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GOOD AUTHORITY

.■roposed Re(onii of Wrilinj. and Prinliag.

■.P'i^e'^I'^"-^ ^rffsodiat^trrahmaf of the EngJUh Lan-
•■ guage,''' by. Thomas Sheridam, A. M., ritn nfrli b cent-
juri ago, 3]| (ttaloiii- elnitrakt is med, and is veri apro-
prieCTklcahfl.'ilT Ijat Icynd ov karakturs twiq liis "nils"
CO guctli and f orcibli dimand. Heridan'a ruls kurur
Jil hoi ground.

" Hwen wards ar koncidurd as Ji! type ot oounds, in
ordur tu mek Jiem koricpond tu Jicr arkitypc Jit for
f oloiTi" ruls Gud bt ctriktii obsurTd :

" J . Mc3 karaktur find bf effl doun lu eni wutd twiq
is not pronounct.

" 2. Gvri dictit];kt cimpl cound find Lav b dictii|-kt
karaktur tu mark it, for hwig it fiud juniformli ctand.

"3. XE cem karaktur fiud nevur bt cet doun as Sit
repriaentativ ov tu difuront counda.

"4. Kompound coonds Gud bt markt onli by cuq
karakturs aa wil natjurali produc tiae counda, upon
her bti']" pronounct akordiij* tu her nems in hi alfabet.

" yita rulswasr ctriktii obaurvd by hi tu guctli celi-
breted langwegis ov old Srlc and -Fom; inoomuq hat
hi nolcg ov her alfabet alon, tugehur wih hi mannr
ov her goinirf Ictura CO aa tu mck cilabls and words,
encbld evri won, wihout farhur ed ov ruls or macturs,
tu pranounc her wurds propurli at cyt in rtdiij" ; and
hi praktia ov e f u wfko onli myt rendur hem odeptc in
Jil art. Hwajraa in ht iifglifi ail his ruls ar era frl-
kwcntli yyoleted, or rahur indld, czi totali dicrigarded,
hat litl or no aeictenc kan hi diryvd tu pronnnoiefiun
from bukc, and hi art ov rfdiq" propurli rikwyrs hi
Ichurov menijirs."

PRAGitlJC

IFCiilTI^I

PHONOGRAPHY;

OR.

*•■¥ yi S

WRITING BY SOUND;

A COMPK^isYSTEM OP SH0RT-HAN1L\ A

COriTAIMNG

A PERFECT ANALYSIS OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE^

M'lTH

A NEW 4^PHABET,

AND PHILOSOPHICAL ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE HUMAN VOICE.

BY.KEXES A. BAILEYJ

*• When new things are demonstrated, the mind rpceives them by a kind
of affinity, as if we had known them before. ",^il|Olttrxj

New Uork:

,,AfK^ BAILEY, 16 SPRUCE STREET.

1848..'\t^\;

-3 9.

■ccording to Aot of Congmi, In the yeu IMS, bj
KBTBS A. BAILXT,

■ Boolhtin Diililet of

PREFACE.

TO THE STUDENT*

<
Ant person who is desirous of acquiring a knowledge

of pHONooRAPHt-, and of beccmiing familiar with its
practice, has only to devote a few hours to the study of
the rules embodied in the following woA, observkg the
proper order of the Lessons. The instruction is so ar-
ranged that, in some cases, a knowledge of a preceding
rule is requisite to a fall understanding of that which
follows. Therefore it will be injudicious to pursue the
subject promiscuously. By attention to this advice, the
learner may become a bslf-freceptok ; and obtain a
ready use of a most deUghtf ul mode of writing ; one which
cannot be esceUed for brevity, without either sacrificing
legibility, or rendering it so exceedingly tedious to learn
as to be of little or no value.

The system of Phonography here presented, excels
every other yet offered to the public, in the simpHcity and
correcUiess <^ its principles, and the ease with which it may
be cuH|uired. The employm^it of characters to represent
•fi Ihe element2»y sounds in the language, renders the
writing perfectly easy to read ; and a sufficient degree of
Ibpevity is obtamed by a few iHmple rules hannomzing with
its analc^cal basis— -c^y a small portion being particularly
adapted to the use of reporting. It has been constracted

Vi PREFACE.

with a special regard to^sbein^ easily learned. With
but k small amftint of^practice it may be employed in
ordinary business matters, letter ccwrespondence, journal-
izing, preparing papers for the press, etc. ; and with more
experience, it becomes a ready facility in the hands of the
professional reporter.

This system was first published under the title of ** A
Pronouncing Stenography" in 1831, and subsequently,
" The jRetporter^s Guide," in 1844, from which but a few
trifling changes have been made in the present work;
though it has been considerably enlarged, and the illustra-
tions greatly multiplied.

The Author flatters himself that his " Analysis of the
Voice'* will be acceptable to the lovers of true science.
Speech, considered, phonologically, has never yet been
handled in any very satisfactory manner by philosophers,
though it has attracted the attention of the most eminent.
The illustrations here given are new and impressive. The
elements of vocal language are exhibited in their true
relations ; not merely questionable relations between two
or three sounds, but with regard to each forming a part
of a perfect sphere. This department has been the sub-
ject of much study, as pleasing as laborious ; and the
Author hopes he has treated it with sufficient clearness
to repay the attention which may be devoted to it by his
readers.

. The Student is also recommended to mskt frequent u^
of the pen in the application of the rules.

INTRODUCTORY LECTURE.

ELEMENTS OF LANOnifiS.

/V » -¥-^ i- tf> «- w-M- M - tf^« -ywww-^-wv^ i ^

Man finds his most eleyated and ^inobling employment in
the pursuit of knowledge. Of all the means with which he
has been provided through the wisdom and benificence of the
Great Creator, for his own eleYation and advancement, and for
the gratification of those propensities by which he is ever im-
pelled to enlarge the sphere of his observation and extend his
acquaintance with material, spiritual, and ideal existences.
Language may be regarded as having the strongest claims up-
on his consideration. It is the key to all knowledge : it opens
to his view the treasures of the universe ; bringing within
his reach and comprehension, and rendering subservient td
his interests, all the laws of nature. Without this inexhaust-
ible resource, all other means of securing his wfell-being would
be of no avail.

Mind, in communion with mind, acquires strength, perceive^
incentives, and is impelled to action by their power. From
material things, also, the mind derives light, truth and motive.
The great medium of this communication is Language, which
presents an appreciable representative of the idea, fact, or con-
dition communicated.

This universal expression constitutes the strongest l^nd of
human society ; tends to unity of feeling and equality of state ;
renders each successive generation the possessor of the,accu^

8 ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE.

mulated wisdom of the past; and gives life and perpetuity to
productions of ev^ry age. In its Jargest sense, language may
be considered as consisting of two kinds — Natural and ArH^
fidal.

Ittnirat L(iri«ie.

It was indispensable to the early organization of society,
and the development of man's intellectual powers, that some
means of communication should subsist among men, through
which their thoughts and feelings might J[>e made known ; and
also between man and the beasts over which he was appointed
to hold dominion. The wants of those more immediately un-
der his subjection must be supplied ; and his commands, to be
obeyed Must iSrst be understood. To sectlre the highest degree
of ntitityj It was reqtiisite that the means of intercourse should
be rendered both pennanent and universally intelligible. This
could have been aecomplithed by Him only all of whose works
ar6 perfect. By His infinite wisdom and power, all nature,
animate and inanimate, has been impressed with a self-inter-
preting index of character, condition, and tendency; com-
prising if! its diversified modes of expression, form, complex-
i&n, motion, Ume, and every variety of circumstance. It acts
without design ; is not the result of hamm labor and device ;
aSffl being perfect odinits of no improvement

Ntfttiral language is the effect of what it expresses : Thus,
the form bowed with age, the prostrate coluMns and mold-
ering ruins of ancient cities, speak of the ravages time has
made ; the Verdure of the field proclaims the approach of wel-
come spring; trembling limbs tell of fearful forebodings.
Nature has fixed in a state of subserviency to the passions and
susceptibilities all those physical organs which are requisite
to so expressive and comprehensive a language, and secured
in every breast a sympathetic interpreter. The birds of the
field and forest, nature's musicians, derive from this source
their endless variety of song, warbling forth in delightful
tones t^ttr joyous greetings of the rising sttmmer siU). What

ELfiMfiNTS OP LANGtrAGE. 9

heart so alien that it cannot feel the truth so sweetly ex-
pressed — all nature is gay and happy !

The human voice gives expression to the passions and feel-
ings, whether of love or hate, pleasure or pain, by their own
peculiar tones and inflections. Grief finds expression in pite-
ous tones, and communicates by sighs and tears, not merely
the fact of suffering, but also sorrow itself to the heart of the
spectator. Every degree of pleasure, from mere undisturbed
content to the greatest ecStacy of delight, are faithfully deline-
ated by corresponding tonei^ and expressions of countenance.
Upon this natural conformation of sound to the feelings is
based a vocal language which is alike understood by people
of every nation and tongue ; for nature's laws are impartial
and unchangeable. Even an infant, before it is able to speak-
er understand a single arbitrary word, is susceptible of plea-
sure and pain, through the influence of those tones of voice
and distortions of face by which they are naturally expressed.
The countenance derives its various expression from the in**
voluntary action of the nerve's, which stamp upon the face a
true index of the emotions of the heart, and with such pre-
cision that hypocrisy itself may not suppress or counterfeit it.
One bright feature gives a glowing beauty to the whole — na-
tures language is that of truth. The richest gems of poetry
tind music are of nature's own revealing. From her pages^
too, are unfolded the knowledge and light in which science
lays its foundaticms and perfects the superstructure.

Artifieiftl langnage.

Artificial, or scientific language, is that which has been de-
vised by the imitative and inventive powers of man, for the
communication of ideas, perceptions and feelings. This great
acquisition has not been the result of a single effort merely;
but by gradual development language has progressed from its
incipient, or natural, to its present almost exclusively artificial
state. The provisions of nature have not been superseded by
the works of art ; hut rather through them the mind has dis-

10 SLSMENTS OF LANOUAQE.

covered its own inexhaustible resources, and proceeded to their
development. While in natural language gesture and sound
are employed, governed by impulse only, science extends and
controls their use by prescribed rules ; giving to natural phe-
nomena artificial signification, and adapting science to the
expression of nature. The florist, never presuming to improve
the symbols of nature, derives a sentiment from every flower
by arbitrary interpretation. The musician, on the other hand,
relies entirely upon natural susceptibility for an appreciation
of his mo^t skilful and scientific productions.

The giving expression to the thoughts and conceptions of
the mind, by intelligible representatives, may justly be regarded
as the noblest and most beneficial invention which human in-
genuity has ever accomplished.

Before introducing the main object of the present work, it
is proposed to trace the progress of language from its origin,
through every stage of improvement, briefly noticing its more
prominent features, as presented to view, by the successive
changes through w]iich it has passed. Artificial language is
composed of Gesture, Speech, and Writing,

GESTURE.

As motion necessarily precedes sound in the order of nataTe»
it is but reasonable to suppose that it was the first to become
significant ; and that gesture, though closely allied to the use
of vocal sounds, was the means first employed in the commu-
nication of thoughts; that is, by the motion of the limbs,
stamp of countenance, and the various attitudes of the body.
A motion by which an object of aversion might be repelled
would indicate disgust. Height, depth, and direction, might
readily be expressed by a movement of the hand ; but in the
representation of some ideas, as periods of time, varieties of
color, gestiire would not be competent.

Employed as a secondary representative of ideas, that is, as
a substitute for spoken words, gestural expression may be car-
ried to any degree of perfection. As an auxiliary to speech,
it is a very agreeable and effective accompaniment, unless in-

ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE. 11

dulged to excess; and he is truly eloquent who, in the ezerdse
of ardent feelings and lofty aspirations, permits nature to speak
through her own medium,, untrammeled hy rigid rules or ca-
pricious taste.

The ancient Greeks and Romans, hy studying closely the
laws of nature in the adap^tion of gestures and musical tones,
were enabled to invest their oral languages with that degree
of elegance, pathos, and power, which has rendered them so
celebrated and established their superiority over those of other
nations. Their orators,, to be such, were necessarily philoso-
phers.

Within a few years, gesture, more completely artificial, has
been adapted to the necessities of that unfortunate class, the
deaf and dumb, by an alphabet of manual signs, which, being
capable of an inexhaustible variety of composition, afbrds
them gr^at facilities for moral culture and the acquisition of
knowledge.

SPEECH.

Speech is the expression of the conceptions of the mind by
the sounds of the voice and their modulations. That which
80 eminently distinguishes man from the lower animals, in
regard to the power of vocal communication, is not so much
his physical organization as his intellectual endowments.
The faculty of imitation and a consciousness of possessing
organs of speech^ together with a knowledge of the laws by
which they are controlled, and the noble ambition which
prompts to their use, give him unlimited superiority to the
brute creation. When we consider the fact, that animals are
able to communicate with those of their own species, under
the impulse of fear, desire, love, or anger, by the utterance of
sounds perfectly intelligible to them, we can easily understand
how their vocal powers might be employed, were they also
possessed of intellect, in mental intercourse with man and
each other. The cries of the chicken/ according to the princi-
ples of natural language, indicate its distress ; and its natural
protector, by the same law, instantly interprets this appeal ant)

12 KLXMSNTS OF LANOUAOB.

flies to its rescue. The hen, in view of approaching danger*
uttera cautious admonitions to her young, by which they are
led to hide themselves from the supposed enemy. Animals are
also susceptible of true impressions from particular tones of
voice, though not of their own species. The dog is remark-
ably attentive to the voice of his master, as well as to those
gestures by which it is usually accompanied.

History furnishes us with lio account of the progress made
made by man, in the earliest state of society, toward the ac-
quisition of a spoken language ; and reason will not permit
us to assume that it was a divine gift, provided as he was with
every requisite facility for attaining it. . The first suggestions
of the use of wprds must have been obtained, from observing
that the various emotions were naturally expressed by the ut-
terance of sounds, accompanied by peculiar shapings of the
mouth and muscular action, a correct interpretation of which
required no previous instruction or experience. By imitation
and association men were then able arbitrarily to communicate
ideas analogous to those expressions of feeling and passion,
from which they derived their vocabulary. In the various
sounds produced by the different species of animals were per<r
ceived ih^ir names. Their actions and a variety o| circum-
stances might be intelligibly traced, to considerable extent, by
imitative tGOies and signs.

The principle of analogy marked each step in the advance-
ment toward a more extensive oral intercourse, until conver*
satidn, could not only be adressed directly to the senses, but
embrace wiUiiu its sphere immaterial existences and introduce
the human mind to an acquaintance with the spiritual world.

Beautiful illustrations of the pip^ess of acquiring the art
of speech by the human race, in its infancy, may be found in
the exercises of a single child, in learning the first words and
phrases he is able to comprehend : He hears the word '* come/*
pronounced in tones of gentle invitation, and with intent gaze
seeks further indications 6f its import in the eye of the speak-
er. The express^n of the countenance and motion of the
hands are also closely scrutinized, until he fully understands

BLfiMEKTB 07 LANGDAdS. 13

^nd yields to the solicitation. From the accompanying ex-
pression of countenance, gestures, and tones of voice, he soon
comprehends the meaning of tbfT words ** go awcnff* thus,
while natare is his interpreter, memory is increasing its store
with symbols of ideas. It was so with men in ^eir early
attempts to communicate thoughts — gestures, inflections Of the
Toice, and all the endowments of natare, were brought into
Requisition, to give meaning and force to oonyersation and in«
crease the copiousness of language.

'Though Tocal sounds are of the same nature among all na-
tions and individuals, and are produced by the same action of
the organs, yet, as society expanded, and the diversity of in-
terests increased between the dijSerent sections into which the
human family were divided, we can perceive that there would
inevitably arise a great clisparity of dialect, owing to their
different combination of sounds and appropriation of words.
Hence the three thousand tongues now spoken among man-
kind.

An implicit belief in the Scriptural i^scount of the Babel
confusion of language does not necessarily involve a belief, that
the interposition of Divine Providence was in opposition \o
natural laws. Vain ambition prompted men to piling a heap
of earth, upon which they rested all their hopes of aggran-
dizement — ** Let us build us a city and a tower whose top may
reach ^unto heaven ; and let us make us a name, lest we be
scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth.'' This
scheme, promising the same benefits, and yet calculated to en-
tail the same evils as that policy which huddles people to-
gether in densely populated cities at the present day, was not
at all adapted to the promotion of the highest good of the
human family. Such narrow yiews, could they have been
realized , would have permitted the " face of the whole earth"
to remain forever a barren waste. Their language was con-
founded, the children of men scattered abroad, and the earth
peopled. Men, aspiring to greatness, should learn to build
with a nobler and naore suitable material, than brick and mor-
tar, if tfcey woi|ld not be thivarted by the hand of God. ^

14 ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE.

The mysterious mechanism and adaptation of that wonder-
ful apparatus which is the source of the voice, and the innu-
merable and Complicated motions by which the vocal organs
are applied in the utterance of speech, present a volume of
natural science worthy the attention of every mind, and affi>rd-
ing profitable and entertaining employment for every capacity.
The human voice 1 molded at will ~td the expression of every
thought and passion ! now giving perceptibility to the majes-
tic structures of intellect, then bearing on its subtle elements
the delicate creations of fancy ; clothing anger wifb most ter-
rific aspect, or lending to love its greatest charms ; alike the
servant of all : every sentiment and purpose here find a ready
minister. This is, indeed, a mighty instrument oi good and
evil-^let it notT)e perverted from, the high and holy purposes
for which it has been instituted by its Divine Author !

WRITING.

The great design of language, as a channel of intercourse
between men, would be but partially accomplished, were there
no other means by which intellectual communications could
be preserved and rendered transmissible from one individual
to another, and from one period of time to all succeeding, than
merely by a reliance on the faculty of memory and verbal de-
livery. The results of the mental labor and scientific investi-
gation of one. age could be but imperfectly communicated to
the next through the medium of speech ; which, though vastly
more forcible and expressive than any other kind of language,
is from its nature limited in its sphere ; for the voice can be
heard by only a small assembly at one time, and continues to
exfst but for a moment; and by reiteration it is subject either
to loss or exaggeration. This important desideratum was
found in the art of writing, at a very early period in the his-
tory of the world.

PICTORIAL WRITING.

The first development of writing appears to have been in
the use of pictures, by which representatives of things and

ELEMENTS OF' LANGUAGE. 15

events were addresned to the eye ; and by being drawn* upon
"wood or stone such records were rendered durable. As in
vocal language men were led at first to utter simple inarticu-
late sounds^ in imitation of the objects to which they would
call attention, so in the infancy of writing, it was merely at-
tempted to present analogous representations of external ap-
pearances. An account of a murdef would be given by draw-
ing a rude sketch of a prostrate man, and above him a hand
holding a weapon. Of this kind was the writing of the Mex-
icans, when the Spanish first visited their coast. To circulate
information of this arrival of a strang6 fleet, pictures were
painted on cloth and sent by express to different parts of the
country.

HIEftOGLTPHICS.

Mankind were at length compelled to adopt additional signs
of ideas that could not be analogically pictured. This sOon
reduced the symbolix; writing to a system of hieroglyphics,
or characters bearing -little or no resemblance to the ideas
represented, and without any reference to sounds or words.
Thus, the picture of an eye was sufficient to express perception,
or knowledge. The eye situated above men denoted the super-
vision of deity. Of all the nations which have made use of
symbolic writing, tjie Egyptians appear to have acquired the
most system and perfection in the cultivation of the art.
^ Hieroglyphic writing gradually departed from those close
analogies by which it was at first characterized, until it became
in some degree similar to the. Arabic numerical figures, now
so universally used. These improvements greatly augmented
its capacity and usefulness, by rendering it more elementary
in its construction ; each character, Feing the sign of an idea,
might be employed singly or in composition, to express ab-
stract or relative id^as; as in numbers, the figures 1,2,0,
having no relation whatever to words, sounds, or resemblan-
ces, convey the ideas, one, two, nothing ; associated thus, 1 20,
they express o^ hundred and twenty; and thus, 21 D, two hun-
dred and ten.

16 BLBMSNTS Or LANOUAOE.

At this stage of improTement in scientific pursuita, the hu-
man family had obtained two great facilities of communication,
8PKECH and WKiTiNO. These were important auxiliaries to
each other, both in acquiring their knowledge and providing
them with a key of interpretation. Yet, with all these advan-
tages, that which i^as most worthy of record and presenratioB,
and from which would flow the greatest beqeflts to the world,
could not be delineated. Hieroglyphics were wholly incom-
petent to give fcfrm and permanence to speech. The inventive
powers of man, encouraged and strengthened by continued
success in his efforts of improvement, could not rest until this
desirable object was also-accomplished. Writi ng, by becoming
the immediate representative of spoken language, and only
secondary to the exercises of the mind, would secure a greater
degree of utility in its use, thah by being employed exclu-
sively as a primary representative.

STI4LABIC CHARACTERS,

It v^as only by degrees that we can suppose speech was
reduced to a written form. At first arbitrary signs would be
used for words, requiring a great number tind variety of cha-
racters; and the continual -addition of characters requisite to
keep pace with the necessary increase of words in the lan-
guage, would compel men to resort to the mote, elementary
method of diyiding words into syllables, and constructing an
alphabet of signs by which they should be represented. .

Although we have no records of the origin and progress of
letters among the earliest nations, yet we are not left entirely
to conjecture on this subject; for all those barbarous nations,
in later times, of whose efforts in obtaining a written language
we have any knowledge, and who have not derived their hints
from the inventions of others, have proceeded from the use of
patural symbols to the same plan of syllabic analysis and
characters. The interesting history of the invention of a ^
written language among the Cherokees, affords a striking ex- |
ample of this fact. . In this case, it is remarkable that the en- |
terprise wf» suggested, experin^ented upon i^ t)ie hierogl^hic

£t.£MENTS OF LANOUAOS. 17

state, reduced to word representations, and finally perfected ia
a syllabic alphabet, by the ingenuity and unwearied perse-
verance of one man. This was SjcavoYAH ; who received his
&rst, impressions of the value of writing, from observing that
communications were made on paper from one person to ano-
ther, among white men ; but had no knowledge of the process.
He first attempted to represent wcHrds by pictures of animals
whose voices bore some analogy to the sounds of the words ;
then to express words by single arbitrary marks ; but the re-
sult of this method was* unsatisfactory, from the great number
of signs required. At length he triumphed over every obsia-
cie, by reducing his language to its constituent syllabic sounds,
which required comparatively but few characters. The lan-
guage, being extremely simple iii its construction, every sylla-
ble terminating with a vowel, only eighty-six letters were
requisite to write it. By these assiduous and successful la-
bors, this worthy man became truly a benefactor of his people i
and was so regarded by his tribe^ who, in honor of this won-
derful invention, made a great feast ; ai^d immediately, even
without the aid of printing, writing and reading became com-
iqon among them.

llie following e^^amples^from Sequo3rah*e alphabet, which
was completed in 1824, are presented as an illustration of syl-
labic writing :

These characters represent syllables, thus : fi^yai Vf^lah ;
A, daw; dyhxy; L, t^ ; li^haw; T^hoo,- z,Ymi9; j, gu; a,
gaw. A word of twa syllables, in this language^ is written
^HS : gewgavfy ik ; transpose these letters, and they will read
(4J) gawgfiw, irhe process of reading is only calling the
names of the letters, in^ the order in which they are written.

The Rejang language, on the Island of- Sumatra, maybe
ildduced, as an example of the next step in advance from syl-
labic writing, ft is written by an alphabet of twenty-two
consonants, or syllables, teiininating with the vowel a/ thus,
^ gttt ^ ka, j^ nn. The vowel tenninations of these sylla-
bles may be changed by the addition of certain signs. This
mark '' above the line, changes a to an ; th^s, /\ ga becomes

18 ELEMENTS -OF LANGUAGE.

^gan; below the line, it changes to aJi; /J^ gah. In this
manner the different Yowel sounds are obtained. The charac-
ters are not joined in writing. .

LETTERS.

As one improyement naturally suggests another, so the ad-
vantages accruing from the use of syllabic signs undoubtedly
prepared the way to a still more complete analysis of speech,
by the reductidn of syllables to their elements, and represent-
ing them by appropriate marks, or letters. -

The Phoenicians are generally believed to have been the
first who made use of letters, not from any positive knowledge
of their having invented them ; but rather from the fact that
they cannot be traced to any other source. The name of the
inventor of this most useful of all sciences has been lost ; he
who first taught men, that by the combination of a few ele-
mentary signs, or letters, speech and every expression of the
humah voice might be preserved and perpetuated through all
time, and thus gave to language its crowning feature of ex-
cellence, has been forgotten ; yet. his work has been honored :
The name of Cadmu.s, who introduced the PhoBnician letters
into Greece more than three thousand years ago, can never
fade from the pages of history ; bijt must continue to be held
in honorable remembrance, from which the darkness of anti-
quity excludes that of the real inventor.

This alphabet of only sixteen letters, when first adapied to
the Greek- language, was sufficient to express all its sounds;
but, as the minds of the people were continually exercised in
new and wider fields of enterprise, the improvement of lan-
guage, by the development of^ new ideas and the multiplicity
of words, necessarily, increased the elementary sounds, to
which letters were assigned, in accordance with the cardinal
principle derived from the Phoenicians — ^the marking of every
dirtinct sound by an appropriate character. These additions
to the Greek alphabet rendered it fully competent to the repre-
sentation of the spoken language. It eventually amounted to
twenty-four letters.

BLEHSNT8 OF LANQUAGS. 19

fc'^^V^^«^M^^^^AAA^A^M^^^l^^^^«^«M^S^^^^^^»^««^^«^NM^^'^M^iA^W««^^0«MMMrf«MMM^lA^lMAMMMntffc

The Bomans derived their letters mostly from ihe Gredcs,
and» as it appears torn the want of harmony in their appro-
priation, adapted them to their own use, before they had learned
the particular sounds to which they belonged. The characters,
also, gradually acquired forms diffcaring materially from their
orij^nals ; a result which was unavoidable in manutd writing.
Subsequent to the invention of printing, (in the i5th century,)
by continual improvement in style of execution, thes^ charac-
ters have assumed symmetrical forms well adapted to legibility ,
and hence, we perceive, the tloman letters have supplanted all
others in most of the European nations and in America,

THE PRESENT CONFUSION OF LETTERS.

In view of this great achievement of science and art, the
communicating of ideas and senttmentSi by means of a few sim-^
pie forms invested with^ocal poweo's^and by the association of
letters as representatives of elementary. sounds, giving visibility
to speech, who could have anticipated, that, after the ]apse of ,
so many centuries, and in the possession of so n>uch of the
collected knowledge and experience of past ages, the most en-
lightened and refined communities in the world should, at this
day, be destitute of ^Ihose happy facilities enjoyc;d in ancient-
times by Greece and Rome; and that, instead of having been
iiQ proved and rendered ^till more efficient, by the skill and ex-
perience of the masters through whom they have been trans-
mitted to us, letters should so have lost their original power iit-
the faithful expression of sounds, that, though we may have
become fully acquainted with theni, and all the rules which
have been established in relation to their use, we may still be
pnable to write a word or name with any certainty of its being
written correctly. A perfect familiarity with the pronunciation
pf the word is not a sufficient guide to a correct writing of it.
Yet this is the lamentable condition to which written language
has been reduced ; our own suffering more, perhaps, than any
other.

Sheridan remarks upon this subject — " Such, indeed, is the
state of our written language, that the darkest hieroglyphics.

20 £X»S4IE]VTS or LAVOVAQB.

or most dlillcult C3rphera» which the art of iqan has hitherto
inyented, were not better calenlated to conceal the sentiments
of those who used them from all who had not the key, than
the state of our spelling is to conceal the true pronunciation
of words." Let any person who may regard this as an exag-
gerated assertion, attempt to write a name he has neyer seen,
however familiar he may be with it as spoken, and ixi his own
embarrassment he will find this position corroborated. Or let
him attempt to read a name with which he is unacquainted the
first time it is presented to his eye, and he will be under the ne-
cessity of seeking assistance, in determining its pronunciation^
of some one already familiar with it.^ The name. Brougham,
will serve for an experiment Now, if my readers are able to
obtain the pronunciation of this name from the manner \n
which it is written, and even with all the light which 'can be
derived from grammars and dictionaries, they may dissent from
these views. A person not being acquainted with ita pronun-
ciation, would of course refer to well known words of similar
forms, for the purpose of obtaining a key to it by analogy.
The word brought, supported by sought, thought, ougJU, indi-
cates that the first portion of the name should be pronounced
Braw-; botigh and plough favor the prominciation. Brow- ;
rough, tough, and enough, render it BnifFP- ; througfi, by an-
alogy, produces Broo- ; Gough, cough, and trougfi, seem to
require Bnopr- ; shough furnishes some evidence of its being
Brock^. Analogies are certainly not harmonious on this point.
Then take up the latter part of the word {ham); Hamtkn con-
flicts ^th ^mmer; g, in 6rAent and g^ost, requires the h to
be silent, thus detcrmii^ing the final part of the name to be
-oam; another authority, though, silences them (gA) both, and
pronounces the nalne Broam.

Most seriously, I would ask, what hope could there be, of
ever arriving at the true pronunciation of this naiQe, amid
sufch confusion ? The truth is, the name is not written or
represented, at all ; it is only a mass of letters thrown together,
which, taken as a whole, is the representative of tjie individual,
the name of whom can only be learnfed by verbal cpmmuniea*

tion. But why should wiB iror be pofitsEssED of the M«AWg
of conveying the name of a person or thing through the rae-
diitm of wrilSng and printing ? ' Have we not devoted years at
school in learning the use of letters ? and have they not been
invented for the vei^t pur^se of furnishing intelligible repre-
sentatives of the sounds of words, so that they may be trans-
mitted beyond the limits of th'e voice ? Then why all this
confusion and embarrassment ?

We shall' find an answer to thi% important inquiry, by briefly
noticing the origin and progress of the English Laxouaoe.
By this course, we may not only present in a clear light, those
defects and inc6ngruities which have been a burden of com-
plaint acmong English writers for the past three hundred yeeirs,
hut shall give an acceptable explanation of their' principal
caused; and in view of the great design of writing, and in
the belief that, *' what has been may be," offeree best possi-
ble means of attaining its glorious ends. .

^^^^k^^^^%/^^^i^^^^V^<^^t^^^^^

THE ENGLISH LiHSniGE.

We have seen that language is of gradual formation. C<Hii-
mtmi'ties, like individuals, imitate ; are actuated by the spirit
of emulation. Each new attainment enlarges the capacity of
appreciation an4 forming correct estimates. Consequently,
motives are increased, and mankind are urged On, in obedience
to their high, destiny— eternal progression*. Nations now in
the enjoyment of knowledge and Christianity, have arisen
frpm the lowest grade of ignorance and barbarism. I'hose
still shrouded in darkness and superstition, might read, in the
history of their moi^e favored neighbors, bright promise of their
own future elevation and refinement.

Whe^ ihh Romans invaded Britain, about the commencement

22 SNOLISH^ANOyAOE.

of the Christian era, the inhabitants were speaking a dialect of
the ancient Gallic. A subdued people are not eager to adopt
the habits of triumphing foes. Yet, the Britons^ being neces-
sarily brought in contact with the language of their conquer-
ors, must have been favorably impressed with its superiority.
Inscriptions by the Romans, on coins and monuments, rendered
them somewhat familiar with letters. The Romans intro-
duced and encouraged arts and science to some extent ; but
unfortunately, in those days, reformation of society made bat
slow progress.

About five hundred years later, the ^mans having aban-
doned the country, it fell -a prey .to marauding German tribes.
"The An^lo-Saxons acquired a permanent footing, and main-
tained the«upremacy for several centuries. The writing which
prevailed during this time, consisted of the Anglo^axon and
the Latin under the auspices of the clergy.

THE SAXON ALPHABET,.

5.a,pb^ Ec, Db, Ge, Fp, D5, Bh, 1 1, LI, CDm, Nn,
Oo, Pp, Rji, Sr, Tc, Vv, Yp, Xx, DJ>(1'), Tb'6{1ii),

These letters are mostly Roman, and were probably adopted
by the Saxons subsequent to their obtaining possession of
Britain ; though some have supposed that they were derived
from the Irish. . ,-

Inscriptions on Ancient Coins.

A few fac-similes of inscriptions on coins, of some of the
Anglo-Saxon kings "are here presented, as an illustration of
their use of letters, in the several periods noted. - In these ex-
amples some disparity will be observed, not only in the forms,
but s^lso in the positions of the letters ; and, it may be re-
marked, these discrepancies are nOt peculiar to inscriptions,
but are frequent in ancient manuscript^. CCSBERhT, (Eg«-.
berht,) Egbert, king of Kent, in the year 664. EI>ELYy E ARD,
iEthelweard, EiOLVVLF, Ciolwolf, king of Mercia, 819.
EffDVALD, Eadwald. king of Meirci^. BERHTYYLF, Bert-
wolf. The letters v and y, whiph appear in these specimens

SNGLI8H LANGUAOX. S3

to hare been a Towel like u, was rabject to a law similar to
that whicb cbanges the power of the Greek y (g), in certaia
situations, to that of n or ng ; w, in the word ayyt\9t;^gdo$i
(angel,) the first g becomes ng, producing in effect ang-gilos.
Thus the t;, occupying the first place in the syllable w^f, as-
sumes a consonant power, which has latterly been represented
by double v ^w), or, which is the same thing, double-you (w).
B30M/1VVLF:, Beornwulf^ of Mercia, S21. ECCBEORHT,
Egbert, 832. CEOLNOQ— DOROVERNIA, Ceohioth, Arch-
bishop of Dofobemia, (or Canterbury.) EADDAR, king of
England, 954. EADPII^RD, Edward the Ccmfessor, 1042.

The following is a specimen of the Saxon language, written
in the eighth century :

THS load's PBAYJBX.

Vjien Fabeji %ic aji% m Beopnaf f ic jehaljub
%in noma, co cymef ^m Jiic j'lc %m piUa pue if
m Beopnap anb m 6ojiJ>o. Vpen hlap opep pijibe
pel vf Co baej, anb pojijep vp pilvba vpna pue
pe popjepan pcvlbjum vpum, anb no inleab vpi)>
m cupcnung. Al gepjiij ujiich^pjiom iple.

The Norman conquest, 1066, opened a new era in the lite-
rature, as well as the civil i^fstitutions, of England. The
Norman French became a competitor with the two previously
existing languages. Thus, we perceive^ within the bounds of
a small territory, t&e existence at the same periocl of three
different lan^ages. These distinctions were not mariced by
geographical divisions ; but rather by the various interests of
society ; Latin being employed in the eoeleaiastical department,
Saxbn in recording legal documents, and Norman French seems
to have been the vehicle of romance. . ^

What was the language of the p£oplb, during, all this time ?

they have left -no trace by which we may become acquainted

* \^th their tongue ; they could apeakv but- could not write.

At I«Bg|ih» ti^e jipeeeh of .fb« ^onotmcw pec^^ F^icb bad loi^
WflB hcU in such low citeCHn tbat the g[e»x aM letroedc^uU
nol condMcend to ite vm^ wfui clothed with hUm] wi we
find that when the m^gu tongue hegan to be xeduoed to vii-
ting, which V9b about two oenturies after the Nonaan con-
qneet, it did not eorrespond with either of those pneTiously
writtuif but introduced ano&er and most successful rival of
those kngii^es, which, by gradual and reciprocal assimila^
tion, it has taken up to a great extent and j)reserved. It now
triumphs in the name of Ths £!igush Ijlnoi7aob.

The few examples of writing, of this period, which have
been presexred, bear a remarkable resemblance to the Sanson
tongue, which may be regarded as the. basis of our own, and
as being the connecting link between it and the kindred dialects
of the northern countries of Europe. The,, following song is
a specimen of our language in its infancy, and is said to be
the oldest English composition extant. It was written in the
early part of the thirteenth century,

SONG OF THE CUCKOO.

« Sttnter is i-cnmen in, Sammer is ooming in,

' Lbade sing euoii ; Loodsingowekoo;

Grow^th sed, and bloveth med, Groweth seed, and bloweth niMd|

And springetb the TTde n«* ' ApA spiingeth the nood aofr.

feting euoo. Sing^onokoo!

Awe bletetji nftet lomb^ Ewe bleatetb sfte» lfiiit>i

Xboath after ealTt on; ^ IxMvetli alter eslf oov ;

Bonne «tar«etli, Bqlioek fttaiMt^

Busks TerteUi ; Buck T«rteth ;

jyinrie sing onou, Merry sing cnekooy

CwfCLy dnon. Cuokoo, euAoe.

Wet sitgcB lira eaoi; W«ttsingestt]M>«,«iw]|oei

Ke «lri)Ert^uW4a»nitr mvlJ* Cmse tboa neyer, now ! '

The oadstsiice of their own language in awffilten fona, was
At^gfeartest indueement to an acquaiataoee wilii lettersrwhich
could have been presented to the peofie oi Gng)^. 3ut
how eould l«tteni>e apfdied to the English^ lOPi^* W?4b &U7
degree of harmony and precision, hyLiKiin* :F<to9k<^»«iud<^-
man, IHira^ii, destitato as jdie)^ wereol yoeah«lwriss, and with
only ah imperfect practical acquaintance with the language?

_ i

One writer hflrTing » better k^vv^edge ol it than snather» ne-
eeamrily ciemled diTerwt&es in the maimer of epeUing woidB ;
mmi their yarions productioiui beqame so many different author-
ities in writing and pronunciation among the people, who wcte
gmdWly becoming interested in the subject of educalion.

I^tin scholars increased the common stock of woida, fay
introducing manyXatin phrases ;' the French added some deli-
cate morceaux from their tongue ; and the various Gennan dia-
lects oceasion^ly contributed their mites. Much of the Saxon
had been taken up tfnd preserved by popular use. All these,
and many other ingredients* entering^ into the constitution of
the £i^ii8h language, had a great influence in deranging its
ordiography, at ^e same time that they rendered it more copi-
ous and enlarged its sphere of usefulness. ^

From the writings of Richard Rolle, in the middle (^ the
fourteenth century, a passage is selected, in further illustration
of the mutations of the language. It is from his Twelve
Prophets of Affliction : .

*< And conaidre, a^ tliejmore j^edouse meta]le ia m6re due-
tible and.obeynge to the strokes of the goldsmyth; so the
more preeiouse and meke herte is more paciente in tribulaeioo.
And allethogh the sharp stroke of tribulacioa tunnenteth th^,
yet comforte the; for the goldsmyth, Alle*myghty God, hold-
.eth the hammyr of tribulacioa in his hond, and knoweth fol
welle what thou maiste aufir, and measurith Jaya amytynge
after thi frde nature.'*

The following selection is frqm a tranabitiQn of HigdeaVi
Polychronicon, toward the close of the fourteenth oentoiy,
which, while it furnishes- us with examples ol the ehai^its
tiwiapiring in the orthography of the lungui^, affonls some
interesting hints upon the cause of theee flaetualions.

** EagUsehmen, though they had from the. beginnyng Oae
aaBerspeche,'Sputhren, nort^ea,and myddeU speehe in the
myddeU of the lond, as thai come of the tiure mner :peple of
GeonttTUft : notheleey by commiztion, and medlyoge* iral Jtrilh
CaAe&i s^ aftisrwacd with Noimw^Sy in many the $oataray hm-
gf^:jff i^iipftiiaed. "FhiBappwynge «l the bifthe'toage i» ht-

etfnse of twey thinges : oon is, for lihildren in scole agens tiw
mage and mltner of alle o^€r natiouns beth c(Hnpellid for to
lere lier owne langage, andfor to constrewe her lessons and
her liiinges a Frensehe, and haveth siththe that the Normans
Came ficBt in to Englond. Also gentil mens children beth
ytaaght for to speke Frensehe, from the time that thei beth
rokked in bet criidel, and knnneth speke and pla>^ vritb a
childee brooche. And uplondische men woll likne hem selfe '
to gentilmen, and fondith with grete bysinesse for to speke (
Frensehe for to be the more ytold of. liit seemeth a grete
wonder, how Englisch that id the birthe tbnge of Englischmen,
and her owne langage and tonges, is. so d}ryer8e of soun in
this oon Ilonde."

The style of orthography exhibited in these brief extracts
striken the eye at once, as -being grossly incorrect ; our notions
of propriety, on this point, are offended. I cannot refrain from
bringing to view, in this connection, the laws by which exist-
ting prejudices have, been cultivated, and ait the same time ar-
raigning those words which appear in such unt>ecoming attire,
before the proper tribunal, to answer for their several infrac-
tioiis of the law. Doctor Johnson, who enjoys the credit of
having settled English orthography upon its proper basis, by
his discreet legislation, shall be the Presiding Judge, assisted
by Mr. Walker, who justly occupies a high place in the pub-
lic estimation. ^

The first charge upon which the culprits are to be examined ,
is, a non-obsenrance of the rules of eiymdogy; that is, they
do not in their written forms furnish a proper index and con-
fortnity to their originals.

Sp&che proves itself to have, been derived from the Saxon
rpece (^we), and claims that established usage sanctions the
change of c to cA, and cites the decisions of the Doctors them-
selves, in similar cases, as in rkht from pic, cfcesf, from cept,
and a multittide of like examples. The Judges find no saf-
ficient grounds for action, as specke aippears to be a more faith-
lul representative of the original than speetk^ The prisoner
ii acquitted of this charge^ with the following mild admoni- J

ENGLISH LAirO0AQ£. 2¥

tion by Mr. Walker: *« When an orthography and pronunci-
adon have obtained for a long time, though by a false tiH^»
it is perhaps better to leave them in quiet posdebsion, th^il
to disturb the language by an ancient, though perhaps bettief
claim."

Upon indiridual ejcamination, it appears that eontray v^wi'
deriyed from the French eontrjSe (country), and more correcUy
marics its original sound than the modern word ; ktngage comW
from the French without the least change of form ; peple does
not clearly establish its derivation either from the Frencfr
{peuple) or Latin (poptUus), and it is held by the Judges, that
a due regard to both of these tributaries to our language re-
quires e and o in the first syllable of people; appaised is ilejtt
examined and claims, in justification of its orthography, to
have come from the French appaiser (to appease) ; tonge, froM'
the Saxon gong; rokked, {rom rokker^ (Danish) ; tijoey (two),
Saxon epy; cradd, Saxon cpadel; gertttl (gentle), French
gentil, Latin gentilis ; grete, (formerly pronounced greet), from
the Saxon ^yleeiz yHond, Saxon ealonS. Thus, they all ap-
pear to be very nearly like their originals, and were there no
other charges to be made against them, they might be certain
of an honorable acquittal.

To the second accusation — a violation of the polite usages
of modern society — they all plead guilty. His Honor, thoiigh
not inclined to undue severity, considers it necessary to make
examples as a <* terrour to innovators," and sentences them to
perpetual banishment.

The next charge to be brought against these unfortunates is,
breach of trust — or a want of fidelity in representing the pto-
nunciation. Questions of law are raised; and it becomes
necessary, before proceeding with the trial, to determine what
is required of orthography in regard to expres»hg the sounds'
of words. Walker reads an opinion on the subject : ** Till
the orthography is fixed, it will not be easy to settle its pro-
nunciation/' •* The first principle of orthography is, that, if
possible, the letters should of themselves point out the sound
of die word, without the necessity of recurring to etymology."

d8. ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

Dr. Johnson briefly. expresses his yiews on the point thus:
*< In orthography I have supposed orthoepy* or dkjiist utterance
of wordsy to be included ; orthography being only the art of
expressing certain sounds by proper characters." Mr. Walker
apprehends that these principles, without proper restrictions,
would exert a deleterious influence upon the language, and
appears to be well aware that his own practice has not been
govemed^by these wholesome laws. He points out many cases
of injudiqious conforming of orthography to pronunciation,
and observes in relation to the word sceptidc, ** Dr. Johnson has
not only given his approbation to the sound of k, but has,
contrary to general practice, spelt the word skeptick. It ihay
be observed, perhaps, in this, as on other occasions, of that
truly great man, that he is but seldom wrong; but when he is
80, that he is generally wrong to absurdity. What a monster
does this word skeptick appear to an eye the least classical or
correct ! And if this alteration be right, why should we hesi-
tate to write and pronounce scene, sceptre, and LcLcedcemon,
Skene, skeptre, and Lakedcsmon, as there is the same reason for
k in all ? It is not, however, my intention to cross the general
current of polite and classical pronunciation, which I know is
that of sounding the c like k; my objection is qnly to writing
it with the k ; and in this I think I am supported by the best
authorities since the publication of Johnson's Dictionary." It
is^ unpardonable in Mr. Walker, to say that " there is the same
reason for k in all" those words ; for the sounds in the words
seeptick and sceptre are entirely different ; and, though the Greek
axejntxog (skeptikos) and axj^mgov {skeptron) are written with
k, Johnson appears to have been governed by the pronuncia-
tion in spelling one with^and the other with c, and in perfect
accordance with a sentiment of Mr. Walker expressed on an-
other occasion : " Altering the sound of a word without al-
tering the spelling is forming an unwritten langiwge." Mr.
Walker continues his remarks, not unfrequently contradictory
to himself as well as conflicting with the opinions of others,
and finally, on the word victuals, he says, " It appeared to
Swift SQ, contrary to the real sound, that in some of his manu-

ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 29

script remarks wMch I have seen, .he spells the word vMes,
This compliance with sound, however, is full of mischief to
language, and ought not to be indulged."

Thus the Judges are unable to lay down the law in any
form to which they can harmoniously adhere ; therefore it is
deemed advisable to adjourn the trial till such time as the Doc-
tors shatt be able to agree. '

The Art of Printing.

The introduction of printing into England, by William Cax-
ton in 1474, gave, a powerful impulse to social reform and in-
tellectual improvement. From this point we may mark the
progress of English literature with more precision : the press
chronicles its own history. Printing was at first executed in
a Gothic character, in imitation of manuscript, similar to that
now known as Dlark StiXtx^ or Olb iS,n%i\fk^,

The. following passage exhibits the style of Cax^on's or-
thography: ' ^

" Fie chyding ; be waar, and doo aweye the occasion of
stryf, and lyve alleweye in peace. Lete no thyng passe thy
lippys that may defoule the eeris of the herisrs. Take hede
what thou spekyst, and what thou spekyst not; and both in
spekyng and not spekyng be right well waar ; for thou may^
est not call ayene that thou hast seyde. ' Shut fro thy tunge
the synne of backbytyng. When thou blamest another,
thynke on thyn oune sinne, and loke not on other mennys.
For thou shalt never backbite, yf thou wylt beholde thyself."

At this period, the most learned writers were as much at a
loss in the use of the letters i and y, which were used indis-
criminate] y in the same words, as in sinne and synne in the
above pai:agraph, as the educated are at the present day, in
determining whether they shall write s or « in such words as
sympathize, enterprise, eulogize, recognise, civUize, and analyze.
Dictionaries may be consulted, it is true, every time they have
occasion to write one of those words ; but then, as authorities
differ in their spellings^piactice governed by such authoritieB

30 EKGLI8H LANGUAGE.

must also be unstable. But very few persons are possessed
of a memory sufficient to enable them to remain a great length
of time correct spellers.

The great facilities afforded by the art of printing induced
benevolent minds to the production and dissemination of edu-
cational works, among which those deroted to the cultivation
of the language properly occupied a conspicuous plac^

The following extracts from " The Arte of Rhetorike, for
the use of all suche as are studious of Eloquence, stXte forthe in
Englishe, by Thomas Wilson, 1553," afibrd a specimen ol
English orthography at that time : ** When we have -learned
usual! and accustomable wordes to sette forthe our mean^mge,
we ought to joyne them together in apte' order, that the eare
male delite in hearynge the harmonie. I knowe some Cng-
lishemen, that in this poinct have suche a gift in the Englishe
as. f ewe in Latin have the like ; and therefore delite the Wise
and Learned so muche with their pleasaunte composition, that
many rejoyce when thei maie hear suche, and tiiinke muche
leamynge is gotte wiien thei maie taike with them.."

This author vras not inclined to favor innovatibn ; but was
as much opposed to the introduction of foreign words, as BOijue
modern teachers are to having them written with legible cha-
racters. In relation to an extravagant disposition to Latinize
the English, he says :

** Some seke so farre for outlandishe Englishe, that thei for-
get altogether their mother's language ; and I dare sweare this
— if some of their mothers were alive, thei were not able to
tel what thei saie ; and yet these fine Englishe clerks wil saie
, thei speake in their mother tongue, if a man should chaise
them for counterfeityng the kinges Englishe. He that cometh
lately out of Fraunce wil talke Frenche Englishe, and never
blushe at the matter. Another choppes in ^th Englishe Ital-
ianated, and applieth the Latin phrase to our Englishe speak-
yng."

For these encroachments upon the " mother tongue,** from
which it has almost lost its identity, compensation has been j
made by the learned languages, in allowing tbeir words to |

fiNQLISH LANQUAOS. 31

be reduced to English use and analog;y. By the anglicizing
of foreign words, the sphere of the laagaage has been gieatly
enlarged.

The following extracts are presented to exhibit in contrast
the orthography of the different periods noted :

From WicKLiFFs'i Translation of the New Testamenty 1380.

THB MAGIViriCAT.

(* And Maxye seydo, My •oul magnifieth the liOrd.

And ^7 spiryt hath gladid in Ood myn helthe.

For he hath.bdtmlden the mdkenease of hif haa^maydea : for lo for thia
alle geaeratiouns schullen leye that I am Uessid.

For he that is mighti hath don to me grete ^ngis, and his name is holy.

And -his mercy is fro kyndrede into kyndredis to men that dreden him.

He hatib made myght in his arm, he acatteride pioade men with th9-
thonghte of his herte. '

He sette doun myghty men fro seete, and eid^aunside meke men. He halh
fiilfillid hungry men with goodis. and he has left riche men voide.

He henynge mynde of his meroy took up Israel his child.

As he hath spokun to oure ftdris, to Abraham, and to hHi seed into
worlds."

f JFVom Ttzvxdale's Trantlation, 1535.

** And Mary skyde, My soule magnifieth the Lorde, and my sprete re-
ioyseth in Ood my Savioure.

For he hafh loked on Hxe poTxe degre off his honde mayden. Beholde
nowe from hens forthe shall all generacions call me blessed.

For he that is myghty hath done to me greate thinges, and blessed ys hia
nanie :

And hya mercy is always on them that feare him thorow oute all genera-
cions. .

He hath shewed strengthe with his arme ; he hath scattered them that
are proude in the ymaginacion of their .hertes.

He hath putt doune the myghty from their aeates, and faaith exalted them
of lowe degre.

He hath filled the hongry with goode thinges, and hath sent away the
ryche empty.

He hath remembred mercy, and hath holpen his servant Israhel.

£yen es he promised to onre( fathers j Abraham, and to has seed for ever.'*

From Bxba's New Testament^ '•^BngUshed by L Tomson/^' 1601.

" Then Marie said, My soule magx^fieth the Lord.

And my spirit reioyceth in Qod my Saniour.

For hee hath looked on the poore degree <^ his seruant : for beholde, firom
hencefoorth shall all ages call me blessed.

Because he that is mighty hath done for me great things, and holy is his
name.

And his mercy is from geheration to generation on them that feare him.

32 ENGLISJI LANQUAQE.

He hath shewed streng^ with his aime : he hath scattered the pxoad in
fhe imagination of their hearts.

Hee hath put downe the mightie from their seats, and exalted them of low
degree.

He hath filled the hnngrie with good things, and sent away the rich empty.

He hath ypholden Israel his semant to be mindfull of his mercy,

(As hee hath spoken to oure fieithers, to wit, to Abraham and his seed) lor
eyer."

INCOHFETENCT OF THE ROMAN ALPHABET.

We perceive in the various devices resorted to by the earli-
est writers and printers of the English language, the diffic allies
they had to encounter. They were restricted to the use of
twenty-six lettisrs in the representation of fortt sounds. Had
letters and types been invented and adapted to their own lan-
guage by Englishmen, this contingency could not possibly
have existed. It would be as absurd to suppose that any man
would have contemplated the marking of forty -elementary
sounds by twenty-six characters, as that he should attempt to
clothe forty persons with twenty-six coats. The fact was,
these letters were of foreign production, and therefore did not
necess^ly supply present wants. Saxon words embraced
sounds which they could not correctly represent ; as, for in-
stance, Sin, the first sound of which not being known to the
Latin language, had not been provided with a letter by the
Roman alphabet. This difficulty was partially obviated by
combining t and h in its representation ; and hence the Eng-
lish orthography of thy and thine. The Saxon SeaS becomes
deaih ; and from Saxon eopS comes English earth. Another
sound, differing from the first by being merely a breath with the
same artici^ation of the tongue and teeth, occurs in the words
ihin and through, which, being somewhat similar, were repre-
sented by the same combination of ih. ^ Words from the Greek
fa^ed no better in this respect : they ^ere also compelled to
make the best of such entertainment as the poverty of our
language could afford. In thesis (Greek dsaig) th is the only
provision made for d, as in synthesis, parenthesis ; and Osogj
(iheos)t ad in theocracy, theology. Having adopted this method

ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 33

in narking these sounds, a great deficiency, certainly^ was
supplied ; but the manner in which it was effected occasioned
another evil : these sounds both being tepresented by ^, were
confounded one with the other. To obviate, or at least to
lessen this inconyenience^ the letter e has been a.ffixed to final
t^, when It expressed the hard sound, as in breathe, to distin-
guish it from breath. This rule, however, has been frequently
disregarded, as in srHoothy where th has the hard sound, though
not designated by the supplementary « ; and in some cases tibe
order tippears to be reversed, as in with, (preposition, th hard,)
and withe, (a twig, th soft.) Marking distinctions between
difi^rent sounds by the use of letters in a supemumera^ capa-
city ^as imposed a heayy burden upon learners of the lan-
guage, whether native children or adult foreigners ; and yet
without accomplishing itd desired object'; for they still remain
unmarked, as in thither, method, mother, ether, either, autlwr^
ether. Not only is it impossible to deteimine, by any rule of
reading, which of its two powers th represents, in its various
situations, but it is sometimes uncertain whether it stands as
a compound representative, or is resolved into its simple cha-
racters marking the^ sounds i and h, as in lighthouse, stwrthand.
Its use in the "V^ord eighth is still more anomalous, it being re-
quired to express not only its sound in thir^, but that of t also.

That sound which begins the word show was accommodated
with 8 and.^ ; and, though not subject to so much confusion
as some others, yet in some cases, proper names especially,
these letters are unintelligible to the reader, as in Wiskart,
Learners of the language are much embarrassed by the appear-
ance of this combination of letters in such words as hog^ead,
teoodshed, which present to the eye no distinction between die
different sounds of sh. .

Another sound not provided for by the Roman alphabet, is
that which terminates the word each ; and, in the emergency,
c and h were combined for its representative. The appropria-
tion of these letters for the purpose would have occasioned no
serious difiiculty, had they, not have been perverted to other
uses, as appears in many words derived from the Greek, where

34 KlfOLJAH LAJXQJJAQZ.

tb^ pl9<ce <d X IB flOfy^ed b|r c&« as iji Christ, from X^torog ;
cAoof, 4«^; 4Mer, jpojlf. The sound of j|f was originally
an aitioiil^ted ae|iiia(e like English eh in judi, or as nearly as
the K^gHsh tongue will pooafona to it, it being more guttural,
hut by ^his an^M^ement it has been reduced to the sound of L
It would have been isuich ]i>etler to have conformed to the
Greek pronunciation, which might have been done by the use
o| t ixv^tead of the digraph A ; and this would have hanno-
maed with most of the words derived from the Saxon which
i^biace the sound in question, as they are pronounced ; as»
Aiur^ from Saxon cype ; (from the same origin^ through the
Scotch* we have the word hirk,) JThe mode which has been
adopted for representijog the if, and subverting its legitimate
pov^r* appears still more absurd, when we consider that the
apuiid it now ha^ is that which properly beloxigs to another
Qie^ letter, x {k)t and consequently clashes with it In-
stead of allowing k to stand for itself, in this case, the letter c
has b^u substtituted, as in canon (Mavoy). Thus two wrong
vay^ aie chosen in preferjence to one right one. By a ridicu-
lous rule, which has become venerable from its antiquity, in
certain situations &e sound of k has given jJace to the hissing
t, that is> bejfoDe e, t, and y; as, for instance, centre, neyj^p ;
diQce$e, dwt»^fr$s ; cyde, y vKio(.

The followij^ words show the different sounds which the
QQMIKiOUabd oh is required to represent, and the consequent diffi-
Qi^ilGies whkh are thn>Nni in the way of learning to pronounce
c<»i«etly:

Chp in eloioe, sounds as ch, Ch, in oo^, sounds as k
*' nkoir, « ^. " chartr ,^^ ch,

*^ eftontf, ** k ** chieam, *« A.

* 9Aemt " *. *• ardwngdt " fc

«« 9Ai9m, (silent). '* archenemy, *« ch.

« drachm, (ulent)« " archives, " h.

« drcukmrn *♦ ^. . « thim, " «*•

fkBonoU, ** ^A « chimera, ** k.
tampion, ** ' e^ ** ddme, ** eh>

XWaLIfiH LANQUA6S. 35

Tke combinatiea of n^ to the nasal sound heard in 9ingf
-which became necessary from the inadequacy of the Roman
alphabet, appears in an unfavorable light when regarded in
connection with the other sounds Which it is also required to
represent ; as in rang, ranger^ ang^, angd, stranger, strangle.
hk these, and a thousand other examples which might be of-
fered, we perceive that true science has been trampled under
foot, and the mind is compelled, in opposition to the plainest
flrinciple in nature, to learn that similar causes may produce
dissimilar effects ; and thus to become habituated to a perni
cious mode of applying principles. Writing is a portraiture
of speech: this compoution of letters {inger) constitutes a
representative of a portion of its elements, and is presented to
the eye in order to induce in the mind a perception of sounds
without the aid of the natural organs of hearing. Now look
at these letters preceded by s {singer) ; what sound do they
express ? Then suppose the place of s should be occupied by
some other letter — ^would it not be reasonable to expect the
remainder of the word to continue a faithful representative of
its own sound ? But, no ! if / be prefixed to the word, by
some mysterious influence the sound of g will be involved in
the last syllable in addition to that expressed by ng; thus,
finger (fing-ger) ; then g taking the place of / effects another
change, thus, ginger (jinjer).

- Some of the double letters which have been used as simple
elements cannot be excused on the ground of the incompetency
of the existing alphabet; for instance, j^A, which stands in
common with / for the same sound, has been adopted for the
Greek 0, in all words from that language, as in philosophy,
euphony, phonography ; while the sound might have been more
properly represented by/, and the letter just as well. In phial
ph has the sound of v ; in shepherd, p y in uphold, p and h.

T^e digraph ph appears to be destined to lose its place gra-
dually, even though an entire reform of writing should not be
efiected. It has already fallen out of apophthegm : first, the
sound was lost, from the abrcviating tendency of every lan-
guage which is not protected by a scientific system of orthog-

36 ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

Taphy; then the 'spelling has followed the condition of the
spoken word, leaving it in this form — apothegm; the g might
also be spared.

The combination of gh was originally made to represent a
sound which was not otherwise provided for, but one which
has long since become unknown to the English tongue, and
consequently its representative is now entirely superfluous.
Its only use at the present day is, to give bulk and impregna-
liility to numerous obstacles which lie in the way of ambitious
little children who are eagerly pressing on in the too nigged
path of science, panting for wisdom, and boldly encountering
difficulties which would entirely baffle older heads. What
Contrivance could be better calcinated to efiect this pernicious
object, than the use which has been made of gh, and other
letters of the same utility, which so beautifully blend together
in multiplying barriers to the proper development of the juve-
nile mind ? Look, for a momenty-at those letters in burgh*
right, v/rought, bough, tough, cough, though, borough, sleigh*
sleight, weigh, naught, draught, drought, nought, Raleigh.

In no two of the following words does gh sound alike:
laugh {{), ^tg^ (silent), hiccough (p), MowgA (k), gh<fst (g),
leghorn (g and h).'

When a child has learned that 5 ai^ 5 are 10 ; or when he
has learned that the earth is a round body continually turning
on its axis, he has obtained possession of some truth, acquired
a knowledge of some element of universal science^ which will
ever continue to be useful, and which may never be negatived
by the discovery of other truths. But when he has learned
that the digraph gh expresses the sound of /, has he acquired
a knowledge upon which he can rest — a truth which will ever
remain true ? No ! He must impress upon his memory that
which must immediately be eradicated— he must alternately
learn and unlearn. No sooner has he become familiar with the
pronunciation of laughter^ than he is compelled to pronounce
the same association of letters lawter, merely because an s ap-
pears before it ; thus, dauglUer, This is wrong ; it imposes
upon youth a rewardless task !

ENGLISH 'LANGUAGE. 37

Most of the words in wliich we find this ridiculous com-
pound are from the Saxon; as, light (Uohz), might (mighs)»
laugh (Uahan), nigh (nyh), aught (aphiz), rottg^ (hpuh^).

A few examples only will be adduced to show the diversified
uses of the five letters for tha sixteen English vowel sounds.
The language could not be written with the Roman letters-
ivithout the occurrence of some irregularities ; yet the greater
number which we now find to exist are wholly unnecessary,
lliough the vowel sound in pain might have required the
compound mark ai, it could not have been necessary to form
other combinations to express the same sound, as ei in vein,
ay in mayt ey in prey, eigh in weigh, aigh in straight, ao in
gaol, aye, auin pxiige, ea in hredk, aa in haak. The sound of
u in pure has different forms in beauty, few, feod, lieu, view,
rheum, rue, and fruit. It is the same with all the vowels :
they have been represented in many different ways.

-These incongruities have been multiplied by giving to such
combinations more than one power ; thus, ea has one sound in
great, another in feat, another in death, and another in heart.
Different sounds are represented by ou in pour, your, sour,
courage; oo in door, poor ^ blood, good; oa in road,broad; ie in
9ieve, fiend, friend, lie, diet. I^etters in very shnilar situations
mark different sounds, as o in comb, bomb, tomb ; work, fork,
pork ; roll, doll ; love^ rove, prove ; worth, north, forth ; lord,
ford, word.

One of the most embarrassing features of English orthogra-
pl^y, is the use of Uie letter 8 for the two sounds s and z. The
words are so numerous in which it occurs, and its relative
situation iu its two capacities so similar, that it is utterly im-
possible for common readers to learn where to pronounce one
or the other. According to Walker, s has the sound of z, in
dismal, disgra^x, disband, disjoin, disrank, dislodge, dismay, and
the first in dismiss; in design it has the sound of s; in resign,
z ; preside, z ; reside, s. Walker remarks upon- this subject— ^
" Thus we see, after pursuing this letter through all its com-
binations, how difficult it often is to decide by analogy when
we v^ to pronouncfi it sharp and hissing, and when fiat like z.

S9 BirOLISH LANOUAOS;

In many ^aaes it i« ol no^ great importaiioe; and in othen it is
tbe diMingnifthing mark of a vulgar or a polite prononciation.**

The liimits of the present work will not admit of a partica-
lar examination of erery inatanee of iiregnlar orthojgiaphy
and pronunciation. Rules have been given b j grammariaiis
to imable the learner to acquire the ^oper sounds of letters ;
but ve find that the ezceptiona are so nnmerons as to involve
t]ie i^hole in confusion. One rule is» to sound g before e, i,
and y» like j; an exception oeeurs in gear, where g is hard ;
Imt efi following ^ cannot always give it_the hard sound, for
i^ congeal it is ch^iged again to j. In geese it is hard, but not
frQm^ being followed by double e, for it sounds as j in apogee.
Of what utility is &e rule in the following ^ords ? gear, g&e,
gil^$S^* gimlet Well might Sheridan call £nglii& orthoepy
a 2adyr»n<^, depending as it does upon such orthography!

The more successful the lovers o£ popular education become^
in impressing upon the public mind the necessity of ccnrrect
pronunciation, and the desirableness of graceful elocution, the
more readily will the removal of such obstacles be undertaken,
and Uie great reform be urged forward.

It is not my design to create an impression ^at the diversi-
fied methods which have been exhibited of marking the same
sounds were ever adopted with reference to the sdunds which
they now express. This would not be true ; for the pronunci-
ation in most of these cases has departed ixom eariy usage.
Yc^, having arisen from various sources, and having been in-
troduced in the infancy of the language, by the undisciplined
practice of different authors, they have been seized upon by
lexicographers, and, as far as their authority goes, have been
shielded against innovation or improvement It is their pro-
vince to teach what is the mode of writing, rather than what
iXskouid he,

l]ap^ov£iq»(T OF THi: axfhabst.

Not only does a thorough examination of the subject con-
vince us of the incompetency of the Roman alphabet, but we
find that authors of diction^es an4 grammars, almost without

SNOLI8H LANOUAOE. 30

exceptkni, hare taken occasion to inform ua that it 19 incom-
plete ; that, */* to be perfect, it should have as many letters as there
OTB elementary sounds in the spoken language,**

£Ten in it§ present imperfect state, the benefits which writing^
baa confierrBd upon mapkiiid are inestimable. Is it to be won-
dered at, that in some respects it is yet incomplete and defec-
ti-re ? Most surely not ! Neither is this most useful of all
arts to be singled out from other inventions of man, and be
deprived of the benefits of scientific culture and improvement.
When it is found that, by the remodelling iof« machinery, the
speed of steaniboats and railroads may be increased, the im-
provements are immediately made,.and the community is soon
found in possession of; increased facilities for intercommuni-
cation. Intellectual intercourse is not a matter so trivial, that
the time which may be saved, by a thorough and scientific
reform of an imperfect mode of writing, and other advantages
'which may be secured* are to be disregarded. When it shall
be clearly seen, that, by relieving children from the necessity
of delving among such incongruities and absurdities as have
been pointed out, they may learn to read in as many mordhs as
tbey now require teaks, men cannot but esteem the proposed
reform as embracing in its aim a most worthy object \ though
they may for a while regard it as unattainable; for, as Lord
Bacon observes* " before a thing is efiected we think it impos*
sible ; and when it is done, we ponder it was not done be-
fore."

Br. Johnson, in reviewing the many efib^s which had been
made previous to his time toward establishing a competent sys-
tem of orthography, admits that " such would be the orthogra-
phy of a new language to be formed upon principles or
SCIENCE.*' But he imagines that now there is an accumulation
of evils of such magnitude as to preclude even the hope of
deliverance ; and would teach us that temporary failures of in-
dividuals who labor to promote a good cause are to be heeded
as^admonitions to desist from further efforts. What great en-
terprise would ever have triumphed under the guidance of such
counsel ? Better leave us for ever ignorant of the misery of

40 ENGLISH LANGUAGE.

our condition than to hold up a light which only discovers its
hopelessness.

Man has ever been too prone to cherish as canonical, those-
measures which have oiily been adopted in toleration of evils
considered at the time irremediable, from the want of proper
facilities, to regard as disorganizing and treaGTonable all efforts
of improvement, and to opp6se every step toward the substitu-
tion of means which were always known to be requisite. We
live in an age, however, in which men are becoming more
inclined to think and to act froni their own convictions of

An entire reform of the mode otf writing our language may
as well be accomplished at once, as to make successively a
few changes of minor importance. The same amount of ar-
gument that will convince the doctors of letters of the propri-
ety of expressing the sounds of / and I by their own single
characters (f 1), instead of the compound (fl), and of using the
single letters (f i), instead of the compound (fi), will, by aiming
at the development of correct principles, which embrace the
whole of these points, insure success to a most magnanimous
enterprise. Such improvements have frequently been made ;
and but a few years have elaipsed since the letter s was printed
from this type ( f ): It was suggested that the close resem-
blance which it bore to f> was a serious detriment to perspicu-
ity, and that it should xmiformly be expressed by its present
type (s). Of course this, like all other proposed improvements,
received the standing rebuke against innovations; yet it has
triumphed, and no one will now entertain for a moment the
thought of reviving the use of the obsolete f, which has thus
been supplanted by the present s. Its connection with other
letters was ejected in the following manner :

si, fi, ssi, fli, sh, lh,V, fl, ssl, ffl.

The compounds formed with f, must also he discarded, and
the more rational method be adopted of using these letters
fiingly.

PRACTICAL EXPOSITION

PHQNOGEAPIT.

^^^^AA^^MA^^^^ ^^^^^^^t^^^t

LESSON FIRST.

The only remedy for the evils existing in the present mode
of "W^riting, a few of which have been pointed out in the Intro-
ductory Lecture, is to be found in the science of Phonogra-
phy, by which words are written according to their pronunci-
ation. Each elementary sound is provided with a representa-
tive which is its own interpreter ; and neither encroaches upon
the prerogatives of others, nor suffers any intrusion upon its
own.

The great principle upon which Phonography is based, is,
a mark for every soundt and every sound expressed by its own
mark.

As indicated by the Greek words of which this term is a
compound, {<povri, soimd, and ypa^*?, writing,) it embraces both
the science of phonics and of letters.

It becomes necessary to make an appropriation of characters
as representatives of the elements of speech, before entering
upon a philosophical examination of the voice, in order to
treat of tiiat part of the subject with more ease which natu-
rally claims the precedence. We cannot write about sounds,
without signs by which to represent them. Dr. Franklin, in
correspondence with Noah Webster, having occasion to treat

42 PHONOGRAPHY.

of elementary sounds, was compelled to throw down his pen
in despair, and wait for a personal interview ; and only be-
cause the present mode of writing did not afford him the means
of communication in this department of science. '

Forms of the Charaeteri.

The Roman letters furnish the best model» of form, not only
of alphabets already in use, but of any that can be devised.
Their legibility cannot be excelled. It is desirable, therefore,
in adding to their number, to obticin family resemblances, as
far as may be consistent with individual distinctness and gene-
ral legibility; and in correcting the imperfections of those
now in use, to preserve as -far as possible their identity. To
present all the considerations which have a bearing upon this
subject, would fill a volume of itself. Let it suffice for the
present, that the results of many years' labor are here sub-
mitted to the public pleasure.

The selections of proper forms cannot be judiciously made*
without a due regard to the science of optics, which has in
this matter the chief right of control.

Although letters arc representatives of sounds, they cannot
be considered analogous in their /orms. It is only by the value
which may be arbitrarily attached to them that they can be
employed a&such. Analogies can be observed, and with great
utility, in. the use of the letters. The order of succession of
sounds in speaking may be strictly conformed to, both in wri-
ting and reading.

The following Alphabet exhibits two classes of letters ; one
for printing, the other for manual writing. ThiB number of
the letters is adapted to the. wants of our own language, and
the order of their arrangement has been obtained from a faith-
ful analysis of the human voice conducted at length under
another head.

The sounds which the letters represent are illustrated in an
adjoining column. The %Dord9 ave not to be expressed by the
characters oppoate..

fIB AIEtlCAS ilPIABET;

BBIH«

A KNiiplele iAal]fiis of On Eii^di lanpago,

WITH CHARACTE&8 AKRANOZO IH THS KATURAl. ORDER 9W THE TOICX.

LETTERS.
TjpQ. (Script.

C^Ww

SOUNDS

Ae, &ate.
upy love,
eye, my.
tt, ptn.
^at, see.
m(;t) end .
a, eight
at, man.
air,thfre,
aA, father
on, what.
awe.
whole,
o, thowgA
took, pull,
too, pool,
new, pure.

we J KK)0.

me, dove.

LETTERS.

Tti*. I Script. I Name.

SOUNI>S
in lUtlicM.

thy. f\
Migh. p
ray, arm.^
2:eal,ease.4^
aea, ice. '••-^

age, gem.
eacA. ^,

siwg. y>

S"o, gay. )
ifcey, acAe. /^
in, know.
(fay, ^dd.
^ea, i/.
me, a»t.
fte,ro&e. il^
j^ea, cap. f

KxpLANATioir.— The first oolomn contains the letters tobe nsed In printing;
the second, for the use of the pen ; the third, n^mes by .which they are called ;
and the fourth, words which embrace their sounds.

The powers of the letters may be perceived in the above examples, by^lowly
pronouncing the words ahd observing theUnd of sound expressed in each by the
itaUc letters : The letter h represents that quick breathing which, preceding the
simple sound of the word eye, produces high. To obtain the sound of u, pronounce
the word «^ ; that sound heard previous to the closing of the lips in the artion-
lation of j^ la tb« one requiied. Fer f ortber explaaaatione see page 63.

44 PHONOGRAPHY.

WRITINO AND PEINTINO REQUIRE DIFFERENT TORMS.

It is indispensable that letters should be of two kinds : one
for tjrpe, and another for the pen. Though it may have been
determined that the Roman. letters are the best adapted, to the
use of types, it does not necessarily arise that they may be
imitated by the pen with a greater degree of legibility than
some other forms. I will state the case briefly and exactly as
it is : The first kind,. in regard to its legibility, is of great per-
fection ; the other is much less so. A manual imitation of the
first must inevitably be grossly imperfect ; while in the other
it cannot fail of being exactly like the original. For instance,
if the word screen be taken from the manuscript of an experi-
enced writer, (some eminent jurist or divine who has been
thirty years writing for the press,) it will appear, as compared
with the printed word, thus :

Original. .Copy.

screen. i-t^-v^^^v-^^vx-y —

But from the production of an experienced writer of short-
hand the same word would compare, thus :

OriginaL Copy.

The obscurity of common writing is such that compositors
in printing offices are obliged to hold inquests over their manu-
scripts, it not unfrequently requiring the concentrated talent of
half a dozen of them to decipher a single word. It is the
sameness of motion in writing that renders it so unlike the ori-
ginal and consequently illegible. The old saying — *« Practice
makes perfect" — is not true in this case ; for the more experience
a person has in common writing, the worse he wrftes.

[ mum, ( latter^

causes, better,

mm^, lathe,

[mare, {tatter.

The reading of such productions depends upon the general
form of the word and its connection in the sentence. The

€4^^K>f.A/%/^^

PHOKOORAPRT. 45

preceding examples will seire as an illustration of fhe ambi-
guity of even plain writing.

This evil can only be avoided by using letters which have a
greater variety of direction ; which is most happily accom-
plished by. the use of direct bnes, horizontal, perpendicular,
and sloping both to the right and the left, as well as half cir-
cles and loops, directing the pen in its movement toward every
point With such characters each letter may be made to ap-
pear what it is, which cannot be accomplished in common
writing. The following eitamples, in contrast with the former,
illustrate the fact that the various directions which are given
to the pen are eminently adapted to secure legibility as well as
brevity :

X^ X^ /^ v^ ^X

Capital letters ought to be formed like the small letters, or
as nearly as may be consistent with that elegance and perspi-
cuity in printing which is secured by the present use of capi-
tals. The small letters which drop below will be placed upon
the line when capital, as p, P. The proper capital for 1, is I.
A slight difference in finish will not destroy their analogy.

Analysis of the Toiee.

Voice is composed of two natural elements — breath and tone^
which may be regarded as the material of speech.

A simple vocal element is either a breath, or a tqne, or a
OGMPouND of both, or both mute.

Breath is sound in its weakest or least effective state. It
is produced by a rush of air from the lungs caused by their
contraction. It is the firsit sound heard in the words high, ho^
who. Various kinds of aspirates may be produced by accom-
panying action of the articulating organs ; thus, holding die
under lip against the upper front teefh, so as partially to ob-
struct the current of air^ produces the sound of/ in faith.

46 FHON^OaAPBT.

Iliose s<mii4s whioh begia the words, ^m^ <m, sko/w, duni^
easily distinguished from each other, plainly belong to die
same class — air sounds i ox breaths, or aspirates. They have no
local origin.

ToM£ is the musical part of the voice, and that from which
oratory derives the greater part of its^ power. In this element
natural and artificial language become harmoniously united.
The laws oi the one insure the susceptibility of the hearer,
and the sagacity of the other, tenaciously preserving this ave-
nue to the human heart, affords the highest degree of eloqvnce
to the speaker.

Tone is produced by the action of the larynx simultaneous
with the motion of the lungs as in aspiration. In slowly pro-
nouncing the word awe, the jarring sensation in the throat
shows this action to b6 entirely different from that which pro-
duces breath.

The sound may pass from the open mouth, or through the
nose, or be variously afiected by the application of the tongue
and lips, still, if the seat of the sound is in the larynx, it pos-
sesses that distinguishing quality which constitutes a tone ;
and the effect of the brea& upon the ear becomes lost. .The
following are of this kind : m, 6, d, a, o, &c.

Compound Voice is that in which both the breath and tone
may be heard ; or in other words, it is a tone which does not
render the breath imperceptible to the ear. It is produced by
bringing any of the articulating organs so nearly in contact
that the air, after having passed the larynx, is subject to ano-
ther and less colidensing interruption. In pronouncing ah, no
breath is heard — ^it is a tone. While sounding this woird, if
the under lip be sldwly brought in contact with the upper front
teeth, breath will begin to be heard ; not destroying the tone,
but mingling with it. 'fhis sound will be recognised as that
of V. The same result may be obtained by commencing to
sound /, and during its continuance uttering any tone : the
sound will be v. While producing a tone which admits of
^e lips being .open, if the tongue be pressed against the upper
front teeth, another compound vpice may be heard — ih in thee.

PHONOGRAPHY. 4f

Mote voice is that i^rliich cannot be heard, A mate ma]r
be obtained by pronouncing a, and at the same time suddenly
closing the lips upon the sound so as to restrain it by force, in
opposition to the first impulse ; or, which is the same thing,
speaking the word ape. Continue a moment to hold the lips
firmly together, not relaxing the effort of the lungs to expel the
air. The element p is thus produced, and may be distinguished
by the ear without the slightest sound either of breath oi; tone
occurring on the opening of the lips. The only sound which
reaches the ear is a. How» then, if p is not heard^ is it known

to exist? It is thus: the ear is affected by the abrupt ccsso*
tion of sound, and by a peculiar inflection of the sound of a>
which is caused by the drawing together of the lips, it per-
ceives th^ point of articulation aimed at. In pronouncing pay,
the lips are firmly closed, as if to resist the effort of the lungs
which are then exerted to expel the breath ; and the larynx
holds itself in readiness to reduce the breath into tone at the
instant that the opposition at the mouth shall have been over-
come. On the parting of the lips the beginning pf a discovers
the articulation from which it started to be jp. If an audible
breath intervene a mute and a tone, then that will be on the
same principle the index to the articulating point of the mute.

The mute^s are k, f, and p. They may be recognised by a
soxmd which precedes or which follows. When found be-
tween two vowels they are doubly distinguished ; as A; in echo.
In" chapter, p is made apparent by the sound which precedes it ;
then the lips are opened and the tongue strikes its position for
tt the ear perceiving no change until the sound, which follows
the Hs heard, which indicates that such a change has been
made. A mute between two mutes is lost, as it can have no
index to it ; for experiment, insert k between p and t^ in the
above example (chapkter). The tongue may articulate k in
this situation, yet nothing can be heard which will discover
its existence immediately between ji and t.

Breath is produced by the lungs,' tone, by the additional
action of the Idrynx; compound voice, by the mouth orgfUM,
which unite the two in one ; and mute voice leeolts from m

48 PHONOORAPIHr.

closing of th« articulating organs, which caused a cessation
of sound by opposite and equally balanced effort.

Natural Relations of Toeal Sounds.

With reference tp the manner in which the organs are em-
ployed in the utterance of sounds, they may be divided into
two classes : the first, open sounds, or those which are produced
with the mouth open, as ah, awe ; the second, articulations, or
those produced with a partial or entire joining together of the
organs, as v, m, b. As it is by a regular gradation that the
change from the first to the second class is effected, the differ-
ence between the last of the first class and the beginning .of
the second will not be as apparent as between those points
more remote.

Note. — ^Let it be^ remembered, that, in giving examples of
the sounds of letters or words> if they appear in italics, they
convey the usual English sounds ; if in the Roman (roman)
form, they represent the sounds assigned them in the Alphabet,
page 43, for distinction sake denominated the American Al-
phabet.

The student will find it desirable to perform the experiments
as presented ; and it is of the utmost importance that he should
become habituated to pronouncing a single letter without the
addition of bther letters. Thus, in sounding b, do not suffer e,
or any other letter to be heard with it ; but rather, closing the
lips and producing tone, allow the sound to fill into the mouth.
The name of this letter ( 1* ) is eth, but when required to sound
it, the e should be dropped ; or in other words, place the tip
of the tongue against the upper front teeth, and breathe with-
out making a tone. When unable to pronounce a letter as
required, refer' to the Alphabet, or to " Illustrations," p. 63.

To obtain a natural order of arrangement in the Alphabet,
as well as to discover the true philosophy of the voice, it is
necessary to begin with that simple sound which may be pro-
duced by the least complicated action of the oigantk It v

PHONOGRAPHY.

perfectly obyions that ti, as in thee, requires more actio^ than
occurs in pronouncing a (ah).

OPEN SOUNDS.

As^mATBS. — ^The most simple muscular effort in vocal ut-
terance^ is the contraction of the lungs, as in ordinary breath-
ing ; the larynx, tongue, and lips being open and perfectly at
rest. The sound thus produced is breath. It is represented
in the centre of the following diagram by the letter h, as being
the beginning of sound.

ASCEKDitfO SCALE.

£xvz.AirATioir.~The flnt from fhe centre is the Natural Circx.e ; and it
occupied by u, aa in under. This is the first glottis sound, or tone.

The next is the Lowkk AnTiFicrAL Circle. The Higher Artificial
Circle embraces those sounds which are fkrthest remored froi^ the tone
in its aataral or unmodified state. The sounds in this grade obtain a wider
. degree of distincticm than in the otiiers. ^ •

* The places marked thus are not distinctive sounds in English use.

ORDER OF RBADIITO TBS SCALE— FROM ^HE CENTRE.

huyiIeBa8daoaioou.HU

This (h) is the orUy mark for the open aspirates, of which
there are as many kinds as of tones ; yet it is not necessary to

60 pitON-ooHApHr.

proyide so inany signs, for die vowel -which follows always
secures the particular breathing requisite. For experiment,
deliberately pronounce Aa, and observe the peculiar breath
heard before the tone a ,• then compare it with that which pre-
cedes 00 in hoo. It will be seen that the organs assume their
proper positions for forming the tone which follows, and thus
confer upon the breath its distinctive quality. Therefore it is
only necessary to employ one character for all the open aspi-
rates.

TONES.

Natural Circle. — The utterance of an inarticulate tone is the
result of the next degree of vocal effort. This is performed
with the mouth open, the tongue and lips being entirely pas-
sive. The larynx only is employed. Begin to speak the
word under t and protract the sound which precedes n. This
is that natural clement which is the basis of all the tones, as
h is of the laspiratcs. It is represented by u, occupying the
inner or natural circle.

I will now proceed to explain the manner in which the va-
rious, open tones are produced from this general element by
the action of the tongue and lips upon it, and to show, instead
of its being merely one among the other tones, that it exists
in all of them.

The Higher Artificial Circle. — ^To sound f , {ee in see^) requires
the middle of the tongue to be pressed against the roof of the
mouth, so as to leave but a small aperture for the escape of
air. \Vhile continuing its sound, let the tongue fall into its
resting place, and it will be observed that the sound declines
to its natural state, as heard in the first syllables of under y oven.

To sound ai {awe)y the tongue must be depressed so as to
deepen llie^channel from the throat ; then prolonging the sound,
bring the tongue to its natural position ; that is, relieve it from
muscular exertion, and the sound will fail into die some state
as before, (a).

The natural tone (u) is produced without any required
movement of the tongue or lip9» We perceive from this ex-
periment that i requires the tongue to movtf from the position

PHOKOORAPHT. ^ ^ 61

it occupies in sounding u, to its greatest possible elevation ;
and tibat u requires the tongue to move from the same point to
its greatest degree of depression. These facts suggest the fol-
lowing diagram :

f Eieratad. The relations existing between these sounds

I may be rendered still more apparent, by

u NataraL graduating a into t ; that is, slowly raising

I the tongue from its natural position, contin-

i ai DepiMfled. ^^^S ^^ sound until it becomes a perfect f.

Then let the voice slide from u to ai ; then
from t to ai, and from ai to !.

The lips also find employment in changing the qualities of
sound : thus a, {oo in ooze,) is obtained by contracting the lips,
leaving the tongue in its passive state. The opposite sound,
8B, {ai in air — not as in a«f,> is produced with the opening of
the Hps widened, the under jaw yielding at the same time to
the impulse by becoming slightly depressed; The lips resu-
ming their natural attitude, neither opened nor closed with ef-
^ fort, give the middle lip sound, u. Let the voi6e slid6 from
> so to s, and the intermediate -sound u will be heard, if the
tongue' remain stationary, as in the following illustration :

Lips clMe. At rest. Widened.
U . XI SQ

It will be observed that u, in the ascending scale (p. 49), is
removed a short distance from the centre, and is multiplied bo
as to mark the root or starting point of the ascending sounds.
This is in accordance with the fact that the natural voice is
attracted from its perfect central relation* by the preponderance
of habit in the articulatit^g organs ; it is never heard in its
) purely natural state ; but it always approximates sounds in
the artificial eirclc. Though the quality of u under t varies
somewhat from the u which bears the same relation to ai, the
difference is not so great as to be easily perceptible, or to war-
rant their being marked by different characters. In pronoun-
cing the syllable ul, while upon the vowel, .the tongue is in a
state of preparation for sounding /, which causes u to deviate
slightly from its sound'in ug.

53 PHOKOORAPHT.

It -appears from these experimentB, that the middle lip sound
and the natural tongue sound ai>e identical ; and that the or-
gkaB in both cases maintain the same attitudes. From a coift-
mon centre the organs are moved in opposite directions; and
produce tones of opposite qualities ; as illustrated in the fol-
lowing figure :

ToDgiia eleratod.
i

Lipt close. H / U ^0 Lipa open.

V atlreit.'

■

Tongue depressed.

In the preceding exercises, only one pair of articulating p? .
gans has been employed at one time : first, the tongue,^ in dii-
ferent degrees of proximity to the roof of the mouth ^ then
the lips more or less open. It is now proposed to compound
these movements, and mark the results. " *

Let the opening of the lips be slightly increased, as though
.80 {air) were to be pronounced ; then bring the tdngue nearly to
its position for f . With the organs thus, G {aid) may be pro-
duced. . This sound (B) being obtained by a partial deviation
of the tongue and lips from i and'ce, its appropriate place in
the diagram is between them, as in tiie adjoining figure :

Wi& the tongue partially depressed, as in
I ^ pronouncing ai, and the lips inclining to sa, the

I / sound of a {ah) will be heard. Its represent-

, ^ — ^ artive takes its place between » and ai.

~ While the tongue is depressed nearly to ai, contract the lips
toward H, and the sound will be o (ow«). Its place is between
ai and H.

While prolonging the sound of u, let the tongue take its
position for t, which will reduce the sound to u, (« in duty—
not t« in unum.) To obtain this element, the opeiation must

PHONOQRAPRT. 63

be 80 conducted as not to begin with one sound and glide into
another; that is, not to make a diphthong of it. This is not
recognised as an element of English speech. It is the French
«, as in vue. Ip stead of this soand in its simply state, it is
included by a sliding of the voice from f to B, according to
English usage, as in new, mute. The power of I iii this diph-
thong is so much diminished, that Walker terms it ** squeezed
e" I employ this letter (u) for the usual sound, though in
the diagram it represents a simple element.

The tongue and lips by the production of this sound are
brought back to the starting point, !. -^ '

The following figure presents in one yiew the results of the
above experiments :

It is only to the eye these illustrations

^ thus far have been addressed. The ear

\ I / also should be called to our aid in dis-

u — u - — as covering and mnemonizing the philosp-
q/|\q phy of speech. '

ai Sound f and ai several times in suc-

cession, then I and 19, and see if ai does
not appear to be mora remote from f , than b. Then try d, f , o,
in contrast with a, ai, O, and the latter will doubtless affect the
ear. as being the most regular and agreeable in their arrange-
ment.

The voice may perform a circuit according to the abovo
figure, commencing on- f and terminating on la ; by which it
will be seen that the sounds bear the same relationis to each
other that the positions of the letters indicate. First, pro-
nounce each letter distinctly and separately; that is,- after
sounding one letter, suspend the operation of the larynx until
the other organs shall have taken their position for the next
Having completed the circle in this manner, commence again
upon f , and not allowing the throat, the instrument of tone,
any rest, proceed to shape the mouth organs to the other letters
in regular succession, causing the voice to slide around the
circle without any break or hiatus. This will fill up the spa-
ces between those points which are marked with sound.

54 PHONOORAPHT.

Fipm this exercise, it will appear, that, while the larynx is
producing tone, (u,) the. mouth organs are forming the various
simple elements of speech.

The Lower Artificial Cirde. — ^It has been seen that the dif-
ferent points in the higher circle, are reached by the movement
of the organs from a primary of lower condition to a higher.
It is reasonable to suppose that they may be arrested sit one or
more points on the same line of direction, and thus produce
proportionate differences of sound. It is in this manner that
the varieties ih the lower grade are obtained.

If the student has faithfully performed, the preceding experi-
ments, he 'will be prepared to pursue the subject with greater
ease. Let him now> while uttering a natural tone, gradually
raise the tongu« toward f , and observe the change which the
souild undergoes during the process. Is not i, as in 0, heard
between u, and f? Then pronounce deliberately «/, iU,ed.
It may be perceived that the tongue, in ill, advances from its
natjiral position toward that required by eel. This intermedi-
ate sound has a place in the lower grade of the artificial cir-
cle, and is represented byi; (do not call it cyg, but by that
-sound whiph would be heard in beginning to speak the word
in, and omitting n.)

From u, ascend to b, with tU, dl, ale. The vowel in ell is
represented by e, (not ee.) These syllables should be pro-
nounced frequently in succession, and with the order reversed.
And also their initial vowels should be .isolated from the con-
sonants and sounded in the same order.

The letter a, marks the sound of a in an,^ add, at, and is
the first remove from the u, toward ae ; as in wr, arrow, air.

The next place in the lower circle is occupied by a star (*),
which indicates that the lower quality of a is not employed.

Ascending from u toward ai, the sound o, as in on, odd, is
developed ; thus, ut (u), ot. (o), ought (ai).

Next in this circle is o, (o in whole.) To illustrate the rela-
tions which it bears to its cognates, pronounce hvll, whole, hole.
This disti^nction between the sounds of o in the two last exam-
ples, is not sanctioned by English orthoepy ; but it certainly

PHONOORAPHT. 66

exists in tlie ixneei and this being the case, it is not improper to
accommodate American neagw, by giving this Tariety i^ repre-
Bentatiye. It is heard in the word none as it is often pro-
nounced among ns> Walker unwarrantably pronounces it
ntm; Webster carries it to the higher circle, making it rhyme
with knovhi^ which is preferable, as the word is an abbrevia-
tion of ho (me, I should place it upon the lower drcle^and
pronounce it with the others as follows : nun, fkm«, knoum^
(nan, non, ucm,)

The sound of u; (heard ia fulls hook^ dould,) .is found under
H. The voice ascends from u, as in guU, pull, pool*

The last in the series, marked by a star under u, is also with-
out "a representative ; and for the saikie reason that deprives a
of its lower distinction. These differences may be perceived,
however, in speech, but only as incidental to aocentuation ;
for instance, the sound of u in repute, (u not admitting y before
it,) is under accent ; and by a precise adjustment of the or-
gans, it is raised to the higher circle, that is, to its greatest
degree of. distinctness. In reputaiky the accent being upon
the first syllable, permits the organs in some degree to relax
before sounding u, and it consequently falls toward the centre.
According to some authors the u in naturey not being supported
by the accent, would be permitted to fall into the natural circle,
like e in pitcher ; while, others, with more taste a^d less indo-
lence, would keep it in its proper place, the lower circle.

An erroneous impression may have been made by these re-
marks upon the influence of accent, which it is necessary to
guard against. It should not be supposed, that, because de-
priving a vowel of the accent causes it to sink^one degree in
the scale, accenting it raises it in the same propprtion. It is
thus : with the accent^the point aim.ed at is reached ; but with-
out it, the voice falls short of its mark. The vpwer i^ the
first syllabic of contest (a strife), o, is accented, and yet is not
forced into the higher circle. But let it be relieved from the
accent, as in contest (to strive), and it will fall upon u, as if it
were written ^uwtes^. The mark is o, but it is not perfectly
attained in speaking. Then in ctmmVi^) we find the natural

56 PHONOORAPJBT.

eound in the first syllable accented ; but this extia force docs
not raise it even to the lower circle.

The letters in this circle represent what, are usually termed
short sounds ; as e, in ment is considered the short sound of 13,
in foain; as though the sound of b were cut short by the sud-
den articuktioa of n. It is not so : the organs are arrested
in their iuoyement toward the positions required by B ; and so
long as they continue in the same attitude, the sound may be
prolonged without reducing it to b. The action of the tongue
and lips is limited, but not the duration of the sound. A pro-
per knowledge on this point would obviate much of that dis-
tortion and mangling of language, which is so common in the
mouths of even the best singers.

Those distinctions bi sound which are only the result of
different degrees of force in, utterance, are not entitled to a place
among the elements of the voice.

ORDKR OF READDTG THE SCALE.

The first product of the voice has been shown to be an as-
pirate (h) ; the next, the natural tone (u). Now let the stu-
dent pronounce with one impulse u and f , causing the voice to
pass quickly from one to the other. This movement will de-
velop y, called eye^ (t in pine, y in myJ) It is a ^ancing of
the voice from u to i, but not extending as far as f.

This sound is regarded by nearly all authors as a diphthong.
Mr. Nares (English Orthoepy) is an exception. In estimating
its quality, however, they are generally in error, making it be-
gin with, a and end with I. To secure against that drawling
which such ^ compound inevitably produces, it is required to
be *' pronounced as closely together as possible." FrankHn
composes it of u in unto and e in deed. The best method which
I have discovered for elucidating the nature of any sound in-
volved in obscurity, is to precede it by a long breath (h) ; foi
the 'aspirate will always hold the organs in their proper atti-
tude for uttering the sound which follows it Now observe
their positions in pronouncing ah (a). Then begin the word
high, prolonging the breath (h) so as to perceive how tibey are

PHOKOORAPHT. 57

ananged prepatatory to aoanding igh (y). Li hut and height
h required the same state of the tongue and lips, which shows
to me, conclusively, that the vowel which follows in each of
these words is of the same quality. In the latter, t, as in it,
intervenes u and f, producing y, as in my, thus, hut, hy t. The
Botwd of eat finds no place in might, rite, light, eight, for they
all terminate with it.

The alphabetical airangement is, to follow the lead of y t(^
i, and ! ; then &om a to e, B, and so on around the scale with.

T?ie Open Sounds,
huyifeBasdaouoouvu

DIPHTH0K08.

There is a peculiar mode of associating some sounds, wor-
thy of present consideration, which constitutes what is gen-
erally termed a diphthong, or two simple sounds combined in
one. It is a slurring of the voice from one sound to another,
by a single impulse, and consequently within one syllable.
In the word react, the vowels e and a do not fotm a diphthong,
for the word is divided, re-act, requiring two distinct impulses.
In bent, such a division does not occur; for the voice first
touches upon o, as in bog, and glances with the same impulse
to i, as in t//, iiicluding all intervening spunds.

Whatever positions the organs may occupy, between the
commencement of sound and its termination, it must include
in its transition ftU those qualities which are produced by such
changes. It is only necessary to mark the beginning and the
end ; thus, toil, toil ; enjoy, engoi ; choice, qoic.

In now, this slurring of sound occurs in another part of the
bcale, and, being confined to one circle is more easy in its
movement, and perfect in kind. Walker says this diphthong
is composed of is in baU and oo in 1000, and then corrects him-
self in regard to the final sound, by saying, ** or rather u in
butt. I make a similar correction of his first sound, and in-
stead of a (ai) in ball, fix it at the sa^me point of articulation^
but in the lower circle, that is, on o, as in doU. By referring
to the Attending Scale, it will appear that the voice must, if

08 PHOKOORAPHT.

it commence with o and proceed to u, wi&oot any break, either
include o in moving around the pirde, or evade it by descend-
ing to u, and rising again to u.

Sheridan gives to this diphthong ah and oo, starting farther
back in the scale— from a. This gives the voice too wide a
range, especially if the movement is in the higher circle ; as
it must embrace in its course the intervening sounds.. We not
upfrequently hear it performed with a (a), as in an^ for the
commencement, sweeping half round the circle ; which pn>*
duces a very unbecoming drawl.

This diphthong should be written with o as in fol, and u ad
in full; thus, fowl, foul. Franklin, in his phonetic writing,
composes it in the same manner.

The sound of m (in air) is not a diphthong ; it has an in-
flection which is caused by the following r. The same is true
in a greater or less degree of all the vowels, when foUowed
in the same syllable by a consonant The sound is continued
while the organs are acquiring a new attitude, and must in-
evitably become more or less vitiated. In pfonoilncing~ ape,
the drawing together of l^e lips on p causes a to end in u.

In the Ascending Scale we have proceeded from the inartic-
ulate u, through all its modi^cations, till we ha^e arrived at U. j
Dwell upon this sound a moment, (or H, if it be easier,) and
consider what change can be made in order to reach some |
near relative which has not yet been brought to view. Try
w, (li'e.) This is what we are in search of: it is ao near IS
that it has been regarded as identical with it, by many authors.
Dr* Lowth calls it oo. Walker, squeezed oo, Sheridan, short oo.
To determine whether these sounds, (w and s,) are identical,
pronounce oo-iJooo. A sound may be perceived between the
two 0(/s of a different quality; yet it is ao subtile as to elude
our grasp, and to prevent obtaining a clear view of it. I

This dement (w) has some resemblance of a diphthong, from
its starting at one point and moving tovxird another. Buthere
t)ie similarity ends. The diphthong glides, from one element
to another and always the satne,* while this begins with a
modiflcation of u, and is not confined to any particular direc*

PHONOGRAPHY.

tion. It is merely a transition from one to ano^ier, and not
inyolving that upon which it terminates.

When the organs are in the attitude for u> and tone is being
, produced* the lips are suddenly contracted to a more minute
, opening, as in the beginning of tpen.

It is with this element (w) that the voice turns from the
ascending into the Descending Scale.

AKTICULATIONS.

In this department, we shall find a tendency in the organs
to close or interrupt the passage of souDd.

DESCENDING SCALE.

From u, w leads into this Scale, the lips being the articu-
lating point. In this element, the openness of the tone is but
slightly reduced. Then v, effects a closer union of the lips.
(It is merely a matter of accommodation that the upper front
teeth are employed instead of the lip.) Breath is heard with
the tone. The next and last degree of articulation at this
point,^ would be a pressure of (he lip so firmly against the
teeth as to entirely stop the passage of sound ; which, if tone
be suspended, would produce a mute ; but as such an element
is not used, it need not be represented. Its place is marked
by a star under t.

60 PHONOORAPHT.

Let the lip relax so as to permit the air to escape, and in the
hreath which is thus produced f will he recognised. This
brings the voice within bne degree of the open aspirate (h).

The next point is just behind the upper front teeth, against
which the tip of the tpngue is placed for 1 ; not entirely closing
the passage, but permitting the sound to escape on each side.
It should b^ borne in mind, in sounding 7, v, oo, or any of the
tones, that the ssune process is required in the throat ; and that
it is only to qualify one sound (u), and reduce it to all its va-
rieties, that the articulating organs are employed. The breath
is operated upon in the same manner.

With the tongue at the same point as for 1, pressed a little
closer, and widened, h, {th in thy)^ may be heard. This com-
pound voice is composed of 1, mingled with breath. The mute
on this point is marked with a star.

No tone being made, and the tongue in the same situation
as before, the breath becomes IrithAn thigh.)

A little farther back, the tongue strikes another, point, not
retreating entirely from the place of 1, and gives r. This
smooth musical sound, (r in read,) is reduced to z, as in a«, is,
(marked s, in the scale). Passing over the mute, place, and'
relieving the larynx from its office, let the tongue maintain the
same attitude, which will produce the hissing 5, (marked c.)

The Jtongue finds another articulating point, farther back,
for y iye), marked j. Pressed more closely on the same point,
a compound voice will be heard ; that is, s in measure, or z in
azure, (represented by z.) Then passing over the mute circle,
as before, Ji (esh), as in show, is obtained.

Not only does the prgcess of descending toward the breath
circle require successively a closer union of the organs, but in
moving around the scale, we perceive a tendency to the closing
of the whole mouth. Those elements in the outer circle bear
so strong a resemblance to the open sounds of the ascending
scale, that they are usually called semi'Vowels. They are en-
titled to the distinction, from two considerations : first, the or-
gans are in some degree open; and secondly, they are used' as
vowels as well as consonants.

PHONOGRAPHr. 61

At the next point, the place of the semi-vowel is vacant, not
being an element of our language. It can only be estimated
from the nature of the compound voice, g, {j in jest, called
jee. The aspirate produced at this point is q, (c^ in chief.)

Now the passage from the mouth becomes entirely closed,
and, by a backward articulation, the sound is forced U)rough
the nose, producing if (tng). Then the nasal sound is cut off,
the tongue continuing as with ing, and it appears to accumu-
late in the throat, producing g, as in egg, (called gee as in
geese.) Then, without changing the attitude of the tongue,
suppress the tone, and produce the mute, k. Descending into
the breath circle, allow thB air to escape, by a slight parting
of the tohgue-from the roof of the mouth. The aspirate thus
obtained is the Greek X'

Returning toward the lips, appl^ the fore part of the tongue
to the roof, entirely closing the mouth passage, and force the
tone through the nose. This gives n. Then by shutting the
nasal passage, and with the tongue similarly situated, . d is
produced. This mute is t. The aspirate is not used. -

The- next point brings us back to the lips, by which we were
led into this scale. During all these changes they have re-
mained open. Now close the lips on the tone, and m will be
heard from the nose. Then close that pas^ge, and cause the
sound to fill into the mouth, for b. £ut one more element re-
mains to be produced : Tone haying ceased, hold the lips
firmly together, so as to resist the expelling force of the lungs.
No sound will be heard ; it is the mute p. On this letter all
the vocal organs are held in arrest It is the ultimatum of
vocal effort.

Parting the lips with the breath throws the mouth open,
upon the aspirate, h. Thus, the seriea of elemental sounds
which has. been described, completes the sphere of the human
voice, ending where it began.

The alphabetical order is, following the articulations from
the semi -vowel .to the aspirate ; thus, w, v,f.

The student should trace the sounds in each circle, com-
mencing on w, with the semi -vowels. This will show their

62 PHONOQRAPHt.

relationB in another order, if the sounds are uttered without
being associated with a vowel. ^

WHISPERED VOICE.

The analysis which has just been presented relates to the
voice in loud peaking. It is also employed in another state,
called whisperings which effects a general change of the en-
tire vocal sphere, but without changing the specific and rela-
tive qualities of the elements.

Tones are as distinct from aspirates when whlsp^ed, as
when spoken. In pronouncing vine, in a whisper, v is distin-
guished from f , in fine^ by that action in the throat which
mingles, tone with the aspirate. ~ Both the cause and the eflect
are very apparent

Many phpnologists have considered th« difference between
an aspirate and a tone to be, that one is whispered and the
other is vocal ; and hence the absurd notion, that when all are
reduced to a whisper, they cannot be ilistinguished.

i^^^^^^^^^^^^^k^^^^^^^^^^^

LESSON SEGORJ).

ORTHOGRAPHY.

The letters of the Alphabet have been arranged accerding to
their natural relations. It now becomes necessary to regard
more particularly the order to be observed in their vsb.

As instruction in Manual WamNa will be the object of
the following Lessons, the script characters will be principally
used for illustration. Let the student acquaint himself with
the sounds which they represent.

Words are composed of one or more syllables; as man,
awe, aW'fu^.

PHOIfOORAFHT. 63

Syt.labt.b8 comprise one or more simple sounds represented
by letters. As many as are produced by a single impulse are
embraced in one syllable ; as, o-ver, a-round,

LiriTERs are the representatives of the elements of speech,
as reduced to the lowest practicable analysis. To exemplify
the nature of their employment, they are classified as Vowsls
and Consonants. The vowels commence with c (u) and fol-
low the alphabetical order, through the Ascending Scale.
The consonants begin with (^^ (w), and extend through the
Descending Scale, and include ? (h).

lUngtrationg of the Sonndi of letteri.

VOWELS.

A letter which represents an independent sound, or one
which is capable of constituting a syllaole by itself, is called
a Towel ; as au (ai) in autumn, e (f) in even. The vowels are
as follows t

C (u). • To obtain the name and sound of this letter, begin
to pronounce under, and cease before sounding n. The sounds
of the vowels constitute their names, like a, e, o, in the Eng-
lish alphabet. .

I (y). For its name and sound, pronounce eye.

D (i). Begin to sound in, omitting n.

\ (t). Begin to pronounce eat, omitting the t.

*^ (e). This sound }s heard in ebb, before the lips close.

- (b). This is a in ate, ai in aid, eigh in iotigh. ..

Kj (a). Call this by that sound which begins the word add ;
or that which would be heard in trying to pronounce ar with-
out permitting the tongue to touch the roof of the mouth.
,. «-.<©). Begin atr, and omit r. , '

c (a). Pronpunce ah,

(o). Begin on, and omit n.

1 (ai). Pronounce (wre. . ' ■

</ (o). On this sound ^e mouth is not as open as on owe.
The tongue is nearly in position for u, and the lips for o.

<t4 PHONOGRAl>*HY.

/ (O). PronoTince the word owe.

^ (u). The sound of « in jtuth

/> (H). The sound of oo in pod,

^ (la). The sound of etr in new, iew in tnisiff.

/CONSONANTa

A conBOimnt, or oofii'9iom,'nd^ is a letter -which requites the
association of one or more other letters in\the Gonstraction of
a syllable, fn the word owr, the vowel o constitutes the first
syllable. In wAixyiXi n is not sufficient, but requires the aid of
a vowel. It is therefore a consonant.

The consonants should also be uttered without the connec-
tion of a vowel. They are as follows :

CTn (w). Pronounce we>, which is its jiame.

«\ (v). Begin t;t«, and omit the sound of y.

\ (f). Begin /ee, and omit «tf.

^ (1). Begin lee^ and omit ee.

^ (^). Begin thu^ and omit ee ; or prbnounce hreathe, and
dwell on the final sound.

P (!:)• Begin tkighy and omit the sound of y.

/ (r). Begin ray, and oinit ay, "^

-I— (s). Pronounce w, without sounding the v6wel i.

— (c). Begin sea, and omit ea. It is c, in ice.

,y (j). Begin y«,and omit'e. Isjieard before « in ttnton

c-*- (z). It is the soiind of 2 in azure, s in treasure. It is
called ez (firA).

c— (fi). Begin show, and omit ow.

/^ (9)« Begin jay, and omit oy. It is g, in g«m, age.

( (q). Chime, omitting iim. It is the final sound of ea^

\4J (If)'. The sound of ng, in rmg, /dng^ fang. While
on g, in egg, let the sound escape through the nose, without
changing the attitude of the tongue, and the result wiU be ing,

^ (g). Begin gay, and omit cy.

r\ (k). Begin Uey, and omit ey. In tar, c, in c^oos, c^.

Vw^' (n). Begin way, and omit ay,

/ (d). Begin d(xy, and omit ay. Or try to pronounce d«,
without removing the tongue from the roof of the mouth.

PHOKOOBAPRT. 65

I (t). Begin tea, and omit ea.

<T* (m). Begin me, an omit e. Or close the lips, and try
to say am, which will give its pare sound.

<^ (b). Begin be, and omit e. Say ebb, with closed lips.

P (p). Begin pea, and omit ea,

? (h). Begin he, and omit ^. It is a mere breath.

DIPHTHONGS.

,9 ~(oi). Try to pronounce foy, without touching tlie roof
of the mouth with the tongue. ' It is a compound of o and 3

9 (ou). Try to pronounce out, without producing ^ It
is a compound of o and <^

NATURAL CLASSIFICATION.

The following arrangement of the letters into classes, is de-
riyed from the general Analysis of the Voice, p. 45.

AspiraUs. ^

h f 1: c fi q

Tones.

uyifeBaseaoaiooxrHuwlrjifgndmb

Compound Voket.
Y Ji S, z g

MuUf, ■

■■ i k t p

SEMI-TOWXIA.

Soilie of the consonants admit of being employed as vowels.
This does not in the least change their specific sounds. Far
instance, m, in chasm, appears to occupy the place of a sylla-
ble; and without the aid of a Towel it assumes the nature of
one itself. The difference between mi, as a consonant, and m,
as a Yowel, is exemplified in prism, in which the voice settles
upon m, as an independent sound, and in prismatic, where m
is held in suspense, as the voice passes to the vowel.

The following letters are sometimes used as vowels ; 1, in
IfUUt peoples n, in lighten ; ^m, in egotism.

..*•

.<r

66 PHONOORAPRT.

SPELLING.

RULE L X

nr 8PEIXIN0 A WORD, USE SUCH IXTTER8 AS SaOX EZPRX88
THE SOUNDS WHICB IT COKTAINS. .

When a wdrd is to be written, the performer need not in-
quire how it has been spelled by English cnstom ; for by this
rule a more reasonable and scientific method is established.

In the word sea, we find but two sounds, — (c) and \ (f ) ;
in«gA,two, — (c) and i (y) ; in veiny three, \ (v) - (b) w (n);
in flee, threoj \ (f) ^ (1) n (f); which are joined together,
in writing, thus :

-- -1 'v^ v^-

Words should be analysed by sound, in order to acqu^e a
familiarity with this mode of spelling.

EXAMPLE.
AUj addifeignf knee^ $tu, jo, lawy toeigfif mwi, toe.

Bt, ad, f Bn, n!y cu, co, lai, wb, pn, to. . ^ ^

Writing in this manner, it will be seen at once, is free fro^
that 'pernicious custom . of English orthography, which per- .
mits a letter to change its soun^ according to those, with which
it may be associated. For instance, let / take the place of e in
palct and a will become another letter, as in pall. The addi-
tion of one letter (t) to the word though, changes all its sounds ;
thus, thought. But Phonography permits no such confusion :
When one word is a component of another, it is not required to
change its form.

EXAMPLE.

/" /] /~S-^ "n/" C7-N O-VTN
Jiay, rate, reign, stray, me, meek.

Bemember that the sounds of ph^ in euphony, gh, in laugh,
ih, in oath, th, in though, sh, in sash, ch, in each, and ng, in
pangt are simple elements, expressed by single letten.

EXAMPLES,
IlUitratiif tht Fiineipleg af Pkoiograpky,

AS APPLIED TO PKINTING AND WRITING.

WORDS.

TYPED,

WRITTEN

WORDS.

TYPED.

WRITTEN.

ate.

Bt,

fail.

fsl,

aflf«>

Bg,

see,^

cf,

achej

Bk,

-^>^

80,

CO,

-7 v^

end.

end,

gUCj

GU, •

-^ .

eg,

late,

: iBt,

<^ <n

each,

Jq,

am.

am,

-o-.Vl©.

ice,

ycj

breach,

brfq,

•H^

A»yr

Hb,

22.

gnaw.

nai,

day.

de,

cry,

kry.

ray,

TB,

/y"

shy,

fiy,

c-i en

stray,

ctrBy

ran.

ran,.

/^/^

wdUee,

WBk,

(TVi^

rang.

rair,

/"•**-' .

My^ .

frB,

\/~

cake.

kBk,

/'-N-/-N

freight,

frBt,

neck,

nek,

V./^

right.

rytj

/>f!.

mai.

mat.

0-,

train,

trBn,

i/^

rough.

ruf,

mean.

mfn,

t'^o

'ry)

try,

men,

cr-Vy

ape,

Bp,

ngh,

cy,

— ir^

own,

on.

wy?

o-itr J

y«j

J',

^,y^

weigh.

WB,

<TV^

view.

vu,

*^w

Begin all perpendicular and sloping letters at the top ; ex-
cept o, u, 1, r, J, which begin at the bottom. Horizontal
letters are made from the left to the right. From the end of
one letter proceed to form the next, as in the above examples.

68 PHOKOGRAPHT.

There will occur mahy instances of uncertain or disputable
pronunciation* in the practice of all writers ; but they need
not occasion the least embarrassment, any more than do the
slight differences, in this respect, which are apparent in oral
communication. In the first syllable of receive, the vowel is
somewhat obscure, rendering it immateci^> as regards its legi-
bility, whether it be expressed by i, or f . This point will be
presented in a clearer light, in its proper place.

/^^^^^'^^h/\^%/^^h^^^^^^S/>^V%'N<!^W

LESSON THIRD.

WRITING.

RULE II.

OBSERVE PROPER FORMS, DIRECTIONS, PROPORTIONS, AND POSI-
TIONS, IN MAKING THE LETTERS.

The learner should commence the use of the pen, in tran-
flcribing the letters from the Alphabet ; and continue the exer-
cise until he is able to obtain conect forms. A habit t)f neat-
ness and accuracy may be easily acquired in the early part of
his practice.

The most difficulty wiU be found in the perpendicular letters,
from the fact, thiat, in common writing, the pen is moved gene-
rally with the same inclination. A little care wUl remedy this
tendency to sloping those letters which should be upright.

Let the loops appear perfectly round, and without any hair-
line extending across their stems at the commencement.

In forming looped letters, avoid curving the stems of those
which are designed to be straight. For whatever the writer
may intend, the reader will call the letter what it is. If, in
writing men, the stem of cr- be curved, the reader will pro-
nounce it, wen. To extend b below the line would produce
Jf; and p, thus written, would be pt.

PHONOORAFHT. 69

While fonning the letters, utter their sounds, in order to fix
them more perfectly in the mind.

Exercise in making the Characters. ^
Horizontal letters begin at the left and extend to the right:

r^ •- \j r- *- C5^ ■*"" r^ C~~ <-/ r\ \^ CT"

Perpendicular and sloping letters begin at the top :

/ I 9. p

The following are exceptions, being v^tten upward t
Begin all looped letters with their loops :

? and all the vowels and diphthongs, should be not more
than half the length of consonants.

RUI-E III. ^

IN WRrriNO, FOtLOW THE SAME ORDER OF SUCCESSION THAT
EXISTS IN THE SOUl^DS WHICH- THE LETTERS REPRESENT

IN SPEECH.

While no analogy can be established between the forms of
letters and their sounds, their arrangement in the formation of
words, in a manner analogous to'that of their spoken sounds,
is as easy as it is indispensable.

This Rule imposes no new burden upon the Phonographer ;
but rather, approvingly adopts a useful measure which, with
few exceptions, has been practised in all langus^es.

That letter which is pronounced first should be written
first, then the next, and the next, until the word is completed.
Therefore, in when, while^4ih^ aspirate being the first heard^
sluMrid occupy the first place; thus, hwen, hwyl.

The letters | y and - are the elements of the words, rate
and tray. The relative positions of the letters constitute all
the difi*erence between the words ; thus, /~| I/'

In writing rear, the general direction of the word is- upward;
in deed, an opposite direction is taken ; yet the order of the
letters is as easily perceived, as if written on a horizontal line.

70 PflONOGRAPHT.

RULE IV.
JOIN THE LETTERS IN ONE WOkD, WITHOUT LIFTING THE PEN.

From the end of one letter commence to form the next suc-
ceeding ; and give it the same direction that it should have. if
written alone.

Exercise in Joining Letters,

Great, sounds, wreathe, brain, man, cape, attcUn, chime.

In joining the looped letters, they sometimes requ^e the
loop to be formed on the opposite side of the stem ; as db, rm,
Im, rw. The loop should always be turned on the outside of
the angle, making use of the following reversed letters, when
necessary:

' REVERSED LOOPS.

H, oi, ou, w, 1, g, m, b, p.

Exercise in Forming Loops,

db, rm, dp, rw, nl, gl, reel, thm^ Ingwj,

^ -f y J- •«^, I- ^,Q,

now, sp, jl, tm, ew, v/^

Some ai the letters are so joined that each comprises a part
of the other, and yet the distinct forms of each may be traced.

EXAMPLE.

jl, gl, rch, dvlj, gr, wl

The sloping letters are designed to stand in an tingle of forty-
five degrees ; but when those of the same angle, as dn^rd, IJ,
come together, they must both vary so as not tointerfere.

Do not forget that / <d) begins at the top, and X (r) at the
bottom ; and also / (o) at the top, and '^ (u) at the bottom.

PHONOORAPHT. 71

When Btanding alone, they are distinguished by the point on
their ends ; but in composition by the direction which they
take from thoRe by which they are preceded, or toward those
which follow them.

KZAMPLX. /?"

Day, t^e, ^noir, dr, rc2, dear^ reed, June, tr.
The student should practise on these and similar combina«

tions^ntil they become familiar to him.

To secure a linear appearance to the written page, let the

bottom of the first perpendicular consonant in each word be

placed upon the line, and likewise the tall sloping letters.
In joining half circles and hooks, as rk, fn; rv, nr, kf, they

should be made^ so distinct that the ends of each may be seen.

But in joining bf^ ms, and all that run in the same direction, no

distinction should be made ; for the length of these marks will

always render them perfectly plain.

EXAMPLB.

a— X^ X^ /^ v^^X

A careful obserrance of these rules will reduce the variety
which exists in various handwritings to one standard ; so that
when a person can read his own writing, he can with equal
readiness read any other, which is governed by the same rule.

EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULE.
Vowels which are direct lines, is i *- / should never be
joined to consonants running in the same direction ; for they
cannot be distinguished. In writing say, it would not be pro-
per to fonn - from the end of — as it would make so little
difference in the length of the mark that the addition would
not be apparent. Therefore when such cases occur at the
end of a word, place a dot (•) near the end of the consonant,
for that vowel which lakes the same direction.

EXAMPLE.

jSay, *—• /ce, \. may, o — He, |.
When a vowel or diphthong cannot be joined with conve-

72* phon6grapht.

nience, in the middle of a word, there may be a break in the
connection, the letters being sufficiently close to shbw.that they
are parts of the same, and not of separate words.

EXAMPLE.

• Wrought, Wright, sake, face, fear,
/I /I --^ ^- N/
Vowels at the end of a word should always be united, un-
less expressed by the dot

At the beginning of a ^ord, it is immaterial whether they
are connected ox not . The writer is free to follow either mode.

EXAMPLE. ^

Accrue^ ^r\/' cWy^Q €«:€, aii^y\xr-

The letter o is never joined to other letters, and ^ is fre-
quently ah exception.

Be careful not to be misled by the common orthography, in
regard to the use of tr, and y. When the sownd of w occurs,
write o>v When it is silent, or is associated with other letters
as a vow«l, write the vowel only,

EXAMPLE.

TTay, <TS_ ,ioc, CT\ rato, /> how^ ^

The sound of y, as in xjd, is expressed by ^/ When it is
employed as a vowel, the vowel sound should be written.

EXAMPLE.

REMABKS ON THE APPLICATION OF PH0N06R1PHY.

The preceding rules and instructions constitute a complete
system of phonetic writing; and will enable a person to ex-
press, with the utmost precision, any word in the English lan-
guage, or, in fact, a word of any language which can be pro-
nounced by an English tongue. The addition of a few letters
to the Alphabet wojold render it competent to the representation
of all languages.

PHONOQRAPHT. 73

This plan of writing is of tlie most simple construction:
First, the language is reduced to its vocal elements, jand each
is proyided with a representative. Then, by combining these
marks of simple sounds in the ordeic of speech, it effects a
faithful portraiture of pronunciation^

This is all that is requisite in the process pf printing ; but
in manual writing, it is desirable to save as much^labor and
time as will be consistent with perfect legibility, and the easy
acquisition of the rules which may be adopted for the^purpose.

^A^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^V^^^^S^^p

LESSON FOURTH.

BREVITY IN MANUAL WRITING.

It is not proposed to abandon the principles established in
the preceding exercises ; but only to accommodate and facilitate
their application, in the attainment of the same end — a repre-
sentation of' speech.

RULE V.
A LETTER STANDING ALONE REPRESENTS A WHOLE WORD.

There are many words which occur so frequently, that
much time may be saved, by expressing only one of their
sounds.

The following Table presents those words which will admit
of being represented in this manner ; each being expressed by
that letter opposite wjiich it stands in the Table.

It will be observed that there are compound consonants in the
Table; that is, two or three simple sounds, which are often
connected, in words, without the intervention of a vowel, are
expressed by one sign ; as sir (ctr), in straight^ spr (cpr), in
spray, ^t (kw), in queen, ks (kc), in axe, and the syllables ous,
ious, eous. They are foimed according to Rule II.

ALPHABETICAL TABLE;

OR, .

A list of Words Represented by Single letters.

LETTERS. WORDS.

LETTERS.

WORDS.

VOWELS.

CdKBONANTS.

But.

The, they.

I, eye.

Through.

•

It.

Are, or.

Either.

Is, as, hi^.

^ Ever, every.

May.

Yet.

An, and.

Pleasure.

'Where,

r-'

Shall.

•

Ah, after.

Just, Justify.

On.

Which.

Awe, ought.

Anything.

«•

Oh, whole.

)

Good, go*

0, over.

Consider.

Full.

In.

Who.

Do, Done.

You, your.

To, that.

DIPHTHOirOS.

iti

cr-

Me.

Enjoy, joy.

Be, by.

How, our.

Upon.

0BIC17HE TOWEL.

1
?

He, have.

•

A. ^

GOMPOUlfDl.

CONSONANTS.

ctr

Strength.

cr\

With.

cpr

Spirit.

Of.

JUC

Righteous.

If.

Reqxure.

All.

^ \

Ekoept.

)

PBONOQEAPHT. 75

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE TABLK.

It will Strike the minds of some, at first* that markiiig two
different vords by the same sign, will tend to obscuie the
reading. Long experience and, the practice of all phonogra-
phers, without exception, proves it otherwise. Suppose the
reader to be perfectly familiar with the fact, that, h stands for
be and by ; woald he find any difficulty in reading the follow*
ing sentences?

" Cuiat thov, b learchinip, find oat God ?*>
'^B initraeted, ye Jndgei of the earth."

The dot represents the article a, without marking its exact
pronunciation. Its sound in reading is of that obscure nature
which warrants its being expressed in this convenient manner.
The efiect upon the ear would be nearly the same if it were
pronounced u, e, or i, without accent.

The dot ehould be placed a little distance from other words.

Exercise in Reading.

*auHiiu>ft.

I uhS Siiio. luito 1 SSo^9 Kecau4e ? fuUH Jeaft SounK&MtA

I 7 ^1 olSiAd aU4Hiu6 ueEo^e (7* uecou^e p '^'** ^

When s is written for its words, t>, <u, it needs no dash
across it, for c represents no other word.

Yov ought to be Just to all men. Who if to he with you to-day t

How do yon do ? Ii it yon T It it I.

R /// — > -^ >— »

ic ^\^7/> — >ll^/

The reading and writing of familiar sentences, like these*
being composed mostly from words in the Table, will tend to

76^ PHONOORAPHT.

familiarize the learner with the letters, ad well as with the words
which they represent -

^ - R,_ / — )— Q/z'w^

Care should be exercised* to make the vowels so small that
they may not appear to be consonants.

RULE VI.
TOWELS MAT BE £XFB£SSEJ> DEFINITELT, OR INDEFINnSLT, OR

WHOLLY OMITTED.

Monosyllables more frequently reqaire the vowels to be ex-
pressed definitely, as in the following :

Lane<, sack, seek, spell, gear, curse, aid, more.

^^ -^r> -v^ -^ > r-^^ ^ o-^

There are many words whesre the vowels may be omitted
without in the least detracting from their legibility. By merely
pronouncing consecutively the consonants which are written,
the word is so correctly utterred that the reader cannot hesitate
a moment in reading it. -

EXAMPLE.

Person, them, friend, blessed, difficult

The syllables con, com, dis, should always be written with-
out the vowel/ thue :

^^-^\j. convey, '^^^^"^^ complain, /e\ . dismaj/.

The dot is used as an indefinite representative of any vowel,
ut the option of the writer; thus, any, 'K^* art, ./]

The indefinite representation of the vowels is not merely a
matter of convenience in writing, but it is rendered absolutely
necessary, from the fact that their specific qualities cannot in

PHOMOORAPHT. 77

aQ fdtnationB be ascertained. No rule can be given which
wonld enable different writers to arrive at the same conclusion
in all cases. But the reader should be secured against doubt
aod embanafisment. For this purpose, rules are here presented
irbich afford both to the writer and the reader an easy method
of disposing of the obscure vowels.

The dot (.) may be used for any vowel, when the writer is
in doubt in regard to its distinct sound. This will often be
the case, when the vowel is unaccented, as in the firh sylla-
bles of above, avail, again, obey, upon,

EXAMPLE.

Amount, alike, away, award, avail*

The dot is always us^d at the end of words for the sound
of 3^ as in enmity, ey in money ; thus :

Humility ^9^' berry ^^y- rt^iny, jT^*

Tbe dot should not be placed exactly at the end of a letter,
as it might, so situated, sometimes indicate a parallel vowel.

Vowels should always be written at the beginning and the
end of words when they are sounded. An omission of the
first sound in amo/unt would make of it -another word ; while,
if it be expressed by tbe dot, which indicates a vowel without
defiming its quality, the word will be fairly represented.

EXAMPLE.

Sofrry, eth), nor, for, city, ferry, strew, high.

_/• -o ^ V n- V <^ (»

It ifs proper to omit an unaccented vowel before r, except at
the 1)eginhing of a word ; as in greater, ascertain.

It is desirable, when two vowel sounds come together in a
word, that they should- be definitely expressed ; as te (ye) In
science, ^\^_^/-—

Long words of frequent use generally require to be written
with their initial and final vowels and their consonants.

78 PaONOQRAPHT.

SUBSEaXrXNT IK8ERTI0N OF TO^WELS.

When it becomes necessary to insert a vowel after the word
has been formed, it should of course be placed so as to indicate
its proper relation to the other letters. That vowel which oc-
curs between two consonants, should be placed as near as pod-
s^ble to the point of their union.

EXAMPLE.

Fight, ^ weight, ^

Beginners are very apt to make representatives^ of sounds
which are not heard. This is more frequently the case with
final e, in such words as home, hone, rate, tone, mire, time. If
a dot be placed at the end of bone, the word will be rendered
bony. Let this be remembered.

BULE VII.

CONSONANTS OF A IK»UBTFUL OR UNIMPORTANT CHARACTER MAT
BE MODIFIED AT THE DISCRETION OF THE WRITER.

In some cases transient custom has attached to a letter a
different sound from that which it originally conveyed ; as f in
nature, future, where it is heard nearly like ( in each. Until
its pronunciation is settled by orthoepists, it is wellto preserve
the t.

In partial and ratio <r^ may be used ; in sure, c or &,

Phonography, in representing speech, becomes the servant
of orthoepy ; where that is undetermined, the phonographer
is compelled to act upon his own discretion.

If the aspirate (h> be omitted in token, C\y the meaning
will be perfectly obvious.

The word one, (Saxon an, French une, Latin unus,) I am
in the habit of writing *v^ although it is pronounced, wun.

The letter v is distinguished from ^ by the dash across it;
it is', however, very seldom required, as it generally occurs at
the end of words, where it is provided with a more agreeable
mode of expression, as a " termination.*' The e^Tect of omit-
ing to mark this distincticm, may be seen in the following illus-
trations to be very trifling, and seldom necessary:

PflOirOQRAPHT. 79

Written with ^ these words, think, hank, prank, drink,
mk, ankle, wrinkle, angui^ would be pronounced thus :

I (ink, bank, prank, drink, cink, ankl, rinkl, angwi£.

The same words written with v^ might be pronounced with
but a slight variation, thus :

IBiif ky l^ir^y P^^^9 driifk, oiif k, aif kl, riif U, aif gwifi.

Exercise in Reading,
The following letter from Miss Stephenson to Dr. Franklin,
on the subject of improving the alphabet, is presented in this
form as a reading lesson. It is taken from a London publica-
tion of his works.

i>U5e I tfeo4e /o C\ — I ttc«|iM*A« w sy^"v| KAxmuncuitum/, \ |
'Z ^ Uaoev. C I '^^ cr\y uu»n4*€m<rvce6 — Co •—
mj1t.cM&e&, I ^O afctevtd | b4m>a«iia y (^1/*^ ^ o-VlKoaia-

KnM. into >7y— v^ '' d^ ^ ebinuloauA ^^ ^' fc>*k 5

co«<&e(|ii«ni£^ <y\^ ^ ^ ,^^ — '^Wv n m«<wi*»vj ^ <7""V^*

u>o^/06. n ouhrtdum/, too, iekuy^en, C^\Z-. > ^iffie^cnl;

nrvecmuba w ^unilai ioiuvo ^^ Q^ /~~t^ (^^.9^ G\

Cumta /'I/ kii£C^ V^ edihofi)6. v^ ^-^ I (etiet^e

<5\ nunA ^ [teofife-^ O V V *^ <5>L ^ —

JPr. ironKUit.

80 PHOKOORAFHT.

LESSOR FIFTH.

ABBREVIATIONS.

RULE VIII.

a lkttxr will signut that part of a word which it

repres]6nts when written alone.

idany words which are represented by single letters (p. 74)
may with propriety be . expressed iii the same manner, wlien
they enter into the composition of other words ; thus ^ stands
for ever ; then, k^ is never. Please' write according to this
rule, the words, everywhere, whoever, however, awful.

This rule will not admit of universal application. It should
only be applied where the word so written will readfly suggest
itself to the reader.

The syllable ex, at the beginning of a word, may be expressed
by c- without the vowel before it ; thus, c^/'v— excuse.

rule IX.

abbreviations mat be expressed by various modifications

OF THE vowels.

For this ptirpose, they are divided into Simpfe, Pointed,
Beversed, and Double, Vowels,

The Simple Vowels ar^s those which are incorporated in the
Alphabet

The Pointed have a dot or point on their ends, and retain
their simple sounds, in whatever situation they may be used.
Their being pointed gives them the power of expressing, at
the beginning of a word, a combination of hr and the vowel.
Only a part of them are employed in this manner.
fiC yi i5f\ eo B-* a^.*

EXAMPLE.

Brain, ^W brief, "^N bribe, \

Standing alone, the Pointed vowels represent the following
words : y bright, i bring, I breathe, e breath, vt break, a branch.

PHOMOORAPHT. 81

The BxTBUXD Yowels have a dot or point at the beginning*

Standing alone^ they represent the following words : y pri"
vote 9 i privilege,i previous^ e present, B pray^ a practice.

The Reversed Vowels form with pr, at the beginning, in the
same manner as the pointed with br. Write the following
examples: Price, preach, prirtce, printer,

DOUBLE TOWELS.'

This term is employed to signify a union of two vowels of
the isame or of different kinds. When they occur in the mid-
dle or at the end of a word, they have only the powers which
belong to them in their individual capacities. But, standing
alone, or at the beginning, they may be used with great ad-
vantage to express whole words or parts of words.

The following Table contains a list of words of frequent
occurrence in ordinary writing, each of which is to be repre-
sented by two of the vowels which it contains. ,

A double vowel may be placed before a word for that part
of it which it represents in the Table. Thus, a f stands for
appear, to which if d be added, it will become appeared,

EXAMPLE.

Diitinguisked, represented, established, superiority^
B| «y - ^1 A|.

Read the following disconnected words, which are formed
of those in the Table :

Exercise,

» v^ r^ / vA "^ v^ . < v^ c ^

It is better not to join the double vowels, when used in this
manner, to the remainder of the word ; but if used after pre-
fixes, as, (fw-approve, mis-represent, unprotected, they should
be joined to the preceding letters.

TiBlB OF WOKM

BSPRESEKTED

BY DOUBLl

; V0WXL8.

Writ--

TKIT.

WORDS.

Writ-

, TRW.

WORDS.

IWrit-

; TKR.

WORDS.

sometimes.

: ^

because.

; ^

abroadT

something.

before.

: *^

about.

unforeseen.

: \

fearful. 1

i ?

august.

«%

subsequent.

prechide.

; '^

augment.

undertake.

: "^

denounce.

: aio

although.

understand.

; ?

encourage.

; <r

overcome.

somewhere.

: n

exercise.

\ <

provide.

somewhat.

! ^

extinguish.

; <

proceed.

undergo.

extreme.

protect*

understood.

represent.

£.

proclaim.

<».

undoubted.

entertain.

; //

propose.

triumph.

establish.

\ <

overlook.

myself.

1 ne-

everywhere.

: /^

produce.

annihilate. J

enforce.

together.

delightful.

; r/

endure.

; ui

fiilfii:

discover.

: ne

employ. ,

; A

whoever.

sympathize. <

: ^

encounter.

; <

numerous.

distinguish. 1

; X

fiiTorable.

: ^

unite.

increase.

\ -^

fiiithfid.

; A

superior.

intend. j

1 ~

maintain. \

influence.

stimulate.

; X

abrupt.

: /"

communicate.

impracticable. \

; M

acquire.

perpetual.

discharge. <

: ^

transmit.

; /«-

peculiar.

important.

appear.

; ^

bMiutifuL

;

interpose.

v/>

apprehend.

/ Rr>

however.

improve.

I *^"

acquaint. . |

1 "J^

doubtful.

introduce.

! WM

abstract. !

1 ••

indefinite.

become.

: ^

accomplish.

ooxsoNAirrs.

behind.

<jj

applaud.

behold.

>)•

predict

approach.

iph

perhaps.

precede.

; v»

approve. \

toward.

fiteqneBt*

accrue.

IVn

fotward.

N-

became.

particular.

upward.

v»

. demand. \

agree.

;<A

downward.

V-

prepare.

1 A-n

again. i

«-tf>^

afterward.

PBONOORAPHT. JB3

IE880N 8IITH,

TERMINATIONS.

There are a maltkade of woids of similar endings, which,
from their frequent occurrence, renders it desirable that they be
represented by signs both bhef, and explicit. The following
method will be found easy of acquisition and convenient in
pra4^tice. This important object is accomplished, not by the
intrc»duction of arbitrary signs, but by the use of the letters
of the Alphabet, with tiie sounds of which it is presumed the
Btudent has already become fully acquainted.

RULE X.
TERMINATIONS MAT BE EXPRESSED BT'THE VARIOUS POSITIONS
OF THE VOWELS ACCORDING TO THEIR CI*A8S£S.

These terminations are divided into three classes; and to
each is assigned a position in relation to the word to which
it belongs.

The First Class is tionisign, dlan^ &c., and its place is Cfoer
the last letter of the word.

The Second Class is mg, and its place is after.

The Third Class is fy, and is placed imder the last letter.

TERMINATIONS BY SIMPLE VOWELS.

'' first class — OVER THE LAST LETTER,

The terminations fton, «ian, and those of similar sound,
are expressed by a vowel over the last letter. That vowel
which precedes is placed over, uniting its own sound with
the termination represented.

Thus, /^ spells ray; then, if the - be placed over the r, it
will, in addition to the same sounds, signify tion; / ratwn.
So K,^- reads naifi and O 'f^ion. The place signifies turn.

84 PHONOGRAPHT.

and the character written in this place marics the yowel sound
which is connected with it \

EXAMPLE.

Noiion, sesgum, caution, mimorij motion, secession, addition^ i

pronunciation.

V^ /^-K, KT" O^ — -^II. ^ K^-^ ^

This termination often occurs without a vowel before it ; as ]
in conviction. In such cases the 4ot is used to mark its place, i

^ EXAMPLE.

Jnstrudion^ mention, mansion^ ascension. '

OV^ O-V^ 0-^>0 '"^■"O' J

In the word ocean, although, a vowel precedes the termina-
tion, yet, as there is nothing over which to place it, ^ is
written as the main part of the word, and the dot, for cean, is
placed over it, thus, ^

To the same class belong crVn^^and cience, and may be repre-
sented in the same manner as tion^ except when they are with-
out a preceding vowel. „ Then the vowel contained within the
syllable (e) should be used ; thus, ancient, -v3

No distinction is necessary between the sounds z and fi, in
such words as omission, incision.

The peculiar forms of some words might perplex the pupiU
in placing the vowel, without special instruction. Therefore,
observe, that the vowel which is* to be placed over, may, if
necessary be joined to the word, leaving the termination to be
represented by the dot ;^ thus :

Agitation, f;

There are some instances where a vowel ov6r the last letter
would also be before the first; to avoid which, It ahotdd be
placed over the whole word ; thus :

Adoption^ o^ tuition^ L

For an exercise in writing, the student should select many
more words of this termination.

PBONOORAPHT. 86

8IO0HD CLAM«*Y0WXli8 ATTKR.

This claBS comprises those terminations formed of ng, as in
singj pang* mormng. Its place is after the word of which it
is a part. The words ending with this sound are rery nnme-
rous, and consequently this termination will be exceedingly
useful. Having fully understood the principle upon which
the first class of terminations is represented, the student will
not require much special instruction in this, or the third class ;
for the Towels are employed in the same manner in each.

This termination never occurs without a vowel before it;
tlierefore the dot at the end of a word has no relation to ng.

Write that vowel sound which occurs immediately before ng,
after the word (not joined to it). Let it be placed so near that
its relation to the word will be perfectly obvious.

In sing, the vowel is ) then let it be placed after -— as the
termination ing; thus, — 3

EXAMPLE.

Wing, tongue, long, fang, wrong, rang, hung, having, reading.

<T^) Ic <^^ \v^ /o ^^ 7( p) y^:>

When two vowels come before this termination, one being
a long sound, as in seeingi sighing, it is not necessary to write
both ; for by writing the first of the two, the other, which is
always the same (i), will necessarily be involved. A long
vowel never occurs before the termination ng, without the in-
tervention of this sound (i).

EXAMPLE.
Baying, weighing, knowing, viewing, lying, trying, going, drawing,

decaying, chewing.

<?., <r;. w/ ^/ <^' i/i > ^1 A- c

Let the student read the following disconnected words :

When the two vowels are the same, as > j in ferrying, the
first must be expressed by a dot, and } be placed after it. .

86 PHONOORAPHT.

In harrowing and borrowing, both vowels are short, but be
ing of different qualities the first only need be written.

EXAMPLE.
Marrying, flowing, following.

The diphthongs are nsed in the same manner as the Yowels,
for terminations ; thus:

Bowing, allowing, .rowing, annoying^

As the sound of '^ never occurs at the end of a word, in
connection with ng, it represents ending ; thus :

Mending, tending, wending, lending, ascending.

A double vowel after represents the double sound of ng^
as a termination ; thus:

Ringing, longing, "hanging. '

/^»or/J ^°> ?^

THIAD CLASS — ^VOWELS UNDER.

A simple vowel under the last letter of a word represents
the tenninalion ly.

That vowel which immediately precedes the termination is
used to mark its place.

EXAMPLE.
Daily, tally, valley, folly, gayly, wooUy, jelly, gnlly.

- i ^ o" ^ % rs y

The dot under represents this termination when no •vowel
precedes it ; as in the following :

Meekly, only, dearly, sincerely.

cr\r\ 'K^ ^ — .J — y

The initial vowel, with a dot under it, sometimes constitutes
the whole word; thus: J/%, <^ 0^1^^ 9

1 n/- ^VtT"^ H^

rHONOORAPHT. 87

TKRinNATlDNl Or THX DOUBLK-TOWSL WOUM.

The terminations by simple rowels may also be applied to
those words which are arbitrarily represented by single letters,
double vowels, and pointed and reversed rowels. Thus, A,
standing alone, represents have; then it is only necessary to
place 3 after, for Having.

XXAMPLB.
E3cc«ptkHi, •zMpting, whoUj, •ysing, fiUlj, rtprtt n tttioa, it pif ntfag,
frequently, piotootion, alMtnetlj, proclaiming.

t^ C-) ^ Ij ^ r« '^) V> -<, ^ Z>

Those changes of pronunciation which are caused by the
terminations of the double- vowel words need not prevent their
being used ; as, ob, proclaim, and 09, b over, prodamation*

^ - ^ H • '<l \ />!) 6^

POINTXD AND RXVXIISSD VOWXLS TOR TXIIMIMATIONB.

There are several compound terminations which are pro-
Tided for as follows :

Tional, tionate, and nonary 9 may be expressed by writing
over the word the vowel (pointed) immediately preceding.

If there is no vowel before the termination^ then use c the
▼owel contained in tion,

EXAMPLE.
National, paeiionate, misaionary, affectionate.

For Honed, tionMe, and turning, place a reversed vowel
over ; either that which precedes the termination, or, c for
tioned, r\ for tionable, and ^ for tioning.

For the termination ming, place that vowel (pointed) after
which occurs before it

EXAMPLE.
Beaming, trimming, rhyming, hemmii^.

<?!> 1/5 /I -^o

For tionaUy^ write c under ; for iiendy, o for Hom/oitdyt -«
for tionaUtyf s. Or those vowels which precede the teimina*

88 PHONOGRAPH T.

tions may be used. There will sametimes occur a slight de-
gree of ambiguity in words with these endings, bat not of suf-
ficient importance to require their being written according to
more definite rules.

The places after and under may both be marked in the same
word ; observing to place the sign of ing after that of ly^ or
ly under twg, to show their order. This is, in other words,
a termination to a termination.

Knowingly, waiingly, sallying.

For the plural of the vowel terminations, let the sign be
made heavier. It is a distinction hardly evej: needed.

TERMINATIONS BY CONSONANTS.

Cf^ at the end of a word, (joined to it,) represents the ter-
mination, ward^ when unaccented. — ^ is joined to a word for
urns, 0U5, m&i &c.

HeinoTUj inward, afterward, onward.

\SU ^<y\ 0<T\ ';

**VW^WVN«^/>/WS/V»/VVS/WW«»

LESSON 8ETENTI.

MISCELLANEOUS INSTRUCTION.

The following letter of Dr. Franklin, in reply to Miss Ste-
phenson, (p. 79,) is offered as an exercise in reading. It
is necessary that the reader should be somewhat familiar with
the foregoing rules, before proceeding further. Only a portion
of this transcript being in phonographic characters, it will be
easily read by those who are not accfuainted with all the rules-

PHOMOORAPHT.

DR. nULMKUN TO MISS STXPHXHSOV.
^r-j/ 9 attended 0^ lacooMiueoce* w A Ji iculn^A, — •

«u«aJ v^ V ) .^^-^ o/-^/- <ro •^•

>^ eu«v -O — (j' — V)»^ w 7CrY caMia^ T I/*

V. »Crvj/ 1 coiM«iu«n«e4 (J^ M O 1 '^ *^ YV
\^ •] UcomwiI«ice4. V_/ T. -'^^ 1 iifpcufii** -^

oj^^lo'— H-^Vl cl<r\^l|«*»-

Ua. 1 n«i«A«l% fail •^. 1 V^ m***^ «^»«»^»

_ miJl _ 1 ^.e^fedL <\ V -^^-^ '^"^ "^

^0 PHONOGRAFHT.

I MoAnuva | h^oooiutce 9 o^^2bo — u^iilten/ Ky 9

Qnow-y — I '^ Lncom>e»iieru:e6 ^ cr"^\^ ^..^^w.^ 1 GftAfc

— I ^ ^ eluinoC&ate6 ^/ ^ uvit 5 0(>n<&e(jJMnUu/ O^ ^y

3-. ^Wo^i*, V^ T O^ — c\ J- cRxuiae 1/ a""V>'>

- 6^ -V -t^> - P^^--^ - (TV /

mart', / J umaoitouit *\ . utaooe. ) piom» ^

^U^omA 6ecotvo LrtconuenUace | ^ A^birvclton/ uetu>e«ii«

oe&Uoued. | dt-^tutcUort .x'^ ^eAtVoOeo V^ HAo--

lUHUlCUVa^— V-^ 0>y^ O/^ o I ^V>' ' .^O ^1 ^^l-tWM*

I v> — '^1-^7 C *\ 1 —^\y^ wo\j^^ UMTulaA, K^ *ou*td,

^\ uiteii^. \ 'L. — \ ^^ 1 'tahi3Uu.<\ ^-^"y/

> <rtf" ^ ^ CTT^ -7 V^ /1^ 4ente»iC€A, ( - ^ //
ItuBu/Mi^^ vy ottert^eo fco moie ^ V^ '"'^r— *\ ^o<i * Xv
^\ <0^^ atteito I . ha6k ^entotce u>mCB. . "T^-^ — -

2/0 c— .<^° 0> Vw^

PRONOGRAFHT. 91

^ / -y ) cr— I (^ /

CmsTSH St., Lowdow, J ^, S^ianlCiu

Sept 38, 1766.

^^^V^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^^^^^M^^*

RULE XI.

TWO 8IMILA& CONSONAMTS WAT B£ KXPRX88XD BT ONX OT

DOUBLE SIZE.

When letters are fonned according to this rule, an interven-
ing vowel is to be understood ; for otherwise one consonant
is sufficient.

EXAMPI^.
Desist, nonsexue, none, necessary.

In making looped letters of double size, the loop should be
increased, and the stem remain of the usual length.

Remember, judge, poppy, memory.

Vowels may be inserted between these consonants, when it
is desired.

The hooked letters are an exception, never being made of
double size.

RULE XII.
UNIMPORTAirr CONSONANTS MAT BE OBCITTED.

There are some letters not entirely silent, but which convey
so little sound, that, in words which are perfectly familiar,
they may be omitted for the sake of brevity ; as 6 in unac-
cented syllables, after m, d in friendship, t in perfecUy.

92 PHOKOGRAPHT. .

H is generally omitted in unaccented syllables, except at
the beginning of words.

EXAMPLE.
December, exactly, Ohio, hate.

Zay ^^ / i

RULE XIII.
COMMON FIGURES ARE USED IN NUMERATIO|r.

They should be made very plain so as not to resemble let-
ters. The dot is placed under a figure for the termination ly.

The letters ct, d, and Y , may be placed against figures, as
in ordinary writing. They should be made small ; for they
cannot be taken for vowels, in such a situation.

EXAMPLE.
FiMt, second, third, fourth, aerenfh, eigfhth

1"" 2^ 3/ 4' r i^

RULE XIV.
PROPER NAMES SHOULD GENERALLY BE WRITTEN ACCORDINO

TO THE FIRST RULE.

It is often desirable, in writing of persons a^ d places, to
communicate the orthography of their names, which may be
done by writing them in the common way ; then their pronun-
ciation may be expressed in phonography, when the reader is
likely to be unacquainted with it.

EXAMPLE.
Clay, Knight, Vaile, Wayne, Gray, "Wright;

Many names are perfectly legible when written by less defi-
* nite rules.

Terminations may be applied to proper names, as to other
words; thus:

strong. Hemming, King, Greely, Bailey, Cilley, Wiley.

Capitals, (that is, letters made heavy,) may be used for ini-
tial abbreviations of proper names as in common writing.
JK, may be thus written for Christ, I for Lord, g for Qod.

PRONOORAPHT. 93

RULE XT.
A SPACE SERYSS FOR PUNCTUATION.

Too much attention cannot be paid to punctuation, either
-with regard to the general appearance of writing, or its legi-
bility.

For a comma allow a short space, and for a semi-colon,
colon, and period, increase the space in proportion.

When points which may resemble letters are written, let
them be inclosed in parentheses, thus : (,) (;) (:) (.)

The parenthesis ( ), caret /^ , quotation marks ** ", and mar-
ginal references * 1 1 li § if> (formed with care not to indicate
letters J are used as in other writing.

The dash should be made thus, ^ that it may not be

taken for the letter c.

Exercise in Reading.

1 v/ ^1 ^ - 1 ?-^^A^ *^V-
^ 'T^ \ ?-\ ^

RULE XVI.

WRITING MAT BE CONDUCTED UPON ANT SCALE AS TO THE SiaOB

OF THE LETTERS.

In fine writing be careful of their proportions.

94 PHONOORAPHT.

V> ^^rf^^f^^^^^^^^^WW^^^^^^

RULE XVII.
COMPOUND WORDS MAY B£ SEPARATED AT DISCRETION.

It is advisable to write such words as peace-maker^ nlf-
love, separately.

^0^^^^^^f^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

LESSON EIGHTH.

CONTRACTIONS,

The abbreviations effected by the following rules are not
designed to give to words their full expression ; but rather to
accommodate a universal habit of arbitrarily employing a part
of a word as the representative of the whole ; as, Mr. for miS'
ter. Gen. for general, N. F, for New York, This system of
writing admits of similar abbreviations ; for phonography
cannot enforce the writing of such words exactly according to
iound. The letters employed, however, are not always the
same as those in common use for this purpose.

Words written by this method are called Contractions, to
distinguish them from those written according to the preceding
rules ; and are known to be such by peculiar signs.

This department is divided into First, Second, and Third
Contraction. The First is indispensable to all writers, as it
is principally applied to the same abbreviations that are made
in common writing. The Second and Third are more particu-
larly designed for the use of reporters.

The First Contraction, which is of one word, is of great
utility in writing upon a subject the name of which may be of
frequent occurrence. The first time it should be written defi-

PHONOORAPHT. 95

nitely, and afterward contracted according to the following
examples.

Names of persons and places to which frequent reference is
made, may also be reduced by contraction.

FIRST CONTRACTION— ONE WORD.

• RULE XVIII.

TWO OR MORE LSTTERS MAT BE WRITTEN FOR A WHOLE WORD,

WITH APPROPRIATE SIGNS.

This Contraction is of one word, and always has one of
four signs' to distinguish it.

The first sign is a reversed loopt (see page 70.) When a
reversed loop occurs which is not occasioned by being joined
to a preceding letter, it indicates a Contraction.

EXAMPLE.
Mister, biotherjarisprudence, American.

Vowel terminations, as under Rule x., p. 83, are also ap-
plied in Contractions, as follows :

. In the above example, the word lepsUUion is expressed thus :
/, with a reversed loop^ shows that the word is written by the
rule for contraction, and at the same time represents the initial
letter ; a, over, gives the ending atiorif and the reader without
hesitancy obtains from these the whole word.

Words which do not commence with a looped letter, neces-
sarily require other signs.

The second sign of this Contraction is, a cross or parallel at
the beginning of the word, the last letter crossing the first
near the beginning.

96 PHONOOBAPHT.

In Contractions the first consonant should be the longest, to
distinguish it from the last.

Connecticut, New York, Veraumt, receirad, lat^Jeet, nftrcotic.

/TN b^ X / 4- '^^

The third sign is, the loop of / joined at the end for the
whole letter.

Colonel, individual, circnmstantial, philosophical, world, metaphjiical,

goipel.

^ v^ -0 i (5b % ^

The fourth sign is, consonants and double vowels used for
tenninations. Consonants are only placed over.

The same vowel is written twice for its termination. The
dot over or under is doubled, when there is no definite vowel
to be written.

Conrention, nomination, corporation, testifying, institution, independently.

Ksy

Keversed i after serves to contract words ending with ing.
According to a previous rule, ^ after represents ending ; *> ai-
ter will mark a Contraction with the same termination.

Notwithstanding, corresponding, comprehending.

The dot at the end of a word is doubled for a Contraction
terminating with a vowel.

County, Pennsylyaola, chancery, extraordinary, testimony, phonography,

et cetera.

r\: p: C* ^: I: \: '^:

The names of the months may be written thus :
/^ V ^ f cr-. .<!/ /i ? -^ y^

Augwt is obtained from the Double Vowel Table, p. 82.

PHOIIOQRAPHT. 97

SECOND CONTRACTION— TWO WORDS.

RULE XIX.

TWO WORDS, AS AN ADJSCTIVK AND NOUN, MAT BX SXPRX88KD
BT JOINING THXIK INITIALS OR PROMINENT SOUNDS.

The only sign of this Contraction is, the last letter running
in a contnuy direction.

All letters cannot be joined in this manner ; a8,/r, the last
miming in a contrary direction, would be fd.

When the looped letters occur as the last, instead of being
commenced by their loops, their ends are joined to the pre-
ceding letters.

IXAMPLX.
Common noun, f upreme conrt, state bank.

THIRD CONTRACTION— A PHRASE.

RULE XX,
A FAMILIAR SENTENCE MAT BE EXPRESSED BT TWO LETTERS.

The sign of this Contraction is, the last letter crossing the
first near the end.

The letters to be written are, generally, the initials of the
two most prominent words in the phrase.

EXAMPLE.

/^'^z The kingdom of nature. ( Church and state,
r President of the United States.

U the leading word in the phrase contracted be written en-
tire, the last letter should cross the end of the word ; as, nxt
(next) crossed by k (congress), for the next session of congress.
Contractions made in this manner will admit of being used
more frequently than when a whole phrase is expressed by
only two letters, thus : ^^-^*~L

PHOI^OORAPHT.

EXTRACT* raOU raiTATX CORRUrOITDKirCE.

"K. <^. ^: )iC^ a- i, <Uh.

CL_/ «^

• • • I <^ <j''^ 1 '"^ . ^. f\ ^

C7- ^ V yi "V) ' ^ *^ <^ ^ 1 ~|-

?. I ^ ^ ^ ^, -^^-^ w T_ ^dM
S l- — /^^ M/~l' ~*x^- -'

y _ w <-/!• v^ 1 crv ^ •^- p^-^

w c- OV — >— I x>

W ^ — '^^

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