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APPLIED ANATOMY
THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE HUMAN BODY
CONSIDERED IN
RELATION TO ITS FUNCTIONS,
DISEASES AND INJURIES
BY
GWILYM G. DAVIS
M.D., UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA AND GOETTINGEN ; M.R.C.S., ENG. ; LL.D., LAFAYETTE
"professor of ORTilOPEDIC SURGERY AND FORMERLY ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF APPLIED ANATOMY IN THE UNI-
VERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA ; CONSULTING SURGEON TO ST. JOSEPH'S HOSPITAL ; FORMERLY SURGEON
TO THE EPISCOPAL HOSPITAL ; SURGEON TO THE ORTHOPEDIC HOSPITAL ; ORTHOPEDIC SURGEON
TO THE UNIVERSITY AND PHILADELPHIA GENERAL HOSPITALS ; FELLOW OF THE AMERI-
CAN SURGICAL ASSOCIATION, THE PHILADELPHIA ACADEMY OF SURGERY AND
PHILADELPHIA COLLEGE OF PHYSICIANS ; MEMBER OF THE AMERICAN
SOCIETY OF CLINICAL SURGERY, THE AMERICAN ORTHOPEDIC
ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN ACADEMY OF MEDICINE, ETC.
WITH SIX HUNDRED AND THIRTY-ONE ILLUSTRATIONS, MOSTLY
FROM ORIGINAL DISSECTIONS AND MANY IN COLOR
BY
ERWIN F. FABER
FOURTH EDITION
PHILADELPHIA & LONDON
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
1S5708
Copyright, 1910
By J. B. LippiNCOTT Company
Copyright, 1913
By J. B. LippiNCOTT Company
Copyright, 191 5
By J. B. LippiNCOTT Company
Copyright, 1916
By J, B. LippiNCOTT Company
Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company
The Washi?tgtott Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A
To
GEORGE A. PIERSOL, M.D., Sc.D.
PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA,
AN IDEAL SCIENTIST, TEACHER, AND FRIEND
PREFACE TO FOURTH EDITION.
In this edition there have been a few corrections to the cuts and text and
some new matter added.
The Author.
1814 Spruce Street, April, 1916.
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION.
In this edition the general plan of the work has been retained. The
text and illustrations have been carefully revised with many corrections and
additions. The cuts have been made more accurate, ten have been entirely
replaced and two new ones added. Our thanks are extended to our kindly
critics who have aided us in making the book more accurate and useful.
The Author.
1814 Spruce Street, January, 1913.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
It is not the object of this work to teach plain anatomical facts ; its aim is to
show the relation of structure to function, whether it is normal function or function
disturbed or impaired by injury or disease. It is explanatory and utilitarian in
character, and not encyclopedic. The bare facts of anatomy can be obtained from
the systematic treatises, and they are here only briefly given in order to refresh the
memory of the reader, who is supposed to be familiar to a certain extent with
systematic anatomy. A person who has studied the subject only from a systematic
standpoint cannot utilize and apply the knowledge so acquired unless he considers
its relation to the various affections encountered in practice. He can study anatomy,
but he will not see its application until it is pointed out to him. He may have
studied the palmar fascia, but, unless he is shown how its construction influences the
course of pus originatmg beneath it, his anatomical knowledge is of little value.
The inability to make any practical use of the facts or to see their application is the
reason why anatomy is so frequently regarded as a dry, uninteresting study and too
often designedly neglected.
In considering the subject, after a few general remarks on the part involved, the
skeleton and muscles are briefly described, and thereby one is enabled to understand
the surface anatomy, which immediately follows. Then comes a consideration of the
various affections of the part, with such allusion to the nerves and vessels as is desir-
able to elucidate the subject. As the book is not intended to be a systematic
treatise on anatomy, such anatomical facts as cannot be shown to be useful in practice
are not mentioned. To give them here would make the volume too large, obscure
its main object, and defeat its purpose.
As regards the anatomical nomenclature used, there is no system so generally
accepted as to justify its exclusive adoption. In the desire, however, to aid in further-
ing the adoption of better anatomical terms, as much of the BNA terminology has
been used, or included in parentheses, as a consideration of the subject from the
standpoint of a general practitioner would allow.
Most of the illustrations are from original drawings of preparations made by the
author and his assistants. Those derived from other sources are duly credited ; if
there has been any failure in this respect, it is unintentional.
The clinical material, except where otherwise stated, is from the author's own
experience.
To the artist in charge, Mr. Erwin F. Faber, and to Mr. Herman Faber, who
made a large number of the original sketches, my best thanks are due for their great
skill, untiring energy, and most intelligent aid ; their work speaks for itself.
vi PREFACE.
I am under great obligations to many friends who have kindly rendered me their
aid. Professor George A. Piersol has given me much valuable information and
allowed me the unstinted use of his anatomical material ; Dr. Astley P. C. Ashhurst
made many of the dissections and aided in correcting and preparing the manuscript
for the press ; Dr. Frank D. Dickson did most of the proof-reading and prepared the
index ; Dr. T. Turner Thomas made many of the earlier preparations ; and Dr. Henry
Beates aided in the revision of the first portion of the manuscript. To these and
others who have contributed to the formation of the book I desire to express my
thanks.
To the hearty cooperation and unfailing generosity of my publishers is due the
presentation of such an attractive volume. I asked them for nearly everything I
could think of, and they gave me nearly everything I asked for.
In conclusion : this work is recognized as being far from complete, but it is
intended to be suggestive rather than absolute. It is not designed so much to
present facts as to furnish reasons, and it is hoped that it will appeal to the practising
physician and surgeon as well as to the student.
GwiLYM G. Davis.
Philadelphia, August, 1910.
CONTENTS.
THE SCALP. Page
Skin I
Superficial Fascia i
Occipitofrontalis Muscle 2
Subaponeurotic Tissue 2
Pericranium 2
Subpericranial Tissue 2
Arteries of the Scalp 3
Temporal Artery 3
Occipital Artery 3
Lymphatics of the Scalp 4
Affections of the Layers of the Scalp. ... 4
Affections of the Blood-vessels 6
Treatment of Vascular Aft'ections of the
Scalp 7
Tumors of the Scalp 7
THE SKULL.
The Skull in Childhood 8
Fontanelles 8
Dura Mater g
The Skull in Adults 10
Tables 10
Sutures 10
Frontal Sinuses 10
Mastoid Process 11
Suprameatal Triangle 12
Cerebral Venous Sinuses 12
Practures of the Skull 14
Fractures of the Skull in Children. . 14
Fractures of the Skull in Adults. ... 15
Fractures by Contrecoup or Counter
Stroke 16
Hemorrhage in Fractures of the
Skull 16
Injuries to Nerves in Fracture of
the Skull 19
THE MENINGES.
Dura Mater 20
Arachnoid 21
Pia Mater 22
Affections of the Membranes of the
Brain 22
Pachymeningitis 22
Dural Hemorrhage 23
Meningitis 23
Pial Hemorrhage 23
THE BRAIN.
Circulation of the Brain 25
Internal Carotid Artery 27
Anterior Cerebral Artery 27
Middle Cerebral Artery 28
Posterior Cerebral Artery 28
Cerebral Softening 30
Apoplexy 30
Crossed Paralysis 32
Cortical Apoplexy 32
Cerebral Lobes: Frontal, Parietal, Occip-
ital, Temporosphenoidal, Central Lobe
or Island of Reil 32
Page
Fissures and Convolutions of the Brain. . 33
Lateral Surface of the Hemispheres .... 33
Medial Surface of the Hemispheres ... 34
Functions of the Cortex of the Brain:
Cerebral Localization 34
Functions of the Convolutions on the
surface of the Cerebrum: Prefrontal
Area; Midfrontal Area; Speech
Centre or Broca's Convolution; Post-
frontal Area; Rolandic Area; Sensory
Area; Visual Area; Auditory Area;
Gustatory Area; Olfactory Area. ... 35
Functions of the Basal Ganglia 37
Corpus Striatum and Thalamus. ... 37
Corpora Quadrigemina, Crura Cere-
bri, Pons Varolii 38
The Corona Radiata, Internal Capsule,
and Motor Tract 38
Craniocerebral Topography 39
Bony Landmarks; Topographical
Points 40
The Lower Level of the Brain 40
Fissures and Convolutions 40
Subsidiary Fissures, Convolutions . 41
The Fissures in Children 42
The Lateral Ventricles 43
Cerebral Abscess — Trephining 44
THE FACE.
The Frontal Region 45
The Temporal Region 46
The Temporal Fascia 47
The Region of the Cheek 49
Parotid Gland 51
The Upper Jaw 54
The Lower Jaw 63
The Region of the Eye . 72
The Eyeball and Optic Nerve 77
The Eyelids and Conjunctiva 82
The Lachrymal Apparatus 83
The Ear 84
Operations on the Middle Ear 90
The Nose 94
Frontal Sinus loi
Ethmoidal Sinuses 102
Sphenoidal Sinus, Maxillary Sinus. . 103
THE MOUTH AND THROAT.
The Tongue 107
Roof of Mouth in
Palatal Arches 112
Faucial Tonsils 113
Retropharyngeal Abscess 116
The Pharynx 117
Eustachian Tube 118
Pharyngeal Tonsil 122
The Larynx 124
THE NECK.
Surface Anatomy 128
Cervical Triangles 131
Torticollis 140
vii
VIU
CONTENTS.
Page (
Ligation of Arteries 141
The Cervical Fascias 150
Lymphatics of the Neck 156 ,
Operations on the Air Passages 161
Operations on the Thyroid Gland 163
The Parathyroid Bodies 165
Oesophagus — Cervical Portion 166
Cut-throat 168
Afifections of the Neck 169
THE THORAX.
Sternum, Ribs, and Costal Cartilages . . 174
Thoracic Vertebrae 176
Soft Parts of Chest 176
Muscles of Chest 177
Surface Anatomy of Thorax 180
Breast or Mamma 182
Lymphatics of Breast 184
Abscess of Breast; Tumors 185
Excision of Breast 187
The Mediastinum 187
Pleural Effusions 191
The Chest Contents 192
Longitudinal lines; Regions 192
The Pleurae 194
The Lungs 196
Pericardium 201
The Heart 204
The Aorta 208
The Oi^sophagus 211
The Thoracic Duct 214
THE UPPER EXTREMITY.
The Shoulder-Girdle 217
Bones of the Shoulder 219
Shoulder-Joint 222
Muscles of the Shoulder 226
Surface Anatomy 227
Axilla 229
Dislocations of the Clavicle 230
Dislocations of the Shoulder 232
Fractures of the Clavicle 241
Fractures of the Scapula 243
Fractures of the Upper end of the Hu-
merus 244
Epiphyseal Separations 247
Amputation at the Shoulder-Joint 247
Interscapulothoracic Amputation 250
Excision of the Clavicle 250
Excision of the Scapula . 251
Excision of the Head of the Humerus. . 251
Diseases of the Shoulder- Joint and Bursas 253
Axillary Vessels 257
Axillary Lymphatics 263
Abscesses of Axilla 264
THE ARM.
The Humerus 267
Muscles of the Arm 267
Intermuscular Septa 271
Surface Anatomy 271
Brachial Artery 272
Amputation of the Arm 275
Fractures of the Humerus 276
Operations on the Arm 279
REGION OF THE ELBOW.
Bones of the Elbow 280
Elbow-Joint 282
Muscles of the Elbow 284
Page
Surface Anatomy 287
Veins of the Elbow 288
Brachial Artery 290
Dislocations of the Elbow 291
Fractures in the Region of the Elbow. . . 295
Diseases of the Olecranon Bursa; Diseases
of the Elbow-Joint 300
Resection of the Elbow 301
Amputation at the EIVjov/ 302
THE FOREARM.
Bones 303
Movements of Pronation and Supination 304
Muscles 305
Surface Anatomy 312
Arteries 3 14
Nerves 317
Fractures 321
Amputation 326
Operations 328
REGION OF THE WRIST.
Bones of the Wrist 330
Inferior Radio-ulnar Articulation 332
Wrist-Joint 333
Anterior Annular Ligament 335
Posterior Annular Ligament 336
Surface Anatomy of the Wrist 338
Compound Ganglion 342
Fractures of the lower end of the Radius
and Ulna 342
Dislocations at the Wrist 345
Excision of the Wrist 347
Amputation at the Wrist 347
THE HAND.
Bones of the Hand 349
The Phalanges 351
Joints 352
Muscles 353
Surface Anatomy 354
Palmar Fascia 357
Arteries 358
Nerves 360
Dislocations 362
Fractures 364
Wounds 364
Abscesses 365
Lymphatics 368
Amputations 368
THE ABDOMEN.
Surface Anatomy 370
Abdominal Viscera 372
Abdominal Walls 374
Muscles of the Abdomen 375
Vessels of the Abdominal Walls 378
Abdominal Incisions 381
Herniae 3*^2
Umbilical 383
Inguinal Congenital 383
Acquired Inguinal Hernia 385
Radical Cure 387
Femoral Hernia 390
The Lumbar Region 392
Lumbar Fascia 393
Lumbar Abscess 394
Lumbar Incisions 395
The Interior of the Abdomen 396
Peritoneum 396
CONTENTS.
IX
Page
Abdominal Viscera 399
Stomach 401
Affections of the Stomach 403
Operations on the Stomach. . . . 405
The Small Intestine 406
Duodenum 408
Jejunum and Ileum; Operations 409
The Mesentery 410
The Large Intestine 411
Caecum and Appendix 414
Appendicitis 414
The Colon 414
The Liver 416
Wounds and Injuries 417
Abscess 420
Gall- Bladder and Biliary Passages. 420
Gall-Stones 422
The Pancreas 422
Cysts and Abscesses 423
The Spleen 424
Splenic Enlargement 424
Wounds 424
The Kidneys 424
Displacement of the Kidneys. . 427
Tumors of the Kidney 427
Abscess of the Kidney 428
Operations on the Kidney. . . . 428
The Suprarenal Gland 438
The Ureter and Renal Pelvis 430
Operations on the Ureter 43 i
THE PELVIS.
Pelvic Walls 434
Pelvic Floor 435
Pelvic Fascia 436
Iliac Vessels 438
Pelvic Viscera 438
Rectum and Anal Canal 440
Blood-Vessels 442
Affections of Rectum and Anus 442
Imperforate Anus 442
Hemorrhoids 443
Fistula 443
Fissure 443
Excision of Rectum 444
Bladder 447
Bladder in the Female 448
Cystoscopic Examination.. . . ,. 448
Operations on the. Bladder. . . . 448
Prostate 450
Hypertrophy 450
Prostatectomy 451
Abscess 452
Seminal Vesicles 453
Vas Defferens 454
Development of the Urogenital System . 454
Female Generative Organs 454
Uterus 456
Ovary 456
Fallopian Tubes 457
Vagina. 457
Ureter in the Female 458
Blood-Vessels 458
Lymphatics ; 459
Pelvic Examinations 459
Operations on the Female Pelvic Organs 460
Hysterectomy 461
Oophorectomy 461
Vaginal Hysterectomy! 462
The Female External Genitals 462
Clinical Considerations 463
Female Perineum 464
Page
Male External Genitals. ... 465
Penis 465
Scrotum 467
Testicles 468
Epididymis 468
Spermatic Cord 469
Urethra 470
Muscles 471
Passage of Sounds and Cathe-
ters 471
The Male Perineum 472
The Perineal Fascias 473
The Perineal Spaces 474
Practical Application 475
Rupture of the Urethra 475
Median Lithotomy 475
Lateral Lithotomy 476
Anal Triangle and Ischiorectal
Region 476
THE BACK AND SPINE.
Surface Anatomy 477
The Vertebral Column 478
Curves 478
Movements 478
Deformities of the Spinal Column. . 47S
Kyphosis 479
Lordosis 479
Scoliosis 479
Affections of the Spinal Column. . . 481
Injuries of the Spinal Column 482
Spinal Cord and its Membranes .... 483
Transverse Spinal Lesions 484
Spinal Meninges 484
Spinal Hemorrhage 486
Functions of the Cord and Spinal
Localization 487
Lesions of the Cord 487
Operations on the Spine 488
THE LOWER EXTREMITY.
General Considerations 489
The Bony Pelvis 489
Mechanisim of the Pelvis 490
Fractures of the Pelvis 491
Attachment of the Lower Extremities to
the Trunk 491
Anteroposterior Equilibrium 492
Lateral Equilibrium 493
Deviations of the Spine above the
Sacrum 495
Distortions Accompanying Affections of
the Lower Extremities 496
Measurement of the Lower Limbs 497
Walking 498
THE REGION OF THE HIP.
Bones of the Hip 499
Muscles of the Hip 503
Surface Anatomy 504
Ligation of the Gluteal, Sciatic, and
Internal Pudic Arteries 505
The Hip-Joint 506
Dislocations of the Hip 508
Mechanism of the Production of . . . 509
Reduction of 512
Congenital Luxations of Hip 514
Coxalgia 515
Hip Abscess 516
Coxa Vara 517
CONTENTS.
Page
Coxa Valga 517
Operations on the Hip-Joint 517
Lateral Operations 517
Anterior Operations 519
Inferior Operations $iq
THE THIGH.
Muscles 520
Surface Anatomy 522
Scarpa's Triangle 522
Femoral Artery 523
Hunter's Canal 524
Long Saphenous Vein 525
Lymphatics 527
Sciatic Nerve 527
Fractures of the Femur 529
Fracture of Neck 529
Fracture through the Trochan-
ters 531
Fracture of the Shaft 53 1
Amputation at the Hip-Joint 532
Amputation of the Thigh 532
REGION OF THE KNEE.
Surface Anatomy 533
The Knee-joint 534
Movements 534
Bones 534
Ligaments 535
Bursae of the Knee 538
Fracture of the Patella 539
Dislocation of the Patella 540
Dislocation of the Knee 541
Dislocation of the Semilunar Carti-
lages 541
Epiphyseal Separations 541
Resection of the Knee 542
Tuberculous Disease of the Knee-
joint 543
Knock- Knee and Bow-Legs 543
Osteotomy 544
Ligation of the Popliteal Artery 544
Amputation through the Knee-joint . . . 544
THE LEG.
Surface Anatomy 546
Muscles of the Leg 546
Fascia of the Leg 548
Arteries of the Leg 548
Veins of the Leg 550
Varicosities of 550
Lymphatics of the Leg 551
Fractures of the Leg 551
Amputation of the Leg 552
REGION OF THE ANKLE.
Pagb
Surface Anatomy 553
Ankle-joint 554
Ligaments 554
Movements 554
Tuberculosis of the Ankle 555
Excision of the Ankle 555
Sprain of the Ankle 556
Dislocations of the Ankle 556
Fractures of the Ankle 557
Fracture by Eversion or Pott's
Fracture 557
Fracture by Inversion. 558
Amputations at the Ankle 559
Syme's 559
Pirogofif's 560
REGION OF THE FOOT.
The Construction of the Foot 561
Diseases and Injuries of the Foot 561
Treatment of Affections of the Feet. . . . 562
Bones of the Foot." 562
Arch of the Foot 563
Joints and Ligaments of the Foot 564
The Ligamentous Support of the Arch
of the Foot 566
Muscles of the Foot 568
Action of the Muscles in Supporting
the Arch 568
Action of the Muscles as Flexors
and Extensors 569
Action of the Muscles as Abductors
and Adductors 570
Surface Anatomy of the Foot 570
Tendons of the Foot 571
Joints of the Foot 572
Arteries of the Foot 572
Amputations 574
Chopart's 575
Lisfranc's 575
Plantar Abscess 575
Deformities of the Feet 576
Talipes Varus 576
Talipes Valgus 577
Flat Foot 577
Talipes Equinus 578
Talipes Calcaneus 578
Talipes Cavus 578
Hallux Valgus 579
The Toes 579
Ingrown Nail 579
Hammer Toe 579
Luxation of the Toes 580
Metatarsalgia 580
Resection of the Metatarsophalan-
geal Joint 380
Amputation of the Toes 581
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE SCALP.
The scalp is formed by the movable soft tissues which cover the skull. It is
composed of three layers: skin, superficial fascia, -awA occipitofrontalis muscle \\'\\h
its aponeurosis. It is attached to the underlying pericranium by loose connective
tissue called the subaponeurotic layer. The pericr'anium, or periosteum of the skull,
is loosely attached to the bones by a small quantity of connective-tissue fibres called
Epicranial aponeurosis
Superficial fascia
Skin
by some anatomists the subpericranial connective tissue. At the sutures, however, it
is very firmly attached.
The principal affections of the scalp are wounds, inflammation, affections of
the blood-vessels, tumors, and neuralgia. The peculiarities of these affections are
determined by the anatomical structure of the parts.
The skin of the scalp is probably the thickest in the body, although not so
dense as that of the heel. Besides the hair, it contains abundant sweat and sebaceous
glands. These latter are connected with the hair-follicles and are near the surface.
The skin increases in thickness from the frontal to the occipital region.
The superficial fascia consists of a net-work of connective-tissue fibres which
run from the skin above to the aponeurosis of the occipitofrontalis below. In its
meshes are fat, blood-vessels, nerves, and lymphatics. The hair-bulbs often pierce
the skin and extend into this layer.
The fibres of the superficial fascia bind the skin so firmly to the aponeurosis
beneath that when the skin is moved the aponeurotic layer is carried with it. The
2 APPLIED ANATOMY.
arrangement of the fibres is shown in Fig. 3. P'ibres starting from the point A not
only pass directly down to B, but also to each side to the points Cand D. In the
same way, fibres starting from B not only pass upward to A, but also forward to E
and backward to F. Now, if the skin is moved in the direction of the forward arrow,
the fibres E B and A D are tightened and drag the aponeurosis forward. If the skin
is moved in the direction of the backward arrow, the fibres A C and F B are tight-
ened and so drag the aponeurosis backward. Thus it is seen that the aponeurosis
must follow the movements of the skin.
The occipitofrontalis muscle with its aponeurosis arises from the supe-
rior curved line of the occiput and is inserted into the skin of the frontal region.
Skin
Super
Aponeurosis
Subaponeurotic connective tissue
Pericranium
_ Subpericranium
•4 Skull
! — Uuta mater
Merkel describes the epicranial aponeurosis as dividing into two layers, one inserting
into the skin and the other into the rim of the orbit {Haiid. der top. Anat. Bd. i, p.
17). The bellies of the muscle are comparatively short, about 5 cm. in length, the
remaining tissue extending between them constituting the aponeurosis. As it comes
downward from the temporal ridge, over the
sides of the head, the aponeurosis becomes
thinner and gives attachment by its superficial
surface to the anterior and superior auriadar
muscles. It then proceeds downward to be
attached to the upper edge of the zygoma.
Skin
\:ioneurosis
Fig. 3. — Diagram illustratitiK the melhod of attach-
ment of theskin to the aponeurosis of the occipitofrontalis
muscle.
Fig. 4. — Showing now the periosteum in
childhood dips between the bones in the line of
the sutures.
Contraction of the occipitofrontalis muscle causes the skin of the forehead to wrinkle
transversely. It is a muscle of expression, and blends with the pyraniidalis nasi
and corrugator supercilii. It is supplied by branches of the facial nerve.
The subaponeurotic tissue is very loose and abundant, so that it does not tend
to confine the movements of the scalp, but favors them. Hence the scalp is readily
torn loose from the skull in scalping, machinery accidents, etc. This tissue is so
loose that effusions accumulate here and spread extensively. It contains only a few
blood-vessels.
The pericranium in its normal condition is a thin, tough membrane containing
few blood-vessels. Except at the sutures, where it is firmly attached and dips
down between the bones, it is comparatively easily stripped from the skull and
THE SCALP. 3
does not convey much nourishment to it. It is deficient in osteogenetic or bone-
forming properties, so that when it is raised off the skull in operations, and the
bone removed from beneath, as occurs in trephining, fractures, etc. , new bone is not
produced.
The subpericranial tissue is so scanty and loose, particularly in infancy, that
it readily allows the pericranium to be raised and effusions to occur beneath.
THE ARTERIES OF THE SCALP.
The scalp is supplied by the frontal, supra-orbital, and sometimes a small
branch from the lachrymal arteries, from the ophthalmic; by the temporal, through
Temporal
Transverse facial
Posterior auricular
Occipital
Fig. 5. — Arteries of the scalp.
its anterior and posterior branches; and by the posterior auricular and the occipital
arteries from the external carotid. These arteries communicate freely with each
other, not only laterally, but also across the top of the scalp. It is not unusual to
see a large branch of the temporal communicating directly with the occipital.
The temporal artery begins in the substance of \.h& parotid gla7id, just below
the condyle of the jaw, and mounts over the zygoma, a centimetre (or less) in front
of the ear. It lies on the temporal fascia and its pulsations can be felt at this point,
if desired, during the administration of an anaesthetic. About four centimetres ( 1 5^
in. ) above the zygoma, it divides into the anterior and posterior branches. The
auriculotemporal branch of the fifth nerve lies just in front of the ear and between it
and the temporal arterv.
The occipital artery mounts to the scalp in the interval between the pos-
terior border of the steniomastoid muscle and the anterior border of the trapezius.
It is about midway between the posterior border of the mastoid process and the
occipital protuberance. If it is desired to expose it from this point forward, the
APPLIED ANATOMY.
sternoniastoid, splenius capitis, and tracheloniastoid muscles will have to be cut,
because it passes beneath them. The occipitalis major nerve lies to the inner side of
the artery.
Occipital artery
Complexus
Inferior oblique
Trapeziu;
Trachelomatoid
Splenius'
Levator angul
scapulae
Superior oblique
Sternoniastoid
Tracheloniastoid
Splenius
Spinal accessory
nerve
Hypoglossal nerve
Fig. 6. — Occipital artery.
LYMPHATICS OF THE SCALP.
The lymphatics anteriorly near the median line pass down between the orbits to
reach the submaxillary nodes. Those of the anterior parietal and temporal regions
empty into the pre-auricular nodes; those of the posterior parietal and temporal,
into the nodes behind and below the ear; and those of the occipital region into the
occipital nodes. Infectious troubles of these regions, therefore, will cause enlarge-
ment of the corresponding nodes.
AFFECTIONS INVOLVING THE LAYERS OF THE SCALP.
Wounds of the scalp are common. Incised wounds bleed more freely and the
hemorrhage is more difficult to control than in wounds elsewhere on the surface.
This is due to the exceedingly free blood supply and to the peculiar arrangement of
the blood-vessels in the tissues.
Small wounds of the scalp do not gape, particularly if they are longitudinal in
direction and not very deep. The skin is so intimately bound to the aponeurosis
beneath that displacement is impossible. If the cut is deep enough to divide the
aponeurosis extensively, especially if the wound is transverse, gaping is marked.
This is produced by contraction of the two bellies of the occipitofrontalis muscle,
which pulls the edges apart.
Bleeding is apt to be persistent and hard to control because the arteries running
in the deep layers of the skin and fibrous trabeculae are firmly attached and, there-
fore, when cut, their lumen cannot contract nor their ends retract. When large
flaps are torn in the scalp, they rarely die because of their free blood supply, and
sloughing is limited to the parts which are actually contused. As the subaponeur-
otic space is often opened, if the wound is sewed too tightly shut, subsequent bleeding
instead of escaping externally may extend widely under the aponeurosis. Inasmuch
as hair and dirt are often crushed into these wounds, great care should be taken to
THE SCALP. 5
disinfect them. A cut will open the hair bulbs and sebaceous glands, and, as the hairs
project into the subcutaneous tissue, they may serve as a starting point for infection.
Contraction of the occipitofrontalis muscle may prevent healing in extensive
wounds. To avoid this the scalp is covered by a recurrent bandage or otherwise fixed.
Lacerated wounds do not bleed so freely as do incised wounds, but they are
accompanied by a more extensive loosening of the scalp. Large flaps of tissue are
frequently raised and turned to one side. The most severe of these injuries have been
produced by the hair being caught by a revolving shaft, tearing nearly the whole
scalp off. Its loose attachment to the pericranium and bone beneath by the loose
subaponeurotic tissue, readily explains the reason of these extensive detachments.
Contusions cause only a moderate amount of swelling, which is usually circum-
scribed. While the skin is not broken, the blood-vessels and other tissues beneath
are often ruptured, and, therefore, extravasation of blood occurs. When this is con-
fined to the superficial fascia, it is small in amount and limited in area. It does not
tend to work its way for any great distance beneath the skin. If the extravasation
extends below the aponeurosis, it may cover a considerable area of the skull. When
it occurs beneath the pericranium it is called cephalhcematoma, or in the new-born
capnl succedaneum. Caput succedaneum is found almost always on the right side,
involving the parietal eminence. It is limited
by the attachment of the pericranium at the
sutures.
Hcs7natomas of the scalp possess the pecu-
liarity of being soft in the centre and sur-
rounded by a hard cedematous ring of tissue.
In cephalhaematoma of long standing this ring
may ossify, and the new bone may even extend
and form a more or less perfect bony cyst.
This, however, is very rare.
Hsematomas produced by blows on the
head are often mistaken for fractures. The
raised edge is so hard as sometimes to be
thought to be the edge of broken bone. The tis- Fig 7.— Haematoma on the forehead of a child,
sues beneath the skin at the site of impact
seem to be pulpified and remain perfectly soft to the touch; the smooth unbroken
skull can usually be felt over an area equal to the site of impact. Surrounding this
soft area is the hardened ring, composed of tissues between the skin and the bone,
into which serum and blood have been effused.
Inflaviniation and abscess are caused by infected wounds, furuncles, erysipelas,
caries of the skull and suppurating sebaceous cysts.
The scalp is a favorite location for erysipelas; if not started primarily by an
infected wound, the scalp may be involved secondarily by extension from the face.
Caries of the skull is often of syphilitic origin.
Abscesses maj occur in three places:
1. Subcutaneous.
2. Subaponeurotic.
3. Subpericranial.
I. Subcutaneous abscesses are usually small and do not tend to spread but
rather to discharge through the skin. This is because the firm fibrous trabeculae
prevent lateral extension. Furuncles are quite common in childhood; they are, of
course, superficial to the aponeurosis. Sebaceous cysts are especially common in
the scalp and they sometimes suppurate. The orifice of the obstructed duct is not
usually visible. Sometimes in a small cyst a black spot on its surface indicates
the opening of the duct. By means of a needle or pin this opening can be dilated
and some of the contents expressed. Of course, if nothing further is done it will
reaccumulate. When these cysts become inflamed they become united to the skin
above so that it has to be dissected off. If pus forms, it either remains localized to
the cyst or bursts through the skin and discharges externally. It does not tend
to burrow under the skin laterally on account of the fibrous trabeculae uniting the
APPLIED ANATOMY.
skin and aponeurosis. The aponeurosis beneath is intact, therefore the pus does
not get below it. The cyst, with the Hning membrane entire, should be removed,
otherwise it will recur.
2. Subaponeurotic abscesses come from infected wounds, erysipelas, or caries of
the bones. It is not desirable to close deep wounds of the scalp too tightly. Some
suppuration is liable to occur which, not finding an easy escape externally, may
spread under the aponeurosis if the wound has been deep enough to divide it.
Infection of wounds is the most frequent source of these abscesses, hence the desira-
bility of providing for drainage for at least a short period. In erysipelas, serous
effusion, which may become purulent, oc-
curs in the subaponeurotic tissue, as well as
in the layers above. It may sink down-
ward and point in the temporal, occipital, or
frontal region. In the temporal region the
descent of the pus may be limited by the
attachment of the lateral expansion of the
aponeurosis to the zygoma. The attachment
of the occipitalis muscle posteriorly to the
superior curved line of the occiput prevents
the effusion from coming to the surface at
that point. The liquid accumulates low down
on the forehead over the orbits, being pre-
vented from entering by the attachment of
the orbitotarsal ligament, and tends to point
close to the median line. The frontal muscles
of the two sides are apt to be slightly sep-
arated, leaving a weak spot just above the
root of the nose, and this is where fluctua-
tion can most easily be felt. These accumu-
lations in the frontal, temporal, and occipital
regions may require incisions for their evac-
uation and drainage. Suppuration arising
from carious bone readily perforates the
pericranium and then infiltrates the loose
subaponeurotic tissue. The bones of the vault of the skull are not infrequently
affected by syphilitic disease, producing caries and suppuration, which invade the
subaponeurotic space.
3. Subpericranial abscesses are comparatively rare. They usually start from
diseased bone and spread laterally beneath the pericranial tissue. The pus may be
limited to a single bone on account of the firmer attachment of the pericranium at the
site of the sutures. To avoid breaking into the subaponeurotic space, a free opening
should be made into the abscess so as to allow the pus to drain externally.
Fig. 8. — Arterial angioma or cirsoid aneurism.
AFFECTIONS OF THE BLOOD-VESSELS.
The arteries or veins alone may be affected, or both may be invoh'ed.
Arterial varix is the name given to an enlargement of a single artery. It forms
a swollen, tortuous, pulsating mass in the course of the artery. The temporal artery
is liable to be so affected, particularly its anterior branch.
Cirsoid ajieiirism, or aneurism by anastomosis, is formed by numerous enlarged
arteries. It is sometimes called an arterial angioma ox plexiforni angioma. The
veins are also somewhat involved. Pulsation is marked.
Venous angioma is a tumor formation in which the venous blood is contained in
large spaces, which are lined with endothelium, instead of in normal veins.
Telangiectasis or ncevKS is formed of enlarged capillaries. It is often called
port wine mark, mother's mark, etc.
Aneurismal varix, or arterioveno7is aneurism , is where an adjacent artery and
vein being wounded, — as the temporal artery and vein, — the blood passes directly
from the artery into the vein.
THE SCALP. 7
Varicose aneurism is where a sac intervenes between the artery and vein, so
that the blood passes first from the artery into the sac and then into the vein. The
temporal artery with its companion vein has been so affected.
Treatment of Vascular Affections of the Scalp. — Vascular tumors are
usually ligated and excised. Acupressure pins may be passed under the larger
arterial trunks, but the exceedingly free anastomosis renders thorough excision
preferable; even this is not seldom unsuccessful.
TUMORS OF THE SCALP.
Sebaceous cysts arise from obstructed sebaceous glands; the contents consists of
epithelial cells, fat, and cholesterin. They sometimes calcify. They spread in the
subcutaneous tissue, stretching and raising the skin above and causing atrophy of
Fig. 9. — Sebaceous cyst of scalp.
Fig. 10. — Meningocele.
the hair bulbs, but do not involve the epicranial aponeurosis below. In removing
them, if they have never been inflamed, they can readily be turned out through a
slit in the skin. The subaponeurotic space will not be opened, therefore their
removal is not often followed by bad results.
Encephalocele is a tumor .formed by a protrusion, through the skull, of the
membranes of the brain, containing brain matter and cerebrospinal fluid.
Meningocele, or a tumor containing the meninges of the brain and cerebrospinal
fluid, is more rare in the skull than is the case when the spine is affected. It pro-
trudes through an unossified part of the skull, and, according to Sutton, two-thirds of
the cases occur in the occipital region, between the foramen magnum and torcular
Herophili. He characterizes it as a hydrocele of the fourth ventricle, and says that
nine out of ten cases die if operated on. The next most frequent seat for meningo-
cele is at the root of the nose (Fig. 10).
Cephalhydrocele is the name given to a pulsating tumor communicating with the
interior of the skull through a traumatic opening. It contains cerebrospinal fluid.
Dermoid tumors occur in the median line and, according to Sutton, are most
common over the anterior fontanelle and external occipital protuberance. They often
have a thin pedicle attaching them to the dura mater and may grow either inside or out-
side the skull. They are formed by an inclusion of some of the tissue of the ectoderm
by the bones as they approach from each side to ossify and unite in the median line.
A congenital tumor located at the root of the nose is probably an encephalocele;
one located at the anterior fontanelle is probably a dermoid; a tumor in the occipital
region may be either, but a dermoid is apt to be higher up than an encephalocele.
APPLIED ANATOMY
THE SKULL
The skull is the bony framework of the head. It is divided into the bones of
the cranium and those of the face. The hyoid bone is usually classified with the
bones of the head.
The cranium consists of the bones forming the brain case. They are the
occipital, two parietals, the frontal, two temporals, the sphenoid, and the ethmoid.
The bones of the face are fourteen in number, there being two single bones
and six pairs. The single bones are the mandible, or inferior maxilla, and vomer ;
the pairs are the superior maxilla, malar, nasal, palate, lachrymal, and inferior
turbinated bones.
THE SKULL IN CHILDHOOD.
The skull of the infant is markedly different from that of the adult. At birth the
face is quite small and undeveloped, while the cranium is relatively large. The frontal
and parietal eminences are very marked.
^^ — vj^^,,^ The vault of the skull is not entirely os-
^^m ^^^ sified and the sutures are not completed.
.^^Kk .i^b^. The bones of the base of the skull
"^^^^^ ' "^^^ originate in cartilage, while those of the
vault originate in membrane. This mem-
A \ ""^^^ brane has one or more centres of ossi-
M ^ ^^11^^ fication appearing in it for each bone.
^K- ^ '^^P|k These centres increase in size and finally
^' I ^ meet at the edges of the bone, thus form-
ing the sutures. At the time of birth the
sutures are represented by membrane,
which joins the adjacent bony edges.
The frontal bone has two centres of
ossification; one for each side. These
form a suture in the median line of the
forehead which becomes obliterated in
the course of the first or second year.
Traces of it in the shape of a groove or
ridge can sometimes be seen or felt in the
adult skull. The frontal cmine7ices are
far more marked in childhood than later
in life and give to children the promi-
nent forehead which is so characteristic.
A similar peculiarity is seen in the
parietal bones, the parietal eminences
being quite prominent. On this account, they are often injured in childbirth,
sometimes being compressed by the obstetrical forceps, and are frequently the seat of
hcematoma neonatorum. The cranial bones not being firmly united allow of a certain
amount of play or even overlapping, thus facilitating the delivery of the head at birth.
Fontanelles. — At the juncture of the various bones are six spaces called fontan-
elles. Two, the anterior and posterior, are in the median line of the cranium, and
four, the two anterolateral and two posterolateral, are at the sides. The fontanelles
are situated at the four corners of the parietal bones.
The anterior fontanelle is the largest. It is diamond-shaped and formed by the
frontal suture in front, the interparietal behind, and the coronal at each side. It is usu-
ally closed by the end of the second year, but may be delayed until the fourth. In
rickets and malnutrition the fontanelles remain open longer than would otherwise
be the case.
The posterior fontanelle is formed by the juncture of the parietal (sagittal) suture
with the lambdoidal suture. It is triangular in shape with the apex forward between
the two parietal bones, the sides passing down, one to the right and the other to the
left of the top of the occipital bone.
Anterior.
Fig. II. — Infant's skull, showing posterior and anterior
fontanelles.
THE SKULL.
9
Fig. 12.-
-Infant's skull, showing: anterolateral and postero-
lateral fontanel les.
These fontanelles are of the greatest importance in diagnosing the position of
the head during labor. If the examining finger encounters first a large diamond-
shaped or four-cornered depression with its anterior angle more acute than the pos-
terior, the accoucheur will know that it is the anterior fontanelle which is presenting.
By following one of the sutures backward he will come to a triangular or Y-shaped
ridge which will be recognized from its shape as being the posterior fontanelle. He
will then know that the position of the
head is occipitoposterior. If the posi-
tion is the more usual occipito-anterior
one, the finger will first encounter the
posterior fontanelle wiih its three sutures,
which are distinctly recognizable. On
following the suture which leads back-
ward, the four-cornered anterior fon-
tanelle will be felt. The various sutures
constituting the fontanelles can usually
be distinctly felt, and, as the presenta-
tions are nearly always occipito-anterior,
the fontanelle that will usually be first
felt will be the posterior, and the sutures
forming it can readily be counted.
The antero- 2i\\<\ posterolateral fon-
tane//es, located at the anterior and pos-
terior angles of the parietal bones, are
of no service in diagnosing the position
of the head. They are indistinct, nearly
closed, and thickly covered by tissue. In injuries to the skull in young children
and infants, we should not mistake the fontanelles and lines of the sutures for
fractures. Fissures extending into the occipital bone from the posterolateral fonta-
nelles are normal at birth and not due to injury.
Dura Mater. — The dura mater in children is more firmly attached to the
interior of the skull than in adults. If, therefore, a true fracture does occur, lacera-
tion of the dura is more
liable to be produced. This
firm attachment also pre-
vents the formation of epi-
dural hemorrhages, because
the force of the blow is not
sufficient to loosen the dura
from the bone, and when
the middle meningeal artery
is torn, as Marchant has
pointed out, the bleeding
is more apt to be external
than internal.
Cells and Air-sinuses.
— The infant has the bones
of the face so slightly developed that there is no room for the cavities which after-
ward develop in them. The ridges of the bones also become more marked as age
advances. The young child has no superciliary ridges.
The maxillary sums, or antnim of Highmore, and the mastoid antrum are the only
cavities that exist at birth. They are both much smaller than they ultimately become.
The mastoid antrum in relation to the size and age of the child is comparatively
large, being about fixe millimetres in diameter. As the bone in the child is unde-
veloped, and the tympanum lies nearer to the surface, the antrum likewise is some-
what higher and nearer to the surface than is the case in adults. This should be
borne in mind when operating on the bone in this region (Fig. 13).
The frontal, ethmoidal, and sphenoidal si?i7ises appear about the seventh year,
but it is not until puberty is reached that they really begin to develop. The mastoid
Mastoid antrum
External
auditory meatus
Mastoid process
Fig. 13. — The surface of the temporal bone has been chiselled
showing the relative size and position of the mastoid antrum and external
auditory meatus.
lo
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Fig. 14. — Transverse section of the skull showing its
variations in thickness at different points.
cells likewise appear at puberty and increase with age. At birth, they are repre-
sented by simple cancellous bone.
THE SKULL IN ADULTS.
As the child grows, the bones of the face increase more rapidly than do those
of the vault. The bony prominences become marked, due to the action of the
various muscles of mastication, expres-
sion, etc., inserted into them. The
face is much larger in size in proportion
to the calvarium than was the case in
infancy. While in infancy bone is prac-
tically homogeneous, in late childhood
and early adult life cavities begin to
develop in it.
Outer and inner tables of compact
tissue are formed, separated by diploic
structure. The frontal, ethmoidal, and
other air-sinuses are an exaggeration
of these diploic spaces. They are lined
with mucous membrane and communi-
cate with the nasopharynx. The diploe
first begins to appear about the age of
ten years, but is not well formed until early adult life. It contains large veins,
called the diploic veins, which communicate with the veins both of the inside and
outside of the skull. In injuries to the skull
bleeding from these veins is rarely trouble-
some and usually stops spontaneously.
The skull is thinner in the white than
in the negro race. It is thickest over the
occipital protuberance and mastoid proc-
esses. The bone is thinnest in the temporal
and lower occipital regions. The two tables
are separated widely from one another in
the region of the frontal sinuses.
Tables. — The inner table is thinner and
more brittle than the outer one, and in frac-
tures it is almost always more extensively
splintered than the outer. In rare cases the
outer table may be temporarily depressed by
a glancing blow and spring back into place
without showing any depression, while the
inner table may be fractured.
The two tables are not exactly parallel.
Where the skull is thin, as in the temporal
and occipital *egicns, they are close to-
gether; where it is thick, they are farther
apart. The outer surface of the skull is
comparatively even and smooth. The inner
surface is quite uneven, being depressed in
places to receive the convolutions of the
brain. For this reason it is necessary to use
the trephine with great care, as it may cut
through on one side of the circle and injure
the dura mater before it cuts through the
other part.
The sutures of the skull begin to ossify
at about the age of forty years and continue to fuse until about the eightieth year.
Frontal Sinuses. — The frontal sinuses begin to develop at the age of seven
years, but do not increase rapidly in size until puberty. When adult age is reached
Fig. 15.— Frontal sinus of one side; the anterior wall
has been cut away, exposing its interior.
THE SKULL.
II
they are well developed. They may extend well out over the orbits, reaching to
within a short distance of the temporal ridge, while in other instances they do not go
beyond the supra-orbital notches. In height they may reach the lower portion of
the frontal eminences or may cease at the level of the superciliary ridges. The size
of the sinus cannot be judged from the size of the bony prominences. Neither is the
Mastoid antrum
Supraineatal spine
Mastoid cells
Fig. i6. — Surface chipped away to show the mastoid antrum and cells, the latter unusually well developed.
size nor sex of the individual any criterion. In a small female we have seen them of
considerable size. When diseased sufficiently to give rise to symptoms, they will be
found to be quite large. They are separated from each other by a septum, and if
extensive are divided into several pockets or recesses. They open into the infundib-
Superior longitudinal sinus
Inferior longitudinal sinus
Straight sinus
Torcular Herophili
Lateral sinus
Occipital sinus
Superior petrosal sinus
Sigmoid sinus
Inferior petrosal sinus
Jugular vein Cavernous sinus
Fig. 17. — The cerebral blood sinuses.
ulum, at the anterior extremity of the middle turbinated bone in the middle meatus
of the nose. Fracture of the outer wall of the sinus not infrequently occurs without
involving the inner table.
Mastoid Process. — The mastoid process is continous with the superior curved
line of the occiput. It increases in size from the time of birth, but is composed of
cancellous tissue until after the age of puberty, when the mastoid cells develop. The
mastoid antrum, a cavity five millimetres in size at birth, which opens into the upper
posterior portion of the tympanum, is relatively larger at birth than in the adult.
12 APPLIED ANATOMY.
It is of importance in operating for infection arising from middle-ear disease. Minute
veins run from the antrum into the lateral sinus.
Suprameatal Triangle. — This triangle, so named by Macewen, is formed
above by the posterior root of the zygoma, anteriorly by the bony posterior wall of
the external auditory meatus and posteriorly by a line from the floor of the meatus
passing upward and backward to meet the first line. The mastoid antrum is reached
by operating through this triangle (see section on Ear).
Cerebral Venous Sinuses. — The fibrous membrane which lines the inte-
rior of the skull is composed of two layers which are in most places intimately
united, forming one single membrane known as the dura mater. The outer
layer is applied to the bone, while the inner layer covers the brain. In certain
places these two layers separate to form channels in which venous blood flows ;
these channels are called sinuses. In certain other places these layers separate and
enclose some special structure, as the Gasserian ganglion.
The cerebral sinuses of most importance are the siiperior longitndinal, the lateral
or transverse, and the cavernoics.
The superior lotigitudi?ial sinus runs in the median line from the foramen caecum
in the ethmoid bone in front, to the torcular Herophili behind. As it passes back-
FiG. i8.— Posterior view of the skull, showing the relation of the superior longitudinal sinus and torcular Herophili
to the median line and external occipital protuberance.
ward it inclines more to the right side, so that at the torcular Herophili the left side
of the sinus is about in the median line. This sinus receives the veins from the
cortex of the brain and also some from the diploe of the bones above it. A vein
pierces the upper posterior angle of each parietal bone and forms a communication
between the superficial veins of the scalp outside and the superior longitudinal sinus
within. The deviation of the superior longitudinal sinus toward the right, as it
proceeds posteriorly, is to be borne in mind in operating in this region, as one can
approach the median line nearer on the left side posteriorly than the right, without
wounding it. In the parietal region the Pacchionian bodies are surrounded by
extensions from the longitudinal sinus and free hemorrhage will ensue if the bone is
removed too close to the median line.
The torcular Herophili, or confluence of the sinuses, does not correspond exactly
to the external occipital protuberance or hiion on the exterior of the skull. It is
a little above and to the right of it. This torcular Herophili is formed by the meet-
ing of the longitudinal sinus from above, the lateral, or transverse sinuses from
the sides, the straight sinus from in front and the occipital sinus from below.
The lateral or transverse sinuses, of which there are two, pass from the torcular
Herophili toward each side in the tentorium between the cerebrum and cerebellum,
following the superior curved line of the occiput until just above the upper posterior
portion of the mastoid process. They then bend downward to within a centimetre of
THE SKULL.
13
the tip of the process and again curve forward to end in the jugular foramen and be
continued as the internal jugular vein. The S-shaped curve which they make in this
part of their course has given rise to the name sigmoid sinus. In its course along
the superior curved line the sinus rises above the level of a line drawn from the inion
to the centre of the external auditory meatus.
In operating for cerebellar abscess, care should be taken to place the trephine
opening sufficiently low down to avoid wounding this sinus. It is in great danger of
being wounded in operating for septic conditions involving the mastoid antrum and
cells. Its distance from the surface of the skull varies in different individuals, and it
gets farther from it as it descends to the level of the tip of the mastoid process. It
Cavernous sinus
Circular sinus
Superior petrosal sinus ■
I nferior petrosal sinus
Sigmoid sini
Occipital sinus
Transverse or lateral sinus
1st — olfactory
and — optic
3rd — oculomotor
4th — trochlear (pathetic)
5th— trigeminal (trifacial)
6th — abducent
7th — facial
8th— auditory
9th — glossopharyngeal
loth — vagus (pneumogastric)
1 ith — spinal accessory
12th— hypoglossal
Superior longitudinal sinus
Fig. 19. — Exit of cranial nerves and venous sinuses at the base of the skull.
receives the blood from the posterior lower portion of the cerebrum and upper
portion of the cerebellum, and communicates with the veins outside the skull through
the mastoid and posterior condyloid foramina.
Running along the upper posterior edge of the petrous portion of the temporal
bone, in the attachment of the tentorium, is the superior petrosal sinus. It connects
the lateral or transverse sinus about its middle with the caver^ious sinus. More
deeply situated, and running from the cavernous sinus to the lateral sinus, just as it
enters the jugular foramen, is the inferior petrosal sinus.
The petrosal and lateral sinuses are frequently torn in fractures of the skull. A
fracture passing through the petrous portion of the temporal bone may tear the
petrosal sinuses, and hemorrhage from the ear might come from this source. A
fracture through the posterior cerebral fossa may tear the lateral sinus. Leeches
are sometimes applied behind the ear in inflammation of the brain, with the idea of
drawing blood from the lateral sinus through the mastoid vein.
The occipital sinus is usually small and brings the blood up from the region of
the foramen magnum to the torcular Herophili.
The straight sinus runs along the line of juncture of the tentorium and falx
cerebri. It receives the blood from the ventricles of the brain which are drained by
14 APPLIED ANATOMY.
the veins of Galen, and the blood from the falx through the inferior longitudinal
sinus. This latter is usually very small and sometimes almost lacking, the blood in
that case passing upward to empty into the superior longitudinal sinus.
The cavernous sinus, — one on each side, — is a large, irregular space on the side
of the body of the sphenoid bone. It runs from the sphenoidal fissure in front to
the apex of the petrous portion of the temporal bone behind. In front it is continu-
ous with the ophthalmic vein, and receives the sphenoparietal sinus which brings the
blood from the diploe ; behind it communicates with the superior and inferior petrosal
sinuses. The two sinuses communicate across the median line around the pituitary
body, forming the circular sinus, and across the basilar process, forming what is
sometimes called the trajisverse sinus, but which is more correctly described as a
plexus of veins.
The cavernous sinus has embedded in its outer wall the third and fourth nerves
and the ophthalmic branch of the fifth. Farther below and to the outer side of the
sinus are the superior and inferior maxillary or mandibular branches of the fifth
3rd nerve
4th nerve
Ophthalmic branch of 5th nerve
6th nerve
Superior maxillary nerve
Inferior maxillary (mandibular) nerve
Internal carotid artery
Fig. 20. — Transverse section of the right cavernous sinus, showing the position of the nerves and
internal carotid artery (from a dissection).
nerve. Within the sinus and toward its lower and inner portion, is the internal
carotid artery. It is surrounded by the blood-current. Between the carotid artery
and outer wall of the sinus runs the sixth nerve, held in place by fine, trabecular,
fibrous bands which pass from side to side in the cavity of the sinus.
The cavernous sinuses are sometimes torn in fractures of the base of the
skull, resulting in a traumatic communication between the carotid artery and the
sinus. The cavernous sinus is not infrequently torn in attempting the removal
of the Gasserian ganglion, particularly if its ophthalmic branch is attacked. Its
interior is not one large cavity, but is subdivided by fibrous septa, which pass
from side to side. It is sometimes the seat of thrombosis and infection, which
may reach it through the ophthalmic vein in front.
FRACTURES OF THE SKULL.
Fractures of the skull are almost always produced by violent contact of the skull
with some solid body. In some cases the fracture is produced by a blow from a
moving body, as when a person is struck by a club. In others, the skull is moving
and strikes a body at rest, as when a person falls and strikes the head on a pave-
ment. It is not necessary to discuss in detail the mechanism of fractures of the skull;
it is sufficient to state that nearly all fractures start from the point of impact and
radiate to distant regions. The effect of fracturing blows on the skull of a child is
different from their eiTect on the skull of an adult.
Fractures of the Skull in Children. — A child's skull is thin and weak, and
while, to a certain extent, fragile is more flexible than that of an adult. It is on this
account that blows are more liable to expend their force locally, at the point of impact,
and not produce fractures at a distance. Therefore, it follows that fractures of the
base are rare in children in comparison with fractures of the vault. Extensive
fissured fractures are also rare. A blow will crush the skull of a child at the point
of impact, much as an egg-shell is broken at one spot by hitting it with a knife
handle. A marked example of this was seen in the case of a small boy who,
THE SKULL. 15
while playing, was struck by a baseball on the left frontal eminence. A distinct
circular depression or cup was produced exactly corresponding to the shape of the
ball. There were no symptoms of cerebral concussion, because the force of the
blow was expended on the bone and not transmitted to the brain within. As
pointed out by Mr. Rickman Godlee, the sutures in very young children being soft,
the transmission of the force from one bone to another is prevented.
The diploic structure of the skull is not well developed until adult age, therefore
the bone is homogeneous. It is also elastic, and, particularly in infants, it may be
dented without being seriously fractured; these dents are apt to disappear and
become level with the surrounding bone as the child grows older. The dura mater is
more adherent in children and fractures are, on that account, more liable to tear it
and even lacerate the brain beneath.
Fractures of the Skull in Adults. — As adult life is reached the inner and
outer tables of the bones become separated, leaving the space between to be filled
by the diploic tissue. The diploe consists of cancellous bone in the meshes of which
run the diploic veins and capillaries. Both the inner and
outer tables are brittle, but the inner especially so. It is
also harder and more compact than the outer table. On
account of this difference we find in cases of fracture that
the inner table is more comminuted than the outer, so that,
while the outer may show a single line of fracture, the inner
table immediately beneath may be broken into several frag-
ments. This is one reason why trephining is so frequently
resorted to.
In rare cases there may be depression of the inner , F'g. 2i.-smaii piece of the
,, ., -'. ^ ^ . . . . . . skull showing hairs imprisoned
table with none of the outer. A case of this kmd occurred in a linear fracture— actual size,
during our Civil War. A soldier, while looking over a ram-
part, was struck a glancing blow by a bullet, on the upper anterior portion of the
skull. The outer table at the site of injury was not at all depressed, but the inner
table had a large piece broken off, which injured the membranes.
The elasticity of the skull is shown in cases of fracture in which hairs are found
imbedded in the line of fracture. Figure 21 is from such a case. A negro was
struck on the head by a falling rock and an extensive longitudinal fracture was pro-
duced in which many hairs were fastened. About a centimetre from the main frac-
ture was a small fissure, not over a centimetre long, and sprouting up out of it, like
bushes from the bare ground, were a number of hairs. In such cases the hairs are
carried into the line of fracture by the force of the blow ; the elastic bone then springs
back into place and pinches the hairs, thus holding them in place.
The bones of the adult skull are very strong and firmly fixed. The sutures
begin to unite at the age of forty years and are likely to have disappeared at the age
of seventy. Even in young adults the fibrous tissue between the bones has so nearly
disappeared that they practically act in transmitting force as one continuous bone.
For these reasons slight blows do not cause fractures. It takes a very heavy blow
usually to cause a fracture and the force is so great that shock or concussion of the
brain with disturbance of its functions is a common symptom.
The force of the blow is expended first at the point of impact, and if a fracture
occurs it usually starts there. From that point it radiates to other portions of the
skull, so that fractures of the vault frequently extend to the base. The course
pursued by the fracture has been formulated into a law by Aran ; that they take a
straight line from the point of impact on the vault to the base of the skull, and are
not deflected by the sutures.
Charles Phelps ("Traumatic Injuries of the Brain") found that in 127 cases of
fracture of the base of the skull, 12 implicated the base only. So that, if we are able
to say that there is a fracture of the base of the skull, there are over 10 chances to
one of its extending up into the vault. In only two were the fractures more than a
slight fissure ; so that in a marked fracture of the base there would be 63 chances to
one of its extending into the vault. Also, from Aran's law, we see that, if we diag-
nose a fracture through the middle ear, we may be pretty sure that the force was
applied directly above, and be led to trephine accordingly.
i6
APPLIED ANATOMY.
A man fell from an electric light pole and was brought to the hospital with bleed-
ing from the ear and other symptoms of fracture of the skull. He became wildly-
delirious, and, feeling sure that the fracture of the base was an extension from the
vault, although no depression could be felt, he was trephined above the external
auditory meatus and a large epidural effusion of blood evacuated. He recovered
and resumed his work. In this case, as soon as the bone was exposed, a thin line
of fracture was .seen running down to the base in the region of the external ear.
Fractures by Contrecoup or Counter Stroke. — Fractures by counter
stroke are now regarded as of much less frequent occurrence than formerly. Charles
Phelps found in 147 cases of fracture of the base of the skull 12 which had not
extended from the vault. In these, the force had been applied to the parietal region
in six, and in five to the occiput; most of the resulting fractures were in the region
Or! >ital plate of frontal
Anterior cerebral fossa'
Foramen rotuntium
Middle cerebral fossa
Posterior cerebral fossa
Cribriform plate of ethmoid
Lesser winj^ of sphenoid
Optic foramen
Anterior clinoid process
Greater wing of sphenoid
Sella turcica
Post, clinoid process
— Foramen ovale
_ Foramen spinosum
— Body of sphenoid
Petrous portion of temijoral
Body of occipital
Internal auditory meatus
%|to4 s^^^VT]--^ Jugular or post, lacerated
"^^ ~z!^^m f J foramen
Sigmoid sinus
Torcular Herophili
Fig. 22.— Interior view of the base of the skull, showing the parts most liable to be involved in fractures.
of the orbit. Only two of the twelve cases were serious fractures, the remaining ten
being slight fissures, which produced no symptoms.
Hemorrhage in Fractures of the Skull. — Hemorrhage is a frequent and most
valuable symptom in diagnosing the existence of fracture and in determining its location.
Fracture through the anterior cerebral fossa may open the frontal, ethmoidal, or
sphenoidal cells and cause bleeding from the nose and mouth.
A fracture through the roof of the orbit causes bleeding into the orbital cavity; the
blood works its way forward and makes its appearance under the conjunctiva of the
ball of the eye. Its progress forward toward the lids is blocked by the orbitotarsal
ligaments, and it therefore works its way downward to the bulbar conjunctiva, under
which it advances to the edge of the cornea. The ordinary ecchymosis of the lids and
cellular tissue around the eye is usually due to a rupture of the vessels of the subcuta-
neous tissue by a blow from the outside, and not to a fracture of the base of the skull.
THE SKULL.
17
Fracture through the middle cerebral fossa may pass through the body of the
sphenoid or basilar process of the occipital bone and cause bleeding into the mouth.
It may also cause an accumulation of blood behind the posterior wall of the pharynx,
pushing it forward. When it passes through the petrous portion of the temporal
Anterior branch
piercing the bone
Posterior branch
Posterior meningeal
from vertebral
Middle meningeal
Fig. 23.— Middle and posterior meningeal arteries supplying the interior of the skull.
bone, as is frequently the case, it may involve the external auditory meatus and
bleeding from the ear will result.
Fractures through the posterior cerebral fossa may cause bleeding into the struc-
tures of the back of the neck. This is not common.
Middle Meningeal Hc7norrhage. — Bleeding from the middle meningeal artery,
epi- or extradural hemorrhage, occurs in those fractures which pass through the region
External angular process
Anterior branch of
middle meningeal
Posterior branches of
middle meningeal
Fig. 24.— Points of trephining for hemorrhage from the middle meningeal artery. The course of the artery has been
marked on the outer surface of the skull.
of the pterion This point is the junction of the coronal and sphenoparietal sutures,
about 4 cm. ( i ^ in. ) behind and slightly above the external angular process of the
frontal bone. The middle meningeal artery comes up through the foramen spinosum
and then goes forward, upward, and outward to the lower anterior angle of the
i8 APPLIED ANATOMY.
parietal bone. It sends branches forward to the frontal region and backward to the
parietal and temporal regions. During two to three centimetres of its course, at the
pterion, it passes entirely through bone, and therefore if a fracture occurs at this
point it must of necessity tear the artery. The posterior branches are not regular in
their course, one passing backward, low down, parallel to the zygoma, and another
higher up in the direction of the parietal eminence. The branches of the meningeal
artery nourish the bone as well as the dura, therefore if the dura is loosened from
the bone hemorrhage from these branches occurs. The most frequent site of middle
meningeal hemorrhage is in the region of the pterion or temple.
In trephining for it, the centre of the trephine is to be placed on an average of
4 cm. ( I ^ in. ) behind the external angular process of the frontal bone, and on a
level with the upper edge of the orbit or 4.5 cm. (i^ in.) above the zygoma. If
the artery is not sufficiently exposed more bone is to be removed by the rongeur
ist — olfectory
and — optic
3rd — oculomotor
4th— trochlear (pathetic)
5th — trigeminal (trifacial)
6th— abducent
7th— facial
8th — auditory
9th — glossopharyngeal
loth— vagus (pneumogastrlc)
nth — spinal accessory
12th — hypoglossal
Fig. 25. — Exit of cranial nerves at the base of the skull.
forceps. It is in this region that epidural hemorrhages are apt to be extensive,
because the vessels torn are the largest; but epidural hemorrhage can also occur in
the frontal region from the anterior branches and in the parietal from the posterior.
Trephining for bleeding from the posterior branch of the middle meningeal
artery is somewhat uncertain. In some cases the artery runs low down, about 2 cm.
(4/5 in.) above the zygoma and parallel to it. In other cases it runs upward and
backward toward the parietal eminence. The trephine may be placed as high up
as for the anterior branch of the middle meningeal artery, 4.5 cm. (i^ in.), and
5 cm. (2 in.) farther back. This will be below and anterior to the parietal eminence
and about midway on a line joining the parietal eminence and external auditory
meatus. After the button of bone has been removed, additional bone may be cut
away with the rongeur forceps until access can be had to the bleeding point (see
page 23 for a case of rupture without fracture).
Rupture of the large venous sinuses and of the small vessels passing between the
bone and .dura also contribute to the formation of the clot. Owing to the firmer
THE SKULL.
19
attachment of the dura mater in children, the meningeal arteries are more liable to
be torn and cause hemorrhage than is the case in adults. For the same reason the
blood pressure is not sufficient to dissect the dura from the skull, therefore epidural
clots are rare. If there is a fracture, blood may collect beneath the scalp, and if an
external wound exists, the blood will find an exit through it.
Bleeding from the Venous Sinuses. — Bleeding may occur from the sinuses of the
base as well as from those of the vault. In severe injuries of the vault detached frag-
ments frequently penetrate the superior longitudinal and lateral sinuses. In these
cases profuse bleeding occurs as soon as attempts are made to remove the loose pieces
of bone, and it is necessary to use a packing of gauze to control it. Fractures passing
through the petrous portion of the temporal bone wound the petrosal sinus and
this no doubt contributes to the blood which flows from the ear.
Emphysema is most likely to occur if the frontal air sinuses are involved, partic-
ularly if the patient blows his nose in the
attempt to relieve it of blood clots. Em-
physema is not so liable to occur in cases
of fracture involving the mastoid cells.
Cerebrospinal fluid may escape when-
ever the meninges are torn and the sub-
arachnoid space is opened. It is most fre-
quently seen in the fractures involving the
middle fossa and passing through the in-
ternal auditory meatus. The meninges are
prolonged into the internal meatus, and the
clear fluid is not infrequently seen coming
from the ear of the injured side. Although
the normal amount of cerebrospinal fluid
is only about two ounces, much greater
quantities can escape. A serous discharge,
perhaps of several ounces, is indicative of
a rupture into the subarachnoid space.
Injuries to Nerves in Fracture
of the SkulL — The nerves most often
disturbed in injuries of the skull are the
first, second, third, seventh, and eighth.
The first or olfactory nerve may be
injured directly in the line of fracture, or
by concussion. I have had under my care two such cases in women who struck the
occiput on an asphalt pavement in getting off backward from a moving trolley car.
These patients left the hospital after several weeks with the sense of smell still lacking.
Injuries to the second or optic nerve are apt to be accompanied by such severe
injuries to other parts as to cause the death of the patient before the loss of sight is
discovered. If the optic nerve is injured at the optic foramen, there may be impair-
ment of sight without any intra-ocular changes to be seen with the ophthalmoscope.
Inside of two weeks, however, the pinkish color of the disk gives way to the gray-white
color of atrophy, and this progresses until complete. The nerve never resumes its
functions and the patient remains blind.
Injury of the third or oculomotor nerve has also come under my notice. In this
the pupil of the affected eye is moderately dilated and does not respond to light.
The ciliary muscle is supplied by the third nerve, as well as the circular fibres of the
iris, so that the accommodation is paralyzed and, if the eye has been normal in its
refraction, the patient will be unable to read or see objects clearly at close distances.
The extrinsic muscles of the eye, with the exception of the superior oblique and
external rectus, are also supplied by this nerve and the eye is therefore pulled outward
and slightly downward, and diplopia, or double vision, may be produced. The patient
is unable to move the eye either upward, inward, or downward. The levator palpe-
brae muscle is also paralyzed and there is ptosis or drooping of the upper lid. The
orbicularis palpebrarum muscle, being supplied by the seventh nerve, has its func-
tions unimpaired, and the eyelids can be closed.
Fig. 26.-
-Paralysis of the facial nerve from fracture
of base of skull (author's case).
20 APPLIED ANATOMY.
The fourth or paJietic Jierve is almost never injured. It supplies the superior
oblique muscle, which turns the eyeball down and slightly outward. Paralysis of it
causes diplopia, with the image of the injured eye below that of the sound eye and
tilted to the right, if the right eye is affected, and to the left, if the left is affected.
T\\ejifth or trifacial nerve is very rarely injured. If it is completely paralyzed
there will be loss of motion in the muscles of mastication and loss of sensation over
the side of the face, of one-half of the interior of the mouth, of the side and front of
the tongue, and of the eye.
The sixth or abduceiit nerve supplies the external rectus muscle of the eye, and
if paralyzed causes internal strabismus, the eye looking inward. While more often
paralyzed than the fourth and fifth, it is not so frequently paralyzed as are the two
following nerves.
The seventh ox facial nerve is the one most frequently injured in fractures of the
skull. It enters the internal auditory meatus with the auditory nerve, being above
it. Reaching the end of the meatus internus, it enters the canal of Fallopius and
emerges from the temporal bone at the stylomastoid foramen. When paralyzed, the
face on that side remains motionless, the eye cannot be closed, and food accumulates
between the teeth and cheek. The corner of the mouth is drawn to the opposite
side when the muscles of the face are contracted.
The internal auditory meatus contains a prolongation of the dura mater and
arachnoid, so that a fracture through it would open the subarachnoid space and allow
the cerebrospinal fluid to escape. In these cases there is also usually bleeding from
the ear. Escape of cerebrospinal fluid is to be distinguished from a flow of serum by
its greater quantity, sometimes many ounces escaping.
The eighth or auditory nerve is injured with moderate frequency, but perhaps
hardly so often as supposed, for the deafness which sometimes follows injuries to the
head may not be caused by an injury to the auditory nerve itself, but is rather due to
the injury done by concussion of the brain in the region of the first temporal con-
volution, or possibly to the tympanum. The eighth nerve is embraced in the same
extension of the meninges into the internal meatus as is the seventh, and injuries to it
may also be accompanied with loss of cerebrospinal fluid. The seventh and eighth
are said to be more often paralyzed than any of the other nerves.
Injuries to the remaining four nerves — the glossopharyngeal, vagus, spinal
accessory, and hypoglossal — have been observed too rarely to require any extensive
attention here.
THE MENINGES.
The meninges of the brain consist of three separate coverings: the outer being
the dura mater, the middle the arachnoid, and the inner the pia mater.
The dura mater or fibrous covering of the brain is tough and strong and
intended to protect it. Injuries of the skull without a laceration of this membrane
are much less serious than when it is involved. When it is torn, not only is the
brain beneath likely to be injured, but an opportunity is given for infection to enter
and affect the brain itself and even produce a hernia cerebri or hernial protrusion of
brain matter through the rent.
The dura mater is composed of two layers, the outer one acting as a periosteum
to the bones. The two layers are in most places closely united, but at others they
separate and form sinuses or canals, connected with the veins and carrying venous
blood. They^/x cerebri {Y\^. 27) which is the fibrous partition separating the hemi-
spheres of the brain from one another, as well as the tentoriiun, which separates the
cerebrum from the cerebellum, is formed by the inner layer of the dura mater project-
ing inward and forming a partition. On the floor of the skull, the dura mater accom-
panies the nerves and gives them a sheath. The Gasserian ganglion of the fifth
nerve is held in a pocket formed by the separation of the two layers of the dura mater.
The cerebral blood sinuses have already been considered. The dura is nour-
ished by the meningeal arteries ; bleeding from these has already been alluded to .
(page 17). Thin fibres of the dura pass to the bone, also branches of the meningeal
arteries and veins pass to the inner table and diploe: these all serve to fasten the
THE MENINGES.
21
dura to the skull. This attachment is firmest on the base of the skull. On the vault,
after an opening has been made through the skull by a trephine, the dura can be
readily separated from the bone by means of a thin, flat, steel spatula. On account of
the small size of the vessels passing from the dura to the bone, this procedure is not
usually accompanied by much hemorrhage. In separating the dura from the base ot
the skull, as is done in operations on the Gasserian ganglion, the bleeding from this
source is often quite free. The dura is liable to be torn in lifting it from the bone
if the greatest care is not exercised.
The middle meningeal artery, at a distance of 4 cm. (i}4 in. ) posterior to the
angular process of the frontal bone and about the same above the zygoma, usually
passes within the bone for a distance of i 01 2 cm. Therefore, in operating in the
temporal region, if the dura is detached the vessel will be torn and free bleeding will
Fig. 27. — Vault of the skull opened and brain removed, showing the lalx cerebri and tentorium.
follow. The vessel is liable to be torn in endeavoring to remove bony fragments in
fractures of this region. The dura is also more firmly attached in the median line;
and on each side of the median line are the depressions in the parietal bone which
lodge the Pacchionian bodies. The largest are usually located at a distance of from
2 to 5 cm. posterior to a line drawn across the skull from one external auditory
meatus to the other. They are prolongations from the arachnoid and are surrounded
by blood from the longitudinal sinus.
The Arachnoid — also called Arachnopia or Parietal Layer of the Pia.
— The arachnoid is a thin fibrous membrane, which passes over the convolutions of
the brain and does not dip into the sulci between. It is more marked on the base
than on the convexity of the brain. It is not attached to the dura above, and this
subdural space, while moist, contains little or no free fluid. Hemorrhages do not
occur into this space unless the membranes are torn, because the bleeding from the
vessels of the dura is always epidural and the arachnoid derives its nourishment from
the pia mater below, so that hemorrhages start beneath the arachnoid, but may rupture
through the arachnoid into the subdural space. From its under surface, fibrils of loose
22 APPLIED ANATOMY.
tissue pass to the pia mater; the space between the fibrous layer of the arachnoid above
and the pia mater and convolutions of the brain below is called the siibarachnoid
space. This is a lymph space and contains the cerebrospinal fiuid. This fluid is
normally about 60 c.c. (2 ounces) in quantity, but in injuries to the brain in which
the subarachnoid space is opened, the fluid is secreted and discharged very rapidly.
As has already been mentioned, the arachnoid sends a prolongation into the
internal auditory meatus, hence a fracture through it would open the subarachnoid
space. This space communicates with the ventricles of the brain through three
openings in the pia mater at the lower back portion of the roof of the fourth ventricle;
these are called the foramina of Mage7idie, Key, and Retzms. The cerebrospinal
fluid extends down the spinal canal and can be removed by tapping with a trochar, as
is practised in the lumbar region.
The Pia Mater. — The net-work of vessels, with their supporting membrane,
which covers the convolutions of the brain, forms the pia mater. The fibrils of con-
nective tissue supporting the vessels are attached to the fibrous layer of the arachnoid
above, so that the pia and arachnoid are in reality continuous structures. The spaces
between these fibrils are often quite large and communicate with each other, forming
the subarachnoid space. The lower portions of these fibrils are united and form a
basement membrane which lies directly on the convolutions of the brain and dips into
the sulci. The blood-vessels are intimately connected with this lower pial membrane
and not with the arachnoid above. These vessels penetrate into the substance of the
brain, carrying with them a covering or sheath of pia mater. This is called the/'^r/-
vascular lymph sheath and, of course, communicates with the subarachnoid space
above. These vessels nourish the brain. The perivascular lymph sheaths are also
said to form capsules around the great pyramidal and large glial cells of the cortex.
AFFECTIONS OF THE MEMBRANES OF THE BRAIN.
Both the dura mater and the pia mater are subject to inflammation and hemor-
rhages. The arachnoid being practically a part of the pia mater is involved in its
diseases, so that no mention is made of it as being separately affected.
Inflammation of the Dura Mater; Pachymeningitis. — The outer surface
or inner surface of the dura may be involved, constituting pachymeningitis externa
or interna.
Pachymeningitis Externa. — The external surface is most often affected by
injuries from without, or by extension of diseases from the adjoining bone. In cases
of fracture the inflammation which accompanies healing frequently causes the dura
to become densely adherent to the overlying skull. This is noticed particularly when
trephining operations are performed for the relief of focal or Jacksonian epilepsy.
Should the fracture be compound or open, the occurrence of sepsis will tend to
involve the adjacent dura mater. The same occurs in cases of necrosis. Syphilitic
disease of the bones is most apt to affect the vault of the skull, while the dura
towards the sides and base is most often involved by suppurative ear disease. The
dura also becomes involved in tumors and gummata.
Inflammation of the dura is not apt to be a marked disease. It is a very dense
membrane with few blood-vessels, therefore it is quite resistant to inflammatory proc-
esses. It acts as a barrier to the farther extension of an inflammation rather than
as a carrier. Therefore w^e see epidural collections of pus existing for a considerable
time without brain symptoms super\'ening.
The dura mater contains the large cerebral venous sinuses, and when the inflam-
matory process occurs in those regions, the sinuses become inflamed and thrombosis or
clotting occurs. The clot becoming infected breaks down, the pus and debris pour into
the general circulation, and general septicaemia, and even death, is caused. This is most
liable to occur in the region of the ear, where the infection is apt to reach and involve
the lateral (transverse) sinus. Infection of the longitudinal sinus is much more rare.
Pachyme?iingitis interyia is an inflammation of the inner surface of the dura. It
occurs, to a certain extent, in cases of gumma or other new growths involving the inner
surface of the dura or extending from the pia mater below. The name pachymeningitis
interna, also called haemorrhagica, is usually restricted to a chronic inflammation of
THE iMENINGES.
23
le inner surface of the dura, with the formation of one or more hemorrhagic mem-
branous layers. Adhesions to the pia do not occur. The disease has been seen in
purpuric and infectious diseases, as well as in alcoholic and demented individuals.
Dural Hemorrhage. — Hemorrhage arising from injury to the dura through
fracture of the skull has already been discussed (see page 18). Epidural hemorrhage
may, however, occur from an injury to the skull and detach the membrane from
the bone without a fracture being present. The possibility of this occurring is proved
by the remarkable case reported by Dr. J. S. Horsley {New York Med. Joiir., Feb.
9, 190 1). A man was struck on the head with a wooden club. He was momen-
tarily stunned, but soon recovered and felt perfectly well. An hour and a half later he
became drowsy, and in a few hours was in a state of stupor. The right side of the
body and face was paralyzed, and the left arm and leg were in constant jerking con-
vulsions. He was trephined over the left parietal eminence and four to six ounces
of blood clot removed. There w'as no evidence of fracture or wound of the dura.
Recovery was prompt. There have also been other recorded cases.
In operations involving the separation of the dura from the bone, bleeding may
be quite free. This comes from rupture of the veins passing from the bone to the
dura, and sometimes from the rupture of a vein passing over or in the dura itself.
Subdural hemorrhages always originate from the pia mater.
Inflammation of the Pia Mater; Meningitis. — This, when not of a tuber-
culous character is called leptomeningitis. It is commonly known as inflammation of
the brain, or meningitis. The pia mater of the brain being directly continuous with
that of the spinal cord, inflammations of the former extend to and involve the latter in
about one-third of the cases. The disease is then called cerebrospinal meningitis.
Infection is the usual cause of leptomeningitis. Direct injury to the membranes
and their bony envelopes may cause it, but it occurs usually through some secondary
avenue of infection. Thus, it may follow fractures opening into the mouth, nose,
the various accessory bony sinuses, ear, etc. The infection may, however, not be
traumatic, but occur through the blood, following or accompanying the various
infectious diseases. Owing to the fact of the pia lying on the brain substance, and
its vessels with their perivascular sheaths penetrating it, the disease naturally tends
to involve the brain, if it is very severe or long standing. If such is the case, the
affection is called cerebritis or encephalitis.
The inflammation may be serous, plastic, or even purulent. The pia mater being
continuous with the choroid plexuses, the ventricles may be dilated by the increased
fluid. The infection may follow the vessels into the brain and produce brain abscess.
The efifusion being often localized at the base of the brain interferes with the functions
of the cerebral nerves. The first, or olfactory, is comparatively rarely affected. The
optic, or second, is more often so, producing intolerance of light. There may be
choked disk, and I have even seen a case in which there was total blindness without
any change being visible in the nerve by means of ophthalmoscopy. In this case
atrophy of the disk soon followed. The third, or motor oculi, according to Church
and Peterson, is almost always affected. This would be shown by strabismus, diplopia,
and changes in the pupil. Facial paralysis, from implication of the seventh nerve, is
sometimes seen, and the auditory, or eighth, may also be affected. Involvement of
the hypoglossal or twelfth nerve, will be shown by de\'iation of the tongue. The
origin of the cranial nerves from the base of the brain is shown in Fig. 28.
Tuberculous Meningitis. — In this form of meningitis the infection comes through
the blood, and the tuberculous lesions follow the vessels. They are most marked on
the base of the brain, involving the circle of Willis and the Sylvian fissure. The
infection follows the vessels of the pia mater through the transverse fissure into the
ventricles. The effusion accumulating in the ventricles has given rise to the name
acute hydrocephalics. It also follows the perivascular sheaths of the smaller vessels
into the brain substance, producing a cerebritis; thus it is seen how a knowledge of
the circulation of the brain explains the location of the lesions.
The exudate involving the nerves of the base of the brain produces correspond-
ing symptoms by interfering with their function.
Pial Hemorrhage. — Meningeal hemorrhage may be either subarachnoid or
subdural. If the hemorrhage has not been violent, it spreads out under the arach-
24
APPLIED ANATOMY.
noid in the subarachnoid space. If, however, the blood has escaped with consider-
able force, it tears its way through the arachnoid and spreads in the subdural, as well
as through the subarachnoid space. The origin of this form of hemorrhage is the
vessels of the pia mater. The arachnoid does not give rise to hemorrhages, neither
does the inner surface of the dura, unless it has previously been the seat of pachy-
meningitis interna.
The hemorrhage is the result either of injury or disease. In children it is
usually due to injury; in adults to either injury or disease. These hemorrhages are
most common in infancy and occur in childbirth. They are due apparently to
hard, protracted labor or injury done to the child in effecting delivery by forceps,
etc. , especially in infants born before full term. They are a cause of idiocy and the
cerebral palsies of childhood. These hemorrhages in the new-born have been
Olfactory tract
Optic nerve
Optic chiasm
Optic tract
3rd — motor
oculi
4th — trochlear
(pathetic)
5th — trigemi-
.^ " iial (trifacial)
6th — abducent
7th — facial
8th — auditory
9th — glosso-
phar\iigeal
10th — vagus
(pueumogas-
tric)
nth — spinal
accessory
1 2th — h ypoglossal
Fig. 28. — Base of brain, showing exit of cranial nerves.
recognized by the convulsions they produce, and successful operations have been
performed for their relief (see Harvey Gushing — "Surgical Intervention for the
Intracranial Hemorrhages of the New-born" — Am. Jour. Med. Set., October, 1905).
Injuries received later in life from blows on the head often produce subdural or pial
hemorrhages, without breaking the overlying bone. They are found either at the site
of impact or on the side opposite that on which the blow was received, the latter being
produced by contre-coup. When pial hemorrhage occurs from disease, it is usually
from rupture of an aneurism of one of the vessels of the pia mater. If it does not break
through the arachnoid into the subdural space, it may spread over a considerable
portion of the cerebral cortex, especially filling the sulci. Unless the quantity is quite
large, so that it interferes with the motor area, hemiplegia will not occur. Convulsions
may occasionally occur from irritation of the cortex. Blood in the subdural space
may travel along the base of the brain and into the sheath of the optic nerve.
THE BRAIN.
25
THE BRAIN.
The affections of the brain of most anatomical interest are those mvolving its
circulation, the motor areas, and the motor paths. Paralyses may arise from (a)
interference with the motor areas in the cortex by hemorrhages, injuries, or tumors;
{b) destruction of the motor paths from the cortex to their point of exit from the
brain; (c) injury of the nerves at their exit from the brain.
Disturbances of the circulation may be either of the nature of anaemia or ischse-
mia, causing softening, or of congestion, causing apoplexy.
Tumors of the brain interfere with the functions of the part in which they are
located, as do also wounds. In all of these a knowledge of brain localization is
essential.
THE CIRCULATION OF THE BRAIN.
The blood reaches the brain by means of the two internal carotid and the two
vertebral arteries. The vertebrals enter through the foramen magnum and unite to
/
A. conimuiiicans antericr
A. cerebri anterior
A. carotis interna
A rerebri media
A. conimunicans posterior
A. anterolateral
A. choroidea
A. cerebri posterior
A. basilaris
A vertebralis
Fig. 29. — Circulus arteriosus or circle of Willis.
form the basilar, which at the upper border of the pons divides into the two pos-
terior cerebrals. These give off two small branches which go to the internal carotids;
they are the posterior communicating arteries. The carotids divide into the anterior
and middle cerebral arteries, the anterior communicating with one another by means
of the anterior communicating artery. Thus we have the circle of Willis {circulus
arteriosus^, formed hy Xk^o. posterior cerebral, posterior communicating, internal car-
otid, anterior cerebral, and anterior comniunicating arteries on each side.
The blood supply of the brain is divided into an anterior division, furnished by
the carotids, and a posterior division, supplied through the basilar and posterior
cerebrals. The communication branch running between these two sets of vessels is
so ?mall that if either is occluded the supply of blood is practically cut off from that
point and ischaemia results, at least in most cases.
The anterior division is subdivided into a right and a left half by the two carotid
26
APPLIED ANATOMY.
arteries. These communicate across the median Hne through the anterior cerebral
and anterior communicating. Here again the anterior communicating branch is so
small that it is sometimes unable to furnish blood to the opposite side of the brain
Optic nerve
Ophthalmic artery
Third nerve
Fourth nerve
Pphthalmic branch — 5th nerve
.Sixth nerve
Internal carotid artery
Maxillary branch— 5th nerve
Mandibular branch — 5th
nerve
Gasserian ganglion
turned forward
Internal jugular
vein
Fig. 30. — The internal carotid artery in its course through the skull, showing its relations to the jugular vein and
cranial nerves. The Gasserian ganglion has been raised from its bed and turned forward.
when the carotid supply of one side is shut off. This may cause syncope, stupor
or delirium, hemiplegia, and often softening and death. These results have not
A. cerebri anterior
A. cerebri media
A. cerebri posterior
Fig. 31. — Distribution of the A. cerebri anterior and A. cerebri posterior on the medial surface of the brain.
infrequently followed ligation of the carotid artery in cases of aneurism. Obstruc-
tion of one vertebral artery would produce no effect because circulation would
be restored by the other vertebral through the basilar.
THE BRAIN.
27
Internal Carotid Artery. — The internal carotid artery (Fig. 30) enters the
petrous portion of the temporal bone, then turns inward and upward through the for-
amen lacerum medium, then forward through the caxernous sinus and finally turning
A. cerebri anterior
issura parieto-occipitalis
A. cerebri pos-
terior
A. cerebri media
Fig. 32. — Distribution of the A. cerebri anterior, A. cerebri posterior, and A. cerebri media on the lateral
surface of the brain.
upward gives off the ophthalmic artery; it then pierces the dura mater just behind
the anterior clinoid process, where, after giving ofi the posterior communicating
and anterior choroid, it divides into the anterior and middle cerebral arteries. ■•
A. communicans anterior
A. cerebri anterior
A. carotis interna
A. cerebri media
A. choroid anterior
A. communicans posterior
A. cerebri posterior
Temporal lobe
enticulostriate
Fig. 33. — Arteries of the base of the brain, especially the branches of the middle cerebral giving rise to apoplexy.
Anterior Cerebral Artery. — The anterior cerebral (Fig. 31) passes forward and
inward over the anterior perforated space, between the olfactory and optic nerves, to
the median fissure. It gives of? the anterior communicating artery at this point, which
joins the anterior cerebral of the opposite side. The main trunk then runs upward
28
APPLIED ANATOMY.
In the longitudinal fissure on the corpus callosum, giving branches to the frontal and
parietal lobes, and finally anastomoses at the posterior end of the corpus callosum
with the posterior cerebral. This shows the wide extent of brain tissue on the medial
surface of the brain which would be affected by the blocking of this vessel by an
embolus.
The terminal branches of the anterior cerebral spread laterally over the surface
of the brain (Fig. 32) outward from the longitudinal fissure for a short distance,
about 2 cm. As it crosses the anterior perforated space, it gives oH the antero-
median perforating (ganglionic) arteries which pierce the lamina cinerea to supply
the anterior portion of the caudate nucleus above.
Middle Cerebral Artery, — The middle cerebral artery passes upward and
outward in the fissure of Sylvius, dividing, when opposite the island of Reil, into the
branches which supply the cortex of the brain (see Fig. 32). On its way toward
Degenerative area
Corpus callosum
Nucleus caudatus
Apoplectic area
Internal capsu'.e
Nucleus lentiformis
Crura cerebri
i Medulla oblongata
V^— — Decussation
Fig. 34. — Showing the degenerative and apoplectic areas of the brain and the course pursued by the motor
fibres from the cortex, through the niternal capsule, crura, pons, and medulla to the decussation, where they
cross the median line to supply the opposite side of the body.
the island of Reil, at the commencement of the fissure of Sylvius, many small straight
branches enter the brain substance to supply the basal ganglia. Two or three supply
the caudate nucleus, others, called the anterolateral perforating (ganglionic), enter
the anterior perforated space to supply the lenticulostriate ganglion and the anterior
portion of the thalamus. One of the largest of these arteries, the lenticulostriate, has
been called the artery of cerebral hemorrhage, by Charcot, on account of the frequency
with which it is found ruptured in cases of apoplexy (Fig. 33).
Anterior Choroid. — The anterior choroid artery comes sometimes from the
internal carotid and sometimes from the middle cerebral. It passes backward and
outward on the optic tract and crus cerebri and enters the transverse fissure at the
descending horn of the lateral ventricle. It ends in the choroid plexus (see Fig. 33).
Posterior Cerebral Artery. — The posterior cerebral artery passes outward over
the crus cerebri, just above the pons, to the under surface of the posterior portion of
the cerebral hemisphere. Before it receives the posterior communicating artery it gives
off the posteromedian perforating (ganglionic) arteries, which enter the posterior
perforated space to supply the thalamus and third ventricle. Just beyond the poste-
THE BRAIN.
29
nor communicating artery it gives off the posterolateral perforating (ganglionic;
arteries, which supply the posterior portion of the optic thalamus, crus cerebri, and
Velum interpositum
Middle commissure /
Ciioroid plexus
Foramen of Monro
Septum lucidum
Posterior commissure
Pineal body
Splenium
Corpora quadri-
gemina
Anterior commissure
Optic nerve
Optic chiasm
Pituitary body
Mammillary body
Aqueduct of Sylvius
4th ventricle
Fig. 35. -Medial section of the brain.
corpora quadrigemina. The branches to the cortex supply a small portion of the
inferior surface of the temporosphenoidal lobe and the occipital lobe as seen in
Figs. 31 and 32.
Corpus callosum
Septum lucidum
Caudate nucleus
Choroid plexus
Velum interpositum
Veins of Galen
Fig. 36. — Horizontal section of brain ; the corpus callosum and fornix have been removed, exposing the lateral
ventricles, with the caudate nuclei projecting into them anteriorly and the velum interpositum farther back, with
the choroid plexus at the sides and the veins of Galen nearer tfie middle line. The lateral ventricles in this brain
are somewhat larger than usual.
30
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Cerebral Softening. — This occurs in the young from embohsm ; it then affects
the cortex, but the more common variety is caused by thrombosis in arteries which
are diseased, usually in the aged. The part farthest from the source of blood
supply is the most apt to suffer, therefore we find it occurring most frequently in
the anterior capsuloganglionic region, just above the usual site of apoplexy (Fig. 34).
The affected area will be seen to be most remote from both the cortical and basal blood
supply. The perforating arteries supplying this region are in the nature of terminal
branches and do not anastomose to any extent either with each other or with the
branches coming from the cortex, hence their occlusion inflicts irreparable damage.
Apoplexy. — By apoplexy is meant the rupture of a blood-vessel with conse-
quent extravasation of blood, either in or on the brain. It may occur in any portion
of the brain, and either from the arteries of the base^ or from the smaller arteries of
Lateral ventricle
Caudate nucleus
Internal capsule,
anterior limb
Lenticular nucleus -
Claustrum
Internal rapsiile,
posterior limb
Thalamus
Corpora quadrigemina
Lateral ventricle,
inferior horn
Septum lucidum
Fornix — anterior pillar
Fig. 37. — Horizontal section of the brain, showing the internal capsule and its relation to the lateral ventricles.
the cortex. The former is the more frequent. The arteries that most often rupture
are the branches of the middle cerebral which enter the anterior perforated space,
especially its outer portion. One of the largest of these anterolateral arteries, as has
already been mentioned, known as the lenticulostriate, has been called by Chaicot
the artery of cerebral hemorrhage.
The portions of the brain usually affected are the posterior portion of the len-
ticular nucleus, internal capsule, and surrounding parts.
Figure 35 is a medial section of the brain, giving a lateral view of the ventricles.
Figure 36 is a horizontal transverse section of the brain, opening up the ventri-
cles. In front are seen the two lateral ve7itricles, separated by the septtivi hicidum.
The cavity shown in the septum lucidum is the so-called y?/?/^ ventricle. The round
body bulging into the lateral ventricle and forming its floor is the caudate nucleus
portion of the corpus striatum. The third ventricle is posterior and below the lateral
ventricles, and extends from the septum lucidum in front to the posterior pillars of
the fornix behind. It extends from side to side as one large cavity with no median
partition. Bulging into the third ventricle on each side are the {optic) thalami.
They are separated from the corpora striata by some white fibres, the tccnia semicircu-
laris. To the inner side of the taenia semicircularis is seen the choroid plexus, which
THE BRAIN.
31
runs down anteriorly over the thalamus to the foramen of Monro, through which
it enters the lateral ventricle. Two large veins, the veiris of Galen, pass down
near the middle line of the third ventricle to empty into the straight sinus. Pos-
teriorly, the choroid plexus follows the. descending horn of the lateral ventricles.
The choroid plexus hangs from the under surface of the velum interpositum, which
is a fold of the pia mater entering through the transverse fissure. The veins of Galen
run between the two layers of the velum interpositum.
Turning now to Fig. 37, showing a somewhat deeper transverse horizontal
section, running through the corpus striatum and thalamus, it will be seen that to
the outer side of the corpus striatum and thalamus is a white layer constitut-
ing the internal capsule. It divides the corpus striatum into two parts, one to its
inner side, which projects into the lateral ventricle, called the caudate nucleus, and
Degenerative area
Corpus callosum
Nucleus caudatus
Apoplectic area
Internal capsule
Nucleus lentiformis
Crura cerebri
Medulla cblong^ata
Decussation
38-— Showmw the degenerative and apoplectic areas of the brain and the course pursued by the motor
fibres from the cortex, throuj^^h the niternal capsule, crura, pons, and medulla to the decussation, where they
cross the median line to supply the opposite side of the body.
the other to its outer side, called the lenticular nucleus. To the inner side of the
posterior portion of the lenticular nucleus and internal capsule is seen the thal-
amus. To the outer side of the lenticular nucleus one sees other white fibres called
the external capsule. An apoplectic hemorrhage occurring in the lenticular nucleus
or internal capsule may push forward and rupture into the lateral ventricle. It may
go backward and involve the anterior portion of the thalamus and burst into
the third ventricle, and if it extends outward it involves the external capsule. Some-
times, if the hemorrhage is low down, it ruptures downward through the base of the
brain, showing itself, of course, at the anterior perforated space. Fig. 33 shows these
structures as seen in a medial section of the brain.
In Fig. 38 there is a coronal transverse section of the brain, showing the course
of fibres of the internal capsule from the cortex of the brain through the corpus
striatum, between the lenticular and caudate nuclei : then, forming the cr7is cerebri,
the fibres pass through the pons and medulla to enter the spine, decussate, and
pass to the extremities. This constitutes the motor pathway from the cortex to the
extremities, and when it is injured in apoplexy, the extremities of the opposite side
are paralyzed.
32
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Clot in pons, upper
f — portion
'i
Clot in lower
portion
Facial nerve
Hemorrhage into the Pons — Crossed Paralysis, — Apoplexy may also occur
in other portions of the brain. It may occur in the pons (see Fig. 39). This produces
two different sets of symptoms, accord-
W^ 1 1 ing to its location, which is due to
the fact that the fibres of the seventh
or facial nerve, in their passage from
the cortex to the face, decussate in the
pons. If a small hemorrhage occurs
into the upper portion of the pons, it
will destroy the motor fibres to the
face and the extremities of the oppo-
site side. If, however, the hemor-
rhage is below the point of decussa-
tion, the side of the face on the side of
the lesion will be paralyzed and the
extremities of the opposite side, thus
producing what is known as crossed
paralysis, that is, a paralysis of the face
on one side and of the extremities on
the other.
Cortical Apoplexy. — Hemor-
rhages of the cortex are apt to be less
in extent and more localized on ac-
count of the smaller size of the ves-
sels affected. They either destroy or
irritate the bram at the site of injury, and produce, if they involve certain areas
of the brain, definite peripheral symptoms which serve to indicate the seat of lesion.
Spinal nerves
Fig. 39. — Diagram illustrative of crossed paralysis. A
clot in the upper portion of the pons causes paralysis of the
muscles of the face and extremities of the same side of the
body. A clot in the lower portion of the pons causes paraly-
sis of one side of the face and the extremities of the opposite
side of the body.
THE CEREBRAL LOBES.
Each cerebral hemisphere is composed of five lobes, called the/ro?ifa/, parietal,
occipital, temporosphenoidal, and central, or isla^id of Reil.
The frontal lobe comprises the anterior portion of the brain, as far back as the
fissure of Rolando or central sulcus, and as far toward the base as the fissure of Sylvius.
us parietalis
lobus frontalis
Lobus occipitalis
Lobus centralis or insula
Lobus temporalis
Fig. 40. — Lobes of the brain.
The parietal lobe extends from the fissure of Rolando (central sulcus) in front
to the parieto-occipital fissure behind. Below, it is limited anteriorly by the fissure
of Sylvius, while its posterior portion merges into the temporosphenoidal lobe.
The occipital lobe extends posteriorly from a line joining the occipitoparietal
fissure above to the pre-occipital notch below.
The temporosphenoidal lobe consists of that portion of the brain below the
fissure of Sylvius, as far back as the pre-occipital notch. It occupies the middle
fossa of the skull.
THE BRAIN.
33
The central lobe or island of Reil, also called the insula, consists of five
to seven convolutions which radiate upward; it can be seen by separating the two
sides of the anterior portion of the fissure of Sylvius.
THE FISSURES AND CONVOLUTIONS OF THE BRAIN.
The surface of the brain is wrinkled or thrown into folds, producing elevations
and depressions. The elevations are called convolutions or gyri, and the depres-
sions, fissures or sulci.
The fissures are called main or subsidiary fissures, according to their impor-
tance. The five main fissures are the longitudinal fissure, which separates the
hemispheres; the transverse fissure, which separates the cerebrum and cerebellum
and communicates with the third ventricle; the fissure of Sylviiis ; the fissure of
Rolando, or central fissure, and the parieto-occipital fissure.
THE LATERAL SURFACE OF THE HEMISPHERES.
The frontal lobe has a superior, an inferior, and a precentral sulcus. The first
two divide the anterior portion into the stiperior, viiddle, and inferior frontal convo-
Sulcus praecentralis
\
\
Sulcus centralis (Rolandi)
Sulcus post centralis
^Sulcus interparietalis
Sulcus frontalis
superior
Sulcus frontalis
inferior
Fissura parieto-
occipitalis
Sulcus occipitalis
transversus
Sulcus occipitalis
lateralis
Fissura lateralis (Sylvii
Sulcus temporalis superior
Sulcus temporalis medius
Fig. 41. — Fissures, sulci, and gyri (convolutions) of the lateral surface of the cerebral hemisphere.
lutions. That portion of the inferior or third left frontal convolution which surrounds
the ascending limb of the fissure of Sylvius is called Brocd' s convolution, and is
the centre for speech. Posterior to these and running upward and backward, form-
ing the anterior wall of the central fissure, is the precentral or ascendiiig frontal
convolution.
The convolution forming the anterior extremity of the parietal lobe and the
posterior wall of the central sulcus or fissure of Rolando is called the postcentral or
ascendiiig parietal convolutio7i. Immediately behind it is the postcentral or inter-
parietal sulcus. The upper portion of this sulcus divides, one branch going up-
ward and one backward. Immediately above the posterior branch is the superior
parietal gyrus or lobule, and below it and surrounding the posterior extremity of the
fissure of Sylvius is the supramarginal gyriis. Posterior to the supramarginal gyrus
and surrounding the posterior extremity of the superior temporal, or temporosphe-
noidal sulcus is the convolution known as the a^igular gyriis.
The occipital lobe on its convex surface is divided into superior and inferior
occipital convolutions by the lateral occipital sulcus.
The temporal or temporosphenoidal lobe is also divided into superior, middle,
and inferior, or first, second, and third temporal convolutions hy the superior, or par-
allel, and middle fissures. On the under surface is a fourth temporal convoltition,
separated from the third by the inferior temporal fissure. These fissures may not be
distinct.
34
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE MEDIAL SURFACE OF THE HEMISPHERES.
If now the medial surface of the hemisphere, which forms one side of the longi-
tudinal fissure, be examined, there is seen a large convolution running just above and
parallel with the corpus callosum. It is called the gyrus cinguli (^fornicatiis). Below
and separating it from the corpus callosum is the callosal fissure; above it is the calloso-
marginal fissure. The convolution above the latter, forming the margin of the hem-
isphere, is the viarginal convohdion. The callosomarginal fissure at its posterior
portion turns upward and ends on the margin of the hemisphere, just posterior to the
fissure of Rolando, or central fissure, and serves to identify it. This marks the pos-
terior limit of the frontal lobe. The posterior end of the frontal lobe surrounds the
upper end of the central fissure and on that account is called the paracentral lobule.
Its anterior boundary is marked by the paracentral fissure, or sulcus. Between the
callosomarginal fissure in front and the parieto-occipital fissure behind is the parietal
lobe, called, from its square shape on the medial surface, the quadrate lobule, or from
being anterior to the cuneus lobule, the prectineus. Running downward and back-
Fissura centralis
(Rolandi)
Sulcus cinguli (callosomarginalis)
Fissura parieto-
occipitalis
Fissura calcarina
posterior
Fissura calcarina
anterior
Fissura collateralis
Sulcus temporalis inferior
Fig. 42.— Gyri, sulci, and fissures of the medial surface of the cerebral hemisphere.
ward from the deeper portion of the parieto-occipital fissure is a very distinct depres-
sion called the calcarine fissure. These two fissures include a wedge-shaped piece
of the occipital lobe called, from its shape, the cuneus lobule. It is of interest in
reference to the sense of sight.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CORTEX OF THE BRAIN:
LOCALIZATION.
CEREBRAL
A knowledge of the functions of the various portions of the brain is necessary
in order to localize a diseased area. The diseases and injuries to which the brain
is exposed oftentimes do not involve the whole brain, but only certain distinct and
isolated parts. The brain is not a single, homogeneous organ that acts only as a
whole; it is complex. It is composed of a number of separate parts or areas, which
may act either singly or in conjunction with other areas. These separate areas have
different functions, so that if the disease or injury is limited to one of them, we have
its functions abolished, and the symptoms produced indicate the area affected.
These areas are situated on the surface or cortex of the brain in the gray matter.
They receive impressions from, and transmit impulses to, all parts of the body
through the white matter or fibres of the brain. An injur}' to the cortex or gray
matter destroys the originating and receptive centres. An injury to the white matter
destroys the paths to and from these centres and therefore prevents them from
receiving impressions or sending out impulses. Thus, we may have a paralysis of
the leg and arm caused by an injury to the leg and arm centres in the cortex of
the brain, as by a hemorrhage from a fracture, or we can have the same paralysis
THE BRAIN.
35
produced by an injury to the path leading from those centres, the motor tract as it
is called, by a hemorrhage, as from apoplexy, involving the corresponding white
matter fibres.
The exact localization of the functions of all parts of the brain has not been
accomplished, but the functions of many areas have been definitely proven. In
cases of brain tumor, abscess, hemorrhage, injury, etc. , a knowledge of these areas
enables one to localize the seat of the lesion.
FUNCTIONS OF THE CONVOLUTIONS ON THE SURFACE OF THE CEREBRUM.
The frontal lobe may be conveniently divided into three areas; prefrontal, mid-
frontal, and postfrontal. The prefrontal area embraces all the superior, middle,
and inferior frontal convolutions, with the exception of their posterior ends. On
the medial side it reaches to the callosomarginal fissure. The function of the pre-
frontal area is said to be that of higher cerebration, as attention, judgment, and com-
parison. This region, particularly the lower portion, is liable to injury, owing to its
anterior position and to the fact that it overlies the orbit. The roof of the orbit is
quite thin and liable to fracture by penetrating bodies, as umbrellas, canes, etc.
Sometimes a portion of this part of the brain may be destroyed without marked
interference with the mental qualities of the patient. This occurred in the case of a
Fig. 43.— Diagram illustrating the probable functions of the lateral surface of the brain.
boy who was struck in the eye by a carriage pole (personal observation). The eye
was burst, necessitating its removal. Several pieces of the fractured bone of the
roof of the orbit w-ere removed and brain tissue came away for several days. The
boy recovered and for sixteen years apparently had no resulting mental deficiency.
The midfrontal area embraces the posterior portion of the superior and
middle convolutions, with the upper posterior portion of the inferior. It is con-
cerned in certain movements of the eyes and lids, and also in turning the head
toward the opposite side. This midfrontal division is the most anterior portion of
what is called the motor area.
Speech Centre, or Broca's Convolution. — The centre of speech is located
in right-handed people in the posterior portion of the third left frontal convolution,
where it arches around the ascending limb of the fissure of Sylvius. It is called
Broca's convolution. The faculty of writing or written speech is attributed to the
graphic centre in the posterior extremity of the second frontal convolution just above
and behind Broca's convolution.
The postfrontal area embraces the ascending frontal convolution in front of
the fissure of Rolando or central fissure. It is concerned in the various movements
of the trunk and extremities, and forms the anterior portion of the Rolandic area;
it will be considered under that head.
The Rolandic Area. — This is the area which gives rise to most of the voluntary
movements of the body. When affected, it causes positive symptoms of paralysis
36
APPLIED ANATOMY.
or contraction of the muscles connected with it, and is the region most frequently
affected by injuries. This is partly due to the fact of its proximity to the middle
meningeal artery, as a hemorrhage from that vessel produces a clot which covers
and involves this area.
The Rolandic area embraces the ascending frontal, or precentral, and posterior
portion of the three frontal convolutions, the former being in front of the fissure
Fig. 44.— Diagram illustrating the motor areas of the lateral surface of the brain.
of Rolando, or central fissure. The fissure of Rolando passes downward and for-
ward from the longitudinal fissure, at an angle of about 70°, nearly to the fissure of
Sylvius, being separated from it by the joining of the ascending parietal and ascend-
FiG. 45.— Diagram illustrating the probable functions of the gyri (convolutions) of the medial surface of the brain.
ing frontal convolutions. Sherrington and Griinbaum have shown that the motor
area is almost exclusively anterior to the central fissure.
The upper portion of the motor area, near the longitudinal fissure, is concerned
with the movements of the toes and lower extremity. The leg centres are toward
the upper end of the central fissure; next are those of the abdomen and chest.
The arm centres are toward the middle, and the face centres, including the larynx.
THE BRAIN.
37
tongue, and platysma myoid muscle, around its lower extremity. The leg, arm, and
face centres are, respectively, opposite the posterior extremities of the superior,
middle, and inferior frontal convolutions.
The upper portion of the motor area passes over the upper margin of the hemi-
sphere and down on its medial side almost as far as the callosomarginal fissure and
paracentral lobule.
The Sensory Area. — The portions of the cerebrum involved in cutaneous
and muscular sensibility embrace the posterior portion of the parietal convolutions,
the precuneus or quadrate lobule, and gyrus fornicatus as far forward as the motor
area on the medial aspect.
The visual area embraces the occipital lobe, particularly its cuneus lobule,
and region of the calcarine fissure on the medial surface of the hemisphere. The
anterior portion of the occipital lobe and the region of the angular gyrus are con-
Foramen interventriculare
Conimissura niedius
Thalamus
Ventriculum lateralis
Corpus striatum
Commissura anterior
Conimissura posterior
Corpus pineale
f Corpora quadrigemina
Ventriculum quartus
Medulla
Fig. 46.— Foreshortened view showing corpus striatum, thalamus, corpora quadrigemina, lateral, third, and
fourth ventricles, etc.
earned in the more complex phenomena of sight, and their destruction produces
word-blindness. Destruction of the centres on both sides produces what has been
called mind-blindness, because objects can no longer be recognized.
The Auditory Area. — The centre for hearing is located in the superior and
middle temporosphenoidal convolutions. It requires destruction of these convo-
lutions on both sides of the brain to produce total cerebral deafness. The memory
or recognition of spoken words (word hearing) is apparently performed by the pos-
terior ends of the superior and middle (ist and 2d) temporosphenoidal convolutions.
Gustatory Area. — The sense of taste is supposed to be located on the under
and inner surfaces of the temporosphenoidal lobe or fourth temporal convolution.
Olfactory Area. — The sense of smell is supposed to involve the anterior portion
of the gyrus fornicatus and the upper medial portion of the temporosphenoidal lobe.
The cerebral areas for both smell and taste have not been as yet accurately
determined.
FUNCTIONS OF THE BASAL GANGLIA.
Corpus Striatum and Thalamus. — The exact functions of the corpus stria-
tum, embracing the caudate and lenticular nuclei, and of the thalamus are not
known. They are most often affected in apoplexies ; lesions of the corpus striatum are
accompanied by disturbances of motion, and those of the thalamus by disturbances of
sensation.
38
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Corpora Quadrigemina. — The anterior corpora quadrigemina are associated
with sight, the posterior possibly with hearing and equilibrium. Note their prox-
imity to the cerebellum.
spinal cord
Fig. 47. — The corona radiata or projection fibres which connect the cortex above with the thalamus, corpus striatum,
tegmental region, pons, medulla, and spinal cord below. These fibres go to form the internal capsule.
Crura Cerebri. — The crura cerebri transmit both sensory and motor impulses.
Note their proximity to the third nerve, as they are apt to be involved by the
Cerebral cortex
same lesions, thus accounting for paralyses
or sensory disturbances of the trunk or ex-
tremities accompanied by ocular paralysis.
Pons Varolii. — The pons transmits
the motor or pyramidal tract, and also the
fifth, sixth, and seventh nerves. Implication
of the seventh or facial nerve, together with
the motor tract, has already been alluded to
(page 32). If the sixth or abducent nerve
is involved, the external rectus muscle on
that side will be paralyzed. If the fifth, or
trifacial nerve is affected, irritation of its
motor root may produce trismus or clench-
ing of the jaws, and interference with its
sensory root may cause anaesthesia of one
side of the face.
THE CORONA RADIATA, INTERNAL
CAPSULE, AND MOTOR TRACT.
The corona radiata is the bundle of white
fibres which spreads out like a fan and con-
nects the cortex of the brain with the basal
ganglia and spinal cord. Proceeding down-
ward from the cortex, the corona radiata be-
comes smaller and passes, in the form of a
band, between the lenticular nucleus on the
outside and the caudate nucleus and thal-
amus on the inside. This band is known
as the internal cupsnle. It transmits in its
anterior portion fibres from the prefrontal or
higher psychical area; then come the motor
paths ; and still farther back, in the posterior third of the posterior portion, sensory fibres.
T^x^ functions of the external capside, which lies to the outer side of the lenticular
nucleus, are not known.
Pyramidal
decussation
Lateral
pyramidal tract
Direct
pyramidal tract
Spinal nerve
Fig. 48. — Diagram showing course and decussa-
tion of corticospinal (pyramidal) tract ; M, medulla;
P.poiis; CP, cerebral peduncle; T, thalamus; C, L,
caudate and lenticular nuclei ; CC, corpus callosum.
(Piersol.)
THE BRAIN.
39
The motor fibres of the ijitenial capsule pass downward through the anterior
portion of the crus cerebri and pons into the medulla, at the lower part of which
the majority decussate and pass into the anterior columns of the cord as the/jj'ra;«-
idal tracts. Thus, it is seen that destruction of any portion of the motor tract,
from the point oi pyramidal decussation below, through the internal capsule to the
cortex above, will cause a paralysis on the opposite side of the body.
CRANIOCEREBRAL TOPOGRAPHY.
For the purpose of operating on the brain it is essential to know the bony land-
marks of the skull, the lower level of the brain, and the relation which the various
fissures and convolutions bear to the surface.
The most important fissures are the longitudinal, Sylvian, Rola7idic, 3.nd parieto-
occipital. If these can be properly located, the convolutions and subsidiary fissures
can be readily filled in.
BONY LANDMARKS.
Nasion. — The nasofrontal suture in the median line.
Glabella. — The smooth spot in the median line on the frontal bone between
the superciliary ridges. It is about on a level with the upper edge of the orbit.
Bregma
Stephanion
Sylvian point
Pterion
Lambda
Temporal ridge
Glabella
External angular process
— Nasion
Malar tubercle
Inion
Asterion
Fig. 49. — Landmarks of the skull.
Bregma. — The point in the midline where the sagittal and coronal sutures
cross. It corresponds with the anterior fontanelle in the infant.
Lambda. — The point of meeting of the sagittal and lambdoid sutures. It is
about 6 cm. (2 ^^ in. ) above the occipital protuberance.
Inion. — The external occipital protuberance.
Pterion. — This name was given by P. Broca to the point where the frontal,
parietal, and sphenoid bones meet in the region of the temple. It is about 2.5 cm.
( I in. ) behind the angular process and should not be confounded with the Sylvian
point, which is 1.5 cm. (S/^ in.) farther posterior, where the temporal, parietal, and
sphenoid bones meet. Horsley called this latter point the pterion. The region of
the pterion is the seat of the anterolateral fontanelle in the foetus.
Asterion. — This lies 2 cm. (4 in.) behind the base of the mastoid process,
where the parietal, occipital, and temporal bones meet. It is on the superior curved
line and in fetal life forms the posterolateral fontanelle.
Temporal Ridge. — This marks the upper attachment of the temporal fascia
and muscle. It begins at the external angular process of the frontal bone and ends
40 APPLIED ANATOMY.
at the asterion. Its anterior third is well marked, but as it crosses the coronal suture
it fades away and gradually broadens out, its upper margin being called the superior
and its lower the inferior temporal ridge. The superior ridge marks the attachment
of the superficial layer of the temporal fascia, the inferior, the deep layer.
External Angular Process. — This is the outer extremity of the frontal bone,
where it articulates with the malar. The line of the suture can be distinctly felt in
the living.
Malar Tubercle. — This is the small bony projection on the posterior edge of
the malar bone, 1.25 to 2 cm. (3^ to ^ in.) below the frontomalar suture.
Stephanion. — The point where the temporal ridge crosses the coronal suture.
TOPOGRAPHICAL POINTS.
Pre-auricular Point. — The depression in front of the ear and just behind the
condyle of the lower jaw.
Sylvian Point. — Where the anterior ascending and anterior horizontal limbs
come off from the posterior horizontal limb of the fissure of Sylvius. It lies 4 cm.
(i^ in. ) posterior and a little above the external angular process, at the junction of
the parietal, sphenoid, and temporal bones.
Superior Rolandic Point. — Where the upper end of the line marking the
Rolandic fissure crosses the median line.
Inferior Rolandic Point. — Where the lower end of the line marking the
Rolandic fissure crosses the line of the Sylvian fissure.
The Lower Level of the Brain.
The lower level of the brain is marked by a line beginning in the median line
I cm. (f in.) above the nasion, thence above the orbit i cm. from its edge to the
external angular process; from here it goes to the middle of the zygoma, thence
backward along its upper border, above the auditory meatus and along the supe-
rior curved line to the inion (occipital protuberance).
FISSURES AND CONVOLUTIONS.
The conformation of the various fissures and convolutions varies so much within
normal limits that it is not possible to outline them on the surface of the scalp or
skull with absolute exactness. The various lines which are laid out to indicate their
course are, therefore, only approximate, but they are sufficiently accurate for opera-
tive purposes. To allow for variations, the openings made are usually large, and the
motor areas are sometimes identified by the application of an electrode.
Fissure of Sylvius (fissura cerebri lateralis). — To indicate the course of
the Sylvian fissure, a line is drawn from the external angular process of the frontal
bone through a point 2 cm. (^ in.) below the most prominent part of the parietal
eminence and ending 1.5 cm. (^ in.) above the lambda. The main portion of the
Sylvian fissure begins 2 cm. (^ in.) behind the angular process; 2 cm. farther back
or 42 mm. ( i f^ in. ) behind the angular process is the Sylvian point, where the
anterior horizontal and anterior ascending limbs are given ofi. From this point the
posterior horizontal limb passes backward to 2 cm. (3/( in.) below the highest point
of the parietal eminence and then curves upward and backward for a distance of
1.25 cm. to 2 cm. (% to 3^ in.).
Central Fissure, or Fissure of Rolando (sulcus centralis). — The line of
the central fissure begins at the upper Rolandic point, 1.5 cm. (^ in.) behind the
middle of a sagittal line passing from the glabella to the inion. It then passes
down and forward at an angle of approximately 70° (67^, Chiene) toward the
middle of the zygoma (Le Fort) to end at the lower Rolandic point, where it inter-
sects the Sylvian line. It is about 9 cm. (33^ in.) long. The central fissure stops
I cm. above the Sylvian line or fissure.
Parieto-occipital Fissure (fissura parieto-occipitalis). — The position of
this fissure is quite variable, an average being 1.5 cm. (^ in.) above the lambda, and
extending 1.25 cm. (^ in.) out from the median line. It is about 6 cm. (2^^ in.)
above the inion and on or below the line of the Sylvian fissure.
THE BRAIN.
41
Subsidiary Fissures and Convolutions.
The precentral and postcentral sulci are about 15 mm. (| in.) anterior
and posterior to the fissure of Rolando.
The inferior frontal convolution lies between the line of the fissure of
Sylvius below and a line just below the temporal ridge above.
The middle frontal convolution lies under the frontal eminence, and occu-
Central fissure or
fissure of Rolando
Bregma
Line for central or
Rolandic fissure
Precentral sulcus
Interparietal
sulcus
Postcentral
sulcus
Pai ieto-occipital v-^
fissure
Transverse occip-
ital sulcus
Parietal eminence
Lateral occipita
sulcus
Inion
Transverse or
lateral sinus'
Posterior horizontal limb of
Sylvian fissure
Line for Sylvian fissure
Temporal ridge
Ascending limb of
Sylvian fissure
Anterior horizontal limb
Main portion of
Sylvian fissure
Fig. 50. — Semidiagrammatic view of head, showing relation of Rolandic and Sylvian fissures and lines.
pies about the lower two-thirds of the distance between the temporal ridge below
and the midline above.
The superior frontal convolution covers about the upper one-third of the
distance from the median line above to the temporal ridge below.
The superior frontal sulcus passes upward from the supra-orbital notch.
The inferior frontal sulcus runs just below the temporal ridge.
The first or superior temporal convolution runs along the lower side of
the fissure of Sylvius. It is about 15 mm. (f in.) wide.
The first or superior temporal sulcus or parallel fissure runs parallel to
the Sylvian fissure and 15 mm. below.
The second or middle temporal convolution is wider than the first and lies
a short distance abo\'e the level of the base of the skull.
The middle temporal sulcus runs close above the zygoma.
The third or inferior and the fourth temporal convolutions lie on the base
of the brain, separated by the inferior temporal sulcus. The fourth temporal convo-
lution has on its inner side the collateral fissure (see Fig. 42).
The interparietal sulcus (pars horizontalis) leaves the postcentral sulcus
near its middle and passes upward and backward to a point opposite the lambda.
The supramarginal convolution surrounds the termination of the fissure of
Sylvius and is, therefore, under the parietal eminence.
42
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The angular gyrus surrounds the posterior end of the first temporal sulcus
(parallel fissure) and is, therefore, 3 or 4 cm. (i^ to i)4 in.) posterior to the
parietal eminence.
The transverse occipital sulcus is a continuation of the interparietal sulcus
to just beyond the parieto-occipital fissure.
The lateral occipital sulcus lies close to the tentorium; it divides the occipi-
tal lobe into superior and inferior convolutions. (Sometimes these two sulci divide
the lobe into three convolutions, superior, middle, and inferior.)
The Fissures in Children. — In childhood the fissure of Rolando is somewhat
more vertical than in adults; the fissure of Sylvius has its point of division a little
higher and runs up to and usually above and in front of the parietal eminence
(Dana, Med. Record, Jan. 1889, p. 29). After the age of three years, the relative
position of the fissure to the parietal eminence begins to approach that of the adult.
(For variations due to age see Cunningham: " Contributions to the Surface Anatomy
of the Cerebral Hemispheres," 1892.)
The objects of cerebral topography are mainly to ascertain in case of injury or disease of
the superficial structures what parts of the brain beneath are liable to be involved, and for opera-
tive procedures, in order to expose the affected areas.
The convolutions and sulci are so variable that all
guides are only approximate. In order to overcome
this defect and provide for unusual conditions, the
openings in the skull are usually made quite large.
The flaps of scalp and bone may even embrace the
entire parietal bone or a quarter of one hemisphere.
As regards the various points — the upper Rolandic
point is generally conceded to be 15 mm. {%, to ^ in.)
posterior to the midpoint between the glabella and
inion. The angle which the fissure forms with the
median line varies from 64° to 75°. Cunningham
gives it as 70° and Arthur W. Hare as 67°. Chiene's
method of finding the desired angle is usually accepted
as reliable. He takes a square piece of paper and
folds it obliquely from corner to corner making 45°,
and then folds it a second time making 22>^°. The
two being added together give 67^^° as the angle made
by the fissure of Rolando with the anterior portion of
the longitudinal fissure.
The pterion was placed by Broca at the coronal su-
ture. This is 15 mm. (2 in. ) in front of the Sylvian point. In several formalin hardened brains, we
found this latter to be at the posterior angle of the pterygoid wing, and in twenty measured
skulls the Sylvian point averaged 42 mm.
(i^ in.) behind the angular process. Reid
placed it at 50 mm. (2 in.) , which we think too
much. Anderson and Makin placed it at i >^ to
2 in. Thane and Godlee placed it 35 mm. back
and 12 mm. up, which is just a trifle farther
forward than we have located it. Landzert
and Heffler gave it as at the summit of union
of the great wing of the sphenoid with the
temporoparietal suture, as we have given it.
When prolonged, the Sylvian fissure some-
times crosses the median line 1.5cm. {% in.)
above the parieto-occipital fissure, but more
usually we have found it to be close to the
fissure, which agrees with Reid. The parieto-
occipital fissure has been located by some
authors near the lambda, but we would place it
1.5 cm. ( % in.) above. We believe the parie-
tal eminence to be a fairly reliable guide to the
posterior extremity of the fissure of Sylvius.
Method of Anderson and Makin for
Locating the Fissures of the Brain. — For the sake of comparison the following method of
Wm. Anderson and George Henry Makin {four. Anat. and Phys., vol. xxiii, 1888-89, p. 455) is
Fig. 51. — Chiene's method of folding a square
piece of paper in order to obtain an angle of 67 J^
degrees.
Fig. 52. — Method of Anderson and Makin for locating the
fissures of the brain.
THE BRAIN.
43
given. Draw a mid- or sagittal line from opposite the highest point of the supra-orbital arches
to the external occipital protuberance. From the midpoint on this line draw another to the
pre-auricular point at the level of the upper border of the meatus. This is the frontal line.
From the most prominent point of the external angular process draw a line to the junction of
the middle and lower thirds of the frontal line and prolong it i}4 in. beyond.
The Sylvian fissure begins between i}i and ij4 in. behind the angular process or jroi
the distance between that point and the frontal line. The bifurcation is ij^ to 2 in. behind the
angular process or yV of the distance between it and the frontal line, the fissure then runs to an
equal distance behind the frontal line, and up for )4 in. parallel to the frontal line. The fissure
of Rolando runs from a point }i in. behind the midsagittal point to one ^ of an inch in front of
the intersection of the frontal line and line of the Sylvian fissure. The parieto-occipital fissure
is j"t of the distance from the midsagittal point to the inion. It lies near the apex of the lamb-
doid suture.
The Lateral Ventricles. — The lateral ventricles sometimes become distended by serous or
purulent effusions or, as in apoplexy, by blood. In order to tap them Keen (" Reference Hand-
Fissure of Rolando
Bregma
Lateral ventricle
Middle men-
ingeal artery
anterior
branch
Posterior horn of
lateral ventricle
Inion'
Lateral sinus^
Middle meningeal artery, posterior
branch ; inferior horn of lateral ven-
tricle seen beneath
Fig. 53. — Tapping the lateral ventricles and trephining for cerebral abscess. Semidiagrammaticview of head, show-
ing relation of Rolandic and Sylvian fissures and lines.
book of the Medical Sciences," vol. viii., p. 229) has given three points, as follows: (i) One-
half to three-fourths of an inch (1.25 to 2 cm.) on either side of the median line and one-third
of the distance from the glabella to the upper end of the central (Rolandic) fissure. This is
high enough to avoid the frontal air-sinuses and is in advance of the motor area. A grooved
director is to be thrust in the direction of the inion. The ventricle is reached at a depth of 5 to
6.5 cm. (2 to 2>^ in.) through the first frontal convolution. (2) Midway between the mion
and upper end of the central (Rolandic) fissure 1.25 to 2 cm. {}4 to ^ in.) from the median
line. The director is to be thrust toward the inner end of the supra-orbital ridge of the same
side. The ventricle will be reached at a depth of 5.5 to 7 cm. {2% to 234^ in.) from the sur-
face. (3) Three centimetres {iX in.) behind the external auditory meatus and the same above
Reid's base line (from the lower border of the orbit through the centre of the external auditory
meatus). The director is to be Ihrust toward a point 6.25 to 7.5 cm. (2!^ to 3 in.) directly
above the opposite external meatus. The ventricle will be reached 5 to 5.75 cm. (2 to 2^' in.)
from the surface. The director passes through the second temporal convolution; this is the
preferred method.
44 APPLIED ANATOMY.
Spitzka {New York Med. Jour., Feb. 2, 1901, p. 177) has pointed out how these ventricles
vary in shape, and has given the surface relations in two brains. T. T. Wilson {Jour. Anat. and
Phys., vol. xxviii, 1894, pp. 228-235) has described and figured them in three drawings. Spitzka
states that the ventricles will hold about 60 c.c. of liquid.
Cerebral Abscess. — About one-half of the abscesses of the brain occur from disease of the
middle ear, and they are located in the temporosphenoidal lobe, in the cerebellum, or between
the dura and petrous portion of the temporal bone. The remainder are caused either by blows
or infection carried to the part in infectious diseases. They may, therefore, occur anywhere in
the brain.
When the motor areas around the fissure of Rolando are involved, the location of the
trouble will be shown by spasm or paralysis of the corresponding muscles. If the occipital lobe
is affected there may be disturbance of sight, as hemiopia. Involvement of the frontal lobes
produces mental dulness, and if of the third left frontal gyrus, or Rroca's convolution there may
be impairment of speech. Disease of the middle lobe of the cerebellum may be accompanied
by a staggering gait. In many cases localization symptoms are rare, particularly when the
abscess is small and located in the temporosphenoidal, parietal, or frontal lobes (see chapter on
cerebral localization).
Trephining. — If the abscess arises from middle-ear disease, it is customary to first open
the mastoid antrum (see chapter on ear) and then by removing the bone above to explore the
surface of the petrous portion of the temporal bone. To explore the temporal lobe an opening
may be made 2.5 cm. (i in.) above the external auditory meatus and a needle passed inward,
forward, and a little downward.
To reach the cerebellum, the trephine should be applied 5 to 7 cm. {2 to 2}{ in.) behind
the external meatus and well below the superior curved line. The bone at this point is apt to
be thin and care is to be exercised not to wound the membranes. The place of trephining in
abscesses from other causes is to be decided by the localizing symptoms.
THE FACE.
The face may be divided into the regions of the forehead, temples, ears, eyes,
nose, viouth, cheek, and upper and lower jaws. The regions of the eyes, ears, nose,
and mouth will be considered separately. Owing to the face being that part of the
body most open to scrutiny and most difficult of concealment, deformities and dis-
figurements of it, resulting from injury or disease, — to both of which it is prone, —
assume a greater importance than the same troubles elsewhere. Therefore, the
anatomy of the part should be studied with regard to the treatment of its various
aflections from a cosmetic as well as from a curative point of view. What is usually
regarded as constituting the face embraces the anterior half of the head as \iewed
from the front.
The Bones. — The bones of the head have been divided into those of the
cranium and those of the face. The bones of the cranium are eight in number, viz. :
the frontal, occipital, two temporals, two parietals, the sphenoid, and ethmoid. The
bones of the face are fourteen in number, of which twelve are in pairs, viz: superior
maxillary, malar, nasal, palate, lachrymal, and inferior turbinated bones — the vomer
and inferior maxilla or mandible are the two single bones.
From this it will be seen that the bony framework of the face embraces some of
the bones of the skull, as well as those of the face proper; thus, the region of the
forehead is formed by the frontal bone, the temporal region is formed by the frontal,
parietal, sphenoid, and temporal bones, all belonging to the cranium, and so on.
The palate bones are called face bones, yet they are placed deep in the region of the
mouth and nose.
The Soft Parts. — The soft parts are likewise of importance. The skin, thin in
some parts, thick in others, is in many places loosely attached and has inserted in it
the muscles of expression. It is frequently the seat of disease, particularly of cancer.
On each side of the face are the parotid glands, often the site of inflammations.
The blood-vessels, both arteries and veins, particularly the former, are very
numerous and give special characters to wounds and diseases of the face.
The nerves are abundant and complex. They are, with the exception of the
auricidaris magnus, which comes from the second and third cervical, and to a
slight extent the occipitalis viinor from the second cervical, all derived from the
cranial nerves and are both motor and sensory. The paralyses and neuralgias which
THE FACE.
45
affect them are among the most distressing and disfiguring of any in the body,
wounds of the face producing paralysis of the muscles of expression.
The relatively small size of the face in relation to the cranium in the child as
compared to that of the adult has already been alluded to (see page 8). The
reasons for this are evident: dentition must be complete to insure the proper
development of the jaws; the use of the special senses and the expression of the
emotions cause the facial muscles to develop, and this in turn causes the bones to
which they are attached to become more rugged in outline and larger in size. In
old age, as the teeth are lost, the jaws are diminished in size by absorption of their
alveolar processes.
THE FRONTAL REGION.
The frontal region embraces that part of the face above the eyes and nose in
front and anterior to the temples at the sides.
The Frontal Suture. — The frontal bone develops from two centres of ossifi-
cation, one on each side. These unite in the median line to form the frontal suture
which joins the anterior fontanelle and
is closed about the same time, within the
age of two years. The suture occa-
sionally persists through life and some-
times the line of junction can be felt in
the living; it should not be mistaken
for fracture.
The frontal eminences in the
child are particularly prominent, the
forehead projecting beyond the edge of
the orbit. This makes it difficult to
apply a bandage securely to the head
in children unless it is twisted to draw
in its sides.
The superciliary ridges are
about a centimetre above the edge of
the orbit over its inner half. Aided by
the hair of the eyebrows they serve
to divert the sweat to the sides, as
pointed out by Humphry. They are
best developed in the adult male.
Directly between them in the median
line on a level with the upper edge of the orbit is a depression called the glabella.
It is the anterior point from which measurements are taken in cerebral topography.
Frontal Sinuses. — Beneath the superciliary ridges are the frontal air-sinuses,
but the size of the sinuses is not necessarily proportional to that of the ridges; they
may extend quite far back over the orbit. Fractures of the outer wall of these
sinuses not infrequently occur without the inner table being injured. A septum
separates one sinus from the other, not always in the median line. The lining
membrane of these sinuses is often inflamed and suppurates, discharging pus into the
nose. Tumors also grow in them.
Margins of the Orbit. — At the upper and outer margin of the orbit is the
external angular process of the frontal bone. The line of junction or suture between
it and the malar bone can be distinctly felt in the living both on the side of the orbit
and on the side toward the temple. This is an important landmark in cerebral
topography, as it is used to locate the fissure of Sylvius and also the middle menin-
geal artery. On the upper margin of the orbit at about the junction of its middle
and inner thirds is the sicpra-orbital notch. This can usually be readily felt through
the skin. Sometimes it is a complete foramen instead of simply a notch. It is then
to be located by feeling on the orbital surface just behind the edge. It transmits
the supra-orbital ner\-e and artery.
The supra-orbital nerve, a branch of the ophthalmic division of the fifth nerve,
is sometimes the seat of neuralgia, for which resection of the nerve is performed.
Fig. 54.— Frontal region of a child's skull.
46
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The pain is felt above the orbit radiating from the supra-orbital notch, sometimes as
far up as the vertex. Pain is also felt on pressure over the supra-orbital notch. If
the entire ophthalmic branch of the fifth nerve is affected, pain is felt in the eyeball
and down the side of the nose. The incision in operating may be made at the
lower border of the eyebrow, its centre being over the notch. If the notch is not
readily felt on the edge of the bony orbit at the junction of the inner and middle
thirds, it can be detected by feeling with the tip of the finger on the orbital surface.
The incision is made through the fibres of the orbicularis palpebrarum, corrugator
supercilii, and frontalis muscles, then through the palpebral ligament immediately
below the bony edge of the orbit, and the orbital fat separated with forceps; the
nerve is then caught with a hook before it enters the notch, and brought up
and removed. Considerable ecchymosis may follow this operation if the accom-
Branches of the supra-orbital nerve
Fig. 55. — Supra-orbital nerve and artery.
panying artery is divided. Operations on the ophthalmic division of the fifth nerve
have usually been done in connection with removal of the Gasserian ganglion, the
other branches being also involved.
Nasion. — About a centimetre below the glabella, in the adult skull, is the
nasion, or line of junction of the frontal and nasal bones. It is along this frontonasal
suture, to one side of the median line, that an anterior meningocele is apt to show
itself.
The internal angular process of the frontal bone articulates with the nasal
process of the superior maxilla and the lachrymal bones. The line of suture is
continuous with the nasion in front and the upper edge of the ethmoid behind.
Pus originating in the ethmoidal cells, frontal sinuses, and lachrymal apparatus is apt
to point at this locality. The frontal bone is a favorite seat of exostoses.
THE TEMPORAL REGION.
The region of the temple is on the side of the head as far forward as the eye
and as low as the zygoma and infratemporal crest. The floor of the temporal fossa
is formed by the posterior portion of the frontal and anterior portion of the parietal
bones as high as the temporal ridge, the outer surface of the greater wing of the
sphenoid, and the squamous portion of the temporal bone. These four bones meet
to form the region of the pterion (see p. 39 and 42). The anterior edge of the
temporal bone overlaps and is superficial to the posterior edge of the sphenoid. The
THE FACE.
47
an
erior edge of the parietal overlies the posterior edge of the frontal. The upper
edges of the temporal and sphenoid overlap the lower edges of the frontal and
parietal bones. That the temporal region of the skull is distinctly weaker than other
regions is due to the thinness of the bones, and the reason that fractures here are
exceptionally dangerous is on account of the middle meningeal artery running
through a canal in the bone in this region; so that in cases of fracture the artery
is torn and hemorrhage occurs above the dura, which causes compression of the
brain (Fig. 56).
The infratemporal crest (crista infratemporalis) or pterygoid ridge sep-
arates the temporal region above from the pterygoid region below. It is an important
landmark in operating on the Gasserian ganglion.
A spot two centimetres behind the external angular process and slightly above
its level marks the anterior extremity of the fissure of Sylvius. In trephining in the
Frontal
Glabella
External angular
process
Parietal
Anterior branch, mid-
dle meningeal artery
Posterior branch
Infratemporal crest
Middle meningeal
artery (running up
on the inside of the
skull)
Zygoma
Sphenoid
Fig. 56. — Frontal and temporal regions of an adult skull.
temporal region no diploe is found in the bones, so that extreme care is necessary
to avoid wounding the dura mater. The trephine may be placed 4 cm. ( i ^ in. )
behind the external angular process and 4.5 cm. (i^ in.) above the zygoma to strike
the middle meningeal artery. This will be level with or a little above the highest
part of the edge of the orbit.
Temporal Fascia. — This is the dense fascia covering the temporal muscle; it
is formed as follows: The pericranium as it comes down from the vault of the skull
and reaches the temporal ridge passes under and gives attachment to the temporal
muscle. The temporal fascia consists of two distinct sheets of fascia, the superficial
one from the superior temporal ridge being attached to the zygoma below and to the
malar bone in front; the deeper layer from the inferior temporal ridge covers the
temporal muscle, and a short distance above the zygoma divides into two layers,
one of which is attached to the outer edge, and the other to its inner edge. The
upper or superficial layer of the temporal fascia leaves the bone at the superior tem-
poral ridge and is attached below to the top of the zygoma, blending near the bone
with the layer beneath. This is a distinct layer though not always readily demon-
strable in dissections. Between the layers above the zygoma is some fat and the
orbital branch of the middle temporal artery. Anteriorly the temporal fascia is.
attached to the posterior border of the malar bone and the temporal ridge of the
frontal. The temporal fascia is tough and dense and gives attachment by its under
48
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Galea aponeurotica
Pericranium
Sujjerficial
Temporal fascia
superficial laye
Deep laye:
Temporal muscle
Superior auricular
muscle
surface to the temporal muscle. Abscess occurring under the temporal fascia, there-
fore, does not tend to come to the surface, but sinks downward. It is prevented
from making its exit on the face below the zygoma by the parotid gland and
masseter muscle, so it passes inward to the pterygoid region and may point in the
throat or go down into the neck.
The occipitofrontal aponeurosis, or galea aponeurotica as it approaches the
side of the head becomes thinner and passes down to insert into the top of the
zygoma so that in the temporal
region the layers are as follows :
Skin, superficial fascia, galea
ap07ieurotica, two layers of
the temporal fascia, temporal
muscle, an indistinct perios-
teum, and bone. Immediately
above the zygoma we have the
deep layer of the temporal fascia
dividing instead of a single
layer as is the case higher up.
The temporal fossa contains
considerable fat which dis-
appears in serious illnesses.
Disfiguring depressions are also
left in this region after opera-
tions involving the temporal
muscle.
The temporal artery be-
gins opposite the neck of the
lower jaw, then passes over the
temporomaxillary articulation,
lying on its capsule, thence over
the zygoma about a centimetre
in front of the ear. It lies on
the temporal fascia and about
4 cm. above the zygoma divides
into an anterior and posterior
branch. The course of the
temporal artery and its anterior
branch is usually quite conspic-
uous in old people and affords
a ready means of ascertaining
whether or not the arteries
possess the calcareous deposits
characteristic of atheroma. The
location of the artery in front
of the ear should be remem-
bered, as the pulse is readily
felt there in the administra-
tion of anaesthetics. In certain
angiomas of the scalp the
blood supply may be dimin-
ished by ligating the vessel at
that point.
The temporal muscle receives blood from the middle temporal artery which comes
from the temporal and perforates the temporal fascia just above the zygoma, and from
the anterior and posterior temporal branches of the internal maxillary. The tem-
poral fossa is frequently the seat of operations to expose the Gasserian ganglion and
the bleeding from these various temporal arteries contributes to their gravity. The
auriculotemporal nerve lies slighdy posterior to the artery and the vein in front of it.
They are not important.
Division of deep layer
of temporal fascia
Orbital branch of
temporal artery
Zygoma
Pig. 57.— Transverse coronal section in the region of the temple, show-
ing the various layers.
THE FACE.
49
THE REGION OF THE CHEEK.
In this region we may include the parts limited above by the zygoma, in front
by the eye, nose, and mouth, below by the lower edge of the lower jaw, and behind
by the ear. The soft parts of the cheek are supported by the malar and superior
and inferior maxillary bones. Between the skin and the buccinator muscle, the
hollow beneath and in front of the malar bone and masseter muscle is filled with fat,
sometiines called the sucking pad or cushion. In disease this fat disappears, hence
the hollow cheek of invalids. The muscles of expression are superficial to this fat
and have their insertion in the skin. Swelling occurs readily from contusions and
inflammations because the tissues of the cheek are lax. Inflammations may either
start in the skin, which is quite prone to disease, or may be the result of inflammation
of some surrounding structure, as the parotid gland, the roots of the teeth, the
lachrymal sac, eyelids, etc.
The skin of the cheek contains numerous sebaceous and sweat glands. It is a
favorite site for the pustular eruptions of infancy and childhood, the acne of youth.
Opluhalmic vein
Ang-ular artery
Lateral nasal
Superior coronary
Inferior coronary
Inferior labial
Nasal branch of ophthalmic
Frontal branch of ophthalmic
Facial artery
Facial vein
Fig. 58. — -The facial artery and its branches.
and the non-malignant as well as the cancerous ulcers of the aged. It is also the
seat of noma or cancriim oris. This starts on the mouth surface as a gangrenous
stomatitis and implicates the cheek, causing death or great disfigurement owing
to the loss of cheek substance. Facial carbuncle or malignant pustule occurs on the
cheek, or sometimes on the lips. It is very often fatal.
Wounds and contusions of the cheeks are common, and, as the blood supply is
abundant, bleeding is free and healing prompt. On account of the insertion of
the muscles into the skin, gaping is quite marked.
The malar bone is the most prominent bone of the cheek. It is such a
strong bone and so strongly supported that fracture of it, as well as that of the
zygoma, is rare. It may be broken by direct violence, as being hit with a stone, etc.
It is extremely difificult and often impossible to restore the fractured parts to their
original level, therefore deformity following fracture is of frequent occurrence.
The fracture may involve the margin of the orbit and cause an effusion of blood
into the orbit, pushing the eye- forward. A fracture of the zvgoma, if very much
depressed, may interfere with the use of the temporal muscle below, necessitating
operation. This occurrence is, however, rare.
50
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The facial artery runs upward and inward, from a couple of centimetres in front
of the angle of the jaw, along the anterior border of the masseter muscle to the angle
of the mouth, and thence to the inner canthus of the eye. The anterior edge of the
masseter muscle can usually be distinctly felt beneath the skin. At this point the
vessel can be ligated or temporarily compressed by passing a pin beneath it and
winding a silk ligature above it, around the ends of the pin. This procedure is
desirable in some operations on the cheek, as angiomas frequently affect this region.
If the facial artery is ligated, the blood supply comes from the superior and inferior
coronary arteries of the opposite side; the nasal branch of the ophthalmic, anasto-
mosing with the angular; the transverse facial below the zygoma, from the temporal;
the infra-orbital, a branch of the internal maxillary ; and to a slight extent from the
inferior labial and others still less important (Fig. 58).
The internal maxillary artery, one of the terminal branches of the external
carotid, arises in the parotid gland opposite the neck of the lower jaw. This is just
below and behind the articulation, which can be readily felt through the skin. It
Muscular branches
/
Infra-orbital
\ Superior alveolar
(posteriordental)
External ptery-
goid muscle
Internal ptery-
goid muscle
Superficial temporal
artery
Sphenomandibular
ligament'
Middle meningeal-
External carotid--'
Inferior alveolar (dental)
Buccal nerve
Lingual nerve
Inferior alveolar
iiL-rve
F:g. 59. — 'I'he internal maxillary artery.
passes between the bone and the sphenomandibular (long internal lateral) ligament,
then between the two pterygoid muscles or between the two heads of the external
pterygoid muscle to the posterior surface of the superior maxillary bone in the
sphenomaxillary fossa. The branches of its first part, where it is behind the neck of
the jaw, are the deep auricular, tympanic, ')niddle and small meniitgeal, and inferior
alveolar {dental). The branches of its second part, as it passes between the ptery-
goid muscles, are all muscular : they are the masseteric, pterygoid, anterior and
posterior deep temporal, and the buccal. The branches of the third portion of the
artery, in the sphenomaxillary fossa, are the posterior dental, infra-orbital , descending
palatine. Vidian, pterygopalatine , and sphoio- or nasopalatine.
The main trunk of the internal maxillary artery is not often involved either by
injury or operations. The various branches are, however, of considerable impor-
tance, as they supply parts which are often the site of operative measures. The
importance of the middle meningeal artery in reference to fractures of the skull has
already been pointed out. The inferior alveolar gives rise to troublesome hemorrhage
when the lower jaw is operated on. The deep temporal branches bleed freely when
the temporal muscle is incised in operating on the Gasserian ganglion. The infra-
orbital is involved in operating on the infra-orbital nerve. The posterior or descending
palatine branch descends in the posterior palatine canal, in company with a branch
THE FACE.
51
I
from Meckel's ganglion, to emerge on the roof of the mouth at the posterior palatine
foramen. It causes free hemorrhage in operating on cleft palate.
The \'idian and pterygopalatine branches supply mostly the roof of the pharynx;
they bleed when adenoids are removed. The descending and sphenopalatine sup-
ply the upper part of the tonsil with blood and may give rise to serious hemorrhage
in the removal of the tonsils. In operating on Meckel's ganglion, bleeding from
these vessels is free. The nasopalatine runs forward in the nose in the groove on
the vomer. It is often the cause of serious nasal hemorrhages in operations on the
septum. In removal of the upper jaw, bleeding occurs from many of the branches
of the internal maxillary, but it is hardly so free as might be expected, especially if
the external carotid has been previously ligated.
PAROTID GLAND.
The parotid gland lies on the cheek, behind the jaw and below the ear. The
limits (Fig. 60) of the gland are important because suppuration may occur in any por-
tion of its structure. Its extent is as follows : above to the zygoma, lying below its
Superficial temporal artery
Transverse facial artery
Parotid duct
Facial nerve
Parotid gland
Auricularis
magiius nerve
Submaxillary gland
Facial artery and vein
Fig. 60. — Parotid gland and structures of the side of the face.
posterior two-thirds; posteriorly, to the external auditory canal, the mastoid process,
and digastric and sternomastoid muscles ; below to a line joining the angle of the jaw
and mastoid process ; and in front about half the width of the masseter muscle.
This latter is, however, quite variable.
The parotid duct, also called Stenson' s duct, leaves the upper anterior portion
of the gland about a centimetre below the zygoma and runs on a line joining the
lower edge of the cartilaginous portion of the ear with the middle of the upper lip.
It opens on a papilla on the inside of the cheek opposite the second upper molar
tooth. This papilla can readily be seen and a fine probe can be inserted from the
mouth into the duct; thus the presence of a calculus may be detected. In operating
on the cheek the line of this duct must be borne in mind, as wounding it may cause
a salivary fistula. Wounds of the lobules of the gland are not nearly so liable to
result in fistula as those of the duct itself.
52 APPLIED ANATOMY.
Parotid Fascia. — The gland is covered by the parotid fascia. This fascia is
moderately dense and is continuous with the fascia separating the lobules of the gland.
Above it is attached to the zygoma ; in front it is continuous with the masseteric
fascia over the masseter muscle ; and below and posteriorly it is continuous with the
deep fascia of the neck. It stretches from the angle of the jaw to the sternomastoid
muscle and somewhat deeper to the styloid process ; the band running from the
styloid process to the lower jaw is called the stylomandibular ligament. From
thence it is continued over the internal carotid artery and the upper surface of the
internal pterygoid muscle.
Lobes of the Parotid Gland. — The gland has extentions in various directions
(Fig. 6i). A prolongation behind the articulation of the lower jaw, into the posterior
portion of the glenoid cavity immediately in front of the external auditory canal, is
called the gleyioid lobe. Another extension winds around the posterior edge of the
lower jaw on the lower surface of the internal pterygoid muscle and is called ih^ ptery-
Glenoid
lobe
/
■Socia parotid is
Pterygoid lobe
Digastric muscle \ \
Carotid lobe External carotid artery
Fig. 6i — The lobes of the parotid gland.
goid lobe. A prolongation inward, passing between the external carotid on the outside
and the styloid process and the internal carotid artery on the inside, is called the
carotid lobe. A separate portion of the gland, sometimes quite detached, lies at its
upper anterior portion between the zygoma and the duct of Stenson; it is called the
socia parotidis.
Vessels and Nerves Traversing the Gland. — The external carotid artery
enters the gland to divide opposite the neck of the lower jaw into the temporal and
internal maxillary. The temporal, before it leaves the gland, gives off the trans-
verse facial artery which runs forward on the face between the zygoma and parotid
duct. It is usually small but at times may be quite large and even go over to the
angle of the mouth and form the two coronary arteries (as shown in M'Clellan's
"Regional Anatomy"). The temporal vein, as it descends into the gland, is joined
by the internal maxillary vein to form the temporomaxillary vein, which, after it
receives the posterior auricular vein, goes to form the external jugular.
The facial nerve emerges from behind the jaw just below the lobe of the ear and
divides into its various branches while still in the gland. There is usually a large
branch passing parallel to the duct of Stenson and IdcIow it. The auriculotemporal
nerve follows the temporal artery, emerging from the gland a little posterior to the
artery. Dr. Skillern has shown that, by injecting it with cocaine, operations on the
walls of the meatus externus for furuncles, etc. , can be rendered painless. The auric-
ularis magnus from the second and third cervical supplies the skin over the gland.
1
THE FACE.
53
Lymphatic nodes are found both on the gland and in its substance. These may
be involved in general disease of the cervical lymphatics.
Affections of the Parotid Gland. — The duct may be affected with calculus,
as already mentioned. As the opening of the duct at the papilla is smaller than the
lumen of the canal farther back, calculi are apt to lodge close to the anterior extrem-
ity. They are, therefore, readily felt and removed by incision on the inside of the
mouth. The gland proper is subject to inflammations and tumors.
Simple parotiditis or viiunps really is an infectious inflammation, nevertheless, it
rarely suppurates. Siippiirative parotiditis may occur from infected wounds or arise
in the course of the eruptive fevers, etc. In inflammation of the gland, pain and
swelling are important symptoms. The pain, which is considerable, is not due so
much to the so-called dense parotid fascia covering the gland, for this is only
moderately thick, as it is to the fact that the gland is of a racemose type and the
Branches of
facial nerve
Temporal artery
Parotid duct
Auricularis
niagiius nerve
'Jugular vein
External carotid
artery
Fig. 62.— Structures in relation with the parotid gland.
fibrous septa between the lobules are abundant and prevent free expansion of the
contained lobules. Expansion is also hindered by the peculiar location of the various
parts of the gland. SweUing of the glenoid lobe produces pain in the ear and also in
the temporomaxillary articulation. Swelling of the carotid and pterygoid lobes
causes pain and fulness in the throat. Opening the lower jaw reduces the space
posterior to it in which the gland lies and pinches it against the bony meatus and
mastoid process, so that it is impossible to open the jaw widely.
If suppuration occurs it is liable to progress from one lobule to another; when
this is the case comparatively small abscesses may appear in different parts of the
gland with unaffected tissue between them. As an abscess heals in one lobule, sup-
puration is apt to occur in another, consequently the disease may persist for a long
time. More rarely in the course of or following infectious diseases, particularly in
debilitated patients, considerable portions of the gland may slough. This form is apt
to be fatal. If the suppurating focus is confined to lobules which are deeply placed,
the diagnosis may be obscure because it is difficult to localize the affected spot. If,
however, it is near the surface of the gland, the pus does not tend to extend sideways,
the fibrous septa prevent this, but it tends to work its way up and perforate the skin.
If the glenoid lobe is affected, the pus may find an exit through the external auditory
meatus or even involve the temporomaxillary joint. If the carotid or pterygoid lobes
54
APPLIED ANATOMY.
are affected, the pus may go between the pterygoid muscles, or around the
internal carotid artery and project and open into the pharynx. It may also break
into the carotid artery or jugular vein, or perforate through the fascia below and
go down the neck. Large abscesses and sloughs may be followed by a parotid
fistula.
Lines of Incision for Abscess. — The manner of opening a parotid abscess
depends on its location and size. If it is desired to open an abscess anterior
to a point 1.5 cm. or about half an inch in front of the ear, the structures to be
avoided are the duct and facial nerve. The incisions are to be made parallel
to the zygoma, and the duct is to be avoided by not cutting on a line joining
the lower edge of the cartilage of the ear with the middle of the upper lip. The
branches of the facial nerve lie deep and are to be avoided by making the
incision parallel to their course and not extending it too deeply. After incising
the skin, the deeper tissues may be sepa-
rated by introducing a pointed pair of haemo-
static forceps and opening the blades. In
operating in the region below the ear, the
blood-vessels are to be avoided. To do
this incise the skin longitudinally, not trans-
versely, and open the deep parts carefully
with the haemostatic forceps, as already
described. Another method, when the ab-
scess is farther forward, is to make a hori-
zontal incision rather low down on the
angle of the jaw and then introduce a
grooved director or haemostatic forceps from
below upward.
Tumors of the parotid gland are liable
to be mixed in character, with a sarcoma-
tous element. They are often fairly cir-
cumscribed and, particularly if they do
not involve the parotid duct, can be re-
moved comparatively readily. If they are
malignant and large, complete removal is
practically impossible. The possibility of
parotid fistula and paralysis of the facial
nerve following operation on this gland should always be borne in mind and explained
to patients. The presence of facial paralysis is indicative of malignancy (see Fig. 63).
'I'he parotid lymph nodes on or beneath the capsule may become enlarged and
inflamed and resemble true parotiditis. There is one node just below the zygoma
and in front of the ear that is not infrequently enlarged in strumous children. This
is apt to be involved when affections of the lids or scalp are present. In open-
ing abscesses of these nodes there is little likelihood of injuring either the nerve or
the duct, because the nodes are superficial. The transverse facial artery is usually
too small to cause trouble. The possibility of its supplying the coronary arteries
of the lips, as already described, in which case it would be very large, should be
remembered.
THE UPPER JAW.
The upper jaw carries the upper teeth and contains the maxillary sinus or
antrum of Highmore. The afiections of the antrum will be alluded to in the chapter
on the nose (see page 103). Fractures of the superior maxilla involve the nasal
process, the alveolar process, or pass transversely through the body of the bone.
The nasal process is sometimes broken in fractures of the nose. In this injury, the
lachrymal canal and sac may be injured and the flow of tears through them pre-
vented, causing the tears to run over the cheek.
Fractures of the alveolar process are common enough as a result of blows and
extracting teeth. These fractures, as they communicate with the mouth through the
broken gums or mucous membrane or tooth socket, are necessarily compound, and
Fig. 63. — Malignant tumor of the parotid gland
producing facial paralysis (author's case).
THE FACE.
55
consequently become infected from the mouth and suppurate. This may cause
necrosis of the fragment, but the blood supply of the jaws is so good that death of
a fragment is rare, and it is not customary to remove fragments not completely
detached. The front wall is sometimes driven in.
Fractures occasionally occur in which the line passes through one or both
superior maxillary bones from below the malar bone into the nose. If this fracture
passes completely backward, it detaches the lower portion of the palate bone and
pterygoid processes of the sphenoid bone. The fragment in such cases has a
tendency to slip backward. It can be replaced by inserting a hook through the
mouth and behind the soft palate and pulling the fragment forward. This
injury is produced by a blow on the anterior portion of one or both bones,
passing downward and backward. In order to determine the existence of fract-
ure, Guerin recommended inserting the finger in the mouth and feeling for the
pterygoid plates. The hamular process of
the internal pterygoid plate can readily
be felt about one centimetre above and
behind the last upper molar tooth. Fract-
ures in the neighborhood of the first and
second molar teeth are liable to open the
antrum, as the roots of these teeth project
into it.
Resection of Upper Jaw. — Tumors
of the antrum may necessitate a resection
of the superior maxilla of one side. Hey-
felder was the first to remove both superior
maxillae, in 1844: this was before the dis-
covery of anaesthesia. In removing one
superior maxilla, the incision known as Fer-
giisson's is used. This is made through
the middle of the upper lip, around the ala
of the nose to the inner canthus of the eye,
thence outward along the lower border .of
the orbit to the malar bone. The bleeding
from this incision is free. The coronary
arteries should be looked for near the
mucous surface of the lip toward its free
edge. Bleeding will also occur from the lateralis nasi and the angular arteries.
The soft parts are raised from the bones as far back as the masseter muscle.
This is just about level with the outer edge of the bony orbit. In doing
so the infra-orbital nerve and artery will be divided. The artery is not large
but may bleed freely. The fibrous floor of the orbit is raised and the attach-
ment of the inferior oblique muscle loosened. The malar bone is sawed downward
and outward opposite the sphenomaxillary fissure, and the division completed with
forceps. The nasal portion of the superior maxilla is sawed through from the orbit
into the nose. The soft parts of the roof of the mouth are divided in the median
line to the posterior edge of the hard palate, and thence along its edge to the last
molar tooth. The soft palate is firmly attached to the hard palate and has to be
detached with scissors. An incisor tooth is then drawn, and the bony palate sawed
through from the nose into the mouth. The bone with the tumor is wrenched loose
with lion-jawed forceps. The union between the posterior portion of the superior
maxilla and the pterygoid processes of the sphenoid is not bony, but fibrous, so that
the bone is torn away from the processes and the latter are left behind. As the bone
comes away, the maxillary nerve should be cut. The bleeding which follows is from
the infra-orbital, superior alveolar (posterior dental), and posterior palatine arteries,
branches of the internal maxillary. It is not so free as might be expected, provided
preliminary ligation of the external carotid has been performed. It will be observed
that the facial nerve is not touched nor is the parotid duct wounded.
Neuralgia of the Maxillary Nerve. — The pain involves the cheek from the
eye to the mouth and as far forward as the median line, also the upper gums and
Fig. 64. — Resection of the upper jaw. The
curved lines indicate the skin incision and the
straight Hnes where the bones are to be divided.
56 APPLIED ANATOMY.
hard palate. The operations devised for its I'elief are both numerous and intricate,
and necessitate an accurate anatomical knowledge of the ])arts. The maxillary
nerve is the second division of the fifth cranial nerve. It leaves the skull cavity by
the foramen rotundum, then crosses the sphenomaxillary fossa, enters the spheno-
maxillary fissure and infra-orbital canal to emerge on the cheek, opposite the middle
of the lower edge of the orbit and about 6 mm. below it. The intracranial portion
is 6 to 8 mm. in length. From the sphenomaxillary fossa to the infra-orbital fora-
men is about 5 cm. (2 in. ). Its branches are as follows: one or two small branches
to the dura mater, the orbital or sphenomalar branch to the cheek and anterior tem-
poral region, spheyiopalatine bra7iches going to Meckel's ganglion, the posterior,
middle, and anterior dental to the upper teeth, and the terminal branches, labial,
nasal, and palpebral, on the face.
Its anterior portion has been removed through an incision on the face, and its
posterior portion with Meckel's ganglion has been operated on either anteriorly
through the maxillary sinus or laterally through the temporal fossa, after removing
the zygoma. The writer has removed the intracranial portion by entering the ante-
rior cerebral fossa through the temporal region. Removal of the infra-orbital portion
^ ..^J^^^i^ ^''"■'•Br^v ^^^""^ Infra-orbital nerve
breaking into branches
Infra-orbital artery
Fig. 65. — Exposure of the infra-orbital nerve and artery.
of the nerve is so liable to be followed by recurrence of the pain and interferes so
much with the more complete procedures, as it destroys the guide (the nerve itself)
which leads the operator to Meckel's ganglion, that it is doubtful whether it should
ever be resorted to. The posterior dental branches are given off so far back that
they are not apt to be removed in this operation.
Removal of the Infra-orbital Nerve. — An incision 3 cm. in length is made
along the lower edge of the orbit. This divides the orbicularis palpebrarum muscle.
Arising from the bone, between the infra-orbital foramen and the edge of the orbit,
is the levator labii superioris muscle. This should be carefully detached, and the
foramen with its artery and nerve will be found opposite, the middle of the lower edge
of the orbit and about 6 mm. {y^ in. ) below it, on a line drawn from the supra-orbital
notch to between the premolar teeth. The position of the foramen having been
located, the palpebral ligament and periosteum are divided and the contents of the
orbit raised. The canal is next to be opened. This can be done either by chiselling
away its roof from the opening on the face and following it backward or by breaking
THE FACE.
57
through its upper wall. This latter procedure is liable to give trouble, because if
the track of the canal is not encountered the instrument breaks into the maxillary-
sinus, the roof of which is very thin. The infra-orbital canal does not pass directly
backward but backward and outward, striking the sphenomaxillary fissure about 2
cm. (in a large skull) behind its anterior extremity. Sometimes the roof of the
canal is fibrous, in which case the groove so formed can be readily felt, but in others
it is bony. The nerve is hooked up and cut as far back as one can, so as to remove,
if possible, the posterior dental branches. The terminal branches are then pulled off
from the cheek, and the nerve drawn out from the front. It is in the highest degree
desirable to avoid wounding the artery, as death is said to have followed it, and
4th nerve
Ophthalmic branch — 5lh nerve
Motor root
Sensory root
Maxillary branch
Gasserian ganglion
Meckel's ganglion
Infra-orbital
nerve and artery
Middle meningeal artery
Mandibular branch
Temporomalar n^rve
Buccal branch
Stump of external
pterygoid muscle
Lingual nerve
Inferior alveolar
nerve and artery
_ Internal pterygoid
muscle
Fig. 66.— The fifth or trifacial nerve with its various branches.
there may be bleeding into the orbit, causing protrusion of the eye and serious inter-
ference with its sight. A better way of removing the nerve, the method of Thiersch
( Verhand. der Deidschen Gesell. fiir Chir., 18 Congress, Berlin, 1889, p. 44), is to
grasp it with a pair of slender, curved forceps, then by rotating the forceps very
slowly (about i turn a minute) both the distal and proximal ends are wound around
it and an extremely long portion of the nerve can be removed.
Removal of Meckel's Ganglion, — Operating from the froyit through
the maxillary sinus (Carnochan's operation, or removal of the sphenopalatine
(Meckel's) ganglion and maxillary nerve). — The incision is V-shaped, the apex
being 2 cm. above the angle of the mouth, and the branches 3 cm. long. This flap
should consist of all tissues down to the bone. The bleeding will be free, as the
facial vein and branches of the facial artery will be cut. As the infra-orbital foramen
is reached, the nerve is detached from its under surface. The anterior wall of the
58 APPLIED ANATOMY.
maxillary sinus, which is quite thin, is broken with a chisel for an extent of 2 cm.
The infra-orbital canal is opened from below, from the surface clear back to the pos-
terior wall of the sinus. The infra-orbital nerve is then brought down into the sinus
to serve as a guide to the foramen rotundum. Care should be taken (by opening
the canal with comparatively blunt instruments) not to wound the infra-orbital artery.
Then break a hole in the posterior wall of the sinus. This is very thin, and not over
half a centimetre (i in. ) intervenes between it and the anterior wall of the sphenoidal
sinus, so that care should be taken not to drive the chisel too far back. The pos-
terior wall having been broken with the chisel and the pieces picked away, the nerve
is dragged downward, freed as far back as possible, and pulled loose. Traction on
the nerve brings the ganglion forward, and with forceps it is then drawn out. The
bleeding, after breaking through the posterior wall of the sinus, may be very free.
Meckel's ganglion lies in the sphenopalatine fossa just below the maxillary nerve
after it leaves the foramen rotundum. Two short branches unite the ganglion and
nerve. It is here that the internal maxillary artery, in the third part of its course,
divides into six branches: the infra-orbital and posterior de?ital, the posterior or
descending- palatitie and Vidian, and the pterygopalatine and spheno- or nasopalatine
arteries. If these arteries are wounded, as they are very apt to be, the bleeding is
very free. To control it temporary packing is at first resorted to. If it persists, the
nerve is removed as well as possible and the bleeding stopped with gauze. This
may be firmly packed into the opening through the posterior wall at the upper inner
portion of the sinus, but care should be taken not to push it roughly through the
fossa and into the sphenoidal sinus (or cells) beyond.
J. D. Bryant {^Operative Surgery, vol. i, p. 243) in cases of severe hemorrhage
advises the prompt ligation of the external carotid artery, a procedure not, however,
often required. It has been suggested that instead of making the incision on the
cheek to make it in the mouth above the gums, and pull the cheek and mouth
upward and outward. This procedure, while obviating the scar, makes the opera-
tion somewhat more difficult. Kocher resects the malar bone with the outer wall of
the sinus and turns it up, bringing it back into place on the completion of the
operation.
Operating from the Side Through the Pterygoid Fossa. — Both the
maxillary and mandibular branches have been reached by this route; the former at
the foramen rotundum and the latter at the foramen ovale. Liicke, of Strasburg,
was the pioneer of the operation on the maxillary nerve, and Joseph Pancoast, of
Philadelphia, on the mandibular. Liicke' s operation was modified by Lossen, of
Heidelberg. Recently, Mixter, of Boston, has again advocated the method. A
convex flap, base down and reaching y^ inch below the zygoma, is cut from the
external margin of the orbit to the lobe of the ear. The zygoma is sawed through,
and, with the masseter, pulled downward. Maurice Richardson, in describing Mix-
ter's operation { Internal. Textbook of Surg., vol. i, p. 863), says that "if the
operator is skilled enough in the subsequent manipulations, he may omit cutting the
temporal muscle." It will be easier, however, to divide the coronoid process and
turn the temporal muscle upward, clearly exposing the infratemporal crest. Detach
the upper head of the external pterygoid muscle and push it downward, exposing
the external pterygoid plate. Chisel ofT the spur at the anterior extremity of
the infratemporal crest, and immediately in front and to the inner side is the supe-
rior maxillary nerve, with the terminal portion of the internal maxillary artery
just below it. Immediately posterior to the root of the pterygoid plate is the
foramen ovale and mandibular nerve, with the middle meningeal artery a little
posterior to it.
Anatomical Comments. — The incision at its posterior extremity can be
made to avoid cutting the temporal artery by feeling its pulsations, about a centimetre
or less in front of the ear, as it passes over the zygoma. The incision should not
involve the deep structures — only the skin and superficial fascia. Therefore, the
facial nerve and parotid duct (a finger's breadth below the zygoma) will not be
injured.
In clearing the upper surface of the zygoma, it will be necessary to cut through
the layers of the temporal fascia; between them the orbital branch of the temporal
THE FACE.
59
artery may be encountered and may bleed. The temporal muscle arises not only
from the deep layer of the temporal fascia, but may also be attached anteriorly to
the inner surface of the zygoma, and in loosening it free bleeding from the deep
temporal arteries, branches of the internal maxillary, may be encountered. No
trouble need be expected in sawing through the anterior end of the zygoma, but care
should be taken not to injure the parotid duct, or the socia parotidis if it is present.
In making the division of the posterior end of the zygoma, one must guard against
opening the temporomaxillary articulation, for, when the head of the mandible is
back in the glenoid fossa, the capsule of the joint extends considerably in front of it.
Therefore, it is better to open the mouth and push the jaw on that side forward until
it rides on the eminentia articularis, then the anterior limit of the joint can be recog-
nized and avoided. Before one can reach the spur on the anterior extremity of the
infratemporal crest, " the temporal muscle must be detached from the bone. The
Processus coronoideus
Temporalis
Crista infratempo-
ral is
Spur
N. maxillaris
A. infra-orbitalis
A. temporalis
profundus
A. alveolaris
posterior
A. maxillaris
internus
N. mandibularis
M. pterygoideus ex-
ternus. Upper head
turned down
Masseter
Zygoma
Fig. 67.— Operating- through the pterygoid fossa. The skin with the zygoma and masseter have been turned
down. The coronoid process is divided and turned up. The upper head of the external pterygoid has been
detached and turned down. The maxillary nerve is in front of the pterygoid plate (processus pterygoideus) and
the mandibular nerve and middle meningeal artery just behind it.
upper head of the external pterygoid muscle arises from the bone just below the
pterygoid ridge (infratemporal crest), and must be loosened from the bone to obtain
access to the nerves (see Fig. 67).
The coronoid process rises almost as high as the infratemporal crest, and, there-
fore, in order to gain space it will be necessary to depress the jaw. Running upward
and inward over the internal pterygoid muscle, and passing just in front of the origin
of the upper head of the external, is the internal maxillary artery and pterygoid
plexus of veins. These vessels lie directly below the maxillary nerve as it crosses
the sphenopalatine fossa, and it is to be expected that free hemorrhage will accom-
pany the attempt to fish out the nerve.
In operating in this region, one surgeon found the bleeding so severe as to
require the ligation of the external carotid artery.
Intracranial operations are hardly ever done for maxillary neuralgia alone. The
mandibular and often the ophthalmic divisions are also usually affected in cases
requiring to be approached from the inside of the skull.
6o
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Excision of the Lingual and Inferior Dental Nerves. — Neuralgia in-
volving' the face below the line of the mouth, the lower teeth, and side of the tongue
requires the removal of the inferior dental and lingual nerves. To do this, a curved
incision following the lower edge of the mandible is made. It ends anteriorly in
front of the mandibular foramen, and posteriorly it stops a centimetre below the ear to
avoid wounding the facial nerve. The masseter muscle is raised from the bone, and,
with the parotid gland, is drawn up. The ramus of the jaw is trephined in its middle,
rather high up toward the coronoid notch. The outer table of bone is then to be
chiselled off, from the trephine opening as far down as the mental foramen. A
delicate, curved, haemostatic forceps is then made to grasp both nerves through the
Lingual nerve
Internal pterygoid muscle
Mandibular nerve
Fig. 6S. — Excision of the lingual and mandibular (inferior dental) nerves.
trephine opening, and on rotating very slowly the nerves are wound around the for-
ceps and are gradually torn loose from the base of the skull above to their ultimate
branches below (see Fig. 68).
Operations on the Gasserian Ganglion. — The Gasserian ganglion lies in
its capsule, formed by a splitting of the dura, on the anterior surface of the apex of
the petrous portion of the temporal bone and on the root of the greater wing of the
sphenoid. From its posterior extremity, which rests on the ridge separating the
anterior and posterior surfaces of the petrous portion of the temporal bone, to the
foramen rotundum anteriorly is 2. 5 to 3 cm. (i to i ^ in.). The foramen ovale, which
transmits the third or mandibular branch is midway between these two points, and
corresponds on the outside of the skull to the eminentia articularis or root of the
zygoma. Therefore, in removing the ganglion one works not only inward but also
backward. Rose first operated on the ganglion from below. He removed the
zygoma and coronoid process, Hgated the internal maxillary artery, and trephined
the skull in front of the foramen ovale. This operation was succeeded by that of
Hartley and Krause. They went in through the temporal fossa. A large horseshoe-
shaped flap, with its base above the zygoma, was cut and deepened with chisels
through the bone to the dura. This was elevated by breaking across its base, and turn-
ing it down. The dura was then lifted from the base of the skull, and the maxillary
and mandibular nerves recognized as they passed into the round and oval foramina.
The capsule having been incised, these were seized with forceps, and as much of the
ganglion as possible torn away.
Other surgeons, like Doyen, Quenu, Poirier, and Gushing, have combined these
pterygoid and temporal routes. The bone flap, as made by Hartley and Krause.
THE FACE.
61
embraced the region of the pterion or junction of the coronal with the temporo-
sphenoidal sutures. As the bone was lifted from the dura at this point the middle
meningeal artery was torn and troublesome bleeding ensued. Also the point of its
breaking was too uncertain. Sometimes it broke too high up, sometimes too low
down involving the base. It was also found unnecessary to replace the bone as
the cavity left was filled up with fibrous tissue. For this reason Tiffany, of Baltimore,
advocated the making of an opening in the skull above the zygoma with a trephine
or gouge and mallet, and enlarging it with the rongeur forceps; the bone was not
replaced. This is the procedure now used.
The operators who used the pterygoid route, by displacing the zygoma down-
ward, were enabled to approach the ganglion from below instead of from above,
therefore, a high temporal section of the bone was unnecessary and it has been
abandoned; the bone section keeping below the pterion and not wounding the
N.ophthal-
Gansjlion semilunare micus N. niaxillaris
A. meningea media
N. iiiaiidibularis
M. pterygoideiis
extenius, upper head
M. pterygoideus
externus, lower head
M. pterygoideus interims
N. alveolaris inferior
(inferior dental)
N. lingualis,
N. buccinatorius
Fig. 69.— The upper portion of the illustration shows the operation of removal of the Gasserian ganglion (ganglion
semilunare). The lower portion shows the pterygoid muscles.
middle meningeal artery thus avoids hemorrhage from that locality. Gushing
(Journ. Am. Med. Assoc, April 28, 1900) showed that the extensive removal of bone
on the base of the skull was unnecessary, and that a displacement of the zygoma
and temporal muscle downward, and removal of the bone down to and including
part of the infratemporal crest gave sufficient access. Murphy found it unnecessary
to resect the zygoma, and this has been our experience.
One of the main difificulties has been the question of bleeding. It has caused
death and not infrequently has necessitated the packing of the wound and the
deferring of the completion of the operation for two or more days. This bleeding
came from the soft parts, the bone, the middle meningeal artery, the veins running
from the dura mater to the bone, the cavernous sinus, and the blood-vessels to the
ganglion itself. These as given by Gushing are a branch from the middle meningeal
soon after its entrance to the skull, a small branch from the carotid, a small branch
from the ophthalmic, the small meningeal through the foramen ovale, and occasion-
ally one through the foramen rotundum. He calls attention to the septa in the
cavernous sinus as rendering wounds to it less serious than they otherwise would be.
If the skin incision is cast too far back, the temporal artery may be cut in front of the
ear. Its position can be determined by its pulsation. It or its branches are divided
in the upper portion of the incision and bleeding is very free. Division of the
temporal muscle is followed by hemorrhage from the deep temporal. The bleeding
from the bone is usually not troublesome, but the general oozing from the veins of
62
APPLIED ANATOMY.
the dura mater as it is detached from the bone is sometimes free. If an osteoplastic
(bone and skin) flap is raised, the middle meningeal will be torn at the pterion.
This is a large vessel and bleeds freely. It may also be torn, while isolating the
mandibular division of the nerve, at the foramen spinosum. This foramen is usually
a couple of millimetres posterior and to the outer side of the foramen ovale and
generally the nerve can be isolated without injuring the artery. In some cases, how-
ever, the artery lies so close to the nerve that it is almost certain to be torn. The
posterior portion of the ganglion lies on the carotid artery in the middle lacerated
foramen, of course separated by a layer of dura mater. Care should, therefore, be
taken not to injure the carotid artery. The cavernous sinus has often been injured.
This occurs principally in those cases in which it is attempted to excise the
ophthalmic division. It is to be avoided by working from behind forward instead of
attempting to attack it laterally. Bleeding from the middle meningeal artery can be
ophthalmic-
Maxillary
P-A ^I-«d'bul
Maxillarj- _
Mandibular ^A
ical plexus
Fig. 70. — Diagrams showing distribution of cutaneous branches of trigeminal and cervical spinal nerves (Piersol).
avoided by biting the skull away with the rongeur forceps and refraining from
detaching the dura from the bone where the artery enters it (see Fig. 23).
Gushing states that he makes an opening in the bone only 3 cm. in diameter.
Such a small opening is used when the zygoma has been divided and pushed down
or removed. Fowler and others have resorted to a preliminary Hgation of the
external carotid artery. This, while obviating to a great extent troublesome hem-
orrhage, cuts of? the blood supply to the flap and sloughing has followed. In
order to overcome this objection, the writer {Jojirn. Am. Med. Assoc, April 28,
1900) after ligating the external carotid artery above its posterior auricular branch
made a temporal skin flap with its base up. The temporal muscle was then divided
and turned down and the bone removed with the trephine and rongeur. Haemostasis
was perfect and no ill effects followed the ligation.
It is comparatively easy to isolate the maxillary and mandibular divisions of the
nerve. This having been done, the capsule of the ganglion is opened by a cut
joining the two. A blunt dissector is then introduced and the upper layer of the
dura, less adherent than the lower, is raised from the ganglion. The blunt dissector
is then worked beneath the ganglion beginning between the maxillary and mandib-
ular divisions and it is loosened from behind forwards. The sixth nerve is in such
close relation to the ophthalmic that a temporary paralysis of it usually follows,
causing internal squint. Anaesthesia of the whole side of the face from just in front
of the ear to the median line follows complete removal. Frazier and Spiller have
divided the root posterior to the ganglion instead of removing the ganglion itself
(^Joiirn. Am. Med. Assoc. ^ Oct. i, 1904, p. 943).
THE FACE.
63
Area of Distribution of the Fifth Nerve, — When the ophthahiiic division
is affected the pain in neuralgia is over the brow and up toward the vertex of the
skull; it also involves the eye. The points of exit of the supra-orbital branch at
the supra-orbital foramen and of the nasal branch toward the lower portion of the
nose are tender to pressure.
When the maxillary division is affected, there is pain in the cheek and ala of
the nose. The tender points are the exit of the infra-orbital nerve at and below
the infra-orbital foramen, at the exit of the malar branch on the malar bone, and
tne upper gums and hard palate.
When the mandibular division is affected the pain involves the lower jaw and
the side of the head nearly to the top (auriculotemporal branch). The lower gums
and tongue are also painful. Pain on pressure is felt over the mental foramen and in
the course of the auriculotemporal nerve in front of and above the ear.
THE LOWER JAW.
The mmidible or mferior maxilla is subject to fractures, dislocation, and tumors.
In its composition it is very dense, so that in dividing it a groove should be cut
with a saw before the use of the bone-cutting forceps is attempted, otherwise
Fig. 71. — Lower jaw of child and adult, showing the mental foramen.
splintering of the bone will ensue. It is the last bone to decay. Its horseshoe
shape and exposed position render it unusually liable to fracture. The strongest
portion is what one would expect to be the weakest, viz., the symphysis. Its
weakest part (or rather the part where it is most often broken) is the region of the
mental foramen. The bone is weakened at this point not only by the foramen
but also by the deep socket of the canine tooth.
The position of the mental foramen, normally between the two bicuspids
(beneath the second in the negro — Humphry), varies in its vertical location between
the alveolar border and lower edge of the body, according to age. In infancy it is
low down, in young adults it is midway, and in old people it is high up.
The body of the jaw is composed of two parts, one above and one below the
external oblique line, which runs from the base of the anterior border of the
coronoid process downward and forward to end at the mental tubercle, to one side
of the symphysis. The part above this oblique line is the alveolar and the part
below is the basal portion of the body.
The mental foramen opens on the oblique line separating the alveolar and basal
portions. In early adult life the two portions, basal and alveolar, are about even in
size, so that the foramen is below the middle of the jaw. As the teeth are lost
the alveolar process atrophies ; this naturally leaves the basal portion with the mental
64
APPLIED ANATOMY.
foramen on or near its upper surface; therefore, in operating for neuralgia in the
aged, if it is desired to attack the mandibular nerve in its canal, it should be searched
for near the upper border of the bone.
In infancy the teeth, not having erupted, are contained in the jaw, the alveolar
portion is, therefore, large. The basal portion, on the contrary, is quite small, serv-
ing merely as a narrow shelf on which the unerupted teeth lie. As the mandibular
nerve runs beneath the teeth, the mental foramen is of necessity comparatively low.
At birth the condyle is about level with the upper portion of the symphysis, and the
body forms with the ramus an angle of 175 degrees. At the end of the fourth year
the angle has decreased to about 140 degrees. By adult age the angle has decreased
to about 115 degrees, and as the teeth are lost the angle gradually increases until it
again reaches 140 degrees.
Temporomandibular Articulation. — A knowledge of the movements of the
jaw is essential to a proper understanding of the fractures and dislocations to which
it is subject.
Temj)oralis
Discus articularis
2ri_ Processus condyloideus
Pterygoideus externus
/
Fig. 72. — The temporomandibular articulation.
The mandible articulates with the glenoid fossa and its anterior edge or emi-
nentia articularis of the temporal bone. Interposed between the condyle below and
the bone above, is an interarticular cartilage. This divides the articulation into
two portions, an upper and a lower. The ligaments
are a capsular, strengthened by an external lateral
(temporomandibular) and an internal lateral. The
capsular ligament is weakest anteriorly and strongest
on the outer side. The thickening of the capsule
on its outer side forms the external lateral or tem-
poromandibular ligament. The sphenomandibular
or internal lateral ligament is practically distinct
from the articulation. It runs from the alar spine
on the sphenoid above to the mandibular spine or
lingula, just posterior to the mandibular foramen
below. Between it and the neck of the bone run
the internal maxillary artery and vein. When the
condyle glides forward it puts the posterior portion
of the capsule on the stretch, and if the jaw is dislocated this part of the capsule is
torn. The interarticular cartilage is more intimately connected with the lower por-
tion of the articulation. The same muscle that inserts into the neck of the jaw (the
external pterygoid) likewise inserts into the cartilage ; therefore, the two move
together, so that when the condyle goes forward the cartilage goes forward and rides
on the eminentia articularis.
Fig. 73. — External lateral ligament of the
lower jaw.
THE FACE.
65
Fig. 74-
Illustrating up-and-down or pure hinge motion 01
the mandible.
Movements of the Jaw. — The jaw has four distinct movements. It can be
moved directly forward or backward; up and down, a pure hinge motion; a rotary-
movement on a vertical axis through one of the condyles; and rotation on a trans-
verse axis passing from side to side
through the mandibular or inferior
dental foramina. The muscles of mas-
tication are the temporal, massder,
and ptoygoids ; these are sujiplied by
the motor branch of the fifth nerve.
To these we may add the buccinator,
which is supplied by the seventh nerve,
and the depressors of the jaw, — the
digastric, geniohyoid, geniohyoglos-
sus, mylohyoid, and platysma. The
posterior belly of the digastric receives
its nerve supply from the facial ; its
anterior belly from the mylohyoid
branch of the inferior dental from the
fifth. The mylohyoid is supplied by
the mylohyoid branch of the inferior
dental. The geniohyoid and genio-
hyoglossus are supplied by the hypo-
glossal nerve. The platysma is sup-
plied by the inframandibular branch
of the facial nerve. The upward move-
ment is produced mainly by the mas-
seter and temporal muscles. It is the
principal movement in carnivorous
animals ; therefore, these muscles in
them are well developed, and the joint is a pure hinge joint. The internal pterygoid
and buccinator likewise aid in closing the mouth ; the depressors already mentioned
open it. The lateral or rotary movement around a vertical axis passing through one
condyle is used in chewing ; therefore, we
find the muscles most concerned, the ptery-
goids, best developed in herbivorous ani-
mals, or those which chew the cud. The
external pterygoid is especially efficient in
pulling the jaw forward ; superficial fibres
of the masseter help in this. The posterior
fibres of the temporal muscle pull the jaw
back, as do likewise the depressor muscles
of the jaw. In this rotary movement one
condyle remains back in its socket while the
other is brought forward on the eminentia
articularis.
The up-and-down movement of the
jaws, when limited in extent, is a pure hinge
movement without any anteroposterior dis-
placement, and takes place between the con-
dyle and the interarticular cartilage (Fig.
74). The anteroposterior movement is
necessarily accompanied by a slight descent
of the jaw, as the condyle ghdes from
the glenoid cavity (F"ig. 75) onto the emi-
nentia articularis. It goes nearly, but not
quite, to the highest point of the articular
If the jaws are kept closed during this anteroposterior movement, some
of the teeth of the upper and lower jaws will still be in contact, the number varying
in different individuals '-^ « •
5
Fig. 75. — Illustrating direct anteroposterior move-
ment of the mandible. The condyle is resting on the
eminentia articularis.
eminence.
The last molar teeth are usually higher than those in front,
66 APPLIED ANATOMY.
so that as they glide forward the last lower molars strike the second upper ones.
The incisors likewise can be kept in contact as the jaw moves backward and forward.
It is this movement in the rodent animals which keeps their edges sharp. In chew-
ing, the jaw is depressed, the teeth separated, and the food held between them by the
tongue and buccinator muscle. The teeth are then approximated by the lower jaw
closing and the condyle sliding upward and backw^ard from the eminentia articularis
into the glenoid cavity, carrying with it the articular cartilage.
The hinge motion takes place between the condyle and the interarticular carti-
lage. The anteroposterior motion takes place between the interarticular cartilage and
the eminentia articularis: the cartilage is carried forward with the mandible. A rotary
movement occurs when, in chewing, the condyle of one side remains in the glenoid
cavity while that of the other rises on the articular eminence. The radius of rotation
is a line passing from one condyle to the other. In widely opening the mouth, as
in yawning, the condyles are tilted forward while the angles of the mandible are
Temporal muscle
External lateral ligament
Internal pterygoid muscle
Masseter muscle
Fig. 76. — Dislocation of the lower jaw ; the zygoma and part of the masseter muscle have been cut away.
carried somewhat backward. As the axis of this motion passes from side to side
through the mandibular foramina, this portion of the bone moves but little, and the
inferior dental vessels and nerve are not put on the stretch.
Dislocation of the Lower Jaw. — The forward dislocation is practically the
only one to which the jaw is subject. Dislocations in other directions are apt to be
accompanied by fractures. An understanding of the mechanism of the production
and reduction of this dislocation requires a knowledge of the movements of the jaw,
and the influences which the ligaments and muscles exert in limiting them. The
normal movements of the jaw have already been discussed.
The ligaments which limit the movements of the jaw are those forming the cap-
<sular Hs;ament. This is made up of four parts: anterior, posterior, internal lateral,
and external lateral. The anterior is very weak, hence pus in the joint is most apt
to make its exit forwards. It is readily ruptured in dislocations. The posterior
ligament, though stronger, may also be torn. The two lateral ligaments, the outer
being the stronger, become tense when the condyle slips forward on the articular
eminence. In dislocation they remain attached to the mandible and are not rup-
tured (see Fig. 76).
THE FACE.
67
Dislocation occurs when the mouth has been widely opened and the condyles
are forward on the articular eminences. Some sudden jar accompanied by contrac-
tion mainly of the external pterygoid muscle causes the condyle to slip forward just
in front of the articular eminences. The pterygoid muscles and the superficial fibres
of the masseter muscles aid in producing the luxation. As the condyle leaves
the articulation to jump forward, it will be noted that it does so by an extensive
movement, which is one of rotation on a transverse axis passing across in the
region of the mandibular foramina. The condyle once out of its socket is kept
out by the contraction of the temporal, masseter, and internal and external pterygoid
muscles.
Reduction of Dislocation of the Lower Jaw. — In reducing the dislocation,
the condyles must be depressed and pushed back. This can be done by one of two
ways: viz., the thumbs of the surgeon, being protected by wrapping with a towel or
bandage, are placed on the last molar teeth, and the jaw firmly grasped with the
fingers beneath it. The back part of the jaw is then pressed downward, the chin
tilted upward, and the condyles slid back into place.
Small fragment into which
was inserted the g^eiiiohyoid
and geniohyoglosbus muscles
Fig. 77. — Fracture of the mandihle through the symphysis (author's sketch).
The other method is to place two corks, one on each side, or a piece of wood,
transversely, between the last molar teeth, then raise the chin and push it backward.
The undetached lateral ligaments are put on the stretch when the condyle is
luxated forward. Lewis A. Stimson believes that in attempting reduction the jaw
should first be opened wider to relax these and then pushed back, but we are
not prepared to admit that so doing does relax these ligaments. He has, however,
shown that the interarticular cartilage may become displaced and, by filling up the
articular cavity, prevent a proper reduction. In rare instances the catching of the
coronoid process beneath the malar bone may hinder replacement.
Fractures of the Lower Jaw f Mandible). — Fractures of the lower jaw
almost never occur through the symphysis; this is on account of its being the thickest
and strongest part of the bone. When a fracture of the anterior portion of the jaw
detaches a median piece a most dangerous condition is produced. The piece, if
sufficiently loosened by the injury, is drawn back into the throat, carrying the tongue
with it and tending to suffocate the patient. Such a case is recorded by A. L.
Peirson (review by Geo. W. Norris, Amer. Jour. Med. Scietices, 1841, N. S. vol. i,
p. 186). A man was run over by a wheel which passed over his jaw, fracturing it
on each side and forcing the piece into his moiith. The piece was drawn backward
and nearly caused death from suffocation.
68
APPLIED ANATOMY.
In the Annals of Surgery (vol. xix, 1894, p. 653) is recorded a case of the
author's in which a man, while drunk, fell and struck his chin on the curbstone. A
fracture was produced through the symphysis above and branching to each side of
the genial tubercle below. This small median piece was drawn back into the throat
nearly to the hyoid bone, and suffocative symptoms were marked. These disap-
Geniohyoid muscle Geniohyoglossus muscle
Fig. 78. — Anteroposterior section of the tongue and floor of the mouth, near the midline.
peared when the detached piece was drawn forward and wired in place. The piece
was drawn backward by the geniohyoid and geniohyoglossus muscles. The digas-
trics may also have aided in depressing the fragment (Figs. 77 and 78).
The most usual site of fracture is in the neighborhood of the mental foramen.
This is located just below the second premolar tooth (sometimes between the first
and second). This foramen and the large socket for the canine tooth farther
Temporal muscle
Masseter muscle
Buccinator muscle
A
Mylohyoid muscle
Digastric muscle
Fig. 79. — Fracture of the lower jaw in the region of the mental foramen, showing the line of fracture and the influ-
ence of the muscles in producing displacement.
forward weaken the bone somewhat in this region. The jaw is strengthened behind
the mental foramen by the commencement of the anterior portion of the ramus and
by an increase in the size of the mylohyoid ridge on the inner surface. The jaw is
also protected by the thick masseter muscle and fracture is most liable to occur just
in front of it. This constitutes the typical fracture of the lower jaw (Fig. 79).
THE FACE.
69
Fig. 80. — Fracture of the lower jaw, showing
the Hne of fracture proceeding downward and
backward, favoring displacement.
Displacement. — The displacement of the fragments will depend on the line of
fracture; and the line of fracture may be determined by the direction and character of
the fracturing force. The line of fracture is oblique. It may be oblique from above
down or from without in. An examination of the muscles attached to the mandible
will show that the elevators of the jaw are attached to it posteriorly and its depres-
sors anteriorly. On this account, when the fracture runs obliquely down and
forward there is little or no displacement, because the depressors and elevators tend to
press the fragments together. When the fracture
runs downward and backward (see Fig. 80), the
depressors and elevators tend to separate the
fragments. The depression of the anterior frag-
ment is particularly marked when the fracture is
double, involving both sides of the jaw. The
muscles which tend to depress the anterior frag-
ment are the geniohyoglossus, geniohyoid, mylo-
hyoid (anterior portion), digastric, and platysma.
The muscles which elevate the posterior frag-
ment are the temporal, masseter, buccinator, and
internal pterygoid.
The displacement may not only be up and
down, but may also be lateral. The line of frac-
ture may run from the outside either inward
and backward or inward and forward. The jaw is held in place by its own rigidity
when intact ; when broken, the smaller fragment is liable to be pulled inward by the
muscles passing from it toward the median line. These muscles are the internal
pterygoid and the mylohyoid. The influence of the former is more marked than of
the latter, because the fracture frequently divides the mylohyoid, leaving a part of
it attached to each fragment. When the fracture passes from without inward and
backward, then there will be little or no
displacement, because the internal ptery-
goid and mylohyoid draw the fragments
together. (See Fig. 81.) When the
line of fracture is from without inward
and forward, the internal pterygoid of
the injured side and the mylohyoid draw
the posterior fragment inward, while the
internal pterygoid of the opposite side
draws the anterior fragment outward
(Fig. 82).
From a consideration of the forego-
ing facts, we see that when there is dis-
placement it is because the fracture runs
from above downward and backward,
and from without inward and forward.
The anterior fragment is displaced down-
ward and the posterior fragment is dis-
placed inward.
Fractures through the region of the
molar teeth are not particularly uncom-
mon, and this is likewise the case with fractures obliquely downward and outward
through the angle of the jaw. In these injuries the firm attachment of the masseter
on the external surface of the jaw and the internal pterygoid on its inner prevent
displacement.
Fractures of the coronoid process are exceedingly rare. In them displacement
is prevented by the attachment of the temporal muscle, which passes much farther
down on the inside than on the outside.
Fractures of the neck of the jaw are particularly serious. Inserted into the
condyle and neck of the jaw is the external pterygoid muscle. When a fracture of the
neck occurs, this muscle pulls the upper fragment anteriorly and tends to tilt its
Fig. 81. — Fracture of the jaw, showing absence of dis-
placement when the line of fracture runs from the inside
forward and outward.
70
APPLIED ANATOMY.
upper end inward. This displacement is so marked that an excessive amount
of callus is thrown out and ankylosis may result. This so seriously interferes
FiG 82. — Fracture of the jaw, showing the action of the internal pterygoid and mylohyoid muscles in producing
displacement when the line of fractuie runs from the outside forward and inward.
with the use of the jaws as to justify an operation to remove or replace the upper
fragment in proper position. The injury is liable to be overlooked in children, and
as they grow up the deformity shown in Fig. 83 develops.
Fig. 83. — Deformity of the face following ankylosis due to fracture of the neck of the lower jaw in infancy (from an
original sketch).
Treatment. — The lower jaw is held up in place by a bandage, and the upper
teeth act as a splint. Sometimes the teeth or fragments are wired in position, or an
interdental splint of gutta percha or other material is used.
THE FACE.
n
Excision of the Condyle of the Jaw. — The condyle can be removed
through an incision 3 cm. long, running from in front of the ear along the lower border
of the zygoma. The temporal artery runs a centimetre in front of the ear with the
auriculotemporal nerve posterior to it. By care in recognizing the artery, it may be
saved and dragged posteriorly. The soft parts on the lower side of the wound with
the parotid gland and facial nerve are pushed downward. The condyle can then
be dug out, care being taken not to go beyond the bone and wound the internal
maxillary artery.
Excision of the Mandible. — In removing one-half of the mandible, the
incision is made from the symphysis along the lower border of the jaw to the angle
and thence upward as high as the lobe of the ear. If it is desired to take extra
precautions, the last centimetre of this incision, from the lobule of the ear down, may
be carried through the skin only. This will prevent wounding to any great extent
the parotid gland tissue, the parotid duct, and positively avoid injuring the facial
nerve. The incision, however, is rather far back to wound any large branch of the duct,
and is too low down to wound the facial nerve. If it is desired to carry the incision
higher than the lobule of the ear, it should go through the skin only. The facial
artery and vein will be cut just in front of the masseter muscle. The soft parts.
Fig. 84. — Excision of the condyle of the lower jaw.
including the masseter muscle, are raised from the outer surface. In dividing the
bone anteriorly, it should be done .5 cm. outside the median line. This will be
about through the socket of the second incisor. The object of this is to retain the
attachments of the genioliyoid and geniohyoglossus muscles to the genial tubercles,
and so prevent any tendency of the tongue to fall back. The jaw is pulled out and
separated from the parts beneath, the mylohyoid muscle being made tense. Care
should be taken not to injure the submaxillary gland, which lies below the mylohyoid
muscle, and the sublingual gland, which lies above it. The lingual nerve is also liable
to be wounded if the knife or elevator is not kept close to the bone.
As the detachment proceeds posteriorly, in loosening the internal pterygoid and
the superior constrictor, if care is not taken, the pharynx may be wounded. The
bone still being depressed and turned outward, the temporal muscle is to be loosened
from the coronoid process or else the process is detached and removed later. Access
is now to be had to the mandibular foramen at the mandibular spine or spine of Spix.
The inferior alveolar artery is then secured and, with the nerve and sphenomandibular
ligament, divided. The jaw can now be well depressed and brought inward. The
temporomaxillary joint is to be opened from the front, having first cleared off the
attachment of the external pterygoid muscle. There is great danger of wounding
the internal maxillary artery at this stage of the operation. It lies close to the neck
72
APPLIED ANATOMY.
of the jaw, and it is to avoid bringing it too close to the bone that Jacobson advises
that the jaw be not twisted outward when disarticulation is being performed.
The distance between the coronoid process and malar bone varies in different
individuals. The process may be displaced by the tumor and thus prevent detachment
of the temporal muscle. If so, the process is divided with forceps or saw and removed
after the rest of the jaw has been taken away. Injury of the temporomaxillary veins
Tongue
Geniohyoglossus muscle
Geniohyoid muscle
Mylohyoid muscle
Anterior belly of
digastric muscle
Masseter muscle
Lingual nerve
Muscular branches
of internal maxil-
lary artery
Inferior alveolar
(dental ) nerve and
artery
.Internal pterygoid
muscle
Duct of submaxillary
gland
Facial vein
Facial artery
Sublingual gland
Fig. 85. — Excision of one-half of the lower jaw, showing the structures exposed.
may be avoided by not going behind the posterior edge of the ramus, as is also the
case with the external carotid artery. Access to the joint may be facilitated by drag-
ging upward the parotid gland, which carries with it the facial nerve and parotid duct.
REGION OF THE EYE.
The eyeball rests in its socket, which is hollowed out of the soft parts contained
in the bony orbit. It is covered in front by the lids, which, as they slide over the
eye, are lubricated by the tears. These are secreted by the lachryynal gland at the
upper outer portion of the orbit, flow over the eye, and are drained off by the lach-
rymal canals and sac to empty into the nose through the lachrymonasal duct.
The Orbits. — The orbits are large four-sided cavities, pyramidal in shape.
The orbit in an adult male is about 4 cm. in diameter from side to side, and 3.5 cm.
from above downward. The depth is 4. 5 cm. It is thus seen that the orbit is wider
than it is high. On receding into the orbit from its bony edge, the roof arches
upward toward the brain to receive the lachrymal gland, thus making the up-and-
down diameter slightly longer than the transverse.
The rim of the orbit is very strong and not readily broken by injuries. It is
formed by the frontal bone above, the malar bone to the outside, the malar and supe-
rior maxillary below, and the superior maxillary and frontal to the inside. The
inner (medial) walls of the two orbits are parallel, running distinctly anteroposte-
riorly. The outer (lateral) walls diverge at an angle of about 45° from the inner ones.
The outer or lateral edge of the orbit is nearly or quite a centimetre and a half
posterior to the inner or medial edge. This fact, together with the divergence of the
outer wall, is the reason that, in enucleation of the eye, it is always tilted toward the
nose, and the scissors introduced and the nerve cut from the outer side.
The oviter wall of the orbital cavity is formed mainlv by the broad flat surface of
the greater wing of the sphenoid bone, and is thick and strong. The other three
REGION OF THE EYE.
73
walls, on the contrary, are thin and weak. The thin orbital plate of the frontal bone
above is frequently fractured in puncture wounds by foreign bodies, and the frontal
lobe of the brain injured. Two such instances have come under the writer's care;
Supra-orbital notch
Lachr>'inal groove
Optic foramen
Sphenoidal (superior
orbital) fissure
Sphenomaxillary (In-
ferior orbital) fissure
Fig. 86.— The bony orbit.
Infra-orbital sulcus
Infra-orbital foramen
in the first case, an iron hook had penetrated and caused death from cerebritis ; in
the second, the wound was caused by a carriage pole. The patient recovered,
notwithstanding a considerable loss of brain tissue.
Sphenoidal sinus
Inferior orbital
fissure
Infra-orbital sulcus
Ethmoidal cells
— Lachrjmal canal
Nasal septum
Fig. 87. — Transverse section of the orbital and nasal cavities viewed from above.
To the medial side of the inner wall are the ethmoid cells, covered by the thin
lachrymal bone and the os planum of the ethmoid. They are readily perforated by
suppuration from within those cavities. The floor is chiefly formed by the thin
74
APPLIED ANATOMY.
orbital plate of the superior maxilla. In operations involving the floor of the
orbit, care is necessary to avoid breaking through into the maxillary sinus (antrum)
beneath.
At the edge of the junction of the outer and lower walls lies the inferior orbital
(^sphe7iomaxillary) fissure. It runs forward to within 1.5 cm. of the edge of the
orbit and extends back to the apex of the orbit, where it unites with the superior
orbital {^sphenoidal) fissure, which lies between the roof and outer wall and extends
forward about one-third of the distance to the edge of the orbit. The optic fiora men
enters the apex of the orbit at its upper and inner portion.
At the lower inner edge of the orbit is the lachrymal groove for the lachrymo-
nasal duct, leading from the eye to the inferior meatus of the nose. At the junction of
the middle and inner thirds of the upper edge is the supra-orbital notch. This can
be felt through the skin. It transmits the supra-orbital artery and 7ierve. If a
complete foramen is present instead of a notch, its location cannot be so readily
determined.
Contents of the Orbit. — The orbit is lined with a periosteum, and contains
the eyeball, the muscles which move it, the veins, arteries, and nerves which go to
Superior oblique muscle
Superior orbitotarsal
ligament
Levator palpebrse
superior muscle
Superior rectus muscle
Tarsal cartilage
Inferior rectus muscle
Inferior oblique muscle
Capsule of Tenon
Inferior orbito-
tarsal ligament
Fig. 88. — Sagittal section through the eye and orbit.
it together with some which traverse the orbit to go to the face, and the lachrymal
gland. These structures are more or less surrounded with a fascia which is continu-
ous with the periosteum.
Periosteum. — The periosteum of the orbit is not tightly attached and in cases
of disease can readily be raised from the bone beneath. Anteriorly, it is continuous
at the orbital rim with the periosteum of the bones of the face. Posteriorly, it is con-
tinuous through the optic foramen and sphenoidal fissure with the dura mater.
It sends prolongations inward, covering all the separate structures in the orbit.
From the edge of the orbit it stretches over to the tarsal cartilages, forming the
superior and inferior orbitotarsal ligaments. These form a barrier (called the sep-
tum orbitale) to the exit of pus from within the orbit, and for that reason it is advised
that orbital abscesses should be opened early. The lower portion, as it reaches
the lachrymal groove, splits to cover the lachrymal sac. Another extension
from above splits to enclose the lachrymal gland, which is seen to lie comparatively
loose in the upper outer portion of the orbit, sustained by its suspensory ligament.
It then sends thin fibrous layers which cover the muscles, arteries, veins, nerves, fat
pellicles, and finally the eyeball posterior to the insertion of the muscles and optic
nerve. This last portion, called the capsule of Tenon, begins as far forward as the
REGION OF THE EYE.
75
insertion of the recti muscles on their under (inner) side, passes over the globe poste-
riorly, over the optic nerve, and blends with the layer covering the deep surface of the
muscles. It is joined to the sclerotic coat of the eye and dural sheath of the nerve
by a loose net-work of delicate fibrils. This forms practically a space lined with
endothelial plates, similar to the subarachnoid space in the brain. The capsule of
Tenon is a distinct, well marked membrane, and the eyeball lies loose and revolves
freely within it. It is this space into which the strabismus hook is put when it is
desired to cut the recti muscles for squint. Fibrous prolongations are also sent
to the sides of the orbit from the internal and external recti muscles. They are
the check ligaments; and one from the inferior rectus forms the suspensory ligament
of the eye.
Affections of the Orbit. — The orbit is often invaded by tumors, pus, hemor-
rhages, and air (producing emphysema).
Tu77ioi'S may either originate in the orbital contents, as sarcomas of the lach-
rymal gland or eye, or they may come from surrounding regions. It is more rare
for them to enter through the natural openings of the orbit than it is for them to
push through its thin walls. Coming through natural openings, they may make
their entrance : (i) from the brain through the optic foramen or sphenoidal fissure ;
(2) from the region of the zygomatic and temporal fossae through the sphenomaxil-
lary fissure ; (3) from the nasal cavities
(as I have seen), coming up the lachry-
monasal canal.
In invading the orbit through its walls
they may come: (i) from the nasal cavi-
ties and ethmoidal cells, pushing through
the thin internal wall ; (2) from the frontal
sinus, appearing at the upper inner angle;
(3) from the sphenoidal cells at the pos-
terior portion of the inner wall ; (4) from
the brain cavity above, breaking through
the roof ; (5) from the maxillary sinus
below, pushing through the floor.
Dermoids. — In the foetus, the fronto-
nasal process comes from above down-
ward to join the maxillary processes on
each side. This leaves an orbitonasal cleft to form the orbit. Owing to defects in the
development of this cleft, dermoid tumors may occur in its course. They are seen
either at the outer or inner angle of the eye. They are more common at the outer
angle near the external angular process, and may have a prolongation to the dura
mater. They also occur at the inner angle at the frontonasal suture (Fig. 89). At
this point, also, meningoceles are liable to occur. As pointed out by J. Bland Sutton
the question of diagnosis is of importance, as an attempt to remove a meningocele
by operation is apt to be followed by death, whereas a dermoid, though it may have
a fibrous prolongation to the dura mater, can be more safely removed.
Orbital Abscess. — Suppuration may either originate within the orbit or extend
into it from the neighboring tissues. If the former is the case, it may occur from
caries of the bones of the orbit, as in syphilis. It may originate from erysipelas
involving the orbit. General inflammation and suppuration of the eye may break
through the eye and spread in the orbital tissues (panophthalmitis). If pus enters
the orbit from the outside, it is usually from suppuration and caries of the frontal
sinus and ethmoidal cells. In this case, the swelling shows itself at the upper
portion of the inner angle of the eye. Pus in the maxillary sinus is most apt to
discharge into the nose, and not break through the roof into the orbit above.
Pus within the orbit tends to push the eyeball forward and even distend the lids.
As the orbitotarsal ligament runs from the bony edge of the orbit to the lids, pus
does not find an easy exit. The abscess should be opened by elevating the upper
lid, and incising the conjunctiva in the sulcus between the globe of the eye and the lid.
Pus from suppuration of the lachrymal sac does not tend to invade the orbit but
works its way forward to the skin.
Fig. 89. — Dermoid of orbit. Boy, 15 years of age. It
extended back to the body of the sphenoid bone. Case of
Dr. Wm. Zentmayer.
76
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Foreig?i Bodies i7i the Orbit. — Owing to the considerable space which exists
between the eye and orbital walls, large foreign bodies may find a lodgment there,
often producing serious symptoms for a considerable length of time. The tang of
Fig. 90. — Lines of the skin incision. (Kronlein's operation for obtaining access to the retrobulbar region.)
a gun barrel has been so found. This should lead one to search for foreign bodies
carefully when this portion of the orbital contents has been wounded.
Periosteal lining of orbit Incision
Fig. 91. — The rim of the orbit has been divided and the piece of the bone turned outward ; an incision is then made
through the periosteal lining. (Kronlein's operation for obtaining access to the retrobulbar region.)
Emphysema. — In cases of fracture involving the inner wall and opening up the
nasal cavities or sinuses the air, particularly in blowing the nose, may be forced into
Periosteal lining
Stump of rectus externus muscle
Rectus externus cut and turned back
Bulb of eye
Optic nerve
Fig. 92. — The edges of the incised periosteum have been separated and the external rectus muscle divided, exposing
the space posterior to the bulb. (Kronlein's operation for obtaining access to the retrobulbar region.)
the orbit, distending the lids and producing a peculiar crackling sensation when
palpated. No treatment directed to removal of the air is necessary. It is valuable
as a diagnostic sign of fracture communicating with the nasal cavities.
REGION OF THE EYE.
77
Hemorrhage. — Hemorrhage into the orbit may occur either as the resuh of
direct traumatism inxolving the contents, or from fracture of the base of the skull
through the orbital plate. The blood pushes its way anteriorly and shows itself
under the conjunctiva surrounding the cornea. It is prevented from appearing
on the lids by the orbitotarsal ligament. A subconjunctival hemorrhage alone is not
sufficient to justify a diagnosis of fracture of the base of the skull, although it is
a significant confirmatory symptom.
Kronlein's Operation. — In order to gain access to the back part of the orbit
to remove tumors, Krbnlein resects the outer wall, divides the periosteum and
external rectus muscle, and so gains access to the retrobulbar space. The various
steps of the operation are shown in Figs. 90, 91, 92.
THE EYEBALL AND OPTIC NERVE.
The eyeball has three main coats, viz. : a fibrous outer coat, called the sclerotic;
a vascular middle coat, the choroid ; and a nervous inner coat, the retina.
Sclerotic Coat. — The sclerotic coat forms a firm protective covering or case
for the delicate retina within. It is continuous posteriorly with the fibrous coat or
dura of the optic nerve, which is a continuation of the dura mater of the brain. At
the optic foramen, the dura mater splits into two layers; the outer layer forms the
periosteum, while the inner forms the dural coat of the optic nerve. This nerve also,
like the brain, has an arachnoid and a pial membrane. The sclerotic coat is con-
tinued forward over the front of the eye as the cornea. As it is essentially a mem-
brane intended to be protective in its function, its diseases are those of weakness:
thus, if the cornea is affected, it bulges forward and is called an anterior staphyloma ;
if the posterior part is affected, the sclera is stretched, and it forms a posterior
staphyloma.
Anterior staphyloma may occur either rapidly as a small local protrusion, resulting
from ulceration of the cornea or a wound, or it may be slow in forming, and in\'olve
nearly or quite the whole of the cornea, pushing it forward in the shape of a cone;
this is called conical coniea. Posterior staphyloma occurs in near-sighted people, the
anteroposterior diameter of the eye being longer than normal. If this posterior
staphyloma or stretching of the eye becomes marked, the choroid atrophies and the
functions of the retina are lost. The white sclera is seen with the ophthalmoscope,
surrounding or to one side of the optic nerve.
Although the cornea has no blood-vessels, it still, from its exposed position,
becomes inflamed {keratitis') and ulcerated, and eventually blood-vessels may de-
velop into it from its periphery, constituting the disease known as pannus.
The weakest portion of the globe is at the junction of the sclerotic coat with the
cornea. It is here that the sclera is thinnest. On this account, blows on the eye
cause it to rupture usually at this point, the tear encircling the edge of the cornea
for a variable distance (usually at its upper and inner quadrant) according to the
force and direction of the injury. On healing, a staphyloma may form at this point.
The choroid or vascular coat of the eye contains the pigjnent or color of the
eye. It is continued forward as the ciliary body (or processes) and iris. Being a
vascular tissue, its diseases are inflammatory. If the choroid is affected we have
choroiditis; if the ciliary region is inflamed, it is called cyclitis ; and if the iris is
inflamed we have iritis.
The retina or nervous coat of the eye is concerned in the function of sight and
it, like other nerves, may be affected with inflammation, called retinitis. Sometimes
it becomes loosened from the choroid beneath by a hemorrhage or rapid stretching
of the sclera, constituting a detachment of the retina. Outside the disk is the macula
lutea and fovea centralis or region of distinct vision.
Filling the interior of the eye is the jelly-like transparent vitreous hiwior^ enclosed
in the hyaloid membrane. In front of the vitreous humor is the lens; and the clear,
limpid liquid between the anterior surface of the lens and the posterior surface of the
cornea is the agueoiis humor.
The lens, immediately behind the iris, is suspended in. its capsule from the
ciliary processes by its suspensory ligament or zone of Zinn. Between the ciliary
processes and the sclera lies the ciliary muscle, which regulates the accommodation
78
APPLIED ANATOMY.
or focussing power of the eye. The ciliary processes are formed of convolute!
blood-vessels supported by connective tissue and covered by the pigmented exten-
sion of the retina. This ciliary region is an exceedingly sensitive one and a serious
wound of it usually means a loss of the eye.
Cataract. — When the lens is opaque it constitutes the disease known as cata-
ract: this name is also applied to opacities of the capsule of the lens. When the lens
alone is opaque it is called a le7iticular cataract; when the capsule alone is affected, it
is a capsular cataract. Both are sometimes involved, constituting a lenticiilocapsular
cataract. The lens is made up of layers like an onion. Some of these layers may
become opaque, leaving a surrounding rim of clear tissue. The nucleus within the
affected layer is also clear. This form is called a zonular or lamellar cataract. A
capsular cataract may affect the anterior portion of the capsule, forming an anterior
polar cataract^ or the posterior layer of the capsule, forming a posterior polar cataract.
If the cornea has been perforated by a central ulceration, the aqueous humor
escapes, the lens falls forward, and its anterior capsule becomes adherent at the site
Lens
Suspensory ligament of lens
Canal of Schlemm
Ciliary process
Conjunctiva
Cornea
Anterior chamber
Iris
Posterior chamber
Sclerocorneal juncture
Tendon of in
ternal rectus
muscle
Vena vorticosa
Tendon of
-external rectus
muscle
Vitreous
Sclera
Ciliary nervi
Posterior ciliary vessels
Hyaloid canal
optic nerve
Central retinal vessels
Choroid
Retina
Fovea centralis
Fig. 93. — Diagrammatic horizontal section of right eye. X 3^^- (Piersol.)
of perforation. As the aqueous humor reaccumulates, it pushes the lens back, leaving
a small portion of inflammatory tissue clinging to its anterior capsule, thus forming
an anterior polar cataract. A posterior polar cataract is the result either of disease,
such as choroiditis^ in which the posterior capsule becomes involved, or of a persistence
of the remains of the hyaloid artery, a fetal structure.
Secondary cataracts are the opacities of the capsule or inflammatory bands
and tissues which are left, or which occur, after the removal of the lens. The lens in
childhood is soft; it grows harder as age increases. If the aqueous humor obtains
access to the lens through a wound of the anterior capsule, the lens becomes opaque,
constituting a traumatic cataract. In operating for cataract in childhood, the lens,
being soft, is first rendered opaque by the aqueous humor admitted through a
puncture made in the capsule ; if it is admitted repeatedly to the lens by the
surgeon's needle (needling or discission operation) the lens matter is completely
dissolved. The fluid lens matter can also be removed by a suction instrument.
In old people the nucleus becomes hard and opaque, forming a senile cataract.
REGION OF THE EYE.
79
The aqueous humor does not dissolve the opaque lens after the aj^e of thirty five
years. Senile cataract rarely occurs before the forty-fifth year, so there is a period
of ten years in which a cataract may be a nuclear cataract without being senile.
To remove a nuclear or a senile cataract, a slit is made through the cornea near
its scleral junction, a piece of the iris may (or may not) be removed, the anterior
capsule is cut with a cystotome and the opaque lens pressed out through the
opening so made, then through the pupil (either artificial or dilated with atropine),
and finally through the sclerocorneal incision. The posterior capsule is not injured,
and it prevents the vitreous humor from escaping. If inflammation follows the
operation, the iris and ciliary region throw out lymph and the remains of the
capsule become opaque, forming a secondary or capsular cataract. This is removed
by tearing or cutting it across with needles or extremely fine scissors.
Iris. — The iris is the continuation of the choroid through the ciliary body, and
extends down to the pupil, its free edge resting on the anterior surface of the lens.
The iris is composed of a vascular and fibrous anterior portion, and a muscular and
pigmented posterior portion. In consequence of its vascularity, the iris is the fre-
quent site of inflammation. When inflamed it pours out lymph which may cause it
to adhere to the lens behind, forming a posterior synechia. An anterior synechia is
where, on account of a perforation of the cornea, the iris washes forward and becomes
attached to the cornea in front.
The circular muscle fibres surrounding the pupil are anterior, and form the
sphincter piipillcE muscle ; it contracts the pupil. The radiating muscular fibres,
which lie posteriorly, form the dilator piipillce ; it dilates the pupil. The dark pig-
ment layer is on the posterior surface of the iris, and after an attack of iritis, as the
adherent iris is torn loose from the lens, it leaves patches of pigment adhering to the
anterior capsule.
The iris, as it rests at its pupillary margin on the lens, divides the space anterior
to the lens into two parts. The part between the posterior surface of the iris and the
anterior surface of the lens forms the posterior chamber. The anterior chamber lies
between the anterior surface of the iris and the posterior surface (^Descemet^ s mem-
brane) of the cornea. The two chambers communicate through the pupil. The
anterior surface of the iris toward its periphery is of the nature of a coarse mesh-
work, the spaces of which are the spaces of Fonta^ia. They communicate with a
venous or lymph canal which passes around the eye at the sclerocorneal junction
(^canal of Schlemm ).
Aqueous Humor and Anterior Lymph Circulation, — The aqueous humor
is of the nature of lymph. It is secreted by the ciliary processes and posterior surface
of the iris. It passes through the pupil to the anterior chamber, and enters the
spaces of Fontana to empty into the canal of Schlemm. The canal of Schlemm
empties its contents into the anterior ciliary veins. In iritis and glaucoma the lymph-
current is seriously interfered with. In iritis, the swelling and outpouring of lymph
blocks the spaces of P^ontana and prevents a free exit of the aqueous humor from
the anterior chamber, therefore in this condition the anterior chamber is deep, and
the iris is seen to lie far beneath the cornea.
Glaucoma. — Glaucoma is a disease accompanied by increased intra-ocular
tension. The eyeball feels hard to the touch. It is supposed to be due to disease
of the ciliary region interfering with the canal of Schlemm and obstructing it.
Therefore, the drainage of the eye and the circulation of the aqueous humor is inter-
fered with. In iritis the anterior chamber becomes deeper, but in glaucoma, as the
intra-ocular tension increases, it pushes the lens forward, and it is seen to lie close
up to the cornea; so that a shallow anterior chamber causes the ophthalmologist to
suspect glaucoma and a deep anterior chamber iritis. The increased pressure within
the eye pushes the optic nerve backward at its point of entrance, so that it is seen
sunk below the surface of the adjoining retina, forming a distinct cup-shaped cavity
or pit. This is cuppino; of the disk.
Optic Nerve. — The optic nerve reaches from the optic chiasm, to the eyeball, a
distance of about 5 cm. f 2 in. ) . It enters the apex of the orbit through the optic foramen
at the upper inner angle, in company with the ophthalmic artery. The artery crosses
the under surface of the nerve from its inner to its outer side. The optic nerve has
8o
APPLIED ANATOMY.
as its covering a prolongation of the membranes of the brain. The dura mater
when it reaches the foramen spHts and gives one layer to form the periosteum lining
the orbit and the other to form a fibrous sheath of the nerve. This arrangement
prevents pus, forming in the orbit, from passing through the optic foramen into
the skull. The artcria centralis rctince enters the nerve on its under side and passes
through its centre to the interior of the eye. The nerve itself is covered with a fine
pial membrane and an arachnoid separating it from the dura, thus forming subdural
and subarachnoid spaces. As these membranes and spaces are continuous with those
of the brain, hemorrhage or serous efiusions occurring within the brain can thus find
their way into the sheath of the nerve.
As the nerve enters the eye, it is contracted and forms the optic disk or papilla.
Cornea
Greater arterial ring
Iris
Lesser arterial ring
Ciliary process
Canal of Schlemm
^Corneal loop
Perforating branch
Conjunctival vessels
Communication between
Anterior ciliary vessels
Sclera
Episcleral vessels
choroidal and optic vessels
Central retinal vessels
Vena vorticosa
Supplying choroid
Short posterior ciliary artery
Long posterior ciliary artery
Communicating twig
Inner sheath vessels
Outer sheath vessels
Communication between optic
and sheath vessels
I
Fig 94. — Diagram illustrating circulation of eyeball. (Leber.)
It is readily seen with the ophthalmoscope as a round spot somewhat lighter in color
than the surrounding eyeground. Coming from a depression or cup in the disk,
called the poms opticus, are the retinal arteries and veins. A certain amount of
cupping is normal, but if wide and deep, with overhanging edges over which the
vessels can be seen to dip, it is indicative of glaucoma.
Sometimes the papilla or disk is swollen, constituting an optic neuritis.
In brain tumor this is frequently the case and is called choked disk, or ' 'stauung
papilla''' so named because the circulation was thought to be interfered with owing
to the intracerebral pressure being transmitted directly to the nerve. On the sub-
sidence of a severe neuritis the nerve is left in a state of optic atrophy and blindness
is the result.
FIG. 95.
NORMAL HUMAN FUNDUS OCULI, SHOWING OPTIC PAPILLA AND BLOOD VESSELS; ALSO THE MACULA UUTEA.
DRAWN BY MR. LOUIS SCHMIDT.
REGION OF THE EYE. 8i
Muscles of the Orbit. — Six muscles are connected with the eyeball,
four straight and two oblique. One muscle, the levator palpebrce, goes to the
lid. The four recti muscles, superior, mferior, external, and hiternal, arise from a
common tendinous origin, forming a ring or tube called the ligament of Zinn.
This ligament or tube surrounds the optic foramen and is attached to the opposite
side of the sphenoidal fissure. Through it run the optic nerve and ophthalmic artery,
the third, fourth, and the nasal branch of the ophthalmic (fifth) nerve.
The levator paipebrce and superior oblique arise to the inner side and above the
optic foramen close to the origin of the other muscles. The superior oblique, after
passing through its trochlea or pulley at the inner upper angle of the orbit, continues
downward, backward, and outward between the superior rectus and the eye, to be
inserted above the extremity of the inferior oblique.
Ethmoidal cells
Sphenoidal sinus
Superior oblique
muscle
Superior rectus
muscle
Levator palpebrae
superior muscle
Superior ophthal-
mic vein
Lachrymal gland
Fig. 96. — The roof of the orbit has been removed, showing the contents.
The inferior oblique arises from the anterior edge of the orbit just to the outer
side of the lachrymal groove. It passes outward, upward, and backward, over
the external surface of the inferior rectus, to be inserted beneath the external rectus.
The recti muscles insert into the sclera 5 to 7 mm. back from the cornea. In
the operation for internal squint or strabismus, the internal rectus muscle is cut.
It possesses the longest tendon of insertion, while the external possesses the shortest.
The recti muscles pull the eyes toward their respective sides. The superior oblique
turns the cornea down and out and rotates it inwardly. The inferior oblique turns
the cornea up and slightly out and rotates the eye outward. A disarrangement of any
of these muscles produces diplopia or double vision.
Blood-Vessels of the Orbit. — The arteries of the orbit are derived from the
ophthalmic artery, which breaks up into its various branches soon after it passes through
the optic foramen. In enucleation of the eye there is practically no bleeding,
because the arteria centralis is the only one divided, and it is small. In evisceration,
or cleaning out of the contents of the orbit, the main trunk of the ophthalmic will
not be cut unless the very apex is invaded. Hemorrhage is readily controlled by
packing gauze into the orbital cavity.
The veins of the orbit are the sjiperior and inferior ophthalmic. The former is
much the larger and more important. It not only drains the upper portion of the
orbit, but communicates directly with the angular branch of the facial, at the inner
canthus of the eye. The infection of erysipelas sometimes travels along these veins
directly from the nose, face, and scalp without, to the cavernous sinus and meninges
6
82 APPLIED ANATOMY.
within, causing thrombosis and death. The inferior ophthalmic usually empties into
the superior; its anastomoses at the anterior portion of the orbit with the veins of
the face are much smaller and, therefore, not nearly so dangerous.
Nerves of the Orbit. — The optic nerve is the nerve of sight. Interference
with it produces blindness. The oculomotor or third nerve supplies all the muscles
of the orbit except the external rectus and superior oblique. If paralyzed, the eye
cannot be mo\'ed upward, inward, or to any extent downward. There will be ptosis
of the upper lid from paralysis of the levator palpebr^e, and dilatation of the pupil and
paralysis of the accommodation of the eye. If the sixth or abducens is paralyzed, the
eye cannot be turned outward. If the fourth or pathetic is paralyzed, the superior
oblique fails to act, and the double vision produced is w^orse when the patient looks
down, because it is normally a depressor muscle. The lachrymal, frontal, and nasal
bra7iches of the fifth are nerves of sensation, hence, in supra-orbital neuralgia and that
affecting the nasal branch, pain is felt in the orbit at the inner angle of the eye and
down the side of the nose.
Retina. — On the interior of the eye, the expansion of the optic nerve forms the
retina. The retina is divided into two lateral halves, each supplied by a corre-
sponding half of the optic nerve. When the nerve reaches the optic chiasm it splits
into two parts, one (internal fibres) going to the opposite side of the brain, and
the other (external fibres) to the ganglia on the same side of the brain. Posterior
to the chiasm, the nerve fibres form the optic tracts. The optic tracts, after leaving
the chiasm, wind around the crura cerebri to the external geniculate bodies, thence
they pass to the thalami and anterior corpora quadrigemina, and are continued back-
ward into the cuneus lobule of the occipital lobe of the brain.
It will thus be seen that a lesion affecting any portion of the optic pathway pos-
terior to the chiasm will produce blindness of one-half of the retina of both eyes on
the side of the injury; a right-sided lesion will produce blindness of the right half of
both retinae, and a lesion on the left side, blindness of the left half of both eyes. This
is called hemianopia. It is right lateral hemianopia if the right half of the visual fields
is aflected, and left lateral if the left sides are allected. Affections of the optic nerve
produce total blindness of that eye if the whole nerve is involved. If only a part is
involved, then a tmilateral hc^nianopia may ensue. A bite77iporal hemiariopia may be
caused by a tumor involving the anterior or middle portion of the chiasm. A binasal
hemianopia requires a symmetrical lesion on the outer side of both optic nerves or
tracts. A brain tumor located in the cuneus lobule would cause a lateral hemianopia of
the same side, right or left, of both visual fields, hence sometimes called homonymous.
The Eyelids and Conjunctiva. — The eyelids are composed of five layers,
viz: {i) ski?i, (2) subcidaneons tissue, (3) orbicularis palpebrarum vuiscle, (4)
tarsal cartilage with the contained Meibomian glands, (5) the conjunctiva. The
juncture of the two lids at each end is called the inner and outer canthus.
The skin of the lids is thin and the subcutaneous tissue loose and devoid of fat.
For these reasons blood finds its way readily into the lids and shows plainly beneath the
skin, constituting the familiar "black eye." The skin lends itself readily to plastic
operations, as it is easily raised and the gap left can be readily closed. The blood
supply of the lids is abundant, so that the flaps are well nourished and sloughing is
not apt to occur. The folds in the skin run parallel to the edge of the lids, therefore
the incisions should be made as much as possible in the same direction. The
orbicularis palpebrarum muscle passes circularly over the lids and lies on the tarsal
cartilage toward the edge of the lids and on the orbitotarsal ligament above. The so-
called tarsal cartilage or plate is composed of dense connective tissue and contains no
cartilage cells. It is attached externally by the external {lateral) palpebral ligament
and internally by the internal {medial) palpebral ligament or tendo-oculi. This latter
passes in front of the lachrymal sac. The tarsal plate is continued to the rim of the
orbit by the orbitotarsal ligarnent or septiwi orbitale. The expansion of the levator
palpebrae muscle ends in the upper edge of the tarsal cartilage and sends some fibres
to the tissues immediately in front. The orbitotarsal ligament and tarsal cartilage
prevent the fat of the orbit from protruding and also act as a barrier to the exit of pus.
The tarsal cartilage contains the Meibomian glands. These can be seen in life,
by everting the lid, as yellow streaks passing backward from the edge of the lids.
REGION OF THE EYE.
83
Frequently these glands become obstructed and their mucus contents dilate the
gland, forming a cyst known as chalazion. Suppuration may occur and pus instead
of mucus is then contained within them. The wall of these cysts is formed by
fiDrous tissue containing some of the epithelial cells of the glands; therefore, if an
uninflamed cyst is simply opened and its contents expressed, it will soon reform.
To prevent this recurrence, the lining membrane is curetted in order to remove the
mucus-forming cells. The cyst may point and be opened either on the side of the
skin or conjunctiva, preferably the latter. '
The openings of the Meibomian ducts are on the inner edge of the lids where
the conjunctiva joins the skin. At the outer edge of the lids are the cilice or eye-
lashes and connected with them are sebaceous and sweat glands. Infection of these
Skin
/ Subcutaneous tissue
Orbicularis p ilpebrarum
E-at
superior
Blood-vessel
Henle's gland
Duct in tarsal plate
Artery of tarsal arch
Meibomian duct
Glands of Moll Cilia Ciliary muscle
Fig. 97.— Vertical section of upper eyelid of child. X 15. (Piersol.)
glands produces a small abscess called a stye. As they are on the outer edge of the
lids they tend to discharge anteriorly and not toward the conjunctiva.
The co?iju7ictiva covers the outer surface of the eye and the inner surface of
the lids. The fold where it passes from one to the other is called the fornix. The
tarsal or palpebral co7ijunctiva adheres closely to the tarsus and as it is transparent
the Meibomian glands can readily be seen through it. The ocular or bulbar coft-
junctiva is loosely adherent to the sclerotic coat and through it the conjunctival vessels,
w'hich move with it, can be seen. The straight vessels going toward the cornea do
not move when the coniunctiva is moved, because they lie deeper and are attached to
the sclera.
The Lachrymal Apparatus. — The lachrymal gland cor\s\^\.s of two portions:
an orbital or superior portion and a palpebral or inferior portion. The orbital
84
APPLIED ANATOMY.
portion is enclosed in a capsule and slung from the orbital margin by its suspensory-
ligament. Beneath, it rests on the fascial expansion of the levator palpebree muscle.
The palpebral portion is smaller than the orbital and is partially separated from it by
the fascial expansion. It lies on the conjunctiva at the upper and outer portion of
its fornix. The lachrymal gland opens by several fine ducts into the fornix of
the conjunctiva. It is sometimes the seat of malignant tumors, but rarely of other
troubles. The remaining lachrymal passages running from the eye to the nose are
frequently the seat of inflammation, causing suppuration and obstruction.
T\\Qpiinda lachryvialia in the top of each papilla lead into the canaliculi. These
enter the lids perpendicular to their margin and turning at right angles join just
before entering the upper end of the lachrymal sac.
The lachrymal canal, embracing the sac and lachrymonasal duct, each about
12 mm. in length, extends from just above the internal tarsal ligament or tendo oculi
to the inferior meatus of the nose. The sac is strengthened posteriorly by the tensor
tarsi or muscle of IIor?ier, which passes from the lachrymal bone to the pujicta, and
by some fibres of the palpebral ligament. Anteriorly is the strong palpebral liga-
ment. Below the palpebral ligament, the sac is comparatively weak and here it is
that distention occurs and pus makes its exit. The duct lies in the lachrymal groove
in the bone. It is narrower than the sac, being 3 to 4 mm. in width, and is the usual
Lachrymal gland
Lachrymal sac
Lachrymonasal duct
Inferior meatus
'■y^/ ^ Inferior turbinate
Fig. 98. — Lachrymal apparatus.
seat of obstructions. To keep the passage open in case of stricture probes are
passed. The direction of the duct is slightly outward and more markedly backward,
being indicated approximately by a line drawn from the inner canthus to just behind
the second premolar tooth. In probing the duct it is customary to first open the
punctum in the lower lid — which is normally only one mm. in size — by slitting it and
the caniculus with a Weber's canaliculus knife. The probe is directed horizontally
until the sac is entered, which is recognized by the end of the probe striking the
bone; it is then raised vertically and passed downward and backward and sometimes
slightly outward until it can be seen in the inferior meatus of the nose about i cm.
behind the anterior end of the inferior turbinated bone.
THE EAR.
The external auditory meatus, the tympanum., and the Eustachian tube are the
remains of the first branchial cleft in the foetus. A failure of any portion of the cleft
to close normally may leave small sinuses or depressions in the neighborhood of the
ear. The external ear, also called the auricle or pinna, is composed mainly of a
cartilaginous framework covered with thin skin; the lobe or lobide forms its lower
part and is composed of dense connective tissue containing fat. The large concav-
ity leading into the meatus is the concha. The skin of the ear is thin and moder-
THE EAR.
85
ately firmly attached to the cartilage. The subcutaneous tissue contains little or
no fat. Although well supplied with blood, the expo.sed condition of the blood-vessels
renders the ear sensitive to cold, and frost-bites are common. Injuries and wounds
of the cartilage are slow to heal, and if inflamed the cartilage becomes exceedingly
sensitive. Swelling of the ear readily occurs from injury or erysipelas, and the tension
is quite painful.
Helix
Fossa scaphoidea
Crus antihelix superius
Fossa triangularis
Crus antihelix inferius
Tragus
Incisura intertragica
Tuberculum superius
Lobule
Fig. gq. — The external ear.
HcBmatoma aiiris, or effusions of blood, occur from traumatism, especially in the
msane. While a h^ematoma may occur between the skin and perichondrium, on
account of the firm binding of the skin to the cartilage it is usually between the
perichondrium and cartilage.
Angioma, or enlargement of the blood-vessels, not infrequently affects the
external ear and may not only be disfiguring but, by showing a tendency to
Chorda tympani
Facial nerve
'-■^, /""L— Internal ai'.ditorv meatus
Semicircular canals
Jugular vein
Fig. icx) — Vertical section of the right ear.
extension, may demand operation. The external ear derives its blood supply from
the auricular branches of the temporal, internal maxillary, posterior auricular, and
occipital arteries. As these are all branches of the external carotid, that artery is
sometimes tied as a preliminary step to excising the angiomatous vessels.
The External Meatus. — The external auditory meatus extends from the
concha to the drumhead, and is about 2.5 cm. in length. A little less than one-half
86
APPLIED ANATOMY.
of it is cartilaginous and a little over one-half bony. Viewed anteroposteriorly the
canal has a slight curve with its convexity upward (Fig. loo). Viewed from above
(Fig. loi ), it is seen first to pass backward and then forward, forming an angle before
the bony wall is reached. In order to look into the ear and see the membrane it is
necessary to straighten the canal, either by inserting a speculum or by pulling the
auricle outward, upward, and backward. In children, upward traction is not so
necessary as in the adult. The length of the canal is approximately the same in child-
hood as in adults, but the bony part is still in a cartilaginous condition. The external
opening is oval, while farther in the canal is more circular; hence the Gruber speculum,
which is oval in shape, or the round speculum of Wilde can be used with almost
equal satisfaction. The point of junction of the bony and cartilaginous parts is
narrower than either end, and it is difficult to remove a foreign body which has
passed this point. This is particularly true in children, the lumen of the external
meatus being quite small and narrow while the tympanic membrane is nearly as
large as in adults.
The floor is longer than the roof, owing to the drum membrane inclining at an
angle of 140 degrees. Cartilage forms the lower part of the canal, while the upper
Carotid canal Eustachian tube
Glenoid cavity
Internal auditory meatus
Membrana t>nipaiii
Facial canal
I
Ceruminous glands
Fig. ioi. — Right ear; horizontal transverse section
part is completed by a fibrous membrane. Below and in front is the temporomaxillary
joint,'' and just posterior is Xh^ glenoid lobe of the parotid gland. When the gland is
inflamed and swollen it presses on the cartilaginous canal and produces pain ; and
in cases of suppuration pus may discharge through the external meatus, gaining
access to the canal through fissures in the cartilage called the fissures of Santorini.
The cartilaginous portion of the meatus contains sweat-glands, sebaceous glands, and
hair-follicles. There are only a few glands in the upper posterior portion of the bony
meatus. On account of the location of the glands in the external portion of the canal,
accumulations of wax, and abscesses, which result from infection of the glands, occur
nearer to the surface than to the drum membrane. It is only when the canal begins to
fill up that the wax pushes its way to the membrane. When furuncles occur, the lining
membrane swells and by closing the canal prevents a view of the drum being ob-
tained. Incising of furuncles of the auditory meatus is sometimes required. The
site of the inflamed spot having been located, an incision can be made where
indicated. If care is exercised, one is not likely to injure the drum membrane,
because the abscess starts in one of the sebaceous glands, which are located in the
external half of the meatus. The membrane lies 2.5 cm. from the surface, and the
point of the knife should not be carried so deeply as that for fear of wounding it;
there is no necessity of going so far inward.
THE EAR. 87
The meatus is supplied by the auriculotemporal braiich of the fifth and the
auricular branch of the pneumogastric nerve. Irritation of the latter nerve is said
to be the cause of feeling it in the throat when anything is put in the ear.
Membrana Tympani. — The niembrana tympani is inclined downward and
inward at an angle of about 140° to the upper wall (Troltsch) and 27° to the lower
wall (Bezold) of the meatus ; it does not lie directly trans\erse, therefore in intro-
ducing instruments into the ear the upper posterior part will be first encountered.
The membrane is located 2.5 cm. (i in.) from the surface; this is to be borne in
mind in puncturing the membrane or other operations. The membrane has three
coats: an outer, continuous with the skin of the meatus; a fibrous or middle layer;
and an internal or mucous layer, continuous with the lining of the tympanic cavity.
The membrana tympani at birth is fastened at its circumference to the tympanic
bone, which unites with the other portions of the temporal bone soon after birth.
This ring of bone is incomplete at its upper portion for a distance equaling one-eighth
of its circumference. This is called the notch of Rivi?ius. The fibrous layer does
not extend across this notch, which is closed by the mucous membrane on the inside
and by the skin layer of the membrane on its outer side. The part closing the notch
.Membrana flaccida
Short process of malleus
Long handle of malleus
Cone of light
Fig. 102. — Outer surface of the tympanic membrane of the left ear.
is called ShrapnelV s membrane or membrana flaccida. As it possesses no fibrous
layer it is weaker than the membrane elsewhere and consequently is a favorite spot
for pus to perforate in order to find exit from the middle ear.
In examining the membrane by means of light thrown into the meatus through
a speculum by the head mirror, one sees extending downward from its centre a small
cone of light; any depression or bulging of the membrane will cause this cone of
light to be altered in its position, or even cause it to disappear entirely. From the
centre of the membrane upward extends a line which indicates the attachment of the
long handle of the malleus, one of the bones of the middle ear. Stretching across
the upper portion is the membrane of Shrapnell or membrana flaccida, so called on
account of its not being so tense as the remaining portion. It is better supplied
with blood-vessels than the other portion.
The membrana tympani is of surgical interest on account of its being often dis-
tended or perforated. A purulent discharge from the ear usually indicates disease
of the middle ear or tympanum. If pus is coming from a furuncle of the meatus, the
latter will be swollen and its source can readily be recognized. If it comes from
outside of the meatus, as in cases of suppuration of the parotid gland, it will be recog-
nized by an examination of the gland. There is no other source of pus but the
middle ear and for it to gain exit it must perforate the membrane; this perforation
can usually be seen with the speculum and head mirror, as can also bulging.
In inflammation of the middle ear the effused serum or pus bulges the mem-
brane outward. When this condition is accompanied, as it often is, by intense pain.
88 APPLIED ANATOMY.
paracentesis or puncture is resorted to. The preferable spot is the posterior lower
quadrant. Paracentesis of the membrane should be done by beginning the incision a
little above and behind the centre of the tympanic membrane, which slopes downward
and forward at an angle of 140° to the upper wall, and cutting downward to its
lower edge. One must avoid the long handle of the malleus, which extends directly
upward from the centre of the membrane. In the upper posterior part are the incus
and stapes, therefore this portion should be avoided; and running across the upper
edge beneath the mucous membrane is the chorda tympani nerve. Division of this
nerve is said to be a matter of not much account. Incision through the anterior part
is not considered suitable for drainage.
Perforations frequently occur through Shrapnell's membrane on account of its
not having any fibrous layer; thus the pus does not go through the tympanic mem-
brane proper. If perforation with a purulent discharge has existed for a long time
granulations come through the opening, forming an aural polyp. To remove these
a snare is used or caustic is applied.
The Tympanum or Middle Ear. — The tympanic cavity is flat and narrow
and is situated directly behind and also above the membrane. It has a floor and
roof, and external and internal walls. It is divided into the portion behind the mem-
brane and the portion above the membrane called the attic. The floor is narrower
than the roof and is formed by the tympanic plate ^ which separates it from the jugular
Aditus
Facial nerve
Oval window
Canal for tensor
ni muscle Carotid canal
Euslachian tube
Tympanic cavity
Chorda tympani nerve
Round window
Fig. 103. — Right temporal bone : — The outer surface has been cut away, exposing the tympanic cavity, its inner wall,
the mastoid antrum, Eustachian tube, etc.
fossa containing the commencement of the internal jugular vein. The bone forming
the floor is more difficult for pus to perforate than is that of the roof, so that exten-
sion of middle-ear disease is less frequent through it. The 7-oof is comparatively
thin and formed of cancellous tissue with a thin and weak outside compact layer;
therefore it is a somewhat common site for pus to perforate and thereby obtain
access to the middle fossa of the skull. The distance from the floor to the roof is
approximately 15 mm. (| in.); half is behind the membrane and the rest forms
the attic above.
The external wall is formed below by the tympanic membrane and above by
the bone. As the membrane is the weakest portion of the walls, collections of pus
in the middle ear most often find a vent through it. Immediately behind the mem-
brane are the lower portions of the ossicles, and above is the chorda tympani nerve.
The internal wall is formed of bone and is from 2 to 4 mm. (yV to \ of an
inch) behind the membrane. It is so close that in doing the operation of para-
centesis care must be taken not to thrust the knife too deeply. In it are the oval
and round windows (Fig. 103).
There is no well-defined anterior or posterior wall. The anterior portion of the
cavity is continued forward into the Eustachian tube; the canal for the tensor
tympani muscle is immediately above it. Posteriorly the cavity of the attic is con-
tinuous through the aditics with the mastoid antrum and the cells beyond. Posterior
THE EAR.
89
to the opening of the Eustachian tube is an elevation on the internal wall called the
promonto7'y, formed by one of the semicircular canals. Above the promontory is the
fenestra ovalis, which lodges the stapes bone and communicates with the vestibule.
Below and behind is the fenestra rotunda, closed by a membrane separating the
cochlea from the middle ear. Above the fenestra ovalis is a ridge of bone marking
the aqueduct of Fallopius, in which runs the facial nerve.
The Eustachian tube passes from the anterior portion of the tympanic
cavity downward, forward, and inward to the upper posterior portion of the pharynx
about level with "the floor of the nose. It is about 3.5 cm. (approximately i^ in.)
in length. The outer third, near the ear, is bony and the inner two-thirds are
cartilaginous. The point of junction of the bony and cartilaginous portions is the
narrowest portion of the tube and is called the isthmus. The tube is usually closed,
but opens in swallowing, yawning, etc., thus admitting air to the tympanic cavity
and mastoid cells. Catarrhal affections of the throat readily travel up the tube and
set up an inflammation of the middle ear. Swelling of the lining of the tube follows
and air no longer passes to the ear. To open the tube two methods are employed —
that of Valsalva, and that of Politzer. The former consists in holding the nostrils and
mouth shut and attempting to blow, when the action of the throat and palate muscles
opens the tube and allows the air to enter. In the method of Politzer, the patient is
Tegmen tympani
Chorda tympani nerve
Long handle of malleus
Tensor tympani muscle
Incus
Tympanic membrane
Eustachian tube
Fig. 104. — View of the tympanic membrane and ossicles of the left ear from within.
given a sip of water which he swallows on command. The nozzle of a rubber air-bag is
placed in one nostril and the other held shut. As the patient swallows, the air-bag is
compressed and the air enters the Eustachian tube. Sometimes this method is varied
by asking the patient to say ' 'hock, ' ' thus causing the tube to open, when the air-bag is
compressed. The calibre of the tube is sometimes so small that probes are passed
up it to dilate it. Care is necessary to avoid introducing the probe too far or it will
injure the ossicles of the ear. Pus will sometimes discharge through the tube. I
have seen pus coming from the middle ear pass down the tube into the inferior
meatus and be blown out the anterior nares.
Lying in a separate canal immediately above and parallel with the Eustachian
tube is the canal for the tensor tympani muscle.
The attic is directly above the tympanic cavity and contains the greater part of
the ossicles. Between the two along the inner wall runs a ridge of bone within which
is the aquseductus Fallopii, containing the facial nerve. The roof of the attic is called
the tegmen. It is a thin shell of bone, varying in thickness, and separates the cavity
of the ear from the middle cerebral fossa above. Pus frequently eats its way through
at this point and forms a subdural abscess, which by working its way backw-ard
involves the lateral (transverse) sinus, causing thrombosis and general septic infection.
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The antrum is a little larger than the attic. The two cavities are~continuous
through the aditus. The roof of the antrum is level with the roof of the attic and its
floor is about level with the top of the membrane. It is thus seen to be directly
above and posterior to it.
Mastoid Cells. — The mastoid cells are continuous with the antrum and
permeate the mastoid process down to its tip. The cells come so close to the surface
that suppuration within them often bursts through and discharges behind the ear.
The upper, inner, and lower portions of the bone are also sometimes perforated, which
will be referred to later.
Middle-ear Disease. — Suppuration from middle-ear disease is caused by an
infective inflammation travelling up the Eustachian tube from the pharynx and nasal
cavities. It may pass to the attic above and thence to the mastoid antrum and
mastoid cells. Pus usually finds an exit by perforating the tympanic membrane and
discharging through the external auditory meatus. As already stated, it may pa^s
down the Eustachian tube to be blown out of the anterior nares. It has been known
to pass down the canal for the tensor tympani muscle, and form a retropharyngeal
abscess. As the pus reaches the pharynx behind the prevertebral fascia, it may
extend laterally and appear externally behind the sternomastoid muscle. Having
thus reached the base of the skull, the infection may involve the meninges and brain
through the crevices in the bone. It is rare for it to perforate the bone below and
Fig. 105. — Tenotomy of the tensor tympani tendon Fig. 106.-
and separation of the incus from the stapes.
Modified from Georges Laurens
Removal of the incus by means of Ludwig's
hook.
■
anteriorly, and thus implicate the jugular vein and internal carotid artery. It may
eat into the posterior wall and involve the facial nerve, which is covered by only a
thin shell of bone, and produce facial paralysis, attack the internal ear through the
fenestra ovalis and rotunda and pass through the internal meatus to the brain. If it
extends upward and involves the attic and antrum, it may perforate the roof, or
tegmen, and form a subdural abscess in the back part of the middle cerebral fossa,
whence it travels a distance of about a centimetre to the lateral sinus, causing a
thrombus to form, or it may produce an abscess of the temporosphenoidal lobe of
the brain. The antrum and mastoid cells being continuous, the posterior and inner
walls may be perforated, the pus thereby reaching the posterior cerebral fossa,
again involving the lateral sinus, or producing a cerebellar abscess. If it perforates
the mastoid process on its inner wall at the groove for the digastric muscle, the pus
gains access to the back of the neck, forming what is known as Bczold' s abscess.
Operations on the Middle Ear. — The operations on the middle ear, besides
those involving the membrane, are done either for the removal of the remains of the
membrane and ossicles, or else to clear out the antrum and mastoid cells and e\en,
if necessary, examine the lateral sinus and jugular vein and explore the brain. They
are done for suppurative affections, which may be either chronic, producing local
symptoms, or acute, producing in addition constitutional disturbances and even
general infection. Caries of the bones is a prominent condition in suppurative cases
THE EAR.
91
of long standing, and the character of the operation is dependent on the extent to
which the disease has progressed.
In removal of the ossicles, the tympanic membrane is first separated around its
edges. Then the tendon of the tensor tympani muscle is cut, and the incus disarticu-
lated from the stapes. The latter is done by cutting with a bent knife across the
axis of the stapes and not of the incus (see Fig. 105). The malleus is seized and
drawn first down and then out, bringing the membrane with it, and afterwards the
incus, which is detached by Ludwig's hook (see Fig. 106), is removed, and, if
desired, the stapes. Granulations and pus are removed by the snare, forceps or
curette. Care is to be taken to avoid, if possible, scraping away the thin shell of
bone on the internal wall that covers the facial nerve. Any twitching of the
muscles of the face indicates that the nerve is being irritated. The chorda
tympani nerve, which passes on the inner side of the handle of the malleus and lies
beneath the mucous membrane, is of necessity removed. No important symptoms
follow its removal.
Operations on the Antrum and Mastoid Cells. — In order to understand
these operations, one must recall that the suprameatal crest is the ridge of bone forming
the upper edge of the bony meatus, and a continuation backward of the posterior root
Suprameatal tri-
angle of Macewen
Suprameatal spine
Posterior root of zygoma
Fig. 107. — Landmarks for operating to enter the mastoid antrum.
of the zygoma. The upper and posterior edge of the meatus is formed by a thin, small
shell or edge of bone running from the suprameatal crest downward and backward
to the posterior wall; this is the suprameatal spine. Behind the suprameatal spine
and between it and the posterior portion of the suprameatal crest is a depression,
the suprameatal fossa. This suprameatal fossa is triangular in shape. The crest
forms the upper side, the spine its anterior side, and the ridge of bone, running from
the posterior portion of the crest to the lower portion of the spine, forms the posterior
side. These three lines form the suprameatal triangle of Macewen. It is through
this triangle that the antrum may be reached. The operation may be restricted to the
antrum and tympanic cavity, or may include the whole or part of the mastoid cells,
constituting the operation known as tympanomastoid exenteration.
To reach the antrum a semicircular cut is made a centimetre back of the ear
and the ear and membranous canal loosened and pushed forward. With a gouge
chips of bone are removed from the suprameatal spine backward and from the crest
downward as far as desired. This will extend considerably beyond the line marking
the posterior boundary of Macewen' s triangle. The outer table of bone being
removed, the cells are broken through parallel to the meatus and slightly upward,
92
APPLIED ANATOMY.
for the lower level of the antrum corresponds to the upper edge of the meatus.
It is hardly safe to penetrate deeper than 1.5 cm. (fin.) from the meatal spine
inward, for fear of wounding the facial nerve. The mastoid antrum lies not only
above and posterior to the membrane and tympanic cavity, but extends outward
along the posterior and upper portion of the canal, and the facial nerve can be
Mastoid antrum
External auditory meatus
Fig. ioS.-
Mastoid cells
-The mastoid antrum exposed by chiselling through the suprameatal triangle. The mastoid cells exposed
by chiselling off the surface of ihe mastoid process.
wounded only by passing across the antrum and attacking the bony covering of the
Fallopian canal below and anteriorly.
In doing a tympanomastoid exenteration, a more extensive procedure is
performed. It consists in cleaning out the various communicating cavities and
throwing them together, thus making their interior more accessible. The antrum is
reached in one of two ways : either
posteriorly, or anteriorly through
the meatus. The posterior opera-
tion, or that of Schwartze, Zaufal,
and others, consists in removing
the membranous lining of the bony
meatus on its upper and posterior
portions down to the tympanic
membrane. The antrum is then
entered as already described; the
posterior bony wall of the meatus
is chiselled away, giving access to
the tympanum; the ridge of bone
separating the roof of the bony
meatus from the attic or epitym-
panum is chiselled away (see Fig.
109), and the membrane and os-
sicles removed. This gives access
to the tympanic cavity, epitym-
panum, and antrum. As much of
the mastoid cells as necessary is
exposed by chiselling away their external covering of bone even down to the tip of
the mastoid process.
If the anterior operation of Stacke is performed, the membranous lining of the
bony meatus is to be loosened and divided as close to the membrane as possible and
drawn forward with the cartilaginous meatus. The drum membrane and as much of
the ossicles as possible are then to be removed, and with a chisel or bent gouge the
Fig. 109. — Chiselling away the spur of bone between the roof of the
external auditory meatus and attic or epitympanum.
THE EAR.
93
angle, or ridge of bone between the upper side of the bony meatus and epitympanum,
or attic, cut away. The antrum is now entered by chiselHng away the upper posterior
wall and the chiselling away of bone continued until the mastoid cells have been suffi-
ciently exposed. The final result of these two methods is the same. The external
Course of lateral
(transverse) sinus
Position
mastoid antrum
Suprameatal spine
Anterior root of
zygoma or emi-
nentia articularis
Posterior root
of zygoma
Mastoid process
External auditory meatus
Fig. 1 10. — Lateral view of the temporal bone, showing the relations of the lateral or transverse sinus and
mastoid antrum.
rneatus, tympanum, epitympanum, antrum, and mastoid cells are all thrown into one
large cavity. Wounding of the facial nerve is to be avoided by first learning its course
and then by sponging away the blood and cutting only the structures which are
clearly visible. Tracing the facial nerve backward, it is seen (Fig. 103) entering
the stylomastoid foramen,
passing upward posterior
to the tympanic cavity,
and crossing at about its
upper edge to pass above
the oval window. Viewed
in Fig. 101, it is seen that
the Fallopian canal lies a
trifle nearer to the external
surface than does the tym-
panic membrane, so that
in making the opening into
the antrum or in connect-
ing the mastoid cells below
the antrum with the tym-
panic cavity, care should
be taken to keep a little
anterior or superficial to
the membrane.
Relations of the
Brain and Lateral Si-
nus.— In operating on the
skull for middle-ear dis-
ease, it is desirable to know-
how to reach and how to avoid the brain and lateral sinus. The lower level of the
brain in the region of the ear corresponds to a prolongation directly backward in a
straight line of the posterior root of the zygoma. If one keeps below this line, he is
not likely to open the brain case. If it is desired to explore the under surface of the
Fig.
Jugular foramen
III.— Transverse section of the right side of the skull just behind the
mastoid process ; looking forward.
94 APPLIED ANATOMY.
brain or dura directly over the middle-ear cavity, then one trephines above this line
or suprameatal crest, the lower edge of the trephine opening- being .5 cm, above it.
This will lead to the middle fossa of the skull, occupied by the temporosphenoidal
lobe. The sharp upper and posterior edge of the petrous portion of the temporal
bone gives attachment to the tentorium and separates the middle cerebral fossa in
front from the posterior fossa, containing the cerebellum, behind. The point at which
this ridge and tentorium reach the side of the skull is indicated by the point of cross-
ing of a line drawn up from the tip of the mastoid process, midway between its anterior
and posterior borders, and the line of the posterior root of the zygoma. The course
of the lateral sinus is indicated by a curved line from above and to the right (about
.5 to I cm.) of the external occipital protuberance to the upper posterior portion of
the mastoid process and thence to its tip. The anterior edge of the lateral sinus
reaches as far forward as a line drawn from the tip of the mastoid upward, midway
between its anterior and posterior borders. The point at which it turns is where this
mastoid line intersects the line of the zygoma. Its upper edge rises above this line
approximately i cm. The sinus is I cm. in width. The distance of the sinus from
the surface varies from .5 cm., or even less, at the top of the mastoid process to 1.5
cm. at its tip. So uncertain is this that the only safe way to expose the sinus is to
cut the bone of? with a mallet and gouge in thin chips parallel to the surface. The
use of a trephine or other boring instrument is not to be advised. If the infection
of the lateral sinus has extended to the jugular vein this latter must be reached by
means of a separate incision in the neck.
THE NOSE.
Externally the nose forms a prbminent projection on the face, hence it is fre-
quently injured and its construction should be studied in relation to those injuries.
It forms a conspicuous portion of the features, hence deformities or disfigurements of
it are very distressing, so that plastic operations are done for their relief. Internally,
the nasal cavities are concerned in the sense of smell and form the passage-way to
and from the lungs and the various accessory cavities for the air in respiration. It
likewise serves as a receptacle for the tears as they come down the lachrymona^al
duct. Interference with the flow of air by obstruction of the nasal chambers may
cause affections of the pharynx, larynx, lungs, ears, or accessory sinuses — ethmoid,
sphenoid, maxillary, and frontal. Catarrhal troubles may start in the nose and invade
any of these parts. They may even extend up the Eustachian tube and cause deaf-
ness; or up the lachrymonasal duct and cause trouble with the lachrymal canal or
conjunctiva. A knowledge of the nose is essential to all those who wish to devote
themselves especially to affections of the eye, ear, and throat, because the origin of
the affections of these organs may be in the nasal chambers instead of the organ in
which they are most manifest.
The skin over the root of the nose is thin and lax. It is well supplied with
blood by the frontal and nasal branches of the ophthalmic, and the angular branch
of the facial arteries. In reconstructing a nose by means of a flap taken from the
forehead, it is these branches that nourish it. The laxity of the skin allows the
pedicle to be twisted around without interfering with the circulation.
The skin over the tip and alae is thick and adherent to the cartilages. It pos-
sesses a comparatively scanty blood supply, hence its liability to suffer from cold, and
is a favorite site for ulcerations, as lupus, superficial epithelioma (rodent ulcer), etc.
Sebaceous and sweat glands are abundant, and stiff hairs guard the inside of the nos-
trils. These latter are not seldom the seat of small furuncles or boils, which are
extremely painful. This is due to the tension caused by the congestion and swelling,
which is restricted by the tissues being so firmly bound to the cartilages beneath.
Nerves. — In addition to the olfactory nerve, the nose is supplied by the nasal,
infratrochlear, and infra-orbital branches of the fifth nerve, hence the eyes water
when the nose is injured. In certain cases of neuralgia affecting the ophthalmic
division of the fifth nerve, pain is felt along the side of the nose. As the nasal
nerve enters the skull from the orbit through the anterior ethmoidal foramen, it may
be involved in disease of the ethmoidal sinuses.
THE NOSE.
95
the
the
I
Small alar ,
cartilage
Lower lateral
cartilage
Nasal bone
Septal
'cartilage
The nose proper consists of a bony and a cartilaginous portion. The bony portioyi
is formed by the two nasal bones articulating with the frontal bone above, with each
other in the median line, and with the nasal process of the superior maxilla on
side. They are supported on the inside by the upper anterior portion of
perpendicular plate of the ethmoid.
This articulation does not extend n
the whole length of the nasal bones
to their tip, but only about half
their length.
The cartilaginous portion
consists of four lateral cartilages,
two on each side, upper and lower,
and the triangular cartilage, or car-
tilaginous septum on the inside.
The external shape of the nose
viewed in profile is composed of
three portions: an upper of bone,
a middle of cartilage — the upper
lateral cartilages — and a lower, or
tip, formed by the lower lateral car-
tilages. The bridge of the nose is
formed by bone; it slopes down-
ward and forward and where it joins
the upper lateral cartilage the line
changes and slopes more downward, until the tip is reached, here the lower lateral
cartilages bulge forward, forming a rounded and more or less projecting tip.
Injuries to the Nose. — The bones and cartilages may be fractured or
dislocated. This may involve either the outside structures or those forming the
septum, and often both. The displacement depends on the character and direction
Mesial crus of
lower lateral
cartilage
-Bony and cartilaginous framework of nose, front
aspect. (Piersol.)
Fig. 113 — Fracture of the nose with deflection of the nasa! bone laterally.
of the injury. It is either a displacement to one side, or the nose is crushed,
producing a flattening of the bridge. If the displacement is lateral, whether by a
dislocation or fracture, there is liable to be a deviation of the septum, because the
bony and cartilaginous septum is connected with the bones and is apt to be carried
with them to the side. If the displacement: is inward, not only are the nasal bones
depressed, but the septum beneath may be either bent or fractured. The pushing
of the septum toward the floor causes it tc buckle and bend or even break at the
96 APPLIED ANATOMY.
junction of the triangular cartilage with the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid and
the vomer. In treating these fractures, the most efficient method is to grasp the
septum with the flat blades of an Adams forceps (after cocainization; and lift
the bones up or to one side as needed. In cases where it is not desired to use
the forceps, the writer grasps the nose with a wet towel, makes traction to loosen
the fragments, and then pushes them over into place. The triangular cartilage is
frequently injured; with the displacement or loosening of the upper lateral cartilages
a great amount of displacement may be caused, so that the nose instead of forming a
straight line is bent to one side from the ends of the bones down to the tip. Injuries
to the septum in childhood are probably the cause of a large number of the cases of
deviation of the septum, spurs, etc., seen later in life.
In fractures the mucous membrane is often torn, thus allowing air to enter the
tissues at the site of fracture, producing emphysema. If such a patient blows the
nose violently, the air may be forced under the skin of the face, around the eyes and
up the forehead.
Anterior Nares. — The nostrils or anterior nares in the white race are an
elongated oval in shape and run in an anteroposterior direction, being separated from
each other by the columna. They lie in a direction parallel with the floor of the nose.
Fig. 114 — Fracture of the nose showing depression of the nasal bone.
so that to examine the nasal fossae with a speculum the instrument is first introduced
from below, then tilting the tip of the nose upward, the speculum is directed back-
ward. To see the floor of the nose, it is necessary to raise the outer end of the
speculum still higher, because the floor is below the bony edge. From the outer
edge of the nostril the nasal cavities go upward and backward for a distance of .5 to
I cm. This part, called the vestibule, is covered by skin, not mucous membrane.
It bears stiff hairs — vibrissae. Inflammation of these hair-follicles and associated
glands produces exceedingly painful pustules. It is here likewise that dried mucus
collects and forms scabs, which stick to the hairs and are hard to remove. The
attempt to remove them probably is the cause of infection and inflammation around
the roots of the hairs. The vestibule leads to the ridge of bone or crest, which is
directly posterior to the side of the nasal spine. This ridge of bone is on a higher
level than the floor of the nose, and in order to view the latter the nostrils must be
raised, by means of the speculum, above it (Fig. 115).
View from the Anterior Nares. — In looking into the nose from in front, if the
speculum is directed downward, the floor of the nose and the inferior meatus can
be seen. On the inner side is the septum, on the outer the anterior end of the
THE NOSE.
97
Vestibul
Fig. 115. — Lateral view of the interior of the nose.
inferior turbinated bone. Still higher is the middle meatus and the anterior end of the
middle turbinated bone. The superior turbinated bone is not visible from the front,
being in the upper posterior corner and hidden from sight by the middle turbinated.
Sometimes in the upper portion of
the nose, beneath the outer surface
of the anterior extremity of the mid-
dle turbinated bone, is seen a small
cleft, the hiatus semilunaris, leading
through the infundibulum into the
frontal sinus. If the inferior turbi-
nated has been shrunk with cocaine,
and if the inferior meatus is roomy,
one can see the posterior wall of the
pharynx. This can be seen moving
if the patient swallows, pronounces
the letter "k," etc., (Fig. 116).
Septum. — The nasal fosses are
separated from each other by the sep-
tum. This septum is formed (see
Fig. 117) by the triangular cartilage
in front, forming the cartilagifious sep-
tum, and the perpendicular plate of
the ethmoid and vomer behind, form-
ing the bony septum. The posterior
edge of the septum is formed solely
by the edge of the vomer ; it can readily be seen with the rhinoscopic mirror. The
affections of the septum are haematoma, ulcer and abscess, deviation to one side,
spurs or outgrowths, and it may be the site of nasal hemorrhages. Hcematomas affect
the cartilage of the septum and resemble
those of the ear. They are usually due
to traumatism and may become infected,
forming a pus-like detritus or abscess.
They can readily be recognized as a
fluctuating swelling on the septum, one
or both sides being affected.
Deviations of the septum are bend-
ings toward one side, and cause serious
obstruction to breathing. They are prob-
ably traumatic in origin and involve the
cartilaginous portion. In operating for
their correction, incisions are made
through the cartilage and the projecting
part pushed toward the median line. In
some operations care is taken not to cut
through the mucous membrane on both
sides, as well as through the cartilage.
This is done to avoid the formation of
a permanent perforation of the septum,
the presence of which may cause a very
objectionable whistling sound when the
patient breathes. As the mucous mem-
brane covering the cartilage is thin, great
care is necessary in dividing the cartilage
to avoid wounding the side which it is de-
sired to leave intact. The triangular cartilage is thin at its centre and thick at its edges.
Spurs are usually outgrowths of bone or cartilage occurring in the line of
juncture of the cartilage and vomer. On the floor of the nose the nasal crest may
project quite perceptibly to one side; a cartilaginous projection may likewise occupy
this site. As these spurs are found on the anterior edge of the vomer, they some-
7
Fig, 116. — Examining the anterior nares. Middle
and inferior turbinates exposed to view.
98
APPLIED ANATOMY.
times form a distinct ridge of bone running upward and backward. If the spur is
short in extent, the farther posterior it is situated, the higher up it is on the septum.
If marked, it is often accompanied by deviation of the septum and it may impinge
on the lower turbinated bone opposite to it. These spurs are usually removed by
sawing. A narrow-bladed saw is introduced with its back on the floor of the nose
and the spur removed by sawing upward (Fig. ii8).
Epistaxis or bleeding from the nose is said to occur in a large percentage of
the cases from the septal branch of the sphenopalatine artery. This comes from the
internal maxillary artery through the sphenopalatine foramen and passes downward
and forward as the nasopalatine or artery of the septum. It anastomoses below with
the anterior palatine branch of the descending palatine artery as it comes up from
the roof of the mouth through \.\\e foramen of Stenson (incisor foramen). It also
anastomoses with the inferior artery of the septum, a branch of the superior coronary.
The bleeding point is to be sought for low down on the anterior portion of the
cartilaginous septum near the anterior nares. Hemorrhage can be stopped by
packing only the anterior or both the anterior and posterior nares.
Perpendicular plate
of ethmoid
Triangular cartilage
Vomer
Fig. 117. — Septum of the nose.
The arteries supplying the nasal cavities (Fig. 119; come from three directions :
superior — the anterior and posterior ethmoidal, supplying the ethmoidal cells, the
upper portion of the septum, the roof, and the outer wall anteriorly; inferior — the septal
branch of the superior coronary artery and a branch of the descending palatine artery
coming up through the incisor foramen; posterior — the sphenopalatine, giving its
nasopalatine branch to the septum and also supplying branches to the ethmoidal
cells, frontal and maxillary sinuses, and outer wall of nose, the Vidian and pterygo-
palatine going to the posterior portion of the roof, and the desce^iding palatine giving
branches to the posterior portion of the inferior meatus and posterior end of the
inferior turbinated bone.
The veins, like the arteries, are in three sets: the superior are formed by the
anterior and posterior ethmoidal and some smaller veins passing upward through the
foramen in the cribriform plate, ox foramen ccsczim, to the longitudinal sinus; the
inferior communicate with the facial veins through the anterior nares; the posterior
drain upward and backward through the sphenopalatine foramen into the pterygoid
plexus.
The lymphatics drain either anteriorly on the face or posteriorly through the
deep lymphatics of the neck. Therefore, acrid secretions causing ulcerations of the
anterior nares are liable to be accompanied by swelling of the submaxillary lymphatic
THE NOSE.
99
nodes; while enlargement of the deep cervical lymphatics follows disease of the
deeper nasal cavities.
Nasal hvpertrophies are enlargements of the nasal mucous membrane. The
mucous membrane of the nose or Schneiderian membrane has columnar ciliated cells
on its surface and mucous cells beneath. It is prolonged into the various sinuses and
cavities in connection with the nasal fossae. The membrane on the upper third of
the septum, the upper portion of the middle turbinated, and the superior turbinated
bone, contains the terminal filaments of the olfactory nerve. The membrane over
the lower portion of the septum, over the lower edge of the middle, and the greater
part of the inferior turbinated bones, contains a venous plexus which renders it
erectile. On the slightest irritation this portion of the membrane will swell and
obstruct the passage of air through the nostrils. Repeated swelling of the membrane
of the septum produces thickenings of the septum, which if anterior may be seen
through the nostrils, and if posterior by the rhinoscopic mirror. The membrane
Spur
Nasal crest
over the inferior turbinated bones also becomes swollen and enlarged, constituting, if
at the forward end, anterior hypertrophy, and if at the posterior extremity, posterior
hypertrophy CFig. 120). They can be readily seen through the nasal speculum ante-
riorly and by the rhinoscopic mirror posteriorly. They are treated by applications of
acids, as chromic and trichloracetic, by the electrocautery, or are snared of! with the
cold snare. Snaring is more often employed in reducing posterior hypertrophies, but
both the anterior and posterior can be reached by an electrocautery point or a knife
introduced through a speculum in the anterior nares.
The Outer Wall. — The outer wall has on it the three turbinated bones —
superior, middle, and inferior. The inferior is a separate bone, but the middle and
superior are parts of the ethmoid bone (Figs. 121 and 122).
The inferior meatus is between the inferior turbinated bone and the floor of
the nose. The lachrymonasal duct enters this meatus just below the anterior end
of the inferior turbinated bone. It j^erces the mucous membrane obliquely, being
guarded by a fold called the valve of Hasner. The opening is not visible from the
anterior nares and usually it is impossible to introduce a probe into it from them.
lOO
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The middle meatus is between the middle and inferior turbinated bones.
The mucous membrane covering the middle turbinated bone lies closer to it than
does that of the inferior turbinated bone, so that it is comparatively rare that treat-
ment is necessary to reduce it.
Polypi usually have their origin in this meatus. Beneath the middle turbinated
bone on the outer wall of the nose and only to be seen after removal of the bone,
Anterior ethmoidal
Posterior ethmoidal
•Triangular cartilage —
Septal branch of
superior coronary
Branch from the descending palatine
Fig. 1 1 9. — .\rteries supplying the septum of the nose.
there is, just anterior to its middle, a rounded eminence, the bulla etlunoidalis. In it
is an opening for the middle ethmoidal cells. Immediately in front is a slit, the
hiatus semihoiaris, into which open the maxillary sinus {antrum of Highmore) and
the anterior ethmoidal cells. The hiatus is continued above as the infundibuhim,
which enters the frontal sinus. The relation between the hiatus and the opening into
Anterior nasal hypertrophy
Posterior nasal hypertrophy
Fig. 120. — View of anterior and posterior hypertrophies of the inferior turbinate.
the maxillary sinus is such, in some cases, that it is possible for pus originating in
the frontal sinus to discharge into the maxillary sinus. A knowledge of the relation
of these parts is essential to those desirous of treating nasal diseases.
The superior meatus is comparatively small and lies above the middle tur-
binated bone. At the anterior edge of the superior turbinated bone is the opening
tor the posterior ethmoidal cells. Sometimes there are two or three superior turbinals.
THE NOSE.
The spheno -ethmoidal XQ.CQS% is the cleft above the superior turbinated bone; into
it opens the sphenoidal sinus. In order to examine and reach the openings of any
of these sinuses, it is practically necessary to take away a part or all of the middle
turbinated bone before they can be exposed to view. When this is done, they can
be probed, washed out, drained, etc. (see Fig. 125).
The frontal sinuses begin to develop about puberty. They occupy the lower
anterior portion of the frontal bone. Their size and extent vary considerably. The
usual size is from the nasion below to
the upper edge of the superciliary ridges
above and laterally from the median line
to the supra-orbital notch. These limits
may be exceeded considerably. They
may go as far out as the middle of the
upper edge of the orbit or even nearly
to the temporal ridge. The anterior and
posterior walls are separated a distance
of 0.5 to I cm. The distance which they
extend back over th-e orbit and upward
also varies. The two sinuses are sepa-
rated by a partition which is often to one
side of the median line, so that it is apt
to be encountered in opening the sinus
through the forehead. The two cells
often differ greatly in size and may be
divided into various recesses by incom-
plete septa. They have the infundib-
ulum as their lower extremity, which
passes into the hiatus semilunaris be-
neath the middle turbinated bone and empties into the middle meatus. The frontal
sinuses are frequently the seat of suppurative inflammation. This gives rise to
pain and tenderness in the supra-orbital region and to a discharge from the cor-
responding nostril. This discharge can be seen coming from beneath the anterior
extremity of the middle turbinated bone. Owing to the proximity of the opening
into the maxillary sinus, pus, coming down the hiatus from the frontal sinus, may
Fig. 121.
Outer wall of nose, showing the superior, mid-
dle, and inferior turbinate bones.
Probe in the lachrymo-
nasal duct
Hiatus semilunaris
Opening of lachrymo-
nasal duct
Frontal sinus
Anterior ethmoidal cell
Middle ethmoidal cells
Posterior ethmoidal cells
Sphenoidal sinus
Bulla ethmoidalis
Superior turbinate
Middle turbinate (anterior
half removed)
Opening into Inferior turbinate
maxillary sinus
Fig. 122. — View of outer wall of the nose and accessory cavities.
pass mto the maxillary sinus, thus simulating disease of that cavity. In order to
wash out the sinus, cocaine may be first applied to shrink the nasal membrane ; then
sometimes one is able to pass a probe or irrigating tube into the hiatus semilunaris
and thence up into the sinus. By removing the anterior extremity of the middle
turbinated bone access to the hiatus semilunaris is more readily obtained. In cer-
tain cases the frontal sinus is opened either through the supra-orbital region or
entered through the roof of the orbit at its inner upper corner. The glabella is the
I02 APPLIED ANATOMY.
depression in ttie median line separating the superciliary ridges. In operating on
the sinus from in front, the opening is to be made just to the outer side of the gla-
bella in order to avoid the septum between the sinuses. In curetting the sinus, the
thinness of the upper and posterior wall separating it from the brain, and of the
lower wall or roof of the orbit, should be borne in mind, otherwise they are apt to be
perforated. The sinus may be divided into recesses by partial septa projecting from
Figs. 123 and 124. — Two views of the frontal sinus, showing variation in size in different individuals. The
anterior wall has been cut away to expose the interior of the sinus.
the sides. Drainage into the nose is obtained by passing an instrument from above
downward through the anterior ethmoidal cells. In entering the sinus from below
from the outside, the opening is made at the extreme anterior upper edge of the
orbit, perforating the bone in a direction upward and inward. The opening into the
sinus may be enlarged from within the nose by first inserting a probe to protect the
brain and posterior wall and then chisel-
ling or gnawing away the bone in front
so that easy access is obtained through
the nose for drainage, packing, etc.
The ethmoidal sinuses or cells,
three in number on each side, anterior,
middle, and posterior, lie between the
sphenoidal sinus posteriorly, and the
lower extremity of the frontal sinus an-
teriorly. The anterior cells lie in front
of or just above the hiatus and open
into it. The middle lie just posterior to
the hiatus and open into the outer wall
of the middle meatus, perforating the
bulla ethmoidalis, which is a rounded
projection on the outer wall beneath the
middle turbinated bone. The posterior
cells open still farther back beneath the
superior turbinated bone in the superior
meatus. In disease of these cells, pus
from the middle and anterior ones will
show in the middle meatus; from the
posterior cells in the superior meatus. In this latter case it is to be detected pos-
teriorly by means of the rhinoscopic mirror. Access to the cells is obtained by
removing the middle turbinated bone. This is done by dividing it into two pieces
by a transverse cut with forceps or scissors and then removing the two halves with
a snare. By means of probes, curettes, and forceps, the openings into the cells may
Fig. 125. — Probes introduced into the frontal, max-
illary, and sphenoidal sinuses. The anterior portion of the
middle turbinate has been removed.
THE NOSE.
103
be discovered and enlarged as thought necessary. The region of the ethmoidal cells
is that from which mucous polypi of the nose take their origin. They are a common
accompaniment of suppuration of the accessory nasal cavities. They are usually
removed by snares introduced through the anterior nares or more rarely by forceps.
Caries affecting the anterior cells may extend into the orbit and the pus may form a
fluctuating tumor above the inner canthus of the eye. Care should be taken not to
mistake a meningocele for such a tumor.
The sphenoidal sinuses are the most posterior, lying still farther back than
the ethmoidal. They open into the spheno-ethmoidal recess above and posterior
to the superior turbinated bone. Discharge from them goes into the pharynx and is to
be seen with the rhinoscopic mirror. They can be reached by first removing the
middle turbinated bone and then introducing a probe upward and backward from the
anterior nares for a distance of 7. 5 cm. (3 in. ) in women and 8 cm. in men. They can
be drained by cutting away their anterior wall with punch forceps introduced through
the anterior nares.
The maxillary sinus Hes beneath the orbit and to the outer side of the nasal
fossee. It is the seat of tumors, often malignant, and inflammation; the latter
accompanied by an accumulation of mucus or
pus. The walls of the sinus are thin, so we
find tumors bulging forward, causing a protrusion
of the cheek. They press inward and obstruct
the breathing through that side of the nose, or
they push upward and cause protrusion of the
eye by encroaching on the orbit. In operating
on these tumors, the superior maxilla is usually
removed ; the lines of the cuts through the bones
being shown in Fig. 64. In prying the bone
down posteriorly, it may not be torn entirely away
from the pterygoid processes and some plates of
bone may be left attached. This should be borne
in mind in operating for malignant growths. The
sphenoidal cells are behind the upper posterior
portion of the maxillary sinus, therefore in oper-
ating on Meckel's ganglion, if too much force is
used in breaking through the posterior wall of
the antrum, the instrument may pass across the
sphenomaxillary fossa, a distance of about 3 mm. ,
and open the sphenoidal sinus.
The infra-orbital nerve is usually separated
from the cavity of the sinus by a thin shell of
bone. At the upper anterior portion of the sinus
there may be a small cell between the bony canal
in which the nerve runs and the bony floor of the orbit. The superior dental nerves
reach the upper teeth usually by going through minute canals in the bone, but some-
times, particularly the middle set supplying the bicuspid teeth, may run directly beneath
the mucous membrane, and thus be irritated by troubles originating within the sinus.
■ The inflammatory and infectious diseases of the sinus originate either by extension
from the nose or the teeth. The sinus opens into the nose by a slit-like opening into the
middle meatus about its middle,posterior to the hiatus semilunaris and 2. 5 cm. above the
floor of the nose. When the opening is close to the hiatus, liquids may run into it from
the hiatus. The bone beneath the hiatus and opening almost down to the floor of the
nose is quite thin, so that the sinus can readily be drained by thrusting a trocar and can-
nula through the outer wall of the nose into the sinus just below the hiatus semilunaris.
The sinus is also opened from the front through the canine fossa to the outer side of
the canine tooth. This opening affords direct access to the cavity, but is some distance
above the floor, thus it does not drain the cavity completely. The roots of the upper
teeth project into the antrum forming elevations, usually covered by a thin plate of bone.
This is particularly the case of the first and second molars. Disease of the roots of these
teeth frequently infects the antrum and drainage is often made through their sockets.
*See article by H. H. Stark on Sudden Blindness Due to Suppuration of the Accessory
Nasal Sinuses, J. A. M. A., Oct. 30, 1915.
Fig. 126.-
-Side view of the maxillary and
frontal sinuses.
I04
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE MOUTH AND THROAT.
The lips are formed mainly by the orbicularis oris muscle with its subdivisions
and the accessory facial muscles (buccinator, levator and depressor anguli oris,
levator labii superioris, levator labii superioris akeque nasi, the zygomaticus major
and minor, and the depressor labii inferioris). The orbicularis oris is attached tc
the superior maxilla in the incisor fossa above the second incisor tooth and also
above to the septum. In the lower lip it is attached to the mandible beneath the
second incisor tooth. The lips contain, beside muscular tissue, some areolar tissue,
arteries, veins, and lymphatics. The muscular fibres are inserted into the skin. The
mucous membrane lining the lips has lying beneath it some mucous glands. They
sometimes become enlarged and form small, shot-like, cystic tumors containing mucus.
Affections of the Lips. — The lips are affected by wounds, angioma or blood
tumor, cancer {epithelioma), and clefts {harelip). Wounds of the lip when properly
approximated heal readily on account of the free blood supply. The arteries sup-
Auricularis superior
Occipitalis
Auricularis anterior
Auricularis posterior
Zygomaticus major
Zygomaticus minor'
Levator anguli oris
Levator labii superioris
Buccinator
Risorius
Frontalis
Gorrugator supercilii
Orbicularis palpebrarum
Orbital part of same muscle
Pyramidalis nasi
— Lev. labii sup. alaeque nasi
— Compressor narium
^ [Oilatores naris
~~" Depressor aloe nasi
Orbicularis oris
Depressor anguli oris
Depressor labii inferioris
Levator nienti
Platysma
Fig. 127. — Superficial dissection, showing the muscles of the head and face. (Piersol.)
plying the lips are the superior and inferior coronary branches of the facial. They
are given ofT about opposite the angle of the mouth and pierce the muscle to run
beneath the mucous membrane about midway betwen the edge of the lip and its
attachment to the gums or nearer the free border of the lip. Therefore, in operating
on the lip, the artery should be looked for in this situation and not toward the skin
surface or in the substance of the lip. The superior coronary sends a branch to the
nasal septum, called the inferior artery of the septum. In the sulcus between the
lower lip and chin lies the inferior labial artery. The bleeding from this branch is
not so free as that from the coronary arteries, because the anastomosis across the
median line is not so marked.
Angioma. — The blood-vessels, mainly the veins, of the lips sometimes become
enlarged, forming a large protrusion. This may be noticed at or soon after birth
as a dusky blue, slightly swollen spot on the lip. As the child grows the swelling
enlarges. Sometimes it enlarges rapidly and operation is necessary to check its
growth; otherwise it may involve a large portion of the face and prove incurable. It
is composed of dilated veins with thin walls and large lumen. It does not pulsate
and disappears under pressure, only to return when this is removed. It is treated
by excision. The thin skin is dissected off and the growth cut away from the tissues
beneath, the bleeding being controlled by pressure, haemostats, and ligatures. In
THE MOUTH AND THROAT. 105
the case figured, the facial vein, as it crossed the mandible, and the transverse facial
vein were obliterated by means of acupressure pins passed beneath them, and the
growth was excised.
Cancer or epithelioma of the lip almost always affects the lower and not the
upper lip. The disease extends through the lymphatics. These pass down and out
Fig. 128. — Angioma involving the right half of the upper
lip in a child. (Personal sketch.)
Fig. 129. — Single harelip.
from the lips to the submaxillary lymph-nodes and then to the nodes along the
great vessels of the neck. It is in these regions that lymphatic infection is usually
seen. The middle of the lower lip is drained into a node in the submental region in
front of the submaxillary nodes.
This also is sometimes involved.
In operating for cancerous
growths it is advisable to re-
move all nodes from both the
submental and submaxillary tri-
angles.
Cleft or harelip is so named
from its resemblance to the lip
of a hare. It is a deformity due
to lack of development, in which
the lip is cleft or split from the
mouth up into the nostril, and
sometimes even back through
the hard and the soft palate.
When the cleft is slight, it may
not reach the nostril. It is
practically always to one side of
the middle, going toward one
nostril. Sometimes the harelip
is double, involving both sides.
In such cases the bone between
the two clefts may protrude. In
the development of the face, the
frontonasal process comes down
from above to form the middle
portion of the nose, upper lip.
Fig. 130. — Double harelip, showing the projecting premaxilla.
and upper jaw. It forms a bone known as the premaxilla and bears the incisor teeth.
From the sides spring the nasal and maxillary processes. These join together as one
process and grow toward the premaxilla. If this process fails to reach the premaxillary
io6
APPLIED ANATOMY.
bone, a cleft is left constituting harelip. If both processes fail to reach the premaxilla,
a double harelip is formed; the cleft may extend through the hard and the soft palate—
Frontonasal process
Medial nasal process
Nasal pit
Lateral nasal process
Lachrymonasal furrow
Maxillary process
First visceral arch
Mandibular process
First visceral furrow
Second visceral arch
Second visceral furrow
Third visceral arch
Pig. 131. — Frontal view of human foetus about four weeks old. (After His.)
the cleft palate may alone be present as seen in Fig. 139 (see page 112). In operating foi
harelip, the two sides of the cleft are freshened and sewed together, thus closing the cleft.
Fig. 132. — Paralysis of depressor labii inferioris from section of the lower filament of the facial nerve. (McDowd.>
Paralysis of the lips is due to interference with the functions of the seventh nerve.
The muscles of the face and lip are supplied by the seventh or facial nerve. This is
frequently paralyzed, for owing to its tortuous passage through the temporal bone in
the canal of Fallopius it is injured in fractures of the base of the skull and becomes
THE MOUTH AND THROAT.
107
affected from middle ear disease or neuritis. When paralyzed, the muscles of the
lips, both upper and lower, on the affected side, droop. The drooping of the lower lip
may allow the saliva to run out of the mouth. It is also impossible for the patient
to pucker his mouth, as in whistling. If the lesion of the facial nerve is inside the
skull and not in the Fallopian canal, t\\e great petrosal nerve and some of the palatal
muscles will be paralyzed, the voice will be altered and swallowing interfered with.
The depressor labii inferioris instead of receiving its nerve supply from the supra-
mandibular branch of the facial, frequently is supplied by the inframandibular branch;
pressure or injury of this branch in enlargements of or operations on the submandib-
ular lymph-nodes has produced paralysis of the muscle with a peculiar alteration of
the facial expression, well shown (see Fig. 132) by a case of Dr. McDowd (Anrials 0/
Surgery, July, 1905).
Mouth. — Surface Anatomy. — In looking into the mouth, one sees the tongue
below and the roof above, surrounded in front and on the sides by the teeth. On each
side are the inner surfaces of the cheeks and posteriorly are seen the uvula, the
Hard palate
Junction of the hard
and soft palates
Soft palate
Uvula
Anterior pillar of fauces
Posterior pillar of fauces
Tonsil
Fig. 133. — Interior of the mouth.
arches of the palate, and the pharynx. On the mucous membrane of the cheek,
opposite the second upper molar tooth, is a small papilla in the top of which opens
the duct of the parotid gland. A small probe can be inserted into it and passed
outward and backward toward the gland.
Tongue. — The tongue is covered with a mucous membrane which is modified
skin; therefore it is subject to the same diseases as the skin. It is covered with
papillae of three kinds — the filiform, ftaigiform, and circnnivallate. The filiform
are the smallest and most numerous and form a sort of ground-work in which the
others are imbedded. The fungiform are larger and fewer in number and are scattered
on the dorsum, sides, and tip of the tongue among the filiform. The circum vallate,
seven to twelve in number, form a V-shaped row at the base of the tongue. In the
eruptive fevers, particularly scarlet fever, the tongue gets very red and the papillae
become enlarged, forming what is known as the strawberry or raspberry tongue.
Just beyond the apex of the circumvallate papillae in the median line is the foramen
ccscuni. It is sometimes patulous for a short distance and is the upper extremity of
the remains of the thyroglossal duct.
io8
APPLIED ANATOMY.
On the posterior portion of the tongue behind the circunivallate papillse, on
each side of the median Hne, is a mass of adenoid tissue which forms what is known
as the lingual tonsil. It sometimes becomes hypertrophied and is then cut off with
a specially curved tonsillotome just as is done with enlarged faucial tonsils. Run-
ning from the base of the tongue to the epiglottis are three folds, called the 7nedian
and lateral glosso-epiglottic folds.
In the middle of the dorsum of the tongue is a furrow; this is caused by the
septum binding the middle of the tongue down and allowing the muscles to rise on
each side.
On turning the tip of the tongue up (Fig. 135), a fold of membrane, Xho. frcsnum,
is seen extending from the under surface to the floor of the mouth beneath. In new-
born children, this fraenum appears sometimes to be too short, hence the name tongue-
tie. In cutting it, the split end of a grooved director is placed over the fraenum
Posterior nares;
turbinated bone
Fossa of Rosenmiiller
Eustachian tube
Faucial tonsil
Foramen caecum
Lingual tonsil
Cuneiform tubercle (Wrisberg)
Comiculate tubercle
(Santorini)
Sinus pyriformis
Cricoid cartilage
Fig. 134. — View of pharynx, looking forward; posterior wall removed, showing the posterior nares, base of tongue,
and opening of the larynx.
and the tongue pushed back. This makes the freenum tense and it can readily be
snipped with the scissors. Care should be taken not to cut too deeply, or the ranine
artery may be cut and cause troublesome bleeding. Running across the floor of the
mouth, between the teeth and tongue, parallel to the alveolus, is the sublingnal ridge,
formed by the sublingual gland. This gland lies on the mylohyoid muscle beneath
and the lower jaw in front. On each side of the fraenum on the sublingual ridge is a
papilla into which the duct of the submaxillary gland, \VJiar ton s duct, opens. Open-
ing into Wharton's duct, or by a separate duct into the same papilla, is the duct of
the sublingual gland, called the duct of Rivinus or Bartholin. The superficial por-
tion of the gland opens on the sublingual ridge to the outer side of the papilla by a
number of small ducts, called the ducts of IValthcr.
Ranula is the name given to a cyst occurring in connection with the salivary
glands. Such cysts involving the parotid gland are quite rare, so that the term
THE MOUTH AND THROAT.
109
is usually restricted to those of the submaxillary and sublingual glands. The
mylohyoid muscle forms the floor of the mouth and these cysts lie on it beneath
the tongue and between the tongue and the gums (Fig. 136). If the cyst is large it
causes a protrusion or swelling beneath the jaw. The bulk of the submaxillary gland
lies on the side of the mylohyoid muscle nearest the skin; only a small portion of it
Fraenum
Sublingual ridge
Orifice of
sublingual and
submaxillary ducts
Fig. 135. — Under surface of tongue and floor of mouth.
winds around the posterior edge of the muscle. Therefore, cysts involving the sub-
stance of the gland would show in the submaxillary region of one side. If, how^ever,
the duct were obstructed (as by a calculus) it would form a cyst, which would bulge
into the mouth beneath the tongue and be called a ranula. The sublingual gland is
usually the starting point of these cysts, and it will be seen that as they enlarge they
Cyst
Fig, 136. — Sublingual cyst (ranula). (From a photograph by Dr. Ashhurst.)
push the ranine artery with the tongue backward and are only covered by the mucous
membrane. On this account there is little or no danger in operating on them.
They are either dissected out or the front wall of the cyst cut away and the interior
cauterized or packed with gauze to promote the formation of granulations. The
jaw-bone is in front of them and the mylohyoid muscle beneath. Posteriorly lies the
duct of the submaxillary gland and the ranine artery.
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Mucous cysts can occur from the mucous glands of the mouth and
There is a ghmd on the under side of the tip of the tongue, usually larger than the
others, called the anterior lingual gland or gland of Nuhn. As a rule, these mucous
cysts are small and are felt as hard rounded bodies beneath the mucous membrane.
Derrrioid cysts occur in connection with the tongue but very rarely.
Carcinoma of the tongue is a moderately frequent disease and as the tongue is
covered by modified skin, the cancer is of epithelial type. It begins on the surface
of the tongue either by a change in the epithelial covering or else in fissures or ulcers
at its edges.
The lymphatics of the tongue pass to the submaxillary nodes beneath the jaw
and thence to the deep cervical nodes along the great vessels or directly to the latter
without passing through the submaxillary nodes. If the disease exists for any length
of time, these are the nodes that become infected. They are only to be reached by
an incision in the neck.
The arteries of the tongue are the lingnal a?id its branches, the hyoid, the
dorsalis linguce, sublingical, and ranine. In removing the tongue, the lingual
Anterior lingual gland
— Ranine artery
Lingual nerve
Orifice of submaxillary
and sublingual glands
- Sublingual gland
Fig. 137.— Under surface of the tongue, mucous membrane removed.
artery on the side to be removed is sometimes ligated in the neck ; this cuts of^ the
blood supply to that side and there is practically no bleeding. There is very little
anastomosis between the vessels of the two sides of the tongue. The arteries run
lengthwise through the tongue, so that in glossitis or inflammatory swelli)ig of the
tongue, incisions should always be made longitudinally into it.
The ligation of the lingual artery will be found described in the section on the
neck. As the lingual artery passes above the hyoid bone, it gives off its flrst branch,
the hyoid. It is quite small and goes above the hyoid bone superficial to the hyo-
glossus muscle. The lingual then goes beneath the hyoglossus muscle and near the
posterior edge gives of? its second branch or dorsalis linguce.
In excision, the tongue is usually cut through on the distal side of the dorsalis
linguae artery. When this is the case, the bleeding which occurs from the branches
of the dorsalis linguae is not marked because it is not a large artery.
In order to draw the tongue out, it must be loosened posteriorly by cutting the
anterior pillars of the fauces and palatoglossus muscle, and anteriorly at the fraenum
by cutting the geniohyoglossus muscle. By drawing the tongue up, the ranine artery
THE MOUTH AND THROAT. in
is drawn out of the way and there will be only slight bleeding from small branches
of the sublingual, which comes from the main trunk at the anterior edge of the hyo-
glossus muscle. From this point forward to the tip, the lingual artery is called the
ranine. The tongue having been loosened and pulled out, Mr. Jacobson makes a
transverse cut through the mucous membrane behind the growth and then, by push-
ing the tissues aside with a blunt instrument, exposes the hngual nerve and artery
lying together beneath the mucous membrane. The artery is then tied and the
growth removed.
In order to secure any bleeding points after the tongue has been cut away, the
floor of the mouth can be raised and pushed forward by the fingers beneath the chin.
Styloglossus muscle
Hyoglossus muscle
Lingual nerve
Submaxillary
ganglion
Geniohyoglossus muscle
Ranine artery
Ranine vein
Sublingual gland
Submaxillary duct
Fig. 138. — The cheek has been split, the tongue drawn forward, and the mucous membrane removed from
its under surface, exposing the ranine artery and vein, the lingual and hypoglossal nerves, the sublingual gland,
the submaxillary ganglion, and the duct of the submaxillary gland.
This brings the stump into view and within reach. If lymphatic nodes are to be
removed, they must be sought for by an additional incision on the outside beneath
the jaw.
The roof of the mouth is formed by the hard palate and the soft palate ; the
former comprising about three-fourths and the latter one-fourth. The hard or bony
palate is composed in its anterior two-thirds of the palatal processes of the superior
maxillary bones, and in its posterior third of the palatal bones. In the median line
close to the incisor tooth, in the dried skull, is the anterior or nasopalatine foranieii.
This is subdivided into four foramina, two lateral and two anteroposterior. The
former, called the foramina of Stenson, transmit the terminal branches of the de-
scending palatine arteries; of the latter, c-A}\QA\\'\^fo7'amina of Scarpa, the anterior one
transmits the left nasopalatine nerve, and the posterior one the right nasopalatine
nerve. The soft tissues of the roof of the mouth are thicker than they appear to be,
so that when they are raised, as in operating for cleft palate, they form quite a thick
layer. Infection of the roof of the mouth when it occurs is usually by extension from
neighboring diseased teeth, abscesses being sometimes produced.
The blood supply of the roof is of importance in relation to the operation for cleft
palate {staphylorrhaphy) (Fig. 139). The blood comes anteriorly from the nasopala-
tine arteries and posteriorly from the descending palatine arteries, which come down
APPLIED ANATOMY.
through the pterygopalatine canal from the internal maxillary artery and make their
appearance on the hard palate at the posterior palatine foramen. This foramen is on
the roof of the mouth opposite the last molar tooth and 0.5 cm. to the inner side and
in front of the hamular process (Fig. 140). This hamular process can be felt just pos-
Opening of the
pharyngeal pouch
Fig. 139. — Cleft palate, showing the opening of the pharyngeal pouch on the posterior wall.
terior and to the inner side of the last molar tooth. If, in operating for cleft palate, the
tissues are loosened from the bone too close to the hamular process, this artery may be
torn near its exit from the foramen, in which case the bleeding is very free. To control
it, the canal can be plugged with a slip of gauze. In detaching the soft palate from
Posterior or descending
palatine artery
Hamular process
Tensor palati muscle
Fig. 140. — Roof of the mouth, mucous membrane removed.
the posterior edge of the hard palate, it should be remembered that this attachment
is quite strong. Not only are the muscles of the soft palate themselves attached to
the bone, but the pharyngeal aponeurosis which lies under the mucous membrane on
the posterior or upper surface of the soft palate is also attached to the bone.
Palatal Arches. — Farther back in the mouth, one sees the anterior and pos-
terior arches of the palate or pillars of the fauces with the uvula. The anterior
THE MOUTH AND THROAT.
113
pillar runs from the soft palate to the tongue and is formed by the palatoglossus
muscle. The posterior pillar runs from the soft palate downward to the sides of the
pharynx and is formed by \\\it palatopharyngeus muscle. In front of these arches and
'Pharyngeal tonsil
Fossa of Rosenmuller
Eustachian tube
Supratonsillar fossa
Pterygomandibular fold
Plica triangularis
Anterior pillar
Faucial tonsil
Posterior pillar
Epiglottis
Fig. 141. — Lateral view of the faucial tonsil and pharyngeal region
running from the roof of the mouth opposite the posterior edge of the last molar tooth
downward to the posterior edge of the alveolar process of the lower jaw is an elevation
of the mucous membrane which shows the line of junction of the hard and soft palates.
Fig. 142. — Diagram illustrating the blood supply of the faucial tonsil.
Faucial Tonsils. — Between the pillars of the fauces lie t\\it faucial tonsils.
They are limited above by the sulcus, called the supratonsillar fossa, formed by the
approximation of the pillars and a fold of mucous membrane, called the plica trian-
gularis (His), running downward from the anterior pillar and often blending with
8
114
APPLIED ANATOMY.
the tonsil. Below they extend a variable distance, necessitating depression of the
tongue with a spatula in order to make their lower limit accessible. They lie opposite
the angles of the jaw on the pharyngeal aponeurosis (p. ii6) with the superior con-
strictor muscle and bucco-pharyngeal fascia outside. A knowledge of their structure
is essential to the proper treatment of their diseases. The tonsils are oval in shape and
when normal in size project but little beyond the pillars of the fauces. They are about
2. 5 cm. long by i cm. wide and consist of about a dozen recesses or crypts formed
by the folding inward of the mucous membrane. From these crypts follicles extend.
The walls of the crypts contain adenoid tissue as well as mucous glands. The tonsil
is held together by connective tissue which is contmuous with its capsule and the
submucous fibrous tissue of the pharynx. This capsule rests on and blends more or
less completely with the fibres of the pharyngeal aponeurosis. On this account while
an enlarged tonsil can at times, usually in young children, be shelled out of its bed,
especially its upper portion, at others it is necessary to dissect or cut it out by means
of a knife, scissors, tonsillotome, or snare.
The blood-vessels supplying the tonsil are five in number. They are : the
Fig. 143. — Point of puncture for tonsillar abscess. " If an imaRinary horizontal line is drawn across the
base of the uvula, and another vertically along the anterior faucial pillar, they will intersect at a jwint overlying
the supratonsillar fossa. Just externaJ to this is utte best point for opening a quinsy." — St. Clair Thomson, M.D.,
Brii. M. J., March 25, 1905, p. 645.
ascending pharyngeal branch of the external carotid, the ascending palatine and
tonsillar branches of the facial, the tonsillar branch of the dorsalis linguce, and the
desce?iding palatine branch of the internal maxillary. Ordinarily, these branches are
small, but sometimes some of them are large and may cause troublesome hemorrhage.
In inflammation of the tonsils, these vessels of course are larger than usual.
The tonsils are subject to inflammation and tumors. Tumors are rare; they
grow inward and obstruct breathing and swallowing. Attempts are made to remove
them either by scraping, cutting, snaring, or burning them with the electrocautery
from the mouth; or they are sometimes removed through an external incision through
the neck. This latter is a very severe procedure on account of the depth of the
tonsil and the number of important structures which overlie it.
Tonsillitis or quinsy is an inflammation of the tonsils which leads to the for-
mation of an abscess. In mild cases the crypts or lacunae are affected, forming a
follicular or lacunar tonsillitis. In this form epithelium and inflammatory matter are
poured into the follicles and distend them, often showing as white plugs protruding
from the mouth of the crypt. In its treatment, in addition to local applications,
surgeons enlarge the openings into the crypts with a small knife and scoop the con-
tents out with a sharp spoon. In severe cases, the whole substance of the tonsil
and even the connective tissue around it are involved in the inflammation, forming
a parenchyftiatous tonsillitis. It frequently proceeds to the formation of pus. When
this forms in the substance of the tonsil it may break into a follicle and discharge into
the throat. An abscess of the tonsil may become quite large, bulging toward the
THE MOUTH AND THROAT.
IIS
median line, and on breaking may cause suffocation by passage of the pus into the
larynx. If, as is usually the case, the pus involves the tissue around the tonsil, form-
ing a peritonsillar abscess, it pushes upward behind the anterior pillar into the supra-
tonsillar fossa and bulges forward, stretching the pillar over it. To evacuate this pus
an incision should be made directly anteroposteriorly, with the flat side of the blade
parallel with the edge of the pillar, or a slender pair of haemostatic forceps may be used.
A centimetre and a quarter (}^ in.) is deep enough usually to plunge the knife; the
point should not be pointed outwardly but directly backward. The incision should
be just above the upper and lateral edge of the anterior pillar (Fig. 143). Some
small vessels may bleed, but this will either stop spontaneously or may be controlled
by packing. The ascending pharyngeal artery lies beneath the tonsil. The tonsil
lies on the pharyngeal aponeurosis and the superior constrictor muscle, while the as-
Anterior pillar
Tonsil
Posterior pillar
Styloglossus
Stylopharyngeus
Stylohyoid
Internal carotid artery
Internal jugular vein
Digastric
Stemomastoid
Longus colli
Rectus capitis anticus major
Pig. 144. — Transverse frozen section passing through the faucial tonsil and showing its relation to the internal
carotid artery.
cending pharyngeal artery and external carotid lie outside of them, so that both
structures would have to be cut before the vessels would be wounded. The internal
carotid artery lies still deeper (2 to 2.5 cm.) behind and external to the tonsil. It is
usually well out of harm's way unless dilated (see page 123, Fig. 156), but the pus may
burrow into it and cause fatal hemorrhage. Sometimes pus may burrow through the
constrictor muscle and enter the tissues of the neck. In severe tonsillitis the deep
lymphatics beneath the angle of the jaw become enlarged.
Hypertrophy of the tonsils is common and is treated by removing them entirely or
level with the palatal arches. An instrument called the tonsillotome is used, or it
is done with a knife or scissors or snare. Fatal bleeding has followed this oper-
ation. The blood supply to the tonsil has already been given. If the bleeding is so
free as to threaten the life of a patient, the external carotid artery should be ligated
as all the vessels supplying the tonsil are derived from it.
ii6
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Enucleation is performed by grasping the tonsil with toothed forceps, drawing it
out, and cutting it loose with knife, scissors, or snare from its attachments to the pil-
lars and aponeurosis beneath. Sometimes after loosening its attachments above it is
torn loose or shelled out, from above downward, by the finger or a blunt instrument.
On account of the attachment of the capsule to the pharyngeal aponeurosis the tonsil
cannot always readily be ' ' shelled out ' ' and portions may remain and require to be
removed with the forceps and scissors or tonsillar punch. The incision through the
mucous membrane should begin posterior to the free edge of the plica triangularis
— not anterior. The tonsil grows more adherent to the deep structures as the child
increases in age. It is a disagreeable and bloody procedure and is often done under
a general anaesthetic.
Retropharyngeal abscess may arise from any one of three causes, — cervical
caries, suppuration of lymphatic nodes, or extension of pus from the middle ear
through the canal for the tensor tympani muscle. The pharyngeal aponeurosis lies
under the mucous membrane and between it and the constrictor muscle. It is thick
above and fades away below. It fills up the gap above between the superior constric-
tor and the base of the skull and is attached to the pharyngeal spine on the under surface
of the basilar process. It is lined with the mucous membrane and covered by the
constrictor muscles. Over all is the buccophary7igcaI fascia, a thin layer continu-
ous forward over the buccinator muscle and separated from the prevertebral fascia
Fig. 145. — Cervical caries with retropharyngeal abscess opening just posterior to the stemomastoid muscle.
by very loose connective tissue. The space between these two layers of fascia
is known as the retropharyiigeal space and pus 'can follow it downward behind the
pharynx and oesophagus into the posterior mediastinum. Retropharyngeal abscesses
occur external to the pharyngeal aponeurosis and bulge into the throat. On account
of the looseness of this aponeurosis and its lack of firm attachments, these abscesses
may not bulge forward as a distinct circumscribed swelling, as abscesses do elsewhere,
but are more apt to gravitate downward and hang in a loose bag-like manner opposite
the base of the tongue. They are not easily felt, being so soft, and to see them prop-
erly the tongue should be held down with a tongue depressor. In looking for their
origin, a careful examination of the spine should be made to detect the possible
existence of spinal caries or Pott 's disease, and the ear should be examined for suppur-
ative otitis media. The lymph-nodes, which often give rise to these abscesses, espe-
cially in children under two years of age, are one or two lying on the anterior surface
of the vertebral column between it and the pharyngeal aponeurosis and constrictor
muscles. In evacuating these abscesses the safest way is to place the child on its
back with the head hanging; the pus then gravitates toward the roof of the pharynx.
The tongue is held out of the way with a tongue depressor and the abscess can be
well seen and incised. Raising the body causes the pus to flow from the mouth.
THE MOUTH AND THROAT.
117
The pus may not only point in the mouth but can work its way laterally. In
such a case it may pass out behind the sheath of the great vessels and make its
appearance, as I have seen it, behind the posterior edge of the sternomastoid muscle.
If a tumor is present in this situation, the pus may be evacuated by an incision at
this point and the abscess drained there instead of making an opening through the
pharynx. This, of course, tends to guard against infection from the mouth.
Lingual Nerve. — The lingual nerve or gustatory branch of the fifth can be
readily exposed in the mouth. On looking into the mouth, a fold can be seen going
up and back just behind the last molar tooth. This is formed by ihe pteryg07na7tdib-
ular ligament, running from the tip of the internal pterygoid plate to the posterior
extremity of the mylohyoid ridge and joining the buccinator with the superior con-
Mandibular (inferior
dental) nerve
Mandibular (inferior
dental) artery
Mandibular spine
(Spix)
Lingual nerve
Submaxillary gland
Submaxillary duct
Sublingual gland
Fig. 146. — View of mandibular and lingual nerves from within.
strictor muscles. An incision made just internal to this fold, below and behind the
last molar tooth, will lead one down to the lingual nerve close to the bone.
The mandibular nerve is also reached through an incision running from the
last upper to the last lower molar tooth. The finger is introduced and the spine of
Spix felt at the inferior dental foramen. The nerve and artery enter the mandible at
this point, the artery being below and posterior. The operation of Paravicini on this
nerve through the mouth is unsatisfactory on account of the lack of proper exposure.
It is better to attack the nerve from the outside as detailed on page 60.
PHARYNX.
The pharynx is the common air and food tract that lies behind the nose, mouth,
and larynx. It extends from the base of the skull above to the oesophagus below.
Its lower end is at the cricoid cartilage, which is opposite the sixth cervical vertebra.
In passing an instrument directly backward through the nose, one strikes the base of
the skull or interval between the basilar process and the atlas. In looking into the
throat through the mouth, one is level with the body of the second vertebra. If, by
means of a hook, the soft palate is raised or pushed aside and the head tilted slightly
backward one sees the anterior tubercle of the atlas. The rounded projection can
ii8
APPLIED ANATOMY.
readily be felt. The pharynx has seven openings into it, viz. : the two posterior nares,
the two Eustachian tubes, the mouth, the larynx, and the cesophagus.
Posterior Nares or Choanse. — These can readily be seen by means of the rhino-
scopic mirror. They are separated by the posterior edge of the bony septum, the
vomer bone. They are 2.5 cm. (i in.) long and 1.25 cm. wide, hence are of sufifi-
cient size to allow a well lubricated little finger to pass into them from the anterior
nares. The tip of an index linger can be inserted through the mouth below, hence
the entire length of the lower meatus of the nose and upper surface of the soft palate
can be palpated.
Projecting from each lateral wall toward the septum are the rounded posterior
ends of the middle and inferior turbinated bones. Sometimes, high up, the posterior
end of the superior turbinate can be seen. The posterior end of the inferior turbi-
nate is frequently enlarged by a swelling of its membrane, forming a posterior hirbi-
Septum
Pharyngeal tonsil
Eustachian tube
Fossa of Rosenmuller
— First cervical vertebra
Lingual tonsil
Anterior pillar ' ' "^"' ' -^^^^^ ^ —Uvula
_ Second cervical vertebra
Faucial tonsil-
Posterior pillar-
Third cervical vertebra
Fourth cervical vertebra
Cuneiform tubercle
(Wrisberg)
Fifth cervical vertebra
Arytenoid cartilage
Sixth cervical vertebra
(Esophagus
Cricoid cartilage
Seventh cervical vertebra
Epiglottis
Hyoid bone
False vocal cord
Thyroid cartilage.
Ventricle
True vocal cord.
Cricoid cartilage
Trachea
Fig. 147. — Lateral view of pharynx and larynx.
nate hypertrophy. Not only does the mucous membrane of the inferior turbinate
bones become enlarged, but that on the septum likewise. This constitutes hypertrophy
or thickeniyig of the septum. A polypus may project from the nasal cavities back-
ward into the throat. I removed a very large one by pushing it with the finger into
the pharynx and then dragging it out of the mouth.
The posterior nares are quite a distance anterior to the edge of the soft palate,
hence it is extremely difificult to make appHcations by way of the mouth. A much
easier way is to make them through a tube introduced into the nose, or even, as
when the electrocautery is used, without a protecting tube.
Eustachian Tube. — On each side, at a point about opposite the inferior turbi-
nals, are the orifices of the Eustachian tubes with \\\q. fossa of Rosenmiiller above.
The Eustachian tube runs from the upper portion of die pharynx to the middle
ear, opening just behind the tympanic membrane, on the anterior wall. It is about
THE MOUT]
119
4 cm. long, 2.5 cm. being cartilaginous (pharyngeal portion) and 1.5 cm. being
bony. At the junction of the bony and cartilaginous portions the lumen is slightly
diminished, forming the isthmus. The tube runs upward, backward, and outward.
The mucous membrane of the throat is continuous with that lining the tube and
tympanum, therefore inflammation of the pharynx travels up the tube and affects the
middle ear. This is the manner in which earache or inflammation and suppuration
Fig. 148 — Rhmoscopic mirror in position. A view
can be obtained of the vault of the pharynx and poste-
ror nares.
Fig. 149- — Palpation of the posterior nares and phar-
yngeal tonsil.
of the middle ear is produced. This also explains why impairment of hearing so
often accompanies or follows sore throat. When the tube is in a healthy condition,
the air finds free access to the ear, in swallowing, sneezing, etc. This is readily
demonstrated by closing the nostrils and swallowing, when the pressure of air out-
side the ear drum will be distinctly felt. - When inflammation affects the lining mem-
'Vault of pharynx
^/Superior turbinate
Septum
Middle turbinate
Mouth of Eustachian tube
Inferior turbinate
Fig. ISO. — View of posterior nares in the pharyngeal mirror.
brane it swells and blocks up the tube and prevents the free access of air to the ear.
If the swelling is not too great, air can be forced from the throat to the ear by three
different means. The distention of the middle ear by air is called inflating it. The
method of Valsalva consists in holding the nostrils and mouth shut and blowing.
If the air enters the middle ear, the tympanic membranes will be felt to bulge
outward. The method of Politzer is to have the patient hold a small quantity of
I20
APPLIED ANATOMY.
water in the mouth. The nozzle of a rubber bag^ is introduced into one nostril,
closing both nostrils with the fingers and thumb of the unengaged hand. On telling
the patient to swallow, the bag is compressed and the air enters the Eustachian tube.
As the patient swallows, the tensor palati muscle opens the mouth of the tube and
as the bag is compressed the air rushes up the tube. Sometimes the vapors of ether,
chloroform, etc., are used. The third method is by the Eustachian catheter.
The Eustachian catheter is a small, hard rubber or silver tube, slightly bent
at the extremity and long enough to reach from the anterior nares in front to the
posterior wall of the pharynx. The end of the catheter having been inserted into
iuperior turbinate
Sphenoidal sinus
Middle turbinate
Inferior turbinate
Pharyngeal tonsil
Fossa of Rosenmiiller
Eustachian lube
Atlas
Odontoid process
of axis
Body of axis
Third cervical vertebra
Fig. isi. — Anteroposterior frozen section, showing a lateral view of the phar>'nx and the relation of the various
neighboring structures.
the mouth of the Eustachian tube, air is blown in with the Politzer air-bag. By
means of a rubber tube going from the patient's ear to the surgeon's ear, the air can
be heard entering the middle ear.
Introducing the Eustachian Catheter. — In introducing the Eustachian catheter,
the tip of the nose is to be tilted upward until the anterior nares are raised to the
level of the floor of the nose. The tip of the catheter is then passed first upward
(Fig. 152), then along the floor until it is felt to pass beyond the soft palate and strike
the posterior wall of the pharynx (Fig. 153). It is usually advised to enter the
THE MOUTH AND THROAT.
121
catheter in a vertical position and then change to a horizontal one as soon as the beak
passes over the elevation which marks the separation of the vestibule of the nose from
the interior. If this method is used, care should be taken to keep the tip of the catheter
on the floor of the nose and not pass it up in the region of the middle turbinate bone.
There are three ways of introducing the beak of the catheter into the mouth of
the tube after it is felt touching the posterior pharyngeal wall. The first is to with-
draw the beak about 2 cm. away from the
wall of the pharynx and then turn it upward
and outward, pushing it a trifle onward.
The second way is to turn the beak directly
outward and draw it forward, when it can
be felt passing over the cartilaginous open-
ing of the tube. The third way is to turn
the beak inward and draw it forward until
it catches behind the septum. This is op-
posite the anterior edge of the mouth of
the tube. The beak is then rotated down-
ward and then upward and outward into
the tube.
Liquids and sprays are sometimes in-
jected into the ear through the catheter;
bougies are also passed into the tube in the
same manner as the catheter or, if flexible
bougies are used, they are passed through
the catheter. As the tip of the bougie
passes into the bony portion of the canal,
the constriction of the isthmus can be felt
2.5 cm. up from its mouth. The bougie
should not be passed farther than 3 cm.
into the tube, otherwise, if the tympanum is entered, the ossicles are apt to be injured.
Openings of the Mouth, Larynx, and CEsophagus.^The opening of the
mouth into the pharynx is sometimes narrowed from cicatricial contractions, resulting
Introducing the Eustachian catheter, first
step.
Fig. 153.-
-Introducing the Eustachian catheter,
second step.
Fig. 154. — Introducing the Eustachian catheter,
third step.
from ulcerative processes due to syphilis, caustics, etc. There is rarely obstruction
downward, so that these patients can usually swallow, but the cicatrices contract the
opening upward, and the soft palate, its arches, and the walls of the pharynx may be
all bound together in one cicatricial mass, preventing, as I have seen, all respiration
through the nose. This condition is an exceedingly difficult one to remedy, as the
contraction tends to recur even after the most radical operations.
The opening into the larynx is more accessible than is often supposed. On
drawing the tongue well forward, the tip of the epiglottis can be seen. If a long
132
APPLIED ANATOMY.
straight tongue depressor is used, Kirstein has shown that in many patients the
arytenoid cartilages and even a portion of the vocal cords can be seen. The open-
ing into the larynx can readily be felt by a finger introduced into the mouth. In cases
of suffocation from a foreign body, as a piece of meat, it is usually lodged at this
point, part of the foreign body being in the larynx and part in the pharynx. It can
readily be dislodged by the finger, as I have done in impaction of meat, the result of
vomiting in ether narcosis. The forefinger should be thrust its full length into the
mouth and throat and swept from side to side. The obstructing body can usually
be brushed aside and brought up in front of the finger into the mouth.
The opening of the esophagus is in a line with the long axis of the pharynx ; it
is at its lower end. The opening of the larynx, on the contrary, is more on its
anterior wall. It is for this reason that when an oesophageal tube is introduced, either
through the mouth or through the nose, it goes down into the oesophagus and does
not enter the larynx. The oesophagus is narrowest at this point.
The pharyngeal tonsil stretches across the posterior wall and roof of the
pharynx from the opening of one Eustachian tube to that of the other. It is also
'Pharyngeal tonsi'
Fossa of Rosenmiiller
Eustachian tube
Supratonsillar fossa
Pterygomandibular fold
Plica triangularis
Anterior pillar
Faucial tonsil
Posterior pillar
Epiglottis
Fig. 15 s. — Lateral view of the pharyngeal region.
known as LuschkcC s tonsil. It is composed of lymphoid tissue, and when enlarged
constitutes the disease known as adenoids. It is not true secreting gland tissue,
though it contains some mucous glands. It hangs from the vault of the pharynx in a
more or less lobulated mass and when large, in children, obstructs nasal respira-
tion. Mouth-breathing results, the child is apt to snore and make queer sounds
when sleeping, and the habit of keeping the mouth open causes a peculiar expres-
sion of the face almost pathognomonic of the affection. The blood supply at times
is abundant. When adenoids are present, their removal is usually undertaken.
This is done by introducing an instrument either through the nose or through the
mouth and scraping them off. A curette is used for this purpose. That known as
'Gottstein's consists of an oval-shaped ring set at right angles to a long shaft. It is
introduced through the mouth and up behind the soft palate. It is then pushed
against the vault of the pharynx and posterior wall and drawn downward cutting
and scraping the adenoid tissue away. A much smaller ring curette set on a long,
delicate, but stiff handle may be used through the nose for the same purpose. In using
the latter instrument, it is common to use an anaesthetic and operate with the head
in a hanging position. Free bleeding may occur from this operation. To control it,
injections of ice water or a strong alum solution may be tried or gauze may be
packed behind the soft palate or pushed in from the anterior nares. A folded pad of
THE MOUTH AND THROAT.
123
gauze may be attached to the thread of a Bellocq cannula and the pad introduced
as is done in plugging the posterior nares. A curved forceps with cutting blades
is also used to remove this growth.
Fossa of Rosenmiiller. — This is the depression abo\e and behind the open-
ings of the Eustachian tubes. The walls of the pharynx are weakest at this point
owing to the superior constrictor muscle not coming so high up. Hernia of the
mucous membrane sometimes occurs here. When the beak of the Eustachian cath-
eter fails to enter the mouth of the tube it usually enters this fossa.
The internal carotid artery runs up the neck outside of the pharynx and
opposite the space between the posterior arches of the palate and the posterior wall
of the pharynx. It is from i to 2 cm. behind and to the outer side of the tonsils.
It is separated from the cavity of the throat by its own proper sheath, by the thin
buccopharyngeal fascia covering the constrictor muscles, by the constrictor muscles,
the pharyngeal aponeurosis, and the mucous membrane. As the tonsils lie between
the pillars of the fauces, in opening a tonsillar abscess the knife is not carried either
^0^'
Fig. 156.— Transverse dissection of the neck. The posterior wall of the pharynx has been removed and the vessels
exposed. The internal carotids are seen to be abnormally tortuous, with a tendency to bulge into the pharynx.
behind or through the posterior pillar of the fauces. It is practically impossible to
wound a normal internal carotid artery. In old people the internal carotid sometimes
becomes lengthened and tortuous in the same manner as do the temporal arteries. In
such cases the artery may form a pulsating swelling behind and projecting farther
inward than the edge of the posterior pillar. This I have once seen. It may be
mistaken for a true aneurism, as it pulsates and the pulsation is readily stopped by
pressure on the common carotid on the outside of the neck. If, however, the possi-
Ijility of this condition is borne in mind, the diagnosis can readily be made. The
pulsating swelling can readily be seen and felt with the finger just behind the posterior
pillar of the fauces.
The mucous membrane of the nasopharynx is ciliated columnar; that of the
lower portion is squamous. It contains racemose mucous glands and follicles or crypts
surrounded by lymphoid tissue. It is well supplied with blood-vessels. It is fre-
quently affected by inflammation or pharyngitis. When the follicles are markedly
involved they can be seen studded over the posterior wall of the pharynx. This
constitutes a follicular pharyngitis. Not infrequently some ulceration may be
present, forming an idceraiive pharyngitis. Infection attacks it, as in diphtheritic
pharyngitis. Should pus or pharyngeal abscess form around the pharynx, arising
from an infection from the oral cavity, the pus occupies the retropharyngeal space
124
APPLIED ANATOMY.
between the buccopharyngeal fascia and prevertebral fascia. Its spread upward is
limited by the skull; laterally it is limited by the sheath of the carotid vessels; hence
it passes downward behind the oesophagus and may enter the posterior mediastinum.
Foreign bodies may become lodged at the lower end of the pharynx and at the
beginning of the oesophagus. As this is about 15 cm. (6 in.) from the teeth, it is
beyond the reach of the finger. Luckily, this is below the opening of the larynx and
the need for immediate relief is not so urgent.
THE LARYNX.
The larynx extends from the top of the epiglottis to the lower edge of the
cricoid cartilage. It is composed of the three large cartilages — epiglottis, thvroid,
and cricoid — and three pairs of small ones — the arytefioids, the cornicidcc laryngis
or cartilages of Santoriui, and the cuneiform or cartilages of Wrisberg.
The position of the larynx in relation to the spine varies according to age. In
the infant it lies opposite the second, third, and fourth cervical vertebrae; in the adult
Epiglottis
Greater horn of hyoid bone
Lesser horn
Body of hyoid bone
Superior comu
Opening for superior laryngeal
nerve
Thyrohyoid membrane
— ^Thyroid cartilage
Inferior comu
Cricothyroid membrane
Cricoid cartilage
Trachea
Fig. 157. — Anterior view of hyoid bone and larynx.
it lies opposite the fourth, fifth, and sixth. The larynx being loosely attached \'aries
in relation to the vertebrae according to the position of the head, so that the anterior
portion of the cricoid cartilage may be opposite the seventh cervical vertebra in some
positions.
Epiglottis. — Usually the tip of the epiglottis lies lower than the dorsum of the
tongue, so that looking into the mouth it is not seen; it may, however, be brought
into view by depressing the base of the tongue and drawing it forward with a long
tongue depressor. As the epiglottis rises above the level of the hyoid bone, a cut-
throat wound passing above that bone may cut its tip entirely off. In viewing the
epiglottis from above downward it is seen to project somewhat backward in its middle.
This is visible in the laryngoscopic mirror and is called the cushion of the epiglottis.
Running forward fiom the epiglottis to the base and the sides of the tongue are
three folds of mucous membrane, one median and two lateral, called the glosso-
epiglottic folds. These form four fossae; those on each side of the median line are
called the vallecidce. In these fossae foreign bodies, such as fish-bones, etc., may
become lodged. They are readily seen by the laryngoscopic mirror.
THE MOUTH AND THROAT. 125
The thyrohyoid membrane passes between the hyoid bone above and the
thyroid cartilage below ; crossing it is the hyoid branch of the superior thyroid artery.
It is a quite small vessel, of little clinical importance, and ordinarily does not reach
the median line.
The posterior edge of this membrane, running from the superior cornu of the
thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone, is called the thyrohyoid ligament. This liga-
ment has a small cartilaginous nodule in it, the cartilago triticea. Piercing the
membrane on its side are the internal branches of the superior laryngeal nerve
and the superior laryngeal vessels. The external branch of the superior laryngeal
nerve supplies the cricothyroid muscle, while the internal is the ner\e of sensation
of the larynx.
Pharyngotoniy. — Sometimes, in order to remove foreign bodies in the larynx or
oesophagus, an opening is made^;hrough the membrane between the hyoid bone and
thyroid cartilage.
Thyroid Cartilage. — This is the largest cartilage of the larynx and contains
the vocal cords. They lie immediately behind or just below the most prominent
^--Lesser cornu
Epiglottis^ i: - ' ^'^
Greater cornu
Body of hyoid bone^ ^^ a»r»4_*r»^JHP^^^^t#^C*'"'''^80 triticea
Thyrohyoid membrane- , ^^^ ^^^
'~~***i^l^^^t' I .„Jt^ jf — 'Supenot cornu
^ I
Thyroid cartilage
^^ -Inferior cornu
Cricothyroid membrane-
Cricoid cartilage
Fig. 158. — Side view of hyoid bone and larynx.
portion of its anterior edge, commonly called "Adam's apple." Since the cartilage
is large and strong and as age advances tends to calcify, cut-throat wounds, while
opening the cavity within, do not often pass entirely through the cartilage. This
cartilage may be fractured by violence. This is often fatal on account of the blood
flowing into the trachea and lungs below or on account of oedema of the lining mucous
membrane causing obstruction of the breathing. Thyrotomy or division of the
thyroid cartilage in the median line is sometimes done to remove foreign bodies or
new growths. In these cases the voice will be likely to be impaired by the interference
with the vocal cords.
Cricothyroid Membrane. — The space between the cricoid and thyroid carti-
lages is small. This is due to the increase in width of the cricoid as it proceeds back-
ward. The space is readily felt on the living subject between the thyroid" above and
the cricoid beneath ; the membrane passes between them. It is crossed by a small
branch of the superior thyroid artery, the cricothyroid. It is not large enough to cause
serious trouble. Introducing a tube through this membrane constitutes the operation
126
APPLIED ANATOMY.
of laryngotorny. This operation is but seldom performed. The space is too small
in many cases, the opening is not made sufficiently low and it is too close to the
vocal cords. It is an operation of emergency. It is much easier to make a
quick opening at this point than it is in the trachea below, as it is more superficial
and is held steady in place by the cartilage above and below it. Even in adults the
space is sometimes too small to introduce a tube without force and the operation
should never be done below the age of thirteen. On account of the membrane being
nearer the surface than is the trachea, a shorter tube should be used. Before intro-
ducing the tube, care must be taken that the mucous membrane has been thoroughly
divided, as otherwise the tube will push it before it and slip between the mucous
membrane and the cartilage and, therefore, not enter the cavity of the larnyx.
Cricoid Cartilage. — This is much larger posteriorly than anteriorly and fills
the space between the posterior edges of the thyroid cartilage. Its outside diameter
is larger than that of the trachea, hence it can readily be felt and forms one of the
most important landmarks on the front of the neck. It is about opposite the sixth
Fig. 159. — Examining the interior of the larynx by means of the laryngoscopic mirror.
cervical vertebra. It is thick and strong and forms a complete circle, being unhke
the tracheal rings in this respect. It is rare that it is divided in operations.
For the parts concerned in tracheotomy see the section on the neck.
Laryngoscopy. — The interior of the larynx is examined by means' of a small
mirror, i to 3 cm. in diameter, introduced through the mouth and placed just below
the uvula at an angle of a little more than 45 degrees. The opening of the larynx is
not directly beneath the mirror but slightly anterior. The base of the tongue and
lingual tonsils, the glosso-epiglottic folds and pouches, and the epiglottis can be seen
in front. Posteriorly one sees the two arytenoid cartilages capped with the cartilages
of Santorini. Between the arytenoids is the commissiire or interarytenoid space.
To the front and outer side of the tip of the arytenoid cartilages is the cartilage of
Wrisberg, and running from it forward are the aryepiglottic folds. To the outer
side of the aryepiglottic fold is the depression called the sinus pyr if ormis. It is here
that congenital cervical fistulae sometimes open. Near the middle are seen the two,
white, true vocal cords., and to the outer edge of these are seen the false vocal
cords. Between these two is the opening of the ventricle of the larynx. The rings
of the trachea can readily be seen and not infrequently even the point of bifurcation
of the trachea opposite about the second rib.
THE NECK.
127
Diseases of the Larynx. — Syphilis affects the larynx and produces ulcers.
These may involve almost any portion but usually they are anterior, involving the
epiglottis. They are often associated with syphilitic manifestations in the mouth.
Tuberculosis affects the posterior portion of the larynx and the bulb-like swellings of
the arytenoids are almost pathognomonic. Ulcers when they occur are most marked
posteriorly. This affection is associated with a blanching of the mucous membrane
of the mouth and the presence of a white frothy mucus, which will lead the laryn-
gologist to suspect the existence of the disease before a view of the larynx is obtained.
Laryngitis of a simple nature produces a reddening of the cords and a swelling
of the membrane generally.
In cedema of the larynx, the serous effusion puffs up the loose mucous membrane,
particularly of the aryepiglottic folds and epiglottis.
Tumors both benign and malignant affect the larynx and can at times be seen to
arise from the vocal cords.
Paralysis of the muscles is most frequent from interference with the recurrent
Epiglottis
Plica ventricularis
(false vocal cord)
Ventriculus laryngis
Plica vocalis (true vocal cord)
Tuberculum cuneiformi
(Wrisberg)
Tuberculum corniculatum
(Santorini)
Fig. 160. — View of the larynx as seen-in the laryngeal mirror.
laryngeal nerve. This nerve supplies the abductor muscles and when paralyzed the
cords tend to fall together. The nerve may be injured in operations on the neck or
involved in cancer of the thyroid gland, or oesophagus, or in aneurisms. If one cord
is paralyzed, the voice is lost temporarily, and when it returns, it is changed in char-
acter. Paralysis of both nerves does not cause entire loss of voice because the cords fall to-
gether, but may induce suffocative symptoms ending in death. Paralysis of the left vocal
cord is believed by Fetterolf and Norris to be due to compression of the left recurrent
laryngeal nerve between the left pulmonary artery and the aorta or the aortic ligament.
THE NECK.
The neck supports the head. It is a pedestal for the head, and is long in pro-
portion to its thickness; the apparent object of this being to elevate the head and
allow it to be moved freely in different directions. The animal is thus better enabled
to discover its enemies and to guard itself against them.
The various structures of the neck are mosdy long, running between the head
above and the trunk below. This is the case with the spine, the air- and food-pas-
sages, the blood-vessels, nerves, and even some muscles, as the sternomastoid and
trapezius. The shorter structures are either the component parts of the longer
ones, as the vertebrae of the spine and the rings of the trachea, or are separate
organs like the larynx, thyroid, and submaxillary glands. The presence of these
latter organs is not dependent on the length of the neck as is that of the others. In
the frog, which practically has no neck, the head being placed direcdy on the trunk,
there sdll exist both larynx and thyroid gland. In the singing birds the vocal
organ or syrinx is placed in the chest at the bifurcation of the frachea. As regards
the cervical spine, blood-vessels, air- and food-passages, and muscles, these evidently
are proportionate to the length of the neck. In the batrachians or frogs there is but
a single cervical vertebra ; in the swan there are twenty-five cervical vertebra, and in
the fishes none. In man of course the number of cervical vertebrae remains the same.
128 APPLIED ANATOMY.
seven, no matter what the length of the neck. From a consideration of these facts
we may perhaps state that the neck itself is a subsidiary organ, not of any great im-
portance in itself, but rather in relation to some other portion of the body — that
portion being the head. It is the stafi which supports the head by means of the
cervical spine and muscles.
The neck contains the great currents of blood which pass to and fro between
the head and trunk. It carries the air- and food -passages, which run from the mouth
above to the lungs and stomach below, and incidentally it contains the larynx, the
thyroid and submaxillary glands, and some lymphatic nodes. The cerebrospinal
nerves of all the body below the head pass either into the neck or through it to the
parts beyond. From these facts it becomes evident that, while the neck in itself may
be a subsidiary organ, for our purposes it is of the greatest importance, because
interference with its structure either by disease or injury — operative or accidental —
may destroy the brain above, by interfering with its nourishment, or the body below,
by interfering with the vital functions of respiration and nutrition, or may paralyze it
by destroying the conductivity of its nerves. The construction of the neck then
should be studied with a view of explaining or understanding the diseases and injuries
of its various parts and the operations performed for their relief.
Injuries and Diseases of the Neck. — Owing to its exposed position the
neck is frequently injured by sprains, contusions, cuts, and punctured, gunshot, and
all sorts of wounds. The cervical spine may become dislocated or fractured and is
frequently the seat of caries. The muscles become contracted, producing torticollis
or wry-neck. They may sometimes be ruptured, as in childbirth.
The arteries are affected with aneurism, necessitating their ligation. They are
also divided in cut-throat cases and wounds. The veins are of importance in almost
every operation; bleeding from them is dangerous and may be difficult to control.
The lymphatic 7iodes are more numerous than elsewhere in the body. Frequently
they are the seat of tuberculous or sarcomatous enlargement, necessitating their re-
moval. They may break down and produce wide-spreading and dangerous abscesses,
which are guided in their course by the fascias ; hence a knowledge of the construc-
tion of the deep fascias of the neck enables us to understand them.
The submaxillary and thyroid glands are the seat of enlargement and foreign
growths requiring the performance of extensive operations for their extirpation.
Enlargement of the thyroid gland constitutes the disease known as goitre. It is also
involved in exophthalmic goitre or Graves' s or Basedozv' s disease.
The ski7i and subcutaneous tisstie become the seat of inflammation and cellulitis.
In cases of wounds this cellular inflammation may involve the structures beneath the
deep fascia; this occurs in cut-throat and gunshot wounds.
The neck is also liable to other affections, such as cysts due to embryological
defects. Large cysts are formed called hygromas, also sinuses or fistulae, the con-
ge^iital fistulcE of the neck. The larynx may be the seat of malignant disease; hence
its removal is undertaken. The operations of tracheotomy , laryngotomy, and cesoph-
agotomy are also at times necessary. In order to understand these various affec-
tions and procedures one must be familiar with the construction of the neck, what
composes it, where the various structures lie and their relation to one another. In
order to utilize this knowledge we must be able to recognize and identify the
position of various structures before the skin is incised, for it is rarely that a case
presents itself with a wound that permits a view of the deeper structures; hence the
importance of a thorough knowledge of its surface and the structures capable of
being recognized through the skin.
SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE NECK.
For convenience of study we may consider the structures in the median line,
and those regions anterior and those posterior to the sternomastoid muscle, between
it and the trapezius. The posterior portion of the neck will be described in the
section devoted to the back.
These regions or triangles are simply arbitrary divisions, made for conveni-
ence of description. They are sometimes spoken of in reference to the location
I
THE NECK.
129
of growths, operative incisions, etc. They comprise the space between the trapezius
muscle posteriorly, the median line anteriorly, the clavicle below, and the lower jaw
above.
Viewed from in front, the median portion of the neck may be divided into three
regions, the submental, laryngeal, and tracheal.
The submental region extends from the chin to the lower border of the body
of the hyoid bone ; it is limited laterally by the anterior belly of the digastric mus-
cle on each side. Ranula and other sublingual tumors cause a bulging in this region
and it is frequently occupied by an enlarged lymphatic node, w^hich at times sup-
purates and forms an abscess. The floor of the space is formed by the mylohyoid
muscle and there are no dangerous structures, so that no hesitancy need be had in
incising abscesses in this locality nor in removing diseased lymph-nodes. In carci-
noma involving the lower lip near the median line these nodes may be affected and
Anterior belly of digastno
Submaxillary gland
Hyoid bone
Thyrohyoid membrane
Thyroid cartilage
Cricothyroid membrane
Cricoid cartilage
Stemomastoid muscle
-Thyroid gland
Fig. i6i. — Anterior surface of the neck.
their involvement in such cases should always be looked for. The submaxillary
lymphatic nodes farther outward may also be implicated. The tip of the epiglottis
projects above the hyoid bone in this region.
The laryngeal region extends from the under surface of the hyoid bone to the
lower edge of the cricoid cartilage. Laterally it is limited to the space occupied by
the larynx. The cricoid cartilage is included in this region as a part of the larynx.
The vocal cords are just beneath the most prominent part of the thyroid cartilage.
The tracheal region extends from the lower edge of the cricoid cartilage to
the top of the sternum. Just above the sternum, between the sternal origins of the
stemomastoid muscles, is the suprasternal notch or, as it is called by the Germans,
the Juguhim. Laterally the region is limited by the sides of the trachea.
There are seven or eight rings of the trachea between the cricoid cartilage and
the top of the sternum. It is covered partly by the sternohyoid and sternothyroid
muscles. The former in the lower half of their course pass outv.ard, leaving a space
in which the sternothyroid muscles are seen. The sternohyoid muscle arises from
9
I30
APPLIED ANATOMY.
the upper and outer portion of the manubrium, the sternoclavicular ligament, and the
inner end of the clavicle. The origin of the sternothyroid is wider than that of the
sternohyoid and is lower down. It arises from the first piece of the sternum near the
median line, below the sternohyoid, and from the cartilage of the first rib. The first
ring of the trachea is not covered by any important structure. The second, third,
and fourth rings are covered by the isthmus of the thyroid gland; from here down
the inferior thyroid veins may lie on the trachea for at least part of their course. The
anterior jugular vein may exist either as a single vein in the median line or to one
side of it, or one may pass downward on each side of the median line with a communi-
cating branch from one to the other crossing the median line in the suprasternal notch.
The cricothyroid artery, a small branch of the superior thyroid, may cross the crico-
thyroid membrane, but it is usually too small to cause any troublesome bleeding.
Structures to be Felt in the Median Line. — On passing the finger down-
ward from the symphysis it sinks into a hollow, on crossing which the hyoid bone is
Anterior belly of digastric
Sternohyoid
Anterior belly of
omohyoid
Submaxillary triangle
Superior carotid triangle
Occipital triangle
Inferior carotid triangle
Trapezius
Posterior belly of omohyoid
• Subclavian triangle
Fig. 162. — Showing anterior and posterior cervical and subsidiary triangles.
felt. On pressing the finger into this hollow it rests between the digastric muscles
on each side and the mylohyoid muscles beneath. Still deeper than the mylohyoid
are the geniohyoid and geniohyoglossus muscles attached to the genial tubercles on
the inner side of the mandible. If the lymphatic nodes at this point are enlarged
they may be felt. (Fig. 161.)
The hyoid bone can usually be readily felt in the median line. If it is not easily
discovered in the median line it can be felt by a finger and thumb placed on each
side of the neck above the thyroid cartilage.
Passing over the hyoid bone the finger then sinks into the space between it and
the top of the thyroid cartilage. This space is bridged by the thyrohyoid mem-
brane. Next comes the thyroid cartilage or "Adam's apple." It can readily be
seen in adult males and thin people, but in the fat necks of women and children,
though it can still be felt, it often cannot be seen. The finger then sinks into the
space between the thyroid cartilage above and the cricoid below. They are con-
nected by the cricothyroid membrane, over which runs a small branch (cricothyroid)
of the superior thyroid artery.
THE NECK.
131
The prominence of the cricoid cartilage can be seen in thin people and if care-
fully searched for can be felt in almost all cases. It is opposite the sixth cervical
vertebra, a most important landmark. From the cricoid cartilage down to the
sternum only soft structures can be felt. The sternum projects forward and the
trachea inclines backward so that opposite the top of the sternum the trachea is about
2 cm. behind it. The distance between the top of the sternum and cricoid cartilage
in an adult male is about 4.5 cm. (i^ in.).
THE CERVICAL TRIANGLES.
On viewing the neck from the side the prominent sternocleidomastoid muscle
with its thick anterior and thin posterior edge is seen to divide it into two spaces,
an anterior and a posterior. They are called the anterior and posterior cervical
triangles.
Submaxillary
lymph-nodes
Cervical lymph-
nodes
External jugular vein
^ iimaxillary
gland
Anterior belly of
digastric
Hyoid bone
Fig. 163.— Submaxillary region, superficial structures. (From a dissection, lymph-nodes enlarged by disease.)
Anterior Cervical Triangle.
The anterior cervical triangle has for its anterior side the median line of the
neck. Its posterior side is the anterior edge of the sternomastoid muscle. Its upper
side is the lower edge of the mandible from the symphysis to the angle and thence
across to the mastoid process. The anterior triangle is further divided into the space
above the digastric muscle called the submaxillary triangle, — from its containing the
gland of that name, — the stiperior carotid triangle above the anterior belly of the
omohyoid muscle, and the inferior carotid triatigle below the omohyoid muscle.
The submaxilliary triangle is so called from its containing the submaxillary
gland. It is also sometimes called the lingual triangle, from the lingual artery. It
132
APPLIED ANATOMY.
has as its upper side the lower edge of the mandible from near its symphysis around
the lower edge of the body to the ramus and thence in a straight line across to the
mastoid process. Its anterior side is the anterior belly and its posterior side is the
posterior belly of the digastric muscle. The submaxillary gland can usually be felt
beneath the jaw. Beneath it runs the facial artery to pass over the body of the
mandible in front of the anterior edge of the masseter muscle. The gland lies on the
hyoglossus and mylohyoid muscles, which form the floor of this triangle. It is
encased in a sort of pocket formed by a splitting of the deep cervical fascia. The
posterior portion of this fascia runs from the styloid process to the hyoid bone and is
called the stylohyoid ligament.
Lymphatic nodes lie on the submaxillary gland and in carcinomatous disease
they become enlarged and then can be readily palpated. In operating on these
Facial artery
Lingual artery
Occipital artery
External jugular vein
Edge of sternomastoid
muscle
Internal jugular vein-
Descendens hypoglossi
nerve
External carotid arte
Superior thyroid artery-
Mylohyoid muscle
Hyoglossus muscle
Digastric muscle
Hypoglossal nerve
Tendon of digastric
Fig. 164. — Deeper structures of the submaxillary region, especially the vessels.
lymphatic nodes for tuberculous disease, care should be taken to distinguish between
them and the submaxillary gland. The tendon of the digastric muscle does not
come clear down to the hyoid bone but the loop which binds the two together is
sometimes a centimetre or more in length. The lingual artery enters the sub-
maxillary triangle near the apex of the angle formed by the tendon of the digastric.
It crosses beneath the posterior belly of the digastric muscle and, particularly if the
digastric muscles contract, it may lie close to the tendon. Frequently the search
for it is made too high in the triangle and too far away from the hyoid bone.
When the submaxillary gland is lifted from its bed the hypoglossal nerve is seen
beneath lying on the hyoglossus muscle. The lingual artery lies beneath the hyo-
glossus muscle and the muscle is cut through in order to find it. The submaxillary
region is the seat of Ludwig' s atigina, a septic inflammation involving the cellular
THE NECK.
135
tissues beneath the tongue and jaw around the submaxillary gland and the upper
portion of the neck. It is a dangerous affection and may cause death not only by
sepsis but also by oedema of the larynx.
Dr. T. Turner Thomas {An?ia/s of Surgery, February and March, 1908), has
pointed out that the infection passes from the inside of the mouth to the submaxil-
lary region outside by following the connective tissue around the submaxillary gland
as it winds around the posterior edge of the mylohyoid muscle through the opening
existing between this muscle in front and the anterior portion of the middle constrictor
of the pharynx behind.
The SUPERIOR CAROTID TRIANGLE is limited posteriorly by the sternomastoid
muscle, superiorly by the posterior belly of the digastric, and inferiorly by the anterior
belly of the omohyoid. The location of the omohyoid muscle can be determined
by that of the cricoid cartilage, as the muscle crosses the common carotid artery
about opposite that point. The sternomastoid muscle can be both seen and felt.
It is attached above from the apex of the mastoid process to the middle of the
Mylohyoid
Hypoglossal nerve
Digastric
Submaxillary gland (su-
perficial portion removed)
Hyoglossus
Superior constrictor
Parotid gland
Styloglossus
Middle constrictor
- Digastric (tendon)
Stylohyoid (tendoni
Hyoid bone
Thyrohyoid
Inferior constrictor
Omohyoid
■ Sternomastoid
■ Sternohyoid
Fig. 165. — Submaxillary region. The anterior portion of the submaxillary gland is seen winding around
and beneath the posterior edge of the mylohyoid muscle. The posterior portion of the gland has been cut
away. The posterior belly of the digastric and the stylohyoid muscles have also been removed.
superior curved line on the occipital bone. It is attached below by a sternal head
to the upper anterior part of the first piece of the sternum, and by a clavicular head
to the inner third of the clavicle on its superior and interior border. Its action will
be mentioned in discussing wry-neck.
Arteries. — The carotid arteries and their branches are found in this triangle.
The line of the carotid arteries is from a mid-point between the mastoid process and
the angle of the jaw to the sternoclavicular articulation. The line of the sterno-
mastoid muscle is from the mastoid process to near the middle of the upper edge
of the sternum. Thus the carotids are internal to the anterior edge of this muscle above,
behind the angle of the jaw, and external to it below. The common carotid at its
upper portion — it ends opposite the upper border of the thyroid cartilage — is just
about at or close to the edge of the sternomastoid muscle. From the thyroid car-
tilage up are the internal and external carotids. The internal lies behind and to
the outer side of the external. The internal gives off no branches until it reaches
the skull, while the external is practically all branches. Sometimes the external and
the internal carotids are covered by the anterior margin of the sternomastoid muscle.
The branches of the external carotid are the superior thyroid, ascending pharyngeal,
lingual, facial, occipital, posterior auricular, internal maxillary, and temporal. The
134
APPLIED ANATOMY.
superior thyroid or the ascending pharyngeal may either one be the first given off
by the external carotid, or may come off from the common carotid itself just before its
bifurcation.
The superior thyroid artery is given off in the interval between the hyoid
bone and upper border of the thyroid cartilage. It gives a small iiifrahyoid brarich
to the thyrohyoid membrane, also a superior laryngeal branch to the inside of the
larynx. This branch pierces the thyrohyoid membrane in company with the superior
laryngeal nerve to reach the interior of the larynx. The sternomastoid branch, to
the muscle of that name, comes oft" at this point and crosses the common carotid artery.
It is of some importance on this account because in ligating the common carotid
artery above the omohyoid muscle it is likely to be cut and cause bleeding. Another
branch of the superior thyroid artery is the cricothyroid. It is small, rests on the
cricothyroid membrane, and is the first artery liable to be cut in an incision down the
Digastric
Mylohyoid"
Sublingual gland
Geniohyoid
Submaxillary ductr
Submaxillary gland
Hypoglossal nerve - . Wf. .-hJfci^ 't>'^ ^ ^1-^ ^--^ ^-— Lingual nerve
Superior constrictor
Styloglossus
Parotid gland
Hyoglossus
Middle constrictor
Stylohyoid tendon
Digastric tendon
•Thyrohyoid
■ Inferior constrictor
■-Omohyoid
■Btemothyroid
. Sternohyoid
Fig. i66. — Submaxillary region — mylohyoid muscle cut away showing the sublingual gland and anterior portion
of submaxillary gland.
median line. Bleeding from it is not apt to be serious. The remainder of the
superior thyroid artery supplies the thyroid gland.
The ascending pharyngeal is a long slender branch that comes from the
under side of the main trunk. It lies on the superior and middle constrictors of the
pharynx and goes clear to the skull, giving off some meningeal branches. In ligat-
ing the external carotid care should be taken not to include this vessel in the ligature.
It also gives branches to the soft palate, tonsil, recti capitis antici muscles, and
tympanum.
The lingual is given off just below the greater horn of the hyoid bone, and
passes forward beneath the hyoglossus muscle to supply the tongue and sublingual
tissues. The hypoglossal nerve lies above the artery and on the hyoglossus muscle.
The facial comes off just above the lingual artery or often in a common trunk
with it. It passes upward and forward in a groove in the under surface of the sub-
maxillary gland and passes over the edge of the jaw at the anterior border of the
masseter muscle. The facial vein at this point is posterior to it.
The occipital artery comes off almost opposite the facial. It passes upward
and backward between the mastoid process and the transverse process of the atlas,
THE NECK.
135
then along in the occipital groove beneath the origin of the sternomastoid muscle,
the splenius, trachelomastoid, and digastric to make its appearance a Httle to the
inner side of the middle of a line joining the mastoid process with the external occip-
ital protuberance.
The posterior auricular is given off just above the posterior belly of the
digastric muscle and runs backward and upward on it, then through the parotid
•gland and up between the external auditory meatus and the mastoid process. In
ligating the external carotid artery with a view of preventing bleeding in removing
the Gasserian ganglion, it is endeavored to place the ligature just above the digastric
muscle and posterior auricular artery in order to preserve the blood supply of the
Temporal artery
Internal maxillary
artery
External carotid artery
Posterior auricular
artery
Occipital artery
Hypoglossal nerve
Internal jugular vein
Submaxillary gland
Facial artery
Internal carotid artery
Lingual artery
Superior laryngeal
nerve
Descendens hypo-
glossi nerve
Superior thyroid artery
Sternomastoid branch
Fig. 167. — Carotid arteries and branches.
tissues above and behind the ear. The internal maxillary and the temporal arteries
have already been considered.
Veins. — The veins found in and near the superior carotid triangle are the anterior
and internal jugulars and their branches. A small portion of the commencement of the
external jtigular may also be in its extreme upper angle.
The anterior jugular vein begins just above the hyoid bone from veins in the
submaxillary and submental regions. It lies on the deep fascia and passes down the
neck about i cm. from the median line, then just above the sternum it turns down and
out under the sternomastoid muscle to empty into the external jugular or subclavian.
At the point of turning it sends off a branch across the median line to the vein on the
opposite side. Thus the blood-current can pass directly across the neck from one
external jugular vein to the other. Sometimes there is another communication
between the two anterior jugulars through a small branch crossing just above or
136
APPLIED ANATOMY.
below the hyoid bone. Instead of two anterior jugular veins there may be onefmt
this case it is likely to go down the median line of the neck and so be wounded in
tracheotomy. It receives branches from the inferior thyroid veins and hence may
bleed freely. It has no valves.
The internal jugular vein lies to the outer side of and bulges somewhat an-
terior to the carotid arteries. It is formed by the junction of the inferior petrosal
and lateral sinuses at the jugular foramen, and passes downward posterior to the
internal carotid artery and soon reaches its outer side. It receives the facial, lingual,
pharyngeal, superior and middle thyroid, and sometimes the occipital veins. A large
communicating branch from the external jugular unites either with the facial or with
the internal jugular, so that a wound of the external jugular may draw blood directly
from the internal jugular.
These tributary veins are superficial to the arteries and in ligating the external
carotid artery they will have to be displaced. The internal jugular vein is sometimes
Hyoglossus muscle
Hypoglossal nerve
Descendens hypoglossi nerve
Superior laryngeal nerve
Omohyoid muscle
Sternohyoid muscle
Sternothyroid muscle
Superior thyroid vein
Inf. thyroid artery
Recurrent laryngeal
nerve
Sternothyroid
and hyoid
muscles
Inferior thy-
roid (thyroid- -
ea ima) vein
Space of Bums-
Omohyoid muscle
Middle thyroid vein
Digastric muscle
Mylohyoid muscle
Facial artery
Facial vein
Submaxillary gland
Hyoid bone
Lingual artery
Internal jugular vein
Superior thyroid artery
Omohyoid muscle
Sternohyoid muscle
Anterior jugular vein
Cricoid cartilage
Sternothyroid muscle
Stemomastoid
I
Fig. i68. — Dissection of the deep structures of the front of the neck.
excised in operations for enlarged lymph-nodes or for infective thrombus. It is not
eO large above the facial vein as below that point. It becomes so in\'olved in enlarge-
ments of both tuberculous and carcinomatous lymph-nodes that it may be neces-
sary to excise it along with the tumor. Its removal does not give rise to any serious
symptoms.
It becomes thrombosed by the extension of a thrombus from the transverse
(lateral) sinus, which in turn becomes affected by the extension of suppurative
middle-ear disease through the medium of caries of the bones. When the internal
jugular is thrombosed it is evidenced by swelling, redness, and tenderness along
the anterior border of the stemomastoid muscle just behind the angle of the jaw.
Bleeding from the veins in this region is particularly dangerous because the internal
jugular itself is so large and having no valves, will bleed both from the side towards
the heart and that towards the head.
The veins also, which are tributary to it in this region, are so large and are
wounded so close to the main trunk that the blood from the internal jugular itself
THE NECK. 137
regurgitates. The walls of the veins are thin and, if the fascias happen to be relaxed,
fall readily together and thus are difficult to see, and are so adherent to the fascias as
not to be readily seized. The surgery of this region requires extreme care and the
avoidance of haste.
Nerves. — Lying between the internal jugular vein and the internal and common
carotid arteries is the pneicmogastric or tenth nerve. It here gives off the superior
laryngeal nerve, the internal branch of which enters the larynx through the thyro-
hyoid membrane to endow the interior of the larynx with sensation; the external
branch goes to supply the cricothyroid muscle. The pneumogastric nerve is fre-
quently seen in operations in this region. Its division has not been fatal.
The hypoglossal nerve winds around the occipital artery and goes forward on the
hyoglossus muscle, which separates it from the lingual artery. The descendens hypo-
glossi filament leaves the parent nerve as it winds around the occipital artery. It lies
on the carotid artery in the form of a loop formed by the addition of branches from
the second and third cervical nerves. As it descends on the sheath of the vessels it
gives a branch to the anterior belly of the omohyoid muscle. The loop sends
branches to the sternohyoid, sternothyroid, and posterior belly of the omohyoid, and
if the nerve is divided paralysis of these muscles will occur. The nerve is to be
pushed aside when ligating the artery and not included in the ligature. The
superficial branches from the cervical plexus which come from the middle of the
posterior edge of the sternomastoid muscle and ramify towards the median line,
are nerves of sensation, and their division in operative work causes no serious symp-
toms, hence they are disregarded. The inframaxillary branches of the seventh or
facial nerve supply the platysma.
Lymphatics. — The lymphatics are composed of four sets, a superficial set along
the anterior border of the sternomastoid muscle, a deep set accompanying the great
vessels, a submaxillary set around and on the submaxillary gland, and a set, two or
more in number, beneath the chin.
The S7ib maxillary gland itself not infrequently enlarges and is difficult to dis-
tinguish from an enlarged lymphatic node. All these glands are at times subjected
to operative procedures. Fig. 163 shows the submental, submaxillary, and super-
ficial set of lymphatics enlarged, as w'ell as the submaxillary gland itself. It is taken
from a tuberculous subject.
The nodes below and beiiind the jaw become enlarged from diseases affecting
the tongue, mouth, and throat as well as from affections of the face and scalp.
The INFERIOR CAROTID TRIANGLE is limited posteriorly by the lower portion
of the sternomastoid muscle, anteriorly by the median line of the neck, and superiorly
by the anterior belly of the omohyoid muscle. In this triangle, or reached through it,
are the lower portions of the common carotid artery and internal jugular vein, with
the pneumogastric nerve between. Anteriorly are the larynx, trachea, thyroid gland,
and sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles. The carotid artery, jugular vein, and
pneumogastric nerve lie partly in the triangle but rather under the edge of the
sternomastoid muscle. Operations on the air-passages, laryngotomy and tracheot-
omy; on the thyroid gland, thyroidectomy; and ligation of the common carotid
artery and removal of lymph-nodes are all done in this triangle. The superficial
and deep lymphatics accompany the vessels; there are also some in Burns' s space
above the sternum. In children, instead of the innominate artery ceasing at the
sternoclavicular articulation, it sometimes rises above it and may be wounded in
operation on the trachea. The thyroidea ima artery, if present, will lie on the
trachea, coming up from the innominate or directly from the aorta.
Posterior Cervical Triangle.
The posterior cervical triangle has as its base the middle third of the clavicle;
its anterior side is the posterior edge of the sternomastoid muscle; its posterior side
is the anterior edge of the trapezius; its apex is at the point of junction of these two
muscles at the superior curved line of the occiput. It is customary to divide it into
two triangles by the posterior belly of the omohyoid muscle. The upper triangle is
large and is called the occipital triaiigle. The lower triangle is small and is called
the subclavian triangle. This division by the posterior belly of the omohyoid
muscle is not always satisfactory. The muscle runs upward and inward in a line
138
APPLIED ANATOMY.
from about the junction of the outer and middle thirds of the clavicle to a variable
distance, up to 2.5 cm. (i in.), above the clavicle at the anterior edge of the sterno-
mastoid muscle. The omoyhoid muscle has its lower attachment at the posterior
edge of the suprascapular notch, which is below the level of the clavicle and its
posterior belly is sometimes concealed behind the clavicle and does not rise above it
except at its inner extremity beneath the sternomastoid muscle. It is rare that any
distinct triangle is formed, hence as far as the surface markings are concerned
there is often no subclavian triangle. Therefore the posterior cervical triangle will
be considered. as a whole and not divided.
It is covered by the skin, beneath which is the subcutaneous tissue, which at its
lower portion contains the fibres of the platysma muscle. Its floor is composed
from above downward of the splenius, levator scapulcc, scalenus posticus, scalemis
7nediiis, and scale?iiis anticiis muscles. The deep fascia of the neck spans the
space and splits anteriorly to enclose the sternomastoid muscle and posteriorly to
Occipitalis major nerve
Occipital artery
Occipitalis minor nerve
Splenius muscle
Auricularis magnus nerve
Superficial cervical nerve
Levator scapulae muscle
Spinal accessory nerve
Trapezius
Middle scalene muscle
Posterior scalene muscle
External jugular vein
— ■— Omohyoid muscle
Sternomastoid muscle
Anterior scalene muscle
Phrenic nerve. \
Internal jugular vein
Omohyoid muscle
Transverse cervical
artery
Brachial plexus
Suprascapular artery
Subclavian vein
Subclavian artery
Fig. 169. — Dissection of the posterior cervical triangle.
enclose the trapezius. The space contains important arteries, veins, nerves, and
lymphatics.
External Jugular Vein. — Lying on the deep fascia and beneath the super-
ficial fascia and platysma is the external jugular vein. This begins below the ear
and posterior to the ramus of the jaw, being formed by the union of the temporo-
maxillary and posterior auricular veins. It passes downward and slightly backward
on the surface of the sternomastoid muscle to its posterior border, which it reaches at
about the middle and follows down until about a centimetre above the clavicle; here
it pierces the deep fascia and dips behind the clavicular origin of the sternomastoid
muscle to empty into the subclavian. It has one pair of valves about 4 cm. above
the clavicle, and another pair at its point of entrance into the subclavian. They do
not entirely prevent a regurgitation of the blood.
The external jugular vein receives the posterior external jugular vein, and the
suprascapular and transverse cervical veins. The occipital may also enter into it.
The veins of the neck are exceedingly irregular in their formation and may vary
considerably. The external jugular is readily seen through the skin, it may be
made more prominent by compressing it just above clavicle. In operations in this
THE NECK. 139
region of the neck in some cases it is necessary to divide this vein; in others one
may be able to a\oid it, at all events it should be recognized before the incision is
made. Behind the angle of the jaw there is usually a branch communicating with
the facial, lingual, or internal jugular vein, and just above its lower extremity it is
enlarged, forming the part called the sinus. For these reasons, if the vein is cut low
down near the clavicle or high up near the angle of the jaw bleeding is liable to be
free. The \-al\'es are not competent to prevent the reflux of blood and it therefore
drains the large internal jugular abo\'e and the subcla\ian below. The attachment
of the vein to the deep fascia, as it pierces it above the clavicle, tends to keep its
lumen open when the vein is divided and favors the entrance of air into the circula-
tion. The size of the veins in the posterior triangle varies according to those in the
anterior. If the anterior and external jugulars are large the posterior and internal
jugulars are apt to be small.
Arteries. — The arteries in the posterior cervical triangle are the subclavian, the
transverse cervical, and sometimes the S2ipr as capillar when it runs above the clavicle
instead of behind it. The line of the subclavian is from the sternoclavicular joint to
the middle of the clavicle. It rises about 1.25 cm. (^ in.) above the clavicle. The
clavicular origin of the sternomastoid muscle covers the inner third of the clavicle so that
the subclavian artery is only visible in the posterior cervical triangle from the outer
edge of this muscle to the middle of the clavicle. Both the suprascapular and
transverse cervical arteries are given off from the thyroid axis, which arises from the
first portion of the subclavian just internal to the scalenus anticus muscle. Therefore
at their origin they are both considerably above the level of the clavicle, but as they
proceed outward they incline downward, and on leaving the outer edge of the sterno-
mastoid muscle the suprascapular is usually behind the clavicle while the transverse
cervical runs parallel to it and a short distance ( i cm. ) above it, where it can be
felt pulsating.
The posterior belly of the omohyoid muscle can be represented by a line drawn
from the anterior edge of the sternomastoid muscle opposite the cricoid cartilage,
obliquely down and out to the junction of the middle and outer thirds of the clavicle.
It is superficial to the transverse cervical artery and at its inner end is above it.
These arteries and their accompanying veins will be encountered in operating in
these regions for the removal of lymphatic nodes.
Nerves.— The nerves in the posterior cervical triangle are the spinal accessory,
branches of the cervical plexus, and the brachial plexus. The position of the spinal
accessory is important because it is frequently encountered in operations for the
removal of enlarged lymphatic nodes. It enters the under surface of the sternomastoid
muscle from 3 to 5 cm. below the tip of the mastoid process and emerges at the pos-
terior edge about its middle or a little above. It is about at this point that the
external jugular vein reaches the posterior border of the sternomastoid, and the cervical
plexus, formed by the anterior divisions of the four upper cervical nerves, reaches
the surface. From this point also the occipitalis minor runs upward along the posterior
edge of the sternomastoid and the aiiricularis viag?ius runs upward over the sterno-
mastoid direct to the external ear. The superficial cervical runs directly across the
muscle towards the median line and the descending branches — the sternal, clavicular,
and acromial — pass down beneath the deep cervical fascia to perforate it just above the
clavicle and become cutaneous. Care should be taken not to mistake them for the
spinal accessory. Still deeper are the cords of the brachial plexus. These cords,
sometimes two, at others three in number, are beneath the deep fascia and lie above
the subclavian artery. They can be felt and in a thin person, if the head is turned to
the opposite side, the prominence which they form under the skin can even be seen.
Lymphatics. — The lymphatics of the posterior cervical triangle are numerous
and being often enlarged are frequently operated on. They lie along both the outer
side of the internal jugular vein and under the posterior edge of the sternomastoid
muscle, which they follow clear up to the base of the skull. They also follow the edge
of the trapezius muscle and lie in the space between it and the sternomastoid; they
extend downward under the clavicle and become continuous with the axillary
lymphatics. The right and left lymphatic ducts empty into the venous system at
the junction of the innominate and internal jugular veins. That on the left side is
I40
APPLIED ANATOMY
called the thoracic duct ; it begins as the receptaculum chyli on the body of tne
second lumbar vertebra and is about 45 cm. (18 in.) long. It drains all the left side
of the body and the right as far up as and including the lower surface of the liver.
The duct on the right side is called the right lymphatic djict ; it is only i or 2
cm. in length and drains the right side of the head and neck, the right upper ex-
tremity, and the right side of the chest as far down as and including the upper surface
of the liver.
TORTICOLLIS OR WRY-NECK.
In this affection the head and the neck are so twisted that the face is turned
toward the side opposite the contracted muscle and looks somewhat upward. It is
usually caused by some affection of the sternomastoid muscle. It is not always the
only muscle involved, as the trapezius and others may likewise be affected. It is
congenital or acquired. In the congenital cases it is caused by an injury to the
Fig. 170. — Torticollis or wry-neck.
Sternomastoid muscle, occurring during childbirth; a swelling or tumor may be
present in the course of the muscle. In the acquired form the distortion may be
more or less permanent and may be due to caries or other disease of the spine. In
such cases it is evident that treatment is to be directed to the diseased spine rather
than to the sternomastoid muscle, which will be found to be relaxed.
Inflammation of the lymph-nodes of the neck may cause the patient to hold the
head and neck in a distorted position. The wry-neck in this case will disappear as
the cause subsides. Rheumatic affections of the neck are a common cause, and the
sternomastoid muscle may then become contracted and require division. In rare
instances a nervous affection causes a spasmodic torticollis. The persistent move-
ments render this a very distressing affection, and to relieve it not only has the
sternomastoid but also the trapezius been divided, and even the spinal accessory and
occipital nerves have been excised.
Division of the sternomastoid muscle should be done by open and not by sub-
cutaneous incision. The sternal origin of the sternomastoid muscle is a sharp, dis-
tinct cord, but its clavicular origin is a broad, thin band extending outward a third of
the length of the clavicle. An incision 2 or 3 cm. or more in length is made over
the tendon and the bands are to be carefully isolated before being divided. The
structure most important to avoid is the internal jugular vein. It lies close behind
the sternal origin of the muscle and great care must be taken to avoid it. In one
case in which it was accidentally wounded it was necessary to ligate it. As the
THE NECK. 141
deep fascia of the neck splits to enclose the sternomastoid muscle it is opened by
the operation and infection has caused in such cases wide-spread phlegmonous
inflammation.
ARTERIES OF THE NECK.— LIGATION.
Carotid and Subclavian Arteries and Branches. — Both these arteries are
affected at times with aneurisms, necessitating their ligation. Ligation of the main
trunks or their branches is also required in various operations on the head, as in re-
moval of the Gasserian ganglion or maxilla, or excision of the tongue, thyroid gland,
etc. The communication between the arteries on the two sides of the body is quite
free, as also is that between the arteries above and those lower down. For this
reason bleeding from the distal end of a cut artery will be almost as free as from its
proximal end. The various branches of the external carotid anastomose across the
median line of the body. The vertebrals communicate above through the basilar.
The internal carotids communicate through the anterior cerebral and anterior com-
municating and with the basilar through the posterior communicating and posterior
cerebral. Between the parts above and those below we have the superior thyroid
anastomosing with the inferior thyroid branch of the thyroid axis from the subclavian
artery. The princeps cervicis, a branch of the occipital, anastomoses with the as-
cending cervical branch of the inferior thyroid, the transverse cervical of the thyroid
axis, and the profunda cervicis from the superior intercostal. These free communi-
cations enable the surgeon to ligate to any extent without incurring the risk of gan-
grene. The line of the carotid arteries is from a point midway between the mastoid
process and the angle of the jaw to the sternoclavicular articulation. At the upper
iDorder of the thyroid cartilage the common carotid divides into the internal and ex-
ternal carotids; this is opposite the fifth cervical vertebra.
Common Carotid Artery. — This lies on the longus colli muscle and a small
portion of the rectus capitis anticus, which separate the artery from the transverse
processes of the vertebrae. The artery can be compressed against the vertebrae and
its pulsations stopped by pressing backward and slightly inward. It is superficial in
the upper portion of its course but becomes deeper as it approaches the chest. The
anterior tubercle of the transverse process of the sixth cervical vertebra is called
Chassaignac' s tubercle. It is about opposite the cricoid cartilage. It is one of the
guides to the artery. The omohyoid muscle crosses the artery opposite the cricoid
cartilage and just above it is the site of election for ligation.
Ligation of the Common Carotid Artery. — In making the incision, which should
be 5 or 6 cm. long, it should be laid along the anterior edge of the sternomastoid
muscle with its middle opposite to or a little above the level of the cricoid cartilage.
This incision may be a little anterior to the direct line of the artery as given from
midway between the angle of the jaw and mastoid process to the sternoclavicular
articulation. This is because the muscle bulges forward and overlaps and hides the
artery. The artery is beneath its edge. On cutting through the superficial fascia and
platysma the deep fascia is reached, some small veins perhaps being divided in
so doing. The deep fascia is divided along the edge of the sternomastoid muscle,
which is then pulled outward. Beneath it and running obliquely across the lower
portion of the wound is the omohyoid muscle. It is recognized by the direction of
its fibres, they being more or less transverse or oblique. Sometimes a small artery,
the sternomastoid branch of the superior thyroid, crosses the common carotid just
above the omohyoid muscle. The artery is also crossed by veins. The lingual,
superior, and middle thyroid veins all pass over it to enter the internal jugular.
The middle thyroid vein may be above or just below the omohyoid muscle.
These vessels all pass transversely across the artery and beneath the deep fascia.
The artery lies in a separate sheath to the inner side of the jugular vein. In the
living body it is to be recognized by its pulsations. The vein being filled with blood
may overlap the artery. Veins are readily emptied of their blood by pressure on
the parts during the operation; hence if the vein happens to be collapsed it may not
be recognized and is liable to be wounded. Therefore in examining for the artery see
that the pressure from the retractors or other sources does not obstruct the flow of
142 APPLIED ANATOMY.
blood through the jugular vein. Running down on the anterior surface of the
artery is the descendens hypoglossi nerve. If seen it should be pushed aside. It
supplies the sternohyoid, sternothyroid, and both bellies of the omohyoid muscles.
The pneumogastric nerve lies posteriorly, between the artery and the vein. Care
will be necessary to avoid including it in the ligature. The ligature is to be carried from
the outer to the inner side, the needle being passed between the vein and the artery.
Ligation of the Common Carotid Artery Below the Omohyoid Mnscle.—T\^^-3X\.^x:y
below the omohyoid muscle becomes deeper and less accessible. The sternomastoid
muscle overlaps it and is less easily displaced. The sternohyoid and sternothyroid
muscles likewise tend to encroach on it and have to be drawn inward. The internal
jugular vein and carotid artery diverge as they descend, so that at the level of the
sternoclavicular joint they are separated 2.5 cm. In this interval the first portion
of the subclavian artery shows itself. The anterior jugular vein will probably be
encountered along the edge of the sternomastoid muscle, and near the omohyoid
Sternomastoid artery
Common carotid artery
Descendens hypoglossi nerve
~" Internal jugular vein
Sternomastoid muscle
Omohyoid muscle
Fig. 171. — Ligation of the common carotid artery.
muscle the artery will be crossed by the middle thyroid vein. Still lower it may be
that the inferior thyroid will be encountered. Posterior to the carotid artery is the
inferior thyroid artery, coming from the thyroid axis and going to the thyroid gland,
and winding around from posteriorly to the inner side is the recurrent laryngeal
nerve. The ligating needle is to be passed from without inward.
Collateral Circulation After Ligation of the Commofi Carotid Aj'tery. — When
the common carotid has been tied the blood reaches the parts beyond from the
branches of the carotid of the opposite side and from the subclavian artery of the
same side. The branches of the external carotid anastomose across the median line.
This is particularly the case with the superior thyroid and facial. The internal
carotids communicate by means of the circle of Willis. From the subclavian the
vertebral artery communicates by means of the basilar with the circle of Willis.
The thyroid axis by its inferior thyroid branch communicates with the thyroid
arteries of the opposite side. An ascending branch of the inferior thyroid as well as
one from the transverse cervical, also from the thyroid axis, anastomose with
branches of the princeps cervicis, which is a descending branch of the occipital.
THE NECK.
143
Finally the superior intercostal, which, like the vertebral and thyroid axis, is a
branch of the first portion of the subclavian, through its profunda cervicis branch
anastomoses with a deep descending- branch of the princeps cervicis (Fig. 172).
The Internal Carotid Artery. — The internal carotid Hes posterior and to
the outer side of the external. It gi\es off no branches in the neck. Entering the
skull through the carotid canal, in the apex of the petrous portion of the temporal
bone and directly below and to the inner side of the Gasserian ganglion, it passes
through the inner side of the caver?ioHS sm/ts and at the anterior clinoid processes it
bends up to divide into the anterior and middle cerebrals. Before its division it
gives off the posterior comtminicating artery, the anterior choroid artery to supply
the choroid plexus in the lateral ventricles, and the ophthalmic artery. The internal
Temporal
Posterior auricular
Occipital
Princeps cervicis
Superficial branch
Deep branch
Internal carotid
Transverse cervical
Suprascapular
Transverse facial
Internal maxillary
Ascending pharyngeal
Facial
Lingual
External carotid
Superior thyroid
Inferior thyroid
Common carotid
Vertebral
Thyroid axis
Innominate
Superior intercostal
Subclavian
Fig. 172. — Collateral circulation after ligation of the common carotid artery.
carotid artery in the neck is normally straight, but sometimes, particularly in elderly
persons, it is tortuous. This may then be mistaken for aneurism. It lies about 2 cm.
posterior and a litde to the outer side of the tonsil. As the pharynx is the side of
least resistance, when the vessel becomes tortuous it bulges into it, and on examina-
tion through the mouth a pulsating swelling can be distinctly seen in the pharynx
just posterior to the tonsil. The finger introduced can feel the pulsations, and
pressure on the carotid in the neck below causes the pulsations to cease. Thus the
character of the pulsating swelling can be recognized. This artery is rarely ligated,
but if it is desired to do so it can readily be reached through an incision 6 or 7 cm.
long behind the angle of the jaw. Aneurism or wounds may necessitate its ligation.
At its commencement it is comparatively superficial, but as it ascends it gets quite
deep, passing beneath the digastric and stylohyoid muscles. It should therefore be
ligated below the angle of the jaw and not over 3 cm. from its origin at the upper
144
APPLIED ANATOMY.
border of the thyroid cartilage. It will be necessary to push the sternomastoid
muscle posteriorly, as its anterior margin ox'erlies the vessel. The internal jugular
vein is to its outer side and between the two and posterior is the pneumogastric
nerve. The sympathetic 7ierve lies behind it but is separated by a layer of fascia and
is not liable to be caught up in passing the aneurism needle. The lingual, facial,
and laryngeal veins may be encountered and are apt to cause trouble. They will
have to be held aside or ligated and divided. The ascending pha?yngeal artery may
lie close to the internal carotid and care should be taken not to include it in the
ligature. The needle is to be passed from without inward.
The External Carotid Artery. — Of recent years the external carotid artery
has been ligated far more often than formerly, as it was customary to ligate the
common carotid instead. The external carotid runs from the upper border of the
thyroid cartilage to the neck of the mandible. It supplies the outside of the head,
face, and neck. These parts are the seat of various operations for tumors, especially
carcinoma of the mouth and tongue, diseased lymph-nodes, and other affections, and
Facial artery
Lingual artery,
Greater comu of
hyoid bone
Superior laryn-
geal nerve
Ext. carotid artery
Superior thyroid
artery
Stylohyoid muscle
Digastric muscle
Occipital artery
Hypoglossal nerve
Descendens hypoglossi
nerve
Internal carotid artery
Internal jugular vein
Superior thyroid vein
Sternomastoid artery
Common carotid artery
"Fig. 173. — Ligation of external carotid artery and its branches.
the external carotid and its branches are not infrequently ligated in order to cut off
their blood supply.
In extirpation of the Gasserian ganglion, hemorrhage has been such an annoying
and dangerous factor that a preliminary ligation or compression (Crile) of the
external carotid is frequently resorted to. This artery may also be ligated for
wounds, resection of the upper jaw, hemorrhage from the tonsils, and angiomatous
growths affecting the region which it supplies.
Unlike some other arteries the external carotid sometimes seems to have no
trunk, consisting almost entirely of branches. Therefore in ligating it one should
not expect to find a big artery the size of the internal carotid, but often one only half
as large. The branches of the external carotid artery are the superior thyroid, lin-
gual, and facial, which proceed anteriorly toward the median line ; the occipital
and posterior auricular, which supply the posterior parts ; the ascending phary^igeal,
which comes off from its deep surface and ascends to the base of the skull ; and
the temporal and internal inaxillajy arteries, which are terminal. It is ligated either
near its commencement just above the superior thyroid artery or behind the angle
of the jaw above the digastric muscle.
Ligation of the External Carotid Aj'tery above the Superior Thyroid. — At its
commencement at the upper border of the thyroid cartilage the artery is quite
THE NECK
MS
superficial, being covered by the skin, superficial fascia, platysma, deep fascia, and
overlying edge of the sternomastoid muscle. It is to be reached through an incision
5 cm. in length along the anterior edge of the sternomastoid muscle in a line from
the sternoclavicular joint to midway between the angle of the jaw and the mastoid
process. The middle of the incision is to be opposite the thyrohyoid membrane.
The bifurcation of the common carotid artery is an important landmark.
The superior thyroid artery is given off at the very commencement and some-
times even comes from the common carotid just below. The ascending pharyngeal
is the next branch, about i cm. above the superior thyroid. It comes off from the
deep surface of the artery ; almost opposite to it and in front is the lingual. It will
thus be seen that the distance between the lingual and the superior thyroid, where
the ligature is to be placed, is quite small. The superior thyroid is about opposite
the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, while the lingual is opposite the hyoid
bone. Beneath the artery is the superior laryngeal nerve, but it is not liable to be
caught up by the needle in passing the ligature because it lies fiat on the constrictors
of the pharynx and is apt to be a little above the site of ligation.
The veins are the only structures liable to cause trouble. They are superficial
to the arteries. On account of their irregularity more may be encountered than is
expected. The superior thyroid and lingual veins both cross the artery to empty
into the internal jugular. The facial vein is also liable to be met, as the facial artery
frequently springs from a common trunk with the lingual. The communicating
branch between the facial and external jugular vein is another one that should be
anticipated. These veins, when it is possible, are to be hooked aside; otherwise
they are to be ligated and cut. Great care should be taken not to mistake a vein
for the artery. It might appear an easy matter to readily recognize the artery and
distinguish between it and the veins, but this is not always the case in the living
subject. The veins may have some pulsation transmitted to them from the adjacent
arteries and the artery may temporarily ha\e its pulsations stopped by pressure from
the retractors. The li\'ing artery touched by the finger seems soft and does not give
the hard, resisting impression felt in palpating the radial in feeling the pulse. The
difference in thickness of the coats is also sometimes not apparent at a first glance.
The ligature is to be passed from without inward so as to guard against wounding
the internal carotid.
Ligatio7i of the Superior Thyroid Artery. — The superior thyroid is the first
branch of the external carotid and is given off close down to the bifurcation or even
from the common carotid itself just below. It lies quite superficial but of course
beneath the deep fascia. At first it inclines upward and then makes a bend and goes
downward to the thyroid gland. It gives off three comparatively small branches,
the hyoid along the lower border of the hyoid bone, the sternomastoid to the muscle
of that name, and the superior laryngeal to the interior of the larynx. The larger
portion of the artery goes downward to supply the thyroid gland and muscles over
it, therefore the artery is to be looked for at the upper edge of the thyroid cartilage,
and not near the hyoid bone. The incision is the same as for ligating the external
carotid low down, viz. , 5 cm. along the anterior edge of the sternomastoid muscle, its
middle being opposite the upper edge of the thyroid cartilage. Veins from the thyroid
gland — superior thyroid — will probably cover it. After the deep fascia has been
opened, the external carotid is to be recognized at its origin from the common carotid
and then the superior thyroid artery found and followed out from that point. The
ligature is to be passed from above downward to avoid the superior laryngeal nerve.
This nerve lies distinctly above the artery and is not liable to be injured if the thyroid
artery is followed out from its origin at the external carotid. Treves suggests ligat-
ing it between the sternomastoid and superior laryngeal branches, but it is more
readily reached closer to the external carotid artery.
Ligation of the Lingual Artery. — The lingual artery may be ligated for wounds,
as a preliminary step to excision of the tongue, and to check the growth of or bleed-
ing from malignant growths of the tongue, mouth, or lower jaw.
The lingual artery springs from the external carotid opposite the hyoid bone
about I cm. above the bifurcation of the common carotid. It is composed of three
parts: the first, from its point of origin to the posterior edge of the hyoglossus
146
APPLIED ANATOMY.
muscle; the second, the part beneath the hyoglossus muscle; and the third, the part
beyond this muscle to the tip of the tongue.
The artery is usually ligated beneath the hyoglossus muscle in the second part of
its course, although it is sometimes desirable to ligate it in the first part of its course.
The Jirst part inclines upward and forward, above the greater horn of the hyoid
bone, to the hyoglossus muscle, beneath which it passes in a direction somewhat
parallel to the upper edge of the hyoid bone. It lies on the middle constrictor of
the pharynx and superior larnygeal nerve and is covered by the skin, platysma, and
fascia. It lies immediately below the stylohyoid and digastric muscles and is crossed
by the hypoglossal nerve and some veins. This portion frequently gives of? a hyoid
branch which runs above the hyoid bone. It is often missing, in which case the
parts are supplied by the hyoid branch of the superior thyroid. From either the end
of the first part or the beginning of the second part, the dorsalis linguae branch arises.
The second part of the lingual lies on the superior constrictor and geniohyoglos-
sus muscles and is covered by the hyoglossus. It runs in a direction somewhat
parallel to the upper edge of the hyoid bone and from 0.5 to i cm. above it. In this
/
Mylohyoid muscle
Submaxillary gland —
Anterior belly of
digastric muscle
Lingual artery
Tendon of
digastric muscle
Hypoglossal nerve
vLingual vein
vCut edge of the hyoglossus muscle
Fig. 174. — Ligation of the lingual artery
part of its course it is usually accompanied by one or two veins and the hypoglossal
nerve is superficial to it, the hyoglossus muscle separating them. This is the part
of the artery chosen for ligation. An incision is made, convex downward, running
from below and to one side of the symphysis nearly down to the hyoid bone and
then sloping upward and back, stopping short of the line of the facial artery, which
can be determined by the groove on the mandible just in front of the masseter muscle.
The skin, superficial fascia, and platysma having been raised, the submaxillary gland
is seen covered with a comparatively thin deep fascia. Some veins coming from the
submental region may then be encountered. They may be ligated and divided.
The submaxillary gland is next to be lifted from its bed and turned upward against
the mandible, carrying with it the facial artery, which is adherent to its under sur-
face. The tendon of the digastric will now be seen with the anterior and posterior
belHes of the muscle forming an angle with its point toward the hyoid bone. These
with the hypoglossal nerve form what has been called the triangle of Lesser. It is
in this space that the artery is ligated. The floor of the space posteriorly is formed
by the hyoglossus muscle, while anteriorly is seen the edge of the mylohyoid muscle.
Through the thin fascia overlying the hyoglossus muscle can be seen the hypoglossal
THE NECK. 147
nerve, and below it, sometimes a vein. The artery lies under the muscle, while the
veins may be either on or under the muscle or both.
The apex of the angle formed by the tendon of the digastric muscle is held
down to the hyoid bone by a slip of fascia which is an expansion of the central
tendon of the muscle and the tendon of the stylohyoid muscle. The distance at
which the central tendon of the digastric is held away from the hyoid bone varies
in different individuals and is an important fact to bear in mind in searching for
the artery. If the tendon rests high above the hyoid bone the artery must be
looked for low down, sometimes even under the tendon; if, on the contrary, the
tendon is low down the artery may be o. 5 to i cm. higher up. The hypoglossal nerve
lies on the muscle and nearer to the mandible than the artery. If there is a vein on
the hyoglossus muscle it is apt to be below the nerve, that is, nearer the hyoid bone,
and may lie directly o\er the artery. The vein and the nerve are to be displaced
up towards the jaw and an incision a centimetre long made through the hyoglossus
muscle a short distance above the digastric tendon and parallel with the hyoid bone.
This incision should not be deep, as the muscle is only 2 or 3 mm. (^ in.) thick.
Middle scalene muscle
Posterior scalene muscle
Stemomastoid muscle, ^ ^ ^ t , \
^^ y^ / \ \ \ ^"-Omohyoid muscle
Phrenic nerve
Anterior scalene muscle .
Subclavian vein I l \ Suprascapular artery and vein
Cords of brachial plexus / Transverse cervical artery and vein
Subclavian artery
Fig. 175. — Ligation of the subclavian artery
The edges of the incision being raised and displaced upward and downward, the artery
will probably be seen running at right angles to the fibres of the muscle and parallel to
the hyoid bone. If not seen at once it should be looked for below the incision,
nearer to the hyoid bone. Care must be taken not to mistake the vein for the artery.
That this is not an unlikely thing is shown by its occurring in the hands of a distin-
guished surgeon who had had exceptional experience in this same operation. The
ligature needle may be passed from above downward to avoid including the hypo-
glossal nerve.
Subclavian Artery. — The right subclavian artery runs from the sternoclavicular
articulation in a curved line to the middle of the clavicle. It rises 1.25 cm, (^ in,,
Walsham) above the clavicle. The innominate bifurcates opposite the right sterno-
clavicular joint. The left subclavian springs direcdy from the arch of the aorta,
therefore it is longer than the right by 4 to 5 cm., this being the length of the in-
nominate. As the subclavian artery passes outward it is crossed by the scalenus
anticus muscle, which divides it into three parts : the first part, extending to the
inner side of the muscle, gives off three branches, the vertebral, internal majnmary ,
and thyroid axis; the second part, behind the muscle, gives off the superior intercos-
tal; the third part has no branches.
148 APPLIED ANATOMY.
1^\\Q first portion of the siibclavian lies very deep and operations on it have been
so unsuccessful that they have been practically abandoned. As it is frequently
involved in aneurisms its relations are worth studying. In approaching the artery
from the surface it is seen to be covered by the sternomastoid, the sternohyoid,
and the sternothyroid muscles. The outer edge of the sternomastoid muscle corre-
sponds with the outer edge of the scalenus anticus. The three first-named muscles
having been raised, the artery is seen to be crossed by the internal jugular, the
vertebral, and perhaps the anterior jugular veins. The anterior jugular above the
clavicle dips beneath the inner edge of the sternomastoid muscle to pass outward
and empty into the external jugular or subclavian. The pneumogastric nerve crosses
the artery just to the inner side of the internal jugular vein. Below, the artery rests
on the pleura, and on the right side the recurrent laryngeal nerve winds around it.
Behind the artery are the pleura and lung, which rise somewhat higher in the neck
than does the artery.
On the left side the phrenic nerve leaves the scalenus anticus muscle at the first
rib, crosses the subclavian at its inner edge, and passes down on the pleura to cross
the arch of the aorta. To the inner side of the artery runs the thoracic duct, which,
as it reaches the upper portion of the artery, curves over it to cross the scalenus
anticus muscle and empty into the junction of the internal jugular and subclavian
veins. The trachea and oesophagus are likewise seen to the inner side of the artery.
The thyroid axis comes of? its anterior surface, the vertebral from its posterior, and
the internal mammary below.
The second portion of the subclavian artery lies behind the anterior scalene
muscle. In front of the anterior scalene is the subclavian vein. The phrenic nerve
runs on the muscle and at the first rib leaves it to continue down between the right
innominate vein and pleura. Behind and below, the artery rests on the pleura and
the middle scalene muscle is to its outer side. Thus it is seen that the artery passes
through a chink formed by the anterior scalene muscle in front and the middle
scalene behind. They both insert into the first rib. The posterior scalene is farther
back and inserts into the second rib. Above the artery are all the cords of the
brachial plexus. One branch of the subclavian, the superior intercostal artery, is
given off near the inner edge of the anterior scalene muscle.
The third portio7i of the subclavian runs from the outer edge of the anterior scalene
muscle to the lower border of the first rib. This part of the artery is the most super-
ficial. The only muscle covering it above is the thin sheet of the platysma, lower
down the subclavius muscle and clavicle overlie it; but the operations on the vessel
are done above these structures, hence they do not interfere. There are apt to be a
number of veins in front of the artery. The external jugular and transverse cervical
veins are certain to be present and perhaps the suprascapular and cephalic, which
may enter above instead of below the clavicle. These veins may form a regular net-
work in the posterior cervical triangle above the clavicle and prove very troublesome.
Above is the brachial plexus and transverse cervical artery and still higher is seen the
omohyoid muscle. The suprascapular artery is lower down and usually concealed
just below the upper edge of the clavicle. The lowest cord of the brachial plexus,
formed by the first dorsal and last cervical nerves, may be posterior to the artery.
The nerve to the subclavius muscle passes down in front of it.
Ligation of the Third Portion of the Subclavian Artery. — The head is to be
turned strongly to the opposite side and the shoulder depressed. This lowers the
clavicle and raises the omohyoid muscle and therefore gives more room to work.
The skin is to be drawn down and an incision 7.5 cm. long made on the clavicle.
The drawing down of the skin is done to avoid wounding the external jugular vein.
This vein is really fastened to the deep fascia, and the skin, platysma, and super-
ficial fascia slide over it. On releasing the skin it slides up above the clavicle. The
middle of the incision should be a little to the inside of the middle of the clavicle.
The deep fascia is to be incised and the clavicular origin of the sternomastoid
and trapezius muscles cut to the same extent as the superficial incision. The length
of the adult male clavicle is about 15 cm (6 in.).
The clavicular origin of the sternomastoid extends out on the clavicle one-third
of its length. The trapezius inserts into the outer third. This leaves the middle
THE NECK. 149
third or 5 cm. of the cla\'icle on its upper surface JFree from muscles. As the
incision is 7.5 cm. long this necessitates the division of 2.5 cm. (i in.) of muscle,
and as the middle of the incision is a little to the inner side of the middle of the
clavicle this will make it necessary to divide more of the clavicular origin of the
sternomastoid than of the trapezius. After the division of the deep fascia, fat and
veins are encountered. The scalenus anticus muscle has the subclavian vein in
front of it and the artery behind, therefore the vein must be attended to before a
search is made for the edge of the scalene muscle. The veins to be encountered are
the external jugular vein, which empties into the subclavian in front of or to the
outer side of the anterior scalene muscle, and its tributaries, the suprascapular and
transverse cervical veins, as well as the anterior jugular and a communicating branch
from the opposite side of the neck. The cephalic vein not infrequently sends a
communicating branch over the clavicle to empty into the external jugular. The
fat is to be picked away with forceps; the veins are to be held out of the way with a
blunt hook or ligated and cut. The suprascapular artery may be seen close to or
under the cla\icle. The transverse cervical artery may perhaps be above the level
of the wound. The omohyoid muscle may or may not be seen, as its distance from
the clavicle is quite variable. The transverse cervical and suprascapular arteries
are not to be cut, as they are needed for the collateral circulation. As was
mentioned in speaking of the ligation of the external carotid artery, so also here it
is not always easy to distinguish between arteries and veins. The veins being
disposed of, the anterior scalene muscle is to be sought at the internal portion of the
wound. It runs somewhat like the lower portion of the sternomastoid, the posterior
edges of the two muscles coinciding. The phrenic nerve runs down first on the
anterior surface and then on the inner surface of the scalenus anticus. The edge of
the muscle being recognized, by following it down the finger feels the first rib. The
artery lies on the first rib immediately behind the muscle and the vein immediately in
front of the muscle. The tubercle on the first rib may not be readily felt because the
muscle is inserted into it. The prevertebral fascia coming down the scalenus anticus
muscle passes from it to the subclavian artery, forming its sheath; hence, as pointed
out by George A. Wright, of Manchester {^Annals of Surgery, 1888, p. 362), the
edge of the muscle may not readily be distinguished and the brachial plexus is a
better guide. This is above the artery and the lower cord of the plexus lies directly
alongside of the artery. It is closer to the artery above and to its outer side than
the subclavian vein is below and to its inner side. The greatest care should be
exercised in passing the aneurism needle around the artery. The vein is not so
much in jeopardy as are the pleura and lowest cord of the brachial plexus, hence the
needle is passed from above down between the ner\-e and the artery and brought
out between the artery and vein.
Wounding of the pleura may cause collapse of the lung and later a septic
pleurisy, while including the nerve will cause severe pain, etc.
Collateral CircidaUon after Ligation of the Third Portion of the Subclavian Artery.
— (1) Internal mammary with superior thoracic and long thoracic. (2) The poste-
rior scapular branch of the suprascapular with the dorsalis branch of the subscap-
ular. (3) Acromial branches of suprascapular with acromial branch of acromial
thoracic. (4) A number of small vessels derived from branches of the subclavian
above with axillary branches of the main axillary trunk below (Gray).
Ligation of the Inferior Thyt'oid Artery. — The inferior thyroid artery, unlike
the superior, lies deep from the surface, and it is a far more difificult vessel to reach. It
is a branch of the thyroid axis, the other branches being the transverse cervical and
suprascapular. The thyroid axis comes from the first part of the subclavian just a
little to the inner side of the edge of the scalenus anticus muscle. The inferior
thyroid artery ascends on the longus colli muscle, just to the inner side of the
scalenus anticus and almost in front of the vertebral artery. When it reaches about
the level of the sexenth cervical vertebra it bends inward and behind the carotid
artery to reach the lower posterior edge of the thyroid gland. The transverse
process of the sixth cervical vertebra, called the caj'otid tubercle of Chassaignac, is
above it. As it bends to go inward it gives off the ascending cervical artery. In
front of the artery are the internal jugular vein, common carotid artery, pneumo-
15°
APPLIED ANATOMY.
gastric nerve, and the middle ganglion of the sympathetic. The recurrent laryngeal
nerve usually passes upward behind the branches of the artery just before they enter
the thyroid gland. The thoracic duct on the left side passes over the front of the
artery low down.
Operation. — An incision 7.5 cm. long is made along the anterior border of the
sternomastoid muscle, extending upward from the clavicle. This will bring the upper
extremity up to, or even above, the cricoid cartilage. The anterior jugular vein
will have to be ligated and the muscle displaced outward. The common carotid
artery should then be isolated and it, together with the pneumogastric nerve and
internal jugular vein, drawn outward. The omohyoid muscle may appear at the
upper edge of the incision. Feel for the carotid tubercle on the sixth transverse
cervical process: the artery lies below the omohyoid muscle and cricoid cartilage and
below the tubercle and beneath the sheath of the carotid. If the trunk of the sym-
pathetic or its middle cervical ganglion, which lies on the artery, is encountered, it
Profunda cervicis
Transverse cervical
Posterior scapular
Acromial thoracic
Subscapular
Dorsalis scapulae
Long thoracic
Inferior thyroid
Common carotid
Vertebral
Innominate
Superior intercostal
— Subclavian
/ ~ -Superior thoracic
— - Internal mammary
Fig. 176. — Collateral circulation after ligation of the third portion of the subclavian artery.
should be pushed to the inner side, the artery isolated outwardly and ligature applied.
Do not go too far out or the scalenus anticus will be reached and the phrenic nerve
may be injured, nor too far in, to avoid wounding the recurrent laryngeal.
The thyroidea hna {inferior thyroid^ vei^is do not cross outward nor accompany
the artery, but proceed downward on the trachea to empty into the innominate veins.
THE CERVICAL FASCIAS.
There are two fascias in the neck, the superficial and the deep. The super-
ficial fascia has blended with it anteriorly the platysma muscle and the termination of
the nerves, arteries, and veins. The main trunks of these structures lie for all
practical purposes beneath the superficial fascia and adherent to the surface of the
deep fascia. It is for this reason that in raising the superficial structures the larger
trunks remain applied to the deep fascia and are thus less liable to be injured in the
living and mutilated in the dead. In the superficial fascia and on the deep fascia are
the superficial lymphatics.
THE NECK.
151
The superticial lymphatic nodes frequently suppurate. When they do the
abscess so formed is prevented by the deep fascia from reaching the parts beneath, so
the pus works its way out through the skin. As the superficial fascia is loose, if
the. abscess is slow in formation, it may extend for a considerable distance under the
skin.
Sebaceous cysts are common in the neck. As they are superficial to the deep
fascia, which is not involved, they can be removed without fear of wounding any
important structures. The veins do not overlie them; they are always superficial
to the veins, therefore there is no danger of wounding the external jugular.
The Deep Cervical Fascia. — The deep cervical fascia completely envelops
the neck and sends its branches in between all its various structures. It is the
fibrous tissue that both unites and separates all the different structures to and from
each other. Where this fascia is abundant it forms a distinct layer, but where it is
scant it is simply a small amount of connective tissue between two adjacent parts.
Anterior jugular veins
Larynx^
Superficial layer of deep cervical fascia,
Pretracheal layer
Cricoid cartilage
Cricothyroid muscle
Prevertebral layer
LoDgus colli
Sternohyoid muscle
Sternothyroid
Thyroid gland
/ Omohyoid
Carotid artery
Sternomastoid
Trachelomastoid
Sixth vertebra
Longus colli
Internal jugular vein
Trachelomastoid
Scale
> anticus and medius
External jugular vein
Scalenus posticus
Levator scapuLc
Splenius colli
Splenius capitis
Trapezius
Com plexus
Multifidus spinoe
Semispinales cervices
Fig. 177. — Transverse section of the neck through the sixth cervical vertebra.
To follow all the processes of the deep fascia through the neck between its innumer-
able structures is impossible — nor is it necessary. The main reason for studying the
deep cervical fascia and its various parts is to understand the course pursued by
abscesses and infections. This is best done by limiting oneself to the main super-
ficial layer and some of the larger layers crossing from side to side.
The principal layers of the deep cervical fascia are the stiperjicial layer, which
completely encircles and envelops the neck, the prevertebral layer, which passes
from side to side in front of the spinal column, and the pretracheal layer, which passes
from side to side in front of the trachea.
The Superficial Layer. — The superficial layer of the deep fascia envelops the
whole of the neck, with the exception of the skin, platysma, and superficial fascia.
It is attached above to the occipital protuberance, the superior curved line of the occi-
put, the mastoid process, then blends with the capsule of the parotid gland, then passes
to the angle of the jaw and along the body of the mandible to the symphysis,
whence it proceeds around the opposite side in the same manner. Below it is
attached to the sternum, upper edge of the clavicle, acromion process and spine of
the scapula, thence across to the vertebral spines, to which and to the ligamentum
APPLIED ANATOMY.
nuchae it is attached up to the occipital protuberance. In the front"oF the neck it
passes from the mandible down to be attached to the hyoid bone and thence down-
ward to the sternum and clavicle.
From the under side of this superficial layer processes of fascia come oE and
envelop the various structures of the neck. Every separate structure of the neck
is covered by it and therefore separated from the adjacent parts by a more or less dis-
tinct layer of the fascia. In many places it is quite thin or almost imperceptible,
amounting to but a few shreds of fibrous tissue, in other places it is more distinct,
forming more or less marked capsules, as in the case of the thyroid and submaxillary
glands, or fibrous layers, as in the case of those in front of the vertebrae and trachea.
Posteriorly in the median line the superficial layer of the deep fascia sends a process
which covers the under surface of the trapezius muscle. Anteriorly another process
is given ofl to cover the under surface of the sternomastoid muscle. The super-
Prevertebral fascia
Pneumogastric nerve
Common carotid artery
Internal jugular vein
Sheath of the vessels
Superficial layer of deep fascia
CEsophagus
Trachea
Thyroid gland
Pretracheal fascia
4
Fig 178. — Deep cervical fascia.
The pharynx and larynx have been cut away, exposing the prevertebral and
pretracheal layers.
ficial veins of the neck, the anterior, external, and posterior jugulars, lie on or in
the deep fascia, being stuck to or blended with its upper surface.
About 3 cm. ( I ^ in. ) above the sternum the deep fascia splits into two layers,
one to be attached to the anterior and the other to the posterior edge of the sternum
in front of the sternohyoid and sternothyroid muscles. Between these two layers is
the space of Bums ; it contains the lower ends of the anterior jugular veins with
the branch that joins them, some fatty tissue and lymphatic nodes, and the sternal
origin of the sternomastoid muscle. Sometimes a vein comes up from the surface of
the chest below to open into the anterior jugular vein.
The prevertebral layer passes from side to side directly on the bodies of the
vertebrae. It covers the muscles attached to the spine, as the scalene, longus colli,
rectus capitis anticus, and also the nerves, as those of the brachial plexus, coming
from the spine. On reaching the carotid artery and jugular vein it helps to form
their sheath. Its upper edge is attached to the base of the skull at the jugular fora-
men and carotid canal and thence across the basilar process to the opposite side.
Inferiorly it passes down on the surface of the bodies of the vertebrae into the pos-
terior mediastinum.
THE NECK. 153
From the sheath of the vessels outward, beyond the posterior edge of the sterno-
mastoid muscle, the prevertebral fascia covers the scalene muscles, the brachial plexus
of nerves, and the subclavian artery. On reaching the clavicle the fascia is attached
to its upper surface, blending with the superficial layer; it is then continued down
over the subclavian muscle, forming its sheath, and ends as the costocoracoid mem-
brane. The part over the subclavian artery and vein is continued over them and
the brachial plexus and follows them into the axilla. This fascia forms the floor of
the posterior cervical triangle; the roof is formed by the superficial layer of the deep
fascia. It is between these layers that the suprascapular artery and veins nm. The
descending branches of the cervical plexus, the spinal accessory nerve, omohyoid
muscle, and some fat and lymph-nodes are also found there.
The pretracheal layer passes from side to side in front of the trachea. Laterally
it too blends with the sheath of the vessels and is continued posteriorly behind the
pharynx and oesophagus as the buccopharyngeal fascia. In front it blends in the
median line with the superficial layer and is attached to the hyoid bone and cricoid
cartilage. It splits to enclose and form a capsule for the thyroid gland, and below en-
closes in its meshes the inferior thyroid veins, and thence passes to the arch of the
aorta to be continuous with the pericardium. Laterally it passes under the sterno-
hyoid, omohyoid, and sternothyroid muscles to blend with the sheath of the vessels
and the layer on the posterior surface of the sternomastoid muscle. This is its
lateral limit. Underneath the sternomastoid muscle a loop of fascia proceeds down-
ward from the omohyoid muscle to the first rib. This is derived from the sheath
of the vessels beneath and the layer on the under surface of the sternomastoid
superficially.
The sheath of the vessels envelops the carotid artery, jugular vein, and pneumo-
gastric nerve. Thin layers of fascia pass between these structures, separating one
from the other. The sheath is formed by the union of the outer edge of the pre-
tracheal fascia and the prevertebral fascia, with the fascia lining the under surface of
the sternomastoid muscle. This sheath follows the vessels down into the chest and
out into the axilla.
The capsule of the parotid gla^id is formed by the splitting of the superficial
layer of the deep cer\ical fascia as it passes from the mastoid process to the angle of
the jaw. Its superficial portion is attached to the zygomatic process. Its deep por-
tion passes from the styloid process to the angle of the jaw and is known as the
stylomandibular ligament.
The capsule of the submaxillary gland \s formed by a splitting of the superficial
layer at the hyoid bone. It forms the covering of the gland and from the hyoid
bone sends a process upward which lies on the digastric and mylohyoid muscles
and follows the latter up to be attached along the mylohyoid ridge of the mandible.
It proceeds with the submaxillary gland around the posterior edge of the mylohyoid
muscle to cover its upper surface. The stylomandibular ligament alluded to above
separates the parotid from the submaxillary gland.
The capsule of the thyroid gland is not very thick and the gland is readily
separated from it, as is also the case w ith the submaxillary gland. It is continued
downward in front of the trachea as the pretracheal layer and laterally it blends with
the sheath of the vessels. It follows the vessels downward into the chest and is
continuous with the pericardium. The veins of the gland, which are at times very
large, run beneath the capsule and bleed freely if wounded.
The Buccopharyngeal Fascia. — Between the pharynx in front and the ver-
tebral column behind is the retropharyngeal space. The fascia forming the pos-
terior wall of this space is the prevertebral fascia already described. Forming its
anterior wall is a thin layer of connective tissue called the buccopharyngeal fascia.
It invests the superior constrictor of the pharynx and is continued forward on the
buccinator muscle. It is continued downward behind the pharynx and oesophagus
into the posterior mediastinum: laterally it blends with the sheath of the vessels
and is continuous with the pretracheal fascia around the larynx, trachea, and thyroid
gland (Fig. 179).
Abscesses of the Neck. — Abscesses of the neck usually arise in connection
with the Ivmphatic nodes. They may also start from infected wounds, carious
■54
APPLIED ANATOMY.
teeth, suppuration of the thyroid g-land, and other causes. They may have then^
course influenced by the various layers of the deep fascia.
Pus in the Submaxillary RegioJi. — As the submaxillary space has the mylo-
hyoid muscle as its floor, abscesses here show below the body of the mandible
between it and the hyoid bone. Usually they point towards the skin. Infection of
this space may occur from the teeth. Tillmans ("Surgery," vol. i, p. 434) saw a
case in which in four days the pus caused death from infection of the mediastinum
and pleura. This proceeded downward from a badly extracted tooth and thence
under the deep fascia of the neck to the chest.
The pus, filling the submaxillary space, as can also occur in Ludwig's angina,
which is an infective inflammation of the submaxillary and sublingual regions, may
follow the lingual and facial arteries to the sheath of the great vessels and down into
the superior mediastinum. The infection in Ludwig's angina may pass around
the posterior edge of the mylohyoid muscle and involve the structures around the
Buccinator
Masseter
Internal pterygoid
Buccopharyngeal
fascia
Retropharyngeal
space
Prevertebral fascia
Posterior pilla*
of fauces
External carotid artery
Parotid gland
Internal jugular vein
Rectus capitis
Longus colli
Vagus nerve
Internal carotid artery
Fig, 179 — Section through the upper portion of the third cervical vertebra, showing the buccopharyngeal and
prevertebral fascias and retropharyngeal space.
base of the tongue and pharynx, and produce oedema of the larynx and death (see
page 200).
Pus superficial to the deep fascia tends to perforate the skin and discharge
externally. If it is slow in forming it may sink down and pass over the clavicle
onto the upper portion of the chest.
Pus in the suprasternal notch or space of Burns bulges anteriorly but may
perforate posteriorly. The sternothyroid and sternohyoid muscles are attached to the
posterior surface of the sternum ; but the layer of fascia on their anterior surface is
very thin, so that pus may either pass between the muscles or perforate them and so
pass down in front of the pretracheal fascia close to the under surface of the sternum.
It would then tend to show itself in the upper intercostal spaces, close to the
sternum.
Pus between the pretracheal and S7iperficial layers, as may occur from abscesses
of the thyroid gland, tends to work its way downward rather than laterally. The
pretracheal fascia at the sides blends with the sheath of the vessels and the fascia
covering the posterior surface of the sternomastoid muscles. In this space lie the
sternohyoid, sternothyroid, and omohyoid muscles. The pretracheal fascia is beneath
them and the superficial layer of the deep fascia above. Pus can follow the posterior
THE NECK.
155
surface of these muscles down behind the sternum in front of the innominate veins
and arch of the aorta.
Pus between the pretracheal and prevertebral layers cannot go further to one
side than the sheath of the \'essels. Therefore it follows the trachea and oesophagus
down into the posterior mediastinum. This space, between these layers, is some-
times called the visceral space because it contains the oesophagus, trachea, and
thyroid gland. Pus in this space can also perforate into the trachea, pharynx,
oesophagus, or even extend laterally and involve the great vessels.
If the anterior portion of the thyroid gland suppurates, the pus may perforate the
Prevertebral layer
Cricoid cartilage
Hyoid bone
Thryoid cartilage
Superior layer of deep
cervical fascia
Pretracheal layer
Cricoid cartilage
Thyroid gland
Space of Bums
Left innominate vein
Aorta
Pericardium
Fig. i8o. — The superficial layer, pretracheal layer, and prevertebral layer of the deep cervical fascia.
thin pretracheal fascia covering it and pass down behind the sternohyoid and sterno-
thyroid muscles into the anterior part of the superior mediastinum.
Pus posterior to the prevertebral fascia, as from caries of the vertebrae, if high
up may bulge into the pharynx, forming a retropharyngeal abscess. It may follow
the scaleni muscles and brachial plexus down around the axillary artery into the
axilla. In the neck it shows itself posterior to the carotid arteries and to the older
edge of the sternomastoid muscles.
Pus i7i the sheath of the great vessels, when originating from lymphatic nodes,
may first raise the sternomastoid muscle and show itself along its anterior border;
it may perforate the lumen of the vessels; it may pass down with the vessels into the
superior mediastinum; or it may bulge into the visceral space between the pre-
vertebral and pretracheal layers and follow the trachea and oesophagus down into the
chest. Should it tend outwardly it may break into the posterior cervical triangle
between the prevertebral and superficial layers and show itself above the clavicle.
156 APPLIED ANATOMY.
Retropharyngeal Abscess. — Pus which tends to point into the pharynx may come
from disease of the vertebrae, in which case it is posterior to the prevertebral fascia;
or it may originate from the lymphatic nodes in the retropharyngeal space.
When coming from caries of the vertebrae, it may point either in the pharynx
or, pushing its way outward, pass behind the great vessels and show itself behind
the outer edge of the sternomastoid muscle. I have seen it point in both these
places in the same case. When originating in the retropharyngeal space it lies in
front of the prevertebral fascia and behind the buccopharyngeal fascia. It either
points forward into the pharynx or, going down, follows the posterior surface of the
oesophagus into the posterior mediastinum. It may also perforate the oesophagus
and enter its lumen.
Pus in the Posterior Cervical Triangle. — If above the prevertebral layer this
bulges directly forward and tends to open through the skin. Its progress downward
is obstructed by the attachment of the superficial layer to the top of the clavicle as
it blends with the prevertebral layer. If pus is beneath the prevertebral layer it may
then follow the brachial plexus and subclavian artery down beneath the clavicle and
appear in the axilla. The attachments of the costocoracoid membrane tend to direct
the pus laterally under the pectoralis minor muscle into the axilla rather than to allow
It to come forward on the anterior portion of the chest.
LYMPHATICS OF THE NECK.
The lymphatics of the neck are both superficial and deep. The superficial
nodes communicate freely with and end in the deep ones. For the sake of conven-
ience we may divide them into a transverse set, embracing the submental^ submaxillary,
superficial upper cervical (behind the angle of the jaw), posterior auriciilar, and
occipital nodes; and two longitudinal sets, one along the great vessels and another, a
posterior set, in the posterior cervical triangle.
The Transverse Lymphatics. — The stibmental nodes, also called the supra-
hyoid, lie beneath the chin and drain the region of the lower lip and chin and anterior
part of the floor of the mouth. These will be enlarged in children with ulcerative skin
affections of these regions. They may also be involved in carcinoma of the lower lip,
especially if near the median line. That the submental nodes drain the tissues of the
anterior portion of the mouth and probably the tongue itself is shown by Henry T.
Butlin ("Surgery of Malignant Disease," p. 153), who states that the submental
nodes are frequently affected in carcinoma of the tongue when its tip is involved.
The submaxillary nodes are beneath the body of the mandible in the sub-
maxillary triangle. They drain the lips, nose, floor of the mouth, gums, anterior
portion of the tongue and side of the face. These are the nodes most frequently
affected in carcinomatous affections of the lips and anterior portion of the tongue.
Henry T. Butlin ("Surgery of Malignant Disease," p. 153) calls attention to the
fact that in malignant disease of one side of the anterior portion of the tongue the
lymphatics of the opposite side may also be involved, thus showing that the lym-
phatics of the two sides of the tongue freely anastomose. This is contrary to what
exists as regards the arteries, which anastomose hardly at all across the median line.
He also states that one or more of the lymphatic nodes is frequently imbedded in the
substance of the submaxillary gland. Therefore the submaxillary gland is excised at
the same time as the affected lymphatic nodes.
The superficial tipper cervical {subparotid) nodes are just below the parotid
lymphatics and behind the angle of the jaw. They drain tlie region embraced by
the masseter muscle as far back as the ear. They may be enlarged in affections of
the skin and scalp above. Therefore in children with enlargement of these nodes
the source of infection should be sought in those regions.
The poste7'ior auricular nodes are behind the ear on the mastoid process and
insertion of the sternomastoid muscle. In practice they are encountered as small
(i cm.), round swellings behind the ear, which are usually quite tender to the touch.
This is probably due to their being placed on a hard, bony base. When enlarged
they are often the subject of operations.
THE NECK.
157
The superficial occipital yiodes are just below the superior curved Hue of the
occiput oi" a little lower down in the hollow below the occiput between the posterior
edge of the sternomastoid and anterior edge of the trapezius muscles, resting on the
splenius. These are the nodes that are enlarged in syphilis and are to be searched
for in endeavoring to establish a diagnosis.
Superficial and Deep Abodes. — • The five sets of nodes just described, viz. , the
submental, submaxillary, superficial upper cervical, posterior auricular, and superficial
occipital, are all regarded as superficial nodes. As a matter of fact this division of the
lymphatic nodes into superficial and deep is not of practical value. The communica-
tion between the various nodes is quite free. Adjacent nodes communicate and the
superficial nodes communicate with the deep ones below.
On account of this an afTection is not always limited to a single node but often
involves those to each side and those lying still deeper. In the submaxillary region
Posterior
auricular node
Anterior
auricular node
Occipital node
Superior deep
cervical nodes
Superficial
cervical nodes
Fig. i8i. — Superficial lymphatic vessels and nodes of head and neck; semidiaerammatic. (Piersol.)
the nodes will almost certainly be found to lie under the fascia along with the sub-
maxillary gland. When the occipital nodes are enlarged they may not only be
found in the space already described but also on the adjacent trapezius and sterno-
mastoid muscle and even beneath the outer edge of the trapezius below the deep
fascia.
The Longitudinal Lymphatics. — These are along the great vessels, — the
anterior cervical lymphatics, — and in the posterior cervical triangle.
The anterior cervical lymphatics is the name given to those which tend to show
in the anterior cervical triangle either beneath or in front of the sternomastoid
muscle, between it and the median line. There are some nodes in the median line
but they are almost all deep down in the neck above the sternum. The other nodes
may be either superficial or deep, mostly deep, along the edge of the sternomastoid
T'^y ^^^^^ APPLIED ANATOMY. ^^^^^^^^^H
muscle. They follow the sheath of the vessels. This is a very extensive chain of
nodes. They may extend in all directions. As regards depth they may be on the
deep fascia along the edge of the sternomastoid or following the external jugular
vein. If deeper they follow the internal jugular vein and carotid artery directly
up to the base of the skull, also behind and below the mastoid process and along-
side of the transverse process of the atlas (first cervical vertebra). They extend
under the sternomastoid posteriorly, deep in the suboccipital region. Should
they be enlarged downward they will protrude behind the posterior edge of the
sternomastoid into the posterior cervical triangle; if anteriorly they will follow it
down into the space of Burns in front of the trachea and thence into the superior
mediastinum.
T\\& posterior cervical nodes show behind the posterior edge of the sternomastoid,
along the edge of the trapezius, and also above tne clavicle. They not infrequently
fill the posterior cervical triangle and extend beneath the muscles on each side.
Below they may be continuous with enlarged nodes in the axilla and extend
anteriorly under the sternomastoid into the pretracheal region and mediastinum.
They are frequently excised for both tuberculosis and carcinoma. In so doing
particular care is to be taken on account of the trans\'ersalis colli and suprascapular
arteries and veins, with which they may lie in contact, as well as the terminal por-
tion of the external jugular.
Postpharyngeal Nodes. — In ihe retropharyngeal space, toward the sides,
between the buccopharyngeal fascia in front and the prevertebral fascia behind are
located one or two nodes (see buccopharyngeal fascia, page 153, and retropharyn-
geal abscess, page 156). They seem to be the starting point, sometimes, of retro-
pharyngeal abscess. They do not appear to get enlarged and project into the
pharynx as tumors, as might be expected, so that they are not subjected to any
surgical procedures.
Operating for the Removal of Enlarged Cervical Nodes. — This opera-
tion may be one of the most serious in surgery. Sir Frederick Treves says : " An
operation of this kind should not be undertaken unless the surgeon has perfect con-
fidence in his practical knowledge of the anatomy of the neck. Scarcely an instance
can be cited in the range of operative surgery where a knowledge of the structure
and of relations is more essential than in these excisions." The main difficulties
encountered are in the avoidance of nerves and the control of hemorrhage. Air
may enter the veins and cause death, and the thoracic duct may be wounded. The
latter accident sometimes results fatally. The difficulty of the operation will de-
pend on the size and number of the nodes, their location, and the character of the
inflammation or other changes they have undergone. In an early stage the nodes
may be lying loose in the tissues and can be readily turned out when once exposed.
Later they may be matted to the surrounding structures by inflammatory deposits
and then their separation is a matter of difficulty and danger.
The skin incisions may be either longitudinal or more or less transverse. The
longitudinal incisions are usually along either the anterior or posterior border of
the sternomastoid muscle, or the anterior edge of the trapezius. The transverse
incision may be either opposite the hyoid bone — when it may be prolonged around
the angle of the jaw and up to the mastoid process and over the suboccipital glands,
or above the clavicle.
As the skin and superficial structures are cut and the deep fascia opened,
the superficial veins will be cut, hence the first anatomical fact to be borne in mind
is the probable location of the veins. The most important of these is the external
jugular. The internal jugular below the hyoid bone lies under the sternomastoid
muscle and therefore is protected until the deeper dissection is begun. The external
jugular runs about in a line from the angle of the jaw to the middle of the posterior
edge of the sternomastoid muscle and thence downward to about the middle of the
clavicle. Therefore an incision along the posterior edge of the sternomastoid will
divide it at about the middle of the muscle, and the surgeon should be prepared to
guard against an undue loss of blood when it is cut. Opening into the external
jugular posteriorly between the middle of the sternomastoid muscle and the clavicle
below are the posterior jugular, the transverse cervical, and the suprascapular veins.
THE NECK. 159
These latter open into the external jugular i or 2 cm. above the clavicle and are
almost certain to be cut in operations in the supraclavicular fossa. An incision
along the anterior edge of the sternomastoid low down will cut the anterior jugular
vein a short distance above the sternum as it winds beneath the sternomastoid to
empty into the external jugular. An incision along the anterior border of the
sternomastoid from its middle up is bound to cause free hemorrhage. The external
jugular behind the angle of the jaw communicates with the facial, which empties into
the internal jugular; hence division of the external jugular at this point also drains
the blood almost directly from the internal jugular. A carelessly deep incision may
wound the internal jugular itself in the region posterior to the hyoid bone. The
internal jugular is more superficial at this point than it is lower down. The temporo-
maxillary and posterior auricular veins will also be cut behind the ramus of the jaw.
Not only are veins cut but also nerves. The middle of the posterior edge
of the sternomastoid is the point of departure of several nerves. The superficial
cervical runs directly transversely inward toward the thyroid cartilage. The auricu-
laris magnus goes up to the lobe of the ear, and the occipitalis minor follows the
posterior edge of the muscle up to the occiput. These three nerves are nerves of sen-
sation and if they are divided only a certain amount of temporary anaesthesia will be
produced over the parts they supply, hence their division is not a matter of much
moment. The auricularis magnus is the largest of the three. The descending
branches of the cervical plexus, which leave the posterior edge of the sternomastoid
muscle immediately below the nerves just mentioned, proceed down under the deep
fascia and will be seen only in a deeper dissection. The nerve which it is absolutely
important to avoid is the spinal accessory. This enters the sternomastoid muscle
on its under surface some little distance back of its anterior edge and 3 to 5 cm.
below the mastoid process. It sends a branch to the muscle and leaves its posterior
edge about its middle. It then passes downward and outward across the posterior
cervical triangle under the deep fascia to enter the deep surface of the trapezius. If
this nerve is divided, paralysis of the trapezius will certainly follow and as it is a
motor nerve the shoulder of that side will drop considerably. This will be a perma-
nent deformity because motor nerves do not seem to have their functions restored
by time as so usually occurs when the nerves of sensation are divided.
If the nodes to be removed are superficial ones there are no other structures to
be feared and the operation will be an easy one. If they lie deeper, then the sheath
of the sternomastoid muscle is to be divided and the muscle pulled outward. Just
above the level of the cricoid cartilage a small artery, the sternomastoid branch of
the superior thyroid, enters the muscle and it will be divided. As the sternomastoid
is raised and pulled outward care must be taken to avoid wounding the spinal
accessory nerve. As this nerve enters the muscle from 3 to 5 cm. below the mastoid
process and some distance back from the edge of the muscle, if it is necessary to
divide the muscle it is best done high up above the entrance of the nerve, or low
down. By so doing the nerve supply (from the spinal accessory) and blood supply
are not interfered with and the function of the muscle is not so much impaired as
it would be if divided near the middle. The nodes not only possess their own
capsule but also a covering from the connective tissue in which they lie. There-
fore to remove them they must be detached and separated from it usually by blunt
dissection. When these strands of fibrous tissue from the nodes to the surrounding
parts are strong they have to be caught with forceps and cut. They are to be
clamped, to avoid possible bleeding. When the angle of the jaw is reached the
communicating branch between the facial and external jugular veins must be
clamped and cut. The parotid gland is to be pulled upward and inward. The
nodes may stick to the jugular vein and carotid artery. The vein is on the outside
and is likely to be the first encountered. When distended it overlies the artery.
If collapsed its presence may not be suspected. Feel for the pulsation of the carotid
artery and avoid the structure just to its outer side. The jugular vein may be so
involved in the mass as to necessitate its removal. In such a case remember that
posteriorly between it and the carotid artery is the pneumogastric nerve.
The sympathetic nerve lies deeper in the fascia toward its posterior surface and
is not so likely to be wounded. Its superior cervical ganglion lies opposite the
APPLIED ANATOMY.
second and third vertebrae. Working still higher, the transverse process oi tf^
atlas or first cervical vertebra will be felt and seen below and to the inner side of the
mastoid process. The connective tissue adherent to the nodes is attached to this
transverse process and may have to be cut loose or scraped away. In doing so
keep to the outer edge because the jugular vein and internal carotid artery lie on its
anterior surface.
Beneath the sternomastoid runs the anterior scalene muscle and on it, coming
from the third, fourth, and fifth cervical nerves, is the phrenic nerve; so that it is
not permitted to dig into and disturb the muscular mass to the outer side of the
common carotid artery on which these nodes frequently lie.
In operating in the submental regio7i there is nothing to fear. The space
between the two anterior bellies of the digastric muscles on the sides, the hyoid
bone below, and down to the anterior surface of the mylohyoid muscle beneath, can
be cleared out with impunity.
N. occipitalis major
Art. occipitalis
Complexus
Sternomastoid
Splenius
Levato"- scapulae
Trapezius
Complexus
Obliquus superior
Splenius
Trachelomastoid
Art. occipitalis
Transverse process, atlas
Art. vertebralis
Rectus capitis posticus major
Rectus capitis posticus minor
Obliquus inferior
Levator scapulae
Complexus
Splenius
Rhomboideus
minor
Rhomboideus
major
Fig. 182. — Superficial and deep structures of the back of the neck, showing the suboccipital triangle,
formed by the rectus capitis posticus major, obliquus superior and obliquus inferior: the suboccipital nerve
emerges from just beneath the art. vertebralis.
In the submaxillary region remember that the fascia covering the submaxillary
gland is thin, so that the gland will probably be exposed as soon as the superficial
structures are raised. As the facial artery and vein cross the mandible just in front
of the masseter muscle, the vein is posterior. The artery goes under the gland and
is adherent to it, so that as the gland is raised the artery is brought up also. The
facial and lingual veins usually empty into the internal jugular, but, as shown in Fig.
168, they may receive a communicating branch from the external jugular and the
anterior jugular and continue down as the anterior jugular to empty into the
external jugular low down in the neck, beneath the sternomastoid muscle. The
hypoglossal nerve will be seen lying on the hyoglossus muscle, but it is readily
avoided. The lingual artery is beneath the hyoglossus muscle anteriorly but both it
and the facial must be looked for as one nears the posterior belly of the digastric.
In the lower cervical region, opposite the cricoid cartilage, the omohyoid muscle
will be met. It will sometimes be necessary to divide it. The sternohyoid and sterno-
thyroid muscles and the thyroid gland are to be drawn inward and the sternomastoid
outward. One should always keep away from the thyroid gland, as the recurrent
THE NECK. i6i
laryngeal nerve runs behind it and on the oesophagus near the trachea. Cutting it
will probably cause a permanent alteration in the voice. If the internal jugular vein
has been removed, as it may be on one side, but not on both, beneath it one is
liable to encounter the inferior thyroid artery below Chassaignac's tubercle on the
sixth cervical vertebra, and further out the phrenic nerve on the scalenus anticus mus-
cle, and lower down the transverse cervical and suprascapular arteries. The inferior
thyroid veins usually run downward to empty into the innominate veins, but the
lower portion of the anterior jugular vein and the middle thyroid veins will probably
have to be ligated. The course of the various veins is quite irregular and large
venous branches may be encountered at any place.
In the posterior cervical triangle the spinal accessory nerve must be avoided as
it runs down and back from the middle of the posterior edge of the sternomastoid
muscle. The external jugular, posterior jugular, transverse cervical, and supra-
scapular veins may all require ligation. Beneath the deep fascia (superficial layer)
are the descending or supraclavicular branches of the cervical plexus from the third
and fourth cervical nerves. Care should be taken not to mistake them for the
spinal accessory nerve. If the nerve has been divided it should be sutured together
again at the completion of the operation. It is hardly necessary to caution against
wounding the subclavian vein; it is in front of the anterior scalene muscle. The
artery is behind the muscle. Do not dig under it. It rests on the pleura, a wound or
tear of which may mean a septic pleurisy and death. In the angle formed by the
junction of the internal jugular vein and subclavian on the left side is the thoracic
duct. If wounded death may ensue through persistent leakage of lymph, but not
infrequently healing eventually occurs. Wounding of the corresponding lymphatic
duct on the right side is not considered so serious, the chyle being carried by the left
duct. The cords of the brachial plexus run down and across the posterior cervical
triangle above the subclavian artery, but a little care will enable one to avoid them.
This is one of the regions of the body in which exact surgery is essential.
OPERATIONS ON THE AIR-PASSAGES.
The pharynx may be opened just below the hyoid bone, — subhyoidean pharym-
gotomy. The larynx may be opened in the median line, — thyrotomy. The crico-
thyroid membrane may be opened, — laryngotomy. The trachea may be opened, —
tracheotoyny.
Subhyoidean pharyngotomy is the entering of the pharynx by means of an
incision below the hyoid bone. This is an extremely rare operation. It may be
performed for the removal of foreign bodies or tumors. The incision may be made
just below the hyoid bone and parallel to its border. This will divide the com-
mencement of the anterior jugular vein, perhaps near the median line, perhaps toward
the side. A transverse vein usually runs from one anterior jugular vein to the other
across the median line at this point. Attached to the hyoid bone nearest to the
median line is the sternohyoid muscle, then farther out the omohyoid, and still farther
out the thyrohyoid. A small artery, the thyrohyoid, a branch of the superior thyroid,
or sometimes of the lingual, will be divided.
The thyrohyoid membrane being incised, access is obtained to the fatty tissue
at the base of the epiglottis. If the incision is carried directly backward the epiglottis
will be cut through at its base. If, however, it is kept close to the hyoid bone and
made upward, the pharynx will be entered in front of the epiglottis and at the
root of the tongue. If the incision is carried too far toward the sides the superior
thyroid artery and even the external carotid itself will be cut; if carried too low down
on the thyrohyoid membrane, then the superior laryngeal artery and nerve may both
be wounded. Attention has already been called to the thyrohyoid branch.
Thyrotomy is the division of the thyroid cartilage in the median line. The
sternohyoid muscles almost touch in the median line. The division should be
exactly in the median line. This will avoid wounding the anterior jugular veins. If
not in the median line the incision will wound one of the vocal cords. Impairment
of the voice certainly follows this operation; it is only performed for the removal of
foreign bodies or growths.
l62
APPLIED AN ATOM \^.
Laryngotomy is the opening of the cricothyroid membrane. It is rarely
done, but it is of service in cases of choking from obstruction of the larynx, foreign
bodies, etc.
There is not sufficient room between the cricoid and thyroid cartilages to do
this operation properly until puberty has been reached and the larynx has enlarged.
The cricoid cartilage is narrow in front but wide behind. Its upper edge rises rapidly
as it passes backward, forming an upper crescentic border, the concavity being
upward. The lower edge of the thyroid is concave downward. Thus the two edges
make an oval opening in front which in children is too small to hold the tracheotomy
tube. The nearness to the vocal cords is also a serious objection. Performing a
laryngotomy is the easiest and quickest way to enter the air-passages. Both the
thyroid and cricoid cartilages in the median line are practically subcutaneous. A lon-
gitudinal incision of the skin is usually advised, after which a transverse incision is em-
ployed for opening the cricothyroid membrane. The tube is to be shorter than the one
ordinarily used for tracheotomy. The cricothyroid artery, running across the mem-
brane, is usually too insignificant to cause any trouble ; it is nearer the thyroid cartilage,
therefore the cut through the membrane should be close to the cricoid cartilage.
Tracheotomy is the opening of the trachea. There are two varieties, the
high and the low, according as the tube is inserted above or below the isthmus of
the thyroid gland. When in the adult male the neck is in line with the axis of the
body the lower border of the cricoid cartilage is about 4 cm. (ij4 in.) above the
sternum. When the head is tilted far back the larynx is drawn upward and the
lower border of the cricoid is 6 cm. (about 2}^ in.) above the sternum. Hence in
doing a tracheotomy the head is to be tilted far back. The total length of the
trachea is 10 to 12 cm. (Morris, Hensman), beginning opposite the sixth cervical
vertebra, — upper border in the child and lower in adults, — and ending opposite the
fifth dorsal. About half of it is above and half below the top of the sternum. It is
composed of 14 to 20 rings. In the adult the isthmus of the thyroid gland covers
the second, third, and fourth rings. There are about eight rings above the sternum.
According to Symington and Guersant (Treves) the diameter of the trachea is
about as follows:
1)4 io 2 years 5 mm-
2 to 4 years 6 mm.
4 to 8 years 8 mm.
8 to 12 years 10 mm.
12 to 15 years 12 mm.
Adults 12-15 mm.
A knowledge of the size of the trachea is necessary in order to select a trache-
otomy tube of a size suitable to the particular case. The liability is to select too
large a tube for young children, particularly infants. If this is done it may be very
difficult to introduce the tube, or the trachea may even be torn in the attempt. In
operating, an incision 2. 5 to 3 cm. long is to be made in the median line. This
may cut the anterior jugular vein. If carried near to the sternum it will certainly
divide the communicating branch between the anterior jugulars at that point. The
top of the incision in a child will be over the cricoid cartilage, and as soon as the skin
has been divided the finger is to be inserted and the cricoid cartilage felt and recog-
nized. This will show how deep the trachea lies. In very young children the
isthmus of the thyroid gland is liable to come up to the cricoid cartilage and the dif-
ficulty of displacing it far enough down to allow the tube to be inserted is such that
it may be best to divide it. Therefore after the skin and deep fascia have been divided
and the cricoid recognized by the finger the soft tissues covering the trachea imme-
diately below the cricoid are grasped on each side with a haemostatic forceps and
divided between them. These tissues may embrace the isthmus of the thyroid gland,
the edges of the sternohyoid muscles, some veins, branches from the superior and
inferior thyroids, and the fascia covering the gland and overlying the trachea.
The trachea should be cleared before opening it. A sharp hook is inserted into
the cricoid cartilage to steady it and an incision is made into the trachea from below
upward. In making this incision the utmost care must be taken not to cut through
THE NECK.
163
the trachea and wound the oesophagus behind. The trachea of a child is not the hard
resisting structure of the adult. It is a soft tender tube easily compressed and readily
torn by roughness, or punctured with a knife. Forceps do not readily hold in it and
stitches through it are liable to tear out. Only the very tip of the point of the knife
should be allowed to enter the tube. The utmost care must be taken to keep in the
median line. This is to be accomplished by using the cricoid cartilage as a guide
and by seeing that the position of the head is straight. Cutting to either side of the
trachea will cause wounding of the common carotid arteries. Below the isthmus of the
thyroid gland and running down on the trachea are the inferior thyroid veins. The
superior and middle thyroid veins empty into the internal jugular vein, but the
inferior thyroids go downward to empty into the innominate. These veins will be cut
if a low tracheotomy is done. In the infant the innominate artery and sometimes,
though rarely, the left carotid encroach on the suprasternal notch and may be wounded
if the incision is carried too low. The left innominate vein as it crosses to the
Lingual and facial veins
Interna] jugular vein
Middle thyroid veins
Sternohyoid muscle
Sternomastoid muscle
Sternothyroid muscle
Anterior jugular vein
Inferior thyroid vein
drawn back
— Hyoid bone
Thyroid cartilage
Cricothyroid muscle
Sternohyoid muscle
Sternothyroid muscle
Superior thyroid artery and vein
Cricoid cartilage
_ Thyroid gland
^ Inferior thyroid artery
Inferior thyroid vein
Sternomastoid muscle
Trachea
Communicating branch between the
anterior jugular veins
Fig. 183. — Dissection showing the parts involved in operations on the thyroid gland and air-passages.
right side is liable, especially in very young children, to show quite plainly above the
sternum and would certainly be cut if the deep incision was carried as far down as
the top of the sternum. An anomalous artery, the thyroidea ima, a branch of the
innominate, sometimes passes upward on the trachea. On account of the presence
of all these vessels it is not allowable to do any cutting of the deep parts just above
the sternum; they are simply to be depressed by blunt dissection and kept out of
the way with retractors while the trachea is being incised. The cricoid cartilage is
never to be incised. It is far more firm and resistant than the trachea and it serves
to keep the trachea from collapsing. The proximity of the tracheotomy tube to the
vocal cords would result in interference with their function.
The method of Bose consists in dividing the fascia OA^erlying the trachea near
the cricoid cartilage and pushing it down, carrying the isthmus and veins with it,
and introducing the tube into the space so cleared. This is so difficult that it is
better to divide the isthmus, as already described.
OPERATIONS ON THE THYROID GLAND.
The operations which are done on the thyroid gland are ligation of its arterial
supply and complete or partial removal. These necessitate a knowledge particularly
of its blood supply and structure.
The thyroid gland cov&v&Vs, of an isth?mis and two lateral lobes. The isthmus
164
APPLIED ANATOMY.
crosses the second, third, and fourth tracheal rings in the adult. In children it may'
approach nearer to the cricoid cartilage.
The lateral lobes lie under the sternohyoid and the sternothyroid muscles.
They rise as high as the oblique line on the sides of the thyroid cartilages which
marks the insertion of the sternothyroid muscles. The lobes descend to the level
of the sixth ring of the trachea, which is two rings below the isthmus, about two
centimetres above the sternum. The inferior constrictor of the pharynx is beneath
the gland. The thyroid gland is covered by the pretracheal fascia and possesses
a capsule of its own besides. This fascia envelops the gland and its capsule, and
from its posterior surface is prolonged down on the trachea and envelopes the
Omohyoid muscle
Sternothyroid muscle
Sternohyoid muscle
Sup. parathyroid
Inf. parathyroid
Trachea
Sternothyroid muscle
Stemomas-
toid muscle
CEsophagus
Omohyoid muscle
Inferior thyroid artery
Recurrent laryngeal nerve
Middle thyroid vein
Inferior thyroid veins
Sternohyoid muscle
Fig. 184. — Excision of the thyroid gland.
vessels coming to and leaving the gland. Therefore we might say that the inferior
thyroid veins are in the pretracheal fascia.
As the fascia leaves the gland at the sides one portion of it blends with and
helps to form the sheath of the vessels. The other or deeper portion continues
around the pharynx and oesophagus, forming the buccopharyngeal fascia. In freeing
the gland and its capsule from the overlying pretracheal fascia care must be taken,
as pointed out by James Berry (" Diseases of the Thyroid Gland," p. 269), not to
be led by this fascia too far posteriorly and therefore wound, as has been done, the
pharynx or trachea.
The veins of the gland are more prominent and dangerous than the arteries.
They ramify beneath the capsule and as long as the capsule is not torn the bleeding
is slight. The arteries of the thyroid gland are the superior and inferior thyroids
and sometimes the thyroidea ima. The superior thyroid comes off the external
THE NECK. 165
carotid just above the bifurcation. It rises almost to the greater horn of the hyoid
bone and then descends to the thyroid gland, which reaches to the level of the oblique
line on the thyroid cartilage; it supplies the upper portion of the gland, particularly
the anterior portion, but also sends a branch down the posterior surface. The
vessels crossing the median line, contrary to what is often the case in the arteries of
the lip and even the scalp, are very small. The superior thyroid is superficial and
presents no special difhculty in ligation. The vein runs beneath it on its course to
the internal jugular. The inferior thyroid artery, a branch of the thyroid axis,
crosses behind the common carotid artery about the level of the seventh cervical
vertebra, about on a line with the lower edge of the isthmus. It enters the gland
from the side and not from below and ramifies on its posterior surface often as a
single large trunk beneath the capsule giving off branches to the parenchyma.
Usually it is in front of the recurrent laryngeal nerve, but the middle cervical gan-
glion of the sympathetic lies on it. Sometimes the artery breaks into branches before
it enters the gland. In such cases the recurrent laryngeal nerve may run between
these branches and so be injured in removing the gland.
The thvroidca ima artery when present enters the gland from below, coming up
on the trachea usually from the innominate, in which case the innominate is apt to
come of? more to the left side and so bring the common carotid closer to the trachea
than usual. It may also spring from the aorta or from the right carotid artery.
The Veins. — There are three sets of veins, a superior, a middle, and an inferior
thyroid, and, as Kocher has pointed out, an accessory thyroid between the middle
and inferior ones. The veins ramify under the capsule and form a plexus, which
in goitre is much enlarged and communicates freely across the median line at the
upper and lower portions of the isthmus. The superior and middle thyroids pass
outward to empty into the internal jugular. Still lower is the accessory inferior thy-
roid, which may empty into the internal jugular, as do the two above it, or it may pass
down, as does the inferior thyroid vein, and empty into the innominate. The inferior
thyroid vein does not follow the artery of the same name but with its fellow of the
opposite side passes directly downward in front of the trachea to empty into the
innominate vein. Its importance in operations on the trachea has already been alluded
to in speaking of tracheotomy.
In removing the gland the superior thyroid artery is found at the upper outer
angle, the ligature should be placed sufficiently far out to include the branch to the
posterior surface of the gland. In ligating the inferior thyroid arteries they are to
be sought at the lower portion of the sides of the gland and are to be ligated either
close to the gland or isolated by pulling the carotid artery outward, and tied as they
make the bend at the edge of the anterior scalene muscle. Between these two
points lies the recurrent laryngeal nerve, usually behind the artery. Halsted advises
that each separate branch be ligated as it enters the gland to avoid those supplying
the parathyroids. The gland is covered by the omohyoid, sternohyoid, and sterno-
thyroid muscles. If these cannot be drawn aside they should be divided near their
upper ends in the same manner as already advised in the case of division of the
sternomastoid in removing tuberculous nodes. The sternomastoid muscle will have
to be drawn outward.
The internal jugular vein often overlaps the common carotid artery, reaching
sometimes even to its inner side, so that the position of the artery is not a sure guide
to the location of this vein.
When a goitre dips behind the sternum the presence of the left innominate
vein should not be forgotten.
THE PARATHYROID BODIES.
The parathyroid bodies are usually four in number, but rarely there may be five
or six. They are 6 to 7 mm. long, 3 to 4 mm. broad, and 1.5 to 2 mm. thick. The
most constant site of the superior parathyroid is at the middle or junction of the upper
and middle thirds of the posterior edge of the thyroid gland opposite the cricoid carti-
lage. The lower parathyroid is near the lower pole, but may be below it. They are
small brownish bodies in the meshes of the loose connective tissue forming the outer
capsule of the gland. Often they are quite distinct from the gland, but sometimes
i66
APPLIED ANATOMY.
they lie in a cleft in the gland and thereby escape recognition. They possess a separate"
capsule. They are supplied by a separate artery, the parathyroid, a branch of the
inferior thyroid. This latter usually gives off two parathyroid arteries, one to each
body. Ginsburg {Univ. Pe?ma. Med. Bulletin, Jan., 1908) has demonstrated a free
anastomosis with the vessels of the opposite side. In many cases it is practically
impossible to avoid wounding or removing the parathyroids in operations — Halsted
has suggested three means of avoiding their removal, viz. : ( r ) slice of? and leave the
piece of thyroid gland supposed to contain the parathyroids; (2) ligate the superior
Inferior constrictor
Superior thyroid artery
Cricothyroid muscle
Superior parathyroid
Inferior thyroid artery
Thyroid gland
Inferior parathyroid
CEsophagus
Recurrent laryngeal nerve
Trachea
Fig. 185. — Showing the parathyroid bodies.
and inferior thyroids, and a week or two later perform a subcapsular enucleation of the
thyroid; (3) search for each parathyroid by following out the ramifications of the
inferior thyroid artery — this is the best method of finding them in post-mortem
examinations.
CESOPHAGUS— CERVICAL PORTION.
The oesophagus runs from the level of the cricoid cartilage to the stomach.
The cricoid is opposite the sixth cervical vertebra and the cardiac or oesophageal end
of the stomach is opposite the lower border of the tenth thoracic vertebra. It is in the
median line above, then curves slightly to the left until the root of the neck is
reached, when it returns to the median line opposite the fifth thoracic vertebra.
It is in front of the spine and the prevertebral fascia. The layer of fascia between
its anterior surface and the trachea is extremely thin. On each side are the common
carotid arteries and the sheath of the vessels. The right recurrent laryngeal nerve
winds around the commencement of the first portion of the subclavian, and passes
THE NECK.
167
inward and upward behind the common carotid artery to reach the groove between
the trachea and oesophagus in which it ascends to the larynx.
On the left side the recurrent laryngeal nerve winds around the arch of the aorta
and ascends in the groove on the left side between the trachea and oesophagus. The
left carotid artery is closer to the oesophagus than the right. The narrowest point of
the lumen is at the cricoid cartilage. Its next narrow point is where it crosses the aorta
and left bronchus. This is opposite the upper part of the second piece of the sternum
or the upper border of the fifth thoracic vertebra. The third narrow portion is the
cardiac opening into the stomach. Mouton (Tillaux, "Anat. Topograph.," p. 418)
gives the diameter of the oesophagus at each of these three points as 14 mm.
Foreign Bodies. — Foreign bodies if they pass the cricoid cartilage are most
liable to stop at the aorta and the left bronchus. This is opposite the angle of Ludwig
Left common
carotid artery
Vagus nerve
Internal jugular
vein'
Inferior thyroid
artery
Vertebral artery
Thoracic duct
Phrenic nerve
Recurrent laryn-
geal nerve
Subclavian
artery '
Bronchial artery
Pulmonary artery
Left vagus nerve7
Internal jugular
vein
Vagus nerve
Common carotid
artery
Inf. thyroid artery
■Vertebral artery
Trachea
Recurrent laryn-
geal nerve
CEsophagus
Vagus nerve
Phrenic nerve
Vena azygos
major
■Right bronchus
Right pulmonary
artery
Pulmonary vein
Fig. 186. — Relations of the cervical portion of the oesophagus, viewed posteriorly.
and the second rib, so that the foreign body is either at the root of the neck or just
below the top of the sternum. If it passes the two upper constrictions it will prob-
ably pass the third, because the cardiac constriction is caused by the diaphragm, which
relaxes and allows the body to enter the stomach.
CEsophagotomy. — In operating, an incision is made along the anterior border
of the left sternomastoid muscle from the sternoclavicular joint upward. The anterior
jugular vein will be cut. After opening the deep fascia the sternomastoid is to be
pulled outward. The omohyoid is to be drawn up and out and also the lower por-
tion of the sternohyoid and perhaps the sternothyroid.
The middle thyroid and perhaps an accessory thyroid vein are divided and the
thyroid gland and trachea drawn inward. The trachea is to be identified by the
sense of touch. The inferior thyroid artery is behind the sheath of the vessels and is
so high that it is not likely to be injured. The recurrent laryngeal nerve must be
looked for between the oesophagus and trachea, and avoided. In going deep down
care must be taken not to injure the innominate vein, which comes well up towards the
top of the sternum.
i68
APPLIED ANATOMY.
CUT THROAT.
The most frequent site of the incision in cases of cut throat is between the hyoid '
bone and thyroid cartilage. If above the hyoid bone, the incision will divide the
mylohyoid, geniohyoid, geniohyoglossus, and hyoglossus muscles, and perhaps the
digastric and stylohyoid. If it goes far back it may wound the submaxillary gland
or duct, the facial or lingual arteries and veins, and the hypoglossal nerve. The
commencement of the anterior jugular will certainly be divided and the external
jugular may also be wounded. The cut passes through the base of the tongue and the
upper portion of the epiglottis. The tip of the epiglottis is sometimes entirely cut of?.
If in the thyrohyoid space, the incision passes a short distance above the vocal cords.
The sternohyoid, omohyoid, and thyrohyoid muscles are divided. If prolonged
backward the pharynx will be opened and perhaps the arytenoid cartilages wounded.
The superior thyroid artery is Hkely to be cut. This is the vessel most often divided
in suicidal wounds. The carotid arteries and internal jugular veins are deep and far
back, lying under the edge of the sternomastoid muscle, and are rarely wounded.
Sternohyoid muscle
Sternothyroid muscle
Thyroid gland
Recurrent laryn-
geal nerve
Omohyoid muscle
, Inferior thyroid artery
Common carotid artery
Sternomastoid muscle
(Esophagus
Exposing the resophagus.
If these are cut, death usually rapidly ensues from hemorrhage. The superior
laryngeal nerve may be injured as it pierces the thyrohyoid membrane. This nerve
is sensory and its division is followed by anaesthesia of that half of the larynx to
which it is distributed. This favors the entrance of food and liquids into the larynx
and so may cause a fatal septic pneumonia. If through the thyroid cartilage the
incision may wound the vocal cords. They lie just beneath the most prominent
part of the thyroid cartilage and just below its median notch. If through the trachea,
the incision may wound the thyroid gland, which reaches from about the sixth ring
of the trachea to the oblique line on the thyroid cartilage.
Bleeding from the wounded thyroid, if the gland is normal in size, is not likely
to be excessive. Below the cricoid cartilage the oesophagus may be wounded, above
it the pharynx may be opened. The two large sternomastoid muscles being put on
the stretch tend to protect the large vessels beneath. Suppuration not infrequently
accompanies these wounds of the neck in which the air and food passages are in-
volved and may give rise to collections of pus which may travel between the fascias, as
previously described. In treatment it is customary to cleanse the wounds and approxi-
mate the various injured tissues as carefully as possible, and feed by a stomach tube.
THE NECK.
169
AFFECTIONS OF THE NECK.
Cervical Cysts and Fistulae. — The neck is the seat of some very peculiar
cystic tumors and fistulae which are connected with developmental defects. They
first arch
Fig. 188. — Foetus, 2Sth day (after His). Showing branchial (visceral) arches and clefts or furrows.
are either lateral or median in location. The lateral originate from the visceral
(branchial) clefts, while the median are connected with the thyroglossal duct. The
visceral clefts are depressions between the visceral arches. These arches, five in
number, spring forward from each side of the embryo to form the neck region.
Sometimes these arches are called branchial arches from the fact of their going to
form the branchiae or gills of fishes and
some of the other lower orders of animals.
The first visceral arch di\'ides into
two parts, a maxillary part forming the
upper jaw and a mandibular part form-
ing the lower jaw. Defects in the max-
illary arch producing harelip and cleft
palate have already been described.
Two of the ear bones, the incus and
malleus, are also formed by the mandib-
ular portion of the first visceral arch.
The second visceral arch forms the
stapes, the styloid process, the stylo-
hyoid ligament, and the lesser horn of
the hyoid bone.
The third visceral arch becomes the
body and greater horn of the hyoid bone.
Thefotaih snid fifth visceral arches
blend and form the soft structures of the
side of the neck.
The first visceral cleft, called the
hyomandibular cleft from its being be-
tween the hyoid bone and the mandible,
forms the middle ear and Eustachian
tubes from its inner portion and the external auditory meatus from its outer portion.
The membrana tympani is the remains of the membrane which stretched across from
one arch to the other. Cervical fistulae are formed by the persistence of a visceral
cleft. As the first visceral cleft persists normally in the structures already named, it
Fig. 189. — Points of opening of sinuses originating
from the thyroglossal duct and branchial clefts. (Modi-
fied from Sutton.)
170
APPLIED ANATOMY.
in itself does not form pathological fistulae, but congenital fistulae are sometimes
encountered in the external ear which are the remains of the clefts between the
tubercles of which the ear is formed.
Cervical fistulae or sinuses may extend either completely through, from the
surface to the pharynx, or may open internally or externally, or be closed at both
ends, in which last case the contents accumulate and form a cervical cyst.
FistulcE arising from the second visceral cleft open externally opposite the thyro-
hyoid space in front of the s'ternomastoid muscle. Internally they open into the
recess holding the tonsil.
Fistula arising from the third and fourth visceral clefts open externally lower
down nearer the sternoclavicular articulation in front of the sternomastoid muscle and
internally in the sinus pyriformis. The
persistence of the third and fourth
visceral clefts internally may produce
pharyngeal diverticula, as already
noted in discussing that region.
In attempting the cure of cysts
and fistulae due to persistence of the
Thyroglossal duct
Median cervical,
pouch or cyst
Fig. 190. — Median cervical pouch or cyst arising from the
thyroglossal duct. — Marshall's case.
Fig. 191. — Median cervical (thyroglossal)
cyst. — Author's case.
visceral clefts it is evident that as they are lined with a secreting epithelium this must
be destroyed or removed, or a recurrence will take place. In attempting to dissect
them out one must be prepared to follow them through the structures of the neck
to the pharynx inside. It is needless to say this may be a serious procedure.
Hueter (quoted by Sutton) followed one between the two carotid arteries into the
pharynx. These cysts and fistulae may be noted at birth or may develop later in life.
Hydrocele of the Neck. — There are other cystic tumors of the neck which
are congenital, being noticed at birth, and which grow to a large size. They are
often wide-spread, extending not only between the tissues of the neck below the
deep fascia but even into the axilla. Their walls are thin, consisting sometimes only
of a layer of lining epithelium and the surrounding tissues. On this account it is
impossible to dissect them out. The use of injections and setons has been aban-
doned as too dangerous. They rarely require treatment, as they tend to disappear
spontaneously. Mr. J. Bland Sutton ascribes their origin first to congenitally dilated
lymph-spaces; second 2iS> resembling the cervical air-sacs that exist in the howling
monkeys; and third that possibly some of them may be related to a persistence of
some portion of a branchial cleft.
Median cervical fistulae and cysts originate in connection with the thyro-
glossal duct. This, in the embryo, leads from the foramen caecum at the root of the
THE THORAX. 171
tongue through to the posterior surface of the hyoid bone and thence downward and
forward to the isthmus of the thyroid gland. It begins to atrophy in the fifth week
and is obHterated by the eighth. According to Sutton these cysts are never congen-
ital but occur soon after birth or as late as the fourteenth year. They appear as
rounded, cystic tumors just below the hyoid bone or over the thyroid cartilage. They
either inflame and break of their own accord, discharging externally, or are opened by
the surgeon and, contrary to what is the case in hydroceles of the neck, never tend to
disappear, but a sinus remains. At times it almost heals, then the contents accumulate
and a cyst forms, this again breaks and a sinus results as before. In attempting a cure
by operation the sinus should be followed up behind the hyoid bone. In one case after
two failures of attempted excision a cure was obtained by destroying the tract by
introducing a small gahanocautery point. Unless every portion of the lining mem-
brane be completely destroyed the cells will go on secreting and reproduce, in a
short time, the original condition. Failure to cure these sinuses and cysts by excision
often occurs, notwithstanding the exercise of the greatest care.
The lower portion of the thyroglossal duct may persist in the form of the pyramid
or third lobe of the thyroid gland, which arises from the isthmus or from the left side
and ascends as far as the hyoid bone, to which it is attached.
THE THORAX.
The thorax or chest is that portion of the trunk which lies between the neck
and the abdomen. It is composed of a bony framework reinforced by soft parts,
and contains the main organs of circulation and respiration. The oesophagus, an
organ of the digestive tract, simply passes through it to the regions below. The
chest-walls as well as the parts contained within them are affected by wounds and
disease, especially the heart and its associated great vessels, and the lungs and
pleurae. These organs are essential to life, like the brain and spinal cord, and like
them, are encased in a bony framework. It is an example of bones performing a
protecting function in addition to a supporting one.
The functions of the heart and lungs are influenced by constitutional diseases in
addition to their own local affections, hence they serve as guides to the general bodily
condition, and the condition of the respiration and circulation is continually being exam-
ined for the purposes of diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment, even when the heart and
lungs themselves are not involved. To make these examinations intelligently, neces-
sitates a knowledge of the organs themselves and their relation to one another and the
surrounding parts. This is essential for the physician even more than the surgeon.
The chest- walls are composed of a bony framework joined and bound together
and covered by soft parts.
The bones of the chest consist of the stermim, ribs, and thoracic vertebrce. The
clavicle and scapula compose the shoulder-girdle and belong to the upper extremity.
The human skeleton is divided into an axial portion and an appendicular portion. The
axial portion embraces the skull, the vertebral column, including the sacrum and
coccyx, the hyoid bone, the sternum, and the ribs. The appendicular portion con-
sists of the shoulder-girdles and upper extremities and the pelvic girdles and lower
extremities.
The bony chest is subject to disease and injury as well as to defects in develop-
ment, and to deformities due to these causes.
Shape of the Chest. — The chest is conical in shape, being small above and
large below. In transverse section it is kidney-shaped, the hilus of the kidney being
represented by the vertebrae. In the foetus the anteroposterior diameter is greater
than the transverse, thus resembling the thorax in the lower animals. After "birth
and in infancy the two diameters are nearly equal, hence we have the rounded chest
of the child. As growth and development progress the transverse diameter increases
more than the anteroposterior, so that at about the second year the chest has become
oval and in adults the transverse diameter is one-fourth greater than is the antero-
posterior.
Variations in the shape of the chest are mainly the result of disease. In child-
hood, rachitic disease (rickets) produces a lateral flattening and a projection of the
172
APPLIED ANATOMY.
sternum. If the sternum projects markedly it constitutes what is known as pigeon
breast, the chest in such a condition being- longer from before backward than from side
to side. In this disease also there may be a depression on each side of the sternum,
Clavicular articulation
Manubrium
Angulus stemi or
angle of Ludwig
Body or gladiolus
•Xiphostemal articulation
Xiphoid or ensiform
cartilage
\,%
Fig. 192. — The bony thorax.
the back is rounded owing to the bending of the vertebral column, and the points of
junction of the ribs and cartilages are enlarged, this latter constituting what is known
as beading of the ribs. These beads are
felt as rounded enlargements at the sternal
extremities of the ribs and form a line
parallel to the sternum above and sloping
outward below. This line of beads has
been called the '' rachitic rosary.'' From
the level of the ensiform cartilage a groove
passes out toward the sides ; this has
been called '' Harrison' s groove" (see
Fig. 193). Sometimes the lower end of
^j|L, •^ &-^^^"^^^^^^B ^^^^ sternum is pressed inward, forming a
^BK^BT ^^^^K deep funnel-shaped depression constituting
^^^If ^^^1 the deformity known as "" fimnel chest"
or the '' Trichterbrust" of the Germans.
This condition of the chest, with the
exception of the beading, is also produced
in children by obstruction to the breathing
from enlargement of the tonsils, from the
presence of adenoid growths in the pharynx,
and from hypertrophy of the turbinate
bones, all of which interfere particularly
with nasal respiration.
Diseases of the lungs and pleurae alter
the shape of the chest. In emphysema and
when distended by plural effusions, the
thorax becomes more rounded in shape,
forming what is called the ' ' barrel-shaped
chest." In phthisis the wasting of the tissues and contraction of the lungs causes the
chest to collapse. The ribs slope more sharply downward and the chest becomes
xH
Fig
-Child showing Harrison's groove opposite
the ensiform cartilage.
THE THORAX.
173
longer and flatter, the anteroposterior diameter being diminished. The angle made
by the lower ribs as they ascend to the sternum is called the costal angle ; this
becomes decreased in phthisis. This form of chest is known as the ' 'phthisical chest.
/
Fig. 195. — Flat chest of phthisis.
Fig. 194. — Barrel chest of emphysema.
When the flatness is marked it is sometimes called the ' ''flat chest. ' ' When the scapulae
project like wings it is called ^'alar'' or ''pterygoid chest.' ^
In Pott's disease, or caries of the spine, as the kyphosis develops the chest falls for-
PiG. 196. — Kyphosis from Pott's disease, or caries
of the lower thoracic vertebrse. The curvature is an
angular anteroposterior one.
Fig. 197. — Scoliosis, or lateral curvature of the spine.
ward and its anteroposterior diameter is increased. The abdominal contents are crowded
up into the chest and push the sternum and lower ribs forward. Associated with this
deformity is oftentimes a lateral deviation of the parts above the site of the disease.
174 ^m^ APPLIED ANATOMY. ^SKKKB^I^m
In scoliosis, or lateral curvature of the spine, the distortion is uneven, being a
compression of the thorax from above downward and a twisting around a vertical
axis. The deformity is frequently so severe as to cause the lower ribs to rest on the
iliac crests. It is in order to detect these diseases in their early stages that a know-
ledge of the shape of the normal chest is so essential.
THE STERNUM. "I
The sternum consists of three pieces: the niamibrium ox presternum, gladiolus
or nicsosteruutn, and xiphoid cartilage or metaster^ium. It is developed in two
lateral halves. Should these fail to unite an opening is left in the bone through which
the pulsations of the heart have been seen and felt. The junction of the first and
second pieces of the sternum is opposite the second rib. The se\enth is the last rib
to articulate with the sternum directly.
The first and second pieces of the sternum are connected by a joint which per-
sists to advanced age. The projection caused by this joint is called the angulus sterni
or angle of Ludwig. Fractures pass either through this joint, opposite the second
rib, or through the bone just below it. They are produced by both direct and
indirect force. Usually the upper fragment is beneath the lower one. It is however
more true to state that the lower fragment is displaced anteriorly. Any marked pos-
terior displacement of the upper fragment would tend to press on the trachea and in-
terfere with breathing; the trachea bifurcates opposite the joint. As the pleurae and
lungs of the two sides almost or quite touch behind the second piece of the sternum,
they may be wounded and emphysema may occur. The heart also maybe wounded.
Suppuration has followed these injuries, in which case it will be necessary to trephine
the sternum to give exit to the pus. The necessity of avoiding wounding of the
pleurae in such a procedure is evident, as it would be followed by collapse of the lung
and empyema.
THE RIBS AND COSTAL CARTILAGES.
The ribs are frequently fractured, sometimes they become affected with caries,
and in operating the chest is frequently opened between them or portions of them
are excised. They are both elastic and movable, and difficult to break; hence frac-
ture is almost always due to direct violence, and this violence may be so great as
sometimes to cause death. Normally there are twelve ribs on each side, but some-
times there is an extra cervical or lumbar rib. These are both rare, the latter the
more so.
The seven upper ribs are called true ribs because they articulate with the sternum.
The remaining five are called y«/j'^ ribs, the eleventh and twelfth hitxw^ floating ribs.
The eighth, ninth, and tenth ribs each articulate by their cartilages with the rib above.
The tenth forms the lower margin of the thorax. The eleventh and twelfth ribs are
attached only by their posterior extremities, their anterior portion being imbedded in
the soft parts; hence they are called floating ribs. The ribs slope downward and
forward. This obliquity increases until the ninth rib, after which it decreases. The
first rib in front corresponds to the fourth behind, the second, third, fourth, fifth,
sixth, and seventh in front correspond each to the fourth rib lower behind. The first
rib is the nearest horizontal in regard to its surface and, being well protected by the
clavicle, is rarely broken. The intercostal spaces are broader in front than behind
and broader above than below. The third is the largest.
The groove on the lower surface of the ribs holds the intercostal artery, but only
as far back as the angle, from which point it occupies the middle of the space.
The extent of the intercostal spaces is considerably influenced by position — flexion
of the body brings the ribs together, extension and bending to the opposite side
separates them. This point is of importance in reference to the operations of para-
centesis and empyema.
The first costal cartilage unites directly with the sternum, there being no joint
present. The second and sometimes the third cartilage is joined to the sternum by
a ligament with a synovial joint above and below it. The other costal cartilages are
THE THORAX.
175
united by a joint with a single cavity. These joints may be the seat of metastatic
abscesses in pyaemic infections.
Cervical ribs spring from the body and transverse process of the seventh
cervical vertebra. They may be long enough to reach to the sternum, but usually
are much shorter. One case of this affection was seen by the writer in a man
twenty-seven years of age. There was an abnormal fulness above the scapula
posteriorly, and above the clavicle anteriorly, just to the inner side of the external
jugular vein, a distinct bony process could be felt. This did not move with the
scapula or clavicle but did move somewhat with respiration. A skiagraph showed
it to be attached to the spine. The patient was seen again live years later,
Fig. 198. — A cervical rib attached to the right side of the seventh cervical vertebra.
when the same condition of affairs existed, with the exception that movement on
respiration was not so marked. A knowledge of the possible presence of a cervical
rib is important in diagnosis, otherwise it may be thought to be a bony or malignant
new growth and treatment advised accordingly. The subclavian artery may pass
over the cervical rib above and may have its circulation seriously interfered with.
Fracture of the Ribs. — The ribs are almost always broken by direct violence;
fractures from indirect force, as from coughing, sneezing, and other forms of muscular
exertion, are rare. Fracture from compression of the chest is also rare. The site of
the fracture is most frequentiy on the anterior portion of the chest and not the sides
Fig. 199. — Fractured ribs; fusion of callus.
or back. The fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs are most often broken. The first
rib is well protected from direct blows by the clavicle. Lane, however, has shown
that it can be broken by pressure of the clavicle when the shoulder is depressed.
The eleventh and twelfth, being floating ribs, are rarely broken. The twelfth rib is
the least frequently so. In one case we saw the eighth, ninth, tenth, eleventh, and
twelfth all broken by the passage of a wheel. The soft parts attached to the frag-
ments prevent much displacement, but there is always some, due to the respiratory
movements. Hence callus is always present and it may be so abundant as to join
adjacent ribs (see Fig. 199). As already stated, death frequently follows fracture of
the ribs and is due to wounding of the chest contents. Rarely the intercostal arteries
may be wounded and produce haemothorax. Wounding of the lung is frequent.
176 T^S^B^ APPLIED ANATOMY. IMBJJffjiy: 'JJUfJ
Emphysema of the surface of the body may ensue, but is not dangerous. Pneumo-
thorax, which may be accompanied by infiltration of air into the lung tissue, is more
dangerous, favoring collapse of the lung. The object of treatment is to keep the
chest-walls from moving. This is accomplished by strapping the chest with adhesive
plaster, which is usually laid on almost in the direction of the ribs ; but as the chest
moves with respiration, the ribs rising, and as they slope downward and forward, I
have preferred to lay the straps on from in front downward and backward, this tends
to prevent the ribs from rising in inspiration.
THE THORACIC VERTEBRA. m
The thoracic or dorsal vertebrae are twelve in number and are so articulat^i
with one another as to form a single, regular curve with its concavity forwards and
convexity backward. Any sudden change in the direction of the curve is an evidence
of disease; this is seen in the angular curvature of Pott's disease or caries of the
spine. The ribs are connected with the vertebrae by the articulation of the head of
the rib with the body of the vertebra, and the tubercle of the rib with the transverse
process. The transverse process is connected with the body by the pedicle and with
the spinous process by the lamina. The spinal cord is exposed in operations by
removal of the spinous process and laminae, hence the name laminectomy.
The spinous processes are the guides which indicate the position and condition
of the vertebrae. Their tips are not covered by muscles but lie close beneath the
skin and are readily felt and any abnormality detected. In the normal body the
grooves on each side of the spinous processes are filled up with muscle, but in certain
diseases, as in infantile paralysis and lateral curvature, they become atrophied and
the spine becomes twisted, hence on the convex side of the abnormal lateral curve,
to the outer side of the spines, the projection formed by the transverse processes and
tubercles of the ribs can be both seen and felt.
The external curve formed by the tips of the spinous processes of the thoracic
region in the normal person is not so great as is the curve formed by the anterior
portion of the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae. This is because the spinous
processes at the upper and lower portions of the chest project out almost at right
angles to the long axis of the body, while those of the middle portion slope down-
ward. Hence the tips of the spinous processes of the seventh cervical, first dorsal,
and twelfth dorsal vertebrae are opposite the bodies of the same vertebrae, while the
others are opposite the bodies of the vertebrae next below. (The spine will be
considered more at length in the section devoted to the Back. )
SOFT PARTS.
The bony thorax is lined by the pleurae, the ribs are united to each other by
the intercostal muscles, and over all are muscles, superficial fascia, and skin. In
addition, in front are the mammary glands and behind are the scapulae.
The Intercostal Muscles and Arteries.
The intercostal spaces are occupied by the two intercostal muscles, with a fascia
above them, one below, and one between them.
The external intercostal muscles run downward and forward. They begin at
the tubercles of the ribs posteriorly and end at the costal cartilages anteriorly.
They are continued forward to the sternum by the anterior intercostal membrane,
formed by the fusing of the outer and middle intercostal fascias. The internal
intercostal muscles go downward and backward. They begin at the sternum and
end at the angles of the ribs. They are continued to the spine by the posterior
intercostal membrane, formed by the fusing of the middle and internal intercostal
fascias. The intercostal arteries come from both anteriorly and posteriorly. The
anterior intercostals come from the internal mammary for the upper five or six
spaces and from the musculophrenic artery for the remainder. They arise either
as a single trunk or as separate superior and inferior branches. At first they are
between the pleura and internal intercostal muscle, but they soon perforate that
THE THORAX.
177
muscle and run between it and the external intercostal, the superior branch running
along the lower edge of the rib and the inferior branch running along the upper
edge of the rib below. The aortic or posterior intercostal arises as a single trunk
which passes between the external intercostal muscle and the pleura. Arriving op-
posite the angle of the ribs it divides into superior and inferior branches which
unite with those from the internal mammary {arteria inamviaria interna).
From the vertebrae out to the angle of the ribs the intercostal artery lies about
midway between the ribs, hence it is liable to be wounded in paracentesis if the
puncture is made too far back. It is for this reason that operations for draining the
pleurae are performed anterior to the costal angles. The superior intercostal
branches are larger than the inferior ones. They run under the lower edge of the
rib above the space and are therefore protected from injury, particularly stab-wounds.
In opening the chest for empyema it is best to go about midway in the intercosal
space and not too close to the lower edge of the rib on account of the liability of wound-
ing the superior intercostal. The inferior branch is usually quite small and causes
no serious hemorrhage. Intercostal bleeding may cause a hsemothorax if the wound is
Anterior perfor-
ating arteries
Thoracic aorta
Posterior intercostal arteries
Anterior intercos-
tal arteries
Internal mammary arteries
Fig. 200. — Course and distribution of the intercostal arteries.
small. It may be controlled, if the vessel is cut in performing the operation of
paracentesis for empyema, by clamping with haemostatic forceps. If these are
allowed to remain on a few minutes the bleeding often does not recur on their
removal. If desired a ligature can be applied. If it is undesirable to rely on the
clamp or ligature then the wound may be hrmly packed with gauze or a piece of gauze
may be depressed through the wound into the pleural cavity and then stuffed with
more gauze, after which the tampon so formed is pulled firmly outward against the
bleeding: tissues.
MUSCLES.
Covering the chest anteriorly are the pedoralis major and pedoralis minor
Tnusclcs. The serrattis anterior {magnns) winds around its side and posteriorly, above
is the trapezius and below the latissinuis dorsi. Beneath them are the erector spitice
(^sacro spinalis) miisdes on each side of the spinous processes.
The pectoralis major muscle arises from the sternal half of the clavicle, from
the sternum and costal cartilages as low as the sixth or seventh rib, and from the
\7
178
APPLIED ANATOMY.
aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle and sheath of the rectus muscle. It
inserts into the outer lip of the bicipital groove. It is to be noted in regard to this
muscle that it is attached only to the inner half of the clavicle and that the clavicular
Acromial branch
Humeral branch \
Cephalic vein \ \
Coracoid process
Deltoid
Clavi pectoral fascia
Costocoracold
membrane
Superior
'thoracic vessels
and nerves
\ Thoracic branch
Acromial thoracic artery
Pectoralis major Pectoralis minor
Fig. 20 1. — The clavipectoral fascia.
and sternal parts are separated by a cleft. When removing it in excision of the
breast for carcinoma one separates the muscle by passing through this cleft and
detaching the part below. It forms the anterior
/j fold of the axilla and by following this fold to the
chest- wall it leads to the fifth rib, as it is at that
rib that the muscle leaves the chest-wall.
The pectoralis major is covered by the pec-
toral fascia. When in removal of the
female breast for nonma-
lignant growths the breast
is raised, the muscle be-
neath is seen to be covered
with a thin fascia continu-
ous with the fascia of the
axilla. Beneath the pec-
toralis major is the clavi-
pectoral fascia continuous
with the costocoracold
membrane above and the
axillary fascia at the sides.
The pectoralis
minor passes from the
third, fourth, and fifth ribs
to the coracoid process. Its
origin is well forward to-
ward the anterior extremi-
ties of the ribs and, as it is
not attached so low on the
chest as is the pectoralis
major, it is hidden by the latter and does not aid in forming the anterior axillary fold.
This muscle is frequently removed in operations for carcinoma of the mammary gland.
*^,
Fi
202. — The serratus anterior muscle arising
nine upper ribs.
by ten digitations from the
THE THORAX.
179
The serratus anterior (magnus) muscle (Fig. 202) passes from the side of
the chest to the vertebral or posterior border of the scapula, arising by nine or ten
digitations from the eight or nine upper ribs, the second having two. The slip arising
from the sixth rib is the one most prominently seen on raising the arm away from
the side, it passes the farthest forward. The slips into the fifth, seventh, and eighth
ribs may also be seen. This muscle passes across the axilla from in front backward,
Stemomastoid
Splenius
Levator (anguli) scapulae
Scalenus medius
Infraspinatii
Latissimus dorsi
External obliqui
Internal oblique'
Petit's triangl
Fig. 203. — Muscles of the back.
lying on the chest-wall,
fifth, sixth, and seventh
respiratory nerve of Bell.
It is supplied by the posterior thoracic nerve from the
cervicals. This nerve is also called the long external
The interrial 'respiratory nerve is the phrenic, which comes
from the third, fourth, and fifth cervical nerves. One of the main functions of this
muscle is to keep the scapula applied to the chest and to aid in rotating it in elevation
i8o APPLIED x\X ATOMY.
of the arm. When it is paralyzed the arm cannot be raised beyond a right angle
and the scapula projects, particularly at its lower angle and posterior edge. This
condition is called ' ' winged scapula. ' '
The trapezius muscle (Fig. 203) has the shape of a triangle, its apex being out
on the acromion process and its base in the median line. It arises posteriorly from
the inner third of the superior curved line of the occiput, the occipital protuberance,
ligamentum nuchse, and the spines of the se\'enth cervical and all the thoracic vertebrae.
It inserts into the outer third of the clavicle and the acromion and spinous proc-
esses of the scapula. It aids in rotating the scapula and elevating the shoulder; its
paralysis is followed by marked dropping of the shoulder. It is supplied by the
spiiial accessory nerve., which is sometimes injured in operations for tumors involving
the posterior cerxical triangle.
The latissimus dorsi muscle arises from the spinous processes of the lower six
thoracic vertebrae, from the posterior layer of the lumbar fascia, the outer lip of the
posterior third of the iliac crest and by digitations from the lower three or four ribs.
Sometimes it is attached to the angle of the scapula. It unites with the tendon of the
teres major muscle to be inserted into the bottom of the bicipital groove and extends
somewhat higher than the tendon of the pectoralis major. A bursa, which may
become inflamed, sometimes lies betw^een the muscle and the inferior angle of the
scapula. The latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles form the posterior axillary fold.
The erector spinae (sacrospinalis) muscle fills up the hollows on each side of
the spinous processes. As the various muscular bundles are inserted into the vertebrae
by innumerable small tendinous slips, in exposing the vertebrae in performing lamin-
ectomy it is necessary to cut them w^ith a knife or scissors. One should not attempt
to separate them by blunt dissection. These muscles become atrophied in cases in
which the spine becomes distorted.
SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE THORAX.
On looking at the chest one should note whether or not it appears normal. It
may show the rounded form of emphysema or the flat form of phthisis. One side
may be larger than the other, suggesting pleural effusion. The intercostal spaces
may be obliterated, indicating the same condition. This may be local instead of over
the whole chest. Note whether Harrison's groove, funnel and pigeon breast, or
beading of the ribs, already described, are present. Aneurism affecting the great
vessels may cause a bulging in the upper anterior portion, and cardiac disease may
produce marked changes in the apex beat. This may be displaced to the right side
by pleural effusion.
The clavicle belongs to the shoulder-girdle and hence will be described with the
upper extremity. Both it and the sternum are subcutaneous and can readily be felt
beneath the skin. The point of junction of the first and second pieces of the sternum
is opposite the second costal cartilage. It forms a distinct prominence, which is
readily felt and is a most valuable landmark. It is called the angulns sterni or angle
of Louis. There is usually a palpable depression at the junction of the second
piece of the sternum and xiphoid cartilage.
The tip of the xiphoid or ensiform cartilage can be felt about 4 cm. below the
joint between it and the second piece of the sternum. The top of the sternum is oppo-
site the lower edge of the second thoracic vertebra. The angulus sterni is opposite
the fifth vertebra, the lower end of the second piece of the sternum is opposite the
tenth, and the tip of the ensiform cartilage is opposite the eleventh thoracic ver-
tebra. There is usually comparatively little fat over the sternum, so that in fat and
muscular people its level is below that of the chest on each side. Above its upper
end is the suprasternal notch or depressio7i, below its lower end is the infrastertial
depression or epigastric fossa., sometimes called the scrobicuhis cordis.
With the upper end of the sternum articulate the clavicles. The sternoclavicular
joint possesses an interarticular cartilage between the clavicle and the sternum. This
separates them sufficiently to allow the formation of a distinct depression, which can
readily be felt. From the sternum to the acromion process the clavicle is subcuta-
neous. Below the inner end of the clavicle the first rib can be often seen and felt. At
THE THORAX.
i8i
the middle of the cla\'icle it is so deep from the surface as not to be accessible and
here the second rib is the one which shows just below the clavicle. In children the
point of junction of the cartilages and ribs can often be distinguished; this is par-
ticularly so in cases of rachitis.
The line of junction between the body of the sternum and the ensiform cartilage
can be distinguished, and to each side of it is felt the cartilage of the seventh rib,
the last that articulates with the sternum. The tenth rib is the lowest which is
attached anteriorly, the eleventh and twelfth being shorter and floating ribs. The
intercostal spaces are wider anteriorly than posteriorly and the third is the widest.
The nipple is usually in the fourth interspace or on the lower border of the fourth
rib and on a line a little to the outer side of the middle of the clavicle. In women its
position is variable, o .ving to the breasts being pendulous. The mammary gland
reaches from the third to the seventh rib. As the pectoralis major muscle does not
arise lower than the sixth rib it is seen that the mammary gland projects beyond it, an
important fact to be remembered in operations for remox-al of the breast.
Immediately to the outer side of the upper edge of the pectoralis major, beginning
at the middle of the clavicle and below it, is a hollow. This is the interval between
the pectoralis major and deltoid muscles. At its upper end it is equal in width to one-
Suprastemal notch
Sternal end of first
Second rib
Angle of sternum
opposite second rib
Xiphostemal
articulation
Serrations of serratus
anterior muscle
Tip of ensiform process
Infrastemal depression
Space between deltoid and pectoralis major
Outer end of clavicle
Coracoid process
Acromioclavicular joint
Acromion process
Fig. 204. — Surface anatomy of the thorax.
sixth the length of the clavicle, because the deltoid is attached only to the outer
third of the clavicle. Immediately beneath the edge of the deltoid muscle and about
2.5 cm. below the clavicle is the coracoid process. On abducting the arm the scapula
is rotated and the serratus anterior muscle is put on the stretch; this makes its four
lower serrations visible. The serration attached to the fifth rib is the highest, the
sixth is the most prominent and extends farthest forward, while below are the last
two attached to the seventh and eighth ribs. The operation of paracentesis, or tapping
for pleural effusion, is most often done in the sixth interspace in the midaxillary line.
This will be about on a level with the nipple. The apex beat of the heart is felt in
the fifth interspace, about 2. 5 cm. ( i in. ) to the inner side of the line of the nipple.
Running down behind the costal cartilages and crossing the intercostal spaces
about a centimetre from the edge of the sternum is the internal mammary artery.
When it reaches the sixth interspace it divides into the superior epigastric, which
goes downward in the abdominal walls, and the musculophrenic, which passes to the
attachment of the diaphragm along the edge of the chest.
( The relations of the organs of the chest to the surface will be discussed later.
The nervous supply to the surface of the chest is of interest mainly as indicating the
probable location of the lesion in cases of fracture of the spine, and it will be described
in the section devoted to the Back.)
182
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE MAMMA OR BREAST.
The name mammary gland is often gi\'en to the breast, yet the latter is composed
not only of glandular tissue but also of fibrous and fatty tissue, with the usual vessels,
nerves, and lymphatics. In the male the glandular portion is undeveloped, the fat is
relatively scanty, and the breast as a whole is insignificant and flat. In the virgin
female adult it is more spheroidal. Above the nipple it is flattened and below it is
rounded. Its general shape is circular and it covers the chest-wall from the upper
border of the third rib to the sixth interspace. Laterally it reaches internally almost
to the sternum and externally it overlaps the edge of the pectoralis major. It lies
imbedded in the superficial fascia. In its development it is simply a modified seba-
ceous gland. Beginning by a finger-like growth from the skin it burrows its way into
the superficial fascia. It becomes compound and sends its branches in various direc-
tions, especially does it extend deeper until finally it pushes away most of the fat and
^i-
Areola
Areolar glands
Nipple
Lobule of gland-tissues
Excretory duct
Ampulla
Lactiferous duct
Fig. 205. — The secreting structure of the breast. (Piersol.)
rests on the fascia covering the pectoralis major muscle. This is wh)- we find almost no
adipose tissue beneath the gland but mostly between the glandular structure and the
skin and around its edges. The shape of the virgin breast is due mainly to its adipose
tissue and not to its glandular structure. In those who have borne children the breasts
become enlarged, lax, and pendulous. After lactation is completed they again
retract but rarely regain their former shape. During lactation the fatty portion of the
breast may disappear and lea\'e it apparently in a shriveled condition, yet such a breast
may be functionally quite active. Therefore the size of the breast is no criterion of its
milk-producing powers.
The secreting structure, racemose in character, is divided into ten to
sixteen lobules each of which has its duct. These lactiferous ducts begin in the
acini and end in the nipple. Beneath the nipple they are dilated, each forming a
sinus or ampulla. While the shape of the breast is regular in its outline the
glandular tissue is not so. It possesses three projections or cusps. One of these
projects inward nearly or quite to the sternum, while the other two project toward
the axilla and side, one being lower than the other. These are the most common
THE MAMMA OR BREAST.
183
Suspensory band-
Pectoral muscle
directions in which the glandular tissue is prolonged, but it may extend farther
than usual in any direction ; hence the wide incisions made in cases of carcinoma.
According to H. J. Stiles {Ed. Med. Joicrn., 1892, p. 1099), the secreting
structure may extend posteriorly into the retromammary tissue between the layers
of the pectoral fascia. Anteriorly it is prolonged with the fibrous tissue (^ligaments
of Cooper) almost to the skin.
The nipple, located below and to the inner side of the centre of the gland,
has connected with it some circular and longitudinal unstriped muscular fibres.
The longitudinal ones are attached to the lactiferous ducts and serve to retract
the nipple, the circular ones to erect it. Surrounding the nipple is the areola.
It is pink in the virgin and about 2,5 cm. in diameter. After pregnancy its hue
becomes brownish. The tubercles of AIontgo7nery are the numerous elevations
found on the areola. They are more or less
modified sebaceous glands and enlarge during
pregnancy. As they secrete a milky fluid, they
are often regarded as accessory milk ducts.
There is no fat in the nipple or areola.
The fibrous structure of the gland
envelops the adipose and glandular tissue.
It is simply a continuation of the fibrous septa
of the superficial fascia. These septa are at-
tached to the skin above, envelop and pass
between the fatty and glandular lobules, and
form a thin co\'ering for the under surface of
the gland. The breast is sometimes spoken of
as having a capsule, but that simply refers to
the fibrous tissue just described. This fibrous
tissue follows largely the ducts, hence when
affected with carcinoma it contracts and draws
the nipple in. This forms the retracted nipple
of that disease. The fibres that go to the skin
have been named the ligaments of Cooper.
The fibrous tissue forms a net-work in the
meshes of which are packed the glandular
structure and fat-lobules. It is this which
gives the firmness and shape to the virgin
breast. In lactation, the fibrous tissue softens
and stretches to accommodate the increase in
the glandular structure and this, with the loss
of fat, causes the breast to become lax and
pendulous. In palpating a normal breast be-
tween the fingers and the thumb, this firm-
ness may feel like a foreign growth; hence
this method of examination is not to be relied
on. A better way is to have the patient re-
cline, and lay the fingers flat on the breast,
compressing it on the chest-wall beneath.
This flattens the glandular structure and any mass can be more surely detected.
The fibrous tissue between the glandular structure and the pectoralis beneath
is quite thin and loose, with large spaces in it which have been called the sjtb-
mammary bursa. Pus readily spreads in this loose submammary tissue, but in the
gland itself only with dilticulty.
Blood Supply. — The breast is supplied with blood from above by th& pectoral
bra7ich of the acromial thoracic artery, which leaves the axillary artery at the inner
border of the pectoralis minor muscle. The pectoral branch descends between the
pectoralis major and minor and anastomoses with the intercostals and long thoracic.
It sends branches through the pectoralis major muscle, and in carcinoma of the gland
it may be seen much enlarged running downward on the chest-wall beneath the
muscle. From the inner side come \\\q. perforating brayiches of the internal mammary
Gland-
tissue
Fascial envelope
Fig. 206. — Sagittal section of mamma of young
woman who had never borne children; hardened
in formalin. (Piersol.)
i84
APPLIED ANATOMY.
artery from the second to the sixth rib; the second, third, and fourth are the largest
and may bleed freely in detaching the pectoralis major. To the outer side and
below is the lo7ig thoracic artery, also called the external mammary; it descends
along the outer edge of the pectoralis minor, sending branches inward around the
edge of the pectoralis major to the mammary gland. The intercostal arteries also
contribute somewhat to the blood supply of the gland.
Lrymphatics. — The breast is exceedingly well supplied with lymphatics.
They are composed of a deep set around the lobules and ducts, and a superficial set
which together with the deep lymphatics forms a plexus around the nipple called the
subareolar plexus. They drain mainly toward the axilla into the lymph-nodes along
the edge of the pectoralis major but also communicate with the nodes around the
subclavian artery and those in the anterior mediastinum which accompany the inter-
nal mammary artery.
The axillary nodes are in three sets: one along the edge of the pectoralis
major muscle {pectoral nodes), another further back along the anterior edge of the
scapula (^scapular nodes), and a third following the course of the axillary artery
Delto-pectoral node
Brachial node
Subscapular node
Anterior pectoral node
Vessel passing to anterior
pectoral node
Inferior pectoral node
Subclavian node
Vessel passing to
subclavian node
Intermediate node
Subareolar plexus
over mammary
gland
Fig. 207. — Lymphatics of the breast. (Poirier and Cun^o.)
{humeral nodes). In addition to these there are some ififraclavicular or subclavian
nodes between the deltoid and pectoralis major and at the inner edge of the pectoralis
minor muscles; these are comparatively rarely involved primarily. The axillary
nodes are continuous and communicate with the subclavian and supraclavicular nodes,
and these latter are frequently enlarged subsequent to the axillary infection. The
anastomosis of the lymphatics across the median line has been thought to account
for the occurrence of the disease in the opposite breast or axilla. As shown by
Sappey, some if not all of the lymphatics of even the sternal portion of the breast
drain into the axilla and not into the anterior mediastinum, thus accounting for the
axillary in\'olvement when the inner portion of the breast is affected. These five
sets of nodes communicate with each other, and any one may be alone involved.
The supraclavicular set do not become involved primarily because no vessels run
directly from the breast to them; they are affected secondarily to involvement of the
axillary or subclavian sets.
The deep lymphatics of the breast, according to Sappey, follow the ducts to the
areola, there anastomosing with the superficial lymphatics to form what he called the
subareolar plexus, which drains by two trunks into the axilla. The lymphatics of the
THE MAMMA OR BREAST 185
breast anastomose with those of the surrounding structures; hence in certain cases the
pectoralis muscles and even the pleura may be affected, and when the disease is widely
disseminated by the lymph-channels on the chest-walls there is produced the thick-
ened, brawny, infiltrated condition known as the cancer "'en cuirasse'' of Velpeau.
Nerves. — The breast and the skin over it are supplied from the descending
branches of the cervical plexus, by thoracic branches from the brachial plexus, and
by the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth intercostals. These are not of so much
practical importance as the lateral branches of the second and third intercostal
nerves. That of the second is called the intercostobt'achialis (^humeral) nerve ; it
crosses the axilla, anastomoses with the medial brachial {^lesser internal) cutaneous
nerve, and supplies the skin of the inner and upper portion of the arm. The third
intercostal anastomoses with the second and gives a branch to the arm and to the
dorsum of the scapula. These nerves are certain to be seen in clearing out the axilla.
Their division is accompanied by no paralysis, but disturbance of them accounts for
some of the pain and discomfort following the operation.
Abscess of the Breast.
Suppuration in the mammary gland is usually due to infection which has
entered the gland either through the lymphatics or the lactiferous ducts. The
starting point of the infection is thought to be an ulcerated crack or fissure of the
nipple. Infection travelling into the gland by way of the lymphatics would cause
pus primarily in the pericanalicular tissue but it would soon involve the lactiferous
ducts and then pus might exude from the nipple. Infection travelling up the ducts
might reach the ultimate lobules and therefore give rise to widespread and multiple
abscesses. Suppuration in this gland resembles that in the parotid gland, already
described. When the body of the gland is involved it is apt to be so in more than
one spot. The infection follows the branching of the ducts and usually there are
several small abscesses instead of one large one. If there is a large collection of pus
it is not contained in one cavity but more likely in several. This is so often the case
that in treating these abscesses it is advised that they should not only be incised but
the finger should then be introduced and the partitions separating the various abscess
cavities broken through.
In its incipiency a lymphatic infection may cause a single collection of pus, but
this soon breaks through into the canaliculi and infects and involves the glandular
structure. In an early stage of duct infection several inflammatory areas may start
up about the same time. The pus soon breaks through the canaliculi and involves
the periglandular tissue so that in each mode of infection the condition soon becomes
the same. It is for this reason that it is difficult to say whether the infection origi-
nated in the lymphatics or the ducts.
When the ducts are inflamed the pus often finds a vent at the nipple. The fre-
quency of this is the reason why direct infection of the ducts is regarded as the more
common mode. In incising a mammary abscess the incisions should follow the course
of the ducts, that is, they should be made in a direction radiating from the nipple towards
the circumference and not transversely, otherwise healthy ducts will be divided.
Submammary Abscess (for subpectoral abscess see page 264). — As has been
pointed out some of the glandular tissue dips down to the pectoral fascia, hence
when some of these deepest lying lobules are inflamed the pus instead of breaking
laterally into the adjoining lobules or tissue breaks into the submammary tissue and
bursa. Here it spreads rapidly beneath the gland and raises the gland above it.
As the pus accumulates it sinks downward and works its way outward to the lower
outer quadrant along the ^i}^^Q. of the anterior axillary fold. Here is where it should
be opened. As the cavity is single one incision is sufficient to drain it.
Tumors of the Mammary Gland.
Benign Tumors. — There are two main kinds of benign mammary growths,
cystic and adenomatous or fibro-adenomatous.
Cystic growths due to retention of secretion of the ducts occur as small, rounded
tumors, painful and tender to the touch, and are seen between the ages of 25 and 35
1 86 APPLIED ANATOMY.
years. They are not in any way dangerous. They are composed of a number of
dilated acini. Another form is degenerati\'e in character, occurring in the decline of
life, and consists of a large number of various sized, usually small, cysts located
mostly toward the deep surface of the gland. They contain mucoid and degenerated
material produced by the lining membrane of the acini. The whole breast is apt to
be studded with small shot-like cysts and both breasts are visually involved. This
affection in itself is not malignant, but it may become so by intracanalicular growths
springing up from the walls of the cysts.
Adenomatous growths are encapsulated, usually single, and are composed of
three distinct elements. These are glandular tissue more or less normal in character,
glandular tissue cystic in character, and fibrous tissue. The fibrous tissue forms the
capsule as well as the stroma in the meshes of which latter glandular tissue, nearly
normal, occurs. These are called fibro-adenoniata and if the glandular tissue is
quite abundant they may be called adenomata. If the glandular acini are dilated
so as to overshadow the fibrous portion, then it is called a cystic adenoma. These
cystic growths may be quite large.
Malignant Tumors. — The malignant growths of the breast are either sarco-
mata or carcinomata.
Sarcomata originate from the fibrous stroma of the breast surrounding the ducts
and acini. As it increases in size it may irritate the glandular structure and obstruct
the ducts, thus forming cysts which may be quite large. Such a growth has been
called a cystic sarcoma. It also shows itself as a single tumor, which may be large
but solid. The lymph- nodes are rarely affected. The disease when it wanders
from the seat of the primary growth shows itself in some of the internal organs. It
is disseminated by the blood and not by the lymphatics.
Carciyiomata originate from the epithelium lining the ducts and acini. For our
purposes we may divide them into two classes, those that grow into the ducts {intra-
canalicular^ and those that break through the ducts and invade the surrounding
tissues, of these scirrhus is the type.
Intraca7ialicular growths have by many authors been considered nonmalignant on
account of the rarity of their producing general infection. They grow at times rapidly
and produce tumors of considerable size. On section they contain many cysts and
into these cysts, which are derived from the dilated milk-ducts, protrude outgrowths
from the walls. Sometimes the cavity of the cyst has its liquid contents replaced by
the solid tumor which has grown into it. A discharge of bloody serum from the
nipple is common in these growths.
Scirrhus is the ordinary form of cancer of the breast. It starts in the epithelial
structures of the gland, breaks through the basement membrane and in\olves the
structures immediately adjacent to it, and is disseminated more widely by the lym-
phatics. Paget s disease is a true carcinoma which begins as an eczema or ulceration
around the nipple and later becomes disseminated.
Carcinoma follows the gland structure, and readily involves the pectoral fascia
covering the pectoralis major muscle. Anteriorly, the gland structure in places
follows the ligaments of Cooper to the skin above, hence the frequency with which
the skin is involved.
The scirrhus variety does not involve the ducts in the same manner as does the
intracanalicular variety, hence bloody discharges from the nipple are not so common
as in that affection. The disease, when affecting the region of the nipple, has been
considered more dangerous because of the greater development of the lymphatics,
particularly the subareolar plexus of Sappey, at that point.
Carcinomatous disease extends especially by way of the lymphatics. These
follow the fibrous and canalicular structure, therefore on section the cancerous tissue
can be seen extending like roots into the surrounding gland. This tissue shrinks,
contracts, and becomes harder as the disease progresses, that is why retraction of the
nipple and dimpling of the skin occurs. The most free lymphatic drainage occurs
toward the axilla, not toward the mediastinal nodes. The first nodes to show infec-
tion are those lying along the edge of the pectoralis major muscle about the level of
the third rib. Later, the nodes at the anterior edge of the scapula accompanying the
subscapular artery become involved, or those along the axillary vessels. Still later
THE MEDIASTINUM. 187
those along the subcla\'ian vessels may be enlarged and may be felt abo\e the clavicle
and farther inward behind the sternomastoid muscle low down.
In rare instances the disease may be carried superficially to the subclavian nodes
in the infraclavicular triangle between the deltoid and pectoralis major muscles.
Should the disease spread, it may be carried by the lymphatics to the opposite breast
directly across the median line. If it involves the lymphatics of the chest-wall gen-
erally there is produced the brawny condition of the skin called cancer ' V« C7d?-asse''
of Velpeau already alluded to. A cancerous nodule beyond the edge of the pectoralis
major muscle is not necessarily an enlarged node, but may be due to the involvement
of one of the cusps of the gland, which sometimes extend even into the axilla.
Removal of the Cancerous Breast. — The origin of cancer is now believed
to be local and not general and the more complete its removal the greater is the
likelihood of cure. Therefore every effort is made to excise every possible infected
tissue. This has led to the performance of very extensive operations.
The incision is made so large as to include nearly or quite all of the skin
covering the glandular tissue; this is because of the intimate connection of the
two, as already pointed out. It is carried out to the arm; this is to facilitate
clearing out the axilla and all its contents. The incision is kept close to the skin;
this is to avoid any glandular structure which may possibly be beneath. The
pectoral fascia covering the pectoral muscle is always removed.
Often both the pectoralis major and minor muscles are removed. In excising
them the slight interspace between the clavicular and sternal fibres of the pectoralis
major muscle is entered and the muscle detached from the anterior extremities
of the ribs and sternum. In so doing the anterior intercostal arteries, particularly
those of the second, third, and fourth spaces, are liable to bleed freely. As the
pectoralis major is detached and turned outward, the acromial thoracic artery is
seen at the inner edge of the pectoralis minor muscle with its pectoral branch
running down the surface of the chest. This may be ligated, the finger slipped
beneath the pectoralis minor, and this muscle cut loose from the coracoid process
above and the third, fourth, and fifth ribs below. At this stage some operators
clear the subclavian and axillary vessels of all loose tissues and lymph-nodes.
The vessels are followed out on the arm. When the insertion of the pecto-
ralis major is reached it is detached and the whole mass turned outward and pared
loose along the anterior edge of the scapula. Thus it is removed in one piece.
The part of the chest-wall which has been cleared off embraces from the middle
or edge of the sternum to the anterior edge of the scapula and from near the
lower edge of the chest below to the clavicle above. The vessels ha\'e been
cleared off from the insertion of the axillary folds on the arm to underneath the
clavicle. Many operators make an additional incision above the clavicle and clear
out the supraclavicular fossa even if no enlarged glands can there be detected.
Sometimes the long thoracic artery and thoracicalis longus (long external thoracic)
nerve may be wounded, but they need not be. (See note, page 191.)
Two nerves will be seen crossing the axilla from the chest to the arm. They
are the lateral branches of the second and third intercostal nerves. The second is
called the intercostobrachialis (humeral) nerve. If they can conveniently be spared
it is to be done, otherwise they are divided. In clearing the axillary vessels, small
veins and even arteries may be divided close to the main trunks. These may
be expected to bleed freely but are usually readily secured. Care should be taken
not to wound unnecessarily the subscapular artery and particularly the vein as they
wind around the anterior edge of the scapula 2 to 3 cm. below its neck. Some operators
prefer to detach the breast from without in instead of from within out as described.
THE MEDIASTINUM.
The mediastinum is the middle space of the chest between the spine behind, the
sternum in front, and the pleurae to each side. It is subdivided into a superior
inediastin?i))i, which is the part above Ludwig's angle, between the first piece of the
sternum in front and the vertebrcE from the first thoracic to the upper portion of the
fifth behind. The part below is divided into the anterior mediastinum, the middle
-mediastinutn, and ihe. posterior mediastinum.
i88
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Superior Mediastinum. — The upper level of the superior mediastinum is
oblique, as it runs from the upper edge of the sternum to the first thoracic vertebra.
The lower level of the superior mediastinum runs from the junction of the first and
second pieces of the sternum to the upper border of the fifth (or lower border of the
fourth ) thoracic vertebra. Laterally it is bounded by the pleurae and apices of the lungs.
The distance from the anterior surface of the spine to the posterior surface of the
sternum is quite small, being only 5 to 6 cm. (2 to 2^ in.). Through this pass
most important structures. The trachea and oesophagiis are in the median line as well as
the remains of the thymus gland. To each side are the great vessels, the innomi7iate
artery being on the right and the subclavian and carotid on the left. The left innomi-
nate vein crosses transversely just below the top of the sternum to meet the innomiyiate
vein of the right side and form the siiperior vena cava. Into the innominate veins
empty the irferior thyroid^ vertebral, superior intercostal, iiiternal mammary, and
CEsophagus — }
Innominate arten,'
Left innominate vein — /- -4'
Arch of aorta
Sternum
Ascending aorta
Right ventricle
Right auricle.
Diaphragm
— Trachea
'IV thoracic vertebra
Right pulmonary
artery
.Left auricle
—CEsophagus
Inferior vena cava
Liver
Spigelian lobe
Fig. 208. — The superior (red), anterior (blue), middle (yellow), and posterior (green), mediastina.
(Modified from Piersol.)
pericardial veins ; and into the descending vena cava empties the vejia azygos major.
On the posterior surface of the oesophagus and afterwards to its left side passes the
thoracic duct. The trachea bifurcates opposite the junction of the first and second
pieces of the sternum, and the transverse portion of the arch of the aorta rises as high
as the middle of the manubrium. The phrenic nerves lie against the pleura, the
right having the vena cava to its inner side.
The right vagus {p7ie7imogastric^ 7ierve comes down between the innominate
artery and vein and passes downward on the posterior surface of the oesophagus. It
gives its recurrent laryngeal branch off at about the right sternoclavicular joint.
The left vagus nerve comes down to the outer side of the left carotid artery and
goes over the arch of the aorta, giving ofT its recurrent laryngeal branch, and thence
proceeds to the anterior surface of the oesophagus. The presence of the trachea in
THE MEDIASTINUM.
189
the median line and the edges of the lungs which meet opposite the second rib give
a resonant percussion note to the first piece of the sternum. With all these
important structures crowded in the small space between the vertebrae and sternum
it is easy to see why tumors in this region should cause serious symptoms.
Aneurism involving the arch of the aorta and the great vessels is common.
Tumors, such as sarcoma, carcinoma, and glandular, though rare, do occur.
Abscess from high dorsal Pott' s disease has been known to cause serious effects.
The symptoms of all these affections resemble one another to a considerable
extent. Interference with the blood-current, usually in the veins, almost never in
the arteries, is marked. Alteration in the voice is produced by pressure on the
recurrent laryngeal nerves. Dyspnoea from the pressure on the trachea and diffi-
culty in swallowing also occur, as well as interference with the circulation and the
Descending
vena cava
Left pulmonary
artery
Left bronchus
Left pulmonary
veins
Right atrium
(auricle)
Vagus nerve
Internal jugular vein
Common carotid artery
Subclavian vein
Left innominate
vein
Phrenic nerve
Subclavian artery
Vagus nerve
Aorta
Trachea
Bronchial
lymph-node
Pulmonary
artery
Pulmonary
veins
Right ventricle
Fig. 209. — Contents of the mediastina viewed from the front.
action of the heart. The presence of growths in this region is indicated also by the
presence of dulness o\'er the region of the manubrium.
Anterior Mediastinum. — This is the space below the second costal cartilages,
between the sternum in front, the pericardium behind, and the two pleurae on the
sides. It is only a narrow slit in the median line above from the second to the
fourth costal cartilage; from here the right pleura is prolonged obliquely down and
outward to the seventh costal cartilage, which it follows. On the left side the pleura
leaves the median line about the fourth cartilage and passes out about 2 cm. to the
left of the sternum and then down to the seventh costal cartilage, which it follows.
The triangularis sterni muscle arises from the under surface of the lower third of the
sternum and from the xiphoid cartilage and passes upward and outward to insert
into the costal cartilages of the second to the sixth ribs inclusive. The muscle lies
in front of the anterior mediastinum and the internal mammary artery runs down
between it and the bone about i cm. distant from the edge of the sternum. There
are a few lymphatic nodes in the anterior mediastinum on the diaphragm below and
I go
APPLIED ANATOMY.
in the superior mediastinum on the arch of the aorta and left innominate vein above.
A chain of nodes also accompanies the internal mammary artery along the edge of
the sternum between the pleura and chest wall.
Abscess of the anterior inediastiriiim may result from infection due to injury or
punctured wounds. It may break into the pleurae on the sides, into the pericar-
dium posteriorly, work its way down toward the abdomen, or point in the intercostal
spaces at the edge of the sternum.
Paracentesis pericardii is performed in the sixth interspace close to the sternum;
also, the fifth and sixth cartilages may be resected, the internal mammary artery
ligated, and the pericardium opened and even drained.
If one attempts to pass a trochar into the pericardium by a puncture through
the fifth or sixth interspace sufficiently far out to avoid wounding the internal
mammary artery the pleura is apt to be wounded, as it passes farther toward the
median line than does the lung.
The Middle Mediastinum. — The middle mediastinum is limited in front by
the anterior wall of the pericardium and behind by the posterior wall of the pericar-
dium and roots of the lungs. It contains the heart with the lower half of the desce?id-
ing vena cava and the vena azygos major emptying into it, and the asce?iding aorta;
Thoracic duct-
Phrenic nerve
Recurrent laryngeal nerve
Common carotid artery.
Bronchial artery.
Pulmonary artery-
""CEsophagus
Vagus nerve
Phrenic nerve
Vena azygos major
■Right bronchus
•Right pulmonary artery
Pulmonary vein
Left vagus nervi
Left bronchu:
Pulmonary vein
Aorta-
Thoracic duct-
Vena azygos major-
FiG. 2IO. — Contents of the mediastina viewed from the rear.
also the structures forming the roots of the lungs, viz., the right and left bronchi,
and \.\\e pnhnonary arteries and veins."^ T\\g phrejiic nerves lie between the pericar-
dium and pleurae anteriorly.
The bronchial lymphatic nodes are numerous between the structures forming the
roots of the lungs. It is these nodes that are so often enlarged in diseases of the
lungs. They are affected in malignant disease as well as in tuberculosis, etc. Enlarge-
ments of the heart pressing on the vessels, particularly the vena azygos major, are
sometimes thought to cause pleural effusions, especially if one-sided.
When the pericardium is distended with fluid it enlarges more in an up and down
direction, but when the heart is enlarged its size increases mainly laterally — from side
to side.
Posterior Mediastinum. — The posterior mediastinum extends from the peri-
cardium and roots of the lungs anteriorly to the vertebrae posteriorly. The pleurae
are on each side. Behind the pericardium runs the oesophagjcs, lying in front of the
aorta, which rests on the vertebrae. In the chink between the aorta and bodies of
the vertebrae lies the thoracic duct and immediately to its right side is the vena azygos
* The mediastina are arbitrary divisions, and it is a question as to whether the roots of the
kings should not be included in the posterior instead of the middle mediastinum.
THE MEDIASTINUM. 191
major. The vena azygos minor is on the left side of the vertebrae and crosses the
sixth to join the vena azygos major. The descending thoracic aorta is not infrequently
the seat of aneurism.
Mediastinal Tumors. — Cancer is the most frequent malignant new growth, then
sarcoma and lymphoma. Great enlargement of the lymph-nodes occurs in Hodgkiii'' s
disease and is probably a factor in causing a fatal issue. Enlargements also result
from tuberculosis and other diseases. They give rise to pressure symptoms. Dyspnoea
may be due to pressure on the trachea or heart and great vessels. The circulation
may be so much impeded that the enlargement of the collateral veins, especially those
of the surface, may be \ery marked. There may also be difficulty of swallowing due
to pressure on the oesophagus.
Pleural Effusions. — Serous effusions into the pleurae are also known to accom-
pany heart disease and have been attributed in some instances to obstruction of the
circulation. They are apt to be unilateral and are most often found affecting the
right pleural cavity. Baccelli attributed the effusion to obstruction of the blood
current through the vena azygos major ; the enlarged heart pulling the superior vena
cava down drew the vena azygos major tightly over the right bronchus, as is well
shown in Fig. 210. Steele ( Univ. Med. Mag., 1897 ; Jonrn. Am. Med. Asso.^ 1904)
and Stengel ( Univ. Penna. Med. Bulletin, 1901 ) held that the dilated right heart by
extension upward exerts pressure on the root of the right lung and indirectly pinches
the azygos major vein as it curves over the right bronchus to enter the superior
vena cava. Fetterolf and Landis (^Am. Journ. Med. Sciences, 1909) believe that
the fluid comes from the visceral pleura and not from the parietal pleura, and that the
outpouring, so far as the pressure factor is concerned, is caused by dilated portions
of the heart pressing on and partly occluding the pulmonary veins. They point out
that Miller {Am. Journ. of Anat., vii) has shown that the veins draining the visceral
pleura empty into the pulmonary veins ; therefore, if these latter are obstructed,
transudation may ensue ; this may occur on either side. They point out that if the
right atrium (auricle) dilates, it expands upward and backward and compresses the
left auricle and root of the right lung; and of the parts composing the root the
pulmonary veins are the most anterior, and, therefore, the ones most liable to be
compressed. Left-sided effusions are accounted for by compression of the left
pulmonary vein by the dilated left atrium (which is the most posterior of the four
chambers) and its appendix. The greater frequency of right-sided effusions is due
to the more common occurrence of dilatation of the right side of the heart.
[VV. S. Handley {Brit. Med. Jonrn., Oct. i, 1904) claims that the principal
method of dissemination of carcinoma of the breast is not by the lymph stream or
blood current but by spreading peripherally along the coarser meshes of the lym-
phatic channels which exist in the deep pectoral fascia. These are continuous down-
ward with the surface of the recti muscles.
He therefore advises that the lower end of the usual skin incision be prolonged
downward and inward so " that every particle of the origin of the great pectoral from
the rectus sheath, and the surface of the latter, on both sides of the middle line,
should be most carefully cleared" as far as two to three inches below the tip of the
ensiform cartilage.]
192
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE CHEST CONTENTS.
For the sakt of convenience in description and record, the chest has been
divided into various regions and marked by certain longitudinal lines.
The Longitudinal Lines.
Seven longitudinal lines are used. They run parallel with the long axis of the body.
1. The median line means the midline of the body. This runs down trie
middle of the sternum anteriorly and the middle of the back posteriorly.
2. The parasternal line runs parallel to the edge of the sternum and midway
between it and the midclavicular line.
3. The midclavicular line, also called the mammary line, is a longitudinal
Fig. 211, — The longitudinal lines of the chest used in physical diagnosis.
line passing through the middle of the clavicle. This usually passes i to 2 cm.
internal to the nipple.
4. The anterior axillary line passes through the anterior fold of the axilla.
5. The midaxillary line passes through the middle of the axilla.
6. The posterior axillary line passes through the posterior fold of the axilla.
7. The scapular line passes longitudinally through the lower angle of the scapula.
The Regions of the Chest.
In the middle of the surface of the chest anteriorly there are three regions:
I. The suprasternal region is the part above the sternum between the sterno-
mastoid muscles. It is the suprasternal notch.
THE CHEST CONTENTS.
193
2. The upper sternal region extends from the suprasternal notch to a line
drawn opposite the third costal cartilages.
3. The lower sternal region is behind the second piece of the sternum from
the third costal cartilages down.
Anteriorly on the chest there are four regions (Fig. 212) :
1. The supraclavicular region, above the clavicle. This includes the supra-
clavicular fossa.
2. The infraclavicular region, below the clavicle down to the upper edge of
the third rib.
3. The mammary region, from the upper edge of the third to the upper
margin of the sixth rib. This extends from the edge of the sternum to the anterior
axillary fold and has the nipple nearly in its centre.
-The
4. The inframammary region extends from the upper margin of the sixth
rib to the lower margin of the thorax.
Laterally on the chest between the folds of the axilla there are two regions:
1. The upper axillary region extends down to the upper border of the sixth rib.
2. The lower axillary region extends from the upper border of the sixth rib
to the lower edge of the thorax.
Posteriorly there are four scapular regions (Fig. 213) :
1. The suprascapular region is above the spine of the scapula.
2. The scapular region is the part covered by the body of the scapula below
its spine.
3. The infrascapular region is the part of the chest below the scapula between
its angle and the lower edge of the chest.
4. The interscapular region is the part between the posterior edge of the
scapula and the median line.
13
194
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE PLEUR/E.
The pleurae form closed sacs which line the thorax (parietal pleura) and cover
the surface of the lungs (visceral pleura). As the lungs expand and contract, the
pleurae are only completely in contact with the lungs when the latter are fully dis-
tended. In ordinary breathing the lungs are not completely expanded, hence the
edges of the pleurae fall together and so prevent the formation of a cavity. This
collapsing of the pleurae takes place mainly along its anterior and lower edges. The
apex of the pleura is prevented from collapsing by its attachment to the first rib, and
also, as pointed out by Sibson, by the attachment to it of an expansion of the deep
cervical fascia and some fibres of the scalenus anticus muscle. Posteriorly the chest
wall is unyielding. Anteriorly when the lungs are collapsed they fill out the pleurae
as low down as the fourth costal cartilage ; below that, in front of the heart.
'SUP^^/.^
" /NFRA
■^ SCAPULAR
REGION
a space or sinus is left unoccupied by lung. It is called the costomediastinal sinus.
Likewise between the diaphragm and chest-walls is another space, in which the
parietal or costal and visceral layers of the pleura are in contact,^ called the costo-
phrenic simis or complemental space of Gerhardt. From these facts it follows that the
outlines of the pleurae and lungs are identical posteriorly, superiorly, and anteriorly,
as low as the fourth costal cartilage. Here they diverge, the pleurae descending
lower than the lungs.
The top of the pleura is about on a plane with the upper surface of the first
rib. This makes its posterior portion at the head of the first rib 5 cm. higher
than its anterior portion at the anterior end of the first rib. The upper border
of the clavicle is level with a point midway between the anterior and posterior
ends of the first rib. This, therefore, shows the pleura to extend 2.5 cm. (i in.)
above the level of the upper surface of the clavicle.
THE PLEURA.
195
The top of the pleura does not project into the neck in the form of a cone, but
resembles a drum-head, being stretched in the form of a plane almost or quite
level with the top of the first rib. Its upper surface is strengthened by fibres from
the deep fascias of the neck and, according to Sibson, by some fibres from the
scalene muscle.
The pleura then slopes forward behind the sternoclavicular joint to meet the
pleura of the opposite side at the level of the second costal cartilage, a little to the left
of the median line. They then descend until opposite or a little below the fourth
costal cartilage, when they each diverge toward the side, reaching the upper border
of the seventh costal cartilage near its sternal junction. They then slope down and
Out, reaching the lower border of the seventh rib in the mammary line, the ninth rib
Fig. 214. — .interior surface relations of the lungs and pleurse.
in the a.xillary line, and the twelfth rib posteriorly (Joessel and Waldeyer, page 51).
The scajDular line intersects the lower edge of the pleura at about the eleventh rib.
In operations involving the lumbar region, if the incision is carried high up
posteriorly the pleura may be opened along the lower border of the posterior
portion of the twelfth rib. It soon recedes from the costal margin and in the
axillary line is about 6 cm. (2f in.) above it.
A heavy body, as a bullet, gravitates to the lowest portion of the pleural cavity,
hence it can be removed through an incision in the eleventh interspace posteriorly.
(Paracentesis and empyema will be alluded to after the lungs have been
described, see p. 200).
196
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE LUNGS
The lungs entirely fill the pleural sacs when completely distended, but only
partly so in quiet, ordinary respiration. They are encased in a bony cage that is
open below, on account of which, when the lungs distend, they expand mostly
downward. To a less extent they expand, in forced respiration, both laterally
and anteroposteriorly, due to the elevation of the ribs owing to the traction of the
muscles upon them. Ordinary breathing is performed mainly by the diaphragm.
It acts like the piston of a cylinder and as it descends the air is drawn into the
trachea and lungs. As the diaphragm falls a negative pressure is produced within
the chest and were it not for its bony framework, it would collapse. The framework
is sufficiently strong to retain its shape in spite of this pressure if the breathing is
Fig. 215. — Posterior surface relations of the lungs and pleurae.
normal and the chest-walls are healthy. When, however, obstruction of the air-
passages is present, perhaps from enlarged pharyngeal or faucial tonsils or nasal
hypertrophies, then the deformities known as funnel-breast, pigeon-breast, etc.,
already described, arise. They are also produced if there is no obstruction to the
breathing but only a weakness in the bony thorax, as occurs in rickets.
Two of the most common of the diseases of the lungs produce changes in the
shape of the thorax ; they are emphysema and phthisis. Pneumonia, though a frequent
enough disease, does not produce any changes, as it is too short in its duration.
In emphysema the lungs are in a state of hyperdistention, hence they fill the
chest to its greatest capacity and tend to make the soft parts bulge between the ribs.
In phthisis the lungs are contracted, hence the intrathoracic pressure becomes a
negative one and the soft parts sink in between their bony support. In emphysema
the anteroposterior diameter increases and the chest assumes the barrel-form already
described. In phthisis it becomes lessened in its anteroposterior diameter and we
THE LUNGS.
197
have the flat chest. Enlargement of the chest posteriorly is impossible on account of
the support of the ribs, vertebrae, and strong back muscles. Enlargement downward
is allowed by a descent of the diaphragm ; hence the fulness of the abdomen in those
affected with emphysema and conversely the flatness of the abdomen in those having
phthisis. In the region of the apices the thorax is closed by the deep fascia, which
spreads from the trachea, oesophagus, muscles, and great vessels and blends with the
pleura to be attached to the first rib. In the normal condition this is level with the
plane of the first rib and rises little if at all above it. Even in disease it is not
materially altered. This is certainly so in phthisis and probably so in emphysema.
The apparent fulness of the supraclavicular fossae and intercostal spaces in emphysema
and the increased depth of these hollows in phthisis are not due so much to a bulging
or to a retraction of the lungs at these points as to the atrophy of the fatty and
muscular tissue in phthisis and to the muscular tension in emphysema.
In coughing, the apex of the lung does not jump up into the neck above the
clavicle as it appears to do, but remains nearly or quite below the plane of the top of
the first rib. The appearance of bulging is caused by the movements of the trachea
in the median line and the muscles laterally. This is noticeable particularly in the
Sternothyroid muscle
Carotid artery
Sternohyoid muscle
Subclavian artery
Vagus nerve
Carotid artery
Vagus nerve
avian vein
First rib
Scalenus anticus
muscle
Subclavian vein
Subclavian artery
Pleura
First rib
Pleura
Fig. 216. — Upper end of the thorax, at the level of the first rib.
case of the platysma and omohyoid muscles. In quiet breathing the posterior belly
of the omohyoid lies about level with the clavicle, but in coughing it rises i or 2 cm.
above it. The intercostal membranes and muscles are kept tense by the constant
elevation of the ribs due to the muscular tension.
OUTLINE OF THE LUNGS.
Apex. — The apex of the lung has its highest point opposite the posterior
extremity of the first rib. It then follows the plane of the top of the first rib down
to the sternoclavicular joint, immediately above the junction of the cartilage of the
first rib with the sternum. The anterior end of the first rib is 5 cm. lower than the
posterior. The upper edge of the clavicle is 2. 5 cm. or one inch, above the anterior
end of the first rib and 2.5 cm. below the head of the first rib, hence the apex of the
lung rises 2.5 cm. (i in.) above the clavicle, and it lies behind its inner fourth.
This distance will vary in different individuals with the obliquity of the ribs. The
more oblique the ribs the greater will be the distance between the level of the top of
the clavicle and that of the neck of the first rib.
Anterior Border. — From the sternoclavicular joint the borders of the lungs
pass downward and inward until they almost or quite touch in the median line at the
angle of Ludwig opposite the second costal cartilage. They continue downward
198 APPLIED ANATOMY.
almost in a straight line until opposite the fourth costal cartilage, where they begin to
diverge. The border of the right lung proceeds downward and begins to turn out-
ward opposite the sixth cartilage.
The left lung on reaching the level of the fourth costal cartilage curves outward
and downward across the fourth interspace to a point about 2.5 cm. to the inner
side of the nipple in the fourth interspace. From this point it goes downward and
inward across the fifth rib and interspace to the top of the sixth rib about 3 cm. to
the inner side of the nipple line. This isolated tip of lung just above the sixth rib
over the apex beat of the heart is called the lingula.
Lower Border. — The lower edge of the lung varies in different individuals
and in the same individual according to the amount of inflation. In quiet respi-
ration it is about opposite the sixth cartilage and rib from the sternum to the mam-
mary line, opposite the eighth in the midaxillary line, the tenth in the scapular line,
and the eleventh near the vertebrae.
The Fissures and Lobes of the Lungs. — The left lung has one fissure and
two lobes, an upper and a lower.
The right lung has two fissures and three lobes, an upper, a middle, and a lower.
The fissure of the left lung begins above and posteriorly opposite the root of the
spine of the scapula; this is level with the fourth rib and third dorsal spine. It passes
downward and forward, ending at the sixth rib in the parasternal line. It crosses the
fourth in the midaxillary line. The lower lobe of the right lung is of the same size
as that of the left side. The lung above it is divided into a middle and upper lobe.
The main fissure of the right lung corresponds in its course almost'exactly with that
of the left lung. It begins above and posteriorly at the root of the spine of the
scapula and passing downward crosses the fourth rib in the midaxillary line and ends at
the sixth rib in the mammary line (instead of the parasternal line as in the left).
The subsidiary fissure of the right lung leaves the main fissure at the posterior
axillary line opposite the fourth rib arid follows this rib in an almost horizontal direc-
tion to its junction with the sternum.
In order to recognize and appreciate the changes which occur in the lungs in
lobar pyieimionia it is necessary to know the outlines and limits of the various lobes of
the lungs. A knowledge of the exact course of the fissures of the lungs is not only
necessary to outline the lobes, but it is of service in the diagnosis of pleural effusions.
These effusions often are limited to certain localized areas instead of being general.
Pleurisy may affect the lung bordering the fissures. When such is the case, the
effusion, serous or purulent, may be in the fissure itself and embrace but little of the gen-
eral pleural cavity. Dry taps from failure to hit the purulent or serous collection are
not infrequent, and the possibility of its being interlobar should be borne in mind.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
From what has been said it follows that a knowledge of the extent and outlines
of the lungs and of the location and course of the fissures is essential to the proper
diagnosis and treatment of affections of both the lungs and pleurae.
The extent of the lungs is determined in the living by percussion. The apex of
the lungs forms an oblique plane running upward and backward from just below the
lower edge of the inner extremity of the clavicle to the neck of the first rib above
and posteriorly. The level of these two points will vary according to the inclination
of the ribs, which in turn is influenced by the direction (vertical) of the spine. Ordi-
narily the distance is 5 cm. (2 in.). It may be even as much as 7 or 8 cm. The
top edge of the clavicle passes across the middle of this distance so that the top of
the lung is about 2.5 cm. (i in.) above the clavicle. The highest point of the lung
is not in the middle of the space enclosed by the first rib, but is at its posterior
border, at the neck of the first rib.
In percussing, one should not strike directly backward but both downward and
backward.
If the patient is standing erect the first rib will slope downward and forward at an
angle of 65 degrees, or more, with a vertical line. The spine will slope downward and
backward from the same vertical line in a normally straight back about 20 degrees.
THE LUNGS.
199
In people with straight backs and flat chests (often seen in phthisis), the sloping
downward of the ribs is marked; in those with rounded backs the chest is apt to be
round, as in emphysema, and then the ribs are more horizontal.
Another point to be noticed is the lateral extent of the apex of the lung in
relation to the length of the clavicle. The lung does not extend farther out on the
clavicle than one-fourth its length. The clavicular origin of the sternomastoid
muscle extends out one-third of the length of the clavicle, so that the lung is behind
the clavicular origin of the sternomastoid and care should be taken not to percuss
too far out. If the finger is laid in the supraclavicular fossa in percussion it should
be pressed downward and inward, not backward.
Posteriorly the scapula rises to the second rib and its spine has its root opposite
the fourth rib or spinous process of the third thoracic vertebra. Therefore a small
portion of the lung is above the upper edge of the scapula and percussion in the
supraspinous fossa gives a clear resonant note.
Behind the middle of the first piece of the sternum passes the trachea, crossed
by the left innominate vein. The trachea of course contains air; the lungs slope
JJ. Normal lung
Heart
Fig. 217. — Formalin-hardened body, showing the right lung collapsed and compressed by a large
pleural effusion.
inward from the sternoclavicular joints to meet nearly or quite in the median line
and so continue to the level of the fourth rib; hence it follows that the percussion
note on the sternum nearly down to this point is resonant and if it be found to be
dull one should look for an aneurismal or other tumor which is displacing or
covering the lungs and trachea at this point and thereby subduing their resonance.
Below the fourth rib the area of the absolute heart dulness becomes evident.
(This will be alluded to in describing that organ later on. )
In performing abdominal operations, as those involving the gall-bladder and
kidney, the surgeon may be tempted to prolong his incision upward into the lower
edge of the chest-walls, and it is necessary to know how far he can proceed without
opening the pleural cavity. This necessitates his knowing how far from the lower
edge of the chest the pleura lies. It reaches to the seventh rib in the mammary line,
the ninth in the axillary line, and the twelfth posteriorly, extending to its extreme
lower edge.
In the axillary line the pleura is about 6 cm. (2| in.) away from the edge of
the thorax. This distance gets less as one proceeds forward to the sternum and
backward toward the spine.
200 APPLIED ANATOMY.
In emphysema the lung, being distended, occupies more nearly the outlines of the
pleura and its area of resonance is increased. In pleural effusion it is compressed and even
sometimes collapsed. As it shrinks it recedes inward and backward and is pushed
from the chest-wall by the layer of fluid (Fig. 217). The pressure of the fluid within
causes the intercostal spaces to be obliterated and sometimes even to bulge instead of
being depressed. As the expansion of the lung is prevented, the chest does not move
on the affected side, or expand with the respiration, as it does on the healthy side.
This can be demonstrated by measuring the two sides of the chest. At the end
of expiration the affected side will be from i to 3 cm. greater in circumference than the
healthy one. If the pleural effusion is on the right side it may push the heart to the
left and raise its apex beat and cause it to pulsate beyond the nipple line and even in
the axilla. If it is on the left side the costomediastinal sinus (page 196) becomes
distended with fluid or plastic lymph and this obscures or conceals the heart's impulse.
If the effusion is very large the heart is pushed over toward the right and its apex
beat is seen in the third or fourth interspace on the right side even so far over as
the mammary line.
Should the effusion be purulent it may perforate the chest- wall, or open into the
pericardium anteriorly, the oesophagus posteriorly, and into the stomach or peritoneal
cavity below. If it perforates the chest-wall it usually does so anteriorly between the
third and sixth interspaces, most often in the fifth.
Paracentesis. — Where the pleural effusion is serous it is usually drawn off by
an aspirating needle or trocar.
For diagnostic purposes a hypodermic syringe needle is often used, as the chest-
walls are usually thin enough to allow this to be done, particularly if a suitable spot
is chosen and the patient is a cnild. Care should be exercised not to strike a rib.
The spot chosen for puncture may be indicated by dulness on percussion. It may
be anywhere, but when a choice is permissible the puncture should be made in the
sixth interspace about in the middle or postaxillary line. Another preferred spot is
in the eighth interspace, below the angle of the scapula. The sixth interspace may be
determined in several ways, viz. :
1. Begin at the angulus sterni (angle of Ludwig) and follow out the second rib
to the parasternal or midclavicular line, thence count down to the sixth rib and
follow it to the midaxillary line.
2. The nipple is in the fourth interspace, follow it to the axillary line and count
two spaces down.
3. The apex beat of the heart is in the fifth interspace, follow it around to the
axillary line and take the next space below.
4. Find the last rib that articulates with the sternum — it is the seventh ; follow it
around and take the space above.
5. With the arm to the side the inferior angle of the scapula marks the seventh
interspace; take the interspace next above.
6. A horizontal line at the level of the nipple cuts the midaxillary line in about
the sixth interspace.
7. The lower edge of the pectoralis major touches the side of the chest at the
fifth rib. Follow it to the axillary line and go two spaces lower.
8. By raising the arm the serrations of the serratus anterior muscle attached to
the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth ribs become visible; that attached to the sixth rib
is the most prominent and is attached farthest forward.
Empyema. — When the pleural effusion is purulent, tapping is not sufficient,
and drainage is resorted to. It is not considered necessary to open the pleural
cavity at its lowest part but the sites chosen are usually the sixth or seventh inter-
space in the mid- or postaxillary line. The movements of the scapula are apt to
interfere with drainage immediately below its angle, hence the opening is usually
made farther forward. The surgeon may or may not resect a rib.
The ribs may lie so close together as to compress the drainage-tube; in such
case a resection is done if the patient's condition permits.
hicision for Empye^na. — In certain cases the condition of the patient may
demand that as little as possible be done, and that quickly. The point of operation
is selected by one of the guides already given, perhaps the level of the nipple.
THE PERICARDIUM. 201
While the finger of one hand marks the interspace, an incision 4 cm. {i}^ in.)
long is made along the upper edge of the rib, this is deepened by a couple of
strokes which detach the intercostal muscles and carefully penetrate the pleura.
As the pus makes its appearance the knife is withdrawn and the finger is laid on
the opening. A drainage-tube held in a curved forceps is then slid along the finger
into the chest. Sometimes a rubber tracheotomy tube is used for drainage purposes.
Any bleeding will be from the small intercostal branches and can readily be stopped
by gauze packing.
The incision is made along the upper edge of the rib because the intercostal
artery running along the lower edge of the rib is the larger.
Resection of a Rib for Empyema. — For the removal of a part of a rib a more
formal operation is necessary. The incision is made directly on the rib down to
the bone and five or more centimetres in length. The skin being retracted, the
periosteum is incised and detached from the rib with a periosteal elevator which is
passed down its posterior surface, pushing the pleura away from the rib. When
the elevator reaches the lower border of the rib an incision is made down on it
through the intercostal muscles, keeping as close to the rib as possible to avoid
wounding the intercostal artery, which lies close to its lower edge. The rib is
then divided either with a cutting forceps like Estlander's, or a Gigli saw. The
rib, having been divided at one end of the incision, is then lifted up, the pleura
stripped off, and divided at the opposite end.
Should the intercostal artery bleed, and it is often sufficiently large to spurt
quite actively, it can be caught with a haemostatic forceps and secured with a
ligature if necessary. This is safer than to trust to packing, on account of the
lack of support due to the removal of the rib. After the incision is completed,
the pleura is incised and the tube introduced. In ligating the intercostal artery,
care should be taken not to include the nerve which lies close to but below it; that
is, farther away from the rib.
THE PERICARDIUM.
The pericardium is composed of fibrous tissue lined with a serous membrane.
When affected by inflammation the amount of fluid contained in it becomes
increased and it becomes distended and may interfere with the functions of the heart
and adjacent structures.
If the efiusion is serous it is sometimes drawn off by puncture; if it is purulent
drainage is instituted.
The pericardium in shape is somewhat conical. Its base rests on the central
tendon of the diaphragm and its apex envelops the great vessels, as they emerge
from the base of the heart, for a distance of 4 to 5 cm. The attachment to the
diaphragm is most firm at the opening of the inferior vena cava. As the fibrous
layer of the pericardium proceeds upward it becomes lost in the fibrous tissue
(sheath) covering the great vessels. This is continuous above with the deep cervical
fascia, especially with its pretracheal layer. Anteriorly the pericardium is attached
above and below to the sternum by the so-called sternopericardiac ligaments (Fig. 218).
In front of it above are the remains of the thymus gland and triangularis sterni
muscle of the left side from the third to the seventh costal cartilages. The internal
mammaiy arteries, running down behind the costal cartilages about a centimetre
from the edge of the sternum above and somewhat more below, are separated from
the pericardium by the edges of the lungs and pleurae, these latter reaching nearly or
quite to the median line. The triangularis sterni muscle also lies beneath the artery
and farther from the surface. As the left pleura slopes more rapidly toward the side
than does the right there is a small portion of the pericardium uncovered by the pleura
at about the sixth intercostal space close to the sternum. The incisura of the left
lung leaves a space where the pericardium is separated from the chest-walls only by
the pleura.
On each side the pleura and pericardium are in contact, with the phrenic nerves
between them. Posteriorly the pericardium lies on the bronchi, the oesophagus, and
the thoracic aorta.
202
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Owing to the fibrous nature of the pericardium it will not expand suddenly.
While only about a pint of liquid can be injected into the normal pericardia] cavity
after death, if a chronic effusion exists in a living person as much as three pints may
be present.
Sudden effusion occurring in the living patient will cause obstruction of the cir-
culation at the base of the heart; it may by pressure on the bronchi at the bifurcation
produce suffocative symptoms and by pressure on the oesophagus difficulty in swallow-
ing. The lungs are displaced laterally, and the stomach and liver downward. The
largest effusions are slow in their formation.
Pressure on the left recurrent laryngeal nerve as it winds around the aorta
sometimes produces alteration or loss of the voice.
In children, according to Osier, the praecordia bulges and the anterolateral region
of the left chest becomes enlarged as does also the area of the cardiac dulness.
Paracentesis of the Pericardium. — Tapping the pericardium by means of a
trocar or aspirating needle must be carefully done, or the pleura may be punctured.
Fig. 2i8. — View of the pericardium, slightly distended, and its relations to the bony thorax.
The part of the pericardium in contact with the chest-wall which is never covered
by pleura is small. It embraces the space between the two pleurae from the fourth
to the seventh ribs. This may be defined by three lines, one in the midline, another
from the middle of the sternum opposite the fourth rib to the costosternal junction
of the seventh rib, and a third joining these two passing through the articulation of
the xiphoid cartilage (Fig. 219).
The left pleural sac may be i cm. distant from the left edge of the sternum.
Thus it is seen that there is hardly a point where a needle can be introduced
with the certainty of avoiding the pleura. The safest point is probably close to the
left edge of the sternum in the sixth interspace. This interspace may not extend
to the sternum, but even if the cartilages are in contact a needle could probably be
introduced at this point. As the pericardium is distended it carries the lungs and to
a less extent the pleura outwards and increases the area available for puncture both
THE PERICARDIUM.
203
upward and downward as well as to the sides. When greatly distended the peri-
cardium may reach to the first interspace above, 2.5 cm. (i in.) to the right of the
sternum, to the seventh cartilage below, and to the left nipple line or even beyond.
The arching of the diaphragm causes a sternophrenic sinus behind the sternum anal-
ogous to the costophrenic sinus at the lower edge of the chest. This becomes dis-
tended by pericardial effusions in the same manner as does the costophrenic sinus in
pleural effusions. A puncture in the sixth space close to the left edge of the sternum
enters this sinus. The increased area in cases of distention from pericardial effusions
has led Osier to advise tapping in the fourth interspace, either at the left sternal
margin or 2.5 cm. from it, or at the fifth interspace 4 cm. (i}4 in.) from the sternal
margin ; or bv thrusting the needle upward and backward close to the costal margin
in the left costoxiphoid angle.
It is important to avoid wounding the internal mammary artery, which is usually
Fig. 219. — Paracentesis of the pericardium.
nearer to the sternum above (0.5 to i cm. to its outer side) and farther from it (2 to
3 cm. ) below.
The danger of wounding the pleura in aspirating with a needle has probably
been overestimated, but when drainage is to be employed the danger is certain.
Drainage of the Pericardium. — To drain the pericardium requires the
removal usually of at least one of the costal cartilages. A drainage-tube can some-
times be introduced by first making a short incision in the fifth or sixth interspace
close to the left edge of the sternum, then puncturing the pericardium, dilating the
puncture with forceps, and introducing the tube. The costal cartilages usually lie so
close together as to interfere with the proper introduction of a tube, hence the neces-
sity of resection. A flap may be made or a straight incision. The latter is some-
times made over the fifth costal cartilage, which is then resected. If desired the
sixth and seventh cartilages are also removed and even a piece of the left edge of the
sternum. The intercostal muscles having been raised, the cartilages are removed.
204 APPLIED ANATOMY.
When the internal mammary artery is seen lying beneath, it is to be either ligated
or drawn to one side. The triangularis sterni muscle is either incised or drawn to
the outer side along with the edge of the left pleura. The pericardium can then be
lifted with forceps and incised and the drainage-tube introduced.
THE HEART.
In size the heart is somewhat larger than the clenched fist. It measures 12.5
cm. (5 in.) in length, 7.75 cm. (3>^ in.) in width, and 6.25 cm. (2>^ in.) in thick-
ness. Its weight in the adult male is 250 to 300 Gm. (8 to 10 oz. ), in the female
it is 60 Gm. (2 oz. ) less.
It lies enclosed in its pericardium in the middle mediastinum between the
sternum (from the upper edge of the third costal cartilage to the sternoxiphoid artic-
ulation) in front, and the bodies of the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth thoracic ver-
tebrae behind. Laterally it reaches from two centimetres to the right of the sternum
nearly to the left nipple line. On each side of it are the lungs, from which it is
separated by the pleurae and pericardium with the phrenic nerves between. Above
are the great vessels and below it rests on the central tendon of the diaphragm.
In shape the heart resembles an acorn, the atria {aiiricles), forming the upper
right portion and the ventricles the lower left portion. It lies with its right side
resting on the diaphragm and its apex pointing forward and to the left.
For convenience one speaks of a base, an apex, a right border, a lower border,
and a left border.
OUTLINES OF THE HEART.
The base of the heart is opposite the upper border of the third costal cartilage.
It is here that the superior vena cava ends and the aorta begins. It extends from
1.25 cm. {% in.) to the right of the sternum to 2.5 cm. (i in.) to the left of the
sternum.
The right border of the heart extends from 1.25 cm. (^ in.) to the right of the
sternum at the upper border of the third costal cartilage in an outwardly curved line
to the junction of the seventh rib and the sternum. In the fourth interspace it may
reach 2.5 cm, (i in. ) beyond the right edge of the sternum.
The lower border passes from the seventh right chondrosternal junction across
the sternoxiphoid joint outward in the fifth interspace to the apex beat, which is 4
to 5 cm. {i}4. in. to i ^ in. ) below and to the inner side of the nipple and about
8.75 cm. {2>% in.) to the left of the median line. This marks the extreme left limit
of the heart. In children the apex is higher — it is in the fourth interspace. In old
people it is lower.
The left border arches upward from the apex beat, as just given, in an inward
and upward direction to 2.5 cm. (i in.) to the left of the sternum at the upper border
of the third costal cartilage.
The atrio- (auriculo-) ventricular groove or line of junction between the atria
(auricles) and ventricles runs from the sixth right chondrosternal junction upward
and to the left to the third left chondrosternal junction. The atria lie above and to
the right of this line and the ventricles below and to the left.
The right atrium (auricle) and right ventricle lie anteriorly and the left atrium
and left ventricle lie posteriorly. In the right atrioventricular groove runs the right
coronary artery. As it lies on the anterior portion of the heart it is liable to be injured
in stab-wounds and give rise to fatal bleeding, as may also the interventricular
branch of the left coronary artery as it passes down near the left border of the heart
between the right and left ventricles.
The Portio7t of the Heart Uncovered by Lung-tisstce. — When the lungs are
distended the right lung covers the heart to the median line. The left lung leaves
the median line at the level of the fourth costal cartilage and curves outward and
downward to about the apex beat in the fifth interspace, 2.5 cm. to the inner side of
the nipple line. At this point a small piece of the lung, the lingula, sometimes
curves around in front of and below the extreme tip of the heart. As the air leaves
the lungs they retract and their anterior borders hardly reach the edges of the sternum.
THE HEART.
205
Area of Cardiac Dulness.— The area of cardiac dulness corresponds to the
area uncovered by king and in contact with the chest-wall. This is the area of abso-
lute dulness. It begins opposite the fourth costal cartilage and extends down the
sternum, between the median line and left edge, to the liver dulness below opposite
the sixth costal cartilage. Toward the left side it arches from the fourth left costo-
sternal junction to the apex beat. The area of so-called relative dulness caused by
overlapping of the lungs extends along the right edge of the sternum to opposite the
upper border of the third rib above, and to the left follows parallel to the left border of
the heart to the tip of its apex. Below it blends with the liver dulness (Fig. 221).
The area of cardiac dulness may be increased not only by the enlargement of the
heart itself but by pericardial effusions and disease such as aneurism of the great vessels.
In an early stage of pericardial effusion and also in aneurism there may be an
Fig. 220. — Relations of the heart, its valves, and the great blood-vessels to the surface of the chest.
extension of the area of dulness upward. In a later stage of pericarditis the lateral
area of dulness becomes increased.
Cardiohepatic Angle (Ebstein).— This is the angle formed by the right
border of the heart as it meets the liver. It is a more or less resonant area in the
fifth right intercostal space. Below it is the liver dulness and above and towards
the median line is the heart.
VALVES OF THE HEART.
There are two types of valves in the heart: the bicuspid {mitral^ and tricuspid
between the atria (auricles) and ventricles, and the two sets of semilunar valves at
the entrance of the pulmonary artery and aorta. (See Fig. 220.)
The bicuspid valve is the most important and is the deepest seated. It lies
at the edge of the left border of the sternum opposite the fourth costal cartilage.
It separates the left atrium and ventricle and lies nearly transversely.
2o6 APPLIED ANATOMY.
The tricuspid valve lies in the middle of the sternum opposite the fourth
intercostal space. It runs obliquely downward and to the right from the third left
intercostal space to the fifth right costal cartilage. It separates the right atrium and
ventricle.
The pulmonary semilunar valve lies opposite the sternal end of the third left
costal cartilage. It is the most superficial valve and the one highest up on the ster-
num. It prevents regurgitation of the blood into the right ventricle from the lungs.
The aortic semilunar valve lies under the left side of the sternum about level
with the lower edge of the third costal cartilage. It is just below and to the right of
the pulmonary valve, and above and to the left of the bicuspid valve.
Location of Valvular Sounds.
The sounds produced by the closure of the valves do not correspond with the
position of the valves, but are as follows.
The bicuspid sound is heard most distinctly at the apex of the heart as far
inward as the parasternal line and as high as the third interspace. It is transmitted
around the chest toward the axilla.
The tricuspid sound is best heard at the left sternal border between the fifth
and sixth costal cartilages (Tyson).
The pulmonary sound is best heard in the second interspace to the left of the
sternum; the cartilage above is called the pulmonary cartilage.
The aortic sound is best heard in the second right intercostal space and the
cartilage above is called the aortic cartilage. The aortic sounds are transmitted up
the neck in the direction of the great blood-vessels.
VARIATION IN SIZE AND POSITION OF THE HEART.
The heart becomes enlarged both by being dilated and by being hypertrophied,
usually both conditions are present; and its position is often changed by disease both
of itself and of adjacent organs. It is apt to enlarge unequally. In emphysema and
bicuspid regurgitation the right side becomes enlarged, the pulmonary circulation
being impeded. In aortic disease, arteriosclerosis, muscular exertion, or any cause
impeding the course of the blood through the arteries there is produced an enlarge-
ment of the left side of the heart.
The average weight of the healthy heart is in the male 280 Gm. (9 oz. ), and in
the female 250 Gm. (8 oz. ). These may be doubled in cases of enlargement.
When the heart is enlarged the apex beat changes its position; it may occupy the
sixth, seventh, or eighth interspace instead of the fifth, and may be as far as 5 to 7.5
cm. (2 to 3 in. ) to the left of the nipple line.
When it enlarges upward, instead of the absolute dulness beginning opposite the
fourth costal cartilage, it is opposite the third or even the second interspace. Toward
the right side the absolute dulness may extend a couple of centimetres beyond the
right edge of the sternum, instead of being near its left edge as is normal.
The heart is readily displaced by pressure from the surrounding structures. If
there is abdominal distention by gas or ascites, or if the liver or spleen is enlarged,
the heart is pushed upward. Enlargement of the liver may likewise depress the
heart, if the patient is in an upright position, by the weight of the liver dragging it
down. Aneurisms of the arch of the aorta, tumors, or emphysema may also depress
it. In the aged the apex beat may be normally in the sixth interspace.
Lateral displacement occurs in cases of pleural effusion. Osier says (" Pract. of
Med.," p. 594), this is not due to a twisting of the heart on its axis but to a positive
lateral dislocation of the heart and pericardium. Pneumothorax or tumors on one side
may also push the heart toward the opposite side. It may be pulled to one side by
pleural adhesions and in those cases of fibroid phthisis in which the lung becomes
markedly retracted. Abscess or tumors of the mediastinum also displace it.
The position of the pulsation of the heart is not always an indication of the posi-
tion of the apex. In pleural effusion the pulsation may be one, two, or three inter-
spaces higher than normal, while the apex itself may not be elevated.
THE HEART.
207
WOUNDS OF THE HEART.
Wounds of the heart are usually immediately fatal, but sometimes they are not
so. The pleurae are very liable to be wounded at the same time. The right ven-
tricle, on account of Iving anteriorly, is the part most often involved. The atria lie
more posteriorly and are most apt to be wounded in stabs through the back. Not
only may the substance of the heart itself be injured but also its blood-vessels. The
right coronary artery lying in the atrioventricular groove and the anterior interven-
tricular branch of the left coronary running between the two ventricles anteriorly are
the vessels most liable to injury. Owing to the heart being enclosed in the peri-
cardium,— a closed sac, — if blood accumulates in it the action of the heart is inter-
FiG. 221. — Percussion area of the liver and heart. The light shaded area represents the extent of deep or relative
dulness and the dark snaded area that of superficial or absolute dulness.
fered with. To avoid this occurrence, wounds bleeding externally should not be
closed, or distention of the pericardium may ensue.
Wounds of the heart have been sutured successfully. In order to reach the
heart, a portion of the chest-wall would have to be resected and turned to one side
as a flap. This will probably require the opening of the pleural cavity. The pleurae
will in all likelihood already have been involved and found to be filled with blood, as
has occurred in at least one case.
A knowledge of the exact outlines of the heart as already given will often
enable one to decide as to whether a wound involves the heart or not.
2o8 APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE AORTA.
The aorta, as it leaves the left ventricle, begins under the left portion of the
sternum opposite the lower border of the third left costal cartilage. This is the
location of the aortic semilunar valves as already given. It passes upward toward
the right for 5 cm. and then forms an arch, extending backward toward the left, to
reach the spine on the left side of the body of the fourth thoracic vertebra. The
arch is continued down in front of the spine as the thoracic aorta and pierces the
diaphragm in the median line, between the two crura of the diaphragm, opposite the
twelfth thoracic vertebra.
The ascending aorta begins behind the left half of the sternum on a level
with the lower border of the third costal cartilage. It proceeds upward toward the
right until it reaches the level of the lower border of the right second costal cartilage,
where the arch begins.
Immediately above its commencement it has three enlargements, called the
sinuses of the aorta (Valsalva), which correspond to the semilunar valves. Of
the three semilunar valves two are anterior and one is posterior. From behind the
two anterior valves come the right and left coronary arteries.
Beyond the valves, in the upper right portion of the arch, the aorta is again
dilated, forming the great sinus of the arch of the aorta.
The right limit of the aorta is about even with the right edge of the sternum;
sometimes it projects slightly beyond. When it does so it is liable to be wounded by
a stab in the second interspace close to the edge of the sternum. On account of the
proximity of the aorta to the second interspace, it is here that the stethoscope is placed
to hear aortic murmurs. The aorta at this point is covered only by the thin border of
the right lung and pleura and the slight remains of the thymus gland. Below, its com-
mencement is overlapped on the right by the auricula dextra (right auricular appendix)
of the atrium and on the left by the commencement of the pulmonary artery.
The ascending aorta is liable to be the seat of aneurism. It may involve either
the lower portion in the region of the sinuses or the region of the great sinus at its
upper right anterior portion.
If the aneurism enlarges anteriorly it will show itself first in the second or third
interspace. It will bulge the ribs outward in this region. The right lung will be
pushed outward and the two layers of the pleura pressed together. It may break
externally through the surface or open into the pleural cavity. If it tends to the
right it presses on the descending cava and right atrium, thus interfering with the
return of the blood from the head and neck and both upper extremities. If it en-
larges to the left or backward it may press on the right pulmonary artery and
interfere with the free access of blood to the lungs.
The first portion of the aorta is not united with the pericardium, but simply
loosely covered by it, so that this portion of the arch is weaker than the other por-
tions, and rupture, with extravasation of blood into the pericardial sac, is not uncom-
mon. An aneurism may also rupture into the superior vena cava.
The arch of the aorta passes anteroposteriorly from the upper border of the
second right costal cartilage in front to the left side of the body of the fourth thoracic
vertebra behind. It is about 5 cm. (2 in.) long. Its under surface is level with the
angle of the sternum (angle of Ludwig), opposite the second costal cartilage. Its
upper surface rises as high as the middle of the first piece of the sternum, which is
opposite the middle of the first costal cartilage, about 2.5 cm. (i in.) below the top
of the sternum.
Relations. — In front of the arch the right lung and pleura cover it slightly, but
the left more so; the remains of the thymus gland is between them. The left superior
intercostal vein crosses its upper portion to empty into the left innominate vein. The
left phrenic and vagus nerves also cross it, the phrenic being the farther forward and
the vagus crossing almost in front of the point of origin of the left subclavian artery.
Behind lie the trachea, oesophagus, and thoracic duct, also the left recurrent laryn-
geal nerve. The bifurcation of the trachea is directly behind and below the lower
portion of the arch and the left bronchus passes beneath it. The oesophagus lies
THE AORTA.
209
compressed between the trachea and vertebroe with the thoracic duct immediately to
the left. The left recurrent laryngeal leaves the pneumogastric on the front of the
arch, then winds around it and ascends between the trachea and oesophagus to reach
the larynx above. Above, from the upper surface of the aorta, are given ol? the
innominate, left carotid, and left subclavian arteries. The left innominate vein crosses
above its upper edge to unite with the right innominate to form the superior cava.
Below is the left bronchus coming of? from the bifurcation of the trachea, and wind-
ing around the arch is the left recurrent laryngeal nerve. Beneath the arch and
in front of the bronchi are the right and left pulmonary arteries. From the latter the
ductus arteriosus goes to the arch. The cardiac branches of the pneumogastric and
sympathetic nerves lie on the anterior, inferior, and posterior sides of the arch
Vagus nerve.
Common carotid
artery
Internal jugular vein
Subclavian vein
Innominate artery
Right recurrent
laryngeal nerve
Right innominate
vein
Phrenic nerve
Descending vena
cava
Aorta
Right auricle
(atrium)
Right coronary
artery
Vagus nerve
■Common carotid artery
Internal jugular vein
Subclavian vein
Left innominate vein
Phrenic nerve
eft recurrent
laryngeal nerve
Ductus arteriosus
Pulmonary artery
Left bronchus
Pulmonary veins
Left coronary artery
Left ventricle
Right ventricle
Fig. 222. — Heart and great blood-vessels.
The ductus arteriosus at birth is about i cm. long and runs from the pulmo-
nary artery to the arch of the aorta below the left subclavian artery. It serves in the
fcetus to carry the blood from the trunk of the pulmonary artery direct to the aorta
instead of passing into the lungs. When, after birth, the lungs are used the ductus
arteriosus becomes obliterated and is found later in life as a cord running to the
under side of the arch of the aorta. Congenital defects in the heart are a frequent
cause of death at birth and in infancy and childhood. They cause an undue mixture
of the venous and arterial blood and give the surface a dusky, bluish hue, hence the
term " blue baby " as applied to this condition. It is due to an absence of a part
14
2IO APPLIED ANATOMY.
or the whole of the septa between the atria and ventricles; to a patulous condition of
the foramen ovale of the right atrium ; and also to a jjersistent patulous condition of
the ductus arteriosus. Children so affected, if they outlive infancy, usually die before
reaching adult age.
Aneurism. — This portion of the aorta is also a favorite seat of aneurism. The
symptoms produced will depend of course on the direction which the tumor takes.
If it tends anteriorly it would involve the lungs and pleurae and the phrenic and vagus
nerves, also the sympathetic. The displacement of the left lung would be the more
marked. Involvement of the recurrent laryngeal nerve might make a change in the
voice, or there might be disturbances of the pupil of the eye due to implication of
the sympathetic.
Should the tumor enlarge posteriorly the pressure on the trachea would inter-
fere with the breathing. If the tumor is large this pressure would involve the oesoph-
agus and there might be difficulty in swallowing. Compression of the thoracic duct
is said to have led to rapid wasting.
If the aneurism bulges downward it impinges on the left bronchus, which may
lead to its dilation and cause bronchorrhcca. A large tumor could also interfere with
the flow of blood through the pulmonary arteries and so give rise to congestion and
dyspnoea.
An enlargement upward would involve the innominate and left carotid and
subclavian arteries and also the left innominate vein. Interference with the arteries
and veins of the neck and upper extremity frequently gives rise to changes in the
pulse on the affected side and also to venous congestion or even oedema. Changes
in the voice or even its loss also occur. The sac as it passes upward may show
itself in the suprasternal notch.
In all aneurisms of the arch cough is apt to be a prominent symptom. It is
often paroxysmal. It is to be accounted for by pressure on the trachea or laryngeal
nerves. Difficulty in breathing and swallowing may arise in deep-seated small tumors
growing backward and downward. This may be somewhat relieved by sitting up or
leaning forward, while reclining or lying on the back may be unendurable.
The great amount of distress which these aneurisms of the arch of the aorta may
give rise to is readily appreciated when one recalls that there is only a distance of 5
or 6 cm. (2^^ in.) between the upper edge of the sternum and the anterior surface
of the vertebral column, a space already filled with important structures.
The Descending Aorta. — The remaining portion of the aorta, from the lower
border of the fourth thoracic vertebra down, is called the desceyiding aorta. It is
divided into the thoracic and abdominal portions. The thoracic aorta begins at the
lower border of the fourth and ends at the lower border of the twelfth thoracic
vertebra. At its beginning it lies on the left side of the vertebral column, but as it
descends it comes somewhat forward but does not reach the middle line. It lies in
the posterior mediastinum more toward the left side than toward the right.
Relations. — In front above are the pericardium, the pulmonary artery, left bron-
chus, left pulmonary veins, and oesophagus. Behind is the vertebral column. To
the right are the oesophagus above, the vena azygos major, and the thoracic duct.
To the left are the left lung and the pleura, which it grooves, and a quite small
portion of oesophagus below.
Aneurism., when involving the thoracic aorta, tends to cause absorption of the
vertebrae and ribs, and to present posteriorly; as the space is not so restricted as is
the case higher up the tumor has a freer opportunity to expand and the suffering is
not so great nor are the symptoms so marked. It may rupture into the left pleura or
oesophagus and may erode through the bodies of the vertebrae into the spinal canal.
These aneurisms may exist many years and attain a large size.
THE CESOPHAGUS.
THE OESOPHAGUS.
The oesophagus begins at the lower edge of the cricoid cartilage, opposite the
lower border of the sixth cervical vertebra, and ends at the cardiac opening of the
stomach, opposite the eleventh thoracic vertebra.
It is 25 cm. (10 in.) long and begins 15 cm. (6 in.) distant from the teeth. In
the neck it inclines to the left, hence oesophagotomy is performed on that side. It
reaches the farthest point to the left at the level of the top of the sternum or oppo-
site the second thoracic vertebra. It then inclines to the right, reaching the median
line opposite the fifth thoracic vertebra. It then again inclines to the left, to pierce
the diaphragm in front of the aortic opening and to the left of the median line opposite
the tenth thoracic vertebra, and ends in the cardiac opening of the stomach entirely
to the left of the median line and opposite the eleventh thoracic vertebra or tenth
dorsal spine. In its passage through the diaphragm it is accompanied by the con-
tinuation of the two vagi nerves. At its termination it grooves the posterior surface
of the liver.
Lumen. — The lumen of the oesophagus is narrowed at three points, (i) its com-
mencement; (2) where it crosses the aorta and left bronchus; and (3) near its end
as it passes through the diaphragm.
The average diameter of the lumen is 2 cm., which at the upper and lower
constrictions is reduced to 1.5 cm. The middle constriction is not quite so marked.
The lower constriction is most marked at the point of the passage of the oesophagus
through the diaphragm; it enlarges slightly as it enters the stomach. This part of
the oesophagus is quite distensible. The next most distensible part is opposite the
left bronchus. This is on a level with the middle of the first piece of the sternum and
the third thoracic vertebra. The upper constriction at the cricoid cartilage is the
least distensible part of the tube, so that a body passing it may pass entirely down.
In both living and dead bodies the lumen of the oesophagus is sometimes open
and sometimes closed. In the neck the pressure of the soft parts usually keeps it
closed, but frozen sections of the dead body show it sometimes closed and sometimes
open. Mikulicz in using the oesophagoscope has found the lumen open in the living
patient and been able to see down the remainder of the tube when the instrument has
only been passed beyond the second constriction.
In passing an oesophageal bougie, one should not be used of a larger diameter
than 18 mm. (^ in.). It will enter the oesophagus opposite the lower border of the
cricoid cartilage about 15 cm. (6 in.) from the teeth. It will pass the second con-
striction 7 cm. (2^ in.) farther on, opposite the middle of the first piece of the
sternum or 2. 5 cm. ( i in. ) below its upper border, and meet the third constriction
15 cm. (6 in.) lower down, or 37 cm. (14.4 in.) from the teeth, and enter the stomach
3 cm. below, or 40 cm. (16 inches) from the teeth and opposite the eleventh dorsal
vertebra.
Relations. — In the neck the oesophagus rests on the longus colli muscle and
vertebrae behind and has the trachea in front. On the left side it lies close to the
carotid sheath, the lobe of the thyroid gland, and the thoracic duct. The left recurrent
laryngeal nerve is in closer relation to it than the right on account of the latter
coming over from the right subclavian artery. The left nerve lies on its anterior
surface near the left edge. The right carotid artery lies farther from it than does
the left. The left inferior thyroid artery is also in closer relation to it than the right
on account of the inclination of the oesophagus to the left side.
In the thorax it passes through the superior mediastinum between the trachea and
its bifurcation in front and the aorta behind.
In front it has the bifurcation of the trachea and encroaches more on the left
than on the right bronchus. The arch of the aorta and the left carotid and subclavian
arteries also pass in front of it and in the posterior mediastinum the pericardium and
diaphragm are anterior to it.
Posteriorly, above it rests on the spinal column, but below the bifurcation of
the trachea the aorta intervenes.
212
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Vi-
Laterally it is in relation with the left pleura above and the right below and the
vena azygos major runs along its right side posteriorly. The arch of the aorta winds
around its left side at the root of the lung. The right vagus nerve runs down pos-
teriorly and the left anteriorly, forming a plexus on its surface.
Dilatation and Diverticula. — In certain rare cases the
/ oesophagus becomes dilated ; this may involve the whole length
/ of the tube or only its lower end. Obstruction low down may be
( ! a cause. It has been known to accompany a largely dilated aorta
which pressed the oesophagus against the diaphragmatic opening
and so hindered the passage of food. Regurgitation of food is a
prominent symptom and liquids may regurgitate from the stomach
and even enter the mouth.
Diverticula are usually acquired and are but seldom con-
genital. The point of junction with the pharynx just behind the
cricoid cartilage is the most frequent seat. A sac is formed which
descends posteriorly behind the part of the tube below and as it
increases in size it presses forward and may obstruct its lumen.
Obstruction from foreign bodies, stricture, or disease of the cardiac
end of the stomach may be a cause. Vomiting is a prominent
symptom and the vomited material does not show any evidences of
iM digestion or the presence of acid. The existence of a tumor which
forms only on deglutition and which can be emptied by pressure
is said to be pathognomonic of an oesophageal diverticulum.
Diverticula have been treated by washing out with a stomach-
tube, by excision, or if emaciation is rapid and marked by doing
a gastrostomy.
Carcinoma and Stricture. — Carcinoma is usually of a flat-
celled epitheliomatous type and may surround the oesophagus like
a ring. The walls are thickened, a tumor forms, and the internal
surface may become ulcerated. Stricture of the affected part may
lead to the formation of a dilation or diverticulum above, and ulcer-
ation and abscess may perforate and enter surrounding organs.
Dyspnoea may arise from pressure on the air-passages and pus
may even penetrate them. Hemorrhage is also sometimes a symp-
tom. It may come either from the inside or outside. In the latter
case it may come from the large vessels in the neighborhood.
Septic inflammation may also be set up in the adjacent pleurae
and lungs.
Foreign Bodies. — Foreign bodies may become impacted
at any part of its course; this is particularly the case if they are
hard and rough with irregular outlines. If they are smooth and
soft and more or less rounded they are apt to lodge at the con-
stricted parts of the tube. These points are, as already stated, at
its commencement, where it crosses the aorta and left bronchus,
and where it passes through the diaphragm. The upper con-
striction is 1.5 cm. (or f in.) in diameter, and is least distensible.
It will dilate to the width of 2 cm. , and thus will allow a body of
about ^ inch diameter to pass. The two lower constrictions are
more distensible and a body that passes the oesophagus can usually
pass the ileocaecal valve, so that the upper end of the oesophagus
acts as a gauge to prevent the entrance of substances too large for
the rest of the alimentary tract. The bodies which become lodged
are usually those which have been pushed down beyond the open-
ing of the oesophagus by the contraction of the muscles of the
pharynx, and then on account of their irregular form become
caught by the contraction of the tube below. With the head mod-
erately extended, the first constriction will be 15 cm. (6 in.) from
the teeth. A foreign body at this point will be opposite the cricoid cartilage at the
level of the sixth cervical vertebra.
Fig. 223. — The oesopha-
gus. From a plaster cast.
THE CESOPHAGUS.
213
The second constriction is opposite the middle of the first piece of the sternum.
This is 7 cm. (2^ in. ) below the cricoid cartilage. Therefore a foreign body lodged
just above it would be just below the top of the sternum.
It would be felt by the probe 22 cm. (8| in. ) from the upper teeth and if cesopha-
gotomy was performed it could usually be reached from the wound in the neck.
The third constriction is 15 cm. (6 in.) below the second, or 37 cm. (i4i in.)
from the teeth, and is accessible from the stomach. This third constriction is more
Left common
carotid
Vagus nerve
Int. jugular vein
Inf. thyroid artery
Vertebral artery
Thoracic duct
Phrenic nerve
Recurrent laryn-
geal nerve
Subclavian artery
Bronchial artery
Pulmonary
artery / ,
Left vagus nerve
Left bronchu
Pulmonary vein
Aorta
Thoracic duct
Vena azygos
major
Int. jugular vein
Vagus nerve
Common carotid artery
Inf. thyroid artery
Vertebral artery
Trachea
Recurrent laryngeal
nerve
CEsophagus
Right vagus nerve
Phrenic nerve
Vena azygos
major
Right bronchus
Right pulmonary
artery
Pulmonary vein
Fig. 224. — Posterior view of the oesophagus, showing its relation to the surrounding structures.
distensible than the two above it. Maurice H. Richardson was able, after introducing
the hand into the stomach, to put two fingers into the cardiac opening from below,
and so dislodge some impacted false teeth.
Foreign bodies are dangerous on account of the ulceration into the various organs
which they cause and also on account of pressure. Pressure on the left bronchus and
trachea has caused suffocation.
214 APPLIED ANATOMY.
Ulceration may cause fatal hemorrhage by involving the carotid arteries, more
likely the left, the inferior thyroids, the innominate, and even the aorta itself lower
down. Low down in the chest the pericardium is in front of the oesophagus, and
has been perforated. On the left side above and the right side below, the pleura
have been perforated and the lungs involved. Abscesses may occur from the ulcer-
ative process and they are particularly dangerous, as the distance between the upper
portion of the sternum and anterior portion of the bodies of the vertebra is so small
that compression of the air-passages and suffocation is readily produced.
THE THORACIC DUCT.
The thoracic duct carries not only lyjnph but also chyle which is emptied into the
venous system and goes to nourish the body. Therefore a wound of the duct with
the escape of its fluid may result fatally from inanition. The lymph coming from all
parts of the body is collected into two ducts, the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic
duct. Of these two the right lytnphatic dtid is the smaller. It collects the lymph
coming from the right side of the head and neck, right upper extremity, right side of
the thorax and the upper convex surface of the liver. The several lymphatic branches
unite to form a duct, one to two centimetres long, which empties into the venous
system at the junction of the right internal jugular and subclavian veins. At its point
of entrance it is guarded by a pair of valves. As this duct contains no chyle, and
lymph of only a portion of the body, wounds of it have not proved serious.
The thoracic duct is much larger and more important. It begins on the
bodies of the first and second lumbar vertebrae to the right of the aorta in the
cisterna {receptaculurii) chyli.
The cisterna or receptaculum is 5 to 7.5 cm. long and 7 mm. wide. It receives
not only the lymph from the parts below but also the chyle from the intestines. It
passes through the aortic opening in the diaphragm with the aorta to the left and the
vena azygos major to the right. In the posterior mediastinum it lies on the bodies
of the seven lower thoracic vertebrae, with the pericardium, the oesophagus, and the
arch of the aorta in front. The thoracic aorta is to its left and the vena azygos major
and right pleura to its right. Above the fifth thoracic vertebra it ascends between the
oesophagus and left pleura, behind the first portion of the left subclavian artery.
On reaching the level of the seventh cervical vertebra it curves downward over the
left pleura, subclavian artery, scalenus anticus muscle, and vertebral vein to empty
at the junction of the internal jugular and left subclavian veins. It passes behind
left internal jugular vein and common carotid artery. At its termination it lies
just external to the left sternoclavicular joint and just below the level of the upper
border of the clavicle. A punctured wound at this point would injure the duct.
Accompanying the veins of the neck are numerous lymph-nodes which not
infrequently become enlarged and require removal. It is in operating on these nodes
that wounds of the thoracic duct have been most often produced. When divided, its
lumen has appeared to be of the size of a "knitting needle." In some instances the
thin walls of the duct have been ligated. In other cases of injury either the oozing
point has been clamped with a haemostatic forceps which has been left in position for
a day, or else the wound has been packed with gauze. Recovery usually ensues.
THE THORACIC DUCT.
215
Internal jugular vein
Trachea
Vertebral vein
Right lymphatic duct
Subclavian vein
I. rib
Right innominate vein
CEsophagus
Vena azygos
Right lumbar lymph trunk
Crest of ilium
Thoracic duct
Aorta
Left common carotid artery
Left innominate vein
Thoracic duct
Left subclavian vein
Scalenus anticus
Left subclavian artery
Thyroid axis
L rib
Vertebral artery
Intercostal arteries
Receptaculum chyli
Intestinal lymph trunk
Left lumbar lymph trunk
Crest of ilium
Fig. 225. — Dissection of posterior body-wall, seen from in front, showing thoracic duct and right lymphatic duct;
veins have been laterally displaced to expose the terminations of the thoracic duct. (Piersol.)
2l6
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE UPPER EXTREMITY.
Morphology. — The human skeleton consists of two parts, called the axial
skeleton and the appendicular skeleton.
The axial skeleton embraces the bones of the head, the
spine, the ribs, the hyoid bone, and the breast bone. In the
spine are included not only the vertebrae of the cervical,
thoracic, and lumbar regions, but likewise the sacrum and
coccyx.
The appendiciilar skeleton embraces the bones of the limbs,
or extremities, including the shoulder-girdle, formed by the
scapula and clavicle, and the pelvic
girdle, formed by the innominate bone
(Fig. 226).
Function. — The upper extrem-
ity in man is an organ of prehension.
As such, mobility is its chief charac-
teristic. To permit of this mobility
the bones and joints are many, and
the latter are comparatively loose;
the muscles, also, are both numerous
and complex. Hence it is that slight
injuries are frequently followed by
considerable disturbance of function.
They are readily produced and with
difficulty repaired, either by nature
or by art. Orthopaedic surgery has
done much for the disabilities and de-
formities of the lower extremities, but
comparatively little for those of the
upper. An artificial leg in many cases
satisfactorily substitutes the natural
one, but an artificial arm is compara-
tively useless.
The hand is the essential part
of the upper extremity, and the rest
of the limb is subsidiary. If the forearm were lack-
ing and the hand were attached to the end of the
humerus it would still be a very useful appendage,
far more so than the stump which is left after the hand
has been amputated.
The extremities proper are joined to the trunk by
what are called girdles. The upper extremity is
attached through the medium of the shoulder-girdle
and the lower extremity by the pelvic girdle. The
interposition of these girdles adds to the mobility of
the extremities, and as the upper extremity is more
mobile than tho lower we find the shoulder-girdle com-
posed of two bones instead of one as in the pelvic
girdle ; also, as the lower extremity bears the weight
of the body it requires strength in addition to mobility,
hence we find that it is joined to the trunk by a single
big strong bone, the innominate, instead of by two
comparatively slight, narrow bones like the clavicle
and scapula which form the shoulder-girdle.
The extremities are termed appendicular because
.r./,'-^-V^-T^^'^^'^^^°\^'T}'T-^ they are simply appendages to the essential part,
and trunk tormiiiK the axial skeleton , • 1 . 11 1 1 1- '..U
and those of the upper and lower ex- which IS the head and trunk; z. persou can live witn-
fremities constituting the appendicu- ^ . •, •
lar skeleton. out extremities.
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE.
217
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE.
The upper extremity is joined to the trunk by the shoulder- girdle, which is
composed of the clavicle and scapula. The main moxements are anteroposterior,
as in swinging the arm, those of abduction and adduction, as in raising and lower-
ing it sidewise, and rotation.
The scapula is the more important bone; it is present in all mammals, and the
humerus articulates with it.
The scapula in the mole and many other animals may be a comparatively
slender bone, but when, as in man^ it is necessary to rotate the arm, then the
Acromion process
Clavicle
Spine
Scapula
Fig. 227. — Shoulder-girdle of man.
scapula is large so as to form a strong support for the infraspinatus, supraspinatus,
teres minor and major, and subscapularis muscles.
The clavicle is developed mainly from membrane, partly probably from carti-
lage, and is the first bone in the body to ossify. It keeps the shoulder out away
from the body and increases the range
of motion of the upper extremity. It
owes its existence to the function of
abduction. Without a clavicle abduc-
tion is practically wanting and when in
man the clavicle is broken, he is tem-
porarily reduced to the condition of those
animals which have no clavicles; he is
able to move the arm backward and for-
ward but not to elevate it properly, and
this is an important diagnostic symptom
of that injury.
The clavicle is lacking in the ungu-
lates or hoofed animals. These have an
anteroposterior movement, but little abduction. A horse or cow mo\'es its fore-legs
back and forward, but not out away from the body. Hence its helplessness when
these movements are essential. It is also lacking in seals and whales. In the
carnivora, as the Hon and the tiger, which possess rudimentary clavicles, sufificient
adducting power is present to enable them to hold their food while tearing it apart.
In man, apes, bats, rodents, and insectivora the clavicle exists as a well-formed bone;
Fig. 228. — Shoulder-girdle of man, showing how
the clavicle acts as a prop to keep the shoulder out away
from the chest.
2l8
APPLIED ANATOMY.
hence they can raise the arm well out from the body and even higher than the
shoulder. In the rodents, as the squirrel, they are enabled to hold a nut firmly in
the paws while eating it. When, as in some of the lower orders, the function of
abduction is all important, we find not only the clavicles present and, as in the
common fowl, joined, forming the "wish-bone," but in addition, in birds, there is a
precoracoid bone formed by the coracoid process, which is enlarged and continued
forward to articulate with the sternum; thus in flying animals there are practically
two clavicles on each side.
Affections of the Shoulder. — The point of the shoulder projects well out
from the side of the thorax. Hence it is frequently injured. As the force is resisted
Scapula
Sternum
Fig. 229. — Shoulder-girdle in birds. Skeleton of an eagle, from the Wistar Institute: the clavicle, precoracoid,
and scapula form the shoulder-girdle; the two clavicles have fused in the median line, forming what is commonly
called the " wish-bone."
by the bones, these receive the principal injuries and they are often broken. Frac-
tures of the clavicle dispute with those of the radius the distinction of being the
most numerous. Contusions produce more or less complete paralysis of the muscles,
not infrequently through lesions of the nerves. The laxity of the joint favors the
dislocations to which it is so frequently subject. It likewise becomes the seat of
tuberculous disease requiring resection. Crushes of the arm sometimes require its
removal at the shoulder-joint, and occasionally as the result of injury or disease opera-
tions may be required on the axillary lymph-nodes, nerves, or blood-vessels.
In order to determine the character and extent of injuries to the shoulder, its
surface anatomy must be thoroughly known. In order to treat them, a knowledge
of the deeper structures and their relation to one another is essential.
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE.
219
The landmarks of the shoulder are formed by the bones and muscles; hence a
brief re\ie\v of their important characters will serve as a basis for the surface anatomy
which follows.
THE BONES OF THE SHOULDER.
The bones entering into the construction of, and forming the basis on which the
shoulder is constructed are the clavicle and scapula, forming the shoulder-girdle, and
the humerus.
The clavicle is a comparatively long and slender bone that acts as a prop to
keep the point of the shoulder out from the trunk. The inner extremity is large and
rests with its flat surface on the upper outer edge of the sternum, with the inter-
position of a disk of tibrocartilage. Its outer extremity is flattened ; it articulates by
Trapezius
Deltoid
Pectoralis major
Fig. 230. — Right clavicle, upper surface.
means of a gliding joint with the acromion process of the scapula, and it is connected
with the base of the coracoid process beneath by ligaments. It is double curved, the
large curve having its convexity forward and embracing the inner two-thirds of the
bone, and the small curve having its concavity forward, forming the outer third.
At the deepest part of the concavity of the anterior edge, about at the junction
of its outer and middle thirds, is a small rough eminence called the deltoid tubercle
because of the attachment to it of the deltoid muscle. At a corresponding point on
the posterior and under surface of the bone is a prominent projection called the conoid
tubercle ; to this is attached the conoid ligament. Running forward and outward
from this tubercle on the under surface is a rough line which serves as the point of
Pectoralis major
Subclavius
Fig. 231. — Right clavicle, under surface.
Sternohyoid
attachment of the trapezoid ligatnent. Both these ligaments are of importance in
relation to the fractures of this bone.
The middle third of the bone is its weakest part. Attached to the clavicle on
its anterior surface are the deltoid muscle on its outer third and the pectoralis major
on its inner half. On its posterior and upper surfaces are the trapezius at its outer
third, and the clavicular head of the sternomastoid on its inner third. The subclavius
muscle is attached to its under surface. It will thus be seen that there is a space equal
to one-sixth of the length of the bone inferiorly and one-third of the bone superiorly
which is free from muscular attachments, and it is here that it is most frequently
fractured.
The Scapula. — The scapula is spoken of as having a body, neck, spine, and
acromion, glenoid, and coracoid processes; an upper, an anterior, and a posterior border;
and an upper and a lower angle. It is not often spoken of as possessing a head, the
glenoid process or that portion being sometimes so called in which the gleyioid cavity
or fossa for the articulation of the humerus is situated.
220
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The constriction surrounding the head of the scapula is known as the anatomical
neck, in contradistinction to the surgical neck, which name has been given to that
portion indicated by a Hne drawn through the suprascapular notch and passing
beneath the spine and to the inside of the attachment of the long head of the triceps
muscle just belo.w the lower edge of the glenoid cavity.
The angles and borders and spine are important landmarks in physical diagnosis
and the coracoid and acromion processes in injuries.
In the upper border of the bone at its junction with the base of the coracoid
process is a deep notch called the suprascapular notch {iyicisura scapulce), the supra-
Deltoid
Trapezius
Supraspinatus
Omohyoid
Short head of
biceps and coraco-
brachialis
Levator scapula^
Rhomboideus minor
Infraspinatus
Rhomboideus major
Teres major
Latissimus dorsj
Fig. 232. — Scapula, showing muscular attachments.
scapular nerve passes through it. The artery passes over it. From the edge of the
bone just behind the notch arises the omohyoid muscle, an important guide in opera-
tions on the neck.
The body of the scapula on its under surface is flat and rests on the thorax from
the second to the seventh and nearly to the eighth rib. Its movements on the chest
are free and follow those of the arm. It rises and falls, glides forward and backward,
and also rotates on an anteroposterior axis.
When using any portion of the scapula as a landmark it is customary to have
the arm hanging by the side; if it is otherwise the position of the bone will be
changed, and the relations of its projections to the surrounding parts are altered.
The scapula is sometimes fractured directly across its body below the spine. One
should endeavor to fix in mind especially the relation of the acromion and coracoid
processes to the head, with its glenoid cavity, and the rest of the bone.
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE.
231
Greater tuberosity.
Lesser tuberosity and
facet for subscapu-
laris muscle
Bicipital groove
Surgical neck
Fig. 233. — Anterior surf ace of upper end of humerus.
The head is comparatively small and cup-shaped, with the glenoid fossa on its
surface for the head of the humerus. It is joined to the body of the bone by a narrow
constriction called the neck. Fractures through this neck are rare. Above and pos-
terior to the glenoid fossa is the acromion process and spine of the scapula, and above
and anterior is the coracoid process.
The spine of the scapula runs upward and forward across the upper and posterioi
surface of the bone. Its commencement . . , ,
, . , r 1 1 • 11 1 Anatomical neck
at the posterior edge of the bone is called
its root; this is over the fourth rib and
opposite the third thoracic spine. The
posterior edge of the scapula opposite
the root of the spine projects backward,
but this is not the superior angle, which is
still higher up. The spine of the scapula
ends anteriorly in the acromion process.
This projects far beyond the glenoid cav-
ity, overhangs the head of the humerus,
and forms the point of the shoulder. It,
as well as the rest of the spine, is subcu-
taneous and is a valuable landmark.
The acromion process is not so often
fractured as one would expect. It articu-
lates with the clavicle and the bones are
not infrequently luxated at this point.
The coracoid process projects
forward underneath the clavicle to the
upper and inner side of the head of the
humerus. It is about 2.5 cm. (i in.)
below the clavicle and just to the outer
side of the junction of its middle and outer thirds. It lies just underneath the inner edge
of the deltoid muscle, hence it is not always easily felt. It is almost never fractured,
but is especially valuable as a landmark in injuries and operations on the shoulder.
The two great hollows above and below the spine are the supra- and infraspinous
fossa for the supra- and infraspinatus muscles. The angles are at the two extremities
of the posterior border. The
superior angle receives the in-
sertion of the levator scapulae
muscle and is covered by the
trapezius which inserts into the
spine and thus obscures its out-
line. The inferior angle is cross-
ed by the upper edge of the
lattssimus dor si muscle, from
which it sometimes receives a
few fibres. This angle is ren-
dered prominent when the fore-
arm is flexed on the arm and
placed across the back.
The Humerus . — The
upper end of the humerus is
composed of a head joined to
the tuberosities through the
medium of the anatomical neck.
The head projects inwardly from
the shaft at an angle of 1 20 degrees to it. The lesser tuberosity has inserted into it
the subscapularis muscle; it presents forward. To its outer side and separating it
from the greater tuberosity is the bicipital groove for the long tendon of the biceps
muscle. To the outer side of the groo\'e is the greater tuberosity with its three facets
for the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor micscles.
Anatomical neck
Facet for infra-
spinatus muscle
Facet for teres
minor muscle
Surgical neck
Facet for supra-
spinatus muscle
Bicipital groove
Greater tuberosity
Lesser tuberosity
Fig. 234. — Outer surface of upper end of humerus.
222 APPLIED ANATOMY.
The greater tuberosity projects considerably beyond the acromion process and
therefore forms the most prominent part of the shoulder. Immediately below the
tuberosities is the surgical neck. It is described as being the portion between the
tuberosities above and the insertions of the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi
muscles below. It is a connnon site for fractures. Half way down the shaft on its
outer side is the rough deltoid eminence for the insertion of the deltoid muscle.
Sternoclavicular Joint. — The ligaments uniting the inner end of the clavicle
to the thorax at the upper end of the sternum are the interclaviciilar, which passes
from one clavicle to the other across the top of the sternum, the anterior 2Lwdi posterior
sternoclavicular, and the rhomboid or costoclavicular ligament which passes from the
clavicle downward and forward to the first rib. This last one limits displacement in
cases of luxation. There is a fibrocartilaginous disk between the clavicle and sternum,
forming two distinct joint cavities. The line of the joint slopes downward and outward.
Acromioclavicular Joint. — The outer end of the clavicle articulates with the
acromion process by a joint whose surface inclines down and inward, thus favoring
displacements of the clavicle upward. The ligaments joining them are called the
superior and inferior acromioclavicular. In reality they are simply the thickened
portions of the capsular ligament. This capsular ligament is ruptured in the not infre-
quent cases of luxation which occur here. Running from the under surface of the
clavicle, a short distance from its outer end, to the coracoid process below, is the
Anterior sternoclavicular Costoclavicular or rhomboid ligament
Interclavicular ligament / / Clavicle
Interarticular fibrocartilage
Tendon of
subclavius muscle
First rib
First piece of sternum
Fig. 23s. — Sternoclavicular joint and attachments of the inner end of the clavicle.
coracoclavicular ligament. It is composed of two parts, an antero-external square
ligament called the trapezoid, and a postero-internal conical one called the co7ioid.
The bone may be fractured just external to these ligaments, giving rise to a peculiar
deformity to which attention will be called in describing the fractures of the clavicle.
From the coracoid process the coraco-acromial ligament runs outward and up-
ward to the acromion process, the coracohumeral outward and downward to the neck
of the humerus, and the costocoracoid ligament inward to the first rib at its cartilage.
The Shoulder-joint. — The upper extremity being an organ of prehension and
not of support, the shoulder-joint, which is the articulation which connects it with the
trunk through the shoulder-girdle, is constructed with the idea in view of favoring
and permitting motion, and not of supporting weight or resisting force. Hence we
find it to be a ball-and-socket joint, the one which allows of the freest movements.
The glenoid cavity is a shallow excavation, not a deep cup, as in the hip. The
articulating surface of the head of the humerus is extensive but not so large as it
would have been had the scapula not been made to move on the thorax. The
clavicle keeps the joint well out from the side of the body; hence the neck of the
humerus is short. The movements of the arm are so extensive and free that we do
not have the tuberosities of the humerus so large and set so far away from the artic-
ular surface as is the case with the femur and its trochanters.
If the upper portion of the femur was like the upper end of the humerus, the
lower extremity would be continually rolling in or out, making walking or running
at least difficult if not impossible. Thus we see that the shape of the bones is
dependent on the character of their functions..
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE.
223
The ligaments of the joints are inelastic tissues; hence those that enter into the
construction or a movable joint must be loose, and the more movable a joint is, the
more does its security depend not on its ligaments, but on its muscles.
The shoulder-joint, like other joints, has a capsular ligament which is attached
to the adjacent bones and serves to keep the lubricating synovial fluid applied to the
articulating surfaces. In certain positions this ligament may also ser\'e to a limited
extent to keep the ends of the bones of the joint in contact.
Besides this capsular ligament there are fibrous bands which strengthen it at
certain places as they pass from adjacent processes of bone on one side of the joint
Superior acromioclavicular ligament
Tendon of supra
spinatus muscle
Acromion process
Clavicle
Conoid ligament
Trapezoid ligament
Coraco-acromial ligament
Coracoid process
Coracohumeral ligament
Coracobrachialis muscle
Short head of biceps
Long head of biceps
Pectoralis major muscle
Fig. 236. — Acromioclavicular and shoulder joints.
to those on the other. The muscles and their tendons pass across the capsule and
sometimes blend with it, so that there is an intimate relation between the muscles and
their tendons and the ligaments; finally, there is a third structure called the glenoid
ligament, which is in reality a fibrocartilage that serves to deepen the glenoid cavity.
The capsular ligamefit is attached on one side to the edge of the glenoid cavity,
the anatomical neck of the scapula, and the rim of the glenoid ligament. On the
other side it is attached above or externally to the anatomical neck of the humerus just
at the edge of the articulating surface, but on the lower or inner surface it is attached
some distance below the articular surface (approximately i cm. ) and then turns
upward toward the edge of the articular cartilage. Thus a fracture through the ana-
tomical neck might pass outside of the joint above, and inside of it below. The positions
assumed by the capsule in abduction and adduction are sho'-i^n in Figs. 237 and 238.
224
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Spine
Acromion process
Glenoid process
Capsule
Joint cavity
Long head of
triceps muscle
Fig. 237. — Section of shoulder- joint, arm adducted, showing the position assumed by the capsule and the points
of its attachment.
Acromion process
Capsule
Capsule
Glenoid process
Long head of triceps muscle
Fig. 238. — Section of shoulder-joint, arm abducted, showing the attachment of the capsule and the position u
assumes when the arm is in this position.
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE
225
The capsular ligament, per se, has not much strength. There are two openings
in it — one is for the long tendon of the biceps and the other is the opening of the
bursa beneath the subscapularis muscle. Sometimes there is a synovial extension
beneath the supraspinatus tendon and rarely, in old people, a communication with
the subacromial bursa. It is evident that in case of suppuration within the joint the
pus would tend to find vent first through these openings.
The laxity of the capsule is such that after the muscles are removed the head
can be drawn a considerable distance away from the glenoid cavity. When the mus-
' Acromion process
Clavicle
Coracoclavicular ligaments
Coraco-acromial ligament
Coracoid process
Spine
Glenoid
ligament
Long head of biceps
Glenoid cavity
Long head of triceps
Fig. 239. — View of the left scapula and outer end of the clavicle from in front, showing the ligaments pass-
ing from the coracoid process to the clavicle and acromion process, the glenoid ligament, and attachments of the
long heads of the biceps and triceps muscles.
cles are paralyzed the weight of the arm causes the head to fall away and a depres-
sion is seen beneath the acromion process. The capsule is strengthened by two
definite and separate ligamentous bands called the coracohumeral and the gleno-
humeral ligaments.
The coracohumeral ligament passes from the root of the coracoid process to the
anterior portion of the greater tuberosity. It is supposed by Sutton to be a regres-
sion of the tendon of the pectoralis minor muscle.
The glenoJmmeral liga7nent is a ribbon-like band seen lying alongside of the
inner edge of the biceps tendon as it passes through the interior of the joint. It
passes from the root of the coracoid process near the edge of the glenoid cavity to a
dimple in the lesser tuberosity of the humerus. Sutton considers it a regression of
15
226
APPLIED ANATOMY.
the tendon of the subclavius muscle and homologous with the ligamentum teres in
the hip. It is also called the superior glenohumeral ligament, in contradistinction
to some bands on the lower anterior part of the capsule which are called by some
anatomists the middle and inferior glenohumeral ligaments. Between the superior
above and the middle and inferior below is the opening by which the bursa of the
subscapularis muscle communicates with the joint.
The glenoid ligament is the wedge- or cup-shaped ring of fibrocartilage which
deepens the glenoid fossa. It is attached around its edge to the rim of the fossa
and at its upper end receives the long tendon of the biceps, which divides and blends
with it on each side. At its lower part when it is attached to the bone it blends with
the anterior edge of the long tendon of the triceps.
THE MUSCLES OF THE REGION OF THE SHOULDER.
The shoulder embraces two sets of muscles: one connects the shoulder-girdle
with the trunk and the other the humerus with the shoulder-girdle.
The inner end of the clavicle articulates with the sternum and gives a bony
support to the shoulder-girdle at this point. The rest of the shoulder-girdle,
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Teres minor
Outer head
Long head of triceps
Levator scapulae
Rhomboideus
minor
Rhomboideus
major
^„ _ jHH^B
of triceps / ,f;i|M/||/|-f '
Latissimus dorsi
Teres major
Fig. 240. — Scapular muscles.
comprising the remainder of the clavicle and all of the scapula and bearing the
weight of the whole upper extremity, hangs from and is supported and moved by
the muscles which pass from it to the vertebrae posteriorly and to the skull, hyoid
bone, and ribs anteriorly.
Anteriorly the clavicle has attached to its upper inner third the clavicular origin
of the sternomastoid muscle; and on its under surface is the subclavius muscle, which
arises from the cartilage and anterior end of the fir§t rib. These muscles aid in moving
the clavicle. Running from the third, fourth, and fifth ribs to the coracoid process is
the pedoralis minor rmiscle ; and on the side of the chest, passing to the posterior edge
of the scapula, is the serratus anterior {magnus) muscle. It will be alluded to again.
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE. 227
Posteriorly is the trapezius muscle superficially, and beneath are the omohyoid^
levator scapidce, and the two rhomboid muscles.
The trapezius arises from the superior curved line of the occiput, the liga-
mentum nuchae, and the spines of the seven cervical and all of the thoracic vertebrae.
It inserts into the upper surface of the outer third of the clavicle, acromion process,
and spine of the scapula to near its root. Its upper fibres directly aid in sustaining
the weight of the upper extremity. It is not infrequently paralyzed, and then falling
of the shoulder is marked. It also tends to pull the scapula backward toward the
spine, and rotates it.
The levator scapulae arises from the transverse processes of the upper four
cervical vertebrae and passes downward to insert into the posterior edge of the
scapula between its upper angle and the root of the spine of the scapula.
The scapula is supported largely by this muscle; hence when the trapezius is
paralyzed, as occurs in division of its motor nerve, the spinal accessory, this muscle
is utilized in counteracting its loss.
The rhomboid muscles arise from the lower part of the ligamentum nuchae
and the spines of the seventh cervical and upper five thoracic vertebrae and insert
into the posterior edge of the lower three-fourths of the scapula.
The serratus anterior (magnus) muscle (Fig. 202), lies beneath the scapula
and arises from nine slips from the outer surface of the upper eight or nine ribs;
the second rib receives two slips. It passes backward and upward and inserts into
the posterior edge of the scapula from its upper to its lower angle.
The serration attached to the sixth rib is the one that reaches farthest forward
on the side of the chest.
The omohyoid muscle arises posteriorly from the upper border of the
scapula, just behind the suprascapular notch, and then runs upward and forward to
the under surface of the body of the hyoid bone. It is a digastric or two-bellied
muscle and its middle tendon is attached by a pulley-like process of the deep cervical
fascia to the first rib.
MOVEMENTS OF THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE.
While the muscles above enumerated comprise all those directly attached to the
shoulder-girdle and trunk, they are of course assisted to some extent by the muscles
forming the axillary folds, viz., the pectoralis major anteriorly and the latissimus
dorsi and teres major posteriorly.
The shoulder-girdle is elevated by the upper fibres of the trapezius, levator
scapulae, rhomboidei, sternomastoid (clavicular origin), and omohyoid. It is depressed
by the lower fibres of the trapezius, latissimus dorsi, lower fibres of the serratus ante-
rior (magnus), pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, and subclavius. It is drawn forward
by the pectoralis major, minor, subclavius, serratus anterior, omohyoid, and, if the
arm is fixed, by the teres major muscles. It is drawn back by the trapezius, rhomboidei,
and latissimus dorsi muscles. Circumduction is effected by a combined action of
various parts of these muscles.
SURFACE ANATOxMY.
On observing the region of the shoulder it is noticed that it projects well out
from the trunk, so that the arm hangs free. It has as its framework three bones
the clavicle and scapula above, forming the shoulder-girdle, and the humerus below.
They radiate from the region of the joint, the clavicle toward the front, the scapula
toward the back, and the humerus downward, forming the basis of the shape of the
shoulder, which is modified by the muscles, fat, and skin.
The skin and fat bridge over and tend to obliterate the hollows and to a less
extent obscure the prominences. This is more the case as applied to the muscles
than the bones, hence the bones form the better landmarks or guides.
Age and sex modify the surface appearances. In children the bones are but
slightly developed and their prominences not marked. Fat is usually abundant and it'
is often no easy task to recognize by the sense of touch the various anatomical parts
and determine whether or not they have been injured. For this reason one should
228
APPLIED ANATOMY.
endeavor to increase his skill by taking advantage of every opportunity that offers
for examination. In the case of women the same thing usually exists, but to a less
degree. In the somewhat emaciated adult male the structures can be recognized to
best advantage.
The clavicle is subcutaneous, and even in children and fat people can be felt
throughout its entire length. Its large, knob-like inner extremity projects consider-
ably above the upper edge of the sternum, which can be felt at the suprasternal notch.
Take particular notice of its size and compare it with the one on the opposite side so
as not to be misled as to its being diseased or luxated. Follow the bone to its outer
extremity, which is higher than the inner, more so when lying down than when
standing. A prominent ridge marks its outer extremity; if it is difficult to recognize,
Infraclavicular triangl
Outer end of clavicle
Tip of acromion process
Greater tuberosity
Head of humerus
Deltoid muscle
Coracoid process
Lesser tuberosity
Pectoralis major
Fig. 241. — Surface anatomy of the shoulder.
as will often be the case, then continue directly outward to the point of the shoulder,
which is formed by the tip of the acromion process. Having recognized this point,
the end of the clavicle will be found about 2.5 to 3 cm. (i to i^in. ) directly inward
from it.
In the median line above the sternum is the suprasternal notch with the promi-
nent sternal origins of the sternomastoid muscles on each side. Just to the outer edge
of these tendons lie the sternoclavicular joints. The one on the right side marks the
ending of the innominate artery and the commencement of the right common carotid
and subclavian. That on the left marks the left carotid with the subclavian directly
to its outer side and a little posteriorly.
If the head is extended and turned to the opposite side the clavicular origin of
the sternomastoid is made visible. It arises from the inner third of the bone.
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE, 229
The inner two-thirds of the clavicle is convex for\vard. Above this portion is
the subclavian triangle in the supraclavicular fossa. The older third of the clavicle
is convex backward and from its upper surface the trapezius muscle can be felt pro-
ceeding upward. This leaves the middle third of the bone free from muscle.
Under the middle of the bone passes the subclavian artery. It curves upward
about 2.5 cm. (i in.) above the clavicle to descend again to the sternoclavicular joint.
The arch so formed indicates the apex of the lung because the subcla\'ian artery-
rests on the pleura. The internal jugular vein passes down opposite the interval
between the sternal and clavicular heads of the sternomastoid muscle.
Just above the clavicle, a little internal to its middle, and behind the clavicular
origin of the sternomastoid muscle is seen the external jugular vein. It terminates
in the subclavian vein, which lies to the inner (anterior) side of the artery. To the
outer side of the artery the cords of the brachial plexus pass upward and inward.
They become prominent in emaciated subjects when the head is turned forcibly
toward the opposite side. The posterior belly of the omohyoid muscle varies much
in its position, sometimes it lies behind the clavicle, at others two or three centimetres
above it.
Immediately below the clavicle is the infraclavicular fossa. At its inner extremity
can be felt the first rib. As it is exceedingly easy to mistake the ribs, it is best, in
counting them, to locate the second rib by recognizing the angle of the sternum,
(angle of Ludwig) to which it is opposite, on the surface of the sternum about 5 cm.
(2 in. ) below its upper edge. Attached to the lower edge of the iiiner half of the
clavicle is the pectoralis major muscle and to the oiiter third the deltoid muscle.
This leaves one sixth of the lower edge of the clavicle free from muscular attach-
ments. This forms the base of the subclavicular triangle and its two sides are formed
by the adjacent edges of the pectoralis major and deltoid muscles. Beneath this
triangle runs the first portion of the axillary artery with the vein to its inner side
and the cords of the brachial plexus to its outer side. Deep pressure at this point
can compress it against the second rib, but not so effectively as above the clavicle.
Just to the outer side of the junction of the middle and outer thirds of the
clavicle, in front of the deepest part of the concavity of the clavicle and about 2.5 cm.
( I in. ) below it, is the coracoid process. It is better felt by pressing the fingers flat
on the surface than by digging them in. It is somewhat obscured by the edge of
the deltoid muscle, which covers it. Running from the coracoid to the acromion
process is the sharp edge of the coraco-acromial ligament. An incision midway
between the two processes would open the joint and strike the long biceps tendon
as it winds over the head of the humerus to reach the upper edge of the glenoid
cavity.
Beneath the acromion process is felt the greater tuberosity of the humerus. If
the arm is placed alongside of the body with the palm facing forward, a distinct groove
can be felt to the inner side of the acromion process passing downward on a line with
the middle of the arm. It is the bicipital groove for the long tendon of the biceps
muscle. The bony process of the humerus to its outer side is the greater tuber-
osity and that to its inner side, between it and the coracoid process, on a slightly
lower level, is the lesser tuberosity. It will be noted that the greater tuberosity pro-
jects beyond the acromion process and forms the prominence of the shoulder. On
rotating the arm the tuberosities can be distinctly felt moving under the deltoid muscle.
Following the acromion process around toward the back it turns abruptly where
it joins the spine of the scapula, forming a distinct angle. This angle is quite prom-
inent, can be readily seen and felt, and can be used as a landmark for measuring the
length of the humerus. If the spine of the scapula is followed still farther it ends
in its root at the posterior border of the bone opposite the upper edge of the fourth
rib and third thoracic spine. This marks the upper extremity of the fissure of the
lung; with the arm to the side, the lower angle of the scapula lies over the seventh
interspace.
Axilla. — On raising the arm directly out from the body the armpit and axillary
folds become visible. The rounded edge of the anterior axillary fold is formed by
the pectoralis major muscle. It follows the fifth rib and its upper end merges with
the lower edge of the deltoid muscle.
230 APPLIED ANATOMY.
If firm pressure is made along the inner or lower edge of the outer extremity
of the anterior axillary fold the upper end of the biceps muscle can be felt, and lying
along with it, to its inner side, is the swell formed by the coracobrachialis muscle.
Along the inner edge of the coracobrachialis muscle lies the axillary artery with
its vein to the inner side. This is a little anterior to the middle of the axilla. The
artery can be felt pulsating along the inner edge of the coracobrachialis and can be com-
pressed by pressure made in an outward and backward direction against the humerus.
The line of the axillary artery is from the middle of the clavicle down along the inner
edge of the coracobrachialis muscle, which will be anterior to the middle of the axilla.
The posterior fold of the axilla is formed by the latissimus dorsi and teres major
muscles. By deep pressure in the axilla, posterior to the vessels, the arm being
abducted, the rounded head of the humerus can be felt.
When the arm is brought more to the side the tissues of the axilla relax and any
enlarged lymph-nodes present may be recognized. When normal they cannot be felt.
Winding around the surgical neck of the humerus from behind forward under
the deltoid muscle about at the junction of its upper and middle thirds is the pos-
Biceps
Deltoid
Pectoralis major
— Coracobrachialis
Groove for axillary
vessels and nerves
Long head of triceps muscle
•Teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles
Fig. 242. — Surface anatomy of the axilla.
terior circumflex artery and circumflex nerve. Hence a blow at this point may injure
the nerve and cause paralysis of the deltoid muscle. The line of fracture of the
surgical neck of the humerus would also lie at this point.
DISLOCATIONS OF THE CLAVICLE.
Dislocation of the Sternal End of the Clavicle. — The sternal end of the
clavicle is most commonly dislocated forward. Other dislocations, which may be
upward or backward, are very rare. The range of movement of the clavicle approxi-
mates 60 degrees.
The bone is lowest when the elbow is brought forward across the front of the body
and highest when the arm is raised and placed behind the neck. The luxation is pro-
duced by the shoulder being violently depressed and pushed backward, as in falling
on it; in some cases an inward thrust may be added. As the clavicle descends its under
surface comes into contact with the first rib, which acts as a fulcrum, and the inner
extremity is lifted upward and forward, rupturing the sternoclavicular ligaments. The
rhomboid ligament remaining intact prevents a wider displacement of the bone.
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE.
231
As regards treatment, to reduce the luxation the shoulder should be elevated
and drawn outward and backward. While pressure is made on the protruding bone
the arm is used as a lever and the bone tilted into place. Usually reduction can be
readily accomplished, but most people have found it difficult to retain the parts in
Sternum
Clavicle
Subclavius muScle
Costoclavicular or
rhomboid ligament
First rib
Second rib ,
Fig. 243. — Dislocation of the sternal end of the clavicle upward and forward, showing how the first rib acts as a
fulcrum and the clavicle as a lever.
place. The only sure way of doing so is to keep the patient in bed on his back.
Stimson, following Velpeau and Malgaigne, advises the application of an anterior
figure eight bandage of plaster of Paris; Hamilton says deformity remains after any
method of treatment, but that function
will be but little impaired.
In upward dislocations the case of
R. W. Smith has shown that the end of
the bone passes behind the sternal origin
of the sternomastoid muscle.
In backward dislocations pressure
on the trachea and oesophagus have
caused difficulty in breathing and swal-
lowing; cyanosis due to pressure on the
internal jugular vein has been observed
in one case. When one recalls the
function of the clavicle in keeping the
shoulder out from the body, it is readily
seen that when the security of its inner
attachment has once been destroyed dis-
placement is favored by the weight of
the upper extremity as well as by the
action of all the muscles which pass
from the head, neck, and trunk to the
shoulder-girdle and humerus.
In these dislocations of the sternal
end of the clavicle the fibrocartilaginous
disk of the joint sometimes is carried out with the clavicle and sometimes remains
attached to the sternum, more often it follows the clavicle.
Dislocation of the Acromial End of the Clavicle. -
the clavicle may be dislocated either upward or downward,
tions are upward.
The displacement is usually produced by direct violence
back of the shoulder driving the acromion down and inward.
Fig. 244. — Luxation of the outer end of the clavicle
upward, showing the coracoid process acting as a fulcrum.
As the outer end of the clavicle rises, the lower angle of the
scapula is carried toward the median line and the acromion
process is depressed and torn loose from the clavicle above.
—The acromial end of
Nearly all the disloca-
a blow on the top or
The clavicle not only
232 APPLIED ANATOMY.
rises but also goes backward, or the scapula comes forward, so that the end of the
clavicle may rest on the acromion process. In this dislocation the base of the cora-
coid process, on which the clavicle rests and to which it is bound by the conoid and
trapezoid ligaments, acts as a fulcrum. The scapula rotates on an anteroposterior
axis, passing through the base of the coracoid process, and as the inner portion of
the bone rises, its outer portion, — that is, the acromion process, — descends and is torn
from the outer end of the clavicle.
The deformity produced by the upwardly projecting end of the clavicle is typical.
The luxation may be complete or incomplete. When incomplete the injury is con-
fined to the acromioclavicular joint; when complete the conoid and trapezoid ligaments
are partially or wholly ruptured.
The joint usually possesses a poorly developed fibrocartilage and inclines upward
and outward so that the inclination favors the rise of the clavicle. When the conoid
and trapezoid ligaments are not ruptured they serve as the axis on which the scapula
rotates forward so that the outer end of the clavicle slips backward on the acromion
process. This led Hamilton to describe these luxations as backward luxations. In
rare instances the end of the clavicle seems to be displaced posteriorly without
rising above its normal level. We reported one such case in the Annals of
Surgery several years ago. Reduction of the displacement is easily effected, but
the same difficulty in keeping the bone in place has been experienced in this disloca-
tion as in dislocations of the inner extremity. Bandages going over the shoulder
and down the arm and under the elbow are commonly employed. The only sure
way of keeping the clavicle in its proper position is to operate and fasten it to the
acromion with wire or chromicised catgut. When the patient is put in bed the bones
are readily replaced.
Downzvard dislocation though rare does seem to have sometimes occurred.
From the fact of the under surface of the clavicle resting almost or quite on the
coracoid process it is difficult to see how it is possible for this injury to take place.
It must take place while the scapula is violently twisted on the clavicle. The
displacement is readily reduced and shows but little tendency to recurrence.
DISLOCATIONS OF THE SHOULDER.
The dislocations of the shoulder are to be studied from the anatomical and not
from the clinical standpoint. A knowledge of the anatomical construction of the
various parts involved is to be applied to the explanation and elucidation of the
methods of production, the signs and symptoms observed, and the procedures neces-
sary for reduction.
Classification. — For our purpose there are two forms of dislocations of the
shoulder — anterior and posterior. These two forms are entirely different and must
be studied separately.
Anterior Dislocation. — An anterior luxation is one in which the head of the
humerus is either on or anterior to the long head of the triceps muscle at the lower
edge of the glenoid cavity.
Posterior Dislocation. — A posterior luxation is one in which the head goes poste-
rior to the glenoid cavity and usually rests beneath the spinous process of the scapula,
hence this is called subspinous dislocation.
When the head is luxated anteriorly it may pass so far inward as to rest between
the coracoid process and the clavicle; hence this form is called subclavicular.
When the head does not pass so far inward, but rests on the anterior edge of the
glenoid cavity below the coracoid process, it is called a subcoracoid luxation.
When it rests on the anterior and lower edge of the glenoid cavity, sometimes
on the long head of the triceps muscle or just anterior to it, it is called a subglenoid
luxation.
ANTERIOR DISLOCATION OF THE SHOULDER.
The head of the bone almost always comes out through the anterior portion of
the capsule and slips beneath the coracoid process. From this point it may shift its
position either a little farther inward, when it is called a subclavicular luxation, or a
little farther downward and outward, when it receives the name of subglenoid.
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE.
233
As a matter of fact the head usually comes to rest beneath the coracoid process
and permanent fixation of the bone either in the subclavicular or subglenoid positions
is very rare. As the symptoms and methods of treatment are identical they will all
be included under the one head of subcoracoid luxations. What are commonly
regarded as subglenoid luxations are really subcoracoid.
Method of Production of Anterior Luxations. — Anterior luxations are produced
by the arm being hyperabducted, rotated outward, and the head of the bone pushed
or pulled in toward the body. Rotation may not be essential, but it is largely
responsible for the wide detachment of the capsule which is present in these injuries.
When the arm is raised from the body much beyond a right angle the greater
tuberosity strikes the acromion process. If the hyperabduction is continued the acro-
mion process acts as a fulcrum and the head of the bone is lifted from its socket,
tearing away the capsule of the joint in front of and below the glenoid cavity.
Fig. 245. — Dislocation of the shoulder; action of the bones; by extreme abduction of the humerus over the
acromion process as a fulcrum the head is levered out of the socket.
If now the arm rotates, the capsule is still farther detached and if the force con-
tinues to act, as in those cases in which a person is thrown forward and alights on
the outstretched arm, or if the axillary muscles contract, the head is thrust from its
socket. After once leaving the socket, subsequent movements may cause the head
to assume various positions around the glenoid cavity; as a matter of fact it is almost
always below the coracoid process.
Parts Injured. — When the luxation occurs the arm is hyperabducted and, owing
to the acromion process being somewhat posterior to the glenoid cavity, pointing
backward, this places it up almost or quite alongside of the head. The force which
thrusts the bone out acts downward toward the axilla and inward toward the body.
The posterior border of the scapula is prevented from descending by the levator
scapuke and rhomboid muscles, hence it is the joint which descends and tears loose
the capsule already stretched tightly over the head of the humerus.
This is the reason why the lower portion of the capsule is torn; it is the longi-
234
APPLIED ANATOMY.
tudinally acting force that does it. When the transverse force acts it is expended on the
anterior portion of the joint because the joint is at the anterior portion of the scapula.
Posterior to the joint the scapula rests on the chest, so it is its anterior portion which
is forced inward, thus rupturing the capsule at this point. The fulcrum, or acromion
process, is also posterior to the midline of the joint.
By a combination of these two forces (longitudinal and transverse) the capsule
is ruptured at its lower and especially its anterior portion. Its tearing is favored by
a twisting or external rotation of the humerus. The attachment of the capsule is
torn from the rim of the glenoid cavity, not from the humerus, and a fragment of the
bony rim frequently comes with it. The opening is large and embraces nearly or
Prominent acromion
process
Coracoid procesi
Tense fibres of
the deltoid
Prominence formed
by the head of
the humerus
Fig. 246. — Surface view: subcoracoid dislocation of the humerus, showing the elevation of the shoulder,
abduction of the arm, prominence of the displaced head below the coracoid process, flattening of the shoulder,
and tense fibres of the deltoid muscle.
quite half the circumference of the joint. It is limited above by the coracoid process.
The coracohumeral and superior glenohumeral ligaments lying in front of the long
tendon of the biceps also limit the tear upwards. If the tear does not extend so high
it is because the subscapularis muscle, instead of being torn, is wedged in between
the head and the coracoid process. Below, the tear is limited by the insertion of the
long head of the triceps. As the head luxates it cannot pierce the triceps tendon,
so it slips behind it in a posterior luxation and in front of it in an anterior luxation.
The supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor muscles are all posterior; they
blend more or less with the capsule and as the head luxates they are stretched with
it over the glenoid cavity.
The long tendon of the biceps, while it may sometimes be torn loose from the
bicipital groove after rupture of the transverse ligament, is usually so loose that it
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE.
235
follows the head without being detached from its connections. The subscapularis
muscle not infrequently has its lower edge torn.
The brachial plexus and blood-vessels are pushed inward by the head, but when
the arm is abducted they are stretched over it, running close to the coracoid process.
Fig. 247. — Subcoracoid dislocation of the humerus, showing the position of the bones in relation to each other and
to the soft parts.
As the circumflex nerve winds around the surgical neck of the humerus, it may be
ruptured or tightly stretched over the head of the bone.
Hyperabduction stretches the vessels and nerves so forcibly over the head just
prior to its leaving the socket as sometimes to produce serious injury to them.
Signs and Symptoms.
There is (i) at first elevation then lowering of the shoulder, (2) flattening of the
deltoid muscle, (3) projection of the elbow away from the side. (4) The normal
hollow below the outer third of the clavicle is filled up ; the head, covered by the deltoid,
may sometimes even make a rounded prominence at this point which can frequently be
felt. (5) If the elbow is raised and the hand placed on the opposite shoulder and held
there the elbow cannot be brought flat on the chest (Dugas's sign), (6) with the
236 APPLIED ANATOMY.
arm to the side the distance from the acromion process to the external condyle is
increased, with the arm abducted to a right-angle, the same distance is decreased as
compared with the previous position as well as when compared with the arm of the
opposite side (see Fig. 248).
1. Lowering the shoulder obviates pain by relaxing the deltoid and preventing
it from forcing the head upward in its displaced position.
2. Flattening of the shoulder is due to the head and tuberosities being displaced
inward, thus leaving the socket empty. A marked depression can be felt with the
fingers below the prominent acromion process.
3. Projection of the elbow from the side is due to tension of the deltoid muscle
because the head is lower than normal. In its natural position the top of the head is
about level with the coracoid process; when luxated it is below it.
4. The normal hollow below the outer third of the clavicle is lost because here i.s
where the head lies. It may form a distinct prominence and when the arm is rotated
Fig. 248. — Subcoracoid dislocation of the shoulder. The head of the humerus has slipped off its pedestal or
shoulder-girdle onto the side of the thorax. This shows how the arm is shortened and why it is necessary to-
make traction in order to replace the humerus up again on the shoulder-girdle.
if the surgeon lays his hand at this point the tuberosities can be felt to rotate beneath.
If the arm is abducted the head can usually be felt in the axilla, where it may even
form a prominence.
5. In Dugas's test the elbow cannot be brought to the chest because the outer
end of the humerus is held close to the chest-wall. On account of the thorax being
rounded like a barrel it is necessary for the outer end of the bone to rise as the inner
end falls.
6. The reason for the difference in measurements when the shoulder is luxated
is readily seen by the fact that the head is displaced downward and inward as shown
in the accompanying figure.
Treatment.
Reduction of an anterior luxation of the shoulder can be accomplished in two
ways, viz. , the direct, in which the head is pulled or pushed back into the socket,
and the indirect, in which it is levered back.
Direct Method. — This consists in first placing the arm in approximately the
position it occupied when luxated (abduction) and then pulling or pushing the
head toward and into the socket while the arm is rotated to relax the capsule and
allow the head to enter. The usual obstacle to reduction of a recent luxation is
muscular contraction. The main muscles acting are the deltoid, pectoralis major,
latissimus dorsi, and teres major. To effect reduction the action of these muscles
must either be held in abeyance or overcome by force. This may be accomplished
in several ways, viz. , by the use of general anaesthesia, by such gentle manipulations
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE.
237
as will not incite the muscles to contraction, by a quick movement accomplishing the
object before the muscles are able to contract, or, finally, by overcoming the muscular
action bv steady continuous traction. General anaesthesia is the surest way of obvi-
ating muscular contraction.
The question of muscular contraction having been solved by one or more of these
expedients the actual replacement is to be accomplished by dragging or pushing the
head back over the route it took in coming out. The opening in the capsule is
below and anterior, therefore the arm is to be strongly abducted, and traction made
upward and backward. This drags the head upward and backward over the rim of
the glenoid cavity into its socket. If it does not enter readily it is because of tension
Coracoid process
Acromion process
Long head of biceps
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Teres minor
Deltoid detached
from the clavicle
and turned back
Long head
of triceps
Coracobrachialis
and short head
of biceps
Pectoralis major
Pectoralis minor
Displaced head
of humerus
Subscapularis
Fig. 249. — Subcoracoid dislocation of the shoulder. Dissection showing the relation of the muscles to the dis-
placed humerus.
of the untorn part of the capsule; this is to be remedied by gently rotating the arm,
when the proper position will be revealed by the slipping of the head into place. Rota-
tion in either direction beyond the proper point narrows the tear in the capsule and
keeps the head from entering. Traction is necessary in order to replace the head of
the humerus on its pedestal or shoulder-girdle from which it has fallen onto the side
of the chest (see Figs. 248 and 250).
If it is desired to tire the muscles out, the plan of Stimson is best. Place the
patient in a canvas hammock and allow the arm to hang downward through a hole
in the canvas. Fasten a ten-pound weight to the wrist and inside of six minutes the
238
APPLIED ANATOMY.
weight will have dragged the head of the humerus into place. This same object can
be carried out, but not so well, by having the patient lie on the floor and pulling the
arm directly upward by means of a rope and pulley. Here the weight of the body
acts as the counter force.
Other means, such as the heel in the axilla, etc., may be found described in
works on surgery, but it is to be remembered that the objects to be sought are (i) to
overcome the action of the deltoid by abducting the arm, (2) to overcome the axillary
muscles — pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, and teres major — by traction, and (3) to
loosen the capsule and open the tear to its widest extent by rotation while the head
is pushed with the hand toward and over the lower and anterior edge of the socket.
Fig. 250. — Diagram to show how rotation influences the size of the rent in the capsule. The square rep-
resents the rent in the capsule and the circle the head of the humerus. If the humerus is rotated too much in
the direction of the arrows, either to the right or left, the opening in the capsule is so narrowed as to obstruct
the passage of the head.
Indirect Method. — The indirect or lever method has been best systematized
by Kocher of Berne, although Henry H. Smith, a former professor of surgery in the
University of Pennsylvania, taught a similar method previously (see H. H. Smith's
"Surgery," 11 vols., also Packard's " Minor Surgery," p. 204, and Ashhurst's "Sur-
gery," 2d Ed., Phila. 1878, p. 284). Kocher's method is as follows: First Step.
— Flex the forearm until it forms a right angle with the arm, then, with the elbow
touching the side of the body, rotate the arm outward 90 degrees until the forearm
points directly outward (Fig. 251). This causes the head of the bone to rotate out-
ward and leave the side of the chest to take a position close to the glenoid cavity.
Second Step. — The arm being held in this position, the elbow is raised forward until
Fig. 251. — Kocher's method of reducing dislocation of the shoulder: First step — Flex the forearm at a right
angle to the arm; bring the humerus alongside the chest, the elbow nearly touching the side, and rotate outward
as far as the arm will go without undue force.
it forms a right angle or a little more with the long axis of the body. This relaxes
the coracobrachialis muscle, releases the lesser tuberosity, which may be caught against
it, and allows the head to pass outward and ascend from its low position up into the
glenoid cavity (Fig. 252). Third Step. — Carry the arm obliquely inward, place
the hand on the opposite shoulder and bring the elbow down to the surface of the
chest, the humerus pointing diagonally downward and inward as in the Velpeau
position for fractured clavicle (Fig. 253).
The mechanism, as readily demonstrated on the cadaver, is as follows: The
head lies to the inner side of the glenoid cavity with the tense posterior portion of
the capsule passing backward. When external rotation is made the capsule is wound
around the head and upper portion of the neck and the head moves out. In some
instances the head will not only move out but will likewise move up and be drawn at
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE^
239
once into place. Bringing the arm forward and upward relaxes the coracobrachialis
muscle, while bringing it across the chest in the last step assists the head over the
rim of the glenoid ca\ity and restores the member to its normal position. Prof.
H. H. Smith brought the elbow forward before making the external rotation instead
of after, as did Kocher. This is probably the better way because persistence in rotat-
ing outward when the lesser tuberosity is caught beneath the tense coracobrachialis
muscle is one cause of the frequent fracture of the humerus in attempting to carry
Fig. 252. — Kocher's method of reducing dislocation of the shoulder: Second step — Keeping the arm in external
rotation, raise the elbow until the humerus reaches the vertical line or a little beyond.
out Kocher's method ; another cause is the fixation due to strong muscular con-
traction or to jamming of the head between the scapula and side of the chest.
This method can be used without anaesthesia, but it is at times exceedingly pain-
ful and savors of cruelty. It is particularly applicable for old and severe cases. It
depends for its efficiency on the integrity of the posterior portion of the capsule, if this
has been torn loose the method fails and the head simply rotates in situ. If this
latter is the case, reduction can readily be effected by direct traction and manipulation.
Fig. 253. — Kocher's method of reducing dislocation of the shoulder: Third (final) step — Rotate the arm inward
and place the hand on the opposite shoulder bringing the elbow down on the anterior surface of the chest.
POSTERIOR DISLOCATIONS OF THE SHOULDER.
Posterior dislocations are always beneath some portion of the spine of the scapula,
hence they have been called snbspiyioics. When the head lies anteriorly under the
posterior portion of the acromion process they have been called subacromial.
Posterior luxations are rare. They occur either when the arm is abducted with
strong internal rotation or by direct violence, such as a blow on the anterior portion of
the shoulder, which forces the head out of its socket backward. The posterior portion
of the capsule is torn and the head lies posterior to the glenoid cavitv with its anatomi-
cal neck res.ting on the rim and the lesser tuberosity in the glenoid fossa. The arm
is inverted and abduction and rotation impaired. The capsule is ruptured by internal
rotation while the arm is in a position of abduction, and then a push sends the head pos-
teriorly. We have seen it as a congenital affection resulting from injury in childbirth.
240
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Lesser tuberosity of the humerus
Relaxed tendon of coracobrachialis
and short head of biceps
Fig. 254. — Raising the arm to a vertical line or a little more relaxes the tendon of the coracobrachialis
and short head of the biceps muscle and allows the lesser tuberosity of the humerus to pass beneath it when the
arm is rotated inward to place the hand on the opposite shoulder.
Prominence formed by
the head of the humerus'
\
Fig. 255. — Posterior luxation of the shoulder. The head of the humerus makes a prominence beneath tne
spine of the scapula and the arm is rotated inward. (From a photograph of author's patient by Dr. A. P. C.
Ashhurst.)
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE. 241
The infraspinatus, teres minor, and sometimes the subscapularis muscles are
ruptured and frequently there are accompanying fractures of the tuberosities or some
part of the scapula. The head makes a prominence posteriorly and the arm hangs to
the side and in a position of inward rotation. Reduction, if the injury is recent, is
likely to be easily effected by pushing the head directly forward into its socket.
FRACTURES OF THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE AND UPPER END
OF THE HUMERUS.
FRACTURES OF THE CLAVICLE.
Fractures of the clavicle divide with those of the radius the distinction of being
the most frequent of any in the body.
The clavicle is most often broken in its middle third, next in its outer, and, lastly,
in its inner third.
Fracture of the Inner Third of the Clavicle. — This is the rarest frac-
ture of the clavicle and has its main anatomical interest in relation to the costoclavic-
ular ligament. This ligament runs obliquely upward and outward from the upper
surface of the cartilage of the first rib to the lower surface of the clavicle, a distance
of 2 cm. (4 in.).
Immediately in front of the outer portion of this ligament is the insertion of the
tendon of the subclavius muscle. The line of the fracture may be either transverse
or oblique ; if oblique it follows the same direction as do the fractures of the middle
third of the bone, viz. , from above, downward and inward. The displacement of
the inner fragment is upward and of the outer fragment downward. The displace-
FiG. 256. — Fracture of the clavicle just outside of the middle, with the customary deformity.
ment of the inner fragment upward is promoted by the attachment of the clavicular
origin of the sternomastoid muscle: it is opposed by the costoclavicular (rhomboid)
ligament and to a less extent by the subclavius muscle.
Fracture of the Middle Third of the Clavicle. — The clavicle is most
frequently broken in the outer half of its middle third. The bone at this part is most
slender; it is here that the anterior curve passes into the posterior; and, finally, it has
fewer muscular attachments at this situation. The upper surface has arising from its
inner third the clavicular origin of the sternomastoid muscle. Its middle third has
no muscular attachments, and on its outer third is the trapezius muscle. On the
lower or anterior surface on its inner half is the clavicular origin of the pectoralis
major and on its outer third is the deltoid. This leaves the outer half of the middle
third free from muscular attachments, with the exception of the subclavius on its
under surface. It is through this part of the bone that fractures occur.
Sometimes in children the line of fracture is transverse, but most often it is
oblique and always in the direction from above downward and inward.
The displacement of the inner fragment is upward, and of the outer fragment
downward and inward. This produces the deformity seen in Fig. 256. The inner
fragment is pulled up by the clavicular origin of the sternomastoid muscle. The
support of the clavicle being gone, the shoulder falls down and in. It is impelled in
that direction, first, by the weight of the upper extremity, and, secondly, by the action
of the axillary fold muscles, — pectoralis major and minor anteriorly and teres major
and latissimus dorsi posteriorly, and by the subclavius to some extent. The anterior
edge of the scapula rotates inward and its posterior edge tilts outward.
In this manner overlapping is produced, and measurements of the injured and
healthy sides taken from the sternoclavicular to the acromioclavicular joint will
show some shortening on the injured side. As the continuity of the shoulder-girdle
16
242
APPLIED ANATOMY.
has been destroyed and its prop-like action lost, its function of abduction ceases, and
the patient is unable properly to elevate the arm. Sometimes the brachial plexus or
subclavian vessels are injured i)y the inner end of the outer fragment. The artery
passes beneath the middle of the bone, the vein being to its inner side and the
Trapezius
Coracoid process
Deltoi
Clavicular fibres
of sternomastoid
— Brachial plexus
Suliclavian vessels
Pectoralis minor
Pectoralis major
Fig. 257. — Fracture of the clavicle just outside the middle. The outer fragment is displaced downward and
inward and the inner fragment upward. The brachial plexus and subclavian vessels are behind the inner end of
the outer fragment.
brachial plexus to its outer side. We have operated on one such case of injury to
the brachial plexus; and cases of haematoma arising from injury to the veins and
aneurism from injury to the artery have been recorded.
Treatmeyit. — When the line of fracture is oblique and in an adult, healing with a
certain, often considerable, amount of deformity is almost constant, the only efficient
Fig. 258. — Showing how the shoulder falls inward and the posterior edge of the scapula tilts outward when the
prop-like action of the clavicle is destroyed by fracture.
way of combating its occurrence is to place the patient in bed on his back. This is the
best way of removing the weight of the arm, of quieting the muscles, and by pressure
of the scapula close to the thorax of levering the shoulder out (see Fig. 258).
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE.
243
Fracture of the Outer Third of the Clavicle. — Attached to the outer third
of the clavicle on its under surface, extending not quite to its end, are the coraco-
clavicular (conoid and trapezoid) ligaments. The conoid inserts into the conoid
tubercle near the posterior edge of the clavicle, while the trapezoid is broader and
passes from the conoid tubercle outward and anteriorly not quite to the extremity
of the bone (see Fig. 267). The bone may be fractured either through the part to
which the conoid and trapezoid ligaments are attached, or between them and the end
of the bone, a distance of about 2 cm. (i in.). The line of the fracture is either
transverse or inclines backward and outward (see Fig. 259).
The displacement of the outer fragment is downward and inward. If the fracture
is through the ligaments the displacement is not marked. If beyond the ligaments,
the shoulder drops, carrying down the outer fragment, and the inner fragment may
be elevated slightly above the outer one, but the up-and-down displacement is not
Pectoralis minor
Pectoralis major
Latissimus dorsi
Teres major
Fig. 259. — Fracture of the outer end of the clavicle. The outer fragment is drawn inward by the pectoralis major
latissimus dorsi, and teres major muscles.
conspicuous. In many cases the anteroposterior displacement is very marked and
peculiar. The outer fragment is bent sharply inward at the site of fracture, producing
a deformity which is pathognomonic. It is caused by the curved shape of the bone at
this point, by the weight of the arm, and by the action of the muscles passing from
the shoulder to the trunk, especially the pectoralis major (see Fig. 259).
Treatment. — As the deformity is not very marked any of the usual bandages,
such as those of Velpeau, Desault, or posterior figure eight are fairly satisfactory.
FRACTURES OF THE SCAPULA.
While fractures of the scapula are not common, there are a few anatomical facts
in reference to the scapula and its muscles which are worth calling attention to.
The scapula is liable to be fractured more or less transversely through the body
below the spine; the acromion and coracoid processes have been broken; it has also
been fractured through the surgical neck, and the glenoid process has been chipped off.
244 APPLIED ANATOMY.
Fracture Through the Body. — The scapula has attached to its under surface
the subscapularis muscle, along its posterior border is the serratus anterior (magnus)
and rhomboids, to its dorsum and edge below the spine are attached the infraspina-
tus, teres minor, and teres major muscles. These are covered by a strong, tough
fascia which dips between them to be attached to the bone.
Bearing these facts in mind it is readily appreciated why in many of these
fractures, which usually traverse the bone below its spine from the axillary to the
vertebral border, the displacement is slight, and why healing occurs with some
appreciable deformity but with little disability.
If, however, the fracture is low down, breaking off the lower angle, then the teres
major and lower portion of the serratus anterior (magnus) muscles displace the frag-
ment toward the axilla, and this is to be borne in mind in treating the injury.
Fracture of the acromion process is more rare than would be expected.
It is the result of direct violence, and the displacement and disability resulting from
the injury are slight. The acromion is covered by a dense fibrous expansion from
the trapezius above and the deltoid below, and these prevent a wide separation of
the fragments.
Fracture of the coracoid process is also rare and may occur from muscular
contraction or direct violence, as in luxation of the shoulder. It might be thought
that owing to the action of the pectoralis minor, coracobrachialis, and short head of
the biceps muscles, which are attached to it, it would be widely displaced, but this
is not so, for the conoid and trapezoid ligaments still hold it in place.
Fractures through the surgical neck are not common. They pass down
through the suprascapular notch and across the glenoid process or head, in front of the
base of the spine and behind and parallel with the glenoid fossa. The tendency of
the outer fragment to be dragged down by the weight of the arm is resisted by the
coraco-acromial and coracoclavicular (conoid and trapezoid) ligaments as well as by
the inferior transverse ligament, which runs from one fragment to the other from
the base of the spine, on the posterior surface, to the edge of the glenoid cavity.
These ligaments all remain intact.
Fracture through the glenoid process, chipping off a greater or less por-
tion of the articular surface, is rarely diagnosed. It occurs sometimes in cases of
luxation. The long head of the triceps muscle may be fastened to the detached frag-
ment and is liable to pull it downward and therefore some interference with the func-
tions of the joint would be apt to remain and prevent complete recovery.
FRACTURES OF THE UPPER END OF THE HUMERUS.
Fractures of the upper end of the humerus may occur through the anatomical
neck, through the tuberosities, detaching one or both, and through the surgical neck
just below the tuberosities. These fractures are frequently associated with luxation
of the head of the bone.
Fracture through the Anatomical Neck. — This occurs as the result of direct
violence and most often, though not always, in old people. The line of fracture does
not always follow exactly the line of the anatomical neck, but may embrace a portion
of the tuberosities. The fracture may or may not be an entirely intracapsular one.
The capsule in its upper or outer portion is thickened at its humeral end by more or
less blending with the tendons of the muscles which pass over it. The capsule at this
point is attached to the anatomical neck almost or quite up to the articular surface.
On the under side to the contrary it passes about a centimetre below the articular
surface and doubles back to be attached somewhat closer to it (see Fig. 266, page 253).
In consequence of this arrangement, a fracture which follows the anatomical neck
would be within the joint below and just outside of it above. As a matter of fact,
some of these fractures are intra- and some partly extracapsular. This influences the
amount and character of the displacement and the course of healing. If the fracture
is entirely intracapsular, bony union may not occur, as no callus may be thrown out
by the upper fragment and atrophy of the fragment may ensue. The fragment is
apt to be much displaced, being tilted and lying to the inner side anteriorly.
Sometimes it is entirely extruded from the joint. In one case we have seen it lodged
in front under the anterior axillary fold.
'i't
« f
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE. 245
The signs and symptoms will vary much, according to the position of the head,
and a positive diagnosis may be impossible. A thorough knowledge of the surface
anatomy is essential in these cases and a careful comparison should be made with the
opposite healthy shoulder. Impaction sometimes occurs, and is said to be most
often of the upper fragment into the lower, sometimes splitting it and detaching to a
certain extent one of the tuberosities. Sometimes it is the lower fragment which is
impacted into the upper.
Fractures through the Tuberosities. — Like the former these are often
accompanied by luxation, especially if one or both of the tuberosities is detached.
These fractures are frequently blended with fracture through the anatomical neck. In
this fracture, however, the influence of the muscles is to be remembered. The supra-
spinatus, infraspinatus, and teres minor insert into the greater tuberosity, and the sub-
scapularis into the lesser. The line of fracture may pass
through their insertions and the displacement may be slight.
The upper fragment is, however, liable to be tilted out-
ward by the contraction of the supraspinatus muscle, which
is attached to the upper portion of the upper fragment, while
there is no muscle attached below to counteract it. In this
case the shaft of the humerus is drawn up and out by the
deltoid and is felt beneath the acromion process. There is
but little rotatory displacement of the upper fragment because
the subscapularis anteriorly is neutralized by the infraspinatus
and teres minor posteriorly.
In those instances in which there is not much displace- \
ment of the upper fragment, the lower one may be drawn
inward and forward by the action of the muscles of the ax-
illary folds.
Fractures detaching the tuberosities are almost always
accompanied by luxation. If the greater tuberosity alone is
detached, it is drawn up beneath the acromion by the supra-
spinatus.
In all these fractures the subsequent disability is often Fig. 260.— Fracture through
great and the prognosis is unfavorable. They are amongst ^eruf ^"""'"^^ """'' °^ ""' ^"^
the hardest in the body to correctly diagnose. They are
treated sometimes with a shoulder-cap and sometimes with the arm in the abducted .
position while the patient is kept in bed. Epiphyseal separation will be alluded to
farther on.
Fractures of the Surgical Neck. — These are the- most common fractures
of the humerus. The surgical neck of the humerus is usually defined as the portion
between the lower part of the tuberosities and the upper edge of the tendons of the
pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi muscles. Often, however, the tendons of these
two muscles continue almost or quite up to the tuberosities, hence there is little or
no interval here and the line of fracture then passes through the upper part of these
tendons.
The fractures occur both from direct and indirect violence and the direction of
the force has probably something to do with the displacement of the fragments.
Displace7nent. — It can readily be seen that if a blow is received on the humerus
below the tuberosities while the arm is in a somewhat abducted position the head will
be supported by the glenoid process (head) of the scapula and the bone will be
fractured through the surgical neck and driven in towards the body, and, as the
scapula is supported posteriorly, the movable lower fragment is displaced anteriorly.
After the fracture has occurred, and possibly in some cases aided by the peculiar
direction of the fracturing force, the lower fragment is drawn upward by the muscles
running from one side of the fracture to the other. These are the deltoid, biceps,
coracobrachialis, and the long head of the triceps. The typical displacement is
for the upper fragment to be abducted and some say rotated out — this latter is not
without doubt. The lower fragment is certainly in front and to the inside of its
normal position.
The abduction of the upper fragment is due to the unresisted action of the supra-
spinatus muscle. The subscapularis in front and the teres minor and infraspinatus
246
APPLIED ANATOMY.
behind nearly or quite balance each other, thus causing little or no lateral displace-
ment. The displacement inward and anteriorly of the lower fragment, is due to the
action of the violence as already detailed and is aided by the action of the pectoralis
major, the teres major, and latissimus dorsi muscles, all of which pass from the lower
fragment just below the seat of fracture inward to the trunk.
The longitudinal displacement is peculiar. As the lower fragment is drawn up
its upper end may be felt through the deltoid muscle below and toward the inner side
of the acromion. While the displacement in most cases is not marked, in some the
lower fragment can readily be felt in the axilla (Fig. 261).
Sometimes instead of the lower fragment being displaced inward it goes outward.
In this case as it rises it pushes the head and tilts it inward while it passes farther
outward.
The diagnosis is to be made by a careful examination and comparison with the
opposite healthy member. The head is recognized to be in the glenoid cavity,
^ — ^ Acromion process
Supraspinatus muscle
Clavicle
Subscapularis
muscle
Pectoralis minor
muscle
Deltoid muscle
Long head
' of biceps
Pectoralis
major
Pectoralis major
Latissimus dorsi
and teres major
Fig. 261. — Fracture of the surgical neck of the humerus. The upper fragment is held out by the supra-
spinatus, while the lower fragment is drawn in by the pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, and teres major
muscles and the arm abducted by the deltoid.
crepitus is felt, the upper end of the lower fragment can often be palpated, and on
rotating the arm the head of the bone is found to lie stationary.
Treahnent. — The ideal treatment is extension with the patient in bed and the
arm abducted. As the upper fragment cannot be brought in, an eflort may be
made to bring the lower one out. As these are usually treated as walking cases a
common dressing employed is a shoulder-cap with the arm bound to the side; some-
times an axillary pad is used to keep the arm away from the body. In cases of
fracture associated with luxation of the head of the bone, replacement can sometimes
be effected by traction in the abducted position and pressure on the head, general
anaesthesia being used (see description of direct method of reduction under dis-
location of the shoulder, page 236).
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE.
247
To aid in the reduction McBurney devised a hook which he inserts into the upper
fragment, puUing it toward the glenoid cavity.
Supraspinatus
Muscle
EPIPHYSEAL SEPARATIONS.
The epiphyses that are hable to separation are those of the coracoid process,
the acromion process, and the upper end of the humerus.
Separation of the Coracoid Epiphysis. — The coracoid process has three
separate centres of ossification which fuse with the body of the bone from the fifteenth
to the twentieth year. Therefore displacements occurring before the latter age may
be separations of the epiphysis and not true fractures, particularly if the line of sepa-
ration runs through the base of the coracoid.
Separation of the Acromion Epiphysis. — The acromion process is cartilag-
inous up to the fifteenth year. Then two centres appear and the epiphysis unites
with the rest of the spine of the scapula about the twentieth year or later. The epi-
physeal line runs posterior to the acromioclavicular joint, just behind the angle of the
spine of the scapula. It has been suggested that many cases diagnosed as sprains and
contusions of the shoulder are really epiphyseal separations of the acromion process.
Separation of the Epiphysis of the Upper End of the Humerus. — The
upper end of the humerus has three centres of ossifica-
tion, one for the head and one each for the greater and
lesser tuberosities. These three centres are blended by
the seventh year, and the whole epiphysis unites with the
shaft at about the age of twenty-five years.
The epiphyseal line follows the lower half of the
anatomical neck and then passes outward to the insertion
of the teres minor muscle. This brings the outer end of
the epiphyseal line some distance away from the joint,
while the inner portion of the line is within the joint.
Disease of this region may therefore follow the epiphyseal
cartilage into the joint. A separation of the epiphysis
from injury will implicate the joint.
The surgical neck of the humerus lies a short dis-
tance below the epiphyseal line and farther away on the
outer side than on the inner. The line of the epiphysis
rises higher in the centre of the bone than on the sur-
face, making a sort of cap for the end of the diaphysis.
The symptoms of epiphyse&l separation are almost
exactly the same as those of fracture of the surgical neck
(see page 245).
The supraspinatus is the main agent in tilting the
upper fragment outward, while the muscles inserted into
the bicipital ridges, — the pectoralis major into the outer
ridge and the latissimus dorsi and teres major into the
inner, — draw the lower fragment inward. The relative
position of the fragments when the lower is displaced outward is seen in Fig. 262.
AMPUTATIONS AND RESECTIONS OF THE SHOULDER.
AMPUTATION AT THE SHOULDER-JOINT.
The many different methods of amputating at the shoulder may for our purposes
be divided into two classes, — the flap method and the racket method.
The Flap Method. — One large flap may be made to the outer side and a
short one to the inner side (Dupuytren) or they may be made anteroposteriorly
(Lisfranc). The flap operations were done with long knives by transfixion, as they
originated before the discovery of general anaesthesia and by them the member was
removed with great rapidity (Fig. 263).
In DupuytrerCs method the arm was raised to a right angle with the body and the
deltoid muscle grasped with one hand while the knife was inserted beneath it, entering
Fig. 262. — Detachment of the
epiphysis of the upper end of the
humerus.
248
APPLIED ANATOMY.
just below the posterior portion of the acromion process (its angle) then passing
under the acromion to emerge in front at the coracoid process. This flap was turned
up, the capsule and muscles divided, the bone turned out, and while an assistant
compressed the remaining tissues they were divided transversely.
Lisfrand s method consisted in transfixing the posterior axillary fold from below
upward, entering the knife in front of the tendons of the latissimus dorsi and teres
major muscles and bringing it out a litde in front of the acromion. The joint
was opened posteriorly, the bone luxated, and an anterior flap cut from within out-
ward. Sir William Fergusson, probably the most skilful operator of his day, was
partial to this operation.
The Racket Method. — In this method the incision resembles in shape the
Coraco- Long Acro-
acromial head of mion
ligament biceps process
Deltoid
muscle
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Teres minor
Coracobrachialis and
short head of biceps
Musculocutaneous
nerve
Median nerve
Internal cutaneous nerve
Musculospiral
(radial) nerve
Posterior circumflex
artery
Subscapular artery
Latissimus dorsi and
teres major
Ulnar nerve
Fig. 263. — Amputation of the shoulder by anteroposterior flaps. The upper extremity of the incision passes
between the coracoid and acromion processes. The posterior flap is the larger.
ordinary racket, such as is used in tennis. The loop encircles the arm, while the
handle begins above at the point of the shoulder.
There are two operations by the racket method, which differ as to the position
from which the upper portion of the incision starts.
Larrey s Method. — The operation usually ascribed to Larrey consists in starting
the incision at the anterior end of the acromion process and continuing it straight
down the arm for three centimetres (i^^ in. ). It then parts, one branch sweeping
gradually in a curved line to the anterior axillary fold and the other to the posterior
axillary fold, an incision, through the skin only, passes across the inner surface of the
arm joining the two branches. The flaps having been turned anteriorly and poste-
riorly, the joint is opened by cutting on the head of the bone, first posteriorly, then
above, and then anteriorly. Tilting the head outward the inferior portion of the
capsule is divided and the bone loosened from the soft parts. These are com-
pressed by the fingers of an assistant and cut.
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE. 249
Spence' s Method. — A modification of Larrey's procedure, attributed to Spence
by the British and to S. Fleury by the French, consists in commencing the incision
just outside of the coracoid process in the interval between it and the acromion
process. This modification is probably the best form of procedure for this locality
and is the one which will be discussed here. It will be noticed, however, that it
practically changes the operation of Larrey from one with anteroposterior flaps to one
with a single external flap, as in the method of Dupuytren. (Fig. 263).
The incision begins just below the coraco-acromial ligament and lies deep in the
hollow formed by the anterior concave surface of the outer third of the clavicle. It
divides the fibres of the deltoid muscle longitudinally a short distance from its anterior
edge. It will be recalled that the deltoid muscle covers the coracoid process and
extends just to its inner side to be attached to the outer third of the lower surface
of the clavicle. Between it and the adjoining edge of the pectoralis major muscle
runs the cephalic vein. This passes downward and outward along the inner edge
of the deltoid until it reaches the outer edge of the biceps muscle alongside of which
it passes down to the elbow. This vein will be cut as the inner branch of the
incision is made. The bicipital groove, when the palm of the hand faces forward,
lies almost directly below the coraco-acromial ligament. While the incision is being
made the arm is kept rotated slightly outward.
As the knife descends it runs along the inner side of the bicipital groove and
divides the tendon of the pectoralis major muscle. As soon as this tendon is cut the
incision is inclined laterally. The incision having been carried down to the bone,
except on the inside of the arm, the deltoid flap is raised upward and backward. It
carries with it the circumflex nerve and posterior circumflex artery.
The disarticulation of the bone is apt to be bungled unless one knows the con-
struction of the parts. It is to be borne in mind that the capsular ligament is to be
divided together with the tendons of the muscles inserted into the tuberosities. The
capsule does not pass across the anatomical neck to be inserted into the tuberosities
beyond, and the mistake is often made of cutting on the anatomical neck and there-
fore frequently the capsule still remains attached to the proximal side. The cut
may be commenced posteriorly and should be made on the head of the bone just
above the anatomical neck. The arm is to be adducted and rotated inward and the
muscles inserting into the greater tuberosity cut in their order, first the teres minor,
then the infraspinatus and supraspinatus with the joint capsule beneath them. Then
comes the long head of the biceps, and the arm now being rotated outward, the
tendon of the subscapularis is divided. In cutting the muscles and capsule across
the top of the joint, the arm is to be kept close to the side of the body so as to tilt
the upper portion of the capsule out beyond the acromion process.
The head of the bone can now be drawn out sufficiently to allow the knife to be
introduced behind it to divide the inferior portion of the capsule. This should be
detached close to the bone so as to avoid wounding the axillary artery and especially
the posterior circumflex artery and the circumflex nerve, which wind around the
surgical neck immediately below and are to be pushed out of the way.
The division is completed by cutting the remaining muscles passing from the
trunk to the shaft of the bone. On the inner side may be an uncut portion of the
pectoralis major, the coracobrachialis, and short head of the biceps ; below is the long
head of the triceps and on the outer side are the teres major and latissimus dorsi.
On examining the face of the stump, posteriorly is seen the bulk of the deltoid
muscle with the triceps below, and then the latissimus dorsi and teres major tendons
lying next to the artery. Anteriorly is the cut edge of the deltoid and pectoralis
major with the coracobrachialis and short head of the biceps lying next to the artery.
To the outer side of the artery lie the median and musculocutaneous nerves.
To the inner side are the ulnar and lesser internal cutaneous nerv^es (cutaneus brachii
medians') and the axillary vein. Posteriorly are the musculospiral and axillary
(circumflex) nerves.
Sometimes the median nerve lies in front instead of to the outer side. The axillary
artery is divided below the origin of the anterior and posterior circumflex arteries.
The bleeding in the first cut will be from the cephalic vein (which runs between
the pectoralis major and deltoid), muscular branches of the posterior and anterior
250
APPLIED ANATOMY.
circumflex, a small ascending branch of the anterior circumflex which runs in the
bicipital groove, and the humeral branch of the acromial thoracic which accompanies
the cephalic vein.
A glaring and common mistake in the performance of shoulder amputations is
the making of the flaps entirely too short, especially when a Larrey operation is
attempted.
The avoidance of serious hemorrhage is usually accomplished by clamping the
small vessels as the operation proceeds, and before the final division of the axillary
vessels slipping the fingers behind the bone and compressing them.
Esmarch's tube has been used by encircling the shoulder as close to the trunk
as possible, the tube being kept from slipping by a bandage passed beneath it and
fastened to the opposite side. Wyeth's pins have been used for the same purpose.
One is inserted through the lower edge of the anterior axillary fold a little internal
to its middle and brought out above in front of the acromion process, the other is
entered at a corresponding point of the posterior fold and brought out above just
behind the angle of the spine of the scapula or acromion process.
Interscapulothoracic Amputation. — For malignant growths of the axilla,
shoulder, or scapula, and, rarely, for injury, the whole upper extremity with the
Cords of brachial plexus
Subclavian artery
Superficial cervical artery
Trapezius
, Posterior scapular artery coming
Omohyoid muscle— ^^[^^'^■Hi^^'^B^^y / from the subclavian
"^BP>^^^^/^^^^^^^^B^^^^M||^B^^^^^^ Costocoracoid ligament
Scalenus anterior SBk^lk/ ^^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^WSIfev^ / Deltoid
muscle
Transverse cervical
artery
Internal jugular
Phrenic nerve
Suprascapular artery
Thoracic duct
Innominate \
vein
Subclavius muscle
Subclavian vein
Acromial thoracic artery
Fig. 264. — Structures exposed by excising the inner portion of the clavicle.
scapula and part or whole of the clavicle have been removed. Anteroposterior
flaps are made.
The greatest danger is death from shock and hemorrhage. In order to obtain
some idea of the topography and vessels involved, see Fig. 264.
Excision of the Clavicle. — Excision of the clavicle in the living body, like
tracheotomy, is much more difficult than when practiced on the dead body; this
is due to the condition of the parts for which operation is undertaken. It has been
often excised for malignant growths. On the upper anterior surface are attached the
clavicular origin of the sternomastoid, the deep cervical fascia, and the trapezius
muscle. Crossing the clavicle near its middle is the jugulocephalic vein which some-
times connects the cephalic with the external jugular. It is likewise crossed by the
superficial descending branches of the cervical plexus. The external jugular vein,
about 2.5 cm. (i in.) above the middle of the clavicle, pierces the deep fascia and
turns inward to empty into the internal jugular just behind the outer edge of the
sternomastoid muscle; just below it empties the thoracic duct at the junction of the
internal jugular and subclavian veins. The subclavian vein is directly behind the
clavicle and the left innominate vein crosses behind the left sternoclavicular joint and
passes across the posterior surface of the sternum just below or on a level with its
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE. 251
superior border. The omohyoid muscle, if the shoulder is drawn outward and the
head turned to the opposite side, is drawn upward above the clavicle.
Behind the upper portion of the clavicle is the suprascapular artery and above
it runs the transverse cervical artery, a branch of the thyroid axis. Both these
vessels cross over the scalenus anterior muscle on which, toward its inner edge, is
lying the phrenic nerve. In front of the scalenus anterior runs the subclavian vein
and behind it is the subcla\'ian artery with the cords of the brachial plexus abo\'e
and to its outer side. Below and in front are attached the pectoralis major and
deltoid muscles; the space between them forms the subclavicular triangle and occu-
pies the outer half of the middle third of the bone. The cephalic vein pierces the
costocoracoid membrane at this point to enter the subclavian vein.
On the under surface of the bone is the subclavius muscle, covered with a
strong membrane. To the inner side of this muscle is the costoclavicular ligament.
Beneath the clavicle, about its middle, passes the subclavian artery, separated from
the vein in front by the scalenus anterior muscle. Below and beneath the subclavian
artery, which rests directly on it, is the pleura. The internal mammary artery passes
behind the inner extremity of the clavicle opposite the cartilage of the first rib.
The clavicle is the first bone in the body to ossify, and it has one epiphysis at
its sternal end which appears about the seventeenth year and joins the shaft from
the twentieth to the twenty-fifth year. In removing the bone it is first loosened at
its outer extremity by dividing the acromioclavicular and coracoclavicular (conoid
and trapezoid) ligaments.
Excision of the Scapula. — The removal of the scapula necessitates the
division of a large number of muscles, for which see pages 226 and 227. The sub-
scapular artery at the anterior border, about 2. 5 cm. ( i in. ) below the head or glenoid
process, and the suprascapular at the suprascapular notch, are to be ligated before
removing the bone. Skirting the posterior edge is the posterior scapular, the
continuation of the transverse cervical artery; it is to be avoided when detaching
the muscles. The acromial branches of the acromial thoracic artery ramify over the
acromion process; they are not so large as those already mentioned.
Mr. Jacobson suggests that if safety permits one should allow the acromion
process to remain, as it preserves the point of the shoulder and to some extent, the
functions of the trapezius muscle.
Excision of the Head of the Humerus.— The incision for the removal
of the head of the humerus should be commenced just outside of the coracoid
process and be carried 10 cm. (4 in. ) downward in a direction toward the middle
of the humerus, where the deltoid inserts. This incision may be made while the arm
is somewhat abducted but it does not go in the groove between the deltoid and
pectoralis major muscles. This groove contains the cephalic vein and the humeral
branch of the acromial thoracic artery, and hence is to the inner side of the coracoid
process and as the incision is to the outer side, it passes through the deltoid near
its anterior edge (Fig. 265).
The incision goes through the muscle and exposes the capsule of the joint. The
sides of the wound are to be retracted and, if the long head of the biceps muscle is
not recognized by sight, the finger is inserted and the arm rotated. The bicipital
groove can be felt and the tendon identified.
The capsule is to be incised along the outer edge of the long tendon of the
biceps and as the arm is rotated inward the supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and teres
minor muscles are to be detached from the greater (posterior) tuberosity. The
biceps tendon is again brought into view by rotating the arm outward and its sheath
(transverse ligament) slit up and the tendon luxated inward.
The attachment of the capsule and subscapularis muscle to the lesser (anterior)
tuberosity is then divided while the arm is rotated outward. The biceps tendon lies
in the bicipital groove between the two tuberosities. When the arm is lying with the
palm upward, in a supine position, the bicipital groove looks directly anteriorly in a
longitudinal line passing midway between the two condyles of the lower end. The
position of the head and groove can be told by observing the position of the condyles.
The head is directly above the internal condyle and the groove is on rhe anterior sur-
face above a point midway between the condyles. After the capsule has been opened
252 APPLIED ANATOMY.
and the attachments of the muscles to the greater and lesser tuberosities divided and
the tendon of the biceps luxated inward, the head is thrust directly upward and out
of the wound and sawed of^ as low as desired.
Immediately below the lower edge of the tuberosities is the surgical neck. On
it anteriorly winds the anterior circumflex artery, and posteriorly the circumflex (axil-
lary) nerve and posterior circumflex artery. These should not be disturbed, for the
artery will bleed and injury of the nerve will cause paralysis of the deltoid muscle.
Posterior and transverse incisions have been suggested for this operation but
they are not to be advised. The circumflex nerve and posterior circumflex artery
are almost certain to be injured and the functions of the deltoid are liable to be
seriously impaired or altogether lost.
If more access is desired than can be obtained by a straight incision as directed,
the deltoid can be detached from its origin along the outer end of the clavicle and
Coracoid process
Acromion process
Subscapularis tendon and capsule
/ ;,, - y' Lesser tuberosity
Deltoid muscle
Bicipital groove
Ftg. 26s. — Resection of the shoulder- joint. The arm has been rotated outward so as to put the tendon of the
subscapularis on the stretch. The long tendon of the biceps has been dislocated from the bicipital groove and is
held to the inner side by a hook.
acromion process and turned down. This does not interfere with its nerve supply.
The circumflex nerve going to the muscle crosses the humerus at about the junction
of the upper and middle thirds of the deltoid or a finger's breadth above its middle.
After resection of the bone the deltoid can again be brought up and sewed to its pre-
vious attachment.
The character of the operation depends on the nature and extent of the disease.
The operator should be familiar with the epiphyseal line, which runs from the inside
upward and outward in the line of the anatomical neck as far as the middle of the
bone, and then slopes slightly downward and outward to reach the surface almost on
a level with the lower (inner) edge of the articular surface. As this is the site of
most active growth of the humerus in young subjects this epiphyseal cartilage should
be spared as much as possible.
The disability arising from a free resection is so great, owing to the loss of
movements resulting from the detachment of muscles and interference with the
epiphyseal cartilage, that formal resections are rarely performed, but, instead, the
diseased parts are simply gouged away and as much allowed to remain as possible.
THE SHOULDER GIRDLE.
253
It is to be remembered that rotation inward is mostly performed by the sub-
scapularis and outward rotation by the infraspinatus and teres minor. The supra-
spinatus aids abduction. A too free excision is liable to be followed by a flail-joint,
in which case the limb hangs helplessly by the side with the dorsum pointing forward.
The axillary fold muscles insert on the anterior surface of the bone and hence
turn the arm inward and draw it in toward the body, they do not compensate for
the loss of the muscles attached to the tuberosities.
The bleeding in the operation will be mainly from the acromial branches of the
acromial thoracic artery and the bicipital branch of the anterior circumfiex artery,
which runs in the bicipital groove.
DISEASES OF THE JOINT AND BURS^.
The shoulder-joint, like other joints, is subject to inflammatory and other diseases.
These may be (i) traumatic and later septic; (2) rheumatic or gouty; (3) tuberculous,
with suppuration.
These affections result in an eflusion \yithin the joint-cavity which distends the
capsule and finally tends to escape at the weakest points. The joint is not a
Supraspinatus
Acromion process
Subacromial bursa space
Capsule of joint
Long head of biceps
Capsule of joint
Glenoid cavity
Long head of triceps
Fig. 266. — Transverse section of shoulder-joint, illustrating the laxity of the capsule of the joint.
complicated one, like the knee, and its synovial membrane is neither so extensive
nor so elaborate.
Traumatism may give rise to a synovitis, an inflammation of the synovial mem-
brane, or an arthritis involving the entire joint structures. Sprains and other injuries
are not uncommon. A sprain will be caused by a force which acts to a greater
extent than the normal movements of the joint will allow.
Movements of the Joint. — In abduction the capsule becomes tense at its lower
portion when the arm is at 90 degrees to the trunk, greater abduction is resisted by the
greater tuberosity impinging on the acromion process and the scapula begins to revolve.
Adduction is resisted both by the muscles and by the ligaments. When the
ligaments only remain, the head can be separated for 2 cm. or more from the glenoid
cavity (see Fig. 266). Marked adduction is usually limited by the arm coming in
contact with the side of the body.
If the humerus is brought diagonally across the chest the scapula begins to
move and its posterior edge and lower angle turn forward. As the humerus is
adducted the deltoid and supraspinatus are made tense and the head is drawn up in
its socket. When the muscles are paralyzed the weight of the upper extremity
allows the head to fall and a distinct depression can be seen beneath the acromion
process. In paralysis of the deltoid this is particularly noticeable.
254
APPLIED ANATOMY.
If traction is made on the arm, the muscles are the resisting agents. If the arm
is in a position of adduction, those going from the humerus to the scapula, as the
deltoid, supraspinatus, biceps, and triceps, act. If in abduction, then also those
from the humerus to the trunk, like the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi, are
brought into play. The part played by the deltoid and trapezius should be noted.
If the arm is down by the side and traction is made on it, the force is transmitted
from the humerus in a direct line through the deltoid and the upper fibres of the
trapezius to their attachment to the spine and superior curved line of the occiput.
If, on the contrary, the traction is made while the arm is raised above the level of the
Superior acromioclavicular ligament
Tendon of supra
spinatus muscle
Acromion proces
Clavicle
Conoid ligament
Trapezoid ligament '
Coraco- acromial ligament
Coracoid process
Coracohumeral ligament
Coracobrachialis muscle
Short head of biceps
Long head of biceps
Pectoralis major muscle
Fig. 267. — Acromioclavicular and shoulder joints.
shoulder, the force is transmitted through the axillary fold muscles as well as by the
deltoid and continued through the lower fibres of the trapezius. In either case the
muscles are the resisting agents and not the ligaments. Abduction to more than a
right angle is resisted by the contact of the greater tuberosity with the under surface
of the acromion process and coraco-acromial ligament and the under side of the cap-
sular ligament is made tense. The raising of the arm to 90 degrees is performed
by the supraspinatus and deltoid muscles of the scapula and beyond this by the
serratus anterior and other muscles.
Inward rotation is limited by the infraspinatus and teres minor muscles and by
tension of the upper portion of the capsule. Outward rotation is limited by the sub-
scapularis and upper portion of the capsule. The humerus rotates on its long axis
97° (Macalister).
THE SHOULDER-GIRDLE. 255
Subacromial Bursa. — Separating the greater tuberosity from the deltoid
muscle, the acromion process, and coraco-acromial ligament, is the large subacromial
bursa. It does not communicate with the joint, except rarely in old people. Effu-
sions into it cause an increased prominence of the deltoid muscle, and pus seeking
an outlet is likely to show itself at the anterior edge of the muscle and less often at
its posterior edge. These effusions, which are liable to be present from contusions,
sprains, etc. , should not be mistaken for intra-articular accumulations.
Biceps Tendon. — The long tendon of the biceps muscle enters the joint
through the bicipital groove between the two tuberosities. With the arm hanging
by the side it points directly forward; it passes over the head of the humerus and
under the coraco-acromial ligament about midway between the coracoid and acro-
mion processes to insert into the upper edge of the glenoid cavity. It is covered
by a synovial sheath which passes with it through the opening in the capsule and a
short distance along the bicipital groove. As this sheath does not communicate with
the joint the tendon is in one sense extra-articular. It is held in the groove by a
Injection following the
long tendon of the biceps
Prolongation under the tendon
of the subscapularis muscle
Fig. 26S. — Shoulder- joint distended with injection, showing the position assumed by the humerus.
fibrous expansion, extending from the pectoralis major tendon below to the capsule
above, called the tra7isverse fnwieral ligament. This ligament is so strong that luxa-
tion of the tendon is uncommon; even when the humerus is luxated the tendon is
rarely displaced.
Subscapular Bursa. — Beneath the tendon of the subscapularis there is a bursa
which frequently communicates with the joint. This opening tends to weaken the
capsule and it is at this point and just below that the head bursts through in disloca-
tions.
Infraspinatus Bursa. — The capsule of the joint and the synovial membrane
may be prolonged beyond the rim of the glenoid cavity under the tendon of the
infraspinatus, or a bursa at this point may communicate with the joint.
Other bursae may be present, but are unimportant. One is between the
coracoid process and the capsule and another under the combined tendon of the
coracobrachialis muscle and the short head of the biceps.
Effusions in the Shoulder-joint. — Liquid accumulations occur both from
injury and disease. The liability of confounding them with those in the subacromial
bursa has been alluded to above. As a result of disease, most often osteo-arthritis or
tuberculosis, considerable liquid may accumulate in the joint. As the tension in-
creases the arm becomes abducted about 50 degrees and the effusion tends to escape
through the openings in the capsule (Fig. 268).
2 56 APPLIED ANATOMY.
A distention of the joint will cause the "deltoid to be more prominent. If the
affection is in an old person, as is liable to be the case in osteo-arthritis, there
is apt to be a communication with the subacromial bursa and this will become dis-
tended. If the liquid is purulent it has a tendency to work its way laterally under
the deltoid and break through at its anterior or posterior borders and show itself at
the folds of the axilla.
In osteo-arthritis {arthritis deformafis^ the long tendon of the biceps as it passes
through the joint may be dissolved and the belly of the muscle then contracts and forms
a lump on the middle of the arm anteriorly.
Pus frequently finds an exit along the bicipital groove and follows it downward
and shows itself just at the edge of the anterior axillary fold near the middle of the arm.
If the pus passes out by way of the subscapular bursa it passes below the
subscapular tendon and into the axilla anteriorly. If it passes backward it may
emerge through the bursa beneath the infraspinatus muscle, and then either work its
way downward into the posterior portion of the axilla, or if it works upward may
travel either above or below the spine of the scapula and show itself on the dorsum.
THE AXILLA.
The axilla is a wedge-shaped space with its apex upward, formed between the
arm and chest at their junction. It serves as a passage-way for the arteries, veins,
nerves, and lymphatics passing between the trunk and the upper extremity. It is
frequently the site of growths and abscesses, requiring operations which necessitate a
knowledge especially of its blood-vessels and lymphatics.
Extent. — Its apex lies between the clavicle and scapula above and the first rib
beneath. Its base is formed by the skin and fascia stretched between the anterior and
posterior axillary folds. It is spoken of as having four walls: inner, outer, anterior,
and posterior.
The inner wall is formed by the first four ribs and interspaces and the corres-
ponding serrations of the serratus anterior (magnus) muscle.
The outer wall is nothing more than the chink formed by the union of the two
axillary folds. Above is the lesser tuberosity of the humerus and subscapularis ten-
don, lower down are the coracobrachial and biceps muscles.
The anterior wall is formed by the pectoralis major and minor muscles with the
fascia enveloping them.
The posterior wall is formed by the subscapularis above and the teres major and
latissimus dorsi muscles below.
Axillary Fascia. — The name axillary fascia is given to the fascia which closes
the axillary space and forms its base. It is stretched across from the lower edge of
the pectoralis major in front to the lower edge of the teres major and latissimus dorsi
behind. On the inner wall it is continuous with the fascia covering the serratus
anterior (magnus) and side of the chest; when it reaches the vessels at the apex of
the axilla it is reflected around them to form the sheath.
On the outer wall it passes from the pectoralis major in front, over the coraco-
brachialis muscle beneath, blends with the sheath of the vessels, and then passes to
the posterior wall, covering the subscapularis above and the teres major and latissi-
mus dorsi below. At the lower edge of this latter muscle, which is a little lower than
the pectoralis major, it passes across the axilla (Fig. 269).
Anteriorly the fascia covers the pectoralis major muscle; at its lower edge it
splits to cover the pectoralis minor muscle and forms a sheath for it. As the axillary
fascia approaches the apex of the axilla where the superficial vessels enter, it becomes
cribriform in character, the fascia itself being wide-meshed and containing fat in the
interstices. If the handle of the scalpel is inserted in the apex of the axilla and
worked backward and forward two arches of fascia are readily formed, one convex
toward the chest, and called the " Achselbogen," and the other convex toward the
arm, called the "Armbogen" (Langer, Oester. med. IVoch., 1846, Nos. 15 and 16).
The fascia on the superficial surface of the pectoralis minor is called the clavi-
pedoral fascia. At the upper or inner border of the pectoralis minor it is continuous
THE AXILLA. 257
with the costocoracoid membrane which goes up to the clavicle, where it splits to
enclose the subclavius muscle and to be attached to the anterior and posterior borders
of the clavicle. The upper portion of this costocoracoid membrane is thickened and
forms a firm band which runs from the coracoid process to the cartilage of the first
rib, and is called the costocoracoid ligament.
Between this ligament above and the upper edge of the pectoralis minor below,
and piercing the costocoracoid membrane, are the acromiothoracic artery and vein,
the cephalic vein, the superior thoracic artery, external anterior thoracic nerve, and a
few lymphatics derived from the breast. The superior thoracic artery is often a
branch of the acromiothoracic and passes behind the vein to supply the serratus
anterior and intercostal muscles and side of the chest.
The fascia on the under surface of the pectoralis minor unites with the layer on
its upper surface, and passes upward to the coracoid process and is reflected onto the
Pectoralis major
\ 4P^'^",
^ Axillary arch
*'^,
fl®**'
Intercostohumeral nerve
Teres major and latissimus dorsi
Fig. 269. — Axillary fascia. At the apex of the axilla the fascia is almost lacking, forming a curved arch on
the side toward the chest, called the axillary arch or " Achselbogen." The curved edge toward the arm, less dis-
tinct than that toward the chest, is called the " Armbogen."
vessels to aid in forming their sheath. It is continuous with the fascia on the under
surface of the subclavius muscle and the deep fascia of the neck.
This portion of the fascia is not sufficiently strong to form an absolute barrier
between the neck and axilla, consequently abscesses forming in the neck will break
through it and passing under the clavicle appear in the axilla, and abscesses starting
in the axilla may burrow under the clavicle and up beneath the deep fascia of the neck.
THE AXILLARY VESSELS.
The axillary artery and vein are both important. The avoidance of hemorrhage
in operations in this locality requires skill and knowledge, and venous bleeding is
more apt to be troublesome than arterial. Wounds of the vessels, whether artery
or vein, of those portions of the body like the axillae, groins, or base of the neck are
particularly dangerous; the blood current is both large and rapid.
The axillary vein drains the whole upper extremity and part of the chest, while
the axillary artery carries all the blood going to those parts. The veins being so
much weaker and thinner walled than the arteries is the reason of their being more
frequently injured. Ligation of the artery, or vein, or both, may cause gangrene of
the extremity and require amputation.
The Axillary Artery. — The axillary artery begins at the lower border of the
first rib and ends opposite the lower border of the folds of the axilla (teres major).
If the arm is lying by the side of the body the artery describes a curve with its
17
258
APPLIED ANATOMY.
convexity outward. If the arm is placed straij^ht out away from the body, the artery
is straight. If the arm is abducted above the level of the shoulder, the artery again
becomes curved but with its convexity downward.
The line of the artery is straight only when the arm is out from the body, when
its course is represented by a line drawn from the middle of the clavicle to the
anterior surface of the elbow, midway between the two condyles. It passes down
along the inner side of tht coracoid process and the coracobrachialis muscle about at
the junction of the anterior and middle thirds of the axilla. It is divided into three
parts by the pectoralis minor muscle (Fig. 270).
First Portion. — The first portion of the axillary is usually stated to be 2.5 cm.
(i in.) in length, and for surgical purposes we may accept this as a working basis.
A. H. Young has pointed out that, with the arm out from the body, the upper
border of the pectoralis minor is nearly or quite level with the lower border of
the first rib, but the muscle leaves the side of the chest to go to the coracoid
process and that makes an interspace, more than 2. 5 cm. long, above its upper edge
Pectoralis major
Deltoid
Biceps
Coracobrachialis
Groove for axillary vessels and nerves
Long head of triceps muscle
Teres major and latissimus dorsi muscles
Fig. 270. — Line indicating the course of the axillary artery.
and between it and the lower edge of the subclavius muscle, in which the artery can
be ligated. In the first portion the axillary artery above the pectoralis minor lies too
deep to be compressed, being on a lower level than the pectoralis major, therefore
it is better to compress the subclavian above the clavicle.
Branches. — The first portion of the axillary gives of? two branches, the superior
thoracic and the acromiothoracic (thoraco-acromialis) (Fig. 271).
The superior thoracic comes of? posteriorly and winds around behind the axillary
vein to supply the under surface of the pectoralis minor, intercostal muscles, serratus
anterior, and side of the chest. It is a small vessel.
The acromiothoracic (thoraco-acro?nialis) is a short large trunk which comes of?
anteriorly, winding around the edge of the pectoralis minor and piercing the costo-
coracoid membrane to divide into four branches: an acromial, to the acromion
process; a humeral, which follows the cephalic vein between the deltoid and pecto-
ralis major; a pectoral, which supplies the under surface of the pectoralis major and
gives branches to the mammary gland; and a clavicular, to supply the subclavius
muscle.
Relations. — Posteriorly^ the artery lies on the first intercostal space and
muscle, the second and part of the third serrations of the serratus anterior, the pos-
terior thoracic nerve (or external respiratory of Bell), and the internal anterior
thoracic nerve to the pectoralis minor and major.
THE AXILLA.
259
Internally. — ^To the inner side of the artery and somewhat anteriorly is the
axillary vein; between the two runs the internal anterior thoracic nerve. As the
artery and vein ascend they become separated, the artery to pass behind and the
vein in front of the scalenus anterior muscle.
Externally. — To the outer side and above the artery lie the cords of the
brachial plexus.
Anteriorly. — In front of the artery are the skin and superficial fascia, the edge
of the pectoralis major muscle and fascia covering it, the costocoracoid membrane
pierced by the acromiothoracic artery, cephalic vein, and external anterior thoracic
nerve, which goes to supply the pectoralis major muscle.
Ligation of the First Portion of the Axillary Artery. — The artery lies
deep in the infraclavicular triangle, between the pectoralis major and deltoid muscles.
It can be approached by either a transverse or a longitudinal incision. If the former
is used it should be made through the skin only, immediately below the clavicle,
reaching from just outside the sternoclavicular joint to the coracoid process.
The pectoralis major is detached from the clavicle and pushed downward, it
arises from its inner half. This exposes the costocoracoid membrane. At the outer
Pectoralis minor
Pectoralis major
Biceps
Pectnralis major muscle
Superior thoracic
Acromiothoracic
- — Long thoracic
•Alar thoracic
Subscapular
., , \ Posterior circumflex
Anterior V . \
circumflex N^ Latissimus dorsi
Triceps
Fig. 271. — Diagrammatic view of axillary artery and its branches.
angle of the wound the cephalic vein and acromiothoracic artery are to be found.
The deltoid muscle is to be detached or pushed outward to expose the coracoid
process, this being recognized, the costocoracoid membrane is to be opened to its
inner side, between it and the cephalic vein. The acromiothoracic artery if isolated
will lead to the artery, while the cephalic vein goes direct to the subclavian vein.
The vein and costocoracoid membrane are closely united and great care is necessary
to avoid wounding the former in opening the latter. The cords of the brachial
plexus are to the outer side of the artery and care is to be exercised not to mistake
one of them for the artery. As the vein is the most dangerous structure, it is to be
displaced inward and the aneurism needle passed between it and the artery from
within outward.
As the external anterior thoracic nerve is a nerve of motion supplying the
pectoralis major muscle, if it is seen it should be avoided and not injured.
If it is desired to use a longitudinal instead of transverse incision, it should com-
mence just outside the middle of the clavicle and follow the groove between the deltoid
and pectoralis major muscles downward for 10 cm. (6 in. ). Great care is then neces-
sary to avoid wounding the cephalic vein and acromiothoracic artery, which lie in this
groove.
If sufficient exposure is not given by a single straight incision it can be supple-
mented by one detaching the pectoralis major from the clavicle.
26o
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Second Portion. — The second portion of the axillary lies beneath the pecto-
ralis minor muscle. It is 3 cm. ( 1 1^ in. ) long and while never ligated at this point it is
nevertheless frequently exposed while clearing out the axilla for malignant growths of
the breast. Owing to its being covered by the pectoralis minor and major muscles
the artery cannot be compressed at this point in its course.
Branches. — Its branches are the alar thoracic and long thoracic. The alar tho-
racic are small branches of little importance supplying the fat and glands of the
axilla.
The long thoracic or external mammary is of considerable importance on account
of its size and because it is encountered in operations on the breast and axilla. It
passes down along the lower (outer) border of the pectoralis minor, giving branches
to it and the pectoralis major; some branches go to the axilla and serratus anterior,
and others, which may be of considerable size in the female, wind around the lower
portion of the pectoralis major or pierce it to supply the mammary gland. Posterior
Pectoralis major
Superior thoracic artery
Acromiothoracic arte:
Coracoid process-
Peclotalis minor muscle
Axillary artery.
Axillary vein
Alar thoracic artery
Long head of bicepi
Coracobrachialis and short
head of biceps
Musculocutaneous nerve
Long thoracic artery.
Anterior circumflex artery
Subscapular artery
Posterior circumflex artery
Pectoralis major muscle
Median nerve
Internal cutaneous nerve
Ulnar ner\'e
Lesser internal
cutaneous nerve
Pectoralis minor
I^tissimus dorsi
Teres major muscle
Intercostohumeral nerve
Fig. 272. — Dissection of the axilla.
to it is the long or posterior thoracic nerve, or external respiratory nerve of Bell,
going to supply the serratus anterior muscle (Fig. 272).
Relations. — Anteriorly is the pectoralis minor muscle, superficial to which is the
pectoralis major and skin. Posteriorly lie the posterior cord of the brachial plexus,
the fat of the axilla, and the subscapularis muscle; intcj'nally is the axillary vein, with
the inner cord of the brachial plexus separating the two. Externally is the outer
cord of the plexus and farther out is the coracoid process.
Third Portion. — This is about 7.5 cm. (3 in.) long and runs from the lower
border of the pectoralis minor to the lower border of the teres major. Its upper
portion is under the pectoralis major but its lower portion is subcutaneous because
the teres major, forming the edge of the posterior fold of the axilla, extends lower
than the anterior fold. It is here that the axillary artery is most easily reached and
most often ligated.
Branches. — It gives of? three branches, the subscapular, the anterior circumflex,
and the posterior circumflex.
The subscapular artery is of considerable practical importance; it is the largest
branch of the axillary and is given off opposite the lower border of the subscapularis
muscle. It follows the lower edge of this muscle down the axillary or outer border
THE AXILLA.
261
of the scapula to its angle, where it anastomoses with the posterior scapular, one of
the terminal branches of the transverse cervical from the thyroid axis.
Four centimetres ( I y^ in. ) from its origin the subscapular gives off the dorsalis
scapiil(S, which is as large or larger than the continuation of the artery downward.
The position of this artery should be borne in mind in operating. It winds around
the outer edge of the scapula between it and the teres minor muscle to supply the
muscles posteriorly. The subscapular artery is accompanied by the long subscapular
nerve to its inner side. (The first or short subscapular nerve supplies the subscapu-
laris muscle, the second supplies the teres major and the third or long subscapular
supplies the latissimus dorsi muscle. )
The posterior axillary chain of lymph-nodes accompanies the subscapular artery,
hence it is involved in operations for their removal. The point at which the dorsalis
scapulae winds aroimd the axillary border of the bone is at or just above the level of the
middle of the deltoid muscle and below the level of the posterior circumflex artery.
The anterior circiunflex artery is comparatively insignificant. It winds ante-
riorly around the surgical neck of the humerus beneath the coracobrachialis muscle
and both heads of the biceps and gives off an ascending bicipital branch which ascends
in the bicipital groove and a small descending branch to the tendon of the pectoralis
Coracobrachialis muscle
Median nerve
Axillary artery
Ulnar nerve
Internal cutaneous nerve
Fig. 273. — Ligation of the third portion of the axillary artery.
major. As pointed out by Walsham, the anterior circumflex artery on account of
the closeness with which it hugs the bone may be difficult to secure if wounded in the
operation of resection of the humerus.
The posterior circumflex artery is much larger than the anterior. It runs around
the surgical neck posteriorly, below the teres minor, above the teres major, and
between the long head of the triceps and the humerus. It is accompanied by the
circumflex (axillary) nerve and they run transversely around beneath the deltoid
muscle on a level with the junction of its upper and middle thirds. It is to avoid
wounding these two important structures that the operation of resection is done
anteriorly instead of posteriorly. Being covered only by the skin of the axilla and the
superficial and deep fascias, it can readily be compressed by pressure directed out-
wardly against the humerus along the inner edge of the coracobrachialis muscle.
Relations. — Posteriorly the third portion of the axillary artery lies on the sub-
scapularis, the latissimus dorsi, and teres major muscles, with the musculospiral and
circumflex (axillary) nerves between the muscles and the artery.
Anteriorly it is covered by the skin and fascia, the pectoralis major above, and
deep fascia of the arm below. The inner root of the median nerve crosses it and
sometimes the outer vena comes.
262
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Acromiothoracic
Posterior circumflex
Anterior circumflex
Subscapular
Alar thoracic
Externally is the coracobrachial muscle (which partly overlaps it and forms its
guide), the main trunk and outer head of the median, and the musculocutaneous nerves.
Inteffially is the axillary vein with the ulnar ner\'e between it and the artery.
The internal and lesser internal cutaneous nerves also lie to its inner side with the
former the more anterior.
Ligation of the Third Portion of the Axillary Artery. — The arm being
placed out from the body, palm upward, the incision for ligating the axillary artery in
the third portion of its course is laid along the inner border of the coracobrachial
muscle, at about the junction of the anterior and middle thirds of the axilla and on a
line joining the middle of the clavicle and a point at the bend of the elbow midway
between the two condyles of the humerus.
The middle of the incision should be just above the lower edge of the folds of
the axilla. The deep fascia having been opened, the coracobrachial muscle with the
musculocutaneous nerve piercing it is
pulled outward. Lying on the artery
to its outer side is the median nerve;
it is to be drawn outward. To the
inner side lies the axillary vein with
the ulnar nerve beneath it and the
internal cutaneous nerve (cutaneus
antebrachii medialis) in front of it
close to the artery.
The needle is passed from within
outward. The artery at this point may
be crossed by some muscular fibres
coming from the latissimus dorsi and
crossing the axilla. The axillary vein
is the continuation of the basilic from
the lower border of the teres major
upward.
Of the two venae comites of the
brachial artery the inner one blends
with the basilic at the lower border
of the teres major; the outer one
crosses the artery to empty into the
axillary vein on the opposite side.
The axillary vein receives the
subscapular, circumflex, long thoracic,
acromiothoracic, alar, and cephalic,
and contains a pair of valves opposite the lower border of the subscapularis muscle.
Collateral Circulation after Ligature of the Axillary Artery. — If the
first portion of the axillary is tied, the acromiothoracic artery comes off so low down
(under the edge of the pectoralis minor muscle almost) that the ligature is placed
above it, in which case the collateral circulation is similar to that of the subclavian
(see page 149). The second portion of the axillary, lying beneath the pectoralis
minor, is not subject to ligation. In the third portion the subscapular and anterior
and posterior circumflex arteries come off so close together that the ligature will be
placed either just below or just above them (Fig. 274).
If below, then the collateral circulation will be between them above and the
superior profunda below. If above the subscapular, then the anastomosis would be
as follows:
Proximal Vessels. Distal Vessels.
Acromiothoracic, acromial branch with anterior and posterior circumflex
Acromiothoracic, humeral branch with anterior and posterior circumflex
Acromiothoracic, pectoral branch with subscapular
Long thoracic branch with subscapular
Alar thoracic branch with subscapular
Posterior scapular (branch of trans, cervical) with subscapular and dorsalis scapulae
Suprascapular with dorsalis scapulae and posterior
circumflex
Superior profunda (arteria
profunda brachii)
Brachial artery
Fig.
-Collateral circulation after ligation of the third
portion of the axillary artery.
THE AXILLA.
263
Lymphatics of the Axilla. — There are two sets of lymphatic nodes in the
axillary region, the axillary nodes proper and the subclavian nodes.
The number of the nodes varies from about ten or twelve to twenty or more.
When enlarged they are readily seen, but after the surgeon has carefully dissected
away all the nodes he can possibly find disease may subsequently reveal the exist-
ence of others. Hence it is impossible ever to be absolutely sure that all nodes have
been removed.
The subclavian nodes, about two or three in number, lie in the infraclavicular
triangle between the pectoraUs major and deltoid muscles and on the front of the
subclavian vein above the pectoralis minor muscle. They receive radicles from the
mammary gland as well as from the axillary groups.
The axillary nodes proper are composed of three sets, humeral or external,
thoracic or anterior, and scapular or posterior, accompanying the three vessels,
axillary, long thoracic, and subscapular.
The humeral set, perhaps eight or nine, accompany the axillary artery and
vein and lie along them and in the axillary fat. They receive mainly the lymphatics
Deltopectoral node
Brachial node
Subscapular node
Anterior pectoral node y-
Vessel passing to anterior
pectoral node
Inferior pectoral node
Subclavian node
Vessel passing to
subclavian node
Intermediate node
Subareolar plexus
over mammary
gland
Fig. 275. — Lymphatics of mammary gland, and axillary nodes. (Poirier and Cun^o.)
from the arm. They can often be pared off the vessels with ease, but sometimes
are so firmly attached that the vessels are injured in their removal.
The anterior or thoracic set accompany the long thoracic artery along the lower
border of the pectoral muscles. They are not so numerous as the humeral set,
perhaps four or five in number, and drain the anterior upper half of the chest above
the umbilicus, including the mammary gland (Fig. 275).
The posterior or scapular set accompany the subscapular artery along the pos-
terior portion of the axilla. They are about as numerous as the anterior set and
drain the upper posterior portion of the chest, the scapula and lower portion of the neck.
The lymphatics of the middle and lower portion of the back as low down as the
umbilicus (3 to 4 cm. above the iliac crest) also drain into the axilla.
These lymphatic nodes communicate with one another, so that it does not of
necessity follow that if the part ordinarily drained by a certain set is affected the
nearest nodes will be involved. It usually is so, but not always. The infection may
pass by or through one set of nodes and involve a neighboring communicating set.
It happens in carcinoma of the breast that sometimes the posterior or scapular set are
264
APPLIED ANATOMY.
involved and the anterior or thoracic set escape. This has already been alluded to
in the section on the mammary gland (see page 184). These three sets drain into
the subclavian nodes and then empty into the subclavian vein near its junction with
the jugular.
Abscess of the Axilla. — Pus forms in the axillary region from ordinary pyo-
genic organisms which may or may not be associated with specific organisms like
the tubercle bacillus. Abscesses may be either superficial or deep.
The skm of the axilla is thin, loose, and abundantly supplied with sebaceous
glands connected with the hair-follicles and sweat-glands. These glands are in the
deeper layer of the skin and are superficial to the axillary fascia, hence abscesses
originating from them tend to break externally; usually they do not become large
nor extend deep into the axilla.
Abscesses originating from the lymphatics, on the contrary, may be either deep in
the axilla along the axillary, pectoral, or subscapular vessels, or they may be in the
axillary fat and tend to point toward the skin. If the lymphatics along the axillary
vessels are the point of origin, the abscess may follow them down under the deep
fascia to the elbow. If the nodes high up are involved, the abscess may work up
under the clavicle into the neck. If, however, the nodes near the apex of the axilla
Fig. 276. — Subpectoral abscess.
form the starting-point then the abscess bulges through the cribriform portion of the
axillary fascia (between the " Armbogen " and " Achselbogen " ) into the axilla
and tends to discharge through the skin. Abscesses originating in the pectoral
group of lymphatics point at the lower margin of the anterior axillary fold. The
attachment of the serratus anterior to the side of the chest prevents them from work-
ing towards the back.
Abscesses involving the subclavian nodes may cause a siibpedoi'al abscess (Fig.
276). The pus collects superficial to the costocoracoid membrane and clavipectoral
fascia and pushes the pectoralis major muscle outward, forming a large rounded
prominence below the inner half of the clavicle. The pus cannot extend upward or
toward the median line on account of the attachment of the pectoralis major muscle.
It can burrow through the intercostal spaces and involve the pleural cavity, or break
through the fibres of the pectoralis major anteriorly or between the pectoralis major
and deltoid, or, as is most commonly the case, work its way under the pectoralis
major muscle, over the pectoralis minor, until it reaches the border of the pectoralis
major at the anterior fold of the axilla.
In emptying these abscesses an incision is to be made along the anterior axillary
fold and a tube introduced beneath the pectoralis major.
Incision for Axillary Abscess. — In opening an axillary abscess one should bear in
mind that the important veins and nerves accompany the arteries and that the arteries
lie in three places, viz. , externally along the humerus, anteriorly along the edge of the
pectoral muscles, and posteriorly along the edge of the scapula ; therefore these three
localities are to be avoided and an incision made in the middle of the axilla and short
enough not to endanger the brachial vessels on the outside or the long thoracic or
subscapular on the inside near the chest-wall.
The incision may divide the skin and if desired the deeper structures can be
parted by introducing a closed haemostatic forceps and separating its jaws.
THE AXILLA. 265
Axillary abscesses, if of slow formation and unopened, tend to burrow and follow
the vessels upward beneath the clavicle and appear in the supraclavicular space beneath
the deep cervical fascia, and they may even enter the superior mediastinum. They
may also descend the arm under the fascia covering the coracobrachialis muscle.
Axillary Tumors. — Tumors of the axilla are almost always due to involvement
of the lymph-nodes. They may be either benign and inflammatory in character, form-
ing the ordinary axillary adenitis, or tuberculous, or they may be malignant. As
they are due to disease of the lymph-nodes, the parts which the glands drain should
be searched for the starting-point of the affection. Aneurism or abscess may be
mistaken for a new growth and an inflamed aneurism may readily be thought to be
an abscess.
The excision of axillary tumors is difficult. If the tumor is of an inflammatory
origin it may be closely adherent to the veins or arteries or nerves, and the same con-
dition may exist in malignant cases.
The blood supply of the axilla is so free that nothing is to be gained by saving
small vessels, therefore in paring a tumor off the axillary vessels the various small
branches are ligated and divided and the main vessels left bare. This applies to the
veins as well as the arteries.
The subscapular artery is so large that it is often allowed to remain. When
working in the posterior portion of the axilla it is to be remembered that the pos-
terior circumflex artery is opposite the surgical neck of the humerus, above the
tendon of the latissimus dorsi muscle, and that the subscapular artery is on the
opposite side of the axillary artery a little higher up. The large subscapular vein
will bleed profusely if wounded and it should be looked for at the axillary border of
the scapula below the subscapularis muscle.
Wounds of the axillary vein are particularly dangerous on account of the admis-
sion of air. The attachment of the vein to the under side of the pectoralis minor and
costocoracoid membrane keeps it from collapsing; hence the danger.
Nerves of the Axilla. — The brachial plexus is above the first portion of the
axillary artery. In the second portion one cord is to the inner side, one to the
outer, and one behind. In the third portion the median nerve is anterior and a little
to the outer side of the artery, being formed by two roots, one from the inner and
the other from the outer cord of the brachial plexus.
The musculocutaneous nerve is to the outer side of the artery, leaving the outer
cord to enter the coracobrachialis muscle. The ulnar, internal cutayieous {cutaneus
antebrachii medialis), and lesser internal cutaneous {czitaneus brachii medialis) come
from the inner cord and lie to the inner side of the artery. From the posterior cord
come the axillary {circumflex^ and radial (^musculo spiral^ nerves. On the inner wall
of the axilla behind the long thoracic artery is the N. thoracalis longus (long thoracic,
or external respiratory nerve of Bell); it is a motor nerve and supplies the serratus
anterior (magnus) muscle, hence it is not to be injured in clearing out the axilla.
Still farther posteriorly, accompanying the subscapular artery, is the thoraco-
dorsalis or long subscapular nerve. It also is a motor nerve supplying the latissimus
dorsi muscle; therefore it is to be spared.
Crossing the axilla from the second intercostal space to anastomose with the
cutaneus brachii medialis nerve is the intercostobrachial {humeral^ nerve. It is a
nerve of sensation and need not be spared. Sometimes another branch from the
third intercostal nerve also crosses the axilla; it is also sensory and can be cut away.
As the axillary {circumflex) nerve normally winds around the surgical neck
of the humerus, when luxation occurs it is stretched over the head and paralysis of
the deltoid may ensue.
The various nerves of the brachial plexus are often injured by pressure resulting
from the use of crutches ("crutch palsy"). It is liable to affect any or several of
the nerves, the radial (musculospiral) probably the most frequently. Neuritis is
common and, as in injuries, the nerves affected are recognized by the motor or
sensory symptoms produced.
266
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE ARM.
The arm — or upper arm — is formed by a single bone surrounded by muscles,
which, with the exception of the biceps, are attached to it. The main vessels and
most of the important nerves run down its inner side. It receives from the trunk the
insertions of the muscles which move it, and gives origin to the muscles which move
Anatomical nee
Supraspinatus.
Greater tuberosity.
Lesser tuberosity
Bicipital groove
Surgical neck
Pectoralis major,
Brachioradialis
Extensor carpi
radialis longior
Radial fossa
Teres major
— \— Rubscapularis
Anatomical
Latissi- neck
mus dorsi
Capitellu
Trochlea
Olecranon
Pronator fossa
radii teres
Common flexor
tendons
Flexor carpi
ulnaris and
other flexors
Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus
Greater tuberosity
Teres minor
Deltoid
Brachialis anticus
Musculospiral
(radial) groove
Anconeus
Trochlea
Fig. 277. — Anterior surface of humerus, showing
attachment of muscles.
Fig. 278. — Posterior surface of humerus, showing
attachment of muscles.
the forearm. It is more subject to injury than to disease; infection, caries, and
rickets may attack the bone and rarely new growths may occur, but its common
affections are wounds involving the muscles, blood-vessels, or nerves, and fractures
of the bone. Severe injuries occasionally necessitate amputation.
THE ARM. 267
THE HUMERUS.
The humerus is a long bone with a large medullary cavity. Its shaft is com-
posed of compact tissue and its ends of cancellous tissue. In shape it is like the
letter /, that is, convex anteriorly above and concave anteriorly below. At the mid-
dle of the bone on its external surface is the rough deltoid eminence for the insertion
of the deltoid muscle.
Anterior Surface. — Separating the tuberosities above and running down the
anterior surface is the bicipital groove. Its external lip receives the insertion of the
pectoralis major muscle, its inner lip and floor those of the latissimus dorsi above and
the teres major below. On its inner side at and a little below its middle, is the
insertion of the coracobrachialis muscle. On the anterior surface from the deltoid
Coracoid process
Pectoralis major
Pectoralis minor
Subscapularis
Ti .. y^ / "^^^^^^^^^^^^^K*^ ^.-^ — Teres major
Pectoralis major/ ^^^^^^^^^^H^^--^'^ —
Long head of biceps,^,--' [J^
^ . ^ ^ . , ^^^ ^___ Latissimus dorsi
Short head of biceps
Coracobrachialis,
Inner head of triceps
Fig. 279. — Muscles of the anterior and internal aspects of the region of the shoulder.
eminence to the elbow-joint is the origin of the brachialis anticus; it has two heads,
which embrace the insertion of the deltoid, one being in front and the other behind
it (Fig. 277).
Posterior Surface. — On the posterior surface, running obliquely across the
bone downward and outward, below the insertion of the deltoid, is a shallow groove,
called the inusculospiral groove {stdciis radialis). It holds the musculospiral
{radial) nerve and the superior profunda artery. Above the groove and to its
outer side is the origin of the outer head of the triceps extensor muscle and the
insertion of the deltoid. To its inner side, below, is the origin of the inner head
of the triceps. Therefore the groove separates the inner head of the triceps muscle
from the outer (Fig. 278).
MUSCLES OF THE ARM.
In order to operate intelligently it is necessary to know the muscles and inter-
spaces, for the latter carry important structures. The arm possesses four sets of
muscles. One, an external set, abducts it, the deltoid ; another, or internal set, ad-
ducts it (and rotates it inward), the pectoraliz major , teres tnajor, latissimus dorsi,
and coracobrachialis ; another, anterior set, flexes the forearm, the biceps, and the
brachialis anticus; and the last, or posterior set, extends the forearm, the triceps, with,
sometimes, the subajiconeus beneath it.
268
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The External, or Abductor Set.
This comprises only one muscle, the deltoid; the supraspinatus belongs to the
shoulder region.
The deltoid forms the large rounded prominence of the shoulder. At its
insertion the bone is nearest the surface and can be most readily felt. The posterior
edge can be plainly seen when contracted running upward and inward and crossing
Acromion process
Coracoid process
Deltoid
Long head of biceps
Short head of biceps
Pectoralis major
Biceps (cut edge)
Brachialis anticus.
Outer condyle
Capitellum
Insertion of
biceps tendon
Radius
Subscapularis
Teres major
Latissimus dorsi
Coronoid process of ulna
Fig. 280. — Anterior view of muscles of the arm.
the posterior fold of the axilla at right angles. Its anterior edge blends more or
less completely with the pectoralis major (Fig. 279).
The Internal Set.
The internal set includes the coracobrachialis, with the short head of the biceps,
and the pectoralis major, teres major, and latissimus dorsi.
THE ARM. 269
The coracobrachialis arises from the coracoid process and tendon of the short
head of the biceps and inserts on the inner surface of the humerus for a distance 5 to
7.5 cm. (2 to 3 in.) opposite the insertion of the deltoid, but extending a htde lower.
In its course from the coracoid process, in its lower part, it is subcutaneous and pro-
duces a distinct muscular prominence along the anterior border of the axilla. It
occupies about one-third of the width of the axilla and is a guide to the brachial
artery. Below the edge of the anterior axillary fold it dips down to insert into the
bone' and is covered by the biceps muscle. The inner edge of the coracobrachialis
is continuous with the inner edge of the biceps. When it contracts it adducts the
humerus and brings it forward.
The pectoralis major, forming the anterior axillary fold, inserts into the
external lip of the bicipital groove from the greater tuberosity above to the insertion
of the deltoid below. The tendon is twisted on itself so that the lowest fibres at its
origin are inserted the highest, and the highest in origin are the lowest at their
insertion.
The latissimus dorsi and teres major form the posterior axillary fold and
their manner of insertion resembles that of the pectoralis major. The tendon of the
Fig. 28 1 . — Rupture of the tendon of the long head of the biceps muscle, producing a swelling
comparatively low down.
latissimus dorsi inserts into the bottom of the bicipital groove higher up than the
teres major. Hence near the humerus the lower edge of the posterior axillary fold
is formed by the teres major and its lower border marks the lower limit of the axillary
and the beginning of the brachial artery.
As the pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, and teres minor muscles insert on the
anterior surface of the humerus, they tend to rotate it inward as well as to adduct it.
The Anterior Set.
The biceps and brachialis anticus form the muscular mass on the anterior surface
of the arm.
The biceps has no attachment to the humerus. It spans the bone and is
attached to the scapula above and to the radius and deep fascia of the forearm below.
In the lower half of the arm it lies on the brachialis anticus. The long head runs
up in the bicipital groove, and is covered by the tendon of the pectoralis major up to
the tuberosities, above that by the transverse humeral ligament up to the capsule,
which it perforates, and, crossing over the head of the humerus, is attached to the
upper edge of the rim of the glenoid cavity (Fig. 280).
The bicipital branch of the anterior circumflex artery accompanies the tendon
in the bicipital groove. This tendon is comparatively rarely luxated, because it is
270
APPLIED ANATOMY.
firmly held in place by the transverse humeral ligament. Pus, in finding- an exit
from, the joint, follows the long tendon of the biceps and passes under the transverse
humeral ligament, then beneath the tendon of the pectoralis major to appear on the
anterior aspect of the arm at its lower border. Luxation of the tendon outwardly
would be opposed by the insertion of the pectoralis major, therefore it is only dis-
placed inwardly. Rupture of the long tendon may occur from violent muscular con-
traction; or, in rheumatoid arthritis of the shoulder, the tendon may become partly
dissolved and break. When this occurs the belly of the muscle contracts and forms
a large protuberance on the front of the arm (Fig. 281).
The short head of the biceps fuses with the coracobrachialis muscle, to be
attached with it to the coracoid process on its outer portion. The pectoralis minor is
the third muscle attached to this process.
The biceps forms the large muscular
swell on the front of the arm between
the anterior fold of the axilla and elbow.
At its lower end the biceps inserts by a
strong tendon into the posterior border
of the bicipital tubercle of the radius.
An example of its rupture is shown in
Fig. 282. Between it and the bone is
a bursa, which does not communicate
with the elbow-joint. The bicipital fas-
cia is given of? from the tendon and
passes downward and inward to blend
with the deep fascia covering the flexor
group of muscles. The biceps not only
flexes the radius on the arm but also acts
as a powerful supinator.
The brachialis anticus covers
the lower three-fifths of the humerus
and begins with two slips, one on each
side of the insertion of the deltoid ten-
don. It inserts into the inner and lower
part of the anterior surface of the coro-
noid process of the ulna. As the articu-
lation of the ulna and trochlear surface
of the humerus is a pure hinge-joint the
muscle acts solely as a flexor.
The Posterior or Extensor Set.
The posterior or extensor set in-
PiG. 282. — Rupture of the lower tendon of the biceps. i j ...i ... • j i.i. u „
Contraction of the muscle produces a swelling abnormally CludCS the triCCpS and the SubanCOneOUS,
high up on the arm. (From a photograph.) when present as a distinct muscle.
The Triceps Muscle. — The mus-
cular mass on the posterior surface of the arm is formed solely by the triceps muscle.
It arises by three heads and inserts by a single tendon into the olecranon process of
the ulna. Its three heads are the long, external, and internal. The long head arises
from the lower edge of the glenoid cavity and the scapular border below it for 2.5
cm. (i in.). It blends with the capsule of the joint and tends to strengthen it at
this point. When the arm is abducted, this tendon is closely applied to the capsule
and head of the humerus, and when the head escapes in luxation, it slips out anterior
to the tendon. The external head arises from the humerus above the musculospiral
groove and from the external intermuscular septum; the internal head arises from
the humerus below the musculospiral groove and from the internal and the lower
part of the external intermuscular septum (Fig. 283).
At its lower end the triceps inserts into the olecranon process, the upper third
of the ulna, and the deep fascia of the back of the forearm. The expansion of fascia
from the olecranon on the inner side is thin and insignificant, but that on the outer
side, on the contrary, is thick and strong, and when fracture of the bone occurs is an
important factor in preventing separation of the fragments.
THE ARM.
271
Outer head
of triceps
THE INTERMUSCULAR SEPTA.
The deep fascia of the arm completely encircles it, like a tube. It is continuous
above with the fascia co\'ering the deltoid, pectoralis major and teres major muscles,
and axillary fascia. Below, it is continuous with the fascia of the forearm and is
attached to the olecranon and internal and external condyles.
On each side of the lower half of the humerus, extending from the condyles and
the bone above outward to the deep fascia, are two fibrous partitions. They are
the internal and external internniscular
septa. The space in front of them is filled
by the flexors, the biceps, and brachialis
anticus, and the space behind contains
the triceps extensor. The external sep-
tum begins at the external condyle and
extends above to the tendon of the del-
toid, with which it blends. The internal
septum begins below at the internal con-
dyle and extends above to the coraco-
brachialis. The radial (musculospiral)
nerve and anterior terminal branch of
the (superior) profunda artery, as they
wind around the humerus below the in-
sertion of the deltoid, pierce the external
septum. The internal septum is pierced
high up by the ulnar nerve and superior
ulnar collateral (inferior profunda) artery
as they emerge at about the level of the
lower portion of the insertion of the
coracobrachialis to pass down behind
the internal condyle.
These intermuscular septa are of
importance in operative procedures be-
cause they indicate the limits of the mus-
cles and position of nerves and vessels.
SURFACE ANATOMY.
Inasmuch as the movements of the
elbow-joint are anteroposterior only and
not lateral, the muscles are principally
on the front and back and not on the "X WSi^km Anconeus
sides. Hence on looking at an arm
a rounded mass is seen anteriorly and
posteriorly, and separating them on the
sides can be seen in a spare, muscular
individual, distinct furrows called the
internal and external bicipital furrows.
If these furrows are obscured by fat,
one can still feel that the bone is nearer
the surface at these points than else-
where. The anterior muscle mass is
formed by the biceps and brachialis
anticus muscles, the posterior mass by the triceps. The bone is most readily
felt at the insertion of the deltoid at the middle of the outer side of the arm.
From this point directly down to the external condyle passes the external inter-
muscular septum and external bicipital furrow. Winding around from the poste-
rior edge of the insertion of the deltoid is the radial {iniisculospirai) 7ierve and
{supej'ior) profunda artery. They pierce the external intermuscular septum and
pass downward in the groove formed by the brachioradialis (supinator longus) and
extensor muscles on the outside and the brachialis anticus on the inside. On the
inner side of the arm the bicipital furrow, between the biceps in front and the triceps
Inner head
of triceps'
Fig. 283. — Triceps and anconeus muscles.
272
APPLIED ANATOMY.
behind, is quite evident and marks the internal intermuscular septum, which extends
to the medial (internal) condyle. In front of it lie the brachial artery and veins,
and median and ?nedial antebrachial {internal) cutaneous nerve. At the upper
portion of the inside of the arm can be seen the swell formed by the coracobrachialis
muscle. The inner or posterior border of the coracobrachialis is continuous with
the inner border of the biceps, and the brachial artery follows them. The coraco-
brachialis muscle ends just below the level of the insertion of the deltoid, and, of
course, can neither be seen nor felt below that point. It is here that the ulnar nerve
leaves the artery to pierce the internal intermuscular septum in company with the
superior 2ilnar collateral {inferior profunda) artery to reach the groove behind the
internal condyle. The brachial artery is covered only by the skin and superficial and
deep fascia, and can be felt pulsating along the inner edge of the biceps muscle and
tendon; it can be compressed against the bone by pressure directed outwardly
above and inclining more posteriorly as the artery progresses down toward the bend
of the elbow. It is on the inner side of the arm in the upper two-thirds, and is more
anterior in the lower one- third (Fig. 284).
The cephalic vein runs up the external bicipital furrow and the basilic up the
internal. At the junction of the middle and lower thirds of the arm the basilic
pierces the deep fascia and from that point runs up beneath it and joins with the
internal vena conies opposite the lower border of the teres major or subscapularis.
THE BRACHIAL ARTERY.
The arm being abducted, the course of the brachial artery is indicated by a
line drawn from the inner edge of the coracobrachialis muscle, at the junction of
the anterior and middle thirds of the axilla, above, to a point just inside the tendon
of the biceps at the bend of the elbow, below, midway between the two condyles
of the humerus. This lies in the internal bicipital furrow along the inner edge of
the biceps muscle. The artery is superficial in its entire course. It is accom-
panied by two small venae comites, which closely embrace it. The basilic vein
runs along its inner side. The median nerve lies on the artery to its outer side
above, then directly on it and a little to its inner side at the middle, and passes
to its inner side at the bend of the elbow. The medial antebrachial (internal)
cutaneous nerve, much smaller than the median, passes down along the inner side
of the artery between it and the basilic vein to pierce the fascia about the middle of
the arm (Fig. 285).
The ulnar 7ierve lies to the inner side of the artery above and is posterior to the
basilic vein. About opposite the insertion of the coracobrachialis it diverges from
the artery to pierce the internal intermuscular septum.
Older Side
Median nerve, above
Coracobrachialis
Biceps
Vena comes
Relations of the Brachial Artery
In Front.
Skin and fascia
Overlapped by coracobrachialis and biceps
Median basilic vein
Bicipital fascia
Median nerve
Intter Side
Medial antebrachial (int.)
Brachial cutaneous and
Artery ulnar nerves
Median nerve below
Basilic vein
Vena comes
Behind
Triceps (long and inner heads)
Radial (musculospiral) nerve
(Sup.) profunda artery
Coracobrachialis muscle
Brachialis anticus muscle
THE ARM.
273
Branches of the Brachial Artery, — The branches of the brachial artery are
the profunda (superior), the superior ulnar collateral (inferior profunda), the nutrient,
muscular, and inferior ulnar collateral (anastomotica magna).
Deltoid
Supinators and extensors
Pronators and flexors
Internal bicipital furrow
Triceps, long and inner heads
Brachial artery
Coracobrachialis muscle
Fig. 284. — Surface anatomy of the arm.
Not infrequently the brachial artery instead of dividing into the radial and ulnar
opposite the neck of the radius divides higher up. This is called a high division and
is seen most often in the upper third of the arm. The two vessels may follow the
Musculocutaneous nerve
Brachial artery
Coracobrachialis -'
Median nerve
Biceps
Latissimus dorsi
Brachialis anticus
Superior profunda artery
Musculospiral nerve
Inner head of triceps
Ulnar nerve
Inferior profunda artery
Anastomotica magna arterj'
Basilic vein
Fig. 285. — Dissection of the arm, viewed from the inner side.
usual course in the arm, or the radial may run under the biceps tendon, instead of
over it, and the ulnar may accompany the median nerve in front of the medial con-
dyle or the ulnar nerve behind it.
274
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The prof mida is given off just below the lower edge of the posterior fold of the
axilla (teres major). It accompanies the radial (musculospiral) nerve around the
arm to its outer side; it sends one branch, the radial collateral, to the front of the
Median nerve
Biceps muscle /
Ulnar nerve
Brachial artery
. Superior profunda (A. profunda
brachii)
• Brachial artery
. Inferior profunda (coUateralis
ulnaris superior)
Anastomotica magna (collate-
"ralis ulnaris inferior)
Fig. 286. — Ligation of the brachial artery in the middle of the arm showing the median nerve lying on the artery
and the ulnar nerve to its inner side.
elbow and the middle collateral behind it. The superior ulnar coIlate7-al artery
(inferior profunda) comes off about opposite the insertion of the coracobrachialis
muscle. It is much smaller than the pro-
funda and with the ulnar nerve pierces the
internal intermuscular septum. The nutri-
ent artery comes off close to the origin of
the superior ulnar collateral (inferior pro-
funda) or is a branch of it. It passes down-
ward in the bone in a direction toward the
elbow-joint. The inferior ulnar collateral
(anastomotica magna) is given off 5 cm.
(2 in.) above the elbow and passes inward
over the brachialis anticus to divide into
two branches, one going down in front and
the other behind the elbow.
Ligation of the Brachial Artery.
— In ligating the brachial artery. Heath
strongly advises that the arm be held by an
assistant in an abducted position with the
hand supine,and not allowed to rest on any-
thing. The object of this is to avoid hav-
ing the artery overlapped by the triceps be-
ing pushed up and thus becoming obscured.
The incision is to be made in the line
from the inner edge of the coracobrachialis
to a point midway between the tips of the
condyles. The deep fascia is to be opened
and the inner edge of the biceps muscle
is to be sought for, recognized, and held
outward. The pulsation of the artery may
indicate its position in the living; if not, it
is to be sought for to the inner side of the
edge of the biceps. The median nerve is
not to be mistaken for it. It will lie either
over its middle or to its inner side if low down and to its outer side if high up (Fig. 286).
The ulnar nerve lies on the inner side of the artery as far as the middle of the
-Radial recurrent
-Ulnar recurrent
-Interosseous recurrent
- Posterior interosseous
— Anterior interosseous
"Radial artery
-Ulnar artery
'A
Fig. 287. — Collateral circulation after ligation of the
brachial artery at the bend of the elbow.
THE ARM. 275
arm, it then leaves the artery. Below the middle, if the search is made too far
posteriorly, the ulnar nerve and basilic vein will be encountered. The ulnar nerve
should not be seen, the basilic vein and median nerve — and above the middle of the
arm the medial antebrachial (internal) cutaneous nerve — are to be displaced to the
inner side.
The needle is to be passed from within outward. Care must be taken not to
mistake a large superior or inferior profunda for the main trunk. A high division
of the brachial may give two vessels of approximately equal size. Of course, in such
a case both must be ligated.
Collateral Circulation. — If the ligature is placed above the profunda (superior)
branch, the anterior and posterior circumflex will anastomose with the profunda
(superior) and superior ulnar collateral (inferior profunda) below. If the ligature is
placed between the profunda and superior ulnar collateral arteries, the profunda
(superior) will anastomose below with the radial recurrent and posterior interosseous
recurrent on the outer side and will also communicate with the inferior ulnar
collateral (anastomotica magna) and superior ulnar collateral (inferior profunda)
on the inside (Fig. 287). If below the superior ulnar collateral (inferior profunda)
then the profunda (superior) would anastomose with the radial and posterior inter-
osseous recurrents on the outside, and the superior ulnar collateral (inferior profunda)
with the inferior ulnar collateral (anastomotica magna) and the anterior and posterior
ulnar recurrents.
AMPUTATION OF THE ARM.
In amputation one has to deal with a part of the body that is approximately
cylindrical in shape and that contains only a single bone entirely surrounded by
soft parts. The circular method is more applicable to amputation of the arm below
the insertion of the deltoid than to any other part of the body, but nevertheless in
some cases, particularly in muscular arms, difficulty may be experienced in turning
back the cuff. In such cases the cuf5 is slit by the surgeon and the operation
becomes one of square skin flaps. For this reason flap amputations are usually to
be preferred.
The arm may be amputated at any place, high up or low down. Artificial
appliances for the upper extremity are comparatively useless; hence the height of
division of the bone is determined by the injury.
As it is desirable to retain the head of the bone and tuberosities, if pos-
sible, in order to preserve the shape of the shoulder and retain the attachment
of the muscles, amputation may be done through the surgical neck. This is just
below the epiphyseal line. In performing a flap amputation the soft parts should
cover or cap the bone like a hemisphere: therefore the total length of the flaps should
be equal to one-half the circumference of a sphere whose diameter is the diameter of
the limb at the point of section of the bone. If the diameter of the limb is 4 inches,
then the total length of the flaps should be approximately 6 inches. If the flaps
were of equal length then each would be 3 inches long. If there was only one flap,
it would be 6 inches long.
It is an axiom in surgery that in flap amputations the artery should be contained
in the shorter flap. The operator should accurately know the course of the artery
and avoid making his flaps in such a manner as to bring the vessel in the angle of the
wound. Otherwise the artery is liable to be split. In a high amputation the
external flap may be long and the internal short. In the middle of the arm antero-
posterior flaps are preferred and the artery is included in the posterior flap. If the
amputation is in the lower third and the flaps are anteroposterior, then the artery of
necessity is in the anterior flap.
Above the middle of the arm the deltoid, coracobrachialis, and biceps muscles
are free and therefore retract markedly when cut. In the middle the biceps only is
free and the same is the case in the lower third. The triceps and brachialis anticus
are attached to the bone and therefore retract but little when cut. Surgeons have
called attention to the necessity of being careful to see that the radial (musculospiral)
nerve is properly divided, otherwise it may be torn by the saw. The groove in which
276
APPLIED ANATOMY.
it lies may be unusually deep and necessitate a special effort to divide it. On the face
of the stump the artery is to be looked for to the inner side of the bone in the upper
two-thirds of the arm and anteriorly in the lower third. Lying on it will be the
median nerve and to its inner side the ulnar nerve. At the level of the insertion of
the deltoid the radial (musculospiral) nerve, accompanied by the (superior) profunda
artery, will be posterior or toward the outer side. The superior ulnar collateral (in-
ferior profunda) artery is given off at the level of the insertion of the coracobrachialis
muscle, which is about opposite the insertion of the deltoid. It accompanies the ulnar
nerve. A nerve may be seen lying between the biceps and brachialis anticus. It is the
musculocutaneous which becomes superficial just above the bend of the elbow (Fig. 288) .
Median nerve
Brachial artery
Internal cutaneous nerve ^
Ulnar nerve and inferior
profunda artery
Coraco-brachialis
Musculospiral nerve and
superior profunda artery
Biceps
Musculocutaneous nerve
Brachialis anticus
Deltoid
Triceps
Triceps
Fig. 288. — Amputation just above the middle of the arm.
Five cm. (2in. ) above the elbow the inferior ulnar collateral (anastomotica
magna) artery may be expected to be encountered passing down and in over the
brachialis anticus muscle.
FRACTURES OF THE HUMERUS.
Fractures of the Shaft of the Humerus. — There seems to be but little doubt
that in many cases the character of displacement of the fragments in fracture of the
shaft of the humerus is due to the mode of injury and not to muscular action. This
being so accounts for there being less uniformity in these fractures than in those
higher up, which have already been considered. There are some cases, however, in
which muscular action does play a part and the possible influence of the muscles
should be understood.
The line of fracture is usually more or less oblique, in rare cases nearly trans-
verse, but the displacement is often not marked. Notwithstanding this latter fact,
non-union of fracture of the shaft of the humerus is one of the most frequent of any
in the body.
Muscular action shows its influence most markedly in producing displacements
in three directions, viz. , in towards the body, out away from the body, and directly
anteriorly.
THE ARM.
277
There are two main points where fracture occurs; immediately above the inser-
tion of the deltoid and below it.
Frachire above the Insertion of the Deltoid. — The bone may be fractured imme-
diately above the deltoid insertion. In this case the powerful axillary fold muscles,
pectoralis major, teres major, and latissimus dorsi, being attached to the upper frag-
ment, tend to draw it toward the body, while the deltoid tends to draw the lower
fragment out. The influence of the other muscles, biceps, coracobrachialis, and triceps,
would be to increase the overlapping (Fig. 289).
Fracture belozv the Deltoid Insertion. — This is the more common site of fracture.
The line of fracture is most apt to be from above downward and outward. The
upper fragment is displaced anteriorly by the coracobrachialis and anterior portion
Pectoralis major
Latissimus dorsi
Deltoid
Teres major
Fig. 289. — Fracture of the shaft of the humerus just above the insertion of the deltoid and below the inser-
tion of the axillary fold mviscles. The lower fragment is seen to be drawn outward by the deltoid; the upper frag-
ment is seen to be drawn inward by the pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, and teres major.
of the deltoid and is drawn outward by the deltoid aided by the supraspinatus. To
relax the deltoid the arm is sometimes dressed in an abducted position (Fig. 290).
Non-Union. — The humerus has muscles attached to it almost throughout its
entire length, and w^hen the sharp ends of the fragments are displaced they probably
become fixed in the surrounding muscle, and proper apposition of the fragments is
prevented, hence non-union. Hamilton believed that lack of proper fixation was also
a prominent cause.
The Radial (Musculospiral) Nerve. — In fracture of the shaft of the
humerus, paralysis of the extensors due to injury of the radial nerve is compara-
tively common. It also occurs from pressure due to the use of crutches, to sleep-
ing on the arm, etc. The other nerves are too far removed from the bone to
278
APPLIED ANATOMY.
be injured, but the radial (musculospiral) lies on the bone in the radial (musculo-
spiral) groove in approximately the middle third of the bone. It comes into contact
with the bone posteriorly above the insertion of the deltoid and leaves the bone on
its outer anterior surface to pass between the brachialis anticus and brachioradialis
(supinator longus) muscles. Paralysis may be caused (i) by direct injury to the
nerve at the time the fracture is received. (2) By subsequent changes in the nerve
due to its being stretched over the sharp edge of a fragment. (3) By being included in
callus. The last is probably much more rarely the case than the two former (Fig. 291).
Paralysis should be examined for early in the course of treatment. Too often it
is detected only after the splints have been removed, and then it is apt to be ascribed
to improper treatment or to misapplied pressure. The symptoms of involvement of
Deltoid
Infraspinatus
Teres minor
Site of fracture
Teres major
Latissimus dorsi
Long head of triceps
External head of triceps
Fig. 290. — Posterior view of a fracture of the shaft of the humerus just below the insertion of the deltoid,
showing the influence of that muscle in producing abduction of the upper fragment.
the musculospiral nerve are wrist-drop and diminution of the power of supination,
also some sensory changes in the dorsum of the hand and forearm.
This nerve is frequently paralyzed from pressure in cases in which there is no
fracture, as from sleeping on the arm, the use of crutches, and also in certain sys-
temic affections, such as lead poisoning. It suppHes the triceps, part of the brachialis
anticus, brachioradialis (supinator- longus), and extensor carpi radialis longior
muscles in the arm, and then proceeds to the forearm. The branch to the triceps is
given off before the nerve enters the musculospiral groove, hence is not often injured,
and loss of extension of the forearm is not often present; even paralysis of the other
muscles mentioned is not common, the forearm muscles being mostly affected. The
branch to the inner head of the triceps also supplies the anconeus.
THE ARM.
279
OPERATIONS ON THE ARM.
Caries or necrosis of the humerus may necessitate operative interference at almost
any part of the arm. The same may be said of wounds. In operative procedures
it is sometimes desirable to avoid important structures and at others to find them.
Deltoid
Brachialis anticus
Long head of triceps
Outer head of triceps
Radial (musculospiral) nerve
Superior profunda artery
Brachioradialis
Extensor carpi radialis longior
Extensor muscles of forearm
External condyle
Fig. 291. — The radial (muscolospiral) nerve and outer side of arm.
The important structures run lengthwise, hence transxerse incisions are not to be
used. Most of the large vessels and nerves pass down the inner side of the arm,
hence this region is usually avoided. The bone can readily be reached by an incision
downward from the insertion of the deltoid, but no operation is to be done in this
region without a thorough familiarity with the course of the musculospiral nerve.
28o APPLIED ANATOMY.
A line drawn on the posterior surface of the arm from behind and above the insertion
of the deltoid to the groove on the anterior surface between the brachialis anticus and
brachioradialis (supinator longus) just above and to the inner side of the external
condyle will indicate its course. If exposed during an operation bleeding from the
accompanying (superior) profunda artery may be expected. The median and ulnar
nerves give off no branches in the upper arm. The median can be readily located
by its relation to the artery. It lies to the outer and anterior side of the brachial
artery above, then in front, and then to its inner side below. The ulnar nerve lies
to the inner side of the artery and between it and the vein posteriorly. In the middle
of the arm, it leaves it to pierce and pass beneath the internal intermuscular septum
and thence behind the medial (internal) condyle. Operations involving it would
be accompanied by bleeding from its companion the superior ulnar collateral artery
(inferior profunda).
In operations on the lower portion of the bone the position of the inferior ulnar
collateral (anastomotica magna), 5 cm. (2 in.) above the elbow, should be borne in
mind. It runs on the brachialis anticus muscle and towards the inner and not the
outer side. Incisions on the outer side will encounter the cephalic vein in the external
bicipital furrow. Incisions on the inner side will encounter the basilic vein ; at the
junction of the lower and middle thirds of the arm it pierces the deep fascia.
REGION OF THE ELBOW.
The elbow is so named because at this point the arm is usually bent. A joint is
here inserted which permits of flexion and extension ; when the arm is fully extended
the "elbow" might be said to have disappeared. The lower end of the humerus
forms the proximal portion of the joint and the upper ends of the ulna and radius form
its distal portion. Ligaments join these bones together to form the joint, and the
blood-vessels and nerves change in .character in this region as they pass from the arm
to the forearm. ' l' *
The bones are frequently subject to fractures which are of an exceedingly puz-
zling and disabling character. The joint becomes luxated and the vessels and nerves
are not infrequently injured. A thorough knowledge of the anatomy of the region
is absolutely essential to the proper treatment of these affections.
BONES OF THE ELBOW.
Humerus. — The lower end of the humerus broadens laterally and is slightly
concave on its anterior surface ; this causes the articular surfaces to look downward
and forward and not backward. It carries two articular surfaces: one, the trochlea, for
the ulna, and the other, the capitellum, for the radius. The trochlea, descending
lower than thecapitellum, causes the line of the joint to incline downward and inward
instead of being directly transverse, thus producing the " carrying angle" (Fig. 294).
Extending from the edges of the articular surfaces outward, one on each side, are the
condyles, medial {internal^ and lateral {extertial) .
Chaussier gave the name epico?tdyle to the condyles. He called the medial
condyle the epitrochlea and the lateral (external) condyle the epicondyle. Henle
called the internal condyle the epicondylus medialis and the external condyle the
epicondylus lateralis. The name epicondyle is now quite generally employed by both
surgical and anatomical writers to designate the projecting extra-articular portion of
the condyles, so that the terms are practically synonymous (Fig. 293).
From the condyles two ridges run upward. The lateral {exteryial) supracon-
dylar ridge is the more marked of the two and gives origin to the brachioradialis
(supinator longus) and the extensor carpi radialis longior muscles, and passes
posterior to the deltoid eminence to be continuous with the posterior lip of the
radial (musculospiral) groove. The medial {internal^ supracondylar ridge is much
less prominent than the lateral and soon blends with the shaft of the bone. Above
the trochlea and capitellum anteriorly are two fossae, the coronoid and the radial,
to receive the coronoid process and head of the radius when the arm is in complete
REGION OF THE ELBOW.
281
flexion. On the posterior surface there is another depression, the olecranon fossa, to
receive the olecranon process in extreme extension. The projecting- hook-Uke shape
of the median condyle causes it to be more frequently fractured than the less promi-
nent lateral condyle. The two condyles are readily felt directly beneath the skin and
are the only points of the humerus that are really subcutaneous.
Ulna. — The upper extremity of the ulna articulates above with the trochlea of
the humerus and on its outer side with the radius. Its upper end is the olecranon
process. The posterior portion of this process is called the tip of the olecranon and
is continuous with the posterior surface of the ulna, which is subcutaneous. Immedi-
FiG. 292. — .\nterior view of bones of right elbow.
Fig. 293. — Posterior view of bones of elbow.
ately in front of the olecranon is a large hollow, which receives the trochlea. It is
called the greater sigmoid cavity. The anterior margin of the cavity is called the
coro7ioid process. On the outer side of the coronoid process is a hollow called the
lesser sigmoid cavity, which receives the head of the radius. Fracture of the bone
frequently occurs through the narrow portion of the olecranon process into the greater
sigmoid cavity.
Radius. — The radius ends above in a fiat rounded head. The upper surface
of this head articulates with the capitellum. The lateral surface articulates internally
with the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna. The remainder of the circumference of
the head is embraced by the orbicular ligament. Immediately below the head is the
constricted neck and bicipital tuberosity. To the posterior half of this latter the
tendon of the biceps is attached, but its anterior portion is smooth and provided with
a bursa. The head of the radius is subcutaneous posteriorly, but the rest is too much
covered by muscles to be readily palpated.
2S2
APPLIED ANATOMY.
ELBOW-JOINT.
By the term elbow-joint is meant the articulation between the humerus above
and the ulna and upper surface of the radius below. The articulation between the
upper end of the radius and the ulna forms the superior radio-ulnar articulation and
does not belong to the elbow-joint proper. As has already been pointed out, the
ulna articulates with the trochlea and the radius with the capitellum.
The elbow-joint is a pure hinge-joint. The articulation between the trochlea
and ulna is so .shaped as to allow no lateral motion, but only an anteroposterior one.
The articulation between the capitellum and upper surface of the head of the radius
is, on the contrary, a ball-and-socket joint. The
socket, it is true, is shallow, but it is perfectly
spherical, made so by the rotary movement of the
radius in pronation and supination. Hence it fol-
lows that the shape and continuity of the upper ex-
tremity depends upon the articulation of the ulna
with the humerus: it further follows that if the
radius be removed from the elbow-joint the forearm
would still be held in its proper relation to the arm,
but if the ulna be removed the stability of the joint
would be lost and the forearm would move in any
direction, laterally as well as anteroposteriorly. It
is for this reason that injuries involving the medial
condyle and trochlea are more liable to be followed
by serious disability than are those of the lateral
condyle and capitellum.
The movement of the joint takes place around
a transverse axis, which passes from side to side
below and in front of the condyles. The forearm
can be extended to an angle of i8o degrees, or a
straight line, with the arm. It can be flexed to an
angle of 30 to 40 degrees. Sometimes it cannot be
flexed so much, so that if after an injury to the
joint the patient can flex the elbow to half a right
angle, or 45 degrees, he may be regarded as hav-
ing regained a normal amount of motion.
Carrying Angle. — The axis of motion of the
joint is not exactly transverse, but slopes slightly
from the outside downward and inward. The
effect of this is to give a slight obliquity to the
motions of flexion and extension. This obliquity
is not noticeable except in extreme extension and
flexion. When the forearm is completely extended
it is seen to lie not in the axis of the arm but to
bend outward from the elbow at an angle of 170
degrees. This angle is called the ' ' carrying angle, ' '
because by resting the elbow against the side, any article which is carried in the ex-
tended hand is kept away from the body. Sometimes the line of the forearm is almost
straight with that of the arm, at others the deflection may amount to 15 degrees. It
may vary on the two sides and 10 degrees may be considered an average; Woolsey
gives 6 degrees as the average. This carrying angle becomes lost in certain cases of
fracture of the elbow, as will be pointed out later. As the elbow is flexed the carrying
angle disappears (see Fig. 294).
When flexion is complete the ulna instead of coming up toward the head of the
humerus inclines inward at an angle of 10 degrees. Morris states that the hand has
a tendency to point to the middle of the clavicle, which would make an angle of 20
degrees. This we believe to be too great.
Fig. 294. — The carrying angle; formed
by the deviation outward of the axis of the
forearm from the axis of the arm.
REGION OF THE ELBOW.
283
LIGAMENTS OF THE ELBOW.
The ligaments of the elbow-joint are four in number — anterior, posterior, internal
lateral, and external lateral.
In all joints there are two kinds of ligaments. One kind serves to retain the
synovial fluid; it is a capsular ligament and is usually thin; the other kind is thick,
firm, and strong, and is intended to bind the bones together and prevent their dis-
placement and to limit movemenl:. These two kinds of ligaments often blend
together so that it is impossible to say where one begins and the other ends; at other
places they are quite distinct. If an elbow-joint is distended with effusion (or wax)
the distinction is readily seen. The capsule becomes distended in front and behind,
while at the sides the ligaments remain closely applied to the bones; hence we learn
that the anterior and posterior ligaments are capsular in their function while the
lateral ligaments are retentive. These will be considered more in detail later.
Superior Radio-nhiar Articulation. — While the superior radio-ulnar articula-
tion is not considered a part of the elbow-joint proper, it is nevertheless so closely
Fig. 295. — The external lateral ligament of the elbow- joint, showing its A shape. Its upper end is attached
to the external condyle of the humerus: its lower ends are attached to the ulna. The circular fibres surrounding
the head of the radius are called the orbicular ligament.
associated with it that it cannot be ignored. The head of the radius, in addition to
its movements of flexion and extension on the humerus, possesses a motion of rotation.
In order that it may rotate properly the ligaments are arranged in a peculiar manner.
Its motion in respect to the ulna is a purely rotary one, so that it is bound to the
ulna by a ligament which encircles its head, called the orbicular ligament. The
bulk of the ligament encircles three-fourths of the head of the radius and is attached
at its ends to the anterior and posterior edges of the lesser sigmoid cavity of the ulna.
Its lower fibres are continuous below the lesser sigmoid cavity, forming a complete
circle. The upper edge of this orbicular ligament blends with the anterior ligament
in front, the posterior behind, and the external lateral at the side. We thus see that
as the anterior and posterior ligaments are capsular in their function the radius is
kept in place by the external lateral ligament, which branches below in the form of
the letter Y to blend with the orbicular ligament. When we consider that these
fibres are hardly inserted at all into the radius, but pass over it to the ulna, it is
evident that this part of the joint is comparatively weak and not an excessive amount
of force would be required to pull the head of the radius from beneath the orbicular
284
APPLIED ANATOMY
ligament and so luxate it. The supinator {brevis) arises partly from the orbicular
ligament and strengthens the joint somewhat.
The external lateral ligament is a strong band which is attached above to
the lower portion of the lateral (external) condyle, blends with the orbicular liga-
ment and is attached below to the ulna along the anterior and posterior edges of the
lesser sigmoid cavity (Fig. 295).
The internal lateral ligament is a strong band attached above to the lower
and anterior portion of the medial (internal) condyle, the groove beneath, and
descends in the shape of a fan to insert into the inner edge of the coronoid process
and olecranon (Fig. 296).
The anterior ligament is capsular in its nature and function, and is a broad,
comparatively thin membrane which stretches between the lateral ligaments on the
Fig. 296. — The internal lateral ligament of the elbow- joint, showing its fan-like shape.
sides and is attached above to the upper edge of the coronoid fossa and below to the
coronoid process and orbicular ligament. It sometimes possesses a few coarse fibres
passing downward and outward, but it is mostly very thin, in places barely covering
the lining membrane.
The posterior ligament resembles the anterior. It blends on each side with
the lateral ligaments and is attached above across the upper portion of the olecranon
fossa and below to the olecranon and posterior portion of the orbicular ligament. It
also has some cross fibres; but, especially at its upper attachment, it is very weak.
MUSCLES OF THE ELBOW.
The elbow-joint is interposed between the long bones of the forearm below and
the long humerus above. The arm muscles come down and pass over the joint to
insert close to it in the bones of the forearm. The muscles of the forearm in a similar
manner cross the joint and are attached comparatively near it to the humerus above.
Thus we see the joint strengthened by the crossing of the various muscular insertions.
The elbow having only an anteroposterior motion, the muscles must of necessity be in
two main groups, one in front and the other behind the joint.
Lateral Muscles. — It is true that there are lateral muscles but they have little
or no influence on the movements of the elbow-joint. The medial (internal) condyle
gives origin to the flexor muscles of the forearm and the pronator radii teres, and
the lateral (external) condyle gives origin to the extensor muscles; but the bony
REGION OF THE ELBOW
285
attachment of both these sets of muscles coincides too closely with the axis of motion
to allow of their aiding to any marked extent either flexion or extension of the
elbow. Their function as far as the elbow is concerned is to aid and strengthen the
lateral ligaments of their special sides.
The Anterior or Flexor Muscles. — These comprise the biceps, brachialis
antiais, brachioradialis, and extensor carpi radialis longior. It will be observed
that the first two muscles come from above and cross the joint, while the last two
arise just above the joint to pass down the forearm (Fig. 297).
The brachialis anticiis arises from the humerus by two heads, one on each
side of the insertion of the deltoid, and from the anterior surface to just above the
Inner head of triceps
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Biceps
Brachialis anticus
Brachioradialis
Supinator
Pronator radii teres
Flexor carpi radialis
Palmaris longus
Fig. 297. — View of the antecubital fossa and muscles at the bend of the elbow.
elbow-joint. It passes over the joint and inserts into the base or lower and inner
part of the coronoid process. It does not insert into the tip, but some distance
below. Its function is purely flexion.
The biceps arises from the upper rim of the glenoid cavity by its long head and
from the coracoid process by its short head. It inserts into the posterior edge of the
bicipital tubercle of the radius. Between it and the tubercle is a bursa. About 4 cm.
( I ^ in. ) above its insertion its tendon gives off a fibrous expansion which passes
inward to blend with the deep fascia covering the flexor group of muscles. This is
called the bicipital or semilunar fascia. The biceps tendon passes almost in the
middle between the two condyles. Along its inner side is the brachial artery, which
is covered by the bicipital fascia; over this fascia passes the median basilic vein,
sometimes used for transfusion. The insertion of the biceps is into the radius, which
is the movable bone, and not into the ulna, which is less so. As a consequence, in
addition to its function of flexion it acts also as a powerful supinator of the radius.
286
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The extensor carpi radialis longwr arises from the lateral condyle and lower third
of the supracondyloid ridge and inserts into the base of the second metacarpal bone.
The brachioradialis or supinator longus arises from the upper two-thirds of the
lateral (external) supracondyloid ridge above the preceding muscle and as high as the
insertion of the deltoid. It inserts into the base of the styloid process of the radius.
These two muscles, owing to their high attachment, so much above the axis of
motion of the joint, both act as flexors. The brachioradialis also supinates the hand.
The Posterior or Extensor Muscles. — These comprise the triceps and
anconeus niiiscles (Fig. 298).
The triceps arises by its long head from the lower part of the rim of the glenoid
cavity and adjoining border of the scapula; by its external or lateral head from the
Triceps
Olecranon process
Brachioradialis
Extensor carpi radialis longior
External condyle
Fascial continuation of the triceps
inserting into the shaft of the ulna
Anconeus muscle under the fascia
Fio. 298. — Extensor muscles of the back of the elbow.
upper outer portion of the humerus from the greater tuberosity above to the radial
(musculospiral) groove below; by its internal or medial head from the posterior
surface of the humerus below the radial groove. It inserts into the posterior part of
the upper surface of the olecranon. Just above its insertion it is separated from the
bone by a bursa. It is continuous from the outer edge of the olecranon as a firm fascia
which passes down over the anconeus to be attached to the upper fourth of the ulna
and the deep fascia. This is an important structure in fractures of the olecranon.
The anconeus passes downward and backward from the lateral (external) condyle
to insert into the side of the olecranon and upper fourth of the ulna. Its fibres are
practically continuous with the lower fibres of the triceps and it may be considered
as a fourth head of that muscle. It covers the posterior portion of the head of the
radius and overlaps somewhat the supinator (brevis) muscle.
REGION OF THE ELBOW.
287
SURFACE ANATOMY.
Having become acquainted with the bones and muscles, one will be better able
to appreciate the surface markings and understand their significance (Fig. 299).
When the elbow is fully extended the bony projections are obscured by the soft
tissues, hence in examining an elbow it should be flexed at approximately a right
angle. The first object to strike the eye is the prominent olecranon process. It is
subcutaneous and the bony ulna beneath can be felt and followed down the back of
the forearm. From the tip upward for a couple of centimetres can be felt the upper
surface of the olecranon into which the triceps inserts. To feel this distinctly the
forearm should be slightly extended to relax the triceps; the outline of the upper
portion of the olecranon then becomes perfectly distinct.
Projecting on each side of the elbow are the two condyles of the humerus.
These bony projections do not belong to the forearm. The two condyles are nearly
on the same level. The medial (internal) is much more prominent and has the
appearance of being a trifle higher and slightly anterior. A line joining them
Tendon of triceps —
Internal condyle
Olecranon process
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Brachioradialis and extensor carpi
■ radialis longior
-External condyle
Depression, head of radius
-Anconeus
_ Extensor communis digitorum
— Extensor carpi ulnaris
— Subcutaneous surface of ulna
Fig. 299. — Surface anatomy of the back of the elbow.
crosses the long axis of the humerus at an angle of 90 degrees, but makes an angle
of only 80 degrees with the forearm. By deep pressure the lateral (external) supra-
condylar ridge can readily be felt running up the arm somewhat posteriorly from
the lateral (external) condyle. The medial (internal) supracondylar ridge is much
less easily felt though the intermuscular septum is more evident on this side. When
the elbow is flexed at a right angle a line drawn parallel with the humerus and pro-
longed through the two condvles will cut the tip of the olecranon. If the forearm is
extended the olecranon passes slightly posterior to this line; if the forearm is flexed,
the olecranon passes somewhat in front of it. Hence in examining the elbow for
injury it is desirable to determine the relation of these points when the elbow is bent
at a right angle. The coronoid process lies anteriorly, deep in the flexure of the
elbow, and cannot be distinctly felt.
If, now, the elbow is extended, the tip of the olecranon can still be felt with the
medial (inner) condyle to its inner side. Between the two is a deep groove in which
lies the ulnar nerve. To the outer side of the olecranon is a deep pit or short groove;
the bone marking its outer edge is the lateral (external) condyle. In the bottom of
this pit at its lower portion, about 2.5 cm. (i in.) below the tip of the olecranon, can
be felt the head of the radius. If the thumb is placed on it and the hand rotated, the
288 \MIWHK» APPLIED ANATOMY. "^^^^^OI^M
head of the radius can be felt turning beneath. Immediately above the head of the
radius, lying to the outer side of the olecranon, if the elbow be again flexed to a right
angle, can be seen and felt the bony projection of the capitellum covered by the
strong expansion from the triceps. By careful palpation a groove can be felt between
the lower edge of the capitellum and the head of the radius which marks the limits
and point of articulation of the two bones.
On the posterior aspect of the joint the ulnar nerve is the most important struc-
ture; there is, however, a bursa between the upper or posterior surface of the olec-
ranon and the skin and also another on its inferior surface, extending downward,
which from its exposed position is frequently injured and enlarged. Such an
enlargement occurs from chronic irritation in certain occupations, hence the name
' ' miners' elbow. ' '
With the elbow flexed at a right angle there is seen on its anterior surface a
crease which runs from one condyle across to the other. If a knife were held parallel
with the forearm and entered at this crease, it would strike the humerus above the
level of the joint line, that is, the line of contact of the bones. This joint line runs
from 1.25 cm. (^ in.) below the lateral (external) condyle to 2.5 cm. (i in.) below
the medial (internal) condyle.
Anteriorly the muscular masses form prominent landmarks. In the middle of
the crease can be felt the tendon of the biceps muscle. The muscular swell above
the crease is formed by the biceps muscle with the brachialis anticus beneath. The
sharp upper edge of the bicipital fascia can be distinctly felt when the muscle con-
tracts. The limits of the biceps can be felt as two lines, radiating like the letter V
from the biceps tendon upward. These are the commencing bicipital furrows or
grooves.
The outer branch marks the depression between the outer edge of the biceps and
the swell forming the supinator group of muscles. The inner branch marks the inner
edge of the biceps, and between it and the medial condyle can be felt a muscular
mass which is formed by the inner portion of the brachialis anticus. In the middle
of the flexure of the elbow below the crease is a depression called the anteczibital fossa.
To its outer side is the muscular prominence of the extensors and supinator. To its
inner side is the muscular prominence of the flexors and pronator. The inner mus-
cular swell ends at the medial (internal) condyle, but the external one passes well up
on the arm. The muscles so prolonged upward are the extensor carpi radialis longior
for about 5 cm, (2 in.) above the lateral (external) condyle, and the brachioradialis
(supinator longus) for 10 cm. (4 in.) higher. The outer limit of the antecubital fossa
is formed by the inner edge of the brachioradialis. The inner side is formed by the
pronator radii teres muscle.
To the inner side of the biceps tendon lies the brachial artery, which bifurcates
opposite the neck of the radius, approximately 2 cm. or a finger's breadth below the
crease of the elbow. Still farther to the inner side lies the median nerve. In the
groove between the biceps and brachialis anticus on the inner side and brachio-
radialis (supinator longus) and extensor carpi radialis longior on the outer side lies
the radial (musculospiral) nerve; it divides above or opposite the lateral (external)
condyle into the superficial branch and posterior interosseous nerve
THE VEINS OF THE ELBOW.
The flexure of the elbow is occupied by a number of veins which are of impor-
tance from the fact that they are frequently used for purposes of saline infusion,
sometimes for blood-letting, and not infrequently they are wounded and give rise to
troublesome hemorrhage.
They are made more prominent by allowing the arm to hang and by tying a
bandage firmly above the elbow. The larger part of the blood from the parts below
is carried by the superficial veins; hence the largest veins lie directly beneath the skin
and can be seen through it.
Their arrangement is not always regular but they follow a more or less general
plan. The blood from the radial side of the wrist and forearm is carried by the radial
vein. The median vein brings the blood from the anterior surface of the wrist and
REGION OF THE ELBOW.
289
parts abo\'e. There are two veins on the ulnar side, an anterior and a posterior. The
anterior carries the blood from the anterior ulnar aspect and the posterior ulnar from
the posterior ulnar aspect of the wrist and forearm. All these veins contain valves
at intervals of a few inches. The median vein passes up the middle of the anterior
surface of the forearm, and just below the lower edge of the bicipital fascia communi-
cates with the deep veins accompanying the radial and ulnar arteries. This commu-
nication is large, distinct, and always present (Fig. 300).
The median vein then divides into the median basilic, which passes upward in
the internal bicipital furrow, and the median cephalic, which follows the edge of the
Median nerve
Basilic vein
Ulnar nerve
Triceps muscle
Internal cutaneous
(antibrachii medialis) nerve
Brachialis anticus muscle
Posterior ulnar vein *
Anterior ulnar vein
Bicipital fascia
Brachial artery-
Biceps muscle
Median basilic vein
Median cephalic vein
Musculocutaneous
nerve (antibrachii
lateralis)
Communication
between the deep and
superficial veins
Radial vein
Median vein
Fig. 300. — Veins at the bend ot the elbow.
biceps to the external bicipital furrow. Three or four centimetres above the bifurca-
tion of the median, the median cephalic vein is joined by the radial, and from that
point up it is called the cephalic vein.
The two ulnar veins just below the medial (internal) condyle or sometimes
just above it empty into the median basilic vein, which from this point is called
the basilic vein. Sometimes the two ulnar veins, anterior and posterior, unite and
empty into the median basilic by a common trunk. The median basilic vein passes
19
290
APPLIED ANATOMY.
over the bicipital fascia, which separates it from the brachial artery which lies directly
beneath. The median basilic \ein (or cephalic when more prominent) is usually
chosen for purposes of saline infusion. It lies to the inner side of the biceps tendon
and no important structures are liable to be wounded. The terminal filaments of
the musculocutaneous nerve pass under the median cephalic vein and are not liable
to be wounded. If the median basilic is chosen for infusion or venesection care must
be taken not to cut through the bicipital fascia, otherwise a wound of the brachial
artery may be produced which may result in the formation of a varicose aneurism or
aneurismal varix.
When these veins are wounded the bleeding may be very free. Not only are
the superficial parts drained but likewise the deep parts through the communication
with the median. We saw one case in which death nearly resulted from such a
wound made by a piece of tin. When saline infusion is practised the vein selected
is made visible by compressing it above. It is then cut directly down upon and
isolated, and the cannula inserted.
BRACHIAL ARTERY.
At the bend of the elbow the artery lies to the inner side of the biceps tendon.
It is beneath the bicipital or semilunar fascia,
felt opposite the crease. In the lower third
of the arm the median nerve lies close
to the artery, but as the bend of the elbow
is reached it diverges and becomes sepa-
rated from it by the coronoid head of the
pronator radii teres muscle. Superficial to
the deep fascia is the median basilic vein,
crossed at its upper portion by the cuta-
neous antebrachii medial is (internal cuta-
The upper edge of this fascia can be
m
Superior profunda (A. profunda
brachii)
■ Brachial artery
Inferior profunda (coUateralis
ulnaris superior)
Internal condyle
Median nerve
Venae comites
Brachial artery
Biceps tendon
;^
Anastomotica magna (collate-
"ralis ulnaris inferior)
-Radial recurrent
-Ulnar recurrent
Jnterosseous recurrent
-Posterior interosseous
"Anterior interosseous
Radial artery
-Ulnar artery
I
Fig. 301. — Ligation of the brachial artery at the bend
of the (left) elbow.
Fig. 302. — Collateral circulation after ligation of the
brachial artery at the bend of the elbow.
neous) nerve. The bifurcation of the brachial artery occurs opposite the neck of the
radius, which is approximately a finger's breadth, or about 2 cm., below the crease of
the elbow.
Ligation of the Brachial Artery at the Bend of the Elbow. — The inci-
sion is laid along the inner edge of the biceps tendon. The median basilic vein is
usually more prominent than the median cephalic and can be seen obliquely crossing
REGION OF THE ELBOW. 291
the artery to reach its inner side. This vein is encountered as soon as the skin is
divided, hence care is necessary to avoid wounding it. It should be displaced to the
inner side along with a filament of the cutaneous nerve if this is present. The inci-
sion is then deepened through the upper portion of the bicipital fascia and the artery
found beneath, lying in loose fatty tissue and accompanied by two venae comites.
The median nerve lies to the inner side but may be sufficiently removed not to be
exposed. The needle is passed from the inner towards the outer side (Fig. 301).
Collateral Circulation. — On the outer side the profunda (superior) anastomoses
with the interosseous recurrent (a branch of the posterior interosseous) and radial
recurrent. On the inner side the superior ulnar collateral (inferior profunda) and
inferior ulnar collateral (anastomotica magna) anastomose with the anterior and
posterior ulnar recurrent arteries (Fig. 302).
DISLOCATIONS OF THE ELBOW.
In dislocation of the elbow the bones of the forearm are most commonly displaced
backward. More rarely they may be partially displaced either inwardly or outwardly
and with or without an accompanying backward displacement. The lateral ligaments
External condyle
of humerus
Head of radius
Olecranon
Fig. 303. — Posterior luxation of the elbow; surface view of the outer side.
are strong, the anterior and posterior weak. The formation of the bones permits
anteroposterior movement and resists lateral movement; hence the frequency of
anteroposterior and the rarity of lateral luxations. To understand and recognize these
dislocations and distinguish between them and fractures requires a knowledge of the
shape of the bones, the position of the articulations, and especially of the relations
and significance of the various bony prominences, in other words, surface anatomy.
In doubtful cases compare the normal with the injured elbow.
Backward Dislocation of the Elbow. — In backward dislocation the radius
and ulna are pushed backward and the lower end of the humerus comes forward. It
is most commonly caused by falls on the outstretched hand and not by direct injury
to the elbow.
On the cadaver hyperextension with or even without a slight twisting readily
produces the displacement.
The internal and external lateral ligaments are torn loose from their respective
condyles and the anterior ligament is ruptured. The posterior ligament is stretched
ag2
APPLIED ANATOMY
from the olecranon process to the humerus, and with the periosteum may be hfted
up but not ruptured. This is especially the case with the periosteum above the
external condyle, as shown by Stimson.
The amount of tearing of the muscles depends on the amount of displacement.
The flexor muscles may be partly torn from the internal condyle or the extensors
from the external. The brachialis anticus probably will be somewhat torn near its
insertion in front of the coronoid process. The biceps is not torn but may in some
cases be caught behind the external condyle. The orbicular ligament remains intact
and holds the radius in its proper relation to the ulna.
Signs. — The position assumed by the bones is usually one of slight flexion,
approximately 120 degrees (Hamilton).
Viewing the elbow from the side, the anterior portion of the arm above the crease
is fuller than is normally the case. Posteriorly the olecranon is seen projecting, and
above it is a distinct hollow. On the outer side of the joint immediately in front of
the olecranon is seen a prominent projection caused by the head of the radius. It is
Internal condyle of humerus
Prominence formed by the trochlea of the
lower end of the humerus
Olecranon
Fig. 304. — Posterior luxation of the elbow; surface view of the inner side.
to be recognized by placing the thumb on it and rotating the hand. Almost directly
above it may be felt, — though it is not at all distinct, — the external condyle (Figs. 303
and 305 ) . On the inner side are seen two rounded bony eminences. The posterior and
upper of these is the larger; it is the internal condyle. Below and anterior to this is
another; it is the inner edge of the trochlear articulating surface (Figs. 304 and 306).
Measurements from the condyle to the acromion process show that they are the
same on the injured and the healthy sides. Measurements from the condyle to the
styloid process of the ulna show shortening on the injured side. As the lateral liga-
ments are torn there is abnormal lateral mobility. If the forearm is placed at right
angles to the arm, it is seen that the tip of the olecranon no longer lies on a plane
drawn through the long axis of the arm and the two condyles, but is considerably
posterior to it.
The diagnosis as pointed out by Stimson should be based on the positive recog-
nition of the position of the olecranon, the two condyles, and the head of the radius.
Treatment. — The lower end of the humerus rests in front of the coronoid process
(rarely fractured). When the forearm is flexed the triceps becomes tense and holds
REGION OF THE ELBOW.
'■93
the bones locked in their displaced position. The coronoid process prevents the
humerus from going back into place. To reduce the dislocation, the triceps is to be
Fig. 305. — Posterior luxation of the elbow, showing the
position of the bones as viewed from the outer side.
Fig. 306. — Posterior luxation of the elbow, showing the
position of the bones as viewed from the inner side.
relaxed by extending the forearm to an angle of about 120 degrees, thus lowering
the coronoid process, and extension is to be made on the forearm and counterexten-
sion on the arm. Usually an anaesthetic is not required (Fig. 307).
Inward Dislocation of the Elbow. — In inward dislocation the ulna and
Median nerve^
Brachialis anticus
Tendon of triceps
Ulnar nerve
"Olecranon process
Coronoid process
Pig. 307. — Dissected preparation of posterior luxation of the elbow, viewed from the inner side,
radius are pushed toward the inner side. The head of the radius leaves the capi-
tellum to rest on the adjacent portion of the trochlea. The olecranon slides from the
294
APPLIED ANATOMY.
outer to the inner surface of the trochlea. The outer condyle then becomes promi-
nent while the inner becomes confused with the olecranon. The identity of the con-
dyles is always to be established by tracing them up the humerus. This dislocation
is always incomplete.
Treatment. — Extension and counterextension with the arm slightly flexed to
Fig. 308. — Anterior dislocation of the head of the radius. (From author's sketch.)
release the coronoid process aided by direct pressure on the humerus inward and the
ulna outward.
Outward Dislocation of the Elbow. — In outward dislocation the concave
surface of the olecranon rests on the capitellum and in the groove between it and the
trochlea. The head of the radius projects far to the outer side of the external condyle.
The inner condyle and trochlea become quite prominent and can be readily recognized.
Treatme7it. — Slight flexure of the fore-
arm. Traction and pressure on the radius
inward and on the internal condyle and
lower end of the humerus outward.
Dislocation of the Head of the
Radius. — The ulna alone is rarely luxated
(when displaced it would practically be
a backward and inward luxation of the
elbow) but the head of the radius is not
infrequently pulled out of place (Fig. 308).
The accident occurs in children, par-
ticularly young ones who, in walking with
their elders, are frequently lifted or helped
along by a pull on the hand. The pull,
accompanied by hyperextension of the el-
bow and some adduction of the hand, draws
the head of the radius from beneath the
orbicular ligament and then the tension of
the biceps drags it forward. The displace-
ment may be either marked or slight. A
marked displacement in the well-developed
arm of an adult is readily recognized, but
in the fat, chubby, undeveloped arm of an
infant it is easily overlooked.
Diagnosis. — Pain attracts attention to
the part. There is apt to be inability to
flex the arm beyond a right angle, due to
the radius impinging on the lower end of
the humerus. Careful palpation reveals a
hollow below the lateral (external) condyle which should be normally occupied by
the head of the radius. The outer side of the forearm at the bend of the elbow may
be abnormally full and pressure here may detect the head of the radius displaced
forward (Figs. 309 and 310).
Treatment. — The forearm is to be extended almost to a straight line. Pressure
is to be made with the thumb to force the head of the radius back into place. While
this is done the forearm is to be flexed on the arm and if the head is replaced the
Fig. 309. — Anterior dislocation of the head of the
radius. Position of bones when viewed from in front.
REGION OF THE ELBOW. 295
elbow can be bent to its normal acute angle. On extension being made the radius
frequently again jumps forward, hence the injury is to be subsequently treated with
the arm in a flexed position.
Brachialis anticus
Biceps tendon
External condyle
External lateral liga-
ment
Orbicular ligament
Ulna
Fig. 310. — Anterior luxation of the head of the radius.
FRACTURES IN THE REGION OF THE ELBOW.
The elbow is frequently the seat of fractures, especially in children. Their
diagnosis and treatment are both difficult and the result sometimes unsatisfactory.
The bony processes are less distinct in children than in adults and fractures
sometimes pass unrecognized, being considered sprains, until the persistent disability
or marked deformity betrays their presence. Luxations and fractures are at times
mistaken for one another. For these reasons a working knowledge of the anatomy of
the region is indispensable.
The fractures that occur in this region are transverse fractures above the con-
dyles and oblique fractures through the condyles, which may either involve the condyles
proper (epicondyles so called) and be extra-articular, or involve the articular surface
of the trochlea or capitellum. Both condyles may be detached by a T- or Y-shaped
fracture: the olecranon may be fractured and also the head or neck of the radius.
Transverse Fracture of the Humerus above the Condyles (Supra-
condylar).— This is the most frequent fracture of the lower end of the humerus.
The mechanism of its production is not settled. There is little doubt but that it can
be produced by hyperextension, as the bone fractures at this point when luxation
does not occur. Hamilton regarded a blow on the elbow as the cause. The line of
fracture runs transversely across the bone just above the condyles and obliquely
from behind downward and forward (Fig. 311, page 296).
Displacemeiit. — The lower fragment is drawn upward and backward and some-
times there is an angular lateral deformity with obliteration of the carrying angle
(see page 282).
Signs. — The overriding of the fragment produces shortening of the humerus as
measured from the acromion to the lateral (external) condyle. The olecranon projects
backward, causing a hollow above which resembles that produced in backward lux-
ation. The flexure of the elbow is fuller than normal. The relation of the condyles
to the tip of the olecranon is not altered. The condyles may, however, lie posterior
to a line drawn down the middle of the humerus in its long axis. The sharp edge of
the lower fragment can sometimes be felt posteriorly.
Extension of the forearm causes the fragment to be pushed still farther upward.
Treatment. — There is no single treatment that is applicable to all cases. If the
arm is too much extended, the biceps and brachialis anticus are made tense, and
296
APPLIED ANATOMY.
tension of either the anterior or posterior muscles tends to favor overlapping and to
prevent replacement. Full flexion renders the triceps tense. To relax both sets of
muscles a position at about right angles is probably best.
Stimson has shown that gunstock (angular) deformity frequently follows this
injury, hence especial care should be taken to guard against it. It is caused by a
tilting of the lower fragment. Instead of a line joining the condyles being at right
angles to the long axis of the humerus, it may be oblique, owing to one condyle
being higher than the other. Practically it is not possible to recognize this displace-
ment when the arm is bent at a right angle. The splints will fit the part and every-
thing appears satisfactory, but on removal of the splints and extension of the forearm
it may be found that the carrying angle has been destroyed and that a gunstock
deformity is present. This accident is to be avoided by extending the arm during
the earlier periods of treatment before the fragment becomes fixed by callus, and
Triceps muscle
Ulnar nerve
Internal condyle
Olecranon
Fig. 311. — Transverse fracture of the lower end of the humerus above the condyles. The upper fragment
is seen to be displaced forward and the lower fragment with the olecranon is displaced backward. This posterior
displacement is increased by tension of the triceps muscle.
seeing that, on extension, the forearm makes the same angle with the arm as does
that of the healthy side.
The common mode of treatment of supracondylar fractures is the use of antero-
posterior splints with the elbow bent at a right angle or sometimes acutely flexed.
Fractures Involving the Condyles. — The condyles (page 280) have been
described as the lateral bony projections of the lower end of the humerus which are
extra-articular. Therefore the trochlea and capitellum are not parts of the condyles,
and the epicondyles are simply the tips of the condyles.
Bearing this in mind it is evident that fractures involving the condyles may be
confined to them and not implicate the articular surfaces. They are then extra-artic-
ular fractures of the condyles, or they can with some reason be called fractures of the
epicondyles. Other fractures may not only implicate the condyles, but pass through
them into the articular surfaces. These will be called intra-articular fractures of the
condyles. The internal epicondyle (epicondylus medialis) is sometimes called the
epitrochlea.
Extra-artiailar Fractures of the Condyles or Fractures of the Epicondyles. — The
medial (internal) condyle projects far beyond the body of the bone as a distinct bony
REGION OF THE ELBOW. 297
process, while the lateral (external) condyle is low, flat, and not prominent. For
these reasons fractures of the medial condyle not involving the joint are more common
than those of the lateral condyle. In fact e.xtra-articular fractures of the lateral con-
dyle (detachment of the epicondyle) are almost unknown, but they have been proven
to exist.
In extra-articular fractures of the medial condyle, the fragment has been dis-
placed downward by the flexor muscles which arise from it. To counteract this
tendency the arm is treated in a flexed position. As the ulnar nerve runs in the
groove on the posterior surface of the condyle it has also been injured, and vesicles
and impairment of sensation in the course of the nerv^e have been observed. As
the articular surfaces are not involved, no serious deformity or disability need be
expected.
Intra-articular Fractures of the Condyles. — The line of fracture in these injuries
usually starts above the epicondyle and passes toward the middle of the bone,
chipping off a portion of the trochlear surface or the capitellum. Fractures invoh'ing
the lateral are probably more frequent than those involving the medial condyle.
Intra-articidar Fracture of the Medial Condyle. — The line of fracture passes
obliquely through the condyle, entering just above its tip and emerging on the artic-
ular surface of the trochlea either in the groove sepa-
rating the two portions of the trochlea or the groove
between the trochlea and capitellum. As already ex-
plained (page 282), the integrity of the joint and the
line of the arm depend on the trochlea and not on
the capitellum, therefore the farther over toward the
capitellum the line of fracture goes the more likely is
there to be lateral mobility (Fig. 312).
The fragment may be pushed up; this carries the
ulna up with it while the radius is prevented from
following by the capitellum. Therefore the forearm
bends inward, making a lateral deformity. The carry-
ing angle (page 282) becomes obliterated and what is
known as gunstock deformity or cubittis varus is pro-
duced. It is mainly to the researches of Dr. O. H. pio. 312.— Fracture of internal
Allis that we are indebted for our knowledge of the condyle and trochlea causing gun-
. , . , . . _,, , "^ , stock detormitv (cubitus varus).
mechanism of this deformity. 1 he attachment of the From a photograph of a preparation
n 1 J ^1 it. r i. r • • in the Mutter Museum of the Col-
flexor muscles does not keep the fragment from rising. lege of Physicians.
The deformity is difficult to detect when the elbow is
flexed. The condyles and olecranon and shaft of the humerus may all be in the
same straight line and still the medial (internal) condyle be higher than normal. If
the injury is treated with a right-angled splint the radius and ulna remain in their
proper positions but the ulna and medial condyle may both be higher than normal.
If this is the case, then, when the forearm is extended, instead of it making an angle
of 10 degrees outwardly with the line of the humerus, it may incline 10 degrees or
even 20 degrees inwardly: thus it may deviate as much as 30 degrees from the normal
direction. To guard against this deformity Allis advised treating the injury with the
arm in full extension. Any tendency to lateral deformity will then be at once evident
and can be corrected by additional lateral support. Certain it is that no serious
fracture of the elbow ought to be treated without frequent examinations of the arm
in full or almost complete extension being made from time to time, so as to be sure
this deformity is not becoming established.
The treatment of fractures involving the joint by placing the elbow in a position
of complete flexion has been strongly advocated and as a rule is best, although it has
not entirely superseded other methods in all cases.
Intra-articnlar Fracture of the Lateral {Fxternal) Condyle. — This is also a fairly
common injury. The line of the fracture passes from above the tip of the lateral
condyle down into the joint through the capitellum or between it and the trochlea.
As is to be expected, this does not show the same tendency to lateral deformity
as does fracture of the trochlea. When lateral deformity does occur it is be-
cause the fracture is so extensive as to also involve the trochlea. This, like the
APPLIED ANATOMY
other fractures of this region, is to be diagnosed by grasping the fractured part and
detecting crepitus and excessive mobihty. The medial (internal) condyle is felt
firmly attached to the humerus and the olecranon to the ulna, but the lateral (ex-
ternal) condyle is felt to move independently of the others. It is efficiently treated
by an anterior (not internal) angular splint.
Intercondylar or T Fracture. — When both condyles are detached there is
produced what is known as a T fracture. In this injury both condyles are detached
from each other and from the shaft of the humerus. The line of fracture may vary.
Sometimes there is a transverse fracture above the condyles with a second line
passing longitudinally into the joint like the letter T. In other cases the lines may
be like the letter V or Y (Fig. 313).
In all these cases the mobility is very marked and the limb can be bent at the
elbow in any direction. The diagnosis is to be made by grasping the shaft of the
humerus with one hand and moving each condyle separately with the other. Having'
determined that each is detached from the humerus, then
one condyle is grasped in each hand and they are moved
on one" another, thus establishing the fact of a fracture
between them.
In treatment the same care must be exercised to detect
the occurrence of gunstock deformity as has already been
advised in fractures of the medial condyle. In these frac-
tures the fragments are frequently rotated on one another,
and disability and deformity so often result that in some
cases it is advisable to fix the fragments in place by some
operative means.
Fracture of the Olecranon Process. — The olecra-
non process may be fractured either close to its extremity
near the insertion of the triceps tendon, through approxi-
mately the middle of the greater sigmoid cavity, or toward
the coronoid process.
The second is the more common. The fracture which
occurs nearer the insertion of the triceps is liable to occur
from muscular action, the triceps contracting and tearing off
the piece of bone into which it is inserted. The shape of
the process should be noted. In the bottom of the greater
sigmoid cavity near where the process joins the shaft it is
constricted and weakened by a groove which sometimes
passes nearly or quite across its surface. This is the
weakest point and is most often the site of fracture.
The triceps muscle inserts not only into the upper sur-
face of the olecranon but also along its sides. In addition
it sends of? a fibrous expansion to each side ; the one to the
medial condyle is thin, but the one to the lateral condyle
forms a broad, tough, fibrous band which stretches from
the olecranon to the lateral condyle and passes down over the anconeus to be
attached to the outer edge of the upper fourth of the ulna (Fig. 314). In cases of
fracture the fragment is only slightly displaced upward by the contraction of the
triceps. The reason is that the fibrous expansion of the triceps usually is not suffi-
ciently torn to allow of the retraction of the fragment. The amount of separation of
the fragments is directly proportional to the amount of tearing of the lateral fibrous
expansion of the triceps tendon. By extending the forearm the triceps is relaxed and
by pushing the fragment down crepitus can often be elicited.
Treatment. — Fracture of the olecranon process is usually treated with the elbow
slightly flexed. Complete extension is not commonly employed. The slight flexion
allows for the effusion into the joint and leaves the arm sufficiently extended to relax
the triceps.
An adhesive strip placed across the back of the elbow above the fragment and
brought down and crossed on the front of the forearm usually suffices to keep the
fragment in position. .
Fig. 313. — Intercondylar
or T fracture of the lower
end of the humerus. Mutter
Museum, College of Physicians.
REGION OF THE ELBOW.
299
The bond of union between the fragments is usually so short that it appears to
be bony and function is perfect. If the fibrous band is long extension will be incom-
plete and weak.
Fracture of the Coronoid Process and Upper End of the Radius. —
Fracture of the coronoid process does occur but it is exceedingly rare. The brachi-
alis anticus does not insert into its tip, but at the lower part of its anterior surface.
The fracture is most liable to occur in cases of luxation, the process being knocked
of? as the humerus comes forward.
Fractures of the Head and Neck of the Radius. — The head and neck of the
radius are rarely fractured. When broken, the line of fracture through the head is
Ulnar nerve
Internal condyle ~7^
Site of fracture of olecranon
Posterior surface of the
upper end of the ulna
Triceps extensor muscle
Portion of tendon of triceps which
inserts into the olecranon process
External condyle of humerus
Portion of the tendon of the triceps
which inserts into the posterior
surface of the upper fourth of the
ulna
Fig. 314. — Fracture of the olecranon process, showing the insertion of the triceps muscle into the olecranon and
upper fourth of the ulna.
usually longitudinal and a portion of the head is chipped off. The fragment is liable
to become displaced, and either creates inflammation and suppuration or becomes
fixed and greatly interferes with motion. For these reasons the fractured head has
been frequently excised. A similar displacement may occur when the neck of the
radius is fractured.
In this latter injury an anterior angular deformity is said to have been produced
by the action of the biceps pulling the lower fragment, to which it is attached,
forwards.
The classical specimen in the Mutter Museum of the College of Physicians of
Philadelphia is usually instanced as an example of this action. The possibility of its
occurrence suggests the treatment of the injury with the elbow flexed to relax the
biceps muscle.
Epiphyses of the Bones of the Elbow. — Traumatic epiphyseal separations
are possible, but so rare as to be seldom detected. Supracondylar fractures in
300
APPLIED ANATOMY.
children, though not infrequently described as separations of the epiphysis are
probably more often true bony fractures.
Hufucrus. — The lower end of the humerus ossifies by four centres. Three of
them, those for the lateral (external) condyle, capitellum and outer portion of the
trochlea, and inner portion of the trochlea, appear at the twelfth, third, and twelfth
years and fuse and unite with the shaft at about the six-
teenth year. The fourth, for the internal condyle, appears
at the fifth and unites about the seventeenth or eighteenth
year. The epiphyseal line runs close to the edge of the
articular surface and is below the level of a transverse line
joining the upper edges of the two condyles (Fig. 315).
A true epiphyseal separation would thus be intra-articular
and would involve comparatively only a thin shell of the
articular surface. As already stated most of the cases
regarded as epiphyseal separations are probably true
supracondylar fractures.
Destruction or removal of the epiphyseal cartilage
is, of course, if possible, to be avoided in operations in
young children, as otherwise interference with the growth
of the bone will occur.
U/na. — Most of the olecranon process is a direct
outgrowth from the shaft of the ulna. At about the
tenth year a thin shell forms at its extremity which
unites at the sixteenth year. Therefore fractures which
pass through the bottom of the greater sigmoid caxity
are not separations of the epiphysis but true fractures.
Radius. — The upper articular surface of the radius
has a centre of ossification which appears from the fifth
to the seventh year, and unites at the eighteenth to
twentieth year.
There is also a centre for the tubercle. Surgical writers as a rule do not speak
of epiphyseal separations of the upper ends of the radius and ulna.
DISEASE OF THE OLECRANON BURSA.
Between the skin covering the olecranon process and the bone is a bursa,
which, from its exposed position, is not infrequently diseased. It lies in the subcu-
taneous tissue and resembles in all respects the bursa in front of the patella. In those
whose occupation causes them to rest frequently on the elbow, this bursa becomes
enlarged, hence the name ' ' miner's elbow. ' ' The bursa lies on the posterior surface
of the bone and extends from the tip of the olecranon downward in the direction of
the forearm. Excision is the most efficient treatment. There are no dangerous
structures to be encountered in the operation because the bursa does not communi-
cate with the joint. The position of the ulnar nerve should be borne in mind. It
can readily be avoided and usually is not seen. There is sometimes another bursa
on the upper surface of the olecranon just below the insertion of the triceps. It is
rarely affected.
DISEASE OF THE ELBOW-JOINT.
The elbow-joint, like others, is affected with rheumatoid and tuberculous dis-
ease. The former frequently causes ankylosis, while the latter frequently causes
suppuration. The joint becomes distended and enlarged. The bony prominences
of the elbow, while they may not be visible, nevertheless can usually be recog-
nized by palpation. The lateral ligaments are stronger than the anterior and pos-
terior, hence the swelling is most marked in front and behind. As the internal lateral
ligament is stronger than the external lateral, swelling will be more marked on the
outer side and the medial (internal) condyle will be more easily recognized than the
lateral (external).
Fig. 315. — Epiphysis of the
lower end of the humerus; unites
with the shaft at about the seven-
teenth or eighteenth year.
REGION OF THE ELBOW.
301
Pus first works its way posteriorly up behind the tendon of the triceps and then
sideways and along the intermuscular septa. As the external supracondylar ridge is
nearer the surface than the internal, pus will show itself sooner above the lateral
(external) condyle. It may form a protrusion on each side of the triceps tendon and
olecranon process.
Later it may show itself anteriorly ; when it does so it appears more to the outer
than to the inner side, being deflected outwardly through the antecubital space by
the attachment of the brachialis anticus to the coronoid process, by the tendon of the
biceps and by the bicipital fascia which passes from the tendon over the muscles
attached to the medial (internal) condyle.
RESECTION OF THE ELBOW.
A straight incision is made over the point of the olecranon a little internal to its
middle. The upper portion of this incision splits the triceps. Its lower part is
Ole
Head of radius
Capitellum
-Trochlea
Internal condvle
Cut edge of capsule
Ulnar nerve
Cut edge of triceps tendon
Fig. 316. — Resection of the elbow- joint; the ends of the bones are exposed ready to be removed.
carried down to the bone on the posterior surface of the ulna. The attachment of
the triceps to the inner side is then dissected off and the ulnar nerve raised from its
groove without injuring it. The medial (internal) condyle is then to be cleared of
the muscles attached to it. The parts external to the incision are now to be raised.
By means of periosteal elevators aided by the knife the external part of the triceps is
detached from the bone as closely as possible, following exactly the edge of the ulna.
The anconeus is raised with the triceps and the broad fibrous expansion passing from
the olecranon to the lateral (external) condyle and thence over the anconeus to be
continuous with the deep fascia is preserved intact. On the care with which this is
done depends the amount of subsequent muscular control. As the triceps is turned
aside the muscles attached to the lateral condyle are raised in the same manner. The
soft parts being drawn to each side the bones are protruded and the remaining soft
parts anteriorly can be detached. A flat spatula is then passed beneath the bones
and the humerus sawed through opposite the upper edge of the medial (internal)
condyle above and the radius and ulna opposite the lower edge of the head of the
radius below. The insertions of the biceps and brachialis anticus are not disturbed.
APPLIED ANATOMY.
In raising the supinator (brevis) from the upper portion or the radius care
should be exercised not to wound the posterior interosseous nerve. It runs between
two planes of muscular fibres in the substance of the supinator (brevis). It is a
nerve of motion supplying all the extensor muscles with the exception of the anco-
neus, brachioradialis (supinator longus), and extensor carpi radialis longior; hence
its injury will be followed by serious paralysis. Almost no vessels require ligation
(Fig. 316).
AMPUTATION AT THE ELBOW-JOINT.
Amputation at this joint is peculiar from the fact of the width of the lower end of
the humerus. The skin is loose and shows a marked tendency to retract, especially on
the anterior surface. This, combined with the large, expanded end of the humerus,
Tendon of biceps.
Radial (musculospiral)
nerve, superficial and
deep branches
Stump of extensor and
supinator muscles
Radial artery
Internal (antibrachil
medialis) cutaneous
nerve
Median nerve
Ulnar artery
Ulnar nerve
Stump of flexor muscles
Fig. 317. — Amputation at the elbow- joint.
requires ample flaps to be made or difficulty will be encountered in properly covering
the end of the humerus. The irregularity of the line of the joint makes disarticula-
tion somewhat difficult (Fig. 317). •
A long anterior flap with or without a short posterior one is usually advised.
On account of the tendency to retraction the ends of the incision are not carried up
to the condyles but are kept at least 2.5 cm. (i in.) below them.
If the flap is cut by transfixion the line of the articulation must be borne in mind.
Inasmuch as the trochlear surface projects farther down than the capitellum it is
customary to incline the knife downward and inward. Also, as the trochlear portion
is thicker, wider, and projects farther than the capitellum, the inner side of the flap is
made longer than the outer.
The skin on the anterior surface is loose and retracts freely as soon as cut ; hence
the muscles are often cut by transfixion. The skin on the posterior surface is not so
loose and does not exhibit the same tendency to retraction. After the anterior
muscles have been raised and the short posterior skin flap turned back the joint is to
THE FOREARM. 303
be opened. The line of the joint runs from i. 25 cm. below the lateral (ext. ) condyle to
2.5 cm. below the medial (int.) condyle and is most readily recognized on the outer
side, hence the division of the ligaments is to be made from the outer toward the
inner side. The point at which to enter the knife is to be found by first feeling the
head of the radius in the pit below the lateral (external) condyle posteriorly and then
by pressure just above the head recognizing the groove between the upper edge of
the head and capitellum. The knife passes directly traversely along between the
head of the radius and capitellum, then across the inner portion of the trochlea and is
then directed downward and inward around the projecting inner portion of the
trochlea. Division of the internal lateral ligament allows the forearm to be bent back
and the triceps attachment becomes exposed and can be di\'ided from the front. The
appearance of the stump will depend on the manner in which the flaps have been cut.
On each side will be the muscular masses from the internal and external con-
dyles. Between them will be the tendons of the biceps and brachialis anticus. The
median and ulnar nerves are to be found, the former to the inner side of the biceps
tendon and the latter behind the medial (internal) condyle. They are to be short-
ened. The radial (musculospiral) has already divided into its superficial (radial) and
deep (posterior interosseous) branches.
The ulnar and radial arteries will probably be found divided well anterior on the
face of the stump. Some bleeding may be present from the terminal branches of the
profunda in front of the lateral condyle, from the superior ulnar collateral (inferior
profunda) behind the medial condyle, or from the interosseous or recurrent branches.
It is usually not necessary to apply ligatures to the larger superficial veins.
THE FOREARM.
The forearm is intimately associated with the functions' of the hand. It serves
as a sort of pedestal or support, enabling the hand to be carried away from the body,
and, by possessing certain movements of its own, — those of pronation and supination,
— it increases greatly the range and character of the movements which the hand
is capable of executing. The hand is the essential part of the upper extremity and
the forearm is subsidiary. Hence we find that, like the neck, the forearm possesses
nerves and blood-\-essels much larger than its own proper functions would require and
which are destined for the more important parts beyond. It is composed of two
bones, the radius and the ulna, which act as the bony support of the part, of a few
muscles which move these bones and many more which move the hand and fingers
beyond, and of certain nerves and blood-vessels that not only supply it but also the
parts beyond.
BONES OF THE FOREARM.
The forearm contains two bones, instead of one as in the arm. One of these
bones, the ulna, is directly continuous with the humerus; the other, the radius, is
continuous with the hand. In other words, the ulna is associated with the move-
ments of the arm, and the radius with those of the hand. The large end of the ulna
articulates with the humerus and its small end is at the wrist, while the large end of
the radius is articulated with the hand and its small end with the humerus.
The ulna is the bone which acts mainly as a support. It articulates with the
humerus by a pure hinge-joint; hence its only motion is one of extension and flexion.
It is the fixed bone and does not take part in the movements of pronation and supi-
nation, but serves as an anchoring part for the attachment of the muscles which move
the radius as well as the hand. At its upper extremity it has attached to it the
brachialis antiais, triceps, and anco?ieus mzcscles, which flex and extend it.
At its upper extremity on its outer side is the lesser sigmoid cavity for the articu-
lation of the radius. Its lower extremity ends in a head tipped with a styloid process.
The ulna gradually decreases in size from above downward until its lower fourth is
reached, when it is slightly enlarged to end in the head. At its lower end, the lateral
aspect of the head of the ulna rests in a cavity in the radius to allow of the movements
of pronation and supination (Fig. 318).
304
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The radius is small above and gradually increases in size until its lower extremity
is reached, where it is largest. Its upper portion is composed mainly of compact
bone with a medullary cavity; lower down as the bone becomes larger it becomes
more cancellous. Hence it does not follow that it is strongest where it is largest; on
the contrary it is most often fractured at its lower extremity. About two centimetres
below the head of the radius is a tubercle. The biceps tendon is inserted into its
posterior portion and a bursa covers its anterior part, over which the tendon of the
biceps plays. The radius is the movable bone and to it is attached the hand.
Stretched across from one bone to the other is the interosseous membrane. Most
of its fibres run from the ulna upward and outward, so that the shocks received on the
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexor sublimis digitorum
Pronator radii teres
Brachialis anticus
Supinator (brevis)
Flexor sublimis digitorum
Flexor profundus digitorum
Pronator quadratus
Biceps
Supinator (brevis)
Pronator radii teres
Flexor sublimis digitorum
Flexor longus pollicis
Pronator quadratus
Rrachioradialis
Fig. 318. — Anterior view of radius and ulna with areas ot muscular attachments.
hand are transmitted somewhat to the ulna. On its anterior surface run the anterior
interosseous arteiy and nerve. About 2.5 cm. (i in.) above its lower end the artery
pierces the membrane to go to the back of the wrist.
I
MOVEMENTS OF PRONATION AND SUPINATION.
The radius revolves on the ulna about an axis which passes through the centre
of the head of the radius above and the styloid process of the ulna below, which line
if prolonged would pass through the ring finger (Fig. 319). In pronation, the hand
lies with the palm down and the radius is crossed diagonally over the ulna; the bones
are close together (Fig. 320). In supination the hand lies with the palm up, the
THE FOREARM.
305
bones lie parallel to one another and widely separated (Fig. 321). In the midposi-
tion the radius lies above the ulna and the space between them is at its maximum.
The difference in this respect between midpronation and complete supination is
slight. The head of the radius rotates in the orbicular ligament, the lower end of
the radius revolves around the head of the ulna and rests on the interarticular trian-
gular fibrocartilage. The range of movement is from 140 degrees to 160 degrees.
The radius is pronated by the pronator teres and pronator quadratus muscles. It
is supinated by the brachioradialis, supinator (brevis), and biceps muscles. Some
of the other muscles also aid slightly in these movements, especially the flexor carpi
radialis in pronation. In fractures the preservation of the interosseous space is
essential for the proper performance of pronation and supination; hence anything
/ ^
Fig. 319. — The axis of rotation
in pronation and supination.
Fig. 320. — Position of the bones
of the forearm when the hand is in
the position of pronation.
Fig. 321. — Position of the
bones of the forearm when the hand
is in the position of supination.
which tends to encroach on it, as displacement of the fragments or their position as
influenced by the position of the hand, is to be guarded against.
The muscles of supination are much stronger than those of pronation; for this rea-
son instruments intended to be used in a rotary manner turn from the inside toward
the outside; that is, in the direction of supination. The screw-driver is an example.
MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM.
The movements of the hand and fingers are so intricate and complex as to
necessitate a large number of muscles for their performance. It is probably easiest
in order to understand the construction of the forearm to study these muscles in
reference to their functions.
The muscles which occupy the forearm form three groups, which have separate
functions: (i) to flex and extend the fingers; (2) to flex and extend the wrist; (3)
to pronate and supinate the hand.
3o(
APPLIED ANATOMY.
I. THE FLEXORS AND EXTENSORS OF THE FINGERS.
The fingers are moved by two sets of muscles, a long set arising from the fore-
arm and a short set which is confined to the hand. At present we are concerned
only with the long extensors and flexors which are found in the forearm.
Brachialis anticus
Biceps
Brachioradialis (supinator ]ongus)
Flexor longus poUicis
Pronator quadratus.
Pronator radii teres
-Flexor carpi radialis
-Palmaris longus
Flexor sublimis diRitorum
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Fig. 322. — Superficial view of the anterior muscles of the forearm.
The Flexors of the Fingers.
The flexors of the fingers consist of three separate groups of muscles: (i) the
Jlexor profundus digitoriim and flexor longus pollicis, which insert into the distal
phalanges; (2) the flexor sublimis digitorum ; (3) the palmaris longus which,
spreading out into the palmar fascia, is attached to the heads of the metacarpal
THE FOREARM.
307
bones and blends with the capsules of the metacarpophalangeal joints. It is an
additional perforated flexor muscle_(Fig-. 322).
I. The flexor profundus digitorum is composed of four slips, one for each
finger, and the flexor longus pollicis (Fig. 323) is a fifth slip that supplies the
Brachioradialis
Extensor carpi radialis longioj
Extensor carpi radialis brevior
Pronator radii teres
Flexor carpi radialis
Palmaris longus
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexor longus pollicis
Pronator quadratus
Stump of flexor carpi radialis
Flexor sublimis digitorum
Flexor sublimis digitorum
Flexor profundus digitorum
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Palmaris longus and palm
"ascia turned down
Pig. 323. — Dissection showing the muscles of the forearm, especially the long flexor muscles of the fingers.
thumb. The flexor profundus arises from the anterior surface of the ulna and inter-
osseous membrane while the flexor longus pollicis arises from the anterior surface of
the radius and interosseous membrane. Their tendons pass through slits in the
flexor sublimis digitorum opposite the proximal phalanges to insert into the bases of
the distal phalanges.
3o8 ^^^^^^ APPLIED ANATOMY. S
2. The flexor sublimis digitorum arises from the medial (internal) condyle of
the humerus, the coronoid process, the intermuscular septa, and the oblique line of
the radius and divides into four tendons which split in front of the proximal pha-
langes to allow the profundus to pass through and then unite again and insert into
the sides of the middle phalanges. There are only four instead of five slips, because
the thumb has no middle phalanx but only proximal and distal ones (Fig. 323).
3. The palmaris longus arises from the medial (internal) condyle of the
humerus and intermuscular septa and inserts into the palmar fascia, which is attached
to the base of the proximal phalanges, to the heads of the metacarpal bones, and
blends with the capsules of the metacarpophalangeal joints. It is thus seen to be a
perforated muscle exactly like the flexor sublimis, which it also resembles in func-
tion; its attachment is not so far forward. Traction on it tends to flex the proximal
phalanx.
The Extensors of the Fingers.
The extensors of the thumb and fingers arise from the lateral (external) condyle
and posterior surface of the ulna, radius, interosseous membrane, and intermuscular
septa.
Three separate slips forming the extensor longus pollicis, extensor brevis
pollicis, and extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis go to the thumb. The longus
inserts into the distal phalanx, the brevis into the proximal, and the ossis into the
metacarpal bone of the thumb.
The extensor communis digitorum divides into four slips, one for each
finger. The slip to the index is reinforced by an additional one called the exten-
sor indicis proprius muscle. The slip to the little finger is reinforced by the
extensor minimi digiti (ext. digiti quinti proprius) muscle. They divide
on the dorsum of the proximal phlanges into three parts, the middle one inserts into
the base of the middle phalanx, while the two lateral slips insert into the base of the
distal phalanx.
2. THE FLEXORS AND EXTENSORS OF THE WRIST.
The muscles which flex and extend the fingers of course also move the hand
as a whole, but in addition to these muscles there are five others, — two flexor
muscles and three extensor muscles, — which are inserted into the bones of the meta-
carpus and not into the phalanges. When these muscles contract they tend to
move the whole hand and not the fingers alone. They are the flexor carpi radialis,
flexor carpi ubiaris, extensor carpi radialis longior, extensor carpi radialis brevior,
and extensor carpi ulnaris. The palmaris longus has already been described as a
flexor of the fingers.
Flexors of the Wrist.
Flexor Carpi Radialis. — The two flexors of the wrist, the flexor carpi
radialis and the flexor carpi ulnaris, are both superficial muscles lying directly
beneath the skin. The flexor carpi radialis arises from the medial (internal)
condyle of the humerus and intermuscular septa and lies between the pronator
radii teres externally and the palmaris longus internally. It runs obliquely across
the forearm, striking the wrist at about the junction of the middle and outer thirds.
It lies next to and to the outer side of the palmaris longus tendon and to the ulnar
side of the radial artery and inserts into the front of the base of the second meta-
carpal bone (Fig. 324).
Flexor Carpi Ulnaris. — The flexor carpi ulnaris arises by two heads, one
from the common tendon of the medial (internal) condyle and the other from
the olecranon process and upper two-thirds of the ulna. The two heads are
separated by the ulnar nerve, which passes down in the groove between the medial
condyle and olecranon process. The muscle passes straight down the anterior
and inner surface of the ulna to insert first into the pisiform bone and unciform
process and then to continue over to the base of the fifth metacarpal bone. The
pisiform bone is a sesamoid bone in the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle.
THE FOREARM.
309
Both die flexor carpi radialis and the flexor carpi ulnaris flex the hand at the
wrist. When the ulnaris alone acts it tends to tilt the hand inward; when the
radialis acts alone it tends to incline the hand outward. Being superficial, these
muscles are both important landmarks and guides to the arteries.
Pisiform bone
Fio. 324. — The flexor muscles of the wrist. Fig. 325. — The extensor muscles of the wrist.
Extensors of the Wrist.
Extensor Carpi Radialis Longior. — The extensor carpi radialis longior
arises from the lower third of the external supracondylar ridge and the lateral
(external) condyle and inserts into the back of the base of the second metacarpal
bone. When it contracts it tends to tilt the hand toward the radial side as well
3IO APPLIED ANATOMY. ^^^^^^^^^H
as to extend it, and, being attached to the humerus above the line of the elbow-
joint, it also aids in flexing the elbow.
Extensor Carpi Radialis Brevior. — The extensor carpi radiaHs brevior
arises from the common tendon of the lateral condyle and fascia, and, running
down parallel to the longior muscle, inserts into the base of the third metacarpal
bone. It is covered by the extensor carpi radialis longior muscle and lies on the
supinator (brevis). It acts as a pure extensor of the wrist (Fig. 325).
Extensor Carpi Ulnaris. — The extensor carpi ulnaris arises by two heads,
one from the lateral ( external j condyle and the other from the posterior surface of
the ulna through the fascia common to it, to the flexor carpi ulnaris, and to the flexor
profundus digitorum. It inserts into the base of the fifth metacarpal bone. It extends
the wrist and tilts the hand toward the ulnar side.
3. PRONATORS AND SUPINATORS OF THE HAND.
The movements of pronation and supination have already been described
(page 304). They are performed by five muscles, two pronators and three supin-
ators. The pronators are the pronator radii teres and the pronator quadratus.
The supinators are the brachioradialis (^supinator longus), the supinator {brevis),
and the biceps.
Pronators of the Hand.
Pronator Radii Teres {Round Pronator). — The pronator radii teres arises
by two heads, one from the medial (internal) condyle and the other, much smaller,
from the inner surface of the coronoid process. The median nerve passes between
these two heads. The muscle crosses the forearm obliquely and inserts by a flat
tendon into the middle of the outer surface of the radius. It rotates the radius
inward and tends to draw it toward the ulna and flex it on the humerus. The
influence of this muscle is marked in displacing the radius when fractured.
Pronator Quadratus {Square Pronator). — The pronator quadratus arises
from the volar (palmar) surface of the lower fourth of the ulna and inserts into the
lateral and anterior surface of the radius. By its contraction it rotates the radius
toward the ulna and in cases of fracture tends to draw the bones together and thus
endanger the integrity of the interosseous space (Fig. 326).
Supinators of the Hand.
Brachioradialis {Supinator Longus) . — The brachioradialis arises from the
upper two-thirds of the lateral (external) supracondylar ridge of the humerus and
inserts into the base of the styloid process of the radius. When the hand is in a state
of pronation contraction of the brachioradialis will tend to supinate it. It also acts
as a flexor of the elbow, as has already been pointed out. It is superticiai and is an
important guide both to the radial (musculospiral) nerve and to the radial artery.
Supinator {Brevis). — The supinator arises from the lateral condyle, the
external lateral and orbicular ligaments, and the triangular surface of the ulna
below the lesser sigmoid cavity. It winds around the posterior and external sur-
faces of the radius and inserts into the upper and outer portion, covering its head,
neck, and shaft as low down as the insertion of the pronator radii teres muscle.
It lies deep down beneath the mass of extensor muscles and supinates the radius.
It is pierced by the deep branch of the radial (posterior interosseous) nerve which
bears the same relation to it as does the external popliteal nerve to the peroneus
longus muscle in the leg.
Biceps Muscle. — The biceps muscle has already been described. Arising
by its long head from the upper edge of the glenoid cavity and by its short head
from the coracoid process it inserts into the posterior portion of the tubercle of
the radius. While its main function is that of flexion of the elbow, still, from the
manner in which it winds around the tubercle of the radius, it acts as a powerful
supinator when the hand is prone and it is a disturbing factor in the displacements
which occur in fractures of the bones of the forearm.
THE FOREARM.
3"
Pronator radii teres
— Biceps
Brachioradialis
(supinator longus)
Supinator (brevis)
Pronator quadratus ■
^^^
Fig. 326. — The pronator and supinator muscles of the left forearm.
312
APPLIED ANATOMY.
SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE FOREARM.
The forearm has the shape of a somewhat flattened cone, being large above and
small below. This is because the bellies of the muscles lie above and their tendons
below. Most of the muscles of the forearm go to the hand and fingers. The
prehensile functions of the hand require a strong grasp; hence it is that we find
the flexor muscles on the anterior surface of the forearm much larger and more
powerful than the extensors posteriorly, and the bones of the forearm, the radius and
ulna, nearer the surface posteriorly.
Anterior Surface. — Anteriorly nothing is to be felt except muscles and
tendons. The extent to which these can be outlined depends on the absence of
Supinators and extensors
Tendon of flexor carpi radialis
Pronator and flexors
Tendon of palmaris longus
Transverse furrows
Fio. 327. — Surface anatomy of the forearm.
subcutaneous fat and the degree of development and contraction of the individual
muscles. The skin of the forearm is loose and thin. Through it can be seen
anteriorly, the median vein going up the middle and the radial vein winding around
the back of the wrist and crossing the outer edge of the radius about its middle.
On the inner side near the elbow the anterior and posterior ulnar veins are visible
passing posteriorly.
Sometimes there is a slight depression on the inner side below the medial
(internal) condyle which is caused by the bicipital fascia Ijolding the muscle down.
The biceps tendon can be felt at the bend of the elbow, and immediately below
it for the distance of 5 cm. (2 in. ) can be felt a hollow, the antecubital fossa. The
mass of muscles between it and the ulna on the inside and posteriorly are the
I
THE FOREARM.
313
flexors and pronator radii teres; the mass of muscles on the outer side between it
and the radius posteriorly are the extensors, supinator (brevis), and brachioradialis.
The inner edge of the brachioradialis is indicated by a line drawn from the outer
side of the biceps tendon to the outer surface of the styloid process of the radius.
A line from the medial (internal) condyle running obliquely across the forearm to
the middle of the radius indicates the pronator radii teres muscle. A line from the
medial condyle to the middle of the wrist indicates the palmaris longus muscle;
it is sometimes absent. Another line from the same point above to a centimetre
to the radial side of the palmaris longus tendon at the wrist indicates the flexor
Triceps tendon
Internal condyle
Olecranon process
Ulna
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Styloid process of ulna
Brachialis anticus
External bicipital furrow
Depression, head of radius
External condyle
Brachioradialis and extensor
carpi radialis longior
Anconeus
Extensor communis digitorum
Extensors of the thumb
Styloid process of radius
Extensor longus poUicis
Fig. 328. — Surf ace anatomy of the back of the forearm.
carpi radialis muscle. The tendons of both these muscles can readily be seen. A
hne drawn from the medial (internal) condyle to the pisiform bone at the wrist
indicates the anterior edge of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle.
Having located the superficial muscles the arteries and nerves can be traced.
The brachial artery bifurcates about a finger's breadth below the bend of the elbow.
A line drawn from the inner edge of the biceps tendon, or a point midway between
the two condyles, to the anterior surface of the styloid process of the radius indi-
cates the course of the radial artery. In the upper half of the forearm it is over-
lapped by the edge of the brachioradialis. In the lower half it is uncovered by
muscle and lies in the groove formed by the brachioradialis on the outer side and the
flexor carpi radialis on the inner. The ulnar artery describes a marked curve toward
the ulnar side until it reaches the middle of the forearm, when it passes down in a
straight line from the medial (internal) condyle to the radial side of the pisiform bone.
^^™^^^^^^^ APPLIED ANATOMY. -^^^^^^^m
The median nerve runs down the middle of the forearm, lying beneath the
groove separating the palmaris longus and flexor carpi radialis tendons. The ulnar
nerve runs from the groove between the medial (internal) condyle and olecranon
process above to the radial or outer side of the pisiform bone below. It lies to the
ulnar side of the ulnar artery in the lower half of the forearm. The rounded mus-
cular mass between the edge of the flexor carpi ulnaris and the palmaris longus is
formed by the flexor sublimis digitorum muscle (Fig. 327).
Posterior Surface. — The posterior surface differs from the anterior in the
bones being more conspicuous — they are subcutaneous. Of the two the ulna is the
more evident. At the elbow the olecranon and the capitellum to its outer side are
well marked and some distance inwardly is the medial (internal) condyle. By pal-
pation the ulna can be traced down the forearm almost subcutaneous, running from
the olecranon process, in a gentle curve toward the median line, down to its styloid
process at the back of the wrist. It is covered only by the skin and superficial and
deep fascias. About 3 cm. (i}( in.) to the outer side of the olecranon can be felt
the lateral (external) condyle and capitellum. If the elbow is extended a dimple
is seen just below the capitellum ; it marks the position of the head of the radius,
and by pressure the groove separating the head from the capitellum can be felt.
By placing the thumb of one hand in the dimple on the head of the radius, and
rotating the hand of the patient with the other, one can feel the bone rotate and thus
be assured that the radius is intact. Whenever fracture of the radius is suspected
this is the procedure resorted to in order to determine whether or not it is broken.
The radius can be followed only for an inch or so below the dimple, when it
disappears beneath the muscles to again become subcutaneous on the outer side of
the forearm, about its middle, from thence it can be followed more or less distinctly
down to the styloid process on the outer side of the wrist.
The ulna being subcutaneous, fracture can be determined by palpating it from
the olecranon down the back of the forearm to the styloid process.
The line of the ulna is usually marked by the presence of a groove. To the
ulnar side of the groove lie the flexor carpi ulnaris and the other flexors; to the
radial side He the extensor carpi ulnaris and the other extensors (Fig. 328).
From the dimple marking the head of the radius a groove in the muscles can be
felt which runs to the middle of the outer surface of the radius. Anterior or to the
palmar side of this groove lie the brachioradialis and extensor carpi radialis longior
with the supinator (brevis) beneath. The muscles posterior or between the groove
and the ulna are the extensor carpi radialis brevior, extensor communis digitorum,
and extensor carpi ulnaris. Passing over the lower third of the outer side of the
radius are the tendons of the extensor ossis metacarpi poUicis and extensor brevis
poUicis muscles. As they are here subcutaneous, this is the point at which creaking
can be felt when they are affected with tenosynovitis.
ARTERIES OF THE FOREARM.
A knowledge of the arteries of the forearm is necessary on account of the trouble-
some hemorrhage which they cause when wounded.
At the bend of the elbow, a finger's breadth below the crease and opposite the
neck of the radius, the brachial artery divides into the radial and iihiar arteries.
These are continued through the forearm to enter the hand, the ulnar anteriorly over
the annular ligament and the radial posteriorly through the " anatomical snuff-box."
The ulnar artery is larger than the radial and in its upper half it describes a
curve with its convexity toward the ulnar side passing beneath the pronator radii
teres and superficial flexor muscles arising from the medial (internal) condyle. It is
accompanied by venae comites but not by any nerve in this portion of its course.
Just above the middle of the forearm the ulnar nerve joins the artery, lying to its
ulnar side, and accompanies it down into the hand. In the lower half of its course
the ulnar artery lies to the radial side of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle, being slightly
overlapped by it. The flexor sublimis on the radial side also tends to overlap it.
The covering of the artery, partially at least, by these muscles, together with the
thickness of the deep fascia and the lack of a proper bony support beneath, cause the
THE FOREARM.
315
pulse from the ulnar artery to be less distinctly felt than that from the radial. When
the artery passes beneath the pronator radii teres muscle it is crossed by the median
nerve, which lies superficial to the artery, and is separated from it by the deep head
of the muscle. The branches of the ulnar artery in the forearm are the anterior and
posterior ulnar recurrents, the common interosseous, muscular, nutrient, and anterior
and posterior ulnar carpal branches (Fig. 329).
The anterior ulnar recurrent runs upward between the edges of the pronator
radii teres and brachialis anticus.
Radial recurrent
Radial artery
Interosseous recurrent
Posterior interosseous
Brachioradialis muscle
Flexor carpi radialis muscle
Median nerve
Superficial volar
Brachial arterv
Anterior ulnar recurrent
Posterior ulnar recurrent
Ulnar artery
Common interosseous
.\nterior interosseous
Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle
Ulnar nerve
Palmaris longus tendon
Anterior carpal branch of the ulnar
Fig. 329. — Arteries of the forearm.
The posterior ulnar rectirrent passes upward with the ulnar nerve behind the
medial (internal) condyle.
The common interosseozis artery comes off from the ulnar about 2 to 3 cm. from its
origin and divides into the volar (anterior) and dorsal (posterior) interosseous arteries.
The anterior gives a branch to the median nerve — the comes nervi median! — a nutrient
branch to the radius, and, on reaching the upper edge of the pronator quadratus, sends
a posterior terminal branch through the membrane and an anterior terminal branch into
the muscle. The posterior interosseous passes beneath the oblique ligament to the back
of the forearm and gives of? the interosseous recurrent, which runs up between the lateral
(external) condyle and the olecranon and then gives branches to the various muscles.
3i6 ^^^^^ APPLIED ANATOMY. ^^^^^^^^
The radial artery, though smaller than the ulnar, seems to be a direct con-
tinuation of the brachial because it proceeds in the same general direction while the
ulnar branches off to one side. It is divided into three parts according to the
region it traverses, viz., the forearm, the wrist, and the hand. It describes a slightly
outward curved line from a finger's breadth below the middle of the crease of the
elbow to a point on the front of the radius at the wrist, i cm. (|- in.) inside of its
styloid process. It is superficial in nearly its entire extent, being overlapped only
by the edge of the brachioradialis (supinator longus) in its upper third. This
muscle lies to its outer side all the way down to the styloid process. In the middle
third the cutaneous branch of the radial nerve lies close to the outer side of the
artery, but in the lower third the nerve leaves it to become subcutaneous, passing
more toward the dorsum.
To the inner side of the artery is the pronator radii teres muscle in its upper
third and the flexor carpi radialis for the rest of its course. At the wrist it rests on
the anterior surface of the radius, a centimetre to the inner side of its styloid process.
By compressing the vessel against the bone its pulsations can be readily felt, and here
is where the finger is applied in taking the pulse.
The branches of the radial artery are the recurrent, muscular, anterior radial
carpal and superficial volar.
The radial recurrent arises from the radial soon after its origin and follows the
radial nerve, in the groove between the brachialis anticus and brachioradialis.
The anterior carpal is a small branch which joins with the corresponding branch
of the ulnar and anterior terminal branch of the anterior interosseous to form a so-
called anterior carpal arch which anastomoses with branches of the deep palmar arch
to supply the bones and joints of the carpus.
The superficial volar leaves the radial artery just before it crosses the external
lateral ligament. It pierces the muscles of the thumb to anastomose with a superficial
branch of the superficial palmar arch. Sometimes this artery is so large that it can be
seen pulsating as it passes over the thenar eminence from the wrist downward.
Ligation of the Ulnar Artery in the Forearm. — The ulnar artery between
the elbow and wrist is so large that when wounded it may require ligation in any
part of its course. On account of the artery being deep beneath the flexor muscles
in the upper part of the forearm, the middle and lower portions are to be preferred
for ligation (Fig. 330).
Ligation in the Upper Third. — This is done only for wounds. The superficial
incision may be made in a line from the medial (internal) condyle to the middle
of the outer border of the radius. The fibres of the pronator radii teres are to
be parted, not cut, and the artery searched for crossing the wound almost at right
angles, on a line from the bifurcation of the brachial artery to the middle of the
inner border of the ulna. The artery is to be found lying between the superficial
flexor muscles arising from the medial condyle and the deep muscles arising
from the two bones and the interosseous membrane. It lies beneath the ulnar
head of the pronator radii teres, which separates it from the median nerve, which
is superficial to it and nearer the median line.
Ligation in the Middle Third. — The ulnar artery reaches the inner edge of
the ulna at its middle and from thence downward runs in a straight line from the .
medial (internal) condyle to the radial side of the pisiform bone. It lies directly
under the deep fascia and along the radial or outer edge of the flexor carpi ulnaris
muscle, which can be made tense by extending and abducting the hand.
In the upper part of its middle third the artery lies under the edge of the flexor
sublimis digitorum and the ulnar nerve lies a short distance to its ulnar side. In the
lower part of the middle third the artery and nerve lie close together, the nerve
being next to the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris. The tendon to the radial side
of the artery is one of the slips of the flexor sublimis digitorum.
If difficulty is found in recognizing the edge of the flexor carpi ulnaris after the
skin incision has been made the hand should be extended and abducted: this may
make the muscle tense. Sometimes the intermuscular space is marked by a white
or yellow (fatty) line or by some small blood-vessels coming to the surface at this
point. The edge of the flexor carpi ulnaris is more likely to be to the radial than to
THE FOREARM.
317
the ulnar side of the skin incision. The needle is to be passed between the nerve
and artery from the ulnar toward the radial side.
Ligation hi the Lower Third. — The relations of the artery are practically the
same as in the lower part of the middle third. In the superficial fascia one of the
branches of the anterior ulnar vein may be encountered. It should not be mistaken
for the artery. The artery lies beneath the deep fascia ; the edge of the flexor carpi
ulnaris muscle should be clearly recognized. The deep fascia is apt to have two
layers, one passing from the edge of the flexor carpi ulnaris over the flexor sublimis
while the other, more superficial, goes more to the anterior surface of the annular
Radial nerve
Radial artery
Brachioradialis muscle
Radial artery
Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle
Ulnar nerve
Ulnar artery
Flexor carpi ulnaris tendon
Ulnar nerve
Ulnar artery
Fig. 330. — Ligation of the radial and ulnar arteries.
ligament. Care is to be taken not to work laterally between these layers but to
isolate and recognize the edge of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle.
The ner\e lies between the tendon and artery, which latter has venae comites.
The needle is to be passed from the ulnar toward the radial side.
NERVES OF THE FOREARM.
Injuries of the large nerves of the forearm are followed by much disability.
When the.se nerves are divided in wounds it is desirable to unite the ends imme-
diately. The reunion of nerve-trunks which have been divided some time previously
is also occasionally necessary.
3i8
APPLIED ANATOMY.
These operations demand on the part of the surgeon an accurate knowledge
of the topography of the part. For our purpose we may consider the nerves of the
forearm as being of two kinds — trunks and branches. There are two main trunks —
the median and the ulnar; the superficial (radial), and deep (interosseous) branches
of the radial (musculospiral), and forearm branches of the median and ulnar form
the second class. The main trunks simply traverse the forearm to be distributed
in the hand, therefore injury to them shows itself by disabilities of the hand. The
branches supplying the forearm, if of sensation, rarely give rise to any serious effects
requiring surgical interference. The motor branches enter the muscles of the fore-
N. cutaneus antibrachii lateralis
(external or musculocutaneous)
N. radialis, ramus profundus
(posterior interosseous)
N. radialis, ramus superficialis
(radial nerve)
Brachioradialis muscle
Median nerve
N. cutaneus antibrachii
medialis (internal cutaneous)
Pronator radii teres muscle
Ulnar nerve
Flexor carpi radialis muscle
Palmaris longus muscle
Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle
i si form bone
Fig. 331. — The nerves of the forearm.
arm so high up that paralysis usually is seen only when the nerves are injured in
the region of the elbow or above. The high entrance is caused by the bellies of the
muscles being above and the part below being tendinous (Fig. 331).
The Median Nerve. — The median nerve at the elbow-joint lies internal to
the brachial artery, which lies next and internal to the biceps tendon. It lies on the
brachialis anticus muscle and under the bicipital fascia. It crosses the ulnar artery
obliquely a short distance below its origin. The artery curves toward the ulnar side
while the nerve has a slight curve toward the radial side ; between the two passes the
ulnar head of the pronator radii teres muscle. The nerve then proceeds downward
THE FOREARM. 319
between the superficial and deep layers of muscles. It lies on the flexor profundus
digitorum and is covered by the flexor sublimis; about 5 cm. above the annular liga-
ment it becomes more superficial and lies in the interval between the palmaris longus
and flexor carpi radialis tendons and touching them. It then passes under the annu-
lar ligament to enter the palm of the hand. A branch of the anterior interosseous
artery called the comes nervi viediani accompanies the nerve in the forearm.
Branches. — The median nerve gives ofT muscular, volar (anterior) interosseous,
an<i palmar cutaneous branches, besides those in the hand.
The superficial flexor muscles, with the exception of the flexor carpi ulnaris,
are supplied by branches directly from the main trunk near the elbow ; the one
to the pronator radii teres usually comes off above the elbow. The deep flexor
muscles, with the exception of the inner half of the flexor profundus digitorum, are
supplied by the volar Canterior) interosseous branch.
The volar {a?iterior) interosseous nerve leaves the main trunk of the median
just below the elbow and accompanies the volar (anterior) interosseous artery,
lying on the interosseous membrane between the flexor longus pollicis and the
flexor profundus digitorum. It supplies the flexor longus pollicis and radial half
of the flexor profundus muscles as well as the pronator quadratus.
The palmar cntaneous branch is given off just above the annular ligament and
comes to the surface between the palmaris longus and flexor carpi radialis tendons.
It passes over the annular ligament to be distributed to the thenar eminence and
palm of the hand.
Wounds of the Median Nerve. — The median nerve may be wounded in
any part of its course in the forearm, but it is superficial only in its lower portion for
about 5 cm. above the wrist. From this point up it is covered by the flexor sublimis,
the flexor carpi radialis and the pronator radii teres.
While these muscles tend to protect it from injury, if the traumatism is exten-
sive enough to divide it they render it all the more difficult to treat. Accompanying
the nerve, especially in the middle third of the forearm, is the comes nervi mediani
artery, which may cause annoying bleeding. Careless attempts to secure the artery
may injure the nerve. Should the nerve be divided, paralysis ensues of all the
superficial flexor muscles except the flexor carpi ulnaris, and of the deep muscles,
except the inner half of the flexor profundus. This includes the pronator radii teres
and pronator quadratus, so that the power of pronating the forearm is impaired
as well as the ability to flex the hand. The flexor carpi ulnaris and outer half (that
going to the ring and little fingers) of the flexor profundus digitorum are the only
flexor muscles not paralyzed.
The paralyzed flexor muscles atrophy and the size of the forearm is much
reduced. There will also be impairment of the functions of sensation and motion in
the hand, which will be alluded to later.
Operations. — ^To find the nerve in the upper third of the forearm an incision
may be made at the inner side of the biceps tendon and brachial artery. The
median nerve will be found to the inner side of the artery and may be followed
down. When the pronator radii teres is reached it must either be drawn to the
ulnar side or divided.
The fascial expansion cov^ering the flexor sublimis is next reached; it must be
slit up and the muscular fibres parted to reach the nerve lying between it and the
flexor profundus, with the volar (anterior) interosseous nerve alongside.
To reach the nerve in the middle third of the forearm the guide should be the
palmaris longus tendon. The nerve lies in a line joining the outer edge of the palma-
ris longus tendon at the wrist and the brachial artery at the inner side of the biceps
tendon at the elbow. If an incision is made in the middle of the forearm one comes
down on the belly of the flexor carpi radialis muscle and it is necessary to part its
fibres as well as those of the flexor sublimis beneath. If one goes a little lower down
and places the incision between the palmaris longus and flexor carpi radialis the latter
may be drawn outward, but the fascia covering the flexor sublimis will still have to
be incised. The comes nervi mediani artery will be found accompanying the nerve.
To reach the nerve in its lower third is the easiest because it becomes super-
ficial about 5 centimetres (2 in. J above the wrist. Here it lies either beneath the
^i^^^^^^^^"^ APPLIED ANATOMY. ^^^^^^^B
tendon of the palmaris longus or between it and the flexor carpi radialis. The
incision should be made between the muscles. A layer of deep fascia will be found
beneath them, which must be incised. From this point the nerve can be followed up
beneath the flexor sublimis or downward beneath the annular ligament. Care is to be
taken not to disturb the tendons of the flexor sublimis at the wrist.
The Ulnar Nerve. — The ulnar nerve passes downward in the groove on
the back of the medial (internal) condyle and between the condyle and olecranon
process. It passes between the two heads of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle and is
covered by it, lying on the flexor profundus digitorum ; when half way down the
forearm it becomes superficial and lies under or at the edge of the flexor carpi
ulnaris muscle with the ulnar artery and flexor sublimis muscle to its outer or radial
side. The ulnar artery joins the nerve just above the middle of the forearm. Just
below the elbow the artery gives off the posterior ulnar recurrent branch, which
passes up with the nerve behind the medial condyle. From the middle of the
forearm to the wrist the ulnar nerve lies behind and to the ulnar side of the artery.
Branches. — It gives muscular branches in the upper third of the forearm to
the flexor carpi ulnaris and ulnar half of the flexor profundus digitorum muscles.
It gives small articular branches to both the elbow-joint and wrist-joint.
It also gives off anterior and posterior cutaneous branches. The anterior, one
or two, come off about the middle of the forearm ; one supplies the anterior surface
of the ulnar side of the forearm, while another, called the palmar aitaneous, runs
down the front of the artery to be distributed to the palm.
The dorsal or posterior cutaneous branch is given off about 5 cm. (2 in.) above
the wrist and passes downward and backward beneath the tendon of the flexor carpi
ulnaris, across the interval between the pisiform bone and styloid process of the ulna,
over the tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris, and thence to the fingers.
Wounds. — This nerve in the forearm is not infrequently wounded. It is
especially liable to injury in resecting the elbow-joint. From what has been said of
its course and branches it will be seen that in order for paralysis of any of the
muscles of the forearm to be produced it must be injured high up in its upper third.
Then the flexor carpi ulnaris and inner half of the flexor profundus digitorum will
be paralyzed. If injured lower down the only muscular paralysis which will ensue
is that of the short muscles of the hand which it supplies.
If the nerve is divided above the middle of the forearm the anterior cutaneous
nerves will be involved. If divided between that point and 5 cm. above the wrist
the anterior cutaneous escapes but the dorsal cutaneous branch is paralyzed. Below
this latter point the dorsal cutaneous branch escapes and the muscular and sensory
disturbances produced are on the palmar surface (except the dorsal interossei muscles).
Operations. — In all operations on the nerve it should be remembered that its
course is a straight line from the medial condyle to the radial edge of the pisiform
bone. In the lower half of its course it lies along the outer (radial) edge of the
flexor carpi ulnaris and this tendon will serve as a guide to it. It is here covered
only by skin and superficial and deep fasciae, though it may be overlapped by either
the artery or the edge of the tendon. If it is desired to reach the nerve in its
upper half it can be followed either from above downward or from below upward,
the fibres of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle which cover it being split to the extent
necessary for proper exposure. Below the middle of the forearm the ulnar artery
lies to its radial side. Near the elbow the posterior ulnar recurrent artery accom-
panies it upward, but the nerve is far removed from the ulnar artery in this part of
its course.
The Volar Interosseous Nerve and the Superficial and Deep Branches
of the Radial (Musculospiral). — In addition to the large nerve-trunks of the
median and ulnar the forearm contains the volar (anterior) interosseous, and the
deep and superficial branches of the radial (musculospiral) nerve.
The volar {anterior^ interosseous nerve leaves the median opposite to or below
the bicipital tubercle of the radius ; it lies on the interosseous membrane to the ulnar
side of the accompanying volar interosseous artery. It supplies the outer half of the
flexor profundus digitorum and the flexor longus poUicis muscles, between which it
lies, and the pronator quadratus muscle. It is rarely wounded alone.
THE FOREARM. 321
The deep and superficial branches are the continuation of the radial (musculo-
spiral) which divides in the groove between the brachioradialis (supinator longus)
and brachialis anticus muscles just above the elbow.
The deep branch {posterior interosseous^ is the larger and is a muscular nerve ;
the superficial branch (radial) is smaller and is solely sensory. The deep branch
passes down under the brachioradialis and extensor carpi radialis longior and brevior
muscles and then enters the substance of the supinator (brevis) through which it
passes to supply the extensor muscles on the back of the forearm and terminates in a
gangliform enlargement on the back of the wrist. It supplies all the muscles on the
back of the forearm except the anconeus, brachioradialis, and extensor carpi radialis
longior, which are supplied directly from the radial (musculospiral) nerve. In
removing the head of the radius, in resection of the elbow, the supinator (brevis) is to
be carefully raised from the bone so as to carry the nerve with it and a\'oid injuring it.
Injury to this nerve causes paralysis of the extensors, and wrist-drop follows.
The superficial branch {radial^ is purely a nerve of sensation. It passes down
almost in a straight line and lies to the outer side of the radial «&rtery at the junction
of its upper and middle thirds. It lies alongside of the artery to its outer side in its
middle third and then, about 7 or 8 cm. (3 in.) above the wrist, quits the artery,
passes beneath the tendon of the brachioradialis, and divides into two branches which
supply sensation to the dorsal (radial) side of the hand and fingers (Fig. 374, p. 361).
In operating on the radial artery in the middle third of the forearm care should
be exercised not to include the nerve in the ligature with the artery.
FRACTURES OF THE FOREARM.
Fractures of the forearm may involve either the radius or ulna, or both. The
radius is the bone most often broken. The preservation of the interosseous space
and functions of pronation and supination are prominent points in treatment.
Fractures of Both Bones. — These fractures occur either from a direct blow
on the part or are due to violence in falling on the outstretched hand. They usually
occur in the middle or lower third. The character of the displacement depends
more on the manner in which the injury is produced than on the action of the
muscles, though in some cases they also have some influence.
The main function of the forearm in addition to that of serving as a pedestal or
support for the hand is to perform the movements of pronation and supination. It
is these movements that are most apt to be impaired in cases of fracture. When
both bones are fractured the interosseous membrane still remains, running transversely
from one bone to that of the opposite side. Therefore, while it is common enough to
find the fractured ends displaced toward one another, thus narrowing or obliterating
the space between them, one never sees a displacement of the fragments produc-
ing a widening of the interosseous space. In fracture of both bones four types of
deformity or combinations of these types are found.
1. The fractured ends of the distal or proximal fragments may preserve approx-
imately their normal position to one another but be displaced either anteriorly or
posteriorly or else to one side. When this is the case the displacement is one simply
of overlapping. If the fragments are displaced laterally from one another then the
tension of the muscles draws the fragments together and causes them to o\ erlap.
There is no special direction which this displacement may take. The lower frag-
ments may be either in front or behind or to either side of the upper ones. The
position of the fragments varies according to the direction of the fracturing force.
This displacement is to be remedied by traction on the hand to overcome the
muscles and bring the broken ends opposite one another, and then by direct pressure
pushing them as completely as possible back into their normal position.
The shafts of both bones have muscles arising from them on both their anterior
and posterior surfaces dnd the sharp fractured ends of the bones not infrequently get
stuck in the muscular fibres and so prevent proper approximation; non-union may
be produced by this cause.
2. The fractured ends of the distal or proximal fragments may be displaced
toward one another, thus lessening or even obliterating the interosseous space. When
322 APPLIED ANATOMY.
the bones are intact they rest on one another at their ends, leaving a space between
across which stretches the interosseous membrane. The action of this membrane in
preventing a separation of the fragments has aheady been pointed out, and the
influence on the fragments of pronation and supination will be discussed further on.
The two bones, — radius and ulna, — traverse the forearm from the elbow to the
wrist like two bridges, when they are broken they naturally fall inward toward one
another. This approximation of the fragments is aided by the muscles, particularly
the pronators and the brachioradialis.
The pronator quadratus and teres both pass from the ulna to the radius, the
one at the lower and the other at the upper portion of the forearm. When they
contract they naturally tend to draw the bones toward one another. The brachio-
radialis, arising from the lateral (external) supracondylar ridge of the humerus
and inserting into the base of the styloid process of the radius, by its contraction
tends to tilt the upper end of the lower fragment toward the ulnar side.
Pressure on the bones by bandages wound around the part likewise causes them to
encroach on the interosseous space, hence the desirability of splints which are wider
than the forearm so that lateral pressure on the bones by the bandages is prevented.
3. The fragments may be rotated on one another in the direction of pronation
or supination and, becoming united in this misplaced position, render the normal
movements of rotation either much restricted or altogether impossible.
This axial rotary displacement is due either to the lower fragments being
dressed in a position of pronation or to muscular action. As has already been
pointed out (see movements of pronation and supination, page 314), in performing
the movements of pronation and supination the ulna is the fixed bone and the radius
is the movable one. When the hand is pronated the radius crosses the ulna
obliquely and lies almost or quite in contact with it, thus obliterating the inter-
osseous space. When the hand is in a position of middle or full supination the bones
are widely separated. When fractures are treated in the prone position it is recog-
nized that the callus may bind the bones together in their approximated condition
and a loss of motion will result.
This is one reason why it is always required to treat these fractures with the
hand midway between supination and pronation or in complete supination, in which
position the bones are widely separated. The influence of the supinator muscles, as
was pointed out by Lonsdale, is also important. As has already been stated, the
supinators are stronger than the pronators. When the fracture occurs above the in-
sertion of the pronator radii teres the upper fragment is rotated outward by the
biceps and supinator (brevis). There are no muscles to oppose them. On this
account it is necessary to dress the fracture with the hand supinated. When the bones
are broken below the middle of the forearm the pronator radii teres remains attached
to the upper fragment and tends to oppose the supinating action of the biceps and
supinator (brevis). Therefore the fracture is treated with the hand midway
between pronation and supination. A diminution or loss of the power of pronation
and supination is a common sequel of fractures of the forearm and is due either to
an interference with the movement of the bones by callus or displaced fragments or
by supination of the upper fragment. It is favored by treating the arm in an
unfavorable position.
4. The fragments may be inclined toward one another, producing an angular
deformity. Simple bending at the site of injury produces this displacement. It is
liable to occur if a narrow band or sling is used to support the injured member. If
the hand is supported by the sling the arm sags at the seat of fracture. If the fore-
arm is supported at the site of fracture the hand falls and an angular deformity
again occurs. Treatment of the fracture with the hand in a supine position on a
splint with a long sling reaching and supporting the entire length of the forearm will
obviate and prevent the deformity.
Fractures of the Shaft of the Radius. — Fractures of the shaft of the radius
are not common. They are produced by both direct and indirect injury. The hand
is attached to and articulates mainly with the radius, so that in falls on the hand the
force is transmitted to the radius, and the shaft of the bone is not infrequently
fractured in this manner.
THE FOREARM.
323
These fractures are of interest from an anatomical point mainly on account of
the influence of rotation and muscular action in displacing the fragments. The fore-
arm possesses the movement of rotation; the radius is the movable bone and rotates
around the ulna, hence when it is broken
its fractured ends are readily displaced.
Fractures of this bone are to be treated
with the hand in half or full supination
because in these positions the interosse-
ous space is preserved. In pronation
the radius crosses the ulna obliquely and
lies close upon it and is then most liable
to be bound to it by callus. A cer-
tain amount of callus or deformity may
occur without interfering with the ulna
opposite.
It should also not be forgotten that
most muscles have more than one ac-
tion. The biceps is both a flexor and
supinator. The brachioradialis flexes,
supinates, and exerts a directly upward
traction on the outer surface of the lower
end of the radius.
The fractures of the shaft of the
radius may be divided into those above
and those below the insertion of the pro-
nator radii teres. This muscle inserts
by a comparatively small tendon into
the outer and posterior surface of the
middle of the radius.
Fractures above the Insertion of the
Pronator Radii Teres. — ^When the bone
is fractured above the pronator radii
teres insertion, and below the tubercle,
the upper fragment is drawn forward
and rotated outward by the biceps. If
the fracture is down close to the upper
edge of the insertion of the pronator
radii teres the supinator (brevis) will
assist in the supination. The lower frag-
ment will be pronated by the pronator
radii teres and quadratus. It will be
drawn toward the ulna by the teres,
quadratus, and also by the action of the
brachioradialis. The pronator radii teres
will also tend to draw the lower frag-
ment anteriorly. The injury is to be
treated with the elbow flexed to relax
the biceps and in a fully supinated posi-
tion (Fig. 332).
Fractures below the Insertion of the
Pronator Radii Teres. — When the frac-
ture is below the insertion of the pro-
nator radii teres and above the pronator
quadratus we have the lower fragment
drawn toward the ulna by the pronator quadratus and the brachioradialis
quadratus also tends to pronate the hand (Fig. 333).
The upper fragment is displaced anteriorly by the flexing action of both the biceps
and pronator radii teres. The supinator (brevis) and biceps both tend to supinate
it and the pronator radii teres to pronate it. This tends to place the upper fragment
-Biceps
-Supinator (brevis)
_Brachioradialis (supi-
"nator longus)
"Pronator radii teres
-Upper fragment
■ Lower fragment
Deep flexor muscles
Pronator quadratus
Fio. 332. — Fracture of the shaft of the radius above
the insertion of the pronator radii teres muscle. The
upper fragment is rotated outward by the biceps and
supinator muscles.
The
324
APPLIED ANATOMY.
midway between pronation and supination. All fractures of the radius are to be treated
with the elbow flexed to relax the biceps muscle. It is to be marked that the
position of the lower fragment follows the position of the hand in pronation and
supination. Also that by bending the hand toward the ulnar side the lower fragment
tends to be tilted away from the ulna and thus the interosseous space is increased.
Biceps-
Brachxoradialis
Pronator
radii teres"
Site of fracture ■
Brachioradialis-
Pronator
quadratus -
Pronator
quadratus
FiG- 333- — Fracture of the radius just below the
insertion of the pronator radii teres muscle. The
upper fragment is displaced directly forward in a
position midway between pronation and supination.
Fig. 334. — -Fracture below the middle of the shaft of
the ulna, the lower fragment drawn toward the radius
by the pronator quadratus muscle.
Pressure with the thumb and fingers between the bones tends to increase the inter-
osseous space and to some extent to counteract the action of the brachioradialis.
On account of the upper fragment assuming a middle position the fracture is
dressed in this position with the thumb upward — an internal angular splint is used.
Some surgeons prefer using the position of full supination.
The difference in the width of the interosseous space when the hand is in full
supination and when it is in semisupination, though it may be slightly in favor of the
latter position, is too little to give it any preference on that account.
THE FOREARM. 325
Fractures of the Shaft of the Ulna. — The shaft of the ulna is more often
broken by direct violence than is the shaft of the radius. When the arm is raised to
ward off a threatened blow the thumb is toward the body and it is the ulna which is
presented externally to receive the impact of the blow, hence its more frequent
injury. There are two main sites of injury, one just below its middle and the other
a short distance below the elbow-joint, about at the junction of its middle and upper
thirds. The former results from the fact that the bone below the middle is smaller
and weaker than it is above and is not so well covered by muscles.
Fractures just Below the Middle of the Shaft of the Ulna. — The bones of the
forearm act as props to separate the hand and elbow. The hand is attached to the
radius and the radius rests on the capitellum of the humerus, therefore even when the
ulna is fractured as long as the radius and attachments of the hand are intact there is
usually but little overlapping of the fragments.
The lower fragment is most often displaced to the radial side. This is due to
the action of the pronator quadratus muscle (Fig. 334).
The upper fragment articulating with the humerus by a pure hinge-joint cannot
be displaced laterally, but the radius and hand can move bodily toward the ulna,
being favored in so doing by the pronator radii teres. Thus it is seen that both
External condyle-
Tendon of triceps
Lower fragment Upper fragment Anconeus covered by expansion
of ulna of ulna of the tendon of the triceps
Fig. 335. — Fracture through the upper third of the ulna viewed from the outer side.
Upper and lower fragments have a tendency to incline toward the radius and so
obliterate the interosseous space and interfere with rotation.
As to whether the lower or upper fragment will be nearer to the radius will
depend upon the direction of the line of fracture. If this is from within downward
and outward, as is the more usual, then the lower fragment will be to the radial side
of the upper one.
The treatment of fractures in this locality should be with the hand placed in the
position of full supination. Hamilton ("Fractures and Dislocations," page 319)
stated that he had three times seen supination lessened in this injury but never pro-
nation. The ulna is to be pushed away from the radius by pressure made between
them with the thumb and fingers and the hand bent toward the radial side.
Fracture at the Upper Third. — The radius articulates with the upper end
of the ulna in the lesser sigmoid cavity. Immediately below this is a depression in
the ulna called the bicipital hollow, intended to accommodate the bicipital tubercle
when the forearm is pronated. At this point the bone is slightly narrowed and
then widens ag^ain toward the middle. This constricted part is 7 or 8 cm. (3 in.)
below the tip of the olecranon process and the spot where fracture is likely to occur.
When fracture does occur here, if displacement is marked, it produces characteristic
lesions. The upper fragment may be displaced either posteriorly or anteriorly.
326
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The carrying angle (page 282) formed by the line of the arm with the line of
the forearm, depends on the integrity of the humerus and ulna and their proper
articulation. If the ulna is broken high up the forearm is deprived of its support on
the inner side and it sags inward, thus approximating the bones, obliterating the
interosseous space, and diminishing the carrying angle. In treatment care should
be taken that the forearm be not allowed to incline toward the inner side.
Displacejnent Posterior. — When the displacement is posterior the lower end of
the upper fragment is tilted backward by the contraction of the triceps muscle. This
causes a marked projection on the back of the forearm below the elbow (Fig. 335).
In treating this injury the forearm
should be placed in at least partial ex-
tension (complete extension is usually
not necessary) so as to relax, the triceps
muscle.
Displacement Anterior. — When a
person receives a blow in the region of
the junction of the upper and middle
thirds of the ulna on its posterior sur-
face the fragments are pushed forward
and an angular deformity is produced,
the apex of the angle pointing toward
the anterior surface. The force of the
blow is not expended entirely on the
ulna but, having broken it, continues
and pushes or dislocates the radius for-
ward (Fig. 336). _
In these injuries the fracture of the
ulna is readily recognized, but the dis-
location of the head of the radius is often
overlooked. If the dislocation is not
reduced subsequent flexion of the elbow
will not be possible much if any beyond
a right angle. The contraction of the
biceps not only favors this luxation by
pulling the radius forward but tends to
cause it to recur after replacement.
Reduction is to be attempted by
supinating and flexing the foi'earm to
relax the biceps and making direct
pressure anteroposteriorly on the radius
to force the head back into place. The radius may be kept in place by dressing
the arm with the elbow in a position of complete flexion.
Fig. 336. — Fracture of the upper third of the ulna,
with anterior angular displacement of the fragments and
anterior dislocation of the head of the radius.
AMPUTATION OF THE FOREARM.
The lower half of the forearm is so largely tendinous that musculocutaneous
flaps are unsuitable ; by the time the tendons are cut short there is little tissue left
but skin, superficial and deep fascia, and a few muscular fibres.
Amoutation should be performed as low down as one can so as to save as much
as possible. Artificial appliances, so useful in the lower extremity, are, practically,
of little value in the upper. The preservation of the power of pronation and supi-
nation is to be accomplished when the condition permits. The pronator radii teres
has its insertion in the middle of the radius and if the division of the bone is below
that point rotary movements will be preserved.
The surgeon should be acquainted with the position of the main arteries and
nerves. Four arteries will require ligation : the radial, ulnar, volar (anterior), and
dorsal (posterior) interosseous. Their position as well as that of the nerves will
vary accordingly to the site of the amputation. The median and ulnar are the only
nerves that require shortening.
THE FOREARM.
327
Amputation Through the Upper Third. — The radial artery is to be looked
for near the surface under the deep fascia, just beneath the edge of the brachioradialis
muscle.
The ulnar artery lies between the superficial and deep fiexor muscles somewhat
toward the ulnar side of the median line.
The volar interosseous artery lies in front of the interosseous membrane.
The dorsal interosseous lies between the superficial and deep muscles on the back
of the forearm more toward the ulnar side.
The median nerve is to be sought in the middle line of the forearm below the
superficial flexor muscles.
The ulnar nerve lies to the ulnar side of the ulnar artery on a level with it and
beneath the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle.
Amputation Through the Middle Third. — The radial artery lies beneath
the deep fascia in front of the radius along the inner edge of the brachioradialis.
Superficial layer
of flexor muscles
Ulnar artery
Ulnar nerve
Deep layer of
flexor muscles'
Anterior (volar) interosseous.
artery and nerve
Ulna,
Flexor carpi radialis
Radial artery
Median nerve
Brachioradialis (supinator longus)
Radial nerve
Pronator radii teres
Extensor carpi radialis longior
Radius
Extensor carpi radialis brevior
Extensor muscles of fingers
Fig. 337. — Amputation about the middle of the forearm.
The ulnar artery here becomes more superficial and lies beneath the radial edge
of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle.
The volar interosseous is found lying on the anterior surface of the interosseous
membrane or the thin edge of the flexor profundus.
The dorsal interosseous lies posterior to the membrane between the superficial
and deep extensor muscles.
The median nerve is directly in the midline beneath the flexor sublimis and
above the flexor profundus digitorum.
The ulnar nerve lies to the radial side of the ulna, to the ulnar side of the ulnar
artery, and under the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle (F"ig. 337).
Amputation Through the Lower Third. — The radial artery lies beneath
the deep fascia between the flexor carpi radialis and brachioradialis.
The ulnar artery lies to the ulnar side under the deep fascia and at the edge of
the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle.
The volar and dorsal interosseous arteries are too small to require ligation.
The median nerve lies beneath the palmaris longus muscle. At the wrist it lies
beneath the interval between it and the flexor carpi radialis.
The ulnar nerve is superficial along the edge of the flexor carpi ulnaris and
accompanies the ulnar artery along its medial (ulnar) side.
328 ^^^ APPLIED ANATOMY.
OPERATIONS ON THE BONES AND OTHER STRUCTURES OF THE
FOREARM.
The forearm may require to be operated on for disease or injuries of the bones,
tumors, foreign bodies, wounds, etc. In operating on this region of the body it is to
be constantly borne in mind that it contains a multitude of structures each of which
is essential to the proper performance of some special function. Injury to these
structures is followed by a corresponding functional disability. Attempts at brilliant
operating are out of place and the surgeon should be exact, careful, and even tender
in his handling of the various structures.
The forearm is mainly nourished by the volar and dorsal interosseous arteries; the
radial and ulnar pass through it to nourish the hand. These latter are to be avoided.
The nerves that supply the forearm are given of? high up near the elbow, hence
they are not usually in danger of injury. The median, ulnar, and superficial branch
of the radial nerve pass to the hand and they, if possible, are to be avoided.
It is therefore evident that as far as the arteries and nerves are concerned oper-
ations in the lower part of the forearm are less dangerous than those in the upper.
With the muscles it is just the opposite. In the lower half the muscles become ten-
dinous and soon form groups or masses of tendons. These tendons are separated by
thin connective-tissue sheaths or synovial membrane which allow them to move freely
as the muscles contract. Any interference with these sheaths or their contents
causes an outpouring of inflammatory material that binds them together and fetters
their action. As healing takes place contraction sets in and the patient is left with a
useless claw-like hand. For these reasons large incisions and displacements and
interference with tendons are to be avoided whenever possible.
As the muscles mostly run longitudinally the incisions should also be longitu-
dinal. Division of the superficial veins is not liable to cause trouble, but the large
radial, median, or ulnar veins on the anterior surface may be plainly visible and then
the incision should be made so as to avoid wounding them.
The only superficial nerve to be so avoided is the superficial branch of the
radial. It is alongside of the radial artery in its middle third, but about 7 or 8 cm.
(3 in. ) above the wrist it leaves the artery and winds under the brachioradialis to go
down the outer and posterior surface of the radius. It is here to be looked for and
avoided, as it furnishes sensation to the thumb, index, middle, and half of the ring
fingers.
If it is desired to penetrate the muscles their direction is to be remembered.
The superficial flexor muscles arise from the internal condyle, hence the incision
should point upward toward it. The direction of the pronator radii teres is from
the internal condyle to the middle of the radius. The deep fiexors are parallel with
the bones.
Posteriorly the extensor group of muscles tends toward the external condyle.
A third group on the radial side comprises the brachioradialis and the extensor carpi
radialis longior and brevior. The tendon of the first lies on the outer surface of the
radius with the other two immediately posterior to it. Crossing the posterior and
outer surface of the radius in its lower third are the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis
and extensor brevis pollicis tendons.
If it is desired to reach the bones the ulna can be exposed posteriorly where it
is subcutaneous in its entire length by an incision between the flexor carpi ulnaris
and extensor carpi ulnaris. The deep fascia is attached to the bone at this point.
If it is desired to expose the radius, H. Morris {C/m. Soc. Trans., vol. x, p. 138)
has advised going in between the brachioradialis and the extensor carpi radialis
longior. He used the superficial branch of the radial nerve as a guide to the desired
interspace.
If an incision were made upward from the outer surface of the styloid process of
the radius one would first encounter the tendons of the extensor brevis pollicis and
extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis muscles. These being displaced posteriorly would
reveal the brachioradialis tendon crossing from beneath the posterior border of the
radius; 5 to 7 cm. (2 to 3 in.) above the styloid process would be the superficial
THE FOREARM. 329
branch of the radial nerve. Following the nerve and edge of the brachioradialis
tendon would lead to the interspace between it and the extensor carpi radialis
muscle posteriorly. When the middle of the forearm was reached the insertion of
the pronator teres would be encountered, and from that point up the bone would
be covered by the supinator (brevis).
Operations on the median nerve (page 319) and the ulnar nerve (page 320)
have already been alluded to.
In operations involving the upper third of the radius the deep branch of the
radial (posterior interosseous) nerve is liable to be wounded as it passes through the
supinator (brevis) muscle. It is best avoided by elevating the muscle from the
bone and raising the nerve along with it, for it does not rest immediately on the
bone but has some muscular fibres intervening.
The arteries have already been sufficiently described.
PUS BENEATH THE DEEP FASCIA.
The deep fascia of the forearm is continuous with that of the arm. It forms a ,
complete covering for the muscles and sends septa between them. It is especially
strong posteriorly. It is attached to the medial and lateral condyles of the humerus,
the sides of the olecranon process and the whole length of the ulna posteriorly.
Below the medial condyle anteriorly it is strengthened by the bicipital fascia. In
the antecubital fossa it is pierced by a large communicating vein which connects the
superficial and deep veins. Toward its lower end posteriorly, it is strengthened
by transverse fibres and becomes attached to the longitudinal ridges on the radius
and blends with the posterior annular ligament.
Below anteriorly it is thin and forms a covering for the tendons of the palmaris
longus and flexor carpi radialis muscles and at the wrist blends with the annu-
lar ligament beneath. This latter, as pointed out by Davies CoUey ("Morris's
Anatomy," page 311), is a continuation of the layer of fascia covering the flexor
sublimis digitorum.
When infection in\olves the deep tissues of the forearm the pus, being hindered
from going externally by the fibrous septa between the various layers of muscles as
well as the deep fascia itself, tends to burrow up and down the arm. If in the upper
portion of the forearm, it tends to point in the antecubital fossa. If lower down, it tends
to come to the surface on the radial side between the flexor carpi radialis and brachio-
radialis or toward the ulnar side between the palmaris longus and flexor carpi ulnaris.
The three structures, — the tendons of the palmaris longus and flexor carpi radialis
and the median nerve, — form a solid barrier anteriorly which inclines the pus to one
side. Above posteriorly it may work its way upward behind the internal condyle,
following the ulnar nerve.
The fibrous septa of the various muscles hinder the progress of pus laterally, and
the attachment of the deep fascia to the ulna prevents its passing around the arm at
that point. The many pockets formed by the pus in its burrowing between the
muscles render these abscesses difficult to drain and tedious in healing.
Should infection from the thumb travel up the flexor longus poUicis tendon,
when it reaches above the wrist it is directly beneath the tendon of the flexor carpi
radialis. In such a case an incision should be made along the radial (outer) edge of
the tendon, taking care not to wound the radial artery still farther out. If pus infects
the forearm by following up the flexor tendons of the fingers beneath the anterior
annular ligament, it shows itself above the wrist between the palmaris longus and
flexor carpi ulnaris tendons and can here be incised. If it is desired to introduce a drain
beneath the flexor muscles, an incision may be made along the side of the ulna and a
forceps passed under the flexor tendons and made to project under the skin of the
radial side where a counter opening can be made and the drain inserted. (For a dis-
cussion of the treatment of purulent affections of the hand and forearm see A. B.
Kavanel : " Surgery, Gynecology, and Obstetrics," 1909, p. 125, vol. viii. No. 3.)
Suppuration around these tendons is very serious, as the effusion binds together the
tendons and irritates the nerves and produces disabling contractures which are exceed-
ingly difficult to remedy.
APPLIED ANATOMY.
REGION OF THE WRIST.
By the wrist is meant the constricted portion of the upper extremity by which
the hand is joined to the forearm. We will include in its consideration the lower
portion of the forearm for about 4 cm. ( i ^ in. ) above the radiocarpal joint, and the
Fig. 338. — Sawn section through the lower end of the radius to show its cancellous structure.
joint itself. The wrist is so constructed as to permit of the movements of pronation
and supination of the bones of the forearm, to serve as a support for the hand, and
to allow movements of the hand in various directions.
Radius
Styloid process
Scaphoid
Tuberosity of scaphoid
Trapezium
Ridge on trapezium
Trapezoid
Styloid process
Semilunar
Cuneiform
Pisiform
■Os magnum
•Unciform
•Unciform process
Fig. 339. — Anterior view of the lower ends of the radius and ulna and the carpal bones.
BONES OF THE WRIST.
We may include among the bones of the wrist the lower ends of the radius and
ulna and the first row of bones of the carpus, — the scaphoid, lunate (semilunar),
cuneiform, and pisiform.
REGION OF THE WRIST. 331
Of the bones of the forearm — the radius and ulna — we have seen that at the
elbow the ulna is the larger of the two. This is because the main function of the
ulna is to act as a support to the parts beyond. The radius is intended mainly as a
means of enabling the hand to perform the functions of pronation and supination.
At the wrist we find the radius supporting the hand and consequently its lower
end is large and well dcAeloped. The ulna, on the contrary, contributes but little to
the support of the hand and does not even enter directly into the wrist-joint, as does
the radius at the elbow-joint, but ser\'es as a fixed point around which the radius
rotates. The functional value of the ulna at the wrist is so much less than that of
the radius as amply to account for its diminished size.
Radius-
Posterior radial or thecal tubercle
Styloid process of radius
Scaphoid
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Metacarpal bone of the thumb
Ulna
Head of ulna
Styloid process of ulna
■Semilunar
Cuneiform
Os magnum
Unciform
Fig. 340. — Posterior view of the lower end of the radius and ulna and the carpal bones.
Lower end of the Radius. — The lower end of the radius is large and spongy.
The compact tissue forms a quite thin superficial layer (Fig. 338). Its anterior
surface is hollowed out to receive the pronator quadratus muscle, with a prominent
articular edge to which is attached the anterior ligament (Fig. 339).
The posterior surface is convex and marked with a number of ridges with
grooves between them which lodge the extensor tendons (Fig. 340). In its middle
is a prommence, the dorsal radial tubercle, which marks the position of the extensor
longus pollicis muscle. On its inner side is a concave articular facet, the ulnar notch
{sigrnoid cavity), for articulation with the ulna; it is plane from above downward,
thus showing that it permits movement in one direction only, like a hinge.
Between the lower edge of the ulnar notch and the articular surface is a rough
ridge that gives attachment to the triangular interarticular fibrocartilage.
332
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The lower or radiocarpal articular surface slopes downward and outward to end
in the styloid process, which is thereby placed lower than the styloid process of the
ulna. The articular surface is divided into two facets: the outer is the smaller,
is triangular in shape, and articulates with the navicular (^scaphoid) bone; the
inner or larger is quadrilateral and articulates with the lunate {semilunar) bone.
The styloid process at its base or upper outer portion has inserted into it the tendon
of the brachioradialis muscle. To its tip is attached the external lateral ligament.
The Ulna. — The lower extremity of the ulna is rounded in shape, forming its
head, with the styloid j^rocess projecting downward on its inner and posterior aspect
To its tip is attached the internal lateral ligament. On its outer side is a rounded
smooth surface for articulation with the ulnar notch of the radius. The inferior
or articular surface is flat and rests on the flat interarticular fibrocartilage.
The navicular (scaphoid), lunate (semilunar), cuneiform, and pisi-
form bones form the first row of the carpal bones. The pisiform rests on the
anterior surface of the cuneiform and does not enter into the articulations between
the hand and bones of the forearm.
The navicular and lunate articulate directly with the lower end of the radius,
but the cuneiform articulates with the under surface of the triangular interarticular
fibrocartilage.
THE INFERIOR RADIO-ULNAR ARTICULATION.
The joint between the lower ends of the radius and ulna embraces not only the
portion between these two bones but also that between the lower end of the ulna and
Radius-
Radiocarpal (wrist) joint
Scaphoid — ,,
External lateral ligament
Ulna
Pronator quadratus
Inferior radio-ulnar joint
Triangular fibrocartilage
Semilunar
Internal lateral ligament
Cuneiform
*L Flexor carpi ulnaris tendon
Pisiform
Fig. 341. — ^The wrist-joint and inferior radio-ulnar articulation.
the upper surface of the triangular fibrocartilage. This latter is attached by its apex
to a depression on the outer side of the root of the styloid process of the ulna, and
by its base to the rough line on the radius separating the radio-ulnar from the radio-
carpal articulation (Fig. 341).
The Interarticular Triangular Fibrocartilage. — This serves as the main
bond of union between the lower ends of the radius and ulna. It is strong and
blends with the internal lateral ligament. Thus the hand has an attachment to the
inner side of the radius by means of the internal lateral ligament and triangular
cartilage.
REGION OF THE WRIST.
333
The Capsular Ligament. — The capsular ligament serves to retain the syno-
vial fluid in the joint. It is thin and filmy and possesses no strength, and therefore
is useless in limiting movements.
Anterior and Posterior Radio-ulnar Ligaments. — These ligaments are
simply a few bands which pass across from the radius to the ulna. They are not
strong enough to be efficient in limiting mov'ements of the bones.
Movements. — As has already been pointed out (page 304)
the movements of pronation and supination have as their axis a
line drawn through the middle of the head of the radius, the styloid
process of the ulna, and the ring finger. They embrace in ordinary
use a range of about 140 degrees which can be increased by forced
effort to 160 degrees (Fig. 342).
These movements are limited by various factors, the most
prominent being in pronation the contact of the soft parts and
bones, as the radius obliquely overlies the ulna, and in supination
by the biceps (the most powerful of the supinators) having reached
the dead centre.
There is no communication between the radio-ulnar joint
above and the radiocarpal joint below, except when, as occasion-
ally happens, the triangular cartilage has a perforation.
During pronation and supination the lower end of the radius
moves with the hand, but the lower end of the ulna remains at rest:
hence it is that the styloid process of the radius always retains the
same position in relation to the hand. When it is desired to iden-
tify the styloid process of the radius, one needs only to follow the
metacarpal bone of the thumb up to the snufl-box at the upper
edge of which the styloid process can always be felt. Also, to
identify the styloid process of the ulna, one must not use the hand
as a guide because the hand changes its position in relation to the
ulna; but, as the ulna remains quiet, its styloid process can be
found by following the posterior surface down to its extremity.
As the interarticular triangular cartilage is fastened by its
base to the ulnar edge of the radius and by its apex to the base
of the styloid process of the ulna, it travels with the hand in the movements of
pronation and supination.
Fig. 3 42. — Axis of rota-
tion.
THE RADIOCARPAL OR WRIST-JOINT.
The wrist-joint is formed by the radius and triangular cartilage above and the
navicular (scaphoid), lunate (semilunar), and cuneiform bones below. These are
joined by the anterior, posterior, internal and external lateral, and capsular liga-
ments. The two lateral ligaments are strong, well-defined bands, the anterior and
posterior ligaments are weaker and are fused with the capsular ligament.
The internal lateral ligament is attached above to the tip of the styloid
process of the ulna and the tip of the triangular cartilage ; below it is attached to the
border of the cuneiform bone and is continued on to the pisiform bone.
The external lateral ligament is attached above to the tip of the styloid
process of the radius and below to the base of the tubercle of the navicular bone.
The capsular ligament of the wrist-joint is composed of an anterior and a
posterior portion strengthened by the two lateral ligaments just described. The
anterior ligament has the bulk of its fibres running downward and inward from the
edge of the radius to the palmar surface of the navicular, lunate, and cuneiform
bones. It is stronger than the posterior. The posterior ligament likewise has
its fibres running downward and inward to be attached to the first row of carpal
bones.
Movements. — The wrist is classed as a biaxial diarthrosis or condyloid joint.
This means that it is a double hinge-joint having movements around two axes,
one anteroposterior and the other transverse. A combination of these movements
results in circumduction, but it has at least no voluntary movement of rotation.
334
APPLIED ANATOMY.
When rotation of the hand occurs it is accompHshed by pronating or supinating-
the forearm. If the wrist-joint posssssed this latter movement it would be a ball-
and-socket or enarthrodial joint. The hand can be flexed and extended through an
arc of approximately 140 degrees and adducted and abducted about half as much.
The position assumed by the bones in flexion and extension is shown in Figs. 343
and 344.
. Adduction or bending toward the ulnar side is much greater than is possible
toward the radial side. The fact of the ulna not coming so low as the radius
Scaphoid / / /
Trapezium / Second metacarpal
Trapezoid
Fig. 343. — Position assumed by the carpal bones in flexion of the wrist.
accounts, at least in part, for this. The lateral ligaments check the movements of
abduction and adduction, and in addition the contact of the styloid process of the
radius with the trapezium prevents further outward movement.
The extent of the movements of the wrist of course varies much in different
individuals. The laxness of the joints in children, women, and those not accustomed
to hard manual labor is well known.
The movements of the wrist are performed by two different sets of muscles.
Trapezoid
Trapezium
Second metacarpal
Fig. 344. — Position assumed by the carpal bones in extension of the wrist.
One set comprises the flexors and extensors of the carpus and the other the flexors
and extensors of the thumb and fingers.
The first set is composed of the flexor carpi radialis and flexor carpi ichiaris,
with, which we may perhaps include the palmaris longus, — although it properly
belongs with the finger muscles, — and of the extensor carpi tibiaris, exteyisor carpi
radialis h?igior, and extensor carpi radialis brevior. If the fingers are clinched
and the extensors of the fingers contract they aid the three carpal extensors to bend
the hand backward. If the fingers are held extended and the flexors of the fingers
contract they aid the carpal flexors to bend the hand forward. Contraction of the
REGION OF THE WRIST. 335
flexor and extensor carpi ulnaris adducts the hand and contraction of the flexor carpi
radiahs and extensor carpi radiahs longior and brevdor, aided by the short extensor
of the thumb and extensor ossis metacarpi poUicis, abducts the hand.
In the affection known as wrist-drop all the extensor muscles are paralyzed. It is
due to injury, usually from pressure on the radial (musculospiral) nerve, either in the
groove of the humerus or in the axilla. Although there are a number of synovial
bursse around the joint in connection with the tendons none communicate with it.
Muscles. — The flexor tendons cover the wrist anteriorly and the extensors
posteriorly. With the flexor group we may consider the pronator quadratus. A
third or radial group comprises the extensor carpi radialis longior and brevior and
the brachioradialis.
Anteriorly. — The tendons on the front of the wrist occupy four different planes
or levels. The most superficial layer embraces the flexor carpi radialis, the palmaris
longus, and the flexor carpi ulnaris. Of these three the palmaris longus is the
nearest to the skin as it inserts in the palmar fascia in front of the annular ligament.
The flexor carpi radialis slips under the upper portion of the annular ligament to
insert into the base of the second metacarpal bone. The flexor carpi ulnaris inserts
Flexor carpi ulnaris tendon
Deep layer of the deep fascia
Superficial layer of the deep fascia / / ulnar artery
Anterior annular ligament / / / / Ulnar nerve
_^.*»Qk,S^'**''
Median nerve
Flexor sublimis tendons
Tendon of palmaris longus / / / Radial artery
Superficial layer of deep fascia / Styloid process of radius
Flexor carpi radialis
Fig. 345. — Dissection showing the fascias of the anterior portion of the wrist. The superficial layer is
continuous with the palmaris longus muscle and palmar fascia; the deep layer is continuous with the anterior
annular ligament.
into the pisiform bone and continues onward to the base of the fifth metacarpal bone
and the unciform process of the unciform bone.
The second layer of tendons is composed of the four tendons of the flexor sub-
limis digitorum. They fill the space between the palmaris longus and the flexor
carpi ulnaris.
The third layer is composed of the four tendons of the flexor profundus digito-
rum toward the ulnar side and the flexor longus poUicis toward the radial side.
The fourth and last layer is formed by the pronator quadratus. This lies directly
on the bones and covers their lower fourth.
It is sometimes necessary to divide these tendons in cases of contraction of the
wrist, hence the desirability of being able to recognize and locate them.
The Deep Fascia and Anterior Annular Ligament. — The deep fascia cov-
ering the anterior muscles of the forearm is comparatively thin. As it approaches the
wrist it divides into two layers. The superficial layer is thin and runs over the
tendons of the palmaris longus and flexor carpi radialis muscles and the ulnar artery
and nerve. It is continuous below with the palmar fascia. To the ulnar side it
passes over the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle to be continuous with the posterior annular
ligament. It is not attached to the ulna, but slides over it as it follows the move*
ments of the hand in pronation and supination (Fig. 345).
33^
APPLIED ANATOMY.
-Extensor carpi radialis brevior
-Extensor carpi radialis longior
The deep layer of the deep fascia covers the flexor sublimis digitorum and
passes downward beneath the flexor carpi radialis and brachioradialis muscles. It is
continuous below with the anterior annular ligament.
The deep layer blends with the superficial layer to the radial side of the flexor
carpi radialis, and then merges with the posterior annular ligament to form the sheath
of two of the extensor muscles of the thumb.
On the ulnar side the deep layer passes over the ulnar artery and vein and under
the flexor and extensor carpi ulnaris muscles, forming the posterior portion of their
sheaths, and then merges with the pos-
terior annular ligament.
The anterior a^inular ligament is
attached on the ulnar side to the pisi-
form bone and unciform process of the
unciform bone and on the radial side
to the trapezium and tuberosity of the
navicular (scaphoid).
Over the anterior annular liga-
ment pass the ulnar artery and nerve,
-Brachioradialis (supinator longus) the superficial volar artery, and the
palmar cutaneous branch of the median
nerve.
Beneath the annular ligament pass
the median nerve, the flexor sublimis,
flexor profundus, and flexor longus pol-
licis tendons. These tendons are em-
braced in two sheaths, one for the
flexor longus pollicis and the other for
the flexors of the other four fingers,
the sheath for the little finger extend-
ing to the insertion of the profundus
tendon into the distal phalanx. The
tendinous sheaths accompany the ten-
dons for a distance of 2.5 to 5 cm. ( i
to 2 in.) above the annular ligament.
Posteriorly. — On the posterior
surface of the wrist the tendons may
be divided into two groups, an exten-
sor group and a radial group. The
extensor group is divided into a super-
ficial and deep set. The superficial set
is composed of the extensor communis
digitorum, the extensor minimi digiti
and the extensor carpi ulnaris. The
deep set is composed of the extensor
ossis metacarpi pollicis, extensor brevis
pollicis, extensor longus pollicis, and extensor indicis. The radial gro7cp, on the
posterior and outer surface of the radius, is composed of the extensor carpi radialis
longior, the extensor carpi radialis brevior, and the brachioradialis (Fig. 346). The
first two lie beneath the deep extensor muscles, thus practically forming a third layer.
All the tendons of the posterior and radial group of muscles, with the exception of
the brachioradialis, pass beneath the posterior annular ligament into the hand. The
brachioradialis inserts into the base of the styloid process of the radius.
Posterior Annular Ligament. — As the tendons pass down over the posterior
surface of the radius and ulna they are bound down by processes of the deep fascia
which form canals in which they run. The deep fascia of the posterior surface of
the forearm in the neighborhood of the wrist is strong, and forms the posterior
annular ligament. Its lower border is about level with the upper border of the
anterior annular ligament. It is attached externally to the posterior and outer edge
of the styloid process of the radius and internally to the posterior surface of the
-Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis
-Extensor brevis pollicis
"Styloid process of radius
• Extensor carpi radialis longior
- Extensor carpi radialis brevior
- Extensor longus pollicis
-I
S
Fig. 346. — Muscles of the radial side of the wrist.
REGION OF THE WRIST.
337
styloid process of the ulna, the internal lateral ligament, the pisiform, and adjacent
carpal bones. Beneath this posterior annular ligament are six compartments. From
the radial toward the ulnar side they are : (i) One on the outer side of the styloid
process of the radius for the extensor ossis metacarpi poUicis and extensor brevis
poUicis; (2) for the extensor carpi radialis longior and brevior, then comes the
posterior radial tubercle in the middle of the radius, and passing close along its ulnar
side is (3) the extensor longus pollicis. To the ulnar side of this tendon is a com-
paratively broad sheath for (4) the extensor communis digitorum and the extensor
Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis
and extensor brevis pollicis
Extensor carpi radialis longior
and extensor carpi radialis brevior
Extensor longus pollicis.
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Extensor minimi digit!
Extensor communis digitorum
and extensor indicis
Fig. 347. — The sheaths of the extensor tendons on the back of the wrist distended with wax to show their extent.
indicis muscles. In the interval between the radius and ulna lies (5) the tendon of
the extensor minimi digiti, and on the posterior side of the styloid process of the ulna
is (6) the tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris (Fig. 347).
Each of these six compartments is lined with a separate sheath which extends
under the annular ligament from a centimetre or two above the joint to about the
bases of the metacarpal bones on the dorsal surface of the hand.
The Anatomical SnufF-Box (la tabatiere anatomique, of Cloquet). —
On the outer dorsal aspect of the wrist, just below the radius, is a depression particu-
larly noticeable when the thumb is abducted (Fig. 351, page 341). It is triangular in
338
APPLIED ANATOMY.
shape with its base upward. The styloid process of the radius forms its base ;
the extensor brevis polUcis with the extensor ossis metacarpi polHcis forms its radial
or outer side, and the tendon of the extensor longus poUicis forms its ulnar or inner
side. Its floor is formed by the navicular (scaphoid) and trapezium bones.
Through it, lying on these bones and the external lateral ligament, passes the radial
artery on its way to the first interosseous space. Superficial to the artery lies a
vein and some fine branches of the radial nerve. In ligating the artery at this point,
Radial vein
Posterior radial tubercle
\ JIS / / / 1/
Posterior ulnar vein
Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis
and extensor brevis pollicis
Extensor carpi radialis longior
Extensor carpi radialis brevior
Radial artery in snuff-box"
Extensor longus pollicis
Abductor indicis.
Posterior annular ligament
\0 \^
Fig. 348. — View of the anatomical snuff-box and the radial artery passing through it.
care should be taken not to mistake the vein for it ; the vein is near the skin, the
artery lies deep on the lateral ligament and bones (Fig. 348).
SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE WRIST.
The bellies of many of the muscles, mainly the superficial ones, cease as they
become tendinous about the middle of the forearm. Hence the rapid decrease
in size as one descends. When the wrist is reached there is a swelling on each side
caused by the expanded lower end of the radius on the outer side and the head of
the ulna on the inner. The medial (inner) prominence is rendered more marked by
abducting the hand, the lateral (outer) prominence by adducting it. Just beyond
these there is a constriction as the wrist passes into the hand.
REGION OF THE WRIST. 339
Above the wrist on the anterior and outer part can be felt the radius. Its lower
2 or 2. 5 cm. (i in.) is sharp and prominent — this is the anterior border of the styloid
process. On the outer side at its base is the point of insertion of the brachioradialis
tendon. Following the bone down on its outer side, at the upper margin of the
anatomical snuff-box, one feels the tip of the styloid process, a most important
landmark.
On the outer surface of the radius beginning below between the tip of the styloid
process and its sharp anterior border are the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis and
extensor brexis pollicis tendons. They can readily be seen and felt when the thumb
is extended as they cross obliquely over the lower end of the radius. The sheaths
of these tendons frequently become inflamed from injuries, causing what is termed
tenosynovitis. If the hand is laid on the lower portion of the radius of a patient so
affected, and he is told to move the thumb, a characteristic creaking can be felt as
the tendons move in their inflamed sheaths.
The edge of the articular surface of the radius can be indistinctly felt from the
tip of the styloid process to the edge of the flexor carpi radialis internally and across
the back of the wrist in an upwardly curved line toward the ulna.
On the inner side of the wrist can be felt and seen the prominence made by the
head of the ulna. The ulna is subcutaneous and can be followed up the forearm
posteriorly its entire length. It is not covered by muscles on its inner border, but
on its anterior surface is the flexor carpi ulnaris tendon beneath which is the flexor
profundus digitorum, this latter being separated from the bone by the origin of the pro-
nator quadratus. If the posterior surface of the ulna is followed downward the styloid
process forming its extremity can be distinctly felt, especially if the hand is placed
in the supine position and slightly flexed. Overlying the head of the ulna posteriorly
is the tendon of the extensor carpi ulnaris muscle going to the base of the fifth meta-
carpal bone. This tendon follows the movements of the hand in pronation and
supination, but the styloid process of the ulna remains stationary. When the hand is
pronated the tendon lies to the anterior side of the styloid process, but when the hand
is supinated it lies toward its posterior side. This tendon cannot be readily recognized.
The inner and posterior surface of the cuneiform bone can be felt immediately
below the head of the ulna. Some difficulty may be experienced in distinguishing
one from the other; if, however, the hand is abducted and adducted the cuneiform
bone can be felt to move while the ulna remains stationary. On the palmar surface
of the wrist, immediately below the ulna, can be felt the distinct bony prominence
formed by the pisiform bone. The flexor carpi ulnaris inserts into it.
About 2 to 2. 5 cm. ( I in. ) below and to the radial side of the pisiform bone is
the unciform process of the unciform bone. It is best detected by laying the ball of
the thumb over the spot and making deep pressure with a rolling motion. On the
radial side of the anterior surface, directly in line with the tendon of the flexor carpi
radialis, is the prominent tubercle of the navicular (scaphoid) bone; a centimetre
farther on, in line with the thumb, is the ridge of the trapezium. The anterior annular
ligament is attached to its outer surface about 2.5 cm. (i in. ) below the styloid proc-
ess of the radius ; a bony prominence formed by the trapezium marks its junction
with the metacarpal bone of the thumb in front.
The ability to locate the carpometacarpal joint of the thumb is of importance
in reference to the diagnosis of fractures and other injuries. On comparing the two
styloid processes it will be seen that the styloid process of the radius extends i cm.
(fin.) lower than that of the ulna. This is best observed with the hand in a prone
position. Across the front of the wrist there are two transverse lines. The proxi-
mal or upper one corresponds with the radiocarpal joint or wrist-joint. The distal or
lower one corresponds with the joint between the two rows of carpal bones and
marks the upper edge of the anterior annular ligament.
On the posterior surface of the wrist, one-third of the width of the wrist across
from the edge of the radius, can be felt a bony prominence. It is the posterior radial
tubercle. If the thumb is extended the tendon of the extensor longus polhcis leads
directly to the tubercle and lies along its ulnar border. This tubercle marks the middle
of the posterior surface of the radius. The radius passes two-thirds across the wrist
and the ulna the other third ; by firm pressure the interval between them can be felt.
340
APPLIED ANATOMY.
If the hand is firmly clenched and flexed on the forearm the tendons on the
anterior surface of the wrist become prominent. The most evident is the palmaris
longus which, though sometimes absent, usually stands out clear and sharp. Lying
Line indicating the joint
between the first and second
row of carpal bones
Pisiform bone
Line indicating the
radiocarpal joint
Flexor carpi ulnaris muscle
Ulnar artery and nerve
Styloid process of radius
Groove for radial artery
Swelling formed by the
extensors of the thumb
Flexor carpi radialis
Palmaris longus
Median nerve
Fig. 349. — Surface anatomy of anterior surface of wrist.
Tuberosity of
the scaphoid
Flexor carpi radialis
Styloid process of radius
Palmaris longus
Pisiform bone
Prominence formed
by the flexor sublimis
digitorum
Flexor carpi
ulnaris muscle
Fig. 350. — Surface anatomy of the anterior portion of the wrist.
along its radial border is the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis; between the two on
a lower level lies the median nerve. In front of the ulna, and going directly down-
ward to the pisiform bone, is the tendon of flexor carpi ulnaris (Fig. 349).
REGION OF THE WRIST.
341
If the hand is extended the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris stands out clearly.
In the hollow to its lateral (outer) side lie the ulnar nerve and artery. A rounded
muscular swell fills the space between the ulnar artery and the tendon of the palmaris
longus, — it is caused by the flexor sublimis digitorum (see Fig. 350). It is here
that abscesses show when they travel up from the hand.
Between the outer edge of the flexor carpi radialis tendon and the anterior outer
edge of the radius is a groove in which runs the radial artery. The position of the
extensor ossis metacarpi poUicis and extensor brevis pollicis which run together over
the outer surface of the radius can best be determined by abducting the thumb and
so making these tendons prominent (Fig 351).
Extensor longus pollicis
Extensor brevis pollicis
and extensor ossis metacarpi
pollicis
Anatomical snuff-box
Tip of styloid process of
radius
Fig. 351. — Surface anatomy of the outer dorsal portion of the wrist, showing the anatomical snuff-box.
In the same manner the extensor longus pollicis tendon can be made prominent
and followed to the posterior radial tubercle. By firm pressure the upper limits of
the first and second interosseous spaces can be felt. They mark the bases of the
metacarpal bones. The extensor carpi radialis longior passes across the snuff-box to
insert into the radial side of the base of the second metacarpal bone. The radial
artery as it dips down between the first and second metacarpal bones lies just to
its outer side. Crossing under the tendon of the extensor longus pollicis is the
extensor carpi radialis brevior, which proceeds to the top of the second interosseous
space to insert into the adjoining sides of the second and third metacarpal bones.
In the chink between the radius and ulna lies the tendon of the extensor
minimi digiti. Between this tendon and the radial tubercle are the four tendons of the
342
APPLIED ANATOMY.
extensor communis digitorum and extensor indicis muscles. Passing over the head
of the ulna to insert into the base of the fifth metacarpal bone is the tendon of the
extensor carpi ulnaris. It is best felt just beyond the extremity of the ulna when the
hand is drawn toward the ulnar side. It inserts into the base of the fifth metacarpal
bone.
Compound Ganglion. — Large effusions into the sheath of the fiexor tendons
of the wrist, usually purulent or tuberculous in character, sometimes cause two swell-
.'^
Fig. 352. — Compound ganglion showing swellings above and below the anterior annular ligament. (From author's
sketch of a tuberculous case.)
ings, one in the palm of the hand and the other above the wrist. These commu-
nicate beneath the anterior annular ligament and form what is called a compound
ganglion (Fig. 352).
FRACTURES OF THE LOWER END OF THE RADIUS AND ULNA.
The lower end of the ulna is rarely fractured, but that of the radius vies with
fracture of the clavicle in being the most frequent of all fractures.
I
Fig. 3 S3. — Colles's fracture of the lower end of the radius, showing the " silver fork deformity" and displacement
of the fragments.
Colles's Fracture.
Fractures of the radius which occur at the wrist possess certain distinct charac-
teristics and were for a long time confounded with dislocations of the wrist. These
fractures are generally grouped by modern surgeons under the name of Colics' s
fracture. This fracture was first correctly described, according to both Hamilton
and Stimson, by Pouteau ("CEuvres Posthumes," t. 11, p. 251, 1783; also Nelaton,
" Chirurgie Path.," t. i, p. 739). Mr. Colles, a Dublin surgeon, described the
injury most carefully in the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Jouryial, April, 18 14,
but it is largely due to Robt. W. Smith's "Treatise on Fractures in the Vicinity
REGION OF THE WRIST. 343
of Joints," Dublin, 1847, that the name CoUes's fracture has become generally
accepted. Mr. CoUes placed the injury i]4 inches (about 4 cm.) above the joint.
Mr. Smith placed it from }^ in. to i in. (6 to 25 mm.) above the joint. Most recent
waiters include all fractures within 4 cm. ( I ^ in. ) of the lower edge of the radius
under this name, though some few go still higher. When the line of fracture lies
more than 4 cm. above the joint it loses the characteristics of a Colics' s fracture and
partakes of those of fractures of the shaft ; hence we will not go beyond that limit.
The line of fracture is most commonly found, as stated by Robt. W. Smith,
from 6 to 25 mm. (^ to i in.) above the joint. It passes almost transversely
across the bone or inclines slightly downward to the ulnar side. It also lies nearer
the joint on the anterior surface and inclines backward and upward toward the elbow.
Hence the direction is from above downward and forward (Fig. 353).
It is produced while the hand is extended (dorsally flexed) either by direct
transmission of the force from the palmar surface of the wrist or by tension of the
anterior radiocarpal ligament.
The lower fragment is displaced upward and backward on the shaft of the
radius. This causes it to be tilted backward so that the articular surface is rotated
on a transverse axis more in the direction of the dorsum than normal and the hand is
also carried toward the radial side. The dorsal displacement is due to the direction
of the violence and not to muscular action. The radial side of the fragment is
displaced upward more than the ulnar because the triangular fibrocartilage retains its
cy^
Fig. 354. — Colles's fracture of the radius, showing inclination of hand toward the radial side and prominence of
the styloid process of the ulna. (From author's sketch.)
radio-ulnar attachments. This prevents the ulnar side from rising, while the radial
side is pulled up by the radial flexor and extensor muscles. If the fracture is not
extremely close to the joint the brachioradialis will pull the lower fragment toward
the radial side and up toward the elbow.
As the hand is attached to the radius it follows the lower fragment ; the extensor
muscles of the thumb, the flexor carpi radialis, and the two extensor carpi radialis
muscles all tend to aid the brachioradialis in producing the displacement toward
the radial side (Fig. 354).
The lower fragment is displaced toward the dorsum and the upper fragment
toward the palmar surface. This produces the ' ' silver fork deformity' ' of
Velpeau. This dorsal projection is sometimes increased by the presence of the
"carpal tumor," a swelling due to effusion almost directly above the joint. The
projection of the upper fragment toward the palmar surface and the effusion in the
sheaths of the flexor tendons cause a protrusion on the anterior surface of the wrist
and a marked increase in the lower anterior radiocarpal crease.
To reduce the deformity the upper fragment is firmly grasped with one hand
while with the other the hand of the patient is forcibly adducted (toward the ulnar
side) and then sharply flexed. This drags the distal fragment down and forward off
of the proximal one. To retain the fragments in position some surgeons use a pistol-
shaped splint to hold the hand turned toward the ulnar side and place a graduated
compress on the palmar surface with its base opposite the line of fracture and its
apex upward and another pad on the dorsal surface with its apex downward over the
hand. Other surgeons place the hand in a flexed position, allowing it to hang.
344
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Separation of the Lower Epiphysis of the Radius,
The lower radial epiphysis fuses with the shaft at about the twentieth year ;
therefore epiphyseal separation can occur up to that time. The epiphyseal line
passes across the bone from the base of the styloid process
to the upper edge of the radio-ulnar joint (Fig. 355).
The displacement, symptoms and treatment are the same
as in CoUes's fracture and it is quite possible that many cases
diagnosed as Colles's fracture may be epiphyseal separations.
Fracture of the Lower End of the Radius with
Displacement Forward.
This fracture, though rare, occasionally occurs, and if
union has taken place the deformity is marked and the
injury is liable to be diagnosed as a luxation. It has been
particularly described by Dr. John B. Roberts ("A Clinical,
Pathological, and Experimental Study of Fracture of the
Lower End of the Radius with Displacement of the Carpal
Fragment toward the Flexor or Anterior Surface of the
Wrist, ' ' Phila. , 1 897 ) . On account of the difificulties in diag-
nosis it is well to examine its anatomical peculiarities.
Displacement. — The lower fragment is tilted forward
toward the palmar surface of the wrist, carrying the radial
side of the hand with it (Fig. 356).
Signs. — The line of the radius can be followed and
felt to curve at its lower portion toward the palmar surface.
The hand descending with the displaced fragment causes a
groove to appear across the dorsum from one styloid process to the other. The
dorsal surface of the lower part of the forearm is on a higher plane than that of the
carpus. As the hand is lower than normal this causes the lower end of the ulna to
Fig. 355. — Epiphyses of the
lower ends of the radius and
ulna; union occurs with the
shaft of the bones at about the
20th year.
Fig . 3 s 6 . — Fracture of the lower end of the radius with displacement of the lower fragment toward the palmar
surface. (Sketch, by the author, of a specimen in the Mutter Museum of the Philadelphia College of Physicians.)
project much higher than it should. On account of the tension of the extensor carpi
radialis longior and brevior the hand is held level with the forearm and does not
droop as in Colles's fracture. Displacement to the radial side may or may not be
marked.
Fracture of the Lower end of the Ulna.
Previous to the use of the X-rays for diagnostic purposes, fracture of the lower
end of the ulna was considered extremely rare. Fractures of the ulna above the
head resemble practically those of the shaft.
Fracture of the styloid process was observed by D. H. Agnew in one case which
was followed by deformity. Inasmuch as the deep fascia slides over the ulna it
is readily seen that if it is perforated one or other of the fragments may be caught in
the rent. This is probably the explanation of the deformity which occurred in
Agnew' s case. He advised treatment with the hand bent toward the ulnar side to
relax the extensor carpi ulnaris tendon. Fracture of the styloid process of the ulna
has been shown by the X-rays to be a more frequent accompaniment of Colles's
fracture than was formerly thought to be the case, — it tends to favor displacement
of the hand toward the radial side.
RECxION OF THE WRIST.
345
DISLOCATIONS AT THE WRIST.
The dislocations at the wrist may be due to traumatism or may occur spontane-
ously. There may be either a displacement of the carpus at the radiocarpal joint
or of the ulna at the inferior radio-ulnar articulation. These luxations are very rare.
DISLOCATIONS AT THE RADIOCARPAL JOINT.
It is to Dupuytren that we owe the recognition of the fact that what were
previously regarded as luxations of the wrist were really cases of fracture, usually
of the radius. True luxations are exceedingly rare ; they may be either backward
or forward and are often compound. They are usually the result of great violence
and the ends of the radius and ulna in many cases protrude on the palmar or dorsal
surface.
Backward luxation is the more common of the two. The question of diagnosis
is most important in relation to this injury. Many cases which have been diagnosed
as luxations afterwards prove to be fractures. In backward luxation the deformity
resembles that of CoUes's fracture, with the following differences : the palmar swelling
in dislocation extends farther down toward the hand than is the case in CoUes's
fracture, — this is owing to the displacement occurring at the joint instead of some
distance above, as in fracture ; in
luxation the protrusion forming the
hump on the dorsal surface has an
abrupt upper edge which is lack-
ing in cases of fracture, and both
styloid processes — of the radius
and the ulna — remain attached to
the shaft of the bones.
Anterior luxation may occur
from injury, but more commonly it
is seen in the form of a subluxa-
tion which occurs slowly and spon-
taneously usually between the ages
of 1 6 and 25 years. It was first
described by Dupuytren and later
by Madelung. The ulna projects markedly toward the dorsal surface while the
radius is somewhat less prominent; there is a marked hollow on the palmar surface
of the forearm just above the hand. Fig. 357, from a girl 18 years of age, shows
these points clearly.
DISLOCATION OF THE ULNA AT THE LOWER RADIO-ULNAR JOINT.
The ulna may be dislocated forwards or backwards. When associated with
fracture of the radius it is not so rare, but otherwise it is seldom seen. Posterior lux-
ation is the most common. The internal lateral ligament and triangular cartilage
both usually remain attached to the lower end of the ulna, which projects markedly
on the dorsal surface. The injury has been produced by falls on the hand and forced
pronation.
In recent cases reduction can usually be accomplished by direct pressure and
rotation of the hand, with traction. The secret of success in the diagnosis of these
obscure fractures and luxations in the region of the wrist lies in knowing the surface
anatomy and in being able to recognize the various deeper structures by the sense
of touch.
EXCISION OF THE WRIST.
Formal excisions of the wrist are undertaken for tuberculous disease. It is
desirable that all the affected tissues be removed. To do this is difficult, on account
of the number and extent of the various carpal bones and joints as well as the
danger of injuring the important arteries, nerves, and tendons by which they are
Fig. 357. — Subluxation of the wrist from disease.
346
APPLIED ANATOMY.
surrounded. To remove the diseased parts without inflicting avoidable injury
requires an exact and skilful operator who has a precise knowledge of the anatomy
of the region. Interference with the sheaths of the tendons will result in stiffness
and loss of control and power in the hand.
Maisonneuve, Boeckel, and Langenbeck operated through a single dorsal in-
cision along the radial side of the extensor indicis tendon. As this incision was
found to give insufficient room, Lister, in 1865, advised an additional incision along
the ulnar border. Oilier, of Lyons, modified Lister's radial incision by carrying it
Fig. 3s8. — Excision of wrist, showing structures involved and Ollier's incisions. The solid line indicates the dorsal
radial incision and the dotted line the palmar ulnar incision.
nearer the extensor indicis tendon to better avoid injuring the radial artery and the
insertion of the extensor carpi radialis brevior tendon. Oilier also carried his incision
somewhat higher on the wrist and raised the tissues with a perio'steal elevator, and
divided no tendons.
Ollier's Operation. — Radial Incision. — From a point on the dorsum of the
wrist midway between the styloid processes, downward and outward alongside of
the extensor indicis tendon to the junction of the middle and lower thirds of the
metacarpal bone of the index finger (Fig. 358).
REGION OF THE WRIST. 347
Ulnar Incision. — From a point 2.5 cm. (r in.) above the styloid process of
the ulna toward its palmar surface, downward to the base of the fifth metacarpal
bone (Fig. 358).
When making the radial incision, branches of the radial nerve may be seen in the
lower part of the incision and should if possible be avoided. In making the ulnar
incision a cutaneous branch of the ulnar nerve should be avoided as it verges toward
the dorsal surface below the styloid process.
The extensor indicis tendon is pulled aside and the extensor carpi radialis
brevior beneath detached with the periosteum from the base of the third metacarpal
bone. The incision is then extended higher up the wrist, care being taken not to in-
jure the tendon of the extensor longus poUicis at the posterior radial tubercle. The
periosteum is to be detached over the lower end of the radius, the radiocarpal joint
opened, and the carpal bones removed one after another. The pisiform- bone,
unciform process, and trapezium are left when possible. In removing the unciform
process the deep branch of the ulnar nerve should be avoided. If the trapezium is
removed care must be taken not to wound the radial artery as it goes over the bone
to dip between the first and second metacarpal bones, and also to avoid the flexor
carpi radialis tendon as it crosses to the inner side of the ridge of the trapezium on
its palmar surface.
The articular ends of the ulna and radius may be removed with a small saw if
necessary. As Jacobson says, this operation is a tedious and difficult one, and we
might add that it is liable to be an inefficient one, owing to the inability to remove
all of the diseased tissue.
Operations of Studsgaard and Mynter. — Studsgaard of Copenhagen in
1891 (" Hospitalstidenden," Jan. 7, iSgi) suggested, and Herman Mynter of Buf-
falo ( Transactions of the American Ortliopedic Association, 1894, vol. vii, p. 253)
carried out the method of splitting the hand on the dorsum from the web between
the second and third fingers to the lower edge of the radius, and on the palmar
surface to the base of the thenar eminence.
Dr, Wm. J. Taylor {Annals of Snrgery, vol. xxii, 1900, p. 360) modified the
operation by employing only the dorsal incision. This operation gives full access
and exposure to the parts, and all disease can most readily be recognized and re-
moved with the scissors or other instruments. It is probably the best method of
exposure and operation when simple incision and curetting does not suffice.
AMPUTATION THROUGH THE WRIST-JOINT.
When it is possible to do so the interarticular fibrocartilage over the lower end
■of the ulna is not to be interfered with. The lower radio-ulnar joint is therefore not
injured and the movements of pronation and supination are preserved.
The styloid process of the radius is i cm. below that of the ulna. It is directly
on the outer side of the radius, while the styloid process of the ulna is toward the
posterior surface.
On account of the skin of the palm being thick and well adapted for pressure a
long palmar flap is preferred.
Incision. — On account of retraction, the knife is entered i cm. (| in.) below
the radial styloid process — the thumb being abducted to render the tissues tense, and,
if the left hand is being operated on, the knife is carried straight down well on the
thenar prominence. It is then curved abruptly across the palm on a level almost or
quite as low as the web of the thumb. It is continued to the ulnar side and up
to within i cm. of the styloid process of the ulna. The flap should be an almost
square one with rounded ends. The incision goes down to but does not divide the
flexor tendons (Fig. 359.)
This flap, embracing the palmar fascia and part of the thenar and hypothenar
muscles, is at once raised from the flexor tendons, care being taken not to catch the
knife on the unciform and pisiform bones.
The hand is now pronated and a dorsal flap 2.5 cm. (i in.) long is cut. As the
skin is loose and elastic this length is needed to provide against retraction.
348
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The flaps being reflected and the hand flexed, disarticulation is begun by enter-
ing the knife on the ulnar side of the dorsum, beneath the styloid process. The
joint is followed around to the radial side, bearing in mind that it curves markedly
upwards.
If the right hand is being operated on and the knife is entered transversely
it will strike the scaphoid bone, therefore it must be at once inclined obliquely
upward. Section of the flexor muscles and anterior ligament completes the disartic-
ulation. The radial artery will be cut in the snufl-box. The ulnar will be seen on
the inner side of the palmar flap, and on the outer side may be seen the superficial
volar. Some small branches of the anterior and posterior carpal and interosseous
arteries may require ligation.
Some operators remove the styloid processes of the radius and ulna. If this is
done, care is to be taken not to go so high as to injure the insertion of the brachio-
radialis on the radius and the attachment of the triangular cartilage on the ulna.
Usually the styloid processes are not interfered with, in order to avoid impairing the
movements of pronation and supination.
Ligation of the Radial Artery on the Dorsum of the Hand. — The
radial artery can be ligated in the anatomical snuff-box as it crosses the back of the
Extensor communis tendons
Extensor minimi digiti /
Extensor longus pollicis
Extensor carpi radialis brevior
/ Extensor carpi radialis longior
Articular surface
of radius
Radial artery
Ext. carpi ulnaris -
Triangular cartilage
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Ulnar nerve
I'almar flap
Fig. 3S9
'Inar artery
, — Amputation through the wrist-joint of the right side.
hand to dip between the first and second metacarpal bones and the two heads of the
abductor indicis muscle. The course of the artery is indicated by a line drawn from
the tip of the styloid process of the radius to the upper end of the first interosseous
space (see Fig. 348, p. 338).
The incision is usually made in the direction of the tendons from the styloid
process down. As soon as the skin is divided there may be exposed in the super-
ficial fascia some branches of the radial nerve and the radial vein. These being
pushed aside, the deep fascia is opened and the artery found with its two companion
veins lying deep down on the external lateral ligament and trapezium. The most
common error in this operation is mistaking the superficial vein for the artery and
not searching deep enough.
If the radial artery is wounded as it passes through the snuff-box bleeding will
be very free. It is almost impossible to ligate the divided ends in the wound be-
cause the proximal end retracts under the short extensor tendons of the thumb and
the distal end retracts through the first interosseous space deep into the palm of the
hand so that they cannot be reached. When such is the case it is necessary either
to ligate the ulnar and radial arteries on the anterior surface just above the wrist or,
as we did in one case, pack the wound with antiseptic gauze and keep the hand well
elevated.
THE HAND.
349
THE HAND.
As has already been stated, the hand is the essential part of the upper extremity,
and mobility is its' main characteristic. It terminates in five digits which possess a
bony support or framework. In order that the fingers may perform their many com-
plicated movements numerous joints are inserted which necessitate a still greater
number of bones. The movements of the hand and fingers are accomplished not
only by the long flexors and extensors of the fingers and the flexors and extensors
Ulna
lexor carpi ulnaris
Styloid process
Semilunar
Cuneiform
Pisiform
]^^0s magnum
Unciform
[Unciform process
'lexer carpi ulnaris
Pig. 360. — Anterior view of the bones of the carpus and metacarpus, showing insertion of the two carpal flexoi
muscles.
of the carpus, which, as has already been shown, come down from the forearm, but
in addition by numerous short muscles situated in the hand itself. An especial
peculiarity of the human hand is the ability to oppose the thumb to the other digits.
BONES OF THE HAND.
The carpus contains 8 bones, the metacarpus 5, the phalanges 14; 27 bones in all.
The Carpal Bones. — The carpal bones are in two rows. The upper row is
convex above and the lower row is convex below.
The upper row, beginning on the radial side, is composed of the navicular
{scaphoid) , lunate, cuneiform, and pisiform. The three first-named articulate with
the radius and triangular cartilage, forming the radiocarpal joint, but the pisiform
is separate. It is perched on the cuneiform bone and is practically a sesamoid bone
3 so
APPLIED ANATOMY.
developed in the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle. The anterior end of the
navicular (scaphoid) has on its palmar surface a tuberosity which can be felt immedi-
ately below the flexor carpi radialis tendon at the wrist ; this tendon passes along the
palmar surface to insert in the base of the second metacarpal bone (Fig. 360).
The lower row, beginning on the radial side, is composed of the trapezium,
trapezoid, os magnum, and tinciform. The first three articulate with the first three
m.etacapal bones but the unciform, like the cuboid in the foot, articulates with two
metacarpal bones — the fourth and fifth.
The trapezium articulates with the first metacarpal bone by a saddle-shaped joint
and has on its palmar surface a ridge. Along the inner side of this ridge runs the
Radius
Posterior radial or thecal tubercle
Styloid process of radius
Scaphoid
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Radial arteryj
Metacarpal bone of the thumb
Extensor carpi
radialis longior
Extensor carpi
radialis brevier
Ulna
Head of ulna
■Styloid process of ulna
Semilunar
Cuneiform
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Os magnum
Unciform
Fig. 361. — Posterior view of the bones of the carpus and metacarpus, showing the insertion of the three carpal
extensor muscles.
flexor carpi radialis tendon. The ridge of the trapezium and tuberosity of the navicu-
lar (scaphoid) give attachment to the radial side of the aiiterior annular ligament.
The unciform bone has a hook-like (unciform) process on its palmar surface. It
can be felt by deep pressure 2 cm. (about ^ in. ) below and to the radial side of the
pisiform bone. This process and the pisiform bone give attachment to the ulnar side
of the anterior annular ligament.
The Metacarpal Bones. — The metacarpal bones have their bases at the
carpus and their heads toward the phalanges. The shafts are small as compared with
the extremities, and hence are not infrequently fractured. On each side of the head
is a small projecting tubercle, which, when the bone becomes luxated, catches in the
tissues and hinders reduction.
On the palmar surface of the base of the second metacarpal bone is inserted the
flexor carpi radialis and into the base of the fifth the flexor carpi nlnaris, which is
continued onward from the pisiform bone. On the dorsal surface, into the base of the
THE HAND.
351
second, is inserted the extensor cai-pi radialis longior; into the base of the third (and
part of the second) is inserted the extensor carpi radialis brevior, and into the base of
the fifth, the exte?isor carpi idnaris (Fig. 361).
Thus it will be seen that all the flexors and extensors of the wrist have their
ultimate insertion into the metacarpal bones.
The metacarpal bone of the thumb has inserting into its base the extensor ossis
metacarpi pollicis tendon. As this tendon has its origin in the forearm it also acts as
Flexor profundus digitorum
Flexor sublimis
digitorum
Fig. 362. — Palmar view of the flexor tendons of the finger, showing the insertion of the flexor sublimis into the
middle phalanx and the flexor profundus into the distal phalanx.
a carpal extensor, but owing to the movability of the thumb it acts especially as an
extensor of the latter, the carpus remaining immovable.
The Phalanges. — The thumb has two phalanges and the fingers each three.
These are called the proximal., middle, and distal phalanges., also the first., second.,
and third phalanges. The thumb has only 2. proximal and a distal phalanx.
Extensor communis digitorum
Interosseous ■
Lumbricalis muscle-'^ \3!»'
y,
Extensor aponeurosis
Fig. 363. — Lateral view of the extensor tendons of the finger.
Into the middle phalanges on their palmar surfaces are inserted the fiexor sub-
limis digitorum tendojis and into the distal the flexor profu7idus (Fig. 362).
There is only one long flexor to the thumb and it is inserted into the distal phalanx.
The extensor commzaiis digitorum opposite the metacarpophalangeal joints
sends off a fibrous expansion which blends with the lateral ligaments of the joints
Extensor aponeurosis
Extensor communis
digitorum
Interosseous
muscle
Lumbricalis muscle
Fig. 364. — Dorsal view of the extensor tendons of the finger.
(Fig. 363). On the dorsum of the proximal phalanx the tendon splits into three
parts. The middle slip inserts into the bases of the middle phalanges, while the two
lateral slips, after receiving the insertions of the lumbricales and part of the insertions
of the interossei, insert into the bases of the distal phalanges of the fingers (Fig. 364).
The thumb has two separate extensors, the extensor brevis pollicis and the exteyisor
longus pollicis.
Into the bases of the proximal phalanges are inserted the remaining portion of
the tendons of the interossei muscles, which move the fingers toward and from one
another, and slips from the palmar fascia. The main function of the interossei and
352
APPLIED ANATOMY.
lumbrical muscles is to extend the distal and middle phalanges and to flex the prox-
imal ones. When, therefore, most of them are paralyzed, as occurs when the ulnar
nerve is divided, the distal and middle phalanges are flexed and the proximal phalan-
ges extended, forming the claw-hand (main griffe) of Duchenne.
JOINTS OF THE HAND.
The carpal bones besides being connected by short ligaments running from one
to another on their dorsal and palmar surface also have their adjacent surfaces con-
Scaphoid
Trapezoid
Trapezium
Os magnum
Unciform
Fig. 365. — The carpal bones and joints.
nected by interosseous ligaments. The three bones of the first row are joined by
two ligaments near their proximal surfaces which prevent any communication of the
radiocarpal with the midcarpal articulations. The four bones of the second row are
joined together by interosseous ligaments (fibrocartilages, Morris) which are not
complete. That between the os magnum and the unciform is attached more toward
the palmar surface, while that between the os magnum and trapezoid is more toward
the dorsal surface. The interosseous ligament between the trapezium and trapezoid
is usually lacking (Fig. 365).
Synovial Membrane. — From the above description it will be seen that the
joints of the carpus (with the exception of the pisiform) all communicate with one
another and with the carpometacarpal joints, and that the synovial membrane is prac-
tically continuous ; hence siippiiration implicating the synovial membrane at any
THE HAND.
353
point can travel without hindrance between all the carpal (with the exception of the
pisiform) and metacarpal bones.
The phalangeal joints have two strong lateral ligaments and an anterior or
glenoid ligament, but no posterior ligament.
Movements. — While the amount of motion between the individual carpal
bones is limited to a slight gliding on one another, still, when taken together, a very
considerable range of movement is allowed. The hand can be fiexed and extended,
abducted and adducted, and circumducted, but not rotated. If the bones of the
forearm at the wrist are held immovable it is impossible to rotate the hand.
The radiocarpal joint bends more freely posteriorly (extension) than anteriorly,
while the midcarpal bends more freely in the opposite direction (Fig. 343, 344, p.
334), adduction (toward the ulnar side) is more extensive than abduction. The
movement between the two rows of carpal bones is quite extensive.
The movements of the inner four carpometacarpal joints are both of flexion and
extension, mainly toward the palmar surface, and a lateral flexion and extension
which enables a person to ' ' hollow ' ' the
hand and so grasp round objects. The
palmar flexion of the fourth and fifth meta-
carpal bones is more marked than that of
the index and middle ones. The middle
metacarpal bone is the least movable. The
metacarpal bone of the thumb articulates
with the trapezium by a saddle-shaped joint
which allows flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction, and circumduction, but little or
no rotation.
Abduction, adduction, and circumduc-
tion of the thumb occur at the carpometa-
carpal articulation and not at the metacar-
pophalangeal articulation. This latter is a
pure hinge-joint and possesses the move-
ments of flexion and extension only.
The metacarpophalangeal articulations
of the fingers are practically saddle-shaped
joints resembling somewhat the ball-and-
socket joints with all their movements ex-
cept that of rotation. They can be flexed
to an angle of 90 degrees. The interpha-
langeal joints are hinge-joints and capable only of flexion and extension. The second
joint can be flexed to an angle of 150 degrees and the end joint to about a right angle.
In flexion the distal phalanx always passes under the proximal bone, thus
causing the prominence of the knuckle to be formed by the proximal phalanx or
metacarpal bone (Fig. 366).
Pig. 366. — Showing how, when the fingers are
flexed, the prominence of the knuckles is formed by
the projection of the proximal bone.
MUSCLES OF THE HAND.
The hand contains not only the tendons of the long muscles which descend into
it from the forearm, but also some short muscles. They may be divided into three
sets, viz : a middle set, embracing the interossei and himbricales ; an external set,
embracing the thumb muscles and forming the thenar eminence ; and an internal
set, embracing the little finger muscles and forming the hypothenar enihie7ice.
The Middle Set. — The interossei muscles arise from the adjacent sides of the
metacarpal bones; the lumbricales arise from the tendons of the flexor profundus digi-
torum. They all insert into the fibrous expansion of the long extensor tendons at the
sides of the proximal phalanges (Fig. 367). When they contract they flex the proximal
phalanx and extend the middle and distal phalanges. The interossei have a second
insertion into the sides of the base of the proximal phalanx. By their action the fingers
may be separated one from the other, or approximated. When the fingers are straight
the palmar interossei act as adductors, while the dorsal interossei act as abductors.
23
354
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The External Set. — The thenar or thumb eminence has four muscles, the
abductor poUicis, opponens, flexor brevis, and adductor. This latter is usually divi-
ded into two parts called the adductor transversus and adductor obliquus (Fig. 368).
The flexor brevis has two heads, an outer and an inner. The outer head
is inserted into the base of the proximal phalanx on its outer side along with the
abductor. The inner head, called by some the first volar interosseous, is inserted
into the inner side along with the adductor; between the two heads runs the tendon
of the long flexor of the thumb. The opponens inserts into the outer anterior border
of the shaft of the first metacarpal bone.
The Internal Set. — The little finger, like the thumb, has abductor, oppo-
nens, and flexor brevis muscles, but no adductor. There is, however, a short
Four dorsal interosseous
muscles
Three palmar inter-
osseous muscles
i-^_ The two medial
(inner) lumbricales
The two lateral
(outer) lumbricales
Fig. 367. — Showing the mode of insertion of the interosseous and lumbrical muscles.
muscle, the palmaris brevis, which is superficial to the palmar fascia and, passing
transversely across the hypothenar eminence, inserts into the skin. It makes a
dimple on the ulnar side when the hand is hollowed. The abductor and flexor brevis
minimi digiti muscles insert on the ulnar side of the proximal phalanx, hence when
they contract they tend to hollow the hand, as does also the opponens minimi digiti,
which inserts on the ulnar side of the fifth metacarpal bone.
SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE HAND.
The hand is twice as long as it is broad. The length of the middle finger from
the metacarpophalangeal joint to its extremity is equal to the distance from the
metacarpophalangeal joint to the radiocarpal joint. If the hand is turned with the
palm up, the thumb diverges from the median line at an angle of 40 degrees. The
THE HAND. 355
palm is hollow, with a muscular mass on each side. That on the thumb side is
called the thenar eminence ; it is formed by the abductor, opponens, and outer head
of the flexor brevis pollicis. The prominence on the ulnar side of the hand is called
the hvpothenar eminence and is formed by the abductor, opponens, and flexor brevis
minimi digiti. The palmaris brevis muscle overlies them transversely. The palm is
marked by four creases, two longitudinal and two transverse. One longitudinal
crease begins at the middle of the wrist between the thenar and hypothenar emi-
nences to end on the radial side of the index finger, opposite the head of its meta-
carpal bone. It is caused by adduction of the thumb. The other longitudinal crease
runs somewhat parallel to the first, starting near the wrist and ending in the web
. Abductor minimi digiti
Abductor pollicis • ^^^^^^ _^^^__
Opponens minimi digiti
^^^^^^^^^^^__^_^^ ,^^^^_^^^^^^ Flexor brevis minimi
Opponens pollicis ^.^^^^^^^^^^^^^gaBH|^I^H^HI^^^^K — ""^ digiti
Flexor brevis pollicis" ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Interossei muscles
Adductor pollicis,
oblique portion
Adductor pollicis,
transverse portion
\J
\
\
Fig. 368. — Muscles of the hand.
between the index and middle fingers. It is formed by hollowing the hand. The
upper transverse crease begins on the radial side of the index finger where the first
longitudinal crease ends, and runs obliquely across the palm to the middle of the
hypothenar eminence. It is formed by the flexion of the fingers, especially the
index, and where it crosses a line drawn through the middle of the middle finger
marks the lowest point of the superficial palmar arch. The position of the lowest
portion of the superficial palmar arch is also indicated by a line drawn across the palm
opposite to the web of the thumb and index finger. The lower transverse crease
begins on the hypothenar eminence opposite the head of the fifth metacarpal bone
and is formed by the flexion of the middle, ring, and especially the little finger.
When it reaches the vicinity of the median line it merges with the second longi-
356 APPLIED ANATOMY.
tudinal crease which passes to the web between the index and middle fingers. Mid-
way between the crease and the webs of the fingers he the joints of the middle, ring,
and little finger. More stress is apt to be laid on a knowledge of these creases than
they deserve (Fig. 369).
The position of the metacarpophalangeal joints is best determined by feeling for
them on the dorsum of the hand and then taking a corresponding point on the
palmar surface. They are sufficiently accurately located by taking a point 2 cm.
(^ in.) behind the web of the fingers. The creases for the middle phalangeal joints
are directly opposite the articulations. The creases for the end phalangeal joints are
to the proximal side of the articulations. The deep palmar arch lies about 1.5 cm.
(f in. ) closer to the wrist than the superficial.
The digital arteries from the superficial palmar arch pass downward with the
digital nerves, superficially, in the spaces between the metacarpal bones, to the webs
of the fingers. About i cm. (f in.) behind the web they sometimes receive
branches from the deep palmar arch, and then divide to go to each lateral palmar
side of the fingers. The palmar fascia divides into its four slips just below the
line of the superficial palmar arch, opposite the web of the thumb.
Fig. 369. — The palmar surface of the hand showing thenar and hypothenar eminences and creases.
On the dorsum of the hand the extensor tendons can be seen. Accessory slips
usually connect the tendon of the ring finger with that of the little finger and mid-
dle finger. A slip also usually passes from the tendon of the middle to that of the
index finger.
The slip from the tendon of the ring to that of the little finger has been thought
to restrict the freedom of the movement of the ring finger, hence in musicians it some-
times has been divided. The operation is done by firet flexing the fingers, which
brings the slip well forward near the knuckle, and then introducing a thin knife longi-
tudinally beneath it and cutting toward the skin. The procedure has not found favor
among musicians.
The metacarpal bones are subcutaneous and can readily be felt their entire
length. The muscular prominence on the dorsum of the hand seen when the thumb
and forefinger are approximated is due to the abductor indicis muscle. At its upper
extremity the radial artery passes between its two heads to enter the palm. When
the thumb is extended the snuff-box becomes evident and the extensor longus poUicis
tendon is distinctly seen leading to the ulnar side of the posterior radial (thecal)
tubercle on the middle of the dorsum of the radius. The tendons on the radial side
of the snuff-box are the extensor brevis and extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis.
When the fingers are flexed, the prominence of the knuckles is formed by the proxi-
mal bones; the distal phalanges fold under the proximal ones and the joint line is about
I cm. (I in.) below the dorsal surface of the metacarpal bones (Fig. 366, page 353).
THE HAND.
357
THE PALMAR FASCIA.
The palmar fascia is the continuation downward of the palmaris longus tendon.
It consists of a thick triangular middle portion and two thin lateral portions which
cover the thenar and hypothenar eminences. The tria7igular middle portion can be
divided into two layers. Its under layer is composed of transverse fibres, and blends
with the anterior annular ligament ; its upper layer is composed of longitudinal fibres,
the continuation of the palmaris longus, and when it reaches the middle of the palm
it divides into four slips which blend with the sheaths of the flexor tendons and
Thin lateral portion
over thenar eminence
Palmaris longus tendon
Palmaris brevis muscle
Dense triangular portion
of palmar fascia
Thin lateral portion over
hypothenar eminence
Digital nerves
Superficial transveise
ligament
Digital arteries
Fig. 370. — The palmar fascia.
lateral ligaments of the metacarpophalangeal joints to insert into the sides of the base
of the proximal phalanges, and aid in flexing them. The digital arteries and nerves
lie between these slips on their way to the webs of the fingers. The superficial sur-
face is intimately adherent to the skin above, especially at the webs of the fingers,
where its fibres form the superficial transverse ligament. The intimate attachment
between the skin above and fascia beneath binds these two structures so closely and
firmly together that pus cannot travel for any distance between them. It either
burrows deeper, or perforates the skin, or collects beneath the epiderm, forming a
bleb. A strong band from the palmar fascia frequently goes to the thumb also, and
when the palmaris longus contracts it tends to bring the thumb forward. The
lateral portions covering the thenar and hypothenar eminences are thin and are
prolonged beneath the long flexor tendons to become attached to the third and fifth
metacarpal bones (Fig. 370).
358
APPLIED ANATOMY.
ARTERIES OF THE HAND.
The hand receives its blood supply mainly from the radial and ulnar arteries, the
amount which it receives from the anterior and posterior interosseous being compar-
atively insignificant. The continuation of the ulnar in the hand forms the superficial
palmar arch and the continuation of the radial forms the deep palmar arch (Fig. 371).
Ulnar Artery and Superficial Palmar Arch.— The ulnar artery at the wrist
runs along the edge of the flexor carpi ulnaris muscle with the ulnar nerve to its
Ulnar artery.
Anterior carpal branch
Deep branch of ulnar
Deep palmar arch
Superficial palmar arc!
Palmar interosseous
Palmar digital
Anterior (volar) interosseous
Radial artery-
Anterior carpal branch
Superficial volar
Princeps pollicis
Radialis indicis
Fig. 371. — The arteries of the hand.
inner or ulnar side. As it enters the hand it lies just to the radial side of the pisiform
bone with the nerve intervening. Both the artery and nerve lie on the anterior
annular ligament. As soon as they pass the pisiform bone they go under the small
palmaris brevis muscle and the palmar fascia, and lie on the flexor tendons.
The artery then describes a curve across the palm of the hand toward the web
of the thumb. It crosses the middle of the third metacarpal bone at or a little above
the level of the web of the thumb and continues on to the radial side of the
metacarpal bone of the index finger. Here it receives the superficial volar artery
from the radial as well as a communicating branch from the princeps pollicis and
THE HAND.
359
radialis indicis. When one of these branches is large the other two are smaller or
lacking altogether. Not infrequently the communication with the radial at this point
is in the form of a large branch which passes superficially across the web of the thumb
and index finger, and its pulsations can be both seen and felt (Fig. 372).
Branches. — As soon as the ulnar artery passes the pisiform bone it gives oH its
deep branch which passes down between the abductor and flexor brevis minimi digiti to
join the termination of the radial and form the deep palmar arch. From the convexity
of the superficial arch four palmar digital arteries are given off. One goes to the ulnar
side of the little finger while the other three go down between the metacarpal bones
Ulnar artery
Deep branch of ulnar artery
Deep branch of ulnar nerve
Superficial palmar arch
Palmar digital
arteries
Radial artery
Superficial volar artery
Fig. 372. — Superficial palmar arch.
to the webs of the fingers. Here they may receive a small communicating branch
derived from the deep palmar arch, and about i cm. (fin.) back from the web
divide into collateral digital branches which run along the palmar sides of the fingers.
The digital nerves as they accompany the digital arteries are superficial to them.
The Radial Artery and Deep Palmar Arch. — The radial artery reaches
the wrist between the brachioradialis and flexor carpi radialis tendons. It then turns
sharply toward the dorsum around the extremity of the styloid process of the radius.
It crosses the external lateral ligaments and the scaphoid and trapezium bones to
enter the palm between the bases of the metacarpal bones of the thumb and index
finger. It then passes across the palm to the fifth metacarpal bone, where it receives
36o APPLIED ANATOMY.
the deep branch of the ulnar, which completes the formation of the deep arch. It
lies beneath the flexor tendons and on the interossei muscles and bases of the meta-
carpal bones (Fig. 373J.
Branches. — The radial artery at the wrist gives oH a posterior carpal branch
which anastomoses with the posterior carpal branch of the ulnar to form a posterior
carpal arch. From this arch descend three posterior interosseous arteries. The
dorsal interosseous artery lying to the radial side of the index finger is called the
dorsalis indicts. It comes off separately from the radial, and may be a branch from
the radialis indicis.
As the radial artery enters the palm it gives off a large branch to the
thumb called the princeps pollicis, and one to the palmar side of the index called
the radialis indicis. Farther on, three palmar interosseous branches are given of?
which communicate at the webs of the fingers with the palmar digital arteries from
the superficial arch. The deep palmar arch also sends a few recurrent branches up
on the anterior surface of the carpus and three perforating branches between the
metacarpal bones to the back of the hand.
NERVES OF THE HAND.
The hand is supplied by the median, uhiar, and radial (musculospiral) nerves.
They are of clinical importance on account of the paralysis of the muscles or disturb-
ance of sensation which accompany their injury (Fig. 374).
Muscular Branches.
r Abductor pollicis.
Opponens pollicis.
Median Nerve \ Outer head of flexor brevis.
[ First and second lumbricales.
Ulnar Nerve To all the rest of the hand muscles.
Superficial Branch Palmaris brevis.
I
r
Abductor minimi digiti.
Flexor brevis minimi digiti.
I Opponens minimi digiti.
Ueep Brancli j Adductor transversus and obliquus pollicis.
Inner head of flexor brevis pollicis.
1 Two inner lumbricales.
I All the interossei.
Cutaneous Branches.
Palmar Surface.
( Entire radial side of the palm over to the
Median Nerve ' middle of the ring finger and the groove
I at the wrist between the thenar and
^ hypothenar eminences.
Ulnar side of the little finger, and adjacent
sides of little and ring fingers and
Ulnar Nerve J hypothenar eminence. The adjacent
I branches of the ulnar and median
I nerves anastomose.
Dorsal Surface.
Ulnar side of thumb and matrix of nail
Median Nerve \
f
! Distal half of the index and middle fin-
gers and distal half of the radial side of
^ the ring finger.
( Both sides of the little finger and ulnar
Ulnar Nerve \ side of ring finger.
f Both sides of thumb as far as the nail,
anastomosing with the median on the
ulnar side. Proximal half of the index
and, with the ulnar, the proximal half
of the middle and radial side of the ring
Radial Nerve
j
I
I finger.
THE HAND.
361
Radial artery
Superficial volar artery
Princeps pollicis
Radialis indicia
Deep palmar arch
Palmar interosseous arteries
Fig. 373. — The deep palmar arch
Fig. 374. — Showing the distribution of the nerves of the back of the hand.
362
APPLIED ANATOMY.
DISLOCATIONS OF THE HAND.
The carpal bones are so firmly held in place by their ligaments that they are
rarely luxated. Dislocations of the scaphoid and semilunar however are sometimes
encountered.
Dislocations of the Bases of the Metacarpal Bones. — Dislocations
sometimes occur toward the dorsal surface. The bases of the second and third met-
acarpal bones in the uninjured hand form a bony prominence on the dorsum of the
Fig. 375. — Dislocation of proximal phalanx of little finger. (From author's sketch.)
hand which may be mistaken for a luxation. This prominence lies in a direct
line with the posterior radial (or thecal) tubercle and about 4 cm. (1}^ in.) below it.
The bases of the metacarpal bones and carpometacarpal joints are best recog-
nized by following up the interosseous spaces by making firm pressure with the
fingers between the bones ; when the upper limit of the space is reached the joints
can be located 1.25 cm. (}4 in.) above.
Dislocations of the Phalanges on the Metacarpal Bones. — These dislo-
cations occur with moderate frequency. Dislocation of the thumb occurs most
frequently and is well known. The little finger is next in frequency, while the other
Fig. 376. — Dorsal luxation of the proximal phalanx of the thumb, showing the position of the bones.
three are rarely luxated. When luxation of the proximal phalanx of the little finger
occurs it acts precisely as does that of the thumb (as I have seen in one case, Fig.
375). As the thumb dislocation is the most troublesome it alone will be described.
Dislocation of the Proximal Phalanx of the Thumb. — This displacement occurs
when the thumb is hyperextended on its metacarpal bone (Figs. 376 and 377), and it
is often impossible to reduce it without division of the resisting structures. The
head of the metacarpal bone is much larger than the shaft immediately behind it and
projects especially on its palmar surface toward each side, forming two tubercles.
THE HAND.
363
The joint has two lateral ligaments and an anterior or glenoid ligament. These
are more firmly attached to the phalanx than to the metacarpal bone, so that in
dislocation they are torn from the latter.
Inserting into the outer side of the base of the proximal phalanx are the tendons
of the abductor and outer head of the fiexor brevis poUicis. They blend with the
lateral ligament and have developed in them a sesamoid bone which rides on the
tubercle.
Inserting into the inner side of the base of the proximal phalanx are the inner
head of the flexor brevis and the adductor obliquus and transversus poUicis muscles.
They blend with the lateral ligament and contain a sesamoid bone which rides on the
Abductor pollicis
Flexor brevis pollicis
Flexor longus pollicis
Fir,. 377. — Dorsal luxation of the proximal phalanx of the thumb: Division of the tendons of the abductor and
flexor brevis pollicis muscles.
inner tubercle. The flexor longus pollicis tendon passes between the two tubercles
and sesamoid bones.
When the thumb is hyperextended the glenoid and lateral ligaments are torn
loose from the metacarpal bone and carry with them the tendons and sesamoid bones
already described. The head of the metacarpal bone projects forward in the palm
and can be felt beneath the skin ; the flexor longus pollicis tendon slips to the inner
side of the bone. As the head pierces the capsule the latter, strengthened by the
tendons of the short muscles of ""he thumb,
contracts behind it like a collar and pre-
vents reduction.
Reduction is to be attempted by ex-
tending the phalanx until it is at right
angles with the metacarpal bone and drag-
ging its base forward over the head of the
metacarpal bone and then flexing.
If this is not successful, then by means
of a narrow knife, either through an open
wound or subcutaneously, the lateral ligament and tendons on one side (the radial)
are loosened from the base of the phalanx, which can then be brought forward.
This, of course, divides the tendinous collar which prevents reposition (Fig. 377).
Dislocations of the Middle and Distal Phalanges. — These frequently
occur in playing ball games. In attempting to catch the ball the tip of the finger
may be struck and the phalanx hyperextended and thereby luxated (Fig. 378).
These luxations are usually readily reduced by simple traction and flexion.
Sometimes, however, reduction is not complete, or there is a concomitant fracture,
hence the crippled and deformed fingers so often seen in the case of base-ball players.
A tearing loose of the attachment of the extensor tendon allows the distal
phalanx to fall, producing what Stern has called drop phalangette.
Fig. 378. — Dislocation of the terminal phalanx, show-
ing the position of the bones. (From author's slcetch.)
364 ^^V APPLIED ANATOMY.
FRACTURES OF THE HAND.
Fractures of the carpal bones are often only suspected or detected by
means of a skiagraph. They are quite rare and are almost impossible to distinguish
clinically from ordinary sprains.
Fractures of the metacarpal bones are more common. The bones are
subcutaneous on the dorsum of the hand and can be readily felt throughout their
entire length. They are not infrequently broken by a blow on the end of the bone
in fighting. Hamilton states that in every case in which the fracture has been pro-
duced by a blow on the knuckles the distal end of the distal fragment has been
drawn toward the palm and its proximal end projected toward the dorsum. This is
accounted for by the greater strength of the flexor muscles.
The first, third, and fourth metacarpophalangeal joints have one extensor tendon,
the extensor communis digitorum. The second and fifth have in addition the extensor
indicis and the extensor minimi digiti. There are two powerful flexors, the sublimis
and profundus, and these are aided by the palmaris longus, interossei, and lumbri-
cales muscles. In one case Hamilton saw a dorsal projection of the proximal frag-
ment which he believed to be due to the action of the extensor carpi radialis muscle
because the deformity became less marked when the hand was bent backward and
the tendon relaxed.
On anatomical grounds one would expect this dorsal displacement to occur
in fractures of the third metacarpal bone. It has only one carpal tendon inserting
into it, the extensor carpi radialis brevior. The second has the flexor carpi radialis
inserting on its palmar surface and the extensor carpi radialis longior on its dorsal
surface.
The fifth metacarpal bone has the flexor carpi ulnaris on its palmar surface and
the extensor carpi ulnaris on its dorsal surface. Hence it would be expected that
the flexor and extensor muscles would neutralize each other.
In order to relax the parts as well as to allow for the concavity of the palmar
surface of the metacarpal bones a rounded pad is to be placed in the palm and the
hand placed on a splint ; sometimes an additional flat pad and small dorsal splint is
of service. Care should be taken not to displace the fragments laterally by con-
stricting the hand with the bandage.
Fractures of the Phalanges. — These are frequently compound, necessitating
amputation. Fracture of the proximal phalanx necessitates a splint extending into
the hand, but for the middle and distal phalanges a short splint is sufficient. The
action of the interossei and lumbricales through their insertion into the extensor
tendon is liable to draw the distal fragment toward the dorsum if the fracture is
left untreated.
A knowledge of the exact position of the joints is essential to avoid mistaking
fractures and dislocations for one another.
WOUNDS OF THE HAND.
Wounds of the hand, owing to the free blood supply, heal rapidly. An excep-
tion, however, is to be made in the case of the tendons. These frequently slough.
If the tendons are divided they are to be immediately united with sutures, otherwise
they retract into their sheaths.
If nerves are divided where they are large, as near the wrist, they should be
sutured, because they are partly motor and supply the short muscles of the hand ;
but if the digital nerves are divided they need not be sutured as they are only sen-
sory. The median nerve enters the palm to the radial side of the median line, and
its position can be determined by following down the interval between the tendons of
the palmaris longus and flexor carpi radialis muscles.
The ulnar nerve lies immediately to the radial side of the pisiform bone.
Bleeding from wounds of the hand is not infrequently troublesome. The deep
arch may be injured in a wound about 2.5 cm. (i in.) below the lower crease on the
anterior surface of the wrist. Its position can also be approximately determined by
THE HAND. 365
feeling for the upper end of the first interosseous space on the dorsum of the hand
and selecting a spot at a corresponding level on the palmar surface. It lies deep
beneath the palmar fascia and flexor tendons and nerxes, and necessitates too great a
disturbance of the parts to expose it for ligation ; hence, when wounded, bleeding
from it is checked by packing the wound with antiseptic gauze. A curved line,
convex downward, from the radial side of the pisiform bone to the web of the thumb,
describes approximately the course of the superficial palmar arch. It lies immedi-
ately beneath the palmar fascia, and if it bleeds freely can be exposed by an incision
and tied. The incision should preferably be a longitudinal one to avoid wounding
the digital arteries and nerves. The superficial palmar arch lies superficial to the
tendons and they should not be disturbed. The digital ner\es come down beneath
the palmar arch, so that they need not be wounded in ligating it. As they reach the
webs of the fingers the nerv^es become superficial to the arteries, and in the fingers
they lie anterior and nearer the median line. The fingers are usually supplied with
blood from the superficial palmar arch, and the digital arteries between the palmar
arch and webs of the fingers may be quite large. Sometimes the fingers are supplied
by large digital branches from the deep palmar arch, then those from the superficial
will be correspondingly small.
In uniting the several ends of tendons the two ends of the same tendon should
be joined and not the flexor sublimis joined to the profundus and vice versa.
ABSCESSES OF THE HAND AND FINGERS.
Purulent collections in the palm of the hand are located either beneath the
palmar fascia or are connected with the sheaths of the flexor tendons. When the
fingers are affected the pus may be either in the sheaths of the tendons or in the cell-
ular tissue beneath the skin.
Abscess Beneath the Palmar Fascia. — As a result of infected wounds pus
may accumulate beneath the palmar fascia. The construction of this fascia (see
page 357) limits the spread of the pus in some directions and favors it in others.
Pus originating beneath the thick middle triangular portion will tend to point to
either side, and it may show on the inner side at the hypothenar eminence, or work
toward the outer side and point in the web of the thumb (Fig. 379).
It may take an upward course and pass under the annular ligament to point on
the anterior surface of the forearm above the wrist.
If it tends downward it escapes through the openings for the exit of the digital
arteries and nerves, and shows in the webs of the fingers.
If it extends still farther it burrows between the distal extremities of the meta-
carpal bones and shows on the back of the hand.
Sometimes the pus works directly toward the surface through small gaps in the
fascia. In such cases a small amount of pus may accumulate above the palmar fascia
and between it and the skin ; so that there is a collection of pus both above and
below the fascia, communicating through a hole in the fascia. This is called an
hour glass abscess, or the abces en bissac of the French.
In opening such abscesses, if their character is not recognized the surgeon may
only incise the superficial of the two collections and fail to evacuate the deeper and
more serious one.
In incising palmar abscesses the only safe way is to limit the incision to the skin
and open the deep parts by inserting a closed pair of forceps and then separating
its blades. Incisions should not be made nearer to the wrist than on a level with
the web of the thumb, or the superficial palmar arch may be cut. The spaces
between the metacarpal bones are, occupied by the digital arteries and nerves ; hence
any longitudinal incisions should be made over the tendinous sheaths and metacarpal
bones. Usually it is not necessary to carry the incision so deep as to open the
sheaths. Incisions over the second, third, and fourth metacarpal bones are tolerably
certain to avoid the digital arteries, but an incision over the fifth is liable to wound the
artery going to the ulnar side of the little finger as it crosses oxer from the superficial
palmar arch. These arteries of the palm are also liable to be more or less irregular
in their location, hence it is better to avoid using the knife in the deeper structures.
366
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Suppuration in the Sheaths of the Tendons. — If the sheath of the
tendons of the hand or fingers become infected, either by being penetrated by a
foreign body or by extension from the surrounding tissues, the pus traxels along
the tendon as far as the sheath extends.
The sheaths of the tendons vary in their extent. The flexor profundus and
subUmis tendons he together in single sheaths, which commence at the base of the
distal phalanx. That of the thumb follows the long flexor tendon up the thumb, be-
neath the annular ligament, to 3 or 4 cm. (i}4 in.) above the wrist; that of the little
finger passes up to almost opposite the level of the web of the thumb and then
spreads over toward the radial side and envelops the remaining tendons of the other
three fingers, forming the great carpal bursa which extends up under the annular
ligament to 3 or 4 cm. above the wrist (Fig. 380).
The sheaths of the remaining three fingers extend only to the heads of the met-
acarpal bones, about 2 cm. ( ^ in. ) above the webs of the fingers. This would leave
Pointing above the anterioi
annular ligament
Pointing on each side of the
triangular portion of the
palmar fascia
Pointing between the fibres
of the palmar fascia
Pointing in the webs of the fingers
Fig. 379. — Cadaveric preparation with wax injected beneath the palmar fascia to illustrate where palmar abscesses
tend to find an exit.
a space of about 2 cm. ( ^ in. ) intervening between the proximal ending of the tendon
sheaths of the middle three fingers and the great carpal bursa. This is the usual
arrangement, but not infrequently the sheath for the little finger ends, as do the
other three, opposite the head of the metacarpal bone, or it may go up the entire
way to the wrist as a separate sheath, in which case the great carpal bursa en\'elops
only the tendons of the index, middle, and ring fingers.
When suppuration occurs in the sheath of the thumb or little finger it is much
more serious than in the other three, because the pus tends to travel directly upward
and involve the palm, and go even above the wrist. When suppuration involves the
index, middle, or ring fingers it stops when it reaches the vicinity of the metacarpo-
phalangeal joints and involves the palm and carpal bursa only by breaking through
its own sheath and breaking into the carpal sheath. This it is not likely to do
unless the infection is virulent and the suppuration abundant.
Suppuration Involving the Fingers. — When suppuration occurs in the
middle or proximal phalanx the pus may occupy the tissue between the skin and
tendon and not involve its sheath, hence is not liable to extend rapidly. When the
THE HAND.
367
end phalanx is affected the affection is known as panaris, whitlow, felon, etc. The
pulp of the finger resembles that of the heel, the scalp, the palm of the hand, etc.,
in the fact that the under surface of the skin sends oft' firm fibrous bands or fibrils
which are attached to the parts beneath. The spaces between these fibrils are filled
Sheath of flexor
longus pollicis
Palmar bursa
Shealiisui hexor
tendons of the index,
middle and ring finger
Sheath of flexor
endons of little finger
Fig. 380. — Palmar bursa and sheaths of the flexor tendons distended with wax.
in with fatty tissue and vessels, nerves and lymphatics (Fig. 381). Infection begins
in the skin through some small wound, as the tearing of the nail, pin-punctures, etc.,
and involves the fatty tissue beneath. If exit is not given to the pus it is often unable
Extensor communis digitorum —
Flexor profundus digitorurr.
Flexor sublimis digitorurr
Fig. 381.
-Longitudinal section of the end of a finger, showing the pulp and mode of termination of the tendons in
the distal phalanx.
to break through the hard skin on the surface. Since the fibrous bands prevent
swelling to any extent, it burrows deeper and involves the periosteum along which
it proceeds to the region of the joint, here it may enter the sheath of the tendon
when it rapidly proceeds upward as far as the sheath extends.
368
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Bone felons are not as a rule primary in their origin, unless syphilitic in charac-
ter, but arise secondarily by extension from the skin above.
LYMPHATICS OF THE HAND.
The hand and fingers are abundantly supplied with lymphatics which begin in
a plexus around the matrix of the nail and the pulp of the fingers and unite to form
lymphatic trunks which proceed up the wrist and forearm. There are both superficial
and deep sets, which communicate at the wrist.
The deep set follows the arteries of the forearm and arm to the axilla. This set
sometimes possesses a few nodes in the forearm and one at the flexure of the elbow.
The superficial set, both anteriorly and posteriorly, concentrates in the supra-
trochlear nodes and thence proceeds to the axilla. Some of the lymphatic vessels
pass by the supratrochlear nodes and empty direct into the axillary nodes (Fig. 382).
In infections of the fingers or hand the infection follows the lymphatic trunks,
which can be seen as red lines running up the forearm. Suppuration may involve
the supratrochlear and, later, the axillary nodes. As some of the lymphatic trunks
I
Fig. 382. — Superficial lymphatic vessels of upper limb; semidiagrammatic. {.Based on figures of .Sappey.;
pass by the supratrochlear nodes to empty direct into the axillary nodes there may
be infection of the latter without any implication of the former. Enlargement
and inflammation of the occasionally present deep lymphatic nodes of the forearm is
clinically unknown, so it may be said that practically there are no lymphatic nodes
below the supratrochlear ones.
AMPUTATIONS OF THE THUMB AND FINGERS.
In these amputations it is particularly necessary to be able to accurately locate
the joints. The distal phalanx when flexed always passes under the proximal one.
When the flexor and extensor tendons are cut they should be sewed either to their
sheaths or united to one another over the ends of the bone.
AMPUTATIONS OF THE THUMB.
Distal Phalanx. — In removing the distal phalanx the joint is opened by an
incision across the dorsum in a line with the middle of the side of the proximal pha-
lanx. A long flap is to be cut from the palmar surface. As the flexor and extensor
tendons are inserted into the base of the distal phalanx, it will be an advantage to
retain it if possible. The digital arteries may even here require ligation.
THE HAND.
369
Metacarpophalangeal Amputation. — Lateral flaps are usually used. They
are often made too short because the joint is thought to be higher than it really is.
By flexing the thumb to a right angle the joint can be felt on the dorsum about
8 mm. (yi in. ) below the top of the knuckle. The flaps must be cut as far forward as
the middle of the phalanx. The two digital arteries on the palmar surface will
require torsion or ligation. If the base of the phalanx can be retained the attach-
ments of the short muscles of the thumb are preserv^ed and additional control is given
to the stump.
Carpometacarpal Amputation. — The upper limit of the metacarpal bone
may often be difticult to recognize. The best way to locate it is to feel for the snuff-
box and then feel for the joint a centi-
metre (say a half inch) in front of it. The ^Extensor communis digitorum
dorsalis poUicis artery running on the dor-
sum of the bone and the princeps poUicis ,^_^^.^^^
on its palmar aspect may require ligation. /ftlKS9]^fk' '^'^''"'^ s^biimis digitorum
In disarticulating, it should be remembered f^^^^^f^af- Digital artery
that the joint is curved with its convexity
toward the wrist.
Digital nerve
AMPUTATIONS OF THE FINGERS.
Flexor profundus digitorum
Fig. 383.-
A transverse section of the proximal
phalanx.
In amputating the fingers, although it
is easier to amputate through the joints,
it is better to cut through the bone and save part of the phalanx, because much
better control over the movements is obtained on account of the insertion of the
tendons into the base and sides of the phalanges. Into the base of the distal
phalanx is inserted the common extensor and flexor profundus digitorum. Into the
base of the middle phalan.x on its dorsal surface is inserted the extensor communis
digitorum, which is reinforced by the lumbricales and interossei ; on its palmar
surface is inserted the flexor sublimis digitorum. Into the bases of the proximal
Fio. 384.— Lines of incision for amputations at the carpometacarpal joint of the thumb, the metacarpophalangeal
joint of the index finger and between the pro.ximal and middle phalanges of the middle finger.
phalanges are inserted the interossei muscles. The lines of the joints are to be recog-
nized by remembering that the distal phalanx always flexes beneath the pro.ximal
one, therefore the prominence is always formed by the head of the proximal bone.
The joint is to be opened by an incision across its anterior surface when flexed,
and not on its dorsal surface. Anterior or palmar flaps are always used, except
at the metacarpal joints. The digital arteries lie on the lateral palmar surface on
each side of the flexor tendons and may require torsion or ligation. The finger-
joints have lateral ligaments and a palmar or glenoid ligament. On the dorsal
surface there is no ligament, its place being filled by the extensor tendon (Fig. 383).
Metacarpophalangeal Amputations.^Lateral flaps are used in disarticu-
lating at the metacarpal joints. In a well-developed hand the line of the joint will
be 1.25 cm. (}4 in.) below the dorsal surface of the metacarpal bone (Fig. 384).
In consequence of not first recognizing the position of the joint the flaps are
often cut too short. The incision must not involve the webs of the fingers but
should reach as far forward as the middle of the phalanx. If this is not done it will
24
370 W^^^ APPLIED ANATOMY. ^^Hi^Him
necessitate resection of the head of the metacarpal bone, which will materially weaken
the hand. The two palmar digital arteries will require ligation, and the tendons
should be sutured over the face of the bone or to their sheaths, closing them.
THE ABDOMEN.
The abdomen comprises that part of the body anterior to the spine and erector
spince and quadratus lumborum muscles, and from the diaphragm above to the rim
of the pelvis below. The true pelvis is not included. The peritoneal cavity em-
braces the cavity of the abdomen and also that of the pelvis. An accurate knowledge
of the topographical anatomy of the abdomen with its various contained organs is
absolutely essential to both the physician and the surgeon for diagnostic purposes,
and especially to the latter in carrying out his operative procedures. The surface of
the abdomen should be studied with reference to physical diagnosis ; its walls,
because herniae frequently protrude through them, and because they must be tra-
versed in obtaining access to the structures within; its contents, in order to properly
carry out necessary operative measures.
SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE ABDOMEN.
The rounded form of the abdomen is influenced by its bony support, by the
muscles and fascias attached to these bones, and by the organs within. In the upper
portion of the abdomen the tip of the ensiform cartilage can be felt — it is opposite
the eleventh dorsal vertebra. Immediately above the ensiform cartilage is its junc-
tion with the second piece of the sternum, which is opposite the tenth dorsal verte-
bra,— the sixth and seventh costal cartilages meet at this point, — the seventh, eighth,
ninth, and tenth cartilages can be followed down to the lower border of the chest ;
just below this, one free rib, the eleventh, can be distinguished and sometimes in thin
people the twelfth; but the twelfth is often not palpable because it is buried beneath
the erector spinae muscles. The most certain way of identifying any particular rib
is to count from the sternal (Ludwig's) angle, opposite the second rib.
Below, the crest of the ilium can be followed back to the posterior superior spine
of the ilium and in front to the anterior superior spine. The spines of the pubes can
be recognized, as well as the upper edge of the pubic bones. The depressions for
the linea alba, linese semilunares, and lineae transversae are all more marked above the
umbilicus. The umbilicus lies on the disk between the third and fourth lumbar ver-.
tebrse, about 2. 5 cm. ( i in. ) above a line joining the highest points of the crests of
the ilia. It is just below the midpoint between the symphysis and ensiform cartilage.
Regions. — For clinical purposes the abdomen has been divided into regions, so
that the location of tumors, signs, etc. , can be readily indicated. The most conven-
ient division is into nine regions by two transverse and two longitudinal lines. The
upper transverse line passes from the tip of the tenth rib — which corresponds to the
lower end of the thorax — on one side to that of the other. The lower transverse line
passes from the anterior superior spine of the ilium on one side to that of the oppo-
site ; it is on a level with the second sacral vertebra. The two longitudinal lines pass
directly up on each side from the middle of Poupart's ligament. They strike the
cartilages of the eighth ribs, but at too indefinite a point to serve as a guide.
The middle regions are the epigastric, the umbilical, and the hypogastric, or
pubic. The lateral regions are the right and left hypochondriac, the right and left
lumbar, and the right and left iliac.
The abdomen is sometimes divided into four quadrants by a longitudinal median
line and a transverse line through the umbilicus. This mode of division is used
more by physicians than by surgeons.
The lower transverse line is drawn by Quain and Cunningham from the top of
the crest of one ilium to that of the other, but as the umbilicus is often lower than
usual this line may pass above it. Anderson (Morris's "Anatomy") suggests
using the lineee semilunares instead of the usual longitudinal lines, but as yet this
modification has not been generally accepted.
THE ABDOMEN.
371
Lines, or Lineae. — There are certain lines on the abdomen, called linea alba^
linecB semiiunares, Unas traiisversce^ and sometimes there are present linece albica?ites,
Linea Alba. — The linea alba passes in the median line from the ensiform
cartilage to the symphysis pubis. It is formed by the fusion of the sheaths of the
recti muscles. A little over half way down is the umbilicus.
The linea alba is broad and distinct above the umbilicus, separating the recti
muscles a half centimetre ( \ in. ) or more ; below, it diminishes and almost or quite
disappears, leaving the recti muscles almost in contact with each other. Its fibres
run longitudinally, obliquely, and transversely. The transverse fibres are the
strongest and not infrequently have gaps between them which allow the subperitoneal
fat to protrude and form a Jicrnia in the median line which can be felt under the skin
as a small, firm, rounded body. When these hernias are operated on they are found
to be masses of subperitoneal fat with a somewhat constricted pedicle which emerges
RIGHT
MYfO-
C^ONDRIAC
tpie->5TRtc .. ^^^^ r^
UJMBAR
RIGHT
ILIAC
Fig. 385. — Surface anatomy of tne abdomen; lines and regions.
from a transverse slit in the linea alba. The peritoneum is not protruded. Some o!
the fibres of the linea alba are prolonged into the subcutaneous tissue and skin, thus
binding it down and forming a groove distinctly visible above the umbilicus but dis-
appearing below it. It does not long prevent extravasated urine from passing
from one side to the other (Fig. 385).
T/ie Ujnbiliais. — The umbilicus lies over the disk between the third and fourth
lumbar vertebrae, and 2.5 to 4 cm. (i to i J^ in.) above a line joining the tops of the
crests of the ilia. In the foetus it transmits the unibilical vein, the two nmbilical
arteries, and the remains of the vitelline duct and stalk of the allayitois. The
umbilical vein becomes the round ligament of the liver and is the only structure
passing into the upper half of the umbilicus. The umbilical arteries within the body
form the obliterated hypogastric arteries, being continuous with the superior vesicals.
The vitelline duct in fetal life passes from the umbilical vesicle to the small intestine.
37^ -a™"" APPLIED ANATOMY. '^^^K^T'^CM
Normally it entirely disappears. If its proximal extremity persists it forms a MeckeF &
diverticiihtm, a projection 3 to 7 cm. long from the small intestine i to 3 feet above
the ileoceecal valve. It may persist up to the umbilicus and cause a fistula through
which feces may discharge, or form a fibrous cord which may cause a fatal strangula-
tion of the intestine. The stalk of the allantois ends as a fibrous cord, called the
urachus, running down to the fundus of the bladder. If the urachus remains patu-
lous urine may be discharged through the umbilicus.
LinecB Semilimares. — There are two lineae semilunares, which pass from the
spines of the pubes in a curve upward and outward along the outer edges of the
recti muscles to strike the chest at the ninth costal cartilage. In thin people with
litde subcutaneous fat their position can be seen, but in fat people, especially females,
their location is not readily recognized. Ordinarily they are 6.25 to 7.5 cm. (2^
to 3 in. ) to the outer side of the umbilicus and midway between the anterior superior
spine of the ilium and the median line. The fibrous tendon of the external oblique
muscle passes on to the surface of the rectus muscle to blend with its sheath a short
distance internal to its lateral border, while the internal oblique blends with the trans-
versalis in the linea semilunaris; so that an incision through the latter would traverse
two fibrous layers — one the expansion of the external oblique and the other the
blended internal oblique and transversalis. The upper end of the right linea semilu-
naris indicates the position of the gall-bladder. The point where a line from the
umbilicus to the right anterior superior iliac spine is crossed by the linea semilunaris
is 2.5 cm. above the root of the appendix and just inside of McBurney's point, or the
usual site of greatest tenderness in appendicitis.
LhiecB Trmisversa;. — In thin muscular people when the rectus muscle con-
tracts grooves are seen on its surface which indicate the position of the fibrous lines
called the lineae transversae. One is just above the umbilicus, a second opposite the tip
of the ensiform cartilage, a third midway between these two, and sometimes a fourth
below the umbiUcus. The one opposite the umbilicus is the most marked. They
are adherent to the sheath of the rectus anteriorly, but pass only part way through
the muscle, so that the rectus muscle can be lifted off of the posterior but not off of
the anterior portion of its sheath. This fact is to be remembered in operating.
Linece albicajites are the faint, white, atrophic lines left in the skin of the
abdomen after it has been hyperdistended, usually by pregnancy or tumors.
THE POSITION OF THE ABDOMINAL VISCERA.
Liver. — Upper Border. — The highest point of the liver is on the right side
just to the inner side of the nipple where it rises to the middle of the fourth inter-
space. To the left it crosses the xiphosternal articulation to follow the lower border
of the heart to a little beyond its apex, but hardly to the nipple line, w^here it reaches
the lower border of the sixth rib. Its highest point on the left side is under the fifth
rib posteriorly. On the right side it reaches the upper border of the fifth rib in the
mammary line, the eighth rib in the midaxillary line, and the tenth rib in the scapu-
lar line (Tyson, " Physical Diagnosis," p. 51). In the median line it is about opposite
the tenth thoracic spine (Fig. 386).
Lower Border. — From just below and to the inner side of the left nipple the lower
border of the liver passes across the left eighth costal cartilage, then across the median
line midway between the xiphoid articulation and the umbilicus to reach the right ninth
costal cartilage, and then follows the edge of the ribs posteriorly. In the upright posi-
tion, and in women, the liver may project a centimetre or two below the edge of the
chest. In the aged it may be slightly retracted.
Liver Dulness. — On percussion the liver dulness in the right mammary line
extends from the upper border of the sixth rib to the lower edge of the chest. In
the axillary line it reaches the upper border of the eighth and in the scapular line
the upper border of the tenth rib. From these limits it extends downward to the
edge of the ribs.
Gall-Bladder. — The gall-bladder reaches the surface at the anterior end of the
right ninth costal cartilage, just to the outer edge of the rectus muscle. This is the
upper end of the right linea semilunaris.
THE ABDOMEN.
373
Stomach. — The cardiac end lies under the cartilage of the seventh rib, 2.5 cm.
Cr in.) from the edge of the sternum and about 10 cm. (4 in.) from the surface.
When the stomach is empty the pylorus lies in the median line 2.5 to 5 cm. (i to
2 in.) below the tip of the xiphoid or ensiform cartilage; when distended the pylorus
moves 3 to 5 cm. to the right. The fundus rises in the left nipple line to the lower
edge of the fifth rib. The lozver border of the stomach crosses the median line
5 to 7.5 cm. (2 to 3 in.) above the umbilicus. In the old it may reach as low as the
umbilicus, and when dilated may go far below it.
Pancreas. — The pancreas lies beneath the stomach and transverse colon,
stretching across from the duodenum on the right of the spine to the spleen on the
left. Its body lies over the first and second lumbar vertebrae. This would brino- its
Fig. 386. — Surface anatomy of the aDdomen, showing the outlines of the viscera,
lower edge about 5 cm. (2 in.) above the umbilicus and its upper edge about 10 cm.
(4 in. ) above it.
Spleen. — The spleen lies under the ninth, tenth, and eleventh ribs of the left
side. Its long axis follows the tenth rib. Its anterior end is at the midaxillary line,
while its posterior end reaches to within 4 cm. ( i ^ in. ) of the median line.
Kidneys. — The lower edge of the right kidney reaches to within an inch of the
level of the umbilicus; this is about opposite the level of the third lumbar spine.
The left is 1,25 to 2 cm. (^ to ^ in. ) higher. This leaves about 4 cm. (i^ in.)
between the lower edge of the kidneys and the highest point of the iliac crests.
Their upper edge is almost or quite up to the level of the tip of the xiphoid cartilage.
The pelvis of the kidney and commencement of the ureter are 5 cm. (2 in. ) from the
median line, about on the level of a line joining the upper ends of the lineae semi-
lunares. Posteriorly the right kidney rises to the lower border of the eleventh rib,
the left kidney to the upper border. The outer edge of the kidney is a little beyond
the outer borders of the erector spinae and quadratus lumborum muscles.
374 '-i.. ■^•^■5U APPLIED ANATOMY. ^^OS^Bm^m
Small Intestine. — Diiodemim. — The duodenum begins at the pylorus and
curves first upward and then downward along the right of the spine to the body of
the third lumbar vertebra; it then crosses and ascends to the left side of the body
of the second. This places it just above the umbilicus in the median line and behind
the transverse colon.
Mesenteyy. — The upper extremity of the root or attachment of the mesentery
begins 2.5 cm. (i in.) to the left of the median line and 7.5 cm. (3 in.) above the
umbilicus. It runs obliquely downward and to the right for about 15 cm. (6 in.)
to a point below and to the right of the umbilicus, over the right sacro-iliac joint, and
8 to 10 cm. (3 to 4 in. ) above the middle of a line joining the anterior superior spine
and the symphysis pubis.
Jejunum. — The coils of the jejunum lie mostly to the left of the median line, but
some are also found in the pelvis.
Ileum. — The coils of the ileum lie mostly to the right of the median line, and
also are found in the pelvis.
Large Intestine. — Ccecum. — The caecum lies in the right iliac fossa between
the linea semilunaris and the anterior iliac spine.
The ileoccecal valve lies 8 to 10 cm. (3 to 4 in.) above the middle of Poupart's
ligament.
McBurney s point is 4.5 cm. ('i^ in.) above and to the inner side of the right
anterior superior iliac spine on a line to the umbilicus.
Appendix. — The base of the appendix is 2 cm. (^ in.) below the ileocaecal
valve. This is a little (i in.) below the point where the linea semilunaris is crossed
by a line drawn from the anterior iliac spine to the umbilicus, and is opposite the level
of the anterior spine.
Hepatic Flexure of Colon. — This lies just to the outer side of the gall-bladder,
under the ninth costal cartilage.
Transverse Colo7i. — The lower edge of the transverse colon is about at the level
of the umbilicus.
Splenic Flexure of Colon. — This rises higher than the hepatic flexure, about
to the level of the eighth costal interspace.
Bladder. — When empty the bladder sinks into the pelvis. When distended it
rises toward the umbilicus, carrying the peritoneal fold with it so as to leave a space
of 2. 5 to 5 cm. ( I to 2 in. ) between it and the top of the pubis.
Abdominal Vessels. — The aorta bifurcates on the body of the fourth lumbar
vertebra 2 cm. (3^ in.) below and to the left of the umbilicus. A line from this
point to the middle of one drawn from the anterior superior spine to the symphysis
pubis indicates the course of the iliac arteries. The upper third of this line is the
common iliac and the lower two-thirds the external iliac. The ureters cross the
points of bifurcation of the common iliac arteries. The coeliac axis lies just below
the tip of the ensiform cartilage. The renal arteries are about 5 cm. (2 in. ) lower.
The iliac veins lie along the inner side of the iliac arteries, and the ascending cava
runs along the right side of the aorta.
The deep epigastric arteries run lengthwise at or a little outside of the middle
of the recti muscles. They pass beneath the edge of the recti a little below the
level of aline joining the umbilicus and middle of Poupart's ligament.
THE ABDOMINAL WALLS.
The abdominal walls are composed of the skin, superficial fascia, muscles, trans-
versalis fascia, subperitoneal tissue, and peritoneum.
Skin. — The skin of the abdomen is moderately thin and lax. It is adherent at
the linea alba. In making incisions care is to be taken not to think it thicker than
it is and so open the abdominal cavity and perhaps wound the intestines. This is
especially liable to occur in the median line — where the subcutaneous fat is not so
abundant as elsewhere — and over hernial protrusions, particularly umbilical, where
the thinned and distended skin may lie in contact with the peritoneum.
Superficial Fascia. — The superficial fascia is composed of an upper fatty
layer, and a lower fibrous layer called Scarpa' s fascia. The superficial vessels run
THE ABDOMEN.
375
on this fibrous layer but are too small to cause troublesome hemorrhage; a few
minutes' compression with haemostatic forceps serves to stop bleeding from them.
This layer is attached at the linea alba, but not sufficiently closely to prevent
extravasated urine from crossing and reaching both flanks. It is also attached to the
fascia lata just below Poupart's ligament, and here it does prevent urine from passing
downward on the thigh. It passes inward over the spermatic cord and is continuous
with the dartos of the scrotum and its septum. It is attached to the spines of the
pubes and to the symphysis in the median line. This lea\'es a space or abdomino-
scrotal opening over the pubic bone on each side of the median line through which
extravasated urine rises from the perineum and scrotum to reach the surface of the
abdomen.
MUSCLES OF THE ABDOMEN.
The muscles of the abdomen are arranged in two distinct groups : a longi-
tudinal group embracing the recti and pyramidales and a transverse group embrac-
ing the external and internal obliqne and the transversalis of each side.
The pyramidalis is small, often undeveloped, and sometimes absent ; as its
External oblique
Anterioi superior spine
of the ilium
Poupart's ligament
(ligamentum inguinale)
Intercolumnar fibres
Internal pillar
External pillar
Spermatic cord
Lineae transversae
Rectus abdominis
Sheath of the rectus
turned back
Umbilicus
Pyramidalis
External abdominal ring
S^ine of the pubis
Fig. 387. — The external oblique, rectus abdominis, and pyramidalis muscles.
direction is not markedly different from that of the rectus it may be considered from
a surgical point of view as being a part of it.
The rectus muscle arises from the crest and symphysis of the pubis and
inserts into the cartilages of the fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs and sometimes the
ensiform cartilage (Fig. 387).
Sheath of the Rectus. — The rectus muscle is enclosed in a fibrous sheath formed
by the external and internal oblique and transversalis muscles. The anterior layer
is attached to the surface of the muscle by the lineae transversae already described
(p. 372). The edge of the sheath on one side blends in the median line with that of
the other side to form the linea alba. Above the umbilicus, an incision in the
median line passes through fibrous tissues only and the muscles on each side are not
376
APPLIED ANATOMY.
exposed, but, as they rapidly approximate each other below, an incision usually
passes either through the edge of one muscle or, if it passes exactly between them,
may expose the edges of both.
The lateral edge of the sheath is formed primarily by the splitting of the tendon
of the internal oblique muscle, one part going in front and the other behind the
muscle. The tendon of the external oblique blends with the anterior layer of the
tendon of the internal oblique a little to the medial side of the edge of the rectus,
and as the pubes is approached the external oblique has its attachment nearer and
nearer to the linea alba, so that close to the pubes the external oblique is separated
from the internal oblique and goes to form the internal pillar of the external ring and
has the conjoined tendon behind it (Fig. 388).
The tendon of the transversalis blends with the posterior layer of the internal
oblique tendon until the lower fourth of the rectus is reached, when they both pass
in front of the rectus to form the conjoined tendon. The medial portion of the
Sheath of the rectus _
Rectus abdominis
External oblique
Internal oblique
Transversalis
External oblique
Internal oblique
Transversalis
Spine of pubis
Crest of pubis
Fig. 388. — Sheath of the rectus abdominis muscle.
sheath of the rectus is attached to the symphysis and crest of the pubis ; its lateral
portion, forming the conjoined tendon, is attached from the spine of the pubis along
the iliopectineal line for the distance of 4 cm, (i^ in.). It lies behind the external
abdominal ring.
The lower edge of the posterior portion of the sheath of the rectus is called the
semilunar fold of Douglas; the deep epigastric artery ascends beneath this fold about
its middle, or a litde to its outer side. From this arrangement it will be seen that
an incision over or near the lateral edge of the rectus below the umbilicus will pass
through two aponeurotic layers, viz. , the external oblique and the blended tendons
of the internal oblique and transversalis (Fig. 388).
If it is desired to examine the rectus muscle, its sheath can be opened at its
edge and the muscle lifted up from the posterior layer, but it cannot be detached
from the anterior layer above the umbilicus unless dissected loose from the lineae
transversae.
THE ABDOMEN.
377
The external oblique arises from the eight lower ribs. Its posterior portion
passes almost directly downward to insert into the anterior half of the crest of the
ilium. It is crossed obliquely by the anterior margin of the latissimus dorsi muscle
a short distance above the crest, thus leaving a triangular space between them called
Petit' s triangle (trigonum hanbale) (see page 394). As the external oblique
approaches the linea semilunaris and anterior superior spine it becomes tendinous,
its fibres being nearly but not quite parallel with Pouparf s ligament. Its lower edge
forms Poiiparf s ligament (ligamentum inguinale) and continues down on the thigh
as the fascia lata. Its inner portion, above and external to the spine of the pubis,
divides to form the external abdominal ring for the passage of the spermatic cord.
The outer side of the opening is called the external pillar or column; it is continuous
with Poupart's ligament, inserts into the spine of the pubis, and is prolonged along
the iliopectineal line for a short distance (2 cm.) to form GiinbernaC s ligame7it.,
Latissimus dorsi-
Internal oblique
Crest of ilium
Anterior superior spine-
Aponeurosis of external
oblique cut and turned down
Shelving edge of
Poupart's ligament
Cremaster arising from
Poupart's ligament
Attachment of fibres of
cremaster to the pubis
<v#
..v*--'
External oblique turned
back
Arching fibres of
internal oblique
The conjoined tendon of
the internal oblique and
transversalis
— Spine of pubis
ti4h^%^
Fig. 389. — Internal oblique muscle.
Sometimes it is continuous upward and inward to the median Jifie on the sheath of
the rectus, forming what has been called the triangular fascia (CoUes). The inner
side is called the internal pillar or column. It inserts into the crest of the pubis.
The transverse fibres passing from one pillar or column to the other are called
intercohctnnar fibres.
The internal oblique (Fig. 389) arises from the lumbar aponeurosis, the anterior
two-thirds of the crest of the ilium, and the outer half of Poupart's ligament. It inserts
into the lower three ribs and, through the sheath of the rectus and conjoined ten-
don, into the linea alba, the crest and spine of the pubis, and iliopectineal line for about
4 cm. The fibres arising from the lumbar aponeurosis and the posterior portion of the
iliac crest pass upward and inward. Those from the region of the anterior superior iliac
spine radiate like a fan ; the lower ones, together with the fibres arising from the
outer half of Poupart's ligament, arch over the cord and end in the conjoined tendon.
Some fibres are continued down over the cord, forming the cremaster muscle. The
378
APPLIED ANATOMY
cremaster muscle usually arises from Poupart's ligament, beneath the spermatic cord,
from the lower edge of the internal oblique to near the spine of the pubes, thus
obliterating the space usually shown to the under side of the cord, between it and
Poupart's ligament. The fibres of the cremaster hang in loops on the cord, and are
attached by their distal extremity to the pubic bone in the neighborhood of the spine.
The transversalis muscle arises from the six lower ribs, through the lumbar
fascia from the transverse processes of the five lumbar vertebrae, and from the ante-
rior two-thirds of the iliac crest and outer third of Poupart's ligament. It mserts
through the sheath of the rectus in the linea alba and crest of the pubis, and
through the conjoined tendon into the spine of the pubis and iliopectineal line for
about 4 cm. (i ^ in.). The transversalis does not come down so low as the internal
Latissimus dorsi
Cut edge of internal oblique
Transversalis
Transversalis fascia
Internal abdominal ring
Cremaster muscle
Poupart's ligament
Spermatic cord
External oblique cut and
turned back
Internal oblique turned back
Conjoined tendon of internal
•oblique and transversalis
Rectus
Pyramidalis
Spine of pubis
Attachment of cremaster
Fig. 390. — Transversalis muscle..
oblique, because it arises from the outer third of Poupart's ligament instead of the
outer half, as does the internal oblique. As already stated, the blended tendons of
the external and internal oblique and transversalis muscles all pass in front of the
rectus in its lower fourth. As the umbilicus is below the middle of the linea alba,
this point, where the fold of Douglas is formed, is nearer to the umbilicus than it is
to the symphysis (Fig, 390),
VESSELS OF THE ABDOMINAL WALLS.
The vessels of the abdominal walls comprise arteries, veins, and lymphatics.
The arteries are superficial and deep ; of these the deep are the more important.
The arterial twigs in the subcutaneous tissue are small. The superficial epigas-
tric runs in a line from the femoral artery toward the umbilicus. The superficial
circumflex iliac runs to its outer side toward the iliac spine, mostly below Poupart's
ligament. Branches of these vessels may require the temporary application of a
haemostatic forceps in the operations for hernia or appendicitis.
The deep arteries are important : they are the siiperior epigastric, deep epi-
gastric, and deep circumflex iliac (Fig. 391).
THE ABDOMEN.
379
The superior epigastric artery is one of the two terminal branches of the
internal mammary. The other is the musculophrenic, which skirts the edge of
the thorax. The internal mammary divides opposite the sixth interspace, and the
superior epigastric, leaving the thorax at the lower edge of the seventh rib, enters
the sheath of the rectus muscle and a few inches lower down enters the substance
of the muscle, speedily breaking up into small branches. It is only large in size
up toward the thorax, where we have seen it cut by a stab-wound, causing dan-
gerous hemorrhage. It may also be wounded in operations and is to be sought
for between the muscle and its posterior sheath, on a line continued downward
from a point one centimetre to the outer side of the edge of the sternum.
The deep epigastric artery arises from the external iliac at Poupart's liga-
ment and curves inward and upward between the peritoneum and transversalis
fascia. It reaches the edge of the rectus below a line joining the femoral artery
Sixth intercostal nerve
Seventh nerve
Eighth nerve
Ninth nerve
Tenth nerve
Eleventh nerve
Twelfth nerve
Iliohypogastric nerve
Ascending branch
Deep circumflex iliac artery
Ilio-inguinal nerve
Superior epigastric artery
The sheath of the rectus has
been cut along its outer ed.'je
and the muscle turned inwai'd
Umbilicus
Deep epigastric artery.
Fig. 391. — The nerves and blood-vessels of the anterior abdominal wall. The nerves are seen piercing the
posterior layer of the sheath of the rectus to enter the muscle. The external and internal oblique have been removed
exposing the nerves lying on the transversalis.
at Poupart's ligament with the umbilicus. Opposite the fold of Douglas (linea
semicircularis) it reaches the middle of the rectus, pierces the transversalis fascia,
and enters the substance of the muscle. It sends branches to the outer edge of
the muscle which are quite large and bleed freely when cut. It anastomoses
above with the superior epigastric. It is a most important artery, as it is liable to
be wounded in operations for appendicitis, etc. If cut it will require a ligature,
and if pierced by a needle will bleed freely. As it passes upward from Poupart's
ligament it lies to the upper and outer side of the femoral canal and may be
wounded if the herniotomy knife is turned in that direction. A little higher it
crosses the inguinal canal almost midway between the internal and external
abdominal rings. An oblique inguinal hernia enters the canal to the outer side
of this artery and a direct hernia to its inner side. The fold of the obliterated
hypogastric artery is to its inner side.
The deep circumflex iliac artery arises from the external iliac almost oppo-
site the deep epigastric and passes outward along the inner side of Poupart's ligament
38o
APPLIED ANATOMY.
between the transversalis fascia and the peritoneum. When it reaches the anterior''
superior spine it passes between the transversaHs and internal oblique muscles, and
just above the crest divides into an ascending branch which goes upward toward the
ribs and a posterior branch passing backward to anastomose with the iliolumbar.
The ascending branch is large and bleeds freely when cut. It is not infrequently
divided in operations for appendicitis in which the incision is carried far back. Its
depth from the surface, between the transversalis and internal oblique muscles,
should not be forgotten.
Superficial Abdominal Veins. — The upper part of the abdomen is drained
by small branches emptying into the superior epigastric, the intercostal, and laterally
into the axillary veins. Below, there are the superficial epigastric and superficial cir-
cumflex iliac veins. In cases of obstruction to the flow of blood in the large deep veins
the superficial veins become visible; thus a
branch often becomes visible on the side run-
ning from the axillary vein to the superficial
epigastric or femoral vein, — it is called by
Braune (" Das Venensystem des menschlichen
Korpers," 1884, JoesselandWaldeyer, Topog.
chirtirg. Anat., pp. 22, 147) the ve7ia tho-
racica epigastrica longa tcgiimentosa (Fig.
392). Other small veins around the umbilicus
become very much enlarged, and, branching
in various directions around the umbilicus,
have given rise to the term caput Medusce.
Kelly (" Operative Gynecology," p. 48)
describes two small veins running from the
symphysis up to the umbilicus in the subcu-
taneous tissue on each side of the linea alba,
and calls them celiotomy vehis.
Deep Veins of the Abdominal
W^alls. — The superior epigastric, deep epi-
gastric, and circumflex iliac arteries are ac-
companied by veins. There is also a vein in
the round ligament of the liver emptying into
the portal vein, called by Schiff, and later by
Sappey, the vena pariajihilicalis {M€rx\o\VQS de
I'acad. dem^d,", 1859). In some cases two
small veins can be seen on the interior of the
abdominal wall, running up to the umbilicus
from the symphysis on each side of the median
line, and two coming down to the umbilicus
on each side of the median line.
Lymphatics. — The superficial parts
above the umbilicus are drained by lymphatics
which empty into the axillary nodes; the ves-
sels below the umbilicus empty into the oblique
set of nodes in the groin. The lymphatics of the deep surface of the abdominal wall
above the umbilicus drain into the mediastinal nodes, while those below drain into
the pelvic lymphatics along the iliac arteries.
Nerves. — The front and sides of the abdomen are supplied by the anterior and
lateral cutaneous branches of the sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, tenth, and eleventh inter-
costal nerves, the twelfth thoracic or subcostal, and the iliohypogastric and ilioingui-
nal branches of the first lumbar. The sides of the abdomen are supplied by the
lateral cutaneous branches which supply the skin as far forward as the rectus muscle.
The recti muscles and skin overlying them are supplied by the anterior branches.
These pass forward between the internal oblique and transversalis muscles to enter
the sheath of the rectus, and, after supplying the muscle, pierce the anterior layer and
are distributed to the integument above. The sixth and seventh supply the infrasternal
region, the eighth about half way down to the umbilicus, the ninth just above the
Fig. 392. — Obstructinn of the rik'lit iliac vein
from phlebitis. The vena thoracica epigastrica
longa is seen running from the groin up to the
axilla.
THE ABDOMEN.
381
umbilicus, the tenth the region of the umbiUcus, and the eleventh just below, —
being about opposite the fold of Douglas, while the twelfth supplies the region
above the pubes.
The iliohypogastric emerges through the external oblique about 2 or 3 cm.
above the external ring, while the ilio-inguinal emerges through the external ring
and supplies the parts adjacent. From this distribution it is evident why disease
posteriorly, such as caries of the spine or pleurisy, will cause pain to be complained of
in the corresponding distribution anteriorly. Incisions through, or along the outer
edge of the rectus, will divide the nerves supplying it, and cause paralysis of the
muscle. Incisions made across the lateral muscles of the abdomen cannot be
efBciently repaired by sewing the cut muscles together, because this does not restore
the function of the nerves which have been divided.
ABDOMINAL INCISIONS.
These are made through all portions of the abdominal walls according to the
organs it is desired to gain access to. They should be so planned as to avoid unnec-
Kocher's, for bile passages
Battles' incision, for
appendix
McBumey's, for appendix
Gastrostomy
Gastric ulcer, etc.
Oblique incision for the
kidney
Pelvic operations
Pf annenstiel incision
Fig. 393. — Incisions for abdominal operations.
essarily wounding the muscles, arteries, and nerves. It having been found that
incisions through fa^ia alone are more liable to be followed by hernia than those
through muscles, incisions through the linea alba and lineae semilunares are to be
avoided. Incisions through the recti muscles are best made near their inner edge. If
made in the outer edge the nerves supplying the muscle will be divided, causing sub-
sequent paralysis and weakness. If made through the middle, only the nerves supply-
ing the inner half will be divided, but the main trunks of the deep and superior
epigastric arteries will be cut and cause troublesome bleeding. There is least harm
382 APPLIED ANATOMY.
done by making the incision through the inner edge of the muscle. If the method
of Battles is resorted to, of dividing the outer edge of the sheath of the rectus longi-
tudinally and displacing the muscle inward, or of dividing the muscle itself longitudi-
nally, then not only are large branches of the deep epigastric arteries met but in
dividing the posterior layer of the sheath the nerves are divided. If the rectus is
divided transversely (as Kocher advises in operations on the gall-bladder) care must
be taken to avoid wounding the nerves ; he claims that the scar acts only as an
additional linea transversa and does not injure the functions of the muscle. Injury
to the nerves and rectus muscle both can be avoided by incising the sheath transversely
and then pulling the rectus to one side (Weir), or by dissecting up the sheaths of
both recti transversely and separating the muscles in the median line (Pfannenstiel
and Stimson).
Incisions through the transverse muscles if made in the same direction through
all three muscles are bound to cut some in a direction more or less transverse to their
fibres. The incision of McBurney — for appendicitis — avoids wounding the muscles.
He separated the external oblique in the direction of its fibres downward and inward,
crossing a line from the anterior superior spine to the umbilicus, 4 to 5 cm. ( i ^^ to
2 in. ) to the inner side of the spine. The internal oblique and transversalis are then
separated in the direction of the fibres and drawn in the opposite direction. This
method is applicable where small openings suffice ; but when large incisions are essen-
tial, as in bad suppurating cases of appendicitis and in operations to expose the
kidney and ureter, it is customary with many to incise all the muscles in the line of
the fibres of the external oblique. Should nerves be encountered they are if possible
to be drawn aside. In this incision the internal oblique and transversalis are incised
nearly transversely, and bleeding from the deep circumflex iliac artery which runs
between them will be encountered.
Edebohls exposes the kidney by incising alongside of the outer edge of the
erector spinae muscle. The latissimus dorsi is separated in the direction of its fibres,
the lumbar aponeurosis is incised and kidney exposed. A normal kidney can be
delivered through this incision, but not one much enlarged. When the kidney is
much enlarged the incision is to be prolonged anteriorly along the crest of the ilium
(see page 396). The relation of the pleura is to be borne in mind: it crosses the
twelfth rib about its middle to reach its lower edge posteriorly. Hence the upper end
of the incision should always be kept anterior to it (see section on Pleura).
HERNIA.
Abdominal herniae occur most often in the umbilical and inguinal regions.
Sometimes the recti muscles separate and a median protrusion results; or they may
occur at the site of a previous operation.
Umbilical herniae are of three kinds, congenitiil, infantile, and acquired.
Congenital umbilical hernia is due to a developmental defect. In the embryo
the umbilicus transmits (i) the vitelline duct, passing from the umbilical vesicle to
the small intestines; (2) two umbilical arteries, which inside the abdomen are called
hypogastric and pass to the internal iliacs through the superior vesicals; (3) one
umbilical vein passing to the liver through the round ligament; (4J) the stalk of
the allantois, which, on entering the abdomen, is called the urachus, and passes
down to the bladder. At birth these structures, with a myxomatous tissue called
Wharton's jelly, are covered with amniotic tissues and form the umbilical cord.
If development is interfered with, a cleft is left in the umbilical region into which
intestine or other organs may protrude. If only intestine protrudes, it pushes
up into the umbilical cord, and constitutes a congenital umbilical hernia. If the
intestine is included when the cord is ligated, death from strangulation will ensue;
hence the danger of this form of herniae. If the urachus remains patulous it may
form a urinary Jisttila. The hypogastric arteries become obliterated and, op-
posite Poupart's ligament, have two fossae, one to their outside and one to their
inside.- Into these fossae direct inguinal herniae may pass. The persistence of the
vitelline duct may cause a finger-like projection, called Meeker s diverticulum, on
the ileum, about 2 or 3 feet above the ileocaecal valve. Sometimes a band passes
THE ABDOMEN.
383
from Meckel's diverticulum to the umbilicus and causes strangulation of other coils
of the intestine. We have operated on one such case. The umbilical vein becomes
obliterated and the small vein found in the round ligament of adults, called by Schifi
^^& pariimbilical, is a new formation, and not the original fetal umbilical vein.
Infantile umbilical hernia is the common form which appears soon after birth.
It does not contain omentum so constantly as does adult hernia, because it does not
hang so low, nor is it so well developed.
Acquired umbilical hernia is the form seen in adults. The presence of the
urachus and hypogastric arteries so strengthens the lower edge of the umbilical ring
that hernial protrusions make their exit above, hence the hard edge of the ring is
nearer the lower end of the hernial sac.
These herniae almost always contain omentum, and either transverse colon or
small intestine. The contents of the herniae are usually matted together and
are adherent. The coverings are very thin, consisting of skin and peritoneum,
with a small amount of transversalis fascia and scar-tissue between. Unless extreme
care is exercised in operating, the first cut will pass into the sac and wound the intes-
tines or omentum. There are two modes of operating on these herniae. In one
operation the sheaths of the two recti muscles are opened and the muscular fibres and
sheaths are brought together and sewed in the median line; in the other, two flaps
Vaginal Funicular Encysted
Fig. 394. — The various forms of congenital inguinal hernia.
Infantile
are made from the fibrous walls of the sac and lapped one over the other, thus clos-
ing the hernial opening by two fibrous layers. This may be done either longitudin-
ally or transversely.
Inguinal Hernia. — There are two forms of inguinal hernia, the congeyiital zxiA
the acquired. These are subdivided into several varieties which can only be under-
stood by having a knowledge of the development and construction of the parts involved.
Development and Descent of the Testis. — The testicle originates in the lumbar
region inside of the abdomen about the third month. It is behind the peritoneum
and has a fold of peritoneum, the//zVa vascularis, passing upward from it, containing
the spermatic artery and veins, and a fold passing downward to the inguinal region
and into the scrotum called \k\Q. gubernacichim. By the fifth or sixth month the testicle
has reached the abdominal wall at the internal ring, after which it enters the inguinal
canal to pass into the scrotum in the eighth or ninth month of fetal life. A
process of peritoneum — the vagi?ial process — precedes the passage of the testicle into
the scrotum. The neck of the vaginal process is called the funicular process. Soon
after birth the vaginal process becomes occluded, first at the internal ring, and thence
downward until the testicle is reached, where the unobliterated portion forms the
tunica vaginalis testis.
Congenital Hernice and Hydrocele. — There are several forms of congenital
herniae. They are so named, not because they exist from birth, but because they
are caused by developmental defects which exist at birth (Fig. 394).
384
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The various kinds of herniae due to developmental defects have been named as
follows: vagifial — or congenital^ftinicidar , encysted, and infantile.
Vaginal hernia into the processus vaginalis, commonly known as congenital hernia,
is where the vaginal process remains entirely open and the intestine passes down to
the testicle. In this form the testicle is found protruding into and at the bottom of
the hernial sac. Fimicular Hernia. — In this form the vaginal process is occluded
just above the testicle, but the funicular process above remains open and the intestine
descends into it. Encysted Hernia. — Here the vaginal process is occluded at the
internal ring only, the remainder forming a continuous sac below containing the
testicle. When the intestine descends it pushes this septum, like the finger of a
glove, down into the cavity containing the testicle. In operation, two serous layers
would be incised, within one of which is the testicle and within the other the
intestine. Infantile Hernia. — In this form also the vaginal process is occluded only
at the internal ring. As the intestine descends it forms a sac posterior to the point
%Jl.
^\f.^^'^,\
Anterior superior
spine -
-Sheath of rectus
Aponeurosis of
external oblique
Poupart's ligament
External pillar of ring
Spermatic cord
- Linea semilunaris
Intercolumnar fibres
External abdom-
inal ring
Internal pillar
. of ring
Crest of pubis
Spine of pubis
Fig. 39s. — Parts concerned in inguinal hernia; the external abdominal ring.
of occlusion and vaginal process. Thus in operation three serous layers are cut
through in exposing the intestine and the sac is posterior to the testicle.
Hydrocele. — Hydrocele is an accumulation of fluid in the tunica vaginalis testis.
It is usually an acquired affection of adult life, and then does not appear to be
dependent on congenital anomalies.
Encysted Hydrocele of^ihe Cord. — This consists of a cystic collection in the
course of the spermatic cord. It makes its appearance in infancy and childhood,
and is due to some portion of the funicular or vaginal process failing to become
obliterated. Serum accumulates in this unoccluded portion, forming a small serous
cyst. Sometimes a small opening furnishes a communication with the abdominal
cavity, forming a conge?iital hydrocele. In this case the contents of the cyst can be
pressed back into the abdominal cavity only to reappear. Should the communicat-
ing opening become dilated by a descending coil of intestine, a hernia into the funi-
cular process would be the result.
.'^^v
THE ABDOMEN.
38S
Hydrocele of the Canal of Nuck. — The inguinal canal in the female transmits
the round ligament, and sometimes a finger-like extension of the peritoneum resemb-
ling the vaginal process in the male. Accumulation of fluid may occur in this in
the same manner as hydrocele of the cord is formed in the male. It is then called
hydrocele of the canal of Nuck.
Acquired Inguinal Hernia. — Acquired inguinal herniee maybe either of the
indirect or direct kind. To understand them one must know^ the construction of
the inguinal canal and spermatic cord.
Tfie Spermatic Cord. — As the testicle descends it leaves in its wake the vas
deferois, the essential part of the spermatic cord. It carries with it the spermatic
artery, from the aorta, the painpiniform plexus of veins, and the artery of the vas
from the superior vesical. The vas deferens with its artery lies posteriorly and the
spermatic artery and pampiniform plexus are anterior. The cremasteric branch of
Internal abdominal
ring
Shelving edge of
Poupart's ligament
Cremaster muscle
covering the
spermatic cord
Sheath of rectus
Aponeurosis of exter-
nal oblique
.■\rching fibres of inter-
nal oblique
Conjoined tendon of
internal oblique and
transversalis
Attachment of cremas-
ter to pubis
- Spine of pubis
Pig. 396. — Parts concerned in inguinal hernia; the inguinal canal exposed.
the deep epigastric supplies the cremaster muscle. The cord also contains sym-
pathetic nerves, lymphatics, some fibrous remains of the vaginal process, and a few
muscular fibres. These structures are imbedded in fatty tissue continuous with the
subperitoneal fat and are covered by a fibrous sheath formed by a continuation of the
structures of the abdominal walls, viz. , the intercolumnar fascia from the external
oblique, the cremasteric fascia from the internal oblique, and the transversalis fascia.
Inguiyial Canal i^Canalis Inguinalis^. — This runs from the external to the
internal abdominal ring and is about 4 cm. ( i V^^ in. ) in length. The exter^ial ring
{anmdus inguinalis snbciitanens^ (Fig- 395) barely admits the tip of the finger ; it lies
immediately to the outside and above the spine of the pubis. It is formed by a split-
ting of the fibres of the external oblique aponeurosis into two columns or pillars. The
external colunui {cms inferius') blends with Poupart's ligament, passes beneath the
cord, and inserts into the spine of the pubis. The internal column (^crzis superius')
2S
APPLIED ANATOMY.
inserts into the crest and anterior surface of the body of the pubis. The fibres rui>
ning across from one column to the other are the intcrcolumnar fibres {fibrce mter-
criiralis^ and are prolonged over the cord as the intcrcolumnar fascia (Fig. 395).
The interfial ?-i>ig {a)i7i7i/us inguinalis abdominalis^ is the opening in the
transversalis fascia where the cord enters the canal. It is 1.25 to 2 cm. (^^ to ^ in. )
above the middle of Poupart's ligament. This brings it to the outer side of the
external iliac artery.
The body being upright, the inguinal canal has an anterior and a posterior wall
and a roof and floor. The antei'ior wall (nearest to the skin) is formed by the
aponeurosis of the external oblique, and by the internal oblique muscle for its outer
third and sometimes even its outer half. The posterior wall is nearest to the verte-
bral column. It is formed by the transversalis fascia and at its inner third the con-
Transversalis
Cut edge of internal
oblique
Internal oblique
Blending of the layers
with the sac
Spermatic cord
Tunica vaginalis
Testicle
Fig. 397. — The coverings of an acquired oblique inguinal hernia; from an actual dissection. The external and
internal oblique have been divided along Poupart's ligament and turned inward exposing the transversalis.
joined tendon. The roof, nearest to the head, is formed by the arching fibres of the
internal oblique muscle and — still farther above — the transversalis. The floor is
nearest to the feet. The cord rests on Poupart's ligament with some of the fibres of
the cremaster muscle.
To the inner side of the internal ring and almost midway between it and the
external ring runs the deep epigastric artery, it is between the transversalis fascia and
peritoneum, in the subperitoneal fat.
Coverings of an Indirect or Oblique Hernia. — As the intestine descends
to form an oblique inguinal hernia it pushes in front of it the following structures :
peritoneum, subperitoneal fat, transversalis (infundibuliform) fascia, internal oblique
muscle (cremaster), external oblique aponeurosis (intcrcolumnar fascia), subcuta-
neous tissue, and skin. These structures are therefore cut in opening the sac to
expose the intestine. The hernia always descends in front of the cord and testicle,
hence these are posterior. The site of strangulation may be either at the external
ring as the hernia passes through the external oblique muscle or at the internal ring
THE ABDOMEN. 387
as it passes through the transversahs fascia. The deep epigastric artery is ahvays
along the inner side of the neck of the sac, therefore division of the stricture must
be either upward or up and out, never inward (Fig. 397).
Operation for Radical Cure. — This has been systematized by Bassini of
Padua. The neck of the sac having been exposed by incising the aponeurosis of the
external oblique, and the cord separated from it, the intestine is to be replaced and
the sac ligated as high as possible and cut away. The cord is then raised and the
arching fibres of the internal oblique (and transversahs) are sutured beneath it to
Poupart's ligament. The cord is to be replaced, and the cut edges of the external
oblique are sewed together down to the external ring, leaving sufficient room for the
exit of the cord (Fig. 398).
Direct Inguinal Hernia. — This is so called because it comes directly through
the abdominal walls, and not obliquely down through the inguinal canal. It makes
its appearance in the neighborhood of the external ring (Figs. 399 and 400).
Shelving edge of
Poupart's ligament
Aponeurosis of exter
nal oblique incised
and turned back
The arching fibres
and conjoined ten-
don of the internal
oblique and trans-
versalis sewn to the
edge of Poupart's
ligament under the
spermatic cord
•Spine of pubis
Fig. 308. — Bassini's operation for the radical cure of oblique inguinal hernia.
HcsselbacJi s Triangle. — Hessel bach's triangle is seen from the interior of the
abdomen; it has on its outer side the deep epigastric artery, on its inner side the
edge of the rectus muscle, and as its base Poupart's ligament. Direct inguinal
hernia pierces the abdominal walls through this triangle. On looking at the
abdominal wall from the inside, five folds are seen. In the median line the urachus
passes from the umbilicus to the top of the bladder; farther out are the folds formed
by the obliterated hypogastric arteries (plica hypogastrica) ; and still farther out the
folds containing the deep epigastric arteries (plica epigastrica). The fossa between
the urachus and hypogastric artery is called the internal inguinal fossa (fovea
supravesicalis) ; that between the hypogastric and deep epigastric arteries, the
middle inguinal fossa (fovea inguinalis viedialis), and that to the outside of the
epigastric artery the external inguinal fossa (fovea ingui^ialis lateralis). An
indirect or oblique inguinal hernia enters the abdominal walls at the external inguinal
fossa, to the outer side of the epigastric artery. A direct hernia almost always enters
the middle inguinal fossa between the hypogastric and epigastric arteries. The
hypogastric fold passes up behind the middle of the external ring close to the outer
388
APPLIED ANATOMY.
side of the rectus muscle. On this account a direct hernia rarely enters to the inner
side of the hypogastric fold (Fig. 399).
Coverings of a Direct Inguinal Hernia. — The conjoined tendon is pro-
longed outward from the edge of the rectus muscle two-thirds of the distance to the
epigastric artery, and sometimes more. A direct hernia piercing the abdominal wall
Fold of Douglas (linea semicircularis)
Urachus
Rectus muscle
Obliterated hypogas-
tric artery
Deep epigastric artery
Poupart's ligament
Vas deferens
External iliac artery.
External inguinal fossa
Middle inguinal fossa
Internal inguinal fossa
Fig. 399. — View of the posterior surface of the abdominal walls, showing the inguinal fossae and triangle of
Hesselbach (the latter in red).
to the inside of the hypogastric artery (very rare) will push in front of it the peritoneum,
subperitoneal fat, transversalis fascia, conjoined tendon, and intercolumnar fascia, mak-
ing its exit at the inner side of the external abdominal ring. The common site is just
to the outer side of the obliterated hypogastric artery, and it pushes in front of it the
conjoined tendon and intercolumnar fascia, and makes its appearance at the outer side
I
Intercolumnar fascia from the ex.
ternal oblique
•Conjoined tendon
Direct inguinal hernia
Spine of pubis
Spermatic cord
Fig. 400. — Direct inguinal hernia.
of, or through, the external abdominal ring (Fig. 400). If it pierces the middle
inguinal fossa farther out, and just to the inside of the epigastric artery, it passes to
the outside of the conjoined tendon, and is covered instead by the cremaster muscle.
Divisioyi of the stricture which occurs here must be made upward and inward,
because to its outer side lie the epigastric vessels.
THE ABDOMEN.
389
Radical Cure of Direct Inguinal Hernia. — When the conjoined tendon is
sufficiently thick and strono^ it is brought down and sewed to Poupart's hgament be-
neath and behind the cord, thus closing the hernial opening. When it is very weak and
Transversalis fascia
Cut edge of external oblique
Internal oblique
Deep epigastric artery
Edge of rectus
Conjoined tendon
Insertion of conjoined tendon
along the iliopectineal line
Spine of pubis
Fig. 401. — The conjoined tendon of the internal oblique and transversalis muscles.
thin, the edge of the rectus muscle is dragged downward and outward and sewed to
Poupart's ligament (Bloodgood), then the conjoined tendon (Fig. 401) is brought
down in front of it and sewed to Poupart's ligament, and the external ring narrowed so
Transversalis fascia
External oblique
Conjoine<l tendon of
internal oblique and
transversalis
Rectus muscle
Spine of pubis
Shelving edge of Pou-
part's ligament
Fig. 402. — Radi"al cure of direct inguinal hernia. The aponeurosis of the external oblique has been divided
and drawn back. The conjoined tendon has been drawn upward toward the median line. The transversalis
fascia covering the rectus has been incised and the edge of the muscle has been drawn out and down and sewed to
the edge of Poupart's ligament (Bloodgood). The operation is completed by sewing the conjoined tendon to
Poupart's ligament, replacing the cord on it, and stitching the edges of the external oblique together down to the
external ring.
as to allow room only for the cord to escape (Fig. 402). (The triangular fascia, page
377, is too uncertain and insignificant a structure to be considered in inguinal hernise).
>90
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Femoral Hernia. — Femoral hernia is always acquired and descends through
the femoral canal beneath Poupart's ligament to make its appearance at the saphe-
nous opening on the thigh. Beneath the inner end of Poupart' s ligament is the
iliopectineal line of the horizontal ramus of the pubic bone. The two form an angle
with the spine of the pubis as its apex. Gimbernat's ligament is the prolongation of
Poupart's ligament from the spine of the pubis for about 2 cm. (3/^ in.) out on the
iliopectineal line. From the iliopectineal line the pectineus muscle proceeds down-
ward and outward beneath Poupart's ligament to below and behind the lesser tro-
chanter of the femur. Farther out beneath Poupart's ligament run the femoral vein
and artery, the latter being to the outer side of the vein. Between the femoral vein
and Gimbernat's ligament is left a space i to 2 cm. ( f to f in.) wide. This space
is called the femoral canal. It is through this canal or opening that femoral hernia
descends. The femoral sheath is the continuation downward of the transversalis
fascia which is prolonged from the interior of the pelvis over the femoral artery and
vein and between the vein and Gimbernat's ligament so as to form three compart-
ments. The outer contains the femoral artery, the middle the femoral vein, and the
inner is the femoral canal. The femoral canal is from i to 2 cm. ( | to 4 in. ) long
External cutaneous nerve
Iliacus muscle
Anterior crural nerve
Crural branch of genitocrural nerve
Femoral artery
Femoral vein
Femoral canal
Gimbernat's ligament
Spine of pubis
Pectineus muscle
Psoas muscle
Fig. 403. — The crural arch and the structures which pass beneath it.
/^\
and runs from the abdominal side of Poupart's ligament to the upper edge of the
saphenous opening and lies between the femoral vein and Gimbernat's ligament.
Its lower extremity is closed by the meeting of its sides. Above, or superficial to
it, is Poupart's ligament, and beneath it is the horizontal ramus of the pubis and
pectineal fascia covering the pectineus muscle. It is filled with loose connective
tissue, fat, and lymphatics, and sometimes contains a lymphatic node, forming
all together what has been called the septum crurale. It will thus be seen that the
septum crurale is continuous with the subperitoneal fatty tissue (Fig. 403).
Coverings of a Femoral Hernia. — When a femoral hernia descends, the
intestine pushes in front of it the peritoneum, septum crurale (subperitoneal tissue),
and the femoral sheath (transversalis fascia) and makes its appearance at the saphe-
nous opening. The cribriform fascia closing the saphenous opening gives it a cover-
ing, and also the subcutaneous tissue and skin above.
-ji> Saphenous Opening. — This has its centre 4 cm. ( i ^ in. ) below and to the outer
side of the spine of the pubis. Its margin blends above with Poupart's ligament to pro-
ceed to the spine of the pubis. Its outer and upper edge is marked, forming xhe falci-
form process or ligament (of Burns). The upper inner portion of the falciform process
is attached to the iliopectineal line and spine of the pubis and, blending with Poupart's
ligament above, is called Gimbernat\'\ ligament {ligamenttun lacunarc') (Fig. 404).
THE ABDOxMEN.
391
The part of the fascia lata forming the falciform process thins out over the
femoral artery and becomes the cribriform fascia {fascia cribrosa) as it passes from
the inner side of the femoral artery on to the femoral vein to blend with the pubic fascia
Falcifonti process
Superficial circumflex
iliac vessels
Femoral artery
Femoral vein
Long saphenous vein
(saphena magna)
Internal femora!
cutaneous vein
Superficial epigastric
vessels
Spine of pubis
Saphenous opening
Superficial external
pudic vessels
Fig. 404. — The saphenous opening (fossa ovaljs).
Deep epigastric artery
Rectus muscle
Conjoined tendon
Obliterated hypogastric
artery
Gimbemat's ligament
Spine of pubis
Symphysis pubis
External iliac artery
External iliac vein
Vas deferens
— Femoral canal
Uiopectineal line
Obturator vessels and nerves
Fig. 405. — View of the inguinal and femoral regions from within; the peritoneum has been removed.
to the inner side. The superficial epigastric, superficial circumflex iliac, and super-
ficial external pudic arteries and veins all pierce this cribriform fascia, as do also the
superficial lymphatics and the long or internal saphenous vein.
392
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Point of Sh'angidation.-^k% a femoral hernia descends it may be strangulated
on the sharp edge of Gimbernat's ligament or at the upper portion of the falciform
process (Fig. 404).
Division of Stricture. — If Gimbernat's ligament is the constricting band the
incision is to be made in an upward and inward direction. If the upper portion of
the falciform process is the constricting part the incision should be made directly
upward into Poupart's ligament.
In order to avoid wounding an anomalous obturator artery which may wind
around the neck of the sac, the stricture is best cut from without inward.
Radical Cure of Femoral Hernia. — The intestine and omentum having
been replaced, the neck of the sac is ligated as high up as possible and cut away or,
preferably, the two ends of the ligature are brought up through the aponeurosis of
the external oblique and tied on its surface just above Poupart's ligament. To close
the femoral canal two or three sutures are inserted as follows: If the hernia is on the
right side, the needle is passed downward through the inner end of Poupart's liga-
ment, close to the spine of the pubis, into the pectineal or pubic portion of the
fascia lata, and brought out alongside of the femoral vein. It is then inserted again
through the edge of the falciform process and the suture tied, thus pulling the falci-
IHac portion of fascia lata
Falciform process
Pubic portion of fascia lata
Poupart's ligament
Fascia over the pectineus muscle
Fig. 406. — Operation for the radical cure of femoral hernia.
form process and the lower edge of Poupart's ligament down on the fascia covering
the pectineal muscle. Two or three sutures are all that are required. Another way
of inserting the sutures is longitudinally, instead of transversely. The first would be
close in to Gimbernat's ligament, the second a little farther out, and the third as
close to the femoral vein as possible (Fig. 406),
THE LUMBAR REGION.
This region is at times affected with abscesses or hernial protrusions and
through it incisions are made to reach the kidney (Fig. 407).
Muscles. — The quadratus lumborum muscle arises from the transverse
processes of the lower four lumbar vertebrae, the iliolumbar ligament, and 5 cm. (2 in.)
of the iliac crest. It inserts into the posterior half of the last rib and transverse
processes of the upper four lumbar vertebrae. The erector spinae is the muscular
mass which fills the groove to the outer side of the spinous processes. It arises
from the spines of the lumbar vertebrae, the back of the sacrum, the sacrosciatic and
sacroiliac ligaments, and about the posterior fourth of the crest of the ilium. It
inserts into the posterior portion of the vertebrae and ribs above. The latissimus
dorsi arises from the spinous processes of the lower six thoracic vertebrae and the
vertebral aponeurosis, which is attached to the spinous processes of the lumbar
vertebrae, the posterior surface of the sacrum, and the posterior third of the crest of
THE ABDOMEN. 393
the ilium. It passes upward and forward to insert into the inner lip of the bicipital
groove of the humerus.
It will thus be seen that while the direction of the outer fibres of the latissimus
dorsi is from below upward and forward, the direction of those of the quadratus
lumborum is upward and backward. It will also be observed that the attachment
of the quadratus lumborum is farther out on the crest of the ilium than is that
of the latissimus dorsi, reaching" about its middle (Figs. 408, 409 and 410).
Fascias. — The lumbar fascia (fascia lumbodorsalis), so called, is the
continuation backward of the posterior aponeurosis of the transversalis and internal
oblique muscles to the spine. When the aponeurosis, from which these two muscles
spring, reaches the outer edge of the quadratus lumborum, it splits; one thin layer
goes on its ^'entral surface to be attached to the roots of the transverse processes of
the vertebrje; the other thick posterior layer, on reaching the edge of the erector
Latissimus dorsi
External oblique
Petit's triangle and
internal oblique
Sacrospinalis (erector
spinas)
Fig. 407. — The lumbar region, superficial view.
spinae muscles divides into two, the anterior of which covers the dorsal surface of the
quadratus lumborum and the ventral surface of the erector spinae to attach itself to
the tips of the transverse processes, while the posterior layer passes over the dorsal
surface of the erector spinae to be attached to the spinous processes of the lumbar
vertebrae. These three layers are called the anterior, middle, and posterior layers
of the lumbar fascia (see Fig. 410).
The anterior layer is attached to the tip of the twelfth rib and arches inward to
the transverse process of the first or second lumbar vertebra, to form the external
arcuate ligament of the diaphragm. It is practically continuous with the transver-
salis fascia.
The middle layer is attached above to the last rib, and below to the iliac crest,
and is \'ery strong.
The posterior layer is continuous above with the vertebral aponeurosis and gives
origin to the latissimus dorsi muscle.
394
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Petit's Triangle (trigonum lumbale). — Above the middle of the crest of
the ilium is a small triangular space formed by the edge of the external oblique in
front, of the latissimus dorsi behind, and the crest of the ilium below. Its f^oor is
formed by the internal oblique muscle, and it is called the triangle of Petit. It forms
a weak point in this region through which collections of pus or, more rarely, ventral
herniie, may make their appearance (Fig. 407).
Fascial Triangle. — h bove and a little posterior to Petit' s triangle is another
triangular space. Its base is the twelfth rib, its anterior side is the posterior edge
of the internal oblique, and posterior side is the outer edge of the quadratus lum-
borum. It is also called the triangle of Grynfelt and Lesshaft. The lower portion
of the kidney lies immediately beneath it and the latissimus dorsi covers it (Figs.
408 and 409).
Serratus posticus inferior
Latissimus dorsi
Eleventh rib
liohypogastric nerve
lio-inguinal nerve
Fascial triangle and
kidney beneath
Internal oblique
Iliohypogastric nerve
Fig. 408. — The lumbar region; the latissimus dorsi has been turned back and the external oblique cut away, reveal-
ing the fascial triangle.
Lumbar Abscess. — Pus in the lumbar region usually originates from caries of
the vertebrae, from calculus or other renal or perirenal affections, or, if on the right
side, sometimes from disease of the appendix. Empyemas may likewise point in this
region. Pus starting from the vertebrae may push its way outward under the
transversalis aponeurosis (anterior layer of the lumbar fascia) and perforate the trans-
versalis muscle where the iliohypogastric, ilio-inguinal, and last thoracic nerves enter
and thus reach the under surface of the internal oblique and perforate this muscle to
find its exit at Petit's triangle. Pus may also perforate the floor of the fascial
triangle and follow the anterior surface of the latissimus dorsi down until it points in
the angle between the posterior portion of the crest of the ilium and the spine. The
quadratus lumborum muscle is thin, and its outer edge, which is not covered by
the erector spinae muscle, is readily pierced by pus. The erector spince is a thick
muscle covered both anteriorly and posteriorly by the thick middle and posterior
layers of the lumbar fascia, hence pus does not pierce it but always goes around its
outer side.
Lumbar hernia usually results from the giving way of a scar from an operation.
THE ABDOMEN.
395
Lumbar incisions are made to evacuate pus or to operate on the kidney.
Incisions to evacuate pus sliould be made obliquely from the outer edge of the
quadratus lumborum in order to avoid wounding the nerxes.
Serratus posticus
inferior
Latissimus dorsi
Quadratus lumborum
Eleventh rib
Kidney
.Capsule of ikidney
Fascia of -internal
blique and
transversalis
Iliohypogastric nerve
Ilio-inguinal nerve
Fatty tissue below
the ladney
Fig. 409. — Lumbar region, showing the kidney and quadratus lumborum muscle exposed.
First lumbar vertebra
Mass of erector spiuje muscles /
Vertebral aponeurosis
Middle layer of lumbar fascia
Posterior layer of lumbar fascia
Perirenal fat
Kidney
Quadratus lumborum
Anterior layer of lumbar fascia
Transversalis
Internal oblique
—External oblique
Latissimus dorsi
Fir,. 410. — Transverse section of the lumbar region, showing the lumbar fascias and muscles.
Longitudinal Incision. — If it is desired to expose the kidney, a straight incision
10 cm. (4 in.) long may be made between the last rib and middle of the crest of
the ilium along the outer edge of the quadratus lumborum. This may sometimes
•necessitate cutting the last thoracic nerve near the rib and the iliohypogastric and
396 APPLIED ANATOMY.
ilio-inguinal nerves near the crest. They should if possible be pulled aside, but ii
cut are to be stitched together again. This gives only sufficient room to bring
a normal-sized kidney out of the wound; if the kidney is enlarged, Edebohls recom-
mends prolonging the incision along the crest of the ilium. This longitudinal
incision lies just back of the external oblique, traverses in its upper part the latissi-
mus dorsi (the fibres of which may be parted by blunt dissection) then the lumbar
fascia or anterior edge of the quadratus lumborum muscle, and lastly the transversa-
lis fascia behind the peritoneum (Fig. 411).
Oblique Incision. — When an incision for enlarged kidneys, tumors, or abscesses
is desired, it can be made obliquely downward and forward from the twelfth rib —
anterior to its middle — toward the anterior portion of the crest of the ilium. This
parts the fibres of the external oblique and divides the fibres of the transversalis
muscle obliquely, and those of the internal oblique almost transversely, but the
nerves (twelfth thoracic and iliohypogastric) are more readily drawn aside than if the
longitudinal incision is used. Care is to be taken not to go farther back than the
Twelfth rib
Latissimus dorsi
Lumbar fascia
Quadratus lumborum
Vertebral aponeurosis
^^^^^^^^^ Transversalis
Erector spina;
Internal oblique
External oblique
Fig. 411. — Lumbar incisions for operations on the kidney, showing the direction of the muscular fibres.
middle of the twelfth rib, because the pleura usually crosses at that point to reach
the lower edge of the rib, or even a little below it at its posterior extremity. As
it is sometimes difficult to identify the twelfth rib, because it may be so short as to
be hidden beneath the muscles, the most certain way is to count downward from
the angle of the sternum opposite the second costal cartilage. There may be some
bleeding at the lower portion of the wound from the ascending branch of the deep
circumflex iliac artery near the anterior portion of the crest of the ilium.
THE INTERIOR OF THE ABDOMEN.
The abdominal cavity extends only to the brim of the pelvis; the pelvic cavity
is separate. The peritoneal cavity is not synonymous with the abdominal cavity:
some of the abdominal organs project comparatively little forward into it and, as
in the case of the kidneys, may be only partly covered with the peritoneum. The
peritoneal cavity includes the pelvis, so that an infection of the pelvic peritoneuni
of necessity involves a part of the general peritoneal cavity.
The peritoneum is a closed sac lining the abdomen and pelvis into which the
THE ABDOMEN.
397
various abdominal and pelvic organs grow. As the organs increase in size they push
farther into the abdominal cavity and the peritoneum covers more of their surface,
until in some cases the two layers (anterior and posterior) meet; thus the organ is
left hanging by its peritoneal pedicle. The peritoneum covering the organs is called
the visceral peritoneum, that lining the walls of the abdominal cavity the parietal
peritoneum. Those parts of the peritoneum joining the visceral and parietal layers
receive various names. Sometimes they are called ligaments, — thus we have the
various ligaments of the liver, the coronary, lateral, and suspensory ; of the spleen ;
of the uterus; bladder, etc. Sometimes they are called omenta, — thus we have the
greater omentum, the lesser or gastrohepatic omentum and the gastrosplenic omen-
tum. Sometimes they receive the name of mesentery, which is applied to the small
intestine, and mesocolon, as applied to the large intestine. From this arrangement
Coronary ligament
Liver
Lesser omentum
Foramen of Winslow
Stomach (pyloric end)
Pancreas
Lesser peritoneal cavity
Transverse mesocolon
Third part of duodenum
Transverse colon
Great omentum
— Mesentery
Small intestine
Greater peritoneal cavity
Vesico-uterine pouch
Recto- uterine pouch or pouch of Douglas
Fig. 412. — Anteroposterior section, showing the peritoneum.
it is evident that there is some portion of every abdominal and pelvic organ that is
not covered by peritoneum. In some organs, as the small intestines, the uncovered
part is very small, being at the attachment of the mesentery. In other organs, as
the kidneys, it is very large, embracing all their posterior surface. In operating on
the abdominal or pelvic organs these attachments are of importance, as a knowledge
of them enables the surgeon — for example, in operating on the kidney for renal cal-
culus— to complete his procedures without wounding the peritoneum or opening the
peritoneal cavity. The upper and lower limits of the peritoneum are also important,
as it is liable to be wounded in operations on the chest and the organs of the pelvis.
A knowledge of the course pursued by the peritoneum over the various organs
is of service both in diagnosis and operative procedures.
Vieiving the body in an anteropostej'ior section (Fig. 412), and beginning at the
umbilicus, the peritoneum is seen to pass upward on the posterior surface of the anterior
abdominal wall until it reaches the under surface of the diaphragm, which it covers,
to the upper posterior surface of the liver, where it forms the coronary ligament on
398
APPLIED ANATOMY.
the right side and the left lateral ligament on the left. It then covers the upper or
parietal surface of the liver and curves around the anterior edge and the under
or visceral surface as far as the transverse fissure. Thence it proceeds to the stom-
ach, forming the anterior layer of the lesser or gastrohepatic omentum. After
covering the anterior wall of the stomach, it leaves the greater curvature to form the
anterior layer of the greater omentum. It next passes to the transverse colon, which
it covers and passes back to the spine at the lower border of the pancreas. It then
goes downward, covering the transverse portion of the duodenum and forming the
anterior layer of the mesentery. Having covered the small intestine, it goes back
to the spine, forming the posterior layer of the mesentery, and descends until it
reaches the rectum. From the rectum it is reflected forward to the upper part of
the vagina and uterus in the female, forming the recto-uterine pouch (or pouch of
Douglas') or on the bladder in the male, being at this point about 7.5 cm. (3 in.)
distant from the anus. After covering the fundus and body of the uterus, it is
reflected at the level of the internal os to the bladder, forming the uterovesical
fold. From the top of the bladder it passes up the abdominal wall to reach the
umbilicus.
The peritoneum lining the lesser cavity can be followed upward from the anterior
surface to the pancreas. It ascends on the posterior abdominal wall to the under
surface of the liver, forming the under layer of the coronary and left lateral ligaments.
Right kidney
Foramen of Winslow
Portal vein
Common bile duct
Hepatic artery
Gastrohepatic omentum'
Vena cava
Aorta
Left kidney
Pancreas
Lienorenal ligament
- Spleen
Lesser peritoneal cavity
Gastrosplenic omentum
Stomach
Greater peritoneal cavity
Round ligament
Falciform ligament
Fig. 413. — Transverse section made through the foramen of Winslow. (Viewed fiom above.)
and at the transverse fissure is reflected to the posterior surface of the stomach,
forming in its course the posterior layer of the gastrohepatic omentum. From the
greater curvature it passes downward and then upward to the colon, forming the
posterior layer of the greater omentum. From the posterior edge of the transverse
colon it passes to the anterior surface of the pancreas, having in its course formed
the upper (cephalad) layer of the transverse mesocolon.
Viewhig the body iji transverse section. — On examining a transverse section
made below the foramen of Winslow, the peritoneum is seen conjing from the
parietes and passing over the ascending colon, leaving its posterior surface uncovered.
Thence it passes over the vena cava and spine, to go to the mesentery and small
intestines. Returning to the spine, it passes over the aorta, and out over the
descending colon, usually leaving a portion of its posterior surface uncovered.
Thence it returns to the anterior parietes.
In a section made passing through the foramen of Winslow (Fig. 413), the mode
of formation of the lesser cavity of the peritoneum and the relation of the peritoneum
to the stomach, spleen, and kidneys will be more readily understood. Beginning
on the anterior abdominal wall, at the median line and proceeding to the right, the
peritoneum is seen to enclose the round ligament of the liver, forming a mesentery
for it named the falciform ligament. Continuing around, the peritoneum lines the
inner surface of the anterior and lateral abdominal walls, covers the anterior surface
of the right kidney, and, after forming the posterior wall of the foramen of Winslow,
covers the vena cava, aorta, spine, and pancreas; it then passes over the left kidney
THE ABDOMINAL VISCERA. 399
to go to the spleen, forming the anterior layer of the lienorenal ligament. It is then
reflected from the spleen to the posterior surface of the stomach, forming the
posterior layer of the gastrosplenic omentum. From thence it passes forward on
the stomach, past the pylorus to the upper surface of the first portion of the duode-
num. Here it winds around the hepatic artery, portal vein, and common bile duct
to reach the anterior surface of the stomach. This reflection forms the free anterior
edge of the foramen of Winslow. From the fundus of the stomach it passes to the
spleen, forming the anterior layer of the gastrosplenic omentum. It winds around
the outer or costal surface, and the inner or renal surface of the spleen, and thence
passes to the left kidney, forming the posterior layer of the lienorenal ligament.
After covering the outer portion of the kidney, it is reflected to the abdominal wall
which it follows to the median line.
The Transversalis Fascia. — Superficial to the peritoneum and between it and
the structures which it covers is a layer of fibrous tissue which varies in thickness.
The part which lines the muscles of the abdomen is called the transversalis fascia.
It is thickest and most marked in the lower portion of the abdomen and accom-
panies the femoral vessels down the thigh.
Subperitoneal Fat. — In certain locations there is more or less fatty tissue
between the transversalis fascia and the peritoneum, and sometimes it is impossible
to differentiate them. They blend in the region of the kidneys, the mesenteries,
inguinal regions, etc. In the femoral canal the transversalis fascia is continuous with
the sheath of the vessels and the subperitoneal fat with the septum crurale. The
protrusion of this subperitoneal fat in the median line usually above the umbilicus
forms the fatty herniae alluded to on page 371.
THE ABDOMINAL VISCERA.
The abdominal contents should first be studied as to their positions and general
relations, so that they can be readily found and identified, and then studied as to
their intimate relations to the immediate surrounding structures.
By knowing the first, an operator is enabled to expose quickly the aflected part,
and by knowing the second he is enabled to carry out the desired procedures.
While it is true that the presence of tumors or enlargement of the various organs
may distort and displace them and so render their exposure and recognition difficult,
nevertheless a knowledge of the normal relations is essential in order to solve the
difftculties which arise in operating for or studying the various abdominal diseases
and injuries.
It must be borne in mind that the extent and position of the various organs is
not always the same, even though they are not diseased; it is easier to find a
distended than a contracted stomach; in some people the liver though not diseased
may be lower than in others, etc.
When the abdominal cavity is freely opened the general relation of the organs
is visible as in Fig. 414. In the upper portion is seen the liver. Its edge usually is
inclined upward toward the left, but sometimes it passes alm.ost transversely across.
In the male its lower edge should be about even with the lower edge of the thorax
(tenth rib) but in females it may be a finger-breadth lower. Its anterior edge is
marked by the gall-badder and round ligamejit. The gall-bladder is liable to be a little
to the outside of its normal position at the upper extremity of the right linea semi-
lunaris. The round ligament reaches the liver not at the median line but 2.5 to 4
cm. (i to xy-z in.) to its right. The point at which the liver crosses the median
line is approximately 4 cm., (i^ in.) below the tip of the ensiform cartilage. The
stomach is seen to the left of the liver, between it and the left costal cartilages.
Frequently the stomach is seen to pass a little to the right of the median line, partic-
ularly if it is distended. A small portion only, 2.5 to 4 cm. (i to i>^ in. ), is seen in
the median line and its lower border slopes up and to the left to disappear under the
edge of the ribs. Immediately below the stomach lies the transverse colon, concealed
beneath omentum. The omoiticm hangs down from the lower edge of the stomach
and spreads over almost the whole of the abdomen below. It is almost always
400
APPLIED ANATOMY.
encountered in operating for appendicitis and is often found in a hernia. The gall-
bladder is almost the only organ below the liver and stomach which it is not liable to
cover. Not infrequently the omentum is not found spread out, but from the move-
ments of the intestines it may lie between their coils or be displaced largely to the
left. The transverse colon passes upward and to the left ; it crosses the median line
just below the stomach and may reach as low as the umbilicus. Not infrequently,
however, there may be a coil of small intestine between the level of the umbilicus
Fig. 414. — ^View of the abdominal organs in situ. Beneath the ensiform process is seen the liver with the
round ligament to the right of the median line, below come the stomach, then the transverse colon, and lower down
the small intestines, over which is spread the great omentum. In the right iliac region is seen the ascending colon
and in the left the termination of the descending colon.
and the transverse colon, or a coil may even push the transverse mesocolon in front
of it and show itself between the stomach above and the transverse colon below.
The ccecuni and the commencement of the ascending colon are almost always
seen superficially in the right iliac fossa. The lower end of the Ccccum may reach
as far forward as the middle of the inguinal (Poupart's) ligament, but when the
ascending colon reaches the upper edge of the iliac crest it sinks backward out of
THE STOMACH.
401
sight, to reappear again above at the commencement of the transverse colon just
below the gall-bladder.
The descending colon and sigmoid flexure are usually seen lying close to the
abdominal wall somewhere between the left iliac crest and approximately the middle
of Poupart's ligament. The amount visible is variable, — sometimes a considerable
length is seen, at others only a single knuckle. Their presence and location are
more uncertain than are those of the caecum and ascending colon on the right side.
The S7nall intestines fill the rest of the visible space. They enter the pelvis, usually
are found in hernial sacs, and cover both the ascending and descending colon in the
flanks. The coils in the upper and left portions of the abdomen are more likely to
be jejunum, those in the lower and right portions are more likely to be ileum.
Either may be found in the pelvis.
THE STOMACH.
When the stomach is moderately distended it is a pear-shaped organ lying
almost entirely to the left of the median line and occupying the epigastric and left
hypochondriac regions. It has an average capacity of i to 2 litres (about 2^ pints).
Its direction is an oblique one, being downward, forward, and to the right. The
Cardiac end ol
stomach
Spleen
— Suprarenal body
— Kidney
— Pancreas
Transverse meso-
colon
Pyloric end of stomach
Fig. 415. — The bed of the stomach. The stomach has been removed showing the surrounding structures.
upper two-thirds are more longitudinal, the lower third more transverse, the two parts
making an angle of 60 to 70 degrees. The part just adjoining the pylorus is slightly
enlarged when the stomach is distended, and is called the antrum. The stomach
is spoken of as having anterior and posterior walls, but they could just as truthfully
be called superior and inferior, especially when the organ is distended. When it is
relaxed it tends to hang in a more vertical position, but when it is distended it rotates
on a tranverse axis, the greater curvature coming forward, and the organ assumes
a more horizontal plane. When the stomach is empty it may not be relaxed but
contracted. This contraction is liable to be very marked toward the middle of the
organ, producing" the hour-glass stomach. At other times the contraction proceeds
a variable distance from the pylorus toward the cardiac extremity. In such cases
instead of being pear-shaped the stomach becomes more or less tubular so as to
resemble the remainder of the intestinal canal. It then differs but little in appear-
ance from the duodenum, and the position of the pylorus is not readily recognized.
If, as may normally occur, the contraction extends well over toward the cardiac end,
then liquids do not lodge in the stomach but pass almost immediately through it
26
402
APPLIED ANATOMY.
into the small intestine beyond. Wiien this condition is found to exist, the stomach
is to be recognized by its position, its attachments, and the thickness of its walls.
It hangs suspended by its cardiac extremity from the oesophagus. This is beneath
the seventh left costal cartilage, about an inch from the edge of the sternum and
lo cm. (4 in.) from the surface; this brings it opposite the eleventh dorsal vertebra
immediately in front of the aorta. The pylorus lies just under the edge of the Hver,
either in the median line when the stomach is empty or, as is more often the case,
2.5 cm. (i in.) or more to the right of the median line— a Httle higher up than the
gall-bladder or opposite the eighth right costal cartilage and on a level with the first
lumbar vertebra. The pylorus is usually a little higher in women than in men. If the
liver is contracted the pylorus and adjacent portion of the stomach may be in direct
contact with the anterior abdominal wall. The lesser curvature is 7.5 to 12.5 cm.
(3 to 5 in.) long and passes downward, forward, and to the right.
Relations. — The stomach rests on the transverse mesocolon, which covers the
pancreas, solar plexus, aorta, thoracic duct, vena cava, and crura of the diaphragm pos-
Diaphragmatic branches
Cceliac axis
Cystic artery
Hepatic
Gastroduodenal
Pyloric branch
Right gastro-epiploic
Gastric (or coronary)
Splenic
Superior gastric
lymph- nodes
Left gastro-epiploic
Inferior gastric
lymph-nodes
Fio. 416. — Blood supply and lymphatics of the stomach, and Hartmann-. Mikulicz line.
teriorly ; farther to the left are the left suprarenal body, kidney, and spleen (Fig. 415).
In front are the diaphragm, abdominal parietes, and liver. Above are the lesser
or gastrohepatic omentum, liver, and diaphragm. Below is the gastrocolic omen-
tum, transverse colon, and gastrosplenic omentum.
Percussion. — In physical diagnosis the size of the stomach is outlined by
percussion, it being filled with air or gas to distend it. In the median line its
resonance above will be limited by the edge of the liver; below, while usually 5 to
7.5 cm. (2 to 3 in.) above the umbilicus, it is not considered to be dilated, especially
in old people, unless it reaches below the uml)ilicus. It leaves the left costal margin
opposite the ninth or tenth costal cartilage. In the left mammary line stomach
resonance may reach up to the fifth or sixth rib, while farther to the left it reaches
the spleen about in the midaxillary line.
Traube' s semilunar space is limited above by the edge of the left lung, indicated
by the sixth interspace ; externally by the spleen, indicated by the midaxillary line;
and internally by the costal margin. Normally this area is resonant from the presence
of the stomach beneath, but pleural effusion causes it to be dull on percussion.
THE STOMACH. 403
Blood Supply. — The cceliac axis gives off the gastric, hepatic, and splenic
arteries, all of which give branches to the stomach. The gastric (or coronary)
gives branches to the oesophagus and cardiac end and then runs along the lesser
curvature to unite with the pyloric branch of the hepatic. It lies in the gastro-
hepatic omentum and sends branches anteriorly and posteriorly o\er the surface of
the stomach (Fig. 416).
The hepatic artery as it nears the pylorus gives off a pyloric branch which passes
to the left along the lesser curvature, and a gastroduodenal branch, which divides
into the superior pancreaticoduodenal to supply the duodenum and head of the
pancreas, and the right gastro-epiploic artery which passes to the left along the
greater curvature of the stomach.
The splenic artery near the spleen gives off the left gastro-epiploic artery which
proceeds along the greater curvature to unite with the right gastro-epiploic, a branch
of the gastroduodenal artery.
The more the stomach is distended the closer do the arteries of its greater
and lesser curvatures lie to its walls. The fundus is supplied by the vasa brevia,
small branches which leave the splenic artery in the gastrosplenic omentum.
The veins follow the course of the arteries. The right gastro-epiploic empties
into the superior mesenteric and the left into the splenic; they then enter the portal
vein. The pyloric and coronary veins empty into the portal vein direct. The latter
receives branches from the oesophagus which become varicose in cirrhosis of the
liver.
Lymphatics. — The lymphatic nodes of the stomach are found principally
around the regions of the pylorus — inferior gastric nodes, and the lesser curvature
and cardiac extremity — superior gastric nodes. The inferior nodes drain the greater
curvature toward the pylorus while the superior nodes drain the lesser curvature and
cardiac end. The fundus is drained by radicles which empty into the nodes which
accompany the splenic artery. While some nodes may be found along the greater
curvature toward the pyloric end, Cuneo and Poirier state that it is rare to find
nodes in the middle portion of the greater curvature and quite exceptional to meet
with them in the region of the fundus.
AFFECTIONS OF THE STOMACH.
In disease the stomach may be contracted or dilated, and is often the seat
of ulcer and carcinoma.
Contracted stomach occurs either as a normal or pathological condition; it has
already been alluded to on page 401. The contraction of the middle, producing the
hour-glass shape, results from cicatrices and adhesions due to gastric ulcer. In
cases of oesophageal stricture the contraction may be marked. It then embraces
mainly the right third of the organ and the affected portion resembles the adjoining
duodenum. Abstention from food in the course of an illness may also cause a
contracted condition which one should be prepared to encounter in case of opera-
tion. A normal contracted condition of the right end of the stomach, often of a
more or less hour-glass shape, is frequently encountered in autopsies when death
has been caused by disease of other organs (Fig. 417).
Dilation results from functional diseases as well as obstructive affections, such
as ulcer or carcinoma, involving the pylorus. Distention causes the pylorus to pass
from the midline 2. 5 to 7. 5 cm. ( i to 3 in. ) to the right. The organ becomes more
horizontal and descends so that its lower border sinks below the umbilicus — its extreme
normal level. Sometimes the greater curvature alone is lowered, while in others the
gastrohepatic omentum is stretched and the pylorus as well as the greater curvature
descends. This is called gastroptosis. The amount of distention is recognized by
percussion, as pointed out on page 402, or by administering bismuth and examining
by the Rontgen rays.
Ulcer occurs most frequently along the lesser curvature; then the posterior
wall, the region of the pylorus, the anterior wall, cardiac end, fundus, and greater
curvature, in the order of frequency. The ulceration may open an artery, producing
hemorrhage, or there may be adhesions to neighboring organs, resulting in the
404
APPLIED ANATOMY.
formation of abscess, or direct communication with the greater or lesser peritoneal
cavity may be produced. Heahng of ulcers near the pylorus may cause stenosis
resulting in distention. Hemorrhage may occur from the vessels of the stomach
walls or the vessels along the lesser curvature, the splenic or hepatic arteries or even
the portal vein. One reason why the arteries along the curvatures are not still more
frequently affected is because they often lie a short distance away from and not
in immediate contact with the stomach walls. Adhesions to surrounding organs are
least liable to form when the perforation is on the anterior wall. Then the larger
peritoneal cavity is infected and a general peritonitis quickly ensues. A perforation
on the posterior wall involves the lesser cavity of the peritoneum, and the infec-
tion must travel first through the foramen of Winslow before a general peritonitis
develops. Abscesses may form between the under surface of the liver and the
stomach, and they have been known to penetrate the pleura, pericardium, and
transverse colon.
Carcinoma. — This is located in about 60 per cent, near the pylorus, in 15 per
cent, in the lesser curvature, in 10 per cent, at the cardiac end, and in the remaining
Fundus of stomach
Contracted right end
' of stomach
Pylorus
Duodenum
Fig. 417.
-Showing the right end of the stomach normally contracted to near the size of the duodenum.
an actual specimen.
From
15 per cent, in other portions of the organ. Cun^o has shown that extension
occurs in the lymphatic nodes along the lesser curvature, in those of the greater
curvature along the right third of the stomach adjacent to the pylorus, and in the
nodes around the pylorus and head of the pancreas. It has been noticed that there
is no tendency to extension to the region of the duodenum. It will thus be seen
that a line drawn from the junction of the right and middle thirds of the greater
curvature to the cardiac extremity would have nearly all the nodes to the right. It
is this portion which is removed in pylorectomy and partial gastrectomy; owing to
the extension of the disease up the lymphatics of the oesophagus, enlarged nodes
may sometimes be present in the left supraclavicular fossa or even in the left
axilla.
The tumor is usually felt in or near the median line, a variable distance above
the umbilicus ; it may drag the pylorus lower down than normal. If the stomach is
distended the tumor may be carried 5 to 7.5 cm. (2 to 3 in. ) to the right of the
median line. If, as is not uncommon, the disease infiltrates the walls of the stomach,
the tumor can be felt passing to the left side, disappearing under the costal margin.
THE STOiMACH. 405
Adhesions and ulceration are common. They are so marked that peritonitis
from acute perforation is moderately rare. The adjacent organs are matted together
and purulent collections are liable to occur. The ulceration may open into adjacent
organs, as the colon. The colon may be adherent to the stomach and the large
omentum contracted into a roll. The adhesions and pressure from the growth often
interfere with the biliary ducts, and jaundice ensues ; interference with the portal
vein and vena cava causes ascites, and thrombosis of the veins sometimes occurs.
In this disease, as in gastric ulcer, adhesions are least liable to form on the anterior
wall, and here perforation requiring operation is most likely.
OPERATIONS ON THE STOMACH.
The following operations are performed on the stomach : gastrotomy, or the
opening of the stomach to remove foreign bodies or to treat ulcers ; gastrostomy, or
the making of a gastric fistula to introduce food , pyloroplasty , or the widening of a
constricted pylorus ; pyloredomy, for the removal of cancerous or strictured pylorus ;
gastrectomy , or the removal of a part or the whole of the stomach; gastroplicaiio7i, or
the folding of the walls to reduce its size; a.nd gastro-e7iterostoj>iy, or the establishing
of a fistula between the stomach and the small intestine.
Technic. — The incision for gastrostomy is 4 cm. (i ^ in. ) long, over the outer
third of the left rectus muscle, beginning 2 cm. ( ^ in. ) below the edge of the ribs.
The fibres of the rectus are to be parted by blunt dissection from above downward,
as this is less apt to tear the lateral branches of the superior epigastric artery than if
made in the opposite direction. The incisions for pyloroplasty and partial or complete
gastrectomy are made in or near the median line and reach from the tip of the ensi-
form cartilage to the umbilicus. That for pyloroplasty is placed usually, to the right
of the median line, all others to the left. In incising to the right of the median line
the incision should not be carried down to the umbilicus or the round ligamen*- will
be cut. The incisions are placed to one side of the median line in order to open the
sheath of the rectus and pass through the muscular fibres, thus allowing of a more
secure closure of the wound and diminishing the liability to hernia. In incising the
posterior layer of the sheath of the rectus and peritoneum one should avoid wounding
the edge of the liver, which crosses the median line midway between the xiphosternal
articulation and umbilicus, being higher or lower according to its size. The stomach
is recognized as lying immediately below and in contact with the under surface of the
left lobe of the liver. If in doubt, follow the under surface of the liver to the trans-
verse fissure, thence over the lesser or gastrohepatic omentum to the lesser curvature
of the stomach. The omentum may present in the wound instead of the stomach.
It is to be pushed downward and the stomach sought for under the liver. The
transverse colon should not be mistaken for the stomach. It lies under the omentum
and can be identified by its longitudinal bands. In operating on the pylorus it may
be found lying in the median line or 5 cm. (2 in.) or even 7.5 cm. (3 in.) to the
right. The normal pylorus will readily admit the index finger. The incision ad\ised
by Finney for pyloroplasty is 15 to 20 cm. (6 to 8 in.) long through the right rectus
muscle.
Partial gastredoiny is the operation usually done for carcinoma. Pylorectomy
is too incomplete and total gastrectomy is too dangerous, in performing a partial
gastrectomy, as done by the Mayo brothers, an incision just to the left of, or in, the
median line is made from the ensiform process to the umbilicus. The gastrohepatic
omentum is then ligated from the pyloric end toward the cardiac end, well beyond
the limits of the tumor. The ligatures are to be placed close to the liver and suffi-
ciently far away from the lesser curvature to allow of the remo\'al of the lymphatic
nodes lying along it. The gastric artery is ligated below the cardiac opening, where
it reaches the lesser curvature (see Fig. 416, page 402), The pyloric branch of
the hepatic is ligated as it reaches the stomach. Ligate the gastroduodenal artery
behind the pylorus and the gastro-epiploica sinistra on the greater curvature; the
gastrocolic omentum is then to be ligated between the two. Care is to be taken
not to ligate the colica media in the transverse mesocolon beneath or gangrene of
the colon will result. The duodenum is then clamped and cut, and also the stomach.
4o6 APPLIED ANATOMY.
in what has been called the Hartmann-Mikulicz Hne (Fig. 416), which will remove
most of the lesser curvature and at least a third of the greater curvature. The two
cut ends are then closed with sutures and the lowest portion of the remainder of
the stomach connected with the ileum either anteriorly or posteriorly.
In performing a gastro-eiiterostomy the upper portion of the jejunum is brought
up and anastomosed with the anterior or posterior wall of the stomach. If the
omentum is not seen at once on opening the peritoneum it will, perhaps, be found
lying rolled up along the lower border of the stomach. It is to be brought out
of the wound and turned upward. On its lower surface is seen the colon running
transversely from right to left. Follow the transverse mesocolon down to the spine
and the commencement of the jejunum will immediately be felt and can be seen
coming through the mesocolon, with the ligament of Treitz running from its upper
border to the parietal peritoneum. Follow the jejunum down for 40 cm. (16 in.)
and bring it up in front of the great omentum and colon and anastomose with the
lower border of the stomach anteriorly, preferably near the pyloric end. If it is
Great omentum
Transverse colon
-Transverse mesocolon
Posterior wall of stomach
Duodenojejunal flexure
Fig. 418. — Posterior gastro-enterostomy. The omentum and colon have been turned up and the two open-
ings shown in the stomach and commencement of jejunum are to be sewn together along their edges, thus estab-
lishing a communication between the stomach and small intestine.
desired to do a posterior gastro-enterostomy the transverse mesocolon is divided
and the stomach pushed forward through the opening (Fig. 418). The commence-
ment of the jejunum as it emerges from the transverse mesocolon is then brought up
and anastomosed with the posterior wall of the stomach.
THE SMALL INTESTINE.
The small intestine begins at the pylorus and ends at the ileocaecal valve.
It has an average length of 6.75 metres (22 ft. 6 in.) in the adult, independent of the
age, weight, and height of the individual (Treves). Jonnesco gives its length as
7.5 metres (24 ft. 7 in.-) and Sappey as 8 metres (26 ft. 3 in.). The duodenum is
about 25 to 30 cm. (10 to 12 in.) long, and two-fifths of the remainder, or about 8^
ft., is jejunum, and three-fifths, or about 12}^ ft., is ileum.
THE DUODENUM.
The duodenum is the thickest, widest, and most fixed portion of the small
intestine. Its diameter is from 3.75 cm. to 5 cm. (i)^ to 2 in. ) and its muscular
and mucous coats are thicker than those of the jejunum or ileum. It also possesses
in its upper half the glands of Briuiner (gla?idul(e diiodenales^ in the submucous
coat It is thus seen that in its structure it resembles more the stomach than the
intestine and, like the stomach, is especially prone to ulcer. While carcinoma fre-
quently originates at the pylorus and extends to and involves other parts of the
THE SMALL INTESTINE.
407
stomach, it does not tend to involve the duodenum. This is probably due to the
lymph stream from the pylorus running- toward the stomach and away from the
duodenum. The duotlenum is also of interest in consequence of its intimate relation
to the biliary passages and gall-bladder as well as to the pancreas and its ducts.
Inflammations, such as accompany gall-stones, frequently give rise to adhesions, to
relieve which operations are performed. The second portion of the duodenum is
sometimes opened in order to extract a biliary calculus impacted in the ampulla of
Vater at the mouth of the common bile-duct. The upper portion of the duodenum
in Finney's operation for pyloroplasty is slit down from the strictured pylorus and
sewed to a corresponding slit in the stomach, thus making a large communication
between the duodenum and the stomach and eliminating the stricture.
In shape the duodenum resembles a horseshoe. It begins on the right side
of the body of the first lumbar vertebra and ends on the left side of the body of the
second lumbar vertebra. At its commencement it is suspended from the liver by
Common bile duct
First portion of
duodenum
Second portion
of duodenum
Pancreas
Hepatic flexure
of colon
Pylorus
Splenic flexure
of colon
Transverse
mesocolon
Duodenojejunal
flexure
Fourth portion of
duodenum
Third portion of duodenum
Mesentery
Fig. 419. — The duodenum, showing its course and relation to the surrounding organs.
the duodenohepatic ligament, which is the free edge of the gastrohepatic omentum
in which run the hepatic artery, portal vein, and common bile-duct.
The duodenum is composed of four portions. The first portion (superior)
begins at the pylorus and ends at the neck of the gall-bladder. It is about 5 cm. (2
in. ) long, and runs backward along the body of the first lumbar vertebra. The
second portion (descending) is about 10 cm. (4 in. ) long, and runs down the right
side of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae to the lower border of the third. The
third portion (variously called ascending, transverse, or inferior) runs diagonally
upward across the body of the third lumbar vertebra to its left side and then the
fourth portion ascends to the left side of the second, where it takes a sharp turn and
is continued as the jejunum (Fig. 419).
Relations. — First portion: Above and in front are the quadrate lobe of the
liver and the gall-bladder; below is the pancreas; and behind, from left to right, lie
the gastroduodenal artery, the portal vein, the common bile-duct, and the vena cava.
Second portion : In front is the liver, the neck of the gall-bladder, and the
transverse colon. Behind are the renal vessels, ureter, right kidney, and psoas
muscle. To its inner side lie the pancreas and vena cava. The common bile-duct
runs on the inner side between the duodenum and the pancreas; at the middle of this
portion of the duodenum the bile-duct joins with the pancreatic duct to empty into
the duodenum through the ampulla of Vater, about 10 cm. (4 in. ) from the pylorus.
4o8
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Third portion: In front are the superior mesenteric artery and root of the
mesentery; behind lie the vena cava, aorta, and left psoas muscle. Above, it lies
in contact with the pancreas. The termination of the duodenum is usually on the
left of the aorta, but Dwight (Joiirtial of A?iatomy and Physiology, vol. xxxi, p.
576) in fifty-four cases found it twenty-six times on the right of the aorta until just
before its terminal flexure. It was wholly on the right side six times, in front of the
aorta eleven times, and had crossed the aorta eleven times.
Peritoneal Covering. — First part: The pyloric half is almost completely
covered by peritoneum, but the distal half only on its anterior surface. Second part:
No peritoneum on its inner and posterior surfaces, and only on its outer and anterior
where not covered by the transverse colon. Third and fourth parts: The anterior
and left sides are covered by peritoneum except where crossed by the root of the
mesentery and superior mesentric vessels.
JEJUNUM AND ILEUM.
The jejunum is about 8^ ft. long and the ileum about 12^2, ft. They are
bound to the spinal column by the mesentery, which extends from the left side of the
body of the second lumbar vertebra to the right sacro-iliac joint.
Duodenojejunal Flexure and Fossae. — The point of ending of the duo-
denum and beginning of the jejunum is marked by a sharp bend called the duodeno-
Duodenojejunal flexure /
Middle colic artery
Suspensory ligament or
muscle of Treitz
Superior duodenal fossa
Inferior mesenteric vein
Inferior duodenal fossa
Fourth portion of duodenum
Inferior mesenteric artery
Fio. 420. — The duodenojejunal flexure and duodenal fossa; the jejunum drawn to the right.
jejunal flexure. The beginning of the jejunum passes downward, forward, and
usually toward the left. If the transverse colon is thrown upward and the jejunum
is pulled sharply to the right, a folded edge of peritoneum containing some muscular
fibres is seen passing from the flexure to the parietal peritoneum. This is called
the suspensory ligament or muscle of Treitz. The fossa which is behind it is the
superior duodenojejunal fossa of Treitz while that below is the inferior duodenal
fossa. Below the fossa runs the inferior mesenteric artery and near the left edge of
the ligament runs the inferior mesenteric vein. Into the fossae, if abnormally large,
the intestines may enter and produce a retroperitoneal hernia. If the constricting
band, which is the ligament of Treitz, is cut, there is danger of dividing the inferior
mesenteric vein (see Fig. 420).
The small intestine decreases in size and thickness from its upper to its lower
end. The diameter of the jejunum is about 4 cm. ( i ^ in. ) while that of the ileum
is about 3 cm. (i^ in.).
The walls of the jejunum are thicker, redder, and more vascular than those of the
ileum and the valvulae conniventes are better developed. The ileum is thinner, nar-
rower, paler and, particularly when diseased, the large Peyer's patches can be seen.
The intestinal coils, while not constant in position, are most apt to be as
follows : The commencement of the jejunum is in the upper left portion of the
THE SMALL LNTESTINE. 409
abdomen. The ileum is more in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen. Accord-
ing to Trex'es, the intestine from six to eleven feet from its commencement has the
longest mesentery and is apt to be found in the pelvis. The lower end of the ileum
is also usually found in the pelvis, and rises over its brim to join the caecum.
There is no certainty, however, of finding a definite piece of the small intestine
under any special point on the surface, because the varying distention and move-
ments cause frequent changes of position.
Meckel's Diverticulum. — In the embryo the vitello-intestinal duct passes
from the umbilicus to the lower end of the small in-
testine. Normally this disappears, but sometimes a
portion of it remains and there is found, one to three
feet above the ileocaecal valve, a finger-like projec-
tion from the side of the ileum, 5 to 7.5 cm. (2 to
3 in.) long. This is called MeckeV s divertiaihim,
and may become the site of disease the same as the
rest of the ileum. From its extremity a fibrous band
may run to the umbilicus. This has been in rare
instances the source of strangulation, causing intesti-
nal obstruction. One such case has been under our
care (Fig. 421).
Peyer's patches (noduli lymphatic! aggre-
gati) are most numerous in the lower portion of the
ileum. They are ulcerated in typhoid cases and are
frequently the site of perforations. These patches
are from i to 2.5 cm. (^ to i in.) wide and 2.5 to
7.5 cm. ( I to 3 in. ) long. When affected in typhoid ^^•^•^"•"^luthS'JSch')"'"* ^^'^°'"
fever they can readily be seen through the intestinal
walls. By holding the intestine up against the light both Peyer's patches and the
valvulae conniventes can readily be seen.
The perforations in typhoid fever occur usually within three feet of the ileo-
caecal valve, though occasionally they may occur, as we have seen, in the appendix,
or higher up in the small intestine, or even in the large intestine.
OPERATIONS.
The small intestines are frequently resected and anastomosed with themselves
or other portions of the gastro-intestinal canal. Gastro-enterostomy has been alluded
to on page 406.
On opening the abdomen, if it is desired to find the upper end of the small
intestine, the omentum is pulled out, drawing with it on its under surface the
transverse colon. The hand is to be passed backward on the under surface of the
transverse mesocolon until the spine is reached; on its left side will be felt the duo-
denojejunal flexure. On drawing the jejunum to the right, the ligament of Treitz
will be seen. A loop 40 cm. (16 in.) down may be taken and brought up in front
of the omentum and used for an anterior gastro-enterostomy, or the intestine
immediately below the flexure may be used for a posterior gastro-enterostomy (see
page 406). If one desires to find the lower end of the small intestine, then a search
is made for the colon in the right iliac region. It is recognized by its longitudinal
bands and is followed down to the ileocaecal junction. If the case is one of typhoid
fever, a rapid examination is then made from the ileocaecal valve upward for perfora-
tions. It is desirable at times to determine which is the proximal and which the
distal end of an intestinal loop. The best way to do so is to follow the loop down
to the mesenteric attachment, as advised by Monks ; if the mesentery proceeds up
and to the left you have the proximal end; if, however, it is passing down to the
right you have the distal end.
The intestine receives its nourishment from the mesentery and will die when
detached, hence it is necessary to avoid injury or detachment of the mesentery or
its vessels ; when this detachment has occurred the involved portion of intestine is
resected and removed.
4IO
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE MESENTERY.
Root of mesentery
The mesentery extends from the left side of the body of the second lumbar
vertebra to the right sacro-iliac joint. It is from 15 to 20 cm. (6 to 8 in.) long at
its root and spreads out like a fan, to be attached to the small intestine. It is com-
paratively thick, especially toward its root, and contains the superior mesenteric
artery and veins, nerves, and lymphatics. The mesenteric lymphatic nodes are
numerous, from 130 to 150 (Quain) in number. They are frequently involved in
carcinoma and tuberculosis, and may form masses which may be mistaken either for
independent tumors or outgrowths from other organs. They are sometimes inflamed,
and even cause abscess, being mistaken for appendix disease. They become calcare-
ous and by the Rontgen rays may cast shadows which have been mistaken for calculi
of the urinary organs.
The mesentery has its vessels sometimes ruptured by violence or blocked by
emboli or thrombi. This is likely to cause gangrene of the intestine to which they
are distributed. In abdominal operations the greatest care is to be taken not to
injure these vessels, and in
hemorrhage the least possi-
ble amount of ligation is to
be done. Obstructions of a
mesenteric branch may ne-
cessitate the resection of that
part of the small intestine
which it supplies.
It is particularly im-
portant to bear in mind the
direction of the mesenteric
attachment on account of its
influence in directing the
course of the blood in cases
of hemorrhage. The small
intestines are attached at the
root of the mesentery like the
leaves of a book to its back.
Bleeding originating from the
right and upper quadrants of
the abdomen will pass over
the intestines and tend to
gravitate toward the right
iliac fossa. Bleeding originat-
ing from the left and lower
quadrants tends to pass under the intestines toward the left iliac fossa. In searching
the abdomen through a large median incision for the source of a concealed hemor-
rhage, the intestines are first to be pushed down and to the left, and the right side of
the abdominal wall lifted with retractors. This will expose to view the upper surface
of the small intestines, the ascending and transverse colon, the right kidney, liver,
stomach, and head of the pancreas. Should additional search be necessary the small
intestines are to be raised and turned upward and to the right (Fig. 422), being
brought out of the wound if necessary. This will expose the under side of the small
intestines and mesentery, the sigmoid flexure, descending colon, left kidney, spleen,
and tail of the pancreas, with the left end of the stomach and left lobe of the liver
above. The intestines are never to be turned downward to the right nor upward
to the left.
The mesentery attains its greatest length, according to Treves, from 6 to 1 1 feet
below the duodenum, where it measures 25 cm. (10 in.) In hernia the mesentery
is lengthened to allow of the descent of the gut. Rarely openings are present in
the mesentery which may allow the entrance and strangulation of a coil of the
intestine.
Intersigmoid fossa
(recessus intersigmoideus)
Fig. 422. — The mesentery is seen running downward toward the
right sacro-iliac joint; the index finger is below it and the other three
fingers above. The small intestines have been raised on the hand and
turned upward thus exposing the pelvis and entire left lower half of the
abdomen for examination.
THE LARGE INTESTINE. 411
THE LARGE INTESTINE.
The large intestine comprises (i) the cacuni and appeyidix, (2) ascending
colon, (3) transverse coloft, (4) descending colon, (5) sigmoid Jlexiire, composed of
the iUac colon and pelvic colon, and (6) the rectum and anal catial.
The length of the large intestine exclusive of the rectum and anal canal is 135
cm. (4 ft. 6 in.) in the female, and 140 cm. (4 ft. 8 in.) in the male. If the anterior
abdominal wall is removed the caecum and part of the ascending colon are visible,
but in the upper part of the lumbar region the colon disappears, being overlaid by
the small intestine. Having turned at the hepatic flexure, it again comes into view
below the lower edge of the liver and passes superficially across the abdomen to
disappear under thq left costal margin to form the splenic flexure. It is not visible
again until it reaches the region of the crest of the ilium, where it once more
becomes superficial and follows the inguinal (Poupart's) ligament down to near its
lower end, where it turns backward and upward to form the sigmoid loop which
descends along the sacrum. In operating it is necessary to be able to distinguish
large from small intestine.
Size. — The large intestine at its commencement at the caecum may have a
diameter of 7.5 cm. (3 in.), but it decreases in size, and, especially if empty, the
descending colon and sigmoid flexure may only be 2.5 cm. (i in.) in diameter. A
distended part of the small intestine will be larger than a contracted part of the
colon. Inasmuch as operations are frequently done for obstructive conditions which
greatly enlarge the involved parts, it is unreliable to depend on size as distinguishing
the large intestine. There are three longitudinal bands {tcBnice colt) on the colon,
from 6 to 12 mm. (^^^ to ^ in. ) wide, according to the amount of distention. One
is anterior, another postero-external, and the third postero-internal. On the trans-
verse colon they haA-e the same relative position when the great omentum and colon
are raised and turned upward. They all begin at the appendix and traverse the
large intestine until the rectum is reached, where they blend together, forming a
longitudinal layer which is weak at the sides and strong anteriorly and posteriorly.
Sacculation of the colon is produced by the longitudinal bands being one-
sixth shorter than the rest of the tube. While sacculation tends to become less
marked on distension, it is still a valuable means of identification. Dividing the
longitudinal bands will cause the sacculation to disappear and the gut to lengthen.
Appendices epiploicae or the small tags of peritoneum containing fat, are
found along the large intestine as far as the rectum. They are most numerous along
the inner longitudinal band and the transverse colon.
C^CUM AND APPENDIX.
The caecum is the blind pouch of the large intestine which extends beyond the
opening of the ileum. It is about 7.5 cm. (3 in.) broad and 6.25 cm. (2>^ in.)
long. Its three longitudinal bands converge to the appendix and are continued over
it. It lies in the right iliac fossa on the iliacus and psoas muscles, more on the
latter, and reaches nearly or quite to its inner edge. It is in contact with the
abdominal wall above the outer half of the inguinal (Poupart's) ligament. In fetal
life the caecum is cone-shaped and passes gradually and regularly into the appendix.
It increases in size more rapidly on its outer side, so that the appendix, which was
before opposite the long axis of the gut, becomes placed to the inside just below the
ileocaecal valve.
Four varieties of caecum are given by Treves: (i) the conical or fetal type, (2)
a globular or quadrilateral type, in which the development of both sides is even, (3)
the adult type, in which the outer side is much larger than the inner, (4) an irregular
type, in which there is an excess of development of the outer side and an atrophy
of the inner side resulting in placing the root of the appendix close to the lower and
posterior portion of the ileocaecal junction.
Cunningham makes three varieties: (i) a fetal conical type, (2) an infantile
type, in which the outer side is somewhat larger than the inner, and (3) an adult
412
APPLIED ANATOMY.
type, 93 or 94 per cent. , in which the outer side is much the larger, and the root of
the appendix is on the inner wall just below the ileocaecal valve (in the adult about
2 cm. — 3/^ in. ).
The ileocaecal valve marks the emptying of the ileum into the large intestine.
On the surface of the body it corresponds to a point 2.5 cm, (i in.) below the
middle of a line joining the anterior superior spine and the umbilicus and the same dis-
tance above the middle of a transverse line drawn from the anterior superior spine to
the median line. This point is about on the linea semilunaris and directly above the
point where the external iliac artery passes under Poupart's ligament. Normally
the ileocaecal valve will allow of the passage of gas from the colon into the ileum, as
in Senn's hydrogen test for perforation, but not of liquids or solids.
Vermiform Appendix (processus vermiformis). — The appendix varies
much, both in length and diameter. In health its average length may be given as
from 8.75 cm. (3^ in.) to 10 cm. (4 in.)
and its diameter as 6 mm. (}( in.). It is
pale in color and soft in consistence, with
its blood-vessels barely visible. In disease
it becomes hard and red and the injected
vessels are distinctly seen. It becomes
much increased in diameter, equalling in
size a finger or thumb, and lengthens to
15 cm. (6 in.) or even more. It possesses
a serous peritoneal coat, a longitudinal
muscular, a circular muscular, a submucous
and a mucous coat. The lumen of the
appendix has been found to be partially
occluded in at least one-fourth of all adults.
This occlusion occurring toward its distal
extremity is not regarded as pathological,
but constrictions occurring elsewhere in the
length of the tube are probably the result
of previous disease.
The opening of the appendix in the
caecum is about 2.5 cm. (i in.) below and
a little behind the ileocaecal opening. The
fold of mucous membrane guarding it has
been named the va/ve of Gcrlach but it is
not generally regarded as a distinct valve.
The root of the appendix is only about 2
cm. ( ^ in. ) below the lower edge of the ileum and is often even closer on account
of the lower surface of the ilium being in contact with the caecum at that point. It
corresponds to a point on the surface of the body where the right semilunar line
crosses a line joining the two anterior superior spines (Fig. 423).
The meso-appendix (mesenteriolum) comes off the lower surface of the
mesentery. It is shorter than the appendix, hence the twisting and curling of the
latter. It usually, but not always, extends to the tip and contains toward its left or
free border the appendicular artery.
The ileocolic artery, from the superior mesenteric, as it approaches the ileo-
caecal junction divides into five branches: (i) the colic, distributed to the colon; (2)
the ileal, to the upper surface of the ileum; (3) xhe anterior ileoccscal branch, to the
front of the caecum, passing through the ileocolic fold; (4) ih^ posterior ileoccecal
artery, to the posterior part of the caecum; (5) the appendicular artery. The appen-
dicular artery descends behind the ileum to enter the meso-appendix and, after sending
one recurrent branch to the root of the appendix and another to the ileocaecal fold,
passes along the left or free edge of the meso-appendix, and, if this is short, it may
be continued on the surface of the appendix to its extremity (Fig. 424).
In removing the appendix this artery requires ligation and if the ligature is not
placed close to the root the recurrent branches will not be included and may cause
dangerous bleeding.
if
\
\ S
Fig. 423. — The relations of the appendix. The
ileocaecal junction is seen to be about one inch below
the middle of a line joining the anterior superior
spine and umbilicus or where this line crosses the
linea semilunaris. The base of the appendix is under
the point of crossing of the linea semilunaris and the
middle of a horizontal line running from the anterior
superior spine to the mid-line of the body; it is one
inch below the ileocaecal junction.
THE LARGE INTESTINE.
413
The veins of the appendix and the caecum end in the ileocolic vein, which joins
the superior mesenteric vein and helps to form the portal vein. Hence infection is
carried by the blood stream from the appendix and caecum directly to the liver.
Position of the Appendix. — The position and direction of the appendix have
been variously described and much discussed. This has arisen from the fact that it
is so curled, curved, and twisted on itself that it is impossible to say that it points in
any definite direction, and that, being so mobile, it may be found in almost any posi-
tion, swinging around with its point of attachment to the caecum as the axis. We
agree with Cunningham when he says that it runs generally in one of three direc-
tions: (i) over the brim into (or towards) the pelvis; (2) upward behind the caecum;
(3) upward and inward toward the spleen. As he says, each of these has been con-
sidered the normal position by one or more observers. It is evident that, as
RetrocoHc fossa
Colic branch
Ileocolic artery-
Anterior ileocaecal
branch
Superior ileocaecal fold
Ileal branch
Superior ileocaecal fossa
Posterior ileocajcal
branch
Inferior ileocascal fold
Inferior ileocaecal fossa
Appendicular artery
Recurrent branch
Meso-appendix
RetrocoHc fold^
RetrocoHc fossa
Fig. 424. — The appendix and ileocaecal region, showing the folds, fossae, and arteries.
the appendix comes off close to the ileum, this is its most fixed and constant point.
In certain cases the caecum retains its high fetal position and then the appendix will
be higher than usual. If the appendix is long and straight, its tip may reach to or
beyond the median line; it may lie in contact with the rectum, ovary, tube, or blad-
der; it may lie low down close to Poupart's ligament or curved upward behind the
colon, reaching in front of the kidney and nearly or quite to the liver. When retro-
caecal it lies on the quadratus lumborum; when lower it may lie on the iliacus or
psoas muscle. If it goes over the brim of the pelvis it lies on the external iliac
artery. The external iliac vein is below and to the inner side and is largely pro-
tected from injury in operating by the stronger and tougher artery.
Caecal Folds and Fossae. — There are three folds and three fossae formed by
the peritoneum in the neighborhood of the caecum.
I. The superior ileoccecal {ileocolic) fold runs from the upper surface of the
mesentery just above the ileum to the upper anterior surface of the caecum. In it
runs the ileocecal {anterior) artery. Beneath it, with its opening toward the left, is
the superior ileocecal fossa (Fig. 424).
APPLIED ANATOMY.
2. The inferior ileoccecal fold passes from the termination of the ileum to the
front of the meso-appendix ; it contains a small recurrent branch of the appendicular
artery. Beneath it and between it and the meso-appendix is the inferior ileoccicat
fossa, which may sometimes contain the appendix.
3. The rctrocolic fold is not constant and may be multiple. It passes from the
lower and outer surface of the caecum to the peritoneum beneath. It binds down the
end of the caecum and not infrequently must be divided before the caecum and
appendix can be raised; the fossae on each side of it are called the retrocolic fosses.
Lymphatics of the Caecum and Appendix. — The lymphatics of the caecum
and appendix drain into a group located in the mesentery of the ileocaecal angle,
accompanying the ileocolic artery. According to Poirier and Cuneo there are three
sets : an anterior caecal, a posterior caecal, and an appendicular.
The anterior ccecal lymphatics drain the anterior surface of the caecum and, aftt;r
traversing one or two small nodes, pass in the ileocaecal fold up to the main ileo-
caecal group.
The posterior ceecal lymphatics drain the posterior portion of the caecum and,
after traversing three to six small nodes, empty likewise into the ileocaecal group.
The appendicular lymphatics form four or five trunks which accompany the
artery between the layers of the meso-appendix. They then pass across the posterior
surface of the ileum to empty into the ileocaecal group.
Poirier and Cun6o state that these lymph-trunks from the appendix pass through
one to three nodes placed in the retro-ileal portion of the meso-appendix, but Kelly
and Hurdon state that in the majority of cases these trunks empty into one or two
nodes some distance above the ileum in the ileocaecal angle, forming a part of the
ileocaecal chain. These latter authors state that there are three sets of lymph-
capillaries in the appendix : a superficial or subperitoneal set, another between the
submucous and muscular layers, and a deep set in the mucosa around the glands of
Lieberkulm.
The three great lymph-streams, anterior caecal, posterior caecal, and appendicu-
lar, are quite distinct from each other and from the surrounding lymphatics of the
pelvis and colon; when these latter are involved it is not by a lateral extension
from these three streams but by direct infection from the regions which they them-
selves drain. From the ileocaecal nodes the lymphatics follow the arteries to the
nodes at the root of the mesentery and empty into the receptaculum chyli. They
do not follow the veins to the liver, hence infection of the liver is not caused through
the lymph-channels in appendicitis.
Appendicitis. — Diagnosis. — The most fixed part of the appendix is its root.
This corresponds to a point on the linea semilunaris opposite to the anterior superior
spine of the ilium. The painful tip of the appendix may be anywhere in a circle
around this point 10 cm. (4 in.) in radius. It may be lying posterior and simulate
calculus or other kidney trouble; it may be up toward the liver or gall-bladder; it
may be toward the left, even beyond the midline; it may be in Douglas's cul-de-sac
and be confounded with disease of the uterus, tubes, and bladder. It overlies the
ureter and may be mistaken for calculus therein. An enlarged gall-bladder can
have its painful apex at McBurney's point. Typhoid ulcers occur close to and, as
we have observed, may involve the appendix. All these relations must be remem-
bered. McBurney placed the most tender point 4 to 5 cm. ( i )^ to 2 in. ) from the
anterior superior spine in a direction toward the umbilicus. Personally we would
place it near the root of the appendix at least 2.5 cm. (i in.) lower down and
a little farther in.
Operation. — An incision for appendicitis often used is a longitudinal one over the
edge of the rectus muscle, either going directly through it or drawing it to one side
(Fig. 425). In McBurney's operation the external oblique is split in the direction
of its fibres and the internal oblique and transversalis are parted upward and inward
in the direction of their fibres, thus making a square hole through which the appendix
is removed. The writer {Attnals of Surgery, Jan. 1906, p. 106) uses a transverse
incision with its centre over the linea semilunaris opposite to or 2.5 cm. (i in.)
above the anterior superior spine. The sheath of the rectus is divided transversely
and the muscle displaced toward the median line. The outer portion of the incision
THE LARGE INTESTINE.
415
runs slightly oblique to the fibres of the external oblique and almost exactly in
the direction of the fibres of the internal oblique and transversalis (Fig. 426).
As soon as the peritoneum is opened the omentum may present itself. This is
to be displaced to the left. Some coils of small intestine if present are to be pushed
also to the left. The intestine then presenting will be the colon or caecum, because
Fibres of the external oblique
Fibres of the internal oblique
Fibres of the transversalis
Anterior part of sheath of the rectus
Rectus muscle
Posterior part of the sheath of the
rectus
Fig. 425. — Incisions used for operations on the appendix. The longitudinal operation passes through and
separates the fibres of the rectus muscle. The oblique oiJcration (that of McBurney) separates the external oblique,
internal oblique, and transversalis muscles in the direction of their fibres.
it is fastened to the posterior wall and cannot be moved away. The longitudinal
bands will also identify it. Another way is to pass the finger down the inside of the
abdominal wall and the floor of the iliac fossa and bring up the caecum. Always
work from the outer toward the inner side, because (see Fig. 422) the ascending
Ileum
Rectus muscle drawn inward
Sheath of rectus opened
Fibres of the internal oblique and
"transversalis muscles
-External oblique aponeurosis
Fig. 426. — Author's incision for appendicitis.
The CJBCum has been lifted out of the wound, bringing with it the
appendix.
colon and caecum almost always lie against the abdominal wall on the surface of the
iliacus muscle above the outer half of Poupart's ligament.
The caecum is to be drawn up and turned toward the head. The longitudinal
bands, all of which lead to the appendix, are to be followed down over the caecum
until the appendix is reached. If the bands are not visible, identify the ileocaecal
junction and about 2 cm. (3/^ in.) or less below and behind it will be the root of the
4l6
APPLIED ANATOMY.
appendix; its tip may be anywhere. It can be enucleated from its root out to its tip.
A ligature is to be placed around the meso-appendix because the appendicular artery,
especially its recurrent branch, may bleed quite freely. The root of the appendix
may sometimes be at, instead of below, the ileocaical junction. The small intestine
and caecum almost always overlie the appendix.
THE COLON.
The ascending colon lies in contact w^ith the anterior abdominal wall from its
lower end to above the iliac crest ; here it dips down to lie on the kidney and
form the hepatic flexure above (Fig. 427). At this point some of the coils of the
small intestine may lie in front of the hepatic flexure, between the beginning of the
transverse colon above and the ending of the ascending colon below. The ascend-
Transverse colon
Colica media artery
Colica dextra artery.
Hepatic flexu
Cut edge of
mesentery.
Ascending colon.
Caecum'
lleocaecal junction,—'
Base of appendix-
-' Appendices epiploicae
Superior mesenteric
artery
Duodenojejunal
! flexure
Inferior mesenteric
artery
Splenic flexure
Colica sinistra artery
Descending colon
Pelvic colon
Tliac colon
Ileum
Fig. 427. — View of the interior of the abdomen; the mesentery has been cut, the small intestines removed, and
the transverse colon turned upward. The pelvic colon and iliac colon together form the sigmoid flexure.
ing colon lies on the quadratus lumborum muscle and kidney behind and has the psoas
to its inner side. It has no mesentery or peritoneum on its posterior surface in 64
per cent, of the cases (Treves) and in tumors of the kidney it may be pushed forward
and across their anterior surface. This is a point to be remembered in diagnosis.
The transverse colon passes diagonally up and to the left across the abdo-
men. It starts at the hepatic flexure on the under surface of the liver to the outer
side of the gall-bladder. It runs parallel with the lower edge of the liver and stom-
ach and its lower border may reach nearly or quite to the level of the umbilicus.
The great omentum passes over the transverse colon, so that to see the latter it is
necessary to raise the omentum and look on its under surface. The omentum as it
THE LIVER. 417
passes from the colon to the stomach forms the gastrocolic omentum and the two
organs may be either close together or some distance apart. The transverse colon
instead of running upward and to the left may form a large curve downward, reach-
ing almost to the pelvis. In cases of dilatation and descent (ptosis) of the stomach
the transverse colon descends with it. The transverse mesocolon passes backward
and one layer goes up and covers the pancreas vvhile the other goes down to the
mesentery. Its importance in gastro-enterostomy has been pointed out (page 406).
Tumors and cysts of the pancreas may push forward above it, or below it, or it may
cross directly over the surface of the growth.
The descending colon at its commencement at the splenic flexure is much
higher and more deeply situated than is the hepatic flexure. It follows the stomach
upward and backward and lies against the spleen. From here it descends and is
entirely covered by small intestine, the sigmoid flexure coming to the front in the left
iliac fossa. The descending colon is much smaller in size than the ascending colon,
and like it in the majority (two-thirds) of cases has no mesentery. In doing a colos-
tomy through the loin, the external border of the quadratus lumborum muscle is the
guide to the descending colon. It lies 1.25 cm. (^ in.) behmd the middle of the
crest of the ilium.
Sigmoid Flexure. — The sigmoid flexure is composed of two parts: one in the
iliac fossa, called the iliac colon, and the other in the pelvis, called the pelvic colon,
or omega loop of Treves.
The iliac colon is about 12.5 to 15 cm. (5 to 6 in.) long, and runs from the
crest of the ilium to the inner edge of the iliopsoas muscle. It has no mesentery in
90 per cent, of the cases (Jonnesco), and usually comes into contact with the ab-
dominal wall to the inner side of the anterior superior spine sometimes as far down
as the middle of Poupart's ligament. In doing an inguinal colostomy this is the
portion of the colon it is desired to find. It is then followed down until a part is
reached which has sufficient mesentery to allow of its being drawn out of the wound.
The pelvic colon is about 40 to 42.5 cm. (16 to 17 in.) long and runs from the
edge of the psoas muscle to the level of the third sacral vertebra. It makes a large
horseshoe-shaped loop, from which it was named by Treves the omega Joop, and has
a mesentery from 3 to 8 cm. {1% to 3)^ in.) long. The length of the loop as well
as its mesentery and its position all vary considerably. Its terminal portion usually
runs longitudinally down to end in the rectum, but its intervening portion may pass
over the bladder to the right side, or high above the symphysis, or even extend
well up in the abdominal cavity. On the under or left side of the loop between its
branches is the intersigmoid fossa (see Fig. 422, page 410) ; sometimes it forms a
constricted pouch in which a knuckle of intestine has been known to become
strangulated.
THE LIVER.
The liver is wedge-shaped and has three surfaces. These are superior, inferior,
and posterior. The posterior forms the base of the wedge and its anterior edge is
the apex. The liver is divided into five lobes by five primary fissures and has
five ligaments (Fig. 428).
The lobes of the liver are: (i) left, (2) right, (3) quadrate, (4) Spigelian,
(5) caudate. The left lobe is one-sixth the size of the right. It comprises that part
to the left of the falciform ligament above and the umbilical and ductus venosus fis-
sures below. The right lobe comprises that part to the right of the falciform ligament
above and the fissures of the gall-bladder and vena cava below. The quadrate lobe
is the anterior, small, square-shaped lobe between the fissure of the gall-bladder on the
right and the umbilical fissure on the left. It extends from the anterior edge back
to the portal fissure. The Spigelian lobe is best seen posteriorly, extending from the
vena cava on the right to the fissure of the ductus venosus on the left. The caudate
lobe or process is the name given to the liver tissue running from the lower end of
the Spigelian lobe to the right lobe. It passes behind the portal fissure and between
it and the vena cava. RicdeV s lobe is the name given to an abnormal, tongue-like
projection of liver tissue from its anterior edge, which may extend downward either
over the gall-bladder or external to it. Mayo Robson has seen it extend to the caecal
27
4i8
APPLIED ANATOMY.
region, and an inflamed gall-bladder being directly beneath caused pain to be experi-
enced at McBurney's point. This condition is liable to be mistaken for appendicitis.
The fissures of the liver are best understood by examining its under surface,
where they can be seen arranged in the form of the letter H. They are as follows: ( i )
The tmibilical fissure, running from the umbilical notch on the anterior edge to the left
end of the portal (transverse) fissure; it contains the round ligament. (2) T\\q fissure
of the ductus venosus, running upward from the left end of the portal fissure be-
tween the left and Spigelian lobes; it contains the remains of the fetal ductus venosus.
Right lateral ligament-
Right lobe
Left lateral or triangular
ligament
Left lobe
Falciform ligament
Round ligament
Fissure of the gall-bladder
Fig. 428. — View of the anterior and upper surfaces of the liver.
(3) The fissure of the gall-bladder, separating the quadrate from the right lobe and
ending at the right extremity of the portal fissure; in it lies the gall-bladder. (4)
The fissure of the vena cava, between the Spigelian and right lobes, lodging the vena
cava. (5) The portal fissure, — this forms the transverse bar of the H. Its left end
receives the umbilical and ductus venosus fissures and its right end the fissures of the
gall-bladder and vena cava. It contains the portal vein, hepatic artery, hepatic duct,
nerves, and lymphatics; attached to its sides is the lesser or gastrohepatic omentum.
The portal fissure is also called the transverse fissure, and the name longitudinal
Cystic
Vena cava duct Caudate lobe or process
Spigelian lobe
Left lobe
Gastric impression
Fissure of the ductus venosus
Portal vein
Hepatic artery
Umbilical fissure
Round ligament
Coronary ligament
Right lobe
Renal impression
Duodenal impression
■Colic impression
Portal fissure
Quadrate lolje
Gall-bladder
Fig. 429. — View of the posterior and inferior surfaces of the liver.
fissure is sometimes applied to the combined umbiHcal and ductus venosus fissures.
(In the recent anatomical nomenclature these fissures are called fossae.) (Fig. 429.)
The ligaments of the liver are five in number: (i) the coronary, (2) the
triangular, (3) the falciform, (4) the round, and (5) the ligament of the ductus
venosus. The coronary ligame7it surrounds the posterior surface which is not
covered by peritoneum. It is 4 to 6 cm. (i^ to 2% in.) wide and extends from
the vena cava 7.5 to 10 cm. (3 to 4 in.) to the right, terminating in a pointed
end which has been called the right lateral ligament. The triangular ligament, also
THE LIVER.
419
called the left lateral, extends as far to the left of the falciform ligament as the coronary-
does to the right. It is attached to the diaphragm in front of the oesophagus, while
the coronary is attached to the back of the diaphragm. The falciform ligament
starts near the umbilicus, passes to the umbihcal notch of the liver 2.5 to 4 cm. (i to
xyi in. ) to the right of the median line and thence over the top of the liver to near
its posterior edge, where it blends in front of the vena cava on the right side with the
coronary ligament and on the left with the triangular ligament. The roimd ligament
is the round cord in the free edge of the falciform ligament which runs from the
umbilicus to the umbilical notch and thence to the portal fissure to join the left branch
of the portal vein. It is the remains of the fetal umbilical vein. The ligament of the
ductus venosiis runs from the left branch of the portal vein to the vena cava in the
fissure of the ductus venosus. The ductus venosus, like the umbilical vein, becomes
obliterated at birth.
Position of the Liver. — The liver rises to the fourth costal interspace on the
right side, to or slightly above the xiphosternal junction in the midline, and the lower
border of the fifth rib on the left side, to its extremity, just beyond the apex of the
heart, at the lower border of the sixth rib. Its lower border passes from this point to
the eighth left cartilage, crosses the middle line about midway between the xiphoid
Suprarenal gland
Vena cava
Kidney
First portion
of duodenum--
Second portion
of duodenum
Portal vein
Hepatic artery
Common bile-duct
^Pvlorus
Fig. 430. — The bed of the liver.
Gastrocolic omentum
Right gastro-epiploic artery
The liver has been removed to show the surrounding structures.
articulation and umbilicus to the ninth right costal cartilage, and thence follows the
edge of the ribs posteriorly, being about 2.5 cm. (i in.) lower in women. The
upper limits of its percussion dulness are the upper border of the sixth rib in the
right mammillary line, the eighth in the axillary, and the tenth in the scapular.
Relations of the Liver. — The superior surface lies in contact with the
diaphragm, except the portion extending about 7.5 cm. (3 in.) below the xipho-
sternal junction in the median line and sometimes the small projecting edge beyond
the ribs, which lies in contact with the abdominal wall. The posterior sjirface lies
over the tenth and eleventh thoracic vertebrae, the crura of the diaphragm, the
oesophagus, aorta, vena cava, and right suprarenal gland. The inferior surface to
the left rests on the cardiac end and upper surface of the stomach and gastrohepatic
omentum. Beneath the quadrate lobe is the pylorus and beginning of the duo-
denum. Beneath the caudate lobe is the forameii of IVinslotc, of which it forms
the upper boundary. Farther to the right are the depressions for the hepatic flexure
of the colon and the right kidney and suprarenal gland (Fig. 430).
The size of the liver varies, being small in atrophic diseases and much enlarged
in others; therefore, alterations in the area of dulness are frequent. It moves with
respiration and sometimes hangs lower than normal (ptosis).
420 ^^^^^K- APPLIED ANATOMY. ^^^^^^^™
Wounds and Injuries of the Liver. — The liver is frequently ruptured in
falling or by being struck by some body from without. The rupture may involve its
anterior edge or upper surface. In all examinations it should not be forgotten that
the right and left sides are separated completely by the falciform ligament. On
account of the walls of the vessels being imbedded in the liver tissue they do not
readily collapse and hemorrhage is often fatal. Rupture of the posterior nonperi-
toneal surface is not so dangerous as elsewhere.
Abscesses may be either one or two large ones or multiple small ones.
Pus on the upper surface of the liver, between it and the diaphragm, is called S2(d-
diaphragviatic abscess. It may originate either from the liver or other viscera below,
or the lung and pleura above. Maydl gives gastric ulcer as the most frequent cause
and then affections of the intestines and appendix ; we have seen it arise from calculous
disease of the kidney. The pus may discharge outward between the ribs, or upward
into the pleural cavity, lung, or pericardial sac. In incising for subdiaphragmatic
•abscess the tenth rib in the axillary line can be resected without opening the
pleura, but if the eighth or ninth is chosen the pleural sac may be opened and
the two layers of pleura should be stitched together before the incision through the
diaphragm into the abscess cavity is made. If the abscess points at the inferior
surface it may break into the stomach, duodenum, or colon. It may be reached by
an incision through the abdominal walls to the right of the median line. The posi-
tion of the falciform ligament, about 4 cm. ( i )4 in. ) to the right of the median line,
should be remembered, and if the left lobe of the liver is to be treated the inci-
sion should be made to the left of the ligament.
Multiple abscesses are started in the liver by conveyance of infection through the
portal vein, as occurs in appendicitis, or by direct extension up the common duct
from the intestine, or from an inflamed gall-bladder or bile-ducts through the hepatic
duct and its ramifications.
Portal Obstruction. — The veins of the portal system have no valves. The
portal vein is formed by the union of the splenic and superior mesenteric veins
and the gastric, pyloric, and cystic veins. The splenic receives the blood from the
spleen, the stomach, and pancreas, the descending colon, sigmoid flexure, and rec-
tum. The superior hemorrhoidal vein drains the rectum and empties into the inferior
mesenteric, which passes into the splenic and finally into the portal vein. The supe-
rior mesenteric vein drains the remainder of the large and small intestine.
In cirrhosis, carcinoma, and occasionally gall-stones, the flow of blood through
the portal vein is interfered with ; hence arise congestions of the various parts which
it drains. In the abdomen ascites is produced ; the distended and varicose veins of
the stomach sometimes rupture, causing haematemesis ; diarrhoea may occur, and
dilatation of the hemorrhoidal veins produces hemorrhoids.
Especially when there also is pressure on the vena cava the superficial and deep
veins of the abdominal wall become enlarged (see page 380). The main anasto-
moses are : ( i ) between the gastric (coronary) vein of the stomach and the oesopha-
geal veins which empty into the vena azygos major; (2) between the epigastrics
(superficial and deep) below and the terminal branch of the internal mammary
above; (3) between the epigastric veins and portal vein through the para-umbilical
vein (caput medusae, page 380); (4) through the thoracico-epigastrica between the
axillary and epigastric (see Fig. 392, page 380) ; (5) between the superior hemor-
rhoidal and the middle hemorrhoidal, emptying into the internal pudic.
GALL-BLADDER AND BILIARY PASSAGES.
The gall-bladder lies in the fissure of the gall-bladder, with its fundus just about
level with the edge of the liver and its body pointing inward, upward, and backward;
its neck, which is S-shaped, is near the right end of the portal fissure. It is 7.5 cm.
(3 in.) long and 2.5 to 3 cm. (i to 1^4^ in.) in diameter. It holds one to one and
a half ounces. Below, it rests on the transverse colon and first part of the duodenum.
It is attached to the liver, but not very strongly, by connective tissue and the
peritoneum. According to Brewer {Annals of Surgery, 1899, vol. xxix, page 723)
one-third to one-fourth of its surface is uncovered by peritoneum : in 5 cases in 100
THE LIVER.
421
it had a distinct mesentery. The tip (fundus) of the gall-bladder lies in contact with
the abdominal wall at the tip of the ninth costal cartilage, where the right linea
semilunaris strikes the costal margin, and just at the outer edge of the rectus muscle,
which is about 7.5 cm. (3 in.) from the median line (Fig. 431).
Hepatic, Cystic, and Common Ducts. — The hepatic duct is formed by the
union of the right and left branches in the portal fissure. It is about 2.5 cm. (i in.)
long and 6 mm. ( y^ in. ) wide. The cystic duct is smaller in diameter than the hepatic
and 3 to 4 cm. (i 14^ to i^ in.) long and joins it as it emerges from the portal fissure.
Both the neck of the gall-bladder and the cystic duct contain constrictions of the
mucous membrane — Robson and Moynihan call them valves — which obstruct the
passage of a probe or stone. Hence gall-stones are frequently found impacted or
lodged in the neck of the gall-bladder or somewhere in the course of the duct. The
cystic artery lies above the duct. The common duct is formed by the union of the
hepatic and cystic ducts at the edge of the portal fissure, and empties into the duo-
denum about the middle of its second portion on its inner wall. It is 7.5 cm. (3 in.)
long and 6 mm. (j^ in.) or more in width. It passes almost directly downward.
Gall-bladder
Cystic duct
Foramen of Winslow
Cut end of duodenum
Kidney
Ampulla of Vater
--- — Hepatic duct
"''^"ir*^
Pancreatic duct
.Opening of the ducts into the
secon d portion of the duodenum
,,^,f?!,^A/A,^"T'^*lf ^'''^'■y passages. The edge of tlie liver has been raised, exposing its under surface; the first
and blood- vessels" antenor surface of the pancreas has been removed, exposing the common bile-duct
inclining a little to the right, between the folds of the lesser omentum, in front of the
foramen of Winslow, behind the first portion of the duodenum, and then between
the pancreas and the inner wall of the second portion of the duodenum. It is, at
this part, in two-thirds of the cases, completely surrounded by pancreatic tissue. ' As
it passes through the duodenum, which it pierces obliquelv, it expands into the
ampulla of Vater and receives the pancreatic duct, or duct of IVirstmg. Above, it
lies direcdy on the portal vein, with the hepatic artery to its left. About half of the
duct, 3 to 4 cm._ (1 14: to 1 1^ in.), is above the duodenum and half behind it.
The hepatic artery passes along the upper edge of the pancreas, to which it
gives branches; it then gives off the superior pyloric to the lesser curvature of the
stomach, the gastroduodenal (see page 403), and finally right and left terminal
branches. The left supplies the left lobe of the liver, the right crosses usually
behind but sometimes in front of the bile-ducts and terminates in the right iobe, after
first giving off the cystic artery. This runs between the cvstic and hepatic ducts and
has superficial branches which ramify on the surface of the gall-bladder and deep
branches which run up the grooves on each side between the gall-bladder and liver.
432 APPLIED ANATOMY.
It is these branches which bleed when the gall-bladder is removed. One of the deep
arteries may be much larger than the other or altogether lacking. Some very fine
branches come directly from the liver.
Lymphatic nodes are found in the portal fissure and accompanying both the
common and cystic ducts. They are especially involved in carcinoma.
The kidney pouch is a name given to the space in front of the right kidnev.
The foramen of Winslow opens into it from the left and the abdominal wall is to its
right. The liver is above and the duodenum and transverse colon below. Liquids
from the lesser peritoneal cavity and bile-passages flow into this hollow, which can be
drained by a tube inserted through a "stab-wound" made through the abdominal
wall just to the outside of the right kidney.
Gall-Stones. — These and carcinoma are the main affections of the biliary pass-
ages. The latter is almost always secondary to pyloric cancer and involves the lymph-
atic nodes ; metastatic deposits may also exist in the liver itself. The diagnosis
between the two affections is sometimes difficult. Gall-stones are most frequent in
the gall-bladder, next in the common duct, and lastly in the hepatic duct. Obstruc-
tive symptoms are not often observed from gall-stones in the hepatic duct alone.
Obstruction of the common duct causes jaundice, but this is rare in obstruction of the
cystic duct ; practically, jaundice is only seen in obstruction of the common duct.
Gall-stones usually form in the gall-bladder and, as the cystic duct is smaller than the
common duct, if a stone gets out of the former it is frequently passed into the intes-
tine. On account of the contracted opening of the common duct into the duodenum,
stones are liable to be retained in the ampulla of Vater. This causes a damming back
of the bile, and the common duct increases to the size of a finger. Very large gall-
stones may cause ulceration into the duodenum or colon or may press on the portal
vein and vena cava, and produce ascites. In operating for gall-stones. Mayo Robson
incised through the middle of the right rectus muscle and prolonged the upper part
along the edge of the ribs to the outer side of the ensiform cartilage. Where more
room was desired Bevan added a transverse cut outward from its lower end. Kocher
made a curved incision 4 cm. (i^ in.) below the edge of the ribs (see page 382).
In order to make the liver project a hard roll is placed beneath the back. To bring
the gall-ducts to the surface the liver is dragged down and its edge turned up over
the upper extremity of the wound. The gall-bladder can be drawn out and this
straightens the curves in the cystic duct. By placing one or two fingers in the fora-
men of Winslow the thumb can palpate the cystic and the common duct until it
disappears behind the duodenum. Gall-stones in the second (retroduodenal) portion
of the duct or in the ampulla of Vater can often be felt through the walls of the duo-
denum. If it is desired to gain access to this portion of the duct, the peritoneum on
the outer side of the second portion of the duodenum, binding it to the posterior
abdominal wall, must be divided. The duodenum is then turned to the left and the
common duct followed down if necessary through the pancreas to the ampulla of Vater.
Stones impacted in the ampulla of Vater can be removed by incising the front of the
second portion of the duodenum and then cutting down on the stone through the
papilla. In some cases it may be impossible to pass a probe down the cystic duct
owing to its being caught by the valve-like folds of the mucous membrane. In
removing the gall-bladder, bleeding will be less if the cystic artery be first clamped.
If this is not possible, then the bleeding will occur from the branches on one or both
sides of the gall-bladder. The peritoneum is to be cut through, not torn. Bleeding
from the liver substance is slight and readily stopped by pressure. In incising the
common duct for calculi the relation of the portal vein behind and the hepatic
artery to the left should be remembered. These can be avoided by cutting down on
the calculus.
THE PANCREAS.
The pancreas is composed of two portions joined at right angles to each other.
Together they measure about 20 cm. (8 in.). It is divided into a head, neck, body,
and tail. The neck is about 2 cm. (^ in.) broad, while the head and body are
each about 3 cm. {i}( in.). The head is about 5 to 6.25 cm. (2 to 2^ in.) long
and lies parallel to the vertebral column on its right side. The body is about 12.5
THE PANXREAS.
423
cm. (5 in. ) long and runs transversely from the first portion of the duodenum across
to the spleen. The flexure joining the head and body constitutes the neck. It is
2.5 cm. (i in.) long. The tail is simply the extremity of the body ; this is omitted
in some descriptions. The body crosses the first lumbar vertebra, while the head
lies on the right side of the second and third (Fig. 432).
Pancreatic Ducts. — The pancreas has two ducts, a main one called the pan-
creatic duct, or duct of Wirsiuig, and an accessory one called the duct of Santorini.
The duct of Wirsung runs nearly the whole length of the gland, and, bending some-
what downward at the neck and joining the common bile-duct at the ampulla of
Vater, pierces the duodenum obliquely and empties in a common orifice on its
mucous surface. It is 3 to 4 mm. ( yi to y^ in. ) in diameter at its termination. The
accessory duct of Santorini comes mainly from the lower portion of the head of the
pancreas and empties separately in the duodenum 2 cm. (^ in. ) above and a little
anterior to the biliary papilla. It communicates with the duct of Wirsung in the
substance of the pancreas.
Relations. — Posteriorly, the head lies on the vena cava while the body crosses
the aorta, venal vessels, suprarenal gland, and left kidney. Anteriorly, it is covered
with peritoneum and on it lies the stomach ; inferiorly, is the attachment of the trans-
Portal vein
Hepatic artery
Coeliac axis
Gastric artery
Gastroduodenal
artery
Spleen
Splenic artery
Descending colon
Pancreas
Superior mesenteric
vessels
Common bile-ductf^
Second portion
of duodenum
riepatic flexure
of colon
Pig. 432. — The pancreas and spleen.
verse mesocolon, beneath which comes the duodenojejunal flexure. Immediately to
the right of this flexure and between it and the head of the pancreas issue the superior
mesenteric vessels. At the extreme left is the splenic flexure of the colon.
Pancreatic Cyst and Abscesses. — The pancreas is the subject of inflam-
mation (hemorrhagic) which may cause necrosis and abscess; it also is affected with
cysts and new growths. Calculus may also occur.
Suppuration may produce a sub-diaphragmatic abscess or perforate the dia-
phragm and form an empyema. In cases of abscess protruding anteriorly, instead
of opening through the peritoneum in front, the pus may be evacuated through a
posterior incision made in the right or left costovertebral angle. If the pus has been
evacuated through an anterior incision the finger may be introduced into the abscess
cavity and used as a guide for a posterior incision.
Pancreatic growths tend to project forward in one of three general directions —
viz. : (i) between the liver above and the stomach below; (2) between the stoir.ach
above and the transverse colon below; (3) below the transverse colon. The second
is the most frequent. When the -enlargement comes forward opposite the attach-
ment of the transverse mesocolon it may grow between the layers of the mesocolon
and push the transverse colon in front of it instead of going below or above it. After
the cyst has been evacuated it may be stitched to the edges of the incision anteriorly
and a counter opening made posteriorly on the left side beneath the twelfth rib.
424 '^^^^H APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE SPLEEN.
The spleen lies high up in the left posterior corner of the abdomen in contact
with the diaphragm. It follows the direction of the tenth rib, being covered by the
ninth, tenth, and eleventh ribs and extending from a point 4.5 to 5 cm. (i J^ to 2 in.)
external to the median line posteriorly to the midaxillary line anteriorly. Its upper
end is opposite the tenth dorsal vertebra, or ninth spine (see Fig. 433).
Relations. — It has four surfaces: a posterior one, which lies in contact with
the diaphragm; an anterior one toward the stomach; an inferior small one, resting
on the splenic flexure of the colon; and an internal one, in contact with the left
kidney at its upper anterior portion. The hilum is on its anterior or gastric surface
and posterior to it is a depression in which is lodged the tail of the pancreas.
Ligaments. — The spleen is covered with peritoneum except at the hilum,
which is on its anterior surface ; here two ligaments are given off — a posterior one. the
lie?iorenal, going from the spleen to the kidney and containing the blood-vessels,
and an anterior one, \k\Q. g astro sple^iic (also called omentum) going to the stomach.
The lienophrenic ligament (suspensory ligametd) runs from the left crus of the
diaphragm to the upper inner edge of the spleen and blends with the two former
ligaments. These three ligaments form a pedicle from which the spleen swings, and
it is by their stretching that the spleen at times descends and is detected below
the edge of the ribs. A fourth ligament, the phre^iocolic (costocoh'c) runs from the
diaphragm opposite the tenth and eleventh ribs to the splenic flexure of the colon.
The upper surface of the colon is concave, forming a fossa (splenic fossa) in which
the spleen rests and which, of course, aids in supporting it.
Splenic Enlargement. — The spleen is enlarged in many diseases, such as
malaria, leukaemia, typhoid fever, and others. This enlargement is to be detected by
palpation and percussion. The normal spleen lies under the ribs, therefore it can be
palpated only when it enlarges and projects beyond the costal margin or when its
pedicle (ligaments) becomes stretched and allows it to wander down. Normal
percussion dulness extends anteriorly to the midaxillary line ; posteriorly it merges
into the kidney dulness and cannot be limited. From above down the dulness would
be from the ninth to the eleventh rib in the posterior axillary line.
'Wounds of the Spleen. — -The upper portion of the spleen rises as high as
the tenth dorsal vertebra or ninth spine ; as the lung posteriorly descends at least one
vertebra lower and the pleura still another lower, it follows that a penetrating wound
entering the ninth costal interspace in the line of the angle of the scapula would
wound first the pleura, then the lung, then the diaphragm, then the spleen, and
finally the stomach. If it entered one interspace below — the tenth — it would open
the pleural cavity but would probably escape the edge of the lung.
THE KIDNEYS.
The kidneys when normal are about 12 cm. {^% in.) long, 6 cm. (^2% in.)
broad and 3 cm. ( i ^ in. ) thick. The right is the thicker and the left a little the
longer.
They lie in the lumbar regions under the lower portion of the thoracic wall.
Their upper ends are nearer the midline than the lower and the inner edges point
forward and inward, thus one surface is antero-external and the other postero-
internal.
Relations to the Surface. — Viewed posteriorly the right kidney has its upper
edge opposite the eleventh dorsal spine and the lower edge of the eleventh rib.
Its lower edge is opposite the upper edges of the third lumbar spine and vertebral
body and about 4 cm. (i^ in.) above the highest point of the crest of the ileum,
which is opposite the fourth spine (Fig. 433). The left kidney is usually 1.25 cm.
{]4. in. ) higher, but being a little longer than th^ right, its lower limit may not be
quite that much higher. The kidney is slightly lower in women and children than
in men. The inner border reaches 10 cm. (4 in.) and the hilum 4 to 5 cm. (i}4 to
2 in. ) from the median line, the latter being in front of the interval between the first
THE KIDNEYS.
425
and second lumbar spines (H. J. Stiles). Viewed anteriorly, the lower edge of the
right kidney is 2.5 cm. (i in.) above a transverse line through the umbilicus, the
left being a little higher. The upper edge is opposite approximately the tip of the
ensiform cartilage. The upper end approaches within 3 cm. (i}( in.) of the median
line. About two-thirds of the kidney lies to the inner side and one-third to the
outer of a line drawn longitudinally through the middle of Poupart's ligament. The
hilum would be 4 to 5 cm. ( i ^ to 2 in. ) out from the middle of a line joining the
upper extremities of the two semilunar lines.
Deep Relations. — The posterior surface at its upper portion rests on the
diaphragm; beneath, its lower portion, from within out, rests on the psoas, quadratus
lumborum, and transversalis muscles. Between the kidney and the quadratus lum-
borum run the last thoracic, the iliohypogastric, and the ilio-inguinal nerves. The
transversalis fascia as it lea\'es the body of the first lumbar vertebra arches over the
psoas muscle, forming the internal arcuate ligament, and is attached to the trans-
Colon
Quadratus lumborum
Fig. 433. — Posterior view, showing the relations of the spleen and kidneys.
verse process of the first lumbar vertebra. It then proceeds out over the quadratus
lumborum to be attached to the outer portion of the twelfth rib, forming the external
arcuate ligament. It then blends with the tendon or fascia, giving origin to the
internal oblique and trans\'ersalis muscles. Between the fibres of the diaphragm
which arise from the external arcuate ligament — over the quadratus lumborum
muscle — and the fibres arising from the twelfth rib, a triangular space exists with its
base downward. It is called the hiatus and if marked allows the pleura and the
kidney to come in contact without any muscular fibres intervening. This favors the
passage of pus from the region of the kidney into the pleural cavity and lung.
The anterior surface relations differ on the two sides. On the right side above
is the suprarenal gland, then a large area where it is in contact with the liver, then
below to the inner side the descending or second part of the duodenum, and below
and to the outer side the hepatic flexure of the colon. On the left side above and
to the inner side is the left suprarenal gland. Beneath it is a small area for the stom-
ach, and still lower a larger one for the left end of the pancreas. On the outer
426
APPLIED ANATOMY.
lenic
portion of the anterior surface is an area for the spleen and below one for th
fiexure of the colon and jejunum.
The hilum is the name given to the notch in the inner edge of the kidney. It
contains t\\& pelvis and commencement of the ureter and the renal vessels and nerves.
The si?iiis is the cavity of the kidney. The edges of the pelvis are attached to the
borders, or rim, of the hilum.
Renal Vessels. — The renal arteries come off opposite the first lumbar verte-
bra. The right one, a little the longer and higher, passes out beneath the vena
cava, head of the pancreas, and second portion of the duodenum. The left one
passes behind the pancreas. On reaching the kidney they break into three or four
(sometimes more) branches. One of these branches usually proceeds down and
enters the kidney on the lower posterior side of the pelvis. The other branches
enter anteriorly. The renal vein on leaving the kidney is formed by several branches
Anterior view
View of inner edge
Fig. 434. — The right kidney, showing the relations of the pelvis and blood-vessels.
which pass either in front or posterior to the arterial branches. Greig Smith held
("Abdominal Surgery," vol. ii., p. 799) that the veins were posterior to the
arteries. The pelvis is posterior; hence in searching for stone if it is desired to open
the pelvis of the kidney it should be incised posteriorly. The usually accepted order
is, pelvis posterior, then the arteries, and lastly the veins most anterior (Fig. 434).
The blood-vessels of the anterior portion pass out toward the cortex and on passing
its middle encroach a little on the posterior side. For this reason incisions through
the kidney substance are made on its convex border about i cm. (f in.) posterior
to its middle (Fig. 435).
Renal Capsules. — There are two capsules of the kidney — a fibrous one and a
fatty one. The fibrous capsule covers the outside of the kidney and is prolonged into
the hilum and lines the sinus. It can be stripped from the kidney, but when the
organ is diseased it brings small portions of the kidney substance with it. T\\q fatty
capsule surrounds the kidney, being more abundant around its edges and not so
THE KIDXEYS.
427
much on its anterior and posterior surfaces. The kidney hes comparatively loose
in this fatty capsule, slipping backward and forward. The fatty capsule is continuous
below with the subperitoneal fat.
Perirenal Fascia of Gerota. — Covering the fatty capsule is the perirenal
fascia, composed of two layers — anterior and posterior. The anterior is continuous
with that of the opposite side over the vertebral column. It proceeds outward over
the vessels, ureter, and kidney, and fatty capsule, blending at the outer and upper
border with the posterior layer ; below, it fades away in the subperitoneal tissue of
the iliac fossa. The posterior layer passes inward behind the kidney from its outer
and upper borders, to be attached to the sides of the vertebral column. Above, these
layers are attached to the diaphragm ; below, they are continuous with the subperi-
toneal tissue of the iliac fossa. There is also some perirenal fat behind the perirenal
fascia, between it and the muscles beneath (Fig. 436).
Displacement of the Kidneys. — The kidney is held in place by the attach-
ment to the diaphragm of the perirenal fascia, by its vessels, peritoneum, ureter, and
Point of incision
Posterior surface
Anterior surface
Fig. 435. — Transverse section of the kidney. The renal artery is seen dividing into anterior and posterior branches.
Incisions into the organ are to be made as indicated on the posterior surface just back of the prominent edge.
by intra-abdominal pressure. Normally it cannot be felt beneath the edge of
the ribs. It, however, readily becomes displaced and slides down so as to be felt
below the costal margin; it is then called a movable kidney. If the displacement
becomes more marked it may descend into the iliac fossa or even toward the median
line; then it is called 2i floating or wanderi^ig kidney. In some instances it slides
around without pushing the peritoneum markedly forward, hence it then has no
mesentery or pedicle. In other cases it stretches the peritoneum in front of it and
has sufificient of a mesentery to allow it to come in contact with the anterior
abdominal wall.
Tumors. — As the kidney enlarges it does so in a forward and downward direc-
tion. As it comes forward it may go to the outer side of the colon, to its inner side,
or carry the colon directly in front of it. Greig Smith ("Abdominal Surgery,"
p. 868) states that on the right side the ascending colon passes over the front and to
the inner side of the growth, while on the left side the descending colon passes to the
front and a little to the outer side. Renal tumors may be mistaken for tumors oi
428
APPLIED ANATOMY.
the liver and gall-bladder, spleen, and ovaries. A longitudinal coil of resonant intes-
tine passing over the tumor is prima facie evidence of its being renal in character.
Renal growths appear as more or less spherical tumors which can in some cases be
palpated around their entire circumference. If one portion only can be felt, the
remainder leads towards the loin ; in gall-bladder tumors (cysts) the base of the
growth leads toward the liver and is in contact with the abdominal wall, overlying
the colon and small intestine. In splenic tumors a notch can sometimes be felt and
the growth makes its appearance from above, down under the left costal margin.
Abscesses. — The kidney is frequently involved in suppurative affections.
Calculi and tuberculous diseases are of that nature, and pyogenic infection may
creep up from the bladder producing pyelonephritis, or surgical kidney. The pus
may be extrarenal, involving the adipose capsule and perirenal fascia ; it commonly
points in the loin. As this fascia is open below and to the inner side the pus may
descend to the iliac fossa or follow inside the sheath of the psoas muscle beneath
Poupart's ligament. It may work its way up along the psoas under the ligamentum
XII rib
Diaphragm
Liver
Right
suprarenal
body
Iliac fascia
Iliacus
muscle
Fig. 436. — Diagrammatic longitudinal section, showing relations of supporting tissue to right kidney. (Gerota.)
arcuatum internum and
hiatus and so reach the
surface of the liver and
into the duodenum or
lumbar fascia to appear
muscles in the iliocostal
empty through the lung, or perforate the diaphragm at the
lung (page 425). We have seen it work along the under
point anteriorly at the costal margin. It may also rupture
colon. Sometimes it goes posteriorly and perforates the
at the outer edge of the latissimus dorsi and erector spinae
space, or at the triangle of Petit (page 394).
OPERATIONS ON THE KIDNEY.
Access to the kidney is demanded for fixing it in place when movable, for the
removal of calculus, for the treatment of cystic conditions, abscesses, growths, and
even for the entire removal of the organ, which sometimes is greatly enlarged.
Incision. — Lumbar incisions have already been discussed (see page 395).
There are three things to be borne in mind, viz. : the direction of the muscular fibres
and position of the muscles, the position of the nerves, and, last, the pleura.
A longitudinal incision along the outer edge of the erector spinae muscle is large
enough to remove a normal-sized kidney, but large kidneys or growths require an
oblique incision. This latter begins 2 cm. ( ^ in. ) below the last rib, at the edge of
THE KIDNEYS. 429
the erector spinae muscle and passes downward and forward almost or quite parallel
to the twelfth rib, toward the anterior extremity of the crest of the ilium. Mayo
Robson (^Lancet, May 14, 1898) made an incision from the inner edge of the anterior
superior spine of the ilium to the tip of the last rib. The fibres of the external
oblique were then split and retracted. Then the fibres of the internal oblique and
transversalis were split, and retracted in the opposite direction. For this method it
is claimed that no muscles, nerves, or vessels are divided, and the patient can be
operated on while lying on the back. (Consult the Lumbar Muscles, page 352 ;
Fascia, page 393; and Incisions, page 395).
Nerves. — The nerves to be avoided in making lumbar incisions are the last
thoracic, the iliohypogastric, and the ilio-inguinal. The last thoracic nerve, ac-
companied by the first lumbar artery, runs parallel to the last rib a short distance
below — 1.25 cm. (5^ in.) — and thence pursues a direct course toward a midpoint
between the umbilicus and top of the pubes. It emerges from beneath the external
arcuate ligament about the middle of the kidney, crossing the quadratus lumborum,
pierces the tendon of the transversalis muscle and runs between it and the internal
oblique to pierce the sheath of the rectus and be distributed to the skin midway
between the umbilicus and top of pubes and supply the pyramidalis muscle. This
portion of the nerve will be injured only if the incision is carried up to the twelfth
rib. When it is about opposite the tip of the eleventh rib it gives off a lateral (or
iliac) branch which goes downward and slightly forward to pierce the internal and
external oblique muscles above the crest of the ilium, about 5 cm. (2 in.) posterior
to the anterior superior spine. This branch will be cut in making the incision, — but
it is only a sensory nerve, not a motor.
The iliohypogastric and ilio-inguinal nerves, from the first lumbar, come out
together from beneath the psoas muscle opposite the lower third of the kidney,
cross the quadratus lumborum, and pass downward and forward toward the crest of
the ilium a little in front of its middle. The iliohypogastric is above the ilio-inguinal,
and, piercing the transversalis muscle, divides into the hypogastric and iliac branches.
The former pierces the external oblique 2.5 cm. (i in.) above and a Httle to the
outer side of the external inguinal ring. The latter goes over the crest of the ilium
to the gluteal region. The ilio-inguinal pierces the transversalis and enters the
inguinal canal to go to the genitals and anterior inner portion of the thigh.
These nerves will probably be seen in making the longitudinal incision, toward
its upper portion, — they should be pulled aside. In the oblique incision they will be
posterior and not visible.
Pleura. — The pleura reaches the lower border of the posterior portion of the
twelfth rib; it crosses the rib posterior to its middle, if the rib is of normal length, to
pass to the eleventh rib. Therefore, to avoid the pleura the incision must not touch
the twelfth rib posterior to its middle. One must not forget that the ribs are irregular
in number and especially in length. It is necessary to identify the twelfth rib, this
may be extremely difficult, and unless the greatest care is used a mistake is liable to
occur. If the eleventh rib is mistaken for the twelfth the pleura comes so much
farther forward that it is almost certain to be wounded, as has once occurred, produc-
ing a fatal result. The ribs may be counted down from the second at the angle of
the sternum (Ludwig), remembering the possibility of there being, as we have seen,
fourteen ribs on a side, or thirteen, or only eleven. The twelfth rib is frequently so
short as to be completely concealed by the muscles; in that case only one floating rib
would be seen.
If it is necessary to excise a rib, begin at its anterior extremity, where it is not
in contact with the pleura, and scrape off the periosteum from before backward.
Delivering the Kidney. — After getting through the abdominal wall one
comes down on the fat surrounding the kidney and its capsules. The kidney is to
be felt inward and backward toward the spine. Having been located by touch the
perirenal fascia and the fatty capsule are to be opened and the kidney pushed and
lifted into the wound. Do not go anterior, because there the colon or peritoneum
may bulge forward. Once freed from its fatty capsule the normal-sized kidney is
sufficiently movable to be lifted clear out of the wound onto the surface. If it is too
large the wound must be enlarged downward. Incisions into the kidney substance
430
APPLIED ANATOMY.
should be made only when the organ is freely accessible, preferably when out on the
surface, and in the manner described on page 426. The frequent existence of an
additional artery supplying the lower (or other) portion of the kidney should be
borne in mind. If it is desired to open the pelvis it should be sought on the poste-
rior surface, because the veins and arteries are in front of it.
The Suprarenal Glands. — The right gland is more on the upper anterior
surface of the kidney, while the left is more on the upper inner surface above the
hilum. The gland rests on the adipose capsule and is not attached to the kidney,
so that when the fatty capsule is stripped off in removal of the kidney the supra-
renal gland is left behind. They lie opposite the eleventh and twelfth dorsal ver-
tebrae and are 5 to 6 cm. (2 to 25^ in.) apart. A needle thrust into the eleventh
interspace close to the spine would penetrate the suprarenal. The right one lies
behind the foramen of Winslow.
Ureter, and Renal Pelvis. — The pelvis of the kidney is the upper expanded
end of the ureter. It is not simply funnel-shaped, but it branches like a tree. The
lower portion joining the ureter is called the common pelvis, and this divides into
upper constriction
Inferior vena cava
Iliohypogastric and ilio-inguinal nerves
Right common iliac artery
External cutaneous nerve
Genitocrural nerve
„- Middle constriction
-—External iliac artery
Internal iliac artery
Vas deferens
Opening into bladder, lower
constriction
Fig. 437. — The ureter, showing its course and relations.
the superior and inferior pelves; these latter divide into eight or nine calyces which
embrace the apices of the pyramids. The deposition of salts in the pelvis causes
the formation of renal calculi, which are of the shape of the pelvis in which they
occur. The arteries and veins which enter the kidney do so on the anterior surface
of the pelvis; hence the incision for the removal of calculi which is sometimes made
in the pelvis itself instead of through the kidney substance, is made posteriorly
instead of anteriorly. In making the incision care is to be taken to avoid any un-
usual veins or arteries which may cross the pelvis, especially at its lower portion.
In front of the pelvis of the right kidney is the duodenum, and in front of the
left is the pancreas.
The ureters are 25 cm. (10 in.) long when in the body, and 27.5 to 32.5
cm. (11 to 13 in) long when removed from the body (A. Francis Dixon>
THE KIDNEYS. 431
"Cunningham's Anatomy"). The left ureter is a Httle the longer because the left
kidney is the higher. They are flattened tubes with a lumen of 3 mm. (^ in.)
and possess muscular and fibrous walls. The contraction of the marked muscular
walls explains the intensity of renal colic. The back-flow of urine from the bladder
in diseased conditions may distend the ureters until they approach in size the small
intestine. Course. — The ureter is in two parts, an abdominal, extending to the brim
of the pelvis, and a pelvic part, which is about 2. 5 cm. ( i in. ) longer than the
abdominal. The abdominal portion extends from 4 cm. ( i ^ in. ) to the outside of
the median line opposite the second lumbar vertebra to 3 cm. ( i ^ in. ) outside of the
median line on a line joining the anterior superior spines of the ilia. It descends
on the psoas muscle almost parallel to the median line but inclining a little inward
and crosses the brim of the pelvis at the bifurcation of the common iliac artery (the
right being sometimes a little lower). It will be observed that at this point the
right ureter lies immediately to the inner side of the base of the appendix. There
are three narrowed parts; the first or superior isthmus is 7 cm. (2^ in.) below the
hilum, where the ureter turns forward on the psoas muscle; the second or inferior
isthmus is at the pelvic brim; and the third is where it enters the bladder. Calculi
may lodge at any of these points. If this occurs at the brim in the right ureter the
case may be mistaken for one of appendicitis, for the location of the two affections
would be almost identical. The abdominal ureter does not possess as distinct a
sheath as does the pelvic ureter. It is stuck, however, by fibrous tissue to the peri-
toneum, so that when the latter is raised it comes up with it. The ureters are
crossed about their middle and accompanied by the spermatic or ovarian vessels.
Just below the middle of the abdominal portion of the ureters the genitocrural nerve
emerges from the psoas muscle and passes beneath the ureters from within out.
This explains the genital pain in cases of calculi.
Operations. — The abdominal portion of the ureter can be reached for operative
purposes by prolonging the oblique incision used in kidney procedures downward.
It should pass about 2. 5 cm. ( i in. ) in front of the anterior spine and the same distance
above Poupart's ligament. To find the ureter, Frederick C. Herrick advises carrying
the finger to the bifurcation of the common iliac artery and then turning it up against
the under surface of the peritoneum where, closely adherent to the peritoneum and
covered by some of its reflected fibres, will be found the ureter. After cutting
these fibres, traction on the ureter will cause it to stand out as a ridge extending to
the base of the bladder. Access to the ureter through the abdominal cavity is not
satisfactory because of the presence of the duodenum and, when distended, the
ascending colon on the right side and the sigmoid and distended descending colon
on the left. The surest way of recognizing the ureter in operations is to follow it
downward from the hilum of the kidney or to have it contain an ureteral catheter
introduced upward into it from the bladder.
The ureter (with the kidney) is most often excised for tuberculous disease; there-
fore, instead of its ha\ing its normal size of 5 mm. (i in. ) when distended, its diam-
eter may be increased to 12 mm. or 18 mm. {yi to % in.). Excision has been
most often done in women, as in them the pelvic portion is much more accessible.
It can be reached through an incision in the anterior vaginal wall at its upper portion
instead of using an oblique incision through the abdominal muscles. Konig advised
a transverse incision between the lower edge of the ribs and the crest of the ilium.
Bovee {Journal of Am. Med. Assoc., Oct. 23, 1909) gives the following technic:
The cervix uteri is to be drawn downward with a volselluin. On the anterior vaginal
wall, at the uterovesical juncture, a small dimple will be seen. From the outer side
of this dimple an incision from one to one and a half inches in length is made down-
ward and outward. By careful blunt dissection the ureter can be exposed, brought
down with a hook, and traction made to liberate it as it passes through the broad
ligament. Its lower end may then be ligated and divided. At this stage of the
operation the pelvic portion of the ureter may be resected or not as desired. Then
a transverse incision, four inches or longer, is made through the extraperitoneal
portion of the abdominal wall, opposite the lower pole of the kidney (Konig); its
inner end need not go beyond the semilunar line. Through this wound the kidney
is liberated and brought out and the ureter separated by gentle traction and freeing
with the fingers.
43-
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE PELVIS.
The pelvis is composed of the two innominate bones, the sacrum, and the coccyx.
It is constructed with a view to connecting the lower extremities with the trunk, to
support the weight of the trunk and to promote locomotion, to act as a receptacle
and protector of the pelvic viscera and to fulfil the function of parturition.
In infancy locomotion and parturition are in abeyance, hence the pelvis is un-
Quadratus lumborum
Erector spinae
Latissimus dorsi
Transversalis
Obliquus intemus
Obliquus extemus
Iliacus
Anterior superior spine
Sartorius
Anterior inferior spine
Rectus femoris
Pyriformus
Acetabulum
Iliopectineal line
Pectineus
Obturator externus'
Adductor magnus
- Levator am
Pyramidalis
Crest of pubis
Rectus abdominis
Spine of pubis
Adductor longus
Adductor brevis
Gracilis
Fig. 438. — The male pelvis, front view.
developed, the bladder and uterus are almost entirely in the abdomen, and the
rectum is almost straight. As the child begins to use its lower limbs for locomotion
the pelvis increases progressively with the growth of the lower extremities, and with
the advent of puberty its development is completed. The structure of the pelvis in
Quadratus lumborum Latissimus dorsi
Gluteus medius'
Gluteus maximus ,
Gluteus minimus
Tensor fascia femoris
Erector spinse
Reflected tendon of rectus
Gluteus maximus
Gemelli
Semi membranosus
Biceps and semitendinosus
Obturator internus
Posterior superior spine
terior inferior spine
Spine cf ischium
Tuberosity of ischium
Levator ani
Fig. 439- — The male pelvis, back view.
relation to the function of locomotion will be considered later in connection with the
pelvic girdle and lower extremity; here we will consider it in relation to the pelvic
viscera and their functions.
That part of the pelvis above the iliopectineal line has been called the false
pelvis, while that below is the true pelvis. The inlet of the pelvis is formed anteriorly
by the crest and spine of the pubes, the iliopectineal lines on the sides, and the base
THE PELVIS.
433
of the sacrum with its promontory posteriorly. The outlet is formed by the pubic
arch anteriorly with the symphysis in the middle, the rami of the pubes and ischia
on the sides, and the great sacrosciatic ligaments and coccyx posteriorly. The vis-
cera above the inlet are abdominal, those below are pelvic. When the body is ver-
tical the inlet forms an angle of 60 degrees with the horizon, and the promontory
of the sacrum is 9 to 10 cm. (3^ to 4 in.) above the upper edge of the symphysis.
The male pelvis is fashioned preeminently for locomotion : it is both heavier
and rougher ; the false pelvis is broad and shallow, while the true pelvis is deep and
narrow and its capacity is less. The inlet
is heart-shaped, the tuberosities closer to-
gether, and the pubic arch narrower. The
obturator foramen is oval (see Figs. 438
and 439).
The Female Pelvis. — In addition
to the functions common to the two sexes
the female has that of child-bearing. To
fulfil this the female pelvis is different from
that of the male. It is smoother, its bony
prominences not being so marked (see Fig.
440). The extreme width of the pelvis
does not differ much in the two sexes, some
authorities giving them as of equal size and
some stating that the female is slightly nar-
rower. Its cavity is larger and shallower.
The symphysis pubis is narrower and the
sacrum is shorter and less curved. The
acetabula are set wider apart as are also the
tuberosities. This causes the thyroid fora-
men to be triangular in the female while it
has a long diameter parallel with the long
axis of the body in the male. It also causes
the subpubic angle to be greater in the
female, forming an angle of about 90 de-
grees as against 65 degrees to 70 degrees in
the male. The inlet of the female pelvis is
more oval and not so heart-shaped. The
cavity is largest at a level between the second and third sacral vertebrae posteriorly
and the middle of the symphysis anteriorly. It is smallest between the sacrococcygeal
articulation behind and the lower third of the symphysis in front, and the spines of
the ischia on the sides. There are three diameters of the pelvis used in obstetrics.
Dwight, in "Piersol's Anatomy," gives them as follows :
Superior view, inlet.
Inferior view, outlet.
Fig. 440. — The female pelvis, superior and inferior
views, with the diameters of the inlet and outlet.
'
Inlet,
cm. (in.)
Male.
Cavity,
cm. (in.)
Outlet,
cm. (in.)
Inlet,
cm. (in.)
Female.
Cavity,
cm. (in.)
Outlet,
cm. (in.)
Anteroposterior
Transverse . .
Oblique . . .
10.25 (4)
12.75(5)
ii-5(4>^)
120(4^)
II-5 {A'A)
8.25 (3X)
9-00 (3>4)
10.25 (4)
10.25(4)
13-25 (5J<)
12.75(5)
12.75 (5)
12.75 (5)
13-25 (5X)
11.5(4^)
12.0(4^)
11-5 (4>^)
Sacro-iliac Articulation. — The sacrum is wider in front than behind and
larger above than below. This causes it to be wedged between the two ilia where it
is firmly held by the sacro-iliac ligaments, the irregularity of the joint surfaces and
the thinness of the cartilaginous layer. A small amount of movement is possible in
most cases : it takes place around a transverse axis about opposite to the second sacral
foramina. If relaxation of the ligaments occurs through pregnancy, osteo-arthritis
or the stress of strains due to occupation, etc. , symptoms of looseness and discomfort
appear which demand relief. Flexion produces pain. Treatment consists in fixing
the joints by firm belts around the pelvis or applying a low plaster of Paris jacket or
spinal corset or brace which both compresses the pelvis and fixes the lumbar spine
and prevents movements in both antero-posterior and lateral directions.
28
434
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The cavity of the pelvis is narrowed somewhat by the soft parts on its sides.
The blood-vessels, nerves, and obturator muscles are placed laterally and so usually
escape injury. In pregnancy the venous flow is most often interfered with. The
first evidence of this is the dusky hue of the vagina; hemorrhoids and varicosities of
the veins of the external genitals and lower extremities are common. The rectum
and bladder being placed more anteroposteriorly, interference with their functions is
frequent. The peculiarities of the female pelvis are evident from birth and are not
solely acquired with age.
Pelvic \A^alls. — On looking laterally at the inside of the pelvis, the iliopecti-
neal line is seen separating the abdominal from the pelvic portion. On the iliac or
abdominal portion lie the iliacus and psoas muscles. Below the iliopectineal line
anteriorly is the body of the pubis with the symphysis in the median line. The
descending ramus of the pubis passes down to be continuous with the ramus of the
ischium to the tuberosity. A short distance above the tuberosity is the spine of the
ischium. Posteriorly are the five vertebrae of the sacrum and the four of the coccyx.
Passing upward from the tuberosity of the ischium to the sacrum is the great sacro-
sciatic ligaine7it (ligamenhmi sacrotuberosuni) ; passing backward from the spine of
the ischium to the sacrum and coccyx is the lesser sacrosciatic ligament (ligameyitiim
sacrospinosum) . The large opening above the lesser sacrosciatic ligament is \k\Q. great
Iliac fossa and iliac muscle
Tensor fasciae femoris
Anterior superior spine
and sartorius muscle
Anterior inferior spine
and rectus femoris muscle
Iliopectineal line
Spine of pubis
Crest of pubis
Symphysis
Levator ani muscle
Transverse perineal muscle
Obturator intemus
Coccygeus
Fig. 441. — View of the pelvis from the inside
sacrosciatic foramen. Through it pass the pyriformis muscle, with the gluteal vessels
and superior gluteal nerve above, and, below, the sciatic vessels and nerves, tlie
internal pudic vessels and nerve, the inferior gluteal nerve, and the nerves to the
obturator internus and quadratus femoris. The smaller opening below the lesser
sacrosciatic ligament is the lesser sacrosciatic foramen, through which passes the
tendon of the obturator internus, the nerve to it, and the internal pudic vessels and
nerve. In front of these two foramina is a third, the obturator. It is closed by a
membrane except at its upper inner portion, which gives exit to the obturator vessels
and nerve. Attached to the inner surface of this membrane is the origin of the
obturator internus muscle and to its outer surface the obturator externus (Fig. 441).
Pelvic Floor. — The pelvic outlet is closed by two muscles, the levator ani and
coccygeus. These on each side constitute the pelvic floor. The coccygeus is
a comparatively small muscle passing from the spine of the ischium to the coccyx.
The levator ani is the main muscle which supports and retains the pelvic and
abdominal viscera in their normal positions. It arises from the " white line"^ — which
is a thickening of the pelvic fascia extending from the posterior surface of the pubes
in front to the spine of the ischium behind — and descends to be attached to the
coccyx posteriorly, then around the lower portion of the rectum just above the exter-
nal sphincter and, farther front, surrounds the vagina of the female or the prostate
gland in the male. The part surrounding the prostate has been called the levator
THE PELVIS.
435
prostata. The anterior edge of the IcA-ator ani muscle reaches to the central tendon
of the perineum (Fig. 442).
Pelvic Herniae. — Hernial protrusions of the pelvic contents may occur through
the upper portion of the obturator membrane, following the vessels and nerve. This
is called an obtjirator hernia. The sac is usually to the medial or inner side of the
vessels and nerve. It makes its appearance in Scarpa's triangle and is covered by
the pectineus muscle. Death has frequently occurred in these cases from strangula-
tion. Sciatic hernia is the name given to those forms in which the intestine escapes
through the great sciatic notch, passing just above or just below the pyriformis
muscle. Perineal hernics are those which work their way downward in other places.
Thus the sac may push down between the rectum and bladder and bulge in the
perineum. It may pass between the coccygeus and levator ani muscles or between
the fibres of the latter and bulge into the ischiorectal fossa or forward into the labium
of the female.
Prolapse. — The rectum and vagina as they pierce the pelvic floor may pro-
lapse or protrude through the anus or vulva. Prolapse of the rectum is a common
Pvriformis
Coccygeus muscle
Spine of ischium
Cut edge of levator ani in
middle line
Levator ani muscle
Iliopectineal line
Obturator intemus
Obturator foramen
White line
Bladder
Uterus
Fig. 442. — Levator ani muscle and interior of pelvis; the bladder, uterus and vagina, and rectum have been
loosened and turned down.
affection and if marked may drag down the peritoneum so that some coils of small
intestine may be around the prolapsed part. In childbirth the pelvic outlet is fre-
quently torn and the vagina prolapses and may drag the uterus down with it, or, the
support being lost, the uterus descends and drags the vagina with it and everts it.
The vaginal outlet, if much rela.xed, allows the rectum to bulge downward and for-
ward, forming a rectocele, or the bladder may bulge downward and backward, forming
a cystocele (see Fig. 466, page 463).
The Pelvic Fasciae. — As the iliac fascia passes over the brim of the pelvis it
covers the internal obturator muscle on the walls of the pelvis, hence it is called
the obturator fascia. From the upper posterior surface of the arch of the pubes
anteriorly to the spine of the ischium posteriorly this obturator fascia is thickened,
forming the '' white line'' to give origin to the levator ani muscle. At the white
line the obturator fascia gives ofl a visceral layer — the rectovesical fascia — which
covers the inner or upper surface of the levator ani, then a second layer, the anal
fascia, covering the under or outer surface of the levator ani muscle, while the
obturator fascia itself is continued down on the obturator internus muscle to form
APPLIED ANATOMY.
the outer wall of the ischiorectal space. The rectovesical fascia passes downward
and inward over the levator ani muscle to cover the pyriformis and coccygeus
muscles behind, then the rectum, vagina, and bladder in front. In the male it
covers the prostate gland, forming its sheath, and at its anterior portion forms the
deep or posterior layer of the triangular ligament of the perineum. This pelvic
fascia acts as a barrier between the abdominal and pelvic cavities above and the
perineal region below. Pus originating above it tends to form an abscess which
rises toward the abdominal cavity, and pus originating below it tends to work toward
the surface in the perineum.
Iliac Vessels. — The iliac arteries commence at the bifurcation of the aorta on
the left side of the disk between the third and fourth lumbar vertebrae. This is 2 cm.
(^ in. ) below and to the left of the umbilicus and on a level with a line joining the
highest points of the iliac crests. They run in a line drawn from this point to mid-
way between the anterior superior spine of the ilium and the symphysis pubis. This
is to the inner side of the middle of Poupart's ligament. They are about 15 cm.
(6 in.) in length, the upper third, 5 cm. (2 in.), being the common iliac and the
lower two-thirds, 10 cm. (4 in.), being the external iliac arteries. The internal
^^H^F~.
Aponeurosis of the external oblique
Internal oblique and
transversalis muscles
— External iliac artery
External iliac vein
Deep epigastric artery
Deep epigastric vein
Fig. 443. — Ligation of the external iliac artery.
iliac comes off opposite the sacro-iliac joint on or a little above a line joining the
anterior superior spines. The right common iliac artery is a litde the longer because
it comes from the left side of the vertebral column, and the left common iliac vein is
the longer because it goes to the right side. The left iliac veins lie to the inner side
of the left iliac arteries in their entire course. The tight iliac vein starts at the
inner side of the right external iliac artery and then passes behind it to reach the
vena cava on the right side of the vertebral column. The ureters cross the iliac
arteries at their bifurcation, and in the female are accompanied by the ovarian arteries
and veins. The genitocrural nerve passes downward on the external iliac artery and
goes with it beneath Poupart's ligament. Lymphatic nodes accompany the iliac
vessels and drain the lower extremity, the abdomen below the umbilicus and the
pelvic viscera.
Ligation of the Iliac Arteries. — The iliac arteries can be reached for liga-
tion through an incision 2 cm. above and parallel to Poupart's ligament, reaching
from the inner side of the external iliac artery to above the anterior superior spine
if necessary. If the external iliac only is to be ligated this can be done through a
comparatively small incision, but if it is desired to reach the internal or common iliac
then the incision must be quite large. When the peritoneum is reached it is lifted
up from the iliac fascia beneath and the external iliac artery followed up as far as
desired. When the peritoneum is raised the ureter is usually lifted with it; it will
be encountered crossing the point of bifurcation of the common iliac into the external
and internal iliacs. The relation of the veins to the iliac artery on the two sides is
to be borne in mind when passing the needle (Fig. 443).
THE PELVIS. 437
Collateral Ciradation (Fig. 444). — When the external ihac artery is hgated tha
following anastomoses occur :
Iliolumbar with deep circumflex iliac
Gluteal with external circumflex
Obturator with internal circumflex
Sciatic with superior perforating
Internal pudic with deep external pudic
Internal mammary, intercostals, and lumbars . . with deep epigastric
Iliolumbar artery
Gluteal artery
Deep circumflex
iliac artery
Common femoral artery
Profunda artery
External circum-
flex artery
Aorta
Common iliac artery
Middle sacral artery
\ External iliac artery
Internal iliac artery
- Deep epigastric artery
Sciatic artery
Obturator artery
Internal pudic artery
Deep external
pudic artery
Internal circum-
flex artery
Superior, middle, and in-
ferior perforating arteries
Fig. 444. — Collateral circulation after ligation of the external iliac artery,
Ligation of the iliac arteries by a transperitoneal instead of subperitoneal route
has been advocated by Dennis {Medical News, Phila. , 1886). This lessens the
danger of wounding the deep circumflex iliac and deep epigastric arteries, the vas
deferens, the ureter, puncturing the veins and loosening up the subperitoneal tissue.
Treves has used a median incision from the umbilicus to the pubes.
438
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE PELVIC VISCERA.
RECTUM AND ANAL CANAL.
The rectum extends from the level of the third sacral vertebra to where it
pierces the levator ani muscle, 3. 7 cm. ( i % in. ) in front of the tip of the coccyx,
but at a lower level, and opposite the lower and anterior part of the prostate. It is
8.75 cm. (t,}4 in.) long and passes into the anal canal ; this latter is 2.5 to 4 cm.
(i to i}4 in.) long, and extends to the skin border (Fig. 445).
When collapsed the rectum appears as a nearly straight tube following the curve
of the sacrum, but when distended it becomes distincdy sacculated It possesses an
external longitudinal and internal circular layer of muscular fibres. The longitudinal
fibres are continuous with those on the colon but instead of being composed of three
Rectovesical pouch
Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Recto-urethralis muscle
Valves of Houston
Ampulla
Columns of Morgagni
Internal sphincter
External sphincter
Crypts of Morgagni
\ Compressor urethra? muscle
with Cowper's gland enclosed
Fig. 445. — Rectum and anal canal.
bands are fused together into two bands, anterior and posterior. On the sides the
longitudinal fibres are not so abundant. The circular fibres are continuous on the
anal canal as the internal sphincter. For the distance of 4 cm. ( i }4 in. ) between
the tip of the coccyx and its termination, the rectum lies on the two levator ani
muscles, which join in the median line. The lower portion of the rectum is larger
than the upper and is called the ampulla.
The anterior surface of the rectum at the ampulla lies against the posterior sur-
face of the prostate but is not intimately adherent to it. At the apex of the prostate
the anterior rectal wall makes a more or less sharp turn backward. At this part the
rectum and the prostate are embraced by the fibres of the levator ani muscle, which
practically blend with the compressor urethrae muscle and surround the membranous
urethra. The muscular fibres passing from the longitudinal layer of the rectum to the
membranous urethra have been called by Proust the recto-urethi-alis muscle ; they
RECTUM AND ANAL CANAL. 439
keep the lower extremity of the ampulla of the rectum in close approximation to
the apex of the prostate. This is the part of the rectum which has been frequently
wounded in the operations of perineal lithotomy and prostatectomy. In the latter
operation division of this band allows the rectum to be pushed back and exposes the
apex of the prostate.
The sacculation of the rectum is produced by three creases or crescentic folds,
called the rectal valves or valves of Houston (^Dublin Hospital Reports, 1830). Of
these the middle is the largest. It springs from the right anterior quadrant about
5 to 6 cm. (2 to 2)4, in.) above the margin of the anal canal. The superior and
inferior valves spring from the left posterior quadrant a short distance above and
below the middle valve. At the juncture of the rectum and sigmoid flexure there is
another fold on the anterior wall which tends to obstruct the view in making ex-
aminations. These valves are composed of connective tissue and circular muscular
fibres covered with mucous membrane.
Peritoneal Relations. — The posterior portion of the rectum has no peritoneal
covering, the mesosigmoid ceasing opposite the third sacral vertebra, about 12.50
cm. (5 in.) from the anus. From this point the peritoneum slopes downward and
forward, covering the sides and anterior surface of the rectum 5 cm. (2 in.) lower.
The peritoneum is here reflected forward over the bladder in the male forming the
rectovesical pouch and over the vagina and uterus in the female forming the pouch
of Douglas. It is within 7.5 to 8.5 cm. (3 to 3^ in.) of the anus. This leaves 2.5
cm. ( I in. ) or more above the prostate which is not covered by peritoneum. It was
through this space that the bladder was formerly tapped with a trocar to relieve it
when distended. The peritoneum on the sides is less firmly attached to the rectum
and pelvic colon than it is on its anterior surface.
Rectal Examination. — The finger can palpate the anal canal and rectum for
a distance of 10 cm. (4 in.) from the surface. Anteriorly as soon as the finger
passes the sphincters the apex of the prostate can be felt ; also the membranous
urethra, particularly if it contains a bougie or sound. The prostate can be outlined
and its size determined. If the prostate is not enlarged the base of the bladder
above can be palpated and the tip of the finger will reach the rectovesical pouch.
From the upper or posterior edge of the prostate and extending from near the mid-
line upward and outward are the seminal vesicles, sometimes the seat of tuberculous
disease. Just to the outer side of the upper end of the seminal vesicles are the
lower ends of the ureters. Should a ureteral calculus become impacted at this
point it might possibly be felt through the rectum. Posteriorly the coccyx and the
hollow of the sacrum can be felt. The segments of the coccyx frequently are
luxated or fractured and it is the seat of pain — coccygodynia — for which excision is
done. These injuries cause either an ankylosis or a deformity of the coccyx which
can often readily be detected by a finger internally and the thumb externally. Later-
ally the finger can explore the region of the spine of the ischium, the sacrosciatic
foramina, and the tuberosities. If a patient is placed in the knee-chest position and
a speculum is introduced the rectum immediately distends with air, and its interior is
visible as far as the promontory of the sacrum. By means of extra long tubes even
the sigmoid loop can sometimes be seen. The valves of Houston are readily seen
through the speculum.
In introducing tubes and bougies for examination or therapeutic purposes the
greatest care is necessary, as death has not infrequently resulted from perforation into
the peritoneal cavity.
The Anal Canal. — This extends from the rectum to the anus or its opening
on the skin, a distance of 2.5 to 4 cm. (i to i^ in. j. It begins at the level of the
levator ani muscles and has the apex of the prostate directly in front of it and the tip
of the coccyx behind and a little above. With the body vertical the anal canal has
its axis inclining upward and forward toward the bladder; as soon as the sphincter ani
is passed the axis of the rectum changes to upward and backward toward the hollow
of the sacrum. In intruducing a speculum it should always be inclined first ante-
riorly and then posteriorly. Opposite the level of the levator ani the circular mus-
cular fibres increase to form the interyial sphincter. This extends down the anal
canai for a distance of approximately 2. 5 cm. ( i in. ) and ends above the skin margin
440
APPLIED ANATOMY.
or, as it has been called, the "white line of Hilton." The external sphincter sur-
rounds the lower part of the canal and stretches in a spindle shape from the tip of the
coccyx to the central point or tendon of the perineum. Anteriorly it blends with the
fibres of the levator ani and the other muscles of the perineum. It is a thick, power-
ful, voluntary muscle and extends outward from the white line of Hilton or muco-
cutaneous junction.
Mucous Membrane. — The upper half of the mucous membrane of the anal canal
has six or eight longitudinal ridges or folds called the cohinvis of Morgagni or Glis-
son. Between the lower ends of these columns are small hollows called the crypts of
Morgagni, and the free edges of the mucous membrane guarding the crypts are the
anal valves.
BLOOD-VESSELS.
Arteries. — The rectum and anal canal are supplied by the superior, middle, and
inferior hemorrhoidal, and middle sacral arteries (Fig. 446).
The siipet ior hemorrhoidal artery is the terminal branch of the inferior mesen-
Inferior mesenteric artery
Superior hemorrhoidal
Middle sacral artery
Middle hemorrhoidal
from anterior branch
of the internal iliac
Inferior hemorrhoidal
from the internal pudic
Rectum
Bladder, upper surface
Symphysis
Fig. 446. — The blood supply of the rectum.
teric. It descends in the pelvic mesocolon until it reaches the rectum, when it divides
into two lateral branches. These descend on its surface to about its middle, when
they subdivide into six or eight branches which pierce the muscular coat and descend
in the submucosa, one beneath each column of Morgagni. At the lower end of the
rectum and anal canal they anastomose with the terminal branches of the middle
and inferior hemorrhoidal arteries.
The middle hemorrhoidal arteries , one on each side, come from the anterior branch
of the internal iliac. They descend on the lower part of the rectum and supply the
posterior portion of the bladder and vagina, or prostate and seminal vesicles, the
lower anterior half of the rectum and upper part of the anal canal, and anastomose
with the superior hemorrhoidal branches above and the inferior hemorrhoidal below.
The inferior hemorrhoidal arteries, two or three on each side, are given off from
the internal pudic while in Alcock's canal, at the outer posterior portion of the ischio-
rectal fossa ; they pass inward and downward to supply the outer surface of the
levator ani and internal and external sphincters and lower portion of the rectum and
RECTUM AND ANAL CANAL.
441
anal canal. They anastomose with the middle and superior hemorrhoidals. They
are distributed more to the posterior portion of the lower part of the rectum and anal
canal while the middle is distributed more to its anterior portion.
The viiddle sacral artery passes down in the median line from the bifurcation of
the aorta to the tip of the coccy.x, where it ends in Luschka's gland. It gives a few
branches to the rectum at its upper part but they are supposed not to go deeper than
the muscular coat. It anastomoses with the superior hemorrhoidal.
Veins. — The veins of the rectum and anal canal accompany the corresponding
superior, middle, and inferior hemorrhoidal arteries. They form two plexuses, an
internal submucous plexus and an external plexus on the surface of the rectum. The
internal plexus in the submucous coat begins at the anus in fine venous capillaries
which pass upward, mainly in the columns of Morgagni, where they form small dila-
tations or pools and unite into larger branches which pierce the muscular walls about
the middle of the rectum to empty into the main superior hemorrhoidal veins and
thence'into the inferior mesenteric.
The inferior hemorrhoidal veins receive branches from the anus and outer surface
Net-work
in rectal
mucous
membrane |V
•'\
r\\-
Net-work in anal
integument
w
Fig. 447. — Lymphatics of rectum. (Gerota.)
of the sphincters and levator ani muscles and pass thence to the internal pudic veins.
The middle hemorrhoidal vein drains the blood from the external hemorrhoidal
plexus on the outer surface of the lower half of the rectum and empties into the inter-
nal ihac. It anastomoses with the superior hemorrhoidal above, at about the middle
of the rectum, and the inferior hemorrhoidal below, at the upper portion of the anal
canal. It is thus seen that the interior of the lower half of the rectum is drained by
the superior hemorrhoidal and its exterior by the middle hemorrhoidal. The blood
from the upper part of the anal canal drains into the superior hemorrhoidal, that
from its lower part into the inferior hemorrhoidal. The blood from the superior
hemorrhoidal veins empties into the portal system through the inferior mesenteric,
and the blood from the middle and inferior into the general venous system through
the internal pudic, internal iliac, and inferior cava. These veins are usually regarded
as being without valves, though the opposite view is held by some.
Lymphatics. — According to Poirier andCuneo there is a superior group accom-
panying the superior hemorrhoidal vessels and draining the mucous membrane of the
anal canal and rectum and terminating in the nodes of the pelvic mesocolon after
traversing the pararectal lymph-nodes ; also a middle group pardy communicating
442 APPLIED ANATOMY.
with the above through the pararectal lymph-nodes while the remainder accompany
the middle and inferior hemorrhoidal vessels and drain the lower part of the anal
canal above the white line. A third group comes from the skin of the margin of the
anus and drains into the inguinal nodes. The pararectal (anorectal of Gerota) nodes
may become enlarged in cases of nonmalignant ulcer and can be felt in the region of
the ampulla by the finger introduced through the anus, thus leading to a mistaken
diagnosis of carcinoma (Fig. 447).
Nerves. — The anus is supplied by the inferior hemorrhoidal branch of the inter-
nal pudic nerve, which, as shown by Hilton, crosses the ischiorectal space on the outer
surface of the levator ani muscle and passes between the internal and external sphinc-
ters to emerge between them at the white line, from whence it sends filaments up on
the mucous membrane and down on the skin. This explains the great sensitiveness
of the region. It also supplies the external sphincter, hence the association of spasm
with pain.
AFFECTIONS OF THE RECTUM AND ANUS.
Examination. — If the buttocks are drawn aside the mucous membrane of the
anus is everted and a considerable portion of the anal canal becomes visible. The
lower part of the columns and crypts of Morgagni and the anal valves are seen. If
the patient strains or bears down, the mucous membrane of the anal canal is brought
into view in almost its entire length. One is thus enabled to see dilated veins or
hemorrhoids, ulcers, fissures, foreign growths, both benign and malignant, and the
openings of fistulae. By means of a speculum the entire anal canal can be seen. It
should be introduced pointing obliquely anteriorly, and if it is desired to view the
interior of the rectum above after it has passed the internal sphincter it is to be
directed obliquely upward and backward. In digital examination the first resistance
encountered is that of the external sphincter; as its edge is passed a sulcus can often
be felt, immediately following which the internal sphincter is passed and the finger
enters the rectum. The sulcus is about opposite the crypts of Morgagni and is
formed by the interval between the contraction of the external sphincter below and
the internal sphincter blended with the insertion of the levator ani above. It is just
above Hilton's white line.
Imperforate Anus. — In an early stage of the development of the embryo the
cloaca is the common termination of the genito-urinary system and the intestinal
canal. Later the cloaca becomes divided by a septum into the urogenital sinus in
front and the rectum behind. A depression in the skin called the anal pit appears
opposite the rectum and the membrane between disappears in the fourth month.
This membrane is produced by the growing together of the ectoderm and entoderm,
the mesoderm being pushed aside. The failure of this membrane to perforate forms
imperforate anus. The method of development explains the various malformations
of these parts. The anal pit may be absent ; the membrane may not perforate ; the
rectum may end in a blind pouch some distance up from the anus ; or it may discharge
through a sinus into the bladder or vagina.
Hemorrhoids. — Hemorrhoids or piles are varicosities or dilatations of the
veins of the anus or anal canal. The middle hemorrhoidal veins are not enlarged
because they do not drain the mucous membrane, they are not inside but outside
the rectum. When the inferior hemorrhoidal veins are dilated they form external
hemorrhoids and are situated at the margin of the anus below the white line and
external sphincter, and they cannot be replaced in the rectum. When the superior
hemorrhoidal veins are dilated they form internal piles (Fig. 448). The dilatation
involves the superior hemorrhoidal veins from the beginning of the mucous mem-
brane at the white line up the entire length of the anal canal and sometimes a short
distance up the rectum. There is a natural tendency for external piles to be covered
almost wholly by skin and for internal piles to be covered solely by mucous mem-
brane. Inflamed internal piles can be pushed back in the rectum. If an internal
pile is continued down over the white line or an external pile is continued up over
the white line then they are called intero-external piles. Hemorrhoids consist almost
wholly of dilated venous sinuses. The existence of arterial hemorrhoids is now
denied although small arterial branches are sometimes encountered in the ordinary
RECTUM AND ANAL CANAL.
443
venous pile. The strawberry pile is composed of venous capillaries instead of the
larger venous canals usually present. They bleed more freely than does the ordinary
venous pile. When external hemorrhoids are operated on they are usually throm-
bosed. They are then incised and the clots turned out; at other times when not
intiamed they are excised and the edges stitched with catgut or the wound packed.
Internal piles are either ligated or treated with the clamp and cautery. In applying
the ligature the base of the pile is loosened below near the white line and detached
for some distance above and then ligated. This is facilitated by the loose attachment
of the mucous membrane. Bleeding is not marked because the blood-\essels enter
the pile from above. In Whitehead's operation, or excision of the pile-bearing area,
the mucous membrane is readily separated by blunt dissection from the parts beneath
owing to the laxity of the submucous tissue; it is then excised and the cut edge
sewn to the skin at the anus.
Fistula. — Fistula in ano may start as an ischiorectal abscess which perforates
internally into the rectum or anal canal and externally through the skin. It may
also start as an ulcer of the mucous membrane of the rectum or crypts of Morgagni
and then produce an ischiorectal abscess which finally opens on the skin. The most
common site of the internal opening is just above the anus and below the insertion
of the levator ani. This is in the groove between the external and internal sphinc-
ters. Sometimes, however, the fistula pierces the levator ani and opens into the
Columns of Morgagni
Internal sphincter
Crypts of Morgagni
External sphincter
N Internal hemorrhoids
External hemorrhoids
Fig. 448. — Hemorrhoids.
ampulla of the rectum. As the external opening is usually to the outer side of the
external sphincter this latter is divided in operating, as is also a part or all of the
internal sphincter if the opening is high up. Incontinence of faeces is usually avoided
if the sphincter is only divided at one place and at right angles to its fibres, not
obliquely.
Anal fissures occur usually on the posterior wall of the anus associated with
a hemorrhoid. Its location, involving the white line, explains its great pain.
Excision of the Rectum. — The rectum can be removed either by the perineal or
sacral route. 1 n the perineal operation the incision is made from near the base of the scro-
tum to the coccyx, surrounding the anus. If the incision is made near the white line the
external sphincter is saved and turned to each side with the skin flap. The external
sphincter is split anteriorly as far as the central point of the perineum and posteriorly to
the coccyx. The rectum being drawn forward the levator ani muscle is cut through on its
sides and posterior surface about 4 cm. (i ^ in.) above the anus, the coccyx, if necessary,
being excised. The rectum is then drawn back, the finger slipped beneath the ante-
rior portion of the levator ani, which is farther from the surface than the posterior,
and it is divided. These fibres practically constitute the recto-urethralis muscle of
Proust. This is near the apex of the prostate ; from here up to the peritoneal re-
flection or rectovesical pouch the rectum is loosely attached but at that point it is
necessary to divide the rectal fascia (a part of the rectovesical fascia, p. 435) on the
sides, where it passes as two strong fibrous lateral pelvi-rectal bands below the level
of the ureters to the fourth sacral foramina, after which the rectum can be drawn still
444
APPLIED ANATOMY.
further down. If it is desired to go still higher the peritoneum may be pushed up off
the rectum or it may be opened and the mesorectum detached close to the sacrum so
as not to injure its vessels. The detached rectum is then brought down, cut off,
and its divided end sutured to the skin.
In approaching the rectum by the sacral route an incision is made across the
sacrum opposite the third sacral segment and from its right extremity (Tuttle) down
to beyond the tip of the coccyx. The bone is chiselled through opposite the fourth
sacral foramina and the flap turned down (Fig. 449). The lateral and middle sacral
arteries may have to be ligated. The peritoneum, which is visible in the upper
portion of the wound, may then be incised close to the rectum to avoid wounding
the ureters, and the mesorectum detached close to the sacrum. This loosens the
rectum, which can then be brought out and the opening in the peritoneum sewed
Lower end of sacrum
Peritoneal cavity
opened
Fig. 449. — Excision of the rectum. The sacrum has been divided and turned aside. The rectum is drawn to the
left, exposing the ureter and vas deferens and seminal vesicle, and the peritoneal cavity has been opened above.
shut. As much of the rectum as is desired is removed and the cut ends united by a
Murphy button or end-to-end suture.
In carcinoma enlarged lymph-nodes may be found in the mesorectum or hollow
of the sacrum and should of course be removed.
THE BLADDER.
When fully distended the normal bladder contains approximately 500 c. c. , or a
pint. Its capacity varies much, and it is capable of great distention without rupture.
In cases of retention of urine it may reach up to the umbilicus and contain a quart
or more, while if its walls are thickened it may be contracted and hold only a few
ounces. The shape of the bladder is dependent on the amount of dilatation and its
attachments.
Position. — In front of the bladder is the symphysis and body of the pubes,
below and in front is the prostate gland. Beneath is the posterior portion of the
prostate, the seminal vesicles, the termination of the ureters, and the rectum. The
upper and posterior surfaces are covered by peritoneum and small intestines, which
fill the rectovesical pouch. In the female the bladder rests on the upper half of the
vagina, and the uterus as far as the internal os.
THE BLADDER.
445
Attachments. — The bladder is fixed at its upper and lower portions. It has
true ligaments of fascia and false ligaments of peritoneum. The pelvic fascia is
reflected from the levator ani muscles onto the bladder and prostate. Its reflection
from the levator ani onto the bladder occurs at its upper portion on each side and is
called the lateral true ligaments (Fig. 450). The reflection from the anterior part of
the bladder and prostate which goes to the posterior surface of the pubes is called the
puboprostatic ligament or anterior true ligament of the bladder. The urachus forms a
Anterior false ligament
of peritoneum
Lateral false ligament
of peritoneum
Posterior false ligament
of peritoneum
Urachus or superior
ligament
Puboprostatic ligament
Cut edge of peritoneum
Lateral true ligament
Fig. 450. — View of the interior of the male pelvis, showing the bladder attachments.
superior ligament. The false ligaments are simply the peritoneal reflections. That
over the urachus is the anterior false ligament, and those on the sides, which are re-
flected from the bladder at about the level of the white line are called the lateral false
ligaments. When the urachus above is detached the bladder is comparatively loose.
Its firmest attachment is at its neck to the prostate and to the rectum above the pros-
tate at the rectovesical pouch. It is this firm attachment which causes the mucous
membrane of the base of the bladder to re-
main smooth while the rest is corrugated.
Shape. — The shape of the bladder
is influenced by its attachments. As we
have just seen these are the urachus in
front, the neck below, and the recto\'esical
pouch behind ; therefore, as the bladder
collapses it assumes a conical shape with its
apex at the neck and its base running from
the top of the symphysis anteriorly to the
highest point of attachment to the rectum
posteriorly. The bladder never sinks en-
tirely below the top of the symphysis, be-
cause the urachus holds it there; as its top
or fundus descends it sinks behind the sym-
physis and slopes back to the rectum. If
the bladder-walls are actively contracted
or much thickened it cannot readily col-
lapse, and then retains a more elongated
shape. As it distends it becomes oval and rises toward the umbilicus (Fig. 451).
Peritoneum. — In children the bladder is practically an abdominal organ ;
when it is empty the peritoneum sinks about to the level of the top of the sym-
physis, but when distended it rises from 2.5 to 6.25 cm. (i to 25^ in.) above. In
the adult the top of the bladder is held to the top of the symphysis by the urachus,
and as it becomes empty the upper surface descends until a curved line is formed
from the top of the symphysis downward and backward to the rectovesical pouch,
which is opposite the insertion of the ureters and corresponds to a point just below
Fig. 451. — The bladder in its empty and distended
state. When distended the peritoneal reflection on the
anterior abdominal wall is seen to be raised. The pos-
terior or rectovesical reflection remains nearly or quite
unchanged.
446 APPLIED ANATOMY.
the extremities of the seminal vesicles and 2.5 to 4 cm. (i to 1% in.) above the
posterior border of the prostate.
As held by Greig Smith, the main factor in raising the peritoneum from the
front of the bladder above the upper edge of the symphysis is its distention, and 450
to 600 c.c. (15 to 20 oz.) will raise the fold 2.5 to 5 cm. (i to 2 in.).
When the body is placed in the Trendelenburg posture the contents of the
bladder gravitate toward the diaphragm, and therefore push the peritoneum up
or away from the upper border of the symphysis : hence this position is usually
employed when the bladder is to be opened for operative purposes. The use of a
rubber bag in the rectum distended with water has been found to raise the peri-
toneal folds so little that its use has been abandoned in favor of the Trendelenburg
posture.
Posteriorly the rectovesical pouch is approximately 8.75 cm. (3^ in.) from
the anus, but it may be as little as 7.5 cm. (3 in.), or as much as 10 cm. (4 in.).
As has already been stated the attachment of the rectovesical pouch to the rectum
is so firm that whether the bladder is distended or collapsed its distance from the
prostate is but little altered. It does not change its position markedly as does the
peritoneum above the pubes. Waldeyer (Joessel and Waldeyer, Topog. Chirurg.
Anat, vol. ii, p. 554) gives 1.5 to 2 cm. (f to 4 in.) as the greatest possible
variation.
Tapping the distended bladder is done above the pubes, and care is to be taken
to avoid wounding the peritoneum ; this is to be done by knowing how its position
Postprostatic pouch or bas-fond
Interureteric fold or ligament
'Ureteric fold
.—-Orifice of ureter
\
Orifice of the urethra
Fig. 452. — View of the interior of the base of the bladder.
is influenced as just detailed above. In front of the anterior bladder wall and between
it and the posterior surface of the symphysis and transversalis fascia is the space of
Retzius, filled with loose connective tissue. Care is to be taken not to infect it
in operative procedures. It readily becomes infiltrated in extravasation of urine.
Rupture of the bladder occurs most often through the peritoneum of its posterior
surface when the bladder is distended. Extraperitoneal ruptures may occur when it
is empty, and are usually the result of wounds by foreign bodies or spicules of bone
in fractures.
Base of the Bladder. — On the interior of the base of the bladder the ureters
open about 2. 5 cm. ( i in. ) posterior to the urethral orifice, and the same distance
(or more if the bladder is distended) from each other. The included triangular
space is called the trigone. Its mucous membrane is without the rugae possessed by
the rest of the bladder and, if it is distended, is not quite so pale in color. The
ureters pass obliquely through the walls a distance of 1.25 cm. (^ in.) and cause
slight elevations of the mucous membrane called the plicce uretericcB or ureteric folds.
Joining the two ureteral orifices is a fold of mucous membrane called by Kelly the
interureteric ligament. The part immediately posterior to this fold is \kiQ postprostatic
pouch or bas-fond. It becomes enlarged in prostatics, and then contains residual
urine. Calculi also tend to lodge there (Fig. 452).
Bladder Walls. — The bladder is composed of a muscular wall covered exter-
nally by the peritoneum and internally by the submucous and mucous coats. In the
undistended bladder blood-vessels can be seen in the mucous membrane, which is
THE BLADDER.
447
in folds. These folds and vessels diminish or disappear when the bladder is distended.
The membrane at the trigone is more firmly connected to the muscle beneath than
elsewhere in the bladder, hence its smoothness and increased color. The muscular
coat is composed of two longitudinal layers with one more or less transverse layer
between. The external layer is continuous with the ureters, and over the prostate
to be attached to the lower posterior part of the pubes under the name of pubo-
vesical muscle. The circular fibres are continued around the opening of the urethra,
forming the internal sphincter. The openings of the ureters are not closed by mus-
cular action, but by the interior pressure. When the bladder is distended, if the
ends of the ureters are thickened they do not close as the urine accumulates, but
allow it to back up and distend the ureters and pelvis and even cause the kidney itself
to become enlarged. Thus infection ascends from the bladder to the kidney and
the ureters become distended until they may equal in size the small intestine.
The fibres of the muscular coat pass in \arious directions, more or less in the
form of bundles. When these bundles become hypertrophied they can be seen as
distinct ridges on the interior of the bladder. In sounding they can be felt and
recognized by the tip of the sound. Such a condition is called a 7-ibbed bladder. If
the bladder becomes hyperdistended the fibres become separated and the mucous
membrane bulges out, forming a sac. It is then called a sacculated bladder. These
sacs are favorite lodging places for vesical calculi. From diseases of the prostate
and urethra the muscular coat becomes thickened. It is then called a hypertrophied
bladder ; such a one is usually contracted.
The bladder walls ordinarily are quite thin, about 3 mm. (^ in.) thick. When
hypertrophied they are three or four times as thick. When the bladder is viewed in
life in abdominal operations it usually appears as a somewhat flaccid sac. It does not
assume the globular form until considerably distended and must contain a moderately
large amount of urine before showing above the symphysis. The commonly flaccid
condition of the bladder leads one to think that its emptying is largely favored by
the pressure of the intestines compressing it against the floor of the pelvis, and that it
is mainly in case of considerable distention or the pressure of irritation or disease that
its own muscular coat is utilized for the purpose. This view is strengthened by the
increase in flow when coughing and by the occurrence of bladder troubles (prolapse,
etc. ) so soon as the integrity of the pelvic floor is injured, as occurs in rupture of the
perineum from childbirth. The laxity of the bladder walls allows it to spread side-
wise to the neighborhood of the inguinal rings, and it has frequently been found in
the inguinal canal and has been wounded in operating for hernia. The urethral ori-
fice in the male is about 6.25 cm. (2^ in.) from the surface at the upper margin of
the symphysis in a downward and backward direction ; with the body in a vertical
position it might be said to lie on a level with the middle of the symphysis if the
bladder is empty, lower if the bladder is distended, and slightly higher if the rectum
is distended. It is therefore within easy reach of the finger inserted through a supra-
pubic incision.
The Bladder in the Female. — In the female the vesico-uterine pouch reaches
the level of the internal os and the bladder is in contact with the cervix from there
down to the cervico vaginal junction or anterior fornix. From here it is in contact
with the anterior vaginal wall along its upper half. The trigone extends from the
middle of the anterior vaginal wall, which marks the internal orifice of the urethra,
to 2 cm. (3/^ in. ) below the cervicovaginal junction, the spot where the ureters enter
the bladder walls. The absence of the prostate causes the bladder to be lower in the
female and the level of the internal urethral orifice is opposite the lower border of the
symphysis. It also is smaller in the female and does not show itself so readily above
the symphysis on distention. Vesicovaginal fistulae frequently occur as the result of
injuries during childbirth, cancerous ulceration, etc. They are located on the anterior
wall of the vagina above its middle. Calculi can be extracted through an incision
in the median line of the anterior vaginal wall above its middle. The commence-
ment of the ureters can also be palpated on each side of the cervix anteriorly and
impacted calculi may be removed at that point. The bladder is connected with the
cervix and vagina posteriorly by comparatively loose connective tissue so that they
can be readily separated by blunt dissection as far up as the internal os.
448 APPLIED ANATOMY.
Cystoscopic Examination. — The shortness and distensibihty of the female
urethra make the examination of the interior of the female bladder much easier than
that of the male. For purposes of examination it is distended either with air or
water. In order to distend it with air it is either injected directly with a rubber bulb
or the patient is put in the knee-chest position, or, if on the back, the pelvis is ele-
vated, so that the intestines gravitate toward the diaphragm. If a speculum is then
introduced and the obturator withdrawn the bladder at once distends. The walls of
the bladder are whitish in color with small vessels running over them. The base
(trigone) of the bladder is redder than the surrounding walls. The muscular fas-
ciculi are often seen as distinct ridges and the mucous membrane may be thrown into
folds. The internal orifice of the urethra in the female is just below the lower border
of the symphysis. The ureteral orifices can be seen as slightly ele\'ated papillae 2.5
cm. or more behind the urethral orifice and 30° to its side, the trigone, when the
bladder is not distended, making an equilateral triangle, with the urethra and ureteral
papillae at its angles (Fig. 453).
Operations. — Most of the operations on the bladder are done from above. To
relieve distention tappi7ig is done with a fine trocar or aspirating needle. It is to be
inserted close to the upper margin of the symphysis and passed downward and back-
Fig 4>;^ — The picture on the left demonstrates a normal mucous membrane and ureteral orifice. On the
right the ureteral orifice will be observed to be small, round, atrophic, and functionless. (Drawn from a case ot
Dr. Benj. A. Thomas* by Mr. Louis Schmidt.)
ward. Cystotomy is performed through the median line. In making the incision
three layers of fat are divided; first, the superficial fascia between the skin and muscles;
second, the fatty pad between the posterior surface of the muscles and the transver-
salis fascia; and third, the prevesical fat of the space of Retzius beneath the trans-
versalis fascia and between the anterior wall of the bladder and the symphysis pubis.
Tumors.— Growths and prostatic enlargements are often operated on supra-
pubically. These are usually easily within reach of the finger. In incising the blad-
der the anterior vesical veins are to be avoided by keeping in the median line.
THE PROSTATE.
The normal prostate gland is of the shape of a large chestnut. It is 3 to 4 cm.
(i ^ to 1 5^ in. ) wide, 2. 5 to 3 cm. ( i to 1 34: in. ) long, and 3 cm. ( 1 14: in. ) thick. An
indistinct furrow on its under surface separates it into two lateral lobes. There is no
median lobe, as the prostatic tissue is continued uninterrupted across the median
line. For clinical purposes we may consider the prostate as having an apex, a vesi-
cal surface or base, and a rectal or posterior surface.
The vesical surface is pierced a little anterior to its centre by the urethral open-
ing, which leads to the apex. Entering below and posteriorly at the fissure are the
* Diagnosis of Renal Disease and Sufficiency, Dr. Benjamin A. Thomas, Annals of
Surgery, May, 1903.
THE PROSTATE.
449
ejaculatory ducts. These enter close together near the median line and pass upward
and forward to enter the under surface of the prostatic urethra about its middle. It
is to the part of the prostatic tissue between the ejaculatory ducts below and the
interior of the bladder above, just posterior to the urethral orifice, that the name
middle lobe has been applied. This part contains a collection of glands called by
Albarran (Albarran and Motz: Annales des Mai. Ginito- Urinaires, July, 1902) the
prespermatic group. Just beneath the mucosa behind the urethra is another group
which he calls the subcervical group. In so-called enlargements of the middle lobe
these glands form the bulk of the tissue. A slight enlargement produces a bar, a
considerable enlargement produces a projecting growth which may even be peduncu-
lated. The glandular portion of the prostate in addition to that just described pos-
terior to the urethral orifice is located centrally, and the fibromuscular part of the
gland is mostly outside of the glandular portion, surrounding it and passing across
Prostatic veins
Deep layer tri-
angular ligament
Superficial layer
triangular ligament
Rectovesical fascia
Layer covering
seminal vesicles
Layer covering
the rectum
Internal sphincter
Sheath of prostate
Capsule of prostate
Separable space
Rectal layer of fascia
Recto-urethralis
muscle
Deep transverse
perineal muscle
Internal sphincter
Cowper's gland
External sphincter
Superficial transverse
perineal muscle
Membranous urethra
Fig. 454. — Tne prostate and its fascias.
the median line in front of the urethra to form the anterior commissure. Some fibres
cross the median line posteriorly, forming an indistinct posterior commissure.
Sheath and Capsule. — The prostate is surrounded by a distinct firm fibrous
sheath which is continuous with the rectovesical fascia (aponeurosis of Denon-
villiers). At the upper portion this blends with the fascia covering the bladder,
anteriorly it forms the puboprostatic ligaments, below it is continuous with the deep
layer of the triangular ligament of the perineum, posteriorly it is continuous with
the rectovesical fascia and covers and binds the seminal vesicles to the bladder.
The prostatic plexus of veins is imbedded in this fibrous sheath. (J. W. Thomson
Walker, Brit. Med. Jour., July 9, 1904.) (Fig. 454).
Between the veins and the glandular tissue, and covering the latter, is what has
been called by Sir Henry Thompson and W. G. Richardson ("Development and
Anatomy of the Prostate Gland ' ' ) the capsule. It is a comparatively thin layer of
fibrous tissue, insignificant and incomplete in places, which penetrates the substance
of the gland. It adheres to and is removed with the lobes of the enlarged prostate
in prostatectomy.
C. S. Wallace {Brit. Med. Jour., 1904, i., p. 239) holds that what Sir H. Thompson
has called the capsule is the thin, muscular, outer, nonglandular portion of the organ.
29
450 APPLIED ANATOMY.
Relations. — Tlie apex rests on the posterior layer of the triangular ligament
I to 2 cm. (^4 to 3/^ in.) behind and a little below the subpubic angle and just
inside the upper end of the anal canal. This is about 3 to 4 cm. (i}( to i}4 in.)
above the white line of Hilton and the prostate is immediately felt by the finger as
soon as it enters the rectum. The prostate lies on the rectum, so that it is readily
accessible. Its apex being about 3 cm. (i^ in.) from the mucocutaneous white line,
its upper edge would be 6 cm, {2}4 in.) and the rectovesical pouch 8.75 cm. (31^ in.)
above this line. Thus all these structures are usually within reach of the finger. In
the median line, extending to each side, the vasa deferentia and seminal vesicles, if
diseased, as they sometimes are in tuberculous affections, can readily be felt, but when
healthy are too soft to be easily distinguished. On each side is the levator ani
muscle, which embraces the prostate as far forward as the membranous urethra,
where it practically blends with the deep transverse perineal and compressor urethrae
muscles (see recto-urethralis muscle — Perineum, page 475).
Structure. — The greater portion of the prostate is composed of unstriped
muscular tissue, which is not only arranged peripherally but sends prolongations
inward, forming spaces in which the glandular tissue is lodged. There is also a layer
surrounding the vesical opening of the urethra. The action of this latter muscle is
probably to act as a true sphincter to retain the urine in the bladder. It also by its
contraction prevents the regurgitation of the semen into the bladder.
Veins. — In the urethral and vesical portions of the prostate are numerous
veins. These in the old become Aaricose, hence the frequency of bleeding in old
prostatic cases. Around the anterior portion of the prostate and laterally pos-
teriorly lies the prostatic venous plexus. Into it anteriorly empties the dorsal vein
of the penis; from above it receives the vesical veins, and in those advanced in age
it communicates also with the hemorrhoidal plexus posteriorly, Fenwick has shown
(Jour, of Anat. xix. 1885) that in the young these veins possess valves which
become incompetent as age supervenes. The prostatic plexus unites in a single
large vein on each side which empties into the internal iliac vein.
Hypertrophy. — This is the most common affection of the prostate. According
to Mansell MouUin it always begins in the glandular elements. It is of two kinds,
fibrous and glandular. Both start as glandular but the former in some cases
predominates and the glandular element atrophies and leaves a comparatively small
hard fibrous prostate. The glandular character of median growths has already been
explained on page 449 as originating from the prespermatic and subcervical groups
of Albarran.
Glandular hypertrophy of the lateral lobes forms the ordinary large prostates for
which prostatectomy is performed. The bleeding, which is so common in these
cases of enlarged prostate, is due to the varicose condition of the veins around the
posterior portion of the urethra and vesical mucous membrane.
Prostatectomy. — This consists in removing the hypertrophied glandular ele-
ments. It is performed either suprapubically or through the perineum.
When done through a suprapubic incision a median enlargement (so-called
median lobe) can readily be removed by dividing the mucous membrane with the
finger-nail or scissors and shelling the growth out with the finger. In this case there
is practically no sheath to go through and the amount of bleeding will be proportion-
ate to the varicose condition of the veins. If large lateral growths are to be removed
then there is still no fibrous sheath to be entered, but only the thin, filmy capsule and
fibromuscular layer of prostatic tissue covering the hypertrophied glandular masses:
hence for its division Freyer uses his finger-nail only. As the fibrous sheath is not
divided there is no bleeding from the prostatic venous plexus in its layers.
In perineal prostatectomy two methods are used. In the first the membranous
urethra is opened by a median incision and then a lateral cut made into the enlarged
prostate on each side. The finger is then introduced and the hypertrophied glandu-
lar masses enucleated with the finger. In the second method a curved or A-shaped
incision is made from the central tendon of the perineum toward each side between
the rectum and tuberosities. The sphincter ani is then detached from the central
tendon and pushed back while the transverse perinei muscles are pulled forward.
The muscular fibres between the rectum and membranous portion of the urethra
THE PROSTATE.
451
(page 438, recto-urethralis muscle) are then divided and the rectum pushed back
(Fig. 455). This exposes the prostate; its outer capsule or sheath is then incised and
the growth removed with the finger or forceps. In order to prevent injury to the
ejaculatory ducts Young enucleates through two lateral incisions, thus leaving a middle
strip in which the ejaculatory ducts are contained. According to Gosset and Proust
(^Manuel de la Prostatedomie, Paris, 1903) the fascia between the prostate and rectum
(aponeurosis of Denonvilliefs) is composed of two layers, an anterior one on the
prostate — its sheath — and another posterior one on the rectum. When the recto-
urethralis muscle is divided the incision should likewise divide the posterior or rectal
layer, which is then pushed back with the rectum. Thus is formed the ' ' ^space
Ischiocavemosus
• Bulbocavernosus
Central point of
perineum
Superficial transverse
.perineal muscle
Membranous urethra
Prostate
Recto-urethralis muscle
Levator ani
Lower end of rectum
External sphincter ani
Fig. 4SS. — ^The parts involved in prostatectomy. The external sphincter ani has been divided at the central
point of the perineum and with the lower portion of the rectum has been drawn back, thus putting the recto-ure-
thralis muscle on the stretch and exposing the prostate to each side.
decoUable retroprostatique ' ' or separable space and the anterior layer or sheath of
the prostate is exposed.
Abscess. — Inflammation and abscess of the prostate follow injury and infection
from the introduction of catheters or bougies and also from gonorrhoea. The hot and
enlarged gland can readily be felt through the rectum. The bladder and rectal
-symptoms are marked. Pus tends to discharge either into the urethra or rectum,
more rarely it may point in the perineum behind the triangular ligament and in front
of the anus. Abscesses breaking into the urethra may leave a large cavity, which
becomes a receptacle for pus, urine, and calculi, and hastens a fatal issue. When
breaking into the rectum intractable fistulae may result. Prostatic abscesses should
be opened by an incision in the perineum just anterior to the anus, the finger being
introduced into the rectum to avoid wounding it.
452
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE SEMINAL VESICLES.
The seminal vesicles are about 5 cm. (2 in.) long and lie on the bladder above the
prostate. They diverge on each side toward the ureters, which they overlap and which
intervene between the vesicles and bladder wall. The vasa deferentia run along the
inner border of the vesicles and join the ducts from the vesicles to form the common
ejaculatory ducts just before entering the posterior portion of the prostate. Their up-
per portion is covered by the peritoneum of the rectovesical pouch. They are fastened
to the bladder by the rectovesical fascia, and are in close relation with the prostatic
plexus and vesical veins. They are within reach of the finger introduced through the
anus and may be massaged and their contents expressed. They have been excised for
tuberculous disease. When normal they are not readily recognized by touch, but in
disease are easily felt. Operations on them are conducted like those of perineal pros-
Bulbocavernosus
Ischiocavernosus
Cut edge recto-
urethralis muscle
Superficial transverse
perineal muscle
Internal pudic artery
and nerve
Vas deferens
Rectum, drawn back
---Bulb
Cut edge sphincter ani
Membranous urethra
Fig.
456. — The prostate gland and seminal vesicles exposed by dividing the external sphincter and recto-urethralis
muscle and pulling the rectum forcibly back.
tatectomy, but, as they lie higher, beyond the prostate, it is almost impossible to bring
them well into view for operative purposes. The seminal vesicles are nothing more
than blind diverticula from the vasa deferentia and partake of its diseases. The epi-
didymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, and prostate are all frequently involved in
tuberculosis of the genito-urinary tract (Fig. 456). •
THE VAS DEFERENS.
When the vas deferens leaves the internal abdominal ring it winds around the
outer side of the deep epigastric artery and dips down over the brim of the pelvis 4
or 5 cm. (i^ to 2 in.) posterior to the pubic spine. It then runs downward and
backward on the side of the pelvis, under the peritoneum, crossing superficially the
THE UROGENITAL SYSTEM.
453
obliterated hypogastric artery, the obturator vessels and nerve, the vesical arteries,
from the inferior of which it receives the artery of the vas, and finally the ureter. In
its pelvic course the vas deferens is not often the subject of surgical interference
except in cases of undescended testis. In these cases it is often loosened from the
firm but thin fibrous bands which retain it in place, after which it is readily drawn
forward to allow the testicle to descend.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE UROGENITAL SYSTEM.
In the early stages of development of the human embryo there arises from the
parietal mesothelium on each side a tube known as the lVolffia7i diid with a collec-
tion of tubules known as the Wolffian body. This reaches its full development in the
seventh week. On one side of the Wolffian body develops the sexual gland, which
later becomes either a testicle or ovary. At the caudate extremity of the Wolffian
body develops the kidney by the end of the second month. At this time the bladder
is connected by the urachus with the stalk of the allantois. The lower end of the
bladder is connected with the extremity of the intestinal tract through a dilatation
Uiogenital sinus
Intestine
Cloaca
Hydatid of Morgagni
Testicle
Epididymis
Duct of Rathke
(Irgan of Giraldes
Gubernaculum
Vas deferens
Ureter
Urachus
Ductof Miiller
atrophied
Bladder
Seminal vesicles
BEFORE JDIFFERENTIATION MALE
Fig. 457. — The development of the genital organs.
FEMALE
called the urogenital simis. The union of the urogenital sinus and intestine forms the
cloaca. At the time the Wolffian body is developing there appears alongside of it a
tube called the duct of Miiller. It atrophies in the male but in the female becomes
the Fallopian tube, -uterus, and vagina. The ureter is de\'eloped and becomes con-
nected with the lower portion of the bladder (Fig. 457).
The Wolffian duct and duct of Miiller, until about the third month, empty into
the urogenital sinus. Differentiation of the sexes begins about the third month and
is well ad\anced in the fifth. The sexual gland in the male becomes the testicle and
passing from its lower end is seen the gubernaculum. In the female it becomes the
ovary and the round ligament passes from its lower end. The Wolffian body after
performing temporarily the functions of a kidney disappears, leaving sometimes a small
cyst attached to the upper part of the epididymis in the male and in the broad ligament
near the ovary in the female, known as the hydatid of Morgagni {^stalked hydatid).
Its lower portion has as its remains some short closed tubes in the tail of the epidid-
ymis known as the paradidymis or organ of Giraldes in the male and the paro-
ophoron of the broad ligament in the female. The Wolffian duct, while forming the
vas deferens and part of the epididymis in the male, forms the atrophied paroophoron
in the female to the inner side of the ovary.
454 APPLIED ANATOM\ .
The. parova} iwn or organ of Rosenmliller is the remains of the middle set of
Wolfftan tubules and in the male forms the epididymis. In the female it is almost
always present as a horizontal tube with shorter tubes connected with it, between the
layers of the broad ligament near the ovary. The Wolffian duct may persist as a
small tube in the broad ligament close to the uterus and vagina and known as the
duct of Gartner. The ducts of Miiller in the male atrophy and form the sinns
pocularis of the prostate. Part of them may persist patulous as the dzict of Rathke.
In the female they form the Fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina.
A knowledge of the development of the urogenital tract enables one to under-
stand how many of its congenital deformities and subsequent affections are produced.
Extrophy of the bladder, epispadias, hypospadias, and various forms of hermaphro-
ditism result when the walls of the bladder and urethra and external genitals
fail to develop in the median line. Should the urachus not close, a fistulous
tract leads from the bladder to the umbilicus from which urine discharges. Cysts
may also form in its course. Should the partition between the rectum within and the
dimple of the anus without not become absorbed there is formed one of the varieties
of imperforate anus. In some cases the rectum empties into the urethra or bladder,
thus forming a cloaca. Should the testicle become arrested in its descent from the
region of the kidney It forms what is known as undescended testicle. It may be
arrested within the abdominal cavity, in the inguinal canal, or near the external
abdominal ring.
The paroophoron gives rise to cysts which have a tendency to develop between
the layers of the broad ligament and are papillomatous inside. The parovarium also
gives rise to cysts which likewise tend to burrow between the layers of the broad lig-
ament. Cysts arising from Gartner's duct are sometimes found in the vagina. In
the male, cysts arising from the Wolffian duct are : ( i ) encysted hydrocele of the
testicle ; and (2) general cystic disease of the testicle. Cysts arising from the per-
sistence in the male of the duct of Miiller have also been observed in the prostate
and seminal vesicles, but they are exceedingly rare.
THE FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS.
The female pelvic organs are so often the subject of operative procedures that
an exact knowledge of the relations of the uterus, vagina, ovaries. Fallopian tubes,
round and broad ligaments, and ureters is of great importance.
THE UTERUS.
The normal unimpregnated uterus is approximately 7.5 cm. (3 in.) long, 5 cm.
(2 in.) broad, and 2.5 cm. (i in.) thick. It consists of a fundus, body, and neck.
Its fundus is that part above a line joining the two openings of the Fallopian tubes at
the cornua. The neck of the uterus or cervix embraces 2.5 cm. (i in.) of its lower
portion. Between the neck and fundus is the body. The cavity of the uterus is
small, its anterior and posterior walls being almost in contact, while laterally it
extends toward the Fallopian tube openings. The opening through the cervix is the
cervical canal ; it opens into the vagina by the external os and into the uterus by the
internal os ; it is round in shape. The external os in the nullipara is round but in
those who have borne children it is a transverse slit. The cer\'ical canal is narrowed
at both the internal os and the external os while it is larger between ; hence in
passing instruments into the uterus they traverse with difficulty the external os and
the internal os but pass readily between the two and into the uterine cavity beyond.
The cervix enters the upper end of the vagina in its anterior wall and presents
downward and backward (Fig. 458), Its posterior lip is longer than the anterior.
Position. — The uterus is most firmly fixed to the vagina and its upper portion
is the most movable. Lying between the bladder anteriorly and intestines and
rectum posteriorly its position varies with the condition of those organs. Normally
it inclines anteriorly (anteversion). It lies in contact with the bladder, no intestines
intervening. With an empty bladder it may point almost horizontally just above the
THE UTERUS.
455
top of the symphysis pubis, the external os being almost at the same level. As the
bladder distends and the rectum becomes empty the fundus rises more and more
until the axis of the uterus may coincide with that of the vagina, or even pass
beyond ; and then it is said to be retroverted. The uterus is normally almost
straight or slightly bent forward. As the result of disease it becomes more or less
sharply bent at the region of the internal os either forward or backward. It is then
said to be anteflexed or retroflexed. When retroflexed the fundus can frequently be
felt as a round hard mass behind the upper posterior portion of the vagina.
Attachments. — In addition to being attached to the vagina the uterus has cer-
tain folds or ligaments which pass from it to the surrounding parts. Anteriorly the
peritoneum is reflected from the uterus at the level of the internal os to the bladder,
forming the uterovesical fold. Posteriorly the peritoneum descends from the uterus
over the posterior surface of the upper portion of the vagina for i or 2 cm. {y^ in.^
and thence onto the rectum constituting the rectovagmal or recto-iderine fold. The
deep pouch so formed is called Douglas' s pouch. On each side are three ligaments;
Round ligament
Broad ligament
Uterovesical fold
Bladder
Symphysis
Urethra
Infundibulopelvic or
suspensory ligament
of ovary
Fallopian tube
Ovary
■ rosacral ligament
■ ernal os
Douglas's pouch
Recto-uterine fold
Rectum
Vagina
Fig. 458. — Lateral view of the interior of the female pelvis.
the broad liga?nent is the largest and most important. The two broad ligaments and
uterus form a diaphragm which extends from one side of the pelvis directly across to
the other, thus dividing it into anterior and posterior compartments. On the side of
the uterus the broad ligament extends from the round ligament and Fallopian tube
above down to below the level of the internal os. The anterior layer blends with the
uterovesical fold at the level of the internal os, while the posterior goes to the bottom
of the pouch of Douglas. It passes outward to be attached to the sides of the pelvis
from the external iliac vein above down to the floor of the pelvis. Between the two
peritoneal layers of the broad ligament at its top is the Fallopian tube, a little lower
on the posterior surface is the ovary, going to the ovary are the ovarian vessels;
lower still is the round ligament ; and running in the base of the broad ligament are
the uterine artery and ureter. At its pelvic attachment the broad ligament widens
out, having the round ligament as its anterior edge and the infundibulopelvic or sus-
pensory ligament of the ovary as its posterior edge. This latter runs not to the
uterus but to the fimbriated extremity of the Fallopian tube and ovary and contains
the ovarian vessels. A little posterior is the uteroso.cral ligament (recto-uterine) ; it
4S6
APPLIED ANATOMY
runs from the uterus backward and contains muscular and fibrous tissue, the mus-
cular tissue goes to the rectal wall while the fibrous goes to be attached to the second
and third sacral vertebrae. This ligament on each side forms the outer border of
Douglas's pouch.
Contained in the broad ligament between the Fallopian tube and ovary can
be seen the remains of the parovarium or organ of Rosenmiiller (page 453) and
Gartner's duct. A little farther in are the remains of the paroophoron not clearly-
visible to the unaided eye.
The round ligament leaves the cornu of the uterus just below and anterior to
the Fallopian tube, and passes outward, forward, and slightly upward to reach the
internal inguinal ring and canal through which it passes to end in the subcutaneous
tissue and skin of the labium majus. Owing to the ovary and Fallopian tube falling
backward the round ligament is seen as a distinct cord passing to the sides of the
pelvis. It receives a branch from the deep epigastric artery.
THE OVARY.
The ovary is about 4 cm. ( i ^ in. ) long, 2 cm. (fin.) wide, and i cm. (| in. ) thick.
It is connected with the posterior surface of the broad ligament by a very short
mesentery, the mesovarium. It is through this that the ovarian vessels pass. It has
Round ligament
Mesentery or
mesovarium
Ovary
Fimbriated ex-
tremity of tube
Ovarian artery
and veins
)
Uterus, fundus
Fallopian tube,
isthmus
Utero-ovarian
ligament
'Ampulla of tube
Uterus, body
Cervix of uterus.
Fig. 459. — The uterus, ovaries, and tubes.
^—'Suspensory ligament
Infundibulum
of tube
Broad ligament
two ligaments, one, the suspensory or infundibulopelvic ligament, is a fold of peri-
toneum going up to the side of the pelvis above and contains the ovarian vessels; the
other, the utero-ovarian ligament, going in the broad ligament to enter the uterus
just below and behind the Fallopian tube. The ovary lies longitudinally or obliquely
against the outer wall of the pelvis with the ureter just behind and below its posterior
edge. From its upper end proceeds the suspensory or infundibulopelvic ligament
and from its lower end the utero-ovarian ligament. The normal Graafian follicles and
corpus luteum should not be mistaken for pathological cysts. The Fallopian tube
surrounds the upper end of the ovary and its fimbriated extremity clings to its
surface (Fig. 459).
Fallopian Tubes. — The Fallopian tube is about 11 cm. (4^ in.) long and
runs in the broad ligament along its top or free edge from the uterus to the ovary.
Its inner portion between the proximal end of the ovary and uterus is straight and
smaller in diameter than the rest and is called the isthnms. Its lumen is about 3 mm.
{yi in.). The part beyond, or ampulla, curves around the ovary from above down-
ward and is larger than the isthmus and has a lumen of about 8 mm. {\ in.). The
size of the abdominal opening of the Fallopian tube is about 2 mm. or ^2^ in. The
part of the broad ligament between the tube and mesovarium is called the mesosalpinx.
THE VAGINA.
457
THE VAGINA.
The vagina is about 7. 5 cm. (3 in. ) long; its posterior wall is longer than the ante-
rior, being 8.75 cm. (3)^ in.) long. It will thus be seen that if the uterus is slightly-
depressed, as it often is, the cervix is within easy reach of the examining finger, if, how-
ever, it is drawn up, as by an abdominal growth, it may only be reached with difificulty.
The hollow formed by the anterior wall of the vagina blending with the anterior lip of
the cervix is called the anterior fornix. The depression behind the posterior lip is the
posterior fornix, behind which is Douglas s pouch. At the vulvar outlet the lumen of
the vagina is anteroposterior in direction, it then changes to lateral and at the cervix
becomes round. Its walls are in contact. In nulliparae the tube is more uniform in
size, but in multipane it is small at each end but large in the middle. It is much
more dilatable and larger in the latter, hence operations in nulliparae are compara-
tively rarely done through the vagina. Anteriorly the vagina in its upper portion is
in relation with the bladder. In its lower portion (about one-third) it is in intimate
Ovarian artery
Ureter
Uterine artery
Cervix
Vesical artery
Upper end of vagina
Bladder
Fig. 460. — The ureter, ovarian artery, and uterine artery; showing their relation to the pelvic organs.
relation with the urethra except at the upper portion of the latter. Posteriorly its
upper I or 2 cm. (3^ to ^ in.) is in front of the peritoneum and Douglas's pouch,
below this lies the rectum, and between it and the surface is the perineal body.
Laterally the ureters are close to the vagina and about half way up they empty into
the bladder. In its lower portion the vagina is joined by the insertion of the levator
ani muscle. The connection of the vagina to the bladder in front and rectum behind
is loose, so that in performing operations it is readily separated from these organs.
The Ureter in the Female. — The peKic portion of the ureter in the female
is about 10 cm. (4 in. ) long. It crosses the pelvic brim at a level with the first piece
of the sacrum and passes over either the common iliac artery at its bifurcation or the
external iliac at its commencement. It then follows the wall of the pelvis downward,
just posterior to the ovary and, near the floor of the pelvis, bends forward to pass
through the base of the broad ligament, traversing the loose connective tissue (para-
metrium) and being about 1.5 to 2 cm. (}4 to ^ in.) outside of the cervix. At that
458
APPLIED ANATOMY
point it is crossed by the uterine artery. It then inchnes somewhat inward and forward
along the sides and anterior wall of the vagina to enter the bladder. Its opening in
the bladder is about 2.5 cm. (i in.) below the level of the external os, which is almost
as far down as the middle of the anterior vaginal wall. The ureters run in the blad-
der wall obliquely for about 2 cm. (^ in.) and their openings are from 2.5 cm. to 5
cm. (i to2 in.) apart according to the amount of vesical distention (Fig. 460).
Blood- Vessels. — Tlie main blood-vessels of the pelvic genital organs are the ute-
rine and ovarian arteries, described by some authors as the single utero-ovarian artery.
The uterine artery comes from the internal iliac and passes almost horizontally
inward toward the lower portion of the cervix. As it approaches the cervix it gives off
a cervicovaginal branch passing to the upper part of the vagina. At this point it has
just crossed in front of the ureter and is about level with the external os. It then inclines
upward, reaching the side of the uterus at its junction with the vagina. It passes up the
side of the uterus, in nulliparae a short distance away from its side, but in multiparae close
to it, until it reaches the cornu above. It here is continuous with the ovarian artery.
The ovarian artery comes down from the aorta as does the spermatic artery in
Iliac node of
promontory
group
Fig. 461. — Lymphatics of uterus. (Cuneo and Marcille.)
the male. It crosses the brim of the pelvis in front of the ureter, enters the infundibulo-
pelvic or suspensory ligament of the ovary and runs horizontally towards the uterus in
the broad ligament between the round ligament and the ovary. It gives branches to the
ovary and tube and as it reaches the cornu of the uterus it crosses in front of the round
ligament and joins the uterine artery. As the uterine and ovarian arteries are continu-
ous with each other either one may be the larger and they vary considerably in size.
A branch of the deep epigastric artery accompanies the round ligament inward
and anastomoses with the uterine and ovarian arteries. It may be enlarged in dis-
ease of the ovaries and tubes.
Lymphatics (According to Poirier and Cuneo). — The cervix has three sets of
lymphatics. The first passes outward and upward along the side of the pelvis ante-
rior to the ureter to empty into the nodes along the external iliac artery. The second
set passes backward behind the ureter to empty into a node on the anterior division
of the internal iliac artery. The third set passes from the posterior surface of the
cervix almost directly backward in the uterosacral ligaments to empty, some into the
lateral sacral nodes high up in the hollow of the sacrum and some into the nodes of
the promontory (Fig. 461).
THE FEMALE PELVIC ORGANS. 459
The i}mphatics of the body of the idejus communicate with those of the cervix
below and at the cornu pass out as four or five trunks along the broad ligament
between the ovary and Fallopian tube, being joined by branches from the ovary.
They pass through the infundibulopelvic (suspensory) ligament and follow the ovarian
vessels to empty into the aortic nodes below the kidney. The ovarian lymphatics
form four to six trunks which ascend with the ovarian vessels to end in the lower
aortic nodes. Opposite the fifth lumbar vertebra they communicate with the trunks
from the body of the uterus.
Pelvic Examinations. — In making a digital examination the introduced finger
recognizes that in the nullipara the vagina is narrow, admitting only one finger,
and rugous on its anterior and posterior walls. In multiparae it is smooth and admits
two fingers. As the pulp on the palmar surface of the finger is used and not the side,
the finger is to be directed posteriorly into the hollow of the sacrum and then brought
anterior (Fig. 462). As the cervix enters the anterior wall and therefore, if normal,
points down and back, and is about 6.5 to 7.5 cm. (2^ to 3 in. ) from the vulvar orifice,
it is usually within reach of the tip of the finger. In the nullipara it is felt to be hard,
rounded, and projecting distinctly into the vagina with a small os In multiparae it
is larger, softer, not so prominent, its os is wider and often irregular in shape from
lacerations. The uterus is often displaced so that the os may look forward or to one
side. The normal uterus is not firmly fixed but is movable and can be readily moved
up and down by the examining finger. If it is in a normal anteverted position it
Fig. 462. — Digital vaginal examination. Ovary slightly prolapsed but as yet has not descended entirely into
Douglas's pouch.
can be felt between the finger of one hand within and firm pressure with the tips of
the fingers of the opposite hand from without just above the symphysis pubis. When
the uterus retains its normal almost straight shape and falls either forward or back-
ward it is said to be in a position of anteversion or retroversion. If the uterus is bent
on itself in the shape of a curve it is then said to be anteflexed or retrofiexed. In
anteversion the external os points down and back, and the fundus can be felt with
the other hand above the pubes. In retroversion the os looks downward and for-
ward and the body of the uterus cannot readily be made out by bimanual palpation.
If anteflexed instead of anteverted it is more diiftcult to feel the uterus through the
abdominal walls but its fundus can be felt through the anterior vaginal wall in
front of the anterior lip of the cervix. If retroflexed its projecting rounded fundus
can readily be felt in Douglas's sac just behind the cervix. By a digital examina-
tion one determines the amount of mobility of the uterus, its size, its position, the con-
dition of the cervix, whether or not it is the seat of indurations such as occur from
cicatrices and cancer, whether it is lacerated, etc. Growths like fibroid tumors
projecting from the anterior or posterior walls can also be felt. Particularly in thin
subjects relaxed by an2esthesia the broad ligaments can be followed to the sides and
even normal ovaries be recognized. When prolapsed they fall into Douglas's
pouch and can be felt posterior to the cervix. Enlarged Fallopian tubes can be feit
as distinct masses either fixed to one side of the uterus or prolapsed into Douglas's
pouch. Renal calculi impacted in the ureter at its vesical end can be felt between
the middle and upper end of the vagina to one side or the other.
46o APPLIED ANATOMY.
OPERATIONS ON THE FEMALE PELVIC ORGANS.
The most usual operations are the removal of the uterus, — hysterectomy, —
removal of the ovary, — oophorectomy, — removal of the Fallopian tubes, — sal-
pingectomy. The ovaries are often removed with the diseased tubes and also in
cases of hysterectomy. These operations are usually done through an abdominal
incision near the median line between the umbilicus and the symphysis pubis. Not
infrequently they are done through the vagina. After the abdomen is opened it is
important to be able to recognize and isolate the individual organs, this is much facil-
itated by elevating the pelvis so that the intestines gravitate toward the diaphragm
— Trendelenburg's position (Fig. 463). The incision having been made and the
abdomen opened the first structure seen is the great omentum. This often extends as
low as the symphysis. As it hangs from the transverse colon it is to be displaced
upward and not toward the sides. The next structures exposed are either the small
or large intestines. The transverse colon normally should not come below the umbil-
icus but it often does come lower and may even descend to the level of the symphysis.
When it is low it lies in front with the small intestines behind. It likewise should be
displaced upward. Sometimes the sigmoid colon may make its appearance from the
ieit and more rarely the caecum from the right. It should not be forgotten that both
-Bladder
Round ligament _ _
^ ^ ^ -Uterus
Fallopian tube
Broad ligament
Douglas's pouch
Ovary
Fimbriated extremity^^.^^;'''^ \ 'Xtx iJ^^SS^ '1^^KU<^K f '"~^~~- Rectum
of Fallopian tube
Fig. 463. — View of the interior of the female peivis in tne Trendelenburg position.
these structures are bound to the posterior abdominal walls and may often be covered
in front by coils of small intestine. Quite frequently however, the caecum on the
right and iliac colon on the left come in contact with the anterior abdominal walls in
the iliac fossa in the neighborhood of the anterior iliac spines and may extend part
way down Poupart's ligament. The sigmoid colon if distended may bulge anteriorly
but more usually it lies posteriorly covered by the small intestines. If it or the caecum
are encountered they are to be pushed upward and to the side. The small intestines
are to be displaced upwards. In the median line anteriorly is now seen the bladder
and directly behind it the uterus. If the uterus is drawn to one side the broad liga-
ment of the opposite side is made tense and the round ligament is seen running to the
internal ring anteriorly and, more posteriorly, the Fallopian tube. On the posterior
surface of the broad ligament below the outer end of the Fallopian tube is seen the
ovary. Farther posteriorly, in the hollow of the sacrum, is the rectum, with Doug-
las's pouch between it and the uterus in front. If it is desired to recognize the
structures by touch instead of sight then the anterior abdominal wall is followed
down over the bladder and the fundus of the uterus recognized as a hard rounded
mass. This can be grasped between the thumb and fingers and followed laterally
past the cornu to the broad ligaments. If the tubes and ovaries are enlarged they
may be found lying posterior to the uterus in Douglas's pouch instead of laterally.
THE FEMALE PELVIC ORGANS.
4bi
Hysterectomy (abdominal). — The uterus is to be drawn to one side and the
posterior portion of the broad hgament is grasped out toward the pelvic wall. As
the ovarian artery and veins run along the top of the broad ligament, a ligature is
passed through it below them, but posterior or above the round ligament. A clamp
may be placed on the side toward the uterus to prevent bleeding from the other side.
The ligament is then divided between the ligature and clamp ; sometimes the ovaries
are allowed to remain, but usually they are removed with the uterus. A liga-
ture is then placed around the round ligament and it is divided ; often the round
ligament is included in the first ligature. The incisions in the broad ligament are
then carried through the peritoneum around the front of the uterus at the vesico-
viterine junction and also posteriorly. The bladder being loosely attached can be
separated by blunt dissection down to the level of the external os. A clamp close
to the side of the cervix controls bleeding from the sides of the uterus, and by push-
ing away the connective tissue outwardly the uterine artery can be recognized,
ligated, and divided. The ureter lies below and behind i to 2 cm. (^4 to ^ in.)
distant from the cervix. The cervix is then detached from the vagina, and the bleed-
ing from the small vaginal vessels controlled first by clamps and then by sutures.
Body of uterus
Cervix uteri
Vagina,
Denuded surface of bladder
Fig. 464. — Removal of the entire uterus.
Ovarian artery
Broad ligament
Round ligament
Uterine artery-
Bladder
The same procedure can be repeated on the opposite side either by continuing from
below up, or, as before, from above down (Fig. 464).
Oophorectomy. — In removing ovarian tumors any adhesions present are first
loosened, and then the tumor raised up and its pedicle ligated. The Fallopian tube
is usually adherent to and removed along with the tumor. The pedicle is formed by
the utero-ovarian ligament on the inside and the infundibulopelvic on the outside ;
also the Fallopian tube and part of the broad ligament and branches or trunks of
the ovarian artery and veins. As the ovarian vessels run horizontally, if the ligature
is not placed low they may not be included, but only the branches which come off
from them and proceed to the tumor.
Salpingectomy. — In removal of the Fallopian tubes for purulent or other con-
ditions, adhesions are frequently encountered owing to previous inflammation. To
remove such a tumor it is better usually to do it by sight rather than by touch alone.
If the patient is placed in the Trendelenburg (elevated pelvis) posture the intestines
fall out of the pelvis and are kept back by gauze pads. Any coils which are stuck
fast to the adjacent organs can then be carefully dissected and peeled loose and
the tumor exposed. It will be found either posteriorly in Douglas's pouch, or
laterally between the uterus and side of the pelvis, pushing the former toward the
opposite side. The distended, enlarged tube with the ovary adherent to it can
then be isolated by inserting the finger between it and the pelvic wall, beginning at
the posterior edge of the broad ligament and following it around posteriorly, loos-
ening it from the rectum and Douglas's pouch until the uterus is reached. The
462 APPLIED ANATOMY.
finger is then passed beneath the tumor and it is peeled off the pelvic floor, it can
then be raised up and its base ligated much like the pedicle of an ovarian tumor.
If this is carefully done the parietal peritoneum will not be broken through and there
will be little or no bleeding.
Tumors of the Broad Ligament (intraligamentary tumors). — Certain tumors
originating either from the structures of the broad ligament or ovary, c- side of the
uterus, grow between the layers of the broad ligament. Parovarian cysts arising
from the remains of the Wolffian body are of this character. These intraligamentary
cysts are retroperitoneal. The Fallopian tube is spread over and adherent to their
upper surface. As they grow down they come in contact with the ureter, which
becomes adherent to the bottom and sides of the growth. The liability of injury to
the ureter is the greatest danger in these cases, and can only be escaped by search-
ing for, recognizing, and avoiding it. These growths are exposed by splitting the
peritoneum covering them and then shelling them out. At times they are large
and formidable and extremely difficult to remove.
Extra-Uterine Pregnancy. — The most dangerous factor in operating for
extra-uterine pregnancy is hemorrhage. The tumor is usually tubal in position. The
bleeding comes from the sac, therefore loosening and isolating it should be done with
the greatest care to avoid rupturing it. If already ruptured the blood is to be
rapidly sponged out, the uterus recognized and grasped with the hand, which is
then slid outward until the ruptured tumor is felt and drawn up. The blood comes
to the tumor from the ovarian artery and uterine artery. To control the former a
clamp is placed on the broad ligament close to the pelvic wall. To control the
latter a clamp is placed low down on the broad ligament close to the uterus. The
active bleeding then ceases.
Vaginal Hysterectomy. — The uterus if not much enlarged can be removed
through the vagina when, as is the case in multiparae, it is lax and capacious.
The cervix is grasped and drawn down to the vulva and the mucous membrane
incised in the anterior fornix and posteriorly close to the uterine tissue. The bladder
is pushed up and separated from the cervix by dry dissection with occasional snip-
ping of fibrous bands by scissors until the peritoneum at the level of the internal os
is reached. The peritoneum, which from this point up is adherent to the uterus, is
opened and divided to the broad ligaments on each side. Douglas's sac is next
opened posterior to the cervix and close to it, and the opening enlarged with the
finger to the broad ligaments. A clamp is now placed on each broad ligament low
down to control the uterine arteries. By hooking the finger above the fundus it can
be brought back and down and out, the ovaries usually coming with it. The re-
maining portion of the broad ligaments is then either clamped or tied to control the
ovarian arteries. Some operators use clamps alone, others use ligatures. Vaginal
branches which bleed are grasped with haemostats and ligated. The ureters, which
lie 1.5 to 2 cm. (j4 to ^ in.) away from the cervix, are pushed outward when the
opening in Douglas's sac is enlarged, and will be avoided by not placing the clamps
too far away from the cervix.
Laceration of the Cervix. — The cervix is made accessible for operation by
grasping it with tenaculum forceps and drawing it down to the vulva. It is there
held to one side, which renders the laceration easily accessible for excision and the
introduction of sutures. Bleeding is controlled by the sutures.
THE FEMALE EXTERNAL GENITALS.
The /adia majora meet anteriorly in the anterior commissure and posteriorly in
the posterior commissure.
The space between the posterior commissure and the anus, about 3 cm. (i^
in.) is the perineum (Fig. 465).
The labia minora divide anteriorly to form the prepuce above the clitoris and
the frcenum on its lower surface. Posteriorly they fade away into a thin crescentic
fold of mucous membrane called thefourchette. The space between the labia minora
is the vestibule. The meatus or urethra is in the vestibule 2. 5 cm. ( i in. ) behind
the clitoris. It is surrounded by a ring of mucous membrane and in introducing the
THE FEMALE EXTERNAL GENITALS.
463
catheter it can be recognized by the sense of touch and so localized. The openings of
Xhe. para- urethra/ duds are just below and to the outside of the meatus. The vulvo-
vaginal glands (of Bartholin) empty on the inner side of the labia minora in the
sulcus between them and the hymen. The openings of the ducts are just visible to
the naked eye. Tiie openings are about opposite the middle of the vaginal orifice
Prepuce of clitoris
Fraenum
Vestibule
Urethra
Hymen
Fossa navicularis
-Clitoris
— Labium majus
Para-urethral duct
Labium minus
Vulvovaginal gland
Fourchette
Posterior commissure
*«-
Fig. 465. — External female genitals (vulva).
and the ducts pass down and out to the glands, which are of the size of a bean and lie
on each side of the lower end of the vagina.
The hyfneti partly occludes the lower end of the vagina across its posterior
portion. The carunadce hymenales are the remains of the ruptured hymen. 'Y\^^ fossa
■navicularis is the space between
the hymen and the fourchette.
Clinical Considerations.
—The external genitals are well
supplied with veins, and in preg-
nancy or pelvic growths they may
become enlarged and varicose,
especially over the labia majora.
The fourchette and perineum fre-
quently become ruptured in deliv-
ery, the tear, if complete, going
into the rectum. The meatus is
sometimes the seat of a papillo-an-
giomatous growth called urethral
caruncle. It is treated by removal.
The vulvovaginal glands are the
seat of cysts and abscesses. They
appear as swellings alongside the
posterior portion of the vaginal
opening. The former are to be carefully and completely excised and the latter opened
and packed. The vulvar slit is anteroposterior, the vagina forms a transverse slit
and the hymen is placed at the point of transition. In making a vaginal examination
(dorsal decubitus) the index finger is to be held vertically until the vestibule is
entered. It then is passed horizontally into the vagina and turned palmar surface
Cystocele
Rectocele
Fig. 466.
Hernia of the blnrider (cystocele) and of the recturh
(rectocele).
464
APPLIED ANATOMY.
upward to recognize the cervix entering the anterior vaginal wall. Firm pressure
with the other hand to depress the external parts is necessary to reach the posterior
fornix and Douglas's pouch.
Cystocele. — As a result of the relaxation following childbirth the bladder may
prolapse through the vaginal orifice. When the uterus prolapses it also drags the
bladder down with it. It is to be recognized by passing a sound through the urethra
into it. It is treated by excising the mucous membrane covering the cystocele and
sewing the sides of the wound together, thus crowding the mucous lining of the
bladder up into position (Fig. 466).
Rectocele. — The rectum prolapses at the posterior wall of the vagina the same
as the bladder does anteriorly and it is treated in a similar manner.
THE FEMALE PERINEUM.
The perineum in the female is much like that of the male. It has a central point
at which converge the external sphincter ani from behind, the superficial transverse
Bulbocavernosus.
(sphincter vaginae)
Tuber ischii
Levator ani muscle
Ischiocavernosus
muscle
Triangular ligament
Superficial trans,
perineal muscle
Central point of
perineum
^White line
^Sphincter ani
Fig. 467. — Female perineum.
perinei muscles from each side and the bulbocavernosus muscles from the front. The
ischiocavernosus muscles lie along the rami of the pubes. These superficial muscles
are reinforced by the deep transverse perinei muscle, which comes from the ramus
of the ischium on the side to insert by its anterior fibres around the urethra (com-
pressor urethrae), its middle fibres into the vaginal wall, and its posterior fibres at
the central point of the perineum. Also the levator ani muscle inserts into the lower
end of the vagina anteriorly, then into the central point of the perineum, next into
the lower end of the rectum, and finally into the coccyx. The deep layer of the
superficial fascia (CoUes's fascia) and the triangular ligament being pierced by the
vagina are not so marked as in the male — between them lie the ischiocavernosus,
bulbocavernosus, and superficial transverse perinei muscles (Fig. 467).
Rupture or Laceration of the Perineum. — When the tear goes only part
way through the perineum it is called an incomplete laceration; when it goes through
into the rectum it is a complete tear.
In an incomplete tear the bulbocavernosus muscles (called also sphincter
vaginae) are separated behind and consequently their function of holding the labia
majora together is lost and the vulva gapes. In a complete tear all the muscles
THE MALE EXTERNAL GENITALS.
46s
/
helping to form the perineum are divided: they are the bulbocavernosus, the super-
ficial and deep transverse perinei, and the levator ani and external sphincter ani
muscles. They draw the sides of the wound apart, sometimes forming a dimple on
each side, and thus enlarge the vaginal outlet and allow the anterior wall of the rectum
as well as the posterior wall of the bladder
to prolapse (Fig. 468).
Operation. — The torn area is to be
denuded by beginning the incision not
higher up than the lower end of the labium
minus on one side and carrying it down
and then up to a corresponding point on
the opposite side. From the extremities
of this incision two more are made ex-
tending 2.5 to 5 cm. (i to 2 in.) up the
vagina and meeting in the median line.
Emmet carried the denudation up each
lateral sulcus. The mucous membrane so
marked out is then dissected away ; to close
the wound some operators introduce and
bring out the stitches all on the skin surface,
while others introduce and tie half of them
on the vaginal surface and the other half on
the skin surface. The needle is to be car-
ried well out toward the rami of the ischium
so as to include a large mass of tissue.
If the mucous membrane of the rectum has been torn it is to be sewed together
before the perineal tissues are approximated.
Fig. 468. — Rupture of the perineum. The vulva
gapes, showing the rectum bulging forward; the two
dimples, one on each side of the anus, are caused by
the retracted muscles.
THE MALE EXTERNAL GENITALS.
Penis. — The penis is composed of the two coj-pora cavernosa attached poste-
riorly to the rami of the ischia and pubes and terminating in blunt ends anteriorly,
and the corpus spo7igios2im, commencing at the bulb, at the central point of the
perineum posteriorly, and ending in the glans anteriorly. The glacis is the extended
corpus spongiosum and covers the ends of the corpora cavernosa. Its extended rim
Prepuce ■
Glans-
Meatus-
Fossa navicularis'
Fibrous sheath
Collum glandis /
Corona glandis / /^
Dorsal vein
Corpora cavernosa
i:,...*?«gifP|
^■'iSU'^a^TrTT^
Corpus spongiosum
Fig. 469. — Structure of the penis.
is called the corona glandis and the groove immediately behind, the neck, or col-
hmi glandis. In the centre of each corporus cavernosum runs an artery (Fig. 469).
The skin is thin, loose, free from hair except at the root, and has beneath it
some fibres of the dartos. It projects over the glans, forming the prepuce and is
attached at the neck or collum glandis and underneath as far forward as the urethra,
forming thefrcsnum. The connective tissue beneath the skin is loose and free from
fat. A fibrous sheath (Buck's fascia) surrounds the corpora cavernosa and corpus
spongiosum and binds the three together. It is continuous posteriorly with the sus-
pensory ligament and the deep layer of the superficial fascia (Colles's fascia).
30
406 APPLIED ANATOMY.
Anteriorly it ends at the collum glandis. The corpora cavernosa and corpus spongi-
osum have each a separate fibrous sheath which separates the two corpora cavernosa
forming the septum pcctmifoi^mc: it is incomplete anteriorly, allowing the blood of
the two corpora cavernosa to mingle. The separate sheath of the corpus spongi-
osum is not as marked as those of the corpora cavernosa. The single dorsal vein of
the penis runs in the median line with an artery to each side and the dorsal nerves
still farther out. They all lie between the fascial covering of the corpora cavernosa
beneath and the fibrous sheath above.
The lymphatics of the prepuce and skin drain into the inguinal nodes, those
of the glans empty into the nodes in and just above (inside the abdomen) the crural
canal; one radicle enters through the inguinal canal running posterior to the cord.
As the lymphatic radicles anastomose at the root of the penis a lesion on one side of
the organ may involve the lymphatic nodes in the opposite inguinal region.
Practical Considerations. — The opening of the prepuce is often constricted,
so that the glans cannot be uncovered. This condition is called ////wc'^-z'^. A certain
amount is normal in young children. At times the prepuce becomes adherent to the
glans but it can usually be separated by a blunt instrument without cutting. When
the sulcus is reached an accumulation of smegma is seen. This is produced by the
subaceous glands of the corona and collum glandis and under surface of the prepuce.
In performing ciraimcision the prepuce should not be drawn too far forward or too
much of the skin and not enough of the mucous surface will be removed; a common
mistake. It is sulificient to remove the skin
and mucous membrane two-thirds of the
— way back to the sulcus and then bring the
ends of the incision gradually down and for-
ward to meet at the lower angle of the meatus
(Fig. 470). By doing this the fraenum is not
cut and troublesome bleeding from the little
artery it contains is avoided. The laxity
of the skin, especially of the prepuce, favors
rapid swelling. When a contracted prepuce
Fig. 470.— Circumcision. is forcibly drawn behind the glans it con-
stricts the veins and the part beyond the
constriction swells rapidly. This is called paraphimosis. To relieve it an incision is
made through the skin directly across the constricting band and the prepuce can
then be pulled forward over the glans.
Extravasation of urine may invade the penis beneath the fibrous sheath but does
not invade the glans because the sheath stops at the collum glandis.
Fracture or rupture of the corpora cavernosa may occur from violence. The extrav-
asated blood is absorbed and the laceration heals with a scar. In erection this part does
not expand, hence deformity and distortion with interference of function may result.
Chordee. — When the urethra is inflamed the exudate may involve the corpus
spongiosum surrounding it and prevent it from expanding. In erection the organ
assumes a downward curve, a condition designated as chordee. It disappears with
the subsidence of the inflammation.
Amputation of the Penis. — The penis is frequently amputated for carcinoma,
which disease is favored in the aged by the irritation resulting from a long-existing
phimosis. In operating two things are to be guarded against, bleeding and subsequent
contraction of the meatus. Bleeding may come from the dorsal arteries or the artery
which runs in the middle of each corpus cavernosum. They can first be controlled by
a circular rubber band and then later readily ligated. To prevent contraction of the
new meatus three methods are available: (i) A long dorsal and short under flap may
be cut and the urethra dissected out from the under flap and allowed to project beyond
the cut corpora cavernosa. The long dorsal flap is brought down, pierced, and the
urethra drawn through. It is then slit up and sewed on each side. A few sutures
are then used to unite the upper and lower flaps below the urethra. (2) Two lateral
flaps may be made and the split urethra sewed in the line of union between the two
flaps. (3) (Writer's, University Medical Magazine, January, 1897.) A circular cut
is made around the penis and the skin turned back. The penis is then turned up,
THE MALE EXTERNAL GENITALS.
467
the urethra dissected out for 1.25 cm. (y^ in.), aud the corpora cavernosa divided.
The arteries being tied, the two outer edges of the corpora cavernosa are brought
together in the median Hne with three catgut sutures. The urethra is then sht up in
three places, one below and two above; the three square flaps so formed are then
turned back and their corners cut off. This makes three small triangular flaps which
when spread out form one large triangle. The skin is
then sutured accurately to the edges of this triangle and
no raw surface is left (Fig. 471).
Scrotum, Testicles, and Spermatic Cord. —
The SCROTUM is the bag in which the testicles are con-
tained. It consists of skin and dartos. The remaining
tissues covering the testicles are derived from the layers
of the abdominal wall and belong properly to them.
The s^in is thin, loose, wrinkled, and contains sebaceous
glands which frequently become occluded, forming small
tense cystic tumors. The dartos is composed of loose
connective tissue and unstriped muscular fibres. It is in-
timately connected with the skin but moves freely on the sewed ^o the !ii<in to"avold cTcatrTcai
parts beneath. It is continuous with the general superficial *=°"*^*'="°"- (Author's method.)
fascia and with its deep layer or Scarpa's fascia of the abdomen and Colles' s fascia of the
perineum. It dips between the testicles, forming an incomplete septum (Fig. 472).
Practical Applications. — Contraction of the dartos wrinkles the scrotum and
if wounded the edges are inverted. For this reason, in operations on the scrotum.
Fig. 471.— Amputation of the
penis. Mucous membrane of urethra
everted, cut in triangular form and
Cremasteric fibres
Spermatic artery
Pampiniform plexus of veins
Deferential artery
Vas deferens
Skin
Globus major epididymis
Digital fossa
Hydatid of Morgagni
Dartos
Tunica vaginalis
Septum
Fkj. 472. — Scrotum, testicles, and sp)ennatic cord.
if primary union is desired particular care must be taken to approximate accurately
the skin edges and prevent their inversion. The raising of the testicles is done by the
cremaster muscle and not by the dartos except incidentally as the scrotum contracts.
The scrotum is supplied by blood through the perineal branches of the internal
pudic artery, and by the external pudic. On account of the looseness of the skin
attachment, oedema and extravasation of blood and urine may be very extensive and
violent. They readily impair the blood circulation and gangrene not infrequently
468 ■'^^m: APPLIED ANATOMY.
results. It is for this reason that urinary infiltrations are to be at once incised, and
in operations the greatest care is exercised to stop every bleeding vessel. Infec-
tion of this region is particularly troublesome and a strict technic is necessary in
operating to avoid it. In some cases of varicocele with pendulous scrotum a portion
of the scrotum is excised in order to support the testicles.
Testicles. — The testicles begin to develop early in fetal life — about the third
month — below and in front of the kidneys, opposite the second lumbar vertebra.
Descent of the Testes. — The testis is covered by peritoneum, which is prolonged
at its upper and lower ends. The lower reaches down to the internal ring and later
contains fibrous and muscular tissue and passes through the inguinal canal to the
lower part of the scrotum: it is called the gubemiacuhim testis. It reaches its highest
development in the sixth month and its remains attach the testicle to the lower part
of the scrotum as the ligament of the scrotum. As the testicle descends, the upper
peritoneal band covers the spermatic vessels from the region of the kidney down.
The lower portion of the gubernaculum sends branches to the regions of the pubes,
perineum, and saphenous opening. The testicle is preceded in its descent through
the inguinal canal by a fold of peritoneum — the vaginal process — which forms the
tunica vaginalis over the testicle, the part above atrophying.
Practical Applications. — The testicle may be arrested in some portion of its
course, forming an undescended testicle, or it may be displaced, as has been suggested,
by an abnormal development of one of the subsidiary bands of the gubernaculum.
Hence it may be found, not in the scrotum, but in the perineum, in the femoral
region, or in the pubic region. It may go through the femoral canal instead of the
inguinal. If it is undescended it may be arrested in the abdominal cavity, in the
inguinal canal, or at the external ring.
The vaginal process may not entirely close, so that the peritoneal fluid passes
down to the tunica vaginalis covering the testicle; this is called a congenital hydrocele.
If the opening is large enough for intestine to enter, it forms a congenital hernia
(see page 383). If the opening is closed above, usually at the external ring, and
fluid accumulates in the tunica vaginalis it forms an infantile hydrocele. If a portion
of the vaginal process persists somewhere along the spermatic cord between the
internal ring and top of the testis it forms a cyst and is called an encysted hydrocele
of the cord. The vaginal process closes at its upper portion just before birth and in
those cases which are patulous after birth (congenital hernia and hydrocele) there
is a tendency to spontaneous closure, hence operative measures are usually deferred.
The vaginal process also descends into the inguinal canal in the female and a hydro-
cele of it is called a hydrocele of the canal of Nuck.
Size, Position, etc. — The normal testicles are 4 cm. {lyi in.) long, 2.5 cm.
(i in.) wide, and 2 cm. (f in.) thick. They are firm to the touch. If larger they
are either hypertrophied or diseased. If hypertrophied their consistence is not ma-
terially altered, if diseased they are usually harder. If smaller they are usually
atrophied and besides the lessening of size are also softer and flabby in consistency.
They lie attached at the inner posterior portion of the scrotum and their long
axis points upward, slightly forward, and outward. In all cases of hernia and hydro-
cele the testicle is to be felt for at the inner posterior aspect of the swelling. In
rare instances the testicle is placed anteriorly instead of posteriorly and is Hable to
be wounded in introducing a trocar into the tunica vaginalis to empty a hydrocele.
To avoid this accident the position of the testicle can be determined not only by
touch but also by seeing the outline of the testicle by means of a light placed on the
opposite side of the scrotum. As the testicle is almost always low down the puncture
should be made higher up and preferably on the outer side.
Epididymis. — The vas deferens descends to the lower end of the testicle and
becoming much convoluted forms the globus minor or tail, thence ascends, forming
the body, and finally at the top, receiving the efferent ducts, forms the globus major
or head. Between the body of the epididymis and testis is a pocket or depression
called the digital fossa. Attached to the upper end of the testis is a small flat body
in front of the globus major and attached to the globus major itself is a small cystic
pedunculated growth. Both are known as the hydatids of Morgagni, and the former is
the remains of the duct of MUller, while the latter is derived from the Wolffian body.
THE MALE EXTERNAL GENITALS. 469
Practical Application. — Inflammation of the testis proper is called orchitis; of
the epididymis, epididymitis. When the testicle as a whole is enlarged, if it is due
to syphilis or new growth, the testis itself is mainly affected and it is then called
sarcocele. Inflammations, the result of injury, may produce a true orchitis, but when
arising from infections they involve the vas deferens and epididymis and produce
an epididymitis. This is the case in gonorrhoea and tubercle, and to a less extent in
mumps. An enlarged epididymis can be outlined by careful palpation as being dis-
tinct from the testis proper. Advanced tubercle may invade the testis subsequently.
Cystic disease is fairly frequent ; it involves the epididymis, especially the globus
major. The cysts may be very numerous and may spring either from the ducts of
the globus major or from the hydatids of Morgagni.
Coverings of the Testicle. — The tunica vaginalis comes from the peritoneum,
the tunica albuginea is the continuation of the transversalis fascia (infundibuliform
fascia); it is strong, dense, and inelastic. Over this are a few cremasteric fibres from
the internal oblique and the intercolumnar fascia from the external oblique. The
dartos is continuous with the fascia of Scarpa of the abdomen.
Application. — The tunica vaginalis being a closed sac may become distended with
serum, forming a hydrocele. The precautions to be taken in tapping it have been
alluded to above. It is treated radically by excising the parietal layer and leaving the
visceral layer covering the testicle and epididymis. The questions of hemorrhage and
skin inversion have also been discussed. Inflammation causes intense pain on account
of the unyielding character of the tunica albuginea. To relieve it multiple fine punc-
tures are sometimes made. Abscess (tuberculous) of the testicle opens the tunica albu-
ginea and the testicular tissue protrudes, forming a hernia testis. Such testicles are
often excised, but if not the hernia eventually shrinks and reduces itself (Holden).
Spermatic Cord. — The left spermatic cord is longer than the right, hence the
left testicle hangs lower. The cord is composed of the vas deferens with its artery, a
branch of the superior vesical, and veins; the spermatic artery with its veins; the
cremasteric artery; and the layers derived from the abdominal wall (the same as pos-
sessed by the testicle). It also possesses nerves, the genital branch of the genitocrural,
and branches of the sympathetic, and lymphatics. The vas deferens is a small, round,
hard cord lying posteriorly. It can be seen when the elements of the cord are sep-
arated and can be distinctly felt even through the scrotum. The deferential artery
accompanies and lies on the cord. The defere?itial veins go with the artery. They
unite and form three or four trunks (pampiniform plexus) which pass through the
inguinal canal to join and form at the internal ring one large vein, the spermatic, which
accompanies the spermatic artery; the right empties into the vena cava, while the left
empties into the left renal vein. They possess but few valves, which are imperfect.
The spermatic artery, from the aorta, descends in front of the vas deferens and is
accompanied by the pampiniform plexus of veins. It lies in the plexus with most of
the veins in front of it. These vessels lie in loose, fatty connective tissue derived from
the subperitoneal tissue along with the atrophied remains of the peritoneum (ligament
of Cloquet).
These structures are covered by the sheath of the cord, composed ( i ) of the
transversalis fascia (infundibuliform fascia), (2) cremasteric fibres and fascia from
the internal oblique, and (3) intercolumnar fascia from the external oblique.
Application. - The cord is involved in operations for varicocele, hernia, and cas-
tration. In varicocele after the skin incision is made a second incision is required to
open the sheath of the cord. This having been done the pampiniform plexus of veins,
which are the ones enlarged (varicose) in varicocele, come into view. As many of
these as desired are then drawn out, ligated at both ends, and removed. In doing this
the spermatic artery may likewise be tied. The circulation is afterwards carried on
by the artery and veins of the vas, the cremasteric artery being in the sheath externally.
It is wise not to remove all of the enlarged veins. The vas deferens is recognized pos-
teriorly both by sight and touch and is not to be disturbed. In hernia the vas deferens
sticks close to the sac, on the posterior and inner side. It must be sought for and care-
fully isolated. In castration the testicle is so movable that it can be pushed up into the
inguinal region and the incision through the skin for its removal made in that locality.
If done for malignant disease a large portion of the vas is removed. This can be done
470
APPLIED
by incising up to the internal ring and drawing the vas out after freeing it of any restrain-
ing fibrous bands. All bleeding vessels are to be ligated and the cord securely held. If
the cord slips before all the vessels are secured, the stump may retract in the abdomen
and dangerous bleeding result before it can again be secured and the vessels ligated.
THE URETHRA.
The male urethra is variable in length, as it can be stretched, therefore only
average measurements can be given. Its length is 20 cm. (8 in.) in the adult, 8 to
10 cm. at 5 years, and 10 to 12 cm. at puberty. Of this, 3 cm. (i^ in.) is pros-
tatic, 0.5 cm. ( i in. ) being in the bladder wall ; i cm. ( f in. ) is membranous; 16 cm.
(a little over 6 in. ) is penile. Its calibre varies, being narrowest at the meatus
and next narrowest at the membranous portion. The internal meatus is a little larger
than the membranous portion. The meatus admits a No. 24 French sound (often
larger) , the membranous portion a
26 to 28. The prostatic portion is
the largest, admitting a No. 32
sound. The bulbous is almost or
quite as large, admitting a 30 to 32.
Therefore a sound which passes the
meatus should find no further ob-
struction. The fossa navicularis
just beyond the meatus is larger
than the urethra beyond (Fig. 473).
Distensibility. — The meatus
and membranous portions are the
least distensible. The former is
fibrous in character and will not
stretch. In the membranous por-
tion the support of the superficial
and deep layers of the triangular
ligament prevent dilatation. The
prostatic is the most dilatable por-
tion and the bulbous urethra next.
Relations. — The internal
urethral meatus lies about 6. 25 cm.
(2|- in.) from the surface just be-
hind the middle of the symphysis,
if the body is in a vertical position.
The membranous portion pierces
the triangular ligament, 2.5 cm. (i
in. ) or a little less below the sub-
pubic ligament. The lowest por-
tion is just in front of the triangular
ligament. The urethra then rises
slightly, o. 5 cm. (-|- in.), and finally
drops to the meatus. The subpubic
curve of the urethra has a radius
of about 5 cm. (2 in.) and urethral
instruments are made with approx-
imately this curvature, though
they vary much. The membra-
Ureter
Trigone
Urethral ere?*, (verumontanum)
Prostatic ducts
Utricle (prostatic sinus^
Ejaculatory duct
Membranous urethra
Cowper's gland
Opening of Cowper's gland
Bulbous portion of urethra
Lacunae and glands of Littrd
Fossa navicularis
Fig. 473. — The male urethra.
nous urethra can be palpated at the apex of the prostate by the finger in the rectum.
Structure. — The urethra is composed of an external layer of erectile tissue
covering a muscular layer which is continuous with that of the prostate and bladder.
Beneath the muscular layer is the submucous, rich in blood-vessels, on which is laid
the mucous layer. This latter is covered with flat, pavement epithelium in the fossa
navicularis, and columnar epithelium beyond.
THE MALE EXTERNAL GENITALS. 471
The urethra contains small mucous glands opening on its surface — glands of
Littre — and small pockets or recesses, called the lactince of Morgagni, into which
the glands of Littre sometimes empty. The lacunae are mostly in three rows on the
roof of the penile portion and open forward toward the meatus. A large one —
lacuna magna — opens in the posterior portion of the roof of the fossa navicularis, a
couple of centimetres behind the meatus. The glands of Cowper open into the bul-
bous urethra just in front of the triangular ligament. The racemose glands of the
prostate open into the sides of the floor of the prostatic urethra, and the ejaculatory
ducts open near the middle line just in front of the urethral crest (verumontanum),
with the utricle (prostatic sinus) between.
The mucous walls of the urethra are normally in contact, making a vertical slit
at the external meatus, a transverse one in the penile portion, horseshoe shape in the
prostate, and again transverse just before the bladder is reached.
Urethral Muscles. — There are two sets of muscles in connection with
the urethra; one set might be said to aid in expelling the urine and the other
in retaining it. The expulsors are the longitudinal and circular fibres surrounding
the urethra just outside the mucous membrane and the accelerator nrintz or
biilbocavernosus muscle. The sphincters are the compressor urethm or external
sphincter muscle, and the internal sphincter at the neck of the bladder, composed
of fibres continued from the bladder and prostate. The portion of these fibres
surrounding the internal meatus just beneath the mucous membrane is called the
annulus urethralis.
It has been supposed that if the bladder becomes distended the internal
sphincter involuntarily relaxes and allows the urine to enter the prostatic urethra,
and it is then stopped by the voluntary contraction of the external sphincter, which is
the true sphincter. Leedham Green {Brit. Med. four., August, 1906) claims that
the internal sphincter holds tight in the living subject even when the bladder is over-
distended. Sections made of formalin-hardened bodies seem to support this view.
Practical Applications. — A knowledge of both the length and calibre of the
urethra is essential in the use of both catheters and bougies or sounds. If urine
begins to flow when a catheter is introduced 20 cm. we know the urethra is of normal
length. Urine may flow when the bladder is distended as soon as the catheter passes
the membranous portion, about 17 cm. (6|<; in.) from the meatus. In hypertrophy
of the prostate the prostatic urethra is much increased in length and it may be impossi-
ble to reach the bladder by an ordinary catheter. It may require one 25 or 30 cm.
(10 to 12 in.) long. The position of a
stricture is located by its distance from the
meatus. If a sound is stopped by a stricture
inside of 15 cm. (6 in.) from the meatus we
know it is anterior to the triangular liga-
ment. Strictures are most frequent where
the subpubic curve is lowest, viz., at the
bulbomembranous region. They are then
called deep strictures. They are next most
frequent toward the anterior portion, while
strictures of the j^rostatic portion are almost
unknown.
Passage of Sounds and Catheters.
— In passing a catheter or sound its beak
should be kept applied to the roof of the
urethra, otherwise its point will catch in
the dilated bulbous portion and strike on
the triangular ligament below the opening fig. 474.— Method of passing the sound. The in-
for the urethra. To aid the beak to follow ^- Sbi^noul ur'etra!' """'"*^ *'" '°""^ '''°""^
the subpubic curve the handle is depressed.
In difificult cases the index finger of the opposite hand is introduced in the rectum
and the beak is felt at the membranous portion a short distance in front of the apex
of the prostate and guided upward into the bladder (Eig. 474). If the penis is
grasped near the glans and drawn up the instrument, the urethra may so stretch
^ff^^^^^^^^ APPLIED ANATOMY. ^^^^^^^^
that the sound will not reach to the bladder. To avoid this it should be grasped
lower down toward the scrotum. The urethra is so flexible and loose that straight
instruments, such as cystoscopes, can readily be passed by skilful hands. In hyper-
trophy of the prostate, long instruments, with big curves if of metal, are essential.
Many rubber catheters are too short for this purpose. In passing small, filiform bougies
they are to be directed at first toward the floor of the urethra to avoid the lacunae on
the roof. If they do catch they are allowed to remain and so prevent the ones sub-
sequently introduced catching in the same place. The vascular net-work in the sub-
mucous tissue bleeds readily and the skill evinced by the surgeon in passing urethral
instruments is in inverse ratio to the amount of bleeding produced.
Otis claimed that a penis 3 in. in circumference had a normal urethra admitting
a No. 30, French scale, sound; 2>/i in- No. 32; 3^ in. No. 34; 3^ in. No. 36, and
4 in. No. 38. White and Martin state that a 3 in. circumference admits a No. 26
to No. 28; 31^ in. Nos. 28 to 30; 2,^2 in. Nos. 30 to 32; 3^ in. Nos. 32 to 34; and
a 4 in. Nos. 34 to 36. We agree with the latter, and often the meatus though
normal in appearance must be incised to admit the above sizes. The distensibility
of the urethra is such, especially in its deeper portions, that after incision of the meatus
very large sounds can be introduced. For this reason urethrotomes should not
cut to the full size. Teevan's urethrotome only cuts up to 22 French and the
additional size is obtained by stretching with sounds. This instrument in one case
was made to cut to 26 French but death followed from hemorrhage and a return was
made to No. 22. It cuts on the roof, and the dorsal artery of the penis or the artery
'to the bulb was probably divided. To avoid hemorrhage, deep strictures are treated
by dilatation or external urethrotomy and penile strictures only are cut internally.
Keegan has shown that the calibre of the urethra in small children is sufficient to
allow the use of the lithotrite and so avoid a cutting operation.
Spas7nodic stricture results from contraction of the urethral muscles due to some
irritation. This irritation may be from the urine, from organic stricture, fissure of
the anus, hemorrhoids, etc. It causes retention of urine, which can be relieved by
passing a full-sized catheter, or by hot baths, etc. Notice the firmness with which
the urethra grasps a sound as it is withdrawn.
Traumatic Stricture. — This is usually located in the bulbous portion, just in
front of the triangular ligament. The urethra is compressed between the pubic bone
and the vulnerating body. It is treated by passing in a full-sized catheter either
with or without the aid of a perineal incision.
THE MALE PERINEUM.
The name perineum in its broad sense is applied to the structures of the outlet
of the pelvis, superficial to the levator ani muscle. In its restricted anatomical sense
it is applied to the subpubic triangle as far back as a line joining the anterior portions
of the tuberosities. In its clinical sense it is the space between the anus and scrotum
in the male and anus and vulva in the female.
Bony Landmarks. — On examining the pelvic outlet the symphysis pubis is
seen anteriorly with the descending rami of the pubes and ascending rami of the
ischia on the sides, leading to the tuberosities. Posteriorly is seen the coccyx, with
the spines of the ischia on each side comparatively close to it. The greater sacro-
sciatic ligament runs from the sacrum to the tuberosity of the ischium, the lesser
from the sacrum to the spine of the ischium. Taken together a diamond-shaped
space is formed. In the female the pubic arch is wider, the tuberosities further
apart, the spines of the ischia do not project so markedly inward, and the coccyx
is more movable.
Perineal and Ischiorectal Regions. — A line drawn from the anterior por-
tion of one tuberosity to that of the opposite side passes 1.25 cm. (^ in.) in front
of the anus, and divides the outlet into the urogenital triangle or perineum in front,
and the anal triangle or ischiorectal region behind.
Urogenital Triangle. — The urogenital triangle has the symphysis in front,
the ischiopubic rami as far back as the anterior portion of the tuberosities on the
THE MALE PERINEUM.
473
sides, and a line joining the two behind. It is closed by a stout fibrous membrane
called the triangular ligament.
The central point of the perineum is in the median line 2 cm. (^ in.) in
front of the anus; it marks the posterior edge of the triangular ligament in the median
line, and is the point of junction of the anteroposterior and transverse muscles.
Perineal Fascias. — There are four perineal fascias, viz.: (i) the superficial
layer of the superficial fascia ; (2) the deep layer of the superficial fascia, called also
CoUes's fascia ; (3) the superficial layer of the deep fascia, or triangular ligament ;
and (4) the deep layer of the triangular ligament or pelvic fascia (Fig. 475).
The superficial layer of the superficial fascia is the subcutaneous fatty tissue,
and is continuous with that of the surrounding parts and the dartos. When thick it
makes operations on the deeper structures more difificult and sometimes impossible.
The deep layer of the superficial fascia or Colics' s fascia is the fibrous under
surface of the fatty superficial layer. Posteriorly it unites with the posterior edge of
the triangular ligament; laterally it is attached to the ischiopubic rami; and anteriorly
it is continuous with the under surface of the dartos of the scrotum, passes forward
Deep layer of superficial fascia
(Colles)
Inferior pudendal nerve
External perineal nerve
Internal perineal nerve
Superficial perineal artery
Superficial perineal sfjace and
triangular ligament (superficial'
layer)
Transverse perineal artery
Central point of perineum
Coccyx'
Dorsal artery of penis
Ischiocavernosus muscle
"Bulbocavernosus muscle
Bulb
.Deep perineal space and
compres^.or urethrae muscle
Artery to the bulb
Cowper's gland
Deep transverse perineal muscle
Internal pudic artery
Superficial transverse perineal
muscle
External sphincter ani
Le\atorani
Inferior hemorrhoidal arteries
and nerves
luteus maximus
Fig.
-The male perineum. The superficial perineal space is shown on the left and the deep perineal space
on the right.
to form the suspensory ligament and fibrous sheath (Buck's fascia) of the penis,
covers the spermatic cord, and is continuous with Scarpa's fascia (deep layer of the
superficial fascia) of the abdomen.
The anterior layer of the triangular ligament is a firm fibrous membrane stretch-
ing from one tuberosity to the other, and attached to the ischiopubic rami on the
sides forward to the pubic arch. Between its upper edge and the symphysis runs the
dorsal vein of the penis, the dorsal artery and nerve piercing it a little lower and to
the outer side; 2.5 cm. (i in.) below the symphysis is the urethral opening with
the opening for Cowper's ducts close to it below, and those for the vessels to the
bulb close to it above. The superficial perineal vessels and nerves pierce its pos-
terior edge. The posterior edge of the triangular ligament blends with the posterior
edge of the deep layer of the superficial fascia (Colles).
The deep layer of the triang7ilar ligameyit is a continuation downward of the
pelvic fascia. It begins above on the inside of the pelvis, covering the obturator
muscle as the obturator fascia ; it then passes onto the levator ani muscles as the
recto-vesical fascia. As the levator ani muscles do not meet in front, the gap between
them is filled in at the median line below or posteriorly by the termination of the
474
APPLIED ANATOMY.
longitudinal fibres of the rectum (prerectalis muscles of Henle, recto-urethralis of
Roux, Kalischer, Holl, Proust, and others — see page 438, Rectum), at the sides by
the deep transverse perinei and compressor urethrae muscles, and anteriorly by the
continuation of the rectovesical fascia. From the deep transverse perinei muscles
forward the rectovesical fascia is called the deep layer of the triangular ligament
(Fig. 476).
Perineal Spaces. — There are two perineal spaces, one superficial space
between the triangular ligament (superficial layer) and the deep layer of the super-
ficial fascia (Colics' s fascia), and the other, the deep perineal space, between the
superficial layer of the triangular ligament and its deep layer.
Superficial Perineal Space. — The superficial space has on each side the crura
of the penis attached to the ischiopubic rami and covered by the ischiocavernosus
(erector penis) muscles. In the median line anteriorly lies the urethra with its
erectile tissue covered by the bulbocavernosus (accelerator urinae) muscle. The
posterior portion lying on the triangular ligament is called the bulb, and reaches
back to the central point of the perineum. From the central point the superficial
transverse perineal muscles pass outward and somewhat backward to the rami of the
Peritoneum
Pelvic fascia
Bladder
Internal sphincter
Prostatic veins
Superficial layer
triangular ligament
Deep layer triangular
ligament
Membranous urethra
Superficial transverse
perineal muscle
Colles's fascia
Internal sphincter
External sphincter
Fascia on bladder
Fascia on rectum
Separable space
(espace decoUable)
Seminal vesicles
Rectum
Prostate
Separable space
Recto-urethralis
muscle
Cowper's gland
Deep transverse
perineal muscle
Fig. 476. — Perineal spaces.
ischia, and the sphincter ani passes back to the coccyx. 'Y^x^ internal pudic artery
comes forward from the spine of the ischium through Alcock's canal on the outer
wall of the ischiorectal fossa, 4 cm. ( i ^ in. ) above the lower edge of the tuberosity ;
when it reaches the posterior edge of the triangular ligament it gives of? the superficial
perineal artery, which p;erces it and enters the superficial perineal space, where it
gives ofi the small transverse perineal artery, and then continues anteriorly to the
base of the scrotum. The pudic nerve sends two branches forward in this space, the
posterior or internal superficial perineal toward the middle, and the anterior or
external along the outer side of the space accompanying the superficial perineal
artery forward to the scrotum.
The Deep Perineal Space. — This lies between the anterior and posterior layers
of the triangular ligament. It contains the compressor urethrae (external vesical
.sphincter) muscle surrounding the urethra. Embedded in this muscle is Cowper's
gland. Its duct, 2 cm. (-^ in. ) long, pierces the anterior layer of the triangular
ligament to empty into the bulbous urethra. Immediately behind the compressor
urethrae is the deep transverse perinei muscle passing across from one ischiopubic
ramus through the central point of the perineum to the other. Running along the
outer side of the space is the continuation of the internal pudic artery. It gives ofi
THE MALE PERINEUM. 475
the artery to the bulb about 3 cm. (15^ in. ) in front of the anus, and then about 1.25
cm. (}4 in.) below the subpubic ligament pierces the anterior layer of the triangular
ligament and divides into the artery to the corpus cavernosum and artery to the
dorsum of the penis ; it is accompanied by the pudic nerve, which divides in like
manner. Posteriorly this space is open, not being closed by any fascia except that
lining the under or superficial surface of the levator ani muscle in the ischiorectal
fossa. In the mid-line the continuation of the longitudinal fibres of the rectum
called the prerectal or recto-urethralis muscle blend with the fibres of the deep
transverse perineal muscle.
Practical Application. — The perineum is involved in extravasations of blood
and urine in cases of rupture of the urethra ; also in operations on the deep urethra
and bladder for the retention of urine from stricture ; also in operations for vesical
calculus, enlarged prostate, and disease of the seminal vesicles..
Extravasation of Urine and Blood. — Urinary extravasation results most often
from stricture and occurs almost always in front of the anterior layer of the triangular
ligament. The urine enters the superficial perineal space and is confined superficially
by CoUes's fascia and beneath by the triangular ligament. It is prevented from
going back into the ischiorectal space by the union of Colles's fascia and the triangu-
lar ligament posterior to the superficial transverse perineal muscles ; it is prevented
from extending laterally by the attachment of Colles's fascia to the ischiopubic rami ;
hence it works its way forward, distends the scrotum, and follows the spermatic cord
up over the crest of the pubis between the spine of the pubis and the median line.
Reaching the surface of the abdomen it is prevented from descending on the thigh
by the attachment of the deep layer of the superficial fascia (Scarpa's fascia) just
below Poupart's ligament, so it flows laterally and makes a collection in the flank of
each side above the iliac crests. It may also infiltrate the penis as far forward as the
glans. The septum in the median line of the abdomen, perineum, and scrotum
hinders but does not prevent the passage of the urine from one side to the other.
In treating it, numerous free incisions are made down to the deep fascia.
Rupture of the Urethra. — This is produced by falling astride a hard object
and jamming the urethra against the subpubic arch, or it results from stricture.
The rupture almost always involves the urethra just in front of the triangular ligament
and sometimes a part of the membranous urethra. The superficial perineal space
becomes infiltrated with blood, and if urine is passed it follows the blood, collecting
between Colles's fascia and the triangular ligament.
If the membranous urethra is ruptured the blood and especially the urine may
escape into the deep perineal space between the layers of the triangular ligament. It
may break or leak through the anterior layer and enter the superficial perineal space ;
it may work backward into the ischiorectal regions ; it may work up and back
between the prostate and rectum or breaking through the deep layer of the triangu-
lar ligament it may work up and anterior behind the symphysis pubis, in the pre-
vesical space (of Retzius) between the peritoneum and transversalis fascia (see Fig.
476). Ruptured urethra is treated by perineal section or by a retained catheter.
Perineal SectioJi and Median Lithotomy. — In these operations the bladder is
entered through an incision in the median line into the bulbomembranous urethra.
They are done to divide deep strictures, to allow the urine to escape in extravasation
and rupture of the urethra, to remove foreign bodies and calculi from the bladder, and
to remove enlargements of the prostate gland. The incision is to be made through
the raphe in the median line ; ordinarily it does not begin farther forward than 3 cm.
( I ^ in. ) in front of the anus. As the central point of the perineum is 2 cm. in
front of the anus the incision passes through it and divides the posterior fibres of the
bulbocavernosus muscle but involves little if at all the erectile tissue of the bulb.
There is little bleeding if the incision is kept in the median line. The urethra is
entered about 2.5 cm. (i in.) from the surface, and the knife passed upward and
back through the membranous and prostatic urethra into the bladder, a distance of
6. 25 to 7. 5 cm. (2^ to 3 in. ) from the surface. In fat people or those with enlarged
prostates one may be unable to reach the interior of the bladder with the finger.
The membranous and prostatic urethra is distensible, so that when the former is
opened the finger can be introduced and pushed into the bladder. In children the
47^^^^^^^^^ APPLIED ANATt3tf?^^^^^^^^^^^^
urethra may be too small to permit the entrance of the finger and a Ijlunt guide is
introduced, along which forceps may be passed to extract any foreign body, in
Cock' s operation for retention of urine the index finger of one hand is introduced
through the rectum and its tip placed at the apex of the prostate. A straight knife is
then inserted 2.5 cm. (i in.) in front of the anus and pushed up and inward into the
urethra, being guided by the finger in the rectum. (For removal of enlarged
prostate see page 450. )
Lateral Lithotomy. — The incision is begun to the left of the median line 3
cm. (iJE^ in.) in front of the anus and carried outward and back midway between
the anus and tuberosity of the ischium. The knife is pushed steadily on until it enters
the groove in the stafl and thence backward into the bladder. The artery to the
bulb is to be avoided by not going more than 3 cm. in front of the anus. The rec-
tum is to be avoided by having it empty, by hooking the staff in the urethra well up
to the pubic arch, thus drawing the urethra up, and by inclining the knife obliquely
outward. The internal pudic artery is to be avoided by keeping away from the ramus
Of the ischium. Too free an incision of the prostate is bad because urinary infiltration
is liable to occur in the pelvic fascia, also an accessory pudic artery, which if present
may run along the side of the prostate, may thus be wounded. Usually the bleeding
is slight and comes from the division of the superficial transverse perineal and branches
of the inferior hemorrhoidal arteries and the prostatic plexus of veins. (For Perineal
Prostatectomy see page 450 and Seminal Vesicles page 452.)
Anal Triangle and Ischiorectal Region. — The anal triangle is made by the
superficial transverse perineal muscles forming its base and the tip of the coccyx its
apex. It contains the anal canal with the ischiorectal fossae on each side.
The ischiorectal fossa is wedge-shaped, its base, extending between the tuber-
osity of the ischium and the anus, is about 2.5 cm. (i in.) in breadth, and its apex
extends up 5 to 7.5 cm. (2 to 3 in. ), to the junction of the levator ani and internal
obturator muscles. Its inner wall is formed by the levator ani and coccygeus muscles
and its outer wall by the obturator internus muscle. Its deepest extreme posterior
portion constitutes Xh^o. posterior recess. This communicates superficially, beneath the
coccygeal attachment of the external sphincter, with the fossa of the opposite side
(see Fig. 475, page 473).
The anterior recess (pubic, Waldeyer) runs forward between the prostate gland
internally and the ischiopubic ramus externally ; the deep and superficial transverse
perinei muscles and the deep layer of the triangular ligament are superficial to it.
The ititernal pudic vessels and pudic nerve lie^on the internal obturator muscle
and ramus of the ischium in a fibrous canal formed by the obturator fascia. It is
called Alcock' s canal 2ind is 4 cm. (i^ in.) above the tuberosity.
^\iQ. inferior hemorrhoidal vessels and nerves enter the ischiorectal fossa at its
posterior and outer side and run on the surface of the levator ani muscle toward the
anus. The superjicial peri7ieal \ess&\s and nerves enter the fossa anteriorly and imme-
diately pierce the posterior edge of the superficial perineal (Colics' s) fascia to supply
the structures between it and the superficial layer of the triangular ligament.
Practical Application. — The principal affection of the ischiorectal fossa is abscess.
This is probably started by violence and infected from the rectum. It commonly
tends to point through the skin or open into the rectum. On account of its ten-
dency to burrow it is to be opened early. This is done by making an incision of
ample size through the skin and then opening the abscess by blunt dissection in
order to empty all pockets. Bleeding is usually slight because the vessels lie deep
and escape being wounded. Should the abscess not break externally it may do so
internally. If superficial it pierces the anal canal between the external and internal
sphincters and makes an opening at about the white line. If it is very deep it may
open into the ampulla of the rectum above the internal sphincter (see page 443)-
It is more common for pus to burrow down into the ischiorectal space through the
levator ani than it is for it to burrow up from the ischiorectal fossa (Tuttle). There-
fore in extensive ischiorectal abscesses communicating with the interior of the pelvis
one should look for the origin of the trouble above. An abscess on one side is liable
to be followed by one on the other and pus quite commonly crosses the median line
posterior to the anus.
THE BACK AND SPINE.
477
THE BACK AND SPINE.
SURFACE ANATOMY.
On examining the back of a person standing upright a mediayi furrow is seen
(Fig. 477). In the bottom of this the tips of the spinous processes can be feh. If the
back is bent these processes can be distinctly seen; they should form a straight line.
The second cervical spine can be felt by deep pressure in a relaxed neck. The sixth
is usually the first one visible and the seventh cervical and first dorsal are very promi-
nent, often the latter the more so. The furrow ends abruptly at the top of the sacrum.
From this point down to near the top of the gluteal fold is a tjiangidar space with
its base above and apex downward. Its apex marks the third sacral spine, and just
above this latter, opposite the second sacral spine, on each side can be felt the posterior
superior iliac spines. The erector spince (sacrolumbalis) muscles form elevations on
each side of the furrow, most marked in the lumbar region. In muscular people the
erector spinse is seen to consist of two parts : an inner longissimus dorsi muscle, and
an outer iliocostalis. Above, the projections of the scapulce are visible. If the arms
Seventh cervical
Outer end of clavicle
Acromion process
Root of spine of scapula
Median furrow
AnKle of scapula
Depression along outer
edge of erector spinas
Mass of erector spinas
muscles
Posterior superior
spine of ilium
Third sacral spine
Fig. 477. — Surface anatomy of the back.
are by the sides the posterior border of the scapula is parallel to the median line.
The root of the spine of the scapula in a muscular person makes a depression. It is
opposite the third dorsal spine or the body of the fourth thoracic vertebra, and marks
the upper end of the fissure of the lungs. The spine of the scapula is subcutaneous
and can be traced out to the acromion process. The lower angle of the scapula is
opposite the upper border of the eighth rib; the upper angle covers the second rib
but its tip is level with the first.
In the lumbar region the erector spinse muscle forms a clearly marked promi-
nence. The twelfth rib usually projects beyond its outer edge, which is marked by a
depression separating it from the abdominal muscles in front. It is through this
depression that operations on the kidney are performed (see page 428). The dis-
tance between the twelfth rib and crest of the ilium is usually 6. 25 cm. (2^ in. ) but it
may be more and is often less. Just above the middle of the crest of the ilium is
Petit' s triangle (page 394); and to the inner side of the lower third of the poste-
478
APPLIED ANATOMY.
rior edge of the scapula is another small triangle. Its upper side is formed by the
trapezius, its lower by the latissimus dorsi, and its outer by the posterior edge of the
scapula. As the lung is nearest the surface at this point it is often chosen for physical
examination, puncture, etc.
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN.
Normally the spinal column is composed of seven cervical, twelve dorsal, five
lumbar, five sacral, and four to five coccygeal vertebrae. The sacral vertebrae tend
to fuse together, forming a single bone, the sacrum. This fusion is complete at the
twenty-fifth year. The coccygeal vertebrae join later, fusion occurring in middle life.
Sometimes in advanced age the coccyx and sacrum
fuse together. The cervical vertebrae are almost
always seven in number, but both the dorsal and
lumbar vary much more frequently than is usually
supposed. The occurrence of thirteen instead of
twelve ribs on a side is not uncommon and I have
seen skeletons with only eleven. A rudimentary
cervical rib also occasionally occurs.
The tips of the spinous processes of the cervical
vertebrae, the first two dorsal, and last four lumbar,
pass almost horizontally backward and are there-
fore nearly opposite the bodies of the vertebrae to
which they are attached. The tips of the spines
from the third to the last dorsal inclusive, however,
are opposite the bodies of the next vertebrae below
them, being inclined downward, while the tip of the
first lumbar is about opposite the intervertebral disk
beneath.
Ciarves. — At the third month of intra-uterine
life there is only one large curve, convex poste-
riorly. At birth there are two curves, each convex
posteriorly, a dorsal and sacral, probably to accom-
modate the thoracic and pelvic viscera; after the
erect position is assumed the cervical and lumbar
curves become established. The cervical passes
into the dorsal curve at the middle of the second
thoracic vertebra and the dorsal into the lumbar at
the middle of the last thoracic vertebra. (Fig.
478). Laterally, there is a slight curve in the
dorsal region with its convexity to the right, prob-
ably due to the increased use of the right hand.
Movements. — Flexion and extension are free
in the neck and lumbar region, rotation is slight in
the cervical region, free in the upper portion of the
dorsal, and gradually diminishes to be absent in the
lumbar region.
I. lumbar
I. sacral
■I. coccygeal
DEFORMITIES OF THE SPINAL COLUMN.
Fig. 478. — Lateral view of the adult spine,
showing its curves. (Piersol.)
The weight of the head is borne on the condyles
of the occiput, and a perpendicular let fall from the
condyles passes through the points where the spinal
curves pass one into the other and thence through the anterior edge of the promontory
of the sacrum. Hence if one curve is altered by injury or disease it is of necessity
accompanied by a corresponding change in the curve on the opposite side of the
perpendicular line. The first is called the primary curve and the other the second-
ary one. In anteroposterior curvatures these curves are exaggerations of the normal
curves but in lateral curvatures they are newly formed because there is, practically,
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN.
479
no normal lateral curve in the spinal column. The spine may project abnormally
backward, forming a kyphosis; forward, lordosis; and more or less laterally, scoliosis.
Kyphosis. — The vertebrae are supported one above another by two points of
contact, a posterior one, formed by the articular processes, and an anterior one, formed
by the bodies of the vertebrae separated by the intervertebral disks. Of these two
supports, that afjforded by the bodies and disks is the more important. The laminae
and pedicles with their attached articular processes are frequently fractured, but the
shape of the vertebral column is but little altered; even after laminectomy the spine
remains comparatively straight. When, however, the bodies of the vertebrae are
destroyed, as occurs in tuberculous disease and crushing injuries, the anterior portion
of the spine collapses and the parts bend, the spines projecting backward forming a
hump (Fig. 479). Thus the angular character of the deformity is explained by the
method of construction of the spine.
Besides this angtdar kyphosis there is another form, due to general weakness.
This is seen in rachitic children ; owing to a weakness of all the tissues the normal
curves become increased and, as in young children, the normal spine has one long
general cur\'e with its convexity posteriorly, we find this cur\e greatly increased,
forming a rachitic kyphosis.
Lordosis. — When a child is born and for some time thereafter the spine pos-
sesses a slight dorsal and a pelvic curve. When it sits up and begins to hold its
head erect and look around, the cervical curve develpps. Still later when it begins
w
Fig. 479. — Kyphosis or angular
anteroposterior curvature, usually
due to caries of the bodies of the
vertebrae.
Fig. 480. — Lordosis or hollow
back, caused by congenital luxa-
tion of the hips.
Fig. 481 . — Scoliosis or lateral cur.
vature of the spine.
to walk the lumbar curve develops. An increase in the lumbar curve, or lordosis,
is caused by general weakness as just described for rachitic kyphosis, or it results
from some disease or injury interfering with the lower extremities and thus disturbing
the centre of gravity. This occurs in congenital luxation of the hips (Fig. 480), in
which the heads of the femurs are set too far back, and also in rachitic deformities
of the lower extremities, hip disease, etc. Likewise, if the abdominal viscera are
unduly prominent, the thoracic region is carried further back to maintain the bal-
ance, and hence a hollow back is produced. Ankylosis of the hip in a flexed
position causes lordosis when the limb is brought straight down as in walking.
Therefore in cases of lordosis one should remember that it is a secondary condition
dependent on diseased conditions of the viscera or extremities and is comparatively
rarely an independent affection.
Scoliosis. — A normal spine is either absolutely straight or very slightly convex
to the right in the dorsal region, probably due to the increased use of the right hand.
While scoliosis is called lateral curvature of the spine, it is not a simple lateral
bending, but is a complex distortion (Fig. 481). R. W. Lovett has show^n that a
flexible straight rod can be bent in one plane either anteroposteriorly or laterally, but
48o
APPLIED ANATOMY.
that a curved rod cannot be bent laterally without twisting or rotating Inasmuch
as the human spine is curved convexly backward in the dorsal region and convexly
forward in the lumbar region, lateral bending is accompanied by rotation of the
vertebrae and their attached ribs. The bodies of the vertebrae are carried toward the
side of the convexity of the curve and the ribs on that side project backward, pro-
ducing a marked hump and often an elevation of the shoulder. As a primary cur\e
forms, an attempt is made to restore equilibrium by bending the remaining portion of
the spine in the opposite direction, hence the curves, if of long duration, are double
or compound, and these secondary curves are called compensating curves. Marked
lumbar curves are usually accompanied by prominence of the hip on the side of the
convexity, but the pelvis usually remains level. Should the length of the limbs be
unequal, allowing tilting of the pelvis, the prominence of the hip would be on the
side of concavity. It is obvious that the weight of the body tends to aggravate
these pathological curves. The treatment of scoliosis is directed to correcting these
faulty curves by exercises and appliances intended to support and stretch the body
on the contracted or depressed side and restore the tone and power to the relaxed
muscles and tissues of the opposite side.
Spina Bifida. — The spinal canal is formed by the laminae of the vertebrae
arching over and uniting posteriorly. This union begins in the dorsal region and
progresses towards the head and sacral regions.
Failure of union constitutes spina bifida. It is
most frequent in the lumbar and sacral regions.
Usually a sac formed of the spinal membranes
protrudes and contains the spinal cord flattened
out like a strap passing down on its posterior sur-
face, but sometimes the sac contains no nervous
elements. Frequently the sac is so thin that it
soon inflames, ruptures, and allows escape of the
cerebrospinal fluid, and death ensues from menin-
gitis. The parts below are not infrequently para-
lyzed and hydrocephalus may coexist. Operative
procedures have been frequently successful in
mild cases, but in extensive lesions they have
been quite fatal, and even when primarily suc-
cessful may be followed by the development of
hydrocephalus.
AFFECTIONS OF THE SPINAL
COLUMN.
Caries of the Spine. — While caries of any
part of the vertebrae may occur from injury, it is
almost always the result of tuberculous disease
in the bodies ; the pedicles, laminae, and proc-
esses remain unaffected. As the bodies become
destroyed the anterior portion of the spine col-
lapses, and this causes a projection of the spines
of the affected vertebrae posteriorly or kyphosis.
This projection of one or more spinous processes
is the surest indication of spinal caries or Pott's
disease.
There is also rigidity of the affected region.
This is recognized by the attitude assumed and
by having the patient, if an adult, bend the back
anteroposteriorly. Small children should be
placed flat on a table, face down, and then gradu-
ally raised by the feet. If the spine is normal the child will readily bend in the lumbar
and lumbodorsal regions. The movable regions, embracing the cervicodorsal and dor-
solumbar vertebrae, are the sites most frequently affected. Distention of the abdomen
Fig. 482. — Psoas abscess originating from
spinal caries of the dorsolumbar vertebne
and following the psoas muscle to the groin.
(From a sketch by the author of a specimen
in the Mutter Museum of the College of
Physicians).
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN. 481
and pain occur from involvement of the spinal nerves. The tenth dorsal nerve
arrives anteriorly at the level of the umbilicus, the twelfth is midway between the
umbilicus and symphysis and also sends an iliac cutaneous branch a couple of inches
behind the anterior superior spine to the skin of the buttock, and below and in front
of the great trochanter. The abdomen above the external inguinal ring is supplied
by the hypogastric branch of the iliohypogastric from the first lumbar.
Psoas abscess is common. The psoas muscle arises from the lower border of
the body of the twelfth dorsal and the bodies of all the lumbar vertebrae. The pre-
vertebral fascia covering the bodies of the vertebrae is continued downward over the
psoas muscle as its sheath. Therefore when pus forms in the bone it enters the
sheath and follows it downward under Poupart's ligament, usually just outside, but
sometimes, as it gets still lower down, to the inside of the femoral vessels (Fig. 482).
At other times it works its way backward and points in the angle between the erector
spinae muscle and the twelfth rib, or along the edge of the erector spinae lower down,
or a little farther out above the top of the middle of the crest of the ilium at Petit' s
triangle (see page 394). It may also find an exit through the great sacrosciatic
notch and point on the posterior aspect of the thigh. Pus originating in the cervical
region produces retropharyngeal abscesses, which, if involving the second to the
fifth cervical vertebrae, may either point in the pharynx or work outward to the
posterior edge of the sternomastoid muscle (see page 156).
INJURIES OF THE SPINAL COLUMN.
The vertebrae may be dislocated and fractured.
Dislocation is rarer than fracture ; it is most common in the cervical region.
The cervical vertebrae have their articular facets sloping downward and backward,
hence dislocation occurs when the upper vertebrae are pushed in front of the lower.
Mastoid process
Transverse process
of atlas
Second cervical
vertebra
Fig. 483. — Anterior view, showing relation Fig. 484. — Lateral view, showing relation of transverse
of transverse process of atlas to tip of mastoid process of atlas to tip of mastoid process.
process
The cervical spine normally has but slight rotation, hence when luxated one articu-
lar surface is rotated or pushed over and in front of the one below, the opposite
articular surface acting as the axis and the distance between the two articulations as
the radius of the arch in which the luxated parts move. The elevation of the lux-
ated articular process over the one below is favored by the bending of the spine
above toward the opposite side. The head is rotated and inclined toward the un-
injured side. Bilateral luxation is rare without associated fracture. It is produced
by anterior flexion, and the head and neck are inclined forward while the lower
vertebra of the dislocated joints inclines backward, producing a kyphotic condition.
Luxation affects most often the fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical vertebrae. The
atlas may be dislocated forward or backward by rupture of the transverse ligament,
fracture of the odontoid process, or by a slipping of the process under the ligament.
Luxation of the atlas laterally is very rare, owing to there being normally a total
rotation of 60 degrees.
31
482
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The upper three vertebrae can be palpated on their anterior surfaces by the finger
introduced into the mouth.
Posteriorly the second, third, and fourth spines are too deeply placed between
the muscles to be palpated.
To reduce the luxation an anaesthetic is given to relax the muscles, and cautious
extension is made and the head gently rotated.
Fracture of the spine is frequently associated with luxation. It is most frequent
low down in the cervical region and at the junction of the dorsal and lumbar ver-
tebrae, these being the places where the
more fixed dorsal portion passes into the
more movable cervical and lumbar por-
tions (Fig. 485). The vertebrae are sup-
ported at three points — the bodies and the
two articular processes. The spinous and
articular processes are rarely fractured
alone; they may be broken, however, by
direct violence. The laminae on each side
of the articular processes may be broken
and the detached part with the spinous
process may be pushed inward, injuring the
cord. Fracture of the bodies is most fre-
quent and is due to anterior flexion. The
bodies and intervertebral disks are com-
pressed, crushed, and torn. This is accom-
panied by either luxation or fracture of the
articular processes, and occurs most often
in the region of the lower dorsal vertebrae.
Injury to the cord is common. The parts
are not often fixed in a markedly displaced
position, as is the case with luxations of the
neck, hence attempts at reduction are rarely
necessary and fixation is to be aimed for in
treatment. The site of injury is determined
not only by an examination of the spinous processes but also by the extent of inter-
ference with the functions of the cord (see page 483).
Pedicle
Articulation
, Fig. 485. — Showing the method of articulation
of the eleventh and twelfth dorsal and the first and
second lumbar vertebrae.
SPINAL CORD AND ITS MEMBRANES.
The spinal cord in the male is 45 cm. (18 in.) long. In the foetus of three
months the cord extends to the end of' the spinal canal; at birth it has risen to the
third lumbar vertebra, and in the adult it is opposite the lower border of the first.
It will thus be seen that the point of exit of the spinal nerves from the cord is always
some distance higher up than their exit from the intervertebral foramina. The cord
is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions, the cervical enlargement ending
opposite the second dorsal, and the lumbar enlargement beginning about opposite
the tenth dorsal vertebra and decreasing gradually. These enlargements correspond
with the origin of the nerves to the upper and lower extremities.
The spinal cord is divided into so-called segments. These are thirty-one in
number ; eight are cervical, twelve thoracic, five lumbar, five sacral, and one coccy-
geal. Each segment embraces that portion of the cord which gives exit to one pair
of anterior or motor root fibres and receives one pair of posterior or sensory root
fibres. These segments are a variable distance above the point of exit of the nerves
from the bony spinal column. Besides motor and sensory functions they exercise
control over certain reflex movements and functions. The control of the bladder and
rectum is located in the fifth and sixth sacral segments; the cremasteric reflex is gov-
erned by the first and second lumbar ; the plantar or Babinski reflex by the first to
third sacral, as is also ankle clonus; and the patella reflex by the second and third
lumbar segments. They likewise exert a trophic influence, and the appearing of
bed or pressure sores without ample cause is presumptive evidence of a spinal lesion
of the segments supplying the part.
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN.
483
TRANSVERSE SPINAL LESIONS.
In endeavoring to localize transverse lesions of the cord, such as result from
traumatism, tumors, etc., one must bear in mind that the spinal nerves originate from
segments in the cord some distance above where they make their exit from the spinal
Fig. 486. — Diagram of distribution of cutaneous nerves, based on figures of Hasse and of Cunningham. On
right side, areas supplied by indicated nerves are shown; on left side, points at which nerves pierce the deep fascia.
V, V-, V\ divisions of fifth cranial nerve; GA, great auricular; GO, SO, greater and smaller occipital; SC, super-
ficial cervical; St, CI, Ac, sternal, clavicular, and acromial branches of supraclavicular {ScD; Ci, circumflex:
MS, musculospiral ; IH, intercostohumeral; LlC, IC, lesser internal and internal cutaneous; EC, external
cutaneous; IH, iliohypogastric; //, ilio-inguinal; T'^, last thoracic; GC, genitocrural; EC, external cutaneous;
MC, middle cutaneous; /C" internal cutaneous; P, pudic; 5S, small sciatic; O, obturator; C, T, L, and S, cervical,
thoracic, lumbar, and spinal nerves. (Piersol.)
foramina. Chipault (quoted by Starr) gives the following practical rule: "In the
cervical region add one to the number of the vertebra, and this will give the segment
opposite to it. In the upper dorsal region add two; from the sixth to the eleventh
APPLIED ANATOMY.
dorsal vertebra add three. The lower part of the eleventh dorsal spinous process
and the space below it are opposite the lower three lumbar segments. The twelfth
dorsal spinous process and the space below it are opposite the sacral segments." The
spinal cord ends at the lower part of the first lumbar vertebra.
The areas of cutaneous sensibility aid in determining the seat of the lesion. The
nerves supplying these various areas are shown in Fig. 486.
Lesions above the fourth cervical nerve are very speedily fatal. The muscular
paralyses, as guides to the seat of the lesion in the cervical region, are given by
Thorburn as follows:
Supraspinatus and infraspinatus .
Teres minor (?)
f Biceps
\ Brachialis anticus
Deltoid
Supinator longus
Supinator brevis (?)
Subscapularis
Pronators
Teres major
Latissimus dorsi
Pectoralis major
( Triceps
\ Serratus magnus
Extensors of the wrist ....
Flexors of the wrist
Interossei
Other intrinsic muscles of the hand
Fourth cervical nerve.
Fifth cervical nerve.
Sixth cervical nerve.
Seventh cervical nerve.
Eighth cervical nerve.
V First dorsal nerve.
In fractures of the dorsal region Thorburn has shown that the lesion is usually
two vertebrae higher than the nerve coming out from below the displaced vertebra.
They cause paralysis of the abdominal muscles, legs, bladder, and rectum.
According to Starr, fractures in the region of the last two dorsal vertebrae cause
anaesthesia up to Poupart's ligament, and if the patient recovers the thighs remain
paralyzed. In fractures of the upper part of the lumbar region the paralysis may be
limited to the legs below the knees but involves the bladder and rectum. Recovery
leaves the patient with some power of getting about on crutches with the aid of
apparatus to keep the ankles and knees firm, as the thighs are under voluntary
control.
Lesions below the first lumbar, those of the cauda equina, give paralysis of
the feet and peronei, loss of control of the bladder and rectum, and anaesthesia in the
saddle-shaped area on the buttocks, about the anus, and on the posterior part of the
genitals.
The diagnosis between lesions of the cauda equina and lower portion of the cord
is not always possible. The prognosis of lesions of the cauda equina is, of course,
much better than when the cord itself has been injured.
SPINAL MENINGES.
The cord is covered by a continuation downward of the cerebral meninges. It
has a dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater.
Dura Mater. — The outer or endosteal layer of the cerebral dura mater ends
posteriorly at the edge of the foramen magnum but anteriorly at the third cervical
vertebra. The inner or meningeal layer continues downward as a tough fibrous tube
from the foramen magnum to the second or third sacral vertebra, and thence is pro-
longed downward as a fibrous cord (coccygeal ligament) to be attached to the peri-
osteum over the coccyx. The dura mater in the spine does not, as in the skull, act
as a periosteum. The vertebrae have a separate periosteum in addition. Between the
dura mater and the bodies of the vertebrae is a somewhat loose space filled with fat,
fibrils of connective tissue, and a venous plexus. In injuries these vessels are ruptured
and bleed and give rise to clots; the blood, however, does not get inside the mem-
branes and the effusion rarely assumes a sufficient size to produce compression of the
cord. These veins pierce the ligamentum subflavum and thus communicate with
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN.
48s
the dorsal spinal veins. The dura
mater is almost never torn in in-
juries even though the cord may be
crushed (Fig. 487).
Arachnoid. — The arachnoid
of the spinal cord is a stouter mem-
brane than the cerebral arachnoid.
Above it is continuous with the cer-
ebral arachnoid at the foramen mag-
num. Below it blends with the dura
at about the level of the third sacral
vertebra. Thus it is seen that while
the cord itself ends at the lower bor-
der of the first lumbar vertebra the
subarachnoid cavity is prolonged
nearly or quite to the third sacral.
As in the brain, the cavity between
the arachnoid and the dura above is
slight, the two membranes being
practically in contact, so that there
is almost no subdural space. Be-
tween the arachnoid and pia, how-
ever, there is a considerable cavity
which is continuous with the same
space beneath the cerebral arachnoid.
It communicates with the fourth
ventricle just above the calamus
scriptorius by the foramen of Ma-
gendie in the median line, and at the
sides by the foramina of Key and
Retzius, and also by slits at the de-
scending horns of the lateral ventri-
cles. Hence it is that the ventricular
fluid can be drained by a lumbar
puncture.
Through this subarachnoid
space pass the septum posticum be-
hind and the ligamenta denticulata
on each side from the pia to the
dura mater. It is also traversed by
the anterior and posterior roots of
the spinal nerves, the former being in
front and the latter behind the liga-
mentuni denticulatum. The arach-
noid contains neither vessels nor
nerves (Fig. 488).
Pia Mater. — The spinal pia
mater is thin and closely invests the
cord. It carries the blood-vessels
of the cord and sends prolongations
posteriorly to the dura as the septum
posticum, laterally as the two liga-
menta denticulata, and also around
the anterior and posterior roots of
the spinal nerves.
Spinal Vessels. — Three ar-
teries supply the spinal cord, an a7ite-
rior spinal in the median line of the
anterior surface and two posterior
Skull
Pedicles, cut ■
Medulla
Pedicles.
XII T-
Pedicles<
iQ
^
' Laminae, cut
.Transverse
processes
-Dural sheath
dr-
-zln
. End of
dural sheath
Posterior
divisions of
sacral nerves4
Sheath of filum ■
(I«Mj
End of filum
, Coccyx
Fig. 487. — Spinal cord enclosed in unopened dural sheath
lying within vertebral canal; neural arches completely removed
on right side, partially on left, to expose dorsal aspect of dura;
first and last nerves of cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral
groups are indicated by Italic figures; corresponding vertebrae
by Roman numerals. (Piersol.)
APPLIED ANATOMY.
• Pons
• Arachnoid
Spinal just behind the posterior spinal roots (Fig. 489). The veins are more numer-
ous. They consist of three sets or plexuses, one on the cord in the meshes of the
pia mater, another in the spinal canal between the dura mater and the bone, and
the third on and around the outside of the vertebras. The veins on the cord
in the anterior and posterior median fissures communicate above with the veins
of the medulla. The lateral veins empty through the radicular veins which accom-
pany the spinal nerve roots. The veins
in the spinal canal form anterior and
posterior plexuses between the dura
and bone and communicate with the
extraspinal plexuses around the laminae
and spinous processes posteriorly (dorsi-
spinal veins) and the plexus around
the bodies anteriorly.
Spinal Hemorrhage. — Spinal
hemorrhages, though sometimes caused
by disease, are usually the result of in-
jury. They frequently accompany frac-
tures and dislocations. They may be
either extradural, intradural, or in the
cord — hsematomyelia. They exist either
coincident with the original injury or
appear within a few hours.
Spinal hemorrhages are rarely large
and those in the substance of the cord
are the more common. They are usu-
ally venous. Extradtiral hemorrhage
comes from the plexuses between the
dura and bone and the clot may extend
through the intervertebral foramina. It
is usually of small extent and practically
does not produce paralysis from pressure
on the cord, hence operation for its
relief is useless. Jntradural hemorrhage
comes from the vessels of the pia and
may invade not only the subarachnoid
but also the subdural space. It may
remain localized at the site of injury
or the blood may sink and fill a con-
siderable portion of the spinal canal.
Owing to the looseness of the cord in its
dural sheath the hemorrhage spreads
and does not usually give rise to pressure
symptoms, hence operation is rarely ad-
visable. Large hemorrhage sometimes comes down from cerebral apoplexy or injuries.
Hcsmatomyelia. — Hemorrhage into the substance of the cord may be caused by
extension or accompany the contusion due to dislocation or fracture. The paralysis
which follows serious injuries of the spine is usually due to hemorrhage into the gray
or white matter of the cord. The gray matter being the softer is the more frequently
affected, the blood penetrating it for quite a distance. Hemorrhage into the gray
matter destroys it and produces an incurable paralysis. When into the white matter
restoration of function through absorption may occur in from four to six weeks. In
either case operation usually is of no service. The location of the hemorrhage will
be revealed by the interference with the functions of the cord. The hemorrhage can
occur in the form of a column of blood infiltrating the gray matter of several seg-
ments in one or both directions from the starting-point. The longer extension is
usually toward the brain. It is usually limited to one side of the cord. Generally in
small and sometimes in large hemorrhages the effect is mainly mechanical, but espe-
cially large hemorrhages may be surrounded by areas of softening.
-^
Anterior
roots of
spinal nerves
_Dura,
' reflected
Spinal cord,
covered with
. arachnoid
' and pia
Fig. 488.^ — Upper part of spinal cord within dural
sheath, which has been opened and turned aside; ligamenta
denticulata and nerve-roots are shown as they pass out-
ward to dura. (Piersol.)
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN.
487
FUNCTIONS OF THE CORD AND SPINAL LOCALIZATION.
T\\Q. direct or anterior pyramidal tract is motor; the impulse coming from the
cerebral cortex passes down the spinal cord on the same side and thence to the ante-
rior horn of the opposite side to supply mainly the muscles of the arm and trunk.
The crossed or lateral pyramidal tract transmits motor impulses coming from the
cortex which cross in the lower part of the medulla and descend on the opposite side.
It supplies muscles on the same side as that on which the tract is. The direct cere-
bellar tract conveys impressions of equilibrium. The atiterolateral tract (ascending
tract of Gowers) conveys impressions of temperature and pain. The vestibulospinal
tract — (descending tract of Lowenthal) is an indirect motor path.
Lissa7ier s tract is composed of ascending fibres from the posterior nerve-roots.
The posterolateral (column of Burdach) conveys common sensation. The postero-
median (column of Goll) conveys muscular sense.
ANTERIOR
AMTCRIOn
UATEBAL
ARTERIES
Fig. 489. — Diagram of the spinal cord in the lower cervical region, with its blood-vessels.
Pyraynidal Tract. — Motor paralysis below, spastic condition of paralyzed area,
exaggerated reflexes ; contractures ; degeneration downward.
Posterior Columns. — Sensory disturbances ; ataxia ; sensation of temperature
and pain diminished ; reflexes abolished ; upward degeneration of postero-internal
column.
Anterior Horn. — Motor paralysis ; muscle atrophy ; reflexes abolished ; degen-
eration descends and muscles show reaction of degeneration.
Posterior 'Hor7i. — Sensory disturbances or anaesthesia, such as follows lesion of
posterior column.
Anterior Root. — Same as anterior horn.
Posterior Root. — Anaesthesia, if complete ; hyperalgesia and pain if irritative.
Central Canal. — Painful and sensory impressions not properly recognized, while
tactile or contact impressions are unaffected ; joint dystrophies.
One Lateral Half. — Brown-S^quard syndrome ; complete loss of power below on
the same side as lesion and slight loss of power below on opposite side ; anaesthesia
complete on opposite side below lesion.
LESIONS OF THE CORD.
The lesions affecting priyicipally the gray matter of the cord are anterior polio-
myelitis, syringomyelia, progressive muscular atrophy, and arthritic muscular atrophy.
Anterior Poliomyelitis. — In anterior poliomyelitis or infantile paralysis the
lesion is mainly in the anterior horn and is evidenced by a paralysis of the muscles
488
APPLIED ANATOMY.
solved,
rophy, and the abolishi
^ of the reflexes. The deform ilT^" seen are
secondary results of the paralysis.
Syringomyelia is an acquired enlarg-ement of the central canal or the formation
of new canals in the gray matter. It produces motor, sensory, and trophic disturb-
ances which vary according to the part of the cord attacked.
Progressive Muscular Atrophy (Duchenne's Disease). — The atrophy begins
most often in the hands and extends to other parts of the body. Then occurs an
atrophy of the gray substance of the anterior horns which may extend to the brain ;
even the white substance of the direct and crossed pyramidal tracts may also show
degeneration. There is a type in which there is a lack of demonstrable cord lesions.
Among its various forms are those called pseudomuscular hypertrophy, progressive
muscular dystrophies (Erb), and primitive progressive myopathies (Charcot).
Arthritic Muscular Atrophy. — Disease of the joints often results in marked
disturbance of the gray matter of the cord, which in turn is followed by muscular
atrophy (Church: Church and Peterson, Nervous and Mental Diseases, page 38).
Lesions Affecting Principally the White Matter of the Cord. — The principal
lesions affecting the white matter are lateral sclerosis, locomotor ataxia, combined
posterolateral sclerosis, Friedreich's ataxia, and hereditary spastic paraplegia.
Lateral sclerosis, or spastic paraplegia, is almost unknown as a primary
affection. It is a sclerosis of the pyramidal tracts. It occurs as a secondary
degeneration, the result of cerebral disease, producing the spastic paraplegia of
infants — Little's disease — and also follows transverse lesions of the spine from tumors,
caries, fractures, etc.
Locomotor ataxia, or tabes dorsalis, when advanced may affect the entire
portion of the cord between the posterior horns and the commissure, from the filum
terminale to the medulla. It begins in Clarke's column (a group of cells in the
posterior horn of the cord extending from the seventh cervical to the second lumbar
nerves) and may involve the direct cerebellar tracts and Govvers's ascending antero-
lateral tracts and also the posterior nerve roots. It produces both motor and sensory
disturbances as well as trophic changes.
Combined Posterolateral Sclerosis — (Ataxic Paraplegia of Cowers). — This
produces symptoms combining spastic paraplegia and locomotor ataxia. The fol-
lowing structures are affected: columns of Burdach, GoU, crossed pyramidal tract,
direct pyramidal tract, and not always the ascending tract of Gowers.
Friedreich's ataxia (family or hereditary ataxia) is a progressive paralysis
often appearing through many generations. There is a sclerosis of the columns of
GoU and Burdach, crossed pyramidal tract, Gow-
ers's tract, direct cerebellar tract, Lissauer's tract,
and often atrophy of the cells of Clarke's column.
Hereditary Spastic Paraplegia. — This is
a degeneration of the pyramidal tracts, columns of
Goll and Burdach, and direct cerebellar tract. The
disease has been traced through many generations.
OPERATIONS ON THE SPINE.
Spinal Puncture. — Spinal puncture may be
performed either for diagnostic purposes, for relief
of accumulations of subarachnoid fluid, or for the
purpose of producing spinal anaesthesia.
The lumbar region is usually selected and the
puncture made in the median line or to one side and
either above or below the spine of the fourth lumbar
vertebra. A line passing from the highest point of
the crest of one ilium to that of the opposite side
passes through the lower part of the spine of the fourth lumbar vertebra. The punc-
ture should always be made below the upper border of the second lumbar vertebra,
because the spinal cord extends down to that point (Fig. 490). The lumbar spines
are nearly or quite horizontal and do not incline downward as do those of the cervical
Fig. 490. — Lumbar puncture of the spine.
THE LOWER EXTREMITY. 489
and dorsal reg,ions. The patient should bend the body forward, as by so doing the
space between the vertebrae posteriorly is increased.
The needle used should be from 6.25 cm. (2^ in.) to 10 cm. (4 in.) long, ac-
cording to the age and size of the patient. It should be introduced in the median
line and pushed upward. In its entrance it pierces the muscles, then the ligamentum
subflavum, which passes from one lamina to the other, and finally the dura mater and
arachnoid. Failure is liable to occur either from the patient straightening the spine
when the puncture is made or from failure to enter the spinal membranes owing to
pushing the dura in front of the cannula. A needle enters more readily and surely
than does a small trocar with its cannula. The shoulder formed by the cannula, partic-
ularly if not well made, is apt to push the tough dura ahead of it instead of puncturing.
Laminectomy, — The laminae pass from the transverse and articular processes
to the spinous processes. On each side of the median line the erector spinae muscles
form thick masses and the spinous processes lie in the groove between them. Hence,
in doing a laminectomy, the depth at which the laminae lie is apt to be found much
greater than is expected. An incision is first made directly on the spinous processes
and continued down on each side to the laminae. With a chisel-like periosteal ele-
vator the attachments of the muscles and periosteum are detached from the base of
the spinous processes and laminae as far out as the transverse processes. The bleed-
ing from the muscles is controlled by packing. The laminae may be divided with a
saw inclined inward or the supraspinous, interspinous, and subflava ligaments may be
divided, the spinous processes cut close to their base and removed, and finally the
laminae removed with bone forceps. When the laminae are removed the dura mater
is found separated from the bone by fat and connective tissue. The veins here en-
countered may bleed freely but cease on pressure being made. If necessary the dura
may be opened, in which case the portion of the body toward the head may be low-
ered to prevent too great loss of cerebrospinal fluid. The roots of the spinal nerves
will be found passing out laterally and should if possible be avoided. If the poste-
rior or sensory root is divided it has the same tendency to re-unite as do sensory
nerves elsewhere, but division of the anterior root causes permanent motor paralysis.
The dura and other structures are then sutured without drainage.
THE LOWER EXTREMITY.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS.
The lower extremity is designed to bear the weight of the body and serve as a
means of locomotion.
It is composed of a pelvic girdle, thigh, leg, and foot.
The pelvic girdle serves as the medium of connection of the lower extremity to
the trunk in the same manner as does the shoulder-girdle for the upper extremity.
We saw that prehension, characterized by mobility, was the distinguishing feat-
ure of the upper extremity and that the shoulder-girdle was composed of two bones,
was loosely joined to the trunk, and held the upper extremity out away from it.
The lower extremity on the contrary has two functions, it must bear the weight
of the body and must move this weight around from place to place; hence strength is
essential and a less amount of mobility suffices. To meet these changed conditions the
lower extremity differs in its construction from the upper in the following respects:
1. The pelvic girdle is composed of one bone — the innominate— instead of two.
2. It also forms a part of a complete bony ring instead of being incomplete
posteriorly.
3. It is more firmly joined to the trunk.
4. The hip-joint is placed closer to and in more intimate relation with the trunk
than is the shoulder.
5. The bones of the lower extremity are heavier and stronger than those of the
upper.
6. The joints are larger and stronger, but their movements are not so extensive.
7. The muscles are coarser and their functions are not so highly specialized.
APPLIED ANATOMY.
THE BONY PELVIS.
The pelvis is composed of the pelvic girdle on each side (innominate bones),
and the sacrum and coccyx posteriorly. It serves two purposes. It supports and
protects the abdominal and pelvic viscera, and serves as the connection between the
trunk and the lower limb. It is divided into two parts — the false pelvis, above the
iliopectineal line, and the true pelvis, below the iliopectineal line.
The false pelvis serves to support the abdominal viscera, as its name indicates,
like a basin. In man it is large and flaring because his normal position is upright,
but in the lower animals, as the quadrupeds, whose normal position is horizontal, it
is smaller and less prominent.
The true pelvis contains and protects the pelvic organs and also serves as the
connecting link between the trunk above and the extremity below; hence, as it has
a double function, it has of necessity a composite structure. In order to contain and
protect the pelvic viscera it is made hollow, and in order to support the weight of
the body on the legs it is made strong. The pelvic contents are not exposed to
injury to the same extent as is the brain; therefore, instead of having a complete
covering of bone, like the skull, the bony pelvis is merely a framework comprised
solely of those parts essential to strength.
The pelvis supports the trunk in two postures, the standing and sitting. In the
former the weight is transmitted through the acetabula, and in the latter to the
tuberosities of the ischia. '
MECHANISM OF THE PELVIS.
As was pointed out by Henry Morris ("The Anatomy of the Joints of Man,"
p. 115), the bony pelvis is composed of arches. The two main arches are the
femorosacral and the ischiosacral. These are strengthened by subsidiary arches
which join the extremities of the main arches so as to strengthen and fix them.
Fig. 491. — The femorosacral arch. The main arch
passes upward from one hip- joint to the other through
the sacrum : the subsidiary arch passes downward from one
hip-joint to the other through the pubes.
Fig. 492. — The ischiosacral arch. The main arch
passes upward from one tuberosity of the ischium
through the sacrum down to the opposite tuberosity;
the subsidiary arch passes forward from one tuber-
osity of the ischium through the pubes and back to the
opposite tuberosity.
Femorosacral Arch. — This arch extends from the acetabula on the sides to
the sacrum in the middle, which is its keystone. The weight of the body is trans-
mitted downward through the spine to the sacrum, and then through the two sides
of the femorosacral arch to the heads of the femurs. For an arch to be effective its
two extremities must be firmly anchored, so that they do not separate when pressure
is made on it. In artificial arches, as used in bridges, this separation is guarded
against by a rod running from one extremity to the other, forming a chord of the
arc. In the pelvis this mechanism is impossible, because this " tie-rod" would
THE BONY PELVIS.
491
infringe on the cavity of the pelvis, and it is to obviate this that a counter arch is
introduced. This secondary arch is formed by the rami and bodies of the pubic
bones, and passes anteriorly from one acetabulum to the other on the opposite side.
It is much weaker than the primary arch (Fig. 491)-
Ischio-sacral Arch. — In sitting, the pelvis, viewed laterally, is in much the
same position as in standing, being in both almost vertical and beneath the spinal
column. The thighs, however, are horizontal and the bulk of the weight is sup-
ported by the tuber ischii. From the keystone or sacrum the weight is transmitted
through the ilium and body of the ischium to the tuberosities on each side. This
primary arch is strengthened by the secondary arch formed on each side by the ramus
of the ischium and the descending ramus and body of the pubis. Notice that this
likewise is weaker than the primary arch (Fig. 492).
FRACTURES OF THE PELVIS.
The flaring wings or alae of the ilium are not infrequently fractured by direct
violence. The line of fracture is usually transverse (Fig. 493). The displacement
is slight on account of the muscular attachments of the iliacus muscle inside and the
glutei muscles outside. The anterior third of the crest of the ilium is subcutaneous
and prominent, hence by manipulating it crepitus can usually be elicited and the diag-
nosis made. Recumbency and the support afforded by adhesive plaster is all the
treatment necessary.
The more serious fractures, however, are those of the true pelvis. The pelvic
cavity is somewhat heart-shaped; the sacrum projects anteriorly and is so strong that
it is rarely fractured. At or just outside of the sacro-iliac joints is, however, one
weak point; between the acetabulum and the
pubes, through the rami of the pubes and
ischium and thyroid foramen, is another; and
at the symphysis is a third.
The most frequent fracture passes through
the pelvic ring twice, anteriorly through the
rami of the pubis and ischium and thyroid
foramen and posteriorly through or just ex-
ternal to the sacro-iliac joint. Whenever a
fracture of the pelvis is suspected, search for
this fracture. Examine the rami of the pubes.
Pressure made along Poupart's ligament just
external to the spine of the pubes will usually
reveal a tender spot and may elicit crepitus.
A digital examination through the rectum or
vagina may likewise indicate the site of the
fracture. The bladder is frequently wounded, the rectum almost never and the
urethra rarely.
The symphysis, while comparatively a weak part is rarely the site of injury. In
childbirth the attachment of the pubes to each other becomes relaxed and a slight
physiological separation occurs.
Fig. 493. — Diagram illustrating fracture of
the pelvis; one fracture is seen passing through
the ilium; the other passes through the sacro-iliac
articulation posteriorly and the thyroid foramen
anteriorly.
THE ATTACHMENT OF THE LOWER EXTREMITIES TO THE
TRUNK.
The human body usually occupies one of three positions: standing, sitting, or
lying. The functions of the lower extremity are to afford support to the body and
accomplish locomotion, therefore any disturbance of the normal relation of the extrem-
ities to the trunk interferes with the carrying out of those functions and proper sup-
port is not given and locomotion is imperfect. In such cases the positions assumed
in standing, sitting, and lying are abnormal, often to an extent sufificient to constitute
serious deformities, and locomotion, as in walking or running, is seriously impaired
or rendered impossible.
492
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The connection of the lower extremities with the trunk is through the means of
the pelvic girdle and spinal column; therefore the pelvis and vertebrae above exert a
marked influence on the extremities below and must be taken into consideration.
The normal upright position of man is obtained by maintaining a proper balance.
This balance can be disturbed either anteroposteriorly or laterally. The lower limbs
are placed laterally, one on each side; this gives greater stability in that direction, so
that when a person falls it is usually in a forward or backward direction rather than
toward the side.
Anteroposterior Equilibrium. — In the upright position the highest joint is
that between the occiput and atlas and the lowest that of the ankle; to enable the
body to be in a state of rest, in the upright position, with the use of the least amount
A. B. c. D.
Fig. 494. — Anteroposterior equilibrium.
Fig. A. — The body in the erect position; the centre of gravity c is about in the upper lumbar region; d-e is
the base of support. The vertical line a-b through the centre of gravity c passes through the occipito-atloid joint
above, in front of the sacro-iliac joint g. the hip-joint h, the knee-joint i and the ankle-joint ;' and falls between
the points of support d-e, passing through the astragaloscaphoid joint. Hyperextension of the hip and knee is
prevented by ligaments.
Fig. B. — When the trunk is inclined forward by bending at the hip- joint, the increased projection of the head
and upper portion of the trunk in front of the centre of gravity is counterbalanced by the increased projection
of the hips and lower portion of the trunk posteriorly. The vertical line through the centre of gravity still cuts
the base of support d-e and the body remains in a state of equilibrium.
Fig. C — When the body inclines backward, hyperextension at the hip is prevented by ligaments; therefore,
when the vertical line a-b through the centre of gravity c falls beyond the base of support d-e, the body is in unstable
equilibrium and it falls.
Fig. D. — If the body, as occurs in some diseases and injuries, is inclined so far forward as to bring the vertical
line a-b through the centre of gravity c. in front of the base of support d-e, then it is in a state of unstable equilibrium
and additional support is used, in the form of a cane, to prevent falling forward.
of muscular exertion these joints are placed almost vertically one above the other.
For the same reason if any part of the skeleton lies in front of a line joining the
condyle of the occiput with the astragalo-scaphoid joint it is counterbalanced by a
projection toward the opposite side. Thus the anterior cur\'e of the cervical region
is followed by the posterior curve of the dorsal; the anterior of the lumbar, by the
posterior of the sacral. The hip-joint has its centre of motion slightly behind the
centre of gravity as has also the knee. A vertical line through the center of gravity
must fall within its base of support. This latter is formed by the arch of the foot ; its
two ends are the tuberosity of the calcaneum posteriorly and the head of the first
metatarsal bones anteriorly. The body is in the position of greatest stability when
the centre of gravity is midway between those two points, which is when it passes
through the astragalo-scaphoid joint. As the line of gravity passes from the centre of
THE BONY PELVIS.
493
the arch toward the ends, equilibrium becomes more unstable until, when it passes
beyond them, it is lost and the body begins to fall. In maintaining a normal erect
posture hyperextension of the hip-joint is prevented by the anterior or iliofemoral
ligament; hyperextension of the knee is prevented by the lateral, posterior, and
crucial ligaments (Fig. 494, A). The main muscular eflorts required are those of the
muscles of the back of the neck to hold the head level, owing to the head being
heavier anterior to the condyles, and the muscles of the back of the leg to prevent
the dorsal flexion at the ankle, due to the centre of gravity falling in front of the ankle-
joint. When a person falls asleep in the erect posture the head drops forward and
when a soldier is shot his calf muscles give way and he falls forward on his face.
Deformities of the spine affecting its curves have already been alluded to (page
478). When the spine is the part affected it is usually the case that the secondary
curve fully compensates for the increased primary one, hence there is no necessity
L
The tendino- and
iliotrochanteric
bands
Iliotibial band
•Fig. 49s. — Lateral equilibrium.
Fig. A. — The body being erect, a vertical line a-b through the centre of gravity c falls midway between the
ankles or base of support d-e and the body is in stable equilibrium.
Fig. B. — The trunk being inclined to the right, the centre of gravity c is shifted to the right and a vertical
line a-b through it falls still within the line of support d-e and the upright position can still be maintained.
Fig. C. — If the relative length of the two legs is altered, as by placing a block beneath one of them, the pelvis
and upper portion of the body inclines to the opposite side, until a vertical line a-b through the centre of gravity
C falls beyond the extremity of the base of support d-e and the body is in a position of unstable equilibrium.
Fig. D. — The body in a position of rest. The weight is borne mainly on the left leg; the right side of the
pelvis falls until the iliotrochanteric and iliotibial bands are tense, when the position can be maintained without
muscular effort.
for any change in the position of the joints below, and we find people with marked
deformities of the spine who are normal from the waist down and who stand and
walk perfectly well. Occasionally a case presents itself in which the secondary curve
has not entirely compensated the primary one and then the body is bent at the hips
until the centre of gravity is brought over the base of support (Fig. 494, B). If the
deformity throws the centre of gravity too far back, by bending the hips it will be
brought forward, but if for any reason, such as ankylosis, flexion is impossible,
then it cannot be corrected at the hip-joint, and therefore in such cases equilib-
rium is unstable and the body falls (Fig. 494, C). If from deformity the centre of
gravity is thrown so far forward as to fall beyond the base of support then a cane
or crutches is required (Fig. 494, D).
When the hip-joint is involved it is never affected by hyperextension (the ilio-
femoral ligament prevents that), but always by flexion. This throws the centre of
gravity forward; to bring it back a secondary curve is produced in the lumbar
region, and we have a condition of lordosis established; if this is insufficient then
^5^^^^^^^ APPLIED ANATOMY. ^^^^^^^™
the knees may be partly flexed, and if both are insufficient then artificial support or
crutciies must be used. This is the reason why flexion is sought to be avoided in
the treatment of coxalgia, and why osteotomy is done when the hip is ankylosed in a
flexed position. Practically speaking there is no efficient compensation occurring at
the sacro-iliac joints, the pelvis moving with the lumbar vertebrae.
Lateral Equilibrium. — In the upright position the centre of gravity falls mid-
way between the ankles of the two feet. The fact of there being two points of support
adds to the stability, which increases as the feet are separated. Hence it is that falls
in an anteroposterior direction are more common than sideways. In standing the
weight is transmitted from the spine through the femorosacral arches (page 490) to
the hip-joint, thence downward through the femur and leg-bones to the astragalus.
Here we have to deal with straight lines and angles rather than curves. The spine
is normally straight; the line from the spine to the hip-joint is practically straight
(no bending being possible), and from the hips to the feet is likewise straight, and
the centre of gravity falls midway between the ankles (see Fig. 495, A).
The two innominate bones and the sacrum form practically one solid bone,
therefore the two hip-joints always maintain the same relative position to each other.
When the leg is completely extended there is no lateral movement at the knee-
joints. There is a marked more or less lateral movement in the subastragaloid
joint which allows the leg to be inclined to one side without moving the foot.
From these facts it is evident that lateral equilibrium can be disturbed by a deviation
of the spine above the sacrum to one side (Fig. 495, B), and also by anything that
affects the length of either leg (Fig. 495, C). The femorosacral arch is rarely affected,
the most usual affection being sacro-iliac disease, or fracture, or relaxation of the
sacro-iliac joint, especially in pregnancy.
The lateral equilibrium is maintained almost solely by muscular force except when
a position of rest is assumed. The hip-joint is capable of both abduction and adduc-
tion, and in the erect position the ligaments on both the upper and lower surfaces of
the joint are lax and do not contribute any support. When, however, a position of
rest is desired the hips are moved laterally so that the centre of gravity falls on one
leg, which is kept extended, the opposite hip then descends until further adduction
is stopped by the ligaments on the top of the hip of the other side (Fig. 495, D).
These ligaments are the outer limb of the iliofemoral (Y) ligament and the reinforc-
ing tendinotrochanteric band, an offshoot from the rectus tendon, the iliotrochanteric
band, and by the iliotibial band from the crest of the ilium to the outer tuberosity
of the tibia.
Balance. — For the movements of the body to be properly performed a definite
normal relation of the parts to one another must be maintained, whether the body is in
a state of motion or at rest. During movement the position of the bones is controlled
by the muscles ; when at rest, the muscles relax and the position of the bones is con-
trolled by the ligaments. The weight of the body acts as a constant force pressing
downward. For this constant pressure not to do harm it is nicely balanced on the
bones and ligaments aided by the muscles. If any one of these three is disturbed
the balance is altered and disability and ultimate deformity results. A distortion of a
bone, as a badly united fracture, throws the weight and muscular action too much
to one side and first the action of the part is impaired and then, if use is persisted
in, deformity increases. When a person who is standing becomes tired they assume
a position of rest, that is, their muscles relax, their joints are extended and the
weight is borne on the ligaments. If, now, as in adolescents, these ligaments are
weak, they give way. If in the foot, flat-foot results ; if in the knees, then knock-
knee ; if in the back, scoliosis or lateral curvature. If it is the bones which are the
primary cause of the lack of proper balance, the surgeon by osteotomy, excisions,
etc. , will restore them to their proper direction. If it is the muscles, as in infantile
and other paralyses, transplantations, or the taking of a tendon from the strong side
and placing it on the weak side, will be resorted to. If it is mainly the ligaments,
these will be aided in their function by the use of apparatus, while by means of exer-
cises the muscles are aided in regaining their normal power. The conservative sur-
gery of the extremities has as its underlying principle the restoration of equilibrium
to a part whose balance has been disturbed.
THE BONY PELVIS.
495
DEVIATIONS OF THE SPINE ABOVE THE SACRUM.
When, as in lateral curvature or scoliosis, there is a pathological curve developed,
the centre of gravity is shifted from the midline to one side and it falls nearer the foot
of the side toward which the trunk is inclined (see Fig. 496, A). This makes the
equilibrium unstable so that to restore stability the hips are inclined to the oppo-
site side and the centre of gravity is brought once more midway between the ankles
(Fig. 496, B). This condition is produced when there is a single incomplete curve or
deviation to one side; if, however, the curve is complete and again reaches the median
line, as is often the case in scoliosis, then the centre of gravity is not disturbed and
there is no lateral shifting of the pelvis (see Fig. 496, C). If the primary curve is
accompanied by a secondary curve, both being complete and crossing the median
line, then also there is no shifting of the pelvis (Fig. 496, D). If, however, the
curves are so irregular as to shift more of the weight to one side than the other,
then the pelvis shifts (Fig. 496, £). This causes the hip on the side opposite to the
B.
c.
D.
E.
Fig. 496. — Deviation of the spine above the sacrum.
Fig. A. — If the trunk is inclined to one side, a vertical line a-b through the centre of gravity is shifted to c-f,
and therefore falls outside of the base of support d-e and unstable equilibrium results.
Fig. B. — The inclining of the trunk to the right has been compensated by shifting the pelvis to the left, and
the vertical a-b through the centre of gravity c falls within the base of support d-e and stable equilibrium has again
been restored.
Fig. C. — If the deviation of the lower part of the trunk to the left is counterbalanced by a deviation of the
upper part to the right then the vertical a-b through the centre of gravity c falls within the base of support d-e
and the body remains in stable equilibrium.
Fig. D. — If a complete curve in the lumbar region is compensated by a complete curve in the dorsal and
cervical regions above, then the centre of gravity c is not shifted and a vertical line through it still falls within
the base of support d-e. and the body remains in stable equilibrium.
Fig. E. — If the curves are irregular, shifting more of the weight of the upper part of the body to the right,
the pelvis is shifted to the left until the centre of gravity c is again brought within the base of support d-e and
stable equilibrium is again restored.
inclination to appear higher than the other, but it is not really so and the pelvis still
remains le\el. It is therefore evident that it is unnecessary and unwise to attempt
to correct the deformity by raising the apparently low hip by a high shoe. All
these conditions occur in the lateral curvatures or scolioses of childhood and adoles-
cence as well as the deviations which occur from empyema, sciatica, Pott's disease,
and other affections. A knowledge of the principles involved is essential to com*
prehending their production and to directing the exercises and applying the appa-
ratus used in their correction.
496
APPLIED ANATOMY.
DISTORTIONS ACCOMPANYING AFFECTIONS OF THE LOWER
EXTREMITIES.
The hip-joint is capable of flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, and rota-
tion. From the hip to the foot is a straight hue; it can be shortened by disease
or injury of the bones of the thigh or leg, and in rare cases it can be lengthened by
disease at the epiphyses producing a more rapid growth than normal. It is almost
unknown for hyperextension of the hip to exist, because if the femur is intact the ilio-
femoral ligament prevents it. If the head is gone then the upper end of the femur
luxates upward and backward. Rotation likewise produces little effect on the posi-
tion of the greater trochanter. Deformities due to flexion, abduction, adduction, and
shortening are common.
Increased Flexion. — Fig. 497, ^ shows the normal position; Fig. 497, ^shows
hyperflexion at the hip. The increased forward bend of the pelvis necessitates an
increase in the lumbar curve in order to maintain the anteroposterior equilibrium.
B.
D.
Fig. 497. — Distortions accompanying affections of the lower extremity.
Fig. A. — Normal erect position, showing the normal inclination of the pelvis and normal relation of the
back and buttocks.
Fig. B. — The pelvis has been tilted forward and downward, being flexed on the thighs; this resvdts in an
increased hollowing of the back and an increased protrusion of the buttocks.
Fig. C. — The left thigh is adducted and the right abducted. If the left hip is ankylosed in a position of ad-
duction, as shown, then the pelvis is tilted down on the right, inclining the spine immediately above in the same
direction. This moves the centre of gravity to the right, but is compensated by a shifting of the pelvis to the
left, thus bringing the vertical through the centre of gravity within the base of support. If the right hip is anky-
losed in abduction, the same condition results. In order to compensate for the uneven lengths of the limbs pro-
duced by tilting the pelvis, the knee of the apparently lengthened limb is bent.
Fig. D. — The solid outline shows the position assumed when the right leg is shorter than the left. By placing
a block under the short right leg the pelvis is raised to a horizontal line and the curves of the spine are straight-
ened, as shown by the dotted outline.
Thus lordosis is produced with the accompanying hollowing of the back and projec-
tion of the buttock. This is common in coxalgia and congenital luxations of the hip.
Hyperadduction and Hyperabduction. — If there is hyperadduction, as
when one hip is ankylosed in a position of adduction, as shown in the left limb (Fig.
497) 0> ^^^ pelvis is carried up toward the left; to restore the balance the spine is
inclined to the right. If, however, the right limb is hyperabducted or fixed in a
position of abduction, then in assuming the upright posture the right hip descends
and the spine is inclined toward the side of the affected limb, as seen in the right hip
of Fig. 497, C. In treating these conditions the spine can be brought straight by
THE BONY PELVIS.
497
raising the aMucted limb, but doing so will increase their inequality still more and shift
the pelvis too far to the left. For this reason raising the shoe is not advisable, but an
osteotomy and removal of the adduction or abduction is the proper treatment.
Effects of Shortening or Lengthening of a Lower Extremity. — The
shortening of one limb produces the same effect as the lengthening of the opposite one:
in other words it is the inequality of the limbs that counts. In Fig. 497, D the right
extremity is the shorter; this causes the pelvis to till to the right, carrying the lower
part of the spine with it and producing a right convex curve which is most marked
in the lumbar region. To restore the equilibrium the parts above are carried to the
left. Thus a lateral curvature is produced, which, contrary to those which originate
in the spine, is accompanied by tilting of the pelvis. In these cases the deformity
may be great. If the spinal curvature extends high the shoulders may be uneven,
the hips are uneven in height and one projects farther out than the other, the legs
may be visibly unequal in length, and there is marked limping of gait. The remedy
is obvious. The short limb is to be made equal to the long one by raising the shoe
or by other means.
MEASUREMENT OF THE LOWER LIMBS.
The ability to determine accurately the length of the lower extremities is essen-
tial to diagnosis and important in treatment. It is a dilificult thing to do and requires
knowledge, care, and practice. It may be accepted as a fact that the limbs are nor-
B.
C.
D.
Fig. 498. — Measurements of the lower limbs, viewed from the front, a, left anterior sui)erior spine; b, right
anterior superior spine; c. left trochanter; d, right trochanter; ^, left internal malleolus; /, right internal malleolus;
g, umbilicus; h, lower end of median line.
Fig. .4. — The line of the pelvis a-b is in its correct position at a right angle to the long axis of the body g-A;
a-e equals b-f. and g-e equals g-f and a-c equals b-d.
Fig. B. — The limbs in this figure are of equal length but the pelvis is tilted. The pelvis a-b is tilted up on
the left and down on the right. Apparent shortenmg of the left leg is seen by com paring g-e with g-f. Actual measure-
ment shows a-e to be a trifle longer than b-f and a-c longer than b-d.
Fig. C. — One leg shorter than the other, but the pelvis is in the correct position. The actual shortening
found by comparing a-e with b-f corresponds with the apparent shortening found by comparing g-e with g-f.
Fig. D. — Legs unequal, pelvis tilted down on the side of the short leg. The apparent lengths g-e and g-f,
taken from the umbilicus g. show the legs apparently equal, but the distance b-f is longer than a-e and the absolute
or actual amount of shortening is only to be found by levelling the pelvis as in Fig. C, when the apparent and actual
amount of shortening will be found to agree.
mally equal in length. It is true that in rare cases there may be a slight inequality,
but an amount of inequality readily detected by measurement will usually produce
an unevenness in the gait, a slight limp.
To measure accurately, bony landmarks are preferable to the soft parts, such as
the umbilicus; these bony points must be carefully identified, they must be in their
normal position, and the tape-measure must be accurately applied.
Measurements are usually taken either from the umbilicus or anterior superior
spines to the internal malleoli. The latter is the more accurate and shows the actual
32
4p^^^^^^^^' APPLIED ANATOMY. ^^^^^^^M
shortening, while the former shows the apparent sliorteniny;. To identify the tip of
the internal malleolus is usually easy enough, but the anterior superior spine is not
so evident. The anterior portion of the crest of the ilium should be followed forward
until its anterior superior spine can be distinctly felt. In applying the tape it is
better not to rest it on the superficial surface of the spine nearest the skin but rather
on its inferior surface nearest the feet. It should be placed below the spine and then
pushed firmly upward and backward against its lower surface. The superficial sur-
face of the anterior superior spine is often so rounded or flat as to make it an uncer-
tain point to measure from. To put the parts in their normal position it is necessary
to see that a line joining the two anterior superior spines is at a right angle with the
long axis of the body, otherwise the tilting of the pelvis will vitiate the results.
Fig. 498, A, front view, shows the normal relation; g- is the umbilicus; g-h, the
median hne; a, left anterior spine; b, right anterior spine; c, left trochanter; d, right
trochanter; e, left internal malleolus; /, right internal malleolus. The line a b is to
be at right angles to g-h. Then a-e = b-f zndg-e ~g-f-
Fig. 498, B shows the effect of tilting of the pelvis, the legs being of equal length.
a-b instead of being at right angles to g-h is inclined upward on the left side and
down on the right. Apparent shortening is seen by comparing g-f with g-e.
Actual measurement shows a-e to be a trifle longer than b-f. This is accounted for by
the tilting causing b-d to approach each other while a-c have separated.
If one hip is ankylosed its femur should be moved laterally until the line joining
the two anterior superior spines is at right angles to the median line of the body;
the opposite limb is then to be abducted to a similar degree and the measurements
of the two limbs can then be compared.
When the legs are unequal and the pelvis is in a correct position, the apparent
and actual measurements agree (Fig. 498, C).
When the legs are unequal the pelvis is tilted down on the side of the short leg
(Fig. 498, D). Apparent length taken from the umbilicus shows the legs equal, but
the distance b-f will be found to be longer than a-e. This will not give accurately
the actual amount of shortening because of the tilting of the pelvis. It can only
be determined by levelling the pelvis so as to make the distances a-c and b-d equal.
The length of the extremity below the neck: of the femur can be determined by
feeling for the tip of the greater trochanter on its upper posterior border and measur-
ing to the external malleolus and comparing with the opposite side,
WALKING.
As locomotion is one of the main functions of the lower extremity, derange-
ments of this function are to be explained by a knowledge of the normal action of
its mechanism. The means by which support is accomplished have already been
explained in the maintenance of equilibrium. Locomotion embraces walking, run-
ning, jumping, etc. Of these walking is the fundamental movement, and the others
are only amplifications and modifications of it. In slow normal walking on a level
surface the thigh moves on the pelvis, the leg on the thigh, the foot on the leg, and
the toes on the rest of the foot. These movements are almost solely in an antero-
posterior direction, there being almost no lateral or rotary movements ; these begin
only when the actions become violent and irregular, such as are necessary in running,
overcoming obstacles, etc. It is for this reason that a person may have no limp when
walking slowly, but a very perceptible one when walking rapidly. There is always
a small amount of lateral motion present which varies with the individual and the sex.
As slow walking necessitates mainly anteroposterior motion, it can be explained
by viewing the body laterally.
In ordinary walking the body mclines forward 5 degrees, in fast walking 10
degrees, and in running about 22 degrees (Weber), In walking (Fig. 499, A) the
body is inclined forward and at the same time one leg begins to advance (the right).
This causes flexion of the left ankle and flexion of the right hip (Fig. 499, i9and C).
As the right foot touches the ground it extends and the right knee flexes to avoid
the shock of impact (Fig. 499, Z>), the left knee begins to flex and flexes more than
the right in order for the left foot to swing clear of the ground while being advanced;
REGION OF THE HIP.
499
if this was not done it would be necessary to raise the limb by tilting the pelvis up
on that side. The left continues to advance flexed while the right gradually extends
(Fig. 499, E), and finally when the right is fully extended the left is likewise fully
extended (Fig. 499, F^ and strikes the ground with the foot about at a right angle
to the leg.
The object of flexion of all three joints is, first, to avoid shock in impact, and,
secondly, to raise the free foot and allow it to swing forward clear of the ground.
The object of extension is to push the body forward.
Part Played by the Various Joints. — The hip-\6\n\. flexes to an extent pro-
portionate to the length of the step (Fig. 499, A). If this joint is put out of use by
being ankylosed, first, the shock of impact is more severe, no flexion being possible;
second, the limb can only be brought forward by bending the pelvis on the opposite
hip, and, to a certain extent, the trunk above backward; third, to aid still more to
advance the foot forward the pelvis will be rotated laterally on the opposite hip.
This causes a swaying of the trunk backward and forward and a side swing or
waddle of the pelvis. Fourth, the forward propulsive force is weakened by the loss
of the hip extensors. The knee, like the hip, lessens the shock of impact by flexing.
It raises .the foot clear of the ground as it is swung forward, and it aids propulsion
by extension. If ankylosed, shock is increased, onward propulsive force is lost, and
E. D. c. B.
Fig. 499. — Walking. Tracings from photographs by Muybridge.
it is necessary to tilt the pelvis upward in order to raise the foot from the ground and
allow it to swing forward. This abducts one or both legs and causes marked wad-
dling. The ankle also reduces shock and gives propulsion ; if ankylosed, shock is
increased and propulsion weakened. This is the least necessary of the three joints
and to substitute it artificial appliances are useful, so that in quiet walking limp may
be almost lacking, but violent and complicated movements are to a large extent
impossible. The toes, especially the big toe, aid in propelling the body forward.
REGION OF THE HIP.
The hip is that portion of the body joining the lower extremity to the trunk.
It differs in construction from the shoulder, because it is designed for strength as
well as mobility; hence it is that the bones are heavier, stronger, with their proc-
esses more marked, and that the muscles also are bigger and more powerful. It is
often the seat of injury and disease, the bones being fractured, the joint luxated,
and frequently affected with tuberculosis and other diseases.
BONES OF THE HIP.
The bones of the hip are the innominate bone and femur. The innominate bone
has its shape determined by its relation to the trunk, being adapted to support and
protect the viscera, while the femur has its shape determined by its relation to the
extremity, being in the nature of a pole to support it.
The innominate bone (Figs. 500 and 501) is composed of the ilium, ischium,
and pubis. These are united in the acetabulum by the triangular cartilage and
become ossified about the sixteenth year. The ilium has a crest which serves for
the attachment of the transverse abdominal muscles. At its anterior extremity is
Soo
APPLIED ANATOMY.
the anterior superior spine, and at its posterior extremity the posterior superior
spine. Its large flat portion, called the ala, gives origin from both its inner and
outer sides to muscles running to the thigh below. The glutei muscles are attached
to its outer surface and the iliacus to its inner. Immediately below the anterior
Crest
Dorsum of ilium
Anterior superior spine
Anterior inferior spine
Cotyloid notch
Iliopectineal line
Horizontal ramus of pubis
Spine of pubis
Descending ramus of pubis
Superior gluteal line
Inferior gluteal line
Posterior superior spine
Posterior inferior spine
Greater sacrosciatic notch
Acetabulum
Spine of ischium
Lesser sacrosciatic notch
•Tuberosity of ischium
Ramus of ischium
Obturator loramen
Fig. soo. — The innominate bone, viewed from the outside.
superior spine is the anterior inferior spine ; to it is attached the rectus femoris
tendon. The ischium is below and behind the acetabulum; its tuberosity gives
attachment to the hamstring muscles — biceps (outer), semitendinosus, and semi-
membranosus (inner). Along the inner surface of the ramus of the ischium, in a
Crest
Ilium (ala)
Anterior superior spine
Anterior inferior spine
Greater sacrosciatic notch
Spine of ischium
Lesser sacrosciatic notch
Ischium
Tuberosity of ischium
Iliopectineal line
Horizontal ramus of pubis
Spine of pubis
Body of pubis
Crest of pubis
Symphysis of pubis
Descending ramus of pubis
I
Groove for pudic vessels and nerve -
Obturator foramen'
Fig. 501. — The innominate bone, viewed from the inside.
fibrous canal (Alcock's), run the internal pudic vessels and nerve on their way to
the perineum. They lie 4 cm. (i>^ in.) from the surface. The pubis lies below
and anterior to the acetabulum. Its upper inner edge forms the iliopectineal
line, which is continued back to form the brim of the true pelvis. The superior or
REGION OF THE HIP.
50:
horizontal ramus goes to the ihum, while its inferior or descending ramus goes to the
ischium. The upper surface of the superior ramus gives origin to the pectineus
muscle; it is over this muscle that femoral hernia descends. The symphysis pubis
is the junction of the two pubic bones in the median line. The crest is the upper
anterior edge and gives attachment to the rectus and pyramidal muscles (for muscular
Nelaton's line
Anterior superior spine
Acetabulum
Tuberosity oi ischium
Fig. 502. — Innominate bone, resting on its inner side, to show the wedge-shaped formation 01 its outer sur.
face. The apex of the wedge is Nelaton's line, running from the anterior superior spine to the tuberosity of the
ischium; the anterior plane inclines downward and forward toward the pubis and the posterior plane inclines
downward and backward on the ilium.
attachments see Figs. 438 and 439, page 432). The outer extremity of the crest
is the spine of the pubis. To it is attached the inner extremity of Poupart's liga-
ment. The obturator foramen, if the body is in an upright position, is just below
and a little anterior to the acetabulum; it is closed by a membrane which is incom-
plete above to give passage to the obturator vessels and nerve. The outer surface
Obturator internus and gemelli
Pyriformis'
Gluteus medius
Greater trochanter
Vastus externus
Crureus
Attachment of ligamentum teres
Edge of articular surface
Anterior intertrochanteric line
y Lesser trochanter and psoas muscle
Fig. 503. — Anterior view of the upper end of the femur with muscular attachments.
of the membrane gives origin to the obturator externus muscle and the inner surface
to the obturator internus. This latter passes out of the pelvis through the lesser
sacrosciatic notch just below the spine of the ischium. Through the greater sacro-
sciatic notch, above the spine, comes the pyriformis muscle and great sciatic nerve.
The acetabulum is located at the junction of the ilium, ischium, and pubis, and lies
a little to the outer side of the middle of Poupart's ligament, with the femoral artery
passing nearer its inner than its outer edge. The obturator foramen is below and a
little anterior to the acetabulum when the body is upright and more anterior when it
APPLIED ANATOMY.
is horizontal. The bottom of the acetabukim has a large fossa, to the upper portion
of which is attached the ligamentum teres, while the lower portion contains a pad of
fat. This fossa opens by a large notch, called the cotyloid notch, on the side toward
the obturator foramen; therefore the bony socket is incomplete at this point.
O. H. AUis has pointed out that a line passing from the anterior superior spine
to the tuberosity, called the Roser-Nelaton line, forms the apex of a wedge, the
ilium sloping down on one side while the ischium and pubes pass down the other.
It divides the innominate bone into two parts, an anterior plane and a posterior plane
(Fig. 502).
The femur has its neck coming off from the shaft at an upward angle of about
127 degrees (125 degrees to 130 degrees). The head and neck do not lie in the
same transverse plane as the line joining the two condyles, but are inclined slightly
forward (about 12 degrees). Therefore the neck passes upward, inward, and a little
forward. As the result of deformities or disease, the inclination of the neck to the
shaft may be reduced, being 90 degrees or less. This condition is known as coxa
Attachment of j^
the ligamentum teres ~/,^
Edge of articular surface
Posterior intertrochanteric line
Lesser trochanter
Gluteus medius
Greater trochanter
Quadratus femoris
Psoas and iliacus
Pectineus
Gluteus maximus
Vastus intemus
Linea aspera
Adductor magnus
Vastus externus
Adductor brevis
Adductor longus
Fig. S04. — Posterior view of the upper end of the femur with muscular attachments.
vara. It may be increased, constituting coxa valga. The articular surface of the
head forms slightly more than a hemisphere and has a pit below and posterior to its
centre for the attachment of the ligamentum teres. At the outer upper extremity
of the neck where it joins the shaft is the greater trochanter. Its tip or most promi-
nent point is toward its posterior surface and is just about opposite the centre of the
hip-joint. Downward and inward from the greater trochanter, on the inner and
posterior surface of the shaft, is the lesser trochanter. Between the trochanters
anteriorly and posteriorly run the intertrochanteric lines. The great trochanter and
the part immediately below and posterior gives attachment to the three glutei mus-
cles, the short rotators (Fig. 504), the pyriformis, the obturators, internus with
its two gemelli and externus, and the quadratus femoris. The lesser trochanter
gives attachment anteriorly to the psoas and the iliacus and immediately below
to the pectineus.
The anterior intertrochanteric line marks the lower*attachment of the capsule;
the posterior has inserted into it the quadratus femoris muscle.
REGION OF THE HIP.
503
Gluteus minimus
Gluteus medius
Gluteus maximus detached and
turned down
■* S ,^Pyriformis
Obturator intemus
GemeDi
Quadratus femoris
Adductor magnus
Biceps, long head
Semitendinosus
Semimembranosus
Short head of biceps
V^
Fig. 505. — Muscles of the region of the hip.
MUSCLES OF THE HIP.
The muscles of the hip are numerous and their action is often intricate: many
muscles are usually used to produce a single movement. Some muscles not only
cross the hip-joint but another joint as well. Thus the psoas crosses the hip-joint and
pelvis to reach the spine. The hamstring muscles, the rectus femoris, gracilis, and
APPLIED ANATOMY.
sartorius cross both the hip-joint and knee-joint, as does practically the tensor fasciae
femoris through its prolongation, the iliotibial band. The movements of the hip are
flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, and rotation. Circumduction is a combin-
ation of the first four movements.
Flexion is mainly the result of the action of the sartorius, iliacus, psoas, rectus
femoris, and pectineus.
Extension is mainly due to the gluteus maximus, medius, and minimus, biceps,
semitendinosus, and semimembranosus.
Adduction is accomplished by the pectineus, adductor longus, brevis, and
magnus, and to a less extent by the gracilis, quadratus femoris, and lower part of the
gluteus maximus.
Abduction in the extended position is due to the tensor fasciae femoris, sarto-
rius, gluteus medius, and gluteus minimus. When flexed the short rotators also aid.
Internal rotation is produced mainly by the tensor fascia femoris and the
anterior portion of the gluteus medius and minimus; three muscles only. The ilio-
psoas acts as a weak internal rotator if the femur is in a position of extreme external
rotation.
External rotation is mainly due to the short external rotators — pyriformis,
gemelli, obturators, quadratus femoris, the adductors, and the posterior portion of
the three gluteals. To a slight extent the sartorius, iliopsoas, pectineus, and biceps
may also aid at times.
V
SURFACE ANATOMY.
The crest of the ilium can be palpated in its entire length. In very thin people
it causes an elevation of the surface, but usually it is marked by a depression. Its
anterior third is subcutaneous and is more easily seen and felt than the posterior two
thirds. A line joining the highest point of the crests passes through the fourth
lumbar spine. A line joining the
anterior superior spines in front
passes below the promontory of
the sacrum. TYio. anterior superior ^^M- , Crest of ilium
spine can be readily felt. It lies -;^^^„/^
downward and outward from the ^z , s
umbilicus: as has been said, vnediS-'^^r
urements are best taken by press-
ing the tape against its lower
surface rather than its subcuta-
neous one.
The posterior superior spine^
marked by a dimple, is best recog-
nized by following the crest of the
ilium to its posterior extremity. It
is opposite the middle of the sacro-
iliac joint and the second sacral
spine.
The posterior inferior spine is
4 to 5 cm. ( I ^ to 2 in. ) directly
below the posterior superior spine.
The spine of the ischium, which
marks the position of the pudic
and sciatic arteries, is 8 to lo cm.
(3 to 4 in.) below the posterior
superior spine and the tuberosity
of the ischium is 1 2 to 15 cm. ( 5 to
6 in. ). Running forward from the posterior inferior spine for a distance of 4 to 5 cm.
(i>^ to 2 in.) is the great sciatic notch; through it pass the pyriformis muscle, gluteal
artery and nerves, and sciatic nerve. A line joining the posterior superior spine and
the tip of the greater trochanter may be named the posterior iliotrochanteric line
Nelaton's line
Anterior superior spine
Tip of trochanter
Tuberosity of ischium
Gluteofemoral fold
Fig. 506. — Surface anatomy of the region of the hip.
REGION OF THE HIP.
505
(iliotrochanteric line of Farabeuf). It marks roughly the posterior edge of the gluteus
medius muscle and goes through the upper edge of the gluteus maximus. The gluteal
artery and superior gluteal nerves cross this line at the junction of the upper and
middle thirds, this being about opposite the posterior inferior spine. A line joining
the tuberosity of the ischium and tip of the greater trochanter may be called the
ischiob'ochanteric Ime : it is crossed at the junction of its inner and middle thirds by
the sciatic nerve.
The greater trochanter is marked by an eminence in thin people and a depres-
sion in the plump and fat. Its anterior upper edge is crossed by the tendon of the
gluteus medius and cannot be readily outlined. Its upper posterior extremity or tip
is readily distinguished and is the spot used for measurements. This point is called
the tip of the greater trochanter and must be searched for posteriorly. It is opposite
the centre of the head of the femur and is on a
level with the spine of the pubis.
The Roser-Nelaton line is one drawn from
the anterior superior spine to the tuberosity of
the ischium. It passes through the tip of the
greater trochanter. It is of importance in frac-
tures and dislocations (Fig. 507).
Bryant' s triangle ( ' ' Bryant's Surgery ' ' ,
vol. ii, p. 412) is to be drawn while the patient is
lying on his back. One side is a perpendicular
let fall from the anterior superior spine to the
table, the other side is one joining the anterior
superior spine and the tip of the greater tro-
chanter, the base is a line running horizontally
from the tip of the greater trochanter to the
perpendicular line (Fig. 507). If the tip of the
trochanter becomes elevated, as in fractures of
the neck of the femur, it shortens the base of
the triangle on the affected side as compared
with the base of the triangle on the sound side.
The anterior iliotrochanteric line may be
designated as a line joining the anterior supe-
rior spine and the tip of the greater trochanter.
In normal individuals it slopes downward and
backward, forming an iliotrochanteric angle
(^ a c, Fig. 507) of about 30 degrees. In
cases of fracture or luxation this angle becomes
reduced as the shortening increases until the
tip reaches the level of the anterior superior spine. A rough estimate of this angle
by sight and palpation usually enables one to decide immediately as to the presence
of shortening from fracture or luxation without the trouble of erecting Bryant's
triangle. The anterior iliotrochanteric line forms the anterior side of Bryant's triangle
and the anterior half of the Roser-N6laton line.
The gluteal cleft separates the buttocks. In its lower portion can be felt the
coccyx. The gluteal {gluteofemoral) fold is formed mainly by the subcutaneous
fatty tissues and passes horizontally outward from the lower part of the gluteal cleft.
A shortening of the leg on either side causes the corresponding fold to incline down-
ward. It is marked in extension and gradually lessens on flexion and disappears
when 90 degrees is reached. It is crossed obliquely downward and outward at about
its middle by the lower edge of the gluteus maximus. Its disappearance in coxalgia
is caused by the flexion incident to that affection.
Ligation of the Gluteal, Sciatic, and Internal Pudic Arteries. — To
Hgate the gluteal artery incise the skin and part the fibres of the gluteus maximus in
the upper two-thirds of a line joining the posterior superior spine and the top of the
great trochanter (Fig. 508). Pull the lower edge of the gluteus medius up and the
artery and superior gluteal nerve will be seen coming out between it and the pyri-
formis. To ligate the sciatic and internal pudic arteries an incision parallel to the one
Fig. 507. — View of the outer surface of the
bones of the hip showing Roser-Nelaton line
(a-d), Bryant's triangle (a be), iliotrochanteric
line, (a c) and the iliotrochanteric angle (b a c).
5o6
APPLIED ANATOMY.
just described but about 7.5 cm. (3 in.) lower is made through the gluteus maximus,
and just below the edge of the pyriformis from without inward will be found the
great sciatic nerve, lesser sciatic nerve, sciatic artery, and the internal pudic nerve and
internal pudic artery crossing the spine of the ischium.
Biirscc. — Covering the tuberosity of the ischium is a bursa which sometimes
suppurates and forms a sinus. It can readily be excised. These sinuses are often
bilateral.
Gluteus maximus
and pyriformis
Gluteus maximus
Sciatic artery
Sciatic nerve
Gluteus maximus
and medius
Gluteal artery and nerve
Pyriformis
Gluteus maximus
Internal pudic nerve
Internal pudic artery
Fig. S08. — Ligation of the gluteal, internal pudic, and sciatic arteries.
THE HIP-JOINT.
The hip-joint, like the shoulder, is a ball-and-socket joint, and, like it, moves in
all directions. The main function of the shoulder is mobility, but the functions of
the hip are mobility and support. To give the necessary support and security, the
band-like ligaments uniting the bones are strong and the extent of the movements is
restricted. Macalister ( " Text Book of Human Anatomy, " p. 179) points out that
while the shoulder has 118 degrees of motion around a sagittal axis, abduction and
adduction, the hip has only 90 degrees; around a coronal axis, flexion and exten-
sion, the shoulder has 170 degrees and the hip only 140 degrees. In the vertical
axis the shoulder rotates 90 degrees, while the hip rotates only 45 degrees. In
the upright position the centre of gravity falls in front of the axis of rotation of the
hip-joint.
The head of the femur is 5 cm. (2 in.) in diameter and forms f of a sphere.
Below and behind its centre is the depression for the attachment of the ligamentum
teres. The acetabulum is much deeper than the glenoid cavity of the shoulder-joint
and its depth is increased by the cotyloid ligament around its edge. This makes the
joint air-tight and holds the femur in place by suction, hence it is called by Allis
( ' ' An inquiry into the difficulties encountered in the reduction of dislocations of the
hip," Philadelphia, 1896) the sucker ligament. The acetabulum is incomplete at its
lower anterior edge, forming the cotyloid notch. The cotyloid ligament bridges
REGION OF THE HIP.
507
over this notch, and its deeper part loses its cartilaginous cells, becomes fibrous, and
is called the transverse ligament.
Beneath the transverse ligament pass vessels, nerves, fatty tissue, and the
extremity of the ligamentum teres, which is attached to the ischium just outside.
Running up in the floor of the acetabulum from the cotyloid notch is a depres-
sion in which is lodged the ligamentum teres and a pad of fat called the Haversian
gland. The ligamentum teres is composed of synovial and connective tissue. It
is not strong and ruptures at about 14 kilos; the small artery it contains affords
nourishment for itself alone, only a very small amount of blood going to the head of
the femur. Bland Sutton regards it as a vestigial structure and a regression of the
pectineus muscle. It is too weak to add much to the strength of the joint, and the
view of Allis that its function is to distribute the synovial fluid and act as a lubri-
~4
-Anterior superior spine
Anterior inferior spine
Tendon of rectus
Iliotrochanteric band
Iliofemoral or Y-Hgament
Weak p)oint between the branches
j^H^ of the Y-ligament
Anterior intertrochanteric line
Weak point, bursa for iliopsoas /
/
Pubofemoral ligament
Fig. 509. — Anterior view of the ligaments of the hip-joint.
eating agent is probably correct. The great pressure to which the articulating sur-
faces of the hip-joint are subjected requires special lubrication and this is furnished by
the ligamentum teres and Haversian gland.
Like other joints, the hip has a capsular ligament which is strengthened by
bands or ligaments. These ligaments are the iliofemoral, pubofemoral, and ischio-
femoral.
Iliofemoral Ligament (Bertins' ligament or Y ligament of Bigelow). — This
is the strongest ligament in the body. The single stem of the Y ligament is attached
to the upper edge of the rim of the acetabulum just below the anterior inferior spine.
Its two branches are attached below to the anterior intertrochanteric line. Its upper
edge is reinforced by a band from the ilium to the trochanter, the iliotrochanteric
band, and one from the reflected tendon of the rectus, the tendinotrochanteric band
(Henry Morris) (Fig. 509).
The pubofemoral ligament, also called the pectineofemoral ligament, runs
outward into the capsule from the horizontal ramus of the pubes. It is quite weak.
Ischiofemoral Ligament. — Allis describes this ligament as follows: " It arises
from the ischial portion of the rim of the socket and sends its fibres to the capsule to
be blended with them. As its fibres extend upward they separate like two fingers
or terminal processes, the one extending forward to the base of the oblique (pos-
terior) line, the other running backward to the digital fossa (Fig. 510)."
It will be observed that this makes it a posterior Y ligament with a distinct bony
attachment for its two arms (like the external lateral ligament of the elbow — see
sol
APPLIED ANATOMY.
of the two arms is half way down the posterior surface of the
neck of the femur.
Capsular Ligament. — The capsule of the joint is composed of a thin sac
strengthened by the band-like ligaments just described. Wherever there is no rein-
forcing band the capsule is weak. The posterior and lower portion is weaker than
the anterior and upper portion. There is a weak spot between the arms of the ilio-
femoral ligament anteriorly, a branch of the circumflex artery usually entering here.
Between the pubofemoral and inner edge of the iliofemoral ligament is another weak
point. A bursa here separates the iliopsoas from the joint and often communicates
with the joint. A third weak spot is on the lower posterior part of the neck between
the two branches of the ischiofemoral ligament (Fig. 511). Injections into the joint
Weak spot
Weak portion of
capsule distended
by the injection
mass
Fig. 510. — The ischiofemoral or posteriory-
ligament. The stem of the Y is attached at the
base of the tuberosity of the ischium and one
branch is seen going toward the greater tro-
chanter and the other toward the lesser, leaving a
weak spot between them half-way down the neck
of the bone.
Fig. si I. — Hip-joint distended with wax; the
capsule ends posteriorly half-way down the neck
and is seen distended by the injection material pro-
truding between the two arms of the ischiofemoral
ligament.
protrude very markedly at this point. The weakest part of the joint is the lower
anterior, below the pubofemoral ligament and opposite the cotyloid notch; the
strongest part is the upper anterior part.
DISLOCATIONS OF THE HIP.
Classification. — Dislocations of the hip are either anterior or posterior
(Allis)^ If the innominate bone is held horizontally it will be seen that the Roser-
Nelaton line from the tuberosity to the anterior superior spine passes- through the
acetabulum. It forms the apex of a wedge the two sides of which pass down, one
anteriorly and the other posteriorly (Fig. 512). Therefore when the head of the
1 Dr. Oscar
in his Gross P
the Hip," Philadelphia, 1896
ar H. Allis has given the clearest exposition of dislocations of the hip with which we are acquainted
rize Essay entitled, "An Inquiry into the Difficulties Encountered in the Reduction of Dislocations of
REGIOX OF THE HIP.
509
femur leaves its socket it passes down either anteriorly or posteriorly and we have
either an anterior or a posterior luxation.
The attachment of the iliofemoral ligament immediately above the acetabulum
and of the ischiofemoral directly below also tend to prevent the head's emerging at
these places and favor its going anteriorly or posteriorly. Anterior luxations may be
either low or high. The primary luxation is a low one into the thyroid foramen.
Xelaton's line
Anterior superior spine
Acetabulum
Tuberosity of ischium
Fig. S12. — Innominate bone, resting on its inner side, to show the wedge-shaped formation of its outer sur-
face. The apex of the wedge is Xelaton's line, running from the anterior superior spine to the tuberosity of the
ischium; the anterior plane inclines downward and forward toward the pubis and the posterior plane inclines
downward and backward on the ilium.
•
If then the thigh is rotated outward the head rises, and it becomes a pubic luxation.
Posterior luxations may also be either high or low. The primary luxation is a low
one either on the spine of the ischium or in the sciatic notch, and by rotation of the
thigh inward it becomes a high one on the dorsum of the ilium (Fig. 513). In cer-
tain very rare cases in which there has been an
excessive amount of twisting the rotation is
extreme and a form of dislocation called in-
verted is produced; it will be explained later.
Mechanism of the Production of
Luxations. — The following should be borne
in mind :
1. The neck of the femur makes with the
shaft an angle of approximately 128 degrees.
2. In speaking of inward and outward ro-
tation is meant inward and outward rotation
of the shaft of the femur. Thus if the head
(and neck) is pointing inward and we rotate
the shaft inward, the head rotates outward pos-
teriorly. If, however, we rotate the shaft in-
ward while the head is pointing outward then
the head moves inward anteriorly. Thus it is
seen that in rotating the shaft inward the head
is moved inward or outward according to its
original position.
3. That while actually the axis of the
head and neck does not coincide with a line
drawn transversely through the condyles,
but inclines forward at an angle of 10 or 12
degrees, nevertheless for practical purposes
we may consider that it does so coincide and normally points directly inward.
4. The position of the greater trochanter can be recognized by its being directly
above the external condyle, and the position of the head by its being directly above
the internal condyle,
5. The muscles may be disregarded in the production of luxations, and the
action of only the bones and ligaments considered.
6. A luxation results from the capsule being made tense or even ruptured by a
leverage action of the bones, and the head then being thrust out on the anterior or
posterior plane.
Fig. 513. — Diagram illustrating the position
of the head in high and low dislocations on the an-
terior and posterior planes.
5IO
APPLIED ANATOMY.
may
7. The primary luxation is a low anterior or posterior one.
changed by subsequent rotation of the thigh.
8. Luxations may occur either when the thigh is in abduction or adduction.
Liixatio7i by Abdjictio7i. — If the thigh is forcibly abducted the adductor muscles
rupture and, the abduction increasing, the head is raised out of the socket by the
lever action of the femur as its neck strikes the rim of the acetabulum and its greater
Pig. si 4. — Luxation of the hip by indirect or leverage action. The shaft of the femur, from the greater
trochanter out, is the long arm of the lever, the head and neck form the short arm and the upper edge of the ace-
tabulum and ilium immediately above is the fulcrum. When the femur is abducted the head is lifted out of its
socket rupturing the capsular ligament.
trochanter the ilium above. The head and neck are the short arm of the lever, the
rim of the acetabulum or iHum is the fulcrum, and the shaft and distal extremity of
the femur are the long arm. The head rises from the socket, ruptures a part at
least of the capsular ligament, and then a thrusting force is added which pushes the
head forward, producing a thyroid luxation (Fig. 514).
If while the limb is hyperabducted the shaft of the femur is rotated out and the
Fig. 515. — Posterior luxation of the hip produced by rotation and direct thrust. The femur is seen to be
flexed on the pelvis, adducted and rotated inward; a thrust in the direction of the arrow then sends the head out
of the acetabulum onto the posterior plane.
limb brought straight down, parallel with that of the opposite side, then likewise the
head may pass forward into the thyroid or pubic position. If while the head is on
the anterior plane the thigh is flexed and the shaft rotated inward, then the liead
follows around the outer edge of the acetabulum and passes from a thyroid to a
dorsal position, forming a posterior luxation.
REGION OF THE HIP.
511
Luxation by Adduction. — If the thigh is flexed and adducted the angle of the
neck and shaft prevents any bony fulcrum from forming. If now the shaft is strongly
rotated inward the iliofemoral or Y ligament becomes tense. It is wound around
the neck of the bone and acts as a ligamentous^ fulcrum. The shaft revolves on its
long axis, and as it turns inward the head turns outward and presses against the
lower posterior part of the capsule, which ruptures, and a dorsal luxation is produced.
A backward thrust in the long axis of the femur also favors the production of the
luxation (Fig. 515).
By outward rotation of the shaft the head can be conducted around the edge of
the acetabulum until it lies in the thyroid foramen on the anterior plane, thus changing
a primary dorsal into a secondarj' thyroid luxation.
The Rent in the Capsule. — The capsule ruptures at its lower anterior or pos-
terior portion according to whether it is primarily an anterior or a posterior luxation.
If, however, the limb is rotated while the
head is out of its socket, as in the produc-
tion of a secondary position, then the cap-
sule is torn still further, but the Y ligament
is practically never torn either when the
original luxation occurs or the secondary.
The rent in the capsule through which
the head emerges has been proven both by
Robert Morris and Dr. Allis to be always
equal in size to the head of the femur
and never a slit. Therefore in every case
there exists a rent in the capsule large
enough to allow of returning the head,
provided it is not closed or obstructed by
a rotation or malposition of the limb, or by some foreign substance such as torn
muscle or infolding of the capsule.
Injuries to the Muscles. — When the thigh is abducted the adductor muscles
are made tense, and if it is hyperabducted they are torn ; these overstretched
muscles, some of which may be ruptured, are the three adductors, the pectineus,
and the gracilis. If the luxation is an anterior one the obturator externus will be
torn because it arises from the outer surface of the thyroid membrane. If a posterior
Fig. 516. — Showing the sciatic nerve caught
around the neck of the femur. (After an illustration
by Dr. Allis in his prize essay on the hip.)
/^
Fig. 517. — Posterior or dorsal luxation of the left hip (From an original sketch by the author). The shortening is
seen by comparing the position of the knees, the thigh is adducted and rotated inward.
one the internal obturator may be injured. Allis has pointed out that when the
head passes from one plane to another it may tear the obturator externus, quadratus
femoris, and upper fibres of the adductor magnus. The tearing of these muscles
usually exerts but little influence on the reduction of the luxation.
Injuries to the Nerves. — Rarely the anterior crural nerve may be injured by
being stretched over the head of the femur. The sciatic nerve has been injured,
and Allis has shown how, when a dorsal is rotated into a thyroid luxation, the sciatic
nerve is likely to be caught around the neck of the femur (Fig. 516). This is favored
by making a large circle while circumducting the knee, and also by extending the
leg on the thigh, thus making the nerve tense and causing it to lie closer to the socket.
APPLIED ANATOMY.
To detect this accident Allis advises that while an assistant pushes upward on the
knee in the direction of the long axis of the femur, the surgeon by flexing and
extending the knee will find the nerve alternately made tense and relaxed in the
popliteal space.
Signs of Luxation. — When luxated pos/erwr/y the foot is inverted whether it
is a low or high dorsal. The thigh is adducted, bringing the knee of the affected side
in front of the sound one. The thigh is usually slightly flexed. There is shortening,
and the higher the position of the head the greater the shortening and the farther up
the trochanter is above the Roser-Nelaton line. Shortening is best seen with the
thighs flexed to a right angle (Fig. 517).
When luxated anteriorly the foot is everted or almost straight. If it is a low
thyroid there will be little or no eversion; if it is a pubic luxation eversion will be more
marked. The thigh is abducted; this is
more marked in the thyroid and less in
the pubic. The thigh is flexed in the
thyroid but may be straight in the pubic.
There is no shortening but there may be
a slight lengthening difificult to demon-
strate (Fig. 518).
Reduction. — As in the shoulder
there are two methods of reducing a
dislocated hip, the direct and the indi-
rect. The direct consists in placing the
head in as favorable a position as possi-
ble and then directly pushing or pulling
it towards the socket.
The indirect consists in using the
thigh as a lever and rotating the head
into place. These methods may be used
in combination.
Direct Method for Dorsal Ltixa-
tions. — Patient flat on the floor on his
back. Flex the knee on the thigh, and
the thigh on the abdomen; this brings
the head down from a high position to
a low one below the acetabulum. Ad-
duct the thigh slightly; this relaxes the
Y ligament and prevents the head catch-
ing on the rim of the acetabulum.
Grasp the ankle with one hand,
then place the other hand or arm beneath
the bent knee and lift upward and inward
thus raising the head over the rim of the
acetabulum into the socket. If the head
does not enter rotate the thigh gently,
first out and then in, lifting at the same time. This rotation is to open the rent in
the capsule to its widest extent. Too much rotation narrows the rent and obstructs
the entrance of the head. An assistant may at the same time endeavor with his
hands to push the head up towards the socket.
Another way of using the direct method (Stimson) is to place the patient
face downward on a table with the thigh flexed at a right angle . hanging over its
end. The leg is then flexed at the knee and pressure made directly downward,
gently moving or rotating the head from side to side. This is a safe and efficient
method.
Direct Method for Anterior Luxations. — In pubic luxations first slightly abduct
the thigh and rotate the shaft of the femur inward so as to transform the pubic to a
thyroid luxation. For thyroid luxations flex the knee to a right angle, and then
flex the thigh on the abdomen to a right angle or even more and slightly abduct
(Allis). Then with one hand grasp the ankle and with the other hand or arm in the
Fig. 518. — Thyroid luxation on the anterior plane.
The thigh is flexed and abducted; the toes pointing
forward. (From a photograph by Dr. Chas. F.Nassau.)
REGION OF THE HIP.
513
flexure of the knee lift up and slightly out, thus guiding the head toward the socket,
rotating a little if necessary (Fig. 519).
The Indirect or Lever Method for Dorsal Luxations. — Flex the leg on the
thigh and the thigh on the abdomen in a position of adduction. Then sweep the
<\ 'A
^
Fig. 519. — Reduction of an anttrn'r (thyroid) luxation by the direct method. The pelvis is to be held firmly
to the floor. The thigh is to be flexed, abducted (Allis), and the head lifted upward and outward as shown in the
small cut.
knee in a small circle with external rotation, when the knee reaches the point of
starting bring the limb down straight. Allis cautions against describing too large
a circle with the knee on account of the liability of catching up the sciatic nerve.
Fig. S20. — Reduction of a posterior (high) dorsal luxation by the indirect (lever) method of circumduction.
The thigh is flexed and adducted; the knee describes the circle shown by the dotted line while the head pursues
the course shown in the smaller cut to the right.
While rotating the thigh a lifting force may be added, as in the direct method. This
method is practically circumduction (Fig. 520).
The Indirect or Lever Method for Thyroid Luxatio7is. — Slightly flex the thigh,
about to half a right angle, and rotate outward. Slightly abduct or adduct if nec-
essary to relax the capsule before rotating outward.
33
514
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Reversed Luxations. — In certain few cases, either from the peculiar character
and direction of the primary injury or from an ordinary anterior or posterior luxa-
tion becoming subsequently more widely displaced, there result what are known as
reversed luxations. They are of two kinds, reversed thyroid and reversed dorsal.
Reversed Thyroid. — In a thyroid luxation the toes point forward ; if now the leg
is forcibly twisted until the toes point directly backward a reversed thyroid is pro-
duced (Fig. 521). In reducing it the head must be first rotated back to its original
thyroid position and then reduced by the usual methods.
Reversed Dorsal. — In a dorsal luxation the foot is inverted ; if now the leg is
forcibly twisted outward until the foot is everted, a reversed (or everted) dorsal luxa-
tion is produced (Fig. 522). To reduce it the leg must be rotated inward until the
head resumes its original position posteriorly and then it may be reduced by the usual
dorsal methods. In the production of both these reversed luxations the ligaments are
torn still more and the iliofemoral ligament may even be partially detached from its
insertion in the femur.
The Ligamentum Teres. — In complete luxations the ligamentum teres is
torn but it is not large enough to constitute an obstacle to reduction.
Infolding of the Capsule or Muscle. — Should the capsule be torn from its
attachment to the femur, it may prevent reduction by filling the socket and prevent-
Fio. 521. — Reversed thyroid luxation. (After Allis.) Fig. 522. — Reversed dorsal luxation. (After Allis.)
ing the entrance of the head. Fragments of muscle may act likewise. To clear
the socket Allis advises first, rotation to tighten the Y ligament and pressing the
head firmly in ; second, to rock the head backward and forward and so clear the
obstructing material out.
To Release the Sciatic Nerve. — If the sciatic nerve is caught around the
neck of the femur and cannot be otherwise released, Allis advises extending the leg
and cutting down on the nerve at the upper part of the popliteal space. It is then
grasped and pulled taut, this releases it from the neck and the thigh can then be
flexed and the head replaced : of course, if preferred, an incision can be made
directly down on the nerve at the hip.
To Reduce a Dislocation Complicated by Fracture. — To accomplish this
Allis advises first a trial of the usual direct method of traction and pressure on the
head and, if this fails, then while the head is held as near to the socket as possible by
an assistant the thigh is brought down and traction is made downward.
Congenital Luxations of the Hip. — In congenital luxations the acetabulum
may be shallow, the head deformed, and the neck somewhat twisted on its shaft.
These luxations are usually posterior.
REGION OF THE HIP.
515
Signs. — There is no eversion, no flexion on lying down in young cases, but
lordosis is seen on standing (Fig. 523) and in old cases, also on lying down. The
main point for diagnosis is shortening. The limb is shorter, measured from the
anterior superior spine, and the anterior iliotrochanteric angle (page 505) is dimin-
ished or lost ; the tip of the trochanter is above the Roser-Nelaton line, and the base
of Bryant's triangle is lessened or even obliterated on the affected side. By careful
palpation it can be recognized that the head is absent from
its normal position beneath the femoral artery. Frequently
the top of the trochanter is on a level with the anterior
superior spine. The use of the X-ray is necessary to ascer-
tain accurately the position of the head and as to whether
or not the bones possess their normal shape.
Rcdndion. — As the head is usually more or less
fixed in its abnormal position, force has to be used to
replace it. Paci of Pisa was the first to reduce them sys-
tematically by a modification of the circumduction method.
He flexed the thigh on the abdomen, then firmly abducted,
rotating outward, and used the edge of the table as a
fulcrum.
Lorenz used Konig's padded, wedge-shaped block
under the trochanter as a fulcrum to pry the head forward.
The writer combined the direct and indirect methods
by placing the child face down on a table with the affected
hip on a sand pillow and the leg and thigh hanging over
the side. The operator or an assistant then raises (flexes)
the knee, bringing it toward the patient's axilla, while the
operator presses with his hands and body-weight down on
the trochanter. By gradually raising the knee and keeping
it close to the body and pushing the head forward it eventu-
ally slips from the posterior to the anterior plane and into
place (Fig 524). When the head has been brought onto
the anterior plane it is usually impossible to extend the
knee, on account of tension of the hamstring muscles, as pointed out by Lorenz.
After being reduced the thigh cannot be brought down at once to its normal
position, as by so doing the head jumps out of its socket ; so it is put up
in plaster of Paris in an abducted posi-
"^■■P^ v^^^^M^^HMj |.Jqj^ ^qj. gQj^g time and brought down
T^^^^^ ^^^^^^^^^^B Hip-Disease (Coxitis or Cox-
^^^^^^k ^'^^^^^^^^^^^ ^Igi^)- — Disease of the hip in early
^^^^^^H|k ^^^BHH|H stage is characterized by pain, limitation
^^^^^^^H|^ V.-**- ^^^^ ^ of motion, and limping. The pain is
^^^^^^P^^^ either a local one in the hip itself or a
^^^Hr jt referred one. The hip is supplied by
m^^ Z^^^**.,*.^ *^" branches of the anterior crural, sciatic,
^ and obturator nerves, and as these also
supply the region of the knee, disease
of the hip causes pains to be felt around
the knee, most often on its inner side.
In an early stage the limitation of
motion is due to muscular contraction
and it disappears under anaesthesia. The
limb is held in a position of flexion, ab-
duction, and slight external rotation. The joint is more or less rigid. The loss of
motion is only complete in extreme cases. In mild cases the limitation is only pres-
ent as a reduction in the normal extent of movements, the joint may move freely and
without constraint over a limited arc. The abnormal changes produced are to be
recognized by careful inspection, measurements, and comparison with the opposite
healthy limb.
Fig. 523. — Child with con-
genital luxation of hips, show-
ing characteristic lordosis.
Fig. 524. — -Author's method of reducing congenital lux-
ation of the hip.
516
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Attitude.— Ow'mg to the pain in the affected Hmb the weight of the body is
borne mainly on the healthy limb. Viewing the patient anteriorly in an early case
of the disease the external rotation is readily seen in the eversion of the foot. If the
foot itself is normal, rotation takes place at the hip-joint and not at the knee or
ankle ; therefore a foot that is abnormally turned out indicates that there is some-
thing in the hip to cause it to turn out. The affected limb is seen to be held in a
position of abduction, out away from the healthy one. The flexion is evidenced by
the affected limb being placed a litde in advance of the other and bv the bending at
the groin. If the feet are placed together there may also be flexion of the knee
(Fig. 525).
Tilting of the pelvis may or may not be apparent, but it exists and can be dem-
onstrated by a careful examinadon. Viewed posteriorly, besides the position of the
limb as seen from in front, there is in addition a change in the gluteal folds and
buttock. The gluteal fold on the affected side is
lowered in position and shorter than on the healthy
side and the buttock is flattened. The flattening of
the buttock is caused by the flexion of the hip. This
flexion likewise tends to obliterate the gluteal fold.
The difference in height of the gluteal folds is caused
by the tilting down of the pelvis on the affected side.
An inequality in the lower limbs, whether due to
shortening or to malposition, such as flexion, will
be visible at once by an inequality of the gluteal
folds, one being higher than the other. Flexion
deformity is recognized when the patient is standing
by the bending at the hip-joint and by the lordosis
or hollowing of the back. When the patient is re-
cumbent on a flat surface and both legs are brought
straight down so that both knees are in contact with
the table, then if flexion is present it causes the lum-
bar vertebrae to arch and the back to rise from the
table. If now the thigh of the affected side is ele-
vated until the back again touches the table the de-
gree of elevation necessary to accomplish this will
be the measure of flexion.
Measuremaits. — The child being flat on its
back the pelvis is to be made level by seeing that
a line joining the two anterior spines is at right
angles to the median line. If abduction is present
the limb points away from the median line. It can-
not be brought straight down parallel with the
sound leg without tilting the pelvis. If measured
from the umbilicus to the internal malleolus the
affected leg measures more than the sound one.
This is called apparent lengthening. If when both
limbs are placed in the same degree of abduction
and are measured from the anterior spine to the internal malleolus they measure
the same, there is no real shortening.
In advanced disease adduction is more common than abduction. This produces
an apparent shortening, as shown by measurement from the umbilicus to the internal
malleolus ; if the sound limb is placed in the same degree of adduction as the affected
one, the distances from the anterior spines will show no actual shortening unless there
is a loss of bone or displacement at the hip-joint. The pelvis, instead of being
tilted down on the diseased side, is tilted up. Flexion is usually more marked and
the foot is usually inverted instead of everted.
Hip-Abscess. — Tuberculosis of .the hip probably begins in the neighborhood
of the epiphyseal line of the femur and involves the joint secondarily. The epiph-
ysis of the head begins above near the edge of the articular cartilage and runs
obliquely across upward and inward- It is thus entirely within the capsule and when
Fig. 525. — Early stage of coxalgia,
showing the affected left limb abducted,
thus lowering the pelvis on that side;
slightly flexed, thus obliterating the glu-
teofemoral fold, and slightly everted.
REGION OF THE HIP.
517
pus forms it first perforates the articular cartilage and enters the joint and then
perforates the capsule to point externally. There are three favorite places of exit,
viz. : ( I ) on the posterior surface of the neck between the branches of the ischio-
femoral ligament; (2) on the lower anterior surface beneath the iliopsoas tendon, be-
tween the pubofemoral and iliofemoral ligaments, through the bursa found here
which may communicate with the joint ; and (3) at the cotyloid notch.
The head and neck of the femur and also the acetabulum become carious. Pus
may find an exit at other places besides those mentioned. It may perforate the ace-
tabulum and show above Poupart's ligament at its outer side, or may break through
the upper posterior portion of the capsule. Not often does it break through between
the branches of the iliofemoral ligament. When it does break through anteriorly it
points in Scarpa's triangle, commonly to the in-
side of the vessels; when it breaks through pos- ,-——-.
teriorly it descends beneath the fascia lata and
points on the posterior or outer portion of the
thigh.
Coxa Vara. — The normal angle which the
head and neck make with the femoral shaft may
vary according to Humphry {Jour. Atiat. and
Phys. , xxiii, 236) from 1 10 to 140 degrees. Some-
times as a result of injury or disease the neck
makes a more acute angle than normal, coming
off at an angle, of 90 degrees or less. This is
called coxa vara (Fig. 526). In some cases it is
due to a bending of the neck caused by soften-
ing of the bone, as in rachitic affections, or to
fracture. The limb is shortened, the trochanter
raised above the Roser-Nelaton line, and abduc-
tion and flexion are restricted. To rectify it
Whitman's operation of wedge-shaped resection
is done. A wedge of bone with a base of 2 cm.
(^ in. ), apex inward, is removed at a point op-
posite the lesser trochanter. The femur is then
placed in abduction and the bone allowed to heal.
When the limb is brought down the angle of the
head and neck will be much increased and the
deformity and disability will have been removed.
Coxa Valga. — The term coxa valga has
been applied to the opposite condition, when the
neck is nearly parallel with the shaft ; it is rarer and of less importance than is coxa
vara. Orthopaedists regard 135 degrees as the normal limit of the angle between the
neck and shaft of the femur, but Humphry placed it at 140 degrees.
Fig. S26. — Normal angle of the head and
neck to the shaft of the femur with the altera-
tion in position in coxa valga and coxa vara
shown by dotted lines.
OPERATIONS ON THE HIP-JOINT.
The operations on the hip are usually done either for hip-disease or congenital
luxations. More rarely traumatic or pathological luxations or intracapsular fractures
may be operated on. The joint may be approached either anteriorly or laterally.
Lateral operations are the more mutilating, while anterior ones are often sufficient
and less serious.
Lateral Operations. — In approaching the joint from the side the incision of
Langenbeck is preferred. It begins well up on the buttocks on a line* with the pos-
terior superior spine (page 500) and is continued down over the great trochanter in
the axis of the thigh. If made with the limb flexed the line of incision will be
straight. The muscular fibres and tendon of the gluteus maximus are cut in the line
of the incision. This exposes the posterior edge of the gluteus medius, which is to
be pulled forward, and the pyriformis, which is to be drawn backward or loosened
from its insertion into the trochanter. The capsule can then be incised and the joint
examined. Further exposure may be obtained by loosening the gluteus medius and
5i8
APPLIED ANATOxMY.
gluteus minimus from their insertion in the top of the trochanter and pushing them
forward. The Hgamentum teres is often destroyed by the disease. Removal of the
head of the femur enables the acetabulum to be examined and carious bone curetted
away if necessary. The incision through the gluteus maximus muscle will be almost
parallel to its fibres and near its anterior edge. Care is to be taken not to go too
high up between the pyriformis and gluteus medius because the main trunks of the
gluteal artery and superior gluteal nerve make their exit there from the great sacro-
sciatic notch. The principal bleeding will come from branches of the gluteal artery
descending from that point. This operation is practically limited to cases of exten-
sive caries in which it is desired to do a radical operation (Fig. 527).
Boeckmann, of St. Louis, made a large horseshoe-shaped flap over the greater
trochanter. Its base was upward and it consisted of skin and superficial fascia. This
flap was raised and a chain-saw passed underneath the muscles inserting into the top
Gluteus maximus
Gluteus medius
Head of femur
Greater trochanter
Gemelli
Obturator intemus
Quadratus femoris
Posterior superior spine
Branches of gluteal artery
Outer surface of
acetabulum
Branches of sciatic artery
Pyriformis
Sciatic nerve
Gluteus maximus
Fig. 527. — The lateral mode of approach in operating on the hip- joint; large incision made to show relation of the
parts involved.
of the greater trochanter, and the latter was then sawed off and turned up as a
flap. This exposed the upper surface of the head and neck of the femur. The
operation was done for intracapsular fracture, the fragments being pinned together
with ivory pegs and the trochanter brought down and again fastened in place with
ivory pegs. The skin-flap was also brought down and sutured. While good ex-
posure can be" obtained by this method, it is almost too severe and has not been
generally adopted.
Lorenz, in congenital luxations, incised from the anterior superior spine down
and out toward the trochanter. The tensor fasciae femoris is pushed forward and
the glutei muscles backward. Hoffa modified this operation by making his incision
along the anterior edge of the greater trochanter. As the hip-joint is nearer the
anterior than the lateral surface of the body we believe it to be better to approach it
from the front rather than from the side.
THE THIGH.
519
Anterior Operations. — Liicke made an incision from just below the anterior
superior spine running downward and inward along the inner margin of the sar-
torius. The sartorius and rectus muscles were displaced outward and the iliopsoas
inward.
Hiiter, Parker, and Barker made the incision directly downward from the anterior
superior spine and pulled the sartorius and rectus inward and the tensor fasciae
femoris and gluteus medius and minimus outward (Fig. 528).
The method of Hiiter, Parker, and Barker, is not difficult. The only vessel
encountered is a branch of the external circumflex. One should not go too low,
or some muscular branches of nerves going to the vastus externus will be wounded.
No muscles are divided. The writer has Used this method with satisfaction in cases
of hip disease and intracapsular fracture.
If additional room is desired the fascia lata may be divided laterally and the
tensor fasciae femoris and gluteus medius muscles may be detached from the spine
of the ilium and back along the crest, as done by Codivilla. They are to be again
sewed back into place before closing the wound.
Inferior Operations. — Ludlof, in congenital luxations, abducted the thigh to
a right angle and made his incision along the tendon of the adductor longus. This
Sartorius
Rectus
Anterior inferior spine
Anterior superior
spine
Head of femur
Tensor fascia
femoris
Small branches of
deep external cir-
cumflex artery and
nerves
Vastus externus
Gluteus medius
Gluteus
Neck of femur
Fig. S28. — Anterior operation on the hip-joint.
muscle was then drawn downward and the pectineus upward and the joint exposed.
The writer prefers to make an incision along the inner side of the femoral vein. The
vessels are then to be drawn upward and outward and the pectineus downward and
inward and the capsule is at once evident.
THE THIGH.
STRUCTURE.
The thigh is composed of the femur imbedded in three main sets of muscles,
and is supplied and traversed by the femoral vessels and sciatic and anterior crural
nerves.
The femur serves as a support and keeps the knee out away from the trunk.
The muscles move the thigh on the trunk, or vice versa, and the leg on the
thigh.
The blood-vessels and nerves not only supply the structures of the thigh itself,
but also serve as channels for the transmission of blood and nervous impulses to and
from the parts beyond, hence their large size.
S20
APPLIED ANATOMY.
MUSCLES OF THE THIGH.
There are three main sets of thigh muscles, viz. : extensors, flexors, and adduc-
tors. We will limit our consideration to the long muscles.
Extensor Muscles. — The extensor muscles consist of the quadriceps extensor,
composed of the rectus femoris, vastus
iuternus, vastus externus and crureus
{vastus intermcdius), and we might add
also the sartorius. The quadriceps of
the thigh is homologous with the triceps
extensor of the arm, the fourth head of
the latter muscle being the anconeus.
The sartorius normally has no homo-
logue in the upper extremity, but is
sometimes represented by a slip from
the latissimus dorsi to the triceps (dorsi-
epitrochlearis — Macalister). The rectus
arises by an anterior or straight head
from the anterior inferior spine of the
ilium and a posterior or reflected head
from the upper surface of the rim of
the acetabulum. The tendon formed by
the union of these two heads passes
downward directly over the head of the
femur and, in operating on the joint
from in front, it must be deflected to
one side. The belly of the muscle is
separate and not attached to the other
muscles (Fig. 529),
The vastus externus (vastus late-
ralis) forms the muscular mass on the
outer surface of the thigh. A bursa
separates it from the gluteus maximus
above. Superficially it is readily sepa-
rated from the crureus (vastus inter-
medius) but blends with it close to the
bone. The line separating the two mus-
cles is directly upward from the outer
edge of the patella. The vastus internus
(vastus medialis) arises from the inner
edge of the linea aspera as high up as
the lesser trochanter. Its outer ^<\^q.
blends with the crureus.
The sartorius in the middle third
of the thigh lies directly over Hunter's
canal. It inserts into the tibia below and
internal to its tubercle, hence it spans
both the hip-joint and knee-joint. It
flexes the thigh on the pelvis and the leg
on the thigh. It also rotates the thigh
outward and the leg inward especially
when the latter is flexed.
The flexor muscles, also called
Fig. 529.— The quadriceps extensor muscle of the thigh, the hamstring mUSCleS, comprise the
biceps cruris, \.\\e semite7idinosics, and the
semimembrayiosus. The short head of the biceps arises from the outer lip of the linea
aspera. Above, the long head is blended with the semitendinosus and arises from the
great sacrosciatic ligament and the lower inner part of the tuberosity of the ischium.
Rectus fetnoris
with crureus
beneath
Vastus
externus
Vastus
internus
THE THIGH.
521
The semimembranosus arises from the tuberosity just above and external to the biceps
and semitendinosus. The biceps, arising by its long head from the tuberosity, lies first
to the inner side of the sciatic nerve, and then, as it crosses obliquely to reach the
Adductor
magnus
Adductor
tubercle
Fig. 530. — The flexor muscles of the thigh.
Fig. S3'. — Adductor muscles of the thigh.
outer side of the knee, covers the nerve and finally lies to its outer side. The upper
portion of the semimembranosus lies beneath both the long head of the biceps and
the semitendinosus, and only comes to the surface between them from the middle of
522 "^^^ APPLIED ANATOMY. "^^M^^^^
the thigh down. The tendons of the semimembranosus and semitendinosus form
the inner hamstring tendons and the biceps the outer hamstring tendon (Fig. 530).
The adductor muscles are the adductor brevis, adductor longus^ adductor
7nag7ms, and gracilis ; for cHnical purposes the pectineus may also be inckided,
although it is morphologically simply a detached portion of the iliacus. The quad-
ratics femoris and obturator externus belong morphologically to the adductor group,
but from a clinical standpoint they are associated more with the external rotators of
the hip than the adductors of the thigh. The adductor muscles separate the flexor
and extensor groups on the inner side of the thigh. The adductor longus arises
by a strong tendon from the body of the pubis just below its spine and inserts into
approximately the middle third of the femur in the linea aspera (Fig. 531). When
the thigh is abducted the tense edge of its tendon is evident, and if followed upwards
it leads to the spine of the pubis. It lies on the same plane as the pectineus, which is
immediately above; sometimes, especially in the female, an interval exists between the
two through which the adductor brevis may be visible. Near its insertion it forms
part of the floor of Scarpa' s triangle and the upper part of the floor of Hunter's canal.
The adductor brevis arises from the descending ramus of the pubis just below
the origin of the adductor longus and inserts into the femur from the lesser trochanter
to the linea aspera. It lies directly behind the upper portion of the adductor longus
and in front of the adductor magnus.
The adductor magnus arises from the ramus of the ischium, from the adductor
brevis in front to the hamstring tendons on the tuberosity behind. It is inserted into
nearly the whole length of the linea aspera, and by a distinct tendinous band into
the adductor tubercle at the upper edge of the internal condyle. Its upper portion
is sometimes called the adductor minimus. It is pierced near the bone by the per-
forating branches of the profunda femoris artery and near its lower portion by the
femoral artery and vein. It forms part of the floor of Hunter's canal. Its homologue
in the upper extremity is the coracobrachialis muscle.
The gracilis arises from the pubis just to the inner side of the adductor brevis and
passes straight down the thigh to insert into the tibia, beneath the sartorius and above
the semitendinosus. It is sometimes represented in the upper extremity by a slip
from the lower border of the pectoralis major called the chondro-epitrochlearis.
The pectineus arises from the iliopectineal line to insert just behind and below the
lesser trochanter. It lies on the same level as the adductor longus and just above it.
SURFACE ANATOMY.
If the thigh is flexed and rotated outward the sartorius is seen crossing it obliquely,
and Scarpa's triangle is evident as a depression downward from Poupart's ligament.
The muscular mass of the upper inner portion of the thigh is composed of the
gracilis and adductor muscles. Immediately above the patella is the flat tendon of
the rectus, and above and to the inner side of the patella is a rounded mass formed
by the vastus internus (Fig. 532). Running upward and inward from the outer
edge of the patella to the middle of the thigh is a groove which separates the rectus
and vastus externus. On the outer side a flat groove is formed by the iliotibial
band of the fascia lata. At its posterior border is the external intermuscular septum
between the vastus externus and biceps.
Scarpa's Triangle. — This occupies approximately the upper third of the
thigh. Its base is formed by Poupart's ligament, its outer side by the sartorius
muscle, and its inner side by the adductor longus. Its floor is formed by the iliacus,
psoas, pectineus, sometimes a portion of the adductor brevis, and the adductor longus
muscles. It contains the femoral artery and vein, the anterior crural nerve, the long
saphenous vein, and numerous lymphatics (Fig. 533). At its upper and inner part is
the saphenous opening, at which femoral herniae make their appearance. Psoas
abscesses follow the tendon of the psoas muscle down and make their appearance in
Scarpa's triangle, sometimes to one side and sometimes to the other of the artery.
Pus from hip-joint disease likewise comes to the front at the upper part of the triangle
on one side or the other of the femoral artery. The apex of Scarpa's triangle is a
favorite site for ligation of the femoral artery.
THE THIGH.
523
Femoral Artery. — The line of the femoral artery is from a point midway
between the anterior superior spine and the symphysis pubis (this brings it to the
inner side of the middle of Poupart's ligament) to the adductor tubercle at the inner
upper part of the internal condyle. Just below Poupart's ligament it gives off four
small branches; the superficial external circumflex, superficial epigastric, and superfi-
cial and deep external pudic. About 4 cm. ( i yi in. ) down it gi\es of? the profunda
femoris, which is almost as large as the parent trunk. On reaching the edge of the
sartorius it passes beneath it to enter Hunter's canal, and at the junction of the mid-
dle and lower third of the thigh it pierces the adductor magnus to become the
popliteal. At Poupart's ligament the femoral vein lies to the inner side of the
artery, but at the apex of the triangle it lies behind it.
Ligation of the Femoral Artery. — In ligating the femoral artery an incision is
made in the line given above, and the artery sought for beneath the fascia lata. Lig-
atures are not placed high up, on account of the proximity of the deep femoral;
lower down at the apex of the triangle is the preferred point. The crural branch of
the genitocrural nerve lies on the artery for a short distance below Poupart's ligament;
it is small in size. Just to the outer side of the artery, and sometimes touching it, is
Rectus femoris
Vastus internus
Adductor tubercle
Line of femoral
artery
Gracilis and adduc-
tor muscles
Sartorius
Scarpa's triangle
Saphenous opening
Fig. 532. — Surface anatomy of the thigh.
the anterior crural nerve, and running down its outer side are the internal cutaneous
and internal saphenous branches. The femoral vein, which above was internal to
the artery, at the apex of the triangle lies posterior to it (Fig. 534).
The profunda femoris artery conies off 4 cm. (i^ in.) below Poupart's liga-
ment. Its branches are the external (lateral) and internal (medial) circumflex, and
four perforating. The last perforating is terminal. The external circunijiex passes
outward over the iliacus and under the sartorius and rectus and divides into three
branches; the ascending branch follows the anterior intertrochanteric line and gives
off a branch which enters the joint between the limbs of the iliofemoral or Y liga-
ment. The transverse branch goes outward to the upper part of the vastus exter-
nus; and the descending branch supplies the muscle lower down. The ascending
and transverse branches lie beneath the incision, which is made in operating on the
hip-joint anteriorly, and may be cut during the operation. The interjial circumflex
winds inwardly between the psoas and pectineus, then between the adductor brevis
and obturator externus, and then between the adductor magnus and quadratus fem-
oris to anastomose with the external circumflex, sciatic, and superior perforating.
The {o\xx perforating arteries wind around close to the bone from within outward
and terminate in the hamstring and vastus externus muscles. They perforate the
adductor muscles and send large anastomotic branches to one another near the linea
aspera. In operations on the femur, when the soft parts are detached from the
posterior portion of the bone, the bleeding from these perforating branches is liable
to be v^ery free and on account of their depth difficult to control. It is this which
renders operations like those for ununited and compound fractures dangerous.
524
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Hunter's Canal. — Hunter's canal occupies approximately the middle third
of the thigh. It has an outer wall formed by the vastus internus muscle; a floor
formed above by the adductor longus, and below by the adductor magnus; and a
Superficial epigastric
Superficial external pudic
Deep external pudic
Pectineus
Adductor brevis
Adductor longus
Long saphenous vein
Nerve to vastus internus
Femoral vein
Femoral artery
Long saphenous nerve
Hunter's canal (roof)
Adductor magnus
Sartorius
Vastus internus
Superficial circumflex iliac
External cutaneous nerve
Iliacus
Sartorius
Tensor fascias femoris
Anterior crural nerve
Femoral artery
Femoral vein
Middle cutaneous nerve
Iliotibial band of fascia lata
Rectus femoris
Vastus externus
Fig. 533. — Anterior view of the structures of the thigh, Scarpa's triangle and Hunter's canal.
roof formed by a layer of fascia running from the adductor longus and magnus below
to the vastus internus on the outer side. The canal runs from the apex of Scarpa's
triangle to the opening in the adductor magnus muscle. The sartorius muscle lies
on the roof of the canal (Fig. 533).
THE THIGH.
525
The Femoral Artery in Hmiter s Canal. — The femoral artery in Hunter's canal
has the vein, to which it is closely bound by fibrous tissue, first posterior and then
slightly to its outer side. The internal or long saphenous nerve crosses the artery in
front from its outer to its inner side. At the beginning of the canal the nerve to
the vastus internus runs alongside of the long saphenous nerve, but it soon leaves it
to enter the muscle. The long saphenous nerve lea\'es the artery as the latter per-
forates the adductor magnus and passes downward under the sartorius muscle to
be distributed to the leg lower down, and to the inner side of the ankle.
Ligation of the Femoral Artery i7i Hjinters Canal. — In ligating the artery
the incision is made over the sartorius muscle, which is to be pulled to the outer
side; this exposes the roof of the canal, which is then opened. There is no need of
Skin
Superficial fascia
Fascia lata
Sartorius muscle
Skin
Superficial fascia
Fascia lata
Femoral vein
Femoral artery
Long saphenous nerve
External condyle of femur -
.Patella
Fir.. 534. — Ligation of the femoral artery at the apex of Scarpa's triangle.
including the long saphenous nerve in the ligature. Just before the femoral artery
pierces the adductor magnus it gives off the anastomotica magna, whose superficial
branch follows the long saphenous nerve, while its deep branch supplies the vastus
internus muscle. This latter branch may be the source of troublesome hemorrhage
in supracondylar osteotomy.
Collateral Circnlation. — After ligation of the femoral artery below its profunda
branch the external circumflex artery anastomoses with the muscular branches of the
femoral, anastomotica magna, and superior articular arteries. The perforating arte-
ries anastomose with the muscular branches below the ligature and with the superior
articular arteries (Fig. 535).
Long or Internal Saphenous Vein. — The long saphenous vein begins in
the venous arch on the dorsum of the foot and passes upward just in front of the
internal malleolus, then along the inner posterior edge of the tibia, accompanied by
526
APPLIED ANATOMY.
the long saphenous nerve, then along the posterior border of the internal condyle
and up in almost a straight line to the saphenous opening, 4 cm. ( i ^ in. ) below and
to the outer side of the spine of the pubis, where it empties into the femoral
vein. It is this vein which is involved in varicose veins of the leg, and is frequently
operated on. The blood from the inner and outer portions of the thigh collects into
two veins which empty into the long saphenous before the saphenous opening is
External circumflex
Profunda femoris
Femoral artery
Perforating arteries from profunda^
Superior external articular
Azygos articular
Inferior external articular
Internal circumflex
-^Anastomotica magna
Superior internal articular
Inferior internal articular
Fig. 53 S. — Collateral circulation after ligation of femoral artery.
reached, or else join the vein at the saphenous opening, or else open separately
into the > femoral vein. There are then sometimes two or three veins at the
saphenous opening coming from below, instead of one. This is important to bear in
mind when operating here, otherwise one of the side veins may be ligated or excised
under the impression that it is the main trunk. Every opportunity should be utilized
to impress on one's mind the exact course pursued by the vein, as otherwise it may
not be readily found if not rendered conspicuous by distention or disease.
THE THIGH.
527
Lymphatics of the Groin. — The lymphatic nodes of the groin are frequently
the seat of infection necessitating operative measures. They are superficial and deep.
For clinical purposes there is no better division of the superficial nodes than into an
oblique set along Poupart's ligament and a longitudinal set along the blood-vessels
(Fig. 536).
While as a general rule it may be stated that the nodes drain the region they
are nearest to, this is frequently not the case. Therefore it is not always possible to
infer the source of the infection from the location of the infected lymph node. The
nodes of the groin drain the lower anterior half of the
abdomen, the genitalia, lower limb, and the anal, gluteal,
and lumbar regions.
They vary from 10 to 20 in number, and their
efferent vessels either pass through the femoral canal to
the nodes inside of the abdomen, or may terminate in
the deep lymphatic nodes of the femoral canal.
The deep lymphatics consist of one to three nodes
in the femoral canal internal to the femoral vessels.
They are not constant, and one which is sometimes
found at the upper end of the femoral canal is known
as the gland or node of Cloquet. They receive the deep
lymphatics of the thigh, as well as sometimes a commu-
nication from the superficial lymphatics. They rarely
become the seat of infection, but if inflamed may be
mistaken for strangulated femoral hernia.
Excision of Inguinal Nodes. — The inguinal
nodes frequently become inflamed and swollen (bubo)
•from infection transmitted from the parts which they
drain. For this they are frequently excised. The
superficial nodes are located on the fascia lata around
the saphenous opening, and at that point are intimately
associated with and surround the veins. On this ac-
count it is easy to wound the veins, and the hemor-
rhage may be so free and so hard to control as to en-
danger the life of the patient. I know of one such
fatal case. This accident is to be avoided by freeing
the edge of the mass below the saphenous opening
and isolating the long saphenous vein, which is then
followed up and exposed at its entrance into the femoral
vein. The diseased mass is then to be dissected loose
from each side, away from the vein, and removed. The
femoral vein itself at this point is superficial, and if the
saphenous opening is cleaned out it will of necessity
be exposed.
The other veins emptying into the femoral at the
saphenous opening above the long saphenous — the su-
perficial circumflex iliac, epigastric, and external pudic —
are usually too small and easily secured to cause trouble.
Sciatic Nerve. — The sciatic nerve in its descent
crosses a line joining the tuberosity of the ischium and
greater trochanter at the junction of its inner and middle thirds. It then descends
toward the middle of the popliteal space. It divides into the internal and external
popliteal nerves at about the middle of the thigh (Fig. 537). Rarely it divides
lower down, but more frequently higher up. It is said that it will bear a weight
of 183 lbs., but Symington {Lancet, 1878 — Treves) has pointed out that it will tear
out from its spinal attachment before this limit is reached. In exposing it the incision
should be made high up at the gluteal fold, to the outer side of the tuberosity of the
ischium. At this point it lies to the outer side of the biceps and on the adductor
magnus; a little lower down it disappears beneath the biceps, and, if the incision
is made here, the muscle must be displaced and it may only be found with difficulty.
Fig. 536. — Superficial lymphatic
vessels of lower limb; semicliagram-
matic. (Based on figures of Sappey.)
528
A-PPLIED ANATOMY.
At the upper end of the popHteal space it again becomes visible, and can be fount
between the biceps on the outer side and the semimembranosus on the inner side.
Gluteus minimus
Gluteus medius
Obturator internus
Gluteus maximus
Short head of biceps
External popliteal or
fibular nerve
Plantaris
Outer head of gastrocnemius
Pyriformis
Sciatic artery
Small sciatic nerve
Sciatic nerve
Gemelli
Comes nervi ischiadic!
Long head of biceps
Semimembranosus
Semitcndinosis
Gracilis
Semimembranosus
Sartorius
Semitendinosus
Internal popliteal or tibial jierve
Popliteal artery
Fig. 537. — Sciatic nerve and structures of the posterior portion of the thigh.
Sciatica may be caused by injury to the sacral plexus in the pelvis, as by labor,
or by injury to the nerves as they issue from the spine, as in fractures, luxations, bony
outgrowths or tumors. The pain aflects the back of the thigh and outer side of the leg.
THE THIGH.
529
FRACTURES OF THE FEMUR.
The femur is usually fractured through the neck, greater trochanter, upper
third of the shaft, middle of the shaft, or just abo\e the condyles.
Fractures of the Neck of the Femur. — These are often difficult of diagnosis
and unsatisfactory in treatment.
The signs peculiar to this fracture are due to the displacement of the fragments.
Some shortening occurs in all fractures of the femur (Fig. 538). Comparative
measurements to ascertain this will be of no value if the pelvis is tilted (see page
497). If by measurement the limb is shorter than the opposite one, then if the dis-
tance from the tip of the greater trochanter to the external malleolus is the same on
both sides, the injury must be higher up, or in the neck.
The iliotrochanteric angle instead of being thirty degrees will be diminished or
lost. The tip of the greater trochanter will be above the Roser-Nelaton line. The
Fig. 538. — Intracapsular fracture of the neck of
the femur showing the shortening. The dotted line
represents the outline of the normal bone.
Fig. 539. — View of the outer surface of the
bones of the hip, showing Roser-Nelaton line
(ad); Bryant's triangle (a be — be being its
base) ; the iliotrochanteric line (a c) and iliotro-
chanteric angle {bac).
base of Bryant's triangle will be shorter on the injured side (Fig. 539). If the ex-
tended limb is rotated the arc described by the greater trochanter will be smaller
on the injured side because the shaft rotates on its axis instead of rotating in the
acetabulum. The trochanter of the injured side is usually not so prominent as on
the sound side. The iliotibial band is relaxed.
Shortening is well demonstrated by flexing the thighs with the patient on his back:
the knee of the sound side will be found to be higher than that of the injured one.
In all fractures of the thigh the foot is placed by gravity in eversion. The rise
of the greater trochanter, being nearer to the crest of the ilium, produces a slight
fulness in the outer portion of Scarpa's triangle which is absent on the healthy side.
Luie of Fracture. — The neck is fractured in one of two places, near the head,
or near the trochanter. The former is intracapsular entirely, the latter partly intra-
capsular and partly extracapsular. As the capsule anteriorly descends as low as the
34
530
APPLIED ANATOMY.
intertrochanteric line and posteriorly only half way down the neck, the high frac-
tures are entirely intracapsular and the low fractures intracapsular in front and
extracapsular behind. This causes a marked difference in healing; complete intra-
capsular fractures do not unite firmly, but the fractures close to the trochanters
not infrequently unite firmly with resulting good function.
Tensor fasci;e femoris
Gluteus medius
Gluteus minimus
Rectus femoris
Crureus
Vastus intemus
Iliopsoas
Pectineus
Adductor brevjs
Adductor longus
Gracilis
Adductor magnus
\
Fig. S40. — Fracture of the femur at the juncture of the upper and middle thirds. Upper fragment drawn forward
and outward.
i
Impactio7i. — Impaction of the other fragment by the neck of the bone is not
rare, and firm union may occur. If the fracture is close to the head, the neck is
impacted into and penetrates the head, but if the fracture is close to the trochanters
the neck penetrates the trochanters, frequently splitting them.
THE THIGH.
531
Plantaris
Two heads
of the
gastrocnemius
Mode of Injury. — In old people the bone is weakened by atrophy and the neck
is often fractured by indirect violence, as by twisting, etc. Then the fracture is a
high one; if, however, the fracture is by direct violence, as by falling and striking
the hip, then the fracture is apt to be close to the trochanters and the prognosis
better. Hence the importance of ascertaining the history of the injury. Fracture
also occurs in young adults and children, usually from direct injury.
Treatment. — The injury is treated ( i ) by widely abducting the thigh, which ele-
vates the lower fragment to the upper; (2) by adhesive plaster extension combined
with lateral weight traction pulling the upper part of the thigh out, which renders tense
the capsule and so brings the fractured surfaces in apposition; or (3) by Thomas's
splint which is of metal and extends from the level of the axilla to below the knee;
this ensures immobility and facilitates
handling of the patient.
Fracture through the Tro-
chanters.— This is almost always
the result of a direct injury or blow
on the hip. Impaction is almost the
rule, the upper fragment being driven
into the lower. Shortening and other
symptoms are usually not so marked
as in the other fractures and almost
any method of treatment is followed
by good results.
Fractures of the Shaft. —
These may be in the upper, middle, or
lower third. They all have a common
displacement. The upper fragment is
displaced forward and outward and
the lower fragment backward and
usually inward. The foot is usually
everted.
Fractures of the Upper Third. —
The displacement of the upper frag-
ment forward and outward is usually
marked. It is caused by the iliacus,
psoas, and pectineus pulling it for-
ward and rotating it out and the
gluteus minimus and medius abduct-
ing it. The lower fragment is pulled
in by the adductors and posteriorly
by the gastrocnemius and plantaris
(Fig. 540). This is a troublesome
fracture and is treated either by a
double inclined plane or anterior
wire splint with the limb in a flexed
and abducted position or else the fragments are to be wired or pinned together.
Fracture of the Middle Third. — The displacement is the same as in the upper
third but to a less extent. It is usually treated by adhesive plaster extension with
the leg abducted.
Fractures of the Lower Third — Supracondylar. — This is a particularly danger-
ous fracture because the lower fragment is drawn backward by the gastrocnemius and
plantaris, and the popliteal vessels and internal popliteal nerve may either be wounded
primarily or stretched over its sharp upper edge (Fig. 541). The artery lying deepest
is the most liable to injury, then the vein, and finally the nerve. Gangrene necessi-
tating amputation has occurred. Of course in attempting to replace the fragments
the knee should be flexed to relax the gastrocnemius and plantaris. Some cases can
be treated by ordinary extension with the knee straight, others with the knee flexed,
but others may require operation and fixing by pins or wiring. William Bryant
divided the tendo Achillis for the purpose of relaxing the pull of the gastrocnemius.
Fig. 541. — Supracondylar fracture of the femur. The
lower fragment is seen to be drawn back into the popliteal
space by the gastrocnemius and plantaris. The vessels are
stretched over the sharp edge of the lower fragment.
532 APPLIED ANATOMY.
AMPUTATION.
Amputation at the Hip-Joint. — In amputating at the hip-joint, hemor-
rhage is especially to be guarded against. This comes from two sources, the femoral
artery anteriorly and the branches of the internal iliac posteriorly. The most reliable
way of controlling bleeding is probably by the use of the elastic tourniquet held in
place by Wyeth's pins. These are two steel pins 5 mm. (f'g in.) in diameter and
25 cm. (loin. )long. One is entered 6 mm, {}^ in.) below the anterior superior
spine and slightly to its inner side and traverses the tissues on the outer side of
the hip for about 7.5 cm. (3 in.) from the point of entrance; the other is entered
through the skin and tendon of the adductor magnus 1.25 cm. (^ in.) below the
perineum and made to emerge 2.5 cm. (i in.) below the tuber ischii. The elastic
tube is to be wound around the hip above the pins, which prevent its slipping down
(Fig. 542). The amputation is then performed as desired. Compression of the
aorta or common iliac by instrumental means is obsolete. Sometinies the common
iliac is compressed laterally by the linger introduced through an incision in the
Sartorius --^ J^^^ //^OS<, ^^ ^^-Femoral artery
Anterior crural nerve ~-~._;__^^\-^ V^H^^iii,,^ ''' -- Femoral vein
Vastus internus
Rectus and crureus -
Vastus externus'
Adductors
. Gracilis
^^^H^^^I^H^^^ ^~\ Semimembranosus and
^^.^^•^^^^^W^P'^^N. semitendinosus
Biceps Sciatic nerve
Fig. S42- — ^Amputation just above the middle of the thigh, showing insertion of Wyeth's pins.
abdominal walls. Another method consists in making lateral flaps with the femoral
artery in the angle of the incision — all vessels are then clamped as they are divided.
In some operations the head of the femur is disarticulated before the flaps are
made. In this case the first part of the operation is like a resection of the hip
by the Langenbeck straight incision.
The bleeding of the posterior flap comes from branches of the gluteal, sciatic,
obturator, and internal pudic arteries, derived from the internal iliac.
Amputation of the Thigh. — In amputation of the thigh by the flap method
care must be taken to avoid splitting the femoral artery. Its position in the various
portions of the thigh should be borne in mind. Anteroposterior flaps are to be pre-
ferred to lateral ones, and a short anterior flap is to be avoided because the scar is
drawn posteriorly (Fig. 542). The muscles of the posterior part of the thigh, the
hamstrings, are not attached to the bone, with the exception of the short head of
the biceps, they therefore retract when cut and later pull the scar behind the bone.
The crureus and vastus externus and internus anteriorly are attached to the bone,
and hence cannot draw back either at the time of the operation or afterwards.
REGION OF THE KNEE.
533
The position of the femoral artery will depend on the point at which the amputation
is made. It does not lie close to the bone until the popliteal space is reached.
Bleeding from the perforating arteries along the linea aspera should, however, be
looked for and the sciatic nerve should be isolated and cut short.
REGION OF THE KNEE.
External con-_
dyle of femur'
SURFACE ANATOMY.
The bony landmarks are the patella, the two condyles of the femur, the tibia,
and the fibula (Fig. 543).
The patella is pointed below where the tendo patellae is attached, is slightly
convex on its upper border, and its lateral edges are prominent, especially the
outer. It usually has little tissue
over it. With the limb extended and ,
quadriceps relaxed the patella can
be moved laterally. There is a hol-
low above the patella. When the
muscle contracts this hollow is filled
up by the rectus, and the muscular
swells on each side produced by the
vastus internus and externus are
visible. When the quadriceps mus-
cle is contracted the tense tendo
patellae becomes evident, when re-
laxed the soft fatty pad beneath the
tendon can be felt.
About midway between the
patella and tubercle of the tibia on
each side can be felt a groove which
indicates the line of the joint and
the location of the semilunar carti-
lages. On the outer side posteriorly
opposite the level of the tibial tuber-
cle can be felt the head of the fibula.
Running upward from it is the ten-
don of the biceps. In front of the
biceps can be seen and felt the ilio-
tibial band. It is difficult to distin-
guish the joint-line on the sides,
therefore it is better to locate it by
recognizing the sulci anteriorly on
each side of the tendo patellae; flex-
ing the knee makes these depres-
sions more distinct. The joint on
the outer side is about 2 cm. (^ in. )
above the head of the fibula.
Posteriorly, with the leg ex-
tended, the condyles of the femur can readily be outlined; the inner is the more
prominent. The upper edge of their articular surfaces can be felt on firm pressure
at the sides, and the inner leads to the adductor tubercle, into which the adductor
magnus tendon is inserted — this tendon can likewise frequently be felt. The tubercle
of the tibia can best be seen and felt when the tendo patellae is relaxed. It is about
4 cm. {1)4 in.) below the patella. Just above and to its outer side, about 4 cm.
(i^ in.) distant, is the external tuberosity of the tibia; into it is inserted the lower
end of the iliotibial band. To the outer side at a little lower level can be seen and
felt the head of the fibula. On the inner side is the flat rounded internal tuberosity
of the tibia. Posteriorly is seen the fulness of the popliteal space; on its outer side
the tendon of the biceps is readily felt and running with it is the external popliteal
Head of fibula
-Patella
Groove of
" joint line
Internal
- tuberosity
of tibia
Tibial
tubercle
Fig. 543. — Surface anatomy of the knee.
534
APPLIED ANATOMY.
or fibular nerve; on the inner side the most prominent tendon is the semitendinosus
with the semimembranosus beneath and the gracihs to the inner side.
THE KNEE-JOINT.
As the functions of the lower extremity are support and mobility, it is evident
that in order to obtain mobility without unduly weakening the limb the ligament-
ous connection of the bones must be exceptionally strong. The knee is placed
half way down the extremity, hence it has the bulk of the body above to support ;
also, the bones on each side of the joint are the longest in the body, hence their lever
action is exceptionally great, which likewise necessitates that the joint be firmly braced
by ligaments.
The Movements of the Knee. — The knee is primarily a hinge-joint; its main
movements are extension and flexion. It can be extended to a straight line (i8o
degrees) and flexed until the thigh
and upper portion of the leg come
in contact, at about 45 degrees or even
less. The movement is a combined
gliding and rolling one. According
to Morris (" Joints," p. 375), as ex-
treme extension ends the leg rotates
a little outward through a longitudi-
nal axis, passing through the middle
of the outer condyle of the femur, and
as flexion begins it rotates inward.
These rotatory movements are,
however, slight, and may practically
be ignored. When flexion has pro-
ceeded to 150 or 155 degrees, the joint
becomes comparatively loose, and
this increases as the joint is flexed,
until a rotation of 36 degrees (Morris)
is allowed. This is of decided prac-
tical importance because injuries and
treatment are intimately associated
with the presence of rotatory move-
ments. No rotation is possible when
the knee is fully extended, the bones
being then immovable.
Bones of the Knee-joint. —
The knee-joint is between the femur,
the tibia, and the patella; the fibula
does not enter into it (Fig. 544). The
patella is only a sesamoid bone de-
veloped in the quadriceps tendon, and
is not essential. In some of the lower
animals it has a synovial membrane
separate from the knee-joint proper.
The joint between the femur and
tibia is built up of two separate lateral
parts; the condyle and tuberosity of
each side forming practically a sepa-
rate joint and having a crucial liga-
ment as one of its lateral ligaments.
The object of thus combining two
joints side by side to form one joint is to add to its strength and lateral stability.
The condyles of the femur have their articular surfaces prolonged up on its anterior
surface, not to aid in flexion and extension, but simply to facilitate the action of the
patella. The outer condyle is the higher, to prevent external luxation of the patella.
Line of epiphysis
External condyle
Patella
Internal tuberosity
External tuberosity
Head of fibula
Line of epiphyses
7fT— Tibial tubercle
Fig. S44- — Antero-extemal view of the bones of the knee.
REGION OF THE KNEE.
535
Patella
The articular surfaces of the condyles are not perfect arcs of a circle. If they were
the motion would be solely a gliding one and the lateral ligaments and crucial liga-
ments would be equally tense in all positions, which is not the case, for, particularly in
flexion, they become slightly relaxed. The upper surface of the tibia is slightly
hollow and its spine projects upward between the condyles, thus adding to the
lateral stability of the joint.
The patella is divided by a longitudinal ridge into two articular facets, the outer
for the external condyle being the larger; the ridge lies in the intercondylar space.
The inner part of the patella is
thicker than the outer because
the inner condyle is lower. The
patella is a sesamoid bone which
is developed more toward the
deep surface of the tendon of the
quadriceps. The tendon goes
over the surface of the patella
and is practically continued
longitudinally through the su-
perficial portion of the bone. If
the dried specimen is hammered
the bone can be pulverized and
removed, leaving the tendon of
the quadriceps continuous with
the tendo patellae. For this rea-
son, when the patella frac-
tures, the torn fibrous fringes
are never on the articular sur-
face but always on its superficial
surface. The patella has its
sharp apex below and fractures
frequently tear it off, the small
size of the fragment making
repair difficult.
Ligaments of the Knee-
joint. — To provide for the sup-
port required to be given by
the lower extremity, the liga-
ments and tendons binding the
bones of the knee together
are both numerous and strong.
The bond of union is so strong
that dislocations from traumatic
causes are comparatively rare,
and it is only when the ligaments
have been weakened by disease
that subluxations take place.
The knee possesses the usual capsular ligament but so hidden by strengthening
bands and tendinous expansions that but little of it is seen. Anteriorly the capsule
is strengthened by the tendon of the quadriceps, the patella, and the tendo patellae
(Fig. 545). Viewing these structures as a whole we see that their lower end is firmly
attached at the tibial tubercle, but above their attachments are far removed from the
joint. They are so strong and thick that pus from within does not tend to go through
but goes around them. Their upper attachment is muscular, so they do not act to
restrain movements except when the muscle is contracted; hence flexion is limited
by contact of the soft parts posteriorly rather than by tension of the ligaments ante-
riorly. In complete extension the bulk of the patella rises above the articular sur-
face, and connecting its upper edge with the anterior surface of the femur is only the
thin capsular ligament, hence effusions into the joint bulge upward at this point.
Extending about 5 cm. (2 in, ) above the patella is the subfemoral bursa; this in 8 out
Fig. S45--
-Knee- joint distended with wax, showing the extent ot its
cavity and capsular ligament.
APPLIED ANATOMY.
of lo cases communicates with the joint, and effusions readily distend it. The patella^
normally lies in contact with the femur but when there is effusion in the joint it is
pushed or raised up and is called a floating patella. Pressure on it causes it to strike
on the femur beneath, which is readily felt and enables one to diagnose effusions
within the joint. Posteriorly the capsule is thick, being strengthened by an expan-
sion, called the posterior ligament or ligamentum Winslowii, which goes upward
and outward from the tendon of the semimembranosus muscle at the upper edge
of the tibia. It is pierced by the branches
of the azygos articular artery. The cap-
sular ligament is weak below at the margin
of the tibia and here pus may find an exit.
It is less liable to come out above, but
the bursa under the inner head of the gas-
trocnemius frequendy (17 per cent, Mac-
Tendon of
adductor
magnus
Tibial tubercle
Cut edge of
capsule
Biceps
Long external
lateral ligament
Outer head of
gastrocnemius
Short external
lateral ligament
External semi-
lunar cartilage
Fig. 546. — View of the inner side of the knee-
joint; the capsule has been cut away from the edge
of the patella to the internal lateral ligament, ex-
posing the interior of the joint.
Fig. 547. — ^View of the outer side of the knee-joint.
The capsule has been cut away from the edge of the
patella to the external lateral ligament.
alister) communicates with the joint and is usually the origin of the ganglion so often
seen in the popliteal region. When the joint becomes subluxated by disease the tibia
is drawn backward and this posterior capsular ligament may shorten and prevent
reposition forward. So strong is it that forcible attempts are liable to cause fracture.
Internally the capsular ligament is strengthened by the lateral expansion from
the side of the patella and from the fascia lata over the vastus internus; these
go to the inner tuberosity of the tibia and strengthen the lower part of the joint,
REGION OF THE KNEE.
537
but toward the upper edge of the internal condyle the capsule is again thin and
effusions puff it out at that point.
Internal Lateral Ligament. — A band of the capsule to which the name internal
lateral ligament has been applied runs from beneath the adductor tubercle to the tibia
below the internal tuberosity; it is strengthened by fibres from the tendon of the
semimembranosus and has the internal articular vessels and nerves passing between
it and the tibia. It will be noted that it
lies toward the posterior portion of the
joint, hence it limits extension (Fig. 546).
Externally the capsule has likewise
the fibrous expansion of the quadriceps
from the side of the patella and the
fascia lata. This latter is the strong
iliotibial band and goes downward to
insert into the outer tuberosity of the
tibia (Fig. 547).
External Lateral Ligameyits. —
There are likewise two band-like liga-
ments on the outer side, the long and
short external lateral ligaments. The
long external lateral ligament arises from
a tubercle just below and in front of the
outer head of the gastrocnemius muscle.
It is about 5 cm. (2 in.) long and is
attached below to the fibula, anterior to
its styloid process. It is embraced on
each side by the split tendon of the
biceps. Beneath it pass the popliteus
tendon in its sheath and the inferior ex-
ternal articular vessels and nerve. Note
that this is likewise at the posterior por-
tion of the joint and therefore it too
limits extension.
The short or posterior of the two
external lateral ligaments is often not to
be recognized as a distinct structure, it
passes from the styloid process of the
fibula over the popliteus tendon to blend
with the posterior capsular ligament on
the external condyle. The lateral liga-
ments check extension and outward ro-
tation of the tibia.
Crucial Ligameyits. — These pass
from the tibia, the anterior being at-
tached in front of and the posterior be-
hind the spine, upward to the intercon-
dylar notch of the femur. The anterior
or external passes upward, outward, and
backward. The posterior or internal
passes upward, inward, and forward (Fig. 548) . They are never very lax in any position
of the joint, but the anterior is most tense in extension and the posterior in flexion.
The anterior tends to prevent displacement of the tibia forward and the posterior liga-
ment displacement of the tibia backward. The posterior crucial ligament blends with
the posterior capsule and in resecting the knee care should be taken in dividing this
ligament that the popliteal artery is not wounded. A ligamentous band runs from the
posterior crucial ligament to the external semilunar cartilage ; it is called the ligaineni
of Wrisberg. The knee-joint in some of the lower animals is composed of two sepa-
rate joints, one for each condyle, and the crucial ligaments of man are simply the
remains of lateral ligaments when separate joints exist. They check inward rotation.
Fig.
548. — ^The crucial ligaments exposed by sawing off
the inner surfaces of the femur and tibia.
S3?
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Semihinar Cartilages, Coronary and Transverse Ligaments. — The semilunar
cartilages are used to deepen the joint in the same manner as the cotyloid of the hip
and glenoid of the shoulder. It is their method of attachment that is important. The
external is nearly circular, the internal is semi-elliptical. The ends are fibrous and
are attached in front of and behind the spine of the tibia. The transverse ligament
is a band passing across the front from one semilunar cartilage to the other (Fig.
549) As Macalister has pointed out, there is no true coronary ligament. It is
the part of the capsular ligament running from the semilunar cartilages to the tibia.
The semilunar cartilages are attached by their outer edges to the capsular liga-
ment. This attachment is less in extent in the case of the external, because its
outer surface is obliquely grooved by the tendon of the popliteus muscle, but it has
an additional attachment in the ligament of Wrisberg, as stated under the posterior
crucial ligament. Humphry ("Hu-
man Skeleton, ' ' 546) has pointed out
/ %i that the semilunar cartilages in flexion
/' ^ and extension move with the tibia, but
in pronation and supination (rotation)
move with the femur.
Ligamenta Alaria and M71C0-
sjini. — Below the patella is a pad of
fat extending under the upper portion
of the tendo patellae ; a bursa is under
the lower portion. Passing up from
this pad to the intercondyloid notch
and crucial ligaments is the ligamen-
tum mucosum; below, it is continu-
ous with the synovial fringes at each
side of the lower edge of the patella
which form the ligamenta alaria.
We would suggest that it is possible
that these ligaments perform for the
knee-joint what AUis has suggested
the ligamentum teres does for the hip,
viz. : act as a swab to distribute the
synovia over the articular surfaces.
Bursae of the Knee. — There
are a number of bursae about the
knee-joint, but they are not all of im-
portance. Anteriorly there are the
prepatellar, suprapatellar, and deep
and superficial infrapatellar.
The prepatellar hnrsdi lies in the
subcutaneous tissue between the skin
and patella. It is often enlarged, con-
stituting "housemaid's knee" (Fig.
550). The bursa is almost always
present, but often irregular in shape and character. Injuries frequently cause it to
inflame, as do also rheumatoid affections. Sometimes the tendon of the quadriceps
over the patella is ossified clear to the surface, which is often irregular and rough,
and is felt immediately beneath the skin with apparently no subcutaneous tissue
intervening. In these cases the bursa may be very irregular or loculated in shape,
or there may be more than one. The sac of the bursa is usually very thin, but be-
comes thick and distinct as the result of irritation. Excision is usually the quickest
way of curing housemaid's knee, but often the easier way of simple incision and
drainage with a wick of gauze is sufificient.
The suprapatellar or subfemoral bursa extends from 5 to 7.5 cm. (2 to 3 in. )
above the patella beneath the crureus muscle. It is liable to be injured by stabs or
punctures, and thereby infect the joint with which it communicates in 8 out of 10
cases. It becomes distended in intra-articular efiusions.
Subfemoral
' bursa
Ridge on
Iiatella
Ligamentum
alaria
Ligamentum
mucosum
Transverse
ligament
Internal semi-
lunar cartilage
External semi-
lunar cartilage
Anterior cru-
cial ligament
Posterior cru-
cial ligament
-Popliteus
Head of fibula
Semimem-
branosus
Fig. S49- — View of the interior of the knee-joint, looking
forward.
REGION OF THE KNEE. 539
The infrapatellar bitrscs are one between the skin and tibial tubercle and the
other between the under surface of the tendo patellae and the upper end of the tibia —
they are unconnected with the joint and are not often diseased.
Posteriorly. — On the oictcr side of the joint there may be present ( i ) a bursa
beneath the external head of the gastrocnemius which may communicate with the
bursa between the popliteus tendon and external lateral ligament. (2) One be-
tween the biceps tendon and external lateral ligament, (3) another between the pop-
liteus tendon and external lateral ligament, and (4) one beneath the popliteus,
usually an extension of the synovial membrane of the joint. On the inner side :
(i) one beneath the internal head of the gastrocnemius, which usually commu-
nicates with the joint and sends a prolongation between the gastrocnemius and the
semimembranosus. This is the most important posterior bursa. (2) There is one
beneath the tendons of the sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus muscles. (3) One
beneath the tendon of the semimembranosus, between it and the tibia; it rarely
communicates with the knee-joint. (4) One between the tendons of the semimem-
branosus and the semitendinosus.
Ganglion. — Sometimes a rounded tumor that is called a ganglion appears in the
popliteal space. When the knee is flexed it is felt as a round, movable tumor which
is hard and cystic. If the knee is extended it slides inward to the edge of the inner
condyle and becomes hard and fixed. It usually originates from the bursa beneath
the inner head of the gastrocnemius,
is prolonged between it and the semi-
membranosus, and, when the knee is
flexed, it either disappears entirely by
its contents going into the joint or it
can still be felt in the popliteal space.
It may be a difificult matter to excise
these cysts on account of their ramifi-
cations, and when this is impossible it
is better to open them up, clean them
out, and then sew the wound shut
in order to avoid infecting the joint.
Care should be taken not to mistake
them for solid tumors or enlarged
lymph-nodes, both of which are less
common than ganglion.
Fracture of the Patella. —
<T«t- i. 11 u r 4- J • i- Fig. 550. — Housemaid's knee or enlargement of the prepatel-
The patella may be fractured m two ^^ lar bursa.
ways, producing different lesions and
requiring different treatment. Fracture is produced either by muscular contraction
or by direct violence ; the former is the more common.
Fradicre by Indirect Violence. — As pointed out by Humphry, when the knee
is fully flexed only the upper third or fourth of the articular surface of the patella is
in contact with the condyles of the femur — the remaining two-thirds or three-fourths
of the projecting portion of the bone resting on the pad of fat. When semi-flexed
the greater part of its surface is in contact with the condyles, or at least the whole of
its middle third. In full extension only the lower third or fourth or even less remains
in contact.
When semi-flexed the patella is subjected to the greatest leverage strain; hence
it is that fractures most often occur in this position and that the fracture occurs so
frequently at the junction of the lower and middle portions. When the bone is frac-
tured by indirect force (muscular) the line of fracture traverses its whole thickness
and consequently the joint is always involved. Usually there are but two fragments.
The extent of separation depends on the amount of laceration of the capsule on each
side of the line of fracture (Fig. 551).
On each side of the patella the fibrous expansion of the quadriceps tendon, fascia
lata, and joint capsule, if intact, will prevent separation of the fragments. If it is rup-
tured widely it will permit a separation of about 2.5 cm. (i in.). It is rare that the
primary injury produces a wider separation, and those cases in which the fragments
540
APPLIED ANATOMY.
are wider apart are usually those in which the upper fragment has been subsequently
pulled up by the contraction of the quadriceps. A fracture which when recent may
have had only i cm. separation may subsequently show 7.5 to 10 cm. (3 104 in.).
When the union is fibrous subsequent stretching may occur, also refracture increases
the tendency to wide separation.
Fracture by direct violeyice is due to the direct impact of a blow or a crushing of
the patella between the femur and some foreign body. In this case the capsule on
the sides is but little torn and although there may be several fragments they do not
become widely separated.
Macevven has pointed out that the torn fibrous portion of the quadriceps over
the patella may hang down between the fragments and hinder union.
T?-eatmcnt. — The method of treatment to be employed varies according to the
character of the injury. When the fracture is from indirect force, means must
be employed not only to hold the fragments to-
gether, but also to repair the rent in the capsule.
Obviously the limb is to be kept in the extended
position to relax the quadriceps. The rectus, on ac-
count of taking its origin from the pelvis, is also to be
relaxed by elevating the limb. A common method
of treatment is by open operation. First a flap is
raised, exposing the fracture, then the fragments
are approximated with wire or other sutures and
the rent in the capsule closed with chromic catgut
or silk.
In fractures by direct violence, when separa-
tion is not marked, the lateral fascial expansion re-
mains untorn and no open operation is necessary ;
in others, when separation is more marked, and
\<// ''^ ■! especially if the fracture is compound, a flap may
0/ ^B mi be turned back and the patella surrounded with a
f ^^B wM strong suture of chromic gut or silk and the frag-
j^^/^^ ments thereby drawn together; the suture may also
be introduced subcutaneously.
By open operation the blood and clots which
usually fill the joint can be removed as well as any
fibrous tissue from the tendon of the quadriceps
which may lie between the fragments.
Dislocation of the Patella. — The articular
surface of the patella is divided by a longitudinal
ridge into an outer and inner part, which articulate
with the corresponding condyles of the femur.
The outer surface for the external condyle is much
the larger. The outer condyle is also much higher than the inner and thus tends
to prevent luxations. The lateral fibrous expansions on each side of the patella also
help to hold it in place.
Favoring dislocation is the inclination inward of the knee and the oblique pull
of the quadriceps. When a person is standing upright with the feet together the
femurs diverge from the knee as they approach the hip, the knees forming an angle
of 165 degrees with its apex in. When the quadriceps muscle contracts it tends
to straighten this angle and so pull the patella out. If the ligaments are normal
and the pull not too violent, luxation does not occur. When, however, from long
disuse or disease the ligaments become relaxed, then a sudden and perhaps unusual
contraction of the quadriceps will dislocate the patella. This also occurs if the outer
condyle is abnormally flat or if the muscular contraction lifts the patella off or above
the condyles, as occurs when the tendo patellae is too long. In these, as in almost all
other cases, the patella is dislocated outward (Fig. 552). Inward dislocation is almost
unknown. Direct injury also produces dislocations, practically always outward. The
most common form is for the articular surface of the patella to rest on the outer sur-
face of the external condyle. Other forms, which are more rare, are for the inner
Fig. SSI. — Fracture of patella, showing
lateral tear of capsule.
REGION OF THE KNEE.
541
Fig. 552. — Dislocation of patella outward.
edge of the patella to rest against the outer surface of the condyle; for the inner edge
to be jammed into the upper portion of the intercondyloid notch with its outer edge
sticking up; for the patella to be reversed with its articular surface forward and its
anterior surface resting on the condyles.
For treating the affection in slight cases an elastic knee-cap may be of service,
but a cure is probably best achieved by the operation of Goldthwait {^Boston Med.
andSiirg. Joiirn., Feb. 13, 1904). In this the tendo patellae is split longitudinally
and its outer half detached from the
tibial tubercle, passed under the remain-
ing half, and sewed fast to the perios-
teum and expansion of the sartorius at
the inner side of the anterior surface of
the tibia. This shifts the pull of the
quadriceps more inward and the short-
ening of the tendon holds the outer
edges of the patella more firmly against
the edge of the external condyle. Simple
folding of the inner part of the capsule
has been unsuccessful.
Dislocation of the Knee. — The
knee is rarely luxated and then only by
such extreme trauma as sometimes to
rupture the popliteal vessels and require
amputation. It is frequently compound.
The tibia may be luxated anteriorly (the
most frequent), posteriorly, to either
side, or it may be rotated on the femur.
These displacements are usually due
to hyperextension and rotation. The laceration of the surrounding tissues is so ex-
tensive that replacement is usually easy by direct traction and manipulation. As a
result of weakening of the ligaments by disease the hamstring tendons frequently pull
the tibia backward, producing a subluxation often difficult to replace (Fig. 553).
Dislocation of the Semilunar Cartilages. — The semilunar cartilages do not
become displaced in their entirety, but a portion of one of them is torn partly or com-
pletely loose and in moving about gets caught between the bones and produces the
characteristic symptoms. The joint becomes useless at once and the patient may
fall. The detachment of the cartilage,
which is usually the internal one, is
caused by either a direct blow on the
part or by a twisting of the partly flexed
limb. Use of the limb cannot be re-
sumed until the caught cartilage is re-
leased. This is most readily achieved
by extending the leg and then sharply
flexing it. Sometimes the loosened car-
tilage instead of remaining attached at
one end is free in the joint and may
make its appearance alongside of the
patella. In one of my cases one end of
the semilunar cartilage was attached to the crucial ligament while the other was
attached to the capsular ligament, thus allowing the part between to stretch across
the surface of the condyle and be compressed in walking. These floating cartilages
form the '''' gelenkniaiis^^ of the Germans. These two conditions were first described
by Hey under the name of internal derangements of the knee-joint. Synovial disease
may also produce symptoms closely resembling those of detached cartilage.
Epiphyseal Separations. — The epiphyseal line marking the lower epiphysis
of the femur starts at the adductor tubercle, at the upper edge of the internal condyle,
and passes across transversely just above the edge of the articular surface. It joins
with the shaft between the twentieth and the twenty-second year, sometimes as late as
Fig. 553. — Subluxa:
disease, showing the reiaiion ui
original sketch by the author.)
■'.berculous
(From an
542
APPLIED ANATOMY.
the twenty-fourth. The epiphysis of the tibia runs transversely across the tibia about
1.5 cm. (^ in.) below the articular surface and anteriorly passes down to embrace
the tubercle (Fig. 554).
These epiphyseal separations are produced either by direct violence, by force
applied laterally, or by twisting — a common way is for the leg to be twisted by being
caught between the spokes of a revolving wheel. They nevei occur later than the
age of twenty years and usually occur several years before that age has been reached.
Often the displacement is not serious
and is corrected before the patient is
seen by the surgeon. Occasionally,
especially when the lower epiphysis of
the femur is affected, displacement is
marked, and the fractured surface of
the fragment may lie on the anterior
surface of the shaft of the femur.
Sometimes the injury is compound
and the vessels so injured that ampu-
tation is required.
In spite of the fact that the greater
part of the growth of the lower ex-
tremity occurs from the bones adja-
cent to the knee-joint epiphyseal sep-
arations almost never interfere with it.
This is so true that epiphysiolysis or
the deliberate separation of the lower
epiphysis of the femur by bending the
knee laterally over the hard edge of
a table is the preferred operation with
some surgeons for the correction of
lateral deformities of the knee, espe-
cially knock-knee. The injury is
usually treated as a simple fracture
and heals without incident.
Resection of the Knee. — In
making the skin incision care should
be taken to carry it back sufficiently
far to allow of division of the lateral
ligaments; in so doing, however, one
should not divide the long saphenous
vein and nerve at the posterior edge
of the internal condyle. It is essen-
tial to recognize the joint-line; it is
just below the lower edge of the patella
and thence extends laterally about a
finger-breadth above the head of the
fibula. It is customary to carry the
incision from near the posterior edge
of the femur on the inner side to the
posterior edge on the outer side at
the joint-line, passing over the middle of the tendo patellae so as to allow this latter
to be readily sutured later if desired.
Care is to be taken to avoid wounding the popliteal artery. This lies close to
the posterior part of the capsule; hence the latter is not to be divided transversely
but is to be separated by keeping the knife close to the bone. Finally, inasmuch as
the bulk of the growth of the lower extremity occurs in the upper end of the tibia
and lower end of the femur, it is essential to avoid removing the entire epiphyseal
cartilages. For this reason formal resections have been abandoned in young children,
and in adolescents as little tissue as possible is removed. The epiphyseal line in the
femur runs transversely on a line with the adductor tubercle and passes close to the
Line of epiphysis
External condyle
Patella
Internal tuberosity
External tuberosity
Head of fibula
Line of epiphysis
Tibial tubercle
Pig. SS4.
-Antero-extemal view of the bones of the knee,
showing the lines of the epiphyses.
REGION OF THE KNEE.
543
upper edge of the articular surface. The epiphyseal line in the tibia lies rather close
to the articular surface, being 1.5 cm. (^ in.) below in adults and less in children;
it slopes down in front to embrace the tibial tubercle (see Fig. 554). When
the disease encroaches on the epiphyseal line, rather than remove it the affected
parts are to be curetted away and the remainder left. In those cases where the
knee is much contracted, either enough of the bone must be removed to allow of
straightening or the hamstring tendons must be cut; if this latter is done the external
popliteal nerve which runs on the inner posterior surface of the biceps tendon must
not be wounded.
Tuberculous Disease of the Knee-joint. — The disease begins usually
in the epiphyses adjacent to the joint and involves the joint secondarily. The
tibia is more frequently the seat than the femur. The swelling and hypertrophy of
the synovial membrane and involvement of the adjacent soft parts obliterate the
hollows on each side of the patella and cause a bulging below the patella. The
knee looks round and swollen, and the condition was formerly called white swelling
from the surface being white in color. If liquid accumulates in the joint it becomes
distended and flexed, assuming an angle of 120 de-
grees. The patella is raised from the condyles; it
' ' floats ' ' and if depressed by the finger can be felt
striking on the femur beneath, thus demonstrating
the presence of liquid in the joint. The swelling
extends above the patella to an extent depending
on whether or not the subfemoral bursa is involved
and whether or not it communicates with the joint.
If pus forms it tends to find an exit beneath the
lower edge of the posterior ligament or on either side
of the patella at the upper end of the tibia. As the
disease progresses the ligaments become weakened.
The joint, being already flexed at approximately 1 20
degrees, is flexed still more by the hamstring muscles,
and the head of the tibia in old cases becomes drawn
backward in a position of subluxation (see Fig. 553,
page 541). The pull of the biceps tendon while the
leg is flexed rotates the leg outward and this position
may persist: a condition of knock-knee is also some-
times marked.
The disease is treated conservatively by appa-
ratus, but in exceptional cases the lesser operation
of erasion or the greater of resection (see above)
is done.
Knock-knee and Bow-legs. — These condi-
tions most frequently result from rachitis or paralysis.
Bowing inward of the knee is called knock-knee or
genu valgum. Bowing outward is called bow-legs or in some instances, when
the deformity is in the joint, as when the condyles are unequal in length, genu
varum.
Knock-knee {Genu Valgum). This condition has its point of bending most
marked at the knee-joint. When caused by rickets the joint surfaces are often not
much altered and the deformity is produced by a bending of the tibia or femur
close to the joint; hence when an osteotomy is performed just above the condyles
of the femur the joint is again brought level and resumes its functions normally
(Fig- 555)-
When deformities of the foot or the malpositions due to paralyses produce
knock-knee, then often a certain amount of flexion and external rotation of the leg
coexist with perhaps lengthening of the internal condyle. In these cases osteotomy
of the femur must often be supplemented or substituted by suitable apparatus, opera-
tions on the foot, etc.
Bow-legs. — This is almost always caused by softening of the bones, as in rickets.
The bending occurs in the bones of both the leg and thigh, and the location of the
Fio. SSS- — Knock-knee or genu valgum.
APPLIED ANATOMY.
point of greatest bending is sometimes low down toward the ankles or close"
the knee-joint, or the whole diaphysis of the bones may be curved. They are often
curved anteroposteriorly as well as laterally (Fig. 556).
When the point of greatest bending is close to the knee-joint it has been called .
genu varum, but the condyles remain of equal length and the epiphyseal line still
remains parallel with the joint line.
As knock-knees and bow-legs so commonly occur in the actively growing period,
from the second to the fifth year, apparatus is often of benefit, but frequently forcible
straightening by means of an osteoclast or by the hand or epiphysiolysis (see page
542) or osteotomy is resorted to for their correction.
Osteotomy. — In osteotomy of the femur the bone is to be divided, as advised
by Macewen, a finger-breadth, at least, above the adductor tubercle and 1.25 cm.
{}4 in.) in front of the adductor magnus tendon. In knock-knee many surgeons
prefer dividing the bone from the outside of
the limb instead of the inside as advised by
Macewen. This incision avoids the epiphyseal
line, which is opposite the adductor tubercle,
and also the anastomotica magna and superior
articular arteries. The popliteal vessels are
also to be avoided by knowing their position
and not directing the osteotome toward them.
In performing osteotomy of the bones of the
leg the tibia is to be divided by the aid of
the chisel, and the fibula is to be broken by
manual force. Wedge-shaped resections of
bone are commonly not to be advised. They
are difficult to do, liable to complications, and,
under the most favorable circumstances, are
very long in healing and do not give any better
results than simple osteotomy or osteoclasis.
Ligation of the Popliteal Artery. —
In the viiddle of its course the popliteal artery
lies deep between the condyles of the femur
and on the posterior capsule and gives of?
the articular arteries. For these reasons liga-
tion in this part of its course is not performed.
To ligate it in the tipper part of its course an
incision is to be made along the outer edge
of the semimembranosus muscle near the
i_..™„. middle of the upper part of the popliteal space.
Fig. ss 6. —Bow-legs. The muscle being drawn inward the internal
popliteal nerve is first seen and drawn outward,
then the vein beneath is also drawn outward and the artery found beneath and a
little to the inner side. Don't mistake the semitendinosus for the semimembranosus.
The former is a round tendon, the latter is muscular. Another method consists
in making the incision immediately behind the adductor magnus tendon. The
semimembranosus and semitendinosus are then to be drawn backward and the artery
located by its pulsation and the aneurism needle passed from within out. The nerve
and vein, being more to the outer side, are not disturbed (Fig. 557).
To ligate the popliteal artery in its lower third, make an incision in the midline
between the heads of the gastrocnemius muscle, avoiding the short saphenous vein
and nerve. Open the deep fascia, draw the internal popliteal nerve to the inner side,
the popliteal vein to the outer side, and pass the needle from without in. Flexing
the knee will relax the gastrocnemius and enable the artery to be more readily
exposed.
Amputation through the Knee-joint. — Disarticulation at the knee-joint is
usually done either with a long anterior and short posterior or two lateral flaps.
This amputation difJers from others in the fact that a large rounded mass of bone —
the condyles — with no muscles is to be covered by the flap. Therefore the flaps
THE LEG.
545
must be ample and if they are not a piece of the femur must be resected. The
internal condyle is larger and projects more than the external. The cicatrix is drawn
posteriorly by the hamstring muscles and the resultant stump is good for pressure
bearing.
If possible the semilunar cartilages should be left on the femur, the incision for
disarticulation being made between them and the tibia. The object of so doing is to
prevent the retraction of the soft parts and the resultant protrusion of the bone. The
Semimembranosus -
Semitendinosus -
Internal (long)
saphenous vein
Internal Hong)
saphenous nerve
Internal head of
gastrocnemius
Short saphenous vein
Popliteal vein
Popliteal artery
Plantaris
Internal popliteal
(tibial) nerve
External popliteal
(fibular) nerve
Biceps
Extemat head of
gastrocnemius
Peroneus longus
Communicans fibularis
Fig. 557. — The popliteal space.
extremities of the incision should be well back, so that the lateral ligaments can be
readily divided, and should not extend higher than the edge of the tibia. If infection
follows, pus may collect in the suprapatellar (subfemoral) bursa.
THE LEG.
The leg having to support the weight of the body has its bones strongly
made. The tibia bears nearly all the weight because it articulates with the femur
above and astragalus below and transmits the pressure directly from one to the
other. The fibula is slight compared to the tibia and lies posterior to it and to the
outer side.
The leg bones receive the insertion of the thigh muscles above and give attach-
ment to the muscles which move the foot. The leg therefore is capable of being
influenced by the movements of the foot below and the thigh above.
35
APPLIED ANATOMY.
SURFACE ANATOMY.
At the upper end of the leg can be feh the two tuberosities of the tibia. The
lower edge of the tuberosities is on a line with the upper edge of the tubercle-
The head of the fibula is almost level with (a little above) the tubercle of the tibia
and is situated far posteriorly. Attached to the head of the fibula above is the
biceps tendon accompanied by the external popliteal (fibular) nerve and the long
external lateral ligament. The tendo patellae is attached to the tibial tubercle. The
tibia is triangular in shape, with a sharp edge — the crest or shin — forward, thus form-
ing two surfaces, an internal and an external. The posterior surface is covered by
muscles and is inaccessible. The internal surface is subcutaneous and leads down to
the internal malleolus. The external surface has the extensor muscles between it
and the fibula. The fibula a short distance below its head becomes covered by the
/
Tendo patelhi'
External tuberosity of tibia -
Head of fibula -
Tubercle of tibia -
Swell of anterior tibial muscle -
Intermuscular space -
Swell of extensor longus digitorum -
Swell of peroneus longus and brevis -
Crest of the tibia -
Fig. ss8. — Surface anatomy of the leg.
peronei muscles and only becomes subcutaneous in its lower anterior fourth. The
upper portion of the leg is largely muscular, but at its lower portion it is mainly
tendinous. By placing a finger over the muscles while the foot is moved one is
enabled to determine whether or not they are paralyzed (Fig. 558).
MUSCLES OF THE LEG.
They
The muscles of the leg are composed of four distinct groups of three each,
are extensors^ flexors, abductors, and muscles of the calf.
The extensor group comprises the tibialis anterior, extensor longus digi-
torum, and extensor longus hallucis.
The flexor group comprises the tibialis posterior, flexo7~ longus digitorum, and
flexor longus hallucis.
The abductor group comprises the peroneus longus, peroneus brevis, and
t)€ro7ieus tertius.
The calf muscles comprise the gastrocnemitis, soleus, and plantaris.
THE LEG.
547
It will thus be seen that the extensor and flexor groups are composed of pre-
cisely similar muscles only on opposite sides of the leg. They tend to move the foot
and toes forward and backward and balance each other. The abductors form a group
Anterior tibial
Extensor longus
hallucis
Extensor longus
digitorum
Peroneus tertius
Peroneus brevis
Peroneus longus
Peroneus tertius
Peroneus brevis
Peroneus longus
■ Plantaris
Inner and outer
, heads of
gastrocnemius
Popliteus
Soleus
Gastrocnemius
Flexor longus
■ digitorum
Posterior tibial
Flexor longus
hallucis
Tendo calcaneus
(Achillis)
Fig. 559. — Extensor and abductor muscles of the leg. Fig. 560. — Flexors and muscles of the calf of the leg.
around the fibula on the outer side of the leg and they abduct the foot. They tend
to pronate it. The most active agents in adduction are the tibiaHs anterior and
tibialis posterior. The muscles of the calf form a separate posterior group designed
54?
APPLIED ANATOMY.
for use in walking and to compensate for the greater length of the foot anterior to the
centre of motion at the ankle and its shortness posteriorly.
The extensor group lies between the tibia and fibula anterior to the interosseous
membrane. The abductor group forms a mass over the fibula, and the flexor group
lies between the tibia and fibula on the posterior surface of the interosseous mem-
brane. The muscles of the calf constitute a superficial layer of muscles which end
below in the tendo calcaneus (Achillis). The soleus, with the two heads of the gas-
trocnemius, is known as the triceps surae muscle. It is absolutely essential to under-
stand the grouping of these muscles of the leg because thereby its construction is
rendered evident and their influence on distortions of the foot can be appreciated.
FASCIA OF THE LEG.
The deep fascia of the leg is attached above to the tubercle of the tibia, the
tuberosities of the tibia, and the head of the fibula. It gives off two septa from its
under surface, one in front separating the abductor or peroneal group from the exten-
sor group, and another posterior which separates the abductor group from the soleus
posteriorly. This latter covers the deep flexors and separates them from the muscles
of the calf and is continued across to be attached to the medial (internal) edge of the
tibia. The deep fascia of the leg blends with the periosteum over the medial (inter-
nal) surface of the tibia and also with that of the lateral (external) surface of the
fibula in its lower fourth. At the ankle the deep fascia is continued on through
the annular ligaments.
The muscles of the leg take their origin partly from these fasciae, and subsidiary
septa pass between the muscles.
Tibialis anterior
Anterior tibial artery-
Anterior tibial nerve
Extensor longus digitorum
ARTERIES OF THE LEG.
The leg has three main arteries, the anterior tibial, posterior tibial, and per-
oneal. The popliteal artery divides into the anterior and posterior tibial at the lower
border of the popliteus muscle just below
the lower edge of the tibial tubercle.
Two and a half cm. (i in. ), or a little
/ more, below the edge of the popliteus
muscle the peroneal artery is given off from
the posterior tibial.
The Anterior Tibial Artery. — Li-
gation.— The line of the anterior tibial
artery may be taken as from just internal
tp the head of the fibula to a point on the
front of the ankle midway between the
malleoli. The anterior tibial artery pierces
the interosseous membrane, but the anterior
tibial nerve winds around the head of the
fibula and joins the artery 5 to 7 cm. (2 to
3 in. ) or more lower down on its outer
side.
In the Upper Third. — The artery lies
between the tibialis anterior and the exten-
sor longus digitorum muscles. This inter-
space is better recognized by touch than by
sight, though a yellowish line of fat or the
presence of some small vessels may indi-
cate its position. The tendency is to make
the incision too close to the tibia. This
mistake will be avoided if the line of the artery has been marked and the incision
made in it. After separating the muscles, the outer edge of the tibia can be
felt and on the membrane close to it is the artery with venae comites to each side and
the nerve farther out. The needle is passed from without inward, and the veins may
Extensor longus hallucis
Anterior tibial artery
Tibialis anterior
Anterior tibial nerve
Extensor longus digitorum
Fig. 56 1. — Ligation of the anterior tibial artery in its
upper and lower thirds.
THE LEG.
549
Line for posterior
bial artery
Gastrocnemius
be included because they are so firmly bound to the artery and membrane as to be
separated only with difficulty (Fig. 561).
In the Middle Third. — The incision having been made in the line of the artery,
the septum between the tibialis anterior and extensor longus digitorum is usually vis-
ible as a depressed line. Flex the foot to relax the tendons, and on drawing the
extensor digitorum outward the upper part of the extensor longus hallucis is seen, it
also is drawn outward and the artery is found lying on the membrane with the nerve
in front of it.
hi the Lower Third. — Here, above the flexure of the ankle, the artery lies
on the tibia between the
tibialis anterior and the
extensor longus hallucis.
The nerve is to its outer
or inner side or in front
of the artery. Flexing the
foot allows the tendons to
be more readily separated,
and movement of the foot
and big toe will assist in
identifying the muscles.
Posterior Tibial
hx\.&xy .—Ligation.— T\iQ.
line of the posterior tibial
artery is from the middle
of the popliteal space to
the middle of the line join-
ing the internal malleolus
and internal tuberosity of
the calcaneum; at this lat-
ter point it divides into
the internal and external
plantar arteries (Fig. 562).
hi the Middle of the
Leg. —The incision should
be made 2 cm. (^ in.)
behind the edge of the
tibia, avoiding the long
saphenous vein. If the
edge of the gastrocnemius
comes into view draw it
outward, incise the soleus
muscle through its entire
thickness, dividing the
tendinous fibres in the
body of the muscle. Sep-
arate the edges of the
incision and seek for the
artery on the obliquely
running fibres of the flexor
longus digitorum muscle.
The nerve is to its outer
side. The artery lies di-
rectly over the outer edge of the tibia, which can be felt with the finger. It is covered
with a thin fascia. The ligature is passed from without inward.
Low Doivn in the Leg. — The incision may be made midway between the inner
edge of the tibia and the edge of the tendo calcaneus (Achillis). The artery lies
beneath the deep fascia on the flexor longus digitorum muscle with the nerve to the
outer side. The muscle has fibres as low down as the malleolus and the artery is to
the outer side of its tendon. If the artery is sought behind the ankle then it has the
Soleus
Posterior tibial artery
Posterior tibial nerve
Soleus
Posterior tibial tendon
Flexor longus digitorum
Posterior tibial artery
Posterior tibial nerve
Internal tuberosity of os calcis
Fig. 562. — Ligation of the posterior tibial artery.
5 so
APPLIED ANATOMY.
tendons of the tibialis posterior and flexor longus digitorum in front of it. Care should
be taken that the main trunk is Hgated and not one of its plantar branches in case of
a high division.
Peroneal Artery. — The peroneal artery is given off from the posterior tibial
2.5 cm. (i in.) below the lower edge of popliteus muscle. It follows the inner edge
of the fibula beneath or in the fibres of origin of the flexor longus hallucis. If it is
desired to ligate it, the incision is to be made over the inner edge of the fibula, the
edge of the soleus is drawn inward, the fibres of the flexor longus hallucis divided,
and the artery found at the junction of the inner edge of the fibula and interosseous
membrane. At the lower extremity of the interosseous membrane the artery pierces
it to be distributed to the outer anterior portion of the tarsus and ankle.
VEINS OF THE LEG.
The deep veins of the lower extremity accompany the arteries. The femoral
and popliteal veins are single, but the arteries below have venae comites. These deep
veins all have valves and there are fre-
quent communications with the super-
ficial veins.
On the dorsum of the foot is a
venous arch which unites with the inner
dorsal digital vein to form the commence-
ment of the internal or long saphenous
vein. The outer extremity unites with
the outer dorsal digital \'ein to form the
commencement of the external or short
saphenous vein.
The internal or long saphenous
vein begins just in front of the inter-
nal malleolus, ascends on the inner sur-
face of the tibia, passes along the poste-
rior border of the internal condyle and
thence up to the saphenous opening.
In the leg it communicates with the deep
anterior and posterior tibial and external
saphenous veins and in the thigh with
the femoral. At or near the saphenous
opening it receives the external super-
ficial femoral vein from the outer ante-
rior surface of the thigh and the internal
superficial femoral vein from the inner
posterior portion of the thigh. Not infre-
quently one of these lateral branches may
be almost as large as the internal saphe-
nous itself and may be mistaken for it.
From the knee down the internal saphenous vein is accompanied by the internal
saphenous nerve.
The external or short saphenous vein begins behind the external malleolus,
ascends alongside the tendo calcaneus (Achillis), thence over the gastrocnemius to
empty into the popliteal vein. Its branches anastomose with those of the internal
saphenous on the inner side of the leg and it communicates through the deep fascia
with the deep veins. It is accompanied by the external saphenous nerve.
Varicose Veins of the Leg. — A varicose condition of the veins of the leg is
very common. Often the cause cannot be ascertained, but not infrequently pelvic
tumors, and especially pregnancy, produce the condition by obstructing the blood-
current. The veins become distended and the valves, of which there are many,
become insufficient. This destroys the valvular support of the blood column and the
veins become tortuous and inflamed, the walls thicken and may become adherent to
the skin. The walls in places give way, causing hemorrhages. They may become thin
Fig. 563. — Varicose veins, affecting especially the inter-
nal or long saphenous vein.
THE LEG.
551
and sacculated and thrombi may form and suppurate. The treatment consists in ligat-
ing and excising as many of the affected veins as possible. The internal saphenous is
especially to be excised, beginning a short distance below the saphenous opening and
extending for the greater portion of its length (Fig. 563).
The operation of Max Schede, of circular incision around the leg just below the
knee, dividing everything down to the deep fascia, is usually effective, but we have seen
recurrences even after it, due to regurgitation from the deep veins. In fat people the in-
ternal saphenous may lie imbedded in the superficial fat some distance beneath the skin.
A varicose condition of the veins of the leg is a causative factor in chronic leg
ulcer; hence, in order to cure it, the necessity of elevating the limb in its treatment,
or excising the veins.
LYMPHATICS OF THE LEG.
Sometimes there are one or two lymphatic nodes at the upper extremity of the
anterior tibial artery but usually the first to be encountered are around the popliteal
vessels, — below that point are only
lymphatic radicles or vessels.
FRACTURES OF THE LEG.
Fractures of the bones of the leg
are most often due to direct violence,
but sometimes to indirect. The tibia
is rarely broken alone, but either it
or the fibula may be fractured by a
direct blow. On account of the tibia
being subcutaneous these fractures
are frequently compound. The shafts
of the bones, being of compact tissue,
are usually broken obliquely. When
the fibula is broken above its lower
fourth there is usually little displace-
ment because the attached muscles
hold it in place.
Fractures of the tibia whether
accompanied or not by fracture of the
fibula most often occur at the junction
of the middle and the lower thirds.
The line of fracture is downward, for-
ward, and inward. The displacement
of the lower fragment is backward,
upward and slightly outward. It is
produced mainly by the muscles of
the calf pulling on the tendo calcaneus
(Achillis). The upper fragment is
pulled forward by the quadriceps fem-
oris (Fig. 564).
The difficulty usually encountered
in treatment is a persistent projecting
forward of the upper fragment with
a drawing up and turning outward of
the lower fragment and foot. The
displacing action of the tendo cal-
caneus (Achillis) is more powerful
than that of the quadriceps. On this
account the first attempt at correc-
tion should be to place the leg in the
" Pott's position." This consists in flexing the knee to a right angle and placing the
leg on its outer side. This relaxes the gastrocnemius and plantaris and is sufficient
Plantaris
Tendo calcaneus (Achillis)
Posterior tibial
Flexor longus digitorum
Flexor longus hallucis
Fig. 564. — Fracture of the tibia with displacement ot
the upper fragment forward and lower fragment backward
and upward.
552
APPLIED ANATOMY.
in some cases to allow of the displacement being remedied. If this fails extension
may be tried or tenotomy of the tendo calcaneus should be done and the fragments
will at once come into good position.
Woolsey has pointed out that the weight of the foot tends to its outward dis-
placement but another reason is that the insertion of the tendo calcaneus is not
beneath the middle of the ankle-joint but more towards its outer side, so that when
it contracts it carries the foot outward. The flexor and extensor muscles of the leg
balance each other, but the peronei muscles on the outer side have no additional
corresponding opponents on the inner side; hence another reason for displacement
of the foot and lower fragment outward.
AMPUTATION OF THE LEG.
Amputation of the leg is best performed at the place of election, a hand's
breadth below the knee-joint. This site is preferred because it gives a sufficient
N
Extensor longus digitorum
Anterior tibial nerve
Anterior tibial artery
Peroneus longus and
peroneus brevis
Musculocutaneous nerve
Peroneal artery
Soleus
Gastrocnem i us
Tibialis anterior
Interosseous membrane
Tibialis posterior
Flexor longus digitorum
Flexor longus hallucis
Posterior tibial artery
Posterior tibial nerve
Fig. 565. — Amputation of the upper third of the leg.
length to the stump below the knee and allows sufificient space below for the instrument
maker to place the mechanism of the artificial leg which operates the foot. The
sharp projecting edge of the crest of the tibia tends to produce ulceration of the tissues
or skin in front of it, therefore it is to be cut off obliquely.
The fibula, if divided at the same level as the tibia and especially if antero-
posterior flaps are used, tends to project too prominendy on the outer side, hence it
is preferable to divide it at a higher level than the tibia.
The anterior tibial artery is to be sought for on the interosseous membrane close
lo the tibia with its nerve to the outer side.
The posterior tibial and peroneal are at the same level on the tibialis posterior
muscle wich the posterior tibial nerve lying superficial to the posterior tibial artery
(Fig. 565).
REGION OF THE ANKLE.
553
REGION OF THE ANKLE.
The ankle-joint is composed of the tibia and fibula above and the astragalus below.
Surface Anatomy. — A knowledge of the contour of the ankle aids considera-
bly in determining the character of its diseases and injuries. The malleoli form prom-
inences with distinct hollows above and below them. The sharp anterior edge of the
tibia if followed down leads to the tibialis anterior tendon. On the medial (inner) side
the malleolus is large and flat. It is subcutaneous and can be readily palpated. At
k
Subcutaneous portion of fibula — ^
External malleolus
Peroneal tubercle
External tubercle of os calcis
Internal cuneiform
Middle cuneiform
External cuneiform
Tubercle of fifth metatarsal
Fig. 566. — Surface anatomy of the outer side of the ankle.
its anterior edge is the commencement of the internal saphenous vein which runs up
and slightly back to reach the posterior edge of the tibia 5 to 6 cm. (2 to 2 >^ in. )
above the tip of the malleolus. About 4 cm. (i}4 in. ) below and in front of the inter-
nal malleolus is the prominent tubercle of the scaphoid.
The external malleolus is small and somewhat pointed, and is placed a finger-
breadth below and behind the level of the internal malleolus. For a distance of
about 7.5 cm. (3 in.) above its tip the fibula is subcutaneous and readily palpated.
It is here that it is most often fractured. The transverse line of the joint is level with
the upper hmit of the swell of the internal malleolus — about 2.5 cm. (i in.) above
Ankle-joint
' Internal malleolus
Subastragaloid joint
Sustentaculum tali
-Os calcis
Internal tubercle of the
OS calcis
Tubercle of the scaphoid
Fig. s67. — Surface anatomy of the inner side of the ankle.
the tip of the external malleolus. The ankle is covered in front and behind by ten-
dons, most of which, especially in thin people, can be felt and seen when they are
put on the stretch. Anteriorly the innermost tendon is the tibialis anterior, next the
extensor longus hallucis, and then the extensor longus digitorum. Sometimes close
to the outer side of the extensor of the little (fifth) toe the contraction of the pero-
neus tertius tendon can be felt as it goes to be inserted into the fifth metatarsal bone
near its base. Running directly downward along the posterior edge of the external
malleolus and fibula are the peroneus longus and brevis tendons, the former being
the more superficial. About 2.5 cm. (i in.) below and a little in front of the exter-
nal malleolus is the peroneal tubercle of the calcaneum; the peroneus brevis passes in
APPLIED ANATOMY.
front of it to be inserted into the prominent tuberosity of the fifth metatarsal bone.
The long tendon passes behind the tubercle, winds around the cuboid, and crosses
the sole to insert into the internal cuneiform and base of the first metatarsal bone.
Posteriorly the tendo calcaneus (Achillis) is large and prominent — along the
anterior edge of its lateral (external) side run the external (short) saphenous vein
and nerve. Running upward from the posterior border of the internal malleolus the
tibialis posterior tendon can sometimes be seen and felt. Posterior to it runs the
flexor longus digitorum muscle, then the posterior tibial artery, accompanied by
venae comites, then the posterior tibial nerve, and lastly the flexor longus hallucis.
The artery can be felt pulsating midway between the tendo calcaneus and the
internal tuberosity of the calcaneum. The anterior tibial artery can be felt pulsat-
ing to the lateral (outer) side of the flexor longus hallucis.
THE ANKLE-JOINT.
Ligaments and Movements. — The ankle-joint is a pure hinge-joint and its
motion is anteroposterior except in complete extension, when a small amount of
lateral movement is possible. The range of move-
ment is 80 degrees; 20 degrees flexion, and 60 de-
grees extension.
The tibia and fibula above articulate with the
surface of the body of the astragalus below. The
articular facet for the fibula is about twice as long
from above downward as is that for the internal
malleolus. The hollow below the internal malleolus
is filled by the internal lateral ligament and the ten-
don of the tibialis posterior. The inferior tibio-
fibular joint is sometimes practically lacking, there
being almost no continuation of the ankle-joint up
between the tibia and fibula. The junction of these
two bones is very strong, the ligaments being an
anterior, posterior, interosseous, and a transverse
inferior tibiofibular ligament which passes across the
back of the ankle-joint reinforcing the posterior por-
tion of the capsular ligament. The upper surface
of the astragalus is one-fourth wider in front than
behind, so that in extension it is not so firmly locked
between the malleoli as in flexion (Fig. 568). Its
upper surface is slightly concave. Flexion and
extension take place on a transverse axis passing
through the body of the astragalus at the tip of the
external malleolus. This axis is not exactly trans-
verse but is slightly oblique, so that on extension
the foot is pointed slightly outward. The ankle
has a capsular ligament which is very thin in front
and behind the joint. Posteriorly it is reinforced
above by the transverse inferior tibiofibular liga-
ment. The flexor longus hallucis also supports it
posteriorly. The internal and external lateral liga-
ments are strong, the internal being the stronger.
The internal lateral or ligamentum deltoideum
runs from the malleolus above to the scaphoid, astragalus, and calcaneum below.
It is crossed on its surface by the tendons of the tibialis posterior and flexor longus
digitorum muscles (Fig. 569).
The external lateral ligament has three fasciculi: an anterior one to the astrag-
alus; a middle one to the side of the calcaneum, and a posterior one to the posterior
part of the astragalus (Fig. 570). In both extreme flexion and extension the edges
of the tibia come in contact with the astragalus and hence limit further movement.
The ligaments also aid in restricting motion.
Fig. 508. — The upper articular sur-
face of the astragalus, showing it to be
slightly concave and one fourth wider in
front than behind.
REGION OF THE ANKLE.
555
Distention of the Joint. — Fluid tends to find exit from the joint first ante-
riorly under the extensor tendons, next it tends to exude posteriorly and makes its
appearance as a swelling on each side of the tendo calcaneus ( Achillis). The ankle-
joint is a comparatively tight one and in acute inflammations holds but little effusion.
When injected it assumes the position of a right angle and flexion does not occur as
I i
Groove for flexor longus
hallucis^,_ (
Sustentaculum tali'
^Internal lateral ligament
Anterior tibial tendon
^:^
Posterior tibial
Groove for posterior
tibial tendon on the
inferior calcaneo-
scaphoid ligament
Groove for flexor longus digito'rum
Fig. 569. — View of inner side of ankle-joint, showing the internal lateral ligament.
in other joints (Fig. 571). The rounded appearance of the ankle in tuberculous
and other affections is not due so much to effusion within the joint as to inflam-
matory and tuberculous exudate in the tissues around the joint.
Tuberculosis of the Ankle. — This most often affects the body of the astrag-
alus. Sometimes the disease is located in the lower end of the tibia. In the former
Anterior fasciculus of external
lateral ligament
Astragalocalcaneal ligament
Interosseous ligament
Fig. 570. — Ligaments of the outer side of the ankle.
Anterior tibiofibular
ligament
Posterior (transverse) tibio-
fibular ligament
Posterior fasciculus of
external lateral ligament
Middle fasciculus of
external lateral ligament
case other of the tarsal bones are also frequently involved. In the latter an extra-
articular operation on the tibia above the internal malleolus may cure the disease,
but the motion in the joint often remains impaired.
Excision of the Ankle. — Formal resections of the ankle are rarely performed.
The joint is difficult to expose without extensive division of the tendons and other
5S6
APPLIED ANATOMY.
tissues. It is considered best to enlarge any existing sinuses and curette tne
eased bone away.
If it is desired to excise the joint it can be done by Konig's incisions, one along the
anterior edge of the internal malleolus and the other along the anterior edge of the ex-
ternal malleolus. Through these incisions all that is necessary can usually be done.
Sprain of the Ankle. — In what is usually called a sprain of the ankle the
injury is not always confined to the ankle-joint and its ligaments. It has been shown
that in many cases there is a tearing off of small fragments of bone, hence the name
fracture-sprain (Callender). The ankle-joint has an anteroposterior motion, but the
lateral motion of the foot takes place mainly in the subastragaloid joint with some
additional movement allowed by the other
tarsal joints. Inasmuch as sprains are
j usually the consequence of a lateral dis-
placement, the resultant injury is frequently
in the subastragaloid and sometimes in the
adjacent tarsal joints. This condition can
be suspected when the pain and swelling
is located below and in front of the ankle
rather than around the ankle itself. The
sprain is more often the result of inversion
than of eversion of the foot. In eversion
the plantar ligaments are so strong that the
foot moves as a whole and the force is trans-
mitted directly to the ankle and leg bones,
and most likely results in the production of
a Pott's fracture of the fibula with or with-
out a tearing off of the internal malleolus
V _^ ^'^ rupture of the ligamentum deltoideum
^P^T^.,, _ V .y _.^---.- (internal lateral).
-^^^" '^^ *" '^^^^^^'^j^ Treatment. — The principle of treat-
ment in sprains is to prevent the ruptured
ligaments and strained tissues being again
irritated and kept from healing by subse-
quent movements of the injured parts.
A small degree of movement is usually
painless and unharmful, but a more extensive, and often accidental, movement causes
the pain and disability to persist. The failure to apply an efificient dressing which
properly limits motion until the primary effect of the injury has passed is the reason
of these disabilities becoming chronic. Sometimes fixed dressings like plaster of
Paris or silicate of soda are applied for two weeks. Fixation by adhesive plaster has
been found very efificient. Gibney demonstrated this. Inasmuch as the injury is
usually produced by inversion, the plaster is applied especially to prevent inversion
and likewise to give general support. Gibney' s method consisted in applying alter-
nate narrow strips of adhesive plaster, one set beginning on the inner side of the foot
and going well up on the outer side of the leg, and the other running parallel with
the sole of the foot from the heel to the dorsum.
Another method consists in taking a long strip of plaster 7.5 cm. (3 in.) wide,
and beginning high up the leg on the inner side, carrying it down under the sole
and drawing it firmly up and fastening on the outer side of the leg almost to the
knee. This is reinforced by encircling strips around the ankle and instep.
Fig. 571. — Ankle-joint distended with wax, show-
ing that its capsule is weak anteriorly and posteriorly
and strong laterally.
DISLOCATIONS OF THE ANKLE.
The foot may be dislocated from the leg in nine different manners.
1. The foot as a whole may be carried outward. This is almost always asso-
ciated with fracture of the fibula, and sometimes of the internal malleolus, constituting
Pott's fracture (see page 557).
2. The foot may be carried direcdy inward. This likewise is associated with
fracture of the internal malleolus.
REGION OF THE ANKLE.
557
3. The foot may be rotated out on its own anteroposterior horizontal axis (paral-
lel with the sole).
4. It may be rotated in on its anteroposterior horizontal axis. Both these may
be accompanied by fractures.
5. The foot may be rotated inward on a vertical axis longitudinally through
the leg.
6. It may be rotated outward on a vertical axis.
7. The foot may be luxated backward, the tibia coming forward on the
astragalus (Fig. 572).
8. It may be luxated forward.
9. The astragalus may be pushed up between the bones of the leg.
In Numbers i and 2 inward and outward displacement the foot is not immedi-
ately beneath the leg, but is to one side of the leg. The outward luxation when
accompanied with laceration of the inferior tibiofibular ligaments or tearing off of a
small portion of the tibia and fracture of the
internal malleolus and fibula constitutes Dupuy-
tren's or Pott's fracture. In Numbers 3 and 4
the foot remains beneath the leg bones and is
not displaced much laterally. Numbers i and 3 |
are usually grouped together as outward luxa- I \
tions, and 2 and 4 as inward luxations. Num- '
bers 5 and 6 are very rare. The foot is rotated
so that one side looks forward and the other
backward.
jN'umber 7 backward luxation is the most
common, with the exception of Number i.
When associated with Pott's fracture, backward
luxation is produced by hyperextension followed
by a thrust and is often compound. The leg is
bent backward until the anterior and lateral lig-
aments rupture, and then the thrust sends the
tibia forward on the instep. The articular sur-
face of the astragalus being wider in front op-
poses the luxation, and fracture of one or both
malleoli may result.
Numbers 8 and 9 forward and upward lux-
ations are extremely rare, the former on account
of the difficulty in the application of the dislo-
cating force, — the flexion and thrust, — and the
latter on account of the extreme strength of the
inferior tibiofibular ligaments.
Treabneyit. — In attempting reduction of
these luxations the principal thing is to relax the tendo calcaneus (Achillis) by flexing
the knee. If this is not sufficient, tenotomy should be practiced. Simple extension
with slight rotation and manipulation will then accomplish reposition.
Fig. 572. — Backward lujcation of the foot at
the ankle-joint.
FRACTURES OF THE ANKLE.
Fractures of the ankle are usually the result of a force applied laterally, though
sometimes a turning of the foot on the vertical axis of the leg may assist. The force
applied causes fracture by inversion or eversion of the foot.
Pott's Fracture or Fracture by Eversion. — This is named after Sir Perci-
val Pott, Surgeon to St. Bartholomew's Hospital, London, who described the injury,
and was himself a victim of it. The French call it Dupuytren's fracture. It is pro-
duced by forcing the foot outward, or by having the foot firmly fixed and then
bending the Hmb outward, thus breaking it at the ankle. The fibula is broken 4 to
7.5 cm. (i^ to 3 in. ) above its lower end and the ligamentum deltoideum (internal
lateral) is either ruptured or the internal malleolus is torn of^. Rarely the outer
portion of the articular surface of the tibia may be torn of? and displaced outward
558
APPLIED ANATOMY.
with the lower fibular fragment. It is to be noted that in this fracture the foot, with
the small fragments of tibia and fibula, is practically loosened from the bones of the
leg, and the muscles of the calf being unopposed pull the foot backward and upward.
Therefore the displacement of the foot is not only outward, but also backward and
upward (Fig. 573.)
Fracture by Inversion. — This is practically the opposite of the former and is
not so frequent. The fibula is fractured by the traction of the external lateral liga-
ments which remain intact; it may break either above or below the strong inferior
tibiofibular ligaments. The internal malleolus may also be torn off. The displace-
ment is toward the inner side and upward and backward (Fig. 574).
Treatment. — In these fractures of the ankle replacement is often difficult and
resultant deformities frequently cause considerable subsequent disability. For this
reason especial efforts are to be made to reduce
the displacement and maintain the fragments in
proper position.
There are two main points of difficulty. The
fractured ends of the fibula become displaced an-
. I teroposteriorly and also in the fracture by ev^er-
/ : sion (Pott's) become pushed inward toward the
Fig. 5 73. — Pott's fracture of tlie fibula, showing eversion of the
foot, point of fracture of the fibula, and tearing off of the point of the
internal malleolus.
Fig. 574. — Illustrating fracture of the
fibula by inversion of the foot.
tibia. The deep fascia of the leg is attached to the fibula and its sharp broken ends
may get so fastened or caught in this fascia as to require an op^n incision before
they can be freed sufficiently to allow of their proper replacement. Another difficulty
is in the reduction of both the lateral and posterior displacement. Here it is neces-
sary first to relax the muscles of the calf by flexing the leg on the thigh, then by
pulling and direct pressure the foot can often be replaced. If this fails tenotomy of
the tendo calcaneus (Achillis) is to be done, which relaxes the parts still more by
leleasing the pull of the soleus, the gastrocnemius and plantaris being already re-
laxed by flexion of the knee. This is sometimes necessary to prevent the persistent
REGION OF THE ANKLE.
559
tendency of the foot to be drawn backward. After reduction not infrequently there is
no further tendency to displacement, and the fracture box or any other simple means
of retention is sufficient.
In other cases it is better to place the leg in the Pott's position, viz., lying on
its outer side with the knee flexed. For similar injuries, Dupuytren advised placing
the leg on a straight internal lateral splint on a pad which extended from near the
knee down to the seat of fracture. The leg was fastened near the knee to the upper
part of the splint, and the foot which projected beyond the pad was drawn by
bandages toward the lower part of the splint.
AMPUTATIONS AT THE ANKLE.
When amputation is performed at the ankle it is usually either by the method
of Syme or that of Pirogoff.
Syme's Amputation. — "A transverse incision should be carried across the
sole of the foot from the tip of the external malleolus or a little posterior to it (rather
Extensor longus hallucis
Tibialis anterior""
Anterior tibial artery
Tibia— f-
Tibialis posterior
Flexor longus digitorum
Plantar arteries and nerves
Extensor longus digitorum
Fibula
Peroneus longus
Peroneus brevis
Flexor longus hallucis
Pocket left by enucleating
the OS calcis
Flu. 575. — Syme's amputation of the ankle.
nearer the posterior than the anterior edge of the bone) to the opposite point on the
inner side, which will be rather below the tip of the internal malleolus." The extrem-
ities of this incision are connected by another directly across the front of the ankle-
joint. The anterior capsule is then divided and the lateral ligaments divided from
within outward. The foot being bent down, the tendo calcaneus is cut close to the
bone and the calcaneum dissected out. The malleoli are then to be cleared and sawn
off with a thin slip of the articular surface of the tibia (Fig. 575).
Remarks: The incision across the sole must not go too far back on the
inner side, as the internal calcanean branch of the external plantar artery will
56o
APPLIED ANATOMY.
be divided and the integrity of the flap threatened. In clearing the calcaneum it is
rather an advantage, especially in young people, to take off a thin slice of bone with
the tendo calcaneus. In removing the slice from the tibia as little as possible (in
growing patients) should be removed, to avoid injuring the epiphyseal cartilage.
In dissecting back the flap of the heel, the point of the knife is to be kept close to
the bone to avoid cutting the vessels in the flap itself.
Pirogoff's Amputation. — The sole incision is carried across from just in front
of the external malleolus to just in front of the internal. The anterior incision is
made across the front of the joint and the foot disarticulated by dividing the cap-
sular and lateral ligaments. The foot is then bent down and the calcaneum sawn
Extensor longus digitorum
Fibula _.
Peroneus longus
Peroneus brevis
Sawn surface of os calcis
Extensor longus hallucis
Tibialis anterior
Tibia
Tibialis posterior
Flexor longus digitorum
Flexor longus hallucis
Plantar vessels and nerves
Fig. 576. — Pirogoff's amputation of the ankle.
through the line of the sole incision. A slice is to be removed from the tibia and
fibula and the sawn surface of the calcaneum brought up and sutured with chromic
catgut (or other) sutures to the sawn surface of the tibia (Fig. 576).
In bringing up the calcaneum to the tibia it may be found difficult to approxi-
mate them without undue tension on the tendo Achillis. To provide against this
common difficulty it is customary to place the saw on the upper surface of the calca-
neum well behind (a finger-breadth) the joint. Also to dissect back the heel-flap
.50 to I cm. (^ to ^ in.) so that more of the calcaneum can be removed. A
larger slice is also taken from the tibia than in Syme's amputation. If the tension
remains too great on the tendo calcaneus it is to be divided.
THE FOOT.
S6i
THE FOOT.
The foot is intended for support and locomotion. The locomotion takes place in
the upright position and, in moving, the weight is shifted from one foot to the other.
Hence we see that if the foot is to fulfil its function of support it must have strength,
because on it rests the weight of almost the whole of the body. If a person is at rest
in a standing position the foot is subject to a continuous static pressure which, if any
part of the foot is abnormal, whether from congenital or acquired qualities, will event-
ually result in distortion and impairment of function. If a person is moving about,
the foot is subjected to a pressure which is dynamic (movable) in character, and is
much greater in amount than is the static pressure of the body at rest.
The movements of the foot in locomotion are not always slow, sometimes they
are exceedingly rapid. A person treads on an uneven or unstable surface and the
foot must adapt itself instantly or injuries will result; failure to do so results in sprains,
fractures, and luxations. In running rapidly the changes in position of the com-
ponent parts of the foot are instantaneous, otherwise rapid running is impossible. In
jumping especially the dynamic pressure plus the inertia causes an enormous strain
on the foot. The mobility demanded of the foot is not so great, however, as that of
the hand because the movements are neither so intricate nor so numerous. A con-
sideration of these facts enables one to understand: first, the method of construction
of the foot; second, its injuries, diseases and deformities; third, the means necessary
to employ m preventing and curing
them and m obviating to as great
extent as possible their consequences.
The Construction of the
Foot. — The foot is constructed with
a view of possessing strength and
mobility. Strength is obtained by
the bones being short and solid, well
compacted together in the form of a
double arch, joined by strong liga-
ments, and supported by powerful
muscles. The double arch forms the
hollow of the sole of the foot. As
pointed out by Ellis ( ' ' The Human
Foot ' ' ) when the two feet are placed
together there is formed a " dome-shaped space " arching anteroposteriorly from the
internal tuberosity of the calcaneum to the head of the first metatarsal bone, and
laterally from the inner to the outer edge (Fig. 577). Mobility is obtained by the
bones and joints being numerous and the muscles highly specialized.
Diseases and Injuries of the Foot. — Disease weakens the foot — sometimes,
as in adolescents, the foot is weakened without any apparent disease. In other cases
the bones and ligaments become affected, as in rickets, rheumatism, gout, and tuber-
culous disease. In still other^; the muscles become affected, either contracted, as in
spastic diseases, or relaxed, as in infantile paralysis. When the bones and ligaments
are involved they fail to bear the body weight, the arch is crushed and flat-foot and
eversion results. Hence valgus is almost always a disease of weakness. If muscles
become affected by spasm or paralysis all kinds of deformities are produced. There
are many muscles controlling the foot and frequently only one or a few are paralyzed ;.
this leaves the balancing muscles unopposed and they drag the part toward the
healthy side. Anything that disturbs the equilibrium or balance of the various
muscles results in distortions and deformities. Injuries impair the efficacy of the
mechanism of the foot. A crush of the head of the first metacarpal bone destroys
the anterior support of the arch and the resultant weakness is marked.
Traumatism produces flat-foot, also sprains, which, while not so deforming, are
often disabling. Fractures and luxations occur and may impair the foot permanently.
Finally, many children have congenitally deformed feet which require treatment
before they can fulfil their functions.
36
Inferior calcaneo-scaphoid ligament.
Fig. 577. — Section of toot, showing the longitudinal arch.
5<
APPLIED ANATOMY.
The Treatment of Affections of the Feet. — The foot is exceptionally
accessible both for diagnosis and treatment. The bones and joints are accessible
often to both sight and touch, and one should know where to look and feel for them.
Exploratory operations in this portion of the body are out of place. An accurate
knowledge of the structures of the foot is absolutely essential to intelligent treatment.
The deformities are dependent on muscular action, and one should know the position
of the tendons and the influence of the muscles. In amputating, a knowledge of the
joints is essential. The problems presented are largely of a mechanical nature, to be
solved by a thorough knowledge of the structures and the application of mechanical
principles to living tissues.
Astragalus
Os calcis
Cuboid
Tuberosity of
/ ~^ fifth metatarsal
BONES OF THE FOOT.
A knowledge of the bony structure of the foot is the key which unlocks its
pathology. The bones of the foot are numerous, so as to give it mobility and to
lessen shocks. If the bones become
/""^ ankylosed the footing becomes in-
secure, balancing is difficult, the
gait is altered, and great care is
necessary in locomotion to avoid
straining and injury.
The foot is triangular in shape,
being broad across the toes and
narrow at the heel. Its bones com-
pose the tarsals, metatarsus, and
phalanges. Of these the first two
are essential, but the third is less
so. Phalanges are more or less
for prehensile uses, and as man, as
we see him, encases his foot in
shoes he makes but little use of the
toes, hence they are the least im-
portant part of the foot. They are
used somewhat in walking, and to a
greater degree in balancing, climb-
ing, running, etc. They add to the
efficiency of the foot, but their loss
does not impair it to a great extent.
Intricate and delicate movements
may be interfered with, but the
more deliberate firmer movements,
as in walking, may remain almost
normal. The big toe has only two
phalanges and this increases its
strength at the cost of mobility.
The remaining portion of the foot
is composed of the metatarsus and
tarsus — five bones of the former
and seven of the latter.
The foot bones are divided
longitudinally into two sets, an in-
ternal and external. The main
weight of the body is transmitted through the internal set, which is in relation with the
tibia. It consists of the astragalus {talus), scaphoid {navicular) , the three czineiform,
and the inner three metatarsal bones with their corresponding phalanges (Fig. 578).
The external set is in relation with the fibula, and is composed of the os ccilcis,
cuboid, and outer two metatarsals with their corresponding phalanges.
As has been pointed out by Quenu and Kuss {Revue de Chirurgie, Jan., 1909,
p. i), while the main function of the internal portion of the foot is support, that of
Fig.
578. — Anterior view of the bones of the foot showing
their division into internal and external sets.
THE FOOT.
563
the external portion is balance. They suggest that from a functional standpoint the
foot may be divided into an internal portion composed of all the tarsal bones and
the first metatarsal bone with its phalanges, and an external portion consisting of
the outer four metatarsal bones and
Astragalus
External, middle, and internal
cuneiform bones
Metatarsal
Os calcis
Inferior calcaneo-
scaphoid ligament
Scaphoid (tubercle)
:g. — The inner arch of the foot.
phalanges. They show that in dis-
location of the metatarsus the line
of division passes between the first
and second metatarsal bones; the
first metatarsal is usually displaced
inwardly, while the second, third,
fourth, and fifth metatarsal bones
are practicall)' always displaced os caicis / \ Highest point of arch
outwardly, there being a consid-
erable separation between the met-
atarsal bone of the big toe and the fig.
second metatarsal bone adjacent.
When there is congenital absence of the tibia the foot bones related to it are
also lacking, and when the fibula is lacking there are no bones of the external set.
In man both sets contribute to support, but the tibial or inner set is the more impor-
tant, the fibular or outer
Os calcis set being in a condition
of regression.
As has been stated
above, the foot is dome-
shaped, being arched
anteroposteriorly and
transversely. The an-
teroposterior arching
has been divided into
an inner and outer arch.
The inner arch is com-
posed of the OS calcis,
astragalus, scaphoid,
three cuneiform and inner three metatarsal bones. The highest point of this arch is the
midtarsal joint between the astragalus and scaphoid (Fig. 579). The outer arch is
composed of the os calcis, cuboid, and outer two metatarsal bones. It is much lower
than the inner arch. The highest point
is between the cuboid and os calcis, and
when weight is borne on the foot this outer
arch becomes obliterated and comes in con-
tact with the ground.
The transverse arch has its outer end
supported by the outer edge of the foot,
which through the medium of the soft parts
is in contact with the ground. Its inner end
is supported by the inner edge of the foot
which is some distance above the ground.
Thus it is seen that the weight of the
body is transmitted from the body of the
astragalus in three directions, viz. , back-
ward to the tuberosities of the os calcis, for-
ward to the heads of the metatarsal bones,
and laterally toward the base of the fifth
metatarsal bone. The posterior pillar of the anteroposterior arch is short, thick, and
composed of only two bones, the astragalus and os calcis. It is stifl and strong, but
having only two parts is comparatively immovable. The anterior pillar of the arch
is longer and has more bones and, while it is not so strong against static pressure as
the posterior pillar, is, on account of its elasticity and mobility, far more eflfective
against dynamic (active) pressure. Thus it is that when a person jumps from a
Fourth Fifth Cuboid
metatarsal metatarsal
Fig. 580. — The outer arch of the foot.
581. — Transverse arch of foot.
APPLIED anatomy:
height and aHghts on the sole of the foot the astragalus or os calcis of the posterior
pillar is fractured while the bones of the anterior pillar escape. The internal part
of the foot is more liable to give way than the external part because the external part is
practically in contact with the ground while the internal part has as its support ligaments
and muscles, and when these latter give way it is the inner side of the foot which sinks.
This is still more favored by the position of the tuberosities of the os calcis with refer-
ence to the ankle-joint; they are not directly beneath it, but somewhat to its outer side.
THE JOINTS AND LIGAMENTS OF THE FOOT.
The amount of movement that takes place between the bones of the foot is not
as great as would be expected from their number. It is only in the subastragaloid
joint that any considerable motion takes place, while a less amount occurs at the
Tendo calcaneus (AchilHs).
Peroneus longus and brevis
Posterior articular surface
on OS calcis
Anterior articular surface
on OS calcis
Plantar vessels and nerves
Flexor longus hallucis
Flexor longus digitorum
Interosseous astragalo-
calcaneal ligament
Inferior calcaneo-scaphoid
ligament
Posterior tibial tendon
Scaphoid
Anterior tibial tendon
Extensor longus hallucis
Anterior tibial vessels
I
Fio. 582. — The subastragaloid joint; lower surface. The astragalus has been removed.
midtarsal joint. The contiguous tarsal bones are joined by numerous band-like,
capsular, and interosseous ligaments which allow a limited amount of movement
between them. In the aggregate these movements are considerable and make the
foot as a whole quite flexible.
The Subastragaloid Joint (Articulatio talo-calcaneo-navicularis). — This
is a horizontal joint formed by the astragalus above and the os calcis and navicular
(scaphoid) below and in front. It runs obliquely forward and inward. The astrag-
alus is not wedged in between the os calcis and scaphoid like the keystone of an
arch, but the foot moves freely beneath it. It has an inward motion of adduction
around an anteroposterior or longitudinal axis with internal rotation around a vertical
axis, and an outward motion of abduction with external rotation. The abduction
and adduction movements cannot occur independently of rotation, they are com-
bined. The astragalus is joined to the os calcis below and scaphoid below and in
THE FOOT.
565
front by short fibrous bands which help to form the capsule. The under surface of the sub-
astragaloid joint is formed first by the surface of the scaphoid, next by the inferior calca-
neoscaphoid ligament, then by the upper surface of the sustentaculum tali, then by the
interosseous ligament, and finally by the posterior surface of the os calcis. The infe-
rior calcaneoscaphoid ligament is the most important one in maintaining the integrity of
Groove for flexor longus
ballucis
Sustentaculum tal
Posterior tibia] tendon
Groove for posterior
tibial tendon on the
inferior calcaneo-
scaphoid ligament
Groove for fiexor longus digitorum
Fig. 583. — View of inner side of ankle-joint, showing the internal lateral ligament.
the arch (Fig. 582). In addition, in order to provide against luxation, which is favored
by the superincumbent body weight, the joint is strengthened by three ligaments, viz. :
1. The interosseous astragalo-calcaneal ligament, which runs obliquely forward
and outward between the os calcis and astragalus and divides the subastragaloid joint
into an anterior and posterior portion. It is very strong (Fig. 582).
2. The internal lateral (^deltoid) ligatnent of the ankle, which sends fibres by-
Anterior fasciculus of external
lateral ligament
Astragalocalcaneal ligament
Anterior tibiofibular
ligament
Posterior (transverse) tibio-
fibular ligament
Posterior fasciculus of
•external lateral ligament
Middle fasciculus of
xtemal lateral ligament
A
Interosseous ligament
Fig. 584. — Ligaments of the outer side of the ankle.
its deep part from the tibia above to the side of the astragalus below and likewise to
the scaphoid in front, and by its superficial part to the sustentaculum tali (Fig. 583).
3. The external lateral ligameyit of the ankle, the anterior and posterior fascic-
uli of which are both attached to the astragalus and the middle fasciculus of which
goes to the os calcis below (Fig. 584).
566
APPLIED ANATOMY.
When the weight of the body is transmitted to the foot it tends to flatten the
anteroposterior arch. If the arch descends it can only do so either by pushing
the astragalus up — luxating it — or by the ligaments of the arch stretching or ruptur-
ing and allowing the two pillars of the arch to separate. In disease the ligaments
elongate and by violence they may be ruptured, the arch in each case falls. If
the ligaments supporting the astragalus remain intact then excessive lateral move-
ment ruptures those on the side and a sprain of the subastragaloid joint is produced
which is often called a sprain of the ankle.
The Midtarsal Joint (Chopart's Joint)!^ — This is composed anteriorly of
the scaphoid and cuboid bones and posteriorly by the astragalus and os calcis. The
movements are not extensive and consist of flexion with inward rotation of the sole,
and extension with outward rotation of the sole. The joint is separated into an inner
and outer portion by an interosseous ligament where the cuboid, astragalus, and os
calcis meet.
The Ligamentous Support of the Arch of the Foot.— The bony con-
struction of the arch or dome of the foot has already been explained (page 563). The
Long plantar ligament
Short plantar ligament
Peroneus longus
Peroneus brevis
Groove for flexor longus hallucis
Groove for posterior tibial and flexor
communis digitorum
Inferior calcaneoscaphoid ligament
Posterior tibial tendon
Fig. 585. — Ligaments and tendons of the sole of the foot.
various bones composing it are bound together not only by the short ligaments pass-
ing between contiguous bones, but the arch is strengthened by three special ligamen-
tous structures. They are the inferior calcaneoscaphoid ligament, the plantar liga-
ments, long and short, and the plantar fascia.
The inferior calcaneoscaphoid ligament {Jigamentum calcaneonaviciclare pianiare)
runs from the lower inner portion of the scaphoid, posterior to its tubercle, to the sus-
tentaculum tali. It is an extremely strong fibrocartilaginous band. Anteriorly and
above it blends with the internal lateral ligament (deltoid) of the ankle. Together
with the posterior surface of the scaphoid it forms a socket for the head of the
astragalus. This ligament fills the long gap left in the inner arch of the foot between
the scaphoid and os calcis. Running under and supporting it is the tendon of the
tibialis posterior (Fig. 585).
The long plantar or long calcaneocuboid ligament {ligametitum plantare
longuni) is attached to the under surface of the os calcis in front of its tubercles
and thence runs to the peroneal ridge on the cuboid bone and continues onward to
THE FOOT.
567
the bases of the second, third, fourth, and fifth metatarsal bones. It makes a canal
for the peroneus longus tendon, which runs beneath it.
The short playitar or short calcaneocuboid }igamc7it {^ligame^itiim calcaneo-
cuboidcuni plantare) lies beneath the long ligament and is separated from it by a
small amount of fatty tissue. It runs obliquely forward and inward from the under
surface of the calcaneum to the posterior portion of the cuboid.
The Plantar Fascia (aponeurosis plantaris). — The middle portion of the plantar
fascia runs anteriorly from the inner tubercle of the os calcis to be attached to the
sides of the metatarsophalangeal articulations and bases of the proximal phalanges.
Outer iMjrtion of plantar fascia
Plantar arteries and nerves
Digital arteries and nerves
Middle portion of plantar fascia
/^ ■ — Inner portion of plantar fascia
Digital arteries and nerves
Fig. 580. — The plantar fascia.
It is a thick, strong triangular band. The outer portion is a strong band running
from the external tubercle to the tuberosity of the fifth metatarsal bone. The inner
portion is thin and weak (Fig. 586).
These three ligamentous structures, the calcaneoscaphoid ligament, plantar liga-
ments, and plantar fascia are all large, strong, fibrous structures. They join the
anterior and posterior pillars of the arches like the string of a bow and prevent them
from separating. When a person is standing at rest these are the main ligaments
which bear the weight of the body. The static weight is borne by the ligaments but
the dynamic weight (movements) is borne by the muscles.
568 ^^^^H APPLIED ANATOMY. ^^^^^^^H
THE MUSCLES OF THE FOOT. ■HH|
The foot is acted upon by long muscles which come down from the leg and
short muscles which arise in the foot itself. Of these the long muscles are the more
important because they influence the position of the foot itself, whereas the short
muscles act on the toes ; as stated the movements of the toes are of secondary impor-
tance (page 562). The functions of the muscles are active or dynamic in character.
They bear the weight of the body when in motion and direct the movements of the
foot in locomotion. Their function and structure are to be studied together, as one
explains the other, and a knowledge of them explains many deformities and indicates
their treatment.
The long muscles have three distinct actions on the foot : ( i ) they support the
arch of the foot; (2) they flex and extend the foot; (3) they abduct and adduct the
foot — this latter being associated with a certain amount of rotation.
The action 01 the individual muscles is not a simple one. They act on two
joints, the ankle and subastragaloid. If the former is stationary they abduct and
adduct, if the latter is stationary they flex and extend, but if both move then a com-
bined action of the muscles is necessary.
For our purposes we may divide the muscles into four groups of three each
(page 546). They are (i) extensors, (2) flexors, (3) abductors, (4) muscles of
the calf.
1. Extensor group: tibialis anterior , exte7isor lo7igus halljccis, extensor Ion gtis
digitorum.
2. Flexor group: tibialis posterior, fiexor longus digitornm, flexor loiigus
hallucis.
3. Abductor group : peroneiis longus, peroneus brevis, pero7ieus tertius.
4. Muscles of the calf: gastrocnemius, soleus, piantaris.
The Action of the Muscles in Supporting the Tarsal Arch.
Tibialis Anterior. — The tendon of the anterior tibial descends along the anterior
edge of the internal malleolus and inserts into the lower inner surface of the internal
cuneiform bone and base of the first metatarsal bone.
Tibialis Posterior. — Its tendon passes down close behind the posterior edge of
the internal malleolus, crosses the internal lateral ligament of the ankle, passes
under the inferior calcaneonavicular (scaphoid) ligament and in front of the susten-
taculum tali to insert into the tubercle of the navicular (scaphoid). From the tuber-
cle its tendon sends slips to all the tarsal bones except the talus (astragalus) and to
the bases of the second, third, fourth, and sometimes fifth metatarsal bones.
Flexor Longus Digitorum. — Its tendon passes behind the internal malleolus
immediately posterior to the tibialis posterior and then curves around the susten-
taculum tali to enter the foot, passing forward to insert into the base of the terminal
phalanges of the outer four toes.
Flexor Longus Hallucis. — This tendon descends across the middle of the pos-
terior part of the ankle-joint and curves forward under the sustentaculum tali. It is
the most posterior of the structures running behind the internal malleolus. It lies
deeper than the tendon of the flexor longus digitorum, and as it crosses it gives to it
a small slip. It then inserts into the base of the terminal phalanx of the big toe.
Peroneus Loyigus. — This tendon overlies the tendon of the peroneus brevis as
it passes down immediately behind the external malleolus. It then winds around
the outer surface of the os calcis behind the peroneal tubercle to pass obliquely
inward and forward across the sole of the foot, in a canal formed by the long plantar
ligament and a groove in the cuboid bone, to insert into the base of the first meta-
tarsal bone and internal cuneiform.
Peroneus Brevis. — This tendon passes down behind the external malleolus
beneath and a little anterior to the tendon of the peroneus longus. It passes in front
of the peroneal tubercle and then goes forward to insert into the tuberosity of the
fifth metatarsal bone.
THE FOOT.
569
Peroneus Terthis. — This tendon descends in front of the external malleolus and
inserts into the upper surface of the fifth metatarsal bone near its base.
The other muscles of the leg do not support the tarsal arch. In considering-
the insertions of these tendons it will be seen that the tibialis anterior, peroneus
tertius, and peroneus brevis are practically inserted into the convexity of the tarsal
arch and tend to support it by pulling
it upward. The flexor longus hallucis
and flexor longus digitorum run longitu-
dmally beneath the arch and so directly
support it. The tibialis posterior and
peroneus longus, one from the inner and
the other from the outer side, meet and
cross on the sole of the foot, thus form-
ing a double sling immediately beneath
the arch on which it rests when those
muscles contract.
If these muscles, on which the arch
directly relies for its support when sub-
jected to the strain of locomotion, are
unable to meet the demands made upon
them then the strain falls on the liga-
ments, and as »these are intended for
static and not dynamic purposes they
weaken and give way and the arch de-
scends. To cure such a condition over
use must be avoided and the strength of
the muscles is to be restored by exercise,
massage, electricity, etc.
The Action of the Muscles as
Flexors and Extensors.
Posterior tibial
Anterior tibial
Extensor longus
hallucis
Extensor longus
digitorum
Peroneus brevis
Peroneus longus
Peroneus tertius
Flexor brevis
digitorum
The peroneus group of muscles
exert so little influence on flexion and
extension that in many cases they may
be ignored. The peroneus tertius flexes
the ankle, while the longus and brevis
extend it. The common movements of
the foot when great strength is not re-
quired are performed by the flexor and
extensor groups of muscles; the muscles
of the calf are not so much for adding
to the kind of movements as to the
amount. The powerful calf muscles
have the function of aiding the body in
maintaining the upright posture and
especially in lifting and propelling it
forward in locomotion. When most of
the flexors and extensors are paralyzed
the foot hangs loose from the leg, the
so-called flail-foot. Weakness of the
flexor group (tibialis posterior, flexor
longus digitorum, and flexor longus hallucis) tends to favor a descent of the arch
with consequent pronation or eversion. Weakness of the extensors causes toe-drop
and inversion or supination.
Paralysis of the calf muscles deprives the posterior pillar of the arch of its support
and the action of the flexors and extensors elevates the arch while the heel descends,
so that a condition of hollow foot is produced.
Fig. 587. — The foot in an adducted or supinated position.
570
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Paralysis of the calf muscles is not rare, while that of the deep flexors is less
common. The question of paralysis must be studied with reference to each individ-
ual case, because the affected muscles are not always completely paralyzed, neither
are all the muscles of a group.
The Action of the Muscles as Abductors and Adductors.
Lateral
movements of the foot are comparatively weak when compared with
those of flexion and extension. They are
intended largely to maintain the balance
or equilibrium and to adapt the position of
the foot to uneven surfaces, etc. Three
muscles act very distinctly as abductors ;
they are the peroneus longus, brevis, and
tertius. Two act as distinct adductors,
viz. : the tibialis anterior and the tibialis
posterior.
The muscles of the calf act more as
abductors than adductors, because the in-
sertion of the tendo calcaneus (Achillis)
is not directly behind the ankle-joint but
more to its outer side.
When the foot is deformed in the
position of inversion, as in club-foot, the
tibialis anterior and posterior are usually
contracted, but when in the position of
eversion, as in flat-foot, then spasm of the
peronei or calf muscles is frequent.
Plantar flexion of the foot is a far
more powerful movement than extension —
flexion is associated with adduction or in-
version and extension with abduction or
eversion ; hence it is that inversion is the
position of strength and eversion of weak-
ness. Feats of strength and agility cannot
be performed by those who have markedly
everted feet.
Tibialis anterior
Extensor longus
hallucis
Extensor longus
digitorum
Peroneus tertius
Peroneus brevis
Peroneus longus
Extensor
brevis
digitorum
SURFACE ANATOMY OF THE
FOOT.
For the clinician and operator an exact
knowledge of surface anatomy is absolutely
essential. It can readily be acquired be-
cause the various bony points and tendons
are usually evident both to touch and sight.
Bony Landmarks. — There are five
prominent bony points : they are the in-
ternal and external malleoli^ the tubercles
of the OS calcis and 7iavictdar (^scaphoid)
and the ttiberosity of the fifth metatarsal
bone.
The internal malleolus is large and flat
and has a somewhat rounded lower edge.
It is above and anterior to the external malleolus. Immediately in front of its anterior
edge runs the commencement of the long saphenous vein. Around its lower pos-
terior border runs the tendon of the tibialis posterior muscle on its way to the tubercle
of the scaphoid.
Fig. 588. — The foot in an abducted or pronated
position.
THE FOOT.
571
The external malleolus is more prominent than the internal, smaller, and more
pointed. The fibula above for its lower fourth is subcutaneous. The tip of the
external malleolus is 2 cm. ( ^ in. ) below and behind the internal. Around its
posterior and lower edge run the peroneus longus and brevis tendons.
The tubercles of the os calcis can be felt posteriorly and at the sides. The
external surface can be followed forward, but the internal is buried beneath the
soft tissues. Of the two tubercles on its under surface the internal can be felt by
firm pressure.
The tubercle of the scaphoid {navicular) lies on the plantar rather than on the
lateral aspect of the bone. It can be felt 4 cm. (i^ in.) below and in front of the
Ankle-joint
Internal malleolus
Subastragaloid joint
Sustentaculum tali
Os calcis
Internal tubercle of the
OS calcis
Tubercle of the scaphoid
Fig. 589. — Surface anatomy of the inner side of the ankle.
internal malleolus. It is the landmark for the tarsal joints on the inner side of the
foot. The tibialis posterior muscle runs from it to the posterior edge of the internal
malleolus.
The sustentaculum tali can be found by feeling 2.5 cm. (i in.) below the inter-
nal malleolus. It is not very distinct.
The tuberosity of the fifth metatarsal bone is the large bony prominence 6 cm.
{2Y2 in.) below and in front of the external malleolus. It is the guide to the tarsal
Subcutaneous portion of fibula
External malleolu;.
Peroneal tubercle
External tubercle of os calcis
'Ankle-joint
Astragalus
Scaphoid
Os calcis
Internal cuneiform
Middle cuneiform
External cuneiform
•Cuboid
Tubercle of fifth metatarsal
Fig. 590. — Surface anatomy of the outer side of the ankle.
joints on the outside of the foot. The tendon of the peroneus brevis runs from it
to the posterior edge of the external malleolus.
The peroneal spiiie (tubercle) can be felt indistinctly as a small bony prominence
2.5 cm. (i in.) below and a little in front of the external malleolus. In front of it
runs the peroneus brevis and behind it the peroneus longus.
The Tendons. — It is difficult to identify the position of the tendons, espe-
cially if one does not know where to look for them.
The tendo calcaneus (Achillis) is usually easily recognized, as it can be made
tense, even in fat, chubby children, by dorsally flexing the foot.
572 ^^^^^ APPLIED ANATOMY.
The flexor lo7igiis digitorum and flexor longiis halliicis lie too c
the internal malleolus to be recognized; the latter is the more posterior.
The tibialis posterior, on strongly abducting the foot, can often be seen and felt
along the posterior border of the internal malleolus and between the latter and the
tubercle of the scaphoid, into which it inserts.
The tibialis anterior is the tendon nearest the anterior edge of the internal
malleolus. It runs down to the internal cuneiform bone about 2.5 cm. (i in.) in
front of the tubercle of the scaphoid.
The extensor longiis hallucis lies just to the outside of the tibialis anterior and
can often be made prominent by flexing the big toe.
The extensor longiis digitorum tendons at the ankle lie close together just out-
side of the extensor longus hallucis. The peroneus tertius runs from them to the
dorsum of the fifth metatarsal bone a little in front of its base.
T\iQ. peroneal tendons can usually be made visible by sharply adducting the foot.
The brevis is then seen running back to the peroneal spine 2.5 cm. (i in. ) below and
a little in front of the external malleolus and from this point up to behind the malle-
olus; in thin people both the brevis and longus can be seen and followed up the
lower part of the fibula.
The soft rounded prominence about 5 cm. (2 in.) in front of the external malleo-
lus is the extensor brevis digitorum muscle.
The Joints. — The ankle-joint lies 1.25 cm. (^ in.) above the tip of the inter-
nal malleolus.
The midtarsal (Chopart's) joint is best found on the inner side of the foot; here it
passes immediately behind the tubercle of the scaphoid. On the outer side it is ap-
proximately at the middle of a line joining the external malleolus and tuberosity of
the fifth metatarsal bone. At this point there is frequently a bony prominence
formed by the anterior edge of the os calcis.
The tarsometatarsal (Lisfranc's) joint is best found on the outer side of the
foot. It lies immediately behind the tuberosity of the fifth metatarsal bone, between
it and the cuboid.
Its inner extremity can be found either by following up the first metatarsal bone
from its head for about 5 cm. (2 in.) when a ridge of bone will be felt on its base, the
joint being immediately behind it; or by identifying the tubercle of the scaphoid and
allowing 2.5 cm. (i in.) from its anterior edge for the internal cuneiform bone. Its
exact location is to be recognized by pressing with the edge of the thumb at the sus-
pected spot and moving the metatarsal bone with the opposite hand.
THE ARTERIES OF THE FOOT.
The dorsalis pedis artery runs from the middle of the front of the ankle
to the base of the first metatarsal interspace. The extensor longus hallucis tendon
is on the medial side and the extensor longus digitorum on the lateral. An in-
cision made midway between these tendons exposes the muscular fibres of the ex-
tensor brevis digitorum; this is pulled to the outer side and the artery will be found
lying on the bone beneath. The extensor brevis digitorum crosses it near its termi-
nation.
This artery is rarely the subject of ligation, but one frequently endeavors to feel
its pulsation in order to determine whether the artery above is intact.
The Plantar Arteries. — The tibialis posterior divides into the internal and
external plantar arteries at a point midway on a line joining the internal malleolus
and internal tubercle of the os calcis. From this point the internal plantar artery
runs forward along the medial side of the flexor longus hallucis in the groove between
the abductor hallucis and flexor brevis digitorum. It is much the smaller of the two
plantar arteries (Fig. 591).
The external plantar artery runs from the same point as the internal to the
inner side of the base of the fifth metatarsal bone. To this point it lies beneath the
flexor brevis digitorum and above the accessorius. It then dips deeper, lying on the
interossei, and curves inward to end in the communicating artery which pierces
the base of the first metatarsal space to anastomose with the dorsalis pedis.
THE FOOT.
573
It can be ligated by making an incision at the medial side of the base of
the fifth metatarsal bone between the flexor brevis digitorum and the flexor brevis
minimi digiti.
Formal ligation of the plantar arteries is not often required. If wounded the
bleeding can be stopped by packing the wound, applying pressure, and elevating the
foot as high as possible. Care is to be exercised in making incisions in the sole of
Princeps hallucis artery
Flexor accessorius and
long flexor tendons
Plantar arch
Tendon of peroneus longus
Flexor brevis hallucis
Flexor longus hallucis
Internal plantar nerve
Internal plantar artery
Abductor hallucis
Internal malleolus
Posterior tibial tendon
Flexor longus digitorum ,{"
Posterior tibial artery
Posterior tibial nerve
Flexor brevis digitorum
Flexor brevis
minimi digiti
.\bductor minimi digiti
Adductor hallucis
Accessorius
— External plantar nerve
— 3xtemal plantar artery
Tendon of flexor brevis
r~ ligitorum
Internal calcaneal!
branch ot posterior
tibial
Flexor longus hallucis
Fig 591. — Plantar arteries and nerves.
the foot in the grooves to the inner and outer side of the flexor brevis digitorum for
fear of wounding the plantar arteries. The external plantar is, however, not liable
to be wounded if the incision is made back toward the tubercle of the os calcis.
The plantar arteries usually escape division in operating subcutaneously on the
plantar fascia because the plantar fascia is above the flexor brevis while the arteries
are below. It is so difflcult to ligate bleeding arteries in the foot that it is usually
better to pack the wound with an antiseptic gauze and elevate the limb.
574
APPLIED ANATOMY.
AMPUTATIONS OF THE FOOT.
The foot may be amputated through the midtarsal or tarsometatarsal joints.
Ordinarily they give unsatisfactory stumps owing to the heel being pulled up by the
tendo calcaneus (Achillis), and the shape of the inner part of the tarsal arch. This
causes the patient to walk on the end of the stump, which soon becomes painful.
To perform these operations skilfully it is essential that one be familiar with the
lines of the joints. Plantar flaps are used because the skin of the sole is tougher
than that of the dorsum and the cicatrix is out of the line of pressure.
Midtarsal (Chopart's) Amputation. — This is made through the midtarsal
joint. The guides to the joint are the tubercle of the scaphoid (navicular) on the
Fig. S92- — Chopart's li.ivjict
of the foot.
amputation
Plantar
flap
Fig. 5y,s- — i-imiaiica larsometatarsal amputation
of the foot.
inside and the ridge on the anterior end of the os calcis, midway between the external
malleolus and the fifth metatarsal bone, on the outer side. A short dorsal and a long
plantar flap are cut. The plantar flap is longer on its inner side to allow for the
greater thickness of the foot on that side. It is easier to begin the disarticulation
on the inside, going in just behind the tubercle of the scaphoid (navicular). This
part of the joint is convex forward. On reaching the outer edge of the astragalus
(talus) care should be taken not to slip posteriorly between the astragalus and os
calcis, but to continue laterally. The extensor tendons are to be sutured to the end
of the stump and frequently the tendo calcaneus (Achillis) is cut in an attempt to
prevent subsequent elevation of the heel. (Fig. 592).
Carelessness may result in opening the joint in front instead of behind the
scaphoid (navicular).
THE FOOT.
575
Tarsometatarsal (Lisfranc's) Amputation. — The guide to this joint is
the tuberosity of the fifth metatarsal bone on the outer side and the ridge on the base
of the first metatarsal on the inner side. This latter is about 4 cm. (i^ in. ) in front
of the highest point of the tubercle of the scaphoid.
The joint is best entered from the outer side. The knife is to be passed first
forward and then carried inward. Trouble is usually experienced when the base of
the second metatarsal is to be disarticulated. It lies behind the others and some
surgeons advise skipping it and opening the first metatarsal joint and then com-
pleting the disarticulation by opening the second last. The sawing off of the pro-
jecting internal cuneiform bone as proposed by Hey is objected to on account of
weakening the attachment of the tibialis anterior tendon. The same precaution is
to be taken of making the plantar flap longer on its inner side, as was advised in
Chopart's amputation, on account of the greater depth of the foot on this side. The
line of the joint is best understood by reference to the position of the bones (Fig.
578). Tenotomy of the tendo calcaneus ( Achillis) is not so often resorted to in this
amputation as in that through the midtarsal joint (Fig. 593).
PLANTAR ABSCESS.
Abscesses of the sole of the foot are usually caused by infected punctured
wounds, or by the extension of infection from wounds of the toes, etc.
The plantar fascia lies on the flexor brevis digitorum while the long flexor
tendons lie beneath it. A punctured
wound may perforate the plantar fascia
and penetrate the flexor brevis which
arises from its under surface, yet if this
muscle is not entirely traversed by the
wound the tendons of the long flexors
beneath escape infection and the pus
accumulates beneath the plantar fascia.
Superficial Plantar Abscess. —
In the superficial form of plantar abscess
the pus tends to point in four directions:
(i) it may come directly up through gaps
between the fibres of the plantar fascia
and make an hour-glass abscess, a small
amount of pus being above the plantar
fascia, between it and the skin, while a
larger collection is beneath the fascia in
the substance of the muscle; (2) it may
burrow its way forward showing between
the tendons in the direction of the webs
of the toes; (3) it may appear in the
groove on the outer side of the foot be-
tween the flexor brevis and abductor
minimi digiti; (4) it may appear on the
inner side of the foot between the abduc-
tor hallucis and flexor brevis (Fig. 594).
Deep Plantar Abscess. — In deep
infection the pus accumulates around the
deep flexor tendons and beneath the
flexor brevis muscle. Its greatest ten-
dency is to extend up the leg by following
the flexor tendons behind the internal malleolus. It may also show itself in the grooves
on either side of the flexor brevis, or between the tendons at the webs of the toes.
Incision of Plantar Abscess. — The safest way to open these abscesses is
by the method of Hilton, The skin is first incised and the abscess opened by insert-
ing a pointed haemostatic forceps and opening its blades, or using some similar blunt
instrument. This is done to avoid wounding the arteries. If necessary the whole
Following the flexor
tendons up behind the
internal malleolus
Between the flexor
brevis and abductor
hallucis
Between flexor brevis
and abductor minimi
digiti
Coming through gaps
in the fascia
Anteriorly between
the tendons at the
webs of the toes
Fig. 594.-
-Diagram showing the points of exit of suppu-
ration beneath the plantar fascia.
APPLIED ANATOMY.
thickness of the foot may be traversed by this means and a drainage-tube passed
through from one side to the other.
Incisions should not be made over bony points where they would be subjected
to pressure. Hence the heads of the metatarsal bones and the prominent outer edge
of the foot are avoided. Incisions in the hollow of the foot and between the forward
ends of the metatarsal bones are to be preferred. In opening a subcutaneous col-
lection one should not be satisfied with simply incising the skin, but the fascia should
be widely split to guard against a larger collection of pus beneath.
Collections which present to the outer side of the flexor brevis are to be opened
a little distance behind the base of the fifth metatarsal bone because the external
plantar artery becomes somewhat superficial at its inner side.
DEFORMITIES OF THE FOOT.
The common deformities of the foot are those in which the parts affected are
deformed or turned to an abnormal degree in the direction of their normal move-
ments. Thus in talipes varus the foot is turned inward, hyperadducted; talipes
valgus and flat-foot, turned out, hyperabducted ; talipes eqiiinus ox hyperextended,
talipes calcanetis or hyperflexed, and talipes earns or increase of the arch of the foot.
These deformities may be either congenital or acquired, and it is not always
easy to separate the two. A deformity may be thought by the parents to have
existed from birth, when it may have been caused by an infantile paralysis occurring
before the period of walking.
Foot deformities likewise possess two characteristics which are marked, they
are those of paralysis or weakness and contraction or strength. They are usually
associated but sometimes separate.
There can be a paralysis without con-
traction, but inasmuch as the mus-
cular system is built on the principle
of balance it is obvious that if one
muscle or set of muscles is paralyzed
it is only a question of time until the
opposing muscles become contracted.
In a similar manner if contraction
exists as the most prominent element
and perhaps, the primary one, it will
usually be found that the opposing
muscles and ligaments are stretched
and weakened.
These conditions furnish the indi-
cations for treatment. Where weak-
ness is the predominant feature then
support is to be given and contraction
of the relaxed tissue favored. Where
strength and contraction is predominant then operations and forcible measures are
necessary to overcome them. Also, when in a contracted case the contracted tissues
have been overcome, there still remains the weakness of the opposing tissues to be
remedied. It may be possible to bring the foot to a perfectly normal position, but
until the previously weakened and overstretched tissues have regained their tone
normal function will not be possible.
While the deformities may be simple they are usually compound ; thus an
equinus may be associated with a varus or valgus, and is then called an equino-
varus or equinovalgus. Cavus or hollow-foot and calcaneous or lowering of the heel
are often associated, so that it is difficult to draw a line separating them.
Talipes Varus. — Talipes varus in its most common form is congenital and is
often associated with equinus or a drawing up of the heel. The prevailing deformity
is one of adduction, with a certain amount of inward rotation (Fig. 595). The mus-
cles favoring it are the tibialis anterior and tibialis posterior ; therefore the tendons
of these muscles are sometimes cut to prevent their drawing the foot upward and
Pifi- 595- — Talipes equinovarus.
THE FOOT. 577
inward. Division of the plantar fascia is also often necessary. The main principles
of treatment are to stretch the contracted tissues forcibly, either by manual or instru-
mental force, and then maintain the foot in its corrected position, often at first by
plaster of Paris and later by apparatus, until the weakened opposing muscles have
resumed their functions. This often takes so long that transplanting of tendons has
been resorted to; thus the tendon of the tibialis anterior has been detached from its
insertion on the inner side of the foot and transplanted to the outer side, so that the
contracting force on the inner side of the foot is weakened, while the correcting force
of the abducting muscles has been increased.
If equinus is present either tenotomy of the tendo calcaneus ( Achillis) or forcible
stretching of it allows the heel to descend.
Talipes Valgus. — In talipes valgus the foot is abducted or everted. It is
sometimes associated with equinus and sometimes with calcaneus. It is more usually
an acquired than a congenital deformity. It is a deformity that has weakness as its
primary cause and most marked characteristic. This weakness is either a more or
less general one affecting the ligaments and muscles, as shown by its occurring in
adolescents, or else primarily a muscular one caused by spinal infantile paralysis
(anterior poliomyelitis) (Fig. 596).
From what has been said of the normal movements of the joints (page 569 and
ante) it is evident that a weakness of either the muscles or ligaments shows itself first
Fig. 596. — Paralytic talipes valgus. Fig. 597. — Flat-foot.
by an eversion of the foot called the pronatcd foot which is followed by a descent of
the tarsal arch or flat-foot and later by a more complete eversion or pes valgus.
They are the three stages of the same process.
When a young person with apparently normal feet is subjected to excessive
strain, as by long standing, etc., the muscles and ligaments are unable to bear the
burden. The muscles give way first and the foot everts, mainly at the subastragaloid
joint, thus is produced the pronated foot. The patient, unable to support the body
weight sufficiently on the weakened muscles, relaxes them and allows the body
weight to be borne on the ligaments. This excess of weight on the ligaments sup-
porting the arch causes them to give way and the arch descends and flat-foot results.
The process often stops here in the adolescent form or even if rheumatism is the
weakening element (Fig. 597).
When paralysis — usually of the extensors and tibialis posterior — is the cause,
then the ligaments not being so much affected may maintain the arch intact, but the
whole foot is drawn outward by the peroneal and flexor muscles, aided also by the
centre of gravity being shifted inward. The deformity is increased by walking and
a true valgus results.
In the pronated foot and flat-foot of adolescents pain is often marked so that the
relaxation of the inverting muscles is often accompanied by spasm of the everting
muscles and the peronei muscles are frequently found markedly contracted. In
paralytic valgus the eversion of the foot relaxes the peronei and they gradually
shorten. It should be noted that the contraction of the peroneal muscles in one case
is active, in the other passive.
37
578
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Treatment. — In painful pronated and flat feet the contracted muscles can be
relaxed by perfect rest in bed. Next the arch can be supported by pads or plates
beneath the instep and the weakened muscles strengthened by massage, electricity,
or appropriate exercises while the exciting cause of overwork is removed. In para-
lytic valgus, the foot may be brought straight by forcible stretching and held there
by appropriate apparatus; or an artificial ankylosis (arthrodesis) of the subastragaloid
598. — Talipes equinus.
and ankle-joints may be made to hold the foot in position; or the peroneal or othei
tendons, on the outer side of the foot, may be transplanted to the inner.
Talipes Equinus. — This sometimes exists as a pure form but it often accom-
panies varus and sometimes valgus. It is caused by a paralysis of the extensor
muscles. The tendo calcaneus is contracted and the patient walks on the toes. By
division or lengthening of the tendo calcaneus and forcible flexion of the foot the
Fig. S99. — Talipes calcaneus.
Fig. 600. — Talipes cavus.
heel* may be brought down but the foot will " flop" in a more or less flail-like con-
dition from the leg. To remedy this either an apparatus is employed or some-
times the peroneal muscles or some of the flexor tendons are brought forward and
the effort made to have them fulfil the function of the paralyzed extensors, which
latter may also be shortened (Fig. 598).
Talipes Calcaneus and Talipes Cavus. — These result from paralysis of the
muscles of the calf or of most of the flexor and extensor muscles (Figs. 599 and 600 "i
THE FOOT.
579
If the calf muscles are paralyzed the contraction of the tibialis anterior and tib-
ialis posterior pull up the arch and the contraction of the flexor brevis digitorum
pulls the pillars closer together, therefore the
heel descends, the arch ascends, and the plantar
ligaments contract. If the extensor muscles are
also paralyzed the toes drop and the anterior de- j
formity is increased.
The treatment of this condition is as yet
not entirely settled. The plantar fascia must
be divided and the pillars of the arch separated
and the arch depressed by forcible manual or
instrumental means. To retain the foot in its
corrected position the tendo calcaneus is some-
times shortened. Jones makes an arthrodesis
(ankylosis) of the midtarsal and ankle-joints ;
Whitman excises the astragalus, pushes the foot
back, and transplants the peroneal and posterior
tibial tendons into the os calcis. The writer
makes a transverse section through the sub-
astragaloid joint, pushes the foot back, and if
necessary transplants the peroneal and poste-
rior tibial tendons into the os calcis.
Hallux valgus is a subluxation of the big
toe outward. There is usually a deformity of
the bone, the joint surface of the head of the
first metatarsal being inclined obliquely out. As
the toe becomes displaced outward the extensor
hallucis longus by its contraction tends to in-
crease the deformity. On the side of the head /
of the protruding metatarsal bone a bursa de-
velops and becomes painful, forming a bunion.
This bursa sometimes suppurates (Fig. 6oi).
In some cases hallux valgus is due ap-
parently to ill-shaped shoes, but in many cases,
and these the worst, a rheumatic-gouty condition
is the main factor. In treatment the articular
surface of the head of the first metatarsal bone is
first resected. If desired a fascial flap can be in-
terposed. This enables the toe to be brought
straight. To keep it straight the tendon of the extensor hallucis is displaced inward
and sewed in position with catgut, so that by its contraction it keeps the toe from
again going outward.
THE TOES.
The toes are shorter than the fingers and are not so often injured. When
injured or diseased healing may be delayed by the constant motion to which they
are subjected. For this reason rest should be enforced in obstinate cases by the
application of bandages or splints.
Ingrown Nail. — This usually affects the big toe. It is caused commonly by
the irritation and pressure of badly-shaped shoes. To cure it the side of the nail
is sometimes removed. In so doing the nail should be removed well beyond the
skin margin at the matrix otherwise it is reproduced in a distorted form. It requires
several months for a new nail to grow out from the matrix. Packing cotton soaked
in a solution of nitrate of silver, lo grains to the ounce, beneath the edge of the nail
destroys the infection, lessens the pressure, and usually relieves the acute trouble in a
few days.
Hammer Toe. — This is a contraction of one of the toes, most often the second.
The deformity is usually consecutive to the use of badly fitting shoes. Walsham
(" Deformities of the Human Foot"), Shattock, and Anderson believe it to depend
Fig. 6oi.-
Hallux valgus, showing the position
of the bones.
58o
APPLIED ANATOMY.
on a contraction of the plantar fibres of the lateral ligaments and glenoid ligament on
the under side of the joint. Others hold it to be a contraction of the tendons. In
treatment both conditions ha\e to be considered. On pulling the toes the extensor
tendon is put on the stretch, it should be divided, the remaining contractures are
then either cut or broken by forcible stretching and the toe kept straight by band-
FiG. 602. — Hammer-toe. (From author's sketch.)
aging until all tendency to contraction has been corrected. As a last resort resection
of the joint is performed (Fig. 602).
Luxation of the Toes. — The big toe may become dislocated by direct vio-
lence; the lesion is often compound. The displacement is most often backward on
the dorsum of the metatarsal bone. When the injury is not compound the same dif-
ficulty may be experienced in reducing it as occurs in dislocation of the thumb. The
cause is the same. The head of the metatarsal bone becomes caught in the fibrous
tissues of the capsule and between the two
heads of the flexor brevis hallucis muscle.
These each contain a sesamoid bone. The
detachment of one of these heads from the
base of the first phalanx may be necessary
before replacement can be effected.
Dislocation of the other individual toes
is not nearly so rare as it is thought to be.
It results from jumping from a height and
landing, perhaps on an uneven surface, with
the toes. The proximal phalanx may be
displaced upon the metatarsal bone and the
resulting pain is often considered to be merely
a sprain.
The head of the affected metatarsal bone
can be felt projecting in the sole, the toe is
shortened and the space between it and the
adjacent one usually increased; but the diag-
nosis is difficult and is best established by
means of a skiagraph. Reduction is difficult
and even when accomplished is not apt to re-
main (Fig. 603). Resection may be required.
Metatarsalgia or Morton's Disease.
— This is a painful affection of one of the meta-
tarsophalangeal joints, usually the fourth. Its
pathology is not settled, but treatment is based
on the supposition that the heads of the metatarsal bones become pressed together,
usually by tight shoes. Relief is often afforded by separating the toes with cotton;
by winding adhesive plaster — several thicknesses — around the affected toe; by sup-
porting the arch by pads or plates; by inserting a narrow longitudinal pad; or by
resection or amputation.
Resection of the Metatarsophalangeal Joint. — In hallux valgus resection
of the head of the metatarsal bone may give rise to a stiff joint. If the ankylosis is
in a somewhat extended position, walking may not be impaired.
Fio. 603. — Dorsal luxation of the proximal
phalanx of the second toe. Notice the shorten-
ing of the toe, its separation from the third toe.
and the fulness over the head of the metatarsal
bone. (From a sketch by the author.)
THE FOOT.
S8i
Excision of these joints may, and often does, give rise to a flail-like condition.
The affected toe is deprived of its support and becomes displaced. Sometimes it
gets beneath the adjoining toes and pain is caused by their superincumbent pressure.
In other cases the toe is squeezed up above the level of the adjoining ones and is
rubbed by the shoe above, causing painful corns. In either case the toe affected is a
source of misery and not infrequently may require to be amputated. For these
reasons excisions are seldom resorted to except in cases of hallux valgus.
Amputation of the Toes. — Amputation of the phalanges does not cause serious
disability, but the loss of the head of the first metatarsal bone seriously weakens the foot.
Fig.
604. — Amputation of a toe at the metatarsophalangeal joint, with lateral flaps, showing method of
disarticulating.
Amputation of the outer four toes at the metatarsophalangeal joint is a diffi-
cult operation because, unless one is well informed, it will be hard to strike the joint.
It should be sought about i cm. (| in.) behind the web on the dorsal aspect, and
if approached on the plantar aspect especial care is to be exercised not to go too
far back and search for it on the neck of the metatarsal bone (Fig. 604). As in the
hand so also in the foot when the proximal phalanx is bent the prominence (or
knuckle) is formed by the head of the proximal (metatarsal) bone.
FROZEN SECTIONS.
I
FROZEN SECTIONS.
585
Frontal sinus
Pituitary body
Sphenoidal sinus
Uvula
Pharynx
Hyoid bone
Thyroid cartilage
Cricoid cartilage
Trachea
Thyroid gland
Left innominate vein
Angle of sternum
Aorta
Right ventricle
Diaphragm
Xiphosternal articulation
Ensiform cartilage
Liver
Transverse colon-
Stomach
Umbilicus-
Bladder
Symphysis pubis
Prostate gland
'Longitudinal sinus
-Lateral ventricle
Corpus callosum
Foramen of Monro
Third ventricle
Fourth ventricle
Atlas
Axis
Seventh cervical vertebra
CEsophagus
Second thoracic vertebra
Fifth thoracic vertebra
Right bronchus
Pulmonary artery
-Left auricle (atrium)
Cardiac end of oesophagus
Spigelian lobe of liver
Pancreas
First lumbar vertebra
Third portion of duodenum
Promontory of sacrum
Rectum
Tip of coccyx
Fig. 60s. — Median sagittal section.
586
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Trapezius
Supraspinatus
Clavicle
Subclavian artery
Subclavian vein
First rib
Gastrosplenic omentum
Spleen
Pancreas
Eleventh rib
Kidney
Quadratus lumborum
Gluteus medius,
Gluteal vessels.
Gluteus maximus.
Stomach
Fifth rib
~;t Transverse mesocolon
\"V^ — -Sixth rib
1, ~~ Transverse colon
"- Seventh rib
Iliacus
Head of femur
^i^'i''''
Fig. 606. — Sagittal section through about the middle of the left clavicle.
FROZEN SECTIONS.
587
Cerebral vein
Longitudinal sinus
Medial surface of
cerebral hemisphere
Septum lucidum
Rostrum
Frontal sinus
Anterior commissure
Middle commissure
Optic chiasm
Pituitary body
Sphenoidal sinus
Basilar artery
Pharyngeal tonsil
Uvula
Atlas
Odontoid process
of axis
Hyoid bone
Epiglottis
Thyroid cartilage
Cricoid cartilage
Pacchionian bodies
Choroid plexus
Foramen of Monro
Thalamus
Splenium
I Pineal body
V^ein of Galen
Post, commissure
Corpora
quadrigemina
Aqueduct of Sylvius
Straight sinus
Mammillary body
Cerebral peduncle
Torcular herophili
Fourth ventricle
Occipital
protuberance
Third cervical
vertebra
Fourth cervical
vertebra
Fifth cervical
vertebra
Sixth cervical
vertebra
Fig. 607. — Median sagittal section of the head and neck.
588
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Anterior jug-
ular vein
Thyroid
cartilage
Thyroid gland
Internal
jugular vein
Common
carotid artery
Vagus nerve
External
jugular vein
Vertebral
artery and vein
Sternohyoid
Sternomastoid
Sternothyroid
Thyrohyoid
Crico-arytenoid
Omohyoid
Inferior
constrictor
CEsophagus
Scalenus anticus
Scalenus medius
Scalenus posticus
Trachelomastoid
Levator scapulae
Trapezius
Complexus
Splenius
Semispinalis and
multifidus
Fig. 608. — Transverse section through the intervertebral cartilage between the fifth and sixth cer\'ical vertebrae.
FROZEN SECTIONS.
589
Thyroid gland
Internal jugular vein
Innominate
artery
Clavicle
m -
Coracoid process -&^.
Subclavian ^ff "^
artery and vein
Subclavian vein
Coracoid
process
Subclavian
artery
Pulmonary vein
Left lung
Left ventricle
Tenth rib
First lumbar
vertebra
Colon
Second lumbar
vertebra
Third lumbar
vertebra
Pancreas
Suprarenal gland
Ureter
Renal artery
Renal vein
Psoas muscle
Fourth lumbar vertebra
Fig. 609. — Coronal section through the thorax-
590
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Trapezius
Supraspinatus
Spine of scapula
Deltoid
Infraspinatus.
Teres minor.
Teres major-
Latissimus dorsi
Clavicle
Coracoid process •
Deltoid
Head of humerus
Cephalic vein
Pectoralis major
Coracobrachialis and
short head of triceps
Circumflex (axillary) nerve
Posterior circumflex artery
Axillary vein
Cords of brachial plexus
Axillary artery
Fig. 6io. — Sagittal section through the left shoulder.
Brachialis anticus
Humerus
Musculospiral (radial) nerve
Profunda artery
Triceps
Biceps
Brachial artery
Median nerve
Internal cutaneous nerve
Basilic vein
Ulnar nerve
4
Fig. 6ii. — Transverse section through the middle of the arm.
FROZEN SECTIONS.
591
Brachialis anticus
Musculospiral (radial) nerve
Profunda artery
Plumerus
Triceps •
•*►-
Biceps
Brachial artery
Median nerve
IJasilic vein
-Ulnar nerve
Fig. 612. — Transverse section through the lower third of the ;
Median cephalic vei:
Biceps
Brachioradialis
Extensor carpi radialis longio
Musculospiral (radial) nerve
Humerus; outer condyle
Anconeu
Median basilic vein
Brachial artery
Pronator radii teres
Median nerve
Brachialis anticus
Flexor carpi ulnaris and
other flexors
Olecranon process
Fig. 613. — Transverse section through the olecranon process.
Median basilic vein
Radial artery
Brachioradialis
Ulnar artery
Biceps
Extensor carpi radialis longior
Head of radius
Supinator (brevis)
Extensor carpi ulnaris and
extensor communis digitorum
Pronator radii teres
Median nerve
■Flexor carpi radialis
Flexor sublimis digitorum
Brachialis anticus
Ulnar nerve
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Ulna
Anconeus
Fig. 614. — Transverse section through the head of the radius.
592
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Flexor carpi radialis
Radial artery
Radial nerve
Brachioradialis
Extensor carpi radialis longior
Pronator radii teres
Extensor carpi radialis brevior
Radius
Extensor communis digitorum
Supinator (brevis)
Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis
Palmaris longus
Flexor sublimis digitorum
Median nerve
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Ulnar nerve
Ulnar artery
Flexor profundus digitorum
Anterior interosseous
nerve and artery
Ulna
Anconeus
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Fig. 6 is. — Transverse section through the upper third of the forearm.
itJlnar artery
Palmaris longus.
Flexor sublimis digitorum
Median nerve
Flexor carpi radialis
Brachioradialis
Radial nerve
Radial artery
Extensor carpi radialis longior
Extensor carpi radialis brevior-
Radius
Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis
Extensor communis digitorum
Ul
nar nerve
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexor profundus digitorum
Ulna
Extensor longus pollicis
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Extensor minimi digiti
Fig. 6i6. — Transverse section about the middle of the forearm.
Palmaris longus
Flexor sublimis digitorum
Flexor carpi radialis'
Radial artery
Brachioradialis
Radial nerve
Extensor carpi radialis longior
Extensor carpi radialis brevior
Radius
Extensor ossis metacarpi
pollicis and extensor brevis pollicis
Extensor longus pollicis
Median nerve
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Ulnar artery and nerve
Flexor profundus digitorum
Pronator quadratus
Ulna
Extensor indicis
Extensor carpi ulnaris
Extensor minimi digiti
Extensor communis digitorum
Fig. 617. — Transverse section of upper part of lower third of forearm,
FROZEN SECTIONS.
593
Plexor sublimis digitorum
Palmaris longus
Median nerve
Flexor carpi radialis
Superficial volar artery
Radial artery
Extensor ossis netacarpi
pollicis and extensor
brevis pollicis
Styloid process, radius
Extensor carpi
radialis longior
Extensor carpi
radialis brevior
Extensor longus pollicis —
Extensor communis digitorum
Fig. 6i8. — ^Transverse section through the wrist-joint.
ylJlnar artery
Ulnar nerve
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexor profundus
"digitorum
Semilunar
Scaphoid
.Extensor carpi ulnaris
Extensor minimi digiti
Transversalis
Internal
'oblique
Fig. 619. — Horizontal transverse section through the body of the fourth lumbar vertebra.
Psoas muscle
Spinal cord
Highest part of
iliac crest
Quadratus
lumborum
Erector spins
(sacrolumbalis)
38
594
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Femoral artery
Femoral vein
Anterior crural nerve
Sartorius
Iliacus
Rectus femoris
Tensor fasciie femoris
Gluteus minimus
Gluteus medius
\(lductor longus
Lymph-node and fat
Gracilis
Adductor brevis
Pectineus
Obturator externus
I schiocavernosu*
Obturator intemus
Gluteus maximus
Sciatic artery
Small sciatic nerve
^Sciatic nerve
Fio. 620. — Oblique section of the upper part cf thigh parallel to and just below Poupart's liijament.
Internal or long saphenous vein
Femoral artery.
Profunda vessels
Rectus
Deep external
circumflex art.
Vastus intemus
Crureus.
Vastus externus.
Femur,
Sciatic artery
Gracilis
Adductor longus
Adductor brevis
Femoral vein
Adductor magnus
\ , ^Semimembranosus
4-Semitendinosus
Biceps
Sciatic nerve
Gluteus n-.aximus
Fig. 621. — Transverse section of thigh high up through Scarpa's triangle.
FROZEN SECTIONS.
595
Sartorius
Anterior ci-ural nerve
Rectus
Vastus internus
Femur
Crureus
Vastus externus
Internal or long
saphenous vein
Femoral artery
Gracilis
Adductor longus
Adductor magnus
Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus
Sciatic nerve
Biceps
Sartorius
Vastus internus
Femoral artery
Femoral vein
Fig. 622. — Section of thigh about at the apex of Scarpa's triangle.
Internal or long saphenous vein
Vastus externus
Gracilis
Adductor longus
Adductor magnus
Semimembranosus
— I— Semitendinosus
'f — Sciatic nerve
Biceps
Fig. 623. — Section of thigh about the middle. '
Vastus internus
and crureus
Rectus femoris
Femur
Vastus externus
Crureus
Internal or long
saphenous vein
Sartorius
Gracilis
Femoral artery
Femoral vein
Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus
Sciatic nerve
Long head of biceps
Short head of biceps
Adductor magnus
Fig. 624. — Section of thigh through its lower third.
596
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Patella
Knee-joint cavity
Knee-joint
Inner head of
gastrocnemius
Sartorius
Internal or long
saphenous vein
Gracilis
Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus
Bursa
\ — Femur
Internal popliteal (tibial) nerve
Fig. 625. — Transverse section through the patella.
Outer head of
gastrocnemius
Popliteal artery
Popliteal vein
Biceps
External popliteal
(fibular) nerve
Tibia
Tibialis posterior.
Long or internal
saphenous vein
Extensor longus digitorum
Posterior tibial artery
Posterior tibial nerve
Peroneal artery
Gastrocnemius
Tibialis anterior
Extensor longus digitorum
Peroneus longus
Anterior tibial artery
Anterior tibial nerve
Fibula
Soleus
Plantaris
Fig. 626. — Section through upper third of leg.
FROZEN SECTIONS.
597
Tibia
Flexor longus digitorum
Internal saphenous vein
Posterior tibial artery
Posterior tibial nerve
Plantaris
Gastrocnemius
Tibialis anterior
Anterior tibial nerve
Extensor longus digitorum
Anterior tibial artery
Peroneus longus and brevis
Extensor longus hallucis
Tibialis posterior
Fibula
Peroneal artery
Flexor longus hallucis
Soleus
Fig. 627. — Transverse section through the middle of the leg.
Tibialis anterior
Anterior tibial artery
Tibia
Tibialis posterior
Flexor longus digitorum
Posterior tibial artery
Posterior tibial nerve
Flexor longus hallucis
Extensor Jongus hallucis
Extensor longus digitorum
Peroneal artery
Fibula
Peroneus longus
Peroneus brevis
Tendo calcaneus (Achillis)
and gastrocnemius
Fig. 628. — Transverse section through the lower third of the leg.
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Posterior tibial nervc'
Posterior tibial veins.
Posterior tibial artery
Flexor longus digitorum
Tibialis posterior
Tibia
Extensor longus hallucis
Tibialis anterior
Tendo Achillis
External or short
saphenous vein
Flexor longus hallucis
Peroneus brevis
Peroneus longus
Fibula
Extensor longtis
digitorum
Fig. 629. — Transverse section through the anklo
FROZEN SECTIONS.
599
Gastrocnemius
Soleus
■Tibialis posterior
Flexor longus hallucis
Tendon of flexor longus hallucis
Sustentaculum tali
Os calcis
Flexor accessorius
External plantar artery
Flexor brevis digitorum
External plantar nerve
Flexor longus digitorum
Internal plantar nerve
Flexor brevis hallucis
Fig. 630. — Anteroposterior section through the tibia and first metatarsal bone.
6oo
APPLIED ANATOMY.
Extensor longus digitorum
Anterior tibial
Peroneus longus
Peroneus brevis
Extensor longus hallucis
Tibialis posterior-
Astragalus
Flexor longus digitorum
Flexor longus hallucis
Abductor hallucis
Accessorius-
Flexor brevis digitorum
-Os calcis
-Abductor minimi digiti
INDEX.
Abdomen, 370
abdominal incisions, 381
abdominal ring, external, 377, 385
internal, 386
fascia of, superficial, 374
transversalis, 399
herniae of (see Hernia)
Hesselbach's triangle, 387
inguinal canal, 385
interior of, 396
lines of, 371
linea alba, 371
linese albicantes, 372
linese semilunares, 372
lineae transversae, 372
lumbar region of (see Lumbar)
incisions, 395
longitudinal, 395
oblique, 396
McBurney's point, 374
muscles of, 375
nerves of, 380
regions of, 370
surface anatomy of, 370
vessels of, 374
viscera of, 399
position of, 372, 399
walls of, 374
lymphatics of, 380
nerves of, 380
vessels of, 378
arteries, 378
veins, 380
Abdominal ring, external, 377, 385
external pillar of, 377, 385
intercolumnar fibres of, 377, 386
internal pillar of, 377, 385
internal, 386
Abdominoscrotal opening, 375
Abducens nerve, injury to, in fractures of skull, 20
Abscess of axilla, 264
incision for, 264
Bezold'b, 90
of breast, 185
cerebellar, 13
cerebral, 44
of fingers, 366
of hand, 365
beneath palmar fascia, 365
involving the fingers, 366
involving sheaths of tendons, 366
of hip, 516
ischiorectal, 476
of kidney, 428
points of pointing of, 428
of liver, 420
lumbar, 394
of neck, 153
influence of cervical fascia on, 154
of orbit, 75
palmar, 365
of pancreas, 423
evacuation of, 423
of parotid gland, 53
incisions for, 54
Abscess, peritonsillar, 114
plantar, 575
deep, 5 75
incision for, 575
superficial, 575
in posterior cervical triangle, 156
of prostate, 451
psoas, 481
retropharyngeal, 90. 116, 156
of scalp, 5
subaponeurotic, 6
subcutaneous, 5
subpericranial, 6
subdiaphragmatic, 420, 423
subdural, 90
submammary, 185
in tendon sheaths of hand, 366
of testicle, 469
Acetabulum, 501
Achilles' tendon, 551
action in fractures of tibia, 551
tenotomy of,
in fractures of the tibia, 552.
in Pott's fracture, 558
Acromioclavicular joint, 222
ligament, 222
Adenoids, 122
removal of, 122
Aditus, 88
Air-passages, operations on, 161
Alcock's canal, 474, 476
Allantois, 371,
stalk of, 38"2
Allis:
method of reduction of dislocation of hip, 512
method of releasing sciatic nerve, 514
Ampulla of Vater, 407
stone in, 422
Amputation
of ankle, 559
Pirogoff's, 560
Syme's, 559
of arm, 275
at elbow, 302
of fingers, 369
metacarpophalangeal, 369
of foot, 574
midtarsal (Chopart's), 574
tarsometatarsal (Lisfranc's), 575
of forearm, 326
through lower third, 327
through middle third, 327
through upper third, 327
at hip- joint, 532
interscapulothoracic, 250
at knee-joint, 544
of leg, 552
of penis, 466
of shoulder- joint,
flap method, 247
Dupuytren's, 247
Lisfranc's, 248
racket method, 248
Larrey's, 248
Spence's, 249
601
6o2
INDEX.
Amputation of thigh, 532
of thumb, 368
carpometacarpal, 369
metacarpophalangeal, 369
of toes, 581
at wrist, 347
Anal canal (see Intestine, large)
fissures, 443
triangle (see Male perineum)
Anconeus muscle, 286
Anderson and Makin, method of locating fissures
of brain, 42
Aneurism of aorta,
arch, 210
ascending, 208
descending, 210
arteriovenous, 7
cirsoid, of scalp, 7
Aneurismal varix, 7
Angioma of ear, 85
of lips, 104
Angle, cardiohepatic, 205
of Ludwig, 180
Ankle, 553
amputation of, 559
Pirogoff's, 560
Syme's, 559
ankle-joint, 554
distention of, 555
ligaments of, 554
movements of, 554
dislocations of, 556
treatment, 557
excision of, 555
fractures of, 557
Pott's fracture by aversion, 557
by inversion, 558
sprain of, 556
treatment, 556
surface anatomy of, 553
tuberculosis of, 555
Annular ligament,
of wrist, anterior, 335
posterior, 336
Anterior poliomyelitis, 487
Antrum, mastoid, 90
operations, 91
of Highmore (see Maxillary sinus)
Anus (see Intestine, large)
Aorta, 208
arch of, 208
aneurism of, 210
ductus arteriosus, 209
ascending, 208 ; aneurism of, 208
bifurcation of, 374
descending, 210; aneurism of, 210
Aponeurosis, occipital, 2, 48
pharyngeal, 116
Apoplexy, 30, 31
cortical, 32
Appendicitis, 414
operation for, 414
Appendicular artery, 412
Appendix vermiformis (see Intestine, large)
Arachnoid, 21
Aran's law for fractures of the skull, 15
Arch: of aorta, 208
femorosacral, 490
of foot, 561, 563
external, 563
internal, 563
lateral or transverse, 563
ligaments of, 566
Arch of foot, muscles supporting, 568
ischiosacral, 491
palmar, deep, 359
superficial, 358
plantar, 572
Arm, 266
amputation of, 275
brachial artery, 272
humerus, 267
fractures of, 276
intermuscular septa of, 271
muscles of, 267
operations on, 279
surface anatomy of, 271
Arterial varix, 7
Arteriovenous aneurism, 7
Artery or arteries,
acromiothoracic, 258
alarthoracic, 260
alveolar, inf., 50
anastomotica. magna, 274
anterolateral perforating, 28
aorta, 208
appendicular, 412
arteria centralis retinae, 80
artery to bulb, 475
auricular, deep, 50
posterior, 3, 135
axillary, 257
basilar, 25
brachial, 272, 290
buccal, 50
carotid, common, 141
external, 144
internal, 25, 27, 143
carpal, anterior, 316
cerebral, anterior, 25, 27
middle, 28
posterior, 25, 28
choroid, anterior, 28
circle of Willis, 25
circumflex, anterior, 261
external, 523
internal, 523
posterior, 261
superficial external, 523
coeliac axis, position of, 374
colic, 412
communicating, anterior, 25
posterior, 25
coronary, inferior, of facial, lot^
superior, of facial, 104
of stomach, 403
of corpus cavemosum, 475
cystic, 421
deferential, 469
dental, 50
posterior, 50, 58
dorsal, of penis, 475
dorsalis indicis, 360
linguae, no
pedis, 572
scapulae, 261
epigastric, deep, 379
superficial, 523
superior, 181, 379
wounds of, 379
ethmoidal, anterior, 98
posterior, 98
facial, 50, 134
femoral, 523
frontal, 3
gastric, 403
INDEX.
603
Artery, gastroduodenal, 403
gastro-epiploic, dextra, 403
gluteal, 505
ligation of, 505
hemorrhoidal, inferior, 440, 476
middle, 440, 476
superior, 440
hepatic, 403, 421
hyoid, no
hypogastric, obliterated, 307, 371, 382
ileal, 412
ileocaecal, anterior, 412
posterior, 412
ileocolic, 412
iliac, 436
iliac, deep circumflex, 379
wounds of, in operating on the ap-
pendix, 3S0
line of, 374
infra-orbital, 50, 58
intercostal, 176
anterior, 176
posterior, 177
superior, 147
labial, inferior, 104
lachrymal, 3
lenticulostriate, 28
lingual, iio, 134. 145
mammary, internal, 147, 181
masseteric, 50
maxillary, internal, 50, 58
meningeal, middle, 17, 21, 50
small, 50
musculophrenic, 181
nasopalatine, 50, 58, 98
occipital, 3, 4, 134
ophthalmic, 3, 81
ovarian, 458
palatine, ascending, 98
descending, 50, 58, 98, 114
palmar arch, deep, 359
superficial, 358
pancreatico-duodenal, superior, 403
perforating, of profunda femoris, 5 23
perineal, superficial, 476
transverse, 474, 476
peroneal, 550
ligation of, 550
pharyngeal, ascending, 114. i34
plantar, external, 572
internal, 572
ligation of, 573
popliteal, 544
posterolateral, 29
posteromedian, 28
princeps poUicis, 360
profunda, femoris, 522
inferior, 274
(superior), 274
pterygoid, 50
pterygopalatine, 50, 58, 98
pudic, deep external, 523
internal, 440, 474, 476
superficial external, 523
pyloric, 403
radial, 316, 359
carpal, 316
recurrent, 316
radialis indicis, 360
ranine, no
renal, 426
sacral, middle, 441
sciatic, 505
Artery, septal, 98, 104
spermatic, 385, 469
sphenopalatine, 50, 38, 98
spinal, anterior, 485
posterior, 485
splenic, 403
subclavian, 139, 147
sublingual, no
subscapular, 260
superficial volar, 316
superior ulnar collateral, 274
supra-orbital, 3
suprascapular, 139
temporal, 3, 48, 52
deep anterior, 50
posterior, 50
thoracic, long, 260
superior, 258
thyroid axis, 147
thyroidea ima, 165
thyroid, inferior, 149, 165
superior, 134
tibial, anterior, 548
posterior, 549
tonsillar, of dorsalis linguae, 1 14
of facial, 114
transverse cervical, 139
tympanic, 50
ulnar, 314, 358
collateral, inferior, 274
superior, 274
recurrent, anterior, 315
posterior, 315
umbilical, 371, 382
uterine, 458
vasa brevia, 403
of the vas deferens, 385
vertebral, 25, 147
vesicle, superior, 371
Vidian, 50, 58, 98
Arthritic muscular atrophy, 488
Articulations (see Joints)
Arytenoid cartilages, 129
Ascites, 420
Asterion, 39
Attic of middle ear, 88
tegmen of, 89
perforation of, by pus, 89
Auditory area of brain, 37
nerve, 20
injury to, in fractures of skull, 20
Auriculotemporal branch of fifth nerve, 3, 52
Axilla, 229, 256
abscess of, 264
incision for, 264
axillary fascia, 256
lymphatics of, 263
nerves of, 265
tumors of, 265
vessels of, 257
Axillary artery, 257
collateral circulation after ligation of, 262
first portion, 258
ligation of, 259
second portion, 260
third portion, 260
ligation of, 262
Axillary nerve, 265
Back, 477
surface anatomy of, 477
Balance, 494
disturbance of, 494
6o4
INDEX.
Balance, methods of restoring, 494
Bartholin, duct of, 108
Basal ganglia of brain, 37
functions of, 37
Bassini's operation for hernia, 387
Battle's abdominal incision, 382
Biceps muscle, 269, 285, 310
tendon of, 255
. dislocation of, 269
rupture of, 270
Bicipital fascia, 285
groove, 221, 267
tubercle, 285
Bigelow, Y ligament of, 507
Bladder, 444
attachments of, 445
base of, 446
cystoscopic examination, 448
extrophy of, 454
in female, 447 ; calculi in, 447
vesico- vaginal fistulse of, 447
hypertrophy of, 447
interureteric ligament of, 446
ligaments of, 445
operations on, 448
peritoneum of, 445
plicae uretericae or ureteric folds, 446
position of, 374, 444
of internal urethral orifice, 447
postprostatic pouch or bas-fond, 446
rectovesical pouch, 446
ribbed, 447
rupture of, 446
sacculated, 447
shape of, 445
tapping of. 446, 448
Trendelenburg position in operation on, 446
trigone of, 446
tumors of, 448
walls of, 446
Bloodgbod's operation for hernia, 389
Boeckman's operation on the hip, 518
Bone or bones:
astragalus, or talus, 562
of base of skull, 8
carpal, 348
of chest, 171
clavicle, 219
coccyx, 432, 434
of cranium, 8
cuboid, 562
cuneiform, of tarsus, 562
external, 562
internal, 562
middle, 562
of wrist, 332, 349
of elbow, 280
ethmoid, 8
of face, 8, 44
femur, 502
fibula, 534, 571
external malleolus of, 571
fracture of, 551
frontal, 8
external angular process of, 40
internal angular process of, 46
of hand, 349
carpal bones, 349
metacarpal bones, 350
phalanges, 351
humerus, 221, 267, 280
ilium, 499
ala of, 500
Bones: ilium, anterior superior spine of, 500, go.4.
crest of, 499, 504
posterior superior spine of, 500, 504
innominate, 432, 434, 499
planes of, 502
ischium, 434, 500
tuberosity of, 500
bursa covering, 506
lachrymal, 8, 44
malar, 8, 44, 49
fracture of, 49
maxilla, inferior, 8, 44
fracture of, 67
maxilla, superior, 8, 44
fracture of, 54
metacarpal, 350
dislocations of, 362
metatarsal, 562
nasal, 8, 44, 94
occipital, 8
OS calcis, 562
sustentaculum of, 571
tubercles of, 571
OS magnum, 300
palate, 8, 44
parietal, 8
patella, 534, 535
phalanges of foot, 562
of hand, 351
dislocation of, on metacarpal bones,
262
fracture of, 364
pisiform, 332, 349
pubis, 434, 500
crest of, 501
iliopectineal line of, 500
ramus, descending, of, 501
horizontal, of, 501
spine of, 501
radius, 281, 304
lower end of, 331
ribs, 174
sacrum, 434
scaphoid, of foot, or navicular, 562
tubercle of, 571
of wrist, 332, 349
scapula, 219
semilunar, 332, 349
sphenoid, 8
sternum, 174
tarsal, 562
fracture of, 563
temporal, 8
tibia, 534
fracture of, 551
internal malleolus of, 573
trapezium, 350
trapezoid, 350
turbinated, inferior, 8, 44, 97, 118
hypertrophy of, 118
middle, 97, 118
superior, 97
ulna, 281, 303
lower end of, 332
unciform, 350
vomer, 8, 44
of wrist, 330
Bony landmarks of foot, 570
of skull, 39
Bovee's operation for excision of ureter, 451
Bow-legs, 543
treatment, 544
Brachial artery, 272, 290
INDEX.
605
Brachial artery, branches of, 273
ligation of, 274
collateral circulation after, 275
ligation of, at bend of elbow, 290
collateral circulation after, 291
plexus, 265
Brachialis anticus muscle, 270, 286
Brain, 25
apoplexy, 30
cortical, 32
basal ganglia, blood supply of, 28
blood supply of, in obstruction to circle of
Willis, 25 '
caudate nucleus, 30, 31
blood supply of, 28
cerebral abscess, 44
lobes, 32
cerebral localization, 34
functions of basal ganglia, 37
convolutions on surface of cerebrum,
■ 35
corona radiata, 38
crura cerebri, 38
internal capsule, 38
motor tract, 38
pons Varolii, 38
cerebral softening, 30
choroid plexus, 30
circulation of, 25
convolutions of, 33
angular gyrus, 33, 42
Broca's convolution, 33
frontal convolution, 33, 41
gyrus fomicatus, 34
marginal convolution, 34
occipital convolutions, 33, 42
parietal convolutions, 33
supramarginal gyrus, 33, 41
temporal convolutions, ^;}, 41
corpus striatum, 30, 31
cortex, blood supply of, 28
functions of, 34
craniocerebral topography, 39
bony landmarks, 39
convolutions, main, 40
subsidiary, 41
fissures in children, 42
main, 39
subsidiary, 41
lower level of brain, 40
ventricles, lateral, 43
topographical points, 40
cms cerebri, 31
decussation, motor, 31
external capsule, 31
fissures of, i^^
calcarine, 34
longitudinal, 33, 39
parietooccipital, ^;}, 40
cf Rolando, ;i3, 40
of Sylvius, 2^, 40
transverse, ^-^
foramen lacerum medium, 27
Monro, 30
fornix, pillars of, 30
hemispheres, lateral surface of, 33
medial surface of, 34
internal capsule, 31
lenticular nucleus, 31
lobes of, 32
lower level of, 40
medulla, 31
paralysis, crossed, 32
Brain, perforated space, anterior, 28
pons, 31
hemorrhage into, 32
relations of, to lateral sinus, 93
septum lucidum, 30
taenia semicircularis, 30
thalamus, 30, 31
trephining, 44
veins of Galen, 31
velum interpositum, 31
venous sinuses of, i 2
ventricles, 30
fifth ventricle, 30
lateral ventricles, 30, 43
third ventricle, 30
Breast (see Mammary gland)
Bregma, 39
Broad ligament, 455
tumors of, 462
Broca's convolution of brain, 35
functions of, 35
Brunner, glands of, 406
Bryant's triangle, 505
Buccopharyngeal fascia, 153
Bulla ethmoidalis, 100
Bunion, 579
Bums, ligament of, 390
Bursa or bursae:
covering tuberosity of ischium, 506
disease of, 506
great carpal, 366
infraspinatus, 255
of knee, 538, 539
mfrapatellar, 539
posterior bursae, 539
prepatellar, 538
inflammation of, 538
suprapatellar, 538
of olecranon, 300
disease of, 300
of shoulder, 255
subacromial, 255
subfemoral, 535
subscapular, 255
Caecal folds, 413
fossae, 413
Caecum (see Intestine, large)
Calcaneus, tendo (see Achilles')
Canal,
Alcock's, 474, 476
femoral, 390
Hunter's, 524
inguinal (see Inguinal)
lachrymal, 72, 84
of Schlemm, 79
Canaliculi, lachrymal, 84
Cancer
of breast, 185
operation for, 187
of lips, 105
treatment, 105
of oesophagus, 212
of stomach, 404
adhesion in, 405
perforation in, 405
ulceration in, 405
of tongue, 1 10
Cancrum oris, 49
Capitellum, 280
Capsule, external, 31
internal, 31
of kidney, 426
6o6
INDEX.
Capsule of parotid, submaxillary and thyroid
glands, 15,^
of prostate gland, 449
Tenon's, 74
of Tonsil, 114, 116
Caput medusae, 380
succedaneum, 5
Carcinoma (see Cancer)
Cardiohepatic angle, 205
Caries of the spine, 480
Carotid artery, common, 141
collateral circulation after ligation
of, 142
in superior carotid triangle, 133
ligation of, 141
hgation of, below omohyoid muscle,
142
external, 144
in superior carotid triangle, 133
ligation of, 144
internal, 25, 27, 143
in cavernous sinus, 14
in superior carotid triangle, 133
ligation of, 143
relations of, to pharynx, 123
relations of, to tonsil, 123
tubercle, 149
Carpal bursa, great, 366
Carpometacarpal joints,
movements of, 353
Carrying angle, 282
Cartilage or cartilages:
arytenoid, 124
cricoid, 126
of Santorini, 124
of septum, 97
tarsal, 82
thyroid, 125
fracture of, 125
of Wrisberg, 1 24
Castration, 469
Cataract, 78
operations for, 79
varieties of: capsular, 78
lamellar, 78
lenticular, 78
lenticulocapsular, 78
polar, 78
secondary, 78
senile, 78
traumatic, 78
zonular, 78
Catheter, passage of, 471
Caudate nucleus, 30, 31
blood supply of, 28
Cavernous sinus, 13
Cells, ethmoid, 73, 102
disease of, 102
mastoid, 1 1, 90
operation on, 91
Central lobe of brain, 33
Cephalhaematoma, 5
Cephalhydrocele, 7
Cerebellar abscess, 13
Cerebral abscess, 44
Cerebral lobes, 32
central, or island of Reil, 33
frontal, 37
occipital, 32
parietal, 32
temporosphenoidal, 32
localization (see Brain)
softening, 30
Cerebral venous sinuses, 1 2
cavernous sinus, 13
lateral or transverse sinus, 1 2
superior longitudinal sinus, 12
torcular Herophili, 12
Cerebritis, 23
Cerebrospinal fluid in fractures of skull, 19
meningitis, 25
Cervical adenitis, 158
operation for, 158
cysts, 169
fascias, 150
influence of, on pus in neck, 154
fistulae, 168
triangles, 131
anterior, 131
inferior carotid, 131, 137
submaxillary, 131
superior carotid, 131, 133
posterior, 137
occipital, 137
subclavian, 131, 137
Chalazion, 83
Cheek, 49
contusions of, 49
wounds of, 49
Chest, 171, 192
bones of, 171
ribs, 174
sternum, 174
costal cartilages, 174
heart, 204
lines of, 192
lungs, 196
mammary gland, 182
mediastinum, 187
muscles of, 177
cesophagus, 211
paracentesis of, 200
pericardium, 201
pleurae, 194
regions of, 192
shape of, 171
soft parts, 176
surface anatomy of, 180
vertebrae of, 176
walls of, 171
Chiene's method of finding the fissure of Rolanao
42
Choked disk, 80
Chopart's amputation, 574
Chordee, 466
Choroid coat of eye, 77
afTections of, 77
plexus, 30
Circle of Willis, 25
Circulation of the brain, 25
Circumcision, 466
Circumflex iliac artery, deep, 379
wound of, in operating on ap*
pendix, 380
nerve, 265
Cirsoid aneurism, 7
Clavicle, 219
dislocations of, 230
acromial end, 231
sternal end, 230
excision of, 250
fractures of, 241
inner third, 241
middle third, 241
outer third, 241
Clavipectoral fascia, 256
INDEX.
607
Cleft palate, iir
operation on, 112
Clitoris, 462
Cloaca, 453
Coccygodynia, 439
Coeliac axis, 403
position of, 374
Colles's fascia, 377
fracture, 342
reduction of, 343
Colon (see Intestine, large)
Colostomy, 417
inguinal, 417
Columns of Morgagni or Glisson, 440
Combined posterolateral sclerosis, 488
Common bile-duct, 421
Complemental space of Gerhardt, 194
Compound ganglion, 342
Condyle of lower jaw, 64
excision of, 71
Condyles of humerus, 280
Congenital dislocation of hips, 514
hernia, 383
hydrocele, 384
Conjoined tendon, 376
Conjunctiva, 82, 83
bulbar, 83
fornix of, 83
palpebral, 83
Conoid ligament, 222, 257
Contusions of cheek, 49
of scalp, 5
Convolutions of brain, 33
in craniocerebral topography, 40, 41, 42
Coraco-acromial ligament, 222
Coracohumeral ligament, 194
Corona radiata, 38
functions of, 38
Coronary ligament of liver, 397, 418
Coronoid fossa, 280
Corpora quadrigemina, 38
blood supply of, 29
Corpus striatum, 30, 31
functions of, 37
Costocoracoid ligament, 257
membrane, 257
Costomediastinal sinus, 194
Costophrenic sinus, 194
Cowper's gland, 471, 474
Coxalgia or coxitis, 515
abscess in, 516
attitude, 516
measurements, 516
symptoms, 515
Coxa valga, 517
vara, 517
Craniocerebral topography (see Brain)
Cranium, 8
Vjones of, 8
Cremaster muscle, 377
Crest, infratemporal, 47
Cribriform fascia, 391
Cricoid cartilage, 126
Cricothyroid membrane, 125
Cms cerebri, 31
blood supply of, 29
functions of, 38
Crutch palsy, 265
Crypts of Morgagni, 440
Cubitus varus, 297
Cuneiform bone
of carpus, 349
of tarsus, 562
Cuneus lobe of brain, 34
Cushing's operation on the Gasserian ganglion, 60
Cut throat, 168
Cyclitis, 77
Cystic duct, 421
Cystocele, 435, 464
Cystotomy, 448
Cysts of neck, 169
median, 170
of salivary glands, 108
treatment, 109
Davis: method of amputation of penis, 466
method of reduction of congenital dislocation
of hips, 515
transverse incision for appendicitis, 414
Decussation, motor, 31
Deltoid ligament of ankle, 554, 565
muscle, 268
Dental nerve, inferior, excision of, 60
Dermoid tumor of scalp, 8
Development of urogenital system, 553
Diaphragm, hiatus in, 425
relation of, to pus in kidney region, 425
Diploe of skull, 10, 15
Dislocation of ankle, 556
treatment, 557
of bases of metacarpal bones, 362
of clavicle, 230
acromial end, 231
sternal end, 230
of elbow, 291
backward, 291
treatment, 292
inward, 293
treatment, 294
outward, 294
treatment, 295
of fingers, 363
of head of radius, 294
of hip (see Hip)
of jaw, lower, 66
reduction of, 67
of knee, 541
of nose, treatment of, 96
of patella, 540
treatment of, 541
of phalanges on metacarpal bones, 362
of shoulder, 232
anterior, 232
method of production of, 233
parts injured, 233
reduction of, 236
direct method, 236
indirect method, 238
signs and symptoms of, 235
posterior, 239
of spine, 481
of toes, 580
of big toe, 580
of wrist, 345
at radio-carpal joint, 345
at radio-ulnar joint, 345
Douglas's p)ouch, 398, 454
Douglas, semilunar folds of, 376
Duct or ducts:
of Bartholin, 108
common bile-duct, 421
stone in, 422
operation for, 422
cystic, 421
stone in, 422
operation for, 422
6o8
INDEX.
Duct, ejaculatory, 471
of Gartner, 454
hepatic, 421
stone in, 422
operation for, 422
lachrymonasal, 72, 84, 99
lymphatic, right, 140
of Mtiller, 453
pancreatic, 423
para-urethral, 463
parotid, 51
calculus in, 51
of Rathke, 454
of Rivinus (see Bartholin)
of Santorini, 423
Stenson's, 51
thoracic, 140, 214
wounds of, 214
thyroglossal, 107
in fistulae of neck, 170
vitelline, 371, 382
of Walther, 108
Wharton's, 108
of Wirsung, 423
Ductus arteriosus, 209
Duodenojejunal flexure, 408
fossae, 408
Duodenum (see Intestine, small)
Dupuytren's splint in fracture of ankle, 557
Dural hemorrhage,
of brain, 23
of cord, 486
Dura mater, 20
in children, 9
Ear, 84
Eustachian catheter, 120
tube, 84, 89, 118
external, 84
affections of, 85
angioma of, 85
haematoma of, 85
meatus, external auditory, 84, 85
fissures of Santorini, 86
furuncles of, 86
nerves of, 87
wax in, 86
membrana tympani, 87
paracentesis of, 88
perforation of, 87, 88
middle, 88
aditus, 88
antrum, 90
operations on, 91
aqueduct of Fallopius, 89
attic, 88, 89
disease of, 90
fenestra ovale, 89
fenestra rotundum, 89
mastoid cells, 90
operation on, 91
operations on, 90
walls of, 88
suprameatal fossa, 91
spine, 91
triangle of Macewen, 91
■iympanum (see Ear, middle)
Ear-wax, 86
Edebohls's incision, 382, 396
Ejaculatory ducts, 471
Elbow, 280
amputation at, 302
bones of, 280
Elbow, bones of, epiphyses of, 299
brachial artery, 290
ligation of, at elbow, 290
carrying angle, 282
dislocations of, 291
backward, 291
treatment, 292
of head of radius, 295
treatment, 295
inward, 293
treatment, 294
outward, 294
treatment, 294
elbow-joint, 282
disease of, 300
ligaments of, 283
fractures in the region of, 295
muscles of, 284
olecranon bursa, 300
disease of, 300
radio-ulnar articulation, superior, 283
ligaments of, 283
resection of, 301
surface anatomy, 287
veins of, 288
Eminence, frontal, 8, 45
hypothenar, 353
thenar, 353
Emphysema of orbit, 76
Empyema, 200
operation for, 200
resection of rib for, 201
Encephalitis, 23
Encephalocele, 7
Epididymis, 468
epididymitis, 469
Epidural hemorrhage, 17
Epigastric artery, deep, 379
position of, 374
relations to Hesselbach's triangle,
387
to inguinal hernia, 379, 387
to internal ring, 386
wounds of, 379
superior, 379
wounds of, 379
region of abdomen, 370
Epiglottis, 124
Epiphyseal separations of acromium, 247
of coracoid process, 247
of elbow, 299
of humerus, upper end, 247
of knee, 541
of radius, lower end, 344
Epistaxis, 98
Epithelioma of lips (see Cancer)
Equilibrium, anteroposterior, 492
effect of ankylosis of hip-joint on, 493
effect of spinal deformities on, 493
lateral, 494
deviations of spine above sacrum, 495
Erector spinas muscle, 392
Ethmoid bone, 8
cells or sinus (see Sinus)
Eustachian catheter, 120
tube, 84, 89, 118
catheterization of. 120
inflammation of, 8g, 119
methods of inflating, S9, 119
Excision (see Resection)
Extensor carpi radialis brevior, 286
longior, 286
External oblique muscle, 377
INDEX.
609
Extradural hemorrhage of brain, 17
of cord, 486
Extra-uterine pregnancy, 462
Extravasation of blood into perineum, 475
of urine into penis, 466
of urine into perineum, 475
Extremity, lower, 489
ankle, 553
attachment of, to trunk, 491
balance, 494
distortions resulting from affections of,
496
equilibrium, anteroposterior, 492
lateral, 494
foot, 561
general considerations of, 489
hip, 499
knee. 533
leg, S4S .
lengthening of, 497
measurement of lower limbs, 497
pelvis, 490
shortening of, 497
thigh, 519
walking, 498
upper, 216
functions of, 216
morphology of, 216
shoulder, 217
Eye, 72
anterior chamber, 79
anterior lymph circulation of, 79
aqueous humor, 77, 79
canthus of, 82
cataract (see Cataract)
choked disk, 80
choroid, 77
choroiditis, 77
ciliary body, 7 7
conjunctiva, 83
cornea, 77
cyclitis, 77
eyeball, 72, 77
glaucoma, 79
hyaloid membrane, 77
iris, 77. 79
aiTections of, 79
keratitis, 77
lachrymal apparatus, 83
lens, 77
lids, 72
ligament of Zinn, 81
macula lutea, 77
muscles of,
ciliary, 77
dilator pupilte, 79
oblique, inferior, 81
superior, 81
rectus, external, 81
inferior, 81
internal, 81
superior, 81
sphincter pupillae, 79
optic disk, 80
optic nerve, 79
optic neuritis, 80
orbits (see Orbit)
posterior chamber, 79
retina, 77
detachment of, 77
retinitis, 77
sclerotic coat, 77
spaces of Fontana, 79
39
Eye, staphyloma, anterior, 77
posterior, 77
synechia anterior, 79
posterior, 79
vitreous humor, 77
zone of Zinn, 77
Eyelids, 82
chalazion, 83
eyelashes, 83
layers of, 82
Meibomian glai:ds, 82
stye, 83
tarsal plates, 82
Face, 44
blood-vessels of, 44
bones of, 8, 44
facial artery, 50
frontal region of, 45
infra-orbital nerve, 56
removal of, 56
internal maxillary artery, 50
jaw, lower, 63
jaw upper, 54
fractures of, 54
resection of, 55
maxillary nerve, 56
neuralgia of, 55
nerves of, 44
region of cheek, 49
region of eye, 72
removal of Meckel's ganglion, 57
soft parts, 44
blood-vessels, 44
nerves, 44
temporal region, 46
Facial artery, 50, 134
nerve, 20, 52
injury to, in fracture of skull, 20
paralysis of, 82
Falciform process, 390
Fallopian tubes, 456
development of, 453
operation on, 460, 461
Falx cerebri, 20
Fascia, anal, 435
axillary, 256
bicipital, 285
buccopharyngeal, 153
Buck's, 465
clavipectoral, 178, 256
CoUes's, 473
cribriform, 391
deep, of forearm, 329
pus beneath, 329
intercolumnar, 377
lata, 377
of leg, 548
lumbar, 393
anterior layer of, 393
• middle layer of, 393
posterior layer of, 393
of neck, 150
influence of, on pus in neck, 154
layers of, deep, 151
superficial, 150
obturator, 435
palmar, 357
abscess beneath, 365
parotid, 52
pectoral, 178
pelvic, 435
perineal, 473
6io
INDEX.
Fascia, perirenal, 426
plantar, 567
abscess beneath, 575
pretracheal, 153
pus above, 154
pus beneath, 155
prevertebral, 153
pus in front of, 155
pus posterior to, 155
rectovesical, 435, 436
Scarpa's, 374
superficial, of abdomen, 374
temporal, 47
transversalis, 399
triangular, 377
of wrist, deep, 335
Fascial triangle, 394
Fat, subperitoneal, 399
Fauces, pillars of, 112
Felon, 367
Femoral artery, 523
collateral circulation after ligation of, 525
in Hunter's canal, 525
ligation of, in Hunter's canal, 525
in Scarpa's triangle, 523
canal, 390
sheath, 390
Femorosacral arch, 490
Femur, 502
coxa valga, 502
coxa vara, 502
fractures of, 529
neck, 529
shaft, 531
trohcanters, 531
osteotomy of, 544
Fibula, 534, 571
fracture of, 551
Fifth nerve (see Trifacial)
Fingers, amputations of, 369
metacarpophalangeal, 369
dislocations of distal and middle phalanges,
363
phalanges on metacarpal bones, 362
suppuration involving, 366
Fissure or fissures, anal, 443
of brain, 3;^
calcarine, 34
longitudinal, 33
parieto-occipital, 33
of Rolando, 33
of Sylvius, 33
transverse, 33
of liver, 418
orbital, inferior, 74
superior, 74
of Santorini, 86
sphenoidal, 74
sphenomaxillary, 74
Fistula in ano, 443
Fistulas of neck, 169, 170
median, 170
urinary, 382
vesicovaginal, 447
Flat-foot, 577
treatment, 578
Floating kidney, 427
Fontana, spaces of, 79
Fontanelles, 8
anterior, 8
anterolateral, 9
posterior, 8
posterolateral, 9
Foot, 561
amputations of, 574
midtarsal (Chopart's), 574
tarsometatarsal (Lisfranc's), 575
arch of, 561, 563
external arch, 563
internal arch, 563
lateral or transverse arch, 563
ligaments of, 566
muscles supporting, 568
arteries of, 572
bones of, 562
construction of, 561
deformities of, 576
flat-foot, 577
hallux valgus, 579
pronation of, 577
talipes calcaneus, 578
cavus, 578
valgus, 577
varus, 576
diseases and injuries of, 561
treatment of, 562
joints of, 569
midtarsal or Chopart's, 566
subastragaloid, 564
ligaments of, 565
sprain of, 566
ligaments of, 564
metatarsalgia, 580
muscles of, 568
action of, as abductors and adductors, 570
action of, as flexors and extensors, 569
action of, in supporting tarsal arch, 568
plantar abscess, 575
deep, 575
superficial, 575
incision for, 575
plantar fascia, 567
abscess beneath, 575
surface anatomy of, 570
bony landmarks, 570
joints, 572
tendons, 571
toes, 579
amputation of, 581
dislocations of, 580
hammertoe, 579
ingrown nail, 579
metatarsalgia, 580
resection of metatarsophalangeal joint,
580
Foramen of Key, 22
of Magendie, 22
mental, 63
of Monro, 31
nasopalatine, 1 1 1
obturator, 434, 501
optic, 74
ovale, 60
palatine, posterior, 112
of Retzius, 22
rotundum, 60
sacrosciatic, greater, 434
lesser, 434
structures passing through, 434
of Winslow, 398
Foramina of Scarpa, 1 1 1
of Stenson, 98, i n
Forearm, 303
amputation of, 326
through lower third, 327
through middle third, 327
INDEX.
6ii
Forearm, amputation of, through upper third, 327
arteries of, 314
bones of, 303
deep fascia of, 329
pus beneath, 329
fractures of, 321
both bones, 321
treatment, 322
shaft of radius, 322
treatment, 324
shaft of ulna, 325
treatment, 325, 326
movements of pronation and supination, 304
muscles of, 305
extensors and flexors of fingers, 306
extensors and flexors of wrist, 308
pronators and supinators of hand, 310
nerves of, 317
operations on bones and other structures, 328
surface anatomy of, 312
anterior surface, 312
posterior surface, 314
Foreign bodies:
in larynx, 125
in orbit, 76
in pharynx, 1 24
Fornix, pillars of, 30
Fossa or fossae:
caecal, 413
ileocaecal fossa, inferior, 414
superior, 413
retrocolic fossae, 414
duodenojejunal, inferior, 408
superior, 408
epigastric, 180
inguinal,
external, 387
internal, 387
middle, 387
intersigmoid, 417
of Rosenmiiller, 123
suprameatal, 91
supratonsillar, 113
Fourchette, 462
Fracture
of alveolar process of upper jaw, 54
of both bones of forearm, 321
treatment, 322
of clavicle, 241
inner third, 241
middle third, 241
outer third, 243
Colles's, 342
reduction of, 343
of coronoid process and upper end of radius,
299
of femur, 529
neck, 529
impaction in, 530
treatment, 531
shaft, 531
treatment, 531
trochanters, 531
treatment, 531
of humerus
above the condyles, 295
treatment, 295
intercondylar or T fracture, 298
involving the condyles, 296
extra- articular. 296
intra-articular, 297
shaft, 276
above insertion of deltoid, 277
Fracture of humerus, shaft, below insertion of del-
toid, 277
injury to radial nerve in, 277
non-union in, 277
treatment, 277
upper end, 244
anatomical neck, 244
surgical neck, 245
through the tuberosities, 245
treatment, 246
of jaw, lower, 67
displacement, 69
treatment, 70
upper, 54
of malar bone, 49
of maxilla, inferior (see Jaw)
of maxilla, sviperior (see Jaw)
of metacarpal bones, 364
of nose, 95
treatment, 96
of olecranon, 298
treatment, 298
of patella, 539
by direct violence, 540
by indirect violence, 539
treatment of, 540
of pelvis, 491
of phalanges, 363
Pott's, by e version, 557
by inversion, 558
treatment, 558
of radius, Colles's, 342
coronoid process, 299
head and neck, 299
lower end with forward displacement, 344
shaft, 322
above pronator radii teres, 323
below pronator radii teres, 323
treatment, 324
of ribs, 175
of scapula, acromion process, 244
body, 244
coracoid process, 244
glenoid process, 244
surgical neck, 244
of skull, 15
Aran's law in, 15
in adults, 15
bleeding from sinuses in, 19
cerebrospinal fluid in, 19
in childhood, 14
by contrecoup, 16
emphysema, in 19
hemorrhage in, 16
injuries to nerves in, 19
through anterior cerebral fossa, 16
through middle cerebral fossa, 17
through posterior cerebral fossa, 17
trephining for middle meningeal hemor-
rhage in, 18
trephining for posterior branch of middle
meningeal artery in, 18
of spine, 482
of sternum, 174
of tarsal bones, 563
of thyroid cartilage, 125
of tibia, 551
action of tendo calcaneus in, 551
treatment, 551
of ulna, lower end, 344
olecranon, 298
treatment, 298
shaft, 325
6l2
INDEX.
Fracture of ulna, shaft, below middle, 325 ,
treatment, 325
upper third, 326
treatment, 327
Friedreich's ataxia, 488
Frontal bone, 8
convolutions of brain, 33
eminences, 45
lobe of brain, 32
blood supply of, 28
process, external, 40
internal, 46
region, 45
sinuses (see Sinus)
suture, 45
Funnel chest, 172
Galen, veins of, 31
Gall-bladder, 372, 420
common bile-duct, 421
cystic duct, 421
gall-stones, 422
operation for, 422
position of, 372, 399
Gall-stones, 422
operations for, 422
Ganglion, compound, of wrist, 342
Gasserian, 60
operations on, 60
of knee, 539
Meckel's, 57
removal of, 57
Gasserian ganglion (see Ganglion)
Gastrectomy, 405
Gastric artery, 403
ulcer, 403
perforation of, 404
Gastro-enterostomy, 406
Gastroplication, 405
Gastroptosis, 403
Gastrotomy, 405
Generative organs, female, 454
blood-vessels of, 458
broad ligament, 455
development of, 453
external, 462
clinical considerations of, 464
Fallopian tube, 456
lymphatics of, 458
operations on, 460
ovary, 456
pelvic examination, 459
perineum, 464
uterus, 454
vagina, 457
male, 465
development of, 453
penis, 465
perineum, 472
scrotum, 467
spermatic cord, 469
testicle, 468
urethra, 470
Gerhardt, complemental space of, 194
Gerota, perirenal fascia of, 427
Gimberriat's ligament, 377, 390
Glabella, 39
Gland or glands:
Bartholin's, 463
of Brunner, 406
Cowper's, 471
Haversian, 507
lachrymal, 72, 83
Glands of Littr^, 471
mammary, 182
jneibomian, 82
parotid, 3, 51
capsule of, 153
prostate, 448
sublingual, 108
submaxillary, 132
capsule of, 153
thymus, 188
thyroid, 164
vulvovaginal, 463
Glaucoma, 79
Glosso-epiglottic folds, 108, 124
Glossopharyngeal nerve, 20
injury to, in fractures of skull, 20
Gluteal cleft, 505
fold, 505
Goitre, 1 28
Goldthwait's operation for dislocationof patella, 541
Groin, lymphatics of, 527
excision of, 527
Gunstock deformity, 297
Gustatory area of brain, 37
Gyrus fornicatus, 34
Haematemesis, 420
Hasmatoma of ear, 85
neonatorum, 8
of scalp, 5
HEematomyelia, 486
Hallux valgus, 579
treatment, 579
Hammer toe, 579
Hand, 349
abscesses of, 365
beneath palmar fascia, 365
involving fingers, 366
suppuration in tendon sheaths, 366
amputation of fingers, 369
of thumb, 368
arteries of, 358
bones of, 349
dislocations of, 362
bases of metacarpal bones, 362
distal and middle phalanges, 363
phalanges on metacarpal bones, 362
proximal phalanx of thumb, 362
fractures of, 364
metacarpal bones, 364
phalanges, 364
treatment, 364
joints of, 352
movements of, 353
synovial membrane of, 352
suppuration of, 352
lymphatics of, 368
muscles of, 353
nerves of, 360
palmar fascia, 357
surface anatomy of, 354
wounds of, 364
Harelip, 105
treatment, 106
Harrison's groove, 172
Hartmann-Mikulicz line, 406
Heart, 204
area of dulness of, 205
cardiohepatic angle, 205
dilatation of. as cause of pleural effusion, 191
location of valvular sounds of, 206
outlines of, 204
portion uncovered by lung-tissue, 204
i
INDEX.
613
Heart, valves of, 206
variation in size and position of, 206
wounds of, 207
operation for, 207
Hemianopia, 82
binasal, 82
bitemporal, 82
homonymous, 82
lateral, 82
Hemispheres of brain,
lateral surface, 33
medial surface, 34
Hemorrhage, dural, 23
epidural, 17
middle meningeal, 17
into orbit, 77
pial, 23
from plantar arteries, 573
into pons, 32
from sinuses in fracture of skull, 19
into spinal cord, 486
Hemorrhoidal arteries, 440
inferior, 440, 476
middle, 440, 476
superior, 440
veins, 441
Hemorrhoids, 420, 442
external, 442
' internal, 442
strawberry, 443
treatment of, 443
Hepatic artery, 403, 421
duct, 421
flexure of colon, 374
Hereditary spastic paraplegia, 488
Hernia, 382
abdominal, 382
congenital, 383
descent of testis, 383
encysted, 384
funicular, 384
infantile, 384
umbilical, 382
vaginal, 384
femoral, 390
coverings of, 390
radical cure of, 392
saphenous opening in, 390
strangulation of, 392
division of, 392
inguinal, 383
acquired, 385
direct, 385, 387
coverings of, 388
Hesselbach's triangle, 387
radical cure of, 389
strangulation of, 388
division of, 388
indirect, 385
coverings of, 386
radical cure of, 387
strangulation of, 386
division of, 387
lumbar, 394
obturator, 435
pelvic, 435
perineal, 435
retroperitoneal, 408
sciatic, 435
of testicle, 469
umbilical, 382
acquired, 383
infantile, 383
Hernia, umbilical, infantile, treatment, 383
operation on, 383
Hesselbach's triangle, 387
Hiatus semilunaris, 97, 100
Hip, 499
abscess of, 516
acetabulum, 501
ankylosis of, 479
bones of, 499
femur, 582
innominate, 499
Bryant's triangle, 505
coxalgia or coxitis, 515
abscess in, 516
attitude, 516
measurements, 516
symptoms, 515
coxa valga, 517
vara, 517
dislocations of, 508
catching of sciatic nerve in, 514
freeing of, 514
classifications of, 508
complicated by fracture, 514
reduction of, 514
congenital, 514
reduction of, 515
signs of, 515
infolding of capsule or muscle in, 514
injuries to muscles in, 511
injuries to nerves in, 511
mechanism of production, 509
reduction, direct method, 512
indirect method, 513
rent in capsule, 511
reversed dislocations, 514
signs of, 512
hip- joint, 506
amputation at, 532
disease of, 515
hyperabduction of, 496
hyperadduction of, 496
hyperflexion of, 496
ligaments of, 507
capsular, 508
iliofemoral, 507
ischiofemoral, 507
pubofemoral, 507
movements of, 504
muscles controlling, 504
operations on, 517
anterior, 519
Boeckman's, 518
inferior, 519
lateral, 517
Lorenz's, 518
iliotrochanteric line, anterior, 505
posterior, 504
ligation of gluteal artery, 505
of internal pudic artery, 505
of sciatic artery, 505
muscles of, 503
Roser-N^laton line, 502, 505
surface anatomy of, 504
Hour-glass stomach, 401
Housemaid's knee, 538
Houston, valves of, 439
Humerus, 221, 267, 280
epiphysis of, lower, 300
separation of, 300
separation of upper, 247
excision of head of, 251
fracture of, above the condyles, 295
»I4
INDEX
Humerus, fracture of, above the condyles, treat-
ment, 295
intercondylar or T fracture, 298
treatment, 298
involving the condyles, 296
extra-articular, 296
intra-articular, 297
treatment, 297
shaft, 276
above insertion of deltoid, 277
below insertion of deltoid, 277
injury to radial nerve, 277
non-union in, 277
tipper end, 244
anatomical neck, 244
surgical neck, 245
tuberosities, 245
lower end of, 280
shaft of, 207
upper end of, 221
Hunter's canal, 524
Hydatid of Morgagni, 453
Hydrocele, 384
of canal of Nuck, 385, 468
congenital, 384, 468
encysted, of cord, 384, 468
of neck, 170
Hydrocephalus, acute, 23
Hymen, 463
Hypochondriac region of abdomen, 370
Hypogastric region of abdomen, 370
Hypoglossal nerve, 20, 137
injury to, in fractures of skull, 20
Hypothenar eminence, 353
Hysterectomy, 460, 461
vaginal, 462
Ileocaecal fold, 413
inferior, 414
superior, 413
fossa, inferior, 414
superior, 413
valve, 374, 412
Ileocolic artery, 412
Ileum (see Intestine, small)
Iliac arteries, 436
ligation of, 436
collateral circulation after, 437
line of, 374, 436
region of abdomen, 370
veins, position of, 374
Iliohypogastric nerve, 381
injury to, in abdominal incisions, 381
Ilio-inguinal nerve, 381
Iliopectineal line, 434
Iliotrochanteric angle, 505
line, anterior, 505
posterior, 504
Ilium, 499
Imperforate anus, 442
Incisions, abdominal, 381
for abscess of axilla, 264
in abscess of parotid gland, 54
Battles, abdominal, 382
Edebohls, for kidney, 382
for empyema, 200
for glands of neck, 158
for glossitis, no
Kocher's, for gall-bladder, 382
lumbar, 395, 428
longitudinal, 395
oblique, 396
McBurn'jy's, for appendix, 382, 414
Incisions for operating on the forearm, 328
Pfannenstiel's abdominal, 382
for palmar abscess, 365
for plantar abscess, 575
for removal of breast, 187
Stimson's abdominal, 382
transverse, for appendicitis, 414
Weir's abdominal, 382
Inflammation of dura, 22
of pia mater, 23
of scalp, 5
Infra-orbital nerve, 56, 94
removal of, 56
Infraspinatus bursa, 255
Infrastemal depression, 180
Infratemporal crest, 47
Infundibulum of nose, 100
Ingrown toe-nail, 5 79
Inguinal adenitis, 527
canal, 385
columns of, external, 385
internal, 385
walls of, 386
anterior, 386
floor, 386
posterior, 386
roof, 386
fossae, external, 387
internal, 387
middle, 387
hernia (see Hernia)
Inion, 39
Interarticular cartilage of jaw, 64
triangular fibrocartilage, 332
Intercolumnar fascia, 377, 386
Intercondylar fracture of humerus, 298
Intercostal arteries, 1 76
anterior, 176
posterior, 177
nerves, 380
anterior branches, 380
lateral cutaneous branches, 380
Internal capsule, 38
functions of, 38
oblique muscle, 377
pudic artery, 440, 474, 476
ligation of, 505
nerve, 476
Interossei muscles, 353
Interosseous membrane between radius and ulna,
304
Intersigmoid fossa, 417
Intestine, large, 374, 411
anal canal, 439
blood-vessels of, 440
examination of, 442
external sphincter, 440
fissures of, 443
fistula in ano, 443
hemorrhoids, 442
imperforate anus, 442
internal sphincter, 439
lymphatics of, 44 1
mucous membrane of, 440
nerves of, 442
valves of, 440
white line of Hilton, 440
appendix, 374, 412
appendicitis, 414
operation for, 414
blood supply of, 412
lymphatics of, 414
mesoappendix, 412
INDEX.
615
Intestine, large, appendix, position of, -^"74, 413
veins of, 413
blood supply of, 412
caecal folds, 413
fossae, 413
caecum, 374. 401. 411
lymphatics of, 414
position of, 374, 400
types oi, 411
colon, ascending, 416
position of, 400
relation of, to tumors of kidney,
427
descending, 417
in colostomy, 417
position of, 401
hepatic flexure, 411
position of, 374
iliac, 417
in inguinal colostomy, 417
intersigmoid fossa, 417
pelvic, 417
sigmoid flexure, 417
splenic flexure, 411
position of, 374
transverse, 416
position of, 374, 400
ileocaecal valve, 374, 412
position of, 374
rectum, 438
ampulla of, 438
blood-vessels of, 440
excision of, 443
lymphatics of, 441
mucous membrane of, 440
pelvi-rectal bands, 443
peritoneal relations of, 439
prolapse of, 435
rectal examination, 439, 442
recto-urethralis muscle, 438
valves of Houston, 439
sacculations of, 411
size of, 411
small, 374, 406
coils of, 408
duodenum, 374, 486
duodenojejunal flexure, 408
fossa, 408
peritoneal covering of, 408
position of, 374
relations of, 407
ileum, 374, 408
position of, 374
jejunum, 374, 408
duodenojejunal flexure, 408
fossa, inferior, 408
superior, 408
muscle or ligament of Treitz, 408
constriction of intestine by, 408
position of, 374
Meckel's diverticulum, 409
strangulation of intestines by,
409
operations on, 409
Peyer's patches, 409
position of, 374, 401
Intradural hemorrhage of cord, 486
Iris, 77, 79
affections of, 77, 79
Ischiorectal abscess, 476
treatment, 476
fossa, 476
Ischiosacral arch, 491
Ischium, 499
Jaw, lower, 63
dislocation of, 66
reduction of, 67
excision of, 71
excision of condyle of, 71
fractures of, 67
ligaments of, 64, 66
influence on pus in joint, 66
movements of, 65
temporomandibular articulation, 64
upper, 54
excision of lingual nerve, 60
mandibular nerve, 60
fractures of, 54
maxillary nerve, 56
removal of, through the ptery.
goid fossa, 58
operations on Gasserian ganglion, 60
removal of infra-orbital nerve, 56
removal of Meckel's ganglion, 57
resection of, 55
Jejunum (see Intestine, small)
Joint or joints, acromioclavicular, 222
ligaments of, 222
ankle, 554
distention of, 555
ligaments of, 554
movements of, 554
carpometacarpal, movements of, 353
elbow, 282
ligaments of, 284
movements of, 282
of foot, 564
ligaments of, 564, 566
location of, 571
of hand, 352
movements of, 353
synovial membrane of, 352
suppuration of, 352
metacarpophalangeal, position of, 353
midtarsal or Chopart's, 566, 572
radio-ulnar, inferior, 332
superior, 283
sacro-iliac, 433
shoulder, 222
ligaments of, 223
movements of, 253
sternoclavicular, 222
subastragaloid, 564
ligaments of, 565
sprain of, 566
tarsometatarsal (Lisfranc's), 573
temporomandibular, 64
tibiofibular, inferior, 554
ligaments of, 554
wrist- joint, 333
ligaments of, 333
movements of, 333
Keratitis, 77
Key, foramen of, 22
Kidneys, 373, 424
abscesses of, 428 ,
points of pointing of, 428
capsules of, 426
fatty, 426
fibrous, 426
displacements of, 427
floating kidney, 427
movable kidney, 427
hilum of, 426
lower border of, 373
operations on, 428
delivering the kidney, 429
6i6
INDEX.
Kidneys, operations on, incisions, 395, 428
nerves encountered, 429
pleura in, 429
incisions into kidney substance, 429
outer edge of, 373
pelvis of, 426, 430
position of, 373
perirenal fascia, 427
position of, 373
pyelonephritis, 428
relations, deep, 425
anterior surface, 425
posterior surface, 425
to surface, 424
sinus of, 426
suprarenal glands, 430
tumors of, 427
upper border of, 373
ureter, 430
course, 431
operations on, 431
vessels of, 426
Knee, 533
amputation through knee-joint, 544
bow-legs, 543
treatment, 544
bursae of, 538
dislocation of, 541
subluxation, 541
epiphyseal separations of, 541
ganglion of, 539
knee-joint, 534
ligaments of, 535
lines of, 534
movements of, 534
pus in, 535, 536
semilunar cartilages of, 538
dislocation of, 541
knock-knee, 543
treatment, 544
osteotomy of femur, 544
patella, 535
dislocation of, 540
fractures of, 539
resection of, 542
surface anatomy of, 533
tuberculous disease of, 543
Knock-knee, 543
treatment, 544
Kocher's incision for gall-bladder, 382
for removal of Meckel's ganglion, 58
Kronleins operation, 77
Kyphosis, 479
rachitic, 479
Labia majora, 462
minora, 462
Laceration of perineum, 464
operation for, 465
Lachrymal bones, 8
canals, 72, 84
gland, 72, 83
sac, 72, 84
Lachrymonasal duct, 72, 84, 99
stricture, 7, 84
Lambda, 39
Laminectomy, 489
Laryngitis, 127
Laryngoscopy, 126
Laryngotomy, 126, 162
Larynx, 124
cricoid cartilage, 126
cricothyroid membrane, 125
Larynx, diseases of, 127
epiglottis, 124
foreign bodies in, 122
operations on, 161
paralysis of muscles of, 127
thyrohyoid membrane, 125
thyroid cartilage, 125
fracture of, 125
valleculae of, 124
foreign bodies in, 124
Lateral curvature of spine (see Scoliosis)
sclerosis, 488
sinuses (see Sinus)
Latissimus dorsi muscle, 269, 392
I-eg, 545
amputation of, 552
arteries of, 548
fascia of, 548
fractures of, 551
lymphatics of, 551
muscles of, 546
actions of, 547
surface anatomy of, 546
veins of, 550
varicosities of, 550
operation for, 551
Lens of eye, 77
cataract of, 78
Lenticular nucleus, 31
Lenticulostriate ganglion, 28
blood supply of, 28
Lesser, triangle of, 146
Levator ani muscle, 434
Ligament or ligaments;
acromioclavicular, 222
alaria, of knee, 538
annular, anterior, of wrist, 335
structures passing beneath, 336
structures passing over, 336
annular, posterior, of wrist, 336
structures passing beneath, 337
anterior, of elbow, 284
of Bigelow, 507
of bladder, 445
false, 445
true, 445
broad, 455
of Burns, 390
calcaneoscaphoid, inferior, 566
capsular, of ankle, 554
of hip, 508
of inferior radio-ulnar articulation, 333
of knee, 535
of shoulder, 223
of wrist, sii
conoid, 222
coraco-acromial, 222
coracoclavicular, 222
coracohumeral, 222, 225
coronary, of knee, 538
of liver, 397, 418
costocoracoid, 222, 257
cotyloid of hip, 506
crucial of knee, 537
deltoid of ankle, 554, 565
denticulate, 485
of ductus venosus, 419
falciform of liver, 419
of foot, 564
Gimbernat's, 377, 390
glenohumeral, 222, 225
glenoid of shoulder, 223, 226
of hip, 507
INDEX.
6iy
Ligamont, iliofemoral, 507
infundibulopelvic or suspensory of the ovary,
455- 456
interclavicular, 222
interosseous astragalo-calcaneal, 565
ischiofemora', 507
of knee, 535
lateral, external, of ankle, 554, 565
of elbow, 284
of knee, 537
of wrist, 2^2
internal, of ankle, 554, 565
of elbow, 284
of knee, 537
of wrist, 333
left, of liver, 398
lienophrenic, 424
lienorenal, 399, 424
ligamentum mucosum of knee, 538
ligamentum teres, 506
of liver 418
mucosa of knee, 538
orbicular, 283
orbitotarsal, 6, 74, 82
of ovary, 456
palpebral, external, 82
internal, 82, 84
phrenocolic, 424
plantar, long, 567
short, 566
posterior of elbow, 284
Poupart's, 377
pubofenioral, 507
puboprostatic, 445
radio-ulnar, anterior, 333
posterior, 333
rhomboid, 222
round, of liver, 419
of uterus, 456
sacrosciatic, great, 434
lesser, 434
of shoulder- joint, 223
of spleen, 424
sternoclavicular, 222
of sternoclavicular joint, 222
stylohyoid, 132
suspensory, of jejunum, 408
temf)oromandibular, 64
of tempormandibular articulation, 64
transverse, of knee, 538
trapezoid, 222
of Treitz, 406
triangular, 473
anterior layer, 473
deep layer, 473
xitero-ovarian, 456
uterosacral, 455
of uterus, 455
of Wrisberg, 537
of Zinn, 81
Ligation of axillary artery, first portion, 259
third portion, 262
of brachial artery in arm, 274
at elbow, 290
of carotid artery, common, 141
external, 144
internal, 143
of femoral artery in Hunter's canal, 525
in Scarpa's triangle, 523
of gluteal artery, 505
of iliac arteries, 436
of internal pudic artery, 505
of lingual artery, 145
Ligation of peroneal artery, 550
of popliteal artery, 544
of radial artery, on dorsum of hand, 348
of sciatic artery, 505
of subclavian, 147, 148
of thyroid, inferior, 149
superior, 145
of tibial artery, anterior, 548
posterior, 549
of ulnar artery, 316
lower third, 317
■ middle third, 316
upper third, 316
Linea alba, 371
Lineae albicantes, 372
semilunares, 372
transversae, 372
Lingual nerve, excision of, 60
exposure through mouth, 117
Lips (see Mouth)
Lisfranc's amputation, 575
Lithotomy, lateral, 476
median, 475
Liver, 372, 417
abscesses of, 420
biliary passages, 420
common duct, 421
cystic duct, 421
hepatic duct, 421
fissures of, 418
gall-bladder, 420
gall-stones, 422
operations for, 422
hepatic artery, 421
injuries to, 420
kidney pouch, 422
ligaments of, 418
liver dulness, 372
lobes of, 417
lower border of, 372
lymphatic nodes of, 422
portal obstruction, 420
anastomosis of superficial veins in, 4 20
position of, 372, 399, 419
relations of, 419
size of, 419
upper border of, 372
wounds of, 420
Lobes of brain, 32
of liver, 417
Locomotor ataxia, 488
Longitudinal fissure of brain, 33, 39
Lordosis, 479
Lorenz's operation on hip, 518
Lower level of the brain, 40
Ludwig's angina, 132
Ludwig, angle of, 180
Lumbar abscess, 394
fascia, 393
anterior layer of, 393
middle layer of, 393
posterior layer of, 393
hernia, 394
incisions, 395
longitudinal, 395
oblique, 396
puncture, 488
region of abdomen, 370
fascias of, 393
hernias of, 394
incisions in, 395
muscles of, 392
Petit's triangle, 394
6i8
INDEX.
Lumbricales muscles, 353
Lungs, 196
in emphysema, 196
empyema, 201
general considerations of, 198
lobes of, 198
outline of, 197
anterior border, 198
apex, 198
lower border, 199
in phthisis, 197
Lymphatics of alidominal walls, 380
of anal canal, 441
of appendix, 414
of axilla, 263
of caecum, 414
of groin, 527
excision of, 527
of hand, 368
of leg, 551
of liver, 422
of mammary gland, 184
of neck, 156
abscess of, 154
operation on, 158
of nose, 98
of ovary, 459
of rectum, 441
of scalp, 4
of stomach, 403
of uterus, 458
Macewen, suprameatal triangle of, 91
Magendie, foramen of, 22
Malar bone, 8, 44, 49
fracture of, 49
tubercle, 40
Mammary gland, 182
abscess of, 185
blood supply of, 183
fibrous structure of, 183
lymphatics of, 184
nerves of, 185
nipple, 183
removal for carcinoma, 187
secreting structure of, 182
tumors of, 185
benign, 185
malignant, 186
removal of, 187
Mandible (see Jaw, lower)
Mandibular nerve, 60
excision of, 60
exposure of. through the mouth, 117
Marginal convolution of brain, 34
Masseter muscle, 65
Mastoid antrum, in adults, 11
in childhood, 9
operations on, 91
cells, 11 , 90
operation on, 91
process, 4,11
Maxilla, inferior (see Jaw, lower)
superior (see Jaw, upper)
Maxillary artery, internal, 50, 58
nerve, 56
neuralgia of, 55
operations on, through pterygoid fossa, 58
sinus (see Sinus)
Mayo incision for gastrectomy, 405
Mayo Robson's incision for kidney, 429
McBumey's incision for appendix, 382, 414
point, 374, 414
Measurement of lower timm^97
Meatus, auditory, external, 84
inferior, of nose, 99
middle, of nose, 100
superior, of nose, 100
Meckel's diverticulum, 372, 382, 409
strangulation of intestines by, 383, 409
ganglion, 58
removal of, 57
Median nerve, 318
branches of, 319
distribution of, in hand, 360
operations on, 319
wounds of, 319
Mediastinum, 187
anterior, 189
abscess of, 190
paracentesis of the pericardium through,
190
middle, 190
enlarged glands in, 190
posterior, 190
superior. 188
abscess in, 189
aneurism in, 189
tumors in, 189
tumors of, 191
Medulla, 31
Meibomian glands, 82
Meninges of brain, 20
afTections of, 22
arachnoid, 21
dura mater, 20
hemorrhage into, 23
pia mater, 22
of spinal cord, 484
arachnoid, 485
dura mater, 484
pia mater, 485
subarachnoid space, 485
subdural space, 485
Meningitis, 23
tuberculous, 23
Meningocele, 7
Mesentery, 374, 398, 410
influence of, upon blood in abdominal cavity,
210
lymph-nodes of, 410
Mesocolon, 398
Mesosalpinx, 456
Metacarpal bones, 350
dislocations of, 362
fractures of, 364
treatment of, 364
Metacarpophalangeal joints, position of, 356
Metatarsalgia, 580
Middle meningeal hemorrhage, 1 7
trephining for, 18
Midf rental area of brain, 35
function of, 38
Miner's elbow, 300
Monro, foramen of, 30
Morgagni, columns of, 440
crypts of, 440
Morton's disease, 580
Motor track of brain, 39
functions of, 39
Mouth, 104
cysts of, mucous, no
lingual nerve, 117
lips, 104
angioma of, 104
blood supply of, 104
INDEX.
619
Mouth, lips, cancer of, 105
harelip, 105
paralysis of, 106
wounds of, 104
mandibular nerve, 117
palatal arches, 112
palate, iii
blood supply of, 1 1 1
cleft. III
operation for, 112
foramina in, in
hard, iii
soft. III
roof of. III
blood supply of, in
foramina in, in
surface anatomy of, 107
tongue, 107
tonsils, faucial, 113
lingual, 108
Movable kidney, 427
Muscle or muscles:
abductor minimi digiti, 354
abductor pollicis, 354
accelerator urinae, 471
adductor brevis, 522
longus, 522
magnus, 522
pollicis, 354 -»
anconeus, 286
biceps, 269, 284, 310
tendon of, 255
dislocation of, 269
rupture of, 270
of thigh, 520
brachialis anticus, 270, 284
brachioradialis, 285, 286, 310
buccinator, 65
bulbocavemosus, 471, 474
ciliary, 77
coccygeus, 434
compressor urethrae, 471, 474
coracobrachialis. 269
cremaster, 377
crureus, 520
deltoid, 268
digastric, 65
dilator pupilae, 79
erector spinas, 180, 392, 477
extensor brevis digitorum, 572
extensor brevis pollicis, 308
extensor carpi radialis brevior, 310, 334
extensor carpi radialis longior, 286, 309, 334
extensor carpi ulnaris, 310, 334
extensor communis digitorum, 308
extensor longus digitorum, 546, 572
extensor longus hallucis, 546, 572
extensor longus pollicis, 308
extensor minimi digiti, 308
extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis, 308
flexor brevis minimi digiti, 354
flexor brevis pollicis, 354
flexor carpi radialis, 308, 334
flexor carpi ulnaris, 308, 334
flexor longus digitorum, 546, 568, 572
flexor longus hallucis, 546, 568, 572
flexor longus pollicis, 307
flexor profundis digitorum, 307
flexor sublimis digitorum, 308
gastrocnemius, 596
bursa of, 539
geniohyoglossus, 65
geniohyoid, 65
Muscle, gluteus maximus, 504
meJius, 504
minimus, 504
gracilis, 522
iliacus, 434, 504
intercostal, external, 176
internal, 176
interossei of hand, 353
ischiocavemosus, 474
latissimus dorsi, 180, 269, 392
levator anguli scapulae, 138, 227
levator ani, 434
palpebrae, 81
masseter, 65
mylohyoid, 65
oblique, external, 377
inferior, of eye, 81
internal, 377
superior, of eye, 81
obturator extemus, 504, 522
intemus, 504
occipitofrontalis, 2
omohyoid, 227
opponens minimi digiti, 354
opponens pollicis, 354
orbicularis oris, 104
obicularis palpebrarum, 82
palatoglossus, 113
palatopharyngeus, 13
palmaris brevis, 354
longus, 308, 334
pectineus, 522
pectoralis major, 177, 269
minor, 178
perineal, deep, transverse, 474
superficial, 474
peroneus brevis, 546, 568, 572
longus, 546, 568, 572
tertius, 546, 568, .<;72
action of, 569
plantaris, 546
platysma, 65
pronator quadratus, 310
radii teres, 284, 310
psoas, 434, 504
pterygoid, 65
pyramidalis, 375
pyriformis, 504
quadratus femoris, 504, 523
lumborum, 392
quadriceps extensor, 5 20
recto-urethralis, 438
rectus abdominis, 375
sheath of, 375
external, of eye, 81
femoris, 520
inferior, of eye, 81
internal, of eye, 81
superior, of eye, 81
rhomboid, 227
sartorius, 5 20
scalenus anticus, 138
medius, 138
posticus, 138
semimembranosus, 521
semitendinosus, 520
serratus anterior (magnus), 179, 227
soleus, 546
sphincter ani, external, 440
internal, 439
internal, of bladder, 471
pupillae, 79
splenius, 138
620
INDEX.
Muscle, sternohyoid, 122
sternomastoid, 4
division of, for torticollis, 4
subclavius, 226
supinator brevis, 316
temporal, 48, 65
tensor tarsi, 84
tibialis anterior, 546, 568, 572
posterior, 546, 568, 572
transversalis, 378
trapezius, 4, 180, 227
of Treitz, 408
constriction of intestines by, 408
triceps, 270, 286
vastus extemus, 520
intemus, 520
Musculospiral
groove, 267
nerve, 265, 277
paralysis of, 277
Mynter, operation for excision of wrist, 347
Naevus, 7
Nares, anterior, 96
posterior, 118
Nasal bones, 8
Nasion, 39, 46
Neck, 127
abscess of, 153
influence of cervical fascias on, 154
arteries of, 141
cervical ribs, 175
triangles, 131
cut throat, 168
cysts of, 169
median, 170
sebaceous, 151
diseases affecting, 128
fascias of, 150
influence on pus in neck, 154
fistulae of, 169
median, 170
hydrocele of, 170
injuries to, 128
lymphatics of, 156
abscess of, 153
operation on, 156
oesophagus, cervical portion, 166
foreign bodies in, 167
CESophagotomy, 167
sheath of vessels of, 153
pus in, 155
surface anatomy of, 128
laryngeal region, 129
structures felt in median line, 130
submental region, 129
tracheal region, 129
torticollis, 140
treatment of, 140
triangles, cervical. 131
Nerve or nerves:
abducens, 20, 82
auditory, 20
auricularis magnus, 44, 52, 139
auriculotemporal branch of fifth, 3, 52
axillary (see Nerve, circumflex)
circumflex, 265
cutaneous, internal, of arm, 265
internal, of leg, 523
lesser internal, 265
dental, anterior, 56
inferior (see Mandibular nerve)
posterior, 56
Nerve, descendens hypoglossi, liy
facial, 20, 52
paralysis of, 82
fourth (see Pathetic nerve)
frontal branch of fifth, 82
genitocrural, 451
glossopharyngeal, 20
hemorrhoidal, inferior, 442, 476
humeral, 265
hypoglossal, 20, 137
iliohypogastric, 387, 429
injury to, in abdominal incisions, 381
ilio-inguinal, 381, 429
infraorbital, of maxillary, 56, 94
removal of, 56
infratrochlear, 94
intercostal, 380
anterior branches, 380
lateral branches, 380
intercostobrachialis, 185, 265
interosseus, anterior (volar), 320
posterior, 321
labial, of maxillary, 56
lachrymal of fifth, 82
laryngeal, superior, 125, 137
lingual, 60
excision of, 60
exposure in mouth, 117
long subscapular, 265
mandibular, 60
excision of, 60
exposure of, through mouth, 117
operations on, through pterygoid fossa, 58
maxillary, 56
neuralgia of, 55
operations on, through pterygoid fossa, 58.
medial brachial cutaneous, 185
median, 318
distribution of, in hand, 360
operations on, 319
wounds of, 319
musculocutaneous, 265
musculospiral, 265, 277
paralysis of, 278
nasal, of maxillary, 56, 82, 94
occipitalis major, 4
minor, 44, 139
oculomotor, 19, 82
injury to, in fracture of skull, 19
paralysis of, 82
olfactory, 19, 94
injuries to, in fracture of skull, 19
optic, 19, 79, 82
injury to, in fracture of skull, 19
orbital, of maxillary, 56
palpebral, of maxillary, 56
pathetic, 20, 82
paralysis of, 82
p)erineal, external or anterior, 474, 476
internal or posterior, 474, 476
phrenic, 179
pneumogastric, 137
popliteal, 543
pudic, 474, 475, 476
radial, 265 ; in arm, 277
in forearm, 321
in hand, 360
respiratory, long external of Bell, 179
saphenous, internal, 523
long, 526
sciatic, large, 527
sciatica, 528
sphenomalar, of maxillary, 56
INDEX.
621
Nerve, sphenopalatine branch of maxillary, 56
spinal accessory, 20, 139
superficial cervical, 139
supra-orbital, 45
operation on, 46
terminal, of maxillary, 56
third (see Oculomotor)
thoracic, last, 420
posterior, 179
thoracodorsalis, 265
trifacial, 20
area of distribution of, 63
ulnar, 265, 320
distribution in hand, 360
operations on, 320
■wounds of, 320
vagus, 20, 137
Neuralgia of maxillary nerve, 55
Nipple, 181, 183
Noma, 49
Nose, 94
arteries of, 98
bleeding from, 98
bony portion, 95
bulla ethmoidalis, 100
cartilaginous portion, 95
epistaxis, 98
ethmoidal sinuses, 102
frontal sinuses, lor
hiatus semilunaris, 97, 100
injuries to, 95
dislocations, 95
fracture, 95
lachrymonasal duct, 99
lymphatics of, 98
maxillary sinus or antrum, 103
meatus, inferior, 99
middle, 100
superior, 100
mucous membrane of, 99
hypertrophies of, 99
nares, anterior, 96
view of, 96
posterior, 118
nasal hypertrophies, 99
anterior, 99
posterior, 99
nerves of, 94
obstruction of, 94
septum, 97
deviations of, 97
haematomas of, 97
hypertrophies of, 118
spurs of, 97
spheno-ethmoidal recess, 10 1
spehnoidal sinus, 103
turbinated bone, inferior, 96
hypertrophy of, anterior, 99
jxjsterior, 99, 118
middle, 97
superior, 97
veins of, 98
wall, outer, 99
Notch, suprasternal, 180
Occipital artery, 3, 4
bone, 8
convolutions of brain, ^3
lobe of brain, 32
blood supply of, 29
protuberance, 4
sinus, 13
Occipitalis major nerve, 4
Occipitofrontalis muscle, 2
Oculomotor nerve, 19, 82
injury to, in fractures of skull, 19
paralysis of, 82
Qi^sophagotomy, 167
Oesophagus, 166, 211
carcinoma of, 212
cervical portion, 166
dilatation of, 212
diverticula of, 212
foreign bodies in, 167, 212
crsophagotomy, 167
relations of, 211
structure of, 212
tumors of, 211
Olecranon, 281
bursa of, 300
disease of, 300
fracture of, 298
Olfactory area of brain, 37
nerve, 19, 94
injuries to, in fracture of skull, 19
Oilier, operation for excision of wrist, 346
Omentum, gastrohepatic, 397
gastrosplenic, 399
greater, 398, 399
anterior layer of, 398
posterior layer of, 398
lesser, 398
Oophorectomy, 460, 461
Ophthalmic artery, 3, 81
Optic chiasm, 79
disk, 80
affections of, 80
nerve, 19, 79, 82
injuries to, in fractures of skull, 19
neuritis of, 80
Orbicular ligament, 283
Orbjfotarsal ligaments, 6, 74
Orbits, 72
abscess of, 75
affections of, 71;
blood-vessels of, 81
contents of, 74
dermoids, 75
emphysema of, 76
foreign bodies in, 76
hemorrhage into, 77
inferior orbital fissure, 74
Kronlein's operation, 77
margins of, 45
muscles of,
levator palpebrae, 8r
oblique, inferior, 81
superior, 81
rectus, external, 8r
inferior, 81
internal, 81
superior, 81
nerves of, 82
periosteum of, 74
rim of, 72
spehnoidal fissure, 74
sphenomaxillary fissure, 74
superior orbital fissure, 74
tumors of, 75
walls of, 72
Orchitis, 469
Os magnum, 350
Osteotomy of femur, 544
of tibia, 544
Ovarian artery, 458
Ovary, 456
622
INDEX.
Ovary, blood-supply of, 458
development of, 453
ligaments of, 456
lymphatics, 459
oophorectomy, 460, 461
Pacchionian bodies, 21
Pachymeningitis, 22
externa, 22
interna, 22
Palate, arches of, 112
blood-supply of, in
cleft palate, in
operation for, 112
hard, in
palate bone, 8
soft, in
Palmar abscess, 365
incisions for, 365
arch, deep, 359
superficial, 358
fascia, 357
abscess beneath, 365
Pampiniform plexus, 385
Panaris, 367
Pancreas, 373, 422
abscess of, 423
evacuation of, 423
cysts of, 423
directions of enlargement of growths of, 423
ducts of, 423
position of, 373
relations of, 423
Pannus, 77
Paracentesis of chest, 201
pericardii, 190, 202
Paracentral lobule of brain, 34
Paradidymis, 453
Paralysis, crossed, of pons, 32
of larynx, 127
of lips, 106
of musculospiral nerve, 278
Parathyroid bodies, 165
Parietal bones, 8
eminences, 8
lobe of brain, 32
blood-supply of; 28
Paroophoron, 453
cysts of, 454
Parotid duct, 51
calculus of, 51
fascia, 52
gland, 3, SI
abscess of, 53
incisions for, 54
affections of, 53
capsule of, 153
lobes of, 52
lymphatics of, 53
nerves traversing, 52
tumors of, 54
vessels traversing, 5 2
Parotiditis, 53
suppurative, 53
Parovarium or organ of Rosenmtiller, 454
Patella, 534, 535
dislocations of, 540
treatment, 541
floating patella, 536
fractures of, 439
by direct violence, 540
by indirect violence, 539
treatment, .1^40
Pathetic nerve, 20, 82
injuries to, in fractures cf skull, 20
paralysis of, 82
Pectoralis major muscle, 269
Pectoralis minor, 178
Pelvic examination, 459
Pelvi-rectal bands, 443
Pelvis, 432
bones of, 432, 499
bony pelvis, 490
arches of, femorosacral, 490
ischiosacral, 491
distorsions of, due to affections of lower
extremity, 496
correction of, 496, 497
effect on, of shortening or lengthening the
lower extremity, 497
tilting of, in deviations of spine, 495
correction of, 495
false, 432
fascia of, 435
influence of, on pointing of pus, 43O
female, 433
diameters of, 433
floor of, 434
foramina of, 434
structures passing through, 434
fractures of, 491
hemiae of, 435
iliac vessels, 436
iliopectineal line, 434
influence of sex on, 433
inlet of, 432
ligaments of, 434
male, 433
outlet of, 433
prolapse of rectum and vagina, 435
true, 432
viscera of, 438
walls of, 434
white line of, 435
Penis, 465
amputation of, 466
chordee, 466
circumcision, 466
crura of, 474
extravasation of urine into, 466
lymphatics of, 466
paraphimosis, 466
phimosis, 466
rupture of, 466
Pericardium, 201
drainage of, 203
paracentesis of, 190, 202
Pericranium, 3
Perineal section, 475
spaces (see Perineum, male)
Perineum, female, 464
laceration of, 464
operation for, 465
male, 472
anal triangle, 476
bony landmarks, 472
central point of, 473
extra vasion of blood and urine into, 475
fascias of, 473
Colles's, 473
superficial, 473
triangular ligament, 473
ischiorectal abscess, 476
treatment, 476
ischiorectal fossa, 476
nerves of, 476
INDEX.
623
Perineum, male, operations on, 475
lithotomy, lateral, 476
median, 475
perineal section, 475
perineal spaces, 474
deep, 474
superfical, 474
urogenital triangle, 472
vessels of, 476
Periosteum of orbit, 74
Peritoneum, 396
anteroposterior section of, 397
caecal folds, 413
ileocaecal fold, inferior, 414
ileocaecal fold, superior, 413
retrocolic fold, 414
caecal fossae, 413
ileocaecal fossa, inferior, 414
ileocaecal fossa, superior, 413
retrocolic fossas, 414
cavity cf, greater, 397, 398
lesser, 398
coronary ligament, 397
foramen of Winslow, 398
left lateral ligament of liver, 398
lienorcnal ligament, 399
mesentery, 374, 398
mesocolon, transverse, 398
omentum, gastrosplenic, 399
greater, 398
lesser, 398
recto-uterine (Douglas's) pouch, 398
transverse section of, 398
uterovesical fold, 398
Peritonsillar abscess, 115
Perivascular lymph-sheath,
Peroneal artery, 550
ligation of, 550
Petit's triangle, 377, 394
Petrosal sinus, inferior, 13
Peyer's patches, 409
Pfannenstiel, abdominal incision of, 382
Phalanges, 351
dislocation of,
distal and middle phalanges, 363
on metacarpal bones, 362
proximal, of thumb, 362
fractures of, 364
treatment of, 364
Pharyngitis, 123
Pharyngotomy, 125
subhyoidean, 16 r
Pharynx, 117
adenoids, 122
removal of, 122
Eustachian tube, 118
foreign bodies in, 124
fossa >f Rosenmuller, 123
mucous membrane of, 1 23
openings into
larynx, 121
obstruction at, 122
mouth, 121
contractures of, 121
oesophagus, 122
posterior nares, 118
pharyngeal tonsil, 122; aponeurosis, 116
pharyngitis, 123
relation of internal carotid artery to, 123
retropharyngeal abscess (see Abscess)
Phimosis, 466
Pial hemorrhage, 23
Pia mater, 2 2
Pigeon breast, 172
Piles (see Hemorrhoids)
Pirogoff's amputation, 560
Pisiform bone, 349
Plantar abscess, 575
deep, 575
incision for, 575
superficial, 575
arteries, 572
external, 572
internal, 572
ligation of, 573
fascia, 567
abscess beneath, 575
Pleura, 194
boundaries of, 195
empyema, 200
in lumbar incisions, 195, 429
paracentesis of, 200
pleural effusion, 191
Pleural effusion, 191
dilatation of heart as cause of, 191
Plexus, brachial, 225
choroid, 30
pampiniform, 385
Pneumogastric nerve, 137
Point, pre-auricular, 40
Rolandic, inferior, 40
superior, 40, 42
Sylvian, 40, 42
Pons, 31
crossed paralysis of, 32
hemorrhage into, 32
Popliteal artery, 544
ligation of, 544
Portal obstruction, 420
anastomosis of superficial veins in, 420
vein, 420
Postcentral convolution of brain, 33
Postprostatic pouch, 446
Pott's disease of spine, 480
fracture, 557
treatment, 558
position, in fractures of tibia, 551
in Potts' fracture, 559
Pouch of Douglas, 398, 454
kidney, 422
recto-uterine, 398
Poupart's ligament, 377
Pre-auricular point, 40
Precentral convolution of brain, ^3
Precuneus, 34
Prefrontal area of brain, 35
functions of, 35
Prepatellar bursa, 538
inflammation of, 538
Process, angular, external, of frontal bone, 40
internal, of frontal bone, 46
coracoid, 181
falciform, 390
hamular, 112
mastoid, 4
styloid, of radius, 332
of ulna, 303
Progressive spinal muscular atrophy, 488
Prolapse of rectum, 434
of vagina, 434
Pronated foot, 577
treatment, 578
Pronators of forearm, 304
Prostatectomy, 450
perineal, 450
suprapubic, 450
»24
INDEX.
Prostate gland, 448
abscess of, 451
capsule of, 449
hypertrophy of, 449, 450
prosiatectoniy, 450
perineal, 450
suprapubic, 450
relations of, 450
separable space, 451
sheath of, 449
structure of, 450
veins of, 450
Psoas abscess, 481
muscle, 434, 504
Pterion, 39, 42
Pubic bone, 499
Puncta lachrymalia, 84
Pyelonephritis, 428
Pylorectomy, 405
Pyloroplasty, 405
Quadrate lobule of brain, 34
Quadratus lumborum muscle, 393
Rachitic kyphosis, 479
rosary, 172
Radial artery, 316, 359
in hand, 359
branches, 360
ligation of, on dorsum of hand, 348
fossa, 280
nerve, 265, 277, 321
branches in forearm, 320
deep, 321
superficial, 321
volar interosseous, 320
distribution in hand, 360
paralysis of, 277
tubercle, dorsal, 331
Radiocarpal joint (see Wrist), 333
Radio-ulnar articulation, inferior, 332
dislocation of, 345
ligaments of, 333
movements of, 333
superior, 283
ligaments of, 283
Radius, 281, 304
dislocation of head of, 295
treatment, 295
epiphysis of, lower, 344
separation of, 344
upper, 300
separation of, 299
fractures of, Colles's, 342
treatment, 343
head and neck, 299
treatment, 299
lower end with forward displacement, 344
shaft, 322
above insertion of pronator radii
teres, 323
below insertion of pronator radii
teres, 323
treatment, 323
lower end of, 331
operations on, 328
Ranula, 108 ; treatment, 109
Rectal examinations, 439
Rectocele, 435, 464
Recto-urethralis muscle, 438
Recto-uterine fold, 455
pouch, 398
Rectovesical pouch, 446
Rectum (see Intestine, large)
Rectus abdominis muscle, 375
sheath of, 375
Region or regions:
of abdomen, 370
epigastric, 370
hypochondriac, 370
hypogastric, 370
iliac, 370
lumbar, 370
umbilical, 370
of ankle, 553
of arm, 266
of back, 477
of cheek, 49
of chest, 192
of elbow, 280
of eye, 72
of forearm, 303
frontal, 45
of hip, 499
of knee, 533
laryngeal, 129
lumbar, 392
of neck, 127
of shoulder, 217
spine, 477
submaxillary, pus in, 154
submental, 129
temporal, 46
of thigh, 519
tracheal, 1 29
of wrist, 330
Reil, island of, 28, 33
Renal arteries, 426
Resection of ankle, 555
of clavicle, 250
of condyle of lower-jaw, 71
of elbow, 301
of humerus, upper end, 251
of inferior dental nerve, 60
of jaw, lower, 7 1
upper, 55
of knee, 542
of lingual nerve, 60
of maxilla, superior (see Jaw)
of metatarsophalangeal joint of foot, 580
of rectum, 443
of rib, 201
of scapula, 251
of tongue, no
of ureter, 431
Retina, 77, 82
affections of, 77, 82
detachment of, 77
hemianopia, 82
binasal, 82
bitemporal, 82
homonymous, 82
lateral, 82
Retrocolic fold, 414
fossa, 414
Retropharyngeal abscess, 90, 116, 123, 156
treatment, 116
space, 116
Retzius, foramen of, 22
Ribs, 174
cervical, 175
fracture of, 175
Ridge, sublingual, 108
supercilliary, 45
Rings, abdominal (see Abdomen)
Rivinus, duct of, 108
«l
INDEX.
625
Rolandic area of brain, 35
functions of, 3 ^^
point, inferior, 40
superior, 40, 42
Rolando, fissure of, 33
RosenmuUer, fossa of, 123
Roser-X^laton line, 502, 505
Rupture of biceps tendon, 270
of bladder, 446
of penis, 466
Sacro-iliac joint, 433
Sacrosciatic foramen, greater. 434
lesser, 434
structures passing through, 434
ligament, greater, 434
lesser, 434
Salpingectomy, 460, 461
Santorini, cartilages of, 124
duct of, 423
fissures of, 86
Saphenous opening, 390
Sarcocele, 469
Scalp, 1
abscess of, 5
subaponeurotic, 6
subcutaneous, 5
subpericranial, 6
affections of blood-vessels of, 6
aneurismal varix, 6
arterial aneurism, 6
cirsoid aneurism, 6
telangiectasis, 6
treatment, 7
varicose aneurism, 6
venous angioma, 6
arteries of, 3
contusions of, 5
haematomas of, 5
inflammation of, 5
layers of, i
affections involving, 4
lymphatics of, 4
pericranium, 2
tumors of, 7
cephalhydrocele, 7
dermoid tumors, 7
encephalocele, 7
meningocele, 7
sebaceous cyst, 7
wounds of, 4
treatment of, 5
Scaphoid bone of hand, 349
of foot, 562
Scapula, 219
excision of, 251
fractures of, 243
acromium process, 244
body, 244
coracoid process, 244
glenoid process, 244
surgical neck, 244
separationof epiphysis of acromion and cora-
coid processes, 247
winged, 180
Scarpa's fascia, 374
triangle, 522
Schede's operation for varicose veins, 557
Schlemm, canal of, 79
Schneiderian membrane, 99
Sciatica, 528
Sciatic nerve, 527
exposure of, 527
40
Sciatic notch, great, 504
Sclerotic coat of eye, 77
affections of, 77
Scoliosis, 479, 495
Scrobiculus cordis, 180
Scrotum, 467
blood-supply of, 467
dartos of, 467
extravasation of blood and urine into, 467
treatment of, 468
operations on, 467
skin of, 467
Sebaceous cyst of neck, 151
of scalp, 7
Semilunar bone, 349
cartilages of knee, 538
dislocation of, 541
fold of Douglas, 376
Seminal vesicles, 452
operations on, 452
Sensory area of brain, 37
Septum lucidum, 30
Septum of nose (see Nose)
Sheath of vessels of neck, 153
pus in, 155
Shoulder, 217
acromioclavicular joint of, 222
affections of, 218
amputation of, 247
flap method, 247
interscapulothoracic, 250
racket method, 248
axilla, 229
bones of, 219
bursae of, 255
diseases of the joint and bursae, 253
dislocations of, 232
anterior, 232
treatment, 236
posterior, 239
epiphyseal separations of, 247
acromium, 247
coracoid, 247
upper end of humerus, 247
muscles of, 226
shoulder-girdle, 217
fractures of, 241
movements of, 227
shoulder- joint, 222
effusions into, 255
ligaments of, 223
movements of, 253
sternoclavicular joint, 222
surface anatomy of, 227
Shrapnell's membrane, 87
Sigmoid cavity, greater, 281
lesser, 303
flexure, 417
position of, 401
notch, 331
sinus, 13
Silver fork deformity, 343
Sinus or sinuses:
cavernous, 14
costomediastinal, 194
costophrenic, 194
ethmoidal, 73, 102
in childhood, 10
suppuration in, 102
drainage of, 102
frontal, 10, 45, loi
in childhood, 10
operation on, 102
626
INDEX.
Sinuses, frontal, suppuration in, loi
drainage of, 102
lateral, 12
relations of brain to, 93
thrombosis of, 89, 90
maxillary, loi, 103
disease of, 103
in childhood, 10
operations on, 103
occipital, 13
petrosal, inferior, 13
superior, 13
pocularis, 454
sigmoid, 13
sphenoidal, 103
in childhood, 10
suppuration in, 103
drainage of, 103
sphenoparietal, 13
straight, 13
superior longitudinal, 12
transverse, 12
urogenital, 453
Skin of abdomen, 374
Skull, 8
in adults, 10
cerebral venous sinuses, 1 2
cavernous, 13
lateral or transverse, 12
occipital, 13
sigmoid, 13
straight, 13, 31
superior longitudinal, 1 2
superior and inferior petrosal, 13
torcular Herophili, 12
fractures of, 15
by contrecoup, 16
hemorrhage in, 16
injury to nerves in, 19
frontal sinuses, 10, 10 1
mastoid cells, 11
operations on, 91
mastoid process, 11
suprameatal triangle, 12, 91
sutures, 11
tables of, 10
trephining, 18, 44
in childhood, 8
cells and air sinuses, 9
ethmoidal sinus, 9
frontal sinus, 9
mastoid antrum, 9
maxillary sinus, 9
sphenoidal sinus, 9
dura, 9
fontanelles, 8
fractures of, 14
Snuff-box, 337
Sound, urethral, passage of, 471
Speech centre, 35
Spermatic artery, 385
cord, 385, 469
sheath of, 469
varicocele, 469
operations for, 469
vessels of, 469
Spheno-ethmoidal recess, 10 1
Sphenoidal sinus (see Sinus)
Sphenoid bone, 8
Sphenoparietal sinus, 13
Spina bifida, 480
operation on, 480
Spinal accessory nerve, 20
Spinal accessory nerve, injury to, in fractures of
skull, 20
column, 478
caries of, 4S0
curves of, 478
deformities of, 478
kyphosis, 479
lordosis, 479
scoliosis, 479
spina bifida, 480
deviations of, above the sacrum, 495
injuries to, 481
dislocations of, 481
fractures of, 482
nervous lesions in, 484
laminectomy, 489
movements of, 478
psoas abscess, 481
spinal cord, 482
meninges, 484
spinous processes, 477
vertebrae of, 478
cord, 482
cervical enlargement, 482
functions of, 487
hemorrhage into, 486
extradural, 486
hematomyelia, 486
intradural, 486
lesions of, 487
of gray matter, 487
transverse, 483
localization of, 483, 484
muscular paralysis in, 484
of white matter, 488
lumbar enlargement, 482
meninges of, 484
arachnoid, 485
dura, 484
pia, 485
operations on, 488
laminectomy, 489
spmal puncture, 488
segments of, 483
lesions of, 484
spinal localization, 487
tracts of, 487
vessels of, 485
localization, 487
meninges (see Spinal cord)
puncture, 488
Spine, anterior inferior, of ilium, 500, 504
superior, of ilium, 500, 504
posterior inferior, of ilium, 504
superior, of ilium, 500, 504
of Spix, 117
suprameatal, 91
Spleen, 373, 424
ligaments of, 424
position of, 374
relations of, 424
splenic enlargements, 424
wounds of, 424
Splenic artery, 403
flexure of colon, 374
Sprain of ankle, 556
treatment, 556
of subastragaloid joint, 565
Staphyloma, anterior, 77
posterior, 77
Stenson's duct, 51
Stephanion, 40
Sternoclavicular joint, 22a
INDEX.
627
Stcmomastoid muscle, 4
division of, for torticollis, 140
Sternum, 174
fractures of, 174
Stimson, abdominal incision of, 382
Stomach, 373, 401
blood-supply of, 403
carcinoma of, 404
adhesions in, 405
perforation of, 405
ulceration in, 405
cardiac end, 373, 402
contracted stomach, 401, 403
dilatation of, 403
fundus of, 373
gastro ptosis, 403
hour-glass deformity of, 401
lower border, 373
lymphatics of, 403
operations on, 405
gastrectomy, 405
gastro -enterostomy, 406
gastroplication, 405
gastrostomy, 405
gastrotomy, 405
pylorectom}^ 405
pyloroplasty, 405
percussion of, 482
position of, 399, 402
pylorus, 373, 402
relations of, 402
Traube's semilunar space, 402
ulcer of, 403
perforation of, 404
veins of, 403
Straight sinus, 13, 31
Stricture of oesophagus, 212
of urethra, 472
Studsgaard operation for excision of wrist, 347
Stye, 83
Styloid process of radius, 332
of ulna, 303
Subacromial bursa, 255
Subaponeurotic layer of scalp, 2
Subarachnoid space, 22
Subastragaloid joint, 564
ligaments of, 565
sprain of, 566
Subclavian artery, 147
ligation of, 148
Subdiaphragmatic abscess, 420, 423
Subfemoral bursa, 535
Submammary abscess, 185
Submaxillary gland, 132
capsule of, 153
Submental region, 129
Subpericranial tissue of scalp, 3
Subperitoneal fat, 399
Subscapular artery, 260
bursa, 255
Superciliary ridges, 45
Superficial fascia of scalp, i
of abdomen, 374
Superior longitudinal sinus, 12
parietal gyrus, ^;^
petrosal sinus, 13
Supination of forearm, 304
Supramarginal gyrus, 33
Suprameatal spine, 91
triangle, 12, 91
Supra-orbital nerve, 45
operation on, 46
neuralgia, 45
Supra-orbital neuralgia, operation for, 46
Suprarenal gland, 430
Suprasternal notch, 180
pus in, 154
Surgical kidney, 428
Sustentaculum tali, 571
Sutures of skull, 1 1
Sylvian point, 40, 42
Sylvius, fissure of, 28, 33
Syme's amputation, 559
Synechia, anterior, 79
posterior, 79
Syringomyelia, 488
Tabes dorsalis, 488
Taenia semicircularis, 30
Talipes calcaneus and cavus, 578
treatment, 579
equinus, 578
treatment, 578
planus, 577 •
treatment, 578
valgus, 577
treatment, 578
varus, 576
treatment, 576
Tarsometatarsal amputation, 575
Telangiectasis, 7
Temporal artery, 3, 48, 52
bones, 8
convolutions of the brain, 334
fascia, 47
muscle, 65
region, 46
ridge, 39
Temporomandibular articulation, 64
ligaments of, 64
Temporosphenoidal lobe of brain, 32
blood-supply of, 29
Tendon or tendons:
conjoined, 388
of foot, 571
location of, 571
of hand, 356
wounds of, 364
sheaths of hand, suppuration in, 366
tendo Achillis, 557
actioh in fracture of fibula, 558
of tibia, 551
tenotomy of, 552, 558
tendo calcaneus (Achillis), 557
Tendo-oculi, 82
Tenon, capsule of, 74
Tentorium cerebelli, 20
Testicle, 468
abscess of, 469
castration, 469
coverings of, 469
descent of, 383, 468
development of, 383, 453
epididymis, 468
epididymitis, 469
hernia of, 469
hydrocele, 384, 468
orchitis, 469
size and position of, 468
undescended, 468
Thalamus, 30, 31
blood-supply of, 28
functions of, 37
Thenar eminence, 353
Thigh, 519
amputation, 532
628
INDEX.
Thigh, amputation ofr^t ftip-jdlnt, 532
femoral artery 523
femur, fractures of (see Fractures)
Hunter's canal, 524
lymphatics of groin, 527
excision of, 527
muscles of, 520
adductors, 522
extensors, 520
flexors, 520
saphenous vein, long or internal, 525
varicosities of, 526
Scarpa's triangle, 522
sciatic nerve, 527
sciatica, 528
structure of, 519
surface anatomy of, 522
Thoracic duct, 140, 214
wounds of, 214
Thorax (see Chest), 171
surface anatomy of, 18
Thumb,
amputation of, 368
carpometacarpal, 369
distal phalanx, 368
metacarpophalangeal, 369
dislocation of proximal phalanx of, 362
Thyroglossal duct, 107
in cervical fistulae, 170
Thyroid cartilage, 125
fracture of, 125
gland, 164
arteries of, 164
capsule of, 153
operations on, 163
parathyroid, 166
venis of, 165
Thyrotomy, 161
Tibia, 534
fractures of, 551
Tibial artery, anterior, 598
ligation of, 548
posterior, 549
ligation of, 549
Tibiofibular joint, inferior, 554
ligaments of, 554
Toes (see Foot)
Tongue, 107
arteries of, no
cancer of, no
excision of, 1 10
foramen caecum of, 107
glossitis, no
incisions in, no
glosso-epiglottic folds, 108
lingual tonsil, 108
mucous cysts of, no
papillae of, 107
circum vallate, 107
filiform of, 107
fungiform of, 107
removal of, no
tongue-tie, treatment, 108
Tonsil, faucial, 113
blood-supply of, 114
capsule of, 114, 116
enucleation of, 115
hypertrophy of, 115
peritonsillar abscess, 115
relation to internal carotid artery, 315
removal of, 115
supratonsillar fossa, 113
tumors of, 114
Tonsil, lingual, 108
Luschka's, 122
pharyngeal, 122
Tonsillitis, 1 14
Topographical points of bram, 40
Topography, craniocerebral, 39
Torcular Herophili, 12
Torticollis, 140
Tracheal region, 129
Tracheotomy, 162
Transversalis fascia, 399
muscle, 378
Transverse sinuses, 12
spinal lesions, 483
Trapezium, 350
Trapezius muscle, 4
Trapezoid bone, 350
ligament, 222
Traube's semilunar space, 40 a
Treitz, ligament of, 406
Trephining, 44
for middle meningeal hemorrhage, 18
for posterior branch of middle meningeal, li
Triangle, anal (see Perineum, male)
Bryant's, 505
fascial, 394
Hesselbach's, 387
of Lesser, 146
of neck, 131
anterior, 131; posterior, 137
Petit's, 377, 394
Scarpa's, 522
suboccipital, fig. 182, p. 160
suprameatal, 12
urogenital (see Perineum, male)
Triangular fascia, 377
ligament, 473
anterior or superficial layer, 473
posterior or deep layer, 473
Triceps muscle, 270, 286
fascial expansion of, 270
in resection of elbow, 301
Trifacial nerve, area of distribution of, 63
Gasserian ganglion, 60
operations on, 60
infraorbital branch, 56
removal of, 56
injury to, in fractures of skull, 2C
lingual branch, 60
excision of, 60
mandibular branch, 60
excision, 60
maxillary branch, 56
operation on, 58
Meckel's ganglion, 57
removal of, 57
supra-orbital branch, 45
removal of, 45
Trigone of bladder, 446
Trochlea, 280
Tube, Eustachian, 84, 89
Fallopian, 456
Tubercle, carotid, 149
dorsal radial, 331
of OS calcis, 571
of scaphoid bone, 57:
Tuberculosis of ankle, 55.5
of hip, 515
of knee, 543
of meninges, 23
Tuberosity of fifth metatarsal bone, 571
of ischium, 501
Tumors of axilla, 265
INDEX.
629
Tumors of bladder, 448
of broad ligament, 462
of kidney, 427
of mammary gland, 185
of parotid gland, 54
of scalp, 7
Tunica albuginea, 469
vaginalis, 469
Turbinated bone, inferior, 8, 44, 97, 118
hypertrophy of, 118
middle, 97, 118
superior, 97
Tympanic membrane (see Ear)
Tympanomastoid exenteration, 91, 92
Tympanum (see Ear)
Ulcer, gastric, 403
Ulna, 281, 303
dislocation of, at inferior radio-ulnar joint, 345
epiphysis of, upper, 300
separation of, 300
fracture of lower end, 344
treatment, 344
' olecranon process, 298
treatment, 298
shaft, 325
below middle, 325
treatment, 325
upper third, 325
treatment, 326
lower end of, 332
upper lend of, 281
Ulnar artery, 314, 358
in hand, 358
branches of, 359
ligation of, in forearm, 316
lower third, 317
middle third, 316
upper third, 316
nerve, 320
distribution in hand, 360
operations on, 320
wounds of, 320
Umbilical arteries, 371, 382
hernia (see Hernia)
legion of abdomen, 370
veins, 371
Umbilicus, 371
Unciform bone, 350
Urachus, 382, 387
Ureter, 430
abdominal portion, 431
course of, 431
excision of, 431
operation on, 431
calculi in, 431
in female, 457
points of narrowing, 431
relation of, to genitocrural nerve, 431
Urethra, male, 470
calibre of, 470
distensibility, ^70
length of, 470
muscles of, 471
passage of catheters and sounds, 471
practical applications, 471
relations of, 470
rupture of, 475
treatment of, 475
stricture of, 471
spasmodic, 472
traum.atic, 472
structure, 470
Urethral crest, 471
Urogenital system, development of, 453
triangle (see Perineum, male)
Uterine artery, 458
Uterovesical fold, 398
Uterus, 454
anteflexion of, 459
anteversion of, 459
attachments of, 455
blood-supply of, 458
broad ligament of, 455
cervix, 454
lacerations of, 462
development of, 453
hysterectomy, 460, 461
vaginal, 462
ligaments of, 455
lymphatics of, 458
position of, 454
retroflexion, 459
retroversion, 459
Uvula, 112
Vagina, 457
development of, 453
fornix, anterior, 457
posterior, 457
Vagus nerve, 20
injury to, in fractures of skull, 20
Valve or valves:
Gerlach, 412
ileocaecal, 374, 412
of heart, 206
of rectum (Houston), 439
Varicocele, 469
Varicose aneurism, 7
veins of leg, 526, 550
operation for, 551
Vas deferens, 385, 452, 469
Vater, ampulla of, 407
stone in, 422 . ■
Vein or veins:
of abdominal walls, 380
celiotomy, 380
choroid plexus of, 30
coronary, 403
cystic, 420
deferential, 469
of elbow, 288
epigastric, deep, 380
superficial, 380
superior, 380
ethmoidal, anterior, 98
posterior, 98
femoral, 523
of Galen, 31
gastric, 420
gastro-epiploic, left, 403
right, 403
hemorrhoidal,
inferior, 441
middle, 441
superior, 420, 441
ileocolic, 413
iliac, 436
position of, 374
iliac, circumflex, deep, 380
superficial, 380
jugular, anterior, 135
external, 138
internal, 136
thrombosis of, 136
wounds of, 136
630
INDEX.
Veins of leg, 550
median, 288
median basilic, 289
median cephalic, 2S9
mesenteric, superior, 420
of nose, 98
ophthalmic, inferior, 81
superior, 81
pampiniform plexus of, 385
portal, 420
of prostate gland, 450
pyloric, 403, 420
radial, 288
renal, 426
saphenous, long or internal, 525, 550
excision of, for varicose veins, 551
short or external, 550
of spinal cord, 480
splenic, 420
of thyroid gland, 165
ulnar, 289
umbilical, 371
vena parumbilicalis, 380
vena thoracica epigastrica longa tegumen-
tosa, 380
venous plexuses of rectum, 441
vertebral plexuses, 484, 486
Velum interpositum, 31
Venous angioma, 7
Ventricles, fifth, of brain, 30
lateral, of brain, 30, 43
tapping of, 43
third, of brain, 30
blood-supply of, 28
Vertebrae, thoracic, 176
Vertebral artery, 25, 147
column (see Spinal column)
Vestibule of vagina, 462
Viscera, abdominal, 372, 399
position of, 372, 399
pelvic, 438
Visual area of brain, 37
Vitelline duct, 371, 382
Vomer, 8
Vulvo-vaginal glands, 463
Walking, 498
part played by various joints in, 499
Walther, ducts of, 108
Weir's abdominal incision, 383
Wharton, duct of, 108
Whitlow, 367
Winslow, foramen of, 398
Wirsung, duct of, 423
Wolffian body, 453
duct, 453
Wounds of cheek, 49
of epigastric artery, deep, 379
in abdominal operations, 380
superior, 379
of hand, 364
of heart, 207
operation for, 207
of lips, 104
of liver, 420
of parotid duct, 51
of scalp, 4
of spleen, 424
of thoracic duct, 214
Wrisberg, cartilages of, 1 24
ligament of, 537
Wrist, 330
amputation at, 347
annular ligament, anterior, 335
structures passing beneath, 336
structures passing over, 336
posterior, 336
structures passing beneath, 337
bones of, 330
compound ganglion of, 342
deep fascia of, 335
dislocations of, 345
at radiocarpal joint, 345
at radio-ulnar joint, 345
wrist-drop, 334
excision of, 345
fractures of, Colles's, 342
lower end of radius and ulna, 342
inferior radio-ulnar articulation, 332
ligaments of, ^^^
movements of, ^33
ligation of radial artery on dorsum of hand.
348
muscles of, 335
snuff-box, 337
surface anatomy of, 338
tendons of, 336
Wrist-joint, $;ii
ligaments of, 333
movements of, 333
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