversion.  For  silver  and  iron  the 
neutral  temperature  is  223.5°  C. ;  for  copper 
and  iron  it  is  274.6°  C.  The  rate  of  change  of 
electromotive  force  with  temperature  may  be 
represented  hj  a  straight  line,  and  a  combina' 
tion  of  such  lines,  each  representing  a  different 
roetal,  is  called  a  thermoelectric  diagram. 

The  line  representing  some  one  metal  (lead 
in  the  diagram)  is  arbitrarily  taken  as  tjie 
horizontal  axis.  The  point  where  two  lines 
cross  is  the  neutral  point  for  the  two  corre- 
sponding  metals.      Thus   the   copper  and   iron 


+  10 3^  ■))' 


Bo°  loa'  iBo°  Ecio°  ieo°  W  aso"  Mf  « 

Fio.  2. 

lines  would  cross  at  274,5'".  The  electromotive 
force  of  a  couple  is  represented  on  the  diagram 
by  the  parallelogram  included  by  the  corre- 
sponding lines  between  the  temperatures  of  the 
two  junctions.  Thus,  that  of  a  copper-iron 
couple  at  loo"  and  200"  is  proportional  to 
ah  o  d.  Peltier  discovered  in  1834  that,  when 
a  current  is  sent  across  a  thermoelectric  junc- 
tion, the  junction  is  heated  or  cooled,  accord- 
ing to  the  direction.  This  phenomenon,  known 
as  the  Peltier  effect,  is  the  converse  of  the 
fundamental  phenomenon  of  thermoelectricity. 
Lord  Kelvin  (Sir  William  Thomson)  discov- 
ered that  heat  is  absorbed  at  points  of  the 
circuit  other  than  junctions,  when  the  current 

Kises  from  hot  to  cold  parts  or  the  opposite, 
is  is  called  the  Thornton  effect.  In  copper, 
heat  is  absorbed  when  the  current  passes  from 
cold  to  hot  parts;  in  iron,  the  reverse  is  the 
case.  Since  the  current  acts  in  this  case  like 
a  iiijuid,  electricity  ia  sometimes  said  to  have 
apeeifie  heat. 


-, 


■o» 


THERMOMETER 

Thermom'eter,  any  instrument  for  measuring  > 
temperature,  usually  a  fine  tube  containing 
mercury  or  colored  alcohol,  with  a  bulb  at  one 
end  and  sealed  at  the  other  end  after  all  air 
has  been  removed.  Two  fixed  points  are  then 
mat'ked  on  the  tube,  usually  the  levels  of  the 
temperature  of  melt- 
ing ice  and  of  boiling 
water.  The  interven- 
ing portion  of  the 
bore  is  divided  into 
equal  degrees  accord- 
ing to  various  scales. 
Ah  a  standard,  the 
air  thermometer  is 
sometimes  used.  The 
essential  parts  of  the 
air  thermometer  are 
the  bulb  (B.  Fig.  1) 
and  tbe  manometer 
(M),  by  meahs  of  *" 
which  ths  pressure 
may  be  regulated  and 
measured.  The  usual 
procedure  consists  in 
Dolding  tbe  air  with- 
in the  bulb  at  con- 
stant volume,  the 
mercury  within  the  manometer  tube  being 
brought  always  to  the  same  level  (n).  The 
temperature  of  the  air  within  the  bulb  is  com- 
puted from  the  preBsure  necessary  to  give  it  the 
volume  in  question.  At  very  high  temperatures 
this  process  has  to  be  abandoned  for  fear  of 
distending  the  bulb  and  changing  its  volume 
permanently.  For  such  experiments  the  pres- 
sure is  maintained  constant,  and  the  volume  ia 


Q§. 


Fio.  2.  Fio.  3. 

allowed  to  vary.  In  the  measurement  of  tem- 
peratures above  400",  porcelain  is  substituted 
tor  glass  on  accountof  its  greater  refrangibility. 
Special  forms  of  thermometers  are  made  to 
adapt  the  instrument  to  special  purposes.  In 
the  clinical  thermometer,  the  stem  is  short- 
ened between  the  zero  and  the  range  with 
which  one  has  to  do  in  determining  the  tem- 
perature of  the  human  body,  by  means  of  a 
small  subsidiary  bulb,  as  shown  in  Fig.   S. 


THERM0PYL2E 

Other  well-known  special  tomu  are  the  variotu 
niaximum  and  mini  mum  tbennometers,  ol 
which  one   (Rutherford's)   is  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

The  maximum  recording  devioe  consists  of  a 
steel  marker,  which  ii  pushed  along  the  wide 
bore  in  front  of  the  mercurf  column,  and  is 
left  by  the  latter  when  it  recedes.  The  mini- 
mum is  recorded  by  means  of  an  alcohol  ther- 
mometer containing-  a  minut«  dumbbell-shaped 
marker  of  glass,  which  fits  the  tube  loosely,  so 
that  when  the  thermometer  rises  the  liquid 
flows  past.  Upon  the  return  the  surface  Sim 
catches  the  marker,  which  is  thus  compelled 
to   follow   the   receding   column  to   its    lowest 

Where  it  is  desired  to  indicate  temperatures 
in  such  a  way  that  the  scale  may  be  easily  read 
from   a  distance,  distortion   thermometers  are 


used.    They  i 


lalc^oua  to  the  aneroid  ba- 

rometer    in    principle, 

the  same  multiplying 
devices  being  used  to 
carry  a  hand  along  & 
circular  scale.  Fig.  4 
shows  a  familiar  form. 
It  consists  of  a  strip 
of  copper  and  one  of 
i  steel  fastened  side  by 
I  side  and  bent  so  as  to 
form  nearly  a  complete 
ring.  The  copper  is 
on  the  inside.  Differ- 
ence in  the  expansion 
of  the  two  metals  dis- 
Fio.  *.  torta  the  double  piece 

which  is  fastened  at 
one  end,  and  the  slight  movement  of  the  free 
end  is  magnified  by  the  simple  device  shown  in 
the  figure.  The  spiral  spring  secures  a  prompt 
return  of  the  pointer.  In  Great  Brit&in  and 
the  U.  S.  the  Fahrenheit  scale  is  used.  It 
makes  freezing  point  at  32°,  and  boiling  point 
at  212*.  The  centigrade  scale  of  Celsius 
divides  this  interval  into  100°,  while  the  little- 


s'" C.  =  f   R. 

Tbennop'yltB,  or  simply  Py'Ue>  a  narrow 
defile  between  Mount  (Eta  and  the  Maliac  Gulf, 
leading  from  Thessaly  into  Locris.  It  was  the 
cnly  way  by  which  an  enemy  could  enter  from 
X.  Greece  into  Hellas,  and  became  celebrated 
as  the  scene  of  the  heroic  death  of  Leonidaa 
iind  his  300  Spartans  in  their  attempt  to  pre- 
vent the  Persian  hordes  from  passing  through 
the  defile.  The  locality  is  no  longer  a  pass,  as 
it  has  been  widened  by  natural  causes  intji  a 
swampy  plain. 

The'seuB,  in  Grecian  mythology,  the  national 
hero  of  Attica  and  the  founder  of  Athens;  a 
son  of  ^geus  and  ^thra.  He  was  married  first 
to  Antiope,  the  queen  of  the  Amazons,  and 
aftern'ards  to  Phicdra.  He  took  part  in  the 
campaign  of  the  .Argonauts,  in  the  Calydonian 
hunt,  in  the  battle  with  the  Centaur?,  etc.,  but 
his  most  famous  exploit  was  the  slaying  of  the 
Minotaur.  Attica  was  bound  to  send  annually 
a  tribute  of  seven  maidens  and  seven  youths  to 
Crete  to  be  sacrificed  to  this  monster.  In  order 
to  put  an  end  to  tliis  misery,  Theseus  repaired 


THIERS 

to  Crete  and  won  the  affection  of  Ariadne,  the 
daughter  of  King  Minos,  who  provided  him 
with  a  clue  to  the  labyrinth  and  a  sword  to 
kill  Minotaur;  he  slew  the  monster  and  car- 
ried off  Ariadne,  whom  he  afterwards  left  on 
Naxos.  During  a  revolution  in  Athens  he  fled 
to  Scyros,  where  he  perished  by  the  treachery 
of  King  Lycomedes,  but  in  46S  B.C.  Cimon  con- 
quered Scyros  and  brought  his  bones  back  to 
Athens,  where  they  were  interred  in  the  cele- 
brated temple  of  Theseus  [the  Theseum).  By 
the  sculptors  Theseus  was  sometimes  represent- 
ed as  resembling  Hercules,  with  a  lion's  skin 
and  a  club,  though  of  a  lighter  and  fleeter  form 
and  of  a  more  elevated  expression;  sometimes 
as  resembling  Hermes,  with  chlamys  (a  short 
cloak)  and  petasoe  (a  cap). 

Thessslo'nians,  Epis'tles  to  the,  two  New 
Testament  epistles  written  by  St.  Paul  to  the 
church  at  Tbessalonica,  in  all  probability  dur- 
ing his  long  stay  at  Corinth,  and  therefore,  not 
very  long  after  the  foundation  of  the  Thessa- 
lontan  church,  on  St.  Paul's  second  missionary 
journey.  A  note  at  the  end  of  each  of  the  epis- 
tles in  our  Authorized  Version  states  that  they 
were  written  from  Athens,  but  there  can  be  lit- 
tle doubt  that  this  is  erraneous,  and  that  they 
were  really  written  at  Corinth.  They  are  the 
earliest  of  Paul's  writings,  and  are  character- 
ized by  great  simplicity  of  style  as  compared 
with  his  other  epistles  The  genuineness  of  the 
first  epistle  has  hardly  ever  been  questioned, 
hut,  according  to  the  newer  criticism,  that  of 
the  second  epistle  is  more  than  doubtful. 

Thessaloni'ca.    See  Salonica. 

Thes'saly,  or  Thesulia,  a  large  division  of 
ancient  Greece,  bounded  E.  by  the  .^gean  Sea, 
N.  by  Macedonia,  and  W.  by  Epirus.  The  sur- 
face is  a  fertile  plain,  and  the  land  was  in  an* 
cient  times  famous  for  its  wheat  and  its  fine 
breed  of  horses.  The  inhabitants  were  ^olians, 
but  very  early  the  Epirotes  invaded  and  con- 
quered the  country,  and  made  the  inhabitants 
their  slaves.  The  government  was  otigarchical, 
but  very  often  disturbed  by  internal  wars, 
which  was  the  reason  that  Thessalia  never 
exercised  any  influence  on  the  affairs  of  Greece. 
It  was  conquered  by   Philip  of  Macedon,   and 

SBssed  from  Macedonia  into  the  bands  of  the 
.omans.  After  long  subjection  to  Turkey, 
Thessaly  was  added  to  Greece  in  1881  through 
the  recommendation  of  the  powers  after  the 
Russo-Turkish  War;  total  area,  5,073  sq,  m. 

The'tis,  in  Greek  mythology,  the  leader  of 
the  Nereides,  wife  of  Peleus  and  mother  of 
.Ichilles. 

Thibet'.    See  Tibet. 

Thitny  (t«-a-r6'),  Jacques  ITicoUs  Augna- 
tin,  1796-18S6;  French  historian;  best  known 
by  his  "  Histoire  de  la  Conquete  de  I'Angletcrre 
par  les  Normands,"  He  lost  his  sight  in  1826, 
but  continued  his  labors  by  the  help  of  his  wife 
and  friends. 

Thiers  (te-^r*),  Lonis  Adolphe,  1797-1977; 
French  statesman  and  author;  b.  Marseilles; 
studied  law  at  Aix;  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in 
1S1B,  and  began  to  practice,  but  was  drawn  to 
politics  and  Uterature,  and  removed  in  1881  to 
S  lm_..j  X.C    ^^^'^ 


.OOg\C 


THinD  ESTATE 

Paris.  His  articles  in  the  Conatitutionnel  at- 
tracted wide  attention.  In  1823  he  began  to 
pubtisb  his  "  Hiatoire  de  la  Revolution  frau- 
caiee,"  which  made  liia  name  popular  through- 
out France.  In  1830  be  founded  the  National, 
and  took  an  active  part  in  the  revolution  which 
effected  the  change  of  djnasW  in  France.  He 
WM  elected  a  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Depu- 
ties, held  ofBce  in  the  Ministry  of  Finance,  and 
in  1832  became  Minister  of  the  Interior.  For 
the  neit  four  years  he  directed  the  policy  of 
the  cabinet,  though  he  was  not  Prime  Minia- 
te till  1836.  In  the  controversy  between 
Mehemet  Ali  and  the  Forte,  France  supported 
the  former,  in  the  hope  of  gaining  the  suprem- 
acy in  Egypt  and  Syria,  while  Rubmb,  Great 
Britain,  Austria,  and  Prussia  insisted  upon  the 
inte^ty  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Thiers  as- 
sumed a  menacing  attitude,  but  the  king  re- 
fused  to  countenance  extreme  measures,  and 
Thiers  resigned.  He  visited  England,  Spain, 
Ital^,  and  Germany,  making  preparations  for 
his  great  work  "  Histoire  du  Consulat  et  de 
Empire." 

On  December  2,  1851,  he  was  arrested  and 
banished  for  opposition  to  the  empire.  He 
returned,  but  lived  in  retirement  until  1803, 
when  be  was  elected  a  member  of  the  Repre- 
sentative Assembly  by  Peris.  He  was  almoet 
the  only  member  of  the  Assembly  who  opposed 
and  condemned  the  declaration  of  war  against 
Prussia,  but  after  the  downfall  of  the  empire 
be  developed  an  astonishing  energy  to  save  his 
country  from  utter  ruin.  September  17,  1870, 
he  started  on  a  tour  to  London,  SL  Petersburg, 
Vienna,  and  Florence  to  procure  foreign  inter- 
Tention,  and,  in  October  opened  negotiations 
with  Bismarck  concerning  an  armistice.  After 
the  capitulation  of  Paris  and  the  conclusion  of 
the  armistice  he  was  elected  a  member  ot  the 
National  Assembly  by  twenty-six  departments, 
and  the  Assembly  chose  him  chief  of  the  execu- 
tive. On  August  31it  his  term  of  office  was 
jxed  at  three  yeare,  and  he  received  the  title 
of  "  President  ot  the  Republic."  He  was  very 
successful  in  negotiating  the  peace;  he  saved 
Belfort  and  one  milliard  for  France.  He  was 
stilt  more  successful  in  procuring  the  means  of 
fulfilling  the  conditions  of  peace.  The  insur- 
rection of  the  Commune  was  promptly  put 
down,  but  his  attempt  at  consolidating  the 
"  conservative  republic  "  by  legislative  enact- 
ment failed,  and  on  May  24,  1873,  he  resigned. 
Be  continued  a  member  of  the  Assembly,  and 
in  1876  was  elected  senator  for  Belfort 

Third  Sstate'.    See  Estates,  Thb  Tbbee. 

Tliiid  Or'ders.    See  TesTiABiEs. 

Tbiiit,  a  sensation  normally  caused  by  the 
need  of  water  in  the  animal  system,  and  con- 
■eouently  relieved  by  drinking.  The  ^at 
thirst  of  cholera  is  also  caused  by  a  deficiency 
of  water.  But  thirst  also  accompanies  febrile 
excitement.  This  is  only  temporarily  relieved 
by  drinking,  and  unless  contraindicated  by  the 
symptoms  smalt  lumps  of  ice  will  usuallv  re- 
lieve the  thirst  and  reduce  the  excessive  heat. 
The  use  of  too  much  salt  is  another  familiar 
cause,  the  explanation  being  in  this  case  the  ex- 
«e«sive  salinity  of  the  blood. 


THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 

Thiftr-nitie  Ar'tides  of  Seli'giaii,  doctrinal 
formulas  of  the  Reformation  period.  When  the 
Reformation  was  fairly  introduced  into  Eng- 
land under  Edward  VI  (1647-53)  Archbishop 
Cranmer  at  first  entertained  the  project  of 
framing  an  evangelical  catholic  creed  in  which 
all  the  reformed  churches  could  agree  in  oppo- 
sition to  the  Church  of  Borne,  then  iSolding  the 
e  survlvil 
on,    Calvi 

and  BuUinger — to  London  for  the  purpose. 
Failing  in  this  scheme,  he  framed,  with  the  aid 
of  his  fellow  reformers — Ridley  and  Latimer, 
the  royal  chaplains,  and  the  foreign  divines, 
Bueer,  Peter  Martyr,  and  John  ft  Lesco^ — the 
"  Forty-two  Articles  of  Religion  "  for  the  Eng- 
lish Reformed  Church.  They  were  completed  in 
November,  1G52,  and  published  in  June,  1663, 
by  royal  authority.  The  refetablishraent  of  the 
Papacy  under  Maiy  (1563-6S)  set  them  aside, 
together  with  the  Edwardian  Book  of  Common 
Prayer.  Under  Elizabeth  (1568-1603)  the  arti- 
cles were  revised  and  permanently  restored. 
They  were  reduced  to  thirty-nine  and  brought 
into  the  shape  they  have  ever  lince  retain,ed. 

The  Thirty-nine  Articles  covered  nearly  all 
the  beads  of  the  Christian  faitb,_  especially 
those  which  at  the  time  of  their  framing 
were  under  disput«  with  the  Roman  Catholics. 
They  affirm  the  old  orthodox  doctrines  of  th« 
Trinity  and  incarnation,  the  Au^ustinian  views 
on  free  will,  total  depravity,  divine  grace,  faith, 
good  works,  election,  and  the  Protestant  doc- 
trines on  the  Church,  purgatory,  and  the  sac- 
raments of  baptism  and  the  Ixird's  Supper. 
They  are  borrowed  in  part  from  Lutheran 
standards — namely,  the  Augsburg  ConfesBton  of 
Melanchthon  (1630)  and  the  Wortemberg  Con- 
fession of  Brentius  (1652),  but  on  the  sacra- 
ments, especially  the  much-disputed  doctrine  of 
the  real  presence  in  the  eucharist,  they  follow 
the  Swiss  reformers,  Bullinger  and  Calvin.  In 
the  political  sections  they  are  purely  English, 
and  teach  the  Erosttan  doctrine  of  the  spiritual 
as  well  fcs  temporal  supremacy  of  the  sovereign 
as  the  supreme  governor  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land. The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in  the 
U.  3.,  after  effecting  an  independent  organiza- 
tion in  consequence  of  the  American  Revolu- 
tion, adopted  the  Thirty-nine  Articles  of  the 
mother  church  at  the  General  Convention  held 
in  Trenton,  N.  J.,  September  12,  1801,  but  with 
alterations  and  omissions  in  the  political  arti- 
cles, which  the  semiration  of  Church  and  State 
made  necessary.  The  only  doctrinal  difference 
is  the  omission  of  all  allusion  to  the  Athana- 
sian  Creed,  which  is  also  excluded  from  the 
American  Prayer  Book.  The  Twenty-flve  Arti- 
cles of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church  and  the 
Thirty-flve  of  the  Reformed  Episcopal  Chureh 
are  based  upon  the  Thirty-nine  Articles.  See 
Fiira,  Articles  of;  Cbrbd. 

Thirty  lyrwitB,  a  body  of  thirty  magis- 
trates in  Athens  (404-403  e.C).  They  were 
appointed  from  the  aristocratic  party  by  the 
Spartans,  victorious  in  the  Peloponnesian  War. 
The  tyrants  were  guilty  of  the  most  cruel  and 
shameless  acts,  and  after  one  year  were  es- 
pelled  by   Throsybulus. 

Thirty  Years'  War,  a  sucoessioo  of  wars 
( 1018-48)  begun  as  a.  struf^le  between  Xomam 
3  LM_.:l   .COOgIC 


THIRTY  YEARS'  WAK 

Catholics  SJid  Proteatanta,  carried  on  to  eatab- 
liab  the  autboritf  ol  the  Germiia  emperor  over 
the  religious  interests  of  Gennan;,  and  con- 
cluded as  a  struggle  of  the  house  of  Austria 
to  maintain  ita  imperial  power. 

Cavaes  of  the  War. — By  the  Treaty  of  Augs- 
burg (1566),  each  of  the  German  states  vas 
permitted  to  detennine  the  nature  of  its  na- 
tional religion.  All  Hubjccts  were  permitted 
to  remove  from  states  in  which  their  religion 
was  forbidden  to  states  itt  which  it  was  offl- 
ciall;  sanctioned.  But  Protestantism  continued 
in  Catholie  states  and  Catholicity  continued 
where  it  was  prohibited.  Protestantism  throve, 
especially  in  Bohemia  and  Austria ;  but  under 
Rudolf  II  (1676-1012)  a  reaction,  largely  un- 
der the  influence  of  the  Jesuits,  set  in.  In 
1608  the  Evangelical  Union  and  in  1009  the 
Catholic  League  were  formed  to  protect  their 
respective  interests.  The  Emperor  Matthias 
(1812-19)  gave  certain  guaranties  of  liberty, 
but  in  1617  Ferdinand  of  Styria,  a  pupil  of 
the  Jeauits,  was  crowned  King  of  Bohemia. 
Peiseeutions  began.  Protestant  churches  were 
closed  in  Braunau  and  pulled  down  in  Klos- 
tergrab.  The  Protestant  estates'  met  in 
Pr^ue,  March  6,  1618,  and  petitioned  the  Em- 
peror Matthias,  who  declared  their  meeting 
illegal.  Protestants  and  Catholics  alike  in  all 
parts  of  S.  Germany  took  up  arms. 

The  Bohemian  War  (1618-20).— The  conces- 
sions made  to  Protestants  in  Bohemift  were 
withdrawn,  and  an  insurrection  followed. 
Frederick  V,  the  Elector  Palatine  and  a  Prot- 
estant, was  chosen  King  of  Bohemia  in  161B. 
Count  Thum  repeatedly  defeated  the  Catholic 
forces,  but  Frederick  V  was  a  courtier  rather 
than  a  soldier,  and  his  motley  army  was  totally 
routed  by  the  army  of  Maximilian  of  Bavaria 
at  Weissemberg,  November  8,  1620.  The  same 
autumn  and  winter  the  lower  Palatinate  was 
ravaged  by  an  army  of  Spaniards  under 
Spinola.  The  Protestants,  utterly  defeated  in 
Bohemia,  were  given  over  to  persecution. 

War  M  the  PaUitiTiate  (1821-23).— Count 
Manafeld  and  Duke  Christian  of  Brunswick 
at  the  head  of  the  Protestant  forces  showed 
^11  and  energy  in  opposing  the  Catholic 
armies  on  the  Rhine.  They  ravaged  the  terri- 
'  tories  of  the  Catholic  League,  and  every^vtiere 
retaliated  for  the  tyranny  shown  by  Ferdinand 
II  against  the  Protestants.  Both  sides  fought 
with  desperation.  The  imperial  commander, 
Tilly,  defeated  the  Margrave  of  Baden  at 
Wimpfen  (May  6,  1622)  ;  also  Christian  of 
Brunswick  at  HOcbst  (June  30,  1622)  and  at 
Stadtlohn  (August  6,  1623).  These  victories 
might  have  ended  the  war  but  for  twr  reasons. 
The  Protestant  princes  in  the  N.  were  begin- 
ning to  be  aroused,  and  Mansfeld  and  Chris- 
tian, though  dismissed  by  Frederick  (July, 
1623),  refused  to  lay  down  their  arms  or  leave 
the  field.  They  fought  desperately  on  their 
own  account  in  Alsace,  in  Lorraine,  in  Hol- 
land, and  in  Saxony,  supporting  their  armiefl 
as  they  went,  and  evei^where  leaving  desola- 

Th«  Danish-Saaon  War  (1624-29). —The 
Danish  king.  Christian  IV,  resent«d  injuries 
inflicted  on  him  by  the  emperor,  and,  sup- 
ported bj  »  Britlsb  sohaldy,  joined  the  Prot- 


THIRTY  YEARS'  WAR 

wtant  cause  in  1624.  With  the  forces  of 
Mansfeld  and  Christian  of  Brunswick,  he 
marched  into  lower  Saxony.  Meantime  the 
Emperor  Ferdinand  bad  called  for  the  help  of 
Wailenstein,  who,  with  the  army  of  Leaguers 
under  Tilly,  now  marched  to  the  N-  The  Danes 
were  routed  in  1626  by  Tilly  at  Lutter  and 
Mansfeld  by  Wailenstein  at  Dessau.  The  hopes 
of  the  Protestants  would  have  perished  but 
for  the  fact  that  Mansfeld,  after  an  apparently 
overwhelming  defeat,  gathered  together  forces 
enough  to  conduct  a  victorious  raid  through 
Silesia,  Moravia,  and  Hungary.  Meanwhile, 
however,  the  forces  of  Wailenstein  and  Tilly 
overran  N.  Qermany  and  Denmark,  and  com- 
pelled Christian  IV  to  sign  a  trea^  of  peace 
at  Lubeck,  May  12,  1620. 

The  Sv>edUh-0«rman  War  (1630-36).— In 
1629  Ferdinand  issued  the  Edict  of  Restitu- 
tion, according  to  which  all  estates  that  had 
been  secularized  since  1552  were  restored  to 
the  Catholic  Church.  The  edict,  unpopular 
with  many  Catholics,  gave  offense  to  the  Prot- 
estants. Not  content  with  this,  Ferdinand 
fomented  a  revolt  of  the  Poles  against  Sweden, 
thus  intensifying  the  indignation  that  was  al- 
ready at  the  point  of  war.  On  July  4,  1630,  ' 
Guabivus  AdolpbuB  landed  with  a  Swedish 
army  at  Usedom,  drove  the  imperialists  out  of 
Mecklenburg  and  Pomerania,  and  formed  alli- 
ances with  Hesse,  Saxe-Weimar,  Magdeburg, 
Brandenburg,  and  Saxony.  Tilly  advanc^ 
against  the  new  alliance,  and  stormed  and 
sacked  Magdeburg,  May  20,  1631,  after  a  des- 
perate si^e.  The  dty  was  given  up  to  plun- 
der, and  the  slaughter  of  the  inhabitants 
became  memorable.  But  at  Breitenleld,  near 
Leipzig,  Tilly  was  nearly  annihilated.  Gus- 
tavus  advanced  to  the  W.,  to  the  S.,  and  to 
the  E.,  traversing  the  Rhine  and  ascending  the 
valley  of  the  Mam,  defeating  his  enemy  on  the 
Lech,  April  15,  1632,  where  Tilly  was  slain, 
and  entering  Munich,  May  17th,  after  having 
established  OTganizars  and  supporters  in  every 
Important  city  along  his  route.  The  brilliancy 
of  this  march  stalled  Europe  and  laid  the 
basis  for  a  new  Evangelical  Union,  with  Sweden 
at  the  head.  Ferdinand  saw  that  the  case  was 
desperate,  and  thereupon  recalled  Wailenstein, 
whom  he  had  previously  disgraced,  ^ving  him 
practically  unreserved  powers.  Wailenstein 
rapidly  collected  an  army,  overran  Bohemia, 
and  marched  N.  into  Saxony.  Guatavus  was 
obliged  to  follow.  In  the  desperate  battle  of 
Latzen  (November  16,  1632}  Wailenstein  was 
defeated,  but  the  cause  of  the  Protestants, 
while  overthrowing  the  enemy,  suffered  an 
irreparable  loss  in  the  death  of  Gustavus 
Adolphus  at  the  moment  of  victory.  The 
Swedes,  under  Oxenstiema,  preserved  uieir  ad- 
vantages until  at  NOrdlingen,  September  6, 
1634,  the  Protestants,  under  Bernard  of  Wei- 
mar, were  totally  defeated.  The  cause  of  the 
emperor  was  thus  reinstated,  and  Saxony 
signed  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Prague,  May  30, 
1635. 

The  French  -  Swedieh  War  { 1636-48) . — 
Richelieu,  having  broken  the  political  power 
of  the  Huguenots  and  of  the  nobles  in  France, 
was  now  rf.idy  to  advance  to  the  third  great 
object  of  hia  policy — the  defeat  of  the  ambi- 


tiona  of  Aiutrift.  To  secure  the  heftriy  alli- 
ance of  France,  OxenatieniB  yielded  to  Richelieu 
the  direction  of  the  war.  The  contest  then 
become  political  rather  than  religious.  Wbiie 
France  united  with  Sweden,  Denmark  and 
SazoBjr  united  with  the  Emperor  Ferdinand. 
Another  set  of  generals  then  came  into  prom- 
inence. The  Swedes  under  Banfir  held  N.  Ger- 
many, and,  after  penetrating  Silesia  and  Bo- 
hemia, defeated  the  Austrians  and  Saxons  at 
Wittstock  in  1836.  The  same  army  under 
Torgtensson  and  KSnigsmark  gained  further 
Tictoriea  at  Breitenfeld  (1642)  and  Jankiu 
|164S).  Meantime,  Turenne  and  Cond6  deras- 
tated  the  regions  of  tlie  Rhine,  and  drove  the 
imperial  forces  from  the  Palatinate  and  from 
BaTaria.  These  successes  prepared  the  way  for 
an  invasion  of  Austria,  which  was  about  to 
take  place  when  the  terrible  struggle  was 
brought  to  an  end  bv  the  Pence  of  Westphalia, 
October  24,  1648.  Aa  the  fruit  of  this  most 
terrible  of  modern  wars.  Fro  testa  ntism  was 
saved,  but  at  a  cost  which  it  is  difficult  even 
to  estimate.  The  population  was  greatly  de- 
creased; intellectually  and  morally  the  people 
suffered  a  great  decline.  Germany  was  disin- 
tegrated, and  the  material  losses  were  such 
tl».t  a  complete  recovery  had  hardly  taken 
place  at  the  end  of  two  centuries. 

Thisbt.    See  PTSAifUB  AND  Thisbe. 

Thla'Ue,  any  one  of  many  stout  spinous 
herbs  of  the  ComjHmlw  and  of  the  genera, 
Cnicus,  Carduua,  Ceniaurea,  Onopor£n.  A 
few  have  medicinal  qualities,  and  some  have 
fine  flowers.  The  roots  and  leaves  of  some 
■pedes  were  once  eaten  aa  food.    The  creeping 


thistle,  errooeonsly  called  the  Canada  thistle 
(Onicus — or  Carduus — arventi*).  Is  a  noxious 
weed  of  European  origin,  now  naturalized  in 
America.  It  la  a  perennial,  with  many  long, 
running  underground  stems  which  come  to  the 
surface  and  give  rise  to  new  plants.  When 
these  creeping  stems  are  cut  or  broken,  each 
part  produces  a  new  plant. 


THOUAS 

hood,  reputed  on  insufficient  grounds  to  be  of 
great  antiquity.  The  thistle  is  mentioned  as 
the  national  emblem  of  Scotland  in  the  in- 
Tcntoiy  of  the  effects  of  James  III,  who  is 
thought  to  have  adopted  it.  But  the  order 
had  no  distipct  existence  previous  to  lOHT, 
vhen  a  warrant  for  its  restitution  was  issued 
by  James  VII  of  Scotland  and  II  of  England. 
It  fell  into  abeyance  after  the  abdication  of 
James,  but  was  restored  by  Anne  in  1703,  and 
is  now  one  of  the  recognized  orders  of  the 
British  Empire.  The  number  of  knights,  orig- 
inally tn'elvo  besides  the  sovereign,  is  now  six- 
teen. The  star  of  the  order  is  of  silver,  with 
eight  rays,  and  a  thistle  in  the  center,  sur- 
rounded by  the  motto,  "  Nemo  me  impune 
lacesait"    (Ko    one    injures   me   with    impun- 

ity). 
Thom'ns,   or   Did'ymns,   Saint,   one   of   the 

twelve  apostles,  of  whose  personal  character 
and  history  nothing  is  known  except  by  two 
or  three  allusions  in  the  Gospel  of  John.  The 
most  important  of  these  is  his  refusal  to  be- 
lieve in  the  resurrection  of  Jesus  until  con- 
Tinced  by  tangible  proof.  Two  apocryphal 
works  are  ascribed  to  him — a  "  Ghtspel  "  and 
"  Acts."  He  was  represented  by  later  so-called 
"  tradition "  as  having  preached  in  Ethiopia, 
Egypt,  Parthia,  or  India,  and  in  the  latter 
country  the  Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  found 
t^  the  Portuguese  on  the  Malabar  coast  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  claimed  to  originate  from 
his  presching.  This,  however,  is  probably  due 
to  a  confusion  with  a  Nestorian  or  Maniehsean 
missionary.  Great  efforts  have  been  made  by 
several  Spanish,  Mexican,  and  S.  American 
theologians  to  make  it  appear  that  the  apostle 
erangelized  America,  and  traces  of  his  presence 
are  pointed  out  in  sacred  caves  and  other  sites 
from  Paraguay  to  Mexico,  in  which  latter 
country  he  Das  been  formally  identified  by  sev- 
eral native  antiquarians  with  the  Aztec  divin- 
ity, QuetKalcohuatt. 

Thomas,  George  Henry,  I81ft-T0;  American 
military  oQlcer ;  b.  Southampton  Co.,  Va. ; 
graduated  at  the  U.  8.  Military  Academy, 
1840;  served  in  Florida  against  the  Seminoles 
and  in  the  Mexican  War ;  was  instructor  at 
the  Military  Academy,  1H31-54,  and  in  1S55 
was  appointed  major  of  the  Second  Cavalry, 
with  which  he  served  for  the  next  five  years. 
On  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War,  Thomas  at 
once  gave  bis  adherence  to  the  Union.  Pro- 
moted to  brigadier  general  of  volunteers  in 
August,  1861,  and  transferred  to  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Cumberland,  he  was  for  a  time 
engaged  in  organizing  the  First  Brigade;  was 
given  command  of  the  First  Division  {Army 
of  the  Ohio)  in  November,  1B61,  and  fought 
in  the  battle  of  Kfill  Springs  {January  19-20, 
1S62),  which  was  the  most  important  victory 
^et  gained  in  the  W.,  and  brought  Tliomos 
into  notice.  He  was  promoted  to  major  general 
of  voluiitcpTi,  April  2,  1862,  and  rendered  val- 
uable service  in  the  W.  and  S.  In  the  batLlc 
of  Murfrecsboro  he  commanded  the  ccntPr.  and 
at  Chickamauga,  September  19-20,  1803,  he 
commanded  the  left  wing,  where  the  great 
struggle  took  place  for  the  repossession  of 
Chattanooga,  out  of  which  the  enemy  had  been 


THOMAS 

roaDeuTered.  Thomaa's  wonderful  resistance 
for  upward  of  five  hours  against  the  efforts  of 
the  enemy  after  the  Federal  right  was  routed 
forms  one  of  the  most  remarkable  events  in  the 
war,  and  earned  for  him  the  name  ot  "  the 
Rock  of  Chickaioauga." 

He  was  given  command  of  the  Armj  of  the 
Cumberland,  and  oa  October  S7th  conunis- 
stoned  brfradier  general  in  the  r^ular  armr. 
On  September  27,  1864,  Thomas  was  placed  m 
chief  command  in  Tennessee,  with  large  dii- 
cretionarf  powers,  as  it  was  a  matter  of  doubt 
what  were  the  intentions  of  Oen.  Hood,  who 
was  moving  northward  in  the  hope  of  causing 
Sherman's  withdrawal  from  Georgia.  Thomas 
checked  Hood's  advance  at  Nashville,  pursued 
him  bq'ond  the  Tennessee,  and  destrc^ed  his 
army.  The  appointment  of  major  general  in 
the  regular  army  was  (Ekcember  15,  1864) 
bestowed  upon  him,  and  Congresa  tendered  him 
a  vote  of  thanks.  He  contributed  materially 
to  the  overthrow  of  the  Confederacy  by  organ- 
izing raidiw  expeditions  (resulting  in  the 
capture  of  Jefferson  Davis  in  May,  1866 1 . 

Thomas,  Theodore,  183S-190II;  American  or- 
chestral conductor;  b.  Esens,  Hanover;  made 
dC-but  as  violinist  at  the  ace  of  six ;  removed 
with  his  parenU  to  New  York  in  1846.  In 
1855  he  started  a  series  of  chamber-music  con- 
certs with  William  Mason,  Oeorge  Matika, 
Joseph  Mosenthal,  Ferd.  Bergner,  and  Carl 
Bergroann,  which  continued  till  1869.  In  1864 
he  began  his  first  series  of  symphony  concerts 
with  an  orchestra  which  he  conducted  until 
1888.  From  1878-81  he  was  director  of  the 
Cincinnati  College  of  Music.  For  ten  years  he 
was  conductor  of  the  New  York  Philharmonic 
Society  and  of  the  Brooklyn  Philharmonic  So- 
ciety, till,  in  18SS,  he  was  appointed  musical 
director  of  the  World's  Columbian  GTposition 
in  Chicago,  in  which  city  he  remained  leader 
of  a  permanent  orchestra  until  his  death. 

Thomas  i  Becket.    See  BECKin,  Thouas  k. 

Tbonuia  i  Kem'pis.    See  Kempib,  Thouab  i. 

Thomas  Aqul'naa.    See  Aquinaa,  St.  Thou- 


Thomas  the  Sh/mer.    See  Rhtuek.  Thou- 

Thom'son,  James,  1700-48;  English  poet;  b. 
Ednam,  Roxburghsliire;  studied  at  the  Univ. 
of  Edinburgh,  with  the  design  of  entering  the 
Church,  hut,  abandoning  this  intention,  went 
to  London  in  1724,  where  he  was  tutor  in  a 
nobleman's  family.  In  1726  appeared 
poem-      '*  WiTiti»r."      --*-'-*-       *- - 


"  Winter,  which  became  popular ; 
'■  Summer "  followed  in  1727,  "  Spring "  in 
1728,  and  "  Autumn "  in  1730,  completing 
"  The  Seasons."  He  published  a  "  Poem  Sacred 
to  the  Memory  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton"  (1727), 
and  "  Sophonisbs,"  a  tragedy,  acted  in  172fl. 
He  then  traveled  for  two  years  as  tutor  to  the 
son  of  Lord  Chnncellor  Talbot,  by  whom  he 
was  rewarded  with  the  post  of  secretary  ot 
briefa,  and  wrote  a  poem  on  "  Liberty  "  which 


THOa 

met  with  unfavorable  reception.  The  Lord 
Chancellor  dj^ng  In  1737,  the  secretaryship 
was  lost  by  Thomson,  but  he  received  a  pen- 
sion of  £100,  and  later  was  rendered  independ- 
ent by  the  appointment  of  surveyor  general  of 
the  Leeward  Islands,  which,  after  paying  the 
deputy  who  performed  all  the  duties,  brought 
him  £300  a  year.  His  works,  besides  those 
already  mentioned,  are  "  Agamemnon,"  a 
tragedy;  "Edward  and  Eteanora,"  a  drama; 
"  Alfred,"  a  masque,  which  cont<dns  the  song, 
"  Rule  Britannia " ;  "  Tancred  and  Sigis- 
munda,"  a  successful  tragedy;  "The  Castle  of 
Indolence,"  a  poem  in  the  Spenserian  stanza, 
which  is  his  best  work;  and  "  Coriolanus,"  a 
tragedy,  not  produced  until  after  his  death. 

Thomson,  James  ("B.  V."),  1834-82;  Eng- 
lish poet;  b.  Port  Qiasgow,  Scotland;  suc- 
cessively army  schoolmaster,  journalist,  and 
special  correspondent.  He  is  beat  known  by 
his  poem,  "  The  City  of  Dreadful  Night." 

Thomson,  Sir  William  (LoBO  Keltik),  1824- 
I9D7;  English  physicist;  b.  Belfast,  Ireland; 
educated  at  the  universities  of  GIsisgow  and 
Cambridge..  At  the  age  of  twenty-two  he  was 
apfxjinted  Prof,  of  Natural  Philosophy  in  the 
Univ.  ot  Qiasgow,  and  held  the  chair  tor  over 
fifty  years.  He  published  papers  touching 
nearly  every  important  theme  with  which  the 
physicist  has  to  deaL  In  1867,  in  collabora- 
tion with  Prof.  Tait  ot  Edinburgh,  he  issued 
"  A  Treatise  on  Natural  Phtlosopny,"  in  which 
the  effort  was  made  to  base  a  complete  and 
exhaustive  theoretical  analysis  upon  the  doc- 
trine of  energy.  From  1846-63  Thomson  was 
editor  ot  the  Cambridge  and  Dublin  Mathemat- 
ical Jourfial.  He  was  president  ot  the  British 
Association  for  the  Ajivanceroent  of  Science 
(1871),  of  the  Royal  Society   (1891),  etc. 

Aside  from  his  labors  in  pure  science,  he 
was  active  as  an  engineer  and  Inventor.  It 
was  in  great  part  due  to  his  skill  in  solving 
the.  many  intricate  problems  involved  in  sub' 
marine  telegraphy  that  transoceanic  signaling 
became  a  practical  success;  and  it  was  In 
recognition  of  that  fact  that  he  was  knighted 
in  1866.  Of  his  numerous  inventions,  many 
of  which  were  made  to  meet  the  demands  ot 
the  manufacture  and  operation  ot  submarine 
c:tbles,  the  best  known  are  his  quadrant  and 
portable  electrometers,  compensated  compasses 
for  iron  ships,  various  types  of  mirror  gal- 
van.>roeters,  the  aiphon  recorder,  a  machine  for 
the  analysis  of  tidal  curves,  and  a  large  num- 
ber of  commercial  instruments  tor  the  measure- 
ment of  electrical  currents  and  potential  dif- 
ferences. His  services  as  savant  and  engineer 
received  high  official  recognition  by  bis  eleva- 
tion to  the  peerage  in  1892  with  the  title  of 
Lord  ifetvin. 

Thor,  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  the  son  of 
Odin  and  Jord.  He  ranked  next  to  Odin,  but 
was  far  more  popular.  He  was  the  protector  of 
Midgard  and  ot  human  industries  aninst  na- 
tures destructive  forces,  personified  by  the 
giaiits,  with  whom  he  was  in  constant  conflict 
Thunder  and  lightning  were  caused  by  his  rid- 
ing in  the  clouds  in  his  car  drawn  by  two 
goats.    Just  as  the  Christiana  put  .^  cross  o 


put  .f  cross  OS 

vCoogIc 


THORACIC  DUCT 

gravestones,  «o  the  Scandinavian  heathens  put 
the  sign  of  Thor's  hammer  (a  cross)  on  their 
rune  stonea.    Thursday  ie  aamed  after  Thor. 

TbOTflc'le  Dnct,  the  principal  lymphatic  vea- 
m1  in  the  human  bodv.  It  runs  upward  on  the 
left  side  of  the  spinal  column  from  the  recep- 
taculum  t^hyli,  and  terminates  near  the  junction 
of  the  left  internal  jugular  and  the  left  Hut>- 
clavian  veins.  It  discharges  into  the  blood  cur- 
rent the  chyle  and  most  of  the  lymph  of  the 
body.  Birds  have  two  thoracic  ducts — one  on 
each  side.  Its  outlet  is  provided  with  valves 
which  prevent  the  ingress  of  blood,  and  the 
duct  has  other  valves  which  allow  the  contents 
to  pass  upward,  but  not  downward. 

Tbo'iUL    See  Chxst. 

Thoiean  (thO'rO),  Henr?  David,  1917-62; 
American  author;  b.  Concord,  Mass.  He  grad- 
uated at  Harvard,  1S37,  and  became  a  land 
surveyor,  but  occupied  himself  chicQy  with 
pedestrian  excursions  and  literature.  In  1B45 
□e  built  a  small  frame  house  on  the  shore  of 
Walden  Fond,  Concord,  where  he  lived  alone 
for  two  years,  worlung  and  studying,  and 
thereafter  worked  at  pencil  making,  an  art  he 
had  learned  from  hie  father.  His  works  are: 
"  A  Week  on  the  Concord  and  Merrimack  Biv- 
ers  ";  "  Walden,  or  Life  in  the  Woods  ";  "  Ex- 
cursions in  Field  and  Forest,"  with  a  bioeraph- 
ical  sketch  by  R.  W.  Emerson;  "  The  Maine 
Woods,"  "  Cape  Cod,"  "  Letters  to  Various 
Persons,"  with  nine  poems;  and  "  A  Yankee  In 
Canada,"  with  antislavery  and  reform  papers. 

Although  often  stated,  it  is  not  true  that 
Thoreau  never  voted  or  attended  church,  [uid 
no  taxes,  and  never  used  a  gun.  He  lived  sim- 
ply, but  seldom  alone,  always  supported  him- 
self by  tlie  work  of  his  hands  or  otlierwise,  was 
a  good  land  surveyor,  naturalist,  and  mechanic, 
a  good  citiiien,  a  valued  friend,  and  devoted  to 
the  comfort  of  his  family.  He  never  married, 
partly  from  an  earl^  disap]>ointment  in  love, 
but  was  intimate  with  admirable  women  and 
the  children  of  bis  friends,  and  was  beloved  by 
them,  as  by  most  of  those  who  really  knew  him. 
He  was  original  and  sometim.,s  eccentric,  but 
never  misanthropic  or  morose.  His  intellectual 
and  moral  elevation  is  plainly  seen  in  his  writ- 
ings, which  have  steadily  gained  in  favor  dnce 
his  death. 

Tho'rium,  also  Thori'nnm,  one  of  the  rare 
metals,  discovered  by  Berzelius  in  1828  in  a 
Korwegian  mineral  which  he  called  thorite, 
from  the  Scandinavian  god  Thor.  Thorium  is 
a  gray  metallic  powder,  wiiich  bums  with  great 

brUlianCT   to    '«**'^"'-<"^>*'«   InfuaihlA  thfirid     TIlH.. 


v-white  infusible  thoria,  ThO. 


Thont  Ap'ple.    Sei 
ThOT'ongh-bass,  in 


;,  the  art  of  express- 
3  placed  over  or  under  a 
^  jrca  indicate  the  harmony 
thro'ugh  all  the  other  parts;  hence  the  name. 
The  term  is  sometimes  taken  in  a  larger  sense, 
as  equivalent  to  musical  science. 

Thor'ooghwort,    See  Eupatoripm. 

Thorwaldscn    (tCr'wnid-sin).    AlttCTt    (Beb- 
TEL),   I7T0-1S44;   Danish  sculptor;   b.  at  sea. 


Bertel's  schooling  was  short  and  unprofitable 
until  he  was  sent  to  the  free  school  of  the 
Academy  of  Arts  at  Copenhagen.  There,  at 
seventeen,  a  bas-relief  of  Cupid  reposing  gained 
the  silver  medal;  at  twenty  a  sketch  oi  "  Heli- 
odorus  Driven  from  the  Temple "  gained  the 
small  gold  medal;  two  years  later  he  obtained 
the  grand  prize,  which  entitled  hiro  to  receive 
the  royal  pension.  In  March,  17S7,  he  arrived 
m  Rome.  His  model  of  "  Jason,"  which 
Canova  praised,  attracted  an  English  connois- 
seur, Sir  Thomas  Mope,  who  gave  the  artist  a 
commission  to  execute  it  in  marble.  The  "  Ado- 
nis," begun  in  1S08,  was  not  finished  until  1832. 
It  is  the  only  one  of  Thorwaidsen's  statues 
which  was  entirely  carved  by  his  own  hands- 
It  is  a  triumphant  answer  to  the  charge 
brought  against  Thorwaidaen  in  his  lifetime 
tliat  he  could  not  work  in  marble.  "  Not  work 
in  marblel  "  he  said.  "Tie  my  hands  l>ehind 
my  back,  and  I  will  hew  out  a  statue  with  my 
teeth  1  " 

The  bas-relief  "  The  Triumphal  Entry  of  Al- 
exander  into  Babylon "  celebrated   Napoleon's 


entry   into   Rome  in   1812. 
reliefs  "  Night "  and  "  Morning  " 


familiar  baS' 
were  modeled 
Venus  Victrix  ^'  and  the  "  Mer- 
cury "  are,  with  the  "  Adonis  "  just  mentioned, 
his  most  perfect  works.  The  well-known 
groupa  of  ''Chriat  and  the  Twelve  Apostles " 
and  John  the  Baptist  Preaching  "  were  com- 
pleted in  1838  for  the  Church  Of  Notre  Dame 
at  Copenhagen.  In  1841  he  went  back  to  Italy, 
stayed  a  year,  then  returned  to  Copenhagen, 
where  he  died  suddenly.  The  cliief  part  of  his 
fortune  waa  left  oa  a  perpetual  endowment  for 
the  museum  at  Copenhagen,  which  is  raised 
around  his  grave,  and  contains  only  his  worka. 
Thorwaldaen'j  works  are  numerous — 205  are 
known — and  of  them  hia  colossal  lion  carved 
out  of  solid  rock  near  Lucerne,  commemorating 
the  Swiss  Ouarda  who  fell  in  the  Tuileriee  in 
1TS2,  and  his  bas-reliefs  of  "Ki^ht"  and 
"  Morning,"  executed  at  a  single  sitting,  are 
the  best  blown.  He  is  chief  of  those  modem 
sculptors  who  have  tried  to  follow  a  purely 
classical  tradition. 


the  Greeks  identified  with  Hermes.    He  ia  rep- 
resented  aa  an  ibis-headed  man,  and  oi  "" 
ally  he  is  shown  aunnounted  by  a  i 

7  LM_,,I.C.C'- 


.  crescent 


moon  and  the  um  disk.  He  was  regarded  at 
the  advieer  and  scribe  of  the  gods,  as  the  in- 
ventor of  writing  and  of  numbers,  and  a>  the 
mefuurer  of  time. 

Tliotlimea  (thMh'niea),  %n>t''^i  Tebd- 
Ti-MKB),  name  ot  four  kinss  (fourth,  fifth, 
sisth,  and  eighth)  of < the  eighteenth  Egyptian 
dynasty,  of  whom  Trotbues  III  is  the  most 
important.  He  was  the  grMitest  of  Egyptian 
varriorH.  His  efforts  were  direct«d  toward  the 
entire  subjugation  ot  W.  Asia.  He  sul>dued 
Palestine,  Syria,  and  a  portion  of  Meaopota- 
mia,  together  with  the  region  l>eta'een  the  Eu- 

Ehrat«8  and  the  Hediterranean.  Se  took 
[egiddo,  Tyre,  Eadeah  on  the  Orontea,  Carche- 
mish,  and  a  large  number  of  other  places, 
whose  names  he  inscribed  in  the  temple  of 
Kamak.  It  is  supposed  that  his  dominion  ex- 
tended to  the  horder  of  Asia  Minor,  and  from 
Cyprus  also  he  received  tribute.  At  home  be 
built  on  an  extensive  scale.  Thettes  naturally 
received  most  of  his  attention,  and  there  he 
lal>ored  principally  in  extending  the  temple  of 
Kamak,  which  he  adorned  with  inscriptions 
that  give  a  complete  record  of  his  reign.  One 
of  the  olwlisks  he  erected  now  stands  in  Cen- 
tral Park,  New  Yoric  Evidence  of  an  inteiue 
hatred  of  his  early  caregent,  Hatasu,  is  seen  in 
the  fact  that  he  industrtously  erased  her  name 
wherever  it  was  possible.  His  reign  covered 
about  fifty-three  years  in  all,  of  which  for 
about  thirty-one  he  was  sole  king.  Using  as- 
tronomical data,  it  has  been  calculated  that 
his  reign  extended  from  March  20,  1503,  dll 
February  14,  1440  b.c. 

Thongbt,  the  mental  processes  of  comparing, 
judging,  and  reasoning.  The  term  thought  u 
used  to  mark  o&  those  mental  states  in  which 
there  is  a  breakios  loose  frmn  particular  ob- 
jects and  the  manipulation  of  general  notions, 
concepts,  signs,  or  terms.  It  involves  appercep- 
tion, the  relating  function,  primarily,  but  after 
it  comes  to  work  upon  the  more  abstract  mate- 
rial used  in  arguments,  reasonings,  inferrings, 
and  the  like.  In  its  nature,  however,  thovgnt 
cannot  he  held  to  differ  from  the  lower  exer-- 
cises  of  mind  seen  in  perception.  The  distinc- 
tion is  largely  one  of  range  and  reach  in  the 
use  ot  material.  The  lower  animals  seem  to 
come  only  to  a  very  small  degree  of  thought. 

In  conception,  the  object  which  the  mind  is 
thinking  about  is  a  "  general  idea,"  concept,  or 
notion.  It  is  a  mental  state  which  is  equiv- 
alent in  thought  to  more  than  one  object  in 
the  external  world.  When,  for  example,  a 
man  speaks  of  the  "  place  of  the  horse  in  the 
'  animal  kingdom,"  he  is  using  a  concent, 
"  horse."  The  psychological  point  at  issue  is  the 
way  the  mind  comes  to  have  a  state  which  thus 
stands  not  for  any  particular  object— no  one 
single  horse — but  for  any  of  the  objects  which 
go  m  a  class,  large  or  small.  General  ideas  are 
generally  distinguished  as  "  abstract  "—i.e., 
when  they  designate  a  quality  of  objects,  such 
as  "  green,"  "  sweet,"  etc.,  independently  ot  the 
kinds  of  objects  to  which  this  quality  may  ap- 
ply; and  concrete,  or  "general,"  in  a  narrow 
sense — i.e.,  when  they  refer  to  the  objects  thero- 
selves,  as  to  numlier.  distribution,  etc.,  Inde- 
pendently of  the  qualities  which  they  possess, 


THOUSAND  ISLANDS 

as,  for  example,  the  case  given,  "  horse."  The 
way  that  the  concept  arises  on  the  baaia  ot  the 

perception  of  the  particular  objects  which  come 
firat  m  mental  growth  is  called  "  abstraction  " 
and  "generalization"  in  these  two  cases,  le- 
spectivwy. 

Judgment  is  usually  applied  to  the  mental 
procedure  of  asserting  anything,  as  "  Socrates 
IS  mortal,"  "  It  rains."  The  theory  of  judg- 
ments when  they  are  thrown  into  statemraita 
called  "  propositions "  IkIoues  to  logic.  The 
action  of  the  mind  it  settrng  and  using  its 
judgments,  however,  belongs  to  psychology. 
The  theory  most  current  on  the  psychological 
side  looks  upon  judgment  as  just  the  mmd's 
own  consdousness  of  the  progress  it  is  making 
with  its  conceptions.  For  example,  the  judg- 
ment "  horses  eat  grass  "  is  looked  upon  by  the 
newer  theory  as  the  mind's  evpressian  to  itself 
of  the  fact  that  the  new  quality  or  attribute  ot 
eating  in  a  particular  way  has  to  l>e  added,  in 
future  cases  when  horses  are  thought  of,  to  the 
concept  which  stands  for  this  class  of  animals. 
There  seems  to  be  nothing  added  to  the  concept 
by  the  mere  fact  of  judgment — that  is,  nothing 
additional  to  what  is  already  there  in  the  al- 
tered concept. 

It  is  the  process  of  reasoning  which  is  usu- 
ally suggested  by  the  word  thought;  and  rea- 
soning is,  when  psychologically  considered,  the 
most  explicit  form  ot  the  growth  of  conception, 
and  witn  it   of  the  direct  assertion   found   in. 

Sdgment.  The  detailed  treatment  of  reasoning 
longs  to  logic  (q.v-).  In  every  piece  of  rea- 
soning, in  ererj  argument,  what  we  really  have 
is  an  attempt  to  broaden  our  conception  of  the 
subject  reasoned  about  by  adding  to  it  certain 
new  elements.  We  do  this  by  discovering  rela- 
tions between  concepts  formerly  held  apart ;  and 
the  successful  union  of  such  conceptions  in  one 
is  what  we  call  the  "  conclusion  "  ot  the  argu- 
ment So  here  again  the  old  psychology  is 
wrong  in  tliinking  that  reasoning  is  a,  distinct 
faculty.  It  is  only  the  general  apperceptive 
or  synthetic  function  ot  consciousness,  as  it 
works  on  more  general  and  detached  elements 
ot  perception  and  conception.  The  reason, 
therefore,  that  animals  do  not  show  more  rea- 
soning power  than  they  do  is  probably  simply 
that  they  are  not  developed  far  enough,  either 
in  consciousness  or  in  the  brain  compl^iity 
that  accompanies  rainsciousnese  to  do  much  of 
the  syntliesis  which  thought  embodies. 


Thousand  Islands,  a  group  of  alMut  1,800 
islands  situated  in  the  SL  Lawrence  River,  near 
the  outlet  of  Lake  Ontario;  tamed  tor  the 
beauty  of  their  scenery.  Many  have  been 
chosen  as  sites  for  summer  cottages.  An  expan- 
sion of  the  river,  caused  by  the  numerous 
islands  obstructing  it,  is  known  as  the  Lake  of 
the  Thousand  lalands.  A  belt  of  crystallina 
rock  termed  Laurentian  gneiss,  which  unites 
the  Adirondack  bills  of  New  York  with  a  vast- 
ly larger  area  ot  a  similar  geological  character 
in  Canada,  is  crossed  by  the  Bt.  Lawrence,  and, 
owing  to  the  unevenness  of  the  surface  ol  tfa« 


THBACE  , 

rook  Mid  iuequalitiea  in  the  depth  of  the 
eial  depoiiU  spread  over  it,  many  islands  were 
form«d  wbes  the  region  beoame  partiklty  iub- 
merged. 

Thrace,  in  earliest  times  the  indefinite  re- 
gion of  eountry  N.  of  Mt  Olympus,  but  later 
on  the  boundaries  were;  On  the  N.  the  Dan- 
ube, on  the  E.  the  Black  Sea,  on  the  8.  the  Hel- 
lespont and  Thraciaq  Sea,  on  the  W.  the 
Btiymon.  The  Thraclans  belonged  to  the  In- 
do-European farailv  and  in  earbest  times  hod 
attained  a  relatively  high  standard  of  culture, 
aa  is  indicated  by  the  religioui  myths  that 
originated  in  or  were  connected  with  Thrace. 
Little  is  known  concerning  the  history  of  the 
country.  The  people  were  warlike,  living 
mainly  by  plunder  and  robbery,  and  were  no- 
torious for  drunkenness.  They  were  conmiered 
by  Philip  and  Alexander,  and  from  the  Mace- 
donians the  country  passed  to  the  Romana, 
though  it  wa«  not  fully  subdued  until  26  b.o. 

Thiale,  Hester  Lyndi  SalnibsTy.    Bee  Piozzi. 

Thiash'er. 


Thrasybnlns,  Athenian  general,  attached  to 
the  democratic  party ;  d.  390  B.O.  At  the  bat- 
tle of  CynoBsema  (411)  he  secured  the  victory. 
In  407  be  reduced  moot  of  the  revolted  cities 
on  the  coast  of  Thrace,  and  about  the  same 
time  was  with  Alcibiades  elected  one  of  the  new 
generalp.  Banished  on  the  eatahliahment  of  the 
thirty  tyrants,  he  seized  the  fortress  of  Phyle, 
occupied  Piiaiu,  and  finally  delivered  Athena 
and  restored  the  democratic  government  t403). 
He  was  killed  by  the  people  of  Aspendos,  in 
Cilida,  who  were  exasperated  by  the  acta  of  his 
soldiers. 

Thread,  a  slender  cord  consisting  of  two  or 
more  yarns,  or  simple  spun  strands,  firmly 
united  together  by  twisting.  The  twisting  to- 
gether of  the  different  strands  or  yams  to 
form  a  thread  is  effected  by  a  thread  frame  or 
doubling  and  twisting  machine,  which  accom- 
plishes the  purpose  by  the  action  of  bobbins 
and  flyers.  Thread  is  used  in  some  species  of 
weaving,  but  its  principal  use  is  for  sewing. 
In  the  U.  3.  there  are  large  thread  works  in 
Willlmantic,  Conn.,  and  in  Newark,  N.  J,  The 
chief  seat  of  the  cotton-thread  manufacture  in 
EnDland  Is  Manchester,  in  Ireland,  Belfast,  and 
in  Scotland,  Paisley. 

Three  Bod'lea,  Problem  of,  the  problem  of 
determining  the  motion  of  three  mutually 
gravitating  particles.  The  discovery  of  the 
law  of  universal  gravitation  by  Newton  re- 
duced the  question  of  the  motion  of  the  planeta 
to  one  of  almost  pure  mathematics.  Newton 
himself  was  able  to  show  that  if  two  bodies 
like  the  sun  and  a  planet  attract  each  other 
with  a  force  tuvcrsely  as  the  square  of  their 
mutual  distance,  they  will  each  describe  a 
conic   section  around   their  common  center   of 

rvity.  The  planet  being  very  small  relatively 
the  Bun,  this  common  center  of  gravity 
would  be  veiT  near  the  center  of  the  sun,  and 
the  planet  might,  therefore,  be  said  to  describe 
a  conic  section  around  the  sun.  It  wasthua 
shown  that,  considering  only  the  attraction  of 
liH>  sun  upon  the  pls£ets,  each  planet  would 


THREE-COLOR  PRlNTINa 

revolve  in  an  ellipse  having  .the  sun  in  one  of 
its  foci.  But  since  each  planet  is  attracted  by 
all  the  other  planeta,  as  well  as  by  the  sun, 
this  motion  in  an  ellipse  represents  only  an 
approximation  to  tbe  real  motion.  Hence 
mathematicians  were  led  to  propound  the  more 
general  problem:  Three  bodies  being  projected 
in  space  with  any  velocity  and  in  any  direction 
whatever,  and  then  left  to  their  mutual  at- 
traction, to  find  the  motion  of  each  of  them 
during  all  time.  Tbe  general  and  complete 
solution  of  this  problem  was  found  to  be  be- 
yond the  power  of  mathematical  analysis,  for 
tbe  reason  that  the  curves  described  by  the 
several  bodies  would  be  so  irregular,  subject 
to  such  constant  variation,  and  changing  so 
greatly  according  to  the  masses  of  the  bodies, 
that  it  would  be  impo«sible  to  express  theni 
by  any  mathematical  formula.  It  was,  how- 
ever, poaaible  to  find  certain  general  taws  to 
which  the  motion  would  be  subject.  The  cen- 
ter of  gravity  of  the  three  bodies  would  always 
move  in  a  straight  line  with  a  uniform  velocity. 
Certain  relations  were  found  to  subsist  be- 
tween the  masses  of  the  bodies,  their  distance 
apart,  and  their  velocities,  and  certain  great 
principles  were  eatablished. 

The  efforts  of  mathematicians  have  generally 
been  directed,  not  to  the  general  problem,  but 
to  two  special  cases  of  it  which  occur  in  the 
solaf  system.  The  first  is  that  of  the  motion 
o(  two  planets  around  the  sun,  in  which  the 
masses  of  the  bodies  are  very  small  compared 
with  that  of  the  sun,  .while  their  motion  takes 
place  in  nearly  circular  orbits.  Tbe  deviations 
of  each  planet  from  the  averags  ellipse  in 
which  it  would  move  if  not  attracted  by  the 
other  then  admit  of  being  determined  with 
any  required  degree  of  accuracy,  though  not 
with  mathematical  rigor.  The  actual  problem 
of  planetary  motion  is,  however,  not  simply 
that  of  three   bodies,   or   two   planeta,   hut  of 


of  planets  involves  no  greater  mathematical 
difficulties  than  are  encountered  in  the  case  of 
two,  though  the  labor  of  tbe  numerical  solution 
is  immensely  greater.  The  other  special  case 
is  that  of  tne  motion  of  the  moon  around  the 
earth,  under  the  influence  of  the  attraction  of 
the  sun  aa  well  as  of  that  of  the  earth.  This 
is  a  more  complicated  cose  than  that  of  plan- 
etary motion,  because,  while  the  moon  revolves 
around  the  earth,  both  the  earth  and  moon  re- 
volve together  around  the  sun.  But  by  the 
researches  of  Hansen  and  Delaunay  this  difli- 
cult  problem  of  the  moon's  motion  has  been 
solvea  with  nearly  tbe  same  degree  of  accuracy 
aa  that  of  planetary  motion. 

Three-Col'or  Print'tng,  a  process  for  the  re- 
production of  colored  pictures.  The  prelim- 
inary step  in  the  process  is  the  obtaining  of 
three  photographic  hegativee  of  the  picture  to 
be  reproduced.  Each  of  these  negatives  repro- 
duces by  a  special  process  one  of  the  following 
color  values  of  tbe  picture:  yellow,  blue,  and 
red.  These  colors  are  chosen  because  their  ad- 
mixture in  various  pn^ortions  will  reproduce 
nil  other  colors,  with  little  loss  to  their  real 


Dior; 


,v  Google 


To  aid  in  obtaining  the  negatlvM,  colored 
acreeiiH  or  Altera  are  used.  In  makiog  the  yel- 
low iieg:stive,  a  color  filter  is  used  to  shut  out 
the  jellow   raya  and  allow  o^   the  red  and 


ative,  juBt  aa  black  forma  the  transparent  part 
of  an  ordinarj'  photographic  negative.  Bim- 
ilarlj,  (or  the  red  negative  the  filter  admits 
oul;  the  blue  and  yellow  ray«,  and  for  the  blue 
negative  only  the  yellow  and  red   rays. 

Half-tODe  plates  for  printing  ere  made  from 
these  negatives  according  to  the  ordinal?  proc- 
ess. The  yellow  plate  is  printed  first,  then  the 
red  over  that,  and  finally  the  blue  over  all. 
As  a  result  of  the  superposition  of  these  colors 
in  their  Taried  proportions  the  picture  is  re- 
produced in  its  original  color  values. 

Thisah'et.    See  Fox  Shaxx. 

Thiesh'ing  Hochiu'eiy,  machinery  for  the 
separation  of  grain  from  the  straw.  Id  N, 
America  threshing  machines  were  early  invent- 
ed, but  it  ia  only  since  about  1S40  that  this 
class  of  machinery  has  been  brought  to  perfec- 
tion. Among  those  earlier  invented,  the  plan 
of  rotary  beaters  or  fioila  attached  to  a  re- 
volving shaft  was  the  subject  of  much  experi- 
ment. A  revolving  cylinder  provided  with 
radial  teeth  or  spikes,  and  working  with  a  eon- 
cavfe  section  of  a  cylinder  provid^  with  simi- 


uniformly  successful.  Changes  and  improve- 
menta  have  related  for  the  most  part  to  the 
mode  of  giving  motion  to  this  cylinder  and  to 
accesaoriee  for  securing  safety  and  convenience. 
Those  which  first  came  into  common  use  hod 
the  cylinder  moved  by  intermediate  gearing 
from  a  vertical  driving  shaft,  from  the  upper 
end  of  which  extended  radial  arms,  and  which 
WOB  moved  by  horse  power.  The  sheaves,  un- 
bound, were  fed  with  the  heads  first  into  the 
space  between  the  cylinder  and  its  concave. 
In  some  of  the  first  of  these  machines  ahakins 
Mreeua  were  so  applied  as  to  sift  the  grain  and 
chaff,  the  straw  being  carried  and  deposited  by 
itself,  white  the  former  passed  to  the  hopper  of 
a  fanning  mill,  which  cleaned  or  separated  the 
grain  from  the  chaff. 

Many  attempts  were  made  to  supersede  thia 
mode  of  driving  the  cylinder  by  an  endless  belt 
constructed  with  transverse  wooden  lags  and 
driven  after  the  manner  of  a  treadwheel  by 
horses.  These  finally  culminated  in  the  Inven- 
tion of  the  "  railroad  horse  power." 

The  ordinary  threshing  piachine  in  use  in  the 
E.  states  comprises  either  a  portable  ateam  en- 

E'ne  or  a  railroad  horse  power  for  two  or  three 
ines,  and  a  thresher  composed  essentially  o( 
the  toothed  cylinder  acting  in  conjunction  with 
the  toothed  concave.  An  endless  ahaker,  formed 
with  transverse  wires  and  operated  like  an  end- 
leaa  belt,  conveya  the  straw  some  distance  in 
the  rear  of  the  thresher,  a  vibrating  motion 
given  to  the  belt  shaking  out  the  chaff  and 
grain,  these  latter  being  passed  to  a  fanning 
mill,  which  separates  the  chaff,  small  seeds, 
etc.,  from  the  winnowed  grain.  I>uring  recent 
years  much  attention  has  been  given  to  straw- 
buming  furnace*  for  steam  boQera  of  tluesh- 


THRIBH 

ing  mactiinea  in  the  open  field.  By  these  the 
straw  ia  used  in  generating  the  power  which 
drives  the  thresher.  Straw-huming  furnaces 
have  been  used  in  Hungary  during'a  long  pe- 
riod, and  for  many  years  tlie  atraw  of  the  nee 
fielda  in  the  6.  U.  8.  has  been  utilized  in  the 
same  manner. 

A  Californian  a^aratua  for  cutting,  thresh- 
ing, and  winnowing  grain  in  the  field  is  con- 
structed aa  follows:  A  large  grain  frame  is 
supported  on  two  heavy  driving  wheels.  Pro- 
jecting from  the  side  of  this  frame  is  a  plat' 
form  like  that  of  an  ordinary  reaper,  but  about 
12  fL  lon^.  This  runs  at  such  height  that  the 
reciprocating  sickle  at  the  front  will  cut  off  the 
heads  from  the  standing  grain;  the  heads  fall  '' 
on  an '  endless  apron  running  longitudinally 
upon  the  platform  and  are  carried  by  this  to  a 
hopper  that  conducts  them  to  a  threshing  cyl- 
inder having  a  fanning  mill  and  atiaw  sepa- 
rator arranged  behind  it.  The  threshed  and 
winnowed  grain  is  thrown  out  from  the  fan 
mill  through  a  apout  at  the  side  directly  In  the 
mouth  of  a  sack  suspended  under  the  spout. 
An  attendant  riding  upon  the  platform  ties  the 
sacks  when  full  and  throws  them'off  upon  the 
ground,  to  be  collected  at  leisure.  The  driving 
parts  receive  their  motion  from  the  large  or 
driving  wheel  by  means  of  suitable  bands  and 
gearing.  This  apparatus  was  designed  to  be 
drawn  by  ten  horses. 

Thrips,  minute  insects  about  1  In.  long,  be- 
longing to  the  order  Pkyaopoda,  at  the  class 
Heaapoda.  They  abound  in  daisy,  clover,  and 
other  blossoms,  and  are  named  from  the  char- 
acter of  the  tarsi,  which  are  bladderlike  at  the 
tip  and  without  claws.  The  two  pairs  of  wings 
long,    narrow,    membranous,    not    folded. 


ing  and  those  of  the  biting  insects. 

Throm'btta,  a  clot  of  blood  within  the  blood 
vessels  or  heart.  Infiammations  of  the  lining 
membrane  of  the  vessels,  altered  states  of  the 
blood,  and  slowing  of  the  current  of  blood  are 
the  principal   factors  which  contribute   to  the 


_iay  thus  be  swept  to  distant  parts  of  the  cir- 
culation. But  under  favorable  conditions,  and 
Crticularly  in  those  In  small  vessels,  thrombi 
:ome  organized,  and  thus  obliterate  the  blood 
vessel  where  they  occur.  This  ia  the  most  im- 
portant feature  of  thrombosis,  for  in  this  man- 
ner severed  blood  vessels  are  obstructed  and 
hemorrhage  permanently  arrested. 

Thmah,  any  one  of  various  birds  of  tho 
Turdida,  a  group  of  Oadnea,  which  stands  at, 
or  near,  the  head  of  the  doaa  of  birds,  and  in- 
cludes many  of  the  beat  songsters.  They  are 
birds  of  moderate  siKe,  well  typified  by  the 
wood  thrush  (T.  musteiinuB)  of  the  E.  U.  S., 
a  delightful  songster  and  a  near  relative  of 
Wilson's  thrush  {T.  /luceioefU)  and  the  gray- 
cheeked  thnuh   {T.  alicia).     These  birds  re- 


SECOND    PRINTING,   R 


RED.  VELLOW.   «ND   e 
THREE-COLOR    PRINTING. 


.vGooqIc 

U>RESSI0N5  O 


„  Google 


ieh  spots.  The  European  song  tlinish  ( T. 
mtuicus)  ia  much  like  the  wood  thrush  on  a 
larger  scale.    The  name  thrasher  is  given  to  ths 


Wood  TBRtTiiii, 


of  the  U.  S.  is  a  thrush,  and  so  is  its  relative 
the  blackbird   of   Europe    (if.    merulo).      Ttn 

eolden'crowned   thruab  is  known  as  the   oven- 
Ird. 


spots,  white  or  grayiab  wliite,  deposited  within 
the  membrane  of  the  mouth,  but  always  in  ita 
outer  layer.  These  membranes  are  made  up  of 
the  fungus  and  parts  of  the  mucoua  membraie, 
especially  epithelial  cells;  they  are  detached 
with  some  ^'^cultj,  and  sometimes  there  is 
left  a  bleeding  spot  where  they  are  detaclied. 
The  disease  has  frequently  been  mistaken  for 
diphtheria  of  the  mouth,  but  careful  examina- 
tiott  makes  this  error  impossibte.  As  a  rule, 
the  disease  is  amenable  to  treatment. 

ThDcydide*  {thtl-Hldl-dez),  abt.  47a-abt.  400 
B.C. ;  Greek  historian.  He  belonged  to  an  old 
aristocratic  AtbcDtan  family.  He  received  an 
education  that  matched  his  lineage  and  his 
wealth.  The  story  that  he  heard  Herodotus 
read  his  history  at  Athena  is  destitute  of  war- 
rant, but  not  destitute  of  probability.  At  the 
outbreak  of  the  Feloponnesian  War  Thuc^dides 
had  reached  what  he  calls  the  age  of  discern- 
ment, and  in  423  commanded  a  detachment  of 
Athenian  forces,  which  was  to  operate  on  the 
Tbracian  coast.  Having  failed  to  relieve  Am- 
phipolis,  he  vas  condemned  to  death  for  high 
treason,  and  forced  to  withdraw  from  Athenian 
territory;  nor  did  he  receive  formal  permission 
to  return  until  the  end  of  twenty  years.  The 
time  and  manner  of  his  death  are  ^ike  uncer- 
tain. One  account  baa  it  that  he  was  assassi- 
nated. 


THUMBSCREW 

The  history  of  Thuoydides,  which  covers 
twenty-one  yean  of  the  Pelofonnesian  War, 
has  come  down  to  us  in  eight  oooks,  of  which 
the  eighth  has  rot  recaved  the  last  hand  of  the 
author.  Thucydides  is  univei^ally  considered 
the  first  and  greatest  critical  historian  of  an- 
tiquity, and  claims  for  himself  the  credit  of  an 
exactness  which  is  possible  only  t^]  conscien- 
tious research  as  distinguished  from  hearsay 
report.  His  theme,  as  announced  in  the  outset. 
Is  the  war  and  its  causes.  His  narrative  is 
rigidly  annaiiatic,  year  by  year,  summer  by 
summer,  winter  by  winter,  to  the  detriment  al 
effective  grouping,  and  to  the  disgust  of  the 
rhetorical  historians  of  a  later  da^. 

Thucydides  was  a  man  of  aflsirs  and  a  sol- 
dier and  knew  the  springs  of  action  even  if  be 
could  not  always  work  them.  His  viuon  was 
clear  of  superstitious  glamour,  his  deity  was 
"  the  strong  god,  the  chance  central  of  circum- 
stance." His  portraits  of  character  abide  not 
merely  l>ecau»e  of  his  artistic  power,  but  be- 
cause of  their  truth  to  life.  His  exhibit  of  the 
political  forces  at  work  coramends  itself  the 
more  because  of  the  impartiality  of  the  form. 
He  does  not  tell  us  what  was  thought;  he  bids 
us  listen  to  the  voices  of  the  time,  and  the 
statesmen  and  the  cftptains  of  the  period  ar« 
made  to  give  abundant  expression  to  the  mo- 
tives of  the  war.  No  less  than  one  fifth  of  the 
history  ia  taken  up  with  the  speeches  in  which 
the  thought  of  the  time  if  dramatiied. 
His  narrative  sbows  great  variety,  sometimes 
breatiileBBly  rapid,  sometimes  lingering  on  pic- 
turesque detail.  The  story  of  the  Sicilian  ei- 
pedition  is  the  most  elaborate  specimen  of  his 
art,  the  retreat  of  the  Athenians  from  before 
Syracuse  one  of  the  most  famous  descriptions  in 
all  literature.  His  style  is  confessedly  a  hard 
style,  and  not  undeuguedly  so. 

Thnga,  members  of  a  religious  fraternity  of 
robbers  and  murderers  which  flourished  in 
India  from  the  fourteenth  till  the  nineteenth 
century.  They  were  worshipers  of  Kali,  by 
wilom  they  believed  themselves  to  tie  com- 
manded to  murder  and  rob.  Therefore  they 
n-ere  utterly  unconscious  of  wrongdoing,  con- 
sidering themselvea  priests  of  the  goddess  car- 
rying out  a  pious  work,  tor  which  they  were 
rewarded  with  the  booty  gained  on  their  ex- 
peditions. They  never  committed  a  murder 
without  solemn  preparatory  rites,  prominent 
aniong  which  were  the  sacrifice  of  sugar  and 
the  consecration  of  the  pickax,  symbolizing  the 
tooth  of  Kali.  In  1B26  they  were  utterly 
btnmped  out  by  the  English. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  name  is  applied  to  those 
who  rob  with  violence. 

Thule  (than?),  the  name  which  Pytheas  (at 
the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great)  gave  to  a 
land  which  he  discovered  after  sailing  six  daya 
in  a  northerly  direction  from  the  Orlcney  Is- 
lands. Later,  the  Romans  used  the  name  as 
a  general  signification  for  the  northernmost 
parts  of  the  habitable  earth — ultima  Thule, 
What  island  Pytheas  meant  is  unknown. 

Tlmmb'screw,  an  instrument  of  torture  ap- 
plied to  and  compressing  the  thumbs.  It  waa 
used  by  the  Spanish  Inquisition  «nd  in  Scot- 

^  iXoogIc 


Thnmniini.    See  Urih  and  THUwau. 

Thtm'dei,  a  nunbliitg  or  eraehing  noise  beard 
after  vivid  flashes  of  lightning.  Intense  elec- 
'.rical  diacharges  in  the  atmosphere,  whether 
c^loud  to  cloud,  from  cloud  to  earth,  or 
cloud  to  cloud  and  then  to  earth,  are 
Followed  b;  the  sound  which,  on  a  bidbII  scale, 
is  represented  by  the  crackle  of  an  artificial 
electric  dischsTge.  The  origin  of  the  sound  is 
"  e  violent  Hudden  increase  in  volume  of 
the  air  along  the  path  of  discharge.  The  ex- 
ceedingly high  temperature,  sufficient  to  make 
the  aiT  column  incandescent,  causes  tremen- 
douBlf  rapid  enpansion  and  motion  ot  the  air. 
Calculations  have  been  made  showing  that  if 
a  cannon  hall  could  have  imparted  to  it  a 
velocity  of  100,000  meters  per  second  we 
should  hear  something  like  the  nimble  of 
thunder  instead  of  a  whistling  noise.  Inas- 
much as  lightning  flashes  are  of  variable  di- 
mensions, and  as  cloud  masses  are  also  vari- 
able, and  the  air  itself  is  of  different  density 
and  purity  at  different  times,  all  manner  of 
sounds  are  produced,  from  the  sharp  crash  to 
the  prolonged  rumble.  The  beginning  of  the 
thunder  may  be  ordinarily  taken  to  determine 
the  nearest  point  of  "break  down"  (or  light- 
ning) in  the  air  and  the  duration  of  the  thun- 
der the  length  of  the  flash.  Thunder  may  be 
heard  from  a  great  distance,  but  not  so  far 
as  some  artificial  noises  have  been  beard.  J. 
J.  Symons  has'  run  to  earth  a  number  of  lo- 
called  thunder  l>olts,  and  concludes  that  the 
belief  in  the  fall  of  material  substances  during 
thunder  storms  is  merely  the  survival  of  the 
belief  in  mythical  bolts  of  irate  Jupiter. 
Belenuiites  frequently  preserved  as  thunder 
bolts  are  really  fossils'  Sometimes  aerolites 
and  meteorites  fall  during  thunder  showera, 
but  there  is  no  necessary  relation  between 
them.  Fulgurites  or  lightning  tubes  are  found 
where  heavy  lightning  penetrates  into  a  bed  of 
sand  containing  silex.  The  sand  for  a  depth 
of  several  feet  Is  fused  into  a  glassy  tube. 
Many  of  these  have  been  dug  out  in  good 
preservatioD,  and  good  specimens  are  to  be  seen 


Tbnni  nnd  Tazia  {tCtm  Ont  tUks'Ia),  a  noble 
family  ot  the  former  German  Empire,  famous 
for  its  poeaesaioa  of  a  monopoly  of  the  postal 
service. 

Thnrs'day,  the  fifth  day  of  the  week.  The 
later  Roman  pagans  adopted  the  week  of  seven 
days,  and  named  the  fifth  day  Jovis  dies,  Jove's 
dayi  the  name  Thursday  originated  as  a 
translation  of  this. 

Thy'Ine  Wood,  a  wood  mentioned  in  the 
Bible;  probably  the  arar  or  sandarach  wood, 
a  Isrjre  tree  ot  Barbary  which  affords  the  resin 
called  gum  sandarach;  its  timber  is  considered 
imperishable  b^  the  Turks,  who  floor  their 
mosques  with   it. 

ThyUidnc.    See  TASMAinAN  Wolf. 

Thyme  (tim) ,  any  one  of  certain  half- 
ehrubby  plants  of  the  genus  Thymitt.  Hone  is 
indigenous  to  America.  Two  kinds  are  culti- 
vate, the  common,  T.  vulgaria,  and  the  lemon 


Thy'mns  Gland  (so  called  from  its  resem- 
blance to  a  bunch  of  thyme),  a  ductless  gland, 
located  in  the  neck  tielow  the  thyroid  gland, 
and  in  the  chest  beneath  the  sternum.  It  de- 
velops at  the  third  month  of  fetal  life,  weighs 
i  oz.  at  birth,  and  grows  until  the  second  year,' 
attaining  a  length  of  2  in.  Thereafter  it  atro- 
phies, and  at  the  fourteenth  or  sixteenth  year 
IS  obliterated,  or  its  site  marked  only  by  a  few 
fibers  and  a  small  deposition  of  fat.  It  has 
abundant  blood  vessels,  nerves,  and  lymphatics, 
but  research  has  failed  to  disclose  positively 
its  use,  though  it  is  suggested  that  the  gland 
is  connected  with  manufacture  of  blood  in 
fetal  life.  The  thymus  of  calves  and  lambs  i» 
called  sweetbread,  or  neck  sweetbread. 

Thy'rold  Oland,  a  glandular  structure  con- 
sisting of  two  lobes,  with  a  connecting  band, 
situated  on  the  front  of  the  neck  and  attached 
to  the  sides  of  the  larynx.  The  gland  moves 
with  the  larynx  in  respiration  and  deglutition. 
The  thyroid  gland  is  ductless,  and  its  functions 
are  obscure.  Very  probably  it  aids  in  the 
manufacture  of  blood  in  fetal  life,  and  after 
birth  it  would  seem  to  have  certain  functions 
connected  with  the  animal  chemistry.  Its  re- 
moval or  disease  occasions  peculiar  metamor- 
phosis of  the  subcutaneous  tis- 
sues, known  as  myxiedema. 
The  thyroid  gland  is  the  seat 
of  goiter. 

Tia'ia,  the  papal  crown,  con- 
sisting of  a  cap  of  cloth  of 
gold,  encircled  by  three  golden 
coronets,  and  surmountecT  by  a 
mound  and  cross  of  gold.  It  is 
considered  symbolical  of  the 
pope's  temporal  authority. 

TilMT,  river  of  Italy,  passing  through  Home, 
the  largest  stream  ot  the  peninsula  proper; 
rises  in  Mount  Fumaiolo,  Tuscany,  a,t  an  ele- 
vation of  3,330  ft,  flows  S.,  and  empUes  into 

2  ,,  Google 


Tiberias 

the  MediterraneaD  22  m.  below  Kome;  length, 
fiOO  m. ;  breadth  at  Rome,  250  ft.  The  prin- 
elpal  affiuent  is  the  Nera,  which  deacenda  from 
the  Sibylline  Mountaios,  and  enters  on  the 
left  about  100  m.  from  the  mouth;  above  it 
and  on  the  eame  aide  entera  the  Clitunna 
iOtitvranua) ,  praised  by  the  Latin  poeta,  and 
below  the  Anio.  On  the  right  the  moat  im- 
portant affluent  ia  the  Chiana,  connected  bj 
canal  with  the  Arno.  The  Tiber  is  navigable 
for  email  Bteamera  to  the  mouth  of  the  Nera, 
and  for  larger  ones  to  Home.  The  floods  of 
the  Tiber  have  been  formidable  from  the  foun- 
dation of  Rome  for  their  auddenneaa  and  the 
lai«e  amount  of  sediment  carried.  The  Romans 
called  the  river  flavut  because  of  the  yellow 
'.ualt;  extende 
e  ancient  port, 
Ostia,  is  now  4  m.  inland,  and  the  port  of 
Trajaik  is  a  marsh.  The  growth  at  the  prin- 
cipal mouth  for  the  last  eight  hundred  years 
has  been  10  ft.  a  year. 

Tiberias,  Lake  of.    Bee  GENNsaABBr,  Lake 


Tibe'rins,  44  b.o.-^7  A-D.;  Emperor  of  Rome. 
Hia  full  name  was  Tiberius  Claudius  Nero 
Ctesar.  He  was  the  eldest  aon  of  Claudius 
Tiberius  Nero  and  Livia  Drusilla,  who  were 
divorced  in  oTder  that  the  Utter  might  marry 
Augustus.  Tiberius  made  his  first  campaign  in 
the  Cantabrian  War.  In  20  B.C.  he  went  to  Asia 
Minor  and  restored  Tigranea  to  the  throne  of 
Armenia;  and  in  15  he  and  his  brother  Drusus 
carried  on  a  war  against  the  Alpine  nations  of 
Rhatia.  Id  II  he  conducted  the  war  against 
the  revolted  Dalmatians  and  the  Pannonians. 
The  death  of  the  two  older  grandsons  of  Au- 
gustus virtually  left  Tiberius  the  succession 
to  the  throne,  and  in  4  a.d.  he  was  adopted  by 
Augustus.  He  conquered  all  lllyricum,  gained 
victoriea  over  the  Germans  and  the  Dalma- 
tlana,  and  in  12  celebrated  hia  fourth  triumph. 
In  14  he  aucceeded  Augustus. 

The  first  years  of  his  reign  were  marked  by 

8rudenc«  and  moderation;  Dut  under  the  in- 
uence  of  Sejanua,  his  favorite,  the  natural 
severity  of  his  temper  began  soon  to  degen- 
erate into  cruelty.  A  secret  organization  of 
spies  was  formed,  and  their  machinations  ex- 
posed the  life,  the  fortune,  and  the  honor  .of 
every  Roman  citizen  to  hourly  danger.  In  27 
he  retired  to  the  island  of  Capreu  (Capri), 
near  Naples.  His  last  years  were  spent  in  the 
moat  infamous  pleasures,  and  Caprea  became 
the  haunt  of  debauchery.  Henceforth  Sejanua 
had  the  full  control  of  aSaira  of  state;  but 
Tiberius,  who  had  been  suspecting  him  for  some 
time,  caused  him  and  his  whole  family  to  be 
destroyed  in  31.  Tiberius  wrote  a  commentary 
of  his  own  life,  Greek  poems,  an  ode  on  the 
death  of  Xi.  Csaar,  and  several  epistles  and 
orations.  The  unfavorable  estimate  of  Tiberius 
is  mainlT  due  to  the  comments  of  Tacitus — a 
bitter  critic  of  the  imperial  system,  and  ia  pos- 
sibly exaggerated. 

Tibet*  (called  hy  the  natives  Btm  or  Bodttji^ 
and  Bhot  and  Bhotita  in  India),  the  high 
table-land,  buttressed  on  the  N.  by  the  Kuen- 
lun  or  KulkuD  and  Altyn  Ta^  ranges,  which 


iibet 

marks  a  sudden  descent  to  the  deserla  of  E. 
Turkeatan  and  Gobi,  and  on  the  B.  by  the  Him- 
alayan range  and  British  IndiL  It  is  one  of 
the  least-known  countries  of  the  world.  Its 
area  (463,200  sq.  m.)  can  only  be  vaguely  esti- 
mated, vast  portions  are  as  yet  unexplored,  and 
present  geographical  knowledge  is  based  laigely 
on  the  Jesuit  survey  (1708-18)  and  on  the 
route  surveys  of  trarelen.  Pop.  est.  at  6,600,- 
000.  Lhasa,  the  capital,  has  from  10,000  to 
20,000  inhabitants. 

The  dip  and  drainage  of  the  Tibetan  plateau 
ia  generally  E.,  so  the  highest  part  ia  the  W., 
where  it  adjoins  Kashmir.  Here  its  mean  level 
is  16,000  to  17,000  ft.  above  sea  level,  and  in 
the  SW.  angle  there  spring  three  great  riven — 
the  SuUej,  Indna,  and  Sanpur — wh'ch  buret 
through  the  Himalayan  chain  on  their  way  to 
the  Arabian  Bea  and  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  last 
of  these  rivers  flows  through  Great  or  B.  Tibet 
in  an  E.  direction  tor  1,000  m.  before  it  turns 
8.  and,  piercing  the  Himalayas,  emerges  into 
British  territory  as  the  Brahmaputra.  A  large 
belt  of  country  N,  of  and  parallel  to  the  valley 
of  the  Brahmaputra  is  drained  bv  another  river 
which  connects  a  chain  of  lakes  and  flowa 
away  to  the  G.  It  is  believed  to  be  the  upper 
course  of  the  Balwen.  In  N.  and  E.  Tibet  lie 
the  sources  of  the  Mekong  or  Cambodia  River 
and  those  of  the  great  Yang-tae-kiang  and 
Hwang-ho  of  China.  The  lower  courses  of  the 
Sanpur  or  Brahmaputra  and  Balwen  drain  the 
most  populous  part  of  Tibet;  most  of  the  re- 
mainder of  the  country  being  too  bleak  and 
unproductive  to  support  life.  An  interesting 
analogy  between  the  Andes  and  the  Himalayas 
was  perceived  by  Warren  Hastings.  Both  the 
mountain  masses  of  the  Old  and  New  World 
consist  of  three  parallel  chains;  in  both  great 
rivers  rise  in  the  inner  chain  and  force  their 
way  through  the  other  two,  while  smaller  riv-  . 
era  rise  in  the  central  cordillera  and  after  lat- 
eral eouraea  force  their  way  through  the  outer 
chain.  In  both  Peru  and  Tibet  the  ataple  prod- 
uct is  wool,  conv^ed  by  the  llamas  and  sheep 
used  as  beasts  of  burden. 

The  chief  mineral  products  of  Tibet  are  gold, 
silver,  salt,  and  borax;  the  metals  first  named 
are  fairly  plentiful,  but  jealousy  against  foreign 
intrusion  prevents  any  systematic  working  and 
export.  Among  the  principal  domesticatM  ani- 
mals are  aheep,  horsea,  yaks,  and  maatiffs,  while 
tiie  wild  fauna  comprise  bears,  antelopes,  musk 
deer,  and  wild  asses,  and  on  the  extreme  N.  con- 
fines wild  camels  are  found. 

The  great  staple  of  the  country  is  wotd,  a  fine 
quality  of  which  is  largely  produced,  and  in 
1803,  as  well  as  after  the  British  invasion  of 
1004-^,   important  trade   oonceieions  were   ob- 

The  climate  is  of  Arctic  rigor,  and  only  the 
hardier  cereals  can  be  raised  in  the  valteys. 
The  inhabitants  of  Tibet,  about  6,500,000  to 
6,000,000  in  number,  are  Mong;oli8ns,  with 
small,  contracted  black  eyes,  thin  beards,  high 
cheek  bones,  flat  noses,  wide  mouths,  and  thin 
lips.  The  skins  of  the  upper  classes  are  aa 
white  as  those  of  the  Guropeana,  but  the  ordi- 
nary complexion  (s  tawny.  They  are  of  middle 
height,  and  combine  t^ility  and  supplenesa 
with  force  and  vigor.   They  an  said  to  be  brave 


•HBIA 

In  war,  though  the  inferiority  ot  their  wMpons 
and  ignorance  of  the  art  of  war  place  them  at 
an  enormoua  diBEdvantage.  The  literature  ot 
Tibet  ineludeB  translations  of  all  the  Buddhist 
Bcripturea.  Printing  bj  wooden  block;  has 
been  known  for  eenturiet.  The  old  reli^on, 
Bon  or  Pon,  still  lingers,  and  appears  to  be  a 
worahip  of  the  powers  of  nature.  Buddhism 
reached  Tibet  in  the  seventh  century  from 
India  and  China,  and  the  religious  hierarchy  is 
now  foremost  in  national  affairs.  Tibet  is  di- 
vided into  the  four  provinces  of  K&m,  U,  Tsang, 
and  Ari. 

The  foreign  relations  of  Tibet  since  the  eight- 
eenth century  have  been  subject  to  China,  and 
two  Chinese  residents  are  at  the  capital.  The 
dalai  lama  on  attaining  full  age  has  in  times 
past  been  invested  with  supreme  authority  by 
the  Emperor  of  China,  but  for  some  years  all 
the  grand  lamas  have  died  in  Infancy,  a  cir- 
cumstance that  sheds  a  significant  light  on  the 
methods  resorted  to  by  those  who  wish  to  keep 
the  power  in  their  own  hands.  The  position  of 
the  grand  lamas  has  thus  been  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  popes  of  Rome,  and  the  analogy  is 
still  more  observable  in  the  tenets  and  rites  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  and  Tibetan  religions,  be- 
tween which  there  is  a  striking  similaritj-,  prob- 
ably due  to  the  early  Capuchin  missionaries 
who  settled  in  Lhasa  having  introduced  a 
knowledge  of  Catholic  observances.  The  gy- 
longs  (monks)  and  annis  (nuns)  are  found  m 
huge  monasteries,  presided  over  by  abbots  and 
scatter«l  all  over  the  kingdom,  and  indirectly 
poHsesa  much  influence;  the  actual  executive 
authority  is,  however,  vested  in  jongpons,  or 
district  officers,  under  the  supervision  of  the 
provincial  governors. 

It  is  said  that  a  native  king  established  the 
government  at  Lhasa  in  617  a.d.,  and  com- 
menced the  translation  ot  the  Buddhist  scrip- 
tures, but  the  early  history  of  Tibet  is  obscure. 
The  Buddhist  monks  flnaily  gained  the  ascend- 
ancy, and  during  this  period  {131B-30)  the  first 
European,  Friar  Odoric,  ot  Pordenone,  visited 
Lhasa.  The  first  of  the  Jesuits  who  penetrated 
into  Tibet  was  Antonio  Andrada,  who  in  1624 
set  out  from  Agra  and,  scaling  an  appalling 
mountain,  reached  Hudok,  in  Tibet,  and  event- 
ually made  his  way  through  Tangut  to  China. 
Other  missionaries  followed.  A  mission  of 
Capnchins  was  established  at  Lhasa  in  1719, 
'  but  they  were  expelled  in  1760.  The  unfortu- 
nate policy  of  the  British  under  Lord  C:omwal- 
lis  led  to  the  closing  of  the  passes  from  Tibet 
into  India,  all  the  good  results  of  Hastings's 
negotiations  being  thereby  lost.  Nevertheless, 
Thomas  Manning,  the  friend  ot  CharJes  Lamb, 
in  the  guise  of  a  doctor,  managed  in  181 1  to  get 
to  Lhasa  through  Bhutan,  a  success  doubtless 
due  to  his  knowledge  of  Chinese.  In  1844  the 
French  missionaries  Hue  and  Oabet  arrived  at 
Lhasa  and  were  well  treated  by  the  new  regent, 
who  had  been  installed  in  the  place  of  one  Si- 
tan,  who  had  been  di^raced  tor  complicity  in 
the  murder  of  three  of  the  dalai  lamas.  Sub- 
sequently Chinese  jealousy  prevailed,  and  Huo 
and  Gabet  were  compelled  to  return  to  Europe, 

Tib'ia.     See  Lea. 

Tiball'ns,  Albiui,  b.  abt.  64  B,0,;  Roman 
poet;  ot  an  equestrian  family.     Four  books  ot 


TICKET  OP  LEAVE 

elegies  are  attributed  to  him,  but  only  two  are 
ndouhtedly  bis.  These,  by  the  genuineness 
nd  simplicity  of  their  feeling,  belong  to  the 

best  Latin  literature  contains. 


Ticbliome  Tri'al,  the  most  celebrated  con- 
spiracy case,  and  the  first  in  English  legal 
records  in  which  the  impostor  assumed  iden- 
tity with  a  known  person.  Roger  Charles  Tich- 
bome,  b.  1828,  was,  after  his  father,  heir  to 
the  title  and  estates  of  his  uncle.  Sir  Edward. 
Roger  in  1864  sailed  from  Rio  de  Janeiro  for 
New  York  in  the  ship  Btlla,  which  was  lost. 
Sir  Edward  died,  March  5,  1863,  and  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  brother  James,  Roger's  father, 
who  died,  June  U,  1862.  In  the  presumed  loss 
at  sea  ot  Roger,  Sir  James  was  succeeded  by 
his  second  son  Alfred,  who  died  February  22, 
1866,  and  was  succeeded  by  a  posthumous  son, 
bom  May  28th.  In  186B  Lady  Xichborne, 
widow  ot  Sir  James;  advertised  in  English  and 
Australian  newspapers  for  her  son  Roger, 
whom  she  believed  to  be  alive.  In  1866  a 
butcher  in  Wagga  Wagga,  Australia,  Arthur 
Orton,  but  then  calling  mmself  Thomas  Castro, 
asserted  that  he  was  Roger  Charles  Ticbbornp, 
and  had  been  saved  from  the  wreck.  Be  visited 
Lady  Tichbome,  and  she  accepted  him  aa  her 

Lady  Tichbome  died,  March  12,  1868.  On 
May  11,  1871,  the  trial  tor  the  recovery  of  the 
Tichborne  estates,  valued  at  £24,000  a  year, 
was  begun.  After  sitting  one  hundred  nnd 
tJiree  days  the  jury  declared  themselves  satis- 
fied that  the  claimant  was  not  Rc^r  Tich- 
bome. In  1674,  after  a  trial  lasting  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty-eight  days,  the  claimant  was  - 
found  guilty  of  perjury,  and  sentenced  to  tour- 
teen  years'  penal  servitude.  Orton  was  proved 
to  differ  from  Roger  Tichbome  in  important 
particulars.  He  waa  grossly  fat,  illiterate,  and 
ignorant  of  notorious  facts  in  Tichbome's  life, 
while  the  latter  waa  thin,  shorter,  and  well 
educated;  yet  his  enormous  expenditures  were 

eid  by  public  subscriptions,  and  efforts  in  his 
halt  were  long  continued.     In   1895  he  pub- 
licly confessed  his  fraud  and  impersonation. 

Ticino  (te-che'nC),  French  Tessih,  the  south- 
ernmost canton  of  Switzerland,  on  the  Italian 
side  ot  the  Alps  and  on  both  sides  of  the  river 
Ticino;  borders  on  Lago  Maggiore;  area,  1,088 
sq.  m.  Its  N.  frontier  toward  Uri  and  Qrisona 
is  formed  by  a  range  of  the  Lepontine  Alps, 
12,000  tt.  high,  branches  of  which  cover  the 
whole  N.  part  of  the  canton.  In  the  S.  part 
the  ground  becomes  low  and  the  surface  level. 
Dairy  farming  and  cattle  breeding  are  the  prin- 
cipal occupations  in  the  Alpine  regions,  and 
agriculture  and  the  cultivation  of  grapes, 
olives,  figs,  almonds,  and  melons  in  the  S.  part. 
Pop.  (1905)  143,130,  most  ot  whom  speak  Ital- 
ian and  are  Roman  Catholics ;  capital,  Bellin- 

Tick'et  of  Leave,  originally  a  kind  of  per- 
mit or  license  given  to  British  convicts  trans- 
ported to  the  Australian  colonies,  by  which 
they  were  allowed  to  be  at  large  within  a  ooc 


Ogl( 


UiD  torritoTT.  It  Ib  now  an  order  of  licenee, 
^Thereby  a  portion  of  b  convict's  time  of  im- 
prisonment is  remitted  as  a  reward  tor  good 


Lbavi 


Tick'nor,  G«orxe,  ITOl-ieTl;  American  his- 
torian; b.  Boston;  graduated  Dartmouth  Col- 
lege, ItJOT;  admitted  to  the  bar,  lB13i  spent 
four  years  (1615-19)  in  study  in  Europe; 
Prof,  of  Modem  L^ngusges,  Hnrvard,  1FI20-35, 
when  he  resigned ;  spent  three  yearx  in  Kuvope, 
chiefly  enga^d  in  researches  fur  his  principal 
work;  published,  1849,  his  "  History  of  Spanish 
Literature,"  which  was  translated  into  French, 
German,  and  Spanish,  and  accepted  as  the 
standard  work  even  in  Spain;  wrote  an  elab' 
orate  "  Life  of  William  Hickling  Prescott " 
{1864). 

Ticknoi,  William  Davis,  1810-64;  publisher; 
b.  Lebanon,  N.  H.;  became  in  1832  a  book- 
seller in  Boston;  subsequeutly  added  a  publish- 
ing buainess,  which  attained  to  great  impor- 
tance under  the  Arm  name  of  Ticknor  t  Fields; 
published  The  Atlantic  Monthly  and  The  North 
Amrrican  Rcvitw,  and  made  his  office  a  center 
for  the  brilliant  literary  circle  connected  with 
that  magazine,  including  Longfellow,  Holmes, 
Whittier,  Lowell,  and  Saxe,  whose  poems  were 
issued  by  the  firm. 

Ticks,  parasites  of  the  higher  animals.  The 
true  ticks  belong  to  the  Arachnida.  order 
Aearina.  They  fasten  upon  the  skin,  and,  bur- 
rowing the  head  beneath  the  surface,  feed  upon 
the  blood,  the  abdomen  meanwhile  ^aviing  to 
enormous  size.  The  name  is  also  given  other 
parasites  belonging  to  the  Diptera  (flies),  an 
the  sheep  tick,  horse  tick,  and  bird  tick,  and 
in  some  of  these  parasitism  has  resulted  in  a 
lose  of  wings,  the  animal  having  a  epiderlike 
appearance. 

Tkondero'sa-    See  Fobt  Ticondeboga. 

Tides,  the  motions  of  the  waters  of  the 
ocean  arising  from  the  attraction  of  the  sun 
and  moon.  For  six  hours  the  water  rises,  or 
floict;  then,  remaining  stationary  for  a  short 
time,  it  re^es  or  ebba  for  another  sis  hours ; 

Low  water 


after  a  short  lull,  called  alack  water,  it  again 
rises  and  falls  as  before.  The  rising  sen  is 
called  the  flood  tide;  the  receding  sea,  the  ebb 
tide,  nlien  the  water  is  at  its  greatest  height, 
it  is  high  loater;  when  at  its  lowest  point,  low 
water.     There  are  thus  daily   two  high   tides 


TIDES 

and  two  low  tides.  The  mean  interval  of  time 
between  two  consecutive  high  tides  or  low  tides 
being  really  twelve  hours  and  twenty-six  min- 
utes, the  hour  of  the  day  at  which  high  water 
or  low  wat«r  occurs  js  later  every  day  by 
about  lifty*two  minutes. 

Though  the  dependence  of  the  tides  upon  the 
course  of  the  moon  seemed  to  point  out  their 
source,  their  real  cause  was  not  understood 
before  the  discovery  of  the  law  of  gravitation. 
Xenton  showed  that  the  rise  of  the  waters  was 
due  to  the  attraction  of  the  moon  and  the  sun 
upon  the  revolving  globe  of  the  earth.  The 
nioon,  on  account  of  its  proximity,  has  an  in- 
fluence more  than  double  that  of  the  sun  (100 
to  38)  ;  its  action  is  illustrated  by  Fig.  1.  It 
attracts  the  solid  earth  as  if  the  whole  mass 
of  the  earth  were  concentrate  at  its  center. 
But  owing  to  the  greater  proximity  of  the 
region  marked  in  the  figure  "  high  water  "  to 
the  moon,  the  attraction  is  there  greater  than 
for  the  center  of  the  earth.  Hence  a  tendency 
to  a  high  tide  in  that  region.  On  the  side  op 
posite  the  moon,  also  marked  high  water,  tin- 
attraction  is  leas  than  at  the  center  of  the 
earth.  Hence  the  attraction  draws  the  eartli 
away  from  the  water  toward  the  moon,  so  that 
a  high  tide  is  produced  there  also.  At  the 
points  marked  low  water  the  components  of 
the  forces  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  converge 
toward  the  moon.  But  for  this  convergence 
Ibe  attraction  of  the  moon  on  the  solid  earth 
and  on  the  water  would  be  equal.     But  owing 

the  center  of  the  earth,  and  thus  low  tides  are 
produced.  There  are  thus  always  simultane- 
ounly  nnd  directly  under  the  moon  two  high 
n-aters  opposite  each  other,  and  two  low  waters 
at  equal  distances  between  them.  Owing  to  the 
rotation  of  the  earth,  this  permanent  system 
of  swells  and  trouphs  travels  from  E.  to  W. 
over  every  part  of  the  ocean  and  of  its  coast. 

The  sun  also  asserts  its  attractive  power  on 
the  ocenn,  and  causes  a  similar  system  of  four 
daily  tides.  Owing,  however,  to  the  great  dis- 
tance of  the  sun,  the  solar  tides  are  much 
smaller,  and  moslly  merged  in  Wie  lunar  tides. 
As  the  relative  position  of  tlie  moon  and  sun 
'"  'ntly   chnnglng,    the   solar   and   lunar 

,n.  ~.i...;.1«.  but  twice  a  month,  at 
oon,  the  sun  and  moon, 
being  on  a  line  with  the 
eartli,  act  together,  and 
cause  an  unusually  high 
water,  which  is  the  sum 
of  the  lunar  and  solar 
tides.  These  are  the 
spring  tides.  Iligli  wa- 
ter is  then  highest,  and 
low  water  lowest.  When 
the  sun  is  placed  00° 
from  the  moon  (Fig.  2)— that  is,  at  the  time 
of  the  flrst  and  third  quarter  of  the  moon — 
its  attraction  acts  against  that  of  the  moon, 
diminishing  the  height  of  the  high  tide  and 
increasing  that  of  low  water.  These  are  the 
neap  tides.  High  water  is  then  lowest,  and 
low  water  highest.  The  proportion  of  the  rise 
and  fall  in  the  spring  tides  and  neap  tides  is 
early  as  7  to  3. 
If  the  ocean  covered  the  whole  earth  with  ft 


TIECK 

uniform  depth  of  water,  the  tidal  wave,  with 
its  long  crest  extending  from  N.  to  S.,  would 
follow  the  appnrcnt  course  of  the  moon,  and 
travel  from  E.  to  W.  around  the  globe  in 
twenty-four  hours.  It  would  be  greatest  in  the 
equatorial  legiona,  and  move  there  with  a 
velocity  of  over  1,000  m.  an  hour.  But  the 
continents  which  cut  the  ocean  into  several 
large  basins  oppose  its  passage,  and  in  each 
of  these  basins  the  course  of  the  tidal  wave 
is  subjected  to  great  modiQcations.  The  regu- 
laritj  and  velocity  of 
the  tidal  wave  depend 
upon  the  size  of  the 
basin,  the  depth  of  the 
water,  and  freedom 
from  all  obstaclea  op- 
posing its  progress. 
Nowl^re  are  these 
conditions  better  ful- 
filled  than   in    the   6. 


•o- 


G 


half  of  the  Pacific.  There  is  formed  what  might 
be  called  the  parent  tidal  wave,  which,  advanc- 
ing rapidly  westward,  enters  the  Indian  and 
Atlantic  oceans,  and  seeins  to  control  their  tides. 
The  height  of  the  tide  depends  upon  local 
circumstances.  In  the  midst  of  the  Pacific  it 
is  scarcely  more  than  from  2  to  5  ft.  But 
when  dashing  against  the  land  and  forced  into 
deep  estuaries,  the  accumulating  tide  waters 
reach  a  great  height.  On  the  E.  coast  of  N. 
America,  which  is  directly  in  the  path  of  the 
great  Atlantic  wave,  the  tide  rises  on  an  aver- 
age 0  to  12  ft.  In  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  which 
receives  the  full  wave,  the  tide,  which  at  the 
entrance  ia  18  ft.,  rushes  with  fury  into  that 
long  and  narrow  channel,  and  swells  to  the 
height  of  60  It.,  and  even  to  70  ft.  in  the  high- 
est spring  tides.  In  the  Bristol  Channel,  on 
the  coast  of  England,  the  spring  tides  rise  to 
40  ft.,  and  swell  to  50  in  the  English  Channel 
at  St.-Malo.  It  is  obvious  that  differences  so 
considerable  in  the  level  of  the  water  will 
cause  strong  currents,  constuntly  varying  in 
force  and  direction  with  the  tide.  To  the  same 
cause  may  be  traced  the  dangerous  whirlpools 
which  have  long  been  celebrated  on  various 
coasts.  The  famous  maelstrom  off  the  Norwe- 
gian coast  ia  but  a  tidal  current  rushing  with 
violence  between  two  of  the  Lofoden  Islands, 
causing  a  whirling  motion  which  is  reversed 
at  every  new  tide.  Such,  too,  in  the  Straits 
of  Messina,  are  the  clBFisic  Scylla  and  Cliaryb- 
dia,  so  much  dreaded  by  the  navigators  of  old, 
and  many  other  whirlpools  of  less  celebrity. 

Tieek  (tPkl,  Ludwig,  1773-1BB3;  German 
author;  b.  Berlin.  He  early  became  known 
as   a  writer   of   fantastic   tales,   eepecially   by 


TIERRA  DEL  FUEGO 

"  Peter  Lebrechts  VolksTiiarehen,"  which  com- 
bine the  simplicity  of  the  old  legends  with 
grotesque  satire  upon  modem  anbjects.  He 
satirized  the  classicists  in  several  works.  Be- 
tween 179B  and  1802  be  published  "  Das  Lebeu 
nnd  Tod  der  Genoveva,"  his  finest  drama,  bis 
admirable  translation  of  "  Don  Quixote,"  and, 
with  A.  W.  von  Schlegel,  the  "Musenal- 
manach."  He  afterwards  lived  for  several 
years  in  Rome,  Munich,  and  England,  and  in 
1820  went  to  Berlin,  where  be  exerted  great  in- 
fluence on  the  drama.  In  1826  appeared  his  nov- 
els, " Dichterleben,"  "Der  Tod  des  Dichters," 
and  the  unfinished  "  Aufruhr  in  den  Cevennen," 
as  well  as  translations  of  plays  which  he  re- 
garded as  early  works  of  Shakespeare- 

Tlen'-8han  ("celestial  mountains"),  a  lofty 
mountain  chain  in  central  Asia,  in  lat.  42°  N, 
from  Ion.  70"  to  90"  E.,  forming  the  boundary 
between  the  Batkash  basin  and  that  of  the 
Kashgar  and  Tarim,  and  lying  partly 
in  the  Russian  provinces  of  Syr-Dar- 
ya and  Semirechensk  and  partly  in 
Chinese  Turkestan.  There  are  several 
Bummits  which  reach  15,000  to  1S,000 
ft.  The  highest  peak  is  Khan-Tengri 
124,000  ft),  on  the  Russo-Chinese ' 
boundary. 

Tientsin  (te-Sn'tsen),  literally 
"  Heaven's  Ford,"  a  walled  city  and 
river  port  of  Chihii,  in  China;  cap- 
ital of  a  department  of  the  same  name.  The 
city  is  at  the  junction  of  the  Grand  Canal 
with  the  Pei-ho,  60  m.  SE.  of  Pekin.  Next 
to  Pekin  it  is  the  most  important  city  of 
the  province.  Prior  tc  1872  it  was  merely 
a  loei  or  military  station  for  the  protection  of 
the  river  tralEc.  The  city  itself  is  compar- 
atively small,  its  walls  having  a  circuit  of  3 
m.,  but  its  suburln  are  extensive,  and  in  them 
most  of  the  business  is  transacted.  The  streets 
are  narrow  and  filthy,  and  the  buildings  lack 
interest  or  beauty.  Tientsin  was  designated  in 
tlie  treaty  made  here  in  185S  as  a  treaty  port, 
but  was  not  opened  until  January,  1863.  The 
foreign  settlement  is  2  m.  below  the  city,  and 
consists  of  three  "concessions,"  the  French, 
nearest  the  city,  then  the  British  (the  largest 
and  most  important),  and  lastly  the  "Ameri- 
can." City,  suburbs,  and  settlements  are  in- 
closed in  a  circular  rampart,  knovm  as  "  San- 
ko-lin-sin's  folly,"  because  thrown  up  in  1S6B 
by  the  Tartar  general,  Siing-ko-lin-sin  as  a  de- 
fense against  tne  British.  Though  the  river  is 
frown  over  from  the  early  part  of  December 
to  the  middle  of  March  and  later,  the  trade  of 
Tientsin  ia  oonsiderable.     Pop.  est.  at  750,000. 

Tierra  del  Fncso  (te-it'ra  del  fw&'gO),  an 
archipelago  at  the  S.  extremity  of  S.  America, 
separated  from  the  continent  by  the  Strait  of 
Magellan ;  length  from  NW.  to  SE.  about  400 
m.  Of  the  total  land  area  (21,000  sq.  m.)  at 
least  four  fifths  is  included  in  the  large  island 
called  King  Charles  5.  Land,  Tierra  del 
Fuego,  or  Fuegia.  W.  and  S.  of  this  are  Deso- 
lation, Clarence,  Navarin,  Wollaston,  Dawson, 
Londonderry,  and  smaller  islands  and  islets, 
all  separated  from  the  larger  island  and  from 


TIERRA  FIRHB 


th«  8.  end,  BepRmted  by  the  nsTigable  Lemaire 
Channel,  includte  Horn  Island  and  Cape  Horn; 
and  the  lata  de  los  E^atados  is  somewhat  out- 
lying, toward  the  SE.  N.  of  the  W.  mouth  of 
the  Strait  of  Magellan  a  group  of  vei?  similar 
islands  lines  the  coast;  tbej  belong,  physically, 
t«  the  Tierra  del  Fuego  group,  but  those  be- 
tween the  strait  and  WeDlngton  Island  are 
distinguished  as  the  Madre  de  Dios  Archi- 
pelago. The  Andes  are  continued  into  Tierra 
del  Fuego;  some  of  the  peaks  are  over  6,000 
ft.,  but  then  are  no  anive  volcanoes.  The 
bases  of  the  mountains  are  covered  vith  pine 


i  cut  t^  deep  fiords,  affording  magnificent 


foresta  and  numerous  glaciers.    All  the  islands 
iffor 

subject  to  violent  storms  ana  serere'oold,  espe- 
cially from  June  to  October.  By  the  treaty  of 
1881  that  portion  of  the  archipelago  lying  E. 
of  Ion.  68°  34'  W.  is  held  by  the  Argentine 
Eepubtic ;  there  are  two  or  three  small  civilized 
settlements.  The  remaining  surface  belongs  to 
Chili;  at' present  it  ia  unsettled.  The  Indian 
inhabitants  belong  to  three  distinct  races,  but 
are  classed- together  as  Fuegians ;  all  are  sav- 
ages of  a  low  grade,  but  inonensive,  subsisting 
on  fish,  seals,  etc.  They  number  about  8,000. 
Fernando  de  MEigalhles  (Magellan)  discovered 
the  archipelago  in  1620.  It  is  said  that  he 
named  it,  in  allusion  to  the  smoke  from  Indian 
watch  flres,  Tierra  de  Humo*  (land  of  smoke), 
and  that  Charles  V  changed  this  to  Tierra  del 
Fu^^  (land  of  fire). 

Tiei'ra  Fii'me.    Bee  SpAiasH  Main. 

Tilis (tif-lfis'), government  of  Russia;  bound- 
ed N.  by  the  Caucasus  and  8.  by  Turkey  in 
Asia;  area,  15,776  aq.  m.  TiOis  is  a  moun- 
tainous region,  covered  with  forests  of  oak, 
chestnut,  and  maple.  The  valleys  are  fertile, 
and  produce  tobacco,  cotton,  indigo,  wheat,  and 
all  the  fruits  of  8.  Europe.  Pop.  (IBOT) 
1,007,600,  mainly  Oeorgians,  Armenians,  Rus- 
siftDS,  and  Tartars.  Capital  is  Tiflis,  the  for- 
mer capital  of  Georgia,  on  the  Koor.  It 
carries  on  simple  manufactures,  and  is  fa- 
mous for  its  workers  in  metals.  It  is  the 
center  of  B.  Caucasian  commerce  between 
Russia,  Persia,  and  Europe.  Trade  is  mostly 
in  the  hands  of  Armenians.  It  was  almost 
totally  destroyed  by  Mehemet  Khan  <IT95), 
and  was  ceded  to  Russia  by  its  last  king, 
George  (ISOl).  In  the  vicinity  are  naphtha 
and  thermal  springs,  the  Utter  much  fre- 
quented.   Pop.  abt.  160,000. 

Ti'ger,  tbe  name  applied  to  certain  quadru- 
peds. (I)  Primarily  and  of  right  it  belongs 
only  to  the  Felit  tigrit,  one  of  the  largest  of 
living  Felida,  about  equal  in  size  and  superior 
in  strength  to  the  largest  lions,  and  more  de- 
structive and  far  more  dangerous  to  man. 
Tigers  have  been  known  to  measure  over  10  ft. 
in  length,  including  the  tail,  and  to  weigh  over 
600  lb.  It  is  peculiar  in  the  development  of 
spreading  thick,  whiskerlike  hairs  on  the  sides 
of  the  head;  its  tail  is  elongate  and  smooth- 
haired,  and  the  color  is  a  tawny  yellow  trana- 
Tersely  striped  with  block.    It  ranges  N-  into 


TILDEN 

S.  Siberia,  and  S.  as  far  aa  the  Spice  Islands. 
E.  and  W.  its  habitat  extends  from  Persia  to 
the  Pacific.  It  prefers  forests  and  jungles 
near  river  banks  for  its  abode,  and  pounces 
upon  the  cattle  and  other  animals  that  come 
to  drink.  It  is  much  dreaded  by  man,  espe- 
cially in  India.  The  tiger  has  be^  induced  to 
hybridize  with  the  lion  in  captivity.  Old 
tigers  sometimes  acquire  a  fondness  for  human 
flesh,  and  are  then  called  "  man  eaters."  ITib 
hunting   of  the   tiger   from  the   backs   of   ele- 

Shants  is  a  favorite  though  perilous  sport  in 
riental  lands.      (2)    Tbe  name  is  also  some-' 
,  (3)  It 

to  the  striped  Thglacimia  oynaoeplialua,  a  car- 


Tigei  Cat,  any  one  of  a  targe  number  of 
striped  and  spotted  wild-cats,  mostly  rather 
small  tropical  animals,  often  arboreal  in  their 
habits. 


TiEriatli-Pila'K 


See  Abstvu. 


Ti'grla,  river  of  Asiatic  Turkey.  As  Hiddb- 
KKL,  it  was  one  of  tbe  four  rivers  of  Eden.  It 
rises  in  the  mountains  of  Kurdistan,  only  4  m. 
from  the  Euphrates.  After  a  winding  but  gen- 
erally SK  course  of  about  1,000  m-  it  joins  the 
Euphrates  at  Korna.  Together  they  form  the 
Shatt-el-Arab  which  empties  into  the  Persian 
Gulf  nearly  100  m.  distant  On  its  banks  are 
Diarbekir,  Mosul,  and  Bagdad,  and  tbe  ruins 
of  Nineveh,  Seleucia,  Ctesiphon,  and  Opis.  Its 
banks  above  Diarbekir  afford  pasturage  to  no- 
mad tribes,  and  below  Diarbekir  are  finely  cul- 
tivated as  far  as  Mosul.  There  the  land  be- 
comes a  desert.  From  Bagdad  to  Koma  the 
banks  are  steep  and  overgrown  with  rdeds  and 
brush,  sheltering  beasts  of  prey.  The  upperrTi- 
gris  as  far  as  Mosul  is  navigable  only  by  rafts, 
and  thence  by  small  vessels  to  ^gcfad,  to 
which  steamers  of  light  draught  ascend  from 
the  Persian  Gulf.  During  a  brief  period  (114- 
117)  it  formed  the  boundary  between  the  Par- 
thian and  Roman  empires. 

Tll'den^  Samuel  Tonea,  1914-86;  American 
statesman;  b.  New  Lebanon,  N.  ¥.;  studied  at 
Yale  and  Univ.  of  New  York;  admitted  to 
the  bar,  1841.  He  became  prominent  as  an  able 
champion  of  Van  Buren's  administration,  and 
won  a  high  place  in  his  profession,  amassing 
by  a  judicious  investment  of  his  earnings  one 
of  the  largest  fortunes  ever  accumulated  in 
legal  practice.  He  was  a  member  of  the  con- 
vention for  a  revision  of  the  constituUon  of  the 
state  in  ia4S,  and  again  in  1367.  He  also 
served  two  terms  in  the  state  legislature — first 
in  1B46  and  second  in  1872.  He  was  one  of  the 
foremost  in  the  overthrow  of  the  Tweed  ring. 
In  1874  be  was  chosen  Governor  of  the  State  of 
New  York.  He  exposed  the  iniquities  of  the 
canal  ring  and  conducted  a  successful  reform 
administration.  In  1876  he  was  nominated  by 
the  National  Democratic  Convention  for  the 
Presidency  of  the  U.  8.  At  the  election  he  re- 
ceived a  much  larger  popular  vote  than  any 
other  candidate  and  184  uncontested  electoral 
votes.  Only  one  additional  electoral  vote  was 
required  for  his  election,  while  twenty  addi- 
tional votes  wer«  reqniied  for  the  election  of 


TILES 

the  rival  candidate.    Owing  to  differences  of 

opinion  as  to  ttie  proper  mode  of  counting  elec- 
toral votes  and  passing  upon  conteated  retunta, 
tlie  settlement  of  the  matter  wtLi  intrusted  by 
CongrQsa  to  the  Presidential  Electoral  Commia- 
oion,  which  decided  in  favor  of  the  Republican 
electors  in  every  contested  case,  and  certified  to 
the  election  of  Rutherford  B.  Uajea.  The  Dem- 
ocratic Party  continued  to  regard  Tilden  as  its 
candidate  for  the  succeeding  election  in  1S80, 
but  he  was  obliged  by  failing  health  to  with- 
draw from  public  life.  Tilden  bequeathed  the 
bulk  of  his  property  for  the  establishment  of 
the  Tilden  Trust  to  found  a  free  library  and 
reading  rooms  in  the  city  of  New  York. 

Tiles,  originally  flat  slabs  of  baked  clay. 
There  are  now  in  comtnon  use  roofing  tiles,  tiles 
for  walls  and  floors,  and  drainage  tiles.  Wall 
tiling,  with  the  fibres  in  slight  relief,  has  been 
used  in  Persia  since  antiquity.  Encaustic  is 
tiie  trade  name  for  tiles  made  of  different  col- 
ored clays  inlaid  upon  a  clay  background  and 
flxed  together.    See  also  Mosaic. 

Tillotion,  John,  1630-94;  English  prelate; 
oriffinaliy  a  Puritan,  but  at  thirty  years  of  age 
tooK  orders  in  the  English  Church,  and  became 
celebrated  as  a  preacher.  He  was  the  leading 
member  of  the  commiasion  of  twenty  divines 
appointed  in  1889  to  examine  and  revise  the 
liturgy.  On  the  accession  of  William  III  he 
was  made  dean  of  St.  Paul's,  and  in  IQBl  Arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury.  He  published  "  The  Kule 
of  Faith  "  and  several  volumes  of  sermons. 

Tilly,  Johonn  Tserklaes  (Count  von),  1569- 
1832;  general  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War;  b.  in 
the  castle  of  Tilly,  province  of  Brabant,  Bel- 
gium; bting  a  younger  son,  was  destined  for 
the  Church,  and  educated  by  the  JesuitB,  but 

f referred  the  military  profcBsion;  served  under 
arma  in  the  Netherlands,  and  under  £>uke 
Philip  Emanuel  of  Iiorraine  in  Hungary,  and 
was  in  1610  Appointed  field  marshal  by  Duke 
Maximilian  of  Bavaria.  When  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  broke  out,  he  was  commander  in 
chief  of  the  army  of  the  Holy  League;   eup- 

Sressed  the  insurrection  in  Bohemia  after  the 
attle  of  Prague,  November  6,  1620;  won  the 
battles  of  Wimpfen  and  HOchst  in  1622,  and 
Stadtlohn  in  1623,  and  drove  the  Protestants 
from  the  Palatinate.  He  defeated  Christian  IV 
at  Lutter,  1626,  and  with  Wallenstein  forced 
the  Protestants  to  the  Peace  of  Ltlbeck.  Ao- 
pointed  commander  in  chief  also  of  the  im- 
perial army  after  the  dismissal  of  Wallenstein 
m  1630,  he  stormed  Magdeburg  May  20,  1631. 
The  brutal  outrages  committed  by  the  Wal- 
loons and  Croats  on  entering  the  city  have  left 
a  Btoin  on  Tilly's  reputation.  He  wae  defeatod 
by  Gustavus  Adolpbue  at  Breit«nfeld,  1631,  and 
again  on  the  Lech,  1632,  in  which  battle  he 
was  mortally  wounded. 

TU'eit,  town  in  the  N.  portion  of  E.  Prussia  left 
to  it  in  the  peace  treaty  of  1919:  on  the  Niemen; 

65  m.  NE.  of  Kantesbertj.  It  is  regularly  built, 
and  in  a  fertile  and  well -cultivated  district.  It 
manufactures  cloth,  hosiery,  oil,  paper,  chem- 
icals, has  sugar  refineries  and  important  fish- 
eries for  eel  and  salmon,  and  has  trade  in  grain, 
hemp,  flax,  wool,  and  horses.    It  is  famous  for 


TIUBER  AND  TIMBER  TBEES 

the  Treaty  of  Tilsit  concluded  between  Napo- 
leon and  the  Czar  Alexander  in  1S07  after  the 
humbling  of  Prussia  by  the  French.  By  this 
peace  the  foundation  was  laid  for  a  RussiaD- 
French  alliance,  and  Prussia  lost  nearly  half 
of  her  territory.     Pop.   (1»00(  34,630. 

Tim'bet  and  Timber  Trees,  wood  suitable  for 
constructive  purposes,  or  for  furniture,  tools, 
and  the  like;  also  the  trees  furnishing  such  ma- 
terial. The  most  prominent  species  of  timber 
trees  used  in  the  U.  8.  are  the  following: 

The  most  important,  and  for  its  uses  the  best 
in  the  world,  is  white  pine  {Pinua  strobua), 
in  England  called  Weymouth  pine.  Hard-jiine 
lumber,  variously  called  yellow  pine,  pitch  pine, 
etc.,  is  most  largely  furnished,  and  offbeat  qual- 
ity, by  P.  paUistru,  the  long-leaved  pine  of 
the  8.  states.  The  N.  pitch  pine  fumishea  a 
similar  but  interior  timber;  and  excellent  hard 
pine  is  yielded  by  the  short-leaved  pine;  while 
the  loblolly  pine  at  the  S.  and  the  red  or  Nor-. 
way  pine  at  the  N.  furnishes  a  softer  and  less 
resinous  lumber.  Larch  or  hackmatack  of  the 
N.  furnishes  a  valuable  lujnber  for  ship- 
building. Next  are  the  spruces,  with  wood 
tougher  than  white  pine,  but  more  liable  to 
shakes  and  splits.  Black  spruce  is  prir^d  for 
spars.  White  spruce  is  smaller  and  inferior. 
Hemlock  spruce  tumishea  at  the  N.  a  valu- 
able but  coarse  lumber.  Of  the  cypress  tribe, 
the  bald  cypress  of  the  Bl  states  furnishes  lum- 
ber of  great  size  and  much  durability,  but  light 
and  shaky;  while  the  arbor  vitie  or  white  cedar 
of  the  N,  and  that  of  the  Middle  and  S. 
states  yields  small  timber  of  exceeding  dur- 
ability, especially  for  posts;  and  red  cedar 
furnishes  a  fine-grained  wood  of  durability  and 

In  the  Pacific  states  and  Rocky  Mountain 
region  the  coniferous  trees  are  numerous,  and 
some  are  of  immense  height  and  girth.  Of  soft- 
wooded  or  white  piOBS  no  one  equals  the  white 
pine  of  the  E-  The  sugar  pine,  with  its  im- 
mense trunks,  takes  its  place,  but  the  wood  is 
coarser  grained.  For  spruces,  the  Douglas 
spruce  of  Oregon  and  California  is  the  best,  as 
well  as  the  largest.  The  cypress  tribe  is  repre- 
sented by  several  cypresses  of  value;  also  in 
Oregon  and  N-  by  an  arbor  vitte  vastly  surpass- 
ing the  £.  species  in  size  and  value  for  timber, 
and  in  California  by  the  famous  redwood,  the 
tight  wood  of  which  ia  incomparable  for  build- 

Of  oaks,  the  most  valuable  species  is  the  white 
oak.  It  grows  SO  to  100  ft.  and  has  a  diam- 
eter  of  6  or  7  ft.,  and  yields  handsome  logs. 
The  wood  is  of  a  pale  reddish  color,  straight 
grained,  compact,  tough,  strong,  durable,  and 
shrinks  but  little.  It  is  used  for  frames  of 
structures  where  strength  and  durability  are 
required,  coach  making,  shipbuilding,  and  a 
great  variety  of  purposes.  The  other  species 
come  next  t<)  this  in  value — mz.,  ohcstnut-oaks, 
post-<mk,  bnrKiaJE,'etc.  In  the  S.  states,  along 
the  coast,  the  live  oak  is  prized  for  shipbuild- 
ing above  all  others,  but  it  does  not  give  large 
timber.  Its  height  is  from  40  to  50  ft;  diam- 
eter, 1  to  2  ft.  The  wood  is  yellowish  when 
first  cut,  and  deepens  to  a  dark  brown  with 
age;  it  is  hard,  tough,  strong,  heavy,  and  difl^- 
cutt  to  work,  as  the  grain  is  waved  or  twisted. 


CABINET 

WOODS. 

.kWo 

,„jjp,,, 

ocirDuI 

indicu.) 

7      B,  d  s  c^<  U>p1>  (Atf  r) 

b!      *mb",n.  Woo. 

1  (ph>«ii 

'iT. 

"wood'l 

>ca"'l 

iTbr-l?* 

llfcir''Eu.opU'n' 

1^"Z'Z' 

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TUIBER  AND  TIMBER  TREES 

The  pores  mre  uinute,  tuid  the  ailver  grain 
bright  and  diBtinct.  Tbi.  biennial-fruit«d  oaks 
have  more  porous  wood,  tinfltted  for  casks,  leu 
durable,  and  lets  stroDg.  The  bent— riz.,  black 
oak — is  found  on  poorer  aoils  than  the  white 
oak,  and  ktows  BO  to  90  ft.,  with  a  diameter 
of  4  to  6  ft  The  wood  is  reddish,  porous,  and 
coarse-grained.  The  outer  bark  ia  greatly  used 
for  tanning,  and  the  inner  bark,  called  quer- 
citroa,  (or  dyeing.  Spanish  oak  and  willow  oak 
are  superior;  and  bo  are  laurel  or  Bhingte  oak 
(so  called  because  used  for  shioglea].  Califor- 
nia and  Oregon  have  oaks  of  peculiar  species, 
some  valuable,  hut  none  which  equal  wtiite  oak. 
Chestnut  is  a  large  tree,  of  the  Atlantic  states 
only,  eaaentially  of  (he  aame  species  as  the  Eu- 
ropean, yielding  a  coarse-grained  and  porous 
but  durable  lumber,  easil;  worked,  and  vilu- 
able  for  wainscoting,  etc. 

The  American  beech  baa  a  very  close-grained 
and  hard  wood,  of  which  joiners'  tools  are 
made.  Ironwood  and  horn  beam,  as  the  names 
denote,  have  very  hard  wood,  but  they  are 
Bmall  trees,  peculiar  to  the  Atlantic  states. 
The  hickory  is  peculiar  to  the  Atlantic  states. 
The  shell  bark  or  shag  bark  is  the  best,  but 
all  have  a  tough  and  hard  wood  of  remark- 
able strength,  much  prized  tor  tools  and  the 
like.  The  walnut  is  known  in  the  Atlantic 
states  by  two  species — i.e.,  white  walnut  or 
butternut,  the  favorite  wood  for  gunstocks  and 
cabinetwork,  but  a  small  tree;  and  black  wal- 
nut, the  moat  important  of  native  woods  tor  the 
,  cabinetmaker.  The  heart  wood  is  of  a  violet 
color  when  first  cut,  but  upon  exposure  be- 
comes dark.  It  is  far  superior  to  the  European 
walnut;  it  is  strong,  tough,  durable  when  sea- 
soned, and  not  apt  te  warp  and  split  It  has  a 
fine  and  compact  grain,  and  is  susceptible  of  a 
high  polish.  The  birehes  are  valuable  timber 
trees  of  the  second  class,  having  a  hard  and 
flne-grained  wood.  The  black  or  sweet  birch, 
sometimes  called  cherry  birch,  is  most  prized, 
being  excellent  for  furniture;  and  yellow  birch 
is  equally  good,  but  lighter  in  color.  Poplars 
or  cottonwoods  make  large  trees,  as  do  some 
willows,  but  the  wood  ia  weak,  aoft,  and  usu- 
ally of  no  durability. 

riane  tree,  buttonwood,  or  sycamore  attaina 
great  size,  but  aoon  becomes  hollow.  The  lau- 
rel family  is  represented  in  the  East  by  the 
sassafras,  and  in  California  by  a  laurel  the 
wood  of  which  te  ertremely  beautiful.  White 
elm  is  a  large  tree,  with  handsome  but  not  very 
durable  wcod.  Slippery  elm  is  a  smaller  tree, 
and  the  reddish  wood  is  tougher.  The  ashes  are 
timber  trees  of  the  firet  cftue.  The  yellowish 
wood  is  very  firm  and  tough,  but  comparatively 
light,  stra[ght  grained,  and  easy  to  work. 
White  ash  is  the  best,  and  is  unexcelled  for 
strength,  elasticity,  and  durability,  and  it  is 
preferred  to  chestnut  for  interior  finish.  Black 
ash,  a  smaller  tree,  has  tougher  wood,  easily 
separable  into  layers,  uaed  tor  hoops  and  strong 
biuket  work.  American  holly  of  the  Atlantic 
states  has  a  Tery  fine  grained  and  compaet 
white  wood,  used  for  ornamental  cabinetwork, 
wooden  screws,  ete.  The  Kentucky  coffee  tree 
ia  a  stately  tree,  of  peculiar  aspect,  with  hand- 
some rosy  or  brownish  wood,  suited  for  cabinet- 
work,   fioney  locust  is  of  little  account,  but  the 


TIMBUKTU 

true  locust  afTorde  a  timber  equal  to  live  oak 
in  durability,  especially  valued  for  ships.  Ma- 
ples are  fine  trees,  of  which  the  sugar  maple  is 
the  most  valuable,  having  a  hard  and  cloae- 
grained  wood,  of  light  color  and  silky  luster 
when  polished,  and  the  varieties  called  curled 
and  bird's-eye  maple  are  prized  for  cabinet- 
work. The  soft  maplea,  so  called  fnun  the  char- 
acter of  their  wood,  are  the  white  or  silver 
maple  and  the  red  or  swamp  maple,  the  former 
a  large  and  tlie  latter  a  medium-sized  tree,  the 
wood  of  which  is  used  tor  lasts,  for  carvinga, 
etc.  Lindens  or  limea,  in  the  U.  S.  called  bass- 
wood,  are  flrst-class  forest  trees  for  size,  and 
their  soft  and  white  fine-grained  wood  is  ex- 
cellent for  various  purposes  where  lightness 
with  moderate  strength  is  demanded.  Tulip 
tree,  sometimes  called  whitewood  or  poplar,  has 
a  light  and  soft  wood,  like  tliat  of  the  linden, 
but  more  valuable. 

The  exotic  timber  trees  of  Europe  are  ana- 
logues of  those  of  the  U.  S. — i.e.,  different  spe- 
cies of  pine,  lareh,  spruce,  oak,  beech,  elm,  ash, 
linden,  etc.,  only  the  chestnut  being  the  same 
or  nearly  so — but  are  far  fewer  in  species  and 
in  kind,  tulip  trees,  gum  trees,  lociiSts,  hicko- 
ries, sassafras,  bald  cypress,  redwood,  etc., 
beinp-  wholly  wanting.  As  to  foreign  woods  of 
tropical  regions  imported  for  the  use  of  oabinet- 
ni alters — such  as  mahogany,  Spanish  cedar, 
rosewood,  lignum-vitte,  and  the  uke — they  are 
mostly   treated  under  their  names.     See   Fok- 

The  original  forest  acreage  of  the  U.  B.  of 
850,000,000  has  been  reduced  to  6aO,000,000. 
About  one  fifth  of  the  standing  timber  of  the 
country  is  held  by  the  Federal  Govt,  in  national 
forests,  Indian  reservations,  national  parks,  and 
unreserved  public  domain,  and  by  the  states  in 
state  reserves.  The  value  of  the  forest  prod- 
ucts of  the  U.  S.  in  1007  was  about  ^1,280,000,- 
000.  The  U.  S.  uses  250  cu.  ft.  of  wood  per 
capita  annually,  Germa^  uses  37  cu.  ft.,  and 
France  26.    See  Wood;  Fbesebvation  of  Tih- 

BEB;    FOBEGTHT. 

Timbnk'tn  (formerly  Tiubuctoo),  town  in 
the  military  territory  of  French  Sudan,  central 
Africa;  10  m.  N.  of  the  Niger,  near  the  desert 
of  Sahara.  It  Is  In  an  unbeolthful  and  unpro- 
ductive district;  provisbus  have  to  be  brought 
to  it  from  distant  places;  but  for  the  traffic  be- 
tween N.  and  central  Africa  it  is  of  importance; 
and  although  it  has  repeatedly  suffered  from 
being  conquered  and  saclced  by  the  Moora  and 
by  neighboring  tribea,  it  has  afwaya  risen  again 
and  ia  still  increasing.  Dates,  European  goods, 
Runpqwder,  tobacco,  and  paper  are  brought 
here  through  Sahara  and  exchanged  for  guma, 
ostrich  feathere,  gold  dust,  and  palm  oil.  The 
rapid  development  of  its  commerce  has  been 
hindered  by  the  jealousy  between  the  British 
and  French  merehanta.  The  town  is  poorly 
built  of  one-story  mud  huts,  and,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  mosque  dating  from  1326,  cont^ns 
tew  buildings  worth  noticing.  It  waa  tormerlT 
surrounded  by  walls.  The  inhabitants,  vari- 
ously estimated  at  from  6,000  to  20,000,  are  in- 
digenous negroes,  but  mixed  with  other  races. 
The  city  seems  to  date  back  to  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury, but  was  visited  by  no  Enrc^ean  nutU 
Laing  reached  it  in  1^8.  ''  "  ' 


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TIME 


Time.  Measurements  of  long  periods,  months, 
and  ^eare  depend  on  astrononucBl  phenomena, 
espeeially  the  motions  of  the  sun  snd  moon. 
Measurements  of  fnctions  of  a  daj  kre  made 
by  observing  the  direction  of  the  sun,  or  in  our 
time  by  clocka  and  watches. 

The  longrat  unit  of  time  which  can  be  deter- 
mined directly  by  observation  is  the  year.  This 
is  the  time  occupied  by  the  earth  in  one  revolu- 
tion around  the  sun;  but  there  is  a  slight  am- 
biguity as  to  the  time  when  a  revolution  shall 
be  regarded  as  complete.  The  sidereal  year, 
which  is  properly  that  of  the  earth's  revolution, 
is  slightly  longer  than  the  solar  year,  on  which 
the  seasons  depend.  Since  it  is  the  change  of 
seasons  which  fixes  the  length  of  the  year  for 
iractical  purposes,  the  solar  rear  is  that  used 
loth  in  astronomy  and  in  daily  life.  The  next 
shorter  unit  of  time  is  the  lunar  month  or  the 
interval  between  one  new  moon  and  the  next. 
As  this  interval  is  neither  an  entire  number 
of  days  nor  an  aliquot  part  of  a  year,  it  is  no 
longer  used  as  a  measure  of  time.  It  has  given 
way  to  tbe  calendar  month.  The  most  exact 
measure  of  ail  is  the  day,  because  the  time  of 
the  earth's  revolution  on  its  axis  remains  un- 
changed from  century  to  century.  If  it  varies 
at  all  the  change  does  not  amount  to  one  thou- 
sandth of  a  second  in  a  century.  The  time  of 
one  revolution  of  the  earth  on  its  axis  is  called 
the  "  sidereal  day  "  because  it  is  equal  to  tbe 
interval  between  two  passages  of  a  star  across 
the  meridian  of  a  place.  Owing  to  the  annual 
revolution   of    the   earth   aroiud  the   sun   the 


C 


c  the 

meridian.  If  the  sun  and  the  star  cross  at 
the  same  moment  to-day,  the  sun  will  l>e  nearly 
four  minutes  later  than  the  star  in  crossing 
to-morrow.  In  the  course  of  a  year  the  num- 
ber of  revolutions  which  the  earth  actually 
makes  on  its  axis  is  one  greater  than  the  num- 
ber of  days;  henee  the  sidereal  day  cannot  be 
used  for  doily  life  and  the  solar  day  must  take 
its  place. 

"Ae  true  or  apparent  solar  day  is  t^e  inter- 
val between  two  transits  of  the  sun  over  the 
meridian.  Owing  to  the  varying  velocity  of 
the  earth  in  its  orbit  find  to  the  obliquity  of 
the  ecliptic,  the  difference  between  a  transit  of 
the  sun  and  that  of  a  star  will  sometimes 
change  by  more  than  four  minutes  and  some- 
times by  less  than  four  minutes  in  a  day.  Thus 
the  solar  da^s  are  a  little  longer  at  eome  sea- 
eons  and  a  little  shorter  at  others.  A  hundred 
years  ag^,  when  men  depended  mainly  on  ob- 
servations of  the  sun,  or  on  a  sundial  or  a 
meridian  mark,  tor  their  time,  the  difference 
caused  no  trouble,  but  when  accurate  clocks 
and  watches  were  introduced  they  had  to  be 
constantly  set  forward  or  back  in  order  to  keep 
time  with  the  sun. 

Apparent  solar  time  is  time  measured  by  the 
actual  passage  of  tbe  sun  over  the  meridian. 
Mean  solar  time  Is  defined  by  the  motion  of 
a  fictitious  eun  called  "  the  mean  sun,"  which 
is  imagined  to  move  with  perfect  uniformity, 
being  somatimM  behind  the  true  sun  and  some- 
times in  a4vKM«  of  it.  The  hours  of  this  Urns 
are  those  measured  by  a  perfectly  regulated 
clock.    On  the  system  of  measuring  the  day  bv 


TIMOLEON 

the  sun,  noon  at  any  place  is  the  moment  at 
which  the  mean  sun  passes  the  meridian  of 
that  place.  Owing  to  the  roundness  of  the 
earth  different  places  pass  under  the  sun  at 
different  times ;  m  fact,  noon  continually  trav- 
els around  the  earth,  reaching  every  part  of 
it  in  succession  during  intervals  of  oae  day. 
Noon  takes  about  three  hours  to  pass  from 
New  York  to  San  Francisco.  When  it  is  noon 
at  San  Francisco  it  is  one  o'clock  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  two  o'clock  in  the  Mississippi  val- 
ley, three  o'clock  in  the  Atlantic  coast,  four 
o'clock  in  Labrador,  eight  o'clock  at  Green- 
wich, etc.  The  difference  is  four  minutes  for 
every  degree  of  longitude.  So  long  as  men  did 
not  travel  rapidly  this  difference  of  time  caused 
no  inconvenience;  but  when  railways  were  in- 
troduced it  caused  confusion.  To  lessen  this 
confusion,  what  is  called  standard  time  was 
introduced  in   1883. 

The  rule  for  standard  time  is  that,  within 
the  belt  included  between  the  meridians  of 
Calais,  Me.,  and  Newark,  Ohio,  railways  and 
the  public  shall  use  the  time  {called  Eastern 
time)  determined  by  the  observer  E.  of  Phila- 
delphia, who  is  exactly  76°  in  longitude,  or 
five  hours  in  time  W.  of  Oreeuwich.  Going 
farther  W.,  s^  to  Cincinnati,  a  new  meridian 
of  90'  W.  of  Greenwich  is  taken,  which  passes 
near  New  Orleans,  St.  Louis,  and  Davenport. 
The  mean  sun  crosses  this  meridian  one  hour 
after  it  crosses  that  at  Philadelphia,  and  the 
moment  of  crossing  is  taken  as  noon,  not  only 
for  all  places  on  the  meridian,  but  for  all 
places  within  half  an  hour  E.  of  W.  of  it;  this 
time  is  called  Central.  At  Denver  the  St, 
Louis  ^  noon  gun  would  be  heard  at  eleven 
o'clock.  So  we  pass  a  new  meridian  near  Den- 
ver, which  is  105°  W.  of  Greenwich,  and  which 
tbe  sun  does  not  reach  until  two  hours  after 
it  has  passed  Philadelphia,  and  one  hour  after 
it  has  passed  St.  Louis.  The  time  of  this 
meridian  (called  Mountain  time)  is  used  for 
all  the  places  whose  time  does  not  differ  from 
it  by  more  than  half  an  hour.  A  fourth 
meridian  is  that  of  120°  from  Greenwich,  and 
it  passes  near  the  PaciSe  coast,  E.  of  Sacra- 
mento and  Stockton,  where  the  time  is  called 
Pacific  time.  The  moment  when  the  sun 
crosses  this  meridian  is  taken  for  noon  for  all 

8 laces  not  more  than  half  an  hour  distant 
:om  it  E.  or  W.  Thus  the  traveler  who  wishes 
to  know  the  time  actuslly  used  at  any  railway 
station,  or  by  the  inhabitants  of  any  city,  has 
only  to  change  his  watch  by  one  or  more  en- 
tire hours,  the  minutes  remaining  the  same. 
See  Chboisoloot. 

Tirooleon,  abt.  366-837  B.C.;  Corinthian  gen- 
eral, liberator  of  Syracuse.  In  hia  hatred  of 
tyranny  he  asBOBsinated  his  brother  Timo- 
phanes,  who  had  usurped  power  in  Corinth. 
Seized  by  remorse,  he  lived  for  nearly  twenty 
years  in  seclusion.  In  344  he  took  command 
of  an  expedition  sent  by  the  Corinthians  in 
aid  of  the  SyracuBons,  attacked  by  the  Cartha- 
ginians and  Hicetaa  of  Leontini.  Dionysus  the 
Younger,  despairing  of  succeaa  in  his  own  cause, 
gave  up  to  him  the  island  of  Ortyna,  and 
Syracuse  easily  fell  into  hia  hands.  He  gave 
the  ishahitanta  a  democratic  constitution,  and 
in  a  short  time  more  than  60,000  imnUgnuta 


TUON 

Etnd  exiles  repeopled  the  deserted  town.  In  339 
the  Cartbaginiaoe  landed  at  Lilybnum  an  army 
of  80,000  men,  but  Timoleon  defeated  them, 
and  aftei^ards  continued  to  dethrone  tyrants 
until  none  was  left  throughout  Grecian  Sicil;. 
He  declined  the  supreme  power,  and  withdrew 
from  public  life. 

Ti'mon  (called  The  Mibanthbopc)  ,  an 
Athenian  of  the   fifth  century  B.C.     In   conse- 

Sienee  of  disappointments  in  friends,  he  ae- 
uded  himself,  aad  admitted  no  one  to  his 
sodetj'  except  Alcibiadea.  He  is  the  subject 
of  Shakespeare's  "  Timon  of  Athena." 

Timor  (te-mor'),  an  island  of  Mala;aia,  the 
largest  of  the  chain  which  atretches  eastward 
from  Java;  area,  12,360  aq.  m. ;  pop.  aht.  400,- 
000.  It  ia  traversed  from  E.  to  W.  by  a  range 
of  loftj  volcanic  mountains;  earthquakes  are 
frequent.  Along  the  shore  the  districts  are 
fertile  and  densely  peopled,  and  in  these  rice, 
sugar,  indigo,  pa  paw,  sago,  pineapples,  and 
cocoanuts  are  cultivated.'  Buffaloes,  oxen,  pigs, 
and  fowls  are  plentiful ;  turtles,  pearl  oysters, 
and  coral  are  found  along  the  shares;  gold 
dust  and  timber  are  exported.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  partly  Malayans,  partly  Oceanian 
Negroes,  and  as  the  population  belongs  to  two 
different  races,  in  the  same  manner  the  fauna 
and  flora  of  the  island  belong  to  two  conti' 
nents,  t«  Asia  and  to  Auatralia.  The  Dutch 
have  a  residency,  Kupang,  in  the  SW.  part  of 
the  island;  thi^  Portugueae,  a  district,  with 
the  chief  town,  Deli,  in  the  NE. 

Timor  I^ut  (lowt),  or  Tenim'bei  Islands,, ft 
group  bekinging  to  the  Malayan  Archipelago, 
and  lyiiw  E.  of  Timor.  Their  area  is  estimated 
at  2,060  aq.  m. ;  pop.  (1895)  24,8SS.  The 
larger  ones,  Timor  Laut  and  Larat,  are  vol- 
eaiuc;  the  smaller  of  coral  formation.  Birds 
are  numerous  and  brilliant,  especially  cocka- 
toos. 

Tim'othf,  disdple  and  companion  of  St. 
Paul;  b.  at  Ljmtra  or  Derbe  in  Lycaonia,  Asia 
Minor,  abt.  20  a.d.,  the  offspring  of  a  Greek 
father  and  a  Jewess;  was  trained  in  the  Jewiah 
Scriptures  by  hta  mother  Eunice  and  hia  grand- 
mother Loia,  who  were  Christiana,  but  was  not 
circumciaed  until  Paul  aelected  him  as  a  com- 
panion. He  became  the  most  constant  and 
devoted  of  Paul's  fellow  workers;  was  em- 
ployed as  "  the  meaaenger  of  the  churches," 
as  the  apostle's  "  other  self,"  in  the  execution 
of  the  moat  responaible  apiritunl  commissions, 
and  was  doubtless  his  amanuensis  in  the 
preparation  of  moat  of  the  epistlea,  his  name 
being  associated  with  Paul's,  in  a  manner  to 
suggest  joint  authorship.  Whether  he  shared 
in  the  voyage  to  Italy  is  uncertain,  but  he 
afterwarda  appeara  at  the  aide  of  Paul  while  a 
prisoner  in  Rome,  and  flaally  aa  overseer  of 
the  important  church  at  Ephesus,  where  Paul 
addressed  him  two  canonical  epistles.  His 
later  hiBtoiy  is  unknown,  as  the  tradition  of 
hia  martyrdom  under  Domitian  rests  upon  no 
evidence. 

Timotliy,  or  Herd's'-grus,  the  Fkleum  prn- 
fenae,  one  of  the  beet  of  forage  graaaes,  a  native 
of  Europe,  and  much  cultivated  there  and  in 


the  U.  S.  The  name  timothy  is  from  Timothy 
Hanson,  who  carried  the  seed  to  the  S.  colonies 
of  N.  America  abt.  1720.  In  Pennsylvania, 
etc.,   the  red  top,  Agroatit  vulgaria,  is  called 


hay. 

Timothy,    First    and    Sec'ond    Epis'tles    to, 

epiatlcB  addressed  by  St.  Paul  to  Timothy,  the 
former  in  64,  the  latter  in  65  or  GO,  both  from 
Rome.  They  are  chiefly  occupied  with  instruc- 
tion in  the  duties  of  a  spiritual  teacher,  min- 
gled with  admonitiona  of  a  personal  nature 
and  references  to  Timothy's  personal  hiatory ; 
and  the  second  epistle  ia  endowed  with  a  pecul- 
iar interest  from  its  references  to  Pauls  an- 
ticipated martyrdom,  being  probably  the  last 
extant  production  of  his  pen.  With  the  similar 
letter  to  Titus  they  constitute  the  so-called 
Pastoral  Epistlea. 

Timor',  or  Tamerlane'  (the  latter  name  be- 
ing a  corruption  of  TrxUB  Lenk — that  is, 
Timur  the  Lame),  abt  I336-140S;  Mongol  con- 
queror; b.  at  Keah,  near  Samarcand,  the  son 
of  a  chief  of  a  Mongol  tribe  and  a  descendant 
of  Genghis  Khan.  In  1309  he  became  chief  of 
his  tribe,  and  from  his  capital,  Samarcand, 
eatablished  a  firm  and  orderly  government.  He 
then  aet  out  on  his  career  of  conquest,  which 
resulted  in  the  subjugation  of  the  whole  of 
central  and  W.  Aaia,  from  the  Chinese  wall 
to  the  Mediterranean  and  from  the  Siberian 
st«ppe«  to  the  mouth  of  the  OangcB.    In  1393 


TIN 

he  Btood  on  the  banks  of  the  Dnieper  threat- 
ening Moscow,  biit  he  turned  to  the  S.,  burned 
Azov,  Hnd  retreated  into  Asia.  In  1398  he 
conquered  N.  Hindustan,  whence  he  tent  an 
immense  amount  of  booty  to  Samarcand,  and 
meditated  pushing  onward  to  the  H.,  when  he 
wns  called  hj  tbe  ERstern  emperor  and  some 
of   the   princes  of   Asia.  Minor   to   aid   in   re- 

Eliing  the  Turks  led  by  Bayazid  {or  BajaEet). 
L  July  20,  1402,  the  two  huge  armies,  led  t^ 
Bftjazet  and  Timur,  met  on  the  plain  of  Aa- 
gorn,  and  the  Turks  were  routed;  Bajazet 
himself  was  taken  prisoner.  In  1404  Timur 
prepared  for  ■  grand  expedition  to  China,  and 
in  140S  crossed  the  Jaxartes  at  the  head  of  a 
large  army  of  veteran  troops,  bat  died  at 
Otrar,  and  his  empire  soon  became  dismem- 
bered. Bis  cruelty  and  that  of  hia  soldiers 
was  beyond  description.  Thousands  of  his 
captives  were  put  to  death,  and  he  is  said  on 
one  occasion  to  have  had  an  enormous  pyramid 
built  of  the  skulls  of  his  eiaugUtered  foes.  As 
an  administrator,  however,  be  seems  to  have 
shown  moderation  as  well  as  statesmanlike 
foresight  and  ability. 

Tin,  a  lustrous,  white  metal,  not  easily  af- 
fected even  by  moist  air  at  low  temperature; 
soft,  malleable,  of  tow  tenacity,  ouite  ductile 
at  212°  P.  (100°  C),  a  moderately  good  con- 
ductor of  heat  and  electricity.  It^  may  be 
beaten  into  thin  sheets  known  as  tin  foil.  It 
is  one  of  the  oldest  of  known  metals,  being 
mentioned  in  the  Pentateuch,  and  obtained  by 
the  Phaniciiins  from  the  British  Isles,  hence 
called  Cassiterides  ( from  mavirtpei,  tin) . 
Pliny's  *(aRRum  was  an  alloy  of  silver  and 
lead,  perhaps  also  tin,  which  he  called 
plumbum  album,  white  lead.  Tbe  most  impor- 
tant ore  is  the  oxide,  called  cassiterite,  tin- 
stone, and  tin  ore;  it  occurs  in  veins,  when 
it  is  called  mine  tin,  and  also  as  rolled  pebbles 
in  alluvial  deposits,  furnishing  excellent  ore, 
known  as  stream  tin  and  wood  tin.  It  is  gen- 
erally a  dark-brown  mineral,  crystalline,  and 
very  hard;  generally  has  a  high,  vitreous 
luster,  and  contains  78.67  per  cent  of  tin.  A 
far  less  abundant  and  less  valuable  ore  is  stan- 
nite  or  tin  pyrites,  a  sulphide  of  tin,  copper, 
iron,  and  line.  Native  metallic  tin  has  prob- 
ably never  been  found.  A  little  tin  has  been 
detected  in  meteoric  iron.  Over  one  half  the 
tin  supply  of  the  world  eomes  from  Uie  Straits 
Settlements.  Large  deposits  are  found  in 
Perak,  the  island  of  Banca,  and  nearly  all  the 
Australian  coloniefl.  Bolivia  also  exports  some 
tin.  The  U.  S.  is  dependent  upon  imports  for 
its  supply  of  tin.  The  most  important  alloys 
of  tin  are  britannia  metal,  76  to  04  parts  of 
tin,  6  to  10  of  antimony,  and  8  to  8  of  bismuth; 
pewter,  4  of  tin  and  1  of  lead;  queen's  metal,  0 
of  tin  and  1  each  of  antimony,  bismuth,  and 
lead;  tine  solder,  2'of  tin  and  1  of  lead;  com- 
mon solder,  equal  parts  of  each;  coarse  solder, 
2  of  lead  and  1  oi  tin;  speculum  metal,  1  of 
tin  and  2  of  copper  (but  variable)  with  some- 
times a  little  arsenic;  bell  metal,  78  of  copper 
and  22  of  tin,  with  sometimes  a  little  einc  and 
lead;  hronse,  with  less  tin  than  bell  metal, 
and  with  3  to  4  of  zinc;  gun  metal,  best  with 
0  of  copper  and  1  of  tin ;  sheathing  for  ships, 
32  of  copper  and  1  of  tin;  fusible  metal,  with 


TIPPOO  SAHIB 

I  of  lead,  2  of  blsmath,  and  1  of  tin  (fuses 
at  200.7'  F.)  ;  amalgam  of  tin  and  mercury 
for  coating  mirrors;  and  Babbitt  metal;  type 
metal,  also,  for  fine  work,  contains  a  little  tin. 
Melted  tin  is  used  to  coat  sheet  iron  (tin 
plate)  and  copper;  copper,  sine,  brass,  and 
iron  can  also  be  tinned  in  the  wet  way;  and 
tin  has  been  successfully  deposited  on  textile 
fabrics.  Phosphor  tin  is  largely  used  for  the 
manufacture  of  phosphor  bronze.  Various 
salts  of  tin  are  used  as  mordants  in  dyeing. 
Tin  platd  b  made  by  coating  sheet  steel  vriUl 

Tin'der,  a  material,  usually  composed  of 
half-burned  linen,   formerly  used   in  kindling 

fires.  A  flint  and  steel  ignited  the  tinder,  which 
inflamed  in  turn  a  sulphur  match.  Amadou, 
touchwood  and  touch-paper  were  substitutes 
for  tinder. 

Tinoc'eraa,    See  Dihocerab. 

Tintoret'to.    See  Bobubti,  Jacopo. 

Tippecanoe  (tlp-ftka-nO')  RiT-er,  a  river  of 
Indiana,  rising  in  Tippecanoe  Lake,  Kosciusko 
Co.  It  pursues  a  devious  SW.  course  for  200  m, 
and  falls  into  the  Wabash.  On  the  banks  of 
this  river,  at  the  present  village  of  Battle 
Ground,  Gen,  Harrison  fought  and  defeated  the 
Indian  tribes  commanded  by  "  the  Prophet," 
the  brother  of  Tecumseh,  November  7,  1811.  In 
the  middle  of  the  night,  when  tbe  whole  force, 
consisting  of  300  regular  troops  and  500  militia- 
men, was  asleep,  the  Indians  suddenly  attacked 
the  camp.  A  desperate  flght  ensued,  the  Indi- 
ans several  times  advancing  and  retreating;  but 
after  daylif^t  they  were  finally  defeatri  and 
dispersed.  They  left  forty  of  their  dead  on  the 
field;  Harrison's  loss  was  sixty  killed  and  twice 
as  many  wounded.  On  the  following  day  "  tbe 
Prophet's"  city  was  visited;  it  was  found  de- 
serted, and  was  burned.  Harrison,  ncverthelcas, 
considered  it  prudeqt  to  effect  a  speedy  retreat, 
on  account  of  the  great  number  of  wounded 
■with  which  he  was  incumbered,  and  he  fell  back 
upon  Vincennea.  This  battle  led  to  a  general 
outbreak  of  the  Indians  in  tbe  NW.  in  the 
War  of  1812.  It  gave  Harrison  micb  prestige 
that  in  the  dection  of  1840  the  slogan  was 
**  Tippecanoe  and  Tyler  too." 

Tlppoo'  Sallib,  1749-99;  Sultan  of  Mysore; 
a  son  of  Hyder  Ali ;  was  instructed  In  European 
tactics  by  French  officers,  and  distinguished 
himself  in  the  war  aninst  the  British,  defeat- 
ing them  at  Perimbakum  and  on  the  banks  of 
the  Kolerun.  On  December  T,  1782,  Hyder  Ali 
died,  and  Tippoo  Sahib  then  prepared  for  en- 
ergetic prosecution  of  the  war.  He  took  Bed- 
nore  and  Mangalore,  but  in  the  meantime  peace 
had  been  conduded  between  Great  Britain  and 
France,  so  that  Tippoo  Sahib  was  compelled 
also  to  conclude  peace,  but  on  advants^ous 
conditions.  He  ,  continued  to  intrigue  against 
the  British,  and  in  1700  the  war  was  renewed. 
In  spite  of  his  brilliant  tactics  in  laying  waste 
the  Carnatic  almost  to  the  gates  of  Madras,  and 
thereby  for  a  time  baffling  his  enemies,  he  was 
finally  defeated,  and  was  compelled  in  1792  to 
sue  for  peace  by  ceding  half  of  his  dominions 
and  paying  3,030  lakhs  of  rupees.  However,  he 
still  intri^ied  with  the  Fiench,  and  when  Na- 


TIHESIAS 

Sleon  landed  in  ^^gTpt  the  Britiah  East  India 
mpaaj'  determine  to  cnuh  ite  enemy  before 
it  might  become  too  late.  In  I70S  the  company 
declared  war  agaiuBt  Mveore,  invaded  the  realm 
with  two  armies,  and  snut  up  the  sultan  in  bis 
capital,  Serinnpatam.  Here  he  fell  Ma;  4, 
ITvS,  while  fighting  on  the  walU;  bis  dominions 
were  confiscated  and  tbe  spolla  from  his  palace 
were  carried  to  London.  During  tbe  laet  years 
of  his  reign,  after  1792,  his  government  was  of 
a  very  oppressive  character,  but  he  was  popu- 
lar among  his  subjects,  and  after  his  death  he 
was  considered  a  martyr  to  the  faith  of  Islam. 
Tire'siaB,  a  celebrated  soothsayer  in  Thebes. 
He  was  blind,  but  understood  the  language  of 
the  birds,  and  lived  to  a  great  age.  Even  after 
his  death  he  did  not  lose  hie  power  of  prophecy. 
He  had  a  famous  oracle  near  Orchomenus,  but 
af^er  a  plague  it  became  silent.  Greek  myth- 
ology tdle  many  stories  of  the  origin  of  his 
blindness  and  soothsaying  power, 

Tiryns  (ti'rinz),  in  Argolia;  one  of  the  most 
ancient  cities  of  Greece.  Its  inhabitants  ap- 
peared in  history  for  the  last  time  at  the  bat- 
tle of  PlatKa,  but  shortly  thereafter  the  cfty 
was  destroyed  by  the  Argives,  though  its  Cyclo- 
pean walls,  over  20  ft.  thick,  still  exist. 


_.  Leipiig,  1B34-38;  Prof,  of  Theology  there, 
1845.  From  an  early  period  of  bis  life  he  con- 
centrated his  study  on  a  critical  reviuon  of  tbe 
text  of  the  New  Testament;  made  extensive 
journeys  in  Europe  examining  the  materials 
for  such  a  revision,  and  visited  Egypt,  the 
Binaitic  Peninsula,  Syria,  and  Palestine  in  1844, 
1853,  and  1S59.  From  the  monastery  of  Sinai 
he   brought  back  tbe   famous  "  Codex  Sinaiti- 

Aiia  ^'   4-hA  rkMtfat  HrMklr    ¥,1  n  niiu^ri  ni:  ni  tllA  'Rlh^C. 


Tiasot  |tl<'80),  James,  183ft-I902;  French 
painter;  b.  Nantes,  France;  pupil  of  Lamothe 
and  Flandrin;  medal.  Salon,  1860;  flrst-class 
medal,  Paris  Exposition,  1889,  He  lived  for 
years  in  London,  and  did  not  exhibit  in  tbe 
Baion  after  1S70.  He  reappeared,  however,  at 
the  Salon  of  tbe  Champ  de  Mara  in  1894  with  a 
series  of  pictures  representing  the  life  of  Christ. 
(hie  of  rjis  earlier  works,  "  The  Meeting  of 
Faust  and  Marguerite,"  is  in  the  Luxembourg 
Gallery,  Paris. 


Tis'ii 


See  HiBTOLOOT. 


Tita'ninm,  element  discovered  by  Dr.  Will- 
iam McGreMr  in  menaccanite  from  Menaehan, 
in  Coratrall]  in  1791.  It  is  found  in  many  min- 
erals, as  rutile,  iserine,  etc.,  and  is  quite  abun- 
dant It  is  obtained  by  beating  the  double  flu- 
oride of  titanium  and  potassium  with  sodium. 
It  is  a  dark  green,  heavy  powder,  which  can- 
not be  burnished  and  is  infusible.  Tbe  chief 
practical  interest  that  attaches  to  titanium  is 
ID  consequence  of  its  frequent  occurrence  as  a 
constituent  of  iron  ores,  chiefly  of  mametlte, 
which  passes  into  ilmenite  or  menacnnite,  the 
two  apparently  oociirrine  mixed  in  all  propor- 
tions, and  called  titaniferous  iron  ore.  Such 
ores  are  liable  to  be  very  pure — that  is,  free 


Ti'tans,  in  Greek  mytbologj-,  the  children  of 
Uranus  (heaven)  and  Gea  (earth),, number- 
ing, according  to  the  most  common  record, 
twelve— six  male,  Oceanus,  Cceua,  Crius,  Hype- 
rion, lapetus,  and  Cronus;  and  six  female, 
Theia,  Rhea,  Tetbrs,  Pbiebe,  Mnemosyne,  and 
Themis.  Uranus  feared  his  own  children  and 
shut  them  up  in  Tartarus,  but  by  the  aid  of 
Grea  they  broke  out  of  the  prison,  overthrew 
their  father,,  and  placed  Cronus  on  the  throne. 
The  curse,  however,  which  Uranus  let  fall  on 
bis  children  was  fulfilled.  Cronus  was  de- 
throned by  his  own  son,  Zeus,  and  tbe  Titans' 
were  once  more  imprisoned  in  Tartarus,  where 
the  Cyclopes  and  Bund  red -handed  were  set  to 
watch  them.  Among  their  descendants  were 
Atlas,  Prometheus,  Helios,  Hecate,  and  Selene. 

Tithe  (tith),  literally  "tenth,"  a  tax,  con- 
sisting of  one  tenth  of  the  annual  proBt  of  land, 
stock,  or  labor  which,  instituted  by  Moses, 
was  paid  by  the  Jews  for  the  maintenance  of 
the  Levites  and  in  compensation  for  their  serv- 
ice in  the  Temple  (Lev.  xxvii,  30-33;  Num. 
xviii,  21-24).  Of  this  tithe  the  Levites  paid  a 
tenth  to  (he  priests  ( Num.  xviii,  26,  SB ) .  Deut- 
eronomy xiv,  22-29,  enjoins  the  payment  of  a 
second  tithe,  which  was  either  to  be  eaten  before 
the  Lord,  if  it  were  in  produce,  or  turned  into 
money  and  the  money  spent  for  food  to  be 
eaten  at  the  central  sanctuary.  Eveir  third 
year  there  waa  apparently  a  third  tithe  in  kind, 
which  was  to  be  eaten  by  all  comera  to  the 
feast.  Tithee  were  known  also  to  Soman  law, 
but  are  no  part  of  New  Testament  legislation. 
In  the  Christian  Church  they  were  first  en- 
joined about  350  as  due  for  the  support  of  the 
clergy,  recommended  by  the  second  Council  of 
Tours,  667,  and  first  decreed  by  the  Second 
Council  of  Macon,  68G.  They  were  not  firmly 
established,  however,  in  Germany,  France,  and 
England  until  the  ninth  century.  Even  before 
the  period  of  the  Reformation  tithes  became 
subjects  of  bargains,  of  buying  and  selling,  like 
other  property.  Originally  they  were  paid  in 
kind,  but  in  the  eighteenth  century  money  was 
generally  substituted.  In  France  tliey  were 
abolished  by  the  revolution.  In  England  tithes 
ware  collected  from  early  times  in  support  of 
the  Chureh.  Such  tithes  up  to  the  value  of 
40  a.  mnst  be  paid. 

Titho'nni,  in  Greek  mythology,  son  of  La- 
omedon  and  Stryms  and  brother  of  Priam.  Eos, 
who  loved  him,  obtained  for  him  the  gift  of  im- 
mortality, but  forgot  to  ask  the  gods  for  his 
continued  youth,  so  he  withered  into  old  age. 
Hence  an  old  man  was  often  called  Tithonus. 
He  prayed  to  be  relieved  of  his  burden  of  senil- 
ity, whereupon  Eos  changed  him  into  a  katy- 
did or  cicada. 

Titian  (tlsh'fin).  or  Tiiiano  VeeaDlo  (tet-se- 
H'n6  vtt-chel'le-fl) ,  1477-1676;  Italian  painter: 
b.  Fieve  di  Cadore,  Italy.  At  the  age  of  ten 
he  was  sent  to  Venice  where  he  studied  art 
with  Sebastiano  Zuccato;  he  worked  with  Gen- 
tile and  Giovanni  Bellini,  then  under  Giorgione. 
In  1607  Giorgione  and  Titian  painted  together 
at   the  Fondaco  de  Tedeschi.     Titian  was  in-  . 


TmCACA 

Tiled  to  Psdua,  where  he  executed  three  fres- 
coea  in  the  Scuola  del  Santo  in  1611.  At 
the  death  of  Gichanni  Bellini,  Titian  received 
the  order  to  continue  the  work  in  the  hall 
of  the  Grand  Council  of  the  ducal  palace 
at  Venice,  and  the  Senate  showed  their  eatii- 
faction  with  the  work  done  by  conferring  on 
him  an  office  which  brought  120  crowns  a  year 
and  the  obligation  of  painting  for  eight  crowns 
the  portrait  of  every  doge  created  during  bis 
lifetime.  In  1517,  at  the  call  of  Alfonso  d'Bstc, 
Titian  went  to  Ferrara  and  executed  several 
great  works,  among  them  the  "  Bacchus  and 
Ariadne,"  "The  Sacrifice  to  the  Goddess  of 
Festivity  "  and  "  The  Bacchanal."  Titian  was 
employed  by  princely  clients  until  1523.  He 
was  then  recalled  to  Venice  to  paint  the  doge 
Gritti,  and  bis  freaco  above  a  staircase  of  the 
ducal  palace  of  "  St.  Christopher  Carrying  the 
Christ  Child  "  is  of  this  period,  and  an  example 
of  his  power  in  this  branch  of  painting.  In 
1530  Titian  was  called  to  Bologna  to  paint  a 
portrait  of  Charles  V.  In  1532,  at  Bologna,  he 
painted  a  second  portrait  of  the  emperor,  and 
was  rewarded  by  tne  order  of  the  Golden  Spur, 
which  brought  with  it  the  title  of  Count  Pala- 
tine of  the  Lat«ran.  Ten  years  later  Titian  was 
again  called  to  Bologna  to  paint  a  portrait  of 
Pope  Paul  II.  In  1545  he  was  in  Rome,  where 
he  produced  one  of   hie  most   famous  portrait 

Eiecea,  representing  the  pope  and  his  relatives. 
D  1547  Titian  was  summoned  to  Augsburg  by 
the  emperor,  who  employed  him  to  paint  the 
portraits  of  the  great  or  noble  men  around  him. 
Titian  was  in  great  favor  with  the  emperor, 
and  after  two  years  of  court  life  he  returned  to 
Venice  much  the  richer,  but  always  greedy  of 
wealth,  even  showing  himself  servile  ifi  his 
anxiety  to  obtain  it  Philip  XI,  King  of  Spain, 
showed  himself  as  great  a  patron  and  friend  of 
Titian  as  his  father.  Titian  lived  luxuriously, 
and  received  all  the  princes  and  learned'  and 
famous  men  of  his  time.  He  had  the  most 
pleasant  and  courteous  manners.  He  is  the 
only  painter  who  worked  for  a  period  of  ninety 
years.    He  was  carried  off  hy  the  plague. 

Titicaca  (tIt-e-k&'kB),  the  largest  inland  lake 
of  S.  America;  on  the  confines  of  Bolivia  and 
Peru,  12,545  ft.  above  sea  level.  Area,  3,200  sq. 
m.  The  Titicaca,  often  called  the  Bolivian  pla- 
teau, IS  the  most  remarkable  of  the  high  in- 
closed basins  of  the  Andes.  It  is  600  m.  long 
and  150  m.  wide.  The  lake  is  now  navigated 
by  small  steamers,  brought  in  parts  over  the 
mountains.  The  islands  and  shores  of  the  lake 
contain  many  ruins,  some  of  the  Incan  period, 
others  older  and  of  a  higher  civilization.  Copa. 
cabana,  near  the  S.  end,  was  the  sacred  place  of 
the  Incas,  and  now  celebrated  for  a  chapel  with 
a  miraculous  painting  of  the  Virrin.  The  De»- 
aguadero  issues  from  the  S.  end  of  the  lake. 

Tit'Iark,  or  Pip'it,  any  bird  of  the  genus 
Anihua  and  group  or  subfamily  Anthina.  The 
titlarks  are  generally  contrasted  with  the  wag- 
tails by  the  comparative  shortness  of  the  tail 
[shorter  than  the  wings),  which  has  the  two 
central  feathers  shorter  than  the  lateral,  and 
all  broadest  near  their  ends,  and  boldly  round 
at  the  extremities.  They  are  mostly  grayish 
brown,    and    in    the    under    parts    varioualj' 


TITMOUSE 

streaked.  Over  fifty  specie^  are  known,  and 
almost  every  land  has  representatives  of  the 
group.  They  are  birds  of  passage)  insectiv- 
orous and  graminivorous,  rather  fine  songsters, 
and  graceful  in  appearance  and  movements. 
Three  species  are  found  in  the  U.  S.,  namely: 
the  American  titlark  or  pipit,  the  Missouri 
skylark,  and  A.  oervinuM.  The  European  tit- 
lark  sometimes  straggles  into   Greenland   and 

Ti'tle,  in  law,  a  word  often  used  aa  synon- 
ymous with  property,  or  right  of  ownership, 
but  in  its  technical  sense  denoting  the  sources 
of  such  right,  or  the  facts  and  events  whereby 
property  in  land  or  goods  is  acquired.  The 
common  law  divides  all  titles  to  real  property 
into  two  classes — bj/  descent  and  by  purckase. 
Title  b^  descent  includes  the  single  mode  of 
acquisition  through  inheritance;  title  by  pur- 
chase embraces  all  other  methods.  Property 
may  be  acquire  by  (a)  original  acquisiiion 
(accretion,  finding,  etc.);  (b)  lapse  of  time 
(prescription  and  limitation!  ;  (o)  etnineni 
domain,  or  the  taking  of  land  by  or  under  the 
authority  of  the  state;  and  [d)  conveyance 
(including  gift  as  well  as  sale),  which  may 
be  effect^  in  various  forms,  but  is  now,  in 
the  case  of  real  property,  usually  accomplished 
hy  deed,  known  as  a  grant,  and,  in  case  of  per- 
sona] property,  by  delivery  or  writing.  In  case 
(a)  it  is  assumed  that  there  was  no  previous 
ownership  of  the  property;  in  ca^s  {b)  and 
(o)  the  acquired  title  has  no  reference  to  such 
previous  ownership  as  may  have  existed;  while 
((f)  presents  the  ordinary  cose  of  the  transfer 
of  the  right  of  property  from  one  to  another. 
The  deaUi  of  an  owner  operates  to  transfer 
property  hy  (o)  deaoent,  (b]  occuponcy,  (c) 
gift  emiaa  mortit,  and   (d)   vriiU. 


HAHOiHa  Trr. 


TITDS 

witb  soft  and  lax  plumase,  a  eUml  conical  bill 
ibortor  than  the  head,  t£e  winga  rounded  ajid 
short,  and  the  eides  ot  the  toes  expanded  Into ' 
a  palm.  The  group  belongs  chieflvto  the  N. 
hemiaphere,  and  more  to  the  Old  World  than 
to  the  New;  N.  America  poeseste«  but  tiiirtf 
species  out  of  nearly  a  hundred.  They  are 
mostly  birds  of  dull  plumage,  although  there 
are  exceptions,  like  the  blue  tit  of  Europe, 
vhich  is  blue  and  yellow,  Parua  toolhoeieri, 
the  species  found  in  the  W.  parts  of  the  U.  5., 
and  its  E.  relative,  F.  iieolor,  are  crested.  The 
Cape  titmouse  is  found  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope.  One  of  the  most  familiar  species  is  the 
chickadee,  which,  like  most  of  the  group,  is  a 
hardy  bird.  Titmice  feed  on  insects  and  seeds; 
some  nest  in  holes  of  trees,  others  make 
curious,  and  for  the  size  of  ^be  bird  large, 
bottle-shaped  structures;  the  eggs  are  numer- 
ous, eight  or  nine,  and  two  broods  are  fre- 
quently raised  in  a  season. 

Ti'ttiB,  a  disciple  and  cranpanion  of  St  Paul, 
to  whom  one  of  the  canonical  epistles  of  the 
New  Testament  is  addressed.  He  was  a  Gentile, 
his  native  place  being  probably  Antioch,  for  he 
appears  as  a  delegate  from  the  church  of  that 
ei^,  accompanying  Paul  to  Jerusalem.  He  was 
a  companion  of  the  apostle  in  hia  next  mia- 
sionary  journey  to  Asia  Uinor  and  Macedonia, 
and  was  twice  charged  with  important  missions 
to  the  church '  at  Corinth.  Titus  took  part 
with  Paul  in  founding  the  churches  in  Crete, 
where  he  was  laboring  as  an  evangelist  when 
Paul's  pastoral  epistle  was  written.  He  ap- 
pears to  have  rejoined  Paul  at  Nicopolia  m 
EpiniB,  and  was  thence  sent  into  Dalmatia, 
from  which  time  all  certain  traces  of  him  dis- 
appear.   Tradition  makes  him  Bishop  of  Crete. 

Titni,  Arch  of.    See  Abcb. 

Titus,  Bpis'tle  to,  one  of  the  so-called  pas- 
toral epistles  of  the  New  Testament  canon, 
written  by  Paul  to  convey  instruction  as  to 
the  work  in  Crete,  with  the  execution  of  which 
Titus  had  been  commisaioned.  If  the  hypothesis 
of  Paul's  second  Imprisonment  be  true,  this 
epistle  and  the  first  to  Timothy  were  written 
during  Paul's  journey  to  Asia  Minor  and 
Greece,  before  his  last  imprisonment.  The 
epistle,  it  is  thought,  was  written  front  Nicopo- 
lis,  probably  the  Epirote  town  of  that  name, 
and  not  the  Macedonian  city. 

Titos  Fla'viaa  Sabi'titti  Veapasia'nna  (com- 
monly called  TrrVB),  40-81  aji.;  Roman  em- 
peror (79-81);  son  ot  Vespasian  and  Flavia 
Domitilla.  Titus  was  educated  with  Brltan- 
nlcus,  the  son  of  Claudius,  with  whom  he 
formed  an  intimate  friendship.  He  served  un- 
der Vespasian  in  the  Jewish  War,  and  on  Ves- 
jrasian'a  return  to  Rome  as  eraperor  in  OB, 
TituB  was  left  aa  commander  in  chief,  and  fin- 
ished the  war  by  taking  and  destroying  Jeru- 
salem, September  8,  TO.  Aft«r  bis  accession 
to  the  throne  (June 24,  79)  Titus  diaapnointed 
the  general  expectation  by  ruling  justly  and 
humanely..  The  delatores  (informers)  were 
punished,  and  prosecutions  for  treason  came 
to  an  end.  Many  splendid  public  buildings, 
the  Coloeaeiim,  the  traths,  etc.,  were  finished; 
SAd  the  emperor  showed  a  generous  dispoaition 


TOBACCO 

to  help  the  people  under  the  ealamities  which 
befell  them  during  his  reign — tite  destruction 
of  Hsrcnlaneum,  Pompeii,  and  8tabi«  by  the 
eruption  of  Veauviua,  tlie  oonflagration  in 
Rome  in  the  following  year,  by  which  the  Cap- 
itol, the  library  of  Augustus,  and  many  of  the 
most  magnificent  edifices  ot  the  city  were  de-' 
stroyed,  and,  finally,  the  plague,  Titus  was 
succeeded  by  bis  brother  Domitian, 

Titns  LiVinB.    See  Livr. 

TIvoll  (t«'vO-le),  ancient  Tibur,  town;  IS  m. 
ENE.  of  Rome,  Italy ;  in  a  bend  of  the  Anio, 
an  affluent  of  the  Tiber.  It  is  a  busy  town, 
and  manufactures  woolens,  thread,  and  wire. 
Tlvoli  was  founded  about  five  hundred  years 
before  Rome,  and  is  equally  noted  for  Its  nat- 
ural beauties  and  for  its  Viuns  and  antiquities. 
It  has  long  been  a  favorite  pleaaure  resort  for 
the  Romans,  and  with  It  are  associated  the 
names  of  Maecenas,  Horace,  Fropertius,  Catul- 
lus, Hadrian,  and  Zenobia.  Among  the  objects 
of  interest  are  the  Temple  of  the  Sibyl,  the 
falls  of  the  Anio,  and  the  constructions  to  pro- 
tect the  city  from  the  river,  the  ruins  of  the 
villa  of  Varus,  of  the  so-called  villa  of  Mie- 
ceooa,  now  believed  to  be  the  temple  of  Her- 
cules the  Conqueror,  that  of  Hadrian,  and  that 
of  Este.    Fop.  {1901}  13,396. 

Toad,  any  one  of  the  Salientia,  or  tailless 
hatrachlans,  having  a  short  body  and  legs  and 
a  warty  skin.  There  are  no  ribs  nor  teeth,  and 
the  tongue  Is  free  behind.  The  young,  like 
frogs,  pass  through  a  tadpole  atage.  Toads  are 
found  m  all  parts  of  the  globe  ( save,  of  course, 
the  colder  portions)  except  the  Australian 
region.  They  live  upon  insects,  grubs,  etc., 
which  they  catch  in  large  numbers  with'  their 
peculiarly  arranged  tongue,  which  can  be  rap- 
idly protruded  and  withdrawn,  and  are  of 
service  to  gardeners.  They  either  burrow  in 
the  earth  at  the  approach  of  winter,  and  there 
hibernate,  or  pass  the  cold  season  in  holes. 
There  is  no  foundation  for  the  stories  that 
toads  are  found  imbedded  in  solid  rock,  or  Id 
the  trunks  of  trees,  nor  are  toads  poisonous 
except  to  the  extent  that  their  skin  secretes  an 
acrid  fluid,  which  is  extremely  unpleasant  to 
carnivorous  mammals,  and  is  thus  protective. 
The  common  toad  of  Europe  (Bu/o  vulgaris) 
is  found  also  in  Asia  and  NW.  Africa.  It  is 
about  tbe  same  size  as  the  common  toad  of  the 
U.  B.  {B.  lenliginotiu) .    See  Bateacbia. 

Toad  SfiL    See  Fbog  Bpttixs. 

Toad'stoola,  a  popular  name  for  the  plants 
of  the  order  HymenomyoeteiB  of  the  higher 
fungi.  They  are  otherwise  known  as  Mubh- 
Boous  (fl.u.).    See  also  Pdnoi. 

Tobac'co,  a  plant  of  the  genus  JfiootiaTUt 
of  the  BoUinacea,  first  brought  to  the  knowl- 
edge of  civilized  nations  on  the  discovery  of 
America,  where  it  was  found  in  use  by  the 
natives  as  far  N.  as  Vliginia.  Comparatively 
little  notice  was  taken  of  this  plant  until  abt. 
16S0,  when  It  entered  largely  into  the  trade  of 
the  American  colonies  wiUi  Europe.  Although 
the  genus  contains  some  species  that  are 
shrubby,  the  cultivated  plant  is  ■everywhere  an 
annual;  the  best-known  spectea,  N,  talxieum, 


IB  an  uprirht  plant,  having  a  single  stalk  from 
3  to  a  It.  high.  The  leaves  are  broad  near  the 
ground,  and  enlarge  to  3  (t.  in  length  and  I  ft. 
wide  in  aonie  varietiea,  but  diminish  in  size 
as  the  stalk  rises.     The  Utter  is  surmounted 


Fio,  1.— Tobacco  Plant. 

bj  funne.- formed  flowers,  usually  with  a  long 
tube,  bearing  purple  or  light-red  petifla.     Tlie 
seedi  are  minute,  brou'n  or  black,  nnd  numer- 
ous.     The    only    other    species    that    is    much 
grown   is    S.   rustica,   a   much   smaller   plunt, 
with   greenish  flowers   and   adapted  to  a   cool 
climate.    The  purpose  to  which  tobacco  is  ap- 
plied is  almost  wholly  as  a  tonic,  stimulant, 
or     sedative     through    smoking,    chewing,    or 
snuffing.    It  cannot  be  taken  into  the  stomach 
without  injurious  results, 
and  is  essentially  poison- 
\    ous   in   its   general   prop- 
i  erties.       The     distinctive 
properties  are  found  only 
in  the  leaf,  which  is  thick 
and  heavy,  becoming  oily 
as   it   ripens.      This   leaf, 
when  the  plant  approach- 
es maturity,  is  dried  and 
cured    by    partial    sweat- 
ing, which  effects  a  chem- 
ical change,  removing  the 
characteristics  of  the  fresh 
leaves,   and   developing   a 
powerful      aroma,      with 
strong  narcotic  and  acrid 
properties. 

The  production  of  to- 
bacco is  greater  in  the 
U.  S.  than  in  any  other 
country,  and  it  may  be 
(airly  estimated  to  fur- 
—  nish    over    one    third    of 

Fio.  2.— CoMFLETB      the  World's  supply.     The 
'  Flowkb.  amount    of    tobacco    pro- 

duced in  the  V.  S.  in 
1859  was  434,200,461  lb.;  in  ISSO,  262,736,341 
lb.;  in  1889,  4S8,2S5,B96  lb.  In  1911  it  was 
905,109,000  lb.,  valued  at  »85.210.387. 

Its  cultivation  is  possible  in  a  range  almost 
as  gt'cat  at  that  of  Indian  com,  but  it  is  de- 
atroyed  by  frcat,  and  the  liak  in  the  N.  states 


TOBAOCX) 

is  great.  The  largest  producing  countries 
other  than  the  U.  8.  are  tropical  ojr  semitrop- 

ical.  Cuba  may  be  estimated  to  produce  00,- 
000,000  lb.  a  year,  chiefly  in  the  district  of 
Vuclta  del  Abajo,  a  rich  plain  SW.  of  Havana. 
A  government  monopoly  long  existed  in  Cuba. 
but  the  production  and  trade  were  thrown  open 
in  1820.  The  finest  leaf  is  grown  in  Cuba  for 
the  manufacture  of  ci^rs  Dotji  there  and  in 
the  U.  S.  and  Europe.  Porto  Rico  produces  to- 
bacco in  considerable  quantity,  hut  not  of  bo 
good  a  quality  as  that  of  Cuba.  Haiti  pro- 
duces more  than  Porto  Eico,  chiefly  in  its  NE. 
part.     Mexico   produces  largely.     The   Central 


produce  and  export  largely,  furnishing  20,000,- 
000  lb.  U>  geneAl  commerce,  and  consuming 
freely,  peru  furnishes  a  small  quantity.  Bra- 
zil has  greatly  enlarEcd  its  production,  and, 
with  Uruguay  and  the  Argentine  Confedera- 
tions, contributes  largely  to  the  European  sup- 
ply—perhaps 76,000,000  lb.  British  India  pro- 
duces inferior  tobacco.  The  Phi  iippinee  produce 
20,000,000  lb.  for  export.  The  Dutch  East  In- 
dies are  large  producers,  exporting,  1910,  130,- 
000,000  pounds.  Japan  exports  a  large  quan- 
tity, and  China  a  smaller  amount.  Turkey 
produces  a  flne  tobacco,  the  best  being  sent 
from  Latakia,  in  Syria. 

The  value  of  the  tobacco  being  wholly  in  the 
leaves,  great  care  is  taken  to  increase  their  size 
and  concentrate  the  strength  of  the  plant  upon 
tliem.  Thin,  glossy  leaves  of  silky  texture  are 
most  prized  for  cigar  wrappers.  The  seed  is 
everywhere  sown  in  beds,  and  the  young  plants 
transplanted  to  the  tobacco  fields  when  2  to  5 
in.  high.  In  the  preparation  of  the  seed  bed 
care  is  taken  to  have  the  soil  dry,  warm,  well 
supplied  with  plant  food,  and  protected  from 
chilling  winds.  The  plants  are  set  in  rows  2  to 
4  ft  apart,  that  admit  of  cultivation  with  a 
horse.  As  the  tobacco  plant  grows  rapidly 
when  once  established,  it  is  essential  to  give 
thorough  cultivation  as  well  as  an  abundance 
of  plant  food.  The  flower  stem  is  broken  out  or 
tapped,  and  the  strength  of  the  plant  concen- 
trated on  ten  to  sixteen  of  the  larger  leaves. 
Shoots  or  suckers  grow  quickly  from  the  axils 
of  the  leaves  after  topping,  and  these  shoots 
must  be  removed.  About  four  months  is  the 
period  of  growth. 

The  process  of  harvesting  is  to  cut  the  whole 
stem  near  the  ground,  allow  the  plants  to  wilt 
somewhat,  and  draw  them  to  the  shed  or  to- 
bacco house,  where  they  are  hung  on  poles  to 
cure.  Sometimes  the  leaves  are  removed  from 
the  stalk  as  fast  as  they  ripen,  and  they  are 
cured  by  artificial  heat.  After  the  plants  are 
dried  they  may  be  taken  down,  and  the  leaves 
stripped  from  the  stalks  whenever  the  weather 
is  damp.  The  leaves  are  tiod  into  bundles,  car- 
ried into  the  sorting  house  and  sorted,  accord- 
ing to  kind  and  quality.  The  leaves,  after  sort- 
ing, are  tied  into  little  bundles  called  hands; 
these  hands  are  then  packed  tightly  into  the 
hogsheads  for  the  market.  Care  is  used  in 
handling  the  tobacco  during  the  sorting  proc- 
ess to  expose  the  tobacco  only  in  a  damp  at- 
mosphere, in  order  to  keep  the  leaves  soft  and 
pliable.     After    the  tobacco   is  packed   it  ia    . 


TOBACCO 

allowed  to  iptm  through  A  pfoeeM  ot  cUTiDg 
called  sweating  before  it  la  used  to  make  chew- 
ing or  •moking  tobacco. 

Manufactured  tobacco  ia  teclmicallj  digtin- 
guished  from  both  the  cured  leaf  and  from  ci- 
OATt  or  snuff.  It  is  made  from  ordinary  or  in- 
ferior leaf  by  twisting,  preasing,  or  cutting,  and 
asaumei  various  forms  and  names.  Sirups  and 
licorice  are  largelj  used  in  its  preparation, 
though  adulteiatioD  with  other  leaves  or  dele- 
terious substances  rarely  occurs.  In  Great 
Britain  adulteration  is  carried  to  extremea. 
Great  improvements  have  taken  place  in  pre- 
paring tobacco  for  cbewins  and  smoking.  Cav- 
endish, navy,  twist,  negro-head,  etc.,  are  stand- 
ard names  or  brands  in  the  trade  for  that  nhich 
is  compressed  in  solid  forms;  "  fine  cut "  is 
shredded  and  loose  in  fibrous  masses,  cut  by 
delicate  machinery  from  leaf  of  good  quality 
and  flavor.  Bmoking  tobacco  is  prepared  of 
every  grade  and  quality,  but  usually  from 
broken  leaves,  stems,  and  inferior  parts.  In  the 
U.  8.  less  of  such  grades,  or  of  smoking  tobacco 
eeneriUly,  is  made  or  consumed  than  in  Europie. 
Cigars  constitute  the  most  important  form  in 
which  tobacco  is  consumed  and  the  largest  ag- 
gregate in  general  consumption,  and  their 
greater  value  induces  every  effort  to  produce 
leaves  suited  to  covering  cigars  by  the  growers. 
The  cigar  is  of  Spanish  or  Spanish  colonial  ori* 
gin,  and  it  was  long  in  use  in  Spain  before  its 
general  adoption  by  other  nations.  The  great- 
est skill  in  making  cigars  has  always  been 
shown  by  Spanish  or  Cuban  artificers,  and  Ha- 
vana has  been  the  seat  of  the  best  manufacture 
for  a  century  or  more.  The  materials  used  for 
filling  must  be  good  and  must  be  combined  so 
as  to  secure  firmness  with  a  good  draught. 
The  wrappers  must  be  of  elastic  and  moistened 
leaf,  so  applied  as  to  form  a  perfect  ovoid  cyl- 
inder, one  end  of  which  is  closed  and  the  other 
open.  Uniformity  in  size,  length,  weight,  and 
color  is  essential.  Cigars  are  tied  in  bundles  of 
twenty-five  to  fifty  each,  and  these  are  packed 
in  boxes  of  Sponiah  cedar,  usually  100  in  a 
box.  The  Spanish  cedar  is  exported  to  the  U.  S. 
for  making  boxes,  and  is  also  imitated  in  Amer- 
ican cedar,  but  the  general  form  of  tying  and 
Cicking  is  tenaciously  adhered  to.  Nearly  one 
alf  in  value  of  all  tobacco  grown  ia  mode  up 
into  cigars. 

dgarettes  are  small  rolls  of  fine  smoking  to- 
bacco inclosed  in  paper  wrappers;  they  are 
largely  made  in  Cuba  and  In  the  U.  S.  They 
are  ranked  and  counted  as  cigars  for  revenue 
purposes.  Snuff  has  been  made  from  a  very 
early  period,  first  and  most  largely  by  the  Span- 
ish, who  scented  it  with  various  materials.  Next 
the  Netherlands,  Scotland,  and  England  extend- 
ed its  use.  For  many  years  Scotch  snuff  has 
been  the  favorite,  and  large  manufactures  have 
existed  in  Great  Britain,  with  a  moderate  pro- 
duction in  the  U.  B. 

Cheuibtbt  jisd  PHTsioLoaiCAL  RELAtioira 
OV  Tobacco. — The  most  Important  ingredient 
of  the  tobacco  leaf  is  the  alkaloid  nicotine, 
which  is  present,  in  the  dried  leaf,  in  quanti- 
ties varying  from  two  to  six  per  cent  Pure 
nicotine  is  colorless,  oity  liquid  of  a  strong  al- 
kaline reaction,  dis^reeable  smell,  and  hot, 
acrid  taste.    On  exposure  to  light  it  turns  to 


a  reddish-brovn  color.  It  is  a  virulent  poison, 
a  single  drop  sufficing  to  kill  a  rabbit  in  leas 
than  four  minutes. 

In  man,  tobacoo  taken  in  sufficient  quantity 
to  show  poisonous  effects  produces  giddiness, 
faintness,  and  an  indescribable  feeling  of  sink- 
ing and  misery,  followed  shortly  by  intense  nau- 
sea, severe  and  continued  vomiting,  and  relax- 
ation and  feebleness  of  the  muscular  system. 
The  skin  becomes  pale  and  moist  and  the  pulse 
feeble.  More  or  less  of  these  effects  may  per- 
sist for  a  day  and  more  after  the  poisoning. 
They  are  familiarly  seen  in  young  lads  what 
first  beginning  to  smoke. 

The  popular  question  whether  good  or  barm 
fallows  the  habitual  use  of  tobacco  is  too  broad 
to  admit  of  a  single  sweeping  answer.  Id 
the  first  place  tobacco  is  not  a  general  ne- 
cessity for  the  human  race;  tor  individuals,' 
whole  classes,  and  even  entire  races  of  men, 
have  attained  a  very  high  physical  and  mental 
development  without  the  use  of  the  agent. 
Then,  to  young  persons,  under  twenty-five  years 
or  so,  tobacco,  even  in  small  quantity,  is  so  apt 
to  disorder  health  that  tor  such  it  should  be 
considered  generally  harmful.  Many  persons, 
even  adults,  can  never  indulge  at  all  in  tobacco 
without  being  to  some  decree  poisoned.  For 
such  individuals  the  weed  is  to  be  regarded  U 
noxious.  An  enormous  number  of  persons  con 
and  do  use  tobacco  (the  actual  quantity  con- 
sumed varying  with  the  individual)  not  only 
without  apparent  present  disturbance  of  health, 
but  with  maintenance  of  as  full  phvsical  and 
intellectual  vigor,  freedom  from  sickness,  and 
longevity  as  are  found  with  nonconsumers.  To 
say  that  such  individuals,  did  they  abstain, 
would  be  still  more  hearty  or  long  lived  is  to 
assert  that  which  obviously  can  be  neither 
proved  nor  disproved.  Finally,  the  exigencies 
of  our  artificial  civilization  often  demand  a 
continued  overtaxing  of  either  the  physics],  in- 
tellectual, or  emotional  faculties,  and  in  some 
such  cases,  especially  where  the  sufferer  is  past 
the  most  vigorous  period  of  life,  tobacco  in 
moderation  often  seems  to  counteract  in  some 
measure  the  evil  effects  of  the  strain,  disposing 
to  emotional  and  physical  calm,  removing  fa- 
tigue, assisting  digestion,  and  supplementing  a 
scanty  food  supply.  If,  then,  the  abatement  of 
morbid  symptoms  and  restoration  of  the  bodily 
functions  to  their  normal  status  be  beneficial, 
we  must  accord  to  tobacco  in  the  present  in- 
stances the  right  to  be  regarded  as  a  useful 
agent.  Any  tobacco  consumer,  by  reverting  to 
the  symptoms  of  chronic  tobacco  poisoning  can 
determine  whether  he  is  crosaing  the  "  poison 

In  medicine  tobacco  is  used  solely  for  its  re- 
laxing influence  upon  the  muscular  system. 
Before  the  introduction  of-  anssthetics  it  waa 
thus  sometimes  employed  in  cases  of  visceral 
spasm.  In  asthma  some  sufferers  find  relief 
from  smoking  tobacco,  but  as  a  rule  the  remedy 
is  not  of  much  uae.  Externally,  lotions  and 
ointments  of  toliacco  have  been  used  for  various 

Surposes,  but  extensive  application  is  highly 
angerous,  fatal  pcnsoning  having  more  than 
once  occurred  in  consequence. 


TOBIKHAS  INDIANB 

Length  from  NE.  to  SW.,  2fi  m.;  aka,  114  iq. 
m.  It  is  mounUinous,  except  at  the  BW.  end) 
portions  ftre  still  covered  with  forest,  the  val- 
lejH  and  lower  lands  are  well  cultivated,  the 
principal  products  being  sugar  and  cacao.  The 
island  is  generally  regarded  as  one  of  the  Car- 
ibbean group,  but  by  its  structare,  fauna,  and 
Hora  it  la,  like  Trinidad,  an  outlying  portion  of 
the  S.  AJnerican  continent.  It  was  seen  by 
Columbus  in  MBS,  was  first  settled  by  the  Dutch 
(1032  and  IflM),  passed  into  French  posaesaion, 
and  in  1763  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain.  Since 
19S9  it  has  been  a  dependencv  of  Trinidad.  To- 
bB^  is  evidently  the  island  which  Defoe  de- 
scribes as  the  home  of  Robinson  Crusoe.  Pop. 
(1901)  1R,T50;  this  includes  less  than  200 
whites.  The  capital  and  principaL  port,  Scar- 
borough, has  about  1,200  inhabitants. 

Bee    SHOsnoNEA.i    In- 


Toliit,  Book  of,  an  Apocryphal  book  of  the 
Old  Testament,  found  in  the  Septuagint. 
Scholars  differ  as  to  the  date  when  it  was  writ- 
ten, some  making  it  as  early  as  the  fourth  cen- 
tury B.C.,  and  others  as  late  as  the  second 
century  a.d.  It  is  canonical  with  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  and  some  of  the  Orientals. 

Tobolsk',  a  government  of  Siberia,  bounded 
W.  by  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  extending  from 
the  Kirgheei  territory  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
Area,  636,739  sq,  m.  The  W.  and  S.  parts  of  the 
country  are  occupied  by  spurs  of  the  Ural  and 
Altai  Mountains,  from  wliich  the  land  slopes 
toward  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  one  extensive  plain. 
The  N.  portion  of  this  plain  is  a  frosen  swamp 
during  nine  months  of  tne  year;  the  middle  por- 
tion is  a  forest  region,  inhaoited  by  hunters  and 
producing  excellent  fur ;  the  S.  portion  is  good 
agricultural  land,  where  rye,  barley,  oata,  and 
the  fruits  of  middle  Europe  are  raised.  Iron, 
copper,  silver,  gold,  and  platinum  abound  in 
the  Urals,  and  are  extensively  worked.  Manu- 
factures of  leather,  soap,  and  woolens  and  an 
important  transit  trade  are  carried  on.  Pop. 
(1915)  2,085,700.  Tobolsk  the  capital,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Tobol  and  the  Irtish,  is  a 
handsome  town,  though  most  of  its  houses  are 
of  wood,  and  it  has  manufactures  of  leather, 
Hoap,  and  tallow,  besides  fishing  and  shipbuild- 
ing.    Pop.  (1915)  25,20a 

Tocantins  (tS-kHn -tens'),  river  of  Brazil, 
rising  in  S.  Goyaz,  flowing  with  a  general  M. 
course,  and  entering  the  Atlantic  through  the 
ParA,  which  may  be  regarded  as  its  estuarj". 
The  Parft  receives,  through  the  network  of  chan- 
nels SW.  of  the  island  of  Marajo,  a  large  vol- 
ume of  Amazonian  water,  exceeding  the  outflow 
of  the  Tocantins  proper;  hence  the  Tocantins  is 
commonly  called  a  branch  of  the  Amazon,  and 
commercially  it  belongs  to  the  Amamn  sys- 
tem. The  lower  portion  is  very  broad  and  lake- 
tike.  About  200  m.  above  Parfi  navigation  Is 
intemipted  by  rapids;  above  these  it  is  freely 
navigable  for  many  hundred  miles.  On  the  W. 
tide  it  receives  the  great  river  Araguay,  which 
is  also  navigable  for  a  lon|;  distance,  and  bv  its 
length,  volume,  and  direction  may  be  consijered 
the  true  head.  The  upper  Tocantins  (so  called 
above  the  junction  of  the  Araguay)   receives 


TOGO 

maOT  tributaries,  the  most  important  being 
the  Manuel  Alvee.  Small  steamers  ply  on  tba 
upper  Tocantins  and  Araguay,  and  canoes  pass 
the  rapids  to  Parft;  ultimately  this  river  sys- 
tem must  form  the  outlet  of  Goyaz  and  E. 
Matto '  OrosBo.  The  banks  have  hardly  an^ 
inhabitants  except  Indians;  rubber  and  Brazil 
nuts  are  brought  down  to  Parfl.  Length  (from 
Parft),  by  the  upper  Tocantins,  about  1,700 
m.;  by  the  Araguay,  1,S00  m. 

Tocqnevllle  (t«k-vei'),  Alexis  Chxiles  Henil 
ClErel  de,  1806-60;  .French  publicist;  b.  Ver- 
neuil,  France;  studied  law,  and  in  1330  became 
an  assistant  magistrate.  In  1831  he  was  com- 
missioned t«  investigate  the  penitentiary  sys- 
tems of  the  U.  B.  In  1S32,  havi^  returned 
from  the  U.  S.,  he  resigned  his  office,  and  in 
1835  gave  to  the  public  the  first  volume  of  his 
work,  "  De  la  Democratic  en  Am^rique,"  which 
met  with  a  brilliant  success.  De  Tocqueville, 
though  himself  opposed  to  democracy,  foretold 
its  rapid  growth  in  the  world,  and  was  the  first 
to  write  a  systematic  work  on  the  democratic 
government  of  the  U.  S.  He  became  a  member 
of  the  French  Academy  in  1841.  In  1848,  bar- 
ing been  elected  to  the  Constituent  Assembly, 
he  lent  his  support  to  the  cause  of  order.  In 
1840  he  was  Minister  of  Foreign  Affairs.  The 
coup  d'itat  of  December  2,  IS51,  drove  him 
from  the  public  service.  He  published  "  L'an- 
cien  Regime  et  la  Revolution"  in  1850. 

Todleben  (tOt'ls-b«n) ,  Frani  Bdnaid  Irano- 
vich  (Count),  181B-84;  Russian  military  offl- 
cer ;  served  in  the  Caucasus  against  Schamyl, 
1S48-51,  and  in  the  Danube  campaign,  1853- 
64.  To  his  genius  in  fortifying  Sebastopol  ia 
attributed  its  successful  defense  for  three  hun- 
dred and  forty-nine  days  against  the  allies  in 
the  Crimean  War.  He  was  given  no  command 
in  the  field  in  1877  when  the  Ruaso-Turkish 
War  broke  out,  but  the  disasters  before  Plevna 
caused  him  to  be  intrusted  with  the  sieg^ 
which  then  resulted  in  the  surrender  of  tne 
entire  army  to  the  Russians.  . 

To'dy,  any  bird  of  the  Todida;  peculiar  to 
tropical  America,  and  resembling  in  form  the 
kingfishers.  They  dwell  in  damp  places,  and 
(ire  so  dull  th^  may  easily  be  caught  by  hand. 
They  feed  on  insects,  and  make  their  nests  in 
holes  in  the  ground. 

Toe.    See  Foot. 

Tofa'na.     See  Aqca  Tofana. 

To'ga,  the  principal  outer  garment  of  woo] 
worn  by  Roman  citizens.  It  covered  the  whole 
of  the  body  except  the  right  arm,  and  it  was 
originally  worn  by  both  sexes  until  the  matron* 
adopted  the  ilola.  The  toga  ctrilii,  or  manly 
gown,  was  assumed  by  Roman  youths  when 
they  attained  the  age  of  fourteen.  The  varied 
in  the  color,  the  fineness  of  the  wool,  and  the 
ornaments  attached  to  it  indicated  the  rank  of 
the  citizen ;  generally  it  vms  white.  Under  the 
emperors  the  toga  went  out  of  fashion. 

To'go,  Helhachiro  (Count),  1847-  ;  Jap- 
anese admiral,  b.  Satsuma;  educated  on  ths 
British  training  vessel  Worccsfer  end  at  the 
Royal  Naval  Collie,  England,  ^873-74.    "*- 


X.oog 


«"t^ 


TOGOLAND 

liDguIshed  in  China -Japanese  War,  ISM,  and 
mode  rear  admiral.  Ae  commander  In  chief 
of  the  Beet  in  the  Ruaso- Japanese  War,  1904-6, 
he  gained  brilliant  victories  at  Part  Arthur 
and  in  the  Battle  of  Tau-Sbima. 


^."i 


^pop.  abt  1,000,000;  European  pop.  (1913) 
_  .18.  I&Toadfltotbeint^oraTeinip<irtantroul«e 
to  and  from  the  thickly  populated  portion  of  the 
Sudan.  The  oommerce  is  chiefly  a  barter  trade 
for  palm  oil  and  ivory,  but  the  forests  abound 
with  oil  palms,  caoutchouc,  and  valuable 
woods.  The  most  important  coast  trading 
towns  are  Little  Popo,  Bsgida,  and  Z<amc.  On 
Aug.  7, 1914,  the  protectorate  was  caiitured  by 
British  and  French  forces.    It  was  divided  inU>' 


To'gml  Beg.    Bee  Beuuks. 

Tok,  any  one  of  the  small  black  and  white 
hombillB  {Bucerotidai  of  the  genus  Toocul, 
distinguished  by  a  thin,  compressed  twak,  and 
-  only  elevated  into  a  low  crest.  These  birds  are 
mostly  found  in  Africa,  occurring  throughout 
the  larger  portion  of  the  wooded  districts,  the 
exceptions  being  T.  ffingalenaia  of  Cevlon  and 
T.  griaeus  of  Malabar.  They  live  on  fruit  and 
insects  and  nest  in  boles  of  trees.  The  typical 
species,  T.  erythrorhynckua.  is  about  19  in. 
long,  and  has  a  hill  of  a  deep-red  color. 

To'kyo,  the  modem  capital  of  Japan;  area, 
nearly  30  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1908)  2,08C,160.  Since 
fyeyasu  came  here  in  leQO  it  has  been  the 
government  center  of  Japan,  and  is  associated 
with  all  the  traditions  of  modem  Japanese 
bureaucracy.  Its  former  name  was  Yelo,  or 
JeddO  (Estuary  Oate)  ;  changed  to  Tokyo 
(E.  Capital)  when  the  emperor  removed  his 
court  hither  in  1869.  Up  to  1400  its  site 
was  a  awampy  wilderness,  but  during  the  fol- 
lowing centurv  a  castle  was  built,  and  a  village 
arose  about  it.  lyeyasu  enlarged  the  castle, 
had  the  marsh  drained,  and  when  be  became 
master,  of  Japan  converted  Yedo  into  one 
of  the  moat  populous  cities  in  the  world  by 
compelling  the  territorial  nobles  to  spend  half 
of  toe  year  within  its  bounds.  The  city  be- 
came a  congeries  of  fenced  inclosures,  within 
which  ths  daimioB,  with  their  retainers,  estab- 
lished themselves.  At  this  period  the  waters 
of  the  bay  approached  much  closer  to  the  castle 
walls  than  they  do  at  present,  the  slltings  of 
the  Sumida  River  having  p^dually  formed  the 
district  known  as  Tsukiji,  i.e.,  made  ground, 
where  the  foreign  settlement  is.  The  center 
of  the  city  is  the  castle,  the  moat  of  which, 
in  the  form  of  a  spiral,  incloses  many  square 
mites  of  the  city.  In  the  troubles  of  the  resto- 
ration In  1668,  the  central  building  of  the 
castle,  where  the  shoguna  held  their  court,  was 
burned  down,  and  the  emperor,  after  leaving 
Kioto,  was  obliged  to  make  use  of  a  daimio's 
reaidence  in  the  vicinity  as  a  palace.  In  18B9 
the  court  removed  to  a  new  palace,  in  which 
the  Japanese  and  Western  styles  of  arehi- 
teeture  are  somewhat  bizarrely  mingled.  Thia 
ISF  2 


rOlEDO 

palace  is  on  a  less  elevated  but  more  extensive 
site  within  the  inner  walla  of  the  castle. 

Tokyo  is  loosely  built,  being,  in  fact,  a  col- 
lection ol  villages  and  inclosures.  Many  of  the 
houses,  even  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  have 
small  gardens  attached.  Lying  in  an  ezpooed 
position  on  the  sea  edge  of  a  large  plain,  Tokyo 
la  a  wind-swept  city,  and  as  the  houses  are 
mostly  (formerly  altc^ether]  built  of  wood, 
disastrous  Dres  sweep  over  it  from  time  to 
time.  In  1B80,  1881,  end  again  in  1892  whole 
districts  were  laid  in  ashes.  The  business  por- 
tion of  the  city  lies  in  the  flat  ground  between 
the  castle  and  the  sea,  and  is  a  network  of 
canals.  The  Nihon  bridge  over  the  Yedo-gawa,  a 
tributary  of  the  8umii£i,  is  the  busiest  spot  in 
the  empire,  of  which  it  is  the  center  for  purposes 
of  mileage  measurement.  The  two  main  parks 
of  the  city — Uyeno  to  the  N.  and  Shiba  to  the 
S.-~«re  connected  by  a  long  thoroughfare,  the 
backbone  of  the  city.  Along  this  route  street 
cars  and  omnibuses  ply;  elsewhere  most  of  the 
passenger  traffic  is  in  jinrikishas.  At  Uyeno 
and  Shiba  are  two  Qne  temples  where  the 
Tokugawa  shoguna  were  buried  alternately. 
Between  the  castle  and  Shiba  lies  the  official 

Suarter  of  the  city,  where  cluster  the  Foreign 
ifGce,  the  War  OtBce,  the  houses  of  Parlia- 
ment, most  of  the  foreign  legations,  the  real- 
dencea  of  the  princes  of  the  blood  royal,  etc. 
This  Quarter  is  European  in  ita  aspect.  The 
central  barracks  and  parade  ground,  formerly 
here,  have  been  moved  out  farther  W.  To  the 
N.  of  the  castle  is  the  educational  quarter, 
where  Is  situated  the  university  with  four 
handsome  collies  and  a  library  in  brick,  the 
grounds  extending  to  ten  acres;  here  also  are 
the  higher  normal  school  and  private  schools. 
All  the  ground  W.  of  the  castle  is  undulating, 
frequently  with  steep  bluffs. 

The  Bumida  River,  which  skirts  the  city  on 
the  NE.,  is  spanned  by  long  bridges,  one  of 
them  of  iron.  On  the  Aat  ground  acroaa  the 
river  there  is  an  extensive  auDurb.  Tokyo  is  a 
great  oommercisl  entrepot,  but  Osaka  still  re- 
mains the  commercial  center  of  the  empire. 
Politically  and  socially)  however,  the  influence 
of  Tokyo  IS  paramount.  The  youth  of  the 
empire  flock  here  to  attend  schools,  where  they 
may  acquaint  themselves  with  foreign  learn- 
ing; indeed,  there  is  said  to  he  a  floatLig  papu- 
lation of  this  kind  numbering  70,000.  At 
Tsukiji  there  is  a  naval  college;  the  anchorage 
is  off  the  extreme  8.  suburb  of  the  citv,  at 
Shinagawa,  only  vessels  of  light  draught  being 
able  to  make  use  of  the  harbor  in  Uie  river. 


the  supply  being  taken  from  the  Tamagawa. 
A  small  river,  the  Yodogawa,  flows  into  the  . 
mouth  at  the  N.  suburb  of  Koiahikawa,  where 


bank  of  the  Siunida,  E.  < 


Toledo  (tO-IA'tbO),  one  of  the  oldest  cities 
of  Spain,  and  capital  of  province  of  some 
name.  It  is  built  on  a  circle  of  seven  hilla, 
2,400  ft.  above  sea  level,  and  inclosed  on  three 
sides  by  the  Tagua,  toward  which  the  town 
presents  steep  and  abrupt  sides,  while  on  th*  > 


•tOtEDO 

fourth  ride  it  ia  defended  t^  two  nils — on 
inner  wall  built  by  the  Oaths  In  the  terenth 
century,  and  an  outer  built  by  Alfonso  VI, 
1109— ^th  profusely  adorned  nith  towers  and 
gates.  From  467  to  714  it  was  the  capital  of 
t^e  Oothi,  from  7U  to  1085  that  of  the  Moors, 
and  after  1086  it  was  the  residence  and  capital 
of  the  kings  of  Castile.  Its  moat  remarkable 
ediQce  is  the  cathedral,  the  metropolitan 
church  of  Spain,  founded  in  587,  and  one  of 
tlie  most  magnificent  church  buildings  In  the 
world,  404  ft.  long,  204  ft.  wide,  and  having 
its  chief  nave  almost  overloaded  with  sculpture. 
Besides  the  cathedral,  the  city  contains  twenty- 
■ix  other  church^,  thirty-seven  monaateries, 
and  other  architectural  monuments;  hut  its 
general  aspect  is  gloomy  and  desolate.  It  con- 
tains a  royal  palace  that  was  originally  built 
by  King  Wamba,  rebuilt  by  Charles  T,  altered 
by  Philip  II,  then  changed  into  a  military 
academy,  and  burned  in  1887.  The  splendor 
has  become  sepulchral ;  the  place,  which  once 
contained  about  200,000,  had  in  ISOO  only  23,- 
37S.  The  only  branches  of  manufacture  now 
alive  are  those  of  sword  blades,  oonfeetionery, 
and  church  vestments. 

Toledo  <tO-)e'dO),  city  (incorporated  January 
7,  1837)  ;  county  seat  of  Lucas  Co.,  Ohio;  on 
Haumee  River  near  Maumee  Bay,  53  m.  SSW. 
from  Detroit;  area,  28}  sq.  m.  Toledo  is  the 
most  important  point  on  the  lakes  for  distri- 
bution of  coal,  ore,  and  lumber.  Toledo  has 
an  excellent  harbor,  and  a  straight  channel 
400  ft.  wide,  21  ft.  deep,  and  9  m.  long.  There 
is    a   wharf   frontage    of  25   m.      The   largest 


other  meretuuidiae.  There  are  twenty-seven 
important  railway  lines;  extensive  works  for 
the  manufacture  of  malleable  iron,  and  fur- 
naces for  the  casting  of  plows,  steam  boilers, 
and  car  wheels.  One  of  the  largest  wagon 
works  in  the  U.  S.  is  located  here,  besides  fac- 
tories for  carriagito  and  automobiles.  The 
largest  plate-glass  factory  in  the  world  ia  at 
Toledo.  The  milling  interests  are  led  by  the 
National  Milling  Company,  with  an  output  of 
3,000  to  4,000  barrels  daily.  The  grain  inter- 
ests employ  many  large  elevators.  Shipbuild- 
ing is  eitensive.  There  were,  1909,  700  manu- 
facturing establishments,  giving  employment 
to  18,878  wage  earners,  and  with  products  val- 
ued at  961,230,000. 

Toledo  has  an  extensive  park  system,  con- 
sisting of  910  acres,  including  Walbridse  Park, 
64  acres,  in  the  SE.  of  the  city,  on  the  luuik 
of  the  river;  Riverside  Park,  33  acres,  also 
extending  along  the  river;  and  Ottawa  Park, 


hoapitais,  reformatories,  and  asylums,  a  sol- 
diers' memorial  building,  and  an  armory,  a 
U.  S.  Govt,  building,  and  a  state  asylum  for 
tiie  insane.  From  1S90  to  1900  Toledo  had  the 
largest  percentage  of  growth  of  any  ei^  of 
its  size  in  the  U.  8.  The  name,  "  The  Lady  of 
the  Lakes,"  by  which  Toledo  is  widely  known, 
succeeded  the  title,  "  The  Miami  of  the  I^kea," 
bj  which  it  was  known  in  its  ear|y  history. 
^e  equable  climate,  with  its  superior  Sshing 


tOLSTOl 

grounds,  made  the  site  a  favorite  resort  of  tha 
Miami  Indians,  before  its  occupancy  by  the 
whites.  I«ter  it  became  an  importuit  trading 
post,  but  it  was  not  until  the  victory  of  An- 
thony Wayne,  at  Fallen  Timbers,  in  1794,  that 
peaceful  possession  by  white  aettlen  became 
possible.     Pop.  (leiO)    108,497. 

Toledo  War,  a  contest  aa  to  the  boundary 
line  between  the  State  of  Ohio  and  the  Terri- 
tory of  Michigan  (1S3S-37).  The  disputed 
belt  Included  the  town  of  Toledo.     In  1B36  the 


der  the  control  of  Michigan.  The  Governor  of 
Ohio  called  out  the  militia,  and  Oov.  Mason, 
of  Michigan,  took  possession  of  Toledo;  hut 
Congress,  June  16,  1S36,  admitted  Michigan 
as  a  state  on  condition  of  the  acceptance  of 
the  N.  peninsula,  which  formed  a  natural  part 
of  the  Territory  of  Wisconsin.  This  addition, 
subsequently  bringing  such  great  wealth  of 
copper  and  iron  to  the  state,  was  finally  ao- 
ccpted  as  an  equivalent  for  the  disputed  atrip 
at  the  B.,  which  went  to  Ohio  and  'nHinTip 

Tolstoi  (t&l'stoi).  Count  Lev  (or  LyoS)  Al- 
ekaeeylch,  1828-1910;  Russian  novelist;  b, 
laanaia  Poliana,  in  the  government  of  Tula, 
Russia;  entered  the  Univ.  of  Kantn,  1B43;  left 
without  graduating  after  three  years.  Having 
visited  the  Caucasus  in  1S51,  he  joined  the 
army,  and  took  part  in  various  guerrilla  ex- 
peditions. After  the  war  in  the  Crimea,  in 
which  he  eerved,  he  gave  up  military  life  and 
resided  for  a  .time  in  St.  Petersburg  and  Mos- 
cow; traveled  twice  in  Europe,  then  In  18B1 
retired  to  his  country  estate,  which  has  alnee 
been  his  permanent  home.  His  works  fall  into 
three  periods.  To  the  first  belong  his  "  Child- 
hood,"^ "  Boyhood,"  and  "  Youth  " ;  also  his 
"  Cossacks,"  a  deacription  of  life  in  the  Cauca- 
sus ;  his  "  Sevastopol,"  and  other  military 
sketches.    The  second  period  is  that  of  bis  two 

S-eat  novels,  "  War  and  Peace,"  on  epic  ol 
UBsian  life,  national  and  individual,  at  the 
time  of  the  great  struggle  with  Napoleon,  and 
"  Anna  Karenina,"  a  study  of  passion  and  its 
consequences.  Soon  afterwards  Tolstoi  began 
to  give  himself  up  to  the  mystical  religious 
and  philanthropic  ideas  which  have  so  com- 
pletely mastered  him  that  it  has  been  doubted 
whether  he  is  to  be  regarded  as  perfectly  sane. 
His  doctrines  have  been  proclaimed  in  "  li^ 
Confession,"  "  In  what  my  Faith  Consists '' 
(more  usually  known  as  My  Religion"),  a 
"  Commentary  on  the  Gospel,"  and  other 
works,  many  of  them  forbidden  in  Russia  by 
the  censors.  As  he  believes  not  only  in  non- 
resistance  to  evil  and  in  asceticism,  but  in 
eommuniim,  the  duty  of  manual  labor,  and 
of  everyone  to  live  like  the  peasants,  it  is  only 


didactic  or  polemical '  aim  which  has  often  de- 
tracted from  its  value.  Still  nothing  can  en- 
tirely quench  his  genius.  Many  of  his  tales 
for  the  peasants  are  admirable,  and  in  even 
the  poorest  of  his  productions  we  often  find 
pages  of  splendid  power. '  The  best  known  of 
bis  later  works  are  the  "  Death  of  Ivan  Ilich," 
"  The    KreutEcr    Sonata,"    and    his    drama. 


.X 


T0LTEC8 

"  Power  of  Darkness."  Although  the  infli 
of  bis  later  ideBs  haa  created  a  sect,  his 
tatlon  will  probably  depend  on  bie  e 
works,  and  especislly  on  £he  two  novels.  Both 
of  them,  aa  well  as  the  shorter  productions 
that  preceded  them,  display  a  combination  of 
'  keenness  of  realistic  insight  and  wealth  of  poet- 
ical imagination,  of  a  wonderful  breadth  of 
view  with  perfect  handling  of  minute  detail 
seldom  rivaled  in  all  literature.  The  mastery 
of  style  is  complete,  though  the  author  takes 
no  pains  to  polish  it,  any  more  than  he  cares 
to  spare  us  trivial  incident.  In  "  Master 
and  Man,"  and  in  "  Resurrection,"  he  seems 
to  have  returned  to  his  former  manner  and  to 
sliow  no  diminution  of  power.  He  was  ex- 
communicated by  the  Russian  Synod,  ISOl. 

Tol'teca,  or  Toltec'u  (so  called  from  their 
principal  city,  ToUan,  supposed  to  be  Tula,  in 
Hidalgo),  an   Indian  triiie,  said  to  have  occu- 


Aztecs.  The  little  that  is  known  of  this  race 
comes  from  Aztec  traditions  or  pictographic 
records  as  they  were  collected  bv  Spanish  writ- 
ers soon  after  the  Conquest.  They  catna  from 
the  N.,  making  temporary  settlements  at 
various  points,  and  finally  fixing  themselves 
at  Toilan  abt.  661  a.d.  Lists  of  their  chiefs 
or  "  kings  "  are  extant,  but  these  are  of  very 
doubtful  value;  the  hero  god,  QuetEalcohoatl, 
]8  said  to  have  lived  in  their  dtiea  before  his 
final   disappearance. 

Toln'ca,  capital  of  the  State  of  Mexico,  in 
the  republic  of  that  name;  32  m.  WSW.  of 
Uezico  City ;  8,663  ft.  above  the  sea.  It  is  well 
built  and  clean,  and  the  climate  is  cool  acd 
salubrious.  The  town  has  many  manufactures. 
Pop.  (1900)  abt.  25,940.  Nevado  de  Toluca, 
8.  ol  the  city,  is  an  extinct  volcano  ovet:  15,000 
ft.  high,  and  capped  with  snow.  On  a  clear 
day  both  the  Pacific  and  the  Gulf  may  be  dis- 
tinguished from  the  summit. 

Tom'ahawk,  strictly,  the  war  club  of  the 
N.  American  Indians,  but  th6  luune  has  been 


given,   through   mieapprehension.    to    the 
hatchet,  originally  of  stone.    Europeans  Intro- 
duced steel  tomahawks,  which  w—  " 


TOMB 

so  made  as  to  serve  as  tobac^  pipes,  the  han- 
dle forming  the  stem.  The  natives  used  them 
as  battle-axes,  and  possessed  great  skill  in 
throwing  them  ho  that  the  edge  would  strike 
first. 

Toma'to,  any  plant  of  the  genus  Lycopersi- 
oum  of  the  Bolanacea,  indigenous  to  the  Ande- 
an region.  The  common  tomatoes  are  off- 
spring of  L.  eaoulmttum,  which  was  introduced 
into  Europe  in  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
fruit,  also  called  tomato,  formerly  called  love 


41 


apple,  was  at  first  r^arded  with  suspicion 
from  its  relationship  to  the  poisonous  night- 
shade family,  and  was  grown  for  ornament,  al- 
though there  is  a  record  of  its  having  been 
eaten  as  early  aa  1583.  This  iear  of  thef  plant 
was  not  overcome  until  the  nineteenth  cen* 
tury,  and  even  recently  the  fruit  has  been  con- 
sidered to  be  associated  with  the  production 
of  cancer.  Few  fruits  are  more  healthful  than 
the  tomato,  and  it  ranks  next  the  potato  in 
economic  importance.  A  chief  reason  for  the 
popularity  of  the  plant  is  the  excellence  of  the 
canned  tomatoes.  The  tomato  needs  a  warm, 
quick  soil,  and  the  fertilizers  should  be  such, 
as  give  much  available  food,  in  order  that  the 
plant  may  make  the  most  of  the  early  season. 

Tomb,  a  burial  place  of  permanent  character 
or  of  some  pretension,  especially  a  structure  des- 
tined to  contain  or  to  cover,  the  body  of  one  to 
whom  some  honor  is  intended  to  be  done; 
therefore  generally  a  somewhat  ornameutsj 
monument.  Cenotaphs  are  also  tombs,  because 
standing  f^r  the  actual  tomb  itself,  or,  in  the 
case  of  persons  lost  at  sea  or  the  like,  aa  being 
the  only  tomb  posable.  Tombs  are  often  ar- 
ranged to  contain  or  to  cover  a  number  of 
bunal  places;  thus  the  Roman  Columbarium  is 
the  tomb  of  a  large  number  of  persons;  the 
tomb  of  Augustus  and  tLat  .of  Hadrian  was  ar- 
ranged with  many  burial  places,  and  modern 
structures  set  up  in  cemeteries  are  intended  for 
the  burials  of  a  whole  family.  The  pyramids 
of  Egypt  were  tombs,  and  the  tombs  of  another 
type,  the  mastabas,  thouj|h  less  in  size,  were 
more  elaborate  in  decoration.     Grecian  tomba 


TOUBIOBEE.  ,RIVER 


could  afford,  and  theae  st«lte  ire  found  with 
intcriptiona  and  decorntive  sculpture.  Large 
edifices  built  as  monuments  to  the  dead  are  not 
found  in  Greece,  but  nere  conimon  in  semi- 
Oreek  lands  of  Asia.  The  most  famous  of  them 
was  that  of  King  Mausolua  of  Caria.  See 
Mauboleuu. 

The  monuments  erected  bf  the  Bomaas  are 
celebrated,  but  their  form  is  often  altered  be- 
yond recocTiiUoii,  even  when  their  mass  re- 
mains. The  Caatle  of  St.  Angelo,  in  Rome, 
is  the  mauBoledm  of  the  emperor  Hadrian, 
stripped  of  its  sculptures,  its  marble  colon- 
nades, and  its  probably  conical  superstructure, 
and  crowned  with  defensive  works.  The  older 
mausoleum  of  Augustus  had  received  the  re- 
mains of  the  emperora  who  succeeded  him,  un- 
til Its  niches  were  filled ;  ho  Hadrian  erected  a 
gigantic  structure  for  himself  and  his 
in  office.  The  tombs  of  the  Middle 
Aeee  and  of  the  Renaissance  are  often  of  a 
T^ned  beauty  pwhich  no  Roman  work  could 
approach.  What  are  known  as  altar  tombs 
are  large,  sarcophagus-tike  masses  set  on  the 
church  iloor,  and  commonly  having  a  life-sized 
effigy  of  the  departed  in  bronze  or  stone  lying 
upon  the  top. 

With  respect  to  modem  structures,  the  term 
is  generally  used  in  the  sense  of  a  somewhat 
large  intenor,  opening  out  of  which  are  recep- 
tacles' for  coffins,  the  whole  being  either  eica- 
vated  in  a  hillside  with  a  front  of  masoiiry,  in 
which  the  door  is  above  ground,  like  a  chapel. 
In  some  cases  a  similar  chapelliko  structure  is 
erected  above  a.  single  grave;  but  as  a  general 
thing  the  term  is  confined  to  family  vaults. 
Memorial  structures  erected  in  cemeteries  above 
or  near  a  grave  are  more  often  called  monu- 
mental but  when  these  are  long  and  low,  in 
general  shape  like  the  altar  tombs  of  the  Middle 
Ages,  the  word  "  tomb  "  Is  sometimes  employed 
to  describe  them.  In  some  cases  a  family  burial 
place  is  merely  excavated  and  built  below 
ground,  with  a  slab  on  the  surface  which  can  be 
raised,  and  to  these  also  the  word  "  tomb"  may 
be  applied.  In  short,  any  structure  which  is  es- 
sentially the  receptacle  of  dead  bodies  or  which 
contains  and  covers  such  receptacles  is,  if  built 
id  advance,  permanent,  and  of  some  pretension, 
a  tomb,  while  the  grave  is  a  simple  excavation, 
to  be  filled  up  when  the  coffin  has  been  depos- 
ited.   See  Sabcofhagub. 

TombigHiee  Rir'er,  rises  in  NE.  Uissisaippi, 
and  after  a  very  indirect  S.  by  E.  course  of  4fi0 
m.  in  Mississippi  and  Alabama,  joins  the  Ala- 
bama River  46  m.  above  Mobile,  and  the  stream 
below  the  junction  is  called  Mobile  River.  It 
is  navigable  to  Aberdeen,  Miss.,  410  m.  from 
Mobile  Bay. 

TomplcinB,  Daniel  D.,  I774-182S;  Vice  Pres- 
ident of  the  U.  8.;  b.  Scarsdale,  N.  Y.;  gradu- 
ated at  Columbia  Collie,  1705;  admitted  to 
the  bar,  17B6;  elected  to  the  Legislature  and 
the  State  Constitutional  Convention  of  1801 ; 
member  of  Congress,  1804-6;  appointed  to  New 
York  Supreme  Court,  1804;  governor  of  the 
■tata,  1807-17;  a  conspicuous  advocate  of  Jef- 


TONGA  IStANDS 

fersoniaa  principles  and  an  opponent  of  the 
banks.  He  commanded  the  Third  Military  Dis- 
trict during  the  War  of  1812-15;  chosen  Vice 
President  of  the  U.  6.,  1810,  on  the  ticket  with 
Monroe,  and  reelected,  1820,  when  he  was  an 
aapiraot  for  tbe  presidential  nomination;  diau- 
eellor  of  the  Univ.  of  New  York;  delegate 
to  the  Btate  Constitutional  Convention  of  1321, 
and  for  a  time  its  pretident. 

Tom'tit.     See  TmiousE.- 

Ton,  a  measure  of  weight  and  capacity  in 
Great  Britain  and  the  U.  8.  As  the  former  it 
is  equivalent  to  20  cwt,,  and  as,  in  Oreat  Brit- 
ain, and  the  U.  8.  customliouses,  the  hundred 
weight  is  reckoned  at  112  lb.,  the  ton  contains 
2,240  lb.  (the  long  ton).  In  the  domestic  com- 
merce of  the  U.  S.  it  is  customary  to  reckon 
only  100  lb.  to  the  cwt  and  2,000  lb.  to  the 
ton  (the  khort  ton),  and  this  usage  in  some 
of  tbe  states  has  received  the  sanction  of  law. 
As  a  measure  of  the  carrying  capacity  of  a 
ship,  the  ton  is  40  cu.  ft.  This  is  actual 
tonnage.     The  roister  is  100  cu.  ft. 

Tone,  Theobald  Wolfe,  17133-98;  Irish  pa- 
triot; b.  Dublin,  Ireland;  was  called  to  the 
bar,  1780;  wrote  pamphlets  to  expose  Eng- 
lish misgovernment  in  Ireland;  promoted  the 
combination  of  the  Irish  Roman  Catholics 
with  the  Protestant  Dissenters  in  opposition  to 
the  British  Govt,;  founded  at  Belfast  the  first' 
society  of  United  Irishmen,  1791;  became  sec- 
retary and  agent  of  the  Roman  Catholic  com- 
mittee, 17B2;  involved  in  secret  negotiations 
with  France,  on  account  of  which  he  went  to 
the  U.  B.,  1703;  sailed  for  France,  January, 
1796;  aided  the  French  Directory  in  fitting  out 
Hoche's  projected  expedition  to  Ireland,  in 
which  he  was  appointed  brigadier  and  adjutant 
general ;.  served  in  the  Bavarian  army,  1797; 
was  captured  in  September,  1798,  on  board  a 
French  squadron  bound  for  Ireland;  taken  to 
Dublin,  tried  by  court-martial,  and  sentenced 
to  death,  but  committed  suicide  by  cutting  his 
throat. 

Tone,  in  music,  a  sound,  or  the  impression 
made  on  the  ear  by  a  sonorous  body.  The  de- 
rivative meanings  of  the  term  relate  to  the 
qualities,  relations,  or  conditions  of  such  sounds, 
as  (1)  their  plaoe  on  the  scale,  a  high  tone  or 
a  low  tone;  (2)  the  interval  made  by  two 
sounds,  as  a  major  or  a  minor  tone;    (3)   any 


a  tone  (or  whole  tone)  means  one  of  the  steps 
of  the  scale,  as  C — D,  0-— A,  etc.;  but  tbe  woroa 
step  and  half  step  fre  much  better  as  scientifio 
terms  than  whole  tone  and  semitone. 

Tonga  (ta'ngi)  Islands,  formerly  called 
Fbiexdlt  l8i.Ainis,  three  groups,  called,  re- 
spectively, Tonga,  Haapai,  and  Vavau;  in  the 
Pacific,  BE.  of  Fiji;  area,  390  so.  m.;  pop, 
(1906]  21,240  Tongan  Natives;  other  Paeifte 
islandeTS,  400:  British  and  foreign  residents, 
400.  The  natives  are  Christians,  mostly  Wes- 
leyan  Methodists.  The  islands  constitute  a 
British  protectorate,  but  are  under  a  king  and 
a  legislative  assembly.  Chief  exports,  copra, 
green  fruit,  fungus,  and  candle  nut*.    Capital, 


Nukualofa. 


TONQALAND 

Ton'taUnd,  (a-  Anuton'nUiid,  former  Inde- 
pendent nfttive  state  of  B.  Africa,  extending 
along  tbe  coast  of  the  Indian  Ocean  from 
Delagoa  BaytoSt. 
Lucia  Lake  and  in- 
land to  the  Tteuis- 
vaal.  The  Ama- 
tonga  people  are 
of  Zulu  extraction. 
but  are  much 
mixed  with  Swazi 
blood.  In  1897  it 
waa  incorporated 
with  tbe  colony 
of  Natal. 

TooEne  (tOng) , 
the  organ  of  the 
special  sense  of 
taste,  situated  on 
tbe  floor  of  tbe 
tnouth;  consists  of 
muscles  by  which 
it  can  be  protrud- 
ed, retracted,  and 
curved  upward,, 
downward,  and 
laterally.  The 
tongue  consists  of 
two  Bj'mmetrical 
halves,  with  a  fibrous  middle  septum;  hence 
one  side  may  be  paralyzed  and  the  other  act- 
ive, as  in  cases  of  apoplexy.  The  upper  sur- 
face or  dorsum  of  the  tongue  is  essentially 
the  seat  of  taste.  It  is  cov- 
ered by  delicate  processes 
or  papillie,  which  contain 
blood  vessels  and  the  ter- 
minal fibers  of  the  lervea 
of  sensation  ar.d  'ate.  The 
facial  nerve  has  an  1  ifiu- 
ence  upon  taste,  paralysii  of 
this  nerve  impairing  the 
special  sense.  The  pap i lite 
vary  in  size  and  kngth  on 
different  parts  of  the  tongue. 
Food  of  decided  flavor  can 
be  definitely  distinguished 
by  a  single  papilla,  as  found 
when  applied  through  cyl- 
indrical glass  rods.  Some 
papilla  contribute  to  the 
sense  of  taste,  others  to 
sensation  only.  Sensation 
(tactile)  is  more  acute  in 
the  tongue  than  elsewhere. 
Distinct   perception   of   two 


■Thi  Tohods. 


needle  points  was  obtained  at  tbe  tip  of  the 
tongue  when  the  points  were  separated  only 
one  twelfth  of  an  inch. 

The   tongue  may   be   inflamed   from   various 
Ckusea  as  hot  drinks  and  irritants.    It  is  often 


TONIC  SOL-FA  SYSTEM 

the  seat  of  ulcers,  cankers,  the  result  of  catarrh 
of  the  month.  The  coated  tongue  may  be  due 
to  a  relaxed,  flaccid,  and  pale  condition  of  tbe 
papills,  and  when  noticeably  coated  has  an  ac- 
cumulation of  thickened  saliva;  the  yellow 
color  is  the  result  of  the  fatty  cban^  which 
the  cast-off  cells  speedily  undergo.  When  the 
stomach  is  inflamed  or  irritable,  the  papilla  of 
the  tongue  often  appear  as  distinct  points.  The 
tongue  is  occasionally  attacked  by  epithelial 
cancer.  Exceptionally,  in  infants  the  fibrous 
cord  beneath  the  tongue  is  too  short ;  the 
tongue-tied  infant  cannot  nurse  well,  and  when 
older  speaks  Imperfectly;  the  cure  is  by  cut- 
ting,   8ee  Sbnbcs;  Sbnbatiott;  Taste. 

Ton'ic,  in  medicine,  means  employed  to  re- 
move debility,  general  or  special.  Nourishing 
food,  fresh  air  And  exercise,  cold  bathing,  etc., 
have  a  tonic  effect.  Drugs,  such  as  directly 
improve  nutrition,  or  indirectly  accomplish  the 
same  end  by  exciting  tbe  appetite  and  increas- 
ing digestive  power,  are  called  tonics.  The 
most  prominent  examples  of  the  former  are 
iron,  which  in  anemia  stimulates  the  making 
of  red  blood  corpuscles;  cod-liver  oil,  which 
operates  as  a  fatty  food  of  easy  assimilation  j 
phoaphortu,  which  in  some  cases  of  nervous 
exhaustion  or  functional  nervous  derange- 
ments seems  to  improve  tbe  nerve  structures; 
and  preparations  of  some  of  the  metals,  as  sil- 
ver, line,  mercury,  arsenic,  which  in  peculiar 
conditions  of  malnutrition  tend  to  determine 
the  nutritive  processes  back  into  the  healthy 
channels.  Of  tbe  drugs  which  are  tonic  by 
improving  digestive  power,  the  most  service- 
able are  vegetable  bitters,  as  cinchona  and  its 
alkaloids,  gentian,  columbo,  quassia,  nux  vom- 
ica, etc.;  aromatics  and  spices,  acids,  both 
mineral  and  organic,  and  weak  alcoholic  bev- 
erages in  very  moderate  quantity.  Tbe  list 
might  be  greatly  extended,  for  it  is  a  general 
property  of  irritante  that,  token  internally  in 
small  doses,  their  irritation  tends  to  increase 
the  activity  of  thi>  digestive  organs  and  the 
secretion  of  the  digestive  fluids. 

To^iic,  in  music,  tbe  keynote,  or  prime,  of  a 

Tonic  Sol-fa  Sys'tem,  a  musical  notation, 
and  the  method  of  teaching  music  which  grows 
out  of  it.     It  is   called  a  natural  system,  be- 
'    ving  but 

used.  It  consists  of  the  letters 
d,  T,  m,  f,  B,  1,  t,  which  are  the  initials  of  the 
Guidonian  syllables,  dob,  ray,  me,  fah,  soh, 
lab,  te  (the  last  changed  from  se|.  These 
notes  are  applied  to  all  keys  alike.  Tones 
above  the  octave  are  represented  by  a  figure 
nt  the  top  of  the  letter  (d',  d',  etc.)  ;  tones 
below  the  octave  l^  a  figure  at  the  bottom  of 
the  latter  (s,,  s„  ete.).  The  signs  for  time 
(rhythm)  are  based  upon  the  law  of  accent. 
A  strong  accent  is  represented  by  a  perpendic- 
ular line  before  a  note  (|)  ;  the  weak  accent 
is  represented  ^y  a  colon  ( :)  ;  a  medium  ac- 
cent Dy  a  shorter,  thinner  line  (I).  Tbe  space 
between  any  two  accents  represents  a  beat  or 
pulse.  The  space  between  two  strong  accents 
represents  a  measure.  A  dash  between  two 
accent  marks  shows  that  the  previous  tone  ia 


TONKA  BEAN 


Two-pulM  mMsura.  Four.pul»  w 

{|<i:m|d:-||l    (|d;m  l.:n|d : 


)|d:n,. 


Bix-puln  m«ua 
l':»:mldt_:. 


:-:-|ll 


In  these  measures  each  pulse  is  supposed  to 
represent  a  quarter  note.  The  shorter  notes 
are  represented  bj  divisions  of  the  spaces; 
eighth  notes  hj  a  dot  in  the  middle  of  the 
space  ([d.d;];  sixteenth  notes  by  a  coroma 
in  the  middle  of  the  half  space  ( |  d  ,  d ,  d ,  d: )  ; 
triplets  by  inverted  commas  ( |  d.  d.  d  ; )  ■ 
Other  forms  are  shovm  by  combi  nations  of 
these  signs.  Silences  (rests)  are  indicated  by 
the  absence  of  notes  in  the  pulaa  divisioiiB 
(I  d;  |).  In  the  tonic  sol-fa  system  no  sharp 
or  flat  signatures  are  required.  The  pitch  of 
a  tune  is  indicated  thus  at  the  beginaing; 
Key  C,  Key  O,  Key  F,  etc.  Chromatic  tones 
are  represented  by  the  old  chromatic  names 
written  out.  The  sharps  are  de,  re,  fe,  se,  le ; 
the  data  are  ra,  ma,  sa,  la,  ta.  No  naturals, 
double  sharps,  or  double 
flats  are  required  in 
tonic  sol-fa,  as  they  --- 


only  necessitated  by  the 
complex  nature  of  the 
staff  notation. 

ToD'ka  Bean,  the  seed 
of  a  noble  leguminous 
tree  of  Guiana.   The  seed 

:  is  shaped  lilca  a  lar^ 
Icidney  bean  and  is 
shiny  black.  It  abounds 

'    in  the  fragrant  princi- 

Bcentiug  snuff  and  to- 
bacco, and  in  perfum^ 
ery.  It  is  also  emplnyed 
to  lieep  moths  from 
voolens.  In  medicine, 
it  relieves  the  parox- 
ysm of  whooping  cough. 

TomuBeah.    Half  of         Tonldn' ( formerly  ToH- 
the  one-CMded  pod.  QUIN      or      ToNOKlNo), 

(Eastern  Capital),  a 
French  dependency  of  Indo-China,  on  the  Gulf 
of  Toolcin,  S.  of  China.  N.  of  Annam,  and  E.  of 
the  Shan  states;  area  about  34,740  sq.  m.  It 
consists  of  a  delta  which  is  densely  populated 
and  highly  cultivated,  and  a  mountain  region 
which  IS  covered  with  forests  and  Tcry  sparsely 
inhabited.  The  delta  is  that  of  the  Song-Koi 
or  Red  River,  which  bifurcates  at  Sontai,  and 
incloses  Ijetween  its  numerous  arms  grassy 
level  fields,  easy  to  cultivate,  fertile,  and  cov- 
ered with  villages,  cities,  and  rice  Selds.  The 
capital  is  Hanoi,  a  city  of  Chinese  aspect; 
pop.  abt.  150,000.  The  chief  port  is  Haiphong, 
ncnr  the  coast.  The  principal  crop  is  rice,  but 
the  sugar  cane,  cotton,  and  tobacco  are  culti- 
vated. There  are  copper  and  iron  and  coal 
mines.  In  1905  the  imports  were  valued  at 
87,535,650  fr„  and  the  eiports  at  34,841,860 
fr.      The   transit   trade  to   and   from   Yunnan 


TONSIIS 

amounted  to  4,000,000  fr.  In  imports,  and 
3,180,000  fr.  in  exports.  Tonldn  is  yet  com- 
merciaily  dependent  on  the  British  colonies  of 
Honglcong  and  Singapore.  The  climate  of 
Tonkin  is  hot,  but  not  unwholesome;  the  peo- 

Sle  are  very  poor,  suspicious,  avaricious,  in- 
ustrious,'  and  skillfui.  The  interior  trade  is 
largely  in  the  hands  of  Chinese.  The  country 
was  annexed  by  France  in  18S4,  but  remains 
turbulent.    Pop.  abt.  10,000,000. 

Tan'nage,  a  measure  of  the  capacity  of  a 
ship,  used  for  the  purpose  of  registry  at  her 
port  for  levying  harbor  and  other  dues,  and 
to  determine  how  much  cargo  she  can  safely 
carry.  The  cubical  contents  of  the  ship  are 
divided  by  100,  as  100  cu.  ft.  are  taken  as 
holding  one  ton,  and  this  gives  the  "  rt^st«r 
tonnage." 

TonnaEe  and  Patind%se,  an  ancient  tariff  on 
imports  and  exports  levied  by  the  kings  of 
England,  nominally  for  the  defense  of  the 
realm  and  the  maintenance  of  the  sea  power 
of  the  kingdom.  This  tariff  had  iU  origin  in 
the  royal  dominion  over  the  porta  and  water- 
ways of  the  luugdom. 

Tonnase  Dues,  a  duty  levied  on  merchant 
vessels  as  a  fee  for  the  privilege  of  using  tha 
harbors  of  the  state.  This  tax  was  formerly 
.based  on  the  number  of  tons  of  freight  actually 
carried  fay  the  vessel,  and  was  assessed  sep- 
arately for  every  time  that  a  harbor  was  actu- 
ally entered,  but  it  is  now  measured  by  the 
registered  tonnage  of  the  vessel,  and  commuted 
into  an  annual  tax. 

Tonsilli'tii,  or  Tonsilitli,  inflammation  of  one 
or  both  tonsils,  excited  by  some  infectious 
microdi^anism,  or  due  to  the  eSecta  of  some 
specific  disease,  such  as  scarlatina  or  small- 
pox, which  lowers  the  resistance  of  the  tissues, 
or  some  constitutional  disease,  such  as  gout. 

In  acuta  tonsillitis  the  affected  glands  be- 
come red  and  enlarged,  and  if  suppuration 
occurs,  the  swelling  may  be  so  great  as  almost 
completely  to  block  the  throat.  The  pain  in 
swallowing  may  be  intense,  and  may  extend 
to  the  ear  and  cause  deafness.  If  the  inflam- 
mation docs  not  subside  in  six  days,  quinsy 
occurs,  or  the  tonsils  may  tiecome  chronically 
enlarged.  Sometimes  rheumatic  pains  over  the 
entire  Ijody  are  so  severe  that  the  throat  symp- 
toms may  be  overlooked.  Tonsillitis  usually 
ends  favorably,  but  it  may  extend  to  a  laiga 
blood  vessel  and  cause  death  by  hemorrhage, 
or  the  swelling  may  l>e  so  great  as  to  cause 
suffocation.  Tonsillitis  is  treated  by  disin- 
fecting the  throat  with  gargles.  Aconite  and 
the  salicylates  are  useful.  Chronic  enlarge- 
ment is  cured  by  cutting  out  the  tonsils.     See 

Ton'sils,  two  masses  of  lymphoid  tiasue  in 
the  human  throat;  each  consista  of  from  tan 
to  twenty  sacculated  depressions  of  the  mucous 
membrane,  in  the  walls  of  which  are  numer- 
ous oval  lymphatic  follicles,  .OOS  to  .02  in.  in 
diametpT.  The  parenchyma  of  these  follicles 
consists  of  a  fine  reticulum  of  connective  tissue, 
the  meshes  of  which  are  stuffed  with  lymphoid 
elementa.    The  follicles  are  united  by  a  ooq- 


TONSURE 

nective  tiaaue  rich  in  blood  TesaeU  and 
Ijmipbatics.  At  the  root  of  the  tongue  there 
are  a  number  o{  nnoll  Irmph  follicles  similar 
in  Btrueture  to  the  toMllH,  but  simpler,  each 
coneiBting  of  >  tingle  Boccutar  depreaaion  of 
the  mucous  membrane,  the  walls  of  which  are 
lined  by  lymphoid  tisBue.  The  oral  mucous 
membrane  ia  well  supplied  with  lymphatics, 
'which  are  especially  abundant  on  the  surface 
of  the  tongue  and  about  the  tonsils. 

Ton'sure,  in  the  Roman  Catbolic  and  Ori- 
ental churches,  the  Bhsving  of  a  portion  of  the 
hair  from  the  head  of  an  ecclesiastic.  In  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  the  size  of  the  tonsure 
is  i^  uniform,  but  its  place  is  at  present  upon 
the  crowa  of  the  head-  lliis  ia  the  tonsure  of 
Bt.  Peter.  In  the  ancient  Irish  and  British 
churches  the  tonsure  of  St.  James,  in  which 
the  front  part  of  the  head  was  shaved  as  tar 
back  as  a  line  passing  over  the  top  of  the  head 
from  ear  to  ear,  formerly  prevailed.  In  the 
Basteru  churches  anciently  the  whole  head  was 
shaved.  The  tonsure  is  one  of  the  prepara- 
tions for  orders,  and  it  is  regarded  as  sj^m- 
bolidng  the  crown  of  thorns  worn'  during 
Chrisfa  Passion. 

Tontiiu',  a  financial  scheme  for  securing  to 
the  surviving  members  of  an  association  a  pro- 

ertional  slmre  of  the  profits  of  those  who 
ve  died  within  a  stated  Interval.  The  name 
is  derived  from  Lorenzo  Tonti,  a  Neapolitan 
banker,  who  proposed  to  apply  this  principle 
to  raise  a  fund  tor  the  French  Oort.  in  1653. 
The  subscribers  were  to  receive  interest  from 
the  first,  and  as  deaths  occurred  the  shares  of 
the  survivors  would  be  continually  increased. 
The  French  Parliament  rejected  the  scheme, 
but  public  tontines  were  established  in  France 
and  Great  Britain.  A  tontine  insurance  policy 
is  one  in  which  the  policy  holder  agrees  in 
common  with  others  to  receive  no  profits  till 
after  a  certain  number  of  fears,  and  to  forego 
surrender  value  if  be  gives  up  his  policy. 

ToB'tj,  or  Tontl,  Heniy  (Chevalier  de],  abt. 
1060-1754;  French  explorer;  b.  Gaeta,  Italy; 
accompanied  Ia  Salte  to  Canada,  1678,  and  in 
his  exploration  of  the  Mississippi ;  was  left  in 
command  of  a  fort  near  Feoria,  ISSO ;  made  an 
unsuccessful  attempt  to  found  a  settlement  in 
Arkansas;  took  part  in  an  expedition  of  the 
W.  Indians  against  the  Seneoos,  1085;  twice 
descended  the  Misaissippi  in  search  of  L*  Salle, 
and  a  third  time  to  meet  Iberville;  remained 
in  that  region,  and  died  at  Fort  Louis  (now 
Mobile). 

Toombs,  Robert,  1810-S6;  American  statu- 
man ;  b.  Wilkes  Co.,  Ga. ;  educated  at  Univ.  of 
Qeorgitt  and  at  Union  College,  Schenectady, 
tr.  Y. ;  studied  law  at  the  Univ.  of  Virginia. 
In  tS30  was  admitted  to  the  bar.  Served  in 
war  against  Creek  Indians,  1830.  He  was 
brought  np  in  the  Jeffersonian  school  of  pol- 
itics, to  which  creed  he  always  adhered.  Mem- 
ber of  Congress,  1S44.  He  remained  a  mem- 
ber of  the  House  until  March,  1863,  when 
he  took  a  seat  in  the  Senate,  which  he  held 
nntil  Georria  passed  her  ordinance  of  seeeasion 
in  1861.  He  was  a  member  of  the  SUte  Seces- 
•ion  C<ni,T«ntif)n,  and  was  dele^te  to  the  Con- 


TOPLADT 

federate  Congreaa  at  Houtgomei^.  He  was  for 
a  short  time  Secretary  of  State  in  the  Confed- 
eracy, but  resigned  that  office  and  took  a  com- 
mission as  brigadier  general  in  the  army.  H« 
was  at  the  second  Bull  Run  and  Antietam 
battles.  He  resigned  his  commission  and  r«- 
turned  to  Georgia,  where  he  was  made  a, 
brigadier  general  of  the  state  militia  upon  tha 
invasion  of  the  state  by  Sherman  in  1601. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  he  left  the  countij, 
remaining  abroad  until  1867.  He  then  re- 
turned, but  refused  to  take  the  oath  of  al- 
legiance to  the  U.  S.  He  resumed  the  suc- 
cessful  practice  of  law.  The  reconstruction 
measures  of  Congress  he  denounced  from  tha 
beginning. 

Toothache  TtM.    See  Pbioklt  Ash. 

To'pu,  a  gem  stone.  The  ehrytoUte  of  the 
old  writers  is  believed  to  have  included  the 
topaE.  Its  hardness  ia  eight,  between  that  of 
quartz  and  aapphire,  and  diamond  and  sapphire 
scratch  it  easily.  It  contains  silica,  alumina, 
and  fluorine.  This  is  the  true  topaz,  hut  the 
name  is  confused  among  jewelers  and  collectors 
by  being  applied  to  other  transparent  yellow 
stones.  Thus  Oriental  topas  is  yellow  sapphire, 
and  the  names  Scotch  topaz  and  Spanish 
to  yellow  quartz.     This  latter 


by  heating  amol^  quartz,  Which  i 
tially  decolorized.  The  true  topae  is  of  va- 
rious light  colors — yellow,  pale  green,  or  blue, 
and  pure  white.  The  finest  deep-yellow  ones 
come  from  Minas  Geraes,  in  Brazil ;  on  beat- 
ing, these  are  altered  to  pink,  and  are  then 
called  Brazilian  rubies.  Sherry-colored  atones 
come  from  Siberia,  Colorado,  and  Texas,  and  , 
fine  green  and  blue  topazes  from  the  Ural 
Mountains,  Ceylon,  Japan,  and  New  S.  Wales. 

Topelu;,  capital  of  Kansas  and  of  Shawnee 
Co. ;  on  the  Kansas  River,  67  m.  W.  of  Kansas 

City;  800  to  890  ft.  above  sea  level.  The  city 
is  built  on  three  ridges  at  right  angles  to  the 
river,  insuring  it  excellent  drainage. 

Topeka  contains  the  State  Insane  Asylum, 
the  State  Reform  School  for  Boys,  State  Cap- 
itol, county  courthouse,  U.  S.  Govt,  building, 
hospitals,  an  orphans'  home,  and  a  home  for 
friendless  women.  The  city  has  an  excellent 
system  of  public  schools,  including  a  high 
school.  The  institutions  for  higher  instruction 
comprise  Washhum  College  ( Congr^tional ) , 
coeducational;  the  College  of  the-  Sisters  of 
Bethany  (Protestant  Episcopal),  the  Seminary 
of  the  Assumption  (Roman  Catholic),  and  the 
Eanaas  Medical  College.'  There  are  also  pri- 
vate schools  and  academies. 

Topeka  has  large  machine  and  railroad 
shops,  and  packing  works. 

The  city  was  laid  out  in  1854,  incorporated 
in  I8B7,  and  made  the  state  capital  in  1861. 
Since  1865  there  have  been  no  saloons  in  the 
city.  The  financial  condition  of  Topeka  is  ex- 
oeptionally  good.     Pop.  (1910)  60,000. 

To'phet.    See  Gehekna. 

Toplady,  Augnstus  Uontagne,  1740-76;  Eng- 
lish clergyman  and  hymn  writer;  h.  Famham, 
Surrey;  educated  at  Trinity  Coll<^,  DuUin^ 


TOPOGRAPHV 

took  orden  in  IT62;  became  vicar  of  Broad 
Uemburj,  Devonshire,  1768;  preached  at  the 
chapel  of  the  French  CalvinietE,  in  Leicester 
Fielda,  liondon.  He  was  editor  of  The  Oot- 
pel  Uagasitte  and  author  of  manj  hymns, 
chief  of  which  is  "  I^k  of  Ages."  His  Calvin- 
isUc  partisanship  led  him  into  unhappy  con- 
troversy with  John  Wesley. 

Topog'Taphy,  the  representation  of  the  nat- 
ural features  of  a  portion  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth  on  a  map,  or  the  natural  features  them- 
Klvca.    For  popular  purpoaee  the  representation 


of  hills  and  mountains  by  lines  drawn  along 
tlie  declivities  is  common,  the  steepest  slopes 
being  made  the  heaviest.  Wliile  this  indicates 
the  elevations,  it  gives  little  idea  of  their  rel- 
ative heights,  and  hence  the  method  of  contours 
is  more  reliable.  In  this  method  the  surface  is 
supposed  to  be  intersected  by  a  aeries  ot  hori- 
zontal planes,  and  the  lines  of  intergectiou, 
called  cmitouTS,  are  determined  in  the  field  by 
levels  and  measurements  and  then  plotted  on 
the  map.  The  figure,  which  shows  a  portion  of 
the  Yellowstone  Park  about  7  m.  by  8  m.  in 
area,  illustrates  the  contour  method  of 
seuting  topography,  all  points  o 
marked  8,000  beinff  8,000  ft.  above 
The  contours  are  drawn  at  intervals  of  100  ft 
in  vertical  height,  and  the  closer  tofrether  they 
are  the  steeper  is  the  slope.    By  the  help  of  ac' 


I  of  repre- 
the    line 


TORDESILLAS 

curate  contour  maps  profiles  in  any  direction 
can  be  construclfd. 

In  addition  to  the  representation  of  the  ele- 
vations and  streams,  topographical  maps  gen- 
erally include  roada,  houses,  swamps,  and 
cultivated  land.  Special  signs,  mostly  conven- 
tional, are  used  for  different  kinds  of  crops,  aa 
also  for  sand,  grass,  and  trees.  Along  the  coast 
are  shown  the  shoals,  reefs,  high  and  low  water 
lines,  together  with  contours  of  the  beds  of  the 
harbors  and  sounds.  Colored  topographical 
maps,  in  which  water  is  represented  in  blue, 
streets  in  yellow,  fields  in  green,  and  houses  in 
red,  are  frequently  made 
when  not  intended  for  re- 
production. The  field  work 
of  ,  topography  is  usually 
based  on  a  trian^lation, 
while  the  details  are 
mapped  by  means  of  the 
plane  table  or  stadia.  The 
topography  and  hydrogra- 
phy of  the  coasts  of  the 
U.  S.  has  been  mostly  done 
by  the  U.  S.  Coast  and  Geo- 
detic Survey,  and  a  portion 
of  that  of  the  interior  hj 
the  U.  S.  Geological  Sur- 
vey. The  coat  of  topo- 
graphical work  ranges  from 
$6  to  $20  per  sq.  m.,  de- 
pending on  its  accuracy 
and  completeness.     See  Gm- 

OCBAPHY. 

Taidesillas     (tor-da-sel'- 
jii),    Conven'tion    of,    an 
important  treaty  siKued  by 
the   envoys   of   Spain    and 
Portugal     at     Tordesillas, 
Spain,    June    7,    14B4.      It 
related    to    the    rights    of 
conquest  of  the  two  coun- 
tries,   and    had    the    most 
important      results.        The 
popes,  in  several  bulls,  had 
given   authority   to   Portu- 
gal  to   conquer   and   settle 
Africa  and   the   E.   ludiea. 
;   Soon    after    the    discovery 
j   of  W.  lands  by  Columbus, 
Alexander    VI    issued    his 
bull    of    May    3,    1493,    in 
which  he  divided  the  world 
by     a    meridian     "  100     leagues     W.    of     the 
Azores    and    Cape    Verde   Islands,"    and    gave 
to   Spain   authority   to   conquer   all   lands   W. 
of    this    line,    reserving    those    E.    of    it    for 
Portugal.     By  the  convention  of  TordesUlas  it 
was  agreed  that  the  divisional  meridian  should 
ived  to  "  370  leagues  W.  ot  the  Cape  Verde 


years  after.  Spain  could  not  reasonably  contest 
the  claim,  and  Brazil  was  settled  by  Portu- 
guese. But  the  treaty  was  vague  in  not  men- 
tioning the  point  of  the  Cape  Verde  Islands 
from  which  measurements  could  be  taken,  and 
in  not  specihing  the  length  of  the  leagues,  sev- 
eral being  then  in  common  use;  thus  disputes 
— a : —  (,(  these  hAVe  c -" *- 


r  time.    Again,  oa  comjuestg  were  pushed  E, 


TORNADO 

and  W.,  the  two  nations  eventually  met  on  the 
opposite  Bide  of  tlie  globe,  and  here  the  uncer- 
tainty nca  increaaed  bv  the  defective  means 
for  determining  longitude.  For  example,  the 
Philippines  Tere  claimed  and  held  by  Spain 
on  the  Buppoeition  that  they  lay  within  her 
hemisphere;  in  reality,  they  were  in  that  as- 
■igaed  to  Portugal. 

Toina'do,  a  small,  local,  short-lived,  but  very 
violent  storm,  occurring  in  the  warm  season, 
in  the  wanner  hours  of  the  day,  and  in  very 
moist  air.    The  tornado  is  most  noteworthy  for 


Judged  by  its  effeots,  a  speed  of  200  or  m'ore 
m.  an  hour,  and  consequently  exerting  a  pres- 
sure of  200  lb.  or  more  to  the  ^uaro  foot  on 
structures  opposing  the  motion.  The  conditions 
preceding  a  tornado  are  generally  those  of  a 
thunderstorm  exaggerated,  and  active  agita- 
tion is  sometimes  seen  beforehand  in  the  clouds. 
When  the  storm  is  formed  it  has  a  long,  slen- 
der funnel  extending  from  the  clouds  toward 
the  ground.  This  defines  the  area  of  greatest 
velocity  of  wind,  and  where  it  reaches  the 
ground  the  destructive  effects  are  greatest  The 
tornado  is  often  accompanied  by  intense  elec- 
tric phenomena,  and  accompanied  or  followed 
by  torrential  rain,  sometimes  by  hail.  The  path 
is  usually  but  a  ^w  rods  wide  and  a  few  miles 
long,  and  it  is  generally  directed  from  SW.  to 
NK  The  destructive  efTects  are  experienced 
only  close  to  the  path  of  the  funnel,  and  are 
somewhat  more  severe  on  the  S.  side  of  the 
central  path  than  on  the  N.  side.  The  duration 
at  any  spot  is  but  a  few  seconds.  Definite 
forecasts  of  storms  whose  entire  destructive 
area  is  not  a  square  mile  are  hardlv  practicable, 
but  the  Bmallnesa  of  this  area  malces  the  prob- 
ability very  small  that  any  given  spot  will  ever 
be  traversed  by  a  tornado.  Tornadoes  occur  in 
the  temperate  r^ons  generally,  where  there  is 
enough  moisture.  In  the  U.  S.  they  are  most 
usual  £L  of  the  great  plains,  in  early  spring  in 
the  S.,  in  late  spring  and  early  summer  in  the 
N.  states.  The  alleged  greater  frequency  of  tor- 
nadoes in  late  years  is  an  Illusion  due  to  the 
greater  perfection  of  the  news  collecting  and 
close  watching  of  meteorologic  phr 


tical  wind  systems,  with  'a  long  vertical  axis, 
with  contra-clockwise  rotation  at  the  ground. 
Many  other  local  storms  are  erroneously  classed 
with  them,  as  squalls,  derechos,  riband-winds, 
rolls  with  horizontal  axes,  etc.  A  serious 
source  of  confusion  is  that  these  local  storms 
are  popularly  called  cyclones.  A  cyclone  is  sev- 
eral hundred  miles  in  diameter  and  only  a 
mile  or  two  deep,  with  a  thickness,  therefore, 
only  Tigth  part  or  so  of  its  diameter.  A  tor- 
nado U  only  a  few  scores  of  feet  in  diameter 
and  at  least  several  hundred  feet  high.  The 
first  is  general,  larffc,  and  may  last  several 
days;  the  second  local,  small,  lasting  at  most 
only  an  hour  or  two.  A  tornado  in  April,  ISOS, 
passed  over  Louisiana.  Mississippi,  and  other  8. 
states,  killing  over  400  persons,  maiming  many 
more,  and  doing  damage  agsregating  millions 
of  dollars.    See  Qtolonk;  Hubbioanes. 


Toron'to,  capital  of  the  province  of  Ontario, 
and  the  largest  city  mi  the  Canadian  side  of  the 
Great  Lakes;  on  a  sheltered  bay  on  the  V. 
shore  of  Lake  Ontario.  The  city  was  founded 
in  1794  by  Major-gen,  John  Graves  tjlmcoe, 
first  Governor  of  Upper  Canada,  who  named  it 
York.  About  fif^  years  earlier  the  French  had 
a  trading  post  (Fort  Rouillf)  close  to  the  site 
of  the  city,  but  this  was  later  destroyed.  The 
name  Toronto — "  the  place  of  meeting  " — was 
adopted  in  1834.  The  determining  factor  in  the 
location  of  the  city  was  the  spacious  harbor, 
besides  the  advantages  of  fine  central  position. 
Later  years  have  justified  the  selection  of  the 
site,  and  made  tributary  to  the  city's  com- 
merce the  trade  of  the  Ontario  Peninsula  and 
the  vast  and  fertile  plains  of  the  Canadian  NW. 
Toronto  is  39  m.  NB.  of  Hamilton,  at  the  head, 
and  160  m.  W.  of  Kingston,  at  the  foot,  of 
l.ake  Ontario,  It  is  333  m.  from  Montreal  and 
SOO  m.  from  New  York. 

Although  not  picturesque,  in  the  sense  that 
Montreal  and  Quebec  are  pictur^ue,  Toronto 
is  not  lacking  in  beauty.  Its  chief  adornment 
is  its  fine  water  front,  as  seen  from  the  harbor' 
or  from  the  island,  a  large  sandbar  6  m.  long,, 
which  protects  it  from  the  lake.  The  island  is 
largely  a  public  jmrk  of  great  beauty,  and  the 
rest  is  covered  with  summer  homes.  The  city 
covers  an  area  of  over  16  sq.  m.,  and  includes 
within  its  municipal  boundary,  besides  the  city 
proper,  the  once  outlying  suburbs  of  Brockton, 
Parkdale,  Seaton  Villa^,  Yorkville,  Riverdale, 
West  Toronto  and  East  Toronto.  The  site  has 
a  rising  inclination  toward  the  N.  limits,  2}  m. 
from  the  water  front.  The  shore  front  extends 
from  the  river  Humber,  on  the  W.,  to  Munroe 
Park,  near  Scarboro  Heights,  on  the  G.,  a  dis- 
tance of  9  m.  The  streets  are  well  paved  and 
lighted,  neatly  laid  out,  and  regularly  built. 
The  business  area  lies  adjacent  to  the  water 
front  and  the  esplanade,  which  is  monopolized 
by  the  lake  traffic  and  the  railways.  The  resi- 
dential portion  ties  chiefly  to  the  N.,  bisected 
by  the  city's  great  artery — Yonge  Street,  an  old 
military  road  running  N.  to  the  Georgian  Bay. 
The  notable  buildings  are  the  courthouse  and 
municipal  buildings,  tne  customhouse,  the  post 
office,  the  Board  of  Trade  Building.  Toronto 
is  rich  in  public  parks,  gardens,  drives,  the- 
aters, and  places  of  recreation  and  resort. 
High  Park,  in  the  W.  section,  is  the  largest, 
and  Queen's  Park  is  the  most  accessible  and  at- 
tractive. One  of  the  most  popular  summer 
places  of  amusement  is  the  island  which  lies  off 
the  city  front,  and  which  bears  the  same  rela- 
tion to  Toronto  that  Coney  Island  does  to  New 
York  or  New  Brighton  to  Liverpool.  The  prin- 
cipal educational  institution  is  the  provincial 
university,  known  as  the  University  of  Toronto, 
and  situated  in  Queen's.  Park.  The  Normal 
School  buildings  houBe  the  Provincial  Museum 
and  art  collection  and  contain  the  headquar- 
ters of  the  Province's 'educational  department. 
Affiliated  with  the  ui^versity  are  the  theolog- 
ical colleges,  via,:  Trinity,  a  fine  academical 
institution  and  training  college,  giving  instruc- 
tion in  divinity,  arts,  and  medicine;  the  Roman 
Catholic  college  (St.  Michael's),  the  Presby- 
terian college  (Knox),  the  Methodist  (Victo- 
'  ),  and  VfjcllSi  College  (Evangelical  Church 


TORONTO 

of  England).  There  is  «1so  a  Bchool  of  science 
affiliated  with  the  nnlTeriitj.  Besides  these, 
the  Baptists  have  an  independent  university, 
known  as  McMaster  Unir.  Higher  education 
has  an  historic  institution  in  Upper  Canada 
College,  at  Deer  Park.  Law  has  its  repre- 
sentative home  in  Osgoode  Hall,  situated  on 
Queen  Street  W,,  where  are  the  great  law  courts 
of  the  province,  together  with  the  Convocatioa 
Hall  and  library  of  the  Law  Society  of  Upper 
Canada.  The  city  has  equipped  and  maintains 
a  large  number  of  hospitals  and  charitable  in- 
stitutions. The  more  important  of  these  are 
the  Toronto  General  Hospital,  St.  Michael'B, 
Western,  and  Grace  Hospital 
The    Parliament    Buildings   contain,   besides 


pertmental  offices.  Government  Houss  is  the 
residence  of  the  lieutenant  governor  of  the 
province.  The  older  representative  places  of 
worship  include  8t.  James's  Cathedral  and  St. 
Geoi^e's  Church  (Episcopal),  St  Michael's  (Ro- 
man Catholic),  Knox  and  St.  Andrew's  (Pres- 
byterian), Jarvis  Street  (Baptist),  and  Zion 
Church  (Congregational).  There  are  not  less 
than  160  places  of  worship,  exclusive  of  mis- 
sions. The  municipal  affairs  are  administered 
by  a  mayor  and  four  controllers,  elected  by  the 
whole  city,  and  twenty  aldermen.  The  Board 
of  Control,  consisting  of  the  mayor  and  four 
controllers,  have  extensive  powers.  As  a  com- 
mercial center  the  city  has,  except  Montreal,  no 
rival  in  the  Dominion.  The  richest  province  in 
Canada  is  tributary  to  Toronto,  and  her  trade 
ramifications  extend  not  only  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  FaciBc,  but  to  other  colonies  of  Britain. 
The  industries  include  shipbuilding  and  metal 
work  and  the  manufacture  of  machinery  of  all 
kinds,  white  taad,  paints,  furniture,  musical  in- 
struments, automobiles,  boots  and  shoes,  cloth- 
ing, confectionery,  carpets,  flour,  liquors,  etc. 
There  are  excellent  facilities  for  shipping  and 
transport  making  the  city  an  important  whole- 
sale and  distributing  centre.  Railways  radiate 
in  all  directions.  A  unique  feature  in  connec- 
tion with  the  city  is  its  annual  exhibition,  the 
greatest  of  its  kind  in  the  world. 

In    1894    Toronto   commemorated    the    hun- 


province  of  Upper  Canada  and  gave  rise  (17Q4) 
to  the  embryo  capital.  Toronto  was  fortunate, 
in  its  beginnings,  in  receiving  among  its  sturdy 
early  settlers  a  la:ve  contingent  of  the  United 
Empire  loyalists.  During  the  War  of  1812  the 
town  was  twice  Backed  and  burned  by  U.  8. 
troops,  though  on  one  occasion  at  serious  loss 
to  the  invaders.  Recovering  from  this  disaster, 
the  town  advanced  apace.  In  1834  it  rose  to 
the  dignity  of  an  incorporated  city,  and  gained 
a  population  of  9,254.  Presently  Toronto 
passed  into  its  high  prerogative  era  and  accom- 
panying period  of  political  discontent,  the  issue 
of  which  was  the  rebellion  of  1837,  and  the 
hard-won  measures  of  reform  culminating  in 
seH-govemmeDt.  With  the  union  (in  1S41)  of 
the  two  old  Canadas  and  the  confederation  (in 
18ST)  of  all  the  British  K.  American  provinces 
Toronto  forged  ahead  and  became  the  capital 
of  the  newly  named  provinca  of  OoUxio  and 


TORPEDO  BOATS 

the  seat  of  the  proTinoial  government.    Pop. 
(1911)    abt.  378,000. 

Toipe'do,  family  of  skates  noted  for  thdr 
electrical  powers,  which  have  caused  them  to 
be  called  crampflsh,  numbfish,  etc.  About 
twenty  species  are  known,  but  those  most  , 
studied  belong  to  the  genus  Torpedo,  three  of 
which  occur  in  Europe  and  one  {T,  ocotd«n- 
tali»)  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  U.  S.  In  these  the 
body  is  a  broad,  rounded  disk,  the  large  fleshy 
tail  resembling  that  of  a  shark.  The  mouth  is 
of  moderate  sise,  the  teeth  pointed,  and  the 


AuEHjcuf  Tosrmo. 

skin  smooth.  The  electrical  organs  occur  on 
either  side  of  the  head,  and  are  made  up  of 
prisnfs  of  connective  tissue  in  which  run  nerves 
and  blood  vessels,  wliile  the  prisms  themselves 
are  filled  with  Kelatinous  substance  in  which 
are  "  electrical  plates  "  in  which  the  nerves  ter- 
minate, and  which  are  apparently  modified 
motor  end  plates  of  the  muscle.  The  physics 
of  the  electrical  generation  is  as  yet  unknown. 
The  current  produced  will  deflect  a  needle, 
decompose   water,  etc.,  and   ita   production   is 


Torpedo  Boats,  small,  swift  war  vessels, 
wb^  purpose  is  to  approach  a  ship  and  de- 
stroy it  by  discharging  a  torpedo.  They  may 
either  proceed  with  a  fleet  as  sea-going  torpedo 
boats,  or  be  launched  at  sea  in  the  vicinity  o( 
the  enemy  from  a  battleship  or  depot  ship.  A 
sea-going  torpedo  boat  is  usually  about  ISO  ft. 
long,  6  ft.  broad,  and  draws  about  5  ft.  In 
construction  much  is  sacrificed  to  speed,  for  it 
is  essential  that  a  torpedo  boat  shall  cross  the 
zone  of  fire  of  an  enemy's  ship  before  it  ia 
picked  np  by  the  search  lights  and  the  rapid- 
fire  guns  brought  to  bear  upon  it.  If  it  can  ef- 
fectively deliver  its  terrible  missile,  its  purpose 
is  accomplished,  and  its  own  destruction  is  a 
secondary  matter.  Over  30  knots,  or  a  speed  of 
33  m.  an  hour,  must  be  attained  by  a  modem 
torpedo  boat,  and  to  do  this  the  highest  power 
must  be  packed  in  the  smallest  space  compat- 
ible with  seaworthiness.  Double  engines  and 
boilers  are  installed,  each  in  a  separate  com- 
partment, so  that  if  one  is  crippled  it  may  be 
shut  off  from  the  others  without  stopping  the 
boat  or  withdrawing  from  action.  The  deck  of 
a  torpedo  host  is  low,  arched,  and  water  tight, 
so  that   it  may  be   incoDs^uous   and  dw^ 


Uirougli  the  waves  when  spproacbiBg  its  ob- 

In  addition  b)  theii  deatruetive  efGcienc^  and 
their  moral  effect  upon  an  enemy,  torpedo  boats 
are  an  economical  method  of  gioriding  for  the 
home  defenae  of  ports.  Stationed  in  numbera 
in  different  porta,  or  massed  at  threatened  lo- 
calities, by  inland  -waterways,  where  such 
routes  of  Communication  exist,  their  presence 
_  would  be  »  constant  menace  to  an  investing 
■  naval  force,  which,  however  powerful,  would 
always  be  in  danger  of  destruction  whenever 
opportunity  might  offer  for  a  sortie  of  the  tor- 
pedo boats.  Large  torpedo  biMits  fltted  with 
rapid-fire  batteries,  and  designed  to  protect 
lo^r  ships  from  torpedo  attaclcs,  are  known  as 
toipedo-boat  destroyers, 

Toips'doet,  submarine  devices  containing  ex- 
plosives and  designed  to  destroy  hostile  ship- 
ping. They  are  either  contrivances  propelled 
through  the  water  so  as  to  strilce  the  enemy's 
ship,  or  submerged  mines  arranged  to  be  set  off 
when  a  ship  is  over  them.  The  germ  of  the  idea 
is  found  in  the  Greek  fire  of  the  ancisnts,  from 
which  ttie  torpedo  has  been  developed.  The 
earliest  "  infernal  machine "  on  record  dates 
from  the  siege  of  Antwerp  in  1585,  where  on 
Italian  engineer,  Zambelli,  destroyed  a  bridge 
over  the  Bcheldt  by  setting  adnft  against  it 
four  scows,  each  carrying  a  masonry  mine 
heavily  charged  with  gunpowder. 

It  was  reserved  for  American  engineers  to 
demonstrate  upon  a  grand  scale  the  important 
part  which  the  modem  torpedo  can  be  made  to 
play  in  maritime  warfare.  The  Civil  War  of 
1661-66  offered  conditions  peculiarly  favorable 
to  its  development-  The  S.  Confederacy  was 
possessed  of  no  fleet  worthy  of  the  name,  while 
a  long  seacoost  and  many  navigable  rivers  ex- 
posed its  territaiy  to  easy  assault  by  water. 
It  could,  therefore,  well  afford  to  sacrifice  most 
of  those  routes  of  communication,  provided 
tbev  could  be  closed  to  the  war  vessels  of  the 
Union.  Every  variety  of  torpedo  became, 
therefore,  admissible.  The  service  was  formally 
legalized  in  October,  1862,  and  an  efficieRt  bu- 
reau was  established  at  Richmond,  which  con- 
tinually extended  the  scope  of  its  operations 
until  the  end  of  the  war.  Seven  U.  8.  iron- 
clads, thirteen  wooden  war  Vessels,  and  seven 
army  transports  were  destroyed  by  torpedoes, 
and  dght  more  vessels  were  more  or  less  injured. 
The  Confederates  lost  four  vessels  by  their  own 
minefl,  and  a  line  ironclad,  the  AlbcmarU,  by 
the  counter  operations  of  the  U.  S.  fleet.  The 
charges  employed  were  usually  enormous, 
amounting  to  2,000  lb.  of  gunpowder.  Offen- 
sive spar  torpedoes  affordnl  the  best  oppor- 
tunity for  the  display  of  personal  gallantry, 
and  several  officerB  won  distinction  in  its  use. 
An  outrigger  spar  from  20  to  30  ft.  in  length 
carried  a  torpedo  designed  to  be  brought  in 
contact  with  the  enemy  s  hull  and  exploded  in 
a  hand-to-hand  conflict. 

The  Whitehead  is  probably  the  best-known 
form  of  torpedo.     It  is  an  iron  and  steel  spin- 


It  carries  a  charge  of  260  lb.  of  gun  cotton.  The 
torpedo  can  be  projected  from  a  launching  tube 
or  itarte^  by  hand,  and  is  capable  of  r^^at- 


TOBSION 

ing   and  preserving  its  depth   and   direction, 

within  narrow  limits,  in  still  water;  but  cross 
currents  or  seaweed  may  introduce  variationa. 
It  can  be  set  to  explode  on  contact  or  after  a 
definite  time,  and  to  either  sink  or  rise  to  the 
surface  after  flnishing  its  course.  Tlie  Schwartz- 
kopff  torpedo  is  essentially  a  Whitehead  en- 
cased in  phosphor  bronze  instead  of  steeL  The 
Howell  torpedo,  devised  by  a  U.  8.  naval  offi- 
cer, has  been  slowly  developed  until  it  has  be- 
come a  formidable  rival  of  the  Whitehead,  from 
which  it  differs  chiefly  in  motive  power.  This 
is  derived  from  the  rapid  revolution  of  a  heavy 
By  wheel  transmitted  to  the  propeller  shafts  by 
beveled  gearing.  A  speed  of  22  knots  and, 
what  is  more  important,  an  inherent  directive 
force  giving  great  precision  of  flre  are  claimed. 
See  Submabihe;  Navt. 

ToTqnemada  (t6r-k&-mt'thS),  Tomaa  d«,  abt. 
1420-98;  Spanish  inquisitor;  b.  Valladolid;  be- 
came a  Dominican  monk  and  prior  of  the  mon- 
astery of  Santa  Cruz  at  Segovia;  was  appointed 
by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  Brst  Inquisitor  Gen- 
eral of  Spain,  1483,  and  ctmflrmed  by  Pope  In- 
nocent VIII  in  1487;  labored  with  vigor  and 
success  in  organizing  the  Inquisition  through- 
out Spain,  and  was  influential  in  causing  the 
expulsion  of  Jews  and  Moors.  While  the  num- 
ber oC  persons  burned  during  his  administra- 
tion has  been  exaggerated,  hug  cruelty  was  to 
great  that  in  bis  later  years  his  authority  was 
curtailed  by  the  appointment  of  four  colleagues 
by  orders  of  Pope  Alexander  VL 

Toi'iena  Sys'tem  (of  land  registration),  a 
plan  undet  which  the  government  guarantees 
the  title  of  the  land  to  tne  registered  owner,  as 
distinguished  from  the  system  of  registration  of 
deeds  where  the  registration  carries  with  it  no 
guaranty  of  title,  but  simply  serves  either  aa 
a  protection  to  third  partiee,  by  aff<ffding  them 
notice  of  transfers,  or  incumbrances  of  real  es- 
tate, or  assistance  to  the  owners  of  prop- 
erty In  affording  them  a  cheap  and  convenient 
method  of  ascertaining  the  title  to  their  prop- 
erty. Under  the  guaranty  system  every  deed 
of  transfer,  conveyance,  or  lien,  must  be  be  ex- 
amined with  respect  to  its  validity  as  a  condi- 
tion of  registration,  white  under  the  system  of 
registration  of  deeds  such  examination  is  not 
necessary,  except  so  far  as  it  may  be  required 
to  comply  with  certain  requirements,  such  as 
being  properly  acknowledged  and  vrltnessed. 

Toi'ies  Strait,  the  channel  which  separates 
New  Guinea  from  Australia.  It  is  60  m.  broad, 
but  covered  with  islands  and  full  of  shoals  and 
reefs,  which  makes  its  navigation  difficult.  It 
was  discovered  by  Torres  in  1604. 

Torricelli  (t6r-re-chelle) ,  BvangeUsta,  1608- 
47;  Italian  physicist;  b.  Faenr^a;  studied  un- 
der Galileo,  whom  he  succeeded  in  1642  as  pro- 
fessor at  the  Academy.  In  1844  he  published 
his  "  Opera  Oeometrica."  His  most  remarkable 
discovery  is  thot  of  the  barometer. 

Tor'sloa,  the  twittina  of  a  bar  or  shaft 
around  its  axis.  In  the  flgnre  is  seen  a  horiion- 
tal  bar,  with  one  end  rigidly  flxed  in  a  wall  and 
the  other  subject  to  a  vertical  force,  P,  acting 
with  a  lever  arm,  BC.  The  product  P  X  BC  is 
the  twisting  moment  whose  tendency  is  to 
cause  all  horiiontftl  lin«a  on  th»  (urlaes  of  tlw 


.y  Google 


TORSION  BALANCE 


b&r  to  assume  a  spiral  form.    This  moment  is 
resisted  bj  the  sum  of  the  moments  of  the  in- 


ternal Uiearing  atresBes  which  exist  in  any  cross- 
section. 

Toinon  Bal'ance,  an  apparatus  for  measur- 
ing delicate  electrical  or  other  attractions  and 
repulsions.  Tlie  attraction  or  repulsion  is 
measured  bf  the  resistaifce  offered  to  rt  bj  the 
twisting  of  a  metal  wire  or  a  thread  of  spun 
class,  quartz,  or  other  fiber.  By  this  means 
Coulomb  discovered  the  laws  of  electrical  at- 
traction and  magnetic  force,  and  Cavendish  de- 
duced a  value  of  the  deuaity  of  the  earth. 

Tort,  in  English  anil  American  law,  an  un- 
'""'"'  '~  "  "on  by  one  party  of  another's  rights 
eated  by  law  and  remediable  by  a 
action,  such  as  assault,  defama- 
aintftining  a  nuisance,  trespass,  etc.  In 
some  cases  the  wrongdoer  may  be  sued  on  con- 
tract or  in  tort,  as  when  a  carrier  tails  to  de- 
liver goods  he  may  be  sued  on  his  contract  of 
shipment,  or  in  tort  for  his  breach  of  the  com- 
mon-law dutv  to  carry  safely  and  deliver.  The 
act  constituting  a  tort  may  be  also  a  crime,  as 
an  assault,  which  may  lead  to  prosecution  by 
the  state  as  well  as  to  recovery  of  damages  by 
the  person  injured.    See  Cbimei  FELOiry;  Uib- 


Tor'toiae,  a  name  sometimes  applied  to  any 
turtle,  but  correctly  restricted  to  the  Teslti- 
dinid/i,  a  group  whose  members  live  alto- 
gether on  land,  have  clubfeet,  and,  as  a  rule, 
high,  arched  shells.     There  are  fifty  species,  in- 


Scm-TTcaED  TovToiai. 

habiting  the  warmer  portions  of  the  globe,  the 
most  remarkable  being  the  large  black  species 
found  on  the  Galapagos  Islands  and  Altlabra. 
The  shell  of  some  measures  over  4  ft.  in  length, 
the  animal  weighing  800  lb.  They  teed  entirely 
on  v^etables,  are  good  eating,  and  yield  an  ex- 
cellent oil.  Tortoises  of  this  kind  formerly 
atiounded  in  Mauritius  and  Reunion,  but  "  they 
have  been  eaten  off  the  face  of  the  earth." 
The  gopher  of  the  S.  and  SW.  U.  S.  is  a  true 
tortoise,  but  the  name  is  more  commonly  ap- 
plied to  the  pouched  rat.    See  Tubtle. 


TORY 

Tortoise  Shell,  the  overlapping  scales  which 
cover  a  large  turtle  found  in  the  tropical  At- 
lantic and  Indian  oceans  and  in  the  Faciflc. 
They  are  known  as  hawkbill  turtles.  Tor- 
toise shell  is  plastic,  so  that  it  may  be  ^ven 
almost  any  desired  shape  while  under  the  infiu- 
euce  of  heat.    Pieces  of  the  shell  may  even  be 


SniLL  or  THE  Painted  Tortoibi. 

welded  together,  and  the  filings  and  chips  are 
molded  and  shaped  as  desired.  Tortoise  shell  is 
used  for  making  combs,  toilet  articles,  etc.,  and 
inlaying  hoses.  It  is  imitated  by  compounds, 
such  as  celluloid,  ot  much  less  cost.  It  is  cus- 
tomary in  some  regions  to  apply  heat  to  the 
back  ot  the  living  tortoise  and  then  remove  the 
plates,  but  the  shell  which  replaces  the  first  ta 
thin  and  inferior. 

Tortn'sas.    See  Dbt  Tobtcoab. 

Tor'tore,    the   infliction   of   severe    pain,   as 

Sunishment  or  for  revenge,  or  to  extract  evi- 
ence  in  criminal  or  ecclesiastical  trials. 
Among  savages  it  takes  the  form  ot  the  ordeal. 
Judicial  torture,  as  it  was  called  when  used 
under  the  direction  ot  courts  of  law,  was  apart 
of  the  jurisprudence  ot  Europe  (except  Great 
Britain  and  Sweden)  till  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  It  was  swept  away  in  Sax- 
ony in  1783,  and  about  the  same  time  in  Switz- 
erland and  Austria;  in  Russia  it  was  partly 
abolished  in  1702  and  finally  in  1801:  in  WUr- 
temberg  it  was  abolished  in  1S06,  in  Bavaria  in 
1807,  in  France  in  178B  (temporarilv  restored  in 
1814),  in  Hanover  in  1819,  and  in  Baden  in 
1831.  It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  used  by 
the  Hindus,  Hebrews,  or  tWptians;  but  was 
practiced  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  especially 
when  the  witness  examined  was  a  slave.  The 
Roman  law  authorized  the  rack,  the  scourge, 
fire,  and  hooka  for  tearing  the  flesh.  The  sever- 
est tortures  were  inflict»l  by  the  Inquisition. 
Although  torture  was  never  a  part  ot  the  com- 
mon law  of  England  as  a  means  of  obtaining 
evidence,  there  is  proof  that  it  was  practiced  for 
that  purpose  under  Henry  VIII  and  his  chil- 
dren, and  also  under  James  I  and  Charles  I, 
not  only   in  political  cases,  but  in  the  case  of 


To'ry  (from  Irish  ioiridke,  pursuer,  searcher, 
plunderer),  name  applied  to  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic outlaws  who  lived  in  the  bogs  of  Ireland 
during  the  reign  of  Charles  IT:  afterwards  ex- 
tended Uf17S)  to  all  who  opposed  the  bill  exclud- 
ing the  Duke  of  York  from  the  succearion.    It 

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TOTAL  ABSTINENCE 

was  thus  sought  to  imply  BomKn  Catholic  lym- 
patliiM.  FtnuUj',  the  name  came  to  designate 
the  Astiwhig  party  in  British  politics;  but  as 
a  formal  designatioii  it  has  been  replaced  by 
Conservative  since  1830.  In  the  war  of  the  Rev- 
olution in  the  U.  S.  the  loyalists  were  called 
Tories.    See  Wmo  and  Toht. 

TD'tal  Ab'stinence.    See  Abstinence,  Total. 

To'temism,  a  system  of  beliefs  and  obliga- 
tioDB  found  in  most  savage  communities.  A 
totem  is  any  class  of  animals  or  plants,  or  even 
inanimate  objects,  which  are  looked  upon  by  a 
clan  or  individual  with  superstitious  respect. 
The  savage  believes  that  he  is  descended  from 
his  totem,  and  that  it  protects  him  through  life. 
Sometimes  the  totem  is  a  part  only  of  the  nat- 
ural object,  as  among  the  Omabas,  where  the 
buffalo  is  subdivided  into  head,  shoulder,  side, 
tail,  each  being  the  totem  of  a  subclan.  These 
split  totems  indicate  the  subdivision  of  what 
was  once  a  single  clan.  Men  and  women  own- 
ing the  same  totem  must  defend  one  another 
and  redress  one  another's  wrongs.  Absolute 
prohibition  of  marriage  between  man  and 
woman  of  the  same  totem  is  the  rule.  Herbert 
Spencer  argues  that  plant  and  animal  worship 
grew  out  of  ghost  worship  through  a  confusion 
of  names.  Tylor  attaches  chief  importance  to 
the  habit  of  personifying  all  objects,  which  is 
characteristic  of  the  child  and  of  the  primitive 

Ton'cans,  a  family  of  birds  of  gaudy  plum- 
age somewhat  related  to  the  cuckoos,  and  pe- 
culiar to  tropical  America,  extending  N,  to 
Mexico,  but  not  found  in  the  U,  8.  They  fre- 
quent lofty  trees  in  flocks,  feeding  upon  fruits, 
eeperially  the  banana,  and  also  upon  insects, 


Yellow  Todc*k. 

and  even  reptiles  and  young  birds  and  eggs. 
They  build  nests  in  holes  in  tree  trunks.  They 
have  enormous,  bright-colored  bills,  which,  how- 
ever, are  light,  being  nearly  hollow  and  filled 
with  air;  the  upper  bill  is  curved  downward 
and  toothed  like  a  saw.  Toucans  may  be 
tamed  and  kept  as  pets. 

Touch,  the  sense  by  which  contact  or  pres- 
sure upon  the  surface  of  the  body  is  perceived. 
This  power  is  developed  to  a  variable  degree 
upon  different  surfaces,  the  sensibility  of  some 


TOURMALINE 

bring  very  acute,  other  parts  being  relatively 
obtuse.  The  acuteness  of  touch  is  due  in  part 
to  the  number  and  distribution  of  nerve  flbers, 
in  part  to  habitual  education.  The  tactile  sen- 
sibility of  parts  is  measured  by  means  of  needle 
points  in  arms  movable  upon  a  graduated  bar — 
termed  the  "  lesthesiomcter."  The  shortest  dis- 
tance on  the  surface  at  which  distinct  percep- 
tions of  the  two  points  are  felt  gives  the  sensi- 
bility.  The  following  will  suffice  to  illustrate. 
The  unit  of  measure  is  a  line,  one  twelfth  of  an 

Tip  of  toasue a«3  lins. 

PAlm  of  f-irefincvr- ....  -..-......-.-....-.. .  0-003  lino. 

SurfaoF  o[  Up 1.500  tins. 

Bkiu  of  sheeL *.M1  Mne. 

Foi«he»d 0.000  Uns. 

Leg. lJ.TOe  Moe. 

Nfladle  of  bMk. ataOB  line.     , 

Each  artisan  in  bis  line  acquires  wonderful 
tactile  rect^nition  of  the  kind  and  quality  of 
fabrics,  minute  uies,  shapes,  and  relative 
smoothness  of  surfaces.  In  the  blind  it  is 
highly  developed.  In  the  sensitive  tactile  part  at 
the  finger  tip  the  touch  corpuscles  aie  situated 
near  the  surface,  constituting  sensitive  papillce; 
as  many  as  108  have  tieen  found  in  one  fiftieth 
of  a  sq.  in.    See  Senbatiok;  SeNbbs. 

Toulon  (tO-loa'),  town,  department  of  Var, 
France;  42  m.  ESE.  of  Marseilles.  It  is  at 
the  head  of  a  narrow  but  deep  inlet  of  the 
Mediterranean,  from  which  it  rises  like  an 
amphitheater  on  an  acclivity.  Next  to  Brest, 
Toulon  is  the  principal  naval  station  of  France, 
and  all  the  commanding  heights  in  the  neigh- 
borhood bristle  with  fortifications.  The  harbor 
is  double;  one  part,  given  up  to  commerce,  is 
lined  with  quays;  the  other  is  fitted  for  naval 
purposes.  Toulon  carries  on  a  considerable 
trade  with  Algeria.  Fop.  of  commune  <190e) 
103,549. 

Toulouse  WlOz),  capital  of  department  of 
Haute Gironne,  France;  160  m.  SE.  of  Bor- 
deaux. The  older  portion  is  poorly  built,  with 
crooked,  narrow  streets.  The  cathedral  dates 
from  the  twelfth  century.  The  church  of  St. 
Seruin,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  Romanesque 
structures  in  France,  was  begun  in  the  elev- 
enth century.  Toulouse  has  a  noted  university, 
museum,  and  library;  also  military  schools, 
arsenals,  etc.  The  textile  industries  are  im- 
portant, and  commerce  is  active  iu  grain,  wine, 
marble  from  the  Pyrenees,  etc.  April  10,  1814, 
the  French  under  Soult  were  here  defeated  by 
Wellington.     Pop.   (1906)    149,438. 

Toni'maline,  a  mineral  occasionally  furnish- 
ing fine  gems.  It  is  a  complex  silicate  of 
aluminum  It  occurs  in  brittle  crystals,  usu- 
ally black,  but  often  rich  brown.  Tourmalines 
of  blue,  green,  pink,  and  red  colors  occur,  with 
two  or  fliree  colors  'in  the  same  crystal.  The 
black  is  called  acharl,  the  white  achroite,  the 
red  Tubellile,  and  the  blue  indieolite,  or,  when 
clear,  Brazilian  tappkire;  and  difi'crent  shades 
of  green,  Braaitian  emerald  and  Brazilian 
chrygoUte ;  and  the  yellow,  Ceylon  ptridat. 
Tourmalines  are  found  in  Maine,  California, 
Brazil,  the  island  of  Elba,  Madagascar,  S.  Cali- 
fornia, and  Ceylon.  The  mineral  is  remarkable 
also  for  its  optical  {iropertfea,  and  is  used  for 
experiments  in  polarized  light.    . 


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TOURNAMENT 

TonT'lUinent,  or  Tour'ney,  &  friendlj  eon- 
t«crt  at  ftnns  among  the  warriora  of  noble  birth 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  The  lUts  were  laid  out 
and  fenced  in  and  fitted  with  seats  for  ladies 
and  others,  and  the  combats  were  arranged 
with  care  and  fought  under  exact  supervision 
in  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries;  be- 
fore that  these  gatherings  were  leas  cere- 
monious, and  indeed  were  less  frequent,  and 
were  oft«n  forbidden,  not  oulj'  bf  the  Church, 
but  b;  kings.  This  would  seem  to  point  to 
much  greater  danger  to  life  and  limb  from 
the  earlier  tournaments,  and  it  is  certain  that 
the  arms  of  war  were  more  used  in  tliene  than 
afterwards.  In  fact,  the  distinction  must  have 
been  hard  to  make  at  flrst  between  the  judicial 
dual  and  the  friendly  contest  between  two;  and 
in  like  manner  a  tournament  roust  have  re- 
sembled a  pitched  battle  to  establish  a  noble's 
right  to  an  estate  or  to  a  title,  or  merely  out 
of  bravado. 

When,  however,  the  t«uraaments  had  ^come 
matters  of  r^ulation,  the  arms  used  were  gen- 
erally blunt  and  pointless  swords,  or  clubs  ol 
wood,  and,  for  the  tilting  match,  lances  with 
heads  divided  into  blunt  points.  The  defensive 
armor  was  enormously  heavy,  because  the  rider 
was  not  to  dismount,  but  only  to  run  so  many 
courses  with  the  lance  and  to  strike  so  mnuy 
blows  with  the  sword  or  mace.  In  this  way 
the  tournaments  became  more  occasions  for 
unbounded  display  of  wealth  and  splendor,  and 
less  dangerous  as  contests  of  armed  men.  The 
death  of  Heniy  II  of  France,  by  an  accident  in 
the  tilt,  in  1559,  is  thought  to  have  put  an 
end  to  tournaments  in  France ;  but  throughout 
Europe  the  changing  conditions  of  warfare  and 
the  more  critical  temper  of  the  revival  of 
learning  were  making  them  impossible.  Ex- 
hibitions of  military  drill,  sports,  and  horse- 
manship are  often  called  tournaments.  See 
Chivalxt;  Joubt. 


T0US8A1NT  LOUVERTtTRE 

during  surgical  operatim  by  means  of  pressure 
applied  to  the  principal  artery  supplying  the 
blood.  A  useful  tourniquet  may  be  made  by 
tying  a  handkerctiief  around  the  limb  between 
the  heart  and  the  wound,_  passing  a  stick 
through  the  handkerchief,  and  then  twisting 
it  till  the  flow  of  blood  is  checked. 

Touts  (tOr),  capital  of  the  department  of 
Indre-et-Loire,  France;  147  m.  SW.  of  Paris; 
on  a  strip  of  land  between  the  Cher  and  the 
Loire,  which  here  is  crossed  by  one  of  the  finest 
brides  in  Europe.  It  has  a  magnificent 
Gothic  cathedral  and  good  educational  institu- 
tions. Silk  manufactures  were  established  here 
hy  Henry  IV;  but  the  revocation  of  the  Edict 
of  Nantes  drove  the  workmen  into  exile,  and 
gave  the  city  a  blow  from  which  it  never  re- 
covered, though  its  manufactures  of  silk  stuffs, 
ribbons,  serges,  pottery,  and  confectionery  are 
still  extebsive.  The  town  has  given  its  name 
to  the  battle  between  Charles  Har1«l  and  the 
Saracens  in  732.  The  latter  were  decisively 
defeated,  and  W.  Europe  was  saved  from  sub- 
jection to  the  Mohammedans.  During  the  war 
with  Germany,  Tours  was  the  seat  of  the  na- 
tional government  from  September  llth  to 
December  10,  1870.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Germans,  January  19,  1871.  Pop.  (190S} 
07,601. 

Tonaaaint  Lonvertnre  (to-sftf  lO-vir-tOr'), 
or  L'Onvertnre,  Damlniqne  Francois,  1743- 
1803;  Haitian  revolutionist;  b.  Cap  Francais, 
Haiti.  He  was  a  negro,  and  originally  a  slave 
on  a  plantation  belonging  to  the  Jesuits;  they 
gave  him  the  rudiments  of  education,  and  he 
became  an  overseer.  With  Jean  Frangols  he 
went  oyer  to  the  Spanish  Dominicans  in  1793, 
but  in  1794  he  deserted  to  the  French  repub- 
licans, carrying  with  him  a  large  force  of 
blacks.  This  step  gave  the  republicans  over- 
whelming power,  and,  as  Touasaint  was  the 
leader  of  the  negroes  and  could  turn  the 
scale,  he  became  most  influential.  He  was 
made  commander  in  chief  and  deputy  >  gov- 
ernor, and  the  French  commissioner  had  only 
a  semblance  of  power.  Mainly  through  Tous- 
saint's  generalship  the  British  were  forced  to 
evacuate  the  island  in  1798.  Their  command- 
er. Gen.  Maitland,  surrendered  directly  to 
Toussaint,    refusing   to   tecognize    the    French 


Soon  after  an  insurrection,  secretly  incited 
by  Toussaint,  drove  the  commissioner  from  the 
island ;  the  mulatto,  Qen.  Rigaud,  to  whom  he 
delegated  his  powers,  was  defeated  by  Tous- 
saint in  17SS,  leaving  the  latter  undisputed 
master  of  the  W.  or  French  part  of  the  island. 
He  used  his  power  with  moderation,  protected 
the  whites,  and  proclaimed  a  general  amnesty. 
As  the  only  available  means  of  restoring  pros- 
perity he  forced  the  negroes  to  work  on  the 
plantations,  securing  to  them,  however,  a  part 
of  the  proflU.  The  E.  part  of  the  island  hav- 
ing been  ceded  to  France,  he  occuoied  it  in 
1801.  In  July,  1801,  he  promulgated  a  consti- 
tution which  made  him  president  for  life.  Un- 
der his  rule  the  island  was  prosperous,  and  he 
won  not  only  the  respect  but  the  devotion  of 
the  negroes.  An  admirer  of  Bonaparte,  he 
modeled  his  actions  and  conversation  aJter  him. 


WhitcH."  BoQBpart«  paid  no  attention  to  theae 
letten,  and  when  Tousuint  threw  oB  all  sem- 
blance of  subjection  to  France  he  orgajiized  an 
expedition  to  reduce  the  island  (1802).  Tous- 
•ftfnt  made  a  desperate  resistance,  Bnslly  capit- 
ulating. He  wa«  pardoned,  but  two  months 
afterwards  was  arrested  for  allied  conspir- 
acy, and  sent  a  prisoner  to  France.  He  died 
in  captivity  at  the  castle  of  Joux,  near  Pon- 

Tow'er,  a  building  generally  higher  than 
wide.  The  towers  of  an  ancient  fortress  were 
partly  flanking  works  to  allow  a  cross  fire  of 
arrows,  etc,  bi  Italian  cities  lofty  square  tow- 
era  were  ereeted  for  defense,  hundreds  existing 
In  a  single  town.  (See  LxAnino  Towebs.) 
Church  towers,  intended  at  first  (or  belfries, 
became  in  the  Middle  Ages  the  chief  means  of 
decorative  architecture.  In  the  N.  of  Europe 
the  church  tower  was  closely  united  with  the 
mass  of  the  church,  but  in  Italy  it  was  always 
a  belfnr  or  oampanile,  almost  wholly  detached 
from  the  church.  The  minarets  of  the  mosques 
are  a  striking  feature  of  Mohammedan  cities. 
TovrelleM  or  turrets  are  small  towers  forming 

Srt  of  laiger  buildings.  The  round  towers  of 
•land  are  slender,  nearly  cylindrical,  with  a 
Blight  taper,  roughly  built  of  stone,  and  always 
near  to  a  church.  Only  about  a  dozen  remain 
nearly  complete,  but  mora  than  a.  hundred  in 
ruins  exist  Many  works  have  been  written 
attempting  to  explain  their  purpose. 

Tower  of  Lon'don,  the  ancient  citadel  of 
London,  standing,  ai  the  Louvre  does  in  Paris, 
on  the  bank  of  the  river,  immediately  below 
and  outside  of  the  city,  which  it  once  defended. 
The  oldest  portion  is  the  isolated  donjon  or 
keep  called  the  White  Tower,  built  t^  Wiltlam 
the  ConqueroT,  and  contains  an  interesting 
chapel  of  the  same  period.  This  is  now  sur- 
rounded by  a  rampart  and  moat,  with  inner 
wall  (the  Inner  Bait),  flanked  I^  half -circle 
towers,  each  of  which  has  a  diatinetlTe  name, 
as  the  Bell  Tower,  the  Beauchamp  Tower, 
Wake&dd  Tower  (where  are  kept  the  re^Iia), 
Bloody  Tower,  Bowyer  Tower.  There  is  also 
within  the  inclosure  ithe  Horse  Armory,  a  mu- 
seum of  armor,  St.  Peter's  IHinroh,  whera  are 
interred  Anne  Boleyn,  Katherine  Howard, 
Dukcfl  of  Somerset  ( "  The  Protector  " )  and 
Northumberland,  Lady  Jane  Grey  and  her  hus- 
band, and  many  other  celebrated  victims  of  the 
headsman.  Close  to  the  Tower  is  Tower  Hill, 
the  place  of  execution.  Here  suffered  (among 
others)  Bishop  Fisher,  Sir  Thomas  More,  Lord 
Ouilford  Dudley,  Earl  of  Strafford,  Archbishop 
Land,  Algernon  Sydney,  and  ( 1 747 )  Lord 
Lovat,  the  last  person  beheaded  in  England. 
Queen  Anne  Boleyn  and  Lady  Jane  Grey  were 
beheaded  on  scaffolds  within  the  Tower,  the 
Bite  of  which  is  shown.  Within  the  Bloody 
Tower  took  place  the  murders  of  the  princes, 
sons  of  Edward  IV,  and,  elsewhere  within  the 
precincts,  of  Henry  VI,  of  the  Duke  of  Clar- 
ence, of  Sir  Thomas  Overbury,  and  of  the  Earl 


TOWN 

Towen  of  Silence,  the  structures  on  which 
the  modern  Farsees'  dispose  of  the  dead  by 
allowing  them  to  be  devoured  by  vultureB.  Ac-  ' 
cording  to  the  Zoroaatrian  religion  the  ele- 
ments, fire,  earth,  and  water,  were  sacred,  and 
not  to  he  defiled;  the  dead  body,  aa  full  of 
corruption  and  pollution,  could  not  tlierefore 
be  burned,  buried,  nor  thrown  into  the  water, 
but  was  exposed  on  mountain  heights,  aa  ■ 
prey  to  the  dogs  and  birds.  The  modem  Par- 
see  dakhma,  or  tower  of  silence,  is  from  60  to 
90  ft.  in  diameter,  and  20  to  30  ft.  in  height, 
resembling  a  gasometer.  The  interior  raised 
floor  upon  which  the  dead  bodies  are  placed  Is 
divided,  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel,  into  thre« 
concentric  rows  of  troughs,  the  outer  for  men, 
the  middle  for  women,  the  inner  for  children. 
The  center  is  a  great  pit  ibbandar),  into 
which  the  bones,  parched  and  dried  in  the  Ori- 
ental Bun,  are  later  deposited,  and  there  crum-. 
ble  into  dust.  No  one  is  allowed  to  witness 
the  descent  of  the  "heaven-sent"  birds i  the 
bodv,  _it  is  said.  Is  quite  stripped  of  flesh  in 
an  hour  or  two. 

Town,  a  word  of  varying  signiflcatlon,  both 
in  popular  speech  and  in  le^l  usage.  In  ita 
broadest  sense,  it  includes  not  only  every  sort 
of  municipality,  but  also  populated  districts 
which  are  destitute  of  self-governing  powers. 
The  House  qf  Lords  has  declared  that  a  towft 
exists,  within  the  meaning  of  that  word  in  k 
railn^  statute,  "  where  thera  is  such  an 
amount  of  continuous  occupancy  of  ground  hf 
houses  that  persons  may  be  said  to  be  living 
as  it  were  in  the  same  town  Or  place  continu- 
ously." As  a  generic  legal  teriM,  however,  it 
ordinarily  Includes  only  municipalities;  that 
is,  political  subdivisions  less  than  counties 
established  for  local  government. 

As  a  specific  term  it  is  used  ( 1 }  to  designate 
a  municipalitjr,  which  is  not  a  dty  nor  a  bor- 
ough nor  a  village,  without  regard  to  its  sise 
or  form  of  government.  It  hu  this  meaning 
in  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  Viiviuia,  and  some 
other  states,  aa  well  as  in  the  Federal  statutes 
relating  to  town  sites  on  the  public  lands.  (2) 
In  some  of  the  states  municijnlities  are  di-  ' 
vided  into  cities,  towns,  and  villages;  those 
having  2,000  inhabitants  or  more,  for  example, 
are  declared  to  be  cities;  those  having  leas  tbui 
2,000,  and  not  less  than  500,  are  towns;  those 
having  less  than  500  are  villages.  (3)  Again, 
the  term  designates  a  territorial  subdivision, 
which  Is  the  unit  of  local  administration;  in 
this  sense  It  is  employed  by  Blackstone.  It 
bears  this  meaning  in  New  England,  in  New 
York,  and  in  several  of  the  W.  etotes.  At  first 
the  New  England  town  consisted  of  clusters  of 
inhabitants  dwelling  near  one  another,  but  as 
soon  as  the  territorial  boundaries  of  these  vil- 
lage communities  were  fixed,  the  term  was 
applied  to  the  territory  or  district.  The  term 
township  was  used  interchangeably  with  town. 

In  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  some  other 
commonwealths,  as  well  as  in  Canada,  the  word 
township  is  used  exclusively  to  designate  this 
primary  division  of  the  state.  In  the  Federal 
statutes  relating  to  public  lands,  however,  and 
in  the  nomaidature  of  the  new  W.  states,  the 
township  is  a  territorial  subdivision,  made  by 


TOWN8HEND 

the  intersection  of  meridians  and  parallels  6  m. 
apart,  and  containing  an  area  of  36  aq.  m., 
but  ia  not  a  political  eubdiviaion.  It  has  no 
function  of  local  government.     See  UumciPAi. 

COBFOSATIONB. 

Townshend  (town'iftnd),  Clurles  (second 
Viscount  Townshend),  1674-1738;  English 
statesman)  b.  Rainham.  England;  was  joint 
plenipotentiary  with  Marlborough  (1700)  at 
the  conferences  of  GcrtruydenbuTg  for  n^oti- 
ating  a  peace  with  France,  and  ambassador  to 
the  States- General  of  Holland,  1709-10;  signed 
the  Barrier  Treaty  at  The  Hague,  October  20, 
1709;  was  censured  by  the  Commons  for  hav- 
ing signed  the  Barrier  Treaty,  and  declared  an 
enemy  to  the  queen  and  kingdom ;  entered  into 
correspondence  with  the  Elector  of  Hanover, 
who,  on  his  accession  to  the  throne  of  England, 
made  him  Secretary  of  State  and  Prime  Minis- 
ter, September  14,  1714;  resigned,  became 
President  of  the  Council,  June,  1720,  and  again 
Secretary  of  State,  1721 ;  retired  on  account  of 
differences  with  his  brother-in-law  and  col- 
league. Sir  Robert  Watpole. 

Townshend,  Chailea,  1726-07;  English  states- 
man 1  grandson  of  the  second  viscount ;  entered 
the  House  of  Commons,  1747,  where  he  ac- 
quired prominence  by  a  speech  on  the  Marriage 
Bill,  1753.  In  1754  he  became  a  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty,  but  was  dismissed  for  an  attack 
on  the  ministry ;  Treasurer  of  the  Chamber, 
1756,  and,  1767,  member  of  the  Privy  Council, 
but  in  1760  ranged  himself  on  the  side  of  Bute, 
and  was  Secretary  of  War,  1761-62.  He  was 
for  a  time  in  opposition,  but  accepted  the  office 
of  paymaster  of  the  forces,  1765,  and  sup- 
ported Grcnville's  Stamp  Act;  Chancellor  of 
the  Exchequer  and  Lord  of  the  Treasury  under 
Pitt,  1766;  and  virtually  Prime  Minister  dur- 
ing the  retirement  of  Pitt.  His  last  act  was 
to  introduce  the  resolutions  for  taxing  the 
American  colonies  in  1767.  For  the  instability 
of  his  political  opinions  he  was  known  as  the 
"  Weathercock,"  but  he  had  an  immense  par- 
liamentary reputation  for  oratory  and  wit. 
His  character  has  been  largely  discussed  by 
Macaulay  (who  said  "  he  was  a  man  of  splen- 
did talents,  of  lax  principles,  and  of  boundless 
vanity  and  presumption")  and  by  historians 
of  the  American  War. 


Tozs'ni 


See  Blood  Poisoning. 


loxicorogy,  the  science  of  poisons.  It  treats 
of  the  nature  and  properties  of  poisons,  their 
effects  upon  the  animal  system,  their  detection, 
and  the  legal  questions  connected  with  poison- 
ing.   See  Antidote;  Poison. 

Tiachu  (tra'kS-B),  the  tube  which  in  all  air- 
breathing  vertebratea  carries  the  air  from  the 
mouth  cavity  to  the  lungs.  It  begins  on  the 
floor  of  the  throat  and  eirt^nds  backward  until 
it  divides  into  two  p^rta  (bronchi)  connected 
with  the  right  and  left  Ivnga.  In  its  wall  are 
sixteen  to  twenty  incomplete  rings  of  cartilage 
to  prevent  collapse,  and,  by  reason  of  their 
incompleteness,  to  a! tow  the  esophagus  to 
compress  them  during  the  swallowing  of  food. 
Many  amall  glands  dischu^  mucus  over  the 


TiKcheot'omy,  opening  of  the  tritcbea  by  in- 
cision or  puncture  for  the  free  ingress  and 
egress  of  air  when  respiration  is  labored  or 
suffocation  is  imminent  from  obstruction  in  the 
throat.  The  operation  is  chieSy  demoaded 
when  the  larynx  is  obstructed  by  the  membrane 
of  croup  or  diphtheria,  is  the  seat  of  acute 
dropsy,  is  closed  by  foreign  bodies,  or  ia  con- 
tract«d   by   previous   inflammation   or   ulcera- 

Trachonu  (tra-kO'm&),  knovm  also  as  Gran- 
ular Lids,  Egyptian  Ophthalmia,  etc.,  an 
inilammation  of  the  conjunctival  membrane  of 
the  eye,  with  the  formation  of  "  granulations  " 
or  rounded  bodies,  which  may  produce  serious 
scars.  The  predisposition  to  trachoma  in- 
cludea  races,  the  Irish,  the  Jews,  Orientals, 
and  American  Indians  being  especially  liable, 
while  negroes  are  almost  exempt.  Trachoma 
is  contagious,  and  a  speciflo  cause  hoe  been 
indicated—the  trachoma  coccus.  The  rough- 
ened, lids  rub  over  the  cornea  and  irritate  it, 
and  if  the  lids  become  distorted  by  scar  tissue 
the  eyelashes  rub  against  the  eyeball,  and  may 
lead  to  blindness.  Trachoma  is  a  tedious  dis- 
ease, extending  over  months  and  even  years. 
The  treatment  is  directed  to  the  aMorption  of 
the  "granulations"  with  the  least  possible 
scar  tissue.  Caustics,  such  as  silver  nitrate 
or  blueatone,  are  used,  and  the  contents  of  the 
granulations  may  be  squee7.ed  or  rubbed  out. 
As  general  attention  was  flrat  called  to  the 
disease  by  Larrey'a  description  of  the  state  of 
the  eyes  of  the  French  army  in  Egypt  in  1708, 
it  is  often  called  Egyptian  ophthalmia.     lii« 


IftACSYtE 

soldiers  who  returned  from  the  E^Tptlan  cam- 
paigns are  supposed  to  have  diBBemiiiat«d  it 
throughout  Europe. 

TradiTte  (tr&'ldt),  a  glassy  rock,  In  chem- 
ical composition  similar  to  sjenite.  Among 
its  constituent  minerals  are  potash -feldspar, 
some  Ume-Boda-feldspar,  and  one  or  more 
ferromagnesiau  miuerab — biotite,  hornblende, 
augitf.  When  quartz  is  preaent  in  small 
amount  the  rock  is  quartz  trachyte ;  with  in- 
creasing quarts  it  passes  into  rhjolite.  Tra- 
chytes msj  be  rough  and  porous,  or  compact 
and  dense,  or  glssaj;  and  are  usually  light- 
colored  rocks,  but  may  be  any  shade  of  gray 
to  blacic  Trachytes  occur  in  Montana,  Wy- 
oming, 8.  Dakota,  and  Colorado,  but  are  better 
known  in  Italy,  France,  and  Germany. 

Tracta'iixnism,  the  Anglican  doctrinal  and 
religious  ^stem  promulgated  in  the  Oxford 
"Tracts  for  the  Times,"  1833-41;  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  movement  known  aa  the  Oxford 
Movement,  and  afterwards  as  the  Catholic  or 
Anglo-Cathoiic  Beviral.  In  the  flrst  quarter 
of  the  nineteenth  century  the  principles  of  the 
Church  of  Eiu:Iand  were  maintained  with  little 
teal,  and  public  worship  and  church  edifices 
evidenced  laxity  and  n^lect.  The  flrat  marked 
sign  of  a  reaction  was  the  appearance  of  John 
Keble's  "  Christian  Year,"  and  its  phenomenal 
popularity.  The  publication  of  the  "  Tracts 
for  the  Times,"  prepared  by  dilTerent  authors, 
began  Beptembcr  9,  1833.  Tlie  first  sixty-aix 
tracts  were  short  papers,  some  original,  but 
mostly  extracts  from  eminent  Anglican  writers, 
especially  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  from 
Ante-Nicene   fathers. 

The  points  especially  insisted  on  by  the 
Tractarians  in  addition  to  apostolic  succession 
(the  ^ce  of  the  sacraments,  and  therefore 
belief  in  baptismal  regeneration,  the  real  pres- 
ence in  the  eucharist,  and  the  power  oi  the 
keys  in  absolution)  were  regarded  by  many 
as  Romish.  The  entry  of  J.  H.  Newman  into 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  184E  intensified 
the  feeling  against  the  Tractarians,  but  the 
two  greatest  leadem,  E.  B.  Puaey  and  John 
Keblfl,  Tonained  Anglicans.  Since  1345  the 
Anglo- Catholic  revival  has  assumed  a  more  and 
more  practical  character  in  the  institution  of 
guilds,  religious  aisterhoods  and  brotherhoods, 
and  parochial  missions,  improvement  of  church 
music,  introduction  or  revival  of  bymna  and 
popular  devotions,  restoration  bnd  building  of 
churches.  All  the  principal  phases  of  the 
Traetarian  and  Anglo-Catholic  movement  have 
reproduced  themselves  in  the  Episcopal  Church 
of  the  U.  S. 

Trade'-mark,  a  mark  by  which  one's  trade 
or  wares  are  known  in  buainesa.  The  right  to 
use  a  trade-mark  is  not  confined  to  a  manu- 
facturer or  producer  of  goods.  One  who  exer- 
cises skill  and  fidelity  in  the  selection  of  goods, 
or  who  bleaches  goods,  or  is  a  shipper,  a  com- 
.  mission  merchant,  a  seller  or  a  carrier,  may 
acquire  the  right  to  a  trade-mark  which  serves 
to  distinguish  his  vendible  commodities  from 
.those  of  others — to  authenticate  them  aa  the 
signature  authenticates  a  letter.  A  name  mere- 
ly descriptive  of  an  article  or  of  its  ingredi- 
10  p  2 


ttut)trciAimii 

ents  cannot  be  protected,  aa  this  might  give 

Sractically  a  monopoly  of  the  sale  of  the  goods, 
ut  s  word  or  mark  employed  in  an  arbitrary 
or  fanciful  manner  will  be  protected.  Devices, 
symbols,  or  pictures  may  be  used  as  trade- 
marks. For  example,  a  star,  an  elks'  head,  a 
picture  of  a  boy  doubled  up  with  cramps,  a 
peculiar  grouping  of  letters,  an  arbitrary  com- 
bination of  numerals  such  as  3214,  may  be 
used  to  individualize  the  goods  dealt  in  by  a 
particular  person,  and  become  a  valid  trade- 
mark. Ordinarily  a  geographical  name  cannot 
be  turned  Into  a  trademark.  If  it  is  used  In 
an  arbitrary  or  fanciful  sense,  it  may  be  pro- 
tected, as  in  the  case  of  Vienna  bread,  or  Co- 
lumbia Hotel.  In  the  U,  S.,  by  act  of  Congress, 
trade-marks  may  be  protected  for  twenty  years, 
the  protection  being  renewable  thereafter  for 
like  periods.  The  Government  fee  is  (10,  and 
full  particulars  may  be  obtained  of  the  Com- 
missioner of  Patents,  Washington,  D.  G. 

Trades  Un'iona,  societies  of  worklngmen  or- 
ganized chielly  to  aaaiat  members  in  contest 
With  employers  to  secure  rights  and  privilwes. 
They   are   a  natural   evolution  of  the  ancunt 

fuilda.  Benefit-society  features  are  often  added, 
y  which  members  are  helped  when  out  of 
work,  aick,  or  disabled  by  accident.  The  com- 
mon law  in  Great  Britain  down  to  182B  made 
all  labor  combinations  criminal,  and  punished 
them  as  conspiracies.  Great  Britain  is  now 
the  stronghold  of  trades  unionism,  as  in  other 
European  nations  the  unions  easily  become  so- 
cialistic, and  decay  because  they  tend  much  to 
theories,  unlike  Itritish  unions,  which  are  for 
business  only.  The  principal  ^oits  of  the 
unions  in  the  U.  S.  have  been  to  raise  wages, 
to  reduce  hours  of  labor,  to  r^ulate  the  labor 
market  by  limitfng  the  number  of  apprentices 
and  restricting  immigration,  and  to  obtain  bet- 
ter conditions  of  labor  generally.  While  th* 
strike  is  still  its  strongest  weapon,  the  unions 
have  furthered  their  objects  by  requiring  that 
all  goods  made  by  union  workers  shall  bear  a 
certain  label,  and  requiring  its  members  to  buy 
none  but  goods  so  labeled. 

The  trades  unions  of  the  U.  S.  include  the 
various  railroad  brotherhoods,  which  are 
"  open-shop  "  unions,  i.e.,  its  members  are  not 
forbidden  to  work  with  those  who  do  not  be- 
long to  the  order.  The  American  Federation 
of  Labor,  ori^nating  in  1887,  the  largest  union 
organization  in  the  U.  S.,  u  composed  of  117 
distinct  unions,  with  27,000  local  branches.  It 
claims  a  membership  of  2,000,000,  and  has  re- 
cently adopted  a  political  programme,  insisting 
especially  upon  the  abolition  of  the  use  of  in- 
junctions in  labor  disputes.  (See  Injxjho- 
TION8.)  The  Knighta  of  Idibor,  founded  In 
1869,  aims  at  a  centralized  system,  while  the 
Federation  of  Idbor  wishes  to  leave  the  differ- 
ent trades  unions  with  their  own  governments. 

TrsOe  Wind*.    See  Wiiro. 

Tradu'cionism,  a  theory  held  by  some  early 
Christian  theologians  that  the  human  soul  is 
derived   from   the   souls   of  the   parents.     The 

frevalent    view   in    the    Roman    Catholic    and 
rotestant  churches  is,  however,   creationism 
— the  theory  that  each  soul  is  a  separate  crea- 


tion,  joined  to  the  body  juat  after  its  conoep- 

Tufalgar'.    S«e  Cape  Tratalgab. 

TtaK'scantli,  a  gummj'  exudation  from  aer- 
eral'  ahruba  of  the  bean  family  found  in  W. 
Asia.  Tbe  dried  gum  resemblea  horn  in  ap- 
pearance. It  is  hard,  has  no  smell,  and  but 
little  taste.  It  does  not  dissolTe  in  water,  but 
abaorbs  it,  swelling  up  and  forming  a  paste. 
Gum  tragacanth  is  used  in  calico  printing,  and 
in  medicine  to  some  extent  for  coughs. 

Trag'edy,'  that  variety  of  the  drama  which 
represents  tbe  final  cataetmphe  in  the  lives  of 
characters  doomed  for  some  cause  to  miator- 
>tune  or  evil.  Tragedy  had  its  rise  in  Greece, 
and,  in  the  ancient  world,  reached  its  highest 
in  the  wgrka  of  jEschylus,  Sophocles,  and 
Euripides,  ^e  definition  of  Aristotle,  baaed 
npon  these  works,  is  still  a  good  description 
of  tragedy,  though  it  does  not  make  an  un- 
happy ending  essential :  "  Tragedy  m  an  imi- 
tation of  an  action  that  ia  serious,  complete, 
and  of  a  certain  magnitude;  in  language  em- 
bellished with  each  lund  of  artistic  ornament, 
the  several  kinds  being  found  in  separate  parts 
of  the  play;  in  the  fomi  of  action,  not  a  nar- 
rative; through  pity  and  fear  effecting  the 
propel  purgation  of  these  passions."  The  first 
English  tragedy  was  "  Qarbuduc,"  by  Sackviile 
and  Norton,  acted  in  1662.  Boon  thereafter 
tragedy  attained  an  unsurpassed  grandeur  in 
the  works  of  Shakespeare  and  his  contempo- 

Tiag'opan,  a  family  of  bcantifnl  wild  birds 

resembling  in  many  respects  the  common  fowls: 
The  males,  instead  of  a  comb,  have  a  crest  of 
soft  feathers  and  a  pair  of  soft  horrilike  ap- 
pendages, which  they  can  move  at  will,  above 
the  eyes,  as  well  as  wattles  in  front  on  the 
throat;  the  tail  is  large.  The  specios  are 
mostly  confined  to  the  pine  forests  of  the  Him- 
alayas. They  dwell  in  the  inmost  recesses  of 
the  forests,  and  are  difficult  of  approach.  Iliey 
average  about  the  size  of  the  domestic  poultiy, 
or  perhaps  are  a  little  larger.  They  feed  upon 
grain,  insects,  worms,  etc 

Tiall'ing  Ar^iiitna.    See  Abbutub. 

Tra'jan  (Mabcub  llLPirs  TBAJASoa),  53- 
117;  Roman  emperor,  96-117;  h.  near  Seville, 
Spain,  of  Roman  descent;  was  educated  in  tbe 
camp  of  his  father,  and  distinguished  himself 
so  much  in  the  Parthian  and  German  wars 
that  he  was  adopted  by  Nerva  in  97,  and  in 
9S  succeeded  him  on  the  throne,  being  the  fivt 
Soman  emperor  bom  oat  of  Italy.  Trajan's 
reign  is  considered,  next  to  that  of  Auguatua, 
the  most  brilliant  of  imperial  Rome.  By  two 
campaigns  (101-102  and  104-108)  Dacia,  the 
region  comprising  the  present  Transylvania, 
Moldavia,  and  Wallachia,  was  conquered.  Of 
less  permanent  importance  were  the  conquests 
in  Armenia  and  Mesopotamia.  Although  most 
eminent  as  a  general,  Trajan  was  a  vigorous 
and  capable  ruler,  and  the  probity  of  bis  ad- 
ministration gave  rise  to  the  phrase  with  which 
a  new  emperor  was  first  saluted — AugiutQ 
felicior,  melior  Trajano  (more  fortunate  than 
Augustus,  better  than  Trajan).*   Cities  were 


TRAl^FORMER 

founded,  colonies  settled,  tori^esses  and  har- 
hora  canstructed,  and  numerous  roads,  eanala, 
bridges,  etc.,  were  built  throughout  the  empire. 
In  Rome  tbe  Forum  Trajani  was  constructed, 
containing  tbe  famous  column  in  its  center. 
Large  sums  were  employed  in  the  education 
of  ftee-bom  Koman  children.  Libraries  were 
founded,  and  Latin  literature  experienced  its 
afterblocm  in  Tacitus,  the  younger  Plii^,  and 
Juvenal.  Pliny's  correspondence  with  Trajan 
gives  a  valuable  picture  of  the  provincial  gov- 
ernment, and  throws  light  on  the  treatment  of 
the  Christians,  whose  relation  to  the  empire 
was  becoming  a  question  of  importalice. 

Trajan'a  Col'iims.    See  Coluich, 

Trajan's  Wall,  a  fortification  In  Bomnanla, 
nearly  60  m.  long,  extending  from  tbe  Deudube 
to  the  Black  Sea.  It  is  even  now  a,  strong  line 
of  defense.  It  was  constructed  in  377  by 
Trajan,  a  general  of  Valens,  to  prevent  the 
Visigotiia,  who  had  crossed  'Uw  Danube,  from 
advancing  farther  southward. 

TramVaya.     See  Stbebt  Railwats. 

Xiance,  a  state  of  abeyance  of  most  of  the 
vital  functions,  resembling  in  some  cases  a 
profound  sleep,  in  others  closely  aimulating 
death.  Some  cases  of  so-called  tranoe  are  cata- 
leptic, and  all  are  associated  with  abnormal 
or  perverted  nerve  functions.  Trance  some- 
times follows  religious  excitement.  ]ii  some 
cases  of  real  or  pretended  trance  the  patient 
can  speak,  and  even  addrew  public  audiences, 
the  condition  being  assumed  at  will.  But  in 
the  more  profound  trance  all  sensibili^  and 
power  of  motion  is  lost,  and  in  some  no  sign 
of  breathing  or  of  heart  beat  is  apparent.  This 
condition  may  last  for  montha  or  even  years. 
See    Catai.epst;    Coiu;    FAiirniro;    H!ypmo- 

TIBH.  , 

See     SUETUNius 

Xianseenden'talism,  a  t«rm  used  to  describs 
the  doctrine  of  the  New  England  school  of  M- 
losophy,  initiated  by  Ralph  Waldo  Emeraon 
and  A.  Bronaon  Alcott,  which,  however,  owed 
lU  ori^n  to  the  study  of  Plato  and  the  Neo- 
platonists  rather  than  of  Kant,  although  the 
latter,  through  Coleridge,  exercised  some  influ- 
ence. Transcendental  are  all  those  primary 
and  original  principles  of  knowledge  which,  aa 
necessary  and  universal  truths,  underlie  all 
particular  truths  derived  from  experience.  The 
main  idea  of  the  transeendentalista  was  the 
Bupremac}^  of  mind  over  matter,  and  the  soul's 
supposed  intuitive  knowledge  of  things  divine 
or  human  without  the  necessity  of  experience. 

TlanafDim'er,  in  electricity,  an  instrument 
for  converting  an  alternating  current  from  a 
higher  to  a  lower  potential,  or  vice  versa.  A 
step-down  transformer  converts  a  small  cur-  • 
rent  at  a  high  potential  to  a  large  current  at  a 
low  potential;  a  atep-up  transformer  converts 
a  large  current  of  low  potential  to  a  small  cur- 
rent of  high  potential.  The  enei^  obtained 
from  a  transformer  is  eijual  to  that  put  ir  '"" 


TRANSfORMISU 

supply  of  iucandeecent  lamps  at  conaUnt  poUn- 
tUl.  The  altemating-ciuTent  transformer  ia  » 
modiltcatioD  of  tbe  old-faihioced  induction  coil, 


(  t*  "V-J  t        coil    of    wire    em- 

I  H|  fM  I        bracing    the    same 

( ^^  £f  I        magnetic       circuit. 

The  slmpleit  form 
of  aucta  a  traca- 
former  is  shown  in 
Fig.    1.      The    pri- 

Ij  spoken  of  merely  ae  the  "primary,"  coaaista 
usually  of  many  turna  of  fine  wire.  Thia  is  con- 
nected to  a  supply  of  alternating  current,  com- 
monly at  1,000  or  2,000  valts.  The  current  which 
flows  in  the  primary  is  amall,  being  opposed  by 
the  count«r-eIectromotiTe  force  of  self-induc- 
tion, which  is  large  on  account  of  the  fact  that 
the  primary  turns  are  many  and  embrace  an 
iron  coil. 

The  common  form  of  transformer  distribution 
for  lighting  purpoeee  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.    The 

trimary  mains  are  supplied  with  a  potential  of 
/HX)  ^ta  by  a  constant  potential  altemattng- 
current  geDeratw  placed  in  some  central  atjt- 


Fia.  I. 


lLMMJ^ 


THT 


Pio.  2. 

Hon.  Each  bouse  to  be  lighted  has  installed  in 
it  an  individual  transformer,  which  supplies  in- 
candescent lamps  at  50  or  100  volts,  but  one 
large  tianaformer  may  be  used  for  each  diatrict 
or  group  of  houses,  tnus  entailing  leas  first  cost 
for  transformers  and  a  higher  efflciency;  for, 
as  the  output  of  the  transformer  is  increased 
the  ai£e  and  coat  do  not  increase  in  proportion; 
and,  furthermore,  greater  efficiency  is  thus  ob- 
Uined. 

The  calculation  of  the  effideficy  of  the  trans- 
former consists  either  in  the  measurement  of 
the  power  supplied  to  the  primary  and  the 
power  obtained  from  the  secondan' or  in  a  de- 
termination of  the  eereral  loases.  The  efficiency 
is  the  ratio  of  the  secondary  output  to  the 
power  supplied  to  the  primary — that  is,  effi- 
ciency =  W, -=- W,. 

Transfoim'lsm,  a  political  arrangement  first 
used  in  Italy  in  1S64,  by  which  the  miniatry  Is 
selected  not  from  one  party,  but  from  several, 
etch  minister  being  rMponaible  to  Parliament. 
The  result  was  found  unaatiafactory. 


TRAtfflMIQRATION  OF  SOULS 

Tiansfa'aion  of  Blood,  a  surgical  operation 
in  which  blood  from  a  strong  and  healthy  per- 
son, or  from  an  animal,  is  injected  into  the 
reina  of  a  feeble  or  amemlc  patient.  It  is  espe- 
cially employed  after  eerere  Dleeding,  great  care 
being  taken  to  exclude  bubbles  of  air  or  clots, 
either  of  which  may  prove  fatal.  The  trana- 
fusion  of  warm  salt  solutions  ia  almott  if  not 
equally  useful,  and  does  not  have  the  dangers 
of  blood  transfusion. 

Tians'it,  the  passage  of  a  planet  over  the 
diak  of  the  aun,  or  of  any  heavenly  body  over 
an  arbitrary  point  The  tranut  inatrument  ia 
used  to  determine  to  the  fraction  of  a  second 
the  time  of  a  star's  paasaRe  over  the  meridian. 
It  ia  a  teleacope  fixed  at  right  anglea  to  an  axis 
the  ends  of  which  point  E,  and  W,,  so  that  the 
tdescope  may  be  raised  or  lowered  at  any  angle 
along  the  plane  of  the  meridian.    Near  tne  eye- 

fiiece  is  a  glass  crossed  by  a  series  of  very  fine 
inea,  and  the  time  at  which  the  star  crosses 
these  lines  is  recorded.  See  Occdltation; 
EcuPBK 

Tianatts  of  Ve'ntis  aod  Mer'cniy.  Aa  these 
two  planets  are  the  only  ones  whose  orbits  lie 
within  that  of  the  earth,  they  are  the  only  ones 
whose  passage  across  the  disk  of  the  aun  can  be' 
observed.  Transits  of  Mercury  occur  at  inter- 
vala  of  a  few  years;  never  more  than  thirteen  . 
nor  lese  than  three.  They  have  no  special  as- 
tronomical significance,  but  owing  to  their  in- 
terest are  observed  when  they  do  occur.  Tran- 
sits of  Venus  are  among  the  rarest  phenomena 
of  astronomy,  as  only  two  occur  in  a  period  of 
more  than  a  century.  They,  were  formerly  be- 
lieTsd  to  afford  the  moat  accurate  method  of 
determining  the  solar  parallax  {q.t>.).  So  the 
astronomical  world  devoted  great  attention  to 
the  observation  of  those  i^ich  occurred  in 
1761,  1T6B,  1874,  and  1B62,  and  ezpeditiona 
were  sent  to  distant  points  of  the  earth's  sur- 
face to  make  obaervations.  On  the  whole,  how- 
ever, they  have  been  a  failure,  so  far  as  Uie  de- 
termination of  the  sun's  parallax  is  concerned. 
The  last  transit  occurred  in  18B2 ;  no  other  will 
be  seen  until  the  year  2004. 

Tranamigra'tion  of  Souls,  the  doctrine  of 
the  repeated  existence  of  the  aoul  in  the 
different  forms  of  matter,  its  form  in  each 
successive  existence  being  determined  by  its 
merits  and  demerits  in  the  preceding  ones. 
Buddha,  replacing  the  idea  of  soul  with  the  idea 
of  Karma,  denied  the  entire  theory  of  traoa- 
migration.  lb  has,  however,  extensive  away 
among  the  ignorant  masses  of  his  followeia,  in 
spite  of  his  negative  teaching.  The  moat  atrik- 
ing  fact  in  connection  with  this  doctrine  ia  ita 
wide  prevalence.  The  ancient  civilization  of 
Egypt  aeems  largely  to  have  grown  out  of  thia 
faith.  The  milliona  of  India  also  have,  under 
its  apell,  auffered  their  lives,  wrought  tbeir 
great  works  of  govemment,  architecture,  phi- 
losophy, and  poetry,  meditated,  aspired,  and 
exhaled  their  aoula.  Ruder  forms  of  it  are 
reported  among  innumerable  barbaric  tribes. 
It  was  taught  by  Pythagoras  and  Plato.  It 
played  an  important  part  in  the  specula- 
tions of  the  early  Fathers  of  the  Christian 
Church,  and  has  often  cropped  out  in  the 
works  of  later  theologians.     The  grounds  oo 


TRAMSPORTATIOM       ^ 

which  this  belief  rests  are  chiefly  (1)  the  itrong 
reaembleinces,  physical  and  psychical,  connect- 
ing human  beings  with  the  lower  creatures. 
They  have  senses  in  common  with  us,  ti^ther 
with  the  Tudiments  of  intelligence  and  will. 
They  all  seem  created  after  one  plan,  as  if  their 
varieties  were  the  modulations  of  a  single  type. 
We  recognize  kindred  forms  of  experience  and 
modes  of  expression  in  ourselvea  and  in  them. 
Now  the  man  seems  a  travesty  of  the  hog,  the 
parrot,  the  ape,  the  hawk,  or  the  shark;  now 
they  seem  travesties  of  him.  As  we  gaze  at  the 
ruminating  ox,  couched  on  the  grass,  it  is  not 
diificult  to  fancy  him  some  ancient  Brahman 
transmigrated  to  this  form,  and  patiently  await- 
ing his  release.  Nor  is  it  incongruous  with  our 
reason  or  moral  feeling  to  suppose  that  the 
cruel  monsters  of  humanity  may  in  a  succeed- 
ing birth  find  the  fit  penalty  of  their  crime  in 
the  horrid  life  of  a  crocodile  or  a  serpent. 
(2J  The  idea  of  a  series  of  connected  lives  fur- 
nishes a  plausible  explanation  for  many  mys- 
teries in  our  present  experience.  Faces  previ- 
ously unseen,  and  localities  unvisited,  awaken 
in  us  a  feeling  of  familiarity.  Thoughts  and 
emotions  not  hitherto  cntertBincd  come  to  us 
as  if  we  had  welcomed  and  dismissed  them  a 
thousand  times.  Many  an  experience,  appar- 
ently novel  and  untried,  makes  us  start  as 
though  the  chambers  of  the  soul  liad  often  be- 
fore echoed  to  its  shadowy  footsteps. 

(3)  Much  more  weighty  is  the  philosophica] 
argument  drawn  from  the  nature  of  the  soul. 
Consciousness  being  in  ita  very  essence  the  feel- 
ing of  itself,  the  conscious  soul  can  never  feel 
annihilated  even  in  thought.  It  only  loses  the 
knowledge  of  ita  being  when  it  lapses  into  nn- 
cunsciuusnesB,  as  in  sleep  or  trance.  (4)  But 
the  strongest  support  of  the  theory  of  transmi- 
gration is  the  solution  it  seems  to  give  to  the 
problem  of  the  inequality  and  injustice  in  the 
world.  To  the  superficial  observer  the  whole 
scene  of  struggle,  sin  and  sorrow,  triumph  and 
defeat,  is  a  maze  of  inconsistencies,  a  combina- 
tion of  discords.  But  if  we  believe  that  every 
soul,  from  that  of  the  lowest  insect  to  that  of 
the  highest  archangel,  composes  an  affiliated 
member  of  the  family  of  God,  and  is  eternal  in 
its  conscious  eeseuce,  perishable  only  as  to  its 
evanescent  disguises  of  incarnation;  that  every 
act  of  every  creature  is  followed  by  its  legiti- 
mate reactions;  that  these  actions  and  reac- 
tions constitute  a  law  of  retribution  absolutely 
perfect;  that  these  souls,  with  all  their  doings 
and  sufferings,  are  interconnected  with  one  na- 
other  and  with  the  whole,  all  whose  relation- 
ships copenetrate  and  coHperate,  with  mutual 
influences  wh^se  reports  are  infallible,  and  with 
lines  of  sequence  that  never  break — then  the 
bewildering  maze  becomes  a  vindicated  plan, 
the  borriUe  discord  a  divine  harmony.  But 
the  theory  of  the  transmigration  of  souls  re- 
mains, to  the  average  modem  mind  of  the  W. 
world,  a  mere  fancy,  although  it  has  a  deep 
metaphysical  basis,  a  strong  poetic  charm,  ond 
n  high  ethical  and  religious  quality.  See 
Mgtbupsyc  Host  e . 

Transporta'tion.  See  Couuesce,  T:(tebstate 
CouueBcn:,    Railv&t    or    Baileoad,    StbbeI 

Railways. 


TtUt^VAAI, 

Tianiportation.    See  PnsoN, 

Tranapoaf'tion,  in  music,  tbe  act  of  remov- 
ing a  composition  into  a  key  different  from 
that  in  which  it  is  written.     By  this  is  not 


into  the  corresponding  minor  (ds  from  C  major 
to  C  minor)  unless  its  construction  has  been 
such  as  to  make  such  a  transfer  possible.  A 
composition  in  any  major  key  may  be  trans- 
pose into  any  other  major  key;  and  the  same 
rule  applies  to  compositions  in  minor  keys. 
Transposition  is  not  simply  the  moving  of  all 
the  notes  of  a  piece  one  or  more  degrees  higher 
or  lower,  for  such  a  change  would  at  once  de- 
stroy or  impair  its  distinctive  character.  A 
composition  in  C  major,  if  carried  three  degrees 
higher — i.e.,  into  the  scale  of  F — would  be  false 
on  every  fourth  degree  of  that  scale,  because 
one  of  the  semitones  in  the  series  differs  in  its 
position  from  the  normal  pattern  in  C.  To  rec- 
tify this,  the  fourth  (or  B)   "    ' 


i  flat  0 


thus  changing  every  B 
corrected,  and  transposi 
quires  nothing  more  tnas 
of  the  notes. 


nto  B  flat  the  scale  i: 
tion  from  C  to  F  re- 
a  change  of  the  placet 


Tiansnbstutia'tion,  the  change  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  bread  and  wine  into  the  very  body 
and  blood  of  Christ  in  the  eucharist,  Vhile  the 
visible  form  and  appearance  of  bread  and  wine 
remain.  According  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church,  this  miracle  takes  place  in  the  mass 
whenever  the  priest  pronounces  tjie  words 
"  This  is  my  body,"  "  This  is  my  blood."  Some 
Fathers  of  the  Church — Ignatius,  Justin,  and 
Iren^us — laid  stress  upon  the  mysterious  con- 
nection between  the  bread  and  wine  and  tha 
divine  presence.  Other  Fathers  spoke  of  the 
elementji  as  symbols  of  the  body  and  blood  of 
Christ.  The  flrst  great  controversy  arose  over 
a  book  by  Faschosius  Radbertus  in  831  ("  De 
Corpore  et  Sanguine  Domini"),  in  which  he 
held  that  the  substance  of  the  consecrated 
bread  and  wine  was  changed  into  the  very  body 
of  Christ.  lAnfranc  and  the  schoolmen  held 
that  after  consecration  the  bread  and  wine  re- 
tained their  sensible  properties  or  "  accidents," 
although  their  "  substance  "  or  "  subject  "  was 
changed  into  flesh  and  blood.  The  Fourth 
Council  of  Lateran  (1216)  declared  transub- 
stantiation  an  article  of  faith.  The  reformers 
in  the  sixteenth  century  rejected  the  mass  and 
transubstantiatioD.  regarding  the  elements  only 
as  signs  nf  remembrance  of  the  body  of  Christ, 
which  is  in  heaven.  So  strongly  is  transubstan- 
tiation  repudiated  by  Protestants  that  the  cor- 
onation oath  taken  by  English  sovereif^ns  states 
elaborately  a  disbelief  of  the  doctrine.  See 
Eucharist;   Eogt. 

Tianivaar,  province  of  the  Union  of  S.  Africa, 
originally  colonized  by  part  of  the  Boers  who 
left  Cape  Colony  in  1830  for  Natal  and  quitted 
that  colony  on  its  annexation  by  Britain  in 
1S45.  It  lies  X.  of  the  Vaal  River  and  S.  of  the 
Limpopo,  and  is  bounded  by  Rhodesia,  Bechu- 
analand.  Orange  River  Colony,  Natal,  Zulu- 
land,  and  Portuguese  E.  Africa.  Area,  about 
110,420  eq.  m.;  pop.  1,076,611,  of  whom  about 
420,1131  are  whites.  Pretoria  is  the  seat  of  gov- 


TRANSYLVANIA 

emiiienl;  the  l*.rgMt  town  b  Johannealnirg. 
The  country  is  elevated,  forming  high  pUteaux, 
and  in  tome  iMirta  is  quite  nu|ged,  mountains 
rising  in  the  £.  to  8,700  ft.  In  the  8.  is  the 
famouB  elevated  track  known  as  the  Witna- 
tersrand.  The  riTere  are  chiefly  tributaries  of 
the  Limpopo.  The  climate  is  remarkably  salu- 
brious. AfineralH  are  abundant,  especially  gold, 
vhich  is  mined  in  many  places,  the  chief  being 
the  WitwateTsrand,  of  which  Johannesburg  is 
the  center.  The  mining  of  diamonds  is  bIbo 
an  important  industry,  £1,328,630  being  the 
output  in  IDIO.  The  output  of  gold  in  the  same 

J  ear  was  7,527,107  &ne  ounces.  Coal  is  abiin- 
ant,  and  is  also  worked.  The  country  is  more 
pastoral  than  agricultural.  In  18T7  tne  Trans- 
vaal was  annexed  by  Britain,  the  country  be- 
ing far  from  flourishing,  and  a  certain  num- 
ber  of  the  people  being  in  favor  of  this  step. 
In  1B80  the  Boers  took  up  arms  against  the 
British,  defeated  a  body  of  troops  at  Majuba 
Hill,  and  as  the  result  recoversl  their  inde- 
pendence, although  with  limitations  and  sub- 
ject to  the  suieraiuty  of  Great  Britain.  By  a 
convention  mode  in  1884  the  relation  of  the 
state  to  the  British  crown  was  modified.  Great 
Britain  then  retaining  control  of  foreign  affairs, 
and  from  that  date  till  1900  it  was  known  as 
the  S.  African  Republic.  Latterly  the  area 
had  been  extended  at  the  expense  of  the  Zulus, 
and  in  1804  Britain  recognixed  Swariland  as  a 
dependency  of  the  Transvaal.  A  great  in- 
crease of  the  population  took  place  along  with 
the  extension  of  gold  mining,  from  about  1863, 
and  various  railways  were  constructed.  For 
some  years  before  1SQ5  much  discontent  pre- 
vailed among  the  "  uitlandera,"  or  aliens — 
whites  not  aSmitted  to  citizen  ship— and  at  the 
end  of  1896  this  led  to  an  abortive  revolution 
at  Johannesburg.  Simultaneously  Dr.  Jame- 
son, with  an  armed  force  belonging  to  the  Brit- 
ish South  Africa  Company,  entered  the  Trans- 
vaal and  rode  toward  Johannesburg,  but  was 
attacked  and  defeated  by  a  body  of  Boers.  In 
October,  1B98,  war  bmke  uut  with  Great  Brit- 
ain, the  Transvaal  being  joined  by  the  Orange 
Free  State  in  commencing  hostilities.  After 
nearly  eleven  months'  lighting  and  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  chief  towns,  the  country  was  an- 
nexed by  proclamation  in  1900.  'Hostilities 
continued  until  May,  1902,  when  terms  of  peace 
were  signed.  Before  the  two  Boer  republics 
could  be  crushed  Britain  had  placed  some  200,- 
000  men  in  the  field  under  the  supreme  com- 
mand of  Lord  Boberts.  The  President  at  the 
'time  of  the  revolt  had  been  J,  Paul  Kruger, 
who  had  held  the  office  continuously  since  1883. 
After  the  war  Lord  Milner  assumed  office  as 
Governor  of  the  Transvaal,  and  executive  and 
legislative  councils  were  constituted.  In  190G 
letters  patett  were  issued  providing  lor  repre- 
sentative government,  and  in  December.  1906,  a 
constitution  was  granted  by  Great  Britain  to 
the  colony,  providing  for  a  legislature,  to  con- 
sist of  an  appointive  legislative  council  and  a 
legislative  assembly,  elected  in  electoral  divi- 
sions by  the  registered  voters,  'i  he  'i  raiisvaal 
entered  the  Union  of  8.  Africa  U&y  31,  1910. 
TranBylva'nia,  the  SE.  part  of  the  former 
kingdom,  now  republic  of  Hungary.  There  are 
fifteen  counties;  pop.  (1890)  2,247,019,  of  whom 


TRAPPISTS 

about  55  per  cent  were  Roumanian,  29Mr  cent 
Magyars  and  Sicklers,  10  per  cent  C^rmans, 
and  nearly  50,000  gypsies.  The  country  is 
hilly  and  mountainous,  with  a  mean  elevation 
of  1,444  [ft.,  with  the  Carpathians  on  the  E.  and 
.the  Transylvanian  Alps  on  the  S.  The  drain- 
age is  into  the  Danube.  The  climate  is  mild 
and  agreeable  in  the  lower  lands.  The  chief 
crops  are  maize,  wheat,  oals,  fruits,  tobacc  >. 
flax,  and  hemp.  Wine  is  made  in  large  quan- 
tities. The  horses  number  188,000,  and  the 
breed  is  excellent.  Cattle  are  reared  in  large 
numbers,  and  the  breeding  of  abeep  and  swine 
is  general.  Mining  has  b^n  a  very  important 
industry,  and  Transylvania  used  to  be  called 
the  gold  mine  of  Europe,  Gold  has  been  ob- 
tained from  time  immemorial,  and  is  produced 
in  considerable  quantities  from  both  mines  and 
placers.  Silver  and  iron  are  also  mined.  Manu- 
factures and  other  industries  are  not  well  devel- 
oped, and  are  declining  because  of  the  recent 
political  and  Slavic  tendencies,  which  are  driv- 
ing out  the  Germans.  Trade  is  largely  with 
Roumania,  and  is  in  the  hands  of  Armenians 
and  Greeks.  There  is  a  university  at  Ktausen- 
burg,  and  there  are  many  secondary  schools. 

Transylvania  was  a  part  of  Dacia,  acquired 
by  Trajan  and  colonized  with  Dalmatians, 
Gauls,  and  people  from  Soman.  Asia  Minor. 
When  the  Roman  Empire  was  in  decay  this  re- 

fion  was  especially  exposed,  and  was  occupied 
y  race  after  race  of  the  invaders — latest  b.v 
the  Magyars.  In  the  twelfth  century  colonists 
were  again  introduced,  this  time  from  the  ba- 
sin of  the  Rhine  (Teuton),  and  there  called 
Saxon.  Tlie  Saxons  buiU  the  moat  of  the  exist- 
ing cities.  After  the  defeat  of  the  Hungarians 
by  the  Turks  at  Mohscs  in  152fl  Transylvania 
was  independent  till  1890.  After  that  it  became 
a  grand  duchy  and  crown  land  of  Austria,  and 
so  remained  tdl  1867,  when  it  became   a  part 


AustriarHungary  Aug.  27,  1916.  Later 
the  province  was  invaded  by  the  Rusaians,  and 
several  engagements  occurred  between  the  Rus- 
sian and  Teutonio  armies.  In  December  1918, 
the  newly-formed  Tranaylvania  National  Assem-' 
bly  declared  the  freedom  of  the  Roumanian 
districts  and  sought  union  with  Roumania.  King 
Ferdinand  accepted  the  mandate  to  reign 
uvtx  the  region  irom  the  Dniester  to  the  Thdes, 
amid  great  rejoicing  at  Bucharest,  Dec.  30, 
1018. 

Trapini  (tr&'p^ne).  a  seaport  of  Sicily.  The 
celebrated  sanotuary  of  the  Madotma  of  Trapani 
(finished  1332)  ii  outside  the  town.  The  trade, 
is  chiefly  in  fish,  coral,  apoci^,  wine,  oil,  fruits, 
cotton,  semotino,  etc.  Here  m  219  b.  c.  the 
CaTthaginiana  defeated  the  Roroana  in  a  famous 
naval  battle.     Pop.  of  commune  (1915)  60,779. 

Tiap'plsts,  monastic .  order  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  named  from  La  Trappe,  an  ab- 
bey of  theCiatercian  order,in  Normandy.  Here 
Armand  Jean  le  Bouthillier  de  Ranc€  in  1604 
introduced  those  severe  reforms  which  made  the 
Trappists  one  of  the  moat  austere  orders. 


Trap  Rock.    See  Babalt. 

TiMd'mill,  a  machioe  first  used  by  the  Cbi- 
nete  to  raise  water  for  irrigation,  but  In  1817 
adapted  as  an  instrument  of  punishment,  con- 
sisting of  a  large  wheel,  about  20  or  25  ft. 
wide,  with  steps  on  its  external  Hurface,  upon 
which  criminals  are  placed.  They  main^in 
themselves  in  an  upright  postur;  by  means  of 
a  horizontal  bar  fiiced  above  them,  of  which 
they  keep  hold,  and  their  weight  sets  the  wheel 
in  motion.  The  power  thus  obtained  may  be 
appliedi  to  the  same  purpose  as  water  power, 
steam,  etc.  The  treadmill .  has  recently  been 
abandoned  in  most  penitentiaries. 

Tiea'aon,  a  crime  of  indeflaite  and  variable 
limits  against  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  or 
the  person  of  the  supreme  ruler.  The  Romans 
call  this  crime  pvrduellio,  and  afterwards 
crimen  majestalU — that  is,  either  hostility  to 
one's  own  countiy,  such  as  joining  ite  enemies 
in  war,  or  hoBtiie  attack  on  the  emperor,  or 
the  act  of  invading  the  sovereignly  of  the  peo- 
p|p.  In  the  expression,  ladere  ma/eatatem,  to 
injure  the  sovereignty  of  the  people  or  of  the 
state,  is  found  the  origin  of  the  term,  liae- 
majeati,  used  by  the  French  to  denote  treason. 
The  English  definition  of  treason  or  high  trea- 
son has  inclu&ed,  especially,  compassing  or 
imagining  the  death  of  the  reigning  sovereign 
or  his  (or  her)  eldest  son  and  heir;  violation 
of  the  queen  or  the  king's  eldest  dau^ter,  be- 
ing unmarried,  or  his  eldest  son's  wife;  levy- 
ing war  a^inst  the  sovereign  within  the  realm 
by  a  subject;  giving  aid  and  comfort  in  or 
outside  of  the  realm  to  the  sovereign's  enemies; 
counterfeiting  the  great  or  privy  seal;  import- 
ing "  fnlse  money,  counterfeit  ,to  the  king's 
money,"  besides  other  offenses  which  at  any 
time  of  excitement  it  seemed  best  to  compre- 
hend under  the  same  term.  The  folly  of  such 
legislation  led  to  the  simple  definition  of  the 
U.  S.  Constitution  that  "  treason  shall  consist 
only  in  levying  war  against  the  U.  S.  or  in 
adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid 
and  comfort."  It  is  implied  that  the  crime 
can  be  committed  only  by  one  owing  allegiance 
to  the  U.  S. 

The  states  of  the  Union,  to  some  extent  at 
least,  have  admitted  inte  their  codes  a  crime 
of  treason  against  themselves  similar  t«  that 
committed  against  the  U.  S.  For,  if  an  in- 
vading force  from  a  foreign  country  should 
land  on  the  territory  of  a  state  and  be  joined 
by  one  of  ite  citizens,  he  would  be  amenable 
to  the  laws  of  the  U.  S. ;  if  it  were  joined  by 
a  man  from  one  of  the  other  stetes,  the  same 
would  be  true,  but  in  this  case  the  stete  could 
not  try  him  for  treason,  as  he  is  in  no  sense 
its  subject.  A  general  law  against  seditious 
or  armed  assemblages  would  answer  all  pur- 
poses, and  could  not  come  into  conflict  with 
the  laws  of  the  Union.  On  the  other  hand,  if 
a  man  ^ere  acquitted  of  treason  against  a 
state,  he  would  still  be  liable  to  indictment 
for  treason  against  the  U.  S.  for  the  same 
offense. 

Treas'ure-trove,  in  common  law,  accidentally 
found  gold  or  silver  coin,  plate,  or  bullion 
which  had  been  hidden  in  the  earth  or  in  some 


TBEATIES 

secret  spot  ao  long  ago  tliat  !ta  existence  was 
forgotten  and  its  owner  unknown.  Such  prop- 
erty technically  belonged  te  the  crown,  imJess 
the  owner  were  found,  in  the  U.  S.  the  term 
is  not  much  uaed. 

Treaa'niy  of  the  Unif  ed  Stated  a  depart- 
ment of  the  executive  government  of  the  U.  B., 
having  control  over  the  collection,  manage- 
ment, and  disbursement  of  the  public  revenue, 
ajtd  presided  over  by  a  secretary,  who  is,  nsxtto 
the  Secretary  of  State,  the  most  important 
officer  of  the  Cabinet.  The  present  office  dates 
from  the  law  of  September  2,  1TS0,  drawn  up 
with  such  precision  and  comprehensiveness  by 
Alexander  Hamilton,  the  first  secretary,  that 
few  changes  have  since  been  made  In  ita  lan- 
guage. 

Trea'tiea,  compacta  or  agreements  made  by 
two  or  more  nations  or  sovereigns.  Stetes, 
like  individuals,  may  moke  contraete.  These 
rest  for  their  fulfillment  upon  the  good  faith 
of  the  contracting  parties.  A  stete  must  have 
capacity  to  contract  This  is  lacking  to  the 
individual  stetes  which  compose  the  U.;  S.,  be- 
ing denied  them  by  its  Constitution,  but  may 
belong  to  the  members  of  a  more  loosely  or- 
^nized  confederation.  It  is  lacking  also  in 
ite  fullest  extent  in  a  stete  like  Belgium,  which, 
under  its  stetus  of  neutrality,  has  no  right  of 
making  war  save  in  self-defense,  and  i^  thereby 
debarred  from  such  treaties  as  alliances  which 
imply  the  ability  to  wage  war.  The  agente 
negotiating  a  treaty  must  be  properly  author- 
ieed  to  make  their  agreement  a  valid  one. 
This  is  a  constitutional  ouestion  which  each 
state  must  answer  for  itself. 

There  must  be  freedom  of  consent  on  the 
part  of  the  negotiators.  Duress  or  intimida- 
tion, false  representation,  bribery,  applied  to 
the  treaty  agent  and  ipstrumental  in  deciding 
the  terms  of  agreement,  will  invalidate  it.  But 
a  mere  rolsteke  as  to  the  value  of  a  considera- 
tion will  not  matter.  Thus,  before  the  thor- 
ough exploration  of  the  Uississippi  Kiver,  the 
right  of  free  navigation  from  British  territory 
upon  ite  whole  course,  a  valueless  concession, 
was  agreed  upon  by  treaty  in  return  for  valu- 
able fishery  privileges.  Where  the  existence  of 
a  nation  is  at  stake  it  is  held  that  no  agente 
are  competent  to  transfer  it  by  trea^,  and 
yet  the  partition  of  Poland  has  been  an  ac- 
cepted fact  for  a  century.  Again,  treaties  are 
void  which  involve  a  violation  of  accepted 
principles  of  international  law,  wLich  contain 
stipulations  whose  execution  has  become  im- 
possible, or  which  conflict  with  prior  obliga- 
tions to  a  third  power.  For  instence,  an 
agreement  to  engage  in  the  slave  trade  or  to 
assert  joint  control  over  a  portion  of  the  high 
seas  would  be  invalid.  The  language  employed 
in  treaties  was  anciently  Latin,  then  French, 
as  that  became  the  language  of  diplomacy.  A 
distinction  of  small  importence  is  made  between 
treaties    and    conventions,    the   former    having 

Bneraliy  a  wider  political  scope,  while  the 
bter  relate  to  some  minor  specific  object.  For 
instance,  the  Treaty  of  Washington  of  1871 
was  followed  by  the  convention  of  1673  settling 
the  place  where  the  sessions  called  frr  ty  itf 
twelfth  article  should  be  held.       (     OOtjIl* 


XiOOglt 


TEtEATIES 

Batiflcation  of  a  tmtj  is  expected,  and  nec- 
esraiy  to  make  it  valid.  Under  a  Constitution 
like  that  of  the  U.  S.,  where  the  powei  of  mak- 
ing treaties  belongs  to  the  President,  while  the 
S^ate  must  conurrn'or  veto  (by  a  two-thirds 
vote),  knowled^  of  this  fact  is  presumed,  and 
notice  that  ratiflcatioit  is  necessary  is  not  re- 
quiiW.  It  was  formerly  held  that,  if  the 
agent  who  made  the  treaty  proceeded  accord- 
ing to  his  full  pouwr  but  not  according  to 
secret  instructions,  the  principal  was  bound  by 
his  action,  since  the  full  power,  being  known 
to  the  other  party,  was  the  motive  in  consid- 
eration of  which  be  consented  to  treat.  But 
at  present  it  is  held  by  the  best  authorities 
that  the  principal  may  withhold  his  ratiftca- 
tioQ,  in  certain  circumstances,  even  when  the 
negotiator  has  followed  his  private  instruc- 
tiinis.  The  refusal  is  juetifl^  in  cases  like 
these  (see  Wheabon,  iii,  ch.  ii,  sec.  2E6-263)  : 
(1)  "On  the  ground  of  the  impossibility, 
physical  or  moral,  of  fulfilling  the  stipula- 
tions"; (2}  "on  the  ground  of  mutual  error 
of  the  parties  respecting  a  matter  of  fact, 
which.  If  it  had  been  known  in  it«  true  cir- 
cumstances, would  have  prevented  the  conclu- 
sion of  the  treaty  ";  (3)  on  the  ground  of  "  a 
change  of  circunistances  on  which  the  validity 
of  the  treaty  is  made  to  depend,  either  by  an 
express  stipulation  or  by  the  nature  of  the 
treaty  itself." 

In  the  U.  S.,  if  the  payment  of  a  sum  of 
money  forms  one  of  the  conditions  of  a  treaty, 
a  majority  of  the  House  of  RepresentstiveB 
must  concur.  In  this  way  it  would  be  possible, 
in  certain  cases,  to  defeat  the  action  of  the 
Senate)  hut  to  do  this,  except  in  extreme  cases, 
would  oppose  the  spirit  of  the  Constitution, 
which  evidently  intended  to  invest  the  Presi- 
dent and  Senate  finally  and  absolutely  with 
the  treaty-making  power. 

Of  special  classes  of  treaties,  the  most  com- 
mon are  alliances  and  treaties  of  guaranty. 
An  offensive  alliance  is  an  anomaly,  except 
when  made  with  reference  to  a  particular  war. 
A  defensive  alliance  was  made  in  17TS  between 
France  and  the  American  confederated  colonies 
during  the  Revolution.  A  modern  example  is 
the  Triple  Alliance  of  Germany,  Austria,  and 
Italy.  An  alliance  both  offensive  and  defensive 
binds  states  together  in  the  strongest  way 
possible  short  of  confederation.     In  treaties  of 


of  another  treaty  or  of  apeciflc  rights  under 
it;  or  the  protection  of  certain  property  or 
territory,  as  when  by  Treaty  of  1779  with 
France  the  U.  8.  guaranteed  the  French  pos- 
sessions in  N.  America.  With  this  object, 
hostages  were  formerly  given,  but  not  by  pres. 
ent  usage,  except  in  military  conventions,  the 
last  instence  being  in  1748  te  secure  the  Treaty 
of  Aix-la-Cbapelle.  Solemn  oaths  to  observe  a 
treaty  are  also  out  of  date.  Pledges  are  still 
in  use.  Thus  certein  French  fortresses  were 
left  in  Oennan  hands  after  IBTl,  for  several 
years,  to  secure  the  carrying  out  of  the  terms 
of  the  treaty  of  peace,  on  enormous  money  in- 
demnity being  one  of  them.  Lastly,  may  be 
mentioned  the  guaranty  of  a  treaty  l^  a  third 


TtlEBIZOND 

When  a  treaty  is  made  to  secure  a  definite 

object,  and  that  object  is  attained,  the  treaty 
has  no  longer  any  reason  for  existence.  Many 
treaties  are  of  this  class,  te  settle  a  boundary^ 
to  arrange  for  the  arbitration  of  a  special 
difficulty,  to  satisfy  certein  claims.  A  treaty 
is  an  entire  contract,  and  if  one  article  is  vio- 
lated, the  injured  party  may  consider  the  whole 
void  or  may,  if  it  prefers,  insist  on  the  enforce- 
ment of  the  remaining  articles.  Treaties  of 
peace,  of  commerce,  of  alliance — of  all,  in  fact, 
where  friendship  is  an  essential  basis — are  ter- 
minated by  war.  On  the  other  hand,  manv 
treaties  are  by  nature  or  in  terms  perpetual, 
like  the  recognition  of  our  independence  within 
certein  boundaries  by  Great  Brltein,  or  the 
Fishery  Treaty  of  1818  agreeing  that  the  in- 
habitenU  of  the  U.  8.  "  sball  have  forever  .  .  . 
the  liberty  to  teke  fish "  on  certein  coaste. 
Uoreover,  all  those  treaties  which  contemplate 
a  atete  of  war  must  survive,  such  as  treaties 
laying  down  the  rules  of  blockade,  contraband, 
convmr,  visitation,  capture,  and  so  on.  It  may 
be  added  that  private  righte,  resulting  from 
rules  of  admitted  justice,  are  not  extinguished 
by  a  war;  and  so  a  debt  due  by  one  nation  to 
another,  where  the  same  rules  of  right  prevail 
as   are   acknowledged   in   municipal   law,   sur- 

The  only  rational  object  of  war  is  te  secure 
a  state  of  justice  involving  reparation  and 
security  for  the  future.  Treaties  of  peace  in- 
dicate memorable  changes  of  relative  strength, 
or  mark  a  new  policy,  or  bring  in  a  new 
dynasty,  or  are  in  some  way  the  eras  of  some 
kind  of  progress.  They  are  the  hands  of  a 
clock,  but  the  war  was  the  moving'  force. 
Treaties  of  peace  are  subject  to  the  same  rules 
of  interpretation  with  others  made  by  the  con- 
stitutional power  in  the  state.  When  do 
treaties  go  into  effect  T  They  bind  the  parties 
when  they  are  signed  or  when  they  are  ratified. 
They  bind  individuals  when  they  receive  news 
that  such  treaties  have  been  made.  The  effect 
of  peace  is  te  put  an  end  not  only  te  a  war, 
but  also  to  all  complaints  relating  to  the  sub- 
ject .for  which  war  was  underteken.  It  is  an 
oblivion  or  amnesty  of  all  past  dilBcuIties.  A 
new  war  can  be  underteken  for  similar  caitscs 
of  complaint,  but  not  for  the  same.  They  aii? 
forgotten  and  forgiven,  whether  mentioned  in 
the  treaty  or  passed  over  in  silence.  Territoiy 
stays  in  the  actual  occupant's  hands  unless 
passed  over  by  express  agreement,  and  a  strong 
place  must  be  restored  without  injury  to  its 
works.  When  a  part  of  a  country  is  yielded 
up  at  peace  to  the  enemy,  the  former  sovereign 
is  neither  bound  te  make  compensation  to  those 
who  suffer  by  the  change  of  jurisdiction,  nor 
te  secure  the  new  severely  against  resistance 
from  the  inhsbitante  to  his  authority.  All  he 
does  is  te  renounce  his  own   sove^lgnty  ^and 

i'uriadiction.  For  particular  treaties,  see  under 
he  name  of  the  treaty. 

Tteb'iwmd  [formally  called  Tababozan), 
tewn  in  Asia  Minor;  on  the  8E.  coast  of , the 
Black  Sea.  It  is  the  Turkish  terminus  of  the 
main  route  to  Armenia  and  Persia,  but  the 
trade  formerly  centering  here  is  being  diverted 
to  Batoum.  The  imports  are  mainly  manufac- 
tured European  goods,    The  exports  sr«  wool. 


TREBLE 

mohair,  alcins,  wax,  gnm,  resin,  gall-nuts,  to- 
bacco, oil,  opium,  frait,  shawls,  and  carpets, 
brought  by  camel  caravans;  also  timber  and 
boxwood.  Trebizond  gave  a  memorable  rece{>- 
tion  to  the  Ten  thousand.  Trajan  made  it  the 
capital  of  Pontua-Cappadocia.  In  1204  Alexius 
Comnenui  founded  tJie  empire  of  Trebizoud, 
Which  lasted  till  1461.    Pop.  abt.  36,000. 

Treble,  ia  muaio,  the  highest  vocal  or  in- 
strumental part  in  a  concerted  piece,  such  as  ts 
Hung  by  women  or  boys,  or  played  by  instru- 
ments of  acute  tone,  aa  the  violin,  flute,  oboe, 
clarinet,  etc.,  or  on  the  higher  keys  of  the  piano, 

nan,  etc.,  so  called  because  it  was  originally 
bird  part  added  to  the  ancient  canto  fermo 
and  the  counterpoint. 

Tree,  a  woody  plant  with  a  single  trunk 
Tiring  to  more  than  the  height  of  a  man. 
There  are  all  gradatiooa  between  shrubs  and 
trees.    Most  common  trees  increase  in  thickness 


are  said  to  be  exogenoua  in  growth.  The  seed- 
ling stem,  almost  as  soon  aa  it  is  formed,  is 
CTMsed  by  woody  threads,  so  arranged  as  to 
snrround  a  central  portion  that  remains  desti- 
tute of  woody  matter;  and  iheae  increase  in  size 
and  number  until  they  form  a  layer  of  wood 
(in  cross-section  a  ring)  between  the  soft  cen- 
tral core,  the  pith,  and  an  outer  portion,  the 
bark.  When  tbis  layer  of  wood  is  formed,  no 
additions  are  made  to  its  inner  portion,  but  new 
wood  may  continue  to  be  formed  on  its  outer 
surface,  between  it  and  the  bark,  all  through 
the  aeason.  When,  after  a  suspension  of  growth 
in  winter,  a  second  season  of  growth  super- 
venes, a  new  layer  of  wood  ia  formed  outside 
the  old  one,  and  so  on  year  aiter  year.  So  the 
section  of  an  ext^enous  tree  trunk  shows  con- 
centric layers — in  ell  ordinary  cases  one  for 
each  year — the  oldest  next  the  pith,  the  young- 
est next  the  bark.  Radiating  plates— m  the 
cross-section  lines  more  or  lees  conspicuous — 
traverse  this  layer  of  wood  from  the  pith  to  the 
bark,  dividing  it  into  wedges;  these  are  the 
medullary  rays,  or  sUver  grain.  Between  the 
bark  and  the  wood  is  a  thin  zone  of  cdls,  called 
the  cambium,  from  which  are  developed  on  the 
one  side  additions  to  the  wood,  on  the  other  to 
the  ba^.  The  bark  is  subject  to  distention 
from  within,  from  the  increasing  size  of  the 
woody  cylinder.  The  older  and  outer  bark  is 
cooseaneutly  sooner  or  later  flsaured  and  riven 
as  well  as  worn  and  weathered  by  exposure  to 
the  elements. 

The  character  of  the  tree  depends  much  upon 
it*  mode  of  branching,  and  this  primarily  upon 
the  arrangement  of  leaves  upon  the  twiga;  for 
the  brancnes  of  the  spray  proceed  from  lateral 
buds,  of  which  tiksre  ia  usually  a  single  one  in 
the  axil  of  each  leaf.  Palm  trees  are  the  more 
common  type  in  which  the  stems  do  not  in- 
creaM  in  thickness.  They  rise  by  a  simple 
trunk,  not  tapering  as  it  ascends,  terminated 
with  a  crown  of  large  and  long-stalked  leaves. 
This  simple  and  mainly  cylindrical  trunk  comes 
from  their  whole  v^etation  being  the  develop- 
ment of  a  single  terminal  bud.  The  center 
sometimes  remains  pithy,  as  it  were,  and  sparse- 
ly trmrened  by  tbreads  of  wood,  but  in  many 


palm  stems  nearly  the  whole  becomes  so  closely 
packed  with  woody  bundles  as  to  form  a  hard 
wood.  On  account  of  this  structure  sui4i  trees 
have  been  called  endogenous,  "  inside  growing." 
Palm  trunks  soon  become  incapable  of  further 
enlargement,  except  in  height.  In  place  of  a 
bark,  distinct,  separable,  and  of  different  layers, 
they  are  investM  by  an  inseparable  and  per- 
manent rind,  which,  along  with  the  more  solidi- 
fied wood  of  the  circumference,  restricts  disten- 

Tree*  require  much  o(  moisture,  and  accord- 
ingly of  rainfall,  either  through  the  year  or 
through  a  growing  season.  An  ordinary  tree 
expands  a  large  extent  of  evaporating  surface, 
chiefly  in  its  foliage.  Leaves  dry  up  and  perish 
if  not  supplied  with  moisture  to  replace  that 
which  is  evaporated.  Therefore,  not  only  are 
rainless  districts  treeless  {except  as  water  is 
supplied  bj[  irrigation),  but  regions  of  scanty 
summer  rain  are  sparsely  wooded  or  without 
forest.  Broad-leaved  evergreens  abound  where 
rains  fall  throughout  the  year,  and  especially 
where  winter  is  unknown.  Narrow-leaved  or 
needle-leaved  evergreen  trees  are  chieHy  In 
cooler  climates  well  supplied  with  moisture. 
Trees  with  expanded  foliage  survive  the  rain- 
leas  hot  season  of  tropical  regicme  only  by  drop- 
ping their  leaves,  upon  which  the  stress  flrat 
comes,  and  thereby  reducing  the  evaporating 
surface.  Those  which  retain  their  foliage  are/ 
such  aa  have  aome  peculiar  provision— by  thick- 
ened skin  or  tough  structure,  to  which,  espe- 
cially in  Australia,  is  sometimes  added  a  verti- 
cal instead  of  horizontal  position  of  the  leaves, 
which  tljua  present  their  edges  inatead  of  one 
face  to  the  high  aim.  Tbis  prevaila  among  the 
Australian  acaciaa  and  myrtles.  In  climates  in 
whicb  vegetable  growth  and  action  are  arrested 
by  winter,  the  trees  are  nearly  all  deciduous, 
except  the  piny  evergreens,  the  leaves  of  which 
are  peculiarly  organized  for  resisting  cold- 

An  exogenous  tree,  renewing  annually  its 
twigs  and  fofisge  above,  its  growth  of  roots  be- 
neath, and  Eone  of  new  wood  and  baric  con- 
necting the  two,  has  no  deflnite  limits  to  its 
existence.  Increase  of  size,  height,  or  spread  of 
branches,  and  other  inevitable  consequences  of 
age,  however,  bring  increasing,  and  at  length 
inevitable,  disadvantages  and  liabilities,  so  that 
practically  most  trees,  like  most  men,  die  an 
accidental  death-  Ex<^nous  trees  are  known, 
by  the  actual  counting  of  their  layers,  to  have 
attained  the  age  of  from  1,200  to  fully  2,000 
years ;  it  is  probable  that  some  extant  trees  are 
considerably  older.  The  tallest  trees  known 
rise  little  test  than  600  ft.  iEuoalyptat,  in 
Australia).  The  largest  in  drth  are  ti«es  of 
Evcalyptu*,  up  to  81  ft.;  giant  redwoods,  in 
California,  up  to  81,  and  possibly  100  ft;  boab 
trees  of  Sent^l,  some  of  which  have  reached 
the  latter  circumference,  but  they  ars  low  trees 
of  rapid  growth  even  when  old,  and  probably 
of  no  extreme  age;  and,  finally,  there  is  a 
Mexican  Taseodium  or  bald  cypress,  a  slow- 
growing  tree,  which  measures  112  ft.  in  circum- 
ference. If  this  does  not  consist  of  two  or  more 
original  trunks  which  have  grown  into  one — 
of  which  there  are  no  external  indications— ^it 
is  probably  the  oldest  existing  tree  known. 
See  Botant;  Dboidcous  Tbxes;  Evebobeekb. 


\(^ 


„  Google 


„  Google 


TREE  FROGS 

Ttm  Ftoss,  or  Tim  Toad*,  a.  class  of  frogs 
which,  hj  means  of  a  round  enlar^emott  of 
tha  tip  of  each  toe,  are  able  to  climb  trees, 
where  tbej  feed  upon  iiuects.  They  are  said 
to  be  particularly  noiay  at  the  approach  of 
Tain.     In  winter  they  bury  themaelvea  in  the 


the  Byla  aqutrella,  about  11  in.  long,  is  of  i 
brownish  or  gray  color. 
Tre'foiL    See  Cloteb. 


autobiographical,  "  Adventures  of  a  Younsei 
Son,"  and  "  Recollections  of  Shelley  and  By- 
ron,"  reiasned  as  "  Records  of  B^ron,  Shelley, 
and  the  Author."  In  IS23  he  jomed  Byron  in 
Greece  and  fought  in  the  Greek  war  of  lib- 
eration. 

Ttemato'dea,  a  group  of  parasitic  flatworms 
in  which  parasitiEm  has  produced  buE  slight  de- 
generation. The  body  is  usually  fiattened,  lacks 
cilia  and  all  traces  of  se^entation;  the  tnoutfa 
Ea  anterior  and  communicates  with  a  digeetive 
tract  which  forks  after  a  short  extent.  Upon 
the  lower  surface  are  oue,  two,  or  more  suckers 
for  adhesion  to  the  host,  and  sometimes  these 
are  reinforced  by  hooks.  Like  all  flatworms, 
they  lack  a  body  cavity  and  distinct  circu- 
latory organs,  while  the  excretory  system  is 
well  developed.  Most  species  have  the  sexes 
aeparate. 

Tiem'nlons  Poplar.     See  Abpth. 

Tnnch,  Richard  Chenevu,  1807-86;  Irish 
archbishop  and  author;  b.  in  Dublin;  educated 
at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  and  graduated 
1829;  spent  some  years  in  travel;  took  orders 
in  the  (%urch  of  England,  1833;  curate  and  rec- 
tor, 1833-4d;  appointed  examining  chaplain 


I^ndon,  1846-58;  Dean  of  Westminster,  1S56- 
63,  and  ord^ned  Arehbishop  of  Dublin,  1864; 
resiened,  1SS4.  In  the  field  of 'philology  he 
achieved  distinction,  and  his  paper  on  the  "  De- 
ficiencies in  Our  English  DictionarieB  "  gave  the 
first  impulse  to  the  grettt  New  English  Diction- 
ary, edited  by  Dr.  James  A.  H.  Murray. 

Trent,  a  river  of  England.  It  rises  in  Bid- 
dulph  Moor,  in  Staffordshire,  at  600  ft.  above 
the  sea  level,  flows  SE.,  and  forms  the  Humber 
after  Joining  the  Ouse,  IB  m.  W,  of  Hull.  Its 
length  1b  about  150  m.,  and  It  is  navigable  for 
about  two  thirds  of  its  course. 

Trent  Affair',  the  seizure  of  the  Confeder- 
ates Slidell  and  Mason  on  board  the  British 
steamer  T'renf  in  1861,  and  the  resulting  inter- 
national complications. 

Timt,  Conn'cn  of  (concilium  Tridentimtm) , 
the  nineteenth  ecumenical  council,  according  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  Paul  III  con- 
voked it  for  November  1,  1542,  but  it  did  not 
open  till  December  13,  1546.  The  objects  of  the 
council  were  to  effect  a  reformation  of  the 
church,  to  define  more  explicitly  the  impugned 
doctrines  of  the  church,  and,  it  possible,  to 


TRENTON 

Induce  the  Protestants  to  return  to  the  old 
faith.  The  Protestants,  including  Queen  Eliza- 
beth of  England,  were  invited  bo  attend,  but 
they  refused.  In  the  fourth  session  (April  8, 
1646)  tradition  was  declared  to  be  equally 
with  the  Bible  a  rule  of  faith;  the  Apocrypha 
of  the  Old  Testament  were  included  in  the 
Biblical  canon;  the  Vulgate  was  proclaimed  to 
be  the  authentic  version  of  the  Bible,  and  the 
church  its  only  legitimate  interpreter.  An  ad- 
journment to  Bologna  on  account  of  the  plague 
took  place,  March  11,  1547.  On  April  28,  1652. 
on  account  of  the  war  of  the  Protestant  princes 
with  Charles  V,  the  sessions  were  again  sus- 
pended, till  January  18,  1562.  Decrees  were 
adopted  ordering  an  index  of  prohibited  books 
to  be  made,  and  defining  the  doctrines  of  the 
moss,  ordination,  the  hierarchy,  marriage, 
celibacy,  purgatory,  the  veneration  of  saints, 
relies,  and  images,  monastic  vows,  indulgences, 
and  fasting  and  abstinence.  Several  "  reforma- 
tory "  decrees  were  also  Mssed. 

The  council  closed  on  December  4,  1563,  at 
its  twenty- fifth  public  session.  The  decrees 
were  signed  by  255  members,  and  were  con' 
firmed  by  Pius  IV,  who  reserved  to  himself 
and  his  successors  the  ri^ht  of  explaining  ob- 
scure or  controverted  points.  Its  resulU  in- 
augurated a  counter  reformation,  personified 
in  men  like  St.  Charles  Borromeo  and  St.  Fran. 
cis  de  Sales,  and  unified  Catholics  throughout 
the  world. 

Trente-et-Un  (trBfit'-B-flA).  See  Rouoe-et- 
NoiB. 

Tren'ton,  capital  of  N.  J.,  on  the  Delaware 
River,  at  the  head  of  navigation;  33  m.  NE. 
of  Philadelphia.  Here  are  tiie  state  aehool  for 
deaf-mutes,  state  prison,  insane  asylum,  and 
industrial  school  for  girls.  The  Odd  Fellows' 
Home  is  near  the  city  line.  The  Widows'  and 
Single  Women's  Home,  near  the  State  House, 
was  formerly  the  barracks  used  during  the 
French  and  Indian  War.  Trenton  is  the  seat 
of  a  Protestant  Episcopal  and  Roman  Catholic 
bishopric.  The  first  public  school  in  the  state 
was  at  Trenton.  Besides  common  schools  and 
a  high  school,  Trenton  contains  the  State  Nor- 
mal and  Model  School,  the  Franciscan  Convent 
of  Minor  Conventuals,  the  Union  Industrial 
Home,  and  many  private  schools.  Trenton  is 
prcfiminently  a   manufacturing  city ;   potterii 


comprise  an  industry  which  gives  the  NE.  por- 
tion of  the  city  (old  Millham)  the  name  Staf- 
fordshire of  America.  Iron  and  steel  works, 
woolen  mills,  flouring  mills,  rubber  and  oil- 
cloth works,  and  a  large  brewery  are  other 
representative  establishments.  Here  also  are 
the  great  wire  works  of  the  Roeblings,  builders 


1679,  when  the  place  was  called  "  Y*  ffalles  of 
jB  De  la.  Ware,"  from  the  rifts  of  rock  in 
front  of  the  town.  Mahlon  Stacy  and  other 
members  of  the  Society  of  Friends  purchaspcl 
land,  and  Stacy  built  on  the  Assanpink  in 
1880,  the  second  flour  mill  in  W.  Jersey.  About 
1716  Judge  Trent  bought  a  large  plantation, 
and  the  place  .came  to  be  called  Trent  Town 


TREPANQ 

(Trentoii).  A  roytil  charter  created  Trenton 
a  borousli  town  about  the  middle  of  the 
cighteentL  century,  but  the  plan  was  soon 
a^ndoned.  The  legielature  often  met  here  be- 
fore Trenton  became  the  state  capital  (ITM). 
In  17B2  the  town  was  incorparated.  The 
Continental  Congress  once  met  here  after  the 
Bevolutionaiy  War,  and  a  project  to  have 
Trenton  made  the  capital  of  the  0.  S.  wm 
defeated  by  state  Jeatouaiee.  Here  the  battle 
waa  fought  which  perhaps  turned  the  tide  of 
the  Revolution.  On  the  morning  of  December 
26,  1770,  Washington,  with  about  2^00  men, 
crossed  the  Delaware  from  FennBylvania  about 
8  m.  above  Trenton,  and  after  a  forced  march 
enrprised  Col.  Rail,  the  Hessian  commander, 
ana  captured  his  entire  force.  This  was  (ol- 
,  lowed  by  the  battle  of  Princeton,  January  3, 
1777.  A  ahaft  in  Monument  Park  at  the  old 
Five  Points  commemorate*  the  event.  Pop. 
(1910)  96,816. 
Trepang:'.  See  BftcBK-ot-MKB ;  BouyrmjaiAS, 
Trepan'ning;  or  Tieptais'ing,  removing  a 
round  piece  of  bone  from  the  ekull  by  using 
the  trepan,  or  trephine.  The  modem  trephine 
has  a  slightly  corneal  body  and  burred,  cutting 
sides.  A  center  pin  acts  as  a  pivot  to  steady 
the  motion  while  the  trephine  is  started,  but 
the  pin  is  slid  back  into  the  shaft  liefdre  the 
trephine 'enters  the  skull.  In  ancient  times 
trepanning  the  skull  was  recklessly  practiced, 
especially  by  quacks,  for  every  fanded  brain 
disease.  It  ia  now  used  to  relieve  depressed 
fractures  of  the  skull,  to  remove  clota  or 
tumors,  and  to  remove  and  drain  abaecBiea  of 
the  brain. 

Tiea'pau,  an  unlawful  act  done  to  the  per- 
son or  property  of  another  by  means  of  direct 
violence,  actual  or  constructive.  The  essential 
feature  of  this  wrong  ia  the  direct  violence, 
which  may  be  actual,  as  in  the  case  of  an 
assault  and  battery,  or  constructive,  as  in  the 
case  of  an  unauthorized  entry  upon  the  land 
of  another,  and  doing  thereby  mere  nominal 
damage.  TrespaBses  are  separated  into  three 
classes — to  person,  to  personal  property,  and 
to  real  property.  The  principal  trespasses  to 
the  person  are  assault  and  battery  and  false 
imprisonment.  Trespass  to  personal  property 
may  consist  either  in  forcible  direct  injury  to 
the  chattel,  or  in  taking  and  carrying  it  away 
from  the  custody  of  its  owner.  Trespass  to 
,  real  property  is  an  unlawful  entry  upon  the 
land  of  another.  The  commission  of  a  legftl 
act  in  an  illegal  manner  may  be  a  trespass, 
for  it  ia  the  law  that  if  one  becins  to  do  a 
legal  act  in  a  proper  manner,  and  then  in  its 
further  prosecution  is  guilty  of  wrongs  which 
amount  to  a  trespass,  he  thereby  b«K)mea  a 
trespasser  from  the  beginning.  The  remedy  in 
all  cases  of  trespass  is  the  recovery  of  dam- 
ages by  the  injured  party;  and  if  the.  wrong 
was  willful,  malicious,  and  without  excusing 
circumstances,  eiemplaiy  or  punitive  damages 
may  be  added. 

Trevcl'yui,  Sir  Geoize  Otto,  1838-1886; 
English  statesman  and  author;  nephew  of 
Lord  Macaulav;  b.  Rothl^  Temple,  Leicester- 
shire, England ;  educated  at  Harrow  and  Trin- 


TRUL 

ity  Colle^,  Cambridge;  entered  the  E.  Indian 
civil  service;  elected  to  Parliament  from  l^e- 
mouth  as  a  Liberal,  1865;  Civil  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty  under  Gladstone,  December,  1868, 
but  resigned,  July,  1870.  He  was  Secretary 
for  Scotland,  1B6S-86,  and  again  from  1BB2-96. 
Among  his  writings  are  "  Letters  of  a  Com- 
petition Wallah,"  "The  Life  of  Lord  Hacau- 
lay,"  "  The  Early  History  of  Charles  Jamea 
Fox,"  "  The  American  Hevolution." 

Treves  (trevz),  Sir  Fredaiick,  18S3-  ; 
English  surgeon,  b.  Dorchester;  lecturer  on 
surgery,  London  Hospital ;  in  1900,  consulting 
surgeon  to  the  army  in  S.  Africa;  Sergeant 
Surgeon  to  the  King  since  1901;  in  1B06, 
elected  Lord  Rector,  Aberdeen  Unir.  Wrote 
"  The  Other  Side  of  the  Lantern,"  "Tale  of  a 
Field  Hospital,"  "  Cradle  «f  the  Deep,"  etc 

Troves  (Qertnan,  Trieb),  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia ;  on  the  Moselle,  69  m.  SW.  of  Coblentz. 
Its  cathnlral  contains  the  "  Holy  Coat  of 
Treves,"  {q.v.).  Treves  ia  the  most  ancient 
city  of  Germany  (a  fabulous  Latin  inscription 
says  it  was  built  before  Rome) ,  and,  though 
'  '  of  interest  from  its  numerous  Ro- 
Pop.  (1905)46,608. 

Trl'al,  the  formal  judicial  examination  and 
decision  of  the  issues,  whether  of  law  or  fact, 
pending  between  the  parties  to  an  action,  pre- 
liminary to  the  judgment  which  determines  the 
rights  and  llabilitiee  of  the  litigants.  Though 
formerly  all  l^al  actions  were  ordinarily  tried 
before  a  jury,  recent  legislation,  both  in  Eng- 
land and  the  U.  B.,  has  provided  that  by  the 
consent  of  the  parties,  and  in  some  cases  with- 
out their  consent,  the  jury  may  be  dispensed 
with  and  the  issues  submitted  to  the  court  or 
to  a  referee;  but  since  the  only  difference  be- 


them,  and  their  verdict,  these  t 

trial  (before  a  jury,  judge,  or  referee)  may  be 

described  together. 

After  a  cause  has  been  called  and  is  rea<^ 
for  trial,  the  jury  is  drawn  and  impaneled. 
From  all  the  namea  of  the  jurors,  written  upon 
slips  of  paper  and  deposited  in  a.box,  the  clerk 
draws  at  random  the  names  of  twelve  who  are 
to  act  in  the  case.  Either  party  ma^  challenge 
the  person  and  proceed  to  ascertain  whether 
for  an^  reason  he  is  incomoetent  to  sit  as  a 
juror  in  that  cause,  the  qualiflcations  for  jury 
duty  being  usually  flxed  by  statute  and  re- 
ferring to  residence,  political  status,  prejudice 
or  liability  to  bias,  mental  condition,  property, 
etc.;  and  a  stricter  rule  of  (qualification  is  ap- 
plied in  criminal  than  dvil  cases.  Besides 
such  challenges  for  cause,  in  criminal  trials 
the  accused,  and  in  many  states  the  prosecu- 
tion, are  ellowed  peremptory  challeuges ;  that 
is,  they  may  exclude  a  certain  number  of 
the  jurors  drawn  without  giving  any  reason 
therefor. 

When  the  twelve  men  have  been  obtained 
they  are  sworn  by  the  clerk  to  render  a  true 
verdict  according  to  Isw  and  the  evidence 
givem     The  counsel  for  the  party  balding  Ut« 


I  claim,  and 
:,  who  are  then  crow-ex- 
amiiied  1^  hiii  opponent,  and  tometimM  re- 
examined directly.  The  opptwite  partv  then 
Eroceeda  la  the  same  manner  to  state  RJia  prove 
ia  Teraion  of  the  ease.  At  the  close  ol  the 
{lointiff'a  eridenee  the  defendant  may  move 
n  m  non-init;  and  if  in  the  opinion  of  the 
court  no  caiue  for  action  has  been  ahown,  even 
"■^"■i"g  the  truth  of  all  the  facta  stated  by 
the  witneaaes,  the  motion  will  be  granted  and 
the  case  diamissed.  On  the  other  hand,  a  ver- 
dict may  be  directed  lor  the  plaintiff  if  his 
right  to  it  clearly  appears  from  uncontradicted 
proof,  but  this  seldom  happens,  there  being 
ttanally  a  confiict  of  evidence  which  must  be 
■abmitted  to  the  judgment  of  a  jury.  The 
court  entirely  regulat^  the  admission  of  evi- 
dence, and  either  party  may  except  to  its  rul- 
iog9  of  what  facta  are  competent  and  what  are 
not  competent,  to  be  proved,  and  what  ques- 
tions are  proper  and  what  improper,  and  the 
points  of  law  thus  raised  aire  examined  upon 

When  the  evidence  ia  all  in,  the  counsel  ad- 
dreaa  the  Jury  on  behalf  of  their  clients.  Next 
eomes  the  judge'a  charge  to  the  jury.  This 
charge  is  in  many  states  restricted  by  statute 
to  a  simple  statement  of  the  legal  rules,  and 
in  several  of  them  It  must  be  in  writing;  but 
at  common  law  the  judge  may  comment  upon 
the  facts,  and  may  even  express  an  opinion, 
provided  the  jury  is  left  free  to  decide.    Either 

Krty  may  request  particular  instructions  to 
given,  and  may  except  to  the  charge,  or  a 
portion  thereof,  or  to  a  refusal  to  charge  as 
requested,  such  exceptions  presenting  queationa 
of  law  for  review  by  the  appellate  court.  After 
they  have  been  eharged,  the  jury  retire  to  a 
private  room  to  determine  upon  their  verdict, 
which  must  be  unanimous.  After  the  jurors 
have  retired  to  consider  their  verdict,  they 
are  not  allowed  to  separate  till  it  is  found  and 
upon  a  verdict  the  court  may,  in  most  eases 
after  the  finding  of  a  sealed  verdict.  When 
they  have  agreed,  they  return  into  court,  an- 
nounce their  verdict,  and  it  is  recorded  l^  the 
clerk  in  his  minutes.  If  they  cannot  agree 
upon  a  verdict  the  court  may,  in  most  cases, 
at  least,  dismiss  them  after  a  reasonable  time. 
If  at  any  time  in  the  trial  of  a  cause  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  diacharge  a  jury  because  of 
the  serious  illness  or  the  insanity  of  one  of  its 
members,  or  because  the  jury  cannot  agree 
upon  a  verdict,  the  discharge  has  been  held, 
in  the  majority  of  cases,  not  to  constitute  a 
bar  to  a  second  prosecu^on.  When  the  trial 
la  before  the  court  or  a  referee,  instead  of  a 
verdict,  a  written  finding  is  filed  by  the  judge 
or   referee   containing   his   concluaions  of   fact 

The  general  rules  of  evidence  are  the  same  in 
criminal  aa  in  civil  cases,  i.e.,  the  best  evidence 
must  be  ^ven.  The  court  decides  ss  to  the 
admissibility  of  evidence,  but  it  is  the  peculiar 
province  of  the  Jury  to  pass  upon  the  weight 
of  evidence  and  the  credibility  of  witnesses. 
(See  Evidence.)  The  original  practice  in  chan- 
cery was  for  witnesses  to  be  examined  pri- 
vaUly,  without  the  preaence  of  counsel,  by  an 


TRIASSIC  PERIOD 

examiner  or  (me 
pointed  by  the  court. 
conducted  by  means  of  written'  questions  and 
cross  questions,  prepared  by  the  counsel  for  the 
respective  parties  or  by  the  court  itself,  and 
the  testimony  was  kept  secret  till  all  the  wit- 
nesses had  been  examined.  The  reading  of  the 
depositions  thus  obtained,  end  of  the  plead- 
ings, together  with  the  arguments  of  counsel, 
constituted  the  trial,  and  the  chancellor  then 
gave  his  decision.  The  great  objection  to  this 
practice  was  that  till  publication  of  the  testi- 
mony each  party  was  left  in  Ignorance  of  what 
facts  his  opponent  would  attempt  to  establish, 
so  that  in  most  states  the  methods  and  pro- 
ceedings in  the  trial  of  an  equity  suit  have 
been  made  the  same  as  those  in  a  legal  action 
before  a  judge  or  referee.  The  testimony  of 
witnesses  is  reduced  to  writing,  and  a  tran- 
script of  all  proceedings  preserved  by  official 
stenographers.  See  Acnon;  Cabe;  G>Ain> 
Jdbt. 

Tri'ucle,  a  surface  bounded  by  three  sides, 
and  consequently  having  three  angles.  A  plane 
triangle  is  a  plane  surface  bounded  W  three 
straight  lines.  These  tines  are  called  «id««, 
and  the  points  at  which  the  sides  meet  are 
called  verlioeM  of  the  triangle.  When  classified 
with  respect  to  their  sides,  we  have:  tcolene 
triangles,  in  which  no  two  sides  are  equal,  aud 
iaotcelea  triangles,  in  which  two  of  the  sides 
are  equal;  the  equilateral  triangle  has  all  of 
the  sides  equal.  \\'ben  classified  with  respect 
to  angles,  we  have :  right-angled  triangles, 
which  have  one  right  angle,  and  oblique-an- 
gled triangles,  in  which  all  of  the  angles  are 
oblique;  triangles  of  the  latter  class  may  be 
acute-angltd  triangles,  all  of  whose  angles  are 
acute,  or  ohtute-angled  triangles,  each  of  which 
has  one  obtuse  angle.  The  sides  and  the  angles 
of  a  triangle  are  called  elementt;  the  side  on 
which  it  is  supposed  to  stand  is  termed  tha 
hate;  and  the  vertex  of  the  opposite  angle  is 
then  called  a  verteia  of  the  triangle;  ttie  dis- 
tance from  the  vertex  to  the  base  is  the  altitude 
of  the  triangle.  The  area  of  a  triangle  is  equal 
to  the  product  of  its  base  by  half  its  altitude, 
and  its  three  angles  are  together  equal  to  two 
right  angles,  or  ISO*.  A  spherical  triangle  is 
a  spherical  surface  bounded  by  area  of  three 
great  circles.  • 

Tliangnla'tloa,  the  operation  of  determining 
the  relative  positions  of  points  by  means  m 
measured  base  lines  and  angles.  A  precise 
triangulation  is  essential  for  the  accuracy  of  a 
survey  covering  a  large  area.  The  base  line, 
rarely  more  than  10  m.  long,  ia  meaaured  with 
precision  by  special  apparatus.  This  is  con- 
nected through  a  series  of  triangles  with  the 
stations  whose  positions  are  to  be  determined, 
and  all  the  angles  being  carefully  measured, 
the  data  are  at  hand  for  computing  the 
distances,  directions,  and  differences  of  lati- 
tude and  longitude.    See  Coast  and  Geodetio 

fimtTKT. 

Triaa'ric  Pe'tiod,   the   division  of   geologic 

time  following  the  Carboniferous  and  pyoeed- 
ing  the  Jurassic.  The  U.  S.  Geologic i]  Luivp.v, 
in  the  publication  of  ita  atlas  of  the  U.  '&., 


TRIBE 

BubBtitutes  a  single  period,  the  Jurai-Triaa,  for 
the  Triassic  and  Jurassic  periods  of  the  Euro- 
pean chronolog}',* 

Tribe,  origiuallf  b.  third  part  of  the  Roman 
people— one  ol  the  three  tribee  that  founded 
Rome;  hence  in  historical  literature  a  name 
for  A  subdivision  of  a  nation  or  stock  not  yet 
organized  as  a  civil  state;  hence,  further,  in 
Hociolosy  and  ethnol<^  a  name  for  any  union 
of  hordes  or  clans  which  is  a  subdivision  of  a 
folk. 

No  ethnographic  term  has  been  more  often 
used  by  histonanH,  travelers,  and  miseionariee 
than  tribe,"  and  none  has  been  used  more 
unintelligent! 7.  As  a  rule,  it  is  hard  to  deter- 
mine whether  a  writer  means  by  "  tribe "  a 
horde,  a  village,  a  clan  or  gens,  or  a  nation. 
A  horde  is  an  aggregation  of  four  OT  five  to 
twenty  ot  thirty  simple  families — each  family 
congisting  of  father,  mother,  and  children.  The 
horde  is  found  only  among  the  lowest  savages, 
such  as  the  AuBtralion  Blackfellows,  the  Bush- 
men of  S.  Africa,  the  Fu^ans  of  S.  America, 
and  the  Arctic  Highlanders  ot  N.  Greenland, 
or  as  a  degenerate  form  in  civil  communities. 
It  bos  no  political  Organisation.  A  totem 
kin  (see  Totehibh],  clan,  or  gens  is  a  group 
of  real  or  nominal  kindred,  claiming  descent 
from  a  common  ancestor  and  tracing  relation- 
ship through  mother  names  (metronymic)  or 
through  father  names  (patronymic),  but  never 
through  both,  and  usually  forbidding  marriages 
between  men  and  -women  of  the  same  gentile 
name.  A  phratry  is  a  union  or  brotherhood 
of  clans  which  is  not  an  independent  tribe,  but 
only  a  siibdivision  of  one.  A  tribe  is  a  union 
of  hordes  under  the  leadership  of  a  chief  for 
common  defense  or  common  aggression,  or  it  is 
a  similar  union  ol  clans  or  of  phratries.  A 
tribe   always   claims   a   oeTtain  -territorial   ro- 

5 ion  as  its  domain.  A  nation,  in  the  ethnic  as 
iatinguished  from  the  civic  sense  of  the  word, 
is  a  federation  of  tribes  which  speak  dialects 
of  A  common  language,  which  have  a  common 
culture,  and  which  are  crossed  by  the  same  clan 
lines.  The  nntion  ia  essentially  a  political  or- 
ganization; tbe  tribe  is  essentially  a  military 
organiuition ;  the  phratry  is  a  religious  or- 
ganization; the  clan  or  gens  is  a  juridical 
organizatitm ;  the  family  is 
ganizatioD.    Se^  Clak. 


B  continued  to  exist,  but  then  represented 
the  whole  people.  They  had  a  general  power 
of  arrest  and,  later,  of  fining;  their  persons 
were  inviolate,  and  he  who  offered  violence  to 
a  tribune  could  be  slain  without  trial.  They 
gradually  acquired  the  right  to  veto  the  acts 
of  magistrates  or  tbe  senate.  The  six  military 
tribunes  of  each  legion  were  officers  who  stood 
below  the  commander  in  chief  and  above  the 
centurions.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  title  of 
tribune  occasionally  reappeared,  usually  con- 
nected, as  in  the  case  of  Rfenzi,  with  the  lead- 
ership of  the  people  against  the  feudal  nobles. 
Trichiiu  (trl-kTuA),  a  genua  of  parasitic 
worms,   the   only   apecies   of   which    (Trichina 


TRICHINA 

»p{raU»)  has  acquired  great  prominence  as, 
possibly,  the  most  dangerous  parasite  of  man. 
Besides  man,  it  inhabits  rata,  swine,  and  some 
other  animals.  Usually,  when  found  it  is  in 
the  encysted  stage,  occurring  in  the  voluntary 
muscles,  inclosed  in  a  spindle-shaped  capsule. 
Inside  this  capsule  occurs  the  immature  worm 
coiled  in  a.  spiral,  to  which  the  specific  name 
alludes.  Tbe  cysts  are  about  j^tli  of  an  inch 
in  len^  and  y^gth  in  diameter.  In  the  cyst 
it  exhibits  but  slight  motion,  but  its  vitality 
is  very  great,  living  worms  having  been  found 
in  man  eighteen  years  after  infection.  When 
flesh  containing  encysted 
worms  is  taken  into  the 
alimentary  canal,  the 
flesh  and  cj-sts  are  dis- 
solved by  tlie  digestive 
fluids  and  the  immature 
worms  are  set  free.  In 
the  intestine  they  rapidly 

tain  sexual  maturity,  the 
male  then  measuring  1.6 
mm.  in  length,  the  female 
3  to  3.5  mm.  The  greater 
size  of  the  female  is  due 
in  part  to  the  number  of 
eggs  and  embryos,  a  single 
female  giving  rise  to  !,■ 
600  to  2,000  living  young. 
These  embryos,  scarcely 
O.I  mm.  in  length,  bore 
through  the  intestinal 
walls  and  rapidly  mtke 
their  way  to  the  volun- 
tary muscles,  either  by 
boring  to  them  or  by  en- 
tering the  blood  or  lymph 
vessels,  and  by  being  car- 
ried by  the  circulating 
fluids.  In  the  muscles 
they  become  encysted, 
as  did  tlieir  parents,  and  they  cannot  become 
mature  until  freed  of  tbe  cyst  by  the  digestive 
Juices  of  some  animal. 

This  migration  of  the  young  from  the  in- 
testine to  the  muscles  produces  serious  and 
even  fatal  results  in  both  man  and  other  ani- 
mals. When  the  parasites  are  comparatively 
few  In  number  recovery  usually  follows,  hut 
when  they  are  Dunaerous,  severe  illness— 
trichinosis — follows,  characterind  by  many  of 
the  symptoms  of  lead  poisoning.  First,  there 
are  intestinal  pains,  vomiting,  and  diarrhea, 
then  pain  in  the  limbs  and  muscles  accom- 
panied by  dropsical  swelling.  Death  may  en- 
sue in  two  days  owing  to  the  intestinal  dis- 
turbances. More  frequently  it  occurs  in  the 
fifth  or  sixth  week.  If  the  person  suri'ive  that 
period  the  chances  for  recovery  are  increased. 
In  bad  cases  of  infection  the  number  ot  worms 
is  almost  beyond  belief,  90,000  having  been 
found  in  a  cubic  inch  of  muscle  in  the  staoul- 
der  of  a  man  who  died  from  trichinosis.  With 
man  the  source  ot  the  infection  is  almost  in- 
variably from  eating  raw  or  imperfectly  cooked 
pork  in  which  are  the  encysted  worms.  It  is 
only  tbe  lean  meat  which  is  dangerous,  as 
rarely.  If  ever,  are  the  Truihinm  found  in  the 
fat.     The  presence  of  the  cysts  in  the  pork 


Tbicris*  Ehctsted 


nucHiNtAsia 

cannot  be  recognized  ti^  the  naked  eye.  None 
of  the  processes — pickling,  smoking,  etc. — used 
for  preaerving  pork  kills  the  paruites,  and 
ham  and  bacon,  unkas  thoroughly  cooked,  are 
as  dangerous  as  fresh  pork.  In  the  U.  S.  cases 
of  trichinosis  are  oompar&tivelj  rare,  one  of 
the  most  serioua  being  at  Marshalltown,  la.,  in 
1B91,  which  resulted  in  several  deaths. 

Trichlnl'asiB,  or  Tricbino'iii,  the  disease  in- 
duced by  eating  trichinoua  flesh  of  swine.  See 
Tbjchisa. 

TH'color,  the  French  national  flag,  colored 
blue,  white,  and  red  in  vertical  divisions,  the 
blue  being  next  the  flagstaff.  It  was  first 
adopted  during  the  Revolution,  and  it  is  stated, 
{though  not  generally  believed)  that  the  colors 
of  the  liverj  of  Philippe,  Duke  of  Orleans 
ICitizen  £^lite),  were  selected  for  the  na- 
tional flag.  Many  other  national  flags  are  tri- 
colors, as  the  Dutch,  in  which  the  divisions 
are  horizontal  instead  of  vertical. 

Tiieate  (tre-es'tS),  formerly  Txiest,  city  of 
the  Austrian  Empire,  and  its  most  impoitant 
port;  on  the  Gulf  of  Triest,  at  the  NE.  ex- 
tremity of  the  Adriatic.  370  m.  SSW.  of  Vi- 
enna. The  old  town,  which  mostly  consists  of 
narrow  and  tortuous  streets,  is  built  on  a  steep 
acclivity,  at  the  foot  of  which  the  new  town 
extends  along  the  harbor;  between  the  two 
parts  of  the  town  runs  the  Corso,  a  broad 
thoroughfare,  opening  into  large  squares  lined 
uith  magnificent  edifices.  Shipbuilding  is  an 
important  industry.  White  lead,  candles,  wax, 
so:ip,  leather,  spirits,  and  earthenware  are 
made.  It  is  from  its  commerce  that  Trieste 
derives  its  importance.  In  1906,  9,462  vessels 
of  3,0S2,aTB  tons  entered  the  port  The  value 
of  the  annual  imports  is  about  966,000,000; 
exports  about  $62,000,000.  The  city  has  a 
naval  and  mercantile  academy  and  a  school  of 
navigation,  and  is  the  headquarters  of  the  Aus- 
trian Lloyds  Steani- packet  Company,  which 
has  magnificent  docks  and  arsenals.  Among 
the  principal  exports  are  grain,  rice,  wine,  oil, 
flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  silk,  iron,  lead,  cop(ter, 
and  liqueurs.  Cotton,  cotton  goods,  dried 
fruits,  etc,  are  imported.  The  old  town  con- 
tains a  cathedra]  built  between  the  fifth  and 
fourteenth  centuries.  Trieste  was  acquired  by 
Austria  in  13B2.    Pop.  (lOOT)  205,130. 

Trielldtt,  a  family  of  flshes,  related  to  the 
Cotiida,  including  gurnards,  sen  robins,  flying 
fishes,  etc.  The  elongate  body  may  be  covered 
with  scales  or  with  Mnj  plates;  the  head  is 
usnalt^  covered  with  rough,  bony  plates,  some 
of  which  bear  spines.  The  eyes  are  set  high 
in  the  head;  the  upper  jaw  is  slightly  pro- 
tracted and  longer;  pyloric  appendages  develop 
in  moderate  number;  an  air  bladder  is  present. 
The  family  ia  represented  on  the  E.  coast  of 
N.  America  by  five  species,  and  elsewhere  in 
almost  every  sea. 

Trigonom'etiy  (literally,  the  meoaurement  ol 
triangles),  a  branch  of  mathematics  by  which 
the  magnitude  of  certain  angles  and  sides  of 
triangles  may  be  determined  when  others  are 
known;  more  widely,  the  mrtthematical  treat- 
ment of  angles  in  general  and  their  relations, 
or  of  circular  functions. 


..,(-).„, 


TRIGONOMET&Y 

Angles  are  measured  in  two  ways;  (!)  By 
the  length  of  the  subtending  arc  in  d^rees 
(a  degree  being  ^ig  at  a  full  circle)  ;  and  (2) 
by  the  ratio  of  the  length  of  the  subtending 
are  to  that  of  the  radius.  In  either  case  the 
length  of  the  radius  evidently  has  no  effect  on 
the  result;  for  instance,  a  right  angle,  being 
subtended  by  a  quarter  circumference,  is  al- 
ways ninety  degrees  on  the  first  systen 
the   second,    '    (the   ratio  i 

Since  V  (the  ratio  of  circumference  to  diam- 
eter) is  numerically  3.1416  to  the  fourth 
decimal  place,  the   fraction   g    Is   1.5708;   but 

the  sjTnbol  »  is  usually  retnined  In  calcula- 
tion, being  reduced  to  figures  in  the  reanlts. 
The  angle  whose  arc  is  equal  to  the  radiiA  is 
thus  the  "  unit  angle "  in  this  system,  and  is 
expressed  in  degrees  by  S7,3°  nearly. 

The  calculations  of  trigonometry  are  based 
on  certain  functions,  which  may  be  defined  as 
lines  or  as  the  ratios  of 
two  lines ;  in  the  latter 
form  they  are  called  "  the 
trigonometrical  ratios." 
Drawing  a  so-called  "  tri- 
angle of  reference  " — a  right- 
angled  triangle  whose  base 
angle  A  is  tlie  angle  whose  trigonometrical 
ratios  are  to  be  defined — we  then  have 


The  sine       of  A  (written  sin  A)  = 
The  cosine     of  A  (      "       cos  A )  = 


The  tangent  of  A  ( 
The  cosecant,  secant, 
and  cotangent  of  A 
are  respectively  the 
reciprocals,  in  order, 
of  these  three  ratios. 
The  functions  may  be 
expressed  as  lines  by 
assuming  a  circu 
whose  radius  ia  unity.- 
Here  the  three  ra- 
tios above  reduce  to 
the  three  lines  BC, 
AC,  and  DE. 

Various   relations   may  be  deduced  between 
these  functions ;  for  instance, 

sin'  X  +  foa*  »  ^  1 

ton  lE  COB  x=^l 


sin  {a  +  b)  ^sln  a  cos  b  -t-  sin  b  cos  a, 

etc. 

The  numerical  values  of  these  functions  hav- 
ing been  cnlculatcd  and  tnhulated,  triangles 
may   be   "  solved "   by   their   means.      Thus   if 

■in  A  = 


BA 


OS  above,  BC  =  sin  A  x  BA.    In 


other  words,  hnving  given  tlie  length  of  BA 
and  the  vnlue  of  the  angle  A,  BC  may  be  cal- 
culated by  looking  up  the  sine  in  a  table  and 
multiplying  out. 

If  Uie  triangle  is  drawn  a 


''Cc^;^lt 


'  KTcat  <4r<!l«fl,    it  la    a 
d  Ita  aolution  U  a  prob- 


TRlLOSlTEiS 

sphere  with   ana   of 
tpherioal  triangle,  and 

lem  of  apherical  trisonometiy,  Here,  aa  the 
■idea  are  arcs,  boib  they  and  the  angle* 
(called  the  six  "parte")  have  their  trigo- 
nometrical functionB,  and  the  relationa  are 
more  complex.  For  instance,  if  A,  B  and  G 
are  anglea  and  a,  l>  and  e  the  opposite  aides. 


..,,^Ai,..>....(°-±l±-'-.), 

8in  6  Bin  c 


came  extinct  in  PalBOZoia  times.  The  body  was 
divisible  into  three  regions — a  head  with  com- 
pound ejes,  a  thorax  composed  of  s  varying 
number  ol  movable  eegmente,  and  an  abdomen 
I  which  saveral  segments  Srmly 
nited  to  one  another  tfay  be  ree- 
.  ognized.  The  bead  bore  a  pair  of 
L  sntennn   and   at   least  four   pair- 


.  etc  region  the  feet  were  two- 
branebed  and  bore  gills.  The  trilobites  are 
among  the  moat  abundant  fossils  in  the 'older 
rocks.  They  appear  in  the  Cambrian  and  die 
out  in  the  Carboniferous.  The  species  ar»  very 
numerous,  varying  greatly  in  siie. 

Tiimnrtl  (tre-mOr'te) ,  Sanskrit,  "  having 
three  forms,"  the  Hindu  trinity,  consisting  of 
Brfthma,  Vishnu,  and  Siva,  considered  as  an 
inseparable  unity,  and  as  representing  the  cre- 
ating, the  preserving,  and  the  destroying  and 
regenerating    principles    of   the   deity   reapect- 


Ilin'idad,  island  of  the  W.  Indies;  near  the 
NE.  coast  of  Venesuela,  and  N.  of  the  delta 
of  the  Orinoco;  area,  1,764  sq.  m.     It  is  nearly 

3uare,  with  peninsular  projections  at  the  an- 
!B.  Trinidad  is  generally  classed  as  the 
southernmost  of  the  Caribbean  group;  but  by 
its  structure,  fauna,  and  flora  it  belongs  to 
S.  America,  and  in  all  probability  was  formerly 
united  to  it.  A  range  of  low  mountains,  a 
continuation  of  those  of  Paris,  follows  the  N. 
coast,  some  of  the  peaks  attaining  3,000  ft. 
The  remainder  of  the  surface  is  hilly,  or  low, 
with  tracte  of  swsmp;  hills  line  the  8.  coast. 
There  are  no  true  volcanoes,  but  some  small 
craterlike  cavities  emit  sulphureted  hydrogen, 
and  sometimes  Qamea.  The  celebrated  asphalt 
lake.  La  Brea,  is  near  the  SW.  end;  it  covers 
100  acres,  the  asphalt  bubbling  up  in  the  center 
but  hardening  around  the  margins,  where  it  is 
extracted;  116,875  tons  were  exported  in  1906. 
The  soil,  of  Trinidad  is  fertile,  and  there  are 
large  forests,  especially  in  the  N.  and  E.  parts. 
The  climate  is  warm  but  healthful,  and  rains 
are  abundant  from  May  to  October;  during  the 
winter  montha  the  ground  is  watered  by  heavy 


dewB.  Hurricanes  are  never  felt.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  inhabitants  are  n^roes, 
mixed  races,  and  Hindu  coolies.  The  whites 
sre  ol  English,  Scotch,  or  French  descent,  with 
refugees  from  Venezuela.  Most  of  the  popu- 
lation is  in  the  W.  part  of  the  island,  where 
are  the  principal  towns.  Port  of  Spain,  the 
capital,  is  the  commercial  center.  Agriculture 
is  the  principal  occupation,  and  the  Island  Iiaa 
many  peossjit  proprietors.  The  exports  are 
sugar,  cacao,  asphalt,  etc.  By  its  position. 
Port  of  Spain  controls  much  of  the  trade  of 
Venecuela.  Trinidad  was  discovered  by  Colum- 
bus in  1408.  The  Spaniards,  after  carrying  off 
the  Indian  inhabitants  as  slaves,  had  only  small 
establiahmente,  later  increased  by  French  im- 
migrants, from  Grenada.  The  British  seised 
the  island  in  1797,  and  have  since  held  it. 
With  Tobago  {since  1889)  it  forms  the  crown 
colony  of  1  rinidad.   Pop.    (1011)    330,074. 

Trinita'riuu.    See  BjaJsarpnomsTS. 

Trin'ity  Snn'dar,  in  the  Roman  CathoUe, 
Anglican,  and  other  churches  (but  not  the 
GrMk  Church),  the  Sunday  next  after  Pente- 
cost. It  was  established  as  a  church  festival, 
in  honor  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  by  Pope  John 
XXIl  in  1320.  It  had  been  long  oelebrated  In 
some  Western  dioceses,  but  not  generally  be- 
fore 1400. 

Trionydiidtt.    Bee  TnxTUC. 

Tri^t'aka  (Sanskrit,  "three  baskets"),  the 
sacred  scriptures  of  the  Buddhists ;  so  called 
because  made  up  of  three  collections  called  re- 
spectively Sutra,  or  aphorJams;  Vinaya,  or 
discipline;  and  AblUdkarma  or  Abkidhamnui, 
metaphysics.  ( See  Pau  Literatube.  )  The 
name  Tripitaka  is  also  applied  to  the  Chinese 
:San-tsan^  (three  itorehouees ) ,  which  consists 
of  translations,  from  the  first  century  onward, 
of  original  Sanskrit  texts,  and  of  commentaries 
and  other  matter.  A  complete  copy  of  this  (in 
2,200  volumes,  requiring  106  ft.  of  shelf  room) 
is  in  the  library  of  the  India  Office,  London. 
An  edition  in  over  600  volumes,  printed  from 
movable  metal  type,' was  isshed  in  1881-85  by 
one  of  the  monasteries  in  Tokio. 

Tii'ple  Alli'ance,  (1)  the  league  between 
England,  Sweden,  and  the  SUites-General 
( 1068)  for  the  protection  of  the  Spanish  Neth- 
erlands against  Louis  XIV.  (2)  The  league 
of  Great  Britain,  France,  and  the  Netherlands 
against  Spain  and  the  Pretender  in  1717.  (3) 
The  league  of  Austria,  Great  Britain,  and 
SuBsia,  concluded  in  1796.  (4)  The  Dreibund, 
or  league  of  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy, 
formed  for  mutual  protection  in  ease  of  attack 
by  other  powers.  A  dual  alliance  between  Aus- 
tria and  Germany  had  been  formed  in  1879, 
and  Italy  was  admitted  as  a  third  member  in 
1882. 

Trip'oli,  one  of  the  thirty-eight  vilayets  or 
provinces  of  Turkey,  and,  including  Barca  on 
the  E.,  the  only  r^on  in  Africa  now  directly 
controlled  by  Turkey.  It  has  over  700  m.  of 
sea  frontage  on  the  Mediterranean,  adjoins 
Egypt  and  the  Libyan  waste  on  the  B.,  in- 
cludes Feixau  on  the  S.,  and  ha*.  Tunis  o 


I  ha*.  Tunis  on  ita 


TRIPOLI 

W.  frontier.  Though  about  one  third  Urger 
thui  Texas,  its  population  ia  only  S00,000  to 
l/>00,000.  Ita  coast  towns  are  the  natural 
.  points  of  departure  for  caraTani  to  the  W. 
Sudan.  Moat  of  tha  r^on  is  poor  and  aandj, 
and  the  aands  from  the  deserts,  together  with 
Tast  quantities  blown  inland"  from  the  sea  bor- 
der, hare  restricted  the  areas  where  agricul- 
ture can  flourish.  Nine  tenths  of  the  countrjr 
has  no  population.  The  rainfall  is  small,  and 
Tripoli  has  not  a  single  perennial  stream; 
but  it  has  many  small  areas  that  are  very 
fruitful,  particularly  along  the  low  mountains 
that  bisect  it  from  E.  to  W.  and  from  N.  to 
S.,  and  along  the  usually  dry  water  courses. 
The  almond  tree,  olive,  and  date  flourish,  and 
the  vine  is  widely  cultivated,  though  not  for 
wine  making. 

The  fauna,  like  the  flont.  Is  poorer  than  in 
countries  of  the  coast  farther  W.  Neither  lions 
nor  pasthera  are  found  in  the  mountains,  croco- 
diles canmtt  live,  and  the  elephants  that  once 
roamed  over  the  country  were  long  ago  driven 
out  by  destruction  of  the  forests.  Foxes,  liares, 
wolves,  monkeys,  gazelles,  and  antelopes  are 
the  only  game.  There  are  a  few  reptiles,  but 
not  many  birds,  moat  of  them  being  birds  of 
passage.  Camels  and  asses  are  the  chief  do- 
mestic animals.  Fat-tailed  sheep  are  raised  to 
some  extent,  hut  ^oats  are  much  more  numer- 
ous. The  population  consists  mainly  of  Arabs 
and  Berbers.  The  Berbers,  representing  the 
ancient  inhabitants,  are  probably  more  numer- 
ous, but  there  has  been  great  admixture  of 
these  families.  Thousands  of  slaves  from  the 
Sudan  form  an  important  element  in  the  popu- 
lation. The  Turks,  though  in  absolute  control 
of  the  countn  since  1835,  form  only  a  small 
minority.  They  hold  them- 
■elves  above  the  people  they 
govern  and  are  looked  upon 
as  strangers.  Arabic,  and 
not  Turkish,  is  the  official 
language.  In  1911  Tripoli 
was  occupied  by  Italian 
troops  and  war  with  Tur- 
key resulted.  The  only  port 
of  importance  is  the  capi- 
tal, Tripoli,  and  the  chief 
exports  are  esparto  grass, 
ostrich  feathers,  and  a  lit- 
tle wheat.  The  total  export  and  import  trade 
with  Europe  amounts  only  to  about  10,000,000 


terranean,  capita]  of  the  Turkish  province  of 
Tripoli  The  city  has  trade  with  Europe  and  a 
large  caravan  trade  with  the  W,  Sudan,  but  it 
is  far  inferior,  commercially,  to  several  other 
cities  on  the  S.  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  It 
presents  a  charming  aspect  from  the  sea.  but  a 
nearer  view  shows  dilapidated  buildings,  nar- 
row and  tortuous  streets,  and  abounding  dirt 
and  refuse.  Negro  staves  have  introduced  cab- 
ins like  those  in  which  the^  lived  in  the  Sudan. 
Much  has  been  done  to  improve  appearances 
and  sanitary  conditions.  Of  late  years  its 
largest  source  of  prosperity  has  been  the  ex- 
port of  esparto  grass.  Pop.  est.  from  25,000  to 
30,00a 


TRISTAN  DA  CtWHA 

Tripoli,  seaport  town  of  Syria;  in  the  vilayet 
of  Beirut,  atmut  40  In.  NNE.  from  Beirut. 
Renowned  for  its  commerce  in  antiquitv,  it  was 
specially  important  during  the  crusaaee.  El- 
Kadisha,  "  the  sacred  river,"  which  rises  among 
the  ^rove  of  cedars  on  Lebanon,  renders  the 
vicinity  fertile  and  unhealthfut.  It  has  a  fine 
and  safe  harbor.  It  exports  raw  silk,  sponges, 
sosp,  olive  oil,  cotton,  and  fruits.  Pop.  30,000, 
mainly  Mussulmans. 

Tri'pos,  the   system   of  honors  examination 
at    the    Univ.    of    Cambridge,    England.      The 
derivation  of  the  name  goes  back  to  an  early 
period,   when  the   student  who   was  being  ex- 
amined    sat     on     a     three- 
legged  stool.     The  tripos  is 
usually  taken  at  the  end  of 
the   third  year  of   residence. 
Tliere   are   the  mathematical   i 
tripos,  classical  tripos,moral  ' 
sciences     tripos,     etc      The  I 
one    who    obtains    the    high- 
est  place   in  the   mathemat- 
ical tripos  is  called  the  senior 
wrangler.     See    Wbasqlek. 

Trip'tych,  a  set  of  three 
tablets  or  panels  hinged 
together.  The  use  of  the 
appliance  is  ^erally  to  Tbipttch. 
hold  either  writing  or  paint- 
ing in  such  a  way  that  it  is  protected  from 
injury.    See  Difttch, 

Trl'reniB,  a  gall^  or  vessel  with  three 
benches  or  ranks  of  oars  ou  a  side,  a  com- 
mon class  of  warship  among  the  ancient  Greeks, 
Komans,  Carthagiiuans,  etc.    The  trireme  was 


also  provided  with  e 

could  be  raised  during  a 

rowers,  but  was  never  employed  in  action. 

Trisec'tion  of  An'gle,  a  celebrated  problem 
among  the  ancient  geometers.  It  belongs  to 
the  same  class  of  problems  as  the  duplication  of 
the  cube  and  the  insertion  of  two  geometrical 
means  between  two  given  linM.  Like  them,  it 
cannot  be  solved  by  the  methods  of  elementary 
geometry.  It  may,  however,  be  solved  by 
means  of  an  axillary  curve  called  a  conchoid; 
it  can  also  be  solved  in  several  ways  by  the 
principles  of  higher  geometry. 

Tiismegis'tus.    See  Hebueb  Tbishbotstus. 

Tristan'  da  Cnnba  (da  kOn'yft),  the  largest 
of  a  group  of  islands  in  the  8.  Atlantic.  Area, 
40  sq.  m.  It  is  mountainous,  its  center  ris- 
ing into  a  volcanic  peak  7,040  ft,  but  fertile, 
well   provided   with  water,   and  healthful.     It 


tftttON 

waa  discovered  in  1606  by  the  Portuguese  Trii- 
tan  da  Cunha,  and  o<^upied  by  British  troops 
during  the  (captivity  of  Napoleon  on  St.  Helena, 
Pop.  (1903)  76.'  Property  is  held  in  comni<Ki; 
there  Is  no  crime  and  no  strong  drink.  The 
other  islands  are  Inaccessible  Island  and  the 
ngule,  Stol- 
E  frequeuled 
by  scale  and  sea  fowl. 

Tri'ton,  in  Greek  mythology,  a  marine  deity, 
Rometimes  the  son  of  Poseidon  and  Amphri- 
trite,  aometimes  a  subordinate  sea  god',  and 
sometimea  even  localited  as  the  god  of  the  Lib- 
yan Sea.  In  art  he  is  represented  as  a  youne 
man  with  the  body  ending  in  a  Qsh  tail,  and 
with  a  trunipet  of  couch  Bbelis,  with  which,  at 
the  command  of  Poseidon,  be  bade  the  waves 
be  still.  Also,  a  name  eiven  ( 1 )  to  a  mollusk ; 
(2}  to  the  aquatic  sabmanders,  especially  of 

Til'nmpta,  the  highest  railitaiy  honor  in  an- 
cient Rome;  a  state  pageant  in  which  a  victori- 
ous general  or  naval  commander,  preceded  by 


fered.  In  order  to  triumph,  the  general  must 
be  in  possession  of  the  liighest  magisterial 
power  as  dictator,  consul,  proconsul,  prcetor, 
or  proprstor.  The  war,  too,  must  be  one 
against  foreign  foes,  and  must  have  been 
brought  to  a  conclusion.  There  were  also 
other  conditions  which  were  not  uniformly  ob- 
sen'ed.  The  triumphal  procession  was  very 
brilliant,  and  sometimes  lasted  two  or  thiee 
days.  It  was  customary  to  put  to  death  some 
of '  the  hostile  (chiefs  during  the  triumphal 
march.  There  are  in  all  about  360  recorded  tri- 
uniphs;  the  last  seems  to  have  been  celebrated 
by  Diocletian  in  302  a.d. 

Trinm'viis,  or  Tres'viri,  in  ancient  Rome,  a 
t>oard  of  three  men.  Besides  certain  permanent 
boards,  the  name  was  applied  to  various  ex- 
traordinary commissions  ai^inted  to  perform 
some  special  public  duty.  The  coalition  of  Cae- 
sar, Pompey,  and  Crassus  in  B.C.  60  is  often, 
though  improperly,  called  the  first  triumvirate. 
The  men  who  constituted  it  bore  no  official  ti- 
tle, and  exercised  only  an  usurped  power.  The 
second  triumvirate  (Octavian,  Hark  Antony, 
and  Lepidus}  was  officially  recognized  by  the 
Senate,  and  the  three  magistrates  bore  the 
name  of  Tresviri  reipublica  conaiitucnda  (tri- 
umvirs for  arranging  public  affairs). 

Triv'inin,  name  applied  in  the  Middle  Ages 
to  the  arts,  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  dialectic, 
which  were  taught  in  the  cloister  and  cathe- 
dral schools.  The  trivium  and  quadrivium — 
music,  arithmetic,  geometry,  and  astronomy- 
made  up  the  seven  liberal  arts. 

Trochu  (tr&shU'),  Lonls  Jules,  1815-66; 
Frencli  general;  b.  at  Le  Palais;  made  his 
military  career  chieSy  as  aide-de-camp  and  in 
the  ministry  of  war;  distinguished  himself  at 
the  storming  of  the  MalakofT  as  commander  of 
the  First  Brigade  of  the  First  French  Corpa 
By  his  pamphlet  "  L'Armee  Francaiae  en  1887," 
revealing  the  weakness  of  the  French  army  and 
advocating  the  adoption  of  Prussian  methods. 


thouboke 

he  lost  the  favor  of  the  emperor  Napdeon.  He, 
however,  was  apptnnted  Governor  of  Paris, 
1870;  after  the  breaking  out  of  the  revolt  in 
Paris  he  was  made  commander  in  chief  of  the 
forces  defending  the  city  and  President  of  the 
Government  of  National  Defense,  which  posi- 
tion be  held  until  the  surrender  of  the  city  to 
the  Germans.  He  was  chosen  to  the  National 
Assembty  in  1871,  but  retired  to  private  life  in 
1873. 

TroglodytM,  with  the  ancient  writers  the 
name  of  races  found  in  the  Cancasus  and  else- 
where, but  especially  along  the  coasts  of  the 
Red  Sea,  which  region  was  called  Regio  Trog- 
lodytica.  Common  to  these  tribes  was  their 
low  grade  of  civilization.  They  lived  in  caves 
and  depended  on  herds  of  cattle  for  their  live- 
lihood. Tlie  name  is  now  applied  to  cave 
dwellers  generally.  Troglodytes  is  the  name 
both  of  a  genus  of  wrens  and  of  the  genus  con- 
taining the  chimpanzee  and  gorilla.  See  Cave 
Dwellers. 

Tro'gons,  familj^  of  beautiful  tropical  birds 
of  -S.  America,  Asia,  and  Africa  which  nest  in 
holes  in  trees.  The  most  goi^eous  of  the  fifty 
known  species  is  the  respiendent  trogon  or  quet- 
zal of  Guatemala,  which  is  of  a  brilliant  metal- 
lic green  above  and  red  below. 

Tiollope  (trOl'Hp),  Anthony,  1813-S2;  Eng- 
lish novelist;  b.  London;  educated  at  Winches- 
ter and  Harrow;  1834  to  1867  was  connectcfl 
with  the  British  postal  service,  for  which  he 
made  many  voyages,  and  later  traveled  exten' 
sively  in  the  U.  8.,  the  W.  Indies,  and  Aus- 
tralia. In  1869  he  was  an  unsuccessful  candi- 
date for  Parliament,  in  the  Liberal  interest. 
He  wrote  several  books  of  travel  and  many 
novels.  Among  his  books,  which  number  about 
seventy,  are  "The  Warden,"  "  Barcheater  Tow- 
ers," his  first  decided  success  (1857);  "Doctor 
Thome,"  one  of  bis  best  works;  "The  Last 
Chronicles  of  Barset,"  "The  Way  We  Live 
Now,"  "  The  Prime  Minister,"  "  The  American 
Senator,"  "The  Duke's  Children,"  and  a  "Lite 
of  Cicero"  (1881).  An  "Autobiography"  de- 
scribes his  methods  of  work,  which  were  very 
systematic,  and  testified  that  for  the  last  twen- 
ty years  hts  books  had  yielded  him  nearly 
f70,000.  Trollope's  fiction  is  of  the  realistic 
type,  honest  in  purpose,  truthful,  and  solid,  but 
often  dull  and  creeping  in  style.  He  excelled 
in  the  portrayal  of  clerical  characters  and  the 
humdrum  life  of  rural  parishes. 

Trolls,  a  name  often  applied  to  the  ^ants 
of  Scandinavian  mythology  and  to  a  similar 
class  of  beings  in  modem  Scandinavian  folk- 
lore. Tlie  trolls  of  folklore  are  very  powerful 
and  hostile  to  man.  They  are  regarded  as  ex- 
tremelj'  stupid,  and  hence  men  usually  defeat- 
ed them  in  their  attempts  to  capture  fair  maid- 
ens. Princesses  taken  into  the  subterranean 
mansions  built  of  gold  and  silver  easily  deceive 
the  credulous  trolls,  and  so  make  their  escape. 

Trom'bone,  a  large  brass  wind  instrument 
of  the  trumpet  species,  supposed  to  be  the  same 
as  the  sackbut  of  early  writers.  Its  peculiarity 
consists  in  the  facility  of  deepening  the  tones 
by  me^ns  of  sliding  tubes,  making  it  one  of  the 
most  effective  inetruroenta  in  an  orchestm. 
There  are  three  kinds— alto,  tenor,  and  baat. 


TROMP 

Tromp,  Huuten  Harperttooo  Tan,  1697- 
1653;  Etutch  admlralt  b.  Briet;  in  1024  was  in 
command  of  b  frig&te.  In  1637  he  was  made 
lieutenant-admiral,  and  in  1630  gained  a  Eu- 
ropean fame  by  hia  two  great  victories  over 
the  Spanish  fleet  oft  GravelineB  and  in  the 
Downs.  He  was  at  flrat  less  succesaful  in  the 
war  between  England  and  Holland,  and,  hav- 
ing been  defeated  by  Blake,  he  even  lost  his 
command  in  IG.'i2.  He  was  soon  reinstated,  and 
defeated  Biake  completely  in  the  Downs,  De- 
cember 10,  1662.  In  February,  1653,  he  fought 
against  the  combined  fleet  of  Blake,  Jlonk,  and 
Deane,  and,  though  worsted,  showed  courage 
and  a  kill  and  effected  a  successful  retreat. 
He  fought  another  indecisive  battle  in  June. 
In  July,  1653,  he  again  attacked  the  EnglLsli 
fleet.  The  battle  lasted  two  days,  but  was 
finally  lost  by  the  Dutch,  and  Tromp  himself 
waa  killed,  August  8,  1653.  His  son,  CoB- 
KELica  Tboup,  162B-B!,  b.  Rotterdam,  achieved 
almost  an  equal  fame,  held  the  highest  posi- 
tions in  the  Dutch  navy,  and  served  with 
distinction  in  Denmark. 

e  of  the 


Trom'so,  port  of  N.  Norway  and  o 
most  N.  towns  in  the  world ;  lat.  IJ9' 
in  the  TromsS  Fiord.    The^port  is  commodious, 

and  is  most  frequented  by  Kusaiana,  who  come        t    t  b^  t         i      I 
far  salt  and  smoked  fish.    The  fishing  industry    -r  ^'O'^^'^^"".'™ 
is  active.    The  town  was  founded  in  17B4,  but     R"*s'an   anamhwt.*, 
did  not  become  important  until  the  middle  of 
the  nineteenth  century.    Fop.  (1900)  6,BS5. 

Tiosdbjem  (trOnd'yem),  formally  Dbont- 
nau,  the  ancient  SidaroB,  the  oldest  town  of 
Norway  (founded  996)  ;  beautifully  situated  on 
tlie  S.  shore  of  Trondhjemsf jord ;  250  m.  N.  of 
Christiania.  Its  cathedral,  in  which  the  kings 
are  crowned,  has  been  restored.  Its  breweries 
and  distilleries  are  extensive  and  celebrated. 
Much  copper,  salt  and  dried  Bsh,  oil,  and  tim- 
ber are  exported.     Pop.  (1910)  45,335. 

Tto'phy,  amonK  the  Greeks  a  memorial  erect- 
ed on  the  battlefield  by  the  victon  on  the  spot 
where  the  enemy  turned  to  flight  or  retreat. 
Originally,  trophies  were  of  wood  or  of  simple 
armor  affixed  to  a  tree.  It  was  equally  unlaw- 
ful to  deatroy  or  repair  a  trophy,  since  it  was 
considered  unwise  to  perpetuate  hostile  feel- 
ings. In  later  times  the  Romans  adopted  the 
cuatom  of  erecting  trophies. 


Trop'lc  Bird  (so  called  because  they  are  nnt 
commonly  seen  outside  the  tropics),  a  sea  bird 
■omewhat  larger  bodied  than  a  pigeon,  having 


TROOT 

the  plumage  white  with  Ana  black  markioga 
above,  pure  white  or  rosy  below;  the  bill  is  rad 
or  vellow,  feet  dark.  The  two  central  tail 
featners  are  much  longer  than  the  others,  and 
from  their  faint  suggestion  of  a  marlinspika 
these  birds  have  been  dubbed  boatswain  birds. 
They  occur  occasionally  on  the  8.  coasts  of  th« 
U.S. 

Tiop'ics,  two  circles  on  the  celestial  sphere 
parallel  to  the  equator  and  situated  on  each 
side  of  it.at  a  distance  equal  to  the  obliquity 
of  the  ecliptic— about  23°  28';  reached  by  the 
sun  at  the  point  of  ite  greatest  declination  N. 
or  S.,  the  solstice,  from  which  it  turns  again 
toward  the  equator.  The  N.  circle  is  called  tha 
Tropic  of  Cancer  and  the  5.  the  Tropic  of  Cap- 
ricorn, from  the  names  of  the  two  signs  of  the 
Zodiac  at  the  first  point  of  which  they  touch 
the  ecliptic.  The  name  is  given  also  to  the  two 
corresponding  parallels  of  terrestrial  latitude, 
and  to  the  region  lying  between  those  circles, 
the  Torrid  Zone,  or  near  them  on  either  aide. 
See  Solstice. 


Tros'sochs,    a    wooded   glen    in    Perthshire, 
Scotland,  E.of  Loch  Katrine,  made  fainoua  by 


"  iWy  of  tlie^Lake/* 


Sir  Walter  Scott  i 

Trot.     See  Oaits. 

Trotz^,  Leon  (real name  LBBBKBRAtiKSTBiN), 
Russian  auarchist-^ocialist ;  published  a  book 
of  extreme  aociolist  views  during  the  attempted 
revolution  of  1905^  waa  exiled  to  Siberia;  lat«r 
went  to  Berlin,  Switzerland,  Faria,  Spain,  Cuba; 
became  chief  editor  of  a  Russian  socialist  newB- 
paperin  New  York,  January,  1917;  returning  to 
Russia  denounced  the  U.  S.  and  American  capi- 
talism^ was  associated  with  Nikolai  Lenink 
(o.  IT. )  in  overthrowing  the  Kerensky  government, 
November,  1917,  and  in  apreading  Bolsheviki 
doctrines. 
""  Tron'badoats.   See  teawtasa. 

Troat,  a  name  given  to  several  fishes,  but 
originally  applied  to  the  trout  of  England  and 
N,  Europe  (Salmo  fario),  and  properly  used 
for  members  of  the  Salmoniii<c  only.  Trout 
are  mainly  restricted  to  fresh  waters,  where 
they  reside  the  year  round,  not,  like  salmon, 
merely  visiting  fresh  water  to  spawn ;  but 
some,  like  the  sea  trdut  of  Labrador,  may  have 
the  same  habits  as  the  salmon,  while  others 
which  thrive  in  landlocked  waters  visit  the 
sea  when  opportunity  offers.  Trout  are  all  nat- 
urally inhabitants  of  the  N.  hemisphere  only, 
but  some  species  have  been  introduced  into 
New  Zealand  and  Australia.  They  are  active 
and  powerful,  and  on  this  account,  as  well  aa 
for  their  beauty  and'  fine  fiavor,  are  favorites 
with  anplers.  They  reside  in  clear  cold  streams 
and  lakes,  and  are  among  the  most  N,  species 
of  fresh-water  fishes.  They  feed  on  small  fishes, 
insects,  and  larva,  those  of  the  mosquito  form- 
ing a  considerable  portion  of  their  food  In  the 
lakes  of  Greenland. 

There  are  about  a  score  of  species  in  N. 
America  to  which  the  term  trout  is  applied, 
but  only  eight  belong  to  the  genus  Salvtlinu* 
or  brook  trout.  The  salmon  trout  of  Europe 
is  Salmo  trutta,  residing  in  salt  water  and 
ascending  rivers.  The  salmon  trout  or  lake 
trout  of  N.  America  ia  Salvelinu*  namayoutk, 
a  largo  species  restricted  to  fresh  water.    The 


rainbow  trout  and  D0II7  Varden  trout  oeenr  ' 
on  the  Pacific  slope.  In  the  S.  parts  of  the 
U.  S.  the  name  is  applied  to  the  weokflsh  and 
to  the  black  bam. 

TronTtrea  (trfi-vflr'],  or  Tron'badouii,  the 
eourtl^  \jric  poets  of  medinral  Fnnce,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  popular  poets,  the  jon- 
gleurs, to  whom  was  'due  the  chansons  de 
geste  and  the  earliest  French  lyric  poetry.  The 
beginning  of  courtly  poetry  in  France  proper 
is  to  be  put, about  the  middle  of  the  twelfth 
century,  and  the  inspiration  to  it  was  alnutst 
.  eicusively  ProTen^l. 

Tio'Ter,  the  common-law  form  of  action  by 
which  damages  are  recovered  for  the  conver- 
sion of  chattels.  It  was  originally  designed  for 
the  particular  case  of  the  defendant's  finding 
a  thin^g  belonging  to  another,  and  appropri- 
ating it  to  his  own  use;  whence  the  plaintiff's 
pleading  necessarily  contained  an  averment  of 
the  loss  and  finding — in  law  French,  trouver. 

Troy,  Tro'ja,  or  n'imn,  the  scene  of  the 
Homeric  "  Diad "  and  the  metropolis  of  the 
Troad,  the  coast  region  extending  from  Cape 
Lectum  on  the  .lEgean  to  Dardanus  and  Aby- 
dus  on  the  Hellespont.  The  Troad  comprised 
a  broad,  undulating  plain  sloping  from  the  foot 
of  Mt.  Ida  to  the  sea,  and  traversed  by  the  riv- 
ers Scamander  and  Bimols.  This  plain  was 
densely  peopled  by  a  mixed  race  of  Pelasgians 
and  Phrygians,  and  contained  man;  cities, 
of  which  Troy  was  by  far  the  most  splendid 
and  powerful.  Troy  was  founded  by  Ilua,  the 
son  of  Tree,  and  developed  rapidly;  legend  teUa 
how,  under  Laomedon,  the  son  of  Hits,  Posei- 
don himself  built  its  walla  It  had  a  fortified 
acropolis,  called  Pergamum,  which  contained 
the  temples  and  royal  palaoes.  Under  Priam 
it  reached  its  highest  splendor  and  experienced 
its  downfall.  Priam's  son,  Paris,  carried  off 
Helrai,  the  wife  of  Menelaus,  and  in  order  to 
punish  this  outrage  a  Greek  army  landed  in 
Troas,  besieged  Troy  for  ten  years,  and  finally 
destroyed  it,  though  thi  lungdom  of  Troy 
seems  to  have  continued  centuries  after  "the 
destruction  of  its  capital.  The  site  of  the  city 
is  disputed. 

According  to  Homer  it  was  not  in  the  plain, 
but  stood  on  a  hill  between  the  Scamander  and 
the  Simols,  which  united  in  front  of  it.  In 
ancient  times  it  was  ^nerally  believed  that 
New  Ilium,  a  city  of  little  importance  on  the 
Scjomander,  and  of  which  some  ruins  are  still 
extant  near  the  present  village  of  Hissarlik, 
occupied  the  same  site  as  Old  Ilium.  Although 
other  sites  have  been  su^ested  by  later 
scholars,  the  modern  view  is  that  of  antiquity 
since  the  extensive  excavations  of  Schliemann 
at  Hissarlik   (1B71'B2}. 

Troy,  capital  of  Rensselaer  Co.,  N.  T.;  at 
the  head  of  steamboat  navigation  on  the  Hud- 
son River,  160  m.  N.  of  New  York,  The  city  is 
noted  for  its  extensive  industries,  which  include 
the  manufacture  of  iron,  steel,  stoves,  ship 
chains,  cotton  cloth,  knit  goods,  machinem 
horseshoes,  bells,  fire  brick,  paint,  paper,  brush- 
es, oilcloth.  Troy  has  more  than  2S,(>00  per- 
sons employed  in  the  shirt,  collar,  cuff,  and 
laundry  industries,  and  makes  91,000,000  worth 
ftf  valves  yearly. 


TRUCK  OF  GOD 

The  most  widely  known  educational  institu- 
tion is  the  Rcnssdoer  Polytechnic  Institute, 
and  the  second  institution  of  note  is  the  EmnuL 
Willard  School,  founded  in  1821,  and  enlarged 
in  18B6  by  Russell  Sage.  Among  the  most 
prominent  edifices  are  the  U-  S.  Government 
building  and  the  state  armory,  while  the  Earl 
Crematory,  in  Oakwood  Cemetery,  is  the  finest 
in  the  world. 

Troy  was  laid  out  in  17B7  and  incorporate 
as  a  city,  1816.  It  has  been  almost  destroyed 
by  firs  three  timee.     Fop.   (1910)   76,813. 

Troyou  (trirt'yon).  Constant,  1810-65; 
French  painter;  b.  Sevres;  began  to  exhibit 
landscapes  about  1S36.  He  intr^uced  cattle  in 
his  landscapes  after  about  1848,  and  painted  ' 
them,  as  well  as  sheep,  with  great  knowledge 
and  admirable  simplicity.  His  pictures  raiuc 
among  the  finest  of  the  modem  French  school. 
He  was  a  colorist  of  great  strength,  and  his  pic- 
tures are  comp(»ed  with  nobility  and  grandeur 

Troy  Weight  (from  Troy  Komint,  a  monk- 
ish name  for  London),  a  system  of  weight,  em- 
ployed in  England  and  the  U,  S.  for  gold,  sil- 
ver, jewels,  and  drugs.  The  troy  pound  has 
12  oz.  One  pound  troy  is  to  1  lb.  avoirdlipois 
as  144  is  to  175.  The  troy  ounce  is  to  the 
otince  avoirdupois  as  102  is  to  176. 

Trace,  or  Ar'mistice,  a  temporary  stoppage 
of  hostUities  contemplating  a  longer  duration 
and  a  wider  application  than  the  brief  cessa- 
tion of  hostilities  which  is  caRed'a  suspension 
of  arms.  A  truce  implies  a  return  to  a  state  of 
war,  while  a  peace  presupposes  that  the  causes 
of  war  have  been  removed.  The  cessation  of 
hostile  operations  may  apply  to  an  individual 
only,  through  a  Qag  of  truce,  a  passport,  or  a 
safe  conduct;  or  it  may  apply  to  the  whole  or 
a  portion  of  the  armies  of  the  belligerent  A 
flag  of  truce,  a  white  flag  to  which  attention  is 
called  by  the  sound  of  a  trumpet,  is  used  to 
open  negotiation  for  any  cause  during  hostili- 
ties. There  is  no  obligation  to  receive  it,  and 
in  the  midst  of  a  battle  it  may  be  that  injury 
is  done  to  its  bearers  inadvertently;  neverthe- 
less by  law  and  ustfge  they  are  inviolable.  The 
flag  of  truce  must  not  be  employed  to  apj  out 
an  enemy's  position  or  to  delay  a  battle  until 
reserves  can  be  brought  up;  a  belligerent  can 
take  measures  to  prevent  such  abuses. 

'The  theory  of  a  truce  is  that  neither  partjr 
shall  be  helped  in  bis  military  operations  by 
it;  that  such  affairs  shall  be  in  the  same  posi- 
tion at  its  end  as  at  its  beginning.  But  this 
principle  is  not  carried  out  so  fully  as  to  forbid 
those  operations  which  could  have  been  carried 
on  without  military  interference  had  no  truce 
existed.  Thus  in  a  besieged  town  or  fortress 
nothing  can  be  done  during  a  truce  by  either 
party  which   the   other  was  In   a  position   to 

Erevent,  but  fortifications  not  under  fire  could 
E  built  or  strengthened  and  supplies  could  b« 
brought  in  by  ways  beyond  the  other's  control. 
Violation  of  a  truce  by  one  paitv  causes  Ita 
immediate  termination.  '  So,  too.  If  made  for  a 
definite  time,  and  that  time  has  expired,  hos- 
tilities are  resumed  without  further  notice. 
Trace  of  God,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  an  Inatl- 
I  tutlon  which  sprang  up  in  France  and  0«i^ 


TRUE  CROSS 

m&ny  hy  whicli  noble*  uid  princes  bound 
theiDBelves  to  keep  the  peace,  to  abstain  from 
unlawful  wftrs,  and  to  protect  clerics,  worn 
merchants,  pilgrims,  peasants,  and  other  m 
combatantB.  In  the  Council  of  Charroux, 
9SS,  the  Church  decreed  a  epecial  peace  to  the 
unarmed  clerk  and  laborer.  This  attempt  to 
check  violence  waa  in  part  successful,  but  the 
task  of  mt^ntftining  a  general  peace  was  hope- 
len,  and  the  Church  contented  itself  with  lim- 
iting the  feudal  warfare.  Accordingly,  at  the 
Synod  of  Tuluges,  in  1027,  it  was  decreed  that 
warfare  should  be  suspended  from  Saturday  till 
Mondaj.  This  was  afterwards  eittendM  to 
the  interval  from  Wednesday  evening  to  Mon- 
day morning  in  every  week  and  to  nearly  all 
the  more  important  fasts,  feasts,  and  holy  sea- 
Bona  of  the  Church.  England  and  Italy  adopt- 
ed the  custom,  which  was  confirmed  by  several 
Church  councHs,  among  which  were  the  Sec- 
ond and  Third  Lateran  councils  (1139  and 
1179).  The  triumph  of  l^al  over  feudal  gov- 
ernment did  away  with  this  institution  and 
with  the  necessity  for  it. 

Tme  Crosa.    See  Hoi-t  Koon. 

Tnif  fle,  any  fungus  of  the  genus  Tubtr  and 
other  closely  allied  genera.  Truffles  are  neariy 
all  subterranean  in  growth,  and  are  from  an 
inch  to  6  in.  in  diameter.  In  France  dogs  and 
pigs  are  trained  to  recognize  their  odor  and  dig 


FuncH  Tkuftlb. 

them  up.  The  truffle  Is  one  of  the  choicest  of 
the  edible  fungi,  and  its  culture  has  been  at- 
tempted with  some  success.  Some^  species  are 
found  to  a  limited  extent  in  the'  U.  S,,  hut 
most  trufBes  come  from  France,  Italy,  and  Eng- 
land. 

Tntm'balI,Jolin,l76S'1843;  American  paint- 
er; b.  at  Lebanon,  Conn.;  graduated  at  Har- 
vard, 1773;  joined  the  army  in  17T5  as  ad- 
jutant, but  left  the  service  in  1777 ;  in  1780. 
went  to  Paris,  thence  to  London,  and  studied 
with  West;  returned  to  the  U.  S.  in  17S2,  and 
remained  till  peace  was  concluded,  then  went 
back  to  England  to  resume  bis  studies.  His 
first  historical  work,  "The  Battle  of  Bunker 
Hill,"  familiar  through  engravings,  was  exhib- 
ited in  1786,  and  was  followed  by  "The  Death 
of  Montgomery  before  Quebec  "  and  the  "  Sor- 
tie from  Gibraltar."  In  1789  he  returned  to 
the  U.  S.  with  the  purpose  of  commemorating 
on  canvas  the  chief  persons  and  events  of  the 
Revolution;  among  the  likencasea  taken  were 
several  of  Washington.  He  returned  to  Eng- 
land as  secretary  to  John  Jay,  and  from  17M 
to  1804  was  in  the  diplomatic  service.  He  de- 
voted seven  years   (1822-29)   to  painting  four 


TRrST  COMPANIES 

"  Surrender  of  Comwallis,"  and  the  "  Resigna- 
tion of  Washington  at  Annapolis."  Abt.  1827 
ha  disposed  of  his  whole  collection,  fifty-seven 
pictures  in  all,  to  Yale  College,  in  consideration 
of  an  annuity  of  91,000. 

Tnunbull,  Jonathan,  1710-86;  American 
statesman;  h.  Lebanon,  Conn.;  graduated  at 
Harvard,  1727 ;  studied  theology,  but  ultimately 
devoted  himself  to  the  law;  was  judge,  licuten- 
ant'governor,  and  then  governor,  17S9-83 ; 
was  an  energetic  supporter  of  the  popular 
cause;  was  considered  a  leader  of  the  Whigs 
of  New  England,  and  his  advice  was  much 
valued  by  Washington.  The  popular  epithet, 
"  Brother  Jonathan,"  as  a  personiflcation  of 
the  U.  8.,  is  said  to  have  originated  from 
Washington's  habit  of  addressing  him  by  that 
familiar  title  when  requesting  his  opinion. 

Tmmp'et,  in  acoustics,  any  instrument  Dsed 
for  the  conveyance  to  the  ear  of  articulate 
sound  from  a  distance.  In  music  a  wind  in- 
strument, usually  consisting  of  a  brass  tube 
some  a  ft.  in  length,  expanding  at  the  end  into 
a  bell-like  shape.  By  means  of  slide  and  keys 
the  capacity  of  the  tnunpet  has  been  largely 
increased. 

Trump'eter,  a  breed  of  domestic  pigeons,  so 
called  from  the  deep  sound  of  their  coo.  The 
characteristic  feature  of  the  bird  is  the  thick 
spreading  crest  which  overhangs  the  eyes  to 
such  an  extent  that  these  birds  cannot  care 
for  their  young  until  it  is  trimmed.  The  pre- 
ferred colors  are  white  and  black. 

Tnunp'et  FislL     See  Bellows  Fish. 

Tnunpet  Flow'er,  a  popular  name  for  vari- 
ous species  of  Bignoitia  and  Tccoma,  mostly 
shrubs  and  woody  vines,  though  in  tropicaJ 
r^ions  some  of  the  species  are  large  trees. 
The  native  species  of  the  U,  S.  are  B.  capre- 
olala,  T.  radicant,  and  T.  atana.  The  first  and 
second  are  fine  climbers.  T.  oapenais  from  S. 
Africa,  T.  grandiflora  from  Japan,  and  other 
fine  species  are  often  cultivated. 

Trass,  in  surgery,  a  device  worn  to  support 
a  hernia.  It  consists  of  a  pad  so  arranged 
with  a  spring  and  straps  that  it  may  be  re- 
tained in  position  without  interfering  with  the 
patient's  movements.  In  engineering  a  truss 
is  a  framed  atructul'e  so  arranged  that  the 
principal  members  take  only  stresses  of  ten- 
sion or  compression.  A  simple  truss  is  one 
supported  at  its  two  ends,  and  it  exerts  only 
vertical  pressures  on  the  supporting  walls  or 
piers,  while  an  arched  truss  exerts  horizontal 
pressures  also. 

Trust  Com'panles,  a  modem  form  of  bank- 
ing organization  generally  authorized  to  re- 
ceive and  hold  moneys  and  property  in  trust 
and  on  deposit  from  courts  of  law  or  equity, 
executors,  administrators,  assignees,  guardians, 
trustees,  corporatiofls,  and  individuals,  and  are 
also  usually  authorized  to  be  appointed  by 
probate  courts  as  trustee  under  wills  upon 
terms  and  conditions  agreed  upon  or  prescribed 
by  statute.  They  are  also  usually  made  legal 
depositories  of  money  paid  into  court  by  par- 
ties to  legal  proceedings  or  of  money  brought 
into  court  by  reason  of  an  order  or  judgment. 


Tnutee',  in  law,  •  peraou  to  wham  proper^ 
U   legall}'  committed   in  trust   for   the  faeaefit 
I  other  party  or  parties,     "  *"  


anj  interest  therein,  is  called  the  oeatuigue 
trust.  No  one  is  compelled  to  undertake  a 
trust,  but  if  once  accepted  it  cannot  be  re- 
nounced uDlera  the  trust  deed  contains  a.  pro- 
vision allowing  it,  or  a  competent  court  grants 
a  discharge,  or  by  the  consent  of  all  those 
beneficially  interested  in  the  estate.  Trustees 
-are  liable  for  the  consequences  of  any  breach 
of  trust,  however  innocent,  and  the  estate  of  a 
trustee  deceased,  who  has  hiisapplied  the  Xrust 
fimd,  is  liable  for  the  deficiency;  but,  gener- 
ally speaking,  the  law  only  requires  of  a  trustee 
the  same  amount  of  care  and  prudence  he 
would  be  expected  to  display  in  managing  his 
own  affairs.  Where  there  are  several  trustees, 
each  is  liable  for  his  own  acts  and  receipts 
only,  unless  where  there  has  been  common 
agreeraent  and  authorization.  As  their  office 
is  considered  purely  honorary,  trustees  are  not 
entitled  to  any  allowance  for  their  trouble  in 
connection  with  the  trust.  They  may  not  in- 
Test  the  trust  funds  on  personal  security,  or 
in  stock  of  a  private  company,  unless  specially 
authori!:ed  to  do  so  by  the  trust  deed ;  but  they 
are  permitted  to  invest  in  government  stocks, 
debenture,  preference,  or  guaranteed  stock  of 
railways,  stock  of  municipal  corporations,  and 
generally  on  satisfactory  real  security. 

Traits,  in  law,  a  kind  of  ownership,  wherebjF 
property  is  vested  in  certain  persons  for  the 
use  or  benefit  of  others.  The  persons  who  bold 
the  legal  estate  are  the  "trusteea";  those  for 
whose  benefit  the  property  Is  held  or  adminis- 
tered are  known  as  the  ceatuU  que  irtutent,  or 
beneficiaries.  Trusts,  in  their  present  form 
and  variety,  date  badt.only  to  the  Statute  of 
Uses,  passed  in  1636.  Prior  to  that  statute 
the  practice  of  conveying  lands  to  one  person 
to  the  "  use "  cf  another  had  become  so  com- 
mon as  to  affect  a  large  proportion  of  the  land 
in  the  kingdom.  Bxpreta  traslt  arise  from  the 
direct  and  intentional  act  of  the  parties,  evi- 
denced by  some  declaration  which  is  generally 
contained  in  a  written  instrument  The  most 
common  examples  of  this  class  are  those  cre- 
ated by  marriage.  Reavlting  (or  implied) 
(rusl«  arise,  in  the  absence  of  any  express  dec- 
laration, by  implication  from  the  acts  of  the 
parties.  Where  the  circumstances  attending 
an  assignment  or  conveyance  of  property  are 
such  as  to  raise  a  presumption  that  a  trust, 
although  unexpressed,  was  intended,  such  a 
trust  is  said  to  "  result "  from  the  transaction. 
A  cotutmctive  trutt  is  raised  by  a  court  of 
equity  "  wherever  a  person,  clothed  with  a 
fiduciary  character,  ^ina  some  personal  ad- 
vantage by  availing  himself  of  bis  situation  as 
trustee."  The  trust  is  in  such  cases  said  to 
arise  by  construction,  without  reference  to  any 
intention   of   the   parties,   either   expressed   or 

S resumed.  Property  raay  be  given  in  trust 
ir  specified  objects  where  the  beneficiaries  are 
completely  indeterminate— as,  for  example,  a 
gift  to  aid  in  spreading  the  gospel  or  to  relieve 
Oie  poor — or  wnere  the  beneficiaries  constitute 
a  known  class,  but  the  individuals  are  uncer- 


TRUSTS 

tun,  ai  a  gift  to  provide  for  the  poor  of  a 
particular  town  or  to  support  the  scholars  in 
a  designated  school.  These  are  termed  "  chari- 
table trusts-"  In  England  charitable  trusts 
are  treated  with  liberality  by  the  courta,  and 
if  the  design  of  the  donor  cannot  be  carried 
out  exactly,  the  courts  will  permit  the  applica- 
tion of  the  charity  to  objects  as  near  to  the 
original  design  as  possible.  In  some  of  the 
U.  S.,  charitable  trusts  are  regarded  as  at- 
tempts to  create  perpetuities,  and  tiberefore 
opposed  to  the  policy  of  the  law,  and  a  cor- 
poration is  created  to  administer  the  trust. 

Commercial  Trusts. — The  great  trade  com- 
binations which,  under  the  denomination  of 
trusts,  have  become  such  a  marked  feature  of 
modem  industry,  especially  in  the  U.  S.,  owe 
th«iT  form  and  designation,  though  not  their 
importance,  either  in  law  or  in  the  industrial 
organization  of  society,  to  the  trust  proper, 
as  developed  in  Anglo-Saxon  jurisprudence. 
The  term  is  therefore  not  wholly  a  misnomer, 
though  it  becomes  so  when  it  is  popularly  ap- 
plied to  such  combinations  irrespective  of  their 
form  and  mode  of  creation,  or  «hen  the  term 
is  employed  in  a  peculiar  and  exclusive  sense 
to  describe  the  gigantic  modem  trusts  created 
for  industrial  purposes. 

The  first  form  of  (^mbinatlon  in  the  U.  S. 
was  essentially  a  "  trust,"  the  concerns  par- 
ticipating ip  it  giving  authority  to  a  boar4  of 
trustees  to  control  the  affairs  of  the  associa- 
tion. This  was  called  "  pooling,"  and,  being 
looked  upon  with  disfavor  by  the  courts 'as  an 
unlawful  restraint  of  trade,  the  "  pools  "  were 
dissolved,  although  their  purpose  was  in  many 
cases  continued  by  informal  contracts,  or  "  gen- 
tlemen's agreements,"  to  maintain  prices  and 
divide  territory  to  save  wasteful  competition. 
But  this  evasion  of  the  law  proved  unsatis- 
factory because  it  could  not  be  strictly  en- 
forced, and  soon  gave  way  to  the  modem 
"  holding  corporation  "  ,  or  trust.  Thanks  to 
the  liberality  of  the  incorporating  laws  of  such 
states  as  New  Jersey,  it  is  possible  to  form  a 
corporation  not  only  to  do  any  lawful  business, 
but  also  to  hold  the  stock  ol  other  corpora- 
tions. The  present  business  combinations  or 
trusts  are  therefore  formed  by  first  obtaining 
such  a  charter  with  power  to  do  business  and 
hold  the  stock  of  other  corporations  doing  sim- 
ilar business.  Then  a  proportion  of  the  stock 
of  each  of  the  concerns  composing  the  trust  is 
transferred  to  the  holding  corporation,  so  that 
its  directors  have  absolute  control  and  prac- 
tical ownership  of  all  the  participating  firms. 
The  Standard  Oil  Company  was  among  the 
first  to  organize  on  this  oasis,  while  the  Unit«d 
States  Steel  Corporation,  with  over  $1,432,- 
000,000  of  outstanding  securities,  is  the  larg- 
est trust  in  the  world.  There  are  now  in  the 
U.  8.  about  440  large  industiial,  franchise,  and 
transportation  trusts  with  a  total  floating  cap- 
ital of  $20,379,162,511. 

In  addition  to  these  trusts,  covering  nearly 
one  quarter  of  the  business  of  the  country, 
there  are  innumerable  minor  combinations  to 
keep  up  prices,  divide  territory,  or  restrict  th« 
output  of  factories. 

The  various  methods  of  dealing  with  the 
questions  raised  bj  these  vast  aggre- 


TRYON 

gatlona  of  capital  are   diicuiBed  under  their 
respectiTa  heads.    See  Cobpobation. 

Tit'OB,  WUlUm,  abt.  1726-88;  Americaa 
colonial  governor;   b.   Ireland;   became  diatiii- 

Kished  in  the  British  arm]r;  was  appointed 
uteoant-gOTemor  of  N.  Carolina,  1764; 
goremor,  1760;  suppressed  the  revolt  of  the 
Regulator!,  treatiag  Uie  priaonera  with  cruel- 
ty; erected  at  the  cost  of  the  province  a 
magniflcent  residence  at  Newl>ern;  governor  of 
New  York,  1771;  detested  bj  the  patriots  for 
his  acta  of  rigor  and  severity,  and  especially 
for  the  destruction  of  Danbury,  Fair&eld,  and 
Norwslk,  Conn.,  1^  expeditions  conducted  by 
him  in  persoD;  resigned,  1778,  and  returned  to 
England;  became  a  lieutoiuit-general,  1782. 

Tsad.    See  Tchad. 

Tux.    Bee  Czab. 

Tsarakoye-Selo  (tar-skCl-saao),  or  Zan- 
koye-Selo,  town  of  Russia,  14  m.  S.  of 
Fetrt^rad.  It  contains  two  magnificent  paJ- 
acea  which  are  used  hy  the  imperial  family  as 
summer  residences.  The  park  and  pleasure 
gronnda  cover  an  area  18  m.  in  circumference- 
The  Cathedral  of  St.  Sophia  is  a  copy  in  mini- 
ature of  the  mosque  in  Constantinople.  Pop. 
about  23,000. 

TtOuSkortky  (chl-kOf'skl),  Pleter  Ditch, 
1940-93;  Russian  composer;  b.  Wotkinsk, 
Russia;  entered  the  St.  Petersburg  Conserva- 
tory, 18S2.  Hia  first  compoeition  was  a  can- 
tata to  Schiller's  "  Ode  to  Joy,"  Professor, 
Moscow  Conaervatoiy,  1B6&-TT;  after  that  he 
devoted  himself  entirely  to  composition.  His 
works  include  several  operas,  symphonies, 
overtures,  and  other  orchestral  pieces,  soloa  for 
piano  and  other  inatrumenta,  chamber,  music, 
and  mon^  vocal  piecea,  aacred  and  eecular.  At 
the  opening  of  the  Camc^e  Music  HaU  he  vis- 
ited New  York,  and  conducted  several  of  his 
own  compositions. 


fiy.  It  abounds  in  aome  parts  of  S.  Africa,  but 
ia  abaent  from  large  diatricts.  Ita  bite  is 
nearly  always  fatal  to  the  ox,  horse,  and  dog, 
though  harmless  to  man,  as  well  as  to  goats, 
aaaes,  mules,  and  the  wild  beaata  of  the  regions 
it  inhabits.  The  germ  which  causes  sleeping 
aicknesa  is  supposed  to  be  tTEuiamitted  by  this 


TUBERCULOSIS 

Tnuhi'nu,  strait,  100  m.  wide,  between 
Japan  and  Korea. 

Tue  Htf  An,  1834-1900;  dowager  empress 
of  China;  b.  Canton;  married  Emperor  Hsien- 
Feng,  yeho  waa  aucceeded  by  her  son,  Tung- 
Chih,  and  after  hia  death  (1876)  ahe  became 
practically  empress,  as  the  regent  over  her 
nephew,  Kwang-Hau.  She  encouraged  the  Boiera 
(q.v.),  and  (1900)  ordered  the  expulaion  of  for- 
eigners, then  went  into  exile  till  1S02. 

Tuamota  (twK-mO'tO),  group  of  small  is- 
lands in  the  Paciflo  Ocean,  E.  of  Tahiti  (to 
which  they  are  nominally  subjecti  and  S.  of 
the  Marqueaoa;  pop.  abt., 7,000.  They  number 
between  eighty  and  dinety,  and  are  mostly  of 
coral  formation.  The  best  known  are  Chain 
and  Pitcaim  Islands,  and  the  Gambler  lalanda, 
near  the  S.  border  of  the  archipelago,  the  larg- 
est of  which  is  Maugareva.  The  group  was 
diicovered,  1797. 

TnHker,  in  plants,  a  thickened  subterraneous 
portion  of  the  a^m,  often  bearing  latent  buds 
or  eyes,  and  uaually  composed  of  ccDular  sui>- 
atance  richly  stored  with  starch  or  aome  other 
equivalent  principle.  Many  of  the  tubers,  like 
that  of  the  common  potato,  are  of  great  value 
as  aourcea  of  human  food. 

Tnbei'cnlai  Heningi'tia.    See  Menikoitib. 

TnVr'cuIin,  a  dark-brown  Suid  obtained  from 
the  pure  culture  of  the  specific  germ  o(  tuber- 
culosis, firat  prepared  by  Prof.  Robert  Koch, 
of  Berlin,  in  ISOl,  for  the  cure  of  the  early 
stages  of  tuberculoaia ;  hence  known  also  aa 
Eoch't  lymph  and  Eonk'a  aptci/ie.  The  remedy 
acts  curatively  upon  lower  animals,  especially 
guinea  piga  and  rabbits,  and  many  undoubted 
cures  have  followed  ita  use  in  the  human  sub- 
ject also;  but  it  was  quickly  brought  into  dis- 
credit by  the  exaggerated  accounts  of  its  virtue 
which  appeared  in  the  public  press,  and  by 
ita  Injudicious  use  upon  far-advanced  casts. 
Tuberculin  has  a  decided  diagnostic^  value  by 
its  producing  fever  in  tuberculous  animala  and 
in  man,  whereaa  no  such  effect  foUowa  its  ap- 
plication when  the  subject  of  such  a  trial  ia 
free  from  tuberculoaia.  This  test  is  now  largely 
applied  to  milch  cowa,  and  its  benefit  in  thus 
preventing  the  use  of  the  milk  and  flesh  of 
tuberculous  animals  aa  food  is  of  the  greatest 

Tuberculo'sis,   an    infectious    and    aoroewliat 

contagious  disease  of  man  and  many  animals, 
which  ia  caused  by  the, growth  and  apecific 
action  of  a  microorganism,  the  bacillua  of  tu- 
berculosis. Ita  ravages  are  so  great  that  not 
less  than  one  seventh  of  all  deatha  are  due  to 
this  cause;  and,  if  the  number  of  cases  in 
-which  it  has  become  latent  or  cured  are  added, 
it  ia  not  unlikely  that  the  saying  of  a  German 
phyaician  ia  true,  that  "  aooner  or  later  every- 
body has  a  little  tuberculoaia."  The  favorite 
scat  of  tuberculosis  ia  in  the  tunga,  but  any  tis- 
sue or  organ  of  the  body  may  be  affected. 
From  the  earliest  times  it  has  been  known  that 
the  lunge  of  persona  dead  o(  pulmonary  tuber- 
culosis, or  phthisis,  contain  yellow  masses; 
these  were  called  tubercles  {small  nodulea), 
and   from   them  the  name   tuberculosis  is   de- 


TUBERCULOSIS 

rived.  At  the  earliest  trtage  gruy  or  tniUarj 
tubercles  will  be  found,  and  tbete  aubve- 
quentlr  degener&te  and  become  yellow.  Oraj 
tubercles  mty  occur  also  in  the  membranes  of 
the  brain  and  in  an;  of  the  solid  organs.  The 
tendency  in  all  parts  of  the  body  is  for  the 
tubercular  masses  to  undergo  cheesy  change, 
and  later  to  liquefy  and  form  excavations. 
This  is  eminently  true  of  the  pulmonary  forms. 

Susceptibility  to  tuberculosis,  or  consump- 
tion, depends  upon  many  causes.  In  the  first 
place,  animal  families  differ  in  this  regard. 
The  disease  is  rare  among  the  cold-blooded  ani- 
mals, but  common  among;  many  of  the  domes- 
ticated animals,  particularly  the  ruminants. 
Of  the  greatest  significance  to  man  is  the  fre- 
quency of  the  disease  in  cattle.  Dogs,  cats,  and 
homes  are  less  prone.  The  goat  seems  quite 
immune.  Races  of  men  differ  largely  in  sus- 
ceptibility. In  the  U.  S.  the  negro  seems  spe- 
cially snafeptible.  The  tendency  to  tuberculosis, 
the  susceptibility,  is  regui&rly  inherited,  and 
especially  from  the  maternal  aide.  '  An  individ- 
ual iritb  hereditary  liability  may  increase  this, 
or  one  without  susceptibility  may  acquire  it, 
by  the  manner  of  life.  Any  exposing  occupa- 
tion or  ill-conditioned  residence,  or  causes  {hat 
deprave  the  system  or  occasion  pulmonary 
troubles,  bronchitis,  and  the  like,  make  the  in- 
dividual prone  to  become  infected.  Certain  oc- 
cupations, such  as  mining,  b tone-cutting,  grind- 
ing, hair-cutting,  or  sewing,  which  expose  the 
individual  to  the  breathing  of  dust,  aid  in  the 
development  of  phthisis.  But  individuals  pre- 
disposed may  escape  the  disease  by  careful  at- 
tention to  health  and  the  avoidance  of  the 
causes  which  increase  susceptibility. 

The  discovery  of  the  bacillus  of  tuberculosis 
was  made  by  Koch,  and  published  in  18S2. 
The  bacillus  has  been  proved  to  be  the  spe- 
cific cause  of  all  forms  of  tuberculosis.  With- 
out this  bscillus.  tuberculosis  cannot  arise.  As 
a  rule,  the  bacillus  enters  the  system  by  the 
inspired  air,  end  in  this  way  the  disease  is 
mainly  contagioua  The  breath  of  phthisical 
patients  does  not  contain  the  bacilli,  but  the 
sputa  become  dried  on  floors  or  the  ground!  and 
are  then  carried  by  the  air  to  the  lungs.  In- 
testinal tuberculosis  is  generally  due  to  the 
swallowing  of  infected  material.  The  infection 
may  be  conveyed  by  milk  of  tuberculous  cows, 
by  infected  meat,  or  other  food.  Some  cases  of 
tuberculosis  result  from  direct  inoculation,  as 
in  cases  of  tattooing,  vaccination,  or  injuries 
to  the  hands  of  surgeons  or  dissectors.  Among 
the  more  common  situations  ol  tuberculosis  are 
the  lungs,  intestjnes,  serous  membranes,  bones, 
and  lymphatic  glands.  Since  the  discovery  of 
the  tubercle  bacillus  a  number  of  dlneases  have 
come  to  be  recognized  as  tuberculous.  AmonR 
these  are  scrofula  (in  many  of  its  forms),  cer- 
tain bone  diseases,  lupus  vutfraris,  and  other 
skin  affections  due  to  direct  inoculation.  In 
most     cases     scrofula     affects    the    lymphatic 

gands,  which  enlarge,  then  soften,  discharg- 
g  thick,  purulent  material.  The  glands  af- 
fected are  frequently  those  of  the  neck  and 
those  within  the  chest  at  the  root  of  the  lungs. 
The  symptoms  depend  upon  the  organ  or 
part  involved.  The  individual  loses  strength 
end  Sesh,  he  growa  pale  and  worn  in  appear- 


TUBINGEN  SCHOOL 

anee,  fever  emperreDM  and  become*  peculiarly 
irregular,  coming  on  in  the  afternoon  and  aub- 

aiding  in  the  morning;  the  patient  perspire* 
freely,  and  sometimes  drenching  night  sweats 
add  to  his  weakness.  Chills  may  be  noted; 
and  after  a  tedious  illness,  as  a  rule,  the  vic- 
tim perishes  of  exhaustion  and  general  intoxi- 
cation. Individuals  susceptible  to  the  disease, 
pspecially  to  pulmonary  tuberculosis,  often  pre- 
sent a  characteristic  appearance,  in  which  the 
flattened  chest,  large  Dones,  emaciated  frame, 
straight  black  hair  and  dark  eyes,  and  sallow 
com^exion  take  a  prominent  part.  External 
tuberculosis,  such  as  that. of  the  skin  (lupus), 
bones,  and  lymphatic  glands,  is,  as  a  rule,  less 
malignant  than  that  of  internal  organs,  and 
may  be  attended  by  few  general  symptoms. 
Many  persona  become  tuberculous  and  recover 
without  having  exhibited  any  decided  symp- 
toms, and  in  many  more  the  disease  is  arrested 
before  its  ravaxes  become   extensive;   G   to   40 

Scr  cent  of  all  bodies  examined  show  some  evi- 
ence  of  past  tuberculous  disease  which  had  be- 
come arrested.  Von  Pir(^uet  haa  recently  shown 
that  the  routine  abrasion  made  preliminary 
to  vaccination  against  smallpox,  if  moist«ned 
with  tuberculin  (Koch),  will,  in  a  tuberculous 
individual,  produce  a  characteristic  local  re- 
action. External  tuberculosis  it  more  hopeful 
than  other  forms.  Fresh  air,  change  of  climate, 
tonics,  nutrients  such  as 
cod-liver  oil,  and  the  care- 
ful regulation  of  every 
detail  of  the  life  of  the 
patient  constitute  the  re- 
liable treatment.  Special 
methods  are  useful  ac- 
cording to  the  locality 
affected;  and,  in  partic- 
ular, surgical  procedures 
are  valuable  in  external 
tuberculosis.  Specific 
remedies  have  been  laud- 
ed by  hundreds,  but  as 
yet  none  has  been  found. 
See  CoNSUuFnon. 

Tube'roae  ( the  Poly- 
anther  tuberoaa),  a  plant 
with  a  stem  2  to  3  ft. 
high,  a  native  of  Mex- 
ico, much  cultivated  in 
greenhouses  and  in  tl; 
open  for  its  beautiful 
and  highly  fragrant  - 
white  flowers,  which  arc 
employed  by  perfumers. 
Some  24,000  lb.  of  tube- 
rose flowers  are  yearly 
produced  in  the  valley 
of  the  Var,  in  France,  Dohbli  Tdbehosi. 
for  perfumers'  use.     The 

common  name  is  derived  from  the  tuberous 
character  of  the  plant,  and  is  therefore  tuber- 
ose, not  (u6e-rose.  The  flowers  consist  of  a 
funnel-shaped  slightly  curved  tube,  with  sis 
lobes,  often  tinged  with  rose  without  and 
creamy  white  within. 

TUHiingcn  School,  the  common  title  of  three 
groups  of  theological  writers  connected  with 
the  Univ.  of  TObingen,  in  Germany.     (1)  Tbs 


TUCSON 

old  TabiDgen  school  baaed  belief  in  tlie  Bible 
upcn  the  authoritv;  of  Jcbuh.  Btarting  with  the 
doctrine  that  the  Bible  i^as  a  revelation,  it  de- 
fended itA  noution  by  an  appeal  to  Scripture 
interpreted  117  a  gntmmatical  and  hietoriGal  ex- 
egesis in  opposition  to  tbe  current  raljonaliam. 

(2)  The  ni<Miem  or  younger  Tubingen  school, 
founded  by  F.  C.  Baur  (professor,  1826-60), 
whose  principal  pupil  was  D.  F.  Strauss.  It 
began  with  studies  in  the  history  of  Christian 
doctrines,  tranafonning  the  divine  revelation 
into  a  simple  historicai  evolution  and  subject' 
ed  the  New  Testament  to  a  searching  critical 
examination,  attacking  its  authenticity  and  in- 
tq^ty.  Finally,  it  undertook  a  reconstruction 
of  the  origin  and  development  of  Christianity, 
without  aamittii^;  such  ideas  as  revelation,  iU' 
spiralion,   miracles,    etc.,    as    operating   forces. 

(3)  The  Roman  Catholic  Tablngen  school, 
founded  by  Johann  Adam  MdUer  (professor, 
1628-35),  endeavored  to  increase  friendly  rela- 
tions between  the  Roman  Catholic  and  FroUa- 
tant  communions. 

Tucson  (ttt-sfiu'),  capital  of  Pima  Co.,  Aris.; 
on  the  Santa  Crus  River;   121  m.  SK  of  Phte- 

1   agricultural,   stock-raising, 
1.  a "  ■ 

_ 7  V 

pueblo  and,   IS67-7T,   woa   the   capital  of   the 

territory.     Pop.   (IQIOJ   13,193. 

Ta'dor,  family  name  of  an  English  dynasty 
which  occupied  the  throne  from  14B5  to  1603. 
The  family  was  descended  from  Owen  ap  Tudor, 
an  obscure  Welsh  gentleman,  who  about  1423 
married  Catharine  of  France,  widow  of  Henry 
V  of  England.  Their  son,  who  was  created 
EUrl  of  Richmond,  married  Margaret,  daugh- 
ter and  heireaB  of  John  Beaufort,  Duke  of  Som- 
erset, whose  father  waa  a  son  of  John  of  Oaunt, 
Duke  of  Lancaster,  but  bom  out  of  wedlock. 
The  Earl  of  Richmond  was  legitimated  by  act 
of  Parliament,  but  was  expressly  excluded  from 
the  BUeceaaion  to  the  crown ;  but  upon  the  fail- 
ure of  the  real  Lancastrian  line,  Henry,  tbe 
second  Earl  of  Richmond,  was  recognized  by 
that  party  as  thdr  chief.  He  defeated  Richard 
ni  at  Bosworth  Field  in  1466,  and  assumed  the 
crown  as  Henry  VII,  although  without  any 
legitimate  right.  He  married  Elizabeth,  daugh- 
ter of  Edw^  IV,  and  thus  united  the  preten- 
sions of  the  rival  houses  of  Lancaster  and 
York.  The  sovereigns  of  the  Tudor  line  were 
Hksrt  Vn  (1485-160B),  Hknbt  VIII  [1S09- 
47),'Edwabd  VI  (1547-53),  Mart  (1653-68), 
and  £i.tzABETH  (1558-1603). 

Tues'day  (Tiio  [see  Tm],  god  of  war  +  dceg, 
da^),  the  third  day  of  the  week.  The  name 
originated  aa  a  translation  of  the  Dies  Martis 
(literally,  Mark's  day)  of  the  later  Roman  pa- 
gans. 

le  ot  operations 

Tolleries  (Fr.  pron.,  tw?l-re'),  a  palace  for- 
merly existing  in  Paris.  The  ground  was  orig- 
inally occupied  by  tile  works,  whence  the  name 
of  the  palace,  and  was  bought  by  Francis  I  in 
1616.  In  1564  Catharine  de'  Medici  begaji  the 
erection  of  tJie  buildings.     This,  tbe  original 


TULIP 

palace,  which  was  later  much  altered,  consisted 
of  the  central  pavilion  and  the  adjoining  gal- 
leries, but  not  in  their  later  form.  Under 
Louis  XTV  the  older  parts  of  the  palace  were 
heightened.  After  the  erection  of  the  palace  of 
Versailles  the  Tuileries  waa  seldom  used  by  the 
French  kings  until  Louis  XVI,  in  1769,  was 
compelled  to  remove  the  royal  residence  hither, 
and  after  that  time  the  palace  was  tbe  scene 
of  the  most  stirring  spectacles  of  the  hiatory  ot 
France.  Napoleon  I,  Louis  XVIII,  Charles  X, 
Louis  Philippe,  and  Napoleon  III  resided  here, 
and  the  palaoe  was  stormed  and  ransacked  by 
the  people  August  10,  1792,  July  28,  1630,  and 
February  26,  1848.  In  May,  1871,  it  was 
finally  destroyed  by  Are  by  the  Communists. 
The  long  galleries  of  the  Louvre,  ending  in  the 
Pavilion  de  Flore  and  the  Pavilion  de  Marsan, 
which  Sanked  the  Tuileries,  connected  the  two 
palaces,  and  tbe  pavilions  named  are  some- 
times considered  as  a  part  of  the  Tuileries, 
but  they  have  been  restored. 

Tula,  government  of  European  Russia,  bor- 
dering N.  on  the  government  of  Moscow ;  area, 
11,954  aq.  m.  One  sixth  of  the  aurface  is  cov- 
ered with  forest,  the  rest  is  under  tillage; 
around  the  capital  are  extensive  iron  and  coal 
mines.  Grain,  hemp,  flax,  mustard,  turnips,  po- 
tatoes, tobacco,  and  hops  are  grown;  sheep, 
cattle,  and  horses  are  raised.  Breweries,  dis- 
tilleriea,  'and  manufactures  of  ironware  are 
numerous.    Pop.  (1907)   114,733. 

Tulip  (the  Tulipa  geineriana  and  other  ape- 
ciea) ,  herbs  of  the  lily  family  from  central  Asia, 
now  everywhere  cultivated  for  their  beautiful 
flowers.  Of  this  species  fully  1,000  varieties  have 
been  catalogued,  but  there  are  bundreda  of  un- 
named varietiea,     Conrad  Oesner  brought  the 


tulip  from  Turkey  to  Augsburg  in  1569.  Haar- 
lem, in  Holland,  is,  and  long  has  been,  the 
principal  aeat  of  the  production  of  tulip  bulbs 
for  the  European  and  American  marketa.    Dur- 


267 


instances  they  were  sold  for  2,500  fl.,  and  even, 
sording  to  some  writers,  as  high  as  ijMO  A, 


(C.oogic 


TULIP  TREE 

Tulip  Tree  (the  tAHodendrtm  tuUpifera),  a 
beautiful  forest  tree  of  the  U.  8.  belon^ng  to 
tbe  massolis  fkmilj.  Its  bark  has  tonic  pow- 
ers, knd  ita  wood  ia  valued  in  bouse  carpentrj' 
and  carriage  and  furniture  making.  It  is  often 
incoirectlj  called  poplar,  and  iMmetimeB  white- 
wood.    It  is  a  fine  ornamental  tree. 

Tnllins,  Seirius.    Bee  Bebttuh  Tuujdb.  ' 

Tnlly.    See  Cicno. 

Tnm'ble  Weeds,  the  popular  name  of  many 
species  of  herbaceous  annual  plants  whose 
maoT  branches  curve  upward  so  tnat  the  whole 

Slant  is  globular  in  outline.  When  d^ul  and 
ry  they  brsak  off  at  the  root  and  roll  away 
before  the  wind,  dropping  their  seeds  here  and 
there  for  many  miles.  They  occur  upon  the 
prairies  and  great-plaina  of  N.  America,  in  S. 
America,  and  Russia. 

Tn'mor,  in  pathology,  a  cwelling  abnormal 
to  the  body ;  but  in  the  usual  sense  inflam- 
matory swelling  are  excluded,  and  the  tenn  is 
limited  to  diatiBct  and  abnormal  growths  ap- 
parently causeless  and  without  purpose.  The 
structure  of  tumors  is  in  all  cases  but  a  repro- 
duction of  normal  tissue,  more  or  less  faithfully 
simulated.  The  structure  of  tumors  differs 
from  that  of  the  tissues  which  they  simulate 
mainly  in  being  of  a  leas  fully  developed  char- 
acter, in  being  less  regularly  arrangea,  and  in 
their  tendency  to  undergo  degene:'ative  changes. 
Tumon  are  in  some  cases  characteriEed  by  ma- 
lignancy— that  is,  by  a  tendency  to  recur  when 
removed  and  to  spread  throughout  the  system 
by  portions  being  transferred  from  the  original 
seat  to  other  parte  through  tbe  blood  or  lym- 
phatic currents. 

According  to  the  structural  claasiBcation,  there 
are  fibrous,  bony,  fotty,  lymphatic,  caTti1a0- 
nous,  and  other  types  of  tumon,  called,  respect- 
ively, fibropia,  osteoma,  lipoma,  lymphoma, 
chondroma,  etc.  Practically  every  tissue  and 
organ  in  the  body  has  its  counterpart  in  some 
tutfaor.  Tbe  malignant  tumors  are  those  which 
have  always  attracted  the  greatest  attention. 
Of  these  there  are  two  large  groups — the  car- 
cinomata,  or  cancers,  and  the  sarcomata.  The 
former  are  composed  of  epithelial  cells  arranged 
for  the  most  part  somewhat  after  the  manner 
of  glands;  the  latter  are  composed  of  ill-devel- 
oped connective  tissue.  The  cancers  grow  where 
there  is  normally  epithelium,  as  in  the  breast, 
stomach,  or  womb;  the  sarcomata,  where  there 
Is  mainly  connective  tissue,  as  about  bones,  in 
tendons,  and  the  like- 
Numerous  theories  have  been  advanced  to 
explain  the  cause  of  tumors.  Some  held  that 
the  new  growth  depended  upon  a  general  blood, 
disease;  others  that  local  injury  and  irritation 
are  the  causes;  others  inclined  to  tbe  view  that 
eorae  defective  arrangement  of  tissue  in  fetal 
life  leads  to  later  outgrowths.  In  the  case  of 
certain  growths  in  the  lower  animals,  and  per- 
haps in  man,  the  parasitic  theory  has  been  sub- 
stantiated; but  the  question  is  still  undecided. 
While  tumors  are  most  dangerous  in  propor- 
tion to  their  malignant  characters,  a  purely 
local  and  benign  growth  may  at  times  be  dan- 
gerous  from   the  pressure  it   ""      '^-- 

Cahcil 


TUNGU8ES 

Tn'mnlu,  an  artificial  mound  used  for  bur- 
ial purposes;  the  largest  are  the  ancient  tombs 
of  the  mikados  of  Japan.  Such  prehistoric 
mounds  are  found  in  most  parts  of  the  world. 
See  Babbow. 

Tlu'dra,  a  type  of  treeless,  moas-covered 
plain,  bordering  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  Siberia 
and  N.  Amerioa.  The  tundra  is  an  undulating, 
swampy  country,  covered  with  mosses,  lichens, 
and  small  but  bright  and  beautiful  flowering 
plants,  with  a  few  ferns  and  rushes.  The 
monotonous  surface  fs  dotted  ,with  lakelets,  and 
is  sometimes  broken  by  mountains  and  hills. 
The  tundra  is  formed  by  the  growth  of  vegeta* 
tion. above  and  its  partial  decay  and  accumula- 


of  about  a  foot  the  peaty  soil  is  always  frozen. 
As  the  thickness  of  the  vegetable  layer  in- 
creases by  growth  above,  the  surface  of  the 
continually  fro^n  layer  rises.  Large  rivers 
flow  through  the  tundras,  and  in  their  banks 
a  depth  of  from  100  to  300  ft.  of  ice  and  frozen 
soil  u  sometimes  exposed.  The  bones  of  extinct 
animals  are  frequently  found  in  these  deposits, 
and  in  Siberia  the  carcasses  of  the  hairy  mam- 
moth and  woolly  rhinoceros  have  been  found 
entire.  In  Alaska,  on  the  border  of  Bering 
Sea,  the  tundra  has  a  breadth  of  about  100  m., ' 
but  it  increases  in  width  along  the  shore  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  and  in  Asia  is  of  still  greater  ex- 
tent. The  entire  area  of  these  frozen  bogs  la 
from  300,000  to  400,000  sq.  m. 

Tnng'aten,  a  rare  metal  obtained  from  the 
mineral  wolframite  found  in  Cornwall,  Eng- 
land, Saxony,  Monroe,  and  Trumbull,  Conn., 
etc.  It  has  a  gray  luster,  and  its  compounds 
are  not  poisonous.  A  class  of  compounds 
called  tungsten  bronzes  have  bright  colors  and 
metallic  luster,  and  are  used  as  bronze-powder 
substitutes.  Tungatete  of  sodium  is  used  as 
a  mordant  in  dyeing,  and  to  render  muslin  fire 
resisting.  Tungsten  alloys  with  iron/ and  steel 
are  unusually  hard. 

Tungsten  hss  recently  come  into  use  in  tbe 
manufacture  of  the  filaments  of  incandescent 
electric   lamps.     It   is   especially  valuable   he- 


life  of  the  multiple  tungsten  lamp 
can  be  taken  at  1,000  hours,  and  that  of  the 
series  tungsten,  extensively  adapted  for  street 
lightning,  at  about  1,500  hours,  maintaining 
in  each  esse  a  remarkable  degree  of  candle 
power  throughout  its  life.  The  fragility  and 
the  high  cost  of  the, tungsten  lamp  at  present 
rather  limit  ite  usefulness. 

Ttmgas'ea,  a  Mongolian  tribe,  inhabiting  Si- 
beria from  the  Yenisei  eastward  to  the  terri- 
tory of  tbe  Chukchees  and  to  Sakhalin;  the 
Manchus  are  of  Tungusian  stock.  The  Tun- 
guses  have  flat  faces,  olive  complexion,  no 
beards,  straight  black  hair,  and. oblique  eyes. 
They  are  nomads,  and  divided,  according  to  the 
bcAst  of  burden  which  they  principally  empJoy, 
into  reindeer,  horse,  and  dog  Tungusee.  Th^ 
nre  chiefly  Shamanista;  they  numMr  In  Siberia 

...Google 


TUNIC 

Ta'nic,  an  ancient  fonn  of  garmeat  in  con- 
stant use  among  the  Greeki.  Among  the  Ro- 
mans the  tunic  wm  an  under  garment  worn  bj 
both  BezM  (under  the  toga  and  the  palla), 
and  was  lostened  hy  a  eirdle  or  belt  about  the 
waist.  The  term  ia  aUo  lued  ecclesiastical I7 
to  denote  a  dress  worn  bj  the  aub-deacon,  made 
originally  ol  linen,  reaching  to  the  (eet,  and 
then  of  an  inferior  silk,  and  narrower  than 
the  dalmatic  of  Uie  deacon,  with  shorter  and 
tighter  sleeves. 

Tmlca'ta,  a  group  of  marine  animals  com- 
prising the  gea  squirts,  so  called  because  they 
throw  out  little  jets  of  water  when  Irritated. 
They  are  interesting  beOBUse  they  connect  the 
great  division  of  vertebrates  with  the  inverte- 
brates, and  illustrate  in  their  life  history  the 
possibilitiea  of  degeneration.  The  larva  resem- 
bles a  tadpole,  has  gill  slits,  a  rudimentary 
spine,  and  other  marks  of  the  vertebrates.  But 
after  a  short,  free-swimming  life  it  fastens 
Itself  to  some  solid  support,  and  its  structure 
degenerates,  the  body  sliortens,  the  outside  be- 
comes smooth,  the  nervous  cord  is  contracted, 
and  all  characters  pointing  to  the  verte- 
bratea  are  lost.  Balpa  is  especially  interest- 
ing from  the  fact  that  it  was  the  first  in- 
stance known  of  alternation  of  generations, 
and  was  discovered  by  the'  poet  Chamisso. 
From  each  egg  there  develops  a  "  solitary 
form  "  which  is  without  sexual  organs.  In  the 
body  of  this  a  stolon  arises  and  becomes  di- 
vided into  distinct  salps,  each  of  which  con- 
tains an  ^g.  This  second  generation  remains 
attached  to  each  other  through  life,  constitut- 
ing the  "  chain  form."  The  contained  eggs 
undergo  their  development  and  give  rise,  in 
turn,  to  the  solitary  condition. 

Ton'ing  Fork.    See  Sounit. 

Tn'ni^  a  French  protectorate  in  N.  Africa; 
bounded  E.  by  Tripoli  and  the  Mediterranean, 
W.  by  Algeria,  N.  by  the  Mediterranean,  and 
B.  by  the  Sahara;  area,  45,716  sq.  m.  Cape 
Blanc  is  the  nortbemmoat  point  of  Africa. 
The  interior  is  traversed  by  the  Great  and 
Little  Atlas,  4,000  to  5,000  ft.  A  number  of 
shallow  salt  marshes  in  the  SE.  are  below 
the  level  of  the  sea.  The  climate  is  dry  and 
hot,  and  the  soil  produces  large  crops  of 
wheat,  msise,  and  barley;  cotton,  indigo,  eaf- 
fron,  and  tobacco  are  cultivated.  Olive  and 
date  plantations  are  numerons  and  remuner- 
ative. Oxen,  sheep,  mules,  and  camels  are  the 
common  domestic  animals.  Salt  and  lead  are 
produced,  though  mining,  like  agriculture,  is 
carelessly  carried  on.  Some  branches  of  man- 
ufactnre,  such  as  woolens,  especially  red  caps, 
dyed  skins,  morocco  leather,  and  coral,  are  de- 
veloped, but  declining.  Pop.  abt.  2,000,000, 
chieSy  Bedouin  Arabs  and  Kabyles. 

Tunis  occupies  nearly  the  territory  of  an- 
cient Carthage,  With  Sicily  it  formed  the 
granary  of  Rome.  On  the  dissolution  of  the 
Roman  Empire  it  became  a  province  of  the 
Greek  Empire,  from  which  it  was  conquered  by 
the  caliphs  of  Bagdad.  From  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury to  the  sixteenth  it  formed  an  Independent 
state,  and  became  the  terror  of  all  the  nations 
on  account  of  its  piracy,  which  did  not  cease 


TUNNELS  AND  TUNNEUNQ 

until  near  the  middle  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury. In  1574  the  country  became  dependent 
on  Turkey.  October  26,  1871,  the  bey  obtained 
an  imperial  firman  which  made  him  virtually 
inde^ndent;  but  of  this  independence  he  was 
deprived  by  the  French,  who  landed  an  army 
in  18S1,  and,  under  form  of  a  treaty  signed 
May  12,  1S82,  'reduced  him  to  a  sUte  of  vassal- 
age. The  French  resident  is  called  ohargt 
d^affairee,  and  practically  administers  the  ^gov- 
ernment of  the  country  under  the  direction  of 
the  French  Foreign  Office. 

Tnnls,  capital  of  the  State  of  Tunis;  near 
the  GuK  of  Tunis.  Its  streets  are  narrow,  un- 
paved,  and  fiithy,  but  its  houses,  though  only 
one  story  high  and  presenting  no  windows  to 
the  streets,  are  substantially  built,  and  many- 
are  finely  fitted  up  in  OrienUI  style.  The  pal- 
ace of  the  bey  and  several  of  the  mosques  are 
fine  edifices,  and  the  bazaars  are  large  and  well 
stocked.  Silk  and  woolen  manufactures  are 
extensively  carried  on;  caps,  shawls,  turbans, 
and  mantles,  soap,  wax,  olive  oil,  and  leather 
are  also  made  and  exported,  and  the  transit 
trade  between  Europe  and  the  interior  of 
Africa'  is  important.  Pop.  227,519,  of  whom 
60,000  are  Jews. 

Tnnk'eTs.    8e«  DuincEBS  or  Dukkabos. 

Xim'nels  and  Tnn'neling.  Tunnels  are  un- 
derground passages  constructed  without  remov- 
ing the  earth  or  rock  above.  A  rooted  cut, 
such  as  the  greater  part  of  the  New  York  sub- 
way or  the  railway  tunnel  "  leading  from  the 
Grand  Central  Station,  New  York,  are  not 
properly  so  called.  Railway  tunnels  are  pre- 
ferred to  open  cuts,  when  the  cost  of  the  latter 
is  greater;  in  other  words,  generally  when  the 
thickness  of  the  material  above  is  very  great, 
say  over  60  to  00  ft  The  earlier  railways 
avoided  tunnels  usually,  on  account  of  expense, 
but  lines  are  now  being  shortened  and  grades 
made  easier  where  possible,  involving  the  con- 
struction sometimes  of  several  within  a  short 
distance. 

The  coet  of  a  tunnel  and  the  method  of 
driving  it  depend  on  the  character  of  the 
ground.  In  solid  rock  the  work  is  slow  but 
simple.  A  heading  or  small  advance  section 
is  generally  driven,  either  at  the  top  or  the 
bottom  of  the  passage.  This  is  enlarged  to  lull 
width,  and  the  remaining  rock  taken  out  from 
above  or  below.  In  softer  rock  it  may  be  nec- 
essary to  use  timber  props  as  the  work  pro- 
ceeds, and  the  tunnel  is  afterwards  lined  with 
masonry  or  with  concrete.  The  rock  is  dis- 
lodged by  blasting,  the  holes  being  drilled 
with  compressed  air,  water,  or  electricity,  and 
the  explosive  is  generally  nitroglycerin  or 
some  powerful  nitro-compound,  fired  electric- 
ally, many  charges  at  once.  If  compressed  air 
is  used  its  escape  provides  partly  for  ventila- 
tion, but  machine  fans  or  blowers  are  generally 
provided.  Water  ia  removed  by  pumps  and 
drains.  This  sometimes  accumulates  in  dan- 
gerously large  quantities,  and  in  deep  ^Ipine 
tunnels  hot  sprmgs  may  be  encountered.  The 
disposal  of  such  floods  taxes  the  skill  of  the 
engineer.  Where  the  tunnel  is  not  too  far  be- 
low the  surface  shafts  are  usually  sunk  from 


TUNNEIS  AND  TDNNELINa 

Above,  uid  the  work  is  baBt«aed  by  tunueliiig 
in  hoik  directiotu  from  the  bottom  of  each. 

If  the  material  be  soft  earth,  no  blasting  is 
neeeaaary,  but  the  maaa  above  must  be  lup- 
poited  aa  the  work  proceeds.  Timben  may  tie 
uted  throughout,  and  maaonry  or  concrete  put 
in  alter  tM  excavation  ia  over,  or  the  lining 
may  follow  the  bore  very  closely.  In  very  aoft 
ground,  or  in  subaqueous  mud  or  silt,  a  so- 
called  "  shield  "  is  uaed — now  generally  a  very 
short  tube  or  ring  of  steel  or  iron  piates  cloeed 
by  a  partition  of  the  same  material  with  suit- 
able doors.  The  nutteriai  is  excavated  through 
these  doors,  and  the  shield  is  pushed  ahead 
hydraulical^  as  the  work  progressea.  When 
the  material  Is  so  soft  as  to  flow,  it  Is  now 
generally  kept  back  by  maintaining  a  high  air 
pressure  so  that  the  tunnelers  work  in  a 
caiMon,  to  which  they  have  access  through  an 
"  air  lock."  Quick  transition  from  this  high 
pressure  to  the  open  air,  probably  by  sudden- 
ly releasing  diasolved  gases  from  the  blood, 
gves  rise  to  the  serious  and  sometimes 
tal  "  caisson  disease,"  popularly  called  the 
"  bends,"  the  cauae  of  which  remained  long 
unknown. 

In  soft  mud,  as  the  shield  moves  forward, 
■ectioDB  or  rings  of  iron  are  bolted  in  place 
behind  it,  so  that  the  tunnel  becomes  an  iron 
"  tube,"  afterwards  strengthened  and  protected 
with  masonry  or  concrete.     In  the  tunnel  ear- 

Sing  the  Pennnrlvania  Hallway  beneath  the 
udeon  River  ai  New  York,  this  tube  is  to 


Ins< 
ous  tunnel  is  constructed  on  land 
of  greater  or  less  length,  and  sunk  into  place, 
the  water  being  afterwards  pumped  out. 

The  earliest  transportation  tunnel  is  said  to 
have  been  that  of  Malpaa,  on  the  Ijanguedoc 
Canal  in  France,  built  in  1606-76;  it  is  767  ft. 
long.  The  first .  English  and  American  tunnels 
were  also  on  eanaJs,  the  earliest  in  England 
being  the  Harecastle,  on  the  Trent  and  A^rsey 
Canal,  1766^77,  B,600  ft.  long.  The  first  in 
the  U.  8.  was  on  the  Union  Canal,  1818-21, 
460_ft.  long. 

rock  tunnels  of  the 

(in    order 

, is.  9  m.  loi 

the  St.  Gothard,  9k 
berg,  6}  m.  (1880-84)  ;  and  the  Slmplon,  121 
m.  (1893-1006).  None  of  these  was  eon- 
stmcted  with  the  aid  of  shafts.  In  this  coun- 
try the  most  important  railway  tunnel  is  the 
Hoosac,  in  Massachusetts,  nearly  5  m.  long, 
with  a  central  shaft  1,028  ft.  deep  (1866-73). 

The  greatest  subaqueous  tunnels  are  now  to 
be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  New  York.  The 
flnt  to  be  opened  to  the  public  was  that  carry- 
ing the  subway  from  Manhatten  Island  to 
Brooklyn  across  the  East  River  (1907).  As 
early  as  18B4,  however,  a  tunnel  for  ^aa  pipes 
Had  been  completed  several  miles  higher  up 
the  river  to  Astoria.  The  oldwt  of  these 
New  York  river  tunnels,  counting  from  its 
origin,  is  the  upper  so-called  "  McAdoo  "  tun- 
nel from  Christopher  Street,  Manhattan,  under 
the  Hndaon  to  Boboken.     This  waa  bc^nn  in 


ISSO,  and  oontinned  at  intervals,  as  funds 
could  be  obtained,  until  abt.  1889,  when  the 
work  was  abandoned  after  building  about  2,000 
ft.  The  tunnel  remained  full  of  water  for 
many  years,  when  it  was  aoquired  bv  the  Hud- 
son Timnel  Company,  completed  and  opened  to 
the  public  in  1008.  The  same  company  eon- 
structed  another  tunnel  to  the  foot  of  Cort- 
landt  Street,  which  was  opened  the  following 
year.  Both  these  consist  of  parallel  but  gen- 
erally separate  tubes.  In  the  earlier  set  the 
old  construction  in  the  north-  or  west-bound 
tunnel  is  easily  recoguiud  from  its  masonry 
lining  and  oval  shape.  The  railway  tunnels 
to  carry  the  Peimaylvania  road  under  the  Hud- 
son into  New  York  and  across  under  the  B. 
River  to  Long  Island  City  were  completed 
and  opened  for  traCBc,  from  the  east,  Sept.  8, 
1910,  and  from  the  west  Nov.  27,  1010- 

Some  interesting  American  aqueduct  tunnels 
are  the  one  to  convey  Catskill  water  to  New 
York  City;  the  Chicago  water  tunnels,  to  ob- 
tain pure  water  from  Lake  Michigan  4  m. 
from  shore,  and  the  Cleveland  Lake  Erie 
Tunnel.  Probably  the  most  interesting  tunnel 
ever  projected  is  the  Channel  Tunnel,  planned 
to  pass  from  England  to  France  under  the 
Straits  of  Dover,  21  m.  It  is  believed  to  be 
practicable,  but  permission  to  construct  it  was 
refused  by  Parliament,  through  fear  tluit  it 
might  be  used  by  an  enany  in  case  of  inva- 


Ttm'ny,  the  largest  member  of  the  mackerel 
family,  known  on  the  coast  of  the  U.  S.  as  the 
horse  mackerel.  It  is  a  heavily  built  flah, 
tapering  rapidly  to  the  pointed  head  and  slen- 


der base  of  tail.  It  reaches  a  length  of  0  or 
10  ft.,  and  a  weight  of  1,000  lb.  The  tunny 
occurs  on  both  sid^  of  the  Atlantic,  and  ranges 
to  Tasmania,  and  baa  been  the  object  of  ex- 
tensive fisheries  in  the  Mediterranean  from 
time  immemorial. 

Tu'pelo.    Bee  Gcif  Tbee. 


went  naked,  painting  their  bodies.  In  some 
tribes  prisoners  of  war  were  sacrificed  and 
eaten.  Their  descendante,  mixed  with  negro 
and  white  blood,  form  the  bulk  of  the  country^ 
population. 

Tnp'per,  Sir  ChaTle^  1S21-1916:  Canadian 
statesman;  b.  Amherst,  Nova  ScoUa;  gradu- 
ated as  a  physioian  at  Edinburgh  In,  1843.  Hs 
was  appointed  governor  of  Dalhousie  College, 
Halifax,  1862:  president  Canadian  Medical 
Association,  1867-70.    He  represeoted  Cnmbtr- 

0  oqIc 


TtJPPER 

Und  in  tha  Nova  Beotis  Auemblj,  1856-67 ; 
wme  constituetK?  in  tbe  Parliament  of  Can- 
ada, 1867-84  and  1887-88;  member  of  tbe 
Executive  Council  and  Provincial  Secretary  of 
.  Nova  SootU,  1867-60  and  1863-67;  and  Prime 
Minister   of   that   province,   1864-67.     He  was 

t resident  of  the  Privy  Council  of  Canada, 
870-72;  Uiniater  of  Inland  Revenue,  I8T2-73i 
Minister  of  Customs  in  1873;  Minister  of  Pub- 
lic Works,  1878-79 ;  Minuter  of  Railways  and 
Canals,  1879-84 ;  and  Minister  of  Finance,  Jan- 
uary 27,  1S87,  until  Ma^  24,  188S,  when  he  was 
appointed  High  Commissioner  for  Canada,  in 
London.  He  was  kniffhted  in  1879,  and  made 
a  baronet  in  1888.  In  April,  1896,  he  suc- 
ceeded Sir  Mackenzie  Bo  well  as  Premier  of 
Canada,  but  held  office  only  until  July,  when 
tbe  Liberals  came  into  power  with  Wilfrid 
L«urier  as  Premier.  He  retired  to  private  life 
in  1900.  In  1907  he  was  made  a  member  of 
tbe  Imperial  Privy  Council. 

Tapper,  Martin  Farqnhar,  I810-S9;  English 
poet;  b.  London;  educated  at  Charterhouse 
School  and  Christ  Church,  Oxford;  studied 
law,  and  was  called  to  the  l»r,  but  n^er  prac- 
ticed; in  1838  issued  the  work  by  wbico  he 
is  best  known,  "Proverbial  Philosophy"  (iec- 
ond  senea,  1842;  third,  1807).  This  had  a 
prodigious  circulation  in  England,  and  over 
600,000  copies  were  sold  in  America.  It  was 
a  commonplace  piece  of  work,  and  Tupper  be- 
came a  favorite  butt  for  the  ridicule  of  the 
critics  and  a  proverb  for  platitude  and  inanity. 
He  wrote  other  volumes  of  prose  and  verse. 

Tnra'nian  Lan'snagei.    See  Lakouaoe. 

Tnr'ban,  a  form  of  headdress  worn  by  the 
Orientals.  It  varies  in  form  in  different  na- 
tions and  different  classes  of  the  same  nation. 
It  consists  of  two  parts;  a  cap  without  brim, 
fitted  to  the  head,  and  a  sash,  scarf,  or  shawl, 
usually  o{  cotton  or  linen,  wound  about  the 
cap,  and  sometimes  hanging  down  the  neck. 

TnrHiine,  a  wheel  in  which  water  or  steam 
enteis  and  leaves  at  all  p<nnts  around  the  cir- 
cumference, acting  both  by  impulse  and  reac- 
tion. Water  turbines  are  usually  horizontal 
wheels  turning  upon  a  vertical  axis,  although 
some  forms  are  vertical,  turning  upon  a  hori- 
zontal axis.  One  of  the  earliest  of  these  devices, 
known  as  Barker's  Mill,  was  a  reaction  wheel, 
but  rather  an  ineSicient  (me. 

It  consisted  of  a  hollow  wheel  with  spouts 
protruding  from  the  circumference.  The  spouts 
were  bent  back  somewhat  at  right  angles  to 
the  diameter.  The  wheel  was  mounted  on  a 
vertical  shaft,  which  was  surrounded  by  a  hol- 
low casing  connected  with  the  wheel,  through 
which  the  water  was  led  to  tbe  wheel  and  out 
through  the  spouts,  by  its  reaction  causing 
the  wheel  to  revolve.  The  first  efficient  tur- 
bine was  invented  by  Foumeyron,  in  France, 
in  1833.  A  modification  of  this  wheel,  which 
has  been  extensively  used  in  the  U.  8.,  was  in- 
vented by  Boyden.  A  vertical  section  of  the 
Boyden  turbine  is  shown  in  the  diagram.  The 
water  approaches  the  wheel  through  the  pen- 
stock P,  and  is  given  a  rotary  motion  by  the 
fixed  guides  Q,  radiating  outward  from  tbe 


TURBINE 

center  of  the  wheel.  Vanes  W  are  rigidljr 
fixed  to  the  outer  part  of  the  wheel,  which, 
being  free  to  move  while  the  inner  part  is  sta- 
tionary, tbe  water,  directed  by  the  guides  O, 
impinges  upon  the  vanes  W  nearly  at  right 
angles  and  by  its  impulse  and  reaction  causes 
the  wheel  to  revolve. 

The  theoretical  work  of  the  water  turbine  is 
ascertained  by  multiplying  the  weight  of  the 
water  passing  through  it  by  the  height  in  feet 
through  which  it  tells.  Tbe  work  actually 
utilized  is  betvreen  70  and  80  per  cent  of  the 
theoretical  work,  the  balance  being  lost  in  over- 


coming friction,  in  foam,  and  in  leakage.  Tur- 
bines of  the  kind  described  are  known  as  out- 
ward-flow wheels.  Another  common  type  of 
wheel  reverses  the  operation  and  the  flow  of 
water  takes  place  from  the  outer  part  to  the 
inner  part  of  the  wheel,  which  is  movable,  while 
the  outer  part  is  stationary.  Turbines  of  in- 
ward and  downward  flow,  having  the  wheel 
vanes  made  up  of  warped  or  curved  surfaces, 
are  also  common.  In  these  the  water  enters 
horizontally  through  fixed  guides,  but  after  en- 
tering the  wheel  the  curved  surfaces  of  the 
vanes  give  it  also  a  downward  direction.  An- 
other class  o{  wheels  is  that  of  downward  or 
parallel  flow,  in  which  the  water  moves  down- 
ward without  approaching  or  receding  from  the 
axis.  This  form  is  frequently  called  the  Jou- 
val.  The  regulation  ot  the  speed  and  power  of 
water  turbines  ia  effected  by  means  of  a  gate 
for  shutting  off  tbe  water,  and  also  by  a  gov- 
ernor. Several  water  turbines  of  5,000  horse 
power  each  were  inataJIed  at  Niagara  Falls  in 
1894  and  1895,  and  a  number  of  others  since 
that  time. 

Tbe  development  of  a  successful  steam  tur- 
bine is  of  recent  date.  The  steam  turbine  is  a 
wheel  drivfti  by  the  impact  of  steam,  moving 
at  high  velocity,  upon  vanes  or  blades  at- 
tached to  the  circumference  of  the  wheel  or 
disk.  Its  two  essential  parts  are  a  wheel  and 
its  axle  mounted  in  a  suitable  casing  in  which 
the  axle  is  supported.  A  very  large  number  of 
small  curved  vanes  are  set  in  the  circumference, 
and  a  number  of  nozzles  set  at  several  points 
around  the  circumference  direct  the  steam  in  a 
small  Jet  against  these  vanes  or  blades.  The 
equivalent  of  compounding  ia  obtained  by  al- 
lowing the  steam  to  act  on  one  act  after  it  has 
acted  on  the  one  nest  to  it,  and  so  on.  After 
passing  tbrough  several  such  stages  the  steam 
finally  f *-  "         '       '      '•'  --     .--^•--- 


>  the  exhaust    Steam  turbines 


have  given  results  in  Uie  devdopment  of  power 
about  equal  to  those  of  hi^h-claas  reciprocftl 
steam  engines,  on  same  steam  consumption. 

Tni'bot,  a 'Urge  flatSsh  of  the  North  Sea 
and  adjacent  natere;  highly  esteemed  as  a  food 
Osb.  It  is,  next  to  the  halibut,  the  largest  flat- 
fish of  European  waters,  reaching  a  length  of 


3  ft  and  a  weight  of  30  or  40  lb.  The  general 
color  is  brown,  with  lighter  shadings.  The  true 
turbot  does  not  occur  on  the  coasts  of  N. 
America,  but  the  name  is  bestowed  on  some 
medium<sized  Sounders  of  indifferent  flavor. 

Tnrenne   (tU-rSn'),  Henri  da  la  Tour  d'An- 

vergne  (Vicomte  de),  1011-75;  French  soldier; 
b.  Sedan;  entered  the  French  army,  1630.  Dur- 
ing the  Thirty  Years'  War  he  distinguished 
himself  in  the  campaigns  in  Germany  and 
Italy;  received  an  mdependent  command  In 
1641;  conquered  Rouaslllon  in  1642;  marshal 
of  France  in  1644,  and  contributed  much  to  the 
conclusion  of  the  Peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648 
by  his  successful  campaigns  in  Germany  and 
Flanders,  In  the  wars  of  the  -Fronde  he  first 
sided  with  Crind?,  but,  having  been  defeated  at 
Bethel  in  1650  and  driven  out  of  France,  be  be- 
came reconciled  with  the  court;  was  appointed 
commander  in  chief  of  the  royal  troops,  de- 
feated Condf  at  Gien,  and  nearly  destroyed  his 
army  at  the  Faubourg  St.  Antoine  in  1652,  the 
Spaniards  at  Arras,  1854,  and  CondS  and  the 
Spaniards  in  the  Dunes.  1658,  and  was  made  a 
marshal  general  in  1660.  In  the  War  of  the 
Spanish  Netherlands  (1067)  he  conquered  Flan- 
ders in  a  brilliant  campaign,  and  in  the  war 
with  Holland  (16T2)  his  fame  reached  its  cul- 
mination by  his  devastation  of  the  Palatinate 
in  1674  and  the  victories  at  Siniheim  (1074) 
and  TUrkbeim  (1676).  He  was  preparing  for 
a  last  and  decisive  encounter  with  Montecuc- 
iili,  wben  he  was  killed  by  a  cannon  ball  dur- 
ing a  reconnaissance  near  Sasbach.  July  27, 
1675.  He  is  considered  the  greatest  general 
France  has  produced,  next  to  Napoleon. 


TUHGOT 

tor  Ua  "  Letter  on  Gogol,"  although  it  had 
been  passed  by  the  Moscow  censor,  he  was  ai- 
rested  and  banished  for  two  years.  Pioia  1863 
to  his  death  he  lived  abroad,  chiefly  at  Baden 
Baden  and  Paris.  Still  he  made  frequent  visits 
to  Russia.  In  his  ideas  he  was  an  admirer  of 
W.  Europe,  for  which,  and  for  bis  residence  in 
a  foreign  country,  he  was  attacked  by  Slavo- 
phils. Turgeneff  made  his  literary  d^but  with 
some  verses  (1S41),  but,  though  he  wrote  sev- 
eral pretty  pieces,  be  docs  not  rank  high  as  a 
poet-  His  dramatic  attempts,  too,  were  failui-es. 
His  earliest  prose  story,  "  Adrel  KoloBoy,"  did 
not  attract  attention,  but  its  successors  were 
niore  fortunate.  In  1847  appeared  "  Khor  and 
Kalinych,"  the  first  of  his  "Zapiski  Okhol- 
nika  (Tales  of  a  Sportsman),  which  con- 
tinued for  four  years  and  put  him  in  the  front 
rank  of  living  authora.  These  were  followed 
by  other  atones  and  sketches  almost  equally 
successful:  in  1852  "Dimitri  Rudin,"  the  first 
one  long  enough  to  be  called  a  novel ;  In  IS5Q 
"  Dvorlanskoe  Gnesdo"  (A  Nest  of  Noblemen, 
in  some  translations  called  Lisa) ;  in  1862 
"  Nakanune "  (On  the  Eve,  in  some  transla- 
tions Heiene) ;  in  1802  "  Ottsy  i  Deti  "  (Fathers 
and  Sous),  perhaps  bis  masterpiece;  in  1867 
-Dym"  (Smoke);  in  1877  "Nov"  (New,  in 
some  translations  Virgin  Soil),  and  many 
smaller  pieces,  the  last  of  which  his  exquisite 
"Poems  in  Prose,"  came  out  only  just  before 
his  death-  As  a  writer  TurgSneff  is  character' 
ized  by  keen  realistic  insight  into  the  weak- 
nesses of  mankind,  always  showing  a  lurking 
sympathy  and  tendemes^.  His  characters  are 
vivid  and  true  to  life,  while  his  appreciation  of 
the  beauties  of  nature  is  profound.  None  of 
his  stories  lis  long.  They  have  perfect  unity,  co- 
hesion, and  in  both  substance  and  style  the 
finish  of  a  great  artist.  They  have  been, trans- 
lated into  many  Innguagea,  into  French  largely 
by  the  author  himself. 

Tnrsot  (tUr-gO'),  Anne  SobcTt  Jacques 
(Baron  de  I'Aulne),  1727-81;  French  sUtes- 
man  and  economist;  b.  Paris;  was  educated  for 
the  Church,  but  gave  up  the  ecclesiastical  ca- 
reer in  1751;  studied  law  and  economics;  be- 
came  noted  as  a  liberal  thinker  and  an  advo- 
cate of  religious  toleration,  and  wrote  several 
essays  for  the  "  EncyclopWie,"  In  1761  he  waa 
appointed  intendant,  or  governor,  of  the  prov- 
incR  of  Limousin.  His  administration  was  suc- 
cessful, and,  although  bis  reforms  were  crippled 
by  the  egotism  of  the  privileged  classes  and  the 
stupidity  of  the  unprivileged,  they  proved  bene- 
ficial. In  1774  Louis  XVI  appointed  him  Comp- 
troller-General of  France — that  is.  Minister  of 
Finance — and  he  immediately  went  to  work 
to  save,  if  possible,  the  state  from  bankruptcy. 
His  ideas  wore  essentially  the  same  as  those 
carried  out  by  the  revolution,  and  the  cour- 
tiers, the  nobility,  tTic  clergy,  etc.,  raised  a 
storm  around  him.  For  some  time  the  kiuK 
supported  him  faitb fully.  Although  he  said 
he  himself  and  Turgot  were  the  only  two  who 
loved  France  truly,  yet  he  suddenly  disraisned 
him  in  May,  1776,  Turgot  retired,  occupying 
himself  with  -scientiflc  researches.  His  "  CEuvres 
completes  "  include  his  essay  on  usury,  on  the 
best  method  of  taxation,  and  "  Refiexiona  aur 


la  formation  tt  U  Dutribution  des  RicheawB," 

Tn'rin  (Italtan,  Toeiho),  chief  city  of  Pied- 
mont, Italj)  on  the  lelt  bank  of  the  Po.  It  is 
an  industrial  city,  Aod  malcea  Bilks,  ribbons, 
lace,  and  bonnet  goods;  also  matches,  leather, 
and  tools.  Its  situation  is  picturesque.  The 
town  is  »o  re^arlif  laid  out  and  built  with 
BO  much  uniformit]'  as  to  be  monotonous.  The 
only  building  representinB  the  architecture  of 
the  Middle  Ages  is  the  Madama  Palace.  The 
churches  are  numerous,  but  not  interesting. 
The  city  te  rich  in  monuments  raised  in  honor 
of  celebrated  Italians.  The  university  is,  next 
to  that  of  Naples,  the  most  frequented  in  Italy. 
The  Egyptian  museum  of  the  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences u  one  of  the  best  in  the  world,  and  the 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts  and  the  Royal  Museum 
of  Arms  have  fine  collections.  The  climate  of 
Turin  is  salubrious,  but  variable.  The  winter 
is  cold  and  the  spring  inconstant.  It  is  ths 
fourth  city  in  size  in  Italy,  modem  in  charac- 
ter, agreeable  and  full  of  business,  rapidly 
growing,  and  affprding  charming  utes  for  fur- 
ther expansion.  Pop.  of  commune  (IBll) 
427,733. 

Turin  owes  fta  origin  and  name  to  a  Celtic- 
niyrian  tribe,  enemies  of  the  Etruscans  and  al- 
lies of  Rome.  Ceeear  established  the  colony 
from  which  the  city  grew,  calling  it  Colonia 
Julia,  afterwards  changed  by  Augustus  to 
Colonia  Augusta  Taurinorum.  Lying  near  the 
border  of  Italy,  it  has  undergone  many  vicisw- 
tudes.  It  was  the  political  capitaf  of  tho 
duchy  of  Eavoy,  and  later  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Sardinia  fnan  the  Napoleonic  occupation  to 
1881,  and  from  1861  to  1868  capital  of  the 
Kingdom  of  Italy.  With  the  removal  of  the 
capital  to  Florence,  and  then  in  1871  to  Rome, 
it  received  a  brief  check  to  its  prosperity,  since 


Turkestan,  or  Tfirldst&n  (tflr-kts-tin'),  a 
name  of  varying  signification,  political,  linguis- 
tic, or  geographic,  but  also  centering  about  the 
great  interior  basins  of  Asia,  generally  those  of 
the  Tarim  River,  of  Lake  Dalkash,  and  of  the 
Sea  of  Aral.  The  name  is  paswng  into  disuse 
as  a  general  term,  but  Is  still  employed  to  des- 
ignate Chinese  and  Russian  Turkestan.  By 
^nese  Turkestan,  sometimes  E,  Turkestan,  is 
meant  the  btsin  of  the  Tarim,  comprising  all 
the  S.  part  of  the  immense  district  called 
Kausuh-Sin-kiang  by  the  Chinese,  It  is  most- 
ly a  desert.  The  Russian  government  of  Tur- 
kestan was  formed  in  1867,  and  now  consists 
of  ttie  provineea  of  Syr-Darya,  Ferghana,  Sam- 
arkand, and  SemityBdienBk.  Area,  420,807  sa. 
m.;  pop.  6,613,600.  The  capital  is  Tashkend. 
The  npxt  cities  in  importance  are  Samarkand 
end  Khojend.  The  population  is  chiafly  ""- 
madie  and  pastoral. 

Tor'key.  or  Th«  Of  toman  Em'plre,  an  empire 
formerly  comprising  large  portions  of  Europe, 
Aaia,  and  Afnca,  and  having  ita  oapitol  at  Con- 
stantinoplcontheBoepcrua.  Area, pnorto  1878, 
«sL  at  2,196,425  sq.  m.  Turkey  m  Europe  oo- 
eui»ed  the  central  portion  of  the  Balkan  Penm- 
■uUr  It  woa  bounded  N.  by  Bosnia,  Servia,  and 
K  Ramelia,  E,  by  the  Black  Sea"  and  Bospo- 


TURKEY 

I,  S.  by  Greece,  the  '^Kcan  Sea,  the  Dar- 
dandles,  and  Marmora;  W.  hj  tbi  Adriatio 
and  Ionian  seaa.  It  induded  also  the  island  cS 
Thasoa.  Turkey  in  Aaia  comprised  the  Spondee 
Islands,  in  the  .Aegean,  Asia  Minor,  Crete,  th* 
vast  basins  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  Syria, 
and  the  W.  coast  of  Arabia.  It  was  bounded  N. 
by  the  Dardanelles.  Marmora,  Black  Sea,  and 
Russia;  E.  by  Russia,  Persia,  the  Persian  Qulf, 
and  Arabia;  S.  by  the  Mediterranean,  the  Gulf 
of  Aden,  and  Arabia,  and  W.  by  the  Red,  Ued- 
iterranpno.  and  £gean  sess.  Turkish '  Arabia, 
or  El  Eedjas  and  Yemen,  was  a  atrip  of  land 
nearly  1,000  m.  long  and  of  indefinite  breadth, 
extending  along  the  Red  Sea.  Turkey  in  Af- 
rica comprised  Tripoli  and  Bsrca.  It  was  mainly 
included  between  the  Mediterranean  and  th« 
Great  Dee6rt.  Its  inland  boundaries  were  indefi- 
nite. Turkey  in  Eu^pe  poesessed  an  extenaiTe 
coast  line,  with  many  harbors,  t«rminating 
toward  the  SK  in  the  commanding  peninsula 
inclosed  by  Uie  Black  Sea,  the  Bosporus,  and 
Marmora.  The  eeneral  surface  is  broken  and 
mountainous.  The  coast  of  Turkey  in  Aaia  watf 
long,  sinuous,  and  abounding  in  gulfs  with  nat- 
ural harbors.  From  the  great  plateau  of  Ar- 
menia, which  spreads  in  every  direction  around 
Ararat  (1T,2]Z  ft.),  the  Antitaurus  Mountains 
and  Taurus  Mountains  extend  W.  and  BW. 
Turkey  in  Africa  had  few  good  haxborB.  A 
belt  of  fertile  land  bordered  the  coast,  but  far- 
ther S.  were  sandy  plains  and  ran|^  of  rodty 
mountains.  The  most  important  nvers  in  Eu- 
ropean Turkey  were  the  Moritia,  the  Boyana, 
and  the  Drin.  In  Asia  Minor  there  were  few 
great  rivers,  and  all  were  winding.  The  most  im- 
portant in  the  former  empire  were  the  Euphratea, 
1,750  m.,  and  Tigris,  1,000  m.,  both  of  which 
rise  in  the  plateau  of  Armenia  and  finally 
unite  as  the  Bhatt  el-Arab,  which  empties  into 
the  Persian  Gulf.  In  Africa  the  rivers  are  small 
and  often  dry. 

The  system  of  agriculture  is  most  primitive, 
although  the  soil  tor  the  moat  part  is  very  fer- 
tile. The  principal  products  are  tobacco,  cere- 
als of  all  kinds,  cotton,  fi^  nuts,  almonds. 
grapes,  olives,  and  all  varieties  of  fruits.  Flour 
milling  in  Smyrna  is  being  improved  and  ex- 
tended. Coffee  is  grown  in  the  Hodeida  region 
and  opium  in  Konia,  Tobacco  is  grown  both 
in  European  and  Asiatic  Turkey,  69,822,834 
pounds  Ijeing  sold  in  1»09-10.  In  1B07-8  vine 
growers  produced  67,801,648  kilos  of  wine  and 
the  distillers  8,706,310  kilos  of  spirits.  In  the 
and  Ismid  the  Dr_I_..  ._ 
los;   the 

quantity  of  raw  silk  consumed  in  local  indus- 
tries was  11,976  kilos.  In  Palestine  an  inter- 
esting feature  in  agricultural  development  was 
the  establishment  of  Jewish  and  German  colo- 
nies, whi(ji  produced  chiefly  cereals,  oranges,  aod 

The  Turkish  provinces,  especially  those  in 
Asia,  were  rich  m  minerals,  which  were  little 
worked,  the  principal  ores  being  chrome,  sil- 
ver-lead, lino,  manganese,  antimony,  and  cop- 
per. Borax,  meerschaum,  emery,  and  asohalt 
were  also  found  in  Turkey,  as  well  as  cool  and 
petroleum.  The  salt  mines  at  Salif,  in  the 
Yemen,  yield  a  large  output,  the  quantity  sold 
in   1908-i)   amounting  to  S'"  >""   —■ '•-<»  *™- 


-ogle 


TURKEY 

Both  gold  and  ailver  are  found  in  the  Smynw 
uDJak;  tnercuiy  ne»r  Smymft  and  Konia;  k^ 
olin  in  the  isltod  of  Rhodes;  arsenic  in  Aidin; 
iron  in  Aidin,  Konia,  and  Adsna.  Near  Brugga 
quarries  of  lithographic  Btone  are  Dow  exien- 
sivoly  worked.  There  i«  a  good  deal  of  brass 
turning  *Dd  beating  of  copper.  Concessions 
have  also  been  granted  for  glti«B  manufacto- 
ries, paper  milla,  and  textile  locxai.  At  Da- 
mascus about  6,000  hand  looms  and  10,000 
workmen  are  employed  in  weaving  silk,  cotton, 
and  woolen  fabrics.  Caipet  weaving  is  carried 
on  in  Anatolia.  The  fiaheries  of  Turkey  are  im- 
portant, those  of  the  Bosporus  alone  repre- 
senting a  value  of  upward  of  (1,250,000.  The 
coast  of  the  Mediterianean  produces  excellent 

Soo^es,  the  Red  Sea. mother-of-pearl,  and  the 
^raian  Qulf  pearls. 

The  fundamental  laws  of  the  empire  are 
based  on  the  precepts  of  the  Koran.  The  will 
of  Uie  Sultan  is  staolute,  in  so  far  as  it  is  not 
in  opposition  to  the  accepted  truths  of  the  Mo- 
hammedan religion.  The  constitution  of  1S73, 
which  save  for  a  brief  season  has  been  inop- 
erative, provided  for  th«  security  of  personal 
liberty  and  property,  for  the  administration  of 
justice  by  irremovable  judges,  the  abolition  of 
torture,  the'  freedom  of  the  press,  and  the  equal- 
ity of  all  Ottoman  subjecta  Islam  was  de- 
clared to  be  the  religion  of  the  state,  but  free- 
dom of  worship  was  secured  to  all  creeds,  and 
all  persons,  irrespective  of  religion,  were  de- 
clared eligible  to  public  oflice.  Parliament  con- 
sists of  two  houses— a  chamber  of  deputies  and 
a  senate.  Senators  must  be  at  least  40  years  of 
age,  and  are  appointed  by  the  Sultan.    For  the 


electoral  delegates  choose  one  deputy  for  every 
6,000  electors.  Electors  must  be  Ottoman  sub- 
jects of  at  least  twenty-flve  yeare  of  ag^,  with- 
out distinction  of  race  or  creed,  while  delegates 
must  be  at  least  thirty  yeatfl  of  age.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  prevailing  discontent,  especially 
in  the  army,  caused  by  corruption  and  misgov- 
emment,  an  imperial  decree  was  issued  for  the 
convocation  of  a  parliament,  and  constitutional 
government  was  restored  in  1S08. 

The  whole  of  the  empire  is  divided  into  vila- 
yets, these  subdivided  into  saujaka,  these  into 
tcCzas,  with  occasional  subdivision  into  nahies. 
A  vali,  or  governor  general,  representing  the 
sultan,  and  assisted  by  a  provincial  council,  is 
placed  at  the  head  of  each  vilayet.  The  minor 
provinces  are  subjected  to  inferior  authorities 
(muteesarifs,  kalmakams,  mudirs,  and  muk- 
tare),  under  the  superintendence  of  the  vali. 
The  division  of  the  country  into  vilayets  has 
been  frequently  modified  of  late  for  political 
reasons.  For  similar  reasons  six  of  the  sanjaka 
of  the  empire  are  governed  by  muteasarifa  ap- 
pointed directly  by  the  Sultan,  and  are  known 
as  mutessarifats,  reporting  direct  to  the  Minis- 
try of  the  Interior,  Military  service  i»  incum- 
bent on  every  Mussulman  subject  twenty  years 
of  age.  Non-Mussulmans  pay  the  haratch 
(tax)  of  about  SO  piasters,  and  are  not  liable. 
The  army  is  organized  in  seven  ordns  (corps 
iTarmte).  The  government  believes  the  army  to 
number  2G0,000  in  time  of  peace,  and  claims 
ability  to  put  over  1,000,000  men  Into  the  field. 


Itjrket 

On  paper  the  navy  is  formidable,  yet  most  of 
the  ships  are  so  poorly  equipped  and  i.nsea- 
worthy,  the  crews  so  incompetent,  end  the  com- 
manders so  incapable  that  the  Ottoman  navy 
hardly  counts  as  a  fighting  power. 

The  great  majority  of  Turkish  subjects  may 
be  classed  in  seven  main  racial  groups;  Turk- 
ish, Graco-Jjatin,  Slavic,  Georgian,  Hindu,  Per- 
sian, and  Semitic.  The  population  of  the  em- 
pire is  estimated  at  about  35,414,300;  that  of 
Turkey  in  Europe  is  alraut  0,130,200.  The  chief 
towns  are;  In  Albania,  Scutari,  Janina;  in 
Macedonia,  Salonica,  Monastir;  in  Thrace,  Con- 
stantinople, Adrianople;  in  A^a  Minor,  Smyr- 
na, Broussa,  Adana;  in  Armenia,  Ereeroum, 
Endngbian,  Van;  in  Kurdistan,  Moeul,  Khar- 
pout,  Diarbekir;  in  Irak  Arabi,  Bagdad;  in 
Arabia,  Mecca,  Medina;  in  Africa,  Tripoli. 
Education  has  made  marked  progress  since 
about  1S50,  due  to  the  efforts  of  the  govern- 
ment, to  the  awakened  sentiment  of  the  peo- 
ple,, and  to  the  missionaries.  The  imperial 
school  of  medicine,  founded  in  1B20,  has  been 
followed  by  colleges  and  other  high  institu- 
tions and  by  primary  and  secondary  establish- 

The  Turkish  Govt,  publishes  neither  finan- 
cial account  nor  estimates  of  revenue  and  ex- 
penditure. The  estimates  presented  to  the 
Chamber,  1011,  show  for  the  year  1911-12  reve- 
nue amounting  to  £T28,ei2,9T8  and  expendi- 
ture amounting  to  £T35,007,446.  The  condi- 
tion of  the  Turkish  debt  was  as  fdlows  in 
1908: 

Swumd  OD  Ecyptlu  tribute £T18  414,068 

Secunid  on  silmuiiitand  nranueri. 100.482,011 

VsrioiuLaui 12.276,000 

Tot«l im31,178,S7» 

Of  debts  which  are  not  loans,  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  balance  of  the  Russian  war 
indemnity,  amounting  to  £T24,613,000  in  1B98; 
and  a  debt  of  £T273.494  for  the  Damascus  Rail- 
way. The  decimal  system  of  weights  and 
measures  was  introduced  in  18S2  and  declai-ed 
obligatory  in  1882.  A  tax  of  11  per  cent  ad  va- 
lorem is  levied  on  all  imports,  except  articles 
for  embassies,  consulates,  schools,  and  churches, 
which  are  admitted  free.  The  introduction  of 
salt  and  tobacco  is  prohibited,  they  being  go](~ 
emment  monopolies.  There  is  an  export  cus- 
toms duty  on  native  goods  sent  abroad  and 
between  the  different  provinces  of  the'  empire. 
The  chief  imports  are  linen  goods,  sugar,  woolen 
goods,  medicine*  and  dyes,  coffee,  rice,  petro- 
leum, skins,  iron,  cashmere,  and  timber.  The 
chief  exports  are  raw  silk,  opium,  mohair,  nuts, 
coffee,  figs,  cotton,  minerals,  olive  oil,  carpets, 
cocoonl,  and  eggs. 

The  Ottomans  are  a  Turkish  tribe,  originally 
from  Khorassan.  Numbering  only  400  fami- 
lies, they  were  led  by  their  chief,  Ertogroul, 
into  Asia  Minor  in  1231.  The  Seljuk  sultan, 
Ala-ed-Din  I,  grateful  for  aid  in  battle,  bestowed 
on  Erb^oul  some  pasture  lands  on  the  river 
Sangarius,  K  of  the  Bithynian  Olympus.  There 
Ertogroul  and  bis  followers,  hitherto  piwans 
embraced  Islam,  and  their  descendants  Gave 
continued  faithful  and  lealous  Mussulmans. 
On  the  dissolution  of  the  Seljuk  Empire,  Oth- 
man,  son  of  Ertogroul,  was  proclaimed  sultan 


TURKEY 

of  the  Ottomans,  uid  hU  pomenloiu  hIowIj  in- 
creased. At  that  time  Asia  Minor  presented  a 
readj  field  of  conquest  to  whichever  power  was 
stronger  than  the  rest,  and  the  first  seven  sul- 
tans poswsaed  the  qualities  requisite  to  the 
founding  of  states.  Bioussa  was  besieged  and 
made  the  capital,  132G. 

A  code  was  formulated,  the  Janizaries  and 
sipahis  (cavalr?)  organized,  mcmey  coined,  and 
red  adopted  as  the  national  color  before  1330. 
Tzympe,  the  first  Ottoman  acquisition  in  Eu- 
rope, was  captured,  1359;  then  Adrianople, 
1305.  Oraduallf  Asia  Minor  and  the  Balkan 
■  states  were  subdued.  The  frightful  defeat  of 
Bayaiid  I  at  Angora  bj  Tamerlane,  1402, 
ana  the  consequent  eleven  jears'  interregnum, 
threatened  the  very  existence  of  the  empire. 
Yet  when  Mohammed  II  succeeded,  1451,  it  bad 
atreadj  become  more  strong  and  compact  than 
before.  The  Seljuks,  as  fast  as  they  were  sub- 
dued, fused  with  the  Ottomans,  as  did  vast 
numbers  of  Christians.  Duration  tvas  assured 
the  empire  by  the  capture  of  Constantinople, 
1453,  which  was  at  once  made  the  capital.  Un- 
der Hohammed  II,  Bayazid  II,  Selim  I,  and 
Siiteii'i'ii  I  ^'  empire  steadily  expanded,  reach- 
ing its   acme   in   the   reign  of   the  ilast. 

]fet  already  tiie  empire  was  b^jinning 
its  dow  but  inevitable  decline.  The  whole 
hiatwy  is  best  indicated  by  the  successive 
treaties  of  SiTatorok,  1606,  when  the  empire 
first  receded;  Carlovitcb,  1699,  bv  which  it 
was  first  dismembered ;  Passarovitch,  1719; 
Kainarji,  1TT4;  Jassy,  1792;  Adrianople,  1S29: 
San  Stefano,  1878;  and  Berlin  (see  Tbeatt 
or  BrauK).  In  1908  Bulgaria  became  inde- 
pendent and  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  were 
annexed  to  Austria-Hungary.  In  190B  Abdul 
Hamid  was  deposed  and  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy was  established  under  Mehmed  V.  In 
1911  Tripoli  was  annexed  by  Italy,  and  in 
1912-13,  Turkey  lost  nearly  all  of  her  Euro- 
pean territory  to  the  Balkan  States.  In  1914 
Turkey  entered  the  European  War  on  the  side 
of  Germany,  beginning  her  hostilities  with 
an  attack  on  the  Russian  fleet  in  the  Black 
Bea.  At  that  time  her  Asiatic  possessions  com- 
prised Asia  Minor,  Armenia  and  Kurdistan, 
Mesopotamia  and  Syria,  and  Yemen  and  the 
Hedjas  in  Arabia.  In  1917  it  was  disclosed  by 
the  Greek  Government  that  a  treaty  of  alliance 
was  ffignad  between  Germany  and  Turkey  on 
Aug.  4,  1914.  This  fact  waaketit  from  the  Allies, 
who  vainly  triedfor  three  monUia  to  keep  Turkey 
neutral.  In  1917,also  (Jan.  llj,  Germany  and 
Turkey  Degoti&ted  several  treaties  providing  for 
German  recognition  of  Turkey's  full  sovereignty. 
Turkey,  however,  suffered  severely  in  the  war, 
lost  much  territoiy,  and  sued  for  peace.  Get.  31, 
1618. 

Turkey,  a  bird  allied  to  the  common  fowl, 
domesticated  in  many  civilized  countries,  but 
confined  to  K,  America  until  after  its  discovery 
by  Columbus. 

TOffcay  Bnz'isrd,  the  commonest  of  American 
▼ultures,  resembling  a  turkey  in  size  and  appear- 
ance. It  ranges  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the 
U.  S..  szoept  the  extreme  N.  and  E.  portions, 
and  thenoe  S.  over  nearly  all  of  S.  America.    It 


TCBKIT    BotUHD. 

founded  with   the   smaller  black   vulture,  or 

Tnrlcey  Stone,  or  Turkey  OU'stone,  a  flinty 
rock  of  very  fine  grnin  used  tor  shsrpening 
cutting  tools;  so  called  because  obtained  from 
Asia  Minor.    See  Hoke. 

Tmldatan'.    See  TumKESTAit. 

Tni'komans,  certain  tribes  of  Turkish  tongue 
scattered  through  Transcaspia,  Turkestan,  Per-  - 
sia,  Kborassan,  W.  China,  ftnd  Turkey  in  Asia. 
Their  language  is  very  similar  to  Qsmanli 
Turkish,  but  physically  they  are  much  modified 
t^  Iranian  intermixture.  They  are  all  lealoua 
Sunnite  Mohammedans,  and  an  pfutoral  and 
nomadic. 

Turks,  in  the  broad  sense,  a  race  with  defi- 
nite and  well-marked  ethnic  and  linguistic 
characters  which  has  played  an  important  part 
in  the  history  of  central  Asia  and  E.  Europe, 
and  is  now  found  scattered  over  a  territory 
etrctching  from  Yakutsk  to  N.  India  and  W. 
to  the  Mediterranean  and  Lithuania.  It  occu- 
pies but  a  part  of  this  great  territory,  has  ex- 
tensively intermingled  with  Aryan  and  Mongol 
races,  and  comprises  many  diflTerent  tribes. 

Turks  Islands,  a  group  of  small  islands 
(Grand  Turk,  Salt  Cay,  and  some  islets); 
physically,  the  SE.  of  the  Bahama  group,  but 
politically,  with  the  neighboring  Coicos  Islands, 
attached  to  the  colony  of  Jamaica.  All  are 
low,  and  Grand  Turk,  the  largest,  is  only  7  m. 
long  by  1)  m.  wide.  Several  lagoons  furnish 
excellent  salt,  and  about  1,600,000  bu.  are  an- 
nually exported.  Total  pop.  Turks  and  Caicos 
Islands  ( 1905 )  6,ZS7,  nearly  all  engaged  in  the 
salt  industry, 

Tor'meric,  the  root  of  Curcuma  longa  of  the 
ginger  family,  a  native  of  the  E.  Indies  and 
Clochin-China.  It  contains  a  yellow  coloring 
matter  (ourcumtn)  and  a  brownish  dye.  The 
root  of  Canna  *pe<nota,  a  plant  occurring  1 
W.  Africa,  also  possesaes  tne  aame^prope  " 


ame^propertias. 


TURNER 

Turmeric  is  used  in  tbe  dj«ing  of  ailk  aud 
wool,  and  uneized  paper  stained  with  a  solu- 
tion of  turmeric  is  used  in  chemical  operations 
as  a  teat  for  the  allcatiM,  which  impart  a  red- 
dish-brown color  to  the  paper. 

Tufnei,  Joseph  Halloid  William,  I77S-1B5] ; 
English  landscape  painter;  b.  London;  entered 
the  school  of  the  Ro;aI  Academy  in  I78B,  and 
drew  from  nature  in  pencil  and  water  color. 
He  was  elected  a  Rofal  Academician  in  1802, 
and  Boon  afterwards  traveled  in  France,  Italy, 
and  Bwitzerland.  In  1807  he  began  his  "  Liber 
Studiorum";  in  1819.  visited  Italy,  to  whicli 
country  he  returned  in  1829  and  1840.  He 
had  a  most  succeesfui  artistic  career  and  re- 
ceived many  honors.  He  left  his  pictures  to 
the  nation,  the  National  Gallery  in  London 
thus  acquiring  over  a  hundred  finished  works. 
His  work  was  enthusiastically  championed  by 
John  Ruskin,  who  wrote  eloquently  about  his 
methods  and  his  {aithiul  study  of  nature,  and 
exalted  him  at  the  expense  of  Claude  Lorraine, 
who  was  considered  the  greatest  of  landscape 

E inters  at  the  time  when  Turner  began  to  be 
own.  Turner  was  a  man  of  great  talent  and 
singularly  gifted  aa  a  colorist,  his  chief  claim 
to  rank  high  as  an  artist  depending  on  the 
fine  color  quality  of  his  works.  In  his  later 
work  he  paid  little  attention  to  form,  and  oc- 
cupied himself  almost  entirely  in  working  out 
elaborate  color  schemes,  for  which  almost  any 
subject  served  his  purpose. 

In  the  National  Gallery,  London,  are  a  large 
number  of  oil  paintings  by  Turner,  most  of 
them  coming  from  his  bequest  to  the  nation. 
Among  these  are  "  The  Garden  of  the  Hesper- 
ides,"  "  Crossing  the  Brook,"  "  Ulysses  Derid- 
ing Polyphemus,"  "  The  Fighting  T&n^aire," 
"  Snow  Storm,"  "  Steamer  Signaling,"  and 
"  Rain,  Steam,  and  Speed."  "  Ihe  Sun  Rising 
in  a  Mist "  and  "  Dido  Building  Carthage  " 
were  left  to  the  nation  with  the  express  pro- 
viso that  they  should  be  hung  beside  the  two 
large  pictures  by  Claude  Lorraine,  "  Landscape 
wiUl  Figures "  and  "  The  Embarkation  of  the 
Queen  of  Sheba."  Turner  produced  some  re- 
markable engravings,  the  chief  of  which  are 
the  set  known  as  "  Liber  Studiorum,"  Their 
general  character  is  that  of  an  etching  in  line. 
very  carefully  and  skillfully  made,  as  the 
framework  of  the  composition,  the  plate  being 
then  mezzotinted;  but  some  tew  of  the  plates 
were  engraved  in  different  ways.  Engravings 
after  Turner's  pictures  and  water-color  draw- 
ings were  made  in  great  numbers,  on  a  large 
and  also  on  a  very  small  scale.  Among  the 
prints  may  be  named  the  "  England  and 
Wales,"  the  "Yorkshire  Series,"  the  "Har- 
bors of  England,"  and  the  exquisite  illustra- 
tions to  Rogers's  "  Italy  "  and  "  Poems." 

Tnn'ing.    See  Lathb. 

Tnr'iijp,  a  biennial  plant,  abundant  through- 
out the  temppriite  zone,  having  a  swollen, 
fleshy  root  of  great  value  as  food  both  for  man 
and  for  cattle.  It  is  found  growing  wild  as  a 
weed  in  Europe  and  N.  Asia,  and  is  largely 
cultivated,  sometimes  reaching  20  or  25  lb. 
Turnips,  when  grown  in  gardens,  may  be  sown 
eaily;  when  raised  in  the  field,  they  are  sown 


TURNSTONE 

much  later,  imd  thrive  best  in  moist,  cloudy 
weather.  Though  turnip  culture  is  of  recent 
origin  in  Great  Britain,  it  has  taken  rank 
there  as  a  field  crop,  being  fed  to  sheep  in  the 


fields.  Though  an  agreeable  food  for  man,  it 
has  neVer  assumed  importance,  owing  to  the 
large  proportion  of  water,  87  to  92  per  cent, 
in  its  composition.  The  rutabaga,  or  Swedish 
turnip,  is  closely  allied  to  it. 

Tnm'pikc,  or  Turnpike  Road,  a  road,  espe- 
cially a  highway,  upon  which  turnpikes  or  toll 
gates  are  established,  and  which  are  kept  in 
repair  by  tbe  tolls  or  fees  collected  from  those 
who  use  the  road- 


long  and  pendent  ears,  and  a  very  large  head. 
It  has  a  dash  of  greyhound  blood.  Two  or 
more  dogs  were  kept,  to  ftlieve  each  other  at 
the  task,  the  dog  standing  in  a  kind  of  tread- 
mill, his  weight  giving  motion  to  the  spit.  The 
breed  is  apparently  very  old,  as  similar  dogs 
are  figured  on  the  monuments  of  ancient 
Egypt. 


'  TuaNBTOHE. 

Tnm'Btone  (so  called  from  its  habit  of  over- 
turning stones  in  search  of  food),  a  wading 
bird  allied  to  the  plovers,  and  etunmon  on  tlM 
6  LM_.a  -X.OO'^Te 


TURPENTINE 

Bhorea  of  the  U.  B.  and  in  Heart;?  all  parts  of 
the  world.  On  the  Pacific  coast  is  found  the 
black  tumstone. 

Tni'peiitiDe,  any  one  of  certain  vegetable 
oil  resins  which  esude  from  piny  trees.  They 
.  are  obtained  by  making  an  eAcsvation,  havinf; 
a  capacity  of  about  three  pints,  in  the  trunk 
of  the  tree,  in  which  the  juice  acctuaulates, 
which  is  collected,  washed  with  warm  water, 
and  puriQed  by  straining.  American  turpentine 
is  chiefly  procured  from  N.  Carolina,  8.  Caro- 
lina, and  Georgia.  Venice  turpentine  is  a  ropy, 
alightlf  greenish   liquid    having   a   rather   un- 

fileasaut  odor  and  taate,  and  is  made  from  the 
a.rch.  Canada  turpentine  is  produced  from 
the  balsam  Sr  growing  in  Canada  and  Maine. 
The  remaining  varieties  of  turpentine  are  the 
Strassburg,  the  Hungarian,  and  the  Chian, 
which  are  in  most  reepecta  similar  compounds. 
The  turpentines  as  a  class  form  yellowish 
viscid  liquids,  possessing  a  strong  aromatic 
odor,  and  a  hitter,  pungent  taste,  and  are  very 
inflammable.  They  consist  of  a  volatile  oil  (or 
oils)  and  rosin.  Upon  distilling  the  crude 
product  with  water,  the  volatile  oil  is  sep- 
arated, ft  brittle  residue  of  rosin  remaining. 
Oil  of  turpentine  (spirits  of  turpentine) 
(C„Hi, )  is  obtained  by  the  distillation  of 
crude  turpentine.  They  all  form  colorless, 
mobile  liquids  of  a  peculiar  disagreeable  odor, 
are  insoluble  in  water,  but  dissolve  in  alcohol 
and  ether.  The  oils  of  turpentine  are  solvents 
of  many  resins  and  oils,  of  caoutchouc,  and  of 
iodine,  sulphur,  and  phosphorus.  French  oil  of 
turpentine  consists  essentially  of  a  hydmcar' 
bop  termed  terebenlhene  (C„,Hi,).  The  oils 
of  turppntine  on  standing  slowly  absorb  osygen, 
a  portion  of  which  is  converted  into  ozone. 
Artificial  camphors  are  the  results  of  the  com- 
bination of  hydrochloric  acid  with  oil  of  tur- 
pentine. Turpentine  is  sometimes  applied  ex- 
ternally in  medicine  in  the  shapes  of  salves 
and  plasters;  it  is  also  taken  internally  in  the 
form  of  pills.  The  ails  of  turpentine  are  used 
in  vamisnes,  and  to  some  extent  in  medicine, 

Torqoolse',  or  Turquoii,  a  precious  stone, 
chemically  an  aluminium  hydrous  phosphate, 
owing  its  blue  color  to  a  small  amount  of  cop- 
per, always  opaque  and  amorphous,  and  occur- 
ring in  small  seams  in  igneous  and  volcanic 
rocks.  It  has  long  Ijeen  a  favorite  gem  stone 
from  its  delicate  light-blue  color;  when  green- 
ish it  is  less  prized.  The  principal  localities 
for  turquoise  are  at  Nichapur,  Persia,  and  in 
the  Sinai  Desert  in  Eg^pt.  The  stones  from 
the  latter  are  more  liable  to  change  color. 
Since  1890  very  flno  gems  have  been  obtained 
in  New  Mexico,  where  extensive  mines  have 
been  reopened  that  were  worked  by  the  ancient 
Mexicans.  Turquoise  occasionallv  loses  its 
color  and  turns  greenish,  especially  when  ex- 
posed to  fatty  acids,  as  in  washing  with  soap 
water.  A  natural  imitation,  known  as  bone 
turquoise  or  odontolite,  is  fossil  bone  similarly 
colored  by  copper.  It  is  easily  distinguished 
under  the  microscope. 

Tnr'tle,  one  of  an  order  of  reptile*  of  the 
species  Testtidinala,  with  the  body  protected 
by  a  bony  case.    The  jawB  of  turtles  are  tooth- 


TURTLE 

less  and  hardened  like  those  of  a  bird,  and  the 
feet  modified  for  walking  or  swimming.  Tur- 
tles   are   found   throughout   the    tropical    and 

temperate  seas,  and  feed  chiefly  upon  marine 
plants.  The  principal  species  is  the  green  tur- 
tle Iq.v.),  which  IB  highly  esteemed  as  food. 
The  Trionyehithx,  or  soft-shelled  tortoises,  are 
distinguished  by  the  leathery  and  scaleless 
shell.  "  The  principal  habitat  of  the  members 
of  this  family  is  the  muddy  bottom  of  shallow 
waters.  They  bury  themselves  in  the  soft  mud, 
leaving  only  the  head,  or  a  small  part  of  it, 
exposed.  They  take  breath  from  time  to  time, 
without   moving  the  body,  by   raising  up  the 


long  neck  arid  head,  and  carrying  the  leathery 
snout  above  water.  They  rarely  emerge  from 
the  water,  and  when  on  the  land  their  locomo- 
tion is  laborious.  In  the  water,  however,  they 
are  active  and  quick  in  their  movements. 
They  feed  upon  shells;  they  lay  from  twelve 
to  twenty  ojid  more  eggs,  of  a  spherical  form 
and  above  the  size  of  a  musket  ball,  on  the 
shore  by  the  water's  edge.  The  shell  of  these 
^ga  is  thick,  but  very  brittle." — Agaasiz. 
Species  are  found  most  abundantly  in  the  trop- 
ical regions  of  Asia  and  Africa,  but  occur  also 
through  a  large  area  of  the  U.  8. 

While  turtles  are  used  for  food  wherever 
they  are  sufficiently  large  or  abundant,  few 
species  are  the  object  of  regular  pursuit. 
Among  marine  species  the  green  turtles  are 
taken  tor  their  flesh  and  the  hawk-bills  for 
their  shells;  the  lo^erbead  is  also  taken,  but 
forms  poor  food.  The  diamond  hack,  or  ter- 
rapin, of  the  SE.  of  the  U.  S.  and  the  large 
species  of  sliders  are  much  sought  for,  as  are 
also  the  soft-shelled  turtles  of  the  S.  of  the 
U.  6.  and  Mississippi  valley. 

Turtle  culture  has  been  practiced  to  some 
extent  both  in  the  U.  S.  and  Japan.  Florida 
claims  the  largest  catch  of  the  sea  turtles  and 
Virginia  leads  In  the  number  of  terrapin 
caught,  although  Maryland's  product  stands 
first  in  value,  owing  to  the  large  proportion  of 
diamond  backs.  The  annual  product  of  the 
turtle  fisheries  in  the  U.  S.  exceeds  (120,000. 
See  Hawks-bill  Tubtle;  Ltbs  Tubtle)  Tob- 

Turtle,  or  Tur'tledove,  any  one  of  several 

small  pigeons.  The  common  European  turtle 
is  a  migratory  bird,  famed  for  Its  gentleness. 
Its  strong  conjugal  affection,  and  its  loud  but 

Steasant  cooing  note.  The  turtle  or  mourning 
ove  of  the  U.  S.  haa  a  gentle  and  mournful 


TUSAYAN 

note.  It  is  13  in.  instotal  length,  and  has 
a  remarkably  long  tail.  There  are  perhaps 
twenty  speciea  of  turtledove.  That  mentioned 
In  the  Bible  ia  Turlur  rUoriua,  an  abundant 
Eastern  species  often  kept  in  cagee. 
Tuu'yaii   In'diana.     See    Shobhohban    Ik- 

Tus'cAny,  a  compartimento  of  Italy,  com- 
prising the  provinces  of  Areaio,  Florraice, 
Qrosseto,  Legh'"'ii  Lncca,  Maasa- Carrara,  Pisa, 
and  Siena;  now  not  recognized  as  a  legal  di- 
vision; area,  9,304  aq.  m.;  pop.  (1911  census), 
2fi9i,i53.  It  was  formerly  an  independent 
grand  duchy  of  Italy.  Its  territory  corre- 
sponded nearly  to  that  of  ancient  Etruria,  and 
after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  it  formed 
at  first  part  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Groths,  then 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  Longobards,  and  then 
of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne.  He  gave  it  a 
somewhat  more  independent  ^sition,  erecting 
it  into  a  marquisate,  and  giving  it  away  as  a 
mlliUry  fief.  Guelph  VI  sold  his  flef  in  1160 
to  the  German  emperor,  Frederick  I;  but  Tus- 
cany ^was  soon  broken  up  into  a  number  of 
independent  republics,  of  which  Florence,  Pisa, 
and  Siena  were  the  moat  important.  Florence 
conquered  Pisa  and  the  greatest  part  of  the 
Tuscan  territory,  but  was  conquered  itself  -- 


Tntoi'U.  the  easternmost  of  the  three  larger 
islands  of  the  Samoao  group ;  area,  &4  sq.  m.  j 
pop.  3,800.  It  is  of  volcanic  origin,  builtr  up 
above  the  sea  by  basaltic  rocks.  The  island 
is  much  smaller  than  Savaii  and  Upolu,  farther 
W.,  but  is  not  so  mountainous.  Pago  Pago  i« 
the  best  harbor  in  the  Samoau  group.  Tutuila 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  U.  S.  in  Janu- 
ary, 1900. 

Twain,  Mark.  See  Cleuzns,  S.  L. 
Tweed,  William  Harcy,  1323-TS;  American 
politician;  b.  New  York  City;  became  promi- 
nent in  local  politics,  and  In  1863  was  elected 
to  Congress.  For  many  years  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Tammany  Society,  of  which  be  was 
grand  sachem  1869-71.  tram  his  appointment 
as  Deputy  Street  Commissioner  in  1863  may 
be  said  to  date  the  foundation  of  the  Tammany 
ring,  of  which  he  was  the  chief  spirit  As 
President  of  the  Board  of  Supervisors,  he  in- 
creased the  citj^'s  pay  roll  to  unprecedented 
dimensions,  giving  sinecure  positions  to  an 
army  of  political  Iriends.  The  ring  Kradually 
grew  till  the  opening  of  1869  found  it  master 
of  the  state  government.  In  1B6S  the  rins's 
greatest  scheme  of  robbery,  the  building  of  a 
new  county  courthouse,  was  planned.    The  work 

^^■^r^^   v^w.^.j,  —   ..—  — ., ...      was  begun  under  the  stipulation  that  the  cost 

lfi32  by  Charles  V,  who  appointed  Alesaandro     should  not  exceed  £260,000.     Before  1S71  over 


de'  Me'dici  Duke  of  Florence.  In  1669  Cosmo 
I  united  the  whole  of  Tuscany  into  a  grand 
duchy,  and  from  that  time  to  1737,  when  it 
became  extinct,  the  Medici  family  ruled  the 
country,  and  made  it  one  of  the  most  prosper- 
ous and  civilized  in  Europe.  In  1T37  it  fell  to 
Francis,  Duke  of  Lorraine,  who  had  married 
Maria  Theresa  and  later  became  Emperor  of 
Qermany,  and  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
years,  during  which  Napoleon  first  made  it 
a  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Etruria,  and  then 
annexed  it  to  France,  it  was  ruled  by  the  house 
of  Ijorraine  until  August  Ifl,  18S9,  when  it 
annexed  itself  to  the  Kingdom  of  Sardinia.  In 
1861,  by  a  similar  process,  it  was  annexed  to 
the  Kingdom  of  Italy  From  that  time  until 
1871  Florence  was  the  capital  of  the  kingdom. 
The  literary  language  of  Italy  is  founded  upon 
the  dialect  of  Tuscany. 

Tua'culnm.    See  Fkabcatl 

Taake'gee,  capital  of  Maoon'Co.,  Ala.;  40 
m.  N.  by  E.  of  Montgomery.  It  is  in  a  cotton- 
growing  region;  is  an  attractive  winter  resort. 
It  ia  noted  for  its.  educational  institutions, 
which  comprise  the  Alabama  Military  Insti- 
tute, the  Alabama  Conference  Female  College, 
the  Alabama  Normal  School,  school  for  col- 
ored people,  and  the  Tuskegee  Normal  and  In- 
dustrial Institute.  The  last  was  founded  in 
1861  by  Booker  T.  Washington,  a  graduate 
of  the  Hampton  Normal  and  Industrial  In- 
stitute. The  institution  is  exclusively  for 
colored  youth,  is  equipped  for  advanced  nor- 
mal and  industrial  education,  and  nearly  if  not 
all  of  the  work  of  laying  out  the  ^unds,  erect- 
ing the  buildings,  and  constructing  the  oper- 
aUng  plants  was  done  by  the  students.  Mr. 
Washington  has  been  principal  of  the  institute 
from  its  organization.  Pop.  of  town  (1910), 
2^03. 


$8,000,000  was  pretended  to  have  been  ex- 
pended on  it  and  it  was  still  unfinished. 

When  by  the  charter  of  1870  the  power  of 
auditing  accounts  was  taken  from  the  Board 
of  Supervisors  and  invested  in  certain  city  of- 
fices then  filled  by  Tweed  and  his  friends,  all 
restraints  on  the  system  of  plundering  hy 
fraudulent  bills  was  removed.  Such  billa, 
amounting  to  {6,000,000,  were  passed  by  the 
board  of  audit  at  its  first  and  only  meeting. 
Of  this  amount  over  J1,000,000  was  traced  to 
Tweed's  private  pocket.  A  secret  account  of 
the  money  thus  paid  was  kept  in  the  auditors' 
office.  During  the  winter  of  1870-71  a  cleric 
copied  hy  stealth  this  account  and  the  New 
York  Times  published  it  in  July,  1871.  The 
excitement  created  thereby  started  an  investi- 
gation which  resulted  in  the  complete  over- 
throw of  the  ring  in  the  elections  of  November, 
1871.  Tweed  was  tried  for  grand  larceny  and 
forgery,  and  sentenced  on  November  22,  1872, 
to  twelve  years'  imprisonment  in  the  peniten- 
tiary and  to  pay  a  heavy  fine.  On  December  4, 
1875,  he  escaped  and  ned  to  Spain,  where  he 
was  captured  and  returned  to  the  city,  Novem- 
ber, 187fl.  Died  in  Ludlow  Street  Jail,  New 
York. 

Tweed,  next  to  the  Tay  the  largest  river  of 
Scotland,  It  rises  in  the  SW.  comer  of  Peebles- 
shire, at  an  elevation  of  I,G00  ft,  flows  NE., 
E.,  and  again  NE.,  and  enters  the  North  Sea ' 
at  Berwick  after  a  course  of  97  m.  It  is  tidal 
for  10  m.,  and  forms  a  part  of  the  border  with 
England  for  18)  m. 

Twi'light,  the  glow  in  the  morning  and  even- 
ing sky  caused  by  the  reflection  of  the  light  of 
the  sun  by  the  atmosphere  after  sunset  and  be- 
fore Bunrise.  If  five  minutes  after  sunset  one 
could  in  a  moment  ascend  to  the  height  of  half 
a  mile  above  the  ea;-th  he  should  again  catoh 


■  Google 


TYCHO  BRAHB 

a  view  of  the  setting  sun.  All  that  portion 
of  the  atmosphere  ahove  this  point  is  therefore 
in  full  sunlight,  while  that  below  it  Is  illu- 
minated bj  the  reflection  from  other  portions. 
Twilight  IB  found  to  end  entirely  when  the 
■un  is  between  1S°  and  18°  below  the  horizon. 
One  conclusion  from  the  observations  of  twi- 
light ie  that  the  atmosphere  ceases  to  reflect 
the  Tsya  of  the  sun  at  a  height  of  about 
4S  m.  Did  any  part  of  the  air  higher  than  this 
reflect  any  light,  it  would  be  visible  when  the 
sun  was  more  than  18°  below  the  horizon,  and 
thus  there  would  be  a  longer  twilight  than  we 
actually  have.  Near  the  equator  twilight  is 
■hort,  Bs  the  sun  quickly  reaches  IS"  below  the 
horizon;  it  iaereases  toward  the  poles,  and  in 
the  Arctic  region  lasts  all  night,  as  the  sun 
doea  not  then  reach  18°  below  the  horizon. 


Tycha  Biahe  (t«'kC  brA'C). 
Tycoon,  a 


See  Bkahb. 


rTailnin  (tl-kOn'),  literally,  "great 

Jnnpe,  ine  name  by  which  the  Sboguu  of 
span  was  first  known  to  foreigners.  See 
Saoavs. 

Tyler,  John,  1790-1882;  tenth  President  of 
the  U.  S.;  b.  Chartea  Co.,  Va.;  graduated  Will- 
iam and  Mary  College,  1807;  admitted  to  the 
bar,  1809;  member  of  tlie  state  legislature, 
1811-16  and  1823-2S,  and  of  Congress,  1816-21; 
voted  to  censure  Gen.  Jackson's  conduct  in 
Florida;  opposed  the  U.  8.  Bank,  the  protective 
policy,  and  internal  improvements  by  the  Na- 
tional Government;  Governor  of  Virginia,  1825- 
27;  U.  S.  Senator,  1827-311;  opposed  the  admin- 
istration (rf  Adams  and  the  tariff  bill  of  1B2S; 
made  a  three  days'  speech  against  a  protective 
and  in  favor  of  a  revenue  Urifl',  1832;  con- 
demned the  nullification  measures  of  S.  Caro- 
lina, but  opposed  Jackson's  proclamation,  aud 
was  the  only  senator  who  voted  against  the 
"Force"  Bill;  voted  for  Clay's  Compromisa 
Bill,  and  his  resolutions  censuring  Pres.  Jack- 
son for  the  removal  of  the  deposits,  1835;  re- 
signed from  the  Senate,  February,  1838,  because 
the  Virginia  Legislature  instructed  him  to  vote 
for  expunging  those  resolutions  from  the  Sen- 
ate journal;  was  regarded  as  a  martyr  to  the 
Whig  cause,  and  as  Whig  candidate  for  Vice 
Pre^dent  in  1836  received  the  votes  of  Mary- 
land, Georgia,  8.  Carolina,  and  Tennessee;  sat 
in  the  Virginia  Legislature,  183B-*0. 

He  was  elected  Vice-President,  November. 
1840,  and  succeeded  to  the  Presidency  on  the 
death  of  Gen.  Harrison,  April  4th;  retained  in 
office  the  Cabinet  of  his  predecessor;  expressed 
in  a  message  to  Congress  his  readiness  to  con- 
cur in  any  financial  system  not  violative  of  the 
Constitution,  and  proposed  a  plan  requiring  the 
consent  of  the  states  to  the  establishment  of 
branch  banks;  vetoed  the  bill  substituted  by 
Clay  expressly  striking  out  this  requirement; 
vetoed  a  second  bill  called  the  Fiscal  Corpora- 
tion Bill,  which  claimed  for  Congress  a  similar 
power  to  establish  corporations  in  the  states; 
was  abandoned  by  the  members  of  his  Cabinet, 
except  Webster;  filled  their  places  with  States- 
rights  Whigs  who  were  oppoied  to  the  kind  of 


boundary  for  2,000  nu,  AuguJit  9,  1842;  after 


TYNDALL 

two  vetoes,  obtained  the  enactment  of  the  tariff 
of  1842{  asserted  the  independence  of  the  Ha- 
waiian Islands,  and  caused,  through  Caleb 
Cushing,  the  first  treaty  to  be  negotiated  with 
China;  tor  four  years  conducted  the  whole' 
financial  operations  of  the  Union,  Congresa  hav- 
ing repealed  all  laws  providing  for  tlie  public 
funds  and  refused  to  adopt  the  so-called  "  ex- 
chequer system"  which  be  proposed;  sup-  . 
pressed  Dorr's  rebellion  and  end^  the  war  with 
the  Florida  Indians-;  concluded,  through  Up- 
shur and  Calhoun,  a  treaty  for  the  annexation 
of  Texas  (April  12,  1844),  and.when  this  was 
rejected  by  the  Senate  effected  his  object  by 
the  passage  of  the  joint  resolutions  of  March 
I,  1843;  was  nominated  for  the  Presidency  by 
the  States-rights  Wbigs,  but  withdrew  from  the 
canvass  after  forcing  the  Democratic  conven- 
tion to  nominate  James  K.  Polk;  was  succeed- 
ed March  4,  1845,  by  Polk,  and  lived  in  retire- 
ment until  January,  1861,  when  he  presided 
over  the  peace  convention  of  delegates  from 
the  "border  states,"  which  he  suggested  as  a 
means  to  preserve  the  Union;  voted  for  seces- 
sion in  the  Virginia  State  Convention;  elected 
to  the  Provisional  Congress  of  the  Confederate 
States,  and  in  November,  18D1,  to  the  House  of 
Representatives  of  the  Confederat«  States. 

Tyler,  Wat,  d.  1381;  English  rebel  who, 
with  Jack  Straw,  demanded  of  Richard  11  that 
serfdom  and  outlawry  be  abolished.  He  was 
killed  at  Smithfield  by  Walworth,  Mayor  of 
London. 

Tympanum  (tlm'p&nilm).    See  E&B. 

TyniMle  (tTn'dai),  WUUam,  abt.  1484-1536; 
English  reformer;  educated  at  Oxford  and  Cam- 
bridge and  took  orders.  He  sympatbiEed  with 
the  Reformation,  excited  suspicion  by  bis  bold- 
ness of  speech,  and  was  compelled  to  ftee.  He 
went  to  Hamburg,  where  for  a  year  he  gave 
himself  to  his  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment; thence  to  Cologne,  where  the  first  ten 
sheets  were  put  to  press;  this  was  the  first 
printed  copy  In  English;  thence  to  Worms, 
where  in  1525  two  editions  were  published 
anonymously.  There  was  a  great  demand  for 
it,  notwithstanding  the  opposition  of  the  clergy. 
In  1630  appeared  his  translation  of  the  Penta- 
teuch. After  several  plots  at  the  instance  of 
the  English  Govt.,  he  was  arrested  at  Antwerp, 
and,  after  eighteen  months'  imprisonment  at 
Vilvorde,  during  which  he  continued  his  trans- 
lation, be  was  uiere  strangled  and  then  burned 
at  the  stake.  He  met  his  fate  with  composure. 
His  translation  of  the  New  Testament  was  the 
principal  model  and  basis  of  the  King  James 
version,  and  is  executed  with  accuracy  and  ele- 
gance. Be  also  wrote  "  Obedience  of  a  Chris- 
tian Man,"  translated  Erasmus's  "  Soldiers' 
Manual,"  and  published  numerous  note*  and 
treatises  on  the  Bible. 

Tyn'dall,  John,  1820-83:  English  physicist; 
b.  Leigblin  Bridge,  near  Carlow,  Ireland.  In 
1S30  be  became  connected  with  the  ordnance 
survey,  and  was  then  a  railway  engineer,  when 
he  became  teacher  of  phyitics  at  Queenwood 
College,  Hampshire.  In  1848  he  went  to  Ger- 
many and  attended  Buns^'s  lectures  at  Mar- 
burg.   He  made  discoveries  in  magnetism  which 

»  lm_.:i  .C.oogle 


TYNE 

led  to  his  being  elected  in  18SB  s  Fellow  of  the 
Royal  Society.  In  1853  he  waa  eleiH^  Prof,  of 
Satural  Philosophy  at  the  Royal  loititution. 
In  1856,  with  Prof.  Huxley,  he  risited  Switaer- 
land,  where  he  was  the  flrst  to  climb  the  Weiss- 
horn,  and  made  important  observations  on  the 
structure  and  motion  of  glaciers.  The  reaulta 
of  this  and  later  Swiss  experiences  he  published 
in  "  Glaciers  of  the  Alps,*'  "  Mountaineering  in 
!8ai,"  and  "Hours  of  Exercise  in  the  Alps." 
In  1858  he  began  his  investigations  on  radiant 
heat,  the  results  of  which  he  described  in 
"  Heat  Considered  as  a  Mode  of  Motion " 
(1803)  and  "On  Radiation."  lAter  he  studied 
the  acoustic  properties  of  the  atmosphere  and 
spontaneous  generation,  discovering  a  precise 
method  of  determining  the  absence  or  presence 
of  dust  in  the  air,  and  lectured  on  "  Dust  and 
Disease." 

In  1872  he  visited  the  U.  S.  on  a  suceeesful 
lecturing  tour,  the  profits  of  which  he  gave  as  a 
fund  "  in  aid  of  students  who  devote  themselves 
to  original  research."  In  1874  he  was  president 
of  the  British  Association  at  Belfast,  when  his 
address  excited  a  keen  controversy  as  the  first 
clear  and  unmistakable  utterance  as  to  the 
aims  of  modern  science,  and  its  apparent  asser- 
tion of  materialistic  opinions,  as  m  the  state- 
ment that  he  found  in  matter  "  the  promiw 
and  potency  of  every  form  end  quality  of  life. 
Toward   the  close  of  his  life  hP  •""<'   ■   "n™*- 


TYPE  ANI)  TYPESETTING 


the  principal  ingredient  is  1 
founaere  of  the  present  day  use  alloys  which 
are  generally  trade  secrets.  The  alloy  most 
approved  is  composed  of  certain  proportions  of 
lead,  antimony,  tin,  and  copper,  so  that  the 
metal  shall  be  hard,  yet  not  brittle;  ductile, 
yet  tough ;  flowing  freely,  yet  hardening  quick- 
ly. Type  is  made  more  durable  by  a  process 
which  deposits  a  thin  film  of  copper  over  the 
face.  The  large  letters  used  in  handbills  and 
posters  are  made  of  wood. 

The  names  given  to  the  various  siiee  of  type 
are  arbitrary  and  unmeaning.  The  following 
are  the  old  names  of  the  sizes  most  used  in 
hooks  and  newspapers:  (1)  Brilliant,  {i) 
diamond,  (3)  pearl,  (4)  agate  or  ruby,  (S) 
nonpareil,  (6)  minion,  (7)  Irevier,  (8)  bour- 
geois, (9)  long  primer,  (10)  small  pica,  (11) 
pica,   (12)   English,   (13)  ^reat  primer. 

The  following  ia  a  specimen  of  the  sizes  of 
type  up  to  great  primer,  the  numbers  corre- 
sponding to  the  numbers  and  names  above: 


;  took   a  some- 


scheme  of  home  rule  for- 

overdose  of  chloral  accidentally  administered 
by  his  wife.  Tyndall's  eminence  did  not  anse 
especially  from  his  scientific  discoveries,  but 
rather  from  his  force  of  character,  his  uncom- 
promising love  of  truth,  his  unrivaled  grasp  of 
his  materials,  and  his  power  as  a  briUiant  and 
effective  exponent  of  pnysical  science,  Iwth  in 
his  public  lectures  and  in  his  writing,  which 
,  are  remarkable  for  their  litwrary  merit, 

Tyne  (tin),  river  of  N.  England;  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  N.  and  S,  Tyne.  It  flows 
E.  and  enters  the  North  Sea_  after  a  course  of 
30  m.  through  the  richest  mining  districts  of 
England.  Its  chief  tributaries  are  the  Derwent 
and  the  Team.  It  is  navigable  18  m.  from  the 
North  Sea. 

Type  and  Type'setting.  Type  are  the  let- 
ters or  characters  used  in  typography.  A  type 
is  a  thin  metsllic  bar,  like  Fig.  1,  which  repre- 
sente  the  letter  M,  and  has  the  following  char- 
acteristics: (J  is  the  face;  f,  the 
body;  g,  the  nick;  o  to  6,  the 
width  or  set;  6  to  d  the  height 
of  the  printed  character;  c  to  e. 
the  height  to  paper;  d,  the  shoul- 
der; from  d  to  the  face  is  called 
.  the  beard;  h,  the  groove  left  in 
dressing  by  cutting  off  the  super- 
fluous metal  left  by  the  mold, 
which  leaves  two  parts  for  the 
bottom  of  the  type,  called  the 
feet;  the  thicker  stroke  of  a  let- 
ter is  called  the  stem  or  body 
Fio.i.— Ttpe.  mark;  the  fine  lines  at  the  top 
and  the  bottom  ot  a  letter  are  the 
serifs;   a  pro)ectic 


6. — ■bcdafKhljkliDDopqrstmwiyS 
6. — abodofghljklinnopqmtnvwxyi   " 
7, — abcdef giiij  klm  nopqrstu  v  wiyi 
8.  —abed  efghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz 
6.— abod  ef gh  ijklmnopqrBtuTWxyz 
lO.-^bcd  ef ghi j  kl  m  n  opqratii  v  wxy  z 
u.— abcdefghijtlmnopqrstuvwxyz 
18.— abcdefghij  klmnopqrstuv  w  sy 

".-abcdefghijklmnopqrst 

Hie  names  here  given  ta  types  are  those  of  the 
old  system,  whii%  is  falling  into  disuse  in  En- 
rope  and  America.  The  "  point  system  "  is  now 
in  use,  as  shown  in  the  table: 


The  height  to  paper,  or  the  distance  from 
the  face  to  the  feet  of  type,  varies  in  the  type 
made  by  the  foundries  of  Europe  and  America. 
The  standard  English  height  is  .0166  in.;  the 
V.  S.  new  standard  is  .9186  in.;  the  French 
standard  is  higher.  A  complete  assortment  of 
type  of  anj'  one  face  or  size  is  called  a  font  or 

^ ,   _  ^..^ over  the  body,  as  the  top  I  foimt,   which    may    be   varied   to   any    extent. 

and  the  bottom  ol  f,  is  a  kern.     Types  are  j  Type  founders  have  a  scheme  for^tbe  propor- 


TYPE  AND  TYPESETTINa 

tiMwl  qu&ntity  of  every  letter  required  for  a 
font,  and  il  peculiar  scale  is  neceaeary  for  every 
lan^age.  Fonts  of  book  tnie  vary  from  60  lb. 
to  20,000  lb.  Tbe  tj'pe  wheQ  received  from 
the  founder  are  arranged  in  a  case  <»ntaining 
boxes  of  various  sizes  for  the  different  char- 
acters.    The   lower  ca»e   has   remained  nearljr 


• 

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- 

- 

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F 

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A 

B 

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P 

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0 

H 

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IB 

Fio.  a.*— Ufpbb  Case. 

the  same  as  It  wu  two  hundred  years  ago.  It 
is  a  tray  of  wood,  about  IJ  in.  deep,  321  in. 
long,  and  161  in.  wide.  Caaes  go  in  pairs,  the 
upper  caaa  (Fig.  2)  containing  ninety-eight 
boxes  for  capitals,  etc.,  and  the  lower  caRe 
(Fig.  3)  containing  fifty-four  boxes  for  small 
letters,  figures,  and  spaces.     Fig.  2  shows  the 


J              •  •               i  i  Tff"  • 

—  bad  i  ■       f    C 

1 

—  I       ■         a  U          •       IP'.Ji.JSl. 


Fid.  3. — LowBB  Cam. 

ease  adopted  by  the  book  compositors  of  the 
U.  S.,  having  Uie  capitals  on  the  left  side  and 
the  small  capitals  on  the  right.  These  coses 
are  placed  on  a  frame  or  stand  about  the 
height  of  the  breast,  and  in  a  sloping  position 
from  tbe  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  case,  the 
capital  case  on  the  .upper  part  of  the  frame, 
whence  called  upper  case;  and  the  case  con- 
taining the  small  letters  on  the  lower  part  of 
the  frame,  hence  called  lower  case. 


The  compositor  in  setting  up  type  uses  a 
small  frame  of  steel,  having  three  sides  and  a 
bottom,  called  the  composing-stick  (Fig.  A). 
Two  sides  are  immovable,  the  third  side  being 
movable  to  be  adjusted  to  the  width  of  the 
page,  and  then  clasped  or  secured  with  a  screw. 
A  setting-rule,  type  high,  and  of  the  required 
measure   is   also   used   wiUi   the   stick;    it   is 


TYPE  METAL 

made  of  a  strip  of  steel  or  brass,  having  a 
short-pointed  projection  at  the  top  of  the 
right  end  or  on  both  ends.  It  enables  the  type 
to  be  put  quickly  in  ita  place,  and  is  used  in 
emptying  matter  from  the  stick,  in  lifting  mat- 
ter, and  to  support  matter  in  the  left  hand 
while  distribiitii^  with  the  right.  As  nearly 
as  tbe  letters  will  allow  in  print,  the  type 
are  set  in  the  stick  thua:  j^doSjsdqi- 
The  stickful  is  placed  on  a  galley,  or 
oblong  tray  of  wood  or  brass  having  a 
raised  edge  of  half  an  inch  on  two,  three, 
or  four  sides,  but  generall)'  on  the  left 
side  and  top.  Having_  completed  his  por- 
tion, the  matter,  aa  it  is  now  called,  is 
ready  to  be  made  up  into  pages. 

Ttfefoundino,  the  process  of  casting 
or  making  type.  In  devising  a  new  style 
of  type  the  first  process  is  to  make  a 
model  in  steel  for  each  letter.  Instead 
of  cutting  out  the  interior  of  the  letter, 
a  tool,  called  the  counter  punch,  is  cut  on 
steel  to  form  the  hollow  or  counter  of  the 
letter.  The  counter  punch,  after  hardening,  is 
then  impressed  In  t^  end  of  a  short  bar  * 
soft  steel,  which  is  known  as 
punch.  Around  this  sunken  counter 
the  model  letter  is  cut  in  high  relief. 
The  punch  is  hardened  (then  r 
bling  Fig.  5),  and  is  punched  i 

fiat   piece   of   cold-rolled   copper 
like  Fig,  6,  which,  after  careful 
finishing,  becomes  the  matrix,  < 
mother -type.  .The  letters  at  the 
bottom   of   the   matrix   indicate 
the  size,  "  double  English,"  and 
the    number    of    nicks — in    th' 
case  one  nick.     Every  letter  r 
quires    a    separate    punch    and 
matrix.      The    matrix    is    then     Fio.  6. — 
fitted   to    the   mold   that   forms      Punch. 
the  body  of  "the  letter.    The  hand 
mold,  used  until  recently,  is  composed  of 
two    parts,    which    fit    exactly    together. 
The  external  surface   is  of  wood,  the   in- 
terior of  steel.     At  the  top  is  a  shelving 
orifice,   into   which   the   metal    is 
poured.     The  space   within  is   of 
the  size  of  the  required  body  of 
the    letter.      The   caster,    holding 
the  mold  in  the   left  hand,  with 
a  small  ladle  containing  about  a 
spoonful    pours    the    metal    into 
the    orifice,    then    jerks    up    tlie 
mold    higher    than    his    head    to 
expel  air  and  condense  the  metal, 
lowers   it,   opens   the   mold,   and 
casts   out    the    type.      The   hand 
— -"  '-  now  seldom  used,  except 
I  cast  large  meta)  type. 
Types  can  be  cast  by  machines 
licker  than  they  can  he  coaled. 
I'be  hand  caster  could  moke  40O 

hour;  the  Bruce  machine,  on  ordinary 
book  type,  turns  out  100  in  a  minute,  wliili; 
machines  make  140  or  more  in  a 
minute. 

Type  Het'al,  an  alloy  of  antimony  2  parts, 
lead  8  to  11,  and  some  copper  and  tin.  It  is 
hard,  yet  not  brittle,  and  ductile,  yet  tough. 


lening,  is 
rt  bar  of 

I 


TYPESETTING  MACHINES 

Type'uttlnE  MAchinea'.  Much  of  the  type- 
aetting  of  the  present  day  is  done  on  typeset- 
ting machines.  The  simplest  form  merely  sets 
the  types  provided  by  loundera ;  it  does  not 
make  or  distribute  the  types.  One  type  of 
machine  may  be  described  as  follows ;  For  each 
character  a  separate  case  or  narrow  channel 
of  hrasa,  about  2  ft.  long,  is  provided,  in  which 
the  types  are  put  side  by  side  and  in  a  nearly 
vertical  position  before  {he  operator.  The 
lower  end  of  each  case  is  connected  with  a 
lever  that  ie  moved  whenever  the  operator 
touches  its  mated  connection  on  the  lettered 
keyixiard.  The  lever  so  touched  thrusts  out 
the  type  desired  into  the  general  collecting 
channel.  Another  operator,  called  the  justifler, 
takes  the  types  in  the  channel  and  makes  them 


TYPEWRITERS 

a  jet  of  fluid  metal  is  injected  and  -thrown  out 
of  the  mold  aa  soon  ss  it  is  cool  enough,  with- 
out delaying  the  work  of  the  operator.  The 
brass  matrices  are  automatically  returned  to 
their  proper  receptacles  for  reuse.  Tlie  l4in- 
aton  or  monotype  machine  also  cuts  the  types 


Machine. 

up  in  lines  of  uniform  length.  Alt  the  machine 
can  do  is  to  set  types  in  a  continuous  line, 
which  it  does  usually  four  or  five  times  quicker 
than  they  cnn  be  set  by  hand.  Spacing  out  or 
justifying,  making  up,  and  distribution  must 
be  done  by  hand,  or  upon  machines  of  another 
kind.  Each  character  has  cut  upon  its  shank 
a  distinct  nick  or  groove,  which  permits  its 
entrance  only  in  its  own  channel  during  the 
operation  of  distribution. 

The  machines  setting  foundry-made  t^pe 
have  been  practically  superseded  by  machines 
which  both  cast  and  set  the  type.  The  Mer- 
genthaler  or  linotype  machine  casts  the  letters 
selected  by  the  operator,  properly  justifled 
with  spaces  between  words,  in  solid  bars  of 
the  leni^h  of  line  required.  Brass  matrices 
operated  from  a  keyboard  are  dislodged  by  the 
operator  instesd  of  types,  and  these  are  auto- 
matically arranged  over  the  mold  that  forms 
tiie  tine.  When  the  line  is  full,  another  auto- 
matic device  thrusts  wedges  between  the  words 
and  spaces  out  the  line.    At  the  same  instant 


ises,  not  in  lines,  but  in  single  characters 
simitar  to  ordinary  foundry  type.  By  the 
operation  of  a  keyboard,  a  strip  of  papei  is 
perforated  with  holes.  This  strip  of  paper  is 
then  fed  into  a  casting-  machine,  in  which  the 
passage  of  compressed  air  through  the  per- 
forations sets  in  motion  the  machine  which 
casts  and  sets  the  type. 

Type' writers,  machines  carrying  types  with 
which  writing  is  done  resembling  ordinary 
print.  Since  about  IB70  they  have  been 
brouaht  from  a  state  of  crudity  to  a  perfection 
which  compares  favorably  with  any  other  me- 
chanical device.  They  are  now  indispensable 
'  1  the  U.  S.,  and  their  uee  is  rapidly  increasing. 

The  first  recorded  attempt  to  produce  a  writ- 
ing machine  is  that  of  Henry  Mill,  an  English 
"neer,  to  whom,  January  7,  1714,  was  grant- 
L  patent  for  "  an  artificial  machine  or  mo- 
for  impressing  or  transcribing  of  letters, 
singularly  or  progressively,  one  after  another 
in  writing,  whereby  all  writings  whatsoever 
may  be  engrossed  on  paper  or  parchment  so 
neat  and  exact  as  not  to  be  distinguished  from 

Sirint."  This  machine,  however,  was  not  per- 
ected,  and  no  description  of  it  exists.  The  first 
typewriter  invented  in  the  U.  S.  was  termed 
the  "Typographer,"  patented  in  1829  by  Will- 
iam Austin  Burt,  of  Detroit,  Mich.,  also  inven- 
tor of  the  solar  compass,  la  design  and  con-' 
struction  it  was  an  exceedingly  crude  device, 
although  it  would  perform  writing  slowly. 

The  first  practical  writing  machine  was  the 
invention  of  three  men,  residents  of  Milwaukee, 
Wis.,  working  in  conjunction — C.  Latham 
Sholes,  Samuel  W.  Soule,  and  Carlos  Glidden. 
The  first  crude  model,  completed  in  September, 
1807,  was  a  success  in  that  it  wrote  accurately 
and  with  fair  rapidity.  Many  letters  were 
written  with  it  and  sent  to  friends,  among  oth- 
ers to  James  Densmore,  of  Meadville,  Fa.,  who 


TYPEWRITERS 

had  sufflc^ieiit  eQthusi«gm  to  purchue  an  Inter- 
ctt  in  the  machine,  without  even  seeing  it,  bj 
the  payment  of  all  the  expenses  alreadj  in' 
curred.  About  this  time  both  Soule  and  Glid- 
den  dropped  out,  leaving  the  enterprise  in  the 
hands  of  Sholes  and  Denemore.  The  first  pat- 
ent upon  the  new  machine  was  granted  in  June, 
1S68.  It  describes  a  machine  with  a  circle  of 
type  bars  striking  upward  to  a  common  print- 
ing point.  The  keys  resembled  those  of  a 
piano,  and  moved  the  type  bars  by  means  of 
cams  or  arm*  on  the  inner  ends  of  the  key 
levels.  The  paper  was  held  horizontally  iu  a 
squam  sliding  frame  or  carriage  moving  across 
the  tap  of  the  machine  and  provided  with  mo- 
tions for  line  and  letter  spacing.  An  arm  ex- 
tending from  the  rear  of  the  main  frame  sup- 
ported a  small  platen  at  the  common  center. 
An  inked  ribbon  passed  across  this  platen  from 
spools  situated  on  either  side  of  it  The  action 
of  the  type,  therefore,  served  to  carry  the  paper 
against  the  inked  ribbon,  so  that  the  impres- 
sion was  upon  the  side  of  the  paper  oppoute  to 
the  type.  The  motive  power  for  the  carriage 
motion  was  provided  by  a  falling  weight  un- 
winding a  cord  from  a  drum  at  the  side  of  the 
machine.  Densmore  made  a  contract  with  E. 
Remington  k  Sons,  gun  manufacturers  at  Ilion, 
N,  y.,  and  the  improved  machine  has  been 
ealled  the  Bemington  Typewriter  ever  since.    - 

The  first  machine  wrote  only  capitals,'  but 
this  defect  was  overcome  by  putting  two  types 
at  the  end  of  each  bar  and  bringing  the  car- 
riage bearing  the  paper  to  a  new  printing  point 
by  means  of  a  shifting  device.  Machines  of  the 
Remington  type  are  called  bar  or  basket  ma- 
chines, as  each  type  is  at  the  end  of  a  bar  and 
the  bars  are  arranged  round  the  central  print- 
ing point  like  the  sides  of  a  basket.  A  difTcr- 
ent  principle  was,  however,  adopted  in  the 
Hammond  typewriter,  which  is  a  cylinder  or 
type-wheel  machine.  The  types  are  arranged 
all  on  one  plate,  which  is  moved  so  as  to  bring 
the  desired  letter  to  the  printing  point,  when 
the  impression  is  made  oy  a  bsinmer  blow 
on  the  paper.  Great  improvements  have  been 
made  in  the  details  and  arrangements  of  re- 
cent maehinee,,  among  the  more  interesting  of 
whiob  is  the  visible  writing  feature  and  the 
device  for  automatically  spacing  columns  of 
figures  or  other  tabular  matter.  Copying  ink 
is  generally  used  in  typewriter  ribbons  and 
pads,  BO  tnat  reprints  may  be  made  by  the 
copying  press.  By  the  use  of  carijon  paper,  in- 
terleavea  with  sheets  of  thin  typewriter  paper, 
several  copies  may  be  made  at  once.  By  re- 
moving the  ribbon  it  Is  possible  to  make  on  the 
typewriter  the  waxed  stencils  nsed  on  the 
mimeograph.  Among  the  foremost  of  the  adap- 
tations of  the  typewriter  to  special  purposes 
mav  be  mcntion«l  the  book  typewriter,  by 
which  the  typewriting  can  be  done  on  the  pages 
of  a  bounu  book,  a  method  which  is  displacing 
the  copying  by  hand  of  official  and  legal  rec- 
ords. On  the  so-called  electric  typewriters  the 
lightest  touch  on  one  of  the  keys  brings  into 
play  an  electric  motive  force  which  causes  the 
type  to  compress  the  paper  and  shifts  the  car- 
nage witlvout  effort  on  the  part  of  the  operator. 

According  to  the  census  of  1909,  the  tvpe- 
writer  industry  of  the  U.  S.  included  eigbty- 


TYPHOm  FEVER 


Xypha.    See  Cat-tails. 

Typhoid  (U'foid)  Fev'er,  called  also  Ttphu8 
Abdouiraus  and  Enteric  Feveb,  an  acute 
infectious  fever  which  has  a  duration  of  about 
four  weeks,  and  is  characteriwd  by  continu- 
OUB  high  fever,  abdominal  distention,  diar- 
rhea,  a  rash  on  the  skin,  and  great  depression, 
and  is  due  to  the  action  of  the  typhoid  bacil- 
lus in  the  intestines- 
Typhoid  fever  occurs  in  all  parU  of  the  worid 
and  affects  all  kinds  of  people.  It  generally 
attacks  young  persons,  from  fifteen  to  thirty. 
Spring  and  autumn  are  the  seasons  of  its  neat- 
est prevalence.  In  most  large  communities  it 
is  endemic — that  is,  isolated  cases  are  constant- 
ly present— but  under  certain  conditiooB  local 
or  widespread  epidemics  are  met  with.  The  in- 
fection in  most,  if  not  all,  cases  enters  the  sys- 
tem with  drinking  water,  milk,  or  other  food, 
directly  or  remotely  contaminated  by  the  in- 
testinal discharges  of  persons  ill  with  the  dis- 
ease. Exceptionally  the  virus  may  be  directly 
conveyed  to  the  mouth  by  unclean  hands,  or  it 
may  become  dried  and  reach  the  noae  or  mouth 
through  the  air,  eventually  finding  its  way 
into  the  intestines.  The  morbid  changes  in  the 
body  in  typhoid  fever  are  principally  foUnd  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  small  intestines,  where 
the  Peyers  glands  undergo  swelling  and, 
finally,  deep  ulceration.  The  spleen  and  the 
lymphatic  glands  become  enlarged,  and  the 
other  organs  of  the  body  may  suffer  changes  in 
consequence  of  continued  fever. 

The  disease  begins  gradually.  At  first  the 
patient  sutTers  with  headache,  backache,  and 
lassitude!  frequently  the  noae  bleeds,  and  some- 
times'colic  and  a  little  looseness  exists,  though 
as  a  rule  there  is  constipation.  Gradually,  day 
by  day,  the  temperature  rises,  reaching  103°  or 
IM"  F.  in  five  or  seven  days.  After  this  the 
fever  remains  elevated  to  about  the  same  point, 
falling  in  the  morning  and  rising  again  toward 
evening.  The  characteristic  symptoms  of  the 
disease  are  noted  in  the  second  week  of  the 
disease  and  after  that  time.  These  are  the  reg- 
ular fever,  the  great  lassitude,  abdominal  de- 
tention with .  tenderness  over  the  seat  of  the 
ulcers  and  diarrhea.  In  many  cases,  espe- 
cially when  the  fever  is  decided,  muttering 
or  delirium,  twitching  of  the  muscles,  and 
great  prostration  supervene.  Stupor,  and  even 
complete  coma,  may  occur.  After  about  two 
weeKs  these  symptoms  abate,  the  fever  de- 
scends, and  a  slow  convalescence  is  estab- 
lished. About  the  seventh  to  the  ninth  day 
a  rash  is  noted  In  the  skin  of  the  abdomen. 


when  they  fade  from  view.  Many  variations 
are  encountered.  Sometimes  there  is  scarcely 
any  fever  or  other  signs  of  illness,  and  the  case 
is  spoken  of  as  waflting  typhoid;  again,  hut 
rarely,  the  symptoms  may  be  so  intense 
that  the  case  assumes  a  malignant  char^c- 
tfflr.  Death  may  occur  from  perforation  of  tha 
intestines  or  hemorrhage  from  deep  ulceration; 
from  slow  exhaustion;  or  from  various  compli- 
cations, aa  pneumonia,  peritonltia,  or  the  like. 


The  mortftlitf  in  t^hold  lev«r  TsrlM  greailj 
in  different  epidemica  and  «t  different  periods 
of   the    same    epidemic.      Modern    methods    ol 


proper  nursing. 


The  p 


t  mnit  be  conSned 


to  ^ed  from  t£e  very  nrst  poeeibls  moment,  and 
he  must  be  given  »  diet  oi  milk,  egge  beaten 
ip  milk  or  broths. 

The  direct  treatment  of  the  disease  is  mainly 
concerned  with  the  control  of  the  fever.  It  is 
probable  that  no  remedy  materially  altera  the 
course  of  this  disease.  The  control  of  fever  by 
oold  water,  however,  has  in  practice  reduced 
the  mortal!^  from  IS  <r  20  per  cent  to  1  or  6 
per  cent.  Drugs  to  reduce  the  fever  Are  to 
be  avoided  on  account  of  their  depressive 
action.  Remedies  maj'  be  needed  to  control  di- 
arrhea, to  aid  digestion,  to  relieve  nervous  ex- 
dtement,  and  to  combat  untoward  symptoms 
of  other  lunds.  During  couvslescence  the  ut- 
most care  should  l>e  exercised  to  prevent  intes- 
tinal irritation  by  a  too  early  return  to  th« 
use  of  solid  food.  Tonics  may  be  needed.  Fre- 
quently the  patient's  health  b  much  better 
after  than  before  an  attack,  but  this  is  not 
always  the  case.  Not  rarely  relapses  occur  im- 
mediately after  the  attack;  but  once  the  pa- 
tient has  completely  recovered  there  is  nearly 
always  immunity  from  subsequent  seisures. 
Now  and  then,  however,  instances  are  met  with 
of  second  or  evoi  third  attacks. 

T/pbon.    S«e  8ei  TrPHon. 

Typhoon  (tl-fOn'),  a  tropical  cyclone,  espe- 
dally  that  of  the  China  Sea.  The  storms  first 
com«  in  view  in  the  S.  part  of  this  eea,  and 
take  a  NB.  course,  destroying  shipping  and 
doing  great  damage  on  shore  in  the  Philippines, 
Formosa,  and  even  so  far  N.  as  Japan,  and 
they  are  sometimes  encountered  far  out  on  the 
Pacific  on  the  latitudes  of  Japan.  They  occur 
in  late  summer  and  in  autumn,  and  are  like 
the  hurricanes  of  the  W.  Indies  and  N.  Atlan- 
tic. The  name  typhoon  is  also  frequently  ap- 
plied to  similar  great,  intense  storma  of  troj>- 
ical  origin  in  the  B.  hemisphere — about  Samoa 
and  the  Fiji  Islands  and  in  the  Indian  Ocean 
about  the  Mascarenes.    See  Huxbica:<is. 

Ty'phns  Fev'er,  an  intensely  contagious  dis- 
ease, which  is  characterized  by  high  fever,  last- 
ing ten  days  to  two  weeks,  by  a  rash,  and  by 
KTeat  prostration.  It  occurs  where  squalor, 
destitution,  and  overcrowding  al>ound,  and  has 
been  variously  called  ship  lever,  jail  fever, 
camp  fever,  and  the  like.  In  former  centuries 
it  was  a  common  scourge,  but  is  now  almost 
limited  to  half-civilized  countries  and  to  the 
slums  of  great  seaports.  Local  outbreaks  are 
met  with  from  time  to  time  on  ships,  in  jails, 
or  other  places  of  like  character.  The  speciSc 
cause  has  not  Iraen  discovered,  tliough  it  is  very 
probably  a  microorganism.  The  onset  is  ab- 
rupt. After  a  brief  period  of  preliminary  in- 
disposition, or  wlthoat  such,  tlie  patient  falls 
into  a  chill  or  convulsion,  or  is  seized  with 
vomiting;   fever  develops  rapidly  and 


TYEE 

The  tongue  is  dry  and  coated;  the  breath  ia 
heavy  and  offensive;  the  skin  dry  and  exces- 
sively' hot,  often  pungent;  the  eyes  are  blood- 
shot. On  the  third  to  the  fifth  day  an  eruption 
of  spots  of  dark  red  "  mulberry  "  color  appears 
in  the  skin  and  persist  for  some  days,  lading 
gradually.  If  the  patient  survives,  about  the 
tenth  to  tJie  fourteenth  day  a  sudden  fall  of  the 
fever  is  likely  to  occur.  So  sudden  is  this  crisis 
and  so  immediate  the  improvement  in  many 
cases  as  to  recall  Uie  scriptural  passage:  "On 
such  a  day  the  fever  left  him  and  he  was  well." 
The  mortality  in  typhus  fever  is  sometimes  ex- 
tremely high,  most  cases  dying  of  exhaustion, 
of  high  fever,  or  of  complications,  such  as  pneu- 
monia. The  treatment  simply  consists  in  the 
control  of  the  fever  and  in  stimulation.  Pain 
may  require  sedatives. 

Typog'iaphy.     See  Pbiktiko. 

Tyr  (tir),  in  Scandinavian  mythology,  a  ^n 
of  Odin.  He  is  the  bold  god  of  war,  and  he- 
roes prav  to  him  for  victorj-.  The  third  day  of 
the  week  is  called  after  him,  Icelandic  Tyra- 
dagr,  Tysdagr;  Danish  Tirsdag,  English  Tues- 
day. 

See  Eihobibd;  Fltca'TCHEB. 

icient   Greece, 


Ty'rant,   a   term   which,   in 
liy  designate,! 


did 

were  powerful  citizens  who  by  force  o 
gem  assumed  the  rulership  of  a  state  or  city 
without  lawful  warrant.  Sometimes,  in  sea- 
sons of  political  disturbance,  the  government 
of  a  tyrannua  was  highly  beneficial,  commer- 
cially and  socially.  Some  of  the  tyrants  were 
men  of  wisdom  ajid  beneficence.  But  the  nat- 
ural tendency  of  such  an  unlawful  exercise  of 
power  is  toward  oppression  and  injustice. 

Tyre  {tIr),  ancient  ciiy  in  Phtcnicia,  on  tl^e 
Mediterranean;  20  m.  from  Sidon.  It  was  the 
wealthiest  and  most  magnificent  of  the  PhtEni- 
dan  cities  and  sent  out  many  colonies,  of 
which  CarthaKe  was  the  most  important.  Hi- 
ram, King  of  Tyre,  was  the  ally  and  friend  of 
Solomon.  It  was  besieged  five  years  by  Shal- 
maneser  and  thirteen  years  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar. Alexander  captured  it  after  a  siege  of 
seven  months  (332  B.C.),  when  the  garrison 
were  put  to  death  and  30,000  Tyriana  sold  as 
slaves.  It  was  taken  by  the  Saracens  {£36), 
by  the  crusaders  (U44),  by  the  Sultan  of  Egypt 
(1201),  it  being  first  abandoned  by  its  inhab- 
itants, and  by  Selim  I  (1516).  The  foundation 
of  Alexandria  (332  B.C.)  was  a  great  injury  to 
Tyre,  and  the  discovery,  almost  2,000  years 
later,  of  a  passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  dealt  the  finishing  blow  to  its  pros- 
perity. Ancient  Tyre  consisted  of  two  parts — 
Paleo-Tyre  on  the  mainland  and  Neo-Tyre  on 
an  island.  The  narrow  sound  between  formed 
the  harbor.  The  mole  constructed  by  Alexan- 
der has  through  deposits  become  an  isthmus, 
and  the  former  island  is  now  a  peninsula 
whereon  the  miserable  villas  of  Sour  is  situ- 
ated. Numerous  ancient  remains  jut  through 
the  soil,  and  foundations  arc  seen  among  the 
waves  (Ezek.  xxvi,  5).  Sour  now  exports  only 
cotton,  tobacco,  charcoal,  and  millstpnes.  Pop. 
aht.  6,000.  /---  I 

4  I   Google 


TIEIAN  PURPLE 

TjiUa  (tlr^-an)  Ptu'pls,  a  celebrated  dy« 
lued  hj  the  dnciente,  and  prepared  exteiuively 
at  Tjre  from  the  shellflBh  Uurex  (9. v.),  from 
each  of  which  only  a  minute  quantity  was  ob- 
tained at  enonnouB  coet;  bence  this  color  be- 
came the  symbol  of  imperial  power.  Puiple  is 
now    obtained    from    r^etaUe     and    mmeral 

T7T0I,  or  Tirol  (tir'51},  and  VoratlberB  (fOT- 
Brl'Mrkh),  province  of  the  Austrian  Empire, 
the  ancient  Bhcetia;  bounded  N.  by  Bavb.ria, 
W.  by  Switzerland,  snd  S.  by  IUI7.  Area, 
11,324  sq.  m.  The  country  is  mountainouH 
throughout,  traversed  from  W.  to  K  by  three 
lofty  chains  of  tba  Alps — the  Tyrolese  Alps  in 
the  N.,  the  Trentine  Alps  in  the  S.,  and  in  the 
middle  the  Khctian  Alps,  the  highest  of  the 
three  rauKee,  HL  Ortler  limig  12,B12  ft  and 
GroM-Olockner  12,457  ft  The  Taliey  between 
the  TyrcJese  and  Khctian  Alps  ia  drained  by 
the  Inn,  which  flows  through  Bavaria  to  the 
Danube;  the  valley  between  the  Rhietian  and 
Trentine  Alps  is  drained  partly  by  tbe  Adige, 
an  affluent  of  the  Po  and  partly  by  the  Drave, 
which  flows  through  Carinthia  to  the  Danube. 
Much  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  perpetual 
snow  and  glaciers.  Nearly  40  per  cent  is  cov- 
ered with  rorests,  and  moat  of  the  remainder  is 
pasture.  The  scenery  is  magniflceut  Only  a 
small  part  is  suitable  for  tillage,  but  that  part 
is  carefully  cultivated.  Wlieat,  rye,  oats,  and 
barley  are  grown,  though  not  enough  Cor  home 
consumption;  in  the  gardens,  vineyards,  and 
orchards  in  the  S.  valleys  excellent  winee,  mul- 
berry trees  for  the  rearing  of  silkwonns,  and 
Ana  fruits,  olives,  and  flf^s  are  raised.  The 
chief  industry  is  the  rearing  of  cattle,  espe- 
cially sheep  and  goats,  which  in  " 
time  are  pastured  just  below  thi 
Salt  and  iron  are  produced,  and  vi 
focturea  are  pursued,  mostly  on  a  amall  acale. 


TJGANDA 

The  climate  is  severe  in  the  N.  and  W.,  but  is 

mild  and  almost  like  that  of  lUiy  in  the  S. 
Canary  and  other  singing  birds  are  raised  and 
exported.  Pop.  (1910)  1,092,053,  of  whom  nearly 
60  per  cent  speak  German,  the  rest  Italian  or 
some  Romance  or  Slavonic  dialect.  Capital, 
Innsbruck.  Of  the  combined  province,  Vorarl- 
berg  occupies  the  NW.  comer,  and  has  an  area 
of  only  1,007  sq.  m.;  pop.  {1900)  131,BS7.  Each 
element  oi  the  province  has  its  own  local  gov- 
ernment The  country  was  originally  inhabit- 
ed by  the  Rheti.  It  was  conquered  by  Drusus 
and  Tiberius,  and  became  tboroughlv  Rornkn' 
ized,  but  in  600  it  was  largely  peopled  by  the 
Baiuvarii,  a  Teutonic  tribe.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  a  part  of  the  province  came  into  the 
hands  of  the  Counts  of  Tirol,  a  district  near 
Meran,  but  it  became  chiefly  consolidated  un- 
der the  Counts  of  Meran  and  their  descendants. 
On  the  failure  of  the  male  line  the  province 
was  made  over  to  the  house  of  Hapsburg,  to 
which  it  has  since  belonged,  except  during  the 
period  1805-14,  when  it  was  in  the  possession 
of  Bavaria.  The  inhabitants  vigorously  resist- 
ed the  latter  power,  and  were  for  a  time  suc- 
cessful in  a  revolt  under  the  leadership  of  Ho- 
fer  in  1809. 

Tyrrhenian  (tl-rS'nl-ftn)  Sea,  the  ancient 
Mare  Tyrrhenum;  that  part  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean which  lies  between  the  Italian  main- 
land and  the  islands  of  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and 

TTTtauB  [t^r-te'Iis] .  Greek  poet  of  the  sev- 
enth century  B.C.,  a  Spartan  by  birth  or  adop- 
tion. He  composed  marching  songs,  to  be  sung 
with  the  music  of  the  flute,  and  exhortations  to 
constancy  and  courage.  It  is  said  that  their 
inspiring  effect  made  the  Spartans  victorious 
in  the  seoond  Measenian  War.    Fragments  re- 


TT,  the  twenty-first  letter  of  the  English  al- 
phabet. The  form  U  is  derived  through  the 
, Roman  V  from  the  Greek  upsilon,  V,  a  variant 
form  of  Y.  The  letter  stands  regularly  for  the 
sounds  (11  yu  [yoo],  as  ia  mule,  mage,  value; 
(2)  00,  as  in  rule,  rude,  rural;  (3)  iS,  aa 
in  bull,  pull,  put;  (4)  a,  as  in  murmur,  urn, 
fur;  (6)  il  (unrounded),  OB  in  (u6,  6ud,  under. 
It  also  has  the  sound  of  I  in  busy,  lettuce, 
mtnule,  and  has  the  consonant  value  of  10 
between  q  or  g  and  a  vowel,  aa  in  quality, 
language.  It  is  silent,  e.g..  in  biscuit,  crircuit, 
rogue,  guest,  build.    See  Abbbbviationb. 

Vfllzi  (Of-fet's6).    See  Flobence. 

Uganda  (Q-gfin'dlt) ,  long  famous  as  the  most 
powerful  native  kingdom  of  the  lake  region  of 
central  Africa;  lying  on  the  N.  and  W.  sides 
of  Victoria  Nyanza.  Bordered  on  the  E.  by 
the  Nile,  its  N.  limit  Is,  approximately,  in  the 
same  latitude  as  l4ike  Qita.  W.  of  Victoria 
Nyanza,  it  includes  about  half  the  territoiy 
between  that  lake  and  Lake  Albert  Edward, 


uplands,  in  part  well  timbered,  and  ( 
above  the  sea  that  the  climate  is  fairly  sa- 
lubrious, though  under  the  equator.  The  soil 
is  fertile,  and  the  plantations  are  devoted 
chiefly  to  the  banana,  plantain,  maize,  and 
yam,  which  form  the  main  food  supplies, 
though  beef,  goats'  flesh,  and  flsh  are  also 
eaten.  Chief  products:  ivory,  skins,  rubber, 
and  chillies.  One  family  has  reigned  in  Uganda 
tor  over  thrpe  hundred  years,  and  the  king, 
though  shorn  of  his  authority  by  the  British, 
who  are  now  in  possession,  ia  still  r^arded 
with  superstitious  reverence  by  the  peasantry. 
The  people  belong  to  the  Bantu  family,  and 
are  much  higher  in  intellectual  development 
and  civiliEation  than  any  other  central  or  E. 
Africans.  Thfy  are  fully  clad,  are  skilled  in 
brass,  iron,  and  copper  working,  and  were  a 
prosperous  and  numerous  people  when  discov- 
ered by  Speke  (18S2),  and  described  by  Stan- 


UHLAND 

ley  (1875).  For  yean  kfter  1884  the  country 
was  exhauated  by  cWil  n-ars  and  by  Aie  at- 
tempt of  the  king,  Mwang-a,  to  extirpate  Chris- 
tianity by  masBaereB.  Chriitianity,  however, 
has  taken  a  Arm  hold  upon  the  country,  which 
is  divided  into  three  political  and  religious 
rartiea,  the  Mohammedans,  Catholics,  and 
Protestants.  Peace  is  fairly  well  maintained 
only  by  means  of  a  native  military  force  in  the 
service  of  Great  Britain.     Pop.    (1907)   4,000,- 

built  in  1004.  The  Uganda  Bailway  from 
Mombasa,  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  to  KiBumu,  ou 
Victoria  NyanzB,  is  now  within  the  E.  African 
Protectorate.  The  country  is  of  gre^t  strateg- 
ical importance,  ^s  it  dominates  l«ke  Victoria 
and  controls  the  bead  waters  of  the  Nile. 

mOand  (Olttnt).  Johann  Luflwig,  1787-1862; 
German  poet  and  scholar;  b.  Tubingen;  studied 
law,  and  practiced  in  Stuttgart,  1S12-30; 
elected  to  the  WUrtemberg  Assembly,  1819; 
Prof,  of  German  Language  and  Literature, 
Tubingen,  1830,  but  resigned,  1833;  member 
of  the  National  Assembly  of  Frankfort-on-the- 
Main.  1848;  retired  to  private  life.  Among 
the  great  lyric  poeta  of  Germany  in  the  nine- 
teenth century  Uhland  takes  a  foremost  place. 
At  the  beginning  of  his  poetic  career  he  was 
deeply  influenced  by  the  romantic  school,  but 
kept  free  from  iU  fantastic  extravagances. 
While  the  latter  looked  upon  the  Middle  Ages 
with  a  vague  enthusiasm  and  an  undue  over- 
estimation,  Uhlaud's  love  for  medifcval  Oer- 
maa  life  and  poetry  resulted  from  an  intimate 
knowledge  based  upon  thorough  studies.  Most 
of  his  lyric  poetry  can  be  compared  only  with 
Goethe's  songs  and  the  best  of  the  Volkslied, 
and  so  perfectly  did  he  know  how  to  reproduce 
the  spirit  of  the  latter  that  many  of  his  poems 
became  folk  songs. 

As  a,  writer  of  ballads  he  has  few  equals  in 
Oerman  literature.  But  his  dramas,  Herztw 
Ernst "  and  "  Ludwig  der  Bayer,"  though 
highly  poetical  in  passages,  are  lacking  ^e 
true  dramatic  effect  During  the  latter  part 
of  his  life  Uhland  devoted  himself  exclusively 
to  scientific  research  in  the  fields  of  literature 
and  mythology,  and  the  results  of  his  investi- 

Sitions  are  collected  in  the  "  Schriften  mr 
eschichte  der  Dichtung  und  Sage,"  published 
after  his  death.  Equally  great  as  a  poet  and 
scholar,  Uhland  also  played  a  conspicuous  and 
noble  part  in  politics,  and  his  activity  in  the 
latter  field  shows  the  same  devotion,  simplicity, 
and   manliness   which   characterize   bis   entire 


Uin'ta,  or  niatah,  Uoun'tainB,  a  range  of 
mountains  in  Utah  in  the  N.  part  of  Wasatch 
and  Uinta  cos.,  extending  E.  and  W.  and  join- 
ing the  Wasateh  range  on  the  W-,  consisting 
largely  of  rocks  of  the  Carboniferous  age.  Gil- 
bert Peak  is  13,687  ft.  high. 

UitlandeiB  (oit'lftnd-ire),  literalljr  "outland- 
ers  or  foreigners,"  name  given  by  the  Boers  to 
those  whites  who  had  lived  in  their  country 
since  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1880.  The  con- 
duct of  the  Boers  with  respect  to  the  Uitland- 
ers  led  to  the  last  Boer  War  and  th«  extinction 
of  the  Boer  republics. 


ULM 

U}iji  (0-je'je),  a  place  in  Africa,  eonsisting 
of  a.  number  of  mud  huts,  and  situated  on  the 
shore  of  Lake  Tanganyika,  in  a  district  of  the 
same  name,  in  lat.  4°  B8'  S.,  Ion.  30°  4'  E.  It 
became  noted  as  the  point  where  Stanley  met 
Livingstone  on  November  10,  1871. 

TTl'cer,  a  localized  disintegration  on  one  of 
the  external  or  internal  surfaces.  Two  proc- 
esses are  concerned  in  ulceration:  the  death 
of  cells  of  the  part  of  the  surface  involved,  and 
infiammatory  conditions  at  the  base  and  sides. 
The  causes  of  ulceration  are  those  of  inflam- 
mation, with  an  added  element  of  poor  reac- 
tion on  the  part  of  the  tissue  involved.  Local 
injuries,  as  by  pressure,  and  foreign  bodies,  as 
'■eplinterB,  are  the  immediate  exciting  cause  in 
external  ulcers.  Internally,  as  in  ulcers  of  th« 
mouth,  stomach,  or  intestines,  the  immediate 
exciting  cause  is  either  injury  by  foreign  bodies 
or  by  microSrganisms  and  decomposed  secre- 
tions or  other  contents.  To  make  the  exciUng 
causes  operative  to  the  production  of  an  ulcer, 
diminution  in  the  resisting  power  of  the  tissues 
is  necessary.  This  explains  the  occurrence  of 
ulcers  on  the  lower  extremities  in  old  people 
when  the  veins  are  varicoeed  and  the  circaW 
tion  slu^sh;  in  anemic  or  debilitated  sub- 
jects, in  parts  of  the  body  exposed  to  constant 
wetting,  and  in  tissues  where  the  nerve  ton* 
is  lowered,  as  itt  paralyzed  partj. 

The  appearance  of  ulcers  varies  greatly.  -  Ao- 
oording  to  the  variations  from  the  general  appear- 
ance and  from  the  greater  or  less  tendency  to 
heal  there  are  described:  Indolent  ulcer*,  in 
which  the  base  and  edges  are  hard  and  healing 
is  very  alow;  they  are. common  on  the  legs  of 
old  people;  irritable  ulcers,  which  are  painful 
and  bleed  easily;  in/lamed  ulcers,  in  which 
from  irritation  active  inflammation  is  evident; 
aloughing  ulocrs;  phagedemin  uleeri,  in  which 
great  tissue  destruction  occurs. 

TTknine,  a  Ruosian  term  meaning  "border" 
and  formerly  applied  to  the  district  in  S.  W. 
Russia  inhabited  by  the  Little  Russians,  a 
separate  branch  of  the  Slav  family.  For  many 
years  the  people  had  been  restive  under  Busaiaa 
restrictions.  In  the  Russian  revolution  of  1905 
Germany  and  Austro-HungMy  sought  to  sepa^ 
rat«  the  Ukraine  from  Russia,  but  the  people 
agitated  for  national  unity.  After  the  over- 
throw of  the  Kerensky  government  (1917),  the 
Ukraine  became  a  republic,  but  it  was  over- 
thrown the  next  year.  la  April,  1919,  there  * 
were  two  XHtraines:  one  of  5,000,000  inhabitants 
in  E.  Galicia;  the  other  of  30,000,000  in  the 
Ukraine  provinces  of  old  Russia. 

TJlm  191m],  city  of  WDrtemberg,  Germany; 
at  the  influx  of  the  Blau  into  the  Dannbe, 
which  here  beoomes  navigable.  It  Is  58  m.  SE. 
of  Stuttgart,  is  fortified,  and  is  a  place  of 
much  interest  to  the  tourist,  on  account  of  its 
many  fine  old  buildings.  Its  cathedral  (Prot- 
estant), begun  in  1377  and  carried  on  till 
I4D4,  then  left  unflnished  till  1B44,  was  com- 
pleted in  1890.  It  is  a  magniflcent  Gothic 
edifice,  and  contains  the  largest  organ  in  Gier- 
mony.  The  open-work  epire  is  the  highest  in 
the  world  (630  ft.).  ITie  town  has  a  great 
variety  of  manufactures,  including  brass 
founding,  paper  making,  brewing,  etc,  and  is 


ULNA 

famous  for  its  omamentsl  tobacco  pipes.  On 
October  17,  1805,  Gen.  Mack,  at  the  head  of 
an  Austrian  army  of  30,000  men,  here  capitu- 
lated to  NapoleoD.     Pop.   (190S)  61,820. 

Ul'tu.    See  Abu. 

ni'Btfei,  the  northernmost  of  the  four, prov- 
inces into  which  Ireland  is  divided ;  borders 
N.  and  W.  on  the  Atlantic  and  E.  on  the  N. 
Channel  and  the  Irish  Seai  area,  8.613  sq.  m. 
The  surface  is  greatly  diversified;' the  W.  part 
is  mountainous,  some  Hummits  being  over  2,000 
ft.  high.  The  nrovitiee  contains  the  large 
lougba  Neagh,  Strangford,  and  Erne.  Fop. 
(1011)   1,671,672. 

Ultiamon'tanism  [ultra,  beyond  +  Tuontes, 
mountains — i.e.,  the  Alps),  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  the  principles  and  tendency 
of  those  who  desire  rather  to  increase  than  to 
minimize  the  authority  and  power  of  the  pope. 
The  opposite  tendency  is  known  as  Qallicanism- 

mtia  Virea  (tll'trS  vi'rei),  Latin,  "beyond 
the  powers,"  a  term  applied  to  the  contract  of 
a  corporation  when  it  is  twyond  the  noweis 
conferred  upon  this  artificial  person  by  its 
charter  and  the  general  laws  applicable  thereto. 
The  term  is  quite  modem,  having  been  intro- 
duced by  Baron  Bramwell  as  counsel  in  East 
Anglian  R.  Co.  ts.  Eastern  Counties  R.  Co.,  11 
Common  Bench  775,  in  1851.    It  has  been  ap- 

Clied  to  authorized  acts  which  the  corporation 
as  performed  in  an  unauthorized  manner; 
also  to  acta  within  the  power  of  the  corpora- 
tion, but  not  within  the  authority  ot  the  offi- 
cers or  agents  who  have  done  them.  Still 
again  it  has  been  applied  to  positively  illegal 
acts  of  corporations. 

The  general  rule  is  that  ultra-cires  contracts 
are  not  enforceable.  This  rests  upon  three 
reasons:  <1)  The  Interest  of  the  public  that 
the  corporation  shall  not  transcend  the  powers 
granted;  [1]  the  interest  of  the  stockholders 
that  the  capital  shall  not  be  subjected  to  the 
risk  of  enterprises  not  contemplated  hy  the 
charter,  and  therefore  not  autliorized  hy  the 
stockholders  in  subscribing  for  the  stock;  |3) 
the  obligation  of  everyone,  entering  into  a 
contract  with  the  corporation,  to  take  notice 
of  the  legal  limits  of  its  powers. 

Torts  committed  by  corporations  are  not 
within  the  doctrine  of  ultra  vires.  To  permit 
the  defense  of  ultra  vires  in  such  cases  would 
be  equivalent  to  a  license  to  corporations  to 
indulge  in  unlimited  wrongdoing. 

myues  (a -lls'ez).     See  Odtsseus. 

nmbellifers,  or  Tlmbellif'eiv,  a  family  of 
1,400  species  of  dicotyledonous  herbs,  or,  rarely, 
shrubs,  abounding  in  both  hemispheres,  chiefly 
in  cool  regions.  Most  have  hollow  striated 
stems,  and  flowers  in  umbels,  but  these  are  not 
perfectly  constant  characters.  Among  its  use- 
ful plants  are  the  carrot,  parsnip,  skirrit, 
chervil,  fennel,  caraway,  dill,  coriander,  anise, 
parsley,  and  celery.  Some  are  useful  in  medi- 
cine, many  being  active  poisons. 

TIm'ber,  a  mineral  pigment  formerly  ob- 
tained from  L'mbria  in  Italy,  but  at  present 
chiefly  imported  from  Cyprus.     Small  quanti- 


UMLAUT 

ties  are  found  in  the  U.  S.,  chiefly  in  Pennsyl- 
vania. Its  composition  is:  Silica,  13  per  cent; 
alumina,  5  per  cent;  iron  oxide,  48  per  cent; 
manganese  oxide,  20  per  cent;  water,  14  per 
cent.  When  gently  heated,  water  is  expelled, 
and  a  dark-brown  pigment  termed  raw  umher 
is  formed;  at  a  higher  temperature  it  is  con- 
verted into  a  soft  red- brown  modification 
known   as   burnt   umber.     The   dark  colors  of 


color  pigments,  and  are  often  mixed  wiUi  other 
colors. 

nmbrel'b  Bird,  a  name  given  to  certain  of 
tiie  cotingas  iCotinglda)  because  they  bear  a 
large  crest  which  seems  to  shade  the  head  like 
an   umbrella.     The  most  familiar  species  has 


a  long  feathered  wattle  hanging  from  the  lower 
part  of  the  neck.  It  is  nearly  the  size  of  a 
crow,  and  of  a  blue-black  color.  It  inhabits 
the  forests  of  E.  S.  America. 

TFrnbria  (Om'bre-H),  an  ancient  division  of 
Italy,  extending  along-  the  E.  of  the  upper 
Tiber,  and  embracing  the  valleys  formed  by  the 
smaller  water  courses  of  the  Apennines  E.  to 
Adriatic.  In  classical  times  the  Tiber  formed 
the  W.  boundary  between  Umbria  and  Etruria, 
while  the  £.  boiler  extended  along  the  Adriatic 
from  the  Rubicon  to  the  Mas.  The  r^on 
contained  no  important  towns,  but  was  inhab- 
ited by  a  population  devoted  to  agriculture 
and  grazing,  living  in  small  hamlets.  The  in- 
habitants were  related  in  race  and  language  to 
the  Sabine  and  Latin  peoples  to  the  S.  and  W. 
The  name  is  now  given  to  Perugia. 

Umlaut  (Bm'lout),  or  VoWel  HnU'tion,  a 
technical  term  of  Teutonic  grammar  denoting 
in  its  strictest  application  the  influence  exer- 
cised upon  an  accented  syllable  by  the  vowel 
t  in  a  following  syllable.  The  application  of 
the  term  has  b«n  extended  to  the  infliience  of 
other  vowels  than  i,  so  that  it  is  possible  to 
speak  of  i-umlaut,  o-umlaut,  u-umlaut;  but 
in  its  proper  and  original  significance,  and 
when  left  unqualified  the  term  applies  to  i-nm- 


UNAU 

Unt.  Thui,  in  English,  Fnmk  became  French 
through  the  intennediaiy  word  FTBUkish,  and 
iuoh  plurals  u  "  men,  "  mice,"  "  feet,"  are 
explained  in  the  same  way.    In  Oerman,  Qott, 

eittUch,  mann,  mttnnlich  are  examplea  of  um- 
ut.    8«e  Abiatjt;  Acont. 

American 


Uncaa(Qng'kfis),an  Indian  sBcheni;  b.  in  the 
Pequod  settlementi  Connecticut;  abt.  1600-83. 
Originally  a  war  chief  of  the  Pequods,  he  revolt- 
ed against  Saasacus,  the  Baahem,  in  1634;  made 
friends  with  the  whites,  and  became  chief  of  the 
MohegaDB.  In  1S37  he  joined  Mason's  expedition 
against  the  Pequods,  and  wai  rewarded  with 
some  of  their  lands;  made  several  treaties  with 
the  Bettlera,  and  in  1643  joined  them  in  a  war 
against  Miantonomoh,  the  Karragansett  sachem. 
In  1657  he  was  besieged  in  hie  stronghold  on 
Connecticut  River  by  the  Narragansetts,  but 
when  on  the  point  of  starvatian  was  relieved 
by  Ensign  Thomas  Leffingwell,  to  whom  it  is 
said  that  he  granted  the  land  upon  which  Nor- 
wich now  stands,  although  he  later  sold  it  to 
othere.  Many  complaints  were  made  against 
him  by  other  Indians,  and  in  1654  he  was 
warned  that  he  would  not  be  protected  in  any 
unlawful  or  outrageous  course.  He  was  always 
on  good  terma  with  the  whites. 

Tfn'eial  Let'teis,  a  name  used  in  paleography 
for  the  rounder  characters  wbicn  took  the 
place  of  capitals  in  the  manuscripts  of  the  early 
Middle  Ages.  The  angular  capitals  of  the  in- 
scriptions could  not  be  written  with  ease  and 
speed  on  papyrus  or  parchment.  By  the  foiirth 
century  the  uncial  was  fully  developed,  and  till 
the  eighth  it  was  the  prevailing  hand  of  books. 
The  letters  which  especially  show  the  change 
are  a,  d,  e,  h,  m  (which  then  took  on  the 
forms  so  familiar  in  our  small  letters)  and,  in 
less  degree,  g,  q,  t,  u.  The  name  uncial  is  bor- 
rowed from  St.  Jerome,  who  censures  the  lux- 
ury of  books  written  "  uncialtbua  «(  vtiigo 
aiunt  litteria,"  though  there  is  every  reason 
to  believe  that  he  meant  large  letters  in  gen- 
eral. The  name  uncial,  borrowed  from  Latin 
paleography,  is  applied  also  to  the  rounded 
Greek  capitals,  which,  (appearing  as  early  as 
the  third  century  p.c,  remained  the  current 
book  hand  till  the  ninth  century  a.d. 

Uncon'scions  Cerebia'tion.    Bee  Mind. 
Unc'tlon,  Extreme'.    See  Eztrbue  Unction. 

Un'derzroand  Bail'ioad,  a  plan  used  before 
the  Civil  War  by  wlvich  abolitionists  helped 
fugitive  slaves  to  escape,  usually  through 
Ohio  and  Pennsylvania.  It  was  a  line  of  hiding 
places,  in  which  the  fugitives  were  fed  during 
the  day  and  passed  along  at  night  to  the  next 
station. 

UndeTground  Bail'ways,  railway  lines  built 
below  the  level  of  the  streets  of  a  city,  partly 
in  tunnels.  The  underground  railways  of  Lon- 
don were  begun  in  1860,  and  in  1BS4  the  inner 
circle,  connecting  the  principal  railway  termini 
on  the  N,  side  of  the  Thames,  was  completed; 
this  is  13  m.  long,  with  four  tracks  and  twen- 
ty-seven stations.     The   Metropolitan   District 


UNGUtATA 

Railway  forma  an  outer  drde,  with  extensions 
leading  to  the  suburbs.  In  these  railways  the 
cost  of  construction  was  extremely  high,  owing 
to  the  difHculties  of  tunneling  and  excavating 
'Without  disturbing  the  foundationa  of  build- 
ings; it  ranged  from  91,800,000  to  $2^00,000 
per  mile.  The  number  of  passengers  carried  on 
the  inner  circle  is  about  90,000,000  per  year. 
The  motive  power  is  mainly  steam,  the  exhaust 
steam  and  smoke  being  condensed  In  water 
tanks  during  the  paasafe  through  the  tunnels. 
The  City  and  South  London  electric-traction 
line  was  opened  in  1890. 

An  ttnderground  belt  line  In  Baltimore,  7  m. 
long,  was  completed  in  1S92;  It  baa  four  tun- 
nels, the  principal  one  being  8,350  ft.  in  length. 
This  was  built  to  enable  the  Baltimore  t 
Ohio  Railroad  to  reach  the  central  part  of  the 
city.  Its  coat  was  about  91,000,000  per  mile. 
Boston  has  a  aubway,  in  part  four-track  and  in 
part  two  track,  that  carries  the  electric  street- 
car traflic  through  portions  of  the  heart  of  the 
city.  It  was  built  in  1897-08  at  a  coat  of 
94,400,000.  January  IE,  1900,  the  New  York 
Rapid  Transit  Commission  let  the  contract  for 
an  extension  of  the  underground  system,  and 
on  March  24th  the  work  was  formally  begun. 
Tlie  subway  was  opened  October  27,  1904.  The 
route  extends  from  the  Battery  to  Van  Cort- 
landt  Park,  traversing  the  entire  length  of 
Manhattan  Island  and  crossing  the  Harlem 
River  at  Eingabridge.  An  E.  branch  diverges 
at  Ninety-sixth  Street  and  extends  NE.  as  far 
as  Bronx  Park.  A  Brooklyn  extension  crosses 
under  the  East  River.  A  system  of  tracks  con- 
nects New  York  and  Hoboken  by  means  of 
tunnels  under  the  Hudson  River.  See  Rail- 
way. 

nngara  (Ong-gS'TA),  a  district  of  Canada 
lying  between  Hudson  Bay  and  Labrador,  and 
occupying  the  greater  part  of  the  Labrador 
peninsula.  Area  364,961  sq.  m.  Its  climate  is 
rigorous  and  it  has  been  but  imperfectly  ex- 

Elored.  Lar^  lakes  and  numerous  rivers  are 
nown  to  exist,  however,  as  well  as  extensive 
forests  of  valuable  pulp  wood.  The  settlements 
are  few  and  widely  scattered.    Pop.  abt.  5,000. 

Ungvla'ta,  the  order  of  hoofed  mammals,  in- 
cluding the  horse,  camel,  pig,  cattle,  elephant, 
etc  'Dieir  toes  are  surrounded  by  a  thick  nail 
or  hoof,  on  which  they  walk.  There  are  about 
250  living  species,  and  among  the  extinct  forma 
are  some  which  bridge  the  present  division  into 
ruminants  and  no n -ruminants.  The  order  is 
noteworthy  as  furnishing  by  far  the  largest 
portion  of  the  meat  food  which  man  usea,  as 
also  the  beasts  of  burden  which  he  employa 
Almost  all  the  species— and  above  oil  the  rumi- 
nants— are  hunted  or  kept  for  the  meat  they 
yield,  and  even  the  horse,  rhinoceros,  and  espe- 
cially tapir,  are  esteemed  as  food  by  some 
peoples.  Beasts  of  draught  and  labor  are  ob- 
tained chiefly  from  the  Equida  (horse  and  ass, 
etc.),  the  Bovida  (ox,  buffalo,  etc.),  and  Cer- 
vida  (reindeer).  Their  contributions  in  other 
ways  are  manifold;  the  moat  noteworthy  are 
milk,  hides,  glue,  etc.  See  the  names  of  the 
different  suborders  and  families,  as  well  as  the 
domraticated  animals,  and  espedallyjjie  artlcl 
HoBSE. 


X.oog 


tlc^ 


UNICOEN 

U'nieara,  deocribed  by  vmrioiu  writers,  from 
Aristotle   and   Pliny  down,   ks  a,  white  horse- 
luie  creature  with  a  straight 
horn    in    the   middle   of   the 
forehead.     Its  figure  is  used 
1  heraldry.     The  word  reem 
1   the  Hebrew  Bible,   trans- 
I    lated  " unicorn"  in  the  Eng- 
1    version,     deuotea     some 
liomed  creature,  perhaps  the 
buffalo. 
Uhicokh. 


breaks  in  the 


Unifonn'ity  of  Na'tiiTe,the 

principle  that  there  are  no 
e  operation  of  natural  law.  The 
principle  underlies  the  statement  of  all  the 
so-called  laws  of  nature,  since  the  possibil- 
ity of  arguing  from  one  or  more  observed 
facts  in  nature  to  otber  facts  of  the  same  kind 
which  are  not  observed  must  rest  upon  the  pre- 
sumption that  the  sequences  of  events  in  na- 
ture are  stable  and  r^p''^'.  It  &  certain  eom- 
bjoation  of  chemical  tie  men  ts  takes  place 
to-day  under  certain  conditions,  the  chemist 
expects  the  same  combination  to  take  place 
under  the  same  conditions  to-morrow.  And  it 
does.  6a,  on  the  basis  of  this  uniformity,  he 
announces  the  discovery  as  a  fact  which  any 
other  chemist  can  con&rm.  The  second  appli- 
cation of  the  principle  is  made  in  philoaopby. 
It  consists  in  the  demand  that  uniformity  sh^l 
be  civen  due  criticism,  and  its  meaning  in  the 
world  as  a  whole  made  out  Ttiis  demand  has 
led  to  variouB  views — i.e.,  that  uniformity  is 
itself  a  hypothesis  respecting  nature,  resting 
upon  the  experience  that  nature  repeats  her 
events;  again,  that  uniformity  is  an  inborn 
re^lative  principle  of  the  human  mind.  The 
construing  of  uniformity,  however,  has  been 
largely  confined  to  eitenial  nature,  mind  and 
its  events  being  held  to  present  in  free  will  a 
phenomenon  which  violates  it.  As  to  the  mer- 
its of  this  position,  see  Wiu..  The  rise  of 
the  evolution  hypothesis  has  broken  this  tra- 
dition; the  mind  is  treated  as  a  natural  thing 
and  the  science  of  its  movements  as  involving 
the  presuppositions  of  the  natural  sciences. 

Un'lon,  Union  HiU,  or  Town  of  tTnion,  a 
town  of  Hudson  Co.,  N,  J.;  on  the  Hudson 
River,  opposite  New  Yorlt  and  1  m.  N.  of  Ho- 
boken.  It  has  brewing,  silk,  and  other  indus- 
tries. The-  post  office  is  Weehawken.  Pop. 
(leiO)  21,023. 

TJ'nit    See  Units. 

trnita'TianJam,  in  theology,  the  doctrine  that 
God  exists  in  one  person  only.  This  involves 
the  denial  of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and 
the  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ.  Unitarifnism, 
without  putting  forward  a  formal  creed  of  its 
own,  holds  that  every  man  has  a  perfect  right 
to  judge  for  himself,  unbound  by  any  set  of  ar- 
ticles; that,  while  professing  itself  to  be  a 
Christian  body,  it  leaves  everyone  to  decide  for 
himself  what  Christianity  itself  is — i.e.,  with- 
out foisting  his  place  in  the  body  to  choose 
among  fne  confiichng  views  of  Christian  doc- 
trine and  statement  that  vhkh  seemed  to  him 
to  be  true  and  right 

Unlt'ed  I'riihmen,  an  Irish  political  society 
formed  to  aid  Grattan  in  carrying  out  his  re- 


T3NITED  STATES 

forms.  It  was  originally  a  peaceful  organiza- 
tion, but*  about  179S,  under  the  influence  of 
Theobald  Wolfe  Tone,  it  became  active  in  fos- 
tering rebellion  against  the  British  Govt.  Tone 
was  captured  in  179S,  but  the  rebellion  was  not 
put  down  till  ISOO,  and  was  fdlowed  bf  the 
formation  of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland. 

United  Prov'incei,  the  seven  N.  provinces  of 
the  Netherlaiids,  united  January  83,  1ST9,  at 
Utrecht,  for  mutual  defense. 


United  Soci'ety  of  Believ'ers.    See  Shakkbb. 

United  States,  a  federal  republic  oompriaing 
(191EI)  tviro  diviaioas,  a  contmental  or  closely 
connected  part,  and  on  insular  or  non-«ontl- 
guouB  part.  The  continental  port  of  the  U.  S. 
was  campmed  of  fort^-«igbt  states,  the  District 
of  Columbia,  (containing  the  City  of  Washing 
ton,  the  seat  of  the  national  government),  and 
the  district  of  Alaska,  occupying  the  NW.  part 
of  the  continent.  The  insular  part  comprised 
the  dcpeudenciefl  acquired  as  a  result  of  the 
Spanish-American  War  (189S),  including  the 
Philippine  Islands,  the  NE.sroup  of  the  great 
archipelago  between  AuatraUa  and  Asia,  Porto 
Rico,  the  eaatermoet  and  amalleat  of  tM  Oreater 
Antillee  in  the  W.  Indies,  with  the  islands  of 
Vieoues  and  Culebra,  and  Guam,  on«  of  the 
soutnemmoflt  and  largest  of  the  Ladione  Islands 
in  the  Paci6c.  Other  acquisitions  include  the  for- 
mer kingdom  of  the  Hawaiian  archipelago,  now 
organized  as  a  territory,  lyin^  in  the  radfio 
Ocean,  midway  between  America  and  Asia:  the 
Virgin  Islands  (St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas,  and  St 
John),  tving  E.  of  Porto  Rico,  purchajsed  from 
Denmark,  for  their  strategic  importance,  in  1917 
for  J26,000,000;  the  Panam*  Canal  Zone:  To- 
tuila,  in  the  Samoan  f^eup  of  islands;  Wake 
Island ;  and  the  smaller  Pacino  islands  of  Ctmst- 
mas,  Gallcgo;  Starbuck,  Penrhyn,  Phoenix,  , 
Palmyra,  Howland,  Baker,  Johnson,  Gardner. 
Midway  (cable  station),  Morell,  Marcus,  ana 
the  Santa  Barbara  croup  under  the  administra- 
tion of  California.  The  U-  8.  also  hdd  then' 
ceivership  of  Dominica.  The  total  area  of  the 
U.  S-,  including  Alaska  and  Hawaii  was  3,624,- 
122  sq.  m.,  and  the  non-coDtiguous  posses- 
sions, excluding  the  small  Pacific  talanas,  ag< 
gregat«d  119,333  sq.  m.—a  grand  total  of  3,743,- 
iSSsq.  m. 

The  main  body  of  the  country  presents  two 
great  systems  of  uplift— the  Appalachian  sys- 
tem, near  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  the  Cordil- 
leran,   much   higher,   broader,  and   more   com- 

?lex,  occupying  the  W,  third  of  the  country. 
he  N-  part  of  the  Appalachians  consists  of 
isolated  groups  such  as  the  White  and  the 
Adirondack  Mts.  and  of  ridges  such  as  the 
Green  and  the  Berkshire  Mts.  Highest  is  Iklt. 
Washington,  in  the  White  Mts.,  6,293  ft.  The 
S.  part,  of  different  type,  includes  an  £.  range, 
the  Blue  Ridge,  and  a  W.,  the  AUeghenies.  In 
N.  Carolina  these  are  connected  by  a  somewhat 
confused  group  culmimiting  in  ML  Mitchell, 
the  highest  Appalachian  summit,  6,688  ft 
Between  the  Appalachian   syst^   and  S 


:X,OOg 


f? 


UNITED  STATES 

Cordilleran  liea  the  MissiMippi  valley,  largely, 
except  in  thu  N,  part,  a  flat,  fertile  region,  ex- 
cept for  its  river  bluFTB  and  for  the  Ozark  Hills 
in  Missouri  and  Arkansas,  2,500  to  3,000  ft. 
W.  of  this  valley  stretch  the  Great  Plains, 
inclining  graduHlly  upword  until,  at  the  base 
of  the  Koclcy  Mta.,  they  are  6,000  ft,  above  the 
sea.  These  mountains  are  the  easternmost  of 
the  Cordilleran  system,  and  rise  in  many  cases 
12,001)  to  14,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  reaching 
their  greatest   height  and   complexity  in  Col- 

The   region  drained  by   the  Colorado   is  the 
most  remarkable  part  of  the  country,  consist- 


■DNITED  STATES 

sippi  system,  including  the  great  tributaries 
of  that  river,  such  as  the  Missouri,  Ohio, 
Arkansas,  and  Tted,  and  also  some  others 
discharging  directly  into  the  Gulf;  and  the 
Paciflc  system,  including  the  Columbia,  the 
Sacramento,  and  the  Colorado. 

From  a  geological  point  of  view,  the  oldest 
part  of  the  U.  S.  is  the  N.  Appalachian  region, 
that  of  hard  rocks,  separated  from  the  softer 
recent  rocks  by  the  fall  line  on  the  rivers, 
forming  generally  the  limit  of  their  naviga- 
tion. The  most  recent  parts  are  the  Great 
Plains.  During  the  upheaval  of  the  mountain 
chains  lava  was  poured  forth,  and  now  covers 


EAT  Seai.  or  TBE  Oxms  Statu.    A.  Obvsiw;  B.  Sevens. 


ing  of  plateaus  cut  by  cations — deep,  narrow 
gorges,  culminating  in  the  Grand  Cafion  of 
the  Colorado  in  N.  Arizona,  6,000  ft.  deep,  and 
10  to  12  m.  wide  at  the  top. 

W.  of  the  Wasatch  Range,  a  spur  of  the 
Rockies  in  Utah,  lies  a  region  deficient  in  rain- 
fall and  intersected  with  several  dry  ranges, 
separated  by  detritus-filled  valleys.  This  is 
known  as  the  Great  Basin,  and  contains  the 
celebrated  Great  Salt  Lake.  Still  farther  W. 
■4  the  Sierra  Nevada  Range,  known  as  the 
Cascade  Mts.  in  its  N.  part,  and  here  volcanic 
in  origin,  including  the  cones  of  Rainier  or, 
Tacoma,  14,444  ft.;  Shasta,  14,350  ft.;  and 
Rood,  11,255  ft.  The  S.  range  has  a  long, 
deeply  eroded  W,  slope.  The  valley  to  the  W. 
is  the  great  wheat  region  of  the  Pacific  coast, 
and  is  separated  from  the  ocean  by  the  Coast 
Range,  mostly  3,000  to  4,000  ft.,  but  reach- 
ing, as  the  Olvmpic  Mts.  of  Washington,  a 
height  of  8,000 'ft. 

The  river  systema  that  drain  these  various 
parts  of  the  country  may  be  divided  into  four 
groups;  the  N.  lake  group,  consisting  of  the 
great  lakes  and  their  tributaries,  discharging 
through  the  St.  Lawrence  into  the  Atlantic — 
a  system  2,400  m.  long,  and  of  great  area, 
bearing  an  enormous  traffic ;  the  system  chiefly 
£.  of  the  Appalachians,  draining  by'  short  and 
mostly  unconnected  streams  into  the  Atlantic, 
and  including  such  rivers  as  the  Penobscot, 
Connecticut,  Hudaon.  Delaware,  Potomac,  Roan- 
oke,   Savannah,    and   St.    John's;    the   Uiasia- 


greafc  tracts,  as  in  Idaho.  The  geysers  of  Wyo- 
ming show  the  remnants  of  this  volcanic  action. 

The  climate  of  the  U.  S.  embraces  all  va- 
rieties Mm  that  of  the  tropics  to  that  of  the 
Arctic.  Its  chief  peculiarity  is  the  rapid  al- 
ternation of  temperature,  due  especially  to  the 
"  cold  waves "  accompanying  areas  of  high 
pressure.  The  flora  is  rich  and  varied,  the 
giant  sequoias  of  the  Pacific  coast  being  the 
moat  noteworthy  trees.  Large  wild  animals 
are  rapidly  disappearing;  the  largest  are  the 
moose  of  the  N.,  the  grizzly  bears  of  tbe 
Rockies,  and  the  buffalo  of  tbe  plains,  now 
practically  extinct. 

Fopulation  (jnrf  Racei. — The  population,  as 
Eiscertaiiitd  by  the  decennial  census  of  1010, 
was  91,972,263,  excluding  Alaska.  Including 
all  possessions,  this  rises  to  101,100,000.  In- 
crease of  population,  excluding  Indians  and 
Alaskans,  has  been  as  follows:  , 


ONSUS. 

Populstion. 

'^s.-ss. 

3,92fl.2U 

as 

17.0«B,*53 

23,ini.87fl 

3s!s&s!371 
£0,155,783 
62:822:260 

33 
31 

21 

38 

1 

86 

Diailizedb,  Google 


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UNITED  STATES 

The  total  pop.  (1010)  wu  divided  into  47,- 
332,122  nwlM  and  44,040,144  lenuleB.  Of  the 
08,369,104  native  white  population,  49,488,441 
were  born  of  native  parents  and  18,90U,tt(i3  of 
foreign  parents.  Ihe  foreign-born  white  popu- 
lation waa  13,343,583.  Of  the  white  population, 
numbering  81,732,087,  42,178,792  were  malea 
and  39;S53,8e6  femalea;  the  Negroes,  number- 
ing 9,828,294,  eonSiated  of  4,886,363  malee  and 
4,941,936  femaleai  of  the  Chinese,  66,268  were 
males  and  4,676  females;  of  the  Japaaeae,  02,- 
711  were  males  and  Sfill  females;  of  the 
26S,683  Indians,  13S,131  were  males  and  130,- 
S62  females.  (If  the  population  of  the  entire 
country  in  191D,  the  number  of  urban  residents 
was  42,623,363,  or  46.3  per  oent  of  the  total. 
The  rural  population,  numbering  49,348,883, 
was  neailr  evenly  divided  between  the  North 
and  the  South;  but  the  url>an  population  of 
the  entire  South,  6,624,000,  was  only  one-Sfth 
the  urban  population  of  the  North,  32,670,000. 
The  urban  population  of  the  entire  South  was 
materially  less  than  the  urban  population  of 
New  York  State  alone.  The  foreign-born  pop- 
ulation is  found  chiefly  in  the  N.  states,  only 
six  per  cent  having  gone  into  the  S.,  and,  ex- 
cept for  the  Scandinavians,  it  has  gravitated 
principally  to  the  cities,  where  it  is  often 
larger  than  the  native  element.  Indians  in 
tribal  relations  are  segregated  on  reservations 
except  in  the  case  of  the  Five  Civilized  Tribes 
of  Oklahoma,  where  tribal  government  has 
nominally  ceased  to  ejdst,  though  some  tribes 
maiDtain  many  old  customs. 

The  U.  S.  census  bureau  estimated  as  of  June 
1,  1918,  a  population  in  continental  U.  S.  of 
105,118,467;  Ataska,  64,981;  Hawaii,  223,099; 
Porto  Rico,  1,246,361;  Fhilippiues,  9,009,802; 
Guam,  14,142;  and  Samoa.  7,560.  TheFaasma 
Canal   Zone   had   7.426   in    1913. 

PabUe  Laitdt.—Tht  U.  S.  beeame  a  large 
landowner  through  cession  of  unoccupied  ter- 
ritory owned  or  claimed  by  states.  These  pub- 
lic lands  have  been  cut  up  into  towoshipB  (6 
m.  sq.),  sections  (1  sq.  m.),  and  quarter  sec- 
tions. Actual  settlers  may  obtain  land  for 
little  more  than  the  cost  of  survey.  Qranta 
have  also  been  made  to  railways  and  for  edu- 
cational purposes.  Of  1,625,000,000  acres  (ex- 
cluding Alaska),  the  U.  S.  had,  up  to  1911, 
disposid  of  1,300,000,000  acres: 


DUFOBinon  or  rcBuo  i^nns. 


3S2.00O.O0O 

Cbh  Mle* 224,000,000 

Railway  land  panU  patnted 80.000.000 

anmp  land)  to  8Ut«. TQMKI.OOO 

Und  Soualin  for  milLtary  Mrvicea eiJOOOflOO 

Tlmbar  cultun  cnwti 40.000AX) 

Fotwt  rMcrrn 60.000,000 

Public  ImprovemenU. — During  the  early  part 
of  the  nineteenth  century  many  great  public 
works,  chiefly  canals,  were  carried  through  by 
the  individual  stotes.  After  1S20  the  greatest 
of  such  improvements  were  undertaken  by  the 
general  government,  and  in  1S60  the  policy  of 
aiding  railroads  by  land  grants  was  begun. 
(Bee  SuBBiDiBS.)  In  1870  direct  appropria- 
tion of  money  for  river  and  harbor  bnprove- 


UNITED  STATES 

ment  was  bwun,  and  many  millions  are  now 
spent  annual^  for  this  purpose.  In  this  way 
the  jetty  system  at  the  mouth  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal,  and  many 
other  such  works,  have  been  builL  The  (treat- 
est  of  all,  the  Panama  Interoceanic  Canal, 
opened  for  general  trafhc  in  1914. 

Meant  of  Commvnieation. — Taking  the  coun- 
try as  a  whole,  railways  may  be  said  to  have 
developed  before  systems  of  carriage  roads. 
The  automobile,  coming  into  general  use  abt. 
SOS,  has  giyen  great  impetus  to  road  build- 
ig.  In  1916  there  were  in  operation  about 
254,045  m.  of  railway.  (See  Railways;  Tuh- 
KELB.)  The  use  of  navigable  rivers  has  de- 
creased since  the  spread  of  railways,  except 
in  cases  where  the  depth  of  water  is  assured, 
as  with  the  Hudson.  A  systematic  effort  to 
restore  traffic  to  the  great  rivers  of  the  Uis- 
sisaippi  basin  is  now  being  made.  Canals 
were  much  used  until  the  advent  of  railways 
checked  their  construction.  Means  of  verbal 
communication  are  the  postal  service  (carried 
on  by  the  Federal  Govt.)  and  the  telegrapli 
and  telephone    (in   the  hands  of  private  cor- 

InihutrUt. — Up  to  1880  agriculture  was  the 
leading  industry,  and  in  1910,  although  it  was 
second  in  value  of  products,  more  persons  were 
employed  in  it  than  in  any  other.  Three 
flffiB  of  the  farms  are  operated  by  their 
owners.  More  than  one  third  of  those  follow- 
ing gainful  occupations  are  engaged  in  agri- 
cultural pursuits.  The  most  important  crops 
are  cotton,  produced  mainly  in  the  B.  Atlantic 
and  Oulf  states;  wheat,  in  the  N.  states  of  the 
Mississippi  valley;  Indian  com,  chiefly  in  the 
middle  W.,  though  wideh"  extended;  oats,  rye, 
barley,  and  buckwheat.  Tobacco  is  a  large  and 
valuable  crop,  grown  chiefly  in  the  middle 
sUtes  with  tlie  northernmost  of  the  S.  group. 
Sugar  cane  and  the  sugar  beet  are  important 

Eroducts.  The  increase  of  cultivable  acreage 
y  irrigation  is  now  a  settled  policy  of  the 
country.  Two  fifths  of  the  total  area  of  the 
country  may  be  thus  reclaimed.  (See  Ibbioa- 
TIOR.)  The  leading  industry  of  the  country  is 
now  manufacturing.  The  number  of  factories  in- 
creased thirty  per  cent  between  1899  and  lOOiS. 
They  are  situated  lartrely  in  the  N.  Atlantic 
states,  though  incieaaing  in  importence  in  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  South.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant manufacturing  Industriee  are  those  of 
food  products,  textiles,  iron  and  steel,  lumber, 
leather,  paper,  liquors,  chemicals,  glass,  metal 
products,  vehicles,  and  shipbuilding.  The  pat- 
ent system  in  tha  U.  S.  is  far  ahead  of  that 
in  any  other  country.  (See  PAiKSxe.)  Other 
important  industries  are  those  of  mines  and 
mineral  production  and  fisheries.  See  the  arti- 
cles on  these  subjects. 

Commerce. — Most  of  the  commerce  of  the  U. 
S.  is  internal,  this  portion  being  ninety-six  par 
cent  of  the  whole  by  volume  and  about  ninety 
per  cent  by  value.  Exports  are  chiefly  raw  ma- 
terial, mostly  agricultural  and  mineral  prod- 
ucts, and  imports  are  sugar,  coffee  and  tea, 
textiles,  and  metol  products.  Of  ocean  eom- 
meree,  only  nine  per  cent  (IflU)  is  cHrried  In 
nhlps  flying  the  American  flag,  seven  eighths  of 
American  vessels  being  engaged  in  tba  ooMi- 


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UNITED  STATES 

viae  trade  and  on  internal  waUrweLvs.  The 
entire  number  of  r^atered  TeaeeU  in  1010  waa 
2S,740,  with  aggregate  tonnage  of  7,608,082. 
Oonernment. — Tb«  Government  of  the  U.S.  ia 
strictly  limited  In  itB  powers  to  the  functiona 
apeciSed  in  the  Constitution,  which  was  adopted 
in  1787.  These  functions  are  chiefl;  the  main- 
tenance of  foreign  relation!,  the  establiahment 
of  postal  communication,  the  regulation  of  in- 
teratate  commerce,  the  levying  of  duties,  and 
the  maintenance  of  domestic  peace.  Tlie  great. 
extenaions  of  Federal  power  have  been  due 
chiefly  to  liberal  construction  of  these  specifica- 
tions. Thus  the  control  of  interstate  commerce 
has  been  held  to  imply  power  to  prehibit  the 
transportation  of  certain  articles  from  one 
state  to  another  unless  these  comply  with  the 
provisions  of  Federal  statutes.  Such  atatutes 
ae  the  Pure  Food  Law  are  enacted  on  this  un- 
it erstnndin^^.  and  are  inoperative  so  long  aa  the 
products   concerned  do  not  cross  state  bound- 

The  Fedrrnl  Govt,  ia  divided  into  three 
Rrpnt  departmpnts — -le^^glntive,  executive,  and 
judiciary^-of  which  the  first  makes  laws,  the 
Kemnd  executes  them,  and  the  third  interprets 
them.  Legislative  powers  are  vested  in  a  con- 
gress of  two  houses.  One,  the  Senate,  reprc- 
Bpnfa.the  states  directly,  each  eleoting  by  popu- 
lar vote  two  membciB,  nrgardlesa  of  aize, 
for  terms  of  six  years;  and  the  other,  the 
House  of  Repre«entative«,  whose  members  are 
Apportioned  according  to  population  and 
elected  by  the  people,  directly,  in  districts,  for 
two  years  each.  Each  state,  however,  no  mat- 
ter how  small  its  population,  is  entitled  to 
at  least  one.  It  is  customary  to  speak  of  the 
Senate  as  the  "  upper  house,"  but,  strictly, 
there  is  no  warrant  for  this. 

The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  President, 
who,  together  with  a  Vice  President,  is  chosen 
Dominally  by  an  electoral  college  elected  by 
the  variouB  states,  each  being  entitled  to  a 
number  equal  to  that  of  its  combined  Senators 
and  Representatives  in  Congress.  These  elec- 
tors are  generally  elected  by  the  people,  but  a 
state  l^slature  may  and  sometimes  docs  pre- 
.  scribe  some  other  way— choice  by  the  legis- 
lature itself,  for  instance.  They  must,  by  act 
of  Congress,  be  all  chosen  on  the  Tuesday  after 
the  Arst  Monday  in  November,  A  majority  ia 
necessary  to  a  choice,  and  failing  aueh,  the 
House  of  Bepresentativee,  voting  by  states, 
electa  the  President  from  the  three  highest 
candidates,  and  the  Senate  chooses  the  Vice 
President  in  like  manner.  As  a  matter  of  fact, 
candidates  for  these  offices  are  nominated  by 
national  party  conventions,  and,  as  electors  are 
pledged  to  vote  for  the  candidates  of  their 
party,  the  election  ia  practically  by  popular 
vote,  except  that,  as  the  number  of  electors  is 
not  proportional  to  papulation,  the  successful 
candidate  may  not  have  received  a  popular 
majority.  The  President  and  Vice  President 
(who  serves  as  president  of  the  Senate)  serve 
for  four  years,  and  are  eligible  for  reflection, 
but  custom  forbids  a  third  consecutive  term. 
Both  must  be  native-born  citizens.  The  Presi- 
dent is  commander  in  chief  of  the  army  and 
navy.  He  makes  treaties  (with  the  approval 
of   two  thirds   of  the   Senate),   iippointa   civil 


UNITED  STATES 

I 
and    military    irfBcers,    and   may    prevent   the  | 

passage  of  any  law  by  withholding  his  approval  | 

( call^  the  presidential  "  veto  " )   unless  such  . 

law  is  subsequently  reapproved  by  two  thirds 
of  both  houses  of  Congress. 

In  case  of  the  death,  resignation,  or  disabil-  ' 

ity  of  the  President  during  bis  term,  the  office 
passes  first  to  the  Vice  President  and  then  to 
a  succesaiou  of  officers  designated  by  law,  of 
which  the  first  is  the  Secretary  of  State. 

The  President  is  aided  and  advised  by  a 
oabinet  of  t«n  officers,  each   of  whom   ia   at  I 

the  head  of  an  administrative  department  of 
the    Government,    namely,    the    secretaries    of  , 

State,  the  Interior,  the  Treasury,  War,  the 
Navy,  Agriculture,  Commerce,  and  l/abor; 
the  Postmaster-general  and  the  Attorney-gen- 
eral (the  legal  adviser  of  the  Government).  ; 
They  are  appointed  by  the  President  by  and 
with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate, 
and  hold  of&ce  during  his  pleasure.  He  may 
be   governed    by   t^eir   advice    or    not,    aa    he 

The  judiciary  conaists  of  a  Supreme  Court  ' 

(a  chief  justice  and  eight  aasociates),  circuit 
courts  (held  by  a  justice  of  the  Supreme 
Court  and  a  district  judge) ,  and  district 
courts  (held  by  the  district  judges  alone). 
There  are  nine  circuits,  and  each  state  forma 
one  or  more  districts.  AH  Federal  judges  are 
appointed  by  the  President,  and  hold  office  dur- 
ing good  behavior. 

The  political  organization  of  the  states  is 
similar  to  that  of  the  U.  S.,  and  in  the  case 
of  the  original  states  was,  of  course,  preExist- 
ent.  Each  has  a  governor  elected  ty  popular 
vote,  a  legislature  of  two  houses,  and  a  state 
judiciary.  In  the  organised  territories  the 
President  appoints  the  governor  and  other  ter- 
ritorial olGcers,  and  the  legislature  ia  popu-. 
larly  elected. 

States  are  usually  divided  into  counties,  and 
there  are  various  forma  of  town  and  municipal 
govemmenta.  In  New  England  the  town  is 
relatively  more  important  than  the  county, 
while  in  some  states  it  ia  aubordinate  to  the 
latter. 

Education. — Education  is  entirely  in  the 
hands  of  the  individual  states.  The  U.  S.  has 
a  Bureau  of  Education  in  tlie  Interior  Depart- 
ment, but  its  functiona  are  chiefly  limited  to 
the  collection  of  statistics.  All  of  (he  states 
have  syetema  of  common  schools,  generally 
managed  and  controlled  very  largely  by  coun- 
ties or  municipalities  under  state  law.  There 
are  many  colleges  and  universities— -some  pri- 
vate, others  under  state  control.  (See  Schools; 
UNiVEBSiTiEa. )  Of  recent  years  numbers  of 
tree  public  libraries  supported  by  taxation  have 
ariaen.  (See  Libraeies.)  Illiteracy  is  small, 
about  three  per  cent  of  native  whitea  in  the  N. 
states,  about  thirteen  per  cent  in  the  S. 

Army  and  Xavy.—'Ihe  regular  army  is  re- 
cruited by  voluntary  enlistment,  and  oonaiated, 
June  30,  1917,  of  6,169  offieera  and  2^8,4-55 
men.  (See  Abmy  infra).  The  militia  of  the 
U.  S.  consists  of  all  male  citizens  capable  of 
bearing  anna.  As  such,  it  is  not  organized,  but 
most  of  the  states  maintain  militia  organiza- 
tions, uniformed,  armed,  and  more  or  teas 
trained.    Of  Ut«  years  these  organiiations  re- 


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tJNTTED  STATES 
eeive   lome   proctici 


eeive  lome  practice  in  conjunction  with  tlie 
regulu  umy.  The  B»vy  bad  an  orgsaUed 
(rtrenKth,  June  30,  1918,  of  9,199  officers  aad 
208,671  men;  and  Bome  states  main  tain  also  a 
naval  militia.    (See  Navy  infra) . 

Finance. — Receipts  of  the  Federal  Govt,  are 
derived  from  custom  duties,  internal-revenue 
taxes,  the  postal  service,  and  miscellaneous 
sources.  Disbursements  are  on  account  of 
maintenanee  of  the  varioiu  administration  de- 
partments, interest  on  the  public  debt,  and 
pensions.  The  public  debt,  which  in  ISSO 
amounted  to  $2,773,000,000,  haa  mm  (1919) 
been  very  largely  inoreued  by  World  War  coeta. 
The  currency  in  circulation  ia  chiefly  paper,  all  of 
vhicb  ia  exchangeable  at  oar  for  gold.  This 
paperconastsinpart  of  gold  certificates,  in  part 
of  silver  certificates,  in  part  of  the  U.B.  notes 
("greenbadLs"))  uid  in  notes  of  various  denomi- 
nations isaued  under  the  authority  of  the  new 
Federal  Reserve  Banking  System,  established  by 
Act  of  Congress  in  1913.  Some  gold  also  circu- 
lates and  much  silver,  chiefly  as  fractional  cur- 

At  the  present  writing  it  is  irnpossible  to  give 
an  accurate  statAment  of  the  finances  of  the 
national  government  bfcauae  of  the  almoet  daily 
ehaogea  incident  to  the  World  War.  This  much, 
however,  can  be  atatcd  from  official  recordsi  In 
tlie  calendar  year  1918,  the  ordinary  receipts 
ro  $4,174,010,686;  the  wdinary  disbuTsemente, 

T6;  Panama  Canal  reoapts,  $6,414,- 

w  disbursements,    $7,706,879,075; 

. a  didnuBements,  $4,804,688,004  (including 

$25,000,000  for  the  purchase  of  the  Virgin 
Islutdft  $4,739,434,760  for  purchase  of  obliga- 
tions of  for^gn  governments,  and  $65,153,254  lor 
subaoiption  to  stock  of  Federal  Land  banks), 
exoes  fd  all  disbutoements  over  receipts,  $343,- 
472,604.  To  this  outgo  should  be  added 
$4,236,400,000  loaned  to  the  Allies,  chiefly  for 
purchase  of  various  commodities  in  the  tJ.  B. 
The  latter  item  was  largely  increased  at  difler- 
ent  periods  in  1919  by  loans  to  the  stricken 
ooun  tries. 

Religion. — The  utmost  religious  freedom  pre- 
vails, religious  bodies  being  allowed  to  form 
and  govern  themselves  at  will,  provided  the; 
keep  within  the  limits  of  the  civil  law.  Nearly 
all  such  bodies  are  avowedly  Christian,  and,  al- 
though H  religious  complexion  is  nowhere  given 
to  the  Government,  many  of  its  customs  and 
acts  presuppose  a  body  of  Christian,  or  at  least 
of  tbeistic,  citizens.  Such  are  the  appoint- 
ment of  Christian  chaplains  for  the  houses  of 
Congress,  the  exaction  of  oaths  of  office,  mot- 
toes such  as  "  In  God  we  Trust "  on  coinage 
and  elsewhere.  There  are  about  twenty  Chris- 
tian denominations  having  membership  of  GO,- 
OOO  or  over,  and  numerous  smaller  ones. 

ffutory. — The  early  hlsiory  of  N.  America  is 
laraely  that  of  a  struggle  between  the  English 
and  the  French.  The  former  established  col- 
onies along  the  Atlantic  from  Nova  Scotia  to 
Florida,  and  the  latter,  with  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  Canada  as  a  base,  pushed  along  the  Great 
Lakes  and  down  to  the  mouth  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. The  English  claims  to  the  country  west- 
ward of  their  settlements  conflicted  with  the 
French ;  hence  several  wars,  in  which  the  In- 
dians generally  fought  on  the  French  side. 
1»P  2 


UNITED  STATES 

Finally,  the  so-called  French  and  Indian  War 
(1754-63)    ended   in   the  fall  of   Quebec,   and 

Eut  the  British  in  possession  of  all  the  terri- 
iry  E.  of  the  Mississippi.  This  war  was  the 
cause  of  the  flrst  important  attempt  to  unite 
all  the  English  colonies  in  America.  A  scheme 
of  union  was  framed  by  a  convention  held  st 
Albany,  N.  Y.,  in  1754,  but  rejected  by  the 
British  authorities  as  conferring  dangerous 
powers  on  the  colonies.  In  1765  delegates 
from  nine  colonies  met  at  New  York  to  resist 
the  obnoxious  Stamp  Act  passed  by  Parlla. 
ment  for  colonial  taxation,  which  vras  repealed 
in  1760.  Further  eETorts  of  the  mother  coun- 
try to  raise  revenue  in  the  colonies,  resisted 
by  the  latter  as  involving  "  taxation  without 
representation,"  led  to  the  first  "  ContinenlBt — 
Congress  "  of  1774.  It  met  In  Philadelphia, 
all  the  thirteen  colonies  but  Geor^a  being  rep- 
resented, and  adopted  a  declaration  of  rights, 
denying  the  right  of  Parliament  to  tax  the 
colonies. 

On  April  19,  1775,  occurred  the  battle  of 
Lexington — an  unforeseen  conflict  between  co- 
lonial militia  and  British  troops,  and  on  May 
loth  following  the  second  Continental  Con- 
gress met  at  Philadelphia.  Armed  resistance 
to  Britain  had  not  been  contemplated,  but  the 
actual  outbreak  of  war  in  New  England,  fol- 
lowed by  the  si^^  of  Boston  and  the  battle  of 
Bunker  Hill,  resulted  in  the  raising  of  a  con- 
tinental army  by  the  Congress,  the  choice  of 
George  Washington  as  commander  In  chief, 
and,  finally,  in  the  adoption  of  the  Declaration 
of  Independence  on  July  4,  1776.  Articles  of 
confederation  were  adopted  in  1777-81,  the 
war  during  this  time  being  prosecuted  by  a 
government  without  coercive  power.  Troops 
under  Sir  William  Howe  defeated  Washington 
on  Long  Island,  August  27,  1TT6,  and  drove 
him  finally  beyond  the  Delaware,  afterwards 
pushing  into  Pennsylvania  and  capturing 
Philadelphia.  Another  British  army,  under 
Burgoyne,  invaded  the  country  from  Canada, 
but  after  two  severe  battles  was  compelled  to 
surrender  to  Gen.  Gates  near  Sarato^,  Oc- 
tober 17,  1777^probably  the  turning  point  of 
the  war.  Shortly  afterwards  treaties  of  alli- 
ance and  commerce  between  France  and  the 
U.  8.  were  signed  [Februaiy,  1778),  and  a 
French  fleet  was  sent  to  aid  the  Americans. 
Philadelphia  was  evacuated  by  the  British,  but 
Sir  Henry  Clinton,  carrying  the  war  into  the 
South,  captured  Savannah,  Qa.,  and  in  April, 
1700,  Charleston,  8.  C,  fell  into  his  hands. 
The  Americans  were  defeated  at  Camden,  B.  C. 
Gen.  Benedict  Arnold  at  this  juncture  entered 
into  a  treasonable  compact  with  the  British  to 
surrender  his  post  at  West  Point,  N.  Y.,  which 
was  discovered  and  frustrated  by  the  arrest 
and  execution,  an  a  spy,  of  Maj.  John  Andrt. 
American  successes  at  King's  Mountain,  N.  C, 
and  at  Cowans,  Guilford,  and  Eutaw,  finally 
culminated  in  the  siege  of  Yorlctown,  Va.,  and 
its  surrender  with  8,000  men  by  Lord  Com- 
waltis.  A  preliminary  treaty  of  peace  was 
signed  In  1782,  and  a  definitive  treaty  on  Sep- 
tember 3,  1783. 

The  existing  confederation  being  without 
adequate  authority,  the  Congress  in  1787  sum- 
moned a  convention  to  meet  at  Philadelphia, 


CNITED  STATES 

and  this  body  submitted  to  th«  ctfttc*  tlia  pres- 
ent Conititution,  nhich  went  into  operation 
on  June  21,  1TS8,  tiaTln^  been  ratified  by  nine 
■tates,  the  four  others  ahort^  Etfterwarda  ac- 
ceding. The  new  govemment  was  installed  on 
April  6,  1789,  by  the  inauguration  of  George 
Washington  as  first  President  of  the  U.  B. 
Party  lines  were  soon  afterwards  formed,  divid- 
ing the  country  into  Federalists  and  Anti-Fed- 
eralists, or  Republicans,  the  former  favoring 
oentralisntion  and  a  strong  national  govem- 
ment, the  latter  opposing  theea  measures  and 
sympathizing  with  France.  The  Federalists 
held  power  through  the  administrations  of 
Washington  and  Adams,  but  were  defeated  by 
Thomas  JefTereon  in  1800.  War  was  waged 
with  the  Barbary  pirates  under  the  Bey  of 
Tripoli  from  ISOl-S.  During  this  perioa,  in 
1B03,  Napoleon  I  sold  to  the  U.  5.  for  C]5,000,- 
000  the  vast  territory  of  France  bCTond  the 
Mississippi.  This  is  known  as  the  "  Louisiana 
Purchase."  Napoleon's  avowed  object  was  to 
wealun  Great  Britain.  In  her  efforts  to  resist 
France,  Britain  at  this  time  exercised  with 
great  severity  her  alleged  ri^ht  to  atop  and 
search  neutral  vessels  for  subjects  of  her  own, 
for  impressment  into  her  navy.  Several  es- 
asperating  incidents  did  much  to  hasten  war, 
which  was  finally  declared  in  ISIE,  under 
Madison's  administration.  This  "  War  of 
1S12,"  which  lasted  until  December  24,  1SI4, 
nominally  effected  little,  but,  in  spito  of  the 
capture  and  burning  of  Washington  by  the 
British,  American  successes  on  tlM  ocean  and 
the  lakes,  which  greatly  enhanced  the  naval 
prestige  of  the  U.  8.,  and  Jackson's  decisiva 
victory  at  New  Orleans  over  Wellington's  vet- 
eran troops  under  Sir  Edward  Pakenham, 
firactlcally  settled  the  question  of  search  and 
mpressment,  althou^  these  were  not  men- 
Uoned  in  the  treaty  of  peaoe. 

This  war  closed  the  era  of  the  hlstoi^  of  the 
V.  S.  when  foreign,  relations  engroesea  public 
attention.  Financial  and  Indus&ial  qumions 
now  assumed  importance,  and  chief  among 
these  were  the  tariff  and  slaverr.  In  Monroe's 
administration,  1817-25,  called  "the  era  of 
good  feeling,"  occurred  Jackson's  punitive  ex- 
pedition s^nst  the  Seminole  Indjiana  of  the 
then  Spanish  province  of  Florida,  resulting  in 
the  annexation  of  Florida  in  1819.  At  this 
time  also  was  framed  the  so-called  "  Monroe 
Doctrine,"  proclaiming  that  interference  of 
European  countries  on  either  American  conti- 
nent would  be  regarded  as  hostile  to  the  U.  S. 
Many  new  states  were  admitted  to  the  Union 
about  this  time.  Negro  slavery  had  disap- 
peared from  the  N.  states,  and  the  industrial 
situation  in  "  slave  "  and  "  free  "  statos  began 
to  be  contrasted  and  discussed.  It  began  to 
be  a  question  at  issue  whether  a  new  stato 
ahould  be  "  slave "  or  "  free."  In  1820  was 
adopted  the  so-called  Missouri  Compromise — 
the  admission  of  Missouri  as  a  slave  state  and 
that  of  Maine  as  a  free  state,  with  prohibition 
of  slavery  in  all  unorganized  territory  N.  of 
36°   30".     Soon  after  this  the  "Republic  -" 

»  party  b 
,  became  1  ^..     __ 

istration  of  Oen.  Andrew  Jack- 


tJMTED  STATES 

•on,  Uis  firat  Dcmoeratio  President,  the  so- 
called  "spoils  system"  of  filling  all  office* 
with  adhereuta  of  the  victorious  party  became 
prevalent,  and  the  issue  of  "  nullification " 
arose — the  alleged  right  of  a  state  to  act  as 
the  judge  of  the  constitutionality  of  a  Federal 
law  affecting  itself.  The  high-tariff  acts  of  the 
administration  were  thus  declared  void  by  8. 
Carolina.  War  was  prevented  by  the  modifica- 
tion of  the  obnoxious  measure  and  the  medi- 
ation of  Virginia.  Jackson  withdrew  Qovem- 
ment  deposit  from  the  Bank  of  the  U.  8., 
thus  fffmwing  it  to  fail. 

In  the  next  adnunistration,  that  of  Van 
Buren,  long-continued  financial  and  industrial 
distress  lost  the  Democrats  their  hold  on  the 
country,  and  Gen.  W.  H.  Harrison,  a  Whig, 
was  elected  President  In  1840.  Harrison  di^ 
suddenly  a  month  after  his  inauguration,  and 
John  Tiller,  the  Vice  President,  who  succeeded, 
quarreled  with  his  party  on  the  national  bank 
question.  At  this  time  the  Kepublic  of  Texas, 
a  revolted  province  of  Mexico,  colonized  largely 
from  the  S.  states,  had  applied  for  admission 
to  the  U.  S.  A  treat?  of  annexation  pre- 
pared by  the  administration  was  rejected,  and 
became  the  issue  of  the  next  election.  Jamea 
K.  Polk,  an  advocate  of  annexation,  was  chosen 
President,  but  before  his  inauguration  Con- 
gress had  formally  annexed  Texas.  The  result, 
owing  to  boundary  disputea,  involved  war  with 
Mexico,  which  lasted  from  1S46  until  1S4B. 
Gien.  Zachary  Taylor  occupied  N.  Mexico,  and 
Gen.  Winfleld  Scott  landed  an  army  at  Ver» 
Crux  and  marched  on  the  city  of  Mexico,  end- 
ing the  war  by  its  capture.  Mexico  was  forced 
to  cede  to  the  U.  S.  Texas,  New  Mexico,  and 
upper  California.  During  this  war,  boundary 
disputes  with  Great  Britain  in  tlie  NW. 
almost  led  to  hostilities.  The  U.  S.  claimed 
territory  as  far  N.  as  lat.  64*  40',  and  one  of 
the  Democratic  watchwords  had  beai  "  Fif^- 
four  Forty  or  Fight!  "  The  forty-ninth  jtaral- 
lei  was  finally  agreed  upon  as  a  compromise. 

The  addition  of  so  much  territory,  acquired 
from  Maxico,  in  the  S.  now  caused  the  slavery 
question  to  become  acuto  again.  In  ISSO  a 
compromise,  proposed  by  Henry  Clay,  waa 
adopted  admitting  California  as  a  free  state, 
but  making  extensive  concessions  to  Texas,  and 
endeavoring  to  secure  the  return  of  fugitive 
slaves  by  stringent  provisions.  Antislavery  feel- 
ing now  rose  high  in  the  North.  Mrs.  Stowe's 
"uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  published  in  1862,  did 
much  to  inflame  public  opinion,  and  North- 
erners became  active  in  assisting  fugitive  slaves 
to  escape  to  Canada.  The  repeal  of  the  Mis- 
souri Compromise  by  the  passage  of  the  Kan- 
sas-Nebraska Bill,  leaving  the  determination 
of  the  slavery  question  to  the  inhabitants,  waa 
a  result  of  tne  so-called  doctrine  of  "popular 
sovereignty  "  advocated  by  Stephen  A.  Douglas, 
of  Illinois.  The  result  was  an  immediate  con- 
test for  the  colonisation  of  Kansas,  accom- 
panied by  much  violence,  and  amounting  often 
to  civil  war,  which  continued  nearly  to  the 
time  of  the  war  of  1861.  In  1868  the  Repub- 
lican Party,  formed  to  oppose  the  extension 
of  slavery  to  the  territories,  nominated  its  first 
presidential  candidate,  Gen.  John  C.  Fremont, 
who  waa  narrowly  defeated.  Ite  aecSBd  effort 
*  Lm_..:I   .C.OC  " 


ooc^le 


UNITED  STATES 

four  yean  Ut«r  was  anoeMsful,  ita  candidate, 
Abraham  Lincoln,  being  elected.  The  S.  lead- 
en now  declared  the  Hepublican  platfonn  a 
menaM  to  their  coiutitulioiial  righta,  alleg- 
ing their  abilit;  under  the  CoQBtitution  to 
withdraw  from  tbe  Union.  The  S.  states  one 
after  another  seceded,  and  formed  a  senarate 
government,  entitled  "  The  Confederate  States 
of  America,"  with  JefTerlon  Davis  as  president. 

After  some  hesitation  the  U.  S.  Govt.,  deny- 
ing the  right  of  secession,  and  incensed  by  the 
forcible  seizure  of  Federal  forts  and  property 
in  tha  South,  began  preparations  for  aaserting 
its  position  by  arms.  The  war  that  followed 
lasted  from  1861  till  18Q5,  and  consistod  chieily 
of  two  great  movementa,  one  in  the  East  to 
capture  the  Confederate  capital,  Richmond, 
and  another  in  the  West,  to  gain  control  of  the 
Mississippi  valley.  At  the  close  of  the  war 
Gen.  U.  8.  Grant  forced  Gen.  R.  E.  Lee  to  sur- 
render bis  army  in  the  East,  and  Gen.  W.  T. 
BheiTnan,  after  ^  victorious  march  across 
Georgia  and  northward  through  the  Carotinas, 
received  the  surrender  of  Gen.  J.  E.  Johnston's 
aiTnj.  Meanwhile,  as  a  war  measure,  Pres. 
Lincoln,  on  January  1,  1863,  had  freed  by 
proclamation  all  slaves  in  the  seceded  states. 
In  1865  slavery  was  definitely  abolished  by 
constitutional  amendment.  Lincoln  was  re- 
elected in  1864,  but  in  1865  was  assasainatM 
I7  a  S.  sympathiier. 

From  180S-7T  the  country  was  occupied 
with  tbe  political  reconstruction  of  the  S. 
states.  The  state  govemmente  were  reorgan- 
ized by  the  new  President,  Andrew  Johnson, 
but  Congress,  alleging  that  the  new  govern- 
ments sought  to  reSfltablish  slavery,  refused  to 
recogniie  them,  and,  conferring  on  the  ex- 
ilavea  the  right  to  vote,  established  in  the  for- 
mer Confederate  stet^  governments  largely 
dominated  by  the  negroes  and  by  N.  imaii- 
grante  known  as  "  carpet  bag^rs.  There  was 
much  misgovemment,  corruption,  and  anarchy, 
until  finolly,  in  1877,  U.  S.  troops  were  with- 
drawn from  the  South  and  the  carpet-bag" 
BveminentB  fell.  The  election  of  Rutherford  B. 
ayes  to  the  presidency  in  1S70  was  marked 
W  a  controversy  that  ,led  close  to  civil  war, 
the  Democrate  asserting  that  their  candidate, 
Samuel  J.  Tilden,  had  been  elected.  The  de- 
cision was  left  by  Congress  to  an  electoral 
commission,  which  decided  in  favor  of  Hayes. 
The  Republicans  continued  to  control  the  Gov- 
ernment until  the  election  by  the  Democrate 
of  Grover  Cleveland  in  1884.  Two  Presidents, 
Garfield  in  1S81  and  McEinley  In  1001,  fell  by 
the  hands  of  assassins.  In  the  administration 
of  tbe  latter  a  war  broke  out  with  Spain  over 
the  course  taken  by  the  latter  country  in  deal- 
ing with  the  Cuban  revolutioniste.  Its  out- 
break was  hastened  by  the  explosion  of  the 
U.  S.  battleship  Maine  lu  Havana  harbor,  the 
U.  S.  claiming  that  the  Spaniards  were  respon- 
sible. The  close  of  the  war  saw  the  U.  S.  in 
possession  of  the  Philippine  Islands  and  Porto 
Rico,  and  also  of  Cuba,  but  after  an  independ- 
ent government  had  been  set  up  in  that  island 
the  Cubans  were  left  to  themselves. 

Tba  administration  of  McKinley's  successor, 
Theodore  Roosevelt,  was  toarked  by  efforts  to 
restrain  large  agglomerations  of  capitel,  which 


CNlTfiU  STATES 

had   risen  to  abnormal  power .  and  influence. 

Legislation  looking  toward  the  national  coa- 
trol  of  the  railroads  was  passed,  and  efforte 
were  made  to  bring  great  truste  and  corpora^ 
tiona  to  book  for  violation  of  laws  intended  to 
prevent  restraint  of  trade.  These  efforts  con- 
tinued under  the  administration  of  William  H. 
Taft  (lBOB-1913).  With  the  election  of  Wood- 
row  Wilson,  1912,  the  Democratic  party  re- 
turned to  power  after  sixteen  years  of  Re- 
publican administration. 

Fr'^m  its  opening  day  the  administration  of 
PrcHident  Wilson  was  one  of  marked  personal  ac- 
tivity, extreme  responsibility,  and  extraordinary 
influence.  The  platform  on  which  he  was  elected 

filaced  two  notable  Bubjectsforrcform  well  in  the 
oreground,  the  revision  of  the  tariS  and  the  en- 
actment of  a  new  system  of  national  bankingand 
currency.  To  theae  the  President  directed  his 
first  official  efforte,  calling  a  special  session  of  the 
Congress  to  deal  with  these  measures.  This 
CongresB  sat  from  April  8  to  Dec.  2, 1913,  and  it 
was  distinguished  by  the  personal,  oral  delivery 
of  tbe  President's  message  in  a  joint  session  cc 
both  houses,  the  first  time  such  an  event  bad  00- 
curred  in  llZ^ears.  And  it  is  to  be  notod  tliat 
throuebout  his  administration  be  repeated  this 
procedure  whenever  he  hod  unusually  important 
information  to  impart  or  advice  or  authority  to 
Beck.  The  tariff  act,  which,  besides  making  r 
downward  revision  on  many  previous  rates,  es- 
pecially thoee  on  the  neceseanea  of  life,  imposed 
an  income  tex  on  individuals  and  corporations, 
became  effective  Oct.  3,  1913.  The  banking  and 
currency  bill,  under  which  the  Federal  R^erve 
Board  was  created  and  the  country  divided  into 
twelve  districts,  each  with  a  centred  reserve  city, 
became  effective  Nov.  16,  1914,  Other  important 
measurcfl  of  this  period  were  the  ratification  by 
the  requisite  number  of  states  of  two  proposed 
amendments  to  the  Federal  Constitution,  the 
first,  now  known  aaARXicLS  XVI.,  provided  for 
a  general  income  tax;  the  second,  known  as 
Article  XVII  provided  for  the  election  of 
U.  8.  Senators  oy  popular  vote  inatead  of  by 
legislatures  as  formerly. . 

An  event  of  international  concern  assumed 
serious  proportions  at  tbe  outset  of  tliis  adminis- 
tration. A  revolution  against  the  administration 
of  President  Diai  of  Mexico,  which  broke  out 
Nov.  18,  1910,  became  ao  threat<'ning  to  U.  S. 
interests,  especially  along  the  border,  that  on 
March  7,  1911,  tbeU.  S.  stationed  a  strong  mili- 
tary force  along  the  N.  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande, 
and  fieete  of  warsliips  off  Guoiltanamo,  Cuba,  on 
the  E.  coast  of  Mexico,  and  off  Santiago  and 
San  Pedro  in  the  Pacific.  On  Aug.  4, 1913.  Prea- 
dent  Wilson  sent  John  Lind,  former  Governor  of 
Minnesota,  to  Mexico  as  his  personal  representa- 
tive to  obtain  direct  information  on  conditions 
there.  The  first  unfriendly  act  (owfud  the  U.  8. 
occurred  April  9,  1914,  when  Mexican  soldiers 
arrested  several  men  attached  to  the  U.  8.  gun- 
boat "Dolnhin"  at  Tampieo.  The  immediate 
release  of  tne  men  was  demanded  by  the  TJ.  S., 
and alaoasolute tothe Americanflag.  Thelatter 
being  refused,  President  Wilson  gave  President 
Ilueria  twenty-four  hours  in  which  to  comply 
with  the  demand  for  a  salute.  An  unconditicmal 
salute  being  forbidden  by  President  Huerta. 
President  Wilson  asked  (April  20)  and  received 


UNITED  StATES 

from  the  CongreBs  Authority  to  use  the  mrmy 
and  navy  to  ^oroe  American  righta  in  MexioD, 
and  the  dav  followinK  Uie  grant  of  authority  a 
U.  S.  naval  force  took  poeaeEsioii  of  Vera  Cnu 
and  placed  the  dty  under  martial  law.  Then 
followed  ft  series  oi  diplomatic  DegotiatioiiB  to 
ftvert  war,  in  which  Argentina,  Brazil,  and 
Chile  <£ered  the  U.  S.  their  friendly  offices. 
A  peace  conference  (the  A.  B.  C,  named  from 
the  above  countries)  was  held  at  Niagara  Falls, 
and  a  protocol  was  mgned;  but  never  became 
eSective. 

In  Mexico,  revolt  after  revolt  followed,  several 
personfl  were  proclaimed  provisional  president. 
Gen.  Venustiano  Carranza  proclaimed  himself 
First  Chief  of  Mexic^  and  established  himself 
at  Vera  Crus,  and  Gen.  t^rancisco  Villa  took 
possession  (tf  Mexico  City.  Representatives  of 
the  U.  S.,  An^tina,  Brazil,  Bolivia,  Chile, 
Guatemala,  and  Uruguay  united  in  sending  a 
note  to  the  Mexican  government  detailing  a  plan 
for  restoring  order  in  Mexico,  but  Gen.  Carranza 
declined  to  enter  into  any  conference.  Soon 
after,  however,  the  signatories  of  the  plan  for- 
malW  recf^nized  the  Carranza  government,  and 
tlw  U.  S.  and  Mexico  appointed  diplomatic  rep- 
teaentatives  to  each  other. 

The  apparentli^t  d[  peace  waa  soon  darkened 
by  new  complications.  A  force  of  Villa  bandits 
killed  wghteen  American  minere  in  Chihuahua, 
Jan.  10^  IdlB;  th«  U.  S.  demanded  the  punish- 
ment df  the  murderers:  Villa  hesdedaconsideiable 
ftaceinaraidtmthetown  of  Columbua,N.M.; 
killed  seventeen  American  soldiers  and  civilians 
and  looted  and  burned  buildings.  President 
Wilson  directed  the  orgsniiation  of  ft  punitive 
expedition  into  Mexico  for  the  sole  purpose  of 
capturing  Villa  and  his  horde  of  bandits;  Brig. 
Gen.  John  J.  Peiahing  waa  appointed  commander 
<rf  the  expedition;  and,  March  15,  1616,  one 
American  force  of  6,000  regulars  crossed  the  bor- 
der near  Columbus,  N.  M.,  and  a  Bmaller  one 
further  to  the  W.  The  first  oonflict  between  the 
U.  S.  troops  and  the  Villa  bandita  occurred 
March  20,  and  resulted  in  the  killing  of  thirty 
bandite  and  the  scattering  of  the  rest  into  the 
mountains.  Fighting  between  the  U.  S.  and 
Villa  forces  continued  until  Deo.  18,  when  Villa 
abandoned  his  revolutionary  tactics  and  pledged 
himself  not  to  undertake  another.  In  1919,  how- 
ever serious  relations  again  threatened,  and  by 
mid-August  the  U.  8.  had  established  a  military 
force  of  60,000  along  it«  side  ot  the  Rio  Grande. 

By  thecloaeof  1918.  thirty-two  statea,  the  Dis- 
trict of  Columbia  and  Alaska,  and  the  territorv 
of  Porto  Rico  had  adopted  prohibition  laws  with 
various  provisions,  and  sixteen  were  classed  as 
"wet,"  with  local  option  reservations.  President 
Wilson  prohibited  the  manufacture  <^  beer  after 
Deo.  1,1918:  CongreM  adopted  an  amendment 
to  the  agricultural  appropriation  bill  providinga 
waT'time  prohibition  for  the  whole  country, 
eSective  from  July  1,  1919,  till  the  armies  were 
demobilized;  and  Congress  also  adopted,  August, 
1917,  a  proposed  smeadment  to  the  Federal  Con- 
stitution (See  Constitution  Article  XVIII) 
which  was  subsequently  ratified  by  more  than 
tiie  necessary  number  of  states.  The  various 
prohibition  measures  were  subject  to  legal  con- 
troversies in  many  states,  involving,  among  other 
questions,  one  defining  accurately  what  oonsti- 


UNITED  STATES  ' 

tut«d  intoxicating  beverages,  and  one  involving 
the  constitutionally  of  prombition  restrictions. 
Another  measure  of  nation-wide  importauoe  ooo- 
□emed  the  granting  of  equal  suffrage  to  women. 
A  proposed  amendment  to  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion for  this  purpose  was  introduced  in  the 
Congress,  and  on  Sept.  30,  1918,  President 
Wilgon  went  before  tlie  Senate  and  urged  it  to 
take  action  in  favor  of  the  jvopoeed  amendment, 
but  at  the  time  of  writing  no  definite  action  had 
been  taken.  The  Congress  passed  an  act  in- 
tended to  prevent  interstate  commerce  in  tike 
products.ofchildlabor,  which  the  U.S.  Supreme 
Court  on  appeal  (October,  1918)  held  exceeded 
the  constitutional  authority  of  the  Congress.  On 
Jan.  7, 1918,  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court  upheld  the 
constitutionality  of  the  selective  service  or  draft 
act  of  the  Congress  of  May  18,  1917. 

In  the  Presidential  election  of  1916,  President 
Wilson  won  a  second  term,  his  Republican  op- 
ponent bemg  Charles  Evans  Eugfaea,  who 
resinied  bis  office  of  Associate  Justice  of  the 
U.  a.  Supreme  Court  on  receiving  his  party's 
nomination.  By  this  time  Uie  great  war  in 
Europe  had  attained  a  most  thrcat«iing  momen- 
tum. Auatria-Hungary  had  declared  war  on 
Servia;  Germany  ana  Russia  on  each  other; 
Gennany  on  France,  and  Great  Britain  on  G^ 
many.  On  Aug.  4, 1914,  President  Wilson  pro- 
d^med  the  neutrality  of  the  U.  S.,  and  on  the' 
following  day  tendered  the  mediatioii  of  the 
U.S.totheheadsctftfaebelligerentnationa.  Al- 
most immediately  German  pemidous  aotivitiea 
began  to  be  noticeable  throughout  the  U.  8. 
With  the  opening  of  1915,  the  U.  S.  became 
greatly  alarmed  by  German  atrocities  on  the  high 
seas,  whichinduded  the  sinking  of  a  number  of 
American  vessels  by  submarines.  When,  however. 
May  7,  the  great  Cunard  steamship  "Lusitania, 
bound  from  New  York  to  Liverpool,  was  sunk 
by  a  German  submarine  without  warning  or  an 
opportunity  for  passengers  and  crew  to  save 
themselves,  off  Old  Head,  Ireland,  involving  the 
loss  of  1,154  lives,  induding  114  Americans,  aH 
of  the  U.  S.  became  convinced  that  the  war, 
which  at  first  was  eonsidered  as  likely  to  last  but 
a  few  weeks,  had  approached  American  Aores 
and  was  deatined  to  become  a  World,  rather 
than  a  European,  War. 

Then  came  to  the  U.  S,  a  season  of  preparatJon, 
which,  for  speed,  diversity  and  thoroughness, 
astonished  the  world  as  having  never  been 
equalled.  On  the  great  awakening  of  the  Am- 
erican people,  sixty-eight  Teutonic  passenger 
and  cargo  vessels  in  varions  U.  S.  ports  were 
quickly  mtoned;  American  passports,  whicb  bad 
been  counterfeited  abroad,  were  revised  for 
greater  stringency;  plote  agiuust  American  labor 
were  discovered  and  many  of  them  frustrated; 
numerous  fires  and  explosions  occurred  in  plants 
manufacturing  war  supplies,  believed  or  found 
to  be  of  Teutonic  origin;  attempts  to  blow  up 
the  National  Capitol  and  to  dynamite  the  in- 
ternational bridge  over  the  St  Croix  river  be- 
tween Vanoeboro,  Me.,  and  New  Brunswick, 
Canada,  were  discovered  in  time  to  prevent  aty 
oomplishment;  and  an  attempted  assaaination 
ol  J.  Pierpont  Morgan,  then  acting  aa  Ameri- 
can finani-iai  agcut  ot  Great  Britain,  were  among 
the  pernicious  Teutonic  activities  oi  this  period. 
Then  came  the  sjipointment  of  a  Imfi  number 

lm.  I    C.oogic 


UNITED  STATES 


eions,  oommitteea,  and  ot\MX 


agmdefl  to  aid  the  regular  government  depart- 
menta  in  canying  out  the  atupenduoua  prepa- 
ration tasks  before  them.  Thus,  there  came  in 
enstenoe  the  V.  8.  Shipping  Board,  Shipping 
Board  Eimimaey  Fleet  Corwration,  Council  of 
NatiooaJ  D^ense,  Federal  Trade  CommiBsioii, 
Wax  Trad«  Board,  War  Finance  Corporation, 
Food  and  Fuel  Administrations,  Bureau  of 
War  Risk  Insurance,  National  Advisory  Com- 
mittee on  Araonautici,  Alien  Ptoperty  Custo- 
dian, and  many  others. 

Among  vital  provisions  for  an  emergencv 
were  acta  <rf  Congress  fixing  the  war  strengtn 
of  the  army  at  679,000  men  and  a  peace  strength 
at  254,000,  and  for  the  oonstruotion  of  186 
additional  naval  craft  of  all  grades  in  the  en- 
suing Ore  years,  at  a  total  oost  of  S502,4S2,214. 
In  Ue  meantime,  an  extenaivB  diplomatic  cor- 
respondence was  carried  on  between  the  U.  8., 
ana  the  Teutonio  powers  and  other  bellif^erents 
largely  ia  the  line  of  protests  and  rejoinders, 
and  it  ia  doubtful  if  the  German  people  and 
even  middle  official  circles  at  home,  witli  all  the 
thorou^y  organised  spy  system  at  work  here 
in  conjunction  with  recc^nued  representatives 
of  the  Teutonia  govenunent,  bad  an  inkling  of 
the  extent  of  war  preparations  in  the  V.  S.,  ^ter 
they  were  once  stuted.  German  officials  declared 
that  the  U.  B.  had  no  trained  army,  that  an  army 
oould  not  be  made  with  office  clerks  and  store- 
keepers under  three  years;  that  if  it  did  get  an 
^Xtlogy  for  an  army  it  could  not  get  it  acroes 
3,000  miles  of  ocean,  and  that  the  war  would  bo 
ended  before  the  U.  S.  could  get  into  it.  The 
Oerman  Emperor-King  was  credited  with  declar- 
ing, "After  this  war  is  over  I  will  stand  no  non- 
sense from  America,"  and  German  financiers 
counted  on  getting  sufficient  funds  in  New  York 
and  a  few  other  cities  to  pay  all  thur  expenses  of 
the  war. 

Many  American  activities,  both  oversea  and 
in  home  service,  have  been  credited  with  the 
magnifioent  results  of  their  efforts  in  other  vol- 
umes of  this  work.  This  brief  record  of  some 
of  the  moet  remarkable  occurrences  in  the  U.  8.  iu 
the  early  part  (^  the  war  brin^  the  reader  to  that 
ever-to-be  remembered  date  m  American  history 
— April  6, 1917— when  the  U.  S.  declared  war  on 
the  German  government.  Of  all  the  preparatory 
plans  for  the  entrance  of  the  U.  S.  into  tue  world 
struggle,  no  single  act  caused  as  much  surprise 
overseas,  or  brought  as  much  cheer  to  the  war- 
worn AluM  as  the  celerity  with  which  the  Ameri- 
can Expeditionary  Force  was  raised  and  rushed 
acroes  the  ocean  and  a  formidable  naval  force 
sent  to  the  aid  of  the  British  and  French  fleets. 
It  is  a  matter  of  official  record  tiuktin  March, 
1917,  the  army  conasted  of  190,000  men,  and  by 
Nor.  1, 1918,  It  had  been  increased  to  3,665,000, 
of  whom  1,993,000  were  in  service  overseas,  and 
1,672,000  were  in  readiness  for  service  but  held 
at  home  in  cantonments.  At  the  time  of  the 
armistice  there  were  2,003  naval  vessels  of  all 
grades  in  service;  on  April  6, 1917,  there  were 
only  344  serviceable  ones.  From  that  memorable 
date  the  most  momentous  events  in  which  the 
U.  S.  bore  a  widely-praised  part  will  be  found 
noted  under  the  title  of  Wokld  Wax  Review. 

On  his  return  from  his  second  trip  to  Paris, 
President  Wilson  began  a  spMking  tour  of  the 
most  important  Western  cities  to  explain  to 


UNITED  STATEa  MILITARY  ACADEMY 

the  public  the  formalation  of  the  Peace  l^eaty 
and  of  the  constitution  of  the  Lea^e  of  Na- 
tions; and  to  urge  the  speedy  ratification  of 
the  former  and  the  adoption  of  the  latter  by 
the  Congress.  The  strains  of  his  prolonged  war 
labors  be^an  to  tell  seriously  on  him,  and  he 
was  humed  to  Washington  for  medical  treat- 
ment before  the  dose  of  his  tour.    Bis  illness 


United  States  Bank.   See  Ba»K. 

United  SUtes  Hil'iUry  Acad'em;,  at  West 
Point,  was  founded  by  the  Act  of  March  18, 
1802.  Between  1802  and  1812  there  were  only 
ail  instructors,  of  whom  only  from  two  to 
four  were  present  at  the  same  time,  and  there 
were  only  eighty-nine  graduates.  The  uniform 
of  the  cadets,  nearly  the  same  as  now  worn, 
was  preecribed  by  a  general  order  in  1S18.  In 
the  appointment  of  cadets  it  has  bean  admitted 
as  a  principle  that  the  sons  of  those  who  have 
lost  their  Uvea  in  the  defense  of  the  nation 
should  have  preference.  The  custom  of  ap- 
pointing cadets  from  districts  naturally  arose 
in  accordance  with  the  tendency  to  distribute 
all  appointments  under  the  general  government 
in  proportion  to  representation,  and  was  con- 
verted into  a  law  in  1843.  The  monthly  pay 
of  cadets  was  ^23  m  1802,  t24  in  1845,  «30 
in  1857,  in  1864  about  «50;  in  1885,  •540  a 
year,  and  is  now  $700.60.  A  board  of  visitors, 
to  attend  the  annual  examinations  and  report 
on  the  condition  of  the  academy,  provided  for 
in  1816  by  regulation  from  the  War  Depart- 
ment, was  discontinued  by  the  Act  of  1843;  it 
was  again  authorized  by  Act  of  August  8,  1846, 
the  members  to  be  selected  by  the  President 
from  half  the  number  of  states  annually,  al- 
ternating with  the  other  half;  the  numt>er  of 
members  was  reduced  to  seven  in  1868;  and 
to  this  number  were  added  in  1870  two  Sen- 
ators and  three  members  of  the  House  of  Bep- 
reeentatives,  to  be  designated  respectively  by 
the  president  of  the  Senate  and  the  E^eaker 
of  the  House. 

In  the  present  organisation  the  general  eom- 
manding  the  army  has,  under  the  War  Depart- 
ment, supervision  and  charge  of  the  academy. 
The  staff  of  government  and  instmction  con- 
sists of  (1)  the  superintendent,  directing  the 
studies  and  exercises,  who  has  command  over 
all  persona  belonging  to  the  academy  and  the 
military  post.  The  mOitary  staff  includes  an 
adjutant,  quarterraaater,  commissary  of  subrist- 
enee,  treasurer,  surgeon,  and  assistant  surgeoo. 
(2)  The  commandant  of  cadets,  an  ofScer  of 
the  army,  who  is  Instructor  of  artillery,  infan- 
try, and  cavalry  tactics,  also  has  charge  of  the 
diseipliue  and  administration,  and  commands 
the  battalion  of  cadets.  He  has  eight  assist- 
ants,  likewise  army  officers.  (3)  Seven  com- 
misBoned  profesBors,  one  professor  detailed 
from  the  judge  advocates  of  the  army,  an  m- 
stmetor  of  practical  military  engineering,  and 
an  instructor  of  ordnance  and  gunnery,  taken 
respectively  from  the  Engineer  and  Ordnance 
Corps;  these  (the  superintendent  and  com- 
mandant included)  constitute  the  aoademio 
board.     There  are  about  forty-three  asriatant 


UNITED  STATES  MIUTAET  ACADEMY 

professors  and  inatructorB,  iucludiag  thoM  in 
tactics,  gind  one  swordnuuter.  Except  seven 
pTofessors,  all  officers  and  instructors  of  the 
acadeiDj  are  officers  of  the  armj  detailed  for 
the  duty,  usually  for  a  period  of  four  jears. 
The  academic  board  examines  candidate  for 
admisaion  and  cadeta,  recommends  text-books, 
mapa,  models,  etc.,  drawa  up  progranuoes  of 
instruction,  etc.,  grants  diplomas,  etc.  For  the 
purpose  of  discipline  and  tactical  instruction 
the  cadets  are  organized  as  a  battalion  of  four 
companies,  each  under  the  supervision  of  an 
instructor  of  tactics,  with  officers  and  non- 
CODuniseioned  officers  selected  from  the  cadets 
themsrives.  Usuallj  cadet  officers  are  selected 
from  the  first  class,  sergeants  from  the  sec- 
ond class,  and  corporals  from  the  third  class. 
There  are  also  a  cadet  adjutant,  quartermaster, 
sergeant  major,  and  quartermaBter  sergeant. 
The  position  of  cadet  omcers  affects  thei-r  rela- 
tion to  other  cadets  only  when  on  duty  aa 
ofBcers. 

Admuiaioti. — Each  congressional  district  and 
tenitorf,  the  District  of  Columbia,  Alaska, 
Porto  Rico,  and  Han-uii,  is  entitled  to  have 
one  cadet  at  the  academy.  The  appointments 
are  made  by  the  Secretary  of  War  at  the  re- 
quest of  the  representative  or  delegate  in  Con- 
gress from  the  district  or  territory  of  which 
the  person  appointed  must  be  an  actual  resi- 
dent. There  are  forty  appointments  at  large 
specially  conferred  by  the  President  of  the 
U.  S.  The  Secretary  of  War  is  autlioriied  to 
permit  not  more  than  four  Filipinos,  one  for 
each  class,  to  receive  instruction  under  the 
same  conditions  and  regulations.  Candidates 
must  be  between  seventeen  and  twenty -two 
years  of  age,  at  least  6  ft.  in  height,  free  from 
any  infectious  qr  immoral  disorder,  and  from 
anything  which  may  render  them  unfit  for 
military  service.  Tliey  must  be  well  versed  in 
reading,  writing,  -orthography,  arithmetic,  ele- 
ments of  EnElish  grammar,  descriptive  geogra- 
6hy,  particularly  of  America,  and  history  of 
le  U-  S.  Those  admitted  are  required  to  aim 
articles  binding  themselves  to  serve  the  U  5. 
eight  years  from  date  of  admission,  unless 
sooner  discharged.  An  oath  of  allegiance  to 
the  U.  S.  is  required. 

The  discipline  is  very  strict — more  so  than 
in  the  army,  and  probably  than  in  any  other 
similar  institution.  The  aim  is  to  inculcate 
hall  its  of  prompt  nnd  cheerful  obedience  to 
lawful  authority,  of  neatness,  order,  and  regu- 
larity, and  of  thoughtful uess  and  attention  in 
the  discharge  of  duty.  A  scrupulous  regard 
for  one's  word  is  required.  The  system  of  pun- 
ishment for  offenses  is  remarkable  for  inflex- 
ible enforcement  rather  than  for  severity.  Be- 
sides demerit  marks,  which  count  in  making 
up  the  cIews  standing,  cadets  are  further  liable 
to  three  classes  of  punishment;  (I)  Privation 
of  recreation,  etc.,  extra  duty,  reprimands,  ar- 
rests, or  confinement  to  room  or  tent  or  in  the 
light  prison,  reduction  to  ranks  of  officers  and 
non-commissioned  offieers;  (2)  confinement  in 
dark  prison  J  (3)  suspension,  dismission  with 
the  privilege  of  rpsigning,  public  dismission. 
Punishments  of  the  first  class  are  inflicted  by 
the  superintendent  or  with  his  approval  j  that 
of  the  second  claaa  by  sentence  of  a  court- 


tnnrED  states  naval  academy 

martial,  except  in  case  of  mutinous  conduct 
or  breach  of  arrest.  Uonthly  statements  of 
conduct  and  progress  in  studies  are  sent  to 
parents  or  guardians. 

Upon  graduating,  the  class  is  divided  by  tbe 
academic  board  into  three  sections  of  varying 
and  unequal  numbers,  according  to  class  rank ; 
the  highest,  usually  very  small  and  sometimes 
wanting,  is  recommended  for  promotion  in  any 
corps  m  the  army ;  the  second,  for  any  corps 
except  the  engineers!  the  third,  in  any  corps 
except  the  engineers  and  the  artillery.  Com- 
missions for  the  rank  of  second  lieutenant  ara 
then  usually  conferred  by  the  Presidsnt. 

Vnited  States  Na'val  Acad'emy  was  founded 


prior  to  this  there  was  a  school  at  the  Naval 
Aaylum,  in  Philadelphia,  where  the  midshipmen 
prepared  themselves  for  examination  for  pro- 
motion. The  Naval  School,  as  it  was  at  first 
called,  was  formally  opened  October  It),  1846, 
in  Fort  Severn,  at  Annapolis,  Md.,  which  had 
been  transferred  by  the  War  to  the  Navy  De- 
partment for  the  purpose.  The  course  was  fixed 
at  five  years,  of  which  the  first  and  last  only 
were  to  be  passed  at  the  school  and  the  inter- 
vening three  at  sea.  The  first  midshipmen  that 
received  a  course  of  instruction  and  graduated 
from  the  school  were  those  who  entered  the 
service  in  1840.  In  1B50  the  school  was  reor- 
ganized; the  name  was  changed  to  the  U.  8. 
Naval  Academy;  the  course  was  increased  to 
seven  years,  the  first  and  last  two  years  to  be 
passed  at  the  school,  tbe  intervening  four  at 
sea;  the  number  of  instructors  was  increased 
and  separate  departments  of  instruction  estab- 
lished; a  vessel  was  provided  and  annual  prac- 
tice-cruises instituted;  and  provision  was  made 
for  an  annual  board  of  visitors  to  inspect  and 
report  upon  the  condition  of  the  school  to  the 
Secretary  of  the  Navy.  In  1851  the  require- 
ment of  sea  service  was  abolished,  leaving  the 
course  four  consecutive  years  of  study.  At 
the  o^tb^eak  of  ths  Civil  War,  in  1861,  the 
Naval  Academy  was  removed  to  Newport,  R.  I., 
where  it  remained  until  the  summer  of  1865, 
when  it  was  reestablished  at  Annapolis. 

At  the  head  of  the  Naval  Academy  is  the  su- 
perintendent, a  naval  oCBcer  of  high  rank,  who 
IS  assisted  by  the  commandant  of  cadets  and 
by  the  academic  board,  which  is  composed,  in 
addition  to  the  foregoing,  of  the  heads  of  the 
different  departments  of  study,  who  are,  with 
one  exception,  naval  officers. 

The  students  of  the  Naval  Academy  are 
called  midshipmen.  Two  midshipmen  are  al- 
lowed for  each  Senator,  Representative,  and 
delegate  in  Congress,  two  for  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  five  each  year  from  the  U.  S.  at 
large.  The  appointments  from  the  District  of 
Columbia  and  five  each  year  at  large  are  made 
by  the  President.  One  midshipman  is  allowed 
from  Porto  Rico,  who  must  be  a  native  of  that 
island.  The  appointment  ia  made  by  the 
President  on  the  recommendation  of  the  Gor- 
emor  of  Porto  Kico.  The  eongresaional  ap- 
pointments are  equitably  distributed,  so  that 
as  soon  as  practicable  each  senator,  represent-, 
ative,  and  delegate  in  Congress  may  appoint 
one  midshipman  during  each  Congresa,     The 


UNITED  SYNOD  OF  THE  ntESBTTEIUAN  CHtlRCH 


UNITS 


course  for  midshipmen  ia  nz  Tcttn— four  7e»n 
git  thB  Academy,  vhen  tha  Bucoeeding  ftppoint- 
ment  is  made,  and  two  yean  at  sea,  at  the  ex- 
piration of  nhich  time  the  examinntion  for 
graduation  talcea  place.  Midahipmen  who  pass 
the  lamination  for  flnal  graduation  are  ap- 
pointed to  &11  vacancies  in  the  lower  grade  of 
the  line  of  the  navr  in  the  order  of  merit  as 
determined  by  the  Academic  Board  of  the-  Na- 
val Academy-  Should  a  member  of  Congreae 
fail  to  fill  tne  vacancy  that  mav  exist  in  the 
cadetaliip  for  his  district  by  March  4th,  the  Sec- 
retary of  the  Nary  is  authorized  to  do  so.  The 
exuninations  for  admission  are  held  at  Annap- 
olis in  May  and  September;  the  requiremenU, 
in  addition,  to  robust  constitution,  freedom 
from  physical  defects,  and  an  age  between  sis- 
teen  and  twenty  yean,  are  a  knowledge  of  spell- 
ing, grammar,  geography,  history  of  the  V.  S., 
arithmetic,  and  a^ehra  as  far  aa  equations  of 
the  first  degree.    The  midshipmen  are  required 


make  a  deposit  of  f£00  to  cover  the  cost  of  out- 
fit; the  expenses  of  travel  from  their  homes  to 
Annapolis  are  refunded  to  them,  sjid  they  re- 
ceive $600  a  year,  but  are  required  to  pay  for 
their  subsistence,  clothing,  and  other  expenses. 

Immediately  after  the  annual  examination 
the  midshipmen  of  the  graduating  class  are  or- 
dered to  cruising  veeeels  for  the  two  years' 
service  prior  to  final  examination;  the  first 
and  third  classes,  with  the  candidates  that 
have  been  admitted,  are  embarked  on  board  the 
practice  vesBels  for  the  annual  cmise  of  three 
months;  the  second  class  remains  at  the  acad- 
emy for  practical  instruction  in  the  machine 
shop  for  a  month,  and  then  joins  the  others  on 
the  cmise.  All  the  midshipmen,  except  thos* 
of  tbe  fourth  class,  are  granted  leave  to  visit 
their  hmnea  in  September. 

United  Sy'sod  of  the  Prubyte'rian  Cbnrch, 
name  taken  bj  the  S.  members  of  tha  New 
School  Presbyterian  Church  In  tlia  U.  S.  who 
withdrew  in  185S. 

U'nita,  certain  Imown  qniutities,  of  the  same 
kind  as  the  quantities  to  be  measured,  taken 
as  stsjidards  of  reference.  Every  expression 
for  a  qusjitity  consists  of  two  factors — the 
numeric  and  the  unit.  Thus  10  feet,  SO 
grams,  30  seconds. 

A  system  of  units  contains  aa  many  different 
ones  as  there  are  quantities  to  be  measured ; 
they  may  be  quite  arbitrary,  but  it  js  conveni- 
ent to  connect  them  tc«ether  in  such  a  manner 
that  they  may  be  deflued  in  terms  of  three 
arbitrary  or  nnderived  units.  These  are  called 
^ndamentat  unit*  in  distinction  from  all  oth- 
ers, which  are  derived  unit*.  The  fimdamental 
units  are  those  of  length,  moM,  and  lime.  This 
selection  is  a  matter  of  convenience.  The 
standard  unit  of  length  in  Great  Britain  is 
the  imperial  yard;  in  tha  U.  S.  it  is  tlie  dis- 
tance l>etween  the  twenty-seventh  and  the  sixty- 
third  Inch  divisions  of  the  Troughton  scale. 
This  at  S9.e°  C.  Is  equal  to' the  imperial  yard. 
In  France  the  unit  of  length  Is  the  m^frs  dei 
archivea.  The  standard  of  mass  in  Great  Brit^ 
ain  ia  the  avoirdupoia  pound;  in  the  U.  S.  it 
is  tbo  "  troy  pound  of  the  mint,"  acoordlng  to 


which  the  coinage  of  the  U.  8.  is  r^fulated. 
It  is  a  eertifled  copy  of  the  lost  imperiu  stand- 
ard of  1768,  and  contains  G,760  grains.  The 
avoirdu^is  pound  adopted  by  the  Treasury 
was  derived  from  the  troy  pound,  and  eontaina 
7,000  grains.  In  Fiance  the  unit  of  maaa  ia 
the  kilogramme  dei  arohivet. 

By  act  of  Con^-ess  in  ISSe  the  meter  wna 
defined  to  be  30.37  ia.  The  weights  and  meas- 
ures of  the  metrio  system  are  lawful  in  the 
U.  S.,  and  the  standards  of  length  and  mass 
are  the  "  national  prototypes  "  of  tha  meter 
and  the  Idlogram,  made  by  an  international 
commisaion,  and  preserved  at  the  Bureau  of 
Weights  and  Measures  in  Washington.  They 
were  authorized  by  a  metric  convention  which 
was  signed  at  Paris  by  the  representatives  of 
seventeen  governments  on  May  20,  1875.  The 
universal  unit  of  time  is  the  aecond  of  mean 
solar  time.  The  C.  O.  S.  or  cenlimeter-gram- 
aeoond  system  ia  based  upon  the  centimeter 
the  gram,  and  the  second  as  the  fundamentel 

Dbuvid  Units  . 

(A)  Meohanioal. — The  derived  units  will  be 
defined  in  the  C.  G.  8.  system.  Tha  corrti- 
sponding  units  for  any  other  system  are  easily 
derived  from  them.  The  unit  of  area,  tha 
square  centimeter,  the  area  of  a  sqliare  with 
sides  1  cm.  long;  unit  tmlume,  the  cubic  centi- 
meter, the  volume  of  a  cube  with  edges  1  cm. 
long;  unit  celocity,  the  velocity  of  a  body 
moving  through  1  cm.  in  1  sec.;  unit  of  ao- 
celemtion,  the  acceleration  which  in  I  sec.  pro- 
duces an  hicrease  In  velocity  of  1  cm.  a  second; 
unit  force,  the  dyne,  or' that  force  which  acting 
on  a  mass  of  1  gm.  generates  a  velocity  of 
1  cm.  per  second  (see  Dm^iacs)  ;  unit  of 
tcork  and  energy,  the  erg,  the  work  done  or 
the  energy  expended  by  1  dyne  through  1  cm. ; 
unit  of  power,  the  power  represented  by  tha 
expenditure  of  1  erg  per  second. 

jB]  Bleetrical  and  Jfasnetio,  — Electrical 
nnits  are  either  electrostatic  or  electromag- 
netic The  electrostatic  units  are  based  upon 
the  phenomenon  of  the  attraction  and  lepulsion 
between  charges  of  electricity,  the  law  oi  which 
was  established  by  Cmilomb.  The  electromag- 
netie  nnits  are  based  upon  the  phenomenon  of 
the  magnetic  field  produced  by  a  current,  and 
they  are  derived  trom  the  definition  of  unit 
ma^etie  pole.  Tha  eleotroafalio  unit*  are: 
Vnit  magnelie  pole,  a  magnetic  pola  which  re- 
pels an  equal  and  similar  pole  at  a  distance  of 
1  cm.  with  a  force  of  1  dyne;  unit  magnetia 
field,  a  field  in  which  unit  pole  ia  acted  upon 
by  a  force  of  1  dyne;  unit  current,  a  current 
which,  flowing  in  a  circle  of  I  em,  radius,  pro- 
duces at  its  cent«r  a  magnetic  field  of  2  r 
units;  unit  magnetieing  force,  a  magnetizing 
force  producing  unit  magnetic  field,  equivalent 
to  J^  T  ampere  tarns  per  oentimeter  iMgth; 
unit  «Ieotr(Mnotive  force  (E.  M.  F.),  the  elee- 
trcxnotive  force  which  does  1  erg  of  work  per 
second  when  unit  current  is  Sowing;  unit  re- 
eiataiwe,  the  mistance  of  a  circuit  in  which 
unit  E.  M.  F.  produces  unit  current. 

(C)  Practical  Onir*.— Since  some  of  the 
0.  O.  8.  units  are  inconveniently  large  and 
others  inconveniently  small,  the  practical  units 
are  some  multiple  or  aubmultiple  of  ten  tiina« 


UNIVERSALISH 

the  correspondiiig  C.  G.  S.  unite  of  the  «leetro- 
ma^etic  iystem.  The  pnctickl  units  are: 
[7ni(  of  Teaiatantx,  the  ohra,  repreaented  by  the 
resistance  offered  to  bji  unvftrjing  current  faj 
a  column  of  mercury  at  the  temperature  of 
melting  ice  and  14.4521  gm.  in  masa,  of  a 
constant  eroaa-aectional  area,  and  106.3  cm. 
in  length;  unit  of  atrrent,  the  ampere,  which 
is  the  practical  equivalent  of  the  unvarying 
current,  which,  when  passed  through  a  solution 
of  silver  nitrate  in  water,  deposits  silver  at  the 
rate  of  0.001118  gm.  per  seoondi  unit  of  eleo- 
iromotitre  force,  the  volt,  or  the  E.  M.  F.  Uiat, 
steadily  applied  to  a  conductor  whose  resist- 
ance is  1  obm,  will  produce  a  current  of  1 
ampere;  it  is  equivalent  to  H9(  of  the  E. 
H.  F.  of  the  Clark  cell  at  a  temperature  of 
W  C;  Mnit  of  quantity,  the  coulomb,  which 
is  the  quantity  transferred  by  1  ampere  in  I 
sec.;  unit  of  oapadty,  the  farad,  the  capaci^ 
of  a  condenser  charged  to  a  potential  of  1  volt 
by  I  coulomb;  unit  of  work,  the  ;ouIe,  the 
energy  expended  in  1  sec.  by  an  ampere  in  an 
ohm;  unit  of  pov>«r,  the  vmtt,  the  work  done 
at  the  rate  of  1  joule  per  second;  unit  of  in- 
duction, the  henry,  the  ioductioD  in  a  circuit 
when  the  E.  M.  F.  induced  is  1  volt  while  the 
inducing  current  varies  at  the  rate  of  1  ampere 
per  second. 

The  relation  between  these  practical  units 
and  the  C.  G.  S.  units  is  set  forUi  in  the  fol- 
lowing table; 


Petsicai.  QDUtim 

'Kg- 

•^nlfst 

EI«olro- 

El«tR>- 

■(alio. 

CoulDmb... 

IE::;. 

1' 

IxiS 

1X10-' 

Power 

Univei'salism,  in  theology,  the  doctrine  that 
\[\  mankind  will  finally  attain  salvation.  In 
1900  the  General  Convention  adopted  the  fol- 
lowing "  statement  of  easential  principles ": 
(1)  The  universal  fatherhood  of  God;   (2)   the 

Siritual  authority  and  leadership  of  Eis  son, 
SUB  Christ;  (3)  the  trustwartbiness  of  the 
Bible  as  containing  a  revelation  from  Giod; 
14)  the  certainty  of  juat  retribution  for  ain; 
(G)  the  final  harmony  of  all  bouIb  with  Qod. 

tlniversalism  began  its  development  in  Amer- 
ica in  the  laat  half  of  the  seventeenth  and  the 
first  half  of  the  eighteenth  centuries  through 
certain  English  and  French  myatics,  through 
the  German  Brethren,  the  Moravians,  and 
through  a  few  learned  divines  of  the  Episcopa- 
lian and  Congr^ationaliat  bodies.  John  Mur- 
ray came  from  England  in  ITTO,  and  began  to 
iiroclaim  it  openly.  Its  doctrinea  aprea^  rap- 
dly,  but  it  acquired  inatitutional  power  slow- 
ly. The  organization  of  the  Univeraaliat  branch 
of  the  ChnatJan  Church  in  America  was  ac- 
complished in  1803,  at  Wincheater,  N.  H.  The 
Church  in  America  now  numbers  more  than 
60,000  communicants. 


grand  and  total  aggregate  of  created  t_^- 
fiegarding  this  aggregate  as  a  material  struc- 
ture, it  ia,  so  far  aa  we  know,  made  up  of  what 
we  familiarly  coll  the  heavenly  bodies.  Par- 
ticulars respecting  these  bodies  and  the  systems 
which  they  form  are  found  in  the  articles 
AsTBOnoui,  CouETB,  Nebula,  etc. 

Univei'tity,  one  or  other  of  various  institu- 
tions for  higher  education,  in  mediaval  or 
modem  times.  The  name  is  applied  at  present 
to  bodies  of  very  different  types,  of  which  the 
chief   are,   perhaps,   aa   follows: 

(I)  The  German  type,  under  the  ultimate  au- 
thority of  the  state,  including  generally  facul- 
ties of  philosophy,  medicine,  taw,  and  theology. 
The  ordinary  academic  studies,  such  aa  liter- 
ature, lan^uaKe,  history,  mathematics,  etc.,  are 
included  in  philosophy,  laboratories  and  in- 
atitutea  for  special  atudies  may  be  included,  but 
not  technical  schoola.  Instruction  la  chieflv  by 
lecture  and  the  student  is  under  little  aisd- 

Sline.  Dwrees  are  given  aa  a  result  of  one 
nal  examination.  Such  are  the  universities  of 
Berlin,  Bonn,  Leipzig,  G»ttingen,  etc  (2)  The 
French  type,  esUbliahed  by  Napoleon  in  1808. 
Nearly  all  the  educational  bodies  in  the  coun- 
try are  united  into  the  Univ.  of  France,  con- 
trolled by  the  Ministry  of  Public  Instruction. 
Some  of  the  old  universities  suppressed  by 
Napoleon  (Montpellier,  L^ons,  etc.)  have  now 
regained  something  of  their  former  prestige. 

(3)  The  English  tsy^,  embodied  in  the  unlvs. 
of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  each  of  whish  is  a 

froup  of  aaaociated  colleges,  aemi- independent. 
he  university  appoints  profesaora,  examines 
candidates,  and  confera  degrees,  while  the  col- 
leges enroll  students  and  care  for  their  dis- 
cipline and  instruction.  (4)  The  Univ.  of 
London  ^pe — a  mere  examining  body,  like 
the  Board  of  Regents  in  the  State  of  New 
York. 

Universities  In  the  U.  E.  have  scarcely  suc- 
ceeded as  yet  in  evolving  a  distinct  type,  al- 
though most  of  them  approach  the  German  in 
being  groups  of  separate  faculties.  In  many, 
faculties  conaidered  essential  b^  the  Germans 
are  absent,  and  in  many,  technical  schools  and 
other  instructional  bodies  barred  out  in  Ger- 
many are  included.  Studenls  are  generally  re- 
ceived in  earlier  stages  than  in  Germany,  aa 
that  the  instruction  given  combines  that  of  the 
German  gymnasium  and  the  university.  In 
many  American  institutions  the  German  uni- 
veraity  course  is  represented  roughly  by  what 
we  know  as  the  postgraduate  course—that  pur- 
sued, if  at  all,  after  taking  the  degree  of  Bach- 
elor of  Arts  in- a  regular  tour-year  course. 

The  E.  universitieB,  unconnected  with  the 
state,  were  formerly  the  largeat  bodies  of  this 
kind.  They  may  be  typified  by  Hhrvard, 
Yale,  and  Princet^m  (in  order  of  ifoundation). 
Of  late  the  state  universities  of  the  middle  W., 
auch  aa  Michigan,  Ulinoia,  Wisconsin,  and  Min- 
nesota, have  made  great  atrides,  and  are  now 
among  the  largest  and  most  important  educa- 
tional bodies  in  the  country.  Many  universities 
were,  and  some  still  are,,  under  denominational 


traivEKsmr  extension 

control.  Some  are  nomlnslly  to,  but  practi- 
cally free.  Ai  no  Ian  exactljr  defines  the  loeaD- 
ing  of  tlie  word  "  univenuty,"  the  name  is  still 
applied  in  the  U.  S.  to  amatler  ttuiching  bodies, 
Tealljr  small  colleges,  or  even  high  schools. 

The  word  univenity  in  its  academic  sense 
is  mediEEval.  The  origin  of  modem  universi- 
ties is  dated  from  Balemo,  Bologna,  and  Paris 
in  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  ^et  the 
real  beginnings  of  these  and  kindred  institu- 
tions arc  lost  in  the  remote  past.  In  the  thir- 
teenth and  fouFteenth  centuries  targe  numbers 
t4  European  uniTeraities  were  founded.  Ger- 
many, thouf^h  not  the  original  seat  of  the  mod- 
em   univemtf,   has    been   its   most,    congenial 

UnlTertit;  Exten'iion,  an  educational  move- 
ment, the  main  idea  of  which  is  to  furnish 
teaching    by    university    instructors    to    those 


of  people,  itself  made  up  of  all  classes,  ii 
the  towns  and  cities  who  wish  to  read  and 
study  under  such  direction  as  oolleges  and 
universities  can  give  through  the  living 
teacher.  University  teaching  is  extended  prin- 
cipally by  three  methods:  (1)  By  lectures  con- 
ducted by  the  university  instructor,  with  spe- 
cial aids  for  student  work  in  the  interval-,  (2) 
hj  correspondence,  lesson  sheets  being  prepared 
and  mailed  to  the  student,  with  test  exercises 
for  work;  (3)  bf  means  of  classes  organized 
In  the  neighborhood  of  the  university  itself. 
Usually  the  second  and  third  varieties  of  uni- 
versity extension  instruction  are  sought  by 
those  who,  while  they  cannot  become  residents 
at  the  universities,  desire  to  pursue  courses 
parallel  to  those  pursued  in  the  universities. 
The  method  first  described  is  that  usually  de- 
noted bv  the  term  university  extension,  and  is 
•specially  suited,  not  to  those  who  desire  to 
pursue,  OS  non-resident  students,  the  courses 
laid  down  in  the  curricula  of  universities,  but 
raUier  to  those  in  every  walk  of  life  who  desire 
a  broader  view  of  subjects  taught  in  the  uni- 
versities. 

The  distinctive  features  of  university  exten- 
sion lectures  are  ( 1 )  the  connected  series  in- 
stead of  the  single  lecture,  and  (2)  the  aids 
to  student  work  already  referred  to.  These 
consist  of  (a)  the  syllabus  or  printed  outline 
of  the  lecture;  (b)  references  for  reading 
designated  by  the  lecturer;  (c)  the  traveling 
library,  bearing  upon  the  subjects  discussed; 
(d)  the  review  hour  in  connection  with  each 
lecture,  affording  opportunity  for  familiar 
discussion;  (e)  the  written  paper  upon  topics 
suggested  hr  the  lecturer  and  designated  in  the 
eyllabos.  The  performance  of  all  work  is  vol- 
untary with  the  student.  After  or  before  the 
lecture  bour  the  lecturer  reviews  and  discusses 


rach  written  papers  as  members  of  the  audi- 
ence may  have  furnished.  Those  attending  the 
lecture*  thus  have  the  opportunity,  the  use  of 
which  is  entirely  voluntaiy,  of  reading  some 
or  all  the  works  assigned,  and,  further,  of 
writing  tor  examination  and  comment  short 

Spers  on  designated  topics.     Usage  varies  in 
I  different  collies  as  to  the  recognition  ac- 


UNIVERSITY  SETTLEMENTS 

corded  to  those  who  do  the  work.  In  some 
cases  a  certificate  of  readings  performed  and 
written  exercises  rendered  is  given  ta  the  stu- 
dent in  the  name  of  the  university.  In  the 
cose  of  courses  of  twelve  lectures,  where  the 
nature  of  the  course  permits  it,  the  student 
who  performs  all  the  designated  work  and 
takes  the  university  examinatioQ  is,  by  some 
institutions,  allowed  credit  as  a  nonresident 
student  of  tbe  university,  and  this  credit 
stands  in  his  favor  if  he  at  any  time  becDmee  a 
resident  student. 

University  of  the  State  of  Hew  York,  an  or- 
^mizntion  including  all  incorporated  institu- 
tions of  academic  and  higher  education  in  New 
York,  with  the  State  Library,  State  Museum, 
and  such  other  libraries,  museums,  or  other 
institutions  for  higher  education  in  the  state 
OS  may  t>e  admitted  by  the  regents  to  the  uni- 
versity. It  was  incorporated.  May  1,  1784; 
reorganized,  1787;  had  its  powers  enlarged, 
1892.  In  1D04  the  university  and  the  Depart- 
ment of  Public  Instmction  were  consolidated. 


t  of  t^e 


those  of  the  university,  and  the  Commissioner 
of  Education  is  its  chief  executive  officer.  The 
object  of  the  university  is  to  encourage  and 
promote  higher  and  secoudary  education,  and 
may  establish  such  rules  and  regulations  as 
are  necessary  to  carry  into  effect  state  statutes 
relating  to  education,  subject  to  such  restric- 
tions and  limitations  as  are  imposed  by  law. 

The  powers  of  the  university  are  vested  in 
twelve  regents.  Begcnts  are  elected  by  the 
two  houses  of  tbe  state  legislature  in  joint 
session,  in  the  same  manner  as  Senators  of  the 
U.   S.,  and  serve  without  salary   for  twelve 

The  regents  have  power  to  grant  charters  to 
collies,  academies,  libraries,  museums,  or 
other  educational  institutions,  and  to  alter  or 
repeal  such  charters.  Tbey  are  required  to 
~~it  and  inspect  the  condition  and  operation 


presiding  officers,  and  award  and  confer  suit- 
able certificates,  diplomas,  and  degrees.  Tbey 
may  confer  honorary  degrees.  No  educational 
institution  mav  confer  dc^eea  unless  such  in- 
stitution 'shall  have  the  required  resources 
(value  at  least  ?500,000),  and  be  approved  as 
to  tbe  BUSiciency  of  equipment  by  the  regents. 

Tbe  annual  meeting  of  the  regents  is  held 
on  the  second  Thursday  of  December  in  each 
year.  Other  meetings  are  held  as  called  by 
the  chancellor  about  once  every  two  months, 
except  during  July,  August,  and  September. 

The  university  convocation  of  the  regents 
and  the  oflicers  of  institutions  belonging  to  the 
university,  for  consideration  of  subjects  of 
mutual  interest,  is  held  annually  at  the  cap- 
itol  in  Albany  on  such  days  as  the  chancellor 
and   Commissioner  of  Education  shall  deter- 

Univeislty  Set'tlements,  homes  in  the  poorer 
quarters  of  a  city,  where  educated  men  and 
women  may  live  in  personal  contact  with  the 
working  people.  Here  they  may  identify  tbem- 
selves  as  citizens  with  all  Uie  public  interests 
of    their   neighborhood,    may    coiiperate    with 


TJPANISHADS 


their  neighbora  in  every  elTort  for  the  __. 

good,  and  share  with  them,  in  the  Bpirit  of 
friendabip,  the  fruit  and  inspiration  of  their 
wider  opportunities.  Such  settlements  hegtxi 
through  the  labors  of  Edward  Oenison  and  Ar- 
nold Toynbee,  of  Oxford  Univ.,  among  the  poor 
of  Whltechapel,  London.  The  work  is  now  car- 
ried on  at  euch  centers  as  Toynbee  Hall,  Lcm- 
don,  and  Hull  House,  Chicago,  and  has  spread 
to  most  large  cities. 

tJpan'iahads  (Sauskrit),  a  group  of 
hundred  mystical  treatises,  mostly  : 
attached  to  the  Brahmanas  or  ritualistic  pre- 
cepts which  form  the  second  division  of  the 
Veda.  They  contain  the  beginnings  of  Hindu 
philosophy,  and  cast  aside  matters  of  rites  and 


Upaa  (Q'pBs),  a  tree  found  iu  the  forests  of 
Java,  where  it  is  called  Bohun  apaa;  the  scien- 
tiflc  name  is  A.ntiarU  to»ioaria.  The  thick: 
Juice  of  the  plant  dries  into  a  resinous  n 
which  is  extremely  poisonous,  and  used  by  the 
natives  on  their  arrows.  The  stories  respect- 
ing the  pernicious  character  of  exhalations 
from  this  tree  are  exaggerations.  Specimens 
of  the  plant  are  cultivated  in  botanic  gardens. 
The  plant  belongs  to  the  breadfruit  family.  A 
fabric  is  woven  from  the  bark. 

Upsala  (dp-ifi'UI),  town  of  Sweden,  of  edu- 
cational and  historic  interest;  45  m.  NW.  of 
Stockholm,  on  the  river  Tyris.  The  cathedral 
was  built  between  1889  and  1436.  Its  interior 
is  magniScent  and  richly  decorated,  but  its 
exterior  has  suffered  from  fire.  Among  its 
relics  are  the  silver  shrine  of  St.  Eric,  the 
tomb  of  Quatavus  Vasa,  the  monument  to  Lin- 
naus,  etc.  The  university  was  founded  in  1477 
by  Sten  Sture,  developed  rapidly,  produced  a 
great  number  of  illustrious  scholars,  and  at 
times  exercised  a  decisive  influence  on  Swedish 
civilization.    Pop.   (190T)  84,036. 

np'ton,  Bmoiy,  1830-81;  Ameriean  soldier; 
b.  BaUvia,  N.  Y. ;  graduated  at  the  U.  S.  Mili- 
tary Academy,  1661,  and  commissioned  second 
lieutmant  of  artillery;  served  in  the  Civil 
War,  and  twice  wounded;  in  13M  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  Twenty-fifth  Infantiy  with  rank 
of  lieutenant  colonel,  and  engaged  in  perfect- 
ing a  "  System  of  Infantiy  Tactics,"  which 
was  adopted,  1SS7,  for  the  use  of  the  army 
and  militia  of  the  U.  S. ;  commandant  of 
cadets  at  West  Point,  1870-75 ;  on  professional 
duty  in  Asia  and  Europe,  1875-77 ;  commanded 
several  artillery  posts,  and  was  on  the  board 
to  codify  army  relations,  1878-81.  -He  re- 
ceived the  brevets  from  major  to  major  general 
in  the  U.  S.  army. 

DnemiA  (fl-re'niI-&),  a  condition  resulting 
from  the  imperfect  aetitm  of  the  kidnJ^, 
whereby  substances  which  would  normally  be 
excreted  are  retained  in  the  blood.  It  occurs 
especially  in  Bright's  disease ;  the  symptoms 
are  headache,  convulsions,  delirium,  nausea, 
etc. 

Uial  (fl'rfll),  river  of  Russia,  which  rises  in 
the  Ural  Mountains,  flows  S.,  forming  the 
boundary  betw«ea  Evirope  and  Asia,  and  enters 


CRANUB 

the  Caspian  Sea  after  a  course  of  930  m.  It 
is  not  navigable  on  account  of  sand  banks,  but 
is  rich  in  mie  fish,  particularly  near  ito  mouth, 
where  the  Cossacks  have  important  flaheries. 
Its  delta  is  large  and  increasing. 

Ural  Mona'taina,  a  range  of  plateaus  riaing 
,from  3,000  to  5,000  ft.,  and  with  a  breadth  of 
from  10  to  66  m.  They  begin  at  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  in  lat  70°  K,  and  stretch  8.  to  lat.  50° 
N.,  forming  the  natural  boundary  between 
Europe  and  Asia.  Highest  point,  TelpOs-is 
(5,626  ft.).  They  are  rioh  in  gold,  platinum, 
copper,  iron,  and  other  ores.  Of  precious 
stones,  beryl,  topai,  amethyst,  and  diamonds 
are  found;  coal  is  abundant.  The  Obdorsk 
Mountains  branch  off  from  the  middle  chain  of 
the  Urals,  and  extend  500  m.  NNW. 

Urania  (O-rft'nl-a),  in  Grecian  mythology, 
one  of  the  nine  musea,  the  goddess  of  astron- 
omy, and  a  daughter  of  Zeus  and  Mnemoeyne. 
She  was  generally  represented  as  holding  a 
celestial  globe  in  the  one  hand  and  pointing  at 
it  with  a  small  staff  in  the  other.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  Venus  as  the  ^pe  of  noble 
love. 

Uran'inite,  or  Pitchtlende,  a  piteh-black 
mineral  with  a  speciflc  gravity  of  8.5.  It  is 
found  at  Joachimstal,  Bohemia,  in  sufficient 
quantity  (or  commercial  purposes;  also  in  Corn- 
wall, England,  and  other  localities.  In  addition 
to  uranoso-uranic  oxide  (UO),  it  contains  lead 
sulphide,  silica,  lime,  etc,  and  from  1  to  2.6 
per  cent  of  a  gas  which  was  first  supposed  to 
be  nitrogen,  but  in  1895  was  shown  to  be  a 
mixture  of  the  gases  argon  and  helium.  Its 
chief  interest  at  present  la  that  the  newly  dis- 
oovered  element,  radium  {q.v.)  can  be  sepa- 
rated from  it. 

Ura'nlum,  a  metal  obtained  from  the  min- 
eral pitchblende.  It  is  hard,  somewhat  malle- 
able, and  in  color  resembling  iron.  Uranium 
compounds  impart  to  glass  a  greenish  yellow 
fluorescent  color  and  a  fine  orange  color  to 
porcelain;   they  are  also  used  in^^otography. 

Uranium  Baya.    See  BicqnxxKL  Rays. 

U'ranns,  in  Grecian  mythology,  the  son  of 
Oaia,  the  earth,  and  by  her  the  father  of  the 
Titans,  the  Cyclopea,  Hundred- handed,  etc.  He 
hated  his  children,  and  conflntd  them  in  Tar- 
tarus, but  on  the  instigation  of  Gaia,  Cronus, 
the  youngest  of  them,  overthrew  and  dethroned 

Also  the  name  of  the  seventh  planet  in  the 
order  of  distance  from  the  sun,  and,  with  the 
exception  of  Neptune  aione,  the  outermost 
member  of  the  planetary  family.  Uranus  trav- 
ds  at  a  mean  distance  of  1,753,869,000  m,  from 
the  sun,  but  its  orbit  is  very  eccentric.  Its  y^r, 
or  period  of  complete  revolution  around  the 
sun,  is  equal  to  84  yean  and  6JS  days  of  our 
time.  The  mean  diameter  of  Uranus  is  about 
>0  m.  Ito  volume  exceeds  the  earth's  about 
seventy-four  times,  hut  its  mean  density  is  so 
small  (0.17— the  earth's  as  1)  that  its  mass  ex- 
ceeds that  of  the  earth  only  about  12}  times.  ' 
It  has  been  said  that  Uranus  rotates  on  ita 
axis  in  9i  hours.  Uranus  was  discovered  bf 
Sir  William  Herscbel  in  1781.    He  propoaed  to 


UrftBUB  hfts  four  iatellitea — Ariel, 
briel,  Titanik,  and  Oberon— which  differ  from 
other  Bitdlit^  in  our  STitem  in  that  their  or- 
bits are  almost  perpendicular  to  Untnua  iu- 
■tead  of  rsTOlviag  in  the  same  plane. 

Ur*!)*!!  (Latin,  Ubbahub),  the  name  of  eight 
vopea,  the  following  being  the  more  notable: 
Ubbar  I,  abt.  222-230,  son  of  Pontianus,  a 
Roman  noble;  a  martyr,  according  to  some- 
what doubtful  authority.  Uxban  II,  Othon 
da  Lagnj,  lOBB-99;  b.  at  Chatillon-sur-Marne, 
France,  abt  1042 ;  waa  BucceBsivelj  a  dis- 
ciple of  St.  Bruno,  canon  of  Rheima,  and 
monk  of  Cluny,  nbere  pre^ory  VII  mada  hia 
acquaintance,  and  invited  him  to  Rome,  made 
him  cardinal  and  Bishop  of  Ostia,  and  named 
him  among  tboae  worthy  of  the  aucceaaion. 
The  main  object  of  Urban'a  life  was  the  con- 
tinuation of  the  policy  of  Gregory  VII  against 
the  lay  investiturea,  aimony,  and  prieatly  con- 
cubinage. Henry  IV  and  the  antipope  Oui- 
bert  of  Ravenna  (Clement  III}  malntamed  for 
a  long  time  poaaeeaion  of  all  or  part  of  the  city 


pontificate  he  bore  up  manfully  SDainat  the  em- 

Gror,  helped  in  turn  by  the  rebellion  of  the 
Iter's  acm  Conrad,  by  the  marriage  of  the 
Counteaa  Mathilda  to  Welf,  the  son  of  the 
Duke  of  Bavaria,  by  King  Roger  of  Sicily,  and 
bv  the  first  crumJers.  Urban  held  a  number 
of  councils  in  B.  Italy  for  the  refomtation  of 
manners  and  the  maintenance  of  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Holy  See,  notably  that  of  Bari,  at 
which  St  Anselm  of  Canterbury  aaaiated.  Ur- 
ban died  in  Rome,  1099,  fourteen  days  after  the 
capture  of  Jerusalem. 
Ubbak  V,  Guillaume  Orimoard,  1302-70; 


at  Maneillea  and  papal  legate.  Yielding  to  the 
neceaaitiea  of  the  situation  and  to  the  entreaties 
of  such  persons  aa  Petrarch  and  Bt  Brideet  of 
Sweden,  he  returned  from  Avignon  to  Rome, 
1367,  and  ended  the  long  exile  of  the  popes. 
But  hia  love  for  France  drew  him  back  again  to 
Avignon,  where  he  died,  13T0.  He  was  a  mild- 
mannered,  atudioua  man,  the  friend  of  acholan, 
and  founder  of  a  school  of  medicine  at  Hont- 
pellier.  Vbbah  VI,  BartoJommeo  Prignani, 
( 137S-89) ;  Archbiahop  of  Bari ;  elected  April 
8,  1378.  Shortly  after  hie  election  the  French 
cardinals  elected  antipope  Cardinal  Robert  of 
Qenera  (Clement  VII,  1378-94).  Thus  the  pa- 
pacy WM  divided,  and  the  great  schiam  of  the 
West  inaugurated.  The  hasty,  impetuous  tem- 
per of  Urban  did  not  aid  mattera;  hia  latter 
days  were  embittered  by  the  ill  aucceea  of  his 
plana  in  Naples  and  by  the  conspiracy  of  his 
own  cardinala,  who  tried  to  create  a  kind  of 
tutorship  for  him,  but  paid  for  it  with  death 
or  imprisonment.  -  Died  in  Rome,  1339.  Urbait 
Vin,  MaHeo  Barberini,  1623-44;  built  the  Col- 
legium Urbanum,  '  or  College  of  the  Propa- 
ganda ;  established  the  Vatican  Seminary ; 
strengthened  the  fortiflcationa  of  Rome;  gave 
to  the  cardinals  the  title  of  eminence;  regu- 
lated the  Dumber  of  feaats  of  obligation ;  iasoed 


tlRIC  ACID 

an  emendated  breviary,  in  which  the  ancient 
Christian  style  in  the  hymns  was  replaced  by 
classic  exactness  of  meter.  Be  has  been  ac- 
cused of  nepotiem  and  of  furtherance  ol  French 
intereata  in  the  Thirty  Yeara'  War.  To  hia 
pontiBcate  belongs  the  condemnation  of  Oalileo 
by   the  Congregation  of  the   Holy   OfBce. 

U-Boats.  common  abbreviation  of  Vnleraee~ 
hooUn,  or  "under-sea  boats";  identical  with  the 
y^piiati  "submarine." 

n'rea,  or  Carltamide,  an  organic  compound 
whose  chemical  formula  ia  CO(NH,),.  It  is  an 
essential  constituent  of  the  urine  of  mammifer- 
ous  antmala,  particularly  of  the  camivora,  but 
ia  also  found  in  that  of  birds  and  of  amphibia. 
Urea  alao  occurs,  to  some  extent,  in  human 
blood  and  perspiration,  in  the  vitreous  humor 
of  the  eye,  and  in  the  lymph  and  chvle  of  vari- 
ous animals.  It  ie  the  chief  outlet  for  the  oxi- 
dized nitrogen  of  the  tiaaues  of  the  system,  a 
healthy  adult  excreting  more  than  an  ounce 
daily.  It  ia  not  formed  in  the  kidneye,  which 
appear  merely  to  separate  it  from  the  blood,  in 
which  it  is  preSxiatent.  Urea  may  be  formed 
artificially  in  several  waya,  and  possesses  spe- 
cial interest  as  being  the  firat  organic  com- 
pound ao  prepared. 

Ule'tei,  the  excretory  duct  of  the  Iddn^. 
In  man  it  ia  a  cylindrical  membiajious  tube 
about  17  in.  long  and  oa  large  as  a  gooae  quill, 
passing  from  the  kidney  to  &.e  bladder.  It  has 
a  flbrouB  (or  outer),  a  muscular,  and  a  mucous 


TTie'thia,  the  canal  by  which  the  urine  is 
emptied  from  the  bladder.  In  the  female  it  is 
but  a  abort  pasaage  opening  below  IJie  ciitoria. 
In  the  male  it  is  about  8  to  Q  in.  long  and  of  a 
aomewhat  complicated  structure,  conducting 
not  only  the  unne,  but  also  the  semen.  Qoiiw 
from  the  bladder  outward,  the  urethra  ia  di- 
vided into  three  parts:  (1)  The  proatatic  part, 
Burrounded  by  the  proatate  gland,  in  wbioli 
(part)  are  the  openinga  of  the  seminal  ducta; 
(2)  the  membranaceouB  part,  B  to  10  lines  long; 
and  (3)  the  cavernous  or  spongy  part,  Bur- 
rounded  by  the  penis.  The  caliber  of  the  ure- 
thral canal  is  different  in  the  different  parts 
and  different  individuals,  and  ranges  from  3  to 
7  lines  in  diameter,  the  orifice  being  the  naf- 
roweat  part.  The  urethra  is  lined  throughout 
with  delicate  mucous  membrane,  which  is  a  di- 
rect continuation  of  that  of  the  bladder. 

U'tIc  Ac'id,  or  Llth'ic  Arid,  a  substance 
first  discovered  by  Scheele  in  1776;  formula, 
CiHiN^O,,  which  occurs  in  a  small  proportion 
in  human  urine,  but  is  much  more  abundantly 
contained  in  the  excretions  of  insects,  land  rep- 
tiles, and  birds.  It  is  extensively  found  in  the 
guano  beda  of  the  Pacific  ialands;  also  in  the 
blood,  which  latter,  in  certain  diseaaea,  as  gout, 
contains  a  coneiderable  amount;  indeed,  in  per- 
sons suffering  from  gout  it  often  accnmnlataa 
around  the  joints,  farming  what  are  commonly 
but  incorrectly  termed  "  chalk  stonea,"  which 
consist  chiefly  of  sodium  urate.  Wben  secreted 
in  exeeas  it  is  discharged  by  the  kidneys,  and 
la  deposited  from  the  urine  as  red  gravel,  or  it 
aeeumulataa  in  the  bladder  and  forms  t,  con- 


UKIM  AND  THUMMIM 

■tituent  of  urinary  calculi.  It  b  ftlmoat  insol- 
uble in  witter,  requirins  10,000  part*  of  cold 
water,  and  is  quite  insoluble  in  alcohol  and  in 
other.  Urio  acid  had  been  artificially  -pro- 
duced. Its  presence  can  often  be  recognized 
under  the  microscope  by  its  peculiar  crystal- 
line structure — rhombic  tablets  and  dumbbell- 
shaped  crystals. 

U'liffl  and  Thnm'mim,  sacred  symbols  of  the 
high  priest  of  Israel  given  at  Sinai  (Ex.  xxviii, 
30),  but  lost  forever  at  the  destruction  of  the 
first  Temple  (Ei.  ii,  63;  Neh.  vii,  85).  They 
were  two  objects  placed  in  a  pocket  behind  the 
breastplate  of  the  high  priest,  and  used  to  cast 
lots  or  to  receive  answers  to  questions,  and  thus 
determine  the  divine  vill.  It  is  not  known  just 
how  the  divine  wilt  was  learned.  In  the  Sep- 
tuagint  translation  of  1  Ssjnuel  xiv,  41,  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  their  use  occurs,  and  this 
is  the  clearest  knowledge  we  have:  "  And  Saul 
said.  Lord  God  of  Israel,  why  hast  thou  not 
answered  thy  servant  to-dayT  If  I  or  Jona- 
than my  son  has  sinned,  then  Lord  God  of 
Israel  give  'light';  but  if  it  be  thy  people 
Israel  who  have  sinned,  then  give  '  right.' " 
The  questions  to  be  answered  by  the  Urim  and 
Thumtnira  were  public,  and  not  private,  and 
only  the  high  priest  could  use  them. 

n'tinaiy  Cal'cnti  and  Depos'ita.  Urine  in 
disease  often  depodts  various  sediments,  which 
differ  in  properties  and  composition  according 
to  the  causes  which  induce  their  formation. 
They  include  blood,  pus,  epithelial  cells,  etc., 
and  urates,  uric  acid,  phosphates,  calcic  oxa- 
lates and  carbonates,  etc.  The  most  common 
urinary  sediment  is  that  known  as  lateritious 
or  bricK-duat  deposit.  It  occurs  in  health  when 
active  perspiration  or  free  movement  of  the 
bowels  renders  the  urine  concentrated.  It  is  a 
constant  symptom  in  excessive  urinary  acidity, 
as  in  gout.  If  small  masses  are  voided,  they 
are  spoken  of  as  gravel;  if  larger  masses,  as 
calculi  or  atones.  Uric  acid  and  urate  stones 
are  especially  prone  to  form  in  the  kidney.  The 
same  conditions  which  occasion  urates  in  tha 
urine  frequently  cause  calcium  oxalate  also  to 
appear.  The  latter  may  be  due  likewise  to  cer- 
tain vegetables  and  fruits  rich  in  oxalates,  and 
is  then  less  significant.  Oxalate  calculi  are 
usually  formed  in  the  kidney;  they  are  gener- 
ally of  a  mulberry  appearance.  Phosphates 
may  appear  in  the  urine  as  a  whitish  sedirnent, 
and  may  cause  the  white  or  mixed  phospU^tic 
calculi  in  the  bladder.  A  stone  in  tne  kidney 
may  cause  no  trouble,  but  when  it  passes  down 
the  ureter  it  causes  the  agonizing  pain  of  renal 

Calculi  are  liable  to  cause  serious  obstruc- 
tions to  the  flow  of  urine,  and  also  severe  in- 
flammatorv  conditions  of  the  pelvis  of  the  kid- 
ney and  of  the  bladder.  But  the  inflammatory 
conditions  may  in  the  first  place  cause  the  cal- 
culi by  favoring  the  deposit  of  the  urinary 
salts,  and  the  calculi  afterwards  aggravate 
the  original  trouble.  Once  formed,  medication 
probably  has  no  power  to  dissolve  calculi.  Oc- 
casionally they  break  spontaneously,  and  are 
discharged  as  fragments.  Their  formation  is 
often  preventable  by  careful  medication,  the 
use  of  waters,  and  care  in  diet,  exercise,  etc. 


Urinary  Ot'sana,    See  KinNEr. 

U'rine,  a  fluid  excreted  by  the  kidneys.  Urine 
in  health  jwssesBes  a  light  amber  color,  *  slight 
acid  reartion,  a  peculiar  odor,  and  a  bitter 
saline  taste.  During  the  process  of  digestion  it 
sometimes  acquires  an  alkaline  reaction.  It  has 
a  specific  gravity  of  from  1.000  to  1.070,  but 
this  changes  with  the  diet  and  health  of  the  in- 
dividual. It  becomes  more  strongly  alkaline  on 
standing,  owing  to  ammoniacal  decomposition. 
The  unne  excreted  in  the  morning  has  a  dif- 
ferent composition  from  that  passed  in  the 
evening,  which  has  absorbed  various  sub- 
stances taken  into  the  stomach  during  the  day. 
An  average  sample  of  healthy  human  urine  has 
the  following  composition; 


-  850.80  pirti. 

.Mcoholie  Mtract 

Muciis  fniin  bladder.' ! 
rSodium  chloride..;... 

.  29 

:  la 

About  2i  pints  is  the  usual  amount  secreted 
in  twenty-four  hours.  The  quantity  is  in- 
creased by  much  drinking,  cold,  e^Cercise,  ex- 
citement, and  in  such  diseases  as  diabetes.  A 
diminished  flow  follows  fever,  sweating,  and 
thirst,  and  occurs  in  chronic  Bright's  disease. 
In  diabetes  a  large  amount  of  grape  sugar  (glu- 
cose) is  contained  in  the  urine,  owing  to  an  in- 
complete digestion  of  the  food,  sometimes  in  the 
Sroportion  ol  over  a  pound  in  the  liquid  voided 
unng  twenty-four  hours.  Small  amounts  of 
Elucoae  occasionally  appear  in  the  urine  in 
ealth.  In  albuminuria  a  large  quantity  of  al- 
bumin is  secreted,  the  formation  of  which  is 
due  to  a  lack  of  secretive  power  on  the  part  of 
the  kidneys. 


Vkbil  Muoa  A 


tions.  including  the  fine  group  of  seven  stars 
known  as  Charlea'a  Wain,  the  Dipper,  or  tho 


UBSA  MINOR 

Butcher's  CleaTer,  near  the  N.  pole,  fonnerly 
called  also  Septentrionei  {likewise  Seplemptri- 
onei)  and  the  Plow. 

Ursa  Hi'noi  (Latin,  literally,  "Lesser 
Bear"),  one  of  Ptolemy's  N.  conatellatiouB, 
eoatainiog  the  K.  Star  ( Polaris )  and  the 
group  anciently  known  BB  Cynoaura,  the  Dog's 
Tail.  Polaris  is  a  star  of  the  aecond  magni- 
tude. About  16*  from  it  is  another  equal  star, 
0  Ursa  Minoria.  In  the  latitude  ot  the  N. 
U.  S.  neither  of  these  etan  ever  sets. 

Ui'tlds.    S«e  Beabs. 

ITr'niliiiei,  an  order  of  celibate  women  in 
the  Roman  Catholie  Church,  named  In  honor 
of  St,  Ursula,  who,  according  to  legend,  suf- 
fered nwrtyrdom  in  the  third,  fourth,  or  fifth 
century,  being  massacred,  together  with  her 
army  of  11,000  virgins,  by  the  Huns  near 
Coloraie.  The  order  was  founded  by  St.  An- 
gel* Merici  of  Brescia,  who  in  I53T  became  its 
first  superior.  St,  Charles  Borromeo  was  a 
powerfiu  friend  of  the  Ursulines.  They  have 
'  '     s  countries,  and  are  chiefly  de- 


UrUca'ri 


S«e  NriTLB  Rash. 


Unigtuiy  (Spanish  pron.,  S-rO-gwI'),  officially 
RBptfnucA  Obiektal  del  UbuqUay,  formerly 
CiBPLATim  Repubuo  or  Estado  Obiental, 
the  Bmallest  of  the  S.  American  republics;  in 
the  SE.  of  the  continent  and  entirely  in  the 
S.  temperate  zone;  bounded  N,  by  Brazil,  E. 
by  the  Atlantic  and  Brazil,  S.  by  the  Rio.  de 
la  Plata,  and  W.  by  the  Uruguay  River,  eep- 
arnting  it  from  the  Argentine  Republic;  area, 
TS,170  sq.  m.;  capitaJ,  Montevideo  with  a  pop. 
(1909)   of  201,465. 

The  general  surface  is  rolling  or  hilly,  with 
many  ridges.  Bordering  the  Uruguay  there 
are  fertile  plains  resembling  the  pampas  of  the 
Argentine,  and  near  the  Atlantic  are  extensive 
swamps  and  lagoons,  separated  from  the  ocean 
by  wide  sand  dunes.  Most  of  the  land  is  open 
prairie;  the  largest  forests  are  in  the  W.  part. 
Besides  the  Uruguay  and  Plata,  the  only  ira- 

C>rtant  river  is  the  Negro,  which  flows  to  the 
ruguay,  and  is  navigable  in  its  lower  course. 
Lake  Miri,  on  the  NE.  frontier,  is  entirely  in- 
cluded in  Brazil,  but  furnishes  an  outlet  to 
the  N.  for  the  Uruguayan  territoiy  bordering 
on  it.  Uruguay  has  no  good  natural  harbors. 
The  best  is  that  of  Slontevideo,  on  the  Plata. 
Maldonado,  at  the  extreme  SE.  angle  of  the 
coast,  is  much  used  for  a  shelter  during  storms. 
The  climate  is  temperate  and  healthful;  the 
winter  months  (May  to  October)  are  marked 
by  a  lower  but  not  unpleasantly  cold  tempera- 
ture, wit£  occasional  light  snows  and  severe 
southerly  storms  called  pamperoti  rains  are 
abundant  almost  all  the  year. 

Gold  is  washed  on  a  small  scale;  there  are 
line  marbles,  agates,  and  fossil  woods.  Other 
minerals.  Including  coal,  are  reported.  The 
soil  in  many  places  is  very  fertile;  wheat  and 
fruits  (apples,  pears,  quinces,  etc.)  are  exten' 
sively  grown.  The  leadins  industry  is  stock 
raiting,  for  which  the  land  is  especially 
adapted.     In  1908  there  were  9,000,000  cattle. 


UEUQUAT 


1,000,000  horses,  and  28,000,000  sheep.  Much 
of  the  land  is  held  in  large  estates  on  which 
the  cattle  run  almost  wild;  nearly  all  the 
small  land  holdings  are  in  the  agricultural 
districts  settled  by  recent  immigrants.  Sub- 
sidiary to  the  grazing  industry  are  many 
saladerot,  where  Jerked  beef  is  prepared,  one 
or  two  condensed-meat  factories,  and  a  few 
tanneries.  The  common  roads  are  generally 
bad,  and  in  some  of  the  more  remote  districta 
traveling  is  still  dangerous,  owing  to  brigands. 
Uruguay  has  naw  several  railways,  moat  of 
them  radiating  from  Montevideo,  and  one 
crossing  the  country  to  the  Brazilian  frontier; 
in  1911  the  aggregate  length  open  for  traflJo 
was  1,670  m.,  oil  in  British  hands.  There  is  a 
fairly  good  interior  system  of  telegraphs  and 
cable  communication  witb  Europe  and  the  U.  S. 

Commerce  is  active,  the  exports  exceeding 
$43,000,000,  and  the  imports  $42,000,000,  in 
1010,  Nearly  all  of  this  is  carried  on  foreign 
vessels.  The  principal  exports  are  wool,  hides, 
bone  ash,  tallow;  frozen,  salted,  and  condensed 
meats;  wbeat  and  fruits.  The  trade  is  mainly 
with  Great  Britain  (about  one  third),  France, 
Belgium,  and  Brasil,  The  imports  from  the 
U.  S.  were  valued  in  ISOO  at  $3,358,379,  in 
1010  at  $4,B77,000;  the  exports  to  that  coun- 
try reached,  in  1910,  94,011,000.  The  stand- 
ard of  value  is  the  peso  fuerle  or  dollar 
(?1,034  fn  U.  S.  currenev)  ;  no  gold  and  little 
silver  are  coined,  bu^t  gold  coins  of  other  coun- 
tries circulate  freely. 

The  census  of  1909  showed  a  population  of 
1,094,S66.  The  native  population  embraces  a 
small  educated  and  wealthy  class,  but  the 
great  mass,  especially  in  the  grazing  districts, 
is  of  the  mixed  race  called  Gauchoa;  owing 
to  their  roving  and  turbulent  disposition  these 
people  readily  follow  any  revolutionary  leader. 
A  steady  stream  of  immigration,  mainly  from 
Italy,  Spain,  and  Brazil,  has  added  a  laborious 
and  useful  class  to  the  population.  Commerce 
is  almost  entirely  controlled  by  foreign  mer- 
chants. All  the  culture  and  much  of  the 
wealth  are  gathered  at  Montevideo,  the  capital 
and  onl^  large  city.  In  the  frequent  civil  wars 
Montevideo  Das  generally  been  held  by  one 
party  and  the  in^rior  by  the  other. 

Uruguay  ia  a  centralized  or  unitarian  re- 
public, divided  into  nineteen  departments. 
Congress  consists  of  two  houses;  these,  in  joint 
session,  elect  the  president  for  a  term  of  four 
years,  and  he  is  ineligible  for  reSlection  during 
the  two  following  terms.  The  established  re- 
ligion Is  the  Roman  Catholic,  but  the  church 
receives  only  a  small  subvention,  and  all  sects 
are  tolerated.  Primary  education  is  com- 
pulsory; Montevideo  has  a  national  university, 
school  of  arts  and  trades,  museum,  etc.  The 
army,  on  a  peace  footing,  consists  of  3,600 
men,  and  the  navy  is  insignificant.  Tho 
finances  are  in  bad  condition,  the  revenue 
(mainly  derived  from  customs  duties)  being 
constantly  less  than  the  expenditure  if  the 
service  of  the  debt  is  included.  By  an  ar- 
rangement with  bondholders,  made  In  1S92, 
the  interest  on  tiie  foreign  debt  was  reduced 
one  half. 

Of  all  the  B.  American  countries  Uruguay 
was  the  last  settled  by  Europeans,     This  was 


TjRUGtrAY 

partlj'  owing  to  tbe  flerc«  character  of  the 
ChaiTUas  and  other  ladian  tribes  near  the 
icoMt,  though  the  interior  was  inhabited  by 
the  paciQc  Guaronya.  In  1624  the  miraion  of 
Santo  Domingo  de  Soriano  web  founded  on 
the  Rio  Negro.  Portugal  claimed  all  the  land 
N.  of  the  Plata,  and  in  IflSO  established 
Colonia  de  Sacramento,  a  fortified  poet,  nearly 
opposita  Buenoa  Avres;  this  was  repeatedly 
besieged,  and  was  alternately  held  by  ^e  Por- 


fled  the  bay  of  Uontevideo  were  driven  out  in 
1726,  and  the  cify  was  founded  soon  after.  It 
became  the  capital  of  the  country  and  the  resi- 
dence of  governors  who,  after  1776,  were 
subordinate  to  the  viceroy  at  Buenoa  Ayrea ; 
in  1807  the  city  was  taken  ^  the  British,  but 
it  was  soon  evacuated.  The  revolution  of 
ISIO  in  Buenos  Ayree  quickly  spread  to  the 
gaaeho*  of  Uru^ay,  but  a  strong  Spanish 
force  held  Montevideo  until  1814.  The  country 
remained  in  a  diaordered  state  under  the  jrre- 
aponaible  government  of  Artlgas,  a  gaucho 
leader.  After  a  desultory  war  of  sereral  years, 
Artigas  was  driven  out,  and  Uruguay  waa  an- 
nexed to  Brazil  as  the  Ciaplatine  atate  (later, 
when  Bra^  became  independent,  the  Cieplatine 
province ) .  Revolts,  encouraged  by  Buenoa 
Ayrea,  broke  out  in  1826,  and  were  finally 
successful  in  1328,  when  both  Brazil  and 
Buenos  Ayre«  reco^ized  the  independence  of 
'  Uruguay.  The  political  parties,  Blaneot  and 
Coloradoe,  speedily  plunged  the  republic  into 
fresh  civil  wars.  Koaaa,  dictator  of  Buenoa 
Ayres  from  1836,  wished  to  extend  his  power 
into  Uruguay.  He  therefore  espoused  the 
cause  of  Oribe,  the  revolted  chief  of  the 
BlancoB,  who,  thus  aided,  held  moat  of  the  in- 
terior from  1842  to  1861,  besieging  Monte- 
video at  intervals ;  this  period  is  known  aa  the 
Nine  Years'  Si^e.  Braidl  and  Entre  Rioa  at 
length  interfered.  Oribe  was  for]ced  to  capitu- 
late in  1851,  and  Rosas  was  overthrown  soon 
after.  In  1862,  the  Blancos  being  in  powsr,  ez- 
Fresident  Florea  led  a  revolt  of  the  Colorados, 
and  was  eventually  supported  by  Brazil.  Thus 
aided,  Florea  took  Montevideo,  and  became 
president  in  1865.  Lopez,  dictator  of  Para- 
guay, made  this  affair  the  pretext  for  a  war 
on  Brazil,  in  which  Uruguay  and  Argentina 
engaged  as  allies  of  the  latter  country.  This 
war,  one  of  the  most  bloody  ever  known  in  S. 
America,  was  ended  by  the  death  of  Lopez  in 
1870.  Ftom  that  year  until  18T6  Uruguay  bad 
aereral  civil  wars.  Since  then  the  country  has 
been  comparatively  quiet  and  prosperous,  and 
it  is  probable  that  the  extension  of  railways 
will  furnish  a  check  to  the  dangeroua  gaitcko 
claM.     In  1890-91  there  waa  a  sharp  financial 

VngOMj,  a  river  of  B.  America;  rises  on 
the  W.  slope  of  the  Brazilian  Coast  Range; 
flows  W.,  flien  SW.  between  Rio  Grande  do 
Sul  and  the  Argentine  Republic,  and  finally 
8.  between  Uruguay  and  Argentina,  and  emp- 
ties into  the  lUo  de  la  Plata,  which  is  the 
estuaiy  of  the  Paranft  and  Uruguay  combined. 
The  upper  portion  is  called  the  Pelotas.  As 
a  means  of  communication  the  Uruguay  is  im- 
portant, though  inferior  to  the  Paranft.    Large 


to  Salto,  GO  m.  farther.  Whole  length  of  the 
Uruguay  and  Pelotas,  over  1,100  m.  Toward 
the  mouth  the  river  la  7  or  B  m.  wide,  but 
divided  l^  islands. 

Uuge  (dz'Bj),  the  habitual  praotioe  of  a 
person,  a  class,  a  trade,  or  a  conununity.  The 
term  is  nsed  often  interchangeably  with  cus- 
tom. Strictly  apealdng,  however,  custom  is  a 
-usage  which  has  acquired  the  force  of  law. 
For  example,  the  ciurtom  of  merchants  allow- 
ing days  of  grace  on  a  bill  of  exchange  or 
promissoiy  note  was  long  part  of  English  com- 
mon law.  A  custom  need  not  be  proved ;  judges 
will  take  judicial  cognizance  of  it,  and  con- 
tracting parties  cannot  plead  ignorance  of  it. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  usage  must  be  proved  by 
the  party  whose  case  depends  upon  its  exist- 
ence. It  may  be  established  bv  the  evidence 
of  one  witness  if  his  means  of  knowledge  and 
his  credibility   are  satisfied. 

na'begB.    Bee  UzBBoa. 

Vaet,  in  law,  rights,  recognized  only  in 
equity,  to  the  possession  and  enjoyment  of  real 
estate,  the  legal  title  to  which  is  vested  In 
another.  At  an  early  day  the  English  ecclesi- 
astics, in  order  to  avoid  the  statutes  of  mort- 
main, which  forbade  them  to  take  or  hold  lands 
in  England,  contrived  a  plan  whereby  they 
might  enjoy  all  the  benefits  of  ownership  with- 
out taking  or  holding  the  forbidden  title.  The 
land  was  conveyed  by  the  donor  to  some  person 
in  the  ordinary  manner,  but  the  conveyance 
was  accompanied  with  the  direction — which 
might  be  contained  in  the  deed,  or  which  might 
be  a  mere  oral  declaration  of  intention — that 
the  grantee  should  hold  the  land  to  the  use, 
or  to  the  benefit,  of  a  designated  person  or 
corporation.  As  this  method  enabled  the  per- 
son or  corporation  to  avoid  the  feudal  burdens, 
it  became  veiy  popular  till  it  was  checked  by 
the  statute  of  uses  (IE35),  but  thereafter  two 
transfers  were  made,  the  statute  affecting  <ntly 
the  first;  and  the  second  was  protected  by  the 
courts  of  equity,  and  developed  the  Toodem 
method  of  Teubtb  iq.v.). 

Uiah'er,  or  Usher,  Jame^  1680-1666;  prelata 
of  Irish  Protestant  Church;  b.  Dublin;  took 
orders  in  the  Church  of  England,  1601 ;  drew 
up  the  Articles  of  Faith  of  the  Irish  Church, 
1615;  became  bishop,  1620;  archbishop,  1624- 
26;  had  his  house  destroyed  by  the  Irish  reb- 
els, 1B4I,  while  visiting  England,  and  remained 
there;  twice  elected  ^  the  Long  Parliament 
to  the  Westminster  Assembly  of  Divines,  but 
from  loyalty  to  the  king  did  not  attend.  He 
prepared  the  Irish  Articles  of  Religion  (1646), 
and  proposed  a  system  of  reduced  episcopacy 
as  a  compromise  between  Episcopaliona  and 
Freabyterions.  Died  in  England,  and  by  order 
of  Cromwell  was  buried  with  great  magnifi- 
cence in  Westminster  Abbey.  Se  was  the  au- 
thor of  numerous  theological  treatises,  mostly 
in  L^tin.  Hia  moat  notable  work  is  "  Annales 
Veteris  et  Novi  Testament! "  (1664),  a  pro- 
posed scheme  of  biblical  chronology,  at  first 
accepted,  but  since  disproved  l^  raoent  inmtt- 

r"°-  iXoogic 


OSURT 

Unuy  (H'zhb-ri).  "Whan  moMj  Is  lent  on 
a  contract  to  receive  not  oaly  the  principal 
Bum  again,  but  alio  tea  increase  b^  w&y.  of 
oompensation  for  the  use,"  the  increase  "  is 
called  bitereet  by  tlioee  who  think  it  lawful, 
and  usurr  by  those  who  do  not  so"  (Black- 
stone's  "  CommentorieB,"  2,  454).  The  term  is 
now  applied  to  the  taking  of  an  illegal  rate 
of  interest.  Most  o(  the  states  prescribe  a 
lawful  rate  of  iutereet,  and  subject  the  taker 
of  an;  excesa  to  punishment  as  a  crimina],  aa 
well  as  to  the  forfeiture  of  a  part  or  tbe  whole 
of  tbe  principal  and  lawful  interest.  In  order 
to  have  a  cose  of  usuiy  there  must  be  a  loan 
or  forbearance  of  money.  Hence  one  who  buys 
negotiable  inatruments,  bonds,  or  mortgages 
for  less  than  their  face  value  does  not  engo^ 
in  a  usurious  transaction.  In  many  jurisdic- 
tions, however,  it  is  held  that  the  buyer  of 
accommodation  paper  is  a  mere  lender  of 
money,  and  hence  if  he  pays  less  than  the  face 
and  legal  discount  the  transaction  is  usurious. 
Corrupt  intention  is  essential  to  usury.  Prom 
this  it  follows,  OD  the  one  hand,  that  whatever 
may  be  the  form  of  the  transaction,  however 
cunning  nmy  be  the  devices  for  evading  the 
statute,  if  the  parties  have  in  effect  bargained 
for  the  loan  or  forbearance  of  money  at  a  pro- 
hibited rate  of  interest,  the  transaction  is  un- 
der statutory  ban;  on  the  other  hand,  if  an 
illegal  rate  of  interest  is  sgreed  upon  or  paid 
t^  mutual  mistake,  the  statute  is  not  violated, 
but  the  mistake  may  be  corrected  and  the 
agreemmt  really  int^ded  by  the  parties  en- 

U'tah  (the  Salt  Laki  State),  one  of  the 
states  of  the  U.  8.  of  N.  America;  organized 
as  a  territory  in  1S60;  admitted  as  a  state  in 
1896;  the  thirty-second  admitted  to  the  Union. 
CapiUl,  Salt  Lake  Ci^,  with  pop.  (1810) 
M,777. 

It  is  bounded  K.  by  Idaho  and  Wyoming,  E. 
trr  Wyoming  and  Colorado,  S.  by  Arizona,  and 
W.  by  Nevaida.  Greatest  length,  about  350  m. ; 
greatest  width,  nearly  300  m.;  area,  84.690 
■q.  m.,  of  which  2,806  sq.  m.  are  water  siirtacp. 

Utah  IB  traversed  N.  and  S.  l^  one  great 
range  of  mountains,  the  Wasatch,  and  there 
are  several  minor  ranges,  as  the  Deep  Creek, 
Oquirrh,  and  Ban  Franciaco  in  the  W.,  and 
the  Boan  or  Book,  ths  La  Salle,  the  Sierra 
Abajo,  and  the  Orejos  del  Oso  in  the  E.  and 
SE.,  with  the  same  general  direction.  There 
is  also  one  great  transverse  range  running  E. 
from  the  Wasatch  to  the  Rockies,  along  the 
NE,  boundary.  E.  of  the  Wasatch  Range  the 
water  flows  into  the  Du  Chesne,  Green,  Uinta, 
Price,  Grand.  White,  Dirty  Devil,  8an  Juan, 
and  Son  Bafael  rivers,  reaching  the  Pacific 
through  the  Colorado  River  and  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia. W.  of  the  Wasatch  Mountains  the  wa- 
ters, for  the  most  part.  How  into  the  Great 
Salt  Lake.  The  Wasatch  and  Uinta  mountains 
are  high  and  rocky,  broken  and  furrowed  into 
cations  and  deep  gorges.  Some  of  their  peaks 
reach  14,000  ft.  The  only  rivers  of  importance 
within  Utah  are  the  Green  and  the  Grand, 
forming  the  Colorado.  The  others  are  little 
more  than  mountain  streams.  The  rivers  have 
formed  deep  caSons  or  ravines,  ranging  in  depth 
from  600  to  4,000  ft.,  the  streun  at  many 


listing  of  mountain  spurs,  high  plateaus,  and 
arid  mesas,  the  soil  being  hard  and  clayey  and 
generally  weak.  W,  of  the  Wasatch  there  is 
a  succession  of  valleys,  extending  N.  and  S. 
These  vary  in  length  from  1  to  40  m.,  and  in 
width  from  1  to  15  or  18  m.  The  valleys  and 
mesas  range  in  elevation  from  4,000  to  7,000 
ft.  W.  of  the  Gbeav  Salt  Lake  (o.v.)  is  a 
vast  alkaline  desert,   100  m.  in  lengUi  and  40 

In  the  main  the  soil  is  arid  and  much  of  it 
altcaline,  some  sections  being  so  strongly  im- 
pregnated  with   the   salts    as    to    render   it* 


reclamation  Impracticable.  The  toil  of  the 
valleys  is  sedimentary,  gravely,  clayey,  and 
sandy ;  that  of  the  meaas  is  bard  clay  or  rocky. 
However,  the  land  is  not,  aa  a  rule,  difficult  of 
reclamation  where  water  for  irrigation  can  be 
obtained,  and  with  sufficient  water  the  soil  is 
extremely  fertile.  Aericulture  is  dependent 
upon  artificial  irrigation,  the  rainfall  being 
slight  and  uncertain.  Weeks  and  sometimes 
months  pass  without  a  shower.  The  result  has 
l>een  the  development  of  an  ext«naive  system 
of  reservoira,  canals,  and  ditches  for  irrigation 
purposes.  ITie  chief  agricultural  product  are, 
in  the  order  of  their  value,  hay,  wheat,  oats, 
potatoes,  barley,  com,  and  rye;  of  fruiU,  there 
ore  apples,  peaches,  plums,  apricots,  cherries, 

rpes,  etc.  Dried  fruits  are  shipped  to  the 
In  27  counties  there  wer^  (1910}  21,076 
farms  with  a  total  area  of  3,307 ,6DB  acres,  of 
which  1,368,211  seres  were  under  cultivation. 
In  1011  the  live  stock  consisted  of  133,000 
horses  and  mules,  83,000  milch  cows,  356,000 
other  cattle  and  1,090,000  sheep.  The  yearly 
wool  clip  (1011)  yielded  4,590,000  lb.  of 
Bcoured  wool,  valued  at  12,295,000. 

Next  to  agriculture  the  chief  industry  la 
mining.  Gold,  silver,  lead,  copper,  iron,  and 
zinc  ores  exist  in  large  quantities,  and  exten- 
sive measures  of  coal  are  found.  Silver  is 
found  in  nearly  all  the  mountains  from  one 
end  of  Utah  to  the  other,  and  the  state  ranks 
third  in  the  silver  production  of  the  U.  S.  A 
superior  onyx  has  been  found  on  the  W.  shore 
of  Utah  Lake.  There  are  beds  of  sulphur, 
among  the  largest  in  the  world;  oln^  borax, 

fi  I:,  Google 


UTAH 

gypsum,  rock  aalt,  and  asphftltnm,  tbe  last 
mentioned  beinr  used  largely  for  paving  streeti 
in  Salt  Lake  City.  Salt  is  obUined  by  evap- 
orating the  briny  water  of  Salt  Lake. 

The  climate  1b  mild  and  equable  in  the  val- 
leya,  but  extremely  cold  in  the  winter  in  the 
mountains.  In  tlie  S.  the  snowfall  is  light. 
Principal  cities  and  towns  are  Salt.lAke  City, 
Ogden,  Provo  City,  Logan,  Park  City,  Bpring- 
ville,  Eureka,  Brigham,  Spanish  Fork,  Ameri- 
can Fork,  and  Fayson.  Tlie  population  in  lOlO 
was  360,000.  Manufactures  were  early  Htimu- 
lated  by  the  neeessitieB  of  the  people,  owing 
to  the  distance  from  manufacturing  oentera 
and  the  cost  of  trt-nsporting  goods  by  teama 
from  the  Missouri  River.  The  U-  S.  census  of 
IQOO  shows  that  1,400  manufacturing  eatab- 
lisliments  were  in  operation.  Large  beet-sugar 
factories  are  in  successful  operation  at  Lelii, 
C^en,  Logan,  and  Garland.  There  are  many 
smelters,  reduction  mills,  and  refineries. 

The  majority  of  the  people  are  Mormons,  or 
Tetter-day  Sainta.  They  own  numerous  and 
many  of  them  large,  costly,  and  imposing  edi- 
fices called  temples,  tabernacles,  stake  houses, 
chapels,  and  meetinghouses.  Tlie  temples,  of 
which  there  are  four  magnificent  structures — 
vie.,  at  Salt  Lake  City,  Logan,  Manti,  and  St. 
George — are  not  used  for  public  serrices,  but 
in  them  are  performed  the  secret  rites  of  the 
Church.  None  but  members  are  permitted  to 
enter.  The  tabernacles  and  other  church  build- 
ings number  about  200,  with  a  seating  capacity 
of  75,000,  and  are  fen-  pul)lic  worship.  Utah  has 
an  excellent  system  of  free  schools,  supported 
by  general  and  local  taxation,  and  good  schools 
are  maintained  for  nine  or  ten  months  of  the 
year.  The  Univ.  of  Utah,  at  Salt  Lake  City, 
is  supported  from  the  state  treasury,  and 
the  Agricultural  College,  at  Logan,  is  sup- 
ported by  the  state  and  by  the  U.  S.  The  gov- 
ernment of  the  state  is  that  provided  in  the 
constitutional  convention  held  at  Salt  Lake, 
May  4-6,  1H05,  as  amended  in  1900.  The  leg- 
islative branch  consists  of  a  senate  and  a 
house  of  representatives,  both  chosen  for  two 
years,  and  holding  sessions  biennially.  They 
are  all  chosen  by  popular  vote,  men  and  women 
over  twenty-one  having  equal  electoral  rights. 
Education  is  free  and  unsectarian  and  open  to 
all.  Polygamous  or  plural  marriages  are  pro- 
hibited, but  absolute  freedom  of  conscience  is 
giianuiteed.  The  public  debt  must  not  exceed 
$200,000  over  and  above  the  territorial  indebt- 


Great  Salt  Lake  was  not  discovered  till  1B24, 
and  soon  thereafter  trading  posts  sprang  up 
about  it.  Utah  was  settled  by  the  Mormons 
in  1847,  when  it  was  Mexican  territory.  Ow- 
ing to  the  impossibility  of  living  at  peace  in 
Missouri  and  Illinois,  Brigham  Young,  the 
president  of  the  church,  led  his  people  W.  into 
the  wilderness,  the  first  band,  numbering  143, 
arriving  in  the  Salt  Lake  valley  July  24,  184T. 
Tn  1848,  by  the  Treaty  of  Guadalupe  Hidalgo, 
the  land  was  ceded  to  the  U.  6.  Since  then 
Utah  has  been  the  headquarters  of  the  Mor- 
mons. For  two  years  there  was  no  secular  gov- 
ernment. In  1S49  a  constitution  was  formu' 
lated   and   the   ptovisional  government   of   the 


OTICA 

State  of  Deaet«t  went  into  operation.  In  1850 
Utah  was  rHganized  into  a  territory  of  the 
U.  S.,  but  the  new  government  did  not  go  into 
effect  until  IBGl.  In  1B67  the  U.  S.  Govt. 
sent  an  army  into  Utah,  it  being  allied 
that  the  Mormon  leaders  were  preventing  im- 
migration, exercising  power  and  authority  un- 
lawfully, and  int^ering  with  the  Federal 
courts.  The  Mormon  militia  woa  mobilized 
and,  opposing  the  army  on  the  E.  border, 
prevented  the  troops  from  reaching  Salt  Lake 
valley  until  186B.  There  was  no  actual  colli- 
sion between  the  opposing  farces,  but  the  mili- 
tia burned  some  supply  trains  and  annoyed  th« 
troops  so  as  to  prevent  an  advance  beyond  Fort 
Bridcer.  In  1802  Congress  passed  a  bill  to  pun- 
ish those  guilty  of  polygamy,  yet  for  yean  lit- 
tle efTui-t  was  made  to  enforce  the  law.  In  1882 
another  and  more  drastic  act  wai  paased,  and 
in  1SS7  Congress  passed  a  bill  greatly  restrict- 
ing suffrage  and  escheating  moat  of  the  vast 
property  ot  the  Mormon  Church.  The  act  of 
1S82  wsA  the  work  of  Senator  George  F.  Ed- 
munds, and  was  upheld  by  the  Supreme  Court 
From  IS86  to  1890  there  was  persistent  warfare 
against  the  polygamista  in  the  courts,  and  in 
October,  1890,  after  more  than  1,100  of  their 
men  had  served  terms  in  the  penitentiary,  the 
people  voted  to  sustain  the  proclamation  or 
"  manifesto  "  issued  by  their  president,  discon- 
tinuing polygamy.  But  it  was  developed  in 
1905-6,  in  the  inquiry  into  the  eligibility  of 
Senator  Heed  Smoot  by  the  U,  S.  Senate,  that 
Mormon  practices  still  persist.  In  lOOS  0,500 
claims  were  thrown  open  in  the  Uinta  Indian 
Reservation. 

Utah  Lake,  the  largest  body  of  fresh  water 
in  Utah;  N.  lat.  40''  16',  W.  Ion.  (from  Green- 
wich] 111"  45'.  Its  altitude  above  the  sea  is 
4,500  ft.;  its  length  from  N.  to  B.  is  25  m.;  its 
extreme  width,  13  m.;  its  area,  160  sq.  m.  The 
valley  in  which  it  lies  is  part  of  a  great  trough 
formed  by  the  uplift  of  the  Wasatch  range  of 
mountains  at  the  E.  and  the  Oquirrh,  Lake, 
and  Tintic  ranges  at  the  W.  The  E.  range  is 
the  loftier,  and  all  the  tributaries  of  the  lake 
come  from  that  side.  Com  Creek,  Hobble 
Creek,  and  the  American  Fork  rise  in  the  Wa- 
satch Mountains,  but  the  Spanish  Fork  and 
Provo  River  head  to  the  E.  of  the  range  and 
pass  through  it  in  deep  defiles.  Its  outlet  is  the 
river  Jordan.  The  water  contains  .00030  of 
mineral  matter,  of  which  .00018  u  calcium  sul- 

Vte    (at)    In'dians.     See   Shoshonxas    Ik- 


U'tica,  ancient  city  of  Africa;  on  the  river 
Bagradas,  near  its  entrance  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean, occupying  the  site  of  the  modem  vil- 
lage of  Duar  or  Bon-Shater.  When  Carthage 
was  destroyed  Utica  rose  in  importance  and  be- 
came the  capital  of  the  Roman  province.  Here 
the  last  stand  was  made  by  the  Pompeian 
paKy  against  Cffisar,  and  here,  too,  was  the 
scene  of  the  suicide  of  the  younger  Cato.  The 
remains  of  its  temple^  amphitheater,  and  aque- 
duct show  that  it  must  nave  been  a  magnifi- 
cent place.  In  the  seventh  century  It  was  taken 
and  destroyed  by  the  Arabs.      /--^  i 

i  l:,C.OOglC 


tmcA 

trtka,  utpltal  of  Oneida  Co.,  N.  Y.;  on  the 
Mohawk  River;  63  m.  E.  of  Syraciue  and  9B  m. 
W.  of  Albany.  It  is  built  on  the  slope  of  a  hiil, 
about  5O0  ft  above  sea  level,  and  baa  thirteen 
public  squares  and  parks.  The  surrounding 
country  is  devoted  principally  to  dairying. 
General  agriculture  and  the  cultivation  of  rosea 
are  carried  on.  The  city  is  the  chief  cheese 
market  in  ceutial  New  York.  The  public  build- 
ings include  a  U.  S.  Govt,  building.  City  Hall, 
a  state  armory,  public  library,  and  Young 
Men's  Christian  Association  building.  Forest 
Hill    Cemetery    is    a    place    of    mucn    artistic 

The  estimated  value  of  the  church  property 
in  Utica  is  over  «1,600,000.  The  school  syaUm 
includes    ward   schools,  a   training  school,   an 


elude  the  State,  City,  St.  Luke's,  Homceopathic, 
and  Faxton  hospit^s,  Home  for  the  Homeless, 
Home  for  the  Aged,  Utica  Orphan  Asylum,  8t. 
Vincent's  Protectory,  and  a  Masonic  home. 
The  benevolent  institutions  have  real  estate 
valued  at  over  $1,600,000.  Utica  is  known  as 
the  "  City  of  Charities." 

The  censna  returns  of  1909  showed  317  manu- 
facturing establishments  in  Utica,  representing 
many  industries,  among  them  the  manufacture 
of  men's  clothing,  hosiery,  and  print  goods, 
steam  fittings  and  heating  apparatus,  foundry 
and  machine-shop  products,  and  cotton  and 
other  textiles.  Tne  cotton  and  woolen  mills  in 
the  city  use  upward  of  40,000  bales  of  cot- 
ton annually.  The  annual  output  of  beer  is 
over  94,000  bbla  Other  manufactures  are 
canned  goods,  furnaces,  iron  pipe,  furniture, 
agricultural  impletnenta,  steam  gauges,  oil- 
cloth, varnish,  hosiery,  trunks,  and  gas  fixtures. 
The  site  of  the  city  was  known  in  early  days  as 
Old  Fort  Schuyler,  from  the  blockhouse  erect- 
ed at  the  fording  place  over  the  Mohawk  River, 
near  the  present  intersection  of  Second  Street 
and  the  railway.  The  site  was  taken  from  a 
tract  of  22,000  acres  given  by  the  king  to 
William  Crosby,  the  colonial  governor,  in  1734, 
which  became  known  as  Crosby's  Manor.  The 
place  was  settled  by  immigrants  from  England 
and  New  England;  incorporated  as  a  village, 
April  3,  1798,  and  chartered  as  a  city,  Febru- 
ary 13,  IS32.     Pop.   <ieiO)   74,410. 

DtHita'tianiam,  the  doctrine  that  the  object 
of  all  moral  conduct  is  to  subserve  utility. 
The  theory  has  played  historically  a  great  role 
in  the  development  of  ethical  thought.  It 
began  in  the  Greek  moralists,  who  identified 
the  supreme  good — the  iSummum  Bonam — with 
happiness.  In  modem  times  the  home  of  utili- 
tarianism has  been  England,  where  the  school 
of  English  utilitarians  has  pressed  the  theory 
with  great  force  and  refined  it  with  great  inge- 
nuity. The  British  development  may  be  said 
to  have  b^un  with  Locke,  and  continued  by 
Hobbes,  Hume,  James  Mill,  John  Stuart  Mill, 
Bentham,  Bain,  Spencer,  Stephen,  and  Sidgwick. 
The  doctrine  itself  has  pa^ed  through  several 
interesting  phases,  all  inspired  by  the  criticism 
of  the  intmtional  moralists,  who  argued  that 
the  most  conspicuous  thin^  about  moral  con- 
duct is  just  tiie  fact  that  it  is  disinterested — 
ij.,  not  done  with  view  to  utility.    The  postu- 


UTRECHT 

late  of  "  general  utility,"  or  "  the  greatest  good 
of  the  greatest  number,"  came  to  be  substi- 
tuted for  the  happiness  of  the  private  indi- 
vidual; and  in  this  way  Bentham  and  James 
Mill  sought  to  do  justice  to  the  demand  that 
morality  should  have  an  altruistic  ingredient. 
The  point  is  made  in  opposition  to  such  a 
statement  of  the  ethical  end  that  there  is  no 
way  of  telling  what  the  greatest  happiness 
of  the  greatest  number  is  except  by  judging  of 
the  happiness  of  tlie  individual.  Another  at- 
tempt to  put  utilitarianism  above  the  criticism 
of  being  egoistic  is  that  of  John  Stuart  Mill, 
who  distin^^shed  between  the  lower  or  more 
physical  enjoyments  to  which  the  word  "pleas- 
ure "  applies  and  the  higher  or  more  spiritual 
to  which  the  word  "  happiness  "  should  be  re- 
stricted. It  is  in  recogmtiou,  in  the  main,  of 
distinction  that  the   school  of  utilitarian 


thinkers 
Hedonists, 
higher-pi  eai 


divided   into   two   wings — i.e.. 

or    bwer-pleasure    men,    and     the 

ire  men,  called  Eud«moniats. 


Uto'pia,  an  imaginary  island,  the  abode  of 
a  people  free  from  care,  folly,  and  the  common 
miseries  of  life,  descritied  by  Sir  Thomas  More 
in  his  political  .romance  "  De  Optimo  Reipub- 
licai  Statu,  dei^ue  Nova  Insula  Utopia"  (1516). 
Tlie  term  Utopian  is  applied  to  impossible  ideal 
schemes. 

Utraqoiata  (fl'trft-kwlstB] ,  a  Hussite  sect, 
deriving  their  name  from  the  fact  that  they 
demanded  the  Lord's  Supper  administered  to 
til  em  tub  tttraqae  tpeeie — that  is,  in  both 
bread  and  wine.  They  were  also  called  Caliz- 
tines  from  calia,  chalice.  The  execution  of 
Huss  at  Constance  created  an  immense  excite- 
ment in  Bohemia,  and  brought  about  a  com- 
plete breach  between  his  adherents  and  the 
Church  of  Rome.  In  the  so-called  Four  Arti- 
cles of  Prague  the  Utraquists  set  forth  their 
demands — freedom  of  preaching,  communion 
under  both  kinds,  the  reduction  of  the  clergy 
to  apostolic  poverty,  and  severe  punishment  of 
all  open  sins.  The  war  nas  bloody,  but  suc- 
cessful; and  it  was  simply  the  internal  split  in 
the  Utraquiet  party  which  finally  gave  the  vic- 
tory to  the  Romanists.  By  the  compacts  of 
Iglau  the  pope  yielded  only  the  one  point  of 
the    Prague    articles — communion    under   both 

Utrecht  (Q'trekt),  capital  of  the  prorince  of 
irtrecht,  Holland;  on  the  Old  Rhine,  where  the 
Vecht  branches  olT  from  it,  23  m.  SSE.  of 
Amsterdam.  It  is  a  railroad  center  of  Hol- 
land. It  is  fortified,  well  built,  traversed  by 
canals,  and  surrounded  with  Sne  promenades, 
has  two  cathedrals,  and,  among  other  educa- 
tional institutions,  a  celebrated  .  university, 
founded  in  1634,  with  which  are  connected  mu- 
seums and  scientific  collections.  Its  manufac- 
tures of  plush,  velvet,  and  carpets,  of  leather, 
soap,  salt,  and  brandy,  of  metal  ware  and 
cigars  are  very  extensive,  and  it  carries  on 
trade  in  grain,  cattle,  and  its  own  goods.  It  is 
probably  the  oldest  town  of  the  Netherlands, 
called  by  the  Romans  Tmjectum  ad  Rhenum 
or  UUrajfCtvfit,  from  which  latter  appellation 
its  present  name  is  derived.  Here  the  fusion 
between  the  seven  provincea  which  formed  the  > 


treaty  whs  signed  (April  11,  1713)  betweon 
France,  England,  Holland,  Pnunia,  Portugil, 
and  Eavo7  which  ended  the  War  of  the  Span- 
iah  Succesaian.     Pop.  (1007)   114,B9Z. 

ntiecht,  Peace  of,  a  treaty,  or  treatiei,  of 
peace  concluded  11713),  after  the  ten  years' 
War  of  the  Spanish  Succession,  between 
France  and  the  allied  powers — Great  Britain, 
Holland,  PruBsia,  and  Savoy  and  Portugal — 
and  acceded  to  by  Spain.  It  confirmed  Philip 
V  of  Bourbon  as  King  of  Spain,  the  crowns  of 
France  and  Spain  never  to  be  united;  recog- 
nized Prueaia  as  a  kingdom  and  accorded  her 
Neuchatel  and  part  of  Oeldertand  on  her  re- 
nunciation of  all  claim  to  Orange;  gave  to 
Great  Britain  New  Fonndland,  Nova  Scotia, 
Gibraltar,  and  Minoroa,  wit^  the  right  to  ttai 


VACCINATIOM 

African  slkvea  to  America;  to  Auatrla,  the 
Spanish  Netherlands,  Sardinia,  the  Milanese, 
and  Naples,  and  to  Portugal  additions  in  S. 
America.  Savoy  received  Sicily  from  Siwin; 
Holland  was  secured  by  the  Barria  Treaty, 
and  France  recognised  the  Piotettant  Buccet- 
sion  in  England. 

UilietB,  or  Uibeckt,  a  people  of  mixed  Turk- 
ish blood  inhabiting  Turkestan,  where  they  are 
the  dominant  race,  though  now  subject  to  Rna- 
sia.  Intellectually  and  morally  they  ate  the 
superiors  of  those  about  them.  They  are  emI- 
ouB  Mohammedans,  and  pride  themselves  on 
their  culture  and  civilization.  In  1802  the  Chi- 
nese Utbegs  revolted  from  China,  and  under 
Yakub  Beg  founded  a  Mohammedan  empire, 
with  l,000,00a  inhabitants  and  740,000  sq.  m. 
of  territoiT.  At  his  death,  iJl  1877,  bis  tmpin 
became  subject  to  China. 


V,  the  twenty-seoond  letter  of  the  Bngtish 
alphabet.  The  forms  V  and  U  until  the  seven- 
teenth century  were  used  interchangeably  as 
signs  for  both  u  and  v,  and  are  merely  two 
lonae  of  the  original  Roman  V  ( see  U ) ,  which 
had  a  consonant  value  (^to  in  tceol),  as  well 
as  a  vowel  value  (^u  in  rule).  Only  the  ad- 
dition of  voice  distinguishes  it  from  the  sound 
of  f.    See  Abbkiviatiokb. 

Va'ca,  Alvai  Hofiei  Cabeu  Oe,  1507-04; 
Spanish  explorer;  b.  Eetremadura,  Spain; 
went  to  Florida  in  1S2T  in  the  expedition  of 
Pftnfllo  de  Narvaes,  and,  after  an  unsuccessful 
land  journey,  again  took  ship,  sailed  along  the 
N.  ooast  of  the  Qulf,  and  was  cast  ashore  at 
Matagorda  Bay.  After  six  years  of  captivity 
among  the  Indians,  he  met  three  other  sur- 
vivors of  the  expedition,  with  whom  he  jour- 
neyed westward,  and  followed  the  course  of  a 
large  river,  probably  the  Rio  Grande,  until 
he  fell  in  with  some  Spanish  explorers  on  the 
river  Petatlan,  and  was  conducted  to  a  town 
in  Sinaloa,  Authorities  disagree  as  to  the 
route  taken  by  the  four  travelers,  some  holding 
that  it  lay  through  New  Mexico,  others  trac- 
ing it  through  S.  Texas,  Chihuahua,  and 
Sonora.  Some  identify  a  large  stream  crossed 
by  De  Vaca  on  his  westward  journey  with  the 
Mississippi,  and  give  the  credit  of  its  discovery 
to  bim  instead  oi  De  Soto.  The  Kingdom  of 
Cibola,  the  country  of  the  civilized  Pueblos,  is 
thought  to  have  been  first  visited  by  De  Vaca 
and  his  men.  De  Vaca  returned  to  Spain  in 
1537,  but  was  soon  afterwards  appointed  ad- 
ministrator of  La  Plata  and  went  to  Para- 
guay, of  which  country  he  was  the  first  ex- 
plorer. Arrested  in  1544  on  the  charge  of  one 
of  his  subordinates,  he  was  sent  to  Spain  and 
condemned  to  exile  in  Africa.  Ha  was  par- 
doned after  eight  years,  and  lived  at  Seville 
till  bis  death.  De  Vaca  published  an  accoimt 
of  his  adventures  in  1642. 


with  the  virus  of  eowpoz,  to  eonfer  proteetioii 
against  smallpox;  (2)  in  a  broader  sense,  in- 
oculation with  any  mild  virus  to  produce  pro- 
tection against  malignant  disease.  The  former 
use  of  t£e  term  is  the  common  one.  It  wae 
observed  that  on  the  ndden  of  cows  an  erup- 
tion was  seen  which  infected  the  hands  of  the 
millcere.  Pustules  were  produced  on  the  hands, 
and  sometimes  changed  into  painful  sores; 
other  parte  of  the  bmiy  became  affected,  and 
soiAetimeB  there  was  extensive  disturbance  of 
the  general  ^item.  The  remarkable  fbct  waa 
discovered  that  persons  who  had  passed 
through  this  diseaae  were  protected  from  small- 
pox. In  Scotland,  England,  and  Holetein  in 
the  eighteenth  oentuiy  inoculations  were  made 
with  the  contents  of  the  pustules  from  the 
udders  of  cows.  In  1781  a  milkmaid  who  had 
the  cowpox  went  to  Ijondon,  and  there  at- 
tempts were  made  to  inoculate  her  with  small- 
pox, but  without  success.  In  the  medical' 
circles  of  the  metropolis  this  did  not  excite 
much  attention,  and  it  remained  for  Edward 
Jenner  to  see  its  scientific  importance  and  to 
make  it  useful  to  mankind.  Jenner  inoculated 
people  who  had  gone  through  with  the  cow- 
pox  with  the  virus  of  snuillpox,  and  in  all 
cases  without  result.  Many  of  the  persons 
inoculated  had  had  the  cowpox  many  yean 
before,  one  of  them  fifty-three  years  before.  In 
ISOl,  10.000  persons  were  vaccinated  by  him 
and  other  pb^iclans  in  England,  and  on  more 
than  half  of  them  experiments  were  trjed  which 
proved  that  the  metnod  was  entirely  suceessful 
as  a  preventive  of  smallpox. 

In  1867  the  British  Parliament  received  an- 
swers from  542  physicians  to  questions  which 
were  asked  them  in  reference  to  the  utility 
of  vaccination,  and  only  two  of  these  spoke 
Bgainst  it.  Nothing  proves  this  utility  more 
clearly  than  the  statistics  obtained.  Especially 
instructive  are  those  which  Flinzer  compiled 
respecting  the  epidemic  in  Chemnitz  which  pre- 
vailed in  1870-71.  At  this  time  in  the  town 
there  were  04,266  inhabitants,  of  whom  G3,801| 


VACUUM 

or  83.87  per  cant,  were  Tacciiiftted;  5,712,  or 
8.80  per  cent,  were  unvRccinated,  and  4,662, 
or  7.24. per  cent,  had  had  the  Hmallpox  before. 
Of  those  vaccinated,  963,  or  1.77  per  cent,  be- 
came affected  with  Bmairpox,  and  of  the-  un- 
inoculated,  2,643,  or  48.3  per  cent,  bad  the 
disease.  Di  Uie  vacciaated  the  mortality  from 
the  dieeaee  was  0.73  per  cent,  and  in  the  un- 

frotected  it  was  0.16  -per  cent.  In  general, 
be  danger  of  infection  is  aiz  times  aa  great, 
and  the  mortality  sixtj-eight  times  as  great, 
in  the  imvaccinated  as  in  the  vaccinated.  In 
general  the  period  of  protection  laata  about  ten 
years. 

The  method  ordinarily  used  in  procuring  the 
lymph  is  to  inoculate  young  heifers  with  the 
virus  of  cowpox,  and,  when  the  vesicles  are 
fully  formed  and  before  the  stage  of  pustule 
formation  ia  reached,  incisions  are  made  in 
the  vesicles  and  small  ivory  points  are  dipped 
rat6  the  fluid,  or  it  may  be  drawn  up  in 
capillary  tubes.  When  ivory  points  are  used 
the  lymph  on  them  is  allowed  to  dry,  and  they 
may  then  be  kept  for  an  almost  indefinite 
time.  In  performing  the  operation  the  skin 
on  the  spot  selecUd,  usually  the  shoulder  or 
upper  part  of  the  arm,  should  be  carefully 
cleansed,  and  then  with  a  perfectly  clean  in- 
strument the  skin  should  be  gently  scraped  off 
over  a  small  space,  which  need  not  be  larger 
than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  square.  As  soon  as 
the  moist  deeper  layers  of  the  skin  are  reached 
the  ivory  point  containing  the  virus  should  be 
rubbed  over  the  spot,  and  the  small  wound 
allowed  to  dry.  On  the  third  day  a  little  lump 
develops;  on  the  fifth  day  this  begins  to  form 
a  blister,  and  on  the  seventh  day  it  is  ripe, 
with  a  red  edge  and  a  yellow  or  brownish 
center.  The  blister  then  breaks,  and  a  brown 
scab  forms  which  in  three  or  four  weeks  falls 
off,  leaving  a  scar.  When  animal  lymph  is 
used  and  the  operation  is  performed  by  a  com- 
petent physician  with  due  regard  to  cleanliness 
and  proper  treatment  of  the  wound,  the  lia- 
bility to  inoculation  with  other  diseases  is  so 
slight  that  it  may  be  ignored. 

Notwithstanding  the  evidence  from  all  sides 
as  to  the  efficacy  of  vaccination  as  a  protection 
from  smallpox,  there  have  not  been  wanting 
opponents  to  the  procedure.  It  is  impossible 
tor  anyone  with  any  acquaintance  at  till  with 
the  nature  of  the  evidence,  and  with  any  ap- 
preciation of  the  value  of  evidence  generally, 
to  see  on  what  grounds  the  position  of  these 
enemies  to  society  is  based.  See  the  article 
luifiiKE  in  regard  to  the  way  in  which  Im- 
munity by  vaccination  and  inoculation  is  pro- 
duced.   See  Vnus. 

Vacuum  (vAlc'a-ilm),  a  void;  a  portion  of 
apace  which  contains  no  matter.  The  definition 
implies  a  condition  which  it  is  impracticable 
to  fulfill  altogether,  but  the  physicist  Is  able 
to  approach  almost  indeflnit«ly  near  to  the  ful- 
fillment. The  ordinary  mechanical  air  pumps 
cease  working  before  the  pressure  is  reduced 
to  T^tn  of  an  atmosphere,  but  by  means  of 
mercury  vacuum  pumps  it  is  possible,  as  is 
explained  In  the  article  Pntuuaticb,  to  obtain 
■n  echaustion  of  Tmnftrini-  By  the  addition  of 
chemical  and  other  proceasee  for  getting  rid 
of  the  traccfl  of  vapor  which  remain,  even  after 
aor  3 


VAGRANTS  AND  VAGRANCY 

the  action  of  the  mercury  pump  has  reached 
its  limit,  it  is  possible  to  attain  to  still  higher 
degrees  of  exhaustion.  Thus  Crookes,  IU>od, 
Bidwell,  and  others  describe  vacua  of  from 
TtrtTtinwTt  t*  f  cinitfliiBa  of  an  atmosphere.  The 
properties  of  gases  at  such  low  pressures 
are  of  great  interest.  A  high  vacuum  is,  for 
example,  the  beat  of  insulators  against  the 
passage  of  heat.  Dewar  made  use  of  this 
property  in  preparing  a  vial  of  liquid  oxygen 
lor  transportation.  The  liquid,  which  boils  at 
-  196°  C,  was  placed  in  a  double  flask.  The 
inner  vial  was  coated  with  a  mirroring  surface 
of  mercury  (froeen)  to  protect  the  contents 
from  radiation.  Between  the  walls  of  the  in- 
ner and  outer  flasks  the  pressure  was  reduced 
to  a  very  small  quantity.  In  this  manner, 
without  furiher  shield  against  heat  conduc- 
tion, the  oxygen  was  carried  with  but  little 
toss  from  London  to  Oxford,  a  distance  of 
fi3  m.     See  Baiwueteb. 


TagoD'tes,  Va'gl  SchoU'res,  or  GoOUids, 
wandering  clerks  of  the  Middle  Ages.  The 
class  was  a  large  one  and  contained  persons  of 
the  most  diverse  characters — students  roaming 
from  university  to  university,  clergy  willingly 
or  unwillingly  unprovided  with  b^efices,  aM  ■ 
even  mere  buffoons  and  popular  entertainers 
who  had  happened  to  obtain  somethinK  of 
lAtini^  at  some  monastic  or  cathedral  school, 
and  who  used  their  uncertain  connection  with 
the  Church  as  a  means  to  keep  tbem  out  of  the 
hands  of  the  secular  authorities.  At  a  very 
early  jieriod  the  obvious  opportunities  for 
abuse  m  such  a  wandering  and  unattached  life 
brought  upon  the  Vagantes  the  denunciations 
of  the  councils  of  the  Church.  Like  the  mod- 
em tramp,  who  is  in  a  sense  their  degenerate 
descendant,  they  became  the  terror  of  the  com- 
munities into  which  th^  came.  The  lawleas- 
nras  of  their  lives,  too  onen  unpunished,  owing 
to    their    ready    assertion    of    their    riffht    ol 


ticnlarly  prevalent  during  the  twelfth  and  thir- 
teenth centuries,  the  period  when  the  great 
European  universities  were  coming  into  ^ing. 
France  and  England  were  the  countries  in 
which  they  most  flourished ;  but  they  were  to 
be  found  in  great  numbers  also  in  Germany, 
Italy,  Spain,  and  even  Bohemia.  At  last  the* 
Church  Decame  aroused,  and  by  severe  meas- 
ures cut  off  from  itself  all  those  among  the 
Vagantes  who  refused  to  r^ulate  their  lives. 
With  the  end  of  the  thiri«enth  century  they 
ceased  to  exist  as  a  distinct  clerical  class. 

Vi'gTants  and  Va'giancy,  terms  which,  in 
their  most  general  sense,  mean  "  wanderers " 
and  "  wandering  ";  but  have  come  to  designate 
various  classes  of  disorderly  persons  who  can- 
not be  brought  within  any  definite  clasaiflca- 
tion.  In  all  ctvilized  countries  there  is  more 
or  less  regulation  of  vagrancy  by  law  accord- 
ing as  the  conditions  ^ving  rise  to  the  neces- 
sity for  such  regulation  exist  or  are  absent.  - 
For  this  same  reason  the  laws  of  each  country 
must  be  adapted  to  the  suppression  of  that 
specie*  of  vagrancy  which  is  found  to  be  moat 


VAGRAOTB  AND  VAGRANCY 

detrimental  to  the  public  welfare,  bo  that  no 
general  clasaification  of  the  lawi  upon  this 
subject  can  be  given.  Thus  in  the  L>.  S.  the 
laws  regulating  the  subject  vary  widely  both 
as  to  the  kind  of  vagrancy  intended  to  be  sup- 
preHsed  and  aa  to  the  severity  of  punishment 
inSicted  upon  vagrants.  In  the  U.  8.  the  term 
"  tramp  "  is  in  general  use  as  equivalent  to 
vagrant  in  its  general  sense  of  a  wandering, 
disorderly  person,  or  one  wandering  about 
without  any  visible  means  of  support;  but 
vagrant  in  its  wider  sense  is  applied  to  Tnany 
classes  of  persons  who  would  not  be  termed 
tramps.  In  England  vagrancy  has  been  a  sub- 
ject of  regulation  by  law  (or  many  centuries. 
Generally  speaking,  the  elaas  of  mendicant  va- 
grants  ia  mors  freely  tolerated  in  European 
countries  than  in  the  U.  S. 


tion  of  serfdom  was  breaking  down  and  a  rise 
in  laborers'  wages  was  taking  place  consequent 
to  the  pestilence  of  the  black  death,  the  stat- 
utes of  laborers  (two  in  number)  were  passed 
to  check  this  rise  in  wages,  and  to  provide  a 
kind  of  Bulmtitute  for  serfdom.  These  ,stat- 
utes  were  for  two  hundred  years  conflrmed, 
amended,  and  extended  or  modified  on  several 


Later,  whipping,  the  pillory,  branding,  forced 
labor,  and  even  slavery,  were  the  punishments 
meted  out  to  vagrants.  In  1597  was  passed 
the  famous  statute,  39  Eliz.,  c.  4,  which 
remained  in  force  for  over  a  century.  It 
provided  for  the  erection  of  housea  of  correc- 
tion for  the  reception  of  rogues,  vagabonds, 
and  sturdy  beggars  till  either  put  to  work  or 
banished.  In  1744  a  comprehensive  act  was 
passed,  which  is  the  basis  of  all  later  laws  in 
Great  Britain  on  this  subject.  It  distinguished 
three  classes  of  offenders — (1)  idle  and  dis- 
orderly persons,  ( 2 )  rogues  and  vagabonds, 
and   (3)   incorrigible  rogues. 

In  the  V.  8.  vagrants  were  so  comparatively 
few  in  numbers,  and  so  generally  harmleaa, 
that  prior  to  the  Civil  War  the  regulation  of 
vagrancy  received  but  little  attention.  Later, 
however,  vagrants,  and  especially  those  com- 
monly designated  as  tramps,  increased  bo 
largely,  and  became  so  much  more  dangerous, 
that  many  rural  homes  became  unsa^,  and 
cases  of  violence  became  not  uncommon  along 
their   routes  of  travel. 

The  General  Vagrancy  Act  of  Pennsylvania 
passed  in  18T6  is  typical  of  American  legisla- 
tion on  the  subject.  It  included  under  the 
title  of  vagrancy  a  large  number  of  wandering 
and  disorderly  persons,  being  more  general 
than  the  English  vagrancy  statutes;  out  in 
1S79  an  act  was  passed  distinguishing  a  Iramp 
from  a  iiagrant,  as  being  "  any  person  going 
about  from  place  to  place  begcing,  asking,  or 
subsisting  upon  charity,  and  lor  the  purpose 
of  acquiring  money  or  a  living,  and  who  shall 
have  no  Bxed  place  of  residence  or  lawful  oc- 
cupation in  the  county  or  city  in  which  be 
shall  be  arrested " ;  and  by  this  act  such  per- 
sons are  made  liable  to  imprisomnent,  for  not 
more  than  twelve  months,  while  vagrants  in 
general  are  liable  only  to  labor  for  not  less 
than    thirty    days    nnd    not    more    than    aiz 


TALENCTA 

months.  The  constitution  of  California  pro- 
vided for  the  public  whipping  of  tramps,  and 
a  determined,  but  unsuccessful,  effort  waa 
made  in  Wisconsin  to  enact  a  law  for  the 
whipping  of  tramps. 

Va'gns  Nerve.    See  Pkeouooastbic  Neste. 

VoishnArAS  (vlsh'n&v&s} .    See  VlBHKC. 

Valencia,  or  Volentia  (vA-lSn'sht-a),  a  small 
island  on  the  SW.  coast  of  Ireland,  bdonging 
to  the  county  of  Kerry;  noted  as  the  station 
of  the  transatlantic  submarine  cables  connect- 
ing Great  Britain  and  Newfoundland.  It  ia 
5  m.  long  and  2  m.  broad. 

Valencia,  former  kingdom  of  Spain,  border- 
ing on  the  Mediterranean  and  between  Catalo- 
nia in  the  H.  and  Hurcia  in  the  S.;  is  divided 
into  the  three  provinces  of  Valencia,  Alicante, 
and  Castellon  de  la  Plana.  From  the  eigbth  to 
the  thirteenth  century  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Moors,  and  from  the  eleventh  century  to  1238 
it  was  an  independent  Moorish  kingdom.  It 
ia  the  best  cultivated  and  most  productive  part 
of  Spain.  Nowhere  in  Europe  are  manuring 
and  irrigation  carried  to  such  perfection  as  on 
the  terraces  of  Valencia,  where  in  some  places 
the  soil  yields  several  harvests  a  year.  Beudes 
the  common  Spanish  products,  the  rice  crop 
supplies  all  Spain;  sugar  also  is  cultivated! 
The  country  is  watered  by  the  Jucar,  Requena, 
and  Guadalaviar,  and  contains  iron,  lead,  cop- 
per, cinnabar,  cobalt,  and  coal.  The  lagoons 
on  the  coast,  especially  that  of  Albufera,  are 
rich  in  sea  fowl  and  flsh.  The  inhabitants,  in 
whom  a  strong  mixture  of  Moorish  blood  is  ap- 
parent, are  industrious,  and,  next  to  Catalonia, 
Valencia  is  the  chief  manufacturing  part  of 
Spain.     Pop.    (1910)    gl0,266. 

Valencia,  capital  of  province  of  Valencia, 
Spain;  on  the  Guadalaviar,  near  the  Mediter- 
ranean; 200  m.  6W.  of  Barcelona.  The  houses 
are  neat  and  well  built;  the  streets,  though 
crooked  and  narrow,  are  clean  and  well  pavol, 
and  in  the  modem  quarters  there  are  hand- 
some thoroughfares.  The  city  is  a  pleasant 
and  enterprising  place.  Its  cathedral,  begun  in 
1262,  is  a  vast  ediBce,  containing  many  excel- 
lent pictures.  Its  university  is  well  endowed 
and  well  attended.  Its  manufactures  of  silk, 
tobacco,  sackcloth,  and  pottery  are  celebrated, 
and  its  export  trade  in  groin,  rice,  oil,  wine, 
almonds,  figs,  and  oranges  is  large.  The  hnerta 
or  garden  surrounding  the  city  comprises  40  sq. 
m.,  and  resembles  an  immense  orchard,  in 
which  the  citron,  orange,  palm,  and  mulberry  ' 
grow  luxuriantly.     Pop.   (1910)   233,348. 

Valencia,  capital  of  the  State  of  Carabobo, 
Venezuela;  in  the  Aragua  valley,  2  m.  W.  of 
the  Lake  of  Valencia  or  Tacarigua  and  24  S. 
of  its  port,  Puerto  Cabello;  1,B24  ft.  above  the 
sea;  the  third  city  of  Venezuela  in  size,  and  is 
the  commercial  center  of  a  large  region,  export- 
ing cacao,  coffee,  sugar,  bides,  etc.  The  cli- 
mate is  warm  {mean  77°  F.).  Near  the  city 
are  celebrated  springs  in  which  the  temper- 
ature approaches  the  boiling  point.  Valencia 
was  founded  in  1555,  On  the  plain  of  Caro- 
bobo,  S.  of  it,  Bolivar  gained  the  victories  of 
May  ZB,  1614,  and  June  24,  1821,  the  latter  de- 


eidiiiK  the  isdepeiidence  of  Venecuela.  Th« 
first  Venezuelan  Congress  met  here  after  the 
Reparation  from  Colombia.    Pop.  |18M)  38,654. 

Ya'leni,  Rom  eld  emperor  of  the  East,  364- 
378  A.D.;  appointed  by  his  brother,  Valentiniao 
L  Most  of  the  reign  of  Valens  was  devoted 
to  the  queition  of  the  E.  boundary,  but  re- 
sulted in  DO  definite  aettlement  of  it.  In  370 
the  Goths,  being  pressed  8.  by  the  Huns,  were 
allowed  to  croM  the  Danube  with  a  view  to 
settling  there  peaceablv,  but  they  were  treated 
with  Buch  perfidy  by  the  representatives  of  the 
emperor  that  tney  resorted  to  force.  After 
some  reTerees,  they  defeated  the  Roman  army, 
led  by  Valens,  at  AdrianOpte,  and  the  emperor 
was  never  seen  after  the  battle.  The  esUbliah- 
ment  of  the  Goths  S.  of  the  Danube  marks  the 
first  decline  of  the  Roman  power.  The  Goths 
were  thus  permanently  established  B.  of  the 
Danube. 

Vales'tia.    See  Vaij3tcia. 

Val'entine'a  Day,  Saint,  February  14th,  ob- 
served in  commemoration  of  Bt,  Valentinus,  a 
martyr,  decapitated  in  270  A.D.,  during  the 
Claudian  persecutioti  at  Rome.  The  custom  of 
sending  valentines  (sentimental  or  comic  love 
mesBages)  is  very  ancient.  Some  tell  ua  that 
on  this  day  the  birds  select  their  mates;  others 
trace  the  custom  to  the  Roman  Lupercalia 
(February  15th),  when  similar  practices  were 
observed.  The  custom  has  been  detected  among 
the  N.  pagans  of  ancient  Europe.  Hence  the 
true  origin  is  probably  not  atone  a  commemo- 
ration of  the  loving  and  charitable  disposition 
of  St.  Valentine. 

Valentin'lon,  the  name  of  three  Roman  «n- 
peroiB.  Valentinias  I  (3ft*-375),  an  officer 
under  Julian  and  Jovian,  had  risen  to  a  promi- 
nent position  when,  on  the  sudden  death  of 
Jovian,  he  was  raised  to  the  imperial  dignity 
by  the  army,  at  Nicea.  He  made  his  brother 
Valens  £mperor  of  the  East,  and  proceeded  to 
Italy.  Ue  was  a  man  of  military  talent,  and 
a  laborious  and  prudent  administrator.  His 
reign  was  chiefly  occupied  with  campaigns  in 
defense  of  the  borders,  and  for  a  time  he  checlced 
tiie  inroads  of  the  barbarians.  His  favorite 
residence  was  Trevea.  He  was  succeeded  by  his 
sons  Cratian  and  VALEnnniA^v  II,  an  infant 
of  four  at  his  father's  death.  During  his  brief 
life  the  imperial  power  rested  with  Gratian,  un- 
til bis  death  (383  a.d.),  and  afterwards  virtu- 
ally in  Thcodosius,  Emperor  of  the  East.  He 
died  in  382  A.D.  Vai.e:>tinian  III  (425-466), 
■on  of  Constantiua  and  Plactdia,  the  sister  of 
Honorius,  was  only  six  years  old  when  his  un- 
cle, TheodoaiuB  II,  Emperor  of  the  East,  estab- 
lished liim  as  Emperor  of  the  West.  His 
mother,  who  governed  in  his  name,  was  en- 
tirely under  the  control  of  the  clergy,  and  the 
empire  suffered  severely  from  the  rivalry  be- 
tween BonifaciuB  and  AGtiua.  In  spite  of  the 
Seat  military  ability  of  the  latter,  who  de- 
itcd  Attila  at  Chalons  in  451,  the  W.  Roman 
Empire  now  began  to  crumble.  Uost  of  Africa 
fell  to  the  Vandals;  Britain  was  abandoned; 
Merida,  in  Spain,  was  taken  by  the  Suevi;  and 
along  the  Rhine  and  Danube  outpost  after  out- 
post  ms    lost.      In    4S4    th«   emperor    killed 


VALLADOLID 

AStiua  with  bis  own  hand,  jealous  of  bis 
merits  and  afraid  of  bis  power.  In  465  Val- 
entinian  himself  was  murdered  by  Petronius 
Maximus. 


Valerian  (vft-le'rl-an),  a  plant  the  root  of 
which  is  used  in  medicine.  This  plant,  called 
also  the  "  great  wild  valerian,"  is  a  native  of 
Kurope,  but  is  cultivated  also  in  the  U.  8.  in 
Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  and  New  York.  It 
rises  from  2  to  4  ft.,  and  bears  small  white 
flowers.  The  root  develops  a  strong  and  pe- 
culiar smell  upon  drying.  The  active  principle 
of  valerian  root  is  a  volatile  oil.  This  is  found 
to  deaden  feebly  the  reflex  excitability  of  the 
spinal  cord.  Upon  man,  preparations  of  vale- 
rian sometimes  reduce  undue  nervous  irrita- 
bility, and  are  resorted  to  in  aifections  such  as 
hysteria,  chorea,  and  milder  forms  of  nervous- 
ness. A  curious  property  of  valerian  is  the  at- 
traction of  its  smell  for  cats.  These  animals 
seem  to  snuff-  the  plant  from  a  long  distance, 
and  are  said  to  be  excited  to  a  kind  of  frenzy 
by  it 

Valet'ta,  or  U  Valetta,  capiui  of  the  island 
of  Malta;  on  a  rocky  promontory  of  the  NE. 
coast  which  forms  two  large,  safe  harbors. 
These  harbors,  as  well  as  the  whole  city,  are 
strongly  fortified.  Valetta  is  the  station  of  the 
British  fleet  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  a 
point  of  military  and  comnjercial  importance, 
although  it  has  no  manufactures  and  no  nat- 
ural resources.  It  was  named  after  its  founder, 
Valette,  Grandmaster  of  the  Knights  of  St 
John,  who  defended  it  against  the  Turks  in 
1565.  In  the  cathedral  and  palace  are  monu- 
ments from  the  times  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
John.  Valetta  also  has  a  university  and  a 
public  library,  both  of  which  were  founded  by 
the  knights.    Pop.  (1900)  61£6S. 

ValhtlTa,  or  Valhar.    See  Walhalla, 

Talkyiies  (vjll-ker'ez),  from  the  Icelandic, 
Valkyrjur — i.e.,  choosers  of  the  slain — maid- 
ens sent  out  by  the  god  of  war,  Odin,  to  every 
battlefield  to  make  choice  of  those  who  are  to 
be  stain  and  to  turn  the  tide  of  battle.  They 
are  also  called  Vat  maids  (valmeyar).  The 
youngest  of  the  noms,  Skutd,  also  rides  forth 
to  choose  the  slain  and  turn  the  combat.  The 
Valkyries  serve  in  Valhalla,  where  they  l>ear 
the  drink,  take  care  of  the  drinking  horns,  and 
wait  upon  the  table.  More  than  a  dozen  Val- 
kyries are  named  in  the  "  Elder  Edda."  In  the 
old  sagas  there  are  accounts  of  loves  between 
Valkyries  and  earthly  heroes,  but  such  connec- 
tions were  not  happy,  being  always  followed 
by  the  premature  death  of  the  hero. 

Valladolid  (vHI-ya-thO-leth'),  capital  of  the 
province  of  Valladolid,  Spain;  on  the  Plsuerga; 
150  m.  NW.  of  Madrid.  It  communicates  by 
thi  Duero  and  a  vast  system  of  canals  with 
the  Atlantic  and  the  interior.  It  is  on  a  pla- 
teau, 2,100  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  has  a  health- 
ful and  genial  climate.  The  surrounding  dis- 
trict is  fertile.  The  city  was  from  the 
lieginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  till  1590  the 
capital  of  the  Spanish  Empire,  and  had  at  that 


VALLAMDIGHAM 

time  over  100,000  inhabiUnts.  It  fras  adomed 
by  Cliarles  V  and  Philip  II  with  magniflcent 
building  The  home  of  Cerv&ntes  and  tha 
house  in  which  Columbua  died  still  stand. 
After  the  removal  of  the  royal  resideDce  to 
Madrid  it  fell  into  decay,  and  many  of  its 
buildings  were  damaged  by  the  French  soldiery 
in  1810.  Its  manufactures  of  silk,  van),  per- 
fumery, pottery,  paper,  and  leather  have  been 
enlarged  and  its  trade  has  increased.  Its  uni- 
versity was  founded  in  1340.  It  is  celebrated 
as  a  school  of  jurisprudence.  Pop.  (1900)  Q8,- 
789. 

Tallas'illKluin,  aement  Laird,  1820-71 ; 
American  pohticiau;  b.  New  Liebon,  Ohio;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  1842  j  member  of  the  Ohio 
Legislature,.  1846-4(1  (  edited  the  Dayton  £in- 
pire,  1847-4B;  member  of  CongreBS,  1867-63. 
He  was  violent  in  opposing  the  measures  of 
the  National  Government  in  the  Civil  War. 
Failing  of  reflection  in  1863,  he  returned 
to  Ohio,  where  he  denounced  the  Government 
with  vehemence^  was  arrested  by  .order  of  Gen. 
Burnaide;  tried  by  court-martial  in  Cincinnati 
and  sentenced  to  close  coaftnement  during  the 
war — a  sentence  which  Preo.  Lincoln  commuted 
to  banishment  beyond  the  lines.  DissatisGcd 
with  bis  reception  by  the  Confederates,  he  made 


Ohio,  but  was  overwbelmingly  defeated.  He 
returned  to  Ohio,  was  not  molested,  and  in 
1964  was  a  member  of  the  National  Democratic 
Convention  at  Chicago.  Accidentally  shot 
himself  while  trying  a  murder  case. 

Valley,  lowland  partly  or  wholly  surrounded 
by  uplands.  The  term  valley  is  sometimes 
used  (1)  broadly  to  include  all  depressions  of 
the  land  surface,  not  excepting  the  narrow 
gorges  of  streams,  but  is  more  commonly  re- 
stricted to  (S)  large  depressions  with  bottoms 
of  gentle  slope  as  compared  to  the  sides.  It  is 
also  applied  (3)  to  the  catchment  areas  of 
streams,  and  in  this  sense  is  synonymous  with 
basin.  Under  the  iirst  meaning,  gorge,  caBon, 
glen,  dale,  crater,  etc.,  are  varieties,  and  the 
term  valley  proper  is  used  to  designate  the 
type  covered  by  the  second  meaning.  By  the 
gradual  washing  down  of  slopes  by  rains  and 
rivers  the  whole  surface  of  the  land  would  he 
reduced  to  a  plain  if  there  were  no  compen- 
satory agencies  whose  work  tended  toward  di- 
versity of  surface.  The  agencies  which  initiate 
diversity  are  of  two  types,  both  operating  be- 
neath tiie  surface.  The  earth's  crust  is  wrin- 
kled or  fractured,  and  thus  thrown  into  ridges, 
and  volcanic  forces  send  molten  rock  to  tfie 
surface  and  build  up  mountains  and  tables. 
The  depressions  between  mountains  thus  con- 
structed are  valleys,  and  yet  other  valleys  are 
hollowed  out  of  uplifted  plateaus  by  the  action 
of  water  Or  ice.  When  a  portion  of  the  earth's 
crust  having'  a  plain  surface  is  subjected  to 
powerful  forces  acting  from  one  side,  its  com- 
pression results  in  the  production  of  a  series  of 
wrinkles  on  the  surface,  and  the  plain  is  re- 
placed by  a  parallel  svstem  of  ridges  and  longi- 
tudinal valleys.  Valleys  of  this  simple  type 
exist  in  the  Jura  Mountains  of  Europe,  but  nre 
unknown  In  N.  America.    Often  the  compreenve 


VALLEY  FORGE 

forces,  instead  of  merely  bending  the  rocks, 
break  them  into  huge  blocks,  which  -are  so  , 
displaced  as  to  produce  ridges  and  valleys  at 
the  surface.  As  a  rule,  one  or  more  of  the  val- 
ley nails  is  cliSli&e,  but  such  original  charac- 
ter may  be  destroyed  by  erosion.  The  U.  B. 
affords  many  examples.  The  great  valley  of 
California,  caused  by  the  uplift  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  at  the  E.  and  the  coast  ranges  at  the 
W.,  is  400  m.  in  length  and  60  in  width.  In 
the  region  of  the  Desert  ranges  of  Nevada,  Ari- 
zona, and  New  Mexico  parallel  narrow  moun- 
tain ridges  stand  20  or  30  m.  apart  and  divide 
the  land  into  a  great  number  of  valleys. 
Where  volcanic  eruption  takes  place  from 
many  venU  in  the  same  district,  the  accumula- 
tion of  the  ejected  material  is  apt  to  be  irregu- 
lar, and  among  its  heaps  valleys  are  sometimes 
inclosed.  The  San  Joai  valley  of  Costa  Rica 
is  of  this  type.  Large  craters,  due  either  to 
explosion  or  subsidence,  occasionally  assume 
the  character  of  valleys.  The  Val  dd  Bove,  on 
the  flank  of  Mt  Mtixa,,  is  believed  to  be  an  ex- 
plosion crater,  and  the  Asosan  valley  of  Japan 
is  pral>ably  also  a  crater.  As  soon  as  any 
mountain  ridge  or  plateau  is  lifted  above  the 
surrounding  plain,  its  erosion  is  begun  by  the 
streams  which  flow  from  it  or  across  it.  Those 
streams  whose  original  directions  coincide  with 
the  slopes  produced  by  the  uplift  have  their 
grades  increased,  and  are  thus  stimulated  to 
erosive  activity;  they  cut  their  channels  deeper, 
and  their  courses  are  soon  so  far  below  the  gen- 
eral level  that  they  cannot  easily  be  diverted. 

If  a  break  in  the  strata  has  produced  a  trans- 
verse valley — i.e.,  one  running  across  the  di- 
rection of  the  general  range — or  if  the  flow  of 
the  stream  is  obstructed,  so  that  erosion  goes 
on  at  a  high  level,  the  result  will  be  a  narrow 
channel,  which,  if  high  up,  is  a  pass,  or,  if 
on  a  lower  level,  forms  a  water,  gap.  The 
walls  of  these  gorges  are  attacked  by  frost  and 
various  other  agencies  that  break  up  rocks,  the 
fragments  are  washed  into  the  streams  and 
carried  away,  and  thus  the  walls  recede  and 
assume  gentler  slopes.  -  Most  long  streams  trav- 
ersing uplifted  tracts  pass  from  gorge  to  valley 
and  from  valley  to  gorge  in  alternation,  each 
valley  having  its  position  determined  in  part  by 
the  stream,  but  chiefly  by  the  presence  of  yield- 
ing rocks.  The  rivers  of  the  Appalachian  re- 
gion have  this  general  character,  crossing  sand- 
stone and  crystalline  formations  in  narrow 
gorges  and  being  bordered  by  valleys  where  the 
formations  are  of  shale  or  limestone.  Streams 
of  ice  also  have  power  to  make  valleys  by  erod- 
ing soft  rocks  and  leaving  hard,  but  it  is  not 
easy  to  discover  one  which  they  have  initiated. 
The  valleys  in  which  ice  work  is  reci^nized 
were  temporarily  occupied  by  glaciers  in  the 
Pleistocene  period,  but  most  or  all  of  them  had 
been  previously  occupied  by  rivers.  Neverthe- 
importan ' 


into  valleys.  Voaemite,  the  mountain  valleys 
of  Tuolumne,  Kern,  and  K[ng  rivers  of  Cali- 
fomia,  and  the  Scottish  glens  were  thus  trans- 
formed by  glacial  erosion. 


TALLOUBBOeA 

n.  W.  of  Fbiloddphia.  It  wu  kere  that  tha 
American  army  imdar  Washingtoii  enf^ampcd 
from  the  middle  of  December,  1777,  till  June  18, 
1778,  when  it  started  in  pursuit  of  the  Britieh 
across  HfW  Jersey.  Washington  selected  the 
place  for  winter  quarters  to  protect  the  Con- 
grsM,  which,  on  the  occupation  of  Philadel- 
phia b;  the  British,  hod  aoioumed  from  that 
city  to  York.  Here  also  Baron  Steuben  as- 
sumed the  office  of  Inspector  General  of  the 
army,  and  Washington  announced.  May  6, 
1778,  the  treaty  of  alliance  with  France.  The 
American  troop*  nnmbered  atx>ut  11,000,  of 
whom  only  about  one  half  were  ftt  for  active 
service,  Mid  all  suffered  severely  from  cold  and 
hunger. 

Vallombro'sa,  former  Benedictine  convent,  16 
m.  ESB.  of  Florence;  surrounded  by  dense 
n-oodlanda.  It  was  Buppre«Md,  1869,  and  the 
buildings  are  now  used  as  a  school  of  forestry. 

Volmy  (Al-me'),  Piancois  Chiistophe  Eel- 
lermailD  (Dulte  of),  173S-1820i  French  gen- 
eral; b.  near  Kothenburg,  Bavaria;  served  in 
the  Seven  Years'  War,  In  1791  he.  became 
general  of  the  army  of  Alsace,  and  in  1702 
commanded  the  army  of  the  Moselle.  After 
joining  Dumouriet  be  gave  battle  to  the  allies 
at  Valmy  (September  20th),  where  he  gained 
one  of  the  roost  important  victories  of  this 
period.  It  secured  France  from  invasion,  and 
enabled  the  convention  to  go  on  with  its  rad- 
ical measures.  Keltcrmann,  being  a  moderate 
republican,  was  arrested  in  1703  on  suspicion, 
and  remained  in  prison  nntil  1794.  After  the 
first    Italian   campaign   was   well    under   way 


ties,  but  the  latter  refiued  to  go,  saying  that 
one  bad  general  was  better  than  two  good 
ones.  In  1804  Napoleon  made  him  Duke  of 
Valmy,  but  In  1814  Kellermaim  voted  for  his 
deposition,  and  supported  the  restored  Bour- 
bons, who  conQrmed  bis  title,  and  made  him 
a  peer.  His  son,  FaANTOia  ^itennb  Keli-eb- 
ifANN,  Duke  of  Valmy  (1770-1835),  is  noted 
especially  for  his  brilliant  cavalry  charge  at 
Marengo  in  1800.  He  also  distinguished  him- 
self at  Austerliti  and  In  the  Waterloo  cam- 
paign. 

Valols  (V&1-W&'),  the  name  of  a  dynasty  of 
France  (1326-1589),  so  called  from  the  an- 
cient county  of  Valois,  now  part  of  the  depart- 
ments of  Oise  and  Aisne.  In  IZ8G,  Philip  III 
gave  the  county  of  Valois  to  his  younger  ton, 
Charles  (b.  1270;  d.  13EE),  and  when  the  di- 
rect line  of  the  Capetian  dynasty  died  out  in 
132S  with  Charles  IV,  the  eldest  son  of  this 
Charles  of  Valois  ascended  the  French  throne 
under  the  name  ot  Philip  VI,  and  founded  the 
dynasty  of  Valois,  which  ruled  till  Henry  III 
(1574--S9),  with  whom  all  the  male  lines  of 
the  house  of  Valois  died  out,  and  the  French 
crown  fell  to  the  house  of  Bourbon,  descending 
from  Robert,  the  younger  brother  of  Philip  III, 
and  represented  by  Henry  IV,  King  of  Navarre. 
The  most  prominent  events  during  the  reign 
of  the  houae  of  Valois  were  the  Hundred  Years' 
War  with  England,  the  wara  of  conquest  in 
Italy,  and  flnaHy  the  dvll  or  religious  wars. 


VAMPIRE  BAT 


(vtl-pB-rl'sO),  city  and  port  of 
Chile,  and  the  most  important  seaport  of  the 
Pacific  coast  of  B.  America ;  on  a  Day,  68  m. 
INNW.  of  Santiago.  The  harbor  is  commodi- 
ous, but  it  is  open  to  northerly  storms.  Orig- 
inally, the  town  was  on  a  strip  of  flat  land 
fronting  the  water,  and  now  occupied  by  tha 
business  portions;  beyond  this  it  has  spread 
up  the  hillsides  in  charming  suburbs.  Val- 
paraiso is  substantisUy  built,  clean,  and  feas- 
ant, but  it  has  fen  notable  bnildings.  It  ii 
almost  exclusively  a  commercial  city,  greatly 
surpassing  Santiago.  There  is  a  large  foreign 
population,  and  much  of  the  trade  is  in  the 
□ands  of  British  merchants.  Most  of  the  im- 
ports and  a  large  part  of  the  exports  of  Chile 
pass  through  Valparaiso.  There  is  a  naval 
arsenal,  a  naval  school,  etc.,  and  the  port  is 
strongly  lortifled.  Valparaiso  was  founded  in 
September,  IE44;  was  several  times  sacked  l^ 
English  and  Dutch  corsairs  in  the  sixteen^ 
century,  and  has  suffered  greatly  from  earth- 
quakes and  flres;  March  31,  1866,  it  was  bom- 
barded by  a  Spanish  fleet.  'Ilie  concluding 
battles  of  the  Civil  War  of  1891  were  fought 
in  its  vicinity,  and  it  was  taken  and  partly 
sacked  by  toe  congressional  troops,  August 
23th.  Pop.  (1007)  est.  at  180,600.  It  is  tb« 
capital  of  the  province  of  Valparaiso,  which 
has  an  area  of  1,953  eq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  (ISOS) 
of  270,460. 

Vambiiy  (lAm'ba-re),  Annfnina  (or  Heb- 
J4A.N ] ,  ]S32-igi3:  Hungarian  traveler  and  Ori- 
entalist; b.  Bzerdahely,  near  Pressburg,  Hun- 
gary i  went  to  Constantinople,  where  he 
acquired  the  Turkish  language,  snd  became  so 
imbued  with  the  Turkish  mode  of  thought  that 
he  was  able,  with  the  assistance  of  the  Acad- 
emy of  Pesth,  to  undertake  a  journey  of  ex- 
ploration into  Turkestan,  disguised  as  an  Ori- 
ental dervish,  in  1662.  He  srrived  in  Khiva 
in  1S63,  visited  Bokhara  and  Bamarkand,  and 
returned  to  Persia  by  way  of  Herat.  After 
his  return  to  Europe,  Vambfry  published  an 
account  of  his  journey,  which  was  the  first  of 
the  kind  ever  undertaken  by  a  European. 

Vapi'^e,  according  to  a  superstition  still 
existing  among  the  lower  classes  in  Hungary, 
Servia,  Roumania,  and  the  Christian  popula- 
tion of  the  Balkan  peninsula,  a  kind  of  ghost 
which  during  the  night  leaves  the  grave  and 
maintains  a  semblance  of  life  by  sucking  the 
warm  blood  of  living  men  and  women.  It  is 
probftble  that  this  superstition  originated  from 
the  ancient  myth  of  the  lami<e.  but  it  was 
much  strengthened  by  the  belief,  common  in 
the  Middle  Ages  all  through  the  Greek  Church, 
that  the  bodies  of  those  who  died  under  the 
ban  of  the  Church  were  kept  alive  by  the  devi!. 
and  by  him  sent  out  to  ruin  their  friends  and 
relatives.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  a 
vampire  panic  spread  over  Servia  and  Hungary, 
and  thence  into  Germany.  Thousands  of  graves 
were  opened,  and  corpses  which  looked  sus- 
picious were  fastened  with  nails  snd  bolts  to 
the  ground,  that  they  should  not  wander  any 
more.  Among  the  WallHChs  it  is  still  custom- 
ary to  drive  a  nail  through  the  head  of  the 
corpse  into  the  bottom  of  the  coffin. 

Vampin  B*t    Bm  Bat.         /--<  i 

»  i;.:,z,:,ib,C,OOglc 


VANADIUM 

Vana'dinin,  a  metallic  element  discorered  in 
IBOl,  related  to  phoaphonui  and  arsenic.  It  is 
obtained  from  several  minerala,  vanadanite, 
Toecoelite,  etc.,  «8  a  graylBh- white  metallic 
powder.  Certain  vanadium  salts  yield  an  in- 
teiiHl]r  permanent  black  color,  hence  their  ap- 

Slication  in  the  manufacture  ot  inks  and  for 
yeing. 

Tan  Bn'ren,  Hattin,  1T88-1S62;  eighth  Pres- 
ident of  the  U.  S. ;  b.  Einderhook,  N.  Y.  He 
began  the  study  of  law  at  fourteen,  and  took 
an  active  part  in  politics  before  he  had  reached 
the  age  of  twenty;  in  1B12,  was  elected  to  the 
state  senate;'  Attorney-general,  1816-19,  and 
in  1318  again  state  senator.  In  1818  he  re- 
organized the  state  Democracy,  and  became  a 
member  of  a  clique  of  politicians  known  as 
the  "Albany  r^eucy,"  which  held  control  of 
the  atate  for  a  score  of  years.  In  18E1  be 
was  chosen  a  member  of  the  convention  for 
revising  the  state  constitution,  in  which  he 
advocated  an  extension  of  the  franchise,  but 
opposed  univereal  suffrage ;  V.  6.  Senator, 
1821-27,  and  reelected,  but  resigned,  having 
been  chosen  governor  of  the  state.  In  1B29 
he  was  appointed  by  Jackson  Secretary  of 
St«te,  but  resigned  in  April,  1831,  and  during 
the  recess  of  Congress  was  appointed  minister 
to  England,  whither  he  proceeded.  The  Senate 
refused  to  ratify  the  appointment,  mainly  on 
the  ground  that  Mr.  Van  Buten,  while  Secre- 


was  nominated  as  the  Democratic  candidate  for 
Vice  President,  and  elected.  In  1836  he  was 
elected  President,  receiving  a  majority  of  the 
popular  vote  and  170  electoral  votes  out  of 
294,  Gen,  W.  H.  Harrison  receiving  73.  The 
opening  of  his  administration  was'  at  a  time 
of  severe  financial  diOiculty,  which  resulted  in 
the  suspension  of  specie  payments  by  the  banks 
and  in  the  crisis  of  1837-39,  and  the  President 
urged  the  adoption  of  the  independent  treasury 
system,  which  was  twice  passed  in  the  Senate 
and  defeated  in  the  House,  but  finally  became 
a  law  near  the  close  of  his  administration. 
Another  important  measure  was  the  passage 
of  a  preemption  law,  giving  actual  settlers  the 
preference  in  the  i)urchase  of  public  lands. 
Early  in  the  administration  occurred  the  in- 
surrectionary movement  in  Canada,  which  was 
encouraged  and  aided  by  U.  S.  dtizena  on  the 
borders.  The  President  issued  two  proclama- 
tions against  this  violation  of  trentiei,  and 
sent  a  militarr  force  to  the  frontier  to  main- 
tain order.  The  question  of  slavery  began  to 
assume  prominence  in  national  politics. 

In  the  presidential  election  of  1840,  Van 
Barm  was  nominated  without  opposition  as 
tba  Democratic  candidate,  William  H.  Harri- 
son being  the  candidate  of  the  Whig  Party. 
The  Democrats  carried  only  seven  states,  and 
out  of  2S4  electoral  votes  only  SO  were  for 
Van  Buren.  The  Whig  popular  majority, 
however,  was  not  large,  the  elections  in  many 
of  the  states  being  very  dose.  In  1844  Mr. 
Van  Buren  was  proposed  as  the  Democratic 
candidate  for  the  presidency,  and  a  majority 
of  the  delegates  to  the  nominating  convention 
were  in  his  favor,  but  owing  to  his  opposition 
to  the  proposed  annexatipn  of  Texas  he  could 


VANCOUVER  ISLAND 

not  secure  the  requisite  vote  of  two  thirds; 
his  name  was  withdrawn,  and  Polk  received 
the  nomination.  In  1848,  Lewis  Cass  was  the 
regular  Democratic  candidate;  a  schism,  how- 
ever, sprang  u^  in  the  party  upon  the  question 
of  the  permission  of  slavery  in  the  newly  ac- 
quired territory,  and  a  portion  of  the  party, 
taking  the  name  of  "  Free  Soilers,"  nominated 
Van  Buren ;  they  drew  away  sufficient  votes  to 
secure  the  election  of  Oen.  Taylor,  the  Whig 
candidate.  In  accepting  the  nomination  Van 
Buren  declared  his  full  assent  to  the  anti- 
slavery  principles  of  the  platform.  After  this. 
Van  Buren  retired  to  his  estate  at  Einderhook, 
where  the  remainder  of  his  life  was  passed, 
with  the  exception  of  a  European  tour  in  1S63- 
54.  He  left  a  MS.,  which  was  edited  and  pub- 
lished by  bis  sons,  entitled  "  An  Inquiry  into 
the  Origin  and  Course  of  Political  Parties  in 
the  United  States"   (1867). 

Vancon'ver,  city.  New  Westminster  district, 
British  Columbia,  Canada ;  on  Burrard  Inlet, 
and  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway;  12  m.  N. 
of  New  Westminster,  and  about  65  m.  N.  W  E. 
of  Victoria,  the  capital  of  the  province.  It  is 
the  largest  city  in  British  Columbia;  is  a 
seaport  of  the  province.  The  city  is  laid  out 
on  the  U.  S.  block  system,  with  wide  streets. 
It  is  the  W.  terminus  of  the  railway,  and  has 
regular  mail-steamer  communication  with  Chi- 
na, Japan,  and  Australia.  It  has  large  and 
varied  lumber  interests,  railway  construction 
and  repair  shops,  foundry  and  iron  works,  su- 
gar refinery,  and  pork-packing  works.  Van- 
couver was  laid  out,  totally  d^royed  by  fire, 
and  rebuilt  in  1886,  and  has  an  area  of  more 
than  15  sq.  m.;   pop.   (ISIl)   123,902. 

Vancouver    Island,    in    the    Pacific    Ocean; 

named  after  the  navigator,  George  Vancouver 
(1753-98).  It  forms  part  of  the  province  of 
British  Columbia,  being  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  Queen  Charlotte  Bound,  Johnstone 
Sound,  and  the  Strait  of  Georgia;  area  between 
16,000  and  10,000  sq.  m.  Throughout  its  length 
there  extends  a  ridge  of  bare  and  rocky  moun- 
tains averaging  3,000  ft.,  rising  in  Victoria 
Peak  to  7,435  ft.  The  coasts,  enpeoially  the 
W.,  are  indented  with  narrow  fiords,  marked 
by  steep,  rocky  cliffs,  and  sheltered  nooks  with 
fine  harbors,  notably  those  ot  Esquimalt,  San 
Juan,  Albemi  Canal,  Hesquiot,  Pachena,  and 
Quatsino.  The  N.  and  S.  extremities  of  the 
island  are  comparatively  flat,  and  the  most 
settled  portions  are  in  ue  S.,  where  Victoria 
is,  and  around  the  coal  regions  of  Nanaimo 
on  the  B.  coast.  There  are  no  navigable  riven, 
and  the  streams  run  short  and  rapid  courses. 

The  climate  in  many  respects  resembles  that 
of  Great  Britain,  being  modified  by  the  Arctic 
currents  that  flow  down  along  the  coasts.  The 
winter  is  open,  mild,  and  wet;  the  spring  is 
later,  and  the  summer  hotter  and  drier  than 
in  England.  The  larger  portion  of  the  island 
is  unsuited  for  agriculture,  being  little  bett«r 
than  bare  rook.  The  most  general  crops  aro 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  and  all  sorts  ot  v^tables. 
Fruit  culture  is  being  developed.  Tae  prin- 
cipal mountain  range  has  been  found  to  con- 
tain in  many  places  gold,  silver,  irod,  copper, 
lead,  and  other  metals.    In  the  y'-'  "-    *  " 


1,  copper, 
ity  ot  At- 


VANDAIS: 

beml,  gold-bearing  quartz  ledges  oontaiu  gold 
in  pacing  quantities.  Marble  of  e,  flue  qiulit? 
ha«  been  discovered.  Coal  is  abundant.  The 
panther,  bear,  and  wolf  are  found  in  the  for- 
ests;  two  kinds  of  deer,  grouse,  quail,  pheas- 
ants, and  other  wild  fowl  abound,  and  the 
manj  lakes  are  full  of  fish.  Extensive  hanks 
lie  off  th*  SW.  coast  well  stocked  with  cod, 
halibut,  whiting,  sturgeon,  and  herring,  and 
deep-sea  flahing  is  becoming  one  of  the  main 
industries,  together  with  the  lumber  industries, 
shipbuilding,  and  eoal  mining.  The  capital  is 
Victoria.  The  island  was  diBcovared  in  1692  by 
Juan  de  Fuca,  was  visited  in  1792  b^  Capt. 
Vancouver,  and  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by 
treaty  with  tbe  U.  S.  in  184fl.  In  184S  it  was 
leased  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  for  ten 
years,  and  was  an  independent  crown  colony 
till  1866,  when  it  was  united  with  the  mainland 
•s  part  of  the  colony  of  British  Columbia. 

Vas'dtla,  an  ancient  Qermanic  race  belong- 
ing to  the  group  of  Gothic  tribes.  They  were 
divided  into  the  Asdingian  and  Silingian  sec- 
tions, and  occupied  in  the  second  century  tbe 
upper  Oder,  the  Itieseng«birge  (Montei  Tan- 
dtUici),  and  the  Sudet^,  approximately  the 
present  province  of  Silesia.  During  the  Mar- 
eomannia  wars  with  Marcus  Aurelius  (161-180 
A.D.)  tbe  Asdingi  were  allies  of  the  Quadi  and 
Marcomanni   in   Dacia,   while   the   Silingi   mi- 

Bated  westward  abL  280,  and  located  on  the 
iddle  Main.  The  former  were  partly  de- 
stroyed by  the  Gothic  king,  Geberic(h),  in  a 
battle  on  the  Maros  River,  where  their  king, 
Wisumar,  was  slain ;  the  remnants  were  per- 
mitted by  Constantine  the  Great  to  settle  in 
Fannonia  abt.  334,  and  became  Arians.  Allied 
with  tile  Suevi  and  Alani,  and  reunited  with 
the  Silingi,  they  suddenly  invaded  Oaul  in 
40tt,  under  their  king,  Godiglsel,  and  under  his 
son  Gunderic(h)  they  crossed  the  Pyrenees 
into  Spain  in  409.  After  severe  wars  against 
the  Visigoth  king,  Wallia  (415-418),  and  a 
victory  over  the  Roman  Castinus  (422),  the 
Vandals  founded  an  independent  kingdom, 
Vandalilia,  now  Andalusia.  Gunderic  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  illegitimate  brother  Geuseric, 
or  Geiseric,  in  427. 

Two  years  later  Bonifaclus,  governor  of  the 
Rinnan  province  of  Africa,  called  the  Vandals 
to  Africa.  Genseric  crossed  the  Strait  of  Gib- 
raltar with  about  SO.OCH)  persons,  of  whom 
G0,000  were  warriors.  Meanwhile  Bonifacius, 
through  the  good  services  of  St,  Augustine, 
had  become  reconciled  to  the  Emperor  Valen- 
tfnian  III,  and  ordered  the  Vandals  out  of  the 
country.  But  Genseric  defeated  Bonifacius 
and  oonqnered  the  whole  of  the  N.  coast  of 
Africa  as  far  as  Tunis,  broke  the  peace  con- 
cluded with  the  Romans  in  434,  and  five  years 
later  took  Carthage  and  made  it  the  capital  of 
Uie  Vandal  kingdom.  He  developed  a  power- 
ful fleet,  with  which  be  con<pered  the  Baleares, 
Coraiea,  Sardinia,  and  W.  Sicily,  invaded  Italy, 
and  in  456  captured  and  sacked  Rome,  and 
carried  away  nearly  all  its  movable  wealth  to 
Cartilage.  Genseric  held  out  against  both  the 
W.  and  E.  Roman  emperors,  but  died  in  477. 
The  Vandal  kingdom  bc^n  to  decline,  under 
his  successors,    Hunnerio    (47T-4S4),   Ounta- 


VANDERBILT  UNIVEESnT 

mund  (484-496),  and  Thrasamund  (496-523), 
all  of  whom  exasperated  their  Roman  subjects 
by  bloody  persecutions,  while  Hilderic  (523- 
530),  by  favoring  the  Romans  and  the  orthodox 
Church,  alienated  his  Vandal  subjects,  and  was 
dethroned  by  Oelimer,  his  uncle.  The  Byzan- 
tine emperor,  Justinian  1,  sent  an  army  to 
Africa  under  Belisarius,  who  defeated  Gelimer 
at  Tricamarum.  Most  of  the  surviving  Vandal 
warriors  were  drafted  into  the  imperial  army, 
and  disappeared  in  the  wars  against  Persia. 

Van'derbUt,  Cornelius,  I794-I877;  American 
financier  and  capitalist,  called  Commodore; 
b.  near  SUpIeton,  Staten  Island,  N.  Y,;  the 
son  of  a  farmer.  At  sixteen  he  carried  pas- 
sengers and  produce  between  New  York  and 
Staten  Island.  With  his  profits  be  soon  had 
interests  in  many  boats,  ferries,  etc.,  in  the 
vicinity  of  New  York,  Soon  after  the  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  California  he  put  into  op- 
eration a  line  of  steamers  that  made  rapid  time 
by  transferring  its  passengers  across  tbe  Isth- 
mus of  Nicaragua,  and  in  this  enterprise  he 
accumulated  910,000,000.  When  British  vessels 
were  withdrawn  from  ocean  traffic  on  account 
of  tbe  Crimean  War,  he  established  a  line  to 
Havre,  France,  but  soon  disposed  of  his  shipping 
interests  to  invest  in  railways.  Iig  18S3  he 
purchased  stock  of  the  New  York  and  Harlem 
Railroad,  and  later  secured  the  Hudson  River 
Railroad,  after  which  the  New  York  Central 
passed  into  his  control,  and  he  became  its  presi- 
dent, 1867.  By  consolidation  and  purchase  he 
extended  his  system  to  Chicago.  He  contribu- 
ted $1,000,000  to  found  Vanderbilt  Univ.,  and 
gave  $50,000  to  establish  the  Church  of  the 
Strangers  in  New  York;  also  in  1863  he  pre- 
sented his  finest  steamship,  the  Vanderbilt,  to 
the  U,  S.  Govt.,  for  which  Congress  voted  him 
a  gold  medal.  His  fortune  was  estimated  at 
$100,000,000. 

The  bulk  of  his  fortune  was  left  to  his  son 
William  Heniy  ( 1821-86) ,  who  as  a  young  man 
was  compelled  to  make  his  own  way,  owing  to 
an  unbelief  in  his  abilities  by  his  father. 
Later  he  was  given  the  receivership  of  the 
Staten  Island  Railroad,  which  he  conducted 
with  such  skill  that  he  was  connected  with  the 
railway  ventures  that  the  elder  Vanderbilt  be- 
came int«rested  In,  and  after  the  Commodore's 
death  further  extended  the  system.  Beside* 
many  other  gifts,  Mr.  Vanderbilt  gave  $200,000 
to  Vanderbilt  Univ.,  paid  the  expenses  of  the 
removal  of  the  obelisk  from  Egypt  to  Central 
Park,  New  York,  and  gave  $600,000  tor  the 
erection  of  the  buildings  of  the  College  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Surgeons.  The  great  fortune  that 
he  inherited  was  largely  increased,  and,  after 
leaving  $10,000,000  to  each  of  his  eight  chil- 
dren and  $1,000,000  to  charity,  the  remainder 
was  left  to  the  management  of  his  two  elder 

TanSerbilt  Univer'sity,  an  institution  of 
learning  at  Nashville,  Tenn.;  in  part  tbe  ont- 
growtb  of  a  general  movement  for  higher  edu- 
cation throughout  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  South.  In  response  to  special  calls  a 
convention  met  in  Memphis,  January  24,  1872, 
composed  of  delegates  from  Tennessee,  Ala- 
bama, Uisidssippi,  Louisiana,  and  Arkanaas.    A 


VAN  DIEMEN«  LAND 
I 

Kneral  plttn  for  a  univervit^  was  adopted,  « 
srd  of  trust  nominated,  and  shortlj  after- 
trarda  a  charter  secured,  onder  the  title  of  the 
Ceotrol  Univ.  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church  South.  The  efforts  to  raise  the  nece*- 
sarj  funds  met  with  little  succeaa,  and  the 
enterprise  aeemed  doomed  to  failure,  when 
the  elder  Comeliue  Vanderbilt,  of  New  York, 
made,  through  Bishop  McTjeire,  an  oSer  of 
9500,000.  In  raeoflnitiou  of  this  handsome  gift 
the  name  nas  changed  to  Vasderbilt  Univ. 
Mr.  Vanderbilt  made  further  donations  at  va- 
rious timefl.  Jn  1910  it  supported  125  in- 
Btruetors  and  had  1,007  students.  The  lihrary 
contains  45,000  volumes. 


1ESB-IS41;  Flemish  painter;  b.  Antwerp. 
1627  he  executed  for  the  Churah  of  the  Augus- 
tinians  in  Antwerp  a  celebrated  picture  repra- 
senting  St.  Augustine  in  ecstasy,  supported  by 
angels.  For  the  next  five  yean  he  was  em- 
ployed in  the  Netherlands;  to  this  period  may 
be  ascribed  numerous  "  Crucifixions     and  "  Pl- 


etas,"  impressed  with  that  character  of 
and  reserved  dignity  for  which  be  has  always 
been  distinguished.  ~But  his  greatest  reputa- 
tion was  won  by  hie  portraits,  which  ted  to  his 
being,  in  1Q32,  invited  by  Charles  I  to  Eng- 
land, where  he  was  knighted  and  pensioned. 
The  best  of  his  works  are  in  that  country, 
prominent  specimens  being  his  several  portraits 
of  CharlGB  I  and  those  of  the  eails  of  Straf- 
ford and  Pembroke.  The  number  of  works  at- 
tributed to  him 


Vane,  Sir  Henry,  1612-82;  Engliih  states- 
man; b.  Hadlow,  Kent;  educatea  at  Oxford, 
and  completed  his  education  at  Geneva,  where 
he  became  a  Puritan  and  a  republican;  went 
to  Massachusetta  Bay,  1636;  was  chosen  gov- 
ernor, 1636,  but,  having  favored  religious 
toleration,  was  not  reelected ;  returned  to 
Englattd  in  1637;  was  knighted,  elected  to  Par- 
liament, and  made  joint  treasurer  of  the  navy, 
1840;  took  part  in  the  impeachment  of  Straf- 
ford, iM2;  was  a  zealous  supporter  of  Parlia- 
ment in  the  civil'war;  enabled  Roger  Williams 
to  obtain  the  Rhode  Island  charter,  1643;  was 
n  promoter  of  the  "  Self-denying  (^dinance," 
1644. 

He  was  a  member  of  the  Westmioater  Assem- 
bly end  a  leader  of  the  Independents  in  Parlia- 
ment, but  opposed  Cromwell's  arbitrary  course; 
and  after  the  dissolution  of  the  Rump  Parlia- 
ment, 1653,  retired  to  bis  estate  of  Raby  Cas- 
tle, where  he  wrote  religious  treatises  and  po- 
litical pamphlets,  one  of  which  led  to  hii 
imprisonment  by  order  of  Cromwell,  1656;  re- 
mained in  opposition  until  the  death  of  the 
Protector,  when  he  was  chosen  to  Parliament; 
became  the  leader  of  the  republican  party;  was 
one  of  the  twenty  persons  excepted  from  the 
act  of  general  pardon  and  oblivion  passed  at 
the  Restoration;  was  sent  to  the  Tower,  and 
afterwards  to  other  prisons,  remaining  two 
^ears  in  a  castle  in  the  Scilly  Islands,  occupied 
in  theological  studies  and  writing;  tried  for 
high  treason,  unjustly  convicted,  and  was  b»- 
headed   on   Tower   Hill,   June    14,    1662.     His 


theolo^eftl  wrltinga  are  pitched  in  so  high  a 
strain  of  mysticism  as  to  be  almost  unintelli- 
gible  to   onlinary   readsrs,  but   are  said   f 


VonUla,  the  fruit  of  the  VaniUa  planifoUa 
and  of  the  V.  aromalica,  climbing  plants  of 
the  orchid  family,  natives  of  Mexico  and  Br»> 
ziL  V.  ptantfolia  is  cultivated  in  several  trop- 
ical countries.  The  pods  are  from  6  to  12  in. 
in  length,  contain  many  minute  black  seeds, 
possess  a  very  pleasant  odor,  and  are  often  in- 
crusted  with  needle-shaped  crystals  of  vanil- 
lin, their  aromatic  constituent.  They  also  con- 
tain  an  iron-greening  tannin,  a  fatty  oil,  and  a 
resin.  Vanillin,  the  odorous  principle  of  va- 
nilla. Is  prepared  artificially  by  a  number  of 
methods,  and  as  vanilla  beans  are  expensive 
much  of  the  artificial  vanillin  is  used.  Vaqilla 
is  chiefly  used  for  flavoring  chocolate,  ooufee- 
tionery,  perfumery,  etc,  land  in  medicine  as  a  , 
mild  stimulant. 

Tan  Rensselaer  (rEns's^-Ur),  Stephen,  1766- 
1630;  American  statesman;  known  as  "the  pa- 
troon";  b.  New  York;  was  the  fifth  in  descent 
from  Killian  van  Rensselaer,  the  original  pa- 
troon  or  proprietor  of  a  large  tract  of  land  on 
the  Hudson  River  granted  by  the  States-Gen- 
eral of  Holland;  graduated  at  Harvard  Col- 
lege, 1782;  member  of  the  assembly,  1780; 
state  senator,  1700;  lieutenant  governor,  1795; 
and  leader  of  the  Federalists  In  New  York 
.State.  From  1816  t«  his  death  he  was  one  of 
the  Erie  Canal  commissioners.  He  was  in  com- 
mand of  the  state  militia  at  the  beginning  of 
the  War  of  1812,  and  directed  the  unsuccessful 
assault  upon  Queenston  Heights;  I8IQ,  regent 
of  the  New  York  Univ.,  and  later  phaneellor; 
in  1821-23  instituted  the  geological  surveys  of 
New  York,  which  were  executed  wholly  at  his 
cost  by  Amos  Baton,  and  in  1824  established  at 
Troy  a  scientific  school  for  the  instruction  of 
teachers,  which  was  Incorporated  in  1S26  as 
Rensselaer  Institute,  half  t^e  current  expenses 
being  for  some  time  defrayed  by  him.  Mem- 
ber of  Congress,  1823-20,  and  it  wa«  by  his 
casting  vote  in  the  New  York  delegation  that 
John  Qnincy  Adams  was  made  President  of  the 
U.  S.  He  married  a  daughter  of  Gen.  Philip 
Schuyler. 

Van  Tromp.    See  Tbomp,  M.  H.  vas, 

Va'pOTs,  the  giseous  forms  of  substances 
which  under  normal  conditions  usually  exist 
in  a  liquid  or  solid  state.  They  are  distin- 
guished from  rases  proper,  which  are  elastic 
Quids  under  ordinary  conditions.  The  vapor  of 
water,  called  steam,  is  a  transparent  gas,  and 
should  be  distinguished  from  the  cloud  pro- 
duced by  a  jet  of  steam,  which. is  condensed  ^a- 
ter.    See  Evapok*tion;  Gas. 

Va'rlahles,  quantities  which  admit  of  an  in- 
finite number  of  sets  of  values  In  the  same 
equation.  Thus  in  the  equation  y'  =  2px,  z 
and  y  are  variables,  because  there  is  an  infi- 
nite number  of  sets  of  vaJues  of  these  quaatU 


VARUTION 

tie*  Uiat  aatisN  the  equfttton.  If  there  ki«  two 
or  more  variablea  in  on  equation,  all  but  one 
nui^  be  regarded  as  independent  Because  one 
variable  alway*  depends  on  the  form  of  the 
equation  as  well  bb  on  the  valuea  assigned  to 
the  others,  it  is  called  the  dependent  variable 
or  the  function. 


ViiJcOM  (vBr't-kOs)  Velni,  relaxation  of  the 
coats  of  tbe  superficial  veins,  with  increased 
caliber,  occurring  most  frequent!;  in  the  lower 
extremitiea.  Gravitation  and  the  difGculty  of 
the  ascent  of  blood  from  the  feet  to  the  body 
determine  the  zreater  frequency  of  the  disettse 
in  the  veins  of  the  legs.  Varicose  veins  are 
common  in  aged  men,  tbe  result  of  senile  de- 
generation of  the  various  liiauee;  leas  often  it 
occurs  in  midlife  in  robust  men  of  the  gouty 
habit  and  those  who  are  kept  standingi  walk- 
ing does  not  favor  the  condition,  since  the  move- 
ments of  the  superScial  muscles  and  tension  of 
the  skin  help  to  lift  the  blood  upward.  Even  in 
youth  violent  exercise  causes  a  breaking  down 
of  the  valves  in  the  voina  and  venous  dilatation. 
In  women  the  chief  and  not  infrequent  cause  is 
pre^aucy.  Varicotxle  in  the  male  is  a  local 
varicosity  of  the  spermatic  veina.  Hemor- 
rhoids or  piles  are  due  to  repeated  passive  con- 
gestions of  the  hemorrhoidal  veins.  Tbe  veins 
*re  tortuous  and  pouched.  Varicose  veins  do 
not  necessarily  indicate  debility  or  'd»enera- 
tion,  but  should  warn  the  patient  to  abandon 
vocations  involving  violent  exertion,  to  regulate 
the  diet  and  bowels  habitually,  and  to  remove 
any  rheumatic  or  gouty  vice.  The  varicose 
limb  may  be  benefited  by  daily  friction,  cold 
efTuaion,  and  salt  bathing.  But  the  extension 
of  tbe  disease  is  best  checked  by  constant  ex- 
ternal support,  and  cure  la  insured  by  cutting 
through  the  superficial  veins  so  as  to  drive  the 
blood  current  into  the  deeper  Teins. 

Vaii'oU  and  Va'iiolaid.    See  Siuixrox. 

Tar'na,  or  Wanu,  seaport  of  Bulgaria,  on 
the  W.  shore  of  Black  Sea.  It  has  trade  in 
wheat,  barley,  wool,  leather,  etc.,  vrith  tjon- 
stantinople  and  the  W.  of  Europe.  Here  in 
1444  the  sultan,  Amursth  11,  overwhelmed  the 
Hungarians,  and  here  in  1SS4-66  the  alllee 
organized  the  invasion  of  the  Crimea.  Fop. 
(1906)    37,417. 

Vkl'liish,  a  resinouB  solution  employed  for 
coating  objects  to  produce  a  thin,  transparent, 
and  hard  surface,  forming  a  protection  against 
moisture  and  air.  Tbe  principal  resins  em- 
ployed are  the  gums  eopal,  shellac,  animS, 
maatic,  and  aandarac;  the  solvents  being  alco- 
hol, wood  spirit,  oil  of  turpentine,  linseed,  and 
other  drying  oils.  From  the  nature  of  the 
solvent  used  varnishes  may  be  conveniently 
divided  into  fixed  oil,  spirit,  volatile  oil,  and 
ether  vamiahes. 

Fi»td-oil  varmahet,  which  possess  great  du- 
rability and  luster,  are  usually  prepared  from 
linseed  oil,  which,  on  being  oxidized  by  the 
action  of  the  air,   Is  converted  into   a  tough, 


elastic  substance,  the  change  taking  pit 
lapidW  in  a  boiled  oil.     The  proportions  by 
w«ght  of  th»  ingivdient*  composing  tut  ordi- 


VAKMSH 

nary  tAl  T&mlsh  are  as  follows:  resin  (copal, 
amber,  etc.),  10;  boiled  linseed  oil,  G  to  26; 
oil  of  turpentine,  15  to  26.  As  a  rule,  var- 
nishes of  this  composition  improve  with  am. 
An  amber  varnish,  which  possesses  greet  du- 
rability, but  dries  slowly,  has  the  following 
composition :  resin  ( amber  oolophonxwn ) ,  1 
lb. ;  boiled  linseed  oil,  10  oa. ;  oil  of  turptditine, 
1  pint.  A  good  carriage  varnish  is  madt.  from 
gum  aninit,  S  lb.;  boiled  linseed  oil,  3  gal.; 
camphor,  i  lb.;  litharge,  i  lb.;  oU  of  turpen- 
tine, 5}  gal.  A  black  asphalt  vamiah,  suitable 
for  ironwork,  can  be  made  from  asphalt,  3 
parts  by  weight;  boiled  linseed  oil,  4;  oil  of 
turpentine,  15  to  18;  or  from  foreign  asphalt, 
45  lb.;  linseed  oil,  6  gal.;  litharge,  0  lb.;  boil, 
then  add  dark  fused  gum  amber,  S  lb. ;  hot 
linseed  oil,  2, gal.;  boil  again,  remove  from  the  - 
fire,  and  thin  down  with  oil  of  turpentine,  S6 
gal.  A  good  wainscot  or  mahogany  vrimish  is 
obtained  from  sorted  gum  anim^,  8  lb. ;  clari- 
fied linseed  oil,  3  galT;  litharge,  }  lli.;  dried 
lead  acetate,  i  lb.;  oil  of  turpentine,  6}  gal. 
The  addition  of  India  rubber  or  gutt«  perclw 
to  oil  varnishes  imparts  further  fiexibility  to 
the  product. 

Spirit  namithet  (lao  oamisAea)  differ  from 
the  preceding  in  being  true  solutions  of  resins. 
The  solvents  most  employed  are  alcohol  and 
wood  spirit.  Acetone,  benzene,  etc.,  are  also 
ocoasionally  used.  The  gums  chiefiy  employed 
are  sandarac,  mastic,  shellac,  and  animA. 
Saodarac  confers  hardness  on  vantishes;  mas- 
tic imparts  a  gloss.  Shellac  Is  rendered  more 
soluble  by  being  powdered  and  exposed  to  the 
air  for  a  long  time.  The  spirit  used  as  the 
solvent  should  not  be  less  than  ninety-five  per 
cent  in  strength.  In  the  preparation  of  spirit 
vamishea,  the  resins,  before  being  added  to  the 
solvent,  should  be  well  pulveri^  and  mixed 
with  sand  or  broken  glass,  in  orde"  to  prevent 
the  gum  from  forming  into  lumpe .  The  tend- 
ency of  the  vamiah  to  "  chill  "  or  lAve  a  rough 
surface  is  obviated  by  the  addition  of  a  littie 
ammonia  or  gum  sandarac,  excessive  brittle- 
ness  being  remedied  by  the  addition  of  Venice 
turpentine.  Sandarac  vamieb  is  prepared  by 
dissolving  10  parts  of  tbe  gum  and  1  part  of 
Venice  turpentine  in  30  parts  of  spirit.  Ordi- 
nary copal  varnish  is  made  by  first  melting 
the  resin  at  a  gentle  beat,  then  powdering  ft 
with  sand,  dissolving  in  strong  alcohol,  and 
filtering.  Elemi  resin,  or  solution  of  turpen- 
tine, is  sometimes  added  to  give  greater  soft- 
ness. A  colorless  copal  varnish  'a  prepared  by 
dissolving  S  parts  of  pulverized  and  fused 
copal  in  6  parts  of  strong  alcohol,  and  adding 
4  parts  of  oil  of  turpentine  and  1  part  of 
ether.  Colored  spirit  varnishes,  or  laogtitri, 
are  used  to  impart  a  gold  color  to  instruments 
made  of  braes  and  other  base  metals.  Tinc- 
tures of  gummi  gutta,  dragon's  alood,  gamboge, 
coralline,  picric  acid,  turmeric,  Martius  yel- 
low, annotto,  etc.,  are  separately  prepared  and 
added  in  the  proportions  necessary  to  give  the 
required  color  to  a  varnish  consisting  of  seed 
lac,  2  parts;  sandarac,  4  parts;  elemi,  4  parts; 
alcohol,  40  parte.  The  following  mixture  fur- 
nishes a  good  gold  laoquer  for  orasswork:  eeed 
lac,  3  ox.;  turmeric,  1  ox.;  drupm's  blood,  j 
OS.  i  nloobol,  1  pint.    AnlUne  oolora  have  been 


VARRO 

emploj'ed  to  impart  various  tints  to  spirit  var- 
nishps,  which  are  especially  adapted  to  the 
coloring  of  glass,  the  bronzing  of  leather,  etc. 

In  votatiU-oH  vamwhes  the  solvent  Is  oil  of 
turpentine.  They  aire  more  durable  than  spirit 
varnishes,  and  are  less  brittle,  hut  require 
more  time  in  diring;  thej  also  differ  from  the 
latter  in  improving  by  age,  whereas  spirit  var- 
nishes usually  deteriorate  in  quality.  The 
resins  employed  (gum  copal,  gum  damar,  Can- 
ada balsam,  etc.]  are  commonly  directly  dis- 
solved in  the  oil  of  turpentine,  with  or  without 
previous  fusion,  the  usual  proportions  being 
about  6  lb.  of  the  resin  to  7  lb.  of  the  solvent. 
Ether  vamithea  consist  of  an  ethereal  solution 
of  a  resin.  They  have  a  very  limited  applica- 
tion. The  following  is  sometimes  used  tor  the 
repairing  of  jewelry:  copal,  6  parts;  ether,  2 
parts.  A  varnish  for  photographers'  use  is  pre- 
pared by  dissolving  3  or  4  grains  of  amber  in 
1  OS.  of  chloroform.  Besides  the  varieties  of 
vamiah  already  mentioned,  numerous  other 
preparations  are  used  for  special  purposes.  A 
varnish  consisting  of  1  part  gutta  percha  dis- 
solved in  5  parts  oil  of  turpentine,  to  which 
S  parts  of  hot  linseed  oil  are  added,  does  not 
scale,  and  is  sometimes  used  for  maps.  Wax 
varnish,  or  milk  of  wax,  is  prepared  by  melting 
1  lb.  of  white  wax  at  a  low  heat,  adding  I 
pint  of  warm  alcohol  (ninety  per  cent),  mix- 
ing, and  pouring  tbe  liquid  out  on  a  cold  stab, 
OB  which  it  is  ground  to  a  smooth  paste.  An 
emulsion  with  water  is  then  made  and  strained 
through  muslin.  This  preparation  is  exten- 
sively employed  as  a  protective  coating  for  old 
paintings,  upon  which  it  is  first  allowed,  to  dry, 
and  then  equally  fused  by  passing  a  warm 
Iron  over  it.  The  preparations  used  for  var- 
nishing guns,  engravings,  leather,  etc.,  differ 
little  from  those  described  above,  although  in 
the  case  of  leather  the  article  is  usually  dried 
in  an  oven  after  varnishing,  the  process  being 
called  japanning.     See  JAPANniBO;  Faikt. 

Var'ro,  Mkcus  Terentius,  116-28  B.C.;  Ro- 
man scholar.  At  the  commencement  of  the 
civil  war  he  was  serving  4n  Spain  as  legate 
of  Pompey,  and  remained  faithful  to  bim  un- 
til his  overthrow  at  Fharsalia  (18).  Cesar 
treated  him  kindly,  and  employed  him  to  super- 
intend the  collection  and  arrangement  of  the 
works  in  the  public  library  at  Rome.  From 
this  time  Varro  lived  in  retirement.  He  wrote 
aeventy-four  works  in  600  or  600  books,  all  of 
which  have  perished  except  a  treatise  on  agri- 
culture, preserved  entire,  and  a  work  on  the 
Latin  language,  which  remains  in  a  mutilated 
state. 

Va'inB,  Pnblina  Qnintilins,  Roman  general, 
consul  in  13  B.C.  In  7  a.d.  he  was  governor 
of  the  territory  between  the  Rhine  and  tbe 
Elbe.  In  6  aj>.  a  secret  insurrection  against 
the  Roman  power  was  organised  under  Armin- 
ius.  Varus,  with  the  Roman  army,  was  lured 
Into  an  ambuscade  in  the  Teutoburg  forest, 
and  suffered  total  defeat,  the  leader  commit- 
ting suicide.  It  was  the  greatest  calamity  of 
Augustus's  reign,  and  the  first  time  that  Ro- 
man arms  retreated  from  territory  which  they 
had  once  occupied.  The  region  was  never  re- 
conquered. 


Ta'sa,  GoBtavuB.    See  Odstavcb  I. 

TisArbely  (vH'shflr-heiy) ,  full  name  H6d- 
Mez3-VAsAbhelt,  to  distinguish  it  tram 
MaroB-Vftsarbely,  in  Transylvania,  city ;  in  the 
county  of  Csongrfid,  Hungary;  on  the  H6d 
Lake;  station  of  the  AlfUld-Fiume  Railway. 
The  city  is  rapidly  improving,  and  has  many 
noteworthy  public  buildings ;  among  them 
numerous  churches,  a  Frot^tant  gymnasium, 
a  royal  law  court,  and  a  townball,  besides  two 
banlis,  two  hospitals,  large  breweries,  and  an 
oil  factory.  It  has  a  flourishing  trade  in  the 
products  of  the  fertile  country  surrounding  it 
— wheat,  grain,  liarW,  oat«,  maixe,  fruits, 
white  and  red  wine.  Cattle  and  hordes  of  tbe 
best  breeds  in  Hungary  are  extensively  raised. 
In  spite  of  enormous  dikes,  the  city  frequently 
suffers  from  the  inundations  of  the  river 
Theiss.  Pop.  (1900)  60,883,  mostly  Magya» 
and  Roumanians. 

Vaaa'ri,  Giaigiii,  lSll-74;  Italian  painter, 
architect,  and  biographer;  b.  Arezzo.  He 
studied  under  Guglielmo  da  Marsiglia,  Luca 
Signorelli,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  and  Michelangelo. 
He  became  discouraged,  and  for  a  time  gave 
up  painting  and  went  to  Florence,  where  he 
took  up  the  goldsmith's  art.  In  1529  he  went 
to  Rome,  where  he  worked  at  drawing  ancient 
monuments  with  such  assiduity  that  he  fell  ill 
of  fever.  He  turned  his  attention  to  archi- 
tcature,  and  soon  Itecame  one  of  the  most  ac- 
complished of  his  time  in  that  department.  It 
was  in  Rome,  while  painting  the  scenes  from 
the  life  of  Paul  III  in  the  Sala  della  Can- 
celleria  of  the  Vatican,  that  he  became  known 
to  Paolo  Giovio,  who  seems  to  hsve  suggested 
to  him  the  writing  of  the  work,  "  Lives  of  the 
Painters,  etc.,"  to  which  he  chiefly  owes  his 
fame.  Vasari  was  also  the  originator  of  the 
Florentine  Academy,  which  was  founded  abt. 
1561.  Besides  iiis  "Lives"  he  wrote  several 
treatises  on  the  flue  arts.  Vasari's  paintings 
suffered  from  too  facile  and  hasty  execution, 
and  from  his  employment  of  incompetent  as- 

Vas'co  da  Ga'mx.    See  Qaua,  Vasco  da. 

Vas'culu  Tls'sne,  in  plants,  the  fibrovascu- 
lar  system,  composed  of  vessels  and  ducts.  See 
HisToioox. 

Vase  (vfis  or  vfiz),  an  ornamental  vessel, 
usually  of  pottery  and  of  greater  height  than 
breadth.  The  earliest  Greek  vases  are  those 
exhumed  by  Scbliemann  at  Hassarlik.  They 
are  rudely  made  ampul  lis  or  two-handled 
vases,  made  of  clay,  some  roughly  shaped  to 
resemble  natural  objects.  Vases  from  Cyprus 
and  the  Mgenn  Islands  are  somewhat  flner, 
often  ornamented  and  roughly  paint«d.  §ome 
of  them  are  thought  to  dat«  from  between 
the  twentieth  and  fifteenth  centuries  B.C.  My- 
cennan  ware,  ornamented  with  painted  geo- 
metrical designs,  was  the  most  popular  till, 
between  650  and  300  B.C.,  there  arose  in  Athena 
tiie   great   art   of   black-flgure   and    red-figure 

Bttery.  Figures,  mainly  mythologies  1,  were 
id  on  in  a  lustrous  black  varnish  whose  com- 
position is  now  imknown.  The  vases  oma-. 
mented  with  red  flgurea  came  later,  and  show 


VASELINE 

greater  artistic  ekill.  Atmnt  the  time  o{  Alex- 
ander the  Great  the  making  of  the  finest  vaAes 
paaaed  from  Athens,  and  Apulia  became  the 
center  for  ampbone,  or  wine  flasks,  of  huge 
size,  magnificent  shape,  and  rich  coloring.  The 
Lucanian  and  Campanian  red-figure  vasea  were 
of  distinct  type  and  ornament,  but  inferior  to 
the  Apulian.  Murrine  vases,  i.e.,  vasea  made 
of  murra.  supposed  to  be  porcelain  or  irides- 
cent glass,  were  highly  esteemed  bj  the  Bo- 
mans.  The  Komana  imported  artistic  vasea 
from  the  Etruscans,  and  many  of  these  vasea 
have  come  down  to  us.  At  Arretium  most  of 
the  coarser  kinds  were  made.  Cameo  vases, 
of  which  the  Portiaod  or  Barberine  vase  is  a 
celebrated  example,  were  made  of  two  layers 
of  glass,  the  outer  layer  being  opaque  and  cut 
down  to  form  figures  in  relief.  The  vaaes  of 
the  beat  classical  period  were  of  delicate  pro- 
portions and  fine  strong  lines,  ornament  being 
subordinated  to  use,  and  only  in  the  earliest 
times  and  later,  when  the  art  degenerated, 
were  the  vases  molded  into  resemfa  lances  of 
natural  objects.  Among  Asiatics  the  Chii 
and  Japanese  vasea  of  jade  or  porcelain 
noted  for  elegance  and  ornamentation.  Since 
the  fifteenth  century  Venice  has  produced  glass 
vasea  of  high  excellence.  The  modern  artistic 
development  of  vasea  is  typified  in  the  mag- 
nificent works  of  Sevres,  France;  in  the  Doul- 
ton  ware  of  England,  and  such  artistic  prod- 
ucts as  the  Rookwood  ware  of  the  U.  8. 

Vaa'eliiie,  a  name  given  to  a  product  ob- 
tained from  petroleum  after  the  lighter 
hydrocarbons  are  driven  off,  and  composed  of 
a  mixture  of  paraffins.  It  is  used  as  a  base 
for  ointments,  pomades,  cold  cream,  etc,  and 
for  coating  aurgical  instruments  and  steel  sur- 
faces generally  to  protect  them  from  rust. 

Vasaar  Col'lege,  an  institution  at  Pough- 
keepsie,  N.  Y. ;  founded  by  Matthew  Vaaaar  in 
1861,  and  opened  to  students  in  1865.  It  was 
the  first  amply  endowed  and  adequately  or- 
ganized college  for  women.  The  original  gift 
was  $428,000,  expended  for  buildings  and  other 
equipments.  The  buildings  are  in  the  midat  of 
about  600  acres  of  land,  much  of  which  is  laid 
out  as  a  park.  The  main  building,  which  ia 
600  ft.  in  length,  is  modeled  after  the  Tuileriea. 
It  is  3  m.  from  the  Hudson,  and  ia  connected 
with  the  river  by  an  electric  railway.  In  1910 
there  were  101  inatructora  and  1,044  students. 
The  library  contains  60,000  volumes. 

Vat'ic<a  Cctu'cil,  the  twentieth  ecumenical 
council  of  the  Boman  Catholic  Church,  held  in 
St.  Peter'a  in  Rome,  December  S,  180D,  to  Sep- 
tember 1,  1670.  It  defined  the  doctrine  of  the 
church  concerning  God  the  Creator,  revelation, 
the  nature  of  faith,  and  the  relation  between 


THg.IllPIIITTI 


E  Pope. 


Vatican  Pal'ace,  the  official  reaidence  of  the 

Bipes  aince  the  fifteenth  century.  The  Vatican 
ill  waa  not  included  in  ancient  Rome,  and  the 
earliest  wall  that  inclosed  it  was  built  under 
Pope  Leo  IV  about  850  A.D.  Before  that  time 
the  popes  had  a  villa  on  this  site  because  of 
its  nearness  to  the  Basilica  of  St.  Peter.    Their 


VAUCANSON 

official  residence  was  the  Lateran  Palace. 
When  Gr^ory  XI  (1370-78)  returned  to  Rome 
from  Avignon  the  Lateran  was  in  a  ruinous 
condition,  and  since  then  the  Vatican  bos  gen- 
erally been  the  papal  residence  and  the  meeting 
pl.ice  of  the  conclave  for  the  election  of  new 
popea.  Under  Nicholas  V  |1447-55)  the  re- 
building of  the  palace  began  in  a  serious  fash- 
ion and  on  a  large  scale,  and  was  continued 
under  later  popes.  The  entire  mass  of  build- 
ings, inclosing  and  fronting  on  twenty  different 
courta  and  roughly  computed  to  contain  11,000 
rooms,  has  no  exterior  architectural  efTect,  but 
seems  an  accidental  gathering  of  buildings  of 
different  characters.  It  contains,  however, 
much  architectural  display  in  the  buildi))gs  on 
the  courts  and  in  the  interiors  of  halls  and 
gsllericH,  and  is  noted  for  the  wall  paintings, 
such  as  thoae  by  Perugino,  Signorelli,  Botticelli, 
Roaxelli,  Ghirlandajo,  and  Michelangelo  in  the 
Siatine  Chapel;  those  by  Raphael  and  hia  pupils 
in  the  Stanze  di  RalTaello;  and  by  Giovanni  da 
Udine  and  by  Raphael  himself  and  his  other 
pupils  in  the  loggie  on  the  Court  of  S.  Da- 
maso.  The  palace  contains  the  largest  collec- 
tion of  classical  statuary  in  Europe,  although 
most  of  the  pieces  are  Roman  copies  of  Greek 
originals.  There  is  an  Etruscan  museum  of  tn- 
tereat  and  a  small  Egyptian  museum.  The 
picture  gallery  contains  few  works,  although 
they  are  of  great  importance.  The  tapestries  in 
the  Galleria  dc^li  Aram  are  notable.  Ancient 
maps  of  interest  are  contained  in  the  Galleria 
Geografica.  The  library  is  famous  for  ita  mag- 
nificent collection  of  manuscripts  and  its  rare 
early  printed  books.  In  connection  with  the 
library  ia  an  immense  collection  of  gems  and 
amalL  objects  of  value,  Chriatian  antiquitiea, 
and  objects  of  art  presented  to  different  popes 
by  sovereigns  and  others.  The  papal  manufac- 
tory of  mosaic  ia  also  contained  in  the  palace. 

Vauban  (vfi-MA'),  Sebastien  Leprestre  (Mar- 
quis de),  1633-1707;  French  military  engineer. 
He  enlisted  under  the  rebellious  Prince  de 
Condf  in  1651,  but  resumed  hia  allegiance  to 
the  king,  and  in  1655  became  a  royal  engineer. 
He  invented  the  bastioned  system  of  fortifica- 
tion and  the  use  of  parallels  in  sieges  and  of 
the  ricochet  fire.  In  1667  he  waa  wounded  at 
the  siege  of  Douai.  During  the  invasion  of  Hoi' 
land,  he  took  Maestricht  and  other  strongholds 
(1673-76)  by  means  of  his  new  system  of  at- 
tack. In  1677  he  captured  Valenciennes  and 
Cambrai,  and  became  commissary  general  of 
fortifications.  In  the  war  against  the  Lea^e 
of  Augsburg,  he  took  Phillipsburg,  Mannheim, 
Mons,  Kamur,  and  other  towns  (1683-03),  and 
in  1703  he  was  made  marshal.  He  devised  and 
nearly  completed  a  strong  line  of  fortresses  to 
protect  the  frontiers  and  coasts  of  fYance,  con- 
structed aqueducts  and  moles,  and  laid  out  and 
improved  numerous  seaports.  His  system  of 
aittacking  a  fortified  place  by  regular  *?■ 
proachea  stiil  prevails.  His  principal  military 
writings  comprise  hia  celebratM  "  Trait*  de  I'at-  ■ 
taque  et  de  la  defense  des  places  "  and  "  Traitfi 
dea  minea  "  and  "  Traitfi  des  siSges." 

VancansoD  (vd-kHA-sOA'),  Jacqnes  de,  1700- 
82;  French  mechanician.  ITie  statue  of  the 
"  Flnte  Player  "  in  the  gardens  o(  the  T 


■ilk  manufacturea,  uid,  being  attacki 
Lyona  workmen  for  his  improvemenU  in  ma- 
chinei7,  constructed  an  automaton  aaa  weaving 
flowered  aillu. 

VanOeTiUe  (vOd'vll),  believed  to  be  from 
1*8  Vavuc  de  Vire,  two  ralleTs  in  Normandy, 
where  dwelt  Olivier  Baaielin  in  the  fifteenth 
centuiy;  a  name  at  first  applied  to  Batirical 
aongB  relating  to  current  events,  for  the  compo- 
sition ol  which  Olivier  Baseelin  was  famoue. 
The  name  is  now  applied  to  a  light  dramatic 
entertainment  interapersed  with  muuc,  and 
having  humorous  or  satineal  alludonB  to  top- 
ics of  the  daj. 
Vandois.  Bee  WAisEnBUit  Cbuich. 
Vanchan  (v&n),  HnbVTt,  1932-1003;  Eng- 
Uah  cardinal;  b.  at  Gloucester;  entered  the 
priesthood,  and  ordained  ISM;  vice  president 
of  St  Edmund's  College  until  1862;  founded  St. 
Joseph's  Missionary  CoU^ce  at  Mill  Hill,  Mid- 
dlesex, ]8flO,  and  ita  president  general  until 
1903;  elected  Bishop  of  Balford;  succeeded  Car- 
dinal Manning  aa  Archbishop  of  Westminster, 
1S92;  called  to  Rome  in  1893  to  be  created  a 
cardinal,  lie  twice  visited  the  U.  S.  in  connec- 
tion with  his  missionary  work.  He  was  the 
proprietor  of  the  Tablet  and  of  The  Dublin 
Itevicw  and  prominent  in  temperance  and  res- 
Vault,  a  roof  or  ceiling  built  of  solid  blocks 
kept  in  place  mutually  on  the  principle  of  the 
arch.  There  is  no  difference  except  of  extent 
between  an  arch  and  a  vault,  but  the  mere  fact 
of  greater  extent  causes  the  existence  of  varie- 
ties in  the  vault.  Thus  a  cupola  or  dome  is  a 
vault,  but  is  different  in  character  from  an 
arch  in  an  ordinary  wall.     See  Cbivt. 


Tccetlis,  Tifiano.     See  Titian. 
Ye'da.    See  Sanskkit  Litebaiube. 

Vedan'ta,  the  Brahmanical  philosophy  found- 
ed upon  the  Upanishads  as  scripture  or  revela- 
tion (see  Sanskrit  Litebatube).  Aa  a  ays- 
item,  it  probably  originated  about  the  beginning 
of  our  era.  The  principal  object  of  the  Upan- 
ishads is  the  inquiry  after  the  One  Eteinal,  or 
Brahman,  and  the  statement  of  the  proposition 
that  the  innermost  self  of  the  individual  ia  iden- 
tical with  that  all-pervading  power. 

The  Vedanta,  like  all  the  philosophical  sys- 
tema  of  India,  baa  for  its  object  the  rclcaae  of 
the  soul  from  the  bonda  of  corporeal  existence 
itnd  the  teaching  of  the  means  of  escape  from 
the  distressfui  round  of  rebirth.  Since  the  sev- 
enth century  B.C.  all  Aryan  India,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  matertalista,  or  Charvakas,  baa 
been  under  the  influence  of  the  general  belief  in 
the  transmigration  of  eoula  (aamaara),  and 
in  the  after  effect  of  deeds  in  one  exiatence  as 
determining  destiny  in  another  (karma).  Ac- 
(.■ording    to    the    Vedanta,    the    only    rdeose 


TEOBTABLS  RtKQDOH 

(mufcti  or  mokslia)  from  this  endlev  rousd 
of  birth  and  death  is  to  be  won  by  the  attain- 
ment of  knowledge,  or  jSana. 


whom  about  200  were  wild,  the  remainder  be- 
ing partly  civilized.  The  interMt  in  them  lies 
in  the  fact  that  they  are  one  of  the  rare  rem- 
nants of  the  primitive  types  of  mankind.  They 
are  small  (men  6  ft.  2  in.,  women  4  ft  10  in.), 
brown,  with  undulating  hair;  the  capacity,  of 
the  skull  is  remarkably  small,  but  the  profile 
is  straight  and  fine.  The  wild  Veddahi  are 
clever  archers,  live  by  hunting,  have  the  Am- 
plest dwellings,  and  wear  little  or  no  clothing. 
The  internal  government  is  patriarchal.  The 
Veddaha  make  good  husbands  and  fathers,  and 
are  docile,  som^r,  hospitable,  courageous,  hon- 
est, contented,  very  truthful,  jealous,  and  vin- 
dictive— on  the  whole,  much  more  like  Bous- 
seau's  idealized  primitive  man  than  like  the 
conventional  savage.  They  form  the  aubject 
of  a  considerable  literature,  some  of  it  fanciful 
and  apocryphaL 

Ved'der,  Elfho,  1830-  ;  American  paint- 
er; b.  New  York;  pupil  of  Picot,  Paris;  Na- 
tional Academician,  1S6S;  honorable  mention, 
Paris  Exposition,  1889,  He  went  to  Italy  in 
1950,  and  has  resided  almost  continuoualy  in 
Borne  since  then.  He  illustrated  "The  Buhsi- 
yat "  of  Omar  Khayyam,  and  his  decorative 
work  shows  fertility  of  invention.  Among  his 
best-known  pictures  are  "  The  Lair  of  the  Sea 
Serpent,"  "Young  Marsyas,"  "  Cumtean  Sibyl," 
and  "Good  and  Bad  Government,"  the  last  in 
the  Library  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Vega  (v&'^),  Lope  de  (Lope  Felix  db  Vbga 
Cabpio),  160Z-1S35;  Spanish  dramatist  He 
left  the  Royal  College  of  Madrid  to  serve  against 
the  Portuguese,  and  afterwards  beoome  secre- 
tary to  Duke  Antonio  de  Alva,  but  was  impria- 
oned  on  account  of  a  duel  and  exiled.  In  1G88 
he  joined  Pliilip  ll's  armada  against  England. 
Having  lost  his  second  wife,  he  became  a  priest 
in  ie09,  and  in  1G28  was  chief  chaplain  to  a 
congregation  in  Kladrid.  He  produced  moat  of 
his  piecea  during  his  connection  with  the 
Church.  His  fertility  and  rapidity  of  execution 
were  marvelous.  He  wrote  about  1,800  plays, 
several  epics,  prose  romances,  etc.  His  dramat- 
ic genius  embraced  the  whole  range  of  the  art 
Ha  founded  the  Spanish  national  drama. 
Among  his  best-known  piecea  are  "  Los  tres 
dimantes,"  "  La  fuerza  lastimosa,"  "  La  dia- 
creta  enamorada,"  "  La  dama  melindrosa," 
and  "  El  padre  engallado." 


Veg'etable  Eing'dom,  the  plant  world:  tVe 
aggregate  of  organiama  called  plants.  It  is 
coiirdmate  with  the  animal  kingdom,  and  these 
tivo  include  all  the  forma  of  organic  life  on  the 
earth.  The  vast  asaemblage  of  plants  constitut- 
ing the  vegetable  kingdom  includes,  accordinT 
to  estimates  made  by  8accard'>,  about  400.000 
species,  less  than  half  of  which  have  been  de- 
scribed- The  six  branches  are  Prolopkyla 
I  Protophytes,  water  slimes ) ,  Phyeopl^ta 
(Phycopliytes),  Carpopkyla  (Carpophytes), 
Dryophyta   (Bryophytes,  moNWorta),  Fttriio- 


VEGETABLE  flTT.tf 

phjfta  (Pt«ridoph7tta,  feniworta),  Anthophylo 
( Anthophy  tee,     flowering     plants ) .     8«e     also 

BOTAKY, 

Vegetable  Silk.    See  Silk,  Vkgciablk. 
Vcgetsble  Wax.    Sea  Wax,  VnrTABLK. 

VeKeta'iUniBm,  a  view  according  to  which 
Testable  lubstAiicee  ought  to  form  the  «ole 
food  of  man,  while  the  use  of  animal  aub- 
■taucea,  or  at  least  of  meat  proper,  ought  to 
be  avoided  in  the  diet  as  something  wrong, 
both  phTBiologieally  and  moral)  j.  Maitf  of  the 
ancient  philosophers,  as  Plato,  encouraged  a 
ve^table  diet  as  the  most  suitable  for  the  well- 
bemg  of  man,  phydcailj  and  morally;  and 
«ome  of  them,  as  Pythagoras,  absolutely  for- 
bade the  use  of  animal  feud.  In  modem  times 
the  view  found  advocates  in  Rousseau,  Shelley, 
and  others,  and  in  1847  a  society  for  the  prop- 
agation of  vegetarianism  was  formed  at  Man- 
cherter,  England.  A  similar  sodety  was  formed 
in  the  U.  S.  in  1860. 

Vegetarians  claim  that  abstaining  from  meat 
lessens  the  liability  to  disease,  has  a  calming 
effect  on  the  mind,  and  prolongs  life.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  highest  races  of  mankind  have 
lived  on  a  mixed  diet,  and  the  anatomy  of  the 
human  teeth,  stomach,  and  intestines  indicates 
that  a  mixed  diet  is  the  natural  one  for  man. 
The  cheapness  of  vegetarian  diet  is  a  strong 
point  in  its  favor.  To  obtain  all  the  albumi- 
nates necessary  from  a  vegetable  diet,  a  great 
excess  of  starch  must  be  eaten,  and,  furtJier, 
vegetable  albuminates  are  not  as  readily  di- 
gested as  flesh  albuminates.  It  is  said  that  a 
wholly  vegetable  diet  produces  hardening  of 
the  arteries  and  premature  old  age. 

Vehicles.     See  Cakruoes. 
Yeh'inic  Conrt.    See  Fkhmic  Coubt. 
Veins,  the  companion  vessels  to  the  arteries, 
distributed  throughout  the  body  to  return  the 
venous  or  impure  blood  from  the  extremities, 
surfaces,  and  viscera  to  the 
right  auricle  of  the  heart, 
and  the  purified  blood  from 
the  lungs  to  the  left  auri- 
cle.   They  are  membranous 
canals,    essentially    devoid 
□f    elasticity    and   without 
pulsation.   They  arise  from 
venous     capillaries     which 
collect  from  the  tissues  the 
blood   recently   brought   to 
them  by  the  arterial  capil- 
laries. These  venous  capilla- 
ries unite  to  form  ultimate 
"  "  veins,    which     still     again 

Valves  or  Veins,  imite,  and  form  successive- 
A.  valve  open;  B,  \y  larger  branches  and 
vshre  doMd.  trunks    as    they    approach 

the  center  of  the  circula- 
tion. The  motion  of  venous  blood  is  secured  in 
part  by  the  power  of  the  capillary  chemieo- vital 
nutritive  processes,  in  part  by  the  pressure  of 
the  moving  muscles  and  viscera  between  which 
the  veins  are  imbedded,  bhe  veins  being  provid- 
•d  with  valves  which  admit  of  blood  currents 
toward  the  heart,  but  not  tha  revsne.    Blood 


flows  from  A  cut  vctn  in  a  steady  stream,  not 
in  spurts,  as  it  does  from  a  cut  artery.  Veins 
have  three  coats — internal,  middle,  and  extet^ 
naL     The  veins  are  not  uniform,  symmetrical 


Thb  CmCDtxTioN  or  the  Blood^  the  Bodt.  The 
tmivB  ihow  the  direclioD  of  flow.  Ths  black  chso- 
nels  are  tha  tods,  and  the  unihaded  ths  artorie* 
(eicopt  Noi.  10  uid  12).  I  ii  th«  Icf t  lide  of  besrt; 
2.  the  riaht  aide;  3.  the  aorta  from  the  left  ventricle; 
t,  artery  to  abdomen:  S,  capillariaa;  S,  vain  from 
abdomen;  7,  artery  to  head;  8.  capiUarin;  B.  vein 
from  bead;  10,  artery  from  tl^t  ventricle  to  lungs; 
II.  the  lungs;  12,  vein  from  lungg  to  left  nuricle;  13, 
artery  to  inteelinee;  14.aiiialllii(«tine;  16.  capillaries 
aad  veinA  from  inlefltlnee  carrying  away  digsled 
food;  10.  portal  vdn;  17,  artery  to  liver;  18.  liver; 
19,  vdn  from  liver;  20,  lacteali;  21,  duct  leading  to 
vein  gcriog  to  tha  heart  by  whioh  some  abeorbed 
mBtariBl  ii  taken  into  dnjulation;  22,  artery  to  the 
kidaeyg;  23.  the  kidnayi;  24,  vein  from  the  kidneys. 

cylinders,  like  the  arteries,  but  have  pouches 
or  sinuses  adjacent  to  the  valves,  so  that  a 
vein  distended  resembles  a  bamboo  stick  with 
bulbous  or  knotted  joints.  The  veins,  like  the, 
arteries,   have  nutrient   veoaels  in  their  walla. 


VELASQUEZ 

The  vans  of  bones  are  termed  (dnuBes,  their 
out«r  coat  bein^  replaced  b7  the  flbroua  lining 
of  the  bone,  aa  in  the  great  unuaes  of  the  skull. 
The  vcnouB  blood  returned  bj  the  veins  from 
above  the  region  of  the  heart  is  united  in  one 
Kreat  vein,  the  vena  cava  euperior,  all  front 
below  entering  by  the  vena  cava  inferior. 
The  vena  azygos  collects  the  blood  from  the 
chest  walls  and  other  atructureB-  which  does 
not  flow  into  either  of  the  vena  cava.  The 
portal  vein  re<?eivea  tbe  venoua  blood  from  the 
inteatinea  and  conveya  it  to  the  liver.  The  pul- 
monary vein  and  branches  go  from  the  lungs  to 
the  left  auricle  of  the  heart,  carrying  the  Uood 
that  baa  been  revivified  by  the  oxygen  of  in- 
spired air.  See  Abteby;  Cibcowtio.n  of  the 
Blood, 

VelasqaeE  (vfi-Us'keth),  DiegD  Sodrignei  de 
SIlv*  y,  Ifi9e-ise0;  Spanish  painter.  He 
studied  under  the  elder  Herrara  and  Francisco 
Pacheco  at  Seville,  but  was  mainly  self-taught. 
His  chief  model  was  a  peasant  boy,  whom  he 
painted  in  his  rags  in  every  variety  of  exprea- 
aion  and  attitude;  and  he  excelled  in  atill  life. 
A  well'known  specimen  of  bis  early  worlca, 
"  The  Water  Carrier,"  is  at  Apaley  House,  Lon- 
don. In  IR22  he  went  to  Madrid,  and,  hia  por- 
trait of  Philip  IV  being  greatly  admired,  he 
was  appointed  court  painter.    In  162T  his  "  Ex- 

Eulsion  of  the  Moriscos  from  Spain "  gained 
Im  the  appointment  of  usher  of  the  chamber. 
His  finest  works  include  the  celebrated  "  Meni- 
nas,"  representing  the  Infanta  Margarita  and 
her  maids  of  honor,  which,  in  respect  to  aGrial 
and  linear  perspective,  local  color,  and  animal 
and  human  life,  is  held  to  be  almost  unrivaled. 
He  was  appointed  chief  chamberlain  in  1662, 
and  afterwards  painted  but  little.  The  Boyal 
Gallery  in  Madnd  contains  about  sixty  of  nis 
works,  compridng  portraits,  history,  genre,  and 
landscape,  in  all  of  which  lie  was  equally  great. 
Vellum.  See  Pabchmest. 
Velocipede  (vS-lfia'I-ped),  originally  a  vehi- 
cle invented  in  1816  by  Baron  Draia  de  Sauer- 
brunn,  of  Mannheim,  consisting  of  a  seat  rest- 
ing upon  two  wheels,  one  before  the  other.  The 
rider  sat  astride  the  seat  and  propelled  the  ve- 
hicle by  striking  the  ground  with  hb  toes. 
I.ater  velocipedes  were  propelled  by  the  action 
of  the  feet  upon  a  crank  attached  to  the  axle 
of  the  forward  wheel.  Velocipedes  are  now 
called  unicycles,  bicycles,  tricycles,  or  quadri- 
cyclea,  according  to  the  number  of  wheels  (see 
BiCYCLK) .  Few  things  are  more  puzzling  to 
the  ordinary  observer  than  the  self-balancing 
of  the  bicycle.  The  principle  by  which  the 
skilled  rider  sustains  himself  is  illustrated  by 
reference  to  the  eifperiment  of  balancing  a  long 
pole  in  a  vertical  position  on  the  end  of  tbe 
finger.  The  equilibrium  of  a  pole  thua  balanced 
{supposing  it  to  be  perfectly  so,  which  it  never 
is)  is  unstable;  but  in  its  almost  vertical  (or 
balanced)  position  the  motion  of  fall  is  ex- 
tremely slow;  the  holder  is  easily  able  to  detect 
it,  and  to  move  bis  finger  to  counteract  it  Tbe 
process  for  the  bicycle  is  not  identical,  but 
analogous;  the  experienced  rider  feels  the 
tendency  of  the  vehicle  to  fall  either  way, 
and  by  an  acquired  habit,  which  becomes 
instinctive,    checks    it    through    the    guiding 


itrifugaT  force  due  to  tbe  deflection  of  his 
moving  velocity  thua  brought  into  action 
counteracts  each  incipient  falling  tendency. 
Perhaps  it  would  be  more  proper  to  say  that 
what  is,  in  statics  (without  motion),  a  posi- 
tion of  unstable  equilibrium  is  msjde  kmet- 
ically   (i.e.,  through  motion)   stable. 

Veloc'ity.  See  Atwood'b  Machine;  Gbav- 
ITi,  LiQHT,  etc. 

Vel'vet,  a  rich  silk  stuff,  covered  on  tha 
outside  with  a  close,  abort,  fine,  soft  shag  or 
nap.  In  this  fabric  the  warp  ia  passed  over 
wires  so  as  to  make  a  row  of  loops  which  pro- 
ject from  the  backing,  and  are  thus  left,  by 
withdrawing  the  wire,  tor  an  uncut  or  pile  vel- 
vet, but  are  cut  with  a  sharp  tool  to  make  a 
cut  velvet.  Florence  and  Genoa  have  been 
long  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  velvet,  but 
Lyons,  in  France,  is  now  its  principal  seat. 
Cotton  and  woolen  fabrics  woven  in  this  man- 
ner are  called  velveteen  and  plush,  respectively. 

VendSe  (vBft-da') ,  La,  department  of  France; 
bordering  W.  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay;  area,  2,690 
aq.  m.  The  coast  is  either  sandy  or  occupied  by 
salt  marshes,  from  which  it  has  received  tha 
name  of  Marais.  The  N.  part,  the  Bocage,  is 
more  elevated,  but  the  ground  ia  covered  either 
with  heath  or  with  pine  forest  The  rest  of  the 
department,  tbe  Ploine,  is  fertile  land,  suited  to 
agriculture.  In  spite  of  all  diaadyantages, 
both  the  Marais  and  the  Bocage  are  well  peo- 


fruit,  and  hops  in  the  latter,  and  wine  in  both 
diatricta.  In  the  Plaine  much  wine,  wheat,  and 
fruit  are  produced,  and  many  cattJe  are  fat- 
tened for  the  Paris  market.  Iron  and  coal  ara 
found.  La  Vendee  is  noted  for  the  vigorous 
resistance  offered  by  its  inhabitants  to  the 
revolution.  Devoted  to  the  Church  and  the 
Bourbon  monarchy,  the  peasantry  broke  out  in 
revolt  on  March  10,  1793,  and,  headed  by  Cath- 
elineau  and  La  Rochejaquelin,  were  Tictorious 
at  every  point  till  Kl^ber  and  Marceau  took  the 
field  against  them  with  a  large  army.  At  La 
Mans  they  were  defeated,  and  after  December, 
1703,  ceased  to.be  formidable.  A  second  revolt 
broke  out  in  IT95,  but  was  put  down  by  Hoche. 
During  the' Hundred  Days  they  supported  the 
restored  Bourbon  monarchy,  but  were  held  in 
check  by  Napoleon's  general  Lamarque.  Pop. 
(1906)442,777.    CapiUl,  La  Boche  sur  Yon. 

VendSmiaire  (vBii-dii-niyilr'),  meaning  "vint- 
age"; in  the  French  revolutionary  calendar  the 
period  from  September  23d  to  October  21st.  It 
waa  tbe  first  month  in  the  revolutionary  year. 

Vendet'ta,  a  feud  or  condition  of  private 
war  in  which  the  nearest  kinsman  assumes  the 
duty  of  avenging  an  injury  to  a  member  of  the 
family.  The  term  originated  in  Corsica,  where 
it  haa  played  an  important  part  in  social  life. 
When  a  murder  has  been  committed,  the  mui^ 
derer  ia  pursued  not  only  by  the  officers  of  jus- 
tice, but  also  by  the  relatives  of  the  slain,  upon 
I    social   duty   imposes   the   obligation   of 


venij6me 

be  taken  whenever  s.d  opportunity  oeeun,  the 
relatives  of  a  murderer  whose  crime  is  uD- 
avenged  hftve   to   tive  in  a  state   of  inceesant 

SrecautioQ.  Similar  customH  have  marked  the 
istory  of  every  civilized  nation,  and  are  still 
to  be  found  among  the  less  advanced  peoples, 
such  as  the  Montenegrins,  Albanians,  Druses, 
Bedouins,  etc 

VendOme  (v&A-dOm'),  an  ancient  countship 
of  Prance,  founded  at  the  end  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tvty.  The  most  important  members  follow: 
C^SAR  (Duke  de),  1594-1666;  French  prince, 
eldest  son  of  Henry  IV  by  Qabrielle  d'Eiitr&'9. 
He  was  le^timated  in  his  infancy  and  made 
Duke  of  VendAme.  Durioff  the  reign  of  his 
half  brother,  Louis  XIII,  be  conspired  with 
ChaUis  against  Richelieu  (1626),  and  nas  in- 
carcerated for  four  years  and  banished.  After 
Bichelieu's  death  he  was  a  favorite  of  the 
Queen  Itegent,  Anne  of  Austria,  till  be  took  an 
active  part  in  the  Frnndc.  In  1660.  having  re- 
turned to  hia  allegiance,  he  waa  made  Governor 
of  Burgundy.  In  1C53  he  took  Bordeaux  from 
the  Frondeurs,  and  in  16S5,  as  grand  admiral, 
defeated  the  Spanish  fleet  of!  Barcelona. 
Louis  (Duke  dc),  his  eon,  1612-60,  became  in 
164S  viceroy  and  commander  in  Catalonia.  He 
marriedin  1051  Laura lIancini,Mazarin's  niece, 
on  whose  death  {1057}  he  became  a  priest,  was 
made  cardinal  and  papal  Icjjate  in  France. 
His  brother  Frangoia  "'as  the  celebrated  Duke 
of  Beaufort.  IjOTHB  Joseph  (Duke  de),  eon  of 
the  preceding,  16.)4-1712.  He  distinguished 
himself  in  Alsace  under  Turenne  and  in  Flan- 
ders under  Crfiqui,  and  was  Governor  of  Pro- 
vence, ICdl.  He  became  chief  commander  in 
Catalonia  in  1605,  and  took  Barcelona  after  a 
siege  in  1607.  In  the  War  of  the  Spanish  Sue- 
cession,  as  commander  against  Prince  Eugene, 
he  saved  himself  in  1702  frum  a  disastrous  de- 
feat at  Lii^zara  by  generalship  and  intrepidity. 
After  gaining  several  victories  in  1705-6,  he 
became,  in  170^,  commander  in  Flanders  under 
the  Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  was  defeated  by 
Euf^ne  and  ilarlboruugh  at  Oudenarde.  In 
ITIO  he  came  to  the  rescue  of  Philip  Y,  carry- 
ing him  back  to  Madrid,  captured  at  Bribuega 
an  English  corps  under  Stanhope,  and  won  at 
Villaviciosa,  December  10th,  a  decisive  victory 
over  Stahremberg. 

Teneei'ing,  in  cabinetwork,  the  art  of  layinj^ 
thin  leaves  (usually)  of  some  valuable  wood  or 
other  material  upon  a  foundation  of  inferior 
material.  It  was  known  to  the,  Romans,  and 
is  referred  to  by  Pliny  as  a  novelty.  The  plates 
-were  formerly  sawn  by  hand,  but  in  1806  Bru- 
nei introduced  a  method  of  splItUng  them  from 
straight-grained  wood,  and  employed  circular 
saws  for  carved  and  knotted  wood.  Venecra 
of  ivory  and  bone  are  also  used.  The  finer 
processes  are  called  marquetry  and  buhlwork. 

Veneiac'lB,  officially  Estadob  Unidos  db  Yb- 

KBZUELA,    "  CnITZD   STATES    OF   VENSZUELA,"    a 

republic  in  the  N.  part  of  S.  America  ;  bounded 
N.  by  the  Caribbean  Sea,  NE.  by  the  Atlantic, 
E.  by  British  Oniana,  S.  by  Bmzil,  and  W.  by 
Colombia;  area,  693,943  sq.'m.  Venezuela  is  di- 
vided into  four  regions:  (I)  The  mountainous 
belt  of  the  N.  and  NW.,  including  the  lowlands 
around  Lake  Maracaibo;  this  ia  the  farming 


VISNKZtlEV*. 

(one^  and  eontaina  five  idxths  of  tbe  vMliied 

population.  The  highaat  peak  is  Sierra  Ne- 
vada de  Merida ( 1S,400  ft'.).  The  region  is  sub- 
ject to  earthquakes,  and  baa  many  hot  springs. 
(2)  The  lianos,  a  broad  belt  hardly  above  aaa 
level,  between  the  mountains  and  the  Orinoco; 
thinly  settled  by  supporting  vast  herds  of  cat- 
tle. Swamp  fever  and  dysentery  are  eommon 
in  the  rainy  season.  (3)  The  wooded  plains  of 
tbe  SW.,  with  few  civilized  inhabitants,  but 
rich  in  rubber  and  other  natural  products. 
(4)'  The  highlands  of  Venemelan  Guiana,  set- 
tled only  near  the  Orinoco,  with  depoeita  of 
gold  near  the  frontier,  a  temperate  and  healthy 
climate,  and  but  one  town,  Angostura,  on  the 
Orinoco. 

The  climate  varies  greatly;  the  higher  lands 
are  generally  temperate  and  healthy,  while  the 
coast  and  the  basin  of  Lake  Maracaibo  are 
among  the  hottest  regions  in  S.  America.  The 
plants  and  animals  resemble  the  forms  found 
in  Brazil.  Jaguars,  tapirs,  various  deer,  etc., 
are  common,  except  in  the  more  settled  r^ions. 
Tbe  fisheries  of  the  coast  and  the  Orinoco  fur- 
nish an  important  food  supply.  Formerly  the 
pearl  fisheries  of  Margnrita.  Cumanft,  etc., 
were  celebrated,  and  the  name  Pearl  Coast 
survives  in  many  maps.  The  forest  products, 
but  little  utilized.  Include  rubber,  vanilla, 
tonka  beans,  varioue  drugs,  and  beautiful  cabi- 
net woods.  The  minerals  are  important.  Gold 
ia  widely  distributed  in  the  highlands,  and 
mines  were  opened  soon  after  the  conquest;  at 
present  the  principal  workings  are  near  Caru- 
pnno,  and  especially  in  ^'cnezuelan  Guiana, 
where  the  mine  called  "  EI  Cnllao"  has  yielded 
over  $3,000,000  a  year.  The  Area  copper 
mines,  70  m.  W.  of  Puerto  Cnbello,  are  worked 
by  a  British  company,  and  other  deposits  are 
reported.  Coal  of  inferior  quality  is  mined 
near  Barcelona.  The  salt  beds  of  the  Araya 
peninsula  have  been  worked  since  the  sixteenth 
century.  Asphalt  is  obtained  near  the  Orinoco 
delta  and  around  Lake  Maracaibo.  Guano, 
phosphate  rock,  jet,  kaolin,  lead,  tin,  etc.,  are 
reported.  The  enlt  minps  are  a  monopoly  of 
the  federal  govemment,  which  controls  concea- 
sions  for  all  mining  enterprises. 

Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry,  but  is 
nlmo.'<t  confined  to  the  N.  mountainous  b^lt; 
tlie  principal  products  are  coffee,  cacao,  and 
tobacco  (or  exportation,  and  maiKe,  yucca, 
sugar,  beans,  etc.,  for  home  consumption. 
Wheat  is  cultivated  on  the  higher  plateaus. 
Agricultural  methods  are  usually  crud^  and 
wasteful.  Sheep  and  goats  are  largely  bred, 
especially  in  the  NW.  districts,  whence  goat 
skins  (known  ns  Curn^oa  kid  skins)  are  ex- 
ported. Tlie  great  herds  on  the  ilanoe  have 
nearly  disappoiircd  twice — during  the  war  for 
independence  and  in  the  civil  wars  of  1858-63 
— but  they  are  now  increasing,  and  the  stock 
has  been  improved.  Manufactures  are  almost 
unknown. 

The  pop.  (IBII)  wa«  2,713.703;  the  civil- 
ized, originally  of  Spanish  origin,  ie  mixed 
with  Indian  blood,  even  in  the  proiiiinpnt  fam- 
ilies. The  negro  element  is  small,  and  con- 
fined to  the  coast  cities.  Civilized  or  semioiv- 
ilizcd  Imtiins  maintain  separate  communities; 
those  of  the  Goajira  peninsula  are  praotioally 


VENEZUELA. 


Independent.  The  wild  tribes 
the  upper  Orinoco  bMin.  Inunigration  here- 
tofore baa  been  scanty.  Am  elsewhere  in  Span- 
ish America,  the  cultivated  and  wealthy  clasB 
is  comparatiTely  small.    Slavery  was  abolished 

Saeeably  in  1B54.  Venezuela  is  composed  of 
irteen  etates,  a  federal  district,  and  five  ter- 
ritories dependent  on  the  federal  government; 
formerly  there  were  twenty  statra.  Cftpital, 
Camcaa  (72,429).  The  government  is  a  fed- 
erative republic,  modeled  after  that  of  the 
U.  S.;  but  the  central  or  state  power  pre- 
ponderates, according  to  the  party  which  is  in 
jtower,  and  frequently  the  presidency  degener- 
ates into  a  dictatorship.  The  president  is 
elected  for  four  years.  Congress  consists  of 
two  houses.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  com- 
mon and,  to  a  certain  extent,  the  state  re- 
ligion, but  other  cults  are  protected.  Primary 
instruction  is  free  and  nominally  obligatory, 
but  about  sevens-five  per  cent  of  the  popula- 
tion is  illiterate.  The  govemment  maintains 
a  university  at  Caracas  and  a  smaller  one  at 
Merida,  several  normal  and  soldiers'  schools, 
academy  of  fine  arts,  nautical  school,  lyceums, 
seminaries  for  girls,  etc  Caracas  has  a  col- 
lege of  engineers,  national  library,  museum, 
and  observatory.  Many  Venezuelana  finish 
their  education  in  Europe. 

The  federal  revenue  is  derived  chiefly  from 
import  duties.  The  entire  foreign  and  domestic 
debt  in  ISIO  was  200,747,000  bolivars,  or  about 
138,750,000,  and,  as  the  revenue  has  frequently 
exceeded  the  expenditures  (including  the  serv- 
ice of  the  debts),  this  amount  could  be  easily 
borne.  Owing,  however,  to  several  defaults 
and  the  lack  of  stability  of  the  gOTemment, 
Venezuelan  bonds  are  generally  far  below  par. 
The  exports  (IBll)  amounted  to  about  tl8,- 
706,000,  and  the  imports  to  $15,476,000.  Coffee 
is  by  far  the  largest  item  of  export,  exceeding 
$8,000,000;  others  are  cacao,  gold,  hide*  and 
skins,  copper  ore,  tonka  beans,  dye  wood,  and 
rubber.  The  countries  holding  most  of  the 
trade  are  England,  the  U.  8.,  Germany,  and 
France.  Much  of  the  coasting  and  river  trade, 
partly  on  vessels  flying  the  Veneiuelan  flag, 
centers  in  the  British  colony  of  Trinidad.  The 
common  roads  are  generally  bad.  Steamboats 
regularly  ascend  the  Orinoco  and  some  of  its 
tributaries.  The  metric  system  of  weights  and 
measures  has  been  adopted. 

The  Veneiuelan  coast  was  discovered  by  Co- 
lumbus, July,  149B,  and  soon  after  was  fre- 
Suented  by  Spanish  traders  and  pearl  fishers.  , 
jeda,  observing  Indian  houses  built  on  piles 
near  Lake  Maracaibo,  fancifully  compared  that 
r^on  to  Venice,  and  called  it  Venezuela  (Lit- 
tle Venice).  Las  Casas  was  granted  the  right 
to  settle  Cumani.,  but  his  missionary  colony 
was  destroyed  by  the  Indians  in  1522.  Soon 
after  Charles  V  farmed  out  the  country  to  a 
German  commercial  house,  the  Welsers;  ex- 
peditions sent  by  them  founded  Coro  (1G2T), 
which  became  the  center  of  exploration.  The 
Indian  tribes  were  destroyed  or  enslaved  dur- 
ing the  next  for^  yee.n ;  Caracas  was  founded 
in  1567.  Then  VeneEuela  was  much  neglected; 
it  was  ruled  by  captains  general  who,  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  were  partly  controlled  by 
the  viceroys  of  New  GnuudA.    Venezuela  was 


one  of  the  first  colonies  to  revolt  from  Spain 
in  1810,  and  independence  was  declared,  1811. 
The  movement,  of  which  Miranda  became  the 
leader,  failed,  partly  owing  to  the  great  earth- 
quake of  March  26,  1B12,  which  destroyed 
Caracas  and  other  cities;  the  patriots  were 
impoverished,  and  many,  supposing  that  the 
disaster  was  a  token  of  divine  wrath,  joined 
the  royalists.  The  war  broke  out  afresh,  the 
colony  uniting  with  New  Granada  in  the  re- 

[lublic  of  Colombia;  the  principal  patriot 
eader  and  first  president  was  the  Venezuelan 
Bolivar  {q.v. ) ,  whose  victory  at  Carabobo, 
June  2S,  1S21,  broke  the  Spanish  power.  In 
1S30,  Venezuela  seceded  from  Colombia.  Ex- 
cept for  transient  revolts  and  a  more  serious 
one  in  1848-49,  the  country  enjoyed  peace  until 
1859;  a  civil  war  then  broke  out  which,  after 
four  years,  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  the 
government  and  the  accession  to  power  of  Pal- 
con  and  bis  successor,  Guzman  Blanco.  The 
boundary  with  British  Guiana  has  long  been 
a  cause  of  dispute  between  Venezuela  and 
Great  Britain.  December  3,  1902,  England  and 
Germany,  and  later  Italy,  in  an  attempt  to 
forcibly  collect  claims,  blockaded  the  ports  of 
Venezuela;  the  whole  matter,  through  the 
mediation  of  the  U.  S.,  was  submitted  to  The 
Hague  tribunal. 
VeneraeU,  Gulf  of.     Bee  MARacaiso,  Odlt 

OF. 

Venice  (vSnls),  city  of  Italy,  once  the  cap- 
ital of  a  powerful  republic;  now  the  chief  town 
of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  on  the  NW. 
part  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  here  called  the  Gulf 
of  Venice.  It  is  built  upon  piles  upon  118 
islets  and  shoals,  streets  being  replaced  by 
canals,  though  the  islands  are  connected  by 
bridges,  and  a  railroad  runs  to  the  city  from 
the  nuinland  over  a  viaduct  2}  m.  long. 
Drinking  water  is  brought  from  the  mainland. 
Canals,  Delia  Oiudecca  and  San  Marco,  divide 
the  city  proper  from  the  island  and  suburb  of 
Oiudecca  and  from  the  island  of  San  Giorgio. 
The  Grand  Canal  divides  the  city  proper  into 
two  parts,  and  is  spanned  by  two  iron  bridges 
erected  in  1864  and  1858,  and  br  the  Rialto 
bridge,  built  of  marble  by  Antonio  da  Ponte, 
158S-01,  and  called  after  the  largest  island 
(isola  del  Rialto,  from  tl  rivo  alto,  the  upper 
stream).  The  great  canal  is  lined  with  mag- 
nificent buildings  at  the  water's  edge,  from 
which  there  is  immediate  access  to  gondolas. 
The  circumference  of  the  city  is  8  m.  The 
finest  part  is  St  Mark's  Place,  576  ft  long 
and  185  to  270  ft  broad,  containing  the  catiie- 
dral  and  the  Doge's  Palace,  bordered  t^  ar- 
cades, and  surrounded  by  stately  edifices. 
Many  of  the  churches  are  remarkable  for  their 
splendor  and  works  of  art.  The  most  impor- 
tant is  St.  Mark's,  on  the  E.  side  of  the  square, 
formerly  the  ducal  chapel,  but  now  superseded 
by  San  Pietro  dt  Caetello  as  the  cathedral.  The 
principal  front  has  500  marble  columns  of  vari- 
ous shapes  and  colors.  Above  the  door  are  tha 
four  bronze  horses,  of  Hellenic  workmanship, 
brought  from  Constantinople  in  1204  by  Dog« 
Dandolo.  The  pinnacles  and  domes  produce  a 
finish  of  exquisite  symmetry. 

The  Doge's  Palace  contama  ttB--m>giiiBoaiit 

1  I  ,X  .oD'Tre 


ogle 


VENICE 

ball  of  the  great  council  (wbldi  now  holdi 
the  famous  libraiy  of  St.  Mark),  and  that  of 
the  formidable  Council  of  Ten.  Among  iti 
Inany  irt  treasures  ia  Tintoretto's  "  Paradise,' 
the  larjrest  oil  painting  in  the  world.  At  iti 
top  (aotti  picrmbi,  under  the  leads),  exposed  to 
Kiorching  heat  in  summer  and  to  cold  in  win. 
ter,  languished  for  a  loug  time  political  and 
other  prisoners  amid  excruciating  aufferings. 
The  Bridge  of  Sighs  (ponte  dei  tospiri)  con- 
nects the  palace  with  the  public  prison.  The 
araendl  and  dockyard,  at  the  E.  end  of  th 
city,  was  long  the  moat  characteristic  moui 
ment  of  the  great  naval  power  of  the  republii 
The  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  includes  one  of  the 
flnest  Italian  picture  galleries.  The  manu- 
factures include  glass  pearls,  beads,  etc. 
(partly  made  on  the  island  of  Murano),  bro- 
cade tapestry,  imitations  of  antique  furniture, 
laee  work  (made  on  the  island  of  Burano], 
machines,  iron  and  bronze  work,  and  gold  and 
silver  ware. 

Early  in  the  fifth  century  th«  Roman  terri- 
tory of  Venetia  was  invaded  by  Attila,  who 
destroyed  the  capital,  Aquileia,  and  burned  the 
other  towns,  massacring  the  inhabitants.  Fugi- 
tives settled  on  the  islands  in  the  lagoons  and 
the  Oulf  of  Venice.  They  were  practically  in- 
dependent, and  were  governed  at  first  by  three 
elected  consuls,  and  afterwards  by  twelve 
tribunes.  The  islands  became  involved  in 
testine  quarrels,  for  which  a  remedy  was  sought 
in  a  single  governing  head;  and,  in  607,  Paolo 
Luca  Anateato  was  chosen  the  first  doge 
(duke).  The  families  of  the  deposed  tribunes 
became  an  aristocracy.  The  seat  of  govern- 
ment was  permanently  fixed  in  SIO  on  the 
island  of  Kialto,  which  became  a  center  of 
tradei  In  829,  according  to  tradition,  the  bones 
of  St.  Mark  were  transferred  from  Alexandria 
to  Venice.  He  became  the  patron  saint,  and 
Venice  was  styled  the  "  Republic  of  St.  Mark.' 
Previous  to  the  first  crusade  the  republic  hai 
acquired  territory  on  the  mainland  of  Italy 
and  in  Dalmatia,  Croatia,  and  Istria,  and  held 
most  of  the  carrying  trade  of  the  world.  In 
1093  she  sent  a  ^reat  fleet  to  aid  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon.  She  joined  the  Lombard  league 
against    the    German    emperor,    and    in    1 177 

fained  a  victory  in  defense  of  Pope  Alexander 
II  over  Otho,  son  of  Frederick  Barbarosoa. 
The  pope  rewarded  the  doge  Ziani  with  a 
ring  for  performing  the  ceremonj'  of  "  marry- 
ing the  Adriatic,"  and  Frederick  was  forced  to 
make  peace  at  a  congress  in  Venice. 

In  1202  the  soldiers  of  the  fourth  crusade 
gathered  here,  assisted  In  suppressing  on  in- 
surrection in  Dalmatia,  and  then  under  the 
lead  of  the  doge  Enrico  Dandolo  stormed  Con- 
stantinople. The  fairest  portion  of  the  Eastern 
Empire,  including  parts  of  the  Peloponnesus, 
Crete,  Eubosa,  and  other  islands,  now  fell  under 
the  sway  of  Venice.  In  1289  the  Inquisition 
was  established,  subject  to  a  civil  power.  Af- 
ter minor  conflicts  with  Genoa,  a  serious  war 
broke  out  on  the  occupation  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Pa)»ologi  with  Genoese  aid  (1261); 
and  until  near  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury the  two  republics  were  often  engaged  in 
desperate  struggles,  and  Venice  was  once 
brought  to  the  verge  of  ruin.  Venice  had  by 
81 F  3: 


VENTRILOQUISM 

gradual  changes  become  an  oligarchy,  end  the 
system  was  completed  by  the  introduction  of 
the  hereditary  nobility  and  its  golden  book, 
and  the  establishment  of  the  Council  of  Ten, 
supreme  in  power,  irresponsible,  and  judges  of 
the  doge  himself.  Among  the  internal  convul- 
sions during  this  period,  the  conspiracy  and 
execution  of  the  doge  Marino  Falieri  in  1355 
is  chiefly  remarkable.  Venice  soon  recuper- 
ated, and  on  the  doge  Mocenigo's  death  in 
1423  she  had  reached  the  climax  of  her  pros- 
perity. During  her  struggles  with  Genoa  she 
made  herself  mistress  of  Treviso  and  other  ter- 
ritories on  the  Italian  mainland,  and,  after  the 
Peace  of  1381,  also  of  Vicenza,  Verona,  and 
Padua.  Under  Mocenigo's  successor,  Francesco 
Foscari,  she  was  engaged  for  about  thirty  years 
in  mostly  successful  wars  with  the  dukes  of 
Milan,  and  for  the  remainder  of  the  centuiy 
with  the  Turks,  with  whom  a  disadvantageous 
peace  was  concluded  in  1603.  Venice  then  had 
a  population  of  200,000. 

During  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  cen- 
turies Venice  was  repeatedly  engaged  in  war 
both   for   and  against  nearly   ever^   European 


in  1540,  and  Candia,  after  a  long  _  __    _ 

1669;  and  in  1715  her  last  hold  on  theilorea 
was  lost.  The  discovery  of  America  and  of  the 
passage  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  had  In 
the  meanwhile  diverted  commerce  from  Venice. 
She  finally  lost  her  national  independence  after 
the  French  occupation  in  1797,  and  by  the 
Peace  of  Campo  Pormlo,  Venice,  with  a  large 
part  of  her  territories,  was  surrendered  by 
Bonaparte  to  Anuria.  By  the  Peace  of  Preaa- 
burg,  1805,  she  was  annexed  to  the  Kingdom 
of  Italy.  After  the  fall  of  Bonaparte  she  was 
restor^  to  Austria  as  part  of  the  Lombardo- 
Venetian  Kingdom.  In  1848,  Venice  revolted 
against  the  Auatrians,  and  under  the  lead  of 
Manin  proclaimed  the  republic;  but,  after  » 
long  siege  and  a  terrible  bombardment,  she 
capitulated,  1840,  and  remained  in  a  state  of 
siege  until  16S4.  After  the  Austro-Prusaian 
War  of  1806,  Venice  and  all  Venetia  were 
ceded  by  Austria  to  Napoleon  III,  who  trans- 
ferred tVe  government  to  the  municipal  au- 
thorities; and  in  October,  out  of  over  650,000 
votes  cast,  all  but  sixty-nine  were  io  favor  of 
anuexHtion  to  the  Italian  Kingdom.  Pop. 
(1911)    160,727. 

Venire  facias  (ve-ni're  fa'shl-as),  or  simply 
Venibe,  an  ancient  common-law  judicial  writ 
directed  to  the  sheriff,  commanding  him  to 
select  and  cause  to  come  {omire  facias  is  Latin 
for  "  cause  to  come  ")  before  the  court  n  num- 
ber of  qualified  citiseus  to  act  as  the  jurors 
at  such  court. 

Tentila'tion.     See  WABiuno  and  Vektili.- 


Ven'tride*.    See  Heart. 

Ventril'oquiim,  literally,  one  who  (appar- 
ently) speaks  from  the  belly;  the  art  of  so 
managing  the  voice  as  to  cause  the  illusion 
tliat  its  origin  is  from  some  other  source  than 
the  vocal  organs  of  the  speaker.  It  was  known 
to  the  ancients,  and  was  prohibited  by  the  law 


VENTCRA 

of  Moses.  Practice  U  all  that  i*  Doeded  to 
acquire  this  art.  The  wordi  uttered  by  the 
ventriloquiat  are  formed  in  preciaely  the  same 
manner  as  in  ordinary  speech,  the  difference 
Gonaisting  mainly  in  the  mode  of  respiration. 
A  Teff  full  inspiration  is  taken,  end  then  the 
air  ia  expired  slowly  through  a  narrowed  glot- 
tis, the  diaphragm  being  kept  in  its  depressed 
condition  and  the  thoracic  muscles  alone  being 
used  to  empty  the  lungs.  At  the  same  time 
the  lips  are  scarcely  moved,  and  the  deception 
is  still  further  facilitated  by  the  attention  of 
the  auditors  bein^  directed  t^  the  object  which 
the  performer  wishes  to  be  regarded  as  the 
source  of  the  voice. 

Ventn'ra,  capital  of  Ventura  Co.,  Cal.;  on 
the  Pacific,  80  m.  WNW.  of  Los  Angeles ;  lef^l 
name  derived  from  a  famoua  old  Spanish  mis- 
BioDi  noted  as  a  shipping  point  for  fruit  and 
beans;  principal  industries,  agriculture  and 
fruit  growing;  equable  climate  and  hot  aprinofs 
have  made  it  a  popular  resort  for  invalida. 
Pop.   <1&10)   2,B45. 

Ven'ne,  originally  the  oeighborhood  or  place 
where  the  facts  which  form  the  basis  of  a  law 
suit  are  alleged  to  have  occurred,  and  from 
which,  therefore,  the  jury  was  to  come  that 
ahould  try  the  issue.  In  the  later  meaning  of 
the  term,  and  the  one  which  it  now  has,  it  de- 
notes the  county  or  jurisdiction  in  which  a 
cause  is  to  be  tried. 


Te'nns,  i 


mythology,  the  goddes 


love,  especially  of  sensual  love.  The  Romans 
identified  her  with  the  Greek  Aphrodite,  and 
adopted  all  the  myths  relating  to  that  goddess. 
Aphrodite  was  among  the  Greeks  one  of  the 
great  Olympian  divinities  an^  the  goddess  of 
love  and  beauty.  They  represented  her  as  hav- 
ing sprung  from  the  foam  of  the  sea.  She  first 
land^  at  Cythera,  and  thence  went  to  Cyprus. 
These  two  islands  were  the  principal  seats  of 
her  worship,  and  from  them  she  was  called  the 
C^herean,  Pa  phi  an,  and  Cyprian  Aphrodite. 
She  was  married  to  Hepbestus  (Vulcan),  the 
ugliest  of  the  gods,  but  had  many  amours  both 
with  other  gods,  especially  Mara,  and  with 
mortals.  Of  special  Roman  interest  was  her 
adventure  with  Anchiaes,  to  whom  she  bore 
jEneas,  the  founder  of  Rome.  The  planet 
Venus  and  the  month  of  April  were  sacred  to 
her.  Venus  was  a  favorite  subject  of  ancient 
sculpture.  The  statues  known  as  the  Venus 
de'  Medici  and  the  Venus  of  Milo  are  among 
the  most  celebrated  works  that  have  been  pre- 
served from  antiquity.  The  former,  exhumed 
In  the  seventeenth  century  in  eleven  pieeca,  ia 
in  Florence;  the  latter,  found  in  the  island  of 
blilo  in  1820,  ia  in  the  Louvre,  in  Paris. 

Venus  (named  from  the  Roman  goddess  Ve- 
nus), the  second  planet  in  order  of  distance 
from  the  sun,  and  the  next  neighbor  of  the 
earth  within  its  orbit.  Venus  travels  at  a 
mean  distance  from  the  sun  of  about  67,000,000 
m.  Venus  when  nearest  to  the  earth,  at  a 
distance  of  about  25,000,000  m.,  is  invisible, 
being  lost  in  the  sun's  rays.  According  to  the 
position  it  occupies,  Venus  has  phases,  like  the 
moon,  appearing  as  a  thin  crescent  which  grad- 
ually  increases    to    full    phaae    and    then    de- 


of 


TERATRUlf 

creUM.  Vonis  completes  a  revolution  round 
the  sun  in  224.7008  days,  and  has  a  rotation 

period  of  about  twenty-three  hours.  Venus  is 
sometimes  called  the  morning  star,  or  the  even- 
ing star,  because  it  is  so  bright  that  on  moon- 
lesB  nights  its  light  casts  a  shadow.  It  has  a 
diameter  of  about  7,650  m.,  and  its  density  is 
slightly  less  than  the  earth's.  Some  astron- 
omers claim  to  have  seen  spots  and  markings 
upon  the  surface  of  Venus;  but  the  best  ^- 
servers.  usins  the  most  powerful  telescopes, 
have  uniformly  failed  to  see  what  inferior  ob- 
servers have  imagined  they  have  discerned  with 
relatively  imperfect  instruments.  Sir  John 
Herschel  remarks  that  "  the  surface  of  Venus 
is  not  mottled  over  with  permanent  apots  like 
the  moon ;  we  perceive  in  it  neither  mountains 
nor  shadows,  but  a  uniform  brightness,  in 
which  we  may  indeed  fancy  obscurer  portions, 
but  can  seldom  or  never  rest  fully  satisfied  of 
the  fact."  It  has  been  asserted  that  Venus 
always  presents  the  same  face  to  the  sun,  just 
as  the  moon  does  to  the  earth. 

Venus,  like  Mercury,  crosses  the  face  of  the 
sun,  but  at  longer  intervals.  Its  transits  are 
more  important  than  those  of  Mercury,  be- 
cause, being  nearer  to  us  when  in  transit,  its 
Sosition  on  the  sun  is  different  for  observers 
ifl'erently  placed  on  the  earth.  The  fallowing 
are  the  dates  of  these  transits  during  seven 
centuries : 

1031.  Deo.  7.  I  2004.  June  g. 

IKte,  Dm.  4.  3012.  June  S. 

1761.  .Tuna  E.  2117.  Dec.  II. 

I7Q9,  June  3.  212G,  D«c.  B. 

ia74,  Dec.  0.  S247,  June  II. 

1882,  D«.  e-  I  22Sfi.  June  fl. 

Venusberg    (va'nOa-berkb).     See  TashrAv- 

SEB. 

Ve'nns'B  Flov'er-basket,  the  Evpleelella  epe- 
ciota,  a  fiinty  sponge  found  near  the  Philip- 
pines, consisting  of  a,  delicate  lacelike  skeleton 
or  framework,  which,  when  the  animal  tissue 
is  removed,  forms  a  cornucopia  12  or  IS  in. 
high  and  2  in.  wide. 

Venns's  Fly' -trap.    See  Dioraa. 

Venns'a  Gir'dle.    See  Oibdlis  <a  Vekus. 

Veia  Cnu  (vfi'rB  kr6E),'the  leading  port  of 
Mesieo,  about  180  m.  E.  of  Mexico  City.  The 
harbor  has  been  improved  by  a  breakwater. 
The  city  is  built  on  fiat  and  barren  land,  and 
it  has  no  notable  buildings.  The  climate  is 
unpleasantly  warm.  Vera  Cruz  is  the  oldest 
Spanish  settlement  in  Mexico,  having  been  the 
landing  place  of  Cortez  when  he  began  the 
conquest,  and  the  fort  of. San  Juan  de  Ultla, 
fronting  the  city,  was  the  last  post  held  by 
the  Spnniards  in  continental  N.  America,  as 
it  was  surrendered  November  18/  1S25.  Vera 
Cruz  was  taken  by  the  Americana  in  March, 
1647;  was  taken  by  the  French  in  1861  and 
has  repeatedly  figured  in  civil  struggles.  Pop. 
(1910)    29,164. 

Vera'tmm,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  lily 
family.  Veratrum  viride,  or  American  helle- 
bore, called  also  Indian  poke,  poke  root,  swamp 
hellebore,  grows  in  damp  soil  from  Canada 
to  the  Carolinaa.     The   root  stoek  Is  used  in 


TERAZZANO 

medicine,  its  oetivitj'  r«8idlii(|  In  two  alkaloids, 
jereine  and  veratroidine.  It  b  a  powerful 
drug,  lowering  the  force  and  frequenc?  of  the 
heart  beats  and  renpiraitiDns,  and  having  a 
■trong  tendency  to  produce  naiuea  and  vomit- 
ing, with  muscular  weakneea  and  relaxation. 
In  overdose  it  produces  alarming  prostration 
and  feebleness  of  the  heart,  but  from  the 
prompt  vomiting  which  large  doses  occasion, 
cases  of  fatal  poisoning  are  rare.  There  is  no 
antidote  to  the  poison,  and  after  evacuation 
of  the  dose  from  the  stomach,  perfect  rest  and 
the  use  of  restoratives  such  as  alcoholics,  am- 
monia, artificial  respiration,  etc.,  constitute 
the  treatment. 

YeraMuio,  or  Verraaano  (vBr-Tft-tBl'n6),Gio- 
Tansi  da,  1480-1527;  Italian  navigator;  b. 
near  Florence,  of  a  noble  family;  traveled  in 
Egypt  and  Syria,  engaged  in  trafflc  in  spiees, 
silks,  etc.,  and  entered  the  French  mantime 
service  about  1605 ;  made  a.  voyage  to  the  E. 
Indies,  1517,  in  a  Portuguese  vessel;  employed 
as  a  corsair  or  privateer  by  the  French  G)ovt. 
in  1581  and  the  following  years;  took  many 
prizes  of  Spanish  vessels  returning  from  the 
W.  Indies;  captured,  16S3,  the  treasure  ship 
in  which  Ckirtes  had  sent  from  Mexico  t^ 
Charles  V  a  large  portion  of  the  personal 
spoils  of  Montexuma,  valued  at  £1,500.000. 
^iled,  1524,  on  a  voyage  of  exploration  to  N. 
America ;  discovered  land  at  a  point  near  Cape 
Fear  and  a  bay,  either  that  of  New  York  or 
Narragansett  Bay.  On  one  of  his  voyages  was 
captured  on  the  S.  coast  of  Spain,  and  exe- 
cuted as  a  pirate. 

Verb  (vteb),  that  part  of  speech  which  com- 
monly serves  to  denote  what  is  stated  about 
the  subject,  or  expresses  an  assertion.  By 
means  of  tenses  and  moods,  verlis  indicate  time 
and  mode.  A  substantive  verb  forms  the 
copula  or  joining  word  of  a  proposition,  as 
"God  ts  great'';  a  common  or  adjective  verb 
can  form  both  the  copula  and  the  predicate 
of  a  proposition,  as  "  the  sun  ahtnes,"  or  "  is 
thining."  Verbs  are  transitive  if  they  require 
an  object,  as  "  care  killed  the  cat,"  in  which 
cat  is  the  object.  The  subject  may  also  be 
the  object  or  complement,  as  "  she  dressed  her- 
self." An  intransitive  verb  expresses  a  com- 
plete idea  without  an  object,  as  "  ahe  sleeps," 
"  he  runs."  Verbs  have  three  persons — first. 
second,  and  third:  I  am,  you  are,  he  is;  and 
two  numbers,  singular  and  plural.  The  tense 
of  a  verb  expresses  ita  relation  to  time.  Eng- 
lish verbs  have  aix  primary  tenses:  (1)  Pres- 
ent tense :  I  writ«  ( simpLe  form ) ,  I  am  writing 
( progressive  form ) ,  I  do  write  ( emphatic 
form).  (2)  Past,  or  preterit:  I  wrote,  I  was 
writing,  I  did  write.  (3)  Future:  I  shall 
write,  I  shall  be  writing.  (4)  Present  per- 
fect, denotes  past  time  completed  in  the  pres- 
ent, as;  I  have  written  a  fetter,  I  have  Ven 
waiting  for  a  week.  (6)  Paxt  perfect,  denotes 
post  time  that  precedes  some  other  pa!st  time: 
He  had  left  before  they  came.  (6)  Future 
perfect,  denotes  future  time  that  precedes  some 
other  future  time:  I  shall  have  finished  before 
you  start.  The  moods  or  modes  of  a  verb  in- 
dicate the  manner  in  which  it  ia  asserted  of 
the  eubjecL 


VERDI 

Hie  indicative  mood  expressec  direct  asser- 
tion: "He  goes."  The  subjunctive  expresses 
conditional  oasertion ;  "  If  he  were  here." 
The  potential  Implies  possibility:  "  He  can 
write."  The  imperative  expresses  a  command: 
"  Stop !  "  "  Let  us  march  I  "  The  infinitive  ex- 
presses exiatence  in  general,  as  "  to  love,"  "  to 
hear."  A  participle  is  a  verbal  adjective,  but 
ei]^ressing  the  Idea  of  time,  the  present  par- 
ticiple OB  "  loving,"  the  past  as  "  loved."  Aux- 
iliary or  helping  verbs  are  followed  by  other 
verbs,  as  "  he  lAall  go,"  "  she  must  come." 
Verbs  are  regular  or  irregular.  In  English  an 
irregular  verb  Is  one  that  does  not  form  ita 
preterit  and  past  narticiple  by  adding  d  or  ed, 
as  "  drink,  drank,  "  grow,  grew."  A  reflective, 
verb  is  followed  by  a  reflective  pronoun,  as 
"  to  honor  oneself.  An  impersonal  verb  de- 
scribes an  event  without  stating  the  agency 
causing  it,  as  "  it  rains,"  "  it  is  cold."  Voice 
expresses  the  relation  which  the  action  bears 
to  the  subject,  as:  The  man  washes  (active 
voice ) ,  I  wash  the  clothes  ( middle  voice  ] ,  the 
boy  is  washed   (passive  voice). 

Verbe'na  Fam'ily,  a  groui;  of  740  species  of 
herbs,  shrubs,  and  trees  mainly  of  the  tropics 
and  S.  Temperate  Zone,  nearly  related  to  the 
minta  {Lainatea).  About  forty  species  are  na- 
tives of  N.  America.  S.  American  species  of 
verbena  are  ornamental  plants,  as  are  also  the 
lemon  verbena,  or  lemon  grass  of  Chile,  from 
which  the  perfume  "oil  of  verbena  "  ia  extract- 
ed, and  others.  The  teak  tree  of  India  and 
species  in  New  Zealand  are  large  and  valuable 
timber  trees.  Some  of  the  wild  species  of  ver- 
bena were  used  as  domestic  medicines  and  in 
love  philters  and  charms  under  the  name  of 


Terdnget'oiiz,  Gaulish  chief  who,  in  62  b.c, 
rebelled  against  CKsar.  At  first  successful,  he 
was  taken  at  Alesea,  and,  after  having  adorned 
Cuaar's  triumph  (45),  he  was  executed. 

Terd  Antique  (v^d  ftn  tek'),  or  Vetde  Anti'- 
co,  a  fine  green  stone  mottled  with  white  and 
brown ;  greatly  esteemed  for  decorative  work. 
It  is  a  kind  of  serpentine.  Five  specimens  of  it 
have  been  found  among  the  ruins  of  Roman 
buildings,  or  have  been  taken  from  their  walla 
to  be  used  in  modem  structures.  Green  mar- 
bles and  other  stones  of  good  i 
taking  a  polish  have  been  called 


tique. 

Verdi  (vSr'de),  (Giuseppe,  1B13-1S0I;  lUlian 
composer;  b.  Roncole,  Italy;  received  his  first 
lessons  in  muaic  from  the  organist  of  the  vil- 
lage church;  attracted  the  attention  of  an  am- 
ateur musician,  who  sent  him  to  Milan,  where, 
1S33,  he  studied  under  Lavigna,  head  of  the 
Scala  Theater.  Verdi's  first  opera  was  "  Oberto, 
conte  di  San  Bonifado,"  produced  in  Milan 
November  17,  18S9.  He  afterwards  composed 
about  twenty~six  operas,  the  best  known  of 
which  are  II  Trovatore,"  "  La  Traviata," 
"  Rigoletto,"  ■"  Ballo  in  Maschera,"  "  Alda," 
"  Otello,"  and  "  FalsUff."  One  large  work  for 
the  Church  should  also  be  mentioned— a 
"  Grand  Bequiem  Mass."    A  large  number  of 


Vertict,  in  law,  the  deciaion  randered  by  a 
jury  according  to  law,-  as  to  the  mattera  in 
issue  aubmitted  to  them,  in  respect  of  which 
they  have  been  sworn  to  find  Hnd  declare  the 
truth. 

Verdigris  (ver'dl-grea).    See  Acetates. 

Verdun,  a  strongly  fortified  French  town  in 
the  depulment  of  the  Meuae,  33  m.  W.  of 
Meti:  the  military  key  to  the  W.  front  in  the 
World  War.  Under  the  Crown  Prince  the  Ger- 
nuLns  opened  fire  on  the  trenches  surrounding 
the  city  and  eubjected  the  latter  to  severe  bom- 
bardment, Feb.  20,  1916.  The  siege  and  fight- 
ing lasted  for  daht  months  to  a  day,  the  batile 
front  having  a  length  several  times  of  30  m. 
By  Oct,   21   the  French   had   retaken  all    the 

Kund  within  the  old  intrenched  camp  of  Ver- 
1,  which  Germany  had  occupied  in  her  long 
and  tedious  advance,  excepting  Vaux,  which  fell 
to  the  French,  Nov,  2  following.  It  was  here 
that  the  memorable  slogan  was  roared  "They 
shdl  not  pass!"  In  this  historic  campaign  the 
26th  American  Division  bore  a  part  that  won 
high  official  and  popular  praise. 

Vere  (vCr),  Aubrey  Thomas  de,  1B14-1902; 
IriHli  author;  son  of  Sir  Aubrey  Hunt  de  Vere; 
b.  Cuira^  Chase,  Ireland;  educated  in  Trinity 
College,  Dublin.  He  became  a  Roman  Catho- 
lic in  1851,  and  much  of  his  poetry  was  reli- 
^ous  in  cliaracter.  Among  his  published  works 
are  'The  Waldenscs;"  "The  Search  Alter  Pro- 
serpine, and  Other  Poems,"  "English  Misrule 
and  Irish  Misdeeds,"  ''Picturesque  Sketches  of 
Greece  and  Turkey,"  "The  Church  Settlement 
of  Ireland,  or  Hibemia  Pacanda"  (1866),  "The 
legends  of  St.  Patrick"  (1872),  'Xcgends  of  the 
Saxon  Saints"  (1879),  "The  Foray  of  Queen 
Meane"  (1882),  "Essays  Chiefly  on  Poetry," 
"Beligious  Poems  of  the  Nineteenth  Century," 
and  "Essays  Chiefly  Literary  and  Ethical." 

Veiestdugili  (vfi-rfi-ahA-gSn') ,  Vasflii,  1842- 
1904;  Kus^an  genre  and  military  painter;  b. 
Teh erepo vets,  Hussia;  studied  at  St.  Petersburn; 
Academy  and  under  G4r0me  in  Paris;  traveled 
in  the  East,  and  painted  in  India  and  Turkes- 
tan; served  with  the  Russian  army  in  Turkes- 
tan and  during  the  Russo-Xurkish  War,  and 
was  severely  wounded;  painted  a  series  of  pic- 
tures representing  battles  and  episodes  of  that 
campaign.  Was  in  Cutia  during  the  Spanish- 
Amerioan  War.  His  works,  many  of  which  are 
of  immense  size,  have  been  called  realistic  by 
some  critics,  and  by  the  exhibition  of  his  pic- 
tures in  a  complete  collection  in  the  principal 
cities  oF  Europe  and  in  the  U.  S.  bis  name  has 
become  widely  known.  He  went  on  the  Rus- 
sian battleship  Pctropavlosk  to  paint  naval 
war  scenes,  but  was  drnwned  when  thnt  ship 
was  sunk  off  Port  Arthur  by  the  Japanese. 

Ver'gil.     See  Viboii_ 

Vergin'ia,  a  Roman  maiden.     See  Vibqinia, 

Tergniand  (v5r-ny6-6') ,  Pierre  Victnmien, 
175!i-B3;  French  revolutionist.  He  was  a  prom- 
inent advocate  at  Bordeaux;  elected  to  the 
L^slative  Assembly,  1791;  its  president,  Oeto- 


VEBMONT 

ber   31st;    promoted   the    republic,    1792;    *nd 

elected  to  the  convention.  From  the  conviction 
of  the  king  until  the  arrest  of  the  Oittmdists 
(June  2,  1793),  of  whom  he  was  the  moat  elo- 
quent leader,  he  was  continuously  combating 
Robespierre  and  the  montagnardt.  Before  the 
revolutionary  tribunal,  October  24th,  he  made 
a  spirited  defense,  but,  with  his  colleagues,  was 
guillotined. 

Verjuice  {viT'ias],  the  acid  or  sour  juice  of 
unripe  grapes,  formerly  used  in  Europe  as  a 
beverage  and  an  astringent  in  medicine.  The 
term  oIbo  includes  the  fermented  juice  of  crab 
apples,  used  for  flavoring  in  cooking,  as  for 
sauces,  called  also  agresta  and  omphadum. 

Verlalne  (var-Uln'},  Paul,  1944-98;  French 
poet;  b.  Mets,  Lorraine;  devoted  himself  to  let- 
ters, and  early  distinguished  himself  among  the 
young  poets  who,  starting  from  the  Pamas- 
Blens,  separated  themselves  consciously  from 
them  in  search  of  novelty  of  form  and  profun- 
dity of  meaning,  and  have  been  called  Sym- 
bolistes  and  Dfcadenta.  He  was  regarded  by 
them  with  great  admiration,  and  exercised  a 
real  influence  upon  French  poetry.  He  lived  a 
bohemian  lite,  with  frequent  stays  in  hospital 
and  jail,  and  embodied  his  experiences  in  his 
poetiy.  Among  his  works  are  "  Pofimes  satur- 
niens,"  "  Fetes  gallantes,"  "  La  bonne  Chan- 
son," "  Romances  sana  Paroles,"  "  Amour," 
"  Farallelement,"  "  Chanscms  pour  £l]e." 

Veimejo  (vgr-m&'ho),  B«rme'ja,  or  Ri'o 
Gran'de,  river  of  5.  America;  rises  in  S.  Bo- 
livia, flows  SE.  to  the  Paraguay.  Its  course  is 
tortuous — estimated  at  over  800  m. — and  its 
navigability  is  poor. 

Vermes  (vir'mei).    See  WoBus. 

Venuicdli  (vir-me-chei'll) .    See  Macaboki. 

Vet'mifOTm  Appen'diz,  a  slender,  hallow, 
blind  pracess  occupying  the  tower  right  side  of 
the  abdominal  cavity  of  man  and  some  otber 
maipmals.  It  is  the  undeveloped  terminal  por- 
tion of  the  cecum,  from  which  it  projects;  the 
end  is  free,  and  may  point  in  any  direction.  It 
has  no  known  function.     See  Appendicitis. 

Vermifuge  (v^r'ml-fflj),  medicine  or  sub- 
stance to  expel  worms  from  the  stomach  and 
intestines.    See  Anthsxuintics. 

Vermil'ion.    See  Cinsabab. 

Vermont',  one  of  the  U.  S,  of  N.  America; 
the  first  state  admitted  into  the  Union  after 
the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution  by 
the  original  states;  popularly  known  as  the 
Gbeen  Moumtain  State;  capital,  Montpelier. 
It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  province  of  Quebec,  E. 
by  New  Hampshire,  S.  by  Massachusetts,  W. 
by  New  York;  extreme  width,  90  m.;  minimum 
width,  41  m.;  extreme  length.  1.18  m.;  area, 
9,564  sq.  m.     Pop.   (1910)   355.956.- 

The  surface  is  irregular  and  broken;  moun- 
tains, valleys,  lakes,  rivers,  hills,  cliffs,  plains, 
and  meadows  combine  to  produce  varied  and 
beautiful  scenery.  The  N.  portion,  where  the 
main  range  of  the  Green  Mountains  is  refci- 
forccd  by  parallel  ranges,  is  more  rugprd  than 
the  S.,  but  nowhere  are  there  large  plaibs.  The 
highest  point  of  the  range  is  the  so^ctUled  Chin 


VERMONT 

on  Mt.  Manafleld  (4,380  ft).  Other  peafca  in 
Cftmera  Hump,  4,1S8;  Killington,  4,380;  Mans- 
field Noae,  4,071;  Lincoln,  4,024;  Jav  Peak, 
3,861;  Equinox,  3,847;  and  ABcutnej,  3,300; 
uid  manj  aummitfl  over  3,000  ft.  The  moun- 
taina  tire  for  the  moat  pttrt  covered  with  denee 
foresta  of  ever^freens,  chiefly  Hprucea.  The 
dniuase  of  the  state  is  chiefly  from  the  moun- 
tain! E.  and  W.  The  Misaisquoi,  Lamoille, 
Winooski,  Otter,  and  Pouhney  rivers  flow  into 
Lake  Cheunplain;  the  Mulhegan,  PasBumpiic, 
Weill,  OmpompBDOOsuc,  White,  Queeche,  Black, 
Willianis,  West,  and  Deerfleld  into  the  Con- 
necticut; the  Clyde,  Barton,  and  Black  into 
Lake  Ifemphiemagog;  and  the  Batt«nkill  and 


Rootac  into  the  Hudson.  Lake  Champlain  ie 
120  m.  long,  with  width  of  13  m.  The  islands 
—Grand  lele.  North  Hero,  Isle  la  MotU,  with 
the  Alburgh  peninsula — form  one  of  the  coun- 
ties. About  three  fourths  of  this  lake  and  one 
fourth  of  MemphremaKOjT  '-'^  '"  Vermont.  Of 
the  lakes  wholly  within  the  state  the  principal 
are  Bomoeeen,  Willoughby,  Salem,  Seymour, 
Dunmore,  and  Qroton. 

Although  much  of  the  soil  is  atony  and  ster- 
ile, there  is  some  that  is  productive,  and  the 
average  yield  of  many  crops  to  the  acre  is 
greater  than  the  average  for  the  U.  8.  The 
state  is  an  agricultural  one,  and  the  moat  im- 
portant agricultural  interest  is  that  of  dairy- 
mg.  Alone  the  shores  and  on  the  larger  islands 
of  Lake  Ctiamplain  there  are  large  apple  and 
pear  orchards.  The  sugar  maple  grows  m  most 
parts  of  the  state,  and  furnishes  one  of  the  in- 
duHtries.  The  farms  are  comparatively  smalt, 
and  since  the  derelopment  of  the  Misaiasippi 
valley  has  made  competition  in  wheat  impoa- 
sible  to  New  England,  Vermont  has  adopted 
methods  of  intensive  farming ;  and  corn  is 
largely  raised.  The  forests  are  largely  of 
spruce  and  flr,  with  hemlock  and  pine  on  the 
lower  slopes.  The  hillsides  bear  groves  of  ma- 
ple, beech,  and  birch  (white,  black,  and  yellow), 
and  on  the  lowlands  are  walnut,  ash,  several 
species  of  oak,  butternut,  poplar,  and  elm.  In 
all  there  are  some  fifty  species  of  native  trees 
and  twice  as  many  of  large  shrubs,  with  about 
1,300  species  of  herb  plants.  On  the  higher 
mountains  are  found  Arctic  plants,  such  as 
Samfraga  aitoon,  while  on  the  sandy  shores  of 
I^ke  Champlain  are  sundry  plant  reminders  of 
andent  days  when  the  water  was  salt.    The 


TEKMONT 

general  flora  shows  a  mingling  of  Canadian,  S., 
and  W.  species.  The  larger  wild  animals  fM- 
fflerly  common  have  either  disappeared  or  be- 
come rare.  The  panther,  black  bear,  deer,  and 
otter  are  occasionally  found,  and  the  raccoon, 
mink,  muskrat,  porcupine,  skunk,  woodehuek, 
squirrels,  etc.,  are  more  or  less  common.  Among 
birds  there  are  the  golden  and  the  white-headed 
eagle,  the  former  rare,  the  latter  common  in 
the  lake  region;  many  hawks,  owls,  dncka,  and 
other  water  birds,  besides  song  birds.    The  wa- 


baas,  pickerel,  whitefish,  sturgeon,  etc. 

The  rocks  of  Vermont  constitute  an  impor- 
tant part  of  its  wealth.  There  are  about  ITO 
quarries,  from  which  great  quantities  of  mar> 
ble,  granite,  slate,  and  soapstone  are  obtained. 
More  than  two  thirds  of  all  the  marble  quar> 
ried  in  the  U.  8.  is  taken  from  these  quarries. 
Most  of  this  is  found  in  Rutland  and  Addison 
COS.,  the  principal  quarriee  beine  at  Dorset,  W. 
Rutland,  Proctor,  Pittsford,  Middlebury,  and 
Brandon.  The  marble  from  these  quarries  va- 
nes from  the  purest  statuary  to  almost  black. 
There  are  quarries  of  serpentine,  verd  antique, 
etc.,  but  these  are  worked  only  to  a  limited  ex- 
tent. Excellent  granite  is  found  in  many  lo- 
calities, and  the  quarries  are  becoming  more 
numerous.  The  principal  parries  are  at  Barre, 
Ryegate,  Hardwtck,  and  Brunswick.  Roofins 
slate  is  quarried  at  Castleton,  Fair  Haven,  and 
Northfletd.  Soapstone  is  quarried  at  Athens, 
Perkinsville,  Cambridgeport,  and  elsewhere. 
Vermont  is  not  rich  in  mines.  The  largest  ones 
are  in  Corinth  and  Vershire,  where  for  many 
years  chalcopyrite  has  been  mined  for  copper. 
Gold,  silver,  lead,  iron,  and  manganese  are 
found  in  limited  quantities.  Many  minerals  of 
interest  to  the  scientist,  though  of  little  com- 
mercial value,  are  found,  such  as  talc,  chryso- 
prase,  tourmaline,  cyanite,  garnet,  etc.  The 
climate  is  variable  and  liable  to  sudden 
changes.  The  N.  and  K  portions  are  colder 
than  the  W.  At  Burlington  the  mean  annual 
temperature  is  46'  F.  The  highest  temperature 
is  seldom  above  60°  F.,  the  lowest  not  often 
below  —15°  F.,  though  there  are  days  in  which 
the  thermometer  exceeds  these  limits.  Laka 
Champlain  usually  freezes  over. 

For  administrative  pur^ses  Vermont  fs  di- 
vided into  fourteen  counties. 

Principal  cities  and  villages:  Burlington, 
Rntland,  Barre,  Montpelier,  St.  Albans,  St. 
Johnsbury,  Bennington,  Brattleboro,  Bellows 
Falls,  Winooski,  Fair  Haven,  Springfield,  and 
Proctor.  In  1909  there  were  in  operation  1,953 
factories,  with  a  capital  of  273,470,000,  produc- 
ing goods  of  the  value  of  $68,310,000.  Some  of 
these,  as  the  scale  works  in  St.  Johnsbury,  the 
organ  works  in  Brattleboro,  the  scale  works  in 
Rutland,  and  the  agricultural-implement  works 
in  Bellows  Falls,  arc  very  extenaive.  Aside 
from  the  quarry  and  dairy  products,  the  prin- 
cipal articles  made  are  woolens,  cotton,  leath- 
er, paper,  furniture,  lumber,  and  drugs.  The 
mountain  streams  are  being  largely  used  for 
power.  A  commerce  of  considerable  impor- 
tance is  carried  on  through  Lake  Champlain, 
and  there  is  also  a  large  traffic  with  Canada. 


As  early  as  1761  Und  wa«  s«t  i^ut  for  . 


r 


tionol  purpoae*.  The  town  Byet«m  of  eom- 
m  BchoolB  has  be<n  adopted  dnce  1870.  Th« 
;her  iiutitutioiu  include  the  atr' ' ''^- 


Middlebury  College,  and  Norwich  Univ.  Most 
of  the  charitable  inatitutiona  are  near  Burlinf 
ton;  the^  include  the  Mar;  Fletcher  Hospita  . 
a  home  for  destitute  cbildren,  the  Providence 
Orphan  Aajlum,  the  Howard  Mission  House, 
the  Adanu  Mission  Home,  the  Cancer  Relief 
Aasociation,  the  Home  for  Aged  Women,  the 
Home  for  Friendless  Women,  a  Young  Men'a 
Chriatian  Association,  beaides  private  retreats 
and  hospitals.  At  Bennington  is  a  aoldieia' 
home.    The  state  prison  is  at  Windsor. 

Since  1S70  the  staU  officen  and  l^Iature 
have  been  elected  biennially.  The  senate  is 
composed  of  thirty  membeiB,  apportioned 
among  the  counties  according  to  population, 
aud  toe  house  of  one  representative  from  each 
town  without  regard  to  population,  there  being 
in  all  240.  State  elections  are  held  in  Septem- 
ber in  even  years.  The  judiciary  is  elective 
throughout,  the  chief  juatice  and  six  assist- 
ant justices  of  the  supreme  court  being  elect- 
ed by  the  legislature  in  joint  session;  the  aa- 
eiatont  judges  of  the  countj  courts  by  popular 
vote  in  the  counties;  and  justices  of  the  peace 
by  popular  vote  in  the  towns. 

Champlain  discovered  the  lake  which  bears 
hia  name  in  1609,  and  was  probably  the  first 
man  to  enter  the  r^on.  for  many  years  the 
territory  of  Vermont  was  not  occupied  by  vil- 
lagcB,  but  was  a  battlefield  and  hunting 
ground  trHTcraed  by  wandering  parties  of  Iro- 
quois or  Algonkins,  and  later  by  armed  bands 
of  French  or  English.  Aa  all  the  Indian  namea 
of  lakes,  streanis,  etc.,  are  Algonkin,  it  seems 
probable  that  these  people  held  original  poBsea- 
aion.  Fort  St  Anne,  on  lale  la  Motte,  was 
built  by  the  French  in  1665,  and  was  the  first 
white  aettlement,  though  not  permanent.  Fort 
Dumroer,  near  what  is  now  Brattleboro,  in 
1T24,  was  probably  the  first  English  settle- 
ment. Bennington  was  settled  in  1761  on  land 
S anted  in  1749  by  Gov.  Wentworth,  of  New 
^mpshire,  and  in  1762  a  few  families  settled 
in  Newbury.  Gov,  Wentworth  claimed  the 
whole  territory  as  a  part  of  New  Hampshire, 
and  138  townships  were  deeded  by  him  in  the 
"  New  Hampshire  Grants."  Trouble  arose 
when  the  Governor  of  New  York  also  claimed 
jurisdiction  under  letters  from  Charles  IL 
Proclamationa  and  counter-proclamations  were 
issued,  but  the  settlers,  most  of  whom  had  paid 
the  Qovemor  of  New  Hampshire  for  their  titles, 
sided  with  Gov.  Wentworth  and  resisted  the 
claims  of  New  York ;  the  quarrel  was  continued 
many  years  by  the  "  Green  Mountain  Boya,"  as 
the  Vermont  militia  was  called.  In  1770  the 
people  of  the  New  Hampshire  Grants  applied  to 
the  Federal  Congress  for  admisaian  aa  a  state, 
but  through  the  influence  of  New  York  they 
were  refuMd.  The;  then  formed  an  independ- 
ent republic,  at  first  called  New  Connecticut. 
but  later  Vermont.  As  an  independent  state 
Vermont  continued  thirteen  years.  Finally, 
after  again  being  refused  in  176S,  Vermont  waa 
received  aa  the  fourteenth  state,  and  the  first 
under  the  Federal  Constitution,  in  1791.  Not- 
withstanding the  exclusive  poli<ry  of  the  other 
statea,  VermontoB  boie  their  full  share  of  hard- 


ships, losses,  and  ezpenaes  of  the  War  of  the 
Revolution.  The  state  took  active  pari;  in  the 
War  of  1812.  In  the  war  of  1801-«5  Vermont 
did  more  than  its  share.  In  proportion  to  the 
peculation  its  loss  in  hospital  and  on  battle- 
Add  waa  larger  than  that  of  any  other  N. 
state;  it  furnished  1,600  more  men  than  were 
called   for;    its   money  contribution   amounted 


3  tenth  of  the 
entire  population. 

Verne  (vfim).  Jules,  1828-1905;  French  au- 
thor; b.  Nantes,  France;  studied  law,  and 
made  his  debut  in  literature  in  1860  with  a 
comedy  in  verse,  "Broken  Straws";  wrote  sub- 
sequently several  other  plays,  and  Iwgan  in 
1863,  with  his  "  Cinq  Semaines  en  Ballon,"  the 
vein  of  surprising  adventures  based  more  or 
less  plausibly  upon  facta  of  science,  which  he 
pursued  with  great  success.  His  most  popular 
work  is  the  "  Around  the  World  in  Eighty 
Days,"  which  was  dramatiEed.  He  also  wrote 
"  Journey  to  the  Center  of  the  Earth," 
"  Twenty  Thousand  Leagues  Under  the  Sea," 
"From  the  Earth  to  the  Moon,"  "Dr.  Ox's  Ex- 
periment," an  illustrated  geography  of  France, 
"  Michel  StrogofT,"  "  Green  Ray,''  "  Christo- 
pher Columbus,"  "The  Star  of  the  South," 
"  The  Castle  in  the  Carpathians,"  "  The  Giant 
Raft,"  etc.  Most  of  his  works  havS  been  trans- 
lated into  English  and  other  languages. 

Vemet  (vfir-nfl'),  fimile  Jean  Horace,  gen- 
erally called  Horace  Vemet,  1789-1803;  French 
painter;  h.  Paris,  of  an  artist  family.  It  was 
intended  that  he  should  study  painting,  but  he 
failed  to  obtain  the  prize  and  became  a  con- 
script; served  in  the  army;  married,  and  be- 
gan to  paint  battle  pictures  according  to  hia 
own  ideas.  In  1810  he  exhibited  "The  Capture 
of  a  Redoubt";  in  1811,  "The  Dt^  of  the 
Regiment "  and  "  The  Halt  of  French  Sol- 
diers ";  in  1812,  "  The  Taking  of  an  Intrenched 
Camp."  The  impression  that  these  pictures 
produced  was  extraordinary.  Instead  of  the 
conventional  manner,  Vemet  painted  war 
scenes  and  soldiers  as  he  bad  seen  them  him- 
self, and  through  engravings  and  the  newly 
invented  art  of  lithography  his  enthusiastic 
representations  of  the  grand  army  and  its  ex- 
ploits— "  The  Death  of  Poniatowaki,"  "  The 
Bridge  of  Areola,"  "  The  Soldier  of  Waterloo," 
etc. — passed  into  the  hands  of  the  humblest 
Frencbmen.  In  1822  his  picturaa  were  refused 
admittance  by  the  Ac&aemy  on  account  of 
their  Bonapartist  tendency,  but  Vemet  opened 
a  private  exhibition.  Charles  X  sent  him  in 
1827  to  Rome  as  director  of  the  French  school 
there.  Hia  relations  with  Louis  Philippe  be- 
came friendly.  Vemet  resided  in  Algeria  1833- 
35.  He  continued  to  paint  Napoleon — the  tiat- 
tles  of  Jena,  Friedland,  Wagram,  etc. — but 
from  1836  to  his  death  he  chiefly  treated  sub- 
jects of  the  Algerian  campaigns.  Besides  bat- 
tle pieces,  he  painted  a  number  of  pictures, 
half  genre  and  half  historical,  such  as  "  Re- 
becca at  the  Well,"  "  The  School  of  Raphael," 
"  The  Lion  Hunt,"  etc,  and  portraits,  among 
which  were  those  of  Napoleon  I,  of  Loui« 
Philippe,  and  of  Napoleon  III. 


■vGooglc 


VERNIER 

Tuniei  (v^nl-te),  named  for  the  inveiitor, 
Pierre  Vernier,  an  inBtrument  for  nieaauring  a 
fractional  part  of  one  of  the  equal  diviuons  of 
a  graduated  scale  or  are.  It  conaista  of  an  aux- 
iliary graduated  scale,  the  diviaions  of  which 
differ  from  those  of  the  primary  scale.  The 
vernier  scale  is  formed  by  taking  a  space  equal 
to  an  exact  number  of  parts  of  the  primary 
scale,  and  dividing  it  into  a  number  of  equal 
parts,  either  greater  by  I  or  leas  by  1  than  the 
number  that  it  covers  .on  the  primary  scale- 
Let  A  £  be  a  scale  of  equal  parts,  and  let  each 


Arrr 


^5S 


,1  ,1  ,1,1,1, 


the  primary  scale;  suppose  C  D  to  be  divided 
into  ten  equal  parts;  then  each  part  will  rep- 
resent .9  of  1  ft.  By  means  of  these  soates  one 
can  measure  distances  to  within  .1  of  1  ft 
Suppose  the  0  of  the  Temier  in  the  first  in- 
stance to  coincide  with  the  division  17  of  the 
primary  scale;  then  the  distance  from  the  0 
of  the  scale  to  the  0  of  the  vernier  is  exactly 
17  ft.  It  we  suppose  the  vernier  to  slide  along 
the  primary  scale  till  the  division  1  coincides 
with  18,  the  distance  from  the  0  of  the  scale  to 
the  0  of  the  vernier  will  be  equal  to  17.1;  if  it 
elides  along  till  the  division  2  coincides  with 
IB,  the  distance  between  the  0  of  the  scale  and 
the  0  of  the  vernier  is  17.2,  and  so  on. 

To  read  an  instrument  by  means  of  a  ver- 
nier: Bead  the  principal  scale  up  to  the  last 
division  preceding  the  0  of  the  vernier,  and  call 
the  result  the  reading  on  the  limb;  then  look 
along  the  vernier  tor  the  division  that  coincides 
most  nearly  with  a  space  on  the  limb,  and  mul- 
tiply the  number  of  that  division  by  the  least 
count;  this  result  is  called  the  reading  on  the 
vemier;  the  sum  of  the  two  readings  will  be 
the.  true  reading  of  the  instrument. 

Ver'nod,  Edward,  16e*-1757;  English  ad- 
miraL  He  attained  the  rank  of  rear  admiral  in 
1708,  and  remained  in  active  service  till  1727, 
when  he  was  elected  to  Parliament,  gained 
great  popularity  by  condemning  the  ministry, 
and  was  many  times  reelected.  In  November, 
1739,  he  captured  Porto  Bello,  and  in  1741,  he 
sailed  against  Cartegena,  but  was  repulsed 
with  loss.  Smollett  and  Lawrence  Washing- 
ton (elder  brother  of  GeorgeJ  were  in  this 
expedition.  The  former  described  it  in  "  Rod- 
erick Random";  the  latter,  to  honor  the  ad- 
miral, named  the  Washington  home  Mt.  Ver- 
non. During  the  invasion  of  the  Pretender,  in 
1746,  he  was  employed  to  guard  the  ooast  of 
Kent  and  Sussex ;  but  on  account  of  a  quarrel 
with  the  admiralty  his  name  was  struck  from 
tba  list  of  admirals. 

Tero'na,  capital  of  province  of  Verona,  Italy- 
It  is  situated  at  the  base  of  the  Alps,  72  m.  W. 
of  Venice,  in  a  fertile  plain,  and  is  divided  by 
the  Adige  into  two  parts,  which  are  connected 
by  six  bridges.  As  a  fortress  Verona  consti- 
tutes, with  Peschiara,  Mantua,  and  Legnano, 
the  historically  famous  Quadrilateral,  and  is 
the  key  to  the  Tyrol  from  the  8.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  forts.    Trade  in  grain,  hldea,  flax, 


hemp,  marble,  silk,  velvet,  linen,  and  woolens 
is  carried  on.  There  are  flourishing  institutions 
for  science  and  art,  a  public  library  with  MS, 
collection,  a  picture  gallery  (mostly  of  old 
Veronese  masters),  an  agricultural  academy 
(1768),  a  botanical  garden,  good  colleges,  and  a 


iphitheater  (Arena),  built  between  81 
and  117  A.D.,  and  well  preserved,  with  a  seat- 
ing capacity  of  60,000.  There  are  forty-eight 
churches,  some  of  them  with  beautiful  works 
of  art,  besides  a  cathedral  of  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury. The  ancient  Basilica  of  8.  Zeno  and  the 
Dominican  Church  of  S.  Anastosia,  in  semi- 
Gothic  style,  contain  early  examples  of  paint- 
ing and  sculpture.  Near  the  old  Friar  Monas- 
tery the  so-called  tomb  of  Shakespeare's  Juliet 
is  shown.  Verona  became  a  Roman  colony 
with  the  title  of  Augusta  in  89  B-C-,  was  the 
birthplace  of  Catullus,  and  probably  of  Cor- 
neline  Ncpos;  was  of  great  importance  during 
the  Gothic-Longobardian  times,  especially  as 
the  reudence  of  the  Ostrogoth  Theodoric,  the 
celebrated  Dietrich  von  Bern  (i.e.,  Verona]  of 
the  Germanic  saga.  It  passed  from  Milanese 
into  Venetian  bands;  became  Austrian  in  1811 
and  Italian  in  1S6S.     Pop.   (1911)   81,915. 

Verona,  Con'gress  of,  a  meeting  of  the  Eu- 
ropean powers  in  1 822  to  take  action  upon  the 
revolution  in  Gpain,  where  the  Bourbon  king, 
Ferdinand  VII,  had  been  forced  to  sign  the 
constitution  of  1612  and  waa  at  the  mercy  of 
the  radicals.  As  at  Laibach,  the  spirit  of  the  i 
congrens  was  reactionary,  and,  true  to  the 
principles  of  the  Holy  Alliance  (17.1!.).  its 
members  favored  intervention  on  behalf  of  the 
Spanish  sovereign.  The  Czar  hoped  to  be  the 
agent  to  carry  out  the  decree  of  the  congress, 
but  abandoned  the  project  on  learning  that 
France  would  not  permit  the  passage  of  Rus-  ' 
sian  troops  through  her  territory.  The  pro- 
test of  Great  Britain,  "through  ber  envoy,  Wel- 
lington, prevented  the  congress  frtwu  taking 
formal  action  against  the  Spanish  revolution- 
ists, but  it  could  not  prevent  the  consent  of  t lie 
powers  to  the  intervention  of  France  as  the 
power  chiefly  endangered  by  the  revolution. 
As  a  result  of  the  confrees  the  Due  d'Angou- 
l^me  invaded  Spain  at  the  head  Of  a  large  army 
in  1823,  and  the  despotism  of  the  Ifourbons 
waa  fully  restored. 

Veronese  (va-r6-nft'«fl),  Paul,  properly  Paoia 
CAOMAiti,  abt  1530-88;  Tteli an  painter.  He 
studied  in  Verona  and  Rome,  and  became  one 
of  the  greatest  masters  of  the  Venetian  school. 
He  was  diatin^iahed  for  the  freedom  and  bold- 
neas  of  hia  designs,  the  brilliant  coloring  of  his 
costumes  and  accessories,  and  his  wonderful 
facility.  The  grandest  of  his  celebrated  festive 
meetings  la  "  The  Marriage  in  Cana,"  30  ft-  by 
20,  in  the  Louvre.  The  three  pictures  repre- 
senting St.  Sebastian's  death,  in  Venice,  rank 
highest  among  his  religious  works,  and  "  Ven- 
ice Crowned  by  Fame,  on  the  ceiling  of  the 
great  council  hall,  is  renowned  among  his  alle- 
gorical pieces.  Hia  produc*'™"'  "■'™  .i™~i  in- 
numerable.   '^-  "■i""'-  ' 


der,"  in  which  the  men  and  women  a 


I  Veae- 


VERONICA 

tians  with  Acceasorles  of  the  (IztMitth  caitiu^. 
The  MLtue  disregard  of  history  is  conspieuona  in 
his  other  norlu.  But  hie  compodtioii,  in  line 
•nd  mMt,  and  also  in  color,  is  perfectjj  naf, 
natural,  and  spontaneous.  His  design  is  also 
peculiarly  attractive,  his  men  and  women  are 
splendid  beings,  almost  more  than  human  in 
their  health  and  power  and  stately  grace,  his 
costumes  are  superb,  his  architectural  back- 
grounds UDequaled  in  painting.  He  could  draw 
anything  with  equal  ease,  and  knew  as  well  as 
any  painter  who  ever  lived  how  to  make  one 
touch  or  one  tint  do  the  work  of  many. 

Tenm'ica,  the  name  given  in  Ctiristiaii 
legend  to  the  woman  whose  issue  of  hlood  was 
cured  by  Jesus  (Matt,  ix,  SO),  and  who  after- 
words saw  Him  pass  to  His  cruciflxion,  and 
gave  Bim  her  ha od kerchief  that  He  might 
wipe  His  brow.  He  accepted  the  kindness,  and 
retnmed  Uie  cloth  with  the  impress  of  His  face 
upon  it.  The  cloth  was  endowed  with  curative 
properties,  and  wrought  many  miracles.  By 
order  of  the  emperor  Tiberius,  Veronica  went 
to  Rome  to  cure  him  of  leprosy,  and  prevailed 
upon  him  to  exile  Pilate.  She  gave  the  cloth 
in  her  will  to  Clement,  the  successor  of  Peter, 
and  it  is  now  preserved  in  8t  Peter's  and  ex- 
hibited at  intervals.  In  the  Middle  Ages  it  be' 
came  the  fashion  to  call  the  cloth  "  Veronica," 
In  other  forms  of  the  legend  she  is  the  niece  of 
Herod,  is  known  as  Berenice,  and  again  is  an 
Antiochene  martyr.    Perhaps  the  source  of  the 


Vei'ies,  Caint,  d,  43  ».c.;  Roman  Governor 
of  Sidly.  He  was  proquBstor  to  Dolabella, 
pnetor  of  Cilicia,  80-79,  and  participated  in  his 
uiquitous  acts,  but  afterwards  turned  against 
him  and  contributed  to  his  conviction.  With 
the  money  obtained  by  plundering  the  prov- 
inces, he  was  elected  prntor  in  74,  and  became 
by  lot  pralor  tirbonus.  Next  he  obtained  for 
three  years  the  administration  of  Sicily,  then 
the  wealthiest  province  of  the  republic,  which 
he  desolated  by  his  rapacity.  The  Sicilians  in- 
trusted to  Cicero  the  proeecution  of  Verres, 
who  was  defended  by  Hortensius  and  supported 
by  the  Scipios  and  the  Metelli.  The  efforts  to 
secure  his  acquittal  were  fruitless,  and  before 
the  expiration  of  the  nine  days  which  were 
given  to  the  hearing  of  evidence  he  fled  to  Mas- 
silia,  where  he  remained  in  exile  twenty-seven 
years.  He  was  put  to  death  by  ths  proscrip- 
tion of  Antony. 

Venoc'chlo,  Andrea  del,  1435-88;  Italian 
sculptor  and  painter;  b.  Florence.  He  was  a 
pupil  of  Donatello  and  Pollainolo;  his  first 
importsnt  work  was  the  marble  basin  still 
existing  in  the  sacristy  of  S.  LorenEo;  is  said 
to  have  cast  the  bronze  doors  modeled  by  Luca 
della  Robbia  for  S.  Lorenzo.  He  also  cast  the 
bronEe  ball  that  Bmnetlcschi  designed  for  the 
dome  of  the  Cathedral  of  Florence.  The  tomb 
of  Franceses  Tomabuoni,  executed  in  Rome  in 
1477,  was  Verrocchio's  first  great  work  in  mar- 
ble. The  reliefs  for  this  are  now  in  the  museum 
in  Horence.  About  1480  Verrocohio  made  the 
silver  bas-relief  of  the  "  Beheading  of  St.  John  " 
for  the  altar  of  the  baptistery  in  Florence, 


VERTEBRATA 

now  the  only  remaining  example  of  his  gold- 
smith's work.  From  1434-BB  he  worked  chiefly 
on  the  equestrian  statue  of  Colleoni  in  Venice. 
He  caught  a  cold  during  its  casting,  and  died 
from  its  effects.  Verrocchio,  although  chiefly 
a  sculptor,  had  more  to  do  vrith  forming  tba 
art  of  painting  for  his  succeMors  than  any 
artist  of  his  time.  He  takes  rank  among  the 
greatest  of  the  artists  of  the  Renaissance.  Ha 
was  the  master  of  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  of  Peni- 
gino,  and  of  Lorenzo  di  Credi,  and  was  a  mu- 
sician and  mathematician  as  well  as  a  sculptor 
and  painter. 

Temoe.    See  Wasts, 

Verssines  (vSr-sa'e),  capital  of  the  depart- 
ment of  Seine-et-Oise,  France;  11  m.  8W.  of 
Paris.  It  is  regularly  built,  with  broad  and 
straight  streets,  and  intersected  by  elegant 
avenues  ptsnted  with  trees.  It  has  few  manu- 
factures and  little  trade.  The  chief  attractions 
are  the  palace  and  the  park.  The  palace,  an 
enormous  pile,  1,400  ft  long,  coat  ftCIO,000,000 
fr.,  was  erected  by  Louis  XIV,  and  was  the 
residence  of  the  French  kings  till  1792.  To  the 
N.  of  it  are  two  palaces,  the  Grvid  and  Petit 
Trianon,  the  latter  the  favorite  residence  of 
Marie  Antoinette.  In  1S37  Louis  Philippe 
transformed  it  into  a  national  museum,  to 
commemorate  the  glories  of  France.  The  park, 
with  its  terraces,  alleys,  and  fountains,  was 
long  considered  a  model  of  landscape  garden- 
ing. Versailles  has  a  national  college,  a  nor- 
mal school,  numerous  literary  and  scientific 
societies,  and  a  public  library  of  75,000  vol- 
umes. Here  was  signed  the  treaty  which  rec- 
ognized the  independence  of  the  U.  B.  It  was 
here  that  the  German  Empire  was  founded  in 
IB71.  During  1871-7B  it  was  the  seat  of  the 
National  Assembly  and  govEmtnent  of  France. 
Pop.  (ie06)  64,820. 

Verse  (virs],  a  line  of  poetry  usually  form- 
ing a  well-rounded  rhytbinic  period.  The  max- 
imum length  assignel  by  the  ancients  was 
thirty  or  thirty-two  short  syllables  (a  long 
being  counted  as  twice  a  short).  Each  verse 
is  theoretically  marked  by  one  chief  stress,  and 
regularly  haa  a  slight  pause  at  the  end  not  in- 
cluded in  the  rhythm.  "  Verse  "  is  often  used 
for  "  stanza,"  and  also  is  used  collectively  in 
the  sense  at  "  poetry,"  but  usually  in  reference 
to  the  mere  form.  Blank  verses  do  not  end  in 
rhymes.    See  Poetby;  Pbosoue. 

Ver'tebra.     See  Spins. 

Vertebra'ta,  the  highest  and  most  important 
branch  of  the  animal  kingdom.  They  nave  a 
primary  axial  skeleton  (notochord)  between 
the  digestive  and  nervous  systems,  a  nervous 
system  which  is  not  traversed  by  the  alimen- 
tary tract,  and  gill  alits,  at  least  in  the  em- 
bryo, leading  outward  from  the  throat.  The 
body  of  a  vertebrate  is  nearly  alike  on  both 
sides,  and  is  covered  with  a  skin  several  cells 
in  thickness,  from  which  may  be  developed  pro- 
tective structures — scales,  feathers,  or  hiair. 
The  central  nervous  system  consists  of  an  an- 
terior enlargement,  the  brain,  and  a  posterior 
prolongation,  the  spinal  cord.  There  are  three 
sensory  outgrowths  which  Arise  from  the  brain 


TERTEBRATE  PALEONTOLOOT 

— the  pftired  tyee  and  the  pineal  or  parietal 
eye,  which  is  probably  fimcuonal  in  no  eziBt- 
ing  Tertebrate.  The  apuiial  aeaee  orgBDB  are 
three — the  nose,  eyee,  and  eara.  In  the  lam- 
preys the  Qose  is  in  the  central  line;  in  the 
other  forms  it  is  paired.  In  only  the  higher 
vertebrates  is  there  a  passa^  through  the  nose 
ttf  the  throat.  For  the  details  of  Eye  and  Eab, 
BM  those  articles.  The  skull  Ib  a  capsule  for 
the  protection  of  the  brain  and  sense  orgians 
(cranium)  and  the  face,  including  the  jaws. 
These  may  all  persist  as  cartilage,  or  they  may 
be  ossified  and  reinforced  by  other  bones  de- 
veloped in  the  skin,  and  later  united  with  the 
skull.  In  the  more  primitife  forms  the  num- 
ber of  separate  bones  is  large;  ascent  in  the 
scale  is  usually  accompanied  by  a  fusion  of 
separate  elementa.  TliUB  tUe  sm/ile  sphenoid 
bone  of  man  is  repreBent«d  by  about  twenty 
distinct  hones  in  lower  forms. 

The  digestive  syhtem  b^ns  with  the  mouth, 
after  which  come  in  order  pharynx,  esophaauH, 
stomach,  and  intestines.  PVom  the  intestinal 
region  are  developed  as  outgrowths  two  spe- 
eiU  digestive  glands,  the  pancreas  and  liver. 
In  the  water-breathing  forms  the  sides  of  the 
pharynx  are  perforated  with  gill  slits,  the  walls 
of  which  are  covered  by  delicate  plates  or 
fringes  in  which  t!ie  blood  circulates,  while 
water  coming  in  through  the  mouth  passes  to 
the  exterior  through  the  slits,  and  is  thus 
brought  into  close  connecUon  with  the  blood, 
so  that  an  exchange  of  oxygen  and  carbon  di- 
oxide is  readily  effected.  In  tiie  higher  forms 
these  gill  slits  persist  for  but  a  short  time,  and 
in  the  mammal  or  bird  one  only  can  be  foimd 
in  the  adult — the  eustachian  tube — which, 
closed  at  the  outer  end,  connects  tbe  middle 
ear  with  the  throat.  In  the  air-breathing  ver- 
tebrates the  gills  are  replaced  hy  lup^  The 
heart,  the  central  organ  of  circulation,  is  primi- 
tively placed  below  the  alimentary  tract,  just 
behind  the  gill  slits,  and  in  its  simplest  form 
consists  of  two  chambers — an  auricle  which  re- 
ceives the  blood  and  a  ventricle  which  propels 
it  forward.  In  the  highest  air-breathing  forms 
a  partition  forms,  dividing  the  auricle  and  ven- 
tricle, thus  giving  rise  to  the  (our-chambered 
heart.  There  is,  besides,  a  lymph  system,  con- 
sisting of  vcBsels  and  spaces  ramifying  all  parts 
of  the  body,  and  communicating,  here  and 
there,  with  the  blood  circulatory  system.  In 
certain  forms,  portions  of  this  lymph  system 
become  specialized  into  contractile  organs,  the 
lympb  hearts.  A  portion  of  the  lymph  system, 
the  chyle  ducts,  play  an  important  part  in 
transferring  the  products  of  digestion  into  the 
general  circulation.  The  branch  of  vertebrates 
u  divided  into  the  Cyclostomata,  including  the 
lampreys  and  hagfishes,  in  which  no  true  jaws 
are  developed,  and  the  Gnatbostomata,  with 
jaws,  including  all  other  forms. 

Ver'tebrate  Paleontol'Dgy,  the  branch  of  sci- 
ence that  treats  of  the  structure,  alBnitien, 
claeeiflcation,  and  distribution  of  the  ancient 
baclc-boned  animals  that  are  known  only  from 
fossil  remains.  From  one  view  point  it  is  n 
"branch  of  sofilogy  differing  from  it  as  a  science 
only  in  that  it  deals  almost  entirely  with  pre- 
historic instead  of  living  forms.  From  another 
asp«et  it  may  be  conaiaered  a  branch  of  geol- 


TERTEBRATE  PALEONTOLOOT 
ogy,  since  its  aid  is  absolutely  Indispensable 


mals,  or  vertebrates,  as  revealed  by  the  study 
of  their  fossil  remains  shows  consent  change. 
At  each  successive  stage  in  geolc^c  time  new 
forms  make  their  appearance,  while  old  onea 
disappear.  Those  forms  that  differ  most  from 
the  eusting  assemblage  of  animals  are  those 
of  the  most'  remote  past.  For  ages  the  only 
known  vertebrates  were  fishes  and  certain  loW 
types  allied  to  fishes.  The  earliest  records  of 
these  have  been  found  in  the  lower  Silurian, 
but  they  probably  had  their  origin  even  much 
earlier. 

The  principal  Sshes  of  the  Silurian  are  tho 
ganoids,  or  fishes  with  shining  bony  scales  or 
plates,  as  on  the  present  gar  pike.  These  forms 
(j'Kome  very  abundant  and  vari^l  in  the  Devo- 
nian, which  is  the  next  highest  age.  The  devel- 
opment of  vertebrate  life  in  the  Devonian  is 
GO  conspicuous  that  it  is  often  called  the  "  Age 
of  Fishes."  The  most  peculiar  and  character- 
istic Tcrtebratcs  of  this  period  are  not  true 
Gslies,  hut  belong  to  a  much  lower  type  called 
the  ostracoderms,  more  nenrly  related  to  the 
Innipreys,  being  witliout  jaws  or  paired  fins. 
Qanoids,  sharks,  lung  fishes,  and  other  carti- 
laginous forms  were  also  abundant.  The  strik- 
ing difference  in  the  assemblage  of  the  flshoi 
of  this  period  to  those  of  the  present  fish  fauna 
is  the  plentiful  and  varied  varieties  of  prim- 
itive forms  and  the  entire  absence  of  true  Ixiny 
fishes.  The  amphibia,  the  lowest  forms  of  the 
air-breathing  vertebrates,  have  left  their  ear- 
liest record  in  the  upper  Devonian  of  Penn- 
sylvania. These  became  of  great  importance 
in  the  Carboniferous  period,  were  especially 
itl);indant  in  the  Permian,  and  seemed  to  have 
r Bached  their  culmination  in  the  Triassic. 
Many  of  them  were  of  great  siie  as  compared 
with  their  living  representatives,  such,  as  irogs, 
toads,  newts,  and  salamanders.  True  reptiles 
in  large  numl>ers  first  made  their  appearance 
in  the  Permian,  became  more  abundant  and 
diversified  in  the  Triassic,  and  reached  their 
culmination  in  the  Jursssic  and  Cretaceous. 

The  most  striking  reptiles  of  the  Jurassic 
and  Cretaceous  were  the  gigantic  and  highly 
specialized  dinosaurs.'  which  became  extinct 
shout  the  close  of  the  Cretaceous.  Some  of 
these  reached  an  enormous  size,  nearly  rivaling 
the  whales  in  bulk.  The  first  records  of  birds 
ond  mammals  are  found  in  the  Triassic.  The 
former  advanced  very  rapidly  to  nearly  their 
present  grade  of  organization.  The  mammals, 
however,  remained  vei^  small  and  primitive 
throughout  the  Triassic,  Jurassic,  and  Cre- 
taceous periods.  They  began  to  be  more  diver- 
silied  in  the  later  Cretaceous  and  early  Ter- 
tiary, and  began  to  assume  a  somewhat  modem 
aspect  in  the  Eocene,  where  they  advanced  to 
that  dominant  place  in  terrestrial  life  unoi^ 
the  vertebrates  which  they  have  since  held. 
Ancestral  forms  of  many  of  the  living  groups, 
representing  the  hoofed  animals,  primates,  in- 
sectiTors,  carnivore,  rodents,  etc.,  became  abun- 
dant in  the  Eocene,  developed  in  the  Oligocene, 
and  became  quite  modernized  In  the  Miocene. 
The  first  truly  modem  specie*  appears  onlf  la 

^'■"""■'^  .Google 


VEBTiaO 

Vei'tlKa,  jiZEinew  or  apparent  imp&irmeiit 
of  the  equilibrium  of  the  body.  It  assumes 
two  principal  forms :  in  one  it  appears  to  the 
subject  as  if  objects  were  whirling  about  him ; 
in  Uie  other,  he  fancies  that  he  is  forced  to 
fall  in  some  definite  direction.  Vertigo  is 
rarely  if  ever  continuous,  but  occurs  in  parox- 
ysms provoked  by  some  appreciable  cause,  as 
changing  posture,  eating,  using  the  ^es,  etc. 
Vertigo  ii  sometimes  the  expression  of  disease 
of  the  brain,  or  of  interference  with  the  cir- 
culation of  blood  in  that  or^n,  but  more  usu- 
ally it  is  a  sympathetic  diaor^ler,  caused  by 
iniugestion,  anemia,  disease  of  the  internal  or- 
gans of  htiaring,  etc.  Vertigo  may  be  artifi- 
cially produced  by  stimulants  (alcohol)  and 
hr  the  application  of  galvanism  to  the  head. 
Vertigo  is  not  a  disease,  but  a  coaditi<m  com- 
mon to  a  number  of  diseesea. 

Vntnm'nns,  or  VoitntDoua,  in  Boman  my- 
tbolf^y,  the  god  of  the  seasons,  and,  as  the 
husband  of  Pomonn,  more  especially  the  god 
of  fruit  He  was  of  genuine  Italian  origin.  A 
feast,  VertumnaUa,  was  celebrated  in  his  honor 
OD  August  23d.  He  was  generally  represented 
as  resembling  Saturn. 

Tflr'nlam,  Baron.    See  Bacon,  FBanas. 


Ver'nin. 


e  Tkbbeha  FaiOLr. 


Te^uian  (via-pa'zU-ftn),  full  name  Titus 
FiiAVIDB  Sabinus  Vebpasiahub,  0-79  AJ>.; 
emperor;  b.  Reate,  Italy,  of  a  family  in  ordi- 
nary circumstances  1  entered  the  army;  held 
superior  commands  under  Claudius  in  Germany 
and  Britain;  governed  Africa  as  proconsul  un- 
der Nero,  and  was  sent  in  68,  at  the  head  of 
a  large  army,  to  suppress  the  rebellion  in 
Judea.  When,  after  tie  murder  of  (>alba,  the 
civil  war  broke  out  between  Otho  and  Vitellius, 
Vespasian  was  proclaimed  emperor  (July  1, 
09),  by  his  own  army,  and  shortly  after  was 
recognized  by  the  whole  E.  part  of  the  empire. 
He  left  the  final  reduction  of  Judea  to  his  son 
Titus,  and  proceeded  to  Rome,  where,  after 
the  murder  of  Vitellius,  he  was  recognised  by 
the  senate.  A  great  change  now  took  place  in 
the  government  of  the  state.  The  new  emperor 
1TBB  frugal  and  unostentatious  in  his  personal 
habits,  honest  and  open  in  his  dealings  with 
all  persons.  The  character  of  the  senate  was 
restored,  and  the  worst  elements  in  it  expelled. 
A  firm  discipline  was  established  in  the  army. 
In  his  external  policy  be  was  also  succeBsful. 
Jerusalem,  and  with  it  the  whole  of  Judea, 
were  taken  in  70;  an  insurrection  in  Gaul 
was  suppressed;  nen  conquests  were  made  in 
Britain  and  Germany.  For  Rome  he  did  much. 
He  rebuilt  the  capitol,  which  had  been  burned 
by  tbe  adherents  of  Vitellius;  he  erected  a 
Temple  of  Peace,  began  tbe  Colosseum,  and  en- 
couraged the  restoration  and  rebuilding  of 
those  parts  of  the  city  which  bad  remained  in 
ruins  since  the  great  conflagration  under  Nero. 
He  attended  to  business  to  bis  latest  moment, 
saying  that  an  emperor  should  die  standing — 
and,  in  fact,  did  die  in  this  attitude.  His  last 
remark  was  characteristic  of  his  somewhat 
cynical  humor:  "Methinlu  I  am  becoming  a 
god." 


VESTA 

Vea'perSi  in  the  Soman  Breviary,  the  last 
but  one  of  the  canonical  hours,  the  one  pre- 
ceding compline  and  following  the  nones.  It  is 
celebrated  in  public  in  the  churches,  often  with 
brilliant  music.  The  service  occurs  about  the 
time  of  the  lighting  of  the  lamps,  being  the- 
oretically proper  to  sunset,  ana  varies  with 
the  day  of  the  week. 

Vespucci  (vis-pCt'che),  Amerigo,  1461-1512; 
Italian  navigator,  from  whom  the  name  of 
America  ia  derived.  He  was  in  business  in 
Seville  as  an  agent  of  the  Medici  family  when 
Columbus  returned  from  his  first  voyage.  In 
149B  he  sailed  from  Spain  in  an  expedition 
under  Ojeda,  which  visited  the  neighborhood 
of  Cape  Paria  and  several  hundred  miles  of 
the  6.  American  coast,  and  returned  in  June, 
1500.  In  ISOl  he  entered  the  service  of  Portu- 
gal, and  took  part  in  an  expedition  which  vis- 
ited the  coast  of  Brazil.  His  narrative  in 
Latin  of  this  expedition  was  published  at 
Btraasburg  in  1606.  From  this  voyage  ha  ac- 
quired the  reputation  of  being  the  discoverer 
of  the  mainland.  In  1603  he  again  visited 
Brazil.  He  then  returned  to  the  Spanish  serv- 
ice, and  before  March  22,  1508,  became  pilot 
major.  Tbe  name  Americi  Terra  was  applied 
to  this  continent  as  early  as  1607,  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  Vespucci  himself  had  any  in- 
tention of  taking  the  honor  of  the  discovery 
from  Columbus,  with  whom  he  was  on  friendly 
terms.  It  is  hard  to  determine  the  time  and 
extent  of  his  various  voyages,  as  his  letters 
are  obscure,  and  survive  only  in  imperfect 
translations. 

Vea'ta,  in  Roman  mytholi^y,  the  goddeas  of 
the  borne  or  hearth,  corresponding  to  the  Greek 
Hestia.  Very  few  myths  were  formed  on  tbe 
idea  of  this  deity,  but  the  grave  ritea  which 


mythology  she  formed  the  center.  She  was  not 
represented  by  any  image  in  her  temples,  but 
a  perpetual  fire  burned  on  her  ^tars,  and  each 
Italian  city  or  community  bad  raised  an  altar 
to  her.  The  Vesta  of  the  Roman  Empire  had 
her  temple  at  Lavinium,  on  tbe  Via  Appia, 
20  m.  from  Rome,  and  hither  the  consuls  and 
other  high  officials  of  the  republic  went  to  offer 
up  their  sacrifice  before  entering  on  their 
duties.  The  Vesta  of  Rome  bad  her  temple  in 
the  Forum,  near  that  of  the  Penates,  and  here 
she  was  served  by  her  own  priestessea,  the 
vestal  virgins,  and  a  festival,  the  Vettalia,  was 
celebrated  June  Stb.  The  number  of  the  Testal 
virgins  waa  originally  four,  afterwards  six. 
Tbey  were  chosen  bv  the  pontifex  maximus 
when  between  six  and  ten  years  old,  and  they 
served  the  goddess  for  tliirty  years,  spending 
ten  years  in  learning  their  dutiea,  ten  in  the 
performance  of  them,  and  ten  in  tatehing  them 
to  the  novices.  Their  principal  duty  consisted 
simply  in  keeping  alive  the  sacred  fire  on  the 
altar  of  the  goddess,  but  thereby  the  guard- 
ianship of  tbe  holiest  which  Roman  life  con- 
tained was  intrusted  to  them ;  and,  although 
it  has  become  impossible  to  us  to  fathom  the 
bearing  of  this  institution  on  the  life  of  the 
community,  numerous  well -ascertained  facts 
indicate  Uie  importance  ascribed  to  it.    When 


VESTTAIS 

ft  eonenl  met  one  of  th«  restal  virginB  In  the 
■treeta,  be  bowed  with  reverence,  and  the 
lictore  Icnrered  the  fauM  while  the  passed  hj. 
When  a  convict  was  seen  by  one  of  the  virgins, 
he  was  released  if  she  demanded  it.  If  the 
sacred  fire  went  out  from  neglect,  the  priestess 
during  whose  watch  it  happened  was  stripped 
and  scouratd  bv  the  pontifex.  If  one  of  them 
committed  adufteiT,  she  was  buried  alive,  and 
her  seducer  was  flc^^d  to  death  in  the  Forum. 

Ves'talB,  or  Vestal  Vir'cim.    See  Vista. 

Vemt'Tiot,  t 
shore  of  Italj 
There  are  two  mountain  masses.  That  which 
is  at  present  the  higher  is  conical,  with  a  crater 
at  the  top,  and  has  an  altitude  of  4,000  ft., 
the  height  vairing  with  the  progress  of  erup- 
tion. The  other  mass  is  a  crescent-shaped 
ridge  partly  surrounding  the  cone,  and  has  an 
extreme  .altitude  of  SJSO  ft.  It  is  called 
Monte  Somma,  and  it  is  part  of  the  rim  of  an 
ancient  crater  about  3  m.  ia  diameter. 

During  the  period  of  early  Roman  history 
Vesuvius  is  not  mentioned  as  a  volcano,  and 
Its  fires  had  been  dormant  for  so  many  cen- 
turies that  its  volcanio  character  was  not  gen- 
erally understood.  On  its  outer  slopes  were 
vineyards  and  gardens,  and  the  interior  of  its 
crater  was  a  plain  several  miles  in  width, 
partly  covered  1^  wild  vines.  It  is  related  that 
Spartacns  and  hia  fotlowers  took  refuge  in 
this  crater,  where  they  were  besieged  DJ  a 
Koman  army.  In  the  year  03  and  afterwards 
there  were  earthquakes  in  the  vicinity,  and 
in  78  an  explosion,  followed  by  eipulsiso  erup- 
tion, covered  the  surrounding  country  with 
volcanic  ashes  and  volcanic  mud.  The  cities 
of  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  were  destroyed 
and  so  deeply  buried  that  even  their  sites  were 
unknown  for  centuries.  There  ensued  a  period 
of  quiet,  followed  by  an  explosion  in  S03,  and 
other  explosions  or  violent  eruptions  are  his- 
torically recorded  in  the  years  472,  G12,  685, 
W3,  1036,  1138,  1306,  1500,  and  1631.  There 
were  a  number  of  periods  a  century  or  more 
in  length  during  which  the  volcano  waa  not 
active.  From  1666  to  the  present  the  activity 
has  been  nearly  continuous,  the  longest  iater- 
vsls  of  rest  covering  not  more  than  four  or 
five  years.  Recent  notable  eruptions  were  in 
1003  and  1906.  The  activity  of  the  last 
eighteen  hundred  years  has  been  confined  to 
the  conical  mountain,  which  bears  specifically 
the  name  Vesuvius,  and  the  mountain  has  been 
built  up  during  that  period  by  ashes  and  lava. 
Its  summit  has  been  repeatedly  blown  off  by 
great  explosions,  after  which  new  cones  have 
been  built  within  the  crater.  Monte  Somma 
is  part  of  the  rim  of  the  crater  existing  before 
the  catastrophe  of  79,  and  has  had  no  share 
in  the  later  activity. 

.Vetch,  Fitch,  or  Tare,  any  one  of  several 
climbing  herbs  of  the  bean  family.  N.  America 
and  Europe  have  each  several  species,  some 
common  to  both  continents.  One  of  the  most- 
important  is  Vicio  eativa,  or  hairy  vetch,  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  Europe  as  a  foran 
idant,  and  also  occasionally  grown  in  the  U.  S. 
The  bitter  vetebes  (Orobw  tubtrotitt,  etc.)   are 


also  forage  plants  of  Europe.  The  tubers  of 
some  sorts  are  usea  as  food.  Other  so-called 
vetches  are  the  g^ius  Lathgrut,  often  called 
vetehlings. 

Veferinary  Sd'ence.  Veterinary  medicine 
was  studied  among  the  ancient  Egyptians, 
Arabs,  Parsees,  Hindus,  and  Greeks.  The  sci- 
ence was  virtually  lost  in  the  destruction  of 
the  Eastern  Empire,  and  only  began  to  revive 
at  the  end  of  the  sixteenwi  century,  when 
Carlo  Ruini  wrote  on  the  anatomy  of  the  horse- 
But  little  real  prioress  was  made  till  1762, 
when  the  .  prevailing  epizootics  among  farm 
animals  led  to  the  establishment  of  the  Lyons 
veterinary  college,  speedily  followed  1^  the 
founding  of  similar  institutions  in  every  coun- 
try of  Europe.  At  present  veterinary  science 
embraces  the  anatomy,  physiology,  hygiene, 
dietetics,  and  general  care  of  domestic  animals, 
together  with  their  diseases,  therapeutics,  and 
prophylaxis,  the  philosophy  of  br^ding,  shoe- 
ing, sanitary  principles  of  building,  drainage, 
and  ventilation,  the  influence  of  soils  and  sea- 
sons on  the  food,  water,  and  air,  the  eftecte  of 
climate  on  the  animal  economy,  the  laws  of 
contagion,  the  development  and  metamorphoses 
of  parasites,  etc. 

Bbeakwo  ^sa  Tbaikihq  or  Eorbis. — In 
careful  hands  the  colt  should  be  led  and  han- 
dled while  still  with  his  dam,  but  should  not 
be  made  a  general  pet  and  plaything.  Many 
of  Uie  most  incorrigible  horses  have  been  pe^ 
as  foals,  and  learned  at  this  early  age  to  re- 
taliate in  their  play.  Training  to  bring  a 
horse  into  condition  for  hard  work  consists  in 
the  removal  of  all  superfluous  fat,  and  the  de- 
velopment and  hardening  of  the  muscles.  The 
btet  condition  is  not  to  be  attained  by  a  train- 
ing of  a  few  weeks  or  months,  and  trotters 
rarely  reach  their  highest  speed  until  years 
after  they  are  matured.  The  colt  intendM  for 
this  training  should  be  fed  on  grain  from  the 
time  he  leaves  hia  dam,  and  should  have  free 
scope  for  exercise  and  development.  The  final 
treatment  is  by  sweating,  physic,  and  gradu- 
ated exercise.  Sweating  is  employed  mainly  to 
get  rid  of  superfiuous  fat,  and  may  be  secured 
by  active  exertion,  by  clothing,  or  by  the  Turk- 
ish bath. 

One  of  the  chief  results  of  the  growth  of 
veterinary  science  has  been  the  progressive  de- 
cline of  animal  plagues.  From  a  distribution 
so  great  that  almost  every  part  of  every  civ- 
ilized country  suflered,  and  from  losses  that 
amounted  to  millions  of  dollars  each  year, 
these  diseases  have  been  so  restricted  and,  in 
some  cases,  exterminated,  that  present  losses 
from  diseases  then  prevalent  bear  but  a  small 
ratio  to  those  then  incurred.  But  the  veteri- 
narian has  not  yet  fulfilled  his  function,  for 
many  new  problems  have  arisen  during  the 
past  few  years,  some  of  which  are  already 
partly  settled,  but  others  are  still  awaiting  a 
■olution. 

Ve'to  (Latin,  "I  forbid"),  in  the  political 
language  of  modern  nations  denoting  the  act 
by  which  the  executive  power  refuses  its  sanc- 
tion to  a  measure  proceeding  from  the  legis- 
lature. In  Rome  the  tribunes  of  the  people, 
by  aaying  Tela,  oould  render  of,  do  avail  f 


oTwi  avail  a 

.Coogfc 


VIADUCT 

decree  ol  the  senate  or  the  proceedingi  of  m«g- 
iatrstes.  Under  the  ancient  Polish  constitu- 
tion, si^  iingle  member  of  the  diet,  by  the 
uae  of  the  liberum  veto,  could  hinder  the 
passage  of  an;  measure.  In  most  European 
countries  the  sorereign  possesges  a  veto  power, 
generally  absolute;  in  fWland  it  has  not  been 
exercised  since  1707.  The  President  of  the 
U.  8.  has  a  veto  power,  but  a  majority  of  two 
thirds  In  each  house  of  Congress  is  sufficient 
to  pass  any  measure  over  the  veto.  The  gor- 
emon  of  states  and  mayors  of  cities  also  gen- 
erally possess  the  power,  but  in  some  cases  a 
■imple  majority  is  sufficient  to  overcome  it. 

Ti'adnet,  a  structure  by  which  a  road  is 
carried  over  a  valley,  the  word  being  usually 
restricted  to  the  case  of  a  deep  valley  where 
the  piers  are  a  more  prominent  feature  than 
the  bridge  proper.  In  such  cases  the  bridge 
spans  are  sbort  in  order  that  they  may  be 
erected  without  other  false  works  than  the 
piers  themselves  afford.  On  account  of  the 
heiiht  of  the  piers  thfy  were  formerly  built 
of  timber,  hut  iron  or  st«el  is  now  onployed. 
See  Bridqk 

Tiat'leum,  under  the  Romans,  the  traveling 
mon^  or  provision  for  a  journey  mode  for  an 
official.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  Chnrch,  the 
eucbarist  as  administered  to  a  dying  person. 
If  life  be  prolonged,  the  viaticum  may  be  re- 
peated from  time  to  time,  if  ao  desired  by  the 
sick  person,  provided  the  mental  faculties  are 
preserved.  In  the  early  Church  the  term  was 
applied  both  to  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, and  sometimes  even  to  absolution  and 
reconciliation. 

Tibra'tion,  the  rapid  reciprocating  movement 
consequent  upon  the  tendency  of  a  body,  or 
parts  of  a  body,  disturbed  from  a  position  of 
equilibrium,  to  recover  that  position  again; 
such  are  the  rapid  motions  of  a  tuning  fork  or 
tightened  atring.  Sound  is  due  to  the  vibra- 
tions of  air,  etc.,  white  light  is  due  to  vibra- 
tions of  ether. 

Vl'hroKope,  an  instrument,  invented  in  1S40 
by  Dubamel,  for  registering  the  vibrations  of 
a  Boundiag  body  graphically  on  smoked  paper. 
Bee  alto  Stboboscofc 

Vibur'nTUn,  a  genus  of  shrubs  and  trees  of 
the  honeysuckle  family.  It  includes  shout 
eighty   speciea,  mostly  natives  of  the  N.  tem- 

rrate  zone,  some  occurring  in  the  Andes  of 
America,  and  a  few  in  the  W.  Indies  and 
Madagascar.  About  a  dozen  species  are  natives 
of  the  U.  S.,  including  Viburnum  prunifoHum 
(black  haw)  and  V.  lenlago  (sheep  berry), 
both  with  sweetish  edible  berries,  and  V. 
opulu»  {the  eranberiy  tree),  with  sour  edible 
berries.  A  cultivated  form  of  the  last  named 
is  the  snowball.  Several  species  are  in  com- 
mon cultivation  as  ornamental  shrubs. 


Venice.     Vicenza  is  known  for  its  palaces 


vicKSBtma 

'  mired  for  their  proportions  and  decoration^ 
The  cathedral  has  pictures  and  terra  cottos, 
and  is  of  flfteenth-century  Gothic.  At  the  foot 
of  Monte  Berico  is  the  stripped  and  mutilated 
villa  of  Palladio,  once  one  of  the  most  splen- 
did monuments  of  modem  architectural  art, 
and  still  retaining  its  fine  proportions  and 
roost  important  features.  Vicenza  has  manu- 
factures of  silk,  linen,  e^benware,  and  paper. 
Pop.   (IBll)   G4,E4S. 

Vice  Pies'ident,  an  officer  of  the  U.  S.  Govt, 
chosen  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  President.  (See  CoxaTTTUTioii  OF 
THE  U.  S.)  His  only  official  duty  is  to  preside 
over  the  Senate.  In  case  of  a  failure  of  the 
electors  to  choose  a  Vice  President,  a  majority 
of  the  votes  of  the  Senators  (a  quorum  of  two 
thirds  being  present)  will  elect  him;  or  if 
there  he  no  majority,  he  is  chosen  from  the 
two  candidates  who  have  received  the  highrat 
number  of  senatorial  votes.  In  case  of  a 
vacanin'  in  the  presidency,  be  becomes  Presi- 
dent of  the  U.  S.  As  president  of  the  Senate 
be  has  a  easting  vote  in  case  of  a  tie.  His 
salary  is  ilZfiOO  a  year. 

Vichy  (vC-shC),  town,  department  of  Allier, 
France;  on  the  Allier,  nine  hours  by  rail  from 
Paris.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  mineral  springs 
and  baths.  The  mineral  waters  are  both  hot 
and  cold,  and  are  alkaline,  containing  chitiDy 
sodium  carbonate.  They  are  charged  with  car- 
bon dioxide;  about  8,250,000  bottles  are  shipped 
annually.  Its  celebrity  dates  from  the  times 
of  the  Romans.  Pop.  (1901)  14,254;  is  in- 
creased to  40,000  during  the  season. 

Vlcka'barg,  capital  of  barren  Co.,  Miss.;  on 
the  Mississippi  near  its  junction  with  the 
Ybeoo;  45  m.  W.  of  Jackson,  and  235  m.  HW. 
of  New  Orleans.  The  site  is  bicbly  picturesque, 
and  the  city  has  many  fine  drives,  including 
one  to  the  National  Cemetery,  where  17,000 
Union  dead  are  buried.  About  60,000  bales  of 
cotton  are  here  shipped  annually,  besides  targe 
quantities  of  lumber,  cotton-seed  oil  and  cake, 
and  general  produce.  There  are  railway  shops, 
cotton-oil  mills,  and  many  smaller  industries. 

Vicksburg  suffered  severely  during  the  Civil 
War,  In  1876  the  river  cut  through  a  neck 
of  land,  leaving  the  city  on  an  inland  lake. 
Since  then  the  U.  S.  Oovt.  has  been  carrying 
on  operations  to  divert  the  ifazoo  River  «uit 
the  city  and  to  restore  the  harbor.  Pop. 
(1910)   20,S14. 

Vicksburg,  Campaign'  and  Siege  of,  military 
operations  which  took  place  during  the  Civil 
War  in  the  U.  S.  After  the  capture  of  New 
Orleans  (April,  1862),  Vicksburg  was  the  only 
strong  point  on  the  Mississippi  held  by  the  Con- 
federates. It  was  well  provided  with  batteries, 
and  a  line  of  works  was  constructed  surrouod- 
ing  the  city.  On  May  18,  1862,  Farragut,  com- 
ing up  the  river,  demanded  the  surrender  of 
Vicksburg,  which  was  refused.  He  returned 
on  June  2flth  with  Flag  OfBcer  Porter's  mortar 
flotilla,  whereupon  the  bombardment  of  the 
city  began  and  was  continued  until  about  July 
2Sd.  On  June  28tb  Farragut  ran  past  the  bat- 
teries with  two  ships  and  five  gunboats.  A 
land   force  under  Gen.  Thomas   wilUams,  of 


VICTOR  ElQIANimL 

About  3,000  men  and  1,200  negro  Iftbotera,  wu 
meanwhile  trying  to  cut  a  canal,  for  the  paa- 
Bage  of  gunlioaU  and  tranaporta,  across  the 
peninsula  c^poaite  Vicksburg;  but  before  its 
completioti  a  rise  in  the  river  destroyed  all  that 
hod  been  done.  On  the  night  of  July  15th  Far- 
mgut'B  fieet  ran  down  past  the  batteries,  en- 
gaging them  and  the  ran)  A.rkattaa»  on  the 
way,  and  on  July  2Tth,  having  takan  Will- 
iams's troops  on  board,  withdrew  to  Baton 
Rouge  and  New  Orleans.  The  Confederate  re- 
ports state  that  little  damage  woh  done  by  the 
iwmbardmeat. 

On  November  2eth,  1862,  Gen.  Grant  started 
from  Grand  Junction,  but  on  December  ZOth 
Gen.  Earl  Van  Dom  captured  hia  depot  at 
Holly  Springs  and  compelled  his  withdrawal. 
Gen.  Wm.  T,  Sherman,  starting  from  Memphis 
on  December  20th,  moved  down  the  river,  and 
on  the  29tb  assaulted  Chickasaw  Bluffs,  but 
was  repulsed  by  Gen.  John  C,  Pemberton,  who 
was  in  command  at  Vicksburg.  Grant,  wishing 
to  get  a  footing  on  the  high  ground  in  the  rear 
of  Vicksburg  which  touches  the  river  below 
the  city,  made  an  attempt  to  cut  a  canal  near 
the  one  nreviously  b^uu  by  Williams,  and  un- 
successfully tried  to  find  a  water  route  through 
the  bayous.  As  the  river  fell  enough  to  make 
the  roads  passable,  he  marched  bis  anny  by 
land  on  the  right  bank  to  De  Schroons,  where 
on  April  SOth  it  embarked  on  the  fleet  which, 
under  Porter,  had  run  down  past  the  batteries 
of  Vicksburg  on  April  19th  and  bombarded 
Grand  Gulf  April  EBth.  Grant  moved  dovra  the 
river,  landed  at  Bruinaburg,  and  marched 
toward  Jackson,  severing  his  connection  with 
the  river  on  May  Uth.  The  battle  of  Ray- 
mond was  fought  and  won  on  the  12th.  Jack- 
son was  captured  on  the  14th,  and  the  battles 
of  Champion  Hill  and  Big  Black  River  were 
won  on  the  16tb  and  17th,  respectivriy.  On  the 
18th  Grant  was  in  front  of  Vicksburg. 

On  the  l&th  he  made  an  assault  which  gave 
him  a  better  position,  and  on  the  22d  a  general 
assault  was  made,  which  was  repulsed  with 
great  loss.  The  regular  riege  then  began,  and 
continued  with  an  uninterrupted  bombardment 
until  the  city  surrendered,  July  4,  1863 — the 
same  day  as  the  victory  at  Gettysburg.  The 
total  force  surrendered  by  the  Confederates  was 
over  31,000  men  and  172  guns;  their  previous 
losves  duiing  the  campaign  and  aiege  exceeded 
10,000  men  and  90  guns.  Grant's  total  losses 
in  this  campaign  and  aiege  were  about  10,000 
men;  his  total  force  near  Vickaburg  was  be- 
tween 60,000  and  70,000  men.  The  fall  of 
Vickshure  waa  followed  on  July  Oth  by  that 
of  Port  Hudson.  This  opened  up  the  Missis- 
sippi. Although  the  banks  of  the  river  were  at 
times  occupied  by  guerrillas  and  cavalry  raid- 
ers, no  seriouB  interruptions  to  its  commerce 
were  caused  by  the  Confederates  after  this  date, 
and  the  Confederate  states  on  the  W,  were  sep- 
arated from  those  on  the  R  up  to  the  close  of 

Vic'tor  Bmman'nel  n,  1820-78;  King  of  Bar- 
dinia  from  1B4B  to  1861,  and  thereafter  King 
of  Italy;  b.  Turin;  commanded  the  Savoy 
Brigade  in  the  campaigns  against  Austria  in 
184ft-49,  and  distinguished  himself  by  his  bril- 
liant personal  valor  at  Qoito  and  Novua.    On 


VICTORIA 

the  evening  of  the  disastrous  battle  of  Novara 
(March  S3,  1840)  Victor  Emmanuel  ascended 
the  throne  under  very  critical  circumatances. 
Peace  had  to  be  bought  of  Austria,  and  the 
state  was  divided  into  contending  factions. 
The  young  king  himself  was  as  yet  by  no 
means  popular.  Supported  by  Cavour,  be  suc- 
ceeded in  restoring  the  fanances  to  order,  reor- 
ganized the  army,  concluded  commercial  trea- 
ties with  foreign  powers,  limited  the  privileges 
of  the  cler^,  secularized  the  Church  property, 
and  established  popular  education.  The  pope 
excommunicated  him,  but  all  intelligent  men  m 
Italy  began  to  took  on  him  as  the  coming  lib- 
erator, the  more  so  that  he  with  great  Dold- 
ness  gave  all  political  refugees  from  the  Other 
Italian  states  en  asylum. 

By  his  participation  in  the  Crimean  War  ha 
secured  for  Sardinia  a  recognition  in  the  politi- 
cal aystem  of  Europe,  and  finallv,  in  1859,  h« 
was  able  to  renew  the  contest  with  Austria  by 
the  aid  of  France.  By  the  Treaty  of  Villa- 
frsnca  (July  11th)  and  the  Peace  of  Zurich 
(November  10,  186D),  Lombardy  was  added  to 
his  dominions.  The  aid  of  France  was  secured 
at  the  cost  of  Savoy  and  Nice,  and  in  spite  of 
Napoleon's  promises  Venetia  still  remained  an 
Austrian  province;  but  at  the  same  tima 
Parma,  Modena,  Tuscany,  and  parts  of  tha 
Papal  States  annexed  themselves  to  Sardinia; 
and  soon  afterwards  the  campaign  of  Garibaldi 
in  Sicily  and  Naples  produc«i  the  same  result 
for  8.  Italy.  On  March  17,  1861,  Victor  Em- 
manuel assumed  the  title  of  King  of  Italy. 
Meanwhile  the  situation  continued  to  be  diffi- 
cult. Venetia  and  Rome  were  still  wanting, 
and  great  success  had  at  once  made  the  Italian 
peopfe  impatient  and  the  relation  to  other  pow- 
ers, even  to  France,  very  delicate.  Victor  Em- 
manuel sought  and  found  an  ally  in  Prussia; 
and  although  the  Italians  lost  the  battle  of 
Custozza  (June  24,  1866),  by  the  Peace  of 
Vienna  (in  October)  Austria  ceded  Venetia. 
When,  during  the  Franco-German  War,  the 
French  garrison  was  withdrawn  from  Rome, 
the  city  annexed  itself  by  a  popular  vote  to 
Italy,  and  on  July  2.  1871,  Victor  Emman- 
uel entered  the  city  and  took  up  his  rendence 
in  the  Quirinal  Palace. 

Victor  Emmanuel  m,  1660-  ;  ] 
Italy;  succeeded  his  father,  Humbert 
29,  1900. 

Victo'ria  (or,  as  baptized,  ALEXAiniUKA  Vro- 
TORiA),  1819-1901;  Queen  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  and  Empress  of  India;  only  child  Of 
Edward,  Duke  of  Kent,  fourth  son  of  Georga 
III,  and  of  his  wife,  Victoria  Mary  Louisa. 
Her  father  having  died  January  23,  1820,  she 
was  educated  under  the  care  of  her  mother  and 
the  Ducheas  of  Northumberland;  became  hnr- 
esa  presumptive  to  the  crown  on  the  accession 
of  William  IV  in  1830,  and  on  his  death  with- 
out issue  (June  20,  1837}  assumed  the  throne 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  that  of  Hanover 
falling  iyr  the  law  excluding  females  to  her  un- 
cle, the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  She  was  crowned 
In  Westminster  Abbey  June  28,  IS38;  was  di- 
rected in  politics  by  Lord  Melbourne,  the  head 
of  a  Whig  administration,  a  atateaman  to 
whom  she  was  pNtoiully  and  politically 


I,  July 


oog 


x 


VICTORIA 

attkched ;  wala  m&rried  at  St.  James'B  Palace  to 
her  couain,  Prince  Albert  ot  Saie-Cobutg-Gothfc, 
February  10,  1S40.  She  enjofed  a  rei^  of 
peace  and  prosperity  unexampled  in  the  annili 
of  England  under  the  auccewive  adminiitra- 
tioQB  of  Lord  Melbovnie,  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Lord 
John  Ruesell,  Earl  Derby,  Earl  Aberdeen,  Lord 
Palmerston,  Benjamin  Disraeli,  W.  E.  Glad- 
stone, Marquis  of  Salisbury,  and  the  Earl  of 
Rosebery. 

Among  the  events  of  her  reign  were  tha  re- 
peal of  the  Com  Laws,  1846;  the  Irish  famine 
and  emigration  to  the  U.  S.,  1847;  the  Chartist 
agitation,  1848;  the  Crimean  War,  1853-55; 
the  Indian  mutiny,  1857-58;  the  assumption  of 
the  direct  government  of  India,  185Q;  the  "  cot- 
ton famine  "  and  the  delicate  relations  with  the 
American  belligerents,  1801-85;  the  Mexican 
intervention  and  its  rupture,  1861-82;  the  Re- 
form Bill  of  1860;  the  confederation  of  British 
N.  America,  the  disestablishment  of  the  Irish 
Church,  the  abolition  of  religious  tests  at  the 
univerBJtiee  and  of  tlie  eyst^  of  purchase  in 
the  army;  the  Alabama  Claims  Treaty,  1871; 
the  introduction  of  the  ballot;  the  wars  in 
Abyssinia,  E^pt,  Sudan,  and  S.  Africa;  the 
assumption  oT  the  title  of  Empress  of  India, 
187S;  the  creation  and  organization  of  the 
Australasian  colonies,  the  remarkable  develop- 


land.  In  187Q  the  agitation  upon  the  mas- 
sacres in  Bulgaria  presaEed  important  action 
upon  the  "  Eastern  question." 

Queen  Victoria  was  beloved  for  her  admir- 
able personal  quaUties,  and  beyond  any  other 
monarch  gave  evidence  that  she  regarded  her 
royal  authority  as  held  in  trust  for  the  people. 
She  was  a  pattern  of  domestic  virtue.  The 
progress  msde  by  the  nation  during  her  reign 
was  aided  by  her  wisdom,  tact,  and  devotion. 
She  aUo  gave  evidence  of  literary  culture  by 
the  publication  of  "  Leaves  from  the  Journal  of 
Our  Life  in  the  Highlands,"  "  More  Leaves  from 
the   Journal,"    etc.,    and    by    supervising    two 


Consort"  (1807),  by  Gen.  C.  Grey,  and  the 
"  IJfe  of  the  Prince-Consort  "  (1874),  by  Theo- 
dore Martin.  The  completion  of  the  sixtieth 
year  of  her  reign  was  enthuwasticalty  cele- 
brated June  22,  1897.  The  pageant  in  London 
is  said  to  liave  been  the  most  magnificent  the 
world  has  ever  seen.  Every  part  ot  the  vast 
British  Empire  was  represented  bf  troops  and 
dignitaries,  and  princes  and  special  ambanaa- 
dora  from  every  country  of  Christendom  united. 
Tictoria,  a  British  colony  occupying  the  SE. 
part  of  Australia;  the  first  of  the  seven  Aus- 
tralasian colonies  In  density  of  population,  the 
fourth  in  order  of  establishment,  and  the  sixth 
in  area;  triangular  in  form,  with  the  apex  at 
Cape  Howe  and  the  base  on  the  meridian  of 
Ul°  E.;  separated  from  New  S.  Wales  by  tha 
Murray  River.     Area,  87,884  sq.  m. 

The  coast  line  is  about  800  m.  long,  and  there 
are  few  islands.  Wilson's  Promontory,  the  S. 
lint  of  Auatralia,  separates  the  waters  of  tha 
'aclQc  from  those  of  the  S.  or  Indian  Ocean 
and  divides  the  coast  line  of  Victoria  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts.    To  the  B.  is  a  long. 


VICTORIA 


h. 


if    low    sandy    shores,    behind 
B  of  lalcea  and  coastal  la^ooni. 


g«ntle    awee] 
which  is  a  ft 

Tha  coaat  W.  of  Wilson's  Promontory  i 
vided  by  Cape  Otway.  Nearly  midway  be- 
tween the  two  capes  is  the  narrow  entrance 
of  Port  Phillip  Bay,  giving  admission  to  Mel- 
bourne, on  the  Yarra  Yarra  Kiver,  4  m.  from. 
the  head  of  the  bay.  The  bay  is  40  m.  long 
by  30  broad,  and  has  abundantly  deep  water 
and  several  ports  on  its  shores.  Melbourne, 
the  capital  of  the  colony,  is  accessible  to  ves- 
sels drawing  10  ft.  W.  of  Cape  Otway  tha 
coast  is  gnierally  bold.  The  E.  part  is  moun- 
tainous, with  plains  along  the  coast,  and  the 
W.  part  is  an  extended  plain.  The  Australian 
Alps  enter  the  colony  near  the  head  ot  the  Mur- 
ray River,  coming  from  New  S.  V^alea,  where 
they  culminate.  The  highest  point  in  Victoria 
is  Mt  Bugong,  6,508  ft.  It  is  a  wild  complex 
of  ranges,  generally  covered  with  dense  vege- 
tation, including  the  enormous  tree  growths 
for  which  Victoria  is  famous,  for  the  most 
part  nearly  impassable  and  unexplored.  These 
mountains  produce  a  series  of  plateaus  whoae 
elevation  gives  tbem  a  temperate  climate,  and 
which  form  attractive  agricultural  lands.  W. 
from  the  Alps  extends  the  Dividing  Range, 
1,600  to  3,000  ft  high,  passing  in  the  W.  into 
the  Australian  Pyrenees,  and  terminating  in 
several  cross  ranges,  ot  which  the  Grampians 
ar«  the  last  and  highest  (ML  William,  3,000 
ft.).  To  the  8.  ot  the  Pyrenees  are  the  Moun- 
tains of  Cape  Otway,  wild  and  picturesque,  re- 
served by  the  state  because  of  their  forests. 
The  W.  plsJns  are  slightly  undulating. 

The  Murray  River  is  the  principal  stream  of 
Australia.  Cm  the  Pacific  elope  the  most  im- 
portant stream  is  the  Snowy  River  (300  m. 
Ions).  Farther  W,  a  series  of  smaller  streams 
drain  the  fertile  Gippsland.  The  next  largest 
coast  river  is  the  Glenelg  {280  m.),  iu  the  ex- 
treme W.  The  Victorian  streams  generally  are 
subject  to  heavy  annual  overflows.  In  tempera- 
ture and  rainfall  Victoria  resembles  central 
California.  The  worst  season  is  the  summer;  the 
most  agreeable  is  the  autumn.  Snow  is  com. 
mon  in  the  mountains,  but  rare  at  sea  level,  and 
has  been  observed  only  twice  at  Melbourne. 
The  dominating  forest  forms  are  the  gum  trees 
of  the  genus  Sucalyptut,  and  the  E.  «mygd«- 
lina  in  the  mountains  attains  an  enormous 
size,  surpassing  the  big  trees  ot  California. 
The  largest  recorded  is  one  found  prostrate, 
which  measured  470  ft  in  length  and  81  ft  in 
girth  near  the  roots.  These  trees  have  a  white, 
slender,  smooth  trunlc,  running  up  60  or  70  ft. 
to  the  first  branch.  The  dense  "  malice  "  scrub 
covers  many  thousand  acres  in  the  the  NW. 
The  blue  sum  is  the  species  now  generally  in- 
troduced into  warmer  America  and  Europe. 
The  red  gum,  or  "  hard  wood,"  makes  a  highly 

Erized  lumber,  because  it  is  almost  unaffected 
y  water.  The  myrtle  family  has  many  other 
species,  and  other  characteristic  plants  ore  aca- 
cias and  tree  terns. 

The  native  mammals  are  of  the  Australian 
marsupial  type — the  Icangaroo,  wallaby,  wom- 
bat, bandicoot,  and  opossum.  The  birds  and 
reptiles  are  numerous,  and  some  ot  the  latter 
are  venomous.  Manv  European  species  have 
been  introduced,  and  nave  become  perfectly  ao- 


climated.  The  rabbit  bas  multiplied  in  nicb 
numbers  am  to  have  become  a  serinuH  pest.  The 
camel  has  been  found  well  adapted  to  the  in- 
terior plaioB,  the  African  ostrich  seems  to  pros- 
per, and  the  Asiatic  elepliant  has  been  im- 
ported. The  trout  has  been  acclimated,  and 
baa  taken  possession  of  some  of  the  streams. 
This  colonj  leads  the  Australasian  colonies  in 
the  production  of  gold,  of  which  it  has  fur- 
nished nearly  two  thirds  of  the  entire  Aus- 
tralian output,  but  of  late  years  the  Queens- 
land haa  nearly  equaled  the  Victorian  ou^ut. 
The  total  production  from  1B51  to  IBIU  was 
estimated  at  71,989,887  oe.,  valued  at  £2S7,- 
623,134.  The  mining  was  at  first  in  surface 
placers,  but  for  aituvial  mininr  it  is  found  nec- 
Msary  to  sink  shafts  to  the  beds  of  ancient  riv- 
ers. Quarts  mining  is  gradually  taking  the 
place  of  alluvial,  but  with  increase  of  depth  the 
profit  is  diminishing.  The  gold  fields  of  Vic- 
toria occur  over  the  area  bounded  on  the  W.  by 
the  Avoca  Kiver  and  on  the  8.  by  the  parallel 
of  Melbourne.  Over  the  area  thus  deSned  the 
fields  are  thickly  distributed,  and  fully  one 
third  of  the  colony  is  believed  to  be  capable  of 
gold  production.  Great  discoveries  of  coal  were 
announced  in  18S4,  and  it  is  hoped  that  the  col- 
ony can  soon  furnish  what  is  needed  for  her 
own  consumption.  The  deposits  of  iron  have 
attracted  attention,  and  small  quantities  of 
other  minerals  are  found. 

About  20  per  cent  of  the  colony  u  suitable 
for  tillage  and  28  per  cent  tor  grazinr.  Only 
about  6  per  cent  of  the  entire  acreage  has  been 
alienated.  The  chief  crops,  in  the  order  of  their 
importance,  for  ISll  were  wheat,  hay,  oats, 
barley,  potatoes.  Tobacco  is  widely  cultivated. 
In  IBll  the  vine  covered  23,412  acres.  The 
fruita  of  Europe  have  been  introduced,  and  moat 
of  them  are  productive.  Victoria  is  the  most 
closely  stocked  of  the  seven  colonies.  Its  wool 
brings  a  higher  price  than  that  of  the  others, 
and  it  devotes  more  attention  to  dairy  prod- 
ucts than  any  other,  except  New  Zealand.  Ex- 
tensive districts  of  the  colony  do  not  receive 
sufficient  rainfall  for  agriculture  and  irrigation 
baa  been  extensively  tried  by  private  enterprise. 

The  census  population  (1911)  was  1,316,- 
000.  The  Chinese  numbered  7,34B  in  1901— 
materially  less  than  at  the  preceding  census. 
.  The  aborigines  are  of  the  Australian  race.  On 
the  arrival  of  the  first  colonists  tbey  were 
variously  estimated  at  from  8,000  to  15,000. 
In  1861  they  numbered  2,693;  jn  IBOl,  B52. 

There  is  no  state  church,  and  no  assistance 
from  public  funds  is  given  to  religious  Inatitu- 
tions.  The  Anglican  Church  embraces  37  per 
cent  of  the  population,  other  Protestant  sects 
3S  per  cent,  Roman  Catholic  22  per  cent.  Edu- 
cation is  entirely  secular,  and  primary  educa- 
tion compulsory.  There  is  a  full  complement 
of  schools  of  all  grades,  and  the  percentage  of 
illiteracy  for  all  over  fifteen  is  two  per  cent. 
Melbourne  Univ.  is  both  sti  educational  and 
examining  body.  The  public  library  at  Mel- 
bourne haa  about  S12,000  volumes  and  pam- 
phlets. In  1011  Melbourne  had  a  population 
of  001,830;  Ballarat,  44.000;  Sandhurst  (Ben- 
digo),  42,000;  Oeelong,  28,880.  No  other  town 
bi^  10,000  inhabitants. 

Imports  are  subject  to  a  heavy  tariff  amount- 


ing in  1910  to  £2,976,025,  equal  to  nearly  flf- 


tons,  sugar,  coal,  tea,  live  stock,  timber,  iron 

iportanoe). 
tenths  came  from  the  United  Kingdom  and  the 


sugar, 
iteel  (ir 


the  order  of  importance).    Nine 


other  colonies,  about  half  from  each.  Less  than 
three  per  cent  came  from  the  U.  8.  About  half 
the  exports  go  to  Great  Britain.  The  stapla 
exports  are  wool  (about  £6,000,000  annually, 
but  a  part  is  from  New  8.  Wales)  and  gold 
(about  £4,000,000  annually).  Next  in  impor- 
tance are  wheat  and  its  products,  tallow,  lath- 
er, and  preserved  and  frozen  meats.  The  value 
of  tlie  last  has  fallen  off  largely.  The  railways 
belong  to  the  colony,  and  the  network  is  the 
most  complete  of  the  seven  colonies,  besidsa 
connecting  Melbourne  with  Sydney  and  Ade- 
laide. On  June  30,  1899,  3,160  m.  of  railway 
bad  been  completed  at  a  total  cost  of  £38,074,- 
410,  nearly  all  borrowed  money.  The  net  profit 
was  enough  to  pay  2.08  per  cent  on  the  bor- 
rowed capital,  drawing  about  4  per  cent. 

The  constitution  dates  from  IB&4.  The  1^ 
islative  power  rests  in  a  parlianient  of  two 
chambers — the. upper,  of  thirty-four  members, 
from  whom  a  property  qualification  is  required, 
elected  for  six  years  by  special  electors,  and  a 
lower,  of  sixty-five  members,  elected  for  three 
years,  without  special  qualification,  by  general 
suffrage  of  adult  males.  Clergymen  or*  ineli- 
gible to  either  house.  The  executive  power  is 
vested  in  a  governor  appointed  by  the  eiown, 
and  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of  ten  responsible  min- 
iaters.  Local  government  is  representative,  and 
ratepayers  have  a  number  of  votes,  gauged  by 
the  rates  paid.  The  public  revenues  are  derivrf 
from  the  railways,  the  post,  the  tdegrapba, 
from  crown  lands,  and  from  taxation.  The 
taxes  include  customs,  excise,  inheritance  feea, 
stamp  duty,  land  tax,  etc.,  named  in  the  order 
of  their  capacity  for  producing  revenue.  The 
chief  expenditure  is  on  account  of  the  public 
debt,  lliis  on  June  30,  ISIO,  was  £65,501,725, 
bearing  about  3.S  per  cent.  It  was  nearly  all 
incurred  for  railways  and  other  public  works. 
Colonization  began  in  1S26;  Melbourne  was 
founded  in  1836;  and  the  colony  was  erected  at 
the  expense  of  New  S.  Wales  in  1S50.  The  dis- 
covery of  gold  in  paying  quantities  in  1651  led 
to  an  enormous  influx  of  population.  Except. 
for  a  painful  recovery  from  gold  fever,"  the 
colony  progressed  steadily  for  the  next  forty 
years  without  noteworthy  incidents,  becoming 
eventually  the  leading  colony  in  density  of  pop- 
ulation and  in  wealth.  The  financial  and  oom- 
tncrcial  distress  following  1691,  which  was  mors 
keenly  fett  in  Australia  than  most  other  parts 
of  the  world,  eepeeially  distressed  Victoria,  and 
most  of  all  Melbourne,  where  there  had  been 
much  booming  of  real  estate.  As  a  result,  in- 
creased attenupn  has  been  directed  to  ths  ocdo- 
ny's  natural  resources. 

Victoria,  capital  of  the  province  of  British 
Columbia,  Canada;  at  the  SB.  extremity  ol 
Vancouver  Island,  on  the  Strait  of  Fuca,  76  m. 
NW.  of  Seattle,  Wash.    Victoria  has  an  inner 


Pacific  steamers.    The  climate 


Victoria  Ciio* 


VICTORIA  CROSS 

the  S.  Bngland.     Amons  the  fineat  buildinga  are 
the  provincial  legUlative  assembly,  poat  office, 
customhouse,  supreme  courthouse,  goTenunent 
house,   the  official  resideDce  of  the  lieutenant 
governor  1  the  city  hall,  the  Catholic  cathedral, 
etc.     The  industries  include  timber  work,  tan- 
ning,   brewing,  and  ehipbuildiuK.     The  lines  of 
steamers  which  ply  from  Victoria  and  the  fact 
that  the  town  ii  an  important  railroad  termi- 
nua  add  to  its  prosperity.    Victoria  waa  origi- 
nally a  trading  post  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Com- 
pany, establiabed  in  1843.    Pop.   (1911)  31,660. 
Victoria  Ciom,  a  British  decoration  insti- 
tuted at  the  close  of  the  CrimeaD  campaign  in 
18fi6,   and   given   only 
to     thoae     who     have 
performed   in  the  en- 
emy's   presence    some 
aignal  act  of  bravery. 
It  ia  in  the  form  of  a 
Maltese   crosq,   and   ia 
made   of   bronze,   hav- 
ing   the    royal    crown 
in     the    center,    sur- 
mounted by  the  lion, 
and    on    a    scroll    be- 
low  the   words,   "  For 
valour."      The    ribbon 
worn   ia   blue   for   the 
navy  and  red  for  the 
army.     On   the  claap 
are    two    branches    of 
laurel,      from      which 
hangs  the  croaa.     A  pension  of  £10  a  year 
accompanies  the  decoration. 

Victoria  Nyan'aa,  the  largest  laker  in  Africa, 
the  second  fresh-water  lake  in  size  in  the 
world,  and  the  principal  source  of  the  Nile; 
known  to  the  natives  as  Dkereuje  Xyanza 
(Ukerewe  Lake),  from  the  name  of  its  largest 
ialand.  The  equator  paases  through  its  N.  por- 
tion; area  about  27,000  sq.  m.;  altitude  above 
the  sea,  3,8S0  ft.  The  lake  waa  discovered  in 
1659  by  Capt.  Speki,  and  in  his  second  journey 
(1862)  he  practically  solved  the  question  as 
'o  the  aources  of  the  Nile,  identifying  the  out- 


The  water  ia  fresh  and  pure,  though  insipid  to 
the  taste.  Fiah  are  plentiful,  and  are  caught 
moatly  with  hook  and  line,  though  natives  in 
the  NE.  use  grass  mats  as  a  sort  of  net,  and 
the  islanders  of  the  great  Seaae  Archipelago 
use  basket  traps.  The  lake  is  infested  with 
alligatora,  making  it  dangerous  to  enter  the 
water.  Hippopotami  are  not  plentiful  except 
along  the  coast  and  rivers,  but  those  found  in 
the  open  water  are  vicious,  and  are  much 
ieniei  by  canoe  men.  A  curious  feature,  also 
observable  in  Lakes  Tanganyika  and  Nyassa, 
ia  the  periodical  rise  and  fall  of  the  waters, 
which,  according  to  the  natives,  takes  place 
about  once  in  twen^-flve  years.  These  changes 
in  level  are  distinctly  shown  by  water  marks 
on  the  atones.  It  is  suggested  that,  as  the 
visible,  inflowing  streams  seem  totally  inade- 
quate to  keep  up  the  supply  of  water  in  the 
lake,  there  are  probably  large  springs  at  its 
bottom  that  make  up  the  dendency. 
Victoria  Re'gla.    See  Watb8-lu.z  Fauilt. 


VIENNA 

Victo'rinm,  an  elementary  substance  obtained 
by  Sir  William  Orookes,  of  London,  in  frae- 
tioning  the  rare  earth  yttria.  Crookes  found 
in  a  photograph  of  a  spectrum  not  visible  to 
the  eye  a  group  of  lines  indicating  a  new  ele- 
ment for  which  he  proposed  the  name  incto- 
rtmn,  in  honor  of  the  queen.  Victoria,  the 
oxide  of  victorium,  differs  from  yttria  in  many 
of  its  chemical  characters.  In  the  purest  state 
in  which  it  has  been  prepared  victoria  is  of  a 
pale-brown  color.  The  atomic  weight  of  victo- 
rium ia  about  117. 

VicDKUU    See  VicufiA. 

VicuGa,  or  Vicugna  (vI-kBn'^),  an  extremely 
wild  and  active  animal  of  the  Andes,  some- 
what smaller  than  the  alpaca.  It  is  of  a  uni- 
form brown  color,  and  great  numbers  are  killed 
for  the  sake  of  the  hair,  which  is  even  more 
valuable  than  that  of  the  alpaca. 

Vidocq  (vS-dOk'),  Bagiae  Fiancoia,  177B- 
1S67;  French  detective.  He  was  a  baker  of 
Arras,  of  athletic  frame,  notorious  as  a  thief 
and  bully,  was  some  time  a  soldier,  and  waa 
sentenced  at  Lille  to  eight  years'  hard  labor 
for  forgery,  but  repeatedly  escaped.  In  1808 
he  became  a  private  detective  in  Paris;  tlien 
rose  to  be  chief  of  the  brigade  Ae  $ireti,  mainly 
composed  of  reprieved  convicts  and  other  such 
characters.  He  rendered  important  services, 
received  in'  1818  a  full  pardon,  and  remained 
connected  with  the  police  till  about  1828. 
Many  works  which  he  did  not  write  appeared 
under  his  name,  and  some  also  deny  his  au- 
thorship of  his  "  M&noires." 

Vien'na  (German,  Wieit,  a  word  of  Celtic 
origin),  capital  of  the  former  Austria-Hun-' 
gary;  on  the  Danube,  340  m.  SSE.  of  Berlin. 
Here  occurs  tha  only  break  in  the  great  chain 
of  the  Alps  and  Carpathian  Mountains,  which 
divide  the  NW."  from  the  SE.  part  of  central 
Europe.  Hence  it  was  chosen  by  the  Komans, 
about  the  bt^nning  of  our  era,  for  settlement 
and  tortiflcation.  During  the  Middle  Ages  it 
became  a  great  center  of  trade  between  N. 
and  S.,  E.  and  W.,  and  thus  acquired  a  cos- 
mopolitan character  which  renders  it  to-day 
one  of  the  most  interesting  and  beautiful 
cities  of  Europe.  It  is  traversed  by  a  navi- 
gable canal,  called  the  Little  Danube  to  dis- 
tinguish it  from  the  Great  or  main  Danube, 
wheflce  its  waters  are  drawn.  The  Wien  is 
an'inaigniScant  streamlet.  The  city  lies  at 
the  base  of  the  double- peaked  Eahlmberg 
(Bald  Mountain),  on  which  is  seen  the  border 
of  the  Wiener  Wald  (Viennese  Woods),  whose 
beauty  renders  the  environs  of  the  city  among 
the  moat  attractive  in  the  world.  The  ex- 
tremea  of  temperature  are  aero  snd  02°  F. ; 
the  mean,  48° ;  the  average  rainfall,  24  in., 
with  rain  on  149  days  in  the  year. 

The  Ringstrasse  is  the  flnest  boulevard;  it 
occupies  the  site  ot  the  old  walls.  The  largest 
of  the  ten  parka  in  Vienna  ia  the  Prater,  in 
one  part  of  which  is  the  fashionable  drive; 
another  portion  Is  known  as  the  Wurst«l- 
Prater,  or  Punch  and  Judy  Park,  where  a 
great  variety  of  cheap  shows  is  offered  to  the 
moBsea.  The  city  streets  are  mostly  paved 
with  granite  blocKs,  and  are  kept  remarkjably 


TIENWA 

dean.  Vienna  Ib  anpplied  with  pure  moontain 
spring;  water,  brought  to  the  city  in  an  aque- 
duct 60  m.  Ions',  The  public  and  private 
buildings  of  Vienna  include .  some  of  the  finest 
products  of  modem  architecture.  The  Parlia- 
ment building  ia  on  immense  white  marble 
structure  fu  Greek  style,  elaborately  orna- 
mented with  ooloaaal  statues  and  reliefs.  The 
Rathbaua  (municipal  ball),  of  yellow  sand- 
stone, is  a  magnificent  adaptation  of  Gothic 
motives.    The  court  theater  is  of  white  marble, 


of  Baeehua,"  which  ornaments  the  blocking 
course  of  the  main  facade,  is  one  of  the  grand- 
est of  modem  reliefs.  The  university  building 
is  a  beautiful  example  of  Renaissance  design. 
Other  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  Court 
Opera  House,  the  Academy  of  Fine  Aria,  the 
Austrian  Industrial  Museum,  the  Bourse  and 
Commercial  Museum,  the  Arsenal,  and  the 
Palace  of  Justice.  Of  the  churches  the  gr&nd- 
eat  in  St.  Stephen's  GatiiedrBl,  whose  comer 
stone  was  laid  in  the  twelfth  century.  Its 
graceful  tower  rises  453  ft.  The  most  b^utiful 
ecclesiastical  structure  is  the  Votive  Church, 
ornamental  Qothic  in  style,  erected  in  com- 
memoration of  the  escape  of  the  Emperor 
Francis  Joseph  from  aasassination  in  1863. 
Churches  are  not  numerous  in  Vienna,  and  as 
a  rule  contain  but  little  to  interest  the  trav- 
eler. There  are  about  forty  monasteries  and 
nunneries.  Schools  are  provided  by  public, 
privat«,  and  corporate  meana,  and  give  in- 
Btruction  in  every  department,  from  hairdresa- 
ing  to  theol^y.  The  primary  achools  are  well 
attended,  ^ere  are  many  technical  schoola 
for  teaching  bookbinding,  jirinting,  glove  mak- 
ing, gardenmg,  glass  blowing,  the  making  of 
fans,  optical  instmmenta,  etc.;  also  middle 
and  high  schoola  (gymnasia)  and  commercial 
colleges.  There  is  an  Agricultural  College,  an 
Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  a  Poly techni cum,  and 
a  Protestant  Theological  Seminary  (the  Bo- 
man  Catholic  forms  one  faculty  of  the  uni- 
versity). The  Thereaianum  is  a  school  founded 
by  Haria  Theresa  to  prepare  noblemen's  sons 
for  public  service.  One  department  of  it  is 
known  as  the  Oriental  Academy,  where  stu- 
dents are  prepared  for  diplomatic  and  consular 
service  in  the  Orient,  and  before  graduating 
muBt  have  a  good  knowledge  of  law  in  its 
various  branches,  of  political  science,  and  at 
least  a  reading  knowledge  of  ten  modem  lan- 
guages. The  university  has  the  largest  attend^ 
ance  at  any  inetitution  where  German  la 
spoken.  It  waa  founded  in  1305,  has  passed 
torough  many  viciaaitudea,  was  under  Jesuit 
domination  for  a  century,  and  has  hcen  greatly 
improved  since  1870.  It^  medical  faculty  haa 
enjoyed  world-wide  fame  for  a  hundred  years. 

The  city  ia  well  supplied  with  libraries,  the 
largest  of  which  is  the  imperial,  which  con- 
'  tains  400,000  volumes  and  20,000  MSS.  There 
is  also  an  imperial  private  library.  The 
Albertina  contains  40,000  volumes,  largely,  if 
not  exclusively,  pertaining  to  matters  of  art. 
There  are  also  eTtensive  librariea  in  connection 
with  the  univeraity,  Theresianum,  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  Rathhaus,  and  the  Polytecbnicum, 
besides  a  music  ucbive.     Censorship  of  the 


VIENNA 

press  still  exists,  and  is  at  times  rigorously 
exercised.  The  Academy  of  Sciences  was 
founded  in  1B47.  The  imperial  art  collections 
have  a  mogniQcent  home,  and  are  said  to  sur- 
miss  all  other  collections  in  pictures  by  Rubens, 
DQrer,  and  Van  Dyck,  and  to  be  remarkably 
rich  in  naintinga  by  Titian,  Tintoretto,  Hol- 
bein, ana  Clouet.  In  the  possession  of  por- 
traits of  children  by  Velasquez,  Vienna  is  said 
to  rival  Madrid  itself.  Under  the  same  roof 
stands  Canova's  greatest  work,  "  Theseus  and 
the  Centaur."  In  the  companion  building,  the 
dome,  painted  by  Makart,  contains  what  u  be- 
lieved to  be  the  largest  pictorial  canvas  in  the 
world.  The  city  has  established  a  permanent 
educational  exposition,  containing  about  13,000 
objects  of  educational  value. 

The  love  of  music  is  strong  in  the  Viennese ; 
and  here,  where  Gluck,  Ilaydn,  Mozart,  Bee- 
thoven, Schubert,  Wagner,  Brahms,  Strauss, 
Lanner,  MitlScker,  and  Suppe  have  made  their 
home,  music  of  all  kinds  is  enthusiastically 
cultivated,  as  is  attested  by  the  existence  of 
100  music  achools,  sixty  musical  societies,  and 
a  large  number  of  concert  halla. 

The  pop.  (1910)  was  2,031,498.  The  com- 
mercial supremacy  of  Vienna  received  a  serious 
blow  when  in  18H7  Hungary  was  given  a  con- 
stitution which  made  it  practically  independ- 
ent of  Austria;  and  the  more  recent  Bohemian 
contention  for  autonomy  has  caused  Prague  to 
be  favored  more  or  less  at  the  expense  of 
Vienna.  The  international  seed  market  of 
Vienna  hoa  acquired  great  importance;  the 
export  of  ahoea,  men's  clothes,  hats,  imitations 
of  Oriental  rugs,  ia  very  extensive.  In  the 
making  of  silk  goods,  of  instruments  for  sur- 
gical, mathemaUcal,  and  physical  work;  of 
pianos,  violins,  and  other  musical  instruments; 
of  fancy  leather  goods,  of  amber  and  meer- 
schaum goods,  of  embroideries,  Vienna  holds 
an  important  place.  Taxes  on  articles  of  con- 
sumption are  still  imposed  at  the  entrances 
to  the  city,  but  have  been  greatly  simplified. 
Much  is  done  for  the  poor.  There  are  over 
seventy  hospitals,  orphan  asylums,  and  other 
charitable  institutions.  The  general  hospital 
is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world. 

The  city  government  consists  of  a  burgo- 
master, two  vice  burgomasters,  a  city  or  se- 
lect council,  and  a  large  common  council. 
The  burgomaster  ja  chosen  by  the  electors,  and 
his  appointment  must  be  confirmed  by  the  em- 
peror. The  police  system  is  partly  under  state 
control. 

The  Roman  qamp  Vindobona  grew  and  be- 
came a  city,  and  was  the  scene  of  the  death 
of  Marcus  Aurelius  in  180.  Then  for  five  cen- 
turies nothing  whatever  is  known  of  it.  In 
1030  it  was  mentioned  under  its  present  name, 
and  it  was  then  a  walled  place  of  importance. 
The  Celts  of  this  region  were  conquered  by 
Charlemagne,  and  afterwards  German  settlers 
come.  The  Babenberger  margraves  were  the 
rulers.  In  1221  it  received  iU  first  recorded 
charter  of  privileges;  in  1237  a  Freibrief  was 
^ven  it  by  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen,  which 
IS  still  preserved.  In  1276,  Vienna,  with  Aus- 
tria, Styria,  etc.,  passed  into  the  hands  of 
Rudolph  of  Hapsburg.  From  1485-90  the  city 
was    occupied    oy   the   powerful    and    learned 


VIENNA 

HungarlkD  kin^,  Matthew  Corvimis.  In  IG23 
n  new  ci^  ordinance  wrs  iKsued  bj  the  Arch- 
duke Fer^nand,  which  is  known  oa  "  the  grave 
of  tie  city's  freedom,"  under  which  the  citj 
was  practically  ruled  until  the  Revolution  of 
1848.  Ourinf;  the  troubled  times  of  1848  Vienna 
vaa  for  a  time  the  hope  of  the  European  rero- 
lutionista;  but  it  waa  bombarded  and  taken 
by  the  imperial  troops,  October  dlst.  A  new 
constitution  was  given  March  17,  1B4S,  but 
did  not  become  valid  luitil  1B61.  On  December 
20,  18E7,  the  emperor  signed  the  decree  for  the 
removal  of  the  city  walls,  which  has  contrib- 
uted much  to  the  beauty  of  the  dty.  On  the 
dismemberment  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  em- 
^«,  following  the  practical  end  of  the  World 
War,  each  former  component  Bet  up  a  republi- 
can government,  and  Vienna  retained  ita  place 
aa  capital  of  all  Austria  not  included  in  the  new 
German  Austria.  A  National  Constituent  As- 
sembly met  here,  March  4,  1910,  and  elected 
Karl  Seiti,  leader  of  the  Social  Democracy,  the 
first  President  of  the  Austrian  republic. 

Vienna,  Concoi'dat  of,  an  agreement  signed 
at  Vienna,  Aumiat,  1865,  between  Pius  IX  and 
Francis  JoBeph  of  Austria,  by  which  the 
clergy  obtained  control  of  public  instruction, 
and  jurisdiction  over  cases  of  canon  law,  espe- 
cially those  concerning  marriage,  was  given  to 
the  ecclesiastical  courts.  The  concordat  was 
abrogated,  1S70. 

Vienna,  Con'gress  of  (September,  1B14,  to 
June,  ISIG),  a  congress  of  the  European  pow- 
ers to  readjust  the  affairs  of  Europe  after  the 
Napoleonic  wars.  There  were  present  the 
monarcha  of  Austria,  Prussia,  Ruaaia,  Den- 
mark, Bavaria,  and  WUrtcmberg,  besides  a 
crowd  of  minor  princes  and  diplomatic  repre- 
sentatives of  all  European  states  except  Tur- 
key. U urine  the  congress  Vienna  was  the 
scene  of  contmual  festivities  of  the  most  sump- 
tuous kind.  The  business  of  the  congress  was 
hindered  bj  intrigues  and  petty  jealousies 
which  were  cleverly  fostered  by  Talleyrand  for 
the  advantage  of  France,  and  at  one  time  war 
aeemed  inevitable,  but  the  news  of  the  return 
of  Napoleon  from  Elba  in  March,  1816,  fright- 
ened the  statesmen  into  harmonious  action. 
At  first  the  two  most  serious  questions  before 
the  congress  were  those  reapectmg  Poland  and 
Saxony.  Russia  claimed  the  former,  Prussia 
the  tatter.  Talleyrand,  advancing  the  tbeory 
of  legitimacy,  sided  with  Austria  against 
Prussia  on  the  Saxon  queation,  and  raised 
France  to  a  position  of  controlling  influence 
in  tbe  congreaa.  Finally,  a  compromise*  was 
reached,  giving  the  lion's  share  of  the  duchy 
of  Warsaw  to  tbe  czar,  to  be  formed  into  the 
Kingdom  of  Poland,  and  dividing  Saxony  be- 
tween Prussia  and  the  Saxon  king.  The  pope 
was  reinstated  in  all  his  possessions,  with  the 
exception  of  Avignon  and  Venaissin,  which 
were  given  to  France,  and  some  small  Italian 
districts,  which  were  given  to  Austria.  Italy 
was  parceled  out  in  domains  for  French  and 
Austrian  princes,  Austria  was  reestablished 
in  its  old  glory  as  an  utterly  artificial  ag- 
glomeration of  different  nationalities.  Norway 
was  taken  from  Denmark  and  added  to  Sweden, 


in  order  to  pay  Bemadotte  for  tUinlng  wiinat 
Napoleon,  and  Denmark  was  paid  witti  l«uai- 
burc  and  other  German  districts.  The  Spanish 
Netherlands  ( Belgium )  were  added  to  the 
Dutch  Netherlands,  and  tbe  whole  formed  into 
the  Kingdom  of  Holland.  To  restore  the  Qer- 
man  Empire  was  found  impossible,  on  account 
of  tbe  rivalry  between  Prussia  and  Austria, 
but,  having  restored  some  of  the  petty  princes, 
the  congress  manufactured  a  Bund,  which  re- 
mained the  sole  central  government  for  Ger- 
many till  1866. 

Vienne  (vG-^nn'),  ancient,  Vieniia,  an  ancient 
town  of  France;  department  of  Is^re,  on  the 
G£re,  19  m.  B.  of  Lyons.  It  contains  many  re- 
mains of  the  Roman  epoch,  such  as  a  triumphal 
arch,  an  amphitheater,  and  a  temple.  Pilat« 
is  said  to  have  been  banished  to  this  place.  It 
was  the  cradle  of  Western  Christianity.  The 
fifteenth  ecumenical  council  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  met  here,  1311-12.  There  are 
rich  silver  and  iron  mines  in  the  vicinity,  and 
an  excellent  wine  is  produced.  The  manu- 
factures include  woolen  and  linen  fabrics,  cut- 
lery and  hardware,  iron,  glass,  and  leather. 
The  trade  is  brisk.  Pop.  (1901)  24,619.  Vi-, 
enne  is  also  the  name  of  a  department  of* 
France;   capital,  Poitiers. 

Vls'ilance  Commit'tee,  an  aasociation  of  per- 
sons to  put  down  crime  by  inflicting  summary 
punishment.  They  have  done  goc3  work  In 
many  W.  atates  of  the  U.  B.,  though  liable 
to  de^;«ierate  into  criminal  and  bladonailing 
Bgeneiea.  They  have  been  known  aa  "  regU' 
lators,"  citizens'  associations,  and  vigilantes. 

Vigny  (ven-y6'),  Alfred  Victor  (Comte  de), 
1799-18631  French  poet;  b.  Loches,  Indre-et- 
Loire,  France;  ent^ed  the  Royal  Guard  In 
1816,  but  retired  frcim  military  service  in  1828, 
and  devoted  himself  to  literary  pursuits.  His 
"  Po«meB  "  ( 1822 ) ,  among  which  are  "  H^l^ne," 
"  La  Fille  de  Jepht^,"  etc.,  and  his'  "  PoCmes 
antiques  et  modernes "  ( 1824-26 ) ,  among 
wbich  are  "Motae,"  "Le  Deluge,"  "Eloa," 
"  Dolorida,"  etc.,  passed  by  almost  unnoticed, 
though  they  belong  to  the  best  which  tbe  ro- 
mantic school  has  produced  in  France,  and 
entitle  him  to  rank  among  the  first  half  dozen 
French  poets  of  the  century.  But  in  1826  his 
historical  novel,  "  Cinq-Mars,"  attracted  much 
attention;  and  In  1836  his  drama  "Chatter- 
ton,"  made  his  name  celebrated.  He  also  wrote 
"  Btello,"  "  Servitude  et  GrEuidchir  militairea," 
short  stories  tinged  deeply  with  pessimism; 
"  Les  Deatinfes,"  a,  philosophical  poem,  pub- 
lished after  bis  death,  etc 

Vlldng,  name  applied  to  those  vast  num- 
bers of  Scandinavian  naval  warriors  who,  in 
tbe  ninth  and  tenth  centuries,  made  the  watera 
of  Europe,  and  particularly  those  of  W.  Eu- 
rope, unsafe.  Tbe  ninth  and  tenth  centuries 
are  usually  styled  the  Vikine  Age.  The  Scan- 
dinavian vikings  were  excellent  shipbuilders 
and  expert  seamen.  By  the  aid  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars  they  were  able  to  navigate  in 
the  onen  sea.  They  were  the  first  to  venture 
out  01  sight  al  land  in  ships.  None  other  tJtan 
coast  navigation  had  ever  been  attempted  by 
any  people  before  the  vikings  found  their  wa; 


VILLAIN 

Bcross  tlie  open  North  S«a  to  Great  BritetiB, 
to  the  Faeroea,  to  Iceland,  Qreenland,  and 
Finland. 

Villain,  or  Villein,  primarily  and  strictly 
the  oerrile  peasant  of  the  feudal  era  in  Eng- 
land; in  a  wider  aeDSe,  an]'  peTson,  bond  or 
free,  who  held  loud  bf  the  tenure  or  upon  the 
conditions  of  the  lervile  peasantrj.  The  term 
villamie,  adopted  and  &xed  hj  the  "  Domesday 
Book,"  is  constantly  employed  in  this  double 
sense  in  the  manorial  and  legal  records  of 
the  thirt«enth  and  fourteenth  centuries.     See 

f^DAI>    SiBTIU. 

VOUra  (Te-yAr'),  CUnde  Lonia  Hector  {Due 
de),  1653-1734;  marshal  of  France;  b.  Mou- 
liDB,  department  of  Allier,  France;  fought  with 
distinction  under  Turenne,  Luxembourg,  and 
C^^iui ;  was  also  employed  in  diplomatic  ne- 
gotiations; ambassador  to  Vieiwa,  I699-IT01. 
October  14,  1702,  he  defeated  Prince  Louis  of 
Baden  at  Friedlingen,  and  was  made  a  mar- 
shal'; next  sprine  he  penetrated  through  the 
msses  of  the  BIacl£  Forest  and  joined  the 
Elector  of  Bavaria,  and  won  b  victory  over 
the  imperial  forces  under  Styrum  at  HOch- 
sUdt.  He  succeeded  Vendeme  in  170Q  in  the 
command  of  the  grand  army  in  the  Nether- 
lands, numbering  120,000  men,  but  was  de- 
feated and  severely  wounded  at  Malplaquet, 
September  IE,  1709.  Having  recovered,  he 
again  took  command  of  the  grand  army,  now 
the  last  which  France  was  able  to  raise,  and 
rained  a  brilliant  victory  over  the  allied  Eng- 
lish-Austrian  force  under  the  Earl  of  Albe- 
marle at  Denain,  July  24,  1712,  which  con- 
tributed much  to  the  conclusion  of  the  Peace 
of  XltrechL  He  negotiated  and  signed  the 
Treaty  of  R&sUdt  (March  6,  1T14).  During 
the  regency  and  the  rei^  of  Louis  XV  he 
continued  to  have  much  influence  on  the  for- 
eign policy  and  all  militair  affairs,  and  when. 
In  1733,  a  war  with  Austria  broke  out,  he  was 
placed  in  command  of  the  army  in  N.  Italy. 
Although  eighty-one  years  old,  he  displayed 
remarkable  energy,  but  disagreement  with  the 
King  of  Sardinia  caused  him  to  resign. 

Villein.    Bee  Villaut. 

VillenevTe  (vei-niv'),  Pierre  Cborles  Jean 
Baptlate  Sylvestre  de,  1TG3-1306)  French  ad- 
miral ;  commanded  a  division  at  the  battle  of 
the  Nile,  and,  being  blockaded  by  Nelson  in 
Cadiz,   sailed  out  and  lost  the  battle  of  Tra- 

Villiers,  George.    S«e  BnoKmoHAif,  OnoBas 
'ViLUEBfl,  DoKK  or. 
VilUan,    George    WnUua    Frederick.      See 

CLABEMDon, 

Villon  (veMan*),  Frujoi^  143I~abt.  14S4; 
French  poet;  b.  Paris.  Mis  real  name  was 
PE  MoHTCoBBiER,  and  'he  had  several  aliases. 
He  studied  at  the  university,  and  became 'a 
master  of  arts,  1452.  In  1456,  having  lulled 
a  priest  in  a  brawl,  he  was  sentenced  to  ban- 
islunent,  but  on  proof  that  he  had  been  at- 
tacked by  the  priest  be  received  a  pardon.     He 


Testament." 

agaiq.    Henceforward  his  life  v 


trouble 


VINE  PAMILT 

been  assocfated  with  his  name.  Shortly  after 
his  arrival  at  Angers  a  chapel  was  robbed  of 
fiOO  crowns,  and  the  theft  was  traced  to  a  band 
of  student  robbers,  one  of  whom  accused  Villon 
of  being  their  leader,  and  asserted  that  he  had 
planned  similar  burglaries  at  Angers.  Villon 
was  caught,  tortured,  and  with  five  others  was 
sentenced  to  be  hanged.  On  this  occasion  he 
composed  his  "  Ballade  des  Pendus,"  an  epitaph 
by  anticipation  on  himself  and  his  comrades 
swinging  on  the  gibbet.  He  escaped  thid  p[c-^ 
turesque  fate,  however,  by  appealing  to  the 
Parliament  of  Paris,  which  commuted  his  sen- 
tence to  banishment.  On  his  reappearance  in 
1461  he  is  found  spending  the  summer  in  the 
prison  of  the  Bishop  of  Orleans  at  Meung.  Hie 
crime  was  probably  sacrilege  or  burglary.  This 
time  he  owed  his  escape  to  a  jail  deliver;  on 
the  accession  of  Louis  XI.  He  now  wrote  his 
last  and  greatest  work,  his  "  Grand  Testa- 
ment," and  it  is  probable  that  he  did  not  sur- 
vive much  longer,  worn  out,  as  he  admits  him- 
self to  be,  by  excesses,  prison  life,  and  perhaps 
consumption. 

Villon's  poetry  may  be  considered  as  marking 
an  era  in  the  literature  of  Europe.  In  it  we 
find  the  personal  note,  so  wanting  before  his 
time,  a  strong  capacity  of  feeling  and  expres- 
sion, and  a  mournful  tone,  arising  from  the 
Boet'e  sense  of  the  vanity  of  the  joys  of  mers 
fe  and  perhaps  from  his  own  hopeless  immer- 
sion in  vice.  It  has  thus  proved  intensely 
interesting  and  even  attractive,  in  spite  of  its 
realistic  atmosphere  of  libertinism,  which  at 
least  is  not  assumed,  as  in  the  case  of  a  mod- 
em school  of  eccentric  poets.  Besides  the  two 
Testaments,  there  are  a  number  of  ballade, 
among  which  is  the  well-known  "  Ballade  des 
Dames  du  Temps  Jpdis,"  with  its  burden  of 
"  Mais  oft  Bont  lee  neiges  d'antan." 

Vil'na  (Polish  Wilno),  capital  of  the  foi^ 
mer  government  of  Vilna,  Ruesia,  and  a  great 
raUway  center;  on  the  Wilija,  436  m.  SW. 
of  Pe^ograd.  It  has  very  few  mauufacturea, 
but  an  extensive  trade  in  grain  and  timber. 
Vilna  was  the  capital  of  Lithuania  fron^  1323, 
when  the  Lithuanian  state  extended  from  the 
Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  is  rich  in  histor- 
ical monuments  and  associations.  Its  univer- 
sity, founded  in  1670,  was  suppressed  after  the 
Bevolution  of  1830;  but  a  medical  academy 
and  an  astronomical  observatory  still  exist. 
The  Cathedral  of  St.  Stanislaus  contains  the 
silver  sarcophagus  of  St.  Gaeimir.  In  the  World 
War  it  was  occupied  by  the  Genoana  Sept 
18, 1915.    Fop.  (1013)  204,290,  almost  entirely 


Vine  Ctd'tnre.     See  Grafe. 

Vine  Fam'ily,  or  Grape  Family,  group  (436 
species )  of  woody  plants,  mostly  climbing. 
They  are  most  numerous  in  the  tropics ;  twenty 
species  are  natives  of  N.  America.  Many  spe- 
cies of  Titis,  the  grape,  are  grown  for  their 
delicious  berrlee.  The  Virginia  creeper  of  the 
U.  8.,  and  the  Japanese  creeper  of  G.  Asia  and 
Japan,  are  well-known  ornamental  climbers. 


VINEGAB 

Tla'cgaT,  a  dilute  Bolution  of  Eieetie  acid, 
mixed  with  siiia.11  quantities  of  sugar  and 
other  organic  and  vegetable  matters,  produced 
by  the  oxidation  of  alcoholic  Bolutione.  The 
oxidation  is  effected  by  an  organiam  called 
Myooderma  aceti,  which  acta  as  the  oxygen 
carrier  in  the  reaction.  The  tough  gelatinous 
mass  often  found  in  the  vessels  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  vinegar,  and  knon'n  as  mother 
of  vin^ar  or  vinegar  plant,  is  a  distinct  fer- 
ment, which,  like  the  U.  aceti,  has  the  power 
to  convert  alcohol  into  vinegar.  To  make 
vin^ar,  the  alcoholic  fluid  should  not  contain 
more  than  twelve  per  cent  of  alcohol;  the  tem- 
perature should  not  be  much  below  70°  F.; 
air  (oxygen)  slwuld  be  supplied  in  abundance. 
In  France  and  Genuany  the  greater  part  of 
the  vinegar  is  made  from  inferior  grades  of 
wine;  in  England  iofuBions  of  malt  and  soured 
beerB  are  employed;  while  in  the  U.  8.  cider 
and  alcoholic  liquors  are  largely  used. 

Tia'Und,  that  part  of  the  coast  of  N.  Amer- 
ica which  was  visited  by  the  Norsemen  in  1000 
AJ).  Bjarne  Herjulteon  saw  this  countrr  in 
086,  when  he  was  on  his  way  to  Qreenland, 
but  did  not  land.  Fourteen  years  later  Leif 
Ericaon  made  an  expedition  thither,  and  from 
the  abundance  of  grapes  there,  named  the 
country  Vinlnnd.  The  oldest  evidence  of  the 
discovery  of  Vinland  is  that  given  by  Adam 
of  Bremen  in  his  book,  "  On  the  History  of 
the  Bremen  Church  and  on  the  Geography  of 
the  Countries  of  the  North."  He  enumerates 
the  islands  of  the  sea  N.  and  W.  of  Norway, 
and  among  them  he  mentions  Greenland  and 
Vinland.  Iceland's  oldest  historian,  Ari  the 
Wise,  who  wrote  about  1120-30,  speaks  of  the 
discovery  of  Vinland,  and  he  got  his  informa- 
tion from  his  uncle,  Thorkel  Gellcson,  at  Helga- 
fell,  who  in  his  youth,  lOSO-TO,  had  lived  in 
Greenland,  and  hod  there  gathered  knowledge 
of  the  discoveries,  partly  from  an  old  man  who 
had  himself  accompanied  Eiic  the  Red  from 
Iceland  in  086,  and  thus  had  witnessed  Leif 
Erieson's  return  from  Vinland. 

The  countries  visited  by  Leif  Ericson  were 
called  by  him  Helluland,  Markland,  and  Vin- 
land. The  description  of  Helluland  applies  to 
Newfoundland,  that  of  Markland  to  Nova 
Scotia,  and  that  of  Vinland  to  New  England. 
Everything  points  to  New  England  as  the  site 
of  Vinland,  probably  the  basin  of  the  Charles 
River.  The  accounts  given  of  the  natives,  of 
the  com,  grapes,  and  flsb,  all  apply  to  this 
locality. 

Vi'ola,  or  Ten'or  Violin',  a  large  violin,  hav- 
ing four  strings,  two  catgut  and  two  wound 
with  wire;  it  stands  an  octave  above  the  violon- 
cello, and  is  employed  for  playing  the  middle 
part  in  orchestral  music.  It  was  first  used  to 
strengthen  the  basses  in  unison  or  the  octave. 
Modern  composers  demand  from  it  an  inde- 
pendent agility  equal  to  that  of  the  violi 
Its  tone  has  a  character  of  melancholy  as  a 
pared  with  that  of  other  stringed  instruments. 

Vl'olet,  popular  name  of  a  group  of  plants, 
of  which  about  100  species  are  known.  The 
pansy  {Tiotet  tricolor)  and  Bweet  violet  (P. 
odorata),   both   from   Europe,  are 


VntCHOW 

cultivation.  Tliey  appear  early  in  spring,  and 
are  popular  for  their  purity  of  color  as  well 
as  the  fragrance  of  the  cultivated  varieties. 
The  name  is  applied  to  sonie  plants  outside 
the  violet  family,  as  to  the  false  violet,  which 
belong  to  the  rose  family,  and  the  dogtooth 
violet  or  adder's-tongue,  which  is  a  lily. 

Violin,  a  musical  instrument  with  tour 
strings,  played  with  a  bow.  It  consists  of 
three  parts :  the  neck,  the  table,  and  the 
sounding  board;  has  at  its  side  two  8-shaped 
apertures.  Above  these  is  a  bridge,  over  which 
pass  the  strings  from  the  lower  extremity  or 
tail  piece  to  the  neck,  where  th^  are  tightened 
or  looeened  by  means  of  turning  pins.  The 
violin  is  tuned  in  fifths,  E-A-D-G,  the  lowest 
string    (wound  with  wire)    giving  this  t«ne: 


It  is  the  most  perfect  of  musical  instruments, 
on  account  of  its  capabilities  of  fine  tone  and 
expression,  and  forms  with  the  viola,  violon- 
cetlo,  and  double  bass  or  bass  viol,  the  main 
element  of  all  orchestras.  It  is  of  great  an- 
tiquity, being  traced  in  England  to  the  twelfth 
century.  The  most  priced  instruments  are 
those  made  in  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries  in  Italy  by  the  Amatis  at  Brescia, 
Stradivari  and  the  Guameris  at  Cremona,  and 
Stainer  in  the  Tyrol.  The  demand  for  these 
is  due  not  only  to  their  perfect  construction, 
but  to  a  purity  and  fullness  of  tone  not  pro- 
duced by  modem  instruments. 

Violoncello  (v6-C-10n-cheri{t) ,  a  bass  violin 
with  four  strings  tuned  in  fifths.  A,  D,  G,  and 
C,  the  two  last  strings  being  wound  with  wire, 

Viperidie.    See  Vipbbb. 

Vi'peii,  or  Vipei'tds,  family  of  poisoaous 
snakes  embracing  the  viper  of  Europe  and  re- 
lated species.  The  form  ia  typified  by  the 
common  viper,  or  adder,  the  '  only  venomous 
serpent  of  Great  Britain.  The  family  includes 
a  number  of  poisonous  serpents  peculiar  to  the 
Old  World,  and  is  at  first  sight  distinguishable 
from  the  CrotaUda  (rattlesnake,  etc.)  by  (Jie 
want  of  the  deep  pits  between  the  eyes  and 
nostrils  which  so  much  enhance  the  vicio>~j| 
look  of  the  latter.  The  most  notable  speciea 
are  the  viper  of  Europe,  the  cobra  de  capello, 
and  the  Egyptian  Naja  haje  and  Cerastes  Aos- 
aelqniMtii,  or  aggptiea,  each  of  which  has  been 
supposed  to  have  been  the  asp  fatal  to  Cleo- 

Vlrchow  {ver-chow),  Eudolf,  1821-1902; 
German  pathologist ;  b.  Schivelbein,  Pomer- 
ania;  graduated  Univ.  of  Berlin,  1843,  and, 
1847,  a  lecturer  there;  sent,  184S,  t^  the 
Prussian  Govt,  to  Silesia  to  investigate  the 
^hoid  fever  raging  there;  dismissed  tioA 
Berlin  Univ.,  1649,  for  political  reasons; 
Prof,  of  Pathological  Anatomy,  Univ.  of 
Wlirzburg,  1849-60;  in  1852,  sent  by  the  Ba- 
varian <Mvt.  to  the  Spessart  to  investigate  a 
famine  fever  which  had  broken  out  there;  re- 
turned to  the  Univ.  of  Berlin,  18&6,  and  acted 


VIREO 

u  director  of  the  hoapitaU  during  the  oun- 
paigiw  of  186fl  and  1870-71,  taking  part  with' 
energy  in  the  political  movements  as  a  repre- 
eentative  of  Berlin  in  the  Pnissian  House  of 
Representative!.  He  ia  the  creator  of  the 
celluhir  theon  in  patho]<^,  which  is  a  bi- 
ological principle  eitabliehing  the  fact  that  the 
laws  wonting  m  disease  are  not  different  from 
those  in  operation  in  health,  but  that  they  are 
subject  to  different  conditions.  He  also  wrote 
"  Handbuch  der  speciellen  Pathologic  und 
Therapie  "  and  "  Vorleaungen  liber  Patnologie," 
besides  maay  minor  essays.  He  was  one  of  the 
tnoat  eameat  advocates  in  Germany  of  sanitary 
reform,  and  put  forth  an  immense  amount  of 
effort  to  attain  it.  For  more  than  twenty 
years  he  was  one  of  the  aldermen  of  Berlin, 
and  his  liberalism  in  polities  exercised  a  po- 
tent influence  in  practical  municipal  work. 

Vir'eo,  one  of  the  family  of  birds  belonging 
to  the  Vireonida,  and  related  to  the  shrikes. 
The  bill  is  much  compressed,  decnrved  at  the 
end  and  notched.  The  nostrils  are  lateral  and 
overhung  by  membrane;  the  frontal  feathers 
are  bristly  and  erect,  or  bent  slightly  for- 
ward ;  the  wings  have  mostly  ten  primaries, 
but  the  spurious  one  is  wanting  in  certain 
Vireoe;  the  tarsi  have  the  lateral  plates  un- 
divided, except  at  the  extreme  lower  ends,  and 
they  are  longer  than  the  middle  toes  with  the 
claws;  the  three  anterior  toes  are  exteuBiTeiy 
attached  to  one  enother.  The  family  is  pecnl- 
iar  to  America,  and  comprises  about  flft;  spe- 
cies of  small  singing  birds. 

Viigil  (vdr'ill),  PnbUos  Virgillns,  or  Vei- 
gUins,  Uaio,  70-19  &c.;  Roman  poet;  b;  An- 
des, near  Maiitua.  He  received  his  early  educa- 
tion at  Cremona  Mid  Uediolanum  (Milan), 
studied  Qreek  at  Naples  under  Parthenius,  and 
i^terwards  seems  to  have  retired  to  his  father's 
estate  near  Mantua.  Asinius  Potlio  was  one  of 
the  first  to  recognize  his  poetical  talent.  He 
was  afterwards  Iwfriended  by  Mscenas,  and  be- 
came a  favorite  of  Augustus;  but,  being  of  a 
retiring  nature  and  delicate  health,  he  spent 
the  latter  part  of  his  life  mostly  at  Tarentum 
or  Naples.  In  10  he  went  to  Greece,  letumed 
with  the  emperor,  and  died  on  the  Journey. 
The  earliest  works  of  Virgil  were  the  Bucolics, 
or  Eclogues,  written  probably  between  43  and 
37.  The  Georgice  form  a  didaotlc  poem  in  four 
books,  addressed  to  Itocenas,  ana  are  by  far 
the  most  finished  of  Virgil's  productions,  the 
monotonous  details  of  agricultnral  life  beii% 
embellished  with  apt  alluiions,  skillful  orna- 
ment, and  beautiful  digresrions.  His  great 
epic,  the  "  JEneid,"  or  the  adventures  of  .£iieas 
after  the  fall  of  Troy,  is  in  twelve  hooka,  the 
first  six  of  which  were  modeled  after  the 
"  Odyssey,"  and  the  last  six  after  the  battles  of 
the  ''Iliad."  Virgil  worked  at  this  poem  for 
ten  years,  but  he  did  not  live  to  perfect  iL  He 
bequeathed  it  to  hie  friends  Tarins  and  Tncca, 
who  at  the  wish  of  Augostos  edited  it  with 
the  utmost  core.  Other  poems  attributed  to 
Virgil  are  "Culei,"  "Girls,"  "  Copo,"  "Mo- 
return,"  and  fourteen  "Catalecta."  His  influ- 
ence on  ttoman  literature  and  the  literature  of 
the  Uiddle  Ages  was  almost  without  a  parallel 
in  literary  history. 

337 


VIRGINIA 

Tirgln'la.  or  Verglnla,  a  Roman  maiden, 
daughter  of  Lucius  Virginius,  a  patrician,  and 
betrothed  to  Lucius  Icilius,  a  popular  demo- 
cratic leader  who  hod  signalized  himself  In 
the  office  of  tribune  by  procuring  the  passage 
of  the  law  assigning  the  Aventine  Mount  to 
the  plebeians.  According  to  the  ordinary  his- 
toriea — which,  however,  do  not  merit  great 
confidence — the  decemvir,  Appius  Claudius, 
captivated  by  the  beauty  of  the  maiden,  de- 
vised with  one  of  his  clients  a  plot  to  obtain 
possession  of  her,  under  pretense  that  she  was 
a  slave;  and  when,  in  spite  of  all  the  efforts 
of  the  maiden's  father  and  lover,  the  decemvir 
had  in  his  magisterial  capacity  adjudged  her 
to  be  the  slave  of  his  accomplice,  Virginius, 
in  the  midst  of  the  Forum,  plunged  a  knife 
into  his  daughter's  breast  The  people,  excited 
by  this  tragedy,  overthrew  the  deMWvirs,  re- 
established the  consulate,  and  made  Virginius 
tribune,  by  whom  Appius  was  thrown  Into 
prison,  where  he  committed  suicide   [44S  B.C.). 

Virginia  (named  in  honor  of  Elizabeth,  the 
"virgin  queen  "),  one  of  the  U.  S.  of  N.  Amer- 
ica; the  tenth  of  the  thirteen  original  states 
that  ratified  the  Federal  Constitution;  popu- 
larly called  the  Old  Dominion  State  and 
the  MoTKEB  or  Pbesidents.  On  the  B.  it 
adjoins  N.  Carolina  for  326  m.  and  Tennessee 
for  114  m.;  on  the  W.  and  NW.  it  adjoins 
Kentucky  ior  115  m.  and  W.  Virginia  for  450 
m. ;  on  the  NW.  and  N.  it  is  separated  from 
Maryland  by  the  Potomac  River  and  Chesa- 
peake Bay  for  205  m.,  and  by  a  line  of  2G  m. 
across  the  E.  shore ;  and  E.  and  SE.  it  is  bor- 
dered by  the  Atlantic  for  125  m. ;  area,  42,627 , 
sq.  m.;   pop.   (ISIO)    2,001,612. 

There  are  six  natural  divisions  of  Virginia, 
extending  across  the  state  from  NE.  to  8W., 
nearly  parallel  to  each  other,  and  correspond- 
ing to  the  trend  of  the  Atlantic  coast  on  the 
E.  and  the  Appalachian  Mountains  on  the  NW. 
In  the  Tidewater  country  every  portion  is 
penetrated  by  the  tidel  waters  of  the  Chesa- 
peake Bay.  The  Middle  Virginia  r^ion  is  a 
great,  moderately  undulating  plain  from  2S 
to  100  m.  wide,  rising  to  the  NW.  from  an 
elevation  of  160  to  200  ft.  above  tide  at  the 
rocky  rim  of  its  E.  border  to  300-600  ft.  at 
its  NW.  In  the  Piedmont  section  the  moun- 
tains aradually  sink  into  the  plains,  giving 
Saat  diversity  and  picturesqueness.  The  Blue 
dge  country  for  310  m.  is  embraced  in  the 
Valley  and  Piedmont  cos.  that  have  their  com- 
mon lines  upon  its  watershed;  the  BW.  por- 
tion, a  plat^u,  with  an  area  of  1,230  sq.  m., 
forms  a  separate  political  division.  The  Great 
Valley  is  a  continuous  one,  clearly  defined  by 
the  surrounding  mountains,  but  it  is  real^ 
the  valley  of  five  rivers.  These  with  their 
lengths  are  from  the  NE.:  The  Shenandoah, 
130  m.;  the  James,  60  m.;  the  Roanoke,  38 
m.;  the  Kanawha  or  New  River,  54  m.;  and 
the  BJolston  or  Tennessee,  62  m.  The  Ap- 
palachian oountry  suooaeds  the  Great  Vall^ 
on  the  W.,  and  is  traversed  its  whole  Icnfrth 
by  the  Appalachian  Uonutains.  It  is  a  series 
of  IfXOg,  narrow,  parallel  valleys. 

—■  ......        ...      ■     j^ 

TkeprlB- 


■vGooglc 


vniaiNiA 

eipal  Btream  is  the  PotoniBc,  with  its  larm 
broDchee,  the  Sbeiumdoah  and  the  3.  Brmch, 
and  its  Bmalier  ones,  Potomac  Creek,  Occoquan 
River,  Broad  Run,  Ooose,  Catoctin,  and  Ope- 
quon  creeks;  the  Rappahannock,  with  the  Rap- 
idan  and  numerous  other  branches,  flows  from 


the  Blue  Ridge;  the  Ftankatank  drains  a.  por- 
tion of  Tidewater;  and  Mobjack  Bay  and  its 
rivers  furnish  deep  entrances  to  the  Gloucester 

SniuBula.  The  York,  with  its  Famunkej  and 
attapony  branches  and  many  tributaries, 
flows  through  Middk  and  Tidewater  country. 
The  James,  with  the  Chickahominy,  Elizabeth, 


Nansemond,  Appomattox,  etc.,  drains  more  of 
the  state  than  any  other  river.  The  Elizabeth 
is  a  broad  arm  of  the  Hampton  Boads  estuary 
of  the  James,  extending  for  12  m.  All  these 
flow  into  Chesapeake  Bay.  The  Chowan, 
through  its  Black  water,  Nottoway,  and  Me- 
herrin  brancheB  and  their  affluents,  waters 
portions  of  Middle  and  Tidewater  Virginia. 
The  Roanoke,  called  the  Staunton  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Dan  to  the  Blue  Ridge,  receives 
the  Dan,  Otter,  Pig,  etc.,  from  the  Valley  and 
Piedmont  and  Middle  Virginia,  and  then  flows 
through  N.  Carolina  to  Albemarle  Sound,  join- 
ing the  Chowan.  The  waters  of  the  Ohio  sys- 
tem drain  one  seventh  of  the  state.  The  prin- 
cipal streams  are  the  Kanawha  or  New  River, 
wnich  rises  in  N.  Carolina,  flows  through  the 

?lateau  of  the  Blue  Ridge,  and  through  W. 
'irginia   into  the  Ohio.     The  HQlstoa  drains 


VIHGINIA 

the  EP^.  portions  of  the  Valley  and  Appalachia ; 
and  the  Clinch  waters  the  extreme  SW.  of  the 
Appalachian  country.  These  flow  into  the 
Tennessee.  Mountains  extend  W.  from  the  foot 
of  the  low  broken  raoges  that  cross  the  state 
SW.  from  the  Potomac  to  the  N.  Carolina  line, 
forming  the  E.  outliers  of  the  Appalachian 
system.  The  Blue  Ridge,  where  the  Potomac 
breaks  through,  attains  an  elevation  of  1,400 
ft.;  Mt.  Marshall  is  3,369  ft.;  Rockfish  Gap 
1,096  ft.  The  peaks  of  Otter,  in  Bedford  Co., 
are  3,993  ft.  and  the  Bakam  Mountain,  in 
Grayson,  is  S,7CK>  ft.  The  ranges  W.  of  tho 
Gr«at  Valley  are  called  the  Appalachian,  Kit- 
tany,  or  Alleghany  Mountains.  Many  are 
bold,  but  only  one  peak,  Elliott's  Knob,  vies 
with  the  peaks  of  the  Blue  Ridge.  Vast  caves, 
natural  bridges,  and  waterfalls  alone  repay  the 
tourist  for  an  extended  trip. 

The  mineral  resources  are,  in  Tidewater  Vir- 
ginia, marls,  greeneand,  etc.,  esteemed  as  fer- 
tilizers,  choice  clays,,Hand,  and  shell  limestone; 
in  the  Middle  section,  granites,  gneiss,  brown- 
stone,  sandstone,  brick  and  fire  clay,  soapstone, 
marble,  slate,  limestone,  gold,  silver,  copper, 
red  and  brown  hematite,  magnetic  and  other 
ores,  and  bituminous  coal;  in  Piedmont,  gran- 
ite, marble,  sandstone,  brick  and  ftre  days, 
limestone,  hematite,  magnetic  and  other  iron 
ores,  barytes,  lead,  and  manganese  ores;  in  the 
Blue  Ridge  district,  copper  ores,  red  and  brown 
hematite,  and  other  iron  ores,  greenstone  sand- 
stone, freestone,  glass  sand,  manganese  ores, 
and  brick  and  fire  clays;  in  the  Great  Valley, 
limestone,  marble,  slates,  freestones,  sandstones, 
brick  and  Are  clays,  kaolin,  hematite,  lead  and 
zinc  ores,  tin  ore  and  semianthracite  coal;  in 
the  Appalachian  country  limestones,  marbles, 
freestones,  slates,  calcareous  marls,  brick  clay, 
red,  brown,  and  other  iron  ores,  salt,  and  bitu- 
minous coal.  In  Middle  Virginia,  Piedmont, 
and  Great  Valley  divisiona  are  choice  mineral 

In  Tidewater  the  soil  of  the  low,  flat,  Bandy 
shores  is  thin,  light,  and  soft;  but  warm  and 
under  the  influence  of  a  mild  climate.  The 
second  bottoms  (a  second  terrace  above  the 
water)  are  the  rich  lands  of  the  country. 
Along  the  streams  of  the  Middle  country  there 
are  rich  soils  in  the  bottom  lands.  The  red  and 
chocolate  soils  of  the  Piedmont  division  formed 
from  the  decompoEed  dark  greenish-blue  sand- 
stone are  the  most  fertile.  The  Blue  Ridge  is 
composed  of  much  the  same  material  as  the 
Piedmont,  but  it  is  richer  in  greenstone  rocks, 
which  adapt  it  for  rich  grasses,  vines,  and  or- 
chards. The  soils  of  the  Great  Valley,  general- 
ly limestone,  are  welt  adapted  for  grass  and 
grain. 

The  forests  are  large  and  the  timber  is  varied, 
including  several  species  of  pine,  oak,  hickory, 
elm,  poplar,  willow,  beech,  birch,  walnut,  maple, 
cedar,  mulberry,  locust,  sycamore,  and  otlier 
timber  trees,  besides  the  juniper,  chestnut,  cy- 
press, mulberry,  linden,  catalpa,  persimmon, 
Cottonwood,  dogwood,  sassafras,  numerous  nut 
trees,  and  many  fruit  trees. 

The  crops  in  the  order  of  value  are:  com, 
tobacco,  wheat,  hay,  potatoes,  oats,  rye,  and 
buckwheat.  The  cotton  crop  in  1910  waa  10,- 
0B5  botes,  valued  at  $1,040,000. 


:lbyGO.OgIC 


VIRGINIA 

Id  1910  the  production  o(  coal  waa  6^0T,M7 
■hort  tons.  ViTginia  bad  in  I9I0  an  output 
of  B2I,131  long  tons  of  brown  hematite  iron 
ore,  B  1,647  tons  of  red  benatite,  and  599  tone 
of  magnetite,  toUl,  003,377  tons.  The  two 
states  combined  ranked  second  in  production 
of  brown  hematite,  seventh  in  magnetite,  and 
eleventh  in  red  hematite.  Other  productions 
were:  Qronite,  sandstone,  slate,  principally 
for  roofing  i  limestone,  cement,  natural  rock, 
talc,  and  soapstone.  The  clay-working  indus- 
tries produced  brick  and  tile  valued  at  (1,- 
839,687.  There  were  forty  mineral  springs 
reported. 

The  climate  ranges  from  the  temperate  of 
the  plains  in  the  BE.  to  the  cold  of  the  NW. 
mountain  plateaus,  is  generally  dry  and  mild, 
and  is  healthful  the  year  round.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  for  twenty  years  is  57". 
The  mean  annual  average  of  rainfall  for  twen- 
ty-one years   (1872-92)    was  42.99  in. 

For  administrative  purposes  Virginia  is  di- 
vided into  100  counties  and  18  independent 
cities.  Principal  cities  and  towns:  Richmond, 
Norfolk,  Petersburg,  Roanoke,  Newport  News, 
Lvnchhurg,  Porteroouth,  Danville,  Alexandria, 
Manchester,  Staunton,  Charlottesville,  Win- 
chester, and  Fredericksburg- 

In  I90e  the  census  returns  showed  that  5,685 
manufacturing  establishmente  reported.  These 
had  a  combined  capital  of  $216,392,000,  em- 
ployed 120,797  salaried  officials  and  wage  earn- 
ers, and  had  an  output  valued  at  $219,794,000. 
The  principal  manufactures  were  of  flour  and 
grist,  lumber,  tobacco,  railway  cars,  leather, 
tanning,  iron  and  steel,  fertilizers,  textiles, 
printing  and  publishing.  The  schools  are  free; 
white  and  colored  children  are  taught  in  sep- 
arate schools.  The  universities  and  colleges  of 
litwral  arts  are  the  state  university;  Hampden- 
Sidney  College,  at  Hampden-Sidney;  Washing- 
ton and  Lee  Univ.,  at  Lexin^n;  Randolph- 
Hacon  Collie,  at  Ashland;  Richmond  College, 
at  Richmond ;  Roanoke  College,  at  Salem ;  Em- 
ory and  Henry  College,  at  Emory;  and  the 
Polytechnic  Institute,  at  New  Market.  State 
aid  is  given  to  the  state  university,  the  Vir- 
ginia Uilitaiy  Institute,  the  Virginia  A^i- 
cultural  and  Mechanical  College,  the  State  Fe- 
male Normal  School,  the  Colleee  of  William  and 
Mary,  the  Medical  College  of  Virginia,  the  Vir- 
giuia  Normal  and  Collegiate  Institute,  and  the 
Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural  Institute. 
The  Miller  Manual  I^bor  School,  at  Croset,  has 
an  endowment  of  $1,300,000. 

Among  charitable,  reformatory,  and  penal 
institutions  are  the  Virginia  Institution  for 
the  education  of  the  deaf  and  dumb  and  the 
blind,  at  Staunton;  four  state  asylums  for  the 
insane — the  Western  at  Staunton,  the  Eastern 
at  Williamsburg,  the  Bouthwestem  at  Marion, 
and  the  Central  near  Petersburg;  an  industrial 
reform  school  for  white  boys,  at  Laurel;  a 
penitentiary,  at  Richmond;  and  county  and 
city  jails  and  almshouses. 

The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  governor, 
elected  for  four  years  and  ineligible  for  a  sec- 
ond consecutive  teita,  who  must  he  a  citizen  of 
the  U.  B.,  thirty  years  old,  and  a  resident  of 
the  state  for  three  years  prior  to  his  election. 
II  foreign  bom,  h«  must  have  been  a  recent 


VIRGINIA 

of  the  U.  S.  for  ten  years.  A  lieutenant  gov- 
ernor succeeds  the  governor  on  his  death  or  re- 
moval from  odice.  Other  state  ofBcers  are  a 
secretary  of  the  commonwealth  and  treasurer, 
elected  by  the  general  aBsembly.  The  legislative 
authority  is  vested  in  a  general  assembly,  con- 
sisting of  a  senate  of  40  members  and  a  house 
of  delegates  of  100  members,  each  elected  tor 
two  years.  The  elective  fi-anehise  is  given  to 
all  males  twenty-one  years  old  and  upward 
who  are  citizens  of  the  U.  S.  and  residents  of  . 
the  state  one  year.  A  modification  of  the  Aus- 
tralian ballot  law  is  in  force. 

Virginia  was  the  earliest  settled  of  the  Eng- 
lish colonies.  On  May  13,  1607,  a  party  of  IM 
persons,  sent  out  by  the  London  Virginia  Co., 
landed  at  what  is  now  known  as  Old  James- 
town. It  was  mostly  composed  of  needy  ad- 
venturers, and  the  whole  company  would  have 
perished  but  for  the  enterprise  of  CapL  John 
Smith.  Smith  took  command  of  the  colonists, 
and  held  it  until  the  oflicers  appointed  by  the 
London  Virginia  Co.  should  make  their  appear- 
ance. Nine  vessels  had  been  sent  out  by  the 
company  with  EOO  colonists,  but  the  one  hear- 
ing the  officers  was  wrecked  on  the  Bermudas, 
and  one  of  the  other  vessels  was  lost.  The  re- 
maining seven  arrived  safely  at  Jamestown, 
but  the  new  settlers  were  as  worthless  as  their 
predecessors.  Having  been  severely  wounded 
by  an  accident.  Smith  was  compelled  to  return 
to  England  in  December,  1609.  He  left  500 
coloniste  well  supplied.  Six  months  later  the 
number  had  dwindled  to  60,  and  these  were  on 
the  verge  of  starvation.  At  this  time  (June, 
1610),  Newport,  Gates,  and  Somers  arrived  at 
Jamestown  with  150  men  and  supplies,  but 
finding  the  colonists  in  no  sad  a  plight  they  re- 
solved to  abandon  Virginia.  As  they  destended 
the  river  they  met  Lord  de  la  Warr  with  three 
ships,  bringing  supplies  and  settlers.  They 
then  returned  to  Jamestown,  and  Lord  de  la 
Warr  established  a  trading  post  at  Hampton. 
Lord  de  la  Warr's  health  failing,  he  returned 
to  England,  leaving  Capt.  George  Percy  as  bis 
deputy. 

New  settlements  were  made  at  Henrico  and 
at  what  is  now  City  Point.  The  culture  of  to- 
bacco became  profitable;  fHVOrahle  laws  were 
made ;  servnnte  of  two  kinds  began  to  come 
into  the  colony  in  1019 — felons  or  convicte  sent 
over  from  English  prisons  and  sold  to  the 
planters  for  a  term  of  years,  and  negro  slaves 
brought  by  Dutch  vessels  from  the  African 
coast.  In  1624-25  the  Virginia  Co.  was  dis- 
solved, and  the  colony  revnied  to  the  crown. 
In  1662  the  colonists  reluctantly  submitted  to 
the  rule  of  Cromwell,  but  in  1660  they  reaf- 
firmed their  loyalty  to  the  Stuart  dynasty. 
Bacon's  rebellion,  which  occurred  in  1676,  was 
the  result  of  the  rapacity  of  Gov.  Berkeley  and 
two  courtiers  of  Charles  II  (Arlington  and  Cul- 
peper),  to  whom  he  had  given  a  patent  ">  the 
Virginia  colony.  There  were  occasional  con- 
fiicte  with  the  Indians,  but  these  were  not  seri- 
ous until  1754,  when  the  f^nch  war  began. 
Virginia  resented  the  levying  of  taxes  by  the 
mother  country  without  representation  a* 
warmly  as  did  Massachusetts,  and  in  1766 
adopted  resolntjons  denying  the  right  of  any 
foreign  bod7  to  levy  such  taxes.    i)>»  oolony 


s.  yxfl^  oolony 

■Cooglc 


VIRGINIA 

WM  not  represented  in  the  flrat  colonial  eon- 
gresa  of  October,  I7SG,  but  approved  ita  Kction. 
It  W8B  not  until  the  accession  of  Lord  Dun- 
more  BB  governor  in  17T2  that  the  opposition 
to  the  mcasureB  of  the  British  miiuHtry  began 
to  be  generally  manifested.  Lord  Dunmore  be- 
came at  length  so  obnoxious  by  his  tjranny 
that  he  took  refuge  on  board  a  British  man- 
of-war  oS  Yorktown,  and  in  June,  1776,  was 
declared  by  the  General  Assembly  to  have  ab- 
dicated his  office.  He  later  attacked  with  a 
British  and  Tory  force  several  of  the  towns 
.  along  the  coast,  but  was  driven  S. 

In  May,  1776,  a  convention  of  delegates  met 
at  Williamsburg,  issued  a.  declaration  of  rights, 
and  on  June  I2th  adopted  a  state  constitution. 
Committed  thus  to  the  devolution,  Virginta 
was  one  of  the  fields  of  the  Revolutionary  War, 
especially  toward  ita  close.  Naval  attacks 
were  made  on  Norfolk,  Portsmouth,  and  Gos- 
port  in  1779,  and  Benedict  Arnold  captured  anil 
burned  Bicumond  in  January,  17S1.  The  battle 
of  Jamestown  was  fought  July  9,  ITSl,  and 
the  surrender  of  Comwallis  (with  which  the 
war  ended)  took  place  at  Yorktown  October 
IQth  of  the  same  year.  Virginia  was  promi- 
nent in  the  national  convention  wbich  framed 
the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S-,  and  ratified  that 
constitution  June  25,  1788.  In  1TS4  she  ceded 
to  the  U.  S.  her  claims  to  the  lands  NW.  of  the 
Ohio,  and  soon  alter  this  she  gave  up  the  ter- 
ritory which  DOW  forms  Kentucky.  In  1B49 
she  ijianged  her  constitution,  extended  the  suf- 
frage, and  codified  her  laws.  In  ISOO  and  ISei 
the  people  of  Virginia  were  divided  on  the  sub- 
ject of  secession. 

The  convention,  called  February  13,  1861,  to 
consider  the  subject,  was  composed  of  three 
cloRses — unconditional  unionists,  unconditional 
secessionists,  and  conditional  unionists;  the 
last  named  were  largely  in  the  majority. 
There  was  a  long  discusBion,  but  on  April  17tn, 
three  days  after  the  capture  of  Fort  Sumter, 
the  ordinance  of  secession  was  passed  by  88 
yeas  to  65  nays.  It  was  submitted  to  the  peo- 
ple late  in  May,  and  a  majority  of  94,000  was 
said  to  have  declared  in  favor  of  seceBsion. 
The  W.  counties  opposed  it,  and  as  a  result 
the  State  of  W.  Virginia  was  formed,  Ootober, 
1861.  Richmond  became  the  capital  of  the 
Confederate  Statas,  May  £1,  1801.  The  sUte 
was  occupied  by  hostile  armies  during  the 
whole  of  the  Civil  War,  and  nmny  of  the  most 
important  ootions  of  the  war,  together  with  the 
final  surrender  of  Lee's  foroee  at  Appomattox, 
took  place  within  its  borders.  (Sea  Cohted- 
XBATE  States.)  During  a  part  of  flus  time 
there  were  two  state  governments,  the  oonntiee 
which  were  loyal  and  under  Federal  control 
having  Instituted  a  state  sovemment  at  Alex- 
andria in  1SB3.  The  legislature  of  this  state 
Kvemment  called  a  oonvention,  which  met 
bruary  13,  1864,  and  abolished  slavery. 
After  the  close  of  the  war  an  attempt  was 
made  to  convene  ihe  old  Virginia  Legislature 
to  restore  the  state  to  the  Union,  but  as  It  was 
believed  that  tliot  legislature  wonld  act  in  hos- 
tility to  the  Oovemment,  ite  assembling  was 
prohibited.  The  state  was  under  military  con- 
trol till  Jannary  26,  1870,  when  it  waa  restored 
to  the  Union.     Diuing  18TS-82  tltere  arose  a 


VTRGINIIB  UA88ACRE 

contest  over  the  state  debt,  which  was  not  setr 
tied  till  1892,  when  the  debt  was  adjusted  and 
bonded.  In  1902  a  new  constitution  waa  pro- 
claimed, its  special  object  being  to  enfrancbise 
as  many  whites  as  possible  and  to  reduce  the 
colored  vote. 

Since  the  Civil  War  Virginia  has  almost  oon* 
tinuously  given  a  Democratic  vote.  Bevea 
Presidents  of  the  U.  S.  were  natives  of  Virg^a 
— Washington,  JeSereon,  Madison,  Monroe,  W. 
H.  Harrison,  Tyler,  and  Taylor. 

Virginia  Cieep'ei.    Bee  Ajcfbxapsis. 

Virginia  Sesoln'tions.     Bee  Ezhtuckt  Aim 

ViaoiNiA  ItesOLUTIOKB. 

Virpnis,  Univer'aity  of,  an  institution  of 
learning  at  Charlottesville,  Albemarle  Co.,  Va.; 
chartered  in  1819  through  the  influence  of 
Thomas  Jefferson,  its  first  rector.  It  was 
opened  In  1825.  The  university  is  divided  into 
separate  independent  schools,  twenty-two  in 
number,  each  under  the  charge  of  a  professor. 
There  is  no  general  curriculum,  hut  students  se- 
lect their  schools,  usually  three  in  number,  for 
each  year,  and  receive  upon  examination  their 
respective  degrees — namely,  for  proficiency  in 
Benarate^  branches,  for  graduation  in  a  single 
school,  for  the  d^rees  of  Bachelor  of  Arts,  of 
Master  of  Arts,  »nd  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 
The  university  has  also  medial,  pharmaceu- 
tical, law,  s^icultural,  and  engineering  de- 
partments, with  corresponding  degrees.  The 
institution  is  under  state  patronage,  having  an 
annual  appropriation  of  140,000  in  1884.  The 
^fts  in  equipments  and  endowments  (includ- 
ing an  endowed  observatory  and  an  extensive 
museum  of  natural  history  and  geolo'gy)  since 
1869  amount  to  $600,000.  To  this  is  to  be  add- 
ed an  estate  in  remainder  left  in  1884,  and  val- 
ued at  $420,000.  The  department  of  agricul- 
ture was  founded  in  1869,  with  an  endowment 
of  $100,000.  The  library  contains  70,000  vol- 
umes.   In  1810  there  were  803  studenU. 

VIr'gin  Islands  {so  called  by  Columbus  in 
honor  of  the  Eleven  Thousand  Virgins),  a 
group  In  the  W.  Indies,  forming  the  NW.  ex- 
tremity of  the  Caribbee  chain,  and  lying  im- 
mediate^ £.  of  Porto  Rioo.  The  most  importuit 
an  St.  TluHusa,  Bonta  Cnu,  ftnd  St.  Jobs,  form- 
erly belonging  to  Denmaric,  but  bought  by  the 
U.  S.  iot  06^00,000  in  1917.  TortoU,  AoMnda, 
Virgin  Gorda,  and  some  ieleb  betong  to  Great 
Britain  and  are  attached  to  the  Leeward  Islands 
colony;  aggr^iate  area,  SS  sq.  m.;  pop.  <1901] 
4,908.  Culebra,  Vieques,  etc,  are  oependendes 
of  Porto  Bico. 

Viiglii'liis  Uu'sacre,  The.  In  October,  1873, 
the  steamer  Vtrffintu*,  carrying  the  U,  S.  flag 
and  having  on  board  munitions  of  war  and 
recruits  for  Uie  Insurgents  in  Cuba,  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Spanish  warship  Tornado,  and 
taken  to  SantJago.  Four  leading  Cuban  in- 
surgents captured  on  board  were  exeeoted,  a 
fate  whieh  was  later  shared  br  Capt.  Fny,  an 
Amerioan,  and  thirty-six  of  the  crew  and  six- 
teen pasBen«ers.  Further  exeentlona  were  pre- 
vented hj  the  Intervention  of  the  captain  of 
the  British  war^ip  Niobe.  Excitement  rose 
high  in  the  U.  &.,  and  war  with  Spain  was 
anticipated,  but  the  lawleM  choiMter  of  the 


,,  Google 


VIRGIN  MARY 

Tirginius  was  fully  established,  her  risht  to 
cari7  the  Ataerican  fla^  wu  denied,  and,  upon 
the  release  of  the  survivors,  friendly  relations 
were  restored,  Spain  paying  a  sum  for  the  re- 
lief of  the  families  of  the  victims. 
Vir'Kin    Ma'iy.     See   Uabt,   the   Bussed 

Viigin's  Bow'er.  See  Clematis, 
TiiEO  (vAr'gO),  the  sixth  sign  of  the  Zodiac, 
which  the  sun  enters  about  August  20th ;  also 
a  constetlation  which  formerly 
marked  this  sign,  but  is  now  in 
the  sign  Libra.  It  is  on  the 
meridian  during  the  evenings  of 
May  and  June,  and  contains  the 
.  bright  star  Spica.  See  Zodiac. 
Ti'mi,  animal  fluids  produced 
ViKoo.  in  diseaaed  conditions  or  by  mor- 
bid processes,  and  capable  of  de- 
veloping disearc  when  transmitted  to  other 
animal  bodies.  Thus  man  may  be  inoculated 
b^  the  virus  of  human  origin,  smallpox,  vac- 
cinia of  the  cow,  glanders  of  the  horse,  and 
hydrophobia.  (See  Ikocuuation  and  Vao- 
ci:iATiOK.)  A  minute  amount  of  the  virus 
gaining  access  to  the  body  is  sufficient  to  in- 
fect the  entire  volume  of  the  blood  and  cou- 
taminate  every  part  of  the  body.  Peculiar 
organisms,  having  vitality  and  tendency  to  re- 
produce themselves,  constitute  the  active  ele- 
ments of  all  viruses.  (See  BACTEUOLoaT. ) 
Having  gained  entrance  to  the  system,  thev 
for  a  time  seem  dormant,  but  are  really  mul- 
tiplying, and  this  period  is  designated  aa  one 
of  "  incubation."  Thus  smallpox  appears 
twelve  or  more  days  aft«r  admission  of  virus, 
vaccinia  within  a  week,  hydrophobia  on  an 
average  in  forty  days.  Hygienic  and  support- 
ing measures  may  prepare  the  body  to  meet 
those  effects  and  pass  safely  through,  but,  with 
the  exception  of  malaria  and  a  few  other  dis- 
eases, no  specifics  are  known  which  are  capable 
of  destroying  the  vims, 

Visconti  (ves-kOo'tA),  a  family  of  rulers  of 
Milan.  Ottone  VisconU  became  archbish^  In 
1262,  and  desperately  contested  with  the  Delia 
Torre  family  the  mastery  of  the  city  and  ter- 
ritory. His  nephew,  Uatteo  I,  the  Qreat 
( 1250-1322 ) ,  obtained  supreme  power,  was 
expelled  by  a  league,  and  was  reinstalled  by 
the  emperor,  Henry  VU  (1310-11).  Matteo 
extended  his  dominion,  but  the  Guelphs,  in- 
cited by  Pope  John  XXIIl,  forced  him  ta  re- 
sign. His  son,  Qakazzo  I  (1277-1328),  con- 
tinued the  warfare,  and  a  papal  force  in  1323 
burned  the  euburt»  of  Milan  and  many  ad- 

C«nt  castles.  With  the  aid  of  the  emperor, 
uis  the  Bavarian,  the  pope's  troops  were 
overwhelmed  in  1324.  In  1327  Louis  appointed 
Galeazzo  imperial  vicar  in  LombaTdy;  out  he 
soon  incarcerated  him,  with  his  son  Azzo  and 
his  two  brothers,  on  a  charge  of  conspiracy, 
and  released  them  for  a  heavy  ransom.  Azzo 
(1302-39)  improved  the  condition  of  Milan. 
His  uncle  and  successor,  Luochino,  annexed 
most  of  Lombardy  and  Montferr^t. 

Lucchino's  brother  Giovanni  (1290-1354)  ex- 
tended his  rule  over  many  cities  of  Tuscany. 
He  left  Uie  government  to  his  nephews,  Matteo 


VI8HNTT 

II,  BamabO,  and  GaleaEzo.  The  first  soon  died 
from  poison  ascribed  to  his  two  brothers.  Bar- 
nabO  waged  war  against  the  papal  see  till 
13SS,  when  he  was  imprisoned  by  his  nephew, 
Giovanni  GaleaEZO  (d.  1402),  who  eipell^  the 
Scalas  from  Verona  and  Vicenm,  and  the  Car- 
raros  from  Padua,  and  purchased  in  1395  the 
title  of  Duke  of  Milan  from  the  emperor 
Weneeslaus.  He  was  a  munificent  patron  of 
art,  and  founded  the  Cathedral  of  Alilan.  His 
son,  Giovanni  Maria,  became  duke,  but  lost 
many  of  hia  poBSCBaions,  was  aasaEsinated  in 
1412,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother,  Filippo 
Maria  (d.  1447),  who  was  continuously  en- 
gaged in  wars  chiefly  against  Venice.  He  left 
no  male  heirs,  and  Francesco  Sforza,  husband 
of  his  natural  daughter  Bianca,  secured  the 
duchy  for  himself  and  his  descendants. 

Vlscos'ity,  a  term  in  physics  denoting  that 

property  of  matter  in  accordance  with  which 
the  relative  motion  of  its  parts  tends  to  dimin- 
ish. It  is  exemplified  in  the  dying  away  of 
sound  and  the  gradual  disappearance  of  the 
waves  caused  by  an  object  thrown  into  water. 

Viscount  (vl'kownt),  in  the  British  peerage, 
a  nobleman  higher  in  rank  than  a  baron  and 
lower  than  an  earl.    See  Nostutt. 


Viah'ntl,    the    second    ; 


the    Hindu 


to  create,  and  Siva  to  destroy,  the  chief  func- 
tion of  Vishnu  is  to  preserve,  for  in  his  avatars 
he  appears  as  an  almighty  deliverer,  the  last 
succor  of  gods  and  men.  According  to  his 
votaries  he  stands  alone,  as  the  incomparable 
chief  of  the  Hindu  pantheon ;  but  zealous  ad- 
vocates of  Saivism  are  as  extravagant  in  the 
praise  of  Siva,  and  declare  that  he  is  so  potent 
that  he  is  worshiped  by  Vishnu.  As  for 
Brahma,  ha  is  rather  a  venerated  name,  en- 
circled by  shadowy  awe,  than  a  living  power 
to  whom  prayers  and  soeriflcea  must  be  offered. 

Vishnu  is  usually  represented  with  four 
hands,  and  as  riding  on  the  Garuda,  a  being 
half. bird  and  half  mait  He  has  1/100  names. 
His  wife  is  I«ksbinil. 

The  first  avatar  or  incarnation  of  Vishnn 
was  as  a  fish,  in  wliich  form  he  slew  the  demon 
who  had  stolen  the  sacred  writings,  or  vedas, 
while  Brahjna  slept;  he  also  saved  the  phi- 
losopher Manu  and  the  seeds  of  all  created 
things  from  a  universal  deluge,  the  account 
of  mkich  resembles  in  many  respects  the  flood 
in  Qeneais.  Then  as  a  tortoise  Vishnu  aided 
to  produce  the  ambrosia  which  the  gods 
needed  to  make  them  immortal.  As  a  boar 
he  fought  for  a  thousand  years  with  a  demon 
who  had  carried  off  the  earth.  Then  as  a 
dwarf  he  won  the  favor  of  the  demon  Bali, 
who  asked  him  what  gift  he  would  like. 
"  On^  as  much  ground  as  I  con  cover  hy  tak- 
ing thrae  steps,"  said  the  dwarf.  The  request 
was  granted,  whereupon  Vishnu  leaped  up  as 
the  mightiest  of  the  noet  of  heaven,  and  plac- 
ing one  foot  on  earth,  one  on  the  middle  space 
and  one  over  heaven,  he  left  hell  to  Bali. 
Hiron-ya-Ka'si-pn,  having  obtained  from 
Brolima  a  life  which  could  not  be  destroyed  hy 
any  created  thing,  began  to  molest  the  go<& 
and    persecute   the    votaries    of.  Vlahuu.     So 

1  I,  Google 


VISIBLE  SPEECH 

Viahnu  took  the  form  of  a  being  which  hod 
not  beea  "  created  " — that  is,  a  new  creation, 
a  man  lion,  and  tore  the  heart  out  of  the 
domineering  demon.  Then  Viahnu  treed  the 
universe  (ram  Arjtma,  the  warrior  of  the 
thouaaud  arms,  and  again  came  to  earth  aa 
the  hero  Rama. 

The  eighth  avatar  ia  that  of  Krishna  (the 
most  popular  form  of  Vishnu),  who  first  cornea 
to  earth  aa  the  opponent  oIKanaa,  the  fiend 
king,  who  terrori^  over  goda  and  men.  To 
annihilate  Kanaa,  he,  with  Balaruna,  deter- 
mined to  become  incarnate.  Konaa  had  news 
of  thia,  and  killed  every  child  bom  as  soon  aa 
he  could.  But  bv  means  of  stratagems  and 
eoneealment  Krishna  escaped  and  grew  up, 
and  after  many  pranks  and  wonderful  deeds 
at  length  slew  the  great  Kansa. 

The  ninth  avatar  is  that  of  Buddha.  It  is 
evidently  a  late  invention  of  the  Jains,  who 
tried  to  reconcile  Brahmanism  with  Buddhism. 
The  laat  avatar  ia  yet  to  come,  when  the  great 
god  with  the  four  handa,  and  seated  on  a  white 
horae,  will  descend  and  deatroy  the  universe. 
This  ia  called  the  EaVci  avatar. 

The  worshipera  of  Vishnu,  Icnown  as  Voiah- 
navaa,  are  divided  into  loany  aecta,  the  moat 
important  of  which  are  the  N.  and  the  B.  They 
wear  on  the  forehead  a  mark  ahaped  like  a 
trident. 

The  K.  Vaishnavas  number  more  than  45,- 
000,000.  Two  out  of  three  Vaishnavas  in 
Bengal  are  of  thia  sect.  They  believe  that 
faith  in  Viahnu  will  save  more  aurely  than 
worka  can.  The  virtues  of  pious  meditation 
and  abstraction  are  not  to  be  compared  to  the 
virtues  of  belief.  Knowledge  is  of  little  ac- 
count; faith  is  all  in  all.  It  ia  good  to  sub- 
jugate the  passions,  to  practice  the  yoga,  to 
give  alms,  to  l>e  of  a  mind  filled  with  charity, 
to  call  on  the  sacred  name,  to  wear  the  sacred 
symbols  on  the  person,  to  be  honorable,  virtu- 
ous, and  meek ;  but  faith  is  the  sole  fount  of 
salvation.  And  yet  these  mild  Hindus,  who 
worship  the  Preserver,  and  believe  that  as  by 
belief  alone  in  the  nine-times-incamate-one 
they  shall  attain  heaven,  tell  their  brethren 
of  the  Bsmonuja  sect  that  the  latter  cannot 
be  saved  unless  they  lengthen  the  middle  stroke 
on  their  foreheads  to  the  tip  of  their  noaea. 

The  S.  Vaishnavas  are  fond  of  worshiping 
Lakshmi,  the  consort  of  Viahnu.  No  Vaish- 
nava  of  S.  India  will  allow  anyone  to  look  on 
his  food  while  he  is  eating  it.  A  look  would 
be  pollution,  and  he  at  once  would  treat  it  aa 
ordure,  and  bury  it  out  of  sight.  He  believea 
that  Vishnu  is  the  spring,  center,  foundation, 
cause,  and  creator  of  all.  Matter  and  spirit 
unite  in  him  as  Ood  and  as  the  Incarnate.  In 
S.  India  the  Ramanuja  Vaishnavas  number 
many  tens  of  millions,  and  their  templea  are 
among  the  most  splendid  in  India. 

Vii'ible  Speech,  a  system  of  symbols  (de- 
vised by  Prof.  A.  Melville  Bell)  in  which  every 
poaaible  articulate  utterance  of  the  organs  of 
speech  ia  represented.  In  the  ordinary  writ- 
ing of  languages  the  letters  have  no  relation 
to  the  mechanism  of  the  sounds — uAless,  per- 
haps, in  the  single  cose  of  0,  which  may  be 
hell'   to  be  pictorial   of  the  rounded  aperture 


VITAL  STATISTICS 

of  the  lips.  In  the  system  of  letters  called 
visible  speech  every  letter,  aa  well  as  every 
part  ol  every  letter,  is  organically  significant. 
For  instance,  all  consonanta  are  represented 
by  curves  which  have  the  outline  of  the  organs 
they  symbolize.     Thua: 


The  system  ia  designed  especially  for  teaching 
speech  to  mutea,  aa  well  as  to  enable  a  foreign 
pronunciation  to  be  gained  from  books. 

Vis'igotha.    See  Goths. 


Vidta'tion  Vtina,  religious  order  established, 
iOlO,  at  Annecy,  Savoy,  by  St.  Francis  de  Salea 
and  St.  Jane  Frances  de  Chuital ;  received 
papal  approbation,  1626;  introduced  into  the 
U.  S.,  1808,  by  Teresa  I^lor.  The  order  has 
convents  in  the  U.  S.  and  in  Europe.     ' 

Vis*tnla,  a  river  of  central  Europe  and  the 
principal  river  of  Poland.  It  rises  in  the 
Vablunka  Mountains,  in  Austrian  Silwia, 
3,600  ft.  above  sea  level,  traverses  Qalicia, 
Russian  Poland,  and  Prussia,  and  enters  the 
Baltic  Sea  by  several  mouths.  The  main 
stream  divides  into  two  branches,  which  flow 
into  the  Gulf  of  Daatcic  (Polish  Odansk)  at 
WeichselmUnde  and  the  Frisches  Haff  re- 
spectively. The  length  of  the  Vistula  is  850 
m.,  and  it  ia  navigable  at  Cracow  for  amall 
vessels,  and  after  it  ia  joined  by  the  Son  for 
large  vessels.  It  is  connected  on  the  W.  by 
the  Bromberger  Canal  with  the  Oder,  and  on 
the  E.  with  the  Dnieper  and  the  Niemen.  The 
Vistula  is  the  great  artery  of  trade  for  Poland, 
passing  the  large  cities  of  Cracow,  Sandomiers, 
Warsaw,  Modlin,  Plock,  Thorn,  Kulm,  Grau- 
denz,  Marienburg,  and   Dantzic. 

Vi'tal  Statii'tics,  statistics  of  births,  deaths, 
and  marriages;  sometimes  including  also  those 
of  physical  or  mental  disability  and  disease, 
especially  as  collected  and  recorded  under  the 
auspices  of  the  state.  Also,  the  scientific  dia- 
cuasion  of  data  of  this  kind;  "the  acience  of 
nurabera  applied  to  the  lite  history  of  com- 
munities." Some  governmental  bodies  collect 
and  record  vital  statistics  with  great  care; 
others  are  careless  or  fail  to  gather  them  at  all. 
In  the  U.  S.  the  collection  of  such  data  is  the 
business  of  states  and  municipalities,  with  the 
result  that  they  are  very  unevenly  recorded  in 
different  parts  of  the  country. 

Conclnsioaa  drawn  from  vital  statistics  are 
averwes  relating  to  groups  of  persona,  or  they 
may  be  regarded  as  the  mathematical  expres- 
sion of  chances.  They  are  often  expressed  a* 
ratios,  such  as  death  rates,  birth  rates,  and 
marriage  rates.  If  such  rstea  an  used  for  aw- 
2  C.OO'JlC 


VITASCOPE 

posea  of  comparison,  care  ahoold  lie  taiken  that 
the  efSeient  conditionB  are  the  unie.  It  la  not 
fair,  for  iiwtance,  to  conclude  frora  a  larger 
death  rate  that  a  place  ii  ezceptionallj  un- 
bealtlijr  iHfore  examining  the  proportiooB  of 
persona  of  different  affei  to  see  whether  they 
are  normal.  It  might  be,  for  instance,  that, 
bf  reason  of  the  migration  of  young  men,  the 
population  consisted  of  an  abnormally  large 
number  of  elderly  pei%ons.  It  is  related  thi  t  a 
statistician,  comparing  the  average  age  of  cler- 
gymen at  death  with  the  same  figure  for  the 
total  population  and  finding  it  larger,  conclud- 
ed that  clergymen  vere  exceptionallj  healthy. 
Such  a  raanparJBon  is  of.  no  value,  becauee  no 
clergyman  is  younger  than  (say)  tvrenty-flve 
years,  and  therefore  cannot  die  at  an  earlier 
age  than  this.  Mistakes  of  this  kind,  often  not 
BO  palpable,  are  easy  to  make  in  discussion  of 
vital  statiBticB.  Although  the  U.  S.  does  not 
directly  collect  and  record  vital  statistics,  it 
does  directly  enumerate  population  once  in  ten 
years,  by  means  of  a  census,  and  calculates  and 
discusses  in  the  publicdtions  of  the  census,  data 
gathered  from  such  collections  as  are  made  by 
states  and  cities. 

It  is  important,  of  course,  that  the  results  of 
a  censiiB  shall  be  comparable  in  detail  with  all 
records  of  this  kind,  especially  in  area,  age,  sex, 
race,  marital  condition,  and  occupation.  That 
is,  for  instance,  if  we  are  to  calculate  the  birth 
rate  for  «  given  region,  we  must  have  the  num- 
ber of  births  in  that  region  (or  a  specified  time 
and  the  average  population  for  that  time.  It 
will  not  do  to  compare  the  births  between  1S90 
and  1900  with  the  papulation  in  either  of  theae 
yeftTs.  The  average  is  usually  obtain^  by  ua- 
inff  the  annual  ratio  of  increase;  it  is  not  the 
anthmetical  mean,  unless  this  increase  has 
been  steady  during  the  period,  which,  is  rarely 
the  ease.  The  details  noted  above  are,  unfor- 
tunately, not  the  same  for  the  Federal  census 
and  for  the  collection  of  vital  statistics.  Areas, 
for  example,  are  not  those  that  the  student 
most  desires  to  take  into  account,  for  he  cares 
not  so  much  about  political  divisions  as  he  does 
for  regions  marked  off  by  altitude,  drainage, 
character  of  population  or  of  habitations,  etc. 
Statistics  are  not  gathered  separately  for  dif- 
ferent races,  except  in  special  instances,  so  that 
although  we  may  afceiiain  the  number  of  im- 
migrants of  a  given  '.ace  in  a  given  region,  we 
may  not  be  able  to  compare  their  birth,  death, 
or  marriage  rates  with  those'  of  other  racss. 
For  these  reasons,  among  others,  the  general 
vital  statistica  of  the  U.  S,  are  not  so  com- 
plete or  BO  valuable  as  those  of  many  Euro- 
pean countries.    See  Mobtalitt. 

Vi'tascope.    See  Movina  Fictdus. 

Vitellins,  Anlns,  15-69;  Koman  emperor;  b. 
Home;  was  a  great  favorite  with  Caligula, 
Claudius,  and  Nero,  who  bestowed  the  highest 
offices  and  greatest  honors  on  him,  although  he 
was  a  man  of  slu^ah  and  pro^gata  charac- 
ter and  quite  without  ambition;,  sent  to  Ger- 
many, and  there  proclaimed  emperor  by  the 
aoldieiB,  69;  entered  Rome  at  the  head  of  an 
army  of  about  60,000  soldiers,  but  found  only 
indifference  or  treachery;  tried  to  negotiate, 
but  failed,  and  was  found  hiding  in  a  comer  of 


vmsEcmoN 


Viti'  Islands.    See  Fiji  Iblahds. 
Tit'riol,  Oil  of.    See  Sulphciic  Acid. 
Vitto'ria  Colon'na.    See  Colohua,  Vntgiu. 


Vivien  de  Saint-U^rtin  (ve-vyU'  di  alin- 
mfir-tAA'),  Louis,  1802-97;  French  geographer 
and  author;  b.  St.-Martin-de-Pontenoy.  He 
early  engaged  in  literature  as  a  profession, 
removingto  Paris;  his  first  publication  was  a 
"  Carte  Electorale,"  1823,  and  his  second  an 
atlas,  one  of  the  best  of  its  time,  1823.  In 
1846  he  became  editor  of  the  Houvelltt  Annalea 
de  Voyagei,  and  was  thus  able  to  devote  his 
time  to  his  favorite  geographical  studies.  A 
great  work,  the  "  Histoire  universelle  dca  Ae- 


the  Aevolution  of  1848,  after  two  volumes  bad 
appeared.  It  was  followed  by  several  impor- 
tant works  on  bietorical  geography,  the  latest 
being  "  Histoire  de  la  sec^aphie  et  des  d^cou- 
vertes  geographiques '"  (with  atlas,  1873). 
From  1SS3  to  1S7S  he  edited  the  Ann4e  gio- 
graphique,  relinquishing  it  to  direct  the  "  Nou- 
veau  Dictionnaire  de  gSograpbie  universelle," 
a  monumental  work.     After  two  volumes  had 


Tiviaec'tion,  literally,  the  "opening  of  the 
living  body,"  in  contradistinction  to  that  of 
the  dead  body  {seolto  oadaoeria).  The  ex- 
amination of  tne  interior  of  the  dead  body,  both 
in  animals  and  in  man,  is  resorted  to  for  pur- 
poses of  anatomical  research,  and  also  to  as- 
certain the  changes  produced  by  diBeasa  Vivi- 
section  is  employed  for  investigating,  in  the 
lower  animals,  the  action  of  the  organs  during 
life.  The  term  is  used  to  designate  all  experi- 
ments of  a  scientific  nature  performed  'upon 
living  animals,  whether  they  consist  of  division 
of  the  parts  by  cutting  or  their  compression  by 
ligatures,  or  the  subjection  of  the  animal  to 
special  cpnditions  of  food,  temperature,  or 
respiration,  or  to  the  action  of  drugs  and  medi- 
cines. In  all  these  cases  the  object  of  the  ex- 
perimenter is  to  ascertain  some  fact  in  phyri- 
ology  or  pathology  which  cannot  be  otherwise 

The  .nece«8itT  for  resorting  to  experiments 
upon  living  animals  in  physiology  and  the  al- 
lied sciences  depends  upon  the  obvious  fact 
that  these  sciences  have  to  deal  with  the  actions 
and  phenomena  of  life,  and,  consequently,  in 
order  to  study  them  snccesafully,  the  necessarj 
investigations  must  be  made  while  life  is  going 
on.  Examination  of  the  dead  body  reveals  the 
form  and  Htructure  of  the  internal  parts,  but 
It  does  not  yield  a  knowledge  of  their  physiolog- 
ical actions,  because  these  actions  have  ceased. 
Where  the  necessary  steps  of  an  experiment  are 
of  a  nature  to  cause  pain  to  the  animal,  as  in 
cutting  operationa,  this  is  generally  avoided  by 
the  use  of  ether' or  chloroform,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  when  these  anesthetics  are  administered 
for  surgical  operations  upon  the  bumao  sub- 


ject.  Pain,  fo  k  great  extent,  Titiatet  the  re- 
sults of  most  experiments,  bd  thttt  the  investi- 
gator is  naturally  led  to  adopt  every  possible 
measure  to  prevent  it.  The  results  wiiich  have 
been  attained  by  means  of  experiment  upon  the 
living  body  constitute  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
actual  knowledge  possessed  in  physiology,  of 
the  action  of  medicines,  and  of  the  germs  that 
cause  disease.  Among  the  more  important 
facts  learned  by     '   '  "  ' 

the  arteries,  the 
of  blood,  the  function 
knowledge  of  the  details  of  ttie  nervous  sys- 
teni  which  enables  the  physician  to  learn  from 
an  external  symptom  what  is  the  nature  of  the 
interaal  injury  and  where  it  is  located.  It 
has  also  produced  results  of  value  in  other  di- 
rections, among  which  may  be  mentioned  the 
practice  and  usefulness  of  artificial  respiration 
in  cases  of  drowning,  hanging,  suspended  ani- 
mation of  newly  bom  infants,  and  in  poison- 
ingi  the  improved  surgical  operation  for  the 
cuie  of  aneurisin;  the  successful  study  of  the 
various  digestive  secretions;  the  Inveatigatiou 
of  infectious  and  conta^ous  diseases;  the  best 
treatment  for  Tenomous  wounds,  like  those  of 
the  rattlesnake;  and  the  action  of  poisons, 
drugs,  and  medicines,  with  their  uses  in  dis- 
ease and  their  antidotes.  Moreover,  the  enor- 
mous advances  in  recent  years  in  brain  surgery, 
abdominal  surgery,  the  pathology  and  treat- 
ment of  disease,  etc.,  have  been  wholly  or 
largely  due,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  the  re- 
sults of  vivisection.  It  is  only  by  such  means 
that  we  can  hope  for  radical  and  rapid  ad- 
vances in  medical  science. 

Viider  (vti'ySr) ,  Arabic,  "  bearer  of  burdens," 
the  title  of  many  high  dignitaries  in  Mussul- 
man countries;  first  conferred  by  Abut  Abbas, 
the  first  Abbasside  caliph,  on  his  prime  minis- 
ter, 752.  In  the  Ottoi^n  Empire  since  1327 
the  grand  vizier  has  been  the  representative  of 
the  sultan  in  temporal  affairs  and  the  chief 
minister  of  state.  Alaeddin  (d.  1350),  elder 
brother  of  Sultan  Orkhan,  was  the  first  Otto- 
.  man  grand  vizier. 

Vladivostok  (vla-dS-v68-tak'),  "the  ruler  of 
the  east,"  capitsl  of  tbe  Frimorskaya,  or  Coast 
Province,  in  E.  Siberia,  and  the  chief  naval  sta- 
tion of  BuBsia  on  the  Pacific  coast.  The  town 
is  on  the  N.  shore  of  the  hilly  peninsula  of  Mu- 
raviev-Amurgky,  which  is  called  by  the  Russians 
tiie  Golden  Uom.  Its  harbor  on  Golden  Horn 
Bay,  with  a  depth  of  from  6  to  13  fathoms,  is 
protected  from  wind  and  breakers  by  the  oppo- 
site ieland  of  Dundas,  and  is  spacious  enough 
to  hold  a  large  fleet;  but  a  crust  of  ice  forming 
along  the  share  in  December  keeps  vessels  ice- 
bound for  over  a  month.  The  town  was  found- 
ed in  1861,  and  became  a  naval  station  for  the 
Siberian  fleet  in  1S70.  The  naval  workshops 
were  transferred  at  that  time  to  Vladivostok 
from  Nikolalevsk,  and  large  machine  shops  for 
steamers,  repair  shops,  and  docks  established. 
Vladivostok  became  the  terminus  of  the  over- 
land telegraph  line  via  Irkutsk  and  Kiechta, 
and  is  connected  by  a  cable  with  Nagasaki 
(completed  1871)  and  8haD^hai.  The  Great  Si- 
berian Bailway  gives  Vladivostok  en  interna- 
tional im|Mwtance  and,  a*  the  port  for  vessels 


VOICE 

carrying  freight  to  and  from  Japan  and  the 
U.  S.,  a  degree  of  commercial  prosperity  here- 
tofore impossible. 

In  the  struggle  for  the  poasession  of  the  dty 
because  of  its  strategio  importance  and  the  large 
stores  of  various  commodities  known  to  have 
been  secreted  there,  the  Csecho-Slovaks  held 
poaaenion  in  early  June,  1918.  Lenine,  ike 
Bolshevik  leader,  iaued  a  secret  order  that  the 
Csecha  were  to  De  attacked  and  disarmed  on. 
Sunday,  June  30-  The  CEechs  learned  of  the 
order  June  28;  dinolved  the  local  Soviet  (ooun- 
oil):  and  when  the  four  Soviet  torpedo  boats 
in  tiie  harbor  attempted  to  escape  to  sea,  Brit< 
ish  and  Japanese  cruisers  forced  their  surrender. 
Then  the  Czechs  captured  the  Bolsbeviki  fort- 


(1911)  91,464. 

Voice,  the  capacity  to  produce  sounds  ut- 
tered from  the  mouth;  articulate  voice,  the 
organ  of  language,  the  vehicle  of  thought  and 
feeling,  belongs  to  man  alone.  The  methods 
by  which  tbe  intellectual  attainments  of  any 
one  member  of  the  human  family  may  thus 
become  thepossession  of  all  are  speaking  and 
sin^g.  The  division  of  the  vooal  scale  Into 
registers  (chest  voice,  head  voice,  falsetto,  etc.), 
their  points  of  transition,  and  the  treatment 
of  the  singing  voice  with  regard  to  them. 
Men  speak  (normally)  an  octave  lower  than 
women,  employing  usually  only  the  chest 
tones,  rarely  the  head  tones,  and  never  the 
falsetto.  The  usual  range  of  the  male  voice  is 
from  the  low  F  to  A.  Women  use  mostly  the 
upper  part  of  the  chest  register  and  the  lower 

Eart  of  the  falsetto,  ranging  from  A  below  tbe 
ne  to  B  in  the  treble  clef.  Little  children 
speak  entirely  in  the  falsetto. 

The  upper  part  of  tbe  chest  raster — that 
is,  the  middle  voice — is  best  adaptnl  to  public 
speaking,  being  most  capable  of  inflection, 
farthest  of  reach,  and  moat  easily  sustained. 
If  the  voice  is  pitched  too  high,  when  excite- 
ment supervenes  it  will  tend  to  break  into  a 
scream,  while  for  low-keyed  voices  it  is  usually 
very  difficult  to  rise  out  of  a  tedious  monot- 
ony. The  middle  voice  gets  all  the  advantage 
from  chest  resonance,  and  at  tbe  snme  time 
has  room  to  rise  or  fall  when  emotion  or  oc- 
casion demands.  The  accomplished  speaker 
should  have  full  control  over  the  pitch  of  his 
voice,  and  be  able  to  modulate  its  key  at  will, 
so  as  to  adapt  it  to  all  external  circumstances. 
The  increase  of  the  compass  of  tbe  voice  is 
not  so  important  in  elocutionary  as  in  musical 
instruction.  A  judicious  practice  of  the  scale 
under  the  guidance  of  a  skillful  master  will 
accomplish  all  that  is  necessary  in  this  re- 
spect, and  at  the  same  time  tend  to  improve 
the  voice  in  flexibility  and  purity. 

The  most  important  thing  tQ  be  considered 
in  the  culture  of  the  voice  is  timbre  or  quality. 
All  bodies  and  instruments  employed  for  pro- 
ducing musical  sounds  give  forth,  besides  their 
fundamental  tones,  certain  other  tones  due  to 
higher  orders  of  vibration.  It  is  the  inter- 
mixture of  these  with  the  fundamental  tone 
which  determines  the  quality  of  the  sound. 
The  timbre  of  a  tone  depends  on  the  form  of 


VOICE 

ths  wares  of  vibration ;  that  b,  on  the  maimer 
in  which  the  tone  begins,  the  manngeieect  of 
the  br^th  in  producing  it,  the  direction  aiven 
to  the  column  of  air  which  carries  it,  and  the 
disposition  of  the  anterior  cavities  ly  which 
it  is  tuned  for  the  various  elements  ol  speech. 
For  purity  in  tone,  the  air  column  from  the 
Urynx  should  be  directed  to  the  front  of  the 
mouth,  aqd  concentrated  there  above  the  upper 
teeth,  whence  it  should  rebound  to  form  con- 
tinuous vibrations  in  the  various  resonance 
apparatus  behind.  If  this  rebound  takes  place 
farther  back,  the  inharmonic  overtones  become 
prominent,  and  various  discordant  qualities 
result.  The  well-known  faults  of  vocal  quality 
— such  as  nasal,  guttural,  buskj,  thin,  strained, 
metallic — are  usually  due  to  misuse  of  the 
vocal  apparatus,  and  may,  by  proper  treat- 
ment, be  modified  or  obviated.  Finally,  the 
...         ..^^   .J. 


Voice  (in  muiic).  The  Binging  voice  is  di- 
vided into  six  classes,  ctz,,  three  female,  So- 
FBANO,  Uezzo,  and  Alto,  and  three  male, 
TE.-(oa,  Babttonx,  and  Bass.  The  mezzo- 
■oprano  is  a  voice  of  not  quite  so  high  a  range 
as  the  true  or  high  soprano,  but  generally 
counterbalances  this  by  a  few  added  low  notes 
and  a  richer  quality  in  the  middle  ranee.  All 
the  various  species  of  voice  approach  each 
other  in  some  one  direction,  so  that  the  specific 
name  does  not  signify  a  given  limit  of  com- 
pass as  applied  to  each  and  every  individual. 
Thus  the  haiytone  as  a  familiar  division  be- 
tween true  tutor  and  true  bass  is  subdivided 
into  bass  barytone  and  tenor  barytone.  If  we 
construct  ttie  mechanism  of  the  voice  as  we 
would  build  an  organ  (to. which  it  bears  some 
analogy),  we  find  at  the'bose,  in  the  human 
chest,  the  lungs,  which  perform  the  office  of  a 
bellows  to  furnish  air  for  the  instrument  above. 
This  air  is  forced  through  bronchial  tubes, 
which,  extending  upward  through  either  Inns, 
grndually  converge  until  they  meet  in  a  single 
tube,  the  trachea,  or  windpipe.  At  the  upper 
end  of  the  trachea  is  a  funnel-shaped  mechan- 
ism, enlarging  upward  and  composed  of  va- 
rious cartilages  connected  by  ligaments,  and 
moved  by  muscles.'  This  is  the  larynx.  Through 
its  center,  in  continuation  of  the  air  tube, 
runs  a  passage,  which  terminates  in  a  triangu- 
lar opening.  Across  this  passage  are  stretched 
two  pairs  of  tense  elastic  membranes — the 
vocal  cords.  Of  these,  however,  only  the  lower 
pair  is  immediately  concerned  in  the  produc- 
tion of  tone,  and  are  called  the  true  vocal 
cords.  Between  their  fine  edges  there  is  a 
narrow  opening  or  chink,  caljed  the  glottis ; 
and  as  theaa  cords  are  at  will  made  more  or 
less  tense,  the  wind  that  is  forced  throu^  the 
opening  causes  them  to  vibrate  audibly  with 
various  degrees  of  force  and  pitch. 

The  voice  now  pa^es  into  the  pharynx,  a 
membranous  bag  which  leads  both  into  the 
mouth  and  into  the  nose.  The  curtain  of 
the  palate  hangs  between  the  pharynx  and  the 
mouth.  It  rises  as  a  valve  to  cover  the  inner 
ends  of  the  nostrils  for  purely  oral  sounds, 
and  it  falls  to  uncover  the  same  for  naaal 


TOLAPtJK 

sounds.  The  pharynx,  together  with  the  space 
between  the  two  constrictions  of  the  larynx — 
the  upper  and  the  lower  vocal  cords — and  the 
anterior  cavity  of  the  mouth,  with  the  frontal 
cavities  over  the  eyes  and  in  the  cheek  bones, 
constitutes  a  species  of  sounding  board,  by 
which  the  voice  is  modified  in  respect  to  full- 
ness and  quality.        , 

Tone  has  three  properties — strength,  pitch, 
and  quality.  The  strength  of  a  tone  depends 
upon  the  amplitude,  its  pitch  upon  the  rapid- 
ity, and  its  timbre  upon  the  form  of  the 
vibrations  which  produce  it. 

The  pitch  of  a  tone  depends  upon  the  num- 
ber of  the  vibrations  in  a  given  time  by  which 
it  is  produced:  the  more  rapid  the  vibrations, 
the  higher  the  pitch.  Variations  of  pitch  in 
the  human  voice  are  due  exclusively  to  the 
action  of  the  glottis  and  the  ligaments  of  the 
larynx.  By  means  of  the  laryngoscope  th» 
movements  of  the  larynx  and  vocal  eords  ha\ 
been  inspected  and  recorded. 

VoUpQk  (vCl-a-pBk'),  "world's  language," 
an  artificial  language  invented  by  a  clergy- 
man, Johann  Martin  Schleyer,  of  Utselstetten, 
Baden,  and  given  to  the  public  in  1S79.  It 
first  spread  to  Austria,  and  was  also  studied 
extensively  in  Holland,  Belgium,  and  especially 
France,  but  was  not  so  successful  in  English- 
speaking  countries.  Its  purpose  was  to  fiicili- 
tate  ordinary  intercourse  between  peoples  of 
tongues     by     affording     a     linguistic 


traditional  speech.  Basing  in  general  upon  the 
English,  it  sought  to  utilize  the  convenient 
uniformify  of  the  agglutinative  type  of  lan- 
guages, especially  in  regard  to  word  forma- 
tion. The  number  of  those  who  have  studied 
the  language  has  been  estimated  at  over  20D,- 
000,  and  there  have  been  many  periodicals  de- 
voted to  the  interests  of  VolapOk,  and  printed 
in  that  language. 

The  sounds  of  letters  have  in  general  their 
familiar  continental  values,  hut  o^Enelish  i 
in  joke,  h  =  German  ch  in  aah,  )^  English  »h 
in  ahe,  o^  English  to  in  viet,  y^=E^liah  y 
in  yet,  e^Fnglisb  ti  in  hats.  The  aouud  h 
is  denoted  by  the  Greek  rough  breathing,  as 
'op,  harp ;  ^  ^  English  cK  in  child.  Words 
are  accented  on  the  final  syllable. 

'  Words  are  formed  from  monosyllahjc  roots 
which  themselves  often  serve  as  words.  Deriv- 
atives are  formed  by  the  use  of  prefixes  and 
afilxes  of  constant  valu^  possessing  entire 
monopoly  of  their  office.    Thus: 


junam,  the  wridni. 
pcnod,  writing. 

P«fUli,  InttAT. 


Int.  pow8i«lon. 
labii,  mlghtr. 

tabam,  ths  taUiis. 
labtd.  prop«ny. 
jtp,  herd. 
jepii.  in  fiocki. 
itpin,  to  wMch. 

i'epti,  ihephord. 
•pom,  pioUotiDa. 


VOLCANOES 

vok,  ■ouud,  YOtoe;  luvok,  Hhriek;  man,  man; 
Uiman,  rascal.  T%e  prefix  ic-  magnifies,  as  jui, 
school;  leyul,  univeisilif ;  dom,  house;  ledom, 
palace.  IHiniiiutivei  are  fanned  by  adding  -il, 
na  bod,  loaf;  bodil,  small  lOaf ;  kat,  cat;  katil, 
kitten.  Comparatives  end  in  -ikum,  super- 
lativea  in  -ikiin,  as  dii,  depth;  ^^l>*k'  deep; 
dihikum,  deeper;  dibikiin,  deepest.  Feminine 
names  are  formed  from  the  corresponding 
masculines  bf  prefixing  ji-  (pronounced  ehe] , 
as  fat,  father ;  jifat,  mother ;  gam,  bride- 
groom;   jigam,    bride;    blod,   brother;    jiblod. 


Ihe  infiexion  of  n 


s  follows: 


iii.fru£.  k 


, Plural. 

E.  book.  6uJt<,  bonka. 

Qaa.    tii*o,  of  »  book.  »- '—   -'■ — i 
Dot.   btikt.  to  ■  book. 
Aao.    buki,  book. 


buka^.  of  bookA. 


The  pronouns  follow  the  nouns  both  in 
formation  and  inflexion,  tbua:  ob,  I;  on,  he; 
ob»,  ve;  om«,  they,  obik,  my;  omik,  his;  obsik, 
our;  omaik,  their. 

liie  inflexion  of  the  verb  ma;  be  illustrated 
by  the  following  examples; 

Prtmat,        ImptitviU  Perfect.  Pluporfect.  Futuro. 
Ufpb,  I  love.  aUfob.      tls/ob.      iUijob,      olofob. 

lajim,  hs  loTOi,     aUfom.    iW/wn.     iM/om.     atolam. 
aiobt.  we  love,      a^/obi.    dufcbt.     iU/obt.     c^abt, 
OptKiivs  (3  «DC.),  UHomBt;  impentivB,  iatom/ldi  lofini- 
tiva.  iifor;  puticipla,  lifiL 

''See  EsPEK&NTO. 

Yolca'noei,  openinga  in  the  earth  from  which 
molten  lava  or  other  bJghlj  heated  substances 
are  discharged;  or  TnouiiU.ins  or  hills  from 
which  such  substances  ^re  or  have  been  dis- 
chsrged.  The  typical  shape  of  a  volcanic 
mountnin  is  a  flat-topped  cone,  the  tip  being 
replaced  by  a  cavity  called  a  crater;  but  the 
form  is  often  less  simple.  At  the  bottom  of 
tlie  cratfiT  is  the  opening,  or  vent,  from  which 
the  dischai^es  or  eruptions  take  place.  The 
body  of  the  volcano  is  composed  of  erupted 
material  which  accumulates  about  the  vent, 
gradually  building  up  the  conical  mass. 

A  large  part  of  the  material  discharged 
from  a  volcano  is  liquid  or  pasty,  consisting 
of  melted  rock  or  lava.  The  kinds  of  rock 
which  are  erupted  differ  from  the  ordinary 
stratified  or  sedimentary  rocks  in  condition 
and  structure.  They  are  composed  chiefly  of 
silica  and  various  silicates,  which  are  some- 
times amorphous  or  glassy,  but  more  com- 
monly crystalline.  When  erupted,  lava  is 
heated,  so  as  to  be  quite  liquid.  It  flows  down 
the   slopes    adjacent   to    the    vent   in    a   thin 


Where  a  series  of  eruptions  take  place  from 
the  same  vent,  each  successive  discharge  flows 
toward  the  lowest  tract,  and  in  this  way  the 
country  is  built  up  evenly  on  all  sides,  the 
result  being  a  conical  mountain.  Usually  after 
an  eruption  the  liquid  lava  retreats  down  the 
funnel,  leaving  a  crater  at  the  top  of  the  cone, 
but  it  sometimes  produces  domelike  mountains 
without  craters. 


VOWAKOES 

lighter,  and  ita  upward  motion  is  increased. 
Arriving  at  the  surface  it  is  torn  to  frag- 
ments by  the  8t«am,  and  these  fragments  are 
thrown  high  in  the  air.  In  the  extreme  case 
they  are  so  fine  as  to  constitute  a  dust  which 
is  floated  off  by  the  wind  and  descends  grad- 
uaUy  to  the  earth,  covering  a  large  district 
with  a  thin  sheet.  Usually  the  fragments  are 
larger  and  fall  to  the  ground  near  the  vent, 
being   then   callei^  cinders,   or,   when   minutei 

The  cinders  are  thrown  some  hundreds  or 
thousands  of  feet  into  the  air,  and  on  descend- 
ing fall  upon  a  circular  tract  about  the  vent. 
The  vent  itself  receives  no  deposit,  as  the  par- 
ticles falling  toward  it  are  thrown  back  by  the 
rising  steam,  and  the  accumulation  is  thus 
given  the  form  of  a  ring  with  the  vent  in  the 
center.  The  crat«red  cone  thus  formed  is 
known  as  a  cinder  cone,  and  is  one  of  the  most 
frequent  results  of  eruption.  When  the  steam 
in  the  lava  is  moderate,  the  bubbles  forming 
within  the  liquid  at  some  distance  beneath  the 
surface  gradually  meet,  making  great  bubbles 
which  rise  and  burst  with  violence,  throwing 
up  fragments  of  the  viscous  and  frothy  Alms 
that  surrounded  them.  Sometimes  the  steam 
is  condensed  to  rain  which  falls  on  the  cone, 
and  is  thus  reunited  with  the  solid  discharges, 
constituting    a    mud    which    flows    down    the 

Anotber  phase  of  volcanic  activify  is  ex- 
hibited when  lavas  rising  through  the  crust 
do  not  actually  reach  the  surface,  but  stopping 
at  some  lower  point  heat  the  water  contained 
in  the  adjacent  rocks  far  above  the  tempera* 
ture  at  which,  under  ordinary  conditions,  it  is 
converted  into  steam.  This  conversion  is  pre- 
vented by  the  weight  of  the  overlying  rocks, 
and  also  by  their  strength,  until  a.  large 
amount  of  energy  is  thus  stored  and  concen* 
trated.  When  at  last  the  rocks  above  yield 
to  the  strain,  and  are  broken,  the  steam  is 
suddenly  expanded,  producing  an  explosion.  - 
The  underlying  roots  are  torn  out,  leaving  a 
crater,  ond  the  rocks  which  were  saturated 
by  superheated  steam  are  torn  to  powder  and 
thrown  high  into  the  air.  The  explosion  of 
Krakatoa  iq.v.)  in  1B63  was  one  of  the  most 
notable  catastrophes  of  this  doss,  the  finer 
dust  being  carried  to  the  upper  layers  of  the 
ntmosphere,  where  it  floated  for  many  months, 
producing  red  skies  that  were  observed  through- 
out the  world. 

From  large  volcanoes  effusive  eruption  Is 
not  always  over  the  crater  rim.  The  pres- 
sure from  the  lava  column  and  the  stresses 
from  unequal  heating  may  crack  the  moun- 
tain, letting  the  lava  escape  from  the  flank, 
but  eventually  the  cracks  are  sealed,  and 
the  lava  again  rises  in  the  crater.  Earth- 
quakes, which  often  precede  an  eruption,  are 
sometimes  accompanied  by  the  drying  up  of 
springs  and  wells.  The  dissipation  of  the  heat 
within  a  volcano  may  produce  hot  springs  or 
geysers  in  it*  vicinity.  There  are  from  300 
to  360  great,  habitual  volcanic  vents. 

There  are  volcanoes  in  all  the  great-  divi- 
sions of  the  world;  the  E.  hemisphere  con- 
tains about  as  many  as  the  W.,  the  U.  as  the 
S.    But  their  distribution  in  detail  is  far  from 


v6le 

equable.  They  are  gathered  in  groups.  More 
than  one  hei(  the  whole  number  constitute 
ialonds  of  the  ocean,  or  occur  on  islands  of 
moderate  size,  and  of  the  remainder  b;  far 
the  greater  uuinber  occur  near  the  shores  ol 
tiie  ocean.  One  of  tlie  principal  belts  sur- 
rounds the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  largest  extinct 
volcanic  cone  in  the  world  is  that  of  Mount 
Elpin,  called  also  Uoust  Ligon;i,  60  m.  NB. 
of  the  Victoria  Hyaaxa,  in  British  E.  Africa, 
which  has  on  elevation  of  14,0S4  ft. 

The  causes  of  volcanic  action  are  shrouded 
in  mystery.  Among  the  most  protiable  ex- 
planations is  that  Ittwed  on  the  action  of  grav- 
itation. A  great  tiody  of  molten  rock  which  is 
lighter  than  the  earth  material  above  is  power- 
Auly  urged  to  change  its  position  by  rising 
throu(^  the  upper  rock  and  spreading  over  it 
at  the  surface.  If  a  conduit  is  open  the  ris- 
ing of  the  lianid  is  inevitable,  and  if  no  way 
is  open  the  liquid  may  be  able  to  make  one. 
On  the  other  hand,  a  liquid  which  is  heavier 
than  the  material  above  has  no  tendency  to 
rise  through  it,  and  will  not  rise  even  if  a 
passage  is  open.  If  ure«d  by  stresses  orig- 
inating elaewhere,  it  will  lift  the  ceiling' of 
its  chamber  instead  of  passing  through  it.  It 
is  therefore  essential  to  volcanic  discharge  not 
merely  that  the  lava  be  liquid,  but  that  it  be 
relative^  light.  See  Getses;  Laccoute; 
L&va;  Etna. 

Vole  (tSI),  Arvicola,  genus  of  rodents,  e(»ne 
aquatic,  others  terrestrial,  belonging  to  the 
rat  family.  Thw  have  a  thick  head,  short 
ears,  and  short,  hairy  tail.  Of  the  numerous 
species  in  the  Old  and  the  New  World,  the 
best  known  are  the  reddish-brown  field  mouse 
(A.  agreatU)  of  Britain  and  N.  Europe,  the 
larger  European  water  rat  (A.  amphibiva), 
pale  chestnut  or  black  in  color;  the  Siberian 
root  vole  {A.  orvalis),  and,  in  America,  the 
prairie  mouse  (A.  auaterus)  and  meadow 
mouse  {A,  Ttpariua),  both  often  abundant, and 
injurious  to  v^etation. 

Vol'gt,  the  largest  riVer  of  Europe.  It  risea 
in  the  marshes  of  the  W.  Valdai  plateau,  Rus- 
sia, 550  ft.  above  sea  level,  and  after  a  winding 
and  tortuous  course  of  2,326  m.,  eaters  the 
Caspian  Sea  by  some  200  mouths.  Its  basin 
covers  about  663,300  sq,  m.  Among  the  hun- 
dred or  more  navigable  tributaries  of  the 
Volga,  the  moat  important  are  the  Oka  (longer 
than  the  Rhine)  and  the  Sura,  from  the  right, 
and  the  Tvertsa,  Mologa.  and  Kama,  from  the 
left.  The  Volga  ia  joined  to  the  Neva  by 
canals,  and  thus  connects  the  Caspian  with 
the  Baltic.  By  less  important  canals  the  Vol^a 
Is  connected  with  the  Dwina  and  the  White 
Bea,  i.e.,  Riga  and  Archangel.  Among  the 
cities  built  on  or  near  its  banks  or  within  its 
basin  are  Tver,  Yaroalav,  Kostronia,  Moscow, 
Nijnii-Novgorod,  Sara  toff,  Simbirsk,  Kaian, 
Astrakhan.  The  period  during  wliich  the  river 
is  cloeed  by  ice  lasts  from  ninety  to  one  hun- 
dred and  sixty  days,  according  to  climatic  con- 
ditions^ The  chief  Volga  traffic  is  up  river. 
Half -a-mil lion  tons  of  nsh  (especially  salmon 
and  sturgeon) ,  salt,  and  naphtha  are  sent  from 
Astrakhan,  besides  grain,  flax,  and  other  prod- 
uce.   The  traffic  down  the  river  conaists  chiefiy 


VOLTAIRE 

of  wood  and  timber.    The  trade  down  river  in 
manufactured    goods    is    Important,    and    is 
mostly  distributed  at  Nijnii-Novgorod. 
Voli'tion.     See  Will. 

Volt,  named  in  honor  of  Ckiunt  Alesaandro 
Volta,  the  unit  of  pressure,  or  electromotive 
force  (E.  M.  F.).  It  is  that  E.  M.  F.  which 
applied  to  1  ohm  will  produce  in  it  a  current 
of  1  ampere  i  that  is,  it  is  the  E.  M.  F.  neces- 
sary to  send  I  ampere  of  current  against  » 
resiatsjice  of  1  ohm. 

Vol'tft,  Alesoftndro,  1745-1827;  Italian  phys- 
icist; b.  Como,  lUIy;  was  Prof,  of  Physics  at 
Como  and  then  in  the  Univ.  of  Pavia,  where 
he  taught  and  studied  for  thirty  years.  In 
1775  he  invented  the  perpetual  eleetrophore; 
in  1777,  a  lamp  for  inflammable  gas;  in  1788 
the  electric  condenser,  and  finally  arrived  at 
the  invention  of  the  famous  pile  which  bean 
his  name.  Summoned  to  Paris  by  Napoleon 
I,  he  received  the  gold  medal  of  the  Institute, 
of  which  he  became  a  member  in  1802.  Na- 
poleon conferred  upon  him  the  title  of  count 
and  a  aenatorship. 


Voltaire  (vOl-tfir"),  Franjoii  Harle  Aronrt  it, 
I894-I77B;  French  author;  b.  Paris.  In  1712 
he  accompanied  the  Marquis  de  Chfiteauneuf  to 
The  Hague,  but  the  exposure  of  tome  scandal- 
ous relations  there  brought  him  back  to  Paris, 
where  he  was  imprisoned  as  the  allied  author 
of  lampoons  upon  Louis  XIV.  In  the  Bastils 
he  wrote  part  of  his  epic  the  "  Henriade  "  (on 
Henry  IV),  and  completed  his  tragedy 
'  tEdipe,"  on  reading  whicn  tie  regent  released 
him.  The  tragedy  was  produced  with  brilliant 
Buceeas  in  1718.  The  relations  that  he  culti- 
vated with  the  nobility  exposed  him  to  a  rude 
insult  from  the  Chevalier  de  Rohan,  who  had 
him  beaten  and  then  thrown  into  the  BastUa 
when  he  showed  himself  revengeful.  He  was 
set  free  only  on  condition  that  he  retire  to 
England,  1726,  where  he  became  acquainted 
with  Lord  Bolingbroke  and  the  freethinkers. 
returning  to  Paris,   1729,  he   found  himself 


Anglais."  He  next  wrote  "  Brutus,"  and  short- 
ly after  "  Ztlre,"  1730,  which,  though  written 
in  twenty-two  days,  was  his  best  and  most  pa- 
thetic drama.  He  could  not  always  repress  hit 
deisticat  and  liberal  views  in  his  plays,  and  his 
"  Lettres "  were  publicly  burned;  and  he  es- 
caped arrest  only  by  retiring  to  Cirey,  to  tba 
chateau  of  the  learned  Marchioness  du  Chate- 
let,  with  whom  he  generally  resided  till  her 
death  in  1749.  In  1736  be  bod  to  Uke  refuge 
for  a  time  in  Brussels  on  account  of  the  scan- 
dal occasioned  by  his  "  Mondain." 

He  visited  Frederick  the  Great  in  1740,  and 
again  in  1744  on  a  political  mission.  In  the 
meanwhile  he  had  written  the  tragedies  "  Al- 
lire,"  "  Mahomet,"  and  "  MSrope."  For  a 
while  alM  in  1746  he  removed  to  Paris,  where 
he  brought  out  new  tragedies,  and  becama  an 
Academician  and  royal  historiographer.  In 
1T60  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  Frederick  grant- 


VOLTAMETER 

ed  him  a  pension  of  20,000  fr.,  and  atudiod  with 
him  for  two  hours  &  day.     Voltaire  liete  com- 

S'leted  his  "  SiMe  de  Louis  Quatorze,",  and 
rederick  submitted  his  verses  and  eesaj's  to 
his  criticiBm.  In  I7SS  Voltaire  purchased  an 
estate  near  Geneva  ("Les  Delices''),  but  quar- 
reled with  his  Swiss  neighborsi  the  publication 
of  "  La  pucelle,"  a  ribald  caricature  of  Juan 
of  Arc,  created  many  enemies;  and  forged 
verses  in  ridicule  of  Louis  XV  and  Mme.  de 
Pompadour  ascribed  to  him  atart«d  rumors  of 
Uttrea  de  cachet. 

In  17S2  he  removed  to  an  estate  at  Femey, 
on  French  territory,  but  near  the  Swiss  con- 
Anes,  so  that  he  might  easily  escape  from  one 
country  to  the  other.  His  books  and  Ms  stoclc 
operations  bad  made  him  enormously  rich,  and 
he  spent  much  wealth  in  generous  munificence. 
Femey  became  the  reBOi!t  pf  literary  men  from 
all  parts. of  Europe,  and  the  "  Patriarch  of  Fer- 
ney  "  was  the  foremost'  man  of  letters  of  the 
world.  He  had  become  the  founder  of  a  new 
sect  of  thinkers  and  writers,  who,  under  the 
lead  of  Diderot  and  lyAlembert  embodied  their 
ideas  in  the  great  "  Encyclopedic."  Voltaire 
himself,  however,  was  a  theist,  and  he  rebuked 
the  philosophy  of  his  age,  which  tried  to  banish 
God  from  the  universe.  In  bis  eighty-fourih 
year  ha  visited  Paris,  whither  he  carped  a  new 
tragedy,  "  IrPne,"  and  was  received  with  un- 
paralleled demonstrations  of  honor.  Voltaire 
was  the  sovereign  writer  of  his  century.  The 
secret  of  his  succeee  is  to  be  found  in  those  sat- 
ires, tales,  madrigals,  tetters,  and  epigrams,  in 
which  the  whole  spirit  of  the  age  saw  itself  ex- 
pressed with  inimitable  vivacity,  grace,  point, 
and  agreeableneea.  His  voluminous  works  fill 
seventy  volumes-  By  the  univertalit^  and  lu- 
cidity of  his  mind,  and,  in  spite  of  its  super- 
fleiality,  bj  the  unfailing  flaah  of  his  wit,  by 
his  prodigious  literary  cleverness,  he  deserves 
his  rank  as  first  man  of  letters  of  his  time  and 
one  of  the  most  powerful  contributors  to  the 
work  ol  enlightenment  and  intellectual  enfran- 
ichiaement  which  was  the  task  of  the  eighteenth 
century. 

•Volfam'etei,  an  instrument  in  whi<di  a  cur- 
rent of  electricity  is  made  to,  pa^  through 
slightly  acidulated  water,  and  as  the  water  is 
thus  decomposed,' oxygen  and  hydrogen  being 
liberated,  the  quantity  of  electric  current  {lasa- 
ing  through  in  a  given  time  may  be  ascertained 
in  terms  of  the  quantity  of  water  decomposed. 

Vol'tintaryiam,  the  theory  and  proi^tice  of 
the  support  and  control  of  churches  by  -the 
Tolnnfary  act  of  their  adherents  as  opposed  to 
support  and  control  by  the  state.  The  theory 
is 'based  on  consideratioiTs  drawn  from  Scrip- 
ture, from  history,  and  from  social  equity. 
Even  under  the  theocratic  system  of  the  Old 
Testament  religion  presents  certain  voluntary 
aspects.  And,  turning  to  the  New  Testament, 
the  whole  movement  of  Christianity  at  the  be- 
■  ginning  waa  of  the  voluntary  kind.  It  had  no 
state  support  and   no   state   control.    'Christ' 


of  &}M  world,"  and  therefore  its  being  linked  to 
the  secular  government  of  a  country,  to  b^'e: 
riched  and  guided  thereby,  is  out  of  the  que 
tion.  .  Further,  it  is  a  fact  of  history  tht 


VORTtllNtJS 

Christiaalty  wai  man  bTi]yT->.e.,  more  spirit- 
ually— prosperous  before  it  was  endowed  •by 
the  state  than  afterwards ;  that  Constuitine^ 
was  a  fatal  Kift;  that  the' union  beWeen  the 
Church  and  the  empire  gave  power  U)  persecu- 
tion; that  now  orthodoxy  and  then  heterodoxy 
became  established,  and  that  each  in  turn  op- 
pressed the  other  through  the  enforcement  of 
political  laws. 

Nowhere  is  the  practice  of  voluntaiyism  ex- 
emplified as  it  is  in  the  U.  S.  Ever  since  the 
War  of  Independence  closed  and  the  TJ.  8.  be- 
came separated  from  Oreat  Britain  ieligi< 
left   '       ■'     ■    ■      ■'        ~    ' 


the   offerings  of 


for  its  support 
Christian  people. 

VoltintMT'.    See  Militia. 

Voltintcera  of  Atnei'ica,  on  evangelical  aaao- 
ciation  incorporated  in  New  York  City  in  1896 
by  seceders  from  the  Salvation  Army.  Among 
its  declaration  of  principles  is  oat  providing 
that  "  all  properties,  real  estate  and  persontu, 
of  the  Volunteer  movement  shall  be  held  by  a 
body  or  board  composed  of  five  to  seven  well- 
known  and  responsible  American  citizens."  The 
constitution,  which  is  made  up  of  nineteen  arti- 
cles, primarily  declares  that  "  The  Volunteers 
of  America  is  a  military  movement,  military 
in  its  methods,  organized  for  the  reaching  and 
uplifting  of  all, scions  of  the  people."  The 
commander  in  chief  is  elected  by  the  soldiers, 
and  holds  office  for  ten  years  unless  removed 

gf   *,   three-fourths   vote   of   the   Qrand   Field 
□nncil. 

Within  the  first  year  of  the  existence  of  this 
association  it  numbered  140  posts,  MOO  com- 
manding officers,  60  staB'  officers,  3  regimmta, 
and  10  battalions,  its  headquarters  being  in 
New  York  City. 

Yom'lting,  a  reflex  contraction  of  the  mus- 
cular coats  of  the  stomach,  ejecting  its  contents. 
It  is  on  involuntary  and  spasmodic  act,  but 
when  b^un  may  be  aided  by  effort.  The  nm- 
traction  of  the  stomach  and  vomiting  may  be 
the  result  of  diaeaae  -^1  the  brain,  of  the  pneu- 
mogaetric  nerve,  of  the  walls  of  the  stomach; 
it  may  be  the  result  of  indigestible  food,  bile, 
or  mucus  in  the  stomach,  or  a  reflex  result- 
of  disease  in  otiier  organs,  as  the  liver  (see 
Stokach).  At  the  onset  of  vomiting  the  face, 
irfay  be  deathly  pale;  the  surface  becomes  cool 
and  baibed  with  clanuny  sweat;  the  pulse 
sipall  siid  feeble  i  and  great  prostration  results. 
Faintness  may  occur,  or  even  fatal  syncope. 
A  person  vomiting  should  have  his  clothes 
loose,  the  air  in  the  room  should  be  fresh,  and 
cold  water  should  be  pJftred  on  the  face  if 
needed.  Stimulants  are  sometimes  necessary 
to  counteract  collapse.  Ice,  carbonic-acid  wa-' 
ter,  creosote,  oxalate  of  oeriuin,  and  dilute 
Bydroeyanic  acid  are  useful  remedies  toallay 
vomiting.     See  Nausea, 

Von'del,  Jooat  Tan  den,  1687-1670;  Dutch 
poet.  He  Is  the  moat  celebrated  Dutch  poet  and 
dramatist    His  works,  include  metrical  transla- 


d„!.™i.b,  H...itt..!,."..t  .fitj-'t  ^„*:s;-°',TS;.r'!.?.':2:;'i 


,    and    tragedies,   including    "Ludfer," 

from  .which  Hilton  is  thought  to  have  .boi- 

VoTtttm'niis.    See  TnTUionm. 


I  by  Google 


and  running  parsltel  with 
the  oppoBJte  side  of  the  Rhine  in  Baden,  which 
they  resemble,  not  only  in  direction,  but  also 
in  form  and  geological  structure.  B7  the  de- 
preeaion  between  Montb^liard  and  MUhlhausea 
they  are  sharply  separated  from  the  Jura 
Mountains,  and  their  E.  alopes  toward  the 
Bhine  are  steep  and  abrupt.  But  to  the  N. 
they  connect  with  the  Hardt  in  Rhenish  Ba- 
T&na  and  to  the  SW.  by  the  plateau  of  Lan- 
gres  through  the  hilta  of  Faucilles.  They  are 
generally  rounded  and  of  a  regular  shape, 
whence  they  are  called  ballone,  covered  with 
forests  of  oak,  beech,  and  fir,  and  affording  ex- 
cellent   paaturea    on    their    tops.      "  " 


much  lower.  Mineral  and  thermal  springs  are 
numerous,  and  copper,  iron,  and  lead  ores  and 
rock  salt  abound.  The  Muerthe,  Moselle,  Saar, 
m,  and  Ognon  descend  from  them. 

Vote.    See  Ballot;  ELBcnon. 

Tot'fng  Haohinea',  contrivances  by  which 
voters  may  mechanically  record  their  choice  of 
candidates,  and  which  usually  also  automatic- 
ally count  the  votes.  The  introduction  of  practi- 
cal voting  machines  was  an  outcome  of  the 
movement  for  ballot  reform,  which  seeks  inde- 
pendence and  secrecy  for  the  voter,  and  the  pre- 
vention of  fraud  in  casting  and  counting  votes. 
The  Australian  ballot  system-  has  done  much 
toward  accomplishing  all  these  results,  but  im- 
provements appear  to  be  possible  by  machine 
voting.  Moreover,  the  habit  of  independence  in 
voting  which  has  been  developed  by  the  Aus- 
tralian system  has  itself  generated  the  need  for 
further  improvement  of  voting  methods.  The 
separate  marking  of  names,  especially  where  a 
"  split "  ticket  is  cast,  is  far  less  simple  and 
rapid  than  casting  a  straight  party  ballot. 
Machines  help  to  simplify  and  shprten  the 
process.  The  general  principle  underlying  the 
several  machines  in  actual  use  is  that  of  re- 
cording or  registering  votes  for  candidates  by 
Sressing  buttons,  the  names  of  all  the  candi- 
ates  bein^  displayed  upon  a  face  plate,  corre- 
sponding in  arrangement  to  a  blanket  ballot. 
,  Ballot  machines  can  be  adapted  to  all  iJie  va- 
riations In  form  of  which  the  blanket  ballot  is 
capable. 

■  The  following  are  the  chief  advantagea  se- 
.  cured  by  mechanical  voting:  (I)  Independ- 
ence. Tbe  voter  may  be  required  to  indicate 
his  choice  for  each  oIBce  separately,  and,  the 
names  being  all  before  him,  it  is  as  easy  to 
cast  a  split  ticket  as  a  straight  one.  It  may,  of 
course,  be  arranged  so  that  pushing  a  smgle 
button  casts  a  full  party  ticket,  but 'this  is 
not  visual.  (2)  Secrecy.  No  one  can  tell  what 
vote  the  person  is  casting  at  the  time,  nor  can 
bis  ballot  be  afterwards  identified.  This  last 
has  not  always  been  accomplished  by  the  secret 
paper  ballots,  as  marks  are  sometimes  made 
upon  them  by  which  they  may  be  identified  in 
the  canvass,  so  that  a  bribed  voter  can  give  evi- 
dence of  keeping  his  contract.  (3)  Simplicity 
of  voting.    Pushing  a  button  is  a  umpler  and 


VULCAK 

more  definite  act  tban  marking  with  a  pencil. 
The 'voter  cannot  by  mistake  vote  for  two 
candidates  for  the  same  office,  or  so  mark  his 
vote  that  his  intention  is  doubtful,  as  often  hap- 
pens with  the  paper  ballot.  There  is  no  need 
of  writing  or  pasting  in  names,  as  in  tbe  sepa- 
rate-party ballot  system.  If  the  voter  is  illit- 
erate, he  can,  before  voting,  study  the  chart 
corresponding  to  the  face  of  the  ballot  machine, 
which  is  usually  posted  outside  the  polf.  A 
voter  who  cannot  read  may,  by  determining 
the  relative  location  of  the  names,  be  sure  of 
voting  for  the  men  he  desires.  Symbols  or  col- 
ors may  be  used  to  designate  parties,  as  with 
the  blanket  ballot.  (4)  Impossibility  of  multi- 
ple votine.  Mechanical  devices  prevent  the 
casting  of  more  than  one  vote  by  the  same 
man,  or  render  possible  in  canvassing  its  im- 
mediate detection.  (6)  Rapidity  of  voting, 
(6)  Cheapness,  saving  largely,  as  it  does,  the 
cost  of  ballots  and  reducing  the  amount  of 
clerical  work,  as  well  as  other  expenses.  (7) 
Simplicity  and  rapidity  of  counting.  Canvaas- 
ing  under  the  Australian  system  is  complicated 
and  slow.  By  the  machine  the  votes  for  each 
candidate  are  automatically  registered-  by  serial 
numbers,  so  that  the  total  can  be  read  in- 
Btantly,  or  they  are  all  recorded  in  a  row  and 
can  be  rapidly  counted.  (8)  Impossibility  of 
fraud  in  counting.  The  complexity  of  the  blan- 
ket paper  ballot  often  renders  it  possible  for 
corrupt  electioo  officers  dexterously  to  change 
the  count.  This  is  probably  imposaible  with 
the  machines. 

The  use  of  voting  machines  has  been  author- 
ized in  several  states,  but  their  authorization 


iHu  Vui^TDHi.    (For  dnciiptiod,  at»  next  paae.) 


'  Vyl'can,  in  Roman  mythology^  the  god  of 
fire,  whether  conceived  of  as  a  beneficent  or  a 
devastating  agent,  and  of  those  arts  which  de- 
pend on  the  use  of  &re.  The  principal  celebra- 
tion in  his  worabip  was  the  Voloanalia,  on 


August  83d.  In  course  of  time  Vulcan  became 
completely  identified — in  literature  and  art  at 
least — with  the  Greek  god  HEPHSffrUB   (g.v.)- 

Vulcaa,  a  planet  auppoaed  to  be  revolving 
around  the  buu,  within  the  orbit  of  Mercury, 
The  planet  haa  been  looked  for  on  many  occa- 
sions, and  some  astronomera  have  believed  that 
they  saw  it.  But  it  is  now  fairly  well  settled 
that  the  supposed  planet  haa  no  real  existence. 

Vnl'gate.    See  Biblz. 

Vnl'tme,  any  one  of  those  birdo  of  prey 
which  have  the  head  bare  and  feed  on  carrion. 
The  vultures  of  the  Old  World  and  those  of  the 
New  were,  until  recently,  considered  as  nearly 
related,  but  the  former  belong  ia  the  family 
FalBonidie,  while  the  latter  form  a  separate 
family,  Catltartidte,  which  contains  such  birds 
as  the  eondor,  king  vulture,  and  tuik^  bu2- 


WADE, 

lard.  These  essenUally  agree  in  habits,  liv- 
ing for  the  most  part  on  dead  animal  matter, 
and  even  appearing  to  prefer  that  which  to  pu- 
trescent, although  not  coufinios  themsdves  to 
such.  '  When  an  animal  has  died,  the  carcass 
is  soon  discovered  by  these  birds,  and  they  fty 
from  all  points  of  the  compass.  After  eating  to 
satiety,  they  rest  in  a  lethargic  manner  near 
the  remains  of  the  carcass,  and  are  scarcely 
able  to  fly,  and  when  disturbed,  generally  vomit 
before  they  are  able  to  take  to  wing.  They  are 
birds  of  bold  flight  and  soar  high  in  the  air, 
scanning  the  ground  in  search  of  food,  which 
they  And  much  more  by  the  sense  of  sight  than 
that  of  smell.  They  are  particularly  inhabit- 
ants of  the  tropical  and  warmer  parts  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  but  some  species  occur  in  B.  Eu- 
rope, notably  the  griffon  vulture,  the  typical 
species  of  the  group  and  one  of  the  largest.  Se« 
also  Bbubu  Tcbkkz  and  Egtptuk  ^iltukk. 


W,  the  twenty-third  letter  of  the  English 
alphabet.  The  form  W  results  from  the 
doubling  of  V.  First  employed  in  medieval 
times  to  express  with  Latin  letters  the  value 
of  German  consonant  -u  (^ic)  ;  thence  it 
passed  into  middle  English  orthography,  dis- 
placing the  old  English  sj>mbol  ic^n.  The  name 
"  double-u,"  which  has  displaced  the  older  %i>in 
since  the  fifteenth  or  sixteenth  centuries,  ii 
descriptive  of  the  appearance  of  the  symbol. 

It  denotes  in  general  the  consonant  form  of 
u  ioo).  After  initial  a,  t,  h,  it  is  voiceless, 
as  in  sicell,  (irenfy,  what  (for  Aioat),  toh  be- 
ing a  sign  for  voiceless  (c.  The  same  sound  is 
denoted  by  u  after  q,  as  in  qvetlion,  guaiity, 
quack.  The  letter  is  silent  before  r,  as  in 
wreck,  wrong,  and  in  sword,  touxiril,  antteer, 
ttoo,  who,  wholt,  etc. 

Wa'bash  Riv'er,  a  river  which  rises  in  Qrand 
Reservoir,  Mercer  Co.,  Ohio;  flows  N.  to 
Wabash  city,  where  it  receives  Big  Beaver 
River;  turning  NW.,  it  sweeps  in  a  devious 
course  across  Indiana,  and  during  the  last  120 
m.  of  its  course  forms  the  boundaiy  between 
that  state  and  Illinois.  It  is  the  largest  N. 
tributary  of  the  Ohio.  It  has  been  navigated 
by  steamboats  as  far  as  Lafayette,  Ind,;  and 
from  Terre  Haute  to  Huntington,  Ind.,  it  is 
followed  by  the  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal. 
Length,  S60  m.;  area  of  basin,  31,500  sq.  m. 

W«c«  (wft'kS),  incorporated  1850;  eapiUl 
McLennan  Co.,  Tex.;  at  the  junction  of  the 
Brazos  (which  divides  it)  and  the  Bosque  riv- 
ers; 96  m.  NE.  of  Austin.  It  is  the  principal 
interior  cotton  market  of  the  state,  Since 
1S69  it  has  had  an  abimdant  supply  of  artesian 
water  of  medicinal  value. 

The  city  has  a  large  retail  and  wholesale 
trade.  There  are  about  600  mercantile  and 
business  flrms.  The  factories  employ  a  cap- 
ital ot  about  $3,500,000  and  about  1,300  per- 
sons. Pop.  (1910)  26,425,  with  suburbs, 
30.000. 


Desert,  Darfur  adjoining  it  on  the  E.  Bar- 
girmi  and  Kanem  on  the  W.  are  tributarr 
states;  area,  140,000  sq.  m.  This  large  terri- 
tory was  wrested  from  its  heath«i  possessors 
by  the  Arabs  in  the  seventeenth  century.  Ita 
conquerors  made  it  a  powerful  Mohammedan 
state,  and  extended  ita  boundaries  and  influ- 
ence far  bevond  their  present  limits.  At  tha 
beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  the  greater 
part  of  the  middle  and  E.  Sudan  was  con- 
trolled by  the  Sultan  of  Wadai.  Much  of  his 
possessions  has  since  been  lost,  but  Wadai  ia 
still  the  most  potent  political  influence  in  the 
central  Sudan.  A  large  part  of  the  country  is 
very  fertile,  a  great  number  of  cattle  and 
horses  are  raised,  and  agriculture  and  iron 
manufactures  are  leading  industries.  Wara 
was  the  farmer  capital,  but  in  18S3  the  father 
of  Sultan  Ali  r«DOved  the  seat  of  government 
to  Abeshr,  ostensibly  because  evil  spirits  had 
rendered  the  old  capital  uninhabitable,  but 
really  because  he  desired  to  live  farther  from 
the  most  powerful  of  the  ancient  nobles  of  the 
country.  By  convention  between  Great  Britain 
and  France,  Wadai  is  now  ree<^nized  as  French 
territory.  Pop.  of  Wadai,  abt.  2,000,000;  of 
Abeshr,  15,000. 

Wade,  Benjamin  Franklin,  1800-76;  Amer- 
ican statesman ;  b.  Springfield;  Mass. ;  admitted 
to  the  bar,  1827 ;  prosecuting  attorney,  1835, 
to  which  post  be  was  twice  reflected;  state 
senator,  1837;  president  judge  of  Third  Judi- 
cial District,  1847.  As  U.  S.  Senator,  1851-69, 
he  was  a  Arm  opponent  of  slavery,  and  after 
Lincoln's  election  in  1860  he  strongly  opposed 
any  concessions  to  the  South.  The  Homestead 
Bill,  which  he  had  for  many  years  advocated, 
passed  the  Senate  in  1862.  As  chairman  of 
the  joint  committee  on  the  conduct  of  the  war, 
be  Eidvocated  the  vigorous  prosecution  of  tha 
war,  and  favored  the  confiscation  of  proper^ 
in  slaves ;  became  president  of  the  Senate  pro 


-  WAD8W0KTH 

tempore,  and  acting  Vice  President  of  the  U.  S. 
on  the  Mataaintttioa  of  Lincoln;  and  was  one 
of  tlie  commiaBion  sent  in  1871  to  Santo  Do- 
mingo to  report  upon  the  proposed  acquisition 
of  that  island. 

Wada'wortb,  JamM  Samnel,  1807-64;  Amer- 
ican soldier;  b.  Oeneseo,  N.  Y.;  educated  at 
Hamilton  College  and  at  Harvard  Univ. ; 
studied  law  in  the  office  of  Daniel  Webster; 
admitted  to  the  bar,  but  never  practiced  as  a 
profession.  Applied  himself  to  agricultural 
affairs;  received  the  Republican  nomination 
tor  Governor  of  New  York,  1862,  but  was  de- 
feated; fought  in  the  iwttlea  of  Bull  Run, 
Fredericksburg,  GettTsburg,  and  in  the  Rich- 
mond campaign  was  struck  in  the  head  hj 
a  bullet,  which  caused  bis  death  two  days 
after  being  l)reTeted  major  general  of  vol- 
unteers. 

Ws'ger,  a  promise  to  paj*  money  or  transfer 
property  upon  the  determ&ation  or  ascertain- 
ment of  an  uncertain  event ;  the  consideration 
for  sui^  a  promise  is  either  a  present  payment 
or  transfer  by  the  other  party,  or  a  promise 
to  pay  or  transfer  upon  the  event  determining 
iu  a  particular  way.  (Anson,  "  Law  of  Con- 
tract," 173.)  The  early  common  law  treated 
all  wagering  contracts  as  valid,  but  now  in 
England  wagers  in  which  the  parties  have  no 
interest  are  unenforceable,  although  not  illegal. 
It  Is,  therefore,  only  a  "  debt  of  honor."  The 
English  common-law  view  was  adopted  by  the 
courts  in  some  parts  of  the  U.  S,,  notably  in 
New  York,  but  througliout  New  England  and 
in  most  of  the  states  that  view  was  rejected, 
the  courts  holding  that  wagers  were  inoonsist- 
eut  with  the  interests  of  society,  in  conflict 
with  morals,  and  therefore  illegal  and  void  as 
against  public  policy.  Nearly  alt  of  the  states 
have  statutes  against  every  species  of  wager. 
Occasionally  the  l^islation  is  very  drastic,  not 
only  declaring  the  wa^r  itself  ill<sal>  but 
making  void  all  securities  given  for  money 
lost  thereon. 

Wajer  Pol'lcy,  an  instrument  having  the 
form  of  a  policy  of  insurance,  but  without  any 
legal  interest  held  by  the  assured  in  the  sub- 
Jeet-matter  of  the  contract  or  iu  the  risk  in- 
sured against.  It  is  merely  a  wager  between 
the  insurer  and  the  assured  that  the  event 
referred  to  will  or  will  not  happen — that  the 


Wa'gea,  that  which  is  paid  for  services  ren- 
dered ;  the  share  of  the  working  man  in  the 
wealth  that  his  latxir  has  contributed  to  pro- 
duce. Under  PounCAi.  Eoonoitz,  the  theory 
of  wages  is  treated  briefly. 

Since  the  earliest  colonial  days  rates  of 
wages  have  been  governed  by  economic  laws 
and  the  conditions  of  business,  but  in  those 
days  attempts  were  made  to  establish  wage 
rates  by  Imitative  action.  Following  the  cus- 
tom of  the  old  country,  the  Massachusetts  Bay 
Colony,  in  1633,  made  it  a  rule  that  carpen- 
ters,  masons,   bricklayers,    joiners,   and   other 


WAQK8 

master  workmen  should  not  receive  more  than 
2s.  a  day,  the  workman  to  pay  his  own  board, 
but  shoiud  he  elect  to  board  with  his  employer, 
then  he  was  to  receive  lid.  a  day.  The  rates 
of  pay  of  inferior  workmen  in  the  occupations 
named  were  ftied  by  the  constable.  Skilled 
tailors  were  paid  12d.  a  day,  and  the  poorer 
ones  were  paid  M.  with  their  living.  The  time 
of  labor  included  the  whole  day,  allowances 
being  made  for  food  and  rest.  An  employer 
paying  wages  beyond  the  amotmts  established 
by  law  and  a  workman  receiving  extra  vrages 
were  subjected  to  penalties,  fdleness,  even, 
was  the  subject  of  punishment.  When  the 
colonial  period  closed,  laborers  on  farms  were 
paid  about  40  cents  a  day,  butchers  331  cents 
a  day,  carpenters  62  cents,  ship  and  boat  build- 
ers 00  cents,  shoemakers  73  cents,  and  black- 
smiths 70  cents.  Of  course  the  value  of  a 
day's  wage  then,  as  now,  should  be  estimated 
by  its  purchasing  power  (the  real  "wage"), 
instead  of  by  its  nominal  rate.  To  compute 
the  purchasing  power  of  money  during  the 
seventeenth  century  ia  a  more  difficult  matter 
than  to  give  the  rate  of  wages.  Quality  can- 
not be  compared  with  quality,  but  the  con- 
clusion must  be  reached  that  a  dollar  will 
purchase  now  a  much  latger  quantity  of  the 
ueceBBaHes  of  life  than  during  the  colonial 
period,  although  the  commonest  things,  those 
which  nearly  every  family  producedlor  home 
consumption,  were  quite  low  during  the  earlier 

Tiie  commercial  convulsions  of  1837  and  1857 
caused  a  depression  in  wage  rates,  and  they 
did  not  fully  recover  prior  to  1860;  yet  the 
avero^  (or  the  decade  from  1850  to  1860  were 
a  decided  advance  over  those  foi  the  decade 
ending  in  1830.  The  Civil  War  caused  great 
fluctuations  iu  currency,  while  the  financial 
crisis  of  1373  had  a  powerful  influence  on 
wages,  so  that  there  were  many  changes.  But 
all  figures  indicate  «  general  increase  in  wages 
in  all  occupations  during  the  seventy  years 
from  1830  to  1900. 


chanical  industries  of  the  U.  S.  tfe  average 
wages  per  hour  in  1907  were  28.8  per  cent 
lower  ss  compared  with  the  years,  I8SO-09, 
and  the  average  hours  of  labor  per  week  were 
five  per  cent  lower.  The  retail  price  of  the 
principal  articles  of  food,  weighted  according 
to  family  consumption  of  the  various  articles, 
was  20.6  per  cent  higher  in  1907  than  the 
average  pnce  for  the  ten  years  from  1890-99. 
Compared  with  the  average  for  the  same  ten- 
year  period,  the  purchasing  power  of  an  hour's 
wages  in  1007,  as  measured  in  the  purchase  of 
food,  was  6.8  per  cent  greater.  The  following 
table  shows  for  the  industries,  ss  a  whole,  the 

!)er  cent  of  increase  or  decrease  in  hours  of 
abor  per  week,  wages  per  hour,  the  pur- 
chasing power  of  wages,  etc.,  in  1907,  as 
compared  with  the  average  for  the  ten  years, 
1890-99. 

Per  cent  of  increase  ( -|- )  or  decrease  (■  — ) 
in  1S07,  as  compared  with  previous  years,  in 
hours  per  week,  wages  per  hour,  full-time 
weekly  earnings  per  employee,  retail  price*  of 
food,  and  purchasing  power  of  bonrly  wages 


nooa  Yeakb. 


11 


ReUulPiicea 


WALCHEREN 

•vrm  BOlow,  a  danghter  of  the  Abbe  Lisit 
Wagner'a  theory  waa  that  in  a  perfect  muai- 
cal  drama  the  thr^  arts,  poetrj,  music,  aad 
dramatic  representation,  should  be  welded  to- 
gether into  one  well-balanced  whole.  His  par- 
ticuJar  views  on  miuic  are  embodied  ia  a  well- 
known   work  entitled  "  Oper  und  Drama." 

Wagrain  (vl'grtni),  a  village  of  lower  Au«- 
ria;  12  ra.  NE.  of  Vienna;  famous  for  the  vic- 
tory which  Napoleon  gained  here  over  the  Aub- 
triana    under   the   Archduke  Charlee,   July   6, 


8+29.2  + 
8  +28,3  + 
7  +2fl.S|  + 
2+26.3  + 
7+22.11  + 


6  +1B.3;+   2.3  - 


I90fl.,. 


5  -    .0 


Opposite  each  year  in  the  table  is  given  the 
per  cent  of  increaBc  or  decrease  (indicated  by 
-t-  or  — )  in  1907,  as  compared  with  the  yeir 
specified.  Thus,  for  example,  in  the  third 
column,  opposite  1800,  appears  +2S-4,  indi- 
cating that  the  increase  in  the  wages  per  hour 
in  1907,  BB  compared  with  ISeo,  was  28.4  per 
cent.  In  like  manner,  in  the  second  column, 
opposite  1890,  appears  —  6.7,  indicating  that 
the  decrease  in  the  hours  of  labor  in  1007,  aa 
compared  with  1890,  was  5.7  per  cent, 

Wagner  (vakh'nM-),  Wilhelm  Hichard,  1813- 
83;  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  modem  com- 

fiosera;  b.  Leipzig;  received  his  education  at 
*ipzig  and  Dresden.  In  1839-41  he  went  io 
Paris  and  London,  and  composed  bis  operas 
"  litcnzi  "  and  "  The  Hying  Dutchman."  The 
brilliant  success  of  these  operas  secured  him 
the  conductorship  of  the  Royal  Opera  of  Dres- 
den in  1843.  He  joined  the  insurrectionary 
movemmt  of  1848-49,  and  was  compelled  to 
exile  himself.'  Until  his  return  to  Germany,  in 
1864,  he  spent  most  of  his  time  in  Switzerland. 
Italy,  Paris,  and  London,  His  "  Tannhttuser  " 
and  "  I-ohengrin "  appeared  in  1845  and  1850, 
respectively.  The  late  King  of  Bavaria,  Louis 
II,  became  an  enthusiastic  and  liberal  patron 
of  Wagner,  and  the  theater  at  Bayreuth,  espe- 
cially built  for  Wagner,  was  chiefly  supported 
from  the  king's  purse.  Here  his  famous  te- 
tralogy "  Der  Ring  des  Nibelun|i!;en,"  consisting 
of  "  Das  Rheingold."  "  Die  Walkllre,"  "  Sieg- 
fried," and  "  GCtterdBmmerung,"  was  first  per- 
formed in  1876.  About  a  year  before  his  death 
he  produced  his  last  creation,  "  Parsifal."  In 
1870  he  had  married,  as  'second  wife,  Coeima 


family.  The  wagtails  have  the  bill  slender  and 
conical,  have  long  and  pointed  wings;  the  tail 
is  sligbtly  rounded,  longer  than,  or  equal  to, 
the  wings;  the  feathers  are  mostly  hroadeet  at 
the  middle,  and  thence  taper  to  die  tips.  The 
name  is  given  in  allusion  to  their  babit  of 
"  wagging"'  their  tail  in  a  fanlike  manner. 
They  are  active  birds,  at  home  equally  in  the 
air  and  on  land ;  they  fly  by  short,  undulating 
courses,  and  emit,  while  on  the  wing,  chirping 
notes  1  on  the  ground  they  run  by  a  rapid  suc- 
cession of  steps.  The  species  are  numerous,  and 
peculiar  to  the  Old  World  and  Australia,  but  a 
few  stray  into  N.  America. 

Waha'beea,  called  also  Wahabites,  a  Mus- 
sulman sect  founded  about  1750  by  Abd-el  Wa- 
hab,  an  Arabian  reformer.    He  taught  no  new 

doctrine,  hut  sought  to  restore  Islam  to  its  orig- 
inal simplicity  and  austerity.  He  denounced 
as  superetilious  the  veneration  paid  to  the 
memo^  of  the  prophet  and  to  relics  and 
tomhs  esteemed  holy,  taught  total  ahaUnence 
from  tobacco,  aa  well  as  from  wine  and  opium, 
and  demanded  purity  and  frugality  in  life. 
They  are  the  Puritans  of  Islam;  and  now  prob- 
ably number  1,600,000. 

Waits,  a  class  of  watchmen  in  English  and 
Scotch  towns  who  formerly  at  certain  fixed 
hours  of  the  night  played  upon  the  pipe  and 
other  instnimenta. 

Wake,  in  Old  English  usage,  the  equivalent 
'  vigil.     In  many   lintish   ^rishea   the   term 
nd     custom    still    survive    in    the    "  country 
akes,"  festivities  of  ancient  origin  which  are 
kept   up  on   the  eves  of  certain   saints'   days. 
The   lyke  wake,   in   which   the  neighbors  of   a 
deceased   person   hold  a   watch   over  the  dead 
body,  is  a  custom  of  entirely  dijfa-ent  charac- 
ter.    It   is   found  among  the   lower   classes  in 
several  countries,  notably  among  the  Irish. 

Wake  Island,  a  volcanic  island  in  the  Pa- 
iflc,  N.  of  the  Uarshall  group;  discovered  by 
the  Spanish  sailor  Medafia  in  1568,  The  idand 
visited  July  4,  189S,  by  the  second  Philip- 
pines expedition,  which  raised  the  American 
flag. 

Walcheren  (v91'ch£r-to] ,  island  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, part  of  the  province  of  Zealand;  II  m. 
long  and  10  m,  hroad;  area,  81  no,  m.;  pop. 
45,000:  chief  town,  Middelburg.  It  is  low,  and 
protected  against  inundation  partly  by.  natural 
downs,  partly  by  immense  dikes.  Walcheren 
mous  in  militvy  history  for  the  disaatrous 


WALDEN8IAN  CHUBCH 

Mpedition  of  the  Britiih  under  Lord  ChatliAm 
And  Admiral  Btnchui  in  1809,  It  wai  kimed 
agKintt  Antwerp,  and  mi^ht,  if  succeteful,  have 
roused  N.  Oeniiaii7  agsmst  Napoleon;  but  it 
was  late  in  atarting,  and  time  was  wasted  in 
trying  to  reduce  Flushing.  Lord  Chatham  wai 
incapable  as  a  leader,  and  Loid  CaBtlereBgh, 
who  t|ad  planned  the  expedition,  failed  to  pro- 
Tide  Uie  neceMary  aupplies.  After  the  delay  at 
Flushing  the  army  nas  quartered  on  Wal- 
cheren.  By  the  time  Chatham  was  ready  to 
attack  Antwerp,  Bemadotte  had  come  to  its  as- 
Biatance,  and,  as  the  British  forces  had  been 
greatly  reduced  by  disease,  success  was  hope- 
less. Over  7,000  men  lost  their  lives  in  the  ex- 
pedition, which  was  an  utter  failure. 

WaUea'dan  Chnich,  or  Yaudoia  (vfi-dwft'), 
the  oldest  PrDteetant  church ;  founded  by  Peter 
Waldo,  a  rich  merchant  at  Lyons,  who.  In 
1173,  sold  his  goods,  and,  after  sharing  the  pro- 
ceeds with  the  poor,  preached  voluntary  pov- 
erty. His  aim  was  to  revive  the  fervor  of  the 
primitive  Church.  Hie  followers  were  called 
"  the  poor  of  Lyons,"  or  ^batati,  from  the 
sabots,  or  wooden  shoes,  they  wore.  Waldo  as- 
serted the  right  of  all  Christians  to  study  the 
Scriptures.  Having  been  silenced  by  the  Arch- 
bishop  of  Lyons,  he  appealed  to  the  pope,  but 
in  1184  he  was  excommunicated.  His  follow- 
ers increased  and  spread  to  Italy  and  Bohemia, 
but  especially  in  the  valley  of  Hediaont,  where 
they  were  subjected  to  repeated  persecution, 
especially  in  1666,  when  an  army  of  French 
troops  and  Irish  soldiers  treated  the  people 
with  such  barbarity  that  England  under  Crom- 
well protested.  In  1948  they  were  granted  tol- 
eration, which  has  now  become  freedom.  They 
number  about  59,000,  and  have  two  colonies  in 
the  U.  8.— one  at  Monette,  Mo.,  and  one  in  N. 
Carolina.  The  early  Waldenses  had  the  triple 
TOW  of  chastity,  poverty,  and  obedience^  They 
worshiped  God,  and  held  the  Virgin  Mary  in 
veneration.  They  practiced  confession,  but 
their  teacjiers  pronounced  the  absolution  in 
this  way,  "May  Ood  abtolTe  thee  from  thy 

Waldersee  (vHl'der-a),  Alfred  (Coimt  von), 
1832-1904;  Qerman  soldier;  b.  Potsdam,  Ger- 
many; entered  the  army  in  1850  and  served  In 
the  campaigns  of  1866  and  1870-71.  In  1891 
be  was  made  quartermaster  general  and  dep- 
uty of  Count  von  Moltke,  whom  be  succeeded 
OS  chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the  German 
anny  in  1888.  He  commanded  the  allied 
armies  in  China  in  1900. 

Wales,  since  1282  an  integral  part  of  the 
Kingdom  of  England;  area,  7,446  sq,  m.;  pop. 
(1011)    2,032,I93._ 

The  two-homed'  peninsula  of  Wales  extends 
from  Liverpool  B^  to  Bristol  Channel,  and  is 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  6t.  George's  Channel, 
which  separates  it  from  Ireland.  The  fertile 
plain  of  Cheshlie  and  the  valley  of  the  Severn 
form  the  natural  boundary  between  England 
and  the  mountain  r^on  of  Wales,  but  the 
present  political  boundary  lies  farther  W.  The 
Welsh  Dills,  or  Cambrian  Mountains,  attain 
tbdr  greatest  heisht  in  Snowdon  (3,670  ft.), 
doM  lo   Menai    Btr^t,   wUch  separates   the 


WALES 

mainland  tram  the  island  of  Anglesey.    A  de- 

g'eeaion  at  the  head  of  the  Severn  separates  N. 
om  S.  Wales,  and  the  hills  of  the  latter  are 
distinguished  by  their  barxenueBs,  their  highest 
range  being  known  as  Black  Mountains  (Breck- 
nock Beacon,  2,910  ft),  from  the  color  of  their 
heatlier.  The  only  level  tract  of  any  extent  is 
the  Vale  of  Glamorgan,  on  the  Biistol  Chan- 
nel, but  there  are  many  valleys  distinguished 
for  thar  loveliness.  The  coast  is  generally  bold 
and  rugged.  At  the  SW.  extremity  of  the  pen- 
insula a  fiord,  Milford  Haven,  penetrates  far 
inland,  and  forms  one  of  the  most  secure  har- 


Sevem,  and  Wye  rise  in  Wales,  but  in  each 
case  the  lower,  navigable  course  is  through 
England,  and  except  the  Tawe,  TaS,  and  C<m- 
way,  none  of  the  exclusively  Welsh  rivers  is 
navigable.  The  only  considerable  lake  is  Bala. 
Geologically,  Wales  is  the  moat  ancient  soil  of 
Great  Britain,  and  its  mountains,  of  Lauren- 
tian,  Cambrian,  and  Silurian  rocks,  reared 
their  summits  long  before  England  emei^cd 
from  the  sea. 

Wales  is  in  the  main  a  pastoral  country,  tor 
of  its  area  only  twenty  per  cent  is  under  the 

Eilow,  while  forty-one  per  cent  consists  of  gross 
ands  a^d  nine  per  cent  of  mountain  pasture. 
The  woods  cover  3.6  per  cent.  Coal  and  iron 
abound,  Glamorganshire  alone  raising  nearly 
32,000,000  tons  of  the  former,  half  of  which  is 
exported  annually  through  Cardiff,  the  great- 
est coaling  port  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Lead, 
copper,  and  gold  are  found,  and  much  roofing 
slate  is  exported.  Among  other  industries, 
that  of  flannels  and  woolens  Is  of  importance. 
The  population  between  1901  and  1911  in- 
creased from  1,720,633  to  2,032,103  souls,  but 
slight  decreases  were  registered  in  the  coun- 
ties of  Cardigan,  Carnarvon,  Merioneth, 
Montgomery  and  Radnor.  The  greatest  ia- 
creaae  was  in  Glamorganshire,  211,277.  The 
only  large  towns  are  Cardiff,  Swansea,  and 
Merthyr  Tydvil.  English  is  the  language  of 
commerce  and  of  ciJture,  but  Welsh  is  stUl 
spoken  by  fifty-one  per  cent  of  the  population. 
The  Church  of  England  is  still  the  established 
church  in  Wales,  out  in  the  greater  part  of 
the  country  the  majority  of  Uie  p^ple  have 
joined  the  various  Dissenting  bodies,  among 
which  the  Calvinistic  Methodists  are  the  most 


Wales  from  the  most  remote  time  was  divid- 
ed into  a  number  of  petty  kingdoms  or  princi- 
palities, and  only  at  loof;  intervals  ^id  its 
tribes  submit  to  uie  authonty  of  a  single  ruler. 
Under  the  Romans,  who  established  themselves 
in  the  country  about  60  a.d.,  after  the  defeat 
of  the  Silures  and  Ordovices,  Wales,  or  rather 
Cambria,  formed  part  of  the  province  of  Bri- 
tannia Secunda.  After  the  retirement  of  the 
Romans  the  wars  between  the  Welah  and  the 
Saxons  were  incessant.  Atbelstan  (925-41) 
imposed  a  tribute  upon  the  Welsh,  which  they 

gid,  however,  only  tor  a  time.  William  the 
nqueror  (1066)  again  reduced  them  to  obedi- 
ence,  and  hia  son.  William  II,  settled  the  Lords 
Marchers  along  the  borders  oi  Wales  to  protect 
England  against  their  incuivions,  and  founded 
a  Flemish  colony  in  Pembrokeahire.    On  the  ao- 


WALHALLA 

cession  of  Edwanl  I  (1272)  the  Welih  prince 
Llewelyn  (Llywelyn  ap  Gruffydd)  refused  to 
do  homage;  but,  after  the  betrayal  and  mur- 
der ot  that  prince  (1282),  the  nobility  of  Wales 
submitted  to  the  kina,  and  Wales  waa  finally 
united  with  England,  the  title  of  Prince  of 
Wales  being  beetowed  upon  the  kiug:'s  infant 
Bon,  then  recently  bom  at  Carnarvon  Castle. 
The  last  effort  of  the  Welsh  to  recover  their 
liberty  was  made  in  1400  under  the  leadership 
of  Owen  Glendower  (Owain  Glyndwr),  a  de- 
scendant of  the  old  princes.  Since  1548  Welsh- 
men have  enjoyed  all  rights  of  Englishmen. 

Walhalla,  or  VoIhalU,  a  marble  temple  of 
fame,  built  to  commemorate  the  wars  between 
Germany  and  France  which  ended  with  the 
downfall  of  Napoleon  I  in  1815.  It  wsa  begun 
in  1830  and  finished  in  1842.  It  stands  on  a 
hill  on  the  Danube,  at  Donauatauf,  a  few  miles 
below  Regensburg.  It  was  conceived  by  Louis 
I  of  Bavaria  and  planned  by  Leo  von  Klenze. 
It  is  a  copy  of  the  Parthenon,  232  ft.  long,  110 
ft.  wide,  and  63  ft.  high.  Visitors  ascend  by 
marble  steps  from  the  foot  of  the  hill,  and  the 
Bubstruoture  and  surroundings  greatly  enhance 
the  grandeur  and  beauty  of  the  building 
proper.  This  temple  was  made  for  busts  and 
statues  of  all  the  great  men  and  women  pro- 
duced by  Germany.  It  now  contains  183  busts, 
and  also  a  number  of  marble  tablets  giving  the 
names  of  persona  of  whom  no  reliable  portraits 
could  be  procured.  It  is  one  ot  the  most  r- 
markable  buildings  in  all  Germany. 


I  New  Orleans  and  San  Francisco,  and 
practiced  law  in  Marjsville,  Cal.  In  July, 
1863,  he  organized  an  unsuccessful  expedition 
for  the  conquest  of  Sonora.  On  June  11,  1B65, 
he  landed  at  Eealejo,  Nicaragua,  with  sixty- 
two  followers,  was  joined  by  a  few  natives,' 
toolc  possession  of  the  city  ot  Granada  on  Oc- 
tober 15th,  and  was  made  generftlissimo.  Re- 
cruits came  from  the  U.  8.,  and  on  March   1, 

1856,  Walker  bad  1,200  men.  After  a  short 
war  with  Costa  Kica,  he  broke  up  the  inter- 
oceanic  tf»nwt  route  by  confiscating  the  prop- 
erty and  revoking  the  charter  of  the  Vander- 
bilt  Steamship  Co.  In  June  he  caused  him- 
self to  be  elected  president,  and  annulled  by 
a  decree  the  existing  prohibition  of  slavery. 
His  arbitrary  acts  provoked  a  domestic  insur- 
rection, and,  after  a  series  of  battles,  on  May  1, 

1857,  he  delivered  himself  up,  with  sixteen  of 
hia  officers,  to  Commander  C.  H.  Davis  of  the 
U.  S.  sloop  of  war  St.  Mary's.  At  New  Orleans 
he  was  put  under  bonds  to  keep  the  peace,  but 
went  back  to  Nicaragua.  In  December  Com- 
modore Paulding,  U,  S.  N.,  compelled  him  and 
his  132  men  to  surrender,  and  carried  them  to 
New  York;  but  the  Government  declined  to  rec- 
ognize Walker  as  a  prisoner,  on  the  ground  of 
the  illegality  ot  bis  arrest  on  foreign  soil.  In 
June,  1860,  he  sailed  with  a  small  force  from 
New  Orleans  to  Trujillo,  with  the  design  of 
making  a  revolution  in  Honduras.  He  failed, 
was  captured,  and  shot. 

Walk'ing  Leaf,  a  curious  fern  found  in 
N.  and  middle  parts  of  the  V.  S.    It  derives  its 


e  from  the  peculiarity  of  propa^tlug  by 
touching  the  ground  with  the  tips  of  it«  leavea, 


WtLUHQ  Leaf. 

where  they  take  root  t^d  give  origin  to  new 

plants. 

Walking  Stick,  any  one  of  several  insects, 
which,  with  their  long  bodies  and  protective  col- 
oration, closely  resemble  the  green  or  dry  twigs 
among  which  they  live.  Their  motions  are 
slow,  the  wings  small  or  lacking,  and  they  owe 
their  safety  from  the  attacks  of  enemies  to 
their  mimicry  of  other  objects.  One  common 
species,  which  lives  on  the  oak,  is  about  3  in. 
in  length,  but  in  the  tropics  there  are  species 
g  or  10  in.  long. 

WaB  of  Chi'na,  Gieat.    See  China. 

Wal'Iaby  (the  Australian  name),  any  kanga- 
roo of  the  genus  HalmatttTua.  Wallabies  are 
□f  moderate  size,  ranging  up  to  &0  lb.;  they 
mostly  "  have  a  ))ridle  mark  behind  the  shoul- 
der and  a  horizontal  stripe  across  the  haunch." 
They  are  chiefly  nocturnal  in  their  habits.  The 
largest  species  live  in  Tasmania;  the  smallest 
are  found  in  New  S.  Wales  and  in  W.  Aus- 
tralia. 

Wallace,  Alfred  SuBsel,  1823-1913;  English 
naturalist;  b.  Usk,  Monmouthshire;  educated 
at  the  grammar  school  of  Hertford;  devoted 
himself  to  natural  history;  undertook  in  1848 
an  exploration  of  N.  Brazil;  explored  the  Ama- 
zon and  Negro  rivers;  obtained  vocabularies  of 
Indian  tribes,  and  made  collections  in  orni- 
thology and  botany,  which  were  mostly  lost  at 
sea;  returned  to  England,  1852;  published 
"  Travels  on  the  Amaion  and  Rio  Negro  "  and 
'■  Palm  Trees  of  the  Amazon."  Spent  eight 
vears  in  exploring  the  islands  of  the  K  Indies. 
He  arrived,  independently  of  Darwin's  re- 
searches, at  a  theory  of  natural  selection,  which 
he  embodied  in  a  paper,  "  On  the  tendency  of 
Varieties  to  Depart  Indefinitely  from  the  Orig- 
inal Type,"  read  before'  the  Linntean  Society 
July  1,"  1858,  simultaneously  with  Darwin's  pa- 
per"" On  the  Tendency  of  Species  to  form  Vari- 
eties," etc.,  being  the  first  public  annownce- 
ment  of  the  so-called  Darwinian  theory.     In 


WALLACE 

1802  he  brought  from  the  B.  Indfei  more  than 
8,000  birds  and  more  thnn  100,000  entomolog- 
ic«l  tpecimeiis;  published  "The  Malay  Arohi- 
pelsgo "  and  "  Cantxibutiona  to  the  Theory  of 
Natural  Selection."  Wallace  has  become  noted 
for  his  iDveetigatione  of  roiritualiani,  in  which 
he  is  a  believer,  as  ahown  by  itis  "  Miracles  and 
Modern  Spiritual iam."     In  1870  he  wrote  "  On 


the  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals,' 
which  has  been  followed  by  "■"'  ■"  "•  ' 
"Land    Nationalization,"    "Db 


"  Island   Life,' 


which   has  been  followed 
"Land    Nationalization,"    '' 
"  Australia  and  New  Zealand.' 

Wallacei  Lewis  (or  Lev),  1B2T-190S;  Amer- 
ican lawyer,  soldier,  and  author;  b.  Brookville, 
lud.;  served  as  lieutenant  in  Mexican  War, 
1346-47;  then  studied  law,  which  be  practiced 
till  April,  1S61,  when  he  was  appointed  adju- 
tant general  of  Indiana.  He  served  in  W.  Vir- 
nnia,  where  be  defeated  the  Confederates  at 
Romney;  brigadier  general  of  volunteers,  Sep- 
tember 3,  isll ;  he  commande^^  division  at 
Fort  Donelson,  February  10,  18^^  in  recogni- 
tion of  his  services  on  that  occasion  was  ap- 
pointed major  general  of  voiunteers  (March 
21st).  He  saved  Cincinnati  from  capture  by 
Kirby  Smith,  September,  1862.  In  1864,  by  the 
desperate  battle  of  Monocacy  (July  0th),  he 
prevented  the  capture  of  Washington  and  Bal- 
timore by  Gen.  Jubal  Early.  He  was  a  mem- 
ber of  the  commission  which  tried  the  assassina 
of  IJncoln,  and  president  of  the  commission 
which  tried  Capt.  Win,  commandant  of  An- 
dersonville  Prison.  In  1860  he  went  to  Mexico 
on  a  secret  diplomatic  mission;  was  Oovemor 
of  New  Mexico,  1880,  and  U.  S.  minister  to 
Turkey,  1881-85.  He  publiabed  "The  Fair 
God";  "Ben-Hur,  a  Tale  of  the  Christ" 
(1880)  i  "The  Lite  of  Genera]  Benjamin  Har- 
rison " ;  "  Commodns,  a  Tragedy  " ;  "  The  Boy- 
hood of  Christ,"  and  "  The  Prince  of  India." 
A  larger  number  of  copies  of  "  Ben-Hur  "  have 
been  circulated  than  of  any  other  American 
romance  except  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." 

Wallace,  Sir  William,  1270-1305 ;  Scotch  pa- 


Edward  1.  He  attacked  Scone,  whereui 
ward  sent  into  Scotland  a  force  which  drove 
Wallace  into  Ayrshire.  Wallace  and  Sir  An- 
drew Moray  then  withdrew  to  the  Highlands, 
where  they  organized  large  forces  and  captured 
nearly  all  the  English  Rarrisons  in  Scotland. 
A  powerful  army  under  tie  Earl  of  Surrey  was 
completely  defeated  at  Stirling  Bridge,  Septem- 
ber II,  1297,  and  Wallace  was  recognized  in 
Scotland  as  guardian  of  the  realm  in  the  name 
of  John  Baliol,  a  prisoner  in  the  Tower  of  Lon- 
don. In  1298  Kdward,  with  a  large  force, 
f lined  a  decisive  victoryover  Wallace  at  Fal- 
irk.  From  this  time  Wallace  led  a  wander- 
ing life,  heading  occasional  foraya  against  the 
English.  He  took  Dart  in  the  Scottish  revolt  of 
1303;  was  declared  an  outlaw,  targe  rewards 
being  offered  for  his  capture;  was  betrayed  by 
Sir  John  Mentieth  in  1305;  taken  ta  London, 
Med  for  treason,  and  hanged,  drawn,  and 
quartered. 

Wallenatein  (vBl'in-sUn),  or  Wald'stein,  Al- 
biecht  Weniel  Eusehlns  von,  1583-1634;  Aus- 
trian soldier.    After  traveling  through  Europe, 


WALLER 

he  served  in  Hungary  against  the  Turks  in  the 
army  of  the  Emperor  Eudrff.  He  inherited  a 
vast  estate  from  his  wife  and  uncle.  In  1610 
he  organized  a  regiment  at  his  own  expense  to 
rescue  Gradisca  from  the  Venetiana.  The  em- 
peror now  made  him  a  count,  and  by  hia  mar- 
riage he  obtained  more  induence.  When  the 
revolution  which  opened  the  Thirty  Years'  War 
broke  out  in  ISIS,  he  sided  with  the  emperor, 
saved  the  imjwrial  treasury  from  the  insur- 
gents, and  equipped  a  new  regiment  In  1623 
the  emperor  created  him  prince,  and  in  1624 
hereditary  Duke  of  Friedland.  In  1625  Wal- 
lenstein  organized  an  army  of  60,000  against 
the  Protestant  princes  of  N.  Germany  under 
Christian  IV.  In  1626  he  defeated  Count 
Mansfeld  at  Dessau  and  pursued  him  into  Hun- 
gary, where  this  part  of  the  war  ended  with 
an  advantageous  peace.  Returning  through 
Silesia,  Wallenatein  expelled  the  refractory 
dukes  of  Mecklenburg,  penetrated  into  Jutland, 
and  compelled  Christian  IV  to  conclude  peace. 
In  reward  the  onperor  created  him  Duke  of 
Mecklenburg  in  1629. 

The  people,  however,  complained  of  the  bur- 
den of  supporting  bis  army,  and  it  was  seen 
that  he  posaessed  an  insatiable  ambition  and 
permitted  no  scruple  to  stand  in  his  way.  In 
September,  1630,  he  was  dismissed  and  his 
army  disbanded.  He  retired  to  hia  estates  in 
Bohemia,  where  he  lived,  occupied  with  schemes 
of  the  most  daring  ambition.  When  Gustavus 
Adolphua  appeared  successful  in  Germany,  Wal- 
lenstein  proposed  to  join  with  him  against  the 
emperor,  but  the  Swedish  King  dropped  the 
n^otiations. 

Meanwhile,  after  the  defeat  of  Tilly,  the  «t- 
uation  of  the  emperor  became  almost  desperate, 
and  the  reinstatement  of  WaJlenstein  seemed 
the  only  means  of  escape.  Wallenstein  re- 
ceived the  supreme  military  authority  in  Ger- 
many, and  two  months  later  there  was  a  new 
army  ready  for  battle.  In  1632  the  Saxons 
were  expelled  from  Bohemia,  and  on  November 
16,  1632,  the  battle  of  LUtzen  took  place.  Gus- 
tavus Adolphus  fell,  but  Wallenstein  was  de- 
feated. He  retreated  into  Bohemia,  and  here 
he  remained  inactive  in  spite  of  the  orders  of 
the  emperor.  He  opened  negotiations  with  the 
Swedes,  the  Saxon  princes,  and  Richelieu.  Hia 
plan  was  by  an  alliance  with  these  powers  to 
compel  the  emperor  to  accept  their  terms,  and 
the  special  goat  of  bis  personal  ambition  seems 
to  have  been  the  Bohemian  crown.  At  last  his 
intrigues  became  known  to  the  emperor,  who 
declared  Wallenstein  a  traitor.  In  1634  be  fled 
from  Pilsen  to  seek  refuge  with  the  Swedish 
corps,  but  two  days  afterwards  he  was  assas- 
sinated at  E^er  by  some  of  his  officers. 

Wal'ler,  Edmund,  1606-87;  English  poet;  b. 
Coleshill,  Hertfordshire,  of  an  ancient  and 
wealthy  family;  educated  at  Eton  and  King's 
College,  Cambridge;  inherited  in  boyhood  an 
estate  of  £3,500  a  year;  chosen  to  Parliament 
at  nineteen  on  the  accession  of  Charles  I,  1625, 
and  sat  in  that  body  much  of  the  time  for  sixty 
years;  became  noted  as  a  writer  of  elegant  and 
rhythmical  verses;  after  the  battle  of  Edgehill, 
1642,  was  one  of  the  parliamentary  commis- 
sioners to  negotiate  with  the  king  at  Oxford ; 
was  gained  over  by  the  Royaliata,  and  entered 


WALLFLOWER 

JDto  a  conspiracy,  "  Waller'B  plot,"  for  the 
restoration  of  roTal  authority;  but  the  plot 
having  been  discovered  May  31,  ]643,  he  was 
imprisoned,  fined,  and  banished,  only  saving  his 
life  by  abject  humiliation  before  the  House  of 
Commons;  spent  eight  years  in  France  and 
Italy;  was  allowed  to  return  about  lfiS3,  when 
he  became  a  favorite  with  Cromwell.  Waller 
waa  regarded  in  the  eighteenth  century  as 
first  correct  versifier,  who  used  the  hertnc  ci 
let  with  the  smoothness  and  balance  which 
Dryden  and  Pope  brought  to  mechanical  T^a- 
lanty.  He  was  a  general  favorite  with  all  par^ 
ties  for  his  wit  and  social  qualities.  His  song 
"  Go,  Lovely  Bose,"  and  the  lines  "  To  a  Gir- 
dle "  are  among  his  best  works. 

Wall'flower,  a  European  half-shrubby  plant 
of  the  mustard  family,  often  growing  on  old 
walls,  whence  the  name.  It  is  a  popular  gar- 
den fiower,  having  blossoms  single  or  double, 
of  varied  colors,  and  of  a  rich  fragrance.  The 
W.  wallflower,  or  "  yellow  phlox  "  of  the  U.  S., 
is  a  fine  plant. 

Walloons',  the  people  occupying  the  tract 
along  the  German  speech  boundary  in  the  S. 
Netherlands,  from  Dunkirk  to  Malmedy,  more 
especially  in  the  Ardennes,  parts  of  the  French 
departments  of  Fas -de- Calais,  Nord,  and  Aisne, 
S.  Brabant,  Haioault,  Namur,  Litge,  Luxem- 
burg, and  around  Malmedy  in  Khenish  Prussia. 
They  belong  to  the  great  Gallo-Romanic  stock 
— about  2,250,000  in  Beloiuk  (9.*.) — and  are 
descended  from  the  old  Gallic  Belgn  (with 
an  admixtuf^  of  Teutons),  who  in  the  forests 
of  the  Ardennes  resisted  the  onslaughts  of  the 
Germans,  mixed  themselves  with  Roman  ele- 
ments, their  language  becoming  Romanized  so 
that  it  is  now  a  French  dialect  (patois),  con- 
taining, however,  more  Giermanic  and  Gallic 
elements  than  any  other  French  dialect. 
French  is  the  conversational  and  literary  lan- 
guage of  the  educated  Walloons.  They  have 
many  traits  of  their  own ;  they  are  persever- 
ing, patient,  and  industrious,  but  excitable  and 
Kssionate;  of  superior  physique,  and  dark 
ir  and  eyes.  The  Belgian  revolution  and 
the  separation  of  Belgium  from  Holland  is 
preEminently  their  work.  They  form  the  lead- 
ing element  in  Belgium,  the  leading  statesmen 
and  men  of  mark  belonging  to  their  nation- 
ality. This  prestige  of  the  Walloons,  with 
their  French  sympathies,  is  opposed  by  the 
Flemish  population,  whidi  belongs  to  the  low 
German  stock.  The  first  permanent  colony 
that  settled  in  New  York,  and  also  the  first 
in  Brooklyn,  consisted  largely  of  Walloons. 

Wall  Pa'per.    See  Papeb  H&NOinGe. 

Wal'nat,  the  common  name  of  trees  of  the 
genus  Jagiana,  and  also  of  their  fruit.  In 
some  localities  the  name  is  locally  extended 
to  the  hickories.  The  English  walnut  or  Ma- 
deira nut  is  the  fruit  of  a  stately  tree  pro- 
ducing excellent  timber.  The  nuts  are  good 
eating,  and  the  kernels  yield  a  fixed  drying 
oil  prized  ly  artists  and  makers  of  varnishes. 
In  the  E.  U.  S.  grows  the  black  walnut,  wliich 
yields  a  valuable  dark-colored  timber,  used  for 
furniture,  joinery,  gunstocks,  etc.  The  black 
walnut  produces  a  strong  and  very  oily  nut. 


The  butternut,  called  also  oilnut  and  white 
walnut,  produces  a  useful  timber.  Its  nuts  are 
more  prlzeik  than  those  of  the  black  walnut. 


Nm  (I)  AND  Bked  (S,  3 


Wal'pole,  Horace  (fourth  Earl  of  Orford), 
1717-07;  EnHeh  author;  b.  Ixradon;  educated 
at  Eton  and  at  King's  Collie,  Cambridge; 
traveled  on  the  Continent,  1739-41,  accom- 
panied by  the  poet  Gray,  with  whom  he  quar- 
reled at  Reggio;  bad  a  seat  in  Parliament, 
1741-e8,  but  took  little  part  in  politics;  pur- 
chased an  estate  near  Twickenham,  1747 ;  was 
occupied  for  years  in  the  erection  of  a  strange, 
irregular  Gothic  mansion,  which  he  cal^ 
Strawberry  Hill,  and  which  he  filled  with  a 
library  and  museum ;  set  up  a  private  press 
in  1757,  on  which,  among  others,  he  printed 
several  of  his  own  works ;  succeeded  his 
nephew  as  fourth  Earl  of  Orford,  1781,  but 
never  took  his  seat  in  the  House  of  Lords. 
He  was  never  married.  He  compiled  "  A  Cata- 
logue of  the  Royal  and  Noble  Authors  of  Eng- 
land," "  Anecdotes  of  Painters  in  England, 
"  Historic  Doubts  on  the  Life  and  Reign  of 
Richard  III,"  and  other  works;  wrote  "The 
Castle  of  Otranto,"  a  romance  which  had  great 
popularity ;  "  The  Mysterious  Mother,"  a 
tragedy;  "Memoirs  of  the  Last  Ten  Years  of 
the  Reign  of  George  II,"  and  other  works,  but 
will  be  beat  remembered  by  his  voluminous 
and  interesting   (but  unreliable)    letters. 

Walpole,  Sit  Robert  {Earl  of  Orford),  1676- 

1745;  English  statesman;  b.  Houghton,  Nor- 
folk ;  educated  at  Eton  and  at  King's  Collie, 
Cambridge ;  elected  to  Parliament  for  Castle 
Rising,  1701,  and  for  King's  Lynn,  1702;  Sec- 
retary of  War,  1708,  and  Treasurer  of  the 
Navy,  1709,  Failing  to  prevent  the  proceed- 
ings against  Dr.  Sa^everell  in  1710,  he  acted 
with  his  fellow  Whigs,  and  was  one  of  the 
managers  for  the  House  of  Commons  at  the 
impeachment.  On  the  overthrow  of  the  min- 
istry he  showed  great  energy  in  opposition, 
and  incurred  the  hatred  of  the  majority  in  the 
house.  He  was  found  guilty  of  "  a  high  breach 
of   trust  and   notorious   corruption";   was  ex- 

Selled  from  the  house  and  sent  to  the  Tower, 
anuary  17,  1712,  the  condemnation  being  due 
to  partisan  animosity.  He  was  soon  released, 
and  on  the  accession  of  George  I  became  suc- 
cessively Privy  Councilor,  paymaster  general 
of  the  forces,  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  and 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury,  with  the  rank  of 
Prime  Minister,  October  II,  1715;  was  the  de- 
termined  enemy   of  the   Boutb   Sea.  echeme; 


WALPUEGI8  NIGHT 

•gain  paymaster  general  in  1720 ;  retorned  to 
power  as  Prime  Miniater  and  Firat  Lord  of 
the  Treasury  in  April,  1721,  and  vae  the  rir- 
tual  ruler  of  England  for  the  ensuing  twenty- 
one  years.  During  his  ministry  Great  Britain 
was  kept  'free  from  foreign  complications. 
Peace  and  sound  finance  were  the  chief  aims 
of  his  admin ietratioD.  There  ia  no  doubt  that 
he  waa  not  above  the  lax  morality  of  the  time 
in  the  matter  of  bribe  ^ving,  but  the  extent 
of   hia   personal   corruptions   was   exa^erated. 


His  fall  from  power  was  hastened  by  his  peace- 
ful foreim  policy,  which  provoked  sharp  at- 
tacks by  Pitt  and  the  Orcnvilles,  and  lost  him 


the  favor  of  the  people.     He  resigned  in  1742, 
after  being  created  Earl  of  Orford. 

Walpnrgia  (vBI-pOr'gis)  Night,  the  evening 
before  May  let,  the  vigil  of  the  old  festival  of 
St.  Walpurgis,  who  died  February  25,  779, 
and  ia  commemorated  on  that  day  in  Bome 
plaoea,  but  generally  on  May  Ist.  Walpurgis 
Night  is  the  seaaon  of  the  annual  celebration 
of  the  "witches'  sabbath"  on  the  Brockcn  in 
the  Hartz  Mountains.  St.  Walpurgis  had  no 
connection  with  this  ancient  superatition.  In 
fact,  the  old  Mav-day  festival  was  a  heathen 
one,  like  that  of  midsummer  (which  became 
the  feast  of  St.  John),  and  the  traditions  with 
regard  to  Walpurgis  Night  have  a  dim  refer- 
ence to  the  old  heathen  practices.    See  Hal- 

IX»WBK1T. 

Wal'mi^  the  morse,  sea  horse,  or  sea  cow; 
distinguished  by  having  the  upper  canine  teeth 
developed  aa  large  tusks  which  paint  down- 
ward. There  are  two  species:  one  inhabiting 
the  N.  Atlantic  and  the  other  the  N.  PaciQc. 
The  species  attain  a  large  size,  old  males  some- 
times even  exceeding  12  or   13  ft.,  in   length. 


Thb  Wauiiib. 

and  their  girth  is  nearly  as  great;  they  are 
inefficient  oa  land,  but  In  water  their  move- 
ments are  easy  and  not  ungraceful.  They  swim 
entirely  under  water,  rising  occasionally  to 
breathe,  when  they  blow  somewhat  like  a 
whale.  The  females  are  smaller  than  the 
males,  and  have  much  smaller  tuaks.  They 
feed  chiefly  upon  shellfish — ctnms,  mussels,  etc. 
— but  also  on  the  roots  of  plants  which  firow 
in  the  lagoons  and  bays.  They  use  their  tusks 
to  unearth  the  clams  and  drag  them  from 
their  bolM.    The  walrus  was  first  pursued  by 


WALTER 

the  Norw^ans  along  the  coast  of  Finmark, 
then  about  the  shores  of  Nova  Zembia,  finally 
around  Spitsbergen  and  the  adjacent  islands, 
where  a  few  walruses  are  still  found.  The 
fisheiy  ia  also  prosecuted  along  the  coast  of 
Greenland,  and  far  to  the  northward.  Vast 
herds  of  walruses  are  no  longer  found,  and  at 
present  the,  walrus  fishery  is  carried  on  as  a 
mere  adjunct  to  the  whale  Ashery,  and  the 
animals  are  either  taken  with  harpoons  or 
shot  with  rifles  while  on  the  ice.  One  or  two 
men,  armed  with  rifles,  are  landed  near  a  small 
herd,  and  it  is  not  uncommon  for  a  skillful 
hunter  to  kill  from  forty  to  eighty  in  succes- 
sion. Walrus  blubber  makes  a  good  quality  of 
oil,  the  tusks  are  used  for  umbrella  handles, 
and  the  hides  are  an  article  of  commerce.  The 
walruses,  especially  those  of  the  Pacific  coast, 
are  threatened  with  extinction. 

Wal'singbam,  Sir  Francis,  abt.  1536-DO;  Eng- 
lish statesman ;  b.  Chiselhurst ;  studied  at 
King's  College,  Cambridge;  traveled  on  the 
Continent,  and  remained  there  during  the  reign 
of  Mary;  acquired  the  favor  of  Cecil,  Lord 
Qurleigh,  by  hia  political  abilities  and  his 
knowledge  of  languages;  was  aent  three  times 
on  missions  to  France,  where  he  resided,  1670- 
73;  was  knighted,  sworn  of  the  Privy  Council, 
and  made  one  of  the  principal  secretaries  of 
state,  1673 ;  was  sent  on  important  embassies 
to  the  Netherlands,  1678^  to  France,  1681,  and 
to  Scotland,  1633 ;  was  a  man  of  strict  morals 
and  undoubted  integrity,  addicted  to  religious 
meditation  and  to  the  Puritanic  party,  but 
displayed  as  a  Btatesmaii  a  consummate  crafti- 
ness, bordering  on  duplicity;  was  said  to  have 
had  in  his  pay  in  foreign  countries  many 
agents  and  spies,  through  whom  he  was  in- 
formed of  the  secrets  even  of  hostile  courts; 
was  a  political  adversary,  if  not  a  personal 
enemy,  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  whom  for 
years  he  surrounded  with  spies,  who  endeav- 
ored to  inveigle  her  into  real  or  pretended 
Clots  in  order  to  intercept  her  letters;  bad  in 
is  pay  a  servant  of  the  French  ambassador, 
Castelnau,  and  Gray,  the  envoy  of  the  Duke 
of  Guise  to  the  Scottish  court,  who  was  em- 
ployed in  managing  the  correspondence  of 
Mary  and  James  with  their  friends  in  France, 
thus    discovering    the    so-called    "  Babington'a 

Slot,"  15SQ;  was  a  member  of  the  commission 
>r  the  trial  of  the  Queen  of  Scots;  was 
charged  by  her  with  having  forged  the  letters 
produced  against  her — a  charge  which  he  sol- 
emnly denied. 

Wal'ter,  John,  1739-1B12;  English  Journal- 
ist ;  b.  England ;  became  a  printer ;  bought  in 
1730  two  patents  issued  to  Henry  Johnson  for 
logography,  or  the  art  of  using  entire  words, 
their  radices,  and  terminations,  instead  of 
a inglar letters,  in  composing  for  printing;  en- 
deavored to  introduce  that  invention  by  the 
establishment  of  a  newspaper.  The  London 
Daily  Unircraat  Register,  of  which  the  firat 
number  appeared  January  18,  1786.  Though 
the  system  of  printing  proved  a  failure,  the 
newspaper  prospered,  especially  after  a  change 
of  title  was  made  to  The  Times  (Januaiy  1, 
I7S8),  and  it  gradually  rose  to  the  rank  of 
one  of  the  leading  period" 


iTiodioals.  of  the  world. 


WALTHAM 

Mr.  Walter  acquired  k  considerable  fortune. 
Eis  son  John  (1784-1847)  ftnd  hia  grsndaon 
John  (isi8-94)  in  turn  succeeded  to  the  pro- 
prietorship of  The  Times. 

Wal'tbam,  city  (set  off  from  Watertown  and 
incorporated  aa  a  town,  1737 ;  chartered  ae  a 
city,  1884);  Middlesex  Co.,  Mass.;  on  the 
Charles  River,  10  m.  W,  of  Bo«ton.  It  is  con- 
nected by  electric  railways  with  Newton  and 
Boston;  is  compactly  built,  with  two  principal 
streets,  a  common  in  the  central  part,  and  a 
fine  park,  Prospect  Hill.  There  are  churches 
representing  tbe  Baptist,  Roman  Catholic,  Uni- 
versalist,  Protestant  Episcopal,  Methodist 
Episcopal,  Preabyterian,  Unitarian,  Sweden- 
borgian,  and  Congregational  denominntiona ; 
public  and  parochial  schools.  The  Massachu- 
Betta  School  for  the  Feeble  Minded  is  here. 
There  are  two  watch-making  works — one,  the 
American  Waltham,  in  which  the  manufacture 
of  watch  movements  on  a  large  scale  by  ma- 
chinery was  first  attempted,  being  tbe  largest 
in  the  world;  a  cotton  mill,  erected  in  1814, 
with  bleacbery  and  dye  works  attached,  in 
wbicb  cotton  cloths  were  first  made  in  tbe 
U.  S.  from  tbe  raw  fiber  under  one  roof;  and 
other  factories.     Fop.    (1910)   27,834. 

Walther  von  der  Vogelweide  (vB)'t4r  fOn  d«r 
fO'gil-vI-di),  "Walter  of  the  bird  meadow," 
abt.  1170-abt.  1228;  German  minnesinger.  Hia 
first  patron  was  Duke  Frederick  of  Austria, 
after  whose  death  in  II98  he  attached  himself 
to  several  princes  in  succession,  playing  a 
prominent  part  in  art  and  politics,  and  be 
finally  received  a  valuable  fief  near  WUrzburg. 
His  earlier  songs  treated  of  love,  and  bis  later 
onea  of  the  crusades  and  tbe  civil  commotions 
in  Germany.  No  man  before  Luther  attacked 
the  pope  and  tbe  Romati  clergy  as  fearlessly 
as  Walther  did.  The  best  and  most  perfect 
of  his  lyric  poetry  belongs  to  the  last  period 
of  his  poatic  activity. 

Wal'ton,  George,  abt.  1740-1804;  aigner  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence;  b.  Virginia; 
became  a,  lawyer  in  Georgia;  delegate  to  Con- 
gress, 1776-81,  and  colonel  of  militia,  177S-79; 
elected  Governor  of  Georgia  in  1779  and  1789; 
Chief  Justice  of  Georgia,  1T83;  and  U.  S.  Sen- 
ator, 1795-90. 

Walton,  Izaok,  1693-1983;  English  author; 
b.  Stafford,  England;  became  a  linen  draper 
in  London,  1624,  and  acquired  a  competency, 
upon  which  he  retired  in  1644;  sympathized 
witb  the  royalist  cause  in  the  great  rebellion, 
and  from  that  time  "  lived  mostly  in  the  fam- 
ilies of  eminent  clergymen  of  England,  of 
whom  he  was  much  beloved,"  devoting  himself 
to  literature,  the  contemplation  of  nature,  and 
the  pleasures  of  fishing.  Me  wrote  "  Lives " 
of  Dr.  John  Donne,  Sir  Henry  Wotten,  Richard 
Hooker,  George  Herbert,  and  Dr.  Robert  San- 
derson. "  The  Compleat  Angler,  or  the  Con- 
templative Man's  Recreation  (1653)  is  one 
of  the  best-known  works  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  perhaps  the  quaintest  treatise  of  the 
pleasures  of  fishing  ever  penned,  and  made  spe- 
cially fasfinating  by  charming  descriptions  of 
nature. 


WANDERING  JEW 

Walti;  dance  of  Bohemian  origin  executed 
with  a  rapid,  whirling  motion,  the  gentleman 
having  his  arm  round  bis  partner's  waist.  Tbe 
music  is  written  in  triple  time  in  crotchets 
and  quavers,  and  consists  of  phrases  of  eight 
or  sixteen  bars.  Several  of  these  phrases  are 
now  usually  united  to  prevent  monotony,  The 
calse  i  dewe  tempt  is  a  form  of  waltz  in  which 
two  steps  are  made  to  each  bar  of  three  beats. 
Classieal  waltzes  are  musical  compositions  in 
waltz  form,  not  intended  for  dance  tunes.  Of 
this  style  the  composer  Cbopin  is  tbe  greatest 

Wampano'aK,  tribe  of  Indians  which  lived  to 
the  E.  of  Narragansett  Bay,  and  were  almost 
exterminated  in  King  Philip's  War. 

Wam'puni  (from  American  Indian,  aignifj'- 
ing  "white"),  the  strings  and  belts  of  beads 
used  as  money  by  some  tribes  of  N. 
American  Indians.  Tbe  ebells  of 
tbe  round  clam,  or  quahaug,  were 
tbe  favorite  material.  These  were 
drilled  lengthwise  and  strung  upon 
a,  thread.  Wampum  was  either 
white  or  of  a  black  or  violet-purple 
color,  the  last  being  valued  twice 
as  highly  as  tbe  first.  The  wam- 
pum belt  served  not  only  as  money, 
but  as  an  ornament,  and  the  beads 
seem  to  have  been  used  also  aa 
counters  or  aids  to  memory. 

Wan'derinK  Jew,  the  hero  of  a 
le^nd  which  first  appeared  in  the 
middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  in 
the  chronicle  of  Matthew  of  Paris, 
who  professes  to  have  received  his 
information     from      an     Armenian 
bishop,    to    whom    tbe    Wandering 
Jew  himself  had  communicated  the 
events.     According  to  this  version, 
he  was  a  servant  in   the   house  of 
Pilate,  by  the  name  of  Cartapbilus,   Stbihos  or 
and  gave  Christ  a  blow  when  he  was    W*iipdii. 
drafwed  out  of  the  palace  to  be  exe- 
cuted.    According    to    another    version — prob- 
ably of   the  fifteenth  century  and  of  Gernian 
origin — he  was  a  shoemaker  by  tbe  name  of 
AhasuerUB,   and  refused   Christ   permission   to 
sit  down  and  rest  when,   on  his  way  to  Gol- 
gotha, he  passed  by  his  house.     All  versions, 
however,  agree  with  respect  to  the  verdict  of 
Christ,   that   he  should   remain   wandering   on 
the   earth   until   the   second   coming.      It   was 
told  that  he  lived  for  one  hundred  years,  and 


claimed  to  be  the  Wandering  Jew.  Thus  is 
the  sixt^fenth  century  Abasuerua  was  seen  in 
Hamburg  and  other  German  cities,  and  held 
long  conferences  with  Dr.  Paulus  von  Eitzen, 
^ishop  of  Scbleswig.  In  the  beginning  of  tbe 
eighteenth  century  Cartapbilus  appeared  in 
London  in  the  higher  circles,  and  communi- 
cated to  the  most  learned  professors  of  Oxford, 
who  came  to  see  him,  anecdotes  from,  his  per- 
sonal acquaintance  with  the  apostles,  Moham- 
med, Tamerlane,  and  othera.  He  has  figured 
largely  in  works  of  fiction,  as  in  EuECne  SOe'i 
novel  "  The  Wandering  Jew," 


lb,  Google 


Wcndaroo'.     See  Honxet. 

W«piti  (wflp''-tl),  large  deer  of  the  N.  U.  S. 
and  British  provinces.  It  ia  generally  called 
elk,  but  that  name  belongs  by  right  to  the 
Aioea  malchiB,  otherwise  called  mooae.  The 
wapiti  is  closely  related  to  the  red  deer  or 
stag  of  Europe,  but  is  a  larger  aad  more  noble- 


looking  beast,  attaining  the  dlmensiona  of  a 
moderate-sised  horse.  The  color  above  and 
about  the  tower  jaw  is  yellowish  brawn;  the 
circles  around  the  eyes  brown;  the  rump  has 
a  Urge  pale  disk  extending  far  above  the  base 
of  the  ^il,  with  a  black  streak  on  each  side 
of  it;  the  tail  is  short;  the  hoofs  are  broad 
and  semicircular. 

War,  a  contest  between  nations  or  states 
lintemalional  tear),  or  between  parties  in  the 
lame  state  {civil  tear),  carried  on  by  force  of 
arms,  usually  arising  in  the  first  'case  from 
disputes  about  territorial  poBsesaions  and 
frontiers,  unjust  dealings  with  the  subjects  of 
one  state  by  another,  questions  of  race  and 
sentiment,  jealousy  of  niilitary  prestige,  or 
mere  lust  of  conquest,  rarely  nowadays  from 
the  whim  of  a  despot;  in  the  second  case,  from 
the  claims  of  rival  contenders  for  supreme 
power  in  the  state,  or  for  the  establishment 
of  some  important  point  connected  with  civil 
or  religious  liberty.  In  all  cases  the  aim  of 
each  contending  party  is  to  overthrow  or 
weaken  the  enemy  by  the  defeat  or  dispersion 
of  the  army  or  navy,  the  occupation  of  im- 
portant parts  of  his  country,  such  as  the  cap- 
ital or  principal  administrative  and  commer- 
cial centers,  or  the  ruin  of  his  commerce,  thus 
cutting  oS  bis  sources  of  recuperation  in  men, 
money,  and  material.  International  or  public 
war  is  always  understood  to  be  authorized  by 
the  monarch  or  sovereign  power  of  the  nations ; 
when  it  is  carried  into  the  territories  of  a 
hitherto  friendly  power  it  is  called  an  ag- 
greaaive  or  ojfensitie  war,  and  when  carried  on 
to  resist  such  aggression  it  is  called  defensive. 
Previous  to  the  outbreak  of  hostilities  between 
states,  the  power  taking  the  initiatory  step 
issues  ft  declaration  of  tear,  which  now  usually 


WARD 

takes  the  form  of  an  explanatory  manifesto 
addressed  to  neutral  governments.  During  the 
progress  of  the  struggle  certain  law4,  uaaget, 
or  right*  of  icar  have  come  to  be  generally 
recognized;  such  laws  permitting  the  destruc- 
tion or  capture  of  armed  enemies,  the  destruc- 
tion of  property  likely  to  be  serviceable  to 
them,  the  stoppage  of  all  their  channels  of 
traffic,  and  the  appropriation  of  everything  in 
an  enemy's  country  necessary  for  the  support 
and  subsistence  of  the  invading  army.  On  the 
other  hand,  though  an  enemy  may  be  starved 
into  surrender,  wounding,  except  in  battle, 
mutilation,  and  all  cruel  and  wanton  devasta- 
tion are  contrary  to  the  usages  of  war,  as  are 
also  bombarding  an  unprotected  town,  the  use 
of  poison  in  any  way,  and  torture  to  extort 
information  from  an  enemy;  and  generally  the 
tendency  in  all  laws  and  usages  of  war  is  be- 
coming gradually  more  favorable  to  the  cause 
of  humanity  at  large. 

Wat'beclc,  Perkin,  a  pretender  to  the  throne 
of  England  in  the  reign  of  Hen^  VII,  banged 
at  Tyburn,  November  23,  U99.  He  appeared  at 
the  court  of  Margaret,  Dowager  Duchess  of 
Burgundy,  in  14S0,  impressed  everyone  with 
his  resemblance  to  Edward  IV,  and  was  taught 
to  represent  Richard,  Duke  of  York,  younger 
brother  of  Edward  V,  supposed  to  have  been 
murdered  by  Richard  III.  He  had  many  par- 
tisans in  England  and  Ireland,  and  was  aided 
by  Charles  VIII  of  France.  He  was  twice 
driven  from  English  territory,  which  with  600 
men  he  had  invaded  in  1495,  and  went  to  Scot- 
land, where  he  was  acknowledged  by  James  IV. 
Going  soon  after  to  Bodmin,  Cornwall,  he  was 
joined  by  7,000  of  the  inhabitants  and  began 
the  siege  of  Exeter,  calling  himself  for  the 
first  time  Richard  IV,  King  of  England,  Sep- 
tember 7,  140T.  But  he  was  forced  to  retire 
to  Taunton,  was  captured,  and  confined  in  the 
Tower.  Being  detected  in  a  plot  for  escaping, 
he  was  tried  and  executed. 

Warbler,  a  family  ot  small  birds  related  to 
the  thrushes.  Why  the  popular  name  was 
given  it  is  hard  to  say,  as  very  few  of  the 
warblers  sing.  The  American  warblers  include 
over  120  species,  all  of  small  sixe,  under  6  in. 
in  length,  and  many  have  bright  but  not  gaudy 
plumage.  They  are  active,  largely  insectiv- 
orous in  diet,  and  vary  greatly  in  their  nesting 
habits,  some  making  simple  nests,  others 
structures  which  rival  those  of  humming  birds 
in  beauty.  The  Old  World  warblers  include 
about  160  species,  generally  of  subdued  colors. 

Ward,  Arteraaa,  1727-1800;  American  sol- 
dier and  jurist;  b.  Shrewsbury,  Mass.;  gradu- 
ated at  Harvard,  1748;  served  in  the  French 
and  Indian  War,  becoming  lieutenant  colonel. 
On  June  17,  1 7 75,  Congress  appointed  him 
first  major  general,  and  he  was  in  command 
of  the  army  which  began  the  siege  of  Boston. 
He  was  afterwards  made  second  in  command 
under  Washington,  and  resigned  in  April,  1776, 
in  consequence  of  ill  health;  member  of  Con- 
gress, 1791-05. 

Ward,    ArtemUB.      See    Bbowi!^    Cbi 


Coogic 


Waid.    See  Ocabdian. 

War  Depait'ment,  in  the  U.  S.,  an  exacutive 
department  of  the  GoTemmeut,  having  control 
of  military  afTaire ;  under  the  BUpervisian  of  the 
Prerident,  aa  commander  in  chief  of  the  army, 
and  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretary  of 
War,  an  ofBcer  of  the  Cabinet  appointed  by  the 
President  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent 
of  the  Senate.  The  secretary  superriaes  eati- 
matee  of  appropriationB  for  the  expenses  of  the 
department  and  of  the  administration  of  the 
military  service,  the  control  of  the  Board  of 
Ordnance  and  Fortification,  the  Bupervision  of 
the  U.  S.  Military  Academy  at  West  Point, 
and  the  direction  of  river  and  harbor  improve- 
ments. The  administration  of  our  island  pos- 
aesaions  also  comes  under  this  department. 
The  department  is  subdivided  into  military  bu- 
reaus, each  under  the  direction  of  an  officer  of 
the  r^:ular  army.  These  olficers  are  the  adju- 
tant, inspector,  quartermaster,  commissary, 
Burgeon,  and  paymaster  generals,  the  chief  of 
engineers,  the  chief  of  ordnance,  the  judge- 
advocate  general,  and  the  chief  signal  officer. 

Wai«1iOtliiS{  Sya'tem,  a  credit  system, 
vhereby  the  government  extends  the  time  for 
the  payment  of  duties  and  revenue  upon  goods, 
retauiing  them  in  its  possession  meanwhile  to 
secure  such  payment.  Duties  on  imports  or 
on  manufactures  naturally  fall  due  as  soon  aa 
the  goods  arrive  or  are  produced.  But  the 
econ(»ny  and  convenience  of  importing  and 
making  articles  in  great  quantities  and  in  ad- 
vanbe  of  their  actual  requirement  is  so  great, 
and  the  immediate  payment  of  duties  upon  them 
would  often  involve  such  a  lar^e  investment 
of  capital,  that  the  principle  of  warehousing 
goods  in  government  custody,  with  a  reasonable 


mercial  nations.  The  payment  of  the  duties  is 
secured  by  a  bond.  The  ^oods  are  then  said 
to  be  "  in  bond,"  the  period  allowed  for  the 
payment  of  the  duties,  etc.,  is  the  "  bonded 
period,"  and   places  of  deposit  are  known   as 

bonded  warehouses "  or  "  bonded  stores." 
The  importer  or  owner  has  access  to  the  goods 
at  any  time  during  the  bonded  period,  and  he 
thus  practically  pays  the  duties  when  he  sells 
the  goods. 

Waim'ing  and  VentiJa'tion.  By  ventilation 
is  meant  a  regular  and  continuous  change  of 
air  in  a  room  or  inclosed  space.  The  objects 
of  ventilation  are  to  remove  offensive  or  dan- 
gerous gases,  foul  odors,  dusts,  and  moisture, 
to  supply  oxygen,  and  to  regulate  temper- 
ature. It  is  a  very  common  idea  that  ventila- 
tion means  simply  the  removal  of  foul  air,  and 
that  if  an  opening  is  provided  for  this  purpose 
all  that  is  necessary  has  lieen  done.  But  it  is 
the  securing  of  the  admission  and  proper  dis- 
tribution of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  fresh  air 
that  is  the  real  problem,  and  if  this  be  done 
the  getting  rid  of  the  foul  air  ia  comparatively 


sasy. 
The  a 


»  amount  of  air  supply  t«  be  provided  for 
a  room  depends  on  the  purposes  for  which  it  is 
to  be  used — whether  it  Is  to  be  occupied  for 
hours  continuously,  like  a  sleeping  room  or 
hospital  ward,  or  only  for  an  hour  or  two.    As-. 


WAEMINO  AND  VENTILATION 

Biuning  that  no  reliance  is  to  be  placed  on 
cracks  and  crevices,  and  that  walls  will  be 
made  practically  air  tight  by  paper  or  paint, 
the  foUowing  table  showa  the  amount  of  ^r 
which  abould  be  supplied  to  different  kinds  of 
rooms  to  secure  freedom  from  odor  and  aatia- 
factory  ventilation: 

Cua^cniB  or  RooMa  Cnbio  ft.  of  air  an 

Honitals 3.000  psrM. 

Uculati**  Mumbly  halls 3.600  ptr  wat. 

B&micki  aDd  bedrDOEU - 5,000  per  pwion 

Bchooli  and  churubaa 3.000  to  2.400  psr  peraon. 

Theatsn  aixi  ordinaiy  haJli  of  audteiice  .2,000  par  Mat. 
Office  TDoma  and  dinlnc  rooms.', 1,800  perperaon. 

As  a  rule,  the  amount  of  air  required  for  di- 
luting the  products  of  respiration  is  also  suffi- 
cient to  maintain  combustion  of  fires  and 
lights;-but  if  the  number  of  lights  be  large  in 
proportion  to  the  number  of  persons,  a  special 
supply  of  air  for  them  may  be  desirable;  1,000 
cu.  ft.  of  air  per  hour  per  gas  burner  is  sufft- 
cient.  Electric  lights  require  no  provision  for 
air  supply. 

While  natural  ventilation  is  still  relied  npon 
for  almost  all  dwelling  houses,  engineers  are 
resorting  more  and  more  to  artificial  ventitB* 
tion  by  the  use  of  some  form  of  fan  or  blower- 
in  large  buildings  where,  many  persons  are  as- 
semble. Such  fans  or  blowers  are  often  so 
placed  as  to  force  a  current  of  air  through  a 
series  of  Coils  of  steam-heated  pipes,  and  thence 
throi^^h  galvanized -iron  ducts  to  the  rooma 
which  are  to  be  warmed,  farming  what  is 
known  as  a  hot-blast  system.  Buch  fans  are 
usually  comparatively  small,  are  run  at  high 
speed,  and  the  ducts  are  small,  thus  necesd- 
tating  considerable  velocity  in  the  currents 
posing  through  them  to  furnish  the  requiaitv 
supply.  When  the  air  ia  forced  into  a  room  by 
means  of  a  fan  or  blower  it  is  called  a  plenum 
system,  and  this  is  what  is  usually  employed 
for  halls  of  asaemhly.  When  the  air  ia  drawn 
from  the  room  by  a  fan  or  heated  chimney,  it 
is  called  an  aspirating  system.  Sometimes  both 
systems  are  employed  together.  As  electricity 
has  become  more  available  as  a  source  ot 
power,  the  use  of  small  electric  aspirating  fans 
IB  increasing,  and  they  may  often  be  made 
useful;  but  to  effect  a  really  useful  change  of 
air  they  must  have  some  opening  for  discharge 
of  air  outside  the  room. 

The  artificial  beating  of  a  room  or  building 
is  effected  in  several  different  ways,  technically 
Jinown  as  direct  radiation,  indirect  radiation, 
and  direct-indirect  radiation,  or  by  combina- 
tions of  these.  In  heating  by  direct  radiati«Mi 
the  heating  surfacea  are  plated  in  the  room  to 
be  warmed,  and  are  not  connected  with  the  air 
supply.  This  includes  fireplaces,  ordinary 
atoves,  pipes,  or  radiators  heated  by  steam,  hot 
water,  or  electricity,  and  methods  of  heating 
the  walls  and  floors  of  a  room  as  a  mass.  Of 
these,  the  fireplace,  or  open  grate,  is  the  only 
one  which  really  heats  entirely  or  mainly  by 
radiant  heat,  in  which  the  beat  passes  in 
straight  lines  through  the  air  until  it  ia  inter- 
cepted by  some  solid  or  liquid,  which  it  warms. 
Such  heat  does  not  appreciably  warm  the  air 
through  -which  it  passes.  Much  the  greater  part 
of  beat  fumi^ej  by  stovea  and  heated  pipea 
or  other  surfaces  ia  convected  heat — thK  im. 


WAKNER 

he«t  conveyed  bj  particles  of  ftir  wUeh  come 
in  contact  with  the  hot  eurface  and  then  pasa 
off  in  currenta,  conveying  this  heat  to  the 
(Milder  surfaces  in  the  room  againet  which  thej 
strike.  Beating  bj  indirect  radiation  is  the 
heating  fay  hot  air,  which  air  h&B  been  warmed 
by  heating  BurfaoCH  placed  in  same  other  room, 
usually  in  the  basement  or  cellar,  and  which 
are  heated  either  directly,  as  in  a  furnace,  or  by 
steam  or  hot  water.  In  heating  by  direct-in- 
direct radiation  the  heating  surfaces  are  placed 
in  the  room  to  be  warmed,  out  are  bo  arranged, 
usually  against  the  outer  wall  or  beneath  the 
windows,  that  fresh  cold  air  is  brought  in 
around  them  in  order  that  it  may  be  warmed. 

Direct-radiation  heating  by  means  of  flre- 
placcH  IB  the  cheapest  as  regards  construction. 
But  much  the  most  costly  as  regards  fuel.  Di- 
rect-radiation heating  by  means  of  steam  is 
now  more  used  in  large  buildinga  than  any 
other,  because  the  apparatus  is  cheaper  to  con- 
struct than  that  for  steam  or  hot-water  indi- 
rect radiation,  and  can  also  be  run  with  less 
cost  if  there  is  little  or  no  fresh  air  to  be  heated. 

The  great  majority  of  small  dwellmg  houses 
in  the  V.  S.  are  heated  by  stoves,  and  have 
no  provisions  for  ventilation.  In  housea  of  a 
somewhat  better  class  the  hot-air  furnace  is 
very  commonly  employed,  and  of  this  there  are 
many  patterns.  As  fumacesareusually  set,  the 
only  way  to  prevent  the  room  from  becoming  too 
warm  is  to  shut  off  the  air  supply  of  the  room. 
The  source  of  the  fresh-air  supply  to  a  fur- 
nace  is  often  unsatisfactory,  and  is  contami- 
nated with  cellar  air.  So  far  as  comfort  and 
health  are  concerned,  the  best  mode  of  heating 
Is  by  indirect  radiation  from  surfaces  heated 
by  water  to  a  temperature  not  to  exceed  180° 
F.,  and  usually  not  exceeding  ISO".  The  ob- 
ject of  this  method  is  to  warm  all  the  air 
required  for  heating  and  ventilation  to  the 
temperature  desired,  and  no  more.  In  steam 
heating  with  ordinary  forms  of  radiators  the 
temperature  of  the  radiators  must  be  about 
210°  F.,  while  steam  is  circulating,  hence  the  air 
must  be  heated  more  than  is  desirable,  and  the 
requisite  temperature  obtained  by  mixture  with 
eooler  air.  As  a  hot-water  apparatus  K^ust 
have  a  greater  amount  of  rsidiating  surface  and 
larger  flow  and  letum  pipes  than  one  for  steam, 
it  is  more  expensive,  the  extra  cost  being  from 
26  to  36  per  cent.;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
uses  less  fuel  and  requires  less  skilled  manage- 

Wai'ner,  Charles  Dndle?,  lS2e-ie00;  Amer- 
ican author;  b.  Plainfleld,  Mass.;  graduated 
Hamilton  College,  1S6I;  was  admitted  to  the 
bar  in  Philadelphia,  1856;  practiced  in  Chicago 
until  ISflO,  when  he  became  assistant  editor, 
and  in  ISei  editor,  of  the  Hartford  Press.  Ha 
traveled  much,  and  published  several  volumes 
of  travel,  humorous  aketchcs,  essays,  novels, 
and  other  writings,  including  "  My  Summer  in 
a  Garden,"  " Saunterings,"  "Back-log  Studies," 
"The  Gilded  Age"  (with  8.  L.  Clemens), 
"  Mummies  end  Moslems,"  "  In  the  Levant," 
"  In  the  WildemesB,"  "  Their  Pilgrimage,"  "  On 
Horseback,"  "  A  Little  Journey  in  the  World," 
and  "The  Qolden  Bouse";  was  for  years  one 
of  the  editors  of  Harper**  Magaeine. 


WAR  OF  1812 


Wu  of  ISII;  The,  war  between  the  U.  S. 

and  Great  Britain  which  resulted  from  British 
claims  to  the  right  to  search  American  vessels 
and  seize  alleged  British  subjects  therefrom  for 
service  as  seamen  in  the  navy.  June  1,  1812, 
Pres.  Madison  sent  to  Congress  a  message 
recounting  British  aggreesionB.  On  the  ISth 
Congress  declared  war. 

The  U.  S.  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war  had  a 
population  of  about  8,000,000.  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland  had  a  population  of  nearly  20,000,- 
000,  and  ~had  for  a  long  time  been  expending 
blood  and  treasure  lavidily  in  the  mortal  con- 
flict with  Napoleon.  There  was  not  a  universal 
sentiment  in  the  U.  S.  that  war  waa  neceasary. 
The  North  and  East  were  the  sectioua  which 
had  Buffered  the  most  from  the  depredations  in- 
flicted by  England  on  American  commerce,  yet 
many  of  the  people  of  Xew  England  preferred 
to  bear  the  ills  they  had  rather  than  to  fly  to 
the  heavier  if  more  honorable  Iobscb  of  war.  If 
the  choice  must  be  made,  they  preferred  a  war 
with  France,  in  order  that  England  might  be  an 
ally,  and  not  an  enemy,  and  that  her  fleet 
might  not  harry  their  coast  and  destroy  their 
commerce.  But  if  they  must  fight  against  the 
mistress  of  the  seas,  they  desired  that  the  navy 
be  strengthened  and  given  every  help.  Because 
of  these  difl^erent  opinions,  the  country  was 
weaker  than  it  would  have  been,  and  suffered 
disasters  that  might  have  been  avoided,  had 
there  been  a  common  front  against  a  common 

The  war  was  fought  along  the  lakes,  along 
the  N.  Atlantic  shore,  and  along  the  Gulf  i^ 
Mexico.  It  opened  in  the  N.  by  the  invasion  of 
Canada  from  Detroit  by  Gen.  Hull,  Governor 
of  the  Territory  of  Michigan.  In  about  a 
month  Hull  bad  surrendered  his  entire  force 
without  fighting,  and  Michigan  and  parts  of 
Ohio  were  overrun  by  the  British,  whose  prog- 
ress was  withstood  by  Gen.  William  Henry 
Harrison,  who  in  the  preceding  year  had  earned 
distinction  by  defeating  the  Bhawnees  under 
their  chief,  Tecumseh,  and  his  brother,  "  the 
Prophet."  The  campaign  of  1B13  gained  little 
credit  to  the  American  arms.  Gen.  Jacob 
Brown  successfully  defended  Sackett's  Harbor, 
and  Harrison  routed  the  British  and  their  sav- 
age allies  on  the  Thames,  killing  Tecumseh; 
but  other  attempts  at  invasion  by  Wilkinson 
and  Hampton  resulted  in  disgraceful  retreats, 
while  the  British  overran  W.  New  York  and 
burned  several  towns  in  retaliation  for  the 
burning  of  Toronto  (then  Xork).  In  Septem- 
ber, Lieut.  Oliver  H.  Perry,  of  the  U,  8.  navy, 
in  command  of  an  extemporized  fieet,  defeated 
and  captured  the  British  squadron,  nving  the 
Americans  complete  control  of  Lake  Erie.  The 
campaign  of  1814  witnessed  a  marked  change. 
On  the  one  hand,  the  British  forces  in  Canada 
were  heavily  reinforced  by  veteran  troops  from 
Europe;  on  the  other,  the  American  soldiery 
were  acquiring  discipline,  and  able  young  com- 
manders were  coming  to  the  front.  Uudei:  Ja- 
cob Brown  and  Winfleld  Scott  the  Americans 
won  the  victories  of  Chippewa  and  Bridgewa- 
ter  (or  Lundy's  lAne).  On  the  other  end  of  the 
Canada  line  the  invasion  of  a  powerful  army 
under  Sir  George  Prevost  waa  dMeated  through, 
the  destruction,  off  Plattabuig,  of  t^~  ' 


t  th^  support- 

•  C.oogle 


WAR  OF  SUCCESSION 

ing  squadron  by  an  American  fleet  under  Me- 
Donough.  This  practically  ctoBcd  the  war  on 
the  N.  frontier. 

On  the  Atlantic  coast  the  years  1812  and 
1B13  were  marked  by  the  gallant  efforts  of  the 
•ix  or  eight  U,  S,  frigates  and  as  many  sloops 
of  war  to  sustain  thnngelves  against  the 
numerous  cniisem  and,  later,  the  powerful 
fleets  of  Great  Britain.  In  Bpit«  of  victories 
in  single  combat  which  reflected  the  highest 
credit  on  American  seamanship  and  courage, 
the  few  armed  vessels  of  the  U.  S.  were  one  oy 
one  captured  by  superior  force  or  blocked  up 
in  the  N.  harbor^  and  in  1S14  the  British  fleets 
cruised  without  serious  opposition  along  the 
whole  coast,  depredating  and  destroying  at 
will,  though  American  privateers  still  swarmed 
over  the  seas,  inflicting  great  damage  upon 
British  commerce.     In  August,  1814,  a  British 


tul  fleet  under  Admirals  Cockbum  and  Coch- 
rane, captured  Washington  after  an  insiKnifl- 
cant  couflict  at  Bladensburg,  and  burned  the 
Capitol  and  the  President's  mansion.  In  Sep- 
tember the  same  force  attacked  Baltimore,  hut 
both  the  army  and  the  fleet  were  beaten  off, 
Gen.  Ross  being  killed  at  North  Point. 

The  third  theater  of  war  was  at  the  South- 
west The  Creeks  of  Alabama  having  taken 
up  anus,  Gen.  Andrew  Jackson,  with  a  body 
of  W.  levies,  invaded  their  country  and  de- 
feated t^em  with  great  slaughter  at  Tohopeka 
in  March,  18U,  compelling  the  cession  of  the 
larger  part  of  the  Creek  lands.  In  the  summer 
of  the  same  year  a  British  party  occupied  Pen- 
eacola,  then  claimed  by  the  Spaniards,  and 
later  assaulted,  unsuecesifuUy,  Fort  Bowyer, 
near  Mobile.  In  December  the  British  ad- 
vanced to  a  fonuidabie  attack  on  New  Orleans, 
and  Jackson  prepared  for  its  defense.'  A  ni^ht 
attack  was  made  (December  23d)  on  the  British 
camp,  for  which  considerable  effect  has  heea 
claimedi  but  on  January  8,  1815,  the  British 
commander,  Pakenham,  advanced  with  a 
greatly  superior  force  of  Wellington's  veterans 
against  the  U.  S.  lines,  and  was  repulsed,  he 
himself,  his  second  in  command,  and  2,600  men 
falling  in  the  attack,  while  the  U.  8.  loss  was 
less  than  100.  Never  had  a  British  army  been 
so  disastrously  beaten.  Meanwhile  peace  had 
already  been  concluded  at  Ghent,  December 
24,  1814.    By  the  articles  of  the  treaty  all  con- 

Siests  on  both  sides  were  to  be  restored,  while 
e  questions  of  search  and  impressment,  con- 
cerning which  the  war  had  been  begun,  were 
not  mentioned. 

War  of  Snccea'aion.    See  SuccBseiOK  Wasb. 

Wai'rant,  any  one  of  various  writs  by  which 
a  person  or  court  legally  directs  a  person  or  of- 
ficer to  do  some  actj  specifically,  an  order  or 
writ  or  process,  under  seal,  issued  by  some  court 
or  justice  or  officer  authorizing  and  directing 
the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed  to  arrest 
some  person  named  therein  and  bring  him  be- 
fore a  court,  judge,  or  magistrate  for  exami- 
nation, trial,  or  sentence,  or  otherwise  legally 
dispose  of  him,  or  to  take  certain  goods  named, 
or  to  search  for  the  person  or  property  named 
and  take  the  same.  A  warrant  issued  by  a 
court  is  called  a  bench  warrant,  and  such  war- 
rants are  generally  used  for  the  purpose  of  ap- 


prehending »  criminal  who  is  at  large  either  on 
bail  or  otherwise  for  an  examination,  indict- 
ment, or  trial,  or  when  he  has  committed  an 
offense  in  the  presence  of  the  court  A  war- 
rant to  discharge  from  prison  a  person  who  has 
been  bailed  b  called  a  warrant  of  deliver- 
ance. A  warrant  authorizing  a  levy  of  a  pen- 
alty by  distress  and  sale  of  goods  ia  called  a 
warrant  of  distress.  A  search  warrant  au- 
thorises an  officer  to  search  certain  private 
premises  to  And  articles  specified  in  tiie  war- 
rant.    There  are  varioua  other  species  of  war- 

Wai'ranty,  In  law,  a  name  given  to  a  class 
of  agreements  which  are  always  based  upon 
and  collateral  to  some  other  and  principal  con- 
tracts. There  are  three  distinct  species  in  com- 
mon use.  A  warranty  on  the  sale  of  land  is 
an  express  covenant  contained  in  a  deed  of  con- 
veyance, whereby  the  grantor  binds  himself 
and  his  representatives  to  warrant  and  defend 
the  grantee,  his  heirs  and  assigns,  in  the  quiet 
and  peaceable  possession  of  the  land  conveyed 
against  anyone  claiming  the  same  by  a  title 
paramount  to  that  of  the  grantor.  Another 
form  protects  the  grantee  against  persons  only 
claiming  under  the  grantor  nimsel^ 

Warranty  on  the  sale  of  ehattela  is  an  agree- 
ment respecting  the  goods,  subsidiary  and  col- 
lateral to  the  sale  contract,  the  breach  of  which 
does  not  give  the  other  party  the  right  to  treat 
the  contract  as  repudiated,  but  only  the  right 
to  damages. 

Warranties  are  either  express  or  implied. 
The  word  warrant  is  not  necessary  to  an  ex- 
press warranty,  nor  is  actual  intention  to  war- 
rant on  the  part  of  the  seller  easentiaL  If  the 
language  employed  contains  an  assertion,  aa 
distiuguished  from  a  mere  opinion,  that  the 
subject  of  the  sale  has  certain  qualities  or  will 
answer  certain  requirements,  and  the  assertion 
is  relied  upon  by  the  buyer  in  making  the  pur- 
chase, there  is  an  express  warranty.  An  ex- 
ample of  an  implied  warranty  is  found  in  a  sate 
by  sample — -that  the  goods  shall  be  free  from 
any  defect  rendering  them  unmerchantable 
which  is  not  apparent  on  a  reasonable  exami- 
nation of  the  sample. 

Warranties  in  policies  of  insurance  are  stipu- 
lations by  the  assured  which  constitute  the  con- 
ditions upon  which  the  policy  is  issued.     See 

iNSDKANCEi    QuABAnTT. 

Wu'ren.GonTemeurEemble,  1830-82;  Amer- 
ican soldier;  b.  at  Cold  Spring,  N.  Y.i  gradu- 
ated at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy,  I8£0,  and 
entered  the  engineers;  Asst.  Prof,  of  Mathemat- 
ics at  West  Point,  1869-61 ;  promoted  brigadier 
general  of  volunteers,  1S62;  became  chief  topo- 
graphical engineer  under  Hooker,  1863,  and  the 
following  year  chief  engineer  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac;  rendered  gallant  and  meritorious 
services  as  major  general  of  volunteers  until 
the  close  of  the  battle  of  Five  Forks,  1865, 
when  be  was  deprived  of  his  command  by 
Sheridan,  owing  to  a  misunderstanding;  placed 
in  command  of  other  troops  and  promoted  lieu- 
tenant colonel  of  engineers,  I8T9. 

Warren,  Joseph,  1T41-1T76;  American  patri- 
ot; b.  Roxbury,  Mass.;  graduated  at  Harvard, 
1759;  studied  medicine  under  Dr.  Lloyd;  be- 


WARK£N 

ean  practice  at  Boston,  1762;  delivered  in 
1T72  and  in  1775  the  civic  oration  on  the  an- 
niversarj  of  the  "  Boston  Maaaacre  "  ;  member 
of  the  Provineial  Committee  of  Correspondence, 
1772;  chairman  of  the  Committee  of  Public 
Safety,  1774;  and  in  1775  preaident  of  the 
Provincial  Congress,  with  broad  ponera,  being 
thus  the  virtual  executive  at  the  outbreak  of 
hostilities  with  Great  Britain;  organized  the 
Tolunteera  after  the  battle  of  Lexington ; 
chosen  major  general  bj  the  Provincial  Con- 
gresH,  June  14th;  declined  the  command  at  the 
battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  at  which  he  wai  killed, 
falling  near  the  apot  where  the  Bunker  Hill 
Monument  now  standa.  It  was  Warren  who 
sent  Paul  Revere  on  his  ride  to  Lexington. 

Wanen,  Samuel,  1807-77;  Welah  lawyer  and 
author;  b.  Racre,  Denbighshire;  educated  at 
the  Univ.  of  Edinburgh;  began  the  atudy  of 
medicine,  but  soon  abandoned  it  for  law;  con- 
tributed to  Blaokteood't  iSagasme  when  he  was 
only  seventeen  years  of  age,  and  afterwards 
hia  well-known  "  Passages  from  the  Diary  of  a 
Late  Physician,"  1330-31;  wrote  several  legal 
works;  became  queen's  counsel,  1861;  was 
Recorder  of  Hull,  1854-74;  sat  in  Parliament 
aa  a  Conservative,  1868-59,  and  was  appointed 
Maater  in  Lunacy,  1869;  published  "  Tc^n 
Thousand  a  Year,"  1839,  and  the  pamphlet, 
"  The  Queen  and  the  Pope,"  1850,  &  violent 
attack  on  the  pretensions  of  the  Roman  Church. 

War'aaw,  capital  of  the  Russian  general  gov- 
ernment of  the  Vistula  provinces,  formerly  the 
capital  of  the  Kingdom  of  Poland;  on  the 
Vistula.  It^tands  on  a  hill  which  gradually 
descends  into  a  flat  plain,  and  consists  of  the 
old  town,  the  new  town,  and  suburbs,  of  which 
the  most  important  is  Praga,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  river,  connected  with  Warsaw  1:^  two 
iron  bridges.  The  location  of  Warsaw  is  of 
great  commercial  importance.  The  navigable 
Vistula,  the  highroads  in  all  directions,  the 
railways  to  Moscow,  to  St,  Petersburg,  to  Vi- 
enna, to  Dantzic,  t<>  Berlin  by  way  of  Loda, 
the  Warsaw-Terespol,  and  the  Vistula  Rail- 
way, make  the  city  a  commercial  center  for 
the  European-Asiatic  traffic.  Industries  flour- 
ish. Linen  and  woolen  cloths,  carpets,  boots, 
leather  goods,  cotton  and  silk  fabrics,  pianos, 
carriages,  furniture,  gold  and  silverware,  ma- 
cbiaeiy,  chemicals,  sugar,  and  tobacco  are 
made,  and  there  are  large  diatilleriea  and 
breweries.  There  is  much  export  trade  in 
grain,  flax,  cattle,  and  horses,  and  in  coal, 
while  the  finer  goods  are  imported.  Weekly 
markets  and  annual  fairs  attract  thousands  of 
tradesmen. 

In  architectural  respects  Warsaw  haa  been 
'greatly  improved;  formerly  wretched  and  dirty 
huts  alternated-  with  magniflcent  palaces. 
Some  portions  of  the  citv,  like  the  Cracow 
suburb,  are  very  beautiful,  and  are  not  sur- 
passed by  those  of  any  other  European  city. 
Warsaw  has  twelve  public  squares,  full  of  his- 
torical  monuments ;  among  them  are  the  Saxon 
Square,  the  Krasinski  Square,  and  the  Sigis- 
mund  Square,  with  the  column  of  Sigismund 
III,  erected  in  1043.  Among  the  public  build- 
ings that  show  the  fondness  of  the  old  nobility 
for  display  is  the  royal  palace,  built  by  Sigis- 


WARTHOG 

mund  IT,  embellished  bv  Augustus  II  and 
Stanislaus  Augustus,  with  its  unique  library 
and  the  Polish  archives.  A  beautiful  park  ad- 
joins St.  John's  Cathedral,  built  in  1360,  which' 
contains  fine  pictures  and  many  tombs  of  cele- 
brated Poles,  and  which  is  the  most  remarkable 
of  the  179  Catholic  churches.  The  Belvedere, 
the  residence  of  Grand  Duke  Constantine  till 
the  outbreak  of  the  great  insurrection,  the  city 
hall,  the  mint,  and  the  theaters  are  beautiful 
edifices.     The  Greek  Catholic   Cathedral,  com- 

tleted  in  1642,  is  in  the  modern  style;  the 
utheran  Church  is  one  of  the  finest  buildings 
in  the  city.  Among  the  many  scientific  insti- 
tutions is  the  university,  founded  in  1817,  sup- 
pressed in  1832,  and  reestablished  in  1869. 

Warsaw  was  in  existence  in  1224,  and  in 
1339  it  was  strongly  fortified.  It  waa  the  resi- 
dence of  the  dukes  of  Masovia  till  their  ex- 
tinction in  1526.  Sigismund  Augustus  made 
it  the  residence  of  the  Polish  kings  instead  of 
Cracow.  The  Swedes  under  Charles  X  Gua- 
tavuB  conquered  the  city  in  1055,  lost  it  1656, 
but  reconquered  it  after  the  murderoua  three 
days'  battle  at  Warsaw  (July  28-30,  1656). 
By  the  third  partition  it  fell  to  Prussia,  and 
by  the  Vienna  Congress  in  1815  it  became  defi- 
nitely Russian.  After  the  insurrection  of  1830 
it  was  stormed  and  crushed  by  Paakevitch, 
and  again  in  1863  a  revolution  was  suppressed. 
Still  the  vitality  of  the  city  and  the  nation 
was  such  as  to  recover  and  to  increase  even 
in  spite  of  the  most  unfavorable  political  con- 
ditions. Warsaw  is  the  center  of  the  Polish 
nation,  full  of  national  spirit,  learning,  and 
culture.  Pop.  ( 1901 )  758.428,  more  than  fifty 
per  cent  Roman  Catholics,  thirty-three  per 
cent  Jews. 
Wars  of  Soccea'sion.  See  ScocESSion  Wabs. 
Wattbnrg  (^rttxtrch),  a  picturesquely  situ- 
ated castle  in  the  NW.  of  the  Thuringian  for- 
est, near  Eisenach,  Saxe-Weimar,  founded  abt. 
1070  by  Louis,  landgrave  of  Thuringia,  and 
the  residence  of  bis  successors  nearly  four  hun- 
dred years.  The  castle  is  famous  for  a  musical 
tournament  of  minnesingers  in  1206  or  1207, 
for  its  connection  with  the  story  of  St.  Eliza- 
beth of  Hungary,  and  for  the  concealment  of 
Luther  in  it  in  1521-22.  The  celebration  by 
German  students  of  the  third  centenary  of  the 
Reformation,  October  18,  1817,  is  known  as 
the  Wartburg  festival. 


Wart'hag,  two  species  of  family  Phacochtrri- 
da.     The  popular  name  given  to  wild  hogs  of 


WARTS 

Africa  on  account  of  th«  large,  fleehf  projec- 
tions on  all  aides  of  the  face.  The  body  is 
atoutlj  built,  leg«  amall,  head  very  large,  with 
•  small  but  ptftminent  eye  set  far  up  and  back 
on  the  head.  The  snout  is  Urge,  upper  teeth 
or  tuaki  curved  upward  and  outward,  and 
Bometimes  of  enormous  size.  They  live  on 
roots,  which  they  pull  up  with  their  tu«ks. 

Waits,  or  Vei'nics,  small  czereseeDcc  or  ele- 
vation on  the  skin,  developed  by  atmonnal 
growth  of  the  papilln  of  the  skin.  They  may 
be  round  or  conical,  threadlike,  or  broad  and 
flaL  The  so-called  "  seeds  "  or  points  of  a  dry 
wart  correspond  to  the  number  of  papilliB 
which  have  bectmie  thickened.  Each  papilla 
of  the  skin  has  an  independent  supply  of  blood 
^  a  little  loop  of  blood  vessels  at  its  base. 
Hence  mere  removal  of  the  wart  is  followed 
by  its  renewal  from  the  well-nourished  base 
and  remaining  cells  which  have  transmitted 
tiw  tendency  to  excessive  growth.  Cases  are 
cited  of  wbKb  communicated  by  the  blood  from 
other  warts,  but  the  beat  authorities  deny 
them.  Warta  occur  chiefly  in  children  between 
the  second  and  fourteenth  year;  their  cause  is 
uncertain.  Their  duration  is  indefinite;  they 
sometimes  disappear  suddenly,  probably  b;^ 
contraction  of  the  vessels  at  the  base  and  cast- 
ing off  of  the  dry  cells.  When  they  are  ke^t 
free  from  handling  or  irritation,  the  diet  u 
corrected,  and  alteratives  are  given,  they  may 
slowly  disappear.  The  common  treatment  is 
to  snip  them  off  and  touch  the  base  with  nitrio 
acid  or  lunar  caustic. 

Wu'wick,  Slchard  Ifeville  (Earl  of),  eur- 
named  "the  Kino  Makes,"  abt.  1420-71; 
eldest  son  of  Richard  Neville,  Earl  of  Salis- 
bury, and  cousin  of  Edward  IV.  He  had  the 
credit  of  the  victory  of  the  Yorkists  at  St. 
'  AUians,  Hay  22,  145G,  and  was  made  Oovemor 
of  (^ais.  He  crossed  over  to  England  in  June, 
1460 ;  drove  the  imbecile  king,  Henry  VI,  from 
Loudon,  and  captured  him  at  Northampton 
<Juty  loth).  In  1461  Henry  was  set  at  lib- 
erty by  Queen  Margaret's  victory  at  St.  Albans, 
but  Edward  of  York  effected  a  junction  with 
Warwick's  forced,  and  was  proclaimed  king  in 
London  as  Edward  IV.  In  June,  1465,  Hcniy 
was  betrayed,  and  Warwick  conducted  him  to 
the  Tower.  Edward  had  married,  in  1464, 
Elizabeth  Woodviile,  the  widow  of  Sir  John 
Qrey,  and  the  Woodvilles  soon  supplanted  the 
Nevilles  in  the  confidence  of  the  king,  who 
was  displeased  by  the  secret  marriage  in  1469 
of  his  brotiier  Clarence  to  Warwick's  daughter 
Isabella. 


wick  and  Clarence  defeated  part  of  the  royal 
forces  at  the  battle  of  Edgecote,  July  26,  1469, 
captured  and  beheaded  the  father  and  brother 
of  the  queen,  and  led  Edward  prisoner  to  Uid- 
dlebam.  Soon  afterwards  Edward,  released 
from  prison,  reappeared  in  London,  pardoned 
Warwick  and  Clarence,  and  restored  them  to 
his  confidence.    In  1470  Warwick  and  Clarence 


WASHINGT(»f 

Edward  fled  to  Holland^  Henry  ww  taken 
from  the  Tower,  and  the  Merilles  wei«  rain- 
stated  in  their  c^ees  and  honors.  In  1471 
Edward  returned,  and  entered  London  without 
resistance.  Three  days  afterwards  be  attadied 
Warwick  at  Baroet,  April  14th,  and  the  latter 
waa  defeated  and  slain. 

Wuwick,  town  of  Kent  Co.,  R.  L,  settled  in 
1042  by  twelve  Englishmen,  and  tncorponted,  , 
1647.  It  is  S  m.  S.  of  Providence,  on  the 
Providence  and  Pawtuxet  rivers.  It  has  no 
ccnnpactly  settled  quarter,  and  consists  of 
about  twenty -seven  villages.  The  Pawtuxet 
furnishes  power  for  many  eatablishmenta, 
'  chiefly  cotton  ( some  woolen )  and  printed 
goods.     Pop.    (lUlO)    26,629. 

Wooh'biirae, Xlibii  BNijamin,IS16-S7;  Amer- 
ican statesman ;  b.  Livermore,  Me. ;  learned 
the  printer's  trade;  afterwards  studied  law; 
in  1S40  settled  in  Galena,  III.,  where  he  began 
the  practice  of  law;  in  1362  was  elected  to 
Congress,  and  continued  to  serve  till  March, 
1809.  At  the  time  of  his  retirement  he  vraa 
by  consecutive  elections  the  oldest  member,  or 
"  the  father  of  the  bouse."  On  the  occeesioB 
of  Oen.  Grant  to  the  presidency  he  was  ap- 
pointed Secretary  of  State,  but  soon  resigned 
to  accept  that  of  minister  plenipotentiary  to 
Prance.  He  was  serving  in  Uiis  capacity  at 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  France  and 
Prussia,  and  was  the  only  foreign  minister  to 
remain  at  his  post  during  the  si^e  of  Paris 
and  the  Commune,  givins  shelter  and  proteo- 
ti<ai  to  foreigners.  His  firmness  in  protecting 
the  Germans  who  were  unable  to  leave  Paris 
won  admiration.  He  was  the  author  of  "  Rec- 
ollections of  a  Minister  to  France." 

Wtalt'lBCton,  Booker  Taliaferro,  18G7  or  IBSft- 
1915;  American  educator;  b.  Hales  Ford,  Va.; 
educated  Hampton  Normal  and  Agricultural 
Institute,  Va. ;  A.  M.,  Harvard,  1896;  principal 
Tuskegee  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute 
since  1891 ;  author  of  "  Blvik-Belt  Diamonds," 
and  magazine  and  newspaper  articles.  He  has 
aided  the  colored  race  by  emphasizing  the  fact 
that  the  solution  of  the  negro  problem  in  the 
U.  S.  is  not  to  be  attaint  so  much  by  the 
negro's  assertion  of  his  political  rights  as 
along  the  lines  of  intellectnal  end  industrial 
improvement. 

WoaUagton,  Georse,  February  22,  n32-De- 
cember  14,  1T99;  first  President  of  the  U.  S.; 
b.  Westmoreland  Co.,  Va. ;  son  of  Augustine 
Washington  and  his  second  wife,  Mary  Ball. 
He  received  only  the  education  of  the  schools 
of  the  neighborhood.  Aft«r  leaving  school,  be 
passed  his  time  at  Mount  Vernon,  the  estate 
of  his  elder  brother  I^wrence,  where  he  stud- 
ied surveying.  He  made  surveying  his  profes- 
sion, and  was  employed  by  Lord  Fairfax. 

By  the  will  of  his  brother  Lawrence,  who 
died  in  1T62,  and  whom  he  had  accompanied  to 
the  Barbadoes  for  his  health  in  1761,  the  estate 
of  Mount  Vernon  was,  on  the  demise  of  an  in- 
taut  daughter,  given  to  George,  who  added  to 
it  by  later  purehaaes.  In  the  'meantime  the 
prospect  of  a  collision  on  the  frontier  increased, 
and  the  province  was  divided  into  lour  dl>- 


WAflHlNOTON 

trieta,  of  which  the  N.  was  assigned  to  Wftsh- 
incrton  »■  «djut<Ht  general. 
—  In  I76S  two  TegimentB  of  royal  troops  wer« 
■ent  out  under  Braddock,  which  were  joined 
by  the  provincials  of  Virginia.  On  the  asy  of 
Braddoelc's  defeat,  July  9,  1765,  Washington 
was  almost  the  only  officer  of  distincUon  who 
escaped  with  life  and  honor.  The  duty  of 
protecting  the  frontier  now  devolved  upon  him 
till  the  end  of  the  war.  In  I75S  he  commanded 
the  Virginia  contingent  in  the  abortive  cam- 
paign ujider  Gen.  Forties  against  Fort  Duquesne. 
On  January  IT,  ITGS,  he  married  Martha  Dan- 
drid^,  the  wealthy  widow  of  Daniel  Parke 
Custis,  and  soon  afterwards  removed  to  Mount 

Washington  was  a  member  of  the  House  of 
BuigeaaeH  during  the  whole  period  of  that  war 
of  l^islation  in  England,  and  popular  resist- 
ance and  Excitation  in  the  colonies,  which  pre- 
ceded the  appeaJ  to  arms;  and  in  1774  he  was 
a  delc^t«  to  the  Continental  Congress.  On 
April  19,  I7?S,  the  coofiict  opened  at  Lexing- 
ton and  Concord ;  and  the  Continental  Con- 
gress on  June  16th  unanimously  elected  Wash- 
ington commander  in  chief  of  the  armies  of 
the  Revolution.  He  toolc  command  of  the 
forces  besieging  Boston  on  Jul;  3d;  and  the 
British  evacuated  that  town  on  March  IT, 
1T76.  Then  followed,  in  rapid  succession,  the 
disasters  of  Long  Island,  of  Fort  Washington, 
and  of  the  calamitous  retreat  Uirough  the  Jer- 
Kva.  The  brilliant  stroke  at  Trent«n  and  the 
subetantial  success  of  Princeton  restored  the 
drooping  courage  of  the  people ;  hut  they  were 
followed  by  the  reverse  at  Brandywlne,  tlie 
unsuccessful  blow  at  Germantown,  and  the  ter- 
rible winter  at  Valley  Forge.  The  greatness 
of  Washington  never  appeared  at  better  advan- 
tage than  in  the  period  that  followed. 

During  the  summer  of  ITT8  the  courage  and 
elcill  of  Washington  turned  a  disgraceful  com- 
mencement of  the  day  at  Monmouth  into  a  sub- 
stantial victory;  but  from  that  time  forward 
no  brilliant  success  attended  the  forces  under 
his  immediate  command  till  the  final  blow  was 
Btmclc,  with  the  overwhelming  numtters  of  the 
combined  American  and  French  forces,  at 
Yorktown.  After  this  great  success  the  war 
still  dragged  out  a  lingering  existence.  More 
than  two  years  elapsed  from  the  capitulation 
of  Yorktown  (October,  17B1)  to  the  evacua- 
tion of  New  York  (November  25,  1783).  On 
December  23,  17S3,  Washington  resigned  liis 
commission  as  commander  in  chief  of  the  army 
to  the  Continental  Congress  sitting  at  Annapo- 
lis. He  retired  to  Mount  Vernon,  and  resumed 
his  occupation  as  a  fanner  and  planter,  shun- 
ning all  connection  with  public  life.  He  was 
a  member  of  the  convention  at  Philadelphia 
in  Hay,  178T,  to  frame  the  Constitution  of  the 
U.  S.,  and  was  unanimously  elected  its  Presi- 
dent 

The  Constitution  fras  far  from  being  warmly 
or  generally  welcomed ;  and  it  is  doubtful 
whether  it  would  have  been  ratified  but  for 
the  popularity  of  Washington,  who  was  in- 
stinctively marked  out  by  public  expectation 
as  the  first  President.  He  was  chosen  by  the 
unanimous  vote  of  the  electoral  colleges.  John 
Adams  yn»  Vice  President.    He  was  inaugu- 


WASHINOTON 

rated  in  New  York,  April  8,  1789,  public 
apathy  having  prevented  the  assembling  of  a 
quorum  of  (Egress  till  long  after  the  ap- 
pointed time,  March  4tb.  His  cabinet  con- 
sisted of  Thomas  Jefferson  (Secretary  of 
State),  Alexander  Hamiltoq  (Treasury),  and 
Gen.  Knox  (War).  Foreign  affairs  were  in  an 
unsatisfactory  condition.  General  apathy,  dis- 
trust, and  uneasy  expectation  reigned  at  home. 
Out  of  this  chaos  order  was  sf^edily  educed 
by  the  administration,  in  spite  of  the  rivalry 
between  JetTerson  and  Hamilton.  In  the  au- 
tumn of  1792  he  was  unanimously  reelected, 
and  Adams  was  reelected  Vice  President.  The 
great  rivals  in  the  cabinet  gave  place  to  men 
of  inferior  ability,  but  pursuing  the  same  line 
of  policy  as  their  predecesBors. 

At  the  close  of  his  term,  March  4,  1797, 
Washington  retired  to  Mount  Vernon.  On  Dec 
12,  1799,  while  taking  his  usual  ride  around 
his  farms,  in  a  storm,  he  caught  a  severe  cold, 
and  died  two  days  afterwards  of  acute  latrngi- 
tis,  B  disease  tlien  almost  unknown.  Waking- 
ton  was  0  ft.  2.  in.  high;  his  person  in  youui 
was  spare  but  well  proportioned,  and  never  too 
stout  for  prompt  and  easy  movement.  His 
hair  was  brown,  his  eyes  blue  and  far  apart, 
his  hands  large,  his  arms  uncommonly  strong, 
and  the  muscular  development  of  his  frame 
perfect.  He  was  childless,  but  most  happy  in 
his  domestic  relations,  and  adopted  two  grand- 
children of  his  wife.  In  the  reeolutions  adopt- 
ed by  Congress'at  his  death,  moved  by  John 
Marshall,  occurs  the  expression,  "  First  in 
war,  first  In  peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of 
his  countrymen,"  attributed  to  his  old  friend, 
"  Light-horse  Hariy  "  Lee. 

Warirington,  one  of  the  U,  S.  of  N.  America; 
the  twenty-ninth  in  order  of  admission  into 
the  Union;  popularly  known  as  tKo  "  Ever- 
OBBEN  Btate;  capital,  Olympia;  is  bounded 
N.  and  NW.  by  British  Columbia,  E.  by  Idaho, 
S.  by  Oregon,  and  W.  by  the  Pacific.  The  S. 
boundary  tor  three  fourths  of  its  length  fol- 
lows the  Columbia  River,  the  E.  part  of  it 
following  the  parallel  of  46" ;  and  the  8.  part 
(about  30  m.)  of  the  boundair  between  Wash- 
ington and  Idaho  is  formed  by  the  Snake 
River;  extreme  width,  N.  to  8.,  about  240  m.; 
length,  E.  to  W.,  3U0  tb.;  area,  69,127  sq.  m.j 
pop.   (1910)    I,U1,990. 

The  Cascade  MounUin  Range,  extending  K. 
to  6.,  divides  the  state  into  E.  Washington 
and  W.  Washington.  E.  Washington  includes 
an  area  sometimes  called  central  Washington, 
lying  between  the  Columbia  River  and  th^  Cas- 
cade Mountains,  and  including  the  Yakima 
and  Kittitas  valleys,  formerly  considered  ster- 
ile sage-brush  plains,  but  now  being  trans- 
formed into  fertile  valleys  by  irrigation  from 
the  Yakima,  a  tributary  of  the  Columbia. 
These  two  rivers,  with  the  Snake,  Spokane, 
Methow,  and  Okanogan  rivers,  are  the  most 
important  water  courses  of  E.  Washington. 
They  afford  immense  possibilities  of  water 
power,  as  there  are  many  falls  and  rapids. 
The  falls  at  Spokane  are  already  utilized.  The 
largest  take  in  the  NW.  is  Lake  Chelan, 
Okanogan  Ca,  E.  Washington,  70  m.  long  and 
about  3  m.  wide.  Besides  the  two  vallCTs  men- 
tioned there  are  the  fertile  vali^  of  Walla 


WASHINGTOH 

Walla,  the  Palouae  Yollej,  the  Colvilte  valley, 
the  Okaui%a.n  valley  (now  used  far  grazing}, 
and  the  large  plateau  known  as  the  Bi^  B^d 
country.  W.  Washington  is  entirely  different 
in  its  general  features.  Its  area  is  a  little 
over  one  half  as  great,  and  ite  slope  to  tide- 
water is  abrupt  wnen  compared  with  the  long 
stretch  of  raiting  plains  and  valleys  of  E. 
Washington.  The  most  Important  part  of  W. 
WaBhington  is  known  aa  the  Puget  Sound 
Basin.     Its  great  body  of  water,  now  known 


generally  as  Puget  Sound,  embraces  about 
2,000  eq.  m.,  including  one  of  the  finest  aeries 
of  harbors  on  the  globe.  The  rest  of  the  coast 
is  abrupt  and  barren  of  harbors,  excepting 
Gray's  and  Willapa  harbors.  The  important 
rivers  of  the  Puget  Sound  Basin  are  the  Skagit, 
Snohomish,  Puyallup,  Nisqually,  White,  and 
Dwaminh — all  of  which  drain  productive  and 
fertile  valleys  bearing  the  names  of  the  rivers. 
Other  imporUnt  rivers  of  W.  Washington  are 
the  Chehalis,  flowing  into  Gray's  harbor;  the 
Willapa,  flowing  into  Willapa  harbor ;  and  the 
Cowlitz,  flowing  S.  into  the  Columbia  River. 
A  branch  of  the  Snohomish  forms  the  pictur- 
esque Snoqualmie  Falls,  20  m.  E.  of  Seattle. 
The  most  important  lake  in  W.  Washington  is 
Lake  Washington,  about  15  m.  long  and  3  m. 
wide.  Lake  Union  lies  between  this  lake  and 
Puget  Sound,  and  Seattle  extends  to  the  shores 
of  both  lakes.  Lake  Whatcom  lies  back  of 
New  Whatcom.  Along  the  W.  coast  ig  arange 
of  irregular  mountains  called  the  Olympics,  or 
Coflst  Range. 

Two  whole  counties — Island  and  San  Juan — 
are  composed  entirely  of  islands.  They  are 
important  for  agriculture,  and  supply  the  bulk 
of  the  lime  used  in  the  state.  The  possession 
of  most  of  these  islands  was  a  matter  of  dis- 
pute with  Great  Britain  for  years,  and  was 
not  adjusted  until  1873.  The  names  of  the 
most  important  islands  are  Whidby,  San  Juan, 
Orcas,  Lopez,  Camano,  Fidalgo,  Guemes,  Lum- 
mi,  and  Wnldron.  The  highest  points  in  the 
state  are:  Mount  Rainier,  U,444  ft.;  Mount 
Baker,  10,827;  Mount  St.  Helens,  9,750  ft.; 
and  Mount  Adams,  9,570  ft. 

The  native  animals  include  the  elk,  deer, 
caribou,  mountain  goat,  mountain  sheep  (big- 
horn) ,  bear,  cougar,  wildcat,  wolf,  coyote, 
raccoon,  otter,  beaver,  wolverine,  martin, 
skunk,  muskrat,  fisher,  and  small  rabbits  and 


WASHINGTON 

squirrels.  There  are  no  Doisonous  reptiles  or 
insects,  except  a  few  rattlesnakes  found  in  E. 
Washington.  The  birds  are  innumerable.  The 
principal  ^me  birds  are  ducks,  geese,  swans, 
prairie  chickens,  grouse,  pheasants,  quails,  and 
pigeons.  Fossil  remains  of  many,  extinct  ani- 
mals and  fishes  are  found.  The  streams  and 
lakes  abound  in  many  varieties  of  fish  and 
shellfish.  The  princip^  fishes  of  commerce  are 
the  salmon  and  halibut.  Native  in'sters, 
though  small,  are  largely  exported  to  Pacific 
coast  markets. 

The  director  of  the  U.  S.  weather  service 
says:  "  For  eouability  and  mildness  of  climate, 
absence  of  either  very  hot  or  very  cold  waves, 
and  freedom  from  destructive  tornadoes  or  cy- 
clones, WaBhington  stands  foremost  among  the 
favored  states  of  the  American  Union."  The 
mean  annual  rainfall  over  the  immediate  Pa- 
cific coast  portion  of  the  state  ranges  from  79 
to  107  in.  This  immense  rainfall  occurs  dur- 
ing the  three  winter  months,  and  during  the 
rest  of  ttie  year  the  rainfall  is  not  excessive. 
The  government  records  are  dispelling  the  er- 
roneous idea  that  Washington  has  an  excess- 
ively rainy  climate.  The  prevailing  soil  in 
£.  Wasiiington  is  a  volcanic  ash.  It  is  light, 
and,  when  properly  watered,  wonderfully  pro- 
ductive. In  W.  Washington  the  soil  mostly 
cultivated  is  that  of  the  river  bottoms  and 
reclaimed  tide  marshes,  where  it  is  a  rich  al- 
luvial loam.  The  first  settlers  found  in  E. 
Washington  the  bunch-grass  plains,  unexcelled 
for  natural  grazing  ground,  and  in  W.  Wash- 
ington the  unparalleled  forests  of  cone-bearing 
trees.  The  reclaimed  tide  marshes  of  the  Puget 
Sound  Basin  are  very  productive.     The  state. 


the  size  and  number  of  trees.  A  large  per- 
centage of  these  belong  to  the  cone-bearing 
family,  and  the  deciduous  or  hardwood  varie- 
ties are  few  and  of  little  value.  About  nine 
tenths  of  the  Puget  Sound  forests  consist  of 
fir.  The  other  trees  are  cedar,  spruce,  hem- 
lock, larch,  pine,  maple,  alder,  cot  ton  wood, 
dogwood,  crab  apple,  yew,  and  a  few  oaks.  The 
total  timber  area  of  the  state  is  put  at  34,000 
sq.  m.  Smaller  vegetation  grows  in  luxuriant 
tangles  in  the  lowlands  of  W.  Washington, 
and  in  some  places  is  practically  impenetrable. 
The  soil  in  such  localities,  when  cleared,  is  the 
richest.  In  E.  Washington  there  are  some  for- 
ests of  pine,  fir,  and  cedar,  prized  by  the  set- 
tlers, but  the  timber  is  much  inferior  to  that 
of  the  Pu^t  Sound  forests.  The  drier  plains 
of  E.  Washington  were  originally  covered  with 
sage  brush  and  bunch  grass. 

The  principal  crops  of  E.  Washington  are 
wheat,  barley,  hay,  hopa,  and  oats;  and  of  W. 
Washington,  oata,  potatoes,  hops,  and  hay. 
The  wheat  crop  (1011)  was  50,661,000  bu. 
There  are  also  grown  v^etables  of  all  kinds. 
Flax,  rye,  Indian  com,  and  in  a  few  places  in 
centra!  Washington  some  peanuts  are  raised. 
Hops  thrive  well,  yielding  600  to  3,000  lb.  to 
the  acre.  In  fruits,  the  state  excels  in  prunes, 
apples,  pears,  cherries,  and  the  small  berries. 
T%e  acreage  is  increasing  rapidly,  and  the  sur- 
plus prciduct  is  shipped  to  the  E.  states.  Irri- 
gation   is   revolutionizing   agriculture   in   the 


WASHIN(3T0N 

central  p&rt  of  ths  Btate,  and  millions  are 
being  invested  in  irrigating  works.  In  IS04 
thare  were  reported  178,000  acres'  of  irrigated 
land.  The  principal  crops  produced  in  the  sec- 
tions reclaimed  are  fniits,  altalfa,  hops,  and 
vegetables.  The  timlKT  wealth  of  the  state  "is 
immense.  The  deliveries  of  timber  (1^07)  bf 
sea  were  1,109,222,092  board  ft.,  and  the  lum- 
ber cut  by  Washington  mills  in  ISIO  measured 
4,097,402,000  board  ft.  Tbe  greatest  product 
of  the  mines  thus  far  has  been  coal;  but  gold, 
silver,  lead,  iron,  copper,  zinc,  antimony,  nickel, 
bismuth,  and  other  metals  are  found  in  paying 
quantities.  Granite,  sandstone,  lime,  i^arble, 
and  valuable  cla;s  are  also  found.  Many  of  the 
mining  districts  abounding  in  precious  metals 
are  as  jet  only  prospect^  and  are  awaiting 
railways  to  mature  development.  There  are 
productive  mineral  spriiUB  at  the  Cascades,  in 
Skamania  Co.;  Medical  Lake,  in  Spokane  Co.; 
and  N.  Yakima,  Yakima  Co.  Valuable  deposits 
of  iron  ore  exist  in  the  state,  but  mining  is  in 
its  infancy. 

Washington  is  divided  into  thirty-six  coun- 
ties. Important  cities  and  towns  are  Seattle, 
Tacoma,  Bpokane,  Walla  Walla,  Everett,  What- 
com, Ballard,  Fair  Haven,  Olympia,  Vancou- 
ver, Aberdeen,  Port  Townsend,  N.  Yakima, 
Rodyn,  Eoquiam,  Port  Angeles,  Dayton,  Col- 
fax, Snohomish,  and  Republic  The  principal 
manufacture  in  E,  Washington  is  flour,  large 
mills  being  located  at  Spokane,  Walla  Walla, 
Dayton,  Waitsburg,  Cheney,  and  other  cities. 
ibt  chief  manufactures  in  W.  Washington  are 
lumber,  iron,  brick,  and  tile.  Seattle  and  Ta- 
coma are  the  chief  manufacturing  cities.  The 
Nortjiem  Paoiflc  and  the  Great  Northern  rail- 
ways cross  the  state,  and  have  branches  In  it, 
but  pack  animals  are  used  for  much  internal 
transportation. 

Every  section  of  land  numbered  16  or  36  is 
set  aside  for  the  maintenance  of  public  schools. 
The  aggregate  is  2,484,480  acres,  and  none  of 
it  can  be  sold  for  less  than  CIO  an  acre.  The 
proceeds  from  the  sale  of  these  lands  constitute 
a  fund,  having  a  minimum  value  of  {24,844,800, 
only  the  interest  on  which  can  be  used.  In 
1909  ttiere  were  about  206,000  children  enrolled 
in  the  schools.  Besides  the  publio  achools, 
there  are  over  fifty  colitis,  endowed  acade- 
mies, and  private  schools.  The  colleges  include 
the  Univ.  of  Washington,  Coltai  College  (Bsp- 
tist),  at  Colfaxi  Whitworth  College,  at  Sum- 
ner; Whitman  College  (Congregational),  at 
Walla  Walla;  and  St  James's  College  (Roman 
Catholic),  at  Vancouver.  Tliere  are  state  nor- 
mal schools  at  EUenslnirg  and  Cheney  and  an 
agricnltural  collie  and  school  of  science  at 
Pullman. 

The  state  institutions  comprise  a  soldiers' 
home  at  Orticg,  reform  school  at  Chehalis,  hos- 

Sals  for  the  insane  at  Steilacoom  and  Medical 
ke,  a  school  for  defective  youth  at  Vancou- 
ver, and  a  penitentiary  at  Walla  Walla.  There 
are  private  and  denominational  hospitals,  or- 
phanages, homes,  and  other  institutions,  and  a 
■mall  penitentiary  on  McNeill's  Island,  belong- 
ing to  the  U.  a 

The  constitution  provides  that  state  officers 
shall  be  elected  for  four  years  at  the  same 
whi«h    tbe    vote    la    taken    for 


WASHINGTON 

President  of  tlie  U.  8.  Much  of  tbe  work 
of  tbe  state  government  devolves  upon  boards 
of  trustees  or  commissioners.  Each  state 
institution  has  a  board  of  trustees.  There 
are  boards  to  handle  the  state  lands,  to  look 
after  the  state  printing,  to  equalize  the  taxes, 
to  appraise  the  tide  lands,  to  regulate  the  prac- 
tice of  medicine,  etc.  These  officers  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  governor.  An  elector  must  be  a 
male  citizen  of  the  U.  3.,  and  must  reside  in 
the  state  one  year,  in  the  county  six  montlis, 
aiid  in  bis  voting  precinct  thirty  days  before 
being  entitled  to  vote.  For  a  brief  period  in 
territorial  days  the  suffrage  was  extended  to 
women,  but  it  was  withdrawn  l>efore  statehood, 
though  women  were  allowed  to  vote  at  echool 
elections.  Woman  suffrage  was  restored  in  1910. 
Along  the  seacoast  are  found  names  that  per- 
petuate the  memory  of  the  earliest  Spanish 
voyages  to  the  Pacific  NW„  such  as  tlie  Strait 
of  San  Juan  de  Fuca  and  San  Juan  Islands. 
The  greater  number  of  names,  as  Vancouver 
Island,  Puget  Sound,  Mt  Rainier,  etc.,  com- 
memorate the  more  complete  work  of  the  Eng- 
lish navigator  George  Vancouver.  Gray's  Har- 
bor and  Columbia  River  are  named  after  Capt. 
Robert  Gray  and  bis  vessel,  the  Columbia;  he 
discovered  both  in  1792  while  on  the  first 
voyage  of  exploration  in  the  Pacific  NW. 
by  and  for  Americans.  These  discoveries  gave 
the  U.  B.  a  claim  t 
the  territory  now  embraced  : 
but  title  was  not  made  perfect  until  1803,  when 
the  U.  S.  purchased  from  Ifapoleon  I  the  Lou- 
isiana Territory,  which  cleared  the  last  contro- 
versy, except  trifling  differences,  with  Great 
Britain  as  to  boundaries  between  the  U.  S.  and 
British  America.  The  Lewie  and  Clarke  over- 
land expedition  made  valuable  discoveries  in 
1803-05.  The  Hudson  Bay  Company  long  op- 
erated in  this  region,  and  remains  of  their  forts 
and  buildings  still  exist.  The  American  Fur 
Company,  John  Jacob  Astor's  Pacific  Fur  Com- 
pany, and  other  enterprises  sought  this  field  in 
the  early  nineteenth  century.  Washington  was 
a  part  of  the  Territory  of  Oregon  until  1863, 
when  a  part  was  set  off  and  organized  as 
Washington  Territory.  Two  years  later  white 
settlers  experienced  much  trouble  with  Indi- 
ans in  different  parts  of  the  territory.  Wash- 
ington was  admitted  into  the  Union  November 


with  the  District  of  Columbia;  on 
the  Potomac  River.  Tbe  District  of  Columbia 
is  bounded  N.,  NW.,  E.,  and  SE.  by  Maryland 
and  W.  and  SW.  b^  the  Potomac,  which  sep- 
arates it  from  Virginia.  Area,  over  69  sq.  m., 
60  of  which  are  land.  The  area  of  the  city 
proper  amounts  to  8,664  acres,  of  which  the 
Government  reservations  comprise  405  acres, 
while  the  avenues  and  streets  embrace  2,554 
acres,  leaving  only  3,152  acres  to  the  squares 
on  which  private  residences  are  built.  There 
are  301  parks  or  reservations  in  all.  The 
principal  are  Washington  Park  (Monument 
grounds).  President's  Park  (in  rear  of  the 
White  House),  Smithsonian  Park,  Judiciary 
Park,  Garfield  Park,  and  Lincoln  Park.  Tbe 
water  Biippl7  is  brought  by  a  capacious  MUfe-^ 

7  *-Vv'" 


WASHINGTOH 

duct  from  the  Great  Falli  of  the  Potonuui,  IS  in. 
above.  It  affords  80,000,000  gal.  dail^,  and  cost 
93,600,000.  Waahin^n  ia  situated  in  part  on 
the  tongue  of  laud  lying  at  the  confluence  of 
two  broad  rivers,  from  which  the  ground  rises 
into  the  expanded  plateau  of  Capitol  Hill, 
about  100  ft  above  the  Potomac.  The  cit; 
proper  is  surrounded  on  the  E.,  N.,  and  W.  by 
an  amphitheater  of  well-wooded  hiUa,  embrac- 
ing in  some  cases  the  ancimt  forest  growth. 

The  Capitol  contains  the  chamben  and  of- 
fices of  the  bouses  of  Congress,  and  the 
Supreme  Court  room  and  offices.  The  Con- 
ffressional  Library  Building  occupies  a  square 
just  E.  of  the  Capitol.  It  is  built  of  white 
New  Hampshire  granit«,  three  stories  high, 
in  the  ItaUan  RenaiBSance  style.  The  dimen- 
sions are  470  by  340  ft,  the  building  cover- 
ing 3 i  acres.  The  central  feature  of  the  in- 
terior is  the  reading  room,  an  octagonal  or 
nearly  circular  hall  100  ft.  in  diameter,  its 
walls  decorated  with  numerous. beautiful  arches 
of  carved  marbles.  The  book  repositories  open- 
ing out  from  the  reading  room  accommodate 
2,000,000  volumes,  the  ultimate  capacity  of  the 
building  being  4,500,000.  There  are  four  great 
inner  courts,  lined  with  white  enameled  brick, 
and  the  number  of  windows  exceeds  £,OO0,  ren- 
■  derittg  this  the  b^-ligbted  library  in  the  world. 
Copyright  record  rooms.  Congressional  reading 
rooms,  a  lecture  hall,  a  department  for  the 
blind,  map  room,  and  an  art  gallery  are  other 
features  of  the  building. 

The  Treasury  Department,  the  Post  OHlce 
Department,  the  Department  of  Agriculture, 
and  the  Department  of  the  Interior  occupy  four 
large  and  imposing  buildings,  the  latter  using 
in  addition  the  building  formerly  occupied  by 
the  Post  Office  Department.  The  State,  War, 
and  Navy  departments  occupy  another  large 
building.  Other  importab*-  Government  build- 
ings are  the  U.  8.  Noral  Observatory,  on 
Georgetown  Heights,  the  Court  of  Claims,  the 
Army  Medical  Museum,  the  Soldiers'  Home, 
the  Pension  Office,  the  Weather  Bureau,  and 
the  Printing  Office.  The  Washington  Navy 
Yard  occupies  27  acres  on  the  Anacostia  River. 

The  President's  house,  known  aUo  as  the 
Executive  Mansion  and  the  White  House,  is  on 
Pennsylvania  Avenue,  occupying  a  reservation 
of  about  20  acres,  between  the  Treasury  and 
the  departments  of  State,  War,  and  Navy.  It 
is  a  plain  edifice  of  freestone,  painted  white, 
170  by  86  EL,  with  a  colonnade  of  eight  Ionic 
columns  in  front  and  a  semicircular  portico  in . 
the  rear.  The  building  is  adorned  by  excellent 
portraits  of  the  ex-Presidents  of  the  U.  S.  The 
largest  apartment,  known  as  the  East  Room, 
is  eo  by  40  ft.  in  dimensions  and  22  ft.  high. 
The  adjoining  Ittue  Room,  an  apartment  fin- 
ished in  blue  and  gold,  is  devoted  to  receptions. 
The  Green  Room  and  Red  Boom  are  each  30 
by  20  ft.  The  rooms  of  the  second  floor  are 
occupied  with  apartments  for  the  presidential 
family.  The  first  President's  house,  begun  in 
17S2,  was  occupied  by  Pres.  Adams  in  1800, 
and  was  burned  by  the  British  in  1814,  The 
present  edifice  was  constructed  in  1S1S-2B,  and 
extenwvely  remodeled  in  1902-3,  with  a  con- 
necting building  for  the  executive  offices. 

Among  the  many  fine  statues  in  Washington 


are  Bravn'B  bronze  equeatrian  statue  of  GeiB. 
WinSetd  Scott,  Ball's  bronze  statue  repr«Mnt- 
ing  Lincoln  freeing  a  sUve  in  chains,  and 
Greenough's  marble  statue  of  Washington. 
The  only  public  institution  devoted  exclusively 
to  the  fine  arts  is  the  Corcoran  Gallery  of  Art, 
Seventeenth  Street  and  New  York  Avenue, 
opened  with  a  collection  of  ^intiogs,  statuary, 
bronzes,  and  caste  from  the  antique  in  IS73. 
The  Washington  National  lionument  (to  com- 
memorate the  first  President)  was  begun  by  an 
association  inoorporated  by  Congress.  Its  cor- 
ner stone  was  laid  July  4,  1646.  After  an  ex- 
penditure of  $230,000,  raised  by  subscription, 
work  was  suspended.  The  m<mument  was  fin- 
ished in  less.  It  is  built  of  great  blocks  of 
crystal  Maryland  marble,  lined  with  blue 
gneiss,  and  rests  on  a  foundation  104  ft  square 
and  37  ft  deep.  The  height  of  this  monument 
is  655  ft.  5)  in.  The  weij^t  of  the  whole  struc- 
ture, including  foundation,  is  61,117  tons  of 
2^40  lb.;  cost,  81,187,710.  A  polished  cap  of 
aluminum  covers  the  highest  point  Within 
the  monument  are  an  elevat«r  and  stairway  of 
BOO  sUps. 

The  ZoQlogica]  Park  lies  along  both  banks 
of  Rock  Crerfc,  to  the  NW.  of  the  wty.  The 
site  is  extremely  picturesque,  and  the  variety 
of  animals  and  birds  here  exhibited  render  it 
a  most  attractive  resort.  The  Rock  Creek 
Park,  an  extensive  tract  purchased  by  Con- 
gress in  ISOO  for  21,200,000,  comprises  1,006 
acres,  stretching  along  the  winding  stream  for 

There  was  a  confitct  in  Congress  in  1730-90 
over  the  claims  of  rival  localities  for  the  seat 
of  government,  and  the  present  site  was  se- 
lected as  a  compromise,  Philadelphia  being 
made  the  capital  for  ten  years,  while  after  ISOD 
it  was  to  be  established  on  the  Potomac  After 
the  cession  of  a  Federal  district  to  the  U.  S.  by 
Maryland  and  Virginia,  the  site  of  the  dty 
and  the  location  of  the  public  squares  and 
buildings  were  selected  hy  Pres,  Washington 
on  the  Maryland  side  of  the  Potomac.  At 
the  time  of  this  location  the  city  was  nearly 
in  the  geographical  center  between  the  N.  and 
S.  limiU  of  the  Union.  It  was  called  the  "  Fed- 
eral City  "  by  Washington  and  in  the  records 
until  September  9,  1791,  when  the  commission- 
ers directed  tlmt  the  Federal  district  should  be 
called  the  Territory  of  Columbia  and  the  Fed- 
eiul  city  the  city  of  Washington.  Major  I'En- 
fant,  a  French  engineer,  prepared  the  plan  of 
Washington  City  under  the  direction  of  George 
Washington  and  Thomas  Jefferson.  L'Enfant 
took  BE  a  basis  for  his  design  the  topography  of 
Versailles,  the  seat  of  the  government  of 
France,  but  with  large  modifications.  On  Au- 
gust 24,  1814,  the  city  was  captured  by  the 
British,  who  burned  the  Capitol  and  other  pub- 
lic buildings.  From  1802  to  1871  Washington 
was  under  municipal  government,  but  in  the 
latter  year  a  territorial  government  wba  organ- 
ized for  the  District  of  Colurabia.  In  1874  this 
in  turn  was  abolished  and  the  government 
placed  in  the  hands  of  three  commissioners  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  while  Congress  as- 
sumed direct  legislative  control  over  finance 
and  improvements.  During  the  Civil  Wu 
Washington  was  the  oeutar  of  sieat  iniUtuy 

8  i.C.oogIc 


WASHINGTON 

Trktions.    The  oitj  was  fortified  by  a  chain 
etrong  forte,  sixty-eight  in  number,  sud  it 
wan  a  great  depot  for  militarv  euppliei.     Pop. 
(IBIO)    331.069,    of   which   one-third   were   of 
negro  descent.     See  Distkict  OF  Colhubu. 
Washinjitoti,  Ttea'ty  of. 
Washinzton  Aicta.    See  New  York  Cm. 

B  Washingto:!, 

Washington  UniTei'aitr,  an  inatitution  of 
leamiue'  at  St.  Louis,  Mo.;  incorporated  in 
1853.  It  consists  of  six  higlier  deparbments — 
the  undergraduate  department,  including  the 
collie  (1859)  and  the  polytechnic  school 
[1&70);  the  Hent7  Shaw  School  of  Botany 
(lesa),  the  St  Louia  Law  School  (1867),  the 
School  of  Fine  Arts,  the  St.  Louis  Medical  Col- 
lege (ISQl),  and  the  Missouri  Dental  College 
(1892).  The  university  also  has  three  aecond- 
ar7  schools— the  Smith  Academy  (1864),  the 
Manual  Training  School  (1879),  and  Man  In- 
stitute, for  girls  (1859).  The  number  of  stu- 
dents in  all  departments  in  1910  was  1,024; 
the  number  of  instructors  was  14S.  The  ape- 
cial  reference  Itbrftries  include  al>out  110,000 
Tolumes. 

Waah'ita  Klv'er  (frequently  spelled  Ouachi- 
ta.), a  stream  which  rises  by  its  Brushy  Fork 
in  Polk  Co.,  Ark.,  and  flows  first  E.  and  th<^n 
8.,  crossing  the  Louiaiana  state  line  and  dis- 
charging into  Red  River.  That  part  of  Wash- 
ita Rirer  between  Tensas  and  Red  rivers  is 
sometimes  called  Black  River.  It  is  navigable 
to  Camden,  Ark.,  and  for  two  thirds  of  the  year 
to  Arkadelphia,  Ark.  It  is  600  m.  long,  and 
flows  through  a  rich  corn  and  cotton  region. 
Its  naviration  is  extensive  and  important. 
Another  Washita,  called  also  the  False  Wash- 
ita, falls  into  the  Red  River  at  Washita  Bend, 
above  Preston,  Tex. 

Wasp,  any  one  of  a  large  number  of  insects 
(aee   Entomoloot)    which   are   all   easentially 
similar  in.  the  possession  of  a  sting  of  no  mean 
capacity  at  the  end  of  the  abdomen  of  the  fe- 
male.    They  have  strong  biting  jaws,  and  the 
abdomen  is  either  joined  to  the  thorax  by  its 
whole    breadth    or    by   a    slender    connection. 
There  are   two   well-marked  groups   of   waeps, 
each  containing  many 
species :   ( 1 )  The  dig- 
ger  wasps,   in   which 
I  the    wings    are     not 
folded  when  at  rest, 
and     (2)     the      true 
wasps,  in  which  they 
are    folded.      In    the 
first,  the  female  usu- 
ally  constructs   nests 
for  the  young  by  ex- 
cavating holes  in  the 
earth    or    in    wood,    and    in    them    she    lays 
her    eggs.      The    diggers    are    all    aolitary    in 
habit — i.e.,  each  female  works  by  herself  in  the 
nest  making.    In  the  nest  she  stores  up  food  in 
the  shape  of  insects,  which  she  paralyzes,  but 
does   not   kill,    with   her  sting.     On   these  the 
larva  feeds  until  ready  to  go  through  its  trans. 
fonoatioos.     Each  species  has  its  peculiar  hab- 


ComoH  WuF. 


WATCJH 

its  in  this  respect,  some  atoring  the  nests  with 
spiders,  others  with  beetles,  others  atlll  with 
caterpillars.  To  the  digger  wasps  also  belong 
the  mud  daubers,  which  make  neata  of  clay  in 

barns,  garrets,  etc. 

Among  the  true  wasps  are  some  with  all  the 
habits  of  the  diggers,  boring  in  wood  or  earth, 
or  making  mud  nests,  each  female  working 
alone  in  this  respect;  while  others  are  social  in 
habits,  and  in  the  colonies  of  these  forms  we 
find,  as  in  the  ants  and   bees,  males,  females. 


Wasp's  Nrar. 

and  workers,  the  males  alone  being  stingless. 
Most  of  the  work  is  done  by  the  workers,  who 
build  the  nests  either  attached  to  the  eves  of 
buildings  or  to  trees,  or  concealed  in  the 
ground.  The  best  known  of  the  true  wasps  are 
the  "  yellow  jackets  "  or  hometa,  which  con- 
struct large  paper  nests.  The  paper  is  obtained 
by  tearing  up  weathered  wood  and  mixing  it 
with  saliva,  the  whole  forming  a  wood-pulp 
paper.  The  cells  are  arranged  in  combs  like 
those  of  the  honey  bee.  No  food  is  stored  up, 
however,  and  the  adults  feed  the  growing 
young  on  masticated  insects  which  they  have 
captured.  Males  and  workers  die  in  the  au- 
tumn, while  the  females  pass  through  the  win- 
ter to  form  new  colonies  in  the  spring. 

Watch,  a  timepiece  designed  to  be  worn  or 
carried  on  the  person,  as  distinguished  from 
a  clock,  which  is  a  stationary  timepiece.  (See 
Clocks.)  The  making  of  portable  timekeepers 
dates  from  abt  1500.  The  invention  of  the 
coiled  mainspring  is  due  to  Peter  HeU.  In 
the  case  of  a  watch  driven  by  a  spring  whose 
tension  was  diminished  as  the  apring  uncoiled, 
a  uniform  rate  waa  impossible  without  devices 
to  make  the  force  uniform. 

The  first  contrivance  of  this  description  was 
a  sort  of  brake,  so  arranged  that,  as  the  spring 
unwound,  less  and  less  resistance  would  be 
applied.  This  was  succeeded  by  the  fu'iee,  in- 
vented abt.  152S  by  Jacob  Zech,  of  Prague. 
It  consisted  of  a  sort  of  conical  pulley  having 
formed  on  its  periphery  a  spiral  groove.  On 
the  arbor  of  the  fusee  was  fixed  the  main 
wheel,  and  the  mainspring  barrel  served  as  a 
drum,  around  which  was  coiled  a  number  of 
turns  of  a  cord  of  catgut,  one  end  of  which 
was  attached  to  the  large  part  of  the  fusee  and 
the  other  end  to  the  barrel,  so  that  the  main- 
spring barrel  was  turned  and  the  apring  coiled 
up  by  turning  the  fusee.    The  use  of  chains  in 

Slace  of  ca^t  waa  introduced  in  1604  by 
ruet,  a  Swiss.  Enamel  dials  were  introduce 
abt.  1630.  Hooke  invented  the  balance  spriug 
»  Lm_.:I   .C.OO'^IC 


WATCH 

abt.  1658.  Earlj  watches  had  but  a  single 
band.  In  1S60  Aaron  L.  Deanison  erected  a 
factoiy  for  the  manufacture  of  wattrhea  b; 
machinery,  makioK  large  numbers  of  each  part 
so  uniform  that  thej  were  interchangeable.  A 
few  watches  were  produced,  but  the  demand 
was  limited  until  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil 
War,  when  a  demand  for  American  watches 
began  which  has  since  continued. 

A  complete  watch  is  made  up  of  two  parts 
— the  case  and  the  movement.  The  latter  con- 
sists principally  of  a  train  of  gear  wheels  and 
pinions,  mounted  between  two  metallic  plates, 
commonly  of  brass  or  nicke!  alloy,  in  which 
the  arbors  of  the  wheels  and  pinions  are  jour- 
naled  or  pivoted.  For  symmetry' of  form  and 
convenience  in  construction,  as  well  as  in  prac- 
tical use,  this  train  of  gearing  is  arranged  as 
compactly  as  possible,  and  somewhat  circular 
in  form.  (See  Fig.  1.)  At  the  right-hand 
extremity  of  this  train  is  a  large  boxlike  wheel, 
containing  the  coiled  mainspring.  In  the  ordi- 
nary form  of  construction  the  inner  end  of 
thia  spring  is  attached  to  the  barrel  arbor, 
while  the  outer  end  is  connected  with  the  barret 
itself;  the  spring  is  wound  up  by  turning  the 
barrel  arbor,  and  is  prevented  from  immedi- 
ately unwinding  by  a  ratchet  on  the  arbor. 
The  action  of  the  spring  turns  the  barrel,  the 


Kr  t«etfa  ot  which  mesh  into  the  center  pin- 
,  the  next  member  of  the  train.  This  second 
member  is  located  in  the  center  of  the  circular 
watch  plates,  and  upon  its  axis  is  fixed  the 
minute  band. 

Fixed  to  the  stafT  of  the  center  pinion  is  a 
wheel,  known  as  the  center  wheel,  which 
meshea  into  the  third  member  of  the  train, 
called  the  third  pinion.  To  this  is  also  affixed 
a  wheel,  called  the  third  wheel,  which  in  like 
manner  mesbes  into,  and  gives  motion  to,  a 
fourth  pinion  and  wheel.  The  fourth  member 
of  the  train  revolves  at  sixty  times  the  speed 
of  the  center  wheel  and  carries  the  second 
hand.     The  minute  hand  is  mounted  upon  the 


WATER 

axis  of  the  second  member  of  the  train,  and 
is  fixed  on  the  upper  end  of  the  cannon  pinion, 
so  called  from  its  long  body,  or  hub,  and  as 
the  pimons  in  ,the  time  train  proper  are  in- 
tegral with  the  staves  or  arbors,  which  are 
solid   and  pivoted   at   their   ends,   the   cannon 

Cinion  has  an  axial  hole  running  ita  entire 
^ngth,  corresponding  in  size  with  the  diameter 
of  the  projecting  end  of  the  center  staff,  upon 
which  it  is  placed,  being  held  by  a  sufficient 


Fia.  3. — Watch  TntE^^iuDt  AaKutoED  a  a  ^nAiovc 
Lirb:  From  licht  to  left  io  order,  the  masbarm  are 
CD  theburel;(2)c«nl«rwbedaod[dniaD;(3)third 
vtwd  BDd  pinion;  (4)  fourth  whed  and  pinioai  and 
(5)  eacapfr-wheel  aod  pinion. 

frictional  contact  to  carry  the  pinion  and 
hand,  and  still  allow  of  movement  upon  the 
staff,  for  the  purpose  of  setting  the  hands.  On 
key-winding  watchea  the  upper  end  of  this 
cannon  pinion  is  made  square,  and  of  the  same 
size  as  the  square  end  of  the  mainspring  or 
barrel  arbor,  so  that  the  same  key  may  be  used 
for  setting  the  hands  and  winding  the  main- 
spring. In  stem-winding  watchaa  the  hand 
setting  is  performed  by  mechanism  which  may 
be  throH'Q  in  gear  with  the  stem  at  will,  the 
same  operation  thrpwing  the  winding  mechan- 

For  the  mounting  and  movement  of  the  hour 
hand,  the  teeth  of  the  cannon  pinion  are  made 
to  engage  with  the  teeth  of  a  wheel  which  fits 
loosely  upon  a  stationary  stud  projecting  from 
the  lower  or  pillar  plate  of  the  watch.  The 
proportion  in  the  number  of  teeth  of  this  wheel 
and  the  cannon  pinion  is  ordinarily  three  to 
one.  Bigidly  afhxed  to  this  wheel  is  a  pinion, 
called  the  minute  pinion,  while  the  wheel  is 
called  the  minute  wheel.  On  the  body  or  hub 
of  the  cannon  pinion  is  loosely  fitted  a  wheel 
having  a  projecting  hub,  upon  the  upper  end 
of  which  IS  placed  the  hour  hand.  The  teeth 
of  this  wheel  are  made  to  engage  the  teeth  Of 
the  minute  pinion  before  mentioned,  their  rd- 
ative  proportion  being  that  of  four  to  one,  so 
that  through  the  interposition  of  the  minute 
wheel  and  pinion  it  will  require  twelve  revolu- 
tions of  the  cannon  pinion,  carrying  the  min- 
ute hand,  to  produce  one  revolution  of  the  hour 

For  description  of  the  devices  used  in 
watches  to  secure  a  correct  and  uniform  speed, 
see  EscAPEUEHT. 

Wa'tei,  a  ta8t«leBe,  Inodorous,  transparent 
compound  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen  (chemical 
formula  H,0).  It  assumes,  respectively,  the 
gaseous,  liquid,  and  solid  forms  within  tbe  lim- 
its of  natural  temperatures,  but  Is  apeciflcally 
called  "  water  "  only  in  the  liauid  state,  being 
known  as  "  ice  "  when  solidified  aod  in  the  gas- 
eous form  as  "water  Tapor"  (or  aa  "steam" 
when  above  the  boiling  point).  ~The  t 
)  C.OCHJ 


I   term 


WATER 

eteam  is  alio  popuUirly.  applied  to  the  flue 
droplets  formed  by  the  condenaation  of  hot-wa- 
ter vapor  in  a  cool  atmosphere.  Thia  ia  really 
water  in  the  liquid  state,  though  verj  finely 
divided.  The  temperature  of  golidiflcation,  or 
"  freezing  point,"  of  water  at  atmoepheric 
preasure  la  82*  F.  or  0°  C.  It  i^  lowered  by  in- 
creased preaaure  by  about  .0076°  C.  for  each 
additional  atmoipnere.  Its  boiling  point,  or 
the  temperature  when  its  vapor  forms  in  bub- 
bles within  its  mou,  i»  212°  F.  or  100°  C.  at 
atmaspheric  preesure,  and  rises  with  increaeed 
pressure,  falling  also  when  the  pressure  lessens. 
Water  gives  off  vapor  at  its  free  surface  at 
lower  temperatures,  and  even  when  it  is  in  the 
■olid  state.  The  tension  of  the  vapor  thus 
iormed  increaaea  aa  the  temperature  rises.  The 
wanner  it  is,  the  more  of  tne  vapor  may  exist 
in  a  given  space.  The  amount  of  any  other 
ma,  oe  air,  present  does  not  affect  this  result. 
Thus  In  summer  the  air  holds  vastly  more 
moieture  than  in  winter.  When  the  maximum 
amount  is  present  the  air  is  said  to  be  "  satu- 
rated," whether  thia  amount  be  large  or 
small,  although,  ss  has  been  said,  the  air  has 
nothing  to  do  with  it  If  heat  be  applied  to 
water  under  continually  increased  pressure,  it 
is  found  that  it  will  became  a  vapor  at  370° 
C,  no  matter  how  high  the  pressure.  This  is 
called  the  "critical  point"  Water  "wets" 
most  substances,  by  which  is  meant  that  its 
molecular  relations  with  thcni  are  such  that  it 
freely  flows  over  them  instead  of  drawing  it- 
■df  together  in  drope,  as  it  does  on  a  greased 
surface,  or  as  mercury  does  on  a  wooden  table. 
It  dissolves  a  very  large  number  of  solids  and 
gases  and  mixes  with  many  other  liquids,  be- 
Ug  the  chief  ingredient  in  such  familiar  fluids 
as  blood,  milk,  beer,  vinegar,  etc.  It  also  read- 
Hy  unites  chemically  with  many  subatancea, 
and  in  some  cases  it  is  difficult  to  determine 
whether  the  mixture  is  physical  or  chemical. 
The  solution  of  carbon-dioxide  gas  usually 
called  soda  water,  for  instance,  ia  regarded  by 
some  chemists  as  a  physical  solution,  like  that 
of  sugar  or  of  atmospheric  air  in  water,  and 
by  others  as  the  formation  of  a  chemical  com- 
pound, carbonic  acid  (CO.  +  H,0  =  H,CO,)- 
Water  is  a  component  even  of  substances  In 
the  solid  state,  as  hi  crystals,  when  it  is  called 
"water  of  crystal liiation,"  This  may  be  re- 
moved by  moderate  heat,  as  when  gypsum  is 
turned  into  plaster  of  Paris. 

Water  may  be  decomposed  into  its  compo- 
nent gases  by  various  methods.  Chemically,  a 
substance  having  a  strong  affinity  for  one  of 
the  gases  will  unite  with,  it,  setting  free  the 
other,  as  when  potassium  takes  up  the  oxygen, 
■ettji^  free  the  hydrogen,  or  when  chlorin  gas 
nnites  with  the  hydrogen,  setting  free  the 
oxygen.  It  may  al«>  be  decomposed  by  great 
heat  or  by  poidng  an  electric  current  Uirough 
it  when  slightly  ociduloted  (electrolyds).  Wa- 
ter ooeurs  on  the  earth's  surface  in  various 
d.«greee  of  purity,  and  is  known,  according  to 
the  mode  of  its  occurrence,  as  rain  water,  pond 
water,  river  water,  spring  water,  well  water, 
■ea  water,  etc.;  also  as  "  soft  water  "  or  "  hard 
water,"  aa  it  contains  fewer  or  more  dissolved 
salts,  especiaUy  those  of  lime.  As  the  chemical 
Mtioo  between  lime  salts  and  soap  produces 


WATERBURY 

an  insoluble  precipitate,  "  hard "  waters'  ara 
not  good  for  washing,  and  where  no  others  are 
obtainable  they  are  sometimes  "  softened  "  in 
rjuantity  by  chemical  treatmoit.  Rain  water 
ia  very  soft,  but  contains  impurities  washed 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  is  not  beat  for  drink- 
ing. River  water  is  usually  so^t^,  though  it 
contains  some  salts,  washed  from  the  soil,  and 
may  carry  much  suspended  earthy  matter. 
These  ma^  be  removed  b^  filtration  or  settling, 
or  sometimes  by  chemical  precipitation  (as 
with  alum),  to  fit  the  water  for  domestic  use- 
Pond  or  lake  water  is  impounded  brook  or 
river  water,  and  resembles  it,  except  that  the 
mud,  if  any,  has  settled  out  of  it  and  vegetable 
matter  from  water  plants  is  often  present 
Bpring  water,  usually  regarded  as  the  purest 
obtainable,  has  undergone  natural  SJtiation  by 
soaking  through  the  soil.  It  thus  is  very  free 
from  suspend^  matter,  but  often  "  hard,  and 
usually  rich  in  dissolved  salts,  which  give  it  an 
agreeable  taste,  whereas  pure  (distil]«l)  water 
is  "  fiat  "  and  insipid.  Where  salts  are  pres- 
ent in  quantity  we  have  "  mineral  springs." 
Much  underground  water  does  not  find  an  out- 
let in  springs.  This  is  often  recovered  by 
means  of  weUa.  An  ordinary  well  is  simply  a 
narrow  circular  pit  sunk  until  it  reaches  a 
place  where  there  is  a  natural  accumulation  of 
water  in  the  soil.  A  "  driven  well "  is  a  tube 
driven  into  the  soil  until  it  tapa  a  similar  un- 
derground reservoir,  generally  much  deeper.  In 
both  these  cases  the  water  must  be  pumped  or 
mechanically  raised.  Sometimes  uie  under- 
ground reservoir  contains  water  under  pres- 
sure, between  two  impenetrable  layers.  When 
such  a  supply  is  tapped,  it  rises  of  itself  to  the 
surface,  and  sometimes  forms  a  fountain.  This 
is  an  "  artesian  well,"  so  called  because  flrat 
found  in  Artois,  France. 

When  spring  or  river  water  containiiig  dis- 
solved salts  forms  a  pond  or  lake  without  out- 
let, as  may  be  the  case  where  the  surface  evap- 
oration is  sufficient  to  balance  the  inflow,  the 
salts  accumulate  and  form  a  salt  lake  like  the 
Dead  Sea,  the  Qreat  Salt  Lake  of  Utah,  or 
other  smaller  bodies.  The  origin  of  the  salt 
sea  water  is  precisely  the  same,  the  ocean  be- 
ing in  effect  a  huge  lake  without  outlet,  hold- 
ing in  solution  the  salta  of  all  lands  washed 
down  into  It  from  time  immemorial. 

Water  is  now  generally  furnished  to  all 
bouses  in  citiee  and  towns  through  pipes,  under 

Sressure,  from  a  reservoir,  being  often  taken 
-om  sources  many  miles  distant  The  waste 
is  disposed  of  through  sewers,  or  sometimes,  in 
smaller  places,  by  accumulation  in  cesspools. 
See  Bew^uoe.  For  other  aspects  of  water, 
see  Waibb  Powis,  Htdoaulics,  HrnsoSTATlCS, 
Stkau  Ekoink,  Wateb  Whkelh,  etc. 

Waf  etbwy,  city,  New  Haven  Co.,  Conn.;  on 
the  Naugatuck  River ;  21  m.  N,  by  W.  of  New 
Haven.  It  owes  its  origin  as  a  factory  center 
to  the  Naugatuck  River  and  several  smaller 
streams  that  unite  here,  but  these  now  provide 
a  very  small  fraction  of  the  power.  The  mak- 
ing 01  metal  buttons  was  b^un  here  100  vears 
ago,  and  for  a  long  time  the  making  of  brass 
and  German  stiver  was,  in  the  U.  8.,  confined 
to  this  city.  Waterbury  is  called  the  Brass 
City,  and  its  buttons,  plated  worfc  «1<  ' 
1  .X I 


ocv^fc 


WATER  COLOR  PAINTINQ 

r  the  world.     Pop. 

Watei  Col'or  Paint'ioE,  palDtiiig  b^  meuiB 
of  color  dissolved  in  water,  some  Komiii;  sub- 
stance  being  combined  with  th«  color  to  fix  it 
upon  the  surface  to  be  painted.  Fresco  paint- 
ing is  water  color,  and  so  is  calcimining,  such 
as  is  done  upon  ordinary  walls  and  ceilings. 
The  term  is  used  especiallj  (or  painting  upon 
paper  with  colors  prepared  in  advance  by  be- 
ing oarefuily  ground  and  mixed  with  gum. 
Tlie  colors  are  sold  in  hard  cakes,  in  pans,  and 
ctdlapsible  tubes.  The  admixture  of  honey  and 
glycerin  with  the  colors,  by  keeping  them  soft, 
meets  the  requirement  of  the  artist  for  swift 
work,  aa  in  sketching.  It  has  been  held  by 
tome  that  opaque  color  such  as  has  been  got 
by  mixing  wntU  with  the  paints  is  illegitimate, 
and  is  lilce  a  proeesa  of  oil  painting.  These 
critics  hold  that  the  lights  in  water  color 
should  be  got  by  the  white  paper  showing 
through  the  work,  which  is  to  l>e  kept  as  trans- 
lucent as' the  pigments  allow.  The  skill  re- 
quired by  water-color  artists  is  not  inferior  to 
that  required  b^  a  painter  in  oil,  but  is  in 
some  rwpects  difTerent  The  artist  in  water 
color  requires  greater  swiftness  and  certainty 
of  touch,  and  mistakes  in  drawing  cannot  be 
corrected  or  covered  over,  as  on  canvas:  the 
lines  and  the  processes  stand  revealed.  The 
ease  with  which  the  painter  in  water  color 
throws  off  sketches  and  produces  startling  ef- 
fects with  a  few  masses  of  light  and  shade,  or 
a  few  bold  gradations  of  tone,  deludes  many 
into  the  belief  that  this  is  a  light  and  trilling 
branch  of  art.  The  method,  in  fact,  is  remark- 
ably well  suited  to  sketching,  owing  to  the 
lightness  of  the  materials  and  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  paper  dries;  the'luminousnesB  of  the 
paper  likewise  greatly  assists  the  immediate, 
superficial  effect.  But  finished  painting  in  wa- 
ter color  demands  skill  of  a  very  high  order; 
great  works  come  only  from  masters,  and  no 
master  has  exhausted  or  even  severely  taxed 
the  resources  of  the  method.  Its  permanency 
seems  to  be  unquestionable.  Water-color 
paintii^s — not  tinted  drawings,  which  are  very 
-difTerent  things — have  been  known  to  retain 
their  freshness  and  brilliancy  for  ninety  years, 
giving  then  no  indications  of  weakness.  The 
darkening  of  the  paper  on  long  exposure  to  the 
air  may  be  partly  avoided  by  protecting  the 
surface  with  glass.     See  Paibtinq. 

Water  Cress.    See  Csesbeb, 

Water  Cure.     See  Hiobotheeaft. 

Water  Dog.     See  Mod-fuppt. 

Water  Gaa.     See  Qas. 

Water  Glass.    See  Gi.abb,  SoLUbLK 

Water  Lil'y  Fam'ily  [Nymphteaeea),  a 
small  group  (thirty-five  species)  of  herbaceous. 
aquatic,  cnoripetaious  dicotyledons,  natives  of 
all  temperate  and  warm  climates.  The  sepals 
are  three  to  five,  petals  three  to  many,  stamens 
six  to  many,  and  ovaries  three  to  many,  free, 
or  united  into  a  compound  pistil.  The  stems 
are  creeping  and  submersed  and  the  leaves 
mostly  peltete,  long  petioled,  and  floating. 
Fourteen  apedea  axe  N.  American.    The  white 


water  lily    [Coalatia  odorata)    i 

the  E.  U.  B.     The  lotus,  water  chinquapin,  or 

yellow   nelombo    (Jfelumbo   Uitea),   occurs    in 


Wdttb  Watsr  Lilt. 

the  waters  of  the  Missiasippi  Valley.  It  is  cu> 
rious  on  account  of  its  large  top-shaped  recep- 
tacle, in  the  cavities  of  whose  upper  surface 
the  pistils  are  imbedded.  The  common  yellow 
water  lily,  or  spatter  dock  QigmpkfFa  adtwna). 


~rf 


/-\^^ 


Vicroaii  Wa'Tir  Ijlt. 

has  smaller,  yellow  flowers,  with  fewer  petals. 
The  Victoria  lily,  the  largest  of  all,  occurs 
in  the  waters  of  the  Amazon  region  in  8, 
America.  Its  peltate  leaves  are  6  to  10  ft.  in 
diameter,  with  an  upturned  margin  2  in.  in 
height.  Its  Sowers  are  from  10  to  15  in.  in 
diameter,  pinkish  and  fragrant.  The  starchy 
seeds  are  eaten  by  the  natives. 

Waterloo',  a  village  of  Belgium,  nearlj'  10 
m.  SSE.  of  Brussels.  It  is  famous  for  the  mem- 
orable battle  which  was  fought  there  on  June 
18,  1S15,  and  which'flnally  shattered  the  power 
of  Napoleon.  The  Prussian  defeat  at  Ligny, 
and  bis  own  unsuccessful  engagement  at  Qua- 
tre-Bras  on  the  16th  of  June,  caused  Welling- 
ton to'retire  toward  Waterloo,  while  Blflcher 
concentrated  his  troop*  at  W»vre,  about  10  m. 


WATBBUKLON 

dictant.  The  whols  British  position  fcnned  a. 
sort  of  curve,  the  cmter  of  whicli  wu  nearest 
to  the  enemy.  The  French  forces  occupied  a 
series  of  heights  opposite,  there  being  s  rslley 
of  no  gnat  depth,  and  from  SOO  to  SOO  Taras 
in  breMth,  between  them.  Each  army  prol>- 
ably  consisted  of  about  70,000  men.  The  troops 
of  Napoleon  vere  for  the  most  part  veterans, 
while  Wellington  had  an  army  composed  of 
troops  of  Tsrioiis  natiDnatities  (Belgians, 
Bntnswitjcers,  Hanoverians,  Naaaauen] ,  that 
hod  never  fought  together,  and  a  great  part  of 
his    British   troftps    (about   25,000)    were   raw 

The  object  of  Napoleon  waa  to  defeat  the 
British,  or  (on*  them  to  retreat,  before  the 
PnissianB,  who  he  Itnew  were  coming  up,  could 
arrive  on  the  field;  while  that  of  the  Duke  of 
Wellington  was  to  maintain  his  ground  till  he 
could  be  joined  hy  his  allies,  when  it  might  lie 
in  his  power  to  become  the  assailant.  The 
FreDcb  b^au  the  battle  about  noon,,  aud  it 
continued  with  great  lury  till  evening,  when 
the  appearance  on  the  scene  of  the  Prussians 
caused  Bonaparte  to  redouble  his  eSorts.  His 
Imperial  Guards,  which  had  been  kept  in  re- 
serve, made  a  final  attempt.  Wellington's  line, 
however,  charj^  them  at  the  point  o(  the  bay- 
onet, and  the  Imperial  Guard  b^^  a  retreat, 
in  which  they  were  imitated  by  the  whole 
French  army.  The  British  left  the  pursuit  to 
the  Prussians.  The  whole  French  army  was 
dispersed  and  disabled,  and  their  artillery,  bag- 
rage,  etc.,  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  conquerors. 
Their  loss  in  killed,  wounded,  and  prisoners 
amounted  to  between  40,000  and  50,000.  The 
allied  loss  amounted  to  23,000  killed  and 
wounded,  of  whom  over  11,000  were  British  and 
Hanoverians,  3,000  Netherlanders,  and  7,000 
Prussians. 

Wa'termdon,  the  fruit  of  a  trailing  annual 
vine  of  the  cucumber  family,  a  native  of  Asia 
and  Africa,  extensively  found  wild  on  the 
plains  of  the  latter  continent,  where  some  va- 


il' 
Tl 


Watermelons  s 
for  their  coolin_ 
warm  climates  sugar  has  been  pro£tal  . 
from   watermelons.     A   variety  with  hard, 
edible  flesh,  the  rind  of  which  is  used  for  pre- 
serves, ii  populariy  known  as  citron. 

Wa'tM  Me'ter,  an  automatic  device  for  meaa- 
uring  and  registering  the  flow  of  water. 

One  of  the  most  dUGcult  problems  in  munici- 
pal engineering  is  to  prevent  wanton  waste  of 
the  water  supplied  to  the  inhabitants  at  public 
cost.  One  of  Uie  practical  forms  is  the  disk 
meter,  in  which  the  water  enters  a  round  cham- 
ber and  is  forced  by  its  own  pressure  to  revolve 
a  disk  before  it  can  reach  the  outflow,  and  at 
every  rotation  one  half  the  contents  of  the 
chamber  is  dischareed.  The  number  of  revolu- 
tions is  registered  by  a  series  of  clock  wheels 
attached  to  the  axle  of  the  disk. 

Water  Mole,  any  one  of  the  omithorhynchi- 
dte.    Bee  also  Duckbill. 

Watet  Oati.    Bee  SicE,  Ikdiait. 

Wat«r  On'iel.    See  Dipfebs. 

Water,  Polln'tton  of,  in  law,  a  term  used  to 
express  the  dirtying  or  fouling  of  waters  hy  a 


WAl^lR  POWER 

riparian  owner  or  oeaqtaot  to  tuch  an  extent 
as  to  create  a  nulianoe.  £very  owner  of  land 
through  or  along  which  a  stream  of  water 
flows  has  the  right  to  have  the  stream  flow 
in  its  natural  course  free  from  sueh  pollution 
as  will  materially  aSect  the  character  of  the 
stream,  and  a  riparian  owner'  who  pollutes 
a  stream  so  as  to  interfere  wiUi  thu  right 
creates  a  right  of  action  for  damagea. 

Sources  of  pollution  which  have  been  held 
to  create  a  right  of  action  for  damages,  and 
also  to  afl'ord  a  basis  for  an  injunction  re- 
straining the  pollution,  are  the  discharge  into 
the  stream  of  muriatic,  sulphuric,  and  other 
acids,  dyes  or  dyewares,  heated  water  which 
iiTJures  the  character  of  the  stream,  blood, 
refuse,  or  foul  matter  from  hogpens,  lime  pita, 
cesspools,  etc. 

Water  Polo.    See  PoLO. 

Water  Pow'ei,  power  derived  from  water 
falling  through  a  certun  height  whereby  ita 
energy  is  converted  by  means  of  hydraulic  mo- 
tors into  useful  worV.  Water  privileges,  as 
they  are  commonly  called,  exist  on  nearly  all 
streams  of  any  couaiderabte  magnitude,  and  in 
settled  countries,  where  they  have  become  de- 
veloped or  utilised  by  dams  or  otherwise,  tbey 
are  regarded  as  property  having  special  value. 
On  account  of  the  variations  of  flow,  a  storage 
reservoir  is  necessary  for  water  powers  if  the 
full  average  daily  flow  for  the  year  is  to  be 
secured.  The  quantity  of  power  which  any 
privilege  can  furnish  depends  not  only  on  the 
quantity  of  water,  but  aleo  directly  on  the 
available  fall.  When  the  available  head  and 
the  Quantity  of  water  which  flows  are  deter- 
mined, the  t<Aal  theoretical  energy  of  the  wa- 
ter for  a  given  time  is  found  by  multiplying  the 
number  irf  pounds  of  water  that  flows  duriiw 
this  time  by  the  number  of  feet  of  fall.  Thu 
will  give  the  energy  expended  in  foot  pounds. 
If  the  time  be  one  minute,  and  the  number 
thus  obtained  be  divided  by  33,000,  the  theo- 
retical  horse   power   of  the   waterfall   will   be 

The  motors  employed  in  connectitm  with  wa- 
ter powers  are  known  as  water  wheels  and 
water  engines,  the  latter  being  used,  however, 
only  to  a  limited  extent  for  small  powers.  Wa- 
ter wheels  are  classed  aa  overshot  wheels,  breast 
wheels,  undershot  wheels,  and  turbines,  the  lat- 
ter forming  a  distinct  class  of  modem  develop- 
ment which  hat  superseded  to  a  great  extent 
the  other  classes.  (See  Tubbine;  Wateb 
WKetxs.)  The  great  water  powers  of  Hol- 
yoke,  Lowell,  Lawrence,  Birmingham,  and  Min- 
neapolis, in  the  U.  B.,  may  be  referred  to  as 
illustrative  on  a  grand  scale  of  the  value  of  im- 
proved water  powers,  while  the  mills  scattered 
throughout  nearly  every  populous  district  of 
civilized  communities  furnish  examples  on 
smaller  scales.  Yet  a  great  many  unoccupied 
and  unimproved  sites  for  valuable  water  pow- 
ers remain.  It  baa  been  estimated  that  the  riv- 
ers of  the  U.  B.  can  furnish  about  200,000,000 
horse  power,  while  the  amount  utilized  is  only 
1,600,000  horse  power.  The  possibilities  for  the 
future  are  hence  very  great,  and  when  coal  be- 
comea  high  in  price  water  power  is  sure  lo  taha 
the  place  of  steam.    In  addition  a/i  enomoiu 

3  .C.oogic 


froi 


WATERPROOFING 

mffiount  of  available  power  I«  waaUd  twice 
eveiT  dav  by  the  enei^  expended  in  the  fall 
of  the  tides,  and  only  tne  expense  of  deriving 
power  from  this  source  prevents  its  utilization. 
Water  power  is  often  sold  by  the  "  mill  power," 
which  m  any  particular  case  is  defined  by  s 
cntain  quantity  of  water  under  a  siven  head. 
At  Holyoke  a  mill  power  is  3S  cu.  ft.  a  second 
under  2  ft  head,  or  88  theoretic  horse  powen. 
At  Minneapolis  it  is  30  cu.  ft  a  second  under 
22  tt.  head,  or  Tfi  theoretic  horse  powers.  At 
Holyoke  the  coat  of  one  mill  power  for  sixteen 
hours  a  day  is  9300  a  year. 

The  possibility  of  transforming  power  into 
electric  energy  by  means  of  dynamos  and  of 
transmitting  it  to  considerable  distances  has 
given  a  mariced  impetus  to  the  development  of 
water  power.  Many  cities  are  lighted  and 
many  lines  of  electric  railway  are  Derated  by 
"iwer   thus   transmitted   through   dutanceB    of 

am  B  to  SO  m.,  while  In  one  or  two  special 
cases  the  distance  is  over  100  to.  The  utiliza- 
tion of  Uie  power  of  Niagara  Falls  is  an  exam- 
ple. The  mean  discharge  of  the  Niagara  River 
above  the  falls  is  230,000  cu.  ft  a  second.  A 
vertical  descent  of  180  ft  occurs  at  the  falls. 
TIm  theoretic  power  of  the  falls  is  then  about 
4,000,000  horse  power  nearly  equal  to  all  the 
power,  both  water  and  steam,  used  in  the  U.  8. 
Ttie  value  of  the  Niagara  Rit^r  as  a  possible 
source  of  power  has  always  been  recognized 
by  engineers,  but  it  was  not  until  the  end  of 
the  last  century  that  the  utilization  of  this 
power  in  large  quantities  became  an  accom- 
plished fact,  In  IDOO  the  aggregate  amount  of 
wtwer  developed  by  the  Niagara  Falls  Power 
Co.  and  its  allied  interest,  tbe  Canadian  Niag- 
ara Power  Co.,  was  about  160,000  horse  power, 
with  additional  capacity  in  course  of  construc- 
tion amounting  to  60,000  horse  power.  The 
coat  of  water  power,  when  produced  under  fa- 
vorable conditions,  varies  from  one  e^hth  to 
one   fourth   that   of    steam   power.      See   Ht- 

Wa'terprooSng,  the  art  of  rendering  fabrics 
imperi'ious  to  water.  This  result  is  usually  ob- 
tained either  by  applying  an  insoluble  coating 
upon  the  surface  or  by  causing  the  formation 
of  a  compound  that  exerts  a  repellent  action 
toward  water  in  the  pores  of  the  article.  One 
of  the  most  important  branches  of  this  art  is 
the  application  of  India  rubber  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  mackintoshes  and  other  waterproof 
wearing  apparel.  Woolen  and  other  goods  may 
be  rendered  wateipToof  by  first  saturating  them 
with  a  solution  of  soap,  then  with  a  solution  of 
alum,  or  by  successive  immersions  in  solutions 
of  gelatin  and  galls  (tannic  add),  whereby  the 
same  compound  that  is  formed  in  the  tanning 
of  leather  is  produced.  Paper  is  rendered  im- 
pervious to  grease  and  water  by  immersing  it, 
when  unaided,  in  a  solution  of  snellac  in  borax. 
The  product  obtained  in  this  msmner  somewhat 
resembles  parchment  paper.  The  Japanese  and 
Chinese  prepare  waterproof  paper  for  umbrellas, 
water  buckets,  rain  coats,  etc.,  by  treating  it 
separately  with  solutions  of  potassium  dicbro- 
mate  and  glue,  the  gelatin  being  thus  rendered 
insoluble. 

Wa'ter  Sam.    See  Htdkauuo  Ran. 


WATER  WH£EI£ 

Water  Kat,  or  BeaVer  Bat,  an  animal  of 
Tasmania  resembling  the  muskrat  in  many 
particulars,  tbe  back  being  of  a  dark  rich 
brown,  the  belly  of  a  golden  yellow.  It  is  an 
expert  swimmer,  frequents  boUi  salt  and  fresh 
water,  is  nocturnal  in  habits,  and  when  eating 
supports  itself  upon  the  hind  legs  and  taJL 

Water  Kiee.    Bee  Rice,  Indiar. 

Wa'terihed,  a  geographical  term  of  some- 
what ambiguous  meaning,  as  it  has  been  used 
in  different  senses  by  various  writere.  Some  ap- 
'  "le  land  from 
thus  makiiu; 
every  valley  consist  of  two  watereheds  which 
unite  along  the  stream  line.  Others,  with  the 
support  of  etym(dogy  and  better  usage,  mean  by 
it  the  line  of  water  parting  that  sepanitea  tha 
slopes  on  the  two  sides  of  a  height  of  land. 
In  the  U.  S.  the  word  divide  has  come  into  gen- 
eral use;  this  lends  itself  better  to  derivative 
terms,  such  as  "subdivides,"  the  name  for  tlie 
numerous  subordinate  water  partings  between 
the  minm'  streams  of  a  river  system;  "undi- 
vided "  areas,  meaning  the  plain  surfaces  which 
are  not  yet  dissectM  by  streams,  and  from 
which  the  rainfall  is  disposed  of  more  by  pene- 
tration Into  the  soil  or  by  evaporation  ttuui  by 
run-off.    These  are  by  no  means  rare. 

Wa'ter  Span'iel,  any  one  of  several  breeds 
of  the  spaniel,  distinguished  by  fondness  for 
swimming.  The^  have  rather  long,  curled  hair, 
which  has  an  oily  feel  and  turns  water  very 
well.  They  are  used  by  sportsmen  for  fetching 
out  of  the  water  the  game  which  they  have 
shot,  or  of  swimming  b)  the  opposite  bank  of 
a  river  or  to  an  island  and  starting  therefrom 
the  various  birds  that  love  such  moiet  localiliea. 
The  Irish  water  spaniel  is  a  dark  brown,  fre- 
quently with  a  white  spot  on  the  breast. 

Water  Spout,  a  diminutive  whirlwind,  last- 
ing from  a  few  seconds  to  an  hour,  and  reach- 
ing down  from  the  urider  surface  of  a  cloud  to 
or  nearly  to  the  surface  of  the  earth.  In  the 
center  of  this  whirlwind  appears  a  slender  col- 
umn of  water  or  dense  vapor,  constituting  the 
water  spout  proper.  The  column  is  probably 
hollow,  and  the  air  whirling  around  it  is  aome- 
times  an  ascending,  but  more  frequently  a  de- 
scending, current  Water  spouta  are  most  fre- 
quently seen  in  tropical  seas,  but  are  by  no 
means  rare  in  higher  latitudes.  As  many  as 
twenty  spouts  have  been  seen  within  an  hour, 
from  five  to  seven  at  the  same  time.  It  is  gen- 
erally believed  that  the  firing  of  a  cannon,  or 
any  violent  concusuon  of  the  air  will  dissipate 
water  spouts,  but  qannon  have  been  discharged 
directly  at  spouts  without  such  results. 

Wa'tertown  (settled  In  IBOO,  incorporated  as 
a  city  in  1869),  capital  of  Jefferson  Co.,  N.  Y.; 
on  the  Black  River,  71  m.  N.  of  Syracuse.  The 
principal  business  interests  are  connected  with 
agriculture  through  the  fertile  surrounding  dis- 
trict, while  the  water  power  furnished  by  the 
Black  River  is  used  for  many  paper  and  flour 
milla  There  are  deposltji  of  limestone  and  iron 
ore  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  (1910)    26,730. 

Wa'ter  Wheels,  wheels  for  utilizing  the  en- 
ergy  of  a  waterfall,  the  water  entering  tha 


WATER  WHEEI£ 

wheel  only  upon  a  portion  of  th«  eireumfer- 
ence.  Water  wheels  are  tuuallj'  vertical,  turn- 
ing upon  horizontal  axes.  When  the  water  en- 
terB  around  the  entire  circumference  the  wheel 
b  called  a  turbine;  these  are  usually  horizon- 
tal. Turbine  wheels  are  more  eitenmvely  used 
than  all  other  kinds  of  hydraulic  motors;  they 
are  described  in  the  article  Tdbbirb. 

The  overshot  wheel  is  an  old  form  especially 
adapted   to   high    falls.      The   water  from   the 
reservoir,  is  led  through  a  feeding  canal  to  the 
upper   part   of   the 
wheel,  where  it  falls 
into  buckets.     The 
action    of    the   wa- 
ter  is  then   almost 
entirely      that     of 
weieht,      and      the 
worl:  performed  is 
closely  equal  to  the 
weight     of     water 
multiplied    by     its 
fall   in   the   wheel. 
The  overshot  wheel 
revolves  slowly,  but 
its  efficiency  is  high, 
from  eighty  to  nine- 
ty per  cent  of  the 
theoretic   work   be- 
ing utilized.  On  ac- 
count  of   ita   large 
aize  and  the  liability  to  become  clogged  with 
ice  in   the  winter  time   it  has  be^  mostly 
superseded    by  turbines.     One  of  the  largest 
overshot  wheels  is  that  at  Laxey,  on  the  Isle 
of  Man;  it  is  72)  ft.  in  diameter,  and  develops 
150  horse  power. 

The  breast  wheel  is  siroilar  to  the  overshot 
whed  in  general  appearance,  but  it  receives  the 
water  near  the  middle  of  its  height  instead  of 
near  the  top.  The  water  acU  mainly  by 
weight,  but  also  to  a  oertain  degree  by  im- 


Fio.  1. — OvzasBOT  Wheel 


Fio.  3. — Poncelet's  Uhdebsuot  Wheei„ 

eulse,  at  the  point  of  entrance.  Its  efficiency 
I  from  seventy  to  eighty  per  cent  of  the  theo- 
retic work. 

Undershot  wheels  in  great  variety  have  been 
constructed.  The  form  devised  by  Poncelet  has 
a  cun'ed  sill  and  guide  by  which  the  water  is 
directed  against  the  vanes,  and  its  efficiency  is 
from  sixty  to  seventy  per  cent.  In  these  wheels 
the  water  acta  almost  entirely  by  ita  impulse. 

Veitical  impulse  wheels  or  water  motors, 
which  are  driven  by  a  stream  of  water  issuing 
from  a  nozzle  under  high  pressure,  have  been 
developed  since  1S80,  and  are  highly  advanta- 
geous on  account  of  their  small  size  and  conse- 
quent portability.    The  water  is  brought  to  the 


WATERWORK 

wheel  through  a  pipe  or  hosf,  and  delivered 
against  a  senes  of  small  buckeU  on  the  circum- 
ference. The  velocity  of  revolution  is  rapid. 
A  Pelton  wheel  at  the  Sutro  Tunnel,  in  Ne- 
vada, 36  in.  in  diameter,  is  driven  under  a  head 
of  2,100  ft,  and  makes  1,150  revolutions  a  min- 
ute, a  stream  of  water  from  a  nozzle  j  in.  in 
diameter  fumishinK  nearly  100  horse  power. 

The  principles  of  the  design  of  water  wheels 
may  be  summarized  by  sayinr  that  the  water 
should  enter  the  wheel  without  shock  and 
leave  without  velocity.    See  Wateb  Power. 

Wa'teiWDiks,  constructions  and  appliances 
for  the  collection,  preservation,  and  distribution 
of  water  for  the  supply  of  communities.  For 
the  supply  .of  large  communities,  access  to 
streams  of  a  size  aulHcient  to  furnish  the  re^ 
quired  quantity  at  all  times  cannot  usually  be 
had;  and  when  possible  the  stream  is  ordinarily 
exposed  to  contamination,  which  makes  its  use 
objectionable.  The  most  suitable  sources  of 
supply  are  small  streams  in  sparsely  inhabited  - 
districtn.  The  flow  of  such  streams  is  enor- 
mously variable,  being  sometimes  as  much  in 
an  hour  as  at  other  times  in  a  month,  so  reser- 
are   made   to   hold   about   four  months' 


used  in  the  U.  8.,  except  for  supplying  pure 
water  to  paper  mills,  breweries,  ete.  Water 
supply  is  applied  to  domestic  use,  trade  supply, 
and  wateni^.  The  daily  use  and  waste  of 
water  per  person  is  estimated  in  gallons  aa 
follows:  New  York,  78;  Chicago,  140;  Philadel- 
phia, 132;  St.  Louis,  72;  Boston,  80;  Washing- 
ton, D.  C,  167 ;  while  among  English  cities  the 
figures  are:  London,  391;  Manchester,  26;  Glas- 
gow, 60;  Liverpool,  31,  The  highest  consump- 
tion in  England  is  about  equal  to  the  lowest  m 
the  U.S.  This  is  due  in  some  degree  to  the  gen- 
erally wasUful  habits  of  Americana,  but  mors 
especially  to  the  fact  that  in  European  towns 
consumers  of  water  are  usually  under  some  con- 
trol and  restraint  in  its  use.  In  the  U.  S.  such 
restraint  is  rarely  exercised,  and  reckless  and 
wanton  wastefulness  prevails,  and  the  evil  is 
constantly  growing. 

The  conduit  or  aqueduct  conveys  the  water 
from  the  source  to  the  distributing  reservoir  in 
or  near  the  city.  In  extensive  works  it  is  or- 
dinarily of  masonry,  not  being  intended  to  sus- 
tain any  pressure.  It  is  built  to  a  nearly  level 
grade,  having  only  sufAcient  inclination  to  give 
motion  to  the  water.  Intervening  ridges  are 
cut  down  or  pierced  by  tunnels.  Valleys  are 
crossed  by  embankments  of  earth,  or  earUi  and 
masonry  combined,  or  by  rows  of  arches.  In 
crossing  deep  valleys  or  rivers  the  masonry  of 
the  aqueduct  is  sometimes  interrupted,  and  the 
water  flows  in  in>n  pipes,  which  descend  into 
the  valley  and  rise  and  reSnter  the  aqueduct  on 
the  opposite  side.  In  the  ancient  aqueducts, 
where,  from  the  limited  knowledge  of  iron- 
working,  such  expedients  could  not  tie  adopted, 
these  crossings  required  ranges  of  arches  sup- 
ported by  piers  of  enormous  height,  constitut- 
ing the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  ancient 
civilization  (see  AqnEDUcr).  Small  conduita 
are  often  made  of  earthenware  pipe, 

A  pumping  system  usually  has  a  conduit, 
not  asaentialTy  different  in  construction  from 


watbrwores 

that  required  in  a  grmvitetioH  supply,  tbongh 
it  ordm&rily  fomiH  a  muoh  len  important 
feature  of  the  aystem.  Its  purpose  is  to  convey 
the  water  from  the  scuree  to  the  pump  well, 
which  can  luualljr  be  located  so  as  not  to  re- 
quire a  great  length  of  conduit.  In  waterworks 
for  dties  located  on  the  ihorea  of  the  Great 
Tiakei,  and  drawing  their  supply  therefrom, 
the  conduit  forma  a  ver^  important  feature. 
The  water  cannot  be  taken  from  any  point  near 
tlM  shore,  AB  it  ii  liable  to  be  cwntaminated 
bj-acwerage  and  turbid  oa  account  of  the 
action  of  waves.  To  procure  water  free  from 
the  latter  source  of  Impurity,  the  conduit 
must  extend  a  long  distance  into  the  lake,  as 
it  is  only  in  water  of  considerable  depth  that 
the  wave*  cease  to  act  upon  the  bottom.  A 
■olid  structure  built  into  the  lake  would  re- 
quire the  Htrength  and  solidity  of  a  breakwater, 
and  even  in  that  case  would  not  be  sufficiently 

Srmanent  and  free  from  settlement  to  serve  as 
e  foundation  of  an  aqueduct.  The  method 
adopted  at  Chicago  and  other  lalce  cities  has 
been  to  extend  a  tunnel  under  the  bottom  of  the 
lake  to  the  desired  point  In  a  pumping  sys- 
tem the  pipe  leading  from  the  pumps  to  the 
reservoir  is  called  the  force  main.  A  standpipe 
is  simply  a  vertical  pipe  communicating  with 
the  force  main,  and  rising  to  a  height  greater 
than  that  corresponding  to  the  preaeure  in  the 
distributing  pipes.  It  Mmetimee  consists  <A 
two  pipes  communicating  vith  one  anoUier  at 
their  summits. 

The  Holly  system  of  waterworks  has  neither 
reservoir  nor  standpipe.  The  pumps  work  di- 
rectly into  the  distributing  pipes,'  and  when 
the  pumps  stop  the  supply  ceases.  An  auto- 
matic device  controls  the  speed  of  the  pumping 
machinery  according  to  tne  pressure  in  the 
mains.  It  is  claimed  that  this  system  main- 
tains a  pressure  sufficient  lor  domestic  pur- 
poses at  all  times,  and  on  the  occurrence  of  a 
flre  the  pressure  can  in  a  few  minutes  be  raised 
to  a  point  which  wilt  enable  the  latter  to  be 
controlled  by  streams  from  the  hydrants  with- 
out the  use  of  fire  engines. 

The  pipes  lying  in  the  common  streets  and 
tkorouKBIares  are  called  mains;  those  leading 
from  the  latter  to  the  premises  of  consumers 
are  called  service  pipes.  Distributing  mains  of 
wood,  lead,  stone,  earthenware,  and  asphaltum 
have  been  used  at  various  times.  The  water  of 
London  was  once  distributed  in  wooden  and 
lead  pipes.  The  water  from  Jamaica  Pond  was 
distributed  in  Boston  in  wooden  pipes  before 
the  introduction  of  the  supply  from  Lake 
Cochituate.  The  depth  to  which  pipes  are  cov- 
ered varies  with  the  climate.  In  different  parts 
of  England  from  2  to  3  ft.  is  considered  to 
afford  sufficient  protection  from  frost.  In  St. 
Paul,  Minn.,  T  and  7j  ft.  are  found  sufficient. 
In  the  adjacent  city  of  Minneapolis,  which  has 
a  verv  loose,  gravelly  soil,  the  pipes  are  laid 
8  ft.  deep,  and  give  great  trouble  from  freezing. 
In  Montreal  the  authorities  are  content  with  a 
depth  of  6  ft.,  though  much  trouble  is  experi- 
enced from  frost.  In  Quebec  the  pipes  are  laid 
8  and  10  ft.  deep.  The  roost  important  pre- 
caution to  be  observed  iu  the  introduction  of 
service  pipes  is  to  secure  protection  from  fn>i:t. 
The  pipe  usually  passes  from  the  main  directly 


'  into  the  cellar.  In  hoBHS  baving  open  areas, 
it  is  hardly  possible  to  secure  sufficient  depth. 
The  pipe  is  usually  provided  with  a  cock  just 
inside  the  cellar  wall,  by  which  the  water  can 
be  shut  off  and  discharged  from  the  portion 
within  the  cellar,  as  city  cellars  are  rarely 
frost  proof.  Freeang  usnally  tt^es  place  at 
or  near  the  cellar  wall.  For  this  reason  the 
pipe  is  often  so  made  that  it  can  be  separated 
at  this  point  and  thawed  out  bv  injecting  hot 
water  through  a  long,  small  pipe.  A  service 
pipe  should,  by  preference,  enter  at  the  suni^ 
side  of  a  house,  as  the  ground  freezes  leaa 
deeply  there. 

The  installing  of  a  special  supply  of  sea  wa- 
ter for  use '  on  the  streets  for  flushing  sewers, ' 
OS  well  as  for  extinguishing  fires,  has  been 
found  in  New  York  City  to  oe  on  economical 
method  of  lessening'  the  drain  chi  the  supply  of 
pure  water.    8ee  Wateb  Metkb. 

Wat'son,  John  (pen  name,  Iar  'Mxaixaxs), 
1850-1907;  English  minister  and  author;  b. 
Manning-tree,  Essex,  England;  educalMl  at 
Edinburxh  Univ.,  186S-70;  studied  theology  at 
New  College,  Edinburgh,  and  at  Tflbingen, 
Germany ;  minister  of  the  Free  Church  in 
Logiealmond,  Perthshire  (the  Dmmtoehtp  of 
his  stories),  in  1B7S;  eollesiate  minist«r  of 
St.  Matthew's  Free  Church,  Glasrow,  1877-80, 
when  he  was  called  to  Sefton  Park  Presby- 
terian Church,  Liverpool.  In  IS93  he  b^;an 
writing  under  the  name  of  Ian  Maclaren; 
was  author  of  "  Beside  the  Bonnie  Brier 
Bush,"  "  Auld  Lang  Syne,"  "  Kate  Cam^ie," 
"  The  Mind  of  the  Master,"  and  "  The  Cure  of 
Souls,"  the  last  being  lectures  delivei«d  at  Yale 
iu  18S6. 

Watt  (w6t),  James,  1730-1819;  Scottish  in- 
ventor. In  1758,  when  he  was  instrument 
maker  to  the  Univ.  of  Glasgow,  he  b^n  his 
experiments  with  steam  as  a  propelling  power 
for  land  carriages,  which  he  temporarily  aban- 
doned, his  first  road  engine  being  patented  In 
1TS4.  He  was  afterwards  employed  as  a  sur- 
veyor and  engineer.  In  17T4  he  became  a  part- 
ner of  Matthew  Boultoa,  founder  of  the  Bobo 
works  near  Birmingham,  and  in  177S  they  be- 
gan to  make  improved  steam  engines.  The 
invention  of  the  crank  and  fly  wheel  is  dis- 
puted between  Watt  and  Pickard,  but  ta  Watt 
13  due  the  credit  of  inventing  the  separate  coa^ 
denser,  the  double-acting  principle,  parallel 
motion,  the  rq^lating  artion  of  the  governor, 
and  many  more  improvements. 

Watt's  inventions  in  connection  with  the 
Ncwcomen  engine,  the  improvements  upon 
which  constitute  his  claim  for  distinction,  have 
mode  that  machine  the  prime  mover  of  the 
world.  He  adapted  it  to  its  original  purpose, 
the  pumping  of  water  from  mines,  etc.,  gave  ii 
enormously  greater  economy  in  use  of  st^m 
and  fuel  than  it  had  in  the  hands  of  Newemneu, 
and  applied  it  to  the  rotation  of  a  shaft^  and 
thus  made  it  applicable  to  the  driving  of  every 
sort  ef  machineiy,  thereby  making  possible  the 
steamship,  the  sbeam  locomotive,  the  modem 
railway,  and  the  whole  system  of  manufactur- 
ing industries. 

Wattein  (vat-tfi'],  Jean  Antoins,  ie»4- 
1721 ;  French  painter.    He  gained  fame  in  1717 


br  hia  "  Embaildiig  for  Cythers,"  extubiUd  on 
his  admJMion  to  tlu  academy.  Hi>  cIcUneatioB* 
of  the  coatmneB,  manners,  «ud  life  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  reign  of  Lfoia  XIV  and  under  the 
r^Cenc^  are  sincpilarlj  faithful  and  brilliant; 
and  hiB  fStea  iHgantea,  pastoral  pieces,  and 
genre  pirtuiea  are  remarkable  for  grace  and 
oriKinsJ]^.  He  early  developed  an  elaborate 
■jmion  of  painting  the  whole  picture  in  mid- 
dJe  tints  ajid  then  adding  touchps,  sometimes 
of  more  vivid  color  and  semetimee  of  high 
light,  the  ground  painting  showing  between  the 
new  touches  and  giving  great  harmony  and  the 
effect  of  brilliant  color,  while  yet  there  is  but 
little  pure  red,  blue,  etc.  Aa  a  technical  artist 
Watteau  ranks  very  high ;  there  are  few  more 
consummate  workmen.  His  subjects  are  always 
parties  of  richly  dressed  women  distributed  in 
groups  in  shaded  groves,  el^ant  picnica,  coun- 
try processions,  masked  IhiIIs,  and  oourtly 
BcencB  of  all  sorts. 

Watts,  Geoise  Fiedeilck,  ISI7-1904;  Eng- 
lish painter ,-  b.  London ;  studied  at  the  Royal 
Academy,  and  lat«r  in  Florence,  and  in  1S47 
won  a  prize  of  £560  in  London  tor  a  cartoon 
representing  "  Alfred  Inciting  the  Saxons  to 
Prevent  the  Landing  of  the  Danes,"  now  in  the 
House  of  Parliament;  painted  important  fres- 
coes in  Lincoln's  Inn  and  other  buildings  in 
London;  was  also  a  sculptor.  He  is,  however, 
known  chiefly  as  a  portrait  painter,  soma  forty 
of  the  moat  distinguished  men  in  Great  Britain 
having  aat  to  him,  and  by  hia  imaginative  com- 
positions, one  of  which,  "  Love  and  Life,"  was 
presented  to  the  U.  S.  Govt.,  and  ia  now  in 
Washin^on.  He  was  elected  a  Royal  Acade- 
mician in  1^68,  received  firat-clasa  medals  at 
the  Paris  Exposition  of  18T8,  and  at  that  of 
Antwerp  in  1886;  L^on  of  Honor,  1878.  He 
donatea  most  of  bis  pictures  to  the  British 
National  Qallery. 

Watts,  Isaac,  1674-1746;  English  minister 
and  hymn  writer.  In  1698  he  was  aasiatant 
minister  of  an  independent  congregation  in 
London,  of  which  he  became  pastor  in  1702. 
His  health  being  impaired,  he  went  in  17IZ  to 
live  with  Sir  Thomaa  Ahney,  a  London  alder- 
man, in  whose  family  he  remained  as  a  guest 
till  his  death.  Hia  "  Logic,  or  the  Right  Use 
of  Reason,"  and  fa  la  "  Improvetnent  of  the 
Mind,"  are  his  most  iroportaiit  prose  writings; 
of  the  others,  the  beat  known  is  a  work  on  the 
Trinity.  His  poetical  works  include  "  Hymns 
and  Spiritual  Songs,"  "  Psalms  of  David,''  and 
"  Divine  Songs  for  the  Use  of  Children." 

Waves,  forms  assumed  by  a  medium  whose 
particles  are  in  aystematic  oscillation,  under 
the   influence   of   gravity,   elaaticity,   or   other 


small  ones,  or  ripplea.  In  sound  waves  it  ia 
elasticity.  In  ether  wave*  (light,  heat,  etc.) 
it  is  also  elasticity  on  a  mechanical  theory, 
but  electric  force  on  the  electric  theory,  now 
generally  accepted. 

The    distinguishing    characteristic    of    any 
a  is  that  the  wave  form  has  motion  apart 


the  waUr   particles   move   i 


WAVES 

which  are  drclee  on  the  free  surf aee ;  but  ibe 
form  of  the  wave  itself  moves  forward  indefi- 
nitely. A  wave  is  deflned  by  its  wove  length, 
frtqwency  [^Dave  number), >hetfrht,  and  speed, 
which  are  not  all  independent  quantities.  In 
a  water  wave,  the  wave  length  ia  the  distance 
from  crest  to  orest,  or  hollow  to  hollow;  the 
frequency  is  the  number  of  tiroes  a  second  (or 
other  stated  time  unit)  that  each  particle 
oBcillates;  the  height  is  the  distance  from  hol- 
low to  crest,  and  the  speed  is  the  time  taken 
for  a  ereat  to  move   forward  over  any  stated 


ponent  particles.  Thus,  if  the  wave  length  is 
10  ft  and  the  speed  6  ft.  a  second,  one  crest 
will  move  forward  to  the  position  occupied  by 
another  in  two  seconds,  and  this  must  also  be 
the  time  occupied  by  a  water  particle  in  mov- 
ing from  its  highest  position  to  its  lowest 

The  simplest  wave  forin  is  that  of  a,  sine 
curve  or  amiple  "  wavy  line,"  Complex  forma 
are  due  to  the  combination  of  two  or  more 
waves  having  difl'erent  wave  lengths.  When 
two  similar '  waves  moving  in  opposite  direc- 
tions combine,  the  result  is  a  stationary  icove. 
Such  a  wave  does  not  move  forward,  but  hol- 
lows simply  change  into  crests  and  the  op- 
posite. Particles  at  these  points  have  the 
maximum  of  movement,  and  midway  between 
them  ore  points  where  the  particles  do  not 
move  at  all.  The  latter  paints  are  called 
Aodes;  the  sections  between  them  EoajM  or  ven- 
tral  tegmenta.  In  water  waves  the  movement 
of  the  particles  is,  in  general,  at  right  angles 
to  the  path  of  the  wave.  In  the  waves  that 
transmit  sound,  whether  through  a  solid,  a 
liquid,  or  a  gas,  they  move  to  and  fro  in  the 
same  line  as  that  of  the  wave  path,  and  bence 
we  have,  instead  of  crests  and  hollows,  points 
of  compression  and  points  of  rarefaction.  For 
purposes  of  diagrammatic  representation,  bow- 
ever,  the  corresponding  water-wave  line  is  oftoi 
used.  In  a  slalionory  wave  of  this  type,  the 
nodes  are  points  where  compression  gives  place 
to  rarefaction,  the  particles  remaining  at  rest, 
and  the  loops  are  segments  of  maximum  mo- 
tion, first  in  one  direction  and  then  in  the 
other.  In  ether  waves,  the  mechanical  motion 
(or  the  electro-magnetic  flux)  43  always  in  a 
plane   at   right    anglea   to   the   wave   path   or 

ray,"  but  may  be  in  any  or  all  directicos 
within  that  plane.  No  phenomena  indicating 
motion  in  the  line  of  the  ray  have  ever  been 
detected. 

Two  woves  may  so  combine  am  to  produce 
the  effect  of  absence,  of  wave  motion.  Iii  order 
to  do  this  they  must  have  the  same  frequency, 
height  (or  intensity),  and  speed,  and  must  be 
precisely  half  a  wave  length  apart.  Thus  two 
tidal  waves  combine  in  some  localities  to  pro- 
duce the  effect  of  absence  ot  tide.  So,  also, 
two  sounds  of  the  same  pitch  (wave  length) 
may  produce  silence,  and  two  light  waves  of 
the  aame  color  may  produce  darkness.  This  ' 
phenomenon  is  called  interference. 

Waves  may  be  re/lected,  refracted,  or  dif- 
fracted. In  general  the  first  two  effects  take 
place  whenever  a  wave  In  one  medium  meets 
the  surface  of  another  medium.  In  this  case 
two  new  waves  ore  formed,  one  of  which   {the 


WAX 

refracted  wave)  goea  foriirard  in  th«  new 
medium  at  a  new  Telocity  and  generall;  with 
an  altered  diiectioD,  while  the  other  (the 
reflected  wave)  returns  throu^  the  original 
medium  at  the  same  velocity.  Where  disturb- 
ance of  a  medium  takes  place  at  a  single  defi- 
nite point,  a  wave  spreads  unifonnlj  from  that 
point  in  circular  form,  when  the  point  is  on  a 
surface,  as  when  a  stone  is  cast  into  water- 
When  the  disturbed  point  is  wholi;  within  a 
medium,  as  when  a  sound  is  produced  in  air, 
the  wave  spreads  in  spherical  form.  When  a 
wave  with  a  straight  or  plane  front  ia  ad- 
vancing, even"  point  in  the  front  may  be  sup- 
posed to  tend  to  generate  a  circular  or  spher- 
ical wave  of  its  own,  hut  interference  destroys 
the  motion  in  all  directions  except  straight 
ahead.  But  if  the  wave  front  meets  a  screen 
with  a  small  aperture  or  slit,  then  the  particle 
that  encounters  the  slit  is  free  to  spread  its 
circular  or  spherical  wave  on  the  other  side 
of  the  screen,  and  does  so.  This  is  called  dif- 
fraction, and  takes  place  to  a  marked  extent 
only  when  the  slit  le  nearly  as  small  as  the 
wave  length.  In  the  case  of  light,  therefore, 
a  very  narrow  slit  is  required  to  show  it.    This 


caat  a  "  shadow  "  unless  it  is  much  larger  than 
the  wave  length.  To  cast  a  "  shadow  "  from  a 
water  wave,  a  large  object,  such  as  a  promon- 
tory, Is  required.  A  post  offers  no  opposition 
to  the  wave,  which  merely  n-aehes  around  it. 
Almost  any  object  is  large  enough  to  cast  a 
light  shadow,  because  the  wave  lengths  here 
are  all  very  small;  but  an  object  of  consider- 
able size,  such  as  a  house  or  bam,  is  required 
to  throw  en  appreciable  "sound  shadow,"  be- 
cause the  wave  lengths  here  are  much  | 
Waves   of   special   kinds  are  treated  i 


e  lengths  here  are  much  greater 
special  kinds  are  treated  more  in 
detail  in  the  articles  on  Liort;  Soaira; 
Spectbuu;  Tidbb. 

Wax,  a  term  given  to  several  substances 
chemically  unlike,  hut  resembling  each  other  in 
the  properties  familiar  in  the  wax  of  bees — for 
example,  animal  wax  and  vegetable  wax.  The 
v^etsble  world  furnishes  numberlesB  waxlike 
bodies,  only  a  few  of  which  have  been  carefully 
examined,  almost  every  plant,  in  fact,  secreting 
a  waxlike  substance,  especially  in  the  seeds  or 
in  the  fruit.  The  animal  kingdom  furnishes 
(1)  the  typical  beeswax;  (2)  a  kind  of  insect 
wax  from  the  Orinoco  and  Amazon  valleys, 
known  as  Andaquies  wax;  (3)  Chinese  wax, 
formerly  supposed  to  be  of  vegetable  origin; 
and   (4)   spermaceti, 

Bee^uxiz.^ThiB  is  the  wax  of  which  bees 
form  their  cells.  (See  Beb.)  Common  Bees- 
wax is  yellow,  has  an  agreeable  and  peculiar 
■mell,  feels  a  little  greasy,  but  more  sticky, 
and  molds  readily  under  the  warmth  of  the 
fingers.  Light  bleaches  it  if  exposed  in  thin 
■beet9.  It  then  becomes  white  wsx,  and  is 
somewhat  less  fusible  than  before.  Beeswax  is 
freed  from  honey  and  adhering  impurities  by 
melting  and  stirrinx  with  water,  which  dis- 
solves the  traces  of  honey;  the  hesvy  solids 
fall  to  the  bottom,  and  the  wax  forms  a  coke 
on  the  top  of  the  water.  Bleached  wax  fuses 
at  about  140°  F.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  hut 
dissolves  readily  in  oib,  fata,  and  sssences. 


WAXWINa 


The  naes  for  wax  are  numerous  and  impor- 
tant Its  property  of  preserving  tissues  and 
preventing  mold  or  mildew  were  well  known  to 
the  ancients,  who  used  cere  cloth  for  embalm- 
ing, and  wax  for  painting,  as  in  the  wall 
pictures  of  Pompeii.  Wax  candles  and  tapera 
play  an  important  part  in  the  processions  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Wax  is  used  in  making  glased,  ornamental,  and 
wall  papers  and  on  collars  and  cuffs  for  polish- 
ing the  surfaces.  It  is  used  in  varnishes  and 
points,  and  for  the  "  stuffing  "  of  wood  which 
13  to  be  polished,  as  for  pianos,  coachwork.  Ana 
furniture,  and  parquette  floors.  Electrot^pera 
use  wax  in  forming  their  molds.  Wax  is  an 
important  ingredient  in  preparations  for  cov- 
ering surfaces  of  potished  iron  and  steel  to 
prevent  rust.  Combined  with  tallow,  it  forma 
the  coating  of  canvas  and  cordage  to  prevent 
mildew,  as  in  sails,  awnings,  etc.  Artificial 
flowers  consume  much  wax,  and  its  use  ap- 
pears to  be  extending. 

Under  the  so-called  fMsil  wax  are  several 
distinct  minerals  belonging  to  the  ethylene  se- 
ries— one  especially  of  which  (ozokerite)  is  of 
importance  as  a  substitute  for  beeswax,  which 
in  many  physical  properties  it  much  resembles. 
Ceresin  is  a  trade  term  applied  to  the  purified 
OEokerite.  It  is  used  for  all  purposes  for  which 
beeswax  is  employed,  and  by  its  higher  melting 
point  is  capable  of  uses  to  which  the  former  is 
not  adapted.  It  is  said  not  only  to  retard,  but 
entirely   to  prevent,   rancidity  in  ointments — 


product  from  this  source  is  about  360,000  lb. 
annually. 

Wax,  Veg'etable,  product  of  various  plants, 
used  as  a  aubstitute  for  beeswax.  ( 1 )  Myrtla 
wax,  produced  from  the  bayberry  or  wax  myr- 
tle. (2)  The  wax  of  the  Camahuba  palm, 
Cop«rntcia  eerifera  of  Brazil,  used  in  Europe 
in  candle  making  and  for  waxing  floors  and 
furniture.  (3)  The  abundant  and  rather  resin- 
ous product  of  CeToxyUyn  atidioola,  a  fine  palm 
tree  of  the  Andes,  is  used  for  candles  when 
mixed  with  tallow.  (4)  The  Japan  wax,  pro- 
duced by  boiling  the  seeds  of  Khus  auecedanoo, 
a  Bumac  tree.  It  closely  resembles  beeswax, 
and  is  used  in  candle  making.  It  should  not 
be  confounded  with  China  wax,  which  is  on 
insect  product.  , 

Wax  Hyr'tle.     See  Batbebbt. 

Wax  Palm,  a  name  ^iven  to  various  wax- 
producing  palms,  especially  to  a  magnificent 
tree,  native  of  the  Andes. 

Wax  Plant,  a  climbing  greenhouse  shrub  of 
the  milkweed  family,  a  native  of  the  E.  Indies, 
deriving  its  name  from  the  waxlike  appearance 
of  its  clustering  white  flowers. 

WaxVing,  name  applied  to  a  genus  of  bird* 
because  the  inner  wing  feathers  and  occasion- 
slly  the  tail  festhers  are  tipped  with  little 
appendages  like  flattened  drops  of  red  sealing 
wax.  These  are  borne  by  both  sexes,  and,  while 
they  are  uBuallv  best  developed  in  old  birds, 
are  found  in  the  young  as  well.  The  wax- 
wings  are  7  or  S  in.  in  length,  the  plumage  ia 
thick,  soft,  and  of  a   peculiar  brownish  ash 


above,  ranging  from  aabj  to  almost  cinnamon 
brown.  TUre  iB  a  long-pointed  crest.  Tbere 
are  three  apecieB,  the 
cedar  bird  of  N. 
America;  the  Aaiat- 
*  ic.  found  in  NE. 
Asia  and  Japan; 
and  the  Bohemian 
waxwing,  which  oc- 
curs in  the  N.  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and 
N.  America.  They 
prefer  fruit  and  lier- 
ries,  but  also  eat 
worms  and  insects. 
See  Chattebeb. 


Wai'y  Degenera'- 
Boacifun  WAXviNa.  tion,  a  diseased  con- 
dition of  certain 
tissues  of  the  living  body,  in  which  parts 
of  organs  are  changed  into  the  substance 
linown  as  anijloid.  Organs  aeriously  affected 
by  waxy  degeneration,  when  cut,  have  a  half 
transparent  look.  Ttie  spleen,  liver,  and  kid- 
neys are  frequent  seats  of  the  disease,  and  it 
is  prone  to  occur  in  tu!>erculous  persons  and 
in  those  in  whom  there  has  been  long-standing 
suppuration. 

Wayne,  Anthony,  1746-68;  American  soldier; 
b.  Chester  Oo.,  Pa.  In  1774  he  was  a  member 
of  the  Penney Ivania  Convention,  and  was 
elected  to  the  legislature.  He  raised  a  regi' 
ment  of  volunteers  in  1775,  was  colonel,  joined 
Gen.  Sullivan  in  Canada  in  1776,  and  was  con- 
spicuous in  the  battle  of  Three  Rivers ;  made 
brigadier  general,  Hay,  1777 ;  joined  Washing- 
ton in  New  Jersey,  and  was  prominent  in  the 
succeeding  campaigns.  On  the  night  of  July 
15-IS,  1779,  with  extraordinary  boldness,  he 
surprised  and  captured  the  garrison  of  Stony 
Point  on  the  Hudson.  He  assisted  in  the  cap- 
ture of  Cornwal^B,  and  soon  after  was  assigned 
to  command  in  Georgia.  'After  the  war  he  re- 
tired to  his  farm.  In  1792,  he  was  appointed 
major  general  and  commander  in  chief  in  the 
war  against  the  W.  Indians;  gained  a  signal 
victory  over  the  Miamis  in  August,  1794,  and 
concluded  with  them  the  Treaty  of  Greenville, 
by  which  the  U.  S.  acquired  a  large  territory. 
On  account  of  bis  bravery  and  apparent  rash- 
ness he  was  pipuiarly  called   "  mad  Anthony 

Weak'fisb,  called  also  Bquetteadce  ;  very 
common  along  the  E.  coast  of  the  U.  8.    The 


WEATHER 

tinge,  grading  below  into  silvery;  on  the  ba«k 
and  sides  are  irregular  blotches  dispoaed  in  ni 
oblique  direction,  tending  forward  and  down- 
ward; the  flns  are  yellowish  and  neutral.  It 
averages  between  1  and  2  ft.  in  length,  and  Is 
found  along  the  entire  coast  S.  of  Cape  Cod, 
but  is  most  common  in  the  warmer  waters.  It 
does  not  ascend  into  the  fresh  waters.  It.  is  a 
rather  voracious  fish,  and  readily  seizea  the 
hook,  but  its  mouth  is  easily  torn,  and  to  thia 
characteristic   (weakness  of  mouth)   the  name 

Wea'sel,  any  one  of  various  small  carnivo- 
rous animals.  Weasels  are  among  the .  boldest 
and  most  bloodthirsty  of  carnivorous  animals, 
and  especially  destructive  to  poultry,  which 
tbey  generally  seize  by  the  neck,  proceeding  to 
devour  the  carcasses  leisurely  after  sucking 
their  blood,  or  perhaps  leaving,  satisfied  with 


CoMUON  EuaopEAJt  WkAsai- 

quenching  their  thirst  for  blood  alone.  Th« 
species  are  mostly  conSned  to  cold  and  tem- 
perate regions,  although  a  few  extend  into  trop- 
ical countries.  The  generally  recognized  spe- 
cies in  N.  America  are  the  little  weasel,  the 
bridled  .weasel  of  the  SW.  U.  8.,  and  the  long- 
tailed  weasel  of  New  York.  One  species  elose^ 
resembles  the  ermine.  In  summer  ito  color  is 
brown  with  a  black-tipped  tail,  but  in  winter 
it  chang^  to  pure  white  except  the  tip  of  the 
tail,  which  remains  black.     See  also  Ebhink. 

Weath'er,  the  current  or  passing  state  of  the 
atmosphere,  especially  the  conditions  which  af- 
fect man  and  his  interests.  It  differs  from 
climate,  which  represents  the  average  of  these 
conditions,  or  the  average  of  all  weathers.  Cli- 
mate changes  slightly  and  slowly,  but  weather 
is  constantly  changing.  The  descriptive  terms 
applied  to  weather — aa  cold,  warm,  dry,  damp, 
wet,  calm,  windy,  rainy,  snowy — do  not  require 
special  definition,  and  are  used  in  a  relative 
senae.  For  instance,  what  would  be  called  cool 
weather  in  Cuba  might  be  very  warm  weather 
at  Mount  Desert  in  Maine;  and  what  would  be 
called  dry  ai  Greytown,  Nicaragua,  would  be 
damp  or  wet  at  Santa  Pfi,  New  Mexico.  By  set- 
tled weather  is  meant  a  condition  in  which 
there  is  little  intensity  and  little  change  in  the 
meteorological  elements  from  day  to  day.  The 
opposite  is  variable  weather.  The  weather  ol 
the  S.  statea  and  the  Pacific  coast  is  relatively 
settled;  the  most  variable  weather  in  the  U.  S. 
is  along  the  N.  boundary  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  eastward.  A  spell  of  weather  is  the 
continuation  of  one  type,  especially  in  regions 
of  variable  weather,  and  a  change  of  weather 
is  the  change  from  ona  type  to  anothec 


"^gk 


WEATHER  BUBEAU 


phor  referring  to  its  effects.  Thiu  f&ir  weftther 
IB  originally  one  suited  to  ordinary  commerciEil 
operations,  but  it  has  been  modified  in  its  use 
by  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  to  indicate  the 
absence  of  rain  and  of  complete  cloudiness. 
Foul  weather  is  that  unsuited  for  such  op- 
erations, generally  rainy  and  windy;  dirty 
weather  is  that  with  low-flying  cloud*  and 
slight  driving  rvins;  soft  weather  is  that  when 
the  snow  by  melting,  or  the  soil  b^  rain,  has 
softened  end  impedes  travel.  Again,  weather 
is  bright,  sharp,  tonic,  sweltering  (or  sultry), 
according  to  its  pbysiolc^c,  and  dull,  close, 
gloomy,  according  to  its  psychic,  efTects.  The 
weather  preceding  an  approaching  storm  is 
especially  noted  tor  its  effects  in  nrodudog 
neuralgic  and  rheumatic  pains,  and  this  is,  in 
large  part,  due  to  the  increasing  humidity.  In- 
deM,  changing  humidity,  by  changing  the  rate 
of  evaporation  of  the  surface  of  the  skin,  and 
consequently   its    temperature,    profoundly   af- 


perature  perhaps  at  110°  F.)  sod  the  muggy, 
insufferable  weather — close,  moist,  and  swelter- 
ing, though  the  thermometer  may  be  at  only 
96°  F. — which  precedes  summer  thunderstorms 
in  the  E.  states.  The  temperature  of  evapora- 
tion is  subetantially  the  temperature  that  is 
felt,  and  it  is  this  that  makes  the  hot  weather 
of  New  Mexico  quite  as  endurable  as  that  of 
Ohio.     See  Cukatr;  MmOBOLOOr;  Wxather 

Weather  Bu'reau,  a  branch  of  the  U.  B.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  eBtablished  July  1, 
1S91,  to  takecharge  of  the  meteorological  work 
of  the  Government  which  had  grown  up  "     " 


tbe  forecast  of  the  weather,  storms,  and  floods, 
with  the  distribution  of  such  warnings,  and 
with  the  compilation  and  distribution  of  such 
data  as  are  required  by  the  public  interest. 
The  bureau  has  about  1,000  paid  employees, 
the  most  of  whom  devote  their  entire  time  to 
its  service.  Ita  annual  coat  has  been  on  the 
average  CB3S,100.  The  annual  saving  result- 
ing from  the  work  of  the  bureau  cannot  ba 
estimated  with  certainty,  but  is  many  times 
the  cost.  The  percentage  of  correct  forecasts 
varies,  but  the  general  average  is  four  out  of 
five.  It  ia  lowest  in  ordinary  weather  and 
highest  in  storms  or  severe  weather  of  anj 
sort.  In  hurricanes  from  the  W.  Indies  it 
sometimes  reaches  one  hundred  per  cent.  Un- 
der the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  is  a  Federal 
system  of  state  services  which  perform  efficient 
aid  in  oollecting  information  of  a  detailed 
character.  The  most  of  tbe  dviliied  states  now 
have  weather  services,  all  a  development  since 
IBTO,  but  tbe  function  of  weather  forecasts  at- 
tract most  att«ntion  in  the  U.  8.,  Oreat  Brit- 
ain, France,  Prussia,  Sazooy,  and  Russia. 

Weather  aiaiTAi.B  are  a  code  of  signals, 
consisting  of  Hags,  cylinders,  and  cones,  or 
whistles,  adopted  by  the  various  national  me- 
teorological servieea  to  convey  their  forecasts 
of  tempeimture,  weather,  and  storms  to  the  gen- 


WEAVER  BIRDS 

eral  publia  The  U.  S.  code  conssts  of  a  series 
of  flags  for  weather  and  temperature,  a  serie* 
of  whistles  from  stationary  en^es  for  thr 
same,  and  a  series  of  Sags  for  wind.  Tbe  first 
two  are  used  inland,  the,  last  at  the  porta,     , 

The  flag  signals  for  weather  and  temperature 
are:  (1)  A  square  white  flag  for  clear  or  fair 
weather;  (2)  a  square  blue  flav  for  lain  or 
snow;  (3)  a  square  flag  with  the  upper  half 
white  and  the  lower  half  blue  for  local  storms; 
(4)  a  black  triangular  flag  for  temperature, 
above  the  others  when  the  temperature  is  to 
rise,  beiow  when  it  is  to  fall;  (S)  a  white 
square  flag  with  a  black  square  in  the  center 
to  forecast  a  cold  wave;  (8)  a  red  square  flag 
with  a  block  square  center  to  forecast  a  severe 
storm;  (7)  a  red  pennant  as  an  information 
signal  at  ports  is  also  used  in  Sacramento  and 
Sui  Joaquin  valleys  in  California  to  indicate 
the  approach  of  a  "  hot  norther."  These  sig- 
nals can  be  distinguished  <mly  within  a  radius 
of  two  or  3  m.  [at  the  farthest),  are  iuviuble 
directly  to  windward  or  leeward,  or  in  a  calm. 
Boon  become  too  discolored  to  distinguish,  and 
wear  out  rapidly. 

Tbe  whistle  signals  ore  in  some  respects  bet- 
ter. They  are  blown  at  fixed  hours,  and  to  one 
listening  for  them  can  sometimes  be  made  out 
at  a  distance  of  10  m.  Tbe  first  whistle,  to  at- 
tract attention,  is  a  long  blast  of  from  fifteen 
to  twenty  seconds'  duration.  After  this  warn- 
ing signal  has  been  sounded,  long  blasts  (of 
from  four  to  six  seconds*  duration)  refer  to 
weather,  and  short  blasts  (of  from  one  to  three 
seconds'  duration)  reter  to  temperature,  those 
for  weather  to  be  sounded  first. 

Bluta  Indioato. 

Ona  long PKlr  wwtber.     ' 

Two  long Rain  or  ■uov. 

Three  short Loc»]  ™in. 

Oan  short Lower  ternperatura. 

Two  short Hufisr  temptiature. 

Thms  iliort Cold  wsva. 

For  the  ports  tbe  storm  signal  (square  red 
with  a  blacE  center)  is  combined  with  a  pen- 
nant which  indicates  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
A  red  pennant  above  the  storm  signal  indicates 
NK  winds;  below,  8E.  A  white  pennant 
above,  NW.  winds;  below,  8W.  winds.  Two 
storm  signals  one  ahove  the  other  is  the  fore- 
east  for  a  hurricane,  or  for  the  very  severe  and 
dangerous  gales  which  sometimes  pass  the 
Qreat  Lakes  and  N.  Atlantic  coast  At  some 
ports  lights  are  used  at  night — a  red  light  for 
easterly  winds,  and  a  white  above  a  red  for 
westerly.  On  European  coasts  the  s^tem  of 
signals  devised  by  Fit^roy  is  used,  with  some 
modifications.  It  consists  of  a  large  cylinder 
and  cone  which  can  be  suspended,  and  which 
will  appear  the  same  from  whatever  point 
viewed.  The  cylinder  indicates  the  storm  and  - 
is  below;  the  cone,  the  direction  of  the  wind, 
pointing  upward  for  a  N.  direction  (from  NW. 
through  N.  to  SE.) ;  pointing  downward,  the 
oppontfl.  The  cylinder  is  now  discontinued  in 
Great  Britain.  At  ni^t  lanterns  are  hung  at 
each  angle  of  the  cone  and  {to  represent  the 
cylinder)  at  the  four  angles  of  a  square. 

Weav'er  Birds,  a  family  of  fiuehlike  birda 
peculiar  to  Airica  and  parts  of  8.  Asia.  They 
are  named  for  thtir  remarkable  woven  Beat% 


WEAVINa 

which  are  constructed  so  as  to  protect  the  eggs 
and  young  from  snfikea  and  monkeys.  Some 
are  huge,  heavy,  and  maasive,  clustered  to- 
gether in  large  numbers,  under  a  commcai  roof, 
and  bearing  down  the  branches  with  their 
wdght.  OtDcn  are  light,  delicate,  and  airy, 
woven  BO  thinly  as  to  permit  the  breeze  to  pass 
through  their  netlike  interior.  Others,  again, 
are  so  firmly  huilt  of  flattened  reeds  and  grass 
blades  that  tbey  can  be  detached  from  their 
branches  and  subjected  to  very  rough  handling 
without  losing  their  shape,  while  others  are  bo 
curiously  formed  of  stiff  grass  stalky  that  their 
exterior  bristles  with  sharp  points  likf  the  skin 

of  a  hedgehog.     Many  f '  "■ tt.i-  _  — 

brightly  marked.     Thej 
sects,  especially  beetles. 

Weav'tag.    See  Loou;  Textile  Fabbics. 

Webet  (vA'b^r),  Kail  Haiia  Friedrich  Ernst 
von  (Baron),  178&-1S26;  German  composer;  b. 
Eutin,  near  Ltlbeck,  His  education  was  desul- 
tory, althou^  his  father  wished  to  make  him 
a  muncal  prodigy.  In  IBOO  be  produced  at 
Munich  "  Das  WaldmH.dchen,"  an  opera,  and 
im  1601  "Peter  SchmoU  und  seine  Nachbara," 
which  met  with  slight  success.  In  1606  he  en- 
tered the  employment  of  Prince  Eugene  of  WQr- 
temberg,  and  produced  at  Carlsruhe,  in  Sile- 
sia, two  BvmphoiueB  and  several  less  important 
works.  He  began  a  professional  tour  in  1810, 
conducted  the  opera  at  Prague,  1S13~16,  and 
was  afterwards  till  his  death  manager  of  the 
German  Opera  at  Dresden.  In  1822  he  pro- 
duced at  Eterlin  his  principal  opera,  "  Dcr  Frei- 
BchUtz."  In  1823  "  Euryanthc  ■'  was  first  per- 
formed at  Vienna,  and  in  1826  "  Oberon ''  at 
Covent  Garden,  London.  Weber  took  rank  at 
the  head  of  the  roniantJc  school.  He  possessed 
great  harmonic  invention  and  a  vein  of  fresh 
and  beautiful  melpdy. 

Web'stei,Daniel,lTS2-18S2;  American  states- 
man; b.  Salisbury  (now  Franklin),  N.  H.  He 
entered   the  Phillips  Eieter  Academy  in   1790, 


studies  at  the  oiTice  of  Christopher  Gore,  m  Boa- 
ton,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar  in  1903.  In 
1806  he  established  himself  at  Portsmouth,  then 
the  capital  of  New  Hamnshire,  where  he  rose  at 
once  to  full  practice.  '  He  took  part  in  politics 
as  a  Federalist,  and  in  1812  was  elected  to  Con- 
gress. He  took  his  seat  in  the  special  session  of 
Slay,  1813,  and  was  on  the  Committee  of  For- 
eign Affairs.  Early  in  the  session  he  moved  a 
■erieB  of  resolutions  on  the  repeal  of  the  Berlin 
and  Milan  decrees,  and  on  June  10th  delivered 
his  maiden  speech,  which  took  the  House  and 
the  country  oy  surprise.  He  was  reelected  in 
1S14,  and  in  1815  supported  the  charter  of  the 
Bank  of  the  U.  S.,  which  passed  the  House  in 
April,  1816.  His  most  important  service  at  this 
session  wan  the  introduction  of  a  successful  res- 
olution requiring  all  payments  to  the  Treasury 
after  February  20,  1817,  to  be  made  in  specie  or 
Its  equivalent,  which  restored  the  depreciated 
currency  of  the  country. 

In  December,  1813,  Webster's  house  at  PortB- 
mouth  was  burned,  and  at  the  close  of  his  con- 

Sessional  term,  in  1816,  he  removed  to  Boston. 
1  March  10,  1818,  hia  ailment  in  the  Dart- 


mouth Coll^  case  not  only  called  to  himself 
the  admiration  of  the  whole  people,  but  secured 
one  of  the  most  important  decisions  ever  ren- 
dered by  the  Supreme  Court.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  ^ifts  to  educational  and  other 
beneficent  institutions  amounting  to  more  than 
«500,000,000  have  been  protected  from  legis- 
lative interference  by  the  decision  thus  secured. 
In  1820  he  was  a  member  of  the  Massachusetts 
convention  to  revise  the  constitution  after  the 
separation  of  Maine.  On  December  22,  1B20,  he 
pronounced  a  discourse  on  the  anniversary  of 
the  landing  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  In  1822 
and  1824  he  was  elected  to  Ccmgresa  from  Bos- 
ton. As  chairman  of  the  Judiciary  Committee 
he  carried  through  a  complete  revision  of  the 
criminal  law  of  the  U.  8.  In  1827  he  was  elect- 
ed by  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts' to  the 
Senate  of  the  U.  S.  to  fill  a  vacancy,  and  he  re- 
tained his  seat  by  reelection  till  1841.  Theflrat 
session  of  the  Twenty-flrst  Congress  was  signal- 
ized by  the  debate  on  Foote's  resolution  relative 
to  the  survey  of  the  public  lands,  which  grad- 
ually assumed  the  charaotei:  of  partisan  war- 
fare, and  mainly  related  to  the  newly  promul- 
gated doctrines  of  the  school  of  Calhoun  on  the 
right  of  a  state  to  nullify  an  act  of  Congress. 

Two  speeches  were  made  by  Webster  in  re- 
ply to  Hayne,  of  B,  Carolina,  of  which  the  sec- 
ond, pronounced  on  January  26  and  27,  1830, 
is  the  most  celebrated  of  his  parliamentary  ef- 
forts. From  this  time  to  the  accession  of  Har- 
rison to  the  presidency,  in  1841,  Webster  took 
a  foremost  part  in  the  debates  on  ail  the  prin- 
cipal topics,  sharing  with  Henry  Clay  the  lead 
of  the  Whig  party  in  the  contest  with  nullifi- 
cation, and  subsequently  with  Pres.  Jackson. 
In  1839  he  made  a  hasty  tour  in  England, 
Scotland,  and  France,  and  on  his  return  yielded 
the  most  ellicient  aid  in  bringing  about  the 
great  political  change  which  was  consummated 
in  the  election  of  Qen.  Harrison,  in  whose  Cabi- 
net he  accepted  the  Department  of  State.  Har- 
rison's death  and  the  succession  of  Tyler  men- 
aced the  harmony  of  the  administration,  and 
finally  overturned  it;  but  Webster  retained  his 
Beat  in  the  Cabinet  when  the  other  members 
resigned,  and  completed  the  negotiation  of  the 
Ashburton  Treaty  with  Great  Britain,  which 
settled  the  NK  Doundary  question  and  other 
matters  in  dispute.  He  retired  to  private  life  in 
1843.  At  the  first  session  of  the  Twenty-ninth 
Congress  (December,  1845}  Mr.  Webster  agun 
took  his  Beat  in  the  Senate  as  the  successor  of 
Mr.  Choate.  He  opposed  the  annexation  of 
Texas  as  unconstitutional,  but  he  thought  it 
his  duty,  after  the  war  with  Mexico  was  actu- 
ally commenced,  not  to  withht^d  the  supplies 
for  the  army. 

After  the  election  to  the  presidency  of  Gen. 
Taylor  the  controversies  relative  to  slavery  be- 
came violent.  A  national  crisis  seemed  to  be 
impending-  In  the  senatorial  debates  on  these 
subjects  Webster  delivered  his  much -criticised 
speech  of  March  7,  1850,  in  which  he  aban- 
doned the  Wilmot  proviso  and  justifled  tbe 
Fugitive  Slave  Law.  In  the  reorganization  of 
the  Cabinet  by  Pres.  Fillmore  after  the  death 
of  Taylor,  in  1850,  Webster  was  called  to  the 
Department  of  State.  In  January,  185Z,  he 
argued  th«  important  India-rubber  patmt  cause 


WEBSTER 

at  TreDtoD.     Tifie  yite  Ub  luit  greftt  forenrie 

effort.  His  (rienda  exp«ct«d  hia  nommntion  to 
the  presideac;  at  the  Whig  convention  of  that 
year,  bb  they  had  upon  wveral  previous  occa- 
iions,  but  the  choice  fell  upon  Oen.  Scott. 
Early  in  May  Mr.  Webster   was  seriously  .  in- 

£'uTed  by  being  thrown  from  his  carriage  near 
is  farm  in  Marahfield,  where  he  spent  tae  cloa- 
/  ing  montha  of  his  life. 

Webster,  John,  English  dramatist;  b.  in 
England  toward  the  close  of  the  aixteenth  cen- 
tury; was  aaaociated  with  -many  dramatists, 
•nd  ultimately  IjecAme  an  author  on  hia  own 
account.  Of  hia  peraonal  history  nothmg  ia 
known.  Among  his  dramas  are  "  The  White 
Devil,  or  Vittona  Corombona  " ;  "  The  Duchess 
of  Malfy,"  "  Appiua  and  Virginia,"  and  "  The 
Devil's  Law  Case."  Websters  geniua  was 
clusively  tragic ;  hia  diction  is  someti 
Shakespearean,  but  he  exaggerated  the  terrible 
into  the  horrible,  and  the  morbid  gloom  and 
ferocity  of  his  pictures  of  life  are  unrelieved  by 
Shalceapeare's  aweetness,  or  by  any  humor. 

Webster,  Noah,  176a-lS43;  American  lexi- 
cographer; b.  W.  Hartford,  Conn.;  gradu- 
ated at  Yale,  1TT8,  aerving  in  the  Conti- 
nental army  during  a  part  of  his  college 
course;  admitted  to  the  bar,  1761;  Uught  a 
claaaical  school  at  Goshen,  Orange  Co.,  N.  Y., 
1782-83;  prepared  there  his  spelling  book, 
grammar,  and  reader,  printed  under  the  title 
"  A  Grammatical  Institute  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage, etc.,  in  Three  Parts  " — s.  work  so  suc- 
cessful that  the  sale  of  the  spelling  book  has 
exceeded  80,000,000,;  wrote  political  articles 
for  the  Hartford  Courant,  1784;  published 
"  Sketches  of  American  Policy,"  advocating  the 
formation  of  a  Federal  constitution;  traveled 
in  the  S.  states  to  petition  their  legislatures  to 
favor  a  copyright  law;  delivered  lectures  on 
the  English  language  in  the  principal  Atlantic 
cities,   naS;  taught  an  academy  in  Philadel- 

thia,  1787,  and  isaued  "  As  Examination  of  the 
eading  Principles  of  the  Federal  Constitu- 
tion ";  edited  in  New  York,  December,  1787,  to 
Novemtwr,  1788,  the  American  Siagazine,  an 
unsuccessful  enterprise;  practiced  law  at  Hart- 
ford, 178»-93;  returned  to  New  York  and 
founded  a  daily  paper,  the  Minerva;  settled  in 
New  Haven,  1798;  published  "A  Brief  Hiatory 
of  Epidemics,"  "  Bights  of  Neutral  Nations  in 
Time  of  War,"  1802;  a  "Compendious  Diction- 
ary of  the  English  Language,"  1S06;  and  a 
"  Kiilosophical  and  Practical  Grammar  of  the 
English  Language,"  1807;  devoted  himself 
thenceforth  to  the  great  labor  of  hia  life,  the 
"  American  Dictionary  of  the  English  Lan- 
guage"; was  inSuential  in  the  eatabUshment 
of  Amherst  College;  and  completed  hia  diction- 
ary by  the  aid  of  the  Libraries  of  the  Univ. 
of  Cambridge,  and  devoted  hia  leisure  for  the 
remainder  of  his  life  to  the  revision  of  that 
work  and  of  hia  achoolbooka. 

Webster-Ash'burton  Trea'ty.  In  1839  Maine 
and  Canada  both  laid  claim  to  a.  large  terri- 
tory, and  each  insisted  that  under  a  former 
treaty,  signed  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution, 
she  was  the  rightful  owner.  Maine  ordered 
troops  into  the  disputed  territory  and  held  it, 
and  this  armed  p<Msession  was  known  as  the 


WEEK 

"Arooatotdc  War."  War  was  prevented  and 
negotiations  for  settlement  were  undertaken. 
In  1S42  I^rd  Aahburton  came  to  America  au- 
thorized to  treat,  and  he  and  Webster  agreed 
on  a  treaty,  which  was  signed  at  Washington, 
and  which  compromised  this  dispute  and  set 
at  rest  all  controversies  concerning  the  N. 
boundary  of  the  U.  8.,  even  as  far  W.  as  the 
Lake  of  the  Woods.  It  also  provided  for  the 
extradition  of  certain  classes  of  criminals  and 
for  keeping  armed  cruisers  of  both  nations  em- 
ployed in  checking  the  slave  trade. 

Wedg'wood,  Joslah,  1730-95;  English  pot- 
ter; commenced  business  at  Burslem,  17S9,  and 
brought  himself  into  notice  by  the  production 
of  a  oream-colored  ware  known  as  "  queens- 
ware";  also  fine  black  "basalts"  or  Egyp- 
tian "  ware,  and  a  noted  jasper  ware.  He  made 
fifty  copies  of  the  Portland  vase,  introduced 
original   and   beautiful   designs,   raised   British 

gttery  to  a  fine  art,  and  built  the  village  of 
niria  for   his  factories.     He   cultivated   nat- 
ural philosophy,  invented  the  pyrometer,  and 
contributed   papers   to  the   "  Tranaactions "   ot  . 
the  Royal  Society. 

Wedlock.    See  Mabbiaqe. 

Wednes'dfty,  the  fourth  day  of  the  week;  so 
named  in  consequence  of  an  identification  of 
the  N.  god  Woden  or  Odin  with  the  Roman 
Mercurius.  By  the  old  superstition  Wednesday 
was  considered  not  particulaTly  lucky  nor  par- 
ticularly dangerous. 

Weeds,  plants  objected  to  because,  growing 
at  the  wrong  time  and  in  the  wrong  place, 
they  are  iniurious  to  the  growth  of  crops  or 
other  valuable  plants.  Many,  such  as  the  dan- 
delion   and    plantain,    have    broad,    spreading 


pasture;  others  are  feraling  and  breedin 
grounds  for  insects,  thus  assisting  in  the  spread 
of  crop  diseases;  some  are  poisonous  to  stock, 
tainting  the  milk  or  destroying  wool;  nearly 
all  take  from  the  soil  large  quantities  of  food 
and  moisture  necessary  to  the  growth  ol  more 
desirable  plants. 

Weeds  constitute  a  hardy  growth  and  are 
difficult  to  overcome.  Annuals,  such  as  wild 
mustard,  shepherd's  purse,  and  wild  oats,  pro- 
duce in  one  season  large  numbers  of  seeds, 
which  are  disseminated  through  the  agency,  of 
the  wind,  birds,  animals,  and  man,  and,  though 
ready  to  sprout  the  following  season,  are  so 
protected  by  oily  or  hard -coats  that  they  are 
able  to  sprout  -after  lying  in  plowed-under 
ground  even  for  mafiy  years.  These  plants 
must  be  cut  down  before  seeds  are  formed  to 
reproduce  them.  Biennials,  usually  tap  rooted, 
represented  by  the  wild  carrot,  burdock,  and 
mullein,  do  not  form  seed  until  the  second  sea- 
aon.  Such  are  deatroyed  only  by  continued  cut- 
ting off  of  the  top,  or,  better,  removal  of  the 
root.  Most  djfllcult  to  overcome  are  perennials 
like  the  oxeye  daisy,  plantain  and  dandelion, 
some  of  which,  notably  the  milkweed  and  bind- 
weed, spread  by  creeping  in  their  root& 

Week,  a  period  of  seven  days,  forming  a  sub- 
division of  the  lunar  month,  correspondiiw  to 
the  four  quarters  of  the  moon,  or  about  7|  days. 


WEEKS 

It  WM  in  eommon  UM  among  the  ancient  He- 
brews, who  in  Exodufl  xx,  1),  referred  its  origin 
to  tKe  creation  of  the  world,  and  in  Deuter- 
ooonij  V,  16,  to  the  eiodus  from  Egypt.  But  it 
waa  not  a  Hebrew  invention.  It  was  found  ai 
a  civil  iDBtitution  in  the  very  earliest  tisteii 
aroon^  the  Hindus,  Fergana,  Aai^iianB,  and 
EgyptianH,  though  the  Jews  were  the  only  na- 
tion with  which  the  week  had  a  religious  sig- 
niflcation.  With  the  Egyptians,  Awyriana,  etc., 
the  seventh  day  was  simply  a  day  of  recrea- 
tion; with  the  Jews  it  was  the  day  of  woraliip, 
the  Sabbath  The  Greeica  divided  the  month 
into  three  periods  of  ten  days  (decades),  and 
the  BomanH  gathered  the  days  into  periods  of 
.  eight  days  (nuudinie) ;  with  l>oth,  the  first  day 
of  the  period  was  the  market  day,  on  which 
oountry  people  came  to  town  and  stirred  up 
both  bUHincsB  and  public  life.  The  period  of 
seven  days,  the  week  proper,  was  introduced  to 
the  Romans  and  Oreelca  partly  by  Christianity 
(which  may  be  inferred  froro  the  fact  that  the 
term  tabbatk  was  adopted),  partly  by  the 
Egyptian  astronomy  and  astrology.  Among  the 
Jews  the  days  of  the  week  bad  no  namesj  they 
were  simply  counted.  The  Egyptians,  however, 
named  them  after  the  seven  planets  then  known 
and  in  the  following  way:  they  arranged  the 
planets  according  to  their  distance  from  the 
earth,  banning  with  the  most  distant;  ascribed 
a  planet  to  each  hour,  and  named  the  day  after 
the  planet  which  reigned  over  its  first  hour! 
This  method  of  appeliation  was  adopted  by  the 
Romans,  q^  that  when  Saturn  presided  over  the 
first  hour  of  the  first  day,  which  consequently 
became  Saturday,  the  first  hour  of  the  second 
day  would  fall  to  the  mn,  etc.  Among  Mo- 
hammedans, Friday  is  the  special  day  for 
worship. 

Weeks,  Feast  of.    See  Pehtecxibt. 

Weep'ing,  the  shedding  of  tears,  accompa- 
nied, especially  in  children,  by  faciid  distortion 
and  involuntary  muscular  contractions.  To  se- 
crete and  conditct  the  tears  there  is  a  special 
apparatus  within  the  orbit  of  the  eye  at  its 
upper  part,  consisting  of  the  lachrymal  or  tear 
gland;  of  a  reservoir,  the  lachrymal  sac;  of 
canals  which  collect  the  tears  and  convey 
them  to  the  lachrymal  sac ;  and  of  a  tube,  the 
lachrymal  duct,  by  which  the  secretion  is  < 
ried  intD  the  nose.  Tears  serve  to  lubricate  and 
keep  moist  the  lining  membrane  of  the  eyelids 
and  external  coat  of  the  eyeball.  The  secre- 
tion of  tears,  whether  for  emotional  or  physio- 
logical purposes,  is  efi'ected  through  the  fifth 
pair  of  the  cranial  nerves  and  the  sympathetic 


e  attempt  to  restrain  the  emotions  and 
from  a  cause  similar  to  that  which  induces  ugh- 
ing — the  demand  of  the  system  for  additional 
aSration  of  the  blood — a  process  which  intense 
emotion  serves  to  disturb. 

Wea'vU,  a  beetle  about  )  in.  long,  of  chest- 
nut-brown  color,  with  the  head  drawn  out  into 
a  snout,  at  the  top  of  which  are  the  jaws. 
There  are  over  400  N.  American  species,  the 
most  important  being  the  ^in  weevil,  a  de- 
strnctive  pest  to  stored  gram.  Several  genera- 
tions  are   produced  each  year.     The  remedies 


WEIOmNa  MACHINES 
e  principally  kiln  dry- 


Tha   best  antidote  is 


mg,  s    , 

lime  among  the  grai 
cleanliaess.  All  rub- 
bish that  can  harbor 
weevils  should  be 
burned,  cracks  filled 
up,  the  walls  white- 
washed, and  a  gen- 
eral supervision  nad 
over  the  grain,  which 
should  be  kept  as 
cool  as  possible,  and 
well  aired. 

Weigh'ing  Ma- 
chines', contrivances 
used  to  ascertain  the 
heaviness  of  bodies. 

Weight  is.  the  re- 
sult of  the  attrac- 
tion of  gravitation 
upon  a  body,  and  as  *»  Ca/nmfru  ffr^jtaria;  b,  C 
the  force  of  gravity  on*".  (The  "^dl  out- 
is  not  the  same  at  lln»  show  the  mitursJ  rise.) 
difl'erent  parts  of  the 

earth's  surface,  so  the  weight  or  effect  of 
gravity  of  any  piece  or  body  differs  according 
to  the  place  at  which  it  is  weighed.  Thus,  a 
mass  of  iron  which  weighs  1,000  lb.  at  the 
equator  would  weigh  1,006  lb.  at  the  pole;  600 
lb.  at  a  point  S,000  m.  below  the  surface  or 
1,660  m.  above  it;  2,600  lb.  on  the  surface  of 
Jupiter,  and  28,000  lb.  on  the  surface  of  the 
sun.  As'ordinarily  used,  however,  weight  does 
not  mean  the  absolute  heaviness  of  a  body  or 
the  effect  of  gravity  upon  it,  but  the  relative 
heaviness  as  campared  with  that  of  a  certain 
piece  of  metal  which  is  taken  as  a  standard, 
and  weighed  at  the  sameplace  and  under  the 
same    conditions.      Bee    Weiohts    A^D    Meab- 

The  use  of  the  elasticity  of  metal  or  other 
substances  as  the  pripclple  of  a  weighing  ma- 
chine is  shown  in  Fig.  1,  consisting  of  a  flexible 
steel  strip,  a,  fastened  at  one  end  to  a  pedestal. 


FlQ.    1 


-EtZHEKTAaT  WEIOHIMa    DEVICE, 


b,  and  carrying  at  its  outer  end  a  pan,  c.  A 
1-lb.  weight  placed  in  the  pan,  c,  will  bring 
the  pointer  down  to  the  mark  1  on  tile  grud- 
uated  standard,  2  lb.  brings  it  down  to  the 
mark  2,  and  so  on.  By  finely  graduating  the 
index  plate,  a  fairly  accurate  weighing  machine 
for  a  limited  range  of  purposes  is  obtained. 
The  ordinary  sprine  balance  consista  of  a  spir- 
ally wound  wire  which  is  held  at  one  end,  the 
weight  to  be  weighed  being  suspended  from  a 
hook  at  the  other.    The  common  form  of  bal- 


WEIGHING  MACHINES 

ance  with  a  pointer  rotating  on  a  dial  U  just 
the  aa.me  with  the  addition  of  a  amall  rack 
and  pinion  to  give  the  rotary  motion. 

The  hydrometer  used  for  determining  the 
density  of  liquids  (Fig.  Z)  illustrates  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  buoyancy 
of  liquids  applied  to 
determine  the  weight 
of  small  tiodiee,  since 
equal  weights  placed 
in  the  pan  at  the  top 
depress  the  instru- 
ment   the    same    dis- 

The     pendulum     or 
bent- lever  balance  ie  a 
balance,  the  most  com- 
mon form  of  which  is 
a  cheap  and  not  very 
accurate  letter  balance. 
for    weighing     a    few 
ounces.     It  conaiats  of 
a   bent   arm,    a    (Fig. 
3),    carrying    at    the 
Tia.  3, — Htdboheter.       end     of     the     vertical 
portion    a    weight,    c, 
and  at  the  end  of  the  horicontal  portion  the 
scale  pan,  d,  suspended   from  a  pivot,  b.     As 
weights  are  placed  in  the  scale  pan  the;  will 
cause   the   weight,   o,   to  move   outward   from 


the  supporting  pillar  until  the  leverage  of  the 
arm  and  weight  on  one  side  of  the  pillar 
counterbalance  the  effect  of  the  weight  in  the 
scale   pan. 


Pra.  4.— Htdhovtatic  Bai,akce. 

The  hydrostatic  balance  (Fig.  4)  ia  baaed 
on  the  principle  of  the  hydrostatic  press  or 
jack,    liiere  are  two  communicating  cylinders. 


WEIGHING  MACHINES 

one  vei^  much  larger  than  the  other,  each 
fitted  with  a  piston.  Leakage  and  friction  be- 
ing left  out  of  the  account,  a  weight  placed  on 
the  piston  of  the  smaller  cylinder  wiU  balance 
a  weight  on  the  piston  of  the  larger  cylinder 
which  is  as  many  times  greater  as  the  area  of 
the  larger  piston  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
smaller.  B^  substituting  for  the  pistons  flex- 
ible metallic  diaphragms,  the  objections  of 
leakage  and  piston  friction  are  avoided. 


Fia.  &— Even  BiOMict. 

The  even  balance  is  the  simplest  and  most 
universally  used  weighing  machine  (Fig.  5).  " 
It  consists  of  a  rigid  beam  of  metal,  with  three 
pivots,  or  "  knife  edges,"  inserted  in  it,  so  that 
tbeir  edges  are  in  the  same  plane,  and  the  end 
pivots  equally  distant  from  the  central  pivot. 
The  central  knife   edge   rests  on  a  horizontal 

Slate  fastened  in  the  upright  support,  and  a 
anger  rests  on  each  of  the  end  knife  edges, 
carrying  the  weighing  pans  beneath.  ( See 
Balance.)  The  pivoto  and  central  plate,  and 
also  the  portions  of  the  hangers  which  rest 
on  the  end  pivot,  are  usually  made  of  steel, 
but  in  fine  chemical  balances  agate  knife  edges 
and  plates  i —  — '     "" "-*' ' 


s  used.    The  even  balance  has  o 


Fia.  ft,— Wei 


I  9TtELTUu>  Scale. 

objection  for  heavy  weights,  viz.,  the  necessity 
of  placing  weights  in  one  pan  of  the  balance 
equal  to  the  weight  of  the  substance  which  is 
being  weighed  in  the  other.  This  led  to  the 
adoption  of  the  lever  balance,  or  Roman  steel- 
yard. (Fig.  6.)  Its  principle  is  based  on  that 
of  the  lever,  namely,  that  a  heavy  weight  sus- 
pended from  the  end  of  the  short  arm  of  the 
lever  may  be  balanced  by  a  smaller  weight 
suspended  from  the  end  of  the  long  arm,  the 
weights  being  inversely  proportional  to  the 
lengths  of  the  arms.  In  practice  the  steel- 
yard balance  does  not  generally  have  a  pan 
support  or  weight  holder  attached  to  each  end 
of  the  balance,  but  only  to  the  short  end,  while 
on  the  long  arm  there  is  a  movable  weight, 
which  may  be  placed  at  any  position  required 


WEIOHINQ  MACHINES 

to  balance  tlie  weight  suspended  from  the  abort 
arm.  Marks  and  nicks  are  placed  upon  the 
beam  to  indicate  the  positions  at  which  the 
morable  weight  should  be  placed. 

The  compound -lever  balance  is  merely  an 
improvement  of  the  steelyard,  by  using  two  or 
more  iteelyarda  linked  together.     (Fig.  7.)     If  . 


Fin.    7. — COHPOUHD-LBm  BaIiIXCI. 

IDO  lb.  is  suspended  from  the  abort  arm  of  a 
beam  whose  arms  are  to  each  other  as  10  to  I, 
a  force  of  10  lb.  applied  at  the  end  of  the  long 
arm  will  balance  it,  but  this  force  maj  be  ap- 
plied by  means  of  a  aecond  lever.  If  this  sec- 
ond lever  also  has  a  ratio  of  lengths  of  arms 
of  10  to  1,  1  lb.  applied  at  the  end  of  tbe  long 
arm  of  the  second  lever  will  balance  100  lb. 


Tia,  8. — BosioM  Uuuur  Bcau. 


at  the  end  of  the  short  arm  of  the  first  lever, 
the  weights  of  the  levers,  of  course,  being  Brat 
counterbalanced  so  as  to  remain  in  balance 
when  unloaded.  The  Boston  market  scale 
(Fig,  8)    works  on  the  oompound-lever  prin- 

For  many  purposes  suspended  scale  pans  are 
inconvenient,    and   pans    supported   above   the 


Fio.  9. — HoDEL  OF  Cpsianr-rAif  Scai.b. 

beam  are  desired.  In  order  to  make  a  success- 
ful upilght'pan  balance  it  is  necessary  to  allow 
the  |Hui  supporU  to  move  on  tbe  ends  of  pivots 
and  at  the  same  time  to  insure  that  they  re- 
main in  a  vertical  position,  by  securing  a 
parallel  motion  (Fig.  6),  by  placing  «  second 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASUBES 

beun  underneath  the  first.  In  ordinary  knife- 
edge  upright-pan  scales  (Fig.  10),  like  the 
grocer's  counter  scale,  the  lower  beam  is  hid- 
den in  the  casting,  close  to  the  table. 

To  obtain  an  idea  of  the  platform  scale,  in- 
vented in  1631  by  Thaddeus  Fairbanks  of  Ver- 
mont, refer  to  Fig.  7,  and  imagine  four  equal 
steelyard  levers  like  the  one  at  the  left 
of  the  cut,  which  carries  100  lb.,  so  dis- 
posed at  the  comers  of  a  rectangle  that 
the   ends   of    their   longer   arms   nearly 
touch  each  other,  and  a  double  hanger 
\    extending  from  the  pivots  at  these  ends 
'    downward   to   the   central   pivot  of  the 
lever   shown   at   the   risht   of   the   cutl 
The   relative   lengths   of  all   the   levers 
remaining  as  before,  10  to  I,  it  is  evi- 
dent that   4    lb.   placed   in   the   small 
pan    of    the    lower    level    will    balance 
400  lb.— that  is,   100   lb.  on  each  of  the  four 
primary   levers.     Now   bubstitute  for   the   400 
lb.  and  the  pans  a  rectangular  platform  placed 
above  the  four  levers,  and  provided  with  four 
short   feet   which    rest   in    the   links    hanging 
on  the   pivots  of  the   abort  arms  of  the  four 
levers,  and  load  this  platform  so  that  tbe  total 

load  including  the  platfi 

of  the  pans  and  400  lb. ; 


Fia.  10. — EvBN  BAiiAHCa  wns  Snw  Bbak. 

the  machine  thus  constructed  will  be  In  equilib- 
rium when  4  lb.  are  in  the  pan  at  the  extremity 
of  the  lower  lever.  The  upward  force  of  4  lb. 
acting  at  the  outer  pivot,  instead  of  being  thus 
counterbalanced,  raay  be  carried  by  a  system 
of  levers  and  links  to  any  point  at  which  it 
may  be  more  convenient  to  counterbalance  it 
by  a  weight  in  a  pan,  or  by  a  wdght  sliding 
on  a  graduated  beam. 

In  the  torsion  balance  a  twisting  wire  is  used 
for  a  pivot,  and  these  scales  show  great  dura- 
bility and  sensitiveness. 

Weight.  Bee  Qkatttt;  WEiaBiRo  Machines; 
Wdghts  and  Meabubes. 

Weights  and  Meaa'nies,  Instrumental  means 
employed  for  the  exact  determination  of  quan- 
tity. It  has  been  a  part  of  the  public  poliev 
of  every  organised  community  to  regulate  sucn 
systems  by  law,  defining  the  unite  which  shall 
be  used,  with  their  multiples  and  submultiples, 
and  providing  carefully  constructed  standarda 
to  which  the  measures  in  actual  use  must  con- 

The  word  pound  is  the  Roman  ponduji,  a. 
"  weight,"  and  the  unit  it  originally  repre- 
sented was  doubtlesB  arbitrary.  The  foot,  as 
a  measure  of  length,  made  its  first  appearance 
In  Greece.  The  lUimans  employed  the  step  as  a 
measure  of  distance,  and  when  the  distances  re- 
quired a  larger  unit,  they  used  the  mille  pa»- 
tuum,  1,000  paces,  from,  which  has  been  derived 
the  mils.    The  foot  it  a  nait  of  comparatively 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

modem  origin,  te  the  Egyptiane,  the  AbsttIuu, 
emd  the  Babjltnikna,  with  whom  the  lerael- 
itei  were  contemporaneouB,  used  the  cubit,  or 
length  of  the  fare  arm,  aa  the  unit  of  linear 
measure.  With  the  Israelites,  all  the  snbdi- 
viaioDa  of  thia  unit  purported  to  be  dimensions 
of  the  persoD.  The  cubit  contained  two  spans; 
the  span,  three  palms ;  the  palm,  tour  digits. 
Otber  meaeuree  derired  from  the  person,  of 
which  the  origin  or  date  is  unknown,  are  the 
ell  {ulna),  derived  from  the  tore  arm;  the 
Italian  bracoio,  the  Portuguese  bra^a,  the 
Swiss  brache,  and  the  Spaaisli  braea,  all  signi- 
fj'ing  the  leiwth  Of  the  arm;  the  English  jard, 
from  old  En^iah  gyrdan,*  to  "  gird,"  the  girdle 
or  measure  of  the  bod^'B  circumference;  the 
English  fathom,  aI«o  from  old  English  fteom, 
embrace,  the  length  of  two  arms;  to  which 
may  be  added  the  hand,  and  perhaps  the  nail, 
ID  England,  the  pouoe,  or  thumb's  breadth,  in 

Measuree  of  capacity  may  have  been  derived 
from  the  content  of  some  natural  vessel,  as  a 
gourd  or  the  shell  of  a  cocoanut.  The  homer, 
as  a  measure  of  dry  capacity  among  the  same 
people,  signified  a  heap,  and  the  gomer,  a 
diminutive  of  this,  and  the  hundredth  part  of 
a  homer,  signified  a  heap  also.  These  names 
indicate  that  the  vague  estimate  of  quantity 
must  have  been  made  by  the  eye  alone. 

Of  measures  of  length  there  are  at  present 
among  us  one  unit  for  carpentiy  and  raecban- 
ica,  the  foot;  another  for  t«iti1e  fabrics,  the 
yard;  another  for  field  surveying,  the  chain; 
and  another  for  road  measure,  the  mile.  The 
toot  is  subdivided  to  inches  and  lines ;  the  yard, 
to  quarters  and  nails;  the  chain,  to  linka  and 
decimals;  and  the  mile,  to  furlonga  and  rods. 
The  superficial  measures,  which  are  the  squares 
of  these  units,  are  equally  diverse,  with  the 
addition  of  the  country  dimension  of  the  acre. 
Of  capacity  measures  there  are,  tor  liquids, 
the  gallon,  quart,  pint,  and  gill ;  for  cereals 
and  other  dry  eubetancea,  the  bushel  and  peck ; 
and  for  firewood,  the  cord.  Of  weights  there 
are,  for  ordinary  commerce,  the  avoirdupois 
pound,  with  its  subdivisions,  and  for  large 
masses  its  irregular  multiples  of  the  quarter, 
hundred,  and  ton;  for  bullion,  plate,  and  coin, 
the  pound  troy,  irr^ularly  aubdivlded;  for 
drugs  and  medicines,  the  apothecaries'  pound, 
equni  to  the  troy  pound,  but  differently  sub- 
divided ;  and  for  gems,  the  carat.  Thia  mul- 
tiplication of  systems,  which  is  wholly  unnec- 
essary, has  added  much  to  the  difficulty  of 
dealing  nith  problems  relating  to  quantity. 

The  earliest  legislation  of  Great  Britain  on 
weights  and^  measures  is  in  the  reafSrmatlon 
of  the  Great  Charter  under  Henry  III  (1225 
A..D.),  which  simply  declares  that  they  shall 
be  uniform  throughout  the  realm.  A  statute 
of  1226  (."il  Henry  III)  founded  measures  of 
weight  upon  numbers  of  wheat  coma,  but  the 
units  of  commercial  weight  were  also  units 
of  coin  weight.  The  pound  thus  determined, 
known  as  the  tower  pound,  or  the  sterling 
or  easterling  pound,  continued  down  to  149G. 
when  it  WRS  superseded  by  the  troy  pound  1 12 
Henry  VII).  The  earliest  statute  in  which 
the  tri^  pound  is  mentioned  is  one  of  1414 
(2  Heniy  V),  to  r^ulata  the  charges  of  gold- 


WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES 

smiths.  In  1496,  however,  it  was  by  statute 
of  18  Henry  VII  substituted  for  the  sterling 
pound  for  the  regulation  of  measuree  of  ca- 
pacity, the  sterling  pound  coutinuing  to  be 
used  at  the  mint;  but  by  a  subsequent  statute 
of  1G2T  (18  Henry  VIII),  this  last  was  defi- 
nitely abolished. 

The  earliest  British  l^slation  as  to  peaa- 
urea  of  length  is  of  date  1324  (17  Edward  II), 
and  provides  that  the  inch  shall  have  the  length 
ot  three  barleycorns,  round  and  dry,  laid  end 
to  end;  that  12  in.  shall  make  a  foot,  and 
3  ft,  a  yard. 

A  statute  which  went  into  effect  January  1, 
1S26,  enacted  that  a  standard  yard  be  adopted 
and  from  this  all  other  measures  of  extension 
be  derived.  In  regard  to  weights,  it  declared 
a  braes  lib.  weight  made  in  the  year  1758, 
then  in  the  custody  of  the  clerk  of  tbe  House 
of  Commona,  to  be  authentic,  and  nam^  it  tha 
"  imperial  standard  troy  pound."  It  further 
declared  that  the  said  standard  pound  should 
contain  12  oz.  of  ZO  pennyweights,  each  penny- 
weie-ht  containing  24  grains,  "  so  that  5,760 
such  grains  shall  be  a  troy  pound;  and  that 
7,000  such  grains  shall  be,  and  are  hereby  de- 
clared to  be,  a  pound  avoirdupois."  As  to 
measures  of  capacity,  it  was  enacted  that,  the 
standard  measure,  whether  for  liquids  or  for 
dry  goods,  should  be  the  gallon,  containing,  at 
62°  F.,  with  the  barometer  at  30  in.,  10  lb. 
avoirdupois  weight  of  distilled  water.  It  is 
further  declared  that  the  standard  gallon  is 
equal  in  butk  to  277.274  cu.  in.  at  62°  F. 

Early  in  the  colonial  history  of  the  U.  S.  the 
British  exchequer  standards  of  weights  and 
measures  had  been  l^alized  by  many  of  the 
colonial  legislatures.  In  1730  a  set  of  braaa 
and  copper  avoirdupois  weights  and  measures 
was  imported  into  Massachusetts  from  the 
British  exchequer,  and  in  1765  the  treasurer 
was  required  to  procure  a  balance  and  a  nest 
of  troy  weights.  The  failure  ot  Congress  to 
exercise  the  powers  conferred  by  the  (Smstltu- 
tion  made  it  necessary  for  the  executive  to 
procure  standards  for  use  in  the  collection  of 
revenue,  and  other  operations.  A  brass  eeale 
by  Troughton,  of  London,  was  obtained  by  the 
U.  fi.  Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey  in  1614.  It 
was  82  in.  in  length,  ami  a  part  of  it  (from 
the  S7th  to  the  63d-in.  line)  was  adopted  as 
the  unit  of  length.  A  platinum  meter  and 
kilogram  were  procured  by  Gallatin  in  1821, 
and  a  copy  of  the  English  troy  pound  was 
brought  from  London,  also  by  Gelatin,  in 
1827.  The  latter  became,  by  act  of  Congress, 
IS23,  the  standard  of  mass  for  tbe  mint  of 
the  U.  S.,  and,  although  totally  unfit  for  the 
purpose,  it  has  since  continued  to  be  the  legal 
standard  for  coinage  puri>osas. 

To  encourage  nniformity.  the  Se«retary  of 
the  Treasury  in  1836  caused  a  complete  net 
of  all  atandard  weights  and  measures  to  be 
delivered  to  the  governor  of  each  state  in  the 
Union,  thus  furnishing  material  standards,  the 
adoption  of  which  would  secure  practical  uni- 
formity throughout  the  country.  These  stand- 
ards were  generally  adopted  by  the  state  au- 
thorities, and  the  words  pound  and  yard  have 
come  to  have  everywhere  in  tbe  V.  8,  Uie  lame 
practical  meaning.  d~*f~ial(* 


WEIGHTS,  ATOMIC 

The  first  and  alrooat  the  only  g^eral  l^ia- 
latioD  on  the  subject  of  weishta  Bud  meaaurea 
WM  the  act  of  CongresB  of  July  26,  ises,  mak- 
ing the  UBS  of  the  metric  system  lawful 
throughout  the  U.  B,,  and  deQning  the  weights 
and  measures  in  common  use  in  terms  of  the 
units  of  that  avstem.  la  1875  an  international 
metric  convention  was  agreed  upon  by  the  prin- 
cipal governments  of  the  world,  induding  the 
U.  S.,  at  which  it  was  undertaken  to  establish 


international  bureau  of  weigl 
the  first  object  of  which  should  be  the  prepara- 
tioo  of  a  new  international  standard  meter  and 
a  new  international  standard  kilogram,  copies 
of  vhiob  should  be  made  for  distribution  among 
the  contributing  governments.  On  January  2,- 
1890,  the  meter  and  kilogram  were  adopted  as 
the  national  prototype  meter  and  Idiogram. 
The  pound  and  yard,  which,  by  reason  of  their 
adaption  by  the  Treasury  Department,  had  be- 
come the  customary  units  throughout  the  coun- 
tiy,  were  based  upon  standards  copied  from 
thme  in  use  in  England  in  the  early  nineteenth 
century.  By  -  the  Treasury  Department  the 
yard  ia  now  defined  as  being  }S^  of  a  meter, 
and  the  pound  avoirdupois  -rAn  "'  *  ''i''*" 
gram,  thus  putting  these  standards  In  direct 
relation  with  those  of  other  civilized  nations, 
in  all  of  which,  with  only  one  or  two  excep- 
tions, the  metric  system  is  now  in  use.  See 
Metbio  SyaTEM. 

Weights,  Atom'ic.    See  CaEiasTST. 

Weimar  (vTndr),  capital  of  the  new  repub- 
lio  of'  Gomany;  on  the  Ilm.  It  is  a  quiet, 
neat,  pleasant,  and  aristocratic  place,  conta: 


Kmestinian  line  (the  Albertinian  line  reigns  in 
Dresden),  and  was  conspicuous  during  the  sec- 
ond classical  period  of  German  literature,  when 
Wieland,  Herder,  Goethe,  Schiller,  and  many 
leaser  authors  made  famous  the  court  of  Karl 
August.  The  grand  ducal  castle,  rebuilt  in 
1774  after  the  great  fire,  is  rich  in  relics  and 
memorials.  Other  places  of  interest  are  a  park 
eEtablisbed  by  Karl  August  and  Ooethe,  the 
library  ot  IHOjOOO  volumes,  besides  statues  and 
portraits;  the  state  archive,  with  rich  histori- 
cal treasures;  the  court  theater;  Goethe's 
house  (I782-1S32),  now  a  Goethe  museum; 
Schiller's  humble  residence  (1602-6);  the  per- 
manent exposition  of  art  and  art  industry,  con- 
taining also  a  Japanese  museum — all  these 
make  the  "German  Athens"  a  literarv  cen- 
ter. Here  Schiller  and  Goethe  are  nuried. 
Here  the  first  German  National  Assembly  was 
held  and  Frieiliich  W.  Eibert,  Socialist  and  for- 
mer saddler,  was  elected  President  of  the  German 
Kepublio,  Feb.  O-Il,  1919.    Fop.  (1905)  31,117. 

Weic,  Hanison  William,  1824-1006;  English 
artist;  b.  at  Lewes;  was  apprenticed  to  a  wood 
engraver  at  London ;  gave  great  attention  to 
natural  history  and  studied  water-color  paint- 
ing; was  one  of  the  original  members  of  the 
Society  of  Painters  in  Water  Colors;  became 
noted  for  his  wood  engravings  of  animals  and 
br  his  illustrations  to  seTeraf  books  on  natural 
histotj. 


■     WELL  DRILLING 

Weir,  Bobert  Walter,  1803-80;  American 
painter;  b.  at  New  Rochelle,  K.  V.;  pupil  of 
Jarvis;  began  to  paint  portraits  in  1821;  went 
to  Florence  in  1824  and  studied  with  Benve- 
nuti;  National  Academidan,  1820;  Profeesor 
of  Drawing  at  the  U.  S.  Military  Academy, 
1837-70.  Mig  "  Embarkation  of  the  Pilgrims  " 
is  in  the  Capitol  at  Washington,  D.  C. 

Weismann    (vis'mBn),    August,    1834-        ; 

German  naturalist;  b.  Frank fort-on-the-Main, 
Germany;  studied  medicine  at  GSttingen,  and 
was  physician  to  the  Archduke  of  Austria ; 
then  turned  to  zo<!lof;y,  and  tor  many  years  has 
been  professor  in  the  Univ.  of  Freiburg.  His 
first  rescftrthes  were  on  the  development  of  in- 
sects. His  u'rilings  have  been  the  greatest 
stimulation  to  research  of  any  since  the  pub- 
lication of  Darw'in's  "  Origin  of  Species." 
Among  his  works  are  "  Studies  in  the  Theory 
of  Descent,"  "  Essays  on  Heredity,"  and 
"  Germ  Plasm."     See  Hebbditt. 

Weld'ing,  a  property  of  iron,  platinum,  and  ' 
some  other  metals  by  which  they  unite  when 
heated  and  brought  together.  Ordinarily  the 
metals  to  be  welded  are  raised  to  a  white  heat, 
sprinkled  with  a  fiux  to  prevent  the  surfaces 
from  absorbing  oxygen,  and  then  hammered 
together.  A  current  of  electricity  *is  now 
often  used  to  heat  the  metals.  See  Eleotbic 
Wblmwo. 

Welland  Canal',  a  canal  connecting  Lakes 
Ontario  and  Erie  on  the  Canadian  side  of  the 
Niagara  Biver.  It  was  constructed  in  1833 
....      ...jgpj  in  ]g7i_    -      ^ 

number  of  lift  loc 
lockage,  327  ft;  size  of  locks,  270  by  45  ft.; 
width  of  canal,  100  ft;  depth  on  sUls,  14  ft 
The  tbtal   cost   up   to    1910   i     "    "" " 


average  for  241  days  in  the  year. 

Well  Drill'ing,  or  Well  Boi'ing,  the  opera- 
tions by  which  deep  holes  ot  small  diameter  are . 
sunk  to  obtain  water,  petroleum,  gas,  coal, 
iron  ore,  salt,  and  other  minerals.  I^e  princi- 
pal feature  of  well  drilling  or  boring  is  tliat  all 
of  the  operations  are  conducted  from  the  sur- 
face, the  hole  being  generally  from  3  to  8  in.  In 
diameter.  Two  methods  ol  well  sinking  are 
commonly  included  under  the  terms  welt  drill- 
ing and  well  boring — tnz.,  the  grinding  with 
pressure,  by  which  a  hole  is  made,  and  the 
grinding  or  shattering  of  the  rocks  by  a  heavy, 
chisel- pointed  bar.  The  two  methods  and  the 
machinery  adapted  to  their  application  are  rep- 
resented in  their  highest  development  on  the 
one  hand  by  the  diamond  drill  (see  Bt-ABTIMO), 
and  on  the  other  by  the  rope  dKll  or  ordinary 
oil-well  apparatus.  The  first  cuts  or  bores  a, 
hole,  either  cylindrical  or  ring-shaped,  and  In 
any  direction;  the  other  pounds  and  shatters  a 
hole  by  its  own  weight,  descending  vertically. 
The  diamond  drill  will  penetrate  any  rock  hard 
enough  to  stay  in  place,  while  the  percussion 
drill,  more  simple  m  construction  and  opera-  ■ 
Uon,  is  cheaper,  requires  labor  less  skilled,  and 
rapidly  pierces  the  softer  rocks. 

The  pounding  or  percussion  drill  is  in  com- 
mon use  for  "Tiirinj  deep  wells,  either  for  freah 


WELL  DRILLING 

water,  brine,  pettoleum,  or  gas,  while  the  dif 
mond  drill  ia  of  grefttest  utibty  in  explariog  the 
harder  rocks  for  coal,  iron  ore,  and  the  procioui 
metahk  An  iron  bar  tipped  with  ateel  drawn  to 
a  blunt  cutting  edge,  if  repeatedly  raised  a  few 
inchea  and  dropped  upon  a  rock,  cuts  a  depres- 
nion.  Bt  eJightly  turning  the  bar  each  time  it 
IB  raised  and  causing  the  chisel  edge  to  strike 
acroBB  the  mark  left  by  the  preceding  blow  the 
depression  becomes  a  nearly  circular  hole.  If 
the  bar  is  repeatedly  raised,  turned,  and  let  fall 
the  bole  deepens  until  the  powdered  rock  pre- 
vents further  progress.  II  water  is  now  put 
into  the  bole  tbe  rock  dust  becomes  soft  mud, 
and  can  be  drawn  out.  To  make  a  deep  well 
the  same  principle  is  employed;  the  tools  are 
made  larger,  heavier,  and  longer;  and  are  gen- 
erally suspended  from  ropes. 

The  first  atep  in  the  development  of  deep- 
drilling  machinery  from  the  simple  bar  is  the 
pole  to  raise  tbe  drill.  A  small 
•  elasticity  is  cut  and  trimmed 
into  a  long  pole,  the  butt  firmly  fastened  to  the 
ground  and  the  top  inclined  upward  at  an  an- 
gle of  about  30"  to  the  horiEiHi.  From  the  tip 
the  drilling  rod  is  suspended.  By  pulling  the 
end  of  the  pole  down  the  drill  strikes  its  blow 
and  then  is  lifted  by  the  tendency  of  the  pole 
to  become  straight  again.  In  this  wa;^  the 
labor  is  greatly  ^uced,  since  it  is  far  easier  to 
pull  down  the  drilling  rod  than  to  lift  it.  Wells 
of  from  2  to  3  in.  in  diameter  and  100  ft  or 
even  more  ia  depth  are  drilled  in  this  manner, 
two  men  working  at  a  time  and  making  a  prog. 
resB  of  about  15  ft.  a  day.  The  second  d^;ree 
of  development  is  the  use  of  horse  power  to 
raise  the  drill,  suitable  devices  being  employed, 
such  that  Totjify  motion  from  a  treadmill  or 
capstan  is  converted  into  a  rapid  vertical  lift 
and  fall.  From  this  it  is  but  a  abort  step  to 
the  use  of  steam  power,  by  which  the  largest 
results  are  acoompiished.  With  horse  power 
wells  of  from  3  to  4  in.  in  diameter  are  often 
drilled  to  depths  of  from  100  to  300  ft  or-more, 
while  with  steam  depths  of  4,000  ft  are  not 
rare.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  deep  wells 
are  now  drilled  by  steam,  hand  power  and 
faoraea  being  used  in  putting  down  shallow  wells 
in  localities  where  machinery  is  expensive  and 
labor  cheap. 

Wells,  ranging  generally  from  1,000  to  2,000 
ft  in  depth,  are  being  drilled  in  the  U.  B.  at 
the  rate  of  about  300  a  month.  These  are 
mainly  in  tbe  oil  and  gas  regions  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, Ohio,  and  Indiana.  The  machinery  in  com- 
mon use  has  been  perfected  in  these  oil  flelda, 
where  certain  standard  sizes  and  patterns  have 
been  adopted  after  years  of  trial  and  change, 
and  a  deaeription  of  the  apparatus  employed  in 
drilling  an  oil  well  applies  to  the  machinery 
used  for  probably  nine  tenths  of  the  other  deep 
wells  of  tbe  U.  S. 

The  most  prominent  object  about  a  deep- 
drilling  well  is  the  derrick  or  rig,  a  framework 
tower  20  ft  square  at  tbe  bottom,  tapering  to 
4  ft.  at  the  top,  and  usually  72  ft  high.  Thla 
tower  carries  two  pulleya,  the  crown  pulley  in 
the  center  and  the  block  through  which  the 
sand  line  runs.  Over  the  crown  pulley  runs  the 
cable  by  which  the  drilling  tools  are  suspended 
and  raised  or  lowered,  whUe  the  sand  line  ia  a 


aide  of  the  rig  are  the  bull  wheels  or  windlass 
upm  which  the  cable  is  wound,  and  at  the 
other  the  walking  beam,  a  beavf  timber  20  ft 
long  hung  in  tbe  center  so  that  it  can  oscillate 
up  and  down.  One  end  comes  directly  over  the 
bole,  and  the  other  can  be  attached  by  a  pitman 
to  a  crank  driven  bv  the  band 

to  t 


HXCTIVSBT    AHD     DeIUTCE    USXD    IN    WKI.L    DkILUHO. 

On  the  oxtmne  left  ii  the  boiler  tor  seoentiiic  staun,  ~ 
uid  next  UtitiB  the  enciiie  above  vhiah  is  a  vooden 
tBDk  tor  holding  vatar  for  the  boiler.  To  the  licht 
of  thia.  sod  in  the  center  of  the  picture  is  the  buH] 
wheel  And  dia<i>ii>]ly  abore  thin  the  wolkinc  beun. 
In  (he  lower  put  of  the  denjek  and  at  tbe  sxtrwoe 
risht  are  tbe  bull  wheels 

ing  thebull  wheels  which  wind  or  unwind  the 
cable.  Without  moving  from  his  position  on 
the  fioor  of  the  derrick,  the  driller  can  start, 
stop,  or  reverse  hia  engine,  run  tbe  sand  tine 
□r  cable  in  or  out  of  the  hole,  or  control  the 
motion  of  tbe  walking  beam  and  perform  all 
the  operations  of  putting  the  drillmg  tools  in 
or  out,  cleaning  the  hole,  and  drilling.  In  Can- 
ada and  a  few  localities  in  the  TJ.  8.  drilling  la 
done  by  means  of  wooden  rods  instead  of  a 
rope. 

It  is  necessary  that  at  least  the  upper  part  of 
tbe  well,  where  tbe  rocks  are  soft,  be  lined  with 
casing.  Thia  not  only  keeps  the  walla  from  fall-. 
ing  in,  but  also,  if  properly  set,  keepa  out  anr- 
face  or  other  waters.  It  is  usual  to  drill  the 
hole  as  rapidly  as  posnble,  and  then  slip  the 
casing  in,  its  diameter  being  less  than  that  of 
the  drill.  Sometimes  this  cannot  be  done  on 
account  of  the  instability  of  tbe  walls,  and  then 
it  is  necessary  to  ad<^t  some  modification,  as, 
for  instance,  drilling  ahead  a  short  distance 
and  then  driving  the  casing  down.  The  casing 
is  usually  wrought  iron. 

Welles  (welz),  Gideon,  1802-76;  American 
statesman;  b.  Glastonbury,  Conn.;  educated  at 
Norwich  Univ.,  Vt.;  was  editor  and  proprietor 
of  the  Hartford  Times,  a  Democratic  paper, 
1S26-36,  and  contributed  to  its  editorial  col- 
umns till  1S54;  supported  Gen.  Jackson  for  the 
presidency;  member  of  tbe  atato  leeialature, 
1827-36;  atate  comptroller,  1835,  1842-43; 
1846-49  chief  of  a  bureau  in  the  U.  8.  Navy 
Department  He  was  an  original  member  of 
the  Kepublioan  Fart;,  and  u  chajmum  of  thq 
i  LM_.:l   .COOQIC 


WELLESLEY 

Connecticut  dElegation  At  tbe  Chicago  conTen- 
tion  wtkh  influential  in  securii^  the  nomintitiou 
of  Lincoln;  Secretaij  of  the  Navy  through  the 
arlminiatratioQe  of  Lincoln  and  Johnson,  and 
through  bis  energy  the  strength  and  efficiency 
of  the  Davy  were  greatly  increaeed,  though  at 
Buch  great  ezpenM  >a  to  provoke  criticism.  He 
was  identified  with  important  reform  move- 
ments, notably  for  the  abolition  of  imprison- 
ment for  debt,  and  was  pronouDced  in  his  anti- 
slavery  TiewB. 
W«Um1«7    (wElzlI),  Attlmr.  See   Welliro- 

TOB. 

Wellealer  Collese,  an  institution  of  learning 
devoted  exclusively  to  the  higher  education  ol 
women;  in  the  village  of  Well*Bley,  on  Lake 
Waban,  about  IS  m.  from  Boston.  The  grounds 
comprise  300  acres.  The  college  ia  chartered  hy 
the  state,  and  empowered  to  confer  all  collegi- 
ate and  honorary  degrees  that  are  conferred  by 
any  Massachusetts  college  or  university.  There 
were  in  1910  M19  atudenU  and  110  in- 
structors. 

TelTiBttoa,  Arthnr  Welleiley  (Duke  of). 
1709-1882;  British  general  and  statesman.  He 
was  educated  at  Eton,  at  Brighton,  and  at  the 
Military  ColU^  of  Angers.  In  1787  he  received 
a  commission  as  ensign  in  the  Seventy-third 
Foot,  and  after  a  rapid  series  of  changes  and 
promotions,  attained  by  purchase  in  1793  the 
command  as  lieutenant  colonel  of  the  Thirty- 
third  Regiment.  During  ITB4  and  1706  he 
served  with  bis  regiment  under  the  Duke  of 
York  in  Flanders.  In  1706-BB  he  served  with 
success  in  India.  In  1S02  he  attained  the  ranl^ 
of  major  general,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  appointed  to  the  chief  military  and  polit- 


the   operations   Mainst   the 
ily  Mabratta  chiefs,  whom  he  defeated  at 


Assaye  on  September  23d,  and  at  Argaum  on 
November  2Btb.  Early  in  1806  Wellesley  re- 
turned to  England.  In  ISOfl  he  succeeded  Lord 
Pornwallis  as  colonel  of  his  own  regiment  (the 
Thirty-third),  On  April  10,  1808,  be  married 
Lady  Catherine  Pakcnbam,  third  daughter  of 
the  Earl  of  LonRford.  He  was  shortly  after- 
wards elected  it.  P.  for  Eye,  and  in  April, 
1807,  was  appointed  Secretary  of  State  for 
Ireland.  In  1808  he  attained  Uie  rank  of  lieu- 
tenant general,  and  in  June  received  the  com- 
mand of  a  force  destined  to  operate  in  the  N.' 
of  Spain  and  Portugal.  In  1800  Wellesley  was 
appointed  to  lake  the  chief  command  in  the 
Peninsula,  which  bad  been  overrun  by  the 
French.  The  famous  passage  of  the  Douro, 
and  the  defeat  of  Soult  which  followed,  At- 
tingly  opened  this  masterly  campaign.  For 
the  victory  at  Talavera  (July  e8th),  the  first 
of  a  long  list  that  subsequently  took  place  in 
the  Peninsula,  the  government  raised  the  com- 
mander in  chief  to  the  peerage  as  Viscount 
Wellington.  Toward  the  end  of  IBIO  Welling- 
ton fought  the  battle  of  Busaco,  which  was 
followed  by  the  famous  fortidcation  and  de- 
fence of  the  lines  of  Torres  Vedras.  A  little 
later  (in  1811)  occurred  the  victory  of  Fuen- 
t«s  de  Onoro.  In  the  following  year  he  took 
Ciudad  Bodrigo  and  Badajoz  by  storm,  and 
fought  the  battle  of  Salamanca,  accounted  one 
of  his  moBt  famous  victories.    On  August  12, 


1812,    Welliiwton   entered  Uadrid.     For    his 

brilliant  conduct  of  the  campaign  thus  far  he 
was  raised  to  the  dignity  of  marquis,  and 
received  £100,000.  Next  followed  the  battle 
of  Vitoria  (June  21,  1813),  for  which  de- 
cisive victory  Wellington  was  given  the  baton 
of  field  marshal;  then  battles  in  the  Pyrenees, 
the  capture  of  San  Sebastian,  and  the  crossing 
of  the  Bidassoa  into  France.  In  1814  the  bat- 
tle of  Orthez  was  gained,  and  in  the  same 
year,  the  battle  of  Toulouse,  in  which  Soult's 
best  troops  were  routed  and  Uie  hopes  of  France 
in  the  Peninsula  utterly  annihilated.  In  May 
the  triumphant  general  was  created  Marquis 
of  Douro  and  Duke  of  Wellington,  with  an 
annuity  of  £10,000,  commuted  afterwards  for 
£400,000.  Id -July  he  went  as  ambassador  to 
France,  and  succeeded  Lord  Caatlereagh  as 
British  representative  in  the  Congress  of  Vi- 
enna. In  April  he  took  the  command  of  the 
army  assembled  in  the  Netherlands  to  oppose 
Napoleon.  (See  Watebloo.)  With  the  return 
of  peace  be  resumed  the  career  of  politics. 
He  was  in  the  cabinet  of  Lord  Liverpool  in 
January,  1819.  In  1822  he  represented  Great 
Britain  in  the  Congress  of  Vienna.  In  1S28 
he  was  appointed  high  constable  of  the  Tower 
and  in  1827  succeeded  the  Duke  of  York  as 
commander  in  chief  of  the  forces.  In  I82S  he 
accepted  the  premiership,  resigning  the  com- 
mand of  the  forces  to  Lord  Hnl.  In  1829  be 
was  appointed  governor  of  Dover  Castle  and 
lord  warden  of  fte  Cinque  Porta.  He  accepted 
office  under  Sir  Robert  Peel  in  1834-41,  and 
again  in  I84S,  when  he  helped  to  carry  the 
repeal  of 'the  com  laws,  which  till  then  he 
had  opposed.  In  1842  he  resumed  the  com- 
mand of  the  forces. 

Wellington,  capital  of  New  Zealand  since 
IRSd;  on  an  inlet  of  Cook's  Strait,  on  the  W. 
shore  of  Port  Nicholson.  It  is  well  built,  has 
an  excellent  harbor,  and  ia  connected  by  rail- 
way with  Auckland.  The  buildings  include  the 
Victoria  University  College,  a  branch  of  the 
New  Zealand  Institute,  colonial  museum,  and 
government  buildings.  It  has  much  trade,  ex- 
porting wool,  tallow  and  gum.  It  was  founded 
in   1840.     Pop.    (1911),  with  suburbs,   70,729. 

Welllngto'nia  gigan'tea.    See  Skqqoia. 

Wells,  David  Ames,  1828-08;  American  econ- 
omist; b.  Springfield,  Mass.;  graduated  Will- 
iams College,  1847,  and  Lawrence  Scientific 
School,  Cambridge,  1851 ;  assistant  profeasor 
there,  1861-52;  associated  with  Dr.  A.  A. 
Hayes  as  a  chemist  at  Boston,  1863-B6;  pat- 
ented in  1866  several  improvements  in  bleach- 
ing; visited  Europe  on  commissions  of  the 
U.  S.  Govt.,  1802  and  1807;  U.  S.  special  com- 
missioner of  the  revenue,  18BS-70;  university 
lecturer  on  political  economy  at  Yale,  1872; 
visited  Europe,  1873;  had  been  since  1867  an 
advocate  of  free  trade,  and  had  taken  consid- 
erable part  in  the  efforts  for  civil-service  re- 
form. He  edited,  among  other  works,  the 
"  Annual  of  Scientific  Discovery,"  sixteen  vol- 
umes. He  was  a  voluminous  writer  on  finan- 
cial and  economic  subjects. 

Wells,  Horace,  1816-48;  American  dentist; 
one  of  the  claimants  of  the  discovery  of  an- 


WELI^ 

testhcsia;  b.  Hartford,  Vt.  He  practiced  In 
Boston  and  Hartford.  In  1840  th«  uw  of 
nitroiu-oxide  gai  tu  an  antMthetic  occurred 
to  him.  He  succeesfully  administered  this  gaa 
in  twelve  or  fifteen  case*  of  extraction  of  t^h 
during  1S44,  and  other  dentists  of  Hartford 
also  used  it. 
Wella.    See  Abtesiak  Wells;  Watei;  WKll 

DftlLLINQ, 

Weiwltachla  (w«l-wlch1-a)  Miiattills,  a  plant 
allied  to  the  pines  found  in  ^V.  Africa;  is 
never  above  a  loot  high,  though  its  trunk  is 
sometimes  6  tt,  in  diameter;  is  found  only  in 
an  elevated  rainless,  stonf  plateau;  attains  an 
estimated  age  of  above  a  centu^ ;  produces 
flower  stalks  12  in.  high,  cones  2  in.  long,  and 
two  fiat  leaves  6  ft.  long,  which  lie  upcni  the 
ground. 

Wen,  a  tumor  upon  the  surface  of  the  body, 
especisUj'  on  the  scalp.  It  originates  by  the 
closing  of  a  follicle  of  the  skin,  and  the  slow 
accumulation  of  sebaceous  matter.  The  wen 
ia  a  harmless,  nonmalifpiant  tumor,  and  its  re- 
moval is  easy  and  harmless. 

Went'worth.  Ihomu.    See  Stbatpobd,  Eabl 

Weaei  (v&'i£r),  river  of  Europe  formed  by 
the  Fulda  and  the  Werra,  at  MQnden,  Han- 
over, whence  it  flows  N.,  and  enter^  the  North 
Sea  after  a  course  of  260  m.  It  is  navigable 
for  small  craft  to  MQnden,  tor  ressels  of  con- 
siderable size  to  Bremen,  but  shipa  of  the  larg- 
est size  ascend  no  farther  than  Bremerhavcn, 
which  is  at  ita  mouth.  This  river  is  not  of 
consequence  for  trafSc,  though  it  communi- 
cates with  the  Elbe  bf  canal. 

Wesley,  or  Westley,  a  noted  family  of  di- 
vines. Samuel,  English  clergyman;  b.  1602, 
lltOO,  or  1068;  d.  173S;  the  son  of  a  disaenting 
minister,  but  early  joined  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, and  for  thirty-three  years  was  rector  of 
Epworth,  Lincolnshire;  wrote  aeveral  poems, 
mostly  relieioua,  a  Latin  commentary  on  the 
book  of  Job,  and  a  "  Treatiae  on  the  Sacra- 
ment." Sauuel,  eon  of  the  preceding;  b.  1690 
or  1602,  d.  1739.  He  took  orders,  but  passed 
his  life  as  a  schoolmaster.  He  viewed  the 
"  new  faith  "  and  conduct  of  his  brother,  John 
and  Charles,  with  disapprobation.  A  collec- 
tion of  his  poems,  containing  some  humorous 
pieces,  appeared  in  1730.  John,  1703-31; 
founder  of  Methodism,  brother  of  the  pre- 
ceding. He  entered  Christ  Church  College, 
Oxford,  171S;  ordained  deacon,  1726;  grad- 
uated M.  A.,  1727,  and  became  his  father's 
curate  at  Wroote.  He  was  ordained  priest  in 
1728,  and  returned  to  Oxford,  1720,  where  he 
remained  aa  tutor  in  Lincoln  College  till  1735, 
becoming  the  leader  of  a  band  of  young  men, 
including  his  brother  Charlea,  who  were  aeek- 
in^  a  deeper  religious  experience.  At  the  so- 
licitation of  Gov.  Oglethorpe,  in  1736  he  un- 
dertook a  miaaion  to  the  coiony  of  Georgia,  one 
of  his  objects  being  the  conversion  of  the  In- 
dians. During  the  voyage  he  made  the  ac- 
quaintance of  some  Moravian  missionaries,  and 
on  returning  to  England  in  1738  he  sought  the 
society  of  the  Moravians.  He  began  to  exam- 
ine  their    teachings,    and    received    aid    from 


WEST 

Peter  BOhler,  one  of  the  missionaries  then  on 
their  way  from  Hermhut  to  Cleorgia.  He  vis- 
ited Hermhut,  the  center  of  Moravian  opera- 
tions, where  he  listened  to  Chriatian  David, 
and  had  conversations  with  Zinzendorf.  He 
returned  to  England,  and  preached  in  churches, 
prisons,  and  almshouses.  In  1730  Wesley 
joined    Whitefleld    at    Bristol,    and    began    to 

E reach  to  multitudes.  On  May  12th  he  Uid  in 
Bristol  the  comer  stone  of  the  first  Methodist 


the  headquarters  of  the  Methodist  movement. 
In  1740  he  )>ublished  a  sermon  on  "Free 
Grace,"  in  which  he  opposed  the  doctrine  of 
election  and  predestination.  The  result  was 
the  temporary  alienation  of  WhiteSeld '  and 
Wesley,  and  the  organization  of  the  Lady 
Huntingdon  2tIethodiste  and  the  Calvinistic 
Methodists  in  \\'alea. 

From  this  time  there  were  two  movements: 
the  Calvinistic,  led  by  George  Whitefleld,  and 
the  Arminian,  by  John  Wesley.  Wesley's  jour- 
neys soon  extended  into  Scotland,  Wales,  and 
Ireland.  He  formed  societies,  employed  lay 
preachers,  appointed  class  leaders,  devised  an 
effective  system  of  church  finance,  wrote  and 
published  books  and  tracts,  and  established 
schools.  The  first  Methodist  Conference  was 
assembled  in  the  foundery  chapel,  June  35, 
1744.  On  the  death  of  Whitefleld  in  1770,  the 
Calvinistic  controversy  broke  forth  with  vio- 
lence. This  was  the  occasion  of  some  of  Wes- 
ley's most  vigorous  writings,  and  brought  to 
his  aid  the  powerful  pen  of  Fletcher.  From 
this  time  each  branch  went  ita  own  way  to  do 
its  own  work.  In  1770  preachers  had  been  sent 
to  America.  On  the  establishment  of  the  in- 
dependence of  the  colonies,  the  Methodists  in 
America  called  for  the  administration  of  the 
sacraments  at  the  hands  of  their  preachers. 
Since  Wesley  had  for  yeaT«  been  aatiafied  that 
the  orders  of  bishop  and  presbyter  in  the  prim- 
itive church  were  essentially  the  same,  in  1784, 
with  the  assistance  of  others,  he  ordained 
Thomas  Coke  superintendent  or  bishop  of  the 
Methodist  societies  in  America,  and  empowered 
him  to  confer  the  like  office  on  Francis  Asbury. 
During  the  last  tour  years  of  his  life  his  strength 
had  continued  to  decline,  yet  not  his  energy  or 
hia  labora.  CKAgLEB,  1708-88;  brother  of  the 
preceding.  While. at  Christ  Church  College, 
Oxford,  he  became  so  serious,  devout,  and  zeal- 
ous that  the  wits  called  him  and  his  compan- 
ions "  Methodists,"  a  title  which  had  been  given 
derisively  to  rigidly  religious  peraona  a  century 
before ;  went  to  Georgia  with  his  brother  John, 
but  remained  there  only  a  short  time ;  preached 
to  large  congregations  at  Blackheath,  near 
London,  and  after  the  return  of  hia  brother 
entered  upon  the  itinerant  ministry,  mostly  in 
London  and  ita  vicinity.  A  volume  of  his  ser- 
mons, his  journal,  and  two  volumes  of  his 
hymns  have  been  published.  He  Is  "  the  poet 
of  Methodism,"  having  written  over  6,000 
hymns. 


ir;  b.  Springfield,  Chester  Co.,  Pa. 


WESTERN  AUSTRALIA 

child  h«  abowed  great  dispoeitioD  for  art,  utd, 
altbough  his  parent*  were  Quakers,  be  wa«  al- 
lowed to  follow  his  inclinatioDH.  He  received 
tome  instruction  from  Williain  Williams,  an 
artist,  of  Philadelphia;  then  removed  to  Lan- 
caster, Fa.,  where  he  attempted  portraiture, 
and  painted  a  "  Death  of  Socrates."  At 
eighteen  he  established  bimself  as  a  portrait 

E inter  in  Fbiladelpbia,  but  in  175B  removed 
New  York,  au'd  in  1760  went  to  Rome.  He 
painted  several  pictures  there,  f Deluding  a 
"  Cimon  and  Iphigenia  "  and  an  "  Angelica  and 
Medora."  He  went  to  England  in  1763,  and 
establisbed  himself  in  London.  He  painted 
several  pictures  for  the  Archbishop  of  York, 
and  this  brought  him  to  the  notice  of  George 
III,  who  made  West  his  historical  pointer,  and 
gave  him  commissions  (I7fl^lS01),  including 
twenty-eight  pictures  illustrating  the  pnwreas 
of  revealed  religion  for  the  oratory  at  Wind- 
sor, many  portraits  of  the  royal  family,  and  a 
"  Death  of  Wolfe,"  in  which  the  Qgures  are 
clothed  in  the  costume  of  the  period,  contrary 
to  the  practice  of  the  classical  school,  then 
dominant.  In  176S  he  aided  in  founding  the 
Royal  Academy  of  painting,  sculpture,  and 
architecture,  and  in  1702  succeeded  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds  aa  its  president.  He  retained  this 
office  almost  uninterruptedly  for  twentv-three 
years.  In  1602  he  painted  "  Christ  Healing  of 
the  Blck  in  the  Temple,"  a  copy  of  which  is  in 
the  Pennsylvania  Hospital  in  Philadelphia. 

Weat'em  AuBtralla,  originally  the  8 war 
RiVEK  Settixkent;  the  westernmost  of  the 
seven  Australasian  colonies,  the  first  in  area 
and  last  in  population;  comprising  the  whole 
of  Australia  W.  of  the  mendian  of  129°  E., 
which  separates  it  from  S.  Australia;  area 
about  875,920  sq.  m.,  or  one  third  of  the  Aus- 
tralian continent.  A  large  proportion  Is  in 
heaiy  timber — sandal  woM.  ana  eucalyptus. 
The  coasts  are  estimated  at  3,000  m.,  but  good 
harbors  are  few.  The  habitable  part  is  con- 
fined to  the  coast,  along  which  the  settled  por- 
'  tion  stretches  for  1,200  m.,  and  from  which 
it  extends  inland  for  about  150  m.,  the  interior 
being  the  Great  Victorian  Desert.  The  climate 
is  salubrious,  the  average  temperature  at  the 
capital  being  64°  F.,  and  the  rainfall  34  in. 
The  extreme  N.  part  of  the  colony,  the  Kim- 
berley  distrii^t,  is  tropical,  rich  in  minerals, 
and  the  interior  appears  less  arid.  The  rivers 
of  the  entire  colony  are  short,  and  not  suitable 
for  naviaation.  Agriculture  is  restricted,  ow- 
ing chiefly  to  lack  of  labor.  The  live  stock  in 
I9lOconBistedotl34,114hor8eB,  825,040  homed 
cattle,  and  6,166,£la  sheep;  also  many  pigs, 
goats,  and  camels.  It  is  estimated  that  in  the 
N.  there  are  20,000,000  acres  affording  good 
grazing.  Gold  is  worked  in  the  N.  and  in  the 
6W.,  and  is  found  in  other  parts.  The  export 
of  gold  has  greatly  increased.  There  are  also 
mines  of  silver,  copper,  lead,  and  tin,  and  the 
prospective  mineral  wealth  is  great.  The  chief 
export  is  wool;  then  come  gold,  pearls  and 
pearl  shell,  timber  and  aandalwood,  and  sldns. 
W.  Australia  became  a  British  settlement  in 
1829.  The  legislative  power  rests  in  an  elective 
Parliament  of  two  houses,  and  the  executive 
in  a  governor  appointed  by  the  British  crown 
and  Bseisted  t^  a  responsible  ministry.    It  be- 


WEST  INDIA  COMPANV 

came  a  self-governing  colony  in  1890.  and  both 
houses  became  fully  elective  in  1893.  The  en- 
tire population  at  the  census  of  1911  was  283,- 
986.  Perth,  the  capital,  had  (1007)  pop. 
50,627;  Fremontle,  its  port,  had  <I90T)  pop. 
18,945.    See  Achtkaua. 

Western  Em'pire,  a  name  sometimes  applied 
to  the  W,  provinces  of  the  Roman  Empire  be- 
tween the  years  395  and  476.  The  term  is  mis- 
leading, for,  while  in  this  period  there  were 
two  emperors,  one  of  whom  resided  in  Italy 
and  had  direct  control  over  the  W.  provinces, 
the  empire  remained  in  theory  one,  and  the 
acts  of  each  emperor  were  binding  through  the 
whole  empire.    Bee  Byzantine  Eupibe. 

Western  lalanda.    See  Azobeb;  Hsbudeb. 

Westem  KtseTre'  Unirer'aity,  an  institution 
founded  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  in  1884.  This  step 
was  taken  by  the  trustees  of  Adelbert  College, 
and  most  of  the  trustees  of  the  coll^  a(e  also 
trustees  of  the  university.  The  object  of  the 
organization  wss  to  effect  a  confederation  of 
several  institutions  either  already  existing  or 
to  be  erected,  under  one  general  management 
and  control.  The  university  now  embraces  the 
following  departments:  Adetbert  College;  the 
college  for  women,  organiied  in  188S;  the  col- 
lie of  medicine,  formerly  known  as  the 
Cleveland  Medical  College,  organized  in  1S44; 
the  college  of  dentistry,  established  in  1892; 
the  graduate  department,  opened  in  1892;  the 
Western  Reserve  Academy,  at  Hudson,  Ohio, 
preparatory  end  classical  school,  belonging  to 
Adelbert  College.  All  t^iese  departments  have 
courses  of  studv  leading  to  degrees.  The  whole 
number  of  students  in  1B09  was  1,011. 

West  Ha'boken,  town,  Hudson  Co.,  N.  J.; 
160  ft.  above  Udewater;  IJ  m,  W.  of  Hoboken 
feriy  on  the  Hudson  River,  directly  opposite 
New  York.  It  has  a  monastery  of  the  Pas- 
sionist  Fathers,   convent  of  the   Sisters  of  St. 


(1910)   35,403. 

West  In'dla  Com'puy,  Dntch,  an  associa- 
tion formed  in  the  Netherlands  in  1621  for  the 
purpose  of  trading  with  America  and  Africa, 
establishing  colonics,  and  fitting  out  privateers 
against  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese.  The  cap- 
ital was  eventually  18,000,000  fiorina.  It  was 
composed  of  a  union  of  five  chambers,  repre- 
senting respectively  the  cities  of  Amsterdam, 
Zeelacd,  Rotterdam,  Oroningen,  and  the  dis- 
trict of  the  N. ;  these  nominated  nineteen  di- 
rectors, who  formed  the  central  body  of  ad- 
ministration. The  company  received  from  the 
state  200,000  florins  yearly  for  five  years,  a 
monopoly  of  trade  with  Africa  and  America, 
the  right  of  constructing  forts,  raising  fleets 
and  armies,  and  making  treaties;  troops  were 
to  be  furnished  by  the  state,  but  paid  l^  the 
company;  and  in  case  of  war  the  state  agreed 
to  lend  a  fleet.  One  of  the  flrst  acta  was  td 
send  a  large  fleet  to  Brazil,  where  Bahia  was 
taken  (1624),  but  soon  abandoned;  later,  Per- 
nambuco  was  seized,  and  became  the  center  of 
extensive  Dutch  colonies  in  that  part  of  Brazil. 
New  Amsterdam  (New  York),  already  founded, 


WEST  INDIES 

was  Htrengtbened :  powerful  coloniM  were  a- 
tablkhed  Ut  the  W.  Indies  and  OuUna,  and 
for  tuill  a  century  the  fiaets  of  the  company 
ravaged  the  shores  of  Spanish  and  Fortugueae 
America,  taking  cities,  destroying  ships,  and 
gathering  an  immense  amount  of  booty.  The 
continual  wan  with  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Eng- 
land eventually  proved  the  ruin  of  the  com- 
panv.  Braril  was  given  up  in  1654,  and  New 
York  in  1007^  In  1674  the  company  was  forced 
to  dissolve.  A  new  one  was  formed  in  1B75, 
and  held  together  until  1761,  but  it  was  never 
very  prosperous.  Of  all  the  conquests  of  the 
Wut  India  Company,  the  Netherlands  now  re- 
tain only  Dutch  Guiana,  Curacao,  Saba,  St. 
Martin,  a  few  smaller  islands  in  the  W.  Indies, 
and  the  fort  of  St.  Q«orge  at  Blmina  on  the 
Gold  Coast  of  Africa. 
Wert    In'dies,   or    Antilles    (ftn-tll'lez) , 


framing  the  Caribbean  Sea  on  the  N.  and  E., 
and  separating  it  from  the  Qulf  of  Mexico  and 
the  Atlantic.  The  islands  fall  Into  four  groups 
— Bahamas,  Greater  Antilles,  Caribbean  chain 
or  Windward  Islands,  and  Venezuelan  or  Lee- 
ward group.  The  Bahamas  are  clustered  ir- 
regularly along  a  line  beginning  E.  of  Florida 
(senarated  by  the  Florida  channel)  and  e:t- 
tending  SE.  almost  to  the  coast  of  Santo  Do- 
mingo. They  include  some  twelve  or  fifteen 
larger  and  a  multitude  of  smaller  islands,  gen< 
erally  connected  by  shallows  or  "banks." 
Some  of  them  have  hills  of  no  great  height, 
but  portions  of  all  are  formed  of  shell  and 
coral  sand.  The  group  is  a  reef  formation 
gathered  about  a  skeleton  of  older  land.  The 
Bahamas  lie  partly  to  the  N.  of  the  tropics, 
but  the  Gulf  Stream  sweeps  through  them, 
warming  the  air,  so  that  the  climate  and  pro- 
ductions are  tropical.  The  name  Greater  An- 
tilles is  used  to  distinguish  Cuba,  Santo  Do- 
mingo, Porto  Rico,  and  Jamaica,  the  largest 
of  ttie  W.  Indian  islands ;  the  group  also  in- 
cludes some  smaller  islands — Mona,  Isle  of 
Pines,  Tortuga,  the  Caymans,  etc.  They  are 
different  in  i£aracter  from  the  Bahamas,  being 
formed  in  great  part  of  mountain  chains.  In 
some  places — especially  in  Santo  Domingo — 
the  mountains  rise  in  precipices  from  the  sea; 
elsewhere  they  slope  back  through  verdant  val- 
leys to  ranges  8,000  to  10,000  ft.  high. 

Two  principal  E.  and  W.  chains  may  be 
traced — one  running  through  Cuba  and  along 
the  N.  side  of  Santo  Domingo,  and  the  other 
on  the  S.'  side  of  Santo  Domingo,  reappearing 
in  the  Blue  Mountains  of  Jamaica.  The  N. 
chain  is  on  a  line  with  the  E.  and  W.  Anahuac 
Range  of  Mexico,  which  embraces  the  highest 
peaks  and  nearly  all  the  volcanoes  of  that 
country.  Continued  still  farther  W.  the  line 
strikes  the  volcanic  Revillagigedo  Islands  in 
the  Pacific ;  but  the  Greater  Antilles  contain 
no  active  nor  recent  volcanoes,  though  earth- 
quakes are  frequent.  In  Porto  Rico  the  moun- 
tainous character  is  less  marked,  and  E.  of  it 
the  scattered  group  called  the  Virgin  Islands 
is  rocky  and  precipitous ;  it  may  be  included 
either  in  the  Greater  Antilles  or  in  the  Carib- 
bean chain.  The  latter  (called  also  the  Less- 
er   Antilles    or    Windward    Islands)    departs 


WEST  INDIES 

abruptly  from  the  E.  and  W.  trend  of  the 
Greater  Antilles,  and  belongs  to  a  different 
mountain  system.  The  islamls  are  small  but 
generally  hish — 2,600  to  4,000  ft. — forming  a 
regular,  slightly  curved  N.  and  S.  line  on  the 
E.  side  of  the  Caribbean  Sea;  nearly  everyone 
contains  an  active  or  extinct  volcano.  The 
group  is  a  chain  of  volcanic  mountains,  par- 
tially submerged,  so  that  the  islands  are  fre- 
quently separated  by  very  deep  channels.  Bar- 
bados alone  is  outlying,  to  the  E. ;  it  is  flat, 
and  belongs  to  the  fourth  group,  forming  an 
£.  and  W.  line  off  Venezuela,  Its  islands  are 
properly  outlying  portions  of  the  S.  American 
continent.  Trinidad  and  Tobago,  as  well  as 
Barbados,  are  classed  with  the  Caribbean 
group,  but  by  their  aninials  and  plants,  as  well 
as  by  their  physical  characters,  they  are  clearly 
S.    American.     The    remaining    islands — Mar- 

Krlta,    Curacao,   Oruba,   etc. — are   called   col- 
lively    the    Leeward    Islands,    though   this 
name  is  commonly  applied  to  a  British  colony 
forming  a  portion  of  the  Caribbean  group. 
Nearly  all  the  W.  Indian  islands  are  fertile. 


cao,  which  form  the  staple  products  and  exports. 
Beyond  a  little  gold  in  the  Greater  Antilles, 
copper  in  Cuba,  and  asphalt  in  Trinidad,  they 
have  no  mineral  wealth,  but  tbeir  forests  are 
rich  in  cabinet  woods  and  drugs.  The  climate 
of  alt  is  essentially  the  same — tropical,  but 
free  from  extreme  heat  even  in  the  summer 
months,  and  generally  salubrious  except  in  a 
few  coast  towns  where  yellow  fever  is  endemic 
The  warm  ^d  rainy  season  is  from  June  to 
October,  and  this  is  the  time  of  hurricanes. 
During  the  winter  months  the  W.  Indies  are 
resorts  for  tourists  and  invalids. 


of  the  Bahamas  (October,  1402).  Later,  he 
discovered  all  of  the  Greater  Antilles,  and 
many  of  the  smaller  islands.  As  they  were 
then  supposed  to  be  outlying  portions  of  Asia, 
or  "the  Indies,"  they  were  called  Vf.  Indies, 
in  contradistinction  to  the  E.  Indies,  which 
soon  after  were  reached  by  a  route  around  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  first  Spanish  settle- 
ment in  the  New  World  was  on  the  island  of 
Santo  Domingo  (1403),  snd  from  it,  directly 
or  indirectly,  nearly  all  the  other  Spanish  con- 
quests radiated.  The  Spaniards  also  settled 
Cuba,  Jamaica,  and  Porto  Rico,  and  had  a 
small  colony  on  Trinidad;  but  from  the  first 
they  despised  the  smaller  islands,  and,  after 
the  rich  discoveries  in  Mexico  and  Peru,  the 
W.  Indies  were  neglected.  During  the  seven- 
teenth century  various  French,  English,  and 
Dutch  adventurers  settled  in  the  Caribbean 
islands  and  the  Bahamas,  and  the  Spaniards 
made  only  feeble  attempte  to  dislodge  Uiem. 
In  1640  the  sugar  cane  began  to  be  planted 
systematically,  and  led  to  wonderful  prosper- 
ity, which  attracted  immigrants,  50,000  British 
subjects  arriving  in  Barbados  alnne  In  one 
year.  Jamaica  was  seised  in  1655  by  the  Eng- 
lish, who  have  held  it  ever  since.  Bsnds  of 
adventurers  and  freebooters,  drawn  together  by 
their  common  hatred  of  the  Spaniards,  at 
length    formed    the    roughly    organised    bodf 


called  the  buccaneere,  nith  their  principal 
atronebold  in  Tortiwa;  thence  thef  ravaged 
the   towns    of   the   GreateT    Antilles    and    the 


from  Tortuga  passed  over  to  the  W.  part  of 
Santo  Domingo,  which  was  soon  recognized  as 
a  French  coionj.  (See  Buccaneeb.)  In  1660 
a  division  of  the  islands  was  >gfeed  upon 
between  England  and  France.  The  French 
Revolution  led  to  the  independence  of  Santo 
Domingo,  and  it  ia  now  divided  between  the 
republic  of  Haiti  and  the  Dominican  Republic. 
The  Bahamas  ware  settled  and  retained  by  the 
English. 
During  the  wars  of  the  eighteenth  and  early 

Cirt  of  the  nineteenth  centuries  the  Caribbean 
lands  frequently  changed  hands,  either  by 
conquest  or  trea^i  the  greater  part  now  he- 
longs  to  Great  Britain.  France  holds  Mar- 
tinique, Guadeloupe,  and  some  smaller  islands ; 
Denmark  bos  three  islands  in  the  Virgin  group 
— St  Croix,  St.  Thomas,  and  St,  John;  the 
Netherlands  retain  Curacao  and  some  neigh- 
boring islete,  with  a  settlement  In  the  Carib- 
bean group ;  and  Venezuela  holds  Margarita 
and  some  of  the  other  islands  near  her  coast. 
All  the  possesBions  of  Spain  in  the  W.  Indies 
were  relinquished  W  the  Treaty  of  Peace  with 
the  U.  8.  in  1S98,  Cuba  becoming  an  independ- 
ent republic,  and  Porto  Rico  being  held  by  the 
tr.  8.  African  slaves  were  early  Uitroduced  in 
moat  of  the  islands,  and  their  (freed)  descend- 
ants of  n^^ro  or  mixed  blood  form  a  laige  pro- 
portion of  the  population.  Of  the  Carii>  and 
other  Indian  tribes  which  occupied  the  islands 
before  the  Spanish  conquest,  only  remnants 
survive.  Borne  of  the  islands  under  British 
dominion  have  imported  large  numbers  of 
Hindu  coolies  as  workmen.  The  larger  islands 
are  treated  separately. 

Wett'inghonae,  George,  1S46-1914;  American 
inventor;  b.  Central  Bridge,  Schoharie  Co.,  N. 
Y.i  educated  at  the  public  and  high  schools,  and 
Ph.D.,  Union  College,  1S90.  He  served  in  the 
Civil  War,  18B3-M,  and  was  ossiatant  engineer, 
U.  S.  navy,  I8dt-€5.  He  invented  a  device  for 
replacing  derailed  cara,  1865,  and  patented  his 
invention  of  the  air  brake,  I86S,  but  it  was 
later  improved.  In  addition  to  developing  al- 
ternating-current machinery,  he  built  the  first 
great  dynamos  at  Niagara  and  for  the  ele- 
vated and  subway  roads  of  New  York  City. 
Be  devised  a  system  for  the  control  and  dis- 
tribution of  nativol  gas.  The  works  which  he 
has  organised  and  craitrols  in  the  U.  S.  and 
Europe  are  among  the  largest  in  the  world. 

Weit'minstei  Ab'bey,  a  conventual  church  in 
Weatmiuster,  London.  The  monastery  and 
church  were  dedicated  to  St.  Peter,  but  as  the 


years,  and  as  it  is  the  place  where  persons  of 
celebrity  have  been  buried  for  nearl^  as  long, 
the  church  building  itself  has  a  special  repute, 
although  the  monastery  has  disappeared. 

Long  before  any  portion  of  the  present  build- 
ing was  in  existence  there  stood  upon  the  same 
qiot  a  Saxon  church.  That  church,  built 
-within  Tboray  Isle,  was  connected  with  the 


WEfflUINSTER  ABBEY 

Benedictine  order,  who  named  the  place  the 
Western  Monastery,  or  Westminster,  to  distin- 
guish it,  some  say,  from  8t  Paul's,  in  London, 
called  East  Minster.  The  first  church  here  of 
which  we  possess  any  knowledge  was  that  built 
by  Edward  the  Confessor,  and  consecrated  De- 
cember 28tb,  lOdS,  and  there  still  remains  un- 
der what  is  called  the  pyx  house,  a  noble  crypt 
pertaining  to  the  Norman  structure.  Henry 
III  rebuilt  the  greater  part  of  the  obb^ 
church  in  the  Early  English  style.  He  had 
previously  raised  a  Ladv  chapel  at  the  E.  end, 
and  transferred  the  hign  altar  to  the  place  it 
now  ocoupies,  and  reared  behind — between  it 
and  the  Lady  chapel — a  shrine,  to  which  he 
removed  the  body  of  Edward  the  Confessor. 
That  shrine  still  remains.  The  nave  was  built 
under  the  Edwards,  and  the  W.  front  and  its 
grand  window,  as  well  as  the  completion  of  the 
nave  and  aisles,  belongs  to  the  fifteenth  oentury. 
Henry  VII  pulled  down  the  Lady  chapd,  and 
built  that  which  now  bears  his  name,  a  charm- 
ing specimen  of  the  fiorid.  Late  Perpendicular 
style,  with  richly  muHioned  windows  and  roof 
in  fan  vaulting.  Sir  Christopher  Wren  was  the 
architect  of  the  upper  part  of  the  W.  towers, 
which  are  by  no  means  in  keeping  with  the 
rest  of  the  diurch.  The  height  of  the  roof  is 
102  ft.,  an  unusual  elevation  in  England.  The 
present  clnsters  were  built  in  the  thirteenth 
and  fourteenth  centuries.  The  chapter  house  is 
an  architectural  gem  of  abt.  1260. 

The  coronation  stone  brought  from  Scotland 
by  Edward  I  is  under  the  coronation  chair  used 
by  Richard  II,  which  ever  since  has  been  used 
by  the  English  sovereigns.  The  funerals  of 
kings  and  queens  have  also  taken  place  in  the 
miiuter.  The  remains  of  Oliver  Cromwell  were 
tor  a  time  in  a  vault  under  Henry  VII's 
chapel.  In  the  chapter  house  the  Commons 
met  when  that  body  became  an  asaembly  di«- 
tinct  from  the  Lords,  and  repeated  their  sit- 
tings there  as  late  as  the  end  of  the  reign  of 
Henry  VIIL  The  history  of  the  abbey  is  in- 
terwoven with  that  of  the  English  Reformation. 
While  Dr.  Stanley  was  dean  (1863-61)  proceed- 
ings occurred  in  the  abbey  of  national  mterest. 
Sermons  on  Sunday  evenings  have  been 
preached  here  to  vast  audiences;  and  for  a 
number  of  years — on  the  evening  of  St.  An- 
drew's Day,  November  30th,  set  apart  for  in- 
tercession on  behalf  of  missions— a  layman  pro- 
fessor, Max  Mailer;  a  Presbyterian  clcr(^man. 
Dr.  John  Caird,  and  a  Con^gational  mission- 
ary. Dr.  Robert  Moffat,  delivered  lectures  fttim 
the  lectern  in  the  center  of  the  nave ;  also,  cele- 
brations by  Roman  Catholics  have  been  held 
within  its  walls  since  1800. 

The  tombs  and  monuments  in  the  abb^  are 
exceedingly  numerous.  Sovereigns  and  mem- 
bers of  royal  families  have  graves  and  tomba 
in  the  chapels  of  Edward  the  Confessor  and 
Henry  VIL  In  the  center  of  Heniy  VTL'a 
chapel  the  founder  and  his  wife  repose  side  1^ 
side;  at  the  W.  end  is  the  sepulcher  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  In  the  N.  aisle  are  Queen  Elizabeth 
and  her  deter  Mary;  in  the  opposite  aisle  ii 
Mary  Queen  of  Scots.  Gose  to  the  tomb  of 
Henry  VII  we  meet  with  the  grave  of  King 
;  James;  Charles  II  is  buried  at  the  E.  end  of 
the  N.  aiila.    Hia  grave  is  unmarked;  ao  la  thM 


WlLSnUNSTER  ASSEMBLY 

of  William  III.  Quara  Anne  wu  laid  next  her 
sister  Maiy  in  the  S.  aisle.  George  II  was  the 
last  of  the  kings  interred  in  the  abbey.  The 
interment  was  in  Henry's  chapel.  The  N. 
transept  is  distinguished  as  the  resting  place 
of  eminent  statesmen — Pitt,  Fox,  Wilberlorce, 
Canning,  Feel,  Falmerston.     In  the  S.  transept 

,  is  "  Poets'  Comer."  Here  lie  Chaucer,  Spenser, 
Beaumont,  Ben  Jonson,  Cowley,  DTjdta,  Addi- 
son, Tennyson,  Browning;  also  bard  by  are 
monumentj  to  Shakespeare,  Milton,  Goldsmith, 
and  Johnson.  Numbere  of  generals,  admirals, 
courtiers,  divines,  men  ot  letters,  etc.,  are  cov- 
ered by  the  marble  pavement  or  have  memori- 
als by  the  pillars  or  on  the  walla.  Two  slabs 
on  the  centra]  floor  of  the  nave  mark  the  last 

Miome  of  Georfre  Stephenson  and  David  living- 
stone.  Longfellow  is  the  only  American  whose 
memorial  stands  in  the  abbey. 

Westminstei  Aisem'bly,  an  assembly  which 
convened  in  Westminster  Abbey,  London,  in 
1643,  and  which  hae  exercised  a  great  and  last- 
ing influence  on  the  history  and  development 
of  Presbyterianism. 

Westniniter  Hall,  a  large  hall,  all  that  re- 
mains of  the  ancient  palace  of  Westminster. 
It  is  a  very  large  room  to  have  a  roof  unsup- 
ported br  columns,  being  68  ft  wide  in  the 
clear,  and  covered  by  an  open  timber  roof,  the 
finest  in  existence,  and  vhich  has  remained  per- 
fect, except  for  minor  repair*,  since  the  four- 
teenth century.  In  its  present  form  it  waa 
built  during  the  rdgn  of  Richard  n.  Westr 
minster  Hall  has  been  the  scene  of  many  stir- 
ring events.  Here  Sir  Thomas  More  and  the 
Protector  Somerset  were  tried  and  condemned. 
King  Charles  I  here  appeared  before  the  High 
Court  ot  Justice,  while  the  banners  of  Naseby 
hung  over  his  head.  Here  the  seven  bishops 
just  before  the  revolutitm  were  acquitted.  Dr. 
Sacheverell  and  the  rebel  lords  ot  1745  were 
convicted,  and  Warren  Heatings  passed  through 
that  ordeal  which  has  been  rendered  so  famous 
by  the  eloquence  of  Burke  and  Sheridan.  Here, 
too,  Oliver  Cromwell  was  inaugurated  as  Lord 
Protector  of  England.  Westminster  Hall  was 
the  center  of  the  English  law  couits;  abutting 
on  it  were  the  Court  of  Chancery,  the  Court  of 
King's  OT  Queen's  Bench,  the  Court  of  Common 
Pleas,  and  the  Court  of  Exchequer. 

Westminster  Pal'ace,  the  building  fronting 
on  the  Thames  in  the  SW.  part  of  London  in 
which  are  the  meeting  rooms  of  the  houses  of 
Parliament  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  to- 
gether with  libraries,  committee  rooms,  etc.  It 
takes  ite  name  from  the  royal  palace  which 
formerly  stood  on  this  site,  but  which  was 
nearly  abandoned  at  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 
The  houses  of  t>ordB  and  Commons  assembled 
within  the  dd  waUs,  The  latter  began  to  meet 
in  St  Stephen's  Chapel  in  the  reign  of  Edwanl 
VI.  St.  Edward's,  or  the  Fainted  Chamber, 
was  used  by  the  Lords  and  Commons  for  con- 
ferences. In  1834  fire  destroyed  the  whole  pile, 
so  long  interwoven  with  the  royal  and  national 
history  of  England. 

Westphalia,  province  of  Prussia;  bounded 
by  the  Rhine  province,  Holland,  Hanover, 
Schaumbuig-Ijppe,  and  Lippe-Detmold,  Bruns- 


WESTPHAUA 

wick,  Hease-Kassau,  and  Waldeck.  It  haa  ex- 
isted in  its  present  form  since  the  Vienna  Con- 
greas  of  1815.  Area,  7,B0Z  sq,  m.j  pop.  (IBIO) 
4,125,099,  Germane,  most  speaking  a  dialect 
tending  toward  the  Low  German,  or  Platt- 
deutscb.  The  surface  is  mountainous  or  hilly, 
except  in  the  circuit  of  MUnster,  which  is  a 
plain.  The  Ems,  the  Vecht«,  and  the  Lippe  are 
the  natural  waterways,  so  far  as  they  are  navi- 
gable. Manufacturing  'and  agriculttire  are  the 
chief  industries.  The  soil  is  barren  in  the  N. 
and  NE.,  hut  very  fertile  in  the  S.  valleys. 
Westphalia's  chief  wealth  is  in  its  mineral 
treasures.  Next  to  the  Rhine  province  it  is  the 
richest  province  in  iron ;  in  xmc  it  is  next  to 
Silesia;  in  copper  next  to  Saxony;  and  richest 
of  all  in  coal,  lead,  sulphur,  antimony;  also  in 
marble,  stones,  slate,  and  salt  deposits.  There 
are  mineral  springs,  some  of  them  quite  famous. 
Besides  ironworking  and  stonecutting,  all  kinds 
of  textile  industries  have  been  carried  on  since 
the  fourieentb  century  around  Bielefeld.  Grain 
and  flax,  hemp  and  hops  are  raised  in  large 
quantities;  the  foremoet  commercial  cities  are 
Bielefeld,  Iserlohn,  Dortmund,  and  Minden,  the 
port  on  the  Weser.  Hamm  is  the  railway  cen- 
ter. The  province  is  divided  into  the  three 
circuits:  MQnster,  Minden,  and  Amaberg.  The 
seat  of  the  highest  provincial  admlniatration  is 
in  Mttnater,  i^ere  there  is  a  Roman  Catholic 
theological  and  philosophical  academy  (univer- 
sity until  1818). 

Westphalia,  Peace  of,  the  name  given  to  the 
peace  concluded  in  lB4e  at  MUnstcr  and  Osna- 
brllck,  by  which  an  end  was  put  \o  the  Thirty 
Years'  War  between  the  Roman  Catholics  and 
the  Protestants  in  an  attempt  to  establish  the 
authority  of  the  German  Emperor  over  the  re- 
ligious interests  of  Germany.  By  this  peace  the 
sovereignty  of  the  members  of  the  empire  was 
acknowledged.  The  concessions  that  had  been 
made  to  the  Protestants  since  the  religious 
peace  in  1666  were  conflrmed.  The  elector  pal- 
atine bad  the  palatinate  of  the  Rhine  and  the 
electorate  restored  to  him ;  Alsace  was  ceded 
to  France;  Sweden  received  W.  Pomerania, 
Bremen,  Verden,  Wismar,  and  a  sum  equal  to 
£760,000;  Brandenburg,  Mecklenburg,  Hanover, 
and  Brunswick  were  compensated  by  the  secu- 
larisation of  numerous  ecclesiastical  founda- 
tions. The  independence  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces was  recognized  by  Spain,  and  that  af 
Switzerland  by  the  empire. 

The  chief  features  of  the  Peace  of  West- 
phalia are  the  following:  It  established  the 
equality  of  the  Calviniats,  Lutherans,  and  Cath- 
olics in  Germany.  It  made  the  states  of  the 
empire  almost  independent  of  the  emperor,  thus 
preventing  the  attainment  of  national  unity, 
and  preparing  for  the  rise  of  Prussia  as  a  great 
Proteatant  power  and  the  rival  of  Austria.  It 
further  gave  to  Sweden  and  France  the  ri^ht  of 
continual  interference  in  the  internal  affaira  of 
the  empire.  Its  adjustment  of  European  alfairs 
was,  of  courae,  not  permanent,  but  it  is  the 
basis  of  almost  all  European  treaties  down  to 
the  time  of  the  Frencn  Revolution,  and  it 
marks  the  end  of  the  period  of  religious  wars 
between  European  nations,  whose  points  at  i»- 
sue  wei«  thenceforth  to  be  mainly  political. 

4  lm_  I    C.oo^jIc 


.H^IC 


WEST  POINT 

Weat  Point)  military  post  and  seat  of  tlie 
U.  8.  MiliUT7  Academj;  Onnge  Ca,  N.  Y.; 
on  the  Hudson  River,  62  m.  N.  of  New  York, 
M  m.  8.  Albon;.  The  K  nde  of  the  -Point  is 
ft  near!)'  straight,  precipitous  shore,  while  the 
N.  aide,  curving  so  as  to  form  a  bay  at  its  W. 
extremity,  haB  a  genUe  slope,  and  comntanda  a 
fine  view  up  the  river.  On  the  NW.  of  this 
slope  is  Camp  Town,  containing  barracks, 
ttorehouses,  etc.  Farther  N.,  at  the  extremity 
of  a  plain  called  the  Qerman  Flats,  ia  the  ceme- 
tery, and  still  a  little  to  the  N.  is  Washing- 
ton's Valley,  where  stood  the  house  occupied  by 
Washington  in  1T79.  The  Military  Academy  is 
on  a  level  terrace  160  ft.  above  the  river, 
flanked  on  the  W.  by  rocky  heights;  of  these 
the  one  on  which  sUnds  the  ruins  of  Fort  Put- 
nam is  the  nearest  and  most  prominent.  On  the 
B.  the  heights  approach  the  river,  leaving  only 
room  for  a  road  S.,  leading  to  the  village  of 
Highland  Falls  and  to  Forts  Montgomery  and 
Clinton.  A  road  W.  over  the  mountains  leads 
to  Newburg  and  the  surroundins  country. 
Just  N.  of  the  island  are  the  West  Point 
Foundry  and  the  village  of  Cold  Spring;  far- 
ther N.  rises  the  lofty  Bull  Hilt,  with  Break- 
>  neck  in  the  distance.  NW.  of  the  Point,  on 
the  W.  side  of  the  river,  are  Crow  Neet  and 
Storm  King,  and  beyond  is  the  town  of  New- 
burg, at  the  extremity  of  the  upper  reach  of 
the  river,  which  viewed  from  West  Point  ap- 
pears like  a  mountain  lake. 

The  Government  tract  of  land  at  Weat  Point 
contains  about  2,330  acres,  most  of  which  was 

Purchased  in  1790.  Jurisdiction  was  ceded  by 
tew  York  to  the  U.  8.  over  a  part  of  the  tract 
iD  1826,  and  over  the  remainder  in  18T6  and 
1889.  Between  1902  and  1908  Congress  appro- 
priated $7,500,000  for  additional  buildings  and 
the  general  improvement  of  the  site. 

Among  the  many  statues  and  memorials  is 
a  monument,  surmounted  by  "  Victory,"  erect- 
ed to  the  memory  of  those  of  the  regular  army 
who  feU  in  the  Civil  War. 

Weat  TiTgin'ia,  one  of  the  U.  8.  of  N.  Amer- 
ica, the  twenty-second  state  admitted  into  the 
Union;  popularly  known  as  the  Pan  Handle 
State;  capital,  Charleston.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  NW.  by  Ohio,  on  the  N.",  NE.,  and  ENE. 
by  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland,  and  on  the 
E.,  8E„  and  S.  by  Virginia,  and  on  the  SW. 
by  Virginia  and  Kentucky;  area,  24,170  sq. 
m.;   pop.    (1010)    1,221,119. 

On  the  E.  border  of  the  state  are  the  Alle- 
ghany Mountains  proper,  lofty  spurs  of  which 
trend  NW.  toward  the  Ohio.  Three  physical 
regions  are  indicated;  (1)  The  E.  plateau,  on 
which  is  the  loftiest  mountain  elevation  in  the 
state;  (2)  the  central  plateau,  which  stretches 
across  the  state  from  N.  to  S.,  having  a  mean 
elevation  of  about  1,000  ft.  and  an  average 
width  of  about  25  m.  On  its  S.  portion,  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Cumberland  ran)^,  are  lofty 
elevations,  some  of  the  peaks  nf  which  ore  from 
3,000  to  3,500  ft.  (3)  The  Ohio  valleyplain, 
along  the  Ohio  River  and  the  entire  NW.  bor- 
der of  the  state.  Here  the  elevation  is  from 
675  to  860  ft.  In  addition  to  these  is  the  Po- 
tomac tegjon,  drained  by  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Potomac. 
There  are  no  transportation  soils;  all  are  no- 


WEST  VtRGINU 

tive,  and  come  from  the  breaking  up  of  lime- 
stones, sandstones,  and  various  admixtures  of 
shales  and  clays,  forming,  respectively,  flinty 
soil,  sandy  soil,  and  clayey  soils  and  loams. 
These  elements  insure  great  fertility,  and  th* 


lands  are  therefore  productive  to  the  mountain- 
tops.  V?heat,  com,  and  all  the  cereals  yield 
abundantly.  Almost  all  the  fruits  known  to 
the  temperate  cone  are  grown,  and  fruit  cul- 
ture is  developing  rapidly.  The  state  lies  cen- 
tral   in    the    great    blue-grass   region,    which 


stretches   from    the    bonks    of   the   Kentucky 
River  to  the  lakes  of  W.  New  York. 

W.  Virginia  has  a  coal  area  of  16,000  sq.  m., 
divided  into  five  districts — vix.,  the  Flat  Top,  , 
Kanawha,  New  River,  Northern,  and  Upper 
Potomac.  The  production  of  petroleum  is  sec- 
ond only  to  Pennsylvania,  and  includes  a  nat- 
ural lubricating  oil  of  high  grade.  Salt  is  also 
produced.  The  quarry  products  are  limestone 
and  sandstone.  The  value  of  the  natural  gas 
consumed  exceeds  120,000,000.  The  iron-ore 
production  is  also  important.  The  climate  is 
salubrious  and  agreeable.  The  warm  seosoh  ia 
long,  but  the  heat  is  not  intense.  The  mean 
annual  temperature  of  the  whole  state  is  66.4°, 
and  the  average  rainfall  44.2  in. 

W.  Virginia  is  divided  into  flfty-flve  counties^ 
Important  cities  and  towns  are  Wheeling, 
Huntington,  Parkersburg,  Charleston,  Martins- 
burg,  Fairmont,  Grafton,  Moundsville,  Blue- 
field,  Benwood,  Clarksburg,  Hioton,  Siatersvill^ 


WEST  VIRGINIA 

Wellabvrg,  Weiton,  E^eer.  The  eensuB  of 
1909  showed  that  2,S8e  factoriea  reported,  with 
an  output  valued  at  $1S1,B49,000.  The  princi- 
pal icduetries,  according  to  the  value  of  output, 
were  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  eteel,  lumber- 
mill  prodncts,  flour  and  grist-mill  products, 
coke,  glass,  planing-mill  products,  tanned  and 
curried  leather,  malt  liquors,  cigars  and  cigar- 
ettes, and  foundry  and  machine-shop  products. 
The  production  of  pig  iron  was  174,661  long 
tons  in  IBIO.  Coal  mining  is  the  distinctive  in- 
dustry. The  manufacturing  eatahUBhmenta  are 
chiefly  in  the  N.  of  the  state  and'  along  the 
OhioRiver,  on  account  of  the  shipping  facilities 
and  the  abundant  supply  of  bituminous  coal 
and  natural  gas.  Three  great  trunk  lines  cross 
the  state  from  E.  to  W.— -the  Baltimore  k 
Ohio,  the  Chesapeake  t  Ohio,  and  the  Nor- 
folk &  Western.  The  total  mileage  in  ISIO  was 
3,600.09.  The  public-school  system  embraces 
primary,  graded,  high,  and  normal  schools  and 
a  state  university.  The  state  normal  school, 
Marshall  Colle^,  is  at  Huntington,  with 
branches  at  Fairmount,  Glenville,  Shepherds- 
town,  W.  Liberty,  and  Concord.  An  institute 
for  colored  teachers  is  at  Farm,  The  state 
university,  open  to  both  sexes,  at  Morgantown, 
is  one  of  the  best-equipped  institutions  of  its 
kind  in  the  South.  The  institutions  include  a 
penitentiary,  at  Moundsville;  reform  school  for 
mates,  at  Fruntytown;  school  for  the  deaf  and 
blind,  at  Romney;  First  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane, at  Weaton;  Second  Hospital  for  the  In- 
sane, at  Spencer. 

The  governor,  auditor,  state  superintendent 
of  free  schools,  treasurer,  and  attomev-general, 
all  riected  for  four  years,  constitute  the  execu- 
tive department,  and  also  compose  the  board 
of  public  works.  The  legislature  consists  of  a 
senate  of  twenty-sii  members,  each  elected  for 
four  years  (half  every  two  years),  and  a  house 
of  delates  of  seventy -one  members,  each 
elected  for  two  years.  Sessions  of  the  legis- 
lature are  held  biennially,  and  limited  to  forty- 
five  days.  The  judiciary  comprises  the  Su- 
preme Court  of  Appeals,  circuit  courts,  corpo- 
ration courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace. 

The  territory  now  embraced  in  W.  Virginia 
was  first  visited  by  a  whita  man,  John  Lederer, 
in  1669-70,  whm  he  was  in  the  service  of  Gov. 
Berkeley  as  an  explorer.  The  same  year  Rob- 
ert Chevalier  La  Salle  saw  the  W.  part  of  the 
state  when  descmding  the  Ohio  TUver.  The 
Knights  of  the  Golden  Horseshoe  accompanied 
Gov,  Spotswood,  of  Virginia,  over  the  Blue 
Ridge  in  ITIS.  John  Van  Metre  traversed  the 
valley  of  tbe  8.  branch  of  the  Potomac  abt. 
1725.  The  first  white  man  to  make  a  home 
within  the  present  limits  of  tbe  state  was  Mor- 
gan Morgan,  who  built  his  cabin  in  what  is 
now  Berkeley  Co.  in  1T27.  The  land  grant  of 
Lord  Fairfax  for  the  "  Northern  Neck  "  of  Vir- 
ginia extended  far  into  what  is  now  W.  Vir- 
ginia, and  the  Fairfax  surveyors,  on  October 
17,  1748,  planted  the  "  Fairfax  Stone "  at  the 
head  waters  of  the  N,  branch  of  the  Potomac 
to  mark'ithe  W.  limit  of  the  grant.  France 
claimed  by  right  of  discovery  aU  that  part  W. 
of  the  mountains,  and  when  the  Ecgiish  h^^n 
to  cross  tbe  mountains  France  sent  an  expedi- 
tion from  Canada  to  bury  leaden  claim  plates 


1756  Gen.  Braddock  marched  through  the  E. 
part  of  the  state  to  the  fatal  field  of  Monon- 
gahela.  The  Shawnee  Indians  bad  numeroua 
towns  and  villages  in  this  region,  hut  the  title 
to  all  the  territoi;  included  in  the  state  ap- 
pears to  have  been  vested  in  the  Six  Nations, 
tor  by  them  the  land  was  ceded  to  the  King 
of  England  by  the  treaty  of  Fort  Stanwix,  now 
Rome,  N,  Y.,  in  1TG8.  The  Shawneee,  Dela- 
wares,  Mingoes,  and  other  tribes  N.  of  the  Ohio, 
however,  claimed  that  the  territory  thus  ceded 
belonged  to  them,  and,  refusing  to  vield  it, 
waged  war  along  the  Virginia  border  from  the 
date  of  cession  until  the  treaty  of  Greenville, 
in  1796.  In  this  period  there  were  many  bloody 
enesgementa  on  the  soil  of  W.  Virginia,  and  at 
Point  Pleasant,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Great 
Kanawha,  on  October  10,  1774,  occurred  the 
most  desperate  battle  ever  fought  with  the 
Indians  in  Virginia.  When  the  Revolutionary 
War  opened  the  pioneers  of  this  region  wero 
the  first  troops  from  8.  of  the  Potomac  that 
joined  Washington  at  Boston.  When  Virginia 
seceded,  a  majority  of  the  people  W.  of  the 
mountains  resolved  to  remain  in  the  Union, 
and  set  about  the  formation  of  a  new  state. 
The  first  Wheeling  convention  was  held  in  May, 
I8G1,  and  the  second  Wheeling  convention, 
June  11th,  provided  for  the  organisation  of 
a  new  state.  June  20,  1863,  W,  Virginia  waa 
admitted  to  the  Union.  The  present  constitu- 
tion was  adopted  in  1871. 

Weyler  y  NicoUn  (wHBr  1  nl'k0-l»),  Valeii- 
ano,  Marquis  of  TeneriSe,  1838-  ;  Spanish 
general;  b.  Palma  of  Mallorca  (BalearesJ;  en- 
tered the  infantry  school,  1853;  lieutenant  gen- 
eral, 1878;  was  commander  in  chief  in  the  Phil- 
ippines, Cuba,  Madrid,  etc.;  was  on  attache 
in  the  U.  S.  during  the  Civil  War,  and  accom- 
panied Sheridan  on  some  of  his  cavalry  raids. 
In  the  Cariist  War,  in  Africa  against  the 
Moors,  and  in  Cuba  he  gained  such  a  reputa- 
tion for  brutality  that  he  was  nicknamed 
"  Buteher  Weyler."  He  was  recalled  from 
Cuba  in  1897,  as  the  U.  8.  protested  against 
his  methods.  He  has  since  been  commander 
in  chief  of  Madrid  and  Minister  of  War. 

Whale  (bwBl),  popular  name  of  the  carniv- 
orous cetacean  mammals,  with  fishlike  forma. 
The  whales  embrace  the  largest  of  living  ani- 
mals, and  were  regarded  as  fishes  till  the  time 
of  Linneeus;  they  ere,  however,  true  mammals, 
warm  blooded,  air  breathing,  bringing  forth 
their  young  (usually  one)  alive,  and  suckling 
them.  They  occur  mostly  in  shoals  in  tha 
Arctio  and  Antarctic  seas,  and  are  seen  sport- 
ing on  the  surface  of  the  ocean.  In  the  Bo- 
Imuda  the  adulta  have  no  teeth;  the  upper 
jaw  is  provided  with  cross  plates  of  the  hopiy 
substance  known  as  whalebone  or  baleen,  wUh 
fringes  on  the  inner  edge  acting  as  a  strainer 
for  the  food,  which  conusts  chiefiy  of  smalK 
swimming  mollvska  and  medusee  or  jelly  fishes.^ 
The  right  or  Greenland  whale  (fiatinia  mya- 
tieetuti)  attains  a  length  of  60  to  TO  ft.,  the 
tail  being  6  or  6  ft  long  and  £0  to  25  ft.  wide; 
the  general  color  is  blackish  above  and  gny- 
ish  white  below;  the  mouth  is  16  or_16  ft. long, 


.Google 


WHALE 

e  to  8  ft.  wide,  and  10  to  18  ft  high  Innde;  the 
eyM  are  not  Iw^r  than  ttio«  of  an  ox ;  the 
tongue  is  soft,  thick,  fatty,  and  very  Blightlj 
movable;  the  tail  is  of  immeiiK  power.  The 
ordinary  rate  ot  progrew  is  4  or  5  m.  an  hour; 
they  Bwim  not  far  beneath  the  surface,  and 
throw  themselves  in  efort  entirely  out  of  wa- 
ter; they  are  fond  of  immersuig  the  body  per- 
pendicularly and  flapping  the  tail  on  the  sur- 


RiaoT  Wbali. 

face,  making  a  sound  heard  fw  2  or  3  m.;  they 
usual)}'  come  up  every  eight  or  ten  minutes, 
but  can  remain  down  half  an  hour  or  more; 
they  generally  keep  on  the  surface  about  two 
minutes,  during  wliich  they  blow  eight  or  nine 
times,  and  then  descend ;  they  feed  iwimmiog 
just  below  the  surface,  with   the  mouth  wide 

The  Phygeterida,  or  sperm  whales,  have  do 
baleen  plates,  but  forty  to  fifty  conical  teeth 
in  the  lower  jaw  with  iotenial  cavities;  this 
Ts  shorter  and  narrower  than  the  upper,  and 
completely  inclosed  by  it  when  the  mouth  is 
shu^  the  teeth  fitting  into  cavities  in  the  upper 
jaw;  the  head  is  one  third  Uke  whole  length  ot 


jaw;  the  head  ii 


4--. 


the  body,  most  of  its  bulk  conwsting  of  a 
gristly  envelope  or  "  case,"  which  contains  an 
oily  fluid  hardening  on  exposure  to  the  air,  and 
known  as  spermaceti.  The  best-known  and 
largest  of  the  sperm  whales  is  the  PkyMelcr 
macTocep/uilus,  or  blunt-headed  cachalot.  The 
males  attain  60  to  75  ft.,  and  the  females  are 
about  half  as  long;  the  color  is  blackish  and 
greenish  gray  above,  whitish  beneath  and 
about  the  eyes.  They  are  distributed  in  all 
seas,   but   principally    in    the   S.    hemisphere. 


WHATELT 

living  in  deep  water,  anl  rarely  approach- 
ing hud;  they  are  usually  seen  in  compa- 
nies of  twenty  to  fifty  females  and  young, 
with  one  or  two  old  males  or  bulls;  they 
feed  chiefly  on  cuttlefishes  and  other  mol- 
lusks;  the  males  flght  savagely.  They  make 
sixty  or  seventy  respirations  white  remaining 
about  ten  minutes  at  the  surface;  when  the 
spouUngs  are  over,  if  undisturbed,  they  de- 
scend, remaining  down  from  half  an  hour  to 
an  hour.  Their  oil  is  the  flnest  for  burning, 
and  the  spermaceti  (of  which  a  single  whale 
sometimes  yields  more  than  a  ton)  valuable 
for  candles  and  for  medical  purposes;  amber- 
gris, highly  prized  in  the  making  of  perfumery, 
is  a  product  of  the  intestines  of  the  sperm 
whale;  the  blanket  or  blubber  of  a  single  indi- 
vidual will  yield  SO  or  more  barrels  of  oil. 

Whale'bone,  or  Baleen',  the  substance  of  the 
homy  plates  or  blades  in  the  mouth  of  the 
balana,  or  right  whale,  about  300  in  a  full- 
grown  animal,  from  10  to  15  ft.  long.  It  is 
used  for  the  ribs  or  stretchers  of  umbrellas 
and  parasols,  for  stays,  brushes,  and  whip  han- 
dles, in  haircloth,  for  hats  and  bonnets,  canes, 
and  other  articles.  The  increasing  price  has 
led  to  the  substitution  for  it  of  steel,  vulcanite, 
and  rattan. 

Wliaif,  a  broad  plain  space  or  surface  rest- 
ing upon  the  shore  of  a  harbor  or  a  navigable 
stream,  aSording  a  convenient  place  at  which 
vessels  may  load  and  unload.  It  must  abut 
upon  the  space  where  the  tide  ebbs  and  flows, 
that  it  may  extend  beyond  that  space.  It  is  a 
settled  doctrine  of  the  common  law  that  this 
portion  of  land  between  high  and  low  tide, 
called  the  "  shore,"  belongs  to  the  government, 
and  that  the  harbor  or  river  beyond  the  low- 
est ebb  is  under  the  exclusive  control  of  the 
government  In  Great  Britain  the  crown,  in 
the  V.  S.  the  several  states,  hold  the  power  to 
authorize  and  regulate  the  construction  and 
use  of  wharves.  This  authority  may  be  ceded 
away,  either  to  municipal  corporations  or  to 
private  persons. 

WiiARFiNO  is  the  business  carried  on  by  the 
occupant  of  a  wharf,  who  is  termed  a  wharf- 
inger. He  is  a  bailee  for  hire,  receiving  and 
keeping  the  goods  placed  in  his  custody;  is  en- 
titled to  demand  a  compensation,  called  wharf- 
age, for  the  privilege  of  mooring  a  vessel  at  his 
wharf  and  there  receiving  or  discharging  her 
cargo,  and  for  the  storage  of  goods;  u  bound 
to  exercise  ordinary  care  and  diligence  of  the 
goods,  and  is  responable  for  losses  caused  by 
ordinary  negligence.  He  has  a  general  lien  on 
the  goods  of  a  customer  for  any  balance  due 
him  on  account. 

Whats'ly,  Richard,  1787-1863;  archbishop  of 
Dublin;  h.  London;  studied  at  Oriel  College, 
Oxford;  entered  the  Church  of  England;  Prof, 
of  Political  Economy,  Oxford,  1830-31;  Arch- 
bishop of  Dublin,  1831.  He  opposed  the  Trae- 
tarian  movement  iq.v.).  He  was  for  twenty 
years  the  leading  member  of  the  Irish  National 
Board  of  Education.  Archbishop  Whately  was 
one  of  the  founders  of  the  "  Broad  Church  " 
party,  and  was  distinguished  tor  "  large  mu- 
nificence, genial  hospitality,  ever-ready  wit,  and 

solid  "n—™""   —«»''  — 


I  by  Google 


WHEAT 

Wheat,  a  cereal,  Tritictim  mdgare,  whicli 
boa  been  cultivated  from  the  eariieet  antiquity, 
and  now  fumiehes  the  principal   breadstuff  in 
all  civilized  countries.     The  varieties  of  wheat 
are   numerous.      The   plant  differs   in   stature, 
habit,  and  foliage,  iu  tne  size  and  shape  of  the 
spike   or  head,  the  number   of  flowem   in   the 
apikelet,  the  shape  and  size  of  the  floral  en- 
velopes, the  presence  or  absence  of  a  beard  or 
awn    and    its    character,   and   the    size,    fomi, 
color,  and  hairiness  of  the  grain.    Probably  not 
'more  than  a  doxen  varieties  are  in  general  cul- 
tivation in  the  U.   S.,  tbougb  each   is  apt  to 
have  several  local  name*,  and  a  variety  if  long 
cultivated  in  one  district  may  seem  mucb  un- 
like   the    same  '  that    haa 
been    grown    for    several 
^ears  in  a  different  local' 
ity.  Spring  wheat  is  sown 
and    harvested    the    same 
year,  while  vrinter  wheat 
IS  sown  in  autumn,  usu- 
ally  in   September,   when 
it    germinates,     and     the 
plant  growa  until  stopped 
by    cold    weather;    it   re- 
mains dormant  during  the 


its 


the     spring. 


growth 

ripening  about 
mer.  These  groups  are 
subdivided  into  white  and 
red  or  amber  varieties, 
and  these  again  into  bald 
and  bearded  wheat  The 
red  kinds  are  generally 
more  hardy  than  the  light- 
er-colored  grains.  Among 
"  the   spring   varieties,   the 

Sfbinii  VurnR  China,  also  called  £ea 
Wbui.  Wbkat.  wheat;  the  Mediterranean 
spring,  and  Canada  club 
are  leading  kinds.  Of  winter  wheats  the  white 
varieties  are  moat  esteemed.  Formerly  spring 
wheats  brought  a  lower  price  than  the  others, 


but   s 


:  the   t 


i  introduction  of  what 
called  the  "  new  procese  "  of  grinding,  in  which 
the  grain  is  first  deprived  of  its  outer  covering, 
they  are  preferred  for  some  kinds  of  flour,  and 
bring  as  much  or  more  than  the  winter  kinds. 
Wheat  In  a  rotation  is  sown  on  a  turned  clover 
sod,  or  on  land  which  has  been  heavily  ma- 
nured the  previous  year  for  a  corn  or  root  crop; 
fresh  stable  manure  is  objectionable,  but  artifi- 
cial fertilizers  are  used,  and  lime,  where  there 
is  much  organic  matter  in  the  soil,  is  beneficial. 
Continued  cultivation,  by  ordinary  methods, 
without  manure,  so  exhausts  the  land  that  the 
crop  becomes  unprofitable.  In  some  of  the  W. 
states  of  the  U.  S.  large  areas  formerly  (riven 
to  wheat  are  now  used  for  other  purposes  on 
account  of  the  exhaustion  of  the  soil  for  this 
crop.  Wheat  removes  from  the  soil  a  much 
larger  amount  of  nitrogen  than  either  of  phos- 
phoric acid  or  potash.  Careful  cultivators  take 
great  pains  to  clean  their  seed  wheat  from 
other  seeds,  and  to  get  rid  of  all  the  light  ker- 
nels; when  smut  is  apprehended,  the  seed  is 
wetted  with  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  or 
strong  brine,  to  kill  the  fungous  spores.  The 
seed  U  sown  broadcast,  or  preferably  by  means 


WHEATON 

of  a  drill,  which  deponts  it  In  rows  and  covers 
it;  when  sown  broadcast  it  ia  harrowed  or 
plowed  in.  In  spring  the  winter  wheat  is  har- 
rowed. Wheat  properly  stands  at  the  head  of 
food  grains,  as  it  contains,  besides  a  large 
amount  of  starch,  nitrogenous  principled,  and 
those  mineral  elements  retjuired  by  the  animal 
system;  the  grain  raised  in  different  soils  and 
climates,  as  well  as  that  of  the  different  varie- 
ties, shows  considerable  variation  in  tbe  proxi- 
mate constituents.  One  of  the  greatest  enemies 
to  the  wheat  plant  in  the  U.  S.  is  the  Hessian 
liy,  a  small  two-winged  gnat,  resembling  a  mos- 
quito. It  produces  two  or  three  broods,  the  fly 
laying  its  eggs  in  the  autumn  between  the  leaf 
and  the  main  stalk,  where  the  young  pass  tha 
winter.  In  the  spring  the  adult  emerges  and 
lays  eggs  between  the  leaf  and  stalk  farther 
from  the  ground.  The  stalks  are  weakened 
and  produce  a  poor  quality  of  grain,  many 
stalks  breaking  over  and  remaining  ungathered 
by  tlie  reaper.  Late  seeding  is  practiced  to  pre- 
vent or  diminish  its  ravages.  Chinch  bug  nai 
done  great  injuries  in  the  states  drained  by  the 
Mississippi.  It  is  a  small  insect,  not  more  than 
one  sixth  of  an  inch  in  length.  The  eggs  are 
deposited  beneath  the  eround,  the  young  feed 
on  the  roots,  then  the  leaves.  Their  numiwra 
are  often  so  great  that  whole  crops  are  de- 
stroyed. The  most  effective  means  of  comtiat- 
ing  them  haa  been  by  spreading  a  contagious 
disease  among  them  by  means  of  infected  bugs. 
Spraying  the  fields  with  insecticides  and  burn- 
ing the  stubble  are  recommended.  Wheat 
midge,  a  small  gnat,  deposits  its  eggs  in  the 
wheat  blossoms.  The  young  feeding  on  the  un- 
developed grain  cause  it  to  shrivel.  No  remedy 
is  known.  Varieties  known  as  bearded  and  long- 
berry  red  are  most  likely  to  escape  ravagea. 
The  white  grubs  of  the  May  beetles  frequently 
do  much  damage  to  young  wheat  in  the  fall  l^ 
feeding  upon  the  roots.  Skunks  and  crows  oft^ 
come  TO  the  relief  of  the  farmer  at  this  time 
and  destroy  large  numbers  of  these  insects. 
Wire  worms,  the  larval  form  of  click  beetles, 
feed  on  the  roots  of  wheat.  No  satisfactory  rem- 
edy has  been  found,  although  thorough  tillage 
and  compacting  the  soil  has  proved  beneficial. 
It  was  estimated  that  the  world's  production 
in   1911  waa  as  follows  in  bushels: 

UnitedStatee..  .621.338.000  GmtBriUin..      M.2S9.000 

Cniikda 216.861,000    PortucaJ ll.SeO.OOO 

Argenliiu 14.^,081.000  fiunia  in 

CluiB IS,O0O,O00        Europe 447,016.000 

Aunria 68.880,000  British  India. , .    368,630.000 

Huii«uy    prop-  Eaypt 37,933.000 

« 175,030,000    Algeria 86,874,000 

Roumsnia 00,886,000  Austtaluia. ...    106,644.000 

~urkey  in  Mciioo 12,000.000 

Europe 20,000,000  Tuf  key  in  Am.      36,000.000 

Buiaaria 4S,000,000  CroaUa-eiavona     16,210.000 

Italv 192,306.000    Servia 13,000.000 

Spun.. l'lS.4e6,000     Japan 2G,D2D,000 

trance 31o,444,000  Othercnmtrica    145,070.000 

Ocrmuir 149,411.000  

Belcium 14,610.000     Tbewarld 3,516.862,000 

In  the  U.  S.  the  average  production  in  1880- 
eg  was  449,695,350  bu.,  and  in  IseO-lOOO  G04,- 
818,960  bu.  The  largest  annual  production 
was  in  1901,  748,460,218  bu.  In  1011  the  pro- 
duction was  621,338,000  bu.     See  Flouk. 

Wh«a'ton,  Henry,  178S-1848;  American  law- 
yer  and   diplomatist;    b.    Providence,   R.   L) 


WHEATSTONB 

grwluated  at  Brown  nniv.,  I80S;  admitted  to 


National  Advocate,  1812-lfi.  He  waa  reporter 
of  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  S.,  1810-27; 
okargi  d'affairea  to  Demnark,  182A-36;  minia- 
ter,  1836,  and  plenipotentiary,  1837-46,  to  Prus- 
sia. In  1847  he  was  lecturer  on  international 
law  at  Harvard.  His  tnoet  important  work  is 
"  EHementB  of  International  Law,"  which  has 
been  several  timet  tranilated. 

Wheat'stone,  Sii  Cluiles,  1802-75;  Bnglish 

Fibyflicist;  b.  Gloucester,  England;  was  in  earl^ 
ife  a  maker  of  musical  initnunents;  investi- 
gated the  laws  of  sound  and  their  application 
to  music;  became  in  1834  Prof,  of  Ezperimental 
Pbiloaophj  in  King's  College,  London;  as  a 
consequence  of  his  researches  on  tha  physioloRf 
of  vision  he  invented  the  stereoscope;  began  in 
I83B,  vrith  William  F.  Cooke,  a  series  of  suc- 
cessful experiments  in  electromagnetism,  with 
ft  view  to  the  transmission  of  intelligence  over 
copper  wires;  took  out,  along  with  Cocke,  in 
Haj,  1837,  a  patent  for  a  magnetic  telegraph, 
which  was  not,  however,  practically  operated 
until  after  that  of  Morse;  invented  also  an 
electromagnetic  alarum  and  various  instru- 
ments for  registering  thcrmometrical  and  baro- 
metrical iudicstious  and  transit  observations 
in  astronomy.  A  British  official  commission, 
consisting  of  Sir  Mark  I.  Brunei  and  John  F. 
Daniell,  declared  under  date  of  April  27,  1S41, 
that  Wheatstone  was  the  person  to  whose 
Bcientiflc  researches  the  practical  application 
of  the  telegraph  was  due. 

Wheatstone'a  Bridge,  an  ingenious  device  for 
comparing  electrical  resiataaeee.  It  was  intro- 
duced by  Sir  Charles  Wheatstone.  Its  arrange- 
ment is  shown  in  the  accompanying  diagram. 
An  electrical  circuit  is  divided  between  A  and 
B  into  two  branches:  Branch  A  C  D  contains 


HhiFil- 


two  Tesiatanees,  R,  and  Rt-  Branch  A  D  B 
contains  two  resistances  also,  R,  and  R,. 
Whenever  C  and  D  are  at  the  same  potential 
no  current  will  flow  through  the  galvanometer, 
the  terminals  of  which  connect  those  points. 
C  and  D  will  be  at  the  same  potential  when- 


ever ^'=w^-     When  R,  and  the  ratio 


are 


'  the  above  equation. 


The  method  of  prooedore  consists  in  "balanc- 
ing ;'  the  bridge  by  a  variation  of  the  known 
resistances  until  no  current  flows  through  the 
galvanometer.  Its  convenience,  accuracy,  and 
adaptability  are  such  that  it  has  become  the 
most  widely  used  of  all  methods  of  measuring 
electrical  conductivity.  The  bridge  is  some- 
times called  Wheatstone's  balance. 

Wheel,  an  instrument  formerly  usM  as  ft 
means  of  torture  and  of  execution  in  crimi- 
nal prooedure,  the  torture  or  execution  being 
called  breaking  on  the  uiheeL  It  is  said  to 
have  been  first  used  in  Germany,  where  the 
criminal  was  laid  on  a  cart  wheel  and  bis 
extended  limbs  fractured  with  blows  of  an  iron 
bar.  In  other  countries  a  different  form  of 
frame  was  used,  such  as  a  St.  Andrew's  cross. 
Sreaking  on  the  wheel  was  abolished  in  Frnnce 
at  the  revolution,  but  was  used  in  Germany  as 
late  as  18Z7.  The  agony  of  the  victim  was 
ended  by  strangling  or  a  few  violent  blowa 
called  ooapa-de-graee,  or  strokes  of  mercy.  It 
is  now  obsolete  in  all  civiliEcd  countries. 

Wheel  and  Az'le,  one  of  the  so-called  me- 
chanical powers.  It  is  an  application  of  the 
principle  of  the  lever.  There  are  two  cylinders 
with  a  common  axis,  with  differing  radii — the 
smaller  being  termed  the  axle,  the  larger  the 
wheel.  Suppose  a  cord  is  wound  around  the 
wheel  iu  one  direction,  and  another  cord  around  ' 
the  axle  in  the  contrary  direction.  The  condi- 
tion of  equilibrium  of  weights  attached  to 
these  cords  is  that  the  product  of  each  of  the 
weights  into  their  respective  radii  should  tie 

Wheel'er,  Joseph,  I83B-1S06;  American  sol- 
dier and  legislator;  b.  Augusta,  Oa.;  gradu- 
ated U.  3.  Military  Academy  and  appointed  a 
brevet  second  lieutenant  of  dragoons,  18B9i 
resigned  April  22,  18B1,  and  entered  the  Con- 
federate service  as  lieutenant  of  artillery.  He 
was  rapidly  promoted  to  lieutenant  general, 
and  commanded  the  cavalry  corps  of  the  W. 
army  from  1862  until  the  close  of  the  Civil 
War.  He  served  with  distinction  at  Shilob, 
Corinth,  Ferryvitle,  Murfreesboro,  Chickamau- 
gs,  and  in  Georgia  under  Johnston  and  Hood, 
and  covered  the  retreat  from  Shilob,  Corinth, 
and  Perryville.  He  commanded  the  cavalry  iu 
Bragg's  Tullahoma  campaign  and  in  Long- 
street's  movement  against  and  Bragg's  retreat 
from  Knoxville.  He  opposed  Sherman's  march 
to  the  sea,  checking  his  advance  at  Waynes- 
boro and  Aiken.  (An.  Wheeler  was  noted  for 
energy  and  vigilance,  which  enabled  him  to 
make  many  captures  of  prisoners  and  supplies. 
He  was  wounded  three  times  and  had  sixteen 
horses  shot  under  him.  From  IS81  to  1809 
he  was  a  member  of  Congress  from  Alabama. 
In  1B98  be  served  in  Cuba  as  a  major  general 
of  volunteers,  and  was  sent  to  the  Philippines 
in  1S99,  and  later  retired. 

Wheeler,  William  Almon,  1819-87;  Vice 
President  of  the  U.  S.;  .b.  Malone,  Franklin 
Co.,  N.  Y.;  studied  at  the  Univ.  of  Vermont; 
admitted  to  the  bar  in  1846,  and  rose  rapidly. 
He  was  elected  as  a  Whig  member  of  the 
assembly  (1849-60),  but  Joined  the  newly 
formed  Republican  Party  in  I860.    He  was  ■ 


WHEELINa 

'  monber  of  the  genaU  of  New  York,  16SS  knd 
1869,  and  ita  president  pro  tern.;  member  and 
preflideot  of  the  New  York  constitutional  con- 
vention, 1B67-6S;  a  representative  to  the  37th, 
4lBt,  42d,  43d,  and  44th  congreases.  In  the 
political  compticattona  which  arose  in  Louisi- 
ana durine  the  session  of  the  43d  Congress, 
Mr.  Wheeler  was  conspicuous,  having  been 
chairman  of  the  special  committee  of  the  House 
□f  Kepresentativee  that  visited  Louisiana,  and 
ftnall^  adjusted  the  difficulties  existing  there 
on  the  basis  of  "  the  Wheeler  oompromise." 
He  was  Vice  President  of  the  U.  S.,  1677-81, 
after  wbich  be  lived  in  retirement. 

Wheel'inf!,  capital  of  Ohio  Co.,  W.  Virginia; 
on  the  Ohio  River,  S3  m.  W.  of  Pittsburg, 
141  m.  £.  of  Columbus,  Ohio.  Zane'e  Island, 
a  ward  of  the  city,  is  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  a  suspension  bridge  of  1,DI0  ft. 
\span  and  a  steel  bridge.  Steamboats  carry 
freisht  to  all  Ppints  on  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi rivers.  There  are  two  large  parks  out- 
side tbe  city  limits,  two  within.  The  most 
notable  buildings  are  the  city  hall  and  court- 
house, U.  B,  customhouse,  and  post  office. 
There  are  about  forty  churches  and  a  syna- 
gogue. The  public  schools  coat  annually  about 
$100,000.  The  charitable  institutions  are  for 
the  axed,  friendless,  and  orphans,  a  Roman 
Catholic  hospital,  a  day  nursery,  a  Protestant 
hospital,  and  two  private  hospitaU.  Wheeling, 
the  largest  city  in  the  state,  is  principally  a 
manufacturing  city.  The  large  deposits  of  bi- 
tuminous coal  and  the  natural  gaa  in  the  sur- 
rounding country  furnish  a  cheap  fuel.  There 
are  steel  and  iron  plants  with  blast  furnaces, 
a  glass  factory,  potteries,  steel  tube  and  casing 
works,  tobacco  and  cigar  factories,  foundries 
and  stove  works,  breweries,  ice  plants,  machine 
shops,  planing  mills,  carriage  factories,  ete. 
The  cigar  factor ies  have  a  daily  output  of 
about  1,000,000. 

The  first  settlement  of  WheelinK  was  made 
by  Col.  Ebenezer  Zane  in  1769,  and  a  stockade 
fort— Fort  Henry — was  built  at  Wheeling  to 
pro^t  the  border  in  1774.  On  September  1, 
1777,  this  fort  was  beset  by  about  300  Indiana, 
who  killed  IS  of  the  settlers.  It  sustained 
another  attack  in  17S1,  and  arain  September 
11,  1782,  was  besieged  by  a  British  captain 
and  40  regular  soldiers  and  260  Indians  for 
two  days,  but  they  were  repulsed  by  Col.  Zane 
and  his  little  garrison  without  loss.  The  town 
waa  laid  out  by  Col.  Zane  in  1703;  Qrst  in- 
corporated, 1806;  incorporated  as  a  city,  1836; 
made  tbe  capital  of  the  "  restored  government 
of  Virginia  in  1861;  waa  the  meeting  place 
of  the  convention  which  formed  the  Biate  of 
W.  Virginia  in  1863;  and  was  tbe  capital  of 
the  atate,  1863-70  and  lB7fi-aS.  Fop.  (IQIO) 
41,641. 

WhMl'woik.    See  GEABina. 

Whelk,  a  name  popularly  applied  in  a  vague 
manner  to  apecies  of  gasteropod  molluaks  be- 
longing principally  to  the  familiea  Bueoinidct 
and  Muricida.  They  form  one  of  the  chief 
elements  of  the  food  of  the  codfishes,  and  in 
England  are  sometimes  used  as  an  article  of 
food,  but  their  principal  value  is  as  bait.  The 
Ihell  of  the  almond  oj  red  whelk   {Chryaodo- 


WHIPPINGPOeT 

mus  antiqaut)    of  tbe  market  is  used  in  the 
Shetland  lalanda  and  some  other  places  for  a 

Whig  and  To'ry,  desi^ations  of  political 
parties  in  England,  and  m  American  history, 
originally  terms  of  reproach.  "  Whig "  is  a 
contraction  of  "  whigRamore,"  which  in  the 
BW.  counties  of  Scotland  denotes  a  drover. 
The  term  came  into  general  use  in  167fl,  dur- 
ing the  struggle  between  the  court  and  country 
parties  on  the  bill  for  tbe  exclusion  of  the 
Duke  of  Yorli  from  the  tine  of  succession. 
"  Tory  "  is  derived  from  an  Iriah  term  applied 
to  "  the  most  despicable  aavagea  among  the 
wild  Irish,"  and  the  name  was  given  to  the 
followers  of  the  duke  because  he  favored  Irish- 
men. The  term  "  liberal "  haa  supplanted 
"whig"  in  English  politics,  but  "  tory"  is  still 
applied  to  the  "  conservative  "  faction.  In  the 
U.  S.  "  whig  "  was  applied  during  the  Revolu- 
tion to  the  patriotic  party,  the  adherents  to 
the  crown  being  called  "  tories."  Both  words 
then  disappeared  from  the  political  vocabulary 
until  the  presidential  election  of  1832,  when 
the  anti-Jackson  party  took  the  name  of  whig. 
The  party  broke  up  in  1854-65. 

Whip'ping  Post,  a  post  to  which  a  person  is 
tied  to  be  whipped.  The  phrase  ia  used,  how- 
ever, to  designate  the  institution  of  whipping 
as  a  meana  of  punishment  or  torture,  eapccially 
for  crime.  As  a  means  of  torture,  whipping 
or  flogging  haa  been  in  use  among  all  nations 
in  those  stages  where  torture  waa  in&ictcd. 
Until  recent  years  its  use,  practically  unlim- 
ited short  of  death,  by  shipmaatcra  at  sea  to 
enforce  discipline  among  their  crews,  has  been 
universal,  but  its  abuse  led  to  its  restriction 
or  abolishment  by  statute  in  Great  Britain  and 
the  U.  S.,  and  in  some  other  eountriea.  As  a 
form  of  criminal  punishment  it  waa  in  use 
among  the  Romans,  and  at  the  common  law 
whipping  was  inflicted  on  persons  of  inferior 
condition  guilty  of  petty  larceny  or  othec 
minor  ofTenaes;  but  in  the  earliut  times  it 
appears  not  to  have  been  inBicted  on  gentle- 
men. In  Great  Britain  and  tbe  U.  S.  whip- 
ping as  a  punishment  for  crime  remained  legal 
for  some  time  after  its  general  use  became  al- 
moat  obsolete.  Thus  in  the  U.  S.  in  the  early 
nineteenth  centurjr  whipping  had  been  abol- 
ished or  became  disused  in  moat  of  the  states, 
except  as  to  slaves. 

At  present  whipping  is  authorized  by  stat- 
ute in  only  a  few  of  the  U.  6.;  but  its  use  ia 
constantl;^  being  BdvocBi«d  as  a  punishment 
for  certain  brutal  crimes.  The  old  laws  of 
Great  Britain  allowed  the  whipping  of  women 
as  well  as  men,  but  now,  by  1  George  IV, 
c.  57,  no  female  may  be  whipped;  and  by 
later  statutea,  whipping  may  be  inflicted  upon 
malea  below  sixteen  years  who  have  been  con- 
victed of  any  one  of  various  ofFenaes,  such  aa 
malicious  Injviry  to  property,  larceny,  embeE- 
ilement  by  servants  or  clerks,  accusing  of  in- 
famous crimes,  etc.,  and  the  coart  oaually 
specilles  the  number  of  strokes  and  the  instru- 
ment to  be  used.  Tn  conutries  other  than  Great 
Britain  and  the  U.  S.,  whipping  is  still  | 


ogle 


WHIPPLE 

Whip'ple,  Abraham,  1733-1819;  Amerieui 
naval  officer;  b.  Providence,  R.  I.;  earlf  com- 
tnnnded  a  merchant  vessel  in  tbe  W.  Indies 
trade;  waa  captain  of  the  privateer  Oame 
Cook  during  the  French  War,  17G9-60,  captur- 
ing twentf-three  French  prizes;  headed,  1772, 
tie  aipeditioo  which  burned  the  British  rev- 
enue schooner  Oatpe  in  Narragansett  Bay; 
made  commodore  of  two  armed  vessela  which 
captured  more  British  prizes  than  anf  other 
Teste),  but  was  itself  finally  taken;  commanded 
the  light  frigate  Providence,  with  which  he 
adroitfy  eacaped  from  Narragansett  Baj;  cap- 
tured eight  richly  laden  vessels  from  the  Ja- 
maica fieet,  1776,  and  attempted  with  a  squad- 
ron to  relieve  Charleston,  S.  C,  from  the 
British,  hut  was  captured  and  held  a  prisoner 
until  the  close  of  the  war. 

Whipple,  William,  1730-SS;  %  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence;  b.  Maine.  Be 
was  a  merchant  of  Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  and 
was  a  member  of  the  provincial  congress  at 
Exeter  m  1775  and  of  the  continental  congress 
in  1776.  In  1777  he  was  a  brigadier  general, 
and  commanded  tbe  New  Hampshire  troops  at 
Saratoga;  Judge  of  the  superior  court  of  the 
sUte,  1782. 

Whip'-pooi-will  (named  in  imitation  of  its 
ery),  a  species  of  American  bird.  They  have 
a  very  small  bill;  the  gape  furnished  with 
long,  stiS,  and  ftometimes  pectinated  bristles, 
whieh  project  beyond  the  end  of  the  bill;  the 
wings  broad,  rounded,  and  with  the  first  quill 
shorter  than  the  third;  the  tail  broad  and 
rounded.  It  is  brownish  gray,  streaked  with 
black.  The  chief  distinctive  characters,  in  eon- 
trast  with  the  night  hawks,  are  found  in  the 
bristled  gape  and  the  form  of  the  tail,  and  in 
tills  respect,  as  welt  as  others,  the  species  sgree 
with  the  typical  goatsuckers  of  the  Old  World, 
to  which  they  are  closely  related.  The  common 
epeciea  are  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  remain- 
ing silent  and  keeping  within  the  shady  recesses 
of  the  forests  during  the  daytime.  In  the 
early  part  of  the  evening,  and  then  for  only  a 
brirf  period,  they  emit  their  peculiar  cry,  the 
notes  repeated  with  great  rapidity,  but  with 
clearness  and  power,  six  or  seven  times  in  as 
many  seconds.  They  are  to  be  heard  chiefly 
in  clear  weather.  In  the  daytime  their  haunts 
are  deep  ravines,  shady  swamps,  and  extensive 
pine  groves.  They  lay  their  eggs  upon  the 
ground,  generally  among  fallen  leaves,  and 
make  no  regular  nest.  Their  eggs  are  two  in 
number,  and  are  white  and  somewhat  spotted. 

WhlrVwind,  air  In  spiral  inflowinK  motion, 
similar  to  a  whirlpool  in  water.  Whirling  mo- 
tions are  common  to  all  fluids,  and  are  the 
rule  in  the  atmosphere.  When  tbe  oonditions 
causing  the  whirling  motion  are  symmetrioal, 
a  complete  whirl  results,  and  is  oalled  a  whirl- 
wind. This  may  be  of  any  size,  from  the 
eddy  at  a  street  comer  to  a  hurricane  a  thou- 
sand miles  in  diameter.  In  tbe  former  case  tbe 
observer  can  see  the  entire  whirl,  fn  the  lattar 
he  sees  but  a  small  ^art,  and  tbe  vrind  at  the 
point  of  observation  is  so  slightly  curved  that 
it  seems  to  be  straight  The  rotation  of  the 
earth  gives  a  uniform  direction  to  all  whirls 
large  enough  to  make  its  twist  effective — from 


Whis'ky,  or  Whiskey  (from  Irish-Oaelie, 
uiagebeatlia,  "water  of  life,"  sou  de  vie],  tbe 
spirituous  liquor  obtained  by  distilling  fer- 
mented infusions  of  barley,  rye,  wheat,  corn, 
oats,  etc.  According  to  some  authorities,  the 
art  of  distillation  was  first  introduced  in  Eng- 
land in  tbe  reign  of  Heniy  II,  but  it  is  more 
frobahle  that  it  was  known  and  practiced  in 
reland  previous  to  tbie  date.  Directions  for 
preparing  itiagebeatha  cr  aqua  vita  are  con- 
tained in  the  "  Red  Book  of  Ossory,"  compiled 
over  five  hundred  years  ago,  at  which  time  it 
was  chiefiy  used  as  a  medicine,  being  consid- 
ered a  panacea  for  all  diseases.  Spirits  that 
contain  over  sixty  per  cent  of  alcohol  are 
termed  "  high  wines "  or  common  spirits ; 
those  containing  ninety  per  cent  of  alcohol  are 
known  as  "  cologne  spirits,"  the  name  whisky 
being  usually  given  to  the  product  of  a  former 
distillation  conteiniiu;  about  fift^  per  cent  by 
weight  of  alcohol,  ik  Great  Britain  the  larg- 
est amount  of  whisky  is  made  in  Scotland; 
large  amounts  are  made  in  Ireland,  chiefly  in 
Dublin;  in  tbe  U.  8.  the  princip^  supply 
comes  from  Kentucky  (termed  Bourbon  whiidiy, 
from  Bourbon  Co.,  Ky,),  Pennsylvania  (Mo- 
nongahela  Co.],  Ohio,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and 
Maryland ;  much  is  also  made  in  Csjiada. 

The  grains  used  vary  greatly.  In  Scotland 
and  Ireland  malted   buley  is  extensively  em- 

Sloyed.  For  Bourbon  whisky  a  mixture  of 
fty  to  sixty  per  cent  of  Indian  com  with 
forty  to  fifty  per  cent  of  small  grain  (contain- 
ing about  ten  per  cent  malt,  the  balance  being 
rye)  is  taken;  for  Monongahela  whisky,  only 
rye  is  used,  with  ten  per  cent  of  malt;  while 
in  Canada  a  mixture  of  lye,  wheat,  or  com 
with  five  per  cent  of  malted  barley  is  em- 
ployed. Tbe  quantity  of  alcohol  afforded  by 
the  different  grains  is  influenced  by  the  pro- 
portion of  starch,  including  tbe  small  amount 
of  sugar,  they  contain;  2  Ih.  of  starch  will  give 
a  quart  of  spirit  containing  thirty  per  cent 
of  alcohol.  One  hundred  pounds  of  the  follow- 
ing grains  aS'ord  the  following  quantities  of  a 
spirit  containing  forty-five  per  cent  of  alcohol; 
Wheat,  40  to  45  lb.;  rye,  36  to  42  lb.;  barley, 
40  lb.;  oats,  36  lb.;  buckwheat,  40  lb.;  maiie, 
40  lb.  In  the  making  of  whisky  the  starch  of 
tbe  grain  is  first  changed  into  dextrin  and 
glucose  in  the  process  of  ma*hing,  chiefly  by 
tbe  action  of  tbe  diattoM  (a  substance  formed 
by  the  germination  of  the  grain).  Yeast  ia 
next  added  to  tbe  sweet  liquid  to  Induce  fer- 
mentation, by  which  the  sugar  is  converted 
into  alcohol  and  carbon  dioxide;  and  the  alco- 
hol is  finally  concentrated  by  distillation.  The 
essential    features    of    the   process    of   whisky 


By  carrying  on  the  distillation  to  the  far- 
thest point,  in  order  to  obtain  the  most  alcohol, 
a  danger  of  promoting  tbe  formation  of  fusel 
oil  is  inemred.  l^tsel  oil  has  a  fleiy  and  nau- 
seous flavor,  which  ia  ocnnmnnicated  to  spirits 
containing  it.  Its  complete  removal  can  be 
effected  by  diluting  the  contaminated  alcobo) 
with  water  and  re^tilling,  only  the  first  part 
of  the  distillate  being  collected ;  but  owing  to 


WmsiOr  REBELLION 

the  great  expense  thna  incurred  this  U  Mldom 
resorted  to.  A  large  proportion  of  the  whisl^ 
consumed  in  the  U.  S.  and  elsewbere  is  arti- 
flciall;  prepared  hj  reducing  the  raw  products 
of  the  distillation  of  malt  or  potato  spirits 
with  water  and  adding  certain  BUbstanees  to 
give  flavor.  Creosote,  for  instance,  is  some- 
Umes  added  to  impart  a  whisky  Qavor  to  in- 
ferior grades  of  spirit;  methyl  alcohol  is  also 
used,  but  probably  to  a  less  extent.  Pure 
whisky  is  nearly  colorless,  but  becomes  brown 
when  stored  in  casks.  Whisky  should  contain 
from  forty-eight  to  flfty-six  per  cent  by  weigbt 
of  alcohol. 

Whisky  Bebellion,  the  popular  resistance  to 
the  excise  taws  in  the  four  W.  counties  of 
Pennsylvania  in  1794.  TheT«  whisky  was  the 
staple  product,  and  in  such  general  demand 
that,  like  tobacco  in  colonial  times,  it  served 
as  a  medium  of  exchange.  The  usual  price 
being  a  shilling  a  gallon,  a  tax  of  seven  c^nts 
a  gallon,  as  by  the  act  of  May,  ITS2,  seemed 
excessive,  and  the  law  was  further  objection- 
able on  account  of  the  official  inspection  of 
private  property  which  it  entailed.  Attempts 
to  enforce  the  law  met  with  violent  resistance. 
The  movement  fast  became  an  open  rebellion, 
and  the  spirit  o!  revolt  was  spreading  to 
Virginia  and  Maryland.  Washington  acted 
with  vigor,  and  made  a  requisition  for  about 
13,000  militia  from  PennHyWania,  New  Jer- 
sey, Virginia,  and  Maryland,  and  it  was 
not  till  the  troops  had  actually  begun  their 
westward  march  that  the  insurgents  lost 
courage.  Many  arrests  were  made,  and  two 
of  the  prieonera  were  convicted  of  treason, 
but  tbey  were  afterwards  pardoned  by  the 
Pretident.  At  the  first  show  of  force  the  in- 
surrection subsided  at  once.  It  was  the  first 
attempt  forcibly  to  resist  the  Federal  Govt., 
and  it  decided  the  question  whether  the  militia 
of  one  state  would  invade  the  soil  of  another 
at  the  call  of  the  President,  and  that  the  prece- 
dent of  a  Federal  excise  was  successfully  es- 
tablished. 

Whisky  King,  a  combine  of  whisky  produ- 
cers and  internal-revenue  officers  which,  during 
the  administration  of  Pres.  Grant,  defrauded 
the  U.  S.  of  several  million  dollars.  At  first 
Grant  issued  the  order,  "  Let  no  guilty  man 
escape."  Over  200  persons  were  indicted,  anj 
a  few  were  convicted,  though  most  of  these 
were  later  pardoned.  The  matter  reflected 
much  discredit  on  the  administration,  and  pub- 
lie  opinion  was  to  the  effect  that  Grant  had 
allowed  himself  to  be  influenced  by  dishonest 
advisers  against  prosecuting  the  malefactors. 

Whiit,  a  well-known  game  at  cards,  first 
clearly  described  by  Edxnond  Hoyle  in  his 
"  Short  Treatise  on  the  Game  of  Whist,"  1743. 
The  game  is  played  with  the  full  pack  of  fifty- 
two  cards  by  four  persons,  two  being  partners 
against  the  other  two,  each  player  receiving 
thirteen  cards  dealt  out  one  oy  one  in  rota- 
tion. The  last  card  dealt  is  turned  face  up, 
and  is  called  the  trump  card;  it  gives  a  special 
power  to  the  suit  to  which  it  belongs.  The 
cards  rank  as  follows;  a^e  (highest),  king, 
queen,  knave,  and  the  others  according  to  their 
number  of  pipa-     Flay  is  oommenc^  by  the 


WHITE 

perstm  on  the  left  hand  of  the  dealer  laying 
down  a  card  face  up  on  the  table,  the  other 
plajrers  following  in  successidn  with  cards  of 
the  same  suit  if  tbey  have  them.  When  all 
have  played,  the  player  who  has  laid  the  hi^h- 
est  card  takes  the  four  cards  laid  down,  which 
constitute  a  trick.  The  winner  of  the  trick 
then  leads,  as  the  first  of  a  new  trick,  the 
winner  of  which  becomes  the  leader,  and  so  on. 
When  a  player  cannot  play  a  card  of  the  same 
suit,  he  ma^  play  one  of  the  trump  suit,  and 
take  the  trick,  or  lay  one  of  a  different  suit, 
which  gives  him  no  chance  of  winning  the  trick. 
In  dummy  whist  two  are  partners  against  one, 
who   turns   face   up  on  the   table   his   dummy 

Eartner's  cards,  which  he  plays  to  suit  his  own 
and-  The  main  point  in  the  game  is  to  lead 
up  to  dummy's  weak  suits  and  throu^  his 
strong  ones.  In  double  dummy  two  sinEle  play- 
ers each  turn  up  their  dummy  partners  eariu. 
When  the  hand  is  played  out  the  score  is 
taken  as  follows:  the  partners  who  conjointly 
gain  the  majority  of  tricks  score  one  point  for 
every  trick  taken  above  six.  The  ace,  king, 
queen,  and  knave  of  the  trump  suit  are  called 
honors,  and  count  one  each  for  the  side  which 
holds  them;  if  one  side  hold  three  honors,  tbey 
count  two  by  honors;  if  one  side  hold  all  the 
honors,  four  by  honors  is  counted;  should  the 
honors  be  equally  divided  neither  side  counts. 
In  long  ichist,  an  obsolescent  form  of  the  game, 
ten  of  these  points  made'  a  game.  In  shori 
whist,  the  game  now  generally  played,  the  num- 
ber has  been  reduced  to  five,  and  in  this  form 
it  is  common  to  count  by  tricks  alone.  A  rub- 
ber consists  of  a  series  of  three  games,  and  is 
won  by  the  side  thht  secures  two  of  them. 
Should  one  party  gain  two  games  in  succes- 
sion, the  third  of  the  rubbers  is  not  played. 
See  Bbtdoe. 

Whistler  (hwlsl^r),  Jamea  Abbott  McNeill, 
1834-1003;  American  painter;  b.  Lowell, 
Mass.;  educated  at  U.  S.  Miliary  Academy, 
West  Point;  pupil  of  Ol^re  in  Paris;  settled 
in  London  in  IS63.  His  works  are  Individual 
in  character,  and  are  notable  for  subtle  color 
harmony.  He  was  one  of  the  greatest  of  mod- 
em etchers,  and  painted  some  masterly  por- 
traits. His  "Portrait  of  My  Mother,"  painted 
in  1872,  was,  in  1802,  bought  by  the  French 
Govt  His  "  NoctumcB  "  and  "  Symphonies  " 
exhibit  soft  tints  in  wonderful  combinations. 
He  published  "  The  Gentle  Art  of  Jjn-jdrtg 
Enemies." 

White,  Gilbert,  1720-93;  English  naturalist. 
He  became  senior  proctor  of  Oxford  Univ.  in 
1752,  but  early  retired  to  his  native  village  of 
Selbome,  Hampshire.  His  "  Natural  History 
of  Selbome  "  is  an  English  classic.  He  wrote 
also  on  the  antiquities  of  Selbome. 

White,  RlchJiid  Grant,  1601-86;  American 
scholar  and  critic;  b.  New  York  City;  gradu- 
ated at  the  Univ.  of  New  York,  1839 ;  admitted 
to  the  bar,  1846;  associate  editor  of  the  New 
York  Courier  and  Enquirer,  1851-58,  au4  of 
the  World,  1860-81;  for  nearly  twenty  years 
was  chief  clerk  of  the  U.  S.  revenue  marine 
bureau  in  the  district  of  New  York;  wrote  on 
music,  Shakespeare,  and  literary  and  soeUI 
subjects;    "Memoirs  of  the  Life  ol  William 


WHTTE  ANTS     ' 

Shakeapeare,"  1865;  ui  annotatad  edition  of 
Shakespeare,  1857-85 ;  "  Worda  and  Their 
Usee,"  "  England  Without  and  Within,"  1881 ; 
"The  Riverside  Shakespeare,"   1983. 

White  Anti.    See  Tkuctibs. 

Whiteltait,  a  name  given  in  England  to 
small  fisheH  which  were  long  supposed  to  be- 
long  to  a  peculiar  species,  but  which  are  now 


herring  and  the  sprat  (Clupea  aprattus].  The 
name  is  limited  to  fishes  which  are  under  6  in. 
in  length,  and  whose  sides  are  almost  uni- 
forml^r  white.  Such  fishes  begin  to  make  their 
appearance  in  the  river  Thames  in  England 
about  the  end  of  March  or  early  in  April,  and 
are  caught  In  immense  quantities,  beingf  con- 
sidered a  delicacy. 

White  Cross  Sod'ety,  an  association  for  the 
promotion  of  personal  purity,  especially  among 
men,  and  advocatiuK  the  principle  of  one  law 
of  morality  for  both  men  and  women.  The 
movement  was  inaugurated  in  England  in 
1883  by  the  Bishop  of  Durham.  The  society 
is  now  established  throughout  the  U.  S.  and 
in  Canada. 

WUtefleld  (hwlffeld),  Georf«,  1714-70; 
English  clergyman;  b.  Gloucester,  England.  At 
Ox»)Td  he  became  intimate  with  Charles  Wes- 

g,  was  a  member  of  the  elub  from  which 
thodism  took  its  rise,  and  cultivated  ex- 
treme habits  of  asceticism.  He  was  ordained 
deacon  in  1736,  and  preached  with  effect.  In 
December,  1737,  he  went  to  Georgia,  and  in 
September,   1738,  returned  to  England  to  col- 


iple  of  preaching  in.  the  open  air  in  a  field 
near  Bristol.  From  this  time  he  traveled  con- 
tinually, preaching  with  marvelous  results.  In 
1739  he  went  back  to  his  orphan  house  in 
Georgia.  He  afterwards  visitai  New  England, 
prea^ed  to  20,000  persons  on  Boston  Common, 
and  in  January,  1741,  returned  to  England. 
He  disagreed  with  Wesley  on  predestination, 
and  the  Calvinistic  and  Weslcyan  Methodists 
have  ever  since  remained  distinct  bodies.  In 
September,  1760,  he  started  on  his  seventh 
American  tour.  He  preached  for  two  hours  at 
Eseter,  N.  H.,  the  day  before  his  death,  and 
on  his. arrival  at  Newburyport  the  same  even- 
ing addressed  the  crowd  that  came  to  meet 

Whitefleld's  intellectual  powers  were  not  of 
a  high  order,  but  he  had  an  abundance  of  that 
rekdy  talent  which  makes  the  popular  preacher; 
and  beyond  all  natural  endowments  there  was 
in  his  ministry  the  power  of  evangelical  truth, 
and,  as  his  converts  believed,  the  presence  of 
the  Spirit  of  God.  His  voice  was  marvelously 
varied,  'and  he  ever  had  it  at  command — an 
organ,  a  flute,  a  harp,  all  in  one. 

Wbite'fisli,  any  flah  of  the  family  Balmoni- 
At  and  genus  Coregonu*.  They  are  similar  in 
form  to  the  salmons  and  trouts,  although  lees 
graceful,  and  with  a  stouter  tail,  but  the 
scales  are  larger;  the  mouth  has  a  narrow 
oleft,  and  the  upper  jaw  projects  more  or  less 
beyOBd  it;  tSae  majdUary  bones  are  abort  and 


WHITEWASH 

broad,  the  teeth  are  wanting  or  extremely 
minute,   the   suborbital   bones   are  well   devef- 

pped;  the  dorsal  fin  has  thirteen  to  llfteen  rays, 
the  anal  thirteen  to  sixteen;  the  stomach  re- 
calls a  horseshoe  by  ita  form.  The  species  are 
generally  distributed  in  the  colder  waters,  ea- 
peeially  in  lakes  and  ponds.  About  thirty  spe- 
cies are  known.  The  common  whiteBsh,  C. 
albus,  of  the  lakes  is  one  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  the  economical  Ssbes  of  the  great  sys- 
tem of  N.  lakes.  Extensive  warehouses  exist 
for  its  storage  in  and  near  the  large  cities  and 
towns  on  the  lake  borders. 

White  House.  See  Washikoton,  D.  C, 
.  White  Moun'tains,  a  group  of  peaks  in  NE. 
New  Hampshire,  usually  regarded  as  part  of 
the  Appalachian  system.  They  rise  boldly 
from  a  deeply  eroded  plateau,  and  are  drained 
by  several  clear,  swift  streams.  Of  these  the 
most  Important  are  the  Saco,  flowing  SB. 
across  Maine  to  the  Atlantic,  and  the  An- 
droscoggin and  Ammonoosuc,  which  flow  SW. 
to  Connecticut  River.  Several  of  the  higher 
peaks  in  the  E.  portion  of  the  range  have  been 
named  in  honor  of  presidents  of  the  U.  8.  For 
this  reason  the  name  Presidential  Range  is  ap- 
plied to  them.  The  W.  portion  of  the  group 
is  known  as  the  Franconian  Mountains.  The 
White  Mountains  culminate  in  Mount  Wash- 
ington (6,286  ft.),  and  with  the  exception  of 
Mount  Mitchell,  N.  Carolina  (6,888  ft.),  is  the 
highest  point  in  the  V.  3.  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi. The  more  prominent  peaks  are  Mount . 
Adams,  5,816  ft;  Mount  Jefferson,  5,736  ft; 
Mount  Madison,  5,981  ft.;  Mount  Clay,  8,554 
ft.;  Mount  Monroe,  6,396  ft.  There  are,  be- 
sides, many  peaks  of  less  prominence,  all  of 
which  are  forest  covered,  rugged,  and  pic- 
turesque. Of  the  Franconian  group  the  only 
one  exceeding  5,000  ft.  is  Mount  Lafayette, 
6,269  ft.  The  area  of  the.entire  group  may  he 
taken  at  about  800  sq.  m.  A  station  of  the 
U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  has  been  maintained  on 
the  summit  of  'Mount  Washington  since  1871. 
Since  early  in  the  nineteenth  century  the  White 
Mountains  have  been  much  visited  by  tourists 
and  seekers  after  health.  For  many  years 
access  was  had  to  them  by  means  of  stage- 
coaches, but  in  time  the  railways  came,  on  one 
of  which  a  locomotive  with  cars  attached 
climbs  Mount  Washington,  rising  3,625  ft.  in 
3  m.,  the  first  railway  of  its  kind.  The  White 
Mountains  get  their  name  from  the  dazzling, 
snowlike  appearance  of  the  mica  schist  of 
which  their  peaks  are  composed- 
White  Sea,  a  large  inlet  of  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
penetrating  into  European  Russia  for  380  m., 
with  a  breadth  of  from  30  to  ISO  m.  It  is 
frozen  from  October  to  May,  and  is  rich  in 
herring  and  codfish. 

White  Swell'ing,  popular  name  for  a  chronic 
inflammation  of  the  joints.  The  disease  is  now 
recognized   as   a   form   of   tuberculosis   of   the 

White  Wal'nnta.    Bee  Buti'mhut. 

White'waah,  a  preparation  of  slaked  lime, 
thinned  to  a  milky  consistence,  and  used  for 
whitening  walla.    Skimmed    millc,  glue,   etna 


WUt'inK,  a  European  fiah  of  the  eodSali 
famil;.  As  in  the  true  codfleh,  the  body  is 
moderately  elongated  and  covered  with  small 
scales,  the  head  conic,  the  mouth  deeplr  cleft, 
the  upper  jaw  longest;  it  differs  from  the  true 
codfishes  especisllj  in  that  no  barbel  is  devel- 
oped at  the  chin;  the  color  above  is  very  dark 
and  almost  black,  and  below  grayish;  a  black 
apot  is  developed  on  the  pectoral  fln.  The  spe- 
cies is  esteemed  for  the  excellence  of  its  flesh, 
which  is  said  to  surpass  in  delicacy  that  of 
any  other  representative  of  the  family.  It  is 
common  in  the  seas  of  N.  Europe,  and  is  Bahed 
for  throughout  almost  the  entire  year,  but  is 
more  abundant  in  winter,  when  it  approaches 
the  shore — it  is  believed,  to  spawn.  Its  sver- 
age  SIM  is  about  12  or  Ifl  in.,  weight  IJ  lb,, 
although  it  sometimes  attains  3  or  4  lb.  It  is 
ToraciouB,  and  seizes  mollusks,  worms,  and 
young  flshes.  It  appears  to  prefer  sandy 
banks,  but  shifts  its  ground  frequently  in  th« 
pursuit  of  the  various  fry  of  other  flshes.  Al- 
though claimed  to  he  an  inhabitant  of  the  At- 
lantic coast,  it  has  not  ^et  been  found  thereon, 
the  hake  having  been  mistaken  (or  it.  On  some 
parts  of  the  coast  the  name  "  whiting  "  is  also 
applied  to  the  kingflsh. 

Whiting  Pont.    See  Bra, 

Whit'lDW,  or  Fel'on,  a  painfnl  inOammation, 
ending  in  suppuration,  of  the  tissues  eurround- 
inff  the  bones  of  the  hands  and  feet.  The  last 
joint  of  the  fingers  is  the  most  frequent  situa- 
tion.   The  immediate  cause  is  always  some 


beneath  the  fibrous  sheath  surrounding  the 
bone,  causing  a  tense  swelling  of  the  finger  or 
toe,  with  ranees  and  local  heat,  and  pain  of 
a  throbbing  and  later  boring  character.  The 
intensity  of  the  pain  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  pus  is  confined  beneath  the  periosteum.  In 
unfavorable  cases,  where  no  escape  of  the  pus 
occurs  spontaneously  or  as  a  result  of  incision, 
death  of  the  bone,  or  necrosis,  may  take  place, 
aud  a  loss  of  one  or  more  joints  results.  The 
treatment  of  felons  should  be  early  incision 
down  to  the  bone.  Poultices  and  sootliing  lo- 
tions   are    poor    substitutes    for    the    raoical 

Whft'nuoi,  Walt,  1819-92;  American  poet; 
b.  Weat  Hills,  lAng  Island;  eduoated  in  the 
public   schools   of   Brooklyn   and    New   York; 


pedestTian  tours  through  the  U.  6.  and  Canada, 
1S47-AB ;  edited  for  brief  mriods  newspapers  at 
New  Orleans  and  at  Huntington,  Long  ulandj 
was  a  volunteer  nurse  in  the  hospitala  at 
Washington  and  in  Virginia,  lSa2-66;  held 
clerkship  in  the  Oovemment  ofBoea  at  Wash- 
ington most  of  the  time  from  1865-74;  wrote 
"  Leaves  of  Grass,"  "  Drumtaps,"  and  "  Two 
Rivulets."  His  "  Leaves  of  Grass,"  the  title 
under  which  he  at  last  included  all  his  poems, 
has    probably    excited    more    discussion    and 


its  autiior  lived.  It  is  an  unrbymed,  unmeas- 
ured work  of  over  10,000  lines,  in  its  form 
aiming  only  to  follow  the  law  of  the  innate 
forms  of  orKsnio  nature,  and  in  its  substance 
celebrating  life,  aex,  comradeship,  democracy, 
America,  as  they  are  illustrated  by  tilt  poet's 
own  personality  aud  environment.  Whitman's 
ambition  was  not  merely  to  be  a  sweet  and 
popular  singer,  his  scheme  looked  to  much  more 
than  that;  he  would  be  a  prophet  and  law- 
giver of  his  country  and  time;  he  would  rival 
in  his  day  and  land  the  character  and  office  of 
the  ancient  teachers  and  seers.  He  deprecates 
any  study  of  his  work  merely  as  literature  or 
art,  his  final  purpose  being  ethical  and  re- 
ligious. His  work  has  won  high  approval  in 
Europe,  but  has  been  generally  n^lected  or 
condemned  by  his  own  countrymen  on  account 
of  its  outspokenness,  which  in  Massachusetts 
resulted  in  the  authorities  objecting  to  the  sale 
of  his  "  Leaves  of  Grass "  on  the  ground  of 
immorality. 

Whit'ney,  Hi,  1765-1826;  American  inven- 
tor ;  b.  Westboro,  Mass.  He  graduated  at  Yale, 
IT92.  He  studied  law  in  Savannah,  Ga.,  while 
residing  in  the  house  of  the  widow  of  Gen. 
Greene,  and  at  her  suggestion  invented  the  cot- 
ton gin,  to  supersede  h^nd  cleaning  at  the  rate 
of  a  pound  a  day.  Before  he  could  complete 
his  model  and  obtain  his  patent,  several  ma- 
chines based  on  his  invention  had  been  made, 
and  were  in  operation.  In  1793  he  went  to 
Connecticut  to  make  the  machines;  but  after 
a  long  struggle  to  secure  justice  he  turned  hia 
attention  to  making  firearms  for  the  (iovem- 
ment,  from  which  he  reaped  a  fortune.  He 
was  the  first  who  made  each  single  portion  of 
the  gun  adapted  to  any  one  of  the  thousands 
of  arms  in  use  at  the  same  time.  His  factory 
was  at  Whitneyville,  Conn. 

Whitney,  ML,  a  mountain  in  8E.  California; 


nearly  11,000  ft.  above  Owens  vall^, 
which  skirts  its  base.  The  summit  was  occu- 
pied by  Prof.  S.  P.  I^ngley  in  1881  for  the 
purpose  of  making  observations  on  solar  heat. 

WhltanniUy  (hvlt's'n-dB) .    See  Pentecost. 

Whit'tler,  John  Oreenleaf,  1807-92;  American 
poet;  b.  East  Parish  of  Haverhill,  Mass.,  of 
Quaker  parentage.  He  received  a  common-school 
education,  spending  his  boyhood  on  a  farm. 
He  was  eighteen  when  his  nrat  poem  was  pub- 
lished in  William  Lloyd  Garrison's  Free  Preu. 
He  wrote  the  ode  sung  at  the  dedication  of 
Haverhill  Academy  in  1827,  and  was  a  pupil 
there  for  two  terms,  paying  his  way  in  part 
by  making  slippers.  In  January,  1829,  he  was 
called  to  Boston  to  edit  The  Amerioan  Manu- 
facturer, a  political  newspaper.  He  was  editor 
of  The  BamerhiU  Oaxette  in  1830.  In  July, 
1830,  he  became  editor  of  the  N«ui  England 
Review,   a,   political   paper  of  Hartford,   Conn. 


WHimNOTON 

f«Bn  after  1932  he  lived  npon  his  HcTerbill 
larm,  &  part  of  the  time  editing  the  Oaxelte. 

In  1B33  be  nrote  an  antialaveiy  pamphlet, 
"  Justice  and  Expediencf ,"  and  was  a  delegate 
to  the  National  Antielaverf  Convention  in 
Philadelphia.  He  woe  secretary  of  the  eon- 
TentioQ  and  on  the  committee  with  Garrison 
to  draw  up  the  "  declaration  of  aentiments," 
which  was  the  formal  opening  of  the  war  upon 
slavery.  He  represented  hia  native  town  in 
the  legislature  of  Hasaachueetts  in  1S35,  and 
woa  r^ected,  but  declined  to  serve  on  account 
of  ill  health.  In  183S  he  told  his  farm  and 
removed  with  his  mother  and  sister  to  Ames- 
burv,  llass.,  where  he  resided  to  the  close  of 
his  life.  In  1B3B-10  he  was  editing  the  Penn- 
at/lvania  Freeman  in  Philadelphia.  His  office 
was  sacked  and  b«med  by  a  mob  in  May,  1838. 
He  returned  to  his  Amesbuiy  home  in  1840, 
and  in  addition  to  the  spirited  lyrics  addressed 
to  the  conscience  of  the  people  of  the  U.  8.  in 
the  matter  of  slavery,  he  occasionally  sent  out 
ballads,  exquisitely  sweet  and  simple,  illustrat- 
ing many  ^ases  of  New  England  life  and 
character.  These  ballads  were  collected  in 
1843  as  "  L«fa  of  My  Home,"  and  was  the  first 
book  from  which  he  derived  pecuniary  beneSt. 
He  was  on  several  occasions  candidate  for  Con- 
gress of  the  Liberty  Party,  but  declined  the 
position  in  1843,  when  there  seemed  to  be  a 
prospect  of  being  elected.  In  1846  a  collection 
'  of  his  antislavery  poems,  "  Voices  of  Freedom," 
was  published  in  Philadelphia.  He  was  corre- 
sponding editor  of  The  National  Era,  published 
in  Washington,  for  thirteen  years  (1847-60 J, 
contributing  to  it  many  poems  and  proae  arti- 
cles. Several  volumes  were  compiled  from 
these  writing.  When  The  Atlantic  Monthly 
was  started  in  1857  he  became  one  of  its  prin- 
cipal contributors.  In  1886  was  published 
"  Snow  Bound,"  a  graphic  picture  of  an  isolated 
New  England  homestead  In  winter.  In  which 
are  many  fine  touches  delineating  each  mem- 
ber of  the  family  in  which  his  youth  was  spent. 
The  great  popularity  of  this  poem  gave  him 
a  pecuniary  independence  be  nod  not  before 
enjoyed. 

During  all  his  life  he  hod  a  deep  interest  in 
public  affairs,  and  took  pains  to  make  his  in- 
fluence felt  in  shaping  the  policy  of  his  party. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  electoral  college  of 
Massachusetts  in  1860  and  1864.  He  was  never 
married. 

WUt'tliigton,  Sir  Sleliata,  abt.  1350-1423; 
English  merchant  and  pbilantbropiat ;  b.  at 
Pauntley,  Glouceaterahire.  Being  obliged  to 
seek  his  living,  he,  aooording  to  a  wairknown 
l^end,  walked  to  Loudon  and  was  apprentioed 
there  te  a  merchant.  At  one  time  be  started 
te  nin  awaf,  but  while  seated  at  the  loot  of 
HIghgate  EiU  seemed  to  hear  in  tbe  chime  of 
Bow  BeUs, 

Tain  aasin,  WUtttsctoB, 
Tlirinlonl  mayor  of  Lonooit 

Married  Alice  Fitswairen,  daughter  of  hii  em- 
ployer; became  a  wealthy  merchant,  bie  first 
capital  having  been  derived  from  the  sale  of  a 
eat  in  an  Astern  market;  Lord  Mayor  of 
London,  1397,  1406,  and  1419;  made  loans  to 
Henry  IV  and  Henry  V;  ordered  the  oompila- 


WHORTLEBERRY 


customs.  Left  his  large  estate  to  publlo  or 
chariteble  objecte,  among  which  were  the  re- 
building of  Newgate  Prison,  the  founding  of 
a  college  and  of  the  libraries  at  Guildhall  and 
of  the  Grey  Friars,  and  the  repair  of  St.  Bar- 
tholomew's Hospital.  He  shared  with  Richard 
Harweden  the  expense  of  rebuilding  the  nave 
of  Westminster  Abbey. 

Whit'worth,  Sir  Joseph,  1803-87;  English 
mechanic  and  engineer;  b.  Stockport,  England; 
became  a  tool  maker,  and  1833-64  devoted 
himself  to  the  improvement  and  production  of 
those  machine  tools  which  made  bis  name 
known  throughout  the  world.  He  was  the  first 
to  make  and  introduce  into  general  use  stand- 
ard gauges  for  mechanical  work  of  such  accu- 
racy as  to  secure  uniformity  in  the  products  of 
all  shops  using  them.  He  also  established  the 
standard  screw  threads  now  used  in  Great  Brit- 
ain, Russia,  Italy,  and  GHmany.  In  1854  he 
turned  his  attention  to  rifles,  and  in  1857  sub- 
mitted for  trial  a  amal)  arm  far  superior  to  any 
then  existing,  and  embodying  the  principles 
upon  which  modem  improvements  have  been 
based.  This  ride,  after  distancing  all  othen  in 
competition,  was  rejected  by  the  British  Ord- 
nance Board  as  being  of  too  small  caliber.  In 
the  construction  of  cannon  be  was  equally  suc- 
cessful in  his  producte  and  unsuccessful  in  their 
adoption,  making  in  1862  a  rified  gun  of  high 
power,  whose  proportions  were  almost  the  same 
as  those  used  to-day;  but  this  was  rejected  by 
the  ordnance  board,  and  the  progress  of  im- 
provement In  ordnance  retarded  in  Great  Brit- 
aiii  nearly  twenty  years  by  the  adoption  of 
the  Woolwich  patterns.  To  secure  a  gun  steel 
which  would  satisfy  bis  requirements,  be  per- 
fected the  process  of  "  fluid  compression,'"  now 
used  for  the  'highest  grades  of  mild  steel  not 


only  for  guns,  but  also  for  steamers'  shafts,  ete. 
In  1869  he  gave  £100,000  to  found  scholarships 
(known    as    Wbitworth   scbolarsbips)    for    the 


promotion  of  mechanical  science,  frgm  which 
every  year  f3,000  is  distributed  among  the 
young  engineers  of  England. 

Whooping  (hoping)  Conzh,  or  Pertna'ds,  an 
infectious  and  epidemic  disease,  generally  oc- 
curring but  once  in  the  life  of  an  individual, 
and  usually  during  infancy  or  childhood.  It 
is  characterized  by  paroxysms  of  convulsive 
eoughing,  followed  by  a  long,  ringing  inspira- 
tion, whence  the  name.  The  duration  of  the 
disease  varies  from  two  to  several  months.  In- 
fection is  most  readily  conveyed  during  the 
first  week,  but  persists  for  nearly  a  month  after 
the  commencemrait  of  the  whoop.  The  specific 
cause  has  not  as  yet  been  positively  demon- 
strated, thongk  It  is  claimed  that  a  certain 
bacillus  is  peculiar  to  the  disease.  The  simple 
dissoae  is  seldom  fatal,  but  when  oompllcated 
with  lung  disease  is  dangerous.  No  drug  will 
stop  ite  progreas;  but  treatment  is  directed  to 
strengthen  tpe  patient  and  relieve  the  spasms. 

Whortleberry  (hw6r'tl-b4r-ri) ,  HtifUeberry, 
or  Hnc'kleberiy,  a  well-known  American  edible 
berry,  being  the  fruit  of  plants  of  a  genera  of 
tite   heath  family.     Some  o(  the  species  ore 


WHYTE-UELVUliE 


WicbiU  (wtcVI-tt),  founded  in  1870;  capital 
of  Sedgwick  Co.,  Kan.;  on  both  aides  of  the 
Arkanwa  River;  100  m.  SW.  of  Emporia,  161 
m.  SW.  of  Topeka.  It  is  the  center  of  a  vhe&t- 
growing  and  stock- raising  region  and  a  com- 
mercial Hhippiug  point.  The  city  ii  laid  out 
n^iarl;,  has  a  mild  and  healthful  c1imat«, 
and  modem  improvements.  The  business  in- 
terests comprise  stock  yards  and  meat-packing 
houses  and  factories  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, chemicals,  flour,  sashes  and  doors,  wag- 
ons, spring  beds  and  mattresses,  brooms,  hoSe 
couplers,  harness,  bottled  goods,  trunks,  soap, 
and  ice.     Pop.   (1010)   62,460. 

Wicklifie,  John.    See  Wtcuf. 

Widg'eoii,  or  Wigcoii,  a  genus  of  ducks.  The 
bill  is  shorter  than  the  head,  rather  high,  with 
its  sides  parallel  nearly  to  its  end,  the  end 
somewhat  obtusely  pointed,  and  the  nail  at  the 
tip  a  third  as  broad  as  the  bill  itself;  the  tail 
is  pointed  and  less  than  half  the  length  of  the 
wings.  Four  species  are  known,  two  of  which 
are  inhabitants  of  the  N.  hemiapbere  and  two 
of  the  8.    The  European  widgeon  has  the  head 


EUROFKAH    WiDi 


and  neck  reddish  brown  or  cinnamon.  The  head 
is  diversified  by  cream  color  on  the  top  and 
by  green  in  a  band  around  the  eye,  and  in  a 
.  few  spots  behind  it.  The  American  widgeon 
has  the  head  and  neck  in  the  main  grayish, 
with  the  feathers  of  the  former  thickly  spot- 
ted, and  of  the  latter  banded  with  black ;  the 
head  is  also  relieved  by  white  on  the  top 
(whence  it  is  sometimes  called  bald  pat«) 
and  by  green  in.a  broad  and  continuous  patch 
around  and  behind  the  eye.  The  species  re- 
main farther  to  the  8.  than  many  of  their 
kindred,  the  American  widgeon  breeding  in  N. 
Dakota  and  Montana. 

Wid'ow.     See  Dovxr. 

WieUnd  (ve'lHnt),  Christoph  Hortin,  1733- 
1813;  German  poet;  b.  Oberholzheim,  Wtlrtem- 
barg;   wrote  uitin  and  Gennan  verses  when 


In  1760  be  went  to  the 
was  then  a  private  tutor 
at  Berne.  He  £eld  an  offlce  in  the  civil  service 
at  fiiberach  (1760-69),  and  came  in  contact 
with  the  German  nobility,  whose  life  greatly 
influenced  him.  In  this  period  he  wrote  '*  Don 
Sylvio  de  Rosalva,"  "  Komische  ErzKhlungen," 
"  Agathon,"  all  of  a  very  captivating  but 
rather  doubtful  character;  the  didactic  poem 
"  Musarion,"  very  elegant  in  its  form,  and  in 
those  days  startling  in  its  ideas;  and  a  prose 
translation  of  Shakespeare.  Held  the  chair  of 
philosophy  at  Erfurt,  1767-72.  In  1772  he 
was  called  to  Weimar  as  tutor  to  the  young 
duke,  and  he  remained  there  till  his  death. 
Ue  translated  Horace,  Luc i an,  and  Cicero; 
wrote  "  Oberon,"  his  best  and  most  celebrated 
work,  a  romantic  epic.  Considered  simply  as 
productions  of  art,  Wieland's  works  have,  with 
a  few  exceptions,  lost  somewhat  of  their  inter- 
est The  frivolity  of  his  humor,  the  sensuality 
of  his  imaginatirai,  are  covered,  but  not  always 
redeemed,  by  the  sprlghtlineSB  of  his  wit  and 
the  quickness  and  compass  of  his  feeling.  After 
Luther,  lie  is  the  first  great  poet  in  the  German 
literature  to  whom  verse  was  a  natural  form 
of  speech,  and  beneath  the  elegance  and  refine- 
ment of  form,  which  he  learned  partly  from  the 
French  and  partly  from  the  Greek,  there  movea 
in  all  his  works  a  native  grace,  a  genuine  spirit 
of  sweetness  and  cheerfumess.  He  thus  made 
German  fiction  attractive  to  the  upper  classes 
ot  German  society,  which  had  hitherto  neglect- 
ed it,  and  became  an  important  element,  the 
model  ot  naturalness,  in  the  education  of 
Goethe. 

Wierti  (vfrts),  Antoine  Joseph,  1806-65; 
Belgian  painter;  b.  Dinant,  Belgium,  in  humble 
circumstances;  admitted  to  the  art  school  of 
Antwerp,  1S20;  won  the  sreat  prize,  1834; 
studied  then  in  Rome;  settled  at  Brussels.  The 
first  period  of  his  career  (1S34~48)  is  charac- 
terised by  colossal  representations  of  mytho- 
logical or  biblical  subjects — "  Contending  for 
the. Body  of  Patroelua,"  20  by  30  ft;  the  "  Re- 
volt of  the  Angels,"  the  "  Fhght  from  Egypt," 
the  "  Triumph  of  Christ,"  60  by  30  feet;  put  his 
own  name  on  a  picture  by  Rubens,  sent  it  to 
the  committee  of  a  Paris  exposition,  and  mode 
the  unfortunate  judges  the  laughing  stock  of 
Europe  when  they  rejected  it.  In  1847  the  Bel- 
gian Govt  buiit  him  a  large  studio,  and  be- 
tween 1S4S  and  IS53  he  succeeded  in  pertecting 
the  discovery  of  a  new  method  of  painting, 
which  he  called  peinture  mate,  and  which  com- 
bines the  qualities  of  fresco  and  oil  painting. 
In  the  later  period  of  his  life  (1853-65)  he  de- 
voted himself  almost  wholly  to  quaint  and 
^[oomy  subjects,  and  allowed  the  artistic  qual- 
ities of  his  pictures  to  be  interior  to  what 
his  great  abilities  mi^ht  have  made  them.  He 
bequeathed  all  bis  pictures  to  the  state,  and 
they  are  now  exhibited  in  the  Wiertz  Museum, 
his  former  studio. 

Wiesbaden  {vfa-ba'din),  town;  province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  Pruasia;  at  the  foot  of  Mt  Tau- 
nuB,  on  the  ^Itbach,  an  affluent  of  the  Rhine. 
It  is  one  ot  the  most  popular  watering  places  of 
Germany.  It  contauis  fourteen  hot  springs. 
These  qtrings,  which  are  used  in  cases  of  gout 


and  rbeumatiEm,  were  known  to  the  Romans 
lAguiB  Uattiacerr),  and  they  are  now  general- 
ly used  by  about  S0,000  persona  each  season. 
Pop.   (1»10)   109,033. 
Wlg'eoa.    See  WmoBon. 


Wi{ht  (wit),  lale  of,  an  island  in  the  Enctiah 
Channel,  belonging  to  the  CO.  of  HampBhire, 
England,  from  which  it  ia  separated  by  the 
roi^tead  of  Spithead.  Area,  145  sq.  m.  It  is 
traverse  from  E.  to  W.  by  a  range  of  chalk 
downs  ri^ng  600  to  TOO  ft.,  which  presents  a 
variety  of  flne  scenery.  OiT  the  W.  coaat  are 
the  amall  chalk  ialanda  called  The  Needles. 
The  soil  is  fertile  and  the  climate  mild  and 
equable.  Wheat,  vegetables,  and  fruits  are  cul- 
tivated, and  a  fine  breed  of  sheep  is  reared. 
The  island   is  much  resorted  to  as  a   bathing 

Elace  and  by  consumptives.  The  inland  was 
nown  as  Insula  Vectls  by  the  Romana,  who 
conquered  it  in  the  reign  of  Vespasian,  and 
there  are  many  evidences  of  the  Roman  occU' 

Bition,  Near  the  town  of  Cowea  ia  Osborne 
ouae,  where  Charles  I  was  imprisoned  for  a 
short  time,  which  was  a  favorite  residence  of 
Queen  Victoria.     Pop.   (IBll)   88,193. 

Wig'wam,  a  N,  American  lodge  or  tent,  gen- 
erally of  conical  ahape,  formed  of  bark,  mats, 
or  bides,  laid  over  stakes  stuck  in  the  gfound 
and  coming  together  at  the  top,  where  there  is 


an  opening  for  the  escape  of  amoke.  The  Indi- 
ans of  the  plains  call  these  tepeea.  The  term 
wigwam  is  also  supplied  in  the  U.  S.  to  large 
structures  erected  lor  conventions  or  other 
meetinga. 

WflTjerforce,  William,  I75&-1833;  English 
philanthropist;  b.  Hull;  educated  St.  John's 
College,  Cambridge;  was  a  member  of  Parlia- 
ment, 1780-1826.  He  ia  principally  notable 
for  hi  a  continued  efforts  against  the  slave 
trade  and  for  negro  emancipation,  his  work 
being  crowned  with  aueceaa  just  before  his 
death.  Among  the  most  important  of  his 
other  philanthropic  labors  were  his  efforts  in 
behalf  of  the  Bible  and  missionary  societies, 
for  Roman  Catholic  emancipation,  against  the 
war  with  America,  and  for  Christianicing  In- 
dia. RoBEST  Isaac,  1802-G7,  hia  son,  a  cler- 
gyman;   became  Archdeacon  of  the  £,  Riding 


WILDERNESS 

of  Torluhire,  but  in  18&4  resigned  his  prefer- 
ments and  entered  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
Sauubl,  ISO&'TS,  brother  of  the  preceding; 
b.  Clapham;  graduated  Oriel  College,  Oxford, 
182S;  select  preacher  before  the  Univ.  or  Ox- 
ford, 1837  and  184B;  Archdeacon  of  Surrey, 
1839)  Dean  of  Westminater,  March,  1846; 
Bishop  of  Oxford,  1845;  Biahop  of  Winchester, 
18G9.  He  was  a  leader  of  the  High  Church 
party,  but  an  opponent  of  ritualism;  was  dis- 
tin^^ahed  for  eloquence  and  wit,  for  his  effi- 
ciency as  a  bishop,  and  for  his  skill  as  a  de- 
bater. The  versatility  of  hla  opinions  earned 
for  him  the  nickname  of  "  Soapy  Sam,"  be- 
cause, aa  he  wittily  explained,  "  he  was  always 
in  hot  water,  and  always  came  out  of  it  with 
clean  hands."  He  woa  author  of  "  Notebook  of 
a  Country  Clergyman,"  "  Eucbaristica,"  "  The 
Rocky  Island,  and  Other  Parables,"  "  A  His- 
tory of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  in 
America,"  etc. 

Wild'cat,  popular  name  for  any  one  of  sev- 
eral species  of  the  genera  Felu  or  Lyna.  See 
Cat. 

Wilde,  Oscar  Fingal  OTlahertie  WiUa,  I8GS- 
1900;  Engliah  author;  b.  Dublin,  Ireland;  ed- 
ucated at  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  and  at  Ox- 
ford; became  the  apoatle  of  the  lesthetic  move- 
ment; lectured  on  art  subjects  in  the  U.  S., 
1882;  and  in  lilngland  and  Paris;  condemned  in 
1895  to  penal  servitude  for  two  years  for  in- 
famous conduct.  Among  his  works  are  "  Po- 
ems"; "The  Picture  of  Dorian  Gray,"  a  novel; 
"The  Happy  Prince  and  Other  Tales";  "In- 
tentions," easaj-a;  "  Lord  Arthur  Savile's 
Crime,"  and  a  number  of  comedies,  including 
"  Lady  Windennere's  Fan,"  "  A  Woman  of  No 
Importance,"  and  "  The  Importance  of  B^ng 
Earnest,"  some  of  which  are  still  played  in 
England  and  the  U.  S.  After  his  imprison- 
ment he  wrote  a  poem,  "  The  Ballad  of  Reading 
Oaol,"  and  an  autobiographical  work,  "  De 
Profundis." 

Wil'demess,  Bat'tlea  of  the,  a  series  of  en- 
gagcmenta  in  the  American  Civil  War,  May  5- 
20,  1864,  between  the  Federal  Army  of  the  Po- 
tomac, under  Gen.  Grant,  and  the  Confederate 
Army  of  N.  Virginia,  under  Gen.  R.  E.  Xiee. 
The  Wilderness  is  a  wild  tract  along  the  S. 
bonk  of  the  Eapidan,  in  Orange  and  Spottsyl- 
vania  cos.,  Va.;  ita  length  from  E.  to  W.  is 
about  15  m.  and  ita  breadth  about  10  m.  It 
is  covered  by  a  dense  growth  of  scrub  oak, 
dwarf  pines,  and  brambles,  with  here  and  there 
a  patch  of  woods  or  a  email  clearing.  During 
the  winter  of  1663-04  the  Confederate  army 
had  occupied  a  strong  position  S.  of  the  Rapi- 
dan.  Its  effective  atrength  at  the  opening  of 
the  campaign  was  about  60,000.  The  Army  of 
the  Potomac,  under  Gen.  Meade,  was  joined 
for  this  campaign  by  the  Ninth  Corps,  under 
Burnaide,  making  Grant's  total  force  about 
130,000,  of  whom  somewhat  more  than  100,000 
were  available  for  battle. 

The  Army  of  the  Potomac  started  across  the 
Rapidan  at  midnight  of  May  3d.  The  two  ar- 
mies came  in  collision  in  the  Witdemesa  on  the 
Gth,  and  on  that  day  and  the  Oth  bloody  en- 
gagements were  fought.  The  result  was  a 
drawn  battle,  but  Grant  had  secured  the  n 


l!^c 


Wnj>  SEStVICE 

bj  which  lie  was  to  pass  out  nf  the  Wilderness 
to  the  S.  After  dark  on  the  7tji  he  put  hia 
armj  In  motion  toward  Spottsjlvania  Court 
House,  15  m.  SE.,  which  Lee  reached  first,  t&k- 
ins  up  a  strong  position.  An  attempt  to  dis- 
lodge  him  was  made  on  the  10th,  the  main  at- 
tack being  directed  agKinat  the  Confederate 
left  center,  where  repeated  assaults  were  re- 
pulsed with  a  loss  to  the  Federals  of  om  5,000 
raen.  On  the  12th  Haneock  stormed  Lee's  right 
center,  eaptured  4,000  prisoners,  and  was  re- 
pulsed from  a  second  line,  but  held  the  first 
against  repeated  assaults.  Bumside  on  the  left 
and  Warren  on  the  right  were  both  ballled  in 
their  attacks.  Finding  Lee's  right  unassailable, 
Grant  on  the  20th  began  to  withdraw  his 
forces,  reaching  the  N.  bank  of  the  N.  Anna 
on  the  23d,  where  he  was  confronted  by  I^ee  on 
the  S.  bank.  The  wings  crossed,  with  some 
fighting,  but  the  center  was  driven  back.  In 
the  night  of  the  zath  the  Federal  army  was  re- 
tired to  the  N.  side  of  the  river,  and  then 
marched  by  a  wide  circuit  £.  and  S.  to  the 
Famunkey,  which  it  crossed.  Again  Lee  made 
a  similar  movement  by  a  shorter  line,  and  the 
next  serious  conflict  was  at  Cold  Harbor  (see 
Chickaiiomint).  The  losses  of  the  Army  of 
the  Potomac  in  these  engagements  were  as  (ol- 


D»TB. 

SgSi.::; 

U»y  21-31.... 

Killed. 

I:5SS 

Wounded. 

'is 

UMnc 

327 

ToUl. 

loissi 

liflOT 

TotsI 

S.5M 

28.364 

7.4M 

41JS8 

This  does  not  include  the  Icisses  in  Bum- 
side's  corps.  No  trustworthy  statement  of  the 
Confederate  lo!>seB  was  made;  they  were  prob- 
ably about  20,000. 

Wild  Serv'ice.    See  Sobb  Tbks. 

Wilhelmina  (vIl-hel-me'nB),  Hclene  Panline 
Haiie,  1880^  ;  Queen  of  the  Netherlands; 
only  child  of  King  William  III  of  Holland  by 
Queen  Emma,  his  second  wife;  b.  La  Haye; 
succeeded  to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  her 
father,  1890,  her  mother  being  regent.  She 
was  married  to  Prince  Henry  ol  Mecklenburg- 
Schwenn,  February  7,  1001.  April  13,  1909, 
her  daughter,  Juliana  Wilbetmina,  Princess  of 
Orange,  was  born. 

Wilk.    See  Whexk. 

Wilkes,  Charles,  I70&-18T7;  explorer  and 
rear  admiral  V.  S.  navy;  b.  New  York.  He 
conducted  the  U.  8.  expedition  (I83S-4Z)  to 
explore  the  S.  and  Pacific  oceans,  a  narrative 
of  which  he  published.  In  1861  be  was  or- 
dered to  the  W.  Indies  in  command  of  the 
frigate  San  Jacinto  to  search  for  the  Confed- 
erate cruiser  iStimler.  Learning  that  the  Con- 
federate commissioners  Slidell  and  Mason  were 
on  their  way  to  Europe  in  the  British  mail 
steamer  Trent,  he  intercepted  that  vessel  and 
took  from  her  the  commissioners.  In  1802  he 
was  in  command  of  the  Potomac  flotilla  to 
cooperate  with  the  Army  of  the  Potomac,  but 
on  the  withdrawal  of  that  army  from  the  Vir- 
:inia  peninsula  was  ordered  to  command  the 
flying  squadron  organized  for  the  purpose  of 
breaking  up  blockade-running  betwMn  the  8. 


gir 


WILKESBARKE 

states  and  the  W.  Indies.  Many  captures  were 
made.  In  July,  1806,  he  was  promoted  rev 
admiral,  and  soon  after  placed  on  the  retired 
list     ■ 

Wilkes,  John,  1727-97;  English  politician; 
b.  London.  In  1767  he  entered  Parliament, 
and   in   1782   started  the  Korth  Briton  news- 

Eaper  to  assail  the  administration  of  Lord 
ute.  He  was  prosecuted  for  charging  the 
king  with  falsehood,  which  caused  a  riot  in 
his  favor.  His  papers  were  seized  and  be 
was  confined  to  the  Tower,  but  soon  re- 
leased on  the  ground  that  his  arrest  under 
a  general  warrant  was  unconstitutional,  In 
January,  1764,  he  was  ezpetled  from  the 
House  of  Commons,  and  the  upper  house 
having  accused  him  of  writing  "An  Essay 
on  Woman,"  an  obscene  poem,  he  was  tried 
before  Lord  Mansfield,  found  guilty,  and,  as 
he  had  fled  to  France,  was  outlawed.  He 
returned  to  England  in  1768,  and  was  again 
elected  to  Parliament  for  Middlesex.  He  was 
arrested,  and  a  new  riot  ensued.  The  sentence 
of  outlawry  was  reversed  by  Lord  Mansfield ; 
but  Wilkes  was  convicted  of  two  libels,  fined 
£1,000,  and  sentenced  to  twenty-two  months' 
imprisonment.  He  was  again  expelled  from 
Parliament  for  a  new  libel,  and  while  still  in 
prison  was  four  times  reelected,  but  not  ad- 
mitted. Be  was  now  idoliied  as  a  defender 
of  popular  rights,  the  cry  of  "  Wilkes  and  lib- 
er^' being  taken  up  by  the  people.  In  April, 
1770,  he  was  set  at  liberty  and  elected  alder- 
man of  London.  In  1771  he  was  elected  sheriff, 
and  in  1774  lord  mayor;  and  in  the  latter 
year  be  was  again  elected  to  Parliament  for 
Middlesex  and  took  his  seat.  He  was  cele- 
brated for  conviviality,  for  his  ugliness,  and 
his  wit.  He  published  translations  and  edi- 
tioTis  of  several  clsBsies,  His  "  Letters  to  bis 
Daughter  "  were  printed  in  1804. 

WQkeshane  (wllkeli&r-I),  capital  Luzerne 
Co.,  Pa.;  on  the  Susquelianna  Kiver,  18  m. 
SW.  of  Scranton,  144  m.  N.  by  W.  of  Phila- 
delphia. The  city  extends  N.  and  S.  3i  m. 
and  B.  and  W.  1}  m.;  is  located  in  atiout  the 
center  of  the  Wyoming  valley.  Among  the 
more  notable  public  buildings  are  a  fine  city 
hall,  courthouse,  jail,  two  hospitals,  three 
theat«rB,  a  Grand  Army  ball,  Y.  M.  C.  A. 
building.  Historical  Society,  Osterhout  Free 
Library,  and  the  armory  of  the  Ninth  Regi- 
ment, N.  G.  P.  Many  of  the  churches  are 
noteworthy  structures.  The  public  and  paro- 
chial schools  have  an  enrollment  of  over  13,000 
pupils.  The  charitable  institutions  include  two 
hospitals,  home  for  friendless  children,  and 
home  for  aged  women.  There  are  large  lace 
factories,  a  silk  mill,  foundries,  axle  works, 
engine  shops,  wire  rope  works,  cutlery  works, 
immense  breweries,  and  many  factories  of  iron, 
steel,  wood,  and  leather.  The  mining  and  pre- 
paring of  anthracite  coal,  the  business  center 
of  which  is  in  the  city,  makes  the  greatest 
demand  for  labor,  and  is  the  foundation  of  the 
city's  wealth,  giving  employment  to  about 
40,000  men  and  boys.  The  total  annual  output 
of  coal  here  is  16,000,000  tons.  The  city  as 
well  as  the  whole  valley  of  Wyoming  is  under- 
lain with  aesms  of  anthracite  caal^f  on  avar- 
408  Lm_    I  .C.OOglC 


WTT.TCTR 

tigt  aggregate  UiickneM  of  66  ft.  Wilkesbarre 
vaa  settl^  mainly  b;  people  from  Connecticut 
In  1760,  incorporated  bh  a  borougli  in  1806, 
and  chartered  aa  a  city  1871.  Fop.  (1006 
oensua)  67,10d,  and  including  the  near-b;  bor- 
oughs, all  connected  by  steam  and  electric 
railroad!,  about   160,000. 

Wil'kie,  Sir  David,  1TB5-1841 :  English  paint- 
er; b.  Cults,  Fifeshire,  Scotland;  studied 
painting  in  tbe  Trustees'  Academy,  Kdinburgh, 
and  at  the  Royal  Academy,  London,  where  in 
1806   he   exhibited   his   "Village   Politicians," 


Festival,"  which  obtained  him  great  popu- 
lari^i  produced  man^  notable  pictures,  in- 
cluding a  group  of  "  Sir  Walter  Scott  and  his 
Family  "  and  the  "  Chelsea  Pensioners  Reading 
the  Gazette  ot  the  Battle  of  Waterloo,"  exe- 
cuted for  the  Duke  ot  Wellington,  generally 
considered  the  most  perfect  representative  of 
bis  genius.  Subsequently  he  changed  bis  style, 
•ought  to  emulate  the  depth  and  richness  of 
the  coloring  of  the  old  masters,'  and  chose 
elevated,  and  even  heroic,  subjects,  to  the 
height  of  which  he  could  never  fully  raise 
himself.  He  spent  three  years  (1825-28)  on 
the  Continent  on  account  of  ill  health,  visiting 
Italy  and  Spain.  He  was  made  painter  in 
ordinary  to  George  IV,  January,  1830;  was 
knighted  by  William  IV,  1636;  made  portraita 
o(  those  sovereigns  and  of  Queen  Victoria; 
executed  a  fine  painting  of  the  "  first  Council 
of  Queen  Victoria ";  visited  Palestine  and 
Egypt  in  1840. 

Wil'kinson,  Jamea,  176T-18ifi;  American  sol- 
dier; b.  Maryland.  He  became  brigadier  gen- 
eral in  1702  and  general  in  chief  in  1796.  He 
was  Governor  of  Louisiana  1805-6,  and  was 
employed  to  defeat  the  plans  of  Aaron  Bun*. 
On  charges  of  complicity  with  Burr  and  re- 
ceiving bribes  from  Spain  he  was  tried  and 
acquitted  in  1811.  In  1813  he  reduced  Mobile, 
and  was  then  ordered  to  the  N.  frontier.  His 
operations  against  Canada  were  totally  unsuc- 
cessful, but  he  was  acquitted  of  blame.  He 
'  spent  his  later  years  in  Mexico. 

Win,  The,  one  of  the  three  facnlties  of  the 
mind,  the  two  othera  being  intellect  or  thought, 
and  emotion  or  feeling.  The  will  decides 
which  course  of  action  shall  be  taken,  and  Uie 
process  of  choice  is  called  volition.  It  begins 
In  early  childhood  as  a  choice  between  muscu- 
lar motions,  urged  by  pleasure  and  restrained 
by  pain,  and  guided  by  the  approval  or  rebuke 
of  others.  As  the  mind  becomes  more  mature, 
the  interplay  of  motives  becomes  more  com- 
plex, and  choice  is  then  made  not  always  from 
considerations  of  present  pain  or  pleasure,  but 
often  upon  the  general  ideas  formed  by  teach- 
ing and  experience  which  we  call  duty,  con- 
science, prudence,  etc.,  the  combined  inQuence 
of  which  in  each  individual  is  called  character. 
This  character,  strengthened  or  weakened  by 
heredity,  training,  and  ^rroundings,  gives 
color  to  all  the  t£oughta  and  determtnes  what 
weight  shall  be  given  to  the  various  motives, 
presented  to  the  mind.  The  building  up  of  the 
will,  the  instilling  of  right  fixed  principles  of 


WILL 

thought  and  action,  and  encouraging  the  habit 
of  self-control,  are  results  of  education  more 
important  than  the  routine  acquisition  of 
knowledge. 

One  of  the  highest  functions  of  the  will,  and 
one  which  developa  latest,  is  the  power  of  in- 
hibition or  the  refusal  to  give  way  to  the 
various  chains  of  thoughts  and  feelings  which 
continually  thrust  themselves  into  conscious- 
ness, and  the  ability  to  concentrate  all  the 
mental  energy  upon  one  particular  object  or 
end.  This  is  the  culmination  of  character — 
self -possession,  or  self-control.  A  child  or 
young  person,  urged  by  a  spontaneous  exuber- 
ance of  life,  will  entertain  a  perpetual  succes- 
sion of  dreams  and  reveries,  and  the  attention 
will  be  turned  by  any  passing  object  or  fancy. 
But  as  the  habit  of  concentration  becomes  de- 
veloped, the  mental  and  physical  life  become 
more  orderly,  and  power  is  not  frittered  away 

a  ion  useless  thoughts  or  objects.  The  aim  of 
uoation  is  to  establish  a  rational  balance 
of  motives,  ao  sa  to  permit  the  enjoyment  of 
pleasure  without  neglect  of  duty. 

The  cultivation  of  the  will  ^ould  in  the 
early  stages  of  childhood  be  encouraged  by  an 
uninterrupted  series  of  easy  successes.  Dis- 
couragement and  failure  should  be  avoided. 
Too  much  should  not  be  attempted  at  once, 
but  fixed  habite  should  be  gradually  formed. 
Outbreaka  of  passion  or  feeling  should  be  con- 
trolled, as  the  emotional  development  of  the 
child  will  influence  not  only  its  health,  but, 
later,  its  success  and  happiness.  Day  dream- 
ing and  mind  wandering  must  be  discouraged 
by  cultivating  habits  of  mental  concentration. 
Mathematics  and  the  practice  of  intelligent 
memorizing  are  good  aids  to  a  proper  control 
of  the  attention. 

Stubbornness,  based  upon  one  fixed  idea  to 
the  exclusion  of  others,  does  not  indicate 
strength  of  will  any  more  than  earl^  smartnesa 
foreshadows  later  intellectual  superiority.  For 
the  natural  brilliancy  of  the  bright  diild  or 
the  spoiled  darling  that  has  been  allowed  to 
have  ita  own  way"will  be  no  match  in  later 
life  against  the  patient  ateadineas  of  the 
trained  plodder  who,  although  leas  gifted  by  - 
nature,  has  been  schooled  to  utilise  all  his  ener- 
gies upon  tha  task  in  hand.    See  Frek  Will. 

Win,  or  Laat  WiU,  or  Tes'tament,  in  law, 
the  written  instrument  wherein  a  man  declarea 
bis  wishes  in  respect  to  the  disposition  of  his 
property  after  his  death.  Technically,  a  will 
disposes  of  real  estate ;  a  testament  relates  to 
personal  property.  The  general  rule  is,  that 
all  persons  having  property  may  dispose  of  it 
by  will.  The  exceptions  relate  principally  to 
infants,  persons  of  insufficient  mind,  and  mar- 
ried women.  At  common  law  infants  could 
not  dispose  by  will  of  real  estate,  though 
males  of  fourteen  and  females  of  twelve  mi^t 
dispose  of  personality;  but  by  statute  1  Vic- 
torm,  ch.  26,  no  will  made  by  any  person 
under  twenty-one  Is  valid.  The  common-law 
rule  is  variously  modified  in  the  different 
stetes  of  the  Union.  What  incapacity  of  mind 
invalidates  a  will  is  among  the  moat  difficult 
and  most  contested  questions  of  law.  A  mar- 
ried woman  cannot,  by  common  law,  make  ai^ 
will  whatever  except  with  the  husband's 


ogle 


WHJjAML'lTE  RIVER 

sent;  but  this  mla  has  recriTed  mucli  loodlfi- 
cation  in  EoffUnd,  and  more  Id  the  U.  S.,  in 
many  of  which  she  is  allowed  all  the  power 
which  maf  be  exercised  by  any  other  person. 
No  special  form  of  words  is  necessary  to  con- 
stitute a  will  or  legacy.  It  is  enough  if  the 
language  convey  with  distinctness  the  inten- 
tion and  desire  of  the  testator. 

As  to  the  eiecutioQ  and  attestation  of  wills, 
the  law  is  stringent.  The  provisions  of  the 
statute  of  frauds  are  geuerall]'  adopted  in  the 
U.  S.  The  will  must  be  declared  to  V  the  will, 
and  signed  in  presence  of  two  witnesses,  and 
in  many  of  the  states  of  three — preferably  In 
the  presence  of  each  other;  but  sometimes  ex- 
ception is  made  where  the  will  is  wholly  in  the 
handwriting  of  the  tastator.  But  a  seaman  or 
soldier  may  make  a  will  without  the  usual  for- 
malities, even  in  some  cases  hy  mere  word  of 
mouth.  A  seal,  unless  required  by  statute,  is 
not  necessary  to  the  validity  of  the  will. 
Against  the  name  of  every  witness  his  resi- 
dence or  address  should  be  written  as  a  con- 
venience, where  it  is  not  required  by  law.  The 
attestation  must  (with  the  exception  of  a  few 
states)  be  in  the  presence  of  the  testator,  who 
must  have  sufficient  possession  of  his  senses  to 
know  and  understand  the  act  of  attestation. 
Under  some  statutes  the  testator  must  declare 
the  instruments  to  be  his  will,  or  in  some  way 
inform  the  witnesses  of  this  fact,  when  they 
attest  it.  An  addition  to  a  will  is  called  a 
codicil.  As  to  revocation,  the  common-law  rule 
was  that  a  marriage  and  the  birth  of  a  child 
aft«r  the  execution  of  a  will  revoked  it;  and 
this  rule  has  much  force  in  this  country  now, 
although  it  is  variously  modified  by  statute. 
The  most  certain  way  to  revoke'  a  will  is  to 
utterly  bum  or  otherwise  destroy  it,  for  the 
loss  or  destruction  of  a  later  will  revives  a 
former  will  if  in  existence  undeatroyed.  The 
most  notable  principle  in  the  construction  of  a 
will  is  to  give  efifect  to  the  intentions  of  the 
testator,  disregarding  so  far  as  may  be  neces- 
sary any  mere  technical  rules,  such  as  are 
sometimes  applied  to  other  instruments.  See 
Admiristkation ;  Descent;  EucuioX;  Lbt- 
TEBa  Testauertabt  ;  Pbobate. 

WlUa'mette  Hiv'et,  a  branch  of  the  Colum- 
bia; rises  in  the  Cascade  Mountains  in  Oregon, 
and  flows  first  NW.  and  then  K.  through  a 
b^utiful  region,  extremely  fertile  and  now  well 
settled.  It  IS  navigable  to  Portland,  15  m.;  25 
m.  from  its  mouth  are  the  Willamette  Falls,  at 
Oregon  City.  The  river  here  falls  40  ft.  per- 
pendicularly, but  a  canal  and  locks  enable  small 
steamboats,  for  two  thirds  of  the  year,  to  pass 
up  to  Eugene  City,  more  than  130  m. 

Willard,  Frances  Bliiabeth,  I839-B8;  Amer- 
ican temperance  advocate ;  h.  near  Rochester, 
N.  Y. ;  graduated  at  the  Northwestern  Female 
College,  Kvanston,  111.,  186B;  was  a  teacher  in 
W.  towns ;  director  of  the  Genesee  Weslcyan 
Seminal?,  Lima.  N.  Y.,  1866-6T;  in  1871-74 
waa  Prof,  of  Esthetics  in  Northwestern  Univ., 
and  dean  of  the  Woman's  College  connected 
with  it.  She  was  the  author  of  "  Nineteen 
Beautiful  Years,"  a  biographical  sketch  of  a 
deceased  sister;  "Glimpses  of  Fifty  Years," 
"  A  Great  Mother,"  etc.    She  became  president 


wnxiAH 

of  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance  Union 
in  1879;  founded  the  World's  Woman's  Chris- 
tian Temperance  Union  in  1383,  and  was  presi- 
dent of  the  same,  18Sft'98.  She  was  editor  in 
chief  of  Tht  Union  Signal,  the  official  organ 
of  the  White  Ribbon  movement. 

Will'iam,  the  name  of  four  kings  of  Ei^- 
land.  WiujAx  I  (Tke  CoNQmooB),  1027- 
1087 ;  b.  Falaise,  Normandy,  tiie  bastard  son 
of  Robert  the  Devil,  Duke  of  Normandy,  by 
Arietta,  a  tanner's  daughter  of  Falaise;  edU' 
cated  at  the  court  of  Henry  I  of  France;  suc- 
ceeded by  his  aid  to  the  ducal  throne  of  Nor- 
mandy in  1035,  and  married,  1053,  Blatilda, 
daughter  of  Count  Baldwin  V  of  Flanders.  As 
the  English  king,  Edward  the  Confessor,  had 
no  children,  William  laid  claim  to  the  succes- 
sion, his  grandmother  Emma  being  a  sister  to 
Edward.  It  is  said  that  the  king  himself  ac- 
knowledged the  claim,  and  William  maintained 
that  Harold  had  pledged  himself  in  1064  that 
he  would  not  oppose  his  succession.  Never- 
theless, when  Edward  died  (January  6.  106S), 
Harold  was  elected  king.  The  Norman  duke 
thereapon  formed  an  alliance  with  Toatig, 
Harold's  banished  brother,  and,  having  secured 
from  Pope  Alexander  II  a  declaration  that  his 
claim  WHS  just,  landed  at  Pevensey,  September 
20th.  On  October  14th  was  fought  the  battle 
of  Hastings  or  Senlac  between  William  and 
Harold;  the  Anglo-Saxons  were  routed,  Harold 
fell,  and,  December  25th,  William  was  crowned 
King  of  England  at  Westminster.  His  govern- 
ment was  at  first  conciliatory,  but  as  one  in- 
surrection followed  another,  and  found  support 
both  from  the  Scots  and  the  Danes,  he  adopted 
severe  measures.  With  the  capture  of  Ely 
(1071),  where  Hereward  had  kept  up  an  ob- 
stinate registsnce  to  the  invaders,  the  conquest 
of  England  was  complete,  and  in  1072  William 
subdued  the  Scottish  king,  Malcolm  III.  The 
whole  country  between  the  Tees  and  the  num- 
ber was  laid  waste.  The  estates  of  the  fallen 
or  banished  Saxon  nobles  were  partitioned  out 
to  the  Norman  lords ;  but,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  concentration  of  too  much  power  in  the 
hands  of  a  vassal,  care  was  taken  that  the 
lands  thus  bestowed  should  not  be  contiguous. 
A  network  of  military  stations  was  spread  over 
the  whole  country — strongly  fortified  caatlea, 
from  which  the  feudal  Norman  kept  the  Saxon 
population  in  submission.  In  lOSS  the  curfew 
bell  was  introduced,  at  the  sound  of  which 
every  light  and  fire  in  the  country  should  ba 
extinguished,  and  between  1080  and  108S  a 
survey  was  taken — the  so-called  Domesday 
Book.  The  landholders  were  obliged  to  swear 
fealty  to  the  king,  who,  while  retaining  the 
forms  of  feudalism,  exalted  the  royal  authority 
and  laid  the  foundation  of  a  strong  kingship, 
in  contrast  to  the  feebleness  that  characterized 
the  feudal  monarchies  of  the  Continent.  The 
great  positions  were  filled  by  Normans,  while 
the  native  population  made  up  the  lower  orders 
in  the  feudal  scale.  Though  a  harsh  ruler,  he 
administered  a  rude  kind  of  justice.  As  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  says.  He  would  per- 
mit no  plunder  save  his  own."  In  a  campaign 
agBinst  France  he  vraa  injured  by  a  tall  from 
his  horse  at  Mantei-sur-Stdne.  He  was  brought 
to  Rouen,  and  died  there.  /— •  i 

0  ijC.oogle 


WILLIAM 

William  II,  RuFue,  10S6-II00;  b.  Nor- 
QuiDily;  son  of  William  the  Conqueror;  edu- 
cated in  Eogland  by  Lanfranc,  and  succeeded 
to  the  throne  on  the  death  of  his  father,  while 
his  elder  brother,  Robert,  took  possession  of 
Normandy.  He  was  (1088)  involved  in  ivar 
with  the  partisans  of  his  brother  in  England, 
who  were,  however,  soon  put  down.  Two  years 
later  he  carried  the  war  into  Normandy,  and 
forced  his  brother  to  consent  to  humiliating 
terms  of  peace.  He  also  waged  war  with  Scot- 
land, invaded  Normandy  a  second  time  in  1094, 
quarreled  with  the  King  of  France,  and  at- 
tempted U>  conquer  the  Welsh.  He  came  into 
possession  of  Normandy  when,  in  1096,  Robert 
mortgaged  the  country  to  him  on  setting  out 
for  the  Holy  Land.  He  was  planning  to  secure 
Aquitaine,  hut  before  be  could  take  possession 
he  was  shot  by  Walter  Tyrrel,  or  Tirel.  while 
hnntiiw  in  the  New  Forest,  August  2,  1100. 
He  biult  London  Bridge,  and  completed  Lon- 
don Tower  and  Westminster  Hall. 

WiLUAU  III,  1860-17021  King  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  and  stadtholder  of  the 
Netherlands  (1672-1702);  son  of  William  H, 
Prince  of  Orange  and  stadtholder  of  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  i&.ry,  eldest  daughter  of  Charles 
I  of  England;  b.  The  Hague.    Louis  XIV  took 

gJBsesaion  of  the  family  estate  of  Orange; 
liver  Cromwell  persecuted  him  as  a  Stuart, 
and  in  the  Netherlands,  where  bis  father  had 
exerted  himself  to  make  the  stadtholdership 
hereditary  in  the  family  of  Orange,  Jan  de 
Witt  carried   through   a  law  which   prevented 


forces  of  the  republic.  Nevertheless,  in  1672, 
when  France  and  England  attacked  the  Neth- 
erlands, and  Jan  de  Witt  had  been  murdered, 
William  was  made  stadtholder  and  command- 
er in  chief,  and  by  his  military  and  diplomatic 
talents  he  freed  the  country  from  the  grasp 
of  Louis  Xiy.    He  succeeded  in  detaching  Eng- 


In  1877  ha  married  his  cousin  Mary,  eldest 
daughter  of  James,  Duke  of  York,  and  heir 
presumptive  to  the  English  crovm,  and  in  the 
contest  between  the  king  and  the  people,  which 
became  almost  desperate,  he  became  the  center 
of  the  opposition.  In  1888  he  was  Invited  by 
the  most  prominent  men  in  England  to  inter- 
fere, and  on  November  Sth  of  the  same  year 
he  landed  at  Torbay  with  15,000  men.  James 
fled  to  France,  deserted  by  alt,  end  on  Feb- 
ruary 13,  1689,  was  deposed  by  Parliament, 
and  William  and  Mary  were  established  on  the 
throne.  James  afterwards  went  to  Ireland, 
where  the  Roman  Catholic  population  rose  in 
favor  of  him,  but  he  wna  completely  defeated 
in  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  and  all  Jacobite 
movements  were  suppressed.  In  December, 
1689,  England  joined  the  Qrand  Alliance 
against  France,  which  William  had  formed 
between  Austria,  Spain,  SJid  the  Netherlands. 
From  1691  William  himself  commanded  the 
allied  army  in  the  Netherlands,  and,  although 
ho  was  defeated  at  Steenkerke  (August  4, 
1692)  and  at  Neerwinden  (July  19,  1693),  he 
nevertheless  prevented  France  from  making 
toy  prc^ess.     At  L«  Hogue  tJie  Fraich  fleet 


WnXIAH 

was  nearly  annihilated  in  1692,  and  by  the 
Peace  of  Ryswick  (1607),  England  and  the 
Netherlands  lost  nothing,  and  France  was  ut- 
terly exhausted,  liouis  XIV,  however,  had  by 
no  means  given  up  bis  ambitious  plans,  and 
England  bad  just  determined  and  publicly  an* 
nounced  that  it  would  talce  part  in  the  Spanish 
War  of  Succession  when  William  ditSi.  In 
England  he  was  not  loved,  and  his  position  was 
often  very  difficult,  especially  after  the  death 
o(  Mary  (1694).  He  was  destitute  of  those 
small  arts  by  which  a  man  in  a  superior  posi- 
tion so  easily  wins  the  confidence,  good  will, 
and  enthuaiasm  of  his  inferiors ;  but  the 
soundness  and  elevation  of  his  political  views, 
and  the  sagacity  and  self- sacrificing  energy 
with  which  he  carried  them  out,  have  probably 
never  been  doubted.  His  great  task  was  to 
resist  Louis  XIV,  and  in  him  political  abso- 
lutism and  religious  intolerance;  and  he  ful- 
filled it. 


third  SOD  of  Oeoi^  III ;  educated  for  the  navy ; 
lieutenant,  1785;  admiral,  ISOl,  and  lord  high 
admiral,  1827;  created  Duke  of  Clarence,  1789; 
became  heir  presumptive  to  the  crown  in  1827, 
and  succeeded,  June  26,  1830.  The  chief  event 
of  his  brief  feign  was  the  movement  for  par- 
liamentary reform,  secured  by  the  Reform  Act 
□f  1832.  Though  he  had  professed  to  be  » 
Whig,  and  in  favor  of  liberal  measures,  his 
blundering  and  irresolute  conduct  obstructed 
the  much-needed  reform,  and  by  prolonging  the 
crisis  exasperated  the  people.  He  was  suc- 
ceeded in  Hanover  by  his  brother,  and  in  Eng- 
land by  his  niece,  Victoria. 

William,  the  name  of  three  kings  of  tbe 
Netherlands,  descending  from  the  brother  of 
William  the  Silent  of  Orange-Nassau.  Wni- 
IA1£  I,  1772-1843;  h.  The  Ha^e.  When  the 
National  Convention  of  France  declared  war 
against  the  republic  (1793),  William  assumed 
the  command  of  the  Dutch  army,  but'on  Jan- 
uary IS,  1795,  he  embarked  with  his  father 
and  the  rest  of  tbe  family  at  Scheveningen,  and 
went  to  England.  On  his  father's  death  (April 
9,  1808),  he  came  into  possession  of  the  hered- 
itary, estates  of  the  famil|r,  Nassau-Dietz,  but, 
having  allied  himself  with  Prussia  and  ac- 
cepted a  command  in  the  Prussian  army,  he 
was  taken  prisoner  at  Jena,  and  all  his  pos- 
sessions were  confiscated  by  Napoleon.  He  was 
soon  released,  and  fought  a^inst  the  Frendi 
at  Wagram,  but  lived  in  retirement,  at  Berlin 
until  after  the  battle  of  Leiprig.  The  Holland- 
ers now  rose  against  the  French,  and,  in  1813, 
William  landed  at  Scheveningen,  and  was  hailed 
by  the  people  as  their  sorereign.  By  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  the  Kingdom  of  the  Nether- 
landa,  consisting  of  Holland  and  Belgium,  was 
formed,  and  on  March  16,  IBIS,  William  I  waa. 
proclaimed  king.  In  compensation  for  Ua 
hereditaiy  possessions,  which  were  given  partly 
to  Prussia,  partly  to  Nassau,  he  received  the 
grand  duchy  of  Luxemburg.  The  combination 
of  Holland  and  Belgium  proved  a  blunder.  By 
the  Revolution  of  1830,  Belgium  acceded,  and 
was  recognized  as  an  independent  kingdom, 
December  20,  1830.  William  I,  however,  would 
not  submit  to  this  deciiion,  but  ooatinued  faia 


WILLIAM 

protest  and  resistance  np  to  1S3S  in  a.  fooliafa 
manner.  This  and  other  circumatances  made 
him  unpopular,  and  on  October  T,  1840,  he 
found  it  advisable  to  abdicate  in  favor  of  his 
son.  He  went  to  Berlin  with  an  enormoua  for- 
tune, and  died  there.  WiiiJAU  II,  1792-1849; 
'b.  The  Hague;  eldest  »on  of  William  I;  served 
in  the  Spanish  and  British  armies  against 
the  French,  and  distinguished  himself  at 
Quatre-Braa  and  Waterloo,  where  he  was 
wounded.  He  restored  order  to  the  finances, 
but  was  unwilling  to  eater  on  any  political 
reforms.  Nevertheless,  when  in  1848  the 
fermentation  twcame  dangerous  in  the  coun- 
try, he  consented  to  a  thorough  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  government,  but  died  before  the 
new  constitution  could  be  established.  WiUj- 
lAU  III,  1817-90;  b.  The  Hague;  son  of 
William  II;  succeeded  to  the  throne,  March 
17,  1S40.  When  the  German  union  was  dis- 
solved in  1B60,  be  succeeded  in  separating 
Limburg  and  Luxemburg  from  Giennanjr,  and 
annexed  the  former  to  tiie  Netherlands.  Con- 
cerning the  latter,  negotiations  were  opened  hj 
Napoleon  III,  who  wanted  to  buy  it,  but  these 
n^iotiations  were  frustrated  bf  Bismarck,  and 
Luxemburg  was  declared  neutral.  Though  li- 
centious in  hia  private  life,  be  was  a  politic 
and  progressive  ruler,  and  in  internal  atTairs 
his  government  was  verjr  successful.  In  18T9 
he  married  the  Princess-  Emma  of  Waldeck- 
Pyrmont,  by  whom  he  had  two  daughters,  the 
elder  of  whom  is  now  (1910)  Queen  Wil- 
hetmina. 

William  I,  1797-1886;  Emperor  of  Germany 
and  King  of  PrusBia;  b.  Berlin;  son  of  King 
Frederick  William  III  and  Queen  Luise.  He 
grew  up  with  the  humiliating  impressions  of 
the  defeat  of  Jena,  but  distinguished  himself 
in  the  campaigns  of  1813-14  against  France. 
He  was  an  enthusiastic  soldier,  indefatigable 
in  military  service.  When  his  father  died 
(1840),  and  his  elder  brother,  Frederick  Will- 
iam IV,  became  king,  he  received  the  title  of 
Prince  of  Prussia  as  heir  presumptive,  but  for 
many  years  was  not  promment  in  political  af- 
fairs. He  was  considered  an  absolutist,  and 
for  this,  as  well  as  for  hia  military  inclina- 
tions, he  was  unpopular.  During  the  revolu- 
tion in  1848  he  went  to  England.  On  his 
return  he  entered  the  Prussian  national  as- 
sembly aa  member  for  Wirsitz,  and  declared 
himself  in  favor  of  constitutional  government. 
In  1840  he  took  coihmand  of  the  force  against 
the  S.  German  insurgents,  and  suppress^  the 
revolution  in  the  Palatinate  and  Baden.  Later, 
when  the  supremacy  of  the  Austrian  policy  in 
German  affairs  was  felt  with  reeret  in  Prussia, 
people  began  to  look  at  the  firmness  of  his 
character  as  a  support  of  the  greatness  of 
Prussia.  He  was  nevertheless  by  no  means 
popular,  and,  when  he  became  king  In  1881, 
the  reorganization  of  the  army  aroused  the  bit- 
terest opposition.  There  followed  the  "  Conflict 
Time,"  ip  which  neither  the  king  nor  his  op- 
ponents in  the  Prussian  chamber  would  give 
way,  and  the  former,  in  order  to  carry  out  the 
scheme  of  military  reform,  was  obliged  to  rely 
on  the  upper  house  for  supplies  in  direct  op- 
position to  the  spirit  of  the  constitution;  but' 
the  resolution  and  enei^  of  Bismarck  won. 


WILUAH 

and  the  reorganization  was  effected.  In  the 
war  with  Denmark  {IB64)  the  array  proved 
effective,  and  the  king  began  to  be  popular. 
This  change  was  more  apparent  in  1866,  when, 
under  the  personal  leadership  of  the  king, 
brilliant  victories  were  won  over  Austria  and 
her  German  allies.  In  1867,  William  placed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  newly  formed  N. 
German  union. 

But  the  greatest  glory  was  guned  by  the 
king  in  the  war  with  France  (1870-71).  The 
refusal  of  Napoleon  Ill's  demand  for  territory 
on  the  Rhine  and  the  thwarting  of  his  designs 
on  Belgium  and  Luxemburg  had  made  war 
probable,  and  all  measures  were  taken  to  in- 
sure success  when  the  conflict  came.  The  war 
was  desired  by  the  king  and  Bismarck  as  the 
means  of  str^igthening  PruBsia  and  attaining 
German  nnity.  Napoleon's  tolly  in  the  matter 
of  Prince  Lipoid  of  HohenEolIem's  candidacy 
for  the  Bpaniah  throne  offered  an  opportuni^ 
of  refusing  his  demands  and  making  him  ap- 
pear aa  an  aggressor.  In  the  negotiations  with 
the  French  ambassador,  Benedetti,  in  Ems, 
July,  1870,  the  king's  presence  of  mind,  cour- 
age, and  dignity  won  general  admiration,  and 
the  enthusiasm  for  him  increased  every  day  ai 
the  German  army  pushed  farther  into  France 
and  gained  one  victory  after  another.     Moved 

rtly  by  the  brilliancy  of  the  victory,  partly 
_  the  personality  of  the  victor,  the  German 
princes,  so  long  divided,  finally  agreed  in  offer- 
ing the  imperial  crown  of  Ckrmany  to  King 
William,  and  he  accepted  it  at  Versailles,  Jan- 
uary 18,  1871.  The  internal  state  of  Germany, 
especially  on  the  ecclesiastical  field,  needed  « 
development    in   a    liberal   direction,   and    the 


sjLitFW  and  Fai.s  Lawb.)  The  next  difficulty  to 
be  dealt  with  won  the  socialist  agitation.  The 
Emperor  and  Biamaick  competed  for  the  favor 
of  toe  laboring  insu  by  a  plan  of  aodal  reform 
baaed  on  atate  aocialism.  In  his  foreign  policy 
the  Emperor  determined  to  keep  wbatnaa l^eea 
gained  from  France,  but  to  avoid  jvar.  To  in- 
sure peace  he  endeavored  to  make  Germany  ao 
strong  that  none  dare  attad^  her. 


n,  ISSd'  ;  former  Genotui  Emper- 
or and  King  of  Prusaia;  eldest  son  of  Frederick: 
accond  German  eniporer  and  wgh*.b  Tfing  ^ 
Prussia.  He  received  a  tborou^^  military 
training  and  instruction  in  a£ninistrativa 
methods.  On  the  death  of  his  father,  June  IS, 
1868,  be  became  emperor,  and  early  showed 
himself  a  resolute  upholder  of  the  traditional 
rights  and  dignity  of  his  office.  His  speeches 
inspired  the  fear  that  his  policy  would  be  re. 
actionary,  his  tone  beinj;  that  of  a  monarch 
convinced  of  his  divine  right.  He  was  soon  at 
variance  with  Bismarck,  who,  finding  himself 
unable  to  retain  his  influence,  resi^^ed  in  1690. 
At  the  lime  of  the  present  writing  it  is  too  early 
to  note  with  the  accuracy  that  impartial  his- 
tory exacts,  the  ahare  of  reoponsibiuly  of  Wil- 
liam II.  in  the  World  War.  Particularly  ia  this 
true  because  of  the  announced  det«nnination 
:>f  the  Allies,  aa  represented  in  the  Peaoe  Con- 
ference at  Paris  in  1919,  to  place  tha  form^ 
Emperor-Kins  on  trial  at  Lonilon  for  whatever 
degree  of  guilt  m^t  be  adjudged  against  Um. 


WILLIAM  OF  NASSAU 

It  ihould  htfe  be  noted,  bowever^  that  on  Nov. 

SlfilS,  two  dsvB  before  the  armistice,  William 
.  lenounced  tne  throne;  that  on  the  10th. 
vith  his  8uit«,  he  eecretly  fled  to  Holland;  ana 
that  after  the  decision  to  bring  him  and  other 
instigators  and  directoTB  of  the  war  to  trial, 
several  of  the  high  leaders  declared  themselves 
reaponmble  for  the  conduct  of  the  war  and  of- 
fered to  stand  trial  in  place  of  their  former  War 
lord. 

WilUam  of  Naa'un,  tometimes  called  Will- 
iam or  OsANOE,  or  Wiluau  the  Silent,  1533- 
B4.;  b.  DiUenburg,  Nassau;  eldest  son  of  Count 
WilUam  of  Nasaau-Dillenburg.  In  1544  be  in- 
herited the  principality  of  Oran^  in  Provence, 
whence  be  derived  the  title  of  Prince  of  Orangt:, 
and  was  sent  to  Bruseels,  where  he  was  edu- 
cated in  the  Roman  Cathoic  faith.  When  he 
was  fifteen  he  became  a  page  to  Charles  V, 
who  employed  him  in  the  highest  military 
and  diplomatic  podtions,  and  on  his  abdica- 
tion (1555)  recommended  him  in  the  strongest 
terms  to  his  son  and  successor,  Philip  II.  He 
n^otiated  tbe  preliminary  arrangements  for 
the  Peace  of  CHteau-Cnmbresis  in  1SE9,  and 
he  was  one  of  the  four  hostoges — the  Duke  of 
Alva  was  another — whom  Spam  sent  to  France 
as  a  guaranty  of  the  treaty.  While  there  the 
Frenca  kii^,  Henry  II,  one  day  told  him  that 
there  existed  a  secret  treatiV  between  him  and 
Philip  II  to  destroy  all  Protestants  within 
their  dominions;  but,  although  this  communi- 
cation must  have  shocked  and  angered  him, 
such  was  his  self-possession  tliat  the  news  was 
received  as  carelessly  as  it  was  given.  His  dis- 
cretion on  this  occasion  earned  for  him  the 
sobriquet  of  "  The  Silent,"  which,  however,  in 
nowise  applies  to  his  general  character,  for  in 
his  usual  bearing  he  was  frank  and  cordial. 
Aa  a  young  man  he  kept  a  magnificent  house- 
hold. 

8oon,  however,  after  his  conversation  with 
Henry  II,  he  found  other  use  for  his  money,  for 
he  rose  immedintely  in  oppoxitiou  to  Philip  II, 
and  never;  as  long  as  he  lived,  gave  up  his 
resistance.  As  Governor  of  Holland  and  Zea- 
land he  refused,  in  1564,  to  allow  the  Spsnish 
Inquisition  in  these  provinces.  When,  finally, 
Philip  II  decided  to  send  the  Duke  of  Alva  as 
Goremor  General  to  tbe  Netherlands  with  a 
large  Spanish  army,  William  resigned  all  his 
offices  and  retired  with  his  family  to  Germany. 
As  soon  as  Alva  arrived,  arbitrary  measures 
for  the  religious  and  nolitical  guppression  were 
carried  out,  often  witn  atrocity,  Williani  waa 
summoned  to  appear  before  the  council  which 
had  condemned  Egmont  and  Horn,  and  his 
eldest  son,  a  boy  of  thirteen  years,  was  seized 
and  carried  to  Spain,  where  he  was  held  for 
twenty-eight  years.  In  1568  he  raised  an  army 
by  his  own  funds,  and  Invaded  the  country, 
but,  although  he  gained  some  advantages,  he 
was  unable  either  to  rouse  the  population  to 
a  general  revolt  or  to  bring  Alva  to  a  decisive 
battle;  and  he  was  compelled  to  disband  his 
army.  In  ISTE  he  made  a  new  attempt,  and 
with  greater  effect.  In  I5T0  he  had  issued 
letters  of  marqne  to  privateers,  and  these 
"  Bttgars  of  the  Sea "  inflicted  great  damages 
(Ml  Spanish  commerce,  especially  since  they 
37  P  4 


WILLIAUS 

(1572)  had  come  Into  possession  of  Briel  and 
Flushing,  which  formed  a  solid  basis  for  their 
operations.  Thus  war  with  Spain  appeared  to 
be  a  remunerative  trade,  while  obedience  had 
proved  to  be  ruin,  so,  on  the  approach  of  Will- 
iam \rith  a  new  army,  Holland  rose  in,  re- 
bellion, and  its  states  chose  William  stadt- 
hotder  in  1572;  and  although  William,  failing 
to  obtain  aid  from  the  French,  was  again  com- 
pelled to  disband  his  army,  war  began  to  be 
curried  on  in  a  regular  manner  against  the 
Spaniards. 

The  military  successes  which  the  Hollanders 
achieved  were  not  remarkable,  but  the  heroism 
of  the  people  was  displayed  on  many  occasions, 
as  in  the  defense  of  Leyden.     It  soon  became 


grees  the  hatred  to  the  Spaniards  spread 
throughout  the  S.  provinces,  even  among  the 
Roman  Catholics,  and  in  October,  1570,  Will- 
iam brought  about  the  "  Pacification  of  Ghent," 
by  which  all  the  provinces  united  to  drive  the 
foreign  soldiers  out  of  the  country  and  estab- 
lish religious  toleration.  The  8,  provinces, 
however,  soon  separated  from  the  league,  and 
returned  under  tne  Spanish  rule.  In  January 
23,  1679,  was  signed  the  "  Union  of  Utrecht,'' 
by  which  Philip  II  was  deposed.  In  1580, 
Philip  II  put,  a  price  of  25,000  cron-ns  on  Will- 
iam's head,  and,  after  several  attempts  which 
failed,  one  Pnlthaxar  Gerard  finally  succeeded 
in  shooting  him  at  Delft. 


William  of  Wykeham  (wlk'&m),  I324-I404; 
English  statesman.  In  13G4  Edward  III  made 
him  Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal,  and  in  1366 
Secretary  of  State  and  Bishop  of  Winchester. 
He  was  Lord  High  Chancellor  of  England, 
1367-71.  Charges  were  made  against  him  in 
1376  of  misappropriations  of  money,  and  he 
was  banished  from  his  see,  but  was  restored  by- 
Richard  II.  He  was  again  created  Lord  Hig^ 
Chancellor  in  1389,  but  resigned,  1391.  He 
was  the  virtual  architect  of  Windsor  Castle, 
and  founded  colleges  at  Winchester  and  Oxford, 

wni'iams.  Soger,  1607-83;  founder  of  the 
colony  of  Rhode  Island;  b.  London,  England. 
Ha  was  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of  England, 
and  became  a  Puritan  of  the  extreme  wing. 
Arriving  at  Boston,  February  5,  1631,  he  soon 
incurred  the  hostility  of  the  authorities,  chiefiy 
by  denying  that  the  magistrates  had  d  right 
to  punish  for  any  but  civil  offenses,  and  shoHly 
went  to  Salem  to  help  Pastor  Skelton.  Before 
the  close  of  summer  persecution  obliged  him  to 
retire  to  Plymouth,  where  for  two  years  he 
was  assistant  of  the  pastor,  Ralph  Smith. 
Here  he  formed  the ,  acquaintance  of  leading 
Indian  chiefs,  and  learned  their  language.  He 
was  invited  to  return  to  Salem,  and  became  the 
assistant  and  then  the  successor  of  Skelton. 
In  1635  the  general  court  banished  him,  order- 
ing him  to  depart  within  six  weeks.  In  mid- 
winter, abandoning  his  friends  and  his  family, 
he  traveled  through  the  wilderness  to  tht 
shores  of  the  Narrsgansett.    After  purchasing 


WILLIAMS 

landB  of  Ouaamcquin  on  the  E.  Bhora  of  the 
Seekonk  River,  and  planting  his  com,  he 
learned  that  he  was  -within  the  bounds  of 
Plymouth  colony,  and  set  out  with  five  com- 
panions on  new  explorations.  In  a  canoe  they 
went  down  the  stream,  turned  the  extremity 
of  the  peninsula,  and  ascended  the  river  which 
forms  its  W.  boundary  to  a  spot  which  tradi- 
tion has  consecrated  as  their  landing.  Here  he 
founded  a  settlement,  which  he  called  Provi- 
dence, based  on  a  written  agreement  providing 
a  purely  democratic  government,  to  which  only 
civii  aRairs  were  subjected,  and  organiwd  a 
Baptist  church. 

The  history  of  Rc^r  Williams  for  the  suc- 
ceeding half  century  is  the  history  of  Provi- 
dence and  of  Rhode  Island.  In  1043  he  was 
sent  to  England  to  procure  a  charter,  was  suc- 
cessful, and  retumnl  in  1044.  On  his  voyage 
to  England  he  wrote  his  "  Key  into  the  Lan- 
guages of  America,"  including  observations  on 
the  manners,  habits,  laws,  and  religion  of  the 
Indian  tribes.  He  also  published  Uiera  "The 
Bloud^  Tenent  of  Persecution  for  Cause  of 
Conscience."  He  was  again  in  England  as- 
agent  of  the  colony,  1051-54,  and  published 
several  other  works  there.  VVhat  immortalizes 
Roger  Williams  and  gives  him  a,  high  place 
among  the  greatest  characters  of  history  is 
that,  in  spite  of  towering  diflicutties,  he  founded 
a  state — the  first  in  hiatory— which  was  creed- 
less  itself,  while  welcoming  and  protecting  all 
creeds  whatsoever,  thus  giving  to  the  principle 
of  separation  between  Church  and  State  that 
lodgment  in  American  public  law  which  led 
later  to  its  adoption  into  the  Constitution. 

WilliamB,  Willi«m,  1731-1811;  a  signer  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence;  b.  Connecti- 
cut. He  was  an  active  member  of  the  Council 
of  Safety  and  of  the  Continental  Congress, 
1775-77  and  1783-84.  He  served  nearly  fifty 
years  in  the  state  legislature,  and  took  part 
in  the  state  convention  which  adopted  the 
Federal  Constitution,  and  expended  nearly  his 
entire  fortune  in  the  patriot  cause. 

Will'iamsburg,  capital  James  City  Co.,  Va.; 
3  m.  N.  of  the  James  River,  50  m.  SE.  of 
Kichmond.  It  is  on  an  elevated  plateau  be- 
tween the  James  and  York  rivers,  about  equi- 
distant from  either  stream ;  first  settled  in 
1632;,  the  oldest  incorporated  city  in  the  state, 
and  abounds  in  historic  interest.  Prior  to  the 
Revolution  it  was  the  seat  of  the  royal  govern- 
ment, and  then,  until  1779,  the  capital  of  the 
state.  The  capitol  was  destroyed  by  fire  in 
1748,  and  rebuilt;  the  latter  building  was  also 
burned  abt.  1830.  Williamsburg  is  the  seat  of 
William  and  Mary  Colltge;  pop.  (1910)  2,714. 
A  battle  was  fought  here  between  Gen.  Mc- 
Clellan    and   the   Confederates,   May   5,    1862. 

See    CUICKAHOMIKY, 

Will'iamsport  (chartered  as  a  city  in  1S66), 
capital  of  Lycoming  Co.,  Pa,,  since  1705  (set- 
tled in  1779)  ;  on  the  Susciuehanna  River;  96 
m.  N.  of  Harrisburg,  202  m.  NW.  of  Phila- 
delphia. It  is  built  on  a  plain  along  the  river 
at  the  base  of  hills.  The  city  baa  t£ree  pilbtic 
parks,  two  race  courses,  Dickinson  Seminary, 
City  Hospitftl,  City  Mission,  Women's  Christian 


WILLOW 

Home,  Girls'  Industrial  Home,  Yonng  Hen's 
Christian  Association,  and  public  library.  It 
derives  its  prosperity  from  its  lumber  manu- 
factures and  diversified  industries.  The  Sus- 
quehanna boom,  which  cost  over  (1,000,000, 
is  located  here,  and  catches  all  logs  cut  from 
the  vast  forests  of  pine  and  hemlock  on  the 
W.  branch  of  the  river  and  its  tributaries. 
There  are  about  thirty  sawmills,  and  lumber 
';  mill,  sewiuK- 
>ap,  paint,  gl  , 
Pop.    (lUlO)    31,800. 

WUlis,  Nathaniel  Parker,  180S-67;  Amer- 
ican author;  b.  Portland,  Me.  While  in  Yale 
he  published  a  series  of  "  Scripture  Sketches  " 
in  verse,  and  other  poems.  In  1828  he  estab- 
lished the  American  Monthly  Uagaeine,  which 
was  merged  in  the  New  York  Mirror,  estab- 
lished by  George  P.  Morris,  of  which  he  be- 
came associate  editor.  He  traveled  in  Europe 
and  Asia,  and  lived  several  years  in  England, 
writing  for  the  magazines  and  publishing  sev- 
eral of  his  works  there.  In  1844  he  established 
with  Mr,  Morris  the  daily  New  York  Evening 
Uirror,  and  in  1846  the  weekly  Borne  Journal, 
to  which  he  contributed  till  his  death.  His 
works  include  volumes  of  poents,  stories,  and 
sketches,  and  for  many  years  he  waa  the  most 
brilliant  and  popular  magazine  writer  in 
America. 

Will'-tf-the-Wisp.    See  Ignib  Fatotjs. 

Wil'low,  any  tree  or  shrub  of  the  genus 
Salix,  of  which  there  are  over  ISO  species. 
They  grow  usually  in  moist  soil.  Their  flowers 
are  in  catkins,  which,  from  their  long  cover- 
ing of  haira,   are   known   as  pussy  willowa. 


WiEpraa  WtLU>w. 

Many  of  the  long-leaved  shrubby  sorts  are  used 
in  basket  making,  and  the  larger,  short-leaved 
kinds,  called  tallows  in  England,  are  in  Europe 
raised  for  hoop  poles ;  for  charcoal,  to  be  used 
in  gunpowder;  for  fence  poles,  which,  when 
peeled  and  dried,  are  very  durable;  for  vine 
props,  hoe  handles,  and  the  lilce.  .Willow  wood 
ts  also  used  for  steamboat  paddles,  cricket 
bats,  and  surgeons'  splints.  It  is  light,  tough, 
and  stands  exposure  in  water.  Salicine,  an 
active  principle  from  willow  bark,  is  useful  in 
medicine.     The  weeping  willow,  a  native  of^ 


WZLMINOTON 

Cbins,  has  long  been  an  emblem  of  grief.  It  k 
much  planted  aa  an  ornameiital  tree.  There 
Are  about  100  species  of  willow  in  N.  America. 

Wil'mingtOB,  capital  of  New  Castle  Co.,  Del.; 
on  the  Delaware  River  at  the  junction  of  ita 
affluents,  the  Christiana  and  Brandywinc  riv- 
ers; 28  m.  8W.  of  Philadelphia,  70  m.  NE.  of 
Baltimore.  The  city  is  built  mainly  on  ele- 
vated KTOund,  and  extends  from  the  river  about 
4  m.  back.  The  city  owns  five  parks  (area, 
2G0  acres)  and  several  squares.  Among  its 
public  buildings  are  a  U.  S.  Qovt.  building, 
county  courthouse,  city  hall,  U.  S.  custom- 
house, four  public  libraries,  auditorium,  and 
Delaware  Historical  Association  Hall,  the  lat- 
ter over  one  hundred  years  old.  There  are  over 
eighty  churches,  the  Methodist  Episcopal  being 
the  prevailing  denomination.  The  most  prom- 
inent charitable  and  reformatory  institutions 
are  the  Ferris  Reform  School  for  Boys,  Girls' 
Industrial  School,  Home  for  Friendless  Chil- 
dren, homes  for  aged  men  and  women,  and 
three  hospitals.  The  Delaware  State  Hospital 
for  the  Insane  is  at  Famhurst,  2  m.  S.  The 
Brandywine  within  4  m.  from  its  mouth  has 
a  fall  of  120  ft.,  and  furnishes  water  power 
for  many  factories,  including  morocco  factories, 
carriage  factories,  [Miper  mills,  Du  Pout's  pow- 
der mills,  ehipbuilding  yards,  car -building 
works,  ironworks,  cotton  factories,  hard- fiber 
works,  glass  works,  phosphate  factory,  fiour 
mills,  hosiery  factories,  term-cotta  works, 
dental  factory,  surgical-instrument  factory, 
wire-cable  mill,  chemical  works,  Pullman  pal- 
ace-car works,  cigar  factories,  silk  mill,  rolling 
mills,  shirt  factories,  shoe  factories,  breweries, 
and  a  large  steel  plant.  There  are  numerous 
brick  yards  in  the  city. 

The  origin  of  the  city  was  the  buildingof 
Fort  Chriatina  by  the  Swedes  in  1638.  The 
Dutch 'captured  this  fort  in  ISSS,  and  changed 
the  name  to  Fort  AHena,  and  the  town  under 
direction  of  Gov.  Beekman  became  Christina: 
ham.  Id  1731  the  village  of  Willingtown, 
named  after  Thomas  Willing,  was  begun.  The 
name  was  afterwards  changed  to  Wltmington. 
The  flrst  borough  election  was  held  September 
8,  1740;  the  first  townhall  was  built  in  1774; 
and  a  city  charter  was  granted  in  1832.  Pop. 
(1910)   87,411. 

WilmlllKtOli,  capital  of  New  Hanover  Co.. 
N.  C;  on  the  Cape  Fear  River;  88  m.  SW.  of 
Newbern,  214  m.  NE.  of  Charleston,  S.  C.  U 
is  26  m.  above  the  mouth  of  the  river  and  8  m. 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  ia  on  a  penin- 
sula between  the  river  and  the  ocean.  The  city 
is  built  along  2^  m.  of  the  river  front  and  ex- 
tends back  a  mile.  The  principal  streets  are 
99  ft.  wide,  the  others  66  ft.  The  surface  is 
an  elevated  sand  ridge,  fairly  well  drained. 
Among  the  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  city 
hall,  courthouse,  U.  a.  Qovt.  building,  U.  S. 
Marine  Hospital,  James  Walker  Memorial  Hos- 
pital, Masonic  Temple,  Slks'  Temple,  the  ar- 
mory of  the  Wilmington  Light  Infantry,  First 
Baptist  Church,  Fift£  Street  Methodist  Episco- 
pal Church,  Grace  Church,  St  John's  Protest- 
ant Episcopal  Church,  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association,  and  the  public  schools. 

The  value  of  church  property  is  over  fSOO,- 


WILSON 

000.  The  educational  institutions  include 
three  public  schools  for  white  pupils  and  three 
for  colored,  with  nearly  4,000  jvhite  pupils  and 
nearly  4,500  colored;  and  private  and  parochial 
schools.  A  bureau  of  associated  charities,  ■ 
united  charities  (colored),  and  a  ladies'  benev- 
olent society  look  after  the  needy,  and  a  county 
home,  a  county  house  of  correction,  a  seamen  s 
friend  society,  and  the  Catherine  Kennedy 
Home  for  Elderly  Women  take  charge  of  spe- 
cial cases.  The  principal  business  interests  are 
the  exportation  of  naval  stores,  cotton,  lum- 
ber, and  rice;  truck  farming;  and  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton  ^ooda,  fertilizers,  cotton -seed 
oil,  turpentine,  spirits  and  oil  from  pine,  saw 
and  lumber  mill  products,  and  lampblack. 

The  city  was  settled  in  1730-^1  under  the 
name  of  Newton;  vax  incorporated  under  ita 
present  name  in  1739;  and  chartered  as  a  city, 
1866.  The  first  newspaper  was  issued  Septem- 
ber I,  1764,  and  the  first  overt  act  of  rebellion 
against  British  authority  occurred  in  178i>, 
when  the  citiiens  refused  to  permit  the  land- 
ing of  stamps  brought  in  a  man-of-war.  On 
July  18,  1776,  the  militia  under  Col.  Juhn  Ashe, 
who  led  the  antistamp  party,  captured  Fort 
Johnson,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  forced 
the  royal  governor  to  fiee.  On  the  secession  of 
N.  Carolina  in  1S61  Forts  Johnson  and  Cas- 
well were  occupied  by  state  troops.  During  the 
war  many  cargoes  were  run  into  Wilmington 
through  the  Federal  blockading  fleet,  nearly 
300  ^reiga  steamships  making  the  entrance 
safely  with  cargoes  in  the  two  years  1863-64 
(see  FoBT  Fis&eb).    Fop.   (1910)  25,748. 

Wil'mot,  David,  1814-SS;  American  jurist; 
b.  Bethany,  Pa.;  educated  at  the  academies  of 
Bethany  and  of  Aurora,  N.  Y.;  admitted  to  the 
bar  and  began  practice  at  Wilkcs-Barre,  Pa., 
1834;  removed  to  Towanda;  sat  in  Congress 
BB  a  Democrat,  1B45~6I,  and  moved  on  Au- 
gust 8,  1848,  an  amendment  to  a  bill  appropri- 
ating $2,000,000  for  the  purchase  of  Mexican 
temtory,  which  became  celebrated  under  the 
name  "the  Wilmot  Proviso" — "That,  as  an 
express  and  fundamental  condition  to  the  ac- 
quisition of  any  territory  from  the  Republic  of 

Mexico  by  the  U.  S neither  slavery  nOr 

ipvoluntary.  servitude  shall  ever  exist  in  any 
part  of  the  said  territory."  This  proviso  was 
aiiopted  by  the  House,  but  rejected  by  the  Sen- 
ate, and  became  the  starting  point  for  Uie 
"  Free-soil  "  movement  of  18M.  Mr.  Wilmot 
was  president  judge  of  the  Thirteenth  District 
of  Pennsylvania,  1S53-61 ;  delegate  to  the  Re- 
publican National  conventions,  1856  and  16S0; 
an  unsuccessful  candidate  for  Governor  of 
Pennsylvania,  1S5T;  U.  S.  Senator  to  fill  a 
vacancy,  1861-63,  and  judge  of  the  U.  S.  Court 
of  Claims,  1S63. 

Wifmot  Piovi'so.    Bee  Wiluot,  David. 

WU'son,  Alexander,  1766-1813;  American  or- 
nithologist; b.  Paisley,  Scotland.  He  was  a 
weaver  and  peddler.  Having  been  punished  for 
a  lampoon  at  Paisley,  he  immigrated  to  Dela- 
ware in  1794,  then  settled  in  Pennsylvania.  In 
1804  he  made  his  first  ornithological  excursion 
to  Niagara  Falls,  through  the  then  unopened 
wilderness  of  W.  New  York,  and  afterwards 
explored  other  re^oiu.    The  first  vidume  of  his 


WIIBON 

omitholog7  appeared  In  1809,  tuid  th«  work 
wtLS  continued  after  biB  death  bj  George  Dod 
and  CbarleB  Lucieo  Bonaparte. 

WiliODi  Heniy,  1812-75;  Ainerican  states- 
man; b.  FanaingtoQ,  N.  H.  In  1B30  he  re- 
solved to  devote  bis  lifa  to  emancipation.  '' 
184S,  on  the  nomination  of  Gen.  Taylor,  hi 
nounced  the  Whig  Party  and  supported  the 
Free  Soil  organization.  He  failed  of  electii 
as  governor  in  1853,  but  was  chosen  a  U. 
Senator  in  1855.  During  the  Civil  War  he 
was  associjited  witTi  important  legislation,  and 
especially  as  chairman  of  the  Committee  on 
Military  Affairs.  In  18T2  he  was  elected 
Vice  President  of  the  U.  S.  In  the  last  years 
of  his  life  he  prepared  bis  great  work,  "The 
Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power." 

WilMD,  Jame^  1712-98;  a  signer  of  the 
Declaration  of  Independence;  b.  Bcotland.  He 
became  a  lawyer  in  Philadelphia,  and  served 
several  terms  in  the  Continental  Congress.  He 
was  a  member  of  the  Federal  constitutional 
convention,  and  advocated  a  strong  central 
government.  He  was  one  of  the  first  judges  of 
the  Supreme  Court  of  the  U.  8.  In  1790  be  be- 
came first  Prof,  of  Law  in  the  College  of  PbU- 

Wilaon,  John  (pseudonym,  CsBIBTOPHiai 
NosTH),  1785-1854;  Scotch  author  and  edu- 
cator; b.  Paisley,  Scotland;  'studied  at  Univ.  of 
Glasgow  and  at  Magdalen  College,  (Oxford, 
where  he  won  the  Newdigate  prize  for  English 
poetry,  and  graduated  1807.  In  1808  he  bought 
the  estate  of  Elleray,  in  Westmoreland,  where 
he  lived  in  intercourse  with  Wordsworth,  Cole- 
ridge, and  Southey,  snd  published  in  1812  the 
poem  "  The  Isle  of  Palms."  In  1816  he  removed 
to  Edinburgh,  and  was  admitted  to  the  bar; 

Eublished  in  IBIO  the  dramatic  poem  "The 
'ity  of  the  Plague";  became  one  of  the  chief 
contributors  to  Blacktoood'a  .Magazine;  Prof, 
of  Morals,  1820,  Univ.  of  Edinburgh.  He  pub- 
lished "  Lights  and  Shadows  of  Scottish  Life," 
"The  Trials  of  Margaret  Lindsay,"  "The  For- 
esters," and  "  Essay  on  the  Genius  and  Char- 
acter of  Burns";  but  his  most  popular  produc- 
tions were  his  contributions  to  Blackioood'M 
Magazine  under  the  pseudonym  of  "  Christo- 
pher North";  "  Noctea  Ambrosante,"  imag- 
inary dialogues  at  Ambrose's  Tavern,  in  Edin- 
burgh, between  the  leading  contributors  to 
Blackwood. 

Wilson,  (Thomas)  Woodiow,  135S-  ; 
American  educator  and  twenty-eighth  Presi- 
dent o(  the  U.  8.;  b.  Staunton,  Va.;  gradu- 
ated from  Princeton  University  with  the  de- 
gree of  A.B.,  1879,  and  A.M.,  1882,  and  re- 
ceived the  degree  of  LL.B.  from  the  Univer- 
sitv  of  Virginia.  1882.  He  practiced  law  at 
Atlanta,  Qa.,  1882-83,  but  abandoned  the  bar 
for  furUier  study,  which  was  rewarded,  1888, 
by  the  degree  of  Ph.D.  from  Johns  Hopkins 
University.  He  was  Associate  Professor  of 
History  and  Political  Economy,  Bryn  Mawr 
College,  18SS-88;  Professor  of  History  and 
Political  Economy,  Wesley  an  University, 
1888-90;  Professor  of  Jurisprudence  and  Po'l- 
itics,  Princeton  University,  18S0-1B02,  and 
President  of   Princeton   University,    1902-10. 


wnsoN 

In  1010  he  waa  elected  Governor  of  New  Jer- 
Bcy  on  the  Democratic  ticket  for  the  term 
1911-14,  and  in  1B12  to  the  Presidency,  by 
the  largest  electoral  vote,  43fi,  ever  recorded 
for  a  Presidential  eandidate;  re-dected  1016. 

From  the  earUeat  munnurings  of  the  peat  war 
President  Wilson  became  one  of  the  loremoMt 
champions  of  universal  peace,  of  international 
unity.of  the  real  brotherhood  of  natiouB.  Bypen, 
speech,  and  official  messages  he  neglected  noop- 
portunity  to  avert  tie  thr^tened  war,  to  recon- 
cile the  nations  immediately  affected  by  the 
problema  of  the  moment,  to  safeguard  hante 
ml«reatafrom  enemy  propaganda  sod  actiTitiea 
in  the  U,  S.,  uid  to  initiate  measures  to  meet  a 
contingency  he  deemed  imminent  and  likely  to 
involve  the  country  in  the  Btrura^e.  Id  the  ar- 
ticle on  the  United  States,  in  tMa  volume,  his 
most  important  acta  up  to  the  dedaration  erf 
war  against  the  German  government  ore  brieSy 
noted,  and  in  the  article  on  the  World  War  Re- 
view a  continuation  c^  his  eSorta  for  the  then 
larger  purpose  of  "making  the  world  safe  for 
democracy^'  is  summarized. 

It  would  be  difficult,  if  not  imposBible,  at  this 
time  to  specify  the  Preddent'a  moat  effectiy« 
service.  In  view,  however,  <rf  his  marked  promi- 
nence and  influence  as  one  of  the  "Big  Four"  in 
the  Peace  Conference  the  fourteen  points  for  a 
lasting  peace  that  he  presented  to  a  joint  sesmon 
of  the  Congress,  Jan.  8,  1918,  and  the  four  ad- 
ditional ones  that  he  miipoeed  hi  a  speech  to  the 
Diplomatio  Corps  at  Washington's  tomb,  Julv  4, 
following,  will  aoubtiees  have  an  enduringhis- 
torical  importance.  To  add  to  this  probability, 
it  is  tobenotedthatGermany  andheraasociatcfl 
in  the  war  accepted  the  conditions  stated  on 
both  occasions,  while  the  President's  suggestion 
for  the  formation  of  a  League  of  Nations  met 
with  almost  universal  favor. 

Because  of  the  influence  the  fourteen  "points" 

id  among  the  various  nations  they  are  ben 
given  in  full: 

Opca  covenuta  of  pncc.  opeiily  uriTSd  mt.  after 
I  tber«  thmll  bfl  no  private  intematiormi  undentand- 
of  any  kind,  but  diplimuicr  ahall  procoed  alwajfs 


B  CBtHblishmci 


le  or  Id  part  by  inteniatioiiil 
ponible,  of  bU  econamio 


rmamcnu  i^  M  nducsd  to  the  lowest  a 
ith  domestic  safetv. 
"S.  A  free,  opes  minded,  aad  absolutely  impartial  ad- 
iitmeut  of  all  colonial  claims,  baaed  upon  a  strict  obser- 
ancg  of  the  principle  that  in  detennimng  all  such  qno- 
.oni  of  sovereisnty  the  interests  of  tbs  popiilatJDns  con- 
-nraed  mu*t  bav*  •qual  mieht  with  the  «guitabla  claims 
of  the  Govemmeot  whose  title  li  to  ba  determined. 

The  evaEuation  ot  all  Rnssiaa  tertitcny  and  such  a 

nent  of  all  queationa  sSectiDB  Ruiais  aa  will  aecura 

at  and  freest  eoo^eration  of  the  other  nations  trf  the 

UTihampeied  and  unembar- 


jituoitr  (( 
loLilicaf  d< 


rt^^fr 


o  of  every  kind  she  may 


jscii  by  her  listeT  nations  in  the  mont 
B  Bc(d  test  of  their  Bood  will,  of  theii 
T  Deris  as  distineuiihed  from  tbetr  oi 
eir  inteUigent  ana  n«— ift-H  sympathy 
"7.  Beleium.  tb«  trhota  world  wOl  ag. 


xCoogIc . 


iMv*  thwiwilvoie 


WILSON 

■tad  uid  THtond  wiUiout  tay  attempt  to  Umit  tha  mirtr- 

uitions.     No  other  unale  act  will  tern  u  thU  will 

in  tbe  Ian  vbicb  they 

forthBBDi 

Without  thii . 

tha  wboto  ateuctnte  and  vslidity  ol  iii(«-iuitiaa»l  law  >• 

"A.  AUhimch  tenitoiy  ■bould  be  Eraed  sod  the  i 
▼aded  portiofu  reetored,  ud  the  .        .     — 

PniMla  in  18T1  ID  the  nuittei   '  * 
■msMtted  the  puce  of  the 

iliDuld  be  righted,  in  order  ^wb>  v^mw  um/  vih«  ujvad 
made  tecun  in  the  interest  ol  all. 

"9.  A  nadjiutment  of  the  (rontien  of  Italy  ehould 
■fleetad  along  clearly  recoeniuble  lino  o(  natknulity. 

"10-  The   pepplei    of   Auetju-Hungiry,    whoca    pti 
.1 ; :.t  .J,  ,^  eifegnatded  a- 


and  economto  iodetienden 

aaveral  Balkan  Eta  tea  sboiild 

"la.  The  Turldah   portior 

Bmiuia  ahould  ba  assured  a 

other  natiooalitiea  which  ai 


abaolotely  unnu^eited  (roportunity  of  aulooomoui  develop- 
ment, and  tha  Dardajieues  ehouM  ba  parmaneatly  opnied 
aa  a  ma  paaaaya  to  tha  abipa  and  eommaree  of  aU  natiou 


■;is.  A 


■Qdapendent  Pi 
Id  meloda  tlw 


Polwb  Stati 


■bould  be  encted 


etabty  Poliah  populati _ _  __ 
■  and  aecim  aceeaa  to  tha  aea,  and  whoae  political 

aconomic  indapeadeDce  and  territorial  intesTity  ibcmld  be 
■aaranteed  by  mtemational  covenant. 

sdation  of  nationa  mart  ba  formed 

t*  fM  tha  puipoaa  of  affonliiig  mutul 

Duiin^  the  aittiog  of  tbe  Peace  Conferenoe 
the  Pieaideiit  mode  two  trips  to  P&rii,  audhia 
advice  was  sought  on  all  important  queetiona. 
On  Us  return  from  hia  eecona  trip  he  gave  tbe 
Senate  Committee  on  Foreign  Relationa,  Auf;. 
19,  1919,  a  detailed  account  of  the  manner  m 
which  the  peace  treaty  was  framed.  Early  in 
September  be  began  a  speakiiig  tour  in  sup- 
port of  the  League  of  Nations  Covenant  which 
was  cut  short  a  month  later  by  a  complete 
physical  collapse.  While  the  President  was 
cOQvalescii^  from  his  sudden  proetration,  a 
strike  of  bituminous  coal  miDers,  set  for  Nov. 
1,  impelled  him  to  attempt  to  avert  a  nation- 
wide disaster.  Aeeortiin^y,  on  Oct.  25,  be  called 
on  the  miners,  both  union  officers  and  mem- 
bers t«  rescina  the  strike  order,  which  he  pro^ 
nounced  both  unjustafiable  and  unlawful.  As 
small  heed  was  given  to  this  by  the  leaders, 
the  government  prepared  to  meet  any  issue 
with  all  ite  power.  On  Oct.  31,  Judge  A.  B. 
Anderson,  of  the  Federal  District  Court  at  In- 
dianapolis, issued  a  temporary  injunction  re- 
Btraimng  all  strike  activities  of  the  United  Mine 
Workers  of  America.  The  petition  on  which 
the  injimction  was  granted  was  based  on  the 
Act  of  Aug.  10,  1918,  wbiidi  made  it  unlawful 
to  conspire  to  umit  the  th«  facilities  of  trans- 
portation or  the  supply  or  distribution  of  food 
and  fuel.  Co-incident  with  this  action,  both 
Houses  of  Cnaffeea  voted  to  sustain  the  Pres- 
ident in  his  attitude;  U.  8.  Attorney-General 
Palmer  declared,  that  the  laws  would  be  rigidly 
enforced:  the  army  was  reinforced  in  the  sev- 
eral ooal  districts;  and  the  war  fuel  and  food 
administration  vaa  revived  under  their  former 


WIND 

chiefs.  Tbe  strike  order,  effective  on  Nov.  1, 
led  miners,  aggregating  about  395,000  in  num- 
ber, according  to  the  daims  of  the  leaders,  to 
quit  work-  On  Nov.  8,  the  injui^tion  was 
made  permanent  and  the  officials  were  ordered 
within  three  days  to  call  oCF  the  strike.  This 
order  of  the  court  was  carried  out  on  Nov, 11^ 
and  the  strike  officially  abandoned. 

Win'chell,  Alexander,  1824-91;  American  ge- 
ologist; b.  at  North  East,  N.  Y.;  graduated  at 
the  Wesleyan  Univ.,  1847;  teacher,  1947-53; 
Prof,  of  Physios  and  Civil  Engineenng  at  the 
Univ.  of  Michigan,  1S53,  and  of  Geology,  Zo- 
oloDT,  and  Botany,  1855;  state  geologut  d 
MicLgan,  1869-82;  Prof,  of  Geology  m  the 
Kentucky  Univ.,  1866-69;  director  ol  geologi- 
cal survey  of  Michigan,  1869-71;  ohani^or  of 
Syracuse  Univ.,  1872-74;  Prof,  of  Geol<Ky  in 
the  Univ.  of  Michigan,  t879  to  his  deatnT 

Wln'chester,  capital  of  Hampshirs,  England; 
on  the  Itchin;  60  m.  W8W.  of  London.  It  is 
the  Caer-GwerU  of  the  Britons  and  the  Venta 
Belgarwn  of  the  Romans.  After  being  taken  in 
495  by  the  Saxons,  it  received  its  present  name^ 
and  was  for  several  centuries  tne  capital  m 
England  and  the  residence  of  its  kings.  Jta 
cathedral,  built  in  the  eleventh  century,  is  a 
vast  but  heavy  structure,  containing  many  in- 
teresting monuments.  Winchester  CoUege  was 
founded  here  by  Wjiceman  in  1360-93.  Pop, 
(1901)  20,928. 

Winchester,  capital  Frederick  Co.,  Va.,  88 
m.  W.  by  N.  of  Washington,  D.  C,  113  m.W. 

by  S.  of  Baltimore,  Md.  The  place  is  the  key 
to  the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  and  during 
the  Civil  War  it  was  repeatedly  occupied  by 
the  forces  on  either  side  and  in  its  viciiiiW 
were  fought  several  battlee  (See  Cedah  Cxkek). 
Pop.  (1910)  6,864. 

Wind,  a  sensible  movsfnent  of  the  air  wiUi 
reference  to  tbe  earth's  surface.  In  general,  a 
wind  ia  the  result  of  a  local  diatiirbance  of  the 
density  of  the  atmosphere,  in  consequence  of 
which  the  air  is  set  m  motion;  its  motion  ia 
then  modified  by  the  resistance  of  the  esjth's 
surface  and  by  the  daily  rotation  of  the  earth 
about  ite  axis,  and  may  spread  into  regions  far 
distant  from  the  original  seat  of  the  disturbance. 
The  most  important  c^  the  f^eneral  and  period- 
ical currents  are  the  trade  winds,  which  prevail 
between  the  parallelfl  <rf  30°  N.  and  30°  S.  lati- 
tude, but  attain  their  full  breadth  and  force 
only  in  midooean.  and  are  very  materially  cir- 
cumscribed near  tne  E.  and  W.  continents.  The 
breadth  of  the  trade-wind  lone  of  tjie  Pacific 
is  not  so  well  determined  as  in  the  Atlantic,  and 
the  trades  of  the  Indian  Ocean  show  irregulari* 
ties,  depending  on  the  seasons.  The  whole  sys- 
tem of  trade  wind  is  divided  by  a  belt  of  calms 
about  the  equator,  amar&ting  the  NE.  winds 
of  the  N.  from  tiie  8E.  winds  trf  the  8.  hemi- 
sphere. In  the  equatorial  belt  of  calms  heavy 
rains  constantly  occur:  but  in  the  trade-wind 
region  proper  few  clouds  and  light  showers  are 
observed.  The  term  antitrades  designatea  the 
currents  that  prevail  quite  uniformly  above  the 
trade  winds,  at  a  height  of  3,000  ft.  or  more 
above  the  earth's  surface;  this  current,  known 
also  as  the  "upper  trade"  or  "return  trade," 


WIND 

Menu  to  be  merely  the  return  to  the  tempente 
wcaaa  of  the  air  that  had  flowed  at  the  surface 
toward  the  equator. 

The  term  monsoona  (Arabic,  "  Beaaonal ")  ii 
applicable  to  all  wiuda  that  with  the  seaeoQ 
change  from  land  to  sea  winds.  Thue  on  the 
W.  coaet  of  Africa  in  gummer  the  regular  NE. 
winds  are  deflected  decidedly  toward  the  conti- 


Pla.1.    On 


J.  Cmcui^TioK, 


nent;  in  Australia  and  N.  America  similar  phe- 
nomena are  noted;  but  the  most  striking  case 
■  ia  that  of  India,  where  the  NE.  trft4p  wind  of 
the  N.  portion  of  the  Indian  Ocean  ia  eompletely 
reversed  during  summer,  but  in  winter  is  great- 
ly reinforced  by  the  land  and  aea  winds  that 
thus  alternate  between  NE,  and  BW.  Of  the 
hot    winds,    none    is   more    famous   than    the 


Fio.  2, 


■imoom  of  N.  Africa  and  Arabia.  The  exag- 
gerated accounts  of  ancient  travelers  have  bc^n 
modified  by  observations  of  recent  investi- 
gators, from  which  it  appears  that  this  is  a 
strong,  hot,  dry  wind  drawn  from  the  heated 
interior  of  the  continent;  it  is  often  accompa- 
nied by  sand  clouds  or  sand  pillars,  and  its 
deadly  qualities  are  simply  the  result  of  the  op- 
pressive heat  and  the  very  fine  dust  Similar 
tot  winds  prevail  in  Egypt  in  May  and  June, 
and  are  there  known  as  khamsin.  Of  the  dry 
winds  that  flow  out  from  the  interior  of  con- 
tinents, some  are  cold,  others  warm.  The 
northers  of  Texas  are  due  to  a  thin  surface 
Uyer  of  dijr  air,  which,  na  it  flows  from  the 


WINDMILL 

Hocky  Uountains,  from  Kansas,  and  from 
Uinnesota  S.  or  SE.,  loses  by  radiation  the  heat 
it  receives  from  the  sun,  and,  underflowing  the 
warmer,  moister  air  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
rushes  over  the  smooth  surface  of  the  water 
with  thrice  the  velocity  that  is  observed  in  the 
interior  of  the  continent.  On  the  W.  coast  of 
Africa  the  dry  £.  and  NE.  winds  are  known  as 
the  harmattan,  whose  extreme  dryness  makea 
them  cooling,  but  they  are  hotter  than  the 
northers  and  are  often  loaded  with  sand. 
Amtmg  storm  winds  the  levante  is  a  strong 
K  wind  on  the  E.  of  the  Mediterranean;  hur- 
ricane was  at  first  applied  only  to  the  terri- 
ble storms  of  the  W.  Indies,  wtiile  typhoon 
designated  the  storms  of  the  Pacific;  tornado 
is  applied  in  the  U.  8.  to  destructive  winds  that 
rush  in  narrow  paths  over  long  belts  of  terri- 
tory, with  whirling  clouds  and  heavy  rain  or 
hail. 

The  speed  of  wind  is  measured  by  the  ane- 
mometer i^tQ.o.).  The  best-known  scale- and 
the  one  usually  employed  at  sea  is  the  Beau- 
fort, as  follows: 


"^i^r 

CommoD  Nuu. 

»,:»w. 

Ii 

Win'dermere  (called  also  WiNaNDEBUEBE). 
the  largest  lake  of  England;  14  m.  long  and  1 
m.  broad.  It  lies  in  Lancashire,  and  is  cele- 
brated for  the  beauty  of  its  shores.  Its  outlet 
is  the  Leven,  which  flows  B.  into  Morecamhe 
Bay,  on  the  W.  coast  of  England.  A  group  of 
islands,  the  largest  of  which  contains  28  acres, 
is  in  the  center  of  the  lake.  The  village  of 
Windermere  is  about  a  mile  from  the  H.  shore 
of  the  lake.    Pop.  1,600. 

Wlnd'flower.    See  AnEiions. 

Wind'gaUi,  puffy  swellings  about  the  fetlock 
joints  of  horses.  Tight  bandaging,  irritant 
ointments,  and  rest  may  apparently  cure  them, 
but  th^  are  liable  to  recur.  They  usually  ap- 
pear on  the  hind  legs  in  the  form  of  little  oval 
sacs  between  the  back  sinews  and  the  bones, 
just  above  the  fetlocks.  At  first  the  puffs,  or 
windgalls,  feel  soft  and  elastic,  but  after  some 
time,  if  the  animal  is  employed  at  hard  labor, 
<)icy  will  become  Arm  and  nard.  Rubbing  is 
the  most  effective  remedy. 

Windlass,  a  form  of  the  wheel  and  axle,  in 
which  the  axle  is  horizontal ,^bile  in  the  cap- 
stan it  is  usually  vertical.  The  axle  is  made  to 
revolve  either  by  means  of  handspikes  or  a 
winch.  The  principles  involved  are  those  of 
the  wheel  and  axle. 

Wind'mSl,  device  for  utilising  the  energy  of 
the  wind  as  a  motive  power;  speciflcalfy,  a 


work  IB  unknown.  Prof.  John  Beckman,  of  the 
Univ.  of  OOttingm,  who  made  a  thorough  in- 
vestigation in  regard  to  its  history,  found  a 
reference  to  the  use  of  the  windmill  among  the 


Fto.  1. 

Bohemians  as  earl}'  as  T18.  Mention  was  made 
of  the  use  of  windmiilE  in  1105  and  again  in 
1493,  but  no  authentic  information  in  regard 
to  their  mode  of  construction  is  found  untQ  a 
still  later  period. 

A  windmill  has  four  essential  parts — a  wind- 
wheel,  a   shaft  or  axle  to  which  the  wheel  is 
attached,  and  which  is  made  to  rotate  by  the 
wheel;    wheels    and    shafts    for    trans- 
nitting  the  wheel;   and  other  machin- 
ery.   The  manner  of  making  the  wheel 
find   the   wind   has   given   rise   to   two 
classes    of    these    old    mills.      One,    in 
which   the   whole   frame   is   turned   by 
hand,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  is  called  the 
German  mill.      The   frame   rests   upon 
and   turns   about   the   post  E.     In  the 
other    only    the    dome    containing    the 
shaft   and   bevel    wheel   is   rotated,   as 
shown  in  Fig,  2.    In  this  case  the  shaft 
A  and  bevel  wheel  attached  are  station- 
ary, but  free  to  rotate.    The  movement 
of  the  dome  in  this  case  is  sometimes 
made  automatic  b^  extending  an  arm  to 
the  rear  of  the  wind  wheel  and  mount- 
ing thereon  a  small  windmill,  S,  whose 
axis  is  connected  by  suitable  gearing  to 
the  dome  in  such  a  way  as  to  turn  the 
dome  when  the  small  wheel,  8,  rotates. 
When  the  wind  wheel  is  firm  to  the  wind  the 
plane  of  the  small  wheel,  S,  will  be  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind  and  it  will  be  at  rest;  but  when 
the  wind  veers  it  will  strike  the  small  wheel, 
setting  it  ii)  motion,  and  brin^  the  wind  wheel 
into  the  proper  position  by  driving  the  shaft  a, 
pinion  6,  beveled  wheel  o,  and  pinion  d,  which 
ft  rack,  e,  extending  around  the  t«wer. 


being  displaced  by  the  American  i 
whose  characteristic  features  are  the  large 
number  of  narrow  radial  slats  or  sails  (plane 
when  made  of  wood,  or  generally  curved  when 
made  of  iron) ;  the  rudder,  or  tailpiece;  the  au- 
tomatic adjustments;  and  the  pyramidal  tower, 
as  shown  in  ^g.  3.  The  tower  was  formerly 
of  wood,  made  on  the  spot,  but  more  recently  it 
is  made  of  steel,  fitted  m  the  shop,  and  shipped 
to  the  place  where  it  is  to  be  erected.  -'Some 
towers  are  made  of  brick  or  stone.  The  upper 
stories  may  be  used  for  storage  tanks  and  the 
lower  ones  for  sawmills  or  other  small  ma- 
chinery. They  are  of  all  heights,  suited  to  cir- 
cumstances, usually  from  30  to  70  ft. 

Windmills  are  used  tor  a  great  variety  of 
purposes — on  railways  for  pumping  water  into 
storage  tanks  for  supplying  locomotives;  at 
resid«iceB  for  family  uses;  at  nurseries  for  wa- 
tering-plants, etc.;  on  prairies  for  irrigation 
and  watering  cattle,  etc.;  for  threshing,  grind- 
ing, feed  cutting,  and  the  like;  and  they  might 
be  made  to  run  a  sewing  machine,  to  do  laun- 
dry work,  run  a  dishwasher,  blow  fans  in  a 
dining  room,  etc.  American  mills  are  made  of 
all  sizes,  from  i^  to  4  horse  power,  and  even 
larger. 

Self- regulating  devices  are  made  to  maintain 
a  more  uniform  speed.  In  the  "  solid  wheel  " 
it  is  turned  "  out  of  the  wind  "  by  means  of  a 
lateral  vane  placed  back  of  and  parallel  with 
the  face  of  the  whecL  The  wind,  by  acting 
against  this  vane,  turns  the  wheel  to  one  side 
so  that  less  surface  is  presented  to  the  wind, 
and  the  rudder  permits  the  side  vane  to  operate 
quickly.  This  system  is  represented  in  the  Cor- 
coran wheel  (Fig.  4),  in  which  B  is  the  rudder 
and  F  the  side  vane.  The  wheel  may  also  be  ' 
turned  out  of  wind  by  placing  the  vertical  sup- 
port one  side  the  axis  of  the  wheel;  then  the 
pressure  of  the  wind  agamst  the  wheel   will 


turn  the  wheel  about  the  vertical  axis.  The 
solid  wheel  may  also  be  adjusted  by  being  so 
hinged  that  the  wheel  may  be  turned  away 
from  the  wind  while  the  rudder  remains  in  the 
plane  of  the  wind.  The  wheel  ia  held  against 
the  rudder  by  a  weighted  lever,  and  when  the 
wind  is  so  strong  as  to  turn  the  wheel  aside  it 
raises   the   weighted   lever   at   the   same   time. 


chanau  wheel  ia  of  this  type.  Wheels  are  regu- 
Ut«d  without  a  rudder  by  being  so  placed  as 
to  receive  the  wind  from  behind  the  tower.   The 


WINDOW 

'  meuis  of  a  centrifugal  governor,  to  that  tfaey ' 
will  present  more  or  leas  surface  to  the  wind. 
This  IS  called  the  "  sectional  wheel."  as  opposed 
to  the  solid  wheel,  and  was  invented  by  Iwiiel 
HaUiday. 


Fni.  3. 

tendency  in  this  adjustment  is  for  the  wind  to 
keep  the  wheel  fair  with  the  wind;  and  a  vane 
is  paced  beyond  the  wheel  perpendicular  to  its 
face,  which  turns  the  wheel  away  when  desired. 
ThiB   vane   is   attached    to    a  weighted   lever. 


which  it  is  forced  to  raise  when  turning  the 
wheel  away,  and  which  brings  the  wheel  back 
into  fairness  when  the  wind  slackens.  The 
speed  may  be  adjusted  by  tuning  the  slate,  by 


The  aeromotor  shown  in  Pig.  6  is  the  inven- 
tion of  Thomas  0.  Perry,  and  is  of  increased 
cfHciency  as  compared  with  previous  wheels. 
The  wheel  is  maile  of  eted;  the  vanes  are 
curved  and  riveted  to  the  circular  sections, 
properly  braced  with  tie  rods;  all  obstructiona 
to  the  free  Sow  of  wind  through  the  wheel  are 
avoided  as  far  as  possible,  and  all  unnecessary 
adjustment  avoided.  When  not  used  the  rud- 
der may  be  thrown  around  parallel  with  the 
wheel.  It  nins  with  a  light  breeze,  and  is  dur- 
able. 

In  older  types  of  windmills  the  upper  end  ol 
the  pump  rod  was  attached  directly  to  a  crank 
driven  by  the  shaft  of  the  wheel,  but  in  many 
mills  of  the  present  day  the  speed  ia  reduced  by 
gearing.  The  object  ia  to  permit  a  longer 
stroke  for  doing  the  same  work,  thereby  alfow- 
ing.more  time  for  the  valves  to  get  seated;  also 
by  reducing  the  length  of  the  crank,  for  which 
provision  is  made,  a  short  stroke  is  produced, 
thus  allowing  some  work  to  be  done  with  a 
light  breeze.  Some  pumping  mills  are  provided 
with  an  automatic  arrangement,  operated  by  a 
float,  for  throwing  the  mill  completely  out  of 
the  wind  when  the  tank  is  nearly  full  and 
bringing  it  into  the  wind  by  a  weight  when 
the  tank  ia  nearly  empty. 

Win'dow,  an  opening  in  the  wall  of  a  build- 
ing to  admit  light  and  air  into  the  interior. 


WINDPirai 

'  In  dwdling  hoiuea  in  ancient  times  the  win- 
dows were  narrow  BliU,  and  it  was  not  until 
about  the  end  of  the  twelfth  centuiy  that  glaaa 
was  used  to  any  great  extent  in  private  houses. 
Windows,  properly  ao  called,  were  almost  un- 
known in  the  religioua  edifices  of  the  Egyp- 
tians, Oreeks,  and  Romans,  the  light  being 
admitted  at  the  roof,  but  they  constitute  an  es- 
sential and  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Gothic 
■tyle.  In  modern  houses,  windows  are  made 
capable  of  being  opened  and  shut  hj  means  of 
easements  or  sashes.  In  Britain  a  window  tax 
was  imposed  in  1095,  and  in  1851,  when  the  tax 
was  aboiished,  each  bouse  having  more  than 
seven  windows  was  taxed.  A  dormer  window 
is  a  window  pierced  in  a  roof  and  so  set  as  to 
be  vertical  while  the  roof  slopes  awa;  from  it. 

Wind'pipe.    See  Trachea. 

Wind'sor  Cas'tle,  the  principal  royal  resi- 
dence of  the  sovereigns  of  Qreat  BHtain  since 
the  accession  of  George  III,  and  often  occupied 
by  the  earlier  kings.  It  is  built  upon  a  chalk 
hill  near  the  Thames,  22  m.  from  London.  The 
<dder  palace  of  the  English  kings  was  at  Old 
Windsor,  2  m.  distant,  and  doubt  exists  among 
antiquaries  as  to  the  first  Enelisb  king  wbo 
built  solid  work  of  masonry  at  Windsor  Castle. 
The  moat  ancient  portions  are  the  Garter  and 
C^sar  towers,  the  latter  of  which  forms  a  bas- 
tion of  the  castle  wall.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
curious  antiquities  in  the  whole  building.  These 
towers  were  erected  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  I, 
II,  and  III.  To  the  same  period  belong  the  8. 
covered  walk  of  the  Dean's  Cloister,  a  dooi*  be- 
hind the  altar  in  St.  George's  Chape!,  and  the 
remains  of  Domus  Regis  in  the  N.  of  the  chapel. 
The  Norman  gateway  near  the  keep,  the  groin- 
ing of  the  Devil's  .Tower  and  King  John's 
Tower,  and  the  Dean's  Cloister  pertain  to  the 
timo  of  Edward  III.  St.  Gecrge^s  Chapel  was 
built  by  Edward  IV;  the  choir  roof  by  Henry 
Vll;  the  outer  gateway  of  the  lower  ward  by 
Henry  VIII;  and  the  buildings  from  the  Nor- 
man gate  to  the  state  apartments,  including 
the  library,  were  raised  by  Elizalwth, 

But  the  castle,  as  it  now  appears,  is  almost 
entirely  the  creation  of  George  IV's  reign,  when 
about  a  million  sterling  was  spent  upon  the 
place.  The  courts,  the  terrace,  tne  gardens,  the 
slopes,  and  the  parks  all  underwent  change  and 
improvement.  The  internal  changes  are  even 
more  striking  than  the  external.  Suites  of 
rooms  decorated  and  furnished  with  the  utmost 
magnificence,  the  corridor  which  runs  round 
two  sides  of  the  quadrangle,  and  the  grand 
staircases  immensely  surpass  what  was  previ- 
ously to  be  seen  in  the  castle.  Changes  have 
been  made  in  the  pictures,  some  of  the  old  ones 
having  been  sent  away  and  .others  introduced; 
a  museum  of  curiosities  has  been  arranged  in  a 
small  gallery  on  the  N.  side;  the  library  has 
been  improved;  the  plate  closet,  containing  sil- 
ver and  silver-gilt  services;  the  engravings,  the 
miniatures,  and  the  drawings  are  of  great 
value ;  and  the  collection  of  porcelain  is  thought 
to  be  unequaled  Jn  Europe;  but  no  facilities 
are  afforded  for  the  study  of  the  works  of  art 
in  the  castle,  even  when  tliey  are  national  prop- 
erty. The  Wolsey  Chapel  contains  the  tomlw 
of  Prince  Leopold,  Duke  of  Albany,  and  the 


magnificently 
itapn    to    the 


Dnke  of  Clarence.    It  I 

decorated,    and    contains    a   cenotapl 
Prince  Consort. 

Wind'waid  Is'luids,  originally  the  Cabibbee 
Islands,  or  Lebseb  Aktillbb,  that  portion  of 
the  W.  Indian  archipelago  which  forms  a  N. 
and  S.  chain  on  the  E.  side  of  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  from  the  Virgin  Islands  to  Trinidad.  The 
name  was  given  in  allusion  to  the  prevailing 
winds,  which  in  this  region  blow  almost  con- 
stantly from  the  E.  (See  Wear  Ibdies.)  Of- 
ficially, the  name  is  now  restricted  to  a  British 
colony,  embrscing  the  islands  of  Grenada,  the 
Grenadines,  St.  Vincent,  and  8t.  Lucia.  The 
capital  is  St.  George's,  in  Grenada. 

,  the  liquor  obtained  by  fer- 
juice  of  grapes,  but,  in  less 
strict  usa^,  also  certain  beverages  prepared 
from  the  juices  of  other  fruits.  The  composi- 
tion of  grape  juice  varies  not  only  with  the 
variety  of  the  vine,  but  also  with  the  climate, 
tbe  soil,  the  nature  of  the  manures  employed, 
the  aspect  and  exposure  of  the  vineyard,  the 
seasons,  and  the  stage  of  ripeness  at  which  the 
gathering  takes  place.  Among  peculiar  con- 
stituents present  in  the  skins  are  tannic  acid 
and  coloring  matters;  in  the  seeds,  a  fatty 
oil.  The  entire  solid  matters  of  the  juice,  the 
larger  portion  lieing  sugar,  may  mount  up  in 
ripe  grapes  to  forty  per  cent,  but  commonly 
the  proportion  is  much  less.  Tbe  sugar  ranges 
from  thirteen  to  thirty  per  cent  of  the  weight 
of  the  juice.  The  fermentation  hj  which  must 
(tbe  expressed  juice)  becomes  wine  starts 
spontaneously,  nnder  the  influence  of  minute 
germs  adherent  to  the  outside  of  the  berries 
or  afioat  in  the  air,  within  a  time  varying, 
according  to  tfmperature,  from  a  few  hours  ta 


and  soon  bring  with  them  particles  of  yeast 
{see  Febmektation ) ,  which  tend  to  accumu- 
late on  the  surface. 

Upon  the  subsidence  of  the  violent  fermenta- 
tion the  yeast,  with  more  or  less  of  tartar, 
gummy  and  albuminoid  matters  (Ices)  and 
grape  dAiris,  and  pomace,  settles  to  the  bot- 
tom, white  the  liquid  clears  and  is  then  care- 
fully drawn  off  into  casks  to  undergo  the  after- 
fermentation,  during  which  the  remaining 
sugar  {one  half  to  two  per  cent}  ferments 
out  slowly,  and  tbe  formation  of  the  bouquet 
begins.  Great  care  must  now  be  taken  to  pre- 
vent access  of  air  and  consequent  acetiflcation, 
yet  without  incurring  the  risk  of  bursting  the 
casks  by  tight  bunging.  Hence,  as  the  wine 
diminishes  by  evaporation  through  the  wood, 
the  empty  space  must  be  filled  up  with  other 
wine  iullage),  a  practice  which  must  there- 
after be  continued  so  long  as  the  wine  remains 
in  wood.  The  after-fermentation  may  last 
from  six  weeks  to  several  months;  during  that 
time  an  abundant  deposition  of  lees  talus 
place;  these  consist-  largely  of  tartar  with 
some  yeast,  and  gummy  and  albuminous  mat- 
ters, and  are  ntilized  in  tbe  making  of  cream 
of  tartar: 

Wlien  fermentation  has  completely  ceased 
the  young  wine  is  again  drawn  I  racked)  off, 
preferably  into  smaller  casks,  in  wbicli  tba 


WINE 

maturing  or  ^ng  is  to  take  pUM.  Tlili 
process  depends  essentially  on  the  grednal 
action  of  atmospheric  oxygen,  which  enters 
through  the  porea  of  the  wood,  for  in  air- 
tight vessels  no  bouquet  is  formed.  The  ma- 
turing process  is  hastened  b;  frequent  raclcing 
(ever7  two  months),  during  which  the  wine 
is  for  a  abort  time  eipoeea  to  the  air  and 
absorbs  oxygen. 

In  those  varieties  of  the  grape  in  which  (and 
this  is  the  case  particularly  with  those  gniwn 
in  the  warmer  climates]  the  sugar  is  present 
in  ver^  large  proportions,  the  supply  of  fer- 
ment- is  exhausted  before  the  sugar  is  all 
changed ;  and  the  portion '  of  sugar  thus  left 
in  the  wine  renders  it  sweet,  as  in  the  wines 
commonly  known  as  sweet  or  "  fruity,"  or  as 
natural  vin«  da  liquevr.  Of  such  wines,  Tokay 
and  Malmsey  are  examples.  The  excess  of 
sugar  in  a  wine  also  acta  commonly  to  pre- 
serve it  against  the  vinegary  fermentation; 
■o  that  muscadine  wins  has  been  kept  for  two 
hundred  years,  and  Tokay  at  the  age  of  a 
century  is  in  its  perfection.  But  in  grapes  in 
which,  as  is  common  in  the  cooler  vine-growing 
latitudes,  the  proportion  of  sugar  is  small,  this 
may  be  wholly  decomposed  and  replaced  by  al- 
cohol by  the  time  the  ferment  is  exhausted,  or 
even  before.  The  resulting  wines  are  charac- 
terized by  the  alcohol,  acids,  and  absence  of 
sweetness,  and  are  called  "  dry,"  or  "  sec." 
Sherry  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  this  sort. 

In  cases  in  which  the  sugar  is  exhaust«d 
before  the  ferment,  the  practice  of  adding  to 
the  fermenting  must  another  portion  which 
has  been  greatly  concentrated  by  boiling  is 
often  resorted  to  tor  the  purpose  of  supplying 
the  deficiency;  and  a  wine  otherwise  diy  and 
acid  may  thus  be  converted  into  one  that  Is 
sweet.  Wines  bottled  white  the  process  of  fer- 
mentation is  going  on  will  also  contain  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  and  will  in  consequence,  if 
drunk  immediately  on  uncorking,  bave  the 
quality  of  "briskness";  where  the  quantity 
of  the  gas  is  considerable,  such  wines  sparkle 
when  agitated  in  the  light.  They  are  distin- 
guished as  "sparkling"  (such  as  champagne), 
while  those  which  do  not  sparkle  are  "still." 
The  fragrance  and  an  important  part  of  the 
flavor  of  wines  are  due  to  the  presence  of  some 
peculiar  volatile  matter,  the  cfTeot  of  which  is 
technically  distinguished  from  the  simple  flavor, 
and  which  is  known  as  the  perfume  or  bouquet. 

The  following  tabib  gives  the  volume  per- 
centage of  alcohol  contained  in  soma  of  the 
best-known  wines,  varying  greatly,  of  course, 
from  year  to  year: 

Bhenlah  and  Mowlle  vines S.  1  ta  13.0 

Orilneliergei.  Nsumburser  (NE.  Gflnnuy)     6.5 

BuiBundy.  red 7.S  tolS.G 

Bordwui.  fint  dug T.Ota  11. S 

Calawba.  Concord,  eta 8. S  to  12.7 

CnlUamls  wiaei lO.StolS.O 

Pott 13.0  to  23.0 

ffterry 17.0  to  21.0 

Madn™ 17.0tolfl.O 

Tokay 12.0  to  20.0 

Greek  and  Syiiao  winw 14.0  to  18.0 

France  stands  at  the  head  of  wine-producing 
oountriea,  and  produces  a  variety  of  red  wines, 
of  which  those  most  esteemed  are  grown  in 
the  Bordelais  and  in  Burgundy,  as  well  as 


WINNEBAGO  LAKE 

In  DauphinC.  The  Bordeaux  wines  (clarets) 
have  a  full,  agreeable  bouquet,  a  good  deal  of 
body,  are  spirited  yet  not  heady,  with  a  de- 
cided astringency  and  acid,  and  pennit  ot 
'much  dilution  with  water,  with  but  little  loss 
of  sest;  they  form  '.he  bulk  of  French  export 
wines;  first  class  are  Chateau  Lafitte,  Chateau 
Latour,  Chateau  Uargaui,  Haut  Brion,  etc 
Second-class  clareta  are,  e.g.,  those  of  St.- 
Julien,  St.-Estephe,  Cantenac  of  the  Bordelais, 
those  of  the  Champagne,  the  Lyonnais,  and 
Dauphins.  The  Burgundy  wines,  such  as 
Chambertin,  Clos  Vougeot,  etc.,  are  rather 
heavy,  oily,  less  astringent  and  acid,  with  a 
fine,  peculiar  aroma,  and  will  not  bear  long 
shipment.     Pelita   CTna,    or   mn   ordinaire,   is 

Sroduced  in  all  but  eight  out  of  eighty-six 
epartments.  The  white  wines  of  France  are 
strong  and  have  more  body  than  the  Rhen- 
ish wines :  first-class  are  the  "  Haut  Sauterne" 
of  Chateau  Yguein,  of  the  Bordelais;  also  soma 
white  wines  of  Burgundy  and  Champagne. 

Foremost  among  the  wines  ot  Germany  are 
the  high-flavored,  dry  Rhenish  wines,  grown 
from  Alaace  down  to  Cobtenz,  in  the  valley 
of  the  Rhine  and  it*  tributaries.  The  Moselle 
wines  resemble  those  of  the  Rhine  in  flavor, 
but  are  light  and  acid;  the  wines  of  Franconia 
are  also  acid,  but  heavier,  and  not  so  high- 
flavored.  Those  of  NE.  Germany  (Silesia,  Sax- 
ony) are  very  acid.  Italy  produces  abundance 
of  wines,  which  in  the  N.  (Piedmont,  Tuscany) 
are  chiefly  "  dry  "  reds,  such  as  those  of  Asti, 
Monte  Pulciano,  and  Fiascone,  the  Chiantt,  etc. ; 
while  southward,  and  especially  in  Sicily,  Lach- 
ryma  Christ!  and  Marsala  are  best  known. 

Of  American  wines,  those  of  California  ap- 
proach most  nearly  to  those  of  Europe,  being 
made  from  the  same  varieties  of  grapes,  which 
are  unadapted  to  the  climatic  conditions  E.  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  variety  of  climates 
within  California  seems  to  render  feasible  the 
production  of  all  the  various  types  ot  wines  of 
middle  and  8.  Europe.  The  best  winea  of  Cali- 
fornia growth  are  unfortunately  now  commonly 
sold  to  consumers  under  various  French  labels, 
leaving  mainly  the  inferior  qualities  credited 
to  the  state.  The  high  qualities  of  the  best 
Califomian  winea,  however,  have  been  repeat- 
edly recognized  by  French  experts.  The  wine 
product  ot  California  has  for  years  raiuFed 
from  15,000,000  to  20,000,000  gal. 

Winkelried  (vlnk'ei-ret),  Arnold  von,  d.  abt 
1380(  I)  ;  Swiss  patriot;  a  native  of  the  canton 
of  Unterwaiden,  According  to  the  legend,  he 
decided  by  his  patriotic  self-sacrifice  the  battle 
of  Sempach,  July  9,  1386,  in  which  a  small 
Swiss  force  was  engaged  with  a  large  Austrian 
army  under  Archduke  Leopold.  By  gathering 
the  lances  of  Austrian  halberdiers  into  his  tiody 
and  bearing  them  down  to  the  ground  be  ef- 
fected a  breach  in  the  Austrian  line  through 
which  the  Swiss  made  the  attack.  The  ques- 
tion of  the  truth  of  the  legend  has  furnished 
the  subject  of  an  extensive  literature. 

Winneba'go  Lake,  the  larsest  body  of  water 
entirely  within  the  limits  ot  Wisconsin;  trav- 
ersed by  the  navigable  Fox  River.  It  is  26  m. 
long,  and  baa  a  maximum  breadth  ol  10  m. 
Area,  212  aq.  m.    It  is  748  ft.  alwre  the  fU. 


A.oogle 


WINNIPEG 

It  ie  navigated  by  steamboata,  and  abound*  in 
flah  of  varioua  speoies.  A  part  of  ita  E.  shara 
has  been  curioualy  walled  with  atonea  that 
hare  been  forced  shoreward  by  the  expansion 
of  the  ice  in  winter.  On  its  baiika  are  Oshkosh 
and  Fond  du  Lae. 

Win'nipez,  capital  of  the  province  of  Mani- 
toba, Dominion  of  Canada;  the  largest  citj 
of  the  Dominion  W.  of  Lake  Superior,  and  the 
third  in  size  in  British  N.  America;  at  the 
junctioa  of  the  Red  and  Assiniboine  rivers. 
Winnipeg  covers  an  area  of  about  12,760  acres. 
Uain  Street,  running  N.  and  S.  from  the  As- 
siniboine  to  the  ti.  limit  of  the  city  and  paral- 
lel with  Red  River,  and  Portage  Avenue,  run- 
ning E.  and  W.,  are  the  principal  busineai 
Streets,  though  moat  of  the  wholesale  houses 
are  on  Prlneesa  Street  and  its  vicinity.  The 
eitf  hall  and  the  post  office,  together  with  the 
legislative  buildings,  lieutenant  governor's  resi- 
dence, courthouse,  the  university  building,  and 
armory  ai«  the  principal  public  buildings. 
There  ia  an  Anglican  cathedral  and  archbish- 
op's residence,  and  a  constantly  increasing 
number  of  Church  of  England,  Preabyterlan, 
Methodist,  Baptist,  Congregational,  Lutheran, 
and  Roman  Catholic  churches.  The  Roman 
Catholic  cathedr»l  la  in  St.  6onifac«,  a  sub- 
urb on  the  E.  aide  of  Red  River.  Bt  John's 
Coll^,  for  Anglicans,  the  Methodist  College, 
the ,  Preabyterian  College,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  College  at  St.  Boniface  comprise  the 
Manitoba  Univ.,  and  there  are  twelve  large 
public  schools.  The  Winnipeg  general  hos- 
pital, the  St.  Boniface  iioapitaC  and  tiie  Deaf 
and  Dumb  Institute  receive  government  aid. 

Winnip^  is  governed  by  a  mayor  and 
board  of  wntrol  elected  by  general  vote,  and 
a  council  of  twelve  elected  by  six  warda, 
Uiere  being  a  separate  organization  of  trus- 
tees for  tl^  government  of  the  public  acboola. 
TTie  city  ia  to  a  large  extent  the  distribut- 
ing point  for  the  whole  of  the  territory  be- 
tween Lake  Superior  and  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. '  Large  flour  mills,  linseed  oil  mill, 
lumber  mills,  foundries,  and  the  Canadian  Pa- 
cific and  Canadian  Northern  Railway's  shops, 
barbed  wire  factories,  an  abattoir,  and  a  pork- 
packing  establishment  are  on  the  St.  Boniface 
aide  of  the  Red  River.  All  the  leading  banks 
of  Canada  have  branches  in  Winnipeg,  many 
having  fine  buildings,  the  city  usually  ranking 
third  in  the  monthly  return  of  banking  busi- 
neaa'of  the  Dominion. 

Winnip^  was  incorporated  in  IST3.  At  the 
junction  of  the  Red  and  Aasiniboine  rivers  the 
Hudson  Bay  Company's  post.  Fort  Garry,  had 
drawn  round  it  a  small  settlement.  In  1870, 
urben  the  Red  Biver  expedition  under  Col. 
(later  Lord)  Wolseley  arrived  at  Fort  Garry 
to  dispossess  the  inaurgent  Riel,  there  was  a 
population  of  about  200  people  within  a  mile 
of  tiie  fort.  This  served  as  the  nucleus  of 
the  city  of  Winnipeg.  (See  Manitoba.)  The 
rush  of  people  from  other  parts  of  Canada, 
consequent  upon  the  opening  up  of  the  country 
and  the  location  of  the  capital  of  the  new 
province  at  Fort  Qairy,  determined  the  quea- 
tion  of  the  future  central  point,  and  the  popu- 
lation rapidly  increased.    When  rail  oonununi- 


WINSLOW 

cation  through  N.  Minnesota  was  completed, 
the  growth  of  the  city  continued  more  stead- 
ily, and  was  again  largely  augmented  by  the 
conatruction  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway. 
The  reaction  from  the  boom  of  1881-B2  was 
felt  for  a  few  years,  but  the  settlement  of  the 
farming  lands,  the  produce  of  which  passed 
through  Winnipeg,  enabled  the  city  to  recover 
its  steady  erowth.  Eight  lines  and  branch 
lines  of  railway  converge  in  Winnipeg.  Pop. 
(1910)    136,035. 

Winnipeg  Lake,  a  large  sheet  of  water  in 
Manitoba,  Canada.  It  is  about  4  m.  wide  at 
its  8.  end,  narrows  in  the  center,  and  then 
extends  for  275  ro.,  expanding  to  60  m.  at  ita 
N.  extremity.  It  is  the  reservoir  of  a  number 
of  rivers,  chief  among  which  is  the  Winnipeg, 
draining  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  and  country 
W.  of  the  height  of  land  that  separates  the 
waters  flowing  into  Lake  Superior  from  those 
of  the  W. ;  the  Great  Saskatchewan,  which 
with  the  Aasiniboine,  whose  waters  also  fall 
into  it,  drains  the  provinces  of  Alberta  and 
Bsiskatchewan;  and  the  Red  Biver,  flowing 
bett^een  Minnesota  and  N.  Dakota,  and  flowing 
through  Manitoba.  Lake  Winnip^  discharges 
through  the  Nelson  River  into  Hudson  Bay. 
It  is  about  e,000  aq.  m.  in  area  and  710  ft. 
above  the  sea — 112  ft,  higher  than  Lake  Supe- 
rior. It  is  rocky  and  rugged  on  ita  E.  coast, 
but  flat  and  maraby  or  the  W.  At  the  head 
of  the  lake  is  Norway  House,  formerly  one  of 
the  chief  distributilig  porta  of  the  Hudson  Bay 
Company.  There  ia  a  large  Icelandic  settle- 
ment on  the  W.  shore,  back  of  which  the  coun- 
try is  fertile  and  wooded.  The  lake  produces 
much  whiteflsb.  There  ia  a  amall  trade  be- 
tween the  lake  and  Selkirk  in  Manitoba,  which 
will  be  considerably  increased  when  the  rapids 
of  6t.  Andrews,  on  the  Red  River,  halfway 
between  the  lake  and  tl^e  city  of  Winnipeg, 
have  been  locked. 

Wino'OA  (settled  in  1S61],  capital  of  Wino- 
na Co.,  Minn.;  on  the  Mississippi  River;  27 
m.  NW.  of  La  Crosse,  Wis.,  104  m.  BE.  of  Bt. 
PauL  It  is  surrounded  by  towering  bluffs,  in- 
cluding Sugar  Loaf  and  Trempealeau  moun- 
tains, and  ia  famed  for  its  picturesque  scenery. 
The  noteworthy  buildings  include  the  U.  8. 
Govt,  buildiug,  the  state  normal  school,  high 
school  building,  Winoni>  Seminary.  The  city 
is  an  importaiit  market  for  grain  and  other 
products  of  this  part  of  Minnesota  and  the 
neighboring  part  of  Wisconsin,  and  has  flour 
and  lumber  mills,  wagon  factories,  and  farm- 
implement  works.     Pop.   (1910)   18,583. 

Winslow,  Edward,  1596-1055;  Governor  of 
Plymouth  colony ;  b.  Droitwich,  England ; 
embarked  on  the  Mayflower,  and  was  one  of 
the  party  to  explore  the  coast  of  Cape  Cod 
and  discover  Plymouth  harbor;  married  Mrs. 
Susannah  White,  theirs  being  the  first  mar- 
riage in  New  Ensland.  He  offered  himself  aa 
a  hostage  to  Maasasoit,  and  obtained  the 
friendship  of  that  chief  by  curing  him  of  a 
severe  illness ;  was  chosen  governor,  1633,  1636, 
1644.  He  revisited  England  several  times,  and 
waa  once  impriaoned  for  seventeen  weeks  ty 
Archbiahop  I^ud  for  having  in  Plymouth,  be- 
ing a  layman,  taught  in  a  church  and  per- 


WIMLOW 

formed  the  ceremony  of  marringe.  He  died  at 
H«  while  on  a  niMion  for  Cromwell  against 
tbe  Spanish  settlemecta.  Hia  portrait  at 
Plymouth  is  said  to  be  the  only  authentic  like- 
ness of  any  of  the  Mayflower  pilgrims. 

Winalow,  John  Ancnun,  1811-73;  American 
□aval  officer ;  b.  Wilmington,  N.  C. ;  entered 
the  U.  S.  navy  as  a  midshipman,  \S21  ■,  lieu- 
tenant, 1S39;  served  with  distinction  in  the 
Mexican  War.  In  1863-64  he  was  given  com- 
mand of  the  steamer  Kearaarge,  on  the  special 
duty  of  pursuing  the  Confederate  privateer 
Alabama.  In  June,  1864.  he  found  the  Ala- 
bama off  Cherbourg.  France,  and  blockaded  her 
in  that  harbor,  (hi  the  nineteenth,  after  noti- 
^ng  Capt.  Winslow  that  he  would  fight,  Capt. 
Semmes  steamed  the  Alabama  out  of  the  har- 
bor, and  when  7  m.  from  shore  Capt.  Winslow 
headed  the  Keartarge  toward  the  privateer. 
The  latter  discharged  the  drst  shot,  but  after 
an  engagement  of  an  hour  and  a  half  she  sank. 
■   the 

quest,  which  then  steamed  away  to  England 
with  them.  Capt.  Winslow  received  the  thanks 
of  Congress,  and  was  promoted  commodore  for 
bis  victory.  In  lS6&-^7  he  commanded  the 
Gulf  squadron;  in  1870-72,  was  commander  in 
chief  of  the  Pacific  squadron;  and,  1870,  was 
promoted   rear  admiral. 

Win'ter,  astronomicalty,  that  season  of  the 
year  which  b^ns  with  the  shortest  day,  De- 
cember Zlst,  and  ends  with  tbe  vernal  equinox, 
March  2lBt.  In  ordinary  speech,  however,  win- 
ter comprises  the  three  coldest  months,  nameh", 
December,  January,  and  February  in  the  U.  S., 
and  November,  December,  and  January  in 
Great  Britain.  In  the  8.  hemisphere  the  win- 
ter months  are  June,  July,  and  August,  and 
in  the  tropical  zone  the  rainy  season  corre- 
sponds to  the  winter. 

Win'ter  Ber'ry,  any  one  of  several  American 
shrubs,  forming  a  subgenus  of  holly;  more  par- 
ticularly the  black  alder,  which  ranges  from 
S  to  12  ft.  in  height,  grows  on  the  edges  of 
swamps,  bears  clusters  of  small  white  dowers, 
and  in  November  and  December  an  abundance 
of  brilliant  crimson  berries,  sometimes  em- 
ployed in  domestic  medicine  as  a  bitter  tonic. 

Wln'tergieen,  one  of  the  popular  names 
(checkerberry,  boxberrj,  partridge  berry, 
mountain  tea,  etc.)  for  an  evergreen  under- 
ahmb  of  the  heath  family  found  everywhere  in 
the  damp  places  of  the  woods  of  the  N.  tem- 
perate EOne,  especially  under  the  shade  of 
evergreens  in  tbe  forests  of  Canada  and  the 
N.  U.  S.  The  stem  is  from  5  to  6  in.  high, 
with  a  few  leaves,  and  small  flowers  appearing 
in  May  and  June.  The  berries,  which  are  red, 
ripen  in  autumn  and  remain  the  winter  over. 
They  form  a  large  part  of  the  food  of  the 
partridge.  Both  berries  and  leaves  have  the 
aromatic    flavor    of    sweet   birch.    See    G&tJL- 


Winteisreen,  Oa  of,  or  OH  of  Ganltbe'iia,  an 
mromatic  liquid  contained  in  the  leaves  of  the 
wintergreen,  also  in  sweet  birch,  and  probably 
in  the  roots  of  other  plants.     It  is  colorless 


WMTHEOP 

when  freshly  prepared,  but  gradually  acquire* 
a  yellowish  or  reddish  bue;  posseaaes  a  pecul- 
iar sweetish  taste  and  an  agreeable  odor.  Win- 
t«rgreen  oil  contains  about  ninety  per  cent  of 
methyl   salicylate    (gaultheric   acid),   and   ten 


WtHTeaasEEM,  wrra  Sectiok  of  Fboit. 

per  cent  of  a  compound  termed  gaullherilene, 
similar  to  oil  of  turpentine.  It  is  used  in  the 
treatment  of  rheumatism  and  gout;  also  to 
disguise  the  taste  of  disagreeable  medicines 
and  in  confectionery. 

Win'throp,  John,  1688-1649;  first  colonial 
Governor  of  Massachusetts;  b.  Groton,  Eng- 
land) studied  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge, 
1602^;  is  said  to  have  been  a  justice  of  the 
peace  at  the  age  of  eighteeb.  He  was  chosen 
Governor  of  the  "  Company  of  the  Massachu- 
setts Bay  in  New  England,"  1626;  vfaa  the 
leader  of  the  great  emigration  of  1630,  when 
he  sailed  in  the  Arbella  at  tbe  head  of  a  small 
fleet  bearing  some  SOO  colonists;  wrote  on 
board  the  Arbella  his  treatise,  "A  Modell  of 
Christian  Charity";  landed  at  Salem,  June 
22,  1630.  Endicott  had  been  appointed  by  the 
Massachusetts  Bay  Company  to  govern  the 
colony  in  subordination  to  the  governor  and 
company  in  London,  but  a  change  of  great  his- 
torical importance  was  now  made.  The  entire 
government  "was  transferred  to  America,  with 
Winthrop  as  governor.  He  was  annually  re- 
elected until  1634,  and  by  his  defeat  in  the 
ensuing  election  escaped  the  chief  responsibility 
for  tbe  proceedings  against  Roger  Williams. 
He  was  again  defeated  in  1636  by  young  Sir 
Henry  Vane,  then  recently  arrived;  but  he  de- 
feated Vane  in  tbe  next  election  (1637),  and 
held  office  till  1640.  As  a  leading  opponent 
of  the  Antinomians  he  took  an  active  part  in 
the  banishment  of  Mrs.  Hutchinson  and  her 
followers,  and  in  the  controversy  with  Vane. 
He  was  again  governor,  1642-44;  deputy  gov- 
enior,  1644r^5;  and  governor,  1646-lB.  He 
left  an  interesting  and  valuable  body  of  cor- 
respondence, and  his  "  Journal "  Is  an  impor- 
tant soures  of  American  history. 


WIRE  AND  WIREDRAWING 

luted  witb  tumon  at  Yale  Coll^,  164S; 
traveled  In  Europe,  1849-51 ;  rcBided  two  years 
at  Panams;  w^  admitted  to  the  New  York 
bar,  ISSS;  joined  the  Seventh  Regiment  of 
New  York  on  its  entering  the  national  eervice, 
April,  1S61 ;  waa  commissioned  major  in  the 
New  York  Volunteers;  became  a  member  of 
the  sUff  of  Gen.  B.  F.  Butler  as  his  military 
Mcretary,  and  was  killed  in  the  war,  at  Big 
Bethel,  Va.  In  the  Atlantia  Monthly  from 
June  to  September  of  that  year  were  published 
several  spirited  sketches  of  early  war  scenes 
whieh  attracted  great  attention,  and  be  left 
ready  for  the  press  the  materials  of  five  vol- 
umes of  novels  and  essays,  several  editions  of 
which  were  immediately  sold. 

Wire  and  Wiie'drawisK.  The  making  of 
wire  depends  upoB  the  ductility  of  metals — 
that  is  to  say,  upon  their  property  of  being 
drawn  out  into  attenuated  form.  This  prop- 
erty is  quite  different  from  a  capacity  for  work- 
ing under  the  hammer — copper,  which  is  third 
among  the  metals  in  the  order  of  its  malleabil- 
ity, l^ing  sixth  in  ductility.  Gold,  however, 
stands  flrst  in  both  properties,  and  silver  stands 
second  in  both.  Apparently  these  were  the 
flrst  metals  from  which  wire  waa  made.  The 
first  wire  was  made  by  beating  the  metal  into 
thin  sheets,  then  cutting  these  into  narrow 
strips,  which  were  rounded  by  hammering  or 
filing.  Buch  wire  was  woven  with  textile  ma- 
terial into  fabrics — literally,  the  cloth  of  gold. 
The  date  when  silver  waa  first  made  into  wire 
is  uncertain,  the  earliest  that  can  be  fixed  be- 
ing the  time  of  the  later  Byzantine  emperors. 
The  period  when  the  draw  plate  with  gradu- 
ated holes  or  dies  was  introduced  is  not  known. 
As  ornament  waa  the  most  important  use  for 
wire  drawn  of  the  precious  metals,  the  dis- 
covery that  by  flattening  it  a  given  weight 
could  be  wound  around  three  times  the  length 
of  textile  fiber  was  an  important  step  forward, 
this  being  the  method  In  which  gold  and  silver 
is  oft«ai  applied  for  tassels,  fringe,  etc.,  to  this 

In  modem  times  what  is  known  as  gold  wire 
has  aa  exterior  of  gold  and  a  core  of  silver, 
being  made  by  forming  a  cyllndrlc  ingot  of 
■liver  and  coating  the  utter  with  gold.  This 
compound  Ingot  Is  gradually  reduced  in  sise 
by  means  of  the  draw  plate — that  is  to  say, 
1^  passing  it  through  a  succession  of  holes  or 
dies  in  a  hardened  steel  plate — first,  through 
one  only  slightly  smaller  than  the  original 
diameter  of  the  ingot,  then  through  another 
stilt  smaller,  and  so  on  until  the  requisite  re- 
duced diameter  is  reached.  The  finest  wire 
ever  made  (that  substituted  for  the  spider-web 
lines  of  telescope  micrometers)  is  made  by  first 
covering  a  platinum  wire  with  solid  silver. 
This  compound  wire,  platinum  within  and  sil- 
ver without,  is  then  reduced  in  diameter  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  gold  wire  with  the 
silver  core.  This  compound  wire  may  be  thus 
brought  down  to  a  diameter  of  yd  of  an 
inch.  Assuming  a  platinum  core  to  be  one 
tenth  the  whole  diameter,  this  core  will  be 
nW  <>'  *^  inch.     This  fine  compound  wire  be- 


WIBE  AND  WIREDRAWING 

remains.  Platinum  ' 
means  by  the  invento 
the  Triinr  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Wire  is  for  the  most  part  made  of  iron  and 
steel.  Brass  and  copper  wire  are  also  largely 
made,  the  methods  being  about  the  same  aa 
with  iron.  In  making  iron  wire,  rods  of  the 
metal  have  their  surfaces  cleaned  of  scale  or 
oxide,  and  are  then  passed  through  the  sue- 
cessively  diminishing  Doles  of  the  draw  plat* 
— for  example,  ten,  fifteen,  thirty,  or  more 
times,  according  to  the  degree  of  fineness  re- 
quired. The  constant  compression  of  the  metal 
hardens  the  wire,  so  that  it  has  to  be  repeat- 
edly annealed.  This  is  done  by  placing  the 
wire  in  kilns,  which  are  first  heated  to  rednesa 
and  then  allowed  to  cool  gradually.  Twenty- 
four  hours  is  the  time  ordinarily  required  for 
annealing  the  smaller  grades  of  wire.  Six  or 
eight  annealings  are  necessaij;  very  small 
wire  requires  more.  A  scale  is  formed  upon 
the  wire  at  each  annealing,  and  this  is  removed 
by  pickling  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Wire  is 
sold  In  coils,  and  those  of  the  more  rigid  and 
stiffer  kinds  are  straightened  for  use  by  being 
passri  alternately  back  and  forth  on  two  rows 
of  alternating  pins  placed  a  slight  distance 
apart.  The  wire  Is  thus  made  to  pass  in  a 
eigxag  course  through  the  derice,  wbleh  la 
termed  a  riddle,  and  comes  out  straight.  Cast- 
steel  wire  ia  made  from  steel  rods  hammered 
to  about  one  quarter  of  an  inch  square  b^  a 
tilt  hammer,  and  afterwards  made  round  on 
the  anvil.  A  spurious  gold  wire,  called  "  gold 
wire  of  Lyons,"  is  made  by  beating  copper  to 
a  red  heat  and  exposing  it  to  the  ftunee  of 
sine,  which  turns  the  outside  of  the  metal  Into 
brass.  Brass  wire. loses  its  strength  when  ex- 
posed to  the  fumes  of  acid,  and  even  by  long 
exposure  to  a  damp  atmosphere.  Zinc  wire  Is 
fiexible,  and  at  first  as  etron^  as  copper,  but 
Teeumea  the  original  crystalline  state  of  tha% 
metal  when  subjected  to  the  action  of  boiling 
water.  One  of  the  most  unique  uses  of  wire 
la  the  production  of  surfaces  for  printing 
calico,  in  which  copper  wires  are  imb^lded  In 
the  block,  then  filed  down  to  a  fiat  surface,  and 
thus  form  the  slightly  raised  figures  upon 
which  the  pattern  is  printed.  Much  wire  ia 
used  for  making  nails. 

A  great  extension  of  the  wire  manufacture 
has  occurred  from  the  use  of  barbed  wire  for 
fences.  Other  fencing  wires  are  made  devoid 
of  barbs,  one  of  tiie  best  being  oval  in  cross 
section  and  wavy  longitudinally,  the  alternat- 
ing curves  being  In  tne  plane  of  the  greatest 
diameter  of  the  wire.  To  prevent  rusting, 
fence  and  telegraph  wires  are  galvanized.  (See 
Qalvahizui  Iboh.)  One  of  the  most  valuable 
improvements  in  wire  manufacture  was  that 
patented  in  IS5B  by  Henry  Waterman,  which 
reduced  the  cost  of  temperinR-  fiat  steel  crino- 
line wire  from  $3  a  pound  to  three  centa. 
Previous  b>  this  the  tempering  of  such  wire 
was  done  by  winding  it  in  volute  coils  kept 
apart  by  interlaced  iron  wires,  the  colls  being 
heated  to  the  requisite  degree  in  a  furnace,  and 
then  plunged  in  a  hardening  bath.  In  the 
improved  process  the  wire  was  drawn  through 
the  fire  of  a  furnace,  and  guided  directly  fnua 
the  Ore  Into  the  hardening  bath.  /-—  i 

5  ^  ,,C,oogle 


WIRELESS  TELEGRAPH 


Wureleas  Tel'ephoiie.    See  Telephohe,  Wibe- 


Wire  Bope.    See  Ropes  a 


a  RoFi-u 


Wire'woim,  a  Una  applied  to  the  larve  of 
various  beetles,  but  properly  reatrieted  to  the 
larvie  of  spring  beetles,  click  beetles,  skipjacks, 
Bnapping   bugs,   etc.     The   family   comprises   a 
nmnber  of  genera  and  many  species,  averaging 
about  one  third  of  an  inch  in  length.    The  pre- 
vailing  color   is   brown,   but   a 
few   are   jet   black   and   others 
'    speckled  with  white.     The  lar- 
va of  many  species  which  feed 
upon  the  roots  of  living  plants 
are  known  as  wirewor'ms.     The 
worms   are   from   one  to   three 
(or  in  cold  climates  even  five) 
years  attaining  full  growth,  and 
undergo    a     large    number    of 
molts.     The  head   Is  somewhat 
Fio.  I.    CucE     Battened,  and  there  are  six  true 
Beitui.  legs  near  it;   the  body  consists 

of  thirteen  joints.  When  full 
grown  they  descend  deeper  into  the  earth, 
and  go  through  their  transformations  within 
an  oval  cavity,  issuing  as  beetles  in  early 
sununer.  Wire  worms  damage  all  grasses  and 
cereals,  often  ruining  root  plants  and  bulbous 
flowers.  Crops  grown  on  land  recently  broken 
suffer  most  from  them.  In  the  U.  8.  the 
crops    most    affected    are    wheat    and    Indian 


Fio.  2.     WiatwoR 

com.  One  of  the  most  effectual  ways  to  pre- 
vent their  Injuries  is  to  fallow  the  land  for 
one  yenr,  (LDd  in  a  small  plot  they  may  be 
trapped  by  strewing  sliced  vegetables  on  the 
surface.  Fall  plowing,  by  which  the  worms 
are  exposed  to  their  natural  enemies,  and  sub- 
mersion are  practicable  ways  of  destroying 
them.  Kape  cake  mixed  with  Paris  green  and 
spread  over  a  field  is  the  best  remedy. 

Wirt,  WilUam,  1772-1834;  American  lawyer; 
b.  Bladensbure,  Md.  In  1709  he  settled  in 
Richmond,  and  in  1803  published  in  the  Vir- 
ginia Argut  his  "  Letters  of  a  British  Spy," 
principally  sketches  of  prominent  public  ora- 
tors. In  1616  he  was  appointed  U.  S.  attor- 
ney for  Virginia,  and  from  1S17  to  1829  he  was 
Attorney-general  of  the  U.  8.,  afterwards  re- 
siding in  Baltimore.  In  1832  he  was  the 
candidate  of  the  Antimasonic  Party  for  the 
Presidency,  and  received  the  electoral  vote  of 
Vermont.  His  best-known  work  is  a  biography 
of  Patrick  Henry. 

Wiscon'sin,  one  of  the  U.  B.  of  N.  America; 
the  seventeenth  state  admitted  to  the  Union; 
popularly  called  the  Badoeb  State;  capital, 
Madison. 

It  ia  bounded  N,  by  Lake  Superior,  NE.  by 
the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan,  E.  by  Lake 
Michigan,  S.  by  Illinois,  and  W.  by  Iowa  and 
Minnesota;  extreme  length,  N.  to  S.,  300  m.;- 


WISCONSIN 

extreme  breadth,  2S0  m.;  area,  6fl,066  aq.  m., 
of  which  810  sq.  m-  ftre  water  surface;  pop. 
(1910)    2,333,860. 

There  are  no  mountains  in  Wisconsin;  the 
lowest  level  is  SOO  ft.  alwve  the  sea  and  the 
highsst  1,800  ft  The  greatest  swell  U  the 
Penokee  range  of  Laurentian  or  granite  bills, 
running  KE.  by  SW.,  some  30  m.  S.  of  Lake  Su- 
perior. A  ridge  of  Niagara  limestone  follows 
the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  about  30  m.  in  the 
interior,  and  in  the  main  separates  the  lake 
drainage  from  that  of  the  Mississippi.  In  the 
Glacial  period  Wisconsin,  excepting  about  10,- 
000  sq.  m.  in  the  SW.,  was  covered  by  the  ice 
cap,  which  left  about  2,000  minor  lakes  in  the 
E.   and    N.   portions,    with    many   picturesque 


gravel  knolls,  domes  of  drift,  peaks,  and  ridgea. 
One  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  the  state  is 
the  diagonal  valley  occupied  by  Wisconsin  and 
Fox  rivers  and  Green  Bay.  About  the  center 
of  this  valley,  at  Portage,  the  Foi  and  Wiscon- 
oin  rivers  (the  one  a  member  of  the  Great  Lakes 
drainage  system,  the  other  flowing  into  the  ' 
Mississippi)  are  separated  by  a  marsh  but 
IJ  m.  in  width,  which  is  sometimes  overflowed 
in  spring.  The  principal  Wisconsin  rivers 
which  flow  into  Lake  Superior  are  the  St, 
Louis,  Bois  BruM  (a  famous  trout-flshing 
stream).  Bad,  and  Montreal;  into  Green  Bay 
are  discharged  the  Fox,  Pensaukee,  Oconto, 
Peshtigo,  and  Menominee;  Lake  Michigan  re- 
ceives the  Kewaunee,  E.  and  W.  Twin  rivers, 
Manitowoc,  Sheboygan,  and  Milwaukee;  and 
the  chief  rivers  emptying  into  the  Mississippi 
from  Wisconsin  are  the  Wisconsin,  Black, 
Trempealeau,  Buffalo,  Chippewa,  and  St.  Croix, 
the  latter  forming  with  the  interlocking  Bois 
Brule  a  famous  French  fur-trade  route.  The 
largest  interior  lake  is  Winnebago. 

In  the  central  part  of  the  state  are  wide 
areas  of  comparatively  unfertile,  sandy  soil,  de- 
rived from  the  underlying  sandstone;  in  the 
Penokee  range  are  tracts  too  rocky  for  agricul- 
ture ;  but  for  the  most  part  the  soils  are  arable, 
and  some  of  them  highly  fertile,  consisting  Iil 
the  drift  area  of  sandy  and  clay  loams,  derived 
from  the  mixture  of  preglacial  soils  and  glacial 
grindines,  and  in  the  driftless  SW.,  of  the  re- 
sults of  the  decomposition  of  underlying  lime- 
stone. Before  the  advent  of  whites,  heavy  foresta 
covered  much  of  the  state — oaks,  maples,  ash, 
poplars,  hickories,  and  the  like.  Qi:eat  regions  ia 


.C.OO'^IC 


WISCONSIN 

ibe  N.  wer«  timbered  with  pinea,  hemloeka,  and 
■gruce.  In  the  B.  ftnd  W.  tbs  coloniats  found 
large  pr&iriei  surrounded  by  forests  of  hard 
wood,  and  also  much  couutiy  in  which  the 
woods  wen  dotted  with  smaU  treeless  areas. 
Most  of  tb^  timber  in  the  8.  and  E.  has  been 
removed  by  settleis,  and  the  N.  pines  hare  suf- 
fered much  depletion  from  lumbering;  but 
there  remains  a  large  belt  of  "  pinery  district." 
The  chief  faun  products  are  Indian  corn,  oata, 
potatoes,  barley,  root  crops,  grass  seed,  and 
wheat;  in  the  S.  counties  of  Dane,  Rock,  and 
Jeffenon  tobacco  is  an  important  crop;  live 
stock  and  dairy  products  are  large  Interests  in 
the  B.  and  K;  and  there  are  lai^  cranberry 
marehes.  The  severe  wint«rB  are  not  favorable 
to  the  culture  of  apples,  grapes,  peaches,  and 
peara,  but  many  small  fruits  and  vegetables  are 
grown.  The  capital  invested  in  nurserieB  is 
about  9500,000. 

The  climate  Is  similar  to  that  of  other  in- 
terior states  upon  the  same  latitude.  The  win- 
ters are  protracted  and  often  serere,  the  mean 
winter  temperature  varyiDK  from  about  25°  in 
tb«  8.  counties  to  about  IS"  on  the  Lake  Supe- 
rior shore;  but  the  atmosphere  is  dry,  and  this 
low  temperature  does  not  represent  the  discom- 
lort  it  would  induce  in  seaooard  states.  The 
summer  is  brief  and  warm,  the  mean  temper- 
ature varying  from  about  70°  in  the  S.  to 
about  60°  in  the  N.,  but  there  are  frequeiit 
brief  rains  and  cool  S,  and  E.  winds. 

Wisconsin  is  divided  into  seventy-one  coun- 
ties. Important  cities  and  towns  are  Racine, 
I^  Crosse,  Oshkosb,  Sheboygan,  Madison,  Green 
Bay,  Eau  Claire,  Marinette,  Fond  du  Lac,  Ap- 
pleton,  Janesville,  Ashland,  Wausau,  Manito- 
wao,  Kenosha,  Beloit,  Stevens  Point,  Uerrill, 
Watertown,  Chippewa  Falte,  Waukesha,  Nee- 
nah,  Barahoo,  Menomonee,  Oconto,  Menosha, 
Portage,  Marshfield,  Antigo,  Beaver  Dam,  and 
Kankanna.  The  principal  industries  in  the 
order  of  the  value  of  output  are  lumber  and 
timber,  flouring  and  grist  mills,  foundry  and 
machine-shop  products,  cheese,  butter,  and 
condensed  milk,  leather,  malt  liquors,  slaugh- 
tering and  meat  packing,  paper  and  wood 
pulp,  iron  and  ste^,  furniture,  lumber,  plan- 
ing-mill  products,  sash,  doors,  and  blinds,  ag- 
ricultural implements.  The  fishing  Industry  is 
of  importance,  and  the  Ashing  interests  of  the 
state  are  controlled  by  a  state  commission 
which  conducts  large  batcheries  at  Madison, 
BayBeld,  and  Milwaukee  for  the  artiflcial  prop- 
agation of  fry,  with  which  the  Great  Lalces  and 
inland  waters  are  annually  stocked. 

In  1900  there  were  460,654  pupils  enrolled 
And  14,6TT  teachers  j  normal  schools,  state 
schools  for  deaf,  deaf-mute,  blind,  indigent,  and 
incorrigible  children ;  and  a  state  university. 
Tlie  state  univeisity  has  also  in  charge  a  far- 
reaching  system  of  farmeis'  institutes,  and  was 
a  pioneer  in  university  extension.  An  Impor- 
tant work  in  connection  with  public  instruc- 
tion is  the  fostering  of  town  and  district  libra- 
ries. The  Roman  Catholic  Church,  in  addition 
to  parochial  and  charitable  schools,  maintains 
several  colleges,  chiefly  Pio  Nono,  at  St.  Fran- 
cis; Marquette  (Jesuit),  at  Milwaukee;  BU. 
Ciara,  at  Sinsinawa  Mound;  bte.  Catherine,  at 
RMine,  and   Bt,  Lawrence,   at  Mt.   Calvary. 


WISCONSIN 

The  Lutheran  colleges  are  Concordia,  at  Mil- 
waukee; Northwestern  Univ.,  at  Watertown; 
a  theologicai  seminary  at  Wauwautosa,  and  a,  ■ 
mission  house  at  Franklin.  Other  denomina- 
tional colleges  are  chiefly  Beloit  and  Ripon 
(Congregational),  Lawrence  Univ.  (Method- 
ist), at  Appleton;  Milwaukee- Downer  (Con- 
gregational), at  Milwaukee;  Racine  (Prot- 
estant Episcopal),  Milton  (Serenth-day  Bap- 
tist), Carroll  (Presbyterian),  at  Waukesha. 
The  state  board  of  control  has  supervision 
over  the  insane  hospitals  near  Madison  and 
Oshkosh,  school  for  the  deaf,  at  Delavan; 
school  for  the  blind,  at  Janesville;  industrial 
school  for  boys,  at  Waukesha;  state  prison,  at 
Waupun;  home  for  the  feeble-minded,  at  Chip- 
pewa Falls;  the  state  scbpol  for  dependent 
children,  at  Sparta;  and  the  reformatory,  at 
Green  Bfty.  The  board  also  supervisee  four 
semistate  institutions — the  Milwaukee  Insane 
Hospital,  Milwaukee.  House  of  Correction, 'Wis- 
consin Industrial  School  for  Girls,  at  Milwau- 
kee; and  the  Wisconsiii  Veterans'  Eom^  at 
Waupaca. 

The  legislature  is  composed  of  a  senate  of 
33  members  and  an  assembly  of  100.  Only 
males,  twenty-one  years  of  age,  are  qualified  to 
vote.  If  a  foreigner,  the  voter  must  have  re- 
sided one  year  within  the  state  and  declared 
his  intention  to  become  a  citizen,  Indians 
made  citizens  by  Congress  may  vote.  There  i* 
a  state  Supreme  Court,  with  five  justices,  seven- 
teen circuit  judges,  a  probate  judge  in  each 
county,  and  in  certain  cities  municipal  judges, 
all  elected  by  popular  vote. 

The  flnt  white  settiement  in  Wisconsin  was 
made  at  Oreen  Bay  in  1630  by  the  French.  It 
was  under  the  laws  of  Canada;  but  in  IT96  the 
U.  B.  annexed  it  for  purposee  of  government 
to  the  NW,  Territory,  ceded  by  Virginia  and 
otber  states  to  the  U.  a  In  ISOQ  it  was  in- 
cluded in  the  Territory  of  Illinois,  as  then 
formed;  in  1818,  when  Illinois  was  admitted 
into  the  Union  as  a  state,  Wisconsin  was  an- 
nexed to  Michigan  Territory.  The  Indians  be- 
came troublesome,  and  the  Block  Hawk  War 
ensued  in  1S32.  They  removed  to  reservations 
beyond  the  Mississippi.  July  3,  1636,  a  terri- 
torial government  was  organized,  which  at 
first  induded  a  part  of  the  upper  peninsula  of 
Michigan,  the  whole  of  Minnesota  and  Iowa, 
and  that  part  of  Dakota  lying  E.  of  the  Mis- 
souri and  White  Earth  rivers.  On  the  admis- 
sion of  Michigan  into  the  Union  as  a  state,  a 
part  of  the  Lake  Superior  region  was  set  off  to 
her,  and  when  the  Territory  of  Iowa  was 
formed  it  included  all  the  region  W.  of  tba 
Mississippi.  The  first  effort  to  procure  the  ad- 
mission of  Wisconsin  to  the  Union  as  a  state 
was  made  in  1846.  A  convention  was  held  in 
that  year  and  a  constitution  drafted.  Congress 
passed  an  act  admitting  the  state  under  this 
constitution  in  1847,  but  the  people  rejected  the 
constitution  on  account  of  some  objectionable 
features.  Another  convention  was  called,  De- 
cember 15,  IS47,  which  submitted  a  new  consti- 
tution; this  was  ratifled  in  March,  1848,  and 
the  state  was  admitted  to  the  Union  by  act  of 
Congress  May  29,  1848,  In  the  war  of  1861- 
65  Wisconsin  took  front  rank  on  behalf  of  the 
Union,  sending  to  the  armies  one  half  of  her 


WISCONSIN  RtVER 

Toters.  Her  death  roll  vm  12^1,  or  16.0  per 
oent  of  ber  total  enlistment.  The  famous  Iron 
Srigade    was   chieflj   compoaed    of    WLSConain 

WiKonsin  RiT'eT,  ■  river  that  rises  in  Vieux 
D^rt  Lake  (partly  in  Michigan  and  partly  in 
WiBconsin),  flows  in  a  generally  8.  course  to 
Portage  City,  Wis.,  where  it  tunis  to  the  SW. 
It  reaches  MiMiasippi  Kiver  4  m.  below  Prairie 
du  Chien.  Breadth  at  ite  mouth,  1,800  ft.; 
elevation,  800  ft.  Its  length  is  over  600  m.  It 
is  navigable  ZOO  m.  to  Portage  City,  whence  a 
ihort  canal  leads  to  Fox  River.  The  channel 
of  the  Wisconsin  is  much  injured  by  shifting 
sand  bars.  The  upper  part  ol  the  river  passes 
through  heavy  pine  foreats.  Several  cataracts, 
of  wSch  the  most  famous  are  those  of  the 
Dalles  of  the  WisconsiD  and  Grandfatj^r  Bull 
FaUs,  break  the  course  of  this  picturesque 
stream- 
Wisconsin,  Dnirer'rity  of,  an  institution  of 
higher  learning  at  Madison,  Wis.;  incorporated 
in  1838  and  organized  in  1848.  In  1849  a  pre- 
paratory department  was  established;  in  1850 
the  university  was  formally  opened;  in  1851  the 
first  college  classes  were  formed.  Congress  in 
1838  granted  48,080  acres  of  land  for  the  sup- 
port of  a  university,  and  in  1854  it  made  an- 
other grant  of  the  same  amount  In  1886  the 
university  also  received  240,000  acres  of  land 
from  Congress.  In  1888  this  was  supplemented 
,  by  a  grant  which  will  ultimately  amount  to 
f25,000  a  year.  The  university  also  has  re- 
ceived liberal  money  appropriations  from  the 
state.  The  university  domain  consists  of  about 
350  acres,  extending  a  mile  along  the  8.  shore 
of  Lake  Mendota.  Students  in  1910  numbered 
3,64S.  The  university  comprises  a  colltge  of 
letters  and  science,  a  college  of  mechanics  and 
engineering,  a  college  of  agriculture,  a  college 
of  law,  a  school  of  economics,  political  science, 
and  history,  and  a  school  of  music.  All  the 
departments  are  open  to  women. 

Wis'dom,  Book  of,  one  of  the  Apocrypha  of 
the  Old  TeaUment;  written  in  Greek,  appar- 
ently during  the  latter  half  of  the  second  cen- 
tury B.C.  It  is  a  "wisdom"  book,  like  the 
books  of  Job,  Proverbs,  and  Eccleaiastes,  the 
New  Testament  book  ol  James,  and  several  of 
the  Apocrypha,  For  greater  effectiveness,  the 
author  speaks  in  the  name  of  Solomon.  In  the 
earlier  copies  of  the  Septuagint  it  is  called  the 
Wisdom  of  Solomon;  but  from  the  time  when 
Jerome  demonstrated  tliat  Solomon  was  not  its 
author,  his  name  has  been  generally  omitted 
from  the  title.  By  Soman  Catholics  the  book 
is  regarded  as  canonical,  on  the  same  basis  vrith 
others  of  its  elaaa.  The  Greek  is  more  nearly 
classical  than  in  moat  of  the  Apocrypha,  and 
the  contents,  on  the  whole,  of  a  high  order. 

Wista'ria,  a  genus  of  climbing  shrubs  of  the 
pea  family.  Wistaria  consegwitui,  a  native  of 
China,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  spring  flow- 
ering climbers.  W.  frutetaent  is  a  smaller  or- 
namental species,  growing  wild  in  the  W,  and 
S.  parts  of  the  U.  S,  in  nch  wet  soils. 

Witch  and  Witch'craft,  a  jwrson  supposed 
to  have  formed  a  compact  witn  Satan,  and  the 
practice  of  the  powers  thereby  acquired.    The 


WITENAGEMOT 

subject  of  witchcraft  has  been  treated  gener- 
ally in  the  articles  Dkkoi4oloot  and  Uaqio, 
and  in  this  article  a  more  particular  account  of 
the  Salem  witchcraft  will  be  given.  At  the  time 
of  the  settlement  of  the  coimtry  the  belief  in 
witches  was  general,  and  unknown  diseases, 
extraordinary  occurrences,  or  eircumstancea 
not  explainable  upon  known  theories,  were 
commonly  attributed  to  the  influence  of  the 
devil  and  the  ageiiey  of  wie«hes.  Witchcraft 
was  regarded  as  the  blackest  of  crimes,  and  the 
punishment  of  death  was  inflicted  on  persons 
convicted  of  it.  During  the  winter  of  1891-02 
a  company,  consisting  mostly  of  young  girls, 
was  in  the  habit  of  meeting  at  the  nouae  of  the 
clergyman,  Mr.  Parris,  in  Salem  Village  (now 
Danvere  Center),  for  the  purpose  of  practicing 
the  arts  of  necromancy,  magic,  etc.  They  soon 
began  to  exhibit  Strang  actions,  exclamations, 
and  contortions,  at  times  being  seized  with 
spasms,  dropping  insensible  to  the  floor,  or 
writbins  in  agony.  The  village  physLdan  de- 
clared flie  children  bewitched,  an  opinion  in 
which  a  council  of  the  neighboring  clergymen, 
including  Mr.  Parris,  concurred.  They  were 
brought  before  the  magistrates  for  an  exami- 
nation on  Maroh   1,  1892.     The  excitement  be- 


most  eminent  clergymen  and  laymen  encour- 
a^d  the  prosecution.  A  special  court  was  ap- 
pointed for  the  bearine  of  the  cases,  but  the 
trials  were  a  mere  mockery.  Nineteen  persons, 
among  them  some  of  the  most  pious  and  repu- 
table ciUzens,  were  hanged.  Six  were  men,  in- 
cluding one  clergyman,  and  thirteen  were 
women.  Giles  Corey,  for  refusing  to  plead,  was 
pressed  to  death. 

A  reaction  in  public  sentiment  now  began  to 
set  in,  and  though  at  a-court  held  in  1693  three 
persons  were  condemned,  no  more  executions 
look  place.    See  Mathee,  Cottok. 

In  Europe  in  the  sixteenth  century  no  crime 
was  more  common.  A  single  judge  in  Lorraine 
boasted  of  having  sentenced  000,  and  he  was 
still  active.  If  the  persecution  knew  flercer 
epidemics  in  Catholic  communities,  it  was  more 
chronic  in  Protestant,  and  it  lingered  on,  eape- 
dally  in  lands  where  (as  in  Catholic  Spain  and 
S.  Germany,  or  in  Protestant  Scotland  and 
Switzeriand)  a  literal  faith  in  the  Bible  had 
rooted  it  firmly  in  religion,  "  The  giving  ly  of 
witchcraft,"  wrote  even  the  reformer  John 
Wesley  in  1768,  "  is  in  effect  giving  up  the  Bi- 
ble." The  latest  legal  witch  eiecutipns  in  Eu- 
rope were  at  Kempten,  Bavaria,  in  1775;  at 
Glarus,  Bwitiierland,  in  1785;  and  in  the  grand 
duchy  of  Posen,  In  1703;  but  witches  were  ju- 
dicially burned  in  Mexico  as  late  as  1873. 

Witch' -hatel,  or  Hamame'lis  Virgin'ica,  in- 
digenous shrub  belonging  to  the  order  Bama- 
melacea;  is  found  in  damp  woods  and  by 
streams  in  many  parts  of  the  U.  S.;  grows 
from  5  to  15  ft.  in  height  The  bark  yi^ds  « 
sedative  used  both  internally  and  extemally 
tor  the  purpose  of  controlling  hemorrhage  and 
for  influencing  diseased  blood  Tessela,  aa,  for 
example,  dilated  veins. 

Witenagemot  {wlt'6-na-g6-m6tl,  "assembly 
:  of  wise  men,"  the  old  Saxon  naUonal  council. 


RTTHEKSPOON 

the  great  court  of  justice  and  supreme  legis- 
lative body  of  the  English  nation  before  the 

Conquest,  Huperiar  to  the  Bcir-^emot  or  county 
a«BemblT,  and  itaelf  the  otTspring  of  the  primi- 
tive fouimote,  an  old  Germanic  institution. 
The  ealdormen,   the  high  ecelesiaatica,  and   the 

Sreat  landholders,  .  as  well  as  the  higher 
lire  ofncers,  appear  to  have  had  seats  in  the 
witan,  or  witenagemot;  and  probably  the  free- 
men who  lived  near  the  place  of  meeting  were 
allowed  to  ait  in  the  assembly.  It  elected  the 
king,  obsen-inK,  however,  the  principle  of  hered- 
itary succession,  though  not  nccesaarilj  choos- 
ing the  eldest  son,  and  it  possessed  the  right  of 
deposition.  Its  powers  included  the  making  of 
treaties,  the  appointing  of  bishops,  the  repi- 
latioQ  of  military  and  ecclesiastical  affaire,, 
the  raising  of  revenue,  etc.,  but  its  functions 
differed  in  different  reigns,  and  cannot  be 
clearly  defined,  nor  is  it  easy  to  trace  the  de- 
scent of  the  later  English  Parliament  from 
this  council,  though  in  some  points  there  is  a 
close  resemblBnoe.  The  witenagemot  was  abol- 
ished by  William  the  Conqueror,  who,  how- 
ever, had  previously  secured  its  acknowledg- 
ment of  his  title. 

With'erspoon,  John,  1722-94;  a  aigner  of  the 
American  Declaration  of  Independence;  b.  Yes- 
ter,  Scotland ;  became  minister  of  Beirth  when 
at  Paisley,  Scotland.  In  1T08  became  president 
of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  at  Princeton; 
1778,  member  of  Frovisional  Congress  of  New 
Jersey  and  Continental  Congress,  at  Philadel- 
phia. He  represented  New  Jersey  in  Congress 
for  six  years,  and  showed  great  political  sa- 

Wit'nesi.     See  Evide:<ce  and  Tbial. 

Witte  (vtt'tf).  Count  Sergius  de,  1S49-1915; 

Russian  statesman;  b.  Ti&is;  educated  Univ. 
of  Odessa,  and  graduated,  1870,  4t  Novoras- 
sisk  Univ.  He  entered  the  railway  service,  and 
was    director   of   the   SW.    railways,    lMSB-88; 

President  tariff  commission,  ISSO;  Minister  of 
i^ays  of  Communication,  1S82;  then  Minister 
of  Finance  till  1B03;  SecreUry  of  State,  1890; 
Pri^  Councilor,  1899.  In  1903  he  became 
president  of  the  Committee  of  Ministers  and  a 
member  of  the  Council  of  the  Empire;  Prime 
Minister  of  Russia,  1905-6.  In  the  negotiations 
which  led  to  the  Treaty  of  Portsmouth  his  dip- 
lomatic ability  led  to  the  abandonment  by  the 
Japanese  of  their  claim  for  a  war  indemnity 
and  other  disputed  points. 

Wit'teUnd,  or  Wid'nkind,  leader  of  the 
Westphalian  Saxons  in  their  wars  with  Char- 
lemagne. Ulien  most  of  the  Saxon  chiefs  sub- 
mitted to  Charlemagne  at  the  Diet  of  Pader- 
bom  (777),  Wittekind  fled  to  Jutland,  but 
returned  in  778,  while  Charlemagne  was  in 
Spain,  and  renewed  the  war  in  the  Rhine 
countries.  Charlemagne  hastened  to  Germany, 
and  Wittekind  was  once  more  compelled  to  ftee 
to  Jutland.  In  7S2  he  again  returned,  and 
Hnnihilated  n  Prankish  army  in  the  SDntcl 
Mountain  on  the  Weser.  Charlemagne  took  a 
cruel  revenge  by  massacring  4,500  Saxons  at 
Verden  on  the  AUer,  but  this  cruelty  occa- 
iloned  a  general  rising  of  the  Saxons  under 
Wittekind  and  Albion.     They  were  defeated. 


WOLCOT 

however,  at  Detmold  and  on  the  Haae  in  7S3, 
and  the  two  chiefs  fled  to  Holstein.  Neverthe- 
less, in  TB5  a  reconciliation  took  place  between 
the  emperor  and  his  two  great  antagonists; 
they  repaired  to  his  camp  at  Attigny  In  Cham- 
pagne, and  were  baptized,  after  which  event 
their  career  is  legendary. 

Wittenbeig  (v§t't4n-berkh),  town;  province 
of  Saxony,  Prussia;  on  the  Elbe,  &S  m.  SW.  of 
Berlin.  It  is  famous  as  the  place  where  the 
Reformation  began.  The  houses  of  Luther, 
Melnncbthon,  and  Lucas  Cranach  are  still 
shown ;  also  the  spot,  outside  the  Elster  gate, 
where  the  papal  bull  was  burned.  Luther  and 
Melanchthon  are  buried  in  the  Bchlosakirche, 
The  university,  once  so  famous,  was  incorpo- 
rated with  that  of  Halle  in  1817.  Breweries, 
distilleries,  and  tanneries  are  in  operation,  and 
woolen  and  linen  goods  made.  Pop.  ( 1900) 
18,345. 

Witwateisrand  (vlt-va'ters-rBnd),  or  Ihe 
Sand  (literally,  "White  Water  Range"),  a 
range  of  heights  in  the  Transvaal  Colony,  S. 
and  SW.  of  Pretoria,  which  since  1886  has  been 
the  greatest  gold-producing  n^oa  in  the  world. 
It  is  conservatively  estimated  that  the  "  ban-  ' 
ket"  reef  or  outcrop  will  yield  {3,600,000.000 
down  to  the  5,000-ft.  level.  See  Jokaknehbubo. 

Woad  (wOd),  a  biennial  herb/  plant  of  Eu- 
rope, which  has  been  employed  from  the  times 
of  the  Romans  for  dyeing  blue,  though  now  re- 
placed by  indigo,  which  gives  a  better  color. 
It  is  cultivated  in  France  and  Germany.  The 
leaves  possess  a  pungent  odor  and  an  acrid 
taste.  These  are  either  simply  dried  and  sent 
to  market,  or  by  grinding  are  made  into  a 
paste,  which  is  then  prepared  into  balls  and 
allowed  to  ferment,  after  which  it  is  dried: 
Woad  does  not  appear  to  contAin  either  indigo 
white  or  indigo  blue  (see  Indioo),  its  coloring 
qualities  being  due  to  the  presence  of  a  body 
t<irmed  indican.  At  present  it  is  chiefly  used 
for  the  reduction  of  indigo  in  the  "  woad  vata," 
but  is  seldom  employed  by  itself  for  dyeing. 

Wo'den,  or  Wodan.    Bee  Odin. 

Wol'cot,  or  Wolcott,  John,  better  knovni  a* 
Peteb  PisnAB,  1738-1819;  English  physician 
and  satirical  poet;  b.  Dodbrooke,  Devopshire; 
served  sn  apprenticeship  of  seven  years  to  his 
uncle,  a  physician,  ^ho  ultimately  left  him  a 
considerable  property;  accompanied  Sir  Will- 
iam Trelawney,  Governor  of  Jamaica,  to  that 
island  as  his  physician,  1767;  took  orders  in 
the  Church  of  England,  and  obtAined  a  curacy 
in  Jamaica  in  176B,  hut  returned  to  England  on 
the  des'h  of  his  patron  three  years  later;  spent 
twelve  years  at  Truro,  Helston,  and  other 
towns  in  Cornwall  as  a  physician;  discovered 
the  merits  of  the  obscure  painter  Opie,  with 
whom  he  went  to  London,  1780;  made  himself 
conspicuous  by  his  poetical  productions,  mostly 
satirical,  which  involved  him  in  many  quar- 
rels. His  attacks  upon  the  king  were  so  ef- 
fective that  at  one  time  the  ministry  purchased 
his  silsncc  by  the  payment  of  £300  per  annum. 
Among  his  satires  are  "  Lyric  Odes,"  "  An 
Epistle  to  the  Reviewers,"  "  Peeps  at  St. 
James,"  "  Royal  Visits,"  and  "  The  Lousiad." 
In  his  later  years  ha  became  totally  blind. 


WOLF 

Wolf,  the  e<HDiiioii  name  for  the  larger  wild 
Bpeciea  of  the  family '  Canido  and  genus  Oanit 
which  moat  resemble  the  dog,  and  which  agree 
with  the  ordinaiy  tjpes  of  that  animal  in  the 
posseasion  of  circular  pupUa  to  the  ejes  and 
a  somewhat  buahf  tail.  The  apeciea  are 
numerous,  and  the  typical  repreaentatirea  are 
chieflj  found  in  the  N.  hemisphere  and  south- 
ward to  India;  but  allied  apeciea,  which  are 
properly  called  wolves,  although  more  gener- 


EmtoFEUi  Wovt. 

ally  designated  as  wild  dogs  or  foices,  are  also 
found  in  Africa,  S.  America,  and  Australia. 
They  agree  essentially  in  their  hahits  with  the 
dogs,  and  hunt  their  prey  either  by  surprieing 
or  running  it  down.  At  some  seasons  of  the 
year  they  live,  to  some  degree,  in  solitude, 
although  they  often  associate  in  packs;  and 
eapeeially  is  thia  the  esse  in  winter,  when  they 
combine  in  the  pursuit  of  piey.  In  America 
there  are  two  well-marked  apeciea:  (1)  The 
large  common  wolf,  identical  with  or  a  sub- 
speeies  of  the  wolf  of  Europe  and  N.  Asia; 
and  (2)  the  sronll  prnirie  wolf  or  coyote,  oc- 
curring on  the  W.  plains.  The  former  has 
an  average  length  of  about  4  ft.,  with  a 
tail  of  IT  to  20  in.;  its  color  is  grizzly  gray 
above,  but  is  variable,  sometimes  being  black 
and  sometimes  white,  with  various  gradations. 
The  prairie  wolf  is  about  3  ft.  long  or  aome- 
what  longer,  and  has  a  tail  about  IS  in.  Its 
color,  as  in  the  wolf,  is  generally  gray.  It 
ia  found  more  generally  on  the  plains  of  the 
great  West  and  in  the  hoains  of  the  Miaaouri 
and  Saskatchewan  rivers,  and  extends  S.  into 
Mexico.  It  is  prolific,  sometimes  having  as 
many  as  ten  in  a  litter.  It  lives  mostly 
in  burrows.  The  Tasmsnian  wolf  is  a  mar- 
Wolf  Dog,  a  large  variety  of  the  domestic 
dog,  allied  to  the  shepherd's  dog,  now  found 
almost  exclusively  in  Spain,  though  formerly 
common  in  Ireland  and  Scandinavia.  The  name 
is  also  applied  to  a  dog  of  any  kind  that  is 
trained  to  protect  sheep,  etc.,  against  wolves. 

Wolfe,  Jamea,  1T26-6S;  English  soldier;  b. 
Westerhara,  Kent;  entered  the  army  as  second 
lieutenant  at  an  early  age ;  present  at  the  bat- 
tles of  Dettinppn.  Fontenoy.  Falkirk,  and  Cul- 
loden;  distinguished  himself  at  Lafeld,  1T4T, 
and   at   the   siege   of   Msestricht,   1748;    com- 


WOLSELET 

manded  a  regiment  in  the  Highlands  of  SooU 
land,   IT4&-G4;   quartermaster   general   in   the 

expedition  against  Bochefort,  1T5T,  and  briga- 
dier general  in  that  against  Louisburg,  Cape 
Breton,  17G3;  appoint^  by  Pitt  major  gen- 
eral, and  placed  in  command  of  an  expedition 
for  the  conquest  of  Canada,  1759;  arrived  with 
8,000  men  in  the  St.  Lawrence  in  June;  was 
repulsed  by  Mont^slm  in  a  first  attack.  Ju^ 
Slat,  and  fell  in  the  moment  of  victory  in  the 
battle  on  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  September 
13,  1769. 

Wolf  Fish,  Sahea  of  the  genua  Anarrhica*, 
so  named  from  their  fierce  aspect  and  large 
canine  teeth.  They  are  long  hut  stout  Sshes. 
The  species  are  peculiar  to  the  N.  seas.  The 
beat  marked,  and  possibly  the  only  ones,  are 
found  on  both  sides  of  the  Atlantic  and  along 
Greenland.  On  the  American  coast  the  wolf 
fish  is  found  as  far  S.  as  Cape  Cod,  and  occa- 
sionally even  beyond.  It  is  a  ravenous  and 
ferocious  fish,  and  with  its  powerful  jaws  can 
inflict  a  severe  wound  even  on  man.  Although 
repulsive  in  its  appearance,  and  rarely,  if  ever, 
eaten  on  the  American  coast,  it  is  regarded  as 

Klatable  or  even  excellent  food  in  Europe.  ' 
e  skin  ia  used  for  bags  and  pockets.  The 
wolf  fish  occasionally  attains  a  length  of  6  or 
7  ft.  It  mostly  lives  in  deep  water, -but  ap- 
proaches the  shore  to  deposit  its  spawn  in  May 
and  June.  This  species  is  also  called  in  various 
places  sea  wolf  and  catSsh,  and  in  the  Orkneys 
swine  fish,  on  account  of  the  movements  of  its 
noae,  which  are  supposed  to  simulate  those  of 
a  hog. 
Wolfsltaiie.    See  Monkshood. 


b.  near  Dublin,  Ireland;  entered  the  British 
service  as  ensign,  1852;  served  in  the  Burmese 
War,  1852-53 ;  with  Sir  John  Cheape's  expedi- 
tion against  the  robber  chief  Mynttoon;  in  the 
siege  of  Sevastopol  from  ]SG1  to  close  of  the 
war;  tn  the  suppression  of  the  Indinn  Mutiny, 
1857-50;  and  in  tlie  war  with  China,  1860. 
In  1870,  in  command  of  the  expedition  from 
Canada  to   the   Red   River  territory,   he   sup- 

Jressed  the  insurgents  at  Fort  Garry.  In  1873 
e  was  Governor  of  Gold  Coast  Settlement, 
which  had  become  involved  in  a  war  with  the 
Ashanteos,  and  defeated  the  enemy's  srmy,  oc- 
cupied and  destroyed  Coomassie,  his  capital, 
and  the  king's  palace,  and  brought  the  war  to 
a  speedy  ana  successful  end.  For  these  services 
he  was  made  major  general,  and  the  thanks 
of  Parliament  and  £25,000  were  bestowed  upon 
him;  Governor  of  Cyprus,  1878,  and  of  Natal, 
1879;  commander  of  British  forces  in  Egypt, 
1882,  winnine  the  battle  of  Tel-el-Kebir,  which 
practically  closed  the  war;  raised  to  the  peer- 
age as  Viscount  Wolseley,  and  made  general 
in  1882;  in  1884-85  he  was  commander  in  chief 
in  Egypt,  and  conducted  operations  for  relief 
of  Khartoum.  In  1890  was  commander  in 
chief  of  the  troops  stationed  in  Ireland,  with 
headquarters  in  Dublin;  from  1895  till  1900 
he  was  commander  in  chief  of  the  British  arm; 


with  limited  powers.  He  Is  the  anthor  of  bsv- 
«nl  mJliUrj  works,  ob  "  The  Soldiers'  Pocket 
Book  for  Field  Bervice,"  and  biogrkphy  ol  the 
Duke  of  Marlborough. 

WoUe7  (wSl'zI),  ThaniAi,  UTl-lGSO;  Eng- 
lish cardinal;  b.  Ipswich,  England;  educated 
Magdalen  College,  Oxford;  received  in  1500 
the  rectorship  of  LTmingtonj  was  a  chaplain 
to  Henry  VII,  1506;  went  to  Bruges  in  1507 
on  ft  special  diplomatic  mission  to  the  Emperor 
Ma^milian,  and  to  Scotland,  IC08,  on  a  sim- 
ilar errand,  and  for  liis  success  was  rewarded 
with  the  deanery  of  Lincoln,  1509,  Henry  VIII 
made  him  bis  almoner,  1509,  and  soon  em- 
ployed him  in  the  moat  impor^t  affairs.  He 
made  him  Archbishop  of  York  in  1514,  Lord 
Chancellor  of  England  in  1515,  and  showed 
hira  an  almost  unlimited  confidence.  Foreign 
princes  courted  his  favor;  the  Emperor  and 
the  King  of  France  sent  bim  great  presents 
and  bestowed  pensions  on  him;  the  pope  cre- 
ated him  a  cardinal  in  1615,  and  legate  in 
161S;  and  from  this  last  year  to  his  fall  he 
acted  as  if  he  were  really  the  ruler  of  England. 
Wolseys  income  was  royal,  but  was  nobly  ex- 
pended. He  built  Eampton  Court;  he  founded 
Christ  Church  College  and  seven  lectureships 
at  Oxford,  and  wa8,a  liberal  patron  of  tetters, 
and  especially  of  the  new  learning.  In  personal 
bearing  he  was  haughty  and  arrogant  toward 
his  equals,  adroit  in  managing  his  superiors, 
and  kind  and  generous  toward  his  inferiors. 

Twice— on  the  death  of  Leo  X    (1522)   and 

Xin  on  that  of  Adrian  VI  (1523)— the  pap:il 
■a,  teemed  to  be  within  his  reach,  but  both 
times  bis  plsns  were  foiled  by  the  intrigues  of 
Charles  V  and  by  the  opposition  of  the  French 
bishops.  At  last  his  amoition  came  into  con- 
flict with  the  king's  passion.  The  king  wished 
to  have  bis  marriage  with  Catharine  of  Aragon 
annulled  by  the  pope,  and  on  Wolsey  devolved 
tbe  obligation  of  carrying  tbrough  the  negoti- 
ations. The  task  was  a  thankless  one,  and 
Wolsey  realized  its  hopelessness.  The  king  lost 
his  patience,  and  even  began  to  distrust  tbe 
cardinal.  At  last  it  was  evident  that  Woisey 
.  had  failed.  The  pope.  Clement  VII,  absolutely 
refused  to  grant  the  divorce.  Wolsey  was  not 
sorry  at  his  own  failure  in  the  matter,  because 
he  waa  opposed  to  Henry's  marriage  to  Anne 
Boleyn,  since  it  might  endanger  his  owii  posi- 
tion at  home  by  giving  the  widespread  jealousy 
and  enmity  around  him  a  flrtn  center.  At  lost 
Anne  Boleyn  demanded  and  obtained  from  the 
king  the  cardinal's  dismissal  in  disgrace,  and 
in  1529  the  great  seal  was  taken  from  him, 
and  he  left  the  court.  He  retired  to  his  arch- 
bishopric, and  seemed  prepared  to  end  his  life 
in  comparative  obscority.  But  the  hatred  of 
hb  enemies  was  not  yet  satisfied,  and  in  1530 
be  was  arrested  on  a  charge  of  high  treason. 
He  was  conducted  to  London,  but  on  the  way 
thither  he  fell  ill,  and  died  at  the  monastery 
ol  Leicester. 

Wolverene'.    See  GLtrrTOH, 

Wom'sn's  Cbris'tlan  Tflm'peruce  Un'ton  (in 
abbreviated  form  W.  C.  T.  V.),  an  association 
to  unify  throughout  the  world  the  work  of 
women  in  temperance  and  social  reform.  Its 
methods    are    preventive,    educational,    evan- 


WONDERS 

gelistic,  social,  and  l^al;  the  time  of  prayer 
observed  by  its  members  is  noontide ;  its  badge 
is  a  knot  of  white  ribbon ;  its  watchwords  are 
" Agitate  1  Organise."  Its  motto  is  "For 
God  and  home  and  every  land." 

The  National  Woman's  Christian  Temper- 
ance Union  was  organized  in  Cleveland,  Ohio, 
in  1874,  and  is  now  regularly  organized  in  all 
the  states  of  the  Union.  ItB  headquarters  are 
in  Evanston,  11).,  where  it  has  a  temperance  . 
publishing  house  which. sends  out  about  135,- 
000,000  pages  annually,  and  has  seven  editors 
and  150  employees.  This  publishing  house  is 
a  stock  company,  and  all  its  directors  and 
stocltholders  are  women,  as  is  its  business 
manager.  The  Union  Signal  is  the  organ  of 
the  society.  The  Woman's  National  Temper- 
ance Hospital  demonstrates  the  value  of  non- 
alcoholic medication.  The  Woman's  Temper- 
ance Temple,  which  cost  over  (1,000,000,  has 
been  built  in  Chicago.  There  are  about  10,000 
local  unions  with  a  membership  and  following, 
including  the  children's  societies,  of  about  half 
a  million.  The  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union  has  forty-four  distinct  departments  of 
work.  The  laws  requiring  the  study  of  scien- 
tific temperance  in  the  public  Bchools  were  se- 
cured by  the  Woman's  Christian  Temperance 
Union,  as  were  also  the  taws  forbidding  the 
sale  of  tobacco  to  minors.  Most  industrial 
homes  for  girls  were  secured  through  the  ef- 
forts of  this  society,  also  the  refuges  for  erring 
women;  laws  raising  the  age  of  consent  and 
providing  for  better  protection  for  women  and 
girls  have  been  enacted  by  many  legislatures 
through  its  inHuence. 

Woman's  Suffrage.    See  Svftraoe. 

Womlat,  a  marsupalian  quadruped,  of  which 
only  three  species  are  known.  It  is  of  clumsy 
form  and  stout  limbs,  reaching  a  length  of 
about  3  ft.  and  a  weight  of  60  lb.  The  legs 
are  short,  but  powerful,  and  the  animals  bur- 


row readily.  The  general  color  is  gray,  lighter 
beneath.  They  are  nocturnal  in  habits,  feed 
on  vegetables,  and,  as  a  rule,  are  easily  tamed. 
The  common  wombat  Is  found  in  S.  Australia, 
New  8.  Wales,  and  Van  IMcmen's  Land.  The 
broad-fronted  wombat  is  a  native  of  S.  Aus- 
tralia. 


K  WORDEBS   «T 

,C,ooglc 


WOOD 

Wood,  the  h*rd  uid  oompMt  or  tougb  and 
Abrotu  parta  of  higher  plautB,  chiefly  composed 
of  flbroua  and  vaacular  tiseue.  It  la  found  is 
the  HtemH  and  roots.  Annual  plants  usually 
€M>ntain  little  woodj  fiber,'  Wood  is  valuable 
not  only  as  timber  and  fuel,  being  ia  many 
parts  of  the  world  the  chief,  If  not  the  aa.\j, 
fuel,  but  to  the  woody 'fiber  we  are  also  in- 
debted for  cordage,  mimy  textile  fabrics,  etc., 
and,  reduced  to  pulp,  it  ii  used  for  making 
paper.  A  kind  of  artiflcial  wood  used  for 
nutking  ornamental  articles  was  invented  in 
France,  and  is  known  under  the  name  of  boia 
dur4.  It  is  formed  of  sawdust  heated  to  a, 
high  temperature,  and  subjected  to  a  very 
great  pressure.  Its  compactness  and  hardness 
exceed  those  of  wood  iUelf.  See  Fobestbi; 
PbeSEBVATIOKl07  TlHBEB)  TlMBEB  AND  TllfBBB 

Tbeeb. 

Wood  Al'cohol.    See  Aloobol. 

Wood'biiM,  a  name  given  in  Europe  to  the 
honeysuckle,  and  in  the  U.  8.  to  the  Virginia 
creeper.     See  AMPEUorais;   HoNEraucKLK. 

Wo  otf 'carving,  sculpture  in  wood-  Many 
kinds  of  wood  afford  excellent  material  for 
sculpture.  Some  bard  and  close-grained  woods, 
such  as  box,  holly,  mahogany,  pear,  linden,  and 
those  of  several  Oriental  trees,  are  fit  for  the 
moat  minute  and  delicate  carving.  Except  on 
a  small  scale  it  is  not  necessair  to  seek  for 
woods  having  an  exceptionally  nine  grain.  It 
Is  often  found  that  the  grain  adds  a  charm  to 
the  work — not  merely  the  lines  of  the  veining, 
OS  in  the  case  of  ivory,  but  even  the  open  pores 
as  they  are  cut  across  at  different  angles. 
Thus  of  all  woods  oak  has  been  the  most  em- 
ploTcd-since  the  tenth  century  for  all  kinds  of 
sculpture,  and  there  is  no  wood  so  fit  for  it 
and  so  beautiful,  as  is  shown  in  the  stalls  and 
confessionals  of  hundred!  of  cliurches  through- 
out Europe.  Chestnut  is  excellent,  and  is 
much  used  for  coarser  work.  Walnut  has  been 
much  used,  especially  (or  carved  furniture  and 
the  like,  and  in  the  S.  of  Europe.  Sycamore 
wood,  the  use  of  which  for  large  pieces  of 
sculpture  is  traditional  in  Europe  Irom  the 
earliest  times,  seems  to  have  been  but  little 
employed  in  the  ^liddle  Ages.  The  wood  of  the 
rec<^nized   as   having 


ished  was  less  thought  of  because  sculpture  in 
wood,  like  that  of  stone,  was  generally  covered 
with  painting,  and  often  eiided. 

Wood  that  is  to  be  used  for  artistical  carv- 
ing should  receive  a  special  treatment  fitting 
it  for  its  purpose  and  adding  to  its  durability. 
One  expedient  much  used  in  ancient  times  was 
smoking  in  wood  smoke.  This,  of  course,  was 
not  used  until  the  wood  was  well  seasoned.  It 
is  a  custom,  still  obsa^ed  in  the  few  cases 
where  delicate  carving  is  to  be  done,  to  glue 
pieces  of  paper  upon  the  ends  of  the  piece  of 
wood  and  covering  the  end  grain;  such  wood 
may  then  be  thoroughly  dried  even  in  hot 
rooms,  without  checking,  the  drying  out  of  the 
sap  taking  place  equally  along  the  whole  length 
of  the  wood  and  not  rapidly  at  the  ends.  Host 
workmen  of  the  best  class  have  secrets  for  the 
preparation  of  wood;  but  the  cost  of  fine  work 


WOODCARVING 

has  become  «o  Brest  in  modem  timea  that  it 
is  very  rare  that  a  piece  of  furniture  is  under- 
taken with  every  precaution  for  the  highest 
excellence.  The  soft  wood  of  the  common  pine 
trees  lends  itself  well  to  carving  on  a  large 
scale,  and  is  particularly  good  for  out-of-door 
work  which  IS  to  be  painted.  These  woods 
mi^t  equally  well  be  used  even  where  the  sur- 
face is  not  to  be  painted,  as  may  be  seen  in 
the  curved  and  pierced  panels  of  Japaneae 
temples  and  dwelling  houses.  Some  of  thorn 
panels  are  3  in,  or  more  thick,  and  are  carved 
in  animal  and  vegetable  forms  and  with  leg- 
endary subjects,  even  involving  the  suggestion 
of  landscape  with  mountains  and  clouds,  the 
carving  being  carried  deep  into  the  wood  so 
that  parts  of  it  are  pierced  through.  The  do- 
mestic architecture  of  India  includes  a  grest 
deal  of  effective  wood  carving,  the  pieces  being 
often  very  large  and  covered  with  minute 
flower  and  leaf  sculpture.  In  this  Indian  work 
carving  is  used  in  excess,  all  parts  being 
equally  covered  with  it.  It  is  frequently 
paint«^  in  rich  colors,  rathe*  for  ornament 
than  for  preservation. 

The  earliest  piece  of  woodcarving  which  we 
know  is  also  perhaps  the  earliest  piece  of 
sculpture  known.  This  is  the  Egyptian  statue 
called  the  Sheikh-el- Belad  or  "  village  chief," 
so  named  by  the  natives  when  first  discovered 
— the  life-size  statue  of  a  short  and  stout  man, 
apparently  of  sycamore  wood,  and  dating  from 
about  4,000  years  B.C.  Woodcarving  of  the 
Greeks  is  not  known,  but  it  is  certain  that 
many  of  the  sacred  statues,  regarded  with  great 
veneration  throughout  classical  antiquity,  were 
of  wood.  Classical  Koman  sculpture  in  wood 
has  also  perished.  There  is  little  hope  of  find- 
ing well-preserved  wooden  articles  in  tombs  or 
otherwise  buried  in  a  climate  and  soil  less  dry 
than  those  of  Kgypt. 

It  is  with  the  later  Middle  Ages  that  the 
finest  woodcarving  is  associated.  The  stalls 
and  other  fittings  of  the  choir  in  the  Church  of 
Ratzeburg,  near  LQbeck;  those  in  Notre  Dame 
de  la  Bocbe.  near  Paris;  those  of  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Auch,  and  especially  those  of  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Amiens,  are  specimens  of  the  most  ad- 
mirable detailed  carving  of  men  and  animals, 
foliage  and  the  like,  all  combined  in  a  aemi- 
architcctural  design  of  great  dignity  and  im- 
portance. Larger  earrings  were  used  for  the 
wooden  structural  parts  of  churches  and  other 
buildings.  Of  these  almost  nothing  remains  ex- 
cept the  English  open  timber  roofs,  and  the 
ends  of  the  hammer  beams  in  Westminster 
Halt,  carved  into  angels  holding  shields,  are 
good  instances  of  the  liind  of  work  which  was 
put  upon  such  architectural  members. 

The  portable  furniture  of  the  same  epoch, 
French,  German,  Italian,  and  English,  though 
but  few  pieces  remain,  gives  us  an  excellent  ex- 
ample of  elaborate  earring  used  for  the  adorn- 
ment of  the  simplest  and  most  natural  forms. 
The  furniture  makers  of  the  Middle  Ages  used 
only  very  simple  methods  of  putting  together 
the  parts  of  their  benches  and  tables,  but  deco- 
rated the  members  by  skillful  cutting  away  of 
the  wood  in  picturesque  curves  where  compar- 
ative thickness  was  not  needed,  and  by  carving 
of  leafage  and  animals  wherever  their  forms 


eign,  Woodcarving  wae  used  also  lor  images 
of  the  Bacred  personaces  of  Christian  theology, 
both  Email  and  portable,  snd  of  large  size  in 
connection  with  the  altar,  the  rood  screen,  etc. 
In  all  the  times  and  places  of  a  ftee  use  of 
woodcarving,  the  art  grows  to  be  familiar  and 
the  mechanical  process  easy  and  rapid  beyond 
the  conception  of  those  who  have  only  seen  it 
done  to  m*der  in  an  inartiBtic  and  commercial 
community.  Thus  in  France,  where  old  tradi- 
tions still  partly  remain  undisturbed,  very  in- 
teresting and  spirited  carving  in  oak  is  done  at 
a  price  surprisingly  low,  and  yet  done  by  men 
who  are  well-to-do  citizens  earning  a  good  liv- 
ing. Some  of  these  men  have  also  a  good 
knowledge  of  certain  stj^les  of  art,  and  can  do 
"  Louis  XIII  "  or  "  Louis  XV  "  work  without 
special  study  or  preparation.  In  all  this  work 
it  is  noticeable  how  simply  it  is  done;  how  few 
cuts,  how  few  minutes  have  gone  to  the  shap- 
ing of  a  leaf  or  a  bunch  of  leaves.  At  present, 
and  especially  in  the  U.  S.,  the  demand  is  re- 
stricted to  delicate  and  highly  finished  work. 
Moreover,  there  are  fewer  competent  woodcarv- 
ers  in  a  great  city  like  New  York  than  there 
are  in  many  a  French  town  of  one  twentieth  its 

Wood'cliat,  a  shrike  of  the  Old  World  which 
has  a  very  wide  geographical  range.  In  S.  Af- 
rica It  is  called  "  magistrate  bird,"  from  its 
habit  of  impaling  and  banging  its  victims.  It 
is  sometimes  named  the  "  red  nine-killer,"  from 
the  belief  that  it  kills  nine  victims  before  it 
begins  to  eat. 

Wood'chack,  or  Grotmd  Hog,  a  large  rodent 
mammal  of  N.  America,  quite  common  in  the  E. 
portions.  It  is  about  IS  in.  long,  and  has  a 
grizzled  reddish-brown  fur,  which  has  a  limit- 


WOODCBDCK. 

ed  industrial  use.  The  creature  is  very  prolific, 
eats  clover,  young  cabbages,  and  bpans,  hiber- 
nates in  coid  weather,  and  is  sonietimea  used 
for  food.     It  digs  a' deep  burrow. 

Wood'cock,  either  of  two  different  game  birds 
of  the  snipe  family.  The  European  woodcock 
ranges  over  the  ¥,.  continent  from  Japan  to  the 
BriOsh  Isles,  and  attsina  a  length  at  14  in.. 


WOODPECKEft 

while  the  American  bird,  which  attains  only  II 
in.,  is  found  abundantly  in  the  N.  U.  8.  and  in 
Canada.  The  plumage  ia  a  warm  brown  with 
gray  and  black  markings.  The  eye  is  placed 
high  up  toward  the  hinder  part  of  the  head. 
Both  are  prized  for  the  delicacy  of  their  flesh. 
The  food  of  the  woodcock  consists  mostly  of 
worms,  which  it  obtains  with  skill,  thrusting 
its  beak  BB  far  as  the  nostrils  into  the  soft, 
moist  earth.  A  tame  woodcock  has  been  seen 
to  probe  large  turfs  with  its  bill,  and  to  draw 
out  a  worm  at  every  thrust  of  the  long,  slen- 
der beak.  It  is  thought  that  the  sense  of  smell 
enables  the  bird  to  discover  the  worms.  It 
moves  about  chiefly  on  misty  days,  and  ia  said 
by  experienced  woodcock  shooters  to  prefer  the 
N.  aide  of  a  hill  to  the  S.  It  ia  a  very  ailent 
bird,  seldom  uttering  a  cry  except  when  first 
starting  for  its  feeding  places,  and  hardly  ever 
crying  when»fluahed.  The  flight  of  the  wood- 
cock is  wonderfully  swift,  although  the  wing* 
do  not  appear  to  move  very  fast. 

Wood  Duck,  or  Sum'mer  Duck,  a  beautiful 
bird  related  to  the  still  more  beautiful  man- 
darin duck  of  China.  The  wood  duck  baa  the 
bead  green,  glossed  with  purple,  with  a  line 
from  the  upper  corner  of  the  bill,  one  from  be- 
hind the  eye,  and  two  bars  on  the  side  of  the 
head  and  upper  part  of  throat  white,  the  tail 
at  sides  purple,  the  under  parts  white,  the 
sides  yellowish,  banded  with  black,  and  the 
back  uniform  with  various  reQectlona,  It  is 
about  10  or  20  in.  long.  The  species  ranges 
over  most  of  N.  America — in  the  warmer  re- 
gions as  a  permanent  resident  and  in  the  N. 
as  a  summer  migrant.  It  builds  its  nest  gen- 
erally in  a  hollow  tree.  Its  eggs  are  smaller 
than  a  hen's,  and  have  surfaces  like  polished 
ivory.  It  is  generally  seen  in  pairs,  and  rarely 
in  flocks  of  more  than  three  or  four.  It  feeds  ' 
chiefly  on  aeorns,  the  acoda  of  wild  oats,  and  In- 
sects.   The  flesh  is  tolerably  good  food. 

Wood  Ehgiav'in^    See  EnoBAVina. 

Wood'en  Horse,  in  ancient  tradition,  an  ar- 
tifice of  the  Greeks  which  ended,  successfully 
for  them,  the  long  siege  of  Troy.  The  besieg- 
ers, as  if  discouraged,  withdrew  from  Troy  to 
Tenedoa,  leaving  outside  the  city  walls  a  large 
horse  built  of  wood  and  fUled  with  chosen  war- 
riors. Priam,  persuaded  by  Sinon,  a  pretended 
deserter  from  the  Greeks,  that  the  horse  was 
an  offering  to  Minerva,  and  disregarding  the 
protest  of  LaoeoBn,  received  the  hoi'Se  within 
the  walls,  and  at  night  the  armed  Grecian 
chiefs,  set  free  by  Sinon,  set  fire  to  the  city. 

Wood  Grouse.     See  CAPc:BCAti.zlE. 

Wood'peclter,  popular  name  for  the  birds  of 
the  family  Piaida  on  account  of  their  habit  of 
cutting,  or  pecking,  into  trees  either  in  search 
of  food  or  to  build  their  neata  The  wood- 
peckers are  mostly  of  moderate  size,  ranging 
from  the  great  Mexican  Campopkiltit  iinpe- 
rialia,  which  is  22  in.  lon^,  to  the  little 
downy  Ptcua  pubeaoena  of  6  in.  Though  not, 
aa  a  rule,  bright-colored  birds,  many  species 
have  a  plumage  which  ia  striking  from  its 
sharp  contrasts  of  black  and  white,  heightened 
by  the  red,  ere«cent-sbaped  nape  mark.  Some 
spedea  have  concpicuous    crests,   and    others. 


WOODRUFF 

like  tile  flickers  of  N.  America,  have  conaider- 
able.  red  or  yellow  about  ^^n;  but  thia  U  eo 
blended  u  not  to  be  glaring.  Woodpeckeis  live 
Urgelj  on  ants,  gruos,  and  other  insecta,  aa 
well  OS  on  fruit  and  regetable  food.  The 
tODguea  of  the  majority  of  Bpecies  form  effect- 
ive speara  for  impaling  wood -boring  gruba, 
whoae  burrows  are  cut  into  hy  the  strong  bilL 
In  other  species,  like  the  flicker,  the  tongue  is 
used  for  probing  ant-hills,  or  picking  these  in- 
■ects  from  the  ground,  being  plentifully  Im- 
ameared  with  saliva.  The  aapBuckera  have 
comparatively  short  and  brushy  tongues.  The 
California  woodpecker  stores  up  acorns  in  boles 
cut  into  dead  branches,  and  scores  may  be  seen 
imbedded  in  one  limb.  A  woodpecker's  ^gs 
are  six  to  nine  in  number,  white,  glossy,  and 
translucent. 

There  are  between  250  and  300  species  of 
-woodpeckers  distributed  over  the  greater  por- 
tion of  tbe  globe,  save  Madaeascar  and  the 
Australian  regim,  except  Celebes  and  Flores. 
About  half  tnia  number  are  American,  and 
tventy-two  apecies  and  thirteen  subspecies  oc- 
cur in  the  U.  S.  One  of  these,  the  ivory-billed 
WDodpeeker,  ia  in  danger  of  being  exterminated, 
being  limited  to  the  wilder  parte  of  florida  in 
the  K,  altbough  still  found  ^>aringly  in  some 
parU  of  the  BW. 

Wood'niff,  a  favorite  herb  of  the  European 
peasants.  It  has,  when  dry,  a  pleasant  odor, 
somewhat  like  that  of  tbe  Tonquin  bean  or 
sweet  clover.  The  Germans  put  it  into  their 
Hay  drink  (Maitratik)  and  into  home-made 
beer.  In  America  Galium  trifloratn,  a  re- 
lated plant  with  a  dmilar  smell,  is  used  as  a 
■ubatltute. 

Wood  Swallows,  or  Swift  Shrikes,  a  group 
of  birda  slightly  resembling  swallows  in  babito 
and  appearance,  but  belonging  to  the  sub- 
family Artamido).  In  the  B.  Indies  and  Aua- 
tralia  tl^v   abound.      The   Artamut   toniidiit, 


on   their   hivea,   the   whole   flock   clinging   to- 
gether, and  sometimes  forming  a  mass  aa  large 


Wool,  John  Ellia,  17S4^I6ee;  American  sol- 
dier; b.  at  Newburg,  N.  Y.  He  waa  commis- 
sioned as  captain  o1  the  Thirteenth  Infantry, 
1812;  diatln^shed  himself  in  the  War  of  1S12, 
and  in  1816  abpointed  inspector  general,  with 
the  rank  of  colonel.  In  the  war  with  Mexico 
he  superintended  the  orDanization  of  W.  volun- 
teers, and,  after  diapat^ing  some  12,000  to  the 
seat  of  war,  condudAd  himself  a  force  of  3,000 
on  the  march  from  San  Antonio  to  Saltillo 
and  Joined  the  army  of  Gen.  Taylor  as  eecond 
in  command.  Held  other  important  com- 
mands, and  promoted  to  be  major  general, 
ISeZ;  waa  retired  1863. 

Wool  and  Wool'an  Hannfac'tniei,  the  fleece 
of  the  aheep  and  the  processee  by  which  It  is 
converted  iato  fabrioa.  The  term  wool,  how- 
ever, has  been  extended  to  include  the  covering 
of  several  other  animals.  Wool  proper  may  be 
distingiushcd  from  all  other  varieties  by  the 
eharacta*  of  its  fibers  and  by  its  property  of 


WOOL  AND  WOOLEI*  MAJTUFACTURES 

felting,  due  to  the  scales  which  overlap  and 
form  a  felted  fabric  (see  Felt).  Alargenum-. 
ber  of  scales  improves  the  elasticity  and  the 
felting  property.  The  primitive  sheep  was  cov- 
ered with  long  hair,  the  rudiments  of  the  pres- 
ent fleece  being  an  undercovering.  The  hair 
was  bred  out,  but  if  sheep  are  ne^ected  now, 
or  become  ve^  old,  they  will  revert  to  tide 
habit.  Sheep  formed  a  large  part  of  the  wealth 
of  the  Oriental  nations,  u>e  people  of  which 
produced  delicate  and  exquisitely  fine  fabrics. 
The  flrat  attempts  to  improve  the  breeds  of 
aheep  Were  made  by  the  Romans  about  the 
second  century  b.c.,  when  they  crossed  their 
Tarrentine  sheep  with  white  African  rams,  the 
proceny  producing  a  breed  of  flne-wooled  sheep, 
yieiding  a  heavy  fieece.  This  cross  is  supposed 
to  be  the  original  of  the  Spanish  merino  sheep. 
Careful  improvement  in  France  led  to  the  pro- 
duction of  French  merino,  one  of  the  finest  of 
the  long-wool  breeds.  Its  introduction  into 
Germany  has  produced  the  fine  Saxon  wools, 
and  the  French  sheep  of  Naz,  which  yields  a 
silky  wool,  bears  traces  of  its  early  merino  ori- 
gin. In  the  U.  B.  the  Spanish  merino  has  ex- 
erted a  wide  influence,  and,  together  vrith  the 
Saxony  sheep,  the  sheep  of  Naz,  and  the  French 
merino,  constitutes  the  largest  proportion  of 
those  fiocks  which  are   bred  mamly  for  their 

Wool  is  divided  into  pulled  and  clipped  or 
fleece  wools,  the  former  being  pulled  by  the 
roots  from  the  pelt  of  the  dead  animal  and 
the  latter  clipped  from  the  living  one.  The 
clipped  wools  form  the  greater  part  of  the  wool 
in  market,  and  these  are  again  divided  into 
long  and  ^ort  staple,  or  combing  and  clothing 
wools.  The  quantity  of  wool  grown  increased 
rapidly  during  the  nineteenth  century,  espe- 
cially in  Europe,  America,  Australia,  and  S. 
Africa.  Since  1901,  when  it  was  138,000,000  lb., 
the  production  of  wool  in  Great  Britain  has  de- 
creased, being  for  1011  138,000,000  lb.  In 
moat  European  countries  the  production  haa 
fallen  off  conaiderably..  Auatralosia  produces 
the  finest  wool  in  the  world  for  fine  combing 
purpoaea,  the  output  for  1909  being  estimate 
at  750,590,163  lb. 

In  the  U.  S.  the  demands  for  wool  for  home 
manufactures  have  immensely  increased  thu 
production,  while  the  amount  imported  (1011) 
was  nearly  138,000,000  lb.,  valued  at  $23,250,- 
000.  In  1810  the  wool  produced  in  the  U.  S. 
was  estimated  at  13,000,000  lb.;  1890,  309,- 
4T4,85a  lb.  In  1011  the  production  was  318,- 
547,900  lb.  The  average  annual  consumption  of 
wool  in  the  U.  S.  (1809-1900)  was  about  475,- 
000,000  lb.,  of  which  over  one  third  was  im- 
ported. The  world's  supply  was  063,000,000  lb. 
in  leao  and  2,456,773,600  lb.  in  180a  The  pro- 
duction in  1S09  was  as  follows: 

North  AmsiloB S4^820.7«  lb. 

CentnJ  Amatiis G.000.000  lb. 

Routh  Amarica 498,718,000  lb. 

Europe 804.008.074  lb. 

'-'-*^     3ia.390.000  lb. 

I      130.703.000  lb. 

Auttnluia 7a6.HM,lffl  lb, 

Oo«uiioa 100.000  lb. 

Worid'a  iuppljF 3.8M,73a,98a  lb. 

The  principal  European  markets  for  wool  an 

at  London  and  Antwerp. 

1  L,:,  zed  by  Google 


WOOL  AND  WOOIEN  MAKUFACTDBES     WOOL  AMD  WOOLEN  MANUFACTUREe 


The  manufacture  of  wool  into  fabrics  for 
clothing  it  ODe  of  the  oldest  industries.  At  a 
very  eailj  date  the  primitive  woman  discovered 
that  the  coarse  wool  of  the  sheep  could  be  made 
to  serve  as  a  substitute  for  the  pelta  of  the 
sheep.  Although  the  transition  to  garments  of 
mora  skillful  workmanship  was  gradual,  the 
'  production  of  dyed  garments,  of  ehawls,  and  of 
carpets  w«*  attempted  at  a  very  early  period. 
Some  of  the  Persian,  Greek,  and  Soman  cloths 
must  have  been  very  beailtiful;  but  in  the 
age*  which  followed  the  downfall  of  the  W. 
Roman  Empire  the  art  of  making  them  was 
nearly  lost,  the  says  and  serges  of  the  Middle 
Asee  being  made  from  coarse  and  harsh  wools. 
After  the  thirteenth  or  fourteenth  century, 
■ilks,  satins,  and  velvets  became  the  favorite 
clothins  of  the  wealthy. 

Until  after  the  Reformation  the  making  of 
woolen  goods  was  almost  entirely  domestic,  and 
the  assembliOK  of  looms  and  epinnmg  wheels  in 
a  single  building  gave  some  advantages.  The 
dyeing  and  fulling  of  the  cloths  was  a  sepa- 
rate buBinesB,  and,  as  water  power  was  required 
for  this,  fulling  mills  sprang  up.  There  were 
frauds  in  those  days — stretching  of  the  goods 
ftud  the  extravagant  use  of  flocks — shorn  nbers, 
or  the  nap,  cut  from  the  face  of  one  piece  of 
cloth,  then  fulled  into  the  back  of  another 
piece.  If  judiciously  used,  they  improve  the 
fabric  From  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century 
to  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century  this  do- 
mestic manufacture  of  cloths  was  carried  on  ex- 
tensively in  England,  and  much  was  exported. 
Though  large  quantities  of  ^oods  were  made  in 
the  eighteenth  century,  their  quality  was  tar 
from  uniform,  and  there  was  no  improvement 
in  processes  until  the  invention  of  the  carding 
machine,  about  1TG3,  and  the  spinning  jenny. 
The  gradual  introduction  of  these  machines 
and  the  application  of  steam  greatly  improved 
the  character  of  the  Bn^lish  and  French  cloths, 
but  until  the  introduction  of  the  power  loom 
(abt  1800)  and  the  Jacquard  loom  (invented 
in  1811)  the  woolen  and  worsted  manufactures 
had  not  recrived  their  greatest  impulse  in 
Great  Britain.  The  French  manufacturers, 
with  their  flue  and  soft  wools,  directed  their  at- 
tention to  the  production  of  fabrics  for  wom- 
en's wear,  and  their  merino  goods  have  never 
been  surpassed. 

In    the   U.   B.   the    manufacture    of    woolen 

foods  wss  almost  entirely  domestic  as  late  as 
790,  ^d,  though  there  had  been  fulling  mills 
from  the  first  settlement  of  the  colonies,  there 
was  no  woolen  factory  in  successful  operation 
before  17M.  In  1812  a  laige  factory  of  fine 
cloths  was  established  at  Sliddletown,  Conn., 
and  in  the  same  year  were  produced  the  heli- 
ooid  shears,  a  cutting  machine  with  spiral 
blades  on  a  cylinder  acting  against  a  straight 
ste^  blade,  and  shearing  the  nap  of  the  cloth 
evenly  and  perfectly.  Although  this  was  first 
adopted  in  France,  the  world  is  indebted  to  the 
U,  B.  for  some  of  the  best  inventions  in  the 
manufacture  of  wool.  Massachusetts  has  from 
the  firat  maintained  the  leading  position  in 
wool  manufacture,  her  production  amonnting  in 
1D07  to  tl32,esO,3eO.  Pennsylvania,  New  York, 
Connecticut,  and  Bhode  Island  are  the  other 
largest  producers. 


The  variety  of  goods  wholly  or  in  part  made 

of  wool,  or  of  worsted,  is  so  great  that  the 
processes  to  which  each  is  subjected  in  its  man- 
ufacture can  be  named  only  m  the  most  gen- 
eral way.  The  distinction  between  the  woolen 
and  worsted  goods  begins  in  the  character  of 
the  wool  used.  For  all  heavy  wool  goods  a 
fine,  short- stapled,  and  readilv  felting  wool  is 
required;  for  worsted  goods  the  wool  must  be 
strong  in  fiber,  of  long  staple,  not  very  fine,  and 
freed  from  the  noil,  or  short  fiber,  which  is 
afterwards  mixed  with  wool,  carded,  and  spun 
for  felted  goods.  The  wool  is  first  sorted  and 
scoured.  The  sorter  arranges  the  parts  of  each 
fleece  according  to  fineness,  length  of  staple, 
and  silkiness  of  texture,  and  the  scouring  is  ac- 
complished by  throwing  the  wool  into  large 
tanks  filled  with  water  and  soap,  Jceeping  it  at 
a  high  temperature,  and  continually  moving  it. 
When  thoroughly  cleansed,  the  wool  is  drawn 
out  through  rollers,  and  then  dried  by  revolving 
fans.  B^  this  scouring  and  washing  not  only 
is  the  dirt  and  soil  removed  from  the  fleeces, 
hut  the  yolk  or  suint — a  peculiar  fatty  secre- 
tion of  the  sheep — is  also  discharged.  The  Brit- 
ish makers  extract  these  matters  from  the  wa- 
ter  by  a  chemical  process,  and  make  digrat,  a 
low  form  of  grease,  from  the  product.  The 
wool  Is  next  dyed,  if  it  is  necessary  to  dye  it  in 


to  remove  seeds  and  burs  entangled  in  the  wool. 
The  American  burring  machines  of  various 
kinds  do  this  perfectly  and  in  combination 
with  the  carding  machine.  Picking,  teasing,  or 
moating  is  the  next  process,  by  a  macliine 
which  teara  open  the  matted  portions  and  sep- 
aratee the  wool  into  small  tufts.  Either  before 
or  immediately  after  this  process  the  wool  is 
oilai.  The  wool  is  now  ready  for  the  carding 
and  slubbing  processes.  Their  oDice  is  to  con- 
vert the  wool  into  rolls,  which  are  drawn  out 
before  they  are  spun.  The  spinning  is  the  next 
process,  and  herein  is  another  difference  be- 
tween woolen  and  worsted  yams,  the  yams  for 
woolen  cloths  being  but  slightly  twist«l,  so  as 
to  leave  them  more  free  for  felting,  but  those 
for  the  warp  twisted  more  than  those  for  the 
weft,  as  they  have  to  beer  more  strain;  while 
the  worsted  yams  are  hard  spun  and  made  into 
a  much  stronger  thread.  The  slight  twisting 
and  comparative  lack  of  strength  in  woolen 
yam  renders  it  more  difficult  to  weave  on  a 
power  loom  than  the  worsted,  cotton,  silk,  or 
linen  yams.  The  yam,  when  spun,  is  reeled, 
and,  it  to  be  made  into  cloth,  warped,  beamed, 
sized,  and  otherwise  prepared  for  weaving.  The 
weaving  is  generally  done  on  ao  ordinary  power 
loom  for  broadcloths,  flannels,  etc.;  on  a 
Crompton  chain  loom  for  fancy  cassimeres, 
yams  of  different  colors  being  introduced;  or 
on  tbe  Eamshaw  needle  loom,  where  the  goods 
are  made  with  two  faces  of  different  colors. 
Moat  woolm  goods  are  next  scoured  to  remove 
the  oil,  and  then,  if  necessary,  dyed  again,  and 
t«nter«l,  or  stretched,  to  dry.  Burling,  or  pick- 
ing off  irr^ular  threads,  hairs,  and  dirt,  suc- 
ceeds this,  and  then,  for  the  cloths,  come  the 
fulling  process  and  the  teaseling  or  raising  the 
nap.  It  is  next  steamed  or  scalded  and  pressed 
between  polished  iron  plates  in  ,a  press.    Car- 


pets  ars  made  from  ooaraer  woola,  and  i 

go  tbrougli  so  111U17  preliminaiy 
tb«y  are  woven  on  the  Bigelow  carpet  loonu. 
Wool'sej,  Theodore  Dwight,  1801-S9;  Amer- 
ica educator ;  b.  NevYork;  graduated  at  Yale, 
1820;  read  law;  studied  theology  at  Prince- 
ton; waa  a  tutor  in  Yale,  1623-25;  liocnsed 
to  preach,  1S25;  studied  languages  abroad, 
1827-30;  Prof,  of  Greek  in  Yale,  1831;  pree- 
ident,  IB4S-71;  edited  various  Greek  clas- 
licB  and  published  "  Collece  Education,"  "  An 
Introduction  to  the  Study  of  lutemational 
Law,"  "  An  Esaay  on  Divorce  and  Rivorce  Leg- 
islation," "  Civil  Liber^  and  Self-Govemment," 
and  a  "  Manual  of  Politieal  Ethics."  Pres. 
Woolsey  was  for  several  yeara  one  of  the  re- 
gents of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and  was 
a  member  and  the  chairman  of  the  American 
division  of  the  committee  for  the  revision  of 
the  New  Testament.  He  published  a  work  on 
"  Political  Science,"  1877,  and  on  "  Communism 
and  Socialism,"  1876. 

Wool'urter^  Disease'.    See  Ahthkax. 

Wool'wich,  town,  county  Kent,  England;  on 
the  Thames  i  9  m.  below  London  Bridge.  It  ex- 
tends for  a  distance  of  2  m.  along  the  river. 
This  is  also  the  seat  of  the  chief  arsenal  of 
England,  and  contains  all  the  workshops  in 
which  cannons,  bombs,  shells,  etc.,  are  made. 
It  has  the  Royal  Military  Academy  and  exten- 
sive barracks.  Woolwich  ia  now  a  part  of  Lon- 
don.   Pop.  (190!)  41,607. 

Woonsock'et,  city  (incorporated  1888),  Prov- 
idence Co.,  H.  I.;  on  the  Blackfllone  River;  16 
m.  N.  by  W.  of  Providence  and  37  m.  SW.  of 
Boston.  It  is  a  consolidation  of  what  were 
isolated  factory  villages;  hence  its  streets  are 
irregular,  but  not  without  beauty.  The  river 
is  here  crossed  by  a  magnificent  bridge.  The 
leading  industries  are  cotton,  woolen,  and  rub- 
ber mftnufaotures.  BeBidcs  these,  there  are  sev- 
eral machine  shops,  a  sewing  machine,  wring- 
ing machine,  shuttle,  reed,  harness,  and  bobbin 
factory.      Pop.    (1910)    38,125. 


Woos'ter,  David,  1710-77;  American  general; 
b.  at  Stratford,  Conn.;  graduated  at  Yale  Col- 
lege, 1738;  commanded  a  sloop  of  war  in  the 
expedition  against  Louisburg,  1745;  went  to 
Europe  in  oharge  of  a  cartel  ship;  visited  Eng- 
land; was  presented  at  court  and  made  a  cap- 
tain in  Pepperell's  regiment;  was  appointed 
colonel  of  tne  Third  Connecticut  Regimpnt, 
1755;  served  aa  brif^dier  general  in  the  N. 
campaigns  of  I'-^S-W;  was  one  of  the  orig- 
inators of  Arnold's  expedition  for  the  capture 
of  Tieonderoga,  1775;  was  appointed  brigadier 
general,  177-');  succeeded  to  the  command  in 
Canada  on  the  death  of  Montgomery;  berame 
major  general  of  state  militia,  1776;  mortally 
wounded  in  the  defense  of  Danbury  against 
Trj-on. 

Worcester  {wos'tfr),  Joseph  Emerson,  1784- 
1S6R;  American  lexicographer;  b.  at  Bedford, 
N.  H.;  graduated  at  Yale  College,  1811;  taught 
school  at  Salep),.  Mass.;  studied  theology  two 


yean  at  A&dorer  Seminary 
bridge,  Mass.,  181S,  and 
thenceforth  to  the  preparation  <rf  a  aeries  of 
valuable  text-books  and  of  his  dictionary,  for 
which  purpose  be  visited  Europe,  1830-31. 
Among  his  works  were  several  on  historical 
and  geographical  subjects;  "The  American  Al- 
manac," 1831-43;  a  revised  edition  of  Todd's 
"Johnson's  Dictionary,"  1828;  an  abridgment 
of  "Webster's  Dictionary,"  1829;  "Compre- 
hensive Pronounciug  and  Explanatory  Diction- 
ary of  the  English  Language,"  1830;  "Univer- 
sal and  Critical  Dictionary,"  1S4S.;  and  bia 
great  work,  "  A  Dictionary  of  the  Rngliah  Lan- 
guage," I860. 

Worceeter,  capital  of  Worcester  Co.,  Maaa.; 
on  the  Blackstone  River;  44  m.  W.  of  Boston.  , 
The  settlement,  begun  in  a  valley,  has  spread 
over  and  beyond  adjacent  hills,  and  the  nat- 
ural advantages  tor  beauty,  health,  and  con- 
venience are  unsurpaased.  The  principal  busi- 
ness thoroughfares  are  Hain  Street  and  Front  . 
Street.  There  are  eleven  public  parka,  aggre- 
gating 360  acres.  The  city  is  divided  into  eight 
wards,  the  boundary  lines  of  which  diverge 
from  the  center  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel.  The 
government  is  vested  in  a  mayor,  nine  alder- 
men, and  a  common  council  of  twenty-four 
members.  Worcester  posseeaea  few  striking  speci- 
mens of  architecture.  The  schools  of  Worcester 
are  noted  for  their  excellence.  The  higher  edu- 
cational institutions  are  the  Roman  Catholio 
Collie  of  the  Holy  Cross,  the  Polytechnic  In- 
stitute for  practical  training,  the  state  normal 
school,  the  Worcester  Academy,  Clark  Univ., 
and  Clark  College.  The  city  hospital,  the 
Washburn  Memorial  Hospital,  and  St.  Vin- 
cent'a  Hospital  are  well  endowed.  There  ia  also 
a  homteopathic  hospital  and  several  private 
ones.  Two  state  hoapitala  for  the  insane  are 
located  here.  The  state  Odd  Fellows'  home 
was  opened  in  1892,  and  there  are  many  char- 
itable establishments.  The  county  jail  is  the 
only  penal  institution.  Worceeter  produces  «, 
greater  variety  of  manufactured  articles  than 
any  other  city  in  the  U.  8.  Its  wire  mills  are 
the  largest  in  the  world,  employing"  2,000  per- 
sona. Loom  manufacture  comes  next.  One 
third  of  the  envelopes  used  in  the  U.  S.  are 
made  here.  The  ooot-and-shoe  industry  ia 
large.  Every  kind  of  machine  used  in  a  woolen 
or  cotton  mill  is  made  here. 

Worcester  was  first  settled  in  1676  under  the 
name  of  Quinsigamond  Plantations.  The  pio- 
neers were  soon  driven  away  by  the  Indians 
end  their  buildings  destroyed.  A  second  settle- 
ment in  1684  met  the  same  fate.  In  1713  the 
third  and  permanent  settlement  was  made. 
The  first  church  was  organized  in  I7IQ,  and 
the  town  waa  incorporatai  in  1722.  In  1776 
Isaiah  Thomaa  removed  hia  press  from  Boston 
to  Worcester,  and,  1790-1800,  carried  on  the 
most  extensive  publishing  business  in  the  U.  S. 
From  the  steps  of  the  old  South  Church  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  was  read  for  the 
firat  time  in  Massachusetta.  The  opening  of  the 
Blackstone  Canal  in  1828,  and  of  the  railways 
which  superseded  it,  caused  the  town  to  grow 
rapidly,  and  it  was  incorporated  aa  a  city  in 
1B43.  From  ita  central  situation  in  the  aiat^ 
in   its  richest  agricultural  section,  Worcester 


has  long  been  known  b«  tbe  "  Hcftrt  of  tlie  Ccon- 
roonwulth.''   Pop.    (1910)    140,986. 

Woid,  tbe  UD&IIest  deUchsble  portion  of  a 
aentenov — i.e.,  the  Hmnlleet  eentence  aegment 
whlob,  wben  abBtiacted,  atill  suogesti  its  poa- 
sible  sentence  functions.  The  term  bus  two 
Bsntei:  (1)  particular  word,  the  single  con- 
crete uttersnee  in  an  actual  sentence — e.g., 
boojb,  in  givt  me  th«  hook;  (Z)  general  icorti, 
or  the  psychical  word  picture  generalized  out 
of,  and  serving  as  substrate  to,  all  the  con- 
crete occurrences  of  identica'l  or  similar  fonna 
— B.g.,  Eng.  boofa.  Ft.  lit!re.  Actual  language 
oonBista  always  of  aentences.  The  real  particu- 
lar word  exista  only  as  an  organic  part  of  an 
aetual  sentence,  and  the  real  general  or  psy- 
chical word  only  as  implicitly  capable  of  flU- 
ing  one  or  more  places  in  any  appropriate  sen- 
tence type.  In  primitive  language  the  sentence 
la  an  undivided  whole,  and  words  and  sentences 
are  identical  ("incorporating  "languages).  In- 
dividual parts  may  have  a  clearly  felt  force, 
but  the  native  mind  does  not  recognixe  their 
aentence  function  when  abstracted ;  e^,,  MaaaO' 
chusetts  (Indian)  tDut-appentnqtissun-nooiceht- 
unk-gvofi,  literally,  he-came- to-a-state-of -rest- 
on-bended-knees-doing-reveTence-to-him ;  Accad- 
ian  in-bat,  he-opened,  in-nin-bat,  he-opened-it, 
in-lub-lvbe,  he-built-a-building;  Basque  didae, 
I-have-it-f  or-you,  dixut,  you  -  have  -  it  -  for  -  me. 
Purely  pronominal  sentences  often  remain  in- 
corporating (i.e.,  single  words)  even  in  highly 
developed  Inflectional  and  agglutinative  lan- 
guagea,  e.g.,  Arabian  aqtala,  he  caused  to  kil>; 
Kongo  vMmvondiaa,  he  caused  him  to  kill. 
Word  order  in  Japanese  is  the  same  as  if  the 
whole  sentence  were  still  one  compound  word. 

Speakers  of  every  languid  in  time  develop 
a  limited  number  of  aentence  fypet.  Every 
actual  sentence  must  thereafter  approximately 
embody  one  of  these  types,  and  consist  of  sen- 
tence members  conforming  to  the  general  struc- 
ture picture,  e.g.,  the  boy — runs,  the  rain — fell 
in  torrenU  are  both  sentences  of  the  "  simple 
declarative  "  type  having  ae  members  a  subject 
and  predicate;  the  man — u>ho  tato  ftim — told 
me  is  of  the  complex  declarative  type,  etc. 
Sentence  members  are  in  turn  capable  of  sub- 
organiiatiou  into  what  we  may  call  significant 
portions.  One  significant  portion  may  indeed 
constitute  a  whole  member,  e.g.  Ithe-boy)  — 
toalki,  but  more  often  thoughts  and  feelings  and 
our  linguistic  expression  of  them  are  complex, 
e.g.,  the  ehepherd — ttrokes  -f-  the  dog'e  +  back 
•\-  icit&- his- hand,  tAe  hoy — went-atnay  +  toith- 
out-getting  +  tohat-ke-eame-for.  Here  strOl^-l, 
with-hia-hand,  wtiat-he-earTie-foT,  etc.,  are  sig- 
nificant sentence  portions  within  the  larger 
sentence  memiiers.  Aa  the  speaker  comes  to 
regard  these  portions  as  aeparahls  .components 
of  the  sentence,  and  unconsciously  reshapes  his 
language  accordingly,  words  begin  to  coincide 
normally  with  sentence  portions  (inflectional 
languages),  e.g.,  Oreek,  &in«a rfr^ ^ixAti,  lit- 
erally, the-bird  with-a-stone  he-hits;  Latin, 
doraitm  oani  mantt  remuloet  paator,  the-sbepherd 
stroke-8  the-dog's  back  with'his-hand;  English, 
John'a  ahip  ran  aground  =:  the-ship  of-John 
did-Tun  on-the-ground.  In  this  stage  of  lan- 
gnage    diSarent    partioular    words    associate 


WORDEN 

themselTBS  as  "forme"  under  one  general 
word,  e.g.,  I,  me,  we,  ue  ara  forms  of  7;  am, 
mat,  ebe.,  are  forms  of  be,  etc.  I7auaIIy  the 
different  forms  of  a  word  come  .to  closely  re- 
semble each  other,  and  then  tbieir  common 
portion  comes  to  be  felt  as  a  "  item "  whose  , 
variations  are  felt  aa  "  inflection*." 

Sentence  portions  having  resembling  signifi- 
cance (wheUier  different  wor^  or  forms  of  the 
same  word)  constantly  tend  to  form  associa- 
tion groups, 'and  in  the  end  (see  Asaiaqx)  to 
acquire  resembling  forms,  with  constant  varia- 
tions for  the  expression  of  like  variations  in 
meaning,  relation,  or  function.  The  constant 
part  then  becomes  a  "root"  [e.g.,  eorr-  in  sor- 
rou3  and  sorry,  atr-ng  in  strong  and  atrength). 
When  the  variation  in  form  is  not  completely 
fused  with  the  root,  it  then  becomes  an  ofpB 
(either  prefia,  avgix,  or  infix),  e.g.,  -y  in  sorry, 
etc.  As  fast  as  this  analysis  succeeds  in  ex- 
pressing itself  in  the  sentence  structure,  roots, 
or  both  roots  and  afibtes,  become  detachable  i* 
words.  Three  st«ses  of  development  arise; 
(1)  Either  the  sirfiTficant  root  (or  stem)  alone 
or  the  root  and  affix  together  constitute  a  word, 
but  the  affix  alone  does  not  ( agglutinative  lan- 
guages), e.g.,  Sanskrit,  sarvo-  or  aarva-a,  all; 
in  Kongo  tua-ki-vangidi,  literally,  we  it  made, 
vangidi  alone  is  a  word,  or  tua-ki-vangidi  is 
one  word,  but  neither  tva  nor  ki  nor  tuaki 
ore  words;  English  home-toard,  ete.  (2)  Both 
significant  root  and  relational  root  ore  words 
(analytic  languages).  (3)  Significant,  rela- 
tional, and  mechanical  roots  are  all  words 
(isolating  or  root  languages). 

Words  felt  as  having  a  common  root  ore 
called  eogTUttea.  If  the  root  is  felt  io  be  prac- 
tically identical  in  form  with  one  of  a  group 
of  cognates,  this  is  regarded  as  a  primate  (or 
priffliti'ue)  to  which  the  rest  are  dertwitee  (or 
deritxitities).  Logically,  derivation  implies 
some  change  or  addition  to  the  concept  ex- 
pressed by  a  word. 

Pailful,  BhuTcK-ateefle,  pickpocket,  foretell, 
forget-me-not,  ete.,  are  examples  of  compound 
words.  In  English  nearly  all  parte  of  speech 
are  freely  compoundable  with  each  other,  as  in 
the  examples  above  (noun  +  adj.,  noun  +  noun, 
verb  +  noun,  adv.  +  verb,  verb  +  pron.  -f  adv.). 
Compounds  may  be  (I)  copulative,  with  both 
members  on  an  equal  footing,  e.g..  The  Thomp- 
Bo.i-HouGTON  Co. ;  (2)  determinative,  with' one 
(in  English  the  former)  member  serving  as  a 
modifier  of  the  other,  e.g.,  wind-mill,  ill-gotten; 
(3)  seoondary  adjective,  e.g.,  a  thbeb-foot 
rule,  UFUiLL  leork,  ete.  Aa  a  rule,  logical 
derivation  and  fusion  of  meaning  subsists  be- 
tween the  members  of  a  compound,  but  this 
makes  them  one  word  only  as  tt  makes  them 
fill  the  place  of  one  word  in  sentence  structure. 

Wor'den,  John  Loiimei,  1818-8T;  rear  ad- 
miral, U.  S.  navy;  b.  Westchenter  Co.,  N.  Y.; 
entered  the  navy  as  midshipman,  1834;  com- 
manded the  ifonilor  in  her  fight  with  the 
Merrim^c,  March  9,  1862,  and  the  ilontaak 
in  the  attacks  on  Fort  McAllister,  January  27 
and  February  1,  1803,  and  in  the  fint  Fort 
Sumter  fight,  April  7,  1S63.  He  was  promoted 
captain,  IB63;  commanded  the  Penaacola  in 
the   Padflc   squadron,    1866-47;    promoted   to 


WORDSWORTH 

ooramodore,'  1S68;  ■uperinUndent  «f  Nav^ 
Academy,  1S7I>'T4;  rear  admiral,  1872;  com- 
minder  in  chief  Europmn  tquadron,  1S76;  re- 
tired, 1886. 

Wo^ds'wortt^  WilliMu,  1770-1660;  English 
poet;  b.  Cockermouth,  England.  In  1787  he 
entered  St.  John's  College,  Cambridge.  In 
his  second  TScation  he  and  his  friend  Jones 
took  tlie  "  unprecedented  course "  of  taking  a 
walking  tour  In  Switzerland,  afterwards  de- 
scribed in  "  The  Prelude."  Wordsworth  took 
his  B.  A.  degree  in  1791,  and  left  Cambridge; 
later  in  ITOl  he  paid  a  Tisit  to  France.  With 
limited  resources,  and  still  uncertain  of  hia 
genius,  Wordsworth  lingered  in  England  with- 
out a  profession.  At  length,  in  1794,  he  was 
relieved  from  the  absolute  aeceBsity  of  vorkinf 
by  a  legacy  from  a  young  friend,  Raialey  Col- 
vert.  In  1795  his  sister  joined  him,  and  the^ 
settled  at  Racedown,  in  Dorset.  His  earliest 
publications,  "The  Evening  Walk"  and  "De- 
scriptive Sketches,"  writt^  in  the  old-fash' 
ioned  style  of  the  preceding  century,  had  ap- 
peu^  in  1792;  he  was  now  determined  to 
be  a  poet,  but  his  style  came  to  him  slowly. 
Coleridge  became  bis  friend  in  17Q7,  and  the 
Wordsworths  removed  to  Alfoxden,  to  be  near 
Coleridge  at  Nether  Stoway,  Here  the  greater 
part  of  the  "  Lyrical  Ballads,"  published  in 
1796,  was  composed.  Cht-  the  appearance  of 
this  volume  ite  Wordsworths  left  for  Germany, 
and  spent  the  winter  at  Goslar.  Here  Words- 
worth wrot«  some  of  the  finest  and  most  char- 
acteristic of  his  poems,  and  here  "  The  Pre- 
.  lude  "  was  plannwl  and  begun-  Returning  to 
England  in  1700,  the  poet  and  his  sister  set- 
tled in  a  cotta^  at  Townend,  Orasmere,  "  the 
lovely  cottage  in  the  guardian  nook."  From 
this  time  forward  the  life  of  Wordsworth, 
although  to  be  prolonged  for  more  than  half 
a  centm?,  was  to  be  almost  without  external 
incident.  In  1600  he  issued  a  new  edition  of 
the  "Lyrical  Ballads,"  with  a  second  volume 
of  nnpublisbed  and  maturer  poems. 

Hia  tours  now  take  importance  in  his  career 
because  they  stimulated  him   to  direct  poetic 

froductlon.  In  1802  the  Wordsworths  went  to 
ranoe,  in  1803  to  BcotUnd.  In  1808  Words- 
worth moved  to  Allan  Bank,  and  then,  in 
1811,  to  the  parsonage  of  Grasmere,  where  he 
lived  for  two  years.  In  the  spring  of  1813 
Lord  Lonsdale  appointed  the  poet  distributor 
of  stamps  for  Westmoreland,  and  Wordsworth 
moved  into  the  more  commodious  residence  of 
Rydal  Mount,  near  Ambleside.  A  more  lucra- 
tive local  post  he  afterwards  declined.  The 
remainder  of  his  life  was  spent  at  Rydal.     In 


poetical  philosophy  was  for  the  first  time  put 
strenuously  before  the  public.  This  didactic 
epic  was  received'  at  first  with  scant  respect, 
and  even  with  open  ridicule,  but  It  soon  be- 
came accepted  as  one  of  the  masterpiecea  of 
English  poetry. 

In  16 IS  appeared  a  collection  of  Words- 
worth's lyrical  poems,  arranged  upon  a  new 
plan,  and  in  two  essays,  prefixed  and  append- 
ed to  this  voltune,  he  developed  bis  theory  of 
poetic  art.     A  second  tour  bad  been  taken  in 


WORLD  WAS 

Scotland  in  1SI4,  and  had,  as  usual,  stimu- 
lated the  poet  to  write.  But  his  finest  gift, 
that  of  solemn  and  penetrative  melody,  waa 
now  about  to  leave  him  forever,  and  after 
1620,  if  not  after  1610,  he  can  scarcely  be 
held  to  have  added  to  what  is  exquisite  in 
English  literature,  although  he  continued  to 
be  earnest,  forcible,  and  sometimes  stately  in 
his  verse.  In  18IG  he  published  the  romantic 
narrative  of  "The  White  Doe  of  Rylestone  "; 
in  1810  "Peter  Bell"  and  "The  Waggoner," 
two  juvenile  studies  in  somewhat  affected  ex- 
cess of  simplicity;  in  1820  the  series  of  sonnet* 
entitled  "The  River  Duddo^";  in  1822  a  first 
draft  of  those  "  Eccl^iastical  Sonnets  "  which 
long  entertained  his  middle  life;  in  1836  a 
rather  barren  volume  named  "  Yarrow  Revia- 


1834  b^  the  death  of  Coleridge.  But  he  v 
now  enjoying  a  tardy  celebrity;  the  Univ.  of 
Oxford  conferred  upon  him  in  1830  the  degree 
of  D.C.L.,  in  1842  he  received  a  pension  of 
£300  a  year  from  the  civil  list,  and  in  1643 
succeeded  Southey  as  poet  laureate.  His  only 
remaining  work  of  importance  was  the  "  Two 
Letters,"  on  the  railway  projected  t>etween 
Kendal  and  Windermere,  against  which  echeme 
he  protested  in  1844.  His  great  poem,  "Tlte 
Prelude,"  was  published  in  1850,  and  "Tha 
Recluse"  not  till  16B8. 

Worklionse,  a  house  in  which  paupers  are 


Paupbubu. 
Work  Writ'er.    See  Eboograph. 


World's  ColtUB'bian  Expoal'tion.    See  Expo- 

Wortd  Wat  Beview.  Elsewhere  in 'this  work, 
nnder  readily  Buggestad  titles,  a  large  amount 
of  information  concerning  looaliied  invasions, 
bombardments  by  day  and  night,  mthleas  prac- 
tices hitherto  unknown  in  modem  warfare,  col- 
lective and  authorized  atrocities  on  defenseleas 
communities,  heartleBs  desecrations  of  aacred 
and  historic  edifices,  extensive  civilian  evic- 
tions, and  severe  fighting,  haa  been  given.  As 
bat  a  small  portion  of  aacnmulated  horrors 
perpetrated  by  the  Central  Powers  can  here 
be  indicated,  it  .is  proposed  to  note  briefly  the 
eaosea  of  IJie  four-year  unexampled  conflict, 
as  declared  by  the  governments  of  the  AUled 
and  Central  foroM,  and  some  of  the  major 
operationa  and  events  that  supplement  what 
has  already  been  given. 

In  general,  it  may  be  stated  that  an  ulti- 
mate object  of  the  German  government  was 
the  domination  of  the  nations  oe«npying  Cen- 
tral Europe  (Mittel-Europa)  with  the  aid  of 
the  long  projected  Berlin  to  Bagdad  railway 
system,  and  the  creation  of  a  subordinate 
empire  in  Africa.  Oermany,  in  particular,  was 
anxious  to  wrest  from  England  her  vast  com- 
mercial interests  in  all  parts  of  tiie  world  and 
her   preponderance   of   sea   control,   and   from 


WOBLD  WAB 

Frftnue  her  enonnotu  uatiml  leaoareem,  espe- 
ciAll^  coal  and  iron,  and  ihe  donbtleu  thonght 
that  the  rtraKSle  would  be  between  her  and 
England  alone,  that  is  coaUueatal  England. 

One  b;  one  the  particulars  of  the  secret  e 
ference  at  Potsdam  (July  S,  1S14),  of  Austro- 
Hungarion  and  Gemian  high  dignitaries,  have 
been  revealed  In  a  manner  accepted  as  trust- 
worthy outwda  of  the  Teutonic  gorenunents, 
though  officially  denied  by  Berlin  authorities. 
The  vital  substance  of  the  eonferenee  was  the 
decision  that  the  opportune  time  to  begin  the 
movement  to  execute  long  premeditated  plans 
had  suddenly  arrived  through  the  medium  of 
the  double  asaassinations  at  Barajevo,  and  the 
initial  move  proposed  was  the  cmidilng  of 
Servia. 

At  this  point,  and  oonArmatory  of  what  be- 
came the  ganeral  belief,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  "My  London  Mission,  1912-1914"  (1918) 
fay  Prince  Lichnowsky,  a  former  German  am- 
bassador in  England;  "Bemarks  on  the  Article 
of  Prince  Lichnowa^"  (1918),  by  Gottlieb  von 
Jagow,  former  Qerman  Secretary  of  State  for 
Foreign  Affairs;  "Memorandum  and  Letters" 
(1918)  of  Dr.  W.  Muehlon,  until  the  outbreak 
of  the  war  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Directors 
of  the  Krupp  Works  at  Essen;  and  probably 
the  most  (earless,  critical,  and  substantiated 
work  of  all,  the  two  volnmee,  "J 'Accuse"  and 
"The  Crime,"  whose  author  was  not  revealed 
till  after  the  armistice — Dr.  Biehard  Qrelling. 
The  two  last  works  form  a  thoroughly  sus- 
tained indictment  of  the  German  government 
(or  having  precipitated  the  war.  These  sev- 
eral works  throw  an  abnnduice  of  light  on  tiie 
early  Teutonic  intentions  and  the  rapid  spread 
of  the  great  conspiracy  against  the  world's 
peace  and  safely. 

Why  tilt  Nationi  Fought.  The  diplomatic 
"notes"  and  other  offldal  documents,  purport- 
ing to  assign  reasons  for  the  entrance  of  the 
European  nations  into  the  war,  form  an  exceed- 
ingly large  mass  of  charges,  denials  and  ex- 
plai^tiona.  These  are  set  forth  in  mneh  detail 
in  such  public  declarations,  to  which  the  reader 
is  referred,  as  the  British  "Whit*  Paper,'' 
Oemtan  "White  Book,"  German  "Note"  to 
Belgium,  Belgian  ' '  Beply  to  Germany, ' ' 
French  "Yellow  Book,"  Italian  "Green 
Book, ' '  Bussian  ' '  Orange  Paper, ' '  Belgian 
"Gray  Book,"  Austrian  "Note"  to  Servia; 
the  "Views"  of  high  diplomatie  persoDagee, 
especially  iu  Austria  -  Eongary,  Germany, 
France,  Japan,  Servia,  and  Turkey;  and  in  the 
United  States  the  papers,  messages  and  ad- 
dresses of  President  Wilstm  leading  up  to  the 
statement  of  causes  and  the  declaration  of  war 
by  the  CongresA  in  1917. 

Primarily,  the  great  nations  of  Europe  en- 
tered the  war  because  of  trea^  obligations — 
this  excludes  the  originators.  Germany,  Aus- 
tria-Hungary and  Ita^  had  formed  an  alliance 
for  mutual  protection  under  spedfle  conditiODs, 
but  when  Italy  discovered  that  her  Teutonic 
associates  were  waging  an  offensive,  not  a  de- 
fensive war,  she  withdrew  from  the  alliance 
and  joined  issue  with  the  Allies.  The  intention 
to  crush  Servia  brought  France  and  Bn^A  in- 
to the  conflict  as  het  guarantors.     The  forty- 


ytOBLD  WAB 

three  year  old  deslTe  to  wrest  from  France  her 
great  natural  resources  and  eommercial  porti^ 
and  to  punish  her  for  the  constant  agitation 
of  the  people  of  Alsace-Lorraine  for  restora- 
tion to  France,  formed  another  impetus  for  a 
quick  invasion  and  seizure  of  everything  that 
Germany  craved.  This  fact  was  demonstrated 
when  Germany  violated  the  sovereignty  of  Bel- 
gium, which  she  with  other  nations  had  bound 
herself  to  respect,  by  crossing  her  territory  to 
get  into  France  before  the  later  could  provide 
means  of  defense.  In  the  French  peril.  Great 
Britain  was  pledged  to  aid  France,  which  she 
promptly  and  nobly  did. 

France  also  was  allied  to  Busria,  and  hence 
Germany  attacked  both,  for  separate  reasons. 
Great  Britain  had  another  duty,  of.  aid  toward 
Belgium,  acting  on  her  pledge  to  raHintain  the 
neutrali^  of  the  smaller  kingdom.  Again,  Great 
Britain  and  Japan  were  allied.  The  latter  at- 
tacked and  occupied  the  German  possession  of 
Eiaochow  in  China.  Turkey  attacked  Bnssia, 
for  Which  Great  Britain  and  France  attacked 
Turkey  under  treaty  pledges.  Austria- Hun- 
gary attacked  Servia  because  of  tite  Sarajevo 
essBssinationa.  Bussia  came  to  the  defense  of 
'Servia,  and  this  brought  Germany  into  the  war 
active)^  as  the  aUy  of  Austria-Hungary.  Greece, 
whose  queen  was  a  rister  of  the  German  En^Mror- 
King,  was  in  strong  sympathy  with  the  Central 
Powers  until  the  abdication  of  King  Conatan- 
tine  in  1917  and  the  sueceasfnl  revolntion  under 
Premier  Veniselos,  when  the  kingdom  joined  the 
Allies.  Lesser  nations  were  forced  to  take  np 
arms  for  political,  coercive,  and  defensive  rea- 
sons. Thus,  the  war  that  originally  concerned 
Austria-Hungary  and  Servia  sl6ne  «ame  to  in- 
volve  the  whole  world,   directly   or   indirectly. 

And  here  the  highest  praise  should  be  given 
to  the  then  Sir  Edward  Qrey,  British  Secretary  . 
of  State  for  Foreign  Affairs,  created  Viscount 
in  191S,  and  appointed  Ambassador  to  the 
United  States  in  1919,  for  his  persistent  efforta 
to  avert  war  between  Austria-Huugary  and 
Servia  by  a  eonferenee  of  the  Great  Powers,  to 
whieh  Germany  refused  assent. 

fTAdt  Aviolee  AeV.S  While  the  serioos  stu- 
dent of  history  and  others  who  try  to  keep 
"posted"  on  onrrent  events,  may  recall  more 
.f  less  readily  the  reasons  whi^  forced  the 
U.  8.  to  become  a  world  belligerent,  the  effects 
of  prolonged  German  propaganda  and  the  di- 
rect attacks  on  American  lives,  property,  and 
varied  interests  are  too  numerous  to  be  passed 
over  dightiy.  Only  a  brief  summary  of  causM 
can  here  be  given.     These  include  the  follow- 

The  renewal  by  Germany  of  her  submarine 
warfare  In  a  more  "ruthless"  form  than  ever 
before,  contrary  to  the  assurance  given  the  U.  S. 
by  the  German  government  in  the  Spring 
of  IBIS. 

The  conviction  that  the  German  g^ovemment 
bad  repudiated  entirety  the  commonly  accepted 
principles  of  law  and.humanity  and  could  be 
made  to  respect  law  and  right  only  I^  forcible 
and  violent  meana 

The  conviction  that  Prussian  militarism  and 
antocraey,  let  loose  in  the  world,  disturbed  the 
balance  of  power  and  threatened  to  destroy  the 


WOBLD  WAB 

intemBtiDiiBl  «qiulibriimi.    thgf  wsr*  a  ma 
to  all  nations  save  those  allied  with  Ovnaany. 

BacavLse  of  the  gradoBJ  ihaping  of  the  eenfliet 
into  a  war  between  demoeratie  nations  on  the 
one  hand  and  autoeratie  nations  on  the  other. 

Becanae  of  the  conviction  that  our  traditional 
policy  of  isolation  waa  out|[rowii,  and  could  no 
longer  be  maintained  in  the  face  of  the  Krowing 
intM^ependence  of  nations. 

Lastly,  because  the  war  was  a  menace  tc 
Uonroe  Doctrine  and  to  our  own  independence. 

For  a  eritical  treatment  of  the  foregoinK 
points,  see  "The  Study  of  the  Qreat  War" 
(1918),  by  Professor  Samuel  B.  Harding,  of 
Indiana  Univern^. 

To  tii«  foregoing  reasons  should  be  added  a 
long  list  of  others  ennnciated  by  President  Wil- 
son in  public  declarations,  and  those  forming 
the  basis  of  Congressional  action.  It  should  be 
recalled  that  on  Feb.  3,  1917,  the  D.  S.  severed 
ail  diplomatic  relations  with  the  Oernian  gov- 
ernment because  of  a  Oerman  proclamation 
establishing  a  war  zone  around  England,  France, 
Italy,  and  in  the  Uediterranean,  thus  renew- 
ing unrestrained  submarine  warfare  in  violation 
of  the  pledge  givem  the  U.  S.  in  the  "Sussex" 
case. 

The  ultimate  reason  given  by  the  U.  S.  formed 
the  preamble  to  the  formal  declaration  of  war, 
as  follows: 

Wtwssi,  tha  ImiMiiBl  Ctanokn  Oovammant  tau 
eaminitted  r*p«tad  meU  at  wkt  stftinit  (he  Go*~~ 
ment  ■nd  the  pMpls  c(  ths  Cnlted  8tste>  ,Df  Ai 


iuj   Therefore  ^  .- 

Heialved  by  Uie  Bn 
Mtitsi  of  th»  Unitsd  S 
■■■Binblcd.  tbot  the  at*' 
Statai  Knd  (be  Imperii 
haa  thai  besa  Ihmet  UF 
bj   fonosllr    declared ; 


■  nd  Hod 


1  the  United  Stati 


t   the   Preaidant    I 


I  U?StaJ 


■11  the  Teaanroaa  of  the  ooDDtrr  a'a  hareby  pledjed 
.by  tha  OoDKiaaa  of  tha  United   Statai. 

This  declaration  was  passed  April  S,  1917, 
and  another  in  simUar  language  was  passed 
against  the  Imperial  and  Boyal  Austro-Hnn- 
garian  govemment  Dec  4,  following. 

BreokiTig  of  the  Storm.  The  storm,  which  had 
long  been  gaUiering,  according  to  the  documents 
and  the  testimony  of  high -stationed  personages 
above  quoted,  broke  at  an  unerpected  time,  and 
hi  an  unexpected  quart«r  and  manner.  In  June, 
1914,  the  Archduke  Francis  Ferdinand,  nephew 
of  the  Emperor  of  Austria-Hungary,  heir  to  the 
throne,  and  eommander-iu-chi^  of  the  dual 
monarchy's  armed  forcos,  and  his  wife,  the 
Dncheas  of  Hohenberg,  went  on  a  visit  to 
Sanjevo,  Bosnia.  There  two  attompta  to  as- 
BBsdnate  them  were  made.  The  first  one  failed, 
but  the  second  one,  by  revolver  shots  fired  by 
Oavrllo  Prinzip,  a  Servian  student  and  alleged 
plotter  against  Austria-Hungary,  resulted  in  the 
death  of  both  the  Archduke  and  his  wife, 
June  ZB. 

Anstria-Hnngary  took  no  of&cial  action  in  the 
matter  till  July  23,  when  the  government  sent 
a  series  of  ten  demands  to  Servia,  couched  in 
ths  language  of  an  ultimatum  and  requiring  an 
answer  within  forty-eight  hours.  Servia  ro- 
pliod  in  a  conciliatory  tone  to  the  donaods,  four 


WOBLD  WAS 

of  which  related  to  the  assassinations  and  the 
others  to  political  questions.  She  expressed  a 
willingness  to  accede  generally  to  the  demands, 
but  refused  tc  comply  with  the  one  providing 
for  the  participation  ot  Austrian  repreaenta- 
tivea  in  court  proceedi;igs  against  the  parties 
engaged  in  the  assassinations,  on  the  ground 
that  such  action  on  her  part  would  be  iMneatli 
the  digni^  of  a  sovereign  state. 

Of  these  demands  ^ir  Edward  Orey  said: 
' '  I  have  never  seen  one  state  address  to  an- 
otiier  a  document  of  bo  formidably  character," 
and  the  German  Socialist  newspaper  "Vor- 
warts"  said  (July  26,  1914),  "The  demands 
of  that  government  (Austria)  are  more  bmtal 
than  any  ever  made  upon  any  civilized  state  in 
the  history  of  the  world,  and  they  can  be  re- 
garded only  as  intended  to  provoke  war."  The 
Servian  reply  was  unsatisfactory  to  Austria- 
Hungary;  the  envoy  of  the  latter  withdrew  from 
Belgrade  at  the  'Expiration  of  the  forly-eight 
hours,  July  £S ;  on  the  SSth  Austria-Hungary 
declared  war  on  Servia;  and  on  the  following 
day  fired  the  first  shot  in  the  war  in  an  ar- 
tillery attack  on  Belgrade,  the  Servian  capitaL 
In  the  meantime,  as  previously  stated,  Sir  Ed- 
ward Grey  exerted  all  his  influence  to  have  the 
differenoes  between  Anstria-Himgary  settled  in 
a  joint  conference  of  Germany,  France,  Italy, 
and  Great  Britain,  but  both  Austria-Hungary 
and  her  ally,  Germany,  declined  all  his  over- 
tares.  This  declination  brought  Germany  openly 
into  the  war. 

IMarationt  qf  War.  As  an  indication  of 
how  widely  the  menace  of  a  German  hegemony 
had  spread  over  the  world,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  note  two  forms  of  declarations  by  govern- 
ments against  the  Teutonic  or  Central  Powers. 
The  first  included  the  actual,  formal  declara- 
tions of  the  existence  of  a  state  of  war;  the 
second  included  the  declarations  of  the  severance 
of  diplomatic  and  other  relations.  The  first, 
naturally,  were  between  the  larger  nations,  eape- 
oially  those  in  economic  competition  with  Ger- 
many, and  involved  actual  warfare ;  the  others 
by  smaller  and  more  distant  nations  whose  in- 
terests were  mainly  in  commercial  channels,  and 
in  general  were  remote  from  the  possible  areas 
of  conflict — in  other  worda,  the  latter  declara- 
tions were  practically  notices  of  nou-intereourse. 

The  following  is  the  record  of  the  first  form 
of  declarations — the  one  of  actual  war: 


Jnly  28.— Anatri*   a 


Harmanr  snlnit  Belrhioi- 
Sraat  Britslii  a  tain  at  OenDsny. 
Qermanr  agalDBt  Serris. 
Uonlaaegro  agslDit  Anttris. 
Uoatenesro  afsiaat  Germany. 
France  Bgalnit  Auatria. 


Bowla,    Bel. 


glum,  Benrls,  S(ainit  IHiTkej 
IBIB. 
May  SO. — Italy  Bgaintt  Turkey. 
"      2S. — Italy  asalnit    ADftTia. 
Oct.  ]4,~BiilsaTia  BgalDtt  eervia. 
"      ll.-'Bervla  acainat  Bnliaria. 
"      14. — Boaala  acainat  Balgarfs. 
"     IG. — OrMt  BritaiD  aisinat  Bslfaria. 


a  aisinat  Bslfaria.  , 

C.oogic 


WOBLDWAfi 


18. — IMlr  afalntt  Bd1(»& 


A^I     I 


— .     _^in«t  PoTtngii. 

[.  27. — RonnuiiU  ■(■iiut  Aiutrla. 
aS^-IUlj  afftliiit  Oermaar. 
M. — Qermanr  ■(kiasE  BoamuiU. 
80.-'— TukB7  Bitiiut  KonmknU. 
1917 


■-'Honsftrj. 


MOBttltJ. 


— U.  a.  ■fBlni 

— Gaba   a  fain  at   QernUDj 

Jnoa  30. — Om«s  afalnat  Oani"" 

'-      SO. — Omeg  acainit  Aua._._ 

JdIj   23. — Blam  aiaiiut  OsrmanT. 

"      32. — Blam  asainat  Aoatrla-HDnimrj. 
Anc.     4.— LltwTla    aialnat    Ggrfflany. 
"      H. — Chlaa  aninit  QarmanT. 

"      14. — China  a. 

0<t.  36. — Bnall  >(kinit  6«rnuiDr. 
Dm.      T. — C  B.  >(*lDit  Auitria-Hoi 
'  "      13. — Oub*  ■t'lU't  AD«tU-Haii(arf. 

1S18 
Itaj  3S. — OoaU  Bica  acalnit  Ognnui)'. 
July    IS. — HoDdurai    >(«iaat    Oemuui]'. 

The  weond  form  of  declarations,  those  M*er- 
ing  diplomatie  and  other  relatunu  with  the  Cen- 
tral PoweTB  and  their  alliea,  included  the  fol- 
lowing, all  made  in  1917:  TJ.  S.,  Feb.  3;  Bolivia. 
April  13;  Qnatemala,  April  28;  Hondnru, 
Mar  18;  Niearaglia,  May  10;  Haiti,  Jane  IB; 
Coeta  ^ea,  Sept.  21;  Peni,  Oct.  S;  TJruguayi 
Oct.  7. 

Fint  Ytar  of  Conflict,  lgi4.  From  the  mo- 
ment Oennany  refused  assent  to  Sir  Bdward 
Grey's  proposal  to  mbmit  the  dispute  between 
Austria-Hungary  and  Servia  to  a  neighborly 
conference  events  developed  with  a  speed  ang- 
gestive  of  matured  plans  and  preparation.  In 
this  ontlined  review  the  reader  will  be  greatly 
aided  in  eonnectinK  the  events  by  having  at 
htuid  ft  map  of  the  nationB  first  involved,  and 
by  recallluK  some  of  the  dates  and  activities 
prerionaly  noted.  . 

Physieal  warfare  began  July  29,  when  Ana- 
tro-Hnugariaa  artillery  bombarded  Belgrade, 
the  capital  of  Servia — the  flnt  etep  in  the  pro- 
posed erushing  of  Servia.  On  Aug.  2,  Qermany 
songht  permission  of  Belgium  to  cross  her  ter- 
ritoi;  in  order  to  hastily  throw  an  army  into 
E>anee,  where  the  great  objective  was  Paris. 
Belgium  refused  despite  promises  of  indemni- 
ties, ''and  called'  for  aid  to  maintain  her  neo- 
tralitr.  Great  Britain  demanded  German  re- 
spect for  Belgium's  sovereignty  without  avail. 
Germany  invaded  Belgium  and  Luxemburg 
againat  the  protests  of  their  governments; 
fighting  on  the  Belgian  frontier  bejgan  Aug,  5; 
Liege  was  occupied  Aug.  9,  Brussels,  the  capi- 
ta), Ang.  20,  Namur,  Ang.  24,  and  Lonvain, 
the  beautiful,  was  not  only  occupied  but  was 
nearly  destroyed  Aug.  26.  In  the  meantime 
Germany  had  made  further  appeals  to  Belgium 
with  increased  promises,  but  without  efFect. 
Then  followed  the  attaofai  on  the  cities  named. 

In  the  latter  half  of  August  the  British  Ex- 
peditionary Forces  completed  their  landing  (bc' 
gun  Aug.  7)  in  France;  French  troops  began 
operations  in  Alsaee;  Japanese  bombarded  the 
CSiinese  seaport  of  Tsing-tan,  for  several  years 
in  possession  of  Germany;  the  Allies  occupied 
the  German  colony  of  TogoUnd,  Africa ;  Servia 
took  Sarajevo,  Bosnia;  Bussian  armies  invaded 
0«rmany  and  started  fighting  on  the  border;  a 
British  and  French  force  ws«  dsfeated  in  a 

441 


WOSLD  WAS 

three  days'  batOa  at  Charleroi,  Belgimn;  and 
in  East  Bussia  a  Bussian  army  was  destroyed 
at  Tannenberg  1^  a  Qermon  forc«  under  Gen. 
Ton  Hindenberg,  who  through  this  victory,  be- 
come the  idol  of  Qormsjiy  and  a  field  mdrshoL 
In  this  period  also  occurred  the  Qrst  naval  bat- 
tel of  the  war,  in  which  a  British  fleet  sank 
five  Qermon  battleships  and  cruisers  in  Helgo- 
lond'  Bight  By  the  end  of  the  month  the  Allies 
hod  completed  o  defensive  lice  along  the  Seine, 
Mame,  and  Meuse  rivers.  Thus,  in  practically 
a  single  month  a  dispute  between  two  nations 
that  was  susceptible  of  settlement  by  diploma^, 
expanded  into  a  world  war. 

September  opened  witli  intensive  actions  in 
all  centers— oidy  one  "line"  had  been  estab- 
lished so  far,  that  by  the  French.  Paris  and 
Antwerp  wore  bombed  by  German  aircroft;  the 
Germans  occupied  Amiens;  the  BuesiaaB  took 
Lemberg,  Galieia;  and  the  Germans  crossed 
the.  Marne  river  into  France.  On  account  of 
the  German  aircraft  bombing  of  Poris,  the  seat 
of  the  French  government  was  removed  to 
Bordeaox.  The  eorly  days  were  rendered  par- 
ticularly notable  by  the  first  battle  of  the  Mame 
(6th-10tli),  when  the  Germans  reoched  the  ex- 
treme point  of  their  advance,  and  were  driven 
back  by  the  French  from  tiie  Mame  to  the 
Aisne,  the  battle  front  of  300  miles  being  after- 
ward held  by  the  French  for  three  years.  This 
month  was  also  mode  notable  by  the  conquest  of, 
German  Southwest  Africa  by  General  and 
Premier  Louis  Botha  (died  Aug.  28,  1919)  of 
the  Union  of  South  Africa;  by  tiie  driving  of 
the  Bussions  from  E.  Prussia;  the  capture  of 
New  Guinea  and  the  Bismarck  Archipelago  from 
Germsjiy  by  an  Australian  expedition;  ond  the 
sinking  of  three  British  armored  cruisers  by 
German  submarines. 

Antwerp,  Belgium,  was  occupied  by  the  Ger- 
mans at  the  beginning  of  October;  the  Belgian 
seat  of  government  was  removed  to  Le  Havre, 
France;  and  the  Germans  occupied  Ghent.  This 
month  is  notable  by  reason  of  the  battle  of  the 
Tser,  in  Flanders  (ieth-28th),  where  the  Bel- 
gians and  French  halted  the  German  advance, 
and  of  the  first  batUe  of  Tpres  (Oct.  17-Nov. 
17),  in  which  the  French.  British,  and  Belgians 
retmlsed  a  determined  German  "drive"  and 
saved  the  Channel  ports.  German  armies  ^so 
met  severe  repulses  in  Poland.  November  was 
marked  by  operations  in  far  off  regions.  The 
Germans  scored  a  naval  victory  over  the  British 
off  the  coast  of  Chile;  Great  Britain  annexed 
the  island  of  Cyprus;  Tsing-tan,  China,  feU  to 
the  Japanese;  the  British  occupied  Basra,  on 
the  Persian  gulf ;  and  the  German  eruiser 
"Emden"  was  caught  and  destroyed  at  Coeos 
Tstand.  Nearer  the  original  seat  of  operations, 
the  Austrians  invaded  Servia,  and  fought  a  stub- 
bornly contested  campaign  losting  till  the 
middle  of  December,  the  Servians  losing,  then 
regaining  their  capital,  Belgrade. 

The  closing  month  of  the  year  was  marked  by 
a  British  naval  victory  off  the  Falkland  Islands ; 
by  the  bombardment  of  West  Hartlepool,  Scar- 
borough, and  Whilby,  England,  by  German 
warships;  by  the  first  German  aircraft  raid  on 
England ;  and  by  the  proclamatioD  of  an  English 
protectorate  over  Egypt,  with  a  new  ruler.  | 


WOBLD  WAB 

Second  Year,  ifug — The  moot  notable  event 
of  Jannary  wu  »  gntX  Britiili  naval  victory 
off  DoKKer  Bank  in  the  North  Bea.  The  Bua- 
aiuiH  made  a  seeond  invasion  of  E.  Pruaaia; 
the  GenuaoB  mode  tbeir  first  attack  on  the  nea- 
trality  of  the  U.  8.  by  the  ainkiiic  of  the  Amer- 
ican merchanbDon  "William  P.  Trye"  by  the 
German  cruiser  "Prim  Eitel  Friedrickj"  and 
the  BmsianB  entered  Hongary.  February  vaa 
distin^iiishsd  by  the  Oennan  proelamatioii  (4th) 
of  a  war  zone  around  the  Brltiah  Isles,  effec- 
tive after  the  18th.  This  brought  a  strong 
protest  from  tlie  XJ.  8.  and  a  notice  to  the  Ger- 
man government  that  it  would  be  held  to  a 
strict  accountability  if  any  merchant  vessel  of 
Uie  U.  S.  was  destroyed  or  any  American  lives 
lost  Germany  replied  to  the  U.  B.  note  that  tha 
war  cone  act  was  one  of  eelf-defense  ag^nst 
Britiah  prevention  of  commerce  between  Ger- 
many and  neutral  eoontries.  On  the  day  the 
war  zone  act  went  into  effect  German  aulana- 
rinee  began  a  mthltM  warfare  on  commercial 
shipping  and  vessels  alleged  to  be  eanying  war 
munitiDns  to  AUied  parta.  On  tite  IStli  British 
and  French  warships  bombarded  the  Dardan- 
elles, as  the  beginning  of  a  campaign  against 
Constantinople. 

On  March  1  the  Britiab  government  lasned  an 
Order  in  Conndl  to  prevent  commodities  of  any 
kind  from  reaching  or  leaving  Germany,  and 
(2%lb)  a  Gennan  submarine  eank  the  British 
steamship  "Falaba,"  causing  a  loss  of  111 
lives,  one  American.  Allied  armies  landed  at 
Oallipoli  in  the  Constantinople  oampaign.  The 
British  captorad  Nenve  Chapelle,  and  the  Bus- 
eians  the  famous  Galiclan  stronghold  of  Pn- 
eroysl  in  Austria  after  having  invested  it  mnce 
Sept,  22  last  Mid  April  nw  the  beginning  of 
the  second  battle  of  Ypres,  which  lasted  till 
May  17,  in  which  the  British  captured  Hill  60, 
the  Germans  need  asphyxiating  gas  for  the 
first  time,  and  the  latter  failed  to  pierce  the 
British  tinea.  The  German  embassy  advertised 
in  a  New  York  newspaper  a  warning  against 
prospective  travetera  embarking  on  vessels  be- 
loni^g  to  Great  Britain.  The  American  vessel 
"Cashing"  waa  attacked  by  a  German  aircraft, 
and  the  Germans  invaded  the  Baltic  provinces  of 
Bnsaia.  Early  in  April  (8th)  the  steamer 
"Harpalyce,"  in  the  service  of  tha  American 
Commission  for  Aid  of  Belgium,  was  torpedoed 
by  a  Gterman  sumbarine,  with  a  loss  of  fifteen 
Uvea. 

May  waa  a  mouth  of  terrors  to  Americana 
On  the  12th,  the  steamship  "Gulfiight"  was 
sunk  by  a  German  submarine,  and  on  the  7tb 
the  great  Canard  liner  "Lusitanla,"  bound 
from  New  Tork  to  Liverpool,  was  sunk  oS  the 
coast  of  Ireland  by  a  German  submarine,  eans- 
iug  the  loss  of  1.1S4  lives,  114  Americans.  The 
U.  S.  sent  a  "note"  of  protest  to  Germany 
against  her  new  submarine  poli<7  and  the  sink- 
ing of  the  "Lusitania,"  and  Germany  sent  the 
XJ.  8.  a  "note"  expressing  lympathy  for  the 
loss  of  American  lives.  The  plea  in  justification 
of  the  sinking  was  that  the  vessel  was  armed 
and  carrying  munitions  of  war  to  the  Allies. 
Then  on  top  of  this  was  a  similar  but  less  fatal 
attack  on  the  American  steam8hip"Nobra8kan," 
(25th).  The  most  important  land  moves  by  the 
Germans  were  the  occupation  of  the  important 


WOBLD  WAB 

Bussian  Baltic  port  of  Liban,  and,  asristed  by 
the  Aostrians,  tho  forcing  of  the  Bussians  from 
their  podtious  in  the  Carpathian  mountains  in 
what  was  called  the  battle  of  the  Dunajee.  It 
was  in  this  month  that  Italy,  having  vriUidrawn 
from  the  triple  alliance  previously  noted,  de- 
clared war  on  Anatria-Hnngary. 

While  these  widely  separated  operations  were 
in  progress,  numerous  encounters  between  Brit- 
ish-Indian troops  advancing  up  the  Tigris  and 
Enphxates  valleys  in  Mesopotamia,  and  Turkish 
troops  sent  from  Bagdad  and  Constantinople, 
took  place  both  early  and  late  in  the  year.  In 
the  spring  (April)  a  Turkish  force  of  from 
15,000  to  20,000  was  badly  defeated  near 
3haiba.  This  battle  was  oonsidered  important 
in  that  it  placed  the  British  in  possession  of  that 
part  of  Mesopotamia  through  which  the  pro- 
jected German  railway  from  Bagdad  to  the 
Persian  gulf  was  to  run.  Later  (July),  the 
British  won  another  victory  at  Sukesh-Sheyukfa 
on  the  Euphrates,  but  when  (October)  they  got 
within  10  m.  of  Bagdad  they  were  defeated  and 
compelled  to  retreat  Early  in  this  year  the 
Turks  assembled  considerable  forces  on  the 
Binai  peninsula  for  the  purpose  of  taking  or 
destroying  the  Suez  Canal  They  succeeded  in 
crossing  the  desert  and  (February)  attacked 
along  the  greater  part  of  the  E.  canal  front 
between  Serapenm  and  Toussoum.  The  British 
had  been  advised  of  their  approach  and  met 
them  with  such  a  deadly  fire  that  th^  were  com- 
pelled to  fiee  at  all  points.  The  attacking  par^ 
was  estimated  at  12,000  strong,  supported  by 
six  batteries.    No  fivther  attack  was  made  on 

the  <*n»n1 

In  noting  Turkish  activities  far  from  the 
fronts  already  treated,  It  should  be  added  that 
Turkish  forces  occupied  Tabriz,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Azerbaijan,  Persia  (January),  for 
the  pnrpose  of  making  it  a  base  for  attacking 
the  Bussian  positions  in  the  province  of  Erivan, 
N.  of  the  Persian  border  and  8.  of  Tifiis.  Tak- 
ing advantage  of  the  warlike  situation,  bands  of 
Kurds,  and,  in  some  instances,  Turks,  began 
making  raids  on  the  Christian  population  of  the 
Urumiah  district,  killing  hundreds.  It  waa  later 
estimated  that  between  E.OOO  and  10,000  per- 
sons had  met  their  death  either  by  violence  or  by 
starvation  in  their  efforts  to  escape.  Safe^ 
came  only  when  the  Bussiane  reoccupied  Tabriz 
at  the  end  of  the  month.  Thousands  were  saved 
by  taking  refuge  in  the  American  mission  sta- 
tions under  the  protection  of  the  American  fiag. 

Betarning  to  the  month  of  May:  Italian 
forces  Invaded  Austria  and  occupied  the  towns 
of  Caporetto,  Cormona,  Cervigaano,  and  Terao, 
near  Trieste  (25th) ;  in  the  Allied  drive  In  the 
Dardanelles,  the  British  battle  ship  "Triumph" 
was  sunk  by  a  Turkish  submarine  (25th),  and 
the  battleship  "Majestic."  (27th),  both  off  the 
Qailipoli  peninsula;  and  German  Zeppelins  bom- 
barded Bamsgate,  Brentwood,  and  outlying  di»- 
trieta  of  London  (31st). 

Operations  in  June  were  widely  scattered. 
After  prolonged  storming  of  the  defences  of 
Przemysl  the  Anstro-Germane  captured  that 
stronghold  (3d) :  British  foreee  operating  on 
the  Tigris  occupied  Ent-d-Amaro,  sank  the 
Turkish  gunboat ' '  Mannario ' '  and  captured  the 


WORLD  WAB 

tmuport  "HoBul"  (3d};  a  Qennaii  sqnadnm 
approached  the  Qulf  of  Biga,  but  turned  back 
before  the  Buraian  Baitie  fluet  (Sth)  j  an  Au»- 
triaa  aeroplane  bombarded  Venice ;  the  Bugeians 
reamnod  the  oflenaive  in  Qaiicia  on  the  Lityma- 
Znrawna  front:  the  Auatro-Oernum  arm?  in 
Bukowina  eroreed  the  Pruth  and  Joined  the 
Galieian  armies,  another  crossed  the  Dnieater 
near  Znrawna  and  wu  defeated  with  heavy 
lotBM  by  the  BaBaiana,  and  In  a  eeeond  eroesins 
of  the  Dniester  the  Auitro-OermanB  retook  Znr- 
awna;  and  the  Bnssians  abandoned  tiie  laat  of 
their  poBitions  in  Bukowina  and  retreated  aarosa 
the  frontier.  The  AuBtro-Qermana  then  resmned 
their  offensive  in  Qaiicia  and  took  Buaaian  poai- 
tiona  along  a  front  of  43  m.,  between  Qreniiawa 
and  Bieviawa  (13th). 

On  the  N.  E.  coast  of  England  a  German  Zep- 
pelin bombarded  several  towns,  killlDg  sixteen 
persona  and  injuring  forty,  and  the  same  day 
(lEth)  a  squadron  of  twenty-three  Allied  air- 
craft bombarded  Earlamhe,  Baden.  I>Qring  the 
month  several  ' '  notes ' '  pawwd  betweoi  the 
V.  B.  and  Oermany  concerning  German  sub- 
marine attacks  on  American  shipping;,  and  eape- 
cially  on  the  ainking  of  the  "Lusitania."  In 
field  operations,  the  Italians  took  Konfaleone, 
cutting  one  of  two  railway  linee  to  Trieste,  and 
the  Austro-Oermans  recaptnred  Lemberg  (22d}. 

The  most  noteworthy  event  in  July  were  the 
oompletion  of  the  British  conquest  of  German 
BoDthweat  Africa,  and  the  beginning  of  the 
German  conquest  of  Bussian  Poland.  The  latter 
operation  opened  July  12  and  extended  to  Bept 
18,  and  was  marked  by  the  capture  of  Lublin 
(July  SO),  Warsaw  (Aug.  4) ),  Ivangarod  (Aug. 
5),  Kovno  (Aug.  17),  Novogeargievsk  (Aug. 
19),  B^as^LitovBk  (Aug.  25),  and  Vilna  (9ept. 
la.)  The  IT.  B.  notifled  Germany  that  her  com- 
munication of  July  S,  concerning  the  "Lusi- 
tania"  sinking,  was  very  uosatlafaotery.  In 
it  Germany  had  pledged  safe^  to  TJ.  S.  shipping 
in  the  German  decreed  war  tone  nnder  specific 
eonditions.  The  American  steamer  "Lee- 
lanaw,"  said  to  have  been  carrying  contraband, 
was  sunk  by  a  Qerman  submarine,  without  lo*a 
of  life.  The  chief  naval  operation  of  the  month 
was  an  action  between  Bussian  and  Qerman 
warriilps  in  the  Baltio  (2d).  A  Buaaian  rruisor 
squadron  encountered  two  Qerman  squadrons  of 
light  cmiaers  and  bnpsdo  boats  off  the  island  of 
Gothland;  tiie  German  mine  layer  "Albatross" 
■fas  driven  ashore  and  destroyed,  and  the  Gter- 
iian  aqnadrons  retreated;  and  a  British  sub- 
marine sank  the  German  battleship  ' '  Fom- 
mem"  at  the  entrance  to  Danrig  bi^,  The 
first  judicial  decision '  on  the  ainking  of  the 
"Lusitania"  waa  given  by  a  British  board  of 
inquiry  which  found  that  Uie  steamdiip  was 
lost  wholly  by  the  act  of  a  Qerman  submarine 
which  aimed  to  destroy  also  the  lives  of  the 
passengera  (17th).  In  land  operations,  the  Ger' 
nians  captured  SOO  yards  of  British  trenehee  at 
Hooge,  E,  of  Yprea,  by  tiie  nse  of  flame  pro- 
jectors (3ath). 

Angnat  aaw  anoder  instance  of  Oerman  sab- 
marine  rnthleaaneas,  when  the  White  Star  liner 
"Arable"  wns  amik  without  warning  off  Faat- 
net,  Irish  coast,  with  a  lOBs  of  forty-fonr  Kvea, 
two  American  (19th);  German  ambnaaadi 


WOBLD  WAB 

the  lose  of  American  lives  waa  contrary  to  the 
intention  of  the  German  government  and  waa 
' '  deeply  regretted. ' '  He  also  gave  an  assur- 
ance, indorsed  by  the  German  Foreign  Office, 
that  German  submarinea  would  sink  no  more 
liners  without  warning,  yet  three  days  afterward 
the  AUan  liner  "Hesperian"  was  sunk  by  a 
Qerman  submarine  causing  a  losa  of  twenty-six 
lives,  one  American.  The  Germans  made  an 
other  attempt  to  gain  control  of  the  Gulf  of 
Riga  (8th)  ;  a  fleet  of  nine  battleshlpa  and 
twelve  cruisera  striving  to  force  an  entrance  was 
defeated  by  the  Busaians;  attempt  renewed 
(19th)  when  the  BussianB  severely  defeated  a 
strong  squadron  endeavoring  to  cover  the  land- 
ing of  troops  at  Paman  on  the  gulf. 

The  major  events  during  the  balance  of  the 
year  Included  the  capture  of  YUna  by  the  Ger- 
mans and  the  end  of  the  BuBaLan  retreat;  the 
completion  of  the  cocqueat  of  Servia  by  Anatro-- 
German-Bulgarian  forces,  Oct  6- Dec  2,  in  which 
Niah  was  occupied  Nov.  S,  Prizrend,  Kov.  30,  and 
Uonaatir,  Dec  2;  the  driving  back  of  the  Brit- 
ish army  to  Eut-el-Amara  by  the  Turka;  the 
withdrawal  of  the  British  from  Ansae  and  Sulvs 
bay,  Gallipoli  peninsula;  the  Busaiaa  occupa- 
tion of  Hamadau,  Perua ;  the  failure  of  the 
French  offensive  in  Champagne  to  penetrate  the 
German  lines;  the  appointment  of  Gen.  Joflre 
as  commander-in* chief  of  the  French  forces,  and 
of  Sb  Douglas  Baig,  in  succession  to  Kr  John 
French  as  commander  of  the  British  forces  In 
France  and  Flanden ;  the  U.  8.  demand  for 
the  recall  of  Capt.  Earl  Boy-Ed  and  Capt.  Fianz 
von  Papen,  Qerman  naval  and  military  attaehea 
respectively  at  Washington  for  pernicious  aotiv- 
itiea;  and  the  landing  of  an  Allied  force 
at  Balonica  at  the  request  of  the  Greek  govera- 

Third  Year,  jQ/6.~~By  the  opening  of  tUa 
year  the  land  operatioos  had  been  scattered  over 
such  an  enormous  extent  of  territory  that  to 
prevent  confusion  in  locating  important  move- 
menta  the  great  fighting  area  was  segregated 
into  what  were  tedmieally  termed  "fronts." 
Heretofore  the  Auatro-Oermana  had  been  gen- 
erally successful  in  their  activities;  now  the 
tide  had  apparentiy  tamed  in  favor  of  the 
Allies.  A  recourse  here  to  maps  of  the  sections 
direcUy  involved  will  clarify  the  brief  state- 
ments of  operationa  In  general,  it  may  be 
stated  that  in  the  early  months  Qie  Germans 
were  still  holding  the  initiative  both  on  the 
E.  and  W.,  though  the  fiusdao  revival  in  the 
8.  was  beginning  to  show  fruitage.  On  the  W. 
aide  the  Germans  opened  their  campaign  against 
Yerduu,  under  the  supposed  direct  command 
of  the  Qerman  crown  prince.  The  Auatrians 
were  meeting  anecess  in  their  drive  into  the 
Trentino  and  occupying  many  Italian  i>oInte  of 
advantage.  In  the  Balkan  region  the  combined 
Austrian  and  Bulgarian  force  drove  the  re- 
maining part  of  the  Servian  army  through  Al- 
bania to  the  cosat  and  occupied  Cettinje,  the 
capital  of  Montenegro.  Further  Allied  reveraet 
oecnrred  at  Salenica  and  the  GaQlnoli  peninsola, 
where  the  previonaty  successful  Mesopotamian 
movement  was  halted  by  the  surrender  of  the 
British -Indian  force  at  Eut-el-Amara.  Just  as 
tba  outlook  for  the  Allies  aeemed  the  darkest. 


Waahington  delivered  a  "note"  declaring  that  the  great  naval  victory  of  the  British  over  the 


WOBLD  WAS 

a«niian  Onnd  Flaet  at  Jutland  Bank  marked 
th«  real  torn  of  tho  tide. 

From  this  time  there  are  io  be  eipeeially 
noted  the  opening  of  a  Boaeiaii  off^udve  and  the 
eaptare  of  Czemanitz  in  Bukovina  (June  17) ; 
Uie  Italian  recovery  of  much  ground  and  man; 
dtiee  in  the  Trentino  that  had  been  lost;  the 
opening  of  a  great  Allied  otfonsiTe  on  both  aide* 
of  the  Somme  river,  Jnlj-NoT.,  in  whieb  the 
Allies  failed  to  break  tlie  Qerman  lines;  the 
Portngnese  extension  of  operations  in  the  main 
areu  of  Europe;  the  capture  of  all  the  paeeee 
through  the  Cariiathlan  monntainfl  \ij  the  Bon- 
lYianiatui,  foUorring  thaiz  deelaratioD  of  war 
against  Austria,  their  progress  to  the  Hungarian 
plain,  and  their  junction  with  the  Bnsnan  line ; 
the  Berriaa  offeudTe  in  Haeedonia  against  Bul- 
garia; the  paa«g*  of  a  Buanan  force  into  the 
Dobruja  to  join  the  Bonmaniani  in  resisting  a 
German-direeted  Bulgarian  drive ;  and  Uie  crush- 
ing of  Boumania  shortly  after  die  had  entered 
the  war  on  the  side  of  the  Allies,  with  the  loss 
of  Bucharest  (Dee.  6),  the  Dobmja  (Jan.  3, 
191?),andFocsanl  (Jan.  8,  1917).  This  period 
ends  with  a  peace  offer  to  the  Allies  (Doa.  12), 
which  was  refused  by  the  Alliea;  a  peace 
"note"  from  President  Wilson  (Dee.  IS),  a 
Oerman  reply  (Deo.  26),  and  an  Allied  reply 
(Jan.  W),  in  the  letter  of  which  demands  were 
made  lor  "reatoration,  reparation,  indemni- 
ties." 

On  the  high  aeaa  the  Qennans  kept  np  their 
Bobmarine  warfare,  despite  their  several  offieial 
pledges,  already  noted.  The  British  pasoecger 
steamer  "Stephano"  was  sunk  off  the  V.  B. 
coast;  the  British  steamer  "Harina"  was  sunk 
without  wamiivK,  causing  a  loss  of  six  American 
lives;  tiie  British  liner  "Arabia"  was  torpedoed 
and  sunk  in  the  Hsditerranean  without  warn- 
ing ;  and  the  British  Lorse-tranaport  ship  '  ■  Bua- 
sian"  was  sunk  also  in  the  Uediterranean, 
when  Beveiit«en  American  Uvea  were  lost  To 
these  should  be  added  the  sinking  of  the  British 
erniser  "Hampehire"  (June  G),  by  a  Qerman 
mine  or  torpedo,  whan  off  the  Orkney  Islands, 
when  £arl  Kitchener,  British  Secretary  of  State 
for  War,  with  a  connderable  staff,  bound  on  a 
mission  to  Busala,  and  all  on  board  were  lost 

On  the  British  front,  sometimes  called  the 
Western  front,  the  operations  of  the  year  were 
largely  confined  to  trench  flghting  at  Yprea,  at 
points  N.  W.  of  Loos,  Oamoy,  on  the  Arras  and 
Vimy  sectors,  at  8t.  Eloi,  and  most  important 
of  all,  in  what  has  been  called  the  third  battle  of 
Ypree,  beginning  June  2  and  dosing  June  13, 
where  at  first  the  British  lost  ground  and  sub- 
sequently with  the  aid  of  tiie  Canadian  contin- 
gent completely  recovered  former  positions.  The 
defense  of  Verdon,  In  which  the  French  Qen. 
Petain  uttered  the  now  famous  slogan  "They 
ah^  not  pass,"  was  one  of  the  greatest  cam- 
paigns of  tiie  war — if  not,  because  of  a  multi- 
tude of  conditions,  the  greatest.  This  campaign 
opened  Feb.  21.  The  Germans  reached  their 
nearest  point  (lesa  Qtan  4m.),  June  16, 
on  Nov.-  2  practically  dosed  the  siege  by  e 
ating  Fort  Vaux. 

The  battie  of  tke  Somme,  resulting  from  a 
great  Franco-British  offensive,  began  July  1 
and  was  fonght  in  two  phasae.  There  Oen. 
Fooh    commanded    the  Freneh   and   Qen.    Blr 


Mi 


WOBLD  WAB 

Donglaa  Haig  the  British.  The  struggle  lasted 
till  the  latter  part  of  November,  and,  without 
going  into  its  voluminous  details,  it  is  mg- 
gestive  of  its  extent  to  quote  from  the  report 
of  Qen.  Haig  at  the  end  of  September: 

"Since  the  opening  of  the  batUe  on  July  I 
we  have  taken  26,735  prisoners.  We  have  en- 
gaged 38  Oerman  divisions,  of  which  2S  have 
been  withdrawn  in  an  exhausted  or  broken  statA. 
We  hold  the  half-moon  of  upland  B.  of  the 
Aner^  occupying  every  height  of  importance, 
and  so  have  direct  observation  of  the  ground  to 
the  £.  and  N.  E.  The  enemy  haa  fallen  baek 
upon  a  fourth  line,  the  low  ridge  just  W.  of  the 
Baupaume-Trausloy  road." 

And  he  added  that  for  every  enemy  alr- 
machine  that  succeeded  in  erosnng  the  Briti^ 
front,  "it  is  safe  to  say  that  200  British  ma- 
chines crossed  the  enony's  front." 

On  the  Bnssian  ifront.  Field  Marshal  von  Ein- 
denbnrg  was  placed  in  eommaud  of  the  German 
offensive,  and  at  tmce  began  calling  for  rein- 
forconenta,  declaring  that  the  K  was  the  real 
theater  of  the  war.  Immediatdy  prior  to  tiie 
first  heavy  blow  of  the  Bussians  under  Gen. 
Brusnloff  (June  3),  there  were  two  fighting 
Eonee  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  Fripet  Uardies. 
On  the  N.  the  Bussian  army  faced  the  Oerman ; 
on  the  B.  the  Bussians  faced  the  Austro-Hun- 
garians.  N.  of  the  Uarshee  the  contestants  had 
a  main  and  a  center  army;  8.  of  the  Marshes, 
each  had  a  single  army.  The  Qerman  armies 
were  commanded  by  Field  Marshal  von  Hinden- 
burg,  Prince  Leopold  of  Bavaria,  and  Arohduke 
Frederick;  the  Bossian  by  Gen.  Knropatkin, 
Gen.  Evert,  and  Qen.  Bmatoff.  The  offensive 
opened  by  the  tatter  was  along  the  entire  front 
8.  of  the  Pripet  Marshes,  and  reeulted  in  the 
capture  of  eight  important  cities,  and  tiie  driv- 
ing of  ti>e  Teutonic  armies  from  all  Bukowina. 

On  the  Italian  front  there  were  many  remark- 
able and  epeetaeolar  operations  owing  to  the 
nature  of  the  eountry.  High  mountain  peaks, 
beautiful  vaBeys,  aiid  pietnreaque  rivers  were 
eroased  in  drivea  and  eounter-drivea,  and  prob- 
alriy  never  before  had  sneh  movements  been 
undertaken  as  the  eonveyanee  of  heavy  artillery 
and  needful  supplies  from  top  to  top  of  moun- 
tain peaks  suspended  from  stout  wires.  The 
Italians  displayed  wonderful  ingemuity  and 
pluck  and  gained  astonishing  advantages  early 
in  their  campaign,  but  later,  when  the  Austrians 
were  rdnforeed  and  the  Italiaaa  called  in  vain 
for  aid,  they  met  witii  heavy  defeats.  Still 
later  the  Allies  went  to  the  relief  of  the  Italians, 
and  though  victories  were  scored  the  morale  of 
the  army  was  seriously  affected  by  a  general 
disappointment  over  the  lack  of  adequate  co- 
operation of  the  Allies  when  most  needed. 

Other  noteworthy  operations  of  the  year  were 
in  the  Balkans  where  the  conquest  of  Servla 
waa  completed;  in  Greece,  where  the  country 
joined  the  AUiea  after  the  abdication  of  King 
Constantine  and  the  revolution  under  the  Tene- 
leloB  party;  the  conquest  of  the  remainder  of 
Oerman  East  Africa  by  a  South  African  expedi- 
tionary force  under  Lieut.  Qen.  Smuts;  Qte  oc- 
cupation of  the  Qerman  protectorate  of  _Kam- 
erun,  Africa,  the  last  garrison  surrendering  to 
Gen.  Dobell  at  Mora;  and  a  jwbelUon  in.  W. 


.X.oo;-^h 


VOBLD  WAB 

Egypt  aud.  the  SudAn,  which  was  mpprened, 
after  protraotod  operatiotu,  fay  an  EgTptian 
army  under  CoL  Kelly,  who  defeated  the  Darf ur 
troops  and  oeeopied  X!l  Fasber,  the  capital  of 
the  Ssdan. 

Fmaih  Year,  1917. — ^At  the  very  opening  of 
the  year  the  beginning  of  tlis  end  dawned  upon 
a  horror-strioken  world,  for  the  Allied  govem- 
ments  responded  to  the  Getman  peace  offer  of 
See.  12,  lOlS,  stating  Uieir  tenna  in  detail  and 
making  a  separate  reservatioD  in  favor  of  Bel- 
gium, Jan.  10.  Besides  this  action  Great 
Britain  replied  to  President  Wilson's  peace 
"note"  (Dee.  18,  1916),  suggesting  an  enl&rge- 
ment  of  its  proposals  and  an  international  pact 
to  preserve  world  peace.  Immediately  following 
this  Qermany  annonnoed  her  determination  to 
enforce  an  unrestricted  aubmarine  warfare  in 
spocifled  Bonee.  No^,  the  TJ.  8.  became  fully 
awakened  to  the  world's  peril  Diplomatic  re- 
lations with  Gennany  were  ofBeiaUy  severed  and 
German  Ambaaudor  Bemstorfl  was  diamissed 
(Feb.  3),  and  Oennany  was  informed  through 
the  Swiss  Minister  that  the  TJ.  B.  would  not 
negotiate  with  Germany  until  the  last  sub- 
marine order  was  cancelled  (Feb.  12).  A  few 
days  later  President  Wilson  asked  the  Congreea 
for  authority  to  arm  merchant  shipping,  and, 
March  12,  annonneement  was  made  that  an 
armed  guard  would  be  placed  on  all  American 
merchant  tossbIs  having  occasion  to  pass 
through  the  Qemian  war  zone. 

The  tide  now  set  in  strongly  toward  wide- 
spread Allied  successes.  The  Britisfa,  under 
Gen.  Maude,  reeovered  Kut-el-Amara  after  more 
than  two  months'  operations  (Feb.  24),  cap- 
tared  Bagdad  (March  II),  thus  settling  the  pro- 
longed German  dream  of  direct  railroad  com- 
munication from  Berlin  to  Bagdad,  and,  in 
France,  took  over  from  the  French  the  entire 
Somma  front  Of  the  W.  front  the  British 
now  held  100  m.,  the  French  17&,  and  the  Bel- 
gians ZS.  Then  foUowed  the  retreat  of  the 
Qermaos  to  the  "Hindenborg  line"  (see  Hind- 
enburg,  Paifl  von),  which  involved  the  evacua- 
tion of  1,300  m.  of  French  territory,  extending 
from  Arras  (il.v.)  to  Boissons.  In  the  midst  of 
these  early  Allied  successes  came  the  Russian 
debacle,  a  wide-spread  resolution,  ths  abdication 
of  Czar  Nicholas  (March  15),  the  organization 
of  a  provinonal  government  by  the  Constitn- 
tiona]  Democratic  party  under  Prince  Lvoff  and 
M.  Milukov,  and  the  recognition  of  the  new 
government  by  the  U.  &. 

The  U.  a  was  now  thoroughly  aroused.  It 
declined  either  to  interpret  or  supplement  the 
old  Prussian  treaty  (17S0),  as  urged  by  Ger- 
many; recalled  the  American  Minister,  Brand 
Whitlock,  and  the  American  Belief  Commission 
from  Belgium ;  and,  under  the  authority  of  the 
Congress,  declared  war  against  the  Imperial 
German  Government,  April  6.  The  latter  act 
was  followed  two  days  later  by  the  severance  of 
diplomatic  relations  by  Austria-Hungary  with 
the  n.  8.,  and  fourt«en  days  later  by  a  similar 
act  by  'Turkey.  In  lees  than  a  month  after 
its  declaration  of  war  the  TJ.  a  had  a  fleet  of 
destroyers  operating  with  the  British  navy  in 
the  German  war  Kme. 


448 


WOBLD  WAB 

Beturalng'  to  the  field  of  actual  fighting  there 
are  now  to  be  noted  substantial  Briti^  successes 
in  the  battle  of  Arras,  where  the  Vimy  Bidge, 
coveted  by  both  belligerents,  was  taken  (April 
9) ;  French  sueeeasee  in  the  batUe  of  the  Aisne, 
between  Soissons  and  Bheims  (April  It) — May 
8)  Italian;  offensive  on  ths  laonzo  front,  with 
the  capture  of  Goritia  (Aug.  9),  Monte  Banto 
(Aug.  24),  and  Monte  Ban  Gabrielle  (Sept  14), 
extending  from  May  IS  to  Sept  IS;  appoint- 
ment of  Gen.  Petain  to  the  Supreme  Command  ' 
of  French  forces  (May  IS) ;  British  destruction 
of  Messines  Bidge,  near  Ypres,  and  capture  of 
T,000  German  prisoners;  Italian  offensive  on 
the  Trentino;  and  the  landing  of  the  first  U.  S. 
troops  in  France  (June  26). 

A  momentary  digreaaion  will  here  be  pardon- 
able, to  note  foor  thrilling  deolarationa  tqr 
Allied  commanders  that  will  never  be  forgotten. 
When  the  aged  Gen.  Joseph  a  Gallieni  (d.  ^y 
27,  1916},  was  made  the  protector  of  Paris 
against  the  drive  of  Gen.  von  Eluck  in  the 
critical  days  of  1S14,  he  said  in  a  proclamation 
to  the  people:  "I  have  received  the  mission 
of  defending  Paris  against  the  invader.  I  shall 
accomplish  that  mission  to  the  end."  When 
Gen.  Petain  was  resisting  the  German  drive 
against  Terdun  he  said :  ' '  They  shall  not  pass. ' ' 
When  Gen.  Pershing  reached  Paris  he  reverently 
placed  a  wreath  at  Lafayette's  grave,  saluted, 
and  said:  "Lafayette,  we  have  come."  When 
Gen.  Foch  waa  fighting  the  first  batUe  of  the 
Marne  he  sent  the  following  dispatch  to  Gen. 
Joffre:  "My  enter  is  giving  sway,  my  right  la 
retreatii^,  the  situation  is  excellent,  I  am  at- 
tacking," 

The  last  half  of  this  year  was  marked  by 
intense  activity  on  all  fronts.  Among  the  many 
noteworthy  events  special  mention  should  fa« 
made  of  the  mutinies  of  the  great  German  fieets 
Bt  Wilhehnehaven  and  Kiel  (July  30 ;  Sept  2) ; 
the  great  battie  of  Flanders  with  the  Britiidi 
winning  decisive  victories  (July  31-Nov.  1)  ;  the 
capture  by  Canadians  of  HiU  70,  controlling 
XiWA  (Aug.  IS)  ;  the  second  Italian  drive  on  the 
Isonio  front  at  Carso  Plateau,  with  the  capture 
of  Monte  Santo  (Aug.  24) ;  the  recovery  by  the 
French  of  important  ground  at  Verdun  lost  in 
1B16;  ft  great  Anstro-German  drive  into  Italy, 
resulting  in  the  shifting  of  the  Italian  line  to 
the  Plave  and  Brenta  rivers ;  a  French  drive  N. 
of  the  Aisne  river,  foUowed  by  the  German 
retreat  from  the  Chemin  dee  Dames;  the  cap- 
ture by  the  British  of  Joffa,  in  the  Palestine 
campaign;  ths  great  battle  of  Cambrai,  when 
the  British  successfully  employed  tanks  against 
wire  entanglements  (Nov.  2S-Dec.  13) ;  and 
the  capture  of  Jemsalem  \cf  the  British 
(Deo.  9). 

In  this  period  the  Germans  made  a  counter- 
attack at  Cambr^  (Dee.  2),  in  which  the  British 
were  compelled  to  evacuate  a  considerable  part 
of  the  ground  previously  gained,  and  further 
German  attacks  (Dec  13),  yielded  them  a 
limited  advantage.  In  Bussia  the  BolsheviU 
government  gained  sufficient  strength  to  lead  the 
German  government  to  open  peace  negotiations 
with  it  at  Brest-Litovsk,  resulting  in  an  armis- 
tice and  a  trea^  which  was  sobaequeutly  abro- 


WO]tU>WAB  ' 

gated  bj'  the  final  Allied  p«mm  tarai  for  0«r- 
11UU17.  An  intematdon&l  eoufereDce  was  opaued 
■t  Paria,  wiUi  reprewntativee  of  sixteen  Allied 
natiosB  in  attendance  (Nov.  29).  Preddent 
Wilaou  proposed  to  the  Congrew  w&r  against 
Avatria-Eimgaiy,  whicti  was  declared  Dec  7; 
and  on  Dee.  6  Uie  U.  8.  deetroyer  "Jaoob 
Jones"  was  sunk  by  a,  Qwnan  mbmarine,  with 
a  loss  of  over  forty  American  Uvea.  Among 
peace  efforts  were  propoaals  from  Pope  Bene- 
dict, to  which  the  U.  S.  responded  Aug.  27, 
QeimanT  and  Anstria,  Sept.  81,  and  Germany 
a^aln,  Sept  SS,  bnt  llie  effort  yielded  no  prac- 
tical regults. 

Fifik  and  DtciMM  Ytar,  /gi8.~A*  before 
•tated  the  tide  of  events  swept  strongly  toward 
Allied  channels  during  1S17.  The  last  British 
offensive  of  the  year  eulaminated  in  the  batUe 
of  Cambria  (Not.  30-Dec  4),  and  the  reanlte, 
according  to  Qen.  Sir  Douglas  Baig,  were  the 
capture  by  Uie  Britiah  of  over  12,000  yards  of 
the  former  German  front  line,  together  with  be- 
tween 10,000  and  11,000  yards  al  the  Hinden- 
burg  direct  and  reeerre  lines ;  of  eey^ral  vil- 
lages; and  of  11,000  Qennan  prisoners.  Uilitary 
critics  estimatad  the  Oerman  eaaoaltiee  at  100,- 
000,  while  Qennan  authorities  claimed  that  In 
the  German  counter- attack  much  lost  ground 
was  recovered  and  6,000  prisoners  were  taken. 
Later  in  the  campaign  tiie  British  met  with 
severe  reverses  and  were  obliged  to  evacuate 
important  positions,  including  those  on  the  Hind- 
enbnrg  line  B.  of  Bnllecourt  and  S.  of  Keneonrt. 
Then  followed  a  eessation  of  active  operations 
until  March,  ISIS,  in  which  period  the  British 
extended  their  line  to  a  point  B.  and  near  St. 
Quentin,  and  the  British  general  staff  was 
reorganized  following  adverse  critieisma  in  the 
Parliament. 

Soon  after  the  opening  of  1918,  It  became 
evident  that  the  Germans  were  preparing  for 
their  most  determined  drive  In  France,  and  for 
a  time  tiie  menace  aesuoied  alarming  propor- 
tions, especially  after  Match  21,  when  the  new 
German  offensive  burst  forth,  and  the  Germans 
began  shelling  Paris  with  their  "Big  Bertha" 
from  a  distance  of  from  seventy-five  to  eighty 
n..,  a  surprising  aeliievement  both  in  conception 
and  execution.  The  new  German  attack  was 
OB  the  heart  of  the  Allied  front,  and  the  drive 
laeted  until  July  IS,  the  objectives  sought,  as 
it  later  appeared,  being  the  separation  of  the 
British  and  French  armies,  tlie  capture  of  Paris 
and  the  opening  of  a  road  to  the  Chann>il  ports, 
whence  England  could  be  speedily  entered,  by 
way  of  Amiens  and  Ypres.  The  Germans 
claimed  at  the  end  of  June  that  they  had  taken 
191,4S4  unwounded  prisoners  and  2,476  guod 
from  the  Allies  on  the  W.  front.  None  of 
their  objectives  was  gained.  This  offensive 
of  tJe  Germans  was  really  four  carefully  planned 
objectives  on  as  many  main  areas  i  the  first,  that 
just  cited;  the  second,  called  the  Somme  and 
Picardy  (March  21-April  8);  the  third,  the 
Tpres  region ;  and  the  fourth,  the  last  dash  for 
Pans  (May  27-July  18). 

On  the  part  of  the  Allies  it  is  to  be  noted 
that  they  instituted  a  eeriee  of  counter-offen- 
sives,  the  most  important  of  which  were  the 


WOBLD  WA& 

opastioaa  of  Jnly  U-Aoc.  I,  wbixb  reanHad  In 
the  rMovarjr  of  BolsaoBs;  of  Ang.  B-H,  iriion 
Amiens  wm  freed ;  of  Ang.  21-29,  when .  the 
Britiah  army  resomed  operations  on  an  extuided 
scale,  fought  the  second  battle  of  tito  Bomme, 
and  began  a  drive  against  the  Eindenborg  line ; 
of  Ang.  30-Bept.  10,  when  that  line  was  broken; 
of  Sept  12-18,  iriien  the  efforts  were  against 
the  8t  Mieliiel  sKlient,  which  had  existed  since 
the  futile  Oerman  advance  on  Paris  in  1914; 
and  of  Sept  18-NoT.  II,  when  effeetive  move- 
ments were  made  on  the  Scheldt  area.  The 
eutii«  German  front  on  Flanders  was  broken 
Oct  17 ;  Oateud  and  mo«t  of  the  Belgian  coast 
line  were  abandoned;  and  by  Oct  20,  the  en- 
tire coast  line  was  free  of  Germans.  On  Nov. 
11,  an  armisttce  sought  by  the  Germans  was 
granted  by  the  AUiea,  who  dictated  the  terms. 
This  was  signed  at  S  A.  M.,  and  at  11  A.  M. 
hostilitiee  cmaed.  and  the  World  War  was  tech- 
nically ended. 

Many  minor  operations  In  all  areas,  not  in- 
cluded here,  will  be  found  noted  throughout  this 
work  under  the  titles  of  the  plaeea  of  their  oe- 


Human  Ctut  t^  fie  Wv, — According  to  offi- 
cial reports  and  estimates  in  1919,  the  eaanaltasa 
of  the  war  aggregated  over  26,000,000,  of 
which  number  BppToiiniately  14,000,000  repre- 
sented the  total  deaths  eaused  by  the  war,  the 
latter  number  including  battle  deaths  and 
deaths  from  all  other  causes,  the  battie  deaths 
alone  being  placed  at  about  7,000,000.  The 
losses  of  life  from  all  causes  were  given  as 
foUows;  Great  Britain,  658,704;  Germany,  8,- 
000,000;  Austria-Hungary,  1,000,000;  Bnasia, 
2,000,000;  Prance,  1,400,000;  Belgium,  175,000; 
Italy,  360,000;  Balkan  States  and  Turkey, 
260,000;  and  the  U.  &,  74,054,  of  which  latter 
number  32,854  represented  the  men   killed   in 

Jlfonetf  CoA  oj  thi  War.— Up  to  Jan.  31, 1919, 
the  total  expenditures  of  the  Allies  and  tite 
V.  B.  were  officially  stated  in  Wadiington  at 
$119,681,000,000,  exclusive  of  loans  among  them- 
selves which  totaUed  »1 8, 3 75,000 ,000.  The  total 
expenditures  of  Germany  were  given  as  •36,500,- 
000,000  and  of  Turkey,  « 23,000,000,000.  The 
individual  expenditures  of  the  nations,  exclu- 
sive of  those  by  Belgium,  Portugal,  Boumanla, 
Austria-Hungary  and  Bulgaria  were  placed  at 
4179,000,000,000,  of  which  *3 7, 100 ,000 ,000  was 
credited  to  Great  Britain;  $27,000,000,000  to 
France:  1 18,481,000,000  to  the  TJ.  &;  tl8,000,- 
000,000  to  Bussia;  $10,000,000,000  to  Italy; 
$8,000,000,000  to  Servia;  and  $1,000,000,000 
to  Greece  and  Japan.  AU  of  these  enormous 
amounts  are  ex(rlnslve  of  another  enonnons 
amount  representing  the  destruction  of  proper^, 
wilful,  retaliatory,  and  strategic  The  cost  of 
reparations  demanded  of  the  Central  Powers  by 
the  Peace  Conference  will  require  long  ecm- 
putation. 

"Lafaj/eUe,  W»  Have  Come."— Thus  far  this 
review  has  noted  the  principal  happenings  in 
the  various  war  areas  in  whic^  the  French, 
British,  Italian,  Belgian,  Servian,  and  other 
early  Allied  armies  ware  engaged.  While  these 
actions  were  in  progress  on  land,  the  Alliad 


WOBU)  WAB 

aaml  fleote  on  dtrtr  pUxOag  tha  anu  of  the 
Fnowb  mud  BritiBfa  eoaoto  rendered  slgwU  ntt- 
lee,  but  thrir  tsok  tru  of  a  character  that  for- 
bftde  pntdidty.  benee,  relatively  little  of  their 
ierrioe  waa  made  known  dnring  the  rtniKgle. 

Beeognitton  of  the  part  tJie  U.  B.  bore  in  tl 
war  haa  been  Teaerred  for  the  cloeinK  portii 
of  tUi  uarratiT& 

Aeeordiug  to  the  anniutl  report  of  Seciatary 
Baker  of  the  War  Department  (Dec  6,  1918), 
the  army  of  the  U.  B.  In  Ifarch,  1917,  on  the 
ere  of  the  deelaration  of  war  agiunat  Germany, 
had  a  etrencth  of  1M,000  men.  By  November, 
1018,  thla  force  had  been  inoreaeed  to  3,665,000, 
of  «4ieh  number  Qeneral  Perahing  reported  that 
8,053,347,  lesB  loseea,  were  In  Europe,  and  I,- 
338,169  combatante  were  In  France,  the  re- 
mainder being  in  variooi  training  eampa  at 
home.  Secretaty  Daniele  of  tha  Navy  Depart- 
ment showed  in  his  W"""Tl1  report,  of  the  same 
period,  a  total  of  about  290  voHola  of  all  duaea 
In  tito  navy  on  April  5,  1917.  By  Nov.  1,  1918, 
thia  number  had  been  increased  to  1,900,  inclad- 
fng  40  battleahips,  32  embers,  33  gunboats,  125 
deetroyere,  17  torpedo  boats,  68  submarines,  ^03 
aobmarine  ebaaers,  79  mine  planters  and  siveep- 
ara,  58  troop  transports,  040  patrol  veaeels.  and 
the  remainder  of  minor  craft  In  lees  than  a 
month  after  the  IT.  S.  deelaration  of  war  a  do- 
taehment  of  U.  S.  destroyera  was  on  dn^  in 
European  watere,  and  by  Oct  1,  191S,  tUere 
were  338  vessels  of  all  elasees  co-operatiDK  with 
the  French  and  British  fleets.  The  supreme 
command  of  the  U.  8.  veaaels  in  this  service 
was  held  by  Admlrala  William  8.  Sims  and  Wil- 
liam B.  BetiBon. 

Gen.  John  J.  Ferahlng,  eommander-in-chief 
of  the  American  EzpedltioiiaTy  Foreea,  reached 
Faria  with  a  unall  stafF  on  Jnne  4,  1917,  sixty 
days  after  the  deelaration  of  war.  On  June  26 
the  first  contingent  of  hla  anny  arrived  in 
France;  on  Oct  10  Ameriean  troops  first  went 


"over  the  top";  and  in  January,  191B,  tliey 
were  placed  in  front  line  trenehee  and  took  over 
a  part  'tof  the  line  as  an  American  sector.  In 
March  Qeneral  Pershing  placed  all  of  his  forces 
at  the  disposal  of  Marshal  Foch,  the  commander- 
In-chief  of  the  Allied  armies,  to  be  used  as 
he  might  decide;  on  April  26  Pershing's  First 
Divi^ou  went  into  tha  Una  in  the  Montdidier 
salient  on  the  Ficardy  battie-fro&t;  on  May  28 
Qia  division  attacked  the  German  division  on  its 
front  and  took  the  town  of  Gantigny  and  all 
other  objectives.  From  Utis  time  to  tha  end  of 
hostilities  the  Americana  distingui^ed  them- 
selves in  every  phase  of  military  activity  vrlth 
a  boldness,  pertinaeity,  and,  notably,  morale 
that  won  the  hli^eft  eneomiuma  from  the  most 
eminent  personages  in  the  Allied  nations. 

A  detailed  record  of  American  achievonents 
will  be  found  in  General  Pershing's  report  to 
the  Secretary  of  War  under  the  date  of  Nov. 
20,  1918,  to  which  reference  should  be  made 
eoncemlng  operations  for  a  review  of  which 
space  cannot  here  ba  given.  Special  attention 
is  BOggested  to  his  citation  of  four  great  events; 
the  American  victory  at  Chatean-Thierry  on  tiie 
Mame,  Jnne  6;  the  movements  resulting  In  tbe 
eaptore  of  tbe  St  Mlhlel  aallent,  Bept.  13;  the 


WOBLD  WAB 

■aeeeaafn]  oporationa  in  the  Argonne  Forest, 
where  the  Amerieana  held  a  main  front  line  of 
20  m.  from  tbe  Mouse  near  Verdun  W.  to  the 
Vienne-la-Chatoau,  and  also  operated  H.  of  tiia 
Meuse  vritb  the  f^enoh;  and  Uie  capture  of 
Sedan  (Oct  0),  tbe  scene  of  the  surrender  of 
the  French  to  the  Germans  in  the  Franco-Prua. 
■ian  war.  Of  the  last  event  General  Pershing 
reported:  "The  strategical  goal  which  was  onr 
highest  hope  was  gained.  We  had  eat  tha 
enemy 's  main  line  of  commnnications,  and  noth- 
ing but  enrrender  or  an  armistice  could  save 
his  army  from  complete  disaster. ' '  Tbe  road 
was  now  open  to  Berlin,  and  the  German  sur- 
render followed,  Nov.  11.  On  Dec  1,  tbe 
Americans  entered  German  territory,  and  on  the 
16th  firmly  established  themselves  at  Coblenz. 

Of  the  many  marvelous  happenings  during 
tbe  war  none  anrpassed  the  transportation  of 
over  2,000,000  American  soldiers  to  France, 
under  convoy  of  warships  commanded  by  Viee- 
Admiral  Albert  Qleavea,  without  tbe  loss  of  a 
single  tranqwrt  by  enemy  action,  though  parte 
of  the  Atlantic  were  swarming  with  German 
submarines.  Three  transports  were  sunk  on 
their  return  voyage,  the  ' '  Antitlee, "  "  Presi- 
dent Lineotn, ' '  and  ' '  Covington, ' '  and  two  were 
torpedoed  but  escaped  sinl^g,  the  "Finland" 
and  the  "Mount  Vernon." 

Apporiioninf  the  Cotl. — The  World's  Peace 
Conference  convened  officially  at  Paris  on  Jan. 
~  1919,  and  ita  first  act  waa  the  election  of 
Georges  Clemeneean,  tbe  veteran  Premier  of 
France,  to  the  permanent  obairmsnship.  The 
oonferenea  was  composed  of  representatives  of 
the  belligerent  allied  and  associated  powers  as 
follows:  (1)  The  belligerent  xxi^^rs  with  gen- 
eral intereeta — the  tJ.  B.  of  America,  the  British 
Empire,  France,  Italy  and  Japan.  (2)  The  bel- 
ligerent powers  witii  particular  interests — Bel- 
gium, Brazil,  the  British  Dommions  and  India, 
China,  Coba,  Greece,  Guatemala,  Haiti,  Hedjaz, 
Honduras,  fflberia,  Nicaragua,  Panama,  Poland, 
Portugal,  Boumania,  Servia,  Slain,  and  the 
Gzaeho-Slovak  Bepubllc.  (3)  The  powers  in  a 
state  of  diplomatic  rupture  with  the  enemy 
powera — Bolivia,  Ecuador,  Peru  and  Uruguay. 

These  powers  were  r^resented  by  plenipo- 
tentiaiy  delegates  in  the  following  ratio:  'The 
~  1.  of  America,  the  British  Empire,  Prance, 
Italy  and  Japan  by  five  each;  Belgium,  Brazil 
and  Servia  by  three  each ;  China.,  Greei'o,  the 
King  of  Hedjaz,  Poland,  Portngal,  Roumania, 
Biam  and  the  Ciecho-Slovak  Bepublic.  by  two 
each;  Cuba,  Guatemala,  Haiti,  Honduras,  ffi- 
beria,  Nicaragua,  Panama,  Bolivia,  Ecuador, 
Peru  and  TJroguay  by  one  each;  and  of  the 
British  Dominions  and  India,  Australia,  Canada, 
Bonth  Africa  and  India  (including  the  native 
states  two  each;  and  New  Zealand,  one.  In 
addition  to  the  foregoing,  there  were  recog-*' 
nized  delegates,  but  without  representativee, 
from  tiie  following  plaeee;  Aland  Islands, 
Albania,  Armenia,  Dalmatia,  Denmark, 
Jewish  contingent,  Montenegro,  Persia  and 
Bu^a. 

.The  regulations  for  tbe  conduct  of  the  Con- 
ferenee  were  embodied  in  fifteen  separate  pro- 
visions, and  the  execution  of  the  momentoua 


WOBLD  WAB 

work  in  band  was  uidgaei  to  a  imrgo  uamber  of 
cominiBnoiia  and  sub-conunitteea  choaen  from 
the  whole  bod;  of  delegates,  each  having  eharge 
of  a  separata  problem. 

The  firnt  general  session  was  opened  Jan.  18; 
OQ  the  25tli  President  Wilson,  chairman  of  the 
eommlasion  thereon,  presented  a  plan  for  the 
creation  and  goTernment  of  a  League  of  Na- 
tions; on  the  24th  the  plan  was  contniired  in 
and  committee  appointed  to  draw  up  a  Covenant 
or  Constitution;  and  on  the  30th  the  Confer- 
ence accepted  the  mandatories  for  colonies  and 
backward  nations  as  formulated  by  the  Supreme 
Council,  which  Inelnded  two  rapreeentatiTes  each 
from  the  U.  8.,  Oreat  Britain,  France,  Italy  and 

On  March  26,  in  order  to  hasten  the  work  of 
the  Conference,  the  Supreme  Council  of  Ten  was 
divided  into  two  bodies;  a  OouneU  of  Four 
(the  "Big  Four"),  composed  of  President  Wil- 
son, Premiers  Lloyd  George,  Clemenceau  and 
Orlando,  and  a  Council  of  Foreign  Ministers. 
On  AprU  14  the  reparation  demands  to  be  made 
on  Qermany  were  announced;  on  the  16th  the 
Germans  ware  invited  to  send  delegates  to  re- 
ceive the  peace  trea^;  on  May  1  the  German 
delegates  assembled  at  Versailles ;  and  on  June 
28  th«^  treaty  was  ngned. 

The  peace  treaty  was  a  very  voluminous  doca- 
ment,  oomprising  430  distinct  articles.  DetaUs 
of  the  peace  treaty,  as  affecting  the  former 
German  Empire,  are  given  below  and,  in  brief, 
are  also  not«d  in  the  various  articles  throughout 
this  work  concerning  the  pre-war  Gennany  in  ite 
geographical  or  political  relations.  Even  the 
titles  of  the  articles  of  the  trea^  indicate  the 
scope  and  tiiorougbnees  of  the  Allied  demands, 
and 'to  them  is  to  be  added  a  statement,  em- 
bodied in  this  review,  concerning  the  proposed 
League  of  Nations  tliat  will  supplement  tlie  t«it 
of  the  preamble  to  the  Covenant  or  Constitution 
given  under  the  title  of  League  of  Nationa  in 
Vol  IV  of  this  work. 

Pajfinc  tilt  Price. — On  Oet.  S,  IBIS,  Germany 
sent  a  note  to  President  Wibon  asking  the 
terms  tljat>  the  Allies  would  be  likely  to  impose 
for  peace.  The  President  forwarded  the  note 
to  the  Allied  War  Cooncil  in  Paris.  A  second 
note  followed,  and  on  the  STtb  a  tliird  note 
stated  that  Germany  awaited  a  respoase.  On 
this  lost  date  Austria  appealed  to  Prendent 
Wilson  for  the  terms  of  a  separate  peace.  Be- 
tween the  first  and  last  of  these  dates  the 
Allies  were  eminently  successful  in  movements 
planned  to  cut  off  the  retreat  of  the  Germans 
from  France  and  Belgium.  On  Nov.  4  the  Allied 
War  Council,  acting  on  the  recommendations 
of  Marshal  Foch,  agreed  upon  terms  and  a 
thirty-day  armistice.  The  German  envoys  signed 
the  terms  and,  as  before  stated,  hostilities 
cease^  at  II  a.  m.  on  Nov.  11.  Two  days  be- 
fore the  signing  Emperor  Wilhalm  abdicated 
and  fled  to  Holland. 

The  terms  on  which  the  armistice  was  granted 
wsre  set  forth  in  thirty-five  articles  and  formed 
the  major  part  of  what  might  be  considered  as 
tiie  actual  peace  terms  of  a  military  nature. 
In  brief  they  included  tite  following  stipula- 
tions: 


WOBLD  WAB 

The  strietly  mOItaiy  terms  were  onbraead 
in  eleven  specifications,  which  included  the  evacu- 
ation of  all  invaded  territories,  the  withdrawal 
of  the  German  troops  from  the  left  bonk  of  the 
Bhine,  and  the  surrender  of  all  supplies  of  war, 
including  fi.OOO  guns,  half  field  and  half  light 
artUlary,  30,000  maduna  guns,  3,000  flame 
throwers  and  2,000  aeroplanes. 

The  naval  terms  provided  for  the  anrrendar  of 
160  submarines,  60  destroyers,  6  batUe  eraiseiB, 
10  battleahips,  S  light  emisers,  and  other  mis- 
cellaneouB  ships.  Besides  the  surrender  of  these 
submarines,  all  other  craft  of  that  class  were 
to  be  placed  under  thq  supervision  of  the  Allied 
and  American  naval  forces,  All  Allied  vessels  in 
German  possession  were  to  be  surrendered,  and 
Germany  was  required  to  notify  neutrals  that 
they  would  be  free  to  trade  at  once  on  the 
seas  wiOi  the  Allied  oountriea. 

Other  property  to  be  surrendered  included 
5,000  locomotives,  50,000  wagons,  10,000  motor 
lorries,  the  railways  of  Alsaca-Lorrains  and 
large  stores  of  coal  and  iron. 

The  financial  terms  included  reparation  for 
damage  done  by  German  armies,  restitution  of 
money  token  from  the  National  Bank  of  Bel- 
pum,  and  the  retom  of  gold  taken  fiom  Ru<«ia 
and  Houmania, 

Miscellaneous  terms  included  the  immediate 
retirement  of  German  troops  from  any  territory 
hdd  by  Bussia,  Bomnania  and  Turkey  before 
the  war,  the  immediate  repatriation  of  all 
Allied  and  American  prisoners  without  recip- 
rocal action  by  the  Alliee;  the  repatriation  of 
the  thouBauda  of  civilians  deported  from  France 
and  Belgium;  freedom  of  access  to  the  Baltic 
Sea  and  power  to  occupy  German  forts  in  the 
Cattegat;  the  designation  of  location  of  mines, 
poisoned  wells,  and  like  agencies  of  destruction ; 
the  surrender  of  all  porta  on  the  Black  Sea  oc- 
cupied by  Germans;  the  creation  of  the  right 
bulk  of  the  Bhine  as  a  neutral  zone,  the  evacua- 
tion of  the  left  bank  and  the  poseession  by  the 
Allies  of  Uie  crossingB  of  the  river  at  CoblentK, 
Cologne,  and  Mayenee,  together  with  bridg«- 
heads  and  a  thirtykilomater  radius,  and  the 
onconditiona]  surrender  of  all  German  forces  in 
B.  Africa  within  one  month. 

The  complete  peace  conditions  imposed  by  tlie 
Allies  on  what  remained  of  the  former  Auetro- 
Huugorian  empire  were  handed  to  the  Austrian 
delegates  to  the  Peace  Conference  on  July  21, 
and  on  Oct.  E5,  they  were  signed  by  President 
Karl  Seits  of  the  new  Austrian  republic,  with- 
out any  manifestations  of  hostility.  While  they 
were  quite  comprehensive  and.  In  parta,  similar 
in  effect  to  those  imposed  on  Germany,  they  were 
naturally  far  less  drastic.  The  Bulgarian  and 
Turkish  torms  were  not  completed  until  several 
months  later. 

Wdding  the  Nations. — The  members  of  the 
proposed  League  of  Nations,  under  Qie  Covenant 
or  Constitution  and  as  fixed  therein,  include  the 
signatories  of  the  Treaty  of  Peace  given  above, 
and  representatives  of  the  following  states  that 
were  invited  to  accede  to  the  Covenant:  Argen- 
tine Bepublic,  Chile.  Columbia,  Denmark,  Neth- 
erlands, Norway,  Paraguay,  Persia,  Salvador, 
Sptun,  Sweden,  Switzerland  and  Tanezuelo.  &t 
James  Eric  Drummond  wu  chosen  the  first 


WOBLDTAB 

Baeratarf -QeneisI  of  tbe  Learns  and  the  dtr  of 
GenoTA  its  offioial  geat  It  wa«  provided  that 
the  first  meetiTis  of  the  League's  Assemblir  and 
of  its  Council  shonld  be  smnmonsd  bj  the 
Prssidsnt  of  the  U.  8. 

In  the  roTised  draft  the  Preamble  is  followed 
bjr  twent7-dx  aiticlea,  each  specif  jring  a  dlatinst 
purpose  and  the  meUioda  of  oporatioii  thereon 
bf  the  League  members.  The  Covenant  of  the 
League,  stated  in  simple  tenni,  proposea  to 
prevent  war  or  overoome  it;  to  superintend  the 
development  of  civilisation  in  the  Inckvrard  re- 
gions of  the  earth;  to  advance  and  equalize  the 
sodal  welfare  of  the  people;  and  to  put  the 
nations  of  the  world  on  a  just  parity  of  oppor- 
toni^  for  commerce  and  material  development. 
These  purposes  are  to  be  accomplished  thiough 
three  branehea,  via:  (1)  The  body  of  delegates 
representing  the  nations  composing  the  League, 
who  are  to  meet  from  time  to  time  as  occasion 
requires.  (2)  An  Ezecntive  Cooneil,  eompoMd 
of  representatives  from  the  IT.  B.,  Qreat  Britain, 
France,  Italy  and  Japan,  and  four  represe&ta- 
tivea  of  the  other  states  in  the  League,  which 
is  to  meet  aa  often  as  may  be  necessary,  but 
at  least  once  a  year.  (3)  A  permanent  interna- 
tional secretariat,  to  be  established  at  the  seat 
of  the  League  ( Geneva }  oomposed  of  such 
secretaries  and  staft  as  shall  be  reqoired,  and 
to  be  under  the  direction  of  the  Secretory- 
GeneraL 

The  League  requires  that  aH  disputes  between 
its  members  shaU  bs  submitted  either  to  ar- 
bitration or  to  on  inquiry  by  the  Execnlive 
Council,  the  members  engaging  not  to  resort  to 
war  until  three  months  aft«r  the  arbitrators  or 
inquirers  have  taken  action.  It  also  provides 
for  the  reduction  of  armaments  "to  the  loweot 
point  consistent  with  national  safety  ^d  the 
enforcement  of  international  obligations." 
Should  any  member  of  the  League  break  or 
disregard  its  covenants,  it  shall  be  deemed  to 
have  committed  an  act  of  war  against  all  the 
other  mmnbers,  "which  hereby  undertake"  to 
flght  It  with  all  moral  and  economic  weapons.  It 
shaQ  then  be  the  du^  of  tlie  Eiecntive  Council 
to  "recommend"  what  effective  military  or 
naval  forces  the  members  of  the  League  shall 
eontributo  severally  to  the  joint  anned  forces. 
And  further,  the  signataries  of  the  Covenant 
or  Constitution  guarantee  the  territorial  in- 
tegrity and  political  Independence  of  one  an- 

Tfts  Nob  Bwope. — The  disintegration  of  the 
former  empires  of  Germany,  Austria-Hungary 
and  Bussia,  began  before  tiia  lagning  of  the 
armistice.  In  what  was  Qennany,  the  constitn' 
ent  states  of  Bavaria,  Wurttemburg,  Schleswig- 
Holstein  and  Hesse-Darmstadt  had  been  de- 
clared independent  republics  at  the  time  of  the 
signing.  Saxony  hod  deposed  her  king  and 
with  Berlin,  Leipric,  Stuttgart,  Cologne,  Ham- 
burg and  Frankfort,  was  in  the  hands  of  revolu- 
tionists of  the  Bed  Sag  order.  Another  part  of 
the  former  Germany  also  became  a  republic, 
Nov.  18,  taking  the  name  of  the  Bepnblic  of 
Germany,  with  Its  capital  at  Weimar. 

Servia,  the  first  nation  crushed  by  the  Oer- 
mana,  rose  higher  than  before,  as  instead  of  be- 


WORMS 

ing  a  small  Balkan  kingdom  she  became  in- 
oorporated  with  the  Croats  and  Slovenes  in  what 
is  officially  knovm  as  the  Kingdom  of  Jugo- 
slavia (q.  v.)>  Bnngaiy  beciune  a  republic 
independent  of  Austria;  Austria  was  shorn  of 
much  of  her  territory  when  the  republic  of 
Gsecho- Slovakia  (q.  v.)  and  the  kingdom  of 
Jugo-Slavia  were  organised;  Montenegro  was 
erased  from  the  map  entirely;  the  former  Bussia 
gave  birth  to  the  new  Finish  Bepublie,  the  new 
and  enlarged  Polish  Bepublie,  and  to  Uie  repub- 
lics of  Esthonia  (q.  v.),  Lithosnia  and  Lettonia; 
the  Grand  Dnd^  of  Luxemburg  became  a  re- 
public, Jan.  a,  1919,  and  a  few  days  later  re- 
sumed its  former  plan  of  government;  and 
France  regained  Alsace-Lorraine.  An  interest- 
ing addition  to  the  family  of  nations  was  that 
of  the  kingdom  of  Hadjas,  created  from  the 
former  empire  of  Turkey  with  a  portion  of 
Arabia,  and  governed  by  Hsaoein  1,  the  Grand 
Shereef  of  Mecca,  who  conducted  a  successful 
revolt  against  the  Turkish  government.  And, 
far  from  the  main  scene  of  strife,  the  extensive 
German  colonies  in  all  parte  of  the  world  came 
under  Allied  mandatory  eontrol,  chiefly  repre- 
sented by  Australia,  New  Zealand,  tbe  Union  of 
South  Africa  and  Japan. 

By  mid-summer  of  1019,  the  Peace  Congress 
was  still  engaged  in  an  endeavor  to  establish 
boondaries  of  various  old  and  new  countries  that 
would  settle  many  iat«niational  disputes  and 
conserve  the  peace  of  Surope.  Especially  was 
it  concerned  with  tbe  creation  of  the  State  of 
Constantinople  under  tbe  protection  of  tiie  Allied 
powers;  with  the  settlement  of  new  boundaries 
between  Poland  and  Litbnania  and  between  Aus- 
tria and  Hungary;  and  with  the  question  of 
giving  to  Bulgaria  a  part  of  Bonmania,  to 
Greece,  parte  of  European  Turkey,  Bulgaria, 
and  Albania,  and  of  the  coast  of  Anatolia, 
and  of  extending  the  Albanian  frontier  some- 
what to  the  N.  and  E. 

Worms  (vCrms),  town  of  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
on  the  Bhine;  20  m.  NW.  of  Heidelberg.  It 
is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Germany.  It  ex- 
isted before  the  time  of  the  Bomans,  was  the 
residence  of  Charlemagne,  and  the  seat  of  the 
diet  before  which  Luther  was  summoned,  1G2I. 
In  1089  it  was  teken  and  sacked  by  the 
French,  and  only  the  cathedral,  a  flue  struc- 
ture, built  B9S-1016,  of  red  sandstone  in  By- 
Eantine  style,  and  a  few  houses  escaped  de- 
slruetion.  It  was  soon  rebuilt,  but  it  never 
recovered  ite  former  prosperity.  It  manufac- 
tures leather,  tobacco,  and  soap,  and  in  ite 
vicinity  is  produced  the  celebrated  Rhenish 
wins  called  Liebfrauenmilch.  Pop.  (1006) 
43,ML 

Worms,  or  Vei'mes,  a  aiviaton  of  the  animal 
kingdom  which,  ti^ther  with  Abthbopom, 
forms  the  branch  called  by  the  old  zoUlogiste 
ABTiCtFLATA.  It  iuctudes  a  varied  assortment 
of  forms  without  many  features  in  common. 
As  a  rule,  they  have  long,  cylindrical,  or  flat- 
tened bodies,  and  are  without  limbs  or  fins. 
A  body  cavity  is  usually  present,  and  the 
nerroua  systion,  variously  developed,  always 
has  a  principal  center  (brain)  above  Uia 
throiU.      Excretory    organs    (nephridia)    an 


pleasant  taate,  which  are  imparted  to  its  infu-     ug^d  under  the   promptingB  of  the   g'pirit, 

"        "     Pjf"  ™'™J?«'»y«'f™*°™T  corfing  to  mutual  re^^  Singinj 


)uuall}r  pr«Mat,  and  aem  to  eany  wuta 
products  from  the  MBlam  or  from  the  tiMiua 
generallf  to  tha  exterior. 

Woms,  CoBCor'dat  of,  in  11S2,  an  Bgre«- 
metit  between  the  emperor  and  the  pope,  clov- 
ing the  long  strile  known  as  the  War  of  In- 
VMtituTes.  Neither  obtained  by  it  all  that  he 
had  been  etriTing  for.  The  emperor  renouuoed 
hla  jight  to  confer  the  ring  and  crozier  as  sym- 
bole  of  ecclesiastical  office,  but  retained  the 
right  of  granting  church  and  other  property  by 
the  lym^l  of  temporal  authority.  He  also  re- 
tained the  right  to  be  present  in  person  or  by 
troxy  at  ecclewastical  electione,  provided  that 
e  abstained  from  bribery  or  compulsion. 
Though  a  compromise,  it  vas  in  effect  a  victory 
for  the  Church. 

Wono'irood,  the  leaves  and  flower  tops  of 
the  Artemisia  absintAium,  a  perennial  plant 
of  Europe,  naturalised  in  the  U.  S.  It  pos- 
ts a  strong,  peculiar  odor  and  a  bitter,  un- 


The  dried  . 

a  dark-greenlBh  oil.  The  bitter  principli 
wormwood  {aMnthin)  forms  a  yellow,  pow- 
derv  masa.  It  in  occaaionaliy  employed  exter- 
nally in  medicine  as  an  antiseptic,  and  formerly 
also  as  a  tonic.  The  volatile  oil  of  wormwood, 
upon  which  its  active  qualities  depend,  po» 
sesses  narcotic  properties,  and  if  given  in  large 
dooea  produoes  convulsions,  and  even  death; 
when  mixed  with  oil  of  anise,  fennel,  etc.,  and 
dissolved  In  akohol,  it  forms  the  liqueur  ab- 
sintlie   iq.v.). 

Wor'ahip^  the  ohief  act  of  religion,  and  ita 
natural  expreaeion.  It  is  performed  in  various 
ways,  from  fetishism,  the  lowest  form  of  hu- 
man worship,  to  t^e  highest  adoration  of  Him 
who  is  the  Supreme  ^irit.  The  objects  of 
wonhip  are  God,  angels,  spirits  of  ancestors, 
saints,  powers  and  objects  of  nature,  such  as 
the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  relics,  pictures,  idols, 
etc  Of  the  natural  objects,  the  sun  enjoyed  the 
greatest  favor.  The  worship  of  Apollo,  so  pop- 
ular among  the  Greeks,  was  really  sun  wor- 
ship. Among  the  Phcenicians  the  sun  was  wor- 
shiped; ao  with  the  Babeans,  and  the  Incaa  in 
Peru,  and  with  many  other  tribes  more  or  less 
advanced  in  civiliiiation.  The  Schoolmen  em- 
phasized the  distinction  between  latria  (serv- 
loe),  rendered  only  to  God,  and  idolatria,  ren- 
dered to  images. 

Every  pagan  worship  centers  in  sacrifices. 
They  are  oSertd  to  propitiate  the  divine  favor 
and  under  a  sense  of  guilt,  or  in  thanksgiving, 
or  to  secure  mercy  and  favor,  or  sometimes  to 
serve  as  food  or  drink  for  the  gods.  Human 
sacrifices  are  offered  under  the  notion  that  the 
most  precious  gift  will  buy  the  largest  favor. 
As  Ore  is  deemed  purifying,  mysterious,  and 
aacred,  the  highest  sacrifice  is  by  burning.  Simi- 
lariy,  in  the  Old  Testament,  sacriflee  appears 
at  first  as  an  expression  of  faith  in  a  present 
God,  as  an  act  of  propitiation  and  thank^v- 
ing,  and  a  pledge  of  a  covenant.  Sacred  times 
were  Sabbaths,  new  moons,  ths  feasts  of  the 
Passover,  Pentecost,  Atonement,  Tabtma«les, 
Trumpets,  Jubilee,  Dedication,  and  Purinu  In 
'  the  eompleted  temple  serrice,  to  sacrifice  were 


WORSTED 

added  prayer,  praiaa,  inatniniental  and  vocal 
mosio,  instruction,  purification;  also  circum* 
ddon,  vows,  tithca,  etc.  The  synagogue  serv- 
ice, in  which  prayn  took  the  place  of  the  sacri- 
fices of  the  temple,  consisted  of.  (1)  prayers  with 
written  forms;  (2)  reading  of  Scripture  in 
three  parts — (a)  Sbema  (three  extracts  from 
Numbers  and  Deuteronomy]  ;  (b)  the  Law; 
(c)  Prophets;  (3)  expounding  the  Scriptures.. 
Services  were  held  Saturday,  Monday,  and 
Thursday,  morning,  noon,  and  evening,  and 
were  conducted  by  the  "  elders,"  miniaten  or 
"  angels,"  and  deacons. 

The  early  Christiaiui  organized  t^ir  servicea 
on  the  synagogue  model.  They  met  in  privat« 
bouses,  or  solitary  places,  or  Jiii^  halls  at  any 
convenient  and  safe  time.  No  stress  was  laid 
at  first  on  a  particular  order.  The;  read  from 
the  Old  Testament,  explaining  the  passage  in 
free  discoui;Be,  in  which  at  first  all  could  join. 
They  listened  to  the  exhortation  of  some  eye 
witness  of  the  Gospel  history  or  to  some  letter 
written  by  an  apostle.     Individual   f 


and  prayer  followed.  Then  the  love  feast  a 
the  covenant  sapper  were  solemnized,  the  kiaa 
of  fraternal  love  was  given,  and  the  voluntary 
offerings  were  made.  By  the  end  of  the  second  - 
century  the  service  was  divided  into  the  mi«sa 
oatechnmenorum,  called  "  Scripture  reading," 
in  which  were  psalmody.  Scripture  lessons,  the 
sermon,  and  some  of  the  prayers,  and  the 
missa  fidelium,  called  "  prayers.  In  the  lat- 
ter the  prayers  which  were  all  offered  at  the 
altar,  were  for  consecration,  for  the  whole 
Church,  for  the  peace  of  the  world,  and  all  oi^ 
ders  of  men.  There  were  also  the  enohanat, 
hymns,  thanksgivings,  and  doxologiea.  By  the 
third  c^tury  Christian  teinples  were  frequent, 
and  sometimes  splendid.  They  were  divided 
into  the  porch,  nave — where  the  pulpit  stood — 
and  the  sacris^.  In  the  fonrth  centniry  trium- 
phant Christianity  built  magnificent  churches 
or  appropriated  public  buildings,  and  adorned 
its  clergy  with  peculiar  costuma,  kindled 
lights  on  the  altars,  used  incense,  and  gave 
more  attention  to  artistic  music  and  responses. 
The  agape  was  separated  from  the  Lord  s  Sup- 
per  and  became  a  feast.  With  the  union  of 
Chorch  and  State  the  liturgical  tendencies  were 
rapidly  developed,  forms  were  multiplied,  and 
the  ministers  came  to  be  held  as  a  peculiar 
clasa.    See  Cl^wt. 

The  public  worship  of  tbe  Church  inijndes: 
(1)  Prayer  written  and  formal  or  unstudied, 
standing  or  kneeling,  rarely  prostrate,  with  Un- 
covered heads,  with  or  without  ree^naea  (2) 
Reading  of  Scripture.  (3)  Preaching,  exposi- 
tion, exhortation,  etc,  (4)  Singing  by  the  con- 
gregation or,  later,  by  choirs.  (6)  Confessivn 
of  faith.  |Q)  Voluntary  offerings;  and  (T)  sac- 
raments, which  uniTersally  are  two  In  number 
—baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  latta- 
was  celebrated  every  day,  or  every  Lord's  Day, 
or  at  longer  intervals.  Christian  worship  is 
held  on  uie  Lord's  Day,  or  on  daily  or  on 
yearly  festivals  or  fasts  which  commemorate 
special  evHots. 

Wonted  (wost'ed).    See  Wool  akd  Wooleit 

D  D,:,z„db,CiOOgle 


WORTH 

Wo^U^  WilUun  Jenktoi,  1T94-1S49;  Anier- 
tean  nildier;  h,  at  Hudson,  N.  Y.;  (ought  in 
the  War  of  1812;  beome  captain  in  181S.  Ap- 
pointed colonel  of  the  Eighth  Intantry,  1838,  he 
comniaDded  the  N.  department  during  the  in- 
■uirectionarj  movement  on  the  Canada  border, 
1836-39;  ordered  to  Florida,  1840,  and  placed 
in  command  of  th«  army  there.  In  Florida 
hreveted  brigadier  general  for  gallantry  and 
highly  diatinguiahed  ierTioeB,  1842,  and  re- 
tained in  Flonds  until  the  outbreak  of  the  war 
with  Mexico,  184S.  For  his  services  at  Monte- 
rey, Conereas  presented  him  with  a  sword  of 
honor.  A  handsome  memorial  monument  was 
erected  iy  the  city  of  New  York  at  the  junc- 
tion of  Broadway  and  Fifth  Avenue,  beneath 
which  rest '  ' 


Wfiith  (vSrt),  village  of  Alsace,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  the  Bulzbach  and  the  Sauerbacfa.  It  ii 
noted  as  the  point  where  the  first  decisive  en- 
counter took  place  between  the  French  and 
German  ormiee,  August  0,  1870.     The  principal 


Wotmdl,  injuries  classifled  according  to  their 
nature  as  (I)  punctured  wounds,  made  with 
pointed  instruments;  (2)  incised  wounds,  pro- 
duced by  cutting  instruments  or  sharp  edges; 
(3)  lacerated  wounds,  in  which  the  borders  of 
the  wound  are  irrwilar,  rag^,  and  torn,  and 
the  result  of  great  force,  injunea  by  dull  instru- 
ments, or  tearing;  (4)  contused  wounds,  which 
are  accompanied  bv  much  bruiaing>  (6)  poi- 
soned wounds,  in  which  either  an  anima!  venom 
or  virus,  or  some  impure,  poisonous,  or  irri- 
tating matter  has  gained  entrance  to  the  in- 
jured tissues  and  contaminated  the  blood;  and 
{6)  gunshot  wounds,  which  as  a  rule  are  pene- 
trating, and  may  1>e  lacerated,  but  differ  from 
other  wounds,  owing  to  the  character  of  the 
missile,  the  shock  they  give  to  the  part  and 
to  the  nervous  system,  and  the  grave  complica- 
tions to  which  they  are  liable. 

Pancturtd  wounds  are  relatively  the  most 
serious  class,  for  they  are  often  poisoned  by  the 
entrance,  if  not  of  venom  or  bacteria,  of  foreign 
matter,  as  rust,  dust,  splinters,  clothing,  etc., 
which  cause  suppuration  at  the  bottom  of  the 
deep  puncture,  and  lead  to  grare  inflammation, 
erysipelas,  and  blood  poisoning.  The  punctured 
wound  is  to  be  well  washed  with  a  solution  of 
bichloHde  of  mercury,  or  of  boric  acid  or  other 
antiseptic,  cleansed  of  all  blood  clots  and  dirt, 
and  if  deep,  or  In  the  vicinity  of  dense  fibrous 
tissue,  as  in  the  hand  or  foot,  or  near  joints, 
must  sometimes  be  freely  cut  and  converted  into 
an  incised  wound.  The  wound  should  be  cov- 
ered with  di^  gatUM  and  bandaged.  Incised 
wounds  heal  in  several  ways.  They  h«al  most 
■  promptly  and  simply  when  perfectly  smooth, 
clean  cut,  free  from  clotted  blood,  and  in  the 
flesh  of  persons  in  perfect  health.  Thus  a  clean 
cut  whose  borders  ao  Bot  gape  or  separate  may, 
if  instantly  closed  and  sealed  from  the  air  by 
plaster  or  collodion,  heal  in  a  few  hours,  and 
approximately  warrant  ths  designation  imme- 
diate union,  or  union  by  first  intention.  Mors 
often  a  day  or  two  Is  required;  tiie  wound, 
bdng    deansed    of    data    or   fbnign    matter. 


WRECK 

is  exposed  for  a  moment  to  the  ^r,  and 
closed  either  by  adhesive  plaster  or  stitches  of 
silk,  catgut,  silkworm  gut,  or  silver  wire.  The 
opposed  surfaces  are  glazed  over  by  a  film  of 
lymph,  containing  whit«  blood  corpuscles,  and 
this,  filling  the  interspace,  agglutinates  the 
walls  of  the  wound  and  organizes  a  Sim  scar 
of  fibrous  tissue.  Such  speedy  healing  is 
termed  union  by  adhesion,  or  primary  unkm. 
When  a  wound  has  been  lacerated,  or  a  con- 
siderable area  of  tissue  has  been  removed,  tha 
deficit  has  to  be  made  up  by  a  slower  process 
of  new  tissue  growth;  new  cells  develop  one  by 
one,  in  layers,  until  the  level  of  the  surface  Is 
reached,  when  the  skin  begins  to  heal  and  shoot 
over  the  ray  area.  This  is  healing  by  ffranul»- 
tion,  or  by  second  intention,  slower  than  this 
others,  and,  if  the  wound  be  large,  a  severe  tax 
upon  the  strength  of  the  patient  In  lacerated 
wounds  the  more  ragged  points,  if  left,  will  ba 
destroyed  by  sloughing  before  the  wound  can 


better  to  remove  the  irregularities  and  convert 
tha  injuries  into  incised  wounds,  either  straight 
or  irrerular,  which  can  be  brought  together  and 
heal.  When  an  incised  wound  has  failed. of 
union  by  adhesion,  its  walls  become  covered 
with  granulations,  when  they  may  sometimes 
become  approxiouited  and  soon  unite,  consti- 
tuting the  process  of  union  by  secondary  adhe- 
sion or  by  third  intention. 

In  granulation  the  growth  of  tissue  may  Ija- 
come  exuberant  and  rise  above  ths  surrounding 
healing  parts,  or  even  the  healthy  intact  sur- 
face. Such  excess  of  granulation  is  termed 
proud  fiesh.  It  must  be  reduced  by  astringents 
or  compression,  or  destroyed  by  caustics,  and 
the  site  stimulated  io  healthier  action.  Poi- 
soned wounds  should  be  laid  freely  open  by  in- 
cision, treated  by  disinfectant  lotions,  and  the 
general  strength  of  the  patient  sustained  by 
diet,  tonics,  and  stimolants.  Contusions  are 
nsually  beet  treated  by  soothing  lotions,  as 
lead  water  and  laudanum,  which  may  be  u>- 
plied  cold  or  warm,  as  most  agreeable  to  the 
patient  The  healing  of  a  wound  is  facilitated 
by  pure  air,  regular  hours  for  sleep,  plain  but 
nutritious  diet,  and  abstinence  from  alcohol. 
For  the  treatment  of  bleeding,  see  Bumuira 
or  Hkuokkhaqb. 

WionsleT,  so  called  from  the  public  dispu- 
tations in  which  candidates  for  degrees  were 
formerlv  required  to  take  part,  one  of  the  first 
class  of  honor  men  of  the  mathematical  tripos 
in  the  Univ.  of  Cambridge,  England.  The  num- 
ber of  these  is  not  limit^  The  first  of  Uiem  la 
called  the  senior  wrangler.    See  TxiPOe. 

Wreck,  at  common  law,  vessels  or  parta  of 
vessels  or  goods  cast  by  tha  sea  upon  tbe  land, 
within  the  limits  of  a  county  and  there  left. 
At  earl;^  common  law  wreck  belonged  to  the 
king,  without  r^ard  to  the  claims  of  the  own- 
er; and  the  statute  of  Henry  I,  of  Henry  It, 
and  Edward  I  modified  this  rule  by  permitting 
the  owner  to  recover  his  property,  provided  k 
person  or  animal  escaped  from  the  wreck  alive. 
Such  was  not  the  new  of  Lord  Coke,  who 
agrees  with  Bracton  that  the  king  shall  have 
wreck   OB  bs  shall   hava  great  ibh,    bec»uaa 


nous  eUimi  the  property;  that  wreck  is  ertray 
on  the  sea  coming  to  landg  as  eatraj  of  bessta 
ia  on  the  land  coining  within  any  privileged 
place;  and  the  law  eivea  in  both  cases  a  ;c*r 
uid  a  da;  to  claim  tnem.  In  Great  Britain  the 
genenl  Bupcrintendence  of  all  oiatteri  relating 
to  wreck  ia  now  confided  to  the  Board  of  Trade. 
In  the  U.  8.  common-law  wrecks  are  matter* 
of  state  jurisdiction  generally,  although  the 
Lcensinf;  of  veuels  to  engage  la  wrecking,  the 
disposition  of  property  wrecked  on  certain 
coasts,  and  the  control  of  the  life-eaTing  serv- 
ice are  subjects  for  Federal  legiBlation. 

The  term  is  also  applied,  in  the  law  of  ma- 
rine insurance,  to  a  ship  so  injured  at  sea  as  to 
become  unnavigabte,  or  unable  to  pursue  her 
voyage  without  repairs  exceeding  the  half  of 
her  value.    Bee  Flotsam;  Jetsau. 

Wren,  Sir  Chriatopher,  163S-1723;  English 
architect;  b.  East  Knoyle,  England.  Be  made 
many  inventions,  including  the  wheel  barome- 
ter and  mezzotint  engraving,  wrote  much  on 
scientific  and  other  subjects,  and  was  a  founder 
of  the  Royal  Society.  In  1857  he  was  Prof,  of 
AstronomT  in  Gresham  Coll^,  London,  and  in 
1660  at  Oiiord;  Surveyor  General,  1067-1717. 
In  1663  he  designed  the  chapel  of  Pemhroke 
College,  Cambridge,  and  prepared  his  plans  for 
the  restoration  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  which 
gave  rise  to  protracted  discussions.  In  the 
midst  of  which  occurred  the  great  fire  of  Lon- 
don, 1666.  Later  he  erected  many  public  build- 
ings and  churches,  including  the  new  St.  Paul's. 
The  first  stone  was  laid  IQ76  and  the  last 
thirty-five  years  later.  His  other  works  in- 
clude the  hospitals  at  Greenwich  and  Chelsea 
and  the  W.  front  and  towers  of  Westminster 
Abbey.  Between  16SS  and  1713  aat  in  Par- 
liament He  was  buried  in  the  crypt  of  St. 
Paul's. 

Wien,  any  member  of  a  group  of  song  birds 
which  vary  in  appearance  and  habits,  but  the 

K~  image  is  generally  more  or  less  brown  with 
e  dark  bars,  and  the  birds  pass  much  of  their 
time  on  or  near  the  ground,  some  being  par- 
tial to  marshes,  where  they  build  large  round 
nests  among  the  rushes.  Others  nest  in  bushes, 
hollow  stumps,  or  holes  in  branches.  The  eggs 
are  mx  or  eight  in  number,  usually  white  with 
fine  reddish  spots,  and  two  or  three  broods  are 
raised  in  a  season.  None  is  found  in  Africa,  and 
only  f^een  species  in  Europe  and  Asia,  while 
nearly  150  species  occur  in  America,  their  head- 

Suarters  being  in  the  tropics.  Fourteen  species 
well  in  the  Emits  of  the  U.  8.  The  common 
European  species  is,  next  to  the  kinglet,  the 
smallest  bird  in  Europe;  its  nearest  relative  in 
the  U.  S.  is  the  winter  wren,  a  little  bird  found 
over  the  greater  portion  of  N.  America.  It  is 
shy,  with  short  wings  and  a  shorter  tail ;  dark 
brown  above,  whitish  below,  barred  with  black- 
ish. The  house  wren  is  another  common  spe- 
cies, often  nesting  in  boxes.  The  cactus  wren 
of  the  SW,  is  a  large  species,  B  in.  long,  and 
a  repreaentative  of  numerous  Central  and  S. 
American  forms.  The  wren  is  beneficial  about 
gardens,  as  it  is  a  foe  to  insects.  See  Bisca' 
Nestb. 


WRESTLING 

opponent  to  the  ground.  It  is  one  of  the  old- 
est as  well  as  the  most  universal  <rf  exerdjea. 
It  flourished  most  amoiu  the  ancienls,  and  was 
a  prominent  feature  of  the  Olympian  games. 
Among  the  Greeks,  the  competitors  trained  for 
months  prior  to  the  competition,  and  the  vic- 
tOT  was  Kted,  processions  formed  in  his  honor, 
special  privileges  were  conferred  upon  him,  and 
in  some  of  the  cities  his  statue  was  placed  in 
one  of  the  temples.  Moat  famous  among  the 
ancient  wrestlers  was  Uilo  of  Croton,  six  times 
the  winner  at  the  Olympian  and  Isthmian 
games.  Homer's  account  of  the  match  between. 
Ajax  and  Ulysses  is  probably  the  most  perfect 
account  that  remains  to  us  of  these  ancient 
competitions.  Pausanias  states  that  Theseus 
made  the  first  wrestling  rules.  During  the  Ho- 
meric age  the  wrestlers  were  naked,  with  the 
exception  of  the  loin  cloth.  This  custom  con- 
tinued until  the  fifteenth  Olympiad.  In  the 
time  of  Solon  oiling  and  dusting  were  practiced, 
and  there  seems  to  have  been  some  special  sig- 
nificance attached  to  the  dusting  process,  since 
we  read  that  dust  brought  from  certain  locali- 
ties was  much  more  highly  prised  by  the  nres- 
tlera  than  that  from  others.  In  Argoa  flute 
music  for  a  time  acctimpanied  the  wrestling. 
There  were  two  distinct  types  of  wrestling 
among  the  ancients:  one  where  the  competitors 
stood  and  struggled  for  a  fall,  and  the  other, 
in  which  the  competition  might  still  go  on' 
after  the  competitor  was  upon  the  groiina,  un- 
til a  spedfled  part  of  the  body  was  on  the 
ground.  Falling  on  the  face  di^  not  constitute 
a  fall.  If  a  man  was  thrown  three  times  from 
the  standing  position,  he  was  beaten.  The  old 
Greek  rules  forbade  striking  and  kicking,  but 
allowed  breaking  of  fingers,  throttling,  etc. 
Wrestling  competitions  were  popular  m  the 
dden  times  in  the  British  Isles,  and  contests 
were  held  annually  in  London  on  St.  James's 
Day,  at  which  time  we  find  a  ram  or  a  cock 
was  offered  for  the  priee. 

In  lata:  times  some  distinct  kinds  of  wres- 
tling have  been  developed,  in  both  Great  Brit- 
ain and  the  U.  S.  One  of  the  best  known  of 
the  English  styles  u  that  practiced  in  Cumber- 
land and  Westmoreland.  Here  the  competitors 
usually  dressed  in  close-fitting  costumes.  The 
rules  compelled  tbem  to  stand  chest  to  chest, 
each  placing  his  chin  on  his  opponent's  right 
shoulder  and  grasping  him  around  the  bMy, 
each  placing  his  left  hand  above  the  right  of 
his  antagonist  If  either  partv  breaks  hie  hold, 
though  not  on  the  ground,  tne  one  so  letting 
go  is  the  loser.  If  either  touch  the  ground 
with  any  part  of  the  body  except  the  feet,  he 
shall  be  deemed  the  loser. 

Another  famous  style  is  that  of  the  Cornish 
and  Devonshire  men.  The  greatest  rivalry  ex- 
ists between  Cornwall  and  Devon.  Here  kick-' 
ing  was  formerly  allowed,  and  heavy-soled 
shoes,  sometimes  with  thin  steel  plating  insert- 
ed within  the  leather,  were  worn,  so  that  in- 
i'nries  resulting  from  the  game  were  serioua. 
'he  judging  is  difficult,  and  the  quarreling  re- 
sulting therefrom  has  brought  the  style  into 
disfavor.  It  is  required  that  both  hips  and  one 
shoulder,  or  both  shoulders  and  one  hip  (or 
sometimes  both  shoulders  and  both  hips)  reach 
the  ground  simultaneously,  and  thia-befon 


.>,e,oog 


'"^e 


WRIGHT 

other  portion  {M  the  btid  or  knee)  of  either 
thrower  or  thrown  reaches  it. 

The  LADcaahire  style  is  the  roughest  of  all 
the  English  wrestling.  It  allowB  catching  by 
the  lege,  wrestling  on  the  ground,  and  other  ob- 
jectionable features.  The  wrestlers  combat  in 
stockinged  feet,  and  are  not  allowed  to  scratch, 
itrike,  or  maim.  A  fall  is  constituted  by  both 
shoulders  touching  the  ground.  The  Scotch 
style  is  largely  modeled  after  that  of  the 
Lancashire. 

In  the  French  style  the  wrestlen  are  allowed 
to  take  hold  from  the  head  to  the  waist.    Trip- 

f>ing  is  prohibited.  Competitor*  are  not  al- 
owed  to  strike,  aeratch,  or  to  clasp  hands, 
although  they  may  grasp  their  own  wiiets 
or  other  portions  of  their  own  bodies.  The; 
may  not  wrestle  barefooted,  but  in  the  stock- 
ing. If  one  of  the  wrestlers  falls  on  his  knee, 
shoulder,  or  side,  he  must  b(^n  again.  The 
one  whose  shoulders  first  touch  the  ground  is 
the  loser,  providing  both  shoulders  are  on  the 
ground  at  the  same  time. 

The  German  style  is  a  struggle  on  the  ground. 
The  wrestlers  can  catch  hold  of  the  \egi,  or  in- 
deed anjwhere  below  the  waist.  This  wrestling 
starts  with  the  men  standing  erect,  but  is  usu- 
ally finished  by  a  competition  on  the  ground, 
an  effort  being  made  to  turn  the  fallen  man  so 
that  his  shouldere  may  rest  upon  the  ground. 

The  Greco-Roman  is  not  much  favored.  Like 
some  of  the  previous  styles,  it  allows  only  of 
the  clasping  of  the  body  above  the  waist,  and 
does  not  permit  of  wrestling  upon  the  ground. 
The  much  more  popular  style  is  the  catch-as- 
catch-can.  Here  all  brutal  playing  is  barred  by 
the  rules,  and  yet  there  is  always  more  or  less 
savage  work.  The  competitor  may  twist  a 
head  or  a  foot  to  the  extremes  of  safety,  but 
it  is  always  within  the  power  of  the  suSerer  to 
relieve  himself  from  the  punishment  by  admit- 
ting a  fall.  In  this,  as  in  tha  Greeo-Boman 
style,  a  fall  is  lost  when  both  shoulders  touch 
the  ground. 

Wriglit,  SiU%  1795-18471  American  lawyer; 
b.  at  Amheret,  Mass.;  graduated  at  Middle- 
bury  College,  Vermont,  iSlS;  studied  law;  ad- 
mitted to  the  bar,  1819;  elected  to  the  sUte 
senate  as  a  Democrat,  1S23;  was  a  member  of 
Congress,  1627-20;  Comptroller  erf  New  York, 
1820-33;  U.  S.  Senator,  1833-44;  supported 
Clay's  Compromise  Bill  and  defended  the  re- 
moval of  the  deposits  from  the  U.  S.  Bank  by 
Prel.  Jackson,  1833;  opposed  the  recbarter 
of  the  U.  S.  Bank  and  the  distribution  of 
the  surplus  Federal  revenues  among  the  states; 
chosen  Governor  of  New  York  ui  1844;  re- 
peatedly declined  appointments  to  forei^  mis- 
Mons,  and  an  offer  of  a  seat  in  the  Cabinet  or 
on  the  Supreme  Bench  hy  Pres.  Tyler,  and 
of  the  Secretaryship  of  the  Treasury  by  Pres. 
Polk,  1845 ;  was  defeated  as  a  candidate  for 
reelection,  1S46,  and  retired  to  hia  farm  at 
Canton. 

Writ,  in   law,   a   formal   instrument,   issued 
ii  under  authority  of  a  court,  commanding 

person  to  whom  it  is  addressed  to  do  a  eer- 

taia  act  therein  specified.  It  is  written  in  the 
form  of  a  mandate  from  the  highest  authority 
in  the  state— the  king  in  Great  Britain,  the 


Z 


WRITING 


President,  people,  or  commonwealth  in  the  U.  S, 
— attested  by  the  chief  judge  of  the  court, 
sealed  and  signed  by  the  clerk,  and  may  be  is- 
sued either  at  the  commencement  of  an  action 
or  proceeding,  or  during  its  progress,  to  the 
sheriff  or  to  some  other  person,  for  the  purpose 
of  procuring  various  acts  to  be  done  in  connec- 
tion with  such  action  or  proceeding.-  Among 
the  moat  familiar  were  the  writs  of  "error 
and  of  "  certiorari "  for  the  review  of  judg- 
ments and  other  judicial  decisions. 

Writ'ing,  the  art  of  expressing  ideas  by  visi- 
ble signs  or  characters  inscribed  on  some  ma- 
terial. It  is  either  ideographic  or  phonetic. 
Ideographic  writing  may  be  either  pictorial, 
representing  objects  by  imitating  their  forms, 
or  symtiolic,  hy  indicating  their  nature  or  pro- 
portions. Phonetic  writing  may  be  syllabic  or 
alphabetic;  in  the  former  each  character  rep- 
resents a  syllable,  in  the  latter  a  single  letter. 
The  various  ancient  systems  of  writing  had 
probably  at  least  three  different  sources,  the 
Egyptian,  the  Assyrian,  and  the  Chinese  sys- 
tems, all  of  which  were  originally  hieroglyphic 
The  Egyptians  practiced  four  distinct  styles 
of  writing,  the  hieroglyphic,  hieratic,  demotio 
or  enchorial,  and  Coptic.  There  are  three 
classes  of  cuneiform  characters,  the  Assyrian 
or  Babylonian,  the  Scythian  or  Median,  and 
the  Persian.  Of  these  three  original  systems, 
the  Egyptian  is  by  tar  the  most  important, 
for  from  its  hieratic  symbols  was  probably  de- 
rived the  Fh<enician  alphabet,  the  parent  of 
almost  all  the  principal  graphic  systems  of  the 
world.  The  Phcenicians  adopted  only  the 
phonetic  c^mbols.  and  thus  originated  the  first 
purely  alphabetic  system  of  writing,  There 
are  five  main  branches  of  the  Phienician  al- 
phabet: (1)  the  Semitic;  (2)  the  central,  or 
Greek;  (3)  the  Western,  comprising  the  sys- 
tems of  writing  which  grew  out  of  the  spread 
of  the  Phcenician  alphabet  in  Spain;  (4)  the 
Northern,  or  Runic;  (5)  the  Indo-Homerite 
(Himyarite).  Of  the  central  branch,  the 
Italian  subdivision  is  the  parent  of  the  Lom- 
,  bardic,  Tieigotbic,  Anglo-Saxon,  Gallic,  Mero-' 
vingian,  and  German  graphic  styles,  all  of 
which  were  In  use  before  Charlemagne,  and  of 
those  which  followed  him,  including  the  Caro- 
line, the  Capetian,  and  the  modem  Gothic,  of 
which  the  present  German  alphabet  is  a  modi- 
fication. 

The  Roman  letters  were  used  in  Italy  until 
the  latter  part  of  the  sixth  century,  when  the 
Lombardic  style  was  introduced.  There  are  no 
traces  of  writing  in  Britain  before  the  Roman 
conquest,  when  LAtin  letters  were  introduced. 
The  Roman-Saxon  prevailed  until  the  middle 
of  the  eighth  century;  the  set  Saxon  succeeded 
it.  lasting  until  the  middle  of  the  ninth;  this 
was  followed  by  the  running-band  Saxon  of 
the  time  of  Alfred;  the  mixed  Saxon,  combin- 
ing the  Roman,  Lombardic,  and  Saxon  letters ; 
and  the  elegant  Saxon,  which  was  introduced 
in  the  tenth  century,  and  did  not  become  ob- 
solete until  the  middle  of  the  twelfth,  ^le 
Norman  stvle  came  in  with  William  the  Con- 
queror. The  modem  Gothic  dates  in  England 
from  the  twelfth  century ;  the  oU  English  from 
the  middle  of  the  fourteentli;  the  set  chancery 


453 


WRITING  MACHINES 
and 


thB  I       _ 

ITU  contrived  bj  the  lawyer*  in  the  sixteenth 
centurv,  and  l««ted  till  tb«  reign  ol  Ocorga  II, 
when  it  waa  abolished  by  law.  The  Knuian 
alphabet  ia  a  modiflsd  form  of  the  Cyrillic. 
Peter  the  Qreat  r«dnced  it  to  thirty-iiz  char- 
acters. In  general  the  Semitic  racea  wrote 
from  right  to  left,  and  the  Aryan  from  left  to 
right.  The  cuneiform  inscriptioDe  are  always 
from  left  to  right.  The  Chinese  and  Japanese 
write  in  columne,  beginning  at  the  top  and 
passing  from  right  to  left.  The  Mexican  pic- 
ture writing  was  also  in  columns,  but  read 
from  the  btntom  upward. 

The  first  who  gave  especial  attention  to  the 
reduction  of  foreigD  graphic  systems  to  a  uni- 
form orthography  in  Roman  characters  was 
Sir  William  Jones;  but  no  generally  satis- 
factoiy  system  was  devised  till  1853,  when 
Plot.  LepsiuB,  of  the  Univ.  of  Berlin,  published 
hi*  "  Standard  Alphabet."  In  this  are  rec(^- 
nized  only  three  primary  vowels,  a,  i,  and  u, 
pronounced  a*  in  Gterman  and  Italian.  Be- 
tween these  are  ranged  the  various  other  vowel 
sounda  of  different  languages,  expanded  to 
thirty  in  all.  Of  the  consonants,  (orty-eight 
different  sound*  are  recoffnixed.  To  represent 
these  seventy-eight  vocalic  and  consonantal 
sounds,  Roman  letters  disttnguisbed  by  various 
diacritical  marks  are  used  in  all  but  nine  cases, 
in  two  of  which  the  Arabic  and  Qreek  rough 
breathings  are  represented  by  their  aigns,  and 
in  the  remaining  seven,  Oreek  chararters  are 
emnloyed.  With  respect  to  writing  materials 
— tne  at^lua  for  wax  tablets,  palm  leaves,  and 
lead,  the  reed  pen  for  papyrus,  parchment, 
leather,  and  cotlon  paper,  the  bruah  for  il- 
lumination and  for  writing  like  the  Chinese — 
such  particulars  belong  rather  to  the  making 
of  books.  But  it  i*  proved  that  the  Syrians 
sometimes,  if  not  often,  used  the  quill.     See 

AUFHABXT;    IlTBCBIPTlOne. 

Writing  HachinM*.    See  Ttfewbiteu;  Tel- 


Wilt  of  Aaalif  aace.    See  AsBiBTAnox,  Writ 

Wry'nM^  named  from  ita  habit  of  twisting 
the  neck  in  a  serpentine  manner,  a  genus  of 
birds  closely  related  to  the  woodpeckers,  from 
which  they  differ  prineipally  in  the  soft  tail 
feathers  and  mottled  bufT,  brown,  and  gray 
plumage.  "The  group  is  confined  to  Europe, 
Asia,  and  Africa,  the  best-known  species  being 
lyna  torquilla,  a  form  common  t^  all  three 
countries,  though  occurring  in  Europe  only  as 
a  migrant.  It  is  easily  tamed.  It  lives  mostly 
on  anta  and  caterpillar*. 

WUrtemberg;  or  Wflrttemberg  (vDrt'tSm- 
bSrkh),  repuMic  in  the  SW.  of  the  former 
German  Empire;  third  in  area  and  in  pop. 
area,  7,620  sq.  m.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
N.,  W.,  and  S.  by  Bavaria  and  Baden,  on 
the  £.  by  Bavaria,  and  is  aeparated  from 
Switzerland  by  Lake  Constance  on  it*  S. 
frontier.  The  larger  part  of  it  belongs  to 
the  we8t«m  S.  German  table-land,  traveraed 
by  the  Schwarswald  (Black  Forest)  and  the 
Suabian  Jura,  or  the  Rauhe  Alp;  the  rest 
i*  ratiier  hilly  ttuut  mountainoua.    The  aver- 


wfJRTEHBERO 

age  elevatioa  ia  1,M0  ft.t  the  lowest  point 
i*  4ST  ft.  above  aea  levaL  The  Danube  traveraea 
the  8.  part  of  the  country  for  65  m.,  and  re- 
ceive* the  Iller  above  Ulm.  The  Neckar,  which 
rises  in  the  8E.  of  tha  country,  where  the 
Sehwarzwald  and  the  Rauha  Alp  meet,  flows 
N.  to  the  Shine  for  ISO  m.  Tta  Tanber,  a 
tributary  of  the  Hain,  Sows  through  the  K. 

girt  of  the  country.  All  these  are  navigable. 
f  the  artificial  waterways,  the  Wilhelma 
Canal  is  the  most  important,  making  the 
Neckar  navigable  from  Cannotadt  to  Heil- 
bronn.  Lakes  are  numerous.  The  climate  in 
the  Black  Forest  ia  severe  bmt  healthful;  In 
the  other  parts  of  the  eountiy  moderate  and 
invigorating.  The  soil  is,  on  the  whole,  good 
and  well  cultivated ;  in  middle  and  lower 
Buabia  are  the  most  fertile  diatrieta. 

Agriculture  ia  floarishing.  Of  cereals,  spelt, 
o«ts,  ntaixe,  rape,  rye,  wheat,  hemp,  and  flax 
are  raised  in  abundance,  together  with  le- 
guminous plants  and  tj)bacao  <  13,360  ewt.  an- 
nually), hops,  chicory,  etc.  The  garden,  fruit, 
and  vine  cultivation  is  famous.  Cattle  breed- 
ing is  extensively  carried  on.  Several  govern- 
ment stud  farms  improve  the  race  of  hones. 
Mining,  which  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  tiM 
state,  is  almost  conflned  to  iron  and  salt,  iba 
latter  in  five  great  government  salt  works,  ^- 
dustry,  owing  to  the  copious  water  power,  ia 
important.  Noteworthy  are  the  flax-spinning 
and  weaving  works;  Uie  wool,  cotton,  linen, 
and  lace  manufactures ;  the  silk  industry, 
which  is  the  most  considerable  in  Germany; 
the  paper  mills,  th»  manufactures  of  iron  and 
other  metal  ware;  the  tileworks  and  mana- 
facturea  of  earthenware,  glasa,  and  chemieala; 
the  dyeworks,  the  tanneries,  the  sugar  reSn- 
eriea;  the  manufactures  of  tobacco,  wooden^ 
ware,  etc.  Since  Wdrtemberg  joined  the  Gei^ 
man  Zollverein,  in  1834,  its  commerce  stead- 
ily increased;  it  export*  especially  cattle, 
grain,  wool,  timber,  salt,  fruits,  hops,  cloth 
and  woolens,  linen,  leather  and  paper,  Bla^ 
Forest  clocks,  gold  and  silverware,  and  chem. 
ical  products.  The  imports  are  lees  consider- 
able, and  consist  mostly  of  coal,  cotton,  porce- 
lain, faience,  and  drugs.  WUrtemberg's  book 
trade  ranks  next  to  that  of  Berlin  and  Leiprig. 
The  most  important  commercial  places  are 
Heilbronn,  Cannstadt,  Ulm,  Friedrichshafen, 
Stuttgart,  Reutlingen,  and  Tuttlingen.  Educa- 
tion is  compulsory,  and  there  is  an  elementary 
school  for  every  group  of  thirty  families.  The 
Univ.  of  Tflbingot  enjoys  a  world-wide  fame; 
there  are  also  a  polytechnic  institute,  an  art 
school,  on  architectural  school,  a  music  con- 
servatory, a  veterinary  school  at  Stuttgart,  an 
agricultural   academy   at   Hohenheim, 


lycea,  besides  Roman  Catholic  and  evangelical 
seminaries  and  numerous  industrial  schoola,  as 
well  as  many  charitable  institutions. 

There  were,  in  ISIO,  2,435,611  inhabiUnU. 
Eight  towns  have  each  a  population  exceeding 
20,000.  According  to  creed,  6S.e  per  cent  are 
Protestants,  30.4  per  cent  Roman  Catholics. 
0.63  per  cent  other  Christiana,  0.49  per  cciil 

Tbm  goTBRuneat  waa  a  eonatibittonal  HMk- 
i  OOgTC" 


WURTEliBBHa 

vohy  prior  to  the  olon  of  the  Worid  Wu  ud 
the  ohange  of  the  form  of  govemment  to  that  of 
afederalrepublioin  1018,  with  four  rota  in  the 
federal  council  and  eeveateen  in  the  imperial  < " 

Tlw  crown  was  beredibury,  and  Xbe  female 

was  not  excluded.  The  oonatitution  dated  from 
September  2S,  1819,  amended  in  1868  and  1874. 
The  representation  eoncdated  of  two  chambers. 
TIm  first  chamber,  the  peers,  had  forty-five 
members,  of  whom  thirty-sis  were  members  by 
birthright,  and  nine  were  choaen  for  life  by  tKe 
king.  The  second  chamber  had  ninetv-tbiee 
members,  chosen  for  six  years — thirteen  oy  the 
nobility,  ax  by  the  Protestant  and  tiiree  by  the 
Roman  Cathalio  dergv,  one  bv  the  university, 
■even  by  the  citiea,  ana  sizty-tnree  by  tbs  rural 
communities.  A  special  commiasion  having  in 
oharoe  the  draf t^  ot  ft  constitution  for  the  new 
repubiie,  completed  ita  task  in  Januarv,  1919. 
The  new  constitution  abtriiabea  all  titles  and 
deccHalJons;  establishes  omnplete  rehciousfre^ 
dom;  places  all  schools  under  iuris^otion  of 
the  state;  and  authorises  ft  President  and  Cab- 
inet. 

In  ancient  times  WQrtemberg  was  occupied 
by  the  Suevi,  a  Germanic  race.  Abt.  64  A.n. 
it  came  under  Boman  authority,  and  out  of 
the  Roman  colonies  grew  up  the  cities.  About 
the  b^iinning  of  the  tbini  century  the  AJle- 
manni  drora  the  Romans  beyond  the  Danube 
and   the   Rhine,   but   they   in   turn   were  con- 

Suered  hy  the  Franks  under  Clovis  in  the  bat- 
le  of  Tolhiacum  (Zfllpich)  in  496.  Abt.  900, 
under  the  German  cmperorH  of  the  Garlovingian 
dynasty,  the  duchy  of  Buahia  was  formed. 
Tlie  familjr  of  the  Counts  of  Wartemberg  first 
appeared  in  the  eleventh  century,  and  grew 
rapidly  In  power.  Eberhard  V,  sumamed 
"im  Bart"  (1457-96),  one  of  the  most  ener- 
getic and  illustrious  Counts  of  WDrtemberg, 
was  made  a  duke  hy  Emperor  Haximilian  I 
In  use.  Though  WOrtemberg  tried  to  remain 
neutral  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  it  suffered  severely  from  the  op- 
posed armiea;  in  1633  it  entered  into  an  alli- 
anoe  with  Sweden  against  Austria,  and  was 
devastated  by  the  imperial  troops;  of  400,000 
people,  only  50,000  were  left  after  that  dis- 
astroUB  war.  A  similar  fate  befell  it  when 
Louis  XIV  b^^an  an  unprovoked  war,  and  sent 
Melac  to  ravage  along  the  Rhine.  The  de- 
structive invBiion  of  the  French  (1688-92), 
followed  by  the  disaHtrous  reign  of  Duke  Eber- 
hard Ludwig  and  his  mistresses  (1693-1733), 
Dearly  ruined  the  oountry,  which  invoked  the 
intervention  of  Prussia  and  England  in  vain. 

In  1796  it  became  involved  in  a  war  with 
France,  and  was  compelled  to  cede  Mitmpel- 
gard  (Montbeliard),  but  in  1803,  Duke  Fred- 
erick II  obtained  as  a  compensation  the 
eleetoral  dignity  and  extensive  territories, 
which  were  formed  into  a  particular  division 
of  the  state,  and  called  Neu-WUrtemberg; 
1805,  an  alliance  was  concluded  with  Napoleon 
I,  and,  IBOS,  the  elector  was  made  a  king  br 
Napoleon,  and  his  territory  greatly  enlarged. 
The  kingdom  became  a  member  of  U>e  Rhenbh 
Confederacy,  and,  in  1809,  Ulm,  Mergentheim, 
and  ofher  cities  were  added  to  it,  but  it  had 
to  furnish  an  army  of  16,000  men  for  the  ill-  ^^ 
fated  campaign  to  Bussia  (1812).  By  the  I  to 
455 


WTTCHERLY 

Treaty  of  Pulda  ( 1913),  WOrtemberg  broke  iU 
alliance  with  France  and  joined  the  other 
German  princes  against  Napoleon,  having  all 
its  possessions  guaranteed  by  the  alUes.  King 
William  (18]a-«4)  granted  the  constitution^ 
1810.  In  1866,  WOrtemberg  sided  with  Aus- 
tria against  Prussia,  and  had  to  pay  a  war 
indemnity  of  8,000,000  florins,  and  formed  an 
offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  Prussia, 
agreeing  to  reorganiie  it*  army  after  the  Prus- 
sian mode);  IS70,  it  joined  the  other  German 
states  in  the  formation  of  the  German  Empire, 
and  had  ito  share  in  the  victory  over  France. 
Wfttibnrg  (v4^te^Brkh),  town  of  Bavaria; 
60  m.  SE.  of  Frankfort;  on  the  Main;  for- 
merly the  capital  of  the  bishopric  ot  WUra- 
burr,  which  (until  1803,  when  it  was  secular- 
ised and  ita  territory  conferred  on  the  Elector 
of  Bavaria)  formed  an  independent  and 
wealthy  ecclealastical  principality  of  Germany. 
The  «pisoopal  palace,  built  in  1720,  is  one  of 
the  most  magniflcent  royal  residences  of  Eu- 
rope. Tlie  cathedral,  built  in  the  eleventh 
century,  is  an  elegant  edifice.  The  university, 
with  which  are  connected  a  magnificent  hos- 
pital and  a  library  of  200,000  volumes,  enioye 
a  great  reputation,  especially  for  its  mescal 
department.  Besides  its  university  the  city  haa 
other  educational  institutions,  and  manufac- 
tures of  leather,  tobacco,  cloth,  woolen  fabrics, 
and  surgical  and  mathematical  instruments. 
The  vicinity  produces  very  fine  wine.  Pop. 
(1910)   84,3ST.  ^ 

Wn  Ting  Fang,  1842-  ;  Chinese  states- 
man and  diplomatist.  In'  1874  he  went  to 
England  to  study  law,  and  became  a  barrister. 
As  secretary  of  the  Peace  Commission  which 
made  the  treaty  at  the  close  of  the  war  with 
Japen,  he  won  such  distinction  that  he  waa 
appointed  minister  to  the  U.  8.  in  1896.  Dur- 
ing the  si^e  of  Peking,  in  1900,  Uiuister  Wu 
succeeded  in  sending  a  dispatch  in  cipher  to 
Minister  Conger,  of  the  U.  S.  Legation,  and 
received  a  reply.  This  assured  the  powers  that 
the  legationa  were  alive,  and  averted  a  war  of 
devastation.  Minister  Wu  was  recalled  in  the 
fall  of  1902,  and  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the 
department  of  foreign  affairs  in  the  Chinwe 
Govt.  Reappointed  minister  to  the  U.  S..  1908, 
and  again  recalled,  1009.  Sympathiaed  with 
the  Chinese  revolution  and  entered  the  first  re- 
publican cabinet  as  minister  of  justioe,   1918. 

Wy'att,  Sir  Thomas,  I{t03-42;  English  poet; 
b.  at  Allington  Castle,  Eeilt;  son  of  Sir  Henry 
(d.  1S3S),  a  prominent  friend  of  Hem?  VII; 
educated  at  Oxford  and  at  St.  John's  Coltwe, 
Cambridge;  took  his  degree,  1G18;  made  tit* 
tour  of  Europe;  married  Eleanor,  daughter  of 
Lord  Cobham;  became  a  gentleman  of  the 
king's  bedchamber;  gained  a  high  reputation 
at  court  by  his  poems,  his  skill  at  arms,  in 
music,  and  in  repartee,  and  his  knowledge  of 
continental  languages;  and  was  sent  by  Henry 
^11  on  several  diplomatic  missions. 

Wychsrly,  or  Wychsiley  (wlch'er-11) ,  Will- 
lUt,  abt  1640-171S;  English  dramatist;  b. 
Clive,  England.  In  167!  he  produced  bis  first 
play,  "  Love  in  a  Wood,"  composed,  according 
to  his  own  account,  when  he  was  but  nineteen; 


WTCUF 

Wka  a.  court  favorite.  His  other  plays  are 
"  The  Gentteman  Dancing  Master,"  "  The 
Countiy  Wife,"  and  "The  Plain  Dealer,"  all 
too  licentious  for  modem  representation.  In 
1704  he  published  "  Miscellany  Poems,"  which 
were  corrected  by  Pope,  but  remarkable  chieflj 
for  bad  rhymes  and  worae  morality. 

WydiJ,  WicUifte,  or  Wiclif  (wlk'Bf),  John, 
Bometimea  de  Wtclut,  abt.  1324r-84;  English 
reformer;  b.  Ipreswel  (now  Hipswell],  near 
Richmond,  Yorkshire;  was  a  scholar  of  Baliol 
Coll^^,  Oxford;  then  a  fellow,  and  between 
1356  and  1301  maeUr  of  the  college.  He  is 
supposed  to  have  published  in  1356  his  first 
work,  "  The  Last  Age  of  the  Church,"  in  which 
he  argued  that  the  millennium  was  past,  that 
the  world  was  then  under  the  reign  of  Satan 
and  of  AntichrlHt,  and  that  the  day  of  judg- 
ment WB«  near  at  hand;  was  led  to  identify 
the  papacy  with  Antichrist;  abt.  136U,  Tigor- 
ously  attacked  the  mendicant  orders.  In  1361 
he  accepted  the  college  living  of  Fillingham, 
but  exchanged  it  for  the  poorer  living  of 
Ludgershall,  1360.  In  1370  he  took  his  degree 
of  D.D.,  but  he  had  begun  to  read  lectures  on 
divinity  at  Oxford  abt.  1363.  He  waa  chaplain 
to  Edward  HI,  and  wrot£  against  the  papal 
demand  for  arrears  of  tribute  from  the  Eng- 
lish crown,  13SS.  In  1374  he  was  appointed 
to  the  living  of  Lutterworth,  and  was  one  of 
six  commissionera  sent  by  Edward  III  to 
Bruges  to  confer  with  the  papal  del^^tea;  re- 
mained abroad  two  years. 

In   1376  his  vigorous  attacks  on  the  papal 

Geteneiona  cauaed  excitement  in  England,  and 
wa^  accused  of  heresy  by  Archbishop  Court- 
ney, and  summoned  before  a  convocation  of 
the  clergy  at  St.  Paul's,  London;  was  attended 
thither   (February  19,  1377)    by  the  two 


Mwerful  Hubiecta  of  the  kingdom,  John  of 
jaunt  and  Heniy  Percy,  the  earl  marshal, 
whose  defense  of  Wyclif  gave  rise  to  a  popular 


tumult  in  which  the  Savoy  Palace,  the 
dence  of  the  former  prince,  was  attacked;  was 
directly  accused  of  heresy  in  five  bulla  issued 
by  Pope  Gregory  VI,  1377,  by  which  he  n^aa 
cited  before  a  synod  at  Lambeth  in  137S ;  was 
saved  from  active  persecution  by  the  interven- 
tion of  the  Princess  of  Wales,  and  especially 
by  the  breaking  out  of  the  ^e«t  papal  schism; 
waa  allowed  to  depart  with  an  admouition. 
He  was  not  fighting  these  battles  alone,  but 
was  supported  by  the  chancellor  and  many  of 
the  ofUcers  at  Oxford  Univ.,  and  by  a  great 
part  of  the  nation ;  and  in  order  to  deepen  the 
impresaion  of  the  movement  he  began  to  aend 
out  many  disciples,  who  under  the  name  of 
poor  priests  preached  his  doctrines. 

Wycta'elm,  Wltcta-elm,  or  Scotch  Elm,  the 
Ulmut  monfana,  a  large,  fast-growing  Euro- 
pean elm,  much  planted  for  ornament  and  af- 
fording good  timoer.  It  is  very  hardy  in  the 
U.  8. 

Wyo'ming,  one  of  the  jf.  8.  of  N.  America; 
sometimes  called  the  EquiUJTt  State  ;  the 
thirty-first  state  admitted  to  the  Union;  cap- 
ital, Cheyenne.  It  ia  bounded  N.  by  Montana, 
E.  by  S.  Dakota  and  Nebraska,  S.  by  Colorado 
and  Utah,  W.  by  Utah,  Idaho,  and  Montana; 
length  from  E.  to  W.,  366  m.;  width  from 


WrOMTNO 

N.  to  8.,  270  m.;  area,  97,814  sq.  m.,  of  which 
320  are  water  surface;  pop.  (IBIO  census) 
145,e6S. 

The  general  appearance  of  the  state  is  moun- 
tainous, with  valleys,  foothills,  and  rolling 
plaini.  The  mean  elevation  is  6,000  ft.  The 
main  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  enters  on 
the  8.,  and  extends  NW.  through  the  state  into 
Montana  and  Idaho.  Wind  River  Mountains, 
with  altitude  of  from  10,000  to  12,000  ft.,  ar« 
t^ie  culminating  crest  of  the  Roclcy  Mountains 
in  the  NW.,  and  are  paralleled  on  the  W.  by 
the  Teton  and  Groe  Ventre  ranges.  The  Sho- 
shone MonnUins,  10,000  to  11,000  ft,  lie  N. 


boundaiy  S.  to  the  center  of  the  state.  The 
Rattle  ^ake  Mountains,  with  the  Casper  and 
Seminoe  ranges,  are  S.  of  the  Big  Horn  Range, 
while  the  Black  Hills  occupy  part  of  the  t. 
The  Medicine  Bow  and  Sierra  Madre  ranges 
are  in  the  S.  The  Sweetwater  Range  lies  on 
the  S.  side  of  Sweetwater  River.  The  vast 
plain  between  the  Sierra  Madre  Mountains 
and  Green  River  ia  designated  the  "  Red  Des- 
ert." The  highest  peaks  in  the  state  are 
Fremont's  Peak,  13,790  ft.;  Grand  Teton  Peak, 
13,690  ft;  Motlnt  Sheridan,  13,601  ft  Mount 
Washburn,  Elk,  Laramie  Mountains,  and  In- 
dex, Wyoming,  and  Gros  Ventre  peaks  all  ex- 
ceed 10,000  ft.  The  most  important  rivers  are 
the  N.  Platte,  Green  River,  Yellowstone,  Big 
Horn,  Powder,  Cheyenne,  and  Belle  Fourche. 
Yellowstone  I^ke,  situated  in  the  Yellowstone 
National  Park,  is  the  largest  body  of  water  in 
Wyoming,  being  22  m.  long  and  15  m.  wide. 
Jackson's,  Shoanone,  Lewis,  and  Madison  lakes 
lie  S.  and  SE.  of  Yellowstone  I«ke,  and  NW. 
ol  the  Wind  River  Range.  Fremont  and 
Boulder  lakes  lie  near  the  base  of  Fremont's 
Peak,  where  the  Green  River,  one  of  the  larg- 
est tributaries  of  the  Ckilorado,  rises. 

The  mineral  depoBits  include  a  large  per- 
centage of  coal,  iron,  gold,  silver,  graphite, 
aabestoa,  gypsum,  biamuth,  arsenic,  alum,  sul- 
phur, copper,  and  red  oxide  of  iron.  Building 
stones    of    high    commercial    value    are    aJso 


and    marblei 


WYOMING 

man;  localities,  and  MMnt  development  has 
placed  WToming  oils  on  the  market.  The  va- 
riety is  lignite  of  b  high  order,  containing 
from  fifty  to  flfty'flve  per  cent  of  fixed  carbon, 
and  being  equal  to  many  of  the  bitumiaaus 
grades. 

The  soil  of  the  uplands  and  plate&ue  ia  a 
light,  sandy  loam,  and  of  the  valleys  a  black 
loam,  in  some  instances  alkaline,  but  yielding 
bountifully  when  reduced  by  water.  About 
10,000,000  acres  are  suitable  lor  agriculture  by 
irrigation,  22,000,000  acres  are  mountainous, 
18,000,000  acres  consist  of  high  table-lands, 
and  30,000,000  acres  are  covered  with  grasses 
end  suitable  for  grazing.  Below  the  timber 
line  the  mountains  are  covered  with  a  thick 
growth  of  pine,  spruce,  and  hemlock  trees  of 
large  size;  the  foothills  have  some  pine,  spruce, 
aspen,  walnut,  elm,  ash,  box  elder,  and  red 
ceaar;  and  along  the  rivers  and  creek  bottoms 
are  found  two  species  of  cottonwood  and  thick- 
eta  of  willowB.  Many  hundreds  of  flowering 
Cits,  mosses,  and  lichens  are  nntive.  Abun- 
t  crops  of  tome  grasses,  such  as  alfalfa, 
red  clover,  blnestem,  redtop,  and  timothy  are 
grown.  The  agricultural  productions  include 
wheat,  oats,  barley,  rye,  buckwheat,  and  Indian 
com.  Potatoes  are  an  important  farm  product 
of  lower  altitudes.  Eardy  fruits  and  berries 
thrive,  and  in  the  mountains,  raspberries, 
strawberries,  currants,  gooseberries,  choke- 
berries,  and  buffalo  berries  are  native. 

About  thirty  species  of  mammals,  including 
the  bear,  wolf,  coyote,  mountain  lion,  wildcat, 
beaver,  porcnpine,  mink,  little  ermine,  moose, 
deer,  and  mountain  sbecp  are  found.  About 
12S  species  of  birds  are  also  found.  Of  the 
Sfty  or  more  species  of  fishes,  there  are  moun- 
tain trout,  several  kinds  of  suckers,  bass,  buU' 
fiah,  pike,  etc.  A  state  fiah  hatchery  is  main- 
tained at  Laramie,  and  branch  hatcheries  in 
the  N.  of  the  state.  There  are  stringent  laws 
for  the  protection  and  propagation  of  'game 
and  fish. 

The  average  mean  temperature  for  the  year 
in  the  state  is  about  44".     The  atmosphere  is 

f'UTu  And  rarefied,  and  cloudless  days  prcdom- 
oate.  In  the  S.  part  of  the  state  higti  winds 
sometimes  prevail  during  the  spring  and  au- 
tumn, but  cyclones  and  tornadoes  are  un- 
known, and  thunderstorms  infrequent.  Gen- 
erally speaking,  the  climate  of  Wyoming  is 
dry,  mild,  pleasant,  sjid  healthful. 

The  principal  cities  and  towns  are  Cheyenne, 
Laramie,  Rock  Springs,  Rawlins,  EvansUtn, 
Sheridan,  Green  River,  Casper,  Newcastle, 
Lander,  Douglas,  Buffalo,  Carbon.  Within  the 
limits  of  Fremont  Co.  is  the  Shoshone  Indian 
Reservation,  containing  1,620,000  acres  of  excel- 
lent land,  and  occupi^  by  Shoshone  and  Ara- 
pahoe Indians.  The  Shoshone  Indian  Agency 
and  Fort  Washakie  Military  Reservation  are 
on  this  tract.  Fort  D.  A.  Russell  Military 
Reservation  is  3  m.  NW.  of  Cheyenne.  Federal 
troops  are  also  stationed  at  Rock  Springs,  in 
Sweetwater  Co.  > 

The  most  important  Industries  of  Wyoming 
are  coal  mining,  stock  raising,  and  iMnldng. 
Wyoming  has  no  shipping,  the  rivers  and  lak^ 
not  beinK  navigable,  and  internal  trade  is  con- 
ducted by  raHways  or  horse  power.  Total 
SOr  4 


WYOMINa  VALLEY 

railway  mileage  ia  1,646  m.,  the  Union  Paciflo 
Railway,  the  Chicago,  Burlington  &  Qnincy, 
and  the  Chicago  &  Southweatem  being  the 
principal   lines. 

In  1B09  the  public  school*  had  976  teachers 
and  23,1B2  enrolled  pupils.  Teachers  are  trained 
in  the  normal  school  which  is  carried  on  in  con- 
nection with  the  Univ.  of  Wyoming,  at  Lara* 
mie.  This  university  was  founded  in  1B8T,  and 
in  1910  hod  43  professors  and  244  studenta. 
Besides  the  normal  sohool  it  comprehends  an 
agricultural  college,  a  schsol  of  mines,  a  col- 
lege of  mechanical  engineering,  a  school  of 
commerce,  and  a  school  of  music. 

The  legislative  department  is  composed  of  a 
state  senate  elected  for  four  years,  and  • 
house  of  representatives,  whose  members  are 
elected  for  two  years.  The  I^islature  meets 
in  the  January  of  odd  years,  and  sessions  are 
limited  to  forty  days.  The  elective  state  ofB- 
cera  are  the  governor,  secretary  of  stat«, 
auditor,  treasurer,  and  superintendent  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  all  elected  for  four  years.  The 
courts  comprise  the  supreme  and  district 
courts,  and  justices  of  the  peace.  The  suf- 
frage extends  to  all  eitiseus,  male  and  female, 
who  can  read,  and  who  are  registered  as  voters, 
and  have  resided  in  the  state  one  year  and  In 
the  oounty  sixty  days  next  preceding  the  elec- 

On  July  25,  1868,  Congress  authorized  the 
Bt^regntion  of  a  part  of  the  territories  of 
Dakota,  Utah,  and  Idaho,  and  the  organization 
of  the  territory  so  segregated  into  the  Terri- 
tory of  Wyoming.  The  territorial  government 
was  maintained  until  July  10,  1890,  when  Wy- 
oming was  admitted  into  the  Union.  The  old- 
est white  settlement  Is  at  Fort  Laramie,  on  the 
Platte  River,  in  the  E.  of  the  state,  where  ft 
fur-trading  post  was  established  in  1934,  re- 
built  by  the  American  Fur  Company  In  1836, 
and  sold  to  the  U.  S.  and  garrisoned  in  1849. 
Fort  Bridger  was  established  in  the  SW.  of 
the  state  in  1842.  Although  the  early  settlers 
experienced  the  usual  frontier  contests  with 
the  Indians,  there  have  been  no  serious  out- 
brealis  since  the  Custer  Massacre  by  the  Sioux 
of  Dakota  in  1876,  and  the  Meeker  Massacre 
by  the  Utes  of  Colorado  in  1878. 

Wyoming  Hu'sacr«.    See  Wtouino  Vallet. 

Wyoming  Valley,  a  fertile  valley  in  Luzerne 
Co.,  Pa. ;  traversed  by  the  N.  branch  ot  Sus- 
quehanna River.  It  was  settled  in  1762  fronl 
Connecticut,  which  colony  claimed  this  region 
by  virtue  of  its  ancient  charter,  notwithstand- 
ing the  protest  of  the  government  of  Pemisyl- 
vania.     ui  1763  the  settlers  were  either  driven 


for  years  were  embroiled  with  other  citizens, 
who  recognized  the  government  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. In  1771,  the  British  Govt,  having  con- 
finned  the  Connecticut  claim,  peace  was  re- 
stored, but  in  177B  a  force  of  Pcnnsylvanians 
attacked  the  settlements  without  success. 
During  the  Revolutionary  War  a  large  number 
of  Tories  from  New  York  settled  in  the  valley, 
which,  from  its  seclusion,  could  not  well  be 
protected  from  hostile  arms.  Most  of  the 
able-bodied  men  were  on  duty  with  Washington 


when,  on  June  SO,  1778,  w.  bodj  of  400  BrltUh 
troopa  and  700  Seneca  Indians,  with  aome 
Tories,  invaded  the  valle;.  On  July  3d  Um 
battle  of  Wyoming  was  fought  between  this 
force  and  some  300  settlen,  chieQj  boys  and 
old  men,  who  were  driven  into  a  fort,  ai^  after 
»  desperate  resiatance,  in  the  course  of  which 
about  two  thirds  of  their  number  were  killed 
by  the  Tories  and  Indians,  not  eran  the  priS' 
oners  })eing  spared,  were  forced  to  oapitulate, 
but  the  terms  of  the  capitulation  were  not  ob- 
served, and  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants 
were  soon  oompefled  by  the  Indians  to  flee  from 
the  vall^. 


In  1T82,  Congress  decided  the  dispute  as  to 
jurisdiction  In  favor  of  Pennsylvania ;  bnt, 
when  the  authorities  attempted  to  eject  the 
Connecticut  people,  they  again  took  up  arms, 
and  the  contest  lasted  until  1T8S,  when  the 
Pennsylvania  Legislature  eonflrmed  the  tiUea 
of  the  residents;  but  for  some  twenty-flve  years 
there  was  much  litigation  in  r^ard  to  the 
conflicting  claims.  This  long  series  of  contests 
was  known  as  the  "  Pennymite  wars,"  the  set- 
tlers calling  their  opponents  "  Pennymites."  , 
Above  Kingston,  oppceite  Wilkesbarre,  stands 
a  granite  obelisk  which  commemorates  tlia 
slam  in  the  contest  of  July  3,  1773. 


X,  Uie  tw«nty-foarth  letter  of  ths  Bnglish 
alphabet.  In  form  it  is  probably  an  old  variant 
of  tau  (T,  +,  X),  just  as  the  next  letter  of 
the  Western  alphabet  V  ^oll)  was  a  variant 
of  wpmlon.  The  name  sits  luu  displaoed  the 
earlier  ika.  The  sound  is  ^erally  that  of  a 
double  consonant :  ( 1 )  Jbs,  in  taa,  axle,  eeife ; 
(2)  gg  before  an  accented  vowel,  as  in  exam- 
ine, example,  eaiat,  eahort;  (3)  k»h  [ki),  as 
in  anwicmt,  lumtry;  (4)  gcK  (92),  in  luwu- 
rioiM,  iwtwriant;  (0)  «  initially,  as  in  Xeraee, 
Xenophon. 

X  stands  for  ten  in  the  Roman  numerals, 
probably  as  representing  one  V  (Ave)  inverted 
upon  another.  In  algebra  m  standi  for  the  un- 
Itnown  quantity. 

Zdapa  (hii-U'iA).    Bee  Jaupa. 


ZantltnB  (Efin'thOs),  1 
Minor,  in  Ljccii 


11  ancient  city  of  Asia 
rifer  Xanthus,  about 
8  m.  above  its  mouth.  Its  ruins  were  discov- 
ered in  183S  by  Sir  C.  Fellows,  and  have 
yielded  a  large  collection  of  marbles,  now  in 
the  British  Uuseum.  The  rirer  rises  in  Uount 
Taurus,  and  falls  into  the  Mediterranean  a 
little  to  the  W.  of  Patara. 

Bee  Frait- 


Zenocrates  (ze-nOk'n-tez) ,  39S-3U  b.c.; 
Greek  pbiloBopber;  b.  at  Chalcedon;  became  a 
pupil  of  Plato,  and  gained  his  favor  by  his 
earnestness  and  energy,  though  the  master  was 
well  aware  of  his  slowness  of  comprehension  and 
lack  of  elegance  in  manners.  He  accompanied 
Plato  to  Syracuse,  and  went  after  his  death, 
together  with  Aristotle,  to  Asia  Minor.  After- 
wards he  returned  to  Athens,  and  succeeded 
BpeusippuB  as  chief  of  the  Academy  (in  33S 
B.C.),  which  position  he  occupied  till  his  death. 
He  was  highly  respected  by  the  Athenians  for 
the  integrity  of  his  character,  and  was  repeat- 
edly sent  aa  an  ambassador  to  foreign  princes — 
Philip  of  Macedon,  Antipater,  etc.  Aristotle 
respected  him  for  bis  insight  and  knowledge, 
but  of  his  works  none  has  come  down  to  us. 

Xenon  (zen'6n],  a  heavy  gas  which  occurs  in 
the  atmosphere  to  the  amount  of  one  volume 
in  20,000,000. 


Zeiwphon  (sen'S-fOn),  abt.  434-abt.  SM  8.0.1 
Athenian  writer.  He  was  a  pupil  of  Socrates. 
In  401  he  went  to  Sardis  and  joined  the  expe- 
dition of  the  younger  Cyrus.  After  the  battle 
of  CunaXB  the  Greeks  began  that  return  to 
Europe  famous  as  the  retreat  of  the  10,000. 
When  ClearchUB  and  other  Greek  leaders  had 
been  treacherously  massacred  by  Tissaphemee, 
Xenophon  was  elected  one  of  the  Ave  generala, 
and  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  heaa  of  the 
army.  With  dcill  he  conducted  the  troopa 
across  Mesopotamia  and  through  Armenia  to 
TrapcEUs  on  the  Euxine,  and  thence  to  Europe. 
His  "  Anabasis  "  is  an  account  of  this  retreat. 
His  "  HellenicB  "  is  a  continuation  of  the  his- 
tory of  Thucydides  to  the  battle  of  Mantine*, 
and  the  "  Cyropsdia  "  a  political  romance,  is 
which  the  author  gives  his  ideas  of  the  state, 
picturing  the  advantages  of  a  wise  monarchical 
rule.  Several  of  his  works  are  records  of  the 
acts  and  conversations  of  Socrates.  Of  these, 
by  far  the  best  known  is  the  "  Memorabilia." 

Xenophon  united  in  his  person  many  of  the 
best  elements  of  a  Greek  gentleman.  Aa  a 
writer  be  was  held  up  as  the  model  of  «  sim- 
ple style,  and  was  called  "  The  Attic  Bee,"  by 
reason  of  the  sweetness  of  his  Attidsm.  Mod- 
em scholarship  has  made  many  deductiona 
from  the  antique  estimate,  and  cloeer  criticism 
has  shown  that  in  long  absence  from  Attica 
-Xenophon  lost  much  of  the  purity  of  Attic 
speech.  Be  uses  many  poetical  and  dialect->al 
words,  and  his  syntax  is  not  always  construct- 
ed on  Attic  lines,  and  these  faults,  which  en- 
hance the  human  interest  of  Xent^hon's  style, 
have  served  to  bring  him  into  increasing  disre- 
pute with  exacting  Atticists. 

Xerxes  (E^rks'ta),  King  of  Persia,  who 
reigned  from  486  to  4AS  B.C.;  son  td  Darius 
Hystaspes  and  Atossa.  In  481  he  assembled  an 
immense  army  at  Sardis  for  the  Invasion  of 
Greece.  Early  in  480  the  army  b^gan  its 
march,  and  spent  seven  days  and  nights  in 
crosdng  the  Hellespont  on  two  bridges.  Ac- 
cording to  Herodotus,  it  amounted  to  1,700,000 
foot  and  80,000  borae — the  largest  armament 
the  world  had  ever  seen.  Besides  these,  upon 
the  fleet  of  1,207  ships  of  war  and  3,000  smaller 
vessels  and  transports  was  a  force  which 
swelled  the  number  of  oombatanta  to  2,317,00a 


s  of  boue  joined  by  n  A  Ind  fmcture. 


A  splintered  leg  bone. 


die  in  tlio  tool^l  ft  dw»if. 
LM..d:XjO0gle 


THE  WONDERS  OF  THE  X-RAY. 


„  Google 


The  statement  is  doubtless  exaggerated.  The 
first  resistance  met  wH.*  at  Thermopylte.  In  the 
meantime  a  storm  destroyed  manj'  of  the  ships. 
The  naval  battles  of  Artemisium  and  Salsmia 
fdloved,  and  Xerxes,  who  sat  on  his  throne  of 
gold,  raised  on  a  promontory,  to  witness  the 
battle  of  SalamiB,  returned,  panic  stricken,  to 
Asia,  leaving  Mardonius  and  300,000  troops  to 
oontinue  the  war  in  Greece.  In  478  the  dis- 
astrous battles  of  PlatEca  and  Mycale  occurred, 
followed  by  the  utter  overthrow  of  all  the  Per- 
sian power  in  Greece-  In  465  Xerxes  was 
murdered,  and  was  succeeded  bf  his  son  Ar- 
taxerxes.  He  is  generally  considered  the 
AhasneruB  of  the  Book  of  Esther. 

Ximenes  (or  Zimenec)  De  Cisneios  |he-mB'- 
nSs  dfi  thes-nA'rOs) ,  Francisco,  1430-I61T ;  Span- 
ish prelate;  b.  Torrele^na,  Spain.  He  was  ad- 
vocate in  the  consistorial  courts  of  Home,  1459- 
75;  entered  a  Franciscan  convent  in  Toledo, 
I4B2;  and  was  confessor  to  Queen  Isabella 
in  1492,  provincial  of  his  order  in  Castile, 
1404,  and .  Archbishop  of  Toledo  and  Primate 
of  Spain,  1496.  He  began  a  Tigorous  scheme 
of  reform  among  the  clergy.  His  destruction 
of  Arabic  manuscripts  was  the  immediate 
cause  of  the  decay  of  Arabian  literature  in 
Spain;  but  he  made  some  amends  by  found- 
ing, 1500-10,  the  Univ.  ot  Alcalft  de  Henares, 
and  by  his  polyglot  Bible,  called  the  Complu- 
tensian  polyglot.  In  1507  be  received  a  cardi- 
nal's bat,  and  was  appointed  Inquisitor  General 
of  Castile.  In  1509,  chiefly  at  his  expense,  he 
conducted  a  successful  expedition  against  Oran. 
Ferdinand  at  his  death,  1516,  left  Xitnenes  re- 
gent of  the  kingdom  until  the  arrival  of  his 
grandson,  Charles  I  of  Spain,  afterwards  Charles 
V  of  Germany. 

Z-Bays,  a  form  of  radiation  excited  by  the 

Sassage  of  the  alternating  current  from  an  in- 
uction  coil  through  a  partial  vacuum;  so 
called  by  their  discoverer,  Prof.  Roentgen,  from 
the  unknown  quantity  i  of  algebra  because 
their  character  was  unknown  to  him;  also 
called  "  Roentgen  rays."  When  an  electric  cur- 
rent passes  through  an  exhausted  tube,  rays 
called  "  cathode  rays  "  proceed  from  the  cath- 
ode, but  are  unable  to  traverse  the  walls  of  tba 
tube.  Where  they  impinge  on  these  walla  X- 
rays  arise,  and  these  pass  outside  the  tube  with 
ease.  They  pass  also  through  many  substances 
opaque  to  light,  but  are  in  general  stopped  by 
metals.  The  fleah  of  the  human  body  is  more 
transparent  to  tbem  than  the  bones;  bence,  al- 
though they  do  not  affect  the  human  eye,  they 
may  be  used  to  photcsraph  tlie  skeleton  of  a 
living  person,  or  to  locate  bullets,  or  objects  that 
have  been  swallowed.  They  cause  a  screen 
coated  with  some  phosphorescent  substance, 
like  calcium  sulphide,  to  emit  li^ht;  hence 
the  shadow  cast  by  them  becomes  Tisible  when 


X  Y  2  CORRESPONDENCE 

cast  on  such  a  screen.  They  are  thus  ver; 
useful  to  surgeons  in  diagnosis;  but  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  tnem  with  care,  since  continued  ex- 
posure to  them  gives  rise  to  a  painful  and  ap- 
parently incurable  hardening  and  ulceration  ot 


X-Rai  Pbotoobaph. 

the  tissues.  It  is  now  generally  accepted  by 
physicists  that  X-rays  consist  of  detached  im- 
pulses in  the  ether,  being-related  to  ordinary 
light  somewhat  as  the  noise  of  an  electric 
"buzier"  to  the  tone  from  an  organ  pipe.  See 
Kathode  Rats. 

Z  Y  Z  Coirespond'ence,  the  name  given  to 
the  dispatches  sent  in  1797-98  to  the  U.  8. 
Govt,  by  its  eommiswoners,  Charies  Pinckney, 
John  Marshall,  and  Elbridge  Gerry,  in  Paris. 
These  men  were  sent  to  France  to  settle  cer- 
tain difBculties  with  that  government.  On  their 
arrival  they  were  not  received  officially,  but 
were  compelled  to  communicate  with  the  gov- 
ernment through  three  agents,  who  informed 
them  that  the  Snt  step  toward  negotiation 
would  be  the  payment  of  a  large  sum  of  money 
to  the  Directory,  which  was  then  in  control  of 
French  a&airs.  The  American  commissioners, 
with  the  exception  of  Gerry,  promptly  with- 
drew and  transmitted  the  correspondence  to 
Pres,  Adams,  who,  in  turn,  laid  it  before  Con- 
gress, substituting  for  the  names  of  the  French 
commissioners  the  letters  X  Y  Z.  The  corre- 
spondence aroused  bitter  feeling  in  the  U.  S., 
and  a  naval  war  with  France  was  actually  be- 
gun, but  the  French  Govt,  receded  from  iti  po- 
ution,  and  thus  averted  a  struggle 


„  Google 


YACHTS  AND  'SACuTOTe 


Y,  the  twenty-fifth  letter  of  the  Bngliih 
■Jphabet.  It  wbB  simply  the  Greek  letter 
upeibn,  X.  Prior  to  the  adoption  of  the  let- 
ter  the  sound  had  been  rudely  indioated  by 
the  Koman  V  (u)  ;  thus  cuprestut,  luratutus, 
jeguptiu.  The  letter  Y  is  therefore  in  its  ori- 
^n  the  same  aa  V  and  U;  cf.  also  W.  As  a 
vowel  sign  it  stands  for  I  (at),  as  in  my,  cry, 
type,  cycle,  kyphen,  tyrant,  hybrid,  cyclopa, 
hyacinth,  or  for  {,  as  in  Ajimn,  syllable,  synloji, 
mgtk,  eynie,  phjftiea,  beauty,  happy,  physician. 
Aa  a  Gooaonant,  used  only  at  the  beginning  of 
a  syllable,  it  repreaenta  the  oonaonant  of  t;  as 
in  ytt,  you,  yolk. 

In  algebra,  y  Htanda  usoAlly  for  the  second 
unknown  quantity. 

Yachta  and  Tocht'ing.  A  yacht  is  a  Tessel 
of  any  aiie,  propelled  by  huI,  steam,  or  other 
motive  power  and  used  ezcluaively  for  pleas- 
ure purposes.  The  use  of  large  pleasure  craft 
specially  devoted  to  royalty  may  be  traced 
hick  to  a  very  remote  period,  but  yachting  in 
its  true  sense  b^an  no  earlier  than  the  seven- 
teenth century,  while  its  establishment  as  a 
recognized    sport    tails    within   the    ninetseuth 


century.  No  hard  line  of  demarcation  can  be 
drawn  between  the  small  sailboat  or  launch 
and  the  yacht;  while  at  the  other  extreme  is 
found  the  larger  class  of  steam  yachts,  which 
differ  but  little  in  model  and  build  from  pas- 
senger steamers.  The  sailing  yacht,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  larger  boate  and  from  ca- 
noes, may  be  defined  as  a  cratt  of  from  20  to 
100  fL  water-line  lencth,  wholly  or  partly 
decked,  and  with  standing  spars  and  rigging. 
The  steam,  naphtha,  or  electric  yacht,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  simple  launch,  is  a  craft  of 
from  50  ft  water-line  length  upward,  com- 
j^etely  decked,  and  vHth  permanent  cabins. 
The  upper  liinit  of  length  in  private  steam 


yachte  is  about  SCO  ft.  water  line  and   1,000 
tons  dlsplaconent. 

Sailing  yachts  may  be  divided  into  three 
types,  according  to  the  shape 'of  the  hull;  (1) 
the  keel  yacht,  with  a  deep  body,  of  which  the 
keel  is  an  integral  parti.  (2)  the  fin  keel,  with 
a   very   shoal    body,    to   which    is   attached   a 


Fm.  2.    Y*. 


.  Rio  k 


B  Lua  k 


deep-fixed  fin,  with  the  ballast  in  the  form  of  a 
dgar-shaped  mass  of  lead  attached  to  the  lower 
edge;  and  (3)  the  centerboard  yacht,  also  with 
a  shoal  body,  but  relying  for  lateral  resistance 
on  a  movable  plane  of  wood  or  metal,  so  piv- 
oted as  to  drop  through  the  keel  and  below 
the  bottom  of  the  vessef  Almost  every  variety 
of  rig  is  used  on  yachts;  and  although  there  is 
not,  of  necessity,  a  close  connection  between 
model  and  rig,  it  is  frequently  the  ease  that  cer- 
tain rigs  have  been  so  closely  associated  with 
certain  types  of  hull  that  the  name  of  the  rig 


Fro.  3.    EncE 


plied  to  both,  as  in  the  case  of  the  catboat. 
jle  lugger. 
The  simplest  form  of  yacht  is  the  centerboard 


the  sloop,  the  ci 


',  and  the  lua 


catboat,  the  hull  being  wide,  shallow,  and  v 
ally  lightly  built,  with  no  overhang  at  vuc 
endi;  a  wide,  rectangular  rudder  hung  outaide 
the  transom;  a  large  centerboard,  and  with 
but  one  sail  set  on  a  gaff  and  boom,  the  mast 
being  stepped  as  far  forward  as  posuble. 
These  boate,  ranging  In  length  from  12  to  40 


YACHTS  AND  YACHTING 

ft.,  are  lued  in  kll  the  waters  of  the  U.  S.  for 
racing,  pleasure  sailing,  fishing,  and  genenl 
seirice,  and,  though  easily  capsizable,  their 
light  draught  and  speed  make  tbem  adaptable 
to  the  sh<m1  waters  whteh  abound.  The  sloop 
riir,  the  boom  and  gttt  mainsail,  with  the  addi- 
tk>s  of  a  large  jib,  is  used  on  the  same  type 
of  hull  as  the  cat  rig,  but  on  larger,  as  well 
as  the  smaller,  sizes,  up  to  yachts  of  TO  ft.  wa- 
ter line.  In  its  simplesi  form,  with  a  pole  mast 


D  the 

mainsail  "~Tig,  but  on  decked  yachts  a  iopmast 
serves  to  carry  a  topsail  and  jib  topsail.  The 
cutter  rig,  still  more  complicated  than  the 
sloop,  in  that  it  has  two  headsails,  a  fore  stay- 
sail in  addition  to  the  jib,  has  become  in  a 
modified  form  almost  universal  on  decked 
yachts  other  than  schooners  in  the  U.  8.  The 
yawl  rig.  the  cat-yawl  rig,  and  the  ketch  rig 
are  in  principle  similar  to  that  ol  the  sloop  or 
cutter.  The  lug  rig  has  a  yard  on  the  head  of 
the  sail,  stung  by  a  single  halyard  made  fast 


Fro.  S.    UoDiBM  SCBOoma  Rro. 

near  the  middle,  instead  of  a  gaff  with  jaws 
which  elide  on  the  mast.  This  rig  is  used  on 
yachts  of  all  types,  being  the  favorite  racing 
rig  for  the  smaller  racing  yachts  in  Great  Bri^ 
•in,  though  it  is  chiefly  assodatBd  with  the  faat 


YACHTS  AND  YACHTINU 

smugglers  of  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century.  The  sharpie  is  a  shoal-draught  vea- 
ael,  used  extensively  in  the  U.  B.  for  oystering, 
HS  well  as  for  pleasure  sailing.  The  bottom  la 
flat,   the  sides   slightly   flared   outward  at  the 


'    PiQ.  S.    HunaoH  Riraa  Ici  Vacht  [aith  plan}. 

deck,  the  stem  straight,  end  the  stem  is  car- 
ried out  into  a  long  counter,  with  a  round  end. 
The  centerboard  is  long  rather  than  deep,  and 
the  rudder  is  of  the>  balance  variety,  there  be- 
ing no  rudder  post  or  scag.  The  rig  consists 
of  two  masts,  each  long  and  flexible  and  carry- 
ing a  leg-o'-mutton  sail  extended  by  a  long 
sprit  running  across  from  the  mast  to 
the  clew.  The  foremast  Is  stepped  in 
the  bows  and  the  mainmast  just  abaft 
the  middle  of  the  boat.  The  schooner 
rig,  used  on  yachts  of  from  SO  ft.  up- 
ward, has  two  masts,  the  fore  and  main, 
the  latter  carrying  the  larger  sail,  and 
the  bowsprit  and  headsails  are  rigged 
like  those  of  the  cutter. 

An  ice  yacht  is  not  properly  a  vessel, 
but  a  machine  for  sailing  on  ice.  It 
consists  of  a  light  framework  of  wood 
Testing  on  three  large  runners,  the  aft«r 
one  movable  and  fitted  with  a  tiller. 
A  mast  is  stepped  in  the  center  of  the 
framework,  on  which  one  or  two  sails 
are  carried,  the  sloop  rig  being  the  most 
common,  though  the  cat  rig  is  sometimes 
used.  Under  favorable  conditions  the 
boata  are  capable  of  very  high  speed, 
and  are  used  throughout  the  si.  U.  8, 
for  racing. 

The  first  yacht  club,  the  "Water 
Club  of  the  Harbour  of  Cork"  (Ire- 
land), was  founded  in  1720.  The  sport  made 
little  progress  until.  In  1B12,  there  was  found- 
ed at  Cowes,  Isle  of  Wight,  the  "  Yacht  Club," 
which  still  exists  as  the  "  Boyal  Yacht  Squad- 
ron."   The  first  yacht  club  in  the  U.  S.  waa 


the  "New  York  Tacht  Club,"  founded  in  1844, 
mainly  through  tbv  elTurti  of  Col.  John  C. 
Stevens  end  hie  brother  Edwin. 

The  J'tichts  ol  1800  to  1830  were  of  sll  eitei, 
rigs,  and  modela,  being  built  primarily  for 
cruidng,  with  racing  aa  a  mere  incident.  All 
dzea  and  ri^  were  classed  together  for  racing 
purposes,  with  only  the  crudest  attempte  to 
compenuite  for  difference  in  size  by  time  alloW' 
ance.  The  Qnt  time  allowances  made  in  Qreat 
Britain  (abt.  1815)  for  differences  in  siie  were 
based  on  the  tonnage  of  the  competing  jachta. 
This  rule  was  never  adopted  by  tne  yachtsmen 
of  the  U.  S.,  who  based  their  allowances  upon 
calculations  dep«iding  on  displacement,  length, 
sail  areas  and  other  factors  In  1S83  the  "  Sea- 
wanhaka  rule,"  providing  that  the  yacht 
should  be  rated  by  adding  the  length  on  the 
water  line  to  the  square  root  of  the  sail  area 
and  dividing  the  sum  by  two,  was  formulated, 
and  )■  now  commonly  used  in  the  U.  S.  By 
the  present  "  rating  rule  "  of  Great  Britain  the 
length  and  sail  area  are  multiplied  together 
and  the  product  divided  by  6,000,  the  quotient 
being  the  "  rating  "  of  the  yacht. 

Yak,  a  bovine  animal  of  Tibet.  It  is  about 
the  size  of  a  small  os,  very  hairy,  and  has  a 
long  sweeping  taiL  The  le^  and  neck  are 
short,  boms  small  and  half  hidden  In  the  long 
hair;  the  shoulders  bear  a  mass  of  hair  which 
suggests  a  hump.  The  wild  yak  is  much  less 
ihaggy  than  the  domesticated  variety,  and  of  a 
nearly  uniform  deep  brown  or  blackish  color. 
The  domesticated  animals  are  generally  black 
or  white,  or  black  and  white,  the  latter  most 


Yakutsk  or  Jakutsk,  a  former  provinoe  of 
Russia,  in  E.  Siberia,  embracing  the  Valley  of 
tho  Lena  River,  and  bounded  by  the  old  prov- 
inces of  Yeniseisk,  Irkutsk,  TrauEbaiksl,  BJ)d 
Aniur,  t  he  Arctic  Ocean^  and  a  section  of  Ochotak. 
It  ia  the  largest  Sibenan  province,  embracing 
nearly  one-third  of  Bibcria,  and  being  nearly  as 
large  as  European  Russia,  and  having  an  area  of 
1,533,397  sq.  m^  and  a  pop.  (1913)  of  827,700, 
mainly  Yakuta,  Yuka^rs.  and  Tungusea,  engaged 
in  huntiiiR,fiahing,  and  tne  herdinK  of  cattle  and 
horses.  Thia  rast  tract  aeoedea  from  Russia 
and  eatabliahed  itaeU  aa  a  republic  in  May,  191S. 


YALE  ONIVEBSmr 

Tale,  KHko,  16S8-17S1;  American  philan- 
thropist) b.  in  or  near  Beaton,  Maa«.;  went  to 
India  to  engue  in  trade  abL  1670;  was  gov- 


tumed  to  England,  1699;  became  interested  in 
the  "  Colle^ate  School"  at  Saybrook,  Conn.; 
favored  it  instead  of  bestowing  a  charity  upon 
a  college  at  Oxford.  In  1746  his  name,  at 
first  applied  to  a  building,  wea  ext«nded  to  the 
whole  institution. 

Yale  Univer'sitYt  «>  institution  of  learning 
chartered  as  the  "Collegiate  School  of  Con- 
necticut" by  the  General  Assembly  of  the 
colony  of  Connecticut,  October,  1701.  The 
minister  of  New  Haven,  James  Pierpont,  in 
concert  with  nine  other  Congr^tional  minis- 
ters, most  of  whom  were  of  the  Connecticut 
seaboard,  had  founded  the  Collegiate  School 
in  September,  1701.  The  school  was  formally 
established  at  Saybrook  in  Noveniber,  ITOI, 
though  the  claaaea  until  1707  were  taught  at 
Killingworth  ( now  Clinton ),  an  adjoining 
town,  where  Abraham  Pierson,  the  first  rector, 
was  pastor.  The  school  was  permanently  set- 
tled in  New  Haven  in  1716,  and  in  1718  its 
name  was  changed  to  Yale  Coll™,  in  recog- 
nition of  a  large  gift  from  Elihu  Yale,  of  Lon- 
don. Down  to  the  period  of  the  Revolution 
the  college  received  from  the  Colonial  Govt. 
stated  or  occasional  granta  of  funds.  In 
1792  the  governor,  lieutenant  governor,  and 
six  senior  senators  of  the  state  were  made, 
em  o/ficio,  members  of  the  corporation,  the 
state  making  at  the  same  time  a  grant  valued 
at  $30,000  to  the  college  funds.  In  Januai?, 
1887,  the  use  of  the  title,  Yale  University,  was 
authorised  by  the  General  Assembly.  For  the 
first  one  hundred  years  instruction  was  given 
chiefly  by  the  rector  or  president,  assisted  by 
two  or  three  tutors  chosen  from  among  the 
recent  graduates,  and  serving  for  brief  periods. 
A  Proil   of  Divinity    (or  college   pastor)    was 

S pointed  in  17S5,  and  in  1770  a  Prof,  of 
ithematics,  though  the  chair  was  not  per- 
manently occupied  till  1794.  It  was  not  until 
the  nineteenth  century  that  the  system  of 
permanent  professors,  assisted  still  by  tempo- 
rary instructors,  was  fully  established.  There 
are  four  departments  of  instruction  grouped 
under  the  name  of  Yale  Univ.,  viz.,  the  de- 
partments of  philosophy  and  the  arts,  ol  the- 
ology, of  law,  and  of  medicine,  the  first  of 
these  including  the  academical  department  (the 
original  Yale  College),  the  Shield  Scientific 
School,  the  School  of  the  Fine  Arts,  the  mu- 
sical department,  and  the  courses  of  graduate 
(of  advanced  nonprofessional)  instruction. 
The  number  of  students  enrolled  in  1910  was 
3,297;  of  instructors,  404. 

The  University  Library  is  open  to  students 
in  all  departments.  In  the  same  building  is 
a  separate  library,  supported  by  the  under- 
graduates, and  devoted  to  general  literature. 
There  are  also  special  libraries.  The  total 
number  of  volumes  in  the  several  libraries  of 
the  university  is  about  B7S,000.  The  Peabody 
Museum  of  Natural  History,  devoted  chiefly  to 
arflopy.   geoloay,   and   mineralogy,   wt»   estab- 

.;_L_j  t -.a  ..  jisoooo  from  George  Pea- 

I  186Q.    The  total  valne  ot 


Tam,  the  tuberous  root  of  species  of  climb' 
ing  vines  of  the  family  DioMcoreacea.  Yuns 
are  extensively  grown  in  all  warm  countries  as 
food.  Some  of  tiie  nild  sorts  are  nauseous  and 
even  poisonous.     Yams  are  succeasfully  grown 


Yam. 

in  the  8.  parte  of  the  U.  S.,  and  the  Chinese 
yam  (i>.  baialaa,  or  properly  D.  divarieata) 
thrives  in  the  N.  parts,  but  its  great  roots, 
though  often  of  excellent  quality,  have  a  tend- 
ency to  bury  themselves  so  deeply  in  the  earth 
that  they  can  only  be  reached  at  considerable 
trouble.  The  air  potato  bears  large  edible 
tubers  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  The  term 
yam  la  also  applied  to  Tarioua  forms  of  the 
sweet  potato. 

TangtM  {jing'tti),  one  of  the  two  great 
rivers  of  China;  is  formed  by  two  streams  ris- 
ing in  E.  Tibet,  in  lat.  26"  30'  N.,  Ion.  102'  E., 
and,  after  flowing  E.  and  then  8.,  enters  the 
Chinese  province  of  Yuiman.  Its  whole  course, 
under  various  names,  is  2,900  m.,  and  the  area 
of  its  basin  is  computed  to  be  648,000  sq.  m. 
It  is  connected  by  the  Grand  Canal  with  the 
Hwang-ho  or  Yellow  River,  and  is  navigable  for 
vessels  of  considerable  draught  for  1.200  m. 
from  its  mouth.  By  the  Treaty  of  Tien-tsin 
the  lower  Yangtze  was  opened  to  European 
trade,  and  700  m.  from  its  mouth  is  the  treaty 
port  of  Hangkow,  the  great  commercial  port 
of  mld'China.  The  highest  port  on  the  river 
(ft  present  reached  by  ateamera  is  the  treaty 
port,  Ichang,  1,000  m.  from  its  month. 

Tanlcee,  a  cant  name  for  Americans  belong' 
ing  to  the  New  England  states.  During  the 
American  Revolution  the  name  was  applied  by 
the  British  to  all  the  insurgents;  and  durinf; 
the  Civil  War  it  was  the  common  designation 
of  the  Federal  soldiers  by  the  Confederates. 
The  most  common  explanation  of  the  term 
seems  also  the  most  plausible,  namely,  that  it 
is  a  corrupt  pronunciation  of  Ettgl*»h  or  of 
French  Anglais  formerly  current  among  the 
American  Indians. 


YATES 

Tankee-Doo'dle,  a  national  idr  of  the  U.  8.; 
originally  known  under  the  titif  of  "  The 
Yankee's  Return  from  Camp."  It  is  reoorted 
to  have  been  a  popular  tune  in  E^ngland  during 
the  Commonwealth,  at  which  time  its  dc^gerel 
words  ori^nated.  Others  say  that  it  was  the 
tune  origmally  set  to  the  old  English  song 
"  Lydia  Locket  Lost  Her  Pocket."  and  that  the 
words  now  used  were  composed  in  1755  by  Dr. 
Schuckburgfa,  a  British  surgeon  who  served 
under  Gen.  Amherst  during  the  French  and 
Indian  War  in  N.  Ameri(»,  and  who  took  this 
means  of  ridiculing  the  colonial  militia.  Still  . 
other  accounts  of  its  origin  are  given.  It  was 
introduced  by  Samuel  Arnold  into  his  opera 
"  Two  to  One." 

Tapnri  (ya-pft-rtl'),  also  written  JafukX, 
HiapdkA,  the  name  given  by  Brazilians  to  a 
N.  affluent  of  the  Amazon,  known  in  its  upper 
course  In  Colombia  as  the  Caqueta.  It  is  the 
first  great  Amazonian  affluent  above  the  Negro.; 
rises  in  the  Andes ;  length  probably  not  tar 
from  1,500  m.,  and  river  steamers  can  ascend 
to  the  Cupaty  Fall,  about  620  m.  Above  the 
fall  there  is  another  navigable  space  of  several 
hundred  miles. 

Tar'mouth,  town  in  the  counties  of  Norfolk 
and  Suffolk,  England;  122  m.NNE.of  Ijoadon; 
stands  on  a  tongue  of  land  between  the  North 
Sea  and  the  Yare,  along  the  bank  of  which 
runs  a  quay  nearly  2  m.  long.  It  is  the  prin- 
cipal seat  of  the  F.nglinh  herrins  fisheries  on 
the  E.  coast,  and  considerable  deep-sea  fish- 
ing is  also  carried  on,  the  produce  of  which 
is  daily  carried  to  London.  Silk  goods,  ropes, 
sails,  and  iron  are  manufactured,  and  coasting 
vessels  are  built  here.  The  Church  of  St.  Nich- 
olas, founded  by  Herbert  de  Losinga  early  in 
the  twelfth  century,  and  restored  1847-84,  is 
one  of  the  largest  parish  ghurches  in  England. 
Pop.   11901)   51,316. 

Taioslav  (yB-rO-slHr'] ,  capital  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Ynroslav,  Russia;  at  the  confiuence 
of  the  Kotorost  and  the  Volga;  173  m.  NE.  of 
Moscow.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  civil  governor 
and  an  archbishop.  The  right  bank  of  the 
Volga  is  bordered  by  a  beautiful  quay  for 
nearly  2  m. ;  the  suburbs  are  on  the  left  bank. 
The  city  has  sixty-six  churches,  the  Uspenskij 
Cathedral  (b^un  in  1215)  and  several  very 
old  churches,  a  theolo^cal  seitiinHry,  three 
monasteries,  a  lyceum  with  a  law  faculty,  and 
three  gymnasin.  There  are  many  factories  for 
linen  and  cotton  goods,  bell  foundries,  silk 
factories,  and  a  very  active  tra<!ic  with  Mos- 
cow and  8t.  Petersburg.  The  village  Velikoje 
8eM,  in  the  district  of  Yaroslav,  i.i  the  center 
of  linen  manufacturing  which  is  famous  all 
over  Russia.  It  produces  goods  valued  at 
S,000,000  rubles  annually.  The  town  of  Jaro- 
slav,  in  Austrian  Galicia,  on  the  Cracow-Lem- 
berg  Railway,  must  not  be  confounded  with 
Russian  Yaroslav.     Pop.   (1907)    71,616. 

TatM,  Riclitid,  1816-73;  American  political 
leader;  b.  Warsaw,  Ky. ;  became  a  resident  of 
Springfield,  III.;  graduated  at  Illinois  College, 
1838)  studied  law,  and  practiced  at  Spring- 
field; served  m  the  Illinois  Legislature,  184^ 
49 ;  elected  to  Congress  on  tlw.  Whig  ticket, 

3  .C.oo^^le 


7AVARI 

18S0;  QoTenior  of  IllinoU,  ISSO  uid  1862; 
took  an  active  part  in  raisiiiK  troops  for  the 
Union  army,  appointed  by  U.  S.  Graiit  miia- 
tering  officer  for  the  state,  and  auboet^uentl}' 
colonel  of  the  Twenty-first  Illinois  R^mcnt; 
■erved  as  V.  S.  Senator  from  IllinoiB,  1865-71. 
TSTUl  (ft-vft-TC),  affluent  of  the  Amazon, 
forming  part  of  the  boundary  between  Brazil 
and  Peru;  lower  portion  very  crooked,  and 
flowa  in  a  narrow  valley  through  heavy  forest*. 

Tawn'lag,  an  act  eonaUting  of  a  deep  in- 
■piration,  accornpanied  by  an  involuntary 
opening  of  the  jaws  to  the  fullest  extent.  It 
differs  from  sighing  in  these  points — that  it  is 
entirely  involuntary,  and  that  it  is  evidence  of 
mental  weariness.  Its  exciting  cause  is  im- 
perfect ab-ation  of  the  blood,  and  it  is  some- 
times a  symptom  of  certain  brain  diseases. 
Yawning  is  performed  by  some  animals,  as  the 
dog,  probably   from  similar  causes. 

Ttioo'  Frand,  name  popularly  applied  to  the 
sale  by  Georgia  in  ITS5  of  the  greater  portion 
of  her  W.  territory.  In  1789  the  StaU  of 
Georgia  sold  to  certain  companies  lands  esti- 
mated at  13,500,000  acres  for  about  t200,000. 
Certain  difficulties  both  as  to  the  Indian  title 
and  the  currency  in  which  the  purchasers  were 
entitled  to  pay  having  arisen,  the  legislature 
repealed  the  act.  Xbeae  sales  seem  to  have 
been  practically  inoperative;  but  in  1795  the 
State  of  Georgia  sold  to  four  companies — 
known  in  history  as  the  Yazoo  Companies 
—for  «S00,000  about  35,000,000  acrea  of  W. 
lands.  This  sale  excited  the  apprehension  of 
the  Federal  Govt.,  to  whose  notice  it  was 
brought  by  a  message  of  Fres.  Washington ; 
but  m  Georgia  it  aroused  especial  indignation, 
for  there  was  strong  evidence  of  legislative 
cormntion.  All  acta  authorizinD;  the  sale  were 
repealed,  the  purchase  money  paid  was  ordered 
to  be  returned,  tiie  records  of  the  transaction 
were  publicly  burned,  and  in  1802  Georgia 
oeded  all  this  W.  territory  to  the  U.  8.,  and 
the  Federal  Govt,  subsequently  recommended 
that  the  claimants  he  compensated  in  land  or 
monqr.  The  popular  feeling,  however,  agajnst 
the  transaction  prevented  any  action  by  Con- 
gress. The  claimants  finally  sought  their 
remedy  in  the  U.  S.  courts,  and  the  case  was 
carried  by  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
U.  8.  In  Fletcher  va.  Peck,  Chief  Justice 
Marshall  in  ISIO  held  that  the  original  sale 
t^  the  State  of  Georgia  must  be  sustained; 
that  the  all^ntion  of  corruption  on  the  part 
of  the  legislature  could  not  be  entertained  by 
the  court;  that  purchasers  from  the  land  com- 

SJiias  were  innocent  holders  without  notice; 
at  the  repealing  act  of  the  Georgia  Legis- 
lature could  not  divest  them  of  the  nghts  thus 
acquired.  Consequently,  in  1814  Congress  ap- 
propriated $5,000,000,  to  be  raised  by  the  sales 
of  the  lands,  to  quiet  and  extinguish  all  the 
Yaioo  olaims. 

TasOD  lUv'et,  in  the  Choctaw  language, 
"River  of  Death,"  alluding  to  the  malarial 
diseases  which  prevailed  upon  its  shores,  a 
navigable  stream  of  Mississippi;  originates  in 
the  Yazoo  Pass,  Coldwater  Hiver,  Beaver  Dam 
River,  and  other  bayous  and  sloughs  springing 


YEAR  AND  A  DAY 

from  tiie  E.  bonk  of  the  Misslasippi  River,  and 
joins  the  Tallahatchie.  The  Yazoo  proper  is 
290  m.  long,  deep,  serpentine  and  riuggiso,  and 
navigable  the  year  round.  It  joins  the  Missis- 
sippi 12  m.  above  Vicksburg. 

Year,  a  full  round  of  tbe  seasons.  First 
there  is  the  solar,  tropical,  or  equinoctial 
year,  defined  as  the  mean  interval  between  two 
returns  of  the  sun  to  the  vernal  equinox.  Thtt 
length  of  this  year  is  335  days  5  hours  48 
minutes  46  seconds,  and  it  diminishes  about 
half  a  second  in  a  century  owing  to  a  change 
in  the  annual  precession  of  the  equinoxes. 
Since  the  apparent  motion  of  the  sun  or  the 
real  motion  of  the  earth,  relative  to  the 
equinox,  determines  the  changes  of  tbe  si 
this  year  is  regarded  as  the  principal  o 
practical  purposes.  It  is  also  the  principal  - 
year  for  astronomical  purposes,  because  it 
corresponds  to  one  revolution  of  the  earth  in 
longitude. 

The  years  which  have  br.inched  off,  as  it 
vere,  from  the  solar  year  are,  principally,  our 
"  common  year "  of  365  days,  and  leap  year, 
or  bissextile  year,  of  368  days.  The  Julian 
year  is  one  fourth  the  length  of  four  consec- 
utive years  of  the  Julian  calendar,  or  3651 
days.  A  "  lunar  year  "  of  twelve  lunar  months, 
or  354  days  nearly,  was  sometimes  used  by 
nations  whose  religious  feasts  were  r^ulated 
by  the  moon,  notably  by  the  Mohammedans, 
among  the  seasons  of  the  oeginning  of  the  year. 
The  Roman  year,  before  the  time  of  Julius 
Ciesar,  began  on  March  1st.  The  civil  year 
of  the  Jews  b^sn  at  the  autumnal  equinox, 
though  their  sacred  year  began  at  the  vernal. 
The  Greek  year,  before  the  Sme  of  Meton,  be- 
gan at  the  winter  solstice;  afterwards  at  th« 
summer  solstice.  The  Egyptians,  Persians, 
and  other  Eastern  peoples  began,  like  the  Jews, 
at  the  autumnal  equinox.  The  Mohammedan 
year,  being  a  lunar  year,  has  no  detemunat« 
epoch,  but  eontinualiy  goes  bsckward  among 
the  seasons.  September  Ist  was  the  beginning 
of  the  year  in  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  the 
same  was  true  in  Russia  before  the  time  of 
Peter  the  Great.  In  France,  under  the  Mero- 
vingian kings,  the  year  began  March  let ;  un- 
der the  Carlovingians,  March  25th ;  under  the 
Capetians,  at  Easter;  and  after  1564,  on  Jan- 
uary 1st.  The  ancient  N.  nations  of  Europe 
placed  the  bwinning  of  the  year  at  the  winter 
solstice.  In  England  the  year  began  on  March 
25th,  previously  to  the  adoption  of  the  Gregor- 
ian calendar,  which  took  place  in  1752.  ^e 
same  usage  prevailed  in  the  Britjsh-Amerieut 
colonies  from  Nova  Scotia  to  Georgia,  and  waa 
abandoned  at  the  same  time. 

Year  and  a  Day,  a  oomplete  calendar  year. 
The  day  was  added  because  the  common  law 
recognized  no  parts  of  a  day,  and  therefore 
treated  the  last  day  of  any  period  as  ending 
at  the  very  moment  of  its  banning.  In  ac- 
cordance  with   this    rule,   an    infant   attained 


year,  or  of  "  a  year  and  a  day,"  wsa  adopted 
OS  an  arbitrary  limit  in  many  eases.  By  the 
feudal  law  the  heir  of  tbe  tenant  was  required 
to  claim  within   that  period,  or  he  lost  Us  . 


YEAST 

land.  The  umo  limitoUon  wm  impooed  npon 
the  claim  of  a  tenant  againat  his  disseisor) 
and  upon  that  of  the  owner  of  an  estray,  or 
of  the  owne^  of  wrecked  property,  or  upon  the 
isaning  of  ftn  execution  on  a  judgment. 

Teast    See  Febuextatiok. 

Teiak,  or  Jeisk  (yftlik),  town  in  the  terri- 
tory of  the  Kuban  Coswcks,  Russia;  on  the 
Bea  of  Azov,  OS  m.  SW.  of  Azov ;  was  founded 
1848  as  a  port  for  the  rich  produce  of  the  sur- 
rounding country,  and  ha«  grown  very  rapidly. 
Pop.   (1007)  38,414. 

Tdlowbli^  the  common  name  given  In  the 
U.  S.  to  two  varieties  of  birds,  the  American 
goldflnoh  (SpiniM  triiHt)  and  the  yellow  war- 
bler or  munmer  yellowbird  {Detuiroica  letUva). 

Tellow  Fe'vei,  a  diiease  bo  called  because  of 
the  peculiar  yellow  tinge  of  the  ikin  charac- 
terizing it,  and  for  the  same  reason  technically 
designated  typhus  icterode,  icterus  being  the 
classical  name  of  "  yellow  jaundice."  Yellow 
fever  prevails  chiefly  in  tropical  and  warm 
climates.  When  occurring  in  temperate  or  cold 
zones,  it  has  been  imported  in  the  course  of 
commercial  travel.  It  is  indigenous  chiefly  in 
the  W.  Indies,  upper  coasts  of  8.  America,  and 
the  borders  of  the  Qulf  of  Mexico.  It  occurs 
in  isolated,  sporadic  cases  at  all  seasons  in 
seaports  to  which  it  bos  been  transported  in 
ships.  Kigid  quarantine  of  all  ships  coming 
from  yellow -fever  localities,  and  their  fumi- 
gation before  disembarking  passengers  and 
cargo,  have  averted  the  epidemics  formerly  so 
frequent. 

Yellow-hammer,  the  Embvrira  citrinella,  a 
very  common  and  handsome  bunting  of  Europe 
and  W.  Asia.  In  Italy  it  is  fattened  and 
eaten.  In  the  U.  S.  the  name  is  sometimes 
applied  to  the  flicker,  or  golden- winged  wood- 
pecker, CoUtptet  auratus. 

Yellow  Biv'eT  (in  Chinese  Ewado-Ho),  one 
of  the  principal  rivers  of  China;  sometimes 
called  "  China's  sorrow,"  from  its  unruliness, 
andrthe  destruction  and  loss  of  life  caused  by 
its  frequent  change  of  course  and  the  bursting 
of  its  banks.    Its  principal  affluent  ia  the  Wei. 

Yellow  Sea  (in  Chinese  Hwaho-hai),  for- 
merly sometimes  written  Whaho-hai  and 
HoAKO-HAi,  those  waters  of  the  Pacific  Ocean 
which  border  on  the  Chinese  provinces  of  Cheh- 
kiang,  Kiang-su,  Shantung,  and  Chih-li,  and 
are  oiscolor^  by  the  larga  amount  of  yellowi 
Ish  mud  which  the  Hwsjig-ho  and  the  Tang- 
tze-Kiang  carry  with  them  to  the  ocean.  It  is 
rather  uallow  and  its  depth  is  steadily  di- 
minishing. 

Yellowstone  Ha'tlonal  Pa^  a  reaerved  tract 
situated  in  the  NW.  comer  of  the  State  of 
Wyoming,  with  a  strip  of  country  less  than 
8  m.  in  width  lying  on  the  N.  in  Montana,  and 
a  still  narrower  strip  ^tending  westward  into 
Idaho.  Its  boundanes,  as  determined  by  act 
of  Congress  setting  apart  the  park,  are  ill  de- 
fined. It  is  a  rugged  country,  embracing  a 
little  more  than  3.300  sq.  m. 

In  the  summer  of  1870  H.  D.  Washbume, 
Surveyor   General   of   Montana,   traversed   the 


YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK 

region  and  published  the  first  detailed  account 
of  it  Id  the  following  year  Dr.  Ferdiitand  V. 
Hayden,  U.  S.  Oeologist,  visited  the  region. 
Upon  his  earnest  solicitation.  Congress  passed 
a  law  dedicating  the  park  and  defining  its 
boundaries  as  a  public  park  or  pleasure  ground 
for  the  benefit  and  enjoyment  of  the  people. 
The  act  was  approved  March  1,  1S72. 

The  central  jwrtion  of  the  park  is  a  broad, 
volcanic  plateau  between  7,000  and  8,000  ft. 
above  sea  level,  with  an  average  elevation  of 
8,000  ft.  Surrounding  it  on  all  sides  are 
mountain  ranges  with  prominent  peaks  and 
ridges  rising  from  2,000  to  4,000  ft.  above  the 
general  level  of  the  inclosed  table-land.  Out 
of  this  plateau  rise  two  prominent  peaks — ML 
Washburne  and  Mt.  Sheridan — from  both  of 
which  have  poured  forth  enormous  masses  of 
lavas.  Across  the  plateau  from  the  SE.  to  the 
NW.  stretches  the  Continental  Divide,  sepa- 
rating the  waters  of  the  Atlantic  from  those 
of  the  Pacific.  Numerous  streams  coming 
down  from  the  high  mountains  supply  large 
quantities  of  water  to  the  lakes  and  ponds. 
The  Yellowstone  River,  the  longest  branch  of 
the  Missouri,  finds  its  source  in  Yellowstone 
Lake;  the  Snake  in  Shoshone  Lake. 

About  eighty-five  per  cent  of  liie  park  is  for- 
est clad;  the  bare  portions  are  mainly  areas 
above  timber  line,  steep  slopes,  and  wet,  marshy 
bottoms.  The  forest  is  essentiHlly  coniferous. 
With  the  exception  of  the  Rocky  Mountain 
goat,  all  the  larger  game  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains roam  in  tie  park.  A  few  small  herds 
of  buffalo  roam  over  the  park,  grazing  most 
of  the  time  in  out-of-the-way  places.  Since 
their  protection  by  the  Ciovemnient,  they  are 
rapidly  increasing. 

Yellowstone  Lake  measures  20  m.  in  length, 
with  a  breadth  of  16  m.  It  has  on  elevation 
of  7,741  ft,  above  sea  level,  and  is  the  largest 
lake  at  so  high  an  altitude  in  N.  America. 
The  cafion  of  the  Yellowstone  far  excels  in 
beauty  all  other  marvelous  sights  in  the  park. 

The  natural  objects  that  have  made  the  Yel- 
lowstone region  famous  are  mainly  its  geysers 
and  hot  spnngs.  Eruptions  of  lava  ceas^l  long 
ago,  but  over  the  park  plateau  evidences  of 
internal  beat  are  everywhere  to  be  seen.  The 
number  of  hot  springs  scattered  over  the  park 
is  nearly  4,000.  In  the  four  principal  geyser 
basins  (Norris,  Midway,  Upper  and  Lower 
Geyser  Basin)  eighty-four  geysers  are  known  to 
have  been  active  since  the  days  of  the  earliest 
exploration.  Probably  there  are  100  geysera 
within  the  park.     The  Giant,  Giantess,  Grand, 


each  other.  Old  Faithful  was  so  named  on  ac- 
count of  its  great  regularity;  for  over  twenty 
f'eais  It  has  been  playing  at  intervals  averag- 
ng  sixty-five  minutes.  All  the  larger  geysers 
throw  columns  of  water  varying  from  70  to 
250  ft. 

Qovemmtnt  of  Ihe  Park. — The  Yellowstone 
Pork  is  under  the  supervision  of  the  Secretary 
of  the  Interior,  who  is  authorized  to  make  all 
necessary  rules  and  regulations  for  its  gov- 
ernment and  protection.  The  superintendent 
la  an  army  officer,  with  headquarters  at  the 
Mammotli  Hot  Springs.    Nobody  i*  allowed  to 


xCoogIc 


redde  pununentl;^  in  the  park  without  necuJ 
pcnniL    All  Bhooting  u  Btnctly  prohibited,  and 
the  capture  and  trappiiie  of  game  is  forbidden. 
FiHhin^  for  pleasure  and  for  food  while  in  the 
parlc    u   permitted,   but   ia   stdctly   prohibited 
for  commercial   purpoBes.     Every  precaution  ii 
taken  to  prevent  forest  flrei.     There  are 
several  hotels  in  the  park,  and  these  are 
oonneeted  by  good  roads  maintained  by 
the  Oovenunent. 

Yemen  (yim'Sn),  a  province  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire  in  Arabia;  has  the  Red 
Sea  on  the  W.  The  coast  line  ia  about 
GOO  ro.  in  length,  and  the  total  area  73,- 
800  sq.  m.;  pop.  eat.  at  abt.  750,000. 
It  conaista  ol  a  maritime  lowland  belt, 
mostly  sandy  and  sterile,  but  in  places 
tropically  fertile,  and  of  table-land  aome 
4,000  ft.  above  the  sea,  and  between  theae 
two  ol  a  chain  of  heavily  wooded  moun- 
tains running  N.  and  S.,  with  peaks  from 
aflOO  to  8,000  ft.  high.  The  former  cap- 
ital, Hodeida,  a  moat  unbealtbful  city,  is 
tb«  principal  port.  Other  porta  are 
Mocha,  famous  for  its  coffee,  but  now 
almost  abandoned,  and  Loheia.  The  prin- 
cipal exports  are  coffee,  skina,  senna, 
indigo,     gums,     da  tea,     tamarinda,     and 

The  earliest  inhabitants  are  aupposed  to 
have  belonged  to  the  Hamitic  race.     De- 
scendants of  the  Semitic  Sheba   (Gen.  x, 
28]  came  afterwards.    From  their  amalgamation 
arose  the  celebrated  Ilimyaritic  Kingdom,  abt. 
700  B.C.    The  high  civilization  of  this  kingdom  is 
attested  by  hundreds  of  inscriptions,  coins,  and 
works  of  art.     Various  attempts  at  conversion 
of  the  country  to  Chriatianity,  as  by  Theophi- 
Ins,    a   missionary   sent   by   Constantius   II  in 
350,    had   small   permanent   result.     The    king 
Abu  Novas,  who  reigned  toward  the  end  of  the 
fifth  century,  professed  Judaiam  and  massacred 
the   Christians.      In   consequence  he    was   con- 

3uered  by  the  Negus  of  Abyssinia  (525),  whom 
ustin  I  had  instigated  to  revenee  his  core- 
ligioniats.  The  Persians  replaced  tne  Abysaini- 
ans  in  57S,  and  the  whole  province  submitted 
to  Mohammed  and  Islam  in  628.  The  Otto- 
mans have  exercised  a  precarious  authority 
over  Yemen  since  I63S. 

Tenikale,  or  Jenikale  [ySn-e-kH'lft),  Straits 
of  (anciently,  Cimmerius  BospAottM),  the  body 
of  water  connecting  the  Sea  of  Azov  with  the 
Black  Sea.  It  u  10  m.  long,  about  3  m.  wide 
where  narrowest,  and  very  shallow.  The  9. 
part  is  called  Strait  of  Kertch. 

Tenlsei  (yen-e-sS'S),  longest  of  the  great 
rivers  of  Siberia,  watering  the  immense  Yeni- 
seiak  province  through  ita  whole  length.  It 
rises  in  the  NW.  of  Mongolia  in  several 
branches.  Below  Krasnoyanik  it  receives  a 
great  tributary,  the  Kan,  and  farther  N.  the 
Angara  and  others,  and  empties  into  the  Arc- 
tic in  a  deep  estuary,  the  Yenisei  indentation 
or  the  Liman  of  Seventy  Islands,  icebound  al- 
moat  all  the  year  round.  Its  total  courae  is 
more  than  3,000  m.  long,  aud  is  navigable  from 
Minusinsk,  though  there  ia  a  series  of  rapids 
In  the  middle  course  between  Krasnojarsk  and 


Tew,  the  common  name  of  evergreen  conif- 
erous trees  of  the  genus  Ttunu,  and  some- 
times extended  to  the  others  of  the  family  . 
TaaetB.  The  common  yew  tree  {T.  boooata) 
of  Europe  is  often  planted  in  churchyards,  be- 
cause of  its  gloomy  appearance.    Its  [eaves  and 


Yaw. 

seeds  are  poiaonoua.  Ita  wood  is  very  hard, 
elastic,  and  durable,  and  was  once  in  great  re- 
pute for  bows.  Of  its  varieties  the  Irish  yew 
IS  the  finest.  T.  canadeniia  is  a  prostrate 
American  sort,  very  common  in  the  N. 

Ymo  [ySi'o),  leas  correctly  Ytsao;  Japanese, 
Hokkaido,  the  most  N.  of  the  great  islands  of 
Japan,  and  until  recently  treated  aa  a  colony  1  ita 
area,  with  small  adjacent  islands,  ia  30,299  aq. 
m.     Pop.  i  1904)  343,717,  including  18,000  Ainoe. 

The  surface  of  the  country  ia  broken  and 
mountainous,  and  a  large  portion  remains  im- 
perfectly explored.  The  Highest  summit  is  Mt. 
Tokachi,  8,200  ft.  in  height.  The  chief  river  is 
the  Ishikari,  Sowing  W.  into  the  Japan  Sea,  a 
stream  abounding  in  salmon.  UakcHlate,  with 
its  magnificent  harbor,  is  the  moat  important 
town  on  the  idand.  It  was  thinly  settled,  and 
the  new  rulers  of  Japan,  fearing  Russian 
aggression,  undertook  a  comprehensive  colo- 
nization Bchcme.  A  special  departjnent,  the 
Kaitakushi,  was  founded,  and  a  number  of 
Americans,  with  Gien.  Horace  Capron  at  their 
head,  were  in  1871  engaged  as  advisers.  They 
spent  large  sums  on  internal  improvements,  but, 
as  no  adequate  returns  followed,  the  island  was 
divided  into  prefectures,  like  the  rest  of  Japan. 
The  interior  still  remains  for  the  most  part 
covered  with  primeval  forest,  inhabited  by 
deer  and  bears.  For  six  months  of  the  year 
the  island  is  under  ice  and  snow;  the  summers, 
though  short,  are  hot,  and  insect  life~' abounds 
in  the  shape  of  mosquitoes  and  gadRiea.  The 
chief  Aino  villages  are  found  on  the  SE.  coast, 
tbe  W.  coast  immediately  N.  of  Mateumaye 
being  settled  by  a  Japanese  fishing  population. 

Ygdiaayl  (Ig'drfl.sll),  in  Scandinavian  my- 
thology, the  greatest  and   most  nihlime  of  ^ 


YOKOHAMA 

trew,  tbe  uh,  whow  braucba  spresd  over  all 
th«  world  and  aapire  kbofe  tieaven  itselL  It 
ia  the  i^mbol  of  the  uniTene.  Beneath  one  of 
ita  roots  ia  tbe  fotmtain  of  wisdom,  and  be- 
neath another  ia  tbe  meettDg  place  of  the  gods. 
Odiu  once  hung  niue  days  and  nine  nights  in 
thia  tree,  sacrinclng  himself  to  himself.  It  ia 
believed  that  Ygdras^  is  the  origin  of  the 
Christmaa  tree. 

Tokohanu  170-kO-hft'mH),  literally,  "cross- 
beach,"  an  important  town  and  the  chief  port 
of  foreign  entry  in  Japan;  on  the  W.  shore  of 
tbe  Bay  of  Tokyo  and  about  18  m.  8.  of  Tokyo, 
on  the  main  line  of  railway  between  Toicyo  and 
Kioto.  Tbe  town  sprang  up  almost  by  accident 
at  the  time  of  the  opening  of  the  country,  the 
Briginal  treaty  port  being  Kanagawa,  on  the  N. 
shore  of  a  small  bay,  now  doaed  in.  Impatient 
ol  the  obstructions  placed  in  the  way  of  their 
securing  ground  for  their  warehouaea,  foreign 
merchants  established  themselves  at  the  small 
fishing  village  of  Yokohama,  2  m.  distant  by 
water.  Tbe  town  divides  itself  into  Uiree 
parts:  (1)  The  "native  town";  (2)  the  for- 
eign settlement,  where  are  tbe  forei^  business 
bouses,  built  on  flat  ground  at  one  time  mostly 
a  marsh  or  swamp;  and  {3)  the  Blufl^,  a  well- 
wooded  hill  to  the  S.  of  the  settlement,  where 
most  of  the  foreign  private  residences  are. 
There  is  a  good  roadstead;  a  harbor,  suitable 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  largest  veseela, 
and  a  gravity  dock.  It  ia  also  the  chief  silk 
emporium;  as  a  tea  emporium,  it  is  yielding 
to  HioBO.  The  chief  imports  are  cotton  yarns, 
sugar.  Kerosene,  woolens,  bar  iron,  wire  nails. 
The  foreign  consuls  general  are  established  here 
and  several  of  the  legations.  In  1904  tbe  pop. 
numbered  326,036. 

Ton'keiB,  city  of  Weatchester  Co.,  N.  T.j  on 
the  Hudson  and  Bronx  rivers  and  the  New 
York  Central  ft  Hudson  River  Railroad;  18  m. 
N.  of  the  New  York  City  HalL  It  has  a 
frontage  of  more  than  4  m.  on  the  Hudson 
River,  extends  E.  for  Si  m.  along  the  Bronx 
River,  and  is  built  on  a  series  of  terraces 
which  rise  from  the  Hudson  to  a  height  of  425 
ft.  above  tide  water.  The  city  is  noted  for  its 
beautiful  residences  and  for  its  maoufactaring 
interests.  The  principal  industriea  are  the 
manufacture  of  carpets  and  hats,  elevators,  re- 
fined sugar,  maltioe,  tools,  chemicals,  and  in- 
sulated goods,  and  the  handlinir  of  grain,  for 
which  there  ia  a  large  elevator.  Fop.  (1910) 
79,803. 

Tork,  Dnkea  «(,  a  title  often  conferred  upon 
younger  sons  of  the  kings  of  England,  some  of 
whom  have  come  to  the  throne  through  the  de- 
cease of  their  elder  brothers. 

York,  capital  of  Yorkshire,  England;  at  tbe 
confluence  of  the  Ouse  and  tbe  Foss;  I8B  m.  N. 
of  London;  and  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
interesting  cities  of  England.  It  is  surrounded 
with  walls,  2J  m.  in  circuit,  dating  mainly 
from  the  reign  of  Edward  III,  and  is  generally 
closely  built,  with  narrow  streets  and  curious, 
old-fashioned  houses.  Its  cathedral,  built  from 
the  eleventh  to  tbe  fourteenth  century,  and  one 
of  the  finest  specimens  of  Gothic  architecture  in 
the  world,  is  built  in  tbe  form  of  a  croM,  fi24 


ft.  Img,  260  ft  broad 

a  square,   massive   tower,   210  ft.   higl 


the  trauaepts,  with 

.     ;1S  ft.   high,   riaLu 

the  crossing,  and  two  elegant  towers,  £01 


ft  high,  flanking  the  W.  front.  The  castle,  in 
which  the  assize  courts  are  still  held,  dates 
from  tbe  reign  of  Edward  I.  Its  manufactures 
and  trade  are  not  important  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  Archbishop  of  York.  In  the  time  of  the 
Romans,  York  was  the  seat  of  the  geneial  gov- 
ernment for  the  whole  province  of  Britannia; 
Septimius  Beverus  and  Constantiua  Chlorus  died 
here,  and  here  Constantine  the  Great  was  pro- 
claimed emperor.  In  the  Saxon  period  it  was 
the  capital  of  Northumbj-ia,  and  afterwards  of 
Deira,  and  in  connection  with  the  Scots  and 
the  Danes  it  offered  a  fierce  remstance  to  Will- 
iam the  Conqueror,  who  after  taking  it  razed 
it  to  the  ground.    It  was  only  partially  rebuilt, 

«~     ^-       "'T  Pop. 

York,  capital  of  York  Co.,  If».;  on  the  Codo- 
rus  Creek;  m  m.  W.  of  Philadelphia.  It  is 
laid  out  in  quadrangles  designed  to  be  480  ft. 
wide  by  620  ft.  long,  and  has  a  slightly  undu- 
lating surface  -  and  excellent  drainage,  ^e 
principal  industries  are  the  manufacture  of 
agricultural  implements,  passenger  and  freight 
railway  cars,  turbine  water  wheels,  rolled  met- 
als, ice  machines  and  refrigerators,  safea,  elec- 
tric power  machinery,  wagons  and  carriages, 
wall  paper,  iron,  flour,  candy,  chains,  crackers, 
carpets,  cigars,  and  wire  cloth.  Pop,  (1910) 
44,760. 


York'town,  Siege  of,  a  notable  si^ce  sustained 
by  the  village  of  Yorktown,  Va.,  during  the 
War  of  the  American  Revolution.  Lord  Com- 
walUs,  posted  here  with  a  force  of  more  than 
8,000  men  and  supporied  by  several  frigates  an- 
chored in  York  River,  was  in  the  latter  part  of 
September,  1781,  besieged  by  the  combined 
American  and  French  forces  under  Washington 
and  Lafayette,  numbering  about  16.000  men. 
C^  October  Stb  fire  was  opened,  and  on  the 
following  evening  a  British  frigate  and  three 
large  transports  were  destroyed.  A  successful 
attack  was  made  upon  the  besiegers  on  the 
night  of  tbe  14tb,  but  a  large  French  fleet  un- 
der Count  de  Grasse  prevented  Comwallie  from 
receiving  the  reCnforcements  sent  to  him  by  Sir 
Henry  Clinton  from  New  York.  On  the  Iflth 
he  made  an  ineffectual  sortie;  on  thenext  day 
offered  to  capitulate,  and  on  the  19th  surren- 
dered bis  whole  force  of  7,247  regular  troops^ 
840  sailors,  with  235  guns.  The  entire  British 
in  killed,  wounded,  and  missing  was  about 
that  of  the  Americans  and  f^ch,  about 
This  surrender  virtually  brought  the  War 
of  the  Revolution  to  a  close. 

Yosemite  (yO-sCml-te)  Taller,  &  r^on  of 
remarkable  scenic  attraction  in  the  Sierra 
Nevadas  of  California,  about  160  m.  SE.  of 
San  Francisco,  and  discovered  in  1861  by  a 
party  of  settlers  in  tbe  vicinity  of  the  minlns 
camp  of  Ifaripoea  while  in  pursuit  of  a  band 
of  troublesome  Indians,  who  were  ascertained 
to  have  a  stronghold  in  the  mountains.  The 
ward  FoMDitte  means   "a  fnU-gnwn  grinlr 


.y  Google 


bear,"  and  was  the  iiborlgiiutl  name  of  a  noted 
chief. 

The  YoBemite  Valley  has  veiy  much  the 
character  of  a  gorge  or  trough  hollowed  in  the 
mountains  in  a  direction  nearly  at  right  angles 
to  their  general  trend,  and  liea  midway  between 
the  E.  and  W,  baBcs  of  the  Sierra.  It  is  a 
level  area,  ahont  6  m.  in  length  and  from  half 
a  mile  to  a  mile  in  width,  and  ia  sunk  nearly 
a  mile  in  depth  below  the  general  level  oif 
the  adjacent  region.  The  river  Uerced  mne 
through  tha  'VosemitA.  Two  branehea — the 
Tenaya  Fork  and  the  Illilouette — of  the  main 
Mer<4d  also  enter  the  valley  near  its  head. 

In  entering  the  Yosemite  from  the  lower 
ends,  the  visitor  passes  from  a  V-shaped  gorge, 
or  csDon,  into  one  which  may  be  fairly  called 
U-shaped,  since  its  walls  rise  almost  vertically. 
On  the  N.  side  of  the  valley  ie  the  mass  of 
rock  called  El  Capitan,  and,  exactly  opposite, 
the  Bridal  Veil  and  Cathedral  Rocks.  At  thU 
point  the  distance  across  the  valley  is  only  a 
mile,  and  at  the  base  of  these  cliffs  there  is 
just  room  for  the  river  to  pass.  El  Capitan 
IS  an  immense  block  of  granite  projecting 
aquarely  out  into  the  valley,  and  presenting 
two  almost  vertical  faces  which  meet  in  a 
sharp  edge  3,300  ft.  In  perpendicular  elevation. 
Its  sides  are  smooth,  and  entirely  destitute  of 
Y^etation.  The  most  striking  face  of  the 
larger  Cathedral  Rock  is  turned  up  the  valley, 
but  on  the  aide  facing  the  entrance  there  is  a 
feature  of  great  beauty — namely,  the  Bridal 
Veil  Falls,  made  by  the  creek  of  tiie  same  name, 
which,  as  it  enters  the  valley,  descends  in  a 
vertical  sheet  of  630  ft,  perpendicular,  striking 
there  a  pile  of  debris,  down  which  it  rushes 
in  a  series  of  cascades,  with  a  vertical  descent 
of  nearly  300  ft.  more,  the  total  height  of  the 
fsJl  being  000  ft.  When  the  stream  is  neither 
too  full  nor  too  low,  the  mass  of  water  in  its 
fall  vibrates  with  the  varying  pressure  of  the 
wind,  in  a  manner  to  justify  the  poetic  name 
it  now  bears.  Another  fall,  the  Virgin's  Tears, 
in  a  recess  of  the  rocks  opposite  the  Bridal 
Veil,  and  just  below  EI  Capit&n,  is  over  1,000 
ft.  high. 

The  walls  of  the  valley  continue  lofty  and 
broken  into  the  most  picturesque  forms.  Of 
these  the  Three  Brothers  and  the  Sentinel 
Rock  are  the  most  conspicuous.  Ne«rly  op- 
posite the  Sentinel  Rock  is  the  fall  made  by 
Yosemite  Creek  down  the  wall  on  the  N.  side 
of  the  valley.  There  is  flrst  a  vertical  fall 
□f  1,600  ft,  then  a  descent  of  62B  ft.  in  a 
series  of  cascades,  and  finally  one  plunge  of 
400  ft.  on  to  a  low  talus  of  rooks  at  the  foot 
of  the  precipice.  At  the  head  of  the  valley 
are  tiie  two  falls  of  the  Ueroed  River,  with 
intervming  rapids.  The  lower  one.  Vernal 
Fall,  is  about  400  ft  high;  the  upper,  the 
Nevada  Fall,  about  600  ft. 

Done-shaped  masses  of  granite  characterise 
the  vicinity  of  the  Yosemite.  The  North  Dome, 
on  the  N.  side  of  the  valley,  lends  itself  to 
beautiful  eombinationa  of  scenery,  as  seen 
from  a  little  above  the  Yosemite  Falls.  The 
Sentinel  Dome,  on  the  opposite  side,  not  visible 
from  the  valley  itself,  affords  a  magniflcent 
view  from  ite  summit.  A  projecting  cliff, 
called   Glacier   Point,   4,737   ft.   high,   a   little 


YOUNG 

lower  than  this,  and  just  on  the  edge  of  the 
valley,  is  also  much  visited  for  the  »vce  at  the 
view  which  it  offers  of  the  whole  region.  The 
Half  Dome  fronts  the  valley  of  the  Tenaya 
Fork  of  the  Merced  with  a  steep  slope,  crowned 
by  a  vertical  wall  of  1,600  ft.  in  elevation. 

The  Yosemite  Valley  was  given  by  Congress 
to  the  fiUte  of  California  in  1864,  to  be  "held 
for  public  use,  resort,  and  recreation,"  and  to 
be  "  inalienable  for  all  time."  It  is  managed 
by  commissioners  appointed  by  the  governor. 
Wagon  roads  into  the  vall^  from  its  lower 
end  and  leading  up  the  Merced  River  have 
been  built  by  private  parties. 

Yoshlhito,  1870-  ;  Emperor  of  Japan; 
succeeded  his  father,  Mutsuhito,  July  30,  1012. 

Ton'mans,  Edward  Livingstone,  1S21-S7; 
American  scientist;  b.'Co^mans,  N.  Y.;  stud- 
ied chemistry,  physics,  and  medicine,  although, 
on  account  of  a  disease  of  the  eyes  which  miule 
him  blind  at  times  for  many  years,   he  could 

Ejraue  hie  studies  only  bv  tha  aid  of  his  sister, 
llza  Anne  Youmans.  Besides  delivering  sci- 
entific lectures  during  a  period  of  fifteen  years, 
he  published  "  A  Chemical  Chart,"  "  Class 
Book  of  ChemiattT,"  "  Alcohol  and  the  Con- 
stitution of  Man,'  "  Chemical  Atlas,"  "  Hand 
Book  of  Household  Science,"  "  Correlation  and 
Conservation  of  Forces,"  "  The  Culture  De- 
manded by  Modern  Life."  In  1871  he  founded 
the  International  Scienlifio  Serie*  (New  York, 
London,  Paris,  Leipzig,  SL  Petersburg,  and  Mi- 
lan), and,  1872,  the  Popular  Soience  Monthly. 
Yonng,  Brigham,  1801-77;  Mormon;  b.  Whit- 
inghom,  Vt.;  son  of  a  farmer;  was  nlucated  in 
the  Baptist  Church,  and  trained  as  a  painter 
and  giarier,  but  joined  in  1832  the  Mormons 
at  Kirtland,  Ohio,  and  aterted,  183G,  on  his 
flrat  missionary  journey.  He  was  successful 
as  a  preacher,  being  possessed  of  a  peculiar 
but  very  impressive  eloquence,  and  at  the  same 
time  rose  to  the  highest  dignities  and  acquired 
an  almost  boundless  iullueiice  within  the  sect 
1^  his  energy  and  ahrewduess,  and  by  the 
power  of  hia  ^rsonality.  After  the  death  of 
Joseph  Smith  m  1844,  he  was  chosen  president 
of  the  church,  and  in  1S46  he  led  the  Mormona 
from  Nauvoo  to  Great  Salt  Lake  valley,  where 
he  founded  Salt  Lake  City  in  1847.  In  March, 
1849,  a  convention  was,  held  in  that  oity,  a 
constitution  was  framed,  and  a  state  was  or- 
ganiied  under  the  name  of  Oemrvt.  Congress 
refused  to  admit  the  new  state,  and  organized 
the  Territory  of  Utah,  Brigham  Young  being 
appointed  governor.  Conflicts  soon  arose  wi<£ 
the  Federal  Govt.,  the  U.  B,  ofBcere  were  eji- 


from  time  to  time.  Young  continued  to  #ield 
an  almost  unlimited  power.  In  1862  he  intro- 
duced DOlygamy  as  an  institution,  as  the  ce- 
lestial law  of  marriage,  and  carried  it  through 
in  spite  of  considerable  resistance  frtmi  a  dfri- 
■ion  of  the  church.  In  I87I  he  was  indicted 
for  polygamy,  but  was  not  oonvioted.  Died  at 
Salt  lAke  City. 

Young,  Edward,  1684-1786;  English  poet;  b. 
Upham,  Hampshire;  educated  at  Winchester 
School  and  at  Coipua  Christi  CollegB,  Oxfordi 


.Cooglc 


YOUNG  MEN'S  CHRISTIAN 

obtaiDed  ■.  law  fellowEhip  at  All  Souls'  Col' 
l^e,  Oxford;  took  there  the  degree  of  doctor 
of  laws,  1719;  took  orders  id  the  Church  of 
England,  1727 ;  was  appointed  a.  royal  chaplain, 
1728 ;  became  rector  of  Welwyn,  Hertford- 
shire, 1730.  He  published  a  number  of  tras- 
edlea,  "BuEiris,"  "The  Revenge,"  etc;  a  col- 
lection of  satires,  "  The  Lore  of  Fame,"  and 
other  writings;  but  is  best  remembered  bj  his 
religious  bbrnk-verse  poem,  "  Ni^t  TbougM*." 

Yonng  Men'*  Chils^tuui  AaMcia'tions,  soci- 
eties of  young  men  with  a  basis  of  specific 
Christian  principles,  working  bj  methods  con- 
sistent with  the  same  for  the  physical,  social, 
mental,  and  e^lritual  improvement  (a)  of 
their  membership  and   (b)   of  young  men  in 

In    1S41   George  Williams   removed   from  a 

Erovineisl  town  to  London,  and  became  a  clerk 
I  a  large  dryi^oods  house.  He  began  a  quiet 
but  earnest  cfTort  among  his  companionB  to 
lead  them  into  the  Christian  life.  On  June  6, 
1844,  an  organization  was  effected  under  the 
name  of  Young  Men's  Christian  Association, 
and  soon  were  added  the  library  and  reading 
ro(»ii,  and  courses  of  lectures;  a  secretary  was 
employed,  and  branches  were  formed  in  Great 
Britain.  The  total  number  of  associations  in 
the  world  is  now  7,042, 

AlUiough  young  men's  religious  societies  ex- 
isted in  N.  America  more  than  two  hundred 
years  ago,  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Associa- 
tions are  a  direct  outgrowth  from  the  London 
movement  of  1844.  The  first  American  asso- 
ciations were  o^anized  in  December,  IBSl,  at 
Montreal  and  Boston.  The  first  convention 
met  in  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  June  7.  1854.  Its  action 
resulted  in  a  confederation,  with  a  central  com- 
mittee and  an  annual  convention,  this  form  of 
affiliation  continuing  until  the  Civil  Wir. 

The  Oeneral  Work. — The  American  Inter- 
national Convention  is  held  biennially,  every 
association  being  entitled  to  representation  on 
the  basis  of  its  active  membersnip.  A  central 
board,  incorporated  as  the  "  international 
committee,"  is  elected  by  the  convention,  one 
third  every  two  years,  its  headquarters  and  a 
working  quorum  being  located  m  New  York. 
The  cofnmittee's  executive  force  includes  a  gen- 
eral secretary,  with  twenty-five  field,  depart- 
ment, and  oCSce  secretaries.  It  has  also  eight 
seeretaries  in  foreign^mission  lands.  State  and 
provincial  organisitions  supplsment  in  their 
several  fields  the  vrork  of  the  international 
committee. 

The  Xoool  Work. — The  local  asaoeiation  has 
absolute  autonomy,  ezoopt  that  to  afflliate 
with  the  American  International  Convention 
there  must  be  constitutional  provision  reatrict- 
ing  active  (voting  and  oRice  bearing)  mem- 
bership to  men  in  communion  with  an  evan- 
gelical church.  A  typical  American  association 
may  be  thus  described:  (1)  Membership:  (a) 
Active — Christian  young  men  who  constitute 
the  working  foroe;  (b)'  Associato-^young  men 
of  good  moral  character.  (8)  An  incorporated 
board  of  management,  officers,  and  system  of 
committees.  (3)  A  paid  secretary,  as  executive 
officer,  whose  chief  province  is  to  supervise  and 
develop.     (4)  A  specially  constnieted  building. 


YOUNG  WOMEN'S  CHRISTIAN 

with  reception  room,  reading  room,  library,  par- 
lor, recreation  room,  offices,  educational  class- 
rooms; gymnasium,  including  bowling  alley, 
baths,  and  dressing  rooms;  rooms  for  boys' 
department,  kitchen,  and  janitor's  quarters. 
(6)  Organized  Departments — {o)  Business: 
Rcneral  supervision,  memhership.  (b)  Relig- 
ious: Bible  and  workers'  training  classes,  etc. 
There  is  also  a  world-wide  observance  of  an 
annual  week  of  prayer  in  November,  (o) 
Educational:  library  and  reading  rooms,  even- 
ing classes  in  commercial,  industrial,  scientific, 
literary,  political  and  social -economic  subjects, 
literary  societies,  and  lectures,  (d)  Physical: 
gymnasium,  athletic  games,  cycling,  boating, 
swimming,  etc.  (e)  Social,  if)  information 
and  Relief:  employment  bureau,  boarding- 
bouse  register,  savings  fund,  medical  club, 
visitation  of  the  sick.  (^1  A  work  more  or 
less  complete  along  all  these  lines  for  boys. 
The  work  has  broadened  out,  and  now  includes 
work  among  special  classes,  i.e.,  merchants' 
clerks,  etc,  among  college  students,  and  rail- 
way men. 

World  War  AeHviHe^'.—Duruig  the  period  of 
April  20,  1917,  and  March  31,  1919,  the  aeso- 
ciationa  in  the  U.  8.,  received  contribuliona  ag- 
gregating 1125,282,859  and  expended  197  817,- 
005,  leaving  &  bolonoe  of  S27  365,854  for  home 
work  to  the  end  of  1919.  Of  the  expenditurea 
over  130,000,000  was  applied  to  the  home  camp 
service,  over  $43,000,000  to  the  American  Ex- 
peditionary Force,  and  114,400,175  to  special 
work  with  the  Allied  armies  and  prisoners  of 
war.  More  than  97,000  concerts,  vaudeville 
performances,  and  other  entertainments  were 
staged  in  American  cantonments  to  an  aggrfr> 
gat«  audience  of  43,500,000,  and  S2,323,271  was 
expended  in  home  camps  for  free  motion  pic- 
ture shows.  "Huts"  at  home  camps  numbered 
950  and  abroad  about  2,000.  They  were  oen- 
tere  of  religious,  educational,  entertainment;  and 
athletic  activities  for  all  men  who  passed 
through  the  campe. 

ToDngs'town,  capital  of  Mahoning  Co.,  Ohio; 
on  the  Mahoning  River;  67  m.  SE.  of  Cleve- 
land, and  the  same  distance  KW.  of  Pittsburg, 
Fa.  Its  principal  industry  is  the  manufacture 
of  iron.  The  site  of  the  present  city  and  town- 
ship of  Youngstown  was  purchased  from  the 
Connecticut  lAnd  Company  in  1800  W  John 
Young,  who  settled  there  in  1700.  The  first 
ToUiug  mill  (the  second  in  Uie  state)  was 
erected  in  184ft-46,  and  the  flrst  furnace  in 
1848.    Pop.  (1010)  7B,0«6. 

Yonag  Wom'en's  Chiia'tlan  AasodA'tloas,  or- 
ganizations devoted  to  the  physical,  sodal,  in- 
tellectual, and  spiritual  development  of  young 
women.  The  first  of  these  associations  was 
founded  in  London,  England,  in  1S55.  In  the 
U.  S.  they  were  the  outgrowth  of  the  Ladies' 
Christian  Union  established  In  New  York  in 
1S5S.  The  object  of  this  organization  was  to 
furi^her  the  welfare  of  women,  especially  of 
young  women  dependent  on  their  own  efforts 
for  support.  In  1866  a  Young  Women's  Chris- 
tian Association  was  founded  in  Boston — the 
first  association  organized  under  that  name. 
While  at  flrst  the  work  of  the  organizations 
was  modeled  on  that  of  the  Ywng  Men/a 
«  CKiz.d.yLiOOQlC 


Ogle 


Chriitian  AMOciatioiu,  it  was  Boon  found  that 


their  work  is  the  maintenance  of  boarding 
homM  for  young  n-omen.  In  addition  to  these, 
tha  city  aBSOciations  have  gTinnaaiuina,  educa- 
tional classea,  entertainments,  lectures,  em- 
ploTment  bureftus,  etc  In  the  World  War  there 
waa  doM  eo-op«ration  between  the  T.  If.  and 
the  T.   W.   aMoeiationi   in   home   and   OTaraea 

Tprei  (£'pr),  a  dt?  of  Belgriom  in  W.  Fland- 
ers, on  both  aides  of  the  Tpeilee  Biver;  8  m. 
from  the  French  frontier,  30  m.  88W  of  BruEes. 
Its  OTigin  dates  from  the  Sth  c,  and  in  the  14th 
e.  it  waa  a  noted  manufacturing  town  with  a 
population  of  200,000.  It  waa  strongly  fortided 
in  1688,  and  haa  long  been  conspicuoua  as  a 
center  of  war  operations.  In  the  World  War 
it  wu  occupied  by  the  British  and  French,  as 
plodged  protectors  of  Belgium,  Oct  14,  1EI14, 
On  the  2lBt-3lBt  following  the  Qermana  began 
what  became  known  as  the  "Battle  of  Fland- 
ers"; on  Nov.  10-12,  the  Germane  again  at- 
tacked the  eity;  on  March  14,  1915,  the  brief 
but  severe  batUe  of  8t  Eloi,  just  B.  of  the  city, 
waa  fought;  on  April  17-Mj^  17,  1915,  occurred 
the  great  struggle  now  known  as  the  ' '  Battle  of 
Tpres, ' '  which  the  Oemtans  claimed  to  be  the 
decinve  engagemeDt,  though  they  failed  to  tab 
the  city;  during  1917  spasmodic  operations  were 
maint^ed,  but  resistance  was  not  overcome; 
and  in  September  and  early  October,  1B18,  the 
Belgian,  British,  French  and  American  foreee 
regained  all  lost  ground  before  Tprea,  and  re- 
captured Ostend,  Zeebmgge  and  Bmgea. 

Tilarte  ( S-re-Ar'te ) ,  Charlea  £miI^  1632-  ; 
Frencli  writer;  b.  Paris,  of  a  family  of  Spanish 
descent;  studied  architecture,  and,  185S,  be- 
came inspector  of  the  imperial  osjlums,  and, 
later,  of  the  Up«ra  at  Paris,  but  went,  1859, 
as  correspondent  of  the  Monde  Illuatri  to  the 
Spanish  War  in  Morocco;  1600-81,  followed 
the  war  in  Italy,  and,  returning  to  Paris  in 
1868,  he  became  editor  in  chief  of  the  journaL 
In  1681  be  was  appointed  inspector  of  the  Ecole 
dee  Beaux  Arta, 

Yttitnm  (Iftrl-flm),  ao  named  because  first 
detected  in  gadolinite  found  at  Ytterby,  in 
Sweden,  a  rare  metal  belonging  to  the  oerium 
^roup;  atomic  weight  (Cleve)  69.6,  or,  accord- 
ing to  Bunsen  and  Babr,  92J>,  symbol  Y. 

Toao     Shih-kal,     Chinese     etateBman;     b. 

Chengcban,  province  of  Honan.  He  rose  rapidly 
in  favor  at  the  Imperial  Court  and  was  made 
governor  of  Shantung,  1900;  protected  foreign- 
ers during  the  Boxer  rising;  dismissed  from 
office,  1906;  recalled  to  protect  the  Manchn 
dynasty  during  the  revolution,  1911-12;  elected 
first  president  of  the  Chinese  Bepublie,  1912. 

Toeatut  (jO-kB'tBn').  a  peninsula  of  8E. 
Mexico,  projecting  N.  between  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico Hnd  the  Caribbean  Sea.  and  separated  from 
the  W.  extremity  of  Cuba  by  a  channel  about 
140  m.  wide.   It  embraces  the  two  states  of  Cam- 


uvw    P<^.  (1910)  422,81s.    Unlike  then 


YVKOS 

body  of  Mexico,  Yucatan  is  not  mountainouq, 
except  in  the  S.  part.  There  is  comparatively 
little  heavy  forest,  txtxpt  in  the  8.  mountains 
or  on  swampy  fiats  adjoining  the  coast.  Though 
rains  are  abundant  in  their  season,  many  dis- 
tricts are  almost  without  running  water,  so 
much  of  the  land  is  unfitted  for  ordinary  agri- 
cultiirs;  but  it  is  well  adapted  for  grazing  and 
for  the  cultivation  of  sisal  hemp,  which  is  now 
the  staple  product  and  export.  The  climate  is 
warm  and  somewhat  insaJubrious.  The  civil- 
ised population  is  gathered  in  the  N.  part. 
Merida,  the  capital,  and  its  seaport,  Progreso, 
are  the  most  important  towns.  The  S.  districts 
are  still  held  by  Indians,  only  nominally  sub- 
ject to  the  Mexican  Govt.  Yucatan  was  the 
fii'st  portion  of  Mexico  visited  by  the  Spaniarda, 
15I7-1S.  It  was  crossed  by  Cortes  on  his  way 
to  Honduras  (1625), and  was  partly  conquered 
by  Montejo,  1G27-49.  The  Indian  inhabitanU 
of  the  Maya  race  had  attained  a  considerable 
degree  of  civilization,  and  their  skill  in  archi- 
tecture is  still  shown  by  the  ruined  cities  of 
Uxmal,  Cbichen,  etc.  They  resisted  the  Span- 
iards bravely,  but  eventually  the  N.  tribes 
were  subdued,  and  their  descendants  form  a 
large  portion  of  the  inhabitants.  The  Maya 
language  is  still  in  gmeral  use  in  the  interior, 
and  is  spoken  even  in  Merida.  Yucatan  was 
attached  to  New  Spain,  or  Mexico,  and  fol- 
lowed its  rcTolutions,  more  or  less  willingly, 
until  1639,  when  it  seceded  and  formed  an  in- 
dependent state.  It  was  reunited  to  Mexico 
in  1S43.  In  1647  the  Indian  population  revolt- 
ed, holding  a  large  part  of  the  peninsula  for 
sereral  years,  and  even  threatening  Merida. 

Tncca  (ydklci),  the  aboriginal  and  also  the 
botanical  name  ol  a  genus  of  peculiar  liliaceous 
plants,  snecies  of  which  have  the  English 
names  of  Dear  grass,  dagger  weed,  Spanish  bay- 
onet, etc,  natives  of  N.  America  from  New 
Jersey  and  from  Iowa  to  Yucatan,  but  most 
abundant  between  the  26th  and  35th  degrees 
of  N.  lat  In  Ylitxa  filamcntota  and  some  other 
species  delicate  threads  separate  from  the  edges 
of  the  needle-pointed  leaf,  whence  the  popular 
appellation,  Adam's  needle  and  thread.  The 
framework  of  the  leaves  affords  a  valuable 
fiber,  which  is  used  for  oordage  by  the  Mexi- 
cans. The  root  stacks  are  replete  with  mnci- 
laginous  and  saponaceous  matter,  which,  un- 
der the  name  of  "  amole,"  serves  as  a  substitute 
for  soap  in  many  a  Mexican  household;  is  also 
used  by  the  n^roes  of  the  S.  U.  S.,  and  gives 
the  common  nnme  of  soap  plant  to  Y.  glauca 
(7.  angustifolia  of  the  books)  which  abounda 
between  the  MisMssippi  and  the  Rock^  Moun- 
tains. The  y.  laecata  of  Arizona  is  eaten 
when  fresh  by  whites  and  Indians,  and  is  cured 
by  the  latter  for  winter  provisions. 

Ynlion,  a  district  in  the  NW.  part  of  Can- 
Ada  lyinit  almost  entirely  in  the  basin  of  the 
Yukon  River  and  bounded  by  British  Colum- 
bia on  the  S..  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the  N., 
Alaska  on  the  W.,  and  the  district  of  Macken- 
zie on  the  £.  Area.  land  and  water,  196,076 
eq.  m.;  pop.  (ISll)  6,S12.  The  r^Jon  is 
wooded  and  more  or  less  mountatnoua,  rising 
near  the  Alaska  boundary  line  to  Mt.  Hub- 
baM,  about  18,000  ft.;  vegetabla^nd  cereals 

)  COOQ  Ic 


YUKON  RIVER 


are  BuecMshilly  grown,  but  the  chief 
thus  far  is  gold,  which  is  mined  in  the  fdmoua 
Klondike  r^on.  Fort  Selkirk  b  the  impor- 
tant militarT  poBt,  and  Dawaon,  near  the  aite 
of  old  Fort  Kelianee,  ie  the  principal  city. 

Ynkon  Riv'et',  one  of  the  great  riven  of  the 
world.  In  N.  America  it  ia  aecond  in  drainage 
area  and  in  volume.  Ita  length  is  about  2,000 
m.,  and  its  fajidrogniphic  baain  approximatelj 
440.000  K).  m. 

The  poaition  of  its  source  is  not  yet  defimtelr 
determined;  it  ie  a  muddy  stream,  and  is  build- 
ing an  immense  delta  where  it  eaters  Bering 
Sea.    This  is  treeleaa,  and  forms  a  part  of  the 


ZANBSVILIC 

tundra  along  th«  coast  of  Bering  Sea  and  the 
Arctic  Ocean. 

The  season  of  narieation  is  ilsuallj  from  the 
middle  of  June  to  the  middle  of  October.  In 
winter  it  is  solidly  frozen;  in  Hpring  thawing 
begins,  and  great  floods  occur.  The  Yukon  u 
a  highway  of  travel  for  the  natives.  The  Eski- 
mos use  skin  boats,  kyaks,  and  the  Indians 
birch-bark  canoes.  In  winter  long  jotimeys 
are  made  on  sleds  drawn  by  dog  teams. 

Gold  is  found  in  the  river  ^vels  of  the  up- 
per Yukon.  The  center  of  this  industry  is  now 
on  Fortf-mile  Creek,  just  within  the  E.  bovmd- 
ary  of  Alaska.  The  gold  is  obtained  by  wash- 
ing the  gravel  in  sluices. 


Z,  the  twenty-eixth  letter  of  the  E^lish 
Alphabet.  It  liae  the  form  of  the  final  letter 
of  the  Roman  alphabet,  which  was  simply  the 
Greek  eita.  The  older  Latin  alphabet  of  twen- 
ty-one letters  had  no  syiabol  for  the  sibilant  e. 

The  sounds  expressed  by  it  are;  (1)  The 
voiced  dental  sibilant  n  in  eone,  Kejihgr,  nuuy. 
The  same  sound  is  frequently  expressed  by  s, 
as  in  la»e,  nose,  reattm.  (2]  The  voiced  dental 
wide  sibilant  eh  [i)  in  (untre,  teiimrt,  a  sound 
correlative  to  the  voiceless  ah  ii)  of  tugar, 
•ure,  oenture.  The  sound  xh  is  frequently  ex- 
pressed also  by  «,  as  in  pleasure,  leitare. 

Z  was  little  used  in  Bnglish  before  the  fif- 
teenth century. 

Za'baiim.    See  Sabiakisii. 

i  state  of  Mexieo. 

Zacatecas,  city  of  Mexico;  capital  of  the 
State  of  Zacatecas ;  in  a  high  valley  between 
spurs  of  the  Sierra  Madre;  over  8,000  ft.  above 
sea  levEl ;  430  m.  by  the  Mexican  Central  Rail- 
road NW.  of  Mexico  City.  It  was  founded  as 
a  mining  town  abt.  154S ;  its  silver  lodes  were 
the  most  famous  in  New  Spain.  The  climate 
is  cold  and  subject  to  sudden  changes,  though 
not  insalubrious;  the  water  supply  is  scanty 
and  poor,  and  the  narrow  valley  leaves  so  little 
room  for  gro^vth  that  many  of  the  streets  climb 
the  moun^in  sides  like  staircases.  Carriages 
are  almost  unknown.  The  city  is  picturesque, 
resembling  a  Moorish  town.  It  has  a  cathedral 
(commenced  1612,  completed  1752)  noted  for 
its  quaint  carvings.  On  the  Bufa  bill  near 
the  city  is  a  celebrated  chapel  and  resort  of 
pilgrims ;  and  at  Quadnlupe,  6  m.  olT,  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  chapels  in  Mexico,  with 
a  handsome  park.  Pop.  of  Zacatecas  (1910) 
26,005. 

Zacyntbna  (ta-sln'thtla).    See  Zantk. 

Zi'dofc.    See  Sadducexs. 

Zamberi  (dUn-bl'x6),  the  fourth  river  in  sice 
in  Africa,  disoovered  by  Livingatone  in  1B54. 
Its  most  W.  head  water*  rise  a  little  E.  of 
Boiguela,  Fortiigne«e  W.  Africa,  and  the  Zam- 


besi proper  flows  S.  and  E.  two  thirds  of  the 
way  across  the  continent,  emptying  into  the 
Indian  Ocean  by  a  widespreading  delta.  The 
country  it  drains  is  one  fifth  as  large  as  the 
U.  S.,  exclusive  of  Alaska.  From  ite  sources 
nearly  to  its  mouth  It  passes  through  one  of 
the  largest  pastoral  regions  of  Africa.  Steam- 
boats are  superseding  the  small  trading  canoes 
formerly  in  use,  and  the  town  of  Chinde  has 
been  built  in  the  delta  as  the  port  of  the  river. 
Above  the  delta  there  are  600  m.  of  steam 
navigation  on  the  Zambesi  and  its  N.  tributary, 
the  Loangwa,  interrupted  by  one  stretch  of  30 
m.  of  land  portage  around  cataracts.  Coal 
has  been  discovered  near  the  N.  bank  of  the 
middle  Zambesi,  and  promising  gold  fields  N. 
of  the  river  and  within  easy  reach  of  it.  On 
the  upper  Zambesi  are  the  famous  Victoria 
Falls.  The  total  length  of  the  river  is  between 
1,GOO  and  l.QOO  m. 

Zanes'vllle,  capital  of  Muskingum  Co.,  Ohio; 
on  the  Muskingum  River,  where  it  receives  the 
waters  of  the  Licldng;  60  m.  E.  of  Columbus. 
It  is  in  a  fertile  country,  on  the  edge  of  the 
great  mineral  region  of  Ohio,  and  possesses 
water  power  from  the  falls  of  the  two  rivers. 
Surrounded  as  the  city  is  with  high  hills/there 
is  little  room  for  parks.  The  two  most  worthy 
of  mention  are  the  Putnam  and  the  Mclntire. 
The  manufacturing  interests  include  Iron- 
works, tiling  works  (encaustic  and  mosaic), 
potteries,  foundry  and  machine  shops,  glass 
works,  brick  works,  planing  mill«,  flouring 
mills,  breweries,  tanneries,  marble  woriu,  and 
the  large  railway  car  shops,  etc. 

The  original  town  was  laid  out  in  ITW  by 
Jonathan  Zane  and  John  Mclntire,  Virginians. 
They  owned  a  section  a  mile  square,  and 
platted  the  lots  in  the  SE.  comer  and  called 
it  Westboum,  a  small  part  of  the  present  city. 
The  first  regular  mail  carried  in  Ohio  wss  from 
Marietta  to  Westboum.  In  1802  Postmaster- 
general  Gideon  Granger  established  a  regular 
post  office  here  and  called  it  Zanesville,  whence 
the  town  took  its  name,  but  it  was  not  incor- 
porated until  1814.  Prom  1810-12  Zanearille 
was  the  state  capital.  Fop.  (ISW  omnia) 
28,02<l.  ^^  I 

,  LMz„,>,C.oogle 


ZANGUEBAR 

2aiipuibu  (sOn-gft-bKr').    Sea  Zakzibak. 

2aiite  (zBn'U),  Kneiently,  Zaeynlhtu,  ialand; 
one  of  the  largest  of  the  lonisn  group;  area, 
277  sq.  u.     It  is  of  volcanic  origin,  and  earth- 

?iuiicea  nre  frequent.  The  climate  is  deligbt- 
ul  and  the  soit  fertile.  The  island  produces 
currants,  citrons,  oranges,   pom^ranates,  mel- 


pets,  linen  and  cotton  goods,  and  golf 
ments  are  made.  lu  the  village  of  Ke^  are 
naphtha  wells,  worked  sioce  antiquity.  Zante, 
the  capital,  ia  a  finely  situated  and  enterpris- 
log  town.  It  has  a  good,  though  not  deep, 
harbor,  and  carries  on  a  large  trade.  Pop. 
(1907),  of  island,  42,602j  of  town,  13,580. 

ZaniiliaT  (zfln'd'bBr),  or  ZaagaAkt',  a  bu)- 
tanat«  of  E.  Africa  under  British  protection. 
It  formerly  consisted  of  coast  islands  and  pos- 
seasions  on  the  mainland  that  were  acquired 
by  Imams  of  Muscat  from  the  Portuguese  and 
from  native  chiefs  between  1308  and  IBOT. 
The  sultana  of  Zanzibar,  direct  descendants  of 
the  Imams  of  Muscat,  were  until  recently  the 
paramount  influence  from  the  coast  to  the  up- 
per Kongo.  ZanEibar  has  been  independent  of 
Muscat  since  1861. 

The  largest  island  and  center  of  trade  of  the 
sultanate  is  Zanzibar  (area,  640  sq.  m.) . 
Other  important  islands  are  Pemba,  Mafia,  and 
Lamu,  the  total  e:itent  of  the  islands  pertain- 
ing to  the  sultanate  being  about  1,200  sq.  m. 
Until  1890  about  12,000  sq.  ta.  of  coast  regions 
were  under  the  direct  government  of  the  sul- 
tan, though  in  1884-90  the  Germans  and  Brit- 
ish acquired  inland  territories  extending  to  the 
large  lakes  among  numerous  tribes  who  had 
not  actually  come  under  the  sultan's  authority. 
The  sultan  at  flrst  leased  to  these  two  powers 
a  long  coast  strip,  but  later  they  acquired  this 
territory  in  perpetuity,  and  finally  Great  Brit- 
ain assumed  a  protectorate  over  Zanzibar 
(1890),  apd  the  independent  state  created  by 
Uie  Muscat  Arabs  has  ceased  to  exist.  The 
island  of  Zanzibar  had  (1907)  abt.  176,000, 
of  whom  abt.  80,000  lived  at  the  capital,  in- 
cluding 10,000  Arabs  and  G,000  E.  Indians, 
the  remainder  being  an  admixture  of  coast  and 
inland  tribes.  The  Arabs,  who  are  the  ruling 
element  throughout  the  sultanate,  are  almost 
exolUBively  tradespeople,  except  W.  of  Lake 
Tanganyika,  where  they  made  large  planta- 
tions. They  established  large  interior  towns — 
Tabora,  Ujiji,  Nyangwe,  Ktu«ongo,  and  others 
— and  often  remain  for  a  long  time  or  perma- 
nently in  the  interior.  The  capital  for  their 
enterprises  is  largely  supplied  by  the  Indian 
merchants  of  Zanzibar  and  the  coast  towns, 
who  receive  an  exorbitant  rate  of  interest  and 
contrive  to  keep  the  Arabs  in  their  debt. 

The  capital  city,  Zanzibar,  is  by  far  the  larg- 
est center  of  trade  in  E.  Africa,  and  has  been 
the  starting  point  of  many  of  the  most  famous 
exploring  expeditions.  It  was  once  the  greatest 
slave  market,  and  is  still  the  largest  export 
ivory  market  in  the  world.  Most  of  the  in- 
terior trade  routes  lead  to  Zanzibar  or  to  a 
half  dozen  coast  towns,  N.  and  S.,  that  are 
directly  trihutar}'  to  it,  and  send  their  exports 
there  for  shipment.    The  city  was  declared  a 


free  port  in  1892.  It  is  visited  by  about  three 
merchant  steamships  a  week.  Pop.  (1907) 
abt.  B6,760.  Femba  is  famous  for  dovea.  The 
most  important  coast  towns  are  Mombasa,  now 
in  the  British  domain,  and  Kilwa,  Bagamoyo, 
Pangani,  Saadani,  Dar  es  Salaam,  Lindi,  Tan- 
ga,  and  Malindi,  all  in  German  E.  Africa. 
See  Gehuan  E.  Afbica. 

ZaratlinahttA  (zA-rft-tbOsh'trii) .    Bee  Zoboas- 


Zeolota  (M'Hi),  a  fanatical  Jewish  aeet 
which  struggled  aDainst  the  Romans  from  abt. 
a  A.D.,  when  Judas  the  Gaulonite  headed  * 
revolt,  till  the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  70  aj>.  Be- 
ginning as  intense  Jews,  they  became  robbers 
and  murderers  of  their  political  opponents,  and 
after  Felix  had  cruelly  endeavored  to  suppress 
them  by  crucifying  all  he  could  catch,  they 
armed  themselves  with  short  daggers  (sicv) 
and  continued  their  murderous  work  on  a 
larger  scale.  Hence  they  are  known  as  the 
Sicarii.  They  kept  alive  the  hatred  of  the 
Romans,  which  flamed  out  in  the  Jewish  War, 
and  they  contributed  much  to  the  horrora  of 
the  siege  of  Jerusalem. 

Zelira,  any  one  of  the  striped  wild  assea  of 
Africa,  but  more  particularly  the  mountain  or 
true  zebra,  found  in  the  mountainoua  regions 
of  S.  Africa,  and  in  danger  of  extermination. 
It  is  about  4  ft.,  high  at  the  shoulders,  of  a 
creamy  white  col*,  cross-striped  with  black  on 
the  head,  trunk,  and  legs,  except  on  the  belly 
and  inside  of  thighs;  the  tail  is  tufted  and 
blackish  at  the  end.  A  closely  related  species 
occurs  in  KE.  Africa.  Burchell's  zebra  is  a 
commoner  animal,  occupying  the  central  re* 
gions  of  Africa,  readily  distinguished  from  the 
true  zebra  by  its  lai-ger  size  and  the  absence  or 
faintnesB  of  tbe  cross  stripes  on  the  lower  part 
of  the  legs.  It  is  known  as  dauw  by  the  Dutch 
colonists.  The  quacga  has  no  bands  on  the 
hinder  portion  of  the  body  nor  on  tbe  legs. 
The  name  quagga  is  also  employed  for 
Burchell's  zebra.  Although  so  conspicuously 
marked,  the  zebra  is  said  to  readily  escape  de- 
tection when  lying  down,  aa  the  stnpes  of  the 
legs  then  blend  vrith  those  of  the  body,  the  gen- 
eral effect  being  that  of  flecks  of  shadow  on  a 
light  ground.  Zebras  are  very  wild  and  untam- 
able, although  occasionally  broken  to  harness. 

Zebra  Wolf.    See  Tasuakiak  Wolf. 

Zebn  (zAltQ),  book  name  for  the  common  ox 
of  India,  found  also  in  China  and  K  Africa, 
the  name  not  being  used  in  India.  It  differs 
from  the  common  ox  of  Europe  and  America 
in  having  one,  or  more  nearly  two,  humps  of 
fat  on  the  shoulders,  and  in  baving  eighteen 
vertebrs  in  the  tail,  while  our  cattle  have 
twenty-one.  The  Brahman  cow  goes  with 
young  three  hundred  days,  the  common  cow  two 
hundred  and  seventy.  Hence  the  zebu  is  as- 
signed to  another  species.  Nevertheless  it 
breeds  freely  with  common  cattle.  The  tebii  is 
of  several  hreedi,   varying  in  size.     The  beef 


■erve  as  beasts  oF  burden.    To  this  stock  belong 
tbe  Brabmiuj'  or  sacred  bulls  of  Shiva. 

Zeb'nlon,  the  tenth  of  tbe  twelve  lona  of 
Jacob,  tbe  sixth  and  Ust  b;  Leab.  His  per- 
sonal histoiy  is  a  blank.  In  the  exodus  from 
Egypt  the  tribe  of  Zebulon  marched  in  the 
van.  The  tcixito^  of  the  tribe  in  Paleatioe  ma 
bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  half  of  the  Lake  of 
Galilee,  beginning  juat  above  the  site  of  Tiberias, 
and  included  Naiareth  and  Rimmon.  In  ita 
t«rritorv  Jesus  preached  the  most  of  the  time 
<Matt.  IV,  12-lQ),  fulfilling  Isaiah  ix,  1,  2. 

Zechariata,  or  Zachariih  (z«k-a-rT'a) ,  the 
eleventh  of  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  He  re- 
turned from  Babylon  with  Zerubbabel,  and  be- 
gan to  prophesy  in  the  second  year  of  Darius, 
King  of  Persia,  E  ..        ..      ™ 

eij.    He  was  au 
Teetament,  called  by  bia  name. 

Zeebniue,  a  seaport  of  Beltpum  in  W.  Flaa- 
ders;  on  the  North  Sea,  about  16  m.  NE.  of 
Ostend.  12  m.,  NW.  of  Bruges.  The  Ughway 
from  Ost«nd  to  Zeebrugge,  which  the  Germans 
seised  on  theit  invasion  of  Belgium  (19141,  waa 
made  a  continuoua  fortress,  the  number  ol  guns 
increasing  as  tbe  line  neaxcd  Zeebrugge,  the  Ger- 
mans evidently  having  planned  that  the  line 
should  be  a  permanent  one.  They  made  the 
port  one  of  their  principal  U-boat  and  aircraft 
bases  on  account  of  its  proximity  to  the  Enghdi 
coast  On  Nov.  23, 1914,  the  Bntisb  bombarded 
the  port  from  warshipB  and  later  bombed  it 
from  airships.  For  more  than  three  yean  tbe 
port  was  tlie  scene  of  practically  continuous 
operations.  In  April  and  May,  1918,  tbe  Brit- 
ish made  naval  raids  on  Zeebrtigge  and  Ostend, 
blocked  the  harbor  of  the  former  and  partially 
blocked  that  of  the  latter,  rendeiing  both  use- 
less for  Gennan  purposes  for  the  rest  of  the 


Zemstvo  (zemst'va),  an  elective  assembly  of 
a  province  or  district  in  Buasia,  eorapoaed  of 
representatiTGs  chosen  by  the  peasants,  the 
householders  of  the  towns,  and  the  landed  pro- 
prietors, and  presided  over  by  the  president  of 
BOy  t 


ths  local  nobility.    It  imposes  local  taxes,  reg- 
ulates education,  public  health,  roods,  etc    Bm 

Zenuu  (zS-nl'nft),  that  portion  of  the  house 
of  a  high-coite  family  of  India  which  is  de- 
voted entirely  to  the  use  of  the  women  and 
girls.  Like  the  portion  which  belongs  to  the 
gentlemen,  tbe  zenana,  or  inner  portion,  is  in 
the  shape  of  a  hollow  square,  vrith  an  open 
court  in  the  center — the  men's  building  toward 
tbe  street,  the  women's  back  of  it.  No  woman 
goes  to  the  outer  part  of  the  building,  as  it  is 
considered  a  disgrace  for  her  to  be  seen  by  anj 
man  but  her  own  husband. 

Zend-Avea'ts.    See  Avesta. 

Zc'nith,  the  point  in  the  celestial  sphere  di- 
rectly over  the  head  of  the  observer;  the  op- 
posite of  the  nadir. 

Ze'no,  abt.  3S8  B.c.~abt.  260;  Oreek  philoso- 

Eher;  founder  of  the  Stoic  school;  b.  Cyprus. 
(e  was  a  merchant,  but  having  lost  a  rich 
cargo,  devoted  himself  to  philosophy.  Abt. 
310  he  opened  his  school  in  Athens,  which  took 
its  name  from  being  held  under  the  Btoa  Pot- 
painted  porch.    He  was  at  Its  head  for 

._. ._!  ,__  .1.  amterity  '' 

language. 
bis  writings  only  a  few  fragments  remain. 

Zene  of  B'lea,  Greek  philosopher;  b.  Elea, 
S.  Italy,  abt.  40O  B.C.  He  was  put  to  death  for 
engaging  in  a  conspiracy  against  a  tyrant  of 
Glea.  He  was  the  first  of  his  school  to  write 
in  prose,  and  Aristotle  calls  him  the  inventor 
of  dialectics. 

Zenstlla,  Queen  of  Palmyra.  The  daughter 
of  a  Syrian  chieftain,  she  married  Odenathus, 
who  from  a  private  station  became  Prince  of 
Palmyra,  and  virtual  master  of  the  East,  and 
who,  because  of  his  brilliant  campaigns  against 
the  Persians,  was  declared  augustua  and  co- 
regent  of  the  empire  by  Gallienus.  In  2S7 
Odenathus  was  murdered  by  his  nephew  Mte- 
onius.  Thereupon  Zenobia  assumed  the  title 
of  Queen  of  the  East,  asserted  her  independence 
of  Rome,  defeated  the  Roman  general  HeracU- 
anus,  and  extended  her  authority  over  Syria, 
parts  of  Asia  Minor,  Mesopotamia,  and  Egypt. 
Aurelian  marched  against  ner  in  272.  He  won  , 
tbe  two  battles  of  Antioch  and  Emesa,  where 
she  commanded  in  person,  and  then  hesi^ed 
Palmyra,  which  she  defended  with  desperation. 
Finally,  Zenobia  fled  to  seek  assistance  of  the 
Persians,  but  was  captured  on  the  Euphrates. 
Her  later  history  is  obscure.  The  commonly 
received  account  represents  her  as  a  captive, 
laden  with  jewels  and  silver  chains,  and  walk- 
ing before  Aurelian's  chariot  on  his  triumphal 
entry  into  Rome  in  273;  then  as  living  as  a 
Roman  matron  in  a  villa  near  Tibur,  and 
manning  her  daughters  to  Roman  patricians. 
Anotlier  account  says  that  she  starved  herself 
to  death  after  her  capture.  Zenobia  was  a 
woman  of  extraordinary  beauty  and  accom- 
plishments. She  spoke  Greek,  Latin,  Syriae, 
and  Coptic.  She  was  brave  and  wise  in  tMttle, 
judicious  in  the  council  chamber,  and  econom- 
ical and  shrewd  in  administration.  She  li 
perhaps  the  only  woman  in  the  East  "  vhoM 


Ogle 


snperior  geniuB  broke  through  the  Bcrvile  ia- 
doleoee  impo«ed  on  her  sex  %  the  climate  and 


&  (zef-fl-nl'l),  the  ninth  in  order  of 
tbe  minor  Hebrew  prophets ;  was  great-sreat- 
grandton  to  Hezeklah,  perhaps  the  king  of  that 
nune,  and  prophesied  under  Josinh,  038-608 
BAi.  ( Zeph.  i,  1 ) '  The  book  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, called  bj  his  name,  is,  like  Joel  and 
Obadiah,  a  monofcraph  on  "  the  daj  of  Je- 
hovah"  {i,  7-11,  14-18;  iii,  8,  11,  16,  19,  20), 
containing  a  threat  of  Judgment  (i),  an  ex- 
hortation to  repentance  (ii,  1-iii,  S),  and  a 
promise  of  salvation  (iii,  fl-20).  It  probably 
belongs  to  the  earlj  reign  of  Josiah,  after  the 
partial  reformation  of  the  later  years  of 
Manasseh. 

Zeram  (sA-rtb').    See  Ceuu. 

Ze'lO,  in  physics,  the  point  in  space  or  time 
which  serves  as  the  origin  or  base  of  measure- 
ments. Thus  upon  H  linesr  scale  there  is  al- 
ways a  zero  reading  from  which  the  count  is 
made.  It  follows  that  the  zero  is  always  ar- 
bitrary and  relative,  although  in  some  caaea 
it  takes  on  a  semblance  of  absolute  character. 
An  example  is  the  eo-CHlled  abnohile  tcale  of 
temperature,  which  is  deflned  ns  follows;  Sup- 
pose a  cylinder  to  contain  a  perfect  gas.  If 
the  volumes  of  the  gas  at  the  temperatures  of 
melting  ice  and  of  boiling  water  respectively 
be  noted  and  the  name  be  indicated  by  lines 
upon  the  cylinder  at  proper  distances  from  the 
closed  end,  and  if  the  intervening  apace  be 
divided  into  one  hundred  parts,  each  of  these 
will  be  a  degree  of  the  centigrade  scale.  The 
division  may,  however,  be  carried  downward, 
in  which  case  it  will  be  found  that  the  2T3d 
division  below  that  corresponding  to  the  ice 
point  coincides  with  the  bottom  of  the  cylin- 
der. The  point  -  S73°  C.  is  therefore  called 
the  abtolule  zero.  Familiar  examples  of  purely 
arbitrary  zeroa  are  that  of  the  Fahrenheit 
thermometer,  the  various  meridians  from  which 
longitude  is  counted,  the  xero  of  the  daily 
counting  of  time,  etc.  The  most  important 
consideration  is  that  the  zero  should  be  capa- 
ble of  definition  in  a  simple  and  unmistakable 

Zens  (zQs).    See  Jijtiteb. 

Zctuda  (zflka'lB),  Gre«k  painter,  of  whom 
many  anecdotes  are  told  by  Lucian  njid  Cicero, 
and  especially  by  Pliny.  His  birthplace  is 
stated  as  Heracles,  but  which  city  of  that  name 
ia  not  known.  The  date  of  his  birth  is  uncer- 
tain; it  is  only  known  that  he  was  painting 
and  already  famous  in  424  n.c,  and  very  prob- 
able that  his  career  was  in  the  years  460-400 
or  thereabout.  There  is  no  painter  of  an- 
tiquity of  whom  more  or  stronger  anecdotes 
are  told,  but  a  real  knowledge  of  what  his  art 
was  like  is  not  possible  to  modems. 

Zhitomeer  (zhlt-d-mSr').    See  Jitouib. 

Zinc,  sometimes  called  Bfelteb,  metallic  ele- 
ment  abundantly   distributed.     Since   it   must 


ZINC 

ore*  to  melted  copper.  It  waa  first  brought 
from  the  East,  and  it  is  not  much  more  than 
one  hundred  years  since  zinc  was  first  smelted 
in  Europe.  There  are  only  six  mineral  species 
which  furnish  all  the  zinc  and  zinc  white  of 
commerce.  These  are  blende,  calamine,  will- 
emite,  smithsonite,  frank  linite,  and  linkitc, 
including  sulphide,  silicates,  carbonate,  and 
oxide.  The  ores  are  Brst  roasted,  then  dis- 
tilled with  carbon.  Most  commercial  xiac, 
when  required  pure,  must  be  redistilled. 

The  metal  dnc  is  very  hard,  with  a  bluish 
color,  and  a  brilliant  luster  when  freshly  cut. 
It  soon  takes  a  tarnish,  however,  from  the 
formation  of  a  film  of  suboxide  or  carbonate, 
which  protects  it  from  further  oxidation,  so 
that  it  is  an  extremely  durable  metal.  When 
cast,  it  is  crystalline  and  brittle;  but  by  heat- 
ing to  somewhat  below  300°  F.  it  may  be  roll^ 
into  very  thin  malleable  plates.  The  best  way 
to  obtain  it  pure  is  by  electrolysis.  At  a  little 
liigher  temperature  a  very  brittle  and  fragile 
modification  appears,  and  in  n  mortar  heated 
to  400°  F.  the  metal  may  be  crushed  to  pow- 
der. It  melts  at  about  780*  F.,  and  boils  at 
about  1900°  F.  When  chemically  pure  it  dis- 
solves readily  in  nitric  acid,  but  not  in  dilute 
sulphuric  and  hydrochloric.  Even  ordinary 
commercial  zinc,  containing  lead,  iron,  etc., 
may  be  protected  from  the  latter  two  acids  by 
the  thinnest  film  of  mercury,  which  in  voltaic 
batteries  is  used  for  this  purpose.  On  contact, 
however,  with  most  other  metals,  and  other 
subBtancea  capable  of  conducting  electricity, 
the  zinc  dissolves,  hydrogen  being  evolved  from 
tlie  surface  of  the  other  metal.  Hence,  through 
the  formation  of  voltaic  circuits  with  its 
metallic  impurities,  commercial  zinc  ia  readily 
soluble  in  acids,  and  even  in  solutions  of 
neutral  salts.  Zinc  is  largely  used  as  a  pro- 
tective coating  for  iron  and  copper.  Zinc  dis- 
solves also  In  alkalies. 

Almost  all  the  other  common  metals,  except 
lead  and  bismuth,  alloy  readily  with  zinc.  Un- 
der Bkass  will  be  found  some  mention  of  the 
important  alloys  with  copper.  With  lead,  zinc 
will  not  unite  unless  through  intermediation 
of  some  other  metal,  such  as  tin,  which  alloys 
with  both;  with  lead  and  bismuth  also,  a 
fusible  alloy  is  obtained  which  melts  in  boiling 
water.  Bronse,  which  properly  consists  of  tin 
and  copper,  ia  often  alloyed  with  zinc,  and 
triple  allays  of  these  three  metals  are  used  for 
journal  boxes  and  other  purposes.  An  alkiy 
with  eleven  times  its  weight  of  tin  is  beat«l 
into  leaves  and  used  as  a  substitute  for  silver 
leaf. 

Zinc  forms  a  number  of  compounds  which 
are  useful  in  the  arts.  For  tne  oxide,  see 
Zinc  White.  The  sulphide  of  cine  is  found 
oonstitutiug  two  mineral  species,  blende  or 
sphalerite,  and  wurttite.  Hydrous  silicate  of 
zinc  occurs  as  calamine.  It  ia  used  as  a  pig- 
ment for  producing  a  brilliant  green  in  glazed 
pottery. 

Zinc  vitriol,  white  vitriol,  or  zinc  sulphate 
is  a  familiar  commercial  compound,  also  oc- 
curring in  nature  as  goslarite.  It  is  prepared 
by  roasting  and  then  washing  out  blende,  or 
by  dissolving  metallic  zinc  in  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  and  crystallizing.     White  vitriol  has  an 


ZINCOGRAPHY 

acrid,  metAlUc  taste,  and  is  uaed  in  medicine 
as  on  ODetic. 

Zina  CELOBnn,  Buttkb  of  Zinc. — Ziae  com- 
binea  powerfully  with  chloride,  thin  foil  tak- 
ing flre  therein  apoutaneonal;.  The  aqueous 
solution  of  the  substance  thus  formed,  linc 
chloride,  has  several  uses  in  the  arts.  It  is 
used  for  "  bumettizing "  wood  aiid  as  a  disin- 
fecting agent. 

Zlncog'rapby,  the  art  of  produolog  impres- 
sions of  prints  and  other  deaigna  on  zinc,  from 
which  a  facsimile  on  paper  can  be  made.  It 
is  analogous  to  lithography;  the  t«nn  is  ap- 
plied to  the  processes  of  a«a*tatio  printing 
{anaitatit,  resuscitation),  «>imi  printing,  pan- 
ioonography,  and  pkotixsincogTaphi/,  In  an- 
attatie  printing,  first  used  In  Germany  in 
1840,  a  printed  sheet  is  moistened  with  water 
containing  nitric  add,  which  affects  only  the 

Srts  where  there  is  no  printing,  being  repelled 
im  the  letteia  by  virtue  of  the  oi^  matter 
in  ^em.  The  sheet  is  then  pressed  on  a  pre- 
pared dnc  plate,  whereby  a  typographical  sur- 
face is  produced,  from  which  impressions  can 
be  printed  on  paper.  Zino  printing  consists  in 
first  etching  designs  in  the  metal  with  the 
needle,  cleaning  them  with  acid,  and  covering 
the  entire  plate  with  a  layer  of  fusible  metal, 
which  is  afterwards  removed  by  planing  until 
the  etched  lines  appear  at  the  surface;  the 
plate  is  then  dipped  in  an  acid  bath,  when  the 
Burfaee  of  the  plate  will  be  dissolved,  but  not 
the  fusible  metal  which  flits  the  lines;  in  this 
way  a  relief  drawing,  suitable  for  the  printing 
of  maps,  plane,  etc.,  can  be  obtained. 

In  the  process  of  panioonography,  crayon 
drawings,  proofs  of  wood  or  copper  plates,  etc., 
are  transferred  to  a  zinc  plate,  a  damp  inked 
roller  is  passed  over  it  to  deepen  the  impres- 
sion, and  powdered  roein  then  spread  on  it, 
which  adheres  only  to  the  parts  that  were 
moistened  by  the  ink.  Upon  now  placing  the 
plate  in  a  bath  consisting  of  diluted  nitric 
acid,  the  unprotected  surface  is  etched,  and  a 
relief  surface  formed  which  can  be  used  for 
printing.  Pltotonnoography  is  accomplished 
by  first  preparing  a  photograph,  then  trans- 
ferring it  to  zinc,  from  which  copies  can  be 
multiplied  as  from  a  lithographic  stone;  it  is 
based  upon  the  fact  that  bicnromates  render 
gelatin  insoluble  when  a  mixture  of  the  two 
fa  exposed  to  the  action  of  light.  The  paper 
used  is  prepared  with  a  solution  of  bichromate 
of  potassium  and  gelatin,  and  exposed  together 
witn  the  native  of  a  drawing  or  other  de- 
sign to  the  hght,  the  outline  of  the  same  being 
thus  obtained  in  insoluble  lines.  On  then  cov- 
ering it  with  printer's  ink  and  wetting  it  at 
the  Mck,  the  soluble  portion  swells  up,  and 
allows  of  the  removal  of  the  ink  from  this 
part,  but  not  from  the  insoluble  lines.  A  copy 
of  the  object  photographed  is  thus  produMd 
in  ink,  which  can  be  easily  transferred  to  zinc. 
See  Photobnoratiko. 

Zinc  White,  a  commercial  product  used  large 
ly  as  a  pigment,  formerly  made  by  the  com- 
bustion of  metallic  zinc  and  collection  of  the 
fumes,  but  of  late  years  obtained  directly 
fron  sine  ores  by  a  process  which  combines 
tlw  ndnetioiL  of  the  sine  from  the  ore  to  a 


Ziaiendorf  (tsIn'taen-dCrf),  Hlcholas  Lswis 
von  (Count),  1700-80;  leader  of  the  Moravi- 
BUS ;  b.  Dresden.  He  attended  the  Pedagogiimi 
at  Halle,  1710-16,  and  against  his  own  in- 
clinations was  a  law  student  at  Wittenberg, 
1716-16.  Whithersoever  he  went  he  found 
himself  more  interested  in  religious  than  in 
the  higher  social  circles  that  were  open  ta 
him;  1721-27,  he  occupied  a  civil  office  in  com- 
pliance with  the  ambitious  projects  of  his  rel- 
atives. In  1722  he  settled  a  colony  of  Mo- 
ravian refugees  on  the  Berthetsdorf  estate  in 
Lusatia,  which  he  had  purchased.  This  colony 
(Hermhut)  became  a  center  of  attraction. 
This  interest  growing,  iq  1737  he  fully  identi- 
fied himself  with  it,  and  became  the  great 
organiser  of  the  Moravian  Church.  Ziuzen- 
dorf's  original  conception  was  not  that  of  a 
separate  denomination,  but  a  union  of  all  the 
followers  of  Christ  and  advocates  of  a  religJOD 
of  the  heart  within  the  bounds  of  the  various 
confessions.  Hence  he  continued  to  claim  hia 
loyalty  to  the  unaltered  Aogsbutv  Confession 
and  Luther's  Catechism,  and  to  affirm  that  he 
still  remained  a  Lutheran,  Ordained  a  min- 
ister at  Tflbingen  in  1734,  he  was  consecrated 
a  bishop  in  1737.  Banished  from  Saxony  in 
1736,  he  lived  in  Germany,  Holland,  England, 
St.  Thomas,  Pennsylvania,  again  is  England, 
various  parts  of  Germany,  and  in  ^lesia, 
everywhere  preaching  the  Gospel.  While  in 
Pennsylvania  (1741-42)  his  work  was  around 
Bethlehem  and  Germantown  as  centers.  He 
pressed  forward  missionair  activity  among 
the  N.  American  Indians;  he  acted  as  pastor 
of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Philadelphia,  and 
used  the  title  of  inspector  general.  The  sen- 
tence of  banishment  being  removed  in  1740, 
he  returned  to  Hermhut,  where  he  died.  His 
chief  claim  to  literkry  reoosnition  rests  upon  his 
2,000  hymns,  a  number  of  which  are  in  use  in 
English  translations  of  John  Wesley  and  otlrars. 

Zi'on,  or  SlOB,  an  eminence  In  Palestine,  on 
which  a  part  of  Jerusalem  is  built.  It  rises 
2,640  ft.  above  sea  level.  W.  and  S.  it  faces 
the  valley  of  Hinnom  with  a  steep  precipice 
300  ft  high.  On  the  N.  slope  stands  that  part 
of  Jerusalem  called  the  "  city  of  David  or 
the  "  upper  city  " ;  hence  Jerusalem  was  often 
called  the  "  daughter  of   Zion."     See  Jbkt* 

Zi'otdnn,  a  movement  instigat«d  by  Dr. 
Herd  {d.  1904)  of  Vienna  to  purchase  Pales- 
tine for  the  formation  of  an  Independent  Jew- 
ish nation.  Through  the  assistance  at  Baron 
de  Hirsch  and  the  Rothschilds  many  Jewish 
colonies  have  been  planted  in  Palestine,  The 
first  Zionist  Congress  met  at  Basle,  Switzer- 
land, in  1B97,  and  others  have  followed,  at- 
tended by  dcl^ates  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  The  fiag  of  Zion  is  composed  of  blue 
stripes  on  a  white  field,  with  a  six-pointed 
star  in  the  center.    See  Jews. 


Bllow,  green,  or  reddish -orange  color,  the  last 
LDg  Bometiiiiea  called  h<^aeinth  or  jiMsinth. 
It  ii  fdimd  in  the  sanda  of  rivers  of  Ceylon, 
in  the  aienite  of  Norway,  at  Strontian  in  Ar- 
nleshire,  Scotland,  and  in  streams  of  the 
Croghan  Kinsbela  Mount«ini  in  Ireland. 

Ziyiu,  jDhn,  1360-U24;  leader  of  the  Hnsa- 
itea;  b.  Trocinow,  Bohemia-,  educated  at  the 
court  of  Prague,  and  fought  with  the  Teu- 
tonic knishts  against  the  Lithuanians  and 
Poles,  in  Hungary  against  the  Turks,  and  on 
the  English  side  in  &e  wars  between  England 
and  France;  embraced  the  doctrines  of  Huss, 
and  was  conspicuous  in  the  commotion  caused 
by  the  execution  of  Buss  and  Jerome.  He 
was  present  on  the  famous  July  30,  1410,  when 
the  thirteen  Roman  Catholic  magistrates  of 
Prague  were  thrown  out  of  the  windows  and 
massacred.  Under  -the  leadership  of  Zitka  the 
Hussites  formed  a  camp  on  Mt.  Tabor.  They 
were  in  poBsession  of  Prague,  though  not  of 
the  castle,  and  in  order  to  defend  it  against 
the  Emperor  Sigismund,  who  had  an  army  of 
30,000  men,  Ziska  took  up  a  position  Just 
outside  the  city.  He  had  only  4,000  men,  but 
the  enlperor  was  unable  to  remove  the  Huss- 
ites, and  had  to  retire  with  an  immense  loss. 
The  hill  has  since  that  day  borne  the  name  of 
Ziska  Hill.  The  same  year  be  conquered  the 
castle  of  Prague,  and  in  the  next  year  became 
blind,  but  continued  to  command.  In  1422 
the  emperor  returned  with  another  ereat  army, 
and  a  iattle  took  place  at  Deutsoh^rod.  The 
emperor  was  completely  routed,  and  now  be- 

Cto  negotiate.  He  was  willing  to  grant 
rty  of  conscience,  to  make  Ziilu  governor 
of  Bohemia,  etc.;  but  before  the  negotiations 
oould  be  brought  to  a  close  Ziaka  died  at 
Przibislaw.  He  was  buried  at  Ctaslau,  but  in 
1623  his  tomb  was  disturbed  add  his  bones 
removed  on  an  imperial  order  from  Vieima. 

Zitlwr    (dth'6r),   an   instrument   of   ancient 
origin;   i 
identical 

known  among  the  Qreeka  as  the  kit  Mara. 
its  modem  shape  it  consists  of  a  shallow  box, 
upon  which  are  strung  some  thirty  etringa. 
These  are  technically  divided  into  five  melody 
strings,  twelve  acoompaniment  strings,  and 
thirteen  bass  strings.  The  two  A  strings  are 
of  steel,  the  D  of  brass,  the  G  of  steel  wound 
with  silver  wire,  the  C  of  brass  with  copper 
wire.  The  other  strings  are  partly  of  gut 
and  partly  of  silk  wound  with  silver  wire,  and 
are  placed  beside  these  over  a  lower  crosspiece 
of  wood  called  the  tailpiece.  In  playii^  the 
Either  the  thumbs  of  both  hands  are  usedT  also 
the  first,  second,  and  third  flngers.  The  thumb 
of  the  right  band  is  provided  with  a  partially 
opened  ring     


Zo'diac,  an  imaginary  zone  or  belt  In  the 
heavens,  comprising  that  region  of  the  heavens 
within  which  the  apparent  motions  of  the  sun, 
moon,  and  all  the  greater  planets  are  confined. 
It  is  divided  into  twelve  equal  parts,  called 


cer,  Leo,  Virgo,  Libra,  Bcorpio,  Bagittariua, 
Capricornui,  Aquarius,  and  Pisces,  which  are 
supposed  to  have  been  invented  in  Egypt,  and 
refer  to  the  division  of  the  seasons  and  the 
agriculture  of  that  oountry.  Bee  ConAteua- 
TIOH. 

Zodl'acal  U^t,  a  faint  illumination  of  the 
sky  in  the  r^on  of  the  Eodiae  risible  in  the 
evenings  of  winter  and  spring  after  the  end 
of  twilight,  and  in  summer  and  autumn  be- 
fore daybrndc  in  the  moming.  It  can  be  well 
seen  only  when  the  sky  is  perfectly  clear,  and 
the  moon  below  the  horiEon-  When  seen  in 
the  evening  it  appears  as  a  faint  column  of 
tight,  rising  from  the  W.  and  inclining  toward 
the  S.,  which  can  sometimes  be  trae^  nearly 
to  the  meridian.  Atmospheric  vapors  obscure 
the  view  of  it  near  the  horizon;  it  attains  its 
greatest  visible  breadth  and  brilliancy  at  an 
elevation  of  perhaps  16°  or  20",  where  it  may 
be  as  bright  as  the  Milky  Way.  It  diSeri 
from  the  Milk;  Way,  however,  in  its  extremely 
soft  appearance.  Under  a  very  dear  atmos- 
phere, near  the  equator,  it  may  sometjmea  be 
seen  by  keen  eyes  as  an  arch  of  light  extending 
all  the  way  across  the  heavens,  near  the  eelip- 
tio.  Connected  with  this  light  is  said  to  be 
the  mysterious  phenomenon  known  as  the 
Qegeittehein,  consisting  in  a  faint  glow  at 
that  point  of  the  heavens  which  is  directly 
opposite  ths  sun. 

No  complete  and  satisfactory  explanation  of 
the  zodiacal  light  has  yet  been  given.  The 
best  opinion  is  that  it  is  caused  by  a  mass  of 
nebulous  gases,  or  finely  divided  matter,  sur- 
rounding the  sun  n^r  the  plane  of  the  eclip- 
tic, and  extending  out  a  little  beyond  the 
earth's  orbit.  The  general  aspect  of  the  light 
shows  that  Its  form  must  be  somewhat  that 
of  a  lens,  having  the  sun  in  its  center.  If 
this  view  be  correct,  the  illumination  is  due 
to  reflested  innlighL 

Zo'etrope.    See  Jtonsa  Ficttobcs. 

Zola  (sS'lft),  Bdraard  Charies  AntDise  Emile, 
1840-1902;  French  novelist;  b.  Paris;  passed 
his  youUi  in  8.  France,  but  finished  his  studies 
at  Paris  at  the  Lycfe  Saint-Louis;  became  a 
publisher^  clerk.  He  showed  hie  talent  in  the 
"  Contes  It  Ninon,"  "  La  Confession  de  Claude," 
"Theresa  Bjkquin,"  and  "Madeleine  Ferat," 
which  exhibit  a  violent  realism  marked  by  a 
materialistic  conception  of  life,  the  prominence 
of  the  physiological  element,  the  choice  of  vice 
^d  disease  as  objecte  of  observation,  and  a 
brutal  frankness,  and  often  a  great  power  of 
statement.  This  realism,  which  he  c^led  nat- 
uralism, he  'defended  in  critical  articles  col- 
lected in  the  volumes  "  Mes  Hainea,"  "  Le 
Roman  experimental,"  "  Les  Romanciers  natu- 
ralistes,"  ete.  It  was  esemplifled  especially  in 
twenty  novels  under  the  general  title  "  Les 
Hougon-Macquart,  histoire  natuielle  et  sociale 
d'une  famille  sous,  le  second  Empire"  (IB71- 
(13).  Some  of  these  novels  have  enjoyed  a 
very  wide  sale  and  populariW :  "  L'Asaom- 
moir,"  "Nana,"  " Pot-BouiUo,"  "Germinal," 
"La  I^erre,"  "La  IMbtole"  flMS).  After- 
wards    be    published     "Lonrdea,"    "Bcsm," 


20LLVEEEIN 

"Paris,"  and  "  FtomdlW,"  "TraTall,"  "Ju»- 
tice,"  and  "  VtiriU,"  the  liut  left  incomplete 
Kt  bia  death.  In  1898  Zola  was  tried  on  a 
charM  of  defamation,  in  -  connection  vith  the 
DTe;nii  case.  He  fled  to  England,  where  he 
remained  till  the  retrial  of  Dreyfiu.  He  died 
from  accidental  asphyxiation. 

ZoIlTCieiii  (taorfi-rln),  a  uniqn  of  the  Ger- 
man state*,  according  to  vliich  all  customg 
duties  along  the  internal  frontiers  of  the  states 
belonging  to  the  union  were  abolished,  and 
the  revenues  proceeding  from  the  customs  du- 
ties levied  along  the  external  frontiers  of  the 
union  were  partitioned  among  the  memheTs 
according  to  population.  Prussia  was  the  flrst 
to  propose  such  a  customs  union,  but  at  first 
only  the  minor  states  would  enter  it.  By  1834 
eighteen  states  had  become  members,  and  others 

f'oiued  from  time  to  time  till  in  the  period 
mm  1854  to  1865  nearly  all  states  had  en- 
tered it.  It  proved  eminently  beneficial  by 
throwing  down  vexatious  and  mischievous  bar- 
riers to  communication,  and  by  reducing  the 
cost  of  collecting  the  revenues.  Upon  the  for- 
mation of  the  German  Empire  in  1871  there 
was  no  longer  any  reason  for  the  separate 
existence  of  the  Zollverein. 

]  the  equator,  and 
named  from  the  temperature  prevailing  in 
each.  The  torrid  zone  extends  from  231°  N, 
(tropic  of  Cancer)  to  Z3i°  S.  (tropic  of  Capri- 
corn) of  the  equator.  The  N.  and  S.  temper- 
ate zones  lie  between  the  tropics  and  the  par- 
allels of  661°  N.  and  S.  respectively ;  the 
two  frigid  zones  lie  between  tiie  polar  circles 
and  the  N.  and  S.  poles.  See  Cliuate;  EguA- 
TOX;   Tbofics. 

Zodlog'ical  Gai'den,  a  park  cojitainine  ani- 
mals on  exhibition.  The  name  is  usualTy  ap- 
plied to  the  larger  institutions,  and  is  often 
popularly  abbreviated  to  "  zoo "  in  England 
and  America.  The  first  in  the  Jardin  dea 
Plantes,  in  Paris,  was  established  in  1804,  and 
such  menageries  are  now  publicly  maintained 
in  most  of  the  world's  large  cities.  V^enr  few 
publish  statistics  annually,  and  the  ngures 
shown  below  are  drawn  chiefly  from  a  report 
by  Dr.  Gustavo  Loiscl,  ol  Paris,  to  the  French 
Govt,  in  1807: 


InnitutioD. 

a: 

Kids. 

Kcplila 

Total. 

"SSS.^'T. 

eo7 

1 

424 

2.3Sa 
1^621 

!:i 
■g 

1? 
1 

4,034 

IS 

i 

gil^pbia 

g^OnhruDO 

Bird* 

VjtutOea.. 


den,  Hanover,  and  Rotterdam,  and,  on  other 
contifients,  in  Calcutta,  Cairo,  Melbonme, 
Tokyo,  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Rio  de  Janeiro.  In  . 
this  country,  besides  the  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia parks,  there  are  gardens  at  Cincinnati 
and  Washington  and  smaller  menageries  in 
public  parks  in  about  twenty  other  cities. 
Germany  leads  in  the  number,  size,  and  qual- 
ity of  her  gardens,  although,  as  seen  above, 
the  New  York  institution  is  now  the  largest 
in  the  world.  Most  zoological  gardens  are 
owned  by  zoological  societies,  semiprivate  cor- 
porations with  more  or  less  close  connection 
^ith  the  municipality.  Abroad  it  is  common 
for  them  to  admit  free  only  members  of  the 
controlling  societies,  charging  others  a  small 
fee.  In  New  York  the  Zoological  Society,  by 
contract  with  the  city,  admits  the  public  free 
on  all  days  of  the  week  except  two  in  return 
for  municipal  aid  and  support,  including  tiie 
use  of  a  large  tract  of  land  in  Bronx  Park. 
The  National  Zoological  Park  in  WashingtoB 
is  operated  by  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  and 
is  supported  by  the  Government.  Most  of  the 
smaller  coHeccions  are  maintained  by  cities 
as  amusement  features  of  their  public  parks. 

Although  the  idea  of  entertaiiunent  is  prom- 
inent in  all  zoological  gardens,  the  larger  ones 
are  conducted  as  serious  scientific  institutions; 


ment  or  to  satisfy  curiosity,  they  obtain  inci- 
dentally much  valuable  information.  A  well- 
equipped  modern  zoJIlogical  garden  is,  in  effect, 
a  museum  of  living  animals,  with  proper  de- 
scriptive labels,  maintained  so  far  as  possible 
in  conditions  similar  to  those  of  their  life  in 
the  natural  or  wild  state.  Thus,  while  the 
older  and  smaller  menageries  keep  all  their 
animals  in  cramped  cages,  the  large  gardens 
have  buffalo  runs,  beaver  pools,  deer  ranges, 
etc.,  only  the  dangerous  beasts  being  kept  in 
confinement.  The  tropical  creatures  are  of 
course  housed,  at  least  during  cold  weather, 
in  properly  warmed  buildings. 

Zoology,  the  science  of  animal  life,  treating 
of  their  structure,  development,  classificatioD, 
distribution,  habits,  and  derivation.  It  is  now 
generally  reckoned  a  department  of  biology. 
The  division  relating  to  extinct  animals  known 
only  from  their  fossil  remains  is  usually  con- 
sidered a  distinct  science — that  of  Paleontol- 
og7- 

BUtory, — The  first  writer  on  zoUlogy  was 
Aristotle  (384-322  B.C.),  who  treated  it  chiefly 
anatomically.  Pliny  (23-79  a.d.)  wrote  inter- 
estingly but  uncritically  about  animals  and 
their  habits.  Little  was  written  on  the  sub- 
ject in  the  Middle  Ages.  Arabian  naturalists 
introduced  Aristotle  to  the  W.  world,  and 
Albertus  Magnus  (1193-1280)  wrote  a  com- 
mentary, but  neither   advanced   the  science. 

Modem  zoOlo^^  dates  from  A.  Gesner'a 
"  Historia  Animalium,"  published  early  in  the 
sixteenth  century.  This  and  the  works  of 
other  so-called  "encyclopedists"  (lSOO-1750) 
confined  themselves  to  uie  statement  of  facts 
and  prepared  the  way  for  the  so-called  Lin- 
"1  period  (17SO-1800),  during.which  theM 


.X.OO;-^lt 


zoOloqt 

facts  were  arranged  In  *  ^atem.  Linncus 
(1707-73)  eonatructed  the  first  eytteia  of  thii 
kind — Buperflcial  but  complete.  The  "binary  " 
plan  of  nomenclature  which  he  introduced  re- 
quired that  every  creature  should  be  auigned 
to  a  definite  epeciei  and  genua,  and  ahould  be 
named  from  them.  Thus  Felts  is  a  genus  in- 
cluding numerous  related  members  of  what  we 
now  call  the  cat  family  {Felidte)'.  The  do- 
mestic cat  is  a  species  of  this  genus  {Feli» 
domtttica).  The  necessity  of  examinine  every 
creature  carefully  for  generic  and  specific  pe- 
culiarities led  to  detailed  study  and  increasing  . 
knowledge.  LlnnBUS  developed  tor  the  first 
time  the  idea  of  an  "  animal  kingdom,"  and 
for  the  next  half  century  his  followers,  among 
whom  were  BuAon,  Bonnet,  0.  F.  MQller, 
SpallanKani,   and   G.   F.    Wolff,   were   engaged 


The  Linntean  system  was  deficient,  however, 
in  the  broader  clasaiftcation.  With  the  Lin- 
ngeans  a  species  was  too  definite  an  entity  and 
the  system  a  rigid  structure  into  which  new 
facts,  BB  they  came  to  light,  were  to  be  forced 
to  fit.  With  the  development  of  the  science 
of  comparative  anatomy  t>egan  the  Cuvierian 
period  ( 1600-60) .  George  Cuvier  ( 1769- 
1832)  first  established  three  important  prin- 
ciples of  the  science:  the  correlation  of  parts, 
the  subordination  of  characters,  and  the  idea 
of  types  of  structure.  The  first  states  the  law 
that  from  the  presence  of  certain  characters 
in  an  organism  the  existence  of  certain  others 
may  be   inferred — an  important  principle  in 

Kleontology  of  which  Cuvier  was  the  lather, 
e  second  states  that  certain  characters  are 
Hubordinat«  to  others,  and  the  third  develops 
from  this  the  idea  that  animals  may  be  ar- 
ranged in  great  types  or  branches  according 
to  their  leading  characters.  Cuvier's  types 
were  four — the  vertebrates,  articulates,  mol- 
luslu,  and  radiates.  Linnteus  had  taught  that 
all  animal  forms  were  arranged  in  a  continu- 
ous series,  and  this  division  into  types  was 
vigorously  opposed,  especially  by  St.  Hilaire; 
but  it  dominated  the  zoSIoey  of  the  next  half 
century,  during  which  students  were  occupied 
in  enlarging  and  developing  Cuvier's  ideas. 
With  them  new  branches  of  the  science  sprang 
up  or  were  expanded,  such  as  embryology,  his- 
tology, and  comparative  anatomy.  The  great 
names  of  this  period  are  Johannes  Mllller, 
Ehrenberg,  Leuckart,  Richard  Owen,  and,  in 
.America,  James  D.  Dana. 

The  publication  of  Charles  Darwin's  "  Origin 
of  Species,"  in  1869,  opened  another  era,  dur- 
ing which  the  discussion  of  classification  gave 
place  to-  that  of  origins.  (See  EvoLunox.) 
The  development  of  organisms  had  been  dis- 
cussed for  some  time,  and  in  the  hands  of 
Lamarck  it  liad  assumed  a  systematic  form, 
being  ascribed  largely  to  modification  under 
the  influence  of  environment,  with  formation 
of  inheritable  variations.  Darwin  flrst  intro- 
duced the  idea  of  natural  selection  by  the 
survival  of  the  fittest,  which  has  had  a  power- 
ful influence  on  all  subsequent  thought.  The 
idea  of  descent  has  given  a  point  from  which 
all  branches  of  the  science  may  be  viewed,  and 
all  have  progressed  together  with  great  rapid- 


ZOOLOOT 

ity.  Modem  EoOlogists  may  be  roughly  di- 
vided into  two  schools — the  Neod&rwinians  and 
the  NeoUmarckians;  the  former  denying  and 
the  latter  asserting  that  acquired  diaroeter- 
istica  may  be  inherited.  Among  the  most  emi- 
nent of  the  former  is  Alfred  Russell  Wallace, 
who  enunciated  the  principle  of  natural  selec- 
tion almost  at  the  same  time  as  Darwin,  and 
»mong  the  latter  was  E.  D.  Cope,  the  Amer- 
ican zoillogist. 

Claatilicaiioii. — The  number  of  species  of 
animals  recognized  by  LinniEUS  was  about 
6,000.  In  1830  it  was  estimated  at  50,000  and 
in  IBOO  (by  St.  Hilaire)  at  140,000.  In  1875 
Fagenstecher  stated  it  as  300,000,  and  at  pres- 
ent the  number  of  insect  species  alone  (includ- 
ing those  yet  undeacribed)  has  been  placed  aa 
high  as  1,000,000.  Methods  of  classification 
have  necessarily  grown  in  accuracy  and  com- 
plexity. Cuvier's  type  theory  is  still  generally 
accepted,  although  now  interpreted  on  a  basis 
of  interrelationship.  Animals  of  the  same 
type,  family,  genus  or  species  are  now  looked 
upon  not  only  as  those  having  certain  resem- 
blances, but  as  those  related  to  each  other 
more  or  less  closely  by  descent  from  a  common 
ancestor.  There  has  been  considerable  redis- 
tribution on  this  basis,  especially  in  the  higher 
and  larger  groups.  In  one  sy8t«m,  widely  ac- 
cepted, the  primary  group  is  the  "  series,"  still 
higher  than  the  type.  The  animal  kingdom  is 
divided  into  two  of  these — the  Protozoa  or 
one-celled  animals  and  the  Metasoa  or  many- 
celled.  Some  authorities  subdivide  the  latter 
into  Accelomata  (those  having  no  body  cavity) 
and  Ccelomata  (those  possessing  one).  Other 
changes  from  earlier  classifications  are  the 
substitution  of  several  groups  for  the  old  one 
of  worms  (Terme*),  the  withdrawal  of  the 
bryoEoana  and  brachiopods  from  the  mollusks, 
the  affiliation  of  sponges  with  the  Caleiiterata, 
and  the  union  with  the  vertebrates  of  th« 
tunicates,  and  perhaps  of  other  groups. 

The  sciences  that  have  grown  out  of  EoSbgy 
are  treated  in  separate  articles.  Such  are 
MoBPaot-OOT,  now  handled  with  a  view  to 
discovering  the  relationships  and  origins  of 
animal  groups;  Histoukt,  the  scienpe  of  ani- 
mal tissues;  pHTSioLoar,  which  has  not  at- 
tained such  progress  in  the  study  of  the  lower 
animals  as  in  that  of  man;  and  EiiBaxoiAOT, 
which  has  attained  capital  importance  since 
the  time  of  Darwin,  owing  to  the  belier  that 
the  development  of  the  embryo  reflects  and 
throws  light  upon  that  of  the  race.  The  so- 
called  "biogenetic  law,"  aa  stated  by  Eaeckel, 
asserts  that  the  embryology  of  a  group  is  a 
recapitulation  of  the  history  of  its  descent, 
and  that  this  history  may  therefore  be  as- 
certained and  studied  by  investigation  of 
growth  changes  in  the  individual,  especially 
before  birth.  So  many  modifications  of  this 
law  have  been  brought  to  light,  however,  that 
it  is  not  now  dwelt  upon  so  exclusively  as 
formerlv.  Of  late  attention  has  been  fixed  on 
the  cell  and  its  contents,  especially  with  a 
view  to  explaining  the  facts  of  heredity,  so 
important  to  the  science.  Experimental  meth- 
ods have  also  been  introduced,  as  by  Loeb,  in 
the  United  States,  and  the  egg,  or  young  on- 
bryo,  is  exposed  to  changed  or  abnormal  con- 


ZOROASTEK 

ditioiu,  tlie  effects  being  noted  and  ditcnsMd. 
Loeb'B  fertilixatiou  of  the  mk  urchin's  eggs  by 
chemical  means  is  one  of  the  best  known  of 
these  modem  experimental  investigations. 

These  and  other  studies  have  been  carried  on 
in  so-called  "EoOlogical  stations"  where 'ma- 
rine or  fresh-water  animals  are  studied  under 
natural  conditions.  The  oldest  is  that  estab- 
lished at  Naples  In  1872,  and  supported  chiefly 
by  the  Oerman  Govt.  The  Univ.  of  Vienna  has 
one  at  Trieste,  the  French  Qovt.  one  at  Ban- 
yula  and  one  at  Marseilles,  and  the  Russians 
one  at  Villefrsncbe.  There  are  statioDS  in 
Great  Britain  at  Plymouth,  Liverpool,  and  at 
fit.  Andrews,  near  Edinburgh;  in  Helixoland, 
at  Bebast4}pol,  and  others  in  Norway  and  Swe- 
den. Japan  has  one  at  Musald.  In  the  U.  8, 
ftre  the  laboratoi^  of  Alexander  Agassiz  at 
Newport,  the  stations  at  Wood's  Hole,  Mass., 
and  Cold  Spring  Harbor,  Long  Island,  and  that 
of  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.,  whose  location  changes 
from  year  to  year. 

Besides  these  divisions  of  zoOlogy,  which 
hftve  developed  so  strongly  on  the  experimental 
side,  there  are  also  branches  which  deal  with 
the  relations  between  organisms  and  their 
surroundings.  Since  1860  what  Is  called  sofilog- 
ieal  geography  has  been  entirely  remodelel, 
the  distribution  of  animals  being  now  Inter- 
preted in  the  light  of  evolutionary  doctrines. 
The  isolation  of  certain  species  on  islands  or 
island  ^ups,  the  interposition  of  obstacles  to 
migration,  such  as  mountain  chains  or  rivers, 
have  had  important  bearings  on  their  racial 
history.  Here,  too,  belongs  the  discussion  of 
the  influence  of  more  intimate  environment. 
Including  that  of  protective  ooloration  and 
other  mimicry.  The  study  of  variation  has 
recently  also  received  attention,  the  most  sen- 
■ationat  discovery  in  it  beins  that  of  the  so- 
called  "  mutations,"  or  sudden  leaps,  an- 
nounced by  Hugo  De  Vriea  from  his  study 


ZOUAVES 

in  angels  and  archangels  and  in  demons  and 
Sends  was  reeognlKed;  the  doctrine  of  a  bodilv 
resurrection  was  taught;  the  practice  of  agri- 
culture  and  husbandry  enjoined;  and  the  care 
of  useful  animals,  as  well  as  keeping  pure  the 
flre,  water,  and  earth,  was  inculcated.  The 
power  of  Zoroastrianism  as  the  national  reli- 
gion of  ancient  Persia  was  first  broken  by  the 
invasion  of  Alexander,  and  although  restored 
under  the  Sassanida,  it  was  overthrown  bj 
the  rise  of  Mohammedanism.  To-day  the  faith 
is  professed  by  about  90,000  Parseee. 

Zouaves  (zO-Svz').  Aceordins  to  Bufflno,  a 
body  of  Zouaves,  or  Zuaghi,  tribesmen  distin- 
guished for  bravery  and  uiill,  was  in  the  serv- 
ice of  the  Sublime  Porte  in  1574.  Prior  to 
the  French  occupation  of  Algeria  these  Kabyle 
tribesmen  were  employed  as  mercenaries  I^ 
the  Barbary  states.  The  French,  after  the 
oonqurat  of  Algiers,  found  themselves  with  a 
limited  force  in  the  midst  of  a  hostile  popu- 
lation. Gen.  Clausel  thereupon  ( 1830)  organ- 
ized two  battalions  of  Zouaves,  designed  at 
first  to  consist  of  natives  only,  but  officers  and 
some  of  the  privates  were  later  selected  from 
French  volunteers.  The  foreigners  were  then 
organized  into  a  foreign  legion,  and  the  Zou- 
aves remaining  consisted  almost  entirely  of 
young  Parisians  and  natives  from  the  vicinity 
of  Algiers.  They  were  at  once  put  into  active 
service,  and  distinguished  thenunlvea  by  their 
bravery  and  dash. 

Difficulty  having  been  experienced  in  keep- 
ing of  the  mixed  command,  the  natives  were 
eventual  lyi  organized  into  a  separate  corps 
known  as  Turcos.  and  the  Zouaves  beoame  al- 
most entirely  French.  Their  organization  waa 
modifled,  and  service  with  them  came  to  be 
regarded  as  the  best  school  for  ambitious  offi- 
cers of  the  French  army.  During  the  Crimean 
War  the  services  of  the  Zouaves  were  con- 
spicuous, and  many  innovations  in  drill  tac- 
tics may  be  traced  to  them.  The  Zouaves 
served  with  distinction  in  the  campaign  in 
Mexico,  and  in  the  war  of  1870-71.  Their 
present  organizatjon  consists  of  four  regiments, 
each  of  four  battalions  of  four  companies- 
There  are  also  in  the  French  army  four  cor- 
responding regiments  of  Turcos.  In  Algeria 
there  are  also  oodres  (or  ten  battalions  of 
Zouaves. 

The  Pontifical  or  Papal  Zouaves  were  a  body 
of  volunteers,  principally  from  the  noble  fam- 
ilies of  France,  organized  in  IBBO  for  the  de- 
fense of  the  temporal  power  of  the  pope.  They 
fought  with  bravery  in  several  actions,  but 
were  unpopular  with  the  Italians,  being  re- 
garded as  foreign  intruders.  In  ISTO  they 
embarked  for  France,  and  returning  to  Tours 
were  under  Baron  Charette  as  colonel  recruit- 
ed up  to  two  battalions. '  Joining  the  army  of 
Orleans,  they  fought  with  distinction  at  Or- 
leans and  Patay.  They  assisted  the  an^  of 
Versailles  in  suppressing  the  Commune.  Their 
organization  was  dissolved  after  the  entry  of 
the  army  of  Versailles  into  Paris. 

During  the  Civil  War  in  the  U.  S.  several 

the  Turanians.   'He  is  commonly  regarded  as  a,    regiments    of    Zouaves    were    organized^  who 

Uagian,  a  reformer  of  th(     '-'  '—-'--  '-'"  ^ ....:*-,. 

•na  as  the  founder  of  a  n 


Zoioostei  [E<>-re-fts't4r),  the  prophet  of  an- 
cient Iran,  whose  teachings  are  preserved  in 
the  Avesta.  The  era  at  which  be  fiourished 
has  been  open  to  discussion.  Persian  tradi- 
tion claims  the  sixth  century  B.C.,  although 
the  writers  of  antiquity  vary  between  1000 
B.C.  and  6000  b.o.  In  giving  his  date.  There 
is  good  authori^  for  believing  that  the  dis- 
trict of  Atropatene  In  W.  Iron  was  his  native 
place,  but  the  scene  of  his  preaching  and  teach- 
ing was  Bactria  in  E.  Iran.  King  Vishtaspa 
of  Bactria  was  his  reli^ous  patron,  hut  the 
consensus  of  scholarly  opinion  is  rather  against 
identifying  this  ruler  with  Hystaspes,  the 
father  of  Darius,  notwithstanding  the  identity 
of  the  names.  ... 

Zoroaster,  there  is  no 


Regarding  the  life 
doubt   that   he   was 
The  tradition, 
that  he  begi 


is  probably  authenl 
\irj  at  the  age  of  thirty, 
that  he  was  forty-two  when  he  converted  King 
Vishtaspa,  and  that  when  seventy-seven  he  was 
slain,  apparently  in  a  storming  of  Balkh  by 
Turanians.  He  is  commonly  regarded  as  a 
an,  a  reformer  of  the  old  Iranian  faith, 
"le  founder  of  a  new  creed.  Dualism 
of  its  characteristie  tenets,  a  belief 


uniforms  similar  to  that  ol  the  French 

Zouaves;   some  of  thnn  served  wiUi  marked 
distinction.  '^~* 


(Google 


ZUtTAKO 

Znccuo  (d£Ok1d-rO),  Taddae,  UtSt-M,  fad 
Federiso,  abt.  1642-1009;  two  brothers,  lUlian 
painterB;  Federigo  was  bom  at  Sont'  AuAelo 
ID  Vado,  Urbino,  and  waa  a  pupil  o(  Tadaeo. 
He  finished  painting  the  frescoea  in  the  Cburcb 
of  the  Trinit&'del  Monte  in  Rome  b^un  by 
his  brother,  and  then  waa  called  to  Florence 
to  finish  the  cupola  in  Banta  Maria  del  Fiore 
b^fun  by  Vaaarl.  In  Rome  the  dome  of  the 
Paolina  chapel,  begun  by  Michelangelo,  waa 
confided  to  him;  but  haviiw  avengM  himeelf 
on  some  favoritca  uf  Pope  Qregory  XIII,  who 
had  insulted  him,  he  had  to  ny  from  Rome. 
Be  traveled  for  a  time,  and  received  commis- 
■ione  to  paint  portraits  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
and  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  also  the  "  Adora- 
tion of  the  Magi,"  He  wae  again  called  to 
Rome  by  the  pope,  who  forgave  hi*  escapade 
and  wiabed  him  to  finish  the  work  b^un  there. 
Philip  II  then  Invited  him  to  Madrid,  where 
hia  work  was  not  liked,  and  what  he  did  was 
^aced;  but  he  was  handsomely  compenaated. 
Returning  to  Rome,  was  elected  president  of 
St.  Luke  B  Academy.  Built  himself  a  palace 
on  the  Pineio,  which  ho  adorned  with  frescoes. 
Afl«r  this  returned  to  Spain,  but  with  no  bet- 
ter success  than  the  first  time.  Was  also  an 
architect  and  sculptor,  nnd  a  writer  in  proae 

Zuidet  Zee  (zoi'der  zA).    See  Zutveb  Zee. 

Znlnland,  the  country  of  the  Zulus;  border- 
ing on  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  formerly  ex- 
tending from  Natal  nearly  to  the  Portugueae 
possessions  in  SE.  Africa,  and  inland  to  the 
mountain  barrier  of  the  Transvaal  Colony,  As 
a  result  of  the  fierce  war  (1879)  between  the 
Zulus  and  British,  and  of  the  territorial  am- 
bitions of  the  Boers,  the  country  was  wrested 
from  native  control,  Cetewayo  waa  the  last 
king  of  the  independent  native  dynasty.  He 
waa  crowned  in  1S73,  and  his  word  was  law 
from  the  Tugela  River  to  Delagoa  Bay,  Hia 
army  of  40,000  men  waa  a  atanding  menace  to 
the  neighboring  territories.  The  war  ol  1879 
resulted  in  hia  dethronement,  and  though  the 
British  decided  to  restore  him,  hia  power  and 
apirit  were  broken.  He  died  at  Ekowe,  18S4. 
All  that  the  British  have  retained,  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  country,  ia  a  protectorate  of 
is'atal.  Most  of  the  country  is  a  productive 
table-land  with  a  climate  not  injurioua  to 
Europeans.  Area  of  Britiah  Zululand,  10,461 
sq.  m.  Pop.  (leoa)  abt.  94,370  whitea  and 
1,067,537  Indians,  Asiatics,  and  natives. 

Zn'lns,  a  warlike  Kaffir  tribe  of  the  Bantu 
family,  occupying  a  territory  in  B.  Africa  to 
the  KE.  of  Natal,  of  which  colony  it  became 
B  province  in  1887.  The  Zulus  are  noted  for 
a  higher  intelligence,  courage,  and  morality 
than  other  native  Africans,  and  their  formi- 
dable army  at  first  more  than  held  its  own 
against  the  Britiah,  notably  at  laandula,  where 
a  body  of  Britiah  troops  waa  annihilated;  but 
the  Zulua  were  finally  defeated  at  the  general 
battle  of  Ulundi  in  1879. 

Znilian  (zQ'nyl-lin)  In'diani,  a  family  of 
American  Indians  of  W.  central  New  Mexico ; 
named  by  Fray  Marco*  de  Kiza  "  the  people 
of  Cibola  or  Civola."     At  the  tima  of  the 


ZUYDER  gTgB} 

Spanish  explorations  in  the  sixteenth  oentury 
the  Zutlian  lodiuis  were  divided  into  seven 
tribal  rommunitiea,  occupying  aa  many  pueb- 
los. This  gave  rise  to  the  rumor  of  the  "  Seven 
Cities  of  Cibola,"  and,  combined  with  the  pre- 
eminence of  the  Zufiis  in  other  ways,  nuule 
them  early  the  most  widely  known  and  re- 
spected of  all  the  tribe*  of  the  arid  region. 
They  were  regarded  aa  the  leaders  in  the  arta, 
in  government,  and  especially  in  magic — aa  the 
"  Fathers  of  the  Pueblos." 

The  ZuDis  are  intellectual  and  grave,  yet 
wit^.  They  are  intensely  mythic-minded,  and 
hence  poetic  and  religious  to  an  extreme  de- 
gree. Although  peace-loving  and  unusual^ 
self-reatrained,  they  are  extremely  courageous 
when  defending  their  rights.  They  are  per- 
haps the  moat  polite  of  N.  American  aborigines. 

Between  IS42  and  I67&  four  of  their  tomi 
were  abandoned,  and  at  the  outbreaJc  of  the 
great  Pueblo  rebellion  of  16S0-9S  they  left 
their  three  remaining  towns  to  seek  refuge  on 
their  Gibraltar,  Taaiyalane,  where  they  lived 
in  their  sevenfold  citadel  until  after  the  Peace 
of  the  Vargas. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century 
Ibey  aeem  to  have  occupied  only  Halorea,  the 
midmoat  of  their  towns.  Later  they  buil^  seven 
other  towns  called  the  "Peach"  or  "So  noli" 
villages.  After  joining  in  the  war  with  Mex- 
ico, and  later  in  that  against  the  Navajos, 
they  continued  to  tend  their  abeep  and  cattle 
and  till  their  cornfields  and  irrigated  patches 
of  wheat,  indifferent  toward  the  outside  world, 
aa  bad  for  centuries  been  their  wont. 


bered  about  4,000.  According  to  Vetancourt, 
the  tribe  numbered  2,600  in  1680.  In  the 
eighteenth  century  the  Zuflis  had  been  reduced 
to  about  2,000,  while  in  1890  they  numbered 
1,613.     They  are  not  rapidly  decreaaing. 

Znrich  (tstl'rich),  capital  of  the  canton  of 
Zurich,  Switzerland;  43  m.  KW.  of  Glarus;  on 
the  Limmat  where  it  issues  from  the  Lake  of 
Zurich,  It  is  well  built,  though  somewhat  old- 
fashioned.  It  has  a  university,  a  public  libra- 
ry, a  botanical  garden,  several  museums  of 
natural  history,  and  a  federal  polytechnic 
Hchool  to  which  pupils  from  all  Europe  gather. 
Its  manufactures  comprise  silk,  cotton,  leather, 
ribbons,  lace,  etc.,  and  are  extrataive.  Pop. 
(1910)   189,088. 

Zurich,  Lake  of,  lake  of  Switzerland;  23  m. 
louE  and  2^  m.  broad;  bounded  by  the  cantons 
of  Zurich,  Schwytz,  and  St.  Gall,  and  cele- 
brated for  the  beauty  of  its  scenery. 

Znyder  Zee  (zoi'der  zfi),  a  gulf  of  the  North 
Sea,  80  m,  long  and  40  m.  in  greatest  breadth. 
Several  islands  lie  across  its  mouth,  and  the 
principal  communication  with  the  North  Sea 
is  between  the  Helder  and  the  island  of  Tezel. 
It  receives  the  waters  of  the  Yssel  and  of  the 
Amstel,  both  delta  branches  of  the  Rhine;  at 
the  entrance  of  the  latter  the  city  of  Amster- 
dam is  situated.  In  prehistoric  time*  the 
Zuvdcr   Zee   wna   larger   than   at   present,   but 


ZWINGLI 

fallowed  by  tboM  of  11S4  and  1104,  ca.nMd'it 
'  to  be  ag&ia  inundftted.  It  is  ahallow,  and  tha 
difficulty  of  luiTigAtiiiK  the  S.  part  cauaed  the 
conatructioQ  of  the  North  Sea  Cwutl  and  of 
the  Holland  Canal  aa  approachea  to  Amater- 

Zwinzli  (tevlng'IB),  Ulrlch  or  Enldenlch, 
1464-1031;  Qerman  reformer  and  patriot;  b. 
WildhauB,  Switzerland;  atudied  at  Weten,  Vi- 
enna, Ues-lSOI,  and  Basel,  ISOS-S;  was  car- 
ried awftf  with  the  enthuaiaam  for  claasical 
leaming,  and  got  an  insight  into  the  cornip- 
tiona  of  the  Church;  wai  ordained  priest,  ahd 
elected  pastor  of  Glarua,  1&06.  He  atudied 
the  OreeK  New  Testament  carefully;  preached 
against  the  mercenary  service  of  his  country- 
men; in  151$  accepted  a  call  to  St.  Mary's  at 
Einsiedein,  and  b^an  to  attack  superstitious 
practices,  but  with  the  consent  of  his  supe- 
riors; he  even  received  for  a  while,  as  one  of 
the  most  popular  preachers,  a  pension  from 
the  papal  nuncio  in  Switzerland  which'  aided 
him  in  his  studies  and  secured  his  political 
influence.  In  December,  1G18,  he  was  called 
to  the  oathedtal  at  Zurich,  where  he, labored 
till  his  death.  Re  preached  "  Christ  from  the 
fountains  "  and  "  inserted  the  pure  Christ  into 
the  hearts  ">  broke  loose  graduallj|  from  Ro- 
manism;  introduced  the  Reformation  in  Zu- 


ZTGOSPORE 

rich,  1S24,  after  some  public  disputations  with 
the  champions  of  the  old  system;  attended  the 
conference  at  Berne,  1S28,  which  resulted  in 
the  abolition  of  the  mass.  He  was  invited  to 
a  personal  conferenoe  with  Luther  and  Me- 
lanebthon  at  Marburg,  1629,  to  adjust  the  only 
serious  doctrinal  difference  between  them  on 
the  Eucharistie  Present.  He  also  entered  into 
bold  political  combinations  witii  Philip  of 
Hesse  for  the  triumph  of  the  Protestant  cause 
in  Oennauy,  and  addressed  the  Emperor  of 
Qermany  and  the  King  of  France  with  a  con- 
fession of  his  faith.  At  the  outbreak  of  the 
war  between  the  Roman  Catholic  and  Protes- 
tant cantons  he  accompanied  the  Zurich  regi- 
ment as  chaplain,  and  was  pierced  by  a  lanoe 
at  Kappel  while  stooping  to  comfort  a  dying 

s  bold  reformer,  an  able  sehol- 


votion  to  the  cause  of  Reformation,  and  sn 
passed  them  in  liberality.  His  prominent  i 
t«11ectual  trait  was  elear,  strong  cc 

Zyc'otpore.    See  Dutoub. 


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INDEXES 


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„  Google 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


The  Analytical  Index,  aa  wiD  be  seen  at  a  glance,  is  dedgned  to  make  the  material  of  the 
CTCi/>piniA  more  available.  Many  of  the  articln  include  discussioos  of  relatively  minor  topics, 
not  important  enough  for  aeparaM  articles  in  a  work  on  the  plan  of  the  Ctclopkdia.  Such  sub- 
jects are  indexed  below,  in  each  case  with  a  leference  to  the  article  in  which  the  toiuc  is  treated, 
and  the  volume  and  page  to  be  referred  to.    Many  synonyms,  also,  are  indexed. 


Jama  th*  JuM.  Hanmn  il  BawAU, 

in-lM. 
Abk«,  Wofiila.  IT.  17B. 
Abark.  />*lMA>in.  V.  OS. 
Abtwy,  MonOMitry,  IV,  310. 
Abbot  or  Fooli,  Ahlxit  of  MianOt,  I.  4 
Abbot  ol  UurMMO,  ibtM  ol  MxtrtiU. 

1,4. 
Abdul  RkhiokD,  ifahaniMUm,  I,  30. 
Abhidhumk,  THvUaka.  VI,  248. 
Abiry,  AiebuTV,  I,  1B4. 
AbkCk^iu.  dveuno.  I,  4M. 
Abnhun,  Hi..  Uaini.  TV,  160. 
AbtMmtion,  fianHvm,  V,2T& 
Abulut*  SmI*,  Zro,  VI,  474. 
Abnluta  Zen,  Cotd.  II,  SO;  Zav.VI, 

!«.. r-,  --.  - 

id  Plat*.  III.  31 

Abul  Hirnrn.  JwiaA,  III.  437. 

Aburw.0aMlar,  III,  OT. 

AbyKl    IUcIod,    Dttp-—a    Apton. 

tion.  IlTTfiS. 
Aewlainia  NMunB  Curios  Aeadamt, 

1.14. 
AokdimieFruiaiae,  Acodanir,  1, 14. 
Aeaduny    of     NstumI     Sdtasea    ol 

Fhibdalphik,  AcadanU'  ^i  ^*- 
AooBdsinu  Eieali  Arswli,  Aeaitmy,  I, 

Aooelentlnc  Qkn^on, /r«rt,  m,  181 . 
■       ■      ■         H*nrt.IU,  181. 


Add  tA — 

omMjZa^cOy,  VI. 4T>. 
K.  ^■ata,  I,  IM. 


AoquukaDODk,  Pouaic.  V,  46. 
AMa  PopuU,  AcM  Diurna,  I.  20. 
A<t  of  AbomlDMioiu.  Tar^.Vl.lK. 
Aot  of  Fdlh.  AiUiHl»-F4.  1. 182. 
Adun  and  Eva.  HomtlMk.  III.  ZS7. 
Adwn'i  Appla,  tariBii.  IV,  6. 
Adam!,  Ht..  CokoiI*  R/mm.  I,  423: 

iniM  W«i>iUa<«^I,  401. 
AdBin'i  Nasdla  Bod  Thiwi.  yiMoa, 

VI,  470. 
Adun'i  P«ak,  Ciirln,  I,  400. 
Adkulf.  Atoutf.  I,  les. 
A66nimen.Abluimtt,l.  10. 
Addbart    CoUttn.    WtMmt    Rmnu 

[/■tanttvTVl,  ML 
AdanoloD,  AnoAiM.  I.  83. 
AdlshkrCtnoMte.  r4»4. 
Adjactlva  Colon.  MardtMl;  TV,  33T. 
Adminirtnlira  Dtputment,  L«Ua- 

nir«,IV.38. 
AdoU.^Mitf,  1,165. 
Adveatitia,  Arimy.  1,  14S. 
Advanuy,  AnHarul,  1, 100. 
AdToaatna  Dal,  ^^hmMm  Diotali,  I, 


AoMtyuin,  iV««  if<h 
AncaOaa  Salutatlo.  i 
Aofelio  Doctor.  AgmwH,  jnomiH, 

Aoidla    Hjma,    Otaria    in    EcciU 

ABtdlque    da    MntJaaa.    Anuiil 

AnglUmu.  I.  140. 
AntaUtaa.  Damiamlm,  II,  186. 
Ado!  at  tin  Loid.  Avabw.  I.  M. 
Anillna  Pink.  Baffrmlitt,  V.  364. 
Aninialeuha,  Proletea,  V,  303. 
Anto  Novu*.  AoMitiul  I,  lit. 


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Anopu.  Aimhi*,  I,  KM. 
Aatekik,  AnMotA.  1, 103. 

AntanaiuriiH)     TammOFWOt  V 

n.  Ann.  1. 134. 


«.V1.  68. 

AottutiDomorphoiu      Apoa,      ffib6on. 

III.  36. 
AotifUA,  Ovatmitaia  la  ArUiffua,  lit. 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


(;  XmrMl  WilMm 

AtlutM,  tiaryaHdm,  I,  433. 

Atmui,  Srakmomnt,  I.  3371  T'A«M- 

ajAv.  VI,  18a. 
Atmu,  Mj/Ouiam.  IV.  307. 
AWirM,  AmmEi,  IV,  346. 
AtnlMM,^mu.I,143. 

AtiidM  AbwH.  I.  tea. 

Attorn*,  fidlodoma.  I,  2S1. 

Attio  Bm,  Tha.  Xtmoiihm^Vl.  tu. 

Attonty-Gtatni  of  (be  Lunp-poal. 

The,  CanMHiiiu,  Bmoil  CamiiU. 

U.  176. 
AtnrM.  OrinoM.  IT,  402. 
AubMsia^  Baepl'i^-  II.  367. 
Aodhumb.fiwi.  I,  365. 
AusuMa  ViDdcljforuni.  Aufafcorp,   I, 

AorutioUa  Doctrina,  Frm  Wm,  II, 


BudL   Douto  dl  Nioolo  dl  BMtL 


Bui  P«ir,  Balaam.  I,  OtXi. 
BMJti*.  final,  1,  lag. 
BUi,fiaMite,  1,100. 
BWlu.  Batvlon,  I.  ISO. 
Brtirouan,  Atin*.  VI.  1S3. 
BabouTWiw.  0iii«u/.  I,  IM. 
BabyloalM)  Tilmud,  .liJ^.  1. 1 
Baoeio  ddia  P«M,  BarMamMi 


BMhi),Jtf#XIV  316. 


rv 

V,  114 


Aiticuiu    Unmi 

62. 
Artificial  Cold,  PieUt.  Raoul,  v , 
AruDdd  or  Oiford  HarblM,  Pam,  v . 

40. 
ArvMDold,  Larynx,  IV,  6. 
Aiali.  Altai.  I,  5z. 
Aadood,  AMJsd.  1. 1S4. 
Aadrubai.  Hatdrubal,  HI.  16fi. 
Awptic.  AntiteiMic,  I,  104. 
Aaajnial  Raproduction.  Srpndutticn, 

Aihkdon.  Atcatim,  I.  1S2. 
AaWw,  Maionrv.  IV,  206. 
Aihrnunen,   Htrmopoti,  Magna,    III, 

308. 
Adao  Rue.  Wan.  IV,  170. 


a  FriM, 


I.  400. 


T,  A»*«,  I'  .„.. 

Amhiubaoiiial,  Atmna,  I,  161. 
Auodale  Synod,  Atoeialt  Prtibj/lary,  I 


[Buberioi,  Uaffoo,  Urban,  VI,  Ml. 
t  B«rb«riai  Vaw.  Ola-.  Ill,  48. 


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ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


Kc  BKd  SUta.  rcwMMM,  YI.  ITS. 
Bic  JftW,  AtHnomiico^.l,  31. 
Blnrdi.  OUrlmdau.  til.  33. 
Bifiiud.  Oum  Trte,  III.  130. 
Biauh,  5v<<a0iWM,  VI,  138. 
Knary  Compoand.  Chmntlry,  I,  467. 
BinAir  ByrittD.  Ar^nuric.  I,  13S. 
BindM.  Vwmni.  IV.  206. 

BloSta,  Jtfiea,  IV,  ££0. 
BipcDDU,  SoUto-oi,  I,  230.  „ 
Kplww,  f  iVHW  UoMiiWi.  n,  416. 

BiUl^I>ama.  II.  13S.       __ 
Bitter  Cr«H.  Craw.  II.  103. 
Biltar  Spar,  Dnlomite.  II,  308. 
Biw,  RodricD  Disi  de.  C-id,  I,  403. 
BivDuu.  Camp.  I,  305. 


BUck  Pdneo'i  Rubr.  Sjnml.  VI,  GS. 
Bluk  Rook,  Oreat  SoU  Laice.  Ill,  S7. 
Black  ToUD.  ColnXla.  I.  SS3. 
Bluktown.  Wadnu.  fV.  14S. 
Blukwatsr  SUM,  Ndmtka.  IV,  SSfl. 
Bladder  Now,  Hoodid  Srtd,  III,  243. 
Blancoa,  [Tniouau  VI,  IDS. 
BlaSHDi,  Nuni  of.  UumHiaU  Nunt, 

III.  367. 
Btutina  OaUtio,  Bxpioni 


.  t^taenaai,  xi,  zi)._ 

Biu  Btti.Bnaknai,  VI.  1 S. 
JlMOiSnB,  HnUni,  lit.  201. 
Blindhsia.  BlmAnm.  I,  391. 
BUihnly    UakluT,   LialJuit    lilandt. 

rV,S3. 
Bloodlen  !4ui»ry,  Orlluititdie  Surttni. 

IV,  497. 
Blocxty  Brook  Uainere,  DtaHtld,  II, 

Bloodr  Maiy,  Marv  I.  IV.  303. 
Bloody  Toww,  rouw  of  IWm, 

Bluc-ebeekwl  Hoaay  Eatv,  Blui-iv*. 


B  lie  Print..  Pfu/Uvrapht.  V.  105. 
Blue  Ribbon  lIoTtaieat,  Abtliairu 
TMal.  I,  13. 

M,  II,  SOB. 

Diaet.  jvaaat—  ^-' 

BliwVardite 

B  uff  FormaUon,  ina,  ^.oen.  i v,  m 

Bluiukrbus*,  .Small  Armm,  VI,  0. 

B.  M..  .SiiubatiM  Pmtdtr*.  VI,  13. 

BoanMVS.  Jome*.  III.  3SB. 

Boat  Raeiiw,  Rotting,  V,  341. 

BoUw^irnaiKia  Po,  II.  S78. 

Boea>  ChicM.  Oriitoee,  iV.  481 . 

Bocwld.  JobD.  Johti  at  Itidm,  ni. 

415. 
Bookdnn,  Jobn.  Jckn  of  Ltydtn,  III. 

41 G. 
Bockioi,  Edmid.  Uaid  at  Ktnl.  IV, 


Bcdosiilaa  Pboapboni 

1,304. 
~      ibaj  Work,  7nia» 


Body-ai 


I,  Atuilamv.  I,  S4. 


Bodyul,  Tibtt.  Vl.  203. 
BoB^ron  Ore.  LimmiU,  tV,  73. 
Bocue,  Boca  TiorU.1.  399.  _ 

BoEainlaii  War,  mrly   Ytanf  Wa 

VI,  IM. 
BoMmimi,  Gypoia,  III,  136. 
Boiliiia.  Cooktrv,  II,  74. 
BolFdui^,  Wood^l.  411. 
Bolides,  if  •Msr.  IV,  360. 
Boll.  CoUan,  II,  fil. 
BolU.  FUa,  U.  40S. 


,  fiols^rui  SloiH, 
Afl,  IU,'331. 


la  Sbark.  fiiuM>Hr'sXart.'l.  330. 

looia.  Belnona,  I,  304. 

Ionian  FboKihoruB.  Batogna  Slomt, 
1,304. 
iwnui,  Frte  Trada.  II,  458. 
Book  Lice,  Ptocida.  V,  206. 
Boot.  Bhot.y,  48G. 
BOr.  £uri,  I.  366. 

BocdMui    HUtun,  Jtatelidda.  Ill, 
"1. 

eiA.BanuUAcid,l.  311. 
Doniiiune,  Brian  Bora,  I,  337. 
Bonwlawiki,  i>i(>arf,  II,  237. 
Bort,  Lapidani.  III.  506. 
Bona  Seii.  Bartina.  V.  408. 


Botnria.  Uana,  Bocuru.  Marco,  I, 

Bouquat,  Wine.  VI,  411. 

"nucnwDe,  Jean  de,  Jfandsnll*,  jSfr 
/Slri,  W,  173. 

lima.  Bzeuiia*,  II.  333. 

luwerij,  Stuvvmant,  P^vm.  VI,  108. 
oo-m  at  Old  A«e,  Areui  SBaiit._l,  I2S. 
Bow  Windo*.  Oritt  Window.  IV,  491. 


181. 

Boyaui,  Avvra'dtn,  I 
Braes.  CoUume.  It,  BO. 
Bncdo.  Wli^H*  atid  Utaiura,  VI, 

iSS. 
BacIu,  WaighU  and  Maaiurt,  VI, 

S8I. 
Brachium,  Arm,  I,  134. 
Biachyoatihajia.    DeliAoeitAalie,    It. 

Bmct.  Inft 


Brahmalokaa.  Dkjiana,  II,  180. 
Bnhininy,  Zabu,  VI,  473. 
Bnianc  Cooktrv,  II,  T4. 
Brancbei,  Omoabm.  Ill,  7. 
Bnuidan,  Bl.  Brandon,  V,  388. 
Brandantu.  Si.  Brandon,  V.  368. 
Biua,  WtuhU  and  Meatiira.  VI.  « 
BiMinan  CluyKiIlM,  rourmaliiu.  * 

'•oirm^i^'vT, 

BrMiliaD  8iu>pU»,   TourmaUn*.  VI, 

381. 
Bmk,  Burglani.  I,  364. 
Break-bone  Fever.  Dtngv*.  11^169. 
Breaking  and    Tniidns    of    HorMa. 

VtUrinay  Scimee,  "Vt.  Itl- 
Bn«kit>ear.  Nicbulaa.  Adrian.  1.  26. 
Braan  Fank.  Angina  Peetorii,  1.  SO. 
BiMbiwi  ortbi  Btrictor  Ob«mnc«, 


Bretonia  l^ncuan,  C^tie  Lttnguaoat, 

I.  443. 
Bilok-duit  Depodt,   Cnnorv  Calculi 

and  DnptUt,  VI,  194. 
Bridal  Vol  ^11*,  yoamila,  VI.  4(8. 
Bride,  Saint.  Bridatt,  Saint,  I.  340. 
Bridge  of  ffigha.Tmica,  Vi,  31 S. 
Bridgenter,  Battle  of,  Lundp'i  Lam, 

BaUlt  of,  IV,  23. 
Bria,  ffimon  de  la,  Martin.  TV,  200 
BrUnne.  Jeho.de,  Balden  if.  1,  303 


,v  Google 


QkUao  Bn^  Kalmia,  m.  4St. 
SLWondrVullun.  Cnibr.  II,  U. 
&11,  iSMib  Eidtane*.  VI,  BS. 

CWoml,  Coiswi.  I,  sss. 
CUon?^H*U,lIL  1^1. 
CWtpe.  >/>rcula^  Allort  ofAU.  SOS. 
CUts>'  HmkI  dub.  Club.  \l.  17. 
Cklvo  poctrine.  i>nWB  Datlrint,  II, 


CttllVD,  ktdrm.  klf ,  4 


CapHiUr  Linmsnt.  L^mMl,  IV.  61. 
Caput  Jelunii.  j1*A  ICi^nadav.  I.  lU. 
CiKiUBla,  yopuni.  VI,  4W. 
Caradoc.  Conu^ofut,  I,  411. 
CarafTa.  OiDvaDoi  Pistro,  Paul,  V,  02. 
Carbendda.  Uria.  VI.  IM. 
Carfjawtio  Arirf.  Picric  ^ctJ.  V.  11*. 
Carbol.  Carbolic  And.  I.  412. 
CarbOBlc-acid  Water.  Alrattd  WaUn. 

I.  2B. 
CarboD  Houmde,  Carhanic  Ozid*,  I. 


ANALYTICAL  INDSX 

Catadioptrio  Synon,  LiohAouK.  IV, 

S5. 
CatadrDOUHU,  PM,  11, 803. 
Catafalqus.  Funral.  II,  476. 
CataloiiH  al  (he  Stan.  Piatti,  Oiu- 

CahifalUna^  Scuxnve.  V  467. 
Catehfly,  Atpim  PImU,  I,  BS. 
CktcoMn.  CataAu,  I.  432. 
Oitaobuman,  BapHtm.  1,   Z14;  CoU- 

tAtmTl,  431. 
Oatbadnl  KwikB,  YotmiU.  VI,  4M. 
Ckloptiia  SvMem.  LMiho-M,  I V,  U. 
Caw&M,  t/nwui|i,  VI,  tM. 
Caulome,  UcrTMoag,  IV,  333. 
Gave  ma.  BiljaU.  I,  24& 
Can  or  the  Doc  OroUo  iM  CqiM.  Ill, 

Cmxamaraa,  Cajamarai.  I,  380. 
Cachi  £oAonu.  I    saj. 
Cflcrapia,  ^  "  '  *" 

Celsrtiat,  SfruMAHH.  VI,  106. 
CemeDUtioD,  Armar  FlaU,  1, 137. 
Cenii.  Atuuu,  I.  IGfi. 
Cenotaph.  T'mb.  VI,  231. 
Cantennial  8uta.  Calonulo.n,  37. 
CeDle^faaard    Catboat,    YaiAa    and 

Yaduina,  VI,  411). 
Ceoteamsi  Hinute.  Eiidr«,  II,  160. 
CenliiDB,  C«K,  I.  44e;  >'»«.  II,  442. 
Caotnl  CommlttM  of  th«  Nation^ 

Guard  JTimmuM,  II.  M. 
Caotnllrt  Otmociatio  Soouliata.  A  n- 


CephaUcTndex,  SktUl.  VI,  4. 

CtpbamiM,  Battn,  I.  300. 

CsiwiD,  Oun,  III.  128. 

"       ry.  CiUet.  I,  465. 

v.<xLiiiqus  Tnut,  Trutlu,  VI  2M. 

Cotin.  SpermoiMlt.  VI.  62. 

Celyl  Alcohol,  BptmiutH,  VI.  S2. 

CeyloD  Peridot.  TovmaUn:  VI,  231. 

Ceyx,  Airvont,  I,  61. 

Choi.,  CAivcnna,  I.  472, 

Chain.  Lomn  IV.  loe. 

Chaia-atitch  £mbrotdeiy,if(it5n»d4n'. 

ChaJaina.  £0^,11,367. 
Chalaedonyi.  Onyx,  IV,  4Ba 
Challistaiifla.  Uri  Acid.  VI.SM. 
Chajlis.  TeniU  FaHria,  VI,  ISS. 
Chunbly.  mchrtiai.  V,  297. 
Champania  CaiCle.  Drakmbwg  Ranee, 

11,220. 
Cfaamptevf  Enamel.  £wnn«l,  II,  284. 
Chanipt  Elys^,  Pari;  V,  34. 
"■      oery.  KTui'i'.  II,  308. 

oa'i  Frocen.  Soda  AA,  VI,  24. 

■e  Rin^na,  BM.  I.  260. 

C-Kia.Fo,  Lamaim.  III.  493. 

Cai'au:fnaa.4aeh,   Taip^  A«6*Uun, 


«,  II,  33. 


,.._ III,  170. 

CharboD,  ArUhrax.  J,  100. 
Charbon  Rouge.  Chareoai,  I.  467. 
Cbarie,  Hit^Utv.  Ill,  201. 
'"- of  the  Light   Brijads,  5aid- 

l.  Slorag*  Balitrif, 

_,  111.458. 

Charlei   City   Croairaads,   Battle  of. 
Frarirr',  Farm.  BiuU  oL  II.  '-^I. 
Charle'i  Wsln,  IVm  MnjV.  Vl,  Wt 
Charroui.  Council 


ina  of  tl 
CharElDi   Ciim 


aM«or.  VLIM, 
of.  Truce  <•/  Cod, 

,    MtrxantiU    Lou, 

Chuvakai.  VedonJa,  VI,  111. 
Cb^m.Oom,  III.  72. 
Qiaaquit.  CW«t.  [I.  9.V 
Cbeokerberry,  ITAorrtrtm^.  VI,  40(. 

TTiiUinrrcni.  VI.  W. 
Cbnkend  iMy,  FritOiaru,  II.  46B. 


Ohadnaata,  CIUk  L  AO, 
CiMddar,  ChMMTl.  4U. 
Chaaehae.  fwunoiu,  II,  S24. 
Cbelidoniuia.  CitoidiiH.  I.  441. 
Chnnicldni.  BlnMuv,  I.  290. 
Chenenauten,  Avuetmieiit,  II 
Chent-te.  jJkol,  III,  397. 
Cheanapatoam,  Uadrat,  IV,  1' 
Cheque,  CA««,  I,  466. 
Cherry  Bird,  cWor  flW,  I,  44 

Cheaapeake.  Barron,  Ji ^ 

GheraliA-  ibiu  peur-  et 
Le.  BauarJ,  1,  237. 
Cheval  Vapeur,  Dirtamie  Umlm,   IL 


CbODdrama.  rumor.  Vf ,  268. 
Chord,  Qirder,  III,  43. 
ChoMn.  SsTBi,  III,  47& 
""  JIAoarv,  III.  4M. 


Chiinnon,  ifoiMarsM.  fv,  313. 
Chriidaniaiiinua,  Gerton,  jnn  CAo^ 

iHTdi.  111.29. 
Chriitian  Hliaon,  Salvaiiai  Arms.  T. 

3S7. 
ChriniaD  Quakam,  KtiA,  Oaorpe,  III, 


IV.  173. 

ChriitinoB.  Maria  ChriMtina.  IV.  189. 
Chroniatio  Aberration,  AbirTatiim,  I, 

bhronUtin,  HeratHv.  III.  204. 
"■      m  Alum.  CAromiuei,  I.  488. 
uivmita,  CVomtum,  1.  487. 
ChronicoD,  Scalioer,  Jaetpk  Jttttue,  V, 


„  Google 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


OermoDt,  SUam  VmtU.  Vl.  ^. 
Clneluid'B  Ckbioet.  MammaOi  Cart, 

IV,  16». 
CUiVDma'a  Donw,  tforlk  CaroHna,  IV, 

440. 
dlnomotrio  Syitttn,  CryataUoffropliy, 

dli,  Balltn,.  I,  234.  ' 

n.,  ii.  IS. 


Clot,  " 

Cloudbumrnwi.'llTi's. 

Cloudad  C^DS.  Malaaa  Com,  IV,  162. 

ClupM,  Aipii.  I,  1ST. 

ClUBum,  Chiuti.  I,  481. 

Cnbuiln  VaUty,  Colorado  Dawt,  U, 

CouM  Btutf.  StuoB,  VI.  lOT. 

Cob^t  OUdm.  Antnie,  1, 144 

CobDuti,  FiOtrt,  II.  3S3. 

CoeUn,£ar,II,343. 

CcwkittcW  Sariiitk,I,  23«. 

CMk  or  tha  Plalni.  Sag.  Cock.  V,  86S. 

Ctook  of  tha  Wooda,  CapmibH,  I, 


,  itnM-Libaniu,  I.  102, 


408. 
Ccale-SyriA,  jtibfi^wunwa,  a.  lu 
Cour  da  Uon.  fticAarrf,  V,  ZSS. 
CiBiu.  rienu.  VI.  2J3. 
Cohune  P»lm,  AilaUa.1, 170.  _ 

Coimbr*.  Dulw  of.  Pidn,  Am,  V, 

II,  IV,  221. 

uiiuu.,  .umuu'of,  /oJin,  III,  382. 
Collarad  PeoMrv,  j'annrv,  V,  60. 
CoUatiDC,  Book-bmding,  I,  SlO. 
CoUw^r-Anoa.  Utnbti  Callv,  Ul, 


CeUtilii.  DialviiM,  II.  182. 

Colm,  Saint,  Columba,  Sainl.  IT,  S 

ColodW  ^liU.  WkMy.  VI  4ol 

"-• Ware.  Kenmta,  lU.  4SE 

Dajon  of  Amsrfa.  Natii 
*t*  of  the.  Pal 

....mU.  S..V,B1, 
Oolophaar.  Jtoain,  V,  334. 
Colorado    Chiquito.    LiUU    Calartdo 

Ritr.lV.  82. 
Colondo  Potato  Baatla,  JUofe  But, 


V,  171... 


v.VI.tl 


ConuDon  Cbocd,  ConMiuix*,  It,  01. 
CommuDkl  Dwallinn.  Aouaa,  III.  367. 
Communiado  UanSn.  Sonabn.  VI, 

23. 
CompADloiu  of  tbe  Bath,  Orrfir.  IV, 

487. 
"Oompmidloak  hiMoiia  racmn  Dbiub," 

CompMlnHtiek,  Ti/pt,  VI.  371 . 
Conpound  Lena.  SptcOeltt,  VI,  40. 


L  Qttif  of,  Fonttca,  Bay  of, 

Conahi^.  IVUacrim  of  .4  xgla,  VI,  249. 
ConeboloDt,  MaUtKa.  IV,  300. 
Conama,  tforiadaVadWt,  IV,  ISO. 
OoodiuloD,  Lagit.  IV.  07. 
Conddnnwl  Uchta,  Uiait  and  Mini- 

>«.  IV,  38fl. 
Coaduit,  Wanrmrkt,  VI,  in. 
Conaatos*  Wafon.  Carriaat,  I,  420. 
Confadaraar  al  tM  Boloaii,  BaToria, 

(ioBmi-ni,  BmndijK  D»t*.  I,  368. 
"—- ItloB  of  the  Hair  Cfflofc  /•- 


'Digiliz'edbv'GOOgle 


81. 

DtkhwM^'rmm  of^itiiee.  VI.  233. 
DsUi  l^na.Lmtaitm,  III,  403. 
D»ni,  BlaU  Fwnact.  I.  289. 
IHmutw.  PTOtrutM.  V.  197. 
DuuHU.  Liuu,  LrydtK,  Luteat  Mn 

IV,  B2. 
Damper,  5toM,  VI.  09. 
BmJy  F«viir.  Dtintue,  II,  189. 
Dudv  Bona.  SieiKl*.  I,  268. 
Dudy    SoU,    fourdnnMr    tfruAiu, 

D>c»-'D7kB,  ftowfcoreu^  H««l,  II, 
Duiih-^n>D     Wm,     Thirty     Yiarif 

IFor^VI,  IM. 
Duum.  DmauHv.  II,  210. 
DarbyiUs,  Plummtk  BrdAm,  V.  139. 
IVAnin'a  Alloy,  ^imWWv,  II.  «2. 
Duic,  .4i»wi,  1.178. 
Da  Aiw  —     *-^-  ' 


il  /.iro'  /,  P<*»  H,  V, 


IMcwlefi^.  r«n«M',  Paul.  VI,  MO. 


Deemdit,  Calmdar, 

IMcwlenti.  r«nab-,  , -. 

D™d«..lt'«*,VI.  tW.^ 

Dmiv.  FnunOKwn.  II,  BTl. 

Dedia..  r™«.  H,  442. 

Deeimui  Juniua,  /ucflutl.  Ill,  43S. 

DecUratlon    of    Thorn,    Didantum, 

Dvoonllaa.' PiMirv  and  Pontlain,  V. 

DecTM,  Jvdgmtnl.  111.  428. 

Dc  Donia  Sutute.  Entaii.  II,  29S. 

D*  Fo™t  8ytt*in,  rtltorafily,  Wir^- 

IcM.  VI,  166. 
DcCrailstioD.  Knxion,  II,  310, 
Dteru.  Wool  OTid   Jfoofw.  Afanu/ofr 

tiH^.  VI,  411, 
DeUtOR*.  Titut  Flana*  Vmpetianut. 


II,  216. 

Devil'*  Diut,  Shoddy.  V.  485. 
Devil'i  Lake.  Uinntieaukm.  IV,  284. 
Devil's  TB-mra,  Cl^Ab,  II.  17, 
De  VriendtjPJorM,  Fram.  II,  409. 
De  Vlita'l  'rbeorv.  Evolution,  U,  331. 
Dhab,  Birmnda  Otomm.  I,  261. 
EAarmMMra,  A^Mfra.  V,  47S. 
Dhun.  DumTM,  23S. 
Diadtnia,  HaMrit*,  III,  ITS. 
Dial  Lwk,  Loct.  IV.  SI. 
r.C«k.ll.l. 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 

DiamoDd  Can,  liamnelK  Caat,  Vf, 

lae. 

Dtamodd  State,  Dtlawan.  II,  ISl. 
DlMtole,  fieM,  111.  ISO. 
DialoniE  Bfi*.  Mutic,  IV,  361. 
Dlbio,  Dtiim.  II,  ISO. 


0,  OiioH.  il, : 
inlo  Syatoni, 


116. 


Dtdymolichoa,  Damotiai.  II,  168. 
Didymiu,  St.,  Thomat,  St.,  VI,  ISE. 
Dwtrloh,  T-*«)dDr«c.  VI,  IBS. 
DiffnwtloD.  Color,  llj_§7;  OpHa,  IV, 

4a3iI^m«.Vl,m. 
Dihedni,  4mI.,  I. «. 
DilatatloD,  Hiarl,  XKhom  of  tU,  m. 


1.  AAivto', 
IT,  tftt*-,  iV, 


Duomo.  Siflu,  T,  Wt. 

DuiBod,  Alia  lUn  CdMta,  (MWIU; 

Dnrham  Oittle,  SlurtliMiir.  V,  4SS. 
Dunoorfonim,  RMh*.  V.  287. 
DuR  Brands,  SiRHM.n,  15. 
Dutch  liquid.  ElKyUnt.  II,  319. 
Dutch  Myrtle,  Qaie,  11,  48S. 
Dyad  Uetals,  MtlaU.  IV,  248. 
Dyen'  SaflroD,  Sagloutr.  V.  304. 
Dynamic  Equinlant,  HmU,  III.  IB2. 
Dynley,  Base,  Sjmttr,  Bdmuwl.  VI, 


Eadirlg,  gdug.  Hif  M. 


iv,  74. 


IKonyrfua,  Om 


i™n)™i™.  1^™-.  SatiU,  l(,  16B, 
DioByiu»-s!e«eua,     Orpkie     BnOur- 

hood.ivia*. 
Dip,  Canill*.  1,401. 
Dippd'*  OU,  fioiH  filoob,  1. 308. 
Dine.  Sununido,  II,  322. 
Direet    NominatiOD    Lam,    ffomimf 

(im.  IV.  437. 
IHmst    Primary    Iaw*.    IfamiMitum, 

IV,  437.  

Direct  Piool,  Gtomitrv,  III.  IG. 
Dirt-Mtiuc  Otovkiaitm.llI.  16. 
DiKhaix*.  CAorvs,  1.  4«S. 
DiMbarDiu    Cunent,     Slaraot    Bal- 

fanarvl,97. 
■  Sound.  VI,  3*. 

..K™,  II,  309. 

Disputable.  Evidtnc*.  II,  320. 
DisHtninated,  Or*  and       *  Dtpotit. 

IV,  4S8. 
Disthene,  KvuihC'.  Ul.  482. 

" -'^- AiaAo(,I, ' 

II,  IM. 
Divide,  «<utn,  1,  :£29. 
Divi*  Hill,  BataM,  1,  248. 
Diviidou,  >lni.v,  1 J38. 
Divodurum,  litU,  IV,  266. 
Dii.  Ut.,  Adiroiidaci  Mlounlaiiu.  I. 

26, 
Djinns,  Falrv,  IL  84B, 
Doehart,  Tav,  VI,  169. 
Dodder,  BMlwtai  Famitv.  T,  274. 
Doceart,  Carria«s,  I.  420. 
Doimatlcs.  Thtdon.  VI,  1S9. 
Domain  of  I*w,  Low,  iV,  IB. 
Dome-maken,  Birdf  NetU,  1,  279. 
Domeetic  fowls,  PouUrv,  V.  174. 
Do>>pgc**i°<l>'>[  jWmnimila,  IV,  23S. 


Double  Royal.  Sovtrngn,  y  i,  av. 
Douibfaca.  Randctph,  /uAn.  V.  246. 
Douslss.  Ht,,  Mofilana,  IV.  3:6. 
Dave  Flower,  Holy  Ohol  FIbuv,  IV, 

Dawniu,    Camliridgt,    Uitntnitv   of, 

Dnt.' liobUnaatii  CosMnf,  IV,  304. 
DiasoD,  'rbe,i>raa,  II.  218. 
Drawboy.  LomJV,  106. 
Diawee.  BiU  of  BxAann*,  I,  271. 
Dnwer,  fiitl  ii  Sxdunat.  I,  271 . 
Dree    their    wtird,     jHiUnpevfAotit. 

IV,250. 
Drlas-obioedar    Qaa-MoAint    and 

^flpid-flr*  OuM.  IV,  141. 
DroDis.  Bamf*,  I.  107. 
Drtm-liae  Mshina,  Anctinc,  I.  91, 
Drummosne  Moor.  CuUulm   II.  1 


Dufourspitse,  Manlt  Rata,  IV,  313. 
Dulia.  JVorwlafrv.  IV,  101. 
Dum  Palm,  Cdow  Potn.  II,  311, 
Dungeon,  Do»io»,  II,  211. 
Diiobirds,  DurJiin.  II,  23S, 


luv,  II ,  266. 

.  Ear  TnimpH,  H,  2 


EServ^sosDce.  SutuMofi,  VI,  28. 

Ecoism,  Affruum.  1.  67. 

Ecyptian  BiMlum,  i>aDM  J>alm  II, 

Eilaubao,  Brifofti,  I,  342._ 
EUeriade,  Harmw,  III,  1S7. 
Ektbeeis,  MomcAtiiU*,  IV,  314. 
SI  CaUao,  CsMMulo,  VI,  316. 
El  CN>itaD,  KoMRiU.  VI.  ««. 
Eleetrolytlc,  gUelticily.  II.  266. 
Electn-theiapautiai.     tfsdteol     Elae- 


Emathia,  Woadowi,  IV.  30. 


Empirti  Bute  Ntu  Tork,  IV,  414. 

Empynal  Air,  Ozmm.  V,  3. 

Eoamd.  TeiA,  VI,  1S2. 

Eoargite.  Coppv.  tl.  77. 

Ed  CaboehoD.  CorfrufK^t,  I.  413. 

Ene^te,  FarHlicalion.  It.  430. 

EucbotUl  Writioc,  DtmoUC  Writlitt. 

II,  168. 
Eodooarp,  Drvji*.  11,  226. 


Dntp*.  11,  22 
,.  TVss,  VI J 


&ido*taum,  5oM,  I,  WIT. 


lb,  Google 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX  ' 


v.sgs. 

Eotin,  EoMUr.  II.  246. 

Eoiofln     CuudenK.      Damm,      Sv 

John  trUHam,  II.  148. 
E^-bata.  tfarina.  IV.  IBl. 
EpibUM.  £«An»lom.  II,  280. 
(Wraphr.   SeaUetr,   JoxjA   7u«(u, 

Gpiniiik.  Ortj!  I^lnKuri.  III.  104. 

EquilitySut*.  IFiwiiniu,  VI.  Ut. 
EauiUtsral    Tiuagla.    In'an^,   VI, 


Ei^MiliL,  IdHTtiun,  IV,  15. 
Eimonl.  fi*~>nAH.  III.  308. 
EramMW^  JITw  ffttHdo.  IV.  407. 
EnonJio;  iV«w  Hebrid*;  IV,  40T. 
Eniptiv*  Roek*.  (Tnlwn,  III,  14. 
Eiythim,  Hmptrid-,  Iff.  214. 
a±V«nwnt,  Cloot.  II.  14. 
EMlHd,  AtAiM,  I,  IM. 
Eih-StMiUh,  Jonian,  III.  422. 


bkaia,  BugiHt,  I,  230. 

^writu   SuU,  Ww   Htbridf,    TV. 

E»4ait.  Rd-HA  (Mad.  V.  347. 

■udo  Ori«nUl.  VnuDutv.  VL  tw. 

MivuH.  5(*iAamu,  VI.  87. 

thleal  RlMtoTifl,  Khturit,  V,  387. 

thmoid.  St-a,  VI,  8. 

thnioil  Socia^H.  Soeinlooy  VI.  23. 

thuoKimpby.  OtognjAK,  lit.  13. 

tHh,  Adit*,  I,  24. 

udismonuti.  VHklartaHitm,  Vl.EtB. 

upatrid,  Oiimori.  Ill,  IB;  NabtHtti. 
IV,  436. 
EurafriisD  lUca.  Han,   IV.  170. 
Burop«u  UndeD.  But,  1. 230. 

luryale.  (7iir0«u.  Ill,  73. 

^tiopy,  Thmnadi/natHia.  VI.  100. 

UtyeUftO  Error.  Chriilohay.  I,  487. 

lutrcbiana,  Inaimation,  III,  30fl. 

vaoceliDa,  Aadia.  I.  14. 

v^^bFaiar,  Vnuu.  VI,  lU. 

^aaill.  .fflalu,  I,  30. 

Teisnaa  Bute.  (Taakuurian,  VI,  SU. 

laltatioB.  ifvfmoMm,  III,  38T. 

xcitability,  J?nu,  IV,  3ftS 

udra.  Baftilirv.  I.  214. 

insua,  /^CninHMa,  IV  4B3. 

ihaiut.^Mam  fiviM,  VI,  80. 

loniio^.  Onnoait,  IV,  fiOO. 

i|d<Miv*  OalatlD,  fipbaiva.  II.  334. 

ipr^  Tnut.  TVuU.  VI.  2&4. 

xtaiuar,  Hand.  III.  166. 

xtimdo»,  Arth.l.  110. 

^olRa.A<iAor,  111,171. 


Fabw,    Cidlia   BOfal    tod, 

Frnan.  I.  37S. 
FabloGhu * 


f  PiGi; 


'  FanctUanira.V.M. 


"  Fabula  ToiaU,"  AJraniiu,  I.  80. 
Fan.  JVoMnry.  IV,  ^. 
Faelor  of  IcnacBiioe.  Faelor  of  Saf^ 
II,  348.  ^ 

Fahl  OiH,  Comtr.  II,  77. 
Fall,jlu<ui»i,  I,  183. 
FallsD  Timben,  Battle  of.  lAolt  Tur- 


FalM  Copp«,  JVtcJccI,  iV.  42S. 
Fa]»  Flu.  (Md  ol  PltatuT4,  III,  M. 
FunUy  Lav.  £du.  IV,  18. 
FvoUy  of  Lore,  FamilitU,  II,  358. 


,v  Google 


Galaaui,   CUudiua.    0al*ii,    Claudwa, 

II,  4BS. 
QnlUa.  AntoiiM,  Arabian  WigUi,  1. 

116. 
OaUc;  Womu,  Mi/riapada.  IV. 
Glllipoli,   atrut  ol.   Dtrdr--"- 


Qti\t,  bvU^tl:  11,  238. 
asluehat,  <SAaor«n.  V,  471 . 
GameoMk,    WkiptOe,    Atralm 

401. 
Guns  Fowli,  PauUn.  V.  ITS. 
Ounoii,  5vraeuM.  VI   13S. 
Gud,  (HAt,  III,  32. 
□■Dja.  HatMih.  III.  170. 
C~>l. /ail.  III,3B2. 
Gu-buduD,  Traaidv.  VI,  33fl. 
Gardea  of  AocUnutiOB.  PariM. 
GudM  of  Chiu,  Han-Kiano,  II 
GudnotEdM.  Pv<id«i_*.V  2 


J.  0*iii  JAi 

a«Mki  Army  1.  139:  /apan,  Ml. 
GsDsnuinai  Inff >--■-  '" 


Logic.  IV.  B8. 

tha  Wu  of  1812, 
!ui  in  1««   f .  S.. 


Genoralrii.  CBKnd*r.  II 
GeniiM.  fain/.  11,  34S. 
GentlBmsD   PsoBODen, 

Anfu.  III.  II. 
OBalleiDCD'i  Aansmanti.  IVvMi.  VI. 


2M. 


OermalD. 


Ill   1 


viMiet.  I.  324. 
■— ■    E-v.  11.  367. 

Lord     Owne,     SadmBt, 
awarg*  anaaia,  V,  300. 
a«nuB  Aduia.  Sloe.  VI.  8. 
OenuD  Flats,  Tha,  Wal  foinl,  VI. 


.rviTT 


.   Tiubmie  Lan 


Oerman  Motbcxliflt  Churota,  Bvan^eii- 

eai  Ataodation.  II.  327. 
OwadarfiU.  Nickel.  IV,  425. 
Qb«»l,  Oaal.  U.  4. 
Obihm.  Chtbrrt.  111,123. 
Ohenrdo     Delle     Nottc,     IltmlhanI, 

Otrard<,f^    in    242. 


d«a.  fiall,  I.  2fiO 


Qhor./mlopi,  111,423, 


Glaot  llountaliu.  Noniay,  IV,  444; 

RintmMTBf.  V.  SOO. 
Giblali.SvUM.1.373. 
Oi(ue,l»0a,  III.37. 
Oil    Blag    da    SuitUlane,    U    Sao*. 

,4Ia(»  R«4.  IV.  45. 
Gill.  NorAMdjy.  443. 
Gimp,  haca.  III,  4SS. 


ANALYTICAL  WXiEX 

OiDCariitMd  P»lm.  />a2iii.  T,  IB. 

Gintda,  Canoaiuli,  I,  SM. 

G  rwol*.  NdtiOFvpt.  in.  18S. 

GUDoa,  Ovpna,  III.  136. 

G  Icbs  HamtDU.  Afaiuhni.  IV,  178. 

Gun.  OiORH.  III.  134. 

Giaaard.  BW.  I   — 


;r  Kiot;  V« 


GUeU.  Fortijicatitm,  II 
OlacoUtlo  jUpbabet.  & 


«.  VI. 


OUmwo 

Qlaymon,  Lr'tovmore, 
Ot«.  Ooiw.  in.  72. 
(Uwdale,  Battle  of. 
BauU  of,  n.  463. 
QlitUtr,  Muconaa.  IV.  347. 
QlODoia  011.  Expfaxiva.  II.  338. 
Gl<Muia    LAtinothsodlHa,    Ra 


FroMim   Forn. 


Gloa 


r,  VI.  1 


GlyaxalJH.  Expl-iva.  II.  338. 
Qlypbocraphy. -^feraplvpiiv  aiuf  JTla^ 

Irotiann^,  VI,  SB.  

aoathoatomaU.  YtriebnOa,  VI,  •)■• 
OoidM.  CHicfui.lI.  IS. 
GoddfiH  of  Psace.  Pox.  V,  60. 
Godi. -4ntt*_B'i«*,I,  129. 

■   Z>ialwli, 


Qoldf 
Go  dan  Hi 


I,  B«mmli«m.  I.  374. 

_w  of  N«m,  Par*.  V,  38. 

den  Stale.  The,  Calaarma,  1.  3SK 
■"■  -     '    -  -iriiwOioat,  I.  IS*. 
NM».  V.  S3S. 

"  III,  tl, 

Wirt  ani  ITir* 


Gold  Flux,  At 
Go  dp. 
Gold  Si 
GodRi 

Gold  St , 

Gold  Wire  of  Lyon) 
\%  41 


Z>rainiw.  VI,  4U. 

Gomatea,Af<wi.  IV.  163. 
Gomer,    WeitIM   agd   Jfi 


Oouen-Sun*,     lytuaau, 
^lll,  873.         ^^ 
OooMfleeh.  Hair,  III,  144. 
.Ooonfoot.  Chmojiodmm.  I,  488. 
Oopber  Sute.  tfinnaou.  IV.  283. 
Goulard'!  Extnot,  AutafM.  I,  17. 
Goulet.  Srnl,  I.  3S6. 
Govar.  QeorciaDa  Chariotte,  FuOtr- 

(on,     Lodu    OaoniMHa    CAurlvlu, 

n.  474. 
Gnde,  D<i;r<i,  II,  160. 
" '-  Dyke,  AMoniw,  Wall  o/,  I, 


',264. 


106. 

inm.  Miint  SutUm.  I .  . 

■  rsma  Onm.  Oaiaa  Otom,.  II,  4 
Irand  Baaaar,  CorManHnopU,  1 
Iniode    MademoiMlle,     Monla 

Annt    MarU    Louitt    d'Or 

IV,  821. 
Iraacerisni,  /UuMratisii,  III,  30! 
IruTte  Stilts.  Wni)  //ampiAH'i 

408. 


a.  Cam,  I 


;,  IV,  481: 

n»,  Vvuitomo.  VI,  234, 
itian.  Sptctrotarpt.  VI.  49. 
avs  Creek.  JfouwfntOi,  IV   843. 


:  Charter.  The.   Uagna  CXarta, 

IV.  154, 
Great  Circle.  Splurt.  VI.  G2. 
Greater  Dm,  Conii  Major,  1.  40B. 
Great  Pun  Drnssty.  Itandmria.  IV, 

172, 
Great  River,  Uiuittippt  Rinr,  IT, 


JffrunMilH,  I,  111. 
Orwt  South  B«B(k,  iMff  fsfaMrf,  IV, 

Great  Tne  of  Callfoniia,  SsTHoio,  V, 

4SB. 
Great    Valley    of    Tenneseee,    Appa- 

bxAioii  Afounloins,  I,  111. 
Great  Valley  of  Vlrvlob,  Appala<Atan 

Greoiana,  Chf^i 'ffoaptCot.  I,  4S7. 

Greek  Cnw,  Crse*,  II,  110. 

Greek  Empire,  Byantii*  MmBtn.  I, 

373. 
Greek  Letter  SooMiee,   CcUf  Pro- 

Umitia,  11.  38. 


Green  Uountain  State,  VarmviK,  VI. 

UO.. 
Grasoaekite,  Codntiun.  I,  378. 
Green  (XI,  inArocnu.  I.  100. 
Green  eukoen.  Chlenti*,  I.  182. 
Greenyille,   Treaty  of,   LittU    Turtle, 

IV,  si. 

Greeo  Vitriol,  aidfkwie  Aeid,  VI,  US. 
OieotebricH.  ComMlpe.  I, 
Greylock.  Ht.,  MamaduimL-.  - 
Grid,  Sloraat  Baturim,  VI.  97. 
Qridinin  Pendulum,  Claet.  " 
Grifle.  (hlfrard,  fabre,  II.  o. 
Qrimoard.  Ouillaiune.  Vrban,  VI,  Z9B. 
QriDdalone  Oiit,  VdiKfa*  Oril.   IV. 


IV,  207. 
[,14, 


Oriatle,  Cartilof.  I.  422. 
Qrilo  de  Dolans,  Delarm  H 


Qrotto  of  the  tjym'p^.'cop 
Ground  Walsr.  Sprina,  VI,  61. 
Orundlov,  JVorwas.IV.  448. 
Gtyelva  BiH'iKMihlid,  Laavitm 

493. 
Gnahyba.  JaaJty.  III.  380. 
Guannine,  CojTeiM,  I.  379. 
Guahoo.  Cap.  Haiitn  I.  407. 


Guicnet'B  Qrenn,  i.nnn»Hun,  I,  «oo. 
Guinea  Squash,  Smptont,  II,  267. 
GuiDevera,^AnW.X  1*7. 
Guunm.  HocdlOD.  Id».  Ill,  485. 
Guiaon  Tamba.  Lamaitm.  Ill,  4M. 
Gulf.  Sav,  I,  337. 
Gultwead,  AI^.I.  M. 
Qiill  CMobera.  Skw.  VI.  4. 
Gunsner.  (Miii.IV.466. 
Gimana  Abu.  Sm^/v  laiatidt,  V.  89ft. 
Gunther,  JVibslutMenlieif,  IV,  428. 
Qutea,  Aiai  Canal,  VI.  113. 
OuttB.  Oreeian  ArdaleOuTe.  Ill,  98. 
Qyrdui.  ICneAi*  omf   V^nrs.   VI, 

Oyraidal  Fonoe,  CrvsbilloffnipAv,  n. 


HabiohtdiuiK.  Hapiburg,  III,  I 
n butta  8 — "  ' "' 


BaoquebutU.  iSmall  A: 


Hail  ^ary,  Anoitiu 
HaUbreeds,  iSlolwar 


Half  Uoon' fTufam.  ifflxV.  Ill,  361. 
Halfway    CoTenanl,    The,    Bduard», 

JanaCkaa,  II,  2M. 
Halifanc,  Piilan/.  V,  118. 
HMlta7DCmb^>ii4,  II,  133. 
—  ■  "■  198. 

rv.sio. 


.y  Google 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


Bud.  Wiietilm  md  Meatum.  VI.IM. 

BMnd  CuDnOD,  SmiU  Annt,  VI,  S. 
Huid«k.  Fall  Dt,  Aor.  1,  1. 
Hmnd  QmwdM,  PnjKtita.  V.  190. 
Hwid  aquirti. /«■  £>Viiu.  11 ,  3S8. 
Hmnifitca,  Mo/iamnalanitm,  IV.  301. 
Bm»-Kmis.  lUTer.  Xom,  111.  478. 
HsD-i»«D,  H(..  Kormi.  Ill,  47S. 
Hum  Hali^,  Lobick,  iV.  119. 
HuiM  ToroDa,  HoMUtaHc  Ltamt.  III. 

157. 
HaD-y>D|,  Seoul.  V,  4Se. 
Hsppv    HuDlins    Oniuiida.    Htav*», 

III,  183. 
HmTdenbsTg.  Fiisdiioh  mn.  NiwaUa. 


Uamsy,  Mt.'.  Black  A^ili..  l.'asS. 
HarvHtmgn,  DaddvLotifliff:  II.  ISI. 
HauhillnjE,  J^'laz,  II,  403, 
HmtiWs,  SaracoOo,  IV.  IBS. 
HaubepHt.  Halatv.  III.  170. 
HaubeiveOD,  Haabttk.  Ill,  171, 
HannchH,  AnA,  1,  119. 
Hautboy,  Oboi,  TV.  4ai. 
Hawaii,  Sea.  II.  328. 
Hawkays  Sui*,  /««,  III,  361 . 
Hayy,  Clan.  II.  5. 
Hbbd.  Slpuigatpit,  VI,  138. 
Hwlen,  Matmrv.  IV.  206. 
Headini.  Tuimd*  ai  '  "         " 

ZW. 
H«BliD|  by  Gnnulatlon,  [ 


Heavlnf  Ibe  tag.  Log.  IV,  SS. 
HsftTy   Spar.   5ariun,   I,   219; 

Babdonu 


I    Counijl,    difard.    Uni- 


ttnilu  of,  V,  3. 
rimlo,/ii)un,  111.300. 


Halianthin.  AiP-ailori.  I    ISfl. 
Hcliaplen,  Fluino  Atachina.  II.  414. 
H«lia«ntiic  RyitDQ,  CnpnTatan  St/t- 

(m,  11.  77. 
Reliatropium.  Cljitit.  II,  IS. 
H«llah.&aiD.  111,221. 
HeUtHiffits,  Bxplotiva.  II.  337. 
Helluland,  Labrador.  III.  484. 
"  ■  ■    —     r.  AfoAaniKon,  I,  30. 

tnlft^^      IV     I  HI 


II.    1 


r    wilUain,"  «un(.  friUwm,  III, 
and  CbickoDB,   HaunU4k.   Ill, 


B«niianui.  Haarua.  Rabanu*.  Uau 
w,  V,  a?- 

ivorm.  Bi 

HenniUcB,    'The,    Jaekum,    Andrtw, 

Hermod.  Odin,  tV.  tflO. 
Huon'g  Neck.  Inadi  Cattn,.  Ill,  324. 
Hmak,  Uelimopolit.  III.  Ifll. 
Barrey  Iilands.  Coat  Ltanit.  II,  73. 

J,  //ac*I>.  Ill,  1 
UBtnuui.  AUaman.  I.  ITU. 
Beiad  Nutali,  NuUiM.  IV.  248. 
BexacDiuJ    Sygtam,    Crv^aOegrarkTi. 

Bnanietar,  AfKcr.  TV.  ZSZ. 
Bharia,  fbfit.  II.  24B. 
Blan-PQDS,  Ht..  Korea,  III,  47B. 
Bleb  Watw.  Tidm.  VI,  306. 


BatU,  I^H^idM   ifl,  2l'4. 


BydnuUc  ji^'jack,  Ilf.'siti. 


Hydropamnatffi,  fnerotitot,  II,  28- 
Bydnuutio  B>f"n«.    tfnphHV  JU 


Hyperntatropu,  ^DMacta.  VI.  48. 
HyparopU.  £|w,  rAe,  II,  342. 
Hyperpyrexin.     Ttrnfuramtt    i 

Sodv.  VI.  170.   ■ 
Rypoblnst,  Embniolam,  II,  280 
HypopfaleouB,  LicAcn.  IV,  67. 
Hyaon,  rm,VI,  1«1. 


idianCe 
Lddian  D,c.  *  ™™~.  .,  *. 
Indian  Poke,  Verotrum,  VI, «_. 
tndiaa  Summer,  Sunmer.  VI.  IIS. 

ndian  Tobacco.  LoAelia,  IV,  89. 

Turnip,      Jack^n-AffVpil. 

Indiili'Vellow,  Pvrrm,  V,  220. 
'  idicah.  ICoai/,  Vl,41«. 

idioolits.  Teurmalim.  VI,  231. 

idioum, /ndiDO,  III,  321. 

[direct  ProQf;  Gumefrt.  III.  16. 

idn-Cbineae  FeniruiulB,  T'eau,  V,  62. 

ido-Gennau,    lndo-E^T0im.7it,   111. 


,  IndHMrn,  Eleemttatit.  III. 


,    Feaat  ol.    'i'abtrnacla. 
J.  VI.  141. 

3an«lion.  Heart.  Ill,  tSl. 
mm.  3oiM  Itla  of.  I,  143. 

Arran.  SauA  lUm  at.  1, 

rran.  SouU^/atM  of.  I.J4). 

i.yCoogle 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


'Mob'a  Staff,  Oiwn.  TV.  492. 

■  BODbcunm*,  JacQtuFit,  I 


,mbi«,  /OTBM,  III,  387. 
jUHtown   W«ed.   Datura.   II,    H4 
^irainonuim.  VI.  lOO. 

!piSSrt»^gJirs?^,'vi,  iia. 

■pan  Wb».  Sumac.  VI.  118. 
>py(U.  Mmtapia.  IV.  247. 
.una  BrillsTit,  Codnum.  I.  378. 
.memln,  Jacqiion.  JoMmin.  Jacquti 

III.  392. 
Kn    Jaoquaa    I.    Dt—alimt.    Jta 

Jacquet.  II,  ITS. 
on     Paul.     Richltr.    Jcharm    Pm 

Fritdrieh.  V,  299. 
■   ■    ■■"         '"'  Mount   al.    l\ 


47S. 


rafa/.  Jtfm: 


ieoci-«r  nnain,  nraiai.  mimTU,  i,  iiD. 
[«bel  Ttmarun,  Mt.,  Libanan.  IV.  27, 
[addah. /iiUoA.  III.  411. 
■  -      in.  Mt..  Ormon.  IV,  489;  WhiU 

mnlaint.  ¥1,408. 
.nuoin.  Joram.  Ill,  4Z2. 

ainuRi.  /nUUi'w.  Ill,  348. 
yl  and  Mr.  Hyde,  Dr.,  Comboiu- 

K^«.    F!1mlta    [>(,    Yeni    Kali, 
Strain  of.  VI.  Mt. 
[eiuh.  Oinua,  111,  IS. 


Eohaima  li 


I,  Jakn  of  Saiiabutt 


roural.  Tvrbim.  VI.  2S1. 
rea.  I>t>mi,  II.  236. 
d*  Juanaa,  Joanv,  Vi 


idaon  Pswder.  bipj(]*>nt,  II,  336. 
iCsnWDB  d'Ol&OD,  Mtrcantiit  Lau 
IV,  240. 

lum'jaua:  III,  424.' 

Fufiaa,  fiittanda.  I,  206. 
r.  Blaiting,  I.  290. 

m..t..aa  Uouae.  i)«(r  Mouat,  11,  ISt 
'ump-vpark,  Gaa  Enffiitt.  11,  AOd. 
-la  GraH,  itIiHpnua,  I,  297. 

_  LkarOsat|,I.ulAa',Miir(i«,rV,12E 

un.t.Amdmil.  1.30. 

iinUn.  jtfowAuna,  IV.  173. 

us  fetiiUe,  FitiaU:  II,  376. 
.uiMdalsbraar,  Olocicr.  III.  44. 
ryllaod,  Jutland.  Ill,  435. 


Kaiaer  WUhalm's  Lud,  iViu  Oufiw 

IV,  406. 
Kaiaki,  AiUmoi.  II,  3tO. 
KM,  Pnimmon.  V,  SO. 
«.lmU,gh  Uounwina,  Salt  Rane;  V 

Kale,  (^v»K*.  111,130. 
Kalld.  f'uAnu,  VI.S42. 
Kalosoopl.  EtH.  II,  274. 
Kama.  Hinduitm.  Ill,  223. 
Kanii-no-kuu.  Japan.  Ill,  388. 
Kampooteha.  Cambodia.  1.  391. 
Kanuin.  Harmattaa.  Ill,  ISI. 
KanikeuMili,  KamiAamelia.  Ill,  439. 
KaDoiim-Nani>t,  ^a^nniiid,  IV,  301. 


Karl  August.  Litdwtff  /.  -  - . 

Karlaknina.  Carlterona,  I.  416. 
Kailiruhe,  CorUniAt.  '    "■" 
Kartavirya,  Arjund,  I 


Kaskatuac,  BUuO:  Kivtr.  I,  286. 
KaiHil,  Comi.  I.  42B. 
Katydid,  GraahopjHr,  III,  Bl. 


„  Google 


KnU  Shu,  rfadir  Shak,  TV,  SM. 
Kuluri,  Solamii.  V.  378. 
Kmifeniiakd.  fficktl.  IV.  12G. 
KuHa  MuTV,  Khctya  Morya,  III,  4j 
Kiuncbn.  AonlcAi,  III.  444. 
Kutui  Wan,  Kaga.  Ill,  437. 
Kutwh-Kom,  Montmtgro,  IV,  SIS. 
Kuvgia,  i/induim.  1 11^  223. 
Kvua,  Aye.  V.  3GT. 
Kmo-hm.  ChduH  Zdnatuv*.  I.  479. 
KoraratiD.  XAiva,  111,  453. 
KwuD-lun.  Xuoiluii,  III,  480. 
Byalu,  yiOwtRivo-,  VI.  411. 
Kypluu,  fipuKiI  Cari«,  VI.  H. 


lAbnuiifl.  Odrkid.  Qward  da  Nerval, 

m,  IS. 

Lkbyilnth.  £ar.  II,  242. 
I^eedamoB.  LacDnio.  Ill,  486. 
lAMTOk,  Cm*,  II.  76. 
I^ohiymd  6oatm,Skutt.  TI,  E. 
LwmiM.  UMw*.  IV,  SZ. 
LwiaaU,  4tfi>H4,  IV.  129. 
iMtln,  Mfft  Avar,  tV.  Z73. 

lAciutiuu,  Lola  Dv^ingt,  III, . 

LodiMl  ?<•««.  Tb*.  Margartt  ol  Aa*- 

LmUm'  tobMOO.'sUuwfu.  II  62. 
Ladin,  Entadine,  II.  286. 
Lady  b  th*  Chair.  Couiwna,  I.  42S. 
Lwlyor  KnnD. //oMor.  Ill,  1T1. 
l^dy  or  tht  LalcM,  Tba,  Toiido,  VI, 

220. 
Lady*!  Bmook,  Creua.  II.  103. 
lAfaymte.  Ht.,  franamia  Mountain*, 

11,447. 
I^CM  B«r.  AI*.  I,  £3. 
Jjiaoy,  Otbon  de.  Urban.  VI,  XH. 


lAk*  SmM,  MithiMm,  iv,  281. 
I^ma,  loiwtiHia,  Ql,  4»3. 

icy,  £amotni.  Ill,  403. 

squin,  HmUrv.  III.  202. 
ib'i-guuMr,  Chtnap<idium,  I.  408.' 
dilation.   Foucault,   CurrenU    ** 


t^inpeter,   Bnthi 

luedot^IddHla*.  III. 
Laodui,  Xaka,  Aral.  St 


II,  to. 
Land  Rail,  ConwniJbt,  ,.,  ». 
landgfeld.  CouDtaia  of,  iTDnUi,  Mori* 
DehrM  flin  S<>*anna,  IV,  SIS. 
Dmmart,  II,  1A9. 
Armv.  I.  IM. 


Ijudvehr.  Armu. 
Laoco.  Cot,  II,  88. 
Lanctown.  KirktaUy. 


i,  i3fi. 

I.  nl.  406. 


[.3U. 


Uuhj.  KolCiKiia.  Ill  438. 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 

ATBca,  Dyjitjma,  II.  241. 
— -»p,  town,  IV,  106. 

iC  Coat,  Stuea.  VI,  107. 
-Bltoe*,  Quarantim,  V,  228. 
Pencili,  Penea.V.  66. 

hopper,  Orapt,  III,  89. 

Leaven,  firorf.  I,  333. 
LsbUiw'i  PiocM,  Soda  Aili.  VI,  23. 
LachoHX,  Oj»J,  IV,  480. 
L«ls«r  Unea,  Afu^,  IV,  361. 
L«H.  OIui,  III.  4S. 
«Ba,  IFJn*,  VI   424. 
.c/t4iandod      Hairiaaa,     iioryaaatie 

ManioM,  IV.  ^. 
L<«al  SintTCourt.,  11.  flS. 
Lecatlan.  DOtQation,  U.  163. 
LsGi.  Afonnoa.  Soot  */.  IV,  330. 
Lamon  Gnu*  Oil.  Ctom  Oil,  III.  02. 
Lemonum,  Poitim,  V,  143. 
Leoaps,  Delaware,  II.  162. 
Lcnni'Leiwpe,  CilutBors.  II,  162. 
T.ento,  renpo.  VI,  171. 
Lani,     Lao    or     Induction,    EUctro- 

mamttic.  111.  323. 
Lconiml  Powder.  EipUfaet,  H,  336. 

Kopant,  Barron,  Jamf.  I,  224. 
pidolit*,  Siiea,  IV,  2fiO. 
I«  Puy-m-Viilar,  Pup.  £«,  V.  2S 
Leiu<tdia.  5<tiiM  Af<mni,  V,  401. 
I.«i>n.  L<Mn*.  TA*.  IV.  44. 
UM4iiaj«*M.  TVhuihi,  Vi,  S4a 
Lmbw  Dos,  Comi  JTuHr,  I.  402. 
Letbarcr,  iVinnuMfm,  III,  286. 
Letter  Iwk,  Loci.  IV,  91. 

.evBDte.  wind,  VI,  41S. 

.evcada,  Santa  Maurn.  V.  401 . 

MviHTbAt,  II,  190. 

«veUu  Rwii.  LmA  TV,  48. 


Loan  Crowd,  8Uet  XxAani 
Loanda,  S(.  Pautdm  Looada, 
Lobbyist.  Lcbby.  IV,  88. 
LobtUDt.  Labilia.  IV,  SS. 
Loohie.Toi,.  VI,  ]S9. 
Lock.  Canal.  I,  390, 
Uicomotive  Whiitle,  Fot  S 


Lib«.  Cambium,  I,  391:  SooAu,  I. 

191. 
Libretto,  Opm.  IV,  480. 


Ladantiut,    Fimi- 


~~»,III.  4^ 
Ladiu  l<^u>.  Viroinia,  VI,  tSI. 
Liicky  Proacb.  FoAv-laiAer.  11.  i 
I.,uculno,  Srrurio,  II,  31B 
Lu«y'»  r)ome.«ainmortCare,IV,l 
Lug  R\a,    YaiAu  and    Yaeliling, 


z,  Orefforian  jfunc.  III 


Lynaker.  T'lmmas, '  Linatrt.   Thomaa, 
TV.  73. 

..yon  OtBc*,H(niU'iCoU(«<.III,203. 
Lysiniachiu,  Artirtot,  I,  144. 


e  Iiland.  Ava*tU»'  Ittandi.  1, 


,ib,  Google 


Ihdlna.  Dolly.  MadiKm,  Jamm.  IV, 

Ilwlina',  H(.,  Wkiu  Jfounloin*,  VI, 

40S. 
lUdn  de  DUt  River,  Madnra.  IV, 

147. 

llBdMnira  Pit,  MammoA  Com,   IV, 

les. 

M&cdslaiu  River,  Colambia.  U.  35. 
Ihccoti.  S».  I,  iu:  Dipltra,  II,  106. 
Ihniur  ^alaatiuum,  lAmbaii.  Pt- 

Hicirtnta  ^rd,  Wocdd'iit,  VI,  US. 
MuDstio  Alia.  MaanM.  IV,  1S4. 
H&cMIiE  Dsdiution.  Mafn^.  IV,  ISe. 
Hasuelic  Fkiualor,  AcfinieUiu,  1,  10; 

Dinpif^  Ntailt.  11.  ISS. 
Haiaalic  Fisld,  Magrttl.  IV,  IfiS. 
Muaetio    Pol»,    Uagntt,    IV,    lU; 

Polar  RtMtarJt,  V.  1«. 
Ibanelism.  ilatput.  IV,  ISS. 
Haanetite.  /rni.  III,  SSS;  Af<v>H<,  IV, 

1S4. 

UUMUM,  Z>U>I<>I>K>,  II,  240. 

H^Dhnm.  VaranA*>,  IV.  186. 
Ukhon  Lord,  SlaJuipt.  PhUip  Hmry. 


IhUooliicy.  AfoUuai.  ] 
■■-1»in.B.  CK™.  II,  I 


Halsuplna  ciuier^ Olofia'.  Ill,  44. 
IfAjlaie,  Mumiu  fiou,  IV.  35H. 
Halek-ai-Adel.  .Vurid<fin  WoAnurf,  IV. 


^  IV.  3Ui, 

Hftiicnani  j'UBiuie.  Arunrax,  1,  1  ''O. 
Hidl«t.  BaU.  aamt  of.  I,  2oA;  £ar.  U. 

242. 
HsIlmiB.  Ear.  II,  242. 
thiliwlo.  A'eu  Hfbrida.  IV.  407. 
lUi>i«hUri  Bodi».  KiiJfifU.III,  4S0. 
Hnlpighian  CorpuK-lea.  Spltun.  VI.  S8. 
H>ite»  CriHs.  LurAnu.  IV.  127. 
Mjtly  liakhov.  Lvikhar  hlandt.  IV,  S3. 
Hsnu,  ThBitotAv.  VI.  ise. 
Uft^aavK-dhBTois-dMra.    Jfanu,    IV. 

Huidibie.  SkM.  VI.  fi. 
Uandu.  AfirfAdloffV.  IV,  .tOT. 
Uangd-wunei,    AfaivoU-viirHl.    IV. 

175. 
Mans-tBH.  Jtf«<:iu*.  IV.  23fl. 
Hanhola.  Sncrrngi.  V.  407 
Mani,  Atanichnvm.  TV  ]7fl. 
HitniB.«-CKilu,  Aleoliol.l.  51. 
Mania,  Maanaia.  tV.  1,VI. 
Maniok  Fimir.  Tapioca.  VI,  152. 
Mannite.  Manna.  IV.  179. 
lUaii][chsr  Oun.  Maead'U  Oun«.  IV, 

Man  of  Flia,  Anlidiritl.  I 


107 


Manx,  Cdtifr  LanftHOHtt. 


MHrk*  of  Cadency,  HtraMry.  Ill,  201. 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 

MaHborouih,  Dueban  of,  Annt.  I,  66. 
Uanh,  The.  Monlagmard:  IV,  3,5. 
Unrnhalins  of   Ainu,   Uaraldru,    '" 

201. 
Kanh  Mlaam,  Malaria,  IV.  163. 
HarthaniJla,  A  lianla.  1 ,  1 68. 
Hutininu,  SfartiTi.  Saint,  IV,  20.. 
Martyr  of  the.Renjuaanae,  The,  Colif, 


IV,  326. 

V,  202. 

/,  .1.    238; 


Hationi,fi>V«T.  1.218. 
Mairiic,  D«,  ll,  187:  rwM.  VI.27!. 
Bbtthiu.  John.  AfnwHlM.  IV.  23S. 
Mattn.  Mulfru.  IV.  3Gfi. 
Maumee.RarUli.  BsltU  of,  LiuU  Tw 

J''iAn"TV™n3? 
Uaut.  Miflhoiom.  IV,  367. 
Maietia,  UarBtonia,  IV,  13^ 
MaxUlff,  S*uU,  VI.  S. 
Maxim  Gun  and  SilenOBT,  .K  am 

Rapid-fire  sum.  IV,  141, 

At™.  VI.  S. 
Mayaa.  /mfiont.  III.  320. 
Mayon.  Ht.,  A&anu,  I,  4Q;  Iiuon,  IV, 

127. 
Mayotte  Island,  Comoro  IilamJt.  II, 

48. 
Uaypu,  Andet.  J.  86. 
Blaypurn,  OKnora.  IV.  492. 
Uaaaea.  C'noru.  I.  379. 
Hudah.  Ahun,  Ormatd.  Ormuid.  IV, 


J/ocAtfuond 


Meaa-tse.  Miao-Ur.  IV.  259. 
Meamire.  Mutie.  IV.  302. 
Me-cbKun-na-qUB.  LiUf*  Turtls.  IV, 

MechiUr.  UtkhUar.  IV,  231. 

Mecanic  Add.  Opium,  IV,  482. 
Meoonine.  Opium.  IV,  482. 


Medreueha,  Soflat.  VI.  24. 
«~i..H"   fl/amnn,  IV,  196. 

y  Revs,  7V«.  VI  242. 


Medusa's  Head^  OjAturans,  IV,  481 
MFfiai^Enhnli".  Skull.  VI,  4. 
MesacL«s,  XfcmiHmitfffl,  I.  50. 
MeitHlopolis,  Arcadia,  I,  119. 
Meghna,  Brahmapufa,  I,  327. 
Moddda.  Mount  of,  Armaoeddon, 

135. 
Meci1ish,£ilA<!r.  II,  31S. 
MeSun.  Prrim.  V.  78. 
Mslibcw.  Flora.  II,  406. 
MSlinile.  Erpl^iva.  11.  337.  . 
Me[Me.  Gvjma,.  III.  130. 
MeLldilchel.  Cunia.  III.  138. 
Mdon  Apple.  M'ulcmtlm.  IV.  303. 
Mehing  Point.  Furihiliiu.  II,  481. 
Memhranous    Cniup,  Z>ipAMena. 

174. 

496 


HetaphysiGal  Healina,  Chrittian  Set- 
in,  VI,  121. 


imi  of  the  Lakes,  The.  ToMo.  VI, 

220. 
■ceouB,  Or*  and  Or*  DrpetU.  IV, 

4SS. 
iioDephalic,  SituJI.  VI.  4. 
roD.  BaHiTia.  I.  194. 

B.  Afurwcopa  IV,  206. 


lilary  Ofder  of  ForaiBn  Wars..  Pit- 
IrioHc  SocitHtt  in  Ihr.  r..**..  V,  61. 

litary  Older  of  the  Loyal  LoEioa, 
Patriotic  Sacittia  in  lAi  C.  S7.  V, 


actiM,  ToOws.  VI,142. 
Chuioh.  Sliakir;  V,  472. 
num.  WtieUt  and  Mmuurm, 


Milto,  Anueia  lA*  Ymivtr,  1.  1S6. 
MlltsiD.  Mt..  AUas  Monntidnt.  I.  lOV. 
MiLyas,  Liwia,  IV.  128. 
Minus  Chann^.  Fvtidv.  Bay  at.  II.  470. 
Uiniaiori,    Uittiatart    Paintiite,    IV, 

280. 
Minlstsrial  Forces.  Continmlai.  11,70. 
Minium, /.eod.  IV,  23. 
Uinnewit.   Peter,   Uinvil,  PtUr.   IV, 


I.  .Vumunwtici,  IV,  458. 


Mini 


!'"■  !0;.. 


(.  IV.  2 


Nitrobtramt,  IV, 

Aluumdi,  Oil  of, 

Hlse^.'ut.,  Lohrador,  in,  483. 

■"--■-'    ' ■   ••!. 

WorAip,  VI, 

Muwlidettum.  WarAiji.  VT. ICO. 


k  Mann 


firoCunt.IV.lAy.^ 


">«  1.2 


tu)o;-^Ic, 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


Ulylena.  Ltdal.  TV,  t6. 

Hon.  Oirxmu,  II,  102. 
Mo'alLik&t,  Anbir,  I.  03. 
Hocoiulri    Flowar,    Curriptdm 

139. 
Moedb.  Tolmud,VJ.\*7. 


muuua.  Valattta,  ii.aub 

Molsr,  Ttelh.  Vl.  163. 

MoUr  ForiB.  fo™,  H.  *23. 

UoldiDS  Sand,  MMiTv  and  CaMiaa. 

Moleoulu  Form,  f  sm.  II.  423. 
Moltioc.  FtoAtr,.  II,  362. 
HomgDtum.  Dunamici.  II.  239. 
Uomotombo.  Mt',  Wieafaoua,  IV,  "^"^ 

Hoosy  Ordflra.  PoMof  Srviet  V, 
UoolciiL,  Auoultiu,  AiinJ,  I.  175. 
Honkey-brwl.  Adanmoaia.  I.  23. 
UankgyDut,  OoBber.  Ill,  6B. 
Hoak  fiah.  Aiw«t-M.  I,  BB. 


UooopUi 
Moo™,.' 


OoBber.  Ill,  6B. 
"  '  ■    I,  8B. 

lA.  Flinna  madiinw.  II, 

dt.,[nt(*  WouBtoint.VI. 

Hons  l^w,  ArUUtry.  I.  14S. 
UonUfDun.  L<iA<^n3ar,  III.  4IH. 
lIanta«nM  MauditM.  Lm,  Chaitu 

YdOtt,  ol.  I.  454. 
Uontsoibtcr.     FniiFnu     de,      Ci 

Framm*.  VL  IW. 
UoDts^GiDVaaol  Uuia  d«l,  /uliu 

in,  430. 

HoDt8  Corno,  Apnrdtum,  I.  lOT. 
UoQte  Somru,.  Vhuhm,  VI,  KT. 
Montk  tfimi,  iy,31S. 
Hont-Ra,  itfofU,  IV,  3LG. 
Honta  aui  8aurc«.  DraJcnbtrg  fiwiiM. 
II.22a_ 


Morning  ataf,  Vmi«,  VI.  SIS. 
Hocniii,  Mormon.  Book  of.  IV.  330. 
Moroi.  tf«n.  IV.  320. 
HotpboseDy.  Atarjiliolom.  IV.  333. 
Mortar  Bnarria.  Bvgffri.  I,  27^. 
""■     ■     ■■■     ■      ."Malorv.SirTKomai. 


Hoi 


IV.  I  ( 


1,  fmfrrvplaro.  II,  2S0. 


Hondo  GokTKin^u,  iV,  4B3. 
Hoiaberry.  Crani«rrB,  11,99. 
UolhcT  of  PiandADU.    Virginia.  VI, 

1S7. 
Motor  Ousllaii.  ?nrt.  III.  181. 
Moulin,  Gladar.  III.  4S. 
Mountain  Blue.  Bict.  1.  26S. 
Mountain  I^ural,  Kalmia,  III.  430. 
Mountain  People. /0DiTof'.  111,299. 
HountalD  Tea,  WinUrarten.  VI.  4X4. 
Blountain    Wbunleberry,    Junebary. 

Ill,  430. 


Uoimque 


igCIm 


I.  VI,  fl 


1.371. 


Huoosne.  tf  uenul  Mtrnbraiu,  IV.  347. 

Hucuna.  CwJuue.  II.  97. 

Hub  Houm  CTub,  OuA.  II.  17. 

MuEti.  Vtdanla.  Vl.  SU. 

Huini  Ahmed  ben  Muhommedsr,  Roi- 

nli,  V.  245. 
Mulatto.  Ny      • 


MultioDlor  FllQtlna,  Ut^oprgjAv,  IV. 


MOmben,  ManiA.  iv.  ^2.  ' 
HuDldpal  OoTSnuoent  of  Pari*.  Com- 

■wnM,  II.  M. 
HiinlD,  Sim.  IV.  460. 
Unnfi  oi  Huoiui.  Pom*  Diiitcl*.  V, 


Myxod'emayrtyrokf  Olond,  VT,  202. 
Hyxolydiaa  Uiiida,  Ortganan  JM unc. 


Naoe,  ITvtmaQ.TV.  400. 

Naca,  ATwRid  Cocvx*.  IV.  451. 

Nabr-d-Aid.  Oronl—,  IV.  404. 

Nakkai,  IfaaaoroA,  IV.  210. 

Nak-toDS  River,  Koria.  IV,  470, 

Naoim.  Oiola.  IV.  498. 

Nanni.  QioTunl,  AmiuM  of  VUvba, 


Napbthalio   Acid,   PhOmiic  Add.   V, 

108. 
NatTHlnBi  Volia  Faity,  NihSi 

^™,Tv'9r.~ 

-laahim,  Talmud.  VI,  147. 
Nuquapflei.  Labradsr.  Ill,  4S4. 
Nathanari,  SorUoJiminii,  I.  225. 
NatioDBl  Aoademy  of  Sdencaa  ol  tb« 

U.  B.,  .4«id(my.  I,  14. 
NfttionKl  Farmen'  AJlianoa,  PtopVl 

Party.  V,  72, 
Ltlooal    GiKnze.    Fatroru    of    /fii#- 

lomfTT.  V762. 
Ltjonality,    injemationai  Law,    III, 


jnMican  Parti/.  V.  278. 
NatioD*!    RcpubliT"'    »"•■■ 


Honal  JHueaKoH 

37S. 

Natron,  Sodium.  VI,  24. 
Nuural  Harbor,  l/arior.  III.  1 58. 
MMunliatia  Thaoiy.   Con     ' 


Neodarwlmaiu.  ZMioiiv.  Vl'  4T& 
Neolilbio  Age.  5lm».  /,»  d/.  VI,  90. 
Nflopapbofl.  Pap/io*.  V,  27. 
NeontolemuB.  PyrrAiu.  V,  225. 
Nephllim.  Oiam.  HI,  34. 
Kephridii,  Worm*.  VI.  449. 
NamM   Lamp,   Sltctrie  LigkHite,   II, 

207. 
Ncmli.  OU  of,  Orang*.  TV.  489. 
Netted  Melon,  MuiimAm.  IV.  303. 
Nettle  Ctlli,  AftduM,  IV,  228. 
Neuquea.  Patatonia.  V,  47, 


NcunMhrala,  Nmmrut  ZKHom,  IV, 

Neuroglia,  Otiima.  Ill,  52;  Spimm.  VI, 

Neurology,  Xnoftrmif,  I,  S3. 
NautiMM,  f/trvBu.  ZHtma.  IV.  396. 
Neutera,  Atit.  I.  07. 
NeuttaliutioD.    Alkali,    I,    SS;    AUt- 

NeutnlNitii^n.jiuiumdarvnJti.  1.171. 

Noutml  Temperature,  "" -'-^■- 

ilv.  VI,  IBI. 
Nsrada  F^l    YaimiU. 
N«»do  d«  lUampu.  fljJi 
Nendo  da  Sorato,  Boliv 


VI,  4 


1,  I,  304. 


,   j4BaociaJa  Prta- 

Fam,'Baui*'i>i.  II,  453'. 
new  River,  Colorado  Dmrl.  II.  38. 
Newton'a  Uiwg  of  Force,  ihinomtc*, 

11.237. 
NedkiD.  Telnud.  VI.  147. 
Niagara,    fiattl*    of,    Lundt^a    han4. 
BoKto  0/,  IV  ,.23. 

wa,  A'irtajmr.  IV,  433. 

aya.  NiAapur.  IV.  433. 

fkel  Glance,  Ar»atic,l.  144. 

:kal  Silver,  Qtrman  SUtrr,  HI,  27. 
..  jomaabu*.  Arittotlt,  I.  131. 
NIcotiM,  Tebaao.  VI.  217. 
Nictitating,  Membrane,  Bird,  I.  277. 
NidarM.T™!^y««^  VI,,  2aL 

■lV.391. 


Nilometer,  tain,  i,  . 

Nimbua,  Cloud*,  11,1., , 

Nlmmo^  Hary,  Aforon,   Thomat,  IV, 


S;HoIo.nr,14». 


Imu,  ^>«HiA.  tV,  432. 
ins  Pina,  fiouja.  1.  322. 

Muturea,  Bzplonm.  II.  33S. 

ttion.  Nitric  Add.  IV.  434. 

EOpDunda,  Eiplotiva.  II,  339. 

itrqgen    HoiuTldB,    Nurout    Oxtdt, 

IV7435. 

Nltrophenlaia  Add,   Picric  Add,   V 


Nostognph,  PrwBtt.   WOUam  Hict- 

Kna.  V.  183. 
Nomen  Copannun,  II,  20;  NatiH.  IV, 


NoMenfelt  Qua,  Madiint  and  Rapid- 

finOan;  IV,  14:. 
Nonw  Hyiholocy.  Scandinavian  Mv- 

Iholomi.  V,  420. 
North.  Cbijitapher,  Wtlxm,  John,  VI, 


NoTiodunum.  Nntrt.  IV,  401. 
Ooid.  III.  82. 

-  eat,  KamAamAa.  m.  439. 
,  ManiUBiat  /llanil*,  IV,I95. 

Mythnlnmi.  IV.  ae7. 
FrniAinM,  II.  441. 


Nuggett.  Ool 
NuTliie  Grei 


Numeni 


Nundinie,  dalndor.  I 


Nunaery.  Afoiuulfrir,  IV,  310. 

Nun     of     Kennare,     Cuaaab,     Mary 

Framta.  11.121 
Nutm«  State,  OoivwMnX.II.  58. 
Nutt,  Commodore,  Duarf,  II,  S37. 
NycUniu.  Lucann.  IV,  1^7. 
Nyleghau,  JV(l0»,  IV,  431, 


Oar  Period.  J^arnl  TaOla.  VI.  143._ 


d  by  Google 


OblMion,  OUKh,  rV.  Ml. 
Oblic«,  BohJ.  I,  307. 
Oblwor,  Bmil,  I,  807. 
OboDCD,  Ailiaim,  I.  IM. 
O'Btieo,  John,  Sovmoi^,  Jalm  T. 

250. 
Obnrnns     TaltHopa. 

Obnrmi  Arununuka,  tV.  403. 
OodpiUl  Bona.  ShM,  VI,  & 
Ooeuliu  EplKDpi,  Art/idaaton.l,  131. 
Ooeulda,  JVvmpAi,  IV.  4S7. 
OewDu*.  riiani,  VI,  213. 
OokeofUH^bni,  Lotmi,  IV.  471. 
Ookham,    Wiltiws,   Oeeam.    WiUiam, 

IV,  403. 
Octan,  Mutie.  TV,  361!  Sonn^  VI, 

30. 
Oelobw  Club.  Cbib,  It,  IT. 
OovHta.  HarfFitt.  Ill,  les. 
Odebtina,  JVoneoi/,  IV, +4S 
Odeuthiu.  ZenMa,  VI,47t. 
OdoDtaUU,  rurauMf,  VI.  207. 
OSoa  Found,  Alien.  I,  &S. 
OIB<»«r'Aniu,  i/nU'i  CoUiv*,  III, 

fatianal 


OrUudox  Churah,  O^Mt  CkurM,  I 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 

OrtbomaUic  8y*t«iii,  Crmtallagrapkii, 


OniD  ab  Onili^dd,  Oltudow.  Oum. 


PuskToDjt,  Nietel,  IV,  426;  Poit/one, 

P^ld.;  FituA,  II,  385. 

Paddy.  Ria.  V.  39S. 

PaduUh,  5i>j(iH>,  VT.  IIS. 

Pad*,  FazJiunting.li.  440. 

Pi<eria.  Maria  J.  R.  de  T.  da  la.  J«- 

HiAt'tu,  lU,  423. 
Pa|p>iU  laland.  PucAou,  II.  472. 


■.  IV, 


Puntad  Ponh.  Tha,  <31<n«.  VI,  B4. 
PuDMr'i  Callc,  Load  PnKHu' 

24. 

Palnmon,  MaliarU;  IV,  233. 
PalcolilhiB  An,  Sloni,  Ant  of,  VI.  eS. 
Polaiks.  PoloAnMana^V.  10. 
Palaipaphoa,  Paf/ioi,\,  2T. 
PalateBauaa,  StuU.  VI,  B. 
Pal<opoli,£lu.  It,  274. 
PaKsade  Layan.  Ltal.  tV,  24. 
Pallu,  Attmil,  I,  162. 
Palmar,     Mre.     RaytaoDd.     Nnada, 

Emma,  IV,  400. 
PaUnetlo  SUta,  SouA  CanMna,  VT, 

3S. 
Paludal  Tom.  Ualaria.  IV,  103. 
Paioar,  BiaOim,  I,  274. 
Pampduna,  Pomptona.  T,  18, 
PampaiHrVnviKiir.  VI,  IH. 
PanclaBtitaa,  Ernlontf,  II.  337. 
Pandeota,  Cod*,  II.  26. 
Paodamia,  BpUemie.  11,  390. 
Pan  Haudla  SUM,  Wmt  Ywvimia.  VI, 

Paok,  Piut,  V.  la 

Paulooaiwwliy.  ZtncograptihTI,  4Tt. 

PaHBO  lUn-tK>ahb4,  Xaauttm,  III, 


t^pio'i  DinsMr,  /ojiiii,  Dmi*,  V.  27. 
PansonUna.  Tqn)^,  Vl.  ICa. 
Fanca&Mio  Btifm,  Or*  and  Or*  D»- 
•—a,  IV.  488. 

Taa.  jriM<.IV,3l3. 

-  " — ■■-'-  "  aa 

t,4S0. 


F»ronohyma,  C«lt..._.   _. 

ParieMBoiua.  SleM.  VI,  6. 
Paiiah  Council  Acta.  R^ratdum, 

200. 
Farii  ObBerrator,  Piont,  Jaon,  V,  1 


Pkioli,  OomUina,  It,  41 

Part  MumU.  IV,  382. 
PaflheDOsansu.  Htrtdilg,  ili,  «vi 
Paaay  RjTw,  Botr  Lakt,  I.  23B. 


Paten,  HoK.  III.  254. 
Patiaaae,  SMIairt.  VI.  20.     . 
Patient   Tbouibt,   Imagination.    Ill, 

305. 
Patino.  PntBu*,  V,  40. 
Patnw.  Patmat.  V,  49. 
Patrag.  Canhunam.  I,  423. 
Patres  Patrati,  Fetialii.  II,  S70. 
fatiieU,  ConMa,  II.  81. 
Pattarn  Piaow,  NumittnaHa.  TV.  452. 
Pavaoa,  Htfiduum.  Ill,  323. 
Pawn,  Chaa.  II,  470. 
Pax  Auffuita,  Badajct,  I,  IBS. 
Payaa.  5iU  o/  Eaiuniat,  I,  271 . 
Paooh  Vniacaa,  Zniim  indtona,  VI, 

4>D. 
Peari  Opal.  Caduilimo.  I.  377. 
Parlv  Nautilui.  NaulUtda.  IV.  383. 
PsM  Hoaaaa,  Spluianum.  VI,  53. 
PwaL  OUeeUDO  Vidmdio,  Lm  X///, 

I V .  40. 
Paetinfbnuicliut,    MtmOaeardia.    TV, 


Pence,  PDund  StBriint,  \ 


Panona,  Robert,  Panent,  Svbwi.  V, 

43. 
PertiMla,  fPAaopiu  Coh^,  VT,  US. 
Penida,  >tnvia.V.  K 
PeaoiRey,.^----  ' 


Paao  Foatte,  Urvguov.  VI,  MB. 

PMd,  CaraOi,  II.  85. 

PaUaat.  Htddrmi,  III,  178:  rhiHw. 

VI,  193. 
PeUaoa.  Httnut.  III.  307. 
Peterfaouse.  Comftriilffi.  VKivarnty  of, 

I.  393. 
Petition  and  Advice.  CoanHnNMoM 

of  ffiWland,  II.  4A. 


I  by  Google 


Pedtlonan,  XMonva.  I.  10. 
retri&B±Fota.  II.  43K. 
Paylon   Powdar.  Snurtdau   Poudtr 
VI,  IS. 


'  riMtouuiofrapliy,   lAOieerapAg,    IV. 


PhotOBDeocniphv,    Zintacraphi/,   VI. 


PhylloUiy,  Lm/Tlv,  24. 
Phytodsocupby,  GMriniAt'.  III.  IS. 

PlMnb«  Palm.  Auatna,  I.  170;  Palm 
V,  IS. 

Pica,  s>it!|W<,  I,  seo. 

Piiador.  BiOMl,  I,  360. 

PIdo  BUnso,  CWi  Aica.  II.  SS. 

PiBO  Ruivo.  UaMra.  IV.  M7. 

Plcti.  Irdand,  III,  3U. 

PldBVTo.  Bpidaanit.  II,  2W. 

Pisdi,  am>u4,  VI,  30. 

Pitolut,  /UHfrori.  V,  2S2. 

ntr.Caiuw,H,U,V. 

natra  Comtngn*,  Vonic,  IV.  33T. 

Piatra  Barbo,  Pool,  V,  62. 

Pit  Iron,  /ron.  Ill,  368. 

Fin,  5winfc  VI.  13B. 

FUa,  BaU,  Oama  ef.  I 


Flu.  Ht..  Ortaan.  IV.  «». 
tjtr.Honnt  oTVoiX  A  KW,IV,818. 
naoaiiu.  Anbrmtim.  II,  381. 
PUantU,  f>iaMiwii,  V.  ill. 
Plato,  Tha,  JfoaMgaofdi,  FV.  SIS, 
PUndHM,  JUitH  atd  MvitOta-   IV, 
PluMU,'Cta«iAla,  I,  46S. 
Ftanlmatry.  "  —   -- 

*-  K  o(  to 


1«D    of    f(IuU«, 

ni^aft. 
laoU  n«t«*,  i 


Itufiidi,' Agiitlin  J! 


Plantina,  3w<'W.  VI,  «0. 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 

Plaimadium.  3fv« 

PluSdr^3orc>|Auli,  1.  wu. 
Platform  .Sole,   WtigMne  i 

VI.S8E. 
FlatiDum    Prwagi,    PAofivniiAv.    1 


Forteullia,  Cu«i<,  I.  428. 
PoitMooxa.  tfna,  IV,  S4fl. 
Portiu  Auciuti,  OUu.  IV,  601. 
Fomatdoa,  Wijt  of,  .^MuAuio,  ITr 

of.  I.  1». 
Pom.  Csbinit.  II.  41. 

P«Sii.  ffonilii.  III.  230. 
PoMvort*,  Carmtiutfl,  SOS. 
Potamldi.  JVvmjiJU,  IV,  4S7. 
Poturiam  Panoeranid*,  CyuMi,  II 
126. 


Pottar*!  Burn,  .j'loAulir,'!,  ii. 
Pouoe,  ira<«A«  awf  ifnturm.  VI,  m 
PouoM.  CullIsM,  II,  126. 
Pound.  Dunania.  H,  330. 
FouikU.  Dimamw*,  II,  230. 
Powv,    Harcarat.   Btmtmglon,    Mai 

eartt  OaidiMt.  I,  302. 
Poacny.  Pr—bitro,  V.  186. 
Pdho  (&  Ban  Putriiio.  OrviNa.  tV.  401 
Praatjoal  Tralnlns.  SduaUiim.  II.  36- 
PnunraeD.  Comomtn,  II.  30:  Kan 

IV.  370. 
PneMriita.  SnaloCin.  Ssai  of,  V.  38: 
Praiiie  ProriDoa,  The,  Maniuba,  H 

177. 
Praiiie  SobootHn,  Carriagt,  I.  430. 
PmdDftated    WriUns.     Bpu^ualin 

VI,  67. 
PncdplUts  of  Oa^iu,   Oald  Purvl 

III.  06. 


,v  Google 


Pyralicnlt*  of  Inm,  itoaHMM,  1, 17. 
PynluriM,  ifMtfOMM.  IV,  17fi. 
Pyiona*.  AtttUt,  I,  174. 

FrnxrBa  Beiiit,  ttajAAa,  IV,  S71 


Ruukb.  Hikan.  ill.  170. 
lUnuD,  Att/ria,  I.  IBO. 
Bansa,  iMtl  Horn;  IV.  65. 
BaiUDgaTu.  PtbnAmm.  V,  BO. 
'BMvKt.  aword.\l.  136. 

lUilM,  SabMtiMi,  fiol*.  Silnutitn.  V, 

24S, 
lUI.Se-tiM,  VI.  106. 
lUU  oC  Workuc  Oinwmic  t/nito.  II, 

RatifioUion,  Trtatt.  VI.  241. 
RattlHuke    HuMr,    SniAtrool,    VI, 

15. 
Rallle  Wwd.  Laa>  Wari,  IV,  M, 
Rky  FuDcug,  Actin^nvcuu.  I.  21. 
Rtutiom,  Analunt,  I.  B2. 
Ttaulen,  ^autfa.  Ham   Kitim.    III. 

171. 
lUacanti.  Analvtit.  I,  S3. 
Rcbakab  Lodfa,  Odd  FMLia;  tnd- 

ptHdcni  Ordar  of.  tV,  466. 
BMoeoUale,  Irtfartteen-t.  III.  327, 
R«d  Bud.  Jitiat  Trm,  III.  437. 
Rwl  C«d»r, /uupir,  I  [I,  431. 
Red  Chilk,  RMU.  V,  282, 
R«d  Dismoiid  d(  C»r  P,iul.  Diamond, 

II.  1S2. 
RsdMnuhla  Lnmn,  Finance.  It,  3S4. 
Rod  IlemadlB,  Iron.  III.  »aR. 
Hod  Nine-killar,  Wooddtai.  VI.  4M. 
Rad  Orpiment,  Rnalaar.  V.  256. 
Rsd  3M>P>iire.  Ruin,  V.  344. 
Rad  SisMn  of  Clwrily,  Tb*,  WidM 


Louiti.  IV.  2( 


RsdTti 
Rsduct..  _, 
Red  Vir^i 


VI,  17. 

itnturoH.  1,2ST 
Oi^lomtion,  II,  1 


jf  Fni 

JI^Sc,  IV,  260. 
■rincd  Tbeokicy,  The,  Calniniinn, 


RagiDUm,  Kolithin,  V,  252, 
Ruular  Cl«rk*,  of  ttaa  Caogrenti 
at.  Paul.  ^«W(Mla,  f.  22  . 
'      n,  Ftpdoua  CDnuniltoi,  VI. 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


Mil  £mp<r*,   Iir  ' 

BaiahuBth,  Aui^ia-BaMaarv.  1, 181. 
IWahMhlun.  INA  U,  lls. 
RatohMac.  .dudnu-tfuivarv,  I,  ISl 

DM.  II.  ISB;  Owman  Kmpin.  Ill 

22. 
Ralay,  Tttaerat*.  VI,  lOL 
Rallar;  Tmutt.  Vl.  17I>. 
RaDniD,  Digfim,  II   >»o 
Bapaal.  /^w.  IV,lO, 


Raquiam  Umm.  Mat,  TV,  207. 
RMarva  atim.Bank,  I,  313. 
Raodual  Ajr.  Itfpiradan,  V,  274. 
RariMaoM  of  HaMiiala,  5mnpA  i 

UalriaU.  VI.  104. 
RmIbMiiU,  DlMiiM,  11,  33B. 
RMondool,  AaHTcim,  V.  }79. 
Raataa.  jtnrtwo.  I.  126. 
RMtioc  8ta(*.  fioftaSa.  I.  IM. 
RataHiunaiua.  ^fcin.  VI.  3. 
Ravaibentory  Funutoa.  Fvnaei,  II 


r.RMiw 


I,  JMt» 


■ottte 


Rhinooolun. «  itrM,  II,  20^, 
Rbl»>iiu.  MartMqm.  IV,  333. 
Rhodantu.  JU*M,  V,  MS. 
RialM,  Vdua,  VI,  Sit. 

Riocia.  L*.  Ariaa,  I,  IW. 
RiDB-watw  Dughans.  Ctiottta.  1. 483 
Ridnolsis  And,  Cauor  Oil,  I,  420. 
Rmanbaeh  Rul,  /luluuii  Plam,  III 


Boa,  jipi/anA.  I,  38. 
Rookaway.  Csri^*,  I,  430. 
RoakM.    The,    Locomotit$,    IV,    83 

Stepkauan,  Vt,  88. 
Rock  Fbb.  fioH.  I.  230. 
Roolc  Snipe,  Sandpipir,  V,  3M. 
RoamerTOle,  itomir,  OU,  V,  326. 
Roantcen  Rayi,  X-Savt,  VI,  4». 
RoUerGia,  C(>tt»,II.  SI. 
Roman  SteilyanI,  Wmahiiu  MaAiiui 

VI,  S8S. 
Ronaerau^,  R<»i«»alla.  V,  326. 
Rongar.  Floiimond,  Hent.  Ill,  313. 
Root.  TiM.  VI,  1 H2;  ffoni,  VI,  448. 
Roan  Weed,  5>iah>um,  V.  iso. 
Raitrati.  DuiUtm  Coiamn,  II.  231. 
Roswiiha,  Hmtnllia.  III.  360: 
RolB,  The,  Club.II.  17. 
Kotaiy  Pump,  Pump,  V.  S17. 
Rotatory  Polarintion,  OpHa,  IV,  48S 
Ratonuci,  Rnuim.  V.  338. 
Rotlinc^Ioi.  II,  403. 
Rounirworin,  Aicant,  I,  152;  Ifi 

mnlhiininAa,  IV,  391. 


436, 


m: 


„  Google 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


e>tuimM,  BumHlly.  III.  MO:  Wmr, 

SMurdikr  Club,  Club,  It.  17. 
SkUcor,  &var,  V.  864. 


SBuaderm  Wood.  SandahBood,  V.  303. 

BftWKldD.  aualcim.  VI,  lOS. 

SavlaU,  UirgantiT.  IV.  243. 

8*«  Mmatto,  i><i;»u<to,  V,  IB. 

BiBb.  airAt,  VI,  104. 

Botfcil    FIlu,    CuiHMon    JfoiiiUaiiu. 

II.  lis. 

Boildio  Poetry,  laiiaa.  lit.  3M. 
Bulona  Tiiuuls.  Trimglt.  VI,  245. 
BowidtrDOD.  AcoiidniiDia,  III.  364. 
BoBpWdia  Boh,  CarpM,  I,  41V. 
Boftpul*.  .ilrm,  I.  134. 
Rout  Skin,  BviitrmU.  II,  200;  Skin. 

VI,  3. 
BouUUiu.  StarM  Ftoir.  V,  423. 
Bahkb^caw  CbMM,  Saoo  CAhh,  V, 

Babtno.  SemUa.  VI.  29. 
SobUnn,  t>uel,  II,  230. 
Ssboodia  Rivar.  SI.  Croix  Birir,  V, 


I,  U. 


SaooDilBrrBitUariH,  'iSlani0i  BofEinn. 


BMurod  U»i>.  Wiunu,  II,  384. 
8acuTU.  ^luca.  II,  3GT. 
8«(u«m.  Qhsraido,  Avotolici.  1, 110. 
Sweads  Nkh,  i/aMn-fifn-AUaJk,  III, 


BBConliuin,  Co 
Btbunlik,  bir< 


Otoalt,  Tba.  for.  II,  248. 
EMmuuDU  vulvt.  Heart.  111.  ISO. 
Saminunls  of  the  North,  The.  Afor- 

Bortl  of  Dmmark,  IV.  188, 
SemiaoTereicD  Stale,  Smtragntv,  VI, 


ham.   Order  of,   OilbrHiu 


Bqit,  Clan,  11,  G, 

Septentriooea,  Una  Major.  VI,2tE. 

Septis,  AnHttfittc  Tr«Umwnt,  I.  L04. 

Bequuma.  Snru,  V.  44S. 

BentDg,  Cfmm,  I,  447. 

Senphiia,  Siraph.  V.  *f». 

Swdib,  Mottatn,  IV,  2il, 

Serea.  Sinin,  V,  bOS. 

Serjeanly,  Tmare,  VI,  17B. 

aariient  Eater,  Sirelary  Bvd,  V.  44S. 

Herpenl  Melon,  Jifuubneton  IV.  363. 

Berredo,  Ul^uet.  ^drtdua,  AfuAoeJ,  V, 


inie,  Auriatijtt  Conr' 

StlOBllng    k^chinea,    iSmaiAari,    V, 

4S1. 
Stgnificant  Ficurea.  Nolatiim.  IV.  446. 
Sif  a  Lansuajte,  Dtat-pHila.  II.  IfiO. 
^enlte,  Ovivn'  in,  136. 
aUliman'i  ATenua,  MatnmoA  Catt,  IV, 

lee. 

Silver  Grain   7Va«,  VI,  242. 


rsdea,  AAirina,  I,  leE 


SUreiT  Daoa,  Rctuh,  V,  306. 

Saia^  Shimoda.  V.  481. 

Simple  UoDoahiomatia  Tiat,  Cotor,  It, 


Seaeile  Flovars,  Itifiorat 
Senet,  5oniH«,  VI,  30, 
Set  Coat,  Shuxo.  VI,  l~ 


t.  Ill,  3 


SexuaJ    ReproductiOD,    Reprcdudion^ 


Shanij    l)d-Din    Muhammad,    BaAM, 

III,  141. 
Sharpie,  YoAf  arid  YadttiTHi.  VI,  4*1. 
ShariMbiux,   Battle  of,   Antutam.   1, 

101. 
Hhaihani.  Sltithak.V,  484. 
Shawmut,  Sudm,  I,  316. 
Shear  Water,  Skimmtr,  Vt,  3. 
SheeD,  fii<Ainiinil,  V,  Z9S. 
Sheep  Rot,  f'lutr  11.412. 
Sbeatai,  ^^<u,  V,  484. 
Sheffield  SdenliBB  Sohool,  Yalt  l/iti- 

lernifv,  VI,  4*1. 
8heilih-el-Beled.   Wood    Carving,  VI, 

44». 
Shema.  IFora^ip,  VI,  4M. 
Shamuel.  Simiid.  V.  390. 
Sbaphelah,  loMuA.  Ill,  486.  ■ 
Sberiat  El-Kebia,  Jonlim.  Ill,  422. 
Sberiff.  UivreoMj  Rutbu.  V,  347. 


•"Tt^,  3: 


■ch'antf,.  Vl,  e 


Shi  ty,  Bimnock;  I.  213. 

8b  ti,  133. 

ShL ..xtUtM,  V.19B. 

Shurtefl,  Robert,  Samptm,  DubariA, 

Shmile, /-Bmn,  TV,  100. 
8hway-ba«DD    Picoda,   Ranooon,  V, 


24S. 


(,  It.  177. 


Sl«,  ZeoJola.  Vt,471. 
Sinrii,  ZeoloU.  VI,  471. 
SidluD  Oil,  PttreUam,  V.  86. 
aidareal  Day,  t>itf.  II,  148. 


I,  100. 


,v  Google 


Sodetr  ot  Cokmlsl  Wan,  Pa^ietit 
Sodttim  M  eia  U.  3..  V,  Bl . 

Hodsty  of  Felibriss,  Auhantt,  1. 173. 

Sodely  of  UaySower  DsKeadmnta. 
Patictie  SacMim  inHit  U.  3.,  V, 


Solnr  ProevB,  Soda  AA.  VI.  23. 

EkilTWit.  Solution^  VI.  28. 

Solymi.  ivcia,  IV,  128. 

SomTAifvfii^.  Ill,  223. 

aoDoll   VUlACH,  ^ufljon  /fkfiOH,   Vt, 

MO. 
SoDi  of  VMwaru,  Pabiotie  SocMitt 

intKeU.S.^V.tO. 
aoodio.  Sudan.  Vl,  112. 
8aofe«.5uA<,  Vl.lM. 
Sopherim,  rolnud,  VI.  147. 
Sophonubs^  Uarimtta,  IV,  20i. 
Son,  Rail,  V,  240, 
aore).  RuUicu.  V.  297. 
Borel  River,  CAompIaiii,  Lakt,  1, 4S1I. 
Sori,  /■mi,  tl,  372. 


80-ul.  SaouJ,  V.  4Se. 
Soulard  Crab.  Ami*,  I,  1 12. 
Soul  of  tbs  World.  Anima  Mund 

03. 
floumi.  Finland ,  11.  387. 
Sour  Gum,  Bluet  (Tun.  [.  2Sfi. 
Southern    Crown,    Corona    Auttr 

II,  SS. 
Southern  lighd.  Aurora,  I.  179. 


Sow  Bnwj,  C^Lmm.  U.  i26. 

Sowioc,  BldxAiiw,  I.  200. 

aptAx.  SpolAo,  VI.  47. 

a — u: —    Q-1 .,_  if,,nBon.  £inb  of. 


1   Town.    Port    0/   Spain,    i 


spar.  r..ia>u  /tdehv,  lt,  « 
Spu  Dock,  Z>«t,  II,  IS4. 
Spayad.  saw.  VI,  6a. 
apearfi^TfiiWM.  1. 173. 
Spaoul  AetiTXaiD.  IV.  I ». 
^weuatiH.  Contract,  II.  71. 
Bfwiiiua,  NumUmatitt,  IV,  4S2. 
Spaoular     Iron     Ore.    Htmaiiu.    III. 

BiHHkled  Trout.  Charr,  I.  481 . 
Spootitof,  The,  Addivtn,  JotwfA.  I. 

34;  ^(W«.  5<r  AiiAanf,  VI.  85. 
SpODDer    Muaiina    Guni,    JVoffosiu 

OumAV,\5\. 
Sperm  Candla.  Si»™im«,  VI.  52. 
Sphacelus.  i>*riA.  II,  151.        r 
Sphamld  Bone,  StuU.  VI.  5. 
Spherical  AberratioD.  AbtrraUm,  I.  9. 
SpbarioU  Lena,  Sptclarla.  VI,  48. 
Sphloea,  Colanw.  I,  381. 
Sphinga,  ifoA,  IV,  S40. 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 

Spfeules.  Spontm,  Vt.  E9. 
Spikelet.OraMM.  111,91. 
Spindle,  SpiniuM.  VI,  05. 
Spine-headed   Worms,    SmaAdmin- 

tha,  IV,  301. 
BoiamDC  ieony,  Spinnino.  VI.  58. 
Spiny  Ant-eaten.  Xdiidna,  II,  249. 
Spiral   Pump,  Arc/iimtd^  Sow,  I, 

Spiiita.  AlcoiM.  I,  SO. 
S0iit<aU,Pra&iaUi.  I 


Splwie  Faver.  Anlhra: 


BfiooaM^Anthng.  I,  91. 

Spoon  Wood,  Kalmia,  III.  439. 

Sporanva,  Ftrn.  II.  371 :  Slanen.  V 


Stater.  Aureu,.  I    178. 
Stave.  Notation.  iV,  447. 
Steam  Period.  TaeOa,  VI,  143. 
St«in  Turtiines.  Saani  Vmelt.  VI, 


Btortlnc.  Ifarwg.  IV.  445. 
Htraddls.  Aoet  ficAoiwe.  VT.  93. 
Sliand.  CaU«.  I.  375. 
Strathooraa,  SdmotUon.  II,  254. 
Bttatbaam,  Flower  of^  JVoptw,  ( 

aJtno  OUpluml,  IV,  370. 
Stiato-oumulug.  Ctandt.  II,  5. 
Stmtton.  Charin  B.,  Dvari.  II,  23 
Stravberry-tree.  Ariutui.  I.  lio. 


t  130. 
I.  238: 
IV,  98. 


Supenuturatisle,  TtiBitem.  VT.  1S9. 
Supporteia.  HtraUru,  III,  202. 
Sural,  Koran,  III.  476. 
Surviltiera,  Count  de,  Bonafurfe,  Ja- 

tuph,  I,  306. 
Suaam-Adani,  &imof.  V,  389. 
SuQwniion  of  Amu.  Tnm.  VI.  252. 
Suapenaory  Usameut.  lAoameni.   IV. 

SQtiai,  SraAmantm.  1, 827;  Triiiitaka, 


Swamp  F 

IV.  1... 

Swamp  Kelleboie,  Vtra&um,  VI,  318. 
Swan     River     Seltleaieat.      Waitm 

AuM&alia,  VI.  191. 
Swartnins.  See.  I.  244. 
SwadiBh-Oerman  War.  TMrtu  rniri' 

War.  VI.  194. 
Swedish     Hovement^un,     MattoBt. 

IV,  309. 
Swedish     Nishlingale.     Tha,      Lind, 

Jennv.  fv.  74. 
Sweet  meata,/,«UA(r.  IV.  26. 
Sweet  Pea.  Pta,  V.  58. 
Sweat-soentad  Shrub,  Calveantkut,  I, 

SweCBD,  SiBtun,  VI.  1 31. 
Swine  Fieh.H'sIf/'uV  VI.  4M. 
Sword  of  God.  The.  Kltalid.  III.  457. 
Srenea.  Sidimond.  V,  298. 
^wita,  OrmiU.  Ill,  87. 
Syllocin.  Logit.  IV.  97. 
ayllDslsmDe  Oimutiu,   jOiImhhui.   IT. 


I.  Vtrlaint,  Paul.  VT.  I 


Synehroooui  Uolora.  BUetric  Metor. 

11.288. 
^mdermolocy.  AmOot^y.  I.  83. 
^noptlBtB.  Gbtpej,  III.  75. 
Ewatooia  Huaonlin.  Peai.  II,  430. 
Syrinx,  Singt  e/  Birdt,  VI,  39. 
Syro^lialdeaiu.  Chatdaan  ChritiaiH, 

^452. 
Syro-Orientale,    CAoUeon    Cliritliai— 

1.462. 
Sw^ueo.  J! 


a  by  Google 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


TatxlUoDW   Fomue*,  flotary  PvHit, 

IV.  416. 
T»bliq«,  Broom  Com.  I,  347. 
T&boritei.  HnttUf.  Ill,  273. 
Tsboritig  Light,  UeivchaM*,  III.  216. 
Tabrau.  TuBrU,  VI,  141. 
Twlinor,  Palmvra.  V,  10. 
Tkluwiu.  Jtforcv.  Ml.  IV,  187. 
T«h-aiih Jute,  Logan.  IV,  Bfl. 
Ta  Uioh,  Cfn^dut,  II.  U, 
Tni-dom,  Riv«r,  Korta,  III,  478. 
TaikuD,  Tvcom,  VI,  SOS. 
Tai-pioB-yu-lan,  Cudopeiliq,  II,  127, 
Tamamtk,  AacitmalacE.  III.  130. 
Taoa.  i)«mA«,  II,  IAS, 
Tanau,  Aiov,  I,  18S. 
Taoaelo,  Crof  FetliliiaHon,  11.  111. 
TsBDa.  V<u  »iM<ta,  IV,  407, 
Taphoura,  SJai,  V,  469. 
Taiabonui.  Tntimtd.  VI,  241. 
Taraiko,  Saihatin,  V,  S77. 
Ta™,  Vrtrt,  VI,  M7. 
Tarantdla.  Tmntim.VI.  102. 
TartK-  aty,  PaUiw,  V,  63. 
TaiikD,  ^fu  /f(M5«,  IV,  407. 
Tiameter,  Radiomtlir.  V,  Z3S. 
Talanka  Yotanka,  SiOine  BuU.  VI,  1. 
TstUD.  .4ou£iri<iTU.  I.  114. 
Taller,   The,  Additon.  JetejA,  I.  24; 

Sleelt.  Sir  Ri^iard.  VI.  86, 
Ta-Taing    Dynaity,    ManAuria,  IV, 

172. 
Tax  QatheroTB,  Fuiiicaiu,  V,  212. 
Tohinnneh,  Ouplif.  Ill,  136. 
T«u   Glaod,   LuArimul   Oldnd.   III. 

486. 
Tcotolocr,  Uonkalon,  IV,  333. 
T...  aa.W,  Ii;  122. 
TMiIaf  arouDd.  a>V,  III,  «S. 
Taswatar  CuOe,  .Sbirfhonu,  V,  48S. 
Tan*.  Arcadia.  I,  IIS. 
TaEaratfa,  Tabmtd.  VI.  147. 
Tehutl.  rAott,  VI.  IB7. 
TelamanaB.  Caryrndtx  I.  423. 
TetoneUr,    Stadia  MtantrtmmU.  VI. 

M. 
Tsle^ofieal  Aicument,  Ood,  III,  58. 
TaUord  8y««m,  ftoorfi,  V,  307. 
T«ll-sl-Amanui.  .4  mcnciAit,  I,  72. 
TaUer'a  Point.  Oaiimg.  IV,  600. 
TeUui,  Oaa.  U.  486. 
Tampb,  Innt  of  Court.  Ill,  332. 
Tample.  The,  Mamaolh  Cavt.  IV,  160. 
Tamplam,  Autjiita.  I    ISO. 
Tgniponl  BoDeg,  SkM,  VI,  5. 
Tanailied  Tnea.  Porti/lcation.  It,  430. 
Tanelu,  rm,  Vt,  161. 
Tan  Comr-       ' "---" " 

152. 


lui,  VI, 


iinber   laknds, 

21). 
Tanotomy.    Orlhopedic 

4V7, 

Ten  Pin..  Bdi*.  I,  322, 
Teorec,  Tanrte.  VI,  180. 
Twi^.  ititado.  IV,  267. 
Tm'Varit.Tha.Dtcaiogue.ll,  162. 
TeooalU.  Utiieo.  IV,  2S8, 
TaoOlo  Coatillaia,  Balaan  Iilandt,  I, 

233. 
Tepeeh  VigiBon.  VI,  407. 
TatebMUhaoe,  TvrvenHme.  VI.  267. 
TmrniMjUm,  HI,  372. 
Term,  Lmdbn€  and  Ttnanl.  Ill,  490. 
TermllB,4««a.  IV.  128. 
TanDinal  Bud,  /nllaraeAK*.  III.  327. 
Tuminus,  Adonlo.  1, 168. 
Term  ftSey,  /naurofic*,  III,  340. 
TemeiH,  EumUal  OiU,  II,  314. 
TenvrTHt,  Brebu:  Ml..  II,  307. 
Tertamenl.  IVfU.  VI,4M. 
Tats,  OAoei.  IV,  S03. 
Tetartohedial  Forms,  CrmfdUodrapAu, 

II.  116.  ^ 

Tethy»,  ritaM.  VI,  213. 
Tetrad  Uetoli,  MttaU.  IV,  248. 
Tetrannal    Syitem,    CrytlaUoorajAi/, 

Tatiartlobe'  thmul.  VI.  30. 
Teotonlo     Mytbokiiff,     iScandinanaH 
Miithaleev,  V,  £iO. 


ThennolyBu.  2>i'Modii<v>n,  II,  1 S8. 
Thermopile,  ThirTmitltttneilu.  VI,  IM. 
Thnaunji,  Dictiaiuirv.  II.  186, 
Thlet    Coll«e,     Panavant.     WilHam 

A^id,V.  46. 
ThimUe  ESra,  ^poniali  Maekrri.  VI. 

43. 
Thiu,  Froiiridt.  II,  453, 
Third  Rail  Syitem.  iS(rH(  Aail""''' 

VI.  104. 


rkomoM  WtntvorA,  Vl,  100. 
ThrMd  Cella,  CaiailtnUa.  It,  27. 
Tbiead-Worm,  Atari*.   I.   162i  No- 

oioAiiIminAa,  IV.  301, 
Three  Bnnheri,  The,  yoaemiW, VI.  46E 
Thr»  Chapten.  Conttantiitoplt,  Cam 

T  II, 


ToifOta,  Cobnueli,  I,  388. 
Torino,  Turin.  VI,  243. 
Tormiatoma.  Croeodiit,  II,  107. 
Torpedo    Boat    Destroyan,    Torpoio 

Boat*.  VI,  22fl, 

reAsnelll.  Leming  Toutn.  IV,  26. 

re  de  Ceredo,  Spain.  VI.  41. 

re  aariaenda.  Leawtg  Toiatrt,  IV. 
2S, 
__.featlal  Raiix,  Claud*.  II,  16, 
Toueh-Me-Not,  Impoliau.  III.  30S. 
TouchitODB,  Attaa,  I,  168. 
Tourdlsi,  I'oHW-.  Vl.  233. 
Tourney.  /dim(.  III,  426;  roumamnt, 

VI,  232, 
Tower  Bill.  Tautr  of  London,  VI,  2SS. 
Tawnihip,  Survaritih.  VI,  127. 
Tnianl  Fortiu,  Cmla  VteMa,  II,  S, 
Trainp,   VofrranCi  and  Vspntnev,  VI, 


Toledo  TaUB,  .IriiuAel,  I.  162. 

Toler&tioii,    Rellgioui,  Libertii,   Silig- 

iou*,tV.K7^ 
ToUma,  ift.,  CtJumMn,  II.  36, 
Tom,  Mt.,  Mattae/ituttU.  IV,  207. 
Tomat-Niha.  Ml.,  trfanon,  IV,  27. 
Tommaaaodo,  Matacdo.  IV.  204. 
Tommaao  Ouidi.  Momovi.  IV,  204. 
Tom  Thumb,  Ouorf,  II,  237. 
Tomrrij,  Mat*aetta.  IV.  200. 
Toohns.  BsotMnJinc,  I,  310. 
Torah,  Talmud,  VI,  147l  PnloteieA. 

V,  71. 
Torsao  Artiolea.  XuDtburp  Cm/a 

1,176. 


»  Allianoe,  BoJau*  o/  Poatr, 


Trochee.  MiUr,  IV,  262. 
TloUiB*,  ^nsliw,  I.  01, 
TroDdiE  Klondtin.  Thi.  Ill,  460. 
Tropcolinea.  AKt-isiort,  I,  188, 
Tr>i>^.  Digation,  II,  lOO;  Entymm, 

TaaDpd,Diion«,  II,  100. 

Tnen.  Catti.  I,  424. 

Taianc-yani.  Ht.,  Korta,  III,  478. 

Tauldji.  rSw,  VI,  210. 

Tuareg!,  Sahara,  V.  368. 

Tuberslae,  Connmphon,  II,  60:  Tu- 

6<miWi,  VI,  256. 
Tule,  RuM.  V,  340. 
Tulukee.  Synod  of,  Trut*  of  Ood,  VI, 

Turn,  Muiholoffii.  TV,  367, 
Tuneaa,  Jndiani,  III.  31 S. 
Tup,  Steam  Hammtr.  VI,  81. 
Tupunnto.  Hi..  Anda,  I,  86. 
Tupy^ard   Eugen,  Jatlon*kv.  BoU- 

Turin.  Ouadaiaviar,  III^IO. 
Tuima,  J>en>run,  II,  IB^ 

■ib.Cooglc 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


Typocrapliar,  TViKUTiUr*,  VI.  2T2. 
Tyn»,  Bahrim  filanrft,  1. 1»8. 


Tt-ax.  Dtmbia,  U   ISS. 


U>li->b-Kk,  Hapltn,  HI,  Z4fi. 
Uiunlj-Stiari-Ciuul.    JCimee.    Frmil, 

Clacebeklhii.  ITAiiJn,  VI.  401. 
Ukenwa    Nyum,    Fiitona   Ifyania. 
VI.  Ul. 

iniaaa.  IFiiu.  VI,  Ul. 
UUm-vlolet  ■»■*(«.  ImU,  IV,  63. 
Umulrts,  ffHmam>m,  III,  261. 
Umbrk,^Blili(i.  11,260. 
tlncifanB  Bone,  Carpui,  I.  IIB. 
Undwhud  RtDpiDS,  M'lntiu,  IV.  281. 
Uadiinibot  Wheeta.  IToKr  H^A«<<*,  VI. 
.'"■ 

UoioD  cJub,  CIu6,  il7l™~ 
UoioD  JmIc  f  IW,  II.  399. 
Union  Slop,  BaOdirting,  I,  860. 
Uokin  VcMnui  L«(!oo,  PotnbNo  So- 

aMi«uilk>tr:5.,  V,  fiO. 
Union  VaMna'*  Unioo,  i>airio(tc  &?- 

euMoi  mA*U.  S..  V.  GO. 
Uidtas  Fntnun,  UU*iont.  IV,  290; 

Aroninan  CAunA,  TAe,  IV.  326. 
TTirftsd  Oonfademte  Veterani.  ^  '  ' 

oUc  aodetia  in  At  U.  S..  V, 
United  Dftu^hterg  ot  the  Contedi 


ii.^5*<- 


61. 
litedS 

61. 
U.  8.  Fla«,  densmr  of,  Sni,  Bamul 

U.  S.  Qovl.  Loski,  SshU  5i»n(a  JIfaru, 

V,  41 2. 
Unit  of  Combrnt.  j4rmv,  t.  138. 
UbH  of  Power.  Dynamic  UruU.  II.  23B. 
Dnity'i     Eldern'^    Confenniw,      JUa- 

ranon  ChurA.  ThtJV.  ih. 
Univaraal.  Nommalitt.  \\.  437. 
UmveiaJ     InMruatiaa.     System     of, 

Jaalot,  Jean  JmepK,  III,  380. 
Univeraib'or  Han  tbrMM,  Ptru.  V.  SI . 
Unstntifisd  Rooks.  Oioloro,  UI,  14. 
IIonrilttD  L>v.  Cmimim  Xow.  It.  44, 

Law.  IV,  19. 
Upper  Bed.  WoKmrv.  IV 


Urd,  Nont.  iV,  439. 
UrfBh.  Orfa.  IV  J90. 
Umge.ofWBr,ffor,VI.  261 
Usdum,  i>Aid  Bta,  II.  149. 


V»|d  Svholam.  Vaamxa.  VI,  goi. 

ViJhthsr,  Odin,  IV.  466. 

VaU,  ^nr,  I,  2^. 

I,  Vaikvnm,  VI,  BOI. 


VBne,F«artcr.  II.  362. 
VkDUlin,  VontUo.  VI,  SOS. 
VsranaaU.  Bmarf.  I.  ZM. 
VkruiEiani.  Normam.  IV,  439. 
VBristToa   of  the   Needle,   iliridiiat. 

IV,  243. 
Vkricea.  WuricWa  IV,  387. 
Variaooelc.  Varian  Veint.  VI,  *09. 
VHTirw,  Hindu(«ii.  III.  223, 
VucDDW.  Batauta,  I,  230. 
Vita,  OrfiT^  IV.  466. 
Vunajokul,  latavd.  III.  293. 
VBin-dn-Vire,  fioueltn.  1, 230. 
Vactor,  QuofarBK™,  V,  229. 
Vegewble  Ivory.  PhyUltiOiai.W.  111. 
VcsatBbla    Orkoas,    Vutmilon,    IV. 


Wuteamu,  Ptdim  Hitir,  T,  M. 
WiKsr  of  Butls.  BiUt<I,  2M. 
Waeoner,  Atirion,  I,  17B. 
W^,  ^OuTU,  I   39. 
WatubitH,  Wakabtm,  VI,  tU. 
Wablcninner,  Jfuwopol  OmtnuMiW, 

IV,  3M. 
WahlBtRtt,  Buttle  of.  Ii^initt,  rv.  60. 
Wiihu  Idud,  EaiUr  ItUmdTll,  240. 
Wwjyu,  /ufui.  Ill,  314. 
WkkBfield  Tower,    Towir  o/  LcndOB, 


VI,  : 


mOlun 


.  Ddaaarf,  tl,  162. 


H-Y.  330,., 


«,TI,  81. 


V(«eUbia  Psrchmen 

Vahreteen,  VWcK,  Vl.t.^ 
Vera  Ainn*^  V«in*,  VI.  814. 
V«i.C.yr>ri.      ■'-  "■ 


VeDatutn  Sumac, 


Widk,  OmU.  il,  487. 
W&lkiiw  B«in,  S.- 
WkliuGk,  Rmtni.„,~. 
WkOer'a  Plot,  WaBaJ^. 

Walter  Hip,  Bm^tel.  \ . 

"---'—'--  Ctfla,  CimiiHMrw   rime. 


lnHid;VI,lie. 


■ndelW  C 
II.Bft 


_-i  li  Ch'Bi«  Cbioc,  China.  Orrta 

Wall  of,  I,  477. 
irdahip  BQd  Uarrikca.  Tnutt,  VI, 
17B. 
Wuins  Syilem,  SnHrOfr*.  V,  466. 
Wbit),  Z,iwm,  IV,  I  OB. 
Waihiagton,  Ul..  ApvaiaAian  Moun- 
CiTi.,1.111;  IFAtleJtfDiintoiiu.VI, 


Comb,  Murer,  IV^,31,.. 

Vepery  BmhminB.  Eunuiaat.  II,  3 
Verattoidice,  Viratnm,  VI,  317. 
Verdsnde.  //om>.  IV.  439. 
Verdun,  Treaty  of,  Bdowm,  1,  248. 
Vertebra,  ajitn*.  VI,  54. 
Vertwc,  Tnmelt.  VI,  245. 
Vertitd  Fire.  Mortar*.  IV,  33*. 
VwUcal      Impulse      WheeU,      WaUr 

WKtU.  VI,  ITI. 
VwiMT,  Lucittr,  TV.  120. 
Venalia.  Vena.  VI,  tH. 
Vettibule,  Ear,  U.  243. 
VnBuona.  Pfrtonmi.  V.  76. 
Via  DoloroB,  Slationt  of  Ou  Craw, VI, 
76. 
and.  Jullen,  LoH,  Pittn  IV,  1 10. 


Wuh  Sole,  SloeJi  Sxehangt.  VI,  93. 

.lch™'B*U»,  I 

_ter  Cavy,  Cai,       . 

WiUei  CtunquBpln,  Lotut,  I 


BT  Cavy,  dapi/bara.  I,  410. 

Bi  ChiDQUBpln,  tofti*,  "'  '" 

WotarftUi.  Cobi "   '    ' 


dar,.£nr 


,20. 


White.  Chaa.  I,  452. 
uu'^mee.  Tenure,  VI.  175. 
naya,  Tripilaka,  VI.  248. 
-  lo  6ana.  Vienna.  VI,  IS*. 
iville.  Battle  of.  Gravdoae,  Battle 
el.  UI,  02;  Mm  La  Tour,  IV, 


Water  Violet.  Fealher-loO,  II,  362. 
Watt  Electriaiv,  It,  266. 
Weannc,  TadeSnaand  Wmriiio.VI,  1 41 . 
Wither  Qnm,  Feathir  Oraee.  11.  362. 
Wwlher  BisnalB.  Wio&tr  Bitreau.  VI 

tSD. 
Wedte,  MeAaniaa  Poanrt.  IV,  224. 
Weft.  toom.  rv.  106. 
*"  '   ileque.  Haarlem,  m.  138. 
■.™,  IVaur.VI.  371. 
Wdibach  Bumai,  Oaf,  11.  605. 
Webh  Langtuce,  CaUic  Lant/uofm.  I. 

Weatemuon.  C,  Almmitt,  I.  68. 
Wot  8»,  //orth  Sea.  IV,  443. 
Wet  Oxi^na^s,  CoojMrae«,  II.  7S. 


n^'rhe,  r«emi(e,Vl,  4M. 


Vitreous  Fracture,  Olaet,  ill,  48. 
Vitreous  Fuaion,  PueibQit)/,  II,  481. 
Vitreous  Humor,  Bu*.  The.  II,  341. 
Viva  Voee,  Ballot,  1.  206. 
Vivipaniu.  Onj^arme.W.  G06. 
Voadiea.  Soadiesa.  I,  298. 
Vocabulary,  Didionan.  II.  18B. 
Vooal  Cordi,  Larynx.  IV,  fl;  Voice.  VI 

S4S. 
Vogesen,  FoWHtfoUTiIaiM.  VI.S49. 
VolMiJc  Oils.  Eiiential  OUt.  II,  314. 
Volcanalia,  Fulcon.  VI.  SIS. 
Valte,  .Soniu^,  VI,  30. 
Volumen,  Marw^rita.  IV,  182. 


Wet  HaclJiM,  Paptr,  V ,  m. 
Whale-beadacl  Stork.  SloMQ,  V.  4S5. 
Wbaifincer.  WJUrf.  VI.  HT. 
Wheel  Anlmaleulei.  RoHIera.  V,  337. 
Whioamore,  Whig  and  Tory,  VI,  -UD. 
Whips,  Fia*untvig.  t!.  440. 
Whisky  Poker,  PoJer,  V,  144. 
White  Gooperam.  Cooperaoe,  II,  75. 
White-footed  HouM.  Dht  ifiRMt.  II, 

IDS. 
White  Filara,  Cvn^f.  I,  41 6. 
White  Grubs,  Coekthatir.  it,  23. 
White  Bsllebore.  iTuectiddet.  HI.  336. 
White  Ladf ,  The,  BeretUa.  I,  269. 
White-Kpped  Peccary.  Pscen™,  V,  80. 
White.  Maria.  LoatO.  Moria.TV,  In. 
Whits  Hatter,  Spine,  VI.  56. 
White  River.  PHJio,  V,  82. 
White's  Cave,  UamTnoA  Coo.  IV. )  B9. 
White     Scoppemong     Giape,     Vas- 

tadine.  IV,  3S9. 
White  Bislera,  /fotv  Choel,  Order  ef 

like.  in.  235. 
White  Terror,  Freneh  Knolufum,  II. 


Voussoir*.  Areh.  1.  ]]9. 

Vowel  Mutation,  Umlaut,  VI.  277. 

Vrit™,  Indra,  III,  322. 

Vulcanite.  EbonOe.    II,   248;  Rubber, 


Wiener  Wrid.  VtoiM.  YI,  UL 
Wij  Tree.  frwHW  TVs*,  II.  468. 
™'^  -'—  ■>-■—'-  5MMvtf.II.4 
-'— '— ,  U,  262 


WUburites, --.- - 

Wild  Cucumber.  Bblrlmn. 
WlldebeeM*.  Otm.  UI.  a. 


I  by  Google 


ANALYTICAL  INDEX 


Wild  Qtonr.  StuAmeal,  VI,  10. 
WUnoTv*".  VI.  UI. 

Wiltwyck.  Kinctm.  III.  4W. 
WlnaodereuiB,  Wi'^trnm.  VI,   418, 
WloAaner  Qun,  Itagaiittt  Ouiu,  IV, 

161. 
W  ndbovH,  Kalnl,  III,  456, 
Wind  River,  flin  Mara.  I.  270. 
W  Dd.  ThaUer.  VI,  180. 
WiDt*r  F«U(«,  8l  PMnhw,  V,  375. 
Wm  QauH,  C/nuH,  III,  2. 
Wrti.  Heory,  An 

_     Gnac*.  y,  «4. 

Wiih  Bom,  BM,  I,  277. 

Wiiebog'  BabbaUi,   WalpursU  Niglit, 


WolfflsD  Bodlss,  XkImv,  III.  461 . 
WolreHne  SUts,  MiAlettn,  IV,  361. 
Wouud'i  RtJlef  CoFH.  FatriMe  So- 

i^Xta  in  1A(  [;.  £!.  V,  50. 
Wood  Nsphtbk,  Jlf«Av(  Aka^ot.  IV, 


Woof,  ioom,  IV,  lio. 

WooUlM,  Snxtttt,  VI.  6)1. 

WorUog  TolenDM.  MinU  and  JTini 


Vny.  John,  Ray,  /sAn,  V,  3G4. 
Writ  ot^FMHioa,  ^MuOmca.  1 

OmfloliUt,  III,  90. 


Wrlttan  ^toi 
Wrou^t  Iro 


I,  III,  aeS;  iiHai 


Yul*  Uooih,  Ditaiinr.  II,  164. 
Yunu  Deart,  Coforoda  Soirl,  II,  88. 
Yun(4a-t«4i«n,  CtdofMrfJa,  II.  127. 


ZacsluU,  MaaHa,  IT.  246 
Zachaiut,  ZtSmA,  VI,  4T3. 
Z«Sn.  Caball.  II,  30. 
Zunoiue,  Arion.  IV,  423. 
Z*DtlpD«,  Socnatt.  VI.  23. 
Zany,  Clown,  II,  17. 
Zkpwltuia  KolJDu.  l^iokia,  ni.  S31. 
ZsiaiOB,  Sonvoua.  V.  408. 
Zkiiupn,  Siuena,  I.  laS. 
Zuikoye-Selo,      fivatirwf^,     TI, 

2S6. 
Zm,  SpM.  VI,  W. 
Zaadta.  OmI,  IV,  480. 


Zsmliiniiisonid.  foHOW,  IV,  387. 
ZuM)  Ridolfo,  ScAoitow.  BmMiA,  V 

Zcntm,  Talmud,  VL  147. 

Zarumbet,  Bpia.  VI,  58. 

ZMfaui,  OiT<(,  II.  I»«. 

Zetland  laUndj.  Shtlbuid  /atonil,  T, 

SdoQ.  .Stdon.  V,  180. 
Zl|«UDCr.  OinuiM,  III,  136. 
Zigiac  Uoldina,  Chnron.  I  471. 
Zuiut,  i^stHviKAa,  I,  lis. 
ZinainV  OimiaJIMSa. 

ZofipboroirfS^tMril,  407. 
ZoCpraiiHope,  Motxna  Pictvrm,  TV. 

34E;  Smbcteope  VJ.  105. 
Zootomy.  Anammv,  I.  83. 
ZotuD.  Oionl,  III,  34. 


,v  Google 


„  Google 


SYNTHETICAL    INDEX 

In  tUs  Indeoc  the  articlee  are  grouped  under  appropiiate  Bubjectrheadings,  which  carer  the  entire 
fidd  at  the  CrcLOPiiDtA.  Those  desiriiiB  to  study  any  departmeat  of  knowledge  in  a  systematic 
moonw,  or  to  refer  to  uid  oompue  a  aeriee  of  tslated  articles,  mil  find  it  easy  to  do  ao  with  the  aid 
of  the  Index. 


Aotinomyeoda.  I,  21. 
AcrioultunI  CoUcen.  I.  3fl. 
AcriouJtunl  Expcrimant  SMIiaa. 


1. 

OummriiiriaO."  ' 

QypajrHoth.  in.  137. 

Hunpton  Nono&l  &ad  Axrionltan] 

iBrtitulB,  III,  IH. 
Hay,  III.  I7S. 

BwvM  or  Braken  Wind,  HI,  IS3. 
HonnsuFly.  Ill,2]fi. 
Binoy  or  Jennet.  Ill,  Z23. 
Hop,  III,  2M, 
Hone.  III.  248. 
^ortuultuni.  111,262. 


Bumi 


.  III.  2 


LandecapeQi 

Lawn  IV.  88. 
L.diUi.  rV,  04. 
Luoene.IV,  110. 
Main  or  Indbui  O 
VmtsMa,  IV,  170. 


Agiienltim  uid  Vonttrir. — Cont'd. 


Floo 


67. 


V,  171. 


_  omoloiy.  \ 

Pony,  VTlK 

Potato  Bug.  \  ,  , , 

Poultry.  V,  174. 

Prewrvation  of  TimbOT,  V,  1 84. 

PrtiDiDS.  V.  205. 

Rflaping  aod  Uowinc  Uarhinea, 


WlndKalli,   VI.   418 
Wood.   VI,  4S2. 
See  aim  Botutt. 

Alt«bn>     See  UATHBUaTioa 


Analomy. — CminiMi. 

AcbiUea  Tendon,  I,  10. 
Adiaoee  Tiisue.  I,  3E. 
AJimentarv  Ciuuil.  I.  S8.      . 
Anal  Gland*,  1,82. 
Anatomy.  I.  83. 
Anatomy,  Cconparative.  I,  84. 
Ansioloi^.  I.  00. 
Antaionut  Muule.  1.  08. 
Aotbiopometiy,  1. 100. 


Beard.  I,  240. 
BinpK.  I  2»). 
BUddor,  I,  287. 
Booe.  I,  307. 
Bruhli)  Artery,  I,  325. 


Manunaiy  Glande,  IV,  IM. 


„  Google 


Sne  aim   Ethnoukit;   Phtsioi<- 


HenneneiitlciL  In,  207. 
Hl« -- 

23„ 


Hlmolyphica;  IIl'ziS. 
Hisbar  Ciltidsm.  III.  2Z0. 

IvTOod,  Falua  and  Abbsy  of.  III. 


SYNTHEnCAL  INDEX 


itsd  Uuikucil[it«,  III.  808. 
■■'-    III.  311. 

III.  sss. 


lubiiU,  III  311. 


Labyrinth.  III.  ksi'. 
uctuynuiton'.  Ill,  4S8. 
Uke  Dk-elllua.  III.  463. 
HauBDlau^TlV.  217. 
UdroH  Abtiev,  IV,  233. 
Hamnanium,  iV,  234. 
Uoabits  StoM.  iV,  2W, 
Hoimd  BuiMen,  IV.  841. 
Mummy.  IV,  351. 
IV.3B6. 


^mrud. 


IV,' 4 


W.  432. 

Ob«Usk.  tV.  400. 
Pompey't  Pitlu.  V.  155", 
Pyramid,  V,  222. 
KuMta  Stone.  V,  333. 
RoundTowen,  V.  340. 

Sarapcum,  V.  468. 

Serpent  of  Delphi.  V.  4B0. 

Seven  Wondora  ol  the  World,  V, 

espa,  v.  4r8. 

VI.  S3. 

etooebenia^^VI,  M. 
Tomb.  Vf  £21. 


Corbel,  II.  BO.      '      " 

CorinthUn  Order,  11,  83. 

Coraioe,  II,  84. 

Ciypt,!!,  114. 

Cupola,  II.  120. 

Dado.  II,  131. 

Deooisted  Style,  II.  IM. 

DecontUva  Art,  II,  1S6. 

DcDtila,  II.  170. 

Diana  Temple  of,  II,  183. 

Die.  II,  187. 

Dome,  II,  208. 

Donjon  or  I>unBW>D,  II.  2L1. 

Done  Order  II72I2. 

Dormeror  Dormer  Window.  11,212. 

Eavea,  II.  248. 

Eiypllan  Arohitectun.  tl.  260. 

HBel  Tower,  II.  260 

Eliiabelhan  Aichiiectuia.  II,  2711 

EDtablature,  II.  2eG. 

Entad*.  II.  2116. 

Erwihtbauin.  II,  307, 

Ewiuila:.  II,  3!  2. 

Facade.  II,  344. 

Fan  VwiHing,  II.  BSS. 

Fioial.  II.  ^. 

FUmboyaiit.  U,  40C. 

Frieta,  11,  467. 


AilthmeUb    SeeH^TmuTKa. 

-"Adiutanl-Genen 
Aide»<le-C 


,v  Google 


SYNTHETICAt  INDEX 


irt,  DaeantlKe.— ConJinud. 


QiuitannuMr  dsoenl,  V,  238. 

Rank.  V,  2G0. 

R(«im«it.  V.  2flg. 

8«pay,  V,  *K. 

Saruut,  V,  456. 

8[«lu<.  Vl,  40. 

Spy.  VI.  03. 


I.  V  81. 
rwin  wm,  V.  115. 
Polycbromy.V.  IM. 
PcanpbBtlitaa.  V,  II 
RwliimiaArt,  V.  2 
RaoBiaBDoe,  V  1(73. 


Boulptun.  V.  438. 
Saal.  V.  440. 
aUhuuetta.  V,  406. 
Tanacn  Fi(urin«,  VI.  140. 
Tilptvoh,  VI.  240. 


Art>  Decuntliv. 

ATsnturias  Olw.  I.  184. 

Cuneo.  I,  393, 

Chuu.  I.  463. 

DuiuskMtiiaa.  II,  130. 

DBOomtlve  Art,  II.  ISO, 

EmboMDg,  II,  2B0. 

Eruunel.  II,  284. 

Fllicrn,  II.  384. 

Own.  Ill,  e. 

Oildinc,  III.  3S. 

QUmTIII.  48. 

aiaia  Palatloa,  III,  GO. 

Oob«Ua  Tspanry,  III,  S7. 

Gold  Bakliu,  III,  62. 

InUylDt,  til,  331 . 

JapannTacIII.  301. 

Kwvnin  or  Csrunioi,  UI,  tSi. 

Uoqpv.  III.  4S7. 

lUjolidk.  IV.  162. 


Conin*  Aiutnlia,  li,  gJL 


Diik  or  Din.  II.  107. 
DlHkOM.  II.  100. 
Dnui>orthsDnjn)n.n,2IS. 
Dyumeter.  II,  230. 
E^nh.  II  243. 


EloinMion,  rt.  277. 
Endu'i  Comet.  11,  2A4. 
^lunwri^II,  208. 
Vitrei*.  11,  200. 


Eqiu^D  of  Ttms.  II,  304. 

Equlooi.  11.  30G. 

Evection.  II,  328.„       „     __ 

Oiliucr  or  Ui^  Way.  U.  4BS. 

Owninl,  HI.  T. 

aw>dav,Iu.l2. 

QirafFe.  III.  42. 

Qlob*.  ArtiGcul,  III.  62. 

Ooldan  Number,  III,  63. 

GndkutioD,  HI.  SO. 

Halo,  HI,  140. 

HanraM  Aoon.  UI.  169. 

Heliometer,  III.  1S8. 

H«li«tat.  HI.  JSa. 

HoiiwD.IH,  246. 

Homlodum,  HI,  248. 

HonMoope,  III.  m 

Hydra,  III,  276. 

ladiu.  HI.  324. 

Judo.  III.  431. 

Jupiter,  ni.  432, 

LaliluJe,IV,  12. 

Iib™,lV*SS. 

liek  iXaemtory.  TV,  88. 

LoDciluae,  IV.  IDS. 

LudTer  or  Pboapborua.  IV.  120. 


Twillcht.  VI.  268. 
CDlniH.   VI,  290. 
Una  Major.  294. 
Urea  Hlnor.  VI.  29C. 
VandBiiIalrc.  VI.  114. 
Vairaa.  VI.  IIS. 
Vlrto,  VI.  341. 


•^tGooglc 


SYNTHEJTICAL  INDBX. 


Zenllh,  VI.  4T>. 
Zodiu.  Vt,  47S 
ZodUcULiaht.VI.tTS. 
■bla  u>d  HUa  HWorr. 

Act!  of  the  ApoMlM,  I,  22. 
AmraoDitM.  I.  76. 
Amoritn.I.  77. 
Analdm.  I   S2. 

Apocalyptic  Number,  I,  108. 
Apocrypha.  I.  108. 
Aponlea.  Acta  ol  Ibe.  1.  llO. 
Ark.  I.  133, 
Ashflr,  I,  IS4, 


Ba%loQ 


.n'or'HoM,  I, 
k1«.  I.  174. 


Bible.  1.  26S. 

Biblia  Pauiwruni,  I,  2eS. 
Byiantine  RneosoD.  I.  37 


CitlH  of  Rerucfl.  II,  2. 
Codex  Alexandrbiiu,  It.  2fi. 
Cod«t  Bb».  11,^5. 
Cod«x  Sinklticiu.  II,  26. 
Codox  Valianiu.  II,  2S. 
Compluten^o  Bible.  II,  48, 
CoDcordanoe,  II,  CI. 
CorinttaUm.  Epiatle  lo,  II.  82 
Cutheani,  II,  124. 
DBOlel,  Book  of,  II.  138. 


EphssUn*,  Tb*  Epislle  of  I 

to  [ha.  iL  298. 
Bsdna.  Bookg  of.  II.  3tB. 
Eswima.  II,  314. 


r.  Bcxikof.  Ill,  391. 

theEvaD(elin,IIL41( 
w.  Book  of.  Ifl,  «6. 


J,  book  of.  III,  4 

L«viticu..  IV,  60. 
Lord'a  Prayer.  IV,  108. 


MaSoa,  iV.  ■ 
Uu^nm,  I 


I,  booka  or  IV,  13S. 


Maiy,  The  ^luaed  ViitJn,  IV,  2 

MaMorah.  IV.  2J0, 

Uatthaw,  Saint.  IV,  21G, 

Henah.  IV^  247. 

Uidiacutaa.  VI.  206. 

Midnuh,  IV.  268. 

Minor  Prmhete,  The,  IV,  284, 

Miracle.  IV^  287, 

Moabitei,  iV,  298. 

Moloch.  IV,  306. 


Nicolaitani,  iV.  426. 

Numbwa.  Book  ol,  IV,  4B2. 

Obadiab.  IV,  460. 

OUtm.  Mount  of,  IV.  475. 

Ophir,  IV.481, 

Palii&reh,  V.  4». 

Pauline  Epistln,  V.  83. 

PBniatmeb,  V,  71 . 

Pwhito,  V,  82. 

Petv,  EpiallM  of  St..  V,  84, 

Philemon,  EpiitlH  of  8t.  Paul  b 


ithy,  n 

,VI.21 

tiMt.  Book 


Bathvbiui.  I.  284. 


lo  the,  VI. 
Hist  and  Seoond  Epiatlaa 


Canada  B 


D.^I.  168. 


CouQsctlve  tiiinie,  II.  SS. 

CoamqgODy,  II,  89. 
Ciosa  Fertitiiatian.  II,  110. 
DarBinism,  II,  I '" 
DseeneratioD. 
Diutue,  II.  1.^. 
Dimorphlam.  II,  (91. 
Dwarf.  11,237. 
Element.  II.  27Z. 
Embryology,  II,  280. 
EmlutionTlI,  330. 
FermentatiocuII.  371. 

ceneaia.  III.  S. 
Genu*,  IIL  12. 
Here^ty.  III.  204. 
HennaDhnidlain.  Ill,  20 
HoneyOew,  III.  B41. 
SIO 


8m  Natkutioh. 


Aclinomorphio' flowM*.  I,  91. 
AlgB,!,  B4. 

AmarylliB  Family,  I,  6B. 
Anaioapenn,  I.  W. 

Anoului,  \.  96. 
Apocynacn,  I,  106. 
Aqullariaceo,  I.  115. 


Sration,!'! 


Axir,  1.  187 

Bscleria.1.  1( 
Bark,  1,  219. 


Blight,  I,  M2. 
Botany,  1.  316. 
Branch,  I,  329. 
Buddiiw,  I,  337. 
Bulb,  r  300. 
Calyx,  I.  390. 

Chlorophyll,'  I,  4S2. 
nuhHo»e>,  11,17. 


ir  Pine  FamJIy,  II.  S7. 


,v  Google 


Pniita.  11.471.  , 

FuQip,  II.  *TT. 
Qcnnlum  Funilv.  Ill,  19. 
Germimtion,  III,  27. 
Qluooude,  lU.  M. 
Gourd,  ni,  78. 
Gnptolltca,  III,  90. 
Oiua  or  OnmliuB,  III.  80. 
Gum,  111,  129. 
GuiaRaritu.III.l30. 
GymnDswrtns,  III,  IBS. 
■  Hiin.  III.  1«. 


ImiMtisag.  ifl,  36s. 
loflomMniM,  III,  327. 
Inasotivoioiu  FUoW,  III,  i 
Irii.  Ill,  SS7. 
I«,  lit  4M, 
LMSI.  IV,  8. 
tar,  IV.  24. 
LHumiiMM.  IV,  33. 
Ii3wi»,  tV,  S7. 
IHr  FwnUy,  IV,  6B. 
Udsb.  IV,  7E. 
HHldarFuiiil)',IV.  146. 
UaUnw  PunilT,  IV.  165. 
Usple.  IV,  IBS. 


Mini  FumUr.  IV.  285. 
HoJy,  IV.  307. 
MooocolyEedon^  rv,  313. 
Hornioi  Glory  Fwoilr.  IV,  331 . 
Udh,  IV.  330. 
HuooracMe.  IV.  347. 
NIshtatuda  FamilT,  IV,  429. 
Onshid.  IV,  486. 
Orule.  rV,  SOB 


Phyoopkits^V,  106. 


IP  of  huU,  VI,  T. 

ft>ttbe,.VI,47. 
ftora,  Vl,  60. 
Stunan.  VI,  68. 
BUrAppleJ'iinay,  VI.  71.      , 
Stomata,  VI,  OS. 
Tamariik  Family.  VI.  148. 
Thallopliytn,  VI,  ISA. 
Tubw,  Vl,  265. 
Tumble  Wanda,  VI.  2S8. 
Cmballifm^VI,  277. 
VacMabla  RlDnloni.  VI.  111. 
VacteDft  Famnr,  VI.  111. 

viotat.  vt,  ue. 

W«a,  VtccUUa,  VI,  176. 
Wtada,  Vi  182. 

WDow,  vt  414. 
8«a  alao  AmucpupmB;  Biomiit. 


AbDtmmt,  I,  IS. 
Adobe,  t.  is. 
-  Ansla  Inn.  1, 90, 
Bnm.  1,  ^. 


SYNTUKllCAL  INDEX 


Boildiiic  Btooa.  I,  360. 
BuHr^  I.  372. 
QamlMr,  I,  801. 
MUnC.  I    '" 


QevMion,  II.  273. 
nreprooGog.  11,  390. 
Faundatios,  II.  436. 
(Urder.  Ill,  43. 
Laval.  IVj  48. 
Lewis.  IV Jl, 
HaKiary.  IV^  SOS. 
FeDdaotiTe.  V,  87. 
Purlia.  V,  220. 
PuMv,  V,  231. 
Quiskaaad.  V,  232. 
Roof.  V.  327. 
Snojiola,  V,  41S. 
Staff.  VI,  66. 
Stuoeo.  VI,  107. 

See  alio  AMCVTmvtonK. 
M.    See  dxamiCE,  B 

FD  TaAMlPOKTHTION. 


AbrasvH.1.  M. 
AoeUtea,  I,  17. 
Aeetie  Add.  I,  IT. 
Acetic  Etber^  1. 1 

Aoetylene,'!,  17. 

Add,iTi3. 

Aonldn,  !,  ao. 
AfBniCy,  Chcmioal 

A!bumaDVl74B. 
Akohol.  I.  SO. 
Akobola.  I,  Gl. 
AMahyde,  I,  El. 
AllEsli.  1.  S8. 
Alkaloid,  I,  ». 
Allotropy  1 
Alum.  I,  6-. . 
Animoua,  1,  78. 
Ammonium.  I.  76. 
Amy],  I,  SO. 
AnalyBa,  I,  82. 
AolUiie,    PhaaiylamiDa.   01 

beuaol.  I,  93. 
Anthnwene,  1,  100. 
Antircbiln,  I,  101. 
AoUa^tiM,  I,  104. 
Apothecsry.  1, 1 1 1 . 
Aqua.  1. 114. 
Aqua  Foitii,  I,  114. 
Aqua  Re)^,  1. 1 14. 
AquaRwrw,  I,  114. 
AquaTofbua,  1, 114. 
AicoLI.  128. 
AtVJo,  1, 128. 
Aromatie  l^oear,  1. 142. 
Anaaio,  1,  144. 
Anenloui  Oxide.  1, 144. 
AaboUn.  I,  1G2. 
AipiiMor,  I,  167. 

Atom,  laae. 

Alomio  Wothta,  I,  169. 
Atropine.  I,  170. 
AilJte.  I.  ISO. 
Aao-flolon,  1, 188. 
BeUiic  Powder.  1,  200. 
Barilla,  1,  918. 
Baryta.  1,  226. 
Baaa.  I,  227. 
BaaebraGum.  I.  231. 
Bay  Rum.  I.  23S. 
Bdellium,  1,  230. 


-..  I.  288. 

n»  Dyee,  1,  288. 

BeoKjla  Add,  I.  268. 
BenioiD  or  Gum  ELanJunlD. 
Blee,  I,  268. 
Bitunen.  1.  388. 
Blottjrfpe.  r,  396. 
Bob*  Aah,  I,  J07. 
Boae  Black,  iTms. 
BmcleAoid.I,)ll. 

Bonnl  l'.  3l>! 


Butyric  Ether.  1,  372. 
Cadmium,  I,  379. 
Caffeins.  t,  iTB. 
Calcareoua  Spar.  I,  381. 
Calcium,  I,  3SZ. 
Caloiuui  Carbide,  I.  383. 
Calomel.  I,  3S8. 
"       ohene^I,  3~ 
Bbor,  I. .39 


Cane 


401. 


Caibol^^nid'l,  413. 


,v  Google 


BVNTEUniCAL  INDEX 


or  Qidek- 
Napbtha. 


Add,  v.  106. 

lorieAdd.V,  II*. 

'iP«te,  V,  123. 

•yridine,  V.  223. 

VnigBUoI.  V,  224. 

■yrophori,  V,  224, 
t  uusu.  V.  22g. 
'.  uioins,  V,  233. 
AulieBJi,  V,  237. 
Radium  V,  238. 
Rnordn,  V.  279. 
Rbauny.  V  287. 
Rboauni,  Oil  of.  V.  291. 
Rubidium,  V,  344. 
Suobarin  V.  3S0. 


SaJkylic  Acid.'V,  380. 


(peter,  Chili,  V.  3 


Soda,  VI  23. 


Boot,  yi.  30.' 
SpoQtsDenua  Combiutioi 
SlOuln,  VI,  82. 
m»niomuin  VI   100. 


SublimatioD.  VI.  108. 
Sulphur,  VI,  lie. 
SulphureUsd  Hydrocu,  VI,  1 
Bulphuiin  Add  and  Sulphata 


Week.  VI  380. 


CMec     See  QoTXRHUKirr  am  Pou- 
ntotafr.      Sea      HcnOHoLoaT 


Abih.  1. 10. 

Adar,  I.  23. 

An,  I,  33.  - 

AEnanas,  I,  02. 

ADomaliatle  Yaar,  I,  07. 

Apiil,  1. 113. 

Anrut.  I,  17S. 

Autuma.  I,  IBS. 

Blfaeitlle,  I.  2S2. 

Calondar.  I,  383. 

Calends,  I,  384. 

Canicular  Year.  I,  402. 

Century,  1.  446. 

Chang»«f-Ou'  Line.  I.  4SG. 

CbronolDcr.  I,  488. 

Clepaydra,  II,  10. 

CainiBctenc  Year.  II.  1). 

Cycle,.  II,  127. 

Day.  11,148. 

December,  II,  1 54. 

DoaDayB  or  Canicular  Days,  It, 

Dominiisal  Letter.  It,  200. 
Epoch,  II.  2»S. 
Equation  of  Time,  It.  304. 
Equioox.  II.  305. 


Carrier*.  CommOD.  I.  431. 
Catty  I.  43& 

Chamber  ol  ComiDens.  I,  4 
Chsiiot.  I.  4SS. 


October.  iV.  4oi.. 

Oiympiad,  TV,  476. 
Saturday,  V,4U. 
Seasani,  V.  443. 
September,  V.  4«7. 
Spring,  VI,  ai. 
Bummer.  Vl.  no. 
Sunday,  Vt.  122, 
Thureday  VI,  202. 


JlurikiahB.  III.  41 
Law,  IV,  IS. 


1,  The,  IIL 
a.  III.  S4«. 


I      Merser,  IV,  243. 


Google 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


Wctehta  «nd  Hoaim.  VI,  3 
WhaTf,  VI.  «W. 
ZoQnrdn,  Vt,  477. 


BtyMen 
a<rtni"'ll'  TtT' 

Comedy,  11,  42. 
CoTVpbBtu,  II,  88. 
DinrtlHnsnt.  II,  ZOO. 
Dnnw.  II.  220. 
EiCrmvuBiin,  II,  340. 
Farce.  ITSM- 
R>rl»quiD,  III,  ISl. 
Joncleur.III,  422. 
Jugcler.  Ill,  429. 
Manr>nett«g  IV.  I«l. 
MMt  IV.  204. 
Muque,  IV.  207. 
Melodrama.  tV,  233. 
.  Mime,  IV.  277,  _ 

Hinclia  and  Monlitiec,  IV,  387. 
No,  IV.  136. 

Obenmmernu,  IV,  401. 
Open,  IV,  im. 
Otobentra,  IV,  480. 
Piutomline,  V.  22, 
Punch.V,  ZI8. 
Satyr  Dnima,  V,  411. 
Thestre.  VI,  186. 
Tragedy.  VI  230. 


Sea  atn  Utunaat  ahd  Caeroiia. 
DilDk.     See  Food  amd  Dbdie. 


Afranamnn,  1,  B5, 
AcrioultUTBl  Syitacn.  I,  30, 
Ameiioan  Bnttm.  I.  7B. 
Bounty.  I.  320. 
Boyeottloi,  I.  324. 

CbMTitr  (W»ii>Mi0D,  1.  4A8. 
Child  Labor,  I,  474. 
Coloidal  Syrtem,  II,  36. 
ODDimuiiiBm,  II,  40.  \ 

CanunuDity  Property,  II,  47. 
CoDIumption^l,  60. 


Uoopantioa,  ii.  lo. 
CoTDLawa,  11.84. 
Cmpondoa,  II.  BO. 
Ci^ier,  II,  108. 
EM>t.  PaUIs,  II,  163. 
Dimaad  and  Supply,  II,  I  Ot 
DlviilDDof  Labor,  II.  :H)1. 
Eicht-bauc  Dty.  II.  261 . 
Exdaa.  II,  333. 
Factory.  A,  34S. 

fil3 


SeeaboFiNikNCE 

GOVEBHHEHT 

eoCIOLOOT. 


AbardeeD,  tlnivendty  of,  I.  S. 
Amdomy,  1, 1 1 . 
Alma  Hater,  I.  62. 

1,68. 

AaMdalioo  lor  Ihs  Ad 
'.  of  Science,  I,  72. 

nllule.  1.  72, 

t  CoUece.  I.  7S. 

Jan  ScBool,  1, 103. 

Apparitor,  I,  111. 

ArfcuuM.  ITolreiaity  of.  I.  1 34. 

AthenBuin,  I,  167. 

Bampton  Lecliuee,  I,  209. 

Be  jan,  I,  248. 

Beiiln,  Onirendty  of.  I.  261. 

Blind,  BduoatioD  of  the,  I,  2«2. 

BoMon  Dnlvernty,  I.  31  fi. 

Bovle'a  Lectum.  I.  324. 

Britiab    AModation    for    the    Ad 

nt  of  Bdenc*,  I,  342, 

veridty,  I.  348. 

'  CoUen,  I,  363. 
^unu—  »>Uuea.  I.  369. 
California,  Umverrity  of,  I,  386. 
Cattethenice,  I,  366. 
Cambridae.  Unlversty  of,  t,  802. 
Chartartio"—  '  **« 


,y  of,  I.  472. 


Chautauqua,  I, 

Chkan,  Unlvaniiy 

Chri^a  Horoltal,  I,  _. . 

CoUeta,  Il.Xi. 

CoUege  Fraternitica.  II.  33. 

OolnmbU  Uoivenity.  II,  39. 

Conaervatory,  II,  01. 

Cooper  Union  for  the  AdTBDsement 

ofSeience  and  Art,  II,  76. 
Carodl  Univenity,  II,  84. 
Daihouiie  Uoivernty,  II,  133. 
Dartoiouth  CoUece,  II.  142. 
Done,  II,  160. 
DSUCniaei.  II,  164. 
De  Fauw  Unlvenlty,  II.  in. 
I>ldaetio,II.  I8«, 
Do<!tor,  11,  204. 
DubUn,  Cnivenity  of.  It,  227, 
Edinbunh.  Dniverdly  ot.  II.  2S3, 
Education.  II,  264. 
Ttadot.  II.  346, 
FiflUSlt  Flan.  II.  3S8. 
General  Educatinn  Board.  DI.  8. 
Oeorietown,  Uidverrity  <^.  111.  17 
GeoniB,  Univndty  of.  III,  18. 
Oirard^illeBe,  111.48. 

'Ogle 


STNTHEnCAL  INDEX 


Dollcn. 
r.vSn 


UnitKl  SMm  Nanl  Aoxlemy,  V 

288. 
Unlvcntt]',   TL  IM. 
ITnlmnltT    Extnulon.    VI.   IM. 
Unl>«nlt7    of   the   State  of   Nv 

VI,  Ml. 
VBndfrbiK    Unlyenltj,    VI,    »OT 
Vinrinta,  Unlwnitr  of,  VI.  140 
Wvhinffton  Unlvcnlty,  VI,  t«». 
Wdlaler  CoUece,   VI,    tS9. 
Wla«»lii  UnlvnltT  of.  TL  *t 
WnDBlcr,  VI.  4S1. 
Yals  UniTCnitT,   VI.  Ml. 


AbsorptlpD,  ElKtrio.  I,  13. 
Asonic  Line.  I,  35. 
ATternateCumiiita,  1,86. 


AnoUuTe.  I.13S 
AMMfe.  1.  ISI. 


T.  IM. 
.2Ml 


WMer  Wheel*.  VI.  174. 

W«t«r  Wotib,  Vt,  ITS. 

WM  DrlUinB,  VI.  887. 

8h  aleo  BoiLBiMa. 


Aboiiflnw.1. 11. 
.1 f  ^g^ 


Alfonl^i*,  i,  67. 
AlioDqulaa  InttuiB,  I,  67. 

AD^5^«uroDt,  I,  ea. 

Aothnnwlocr,  I.  lOD. 
Apoebn,  II 07. 

L.,!.  ,1b,  Google 


SYNTHEnCAL  INDEX 


AttiwoDdaronu,  I.  J 
AutoohtbooM,  1, 1S2 

BuiDOcks.  I,  313. 


Buqueg.  I.  230. 

Bschiuu,  I.  341. 
Badouina.  I.  243. 
Bwn-Iir*el.  I,  2Se. 


Pluuriati.  V.  M. 
PottawMlomlM.  V,  173 
PmaaUhiui.  V,  IM. 


Pusblolndutu,  V,  213. 
Pygmy  Tribal.  V,  222. 
QmchuM,  V.  231. 
HkjputB.  V.  245. 
Ruthenutu,  V,  3A«. 
Baua,  V.  302. 
Bkliduna,  V,  381. 
SuuriUu/y.SSS. 
Sunoyedi,  T,  389. 
ShahaptlBiu.  V,  473. 


Ti!hookcli*w.  VI,  leO. 


BMaat.  1,  36«.  , 
Bill  otCrwlit,  1,371. 
Billion,  I,  274. 


I.  iV.  310. 
iW.  IV  SS3. 


Tnut  CompaDiM.  VI.  363. 
TnuU.  VI.  2K4. 
Umry.  VI,  l»T. 
■o«d  KBd  Drink. 

Abdntba.  I,  12. 

■  ■  ■     nlion,  I,  28. 
,1. 06. 


Baldnc  Powder,  I.  300. 
Buliecua.  I,  217. 
Bmt.  I,  316. 
BaDedictiM.  I,  2fiS. 
Bin|->  ScM*.  Edibli.  I,  27( 
BiHuit,  1.  280. 
BordMUi  Winea,  I.  312. 


d  by  Google 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


HolMntot'i  Bread,  HI,  2SA. 
KuKhwMHr.  lit,  400. 
K<Mfaer.  UI.  477. 
Koumln.  Ill,  478. 
Uctic  Add.  UI.  4a& 
Lactometer    or    QalkotODUtar 

488. 
Urd.  IV.  4, 


V,  47. 
I",  73. 
Kb,  V,  184. 


See  Spobtb  and  PumtttM. 


Arctic  Cfrde.  t.  iSS. 
Arctio  Current!.  1. 128. 
AridR««ion,  I.  130. 
Artenan  Wdl,  I,  146. 
Atoll.  I.  169. 


Bbj.  f .  237. 

Bayou,  I,  238. 

Bo(.  1,301. 

Bore.  I,  312. 

Campus,  I.  387. 

Cancer.  Tlopic  ol.  I.  401. 

Gallon.  I,  4(M. 

Caprioorn,  Tropic  of.  410. 

CataractB  or  Waterlalli.  I 

Cava  or  Cavero,  I.  430. 


,v  Google 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


's  SandnoDS,  V,  870. 


SsDditoDC,  V,  3W. 
ffi2.,  V.  47*. 


Alciide  or  Ale»yil».  I, 


Apportionment,  I.  113, 
AristooTMy.  1, 131i 
Attuua.I,  170. 
Autonomy.  1, 1S3. 
AyVBtuiuanla,  1,  187. 

Ballot,  I.  aoe. 

Bu,  I,  307. 

B«T  or  B«g,  I.  206. 

M,  I.  271. 

Bill*  Booin,  t,  zae. 

Boroiuh,  I,  313. 
Brokd  Arrow,  I,  343. 
Biillsdii.  I.  361 . 
Cabinet,  I.  376. 
Ctanaiilla.  I.  300. 
Camaroniani.  1,  31H. 
Canton,  I,  400. 
Cariina,  I.  416. 
Carpatbaner,  1. 119- 
Cau<!Ui7ir*37. 
Cenler.  I,  44S. 
Cbartt  d'Affairea,  I,  4 
Chaiter,  I,  461 . 
Chartiimi,  I,  482. 

dv^  Svvioe  and  avU  S 


■or.  Depart  met 


UoaM  and  unxu 
Colony,  II.  86. 
Coromoree  an 

of,  II,  44, 
Commoner.  II.  46. 
Commonwealtk,  II,  46. 
ConfedtntloD.  II,  64. 
ContreS,  II.  66. 
riiiiiiiliiiiaii  at  Laree.  H.  67. 
CoQHmtk>notNiitionalRe«iurc« 

II.  eo. 

CoMermtivea,  II.  61.     .     .  _    , 
ConMltulioD  of  the  Uoited  State 

II.  M. 
Coonntlon 'Parliament.  II,  73. 
Corpe  Lwilatif .  II.  87. 
CorteajTsS.  „  ,,, 
Crown  Prince.  11.112. 
Cmt,  II.  129. 
Dauphlo.  11-145.    ,,       _ 
DeadJetter  Otb».  II.  140. 
Dcmoentiii  Party.  II.  160. 
Depanment,  11.171. 
Dey.  II,  180. 
Diet,  II,  188.  ,     __ 

Disfianehleement,  It,  107. 
Dinrlct,  II,  190- 
Douma,  II,  316. 
Dracoman,  II.  218. 
Election.  l\.  263. 
Elector.  II.  3S3. 

Emimror.  II.  283.  ^       , 

ExaeullTe    Departmetit,    Tba,    1 

S33. 
Federalist.  II,  363. 


TyoDon,  VI,  268. 
Tytaot,  VI,  274.  , 

Veto.  VL  m, 
Vlce-Pn^dent.  VI.  »28. 
Vider,  VI,  3*4. 
Votinc  Uaehlnei.  VI.  S4S. 
War  Dmartnant.  VI.  360. 
Weather  Departount,  VI,  3 
TaUomtoiM  National  Paik,  V 


,v  Google 


BYNTHKnCAL  INDEX 


loMrdict.  III.  Ml. 


Klll(ht*V«ni 


i-rti,*™. 


ilan.  in,  4 

lib,  IV,  8, 

LolUnU.  [V,  «e. 
Lombuda,  IV,  9B. 
Lore.  CouiM  of ,  IV,  1  IT. 
Huh  OhaHa^IV,  it*. 
HanoiBUinl,  IV,  187. 

Hiddh  A««  jv.  aes. 

Hiasli^.  IV,  288. 
UyMHM*.  IV.  8M. 
moe,  Cnundl*  of.  IV,  42K. 
Normafi  Cooqiuit  or  Tha  Conquvit, 
IV  4M. 

thmcD.  IV,  43». 


Buoni,  V.  417. 

Bdjuki,  V^  MO. 

Bompuh,  V,  4S3. 

SiciluD  Vsroan,  V.  488. 

SpKoiah  UuD.  VI.  13. 

Star  Chunber,  VI,  73. 

Tolteoa,  VI.  22). 

Tower  of  London.  VI,  233. 

TruM  of  Ood,  VI,  3S2. 

VaCuiUi.  VI,  aoi. 

Vandali,  VL  lOT. 

Vflctna,   VI,  3S4. 

Witauscmot.  VI,  428. 

Womu,   ConeordM  at,   VI,   tiO. 

Abhomri.  I.  10. 

AboiilioobW,!.  11.  * 

A.  B.  Plot.  1. 11. 

Act  of  S«itl«Ti<Dt,  I,  20. 

Act  of  Supreoucr.  I,  20, 

All     Is    Ch«p«lls,   Coa(T«M  of. 


All 


Alabuni,  the,  \,  43. 
Alsbuiu  CltilDu,  I,  43. 
Aluno,  Tlie,  I.  43. 
Albuiy  ConcnH.  I,  40. 


Tre>tlMor,I.41. 


CarboniLri.^.  413. 

CumuDole.  I.  41 B. 

Catbobo  EmuidpMion.  I.  434. 

Chvnbre  Ardeote,  I.  468. 

Chunbre  InCRiunble.  I.  483. 

Chuter  Oak,  I.  481. 

Chickaaaw  BluBi.  Battle  of,  I,  473. 

Choiutu,  I,  4S4. 

ChriMian       Cominjarion,       Voited 

8ut««,  I.  48S. 
QtU  War  in  AtDerua.  ir  4. 
CUy1o>-Bul««r  Traaty.  11.  8. 
Colonial  Concren,  11.  36. 
CaamonwMlth  al  EaslaBd. 
CommuBfi.  II.  40. 
Compromise  of  1880,  II,  40. 
ConftdaraM  States,  II.  &4, 
Confedention,  Ailicles  of.  II.  64. 
Cootederatioa  of  the  Rhine,  II,  6A. 
Conrtitulion.  II.  84. 

tfBdl- 


11.41 


,v  Google 


aVNTHETlCAL  IKDEX 


Wwt    ladim  Compuir,    II, 


Erm  of  tkfOd  Fedina,  II.  306. 


Excheqiwr  TulliM,  \l.  333. 

EicluBOD  Bill.  II.  S33. 

Fair  (Ma  ot  Savm  Piun,  Battle  i 


Qnanbuk  Puty.  III.  lO 
OrMD  HounUia  Boyi,  II 
Ou^h  Fund.  Ill,  133. 


jMobln*.  Ill,  ST8. 
Juobita,  III.  379. 
Jwniwrie,  III.  880. 
J^aTraoty^III.Ses. 
J«DDMt«'a  ExpwUtian,  III,  300. 
jDDiiu  LMtwi.  Ill,  431. 


Battle  of.  IV,  82. 


libb^^iBi. 

Ubtity  Bell,  IV,  ea. 
Looofoeo.  IV,  fl2, 
Iadc  PvU*meat.  IV^IOB. 
Loubiuu  Purchua,  The,  IV.  I 
Lwidr'*  lAne,  Battle  of.  IV,  1] 
LuD«villfl,  Phm  of.  IV.  123. 
lUlrara  BUI.  Battle  of,  IV^  Iff 
tUrbura.  Confannca  of.  IV.  IS 
Hacktenburf  DeeUmtkiii  of   I 
-  -^— -B,IV,a26. 


Vianna.  Caneordrnt  of.  VI.   tU. 

Vlanna,  Consraoa  of.  VI.  134. 

—     ■   ■       -|la*Baer&  The,  VI,  S40. 

«,  VT,  lU. 

Df  wt,  VI.  sei. 

rloa.  VI.  S78. 
Watotar-AabboTton  Tnoty.  VI,  ttZ 
Waat  iDdU  Compuu,  Dnteh,  VI. 

WmniliiataT  Aaeerably.   VI,    »4. 
Wtatnrinatcr  Palace,  VI.  mt. 
Wn^baita.  Paau  of,  VI.  1B4. 
Wbte  and  ToiT,  VI.  Vt.  400. 
Whlakar  Iteb^lon.  VI.  VI,  402. 
Whlaker  Bias,  VI.  402. 
Wlldarniaa,  Battlea  of  the,  VI,  40T 
X  T  Z  CoTTMpon^De*,  VI,  41B, 
" ---   Fimni    VI,  4M. 


OluB,  iu,  it. 

Olvoario,  III.  5S. 
0<Sd  BeatMt  IirM. 
Qnia  do^Tin.  «^ 

lm_  I  .Coogic 


Ib^uMcs    vat    1 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


8m«ltiaj|.  VI,  10. 
Soap.  VT.  IS. 
8od»,  VI,  28. 
Soda  Adi,  VI.  23. 
SolubU  OliH,  VI,  28. 
SparaucMi.  Vl.  SZ. 
Spika,  Oil  of,  VI.  S4. 
E^iudnc,  VI.  55. 
Spouirnibariaii,  VI,  ffi 


vr ... 

VI.  82. 


>r  (.louciKl  Cane 
lillaHemp.  IV.  ITS. 


ArbltTBtioa,  I,  118. 

Atrium,  1, 1«6. 

Awmrd.  1. 186. 

Balioca  of  Ponr.  I 

BelllnreTicy,  I,  2S1. 

Blo^uli!.  I,  293. 

Bruneli  CoafsraqM.  1,^352., 


Enemy,  tl.  SS5. 
Enrov.  II,  2W. 
Eiequtur.  II.  334. 
Extarrjtoiialic-  " 
ExtTSditloo.  ' 


33(1. 


Altar  library,  I,  182. 

Aucunui,  1. 178. 

Autofrxtli.  I,  1S2. 

Arota  or  2«nd-A»««a.  I.  185. 


Fi>)Mn  Lain,  JI.  395. 
FlasoT  Trues,  11.309, 
FooM'a  BMolutioo.  II,  422. 
Fon4cn  Judnnent,  It,  424. 
GiUK*Qty.  Ill,  121. 
Hacua  Tribunal.  III.  142. 
Hi«b  Seu,  III.  220. 
HDatacH.^Il,2M. 
ImprnHniFnt.  Ill,  309. 
Interoational  Law.  III.  343. 
Intcmstjona]  Peace  Contrtm,  III, 

34S. 
InMrvectlon.  III.  347. 
Uoenae  to  TradB,  IV,  67. 
HarqiM.  Lsltsn  of,  IV.  I95. 


Diailizedb,  Google 


[»k,I,  K 

aokbladii 


BookplatMri,  300. 
Brabnw,  I,  327. 

BiiUdoitDB^,  sea. 
B^iantlp*  Hbt«taiu.  I,  371. 
C.  I.  37*. 

Cuba^  I.  are. 

C»<U,  I,  377. 

Csmdin  Socidtr,  I,  303. 

CivBlisr,  I.  «3S. 

Cdlic  lAnguuM.  I.  **3. 

Ceonntiip  ^Booki.  I.  444. 

Canter.  I,  445. 

Chapbooks.  1.  450. 

Chauvinism.  T,  466. 

Chioae  IdnEuage,  I,  17B. 

CbolUmbiu,  I.  4S3. 

Chureh.  Pathan  of  the,  I,  490. 

Cii.  II,  2. 

CUiaia.  II,  7. 

aamentiDH,  II,  0. 

Climu,  II,  12. 

Code,  TdenrnpUo,  II.  ZS. 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 

lailliiilii  and  LUwaMM.— Cimdt. 

Tliuia  of  SpMoh,  II,  383. 

FlH,  II.  3M. 

Plemlah  of  Baldan  Dutch,  tl.  404. 

Polkio™,  IiTSB. 

Fbcbiddeo  Fnilt.  II.  423. 

Portunalui.  II.  434. 
'  FiWKh  UMiatura.  II.  460. 


anomk  PmM.  III.  t 


EiHyalopsdia.    II. 


CaiUia.  II,  . 
Cyr^pitdik, 

D,  II,' 131. 

Du^tyl,  II.  131. 

Dark  and  ""— 

Dark  Conlipniv,  >  us,  n.  iw. 

Davy  JonH'Looksr.II.  147. 

Dajvuan.  II,  14S. 

D«lar»UoD,  It,  164. 

EWQntia,  II.  lea 

Donon,  II,  1B7.  „ 

Danwtio  or  Eneboilal  Writina,  II, 


EiM«ddlad.  II.  261. 

El  Dotufe.  II,  263. 

EleciM  Dbtfoh,  U.  271. 

Elwy.  II,  271. 

^nr,  II.  274. 

En^iab  Lanpiafle,  II,  201 . 

EucUah  Lttentura,  It.  201. 

EaStBiM.  II,  204. 

Epic  Po«tiy  or  Tlw  ^>aa,  11,  200. 

Epinui,  II.  300, 

ailEicua,  !I,  300. 


BrfMhi,  11^302. 
^UpL,  II,  302. 


Euphulan,  fl,  324. 
Eunka.  if,  324, 
ExMUflocy,  II,  332. 
BMmida  Book*,  II,  383. 

F^blt,  II, '343. 
Ablkuz,  II.  844. 
FaoMte.  II,  346, 
FMOUudna  Vena,  II,  S7& 
n0ua,II.3Sl. 


MIradca  aad  UoraJiiie 
HiMreie,  IV.  280. 
MUbu.  IV,  2S0, 
Honapam,  IV,  S13. 
Motto,  IV,  341. 


,v  Google 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


Abduetion.'l.V.' 
AbaysDM,  I.  10, 
AtmiMtofTitla.  I.  12, 


Aa«ord  mad  aMiaraoUoD.  T,  IS. 
AonrWion,  I.  IB. 
Aooomplioa,  I,  IS. 
ABlcnowlsdsmtat,  I.  10 
AsquitUI,  I,  SO. 
AefloiL  I.  2i. 
AfUMtfv*  L»lr,  I,  26. 
AdmlniMntiTa  Uw,  I,  2S. 
Admlnlty  Draila.  I,  2^. 
AdrnwioDii.  I,  26. 
AdulMiy.  I.  27. 
Adnnoemuit.  I.  27. 
AdrocBta,  Lord.  I.  27. 
Adromoa  I.  27. 


Affinity,  i. 

AfflrmAtJoD 

ASriT'i 

Aili^nV' 


ApaoBn  1. 107. 

Apf»»nr.  III.  . 

Arcbea.  Court  of.  1, 123. 


Attomay  Qsikand  I  171 
Auotioo,  1, 178, 
Autnfoi*  Aoquit,  1, 183; 


,v  Google 


SYNTHEmCAL  INt>E3C 


iDvwtiCiini,  hi,  ha. 

line.  IIL  SOS. 

Jul,  III,  S81. 

Jetaun.  III.  40e. 

JouB.  Jogii  or  Juan,  m,  431. 

Judse.  1117427. 

Jodgmaat,  111.  428. 

Juradedon,  III,  433. 

Juii^inubnaObdial,  III,  433. 

JbMIm  of  llwFMae.  ifl,  Ht. 

JuTuUt  Coiuta,  III,  4B6. 

Eiduapliic.  III.  400. 

KiOjga    or    Quera'*    Caunsd,   lU, 

Ludkird  Mid  Tauu-t.  Ill,  4M. 
iMrotta.  IV,  2. 
liwTlV.  IB. 
LawRN«tta.  IV.  21. 


NuiMDOS.  IV,  451 . 
O^h,  IV,  4». 
Obiter  Durtum,  tV,  441. 
OoeupktioD,  IV.  463. 
OrdinuT,  IV,  488. 

OuUkwrv,  IV,  eoe. 

Oyer  uid  Tenninsr,  V,  4. 

Piuiioo,  V  ~- 

Tmnat 


nd  Child,  HaUitiODJ  of.  V. 
I*w,  V,  ST. 


PuolB,  V,^40. 
Pubd'i  C«um,  The,  V,  43. 
PBrtDenhip,  V,  44. 
Put  Owaanhlp,  V,  44, 
Pkrtr  W>U,  V,  4S. 
PftWDU.  V,  48. 
Pdna  Forte  et  Dure,  V,  02. 
Penalty,  V,  W. 
PurjUiT,  V,  T7. 
Perpetuity,  V.  78. 
PetTtioD  of  Right,  V,  SO. 
PUlory.  V.  117. 


r-QQ^^B.  V,  141. 

Poae  CoDoItatiu,  V,  IBS. 

Power.  V.  176. 

Power  of  Attomar,  V,  178. 

Pniclioe.  V,  177. 
PniBm»lio  Sanction,  V,  171 
PrewdeaM,  V_,  180. 
Preecripllop.  V,  1B3. 
Preaeatmeat.  V.  184. 
Prmimptioo.  V.  186. 
PrerloUB  QueMion,  V,  1S6. 
PrlnKHenlture,  V.  188. 
FrobaSility,  Thaory  of,  V.  196. 


Pn>b4te,  V._!BS. 


Wacer,  VI,  1£1. 
Warrant.  TI.  862. 
Warrantrr,  VI.   182. 
Water.  PoDntion  of.  VL  in. 
Wheal.  VI.  tS». 
Whlpplns  Poet,  VI,  40«, 
Will  or  Tstament.  VI.  4I». 
WorkbolM.  VI,  483. 


See  liao'  IimutAT 


Hrdiaulio  QiciMa^in,  277. 


Ump,  lU,  4S6. 

I^the,  IV,  g. 

Utw.  IV,  40. 

lawla,  IV.Ol. 

lock,  IV.  M. 

loeomotlva,  IV,  03. 

Ua^  lADtom  or  Slaraoptleon, 

Madulolsl  Powan,  IV,  222. 
UiUsIoin.  IV,  278. 
Needlr.  iV.  380. 
OperaGIcM,  IV,  481. 
OxykydronD  Blowpipe,  V  4. 


PanduluiB,  V,  67. 
Parpetiu]  Uotion,  V,  7B. 
PboDMiaph,  V.  103. 
nunpEDroacope.  V,  108. 
Plow.  V.  137. 
PoUr  Cloek,  V.  146. 
Pubometar,  V,  S14. 
Pump,  V.  216. 


Quarn'.  V'.  ^1. 
Rea^nc  and  Hi 

eafea.  V.  863. 
Bafety  LwM, ' 

ScraW,  V.  436. 


by  Google 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


MarUDM  uMl  II 


SeiBtaocntph, 
SfoupGon.  V 
Sepuntor.  Cn 
Snioc  Uuhi 
8Un«rVl.8. 


WindloH,   VI.  tit. 
Wind  HUl.  VL  tlB. 
Sea  >1»  iHDDBTitTn 


AgkpeiB,  I,  33. 
Annds.  I,  34. 
A&bMtram  1.  43 

AlmoDM^I.  63.   ' 
AlnuDHi  or  Aim 
Ambarv&lia,  I.  70 
Arabo,  I.  71. 
Amiiull&,  I,  79. 

AanuQfuda.  1.  Of 

ADoiiilin«.  I.  87. 
AprU  Fool'B  a^, 
Aqui]»,  1 ,  115. 
Artwr  bav,  I.lir 
Asylum,  1,  1 65. 
Avii.  I.  IBS. 
Bursm.  I.  199. 
BsldachiD,  1,  202 


Birda  or  lU  6diiid.  I.  2 
Blood  Hooey.  I.  295. 
Bliw  Monday,  I,  2fl7. 
Borousb  Bogfisb.  I.  31 
Boyu.  r  824. 
BuccDlsur.  I.  353. 
Cidcnty.  I,  377. 
CskiltiBtM,  I.  388. 
Cajumct,  I.  380. 
Cans,  I.  403. 
Cannibalkm.  I,  408. 


CUTalry.  I,  481. 


n.aa. 

Coffln.  II,  28. 
Ooionack.  It,  BO. 


CnM,  II,  103. 


-., /,  n.  lis. 

Curfew.  II.  121. 
DMOiaUon  Day,  U,  ISa. 
Diptych.  II.  196. 
DiTination,  II.  20a 
DiTininc  Bod,  U,  201. 
DiMi.  11,230. 
DuwiDB.  II,  230. 
EmaodpatioD.  IT,  378. 
EmbalminK,  II,  279. 
E  PluribuTUnum,  II.  SOS. 
EUDueh.IL322. 
EvU  Ey«.  U,  330. 
EiileTlI.  334. 
Exoniim.  II,  3SS. 
Familiar  S^ta.  II.  953. 
FaM  and  FaRiac  A,  SSB. 
Feut.  II,  361. 
FeriB,  II,  370. 
Fire  Alaim.  II.  S8S. 


Tintbore,  II,  SOI. 
FintFnnti.U.SOl. 
Fleet  Uaniitc*,  U.  403. 
Flowen,  Symbolinaof.  II,  411. 
Fo(d«.FeMtoM1.420. 
Forafflhei^  Day,  II,  424. 


t,  n.«„ 

ocy.  III.  7. 

Caop^wka   or    Dirt-eatinc, 

Ghal,  III.  32. 

Obawaii.  Ill,  32. 

Ghetto,  III,  33. 

OboM.  III.  33. 

Ood  SaTa  Ibe  Blue.  HI,  BO. 

OotWnbors  S]nt«in^  III.  76. 


lotuii^E^tn, ' w     Lolophacl,    IV, 


PjUrinuin.  V,  11 
Pipe,  V,  123. 
PSyuiilry.  V,ll 


Victoria  Cnin.  VI,  SS2. 
Vlsilann  Committee.   VI,  S34. 
Wacer,  VI,  lEl. 
WaJta,  VI,  UI. 
Wake,  VI.  161. 
Walporck    Nisht.    VI.    3S1. 
Wampum,  VL  lU. 
Wheel.  VI.  199. 
WlBwam,   VL  407. 
Witch  and  WItehenfl.  TI.  4n. 
Zeuaaa,  VL  4TS. 
Bee  eln  Db*m  urn  Otmrtnaa. 


Alcebra,  I,  SO. 
AnaleDima,  I,  82. 
AoalyNi,  I,  82. 
Aii^.I.9b. 
Ani,1, 11». 
Ariduuetio.  I.  ISS, 


,v  Google 


^ 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


InterpolBtioD,  III.  34S. 
Iflvolut*.  Ill,  UO. 


Hwo  Btman.  IV,  16S. 
MMbvutk^  IV,  314. 

"*"        a.iv.aao. 


Napiw't  Bonn,  iV,  372. 
Nccalive  Ouulity,  IV.  SBB. 
Notatk-n,  IV.44& 
Octaliednia,  IV,  4SE. 
Ordioate,  IV.  488. 
PuaboU,  V.  28. 
Psiabolold.  V,  28. 
Parallelosnm,  V.  SO. 
PuKUelopUwd.  V.  30. 
Puwiutw,  V,  31. 
FermoMtioiu,  V,  77. 
FUm.  V,  130. 
PolyEOO.  V,  IM. 
PdyEsdiml  Ande,  V,  lU. 
PolyhMln>D,V.lS4. 
Prime  Numbwi,  V,  ISS. 

Prabatilitr,  Law  of,  V.  196. 
FrofiMioD.  V.  IDS. 


Slide  kule.  VI,  8. 
Sphere,  VI.  62. 
Sph«i^.  Vt.  02. 
^barometer,  VI.  62. 
3quen>.  MMbod  of  L«ut.  VI,  S8. 
SubMitutioni,  Theoiy  of,  VI,  110. 
Tsoseul,  VI,  14B. 
Teinhedren.  VI.  170. 
Three  Badi«,  PiDblcm  of.  VI,  IM. 
Tnangle,  VI,  246. 
Trianiulation.  VI,  246. 
TrigoDometry,  VI.  247. 
TtiMctiDD  of  Ancfa,  VI,  240. 
Vuiibla,  VI.  108. 
Vroler,  VI,  K8. 
MKhMolol  DerlM*.      StmiL/Ltmnim 


Aokyla^  or  Aneliylonl.  I,  »4. 
ADodyaee.  I,  B7. 
AnUconiim  of  Drugs.  I,  0S. 
Anlbelmintie*,  I.  99. 


ADtlipaHiHidi«,  I.  104. 
AolitoiiD,  1, 104. 
Aperieal.I  107. 
AMiJotenl,  I   163. 
AtomiHlion.  1, 109. 
Aud^ne.  I,  173. 
AiucuItktiOD,  I,  170. 
■         •■  E.I,  183. 


Autopluty, 
Baiuuu,!,  diu. 
Builioou.  1,  32». 
B«Ml.  I.  2S4. 
BttMn.  I,  283. 
KlMer.  1,293. 


Pieroloxin.  V.  114. 
PUrter,  V.  ISl. 
PKycholhetspy,  V,  20 


UmbKbTV.  2 


t«rr>— Coniinwd. 


B  also  Patboloot  ird    Du- 


Qarth   Usbt,  n. 


Equinox.  It,  305. 
EterUDWiiidii.  II,  316. 


"^f^^cd  by  Google 


FoniliutloD.  II,  429. 
Fortresa,  II.  «32. 
FuM,  It.  483. 
GmpBihat,  III  DO. 


Hydrocnphjr.  I 

J«¥tfio,  ni.  394 

lAOOS,  III,  497. 

Lofislics.  IV,  98. 

Mui!,lV,  139. 

Hactaine  and  IUpid<F{ra  Ouiu,  IV. 

Ibco^HGuni,  tV.lSI. 

MutelloToww,  IV.  199. 

Uu4UI  Uw.  IV,  200. 

HerUn,  IV,  336. 

Nsedl*  OuD.  IV.  3Bfi. 

Ordnuce,  IV.  48S. 

OrdtUMM  Daputmsnt,  tV,  488. 

Fhaluii.  V,  89. 

Piko.  V.I18. 

Proj«tile»,  V,  19fl. 

"     InmtTv,  228. 

Jitenl.  the.  V.  220. 


Riflina  lA  OrdiMnM.  V,  aOO; 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


Torpados.  Vl.  229. 
ttiAed  StMw  HiliU 


lUliury  Aaadamr, 

VI,  sn. 

UniMd  Butaa  Hard  Aomdemy.  VI, 


Emonld,!! 
Eaay.il. 


Faldur  or  Ft^ipar.  II.  3M. 

FlnOay,  II.  388. 

FluoTit*.  FluonpAT  or  Fluor. 


IV,  432. 
tV,  49S. 


,v  Google 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


SappUn.'^ 

Baidoayx. 


Sarpe&Uoa.  V,  MO. 


FlftHiith.  If,  381. 
Fifth,  II.  38t. 
FIcund  Bw,  II,  382. 
Flat.  II,  *02. 
Fourth,  II.  438. 
Fusua,  II.  473. 


Viui«dfuiii,   VI,  >M. 
VeH  Antique.  VI,  Sl». 
Zinc  VI,  414. 
Zlreon,  VL  475. 
So*  alao  OEOLoaT. 

HIalaK>     8™  HlH  ■■*!.■  AND 


A.  1,1. 

ACappdla.  I.H. 
AcoelHSiulo,  I,  IS. 
AocacitiulioD.  1. 1 G. 
Accord.  I.  1 1- 
Ada^,  I,  23. 


Aodaata,  I,  SS. 
Aattwm.  I.  W. 

AntiSu  aylUbta,  1, 126. 
Aria.  I,  im. 

Ar^  aoJ  Theda,  1, 144.  ' 


C.  I,  374.  _ 
Culeoia,  I.  377. 
Calaado.  I.  3S1. 
CantabilB,  I,  MS. 
Cantata,  I.  406. 
CftBto  F\rmo,  I,  406. 
Cavatioa,  I.  439. 
Chant.  I,  46fl. 
Cheyy  Chaia,  I,  471. 


Treble,  VI.  242. 
Velee,  VL  144. 
Walta.  VL  tn. 
Yankee  Doodle.  VL  tU. 

See  alio  McatCAi.  IxanuHZirm. 


Contralto,  1^,7^1. 
D.  II,  130. 
Da  Capo,  IT.  130. 
Dt«ree,  II,  IflO. 
Diapann.II,  183. 
Dlea  Im.  TI,  188. 
Dutanoe,  II.  lOS. 
DtthyTunb,II,  190. 
DiTertiiaemaDtjlI.  3 


„  Google 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


— CunluiMd. 
A[»lb.  I.  109. 
An.,  1.  120. 
AmchuH.  1. 120. 


Agnrd.  i.  IK 
AiXloislb.  1, 


AlalanU..  1.  lOS. 
Ate.  I.  ISO. 
Aiheu,  1. 107. 
Atluttdag,  1. 100. 
Atlu,  1,  109. 

AlnqxM,  "l.  170. 
Aty»,  1.  172. 

aUS^.'  I.  179.' 
Amtsr.  1.  184. 


Bettu.  I,  253. 


Bitmat.  1.  270. 
Bou  Dea,  I.  » 
BnEe.I,  320. 


Bunrii.  I,  309. 
Cadniiu,  1,  378. 
C&due«u.  I.  37a 
CkUiopa.  I,  887.      _ 
CsIrdoDimn  Hunt,  Tba,  I,  Z 
C>lyp».  I.  390. 
CuiBndn.  I.  43S. 
Cutilu.  1.  426. 
C«rap>.  I,  440. 
CmMun,  I.  446. 
Cerebui.  I,  447. 
Cars.  I.  447. 


Elf.  II.  2T3. 
Elyrium,  II.  278. 
EDd]>mio&.  II.  385. 
BpUillM.  II.  298. 
EpimMhsiu.II,  300. 
Ento,  II.  300. 
Enbui.  II,  307. 
Erechthsus,  II.  307. 
Erir>n«.  II,  309. 
EnWll.SOB. 
Eri*,  It.  300. 
Erlkinc,  II,  309. 
EirtrilKt.  II.  310. 


Eupbiuiyae.  tl,  824. 
Europ*,  II.  S2*. 
Eurydioe,  II,  320. 
Euiylochus.  II.  326. 
Eurynome,  II,  32fl. 
Euiypilug,  II.  320. 
Euryithenaa  ud  fiodm,  II,  3 


\  II.  31 


Eutscpe.  II.  327. 

Evadae,  II.  327. 

Fairy.  II.  340. 

FatH,  Tha,  II.  3S0. 

Fmuhu.  II.  300. 

FidM.  II.  S79. 

Floa  11.406. 

FoitanB,  II,  433. 

FreyorFreyr,  11.464. 

Pnya  or  Fny'm.  II,  405, 

Gn.  II,  4Sfi. 

GjUntoi  or  GnUlhH,  II,  488. 

OambriDug.  II,  493. 

Ginynuide,  II,  £00. 

GcUert,  III.  0, 

Gniiux.  Ill,  10. 

Garyon  or  Gcryona.  III.  29, 


unl.  Hi!.  403. 
1.  Iir  495. 

tan.  III,  fios. 


.«pith».  iV.  1 . 
Leila,  IV.  28. 
Lemurea,  IV,  38. 
Leru,  IV.  44. 
Lelbe,_IV,  47. 
Leto,  IV,  47, 


.n,  fV,  127. 

JOB,  IV.  140. 

„jtrSni,  IV.  150. 

Miia,  IV.  159. 
Muiaa.  IV,  174. 
M&ato,  IV.  181. 
Man,  IV,  196. 
Mftny«.  IV.  lOB. 
Hays,  IV,  219. 
Med«,  IV.  228. 
Melunpus,  IV,  231. 
Maleacer.  IV.  232. 
Meliwrtea.  I*.  232. 
Melpomene,  IV.  233. 
Memnon,  IV,  234. 
Meadaiu,  IV,  237. 


MinvM,  IV,  286. 
Mitfiru.  IV.  296, 
Mnemoayne,  IV.  208. 
MolDch.lV.  306, 


,v  Google 


gYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


^.477. 
49a 

OrX'ku,  tV  4tM 
0dm,  iV,  «iM. 
FsIaoisdM,  V.  la 
PalH,  V,  12. 


rurociiu,  •,oi. 
Peh^,  V  es. 


Fhaoctot™,  v.m. 

Philomala,  V,  87. 
Pbmbe.  v.  101. 
PhcebuB.  V.  101. 
PhnDii,  V,  102. 
Pluto,  V.  13B. 
Plutu*.  V.  13a  , 
PalyrOcH.  V.  165. 
Polyphamus,  V,  IBo 
PolJieM,  V,  IM. 

Priiun.  V.  186.   

PromMheiu.  V.  MO 
ProaenHiw.  V,  Vttt. 
Proteiu,  V.  203. 
Psyche,  V.  aOB. 

Rugiurok. ' 
Rha<ltiin>n( 
BunbalioD,  V.  3S8. 
8»bb™'I.  V.  396. 
8«ppho,  V,  406. 
Satpedon  V,  409. 


Sclane.  V  440. 
B«mel«,  V.4SI. 

Kbyl,  V,  «T. 


Slyi,  VI,  L08. 
Tantalus.  VI.  161. 
THt.ru..  VI  166. 
Telemuhua,  VI.  le 
Terpmchor*.  VI.  17 
Tluffii.  VI,  184. 
TheiDis,  VI,  188. 
Thwua  VI.  192. 


'ntans.  VI,  213. 
TitboQUi,  Vl.  218. 
Triton,  VI.  250.. 
TrdKVI.  *»■ 

TjT,  VI,  274. 
UwiIa,  VI.  212. 
Uruua,  VI.  291. 
Vklkjiia,  VI.  SOS. 


r. — CmUmitd, 
VcrtumniH  or  Vortamna 
VeatB,  VI.  82B. 
-olCHi,  VL  !*••  , 


No.  1. 1 


239. 


Ballut 

Beam.  1,  ^39. 

Bella.  I.  263. 

Ben«al  lisht,  I,  266. 

Bit  or  Bilts.  1,  282. 

Boot,  1, 290. 

Bompiit.  I,  S28a_ 

Boihaulinc.  I,  323. 

Boxing  tb»  Compua,  I.  323. 

Bnakwatv.  1,  334. 

BulUmd,  1,  360. 

Buoy,  I,  363. 


r  *TO  Natu. 


OccmatK 


bind  White,  VI.  47E. 
8eeml»An, 

■BlMDMoir.     See  Oeou 
FatlwlQcr  and  Dtoeiae. 


,v  Google 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


loogulmtloD,  III,  332. 
Inanity.  III.  S3*. 

latoiicaUon^III.  348. 
Jaundifi*  or  Wwus,  III,  393. 
Kiu'i  Bril,  III,  4M. 
Lt«a  Pouoniiic,  IV,  34. 

AUxik  or  Tabas  Donalii. 
ir  Ctlok  in  tha  Back,  IV. 


PiioUy  Heat, 
PniHgo,  V,M 


BuppunUoDjn.  134. 
TarantUm.VI.IM, 
TaUDUa.  VI,  17B. 


VcrtiKo.  VI,  I2<. 
Vomfllnc.  VI,  S4S. 
Warts.  VI,  164. 


Bm  alto  RUJOION  AND  TBaOLOQT. 


AbartatioQ  IJI. 
Abmrptjon.  Blectiio.  1. 13. 
Acod«B(it>n.LlA- 
Acuumulatvd  Fona,  I,  IS. 


a  by  Google 


SYNTHFTICAL  INDEX 


"^i-tJSSr  ■ 


Adluaon,  ForM  of,  1,  24. 

A^mtdlM,  the  Priadplfl  ol.  1. 122. 
Amintor.  1. 1E7. 


AUOIPDODV,  A,  1'^- 

Aiii.  1. 1S6. 
BalaD«.  I.  ZOO. 
BulUiiticl,  1,204, 
BkUooD.  1,  204. 
Barkur'B  UUl.  I,  210. 
Buometor,  I.  222^ 
Bathometer.  1.  234- 
B«un.  I,  230. 
Beoquend  lUyi.  I.  242. 
BsUdwi,  I.  3S2. 
Boiling  Point.  I,  302. 
Boyl?;  l*ij.  I.  324. 

Bull'mye.  I,  381.        ' 
Burniu      GU««      and 

Mimn.  I.  307. 
-  ■    ■     -   388. 

r.  I,  das. 


Calor 


394. 


Ciu»n  Luodm, 
Cvnera  ObKuni.  i,  a' 
Cunsrn.  Pbotoaiapbi' 
Cpillary  Artion  I,  4 
Careel  or  Cwoel  Lara] 


I.  177. 
:.  184. 


Hysnimetry,  III.  283. 
BypotludB.  Ill,  388. 
Ids,  III.  2Q1 . 
ImHHutnUlity.  m.  306. 

i&oUDcd  Flu*,  m.  no. 


Priltlct.    Sea  OoTKRHiiBirr  AMD  PoL- 


Actft  EnuUtorum.  t,  21 
BUok-LsHar.  I,  380. 


d  by  Google 


t>typi[is,  VI, 

T^an-fMoT  FHUinc.  VI,  im. 
Typ«  uiil  Typesetlim,  VI.  270. 

T/pantting  Machiriea.  VI.  372. 


Accidenl.  I.'iS. 

AcaiiariKHUtloa    and    Ad*pt>tion. 


Atypical  ^hildrao.  t.  1 
Belief  and  Fsitli,  I,  211 
Cuuutry,  I.  42Q. 

Child  Study,!,  47S. 

Color,  II,  ar. 

Conoept,  II,  50. 
Conoeption,  II,  60. 
Conorete.  II,  G2. 
CoDKiariae,  II.  SB. 
CoiuoiouBnflH.  II.  60. 
Camudentioa,  11.61. 


eSUj' 


ent,  if.  272. 
^ioa,  II.  2S3. 
tion  PemoaJ.  II,  304. 


ithenii.  Ill  28S. 


Intersrt,  ill.  iiZ. 
IntioMMCtioti.  III.  !■ 
l«gio,  IV.  97. 
Memory.  IV,  234. 
Mimicry  IV  277. 


MnemoQiw,  Iv,  297. 

Moliv*,  IV.  340. 

Muiole  Readioc  or  Miad  Readini, 

IV,  359. 
Nerves.  IV.  395. 
Nightmare.  IV,  429. 
Notion,  W.  447. 
Nyaya  PhiIo»plw,  IV,  467, 
Ontolon-,  IV,  480. 
Peroepffon,  V,  73. 
Phymognomy.  V,  l08. 
Pnryth«sm,V.  155. 
PrediMtB,  V.I81. 
Piycholocy.  V,  200. 
P^vhotbeiapy,  V.  209. 


SYNTHCnCAL  INDEX 


V,  258. 

i  ad  Abaiirdun 


raUUhlDg.       Sea      Pannnta 


■ICburch, 
opal   ZblD 


Ap-ni«»,  I,  38. 

Ahriiaaa,  I.  38. 

AlbuteoBCa.  I,  48. 

Al  Bnrlik,  I,  48. 

Alcantara.  Order  of.  I.  49. 

Allah.  1.69. 

AUlanoe  Istafiita  Uaivnualle.  T,  60. 

All  Sunts'  Day  or  All  Hallon,  1,62. 

All  SouIm'  Day,  I,  62. 

Alogi.  I.  64. 

Alpha  and  OmsEB,  I,  64. 

Al  Birat.  1.  66. 

AlUr,  I,  66. 

AmmoQ.  I.  76. 

AnabapiiMs.  '  "" 


Ansdue,  I.  90. 
AncHcaDChurah.  1.91. 
Anfnula,  Wordiip  of.  I.  B: 


Antlpopa,  I.  104. 
AduI^,  I.  lOS. 


Apoli^n,  1,'lOg. 
Apoloaetln.  I.  109. 
ApoldgyorthaAugBburll 


Bead,  I,  239. 
Beatification.  I.  240. 
Beatific  VisioD.  1,  240. 
Bocbaida.  I,  247. 
BeiuiHa,  I.  247. 
BcStf  and  Faith,  I.  249. 
Bell.  Book,  and  Candle.  I,  SSI. 
Benedietinee.  I,  265. 
BenedictioD.  I.  255. 


™«=  .~w^.™,  i,  267. 
Biddini  Piayer.  I,  269. 
Bishop,  1.  2SI. 


BohunlaD  ^rsthcen,  I,  301. 
BoDie.  I.  309. 

Bouoty.  Queen  Anne'*.  I,  320. 
Boy  Eoahop,  I,  324. 

Brahmin,  I.  327. 
Brahmo-Somai.  t.  327. 
Brethreii,^aDd  Clerki  of  the  Com- 

tian  Schools. 

•  Trinity,   I, 


r  and  Philip, 
«*,  I.  M7. 


,v  Google 


SYNTHEnCAL  INDEX 


CanoneH,  I,  *a*. 
C&DODlui  Houn.  1.  404. 
CutiniBtkui.  I.  4D4. 
CaooD  Law,  I,  404. 
Capuohiiia,  1,  410. 
CWdiun.il  3. 


LtnkMics]  aotuob,  1,431. 


CuboliiCbu 

C»tholiciM.  I,  4M. 

CdtMinea,  I,  442. 

Ceonr,  I.  444. 

Onturiea  ol  Uafdebutf .  I,  44a. 


I  Hdy  iDDocenU'  Dsy, 


Chriun,  I,  4S4. 
ChriBt,  I.  4S4. 

ChrittadripKisiu. 


Chrutiuu  or  Chriuun  ConDection 

1,486. 
Chiirtiut  Bdaoes,  I.  486. 
Chriitmu,  I.  48fl, 
Chiuiology.  I.  487. 
Chunh.  t;  400. 
Church  Historv.  I.  4S0. 
Churahjog  of  Women.  I,  4SI. 
Ciboriuni.  I.  461, 


QolatH-.  it,  14. 

CiiwIjutor.II,  la 

CcanoUt«^  tl.  27. 

Commoa  Prsysr.  Book  of.  II.  44. 


c,  il.ai. 

ConvoDticU.  ll,  71. 
Co  avocation,  II,  72. 
CoTT»ral.  II,  B6. 


CoTybantea,  if 


Coundl«,  Eeumeniiial.  II,  S3. 


ChddecH 


CtlrioiMa.  II.  114 


Dsoeon.  II,  1 48. 
DswonHa,  II,  14D. 
Dan.  II.  lei. 
Dtcntti.  ir,  107. 
Deerstals.  Fi1h.II,  1G7. 
Demoaology.  II,  107 
Derriih,  Il7 173. 
DsTsIoka.  II.  ITT. 
Devil,  II.  1T7. 
Devil  Wonhipen.  II.  178. 
Dichotomy,  II.  184. 
DiBciiplH  oi  Christ.  II,  IM. 
DttprnmOou.  II.  IAS. 


as 


liUder,  II.  203. 


Enflsnd.  dbji'nh  ol.  II.  289. 

Epiphany.  II,  301 . 

EjaBoopil  Ctaureh.  Proleatant,    i: 

Ei^aaopal  Syitem,  II,  302. 
Epwoith  Lcunie,  II.  S04. 
E^Fugelical  AUiimce,  II,  327. 
EvBOielical  AjBcution.  II,  327. 
Evir^alio&l  Church  Conference,  i: 


_     ...J  Union.  ll,  328. 
Kvidencee  of  Chriitiuiity.  II,  330. 
Evil.  II.  330. 
Exeouunumntioa,  II,  333. 

EiesSDi  or  Exesetioal  Thoolocy,  II 


db,  Google 


STNTHETICAL  INDEX 


'.273. 

rtiM,iv. 


No<rlM.  IV,  4S0. 


OmDtiniMiiM,  IV,  47S. 

OphitM  or  SniMDt  Wonhipan.  iV, 

481.  _ 

Ontoriani,  TV,  48S. 
OrdioMion,  tV,  488. 
OrisinalSui,  iV,  49t. 
Puuium,  V.  T. 
PiBitiSrv.  IS. 
Pslmsr.  V,  IS. 
Film  aundMT.  V,  16. 

P«piJ8t»lM,  V,  22. 
Farkble.  V,  28. 
PsHdiH^V.  £9. 

P»™h.V  35. 


PuBODutii.   Consni 

7.48. 
Punontide  V.  40. 


Pftulist  FBthan 

Pu,  V.  fie. 

P«bicl*iuun,  V 


I  or  th«,  V, 

HI,  V.  280. 


V,Sfll. 


SMarhwdi,  I.  £06. 
SutsnofUsrcy.  VI,  1. 
aiTa.  VI,  I. 

Bli-Principle  Biptirta,  VI.  1. 
Bodniuu,VI.  SI. 
Sortu,  Vt.  24. 
SoHnikqcy.  VI,  33. 
Soul,  ¥1733. 
SplritiuUsm.  VI.  S7. 
Butioiu  of  Iha  CroH.  VI,  79. 
StkDulbation.  VI.  »l. 

slm^tiuin.  V'l,  122. 

RuDday  SchoolB,  VI,  122. 

Sun  Wonhip.  VI.  123. 

Supcnrofatioa.  Worki  of,  VI.  123. 

ByoMmomie.  VI.  138. 

ByDUtdBB,  VI,  138. 

tsbaniule.  VI.  140. 

Tabeniulea.  Feut  of,  VI,  141. 

Tkoiuii,  VI.  ISl. 

Ten>pbim,VI.  ITS. 

ThidBn.  VI,  187. 

TbwIaajr.VI,  ISO. 

■IleSShy.Vl.l88. 

Tbarivcutn,  VI.  188. 

TUr^^iiDa  Artid«or  RcUfloo.  VI. 


ZMlot*.  VI,  412. 
See  aJao  Btbli  ahd  Bibu  Hu- 
toht;    UmoLOai:      Paitds. 

udmUm.    See  MspTCDrc.  SCBomr. 


„  Google 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


CocliW''  "■  *8.    „ 
OoRw-houn*.  IIiSS, 
Collan  FiaMRilUM,  II,  33. 
Colony.  II.  36. 


CoufCdarate  VcMnn*.  Onited,  II. 


Duaca  of' the  RsToIutioD.  II,  13fi. 


liSb,  II.  1*B. 
Daucbten 


'■i.'l 


uuiauiTu.  ».  .^  ante,  ii,  i-i^- . 
Daiuhten     of     tha      RsvolutioD, 

C«uTal  Sockity  of.  II,  US. 
D«th,  Biothen  of,  II.  162. 


Bssra 

11,225. 


iMy,  II,  21 
U,218.   . 


Druw.II.  226. 


Faoinri,  II,  367. 
Foud»l  Svitem.  II.  378. 
Fralerniilor  Friendly  Booatice.  11, 

O^r,  Order  of  the,  II.  GM. 
GeDllanUD.  HI.  1 1 , 
Ownmiri.  in,  16.  ,       ,  ,„  ,, 
Qaone.  S«iit.  Oidn  of.  III.  IT. 

o5SiS-ni.S:Ord.r  Of  the,  HI,  63 
tlrtf,  111,80.  ,  .  „  .„  ,„ 
Onad  Army  of  tim  Republic,  III 


fTi^.CM«  of  the,   VI, 


I    Chlittian    ABOda- 


Se«  UiDicnra, 
See  Eh< 


See    CoMUERCE. 

■D  TiuXSPOIlTATIOH. 

Bee  UAramtTiCB. 


See    HiTMmoLOOT  i 


Wwld  War 

ADnnU,  I.  U.      ^ 
Alncv-LoiniM.  X 
Amku.  I.  7*. 
ArabU.  I,    11«. 


BMttr.  Sir  Deild,  L  MO. 


Bolibetikl. 
Brat  I.  BS< 
Bnltaria.  I. 
Cuabnl.  I. 

CBtUI^I. 


by  Google 


Wart4  Wan— CmttfMMl. 
ChElamD-Thtany,  I,  4U. 
ClMtwiimBu,    £iic*M  Oantah  IL 

CobJani.  U,  21. 
CHcho-Slovrnkla.  II,  IM. 
DuucdL  11.  lU. 
Dutale.  IL  IM. 
DmrdmHllw,  II.  UO. 
Dnll^t  SkTiu.  IL   14). 
DObrndK  n.  Sat. 
Doowtenk,   IL  10*. 
Dublin,  n.  i». 
ffiMTt,  Fndn^eb,  U,  148. 
EMhonib  IL  til. 
EnroiH,  n.  SZ«. 
Ftnluid.  II.  SBT. 
numc,  II.  a>7. 
Foeh.   FenHumiiil.   n.   4K. 
Fnnek.    Fcrdlnud,   n,   446. 
GalUcol.   Jaeph  Simeon,   II,  4)t. 
Gcnnra.   III.  «. 

Gumrd.    Juins    Wataon.    QI,    IS. 
Gomanr.  IlL  Zl. 
Gcmuu  Sontluut  Afrln,  III.  t1. 
Qnttt,  ni.  101, 
Baraa,  m.  ITl. 
HaHnlud.  UI,   18S. 
HlndnbiiTS;  Paul  von.   III.  2». 
HooTer.   Hobert   Clan.   III.   t44. 
Hunnry.   ni.    EM. 
Janao.  lU.  191. 

Jdlleoc,    John    RiHbvortk.     Vla- 
CDunt.   lU.  >«B. 

JoacCh     Jaoquaa     Ciialr*, 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 

WeiU  Wui— CtHiMiHWd. 


..  VI,  ; 


■Awr,— ?«<«•»'. 


,    VI.    110. 


TranajWaoia.  VL  Z8S, 

Tnlakr.  Lwn,  VL  tfil. 

Turkey,  VI,  Z«6. 

Ukr»ln«.  VI,  214. 

United  3tat«.  VI.  ns. 

U-Boata.  VL  291. 

Vcrdon.  VL  120. 

VInna,  VL  tS4, 

Vladlvoatok.  VI.  B44. 

Weimar,   VI.   t87. 

William  II.  VL  412. 

Wikon.    (Tbomwl    Waodroo.  VL 

414 . 
World  War  Reriew..  VI,  448 


Yakotak  on  Jakouk.  Vt.  442. 
Yonnt    Hen'i    ChrliUan    AMod 
Hon.  VI.  4t». 
YpT«.  VL  470. 


Joffi 


JaBoalavonla.    UI.    429. 

Katacnin.  Ill,  440. 

KUoehBV,    II,   4S9. 

Kitchener.    Horatio    HarbtrW    HL 


Lmlna,    Nikolai.    IV,    S8. 
Lrtvla,  IV.  47. 
Libcrtj  Loau,  IV,  M. 
LItee.  IV.  80. 
Litlc.  IV,  80. 
Littananla.  IV,  Bl. 
Llojd-Gaoru,    DwU,    IV. 
Lnraln*.  IV.  10*. 
Loanln,  IV.  118. 
"LnalUBia,"  IV.  114. 
Luumlnic.  IV,   US. 
HaesdoBia.  IV,   IM. 
Marina.  IV.  1»1. 
Hunc.  IV.  IM. 
Harelw.  IMilr^  JaHph,  C 

IV,  841. 
Hnuatlr,  IV.  110. 
Horn.  IV,  116. 


Pnmla.  V.  SM. 


Salvation  Armj,  V,  S87. 

Sadu.  V,  446. 

So-da.  or  Serbia,  V.  4«1,  4(1. 

BbantuMi,  V,  475. 

BOwrla,  V,  487. 

Blnn   FoiD.  V.   G06 

Skaetrrak.   VL  2. 


i.  VI.  1 


I.  11. 


,v  Google 


SYNTHETICAL  INDEX 


,v  Google 


„  Google 


„  Google 


„  Google